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THE 

MADRAS  JOURNAL 

OP 

LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE, 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES 

OF  THE 

MADRAS  LITERARY  SOCIETY 

AND 

AUXILIARY  OF  THE  ROYAL  ASIATIC  SOCIETY. 


VOL.  IX. 


THE 


MADRAS  JOURNAL 


OP 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE, 


PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES 


OF  THE 


MADRAS  LITERARY  SOCIETY 


AND 


AUXILIARY  OF  THE  ROYAL  ASIATIC  SOCIETY. 


EDITED  BY 


ROBERT  COLE,  Esq. 

MA.DEAS   MEDICAL  ESTABLISIXMBMT. 

AND 

C.  p.  BROWN,  Esq. 

MA.DBAS   CIVIL   8EBVICE,  y 

SECRETARIES  TO  THE  ASIATIC  DEPARTltfENT  OF  THE  SOCIETY. 


VOL.  IX.  X 


January — June  1839. 


MADRAS: 

PRINTED  AT  THE  ATHEN^UM  PRESS, 

J,    B.    PBABOAH,   AND    rUBI.15UED   BT   J.   P.   BANTLEMAN, 

AT   THE    COLLEGE. 

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CONTENTS. 


^KT.  J.--Foi]rtb  Report  of  Progress  made  in  the  Examination  of 
the  Mackemzik  MSS.,  with  an  Abstract  Account  of  the 
Works  examined. — By  the  Rev.  William  Tatloi,  Mem« 
ber  of  the  Madras  Literaiy  Society,  &c 1 

IL*-Notes  on  Ryotwar,  or  Permanent  Annual  Money  Rents, 
is  South  India :  and  on  the  doty  of  Government  in  Peri- 
ods of  Famine.— By  Johm  F.  Thomas,  E^.  of  the  Madras 
Civil  Service 53 

III.— On  Improving  Internal  Commuuication  in  the  Camatic.*- 
By  J.  KzsLiE,  Esq.,  Assistant  Surgeon 78 

IV.-*Geology  of  Bangalore,  and  of  some  other  portions  of  My- 
sore.—By  John  Clark,  Esq.,  m.  d.  Assislant  Surgeon, 
iSthLight  Dragoons 89 

V.-^Remark8  onCambogiaGutta,  Linn.— Stalagmitis  Gambo- 
gioides,  Mnnay ;  and  on  Laurus  Cassia,  Linn. — By  Robert 
Wight,  Esq.  m.  d 121 

VI.->Report  upon  the  Run  of  the  Sea,  and  Set  of  the  Tides  at 
Madras  during  the  North-East  Monsoon. — By  T.  G. 
Taylor,  Esq.,  Honourable  Company's  Astronomer 135 

Tll.^On  the  comparative  cheapness  of  Large  and  Small  arched 

Bridges 146 

VIII.— A  remarkable  Appearance  in  the  Indian  Seas ;  in  a  Letter 
from  Lieutenant  Dawsom.  Communicated  by  William 
NewKHAM,  Esq 148 

IX.— Special  Report  on  the  Statistics  of  the  Four  CoIIectorates 
of  Dukbun,  under  the  British  Government. — By  Lieute- 
nant Col.  Stkes ••••#••••• (.••••••  IM 


t 


COM    TBNT8. 


X.— Proceedings  op  Societies 


XI.— Horary  Meteorological  Ob^enrntioiuS  made  agreeably  wi 
the  suggestions  of  Sir  John  Hkrschel •••.• 

Meteorological   Journal  kept  at  the  Madras  Observatory.- 
By  T.  G.  Taylor,  Esq.,  H,  £.  I.  C.  Astronomer. ...  ,• 


CONTENTS. 


Pugt, 
AiT.  I.— Notes  on  the  Duty  of  Government  in  periods  of  Famine. — 

Bf  John  F.  Thomas,  Esq.  Madras  Civil  Service 206 

IL— Observations  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the  Terres- 
trial Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India. — By  Thomas  Glan- 
▼iLLE  Taylor,  and  John  Caldecott,  E^qrs 221 

III.*-An  Investigation  of  the  Nature  and  Optical  Efficiency  of 
the  combination  of  Mirrors  used  to  augment  the  Illumi* 
Dating  Power  of  the  Madras  Light— By  Capt.  J.  F.  Smith, 
Engineers,  f.  a.  s 273 

IV.-^  the  Crystalline  Structure  of  the  Trap  Dykes,  in  the 
Sienite  ef  Amboor:  with  an  Enquiry  into  the  Causes  to 
which  this  Peculiarity  of  certain  Igneous  Rocks  is  due. — 
By  Richard  Baird  Smith,  Lieut,  Madras  Eigineers 287 

V.-Notice  of  River  Dunes,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hogri  and 
Pennaur. — By  Lieutenant  Niwbolo,  a.  d.  c.  to  Maj.-Gen. 
Wilson,  c.  b • 309 

H— Extract  of  a  Letter  from  Captain  J.  F.  Smith,  Civil  Engi- 
neer, on  the  Table  Land  of  Cumbaucum  Droog. — Commu- 
nicated by  the  Madras  Government •••..  311 

TIL— Fifth  Report  of  Progress  made  in  the  Examination  of  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.,  with  an  Abstract  Account  of  the  Works 
examined. — ^By  the  Revd.  William  Taylor,  Member  of 
the  Madras  Literary  Society,  &c • 313 

Till. — Remarks  upon  Colonel  Rbid*s  *'  Attempt  to  develop  the 
Law  of  Storms." — By  T.  G.  Tatlor,  Esq.,  Honourable 
Company's  Astronomer 376 

IX. — Special  Report  on  the  Statistics  of  the  Four  Collectorates 
of  Dukhujiy  under  the  British  Government.— By  Lt.-CoI. 
Stubs  (concluded) 391 


C0NTIKT8* 

Pdi 
X«— LlTlBAftT  AND  SCIENTIFIC  ImTELLIGENCX.  •  • ••••    4 

Sir  John  Herschel  on  the  Meteorology  of  S.  India. s&i 

Rev.  W.  Taylor's  Reports  on  the  Mackenzie  MSS 4 

XL.— Horary    Meteorological  Obsen-ations    made   agreeably 
with  the  suggestions  of  Sir  John  Herschbl. 

Ist.— At  tbe  Madras  Observatoiy. — By  T.  G.  Tatlor,  Esq., 

H.  E.  I.  C.  Astronomer. 4 

2nd.— -At  tbe  Trivandrum  Observatory — By  G.  SrERScuNEiDER.  4 

Meteorological  Journal  kept  at  the  Madras  Observatory. — 
By  T.  6.  Taylor,  Esq.,  H.  £.  I.  C.  Astronomer 4. 


MADRAS  JOURNAL 


OF 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE. 


No.  22— January  1839. 


V—Fovrth  Report  of  Progress  made  in  the  Examination  of  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.,  with  an  Abstract  Account  qf  the  fVorks  examhted,^^ 
By  the  Rev.  William  Tatlor,  Memher  qf  the  Madras  Literary 
Society f  8^c,     (Continued  from  the  last  No.) 

B  :— TELUGa 

a.    Palm-leaf  Manuscripts. 

The  following  manuscripts  are  portions  of  a  version  of  the  Maha^ 
hkdrata, 

Adi'parvamUf  or  the  first  hook  of  the  Bhdratam^  No.  1. — Counter- 
mark 161. 

This  copy  contains  from  the  heginning  down  to  the  241  st  palm-leaf| 
without  intermediate  defect ;  but  all  the  remainder  is  wanting.  The 
manuscript  is  very  old ;  the  band  writing  somewhat  antique ;  and  the 
leaves  are  damaged,  in  several  places,  by  the  eating  away  of  the  edges  | 
so  that  portions  of  the  nearest  line  have  words  eaten  out. 


2  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [J4K« 

2.    Adi'parvamj    No.  2. — Countermark  162. 

TIii8  copy  is  complete  at  the  beginninnf,  and  down  to  the  208th  palm 
leaf;  the  remainder  is  warning.  It  is  a  comparatively  recent  copy;  but 
the  leaves  are  perfurated  by  irtsects  in  several  ))laces  ;  so  as  occasionally 
to  destroy  some  letters,  but  not  so  as  to  destroy  legibility. 


3.     Adi-parvam, 'So,    3. — Countermark  1G3. 

This  copy  wants  the  1st  leaf,  it  is  then  right  down  to  the  22d  leaf ; 
deficient  afterwards  to  the  I90th  and  thence  to  II 4th:  rioht  afterwards 
to  the  I  tith  :  so  far  very  old.  A  more  recent  hand  writing  follows, 
beginning  with  the  185th  loaf;  right  thence  to  188.  No.  18^  is  want- 
ing. From  19 )  to  214  is  right :  defective  to  217  ;  right  thence  to  227. 
No.  228  is  wanting  ;  thence  right  to  226,  defective  to  242,  right  thence 
to  245,  and  defect i\e  to  254.  The  remainder  comjlele  down  to  288» 
the  end. 

This  manuscript  is  very  old.  The  former  portion  more  so  than  the 
otlier,  whi«h  is  in  a  different  hand  writing.  It  is  al  o  dam  «gefl  ;  not  so 
much  by  insects,  as  by  the  wear  and  breaking  of  the  leaves  by  decay. 


4.    Ad'uparvam,  No.    4. — Countermark  104. 

Of  the  eight  aitrdsams  (or  sections)  into  which  this  partem  (or  book) 
is  divided,  there  are  in  this  copy  the  5rh,  6th,  7th  and  8th :  there  are 
nine  leaves  wanting  from  the  beginning  of  the  5th:  the  other  sections 
specified  are  complete,  llie  leaves  were  not  numbered :  causing  so 
much  the  more  trouble  in  the  examination :  the  Nos.  of  the  pages 
have  been  inserted  ;  and  the  contents  compared  with  another  copy,  not 
belonging  to  this  collection. 

This  MS.  (No.  4)  is  but  lately  written ;  both  palm-leaves  and  hand 
writing  being  quite  recent  in  appearance. 


6.    Sab*ha  parvam^  or  the  second  book  of  the  Bharatam,  No.  5. — 
Countermark  265. 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  3 

In  this  MS.  the  9th  palm-leaf  is  wanting;  thence  it  is  complete  to  the 
59th  leaf,  which  is  the  end. 
This  copy  is  very  old;  injured  at  the  edges,  but  not  inside. 
(The  third  book,  or  ^ana  parvam,  is  not  in  the  collection). 

6.   Virata  parvam,  or  the  fourth  book  of  the  Bhdratam,  No.  6  .— 
Countermark  266. 

The  beginning  is  found  in  this  copy  to  the  20th  leaf,  with  a  chasm 
ihencetothe  50th  leaf.  Thence  right  to  the  146th  leaf.  The  MS.  is 
old;  though  apparently  not  quite  so  old  as  the  last.  It  is  a  little  worn 
at  the  edges ;  and  very  slightly  touched  by  insects  inside ;  neither 
amounting  to  injury. 


7.    Udjoga-parvamj  or  fifth  book,  No.  7. — Countermark  267. 

Thijcopy  is  complete  from  the  beginning  up  t«  the  139th  leaf,  which 
is  the  end ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  a  complete  copy,  save  only,  that  the 
wearing  or  breaking  away  at  the  edges,  and  the  breaking  off  of  a  few 
leaves  inside,  occasionally  destroys  the  coherence  of  the  versification, 
and  meaning.    The  copy  is  rather  old. 


8.  Another  copy  of  the  same,    No.  8. — Countermark  268. 

This  ig  a  recent  copy,  as  to  palm-leaves,  and  writing ;  but  not  finished  \ 
from  the  beginning  to  the  36th  leaf  is  found  herein ;  the  rest  is  wanting. 


S.  Bhiskma  parvam,   or  ninth  book.     No.  9.— Countermark  269. 

This  copy  is  right  from  the  beginning  to  the  89th  leaf.  There  is  then 
a  mistake  in  the  numbering  of  the  leaf,  lOO  being  written  for  90  j  but  the 
connection  of  the  composition  is  uniform.  It  is  then  right  to  136,  the 
^' by  consequence  a  complete  copy,  save  only  that  the  21st  leaf  is 
**^oken  off,  and  part  of  it  wanting.  The  book  is  slightly  worn  at  the  ed- 
8^1  and  touched  by  insects:  but  these  do  not  affect  or  injure  the  mean* 
»"«•  The  copy  is  a  little  old. 


4  Report  on  the  Afaekenzie  Manutcripti.  [Jan. 

10.  Another  copy  of  the  same,    No.     10. — Countcrmaik  270. 

The  first  ten  or  fifteen  leaves  are  seriously  damaged,  by  insects.  The 
copy  is  otherwise  complete ;  containing  146  palm-leaves  in  all.  There 
ia  attached  a  copy,  not  perfect,  of  the  Danarathi  sataca,  by  Rama-dasa, 
containing  a  eulogy  of  Ramo'Chandra  as  Vishnu,  appearing  under  ten 
metamorphoses,  or  incarnations. 

Both  MSS.  are  rather  old   ;  and  both  injured  by  insects. 

11.  DrSna parvanif  or  seventh  book,    No.  II. — Countermark  271. 

This  copy  is  complete  in  227  palm-leaves;  but  these  are  old,  especi- 
ally the  first  45  leaves ;  which  are  also  injured  by  insects.  The  remain- 
ing, and  seemingly  more  recent,  portion,  is  not  touched. 


12.  Kema-parvam,  or  the  eighth  book.  No.  12. — Countermark 
(wanting). 

A  complete  copy  in  90  palm-leaves ;  old,  but  notwithstanding  in  good 
preservation. 

A  few  palm-leaves  are  appended,  containing  panegyrical  stanzas  ad- 
dressed to  the  consort  of  Siva. 


13.    Kema-parvam  (another  copy),     No.  13.— Countermark  273. 

This  MS.  is  complete,  as  regards  the  parvam  itself;  thougli  the  pag. 
ing  is  from  2*28  down  to  362,  as  part  of  a  fuller  copy  of  the  Bhuratam. 
This  copy  is  a  little  old ;  but  in  very  good  preservation. 


14.    Another  (imperfect)  copy  of  the  same.     No.   14.— -Countermark 
274. 

The  two  first  palm-leaves  are    wanting ;  but  from  p.  3  to  p.  1 6,  the 
leaves  are  regular;  the  remainder  is  wanting.  A  few  loose  leaves  follow 
apparently   belonging  to  the  Adi-parvam,  of  some  copy  different  from 
those  in  this  collection.    What  remains  of  this  fragment  is  in  tolerable 
good  order. 


1839]  Repurt  an  ih§  Mackenzie  Manuscripd.  5 

15.  Salyaparvam^  or  the  ninth  book  of  the  Bharaiam,  No.  1«». — 
Countermark  275. 

This  copy  contains  from  page  138  to  332;  the  intermediate  leaves  be- 
ing regular:  and  the  numbeiing  indicates  that  the  MS.  is  part  of  a 
larger  one,  since  the  Salya-parvam  is  herein  complete.  The  manuscript 
is  rather  old ;  slightly  worn  at  the  edges  ;  and  but  slightly  touched  by 
in>«^cts  inside.  It  may  be  considered  to  be  in  moderately  good  preser- 
vation. 


16.     Another  copy  of  the  same,    No.  16. — Countermark  2/6. 

This  copy  is  also  complete ;  though  the  numbering  is  from  page  363, 

down  to  page  507,  the  end.     It  is  much  older  than  the  preceding   copy- 

It  is  also  more  worn,  and  injured  inside;  particularly  in  a  few   leaves  at 

the  end ;  and  appears  to  have  formed  a  part  of  one   entire  copy  of  the 

hhdraiam. 


17.    Sauplica'parvam,  the  10th  book,    No.  17* — Countermark  277. 

The  copy  is  complete  as  regards  ihiu  parvam  itself:  though  the  num- 
bering of  the  pages  is  from  252  down  to  296,  indicating  it,  as  before, 
to  be  a  part  of  a  fuller  copy  of  the  Bhdratam,  This  MS.  is  a  little  old, 
and  s<<me\vhat  worn  at  the  edges  ;  but  in  good  preservation  inside. 

(The  eleventh  book  is  not  found  in  the  collection). 


18.    Santi'parvam,  the  twelfth  book,     No.  18 — Countermark  278. 

This  copy  is  complete  in  itself;  but  the  paging  is  from  152  do\;*Ti  to 
318.  This  MS.  is  old  ;  worn  at  the  edges  ;  discoloured  inside  ;  damaged 
at  the  beginning  ;  and  more  seriously  at  the  end,  by  insects. 

As  regards  the  entire  work  of  the  Mahabkdrata,  an  abstract  of  its  vo- 
nminous,  and  multifiirious,  contents  will  not  be  expected,  or  required 
from  me  in  this  place.  In  the  original  Sanscrit,  especially,  it  is  a  work 
of  first  rate  consequence  ;  and  has  received,  as  such,  attention  from  all 
enquirers  into  Oriental  literature.  It  is  one  of  the  Itihasas ;  and  second- 
ary in  esteem  only  to  the  Vedas  ;  in  some  instances  to  the  Puranas, 
There  is  much  of  eaily  history  contained  in  it ;   though  not  satisfactory 


6  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [Jaw. 

in  character,  because  fact  and  fiction  cannot  be  easily  disentangled. 
The  Telugu  work  is  a  translation  from  the  Sanscrit  by  Nannaiya  Bhait, 
and  his  disciple  Balaaarasvati,  according  to  one  account ;  according  to 
another  account  by  Tikana-Somayajh  completed  by  Putaiya,  or  Bomma- 
napofa-raja,  A  third  account,  that  of  Professor  Wilson,  states  the 
translation  to  have  been  by  Nannaiya  Bhattj  down  to  part  of  the  third 
book  :  completed  by  Tikana  Somaydji,  Possibly  there  are  two  or  three 
different  versions. 

It  will  be  seen  by  attention  to  the  foregoing  details,  that  a  complete 
copy  could  not  be  made  of  the  MSS.  in  this  collection,  without  ex- 
traneous aid.  The  idea  of  forming  su«-h  a  copy  has  occupied  my  mind  ; 
but  time  and  expense  seem  to  forbid  the  doing  so  ;  and  need  does  not 
urge  it,  just  at  pres<ent;  for  the  copies  will  not  suffer  much  further  in- 
jury, for  a  year  or  two,  and  whenever  the  fonnation  of  one  complete 
copy  may  be  attempted,  other  copies,  to  collate  with  these,  must  be 
procured.  One  copy,  uniform  with  the  other  restored  MSS.,  would 
probably  fill  two  folio  volumes,  at  least.  I  have  already  incurred  ex- 
penses for  restoration  of  MSS.  considerably  beyond  my  allowance  for 
copyists  :  and  the  time  required  to  form  such  a  collated  copy  would  se- 
riously interfere,  with  the  successful,  and  timely,  discharge  of  my  obli- 
gation in  the  other,  and  more  important,  pans  of  my  engagement.  Hence 
so  laborious  a  work,  with  regard  to  one  poem  (however  valuable),  is  not 
my  present  duty.  Should  any  ulterior  process  arise  out  of  the  present 
examination,  I  would  then  recommend  the  making  such  a  restoration 
as  a  good  record  copy. 

Tlie  following  four  manuscripts  are  ][>ortions  of  a  version  of  the  Bhd- 
pavata  purdnam. 


19.     Panchama-Scandham,   or  the    fifth  book    of  the  Bkigacatam^ 
No.  •^2— Couuiermark  2S4. 

This  is  a  complete  copy  of  the  fifth  book  of  the  Bhagavatam  ;  but  the 
numbering  of  the  pages,  from  221  to  253,  shews  it  to  have  belonged  to 
a  complete  copy  uf  the  whole  work.  This  MS.  is  neatly  writteu  ;  is 
rather  old  :  but  in  good  preservation.  The  version  is  poetical  by  Bom  - 
mmna'pota'taja . 


20.    Sapfama  Scamlham,  or  the  seventh  book  of  the  same.     Xo.  21  — 
Countermark  2S2. 


1639]  Bgport  OH  th§  MacJcenzie  Manuscrij)U»  J 

This  portion  is  complete,  as  a  distinct  book.  It  is  quite  recent  ; 
slightly  touched  by  insects  at  the  beginning,  but  of  no  consequence, 
as  to  extent  of  injury. 


21.  Aihta-Scandham^  or  the  eighth  book  of  the  same,  No.  23 — 
CoaDtennark283. 

This  copy  is  imperfect,  both  at  the  beginning,  and  at  tht»  end.  It  wants 
20 leaves  at  the  beginning,  and  how  miny  at  tho  end  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. A  recent  marking  of  the  leaves  in  iVit,  would  imply  a  complete 
work  from  the  1st  page,  which  is  deceptive.  The  fragment  is  not  very 
old,  as  to  leaves  and  copying.    It  is  also  but  slightly  injured. 


22.   Dasama  Scandham,  or  the  tenth  book  of  the  same.     No  21. 
-Countermark  285. 

This  is  a  complete  copy  of  the  tenth,   and   al«o  of  the  eleventh  book. 
The  manuscript  is  neatly  written,  ift  not  very  old,  and  in  perfectly   good 

order. 

An  abstract  of  the  Bhagavaiam  being  in  pronjess,  nothing  farther  is 
here  necessary  to  be  added.  It  may  on\v  he  expedient  to  mention,  that 
in  Sanscrit,  Candanij  and  ScaU'^ha  ulike  denote  a  book,  sortion,  or 
chapter.  The  Tamil  translator  adopted  the  foimer  wonl,  as  better 
luited  to  the  Tamil  orthoepy  ;  the  Telugu  translator  has  employed  the 
tnoreu^ual  term,  as  the  Telugu  alphabet  contains  representatives  of 
all  the  Sanscrit  letters  and  sounds. 


22.   Ranganarha   Ramauana    a  version  of    the    Bamdyanam  by    a 
Brahman  named  Rangandfhaj    No.  99,— Countermark  399. 

This  manuscript  is  very  old,  and    exceedingly  injured;  not  so  much 
from  the  ordinary  cause,  that  is    insects,    as   from  wear  and   tear  by 
iL^e.    The  leaves  are  broken  off  in  the  middle,  a  half  c-nly   remaining  | 
or  broken  partly,  a  larger  part  remaining  :  n^any  entire     leaves    are 
wanting  -,  and  the  whole  so  very  deficient,  that  a  particular  enumera- 
tion of  defective  parU  would  be  equally  tedious  and  useless. 


i  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuacripts.  \} 

23.     Another  copy,  No.  100.— Countermark  400. 

This  is  a  very  small,    ani    still  more   imperfect,    manuscript 
wants  the  beginning,  anl  th'^  en  ling  :  is    not  re^lar  in    the  midc 
and    tl'.ough  not  so  much   broken  by   use,  as  the  last  copy,    yet 
injured  in  this  way,  chiefly  at  the  two   ends.     It  is   not  touched 
inse-'ts.     It    does  not  seem    any  way  jjossible  to  form    one  comp 
copy  fn^m  both   of  these   fragments.     Being  a    popular  book,    it 
always   be  }.rocurfd,  as  it  is  verj'  conmion  northward   of  Madras.    I 
the   production  of  the  aforesaid     Brahman  composed  in   thi?  dri-p 
measure:  and  written  under  the   patronage  of  Euddhana  SidJha-r 
a  chief  in  the  Cuddapah  district,  who  bestowed  money  very  libei 
on  him.     As  it  is  a  version    from    the   well     known    Sanscrit    p< 
an  abstract  of  the  contents  is  not  required. 

Note.— Both   MSS.    are  entered  in     Des.      Catal.     toI.    1.    p. 
art.  51.     One    copy  is  termed  incomplete,   implying  the  complete 
of  the  other  one  ;  an  inference  that  would  be  ill  founded. 


24.    Saran^adhara  Charitra,  tale  of  Sarangadhara,  No.  61. — Cou 
mark  407. 

This  is  a  frawmont  of  a  poem  by  Chamakuri-Vencatapatix  a 
of  romance  or  ficti*^ ;  the  hero  being  Saravgadhara  son  of  Li 
dfvendradfu  The  incidents  are  not  of  a  kind  to  be  abstracted  1: 
and  I  therefon*  refer  to  the  very  sn**icit»nt  notice  of  them  in 
liv.  ]wgt*  S37,  vol.  1.  of  th»»  Des.  Cafii'oijue.  This  fragmenl 
the  api^anincc  of  being  veiy  oM.  and  is  a  verj*  small  part,  of  w 
understand  to  be  pr»>i>erly  a  l.«re:t*  work. 

The  subject  is  ihat  of  the  two  Tamil  manuscripts,  noticed  ir 
foregoing  portion  of  this  re|H^rt.  A.  a.  1*4  and  25.  Nos.  117  and  118 

Acs'onling  to  the  Ocs.  Catalogue  there  should  be  another  co; 
pr\>»e,  on  this  same  subject,  in  Telugu,  which  m.muscript  appar 
is  not  now  in  the  collection. 


as.     Bhojn-rttJa-Chfn'trm^  xht  XaX^s  of  Rkoja  raja.   No.   6S— Coi 
mark  351. 

The  bo^^k  is  a  fictituHis  wivrk  on  the  plan  of  the  Pancha-tantra 
similar  prodaetiiHVt.     U  is  not  concerning   Bhi^n^aja  himself  ;bi 


1S39]  Rep§rt  an  the  Mackenzie  Afanuscripti.  9 

(liferent  tales  are  represented  as  having  been  narrated  to  him  by  Sarpafa 
Siddlio.  One  of  the  tales  at  the  commencement  relates  to  a  great 
hunting  match,  made  by  a  king  of  the  Anga  country  to  destroy  the 
wild  beasts  bv  the  advice  of  his  ministers  ;  and  other  tales  are  of  a  like 
artificial  stnicture :  the  object  in  view  is  to  teach  stratigems,  artful 
devicps,  and  cunning,  adapted  to  outwit  others.  It  is  in  good  Telugu  ; 
but  with  orthographiciil  faults.  The  book  i^  complete,  and  in  very  good 
•rder. 

Note.— It  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  321,  art.  xi.  at 
least  I  suppose  it  to  be  the  same  work ;  though  in  the  Catalogue  it  is 
stated  to  be  imperfect. 


26.    Naia  Charltra,  the  story  of  king  Nafa,     No.  35.  —Countermark 
385. 

This  is  an  oM  manuscript.  Palm-leaves  are  wanting  from  13  to  28, 
the  rem  iinder  continues  in  regular  order  forward^ ;  but  it  is  not  com- 
plete at  the  end ;  where  besides  it  is  especially  damaged.  It  contains 
a  poetical  account  of  the  fortunes  of  Nala-raja^  founded  on  an  episode 
in  the  Mahabhdrafa.  Versions  of  the  tale  are  found  in  all  the  lan- 
guid of  the  Peninsula,  There  is  no  need  of  abstracting  it  here  ;  and 
the  complete  restoration  of  the  manuscript  is  impracticable,  without 
possessing  another  copy  of  the  same  poem,  I  therefore  pass  it  by ; 
seeing  that  the  mere  local  poetry,  or  helles-lcttrea  of  any  section  of  the 
Hindus,  is  not  the  object  of  my  enquiries. 

Note. — It  is  briefly  entered  in  the  Des.   Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  332,    art, 
xixix.     "  llie  story  of  Nah  and  Damayanti,    as   taken   from   the 
MahaLhdrata.'* 


27.    Sesha-dlierma,  or  Hindu  morality,     No.  20.— Countermark  280. 

This  is  a  poem  divided  into  seven  sections,  each  one  entitled  a  sata^ 
kam :  the  usual  name  of  a  distinct  work  of  one  hundred  stanzas. 
These  sections  are  as  follows:  — 

1.  Mukti  Canda-taiakam, 

2.  Paramanda'tatakam. 

3.  Rama-shaddc^hari'mantram. 

4.  Dalidtraya'Satakam, 


10  Report  on  the  Mackentie  Manuscripte.  [Ji.  ^* 

5.  Sampatiga'tnatia'satakam, 

6.  Sesha'dhenna, 

7.  Sesha-dkerma  shanhta-mdsvdsam. 

The  first  contains  various  formularies  use'd  by  Brahmans,  and  relatepp"^ 
to  the  qualities   of  the   soul,  and  especially  to  the  homage  paid  t^^ 

The  second  is  an  epitome  of  the  meaning  of  the  SastraSf  and  mean- — 
ing  of  the  doctrines  of  spiritual  preceptors,  still  according  to  the  <S>aiv<^^ 
system. 

The  third  contains  the  various  mantras  on  the  Vaishnava  system.    The  -* 
repetition    of  these   formula  is   marked  and  numbered  by  certain  ges- 
tures on  the  hand?*,  members  of  the  face,  and  head  ;  and  the  repetition, 
when  bathing,  and   at  other  times,  is  a  part  of  the  manual,  and  mental, 
devotion  of  Vaishnava  votaries. 

The  fourth  proceeds  on  the  example  of  an  elephant,  when  seized  on 
by  an  alligator,  praying  to  VUhnu^  who  hurled  his  Chacra  and  killed  the 
alligator:  whereon  is  founded  the  instruction  that  votaries  who  in  time 
of  trouble  call  on  Vishnu  will  be  delivered,  by  his  sending  down  his 
Chacra^  or  effecting  some  marked  inter^wsition,  on  their  behalf. 

The  fifth  contiiins  explanations  on  the  nature  of  Viskaity  as  to  his 
spiritual  fonn  ;  the  said  form  pervading  the  universe.  It  inculcates 
truth  and  spiritual  homage,  and  appears  to  contain  the  esoteric  doctrines 
of  the  Vaishnavas. 

The  sixth  relates  to  gift  of  food,  of  place,  of  land,  of  a  cow,  &c. 
with  a  comparative  estimate  of  the  relative  value  of  different  donations 

The   seventh  contains   narratives  of  different  individuals ;  notices  of 
sacred  places  ;    speciid  days  of  peculiar   virtue,  and  merit  of    bathing 
thereon  ;  merit  of  charitable  gifts  on  Sundays  and  Mondays,  as  narrated 
by  Bhishina  to  Dherma  raja. 

The  first  jya/or-a  contains  196  stanzas,  the  second  11 1  stanzas,  the  third 
is  a  continuous  series  of  formularies.  The  fourth  contains  103  stanzas, 
the  fifth  123  stanzas,  the  sixth  and  seventh  are  irregular,  and  without 
any  specification  of  number. 

At  the  beginning  four  palm-leaves  are  wanting,  and  I  have  not  the 
means  of  restoring  them  at  present.  The  book  is  damaged  by  reason 
of  insects  having  eat  away  the  edges;  forming,  so  to  speak,  the  small 
margin,  but  leaving  the  writing  uninjured.  The  work  is  partly  com- 
piled from  the  Mahahharata,  by  Kondia  Srinivasa  who  lived  in  a  village 
odhe  Raja hmahendriiVisirict.  The  leading  title  uf  the  work  is  taken 
from  the   two  iwat  sections.    Sesha  is    shortened  from  Adi-$gsha^   th« 


1839]  Report  on  ike  Mackenzie  Afanutcripti,  li 

thousand  headed  serpent,  on  which  Vishnu  is  fabled  to  repose,  as  some 
say  an  emblem  of  eternity  /  and  dherma  is  a  word  which  signifies,  jus- 
tice, equity,  beneirolence,  morality,  alms,  or  ritual  observance.  The 
reader  may  tbence  frame  his  own  translation  of  Seeha-d'herma, 

The  book  is  a  valuable  one.  A  literal  translation  would  be  of  great 
use  towards  a  full  acquaintance  with  the  internal  system  of  the  Vaigh' 
Mpoi ;  which  is  not  the  one  commonly  inculcated  on  the  people. 

NoTE.—It  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  270,  article  xii ;  with 
an  error  as  to  the  contents  being  derived  from  the  Bhagavat^  most  pro- 
bably an  oversight  or  misprint,  or  possibly  a  mistake  of  the  ear  ;  the  bor* 
rowed  part  of  the  contents  is  from  the  Bhdratam, 


b.    MANUSCRIPT  BOOKS. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  36-^Countermark  286* 

The  Vishnu- Upa-puranam, 

This  is  a  version  in  Telugu  of  the  above  Upa-purana,  There  are  eight 
"<»ks  or  sections ;  of  which  the  sixth  is  incomplete.  The  most  remark* 
*^'e  portion  is  the  5th  and  6th  books,  containing  the  Surya,  and  Chandra 
^««i(w.  The  opening  part  is  stated  as  if  received  from  PulasChya,  one 
of  the  seven  great  rishis.  It  relates  to  primal  matters ;  being  little  more 
^an  a  repetition,  or  summary,  of  subjects  contained  in  other  Purdnas, 
The  different  Manuvantaras  ;  the  seven  dwipas  ;  the  measures  of  time  ; 
Ae  incarnations  of  Vishnu  ;  and  connected  topics ;  are  adverted  to.  The 
^enlh,  and  eighth  books,  or  sections,  relate  to  the  birth,  adventures, 
*Dd  public  acts,  of  Cr'uhna.  In  this  part,  and  indeed  throughout  the 
whole,  there  is  a  great  apparent  resemblance  to  the  contents  of  the  Bhd- 
E^xtUa  piiranam.  In  the  earlv  portion  especially,  there  is,  I  am  persuad- 
ed, much  enigmatical  or  symbolical,  wnting  and  when  such  a  veil  is 
studiously  employed,  as  seems  to  be  the  case  in  all  early  Hindu  wntings, 
it  may  be  inferred,  that  the  earliest  colonists  of  India  wished  to  conceal 
tbeir  true  descent,  or  to  falsify  something  concerning  themselves;  as  all 
the  researches  which  have  been  made,  or  are  now  being  carried  forward, 
•wm  to  render  abmidantly  probable. 

Note.— Tlie  writing  of  this  book  is  very  legible ;  and  the  paper  but 
^^^  Utile  damaged.  Its  restoration  by  consequence  does  not  seem  to  be 
^gtnt.   As  to  translation  such  might  be  best  made  from  a  copy  of  the 


12  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripis.  [J 

originiil  Sanscrit  work.  Should  however  no  such  translation  be  lil 
to  appear,  then  it  might  be  desirable  to  give  the  contents  of  this  ma 
script,  an  English  rendering,  after  matters  more  strictly  relating  to  the 
niusula-histon-  have  been  attended  to,  and  dismissed. 


Manuscript  book,  Nos.  37  and  3d. 

It  IS  necessary  to  class  these  two  books  toc:cther,  a-*  their  subjec 
the  s;mie ;  that  is  h>cal  a»oouuts  of  villages  in  the  Northern  Circ 
with  a  siHN-ial  reference  to  the  settlement  of  the  \fi/cgi\  or  soci 
Jirahman^f,  as  villagt*  accoimtants.  They  relate  to  the  cleaning  of  w; 
or  forest  land<,  locution  of  colonists,  and  the  corseqneut  buiklin 
\illages,  with  fanes,  and  marttapait,  the  excavation  of  water  reser\ 
and  oilier  detail>. 

Boili  books  are  >o  gre.uly  damaged  from  the  effects  o\'  damp,  or  of 
M .Iter.  .>!iJ  of  the  Attacks  of  termites,  as  to  be  irricci\rab:t\  It  se 
prv»lMble.  tiiat  the  restoration,  were  it  praciicible.  would  not  be  a  \ni 
of  much  conscvpi'MK-e ;  but  whether  so,  or  not.  the  sense  is  so  preAailii 
lo?i,  that  nothing  now  c;m  be  ujue  with  the  Ixvks,  in  the  way  of  rem 

Frvmi  looking;  o\er  the  ^hole  of  the  sections,  wherever  anv  sen>e 
bo  nude  out,  the  following  seem  to  be  the  generjl  indications;  a>  f.ii 
historical  nutters  arv*  concemevl. 

Then:'*  an*  references  to  IY*r«T?»6<iraHiVivJ  a  G«/\;^a'i  prince.  Tlie 
napati  prince  is  descrilnHl  ^  hi>  otfspring,  and  the  date  of  Sal.  Sa*.*.  I 
I  A.  D.  llo4\  is  c.^eu,  as  that  of  his  iustalUtion.  He  made  srii": 
ift-aste  lands  lo  t»c/\i-r«/ii  and  Iktiwana.  dt»Sv.'env?an!s  t.vm  thr*  ./ru' 
Ki4.*.;i-raoe.  or  se\*u.ar  Bmkma  is.  These  a^riin  subdivid:  d  :he  . ».  .r.trv 
to  smaller  u : siric t s  amou ^  c tlu r  yiu '.Vt-i- l^rc'tnats:  .u-.d  ire  •  .  u l : i 
this  wav.  Ksr-ime  :<o:\ed.  .u\I  c:^i.i_'e*.i.  The  rrt'cr*  i  ::.-  x-:-.».f 
vemmenl  g-Ave  m.i\  :«>^  :1: ::  vfthe  AV^rrj-*.  w:.:c?.  w.is  >..: -ers- .u*: 
the  Cj r V J :u' s" .s  ru* e .  T >. is  w^is  tV I . o»-e^i  I  y  t h :»  .v>.: ; *i .:i-  j  v  .. :  c--, 
rijx'.'r.  His  jvwcr  yielv.'.'txi  :.•  il.i*  o  •":>.;:'  MAh^.J:l:<^:.^L^  ;  j.ui  :j-.<c:  i 
-:^V'::>ieded  bv  ilv  H.ncryoLe  Comrar.v. 

NorE. — TIur<<:  two  Kvk*  an»  ent-ffvu  i-j  ih^  Pes.  Coa'.  v,:.   2.   r 

j^-v7.xevi  in  Erc-^h  to  ca/j  ^:J':..e  b».yi^  %>.:.::  :V.  —  a  r^:  rrz:^. 
:"u>:  :r. .:::::>  '.ar.  Ic  A^v;r,i  r.;*'.  :,  l^  ;r.e  **•-;■:.     As  ;'.  .•  Vci;i>  _->;• 
:c-.erAr  v  ^..sWi^tvi.  a  reteiw:-.-:'  :.-  :^.'  t. ;::.'.. .'^^-  r.  .y  ".;  ..  <:^^.> .  ^ 
cg:  i>?jyia^  :hose  :=*!:«*  ia  iii:s  j  'i,-^. 


1639]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Mannscriple,  ]:} 

Manuscript  book,  No.  18. — Countermark  911. 

Report  of  the  progress  of  Nl  'ala  Narrayan  through  the  Malayalam 
&ih1  Cmga  countries  from  1807  to  1813. 

The  bcok  is  endorsed  as  ainoniP^  Malayalam  papers ;  but  these  reports, 
in  a  series  of  papers,  are  in  the  Tel ugu  language  and  character.  The 
l»ook  is  in  a  state  of  inditTerent  preservation ;  but  does  not  require  fur- 
ther notice. 


Manuscript  book,    No.  19. — Countermark  912. 

A  continuance  of  reports  from  the  same  person  in  the  Telugu  Ian- 
guageand  character  from  1816  to  1821.     It  is  damaged  by  insects. 


Manuscript  book,     No.  50. — Countermark  740. 

*^port  of  progress  of  Xanayan  rao  through  the  Vencata  giri  district, 
for  1814. 

This  book  is  endorsed  as  among  Tclugii  papers.     The  first  half  of  the 

foments  are  in  Telugu ;    the  latter  half  in  Mahratta.     The   subject  a 

journal  of  operations  like  the  foregoing.  It  is  slightly  injured  by  insects. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  51. — Countermark  741. 

fitroTt  ef  progress  of  Narrayan  rao  in  the  Vencata  giri  district 
from  April  1814  to  May  1815. 

A  continuance  of  the  journal  from  tlie  last  mentioned  document, 
wholly  written  in  the  Telugu  language;  and  in  tolerably  good  j)re- 
*^n-ation. 

K<)TE.~Joumals  of  this  kind  do  not  seem  to  me  to  be  of  permanent 
interest,  or  importance.  Hence  I  dismiss  them  with  the  simple 
fflenlion. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  4. — Countermark  694. 

This  book  according  to  the  English    heading  of  contents   (partly 
u'-'slroyed)  once  contained  copy  of  an  ancient  record  of  Kondavir^  and 


14  Rtpwri  m  ik*  MmcUmxm  Ummuictipis. 

its  nilers,  with  a  notice  of  the  Tillage  accountaots,  and  limits  of 
distncts  in  the  Telaga  coontir. 

The  hook  however  is  now  so  seriouslj  iDJored,  thai  it  may  be 
if  not  to  be  destroyed  bv  insects,  yet  to  be  so  damaged  as  to  leave  no  Icgi 
meaning.     As  such  the  book    is  of  necessity-  passed  by   as  irrtcovera 
There  is  I   think  an  account  of  Kondmrir,  in  another  paper  belong^ 
to  the  collection. 

The  book  is  entered  in  Des.  CataL  vol.    IL  p.  3,  art   ir.  sim 
copying  the  English  table  of  contents. 


Manuscript  book,  Ko.  9. — Conntermark  699. 

This  book,  like  the  last  one  is  trrecoreraUe  ;  being,  if  possible,  i 
worse  condition.  The  first  section  referring  to  the  Comiij  or  Ban{€M 
class  of  petiple  at  PrmioroJt^ff,  might  have  been  prevailingly  recover^ •• 
had  there  not  been  two  leaves  at  the  beginning  wanting,  rendering 
remainder  destitute  of  \-alue.  The  second  section  is  most  to  be  regr^^ 
ted  as,  according  to  the  Des.  Catalogue,  it  contained  accounts* 
the  Konda  randfu,  Kc^a  rwfi^/tf,  and  another  wild  tribe,  residing  on  i9^  -^ 
mountains,  and  in  the  woods,  of  the  Rajahmahendri  district.  Tto  -^ 
remaining  four  sections  would  have  been  of  less  consequence.  Fro^^^ 
the  book  itself,  quite  irrecoverable,  nothing  can  be  made  out.  A^  1  ^ 
that  can  be  done  is  to  refer  to  the  Des.  Catalogue,  vol.  2,  p.  5,  art.  i^ 


Manuscript  book,  No.  25. — Countermark  2S!. 

This  book  contains  the  remnant  of  two  sections. 

1.  **  Sesha-dherma-ratna'Cantwi,  or  rules  supplementary  to  the 
Afahahharata*'* 

This  title,  in  the  English  tabic  of  contents  prefixed|  is  erroneous. 

2.  Banska  rao  charitra,  or  account  of  a  sanguinary-  battle  between 
Rangha  rao,  a  zemindar  of  the  Felmavar  f;imily  of  liohtli  in  the 
Cafinffa  Circar^  with  the  chief  of  Pusa-pati  nanicl  Fraya-rama  raZj 
and  Monsr.  Bossy,  a  French  general  under  yham  aft  Khan  of  Hyder- 
abad. 


*    Perhaps  the  )om  u  remedied  by  aiiailai  notices  in  a  foUvwuig  book. 


1839]  Eepori  •»  the  Macktnzie  Manuscripts.  15 

The  former  section  is  entered  as  a  paper  MS.  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1, 
IX  270,  art.  xii  under  the  same  title  with  the  Sesha  D^herma  (before 
noticed)  but  is  described  as  an  introductory  fragment,  giving  only  the 
Senealogy  of  TKin ma  rq/tf,  zemindar  of  P^</</aj9tfr.  From  an  examination 
of  the  remains  it  appears  to  be  a  eulogy  of  Vencata  Crhhna  Raja 
composed  by  Tlmma  raz,  A  genealogy  is  connected  with  the  pauegy- 
iTc.  Vencata  is  merely  an  epithet,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  the  poem 
relates  to  the  famous  Crishna  Bayer,  Indeed  I  can  have  no  doubt  of  it, 
inasmnfh,  as  Tlmma  raz  was  one  of  the  eight  celebrated  poets  of 
^rlikna  Rayer^s  court. 

The  other  section  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  315,  art.  xxi» 
^'th  some  brief  indication  of  its  contents,  and  a  reference  to  Orme's 
history,  vol.  2,  part  1,  p.  254. 

The  contents  of  the  book  are  now  irrecoverable  :  they  were  written 
^Q  thin  country  paper,  in  which  hirpje  lacunes,  in  various  parts  of  each 
P^ge,  are  completely  eaten  through  by  termites,  or  other  insects,  and  the 
'^aves  are  in  some  places  so  glued  together,  in  the  manner  common  with 
^ese  insects,  that  they  cannot  be  separated  without  tearing :  the  loss  is 
apparently  not  of  grave  consequence.  From  an  examinalion  of  the  2d 
Section  it  appears  that  the  notice  in  the  Des.  Catalogue  is  sufficiently 
atrcurate.    There  is  I  understand  a  very  long  poem  on  the  subject. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  67.— Countermark  864. 

This  book  contains  three  reports,  or  journals,  of  Rama  dasa,  in  his 
jouroeys  through  the  Ceded  DistricU,  in  search  of  the  antique  and  furi- 
ous, from  June  to  December  1809,  from  January  to  September  ISIO, 
andfrom  October  1810,  to  May  1812.  The  paper  is  only  a  little  in- 
jured;  the  ink  good;  and,  as  it  is,  the  book  will  last  many  years,  with 
only  common  care. 

Ho  not  make  such  journals  the  subject  of  abstract,  or  special    ob- 
wmtion. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  10.— Coimtermark  /OO. 

Section  1.    Accoant  of  Fira  Crishna   deva  the    Gajapati    prince   of 
Barahatti^  or  Cattacapur'h  in  the  Udiya  country. 


16  Report  on  the  Mackenxid  Manu^cripis,  [Jax. 

In  early  times  Fira  Xarasimha  Gajapati  ruled  in  the  above  mention- 
ed   town;  conquered   the   king  of  Calinga-desam ;  and   subdued  other 
countries.     He  builf,  and  had  set  apart,  a  fane   to  J'waha  Narasimha 
tvami,   J'ira  Capilesvara  Gajapati  built  an  agrahdram  and  a  fune,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Godavery  river.  Purushottama  Gajapati  built  a  village,  and 
Sin  a jrah dram   on  the  sea  shore,  bearing  his  own  name:  he  also   built 
and  had  set  apart,  the  fane  of  Jagandt' ha.     His  son  w.is   Prafapa-rudra 
Gajapati.     His  rule  to  the   westward,  especially  over  certain   fortresses 
and  villages,  was  rather  more  extensive  than  that  of  his  preder«^s<ors. 
While   so  ruling    fira  Crfshna  Raya   maha  rat/aht,   coming   from    the 
west,    drove   away  the  said   Pratapa-rudra ;  and,    after  remaining  souk* 
time,  returned.     The  f  igitive  prince  took  refuge  in   the    town,   or  vil- 
lage, called  Aiidhramauhnam.     After  some  lapse  of  lime,   /'/ra  CrUhna- 
dera    of  the    Gajaj at     race   ruled.       He   g.ivc    his  eldest   duaghtor 
in   marriage  to  Bd-tu  Bal»nulra    Vlra  Mnkini  la-raj u ;  and  his    young- 
est daughter  to  Bxisata  mjn  son   of  Md-lhaverma,  of  the    Pitanpafli  rare, 
of  the  town  of  ^ezarrif/a.     These   two  sons-in-law  he  kept    in  his  own 
pala-re.     The  latter  being  the  most  handsome  of  the  two,  th;'  marriage 
on  the  part  of  the  king's  youngest  daughter,  was   one,   on  her   pirt  at 
least,  of  alfection  ;  and,  by  her  means,  the  young  man  became  a  f.vo-.irite 
with  her  father.     The  king  at  all  times   wore  a  sword,   on  the  p4'S*ession 
of  which  his  kingdom,   and  authority,  were   con«ji  lered  to   depend.     The 
young  man  Rasava.  abusing  the  confidenre  reposed  on  him.  contrivevl  bv 
stealth,  and  in  a  way  which  the  manuscript  styles  mean   and  unworthy, 
to  get  possession  of  the  sword,   expecting  the  kingdom   to  follow.     A 
great  disturb  mce  arose:  but  the  king  at  length  regiinel  the   va'.uable 
heir-loom  of  his  ra^e.      He  then  sent  away  the  said  son-in-law  to  his  cvn 
town  :  together  with  wiff*  and  dower.     He  caused  an   illegitimate  son  to 
be   installed  a^  hi-  h-nr  to   the  kingilom  :    to   th*   prejudice   of   three 
legitimate  sons.     Disgusted  at   this  preferen-.e.  the   eldest  of  the  two 
legitimate  sons  wont  away  to  Jaya-p'tram,  and  establishetl  a  ru'.e  over 
nine  pdltlyams^  or  districts.     Tlie  second  son  established  a  rule  over  nine 
districts  in  the   A'/iiicrf»-countn*.     Bhinadfrra^   the  third  legitimate  son, 
laid  the  foundation  of  Vijayanagarum   (that    is  wtiat  is   commonly  writ- 
ten flzianayarum  in  the  Northern  Circars,  not  Bijnagur   on  the  Toom- 
boodra  river).     He  there  established  a  rule  over  twelve  piVW'ja^>t<,    or 
districts.     After  the  death  of  the  aforesaid  Vlra  Crhhna  deva   Gi-Japa'f, 
the  husband  of  his  youngest  daughter :  that  is  to  say  Ra.*ara  raj  i,  killed 
Balendra,  the  husband  of  the  eldest  daughter  :    anl  to<>k    possession  of 
the  district   which  had  been  given  to   the   Six\\  Ba'cndm   asamarriiir^ 
portion.     At  this  time  the  J//«tAcA* Art*  ibarbkirinn    f.^rci^n.-r^)   i«^.k  r— 
>«^s»ion  of  the  aforesaid  town  of  Cattarapurl  K  -iTinck 


•s '. 


1S39]  Rtport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscilpis,  17 

The  before  mentioned   Bhlmadeva-Gajapati  leaving  no   of^hpring,  six 
of  his  Pallii/amM  were  united  with  tlie  Ari;/<er/i-coiintrv',  pertaining   to  liii 
elder  brother.     The  remaining   six  districts  were  united  with  the  Jaija' 
pur  so\cmv;nty  o(  the  eldest  brother.     Sita-UaniwChandralu,    of   the 
fKiStPrity  of  the  before  mentioned    Basava^   concjuered  the  two  countries 
oUat/a-pur  and  K'tmedi  ;  and  also  levied  tribute    from  them,  in  acknow- 
lel^Tneiit  of  his  sovereignty.     This   Sita-Rama-Chandralu  had  no  oil- 
spring  : he  adopted  one  of  his  own  Puaapatti-rwcc,  who  was  named  f^tn- 
catapali-rajut   who  siv-ceeded    him    on   his  death.      His   manngor,    or 
minister,  name  1  ^a;i6/i-/a^'a-rao,   took  posses -ion  of  the    kingdom,   and 
put  the  said  young  man,  /'e//ca/«/;rf/i    in  prison.     While    hin.self   ruling 
in  his  usurped  authority  the  younger  brother  of  the  one  imj)ri>ono-l,  who 
was  named  Ananta-raju,  and  Wits  in  the  service  of  the  Gob-oiila   Nabob, 
with  troops  of  the  latter   overthrew,   and   killed,   N''a('o  Cha-raju,    the 
general  of  Jnga  rao,    and  also  Jajarai  liimseif.     He  then  n.-ii. stated 
y^tficatapafi  ds  king,  and  bc^*am^  liis  sov'on  1  in   authority.     They  relin- 
quished Por//iKr ;  and  built  another  Vij'ujfuagaram^  forming  a  fort,    and 
rtsiiing  therein.     This  /V//c<//a^.fl//' had  a  sou   named    Stta-na-.a-rnju; 
an i  J- an/fl  rtfjM  had  a  son  nametl   r'ja-ia'Rinnn-ro'a.     These  two  chiU 
drrndi-Jirrced  ;  and  raled  s?par.»te!y,    until  Siio-iama-rnjic   died.     His 
^m  .Inn 'fa-raj  f   was  brou'jht  up  hy  Fijaa-rama-raju   vho  conquered 
Tinniti-raJH  of  Ptdrlapuram,    putlir.g  his   sou  in  lh«»    father*s  place,    he 
il'^o  ki  led  AVvo/i    IIu<8''in  Khait.     He   also  took    tribute  from   Cutt-ick 
and  other  pi a<'es.     The    M  diom«'tlan    ruler  of  Go'.condi   thencc^forward 
acijuire<l  an  aseendancv  ;  and  otablished   ditfercnt  rulers,    by  his  firman, 
or  edict.    The  name  anl  infbience  of  M()n'<r.  Bussy  the    Fr-Mieli  general 
i^  subsequently  infrodu  ed.     Hyder  Jimg  was  his  agent  in  the  mauMge- 
Tnomuf  French  aTairs,    in  th^'    Northern  Cir-ars.     The  niler  of  ii/'^w//i 
Cotia,  whose  ancestors  from  the  lime  of   Anan^a-rnjn  had   been  adversa- 
ries, and  ha*  1  intro<lu'.*ed  the  Mahomedan  as  endaney,  was  now  oppressed 
in  n^tnm.    Soon  after  the  country  Wits  conquered,  from  the  Bengal  side, 
and  Ih'.'ame  subject  to  the  Honorable  (Jomj),iny.     The  rule  of  chieftains, 
unlf^rlhem,  continued  down  to  Aarrat/mw  G(tjapa/i\  who  ruled  at  the  time 
when  the  manussript  was  written. 

Sectir.n  2.  Account  of  the  Condu  vandlu,  a  wild  tribe  residing  in  the 
Joifopur  district  of  the  Northern  Circars. 

A  distinction  is  to  be  noted  between  the  Condu  Cothu  (or  Ko7idoo)t 
rJW/tfand  i\\c  Cauda  {Konda)'Vthidlu  ;  the  former  cla>s  of  peo^)le  form 
t'ucvubj.»ct  of  this  section  J  the  Conda-vundlu  of  the  n.xt  one. 


18  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  [Jak« 

The  Cdndu'vdndiu,  dwell  in  hills  and  passes  of  hills :  in  rude   huts, 
like  cow-sheds.     They  are  very  careful  of  water- springs.     They  beat, 
and  plunder,  solitary  travellers :  some  use  brass  vessels  ;  some  nry  gourds ; 
some  earthen  vessels.     In  every  house  two  or  three  dogs  are  reared. 
Their  chief  has  the  title  of  Nayak ;    inferior  chiefs  are  termed  doralu. 
The  villages  pay  from  six  to  thirty  rupees,  as  tax.    The  Nayak,  on  re- 
ceiving the  tax,  points  out,  and  assigns  lands  to  different  individuals. 
They  cultivate  Cholam  (Hole.  Sac.)   and  other  dry-land  grains ;  as   also 
rice  in  the  wet  lands :    the   poorer  sort,  sella  portion  of  their  grain,  to 
pay  their  tax,  and  live  on  the  rest,  as  also  on  the   proceeds   from   tama- 
rinds produced  on  their  lands.     Both  sexes  labour  in  the  cultivation   of 
grain.     They  labour  in  their  fields,  from  day  brciik  till  noon  ;  when,  from 
their  position,  it  is  very  cold.     At  noon  the  power  of  the  sun   produces 
great  heat,  and  thirst,   which   induces  them  to  cease  from  work :    they 
make  large  use  of  butter-milk,  and  other   beverage,  the  efTcct  of  which, 
accortling  to  the  manuscript,  is  to  make  them  pot-bellied,  with  small  legs 
and  arms,  and  causing  unhealthy  aspects.     In  the  hot  season  they  sleep 
wherever  they  please.     In  the  rainy  season  they  sleep  on  couches  with- 
in doors,  having  stoves,  or  similar  things,  inside  to  warm  their  dwellings. 
They  place  a  watchman  at  night  on  a  stage  in  the  fields,  to  protect  the 
com   from  beasts.     The   Paindn-vdndlu^  a  class  of  pariars^  weave  their 
garments;  which,  as  worn  by  the  men,  are  a  cubit  and  three   quarters  in 
breadth,  and  sixteen  or  seventeen  cubits  in  length.     The  women's  cloth 
is  not  quite  so  long.     As  they  are  very    uncleanly  in    their   persons,  so 
they  emit  an  offensive  smell.    The  men  wear  a  crown-tuft  of  hair.    They 
wear  finger  rings  of  bras?,  or  other  mixed  metal  ;  some  have  them  of  sil- 
ver.   Their  language  is  distinct;  and  if  they  speak  Telugu,  it  is  with  an 
imperfect  utterance.    Their  marriages  are  fixed,  as  to  time,  by  an  astro- 
loger whose  influence  extends  over  from  forty  to  fifty   villages.     Some 
specification  is  given  of  their  marriage-ceremonies;  the  eating  of  flesh, 
and  drinking  strong  liquor,  being  a  part.     They  have  some  other  cere- 
monies, connected  with  the  age  of  their  female    oiTspring.     Their  pusari 
is  termed  Jani  vdndu  ;  the  numen  worshipped  is  called  Jacara,  a   sylvan 
god.     In  order  to  promote  the  growth  of  grain  in  their  fields,  they  give  a 
portion  of  grain  from  a  former  crop  to  the   Jani,   who   then   performs  a 
ceremony,  by  offering  some  leaves,  and  anointing  the   image  of  Jacara. 
The  same  thing  is  practised,  through  fear  of  tigers,  for  the  sake  of  pro- 
tection.   The  caste-thread  is  not  worn  by  any  among  this  people  ;    with 
one  exception,  in  the  case  of  Vencatapati  raju  of  Pafa-cfinda-viru  Got- 
tarn;  who,  exercising  kingly  power,  puts  on  the  thread,  but  without  any 
attendant  ceremony.     The  Condn  vandlit  ai'e  also  termed  Jdtdpa  doralu  ; 


1839}  Report  on  the  Afaekenzii  ManuMcripts.  19 

and  it  is  immaterial  whichsoeTer  of  the  two  names  is  used.    They   are 
one  and  the  same  people. 


Sfetion  3.     Account  of  the  Conda-vandlu  people^  in  the  Jayapur  dis- 
trict. 

They  wear  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  top  of  the  head,  in  the  form  of  a  ball  \ 
some  wear  mustachio-<,  and  some  use  the  iSati;a-burnt  ashes,  on  their  fore- 
heads. They  do  not  speak  good  Telugu.  They  dwell  on  hills;  are  of 
disagreeable  appearance  ;  cultivate  grain  in  suitable  places ;  pay  taxes ; 
watch  the  grain  on  platforms.  Some  wear  a  dagger  in  their  girdles ;  carry 
muskets ;  tie  a  handken-hief  on  their  heads  ;  and  do  the  work  of  peons^ 
or  soldiers.  They  receive  pay  in  an  allowance  of  grain,  so  much  per  di- 
em. They  dwell  in  sheds,  like  cow-sheds.  They  chiefly  use  earthen  ves- 
sels; a  few  people  only  have  vessels  of  brass.  A  specification  of  dress 
is  given ;  and  of  some  customs  of  the  females.  The  chief  with  the  title  of 
raja,  wears  the  punnal,  or  caste-thread.  Other  chiefs  are  called  Doralu. 
Before  marriage  they  go  to  some  distance  to  consult  a  Telugu  Brahman ; 
imd  by  his  means  fix  on  the  muhurtam^  or  minute,  proper  for  the  cere- 
mony. If  there  is  no  Brahman  near  at  hand,  as  usually  there  is  not  in 
places  in,  or  near,  the  woods,  then  they  call  an  astrologer  named  Succa* 
difi,  one  of  their  own  class.  Fixing,  by  his  aid,  the  proper  time,  they 
bring  bim  to  the  ceremony ;  and  he,  partaking  with  them  of  flesh  and 
ardent  spirits,  is  afterwards  dismissed.  However  they  do  not  eat  raw- 
flesh.  If  a  husband  dies,  the  widow  may  marry  again.  A  few  of  the 
people  are  votaries  of  Vishnu ;  others  of  Siva»  The  women  do  not 
plough,  nor  use  the  large  agricultural  hoe;  but  they  gather  tamarinds, 
aixl  sell  them.  Those  persons  who  are  employed  as  peons  permit  their 
wives  also  to  engage  in  the  same  trade  of  gathering,  and  sellings 
tamarinds. 


Section  4.    Description  of  the  boundaries  of  the  Jayapur  district. 

It  is  not  necessary  minutely  to  follow  in  this  place  the  details  of  the 
circumference,  or  boundary  line,  further  than  to  mention  that  the  distric^ 
is  in  the  proximate  neighbourhood  of  Vizagapatam,  Kimedi,  and  Gan- 
jam.  A  variety  of  small  chiefs,  with  little  districts,  were  spread  around; 
one  being  termed  Sanniyasi-raju.  On  one  quarter  Kirata  (or  wild 
savage)  people  are  mentioned ;  and  also  the  Savaralu,  a  distinct  peo- 
ple ;  one  of  whom  is  described  as  a  common  pest,  and  incendiary.    The 


so  Heporl  on  tie  Mackenzie  Afanuscriptt.  [Ja>« 

section  is  not  without  use.     It  seems  to  me  that  the  Hindus  had  hm 
imperfectly  penetrated  the  mountain-fastnesses;  still  possessed  by  abo 
ginal  mountaineers. 


Section  5.  Account  of  the  Malit/asavarulu^  in  the  neighbourhood  cc 
the  Jayupur  district. 

These  are  a  peof)le  w  ith  small  eyes,  noses,  ears,  and  very  large  facesi 
(Hun,  Tartar,  or  Caliiiuc,  class).  Their  hair  is  thickly  matted  toge- 
ther. They  bind  either  a  cord,  or  a  narrow  bit  of  cloth  around  ih^ii 
head,  and  in  it  stick  the  feather  of  a  stork,  or  of  a  pt»acok,  an  1  a'sc 
U'ild  flowei*s,  found  in  the  forests.  ITiey  go  about  in  the  high  wiuds., 
and  hot  sun-shine,  with«>ut  in  touvenience,  Tii.y  sle'^p  on  beds  formed 
of  moiMitain-stoH'  s.  Their  skin  is  as  h  tnl  as  the  skin  of  the  Urije 
guana-lizard  (loujih,  indurated,  not  delicate).  Tli.y  build  houses  ovei 
mou»» Iain-torrents,  prt^viou'^ly  throwing  trees  across  tlie  ehas'n<:  and 
these  houses  are  in  the  midst  of  forests  of  fifty,  or  more  miles,  in  ex'ent 
The  reason  of  choosing  such  situations  is  stated  to  be,  in  order  that  they 
may  the  more  readily  escape  by  passing  underneath  their  houses,  and 
through  the  defde,  in  the  event  of  any  disagreement,  and  hostile  attack 
in  reference  toother  rulers,  or  neighbours.  Th  »v  traffic  with  the  grain 
whi(  h  they  raise  ;  and  purchase  lob  ic  -o  leaf,  and  various  other  irilles,  ir 
return.  They  cultivate  iudependenilv,  and  pay  lax  or  tribute  to  no  one 
Ench  one  has  a  very  small  field  :  auvl  ihey  are  obliged  to  make  up  thci 
subsistence  by  other  means  :  among  which  cutchins^  hares  is  m-intioned 
If  the  zemindar  of  the  neighbourhjod  trouble  them  for  tribute,  they  g( 
in  a  body  to  his  house,  by  ni^dit  ;  set  it  on  fire,  plunder,  and  kill :  am 
then  retreat  with  their  entire  households  into  the  wilds  and  fastnesses 
They  do  in  like  manner  with  any  of  the  zemindar's  subordinates,  if  trou 
blesome  to  them.  If  ihey  are  courted,  and  a  compact  made  with  them 
they  will  then  abstiiin  from  any  wrong  or  disturbance.  If  the  zemindar 
unable  to  bear  with  lliem,  raise  troops,  and  ])rocecd  to  destroy  thei 
houses,  they  escape  imdemeath,  by  a  private  way  as  above  mentioned 
The  invaders  usually  burn  the  houses,  and  retire.  If  the  zemindar 
forego  his  demands,  and  make  an  agreement  with  them,  they  rebuild 
their  houses,  in  the  same  situations,  and  then  render  assistance  to  him 

In  their  marriage  ceremonies  they  consult  the  Succu-divi^  or  astrolo 
ger,  and  these  are  similar,  on  the  whole  to  those  detailed  with  reference 
to  the  two  former  classes,  in  the  two  last  sections.  They  seem  to  b 
only  a  variation  of  the  same  species. 


Report  on  ihe  Afackenzie  Manuscripts,  21 

Note— This  seclion,  concerning  this  wild  and  indomitable  people,  to 
Die  seems  a  curiosity. 

Section  6.     Account  of  the  Ccnda  Savaralv,  or  people  of  the  hills  of 
^^e  Jaifupur  district,  in  the  province  of  RajamaJujidri. 

The  women  of  this  tribe   get  wood  from  the  forest,  winch  they  aftcr^ 
^ardssell,  and  exclusive  of  this  small  commerce,  they  also  labour  in  the 
^*ulti\^tion  of  "rain  in  the  fields.     After  child-birth  the  women  are  under 
regimen  for  three  days  only  ;  and,   on  the  fourth,   they  go  out  to  work  in 
the  fields.    There   is  no  wasberman-caste  among  them  •  hence  the   wo- 
men wash   the  clothes  of  their  households.     In   the  hair  lock,   on   th« 
crown  of  the  head,    and  other  circumstances,   they  have  peouliarities. 
They  pay  some  small  tribute;  assist  the  chiefs  in  limes  of  trouble;   and 
dwell,  not  in  thick  forests,   or  mountain- fastnesses  ;  but  on  the  edge  of 
tV.e  former,  and  near  to  the  vill.»g(  s  of  the  low  country  people,  or  Hindus* 
Hence  they  are  a  degree  more  civilized  ;  and  have  acquired    the  distinc- 
tWe  name  of  Cauda  Sararaiu,    They  hold  however  with  the  Ma/ij/a  sava- 
folu  that  kind  of  intercourse  which  consists  in   uiutually  giving  to  each 
other  daughters  in  marriage;  marking  aflinity  of  tribe.     M'hcn  they  go 
to  war  they  stick  the  feathers  of  a  fighting  cock,  or  of  a    stork,    in   their 
bair;  and  then  wear  garments  hanging  downwards  to  their  knees.    They 
''ftiradirk  or  knife  ;  carry  bows  and  arrows  ;  and  use  the  horn  of  a  kind 
of  deer,  for  a   trumpet.     They  fight  only    in  bushes;   but  decline  any 
fombat  in  the  open  plain.     They  make  night    attacks;  and   they  bum 
<lown  houses.     It  is  said  that  ihev  do  not  regfard  the  wovvd  of  a  musket 
^all,  as  they  have  a  remedy  fur  it :  they  are  afraid  only  of  a  cannon  ball  • 
for  which,  of  course  they  have  no  remedy.     They   have  no   internal  dis- 
tinctions of  tribes,  or  castes.     Both  men  and  women  labour  in  the  fields. 
The  writer  here  says  that  since  they  have   the  Janii'andlu,  as   hiero- 
phants,  and  are  accustomed  to  eat  flesh,  and  drink  ardent  spirits,  at  their 
•^^crifices,  they  appear  to  him  to  be  of  the  5*00/1 -class    (an  oi)probrious 
sect  among  ihe  Hindus) .    The  Janis  allow  no  one  to  approa^  h,  or  to 
hear,  while  repeating  their  j/ifl»/rfl«,  or  formularies. 

Note.— This  I  apprehend  to  be  the  class  described  by  Mr.  Stevenson's 
I'aper,  translated  by  me,  and  printed  in  No.  16  of  the  Madras  Journal 
of  Literature  and  Science.  Discussion  and  difterence  of  opinion  having 
arisen  on  the  subject,  I  am  happy  to  meet,  in  the  Mackenzie  papers, 
vilh  documents  to  elucidate,  and  I  think  set  the  question  at  rest.  The 
Wvationof  theword.Sarara/w,  seems  to  be  the  Sanscrit  word  Savara.w 
barbarian  or  savage,  with  the  addition  of  the  Telugu  plural  lu. 


22  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Aianuscriptg,  [J^lt. 

Section  7.  Account  of  the  villages  of  Chellur  and  Catiru  in  the 
RajamcJiendri  province. 

The  origin  of  Chellur  is  dated  in  the  time  of  Agastya,  who  is  said  to 
have  planted  a  garden,  and  formed  a  tank,  with  a  Satva  fane,  and  a 
Vaishnava  fane  ;  at  first  called  ChendlUr,  and  in  the  Cali-Vvga  «horl- 
ened  to  Chetlitr,  After  the  rale  of  the  kings  of  Ayodhya  was  finished, 
one  named  Vijaya  dditya  ruled  48  years,  and  had  a  son  named  Vishnu^ 
Ferddhana.  From  him  is  deduced  a  line  of  Chalukiya  chiefs  of  the 
Rajamahendri  circar  or  province  ;  which,  if  it  can  be  depended  upon* 
is  of  great  value,  and  consequence,  in  an  historical  point  of  view,  as  to 
this  particular. 

The  CAo/a  conquest  by  JTM/o^/uw^a  Cholan  is  recognized.  Afterwards 
the  Vemana  family  ruled.  The  ReddivarUj  and  other  chiefs,  are  specified. 

The  subject  does  not  admit  of  abstract ;  but  merits  full  translation,  as  a 
document  affording  historical  matter,  to  be  then  judged  of,  by  comparison 
with  others,  as  to  value  and  authority. 

General  Remark.  As  regards  the  condition  of  this  book  it  may  be 
observed,  that  it  was  originally  written  in  a  fine  intelligible  hand,  with 
good  ink,  but  unhappily  on  thin  country  paper,  which  is  greatly  injured 
by  insects.  Had  the  hand-writing  been  smaller,  the  whole  would  have 
been  irrecoverable ;  as  the  case  is  a  restoration  has  been  effected  with 
tolerable  success  ;  yet  not  without  omissions  of  words,  in  some  places. 
That  the  sense  is  preserved  may  appear  from  the  abstract  given. 

The  paper  on  the  Chalukiya  kings  of  Rajamahendri  is  valuable ;  but 
will  require  to  be  compared  with  section  4  of  MS.  No.  I2,  aext 
following.  The  valuable  labours  of  Walter  Elliott,  Esq.  in  fixing,  from 
inscriptions,  the  dates  of  some  of  the  Chalukiyae^  will,  aided  by  these 
two  papers,  and  other  details  to  come,  render  historical  deductions 
concerning  the  Rajamahendri  principality  comparatively  easy,  and  to 
some  degree  certain. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  12. — Countermark     702. 

Section  1.     Account  oi  Sitandam,  in  the  district  oi  Rajamahendri, 

Reference  to   Rama   Chandra^  who  lived  in   privacy  in  the  country 
near  the   Godavery-river,  and  had  his   wife  Sita  abducted  thence  by 


1839.]  Heport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  23 

Jikana.    In  consequence  of  a  particular  symbol  having  been  formed 
of  mud  in  this  place,  it  acquired  the  name  of  Sitandamf  from  Sifa,  A  fane 
of  Rama-svami  was,  at  a  later  period,  constructed.     In  the  time    of  the 
€kalukiifaMf  they  had  the  festivals  therein  regularly  managed.     In  the 
time  of  the  Chola  kings,  and  iu  Sal.  Sac.  10^,  these   having  conquered 
the  Jndkra  and    Calinga   kingdoms,  had   servants,    female  slaves,  &c. 
added  to  the  fiine.      Under  Pratapa-Rudra  of   Orankal  (or   Warankal) 
all  matters  were  carried  on,  in  the  said   fane,  as  before.    The  periods  of 
reign  of  three  Reddis  are  specified,  as  follows  :    The  reddis  of  Condavir 
Polai^a-cema  reddi  12  yeaxs,^ nnupota  lema  reddi  30  years,Z)Aen7?a  vema* 
ftddi  12  years.    The  statement  follows  of  a  Brattman  from   Golconda,  on 
ihom  a  daughter  of  a  forester  of  the  Billa-jana  (Bheels?)   fixed   her 
iffcclions  ;  and,  by  consent  of  her  parents,  was   married   to  him.     After 
tro  or  three  years  residence  the  Brahman  asked  her  to  shew  him  any  thing 
special  in  the  forests.     She   took  him   to  a  particular  place  and   shewed 
bimwhat  is  termed  rasam,  or  the  agent  in  alchymical   operations.     Hci 
knowing  it*  quality,  afterwards  went   secretly,  and  concealed  a  quantity 
of  it  in  the  hollow  of  a  bamboo-cane,  which  he  deposited  in  the  house 
of  a  Chetlij  or  petty  trader.     The  latter,  discovering  its  value,   stole  it, 
and  absconded ;  setting  fire  to  his  house  in  order  to  cover  his  proceeding, 
with  a  plau>ible    pretext.    The  Brahman   came   to  ask  for  his  property, 
»11  knowledge  of  which  was  denied,  and  the  Brahmnn   going  into  the 
bouse  to  seek  for  it,  perished  in  the  flames.     The  trader  soon  after  died. 
Of  his  race  an  old  woman  remained.     Dherma  tenia  Reddi  obtained  from 
the?aid  matron  the  contents   of  the  bamboo;  and  by  means  of  it  procu- 
fed  great  wealth;  but  in  return  was  troubled  by  the  spirits  of  the  afore- 
aid  Bralimanj  and   trader,  as  evil   demons.     Unable  to  bear  the  annoy- 
ance he,  at  the  instance  of  those   demons,  built  a  fane;  together  with 
all  the  usual  adjuni^ts.     He  also  affixed   their   names   to  his  own  son. 
Comti-Raja-vema  reddi  ruled  27  years.  Raja-vemarfddi  4  years.  Cnmara" 
fmreiUi    14  years.     After  a  few  changes,  the   Mahomedaiis   from   Gol- 
cf>n'la,  under  Ibrahim   Padshah,  came  and  conquered  the  country,  in  Sal. 
Sa.'.  1495.    A  few  other  particulars  are  given;   relating  solely  to  repairs, 
or  additions  to  the  village  fune. 

Section  2.     Account  of  the  village  oi  Boyana-pudi  in  the  Rajamahen' 

dri  district. 

In  the  opening  of  the  CaJi  Yvga,  MukimdtiHvara  ruled  in  Darani-cota^ 
^^hen  bathing  in  the  Godaveri  he   had   a  vision  of  Bhima-isvara,  and 


24  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [^ 

another  local  numen  ;  and  soon  after  discovered  a  symbolic  image,  in 
midst  of  a  wood,  over  which  he  had  a  small  fane  built.  He  maintai 
one  Siddha  muni  a  Jama  Brahman^  who  assembled  several  of  his  c 
and  constructed  a  Jaina  fane,  with  images  insiile.  The  king  wj 
great  patron  of  the  said  Brahman.  A  dispute  took  place  between  1 
self,  and  his  wife,  as  to  the  rt^sp'ctivc  merits  of  the  Jaina  Brah 
and  the  Telui^u  (i.  e.  Saiva)  Brahmaju  In  order  to  test  their  skill, 
chief  put  a  lar;^e  snake  in  a  poi,  anl  secretly  hid  it  under  ground 
then  called  on  the  two  B rah/nans  to  tell  him  what  he  had  done ;  sta 
that  waichsoever  faiL'd  to  declare  it,  should  be  put  to  death  in  an 
mill.  The  Jaina  Brahman  told  the  king  he  had  put  a  snake  in  a  i 
pot,  and  buried  it.  Tlie  Telugu  Brahman  said  the  king  had  hidd 
valuable  necklace  in  a  pot.  On  digging  the  vessel  out  of  the  groi 
the  Telugu  Brahman  was  found  to  be  right.  In  consequence  the  c 
punished  all  the  Jaina  Brahmana,  His  sun  was  Rama  Bhim  eat 
who  placed  one  of  the  Hotjana  class,  otherwise  called  Nilam  vandlu 
charge  of  this  village  and  fane;  which  thcnt-e  acquirtr-d  the  name  of  1 
ani pUdi,  He  assembled  many  of  his  tribe.  Things  proceeded,  will 
interruption,  down  to  the  time  of  Kulotlv.nya  Chola.  The  Gajapati 
followed,  in  amity  with  the  Mahoniedans  ;  but,  enmity  arising  betw 
them,  one  of  the  parties  went  to  (Jolconda,  and  brou^lit  troops  th  ^ 
which  took  this  village.  During  Mahomedan  rule,  the  privileges  of 
fane,  and  of  the  Nilam  people,  were  taken  aWay ;  but  the  latter,  un 
ling  to  relinquish  their  birth-pla  e,  took  to  cultivation.  The  Ni 
Brahmans,  at  a  subsequent  period  obtained  exclusivT  privileges. 


Section  3.  Account  of  the  forest  of  Chinna  puvit  tena^  in  the  Raja 
hendri  district. 

Reference  to  an  extensive  forest  of  twenty  Indian  miles  (about 
English)  in  extent.  Not  far  olf  is  the  sea.  There  are  vacant  spot^N 
the  said  forest,  whore  oat  tie  were  fed.  Various  particulars  are  ad 
as  to  the  production  of  the  forest;  especially  a  particular  kind  of  hoi 
produced  by  boos  feeding  on  the  Ch/fina  puru,  :\  kind  of  flower.  T 
uifetrict  is  under  the  zomiudar  of  Pit'lw'pur, 


Section  4.     Account  of  the  AmUdars  (or  rulers)  of  the  Rajamahej 
Ciroar  (the  Chulu/af/as  an  1  others). 

Anciently  th?  Chahdiijaf;  ruled;  of  whom  Cuhja-J'^ishnU'Verddhaih 
tirst  specified.    Thenceforward  is  deduced,  in  brief,  the  following: 


l>09j  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  25 

List  of  Chalukya,  and  other  Kings. 

Vijaya  aditya,  48  years. 

Vishnu  Verddhaiiri,  12  vears. 

Vijaya  aditya  Chalukya,  41  years,  founder  of /?aya//ia^en(/ri  fort,  &c. 

Bliima,  son  of  Vicraraaditya  and  nephew  of  Vijaya  aditya. 

Amma-raja,  7  years. 

Vicnunadityan,  son  of  Bhima,  1 1  months. 

Chalukya  raja,  7  years. 

Bhima  maharaja,  18  years. 

Amma  raja,  a  short  time. 

Dhma  Bhupati,  3  years  :  in  his  time  the  Cholaking  came  and  captured 
the  Veng'i  desam,  and  ruled  27  years.  Afterwards  of  the  Chalukya  race — 

Kirti  verma  raja,  12  years,  re-conquered  Ve7)gi  desam. 

Vimaladitya,  7  years. 

lUja  Narendra,  40  year.-?,  Sarangadhara  was  his  son,  concerning  whom 
tbe  Sarangadhara  Cadha  was  written. 

Rajendra  Choi  a,  15  years. 

Virrama  Chola,  5  years. 

Kulottung:i  Chola  (no  time  stated),  name  of  dynasty. 

Prilisvara  maha  raja,  35  years. 

MaJlapa  de\vi,  of  the  Chalukya  race  10  years  (SS.  1124). 

Annaiya  deva,  of  the  Surva  race,  30  years. 

Annaiya  deva  bhupalan,  30  years. 

The  Rcildi-race  followed. 

Potaiya   vcma  reddi,  Cumti  vema  reddi, 

Anupota    veuia   reddi,  llaja  vema  reddi. 

Bherma    vema    reddi, 

These  nded  during  100 years;  the  country  then  c nnc  under  the  Gw 
)Bpati  ruler,    in  tlie  time  of   Fira  Nuruiinha  Lanfjula. 

Pfaiapa  Rudra. 

Mukunta  deva. 

I^aja  vidyadhara. 

Notice  is  then  given  of  an  extensive  grant,  by  way  of  privilege,  made 
"yihe  Gay<i;?fl/i  prinue  to  a  Nit/ogi  Brahman,  leading  to  an  extensive 
diffusion  of  that  tribe  in  the  liajauiah^ndri  district.  A  few  minute  de- 
^^''Sbring  the  account  down  lo  the  Mahoraedan  con'iuf^st  of  Warankal. 

Remark.  This  list  is  not  so  full  as  that  in  section  7,  of  M.  S.  book 
^0. 10  foregoing.     13olh  lists  require  to  be  tr.:nslated,  and  compared. 

Ac?ording  to  the  index  of  contents  prefixed  to  the  book,  there  should 
"?  3  fifth  sectijn,  containing  an  ajcount  of  Vamafjiri,  a  hiU  fort  in  Ra- 
jmtthendri  Circar,   but  this  paper  is  not  now   contained  therein.     The 


26  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [Jkm 

name  of  Yoma  giri  appears  in  section  4,  as  that  of  a  capital  or   fortress 
of  the  Chalukyas  ;  but  the  whole  accoiint  is  contained  in  one  paper. 

General  Observation. — This  book  was  so  much  injured  by  insectss 
that  I  doubted  the  practicability  of  its  satisfactory  restoration.  The  pa- 
tient labour  of  a  copyist  has  however  been  tolerably  successful.  In  a  few" 
placest  of  necessity,  words  are  lost.  The  contents  are  of  value ;  cliiefl> 
so  the  4th  section.     The  3d  section  is  of  the  least  consequence. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  41  ^Countermark  731. 

Twenty  five  t;desof  the  Vetalay  related  to  Fici'amaditifa, 
This  is  a  version  of  these  popular  tales,  stated  to  have  been  obtained 
in  the  Telinga  country.  It  is  superfluous  to  make  any  abstract,  because 
sufllrient  notices,  or  full  translations,  of  them  have  been  already  publish- 
ed. TIms  book  is  damaged  at  the  edges,  by  damp  and  termites  ;  but  the 
writing  within  is  only  very  slightly  touched,  and  the  ink  is  good.  If 
will  l;isi  for  some  years  ;  though  its  preservation  is  not  of  consequence. 
The  book  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  xxiii. 

MS.  Hook  No.  II,     C.  M.  704,  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  vii  art.  14. 

Ibid ,  1(> ,,705       lb.  vol.  2,  p.  vii,  art.  16. 

Ibid „  17 „  707 art.  17. 

Ihid :,  19 „  708 „    18, 

Ibid „  20 „  710 p.  ix,  art.  20. 

Ibid 23 „  713 p.  X,  art.  23. 

Ibid „  24 „  7J4 art.24. 

Ibid „  25 ,,715 art.  25. 

Those  boi>ks  an^  thus  briotly  classed  together,  because  their  con- 
tents art*  simihu",  aud  of  trivial  or  no  importance  ;  being  merely 
miu\ite  lists  of  amounts,  or  revenue  prtvoeds  from  various  cara- 
ttrtMS,  or  local  >ubd\vi>ionN.  of  various  di-itricts  in  TeUngana.  The 
rt^feivncc  to  ihc  l>cs.  Catal.  will  atVord  the  respective  indices  of  contents, 
piotixed  iu  Kugli'ih  to  ihc  several  books  :  onlv  in  making  any  such  re- 
fcivuco  caiv  must  ho  t.ikou  to  vU»orvo.  ih.u  the  Eni;lish  having  been 
\Mitton  b\  a  natno.  the  phrase  •*  ivuh^ulu*  aivoimf'  must  not  be  mis- 
umlorstxH»tl  to  nuNu\  au\  oouu.hmM  statistical  narrative;  but  merely 
dotachod  hMsof  plaoox,  and  roNCuao»  as  au  aov\niuiaui  would  make  entries 
in  u  KhI^j^m,  or  NiuuUr  Kvk.     .\uy  ailomplovl  abstract  would  be  impossi- 


!839J  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  27 

We;  ifpossible,  useless.    In  general  the  paper  and  ink  are  in  sufficiently 
good  preservation. 


Manuscript  book,   No.    33. — Countermark  723.   Des.    Catal.  vol.  2,. 
p.  16,  art.  XXX. 

Account  of  allowances  to  the  fane  of  CaJahastriisvara  in  Telingana. 

Tliis,  like  the  preceding,  is  merely  a  list  of  numerical  accounts,  dif- 
fering only  in  subject ;  which,  in  this  instance,  relates  to  allowances  made 
from  revenue  proceeds  to  the  Saiva  fane  at  Calahatstri ;  a  place  of  considei> 
able  repute  about  40  miles  N.  of  Madras.  The  paper  is  in  tolerable 
preservation,  the  ink  good  :  the  document  will  last  several  years. 


Manuscript  book,  No  52.— Countermark  742. 

It  contains  a  journal  of  Mallaiya^  from  January  to  December  1814,  in 
his  journey  through  the  Ganjam  district;  is  written  in  Telugu ;  and  is  in  to- 
lerably good  order,  though  touched  here  and  thereby  insects. 


Manuscript  book,  No  53. — Countermark  7'^, 

-A  continuance  of  the  same  person's   journal,  in   the  same  neighbour- 
howl,  for  the  year  1815.    It  is  a  little  more  injured  by  insects,  than  the 
foregoing;  but     perfectly  legible   throughout.    Neither  of  these  two 
ooob  require  any  further  observation. 


C.  MAIIRATTI. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  G I.— Countermark  858. 

Ancient  record   of  Nandivaram,  containing  an  account   of  Nandan 
Chacraverti^  and  of  the  thirteen  tribes  of  Nandivajii  Brahmans. 
To  ilie  north  of  the  Vindhya  mountains  is  the  Ariya  bhumif  or   sacred 
lid:  in  it  are  the   Ganges,  the  Jumna,   and  other  rivers;  it  was  the 
ffsidence  of  Brahma,     The  Brahmafis  came  from  his   face.    To  the 


28  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  [Ja"5 


south  oflhe  frWAya  mountains  is  (he  Dandacaranyay  in  which  rdcsh 
and  others,  resiiled.     As  the  Dandacdranya   was  vicious    (pdva  bh^^ 
opposed  to  phnya-hhumi  before  specified),  so  it  was  very  lofty,  or  eL 
rated.     The    yindhya-aauraj   by  severe  jyeuance,    had   acviuired  grc 
power,    so   as   to   trouble    goils    and  men  :   and   the   Bra fi mans    co* 
plained   of  the  interruption   of  their   daily   sacrificial    ceremonies, 
Agastya^    who   carried  tht-ir  complaints  to   the   presence  of  Brahmm-^ 
further   representing   that  since  there  were  no  Brahmins  in    the  Da'^ 
dacdranya   it  would   be  expedient  to  create   more  of  thtni,  and  loca 
them  in  that  land.     In  consequence  of  this  request,  Brahma  created  iL 
following  classes  of  Brchmans.     1  Andhra^  2  Mahra^htra,  .3   Druvidr^ 
4  Carnafa,  5   Gujra;  these    forming   the  j;a;ic/<a  Dravida   (or  souther*- 
class)  were  directed  to  go  with  Jgaslya*  an  I  remain  in  the  strange  laud 
while  the   1  Mdnava,  2  Cdhjaya^   3  Catioj-jo,  4  Ragada^  .5  Gaitda  form-- 
ing  the  pancha  Cauda  (or  norihem  class)  were  to   go  with  Agastya^  butS 
to  return.     Aya^fya^   accompanied  by  \he  Bra/ wanUt   proceeded    to  the 
Vindhya  moantain,  where  the  f'inJhi/a  asura,    with  his  disciples   came 
to  pay  him  respects.     Agastya  told   him  that  he  him>eif  was   going  to 
the  south  on  pilgrimage ;  and  directed  him  (the  OAura)  to  >tay  in    this 
place,  with  his  people.     Jgaatya  then,  hoMiiig  his  water  vessel  in  one 
liand,  struck  the  mountain  with  his  pilgrii-^'s  stati'held  in  the  other  hand, 
and  by  doing  so  levelletl  it.     He  then  directed  the   northern  class   of 
Bralimans  to  return:  and,  taking  the  soulhcm  class  with  hnu,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  south.     From  that  time  the  Dandacaranya  ceased   to  be 
the  abode  of  Racsha*as,    The  five  divisions  of  the  southern   class  of 
Braftmans  gradually  filled  the  southern  countries,  and  many  towns  were 
built  therein  ;  while  the  northern  class  of  Brakmans   retained  their  pos- 
sessions in  the  north. 

•  •  •  *  « 

(In  this  place  three  leaves  are  cut  on!  from  the  book). 

In  Cali  yug-a  2G04  Xandana  Cha- rarerti  reigned  over  a  vast  extent 
of  country,  in  a  twwn  called  yala.ar.  One  day  a  religious  person  from 
the  company  of  Agaxf:,'a,  c.uue  to  that  town :  and,  in  consequence  of 
civilities  received  from  the  king,  tauglit  him  a  mantra  (^or  chann)  by 
*he  use  of  vhich  he  jH.>sse>sed  the  i>ower  of  proceeding  whithersoever 
he  wished  in  a  short  sp;»ce  of  time.  Possessed  of  this  power  he  daily 
visited  Gaya  (the  celebrate<l  place  of  pilgrimage)  :  and  his  wife,  after 
some  time,  also  accomp.mied  him.  Receiving  some  civilities  from  a 
Brahman,  at  a  place  where  they  halted  by  the  way,  he  made  the  BraJi- 
man  a  magnificent  present,  and  encouraged  him  to  expect  more, 
should  the  said  Brahman  visit  the  king's  terriior}-.  The  Brahman, 
encouraged  by  the  promise,   engaged  five  hundred  other  householder- 


f 


i^]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manurcr'pts.  29 

-^ruAmfln*  fo  accompany   him;  and,  with    (hem,  proceeded  to  the  pre- 

^^nceofthe  monarch,   claiming  a  performance  of  the  promise;  which 

-tik  kiQgwas  disposed   to  refuse;  but  on    the   Brahman  bringing   the 

^t<mi{Sita)  and  Devi  {Pariatl)  as  witnesses,  the  king  joyfully  fulfilled 

fais engagement,  by  giving  a  large  town,  in  free  tenure,  to  the  Brahman 

sand  his  associates.  As  the  Brahmaii  considered  the  favour  of  Devi  to  be  the 

cranseoflhis  splendid  acquisition,   he  built  a  fune,  with  the  usual  accom- 

janiments  to  her  honour,  and,  for  her  worship.  While  the  Vedas^  and  other 

inwb,  were  being  read  in  thai  agraharanwcis  usual,  a  young  Brahmachari 

"Went  from  it,  and  asked    from  '*  the   liatjalu'*   a  marriage-present.     The 

iingtolil  those  around  him  to  examine,  and  report,  on  the  circumstance; 

andihese.stitiug  that  the  residents  in  that  agraJiarani   were  all   stupid 

IH^ple,  recommended  a  public  examination  of  the  young  man's  learning. 

Inconsequence  he  performed  penance  to  Dem^  who  satisfied  therewith, 

directed  him  to  go  to  the   examination  without  fear.     He  did  so;  and 

feving  passed  it,  received  from  the  monarch  the  present  which  he  had 

sought. 

(Here the  book  ends;    apparently   without  a  proper  close.     It  is  in 
tolerable  good  order;  and  docs  not  call  for  imuiediate  restoration). 

Remark.  By  means  of  this  book  I  haveheon  enabled  to  understand  the 
psnranieal  fable  of  Jgajftija  having  **  humbled  the  pride  of  the  Vindhya 
B^ountiin."  It  is  nothing  more,  nor  less,  than  a  symbolical  statement  of 
the  first  immisnition  of  the  Dravida  Brahmnns  into  the  Peninsula,  from 
the  north:  where  they  had  earlier  obtained  a  footing.  Once  understood 
the  symbol  is  easy  and  natural.  It  is  a  subject  of  frequent  allusion,  in 
Virions  Hindu  compositions.  Originally  the  Brahmans  were  most  cer- 
tainly foreigners  to  the  Peninsula.  To  know  that,  is  one  important  step 
in  tracing  th^ir  remoter  origin. 

The  cutting  out  of  three  leaves,  containing  an   account  of  "  the  oh- 
s-urc  Nandi-raram  dynasty**    is  a  fault  atiaching  somewhere;  and  it 
greatly  deducts  from  the  value  of  this  manuscript. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  20. — Countermark  932. 

Stciton  1.  Account  (or  local  legend)  of  the  fane  of  Srl-kCtha  tanda  at 
Pdndarpur, 

Reference  to  the  fault  committed  by  Chandra  (according  to  the  Pura' 
*'«) ;  in  consequence  of  which  his  preceptor  denounced  on  him  a  pu- 
oishmeat  of  loss ;  and  upon  Chandra^  enquiring  when  the  fault  would  bii 


30  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [Jan 

expiated,  his  preceptor  gave  him  a  staff  (KHhatanda)  with  directions   to 
dip  it  in  the  tlrt'has,  or  sacred  pools,    whi.-h  he  luioht  visit   in  his  pil- 
grimage; and  in  whichsoever  it  should  remain,  so  as  not  to  Lo  capable  of 
being  drawn  out  again,  in  that  pool,  by  moans  of  bathing,  the  fault  would 
be  removed.     According  to  these   instructions,    Chandra   acted ;  and  on 
dipping  his  staff  in   the  pool    .xi  Ydlimarjana,   in  ilm  Dan dacar aw/a,  it 
remained   immoveable;  and  he  was  released  from  his  spell-bound  situ- 
ation.    The  wTiter  of  the  legend  refused  to  call  the  pool  the    Chandra 
tirt'ha,  but  named  it  Kethatanda   lirt^ha ;  and  sung  its  praises    in  the 
twelfth  adhyaya  or  section,  of  the  local  purana.     At  that  time  there  was 
a  small  village  near  the  spot:    in  which  a  Brahman  mxmcd  Pun  da  r  tea 
had  built  a  small  hut  of  dry-grass  and  reeds  ;   and  lived  therein,  with  his 
relatives  and  family.     As  many  people  passed  by,  going  on  pilgrimage  to 
the  Ganges,  he  becanu^  affi'ctcd  with   a  desire  to  do  so  too;  and  proceed- 
ed from  home,  for  that  p«r|)ose.     He  came*  as  far  as  a  place  called   C//iV- 
tra  cud'inif  where  he  lodged  in  the  house  of  a  Brahman  ;  and  asking  him 
how  far  it  was  to  the  Ganges,  the  latter  replied  he  did  not  know.     In  the 
morning  the  Ganges,  Jumna,  and  Sarasrafi,    in   the   shape  of  three  fe- 
males, came  and  performed  all  needful  honsehold  work  for  the  Brnhnian 
host ;  and,  learning  from  the  pilgrim  his   purpose,   told  him    that   they 
came  hither  every  day.     (A  mere  all  ego  rj^   to  imply  the  use  of  water  in 
household  affairs).     The  \i\\^v\m' Brahman  now  judged  it  his  best  course 
to  return  home,  and  provide  for  his  aged  father  and  mother.  On  returning, 
he  found  them  fainting  for  want  of  nourishment ;  but  they  revive.!  on  his 
return.     While  engaged  in  suj)porting  them,   Xareda,  unknown  and   un. 
obsen'ed  by  the   Brahnan,   came  and  saw   his  filial  piety,  which  he   re- 
ported  to  Crishna,  then  residing  in    Dwaraca-puram,   who  was  so  much 
struck  with  it,  that  he  went  himself  to  see  it.     Soon   after  he   had    wit. 
nessed  the   Brahman^s  filial  care,    the  ])arents  of  the  latter  died  ;  and 
then  Crishna  identified  the  body  of  the  Brahman  with  himself  (i.  e.  the 
Brahman    died).      In    consequence    of    Cn'jihnu's    absence   his     wife 
Rukmeni  sought  him  in  many  places ;  and  at  length  found  lum   at    this 
one.     Fanes,  shrines,  cK:c.  conn.vted  with  them  havinjr  been  built,  Crish- 
na  then  took  leave  of  absence;  saying   he  Wivs   going   away   to  perfonn 
the    Var  ah  avatar  am,   and  in  consecpienee  of  his   leaving  the  place  for 
that  purpose,   it  became  termed  both   Panri-nat'ha,  and  Pundiri  nal'ha 
(the  latter  apparently  indi<*ating  the  Brahman's  name,  and  Panri  mean- 
ing,  in  the   common  dialects   of  India,  *' a  pi(J\^^    Panri-nat'ha,  being 
equivalent  to  Varaha-svami). 

A  Nizam  made  great  benefaction^?  to  the  fane ;  an«l,  at  a  later  period 
when  the  country  hid  come  under  Mahomedan  rub*,  the  revenues  of 
the   fane  were  assumed  by  them,  and  reipiired  to  be  paid  into  their 


l^J  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Ma'i;i<icnp's,  ,11 

treasurv-.  One  of  the  guardians  of  the  fane,  having  neglected  to  do  so, 
vds  fullowed  by  the  Mahoinedans,  seized  in  the  fane,  and  imprisoned. 
The  god  offended  at  this  ill  treatment  of  his  votary,  withheld  rain  for 
twenty-four  years  from  the  country  of  the  Moghuls :  in  consequence  of 
wliich  visitation  they  gave  a  jaghire  for  the  purpose  of  providing  the 
customary  articles  for  its  ser\'ice  ;  and  then  the  god  sent  rain  in  abund- 
ance. Sivnjij  and  other  Mahralta  rulers,  made  largo  donations  in 
liind  for  the  benefit  of  the  fane,  which  thus  became  veiy  prosperous. 

These  particulars  concerning  Pitndri-pur  were  written,  to  the  best  of 
their  knowledge  and  information,  by  AfaUa-hara  Bhatf,  and  Lacshmana 
Bhaft,  at  the  desire  of  Colonel  Mackenzie,  in  May  1807. 

Remark.  This  paper  is  curious,  chiefly  in  a  mythological  point  of 
view;  but  it  indicates  a  low  standard  of  intellectual  attainment.  The 
indirect  contempt  of  pilgrimage  to  the  Ganges,  and  the  preference 
given  to  domestic  piety,  are  however  observable.  The  anachronism 
and  contradiction  of  making  Cruhna,  the  so-termed  eighth  avatara  of 
yinhnuj  go  away  in  order  to  become  the  fourth,  as  Varahasvami  ox  Panri' 
wa/'Ac,  is  of  a  different  and  much  inferior  kind. 

Note. — ^The  document  is  written  on  stout  Europe  paper,  in  unfading 
ink:  and  being  also  untouched  by  insc<'ts  its  restoration  is  not 
required. 


Section  2.     Statistical  account  of  Ahmednagar, 

Commodities  imported  and  exported,  periods  of  cultivation,  and  of 
niin — times  of  harvest — productions  of  the  soil:  these  are  minutely  speci- 
fied, as  fir  as  the  document  proceeds. 

Remark.  Tlie  English  heading  of  the  section  also  promises  an 
a'-roimt  of  beasts  and  birds;  hut  the  do'^nnicnt  in  the  book  is  not 
compli'te  ;  and  how  m.my  leaves,  at  the  end,  arc  wanting  cannot  be 
ascertained.  It  is  written  on  very  thin  country  pa])er,  witli  indelible 
ink;  but  has  been  severely  injured  by  inserts.  A^  however  the  sub- 
ject matter  is  not  of  importance  ;  and  as  the  document  is  not  complete  ; 
\\3  restoration  has  not  been  thought  needful. 


Section  3.     Account  of  Comaradae'Shah  inhabitant  of  Wa^larra  1805. 

Such  is  the  heading  of  the  paper  itself,  whicth  by  the  native  writer 
of  the  table  of  contents,  has  been  made — "  Account  of  Camaraullv  Sahan 
of  Hindoostan." 


32  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [Jan» 

The  real  contents  of  the  paper  are  a  genealogical  notice  of  the  Ajmeer- 
ruler,  with  his  j>edigree,  from  an  early  period. 

KoTE  — One  part  of  the  document  is  complete  :  another  one  follows, 
on  the  s;ime  subjects  having  three  leaves  at  the  beginning  but  wanting 
the  remain Jer.  The  former  do  ument,  written  on  inferior  country  pa- 
per, and  mu  h  damaged  by  insects,  I  have  had  re-copied  ;  since  its 
details,  such  as  they  are,  assume  the  shape  of  local  history:  the  other 
fragment  does  not  ilaim  the  same  attention. 


Section  4.     Acrount  of  Gujlrat,  and  its  rajas. 

This  paper  was  rc<;torod  in  th^?  Stl  volume,  and  abstracted,  in  my  third 
Report ;  which  may  be  crusulied. 


Section  5.     Account  of  I'lcrcma-raja  of  I'chckani,  or  Ougein. 

A  mythological  tale.  Parmfl  is  representel  as  eniuirins:  from  Siva 
an  at^couul  of  il;e  manner  in  \\hich  /7'Tfrrifl  a.^quired  the  throne  of  Tndra, 
Sica  states  that  an  inhabitant  of  Indra'.*  wor'd  having  iffended  his  chief 
was  sentenced  to  come  to  earth,  m  asinin?  f  TTn  (svmbolioal)  in  which 
form  the  <?fl»i!rArtTrt  married  the  daughter  ff  the  kin^  of  Ougein,  and 
beoame  father  of  ficnimn,  an!  his  brothvT  B 7'.'f.  It  nirrates  the  visit  of 
Ilcrama  to  Ituira  to  adjust  a  dispute  there:  for  the  doing  of  which  he 
reoeive.i  frun  In  :r,t  a  jewelled  throne,  whi.h  he  brought  d:.»vm  to  earth 
(syuiN^lioal'k.  Af:er  the  d-vUh  of  ^''icratta  his  oonqu«=»r-»r  Sa'irahana^ 
atiempte.l  i»^  .\seend  hi<  thr»me:  but  was  prevented  by  th-*  statues  which 
supiH^nod  ih;^  thrMiv*  a.'quiring  the  jvwer  ofspoeoh,  an  I  narrating  ac- 
tion^  of  f'icra  "it.  uhi'h  shaniod  his  successor,  and  prevented  him  from 
taking  his  seat  there. 

RivvKK.  r»v>  J<  a  "M.ihr..:i:%  vor^i.n  of  the  ]kv  u! tr  ta!e  found,  un 
d-'i-  V  :■  ia-un\<.  n  a  I  -J.,*  \  orn  i  jA"  1  vn^-uiiiT^s  .f  I:i  Ma.  The  requisition 
if  .'.';.;*•.: '^  t!  .  r.t*  !<  ;■. '..kTv*  d'e^  t\  to  imi'.v  th?  i>^<>e>si  ^n  of  erea 
pr^<  tr-  .  T.u*  pr  nvvK  r  .z.n  of  i'lV'Wj :  i>  varivU^ly  tod:  in  thl* 
M  c  It  IS  jat  .'^To  .i>  :\:r.i!.".ri;  .  f.^  ir.  ..s  p  v.."/,- :  b;:  jti]  nndt  r  ai 
e"ij:"u.  In  :!'.  T  \o  .oi<  v''  i';  ^  i  a -\  S\  -i-rAiZ  :<  represented  a: 
s:;*  ivd  n^  /  -V  !?••:  .  a  :d  -h  :::  \*  ^  ur  '  ::  -  i.uM  ^  '  si:::::g  on  ihatprin-e' 
lhr..:u\  Here  jiv.^  V.  •■•.- ^•\  ".  >  •'■.:  of  v^.rVr .:.'.:■ -: :  cono'-mincj  wlion 
..  :;:i':  \  .riiv^r.s  o;'i:^;' t:v  '  .*:V; .  \c  V  ^  '.i^c  i  i  c.ur.ts.  Th-»  }  r.babilit' 
•>  :h .:  5tfV  -.hm  :  ,.:.'<  />"  . .:    ..;'.:.  a^:  o:^  y  vi:f:er.*iil   cai-e$  of  the  sam( 


I$39]  Export  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  33 

indindoil :  this  conjecture  was  originated  by  documents  heretofore  ex. 

uiiaed,  and  reported  on,  and  may  yet  be  confirmed  to  certainty.    Both 

(if  distinct  persons)  were  of  another  religious   system,  with  reference  to 

HJoduisffl  proper  ;  probably  of  the  Jaina  persuasion ;    and  hence  much 

of  the  mystification  of  Hindu  writings  concerning  them.    The  not  sit- 

tiog  OD  Vicrama^s  throne  is  an  allegory  to  designate  building  and  ruling 

in  another  town  than  Ougein;  which  fat^t,  together  with  a  coincident 

ehuge  of  dynasty,  has  been  historically  ascertained  in  the  course  of  the 

preceding  researches. 

Note.— This  document  is  damaged  by  insects ;  and  the  series  of  tales 
is  not  complete.  Being  so  very  common  and  popular  a  tale,  many  ver- 
iiioiu  of  which  are  in  the  collection;  it  has  not  been  judged  needful  to 
We  this  paper  restored. 


Manuscript  book.    No.  10. — Countermark  922. 

Aecoant  of  Enams  and  Jaghires  granted  to  the  Silladars  of  the  Mah- 
nttianny  in  lieu  of  payment  for  fusly  year  1204  (A.  D.  1795-6). 

Hk  covers  of  this  book  are  much  damaged,  but  the  paper  inside  very 
>^tly  so,  by  insects.  The  writing  is  in  Persian  ink,  and  indelible. 
There  is  however  very  little  writing  on  each  page;  and  the  nature  of  the 
contents,  as  above  indicated,  is  such  as  not  to  claim  any  further  notice. 


Manuscript  book.  No*  16— Countermark  923. 

"  Estimate  of  the  Aurungabad  Soubah,  with  an  account  of  its  pur** 
8°DBahs,  circars,  mahls,  villages,  revenues,  &c.,  in  the  Deckhan." 

Tlusis  a  large  book  in  good  preservation,  written  on  French  paper, 
which,  as  appears  from  various  specimens,  insects  do  not  seem  to  touch, 
or  bat  very  slightly.  The  contents  might  have  been  written  in  a  book 
ooethirdof  the  size  of  this,  if  filled.  In  this  book  there  is  merely  a 
cdomii  running  down  one  side  of  each  page,  which  contains  names  and 
Bombers.  It  is  quite  irrelevant  to  the  leading  object  of  my  enquiries: 
^KNigh  m  itself  a  statistical  document  of  some  value. 


Mahratta  Bakheer,  a  roll  of  country  paper,  No.  29i 
fable  of  ^iiTpanac'^a  "  a  giantess/' 


34  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  [lA!f.  , 

This  is  a  tale  foniicd  oti  an  episode  in  the  JRamai/ana*  It  is  much  i 

jiired  hy  insects,  and  could  not  be  successfully  restored ;  even  if  it 
worth  the  pains,  which  perhaps  it  is  not. 


Mahratta  Bakheer,  No.  31 . 

Account  of  the  marriage  of  Rucmeni, 

This  is  a  larger  roll  of  similar  material,  in  better  preservation  but 
complete.  Rncmeui  was  a  princess  carried  off  by  Crishna ;  and  after 
wards  married  to  him  ;  the  tale  is  told  in  the  Bftagavmia,  in  the  supple 
mcntary  portion,  and  needs  no  further  notice  here. 


Mahratta  Bakheer,  No.  32. 

Another  copy  of  the  same  tale  ;   also  incomplete,  and  in  not  so  good 
preservation. 


Mahratti  B;ikheer,  No.  33. 

Account  of  SmrhantNa,  a  poor  friend  of  CrUhna^  enriched  by  visiting 
him. 

A  roll  appu-^ntly  complete,  but  damaged.     It  is  not  of  a  kind  claiming 
restoration  ;  being  a  mere  tale  or  romance. 


Mahratta  Bi\Wheer,  a  roll  of  countrr  paper,  No.  27.  n 

It  is  entitlovi  in  an  English  heading — ••  Modes  of  discourse  between 
Ca/iand  Pan'athit  waharaja  :"  which  would  erroneously  lead  to  suppose 
CiiJi,  or  Ihityn,  to  bo  meant. 

The  title  in  ihe  Mahnuu  is — A  detail  of  the  rulers  in  the  Carmaimem* 
t!ftam,  fn>m  I  ho  earliest  limes. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  contents, 

Mattn  /^ttnVjf*i/«  oftho  P<r»v;orfi-raco  niled  down  to  the  year  46  of  the 
C^ii-ywga.  While  so  ruling,  .i  cow,  in  a  certain  forest,  was  weeping  on 
.locount  of  halving  thn^  of  its  logs  bivken.  A  Kh-at^  man  (wild  sa\-age) 
going  up  to  theo^uv,  and  consi.lering  that  its  ihw*  legs  had  been  broken 
in  ihe  ihrix'  pnsxsiing  ;\gi^s,  thought  it  right  to  break  the  renuining  leg 


IS3B]  R§porl  on  the  Mackenzie  Mannscnpfg,  35 

in  thepresent  age  (or  Calt  yugd).    The  above  king,   then  doing  penance 
in  the  forest,  saw  the  Kiratan  breaking  the  cow's  leg,  and  liad  him  put 
into  prison.    He  said  to  the  king  **  since  I  am  come  by  divine  appoint- 
ment why  do  you  molest  me  ?"     The  king  enquiring  who  he  was,   he 
replied"!  am  Ca/t   (or  a  personification  of  the  Cali-yuga).    The  king 
said"  while  I  am  alive  I  allow  you  to  do  nothing/*    Cati  then  recjuested 
a  place  wherein  to  remain,  and  the  king  snid,  go  dwell  with  • //m«a 
t  JtafffoMy     I   Dherma-virodha     and    f    FhvcUapdlaca      While     the 
iiog lived  Ca/i  gained  no  entrance,   or  ascendancy.     The   king  had  four 
ms,  Jtnamtijatfa,  Sruihusena,  Bhlmasena,   Ugaaeiia,  who,  according  to 
this  manuscript,   all  exercised  sovereign  power  alternately. 

Details  of  their  rule  are  given,  and  to  the  second  Bhinia  sena  is  ascribed 
thckillingof  the  racuham,JarasaHdhu{Jara&andhaoi  the  race  oiSudherma 
ii otherwise  stated  to  have  btien  killed  byCn'if/tnaJ.  Twenty  descendants  of 
Bkima-tena  are  enumerated,  filling  a  space  of  one  thousand  years ;   they 
all  bore  the  epithet  of  ^ra^/na-Aa^/i,  from  the  above  crime.     (Possibly 
the  writer  being  a  devotee  of  Criahnay  may   have  wished  to  shift  the 
guilt    Moreover  the   names  appear  to  be  given  at  random,  several  of 
ihem  belonging  to  a  later  period,  and  some  even  subsequent  to  Chandra- 
S^o).  The  minister  of  Ribanjaya  named  Munica  (by  Sir  W.  Jones,  or  by 
amispriut,  Sunaca)  killed  his  master,  and  placed  his  own  son  Prudyota 
on  the  throne.    (This   event  belongs  to  the  il/4^ae/Aa   kingdom).     Five 
loccessicmj  of  this  dynasty  occurred.     In  a  metaphorical  manner  Nanda 
is  said  to  have  had  no  child  ;  and  his  w  ife,  in  consequence,  threw  herself 
into  the  Svarna-hadi  (or  golden  river),  and  by  reason  of  doing  so  produced 
eight  sons.  (We  know  otherwise  somewhat  of  the  deposition  of  Naynhf 
by  his  minister,  leading  to  the   accession  of   Chandragupta,  and  by  the 
way  we  may  gather  from  the  MS,  in  hand  a  useful   hint  as  to  the  mode 
in  which  metaphor  and  allegory  are  made  to  cloud  either   ignorance,  or 
the  truth,  sub  may  suit  the  writer's  convenience  or  caprice.    To  write  the 
wnple  truth  in  simple  language,  does  not  by  any  means  appear  to  have 
been  at  any  time  the  Hindu'method  of  composition).  The  said  eight  sons, 
niled  during  137  years.    Afterwards  a  female  named  Sada   Frihadra 
reigned,  and  was  killed  by  her  minister  named  CAflcrfl/i,  who  placed  his 
•on  ^rii^«  on  the  throne,  which  lie  held  for  45  years.     (This  must  desig- 
nate the  Sunga  dynasty).    The  minister  of  Sruga  named  Canna,  who 


•  Slui;;hter,  violence,  malice.  +    Want  of  truth  or  integrity. 

t    Opposition  to  equity  and  mercy. 
\  FtUingi^om  trust  or  confidence;  the  sin  of  treaehcry.^All  tho  teims  are  Sanscrit, 


36  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuscrtpU- 

killed  his  master,   and  reigned  in  his  stead,  w^s  killed  in  turn  hy 

amas  (otherwise  Susarman)  who  ruled  456  years  (designating  bii 

his  whole  dynasty,  otherwise  stated  to  have  consisted  of  .21  king 

servant  killed  him  (his  last  descendant)  and  ruled  the  kingdom,  a 

him  is  given  a  period  of  334  years.     In  his  time  (or  that  of  liis  dy 

the  kingdom  was   reduced  to  great  distress.     About  that  time    fo 

females  of  the  four  colours  (castes)  came  to  the  Triveni  (or  conjunc 

the  Ganges,  Jumna,*  and  Sarsoostee  rivers)  at  Prai/aga,  o-  Allahabad. 

while  bathing  as  an  act  of  devotion,  each  one  had  a  secret  wish 

was  sought  to  be  accomplished.  The  wish  of  one  of  them  was  th 

might  have  a  son  who  should  be  emperor  of  the  world.    At  the 

time  a  poor  Brahman  formed  the  wish,  while  bathing  and  meditati 

Pranava  (or  sacred  name),  that  the  said  woman  might  be  his  wife. 

wish  was  accomplished  ;  and  their  son  was  born  at  Uchchini  (Oi 

being  the  famous  Vicramaditya,  who  married  the  aforesaid  four  ft; 

and  ruled  2000  years.  (Here  again  we  have  the  Hindu  mystic  or 

matical  mode  of  writing ;  it  seems  to  denote,  what  is  more  directly 

in  other  books,   that  Vicrama  was  the  son  of  a  BrahmaUj  by  a  woi 

inferior  tribe,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Ougein.     The  marrii 

Vicrama  to  the  four  females,  being  disentangled  from  the  possibly 

tional  absurdity,  means  that  he  married  wives  of  the  four  tribes).   J 

quently  Salivahana  fought  with,  and  killed    Vicramaditya,    Salix 

ruled,   on  the  north  side  of  the  Narmati  (or  NerbuddaJ  and  had 

named  Mani-vahana,  and  the  son  of  the  latter  was  Avad'harina  : 

others  of  the  race  ruled  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Nerbudda.     A 

time  a  Rajpoot  named  GunVhivi  pad  ruled  on  the  other  side  of  th 

river,  and  the  Mussulmans  began  there  by  degrees  to  acquire  power 

Subsequently  Rhoja  raja  ruled  in  a  large  town  {nafrara)  named 

nagara  (in  a  Telugu  account  by  Ravipatit  the  name  is  written  Dare 

— ^The  names  of  eight  of  his  decendants  are  given  as  follows : — 


1.  Nanda-rayalu  5  years 

2.  Uchita-raja     5  years 
.3.  Dor-rayalu  3  years 

4.  Kerula  rayalu  4  years 


5.  Malata  rayalu  9  years. 

6.  Varada  rayalu  6  years. 

7.  Vishnu  palacu  7  years. 

8.  Tiruvapi  rayal  u  8  years. 


These  ruled  over  the  whole  of  the  southern  kingdom  ;  and  after  x 
was  divided  into  two  parts.  In  the  Purva  Bhaga  (or  northern  parif) 


*  Ganga,    Tamuna,  Saratteatt, 
f  Any  mention  of  the  sonthera  division  does  not  appev. 


m] 


Rtport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts. 


37 


Pniapamaha  deo  ruled  over  a  country  called  Ada  malun,  Tlie  Maho- 
ncdan  ruler  at  Delhi,  acted  perfidiously  with  the  son  of  Pratapa,  and 
took  possession  of  the  country.  Some  descendants  of  Bhoja-raja  ruled  in 
the  couotiy  to  the  west,  as  follows : — 


Tftuna  tn&li  rayalu  1  year 

Ifarasimha     myalu  3  years 

Podhi  rayalu  5  years 

flari-hara  raye  5  years 

^Qa  pama  raye  9  years 

^elagen  raye  11  years 
^tmivise  raye   13  years 


Vil  parti  rayalu  15  years 

Kriv^gal 

Paratu  n&ma  chalu  rayalu  6  years 

Trimisha  rayalu  8  years 

Chera  rayalu      10  years 

Vishnu  rayalu    12  years 

Alatagiri  rayalu  14  years 


Hiialata  raye    15  years 

'A  all  fifteen  reigns:  they  ruled  138  years  in  the  town  called  Baga- 
'^^'Sara, 

Subsequently  some  persons  descendants  of  Bhoja  raja,  such  as  Nandt 
'"•jffl/u  and  others,  ruled  as  follows  : — 


^sanda  rayen, 


rayen, 
^ixK  rayalu, 
R-ama  rayalu, 
^Qtta-nadi  rayen 
^  Tttya  muttu  ray  en    10  years 
C^'lanii  rayen  13  years 


11  years 
3  years 
5  years 
8  years 


Kanda  rayal  6  years 

Sauma  rayal  26  years 

Kanda  lada  rayal  4  years 

Irdvatii  rayal  7  years 
Sindhid'hana  rayal 

Vira  vasata  rayvd  12  years 

Biika  rayal.  H  years. 


In  all  fourteen  x)er6ons,  who  ruled  in  Dara  nagara,  but  at  the  same  time 
•'^ifiering  from  insufficient  means  and  privations.  At  length  many  other 
persons  took  away  different  portions  of  their  kingdom.  The  violent  par- 
-tiUon  occurred  in  Sal.  Sac.  987.  A.  D.  1065. 

Afterwards  one  named  Vindhya  ravu  performed  a  penance  on  the  hill 
of  Sri  Sailam  to  Devt  in  order  to  obtain  wealth  ;  whereupon   the  said 
S^ess  appeared  to  him,and  told  him  his  wishes  could  not  be  accomplish- 
ed in  the  present  life ;  but  would  be  granted  in  a  future  birth.  He  iiicreas- 
^  the  severity  of  his  penance,  when  Devi  again  appeared  ;  and  gave  a 
*fliall  district  around  the  site  of  Vij  ay  ana  gar  am.    The  names  of  his  pos- 
^tjr  (being  the  Bayer  dynasty)  are  given  as  follows  : 


Deva  rayal 

1  year 

Hari  hum  rayal 

3  years 

Buka  rnyal 

5  years 

K6pa  rayal 

7  years 

Cumal  keta  rayal 

9  years 

38  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manu$cript$.  [J AH, 

Gopa  rayal  J  ^ 

5-4  years 
Chokanda  rayal       3 

Hatti-rayal  6  years 

Chaimutu  rayal  8  years 

Krtmbalata  rayal         10   years 

Being  in  all  ten  rulers  ;  the  termination  of  their  dynasty  was  in  SaU 
Sac.  1350  (A.  D.  1428).     They  ruled  in  all  350  years. 

Afterwards  Vira  Duktala  raye  was  seated  on  the  throne  at  Vijayana" 
garanti  in  Sal.  Sac.  1391.  Subsequent  to  him  ihe  country  came  under  the 
rule  of  the  Mahouiedans,  and  other  various  persons.  Here  the  manu- 
script refers  to  a  former  communication,  and  adds  that  the  account  was 
drawn  up  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  MajorMackenzie;  but  it  has  no 
date,  and  does  not  give  the  name  of  its  author. 

Note. — This  document  being  a  mere  roll  of  country  paper,  already 
partially  damaged  by  insccts/and  liable  to  early  and  rapid  destruction  was 
restored,  on  ascertaining  the  nature  of  its  contents.  The  absurd  English 
heading  could  have  induced  no  one  to  suppose  those  contents  to  be  of 
any  value.  As  the  case  now  is,  the  question  is  as  to  authenticity.  Some 
matters  at  the  outset  throw  a  doubt  upon  the  subject.  We  have  accounts 
of  the  Mdgadha,  and  subsequent,  dynastiosi,  in  which  there  are  minor 
differences  from  this;  still  the  main  outlines  are  preserved,  and  are  in  both 
the  same.  The  list  of  kings  of  Vijayanagaram^K  few  names  being  excepted, 
differs  from  the  more  usual  lists,  and  the  names  are  fewer  in  number. 
These  considerations  are  stated  because  of  tiie  very  great  importance — if 
authentic — of  the  middle  portion  of  this  manuscript.  Of  that  portion,  firom 
the  mention  of  6Vi/iV//Aa«a,dowu  to  the  violent  partition  of  the Dara-ncLgara 
countr}',  the  account  herein  given  is  a  translation.  Should  this  portion  be 
authentic,  and  be  proved  to  be  such  by  other  documents,  then,  so  far  as 
my  knowledge  extends,a  chasm  in  a  part  of  the  past  history  of  this  country 
will  be  in  some  measure  tilled  up.  But  I  hesitate  as  to  resting  more 
weight  of  confidence  on  the  document ;  previous  to  further  contimiation 
of  its  statements.  The  Mahratta  language  is  calculated  from  the  locality 
of  its  usage  to  give  more  information  on  tliat  period,  and  coucernino-  that 
neighbourhood,  than  any  other ;  the  Gujeratti,  or  Hala  Canada,  perhaps 
being  alone  excepted. 

Manuscript  book.  No.  10. — Countermark  87G. 

Stctiou  I .     The  Si'/tala'puranam  or  local  h»gen  J  of  Safit/ama'dheiram 
at  or  near  Chunchuna  in  the  division  of  YeU  iu  Mvsore. 


1839J  Report  an  the  Mackenzie  Matiuicripii.  39 

InaDrieDt  times  a  riWa*  named  Trlnabindhya  was  duing  j^enanco,  when 
Hi^AV  appeared,  and  told  him  be  could  not  yet  obtain  beatification  ;  but 
that  when  he  (V'uhnu)  came  hitlier  as  Rama  then  that  gift  should  be 
bestowed.  About  the  same  time  a  Kirata-man  (or  savage)  was  labouring 
to  gel  wealth,  when  the  riAAt  advised  him  to  cultivate  the  tulsi  plant* 
tktwhen  Rama  came  it  might  be  used  in  his  service.  The  r/Wti,  and 
•auge,  both  received  gifts  from  Rama.  The  riahi  obtained  leave  to  re- 
nainat  ihiit  place,  and  to  build  a  shrine,  with  an  image  of  Rama,  which 
bfaccumplibhed. 

A  Pandi^a  king  having  greatly  troubled  the  **  divine  Brahmans,** 
iDdbfing  greatly  afflicted  in  consequence,  travelled  to  different  places 
OD  pilgrimage,  to  get  rid  of  his  visitation ;  and  at  this  place  the  god  met 
bits  in  the  form  of  an  old  man,  and  directed  him  to  build  a  fane,  which 
be  did.  This  £ine  having  gone  to  decay  was  repaired  by  Hari-hara' 
nytr. 

iVar«(/a  having  visited  many  places  went  to  Cailasa,  and  there  en- 
quired of  ^tra,  an  account  of  their  origin.  Some  Pauraunic  references 
are  iotrodaced,  as  if  stated  by  Siva,  There  would  seem  to  be  a  reference 
lo  z  Stara  fane  at  this  place ;  but  the  reference  is  not  clear,  owing  pro- 
bably to  the  legend  not  being  complete. 

Note.— Though  the  paper  on  which  this  section  is  written  is  damag- 
ed, ret  it  does  not  seem  to  be  worth  restoration. 


Stetion  2.     Account  of  Periapalnam, 

m 

Suchi»  the  title  in  the  English  heading  of  the  section,  and  a  similar 
<ttc  is  written  at  the  commencement  of  the  manuscript.  The  cause  of 
well  I  title  seems  to  have  originate<l  in  the  mnnuscript  having  been  co- 
]M  (as  stated  at  the  end  in  the  Mahratta  subscription)  from  earlier  do- 
cuments by  Aarrayana  Bhattf  and  Capavi-Hhatt,  living  in  Periajmtnam^ 
■fid supplied  through  their  instrumentality  to  the  collection. 

The  contents  of  the  document  trace  the  genealog}'  of  Raja-Cris/tna' 
t^rfijfcr  of  Mysore,  up  through  the  Rayer  dynasty,  and  some  intervening 
'■w,  to  Bhoja-raja  and  preceding  kings  as  high  as  the  era  of  Vu- 
ditkiChira,    But  in  its  order  it  follows  the  descendingr  series. 

It  commences  with  the  mission  oi  Agaatya  from  Caiiasa^  his  reducing 
^  ^"•ndhyn  mountain,  with  an  obscure  reference  to  the  king  of  the 
^wmtry  southward,  whom  he  rendered  harmless ;  *  and  his  going  on 
I»-gninage  towards  the  south.  The  subject  is  then  confined  to  the  CaVi- 
V*g9.   The  em  of  YvduhsChivy  with  inclusive  reigns,  is  given,    llie  era 

*  Conpwe  vitb  abMiact  of  No.  27  in  the  Mahratta  portion  of  my  3a  Report. 


40  Rtpmrt  oa  llu  Sfmciemzie  MatmuripiM*  [JaH. 

•f  Vicrmmodiiy,  and  of  SaliraJkana,  dovn  throcgfa  Bkoja-raja,  the  CAa- 
biyot,  the  rulers  of  Derc-gin,  the  Raffer  dyiiastv,  to  the  rojral  line  of 
the  native  tiimdm  soTereignsof  Mvsore. 

KoTE. — ^The  chroDicle  is  but  brief :  though  relating  to  i  great  extent 
of  time.  Being  damaged,  through  dunp  and  in&eets,  I  hare  had  it  re> 
stored ;  since  it  is  a  document  of  some  con&xdenLble  importance ;  and  as 
snch  it  ought  to  be  fully  translated. 


Seeiicm  3.  Account  of  the  Goruckmath  religion  in  the  Mysore 
conntzy. 

This  paper  offers  nothing,  beyond  some  local  regulations  for  different 
classes  of  people,  in  visiting  the  shrine  of  a  local  ftaiBirN,  at  a  place  termed 
(by  accoomiodation)  Cuructketram  in  Mysore.  It  is  not  in  very  good 
order ;  but  does  not  seem  to  be  worth  restoration. 


Seeiicm  4.    Account  of  the  Ct^pdla  religion  in  Mysore. 

This  paper  rebtes  to  the  shrine  of  a  goddess  named  Copata-matrit  in 
the  same  neighbourhood,  being  a  local  fonn  of  Peri,  or  Vurjo  ;  and  is 
chieflv  occupied  with  panegyric  on  the  said  image.  It  is  of  no  valuable 
consequence. 


Seciicn  5.  Account  of  the  fortress  of  Balata-myadurga^  at  Coppa*^ 
kobhalU  in  Mvsore. 

This  is  a  short  account  of  Roydroog  ^or  Rovacottah  as  we  now  com* 
monly  term  it).  Its  origin,  in  this  paper,  is  ascribed  to  one  named 
Baihiaia-ro^  under  the  following  circumstances.  A  Jaina  ascetic 
greatly  troubled  the  people  of  the  neighbourhood :  and  the  said  Bakk* 
ta^Oj  professing  to  become  his  disciple,  did  homage  at  a  shrine  nf  ffinmi, 
and  by  virtue  of  that  penance  acquired  the  power  of  killing  the  ascetic ; 
and.  for  so  doing,  the  people  gave  him  rewards.  With  the  measure  of 
we;ilth  so  acquired,  he  gathered  people  aiuund  him,  and  plundered: 
by  the  accession  of  means  so  acquired,  he  further  strengthened  himself; 
conquered  an  extensive  district :  and  fiR4  built  the  fortress  of  RttyaduT' 
ga.  He  was  named  Deu'uvi  'a-cthi  mya  ;  and  he  had  three  sons  named 
Balhiala-ratfUf  ruhnU'verdJhofMj  and  />«ya-rijia-r8^«Y  of  whom  the  first 


1839]  Report  on  ihti  Mackenzie  Afanuscripte.  41 

was  a  5airfl,  and  the  second  a  Vaishnava,  At  an  early  period  the  place 
seems  to  have  been  subjugated  by  tbe  Mahomedans ;  and  some  mention 
occurs  of  chaiig;cs  under  their  rule. 

NoTE.—Thi8  paper  appears  to  be  an  imperfect  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  Oyiida  dynasty,  which  ruled  at  HohhalH ;  anrl  was  at  one  time 
of  considerable  consequence.  The  paper  is  brief;  complete  as  far  as  it 
goes;  and  being  somewhat  damaged,  has  been  restored,  for  its  better 
pfcserration. 


Stttm  6.    Account  of  Chandraffupta'Cshetram,  in  the  province  of 
Bidanwr, 

A  legendary  reference  to  the  sacrifice  by  Dacsha  ;  the  self  immola- 
tion of  bis  daughter:  the  anger  of  Siva,  her  husband ;  and  the  formation 
of  Fira-bhadra  in  consequence.  The  paper  is  incomplete,  and  seeming- 
Iv  worthless. 


Section  7.    Legend,  or  S^ hala-purana  of  Killadi, 

This  is  a  mere  local  legend;  apparently  of  little  or  no  consequence. 


S^etum  8.    Account  of  Halla-bede  in  Bidanur. 

This  paper  entitled  as  above,  in  the  English  heading,  is  another,  and 
fiiller,  account  of  the  Balala  rulers  at  Rayadurga,  The  like  account,  as 
IB  a  former  paper,  is  given  of  the  killing  of  a  Muni,  herein  termed  a 
&RM.  The  account  of  the  posterity  of  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  is 
MR  full,  than  in  that  paper  (sec.  5),  and  it  is  herein  stated  that  as 
«w  part  of  that  posterity  was  of  the  Saiva,  and  the  other  part  of  the 
rciiltara  persoasion,  they  fought  with  each  other.  One  of  the  race 
vu  cured  of  leprosy  by  building  a  great  mo^ny  Saiva  fanes.  Another 
of  the  nee,  marrying  a  Mahomedan  woman,  was  driven  away  by  his 
CttlMr.  He  went  to  the  Padshah,  who  came  and  took  Roydroog ;  and, 
censing  the  before  expatriated  son,  to  be  crowned  at  Vijayanagaram,  he 
placed  him  as  feudal  chief  at  Roydroog.  A  list  of  his  descendants,  and 
^^\%  of  their  wars,  with  other  proceedings,  follow. 


42  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [Jan. 

Note.— This  paper  being  much  damaged  by  insocts,  and  damp,  has^ 
been  restored;  and  it  merits  full  translation,  as  a  valuable  document^  re* 
lative  to  the  Oyisala  kings. 


Section  9.    Account  of  Copam  in  Bidanttr, 

A  reference  to  the  anger  of  Siva  in  consequence  of  the  self  immola- 
tion of  his  wife,  at  the  sacrifice  of  Dacsha ;    the   place  receiving  itf- 
name   from   that  circumstanc*^,  as  if  it  had  occurred  there.     A  Saiva 
hamed   C6par  built  there  a  hut ;  and  afterwards  Jina  Danda-raja  made 
it  a  metropolis,  building  a  fort  there.     Having  no  offspring  he  gave  it 
to  a  Brahman,     Slva-danda-nayak,    afterwards   ruled.      A   few   other 
names  are  mentioned ;  who,  by  their  cognomens,   would  seem  to  have 
been  Brahmans* 

Note. — The  document   is  much  damaged  ;  and,  as  it  may  have  some 
historical  value,  it  has  been  restored. 


Section  10.    Account  of  the  Cdveri,  in  the  Cannaha  district. 

The  account  of  the  Caveri  is  only  promised,  but  not  given.  It  is 
little  better  than  the  legend  of  a  fane ;  chiefly  having  reference  to  a 
leprous  king,  who,  it  may  be  anticipated,  was  to  lose  his  disease  hy 
bathing  in  the  Caveri;  but  the  document  is  unfinished,  and  appears  to  be 
oiifio  importance. 


Mahratta  Bakheer,    No.  23,  a  roll  of  paper. 

This  document  is  incomplete,  both  at  the  beginning,  and  the  end. 
Prom  the  remaining  middle  portion  of  the  fragment  it  is  found  to  relate 
to  revenue,  and  other,  details  of  the  Peishwah.  His  treasurer  had  made 
false  accounts  ;  and,  these  being  detected,  he  was  summoned  to  follow 
the  Peishwah  to  a  place  whither  the  latter  annually  went  on  pilgrimage. 
The  treasurer  did  not  do  so ;  and  forcible  measures  were  resorted  to, 
in  order  to  compel  his  attendance.  There  are  further  some  details  of 
marches,  and  mention  of  some  towns,  or  places,  taken. 

The  document  is  damaged  by  insects  and  damp  ;  but  as  being  a  mere 
fragment,  and  without  matter  of  permanent  interest,  its  restoration  has 
not  been  deemed  requisite. 


1S39J  Report  en  ike  Mackenzie  Manuteripts^  43.. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  5— Countermark  91?. 

Contents.  A  short  account  of  the  revenues  of  the  fifteen  Soubahs  in 
Hindustan,  under  the  government  of  A  char,  Padshah  of  Delhi. 

This  book  has  but  a  slender  proportion  of  matter  compared  with 
ilssize.  It  is  written  on  French  paper,  and  is  in  good  preservation. 
ITie  subject  of  course  is  incapable  of  being  abstracted ;  and  the  con- 
tents in  themselves  are  brief.  As  a  statistical  document  it  can  at  any 
time  be  referred  to,  if  requisite. 


Mahratta  Bakheer,  No.  28. 

A  large  roll  of  paper  "  Genealogical  account  of  Malogi  and  V'ttogi 
Bhotttloj  princes  of  the  Mahratta  dominions." 

This  document  has  the  beginning ;  but  is  not  complete  at  the  end. 
As  far  as  it  proceeds  it  contains  a  somewhat  full  and  curious  detail  of 
the  origin  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs  from  Babaji  Bhosala  ;  whose  two  sons 
^ilojii  and  Malogi,  were  soldiers  of  fortune.  Tlieir  adventures  and 
services  are  mentioned,  especially  under  the  Delhi  Padshah;  until,  by 
an  arfroit  use  of  circumstances,  their  descendants  became  princes. 

The  important  pert  acted  by  the  Mahrattas  might  perhaps  render 
the  genealogical  detail  worth  full  translation.  The  document  is  in 
tolerably  good  preservation,  with  a  slight  exception  at  the  beginning ; 
and  its  restoration  does  not  seem  to  be  urgent ;  though  it  may  possibly 
hereafter  claim  attention. 


Mahratta  Bakheer,  No.  8— Countermark  920. 

A  roll  of  country  paper,  entitled  *•  Genealogical  account  of  Nanah 
Sekeb  of  the  Peishwas.** 

This  document  contains  a  rather  full  historical  detail  of  the  branch  of 
^  Mahrattas,  established  at  Poonah.  At  the  beginning  Appaji  Saheb 
i»  represented  as  enquiring  into  the  past  history  of  his  race  ;  which  is 
>»nated  to  him  by  the  author.  At  the  close,  a  copy  of  this  document  is 
•aid  to  have  made,  by  special  request,  for  Major  Mackenzie.  Tlie  roll 
of  paper  is  a  large  one ;  and  it  is  surprising  that  the  matter  should  have 
^*^«i  written  on  such  a  fragile  material.  It  is  damaged  in  various  places, 
Md  words  are  eaten  away  by  insects.  The  matter  however  is  for  the 
greater  pait  recoverable,  and  the  document  is  complete.    For  these  re^i 


^4  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [Jan 

aons,  and  especially  from  viewing  the  details  to  be  of  considerable  co!^.^ 
sequence,  the  document  has  been  restored  ;  and  I  am  of  opinion  that  ~^ 
merits  full  translation. 


—3 


Manuscript  book,  No.  19 — Countermark  885. 

Account  of  Hyder-Nayak. 

This  is  a  small  book,  and  contains  chiefly  statistical  details.     It  gi>r 
a  statement  of  the  towns,  or  places,  conquered  Hy  Hyder  Ali;  amouiitir 
to    one  hundred  and  twelve.    There  is  a  detail  of  the  strength  of 
army,  with  the  number  of  his  cannon  and  muskets.    The  names  of  l^  -^ 
ministers,    and  officers   holding  official   or  revenue  charges,  are  givers 
and  a  statement  of  the  districts,  or  towns,    wherein  they  exercised  the  ^ 
various  employments.     It  is  dated  in  April  of  the  CrorfAana-cycle-year^  * 
but  without  a  more  definite  date. 

The  book  is  somewhat  injured  by  damp,  and  a  very  little  by  insects  ? 
but  the  writing  throughout  is  perfectly  legible,  and  restoration  does  not 
seem  to  be  required. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  12— Countermark  878. 
V    Section  I — Memoir  of  Hyder  Nayak. 

This  paper  contains  a  somewhat  lengthened  account  of  the  life  and  ac- 
tions of  Hyder  Ali  ;  but  it  is   not  complete,  breaking  off  abruptly. 

His  origin — family  connections — rise  from  obscurity,  in  being  made  a 
commander  of  2,000  cavalry — are  mentioned ;  and  the  various  steps  are 
then  detailed  by  which  he  acquired  additior.al  power,  and  set  aside  his 
former  master  ;  the  wars  in  which  he  became  engaged  are  specified.  The 
abrupt  breaking  off  is  at  the  period  of  an  interference  with  the  Coimba^ 
tore  province ;  at  which  time  he  was  sixty  years  of  age. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  make  a  minute  abstract,  seeing  that  the 
general  events  of  Hyder's  life  are  tolerably  well  known.  A  translation 
m  full  might  nevertheless  be  curious.  The  document  is  written  on 
French  paper,  which  insects  do  not  touch,  and  the  ink  is  permanent ; 
consequently  nothing  further  is  needful  to  be  done  with  it  for  the  present 

Section  2. — Account  of  Siva  Samudram,     This  is  a  legend  of  a  dbtrict, 
with  its  fanes,  not  very  far  distant  from  Seringapatam. 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuscripU,  45 

The  origin  is  dated  beyond  the  era  of  Rama-Chandra  who,  it  seems, 
risked  the  spot,  when  dwelling  in  the  wilderness.  There  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  in  it  any  thing  of  importance.  The  papers  concerning  Mysore 
seem  to  agree  in  stating,  that  Rama  went  by  way  of  the  Mysore  country 
to  Lanca, 

The  document  is  in  sufficiently  good  preservation  ;  but  it  is  not  com- 
plete, and  breaks  off  abruptly.  A  pencilled  memorandum  by  Colonel 
^iackenzie  dates  its  receipt  by  him  in  1800. 


^tctian  3— Memoir  of  Tippu  Sultan. 

TLis  paper  commences  with  a  reference  to  the  siege  of  Trichinopoly. 
Tbe  presence  of  Nanda  raja  of  Mysore — the  capture  of  a  province — the 
power  acquired  by  Hyder — the  intention  of  the  latter  to  capture  the 
to  of  Madras — his  negociation  with  the  Mahrattas  of  the  Peishwa  to 
k«p  them  off— and  the  pecuniary  terms  on  which  they  consented  to 
be  bought  off"— are  narrated.  The  document  is  then  somewhat  full  in 
its  details  of  Tippu's  operations;  chiefly  against  the  English.  His 
conduct  at  Yell  ore — his  ill-treatment  of  his  prisoners — alliance  with 
the  French — are  stated.  Affairs  at  Trichinopoly  are  detailed.  The 
document  breaks  off*  abruptly,  without  a  proper  close. 

KoTE.— It  is  written  with  permanent  ink  on  French  paper,  is  quite 
uniDJured,  and  can  be  easily  made  the  subject  of  reference.  By  conse- 
quence it  claims  from  me  no  further  attention.  It  is  endorsed  in  Colonel 
Mackenzie's  hand-writing — "  Life  of  Tippoo  Sultan  from  Colonel  Close, 
September  7, 1800." 


Seelion  4.    Account  of  Budda  Ballapur  in  Mysore. 

This  document  relates  to  a  district  locality,  of  which  the  proper  name 
seems  to  be  not  Ballapur,  but  Bakhta-puru  In  fusly  948  (A.  D.  1539- 
40)  three  individuals  of  the  Canchi  district,  unable  to  support  the  dis- 
ti^ss  (cause  not  stated,  but  most  probably  the  Rai/er's  invasion)  fled  from 
that  country,  and  went  above  the  Payinghat,  where  they  constructed 
fcnti  to  live  in.  Wliile  there  some  other  individuals,  subjects  of  the 
"flyer,  returned  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Ramiseranit  and  lodged  with  the 
Mw  settlers.  Three  boxes  came  down  the  river ;  on  opening  which  they 
were  found  to  contain  images  of  Nandi,  Narayana  and  Gopal,  The 
finders  made  their  supplications  j    and,  in  the  night,  a  vision  appeared 


4G  Rtport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [J 

directing  them  to  alxindon  these  huts  ;   pointing  them  to  a  place  whei 
buried  treasure  was  to  be  found  :  and  directing  them,  with  it,   to  build 
town  and  fanes.     Thov  followed  the  direriions  given  ;   obtained  the  tre&^ 
sure  ;  and  rame  to  an   open  plain  where   formerly  a  Jaugama  shnne  bsEs 
been.     Here  they  determined  to  remain.     They  accordingly  built  a  (muc:B»  j 
fort,  with  a  town,  and  repaired  the  old  Jangama  shrine.     The  leader     — 
termed,  ^rrA7f/>r/ri-sultan,  who  acquired  the  power  of  a  local  chief, 
transmitted  lus  authority  to  his  descendants.    After  some  time  the  ph 
was  raptured  by  the  Mahomedans :  subsequently  by  the  Peishwa's  Mi 
rattas  :  and  slill  later  hv  the  English. 

Note. — The  locality  i"*  I  believe  on  the  western  border  of  the  Mi-so^- 
oountry.  As  a  local  pi-per  it  is  of  some  value.  It  is  in  a  perfect  state  ^ 
prr'aer>*ntion. 


Manu-^oript  book,  No.  9— Countermark  875. 


Section  1.     Account  KfJsu'juh  (Asuplijjh)  Nizam-ul-mcolk,  coUect- 
etl  in  Mv:?oro. 

This  paper  want's  oi^iht  half  shoots  at  the  beginning,  and  is  not  com- 
p'ete  at  the  en  i.  It  contains  a  statement  of  the  Nizuu's  proceedings  at 
Delhi,  and  in  the  south  :  nieniioninj;  the  pla.-es  suolie  1,  or  brought  un- 
der him.  and  imiuij  tribute.  There  is  a  iV.l  spec::*,  ation  of  his  officers, 
civil  atid  military,  aiul  %^f  the  districts  controlled  by  iheni.  Mention  is 
made  of  Mon<r.  Ihissy.  an.i  vf  the  interf.  ren:e  of  the  French,in  theafiain 
o\'  that  i^art  i4  the  eranirv.  A  vvm^\ii.i':v>n  of  varior.s  powers  was  form- 
r\!  :  in  whih  ny.%-.  tl:.^  IVis'.iwrx.  'he  Gi:i-ev.,-,  :vm\  others,  were  con- 
»vnu\l  :  whofouj^lu  witli  tie  X:.\^m,  and  i.ok  Hyi^rab.id.  Some  other 
atfairs  with  Delhi,  and  wai^ ;  in  the  mi.Ut  of  an  account  of  which  the 
Kvument  abnipi-y  br\'aks  o»f, 

XoTt.— It  is  written  on  s^x\l  French  pap-.^r.  ^riih  p.-manent  ink ;  and 
is  in  jH^rfect  prvsentition,  ihon^rh  incomp'.ece. 


< 


5:^0; ion  2.     Some  acvvant  of  JHcc'-^Si^  oo'.i-.vted  in  Mvsore. 

This  pai>er  rvUtes  to  a  pr-riivi  siNo,;uent  to  th»  overthrow  of  the 
Riyr't  jvwer.  A  MaKmodm  e.  v\\:  a  few  .>v  1 -:  and  pretended 
that  he  was  author  rt\!   frvni  Polhi  t.^  assume  the  fcuJal  principality  of 


1839]  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  jff 

jinagund'i,  of  which  the  shadow  of  royalty  there,  being  afraid,  bought 

bim  off  with  a  sum  of  money.    On  a  subsequent  reference   to  Delhi, 

the  nilcT  there  disclaimed  any  knowledge  of  the  transaction,  and  any 

intention  to  disturb,   the  Hindu  prince  in  the   possession  of  his  fief. 

On  learning  this  circumstance,  the  said   Hindu  ruler  became  greatly 

Incensed,  and,  wreaked  his  vengeance  on  all  whom  he  could  lay  hold 

of,  that  had  been  concerned  in  the  plot,  and  imposition,  practised  upon 

lam.    A  list  is  given  of  the  persons  whom  he  put  to  death. 

KoTt.— The  document  is  uninjured. 


^ttiion  3.    Account  of  Haslinavaii  or  Delhi. 

Thia  is  a  brief  statement,  commencing  with  the  era  of  the  Calt  yuya^ 
a>d  coming  down  to  the  time  when  the  name  was  changed  to  Delhi, 
tilh  the  mention  of  some  kings.  Salivahana  and  Bhoja-rajoy  are  ad- 
verted to,  as  distinct  persons ;  and,  after  the  latter,  Ka'dasa-raja,  which 
Kem^to  be  a  titular  name. 

Note.— The  document  does  not  appear  to  be  of  much  consequence  ; 
^  it  remains  uninjured. 


Bedim  4.    Account  of  the  arrival  of  Tippu  Saltan,  at  DtbanahalH, 

A  fery  short,  and  unfinished,  paper ;  containing  a  memorandum  of 
Kone  of  Tippu's  proceedings;  but  breaking  off  abruptly,  and  of  nio 
nloe. 


Becim  5.    Account  of  a  tobacco  contract  with  Tippu  Sultan. 

Notice  of  a  forming  transaction.  Tippu  leased  out  lands  to  cultiva- 
^on  of  the  tobacco  plant,  on  certain  conditions ;  whereby  he  obtained 
*  considerable  revenue. 


BettUm  6.    Some  account  of  the  settlement  of  Tippu  Sultan. 

According  to  this  document  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  what  is 
now  called  the  ryotwar  system  of  cultivation,  which  failed ;  so  that 
^  lyitein  of  miriuidart,  or   zemindars,  was  re-established.     Some 


48  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [Jan. 

other  mention  of  revenue  transactions;  in  the  investigation  of  which 
Tippu  was  greatly  incensed,  and  hanged  two  of  the  principal  persons 
concerned. 


Section  7.    Account  of  Bijnajara  collected  in  the  Mysore  country. 

The  commencement  is  legendary.  A  Brahman  unable  to  sustain  the 
pressure  of  a  famine  which  prevailed,  did  penance  with  a  view  to  ob- 
tain wealth.  The  god  at  first  refused  his  request,  but  afterwards  grant- 
ed it,  when  he  had  no  longer  any  desire  for  it ;  so  that  he  bestowed 
it  on  a  Cihetrtya,  or  Rajputra,  who  built  a  town,  and  made  himself  a 
district  chieftain.  At  a  later  period  trmsactions  in  which  Muhratta 
generals  were  concerned  occur :  but  the  narrative  breaks  off  abruptly. 

Note. — This  document  is  written  in  pale  ink,  and  is  slightly  damag- 
ed. As  there  is  something  of  real  histoiy  contained  in  it,  I  have  had 
it  recopied. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  22. — Countermark  934. 


Section  1*    Account  of  Calikapuri,  and  of  BJioJa  raja. 

Reference  to  the  Pandava  race,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  58i  when  Bhctja- 
raja  ruled.  He  conquered  in  the  north,  and  erected  a  pillar  of  victory 
O'^yya  stamb^ha).  To  the  south  the  raja  of  Camhhira  averted  an  invasion 
by  submission.  Bhoja-raja  ruled  in  Calikapuri,  and  made  great  addi- 
tion to  its  fanes,  and  other  buildings,  including  seven  Saivn  fanes.  He 
ruled  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  124,  with  great  celebrity.  Subsequently  Rango" 
Yadava  rayalu,  with  his  successors,  and  the  Delhi  Padshahs,  with  their 
successors,  are  given  in  detail.  The  narrative  comes  down  to  the  period 
of  a  war  between  the  Delhi  Padshah,  and  Hyder  Nayak ;  with  the  men- 
tion of  which  the  document  ends. 

Note. — ^This  manuscript  appears  to  be  of  considerable  value,  and 
meriting  full  translation.  At  present  the  writing  is  in  good  preserva- 
tion. The  material  written  on  is  country  paper,  which  insects  have 
begun  to  attack  chiefly  in  the  margin.  The  document  will  require  to 
be  kept  in  view,  and  to  be  looked  at  occasionally ;  but  its  restoration  is 
not  at  present  of  urgent  necessity. 


I83Q  JRtpari  «»  Me  AIaek§nzi$  Manuicripu.  4f 

Sittlmi  2.    Tale  of  Vicrama,  prince  of  Uchekinu 

This  is  one  of  the  popular  tales  concerning  Vicramaditya.  It  is  in  a 
rather  more  deteriorated  condition  than  the  preceding  section  ;  but  there 
is  nothing  in  the  tale  to  merit  the  process  of  restoration. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  36. — Countermark  948. 

CoNTSNTs.    Another  copy  of  the  25  tales  of  the  FettUa, 

With  a  few  slight  e^iceptions  at  the  beginning,  and  at  the  end,   this 

book  is  in  tolerably   good  preservation.     It  is  a  version  of  the  tales  of 

VkrmMu^tya^s  attendant-demon,  or   Feiala.    They  deserve  no  serious 

notice  in  researches  of  the  present  kind,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted,  that 

the  commonness  and  popularity  of  such  kind  of  tales,  have  a  tendency  to 

4etrMt  from  the  general  value,  such  as  it  is,  of  Hindu  literature.     A 

vitUted,  and  morbid,  taste  can  alone  be  gratified  by  such  kind  of  produc- 

-    tions;andthey  convey  alow  estimate  of  the  people  among  whom  they 

vt  popular. 

Manuscript  book,  No  5. — Countermark  871. 

Stcticn  1.    Account  of  Muluvacal  in  Mysore. 

The  account  was  written  in  May  1837,  from  the  statements  made  by 
^fum  the  Amin;  KaUa  too  the  Seriskladar\  and  others.  The  sUtement 
■  wildly  legendary.  The  ancient  name  of  the  place  was  Mat'hapur, 
It  was  visited  by  Rama  and  SHa\  and  was  chosen  as  a  suitable  place 
for  the  penance  of  Falmiea.  In  the  time  of  the  great  war,  Hanunutn  as<* 
•iitcd  Arjuna;  and  the  latter  greatly  admired  the  former's  bravery. 
The  hill  in  the  vicinity  afforded  a  refhge  to  the  riahis  during  that  war. 
At  a  later  period  many  fanes  were  built  here,  as  the  spot  was  esteemed 
leered.  Its  subjection  to  a  native  prince  is  stated ;  and  its  subsequent 
><nmiption  by  the  Mahomedans.  Towards  the  close  of  the  paper  there  is  a 
KfeieDce  to  the  war  against  Tippu,  conducted  by  General  Harris,  Colonel 
Close,  and  others ;  in  which  war  Tippu  was  slain  by  a  cannon  shot,  and 
hit  oomitTy  was  taken. 

Hehaek.  Tlie  paper  being  written  down  from  verbal  statements,  and 
^^ofa  legendary  character,  does  not  seem  to  offer  much  of  conse- 


50  Report  en  the  Mackenzie  Manuseripfs.  [Jaw... 

quence.    It  is  very  legible ;  and  the  paper  but  slightly  injared.    Hen< 
it  is  passed  by,  without  any  further  attention. 


Section  2.    Account  of  Chandradrona  hill,  or   VayvU'parvatam^  in 
Bidanur, 

During  the  residence  of  Rama  and  5iVa,  in  the  wildemegs,  Hannmitn 
Went  as  &r  as  Naeica  (Nassuck),  to  see  them.  After  the  abduction  of 
Sita,  the  said  Hanuman  sought  every  where  through  the  south,  in  the 
caves,  and  hills,  in  order  to  find  her.  Among  other  places  he  came  to 
this  hill ;  and  gave  it  a  name.  During  the  war,  when  Hanumdn  carried 
a  mountain  through  the  air  he  let  fall  a  portion  of  it  here,  which  hence 
became  named  Chajidra-tfrona,  after  its  original  name,  in  its  former  site* 
The  sound  as  if  of  singing  is  heard  within  it.  It  was  waste  during  the 
Dwapara-yugan,  At  a  later  period  it  became  a  Japgama  fane.  There  is 
some  similar  legendary  matter,  about  Criehna  and  Arjuna. 

Another  account  of  the  same  hill. 

The  same  tale  of  the  falling  of  a  portion  of  the  mountain  carried  by 
Hanuman, 

NoTK. — ^The  damaged  state  of  this  paper  would  have  indicated  its  res* 
toration,  if  worth  it,  which  seems  not  to  be  the  case.  As  a  passing  re* 
mark,  the  great  influence  exercised  by  the  Ramayana  and  Mahabhturaia, 
may  be  noted,  and  must  frequently  have  been  observed  in  foregoing  por- 
tions of  these  abstracts.  The  wildest  inventions,  when  grounded  on  in* 
cidents  mentioned  in  those  poems,  seem,  every  where  in  the  south,  to  be 
received  with  implicit  credulity.  No  doubt  this  hill,  termed  Fayaru-par' 
vatam  or  **the  hill  of  wind",  must  have  something  remarkable  about  it. 
I  regret  the  want  of  local  knowledge  concerning  it,  on  grounds  quite 
fUtTfrent  from  this  legendary  fable. 


(Section  3.     to  6,  in  the  Canarcse  language ;  omitted  under  the  head 
of  Mahratta  writings). 

Section  7*    Account  of  Shahuni  or  Hossein'pur, 

The  original  and  legendary  formation  of  the  place  is  ascribed  to  Ska* 

kunif  a  woman  of  the  Caura  tribe,  who  provided  curds  for  the  five  Pan* 

davas.    At  a  much  later  period  a  chief,  named  Fira-bhadre^'ntiyak,  cut 

iowu  the  wood,  cleared  the  ground,  and  established  a  colonyi  building  a 


109]  Rwpvrt  9m  the  Maekentte  Manutcriptt  M 

fime  to  Vire^hhodf,  the  titular  ftimieii  of  his  tribe.    Still  later  the  town, 
ind  district,  came  under  the  gOTemment  of  Tippu  ;  when  its  name  was 
changed  to  Hosaein-pnr. 
Note. — The  docainent  is  in  sufficiently  good  preservation. 


Stdum  8.     Account  of  Vitala-pur. 

A  reference  to  Mogada-^esam,  and  the  mention  of  a  few  names  and 
incidents,  when  the  document  abmptly  breaks  off,  without  the  promised 
icooant  of  Fffa/a-/mr,  which  it  may  be  conjectured,  was  to  arise  out  of 
it  That  Maga^arduam  (not  Mdgadha)  was  above  the  ghauts,  in  the 
prorincenow  called  Bidanur,  is  a  little  point  of  geographical  information, 

helping  towards  an  explanation  of  the  fifty-six  countries  of  the  Hindu- 


^t\<m  9.  Account  of  Nanda^romi  an  aged  man  of  the  Rajputra  caste 
at  the  village  of  Tanchar  in  Bidanur. 

He  was  originally  of  yotoM/itcr;  his  family  being  gold  and  silver  smiths. 
He  followed  the  army  of  a  Padshah,  as  a  sutler;  supplying  pease  and 
wheat,  for  horses,  and  men.  He  afterwards  became  employed  by  Hyder 
All,  and  was  sent  to  Masullpatam.  Some  mention  of  Hyder  Ali*8  rela- 
tions is  added. 

Note.— It  is  difficult  to  say  what  could  have  led  to  suppose  a  biography 
of  inch  a  person  to  be  of  any  consequence.    It  seems  to  be  of  no  value. 


D.-SANSCRIT. 
A  Falm-leaf  Manuscript,  without  label  or  number^ 

This  very  old,  and  greatly  damaged,  MS.  on  examination  was  found' 
to  be  a  fragment  of  a  Sanscrit  work  in  the  GranPha  character,  composed 
by  Boom  Bhupaii^  one  of  the  poets  of  Bhqja'raja's  court  The  leaves 
are  eaten,  in  many  places,  by  insects,  others  are  lost :  two  sections,  and 
part  of  a  third,  are  found.  The  subject  is  of  do  historical  consequence  ; 
and,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  contains  merely  poetical  panegyric,  as  a 
•Oft  of  epithalamium. 


52  Iteporl  on  ihe  Mackenzie  Manuitripu. 

Manuscript  book.  No.  50. — Coantermark  1019. 

Detached  inscriptions  at  Conjeveram  and  Sri  Perwmhtr^  in  Sal 
Grant* ha  character.  No.  dO.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  14%.  A  long 
meration  of  the  titles  oiCrishna  ray er  of  the  Yada  vamio,  with  the 
tion  of  some  of  bis  ancestors,  deduced  from  the  usual  lunar-line.  1 
panegyric  is  bestowed  on  his  munificence,  to  many  other  fenes ; 
at  the  end,  it  is  stated  that  he  erected  a  magnificient  cupola  ove 
•hrine  of  Deva'ttya,  otVarada^rajat  at  Conjeveram,  in  which  there  is 
gold  employed  in  the  workmanship. 

Rkmark.  The  cupola  was  taken  down  some  years  since,  as  I  am  in 
ed,  and  has  not  been  rebuilt ;  because  of  the  great  expense  which  \ 
be  required. 

No.  100.  Comnlemoratesthe  munificence  of  i^aicA//it-CkiMam-ac/ 
in  causing  a  large  and  magnificient  tank,  or  reservoir,  to  be  excavated 
the  fane  of  Hanumdn,    Some  panegyrical  stanzas  are  added. 

No.  lOl.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1591.  Commemorates  an  endowment  bji 
Muthaliyar  for  the  purpose  of  certain  chants,  and  ceremonies,  perfc 
at  the  first  offering,  or  using,  of  water  from  the  tirfha  (or  pool)  i 
washing,  or  bathing,  of  the  image  in  the  fane  of  Farada-raja, 

No.  135.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1432.  It  commemorates  the  grai 
free  tenure,  of  several  large,  and  valuable,  villages  to  the  Saiva  h 
JTecatnb^ifvara,  by  Crishna  rayer. 

No.  136.    Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.    1536.  Commemorates  donations 
by  7*a/McAaryar,  which  are  specified;  but  of  which  the   detail,  ii 
place,  seems  not  to  be  ret^uired. 

CONCLUSION. 


This  Section  of  my  general  report  here  finishes.  The  necessity  o 
further  remark  seems  to  be  obviated,  by  the  observations  offered,  al 
step  of  progress. 

Madras,  June^  30th  1838« 


I8S9]    N&U9  on  Ryotic^r,  or  Permangnt  Annual  Money  RenU.        5S 


W^Noles  ow  Ryotwar,  or  Permanent  Annual  Money  RenUi  in  South 
India:  and  on  the  duty  qf  Government  in  Periods  (if  Famine — By 
John  F.  Thomas,  Eeq^  of  the  Madras  CivU  Service. 

To  estimate  the  effects  of  a  system  of  fixed  annual  money  rents,  in 
the  present  state  of  Southern  India,  it  would  appear  necessary  to  keep 
the  following  points  prominently  in  view  The  peculiar  circumstances 
of  the  agriculture  of  the  country,  the  character,  and  present  condition 
of  the  ryot,  or  landholder,  and  the  state  of  society  around  him — and 
let  us  contrast  the  ryot  in  these  respects,  with  the  occupant  of  land  in 
eoaDtries  where  annual  money  rents,  as  in  Europe,  have  heen  for  a 
long  period  the  settled  usage. 

The  ryot,  or  &rmer,  in  the  Peninsula  of  India  is  placed,  ^e  may  first 

observe,  from  physical  causes,  in  essentially  different  circumstances  from 

^t  occapant    cultivator  in   Europe.     The   intennty  of   unpropitious 

leasoDs  in  the  temperate  zone,  especially  in  the  case  of  drought,  never 

being  such  as  in  tropical  or  Indian  climates ;  whilst  the  variety  of  soil 

fnrther  secures  the  European  farmer  against  a  total  failure  of  his  crops. 

An  aoosnally  wet  season  in  Europe  causes  the  light  soils  to  yield 

ibondantly ;  and  the  dry  year  produces  heavy  crops  on  the  deep  land. 

it  never  occurs  therefore,  that  the  European  holder,  does  not  obtain 

some  considerable  return  of  produce  from  his  land  in  each  year ;  and 

though  this  return  may  frequently  be  below  an  average  crop,   yet  the 

enhancement  of    price  at  these  periods,  consequent  upon    the  great 

eiteotof  the   purchasing  population,*  at  all  times  compensates  him, 

for  deficiency  in  the  quantity  of  his  produce,    and    his  yearly  money 

mt  can  invariably  be  paid  therefore  with  little  difficulty  from  the 

annual  out-turn  from  his  land. 

• 

But  in  Southern   India,  in  seasons  of  drought,  instead  of  any  consi- 
derable return^  there  is  frequently  not  a  single  field  in  the  entire  range 


•  Agricultural,  or  producing  population  in  England  35  per  C.-non  agricultural  or 
porchariBg  65  per  C— Agricultural  or  producing  population  in  India  90  per  C.-non- 
.fricultural  or  purchasing  10  per  C.-8«e  Babbagc  and  other  authors  on  the  .UtiMic.  of 
Kneknd. 


64  Notes  on  Rt/otwar,  er  [Jan. 

of  a  ryot*s  farm,  which  is  not  either  wholly  barren,  or  very  greatly  de- 
ficient in  produce.  Often  on  the  larger  portion  of  his  land,  not  an  car 
of  grain  is  left,  and  the  seed  has  not  been  returned  tohira:  and  even 
if  some  few  showers  should  have  fallen,  and  his  well  land  has  yielded 
a  crop,  he  has  still  not  a  fifth  or  often  a  tenth  of  his  ordinary  crops  to 
reap.  No  increase  of  price,  it  is  plain  therefore,  can  avail  a  ryot  ought 
at  these  seasons ;  for  he  has  no  produce  to  bring  to  market, 
or  but  such  a  fraction  beyond  the  wants  of  his  family,  that 
his  entire  crop  will  not  give  him  any  thing  like  the  amount  of  his 
annual  rental.  The  extreme  pressure  upon  him  consequently  at  these 
periods,  arising  out  of  the  physical  circumstances  under  which  be  •carries 
on  his  occupation,  places  him  in  a  wholly  different  position  from  the 
landholder  in  Europe;  and  in  one,  I  believe,  for  which  no  providence, 
nor  industr}',  can  fully  prepare  him,  if  his  full  annual  tax,  or  rent,  be 
required  from  him,  as  prescribed  by  the  present  system,  at  a  period, 
when  lie  has  lost  nearly  the  whole  of  the  year's  outlay  upon  his  land, 
and  has  not  reaped  grain  enough  either  for  seed,  or  to  maintain  hit 
fiiniily  through  the  year. 

It  is  this  peculiar  feature  of  South  Indian  agriculture,  resulting 
from  physical  causes,  an  almost  entire  failure  periodically  of  nearly 
all  return  from  the  land,  which  constitutes  a  marked  distinction 
between  the  circumstances  of  the  Indian,  and  the  European  farmer 
or  occupant  of  land,  and  which  renders  fixed  annual  money  rents  at 
their  present  rates,  however  advantageous  in  Europe,  of  doubtful  policy 
in  this  country.  "When  strictly  acted  upon  for  a  series  of  years,  it  will, 
I  believe,  be  found,  that  the  hea>y  demand  which  this  system  makes 
upon  the  Indian  landholder  at  seasons  of  extreme  difficulty,  and  of 
peculiar  loss,  sweeping  away  at  such  times  the  whole  of  his  little  capi> 
tal,  or  involving  him  inextricably  in  debt,  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
the  present  general  impoverishment  of  the  ryots.  It  is  also  to  his 
knowledge  of  the  certain  recurrence  of  the  periodical  droughts,  and 
their  consequences  ;  so  fully  appreciated  by  the  ryot,  but  not  yet,  I  am 
disposed  to  think,  sufliciently  considered  by  his  European  superior, 
that  we  must  ascribe  it,  that  he  has  been  genemlly  led  to  prefer  a  heavy; 
and  vexatious  tax  in  kind,  of  even  50  per  cent  of  the  actual  annual 
produce,  varying  therefore  with  the  season,  to  any  permanent  rent  in 
money,  at  a  lower  rate.  For  he  knows,  that  he  is,  under  that  tenure, 
protected  in  the  season  of  drought,  from  a  heavy  Government  demand, 


l^^l  Permanent  Annual  Money  Henfs. 


«o 


which  he  has  no  produce  to  meet  and  which  must  entail  upon  him 
ruin.* 

It  is  deserving  of  remark,  that  these  seasons  of  very  severe  drought 
where  the  seed  is  not  returned,  and  which  are  known  by  a  peculiar 
term,  recur  on  an  average  in  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Madras 
presidency  once  in  seven  years.  From  acconnts  before  me  from 
Coimbatore,  and  Trichinopoly,  five  years  of  this  kind  arc  named  within 
the  last  33  years. 

But  it  is  not  only  in  the  want  of  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  physical 
circumstances  of  the  agriculture  of  the  country,  that  fixed  and  invariable 
annual  money  rents  are  open  to  objection  ;  they  appear  also  un- 
Miited  to  the  present  circumstmces  of  the  great  body  of  ryots.  The 
mass  of  the  land  is  held  in  very  small  parcels,  by  proprietors  of  petty 
tfoements  under  30  or  40  rupees.  Proprietors  of  this  claiis  can 
possess  little  or  no  capital,  and  very  limited  credit,  and  that  only  upon 
niinoos,  and  usurious  terms.  How  is  it  possible  then,  that  they 
sboald  be  able  to  meet  all  the  contingencies,  both  of  price  and  seiison, 
affecting  so  large  a  proportion,  as  the  Government  share  of  33  or  45 
per  cent  of  the  average  annual  produce  of  their  laud. 

•  "  Th«ir  objections  (the  ryots  of  Trichinopoly)  are  stated  to  have  been,  that  if  the 
lud  be  onee  amessed  at  a  specific  sum  in  money  per  cavrney,  a  fall  in  the  price  of 
pain,  or  an  unfavourable  crop,  will  make  the  payment  of  the  Goremmeut  dues  ex<- 
treody  difficult.  Whereas,  at  present,  we  suit  our  consumption  to  our  actual 
prwiaep;  and  in  the  event  of  a  deficient  produce,  although  wc  cannot  consume  so 
Daefa  u  we  shoold  in  a  favourable  year,  we  have  still  sufficient  to  maintain  our  fami- 
Um  nnbarthened  with  any  payment,  unfettered  by  any  penalties.  fFe  preserve  our 
isadi,  and  if  we  do  not  grow  rich,  at  least  we  are  noi  utterly  ruined, 

"  They  alone  must  be  the  judges,  whether  it  is  more  beneficial  for  them  to  pay  a  pro- 
pwtioa  of  the  produce  in  kind,  or.  a  fixed  sum  an  equivalent  in  money.  "—Afodfro/, 
t^.  SeL  vol.  III.  p.  519. 

"  In  many  cases,  too,  the  objections  (of  the  ryot)  to  fixed  money-payments  appear  to 
be  well  founded.  The  precariousness  of  the  produce  and  the  poverty  of  the  cultivator, 
tvndering  it  necessary  that  the  rent  should  either  be  paid  in  a  proportion  of  the  crop,  or 
tbtt  tbe  ryot  should  adopt  the  lew  advantageous  mode,  of  trusting  to  an  undefined  un- 
dmtanding  that  a  part  of  the  stipulated  rent  will  erentually  be  relinquished". — Madnu, 
Met.  Sd.  rol.  ill.  p.  I5S. 

"  Daring  my  late  tour  through  this  territory  (Dehli,  &c. ),  the  dissatisfaction  of  the 
msindart  at  nakdee  or  money-settlements  was  almost  universal,  the  inconvenience  to 
vbi^  they  hare  been,  in  consequence,  subjected  from  bad  seasons,  being  of  a  species 
aoknown  to  them  formerly**.— Hep.  Sel.  vol.  iii.  p.  415.  « 

"The  disadvantage  immediately  resulting  from  this  system,  and  which  constituted  the 
ebM  dilBcnlty  in  eOSecting  village  rents,  was  the  balance  left  out- standing  at  the  end  of 
tW  year,  the  account  of  the  Circar  grain  remaining  unsold;  and  the  difficulty  of  con- 
^rtii^  it  into  money,  so  as  to  realise  the  revenue  within  the  year.  The  inhabitants 
avue  of  this  difficulty,  were  averse  to  the  responsibility  of  a  money  rent,  and  the  oc- 
tiumperienee  of  many  yean  justified  their  apprehension*'.-  Rev.  SeL  vol.  i.  p.  562. 


56  Notes  on  Ryoiicar,  or  [Jah. 

The  ryots  of  Southern  India  are  also,  like  all  individuals  of  limited 
means  and  education,  improvident.  They  are  in  eight  cases  out  of 
ten  in  deht.*  It  must  surely  be  idle  to  look  to  them,,forthe  forethought 
which  shall  store  up  every  small  gain  of  a  favourable  year,  to  meet  an 
adverse  season.  Tliis  providence  can  and  does  exist,  only  in  educated 
and  highly  civilized  communities,  and  is  the  very  reverse  of  the  natio* 
nal  characteristic  of  the  Indian  agriculturists  ;  not  one  of  whom  from 
high  to  low,  scruples  to  involve  himself  irretrie>*ably  in  debt  for  mar- 
riage or  funeral  ceremonies.  A  system  therefore,  which  throws  upon 
the  Indian  cultivator,  the  whole  onus  of  providing  for  every  emergency, 
and  requires  from  him  the  forecast,  to  meet  all  the  variations  in  the 
market,  as  well  as  those  of  the  seasons,  is  manifestly  ill  adapted  to  his 
present  character,  and  condition,  and  little  calculated  to  enable  him  to 
realize  property  in  the  soil. 

The  system  is  likewise,  I  conceive,  unsuited  to  the  existing  state  of 
society  in  Southern  India,  of  which  the  preponderance  of  the  agricul- 
tural class  is  a  peculiar  feature.  This  feature  of  Indian  society  renders 
the  demand  of  a  permanent  annual  money  rent,  not  only  highljr  dis- 
advantageous to  the  ryot,  but,  it  may  even  be  said,  unjust.  For  the  large 
excess  of  the  agricultural  population  over  all  the  other  classes,  of  not 
less  than  eight  to  one,  necessarily  brings  an  immense  surplus  of  grain 
into  the  market  in  fevourable  seasons.  Prices  in  consequence  tali  ex« 
ceedingly  low,  there  being  no  foreign  vent  for  grain  in  Southern  India  ; 
and  the  ryot,  in  lieu  of  gaining  largely,  not  infrequently  receives  less 
money  for  the  whole  of  his  crop  brought  to  market,  in  productive  yeara^ 
than  in  an  average  season,  or  in  one  a  little  below  it.  He  therefore 
finds  more  difficulty  in  paying  his  money  tax  at  such  periods;  and  he 
may  be  now  occasionally  even  a  loser,  and  his  gains  must  at  all 
times  be  very  inconsiderable  in  abundant  and  favourable  seasons. 
^V hence  then  in  the  present  state  of  society  is  his  profit  to  come  from, 
to  meet  the  loss  and  deficiences  of  unproductive  years,  and  of  seasons 
of  excessive  drought?  The  rule  now  in  force,  of  an  invariable  annual 
demand  in  money  on  an  average  crop,  and  at  average  prices, 
makes  no  provision  for  this  peculiar  condition  of  society.  It  is  assum- 
eil,  in  tho  teeth,  I  think,  of  facts,  that  the  profits  of  favourable  seasons, 
always  are,  and  will  be  adequate  to  meet  the  demand  of  unfitvoorable 
years;  and  the  whole  burden  of  failure  in  the  season,  or  fall  of  pricct 

*  "  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  character  of  Uie  ryotjt  whose  improTidence  renders  them 
tu  M>  }nvat  a  dcgTi>e  incaiiablc  of  realiting  property  when  the  means  are  put  in  their 
power.**— Owr/^/)irrc/or»,  iter.  &L 

"  The  debu  and  embarrassments  in  which  the  whole  of  the  acricultural  p«paIatUNi 
is  plunRcd.'*    Mr.  Rlphinstone.-^cK^.  <Sr/.  ir.  p.  14.  3. 


1838]  Permanent  Annual  Money  Rents.  57 

is,  QUda  the  eiusting  system  thrown  on  the  poor  occupant  of  a  30 
npee  tenement  to  bis  utter  ruin.  There  is  also,  a  further  disadvantage 
to  tbt  lyot  in  money  rents,  which  does  not  exist  under  the  nsitive  prac- 
tice of  a  division  of  crop.  Under  that  system,  bad  us  it  is  in  all  other 
respects,  there  is  this  advantage,  that  the  Government  dues  are  only 
taken,  when  the  ryot  is  best  able  to  pay  them,  at  the  precise  moment 
at  which  be  has  gathered  in  his  produce,  when  i  t  is  easy  for  him  to 
asaign  to  Government  its  portion,  and  he  has  then  no  subsequent  de- 
mand to  meet.  But  under  ryotwar  money  rents,  the  entire  crop  is  left 
upon  the  ryot's  hands,  and  all  the  risk  of  subsequent  fluctuations,  fulls 
Q]Nn  hinl.  The  rents  in  money  are  also  usually  exacted  with  such 
anspariog  and  rigorous  punctuality,  that  the  great  body  of  tho  xyoX^. 
froBi  their  want  of  capital,  are  practically  compelled,  in  order  to  pay 
the  Government  dues,  to  bring  the  whole  of  their  grain  to  market  at  :i 
loss  vithin  the  year.  Whereas,  had  the  rents  been  taken  in  kind,  the 
Government  would  have  stored  a  large  portion  of  the  year*s  crop  fur 
futare  consumption,  and  much  would  have  been  kept  out  of  the  markets : 
the  ibare  left  to  the  ryots  would  have  been  brought  consequently  to 
ttle  gradually,  and  against  it  is  probable  less  competition,  and  to  a 
better  maHtet,  even  allowing  for  the  diminished  demand  which  must 
icsolr,  when  the  revenues  being  received  in  kind,  Government  pay- 
Bests  are  also  made  in  grain. 

Ib  the  foregoing  remarks  on  the  circumstances  of  the  south  Indian 
lyot,  anting  out  of  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  agriculture  of  the  coun- 
trf-^his  own  habits  and  present  condition,  and  the  state  of  society  ; 
ve  have  csily  considered  the  etfect  of  permanent  annual  money  rents 
ia  esses,  in  which  the  landholder  (the  ryot)  or  the  party  answerable 
far  the  Government  tix,  and  the  actual  cultivator  of  the  soil,  is  one 
ud  the  same.  Let  us  now  view  the  subject  where  the  tenure  of  land 
is  different,  as  in  provinces  like  Tanjore,  where  the  land  is  in  the  hands 
of  proprietors  who  do  not  themselves  till  it,  but  enjoy  a  landlord's  rent. 
Where  therefore,  property  in  the  soil  has  not  to  be  created  but  actually 
exists.  It  will  then  I  believe  be  seen,  that  the  rule,  which  prescribes 
m  wDvMU  annual  demand  in  money,  is  not  merely  unsuited  to 
the  dmunstances  of  the  landholder,  but  if  not  modified,  absolutely 
^ntnctive  of  his  well-being  and  to  the  existence  of  all  saleable  property 
is  the  soil 

The  gross  produce  of  the  wet  land  in  Tanjore  irrigated  by  Govern- 
vest  WQiksy  is  divided  upon  an  average  nearly  as  follows  ;  50  per 
cent,  the  Government  tax  or  assessment,  25  per  cent,  charges  of  cultiva- 
tor an  allowance  to  the  actual  cultivator  (the  occupant  cudi)^  12  per 


^9  NnHi  en  Ryofttar^  or  [/aw. 


eent.  village  cesses ;  total  87  per  cent.  Teaving  about  13  per  cent.as  the 
lasidar's,  or  proprietor's  rent.  From  this,  the  merasidar  supports  bis  fami^r 
keeps  the  minor  water-courses  in  repair,  provides  advances  of  seed  and 
Block  for  the  occupant  cultri'ater,  and  under  the  new  jyotwar  system  of 
fixed  annual  money  rents,  he  takes  upon  himself  the  risk  of  the  fluctoa' 
tions  of  season,  and  of  price  on  the  G&vernment  share.  The  Goven- 
mcnt  relinquishing  ta  hiin  upon  this  ground  5,  or  8  percent,  ofitv 
share,  and  he  is  expected  for  this  consideration,  to  bind  himself  fof 
an  invariable  annual  payment  to  Government,  of  4^  or  42  per  cent,  of 
an  average  crop,  at  a  fixed  price. 

The  cultivators,  or  oecupant  paracudtsi  nnable  te  take  any  part  of 
this  responsibility,  continue  the  ancient  usage  of  a  division  of  tbecray* 
They  at  all  times  receive  their  share  of  the  prodiH;e  in  kind,  and  at  all 
seasons  also,  the  merasidar  has  an  outlay  oC  2  or  3  per  cent,  from  bif 
oi^n  share,  on  the  water-cuurses,  and  in  advances  of  seed,  besides  b]^ 
payments  in  village  cesses.  His  annual  liabilities  are  therefore  ndt 
less  than  from  80  to  S5  per  cent,  of  an  average  crop,  of  which,  ond^ 
ryotwar^  40'  to-  45  per  cent.,  is  further  commuted  into  a  certain  andC 
invariable  annual  money  payment.     If  crops  are  deficient  in  any  sea^OQ 

15  or  20    per  cent.,  he  receives  little,  or  nothing.    The  whole  produce 

16  barely  sufficient  to  cover  the  Government,  the  paracudit^  and  tBr 
village  demand.    Jf  the  setums  should  be  still  less,  i.  e.,  if  there  shoiircf 
te  even   so  slight  a  variation,  as    10  per  cent,  of  decrease  in  price 
below  the  standard,  combined  with  15  per  cent,  in  produce,  he  is  mosi 
seriously  affected.    These  minor  fluctuations  he  can  stand  for  a  short 
time,  for  his  land  is  saleable,  and  his  future  reiums,  as  they  depend 
upon   the  south-west  monsoour  sure  he  can   therefore  command  cie* 
dit  at  a  moderate  rate.    But  if  piices,   and  produce  should  in  one  or 
two  seasons  both  fall  20  or  25  per  cent.^  a  total  of  40  or  5Q  per  cent.^ 
his  final  bankruptcy  is  almost  certain,  and  as  seasons  of  this  kind 
always  occur  in  the  course  of  every  eight  or  ten  years,  the  eventual 
destruction  of  property  in  the  soil,  under  this  system  at  the   present 
rates  of  assessment,  appears  inevitable. 

The  nierasidars  of  Tanjore  have  seen  this,  they  have  in  consequence 
strongly  opposed  the  ryotwar  invaiiable  money  rents,  and  have  propos* 
ed  these  terms.  That  when  produce  is  deficient  20  per  cei\t.,  or  up> 
wards,  they  shall  revert  in  effect  to  the  old  usage  of  an  equal  division 
with  the  Government  of  the  actual  crop. 

The  justice,  not  to  say  necessity  of  this  provision  under  merasi,  a 
tenure,  which  allows  a  proprietor's  rent,  as  well  as  a  Government  tax» 
will   I  should  think  be  aSmitted,  if  we  consider — that  the  gross  re- 


m 


Permanent  Aftnual  Metity  lUnt^ 


^% 


ceiptoof  the  menksidars,  cannot  in  the  best  yeara  exceed  25  or  30  per 
ceat  of  the  produce,  that  independently  of  the  share  apportioned 
totlie  pmrmeudietf  the  mensidar  pays  from  his  own  share  of  the  pro> 
iaect  a  further  part  of  the  charges  of  cultiTation,  in  finding  the  seed, 
«id  repairing  the  minor  water  channels,  and  that  his  family  is  to  be 
■ainlainedt  and  clothed  from  the  produce  left  to  him  after  all  out- 
goiDgK  have  been  provided  for.  His  largest  net  siirphis  profits  there* 
ha  can  scarceiy,  at  aoy  time  exceed  8  or  10  per  cent  per  annum 
be  he  ever  so  prudent.  And  it  must  be  impossible  for  him,  with  an 
aiuial  surplus  of  this  extent,  to  undertake  the  liability  for  a  permanent 
12  or  45  per  cent;  in  a  country,  where  crops  often  fluctuate,  30  per 
ce&L,  and  where  price  in  abundant  years  sinks  50  or  60  per  cent,  and 
cren  more. 

The  following  memortOidum  of  the  produce,  and  prices,  in  one  uf 
the  richest  of  the  talooks  in  Tanjore  (Sheally)  in  the  four  years  im. 
aediiitely  preceding  the  introduction  of  the  ryot  war  money  rents, 
albrdi  a  striking  instance  of  the  fluctuations  to  which  both  prices  and 
jiroduce  are  subject  in  this  country,  even  where  the  lands  are  water* 
edby  the  south-west  monsoon. 


Years, 


Fq^'  1233     . 
A.  D.  1823-4 

Fosly  im. . 
A.  D.  1834*5 

Fosly  1235. . 
A.  D.  1825-6 

Fosly  1236.. 
L  D.  1826-7 


Produce  t>f  the  Talook. 


I 


i  5,37,000  cutlums. . . . 

^7,14,000    do 

}5,9i, 


8,24,000    do.. 


Prices. 


000    do 


1  R.  p^r  cullum. 


1  R.  2  Annas  do. 


8  Annas  do. 


7i  Annas  do. 


We  see  here,  in  the  short  term  of  four  years,  produce  fluctuating 

3(>to40  per  cent.,  or  from  5  to  8  lakhs,  and  prices  130  percent.,  with  the 

raaukable  feature,  tliat  in  the  third  year  fusly  1235,  produce   decreased 

ttsrly  20  per  cent,  on  the  previous  year,  not  the  best  of  the  four,  and 

ptieo  fril  at  the  same  time  more  than  120  per  cent.,  making  a  total 

f>ll  OB  the  preceding  year  of  140  per  cent.    These  are  the  fluctuations 

ii  the  short  period  of  four  years,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 

like  nriations  in  produce,  though  it  is  probable,  not    to  the  name 


60  Notes  on  Ryoticar^  cr  [Jam. 

extent  in  price  are  common.  Where  such  great  fluctuations  exist,  it 
must,  I  thiuk,  be  evident,  that  a  proviso,  for  casting  upon  Government 
in  seasons  of  great  decrease  of  price,  or  produce,  its  full  share,  if  not 
the  whole  of  the  deficiency,  is  absolutely  necessary,  or  the  pro- 
prietor will  be  in  a  few  years  ruined,  by  the  large  and  varying  demands 
which  he  is  unable  to  meet  from  the  annual  produce,  and  all  trace  of 
property  in  the  land  must  eventually  be  swept  away. 

So  little  attention  would  seem   to  have  been  hitherto  paid  to  this 
effect  of  an  iu>'ariable  annual  money  demand,  esi^ecialiy  under  the  dif- 
f^rent  species  of  tenure,  that  this  very  proviso  in  the  permanent  field 
assessment  of  the  Tanjore  provin?e,  which  is  essential  to  the  existence 
of  menisi  tenure,  iu  other  words,  of  property  in  the  soil,  has  been  pro- 
nounced by  high  authority  (Proceedings  of  Government  IS33)    wholly 
indefensible,  as  at  \*ariance  with  Colonel   Mmiro's  ryot  war  of     the 
Ceded  Districts.    That  it  is  a  departure  from  that  system  is  palpable. 
But  the  question  is,  is  it  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  cxisteace  of 
proprietary  right,  not  only  in  Tanjore,  but  elsewhere ;  and  is  it  not  a 
further  eviden';e  that  the  ryotwar  system  of  permanent  money  rents  is 
ill  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  agriculture,  to  the  state  of  the 
landboldtr,  and  to  the  condition  of  soviet v  in  this  country. 

In  support  of  this  opinion  we  may  adduce  the  fact,  that  although  the 
lyotwar  system  of  a  fixed  annual  money  demand  for  each  field  occupied 
by  the  ryot,  without  reference  to  the  annual  out-turn  from  it,  has  been 
professedly  in  fba^  in  this  Presidcni^  for  many  years,  it  has  nurely,  if 
ever,  been  carried  out  In  the  Ceded  Districts,  and  other  ryotwar  pro- 
vinces, a  departure  iu  practice  from  one  of  its  fundamental  mles  has 
been  admitted  for  years,  by  the  grant  of  remissions;  but  more  especiaUy 
by  the  practice  of  not  making  the  annual  settlement  (dUtam)  for  the 
ryots  holding,  till  towards  the  close  of  the  year,  and  then  determining 
his  rent,  not  by  the  actual  extent  of  bis  occupancy,  and  his  cultivation 
during  the  year,  but  by  his  productive  fields. — Thus  throwing  the  risk  of 
:^easou  on  the  Government,  and  annually  ivgulating  in  fact  the  demand 
of  revenue  in  a  province  in  each  year,  by  the  character  of  the  season, 
by  the  cr^>  nMped,  and  the  number  and  extent  of  the  productive  fields 
of  the  r\H>t,  andnot»  as  ryotwar  prescribes,  by  his  occupancy. 

The  7th  rule  of  ryotwar  stands  thus  (see  plan  of  ryotwar  Col<mel 
Munn^'s  letter  l^th  .\ugu$t  1^7.  appendix  to  5th  report  p.  »H).  ••  No 
**  remission  shall  be  made  on  oniiiiary  osxasioos  of  bad  crops,  or  other 
«*  aividents  shvmKi  failure  ocvur  which  camiot  be  made  good  from  the 
*•  pr\^H''rty.  imt  land  ot  the  defaulter,  the  village  shall  be  liable  to  10  per 
»•  cent.*'     .\ud  the  pr^^tioal  api'licatix^  et  this  rule  is  explained  by 


1839]  Permanent  Annual  Money  Eents.  61 

Colonel  Munro  to  his  sub-collectors  as  follows—-''  Whatever  may  have 

*'  been  the  crop  should  it  have  been  even  less  than  the  seed,  the  ryots 

*  should  always  be  made  to  pay  the  full  rent,  if  they  can,  because  good 

'*  and  bad  seasons  being  supposed  to  be  equal  in  the  long  run,  the  loss 

"  is  merely  temporary  and  the  making  of  it  good,  is  only  applying  to 

**  the  deficiency  of  a  year  of  scarcity  the  funds  which  have  arisen  from 

''  one  of  abundance."     (Letter  of  Principal  Collector — Ceded  Districts 

to  his  assistants  on  remissions,  appendix  to  5th  report  page  769,  para  5). 

if  this  rule  be  not  enforced,  and  the  full  rent  for  every  field  occupied 

during  the  year  be  not  duly  collected,   it  is  manifest,  that  each  field 

is  ferwutnently  taxed  only  in   name,  and  that  the  amount  of  the  ryots' 

psTmtBt  or  the  annual  tax  on  the  land,  is  regulated  by  the  crops  or  re- 

tanis  to  the  ryot,  and  by  his  means  at  the  time  of  demand.     It  is  the 

same  thing  of  course  to  the  ryot  whether  the  Government  practically 

reduces  his  rental  by  striking  off  so  much  of  the  fixed  tax  on  each  field 

he  has  held,  or  by  striking  from  the  account,  a  portion  of  the  field  them- 

lelves,  which  he  has  occupied  at  a  fixed  assessment,    the  only  point  he 

can  be  anxious  about,  is  that  the  demand  upon  him,  should  be  limited 

aaniially  to  an  amount  which  his  annual  produce  will  enable  him  to 

BKet    The  great,  if  not  the  only  end  then  now  answered  by  ryotwar,  is 

to  determine  once  for  all  a  maximum  payable  by  the  ryot  for  the  land 

he  may  have  been  induced  to  occupy,  which  shall  save  the  necessity  of 

u  annual  contract  with  him ;  and  leave  the  revenue  oflBicer,  the  sole 

dnty  of  extracting  from  him  at  the  close  of  each  year,  the  utmost  he 

eaa  pay  even  though  the  seed  has  not  been  returned. 

That  a  demand  and  collection  regulated  by  the  out-turn  of  the  year, 
his  been,  and  I  may  add,  must  be  the  system  in  force,  under 
a  fixed  money  assessment  on  an  average  produce,  might  also,  I 
think  be  demonstrated  by  an  appeal  to  experience,  as  well  as  by  the 
cQDnderatioD  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  already  adverted  to  in  the 
BitDfe  of  the  agriculture,  and  in  the  condition  of  the  ryot  I  would  refer 
to  the  practice  in  lyotwar  districts  of  granting  remissions  under  vari- 
oos  Ibrms,  and  this,  not  as  an  extraordinary  boon,  but  as  a  part  of  the 
system  in  practice  whatever  may  be  the  theory,  as  one  proof,  that 
pennaoent  ryotwar  rents  have  never  yet  been  realized.  Again,  the 
amoont  of  balances  of  rents  in  ryotwar  districts  struck  off  as  dead 
loss  in  the  account  general  books.  These  enormous  sums,  further 
pnuviDg  the  absolute  failure  of  the  attempt  to  collect  a  fixed  invariable 
annual  rent  in  money  itom  each  field  occupied.  Finally,  let  the  total 
retenue,  or  the  full  tax  on  all  the  land  held  for  five  years  by  the  ryots 
at  the  beginning  of  each  fusly,  in  ryotwar  districts,  and  the  amouut 


f>2  Notts  on  Rytihfar^  wr  [Jlir. 

;ictually  realized  in  the  five  years  be  calculated  and  compared,  and  it 
will  be  evident,  I  believe,  that  the  system  has  been  in  districts  assessed 
at  the  full  rate  of  33  and  45  per  cent,,  not  so  much  to  consider  the 
amount,  for  which  the  ryot  may  have  engaged  by  his  occupancy,  as  the 
rent  to  be  collected  from  him,  but,  what  he  could  actually  sfTord  to  pay, 
with  reference  to  the  returns  from  his  land  in  each  year. 

If  the  permanent  money  tax  should,  as  in  Coimbatore,  have  been 
fixed  at,  not  more  than  25  per  cent .  of  the  gross  produce,  with  this 
peculiarly  low  assessment  in  its  favour,  the  people  will  bear  up  under 
it  for  a  long  period,  especially,  when  it  has  been  also  accompanied  by 
remissions,  and  every  species  of  indulgence  to  the  ryot.  S<r  also, 
if  one  province,  like  Cuddapah  has  a  comparatively  rich  soil,  and  a» 
extraordinary  proportion  of  rent-free  lands,  or,  like  Bell-^y,  hdek  heea 
especially  favoured  by  a  general,  and  permanent  deduction  of  25  per 
cent,  of  the  Government  dues,  whilst  other  provinces  have  not  recehred 
a  fraction ;  these  provinces  will  of  course  comparatively  floarblk 
But  is  it  the  ryotwar  money  rents,  which  produce  this  result  ?  Or  i# 
it  not  solely  in  such  districts  the  light  assessment — and  that,' 
happily  for  the  people  and  the  permanent  interests  of  Govern- 
ment, made  lighter,  by  a  departure  from  ryotwar,  both  in  the  remission^ 
granted  ;  and  by  the  substitution  for  a  settlement  at  the  commen^meni 
of  the  year  on  the  land  held,  and  a  fixed  demand  a»cordhigly,  a  set** 
tlement  towards  its  clost^  regulated  by  the  season,  and  by  the  aetuid 
produce  of  the  year . 

The  failure  hitherto  to  do  this  fully,  and  the  impolitic  attempt  to 
collect,  as  prescribed  by  theory,  the  full  assessment  annually^  even  in 
years  when  the  seed  has  not  been  returned,  combined  with  the  foreedl 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  have  been,  I  conceive  the  chief  causes  of  the 
present  depressed  condition  of  the  landholders.  The  demand  which 
has  been  made  upon  them  for  years  past  in  seasons  of  difficulty,  hsas 
even,  I  fear,  sapped  the  sources  of  future  improvement  and  prospenty, 
by  draining  from  them,  their  little  capital,  and  preventing  those  accamu'^ 
lations,  which  can  alone  enable  the  ryot  to  profit  by  the  peace,  and 
security  afforded  by  British  rule.  It  is  also  to^  this  severe  pressure  of 
late  upon  his  resources  in  periods  of  difficulty,  to  which  we  must  look, 
as  the  great  proximate  cause  of  the  present  decrease  of  the  land 
revenue. 

The  evil  of  a  fixed  annual  money  rent,  when  persevered  in  for  years, 
is  not  confined  to  district  assessed  at  the  full  ryotwar  rates,  for  when  it 
does  not,  as  in  provinces  lightly  assessed,  bankrupt  the  ryot,  it  manifests 


1839] 


Permmunt  Annual  Mimey   Rents, 


65 


itself  in  tbc  diminution  of  substantial  and  wealthy  ryots.  The  follow- 
iog  table  drawn  from  the  accounts  of  thirty  three  villages  in  the  Kang- 
yam  talook  in  the  Coimbatore  province  will  shew  the  effect  of  the  sys- 
tem when  combined  with  the  practice  of  forced  cultivation  :— 


Tears. 


Total  numb 
of  Ryots. 


Ryots  paying  from 
50  to  500  Rupees. 


Ryots  paying  from 
30  to  50  Rupees. 


Ryots  pay- 
ing from  1  to 
35  Rupees. 


bl801 
Id  1316 
In  1831 


1778 
3449 
5031 


Im 

lin 
lin 


78  or 
23 

34  or 
100 
28  or 
180 


709  or 
nearly  one  half 

1231  or 
about  one  third 

1390  or 
about  one  fouilh 


971 
2234 
3607 


The  whole  of  the  increase  it  is  of  importance  to  notice  in  the  years 
itm  1816  to  1831  is  in  the  smaller  holdings^  and  chiefly  in  the  pauper 
tenements  from  I  to  35  rupees— whilst  the  wealthy  ryots,  in  lieu  of 
incieasiog  under  our  rule,  have  diminished  in  number  from  78  to  28* 
A  similar  result  after  making  the  necessary  allowance  for  the  practice  of 
weidthy  ryots  subdividing  their  lands  nominally,  by  entering  them  in  the 
tames  of  their  dependents,  is  exhibited  in  a  statement  from  the  Caroor 
talook.  And  personal  enquiry,  tended  to  establish  the  fact,  that  for- 
tueriy  a  larger  proportion  of  the  occupants  of  the  soil,  were  substantial 
'yots ;  whilst  it  is  apparent  that  at  present  the  great  mass  or  more  than 
three-fifths  are  in  this  favoured  ryot  war  district  little  l>ctter  than  pauper 
labourers,  occupying  for  the  most  part  tenements  at  a  rent  of  trifling 
anoont,  which  they  pay  with  difl^;ulty  in  seasons  at  all  unfavour- 
able. 

Ryotwar  authorities,  are  in  the  habit  of  ascribing  this  increase  of  small, 
or,  piaper  proprietors,  to  the  usages  of  the  people  alone,  especially 
to  their  law  of  inheritance.  They  do  not  appear  sufficiently  to  advert 
to  the  fact,  that  the  same  law  and  usages  have  existed  for  ages,  and 
tbat  this  sudden,  and  rapid  augmentation  of  small  proprietors  within 
ibe  last  twenty  years,  cannot  well  therefore  be  the  result  of  a  long 
petaknt  usage,  but  must  have  tis  origin  in  some  more  immediate 
cause.  The  augmentation  i»  no  doubt,  in  part,  the  effect  of  the  greater 
Mcoiity  of  property  aad  person  under  British  dominion ;  but  there 
ii  little  reason  also  to  doubt,  that  it  most  chisefly  be  ascribed  to  th? 
revenue  svstem  in  force. 

The  extreme  subdivisioB  of  property,  and  the  rise  of  this  large  clasi^ 
of  pauper  hmdholders,  have  also  been   advocated  as  beneficial  to  the 


64  Kotef  on  Ryoitcar,  or  [JAir. 

country  by  some  ryotwar  authorities  who  have  kept  oat  of  sight  the 
momentous  consideration,  that  the  return  from  land  held  by  this  ciasty 
is  full  one  third  less,  than  if  cultivated  by  a  proprietor  of  substancet 
vho  could  afford  to  dress  it  properly ;  and  that  the  pennaneut  effects 
of  a  system  which  brings  the  mass  of  the  land  into  the  hands  of  the 
poorer  classes,  is,  to  place  the  country  under  a  sentence  of  comparative 
sterility,  covered  like  Ireland  with  pauper  occupantst  without  capital 
to  meet  any  reverse,  or  surplus  to  undertake  any  improvement ;  aa<l 
unable  to  command  those  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life,  which 
would  gradually  raise  them  in  the  scale  of  society,  and  advance  the 
country  in  civilisation  and  wealth. 

Before  closing  these  rem  irks,  I  would  notice  briefly  two  other  evils 
inherent  in  fixed  money  rents.  All  fields  permanently  classed  and 
assessed  as  wet  or  garden  land  (Nunjah  or  Bhajayet)  must  continue 
always  such,  in  order  to  give  the  higher  permanent  tax.  The  con- 
version therefore  of  wet  or  garden  into  dry  grain  land  according  to  the 
vaiying  demand  of  the  market,  is  pi-ohibited  by  the  system  itselfl 
And  though  the  demand  for  garden  or  wet  produce  in  a  district,  may 
fall  off  60  per  cent,  or  more,  and  prices  may  sink,  to  an  extent  to  make 
such  produce  an  unprofitable  crop  at  the  wet,  or  garden  rate  of  tax, 
compared  with  dry  giain,  yet  the  ryot  has  no  option,  he  must  still  sow 
this  land  with  rice,  &c.,  for  that  alone  will  yield  in  money  the  higher 
rate  of  assessment 

Again  no  adequate  provision  is  made,  except  iu  the  putcut  ryotwar  of 
Coimbatore,  for  fallows,  and  for  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  the  certain 
consequence  of  the  continual  cropping  rendered  necessary  to  enable 
the  ryot  to  meet  the  invariable  annual  Govemmeut  demand.  Of  the 
evil  effects  of  this  omission,  th3  following  instance  was  brought  to  my 
notice.  The  Rhagatftt  of  a  rvot,  then  a  flourisliing  and  productive  pro« 
perty,  had  been  classed  and  permanently  assessed  in  1802.  But  in  the 
long  period  intervening,  the  soil  had  become  exhausted,  and  did  not  re- 
turn any  thing  like  an  average  crop.  Still  the  proprietor  was  called 
upon  to  pay  for  it,  the  same  full  Bhagtu/ei  tax,  as  when  first 
assessed.  At  the  date  it  wus  examined  Cl8;i2),  the  land  was  so 
exhausted  by  continual  hea^y  cropping,  as  scarcely  to  repay  the  charges 
of  cultivation,  and  for  some  years  previously  it  had  of  course  been  de- 
teriorating,  whilst  throughout  tho  whole  i>eriod  of  this  deterioration  fiom 
natural  causes,  the  full  rent  hail  b.vu  dt'.uiaaded,  and  paid.  The  means 
of  the  holder  were  neoessarily  thv?refore  aimually  impaired,  till  he  bc- 
cjmo  unnblt*  to  bear  the  tax;    and  nothing  but  ample  remissions,   not 


1839]  Permanent  Annual    Money  Rents.  65 

for  one  or  two  years ;  but  for  a  term  could  save  him  from  ruin.  Yet 
lereoae  aothorities  strictly  following  out  the  principles  of  ryotwar, 
and  not  saflSciently  bearing  in  mind  the  peculiar  physical  circumstances 
af  the  agriculture  of  the  country,  and  the  present  condition  of  the 
people,  denounce  all  remissions,  as  incompatible  with  sound  revenue 
Bsoagement.  Whilst  it  would  appear  almost  self-evident,  that  so  long 
u  produce,  and  prices  annually  fluctuate  very  largely,  and  droughts 
are  coofltantly  recurring;  so  long  an  unvarying  annual  money  tax 
OD  each  field,  cannot  be  imposed  upon  a  small  proprietor  without  his 
«/ter  turn.  And  further,  that  so  long  as  the  bulk  of  the  landholders 
remain,  what  they  now  are,  proprietors  of  petty  tenements,  and  without 
capital,  the  principle  of  a  fixed  annud/  money  rent,  which  leads  inevi- 
tably to  an  extreme  pressure  on  the  ryot  in  adverse  seasons,  is  not 
a  louiid  and  practically  wise  system. 

Assuming  such  to  be  the  case;  and  both  experience,  and  theory 
would  seem  to  confirm  ity  1  would  sug^^est  for  consideration  some 
modifications  of  the  existing  revenue  system,  which  would  I  believe 
peatly  relieve  the  agriculture  of  the  country  from  its  present  de- 
pression— and  gradually  convert  the  ryots  into  a  body  of  wealthy 
hndholderB — without  trenching  largely  on  the  Government  revenue. 
To  avoid  misapprehension,  I  would  here  remark,  that  it  is  not  ry- 
otwar,  at  a  mode  ef  collection,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  feature,  that 
there  shall  be  no  middle  man,  between  the  Government  and  the  occu  • 
past  of  the  soil,  of  which  I  should  propose  a  modific'ation.  For  under 
the  present  circumstances  of  South  India,  and  in  the  general  ignorance 
of  all  classes  of  the  people,  I  do  not  think  there  is  any  class,  whether 
zemindar,  mootadar,  or  the  heads  of  the  village  community,  to  which  the 
veil-being  of  the  ryot  can  be  so  safely  entrusted,  as  to  the  European 
officers  of  Government ;  and  I  should  regret  to  see  this  important  fea- 
tore  of  the  Madras  revenue  administration  touched.  But  looking  to 
ijotvaras  a  mode  of  assessment  on  the  land,  containing  as  its  leading 
piinciple,  the  imposition  of  an  unalterable  money-rent  on  each  field, 
pavable  annually,  under  all  circumstances  of  season  and  of  price, — it  is 
to  this,  I  object,  and  would  raise  the  question  whether  it  is  not  highly 
inpniuus  to  the  ryol  in  the  long  run,  whatever  may  be  its  temporary  ad- 

nntages. 
1b  considering  the  modifications  required  to  adapt  the  revenue  system 

fully  to  the  country,  I  take  it  for  granted,  that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of 

<he  Madras  Government  to  relinquish  any  large  portion  of  the  revenue 

ilprei^ent  raised  directly  from  the  land;  and  consequently  that    the 

Gci?emment  is  not  prepared  for  that  great  practical  measure  of  relief, 


6*.'  Notei  on  Ryotwar,  or  (^Jai^. 

which  might  render  every  other  measure  unnecessary,  of  reducing  the 
rate  of  tax  on  all  land  occupied,  and  not  irrigated  by  Government  works> 
to  the  ordinary  poonjali  or  dry  grain  rate,  and  thus  yielding  to  the  rjrot 
for  ever  the  entire  benefit  of  all  improvements  on  his  land.  The  plan 
proposed,  proceeds  therefore  upon  the  supposition  of  giving  up  as  little 
as  practicable  of  the  present  amount  of  land  revenue;  and  of  leaving 
waste,   and  other  sources  of  future  income  from  the  laud  open^ 

I  would  suggest  first,  as  better  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
country  a  permanent  assessment  on  each  field  in  grain,  commutable  into 
variable  money  payments,  in  lieu  of  the  permanent  tax  in  money  now 
assessed.    The  commutation  to  be  made  periodically  with  ample  allow- 
ance for  unfavourable  vears. 

The  basis  of  the  system,  would  therefore  be  a  fixed  com  or  produce 
rent,  as  a  maximum  rent,  commutable  into  a  money  payment,  regulated 
by,  and  varying  periodically  with  the  actual  state  of  prices. 

An  assessment  varying  from  time  to  time  with  prices,  in  lieu  of  the 
permanent  money  tax  of  ryotwar»  appears  to  be  required;  not  only  be- 
cause prices  are  found  by  experience  to  be  subject  to  very  great  altema* 
tions,  but  because  money  itself  alters  in  value,  and  the  land-tax  of  a 
fixed  amount  of  money,  which  may  at  one  time  be  light  and  equitable, 
may  become  by  changes  in  the  value  of  the  currency  oppressive,  and 
intolerable.  But  it  is  chiefly  necessary,  because  the  amount  of  the  tax 
on  the  land  i*  so  large,  and  the  capital  of  the  ryot  so  limited,  that  a 
verj'  trilling  alteration  in  price,  is  of  vast  moment  to  him ;  and  because, 
the  excess  in  this  country  both  of  agricultural  population  and  capital, 
over  non-agricultural  (which  from  the  influence  of  caste  must  continue) 
is  such,  as  of  itself  to  induce  a  constant  tendency  to  an  overstocked 
grain-market,  and  consequently  to  depreciation  of  price.  AnvjOcTma- 
nmt  money  tax,  founded  on  an  average  of  prices  drawn  from  the  stale  of 
the  markets  during  prc^  ious  years,  will  therefore,  in  the  long  run,  prove 
injurious  to  the  landholders.  And  it  will  be  found,  I  believe,  essential 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  ryot  of  South  India,  when  his  rent  is  received  in 
specie,  that  the  money  tax  on  each  field  unless  extraordinarily  low,  should 
not  be  permanently  fixed,  but  that  a  review  of  the  state  of  prices  should 
take  place  al  short  intervals,  and  the  Ciovernmcnl  demand  be  adjusted 
accordingly. 

A  fixed  moderate  a^e^lge  corn  or  produ«?e  assessment,  which  shall  be 
the  maxinuim  of  the  Goveniment  demand,  would  also  hold  out  to  the 
proprietor,  or  occupant,  the  strongest  inducement  to  improve  his  land, 
,»!»  il  will  efTeciuilIy  secure  to  him,  the  ichole  increase  arising  from  bet- 
ter cultivation,  or  from  capital  sunk  in  inprovements.      This  can  never 


193S\  Permanent  Annual  Money  RcniS'  67 

be  attained  by  a  Jixed  money  rent  on  each  field,  at  the  present  rates, 
fw  cfery  considerable  fall  in  price,  an  event  of  frequent  occurrence, 
nust  disturb  the  calculations  of  the  ryot,  and  destroy  all  certainty  of 
profit  £rom  such  outlays  under  that  system.  But,  if  he  has  to  take  into 
his  consideiatioD,  only  the  fluctuations  of  produce,  he  can  estimate  his 
prospect  of  success  with  more  accuracy,  and  he  is  secured  against  one 
source  of  failure.  This,  it  is  obvious,  must  lead  to  a  more  frequent,  and 
tuccessful  investment  of  capital  in  improvemeuts,  so  important  both  to 
the  individiial  and  geneml  welfare. 

These  two  points — a  fixed  maximum  assessment  of  grain  or  produce 
00  each  field,  and  a  fair  commutation  price  varying  periodically  with 
the  maiket,    being  established,  I   would  further  engage  on   the  part 
of  Gorennnent,  that  in  years  of  drought,  when  the  produce  might  fall 
short  20  or  25  per  cent.,  or  upwards  of  the  average,  taken  as  the  basis 
of  the  assessment,  that  the  deficiency  beyond  that,  should  be  borne  in 
part  if  not  wholly  by  Government.    For  instance,  if  the  ordinary  averag4 
produce  of  the  cawney  be  rated  at  100  measures,   and  the  rent  be  fixed 
accordingly,  and  the  actual  crop  in  any  year,  shall  be  reported  by  the 
collector  to  have  fallen  to  75  measures,  or  less,   a  general,  and  well  de- 
fined remission  of  tax,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  decrease  in  pro- 
dace,  should  be  authorized. 

And  farther,  in  years  of  excessive  drought  and  total  failure,  when 
thcliUMl  has  made  no  return,  not  even  the  seed,  that  there  should  be  a 
postponement  of  demand,  or  an  entire  relinquishment  of  the  Govern- 
ment dues  on  such  land.  This  I  am  satisfied  will  prove  the  only  wise 
ooaneatsuch  periods.  For  it  is  certain,  that  the  sufiTering  inhabitants 
will  find  sufficient  employment  for  any  surplus  funds  which  they  may 
possess,  in  meeting  the  high  prices  of  famine.  And  it  will  be  the  better 
pohcr,  as  well  as  a  moral  duty  to  leave  to  them  the  full  extent  of  their 
resources,  to  bear  up  against  the  visitation,  and  to  provide  some  small 
lorplas,  to  commence  anew,   when  the  pressure  shall  be  past. 

Ai  a  compensation  to  Government,  and  to  enable  its  treasury  to  meet 
the  defalcations  of  calamitous  seasons,  I  would  adopt  the  rule,  that  in 
all  years  of  high  price,  combined  with  an  average  produce,  or  one  above 
it,  vhen  the  profits  of  the  cultivator  must  be  certain  and  large,  that  after 
a  limit  say  10  or  15  per  cent,  advance  in  price,  the  Government  should 
participate,  and  receive  a  proportionate  increase  of  revenue,  an  addition 
of  5, 10  or  more  per  cent,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  rise  in  price. 
Tfa»  would  of  course  prevent,  as  all  taxation  on  the  land  must,  the 
tapid  angmentation  of  the  national  wealth.  It  must  make  its  progress 
Bore  slow;  but  it  would  not  be  found  greatly  to  retard  improvemenL 


68  Notei  on  Ryotwar,  or  [Jam. 

It  should  be  considererl  as  an  extra  demand,  to  be  regulated  at  the  lowest 
scale  comp-ritil  le  vith  the  exigencies  of  the  state,  and  it  would  he  fonnd 
when  tried  by  the  test  of  geneml  i)rinciple8,  the  best  present  available 
source  of  revenue.  For  the  extra  tax  would  be  imposed,  only,  when  the 
surplus  wealth  of  the  people  is  largest,  and  not  like  the  permanent  tax 
of  ryotwar,  often  ivhen  their  means  are  lowe-^t ;  and  one  of  its  chief 
effects  would  probably  be,  to  divert  into  the  colters  of  the  state  a  por- 
tion of  the  sums  now  wasted  on  marriage  festivals,  and  in  similar  oeci^ 
sions  of  largf^  personal  expenditure ;  for  it  is  in  that  mode,  that  the  extia 
gains  of  profitable  years  in  lieu  of  being  husbanded,  are  at  present  ex* 
pended  by  the  ryot. 

The  system  here  proposed  is  in  force  in  its  leading  features,  in  several 
of  the  best  managed  properties  in  Scotluid  and  England,  and  a  refer- 
ence to  the  evidence  annex«*d  to  the  last  Report  of  the  Committee  on 
Agriculture  of  the  House  of  Commons  (1^38)  will  shew  ita  beneficial 
effects.  Its  first  principles,  a  corn  rent  with  a  fluctuating  commntatioB 
price  within  a  defined  limit,  are  contained  also  in  the  Oo^oongoo  syitem 
of  Tanjore,  introduced  nearly  15  years*  back,  which  has  been,  and  still  it 
in  operation  throughout  a  large  portion  of  that  province.  It  could  not 
meet  therefore  with  any  serious  diflSculties  in  practice,  indeed  the  ryot^ 
war,  as  it  is  termed,  of  Tanjore,  recently  introduced,  also  contains  some 
of  its  ossenti'id  elements :  and  it  is  in  fiivour  of  the  plan,  that  the  merasi- 
dars  of  that  province,  vho  are  without  doubt  competent  judges  of  what 
ii  necessary  for  their  permanent  interest,  have  rejected  a  fixed  annual 
money  rent,  and  required  a  moilifioation  of  the  rjotwar  tax  of  the  na- 
ture here  suggested,  in  onler  to  meet  the  necessities  of  unfavourable 
years. 

The  chief  objection  wliich  would  attach  to  the  plan,  is  the  obvious 
evil  i>f  the  occasional  changes  of  settlement  required,  in  order  to  adjust 
the  commutation  price.  To  obviate  this  objection,  we  might  take  as  our 
guide,  an  average  of  only  the  low,  or  medium  prices  of  the  previous 
seven  or  ten  years,  and  tix  the  standard  price  at  this  rate.  Owing  to 
the  circumstances  repeatedly  adverted  to,  partiouliurly  the  large  excess 
of  the  agri.Miluind  population  over  all  other  classes,  which  make  low 
prices  the  general  rule,  and  high  price  the  exception  iu  this  countrv, 
the  Gowrnmont  would  lose  but  little,  iu  excluding  from  the  commuta- 
tion averagt*,  years  of  high  price,  and  two  most  important  advantages 
would  1h*  gnimnl. 

The  ryot,  or  morasidar  would  be  secured  against  over  demand;  and 
it  would  not  Ih»  nocos'iary  to  interfere  with  him  frequentlr,  for  it  would 
probably  b«  fouudi  that  the  rent  fixed  on  a  commutation  taken  at  this 


1439]  Permmnefit  Annual  Money  lients,  9^ 

low  average,  might  safely  go  on  for  seven  or  ten  years  together,  and 
Mw  engagemeots  would  not  be  called  for  oftener  under  this  system, 
than  once  in  ten  years. 

The  advantages  which  the  proposed  plan  would  possess,  over  the 
preaeat  system,  are. — First,  that  it  unites  the  benefits  which  result  to  Go- 
verament  from  an  assessment  in  money,  with  those  which  the  ryot 
enjoys  firom  an  assessment  in  kind.  That  it  docs  not  like  the  ryotwar 
wqnire  from  a  people  wholly  unprepared  for  it,  the  duty  of  a  fore- 
thought foreign  to  their  habits,  nur  throw  upon  them  the  burthen,  to 
vhich  they  are  unequal,  of  all  fluctuations  of  prices,  as  well  as  of 
periodical  drought,  and  of  alterations  in  the  value  of  money. 

Secondly,   it  provides  more  effectually  for  the  profitable  outlay   of 
capital  in  the  improvement  of  the  land,  by  establishing  a  better  defined 

and  more  certain  Government  demand,  a  maximum  rent  not  liable  to 

ftactuation. 
Thirdly,   it  secures   the  landholder,    eqnally  with  the   immemorial 

difi^iooof  the  crop,  from  the  ruin,  and  total   bankruptcy,  which  seasons 

of  excessive  drought  must  bring  with  th<»m,  when  he  is,  as  at  present, 

leqoired  to  yield  at  such  times  to  Government,  the  33  or  45  per  cent. 

oft  produce,  of  which  he  has  never  reaped   ten,  nor  possibly  one  per 

cent 

The  Government  revenues  would  also  suffer,  but  little  in  the  course 
of  fears,  as  the  treasury  would  be  filled  by  the  extra  le\'y,  in  years  of 
trenige  crops  and  high  prices,  and  by  the  more  regular  payments  in- 
onlinary  years,  the  consequence  of  a  more  equable  demand.  The  cases 
of  £ulare  also  would  necessarily  be  few,  when  the  Government  itself 
tluU  provide  against  the  larger  fluctuations,  and  when  the  system  in 
force,  shall  not  call  for  the  exercise  of  a  providence  which  will  not  be 
found  amongst  the  ryots  for  generations  to  come ;  and  which  were  it 
BOW  the  national  characteristio,  would  not  avail  the  ryot  under  the  ex- 
isting high  rate  of  tax  on  the  land,  joined  with  the  extreme  subdivision 
ofproperty  growing  out  of  present  usages.  Both  these  causes  preclud- 
ing the  accomnlation  of  capital  in  the  hands  of  the  landholders, 
vhich  might  enable  them  to  meet  the  heavy  Government  demand  in 
nfiiToorable  seasons. 

It  nuay  be  observed  finally,  that,  if  this  substitution  of  a  commntable 
oom  or  produce  rent,  for  a  fixed  money  rent,  has  been  found  of  late 
f^an,  ^m  the  great  fluctuations  in  price  alone,  expedient  even  in 
Kogland,  where  the  farmers  and  holders  of  land  compared  with  the 
Sooth  Indian  ryots,  are  persons  of  large  capital  and  extensive  credit ; 
ttd  where  also,  produce  and  prices  never  fluctuate  to  such  wide  ex- 
trtnet.    It    would  appear  to  be  still  more  required  in  South  India, 


7^  y^otes  on  Ryotwar,  or  [J^ 

*nd  it  can  Bcarcely  be  doubted,  that  it  would  be  found  better  adapted 
the  wants  and  character  of  tlie  agriculturist,  and  to  the  peculiar  circucB 
stances  of  society  around   him,  than  a  system,  like  ryotwar,  which 
mands  the  same  annual  money  tax  invariably,  admitting  in  theory  of 
remissions,  and  having  in  practice  none  adequate  to  the  heavy  losses 
unfavourable  years  either  of  produce  or  price. 

On  a  liedemptioti  qf  the  Land  Tax, — In    concluding   these  Notesr 
would  throw  out  for  consideration,  as  a  measure  practicable,  under  cZ 
existing,  or  any  system  of  revenue   administration — the  expediency  ai 
conceding  to  the  landholder  the   privilege  of  i-edeeming  the   land  tax 
for  lives,  or  for  a  term  of  years. 

A  provision  of  this  nature,  would,  it  is  prohable  give  an  important 
impulse  to  ngrioulturc  ;  and  without  it,  it  is  1  fear  hopeless  to  expect  any 
derided  improvement  at  an  early  date.  For  if  the  land  is  to  bear  an 
annual  heavy  assessment,  it  follows,  almost  as  a  necessary  consequence, 
that  every  proprietor  will  continue  from  year  to  year,  the  old  routine  of 
cultivation,  in  order  to  ensure  the  amount  of  his  tax.  But  were  his 
land  wholly  free  from  tax,  for  a  term,  he  might,  and  would  be  disposed 
to  speculate  in  raising  new  and  more  valuable  products,  the  returns 
from  which  must  in  the  first  instance  be  uncertain.  And  when  we  con- 
sider that  it  is  not  often,  in  consequence  of  the  great  subdivision  of 
properly  by  law,  that  agricultural  capital  accumulates  in  one  handg 
in  this  country,  it  is  of  the  moro  importance,  to  open  such  a  field  as  the 
rtHlomplion  of  the  land-tax  would  do,  to  induce  its  employment  on  the 
land. 

It  is  nlmo-^t  certain,  that  the  late  efforts  of  Government  to  engage  the 
ryot  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  senna,  sugar,  &c.,  must  fail  of  any 
practical  utility,  unless  a  measure  of  this  character  is  at  the  same  time 
adopted;  which  shall  enable  him  to  undertake  the  cultivation  of  such 
pHHlucls  without  the  risk,  which  now  attends  the  attempt,  of  not 
having  wherewith  to  moot  his  annual  tax  :  and  with  no  adequate  securi- 
IV  also,  that  if  suci  cssful,  a  heavier  assessment  will  not  be  the  early 
if  not  the  immediate  consequence. 

The  RHlemption  of  his  land  tax  would,  at  the  same  time  free  the  r\'ots 
or  monisidare,  from  the  constant  interference  of  the  revenue  officer, 
and  would  lo,ul  to  impnaemcuts  from  which  they  are  now  deterred  by 
the  knowleilj:^*.  thai  the  p\ih!i.*  t^tlicer  can.  and  will  interpose  whenever 
an\  ch.ince  is  made.  It  is  aNo  l»v  this  means  that  thev  will  be  enabled 
j;radually  lo  u>o  above  tlie  lutv^I.ii;^  :»^»d  influence  of  the  tahsildar, 
iVom  who>e  inicrlVrouce  ihov    now  often  suffer.     Whilst  under  a  re- 


Permanent  Annual  Money  Rents,  71 

S«iDpUon  of  the  tax,  the  ryots  wouM  partially  escape  the  evil  of  the 
•necessive  revenue  experiments  which  roust  continue  to  be  made,  till 
the  land  is  in  the  hands  of  proprietors,  equal  in  intelligence  with  their 
mien. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  also,  that  tlie  measure  would  give  much 

gieater  stability  to  the  revenues  of  the  country.    For  the   redemption, 

in  other  terms  a  payment  in  advance  on  an  equitable  adjustment  of  the 

Govenuncnt  demand,  excludes  the  possibility  of  remission;  and  the 

possession  by  the  ryot  of  a  portion  of  his  land  in  all  seasons  rent-free 

'     (ihe  tax  being  already  paid)  must   give   facilities  to    the  punctual 

rolization  of  the  annual  revenue. 

It  would  at  the  same  time,  it  is  probable,  be  found  to  operate  bene- 
ticially  on  native  habits.  As  the  prospect  of  freeing  his  laud  for  a  term 
fram  its  burdens,  would  hold  out  a  great  inducement  to  the  ryot  to 
expend  his  accumulated  savings  on  his  land  and  be  would  inevitably  be 
tempted  to  turn  off  a  part  of  his  present  wasteful  expenditure  on 
flBrriage  occasions,  ike.  into  this  more  profitable  channel. 

I  am  not  aware  that  any  evil  could  result  from  according  this  privi- 
lege to  the  land-owners,  if  it  were  confined,  as  it  should  be  in  the  first 
instance  to  a  term  of  15  or  20  years,  renewable  at  the  option  of  the 
ovner,  for  IQor  15  more,  on  the  pa3rment  of  a  limited  fine  or  premium. 
It  would  then,  I  think,  work  well  for  the  ^country  without  diminishing 
the  Government  revenue.  It  has  been  adopted  on  a  much  more 
extensive  scale  than  here  proposed  in  Ceylon,  and  if  applicable  to  the 
state  of  society,  and  the  tenures  of  land  there,  it  can  scarcely  be  found 
inapplicable  to  the  neighbouring  provinces  on  the  contiment,  in  a  great 
measure  similarly  circumstanced. 


Ob  (he  Interference  of  Government  m  periods  of  Famine. 

The  entire  failure  periodically  of  all  return  from  the  land,  and  the  im- 
pJondence  and  poverty  of  the  great  mass  of  the  ryots,  which  have  been 
*drcrted  to  as  incidents  in  the  agriculture,  and  in  the  state  of  society, 
pttnliarly  affecting  the  question  of  permanent  money  rents  in  this 
wnntiy,  apply,  I  conceive,  equally  to  another  question,  scarcely  lesh 
Important— the  duty,  and  policy  of  the  Government  in  seasons  of  severe 
«ewth  or  famine. 

The  doctrine  now  promulgated  on  this  subject,  is  professedly  based 
^V^  the  principles  of  political  economy,  and  drawn  from  Adam  Smith's 


72  Notes  on  Hyotwart  or  [J ah, 

work  (Book  iv.  ch.  5.  Digression  on  the  Corn  Trade  and  Com  Laws),  but 
rather  I  must  think  from  the  letter,  than  from  the  spirit  of  that  enlight- 
ened work.  The  circular  orders  of  Government*  which  embody  Dr 
l^mith's  arguments,  overlook  apparently  the  important  consideratioo, 
that  his  views  are  mninly;  if  not  wholly  grounded  upon  the  circum- 
stances of  agriculture,  and  society  in  Europe  alone,  and  even  in  Great 
Britain;  and  that  in  the  very  few  remarks  he  iriakes  in  reference  to 
famine  in  India,  his  premises  are  incorrect,  and  his  conclusions  neces- 
sarily therefore  of  little  weight. 

Dr.  Smith  6r8t  states  as  an  historical  fact,  that,  in  Europe,  0¥riDg  to 
the  variety  of  soil,  and  the  nature  of  the  climate,  **  the  grain  lost  •» 
•*  one  part  of  the  country  is  in  some  measure  compensated  by  vhat  i# 
"  gained  in  anothery  and  that  a  famine  has  never  arisen  from  thefauU 
**  of  the  seasonj  nor  from  any  other  cause  than  the  violence  of  ike 
«•  Government  attempting  by  improper  mentis  t<^remedy  the  inconvenience 
**  of  dearth.**  In  this  statement,  so  far  as  Europe  is  concerned^  we 
may  fully  concur.  But  when  he  goes  on  to  assume,  that  **  even  in  rioe 
**  countries,  the  drought  is  perhaps  never  so  universal  as  necessarily  to 
**  occasion  (of  itself)  a  famine,''  and  that  famine  has  alway9  beenin* 
duced  in  Jndia,  by  the  acts  of  the  Government  we  must,  with  our  more 
enlarged  experience  of  the  nature  of  tropical  droughts,  withhold  our 
assent.  For  we  well  know  from  bitter  experience,  that  although  the 
Government  of  India  for  j^ears  past,  has  most  rigidly  abstained  in 
seasons  of  scarcity  from  all   interference, — the  most  intense  and  deso- 

•  Circular  Orders,  30/A  January  1833.  "  The  Right  Honorable  the  Governor  in  Coaa- 
cil  requests,  that  you  will  take  every  suitable  opportunity  of  explaiuing  to  the  Judicial 
Officers,  with  the  desire  that  they  will  inculcate  the  same  upon  the  native  servants,  thai 
iu  a  time  of  scarcity,  high  prices  must  obviously  constitute  the  best  security  against 
the  calamities  of  famine.  When  there  is  a  deficiency  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in 
any  country,  the  only  method  of  counteracting  the  evils  resulting  from  it,  is  to 
diminish,  as  much  as  pos:iibIe,  their  consumption.  This  is  effected  by  high  piicet 
better  than  any  othei  measure,  for  as  ovary  poor  man  is  compelled  to  contract  hii 
wants  to  the  smallest  quantity  of  food  that  can  support  him,  it  is  plain  that  a  larger 
number  of  families  are  thus  enabled  to  subsist  upon  a  diminished  supply  whereas  the 
interference  of  Oovemraent  in  such  emergencies  either  by  fixing  a  maximum  of  price. 
or  hy  throuing  a  quantity  qf  grain  into  placet  which  would  not  receive  ii  in  ontf- 
tuiry  course  qf  uiercanlile  tpetulation,  disturbs  the  natural  current,  by  which,  whert 
trade  is  free,  the  demand  of  any  commodity  is  sure  to  meet,  as  far  as  circumstanoet 
will  allow,  with  a  corresponding  supply,  and  has  a  tendency  (which  It  is  to  be  feaiid 
has  too  often  been  realised  amongst  the  native  states)  to  convert  a  season  of  scarcity 
into  one  of  absolute  famine. 

The  Uight  Honorable  the  Governor  in  Council  considers  it  highly  desirable  that  tht 
natives  in  the  provinces  should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  sentiments  of  Ooyemmeiit 
on  this  important  subject,  and  be  apprised  ol  the  calamitoui  result!  which  would  inevita- 
bly follow  any  other  line  of  policy." 


183DJ  Permanent  Annual  Money  Rend.  73 

lating  famines  bave  nevertheless  prevailed.  And  it  is  open  to  every 
day's  observatioi^  that  the  drought  in  whole  provinces,  contrary  to  Dr. 
Smith's  assertion,  is  ordinarily  iiniversRl :  the  failure  which  affects  one 
field,  affecting  all.  And  further,  that  in  South  India,  and  we  might  add 
in  tropical  countries  generally — there  is  not  that  variety  of  soil  or 
dimale,  which  can  compensate  the  failure  of  the  periodical  rains. 

If  we  cannot  premise  then  of  India,  as  we  can  of  Europe,  that  limine 
^  never  arises  from  the  &ult  of  the  season  alone,"  Dr.  Smith's  princi. 
pies,  and  his  whole  reasoning  fail  of  application  to  this  country,  and  the 
ndeis  of  Government  based  upon  them,  rest  consequently  on  no  solid 
ioimdatioii. 

The  Government  orders  appear  also  erroneous,   in  applying  without 
linitation  to  the  grain  trade  of  South  India,  the  great  general  principle 
esttUithed  by  Smith,  that,  '*  where  trade  is  free  the  demand  for  any  ' 
"  eoDuoodity,  is  sure  to  meet  as  far  as  circumstances  will  allow,  with  a 
**  eoiresponding  supply."     In  applying  this  principle  to  trade  in  the 
food  of  a  country,  we  shall  err,  if  we  omit  to  take  into  our  consideration 
the  striking  peculiarity  of  the  com  trade,  that  it  adm%t9  of  no  delay  in 
I'tt  tuftpiies.    The  supplies  of  grain  must  arrive  at  the  precise  moment 
tkeyare  required,  or  they  are  useless,  the  evil  has  been  done,  the  con- 
vmtn  themselves  have  been  cut  off.  The  truth  of  Dr.  Smith's  general 
principle  no  one  will  be  disposed  to  question,  as  respects  trade  in  gene- 
al,  and  even  the  grain  trade  in  seasons  of  scarcity  in  Europe,  for  the 
nute  he  repeatedly  assigns,  that  the  energy  and  enterprize  of  the 
British  or  European  merchant  in  pursuance  of  his  own  interest,  will 
•Ivays  snpply  the  market  more  readily,  as  well  as  more  cheaply  than 
Goverament  agency :  and  it  follows  as  a  necessary  consequence,  that  if 
tke  Government  interfere  in  the  com  trade  in  Europe  in  a  period  of 
dearth,  and  the  private  trader  withdraw,  the  requisite  supplies  will  be 
profided  more  tardily,  and  at  a  greater  cost,  and  a  dearth  or  a  temporary 
fiBise  will  ensue. 

We  know  well  that  in  periods  of  scarcity  in  England,  when  large 
profits  are  to  be  realized  by  the  importation  of  grain,  the  British  mer- 
chant, be  his  ordinary  traffic  what  it  may,  immediately  turns  aside  from 
it,  and  invests  his  capital  in  grain — and  such  is  the  extent  of  his  credit, 
that  he  can  augment  his  capital  almost  at  will,  and  before  his  bills  at 
60  or  70  days'  sight  are  due,  he  has  brought  his  cargoes  from  the  Baltic, 
od  other  continental  com  markets,  and  disposed  of  them  to  the  inland 
dealer. 

How  differently  circumstanced  is  the  grain  trade  in  South  India.    The 
whole  trade  is  shackled  by  the  trammels  of  caste,  and  of  usage,  which 


(4  Notes  on  /fyotwar,  or  [^Alf. 

conBne  it  in  a  ^reat  measure  to  a  limited  number;  and  the  native  mer- 
chants of  the  Ma(h'as  Presidency  have  little  of  the  energy  and  enter- 
prize,  which  characterize  the  European  trader,  and  which  could  ht  them 
for  the  task  of  meeting  the  emergency  of  a  famine  demand.  To  auch  a  de- 
gree is  this  inertness  carried,  that  rice  may  be  selling  at  Madras  at  double 
its  ordinary  value,  and  be  comparatively  a  drug  in  Tanjore,  yet  neither 
the  merchant,  nor  the  native  craft-owner  would  think  of  attempting  to 
bring  up  a  single  bag  by  sea,  tijl  the  monsoon  was  favourable.  And  the 
'whole  coasting  traffic  of  the  presidency,  So  far  as  the  native  merchant  i» 
concerned,  is  at  this  hour  regulated,  not  by  the  varying  demand* 
of  the  market,  as  by  the  monsOon — I  might  ask,  what  application  has  the 
reasoning  of  Smith  to  a  trade  so  circumstanced  ? 

As  an  instance  of  the  manner  in  which  native  maritime  traffic  is  carried 
on  at  this  hour,  I  may  mentiou  the  fact,  that  the  master  of  a  vessel  leaving 
the  port  of  Nagore  with  a  cai'go  for  the  Eastward,  on  meeting  w ith  an 
adverse  wind  even  within  24  or  48  hours  sail  of  Penang,  now  immediately 
tacks,  returns  leisurely  to  Nagore,  puts  his  vessel  into  dock,  lands  all  the 
cargo,  and  patiently  abides  the  favourable  season  of  the  following  year, 
before  he  again  attempts  to  take  his  cargo  to  its  market. — ^This,  and  similar 
facts,  furnished  to  me  not  as  special  cases,  but  as  samples  of  the  ordi** 
nary  routine,  afford  sulhcient  proof  of  the  present  infant  state  of  native 
coimneree,  and  they  are  of  great  importance  in  their  bearing  upon  the 
grain  trade.  For  they  go  far,  I  conceive,  to  prove,  that  in  this  trade  at 
least,  where  supplies  cannot  be  waited  for  many  days,  it  is  not  correct  to 
assume  as  an  established  principle,  as  the  government  orders  do,  that  the 
demand  in  the  trade  in  South  India  always  meets  at  the  hands  of  the  na- 
tive trader  with  as  full  a  supply  as  circumstances  admit. 

But  the  grain  trade  in  this  country,  has  not  only  to  struggle  against 
the  want  of  energy,  and  cnterprize  of  the  small  body  of  dealers  to  whom 
it  is  by  usage  confined :  but  even  if  they  had  the  necessary  enter  prize,  I 
would  enquire,  where,  in  the  emergency  of  famine,  are  they  to  find  the 
extra  capital  which  shall  enable  them  to  purchase,  and  bring  to  market 
the  requisite  supplies  at  the  high  prices  of  dearth  ?  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  average  supply  of  rice  for  Madi*as  is  10,000  garces  m  the  year,  and 
tlie  capital  required,  ^^hen  grain  sells  at  its  ordinary  rate,  20  lakhs  of 
rupees. — Owing  to  the  scarcity,  price  rises  100  percent,  and  the  demand, 
in  consequence  of  the  more  frugal  consumption  caused  by  high  price, 
falls  oft'  20  to  30  per  cent — still  large  extra  funds  are  required  in  the 
trade  in  order  to  bring  the  reduced  supply  to  market  in  due  time. — ^Where 
can  the  grain  merchants  now  procure  this  additional  capital.  Their  cre- 
dit is  not  of  that  character,  that  private  capitalists  would  advance  largely. 


1839]  Permanent  Annual  Money  Bents.  7h 

e?eBif  (S^ital  was  forthcoming,  and  as  abundant  in  India  as  it  is  in  En* 
fjknd,  which  it  is  not.  Unless  then  the  Government  afford  its  aid,  by  open* 
ing  its  treasury,  and  making  large  advances,  how  is  the  necessary  supply 
of  grain  to  be  brought  into  the  market  in  time  to  remove  the  scarcity,  by 
the  instrumentality  of  the  native  dealer  alone  ? 

Srery  successive  dearth  has  demonstrated  to  us  hitherto  his  inability  ;  for 
iiDodistrict,  has  there  hitherto  been  a  timely  importation,  suflScient  to  avert 
Cuaine.  This,  which  1  believe  to  be  a  well  established  fact,  fumishcs  in  itself 
aftrong  a  priori  argument  against  the  correctness  of  the  view  of  Govern* 
Dent  As  does  also  the  fact,  that  although  the  trade  is  under  British  rule 
perfectly  free,  rice  sells  in  seasons  of  scarcity  in  one  district  at  eight  or  tea 
measures  the  rupee,  and  in  another  almost  adjoining,  at  half  that  cost, 
isother  proof,  thai  supply,  and  demand  do  not  now  in  practice,  readily 
adjust  themselves. — ^And  there  is'  I  apprehend  but  one  explanation  to  be 
girenof  this  circumstance — that  there  is  neither  enterprise,  nor  capital 
in  the  com  trade  at  present,  adequate  to  meet  the  large,  and  extraordinary 
demaods  of  the  market  in  districts  where  fiimine  prevails. 

The  pecoliar  circumstances  of  dearth  in  this  country,  afford  also 
additional  arguments,  against  the  views  contained  in  the  Govem- 
neDt  orders,  and  point  to  the  necessity  of  the  interference  of  the  State, 
Tki  magnitude  of  the  evil — entire  districts  being  involved  in  suffering  at 
iht  «uni*  moment — tie  extreme  pressure  on  the  population — destroying 
eren  thousands  in  a  few  weeks — with  the  well  known  limited  means  of 
tbenative  merchants,  and  their  general  inability,  to  undertake  extensive 
specalations  in  distant  markets, — all  preclude  the  hope,  that  private  exer- 
tiui  will  be  found  sufficient  to  meet  so  great  an  emergency.  We  have 
strong  confirmation  of  this,  in  the  circumstances  of  the  recent  famine  in 
this  presidency  in  1832-3.  Rice  was  at  that  period  abundant  and  com* 
paratively  cheap  in  Canara,  Malabar,  and  elsewhere  in  our  own  provinceSf 
vhea  the  (amine  was  at  its  height  in  Guntoor ;  and  yet,  no  supplies 
leached  that  province,  in  time  to  prevent  its  almost  entire  desolation. 

Facts  of  this  nature  appear  to  me  to  demonstrate  the  duty  of  interfer- 
Mee.  And  that  it  is  not  enough  for  the  Government  to  olTer  the  people 
work,  and  pay  them  for  their  labour,  when  the  crisis  of  famine  has 

aniTed trusting  to  the  native  traders'  unassisted  energies  to  provide 

tibe  requisite  supplies  to  meet  the  urgent  demand  for  food — but  they 
avit,  by  a  prsdent  foresight,  and  by  their  own  energy,  bring  the  abun* 
diBec,aBd  the  stores  of  distant  and  foreign  markets  within  the  timely 
teaeh  of  the  retail  trade,  or  the  pressure  of  famine  will  remain  in  full 
tone,  till  the  population  is  brought  down  to  the  level  of  the  numbeni!, 

nbkh  the  native  trader  can  supply. 


76  Notes  ofi  Ryot  war,  or  [Jaw. 

If  these  views  are  borae  out  by  experience,  they  lead  us  to  an  infe- 
rence wholly  opposed  to  that  assumed  in  the  Government  Orders ;  and 
in  lieu  of  concurring  in  the  opinion, — that  **  if  the  Government  were 
«*  to  throw  a  quantity  of  grain  into  places,  which  would  not  receive 
'*  it  in  the  ordinary  course  of  mercantile  speculation,  the  only  effect 
*'  of  this  measure,  would  be  to  convert  a  scarcity  into  a  famine,"  I 
should  almost  be  disposed  to  assert  the  reverse,  and  to  maintain, — that 
at  present  in  South  India,  whilst  it<^  com  trade,  and  trade  in  general 
are  at  so  low  an  ebb,  the  timely  and  judicious  interference  of  Govern- 
ment, instead  of  aggravating,  is  the  only  mode  in  general,  by  which 
scarcity  can  now  be  greatly  mitigated  and  famine  prevented.  And 
that  an  importation  of  grain,  through  the  means  of  Government  capita], 
and  possibly  of  Government  agency,  from  foreign  or  distant  markeUf 
where  there  is  abundance,  into  districts  suffering  from  dearth,  may  be 
under  the  existing  circumstances  of  the  country  a  measure  of  sound 
policy;  and  the  best,  if  not  the  only  practical  method  by  which  the 
distress  caused  by  the  peculiar  character  of  tropical  droughts  can  be 
greatly  alleviated. 

It  is  no  argument  against  an  interference  of  this  nature,  to  cite  to  us,  * 
as  the  orders  of  Government  do,  the  fact,  that  native  rulers  in  former  times, 
participating  in  the  ignorance,  and  in  the  prejudices  of  the  people, 
have  converted  scarcities  into  Amines,  by  the  barbarous  policy  of 
compulsory  sales,  or  other  arbitrary  interference  with  the  capital,  or  with 
individuals  in  the  trade.  There  can  be  no  question  now,  as  to  the 
proper  course  to  be  pursued  on  this  head :  for  Dr.  Smith  has  placed  be* 
yond  dispute  the  important  principle,  that  the  interest  of  the  inland 
dealer  and  the  public  is  the  same,  and  the  more  free  he  remains,  the 
better. 

No  interference  with  this  branch  of  the  trade  is  for  a  moment 
advocated:  for  if  adequately  supplied,  the  home-deal  eis  it  is  certain, 
are  fully  equal  to  the  due  distribution  of  all  the  grain  brought  into  a 
district  in  a  year  of  famine,  in  as  much  as  they  distribute  the  larger 
supplies  of  abundant  years.  Bat  it  is  in  the  importation-^the  foreign  or 
whole-sale  trade,  that  we  would  propose  the  interposition  of  Govern* 
ment.  Not  by  any  restriction  on  the  wholesale  merchant,  or  the  im- 
porter, but  by  offering  to  him  the  assistance  of  Government ;  and  by 
endeavouring  to  infuse  into  the  import  and  wholesale  trade  a  spirit  of 
adventure  and  activity,  adequate  to  meet  the  urgent  and  large  demand 
of  famine.  And  should  this,. after  full  trial,  fiEkil  to  place  the  necessaiy 
supplies  in  due  season,  at  the  doors  of  the  retail  de-dlers-~then  only  by 
leaving  the  wholesale  merchant  to  himself,  and  making  use  of  a  Govem- 


1839]  Permanent  Annual  Money  Bents.  JJ 

ment  agency  for  introdacing  for  sale  into  &inine  districts  only,  timely 
•applies  from  distant  and  foreign  markets,  at  the  risk  of  GoyemmeDt ; 
whilst  the  home,  or  the  local  trade  should  be  left  al  together  to  take 
its  own  coarse,  and  purchase  large  or  small  sup|)lies  as  it  might  see  fit. 

The  mode  in  which  the  interference  of  Government  could  best  be 
effected,  experience  can  alone  determine.  But  on  general  princi- 
ples, it  would  appear  right  to  interpose  in  the  first  instance,  by 
throwing  Government  capital  into  the  existing  grain  trade,  in  the 
form  of  advances  to  native  merchants,  and  others,  who  might  be  willing 
to  import  grain  at  their  own  risk,  into  districts  threatened  with,  or 
•offering  from  dearth.  This  assistance  has  an  advantage  over  the 
principle  ot  a  bounty  as  it  furnishes  the  capital  by  which  the  supplies 
ue  to  be  obtained,  and  might  readily  be  afforded,  by  authorizing  Col- 
lectors to  grant  pro  tempore,  bills  at  favourable  rates  on  the  treasuries 
in  those  provinces,  in  which  grain  was  abunJant  and  cheap.  To  this 
iboold  be  added  bounties  on  importation  ;  and  it  might  be  also  highly 
desirable  for  the  Government  to  offer  to  the  native  trader  peculiar  &- 
eilities,  either  Government  vessels  or  land  carriage,  for  the  safb 
transport  of  his  grain  to  the  districts  where  famine  existed — that  no 
impediment  might  arise  to  the  introduction  of  his  supplies,  from  the 
want  of  carriage,  or  from  the  fear  of  violence  from  a  suffering  population. 

If  these  means  failed,  and  it  shall  be  found,  that  the  native  trader 
is  not  equal  to  the  task  of  providing  the  extra  supplies  needed  in 
•easons  of  fiimine,  and  that  neither  his  credit,  nor  any  securities  he 
eould  offer,  are  such,  as  could  warrant  large  Government  advances 
to  him, — then  it  would  be  no  departure  from  sound  principles,  to  employ 
a  Government  agency — for  procuring  grain  from  distant  markets.  The 
present  course  sanctioned  by  Government,  by  which  its  treasury  is  open 
toils  Commissariat,  to  purchase  up  in  one  hour  from  the  wholesale  deal- 
er, the  entire  stocks  actually  in  the  home  market;  whilst  the  re- 
tiil  tnder  is  left,  either  witlM||t  any  supply,  or  to  seek  it  from 
I  distance,  is  now  a  practical  interference  of  the  worst  kind,  one 
which  most  greatly  aggravate  the  distress.  At  i^agpore  in  1833, 
it  is  reported  to  have  instantly  converted  scarcity  into  an  absolute 
famine — and  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  it  to  be  a  wise  course 
^eren  in  a  financial  point  of  view.  For  the  same  supply,  procured  in  the 
Instant  market,  where  grain  had  not  reached  famine  prices,  would  it  is 
piobable  cost  less  even  with  the  carriage,  than  when  purchased  at 
ictfcity  prices.  Instead  of  the  present  practice,  I  should  be  inclined  to 
nggest,  even  though  it  might  occasion  loss  to  Government,  that  in 
KMQos  of  great  dearth,  the  Commissariat*  should  be  prohibited  from 


78         Noteg  on  Ryotwar,  or  Permanent  Annual  Money  Renit.     [J ah. 

purchasing  grain  in  the  markets  of  those  districts,  in  which  ^rnine  pre** 
vailed ;  and  that  it  should  be  required  to  import  its  supplies  froia 
places,  where  grain  was  comparatively  abundant  By  this  means,  the 
stocks  of  the  district  would  be  left  available  to  the  retail  trader  ;  and  it 
is  more  than  probable,  that  as  the  scarcity  increased  in  severity,  the 
Commissariat  might  be  made  instrumental  io  supplying  from  its  stores 
the  local  market  with  foreign  grain,  at  a  cost,  wh  ich  should  cover  all 
expense  of  carriage,  and  yet  greatly  mitigate,  if  not  prevent  famine.  I 
will  not  however  pursue  this  subject — the  object  of  these  remarks  is 
not  %Q  much  to  advocate  particular  measures  of  relief.  But  rather  to 
induce  a  full  examination  of  the  doctrine  laid  down  in  the  Govemment 
orders;  and  to  endeavour  to  ascertain,  whether  it  be  an  indisputable  truth 
to  bo  taught  to  all  our  native  servants,  that  injury  must  invariahly  re- 
sult from  any  interference  of  Government  in  seasons  of  dearth  in  this 
country.  And  to  lead  to  the  important  enquiry,  whether  there  are  noCt 
as  Dr.  Smith  secmn  from  his  guarded  language  to  admit,  meana  open  to 
the  Government,  which  may  not  be  improper  for  it  to  adopt  in  periods 
of  drought,  by  which  that  most  dreadful  scourge,  the  absolute  famines 
which  now  periodically  desolate  our  provinces  may  be  wholly  prevented, 
and  scarcity  at  all  times  greatly  mitigated,  without  a  departure  from 
iouud  general  \vinoiples,  and  at  no  great  charge  on  the  finances  of  ths 
Stato. 


III.— 'On  Impn^mjf  Iniemaf  Commm^hation  in  the  CamaHe.'^ 
Bif  J.  Kkllie,  Esq.,  Auutmmi  Smrgeon, 


T%f  iJtpenet  0/  transpeH  of  g^otb  from  Madras  to  Triekinopolft  230 
miU^  «  ahomt  35  r*pt*s.  or  £\  \Qt.  par  fan,  wrkiek  is  memrfy  m 
mmtk  as  tkt  prtsfntf^rke  nffrrufkifrom  Madras  to  JUa^M.— Carram: 

CoTWs's  Rei^^rt.  =  ] 

With  the  view  of  frcilitating  iniercv^urse  wad  giTiB^a  spur  to  eom- 
metcial  enterpnte.  it  wa*  ^oaie  liaie  ay:>  in  <roote«ftUtioii  to  constnict 
an  iron  latlro*!  betwixt  Madras*  aad  the  Uife  towms  of  CoDJeranmi 
and  Wall^anuggur. 

That  the  proj^-i  was  a  most  enli§hte«ol  cae.  i»i  wwsld  ftillj 
fostadned  many  of  the  expectaii«m»  of  its  «tij:tM!  prajertors.  all, 
bare  regarded  whh  aitentioo  the  a»jurin4r  Kp«<'3ks  4«ffoe4  from 
obiertakiBss  in  other  pirts  of  the  wvx-i.\  3»\i:5t  ecaiiewHT  kaKeexpectedK 
one  who  takes  an  iat^rres^t  aa  i^  pcvigiwis  ai  ovi&iaadoii  ia 


1839]      On  Improving  Internal  Communication  in  the  Carnatic,      79 

this  our  adopted  country  must  regret,  that  any   obstacle  should  have 

interfered  with  the  execution  of  a  measure  pregnant  with  such  numerous 

adfsntages  to  society.     For,  putting  aside  the   more  obvious  and  im« 

mediste  benefits  which  would  have  been  derived  from   such    an  es- 

tahlisbment;  no  measure,  with  the  exception  of  the  diffusion   of  the 

English  language,  would  conduce  so  much  to  diminish  the  immense 

space  vhich  exists  between  the  inhabitants  of  India,  and  the  European, 

and  to  inspire  a  general  national  feeling   throughout  the  country,   as 

facilitating  intercourse  betwixt  cities  aud  the  towns   in  the  provinces ; 

the  novelty  and  cheapness  of  regular  and  rapid  communication,  would 

indoce  numbers  of  inhabitants,  who  under  other  circumstances  would 

hare  remained  stationary,  to  leave  their  homes,  and  dock  to  the  capital, 

"where  the  competition  that  takes  place,  the  excitement  that  is  con. 

tUDtly  kept  up,  the  collision  of  so  many  minds  brought  into  immediate 

coDtact,  endeavouring  to  outstrip  each  other  in  their  respective  depart- 

weata^  developes  all  the  resources  of  the  human  mind,  and  renders  a 

great  city  a  perpetual  radiating  focus  of  invention  and  intelligence."  * 

The  belief  that  principles  of  economy  alone,  and  the  little  prospect  of 
I  direct  remuneration  commensurate  with  the  great  outlay  of  capital 
requisite  for  such  an  undertaking,  influenced  the  members  of  Govem- 
Beot  io  not  giving  their  support,  convinced  although  they  must  have 
been  of  the  advantages  which  would  flow  from  it — has  induced  mc  to 
address  you,  and  to  advocate  a  plan,  by  which  all  the  great  objects  of 
iBch  an  establishment  may  be  secured  at  a  comparatively  trifling  ex- 
pence,  and  at  the  same  time  is  free  from  the  numerous  objections  which 
io  my  opinion  are  necessarily  attendant  on  iron   railroads  in  India. 

Iron  railroads  are  constructed  and  maintained  at  an  enormous 
expence,  and  are  only  suited  to  a  country  abounding  in  wealth,  and 
which  has  arrived  at  so  high  a  state  of  civilization  as  to  render  time  a 
KoitTalaable  consideration  and  cause  celerity  of  intercourse  to  be  esti- 
mated beyond  all  price,  and  even  then  will  only  be  attended  by  success 
ifsQpported  by  a  large  influx  of  passengers,  able  and  willing  to  pay  for 
these  advantages.  For,  it  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  still  a 
UUter  of  opinion  how  far  heavy  goods  can  be  conveyed  along  railroads 
with  advantages  to  the  proprietors,  and  that  the  great  success  of  those 
tttahlisbed  in  £ngland  has  arisen  entirely  from  the  conveyance  of 
pttaengers. 

limy  opinion,  which  however  I  offer  with  great  diffidence,  iron  rail- 
'o^  are  not  adapted  to  India,   either  as  regards  the  present  condition 

•  M'CuUoch, 


80  0?i  Improving  Internal  [Jak. 

of  the  country — the  genius  of  its  inhabitants,  or  the  stage  of  civilization 
at  which  they  have  arrived.  India  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country 
—but  carrying  on  a  considerable  traffic  between  the  coast  and  the  in- 
terior, and  which  is  in  a  state  of  great  depression  from  the  impedimenta 
to  free  intercourse;  nothing  therefore  \^ill  conduce  so  effectually  to 
raise  it  from  its  low  estate  as  a  cheaper  mode  of  conveyance  for  its  mer- 
chandise and  raw  produce.  That  expensive  iron  railroads  would  effec^ 
that  change  is  more  than  problematical. 

The  saving  of  time  is  in  the  estimation  of  the  natives  of  India  a  mat- 
ter of  very  little  importance,  and  strong  indeed  must  be  the  prospect  of 
gain,  and  small  the  fare  to  induce  them  to  leave  their  present  dilatory 
proceedings  and  various  occupations  to  avail  themselves  of  this  new 
means  of  intercourse.  Thus  the  main  source  of  revenue  in  England, 
the  conveyance  of  passengers,  will,  from  the  indolence  and  poverty  of 
the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants,  form  an  unimportant  item  in  the 
returns  of  an  Indian  railroad.  There  are  other  objections  to  their 
general  introduction  of  no  small  magnitude. 

1st.  They  would  require  to  be  laid  down  upon  an  entirely  new  line 
of  road. 

2ndly.  An  engineer  who  has  directed  his  attention  especially  to  this 
department  could  alone  superintend  the  construction  of  iron  railroads, 
and  he  would  require  to  have  a  large  body  of  iron  workers  to  assist  him 
in  making,  and  repairing  the  rails,  carriages,  &c. 

3rdly.  No  carriages  but  those  of  a  peculiar  construction  could  be 
used  upon  iron  railways. 

4thly.  An  efficient  police  establishment  would  be  requisite  along  the 
whole  line  of  road  to  protect  such  valuable  property,  and  to  prevent  the 
rails  being  injured  or  the  road  obstructed. 

5thly.  By  such  a  means  of  conveyance,  there  is  immediate  collision 
with  the  interests  and  prejudices  of  a  large  body  of  the  natives,  now 
employed  as  carriers,  by  entirely  removing  the  means  of  transport  from 
their  hands.  ^'^ 

Gthly.  The  expence  of  maintenance.  This  item  alone  in  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railroad  for  blocks,  *•  sleepers," 
"  chairs"  &c.  amouuts  to  more  than  £-kOO  per  mile  ! 

Instead  therefore  of  using  bars  of  iron  in  tha  formation  of  the 
**  way,'*  it  is  proposed  to  substitute  slabs  of  granite,  each  slab  about  5 
feet  long  and  1  {  in  breadth  and  thickness.  These,  if  laid  down  perfect- 
ly level  and  having  their  upper  surface  even  with  the  road,  in  parallel 
rows,  and  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  the  wheels  of  the  common  cart 
will  run  in  the  centre  of  each  row,  will  form  a  road  possessing  nearly 


IS39j  Communication  hi  the  Carnatic.  ^l 

all   the    advantages  of  an  iron  railway,   and  constitute   the  one    now 
recommended. 

Wajrs  of  the  above  description,  or  tram-ways,  as  fhcy  are  usually 
called,  have  been  constructed  in  It;ily  of  blocks  of  lava,  and  at  Mar- 
seilles of  granite,  and  the  waggon  road  laid  down  by  the  East  India 
Company,  betwixt  their  docks  and  warehouses,  is  constructed  of  the 
same  materials  and  upon  the  same  principle. 

It   ig  unnecessary  to  remark,    that  the  superiority  of  iron  railways 
over  tunipike  roads  arises  solely  from  their  being  perfectly  level,  and 
smooth,  and  from  their  admitting  of  carriages  being  so  adjusted,  as  to 
allow  of  their  being  propelled  forward  with  great  velocity  by  means  of 
steam  or  horse*  power,  without  the  chance  of  escape :  now  it  vnW  at 
once  be  obvious,  that  a  granite  way  gives  all  that  is  required  in  the 
first  instance,   and,  as  the  very  rapid  conveyance    of  either  goods  or 
passengers  ought  not  to  be  so  much  the  object  in   this  country,   as  the 
fonnation  of  a  smooth,  level  way,  composed  of  a  solid  material,  and 
requiring  little  repair,  admitting  of  the  easy  passage  of  carriages,   and 
the  consequent  great  saving  of  animal  labour,  the  fixing  of  the   carriage 
00  the   rail  becomes  a  matter  of  very   secondary  importance ;   indeed, 
without  that  arrangement,   it  secures  all  the    advantages  of  an   iron 
lailroad,  ow  tchich  the  carriages  are  dragged  by  horse  power,  as  no  difli- 
culty  could  be  experienced  in  guiding  a  horse  betwixt,  or  two  bullocks 
along  the  two  broad  level  strips  of  granite  forming  the  road ;   and  I 
presume  the  most  sanguine  in  improvements  can  hardly  anticipate   the 
time  when  steam  power  will  be  used  in  India  for  that  purpose  If 

On  the  other  hand,  tram-ways  would  not  originally  cost  so  much  as 
iron  railways,  even  irhen  constructed  under  the  mo 4  favourable  circum" 
ftwcti :  they  would  require  but  little  superintendence,  and  could  be 
repaired  when  necessary  by  the  common  workmen  of  every  village. 
They*  could  with  facility  be  constructed  over  the  Carnatic  on  the  roads 
|t present  in  use,  and,  would  offer  no  obstruction  to  the  general  traffic 
rfdie  countrv',  as  they  might  be  crossed  and  recross(Ml  by  native  bandies 
vitbout  inconvenience  or  injury.  Being  adapted  for  carriages  of  every 
description,  they  would  not  abruptly  iutt»rfere  with  the  customs  of  the 
natires,  and  would,  if  they  were  so  inclined,  leave  the  transport  of  goods 
io  their  own  hands — but,  with' this  manifest  advantage,  that  their  oxen 

*  On  the  EJtabargh  and  Dalkeith  railroad  the  ca[ria;;^8  are  dra;;fged  by  horse  power 
it  the  rate  of  10  miles  an  honr. 

t  Tlie  original  cost  of  a  locomotive  CMigino  is  about  £800,  and  the  repairs  calrulatod 
«*^l5Wpfr  annum ! — Lanlncr  on  the  Steam  £o^Iue. 


S2 


On  Improving  Internal 


[Jaw. 


would  be  able  to  drag  a  much  heavier  load.  The  accompanying  figures 
and  extract  from  Gordon  on  Loco-motion  will  shew  at  a  glance  the 
advantages  which  this  description  of  way  possesses  over  iron  railroads : — 


Iron 
rail- 
road. 

Granite 
tram- 
way. 

Broken 
stone- 
road. 

Tractive   power    required  to  J 
move  one  ton  on  a  level  . . .  > 

Annual       maintenance      per } 
mile \ 

10-lb. 
£400 

12-,Vib. 
£5 

43-lbs. 
£133 

»....,,...., ...^ 

I 


**  Upon  this  road  (ihe  Commercial-Road  tram-way  to  the  E.  I.  Docks) 
Mr.  Walker  found,  that  one  powerful  horse  was  able  to  draw  30j  tons, 
upon  a  level,  at  the  speed  of  four  miles  per  hour;  but  the  exertion  of 
the  horse  was  too  great  to  be  continued  for  any  con^^iderable  time; 
and  hence  this  must  not  form  a  basis  for  calulation.  Mr.  Walker  has 
however  shown,  that  upon  a  level,  ten  tons  gross  may  be  consilered  a 
proper  load  for  a  draught  horse." — "The  facility  of  turning  off  and  on 
luch  a  road,  and  of  crossing  it,  the  advantage  being  uncon fined  to  any 
one  species  of  carriage,  or  branch  of  trade, — being  open  to  all, — being 
i^ths  cheaper  in  construction  than  any  railway, — and  costing  for  annu- 
al maintenance  less  than  1|  per  cent  of  the  acknowledged  sum  required 
to  maintain  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway,  compensate  amply 
for  the  mere  difference  of  tractive  power.** 

I  have  thus  endeavoured,  however  imperfectly,  to  point  out  the  com- 
parative value — the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  these  two  descrip- 
tions of  "  roads,*'  The  one  in  my  opinion  combining  in  its  formation 
cheapness,  simplicity,  and  efficiency,  proj>ortioned  to  the  present  state 
of  society  in  India,  the  other,  complicated  in  its  construction,  enor- 
mously expensive,  and  immediately  interfering  with  the  preju<lices  and 
interests  of  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants.  Iron  railroads  are  un- 
doubteilly  the  most  scientific  means  of  transport  yet  known  or  probably 
that  can  bo  devise<U  but  their  great  cost  &c.  is  a  Ixir  to  their  mtroduction 
in  India.  Tram- ways  stand  next  in  importance,  aud  may  be  used  with 
ailvautage  ^hen  the  poverty  of  a  country  or  small  traffic  will  not  justify 
the  construction  of  an   iron  railrwxd. 

However,  the  superiority,  and  the  a  1  vantage-*  wUi.li  wouM   flow  from 
<ufh  a  m«;uis  of  communication  could  only  b**   fuly    Icveloped,  and 


1339]  Communieaiion  in  the  Carnattc.  93 

demonstnited  to  the  inhabitants,  by  the  establishment  of  a  regular  and  a 
tpeedj  system  of  conveyance  upon  them.  If  we  rest  satisfied  by  placing 
at  the  conunand  of  the  natives  such  an  improved  means  of  intercourse, 
and  content  ourselves,  by  simply  levying  a  toll  on  all  carriages  Tithich 
take  advantage  of  it,  no  one  will  doubt  but  that  the  g^nd  objects  of 
such  an  undertaking  would  not  be  obtained,  that  few  of  the  evils  which 
pre@  so  heavily  on  the  internal  transport  of  the  country  would  be 
removed,  and  the  civilizing  influence  of  the  measure  would  be  entirely 
defeated. 

The  advantages  of  such  an  establishment  can  only  be  worked  out  by 
Earopean  energy  and  European  talent,  by  men  who  are  convinced  of  its 
expediency,  and  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  incalculable  benefits 
to  society  which  can  be  extracted  from  it.  Under  their  direction,  light 
vuns  would  be  established  for  passengers,  and  cars  for  the  transport  of 
heavy  goods.  The  natives  would  by  degrees  discover  the  superiority 
of  such  a  mode  of  conveyance  over  that  at  present  in  operation,  in  cheap- 
ness, rapidity,  and  regularity,  it  would  gradually  be  taken  advantage  of, 
ud  might  ultimately  become  the  sole  channel  of  internal  communicati- 
OD.  By  this  means  an  impulse  would  be  given  to  internal  commerce 
hitherto  unknown,  and  thus  would  be  consummated  a  measure  of  vital 
importance  to  this  portion  of  India,  and  one  considered  essentially 
necessary  for  the  proper  development  of  the  resources  of  every  country. 

It  were  superfluous  to  point  out  in  detail  the  various  advantages  which 
India  would  derive  from  the  formation  of  roads  admitting  of  such  easy 
intercourse,  as  there  is  not  an  individual  who  would  not  be  directly  or 
indirectly  benefited  by  their  establishment,  and  above  all  that  portion  of 
the  population  would  derive  the  greatest  advantage,  who  stand  most  in 
need  of  assistance,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil.  In  this  as  in  other 
countries,  they  form  the  most  numerous  and  important  class  of  the 
inbibitants.  But  in  India,  in  place  of  the  intelligence  and  industry  ob- 
lerved  in  other  countries,  the  ryot  through  long  oppression,  is  sunk  in 
porerty,  ignorance  and  apathy,  and  hardly  an  effort  has  been  made  to 
nisehim  from  his  degraded  condition.  The  formation  of  such  excellent 
randi  would  operate  inmiediately  in  his  behalf,  by  enabling  him  to 
hfingthe  produce  of  his  land  with  facility,  to  the  best  market,  at  the 
Inast  possible  expence.  By  such  means  he  would  be  rendered  inde* 
pendent  of  the  travelling  merchant,  the  hope  of  gain  would  stimulate 
himtoexeition,  and  that  apathy  and  languor,  which  are  the  invariable 
coocookitants  of  poverty  and  want  of  hope,  would  give  place  to  energy 
ud  enterprize.  In  his  joumies  he  would  become  familiar  with  new 
ohjects,  and  would  b«  inspired  with  the  desire  to  obtain  them,  whiclt 


S4  On  ImprovtNg  Internal  [ 

would  again  act  as  an  additional  incitement  to  renewed  exertion, 
being  brought  into  collision  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns- 
mental  deficiences  could  not  fail  to  be  made  apparent  even  to  hina 
and  to  prevent  his  children  being  over-reached  by  the  superior  aci 
of  the  citizen,  education  would  necessarily  be  resorted  to.  Thus  in 
train  of  knowledge  all  the  blessings  of  civilization  would  be  difl 
over  the  country. 

Should  the  above  plan  be  considered  worthy  of  exuminatiou,  a 
mittee  of  gentlemen  might  without  much  difficulty  collect  inform; 
on  the  subject,   sufficient  to  enable  them  to  form  an  estimate  of 
expence  per  mile,  on  a  line  of  road   in  the  vicinity  of  the  presidt 
For  example,  from  Madras  to  Arcot  via  Conjevaram  and  Wallajanuj 
The  following  rough  estimate,  for  raising  a  road  and  constructing 
it  a  tram-way,  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  future  enquiries  ;  but  I 
hardly  remark  that  it  is  only  by  an  accurate  survey  of  the  line  of  roj 
which  the  way  is  to  be  formed,  that  any  thing  like  an  approxim 
to  truth  can  be  arrived  at : — 

Cost  per  milt. 

2,1 12  prepared  granite  slabs  5  feet  long Rs.  21 12 

Levelling,  laying  down  slabs,  &c 583 

Bridges f.    300 

Carriage 675 

Sleepers 62 

Incidental  expences 100 


Rs.  3832 

As  the  road  betwixt  Madras  and  Wallajanuggur  has  already  been  ] 
ally  raised,  and  levelled,  we  may  expect  that  the  formation  of  a 
way  upon  it    would  cost  considerably  less  than  the  estimate   I 
fbrmed,  but  taking  Rs.  3S32  as  the  average  cost  per  mile — 
60  miles  the  distance  betwixt  Madras  and   Wallajanuggur ) 

will  amount  to S 

Cost  of  oxen,  carriages,  &c,  estimated  at 5 

Total  cost  Rs.    28 

To  justify  the  above  outlay  of  capital  the  following  is  the  a 
amount  of  traffic,  and  its  value,  on  the  line  of  road  above  allude 
taken  from  Captain  Cotton**  valuable  report: — 


1839]  Communication  in  the  Camatlc,  t^ 

Traffic. 

Fuel 40,000 

Straw,  &c 5,000 

Grain 5,000 

Goods 20,000 

Passengers,  &c.  equal  to 5,000 


75,000 


Present  expence  of  this  traffic  at    6  Rupees  per  ton   Rupeos  450,000 

It  may  be  fairly  conceded  that  at  least  one  half  of  the  above  traffic, 
Talued  at  Rs.  225,000  per  annum,  would  pass  along  Ihe  way.  Estimating 
therefore,  the  current  expences  of  the  establishment  at  Rs.  58,200, 
there  will  remain  a  bilance  of  166,800.  A  sum  more  than  sufficient  to 
remunerate  liberally  tlie  proprietors,  and  provide  for  all  contingent  ex- 
pcnces. 

Hov^rever  encouraging  the  above  estimate  may  be  of  the  probable 
results  of  such  an  undertiiking,  1  feel  con\'inced  that  from  its  novelty, 
few  private  individuals,  whether  european  or  native,  would  be  induced 
to  erabark  in  it,  without  in  the  first  instance  obtaining  a  promise  of 
support  from  Gi^ovemment.  In  other  countries  the  stiite  grants  patents 
and  monopolies  as  a  recompence  for  undertaking  expensive  experi. 
ments,  of  which  the  public  is  to  reap  the  benefit.  I  therefore  cannot 
but  confidently  expect  that  Government  will  approve  of,  and  afford  the 
most  efficient  assistance  to  put  to  the  fair  test  of  experiment,  a  measure 
supposed  to  carry  in  its  train  the  amelioration  of  the  natives  over  whom 
they  rule.  Of  its  rapid  and  complete  success  there  can  scarcely  be  en- 
tertained a  doubt ;  and  a  probable  consequence  of  success  would  be  that 
other  companies  would  spring  into  existence,  and  be  incit(Hl  to  embark 
in  similar  undertakings,  '*  a  superior  description  of  roads  would  thus  be 
introduced  over  the  country,  and  one  rupee  would  not  in  future  be 
required  from  Government  either  for  their  execution  or  support.'' 

It  is  unnecessary  to  remark  that  the  roads  at  present  in  use  in  the 
Madras  presidency,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  of  a  very  indifferent  de- 
leription,  and  it  appears  to  m«;  that  with  reference  to  the  climate, 
thtir  construction  is  essentially  defective.  Every  shower  loosens  the 
•oil  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  deep  ruts  are  speedily 
formed,  watei  collects  which  sinks  down  and  softens  the  whole  raasg 
toils  foundation,  and  if  the  road  is  not  immediately  repaired,  it  is  by 
the  next  fall  of  rain,  utterly  destroyed.     Tram- ways  by  preventing  the 


86  On  Improving  Internal  [Jak. 

road  being  cut  up  by  carriages  would  in  a  great  degree  obviate  these 
defects. 

It  therefore  becomes  a  subject  worthy  of  consideratioo,   whether  it 
would  not  be  preferable   to  encourage  by  every  means  in  our  power 
private  individuals  to  construct  granite  ways  from  which  a  direct  revenue 
would  be  yielded,  than  to  continue  forming  common  roads  at  a  very 
great  expence   from  which   no  pecuniary  return  is  received,  and  from 
which  very  partial  benefits  to  the  country  are  derived.      Government 
have  already  expended  immense  sums  of  money  in  the  construction  of 
roads,*  but  the  necessity  of  granting  a  small   annual  sum  for  their  occa- 
sional repair  has  unfortunately  iu  many  instances  been  overlooked ;  by 
such  a  course  of  policy  and  economy,   works  of  the  greatest  utility,  the 
labours  of  years,  have  not  infrequently  been  rendered  entirely  useless 
iu  a  few  months.    The  time  of  the  civil  establishments  is  too  much  oc- 
cupied  to  admit  of  their  bestowing  that  attention  to  the  subject  which 
its  great  importance  demands,  and  I  presume  Government  are  not  pre- 
pared to  establish  superintendents  of  roads,   with  all  the  necessary  ap- 
pliances, throughout  the  presidency.     It  has  therefore  evidently  become 
necessary  in  working  out  the  regeneration  of  India,  for  Government  to 
avail  thcmselvesr  of  other  agency  than  that  over  which  they  possess  im- 
mediate control,  and  to  delegate  their  authority  and  interest    in  the 
execution  of  measures  of  improvement  to  the  inhabitants  theraselvesy 
to  stimulate  them   to  exertion  by  holding  out  honourable  rewards — af- 
fording them  every  information   requisite  for  such    undertakings,  and 
withholding  no  aid  that  will  tend  to  combine  them  together  and  induce 
them  to  identify  themselves  with  every  measure  having  the  prosperity 
of  their  own  country  for  its  object. 

The  formation  of  Joint  Stock  Companies  will  at  once  effect  every  thing 
that  is  desired.  It  is  to  them  that  England  is  indebted  for  her  rail- 
roads, canals,  and  indeed  for  almost  every  establishment  of  great  public 
utility,  carried  on  as  they  are  by  the  combined  capital  and  energies  of 
large  bodies  of  individuals.  In  India,  roads  constructed  by  such  agency 
would  create  a  description  of  international  property,  in  which  influential 
natives,  both  at  Madras  and  in  the  provinces,  would  become  partners ; 
such  a  coalition  would  not  be  unattended  by  its  own  peculiar  ad- 
vantages, in  softening  down  the  distiuctions  of  cast  and  colour,  and  of 
presenting  opportunities  of  intn.Kiucing  with  effect  other  measures  of 
usefulness  amongst  the  native  population. 

•  The  high  n>»d  from  Masulipatam  to  Hydrahad,  a  distant  of  230  miles,  has  already 
•0*1  f^\  lacs  of  rupees  '.—and  th«  road  fhMu  Madras  to  PoonamaUee  a  distance  of  9  milta 
oust  Rf.  i50.000. 


\93Sf]  Communication  in  the  Carnatic.  87 

It  mav  be  ni^ed  in  opposition  to  the  above  measure,  that  the  line  of 
road  will  require  to  be  as  carefully  levelled  for  the  formation  of  tram- 
ways, as  for  the  construction  of  an  edge  railroad,  and  thus  one  of  the 
most  important  items  of  cxpence  in  their  formation  will  be  found  equally 
necessary.    There  can  be  no  question,  that,  as  we  approach  a  perfect 
le?el  in  the  coostroction  of  the  "way,"  the  more  will  it  approximate  to 
the  perfection  of  an  iron  railroad,  but,  from  the  nature  of  the  Camatic, 
I  perfect  level  in  most  instances  will  be  very  easily  attained — and  em- 
lukments  for  that  purpose  will  be  no  further  necessary  than  would  be 
requisite  in  the  construction  of  a  good  common  road  ;  but,  when  elevati- 
ons of  any  magnitude  did  occur,  the  removal  of  which  would  entail  much 
expeoce,  an  inclined  plane  might  be  formed  and  relays  of  cattle  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  affbnling  assistance.    By  such   an  arrangement  that 
objection  will  in  a  great  measure  be  removed,   while  we  secure  at  a 
moderate  expence  a  most  excellent  description  of  road — formed  on  so 
finn  a  basis,  of  such  weighty  and  solid  materials,  as  to  defy  the  effects  of 
the  monsoon,  and  in  other  respects  to  be  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  this 
country. 

Such  are  the  views  which  have  occurred  to  me  on  the  subject  of  inter- 
nal communication,  and  the  Camatic  presents  peculiar  facilities  for 
ttnying  my  suggestions  into  execution,  being  nearly  a  perfect  level, 
and  abounding  in  the  requisite  material.  In  submitting  them,  my  sole 
object  has  been  to  draw  attention  to  a  subject  of  acknowledged  impor- 
tance, and  if  roads  of  the  above  description  were  made  to  intersect  the 
Carnatic,  few  will  be  so  bold  as  to  doubt  that  in  a  few  years  they  would 
effect  an  entire  change  in  the  statistics  of  that  portion  of  India. 

Madura,  20/A  November,  1838. 


*^  the  Editor  of  the  Madras  Journal  of  Science, 

HtDbar  Sir, — I  have  the  pleasure  to  send  you  herewith  a  brief  but 
Bastcriy  review  of  the  relative  cost  and  advantages  of  iron  rail -ways 
*od  tram-ways  as  compared  to  common   roads.    The  author  has  here 
•Itown,  beyond  all  question,  the  vast  preponderance  in  favour  of  tram- 
^y$  as  regards  first  cost,  facility  of  construction,  and  durability  over 
^  rails;  while,  as  a  means  of  facilitating  transit,  they  nearly  equal 
tHem,and  excel  roads  of  the  common  construction  by  250  per  cent,  with 
toe  almost  incalculable  advantage,  for  this  country,  over  edge-rails,  of 
pennitting  the  free  use  of  all  kinds  of  whecl«carriages  the  same  as  on 
tUcmnnton  road. 


•*s  On  Ir-ip^-ovh'fj  Jr'f^rnaJ  [Jan. 

When  the  paper  6r£t  reached  me.  I  took  the  liberty  of  showing  it  to 
an  infiuentiiil  person,  and  requested  the  favour  of  his  opinion  as  to  the 
propriety  of  brinering  it  forward,  in  such  a  w^jr,  as  might  perhaps  lead 
to  the  plan  proposed  being  tried  on  a  few  miles  of  some  much  frequented 

road. 

This  gentleman,  though  fully  coinciding  in  my  opinion  as  to  the 
beneficial  results  likely  to  flow  from  the  adoption  of  such  roads,  yet 
seemed  to  think,  as  I  understood  him,  that  the  expense  would  prove  a 
bar  to  their  adoption.  I  was  not  then,  nor  indeed  am  I  now,  prepared 
to  show  by  comparative  statements  that  the  first  expense  of  laying  such 
a  road  would  not  greatly  exceed,  if  indeed  it  did  not  actually  fall  short, 
supposing  Mr.  Kelli<*'s  estimate  nearly  correct,  of  the  cost  of  forming  a 
good  road  of  the  common  construction.  This  could  be  easily  ascertain- 
ed in  Madras  where  the  tear  and  wear  of  roads  is  great,  and  road  making 
and  repairing  in  constant  practice.  According  to  Mr.  Gordon's  table, 
quoted  in  the  paper,  the  tear  and  wear  of  an  iron  rail-raid  is80 — and  of  a 
broken -stone  road  26  limes  greater  than  that  of  a  tram-m-ay,  hence,  were 
the  cost  of  making  a  tram-way  20  limes  greater  than  that  of  a  common 
road,  it  would  still  prove  the  cheaper  of  the  two,  leaving  altogether  out  of 
the  question,  its  superiority  as  a  means  of  transit.  Can  more  conclu- 
sive evidence  be  adduced  in  favour  of  the  plan  than  this  table  affords  ? 

The  destnictive  tendency  of  our  monsoon  is  alleged  as  an  objection  to 
this  kind  of  road,  thi*;  is  at  best  a  speculative  objection,  common  roads 
are  well  known  to  suffer  most  severely  from  this  cause,  tram  ones  have 
never  been  tried,  and  there  seems  even'  reason  to  believe  that  the  mas- 
sive materials  of  which  they  are  composed,  will  effectually  counteract 
causes  of  destruction,  to  which  loose  materials  offer  no  resistance. 

•I  have  already  nMnarked  that  I  do  not  know  the  average  expense  of 
laying  a  good  broken-stone  road,  but  a'^cording  to  Mr.  Kellie's  estimate, 
which  was  submitted  to  a  ver>^  ableengfiueer,  and  who  thought  it  a  **  roomy 
estimate,"  the  cost  of  a  tram-wav  of  two  lines  of  stone  is  about  16  inches 
for  the  rupee;  and  supposing  we  add  168  ru))ees  to  the  estimate  to  give 
us  in  round  numbers  4000  per  mile:  we  should  still  have  15  inche-s  for 
the  rupee,  at  which  rate,  1  question  if  we  could  thoroughly  break  the 
•tones  required  to  make  so  nuicli  really  substantial  road,  8  feet  wide, 
exclusive  of  the  charges  for  carting  and  laving  them  in  their  place:  and 
when  placed,  tboy  require  constant  attendance  to  keep  them  there,  if 
it  happens  to  be  a  much  frequented  road.  When  to  these  drawbacks 
we  add  the  difference  (250  [)er  cent.^  of  tractive  power  required  on  such 
roads,  I  think  a  very  strong  case  has  been  made  out  for  giving  the 
plan  the  bcnolit  of  a  trial  on  a  consiJemble  scale,  and  if  the  result,  is 


IB39]  Otology  of  Baif galore,  and  of  some  other  portions  of  Mysore.      80 

at  ill  commensurate  witli  the  ca'ruhilions,  we  may  reasonably  liope,  soon 
to  see  the  plan  extending  itself  in  all  direr  tions.  In  this  part  of  India 
vhere  we  have  no  water  carriage,  by  wliich  to  bring  the  coniifterci.il 
pfoduce  of  the  interior  to  tlie  co..st,  good  roails  are  inviisj>ens.ibie  to  in 
laosperitVi  and  would  prove  n3t  less  advantageous  to  the  n  itiv*  pv^[)u- 
kiioD,  than  profitable  to  the  Karopean  coinimmity  by  the  extended 
vntthey  would  oi>en  for  the  introduction  of  Ilritiah  manufactures,  but 
Irideh is  now  nearly  closed,  through  the  im[>erfe.tion  of  the  means  of 
liiHcourse. 

^Jfyoacan  find  a  plare  in  the  Madras  Journal  for  these  remarks  thtir 
;jliRitioii,  will  much  oblige. 
K  Dear  Sir,  Yours  truly 

Robert  Wight. 


\r-^6eologif  of  Ban^alore^   and  of  some  other  portions  of  Mijsore,^ 
BjfiowH  Clark,  Esq.,  m.  d.   Assistant  Surgeon,  l3//i  Light  Dragoons-, 

Hit  the  remark  of  the  eminent  philosoph'^rand  physician  Sir  Thomas 
J,   that  the  world  was  made  to  be  inhabited  by  beasts,  but    studi- 
aad  eontemplated  by  man.    The    world  is  h'^re  referred   to  in  a 
•ense,  including  the  whole  world  of  nature — not  in  that  local 
iBouted  sense  in  which  the  geologist  would  view  it,  who  may  liter- 
be  nid  to  study  and  contemplate  the  ^^or^.l — the  earth — the  matter 
it  is  formed,   and  the  arrangement  of  all  its  parts.     It  is  only 
that  portion  comprehended  in  the  command  of  ils  great  Creator 
lei  the  dryland  apprar,"  which  employs  the  study  and  contem- 
of  the  geologist.     That  which  the  ocean  covers,   is,  like  many 
in  the  science,  hidden  from  our  eyes,  alihough  still  open  to 
How  a  world  h;is  been  formed,  is  not  so  much   the  study 
geologist,  as  how  it  has  been  altered — and  two  modes  have  been 
in  investigating  this  subject — that  by  conjecture,  and  that  by 
The  first  was  much  employed  in  the  infancy  of  the  sci- 
1  the  last  has  happily  replaced  it.     It  is  only  by  observing  the 
eonstantly  taking  place,  and  the  forces  or  causes  which  may 
te  these  changes,     that  correct  and   philosophical   data   can   be 
Too   much  must  still  be  left  to  conjecture,  and  it  is  ex- 
easy  by  a  well  developed  organ  of  constructiveness,  to  forma. 


90  Geology  of  Bangalore,  and  qf  [Jan. 

world  within  our  Utile  minds,  and  alter  it  by  our  puny  imaginings — a 
world  built  iiukcd  upon  a  sandy  fouuilatiou.  Of  the  conjectural  manner 
of  explaining  things,  such  has  been,  altliough  such  is  not  now,  the  tcn- 
dencv  of  the  s.ienoc,  audit  is  our  inability  to  enter  into  the  mysteries 
of  lime  and  cteniity — tl:e  impossibility  of  throwing  the  mind  back  to 
that  bpginuing  when  light  shined  out  of  darkness,  and  of  understirtiding 
the  for'.cs  \vhi»'h  then  operated,  that  has  attached  to  geology  the 
character  of  not  being  one  of  the  exact  sciences.  The  **  light  which 
shined  in  darkness'*  we  only  darken  by  our  comments,  and  it  is  with  us 
as  with  the  darkness  wliich  Scripture  tells  us  "comprehended  it  not." 

In  the  history  of  the  earth  there  are  but  two  grand  geological  facts  re- 
corded—its  formation  and  its  submergence  for  a  time  under  water.     The 
universal  fli»od,  taken  so  much  into  consideration   in  accounting  for  the 
present  i:jnicarance  (  f  th*^  earth,  has,  perhaps,  in  its  influence,  with  refer- 
ence to  this  portion  of  the  glob^-,  been  over  estimated— may  it  be  suppos- 
ed that  there  was  a  sudden  subsidence  of  the  waters  from  this  the  Old 
Continent,  having  it  as  it  i  a^ne   from  the  hands  of  its  mighty  architect, 
rea(hi  io  he  ogam  people:!^  and  that  there  was  a  gradual  retirement  of  the 
waters  or  of  the  ocean  from  the  new  world,  with  new  depositions,  and  as 
it  were  fresh  creative  bursts — forming  and  reforming.     But  leaving  what 
Jius  0!v:unvj,  to  what  is  daily  takiuof  place,  something  maybe  here 
said  of  the  agents  now  in  operation  which  may  have  altered  the  surface 
of  that  part  of  the  country,   the  mineralogical   features  of  which  are 
about  to  be  described.     And  first  of  decomposition,  and  its  chief  agent 
heat — as  the  human  constitution  is  susceptible    of  the  elVects  of  heat,  so 
are  the  rocky  masses  which  cover  the  countiy  and  are  hourly  crumbling 
into  earth.    The  rays  of  a   tropical  sun  act  so  powerfully  that  a  rock 
when  touched  conmuuurates  to  the  hand  a  burning  sensation,  and  the 
consequence  of  this  heat,  is  a  state  of  expansion.    As  soon  as  by   the 
setting  of  this  powerful   luminary,  the  great  agent  in  expansion,  the 
cold  evening  breezes  begin  to  atl'ect  the  heated  rock,  condensation    fol- 
lows ;  and  this  daily  process  of  expansion  and  condensation  carried  on 
for  n^es  establishes  a  crack  wdiich  increases  till  whole  masses  are   sepa- 
rated.   This  process  of  the  elements  is  the  one  pursued  by  the  natives  in 
quanying,  as  they  invariably  burn  logs  of  wood  over  the  rock  to  produce 
a  state  of  expansion,   and  then  sometimes  hut  not  always  throw  cold 
water  upon  it — an  excellent  example  of  man  in  total    ignorance  of  the 
laws  of  chemistry,  observing  and  imitating  the  simple  laws  of  nature. 
These  cracks  are  fre(juently  both  perpendicular  and  horizontal,  separat- 
ing immense  cubic  masses  from  each  other,  the  fantastic  and  irregular 
ai>pearauce  of  these  arising  afterwards  from  unequal  decomposition — 


1839]  some  other  portions  qf  Mysore,  91 

i«np  portions  undergoing  rapid  decomposition  or  resisting  it  altogether. 

Miuiv  small  granite  rocks,  much  exposed  to  the  iuflaeucc  of  the  weather, 

exhibit  on   their  gurfaces  fissures  both  perpendicular  and  horizontal, 

dividing  them  into  small  cubic  masses,  showing  distinctly  on  a  small 

sale  the  mode  of  decomposition  and  separation.     It  may  be  remarked, 

that  even  the  earth  from  the  decomposed  rock,  when  again  in  some 

measure  by  the  influence  of  the  sun  consolidated  into  a  sort  of  hardened 

Inked  earth,   exhibits   similar  fissures. 

Oxidation  or    oxygenation  is  another  process  by  which  the  earth's 
MrCice  in   India  is  undergoing  a  great  change.     In   my  paper  on  the 
lateritic  formation  this  was  entered  into  at  some  length.     To  hyper- 
exydation  and  decomposition   are  owing   the  lateritic,  lithomargio  and 
mtermed'aie    formations.     The  lateritic  formation  is  of  two  kinds — one 
arising   from   the    hyper-oxydation  and  decomposition    of  a  rock    in 
lifa,  and  the  other,  from  the   decompose!   miterials   being  aff^rwards 
carriei  by   water   to   a  distance,   forming  a  spceieb  of  detrit  d  latcrite. 
Over  the    country   in   every  direction,   but  chiefly    in    the   neigh boiir- 
huod  of  the  cantonment,  deep  water-courses  or  nullahs  exist,  formed 
apparently  in  the  following  manner,  and  prevail    where    the    soil   is 
of  a  red   demi-lilhoraargic  character.     During    the   very    hot  season, 
the  sun  acts  so   powerfully    as  to  produce    fissures    and    cracks    all 
over   the    ground,    and  during  the   rains    the   water  rushing    along 
passes  down   into   these  fissures,  and  large  massses  of  earth  give  way, 
^>rming  in  time  these  nullahs  or  water-courses,   which  generally   termi- 
nate in  tanks.    Tanks  abound  all  over  Mysore  and   are    extremely  dirty 
and  muddy,  and  contain  a  great  deal  of  fine  soil,  carried  thither  from  the 
neighbouring  fields.    The  decomposition  of  rocky  eminences  into  soil, 
a»d  the  delivery  of  this  into  the  valleys  by  the  rush  of  water,  must  tend 
to  establish  a  more  level  state  of  the  country. 

Near  many  of  these  tanks,  or  where  tanks  have  once  existed,  the 
kunkar  deposit  is  often  found.  Between  Mundium  and  Madoor,  on 
llj«higb  road  to  Seringapatam,  there  is  a  very  extensive  valley,  where 
ionkar  is  seen  accompanied  by  the  black  cotton  soil ;  and  close  to  the 
Mandium  tank,  in  the  dry  season  when  the  water  is  low,  an  impure 
^arijooate  of  soda  and  muriate  of  soda  cover  the  ground  like  hoarfrost, 
and  small  calcareous  nodules  the  size  of  marbles  are  intermixed  with  it. 
A  Tery  interesting  question  now  intrudes  itself,  viz.  how  is  this  kunkar 
wnaed?  and  next  to  the  laterite  formation,  is  the  most  important  with 
'aspect  to  Indian  geology. 

Konkar,  so  universally  distributed   over  India,   is  consiflered   to  be  a 
species  of  calcareous  tufa,  divided  into  that  of  old  fonnation,  nndthit 


S2  Geology  of  Bangalore^  and  qf  [J AN. 

^liioli  is  daily  forming.  Professor  Jdmieson  says  **  The  first,  (the  ol(I)i 
'*  appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  the  waters  of  lakes  that  formerly 
**  exisfted  in  limestone  districts,  but  which  have  long  since  disappeared." 
Of  the  last  he  says  **  The  waters  which  flow  along  the  surface  of  the 
"  globe  and  which  are  charged  with  calcareous  earth,  dejKjsit  it  on  the 
**  districts  they  traverse,  and  thus  form  tufas  which  are  either  porous 
**  or  compact,  and  are  of  the  newrst  formation."  The  best  example  of 
the  old  formation  I  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Goondlepett,  about 
30  miles  from  the  bottom  of  the  Neilghcrrips,  and  extending  towards 
"Mvsor?.  The  countrv  there  is  flat,  with  few  undulations,  and  with  th« 
H]>poarcr.i.:v'  of  having  perhaps  once  been  much  covered  with  water.  The 
C".!c;nvoas  tuiV  in  that  h>c.ili(y.  is  either  compact,  or  loose  and  earthy 
i:j  toxliire.  The  comp.ict  I  found  ou  the  road  between  Goondlepett  and 
Siiuil'u'ly,  juttinj^:  out  aboul  *2  or  3  feet  from  the  ground  in  rounded 
ma^-^es,  and  sometimes  with  i  most  irregular  and  almost  pisiform  surface. 
On  being  broken  into,  it  showed  in  the  most  compact  specimens  a 
sparry  semi-.  ry-">la'.ine  aj.pearance.  with  round  darker  coloured  brown 
spots — in  many  of  the  specimens  crystals  of  quartz  were  imbedded  or 
attaf^hecl,  and  some  had  a  cavernous  appearance.  It  might  almost  be 
called  a  <:alcarcous  conglomerate,  and  answers  exactly  to  that  described 
by  Colonel  Cull  en  as  existing  at  Cuildapah,  forming  many  of  the  in- 
closurcs,  which  indoed  it  did  here.  The  softer  and  more  earthy  kind 
of  kunkar  I  found  in  the  ditch  at  Goondlepett,  immediately  under  the 
soil  and  covering  hornblende  and  actynolite  slate ;  and  an  excavation 
inside  the  fort  showed  the  same — a  bed  of  kunkar,  of  a  water- 
worn,  irregular  and  almost  coralline  appearance.  Some  of  the  specimens 
in  the  ditch  were  of  a  brown  approaching  to  red  coloiy,  with  pieces  of 
hornblende  and  actynolite  imbedded,  described  by  Dr.  Benza,  and  form- 
ing as  he  says  a  real  breccia.  In  the  rocks,  of  which  the  fort  is  con- 
structed, are  some  of  calcareous  spar,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  deep 
sections  in  the  surrounding  country  would  show  a  limestone  rock. 

In  districts  such  as  this,  where  the  ohl  calcareous  or  rather  kunkareous 
formation  exists,  and  in  many  places  in  India  where  limestone  abounds, 
the  modern  kunkar  formation  can  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for.  But 
there  are  many  tracts  in  India  and  in  Mysore  where  no  trace  of  ancient 
kunkar  is  to  be  found,  and  where  there  are  no  limestone  rocks.  How 
then  it  mav  be  asked  can  we  ac  ount  for  the  formation  of  this  kunkar  ? 
Long  did  1  endeavour  to  do  so,  hut  in  vain,  until  a  deep  section  near 
the  road  between  Mundium  and  the  French  Kocks  opened  up  tome  some 
views  on  the  subject.  In  the  section  there  was  decom[)osing  gneiss 
with  beds  of  hornblende  slate,  and  thick  \cius  of  a  calcareous  substance 


\SA\  ^ome  other  portions  of  Mysore.  93 

somewhat  resembling  kunkar.     In  a  valley  immediutely  below,   there 
vas  much  kunkar,  and  a  calcareous  aud  clayey  soil  prevailed  for  some 
miles  before    reaching  this   place.     Near  Periapatara,   which  is   not  far 
distant  from  Coorg,   other  veins  of  the  same  kind  were  observed,  which 
first  directed  my   attention  to  the  mode  in  which  the  far   fumed  black 
soil  of  India  may  be  formed.    Are  these  veins  from  the  decomposition 
of  calcareous  spar,  which  we  know  occurs   frequently  in   hornblende 
slate?  Wherever  I  have  found  much  kunkar  I  have  remarked  that  very 
few  rocks  elevated  themselces  above  the  surface,  most  likely  all  of  them 
baving  undergone  decomposition,   and  the  ground  has  generally  looked 
as  if  it  had  once  been  much  under  water.  I  think  also  that  the  formation 
has  existed  generally   in  a  hornblende  neighbourhood— an   analysis  of 
hornblende  shows  that  much  lime  enters  into  its  composition,  and  per- 
haps an  analysis  of  hornblende  rocks  in  India  might  show  a   largor  pro- 
portiuo  than  even  what  is  met  with  in  Europe.     In  districts,  then,  where 
thi$  ancient  kunkar  exists,  or  where  limestone  abounds,  we  are  able  to 
account  for  the  modem  formation,  as  the  calcareous  material  is  afforded, 
which  water  tikes  up  and  again  deposits ;  but  in  these  localities,   where 
neither  ancient  kunkar  nor  limestone  is  to  be  found,  the  only   mode  of 
accounting  for  it,  is  by    tiking  into  consideration  the  calcareous  veins 
in  the  decomposing  rot-ks,  as  seen  in   the  section  above  mentioned,  or 
allowing  f^r  the  decomposition  of  hornblende  and  granite  rocks,  con- 
taining carbonate  of  lime.    The   celebrated  Voysey,  in  his  second  Re- 
port on  the  Geology  of  Hyderabad,  says   of  the   granite    "in  several 
place?  I  have  found  carbonate  of  lime  ^  constituent,    the   quantity  very 
imall  and  only  to  be  detected  by  eflTervesi^ence  in  acids,   and  a  tufaceous 
limestone  is  found  through  the  granite  in  nests  and  beds."— He  again 
alludes  to   it  as   **  veins  of  an   earthy  carbonate  of  lime." 

Kunkar  of  an  ancient  formation  has  just  been  described,  and  one  of  its 
localities  in  Mysore  mentioned ;  but  there  is  another  kind  found  in  notlu- 
les  a  few  feet  below^  the  soil,  not  in  large  m  vsses  or  forming  a  conglomerate 
wa  breccia.  I  have  found  it  connected  with  a  black  soil,  and  much  horn- 
blende on  the  surface  in  small  decomposed  pieces.  These  nodules  are 
carried  away  in  baskets  to  the  kilns,  and  when  burnt  afford  chunam  or 
Hme  for  architectural  purposes.  I  helieve  it  is  not  considered  a  verv 
fine  kind.  The  modem  formation  of  kunkar  is  common,  and  is  found 
either  in  small  pieces,  the  size  of  marbles,  strewed  over  the  ground,  and 
sometimes  along  with  an  impure  carbonate  of  soda  or  muriate  of  soda, 
or  in  larger  pieces  several  feet  below  ground,  accompanied  with  much 
day— one  locality  of  this  last,  about  8  miles  from  Bangalore,  at  Mada- 
pnllay.on  the  Madras  side  of  Kistnarajaporum,   I  may  here  describe. 


94  Geology  of  BangalorCf  and  of  [Jan. 

The  nodules  are  found  about  the  depth  of  seven  or  nine  feet  frcm  the 
surface.  There  is  first  a  whitish  brownish  earth  to  about  the  depth  of 
two  feet,  then  about  a  foot  of  white  clay,  to  this  succeeds  a  blueish 
clay,  intennixed  with  a  little  reddish  earth  to  the  depth  of  4  or  5  feet, 
and  a  blueish  whitish  earth  or  clay  with  lumps  of  kunkar  imbedded  in 
it.  There  is  apparently  always  much  clay  connected  with  the  modem 
formation,  and  it  is  likely  an  analysis  of  the  rocks  in  tlie  neighbourhood 
would  show  a  superabundance  of  felspar  with  a  considerable  proportion 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  probable  also  that  some  chemical  action  is 
constantly  at  work,  not  by  us  well  understood,  but  perhaps  in  some 
measure  similar  to  that  which  leads  to  the  formation  of  saltpetre.  Be- 
sides this  modem  formation  of  kunkar  in  nodules,  I  have  seen  it  as  an 
earthy  deposit   upon  rotks  in  one  of  the  large  branches  of  the  Cauveri. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  I  may  allude  to  the  existence  of  small 
mounds  in  mauv  parts  of  the  country,  and  detached  fragments  of  a 
substance  resembling  bone ;  of  a  white  colour  and  cancelated  structure, 
and  considered  by  the  natives  to  be  the  burnt  bones  of  giants,  and  called 
asurhar  or  giant's  bones.  Mention  is  made  of  these  by  Buchanan — 
and  a  note  upon  the  subject  will  be  found  in  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Bengal  for  December  1835.  Lieut.  Newbold,  in  the  OtHober 
number  of  the  same  Journal  for  183G,  gives  an  account  of  substauccA 
of  a  calcareous  and  siliceous  nature  found  near  Bellary,  and  in  the  18th 
number  of  the  Madras  Journal  of  Science  some  observations  on  the 
same  will  be  found  bv  Dr.  Benza  and  Mr.  Cole.  Buchanan,  Benza  and 
Cole  consider  them  as  specimens  of  calcareous  tufa,  whic  h  some  of  them 
most  certainly  are,  but  specimens  answering  to  their  description  were 
brought  me,  picked  up  about  twenty -four  miles  from  Bangalore,  which 
were  of  the  same  peculiar  cancelated  structure  like  bone,  but  they  did 
not  eflrer\esce  with  acids — they  are  siliceous  and  approach  closely  to,  if 
they  are  not  a  coarse  kind  of  semi-opal  in  a  decomposed  state.  It  is 
necessary  therefore  to  divide  these  substances  so  much  resembling  burnt 
bones  into  the  calcareous  and  the  siliceous,  the  last  of  which  appeax 
perhaps  to  be  a  sort  of  opaline  siliceous  sinter. 

The  soils  around  Bangalore  and  generally  in  Mysore,  may  be  divided 
into  the  black  or  cotton  soil,  not  common  in  this  part  of  the  country — 
2d.  A  rich  red  soil  from  the  disintegration  of  rocks  containing  much 
iron-like  hornblende. — 3d.  The  common  or  reddish  brown  soil,  where 
perhaps  the  iron  is  in  a  state  of  protoxide. — 4th.  A  white  siliceous  un- 
productive soil,  and. — 5th.  A  clayey  soil  found  in  the  valleys  and  below 
tanks.  Besides  these  five,  there  is  another  seen  to  the  south-west  of 
the  fort,  near  a  small  range  of  little  hillocks  of  a  chlorite  rock  contain- 


1S39]  some  other  portions  of  Mysore,  95 

ing  much  itoh,  the  colour  is  a  light  rich  red.  A  soil  similar  to  tins  is  to 
be  found  \i€tween  Myfiore  and  Goondlepctt,  and  seems  to  aiise  from  the 
decomposition  o  f  chlorite  slate  wilh  an  admixture  perhaps  of  hornblende 
and  oxide  of  iron. 

The  black    cotton   soil   occupies,  according  to  Dr.    Hcyne,  fonr-fiflhs 
of  the  Peninsula  of  India,    and    the    cause    or  causes  which    lead  to 
the  formation   of  this  soil  form  an  interesting  subject  in   Indian  geo- 
log}'.     It    vras  referred    by    Dr.  Voysey    to  the    decomposition  of  a 
basaltic  trap.     A  passage  from  some  notes  kept  during  a  late  geolo- 
gical tour  bears  upon  the  present  point.     **  Started  for  Periapatam-road 
ihroagh  jungle  for  four  or  five  miles — soil  black,  occasionally  red. — After 
this  jungly  tract,  the  road  passes  through  a  flat  country,  containing  a 
good  deal   of  black   soil,  having  small  pieces  of  kunkar  on  the  surface, 
and  much  impregnated  with  saline  matter.     Just  before  entering  Peria- 
patam  there  is  a  deep  water-course,  with  masses  of  basaltic  hornblende 
lying  ezpased.    This  section  shows  for  about  three  feet,  the  black  soil 
80 prevalent  over  this  part   of  the  country— succeeded  by  a  reddish  yel- 
low earth,  in  which   were  rounded  masses  of  basalt  or  basaltic  horn, 
blende — ^below  this  again  was  gneiss  in  a  decomposing  state,  containing 
veins  of  a  calcareous  substance  similar  to  what  was  before  described, 
and  having  a  vertical   position.'*     Here  then  was  basaltic  trap  decom- 
posing into  a  reddish  or  rather  yellowish  earth.     How  then   could  it 
form  the  black  soil  w  hich  was  above  ?     I  can   only  answer  by  saying, 
that  further  on  at  the  bottom  of  Coorg,    I  found  the  same  black  soil 
tnd  some  way  up,   but  it  changed  then  to  red  without  any  particular 
''bange  in  the  rock.     Now  having  observed  much  kunkar  for  some  time 
before  reaching  ihe  bottom  of  these  hills,  I  asked  myself  the  question, 
whether  this  black  soil  did  not  originate  from  a  jungly  country  being 
wrered  for  some  time  by  water,  or  whether  it  was  not  the  result  of  a 
calcareous    admixture.     In  many  parts  of  the  country  where  this  soil 
exbts  I  have    fuund  kunkar    beneath,  as  at  Hoonsoor   and    Yelwall. 

4 

Hornblende  and  basalt,  as  before  observed,  are  constantly  seen  decom- 
posing into  a  reddish  or  yellowish  earth,  highly  ferruginous  ;   and  when 
they  do  form  into  the  black  earth,  is  it  from  the  quantity  of  calcareous 
matter  which  we  know  these  rocks  often  contain  ?  or  is  it  from  the  ad- 
inixture  of  calcareous  and  ferruginous  matter,  making  this  far  famed  soil 
tobeof  a  calcareo-ferruginous  nature.     By  analysis  it  has  been  found 
to  yield  chiefly  lime  and  iron,  and  its  very  name  of  cotton  ground,  from 
that  plant  flourishing  in  it,  is  in  favour  of  its  calcareous  origin,  for  the 
wil  most  favourable  to  the  growth   of  cotton  is  that  which  contains  a 
very  large  proportion  of  lime.     Does  not  this  view  of  things  reconcile 
the  apparently  conflicting  opinions  of  Voysey  and  Benza.    Dr.  Benza 


06  G  o^ogij  of  Banjo  I  ore,  and  of  [Jaw. 

says  "since  iKMtlier  sort  of  basalt  found  at  prcsont  in  Central  and  South 
**  India,  dcconiposes  into  a  black  soil,  what  kind  of  trap  and  under 
**  wliat  circumstani'cs  ditrercnt  from  the  present,  could  this  bi^salt  give 
**  rise  to  such  a  different  product  ?  Is  the  general  opinion  of  the  black 
**  soil  having  resulted  from  the  decomposition  of  the  basalt  one  of  those 
**  that  are  repeated  only  because  once  told.**  It  appears  to  me  that  the 
kind  of  trap  decomposing  into  black  soil  is  that  which  contains  much 
lime;  for  on  the  Neilgherries,  where  it  decomposes  into  a  yellow  clay, 
no  lime  lias  been  found;  but  in  the  Hyderabad  district,  described  bv 
Voysey,  he  mentions  as  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  part,  the  abun- 
dance of  the  carbonate  of  lime  with  the  wacken,  the  basalt  iS:c.  &c.  &:c. 
and  in  another  place  he  says  "carbonate  of  lime  is  intermixed  with  the 
rock  whether  sienite,   greenstone,  granite,  basalt  orwacken.'* 

Bangjdore  is  situated  on  one  of  the  most  elevated  ridges  of  the  high 
table  land  of  Mvsore,  nenrlv  three  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  principal  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood  are  gneiss,  gnnite  and 
trap,  the  formation  being  entirely  primitive.  The  grand  fundamenUd 
rock  all  over  the  Mysore  may  be  called  a  sienitic  gneiss,  for  where 
deep  and  extensive  sections  are  opened  up  to  view,  the  rocky  masses 
are  distinctly  stratified,  and  contain  ipore  or  less  of  (piartz,  felspar,  mica 
and  hornblende.  In  those  sections  sometimes  beds  of  quartz  and  felspar 
only  meet  the  oye,  forming  a  pegmatite — then  again  we  may  find  quartz, 
felspar  and  mica,  forming  a  true  granite  or  gneiss,  and  then  beds  ol 
hornblende  and  felspar,  or  hornblende  and  quartz,  forming  a  hornblende 
slate. 

All  the  strata  around  Bangalore,  and  also  throughout  Mysore,  run 
more  or  less  north  and  south,  sometimes  north-wTst  und  south-east,  oi 
nwrth-east  and  south-west,  and  the  trap  dykes  and  basaltic  dykes  oi 
veins,  which  are  numerous,  and  cut  through  the  gneiss,  have  an  east  and 
west  direction,  but  sometimes,  as  near  the  Madras  road,  before  entering 
the  cantonment,  north-west  and  south-east.  A  mass  of  gneiss,  about  a 
mile  south  of  the  ro.id,  and  about  two  from  the  village  of  Ulsoor,  runs 
north-ra-it  and  south-west,  and  a  basaltic  dyke  cuts  through  it,  running 
ibout  north- west  and  south-cast  or  rather  N.  N.  W.  and  S.  S.  E.  Some 
very  large  nullahs,  principally  towards  tlie  west  end  of  the  cantonment, 
one,  two  or  three  miles  distant  however,  show  well  the  constitution  of  the 
dcconiiKjfting  gneiss,  better  than  can  be  seen  on  the  surface,  where  only 
flu*  more  solid  and  less  perishable  portions  of  the  rocks  remain.  In 
xU^'so  n>dlahs  \*e  meet  with  crumbling  masses  of  felspar— large  beds  ol 
mJci  or  hornblende,  ami  numerous  veins  of  quartz.  The  common 
colour  of  the  mica  in  the  undecomposed  rock  is  black,  but  exhibiting  a 
•'.iiii'ly    of  fchailes    in   t'ucompusition— first,  it  becomes  of  a  brownish 


ISQd]  8cm€  othn  pori'tons  of  Afytore,  9? 

y«Uov,  then  a  yellow  with  a  tinge  of  green,  and  finally  it  assumes  a  sort 
of  tolpbar  yellow  or  siskin  green,  the  scales  of  mica  scarcely  percepti- 
ble. When,  bowcTer,  the  mica  is  in  contact  with  or  near  a  vein  of  quarts, 
it  becomes  of  a  pinkish  hue,  most  likely  from  the  higher  oxydation  of 
(be  iron  in  the  quartz.     Immense  masses  of  mica  are  often  seen  lying 
UtiM  bottom  of  many  of  these  nullahs,  and  feeling  very  greasy  when 
toached — indeed  mica  in  many  parts  of  Mysore  is  very  greasy  in  de- 
coaiposition,  approaching  to  talc,  a  talcose  mica,  or  passing  into  chlorite* 

It  n  perhaps  the  decomposition  of  a  species  of  talc-mica  with  felspari 
iliidi  affords  the  Texy  fine  white  soft  and  greasy  earth  found  in  some 
c(  the  nullahs,  called  by  the  natives  shidi  munnu,  and  used  occasional- 
1t  for  white-washing  their  houses.  In  looking  at  the  different  appear- 
faces  of  decomposing  mica  in  the  nullahs,  one  is  led  to  believe  what 
Dr.  Thomson  says  <*  that  it  is  pretty  evident  more  than  one  species  is  at 
present  confounded  together  under  the  name  of  mica,  though  we  have 
wt  jet  data  sufBciently  accurate  to  separate  them  with  accuracy  from 
etch  other."  Magnesia  he  mentions  as  one  of  the  constituents  of  black 
Bin,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  magnesia  enters  into  the  composition 
of  the  micas  generally  through  Mysore,  for  potstone,  a  magnesian  mineral, 
ii  fery  common  through  the  whole  country,  although  not  so  in  the  im- 
■ediste  neighbourhood  of  Bangalore.  The  mica  and  felspar  are  both 
rerj  abundant  in  the  gneiis  rocks — the  mica,  as  mentioned  above,  gene- 
nllTof  a  black  colour,  and  is  dispersed  through  the  rock,  or  in  nests  or 
eresbeds,  and  sometimes  in  very  small  thread  like  streaks.  I  have  ob- 
Kired  when  there  are  large  beds  a  good  deal  of  golden  mica  is  mixed 
9f  vith  it.  The  felspar  is  generally  white,  but  frequently  of  a  reddish 
tinge.  The  large  crystals  are  often  of  a  light  red  or  pink  colour,  and 
then  there  is  nearly  a  total  absence  of  mica,  and  the  rock  approaches  to 
or  becomes  pegmatite,  the  reddish  felspar  predominates. 

What  is  called  red  granite  by  Dr.  Buchanan  I  have  found  in  several 
places  in  Mysore.  I  picked  up  a  few  specimens  to  the  west  or  south- 
Vttt  of  a  veiy  fine  bund  near  the  fort — there  were  no  rocks  of  it,  but 
■erely  some  pieces  lying  on  the  ground — the  rocks  having  undergone  de- 
coaposition.  The  second  place  I  have  met  with  it  is  between  Closepett 
iidCliinepatam,and  the  third  place  between  Mundium  and  Seringapatam. 
Ae  specimens  vary  a  good  deal,  but  the  quantity  of  felspar  of  a  red  colour 
■  very  great,  and  this  felspar  is  of  a  cl  ay  ey  aspect  and  peculiar.  The  spe- 
ciBeDifrom  near  the  bund  are  alone  of  this  red  clayey  looking  felspar,  with 
f^mtj  quarts,  making  it  a  pegmatite.    Those  between  Closepett  and 

^^^UMpatam  are  of  looser  texture,  consisting  almost  altogether  of  this 

<%e]r  looking  red  felspar,  with  a  few  crystals  of  quartz,  and  numerous 


tS  GwoUgy  uf  Bamfol^rt,  amd  •/  [Jam. 

small  csritics  of  a  yellow  eaithf  powder,  decamposed  honbleiide,  or 
p«n^{f<(  iroD?  Anotber  kind  is  porphriitic,  btrget  cnrttBls  of  friapar 
imbedded,  vith  the  same  microacopic  carities,  this  beiDg  the  rock  whidi. 
Dr.   Bern  savs  be  b  at  a  loaa  what  to  denoainate. 

Not  far  from  Seringapatam,  aie  aoaaeTocks  neartfae  road,  aboat  4  iiifltJ 
before  enleriDg  the  town  or  rather  fort,  eonaistiag  almost  estirelj  of  ike 
red  clarer  looking  felspar,  with  nomcroiisaaadl  caTttics  of  a  black  ahoiteg 
mf^llic  looking  substance,  what  in  decoopoaitkm  secma  to  aflbid  the  y^ 
lowearthr  powder.  This  b  a  rock  which  I  ahoold  think  has  at  one  tiine 
hecn  rather  common  throngb  Myscse,  bnt  hm^  mpidhr  nndergooe  de* 
compositioD,  as  it  appears  to  contain  a  good  deal  of  boo.  Whilst  on  die 
rHdi«h  frisfeir  1  mar  mention  that  iheie  are  aome  gneiss  rocks  near  tf» 
gardens  o»  the  Horticiilmrai  Society,  where  I  hare  foond  occaaionaRy 
9ome  Terrbeaotifal  specimens — the  felspar  and  qnartz  of  a  pinkish  tiB|^ 
witii  gieen  streaks  and  lines,  dark  green  needle-shaped  crrataln  lA  I 
fldnk,  epidote,  with  occasional  crrMals  of  kyanite.  The  nest  fnniediqrt 
in  the  gneiss  ro^s  is  the  qaartx,  which  b  nsnallr  of  a  white  eoloar  ar 
haring  m  rerr  slight  bine  tinge.  generallT  the  fint  when  with  fdapnr,  and 
tiie  last  when  in  reins  by  itseK.  The  1^^  bine  icnmitimca  nppronchai 
almost  to  an  amethyttine  eoloar — small  pieces  of  rodi  ciystnl  are 
times  picked  op.  one  fine  specimen  in  my  possession,  eontaining 
pyrites,  was  fovnd  is  some  rocks  itont  two  anles  from  the  Ibrt.  In  a 
small  nnllah  about  a  ndle  and  a  half  to  the  north  of  the  Belfry,  wmk 
nmr  the  boondary  hedge  of  the  cantonment,  there  arc  large  qnnntltba 
of  qoarti  crystalized  into  six  sided  prbms  temuBited  by  six  sided  pgr- 
lamids.  The  hombleifede.  wbi»*b  is  foond  in  beds  in  this  gnetss^  is 
seen  in  the  noIUh$  deicompcising  into  a  grryi^h  cr  gie%ish  green  cm  flu 

Gneiss  b  the  prertiling  ivck  ancncd  BncgaVre,  and  b  genenlly  of  the 
common  evey  co!oor.  vith  nests  anl  streaks  of  black  an^a,  Isrge  Teins 
of  foliated  felspar  and  qmrts.  and  die  strata  often  very  mmrh  coafotfled. 
The  process  c^  deccmpciMtk.'n  b  proceeding  mpidly,  and  arhoe  n  deep 
rnriee  exists,  thb  deromposition  b  well  shown — an  immtimt  rodt  'wfll 
V  fc«nd  rcTaining  its  slmpe^  but  qnite  noft  and  cnmbii^  do«m  on 
Ving  toQched,  Tein$  of  qwniti  traTers^ng  the  soft  disintcgnted  mam 
m  all  dirvctHmsL  In  digging  n>  any  depth,  as  in  fttwdng  veOn,  after 
remoria^  a  lew  fret  of  a  hruwn'wh  em^  we  esaae  npim  the  ^fWf^ 
rock  in  a  «tat'^  of  denompwition.  k«ming  a  white  stmy  cnrA.  ^'tfm 
xnlleys  a!l  iivfmi.  the  Mspar  dennaposes  into  dar*  wksdi  b  imok  hf 
Qie  iwners  and  charty  mannfartorerk.  Wbfte  a  bed  cr  lein  of  qimfti 
highlT  mnrurnoo^  his  emted.  a  qwnta  latcitte  has  been  tamed,  as 
nnthrleft-^mdsideon  gving  lowiris  the  fort  near  the  Gnncne  aekml 


laS)  «oMe  other  portimts  of  Mfffor^.  90 


ertiMwhBBent  of  the  Weslejan  Missionary  Society.  A  small  village  ia 
Wt  vpoD  this  kind  of  laterite,  which  diSen  much  from  that  on  the 
itiltni  ewat,  hmt  is  somewhat  similar  to  some  specimens  obtained  at 
Cooig.  Ift  some  ploess,  as  towards  the  west  and  of  the  cantonment, 
MHT  the  TSfy  last  building  appropriated  for  the  stand  of  arms  of  a 
mive  eorpst  &  thick  Wd  of  pebbles  is  seen  below  the  soil,  forming 
fkst  Dr.  Bensa  would  eaU  a  lateritic  or  quartsy  detritus. 

lbs  higliesi  hills  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  are  about  4  or  5 
silts  frosa  the  fort  to  the  south  of  the  Kingaree  road— these  hills  run  north 
adsooth,  and  are  of  gseisa  and  gmnite  with  occasionally  hornblende  slate 
ii  the  declivities.  UoiBbleiide  slate  is  foand  in  sereral  spots  jutting  out  of 
the  ssil,  chiefly  on  the  west  side,  its  principal  locality  is  in  the  direc- 
tios  of  Kmgafeey  sod  near  the  high  hills  just  spoken  of.  Basalt  is 
pselty  coBuaoa  either  in  dykes  or  yeins,  and,  also  chiefly  to  the  west, 
Inp^kes  the  same.  These  last  I  shall  now  describe,  but  it  may  be 
as  wdl  fint  to  observe,  that  there  are  fotur  principal  roads  leading 
into  and  out  of  the  cantonment— the  east  or  Madras — the  south-west 
or  Seringapatam— the  south  or  Trichinopoly  and  the  north  or  Nundi- 
diDog  and  Bellary.  Besides  these,  there  is  one  about  due  west,  lead- 
ing to  Sever adroog,  and  another  about  north-west  leading  to  Sera  and 
CfakUedrw^g. 

About  8   miles  on  the  Madras  roadv  close  to   a  village  and  val- 
Itf  where  there  is    much   kunkar,    and    from  whence  Bangalore  is 
^iefly  supplied    with   chunsm,    there  are  several  hornblende  rocks 
aesr  die  road,  and  a  range  of  the  same  is  observed  running  about  north 
and  sooth,    lliis  range  of  trap  rocks  runs  for  many  miles.    On  descend- 
ing the  hat  hOl  but  one  on  the  same  road,  before  entering  the  village 
ef  Ulsow,  and  abont  a  mile  and  a  half  from  it,  a  trap  dyke  is  observed 
en  the  right-hand  side.    If  we  now  leave  the  road  and  turn  off  to  the 
M  in  s  southerly  direction,  on  a  line  with  this  dyke  and  about  half 
a  snle  from  it,  we  come  upon  some  black  rocks  of  basaltic  hornblende, 
Ike  eontinoation  of  the  dyke  seen  near  the  road.    This  basaltic  hom- 
Ucnde  shsost  in  some  of  the  specimens  passes  into  basalt,  and  a  large 
pwiM  voek  a  few  yards  distant  from  this  trap  dyke  has  a  basaltic  dyke 
cutting  throsgh  it— the  strata  of  the  gneiss  about  north-east  and  south- 
west, and  the  dyke  north-west  and  south-east  or  more  correctly  N.  N.  W. 
md  S.  8.  S.    The  basaltic  dyke  in  length  is  about   7d  paces— ito 
gifstest  biesdth  about  2  feet,  and  the  least  about  six  inches— towards 
Its  SBsller  end  a  vein  of  basalt  is   seen  running  parallel  with  it. 

We  will  now  take  a  jump  geological  and  transport  the  observer  to  the 
weit  end  of  the  cantonment,  placing  him  in  a  road  which  leads  from  the 
Inluttry  review  ground  to  the  pettah.    This  road  is  lined  on  each  Mv. 


100  Oeology  qf  Bangalore^  and  of  [J Air. 

with  trees,  and  must  not  be  confouDded  with  the  military  road,  lees  than 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  eastward  of  it,  which  also  leads  to  the  pettah. 
He  will  here  observe  another  dyke  running  about  east  and  west.  It  U 
seen  first  in  the  road,  and  protruding  in  rounded  masses  in  the  adjoin- 
ing  field ;  its  dark  appearance  well  contrasted  with  the  grey  of  the 
granite  through  which  it  has  burst — the  soil  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  two  is  also  well  contrasted.  The  greatest  breadth  of 
this  trap  dyke  is  about  70  paces.  On  nearly  a  line  with  it  and  going 
westward,  and  across  a  large  field,  a  confused  group  of  granite  rocks 
is  seen  with  a  large  one  of  irregular  shape  perched  on  the  top— one 
portion  of  it  having  been  taken  away  for  purposes  of  building.  I 
mention  this  elevated  portion  as  it  forms  a  good  guide  in  searching  for 
a  dyke  of  basalt  close  to  it,  in  the  same  mass  of  rock,  and  only  a  few 
feet  from  it.  By  the  mutual  processes  of  quarrying  and  decomposi- 
tion, only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  dyke  is  here  visible,  and  attached 
to  the  granite,  but  on  looking  to  the  west  end  of  this  group  of  rocks* 
distant  about  30  yards,  the  continuation  of  the  dyke  is  seen  running 
east  and  west — in  breadth  two  feet  at  its  east  end — about  30  paces  in 
length  and  at  its  western  extremity  about  two  feet  three  inches  in 
breadth.  The  granite  rock  it  traverses  has  a  smooth  rounded  outline, 
is  compact  and  difficult  to  break,  when  broken  into  exhibiting  numer- 
ous pinkish  dots,  the  felspar  in  some  places  of  a  light  flesh  colour  and 
some  garnets  distributed  through  it.  I  picked  up  a  specimen  of 
magnetic  iron  ore  close  along  side,  lying  in  the  field.  This  basaltic 
dyke  runs  east  and  west  and  is  on  a  line  with,  but  distant  about  27 
miles  from,  the  large  and  celebrated  rock  of  Sevemdroog,  seen  rising 
majestically  from  the  numerous  smaller  hills  around  it.  Sivagunga  lies 
more  to  the  north-westt  and  is  about  the  highest  hill  in  Mysore.  Bat 
to  return  to  the  dyke~ about  15  paces  to  the  south  of  it  a  smaller  one 
is  seen  running  in  the  same  direction  and  through  the  same  granite 
block,  it  is  5  i  inches  broad  at  its  w^est  end  and  three  at  the  other,  and 
about  15  paces  in  length,  and  deserves  more  the  name  of  a  vein  than  a 
dyke — in  one  place  it  has  suffered  displacement.  On  retracing  our  steps 
back  to  the  elevated  mass  occupying  the  west  end  of  this  group,  a  small 
road  is  observed  passing  close  to  it,  and  leading  to  a  very  large  gneiss 
rock  in  the  direction  of  the  pettah — crossing  this  small  path  is  another 
dyke  of  basalt.  It  has  undergone  decomposition,  and  only  a  few  pieces 
protrude  ;  it  is  most  likely  connected  with  either  of  the  two  last  des- 
cribed, from  which  it  is  distant  about  30  j-ards.  Several  hundred  yarda 
further  on  in  the  same  field,  going  west  or  a  little  to  the  north-westt 
iluse  to  a  small  valley  across  which  a  bund  has  l)een  th rown,  there   is  a 


1839]  some  other  portions  of  Mysore.  101 

Wge  gneiss  rock  mach  qaarried,  upon  which  a  rude  mud  hut  has  been 
erected.  Near  this  hut  another  basaltic  dyke  or  vein  is  seen  ranning 
about  E.  N.  E.  and  W  S.  W.  the  strata  of  the  gneiss  about  N.  W.  and 
S.S. ;  it  is  57  paces  in  length,  it  seems  to  have  entered  from  the  west, 
vaid,  where  its  breadth  is  8i  inches,  takes  rather  a  zigzag  course,  and 
at  last  becomes  small  and  thread  like,  and  is  lost  in  the  gneiss. 
Ii  two  places  the  basalt  of  the  dyke  has  decomposed  ou  its  sur- 
face into  a    brick  coloured  looking    substance. 

Crossing  the  bund,  and  entering  a  spot  where  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
eoltifation  and  many  trees,  we  arrive  at  a  tank  not  of  very  great  size,  and 
sot  to  be  confounded  with  a    very   fine    one  near    and    close  to    the 
north- west  gate  of  the  pel  tab.     As  there  is  a  peculiar    arrangement 
(Crocks  close  to  the    bund    of  this  tank  I  will   first   doscribe  them, 
before  proceeding  to  the  further  account  of  the  trap  dykes.     A  large 
Mack  mass,  close  to  the  end  of  the  bund,  is  seen  running  down  with  a 
coBstderable  slope,  and  is  lost  in  the  tank.    At  a  distance  it  looks  like  a 
basaltic  dyke,  which  I  at  first  took  it  for,  but  it  runs  with  the  strata, 
does  not  cut  across  them,  and  is  not  basalt  but  hornblende  slate.     It  is  a 
large    mass  of  hornblende  slate,  perfectly  dyke-like  in  its  appearance. 
The  gneiss  near  it  has  a  very  slaty  appearance,   and  contiuns  very  little 
mica,  and  next  to  it  there  are  large  masses  of  a  very  slaty  rock  of  a  grey 
colour,  the  strata  perpendicular  to  the  horizon — it  appears  to  be  a  sort  o  f 
argillaceous  chlorite  slate.  Between  this  chlorite  slate  and   the  dyke-like 
hornblende  slate,  the  gneiss  rock,  as  just  described,  has  undergone  altera- 
tion, and  assumed  a  slaty  aspect.    The  observer  now  finds  himself  on  a 
road  which  leads  into  the  pettah  ;  and  about  a  hundred  yards  from  the 
spot  DOW  described,  there  is  a  small  tope  of  trees  and  apparently  the 
coDtinoation  of  the  trap  dyke  which  was  seen   about  half  a  mile  off 
banting  through  granite — this  dyke  crosses  the  road,  and  is  seen  for 
mflcs  stretching  in  a  westerly  direction,   fonning  Utile  Hlpvations.     If 
instead  now  of  following  the  road  which  leads  close  to  a  very  magnifi- 
cent tank,  and  enters  the  pettah  at  its  north-west  angle,  we  turu  off  to 
the  right  and  take  the  road  round  the  pettah  wall,  some  way  on   we 
fiodaroad  leading  out  of  the  pettah  and  taking  a  course  about  due 
lest— this  is  the  road  to  Sevemdroog  formerly   alluded   to.     There  are 
•OBic  rocks  to  the  south-west  of  this  road,  where  the  geological  observer 
will  find  another  basaltic  dyke  running  about  east  and  west— he  also 
BOW  finds  himself  in  the  very  region  of  rocks,  in  the  midst  of  which 
there  is  a  very  large  village  and  several  sawmy  houses  cut  out  in  the 
Jocks.    In  a  direction  further  on  again,  he  comes  into  the  high  road 
leading  to  Kingaree  and  berins^patam,  which  I  will  now  pursue,  but 


UXI  Geology  rf  Bangalore^  and  af  [Jam* 

commencing  at  the  gate  going  out  of  the  pettah  and  near  die  fort. 

A  very  short  way  after  leaving  this  gate,  a  trap  or  greenstone  dyke  is 
seen  close  to  the  road  on  the  left-hand  side  running  for  many  miles  to  tl» 
westward — ^it  here  contains  a  good  deal  of  felspari  and  has  nomeioiis 
needle-shaped  crystals  of  a  white  ccdour — ^this  dyke  cots  through  granite 
containing  very  little  mica,  and  is  continued  on  for  several  miles.  About 
two  miles  from  the  pettah  gate,  it  is  seen  rising  into  two  or  tiiree  small 
hills  on  the  left  and  close  to  the  road.  Here  the  trap  assumes  a  basaltic 
appearance,  and  a  regular  dyke  of  basalt  is  observed  passing  through  a 
granitic  mass  which  lies  between  the  trap  rocks  and  the  road,  distant 
from  the  last  about  sixty-five  paces.  I  here  found  a  piece  of  micaceous 
iron  ore.  Some  rather  high  granitic  rocks  are  seen  on  the  other  side  of 
the  trap  dyke,  forming  one  end  of  a  large  bund  which  is  worth  inspect- 
ing,  and  which  has  been  cut  through — the  masses  of  granite  heaped  to* 
gether  in  a  most  confused  manner.  But  resuming  the  trap  dyke,  which, 
as  just  observed,  here  forms  two  hillocks,  it  now  passes  to  the  other 
side  of  the  Kingaree  road,  and  extends  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  form* 
ing  slight  elevations.  On  the  other  side  of  the  road,  and  near  it,  there 
is  a  gneiss  rock  through  which  a  vein  of  basalt  passes,  and  from  this 
rock  a  very  extensive  view  is  afforded.  The  trap  dyke  is  seen  on  the  left, 
near  the  road,  and  another  is  observed  to  the  right,  and  they  both  nm 
along  for  many  miles.  The  one  on  the  right  of  the  gneiss  rock  is  not  so 
broad,  but  is  in  large  tabular  masses,  not  in  rounded  blocks,  and  ap^ 
preaches  to  regular  basalt — a  ravine  between  the  two  shows  beds  of 
pegmatite  and  of  hornblende  slate. 

The  region  now  under  description  is  quite  igneous,  the  speci- 
mens  of  trap  varying  in  appearance,  but  more  or  less  either  regular 
basalt  or  basaltic  trap.  From  this  gneiss  rock,  the  trap  dyke,  be- 
fore  described  previous  to  coming  upon  the  Sevemdroog  road,  is  also 
seen.  On  reluming  to  the  main  road,  and  passing  through  a 
small  tope,  the  road  continues  along,  leaving  the  first  described 
trap  dyke  which  stretches  out  to  the  west,  the  direction  of  the  road 
being  now  about  south-west.  A  quarter  of  a  mile  on,  a  basaltic  dyke 
traverses  the  road  east  and  west,  the  stratification  of  the  rock  through 
which  it  cuts  being  north  and  south — the  breadth  of  this  dyke  about  one 
foot,  two  inches.  Continuing  along  this  road  for  some  way,  a  small 
stream  is  crossed,  granite  and  gneiss  rocks  on  each  side — further  on  an- 
other small  stream  is  passed,  and  now  we  find  hornblende  slate  very  com* 
mon.  Turning  to  the  left,  and  following  this  stream  on  our  way  back, 
large  masses  of  hornblende  slate  are  exposed  in  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
and  near  this  we  come  upon  a  rather  high  range  of  granite  hills  run- 
ning north  and  south—the  highest  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 


1839]  gome  other  port  ions  of  Mi/ sore,  103 

the  cantonment.     To  the  south  of  the  small  stream,  and  near  the  granite 
bills, two  conical  and  darker  coloured  hillocks  are  seen,  consisting  of 
chlorHe,  lioroblende  and  actynolite — the  specimens  intenmlly  of  a  grey- 
iili green  or  blneish  green  hue.    It  is  more  compact  than  the  generality 
of  the  chlonte  rocks,  and  seems  to  be  an  intimate  admixture  of  chlorite, 
horablende  and  actynolite.    Two  miles  nearer  the  cantonment,  there  is  a 
eonicalhill,  of  the  same  appearance,  but  not  so  high,  with  several  small 
billocks  running  from  it  and  taking  a  south-west  course.     The  largest 
haaafcw  shrabs  growing  from  between  the  blocks,  which  lie  in  an 
irregalar  manner  together,  glistening  in  the  sun — colour  externally  of  a 
greyish  or  greyish  blue,  with  very  small  holes  or  cavities,  giving  the 
tpecimens  a  somewhat  variolated  appearance.    Some  particularly  in  de- 
coopo^itioti  have  a  red,  iron  rust  aspect ;  these  contain  much  iron,  inter- 
nally of  a  greyish  green  with  small   cavities,   containing  oxide  of  iron, 
and  when   these  are  abundant  it  assumes  in  decomposition  a  reddish 
coloar.    It  consists  chiefly  of  chlorite  and  oxide  of  iron,  and  perhaps 
there  is  a  little  hornblende  or  actynolite.     Following  up  the  little  hil- 
locb  which  run  firom  it,  a  good  deal  of  quartz  pehble  is  found  covering 
(he  ground,  and  much  magnetic  iron  ore  distributed  about,  with  large 
pebbly  looking  bodies,  and  pieces  of  what  might  be  called  iron  stone,  of 
a  brown  colour  externally,  black  within  from  numerous  crystals  of  iron 
ore,  which,  with  some  few  small  crystals  of  quartz,  decompose    into  a 
sp?pi?»s  of  iron  clay  of  a  brick  red  colour  and  quite  indurated. 

tblorite  rock  is  not  uncommon  in  various  parts  of  Mysore,  and  the  hand 
specimens  differ  greatly  even  in  the  same  locality,  as  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  Mooty  Tailao  or  Lsike  of  Pearls,  near  the  hill  of 
Mailcottah,  famous  for  its  sanctity  and  its  jewels.  I  have  now  before 
me  a  great  variety  of  specimens  many  of  them  from  between  Madoor 
and  Handium  where  it  abounds.  One  conical  hill,  upon  which  a  pagoda 
ii  erected,  on  the  right  of  the  road,  some  few  miles  before  reaching  Mun- 
$010,  is  in  appearance  Bimilar  to  the  chlorite  hills  just  described.  I  did 
not  visit  this  hill,  but  the  rocks  on  the  road  side,  and  on  a  level  with  it,  are 
ofchlfHrite  with  actjmblitca  chlorite  rock  or  slate  either  alone  or  with  an 
admixture  of  hornblende  and  actynolite,  as  observed  above,  is  not  un- 
connon,  and  prevails  between  Mundium  and  Madoor,  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Xiake  of  Pearls.  Besides  the  oxide  of  iron  which  it 
contains  in  nesta,  iron  shot  quartz  is  found  and  cubic  crystals  of  brown 
iron  stone.  The  specimens  in  my  possession  seem  to  answer  to  Dr. 
Vaecallock's  second  subdivision,  varieties.  E.  F.  and  G.  Chlorite,  talc, 
^  potstone  pass  much  into  each  other,  and  are  arranged  by  Mr.  Allan 
VKier  the  same  head — talc  comprehending  the  lighter  varieties,  and  the 
^t,  when  very  coarae  and  indistinctly  granular,  forming  potstone. 


104  Geology  of  Bangalore,  aAd  of  [Jan. 

The  geological  enquirer  labours  under  many  disadvantages  in  India — 
the  climate  is  constantly  opposing  him,  and  tbe  condition  of  the  inhabit- 
ants and  state  of  civilization  such,  that  few  deep  sections  ever  meet 
the  view  as  in  happier  and  less  barbarous  climes.  The  enquirer  in 
other  lands,  has  only  to  observe  the  stones  used  in  building  the  house* 
of  the  inhabitants,  from  whence  he  may  form  some  idea  of  the  principal 
rocks  in  the  neighbourhood ;  but  in  India,  where  mud  takes  the  place  of 
stone,  this  cannot  be  done,  and  we  must  be  satisfied  with  the  sections 
or  nullahs  naturally  made,  in  the  absence  of  artificial  ones,  and  betake 
ourselves  to  these  and  to  the  large  wells  and  tanks,  the  bunds  and  sides 
of  which  are  constructed  of  stone.  In  his  scientific  investigatioiis,  the 
geologist  is  one,  who  daily  realises  the  old  classic  adage,  of  truth  being 
at  the  bottom  of  a  well,  that  is,  deep  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Of 
these  nullahs  three  very  large  ones  exist  near  the  cantonment— one 
about  2  miles  from  Clsoor  on  the  north  side  of  the  Madras  road— an- 
other close  to  the  Infiintry  butts,  and  another  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
to  the  south  of  the  Belfry.  In  many  of  these  the  decomposed  masses 
of  earth  are  of  a  beautiful  pink  colour,  and  have  assumed  a  conical 
shape — I  may  describe  a  smaller  one,  which  is  distant  about  a  mile  and 
a  half  west  from  the  Infantr}'  butts,  running  about  east  and  west,  and 
terminating  near  a  small  village  ^it  is  somewhat  different  from  the 
others,  and  I  select  it  in  consequence.  At  the  upper  or  west  end,  beds 
of  hornblende  slate  are  exposed,  then  beds  of  mica  or  rather  chlorite, 
sometimes  the  two  running  into  each  other,  and  decomposing  into  a 
yellowish  green  earth — a  little  way  down  the  decomposing  rock  is 
almost  a  pegmatite,  much  red  felspar  with  quartz,  with  a  very  slight 
coating  or  tinge  of  chlorite  of  a  yellow  green  colour — the  mica  and 
hornblende  are  found  again  predominating,  then  further  on  the  felspar 
and  quartz — some  masses  close  grained  and  passing  into  eurite.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  nullah  there  is  a  village,  as  before  mentioned,  and  much 
honiblfnde  slate  with  veins  of  quartz  running  through  it,  giving  the 
rtx'ks  much  the  ap|>eanince  of  flinty  slate — pieces  are  lying  about  of  m 
ferruginous  dark  appearance  from  the  hyper-oxydation  of  the  iron  in  the 
hornblende  and  quartz.  Lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  nullah  towards  the 
top,  there  is  also  a  species  of  soft  chlorite  slate.  What  is  called  the 
Belfry,  is  a  small  sjK>t  of  ele>-ated  ground,  upon  which  a  pagoda,  or  rather 
tower,  is  erected,  to  the  north  of  this  nulLih — it  consists  of  lithomarge, 
and  is  siiid  to  be  the  highest  sjH)t  of  the  table-land  of  Mv8or«.  The 
elevation  is  one  mass  wf  lithomarge  of  a  mottled  red  and  white  colour, 
w^hich  adheres  strongly  to  the  tongue  and  feels  fine  and  greasy.    This 


1839]  some  other  portions  of  Mysore.  105 

bill  of  lithoroarge  confirms  me  in  my  views  respecting  the  lithomargic 
ibrmatioii,  as  entered   into  in  other  places.     It  has  resulted  from  the  de- 
composition of  a  rock  or  rocks  containing  hornblende  and  felspar — the 
white  showing  the  felspar — the  red  the  hornblende.  Basalt  has  also  most 
likely  been  contained  in  the  rock  originallyi  for  besides  pieces  of  felspar, 
of  hornblende  and  of  quartz,  found  lying  on  the  surfiioe  of  the  hill, 
there  were  some  of  basalt     I  also  picked  up  one  piece  of  magnetic  iron 
ore.    Upon  the  sur^c  of  this  hill,  or  rather  mound,  are  small  nodules, 
of  a  brown  colour  and  quite  hard.    On  breaking  into  them  they  are  of 
the  colour  of  brick,  with  white  specks  diffused  over  them  and  irridescent 
blue  iron  spots  and  streaks ;  they  resemble  the  pebbly  looking  bodies 
found  in  the  chlorite  rock  along  with  iron  stone.     Now  these  indurated 
ipecimens  seem  to  be  those  pieces  of  the  rock  before  decomposition 
which  contained  much  iron.    By  the  kindness  of  my  amiable  and  ex- 
cellently   informed  friend  Mr.  McGrigor  of  the  39th  regiment  with 
vbom,  in  geological  brotherhood,  I  have  visited    all  the    places    hi- 
therto described,   I  am   indebted  for    some   specimens   of   a   similar 
kind  to  the  last,  forming   small    elevations   in   the    neighbourhood  of 
and  beyond  Nundidroog.      Surface  irregular  and  of  a  reddish  brown 
colour,  internally  brick  red  and   resembling  burnt  brick,  with  lines, 
streaks  and  nests  of  decomposed  felspar,  as  in  the  lithomarge  just  de- 
scribed,  and  spots  and  lines  of  a  blue  ferruginous  colour.    The  soil  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  these  hills  is  red  and  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
tobacco.    These  hills  then  seem  to  consist  of  a  species  of  iron  clay, 
iDtermediate  between  lithomarge  and  the  laterite  of  the  coast.    From 
mioate  inspection  of  the  rock,  and  in  agreement  with  former  views  on 
the  subject,  I  consider  it  entitled  to  the  name  of  laterite,  although  it  is 
scarcely  cavernous.     A  study  of  these  specimens,  shows  the  passage  of 
iadorated  lithomarge  into  clay  stone  or  laterite.     If  the  original  trap 
tvk  from  which  it  was  produced,  contained  more  felspar  than  hornblende, 
and  not  much  iron,  lithomarge  is  formed ;   but  if  the  rock  originally 
contained  more  hornblende  than  felspar  and  much  iron,  then  the  clay 
stone  or  laterite  is  formed.     It  is  this  last  rock,  I  should  imagine,  which 
is  described  by  Voysey,  under  the  name  of  iron  clay,  forming  elevated 
table-land  at  Beder. 

Nundidroog,  distant  35  miles  north  from  Bangalore,  rises  in  three 
majestic  hills  from  the  surrounding  plain — at  the  distance  it  has 
the  appearance  of  being  only  one  hill,  but  there  are  three — one 
heiag  thrown  back  some  miles  does  not  deserve  to  be  included.  It  is 
said  to  be  1700  feet  high.  A  peculiar  kind  of  granite  was  brought  me 
from  here,  but  whether  from  the  hill  or  not  the  person  who  brought  it 
coultiaotsay — he  thinks  it  was — he  forgot  to  make  a  memorandum  at 


iOi)  Geology  of  Ban  galore ,  and  of  [Ja5. 

the  time,  and  it  was  in  the  same  bag  with  others.  It  looks  an  aggregate 
rock — large  crystals  of  grey  quartz  in  a  confused  mass  of  felspar  of 
white  colour,  with  only  a  very  few  of  the  very  smallest  scales  of  mica, 
scarcely  perceptible.  To  the  west  of  Bangalore,  some  most  pictaresqiie 
and  beautiful  hills  are  seen  running  in  a  direction  about  north  and  south. 
They  are  of  various  sizes  and  show  a  variety  of  shape — some  of  the 
smaller,  peaked,  but  the  greater  number  having  a  somewhat  cupola  or 
dome  shape,  mentioned  as  peculiar  to  porphyritic  granite,  which  they  are. 
In  the  midst  of  this  range  a  large  rounded  mountain  is  conspicuoas 
above  them  all,  Sevcrndroog,  once  famed  for  its  strength  as  a  hill  fort,  and 
now  still  famous  for  its  unheal  thiness.  The  country  in  the  neighbour- 
hood is  of  a  wild  and  wooded  character,  which  first  commences  abont 
3  or  4  miles  beyond  Tauverkairy,  13  miles  from  Bangalore.  This  range 
of  hills  is  between  20  and  30  miles  from  the  cantonment.  About  4 
miles  beyond  Tauverkairy  passes  the  Arkaw  utty  river,  the  largest  in  this 
part  of  Mysore.  In  its  bed  are  some  beautiful  specimens  of  granite,  with 
red  and  green  felspar,  and  the  mica  in  decomposition,  giving  a  greenish 
tinge  to  the  rock.  The  road  after  crossing  the  river  ascends,  and  there 
is  a  pass  through  the  hills  and  rocks  which  are  elevated  above  the 
surrounding  jungle.  The  rocks  are  of  granite,  showing  more  or  less 
the  porphyritic  character— the  felspar  both  red  and  white.  I  possess 
some  beautiful  specimens  which  1  found  lying  about,  consisting  of  green 
felspar  with  blueish  (juartz  and  crystals  of  red  felspar  distributed  over 
them,  some  of  the  specimens  are  of  red  felspar  with  a  chlorite  tinge  in 
some  places— other  specimens  again    arc  entirely  of  green  felspar. 

Sevemdroog  and  the  surrounding  hills  are  of  porphyritic  granite — 
more  marked  in  some  than  in  others— the  felspar  red  and  th^^ 
mica  greenish  blat  k.  Much  trap  is  seen  lying  about  th-^  road  in  small 
pieces,  and  it  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  rocky  hills,  giving  them  a  dark 
appearance  in  certain  places.  I  have  never  proceeded  further  in  thi« 
direction,  but  my  friend  Mr.  McGrigor  sent  me  some  specimens  which 
he  picked  up  between  Coongul  and  Belloor,  apparently  a  very  interest- 
ing tract  of  country  :  the  specimens  are  trap,  of  which  many  of  the  hills 
seem  to  consist— flinty  slate,  talc  slate,  actynolite,  and  chlorite  slates, 
and  a  species  of  chlorite  porphyry,  the  felspar  red.  This  is  the  main 
road  to  Semooga,  the  present  capital  of  Nuggur  or  Bednoro.  At  Chine- 
roypatam  is  the  famous  statue  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  near  Belloor 
are  the  ruins  of  Hallibede,  both  of  which  are  well  worthy  of  inspoction. 
Not  far  from  here,  are  the  Bib i-Boo<len  hills,  giving  origin  to  the  Badra 
river,  which  uniting  with  the  Tungha  near  Scmooga,  forms  the  Toora- 
buddra.    "By  \\w  kindness  of  two  very  zealous  and  tdented  botanists. 


1^1  some  other  portions  of  Mysore,  107 

Lieut.  MuDro  aod  Mr.    Gougli,  I  bave  been  favoured  Avith  some  speci- 
vaeta  of  which  they  say  the  Baba-Boodeo  hills  principally    consist- 
Flinty  slate  and  quartz  rock  seem  comnion,  and  are  much  im])regnated 
witli  iron.  One  specimen  of  flinty  slate,  or  perhaps  what  Buchanan  would 
wll  homstone,  affects  the  magnet,  and  another  is  full  of  particles  of  iron 
sud,  granular  magnetic  iron  ore.    I  possess  two  kinds  of  the  magnetic 
ircm— one  an  amorphous  mass,  of  a  reddish  blue  colour,  highly  magnetic, 
uid  possessing  polarity  in  a  very  great  degree — in  fact  the  natural  mag- 
net or  loadstone,  apparently  the  same  as  found  in  Siberia  and  the  Hartz. 
The  other  specimen  or  specimens  are  slaty,   tabular  slaty  masses,  exter- 
nally wf  a  brownish  yellow  tinge  and  internally  of  a  dark  purple  colour. 
This  slaty  kind  is  also  highly  magnetic,  and  exbibits  polarity  in  a  very 
Mgh  degree.     Besides  these,  there  is  heematitic  iron  ore,  and  its  passage 
iotoa  rock  which  somewliat  resembles  laterite.     An   argillaceous  pot- 
itoiie  seems  also  to  be  common ;  it  is  of  a  yellowish  brown  colour,   very 
soft  and  greasy,  and  is   I  imagine  the  talcose  argellite  of  Buchanan, 
tome  specimens  more  argillaceous  than  talcose,  and  others  more  talcose 
than  argillaceous. 

Another  kind  of  stone  I  possess  of  a  dark  colour  externally,  but 
iotenially  of  an  olive  green  black,  very  soft  and  rather  greasy — 
it  is  used  for  manufacturing  gods  out  of.  I  have  not  seen  it  in 
any  other  part  of  Mysore,  it  may  be  called  a  talcose  hornblende,  being  a 
luxture  of  either  talc  or  perhaps  potstooe  with  hornblende.  In  the 
specimen  described,  the  talc  predominates  over  the  hornblende,  but  in 
some,  found  between  Mysore  and  Nungengode,  the  hornblende  predomi- 
nates over  the  talc  and  is  of  a  green  colour.  I  am  not  aware  that  this 
rock  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  Baba-Boodens,  but  it  is  found  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

The  rocks  then  forming  these  hills  are  flinty  slate,  quartz  rock,  both 
■nich  impregnated  with  iron,  the  granular  magnetic  iron  ore.  H»ma- 
titic  iron  ore,  slaty  magnetic  iron  ore,  and  the  same  in  amorphous 
masses,  and  argillaceous  potstone. 

The  whole  of  the  Nuggur  or  Bednore  district  of  Mysore  abounds  with 
iron,  which  1  am  told  fetches  a  very  high  price  in  the  Bombay  market. 
AtHurryhur,  distant  from  Bangalore  1^  miles,  and  according  toHeyne 
1831  feet  above  the  level  of  Madras,  and  probably  the  lowest  point  m  the 
«ho\c  of  Mysore,  Buchanan  tells  us  the  basis  of  the  country  is  somewhat 
between  an  argellite  and  schistose  hornblende,  and  between  the  strata 
of  this  argillaceous  hornblende  slate  are  masses  of  an  earthy  quartz  or 
honstone  impregnated  with  hornblende. 

I  will  now  describe  some  portion  of  the  south-west  part  of  Mysore, 


108  Geology  of  Bangalore^  and  of  [Jam. 

proceeding  to  the  bottom  of  the  Neilgherries,  and  then  turn  off  at  My- 
sore in  the  direction  of  Coorg.    The  Kiugaree  road  has  in  some  measure 
been  before  described,  granite   and    gneiss   rocks,    with  several   trap 
dyiies,   and  much  basalt  and    basaltic  trap.     About    half    way    horn- 
blende slate  in  large     beds   is  very  abundant,  and  the   country   very 
bleak,  and   only     very  slightly  cultiva(ed--soil   stony  and    unproduc- 
tive.     Between    Biddidy  and   Closepett  the  country  is  wooded,  very 
little  cul*ivation  and  much  pasture  land;   as  we   approach    the   last 
mentioned  place  the   masses  of  rock  near  the  roadside  are  of  porphy- 
ritic  granite,  the  felspar  of  a  light  flesh  colour.     Closepett,    or  Raro- 
giri  in  the  native  dialect,  has  a  most  picturesque  locality  in  a    valley 
close  to  the  Arkawutty  river,  enclosed  on  two  sides  by  hills  of  consi- 
derable height.    There  is   much  dense  jungle  around,  and  the  rocky 
hilU,  shaped  like  Martello  towers  or  bastions,  rise  up' from  amidst  the 
jungle.     The  porphyritic  character  of  the  rock  is  here  better  marlied 
than  in  the  Scvemdroog  direction,  for  these  belong  to  the  same  range. 
The  country  immediately  on  the  other  side  of  Closepett  is  still  wooded, 
but  the  hills  are  of  much  less  elevation,  and  have  lost  the  porphyritic 
character.    To   the  north  of  the  road  there  is  gneiss,  full  of  garnets  of 
various  sires,  strata  of  the  rock  running  about  north  and  south;  and  oo 
the  road«  and  bonlering  it,  are  detached  specimens  of  a  heavy  ferru- 
ginous looking  stone,  consisting    seemingly  of  quartz  and  hornblende* 
About  half  way  towards  Chinepatam,   there  is  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Hanuman,  the  ytry  wonderful  monkey  god,  who  with  chivalry  for  dis- 
trcs$e<l  damsels   perfectly  quixotic,  led  an  army  over  to  Ceylon,  and  de- 
liveroii  fn>m  thraldom  a  beautiful  princess.  Near  this  temple  are  some  red 
roi'ks,  looking  at  the  distance  like  ant  hills.     This  is  the  red  granite  of 
Buchanan,  iuid  has  before  been  described — it  chiefly  consists  of  red  fels- 
par of  a  ver\*  clayey  aspect.     A  little  way  beyond  this  the  hills  recede^ 
the  country*  o})ens,  and  a  flat  cultivated  plain  extends  on  the  right,  some 
jungly  hills  still  on  the  leit     The  principal  rock  around  Chinepatam  is 
gneiss,  but  different  fn>m  the  rock  roond  Bangalore,  here  it  is  red  in- 
stcfiul  of  grey.     ArxHind  Bangalore  the  quantity  of  black  mica,  with  the 
white  fels^tar  and  quaru,  gives  the  nock  a  grey  appearance,  but  here  the 
specimens  are  beautiful   fK>m  the  quantity     of  red  felspar  in  patches^ 
reins  and  streaks.     The  country  continues  open,  much  wet  cultivated 
gitHmd  for  sv^me  mile^^,  succeeded  by  open  plains  covered  with  small 
bushes,  chiefly  the  auM  auricuiaitu  which  is  very  common  and  used  for 
tanning — ^ver}'  few  stones  or  rxKks  on  or  near  the  road,  and  those  eon- 
laimng  red  fels^wr  with  small  garnets.     Further  on  the  road  becomes 
very  sandy,  the  soil  shorn- lug  a  saline  impregnation,  and  topes  of  toddy 
trees  cover  the  cvHintry.     In  the  river  Madoor.  which,  as  osnal  with  most 


I*i39]  tome  other  portions  of  Mysore.  109 

of  its  class  in  Tndia,  contains  more  sand  than  water,  gneiss  is  exposed, 
and  many  of  the  pebbles  of  quartz  picked  up  arc  of  a  green  colour  from 
chlorite — water-worn  pieces  of  kunkar,  like  finger  coral,  are  also  mixed 
up  with  the  sand. 

McdooT  is  close  to  this  river,  and  is  a  small  and  as  usual  dirty 
Tillage,  with  much  cultivation  in  the  neighbourhood.  On  leav- 
ing Madoor  there  arc  some  hornblende  rocks  on  the  right  and 
dose  to  the  road— hills  now  at  consideiable  distance — ground  in 
long  swells,  and  covered  with  stones  and  long  grass — pieces  of 
quartz  and  hornblende  on  the  road,  very  few  rocks.  Hornblende 
slate  in  various  places  is  seen  passing  across  the  road,  with 
much  iron  sand  in  the  nullahs.  About  four  miles  before  reaching 
Mandium,  and  previous  to  descending  into  a  very  extensive  valley,  con- 
taioiog  much  black  soil,  a  small  conical  shaped  hill,  with  a  pagoda 
03  it,  is  seen  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  road,  but  distant.  It 
bis  ths  same  form  as  the  chlorite  hills  near  Bangalore  ;  on  the  road 
chlorite  slate  is  picked  up  in  several  places,  and  just  on  entering  the 
Tilley  there  are  several  rocks  of  chlorite  and  actynolite — brown  exterior, 
iniemal  surface  decomposing  and  ferruginous.  These  specimens  Viu-y 
Boch,  some  are  altogether  of  chlorite,  others  of  chlorite  and  actynolite, 
the  needle-shaped  crystals  of  the  last  very  distinct,  and  some  are  very 
hard  and  close  grained — an  argillaceous  chlorite.  In  one  place  the  rock 
vas  porphyritic,  the  basis  chlorite  with  crystals  of  white  felspar  im- 
betlded.  This  valley  contains  much  black  soil,  with  kunkar,  and  on  the 
Mundium  side  a  stream  runs  along  which  has  exposed  the  rock  viz. 
gneiss  with  large  beds  of  hornblende  slate — the  felspar  in  this  gneiss 
of  a  snow  white  colour,  with  silver  mica.  Near  the  bungalow  at  Mundi- 
am,  outside  the  wall,  are  several  rocks  of  hornblende,  and  on  the  other 
side  of  the  large  tank  salt  is  manufactured,  but  of  a  very  impure  kind. 
It  is  obtained  from  the  soil  which  in  several  places  betwixt  Mundium 
sad  Madoor  is   full  of  it,  and  in  which  the  palm  flourished. 

Two  or  three  miles  from  Mundium  on  the  Seringapatam  side,  the  soil 
ia  calcareous  and  clayey.  Small  pieces  of  kunkar,  like  marbles  lying  about 
—the  ground  low  and  as  if  once  much  under  water— some  hills  of  slight 
deTation,  running  parallel  with  the  road  on  the  left-hand  side,  and  most 
likely  consisting  of  chlorite  slate  and  actynolite  slate,  as  some  speci- 
meas  were  found  forming  a  water-course  which  passed  over  the  road, 
along  with  a  porphyritic  rock,  met  with,  and  to  be  described,  in  the  bed  of 
the  Cauveri  near  the  Wellesly  bridge  at  Seringapatam.  In  a  deep 
Bidlah  near  the  road  a  little  way  beyond  this  spot,  gneiss  rock  exposed; 
felspsr  red,  with  beds  of  hornblende  slate,  and  veins  of  a  calcareous  sub- 
stance resembling  kunkar — kunkar  in  a  valley  below.   Towards  Seriiiga- 


110  (ito^ogi/  of  Bauaahrc,  and  of  [Jan. 

l>atam  tlio  count  rv  becomes  more  c'.cvutcd  and  barren,  much  quartz 
covering  the  road.  Sometimes  quartz  rock  jutting  out  of  the  ground, 
but  principally  hornblende  slate — the  road  then  passes  through  a  range 
of  low  bills  terminating  in  the  Corighaut  hill. 

Tliis  range  of  low  hills,  better  seen  coming  from  than  going  to  Serin- 
ga^iatam,  is  of  smooth  outline --no  deep  valleys  between — one  hill  run- 
ning into  another,  peaked  slightly  at  top,  and  sloping  down,  meeting 
another  of  tlie  same  formation,  and  well  contrasted  with  the  porphyritic 
gnuiite  of  the  French  Rocks  at  the  distance.  These  hills  of  low  and 
Smooth  outline,  and  through  which  the  high  road  jiasses,  are  of  chlorite 
slate— the  chlorite  of  a  beautiful  light  green  colour  and  glistening— - 
much  quartz  in  small  pieces  lying  about,  and  the  gneiss  rock  showing 
the  passage  into  mica  slate.  In  one  s|)ot  on  the  road,  the  union  existing 
between  hornblende,  actynolite,  tremolite,  and  -asbestos,  was  well  shown, 
as  mentioned  by  mineralogists,  and  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  define 
well  and  clearly  which  they  decidedly  belonged  to.  Here  also  there 
are  some  nx-ks  of  the  hmI  stone  before  mentioned,  containing  principally 
a  red  clayey  fol$]iar,  with  small  microscopic  cavities  of  a  black  shining 
metallic  substance.  This  region  is  altogether  a  ven-  marked  and  slaty 
one — the  iH>uutr}'  rather  elevated,  and  very  bleak,  and  with  not  the  least 
cultiration.  As  we  approach  Seringapatam,  trap  dykes  are  observed  on 
both  sides  of  the  road. 

Seringajutam,  a  place  of  such  classic  military  celebrity,  lies  low, 
and  in  a  xnlley,  high  ground  on  three  sides  of  it  It  is  built  upon 
an  island,  formed  by  the  branching  of  the  nver  Cauveri,  2,412  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  therefore  between  five  and  six 
hundred  feet  lower  than  Bjingalore.  It  is  a  place  possessing  much 
intert^t  both  to  the  militan*  and  medical  roan.  The  eve  of  the 
last  wanders  over  it,  questioning  the  reason  of  its  unhealthy  celebrity. 
Manv  writer:*,  and  the  verv  best,  Mr.  Geddes.  are  inclined  to  refer  its 
unhealthiness  to  its  prxtximity  to  a  jungly  tract  of  country,  not  entirely 
overlooking  its  site,  but  |>crluips  not  allowing  sufficiently  for  it.  If 
proximity  to  jungle  had  any  thing  to  do  w  ith  it,  the  French  Rocks,  distant 

oulv  sis  miles,  would  be  similarlv  unhealthv,  which  thev  never  have 

•  •  «  • 

been.  It  is  as  healthy  a  ytaiiou  as  Bangalon?  vh*  any  other  in  the  Mysore 
countjr>\  In  lS3!k,  the  11^ h  regiment  N.  I.  lost  only  5  men — in  1836, 
1 1  men, and  in  1S37.  1^  men— u\orai::«:  for  the  3  vearb  11.  In  all  invest!- 
gations  into  the  s^mnx^  iu  gvueral  of  disease,  we  are  too  prone  perhaps 
to  attach  imi^^rtauce  to  one  |mrticular  cause,  neglecting  the  combined 
iafluence  of  miiK»r  oir>:'um>taitco$ — and  wherv  one  does  not  stand  out 
prominent*  >\e  thi\m  the  oihcis  aside  as  (K^rfectly  insufficient  Ko 
jungles  being  close  at  hand,  no  cM.^usiw  manJies  in  the  ueighbouihood. 


l^j  9orte  othfT  portions  of  Mysore.  1 1 1 

the  bed  of  the  rirer  being  rocky  and  not  miuldy.  none  of  ihe  very  mark- 
ed featiires  of  miasma  present,  we  dismiss  the  subject  as  incapable  of 
^planation. 

But   allow    me    to    describe  Seringapatam    particularly   as   it  must 

bwe  been  some  yeara  ago,  and  the  description   is  one  that  all   must 

confess  to  be  unlieallhy — a  small  island,  lying  very  low,  containing  a 

denie  and  dirty  population,  enclosed  by  tbe  high  walls  of  a  fort.    On 

looking  down    from  one   of  the  minarets  near  the  gate  opposite  the 

Durria  Adaulet  Bang,   we  observe,  that  the  fort  must  have  been  at  one 

time  crowded  with  houses  to  the  very  fort  walls,  affording  a  density  of 

population  seldom  I  should  imagine  equalled.     Even  now  we  observe  the 

itrects  or  lanes  are  extremely  narrow,  and  the  collection  of   filth  very 

greit.    But  density  of  population  and  filth  cannot  alone  account  for  (he 

disease,  for  many  have  contracted  the   fever  and  died  in  the  Durria 

Adanlet  Baug  and  Lanl  Bang.    The   first  still   exists,  and  is  considered 

the  public  bungalow,  a  native  palace  in  the  centre  of  a  fine  park,  one  of 

the  branches  of  the  river  passing  near  it.     Is  it  here,  then,  lowness  of 

position  alone  which  is  prejudicial  ?     I  believe  not,  and  suspect   miasma 

is  combined  with  it     lfaske<l  what  miasma  is,  I  must  borrow  a  word 

from  an  excellent  writer,  Dr.  Fergusson,  and  say,  nescin, 

I  do  however  believe  that  we  may  expect  some  light  to  be  thrown  on 
the  subject  by  geology.  This  science  has  already  explained  some  points 
eonnected  with  disease ;  the  existence,  for  instance,  of  goitre  in  those 
districts  in  mountain  tracts  where  limestone  is  the  principal  rock ;  and  its 
not  attacking  even  neighbouring  villages,  if  built  on  granite,  the  water 
of  coarse  being  calcareous  in  one,  and  not  in  the  other.  The  island  and 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  Seringapatam  show,  that  igneous  action 
has  been  much  in  operation.  I  mentioned  above  that  trap  dykes  were 
teen  just  before  entering,  and  over  the  northern  branch  of  Ihe  river 
a  bridge  is  thrown,  close  to  which  there  is  an  arrangement  of 
rocks  worthy  of  notice— a  red  looking  mass,  dyke-like,  runs  across  the 
rifcr,  and  is  observed  to  be  porphyritic— the  basis  a  red  felspar  with 
imbedded  crystals  of  white  and  reddish  felspar,  and  innumerable  needle- 
shaped  ciTSlals  of  schorl,  or  perhaps  what  might  be  called  schorlaceous 
ftctynolite — some  parts  of  the  rock  having  a  coating  of  a  green  substance, 
ehlorite  or  actynolite.  It  is  a  beautiful  looking  rock,  and  well  contrast- 
ed with  gneiss,  which  is  along  side  of  it.  This  gneiss  distinctly 
ftntified,and  containing  much  Wack  mica.  Along  side  of  this  and 
■earer  the  bridge,  there  is  a  large  mass  of  homstone  running,  dyke-like, 
in  the  same  direction.  Hornstone,  which  is  common  over  the  island,  is 
of  two  shades  or  colours,  one  grey  and  the  other  bine;  the  grey  kind  is 


112  Geology  of  Baiujalore,  and  of  [Jan. 

full  of  elegant  moss-like  impressions,  most  likely  oxide  of  manganese; 
the  blue  kind  docs  not  seem  to  possess  them,  but  both  contain  imbedded 
small  crystals  of  i*lassy  quartz.  On  the  other  side  of  the  bridge,  the 
bed  of  the  river  is  ver^'  rocky,  and  the  rock  exposed  is  a  gneiss  with 
much  red  felspar,  black  or  blueisli  black  mica,  white  quartz,  and  veins 
and  patches  of  a  light  green  substance,  actynolite.  Near  this  last  and 
forming  the  bank  of  the  river  is  a  large  quantity  of  kunkar,  having  a 
decomposed  water-worn  and  almost  osseous  appearance.  The  surface 
rock  on  the  island  is  hornblende,  and  in  one  place,  opposite  the  Banga- 
lore gAi^i  leading  to  the  public  bungalow,  it  is  homstone,  in  large  tabular 
masses.  From  observing  the  quantity  of  hornstone  in  the  walls  of  the 
fort,  I  am  led  to  imagine  th?it  it  must  have  once  prevailed  much.  The 
ditch  shows  gneiss  rock  decomposing,  with  beds  or  dyke-like  masses  of 
homstone  traversiug  it— some  of  these  having  a  vertical,  others  an  hori- 
zontal, position.  There  are  also  numerous  trap  dykes.  From  trap  being 
the  common  surface  rock,  with  homstone  and  the  red  porphyry  above 
described,  we  may  I  think  call  the  locality  an  igneous  one.  It  is  per- 
haps needless  here  to  mention,  that  igneous,  or  rather  volcanic,  countries 
like  Italy,  &c.  &c.  &c.  are  highly  miasmatous.  There  is  one  point  it  is 
necessary  to  touch  on,  connected  with  the  subject  of  the  geology  of  the 
neighbourhood,  I  mean  the  soil.  To  the  east  and  south-east  of  the  fort 
there  is  much  cultivation.  I  obser\ed  the  sugar-cane  in  particular,  and  I 
may  in  piissing  just  remark  the  general  unheal thiness  of  those  West 
India  Islands  where  the  sugar-cane  is  cultivated  to  a  great  extent.  The 
soil  in  this  direction  is  of  a  black  colour,  which  I  have  no  doubt  arises 
from  the  constant  state  of  cultivation  it  is  kept  in,  and  from  the  quan- 
tity of  water  obtained  so  easily  from  the  neighbouring  river.  Where 
there  is  much  cultivation,  and  where  much  water  is  mixed  up  with  a 
soil,  that  soil  is  gcntMally  of  a  black  colour.  This  water  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  passes  through  an  immense  tract  of  jungly  countrj',  and 
must  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  vegetable  matter.  There  is 
another  ])oint  also.  The  bed  of  the  Cauveri  is  full  of  large  rocks  which 
have  a  clean  and  healthy  look,  at  least  what  would  not  be  imagined 
miasmatous ;  but  may  not  these  large  rocky  masses  with  pools  of  water 
about  them  generate  miasma  ?  May  they  not  absorb  the  water  and  ex- 
tricate a  gaseous  and  miasmatous  principle  from  the  rents  and  cracks 
produced  by  the  sun's  rays  upon  them  ?  The  granite  statue  of  Memnon 
is  well  knoi^Ti  to  have  emitted  sounds  when  the  moming  beams  darted 
upon  it,  and  ^[.  Humboldt,  the  greatest  authority  as  a  scientific  travel- 
ler, mentions  that  from  some  of  the  granite  rocks  of  the  Orinoco  sub- 
terranean sounds  have  been  heard,  resembling  those  of  an  organ,  and 


1839]  some   other  portions   of  Mysore,  113 

supposes  tliv*m  to  be  i)rodiice(i  by  the  passage  of  r.uificd  air  through  the 
&»are8;  aud  he  seemn  to  think  that  the  impulse  ag-ainst  the  elastic 
•cales  of  mica  which  intercept  the  crevices  may  contribute  to  modify 
their  expression.  The  epidemic  fever*  which  prevail  on  the  Orinoco, 
the  natives  refer  to  the  noxious  exhalations  that  arise  from  th<^  bare  rowkg 
of  the  rapids.  This  Humboldt  remarks  is  worthy  of  attentidn,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  its  being  connected  with  a  fact  that  has  been  observed  in  seve- 
ral parts  of  the  world,  although  not  sufficiently  explained.  Among  the 
caLincts  and  falls  of  the  Orinoco,  the  granite  rocks,  whenever  they  are 
periodically  suhmerged,  become  smooth  and  seem  as  if  covered  with 
biack-lead.  The  same  appearance  is  presented  at  the  cataracts  of  Sycne, 
as  well  as  those  of  the  Congo.  This  black  deposit,  according  to  Mr. 
Children's  analysis,  consists  of  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  {no  says 
Hr.  M^cgillivray,  the  translator  of  Humboldt),  to  which  some  experiments 
of  Humboldt  induced  him  to  add  carbon  and  super-carburetted  iron.  Mr. 
Macgillivray  goes  on  to  say  that  this  phenomenon  has  only  been  ob« 
•ervtd  in  the  torrid  zone  in  rivers  that  overflow  periodically,  and  are 
bounded  by  primitive  rocks.  M.  Himiboldt  supposes  it  to  arise  from  the 
precipitation  of  substances  chemically  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  not 
from  an  efflorescence  of  matters  contained  in  the  ro^ks  themselves. 
The  Cauveri  overflows  periodically,  and  its  waters  pass  through  a  most 
jaDi^y  tract  of  country. 

There  is  another  circumstance  connected  with  the  river,  which  is 
this — that  although  there  is  often  but  little  water,  thus  leaving  bare 
the  rocky  masses,  water  will  most  likely  be  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  all  over  the  island,  and  lead  to  dampness  and  nxhulation.  In 
the  momiugs  and  early  part  of  the  forenoon,  a  dense  vapour  covers  the 
fort  and  island,  when  the  neighbouring  country  is  perfectly  clear.  All 
valleys  and  low  positions  in  Mysore,  are  more  or  less  unhealthy,  and  are 
Boch  hotter  in  the  day  and  colder  at  nights.  The  mean  annual  tompe- 
lature  of  Seringapatam  is  two  degrees  higher  than  Bangalore— the  ave- 
nge mean  lowest  of  Seringapatam  about  63— that  of  Bangalore  G9— the 
avenge  highest  of  Seringapatam  90— that  of  Bangalore  81— a  difference 
of  *i7  degrees  in  the  one,  and  only  12  in  the  other.  This  alone  might 
iccouDt  for  the  prevalence  of  the  fever,  and  the  other  circumstancesi 
previously  mentioned,  explain  its  malignity. 

The  rocks  between  Seringapatam  and  Mysore  are  chiefly  igneous,  trap 
>nd  porphyry— hornblende  seems  the  most  common,  and  has  often  on 
thesoriacea  most  variolated  aspect.  There  are  few  rocks  besides  the 
WnbleDdev  not  including  the  usual  granite  and  gneiss,  to  be  met  with, 
bat  many  of  the  buildings  on  the  road  side  consist  of  a  rock  of  a  por- 
pbyritic  chamcterf  paiple  brown  compact  felspar,  with  white  or  reddish 


114  Geology  of  Banyalorei  and  rf  [Jan, 

crystals  of  felspar  imbedded,  aud  numerous  small  pieces  of  schorl,  not 
so  much  in  needle-shaped  crystals,  as  in  dots.  Hornslone  poq)hyry  ap- 
pears also  to  be  common  and  some  of  the  specimens  very  beautiful. 
One  in  particular  with  crystals  of  red  felspar  in  a  basis  of  dark  coloured 
homstone — another  kind  which  formed  a  dyke  running  east  and  west, 
contained  very  minute  round  or  oval  crystals  of  felspar,  like  the  eggs  of 
some  insects,  with  needle-shaped  crysU^ls  of  schorl.  T  found  another 
kind  to  the  left  of  the  road,  the  hornstone  of  a  dark  colour,  the  felspar 
crystals  chiefly  white,  with  schorl  and  iron  pyrites.  Just  before  enter- 
ing Mysore  there  is  much  hornblende  rock,  giving  a  ringing  sound  under 
the  hammer. 

Between  Mysore  and  Seringapatam  there  are  few  or  no  tanks,  the 
country  watered  by  a  fine  canal,  \vhich  twists  and  turns  in  all  directions, 
and  is  crossed  six  or  seven  times  between  the  two  places.  Mysore  itself 
lies  low,  under  a  very  high  hill  of  the  same  name,  a  thousand  feet  above 
^he  plain.  The  country  around  is  sli«jhtly  elevated ;  a  fine  red  soil  pre- 
vails, in  some  places  highly  cultivated.  A  deep  section  called  Pumeah's 
cut,  close  to  the  town,  enables  us  to  see  the  formation — the  rock  is  gneiss, 
in  a  decomposing  state,  with  veins  of  quartz  and  beds  of  hornblende 
slate,  the  mica  is  of  a  dark  green  colour.  The  gneiss  rock  here  differs 
from  that  of  Bangalore  and  Chiuepatam,  by  containing  much  green  mica, 
and  the  felspar  is  boih  red  and  white.  This  cut,  according  to  Hamilton, 
u  thirty  miles  in  length,  between  thirty  and  forty  feet  in  breadth,  and 
sunk  in  some  places  to  the  depth  of  eighty  feet  through  strata  of  solid 
rock.  Purneah  appears,  to  have  been  a  truly  clever  and  public  spirited 
man.  The  Government  ought  to  erect  a  monument  to  his  memor)',  and 
place  it  in  the  >ery  centre  of  the  town,  to  show  how  much  it  appreci- 
ates native  talent,  cnergN*  and  public  zeal,  and  as  an  incitement  to  others 
of  his  countrvmon. 

The  stones  in  the  fort  of  Mysore,  within  which  is  the  palace  of  the 
raja,  and  those  used  inoonstructingthe  neighbouring  fort  of  Mungerabad, 
which  was  comnunooJ  by  Tippoo,  show  specimens  of  the  rocks  around. 
The  most  common  i>  the  gneiss  ju&t  described,  white  and  red  felspar, 
ver)'  little  quartz,  and  much  green  mica  in  stripes — then  there  is  a  rock 
of  red  fclsjKir  auil  gliissy  quartz,  fels^nu-  predominating,  aud  in  large 
crj-stals,  with  only  a  few  scales  of  mica — red  compact  felspar  with  veins 
of  actynoliie.  and  then  a  sort  of  porphyritic  or  augitic  hornblende  rock. 
Mvsore  hill  consists  of  common  aud  ]K>q>hyritic  granite^  the  felspar 
is  abundant  and  is  either  >\hite  or  with  a  very  slight  tinge  of  red,  very 
1  i;ht  llesh  colour— mioa  bluoish  imd  black.  Tlie  poq)hyri tic  character 
vf  the  rock  is  best  seen  from  the  n^d  leading  to  Nungengode;  the 
Uones  on  the  road  ustd  for  building  show  it.    The  rock  at  the  bottom 


1839]  some  other  portions  qf  Mysore,  115 

of  the  hill,  near  what  is  called  the  zigzag,  is  of  chlorite  and  actynolite 
slate.    The   rock  on  the  Nungengode  side  as  shown   in  a  large  nullah 
near  the  road  side,  opposite  the  Delwahairy  tank,  is  chlorite,  or  perhaps 
more  correctly  a  talcose  chlorite  slate,  with  actynolite,  and  perhaps  tre- 
molite.    Chlorite,  talc,  actynolite  and  hornblende  are  constantly  running 
into  each  other,  and  the  specimens  are  often  difficult  to  define.     In  na- 
ture there  are  not  always  those  de  ided  specimens  which  are   arranged 
and  described  in  cabinets — order  exists  more  in  the  mineralogist's   head, 
than  in  nature— nature  indeed  is  often  very  disortlerly,   but  by   systems 
and  classifications    we  endeavour    to  tic  her  down. 

Ontbe  road  to  Nungengode  a  chlorite  slate,  combined  perhaps  with  horn 
blende,  is  seen  near  the  above  large  tink,  and  is  decomposing  into  a  red  soil 
Itisofared  colour  externally — further  on,  I  picked  up  specimens  where 
the  hornblende  predominated  over  the  chlorite,  or  talcose  chlorite — on  the 
road  side  specimens  of  magnetic  iron  ore,  with  also  some  of  micaceous 
iron  ore.  Tlie  private  bungalow  and  park  of  Nungengode,  the  prettiest 
spot  I  have  seen  in  India— the  house,  in  the  cottage  style,  placed  on  the 
borders  of  a  fine  river,  and  in  a  large  compound  desen'ing  the  name  of  a 
park,  in  which  arc  the  finest  tamarind  trees  I  have  ever  beheld.  Pro- 
ceeding towards  the  bridge,  by  the  little  path  near  the  water  side,  we 
find  a  ledge  of  quartz  rock  impregnated  with  chlorite,  and  further  on, 
granite  or  gneiss,  close  grained,  with  very  minute  specks  of  black  mica 
—naar  the  bridge  much  hornblende  slate— in  one  ledge  of  it,  a  few 
garnets- hornblende  slate  continues  on  towards  Mysore,  with  much  chlo- 
rite or  talcose  chlorite  on  the  road.  In  the  sandy  bed  of  the  river,  are 
pieces  of  kunkar,  of  a  water-worn  appearance,  of  a  very  light  consistence^ 
ud  like  pumice. 

Nungengode  is  a  large  town,  famoiis  or  rather  infamous  for  its  pagoda,  on 
which  are  carved  figures  of  the  most  indecent  character.  It  was  here, 
where  two  hundred  Jungum  priests  were  murdered.  They  were  called  upon 
to  attend  the  raja,  quite  unaware  of  their  impending  fate,  and,  on  admit- 
tance to  his  presewe,  whilst  bending  their  heads  in  token  of  submission  and 
respect,  had  them  severed  from  their  bodies,  Sindhully,  a  public 
bnogalow  about  five  miles  further  on,  is  built  on  elevated  ground — few 
n)cks  around — the  country  covered  with  long  coarse  grass— the  soil  of 
tt  very  light  red — pieces  of  hornblende  and  quartz  on  the  ground.  One 
or  two  decomposing  granite  and  gneiss  rocks,  and  a  section  near  the 
hw^ow,  from  which  water  is  obtained,  shows  hornblende  slate,  the 
<)ecoaiposition  of  which  I  should  imagine  gives  the  colour  to  the 
Beighbouring   fields.     On  the   (loondlepett   side  of    Nungengode  are 


116  Geology  of  Bangalore^  and  nf  [Jan. 

Bany  tof>es  uf  (oJdjr  trees — much  kunkarious  soil,  with  saline  impregna- 
tion. 

The  road  to  Goondlepett  is  extrem'?ly  wide,  with  magpaificent 
trees,  of  appiirently  great  antiquity,  on  each  side.  The  country  is  flat, 
but  not  very  much  cultivated,  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  once 
much  under  cultivation.  On  the  road  ancient  kunkar,  in  rounded  masstes 
jutting  out  of  the  ground,  and  blucks  of  the  same  kind  forming' the 
bunds  of^oIl-e  of  the  tanks.  It  is  almost  a  calcareous  conglomcratcr 
pieces  of  quartz,  actynoliie  and  hornblende  mixed  with  it,  and  answers 
to  that  des  h'o.vl  !  y  Colonel  Cullen  as  found  at  Cuddipah.  Goondlepett, 
a  plaoe  whi  h  «ome  \  ears  since  was  almost  depopulated  by  a  \*isitation 
of  cholera,  is  situai-d  on  an  extensive  plain  :  large  nodules  of  kunkar 
jutting  out  of  the  ground,  with  sm-d!  pieces  lying  about — arouud  the 
Ibrt  and  in  the  ditch  much  actvnolite  slate,  and  mu  ^h  kunkar  attached 
to  and  connected  with  it.  The  stones  in  the  wdUs  of  the  fort  consist 
chiefly  of  hornblende  slate.  There  is  averyj,retly  n>ck  of  red  felspar 
with  actyuolii'\  and  another  a  sort  of  chloritic  porphyry.  I  found  a 
specimen  or  two  uf  c  dcareous  sj^r,  or  perhaps  slate  spar.  Tlie  countfy 
towards  the  Xoil'jhorries.  which  are  only  distant  about  35  miles,  is  very 
flat— the  cal;are«*us  conglomerate  showing  itself  on  the  roadside,  gneiss 
in  a  decomiM)sinE:  state,  with  beds  of  hornblende  slate  and  pegmatite — 
much  cinartz  hombh  nde  slate  and  kunkar  Iving  on  the  road.  About  4 
miles  from  Goondlepett,  the  jungly  tract  is  entered,  which  surrounds 
the  bottom  of  the  Xeilgherries  and  renders  their  approach  so  d.ingerous. 

Before  reaching  the  Tippicado  river,  there  is  mica  slate  in  one  spot  on 
the  road,  and  the  granite,  or  rather  gneiss,  assumes  a  tabular  shape  and 
slaty  appearance,  containing  much  blueish  bla-k  mica,  a  tinge  of  red  in 
the  rock.  In  the  Tippicado  river,  and  around,  there  is  much  hornblende 
slate  in  large  tabular  masses,  like  tombstones,  fixed  in  the  earth,  and 
inclining  a  good  deal.  Tlie  n.vad  then  winds  round  these  immense 
mountains,  the  trees  larger,  but  the  jungle  not  apparently  very  dense. 
The  Segoor  Pass,  leading  up  to  the  Xeilgherries,  is  the  shortest,  and, 
under  the  scieniific  superintendence  of  the  engineer  oflicers,  the  best 
constnicted,  of  all  the  ghauts. 

The  deep  sections  in  this  ghaut  show  hornblende  rock  and  sienitic 
granite.  Towanls  the  top,  a  little  way  above  what  was  the  Sapper  en- 
campment, l^s.i!t  of  a  black  colour  is  seen  passing  into  the  sienitic 
gnmite,  and  the  pa<s;ige  fn^m  hornblende  ri>ok  to  basalt  distinctlr  seen. 
In  the  sections  made  in  forming  the  ronl.  the  sienitic  granite  and 
honiblrnde  lock  .-^re  f,.nn.d  in  ninlules,  decomposing  in  concentric 
Ian-:i  a.  '  kc  lie  la;   r<  cf  un  onion.    There  appears  to  be  more  felsp;ir 


1839]  some  other  porttons  of  Mysore,  llf 

in  the  rocks  in  this  gbaut,  than  any  of  the  others,  and  masses  of  it  de- 
composing give  a  chalky  appearance  to  some  parts  of  the  road.  Some 
way  down  there  are  beds  of  compact  felspar,  through  which  a.  gieen 
basalt  has  burst,  and  mixed  itself  up  with,  and  the  hornblende  in  the 
rock  then  becomes  of  a  green  colour,  beuig  generally  black  all  over  the 
hilU.  About  Adams  Peak,  4i  miles  down  the  ghaut,  garnets  appear  in 
the  rock  in  nests,  and  afterwards  abound  in  it.  The  bottom  of  the  pass 
is  about  400  feet  higher  than  Bangalore.  As  the  Neilghcrries  are  not  a 
part  of  Mysore,  it  would  be  out  of  place  my  describing  them  here,  a 
t^ajsk  so  ably  and  miuutely  executed  by   Dr.  Beuza. 

In  describing  another   part  of  Mysore,   I  will  take  a   fresh  departure 
from  its  capital,  and  proceed  in  the  direction  of  Goorg.  At  Yelwall,  distant 
a.l)oat  9  or  10  miles,   the  country  is  elevated  and  rather  bleak.  mu«;h  high 
crcarse  grass  covering  the  grountl ;  cul'ivation  in  the  valleys.    Jn  the  com- 
pound attached  to  the  Residency,  (here  is  a  good  deal  of  chromate  of  iron, 
^^^hich  was  found  I  believe  by  Captain  Ilaldane,  the  officer  commanding  the 
Resident's  escort ;  it  is  lying  in  pieces  on  the  ground,  and  near  it  a  rock 
tjfliomblcndc  slate  of  a  green  colour,  which  as  it  has  a  tinge  of  yellow 
externally  on  its  decomposing  surface,  most  likely  contains  a  liitle  of  the 
chromate.  At  the  bottom  of  ihe  Residency,  but  outside  the  wall,  there  is 
annllah,  where  mica  or  chlorite  slate  is  exposed.  The  sand  in  the  nullah 
abounds  with  garnets,  some  of  considerable  size.     Kunkar  is  also  found 
atYplwall,  some  feet  below  ground,  in  lumps  or  nodules  of  a  brownish 
folour,  and   irregular,  almost   pisifonn,  surface;    the   soil   is    inclined 
to  black  where  it   is   found,    and  pieces   of    hornblende   slate   cover 
the  ground.    There   is   magnesite  also   I  am    informed   in  the  neigh- 
bourhood.    The   road  between  Yelwall  and  Hoonsoor  is  through  low 
jongle,  or  what     in   some    places    would    with    more    propriety    be 
called  brushwood ;  quite  a  trap  region,  some  specimens   of   the  trap 
po^phyrilic,  forming  a  greenstone   or    hornblende    porphyry,    crys^taLs 
of  felspar  imbedded. 

Towards  Hoonsoor,  much  magnetic  iron  ore  on  the  road.  Near  this 
place  the  country  is  more  jungly,  and  Hoonsoor  itself  lies  rather 
low,  rising  ground  on  all  sides,  hilly  to  the  south  and  west,  some  of 
the  hills  covered  with  low  jungle,  the  soil  both  black  and  red. 
T^^  locality  is  a  very  interesting  one,  and  the  mineralogical  fea- 
tnrw  were  pointed  out  tome  by  Mr.  Gilchrist.  Besides  granite,  gneiss 
Md  tiap,  of  which  there  arc  several  dykes  ;  the  granite  and  trap  decom- 
pwing  in  concentric  laminae,  like  the  basalt  en  bouille  of  the  French,  or 
nodular  basalt  of  Voysey ;  there  is  in  some  places  a  good  deal  of  a  brown 
blather  compact  but  not  crystaline  limestone,  or  rather  ancient  kun- 
lur,  which  instead  of  being  united,   as  at  Goondlepett,  w^ith  hornblende, 


acfTGo'.it^.  <^t:3.  tz  -Ai.d  oiher  minmlff,  k*nDicg  either  a  cooglomente  or 
bre«c:a,  i«^  f^'ULd  coonected  viih  seici-^'paJ.  ierragiLous  opaJ.  or  jasper 
op»L  Tbe  K^ii  vhrre  it  if  luui^i  i«  b:a:k,  veil  contiasted  mith  some 
Ligb  groaod  cedx  i!.  which  is  red.  atsi  xdo^i  likely  ferraginous  and  not 
calcireoui^  Mu^k  CLMenetic  iron  ere  cd  \*^  surface  in  bome  plares,  and 
someiiiDe?  attached  to  the  semi-cpai.  In  a  mio«t  interesting  spot,  point- 
ed out  tome  by  Mr.  Gilchrist,  a  iow.  ragged. and recuiiar  looking  rock, 
jata  out  only  a  foot  or  so  fix-m  the  grt^und :  it  is  of  a  bromn  shining 
aspect  est€iLal!y.  acd  1  think  deserves  the  name  of  j^tsp-er  op^d  or  fer- 
ruginous ofial.  an-i  passes  into  senii-o}^.vha*ce*ic«]y  .«nti  a  coarse  kind  of 
jasper.  Ne^r  th:«  there  is  fouzid  a  ch'.ctitic  laic  sl;^te.  irbich  gradoates 
inU)  a  sc-rt  of  pc'tst-*ne.  The  jungly  V\\.^  to  the  westmard  are  of  granite 
toiiraH>  the  top,  viith  trap  at  the  b^::om;  magaesite  is  found  in  the 
neighbo  -j  :hood. 

The  n.ad  to^varl*  Perlijvaiam  i*  for  «o3»e  miles  jung'y.  and  then  is  verj" 
flat — much  kunlar  in  email  nodcles  on  the  snria:e,  trap  dykes  p-assing 
across  the  rc-iJ,  chiefiy  of  homblenvie  with  cn-stals  of  olivine.  In  several 
place*,  f^^un  J  jisper  opal,  as  at  Hoonsoor.  In  a  ditch  near  Periapatam  dc- 
cumfo>ing  gneiss,  with  vertical  veins  of  a  tufaceous  limestone*  and  above 
the  gneis5,  large  mass^  of  nodular  b-salt,  decomposing  into  a  yellow  earth 
with  black  soil  on  the  surfaoe.  In  the  ditch  or  nullah, were  large  masses  of 
basaltic  bomb'eode.  ringing  on  being  struck,  with  a  peculiar  squeezed  ap- 
pearance. liLe  half  wrought  images.  I  hare  observed  this  frequently  in  the 
basaltic  hornblende — is  it  the  result  of  igneous  action  under  great  pres- 
sure \  \  vpr\-  flat  country  around  Periapatam,  with  much  water  and 
much  kunkar  in  the  soil.  The  country,  all  the  way  to  Eraser pett  or 
Cushelnugger,  is  jungly  ani  hilly,  with  small  villages  and  patches  of 
cultivation  here  an.l  there.  Soil  generally  black — all  the  hills  appear 
to  be  of  irap. —  in  tr.e  place  where  a  section  was  afforded,  the  soil  on  the 
surface  was  black,  but  reddish  below.  Near  a  village  about  half  w^ay, 
found  specimens  of  a  very  coarse  jasper  opal,  approaching  upon  and 
running  into  qu^u'tz  ;  and  a  white  calcareous  like  substance,  with  horn* 
blende  slate.  decoaipo>ing  in  horizontal   strata. 

The  Coorg  mountains  are  part  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  and  consist  of  horn 
blende  rock  and  sienitic  granite.The  geological  formation  resembles  much 
that  on  the  Xeilgherries— only  the  hills  are  smaller,  more  generally  round- 
ed, and  show  a  more  perfect  state  of  dev.*om position  into  lithomargic  earth. 
Quartz  veins  and  irou  ores  are  not  abundant,  indeed  of  the  last  I  saw 
none  :  ^md  nothing  answering  to  6euia*s  hsmatitic  iron  ore;  but  it  i« 


^^]  some  other  portions  of  Mysore,  119 

▼eiy    extraordinary    how    few    rocks     elevate    tbemselves   above   the 
ground.    We  may  wander  over  one  hill  and  then  another  for  miles,  and 
not  meet  with  a  sinsjle  rock.    Decomposition  has  taken  place  to  a  great 
extent  as  shown  where  seel  ions  have  been   made   in  forming  the  roa  Is. 
In  some  of  the  deep  sections  near  Mercara  much   porcelain  earth  18 
found  in  beds  in  the  lithomargic  earth,  and  some  of  a  decomposed  earlh 
aniwering  fo  the  shidi  munnu  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bangalore.     In 
a  deep  pit  about  two  and  a  h  ilf  miles  from  Mercara,  a  thick   bed  of  late- 
rite  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  my  most  intelligent  friend  Dr.  Baikie. 
On  the  top  of  some  of  the  hills  I  founJ  granite  or  rather   pegmatiie,  and 
ibe  vallevs  below  of  a  whiter  colour  than  usual.     The  hills  at  Coorg  are 
smillt-rand  more  irregularly  grouped  together,  with  numerous  narrow 
valleys  intervening,  many  of  them  so  narrow,  that  the  inhabitants  cut 
•way  a  little  of  the  lower  portion  of  some  of  the  hills,  in  orJer  to  cul- 
tivate; being  able  in  this  way  to  irrigate.     All  the  valleys  1  saw  con- 
tained a  light  yellow  soil,  and  from  this  an  1  an    inspection  of  some  few 
of  the  rocks  w  hich  occasionally  have  resisted  decomposition,   I  imagine 
felspar  is  the  most  abundant  mineral,  which  with  hornblende  has  formed 
the  lithomargic  earth.     On  the  Neil^hcrries,  the  surface  of  the  soil  in 
thcTallejs  is  black,   with  a  yellow  clay  beneath — here  the  soil  in  the 
talleys  and  generally  on   the  hills  is    light  yellow.     There   is  another 
great  difference  in  the  vegetation.     On  the  Neilgherries  many  of  the 
hills  are  bare,  or  have  only  trees  at  their  bottom  or  running  up  a  portion 
of  their  sides;   whereas  at  Coorg,  most  of  the  hills  are  covered  to  their 
Toy  summits  with  a  variety  of  trees  of  the  most  beautiful  kind.    The 
unmense  quantity  of  rain  which  falls   (the  quantity  from  June  183  j  to 
May  1 836  being   ll'J.H  and  frum  June   183G  to  May  1837  87-04— for 
ihis  information  1  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Baikie),  must  encourage  vegetati- 
on, and  the  decomposition  of  rock. 

According  to  Dr.  Baikie  the  temperature  is  most  equable,  the  daily 
Inge  inside  never  exceeding  6°  or  8**,  often  not  beyond  2®.  Thermo- 
Beler  seldom  above  74,  or  below  GO.  The  maximum  of  barometer  occurs 
during  the  dry  season,  the  highest  noted  being  26.220— and  the  lowest 
in  July  during  the  monsoon  25.912 — the  greatest  daily  range  observed 
*aB.e76  the  mean  .050.  Mercara  is  4506  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
^  and  its  mean  tenjperature  is  perhaps  about  68.  Ootacumund  is  7361 
f«cl,  its  mean  temperature  58.68.  Bangalore  nearly  3,000  feet,  mean 
temperature  about  75.  The  Western  Ghauts  consist  of  hornblende  rock, 
*Uh  garnets  and  sienitic  granite— mica  is  not  absent—a  micaceous  rock 
*ithmuch  foliated  mica  I  found  at  the  very  top  of  the  Heggula  ghaut. 
Mysore  u  surrounded  on  three  sides,  south,  east  and  west,  by  the  >Yes- 


13)  G.o'v       0^  Ban'-i^o't.  nnd  cf  [J  as. 

tern  ri".  1 -^ .IS Mr.  ^h. »'.;>.   ;hc    Nci.^'r.- .r.  -^   i...;:irg  :i:e   t^^u— the  passes 

/ri .,  i>  t-eiier.i'/.v  i»LMiij:.i  in  Mvjort*  f:*:!;!  liie  iuu  ^a^.J.  ver\'  abun- 
dant  in  v:.ni?  i  ins  ..f  ihe  ciuni.v.  &r.j  ^\  ->:.cd  »'...wn  iiilo  the  nullaliji. 
On  iliL-  Bal'.i  liooien  \:i:.<  i:  i*  r.:-:  :;r.  .:  iV  •::•  the  i::.i^D^iic  and  hffiuati- 
tijir.i  crcs.  B'-.I:.xii;.n  ::. 'r.:;o!;5  ;.-  ':  c.:.i-  *.•"•  ir^iiirJ  from  two  ores  at 
Gh-r:t:;  lira,  a  villj;:-^-  fi^si.u:  7  u.\'.t<  ir;:n  Maiir^ree.  From  his  descrip- 
lii.nii  tli?  .-/..'  rj  O,  M.  i:  -i-pvars  tu  le  a  i;viA;tz  lULicb  ini|jregiiated 
wiih  ir  1:.  tl.'j  i:a:d  <j-C(.:r.it-:.>  i;».i-r.]  t":>'  rua.r  >'.tiies.  and  tLu^e  in  a 
de-j*  II.;  j^iiij  <hT:'.  :'..e  teni-le.  li.-:  >.•.'..■  r  « :f.  iiirbii*  m  d  by  liiiii  under 
the  ii;».i.T'  i.i'  ^  .■•■(•■I'.j.  I  :n:  ||:ii:e  iv  le  li.e  ::.at:i-iti--  ••i'li  t-re,  jmre  with- 
out aijv  .1  ".r.::xurv  ■. :  ^.u-iii: :  !\r  :..:*  :*  fv'^iL.i  i.m  .i>:ir.aiiv  iu  the  fit^ldi 
auJ  vn  i:.o  I  .  i*  a.,  ivcr  Mv>  re.  In  :::■*•  *.i"  lii-.*  ft.'  k:»  around  Ban- 
gvilore  .in:l  «  n  tl.o  rc^d-.  {  u;.^.  s  »  r*  n  \r'r\-  :'c;r.:i:i:i^' ".»  Ki.king  churacttf 
i-ce  srer.  Tl.ey  };-.v>  :V.e  ..\  j^-amn  e  ■  f  :r  :..:  r.'  tr"  t^uite  iis^ht.  and  do 
iK't  a:"!'.'  -t  tV.-?  !::.i::r:'::i'  r.^r  .>,  bat  w  V.- :i  j  -i!:  I  into  ili>t.  are  attracted 
>ir -■!■.:  »■  r;.  ::.o  i::ii,i.:t.  1  "«>  :  :•_;  .::;.•]  :o  dcrr.e  ih^iu.  but  I  now 
tliiuk  ih-\v  ?.r-7  <:  0  i;  i-'>  *  t't^'.L:  l>r.  H  yr.  •  ct!'*  i*.  rri".ite,  a  spoctes  of 
h"  r:i ;.'"•. V. .»?.  a:,  i  frj  u  !!:i*  f  ■!■:.:•.-  riiT  !•  .-  :»  !;vj*:  !•»  ui. rived. 

.;/■.*.■  ■•  ■  • — ^-,  ^  ■:  :>vo  -!  :  -.r-iTi^  v(  ir.i?  w-.r*  J;:.'':jhi  niebv  a  native 
f;OM  y:  !;::l  f':-  P  .'  *-!>  •  '.  !-.  H  *  *  ^y?  i:  >  .  •  :i.  ia::;  i'.-T'^.  and  if  so,  it 
i- .r:  ir::;-  r:  -.'..s...  very.  :■  r  P..  A::*.>^  ^•' nv.on*  rl.at  this  niinend 
us::::   :::;:  r:  »  :•.  '::  :     ■  :  i:;  .  ;:r  I:m  dii   i:. ::::::..  n«. 

O  -v:  i »  "  •  l»a' V  :-?'h  '.rr.  :  :r.  1  r..  M.>..:o.  rrciii  vV.at  I  observed 
at  yt  .'  v:'..  s\.\-  r.'v!  ii:  :^'-:  V.  yr. .  ,^  y.rcUr.r.  -i  lirtcii-.  n  low.trdsthe  Neil- 
£rV.:rr:-^<.  I  h  >\  •  ■•?  /.  •^:  o  '  x  s'?  ii"  c  .  <:dorib.o  iTi:  .r.iiiy  in  this  moat 
ii::!;^  :  •'.;  •>:;::•.  A:  >:;;.-::::.  •:  :  fr  Ir;:r  :!:--  b.itoui  of  the 
N . : . ^::  • :  .  • .  .  -  j*  -  . t  -i.  .  r  r  :■*  -  "•.;':>-  >:  r . : .  s.  v. :  r.. ■  a  rv i. is  t'rum  dovern- 
i^  ■■■  ■"  -  ~  -  '^  rv^..:!.  M::  :;l  w  :<  r  :  i-.  >fyi  r--,  l.ut  vn  the 
i\.r.;:-.>  .  :"  :.  i  -  c  v  in  p  c-n  i-  .:  : ..:  *  i.ile  .:.j  a  half  from  the 
v.!ij;\  ,  .  .'\  AK-v*  '.t.  A  ^^•^.•].\.■.  r.  .  L!.::i:r,  is  sc-u  rising  above 
:•:-  .  :::tr>.  >::  •  :  ^.  :::«;:•»:  .:  :h-  :  :■  liko  :hr  \\c,\:\  K-i  a  \iolincella 
la  :7^\i-.  :  ::  if  t  -:-_  .-.  -  -.:•,-;»  of :..!'.-.  r.r.d  ::  :s  vn  iL-e  sides  uf  these 
w!:-- ^::  .  ;  :.:^.  -,;  ti-y^.lw  .r -.:  ?o:.  r  :io  vl  and  washed  for 
jj.vd.  >:..:::.>>  \ :-.  :i".i  jarriv  J  Tvun.:  :h^  s-t.;  iuils.  are  artifidal 
\k.::^:-.v  =..  -.-.  ..•. .  ;hi?  ^v-ii  js  ::Jk-.:i  fr;:i:  ;lie  :  ;:*  i;.  b.;.skeu  and  washed 
i::;.o.  I::  :.  \  ..■...::.;>.  .v.ci:^  ys::h  x  \vr\  r:  h  yolU-w  soil,  are  stones 
'.  1  i'.-ir:/.  1 L  -J  >ai":  isv  .  t  ::.<;  cr.  -r. .:  >  c^vtre^.:  w;;h  long  coarse  grass* 
beLw  *;.:  :i  'Vr^r-^  is  at.  .;;  2  .r  3  vt:  ..fa  -t.i  e^r;h.  foil  ot  pieces  of 
*;:;ar:j.  .i!-..i  l>/.:u  a  r.cv.  c'.Av-y  Te.;;i>h  >ol'.  w  -^arth.  A  quartz  rt)ck  is 
■•"■  I  •*■* T'  ■  -•  *'*  *""      .'  —»'-'-»  -»  i->-  *5 1  co^AA^  t»s:?rve.  and  in  inanv 


1 


some  other  portions  of  Mysore.  121 

B  at  Mellialum  is  auriferous — it  is  from  the  decomposition  of 
■oil  that  the  gold  is  procured.  Gold  was  discovered  in  the 
rovinces  of  Mysore  by  Lieutenant  Warren  of  H.  M.  33d  regi- 
.802 — he  found  it  in  the  small  nullahs,  or  ruts,  or  breaks,  in  the 
it  WarrigiuD,  a  small  village  4&  miles  S.  W.  of  Battamungalum 
I  the  banks  of  the  Palar  river,  and  the  Ponian,  near  Caargory — 
lad  of  this  earth  Bear  the  lust,  he  obtaiued  three  sparkles  of 
^e  found  gold  also  at  Marcoopium  3  miles  south  of  Warrigum — 
ere  were  mines  worked  by  the  natives.  Tippoo  had  worked 
Dy  Vnt  desisted  on  finding  that  the  produce  just  balanced  the 
.  The  strata  described  by  Lieutenant  Warren  iis  existing  in 
-ent  mines  do  not  agree,  but  the  ore  was  found  in  large  stones, 
?ous  or  quartzy  nature,  of  a  black  chunging  to  deep  rust  colour, 
generally  adhered  a  deep  orange  soft  substance.  Within  the 
»ct  the  proportion  generally  obtained  by  him  was  07ie  grain  of 
>ld  out  of  12  baskets  of  earth  taken  at  random. 
lum  is  found  atMundiuin  near  Seringaput-^mi,  and  in  other  parts 
•e,  as  ^Tippity  Beygoor,  three  days  march  from  Bangalore,  and 
.tah,  about  12  miles  from  Beygoor,  9  miles  from  Bangalore — 
different  colours  grey,  blue  and  reddish.  Rubies  of  a 
ind  have  been  brought  iS^  and  also  if  ry/,  or  what  Dr.  Hevne 
schorlous  beryl. 


*4-- 


iflr^#    on   Cambogia    Gutta    Linn. — Stalagmitis   Gamhogiuides 
f:  tund  on  Laurus  Casa'a  Linn. — 'By  Bodeut  Wight,  m.  d. 

ibjecfs  of  botanical  inquiry,  both  of  considerable  interest,  Imve 
engaged  my  attention  ;and  as  the  conclusions  at  which  1  have 
re  somewhat  different  from  what  1  anticipated  at  the  out-set,  1 
iommary  of  the  results  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  your  botani- 
IB.  The  first  of  these,  tukijpg  them  up  in  chronological  order, 
txannnation,  for  my  Illustrainons  of  Indian  Botany,  of  the  natu- 
AutllfeTS  for  the  purpose  of  marking  out  its  limits  and  eluci- 
i  Indian  genera  and  species.  The  second  waMn  enileavour  to 
the  Jjmrus  Cassia  of  Linneus,  and  the  tree  which  furnishes  the 
p^,  or  Cassia  lignea,  of  commerce ;  undertaken  by  order  of 
ent,  nith  a  view  to  the  solution  of  a  question  submitted  for  \i» 


J22  fifi.-iar'.,  o.*  0:.;i:i   i  Ouiui,  [Ja5# 

t:on?id'? ration  1a-  1 1:-:  Ceylon  Govemmoiit.     AJoptiug  the  same  course  on 
llii*  r.i  cri^inr*.  I  -»!  i.l  ■  •■::::ut-n'e  my  pn-iciu  remarks   v.iil:  ihe  Gnttifcrip* 
In  :i.e  I'ifl:   :.^...' •  r  <.f  Ti:e   M  ilras  J<  ::!nnl  of  Scicu-'e  I  pnhH«heJ 
some  u^isor-ar;'. ii-  rn  !iic  i;l-iv;j?.  «.•:  :!  is  or';,  r.  t-icitcibv  a rcmmimicati- 
on  of  Dr.  Giii!  :ii:i   ros:  •■  iIuvt  iIj*  (iriiuln. g-^  phnt  of  Ce;.  1 -n.     In  tlial 
I  ai  '"^ i"  I   *»  1 : o wcxl  1 1 : a t  1 1 . ■»  i ;: 1 1 ».' ra  Cf  r^  i «  . :  an  I  Ca ».•» 6";.' -a  of  Linn e iw 
Wt-r-?  tl;*^  sfiine,  an-l  lljal  Sf':'osm''''.i   nt'  .Murray  xv;-.*,  <••  fir  ns  could  be 
asertaii.ed  iV'.in  d.  .raMers  only,  i  :ei;iicil  wiili  Rriy.Vjri;l:S  Xanthochf- 
in>'f.    Corceiviri:  tiiv  g'-ni;*'  Ga'ci.i't  t*  o  fcni|i!ox  I  tber-^  prof»osc(l  sub- 
ciiviiiin::  it.     Tl.e  f  llL'wiiig  esirnct   i\ili  txj  I:iiu  the  views  1  then  cn- 
t en.  inc.!. 

•*  In  ray  cj»:i:ion    :1.-?  coi.:;-  Grrcinia,  a<  FiOw  constituted,  ought  not  to 
be   retaiii^'ii :    a   ^luiict*  at  the  a-.-  oii.pifnying  rj^ures  miil  explain   my 
reas'-n*  f.r  think irv;  ?«).  by  esbi^itinL;  in  '.nc  viow  seven*  1  of  llie   incd||| 
gruitie>   i^hicli   it  j.rcst  nts.     Fcr  cx:.n"ip'e,  ihe  Gari inia  maneosiamUt     , 
Mperiosa.  lind  'Oi»/f'/.  hive  tLe  tilani*.nt>  i-f  t!ic  ir;;!^-  f't  vcr  united,  form- 
in?  f  ur  l.rjre  fi'^hv  boiliti  co^pp^J  with  anthers,  anl  two  of  the  three 
are  known  tu  h^ive  a  sliWse,  not  >ulcateil  fruit.     ll:e*c  u.i^lit  form  the 
type  of  a  sen  us  ni-der  Hum  phi  us'  ori£:in»I  name  Muvgo.^fona,     G.  Cant' 
hoi/ia,  hA'i  the  stamens  of  »he  m;i!e  flower  mngei!  in  a  <irrb>  row.^  roun^ 
a  disk-Uko  p?C'.'pt.:i  I-*,  v.ith  a  suliMted  fniir.     Ti  is  nr^ht   finn  the  typtt^ 
of  ,1  x-'ir,-:  ':,''!.■.>.  f  r  V.  l.h'li.  viN  r.t-ry  corrT\-»i  i  n;h:ii»  with  the  rharacte^f 
as^iu'*'^^  by  Lii.naii-  ti    iiis  (i*frchu'rif  ihut  i.  .nie  miLlt  be  re{;.in»'d.     Tu 
(J.  K*,d  a,  Zejhwuti.  f-tiHHci^'tifa,  pf.ni*'ufn*c  hi\'\  tjfflnh*  the  Hlanu'ntft 
are  unit-*!  into  a  5»;:i.,r.;al  et.'lnii.n.  iorn:ir..i'.:rij  in  h  he:»!l  coivrod/||ith 
anther*,  fruit  u>nu]'y   f  .n\>we.!.     llie^e  Diiglit  I'onn  a  third   tmus,  re» 
taiiiini,'  U  r  tlier.i  the  !:••«  vacant  mime  of  Camilla  :  ai=dia-tiy,  G.  plct^ 
T'O,  R •> xb .  I  Mo '  iro-t.  tfiorel'o  GuLTt?):  i  'lih f  r.  a\\\i\\.  <Jii,  G raham )  and 
Dr.  Gr.il.iimS  C-.'yli.n  ; '.aut,  nould  form  ;i  li.ur;h.  Gi>tinp.i*hed  by  tlwlr 
united    til/im'  i;'.-.  :  v  1    ciip->I:aped,  tiie-c  .'r  1,  oirc»ini>ci»ile,   anthers; 
for  whi  :i  the  now  :  :■  .ait  na:!:o.    Sud  -y..  .  ...  n:ii;ht  b^  retained,    in  pre- 

fe  ren  c  ■  •  W  « 1  i  ^  t  •.  i  :b;  i  ■  i;  R  oxbur  ^h. ' ..  \au-'  •  v'^  ■  .  •  -  \, .  n  o  w  w  el  lest  abl  ished , 
by  rigi  i  y  <nf«.T.'ip.i,'  r'ue  rule  tf  priority,  i::.d  restoring  li:;.t  of  MuirAV, 
ther'''-y  ..i.u-^iu::  .."f  :-:■.:. i.:';!e  cor.fii^ion  i:i  :h'.^  -yiivnymy,  il.iit  might  thus 
be  ea-iily  \\\  l  ;  lird." 

S-iice  th^^  ]  iil/icniim  of  th  it  article  r.  i:ch  a-.Mitional  liglt  lias  been 
throvu  L-n  \\\v  <^'.:bjc'.  t  tliriUL.li  tl;e  ]:ub:M:t:-  ii  ly  Dr.  (jiahi-ui  of£din- 
bur-'h.  in  the  2d  vi  lumo  iTlhi-  (*i.i::p:.nion  to  the  BuMnical  Magjizinc,  of 
ii  pijer  enli:Ied  "RiMn.uk^  in    the  G  mi' c^»*   tree  of  Ceylou  and  char- 


•  T\\\>  I  :.M«  {'.:i-I  is  vi  err  r:  !*'\^i:r::>i.  wl.i^n  hf  i-rovirc-.l  t'li-  iljruro  of  liU  Garcmia 


4 


Stakig^mitis  GamloffioideSf  and  Laurus  Cassia.  123 

>f  HebradendroD,  a  new  genus  of  Guttiferae,  and  that  ta  which  the 
eloDgs." 

I  is  an  excellent  paper,  and  embodying  as  it  does  much  very  in- 
ng  information,  well  repays  the  trouble  of  a  careful  penisal.     I 
t  however  adopt  Dr.  Graham's  conclusions  as  to  the  propriety  of 
ing  this  plant  to  the  rank  of  a  distinct  genus,  nor,  supposing  that 
botanists  than  either  Dr.  G.  or  myself  consider  ourselves,  admit  it 
h  into  the  system  of  plants,  do  I  think   his  name  can  be  adopted. 
aestion,  whether  or  not  this  it  the  Gamboge  plant  of  Ceylon,  I 
ipon  af  set  at  reftt  by  the  evidence  adduced  in  the  "Remarks.**    All 
ue  that  I  have  now  to  consider  are  simply  the  following  botanical 
ons^lst,  whether  this  plant  ought  to  form  the  type  of  a  genus  dis- 
from  Gareiniaf — and  2d,  if  so,  whether  it  ought  to  receive  a  new 
*    The  first  of  these  questions  I  answer  in  the  negative,  because  I 
think  it  sufficiently  distinguished  from  Garcinia  by  the  solitary 
ter  assigned — the  peculiar  structure  of  the  anther.    The  second 
lly  answer  in  the  negative,  because  this  plant  is  undoubtedly  the 
f  the  genus  Camhogia  of  Linuccus,  whose  name  therefore  ought  to 
een  retained.    My  reasons  for  the  first  of  these  conclusions,  being 
tated  page  122  and  123  of  my  Illustrations,  I  subjoin  the  passage, 
the  precedent  established  by  Dr.  Graham  in  the  formation  of  his 
Hebradendron  be  followed,  we  may,  I  fear,  soon  expect  to  sec  the 
;  from  Garcinia  About  as  numerous  as  its  species  now  are,  since 
snus  is  sef>arated  on  account  of  a  variation  in  a  single  point  of 
ure«  and  without  reference  to  analogous  forms  met  with  in  other 
I,    *rhe  only  point  in  which  it  differs  from  Garcinia,  as  defined  in 
odromus  is — in  having  1-celled  circumscissile  anthers — while  the 
snal  form  in  that  genus  is  to  have  them  two-celled,  with  introrse, 
idinal  dehiscence.     Should  this  be  considered  a  satisfactory  reason 
removal,  then  G.  Kydiana  Roxb.,  which  has  a  four-sided  connec- 
with  a  polleniferous  cell  in  each  face,  must  equally  be  separated 
»e  genus,  as  well  as  another  species  of  which  I  possess  specimens 
lergui,  the  anthers  of  which  are  1-celled,  dehiscing  transversely 
the  apex.     Another  vari.ition  of  stnicture,  which  has  been   long 
fd  in  a  few  species  of  the  genus,  will   equally  demand  separation, 
gof  at  least  equal  generic  value  ;   I  allude  to  those  in  which  the 
I  of  the  male  flower  are  united  into  four  thick  fleshy  androphores, 
highly  developed  sterile  pistil  in  the  centre.     Here  then,  assum- 
twc  are  justified  in  assigning  generic  value  to  such  variations  of 
re,  hmited  as  they  are  to  the  male  organization,   are  four  distinct 
and  ail,  so  far  as  such  artificial  characters  can  make  them,  equal- 
e. 


124  lit  marks  on  Camlr^'u  Gutfa,         •'.  [ 

I  confcifB  tlmt  T  fc^vp  an  objection  to  tliis  kind  of  excessive 
division,  inasmur;h  n%  wbafovor  rwh't  lw»lda  good  with  respec 
Rpneni,  must  equally  apply  to  orders,  and  must  inevitably  lead  tc 
elevation  of  half  our  present  spocios  to  the  rank  of  genera,  and  an  i 
proportion  of  genera  to  natural  orders ;  .^botli  of  which  might  be  av* 
by  a  slight  extension  of  our  chnra.ters,  and  still  better  by  a  carefa 
comprehensive  investigation  of  groujis  of  allied  species  and  genera^ 
fore  attempting  their  disunion  in  the  formation  of  new  genera  and  oi 
In  support  of  these  views,  I  think  I  taiay  safely  cite  the  recorded  op 
of  the  first  living  authority,  Mr.  Robert  Brown.  He  says,  in  a  leti 
Dr.  Graham,  referring  to  the  plant  which  has  called  fortlTtbefle  rem 
"  In  your  plant  the  structure  of  the  anther  is  indeed  veiy  remark 
and  might  well  indace  you  to  consider  it  a  new  genus  ;  but  it  is 
to  add,  that  approaches  to  this  structure,  and  which  sen-e  to  explai 
analogy  with  the  ordinarj*  structure  of  the  family,  exist  in  GarciniOf 
which  I  suppose  your  plant  would  agree  in  its  female  flower  as  wf 
in  fniit.''  From  this  concluding  caution  I  imagine  that,  before  e 
lishing  a  genus  on  such  grounds,  he  (Brown)  would  have  ascerts 
the  structure  of  the  anther  in  the  whole  order,  niarkcd  its  variat 
and  then,  and  not  till  then,  have  determined  on  the  projiriety  or  ot 
wise  of  assigning  a  generic  value  to  its  variations :  and  1  can  scar 
avoid  thittking,  that,  had  such  a  course  been  followed  in  that  instant 
sectional  value  only  would  have  been  awarded.  ' 

I   confess  that  a    less   perfect  examination   cJf  the  order,  than  t 

which  improved    materials   has  now  enabled  me   to  eflecti    led 

into  a  similar   error;    on  whiih  occtision,     I   ]M^)oscd    to  subdi 

the   genus    Garcinta  into   four  diftiuf^t  genera— Gr/rc/7iia,     Man^ 

tana,    Cambotjia,     and    St(ila<imiti9  (see   Madras  Journal  of  Scii 

vol.  4,   page  304).     Tliis   suggestion  has  not,   so   far  as   I  am  av 

been  yet  adopted  by  any  one;   and  I  trust  it  will  not,  as  I  now< 

sider  it  wrong  in  principle,  the  variations  in  structure,  there  pointed 

not  meriting  aliigher  thaii,*ectional  value  in  a  genus  so  strictly  nati 

Influenced  by  this  reduced  estimate  of  the  reladve  value  of  the  sev 

structural  variations  mentioned  above,  it  is  my  intention,  on  the  pr« 

occasion,  to  keep  the  old  genus  together,  but  divided   into  sectior 

accordance  with  them.     I  am  induced  to  do  so  from  observing  that 

variations  arc  limited  to  the  male  flowers,   and  do  not  on  any  occai 

extend  to  the  female.     For  example  G.  Mangostana  and  G.  com^a^ 

referred  to  the  same  section  :    the  former  has  1-8  celled  ovaries,  and 

latter  usually  4i   in  G.  Kydiana,  Roxburgh  describes  the  berry  as  Ik 

from  4  to  8  seeded,  fif.  Qmvn  from  G  to  8,  and  most  of  the  others  are « 

oribed  as  having  as  far  as  4,  or  8  seeds,   showing  a  general  Want  of  i 


llJ39]  Sialaf^mi/is   ftcmh'^'.iiUs,  and  Luurus   Cc^sia.  123 

mniitr  in  tliis  respect :  variati<ni<,  tliorefore,  of  ihe  number  of  the  cells  of 
tlicovarv,  rannol  be  atliiiitt(Ml  as  nf  gonerif,  or  evon  spf^oific  va'.iio  in  tliis 
ppmiB.    Should  fiirtlier  noqmiiitiince  will)  tlic  tril)os]io\v  that,  in  uniting 

g  Ilfhndendron  or  rather  Cenubfg/n,  Linn,  (for  llicy  arc  the  sanio  gt*n\iK, 
md  the  latter  the  more  nppropriatf*  namo)  to  (jarcinin^  1  havo  erred, 
tho  error  can  be  easilvconocted.  and,  in  the  mean  tinio,  mv  sections  will 
nffiirdthe  means  of  more  easily  detennining  the  known  specieSf  aiid  of 
referring  to  convenit^nt  places  sucli  new  ones  as  may  be  discovered.  For 
tho  present,  nothin^r  is  more  difTuult  than  to  in<ike  out  from  de.S!-rij)tion 
tho  specie?  of  (Uircin'a,  This  is  mainly  owing  to  the  male  flowers, 
widch  afford  by  far  the  best  spe.-ifis;  idianieler**,  being  too  litth*  attended 
toincharacteri/infr  them.  Gen»r.dly  speaking,  they  are  dioicou'-i,  and, 
in roilecling  specimens,  care  sliouM  b**  taken  to  procure  them  of  both 
*cxei.    Tlie  fulia«;e,  exer»pt  in  a  voiy  few  instances,  does  not  afford  g(;nd 

k  <)iwitninating  charr^cters,  and  whea  it  does,  is  usually  accompanied  by 
othen?  which  are  more  to  be  relied  npcai." 

^4J  reasons  for  ohjcctin;^  to  Dr.  Graham*«  new  name,  to  the  prejudice 
'•f  Linnspiis'  old  one,  is  thus  briefly  exp'ained  at  i)age  125  under  Giircinla 
(^ambojift   and  Uox^urtjhu , 

"  I  liave  not  quoted  Linnnpus' Cawi6'>^"V/    Gu'Ja  for  either   of  these, 

^Inwigli  it  seems  the  gen-* ral  opinion  of  botanists  that  it   belongs  to  the 

||     fcnnpr.    This  opinion,  however,  his  brief  de^^criptiou  of  the  plant  before 

"iininihe  Flora  Zeylani«M,  shows  to  be  «*rroneons.  and   proves  ahn"*t  to 

lemons tntion    that     it   is   Dr.   (Irdi^m's     Ilcbridcnlrnn,       The    fol- 

•'^*inj  are  his  words — Rami  oppos'fft\     Foh'a  laace'Uato-ovala,  iufegerri' 

''fi^f.elio^afft,  oppos'fa.     Fhrcs  rertkiUtiti  ftessVeft.     It  is  in  truth   the 

'^nlyphmt  of  the  cenu:'   in  Ceylon,  having  sessile  verticellfd   flowers. 

*^  hi"*  gpnf'ric  character  he   describes  the  anlliers,  nnthera*   s^'bio'und-r, 

*'^^  pistil  germen  xftbrotfndiim'Sfri'atum,  Jtff/Insr  nii^fua,     Si'gr.ui  qnadrU 

'^*'«»i/)erj»/*/fn.s  and  finally,   the  pericarp — Pomum  snbrotundnm^  oct'ie.s 

*^(atum,  ocfohru^arr — sln>wing  clearly  that  the   character  of  the  flower 

**'*^'l  ovarj-  is  taken  from   one  species,  and  of  the  fruit  from  a  different, 

^^T  perhaps  from  llhe»^de*s  fi^juri?)  owing  to  the  imperfection  of  his  spe- 

.^itneng,  and  hi**  not  being  aware  that  the  l(d>es  of  the  stijGjma  aflbrJ  a  sure 

^^dif^ation  of  the  linmber  of  cells  of  the  fruit.     His  Cnmb-^gta,  however. 

^•Stfring  this  error,  is  certainly  thf»  Gamboge  plant  of  Ceylon,  which  is  fur- 

' ^?r established,  a *«  Dr.  Cirahnn  inTornis  us,   by  the  examiuiiiou  of  the 

'*p"-imon  in  Herman's  horbiiriuni,   *' which  may  be  considered  th«»  type 

M  UnnTMs*  Cambngiff  fj'itta.'" — If,  therefore,  th:it  jdant  is  to  be  elevated 

^■•tlip  riuk  of  a  genus,  I  should  s.iy  his  name  on^ht  un(|uestionab\v  t«»  b'» 

t»'laincdwith  an  amf^mled  character,  and  botiny   relieved   from   tlu;  un- 

i 


\'2Ct  lii'tnarks  on  Camhojia  Gutta,  Jan.] 

seemly  allusion  convoyed  under  the  new  one.  Tf  Murray's  ^/a/a^i/if 
is  on  account  of  priority  to  supplmt  Roxburgh's  Xanthochiftnus^  much 
more  must  Linnapus'  Cnnibitria  supjlani  Cinihain  s  HebradendroH,  partly 
ft)rtl)e  same  reason,  priority,  but  primipally,  because  Dr.  Grahaiu  knew 
when  he  gave  the  name,  that  his  plant  was  identical  w-ith  that  of 
Linnsus,  wliile  it  was  almost  iniposNiliIe  that  Roxburgh  could  ever 
recognize  his  Xaufhoih'fiHU*  in  Murray's  cliaracier  of  StalagmiiU^ 
made  up  as  it  is  from  two  genera  {G'urn'nia  iim\  Xanthoch^mut)  so  dis- 
tinct as  not  to  be  referable  even  to  the  same  natund  order.  In  my  opini- 
on Stdiagtuitis  ought  to  be  suppri-NicK  and  Xanthochtjmvs  retained." 

The  allusion  to  Sto-agmilis  in  this  passage  refers  to  the  following  sen- 
tence, v.  hioh  I  ipiote  from  Dr.  (irahun';* paper — "  It  a])pears  then  that  the 
generic  name  of  Xart'ncktitnuji  must  be  dropped  and  that  the  speciei 
which  belonirrd  to  this  genus  uiu>t  (for  the  future)  receive  the  appella- 
tion of  »9/a/rt  ,»i  ■//*."  This  reasoninjr  se»:m<  to  have  carried  conviction 
to  Dr.  Lin  lii  y*s  mind.  a<  he  ha<j  acted  upi^i  it,  so  far  as  to  append  in  his 
Flora  Me*Iii  the  name  Sia-ai^mithu*  o.u  (Wight  and  Arnott's)  charac- 
ter v(  Xtifi  hrch^  hiu\  as  bein^  the  original  and  legitimate  name  of  the 
gtMiiis  :  but.  ;.p]M!e:JtIy  ^\itliuidue  ri-nsideration.  as,  foi^tting  the 
ri:xhis  pf  prii»ri;v  in  the  case  ot  Cambosin  «"»/^l  of  Linnirus,  he  has  fol- 
lowed  (iral'um  in  quoting  tiiat  name,  without  any  doubt  as  to  the  identi- 
ty oi  I  he  planT<.  as  a  syniniym  for  the  very  modem  Ilebradrndron  Gam' 
h.^sioi  V*"  of  tii.iham.  Ipon  wl:.;t  grounds  this  degree  of  favour  is  to  be 
^h o V  n  10  Jiiini  .'c  i i-r :. n  and  u  it h h e i d  iw \i\  X anth ochym vs  I  am  quite 
unable  to  dis.vvcr  fi- even  to  lonjeciure:  that  Dr.  Graham  should  have 
inavlvericntly  ii'm:'..iU\!  su.h  an  oversight  is  not  so  much  to  be  wonder- 
ed at.  wri;:ngas  h.^  was  muler  the  excitement  of  having  discovered  the 
long  sou*;!;:  tiumlvgc  plant,  av.d  the  n- nelly  of  in\eniing  new  generic 
r.amos:  but  :!ui!  Dr.  Linvlley  <'.:ould.  in  ilie  retirem-?nt  of  his  closet,  and 
total  I  v  uninruruvcd  bv  the  stmrdiis  unier  wliich  Graham  wrote,  have 
followed  him  uitho..:  ^ucsiii-niri^  iho  j ti  pricty  t-f  what  he  did,  is  to  mc 
surpri>irg. 

In  my  own  an  1  in  ih,^  ramo  if  ..h  \io:ki'Jc  h-M^sis.  who  are  daily 
cdle.i  upon  to  unriv.d  th,^  un:os  vf  :r\.'.v.\1  and  perplexed  generic 
names,  I  eiucr  my  pro:v*>t  ac:.inst  s-a.h  u:'.:;:ces<.\ry  changing  of  names 
in  a  5sienco  abtM.!;^  o\<*rVur:hono.l  .vi:";  :h  m.  and  one  too  which 
must  HI  its  \i'r\-  n.itarx*  b.^oorae  r.v.^re  aix.l  more  so  ever\'  dav.  To 
^;v\ e  ;.>si ^*\ e .*.  t l:e  natr :^  o \  II < >  a  ^w  :' ■■  'i  ( » j vj > v  : idti  to  the  veiy 
pVin:  w'.'.  '.i  1/ '.i:\vv.s  oa  "e  1  i\\:-  -.r.  ^  \.\  ar.i  then  q-.iote  the  ori- 
gini'.  u.i.u;*  .>  a  >.:v ::>:•.:  yi  ve  ::-*w  vv.e  w.:l^^.t  d-Mjbl  or  ques- 
li  *".  -s  !.»  rh*  ;.i:*v.*::v  ot'  :""c  --.iv.rs.  1  h.-  .:  t  v^-  s  ich.  md  there- 
for.' V.  '.-:i'r  i:  ;*.  .:  *  y    :o  ex;..s>— :.:  :er:;;s  '.js*   i^.casured  liian  my 


]839]  Stalagmitin  Gamlvgwides,  atfd  Laurus  Cassia,  127 

o«ni  inclinations,  not  less  than  my   osterm  for  the  author,  dictates — 
my  sentiments  regarding  it;  the  more  8u,    us  1  do  not   consider  the 
genus  itself  a    tenable  one.     To  ils  goo<liie>s,  or  otherwise,  however, 
^  should  not  have  thouglit  it  necessary  thus  to  advert,  if  the  oUl  name  had 
been  retained ;    what    I  object  to   is,  ihe  inconsistency  of,  in  the  same 
hBsUh,  setting  up  a  decidedljr  bad  genus  without  a  single  genuine  species 
tosapport  it,  for  such  I  hold  Stafajmiih  to  be,  and  putting  down  a  sup- 
posed g«od  one,  resting  on  the  very  s;une  foun<hiiiun  on  which  its  suc- 
ceswr  is  raised,  the  same  species  being  the  basis  of  both.     In  the  case 
ofStalagmitis  I  object  to  the  course  pursued,  on  the  ground  of  its  being 
^mgine  a  spurious  genus,  constituted  partly  from  notes  taken  from  one 
•pecies,  the  flowers  of  which  the  author  of  the  genus  (Murray)  never 
^  law,  and  |)art]y  from  flowers  of  another  which  he  examined,  and  then, 
'fitbwliat  ingenuity  he  was  master  of,  invented  from  these  heterogeneous 
Bttterials  a  generic  chamcter  not  referable  to  either.    That  every  thinsf 
Blight  be  in  just  keeping  in  this  curious  medley,  it  now  appears,  that  he 
liad  for  his  only  species  a  specimon  made  up  of  the  fragments  of  two 
phnij,  no  more  fit  to  represent  either  correctly  than  his  character  could 
uujgamate  the  peculiarities  of  both,  they  being  referable  to  two  distinct 
Datonl  orders.     With  all  this  information  before  him,  and  hunted  out 
vithnmcb  labour  by  Dr.   Brown  and   himself,  Dr.  Graham,  inci)nsidcr- 
HWy  I  should  hope,  tells  us  that  the  generic  name  of  Ximthochymus 
"     w»t  be  dropped,  and  that  of  Stalagmitis  put  in  its  pUice,  or,  in  other 
vMi|  declares  that  we  must  put  down  a  good  genus  and  set  up  a  non- 
entity, a  genus  without  a  s]>ecies.    That  one  of  the  two  must  be  drop- 
ped ia  certain ;   but  I  hope  botanists  will  show  more  consideration  for  the 
Meritorious  anddiligent  labours  of  Roxburgh,  than  to  displace  his  really 
*ell  defined  generic  name,  in  favour  of  one  which  nobody  could  under- 
*tud,  or  apply  from  its  own  terras,  and  which,  now  that  its  inconsistencies 
hwe  been  brought  to  light,  no  one  could  adopt.     As  I  have  examined 
this  question  snmewliat  in  detail,  in  a  ])ostscript  to  my  article  on  the 
Guttifera,  1  shall  subjoin  it  also,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  not 
have  the  opportunity  of  consulting  the  original  work,  in  the  hope  tliat, 
by  thus  calling  attention  to  the  subject,  my  remarks  may  have  the  eflfect 
^caoHDg  botanical  authors  to  pause  before  they  sanction,   by  adopting 
<l»em,roch  uncalled  for,  and,   I  fear,  if  not  opposed  in  time,  likely  to 
^*«wme  mischievous,  innoN-ations — I  now  take  leave  of  the  subject,  and 
»inceiely  hope  I  may  not  again  have  to  revert  to  it. 

P.  S.— After  this  article  was  completed  and  the  greater  part  of  itprint- 
<^  1  received  Lindley's  **  Flora  Medica,"  a  new  work  just  issued  from 
^^pre«,  aiid,  like  all  the  other  works  of  the  accomplished  author,  form- 

V  ■ 


*• 


i'J^  Remarka  on  Cainloiriu   GutlUj  [Jan« 

ing  a  most  valuable  ooutributiun  tu  botanicnl  scieucc  ;  on  tbis  occasioa 
in  connection  witb  medicine.     In  this  work  I  find  Dr.  Lindley  has  add« 
ed  the  weight  of  his  authority,  to  tbat  of  those  who  adopt  Murray's 
Slalaf/niitis  in  preference  to  Roxburgli's  Xanthochymun.    ITiis  he  do^^p 
for  the  reasons  aildnced  by  Dr.  Graham  ;   namely,    that  Mr.   Brown  hiia 
examined  Murrav^s  specimen    and  ascertained  that  it  consifltv  of   t^ 
plants,  probably  of  two  genera,  one  of  which,  in  flower,  is  a  Xanthochy" 
mus,  the  other,  not  in  Uower,  supposed  to  be  Graham's  I/ebradendron. 
Having  expressed  my  belief  tliat  Xanthochymus  does  not  belong  totbis 
natural  order,  and  having  no  new  species  to  add,   nor  other  informnloii 
to  communicate  respecting  it,  I  did  inteuvl  to  have  noticed  that  genus  in 
this  place.     But  as  I  have  said  above  that,   in  my  opinion,   StalagmUU 
ought  to  be  suppressed  and  .Ya7i//<o(7////»;<«  established  in  its  room,  I  fecl^ 
now  called  u])on  to  state  more  fully  my  reasons  for  thinking  so — I  shall  ^ 
'Sxommence  by  extracting  from  the  *'Companion  to  the  Botanical  Magazine*' 
the  passage  of  Mr.  Brown's  letter,   quoted  by  Dr.   Graham  as  his  autho- 
rity for  saying  that  the  generic  name  Xanih'jcht/mun  must  be  dropped  in 
favour  of  Stalagmtfit,     **  The  plant  sent  pasted  by  Konig  to   Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  as  one  specimen,  I  have  ascertained  to  be  made  up  of  two  plants, 
an:l  very  probably  of  two  genera.     Tbe  union  was  concealed  Ly^^aling 
wax.     The  portion  in  flower,  and  whieli  agrees  in  structure  with  Mur- 
ray's ai:count,  is,  I  have  no  doubt,  the  Xnntho.hymas  ovalifoUuit  of  Roqflk 
burgh.     Sta^ajmilis  aud  Xanthochymus  are  therefore  one  genus,   as  Cam- 
bcssides  luxs  already  observed,  giving  the  preference  to  the  earlier  JMpe 
of  Murray.    This,  however,  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole  speci- 
men, the  larger  portion  being,   I  am  inclined   to  think,    the  same  with 
your  plant,  of  whiih  1  have  seen,  and  I  believe  still  ]iossess,  the    speci- 
men you  sent  to  Don.*     The  structure,  however,  of  this  greater  portion 
cannot  be   ascertained  from  the   few  very  young  flower-buds  belonging 
to  it.     It  approaches  aho  very  closely,  in  its  leaves  especially,   to  that 
specimen  in  Hermann's  herba!-iu:n,  which  may  be  Considered  as  th^  type 
of  LinUiTus*  Camhogia  fruftJ.     A  loose  fruit,    p.isted  cm  the  sheet    with 
Konig's  p1a.it,  j^robably  belongs  to  the  larger  portion,    and  resembles 

Gartner's  Morcll  i. 

So  far  all  appears  oleiirl/  iu  favour  of  St>i!ag'ntth    and  had  Murray  i 
drawing  up  his  character  rigidly  confined  himself  to  the  descripnon  o 
the  tlowers  before  him,  1  should  at  once  liave  adopted  his  name  io  pre- 
fv'rence  to   R.>\^uri;Vs.     Baton  turning  to   his  character,   as  given  in 
8chrid>er's  (i  nora  Plant  ir.i.n.    we  find  a    l-leaved  calyx,  a  4-petaled  co- 
rolla, and  a  4-lobc.l  siignia,  ejmbine.!    with  pentadclphous  stamens,  3- 


,?• 


*  O.ic  of  those  roccii'cJ  trom  Mn.  Walker. 


V 


«# 


IS39]  RemarJm  on  Camhog'ia  Gatla.  129 

seeded  berries,  the  stigmas  somotimcs  trifid:  stamina  not  always  polya- 
delphous ?&c.  From  this  very  unusual  combination  of  quinary  and 
qiiatemary,  forms  I  am  led  to  iufer  that  the  character  is  only  partly  de- 
rived from  the  specimen,  and  partly,  if  not  ])rini'ipally,  from  notes  ccmi- 
mnnicatcdby  Kiinig,  who,  it  appears,  from  the  fact  of  his  havincj  coni- 
biied,  on  the  supposition  that  they  were  the  same  plant,  two  distinct 
species,  was  not  aware  of  the  difference,  and  mishMl  Murray  by  connnu- 
Dicaiing  written  characters  of  a  Garcinia,  and  (lowers  of  another  plant, 
and  between  the  two,  there  has  resulted  a  set  of  characters  not  likely  to 
be  often  found  combiued  in  the  same  species,  and  still  less  fre(|uently  in 
one  small  specimen.  Roxburgh,  on  the  other  hand,  briefly  and  clearly 
defiiKS  a  genus  of  plants  well  known  to  him,  and  extensively  distributed 
wer  India,  about  which  he  has  scan-ely  left  room  for  a  mistake.  If  fur- 
ther proof  be  wanted  in  support  of  the  opinion  I  have  advanced  that  this 
isa  hybrid  genus,  1  adduce  Cambessides,  whose  authority  is  quoted  for 
the  identity  of  *S/^//a^ni/7/*  and  Xajithochymus.  He  has  strictly  fallowed 
Murray,  adopted  all  the  contradictions  of  his  character,  and  constituted 
a  genus  embodying,  first,  Roxburgh's  genus  A'ww/Aor/fyww*,  next.  Petit 
Thours*  Brindoniai  evidently  identical  with  Garchita  ;  then  Loureiro's 
Oijfcarpuf,  also  Garcinia ;  and  lastly,  (if  I  am  not  misled  by  Mr.  George 
Don,  wbora  I  am  obliged  for  want  of  Cambessides  own  memoir  to  fol- 
low) nearly  the  whole  of  Roxburgh's  species  of  Carc'tnia^  as  if  Roxburgh 
wai  M  bad  a  botanist  as  not  to  be  able,  with  growi  ng  plants  before  him, 
to diilinguish  between  two  genera  so  very  distinct  as  G<7rr/w/a  and  his 
own  XaRlhoehymux.  In  a  paper  which  I  published  in  the  Madras  Jour- 
nl(^ Science  for  October  183G,  I  showed,  from  the  internal  evidence  af- 
limledby  the  two  sets  of  characters,  that  MuiTay's  Stalaymitis  and  Rox- 
burgh's Xanthochymus  were  partly  identical,  and  attributed  the  dis'TP- 
pancies  to  defects  of  Murray's  solitary  specimen  ;  a  view,  whidi  Mr. 
Brown  has  shown  to  be  only  partly  right,  by  proving  that  they  in  some 
measure  originated  In  the  imperfect  observation  of  Kiinig,  who  sjipplied 
Murray  with  the  materials  for  his  genus. 

Having  now  addu?ed  what  I  esteem  conclusive  evidence  in  support  of 
the  opinion  I  advanced  al>ove,  that  Murray's  genus  is  spurious,  and  that  of 
Cambewides,  founded  on  it,  is  most  unnatural,  as  associating  species  that 
Bwercan  combine  generically  ;  while  Roxburgh's  is  a  strictly  natural 
gnms,  including  several  nearly  allied  species,  and,  moreover,  probably 
^ferable  to  a  natural  order  diflerent  from  more  than  half  of  the  species 
wfern»d  to  it  under  the  name  of  StalagmUis  by  Cambessides  :  I  consider 
wysclffuUy  justified  in  continuing  to  adopt  the  generic  name  Xantho* 
'*y"n«  (even  though  opt>osed  by  the  highest  botanical  authorities)  un- 
til earefiil  examination  of  the  original  specimen,  with  reference  to  the 
^lundalion  of  the  dis^repancieg  I  have  indicated,  shall  have  proved  that 


130  Remarks  on  Laurus  Cassia.  [Jan, 

such  actually  exist  in  that  specimen.  If  ihey  do  exist,  then  tlie  fault  is 
not  Murray's,  and  his  name  must  of  right  be  adopted  with  an  amended 
character,  excluding  the  numorous  species  of  Gurcinia  brought  under 
it  by  Cambessides  :  if  they  do  not,  Roxburgh's  genus,  which  as  it  now 
stands  is  strictly  natural,  claims  the  preference. 


Oh  th.'  Laurus  Cassia  of  Lhintpu^^  and  the  phmts  producing  the  Casua 

Bark  of  Commerce. 

Tlie  next  subject  on  which  I  have  some  remarks  to  offer  is  the  Lan- 
rus  Cassia  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  plants  producing  the  Cassia  Lign  ea  or 
Cassia  bark  of  commerce.  Mv  attention  was  first  directed  to  this  snb- 
ject  by  a  communication  from  Government,  in  which  I  am  reqncited  to 
endeavour  to  ascertain  **  whether  the  common  Cassia  bark  of  the 
markets  of  the  world  is  a  thicker  and  coars'r  jiortion  of  the  bark  of  the 
genuine  cinnamon  i>lant  or  tree,  or  whoihcr  it  is  the  bark  of  a  plant  not 
analogous  to  the  cinnamon  plant  or  tree." 

Before  it  was  possible  to  return  a  satisfactory  answer  to  this  question, 
it  seemed  incumbent  on  me  to  ascertain  what  plant  Linna?us  meant  to  de- 
signate uuvlenhe  name  of  Laurus  Cas^iaj  ami  wlicther  it  was  probable  the 
plant  so  called  could  supply  all  the  bark  passing  under  that  name  in  the 
iQarket>  v»f  the  world.     This  primary,  but  most  diliicult  inquiry  was  ren- 
dered indispensable  by   the,  generally  suppo>ed,  ridiculous  assertion  of 
Mr.  Mar>hall,  that  the  leaves,  and  the  bark  nf  the  trunk  aud  branches  of 
the  Laurus  Cassia  of  Linnaeus,  so  far  from  bjing  aromatic  and  spicy  like 
cinnamon,  are  bitter  and  have  in  a  slight   di'jrree  the  taste   and  odour  of 
uiyrrh.     This  assertion,  wide  as  it  may  appear  of  the  truth,  is  yet  found- 
ed in  fact,  and  what  may   appear  still   more  extraordinary,   has  led   lo  a 
discovery,  nhich,  without  such  aid  as  he  has  given,  would  not  probablv 
have  soon  been  made  by  a  professc'l  botani>i,   a  title  t«.»  which  I  believe 
Mr.  Mar>hall  does  not  aspire.     He  appears  i*t  have  been  led  to  the  dis- 
covery, that   the   Lau'u<   Cassta  of  Linncrns  did  rot  pro«Juce  aromatie 
bark,  simply  through  the  native  n;ime,  and  won.iers  li-w  it   could  have 
received  from  him  the  name  of  Caasia.  and  had  qualities  attributed   to 
its   bark  which  it  diH?s  not  in  tlic  slightest  decree  possess.     I  think  I 
can  now  answer  the  question,  and  cxpLiin  "he  myst'TV  which  has  so  long 
hung  over  this  species,  and  been    hitherto  re:idorevl  only  more  obscure 
by  ea^-h  attempt  to  bring  it  to  lii^bt. 

It  '.swell  known  to  inOvlem  botanists,  that  n.any  of  their  earlier  pre- 
dect-SvU-s  were  but  in.Utferent  describe  :>  of  jiai-ts.  aud  often  verv  loose 
in  their  .p:o:  iti.'U*  cf  figures  as  synonyms,  a  sin  of  which  Linnieus  was 
teflon  ;d»v»u;  as  guilty  as  any  of  his  cotem(>oraries.  He  seemed  to  have  bad 
ai  idea,  thai  ih.i:  Dgurf*  were  generally  at  best  but  approximations  to 


1339]  liemark^  on  Launts  Cass'fa.  131 

the  truth,  and  that  if  a  fi;^ure  exhibited  even  a  remote  similarity  to  a 
plant  before  him,  especially  if  from  the  same  country,  he  niiglr 
with  safely  qaote  it  as  a  !»ynonym.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  we  can  easily 
account  for  a  number  of  errors  to  which  his  incorrect  synonyms  have 
given  rise.  The  present  instance  affords  an  excellent  example  of  what 
I  have  here  stated,  and  one  which,  but  for  the  discovery  of  Mr.  Marshall, 
might  have  Ions:  remained  undetected. 

In  Ht^rmans  herbarium  of  Ceylon  plants,  he  (Linnaeus)  found  one  bearing 
the  native  names  of  •*  Dawalkurundu,  NikadawahV*  under  which,  it  is 
referred  to,  or  described  in  Hennans  Musceurn  Zeylanicum.     This  he 
consi.lered  a  species  of  Laurus,  apparently  from   habit  alone,  and  in  bis 
usual  brief  precise  style,     calls  it,    Laurus  foliis  lanceolatis  triuerviis» 
nervis  supra  basin  unitis  ;  having  previously  called  the  true  cinnamon, 
**  Lauras  folii.so\'ato-obl'.ngis  trinerviis  basi  nervos  unientibus/'  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two,  as  indicated  by  the  names,  seems  very  slight, 
merely  depen«ling  on  the  one  having  lanceolate  leaves  with  the  nerves 
niiite<l  ab«:»ve  the  base  ;  while  in  the  other  the  leaves  arc  said  to  be  ovate 
obloog  with  the  nerves   distinct  to  the  base — differences  small  indeed, 
and  such  as  could  never  be  found  of  much  aviiil  in  distinguishing  the 
one  plant  from  the  other,  since  they  arc  both  constantly  met  with   in 
different  leaves  on  the  same  tree.  Such  being  the  case,  it  is  not  much  to 
be  wondered  at  that  botanists  should  have  been  surprised  by  the  boldness 
of  Mr.  Marshall's  announcement,  that  two  trees,  believed  to  be  of  the  same 
genua,  and  so  nearly  alike  in  their  external  forms,  should  yet  differ  so 
very  widely  in  their  properties.    But  so  it  is,  and  nothing  can  be  more 
certain  than  that  the  fact  is  as  he  states  it. 

In  proceeding  to  trace  the  history  of  the  two  species,  aided  by  the 
light  Mr.  Marshall  has  thrown  on  them,  our  difficulties  vanish  like  mist 
before  the  no<m-d:iy  sun,  though  Mr.  M.  himself,  has  found  it  "  diflicult 
to  conceive  how  th>i  Dawalkurundu  obtained  the  appellation  of  Zaf/rt/« 
Cawa  from  Linnaeus.'*  It  was  because  Liniifeus's  specimen  ofDawal- 
kurundu  was  neither  in  flower  nor  in  fruit.  Had  it  been  so,  he  was  too 
a:alcan  observer  ever  to  have  confounded  it  with  the  plants  with  which 
he  bs  associated  it  in  his  synonyms.  This  explanation,  it  may  be  an- 
swered, is  mere  assumption  on  my  part — it  certainly  is  so,  but  supported 
by  so  strong  circumstantial  evidence,as  not  to  leave  a  doubt  of  its  correctness. 
Linn«u»  has  in  his  Flora  Zeylanica  given  a  short  description  of  each  of 
these  species :  his  description  of  the  cinnamon  is  principally  confined  to 
the  flower,  and  is  most  precise.  In  his  description  of  the  other,  the 
flower  is  not  once  alluded  to.  Here  he  declares,  that  he  knows  not  by 
what  mark  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Camphori/era  japonensium^  which 


13^  Bemarka  on  Laurms  Cussia.  [J ah, 

in  its  foliage  it  greatly  resembles,  but  nothing  can  be  more  distinct  than 
its  inflorescence  :  that  of  the  camphor  tree  being  a  panicle,  liaving  & 
litalk  as  long  as  the  leaves  ;  wbile  in  Danalkurundu  it  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  subsessile  capilulum,  that  is,  5  or  G  sessile  flowers  congested 
on  the  apex  of  a  very  short  peduncle,  and  surrounded  by  an  involucrum 
of  4  or  5  leaves ;  several  of  which  capitula  usually  form  verticels  round 
the  naked  parts  of  the  branches  where  the  leaves  have  fallen.  He  begins 
his  description  of  Laurus  Cassia*  by  stating  that  he  at  first  considered 
it  a  variety  of  the  antecedent  (cinnamon),  but  now  that  he  knows  not  by 
what  mark  tu  distinguish  it  from  Camphoriferajaponensium,  for  the  leaves 
are  thinner  than  those  of  cinnamon,  the  nerves  uniting  above  the  base  as 
in  Camphor'^feruy  and  are  sprinkled  beneath  with  a  greyish  dew  fsubtug 
tore  cuBsio  iif inita J  aa  in  the  cau)phor  tree,  and  are  at  the  same  time  lanceo- 
late and  of  a  thinner  texture  than  the  preceding  (cinnamon).  The  whole  of 
his  description  in  short  agrees  most  exactly  with  Mr.  Marshall's  description 
of  the  Cingalese  Daw  alkurundu,  and  leaves  not  a  doubt  that  both  had  the 
same  plant  in  view,  and  consequently  that  Kir.  Marshall  is  so  far  correct 
in  saying  that  the  bark  of  the  Laurus  Cassia  of  Linuoius  possessed  none 
of  the  qualities  attributed  to  it.  So  far  all  is  clear  but  now  the  chapter 
of  errors  begins. 

HadLinnaius  been  permitted  to  exercise  his  own  unbiassed  judgment  in 
this  case,  it  is  not  improbable  he  would  have  avoided  the  error  of 
assigning  to  a  plant  which,  with  all  his  acutencss,  he  knew  not  how  to 
distinguish  from  the  camphor  tree,  the  credit  of  producing  Cassia,  or  at 
all  events  would  not  have  done  so  without  some  expression  of  doubt,  so 
as  still  to  leave  the  question  an  open  one.  But,  upon  consulting  other 
authorities,  he  found  in  Bunnan's  Thesaurus  Zeylanicus  the  figure  of  a 
species  of  Cinnatticmum  or  Laurus  as  he  called  the  genus,  to  which 
Bunnan  had  given  the  name  of  Cinnamomttm perpetuojlorens,  &c.  and  as- 
Kigned  the  native  name  of  Daw  alkurundu,  not  as  it  appears  from  the 
specimen  itself  having  been  so  named,  but  because  being  different  from 
the  true  cinnamon  of  which  he  had  seen  specimens  and  figures,  he 
thought  it  an  inferior,  wild  or  jungle  sort,  and  must  of  necessity  be  the 
plant  which  Herman  had  described  in  his  Musseum  Zeylanicum,  though 
the  inflorescence  differed  much  from  the  description,  (a  very  essential 
point,  which  Burman  remarked  and  endeavours  to  explain  away,)  and 
therefore  gave  it  the  same  Cingalese  name.  Linneeus's  specimen  not  being 
in  flower,  and  the  resemblance  between  the  specimen  and  figure  being  in 


•  "Hanc  sTK^ciom  olim  pro  ant<»redenti»  Tarirtato  liabnl,  nunc  vero,  qua  notahanca 
Camphoriftra  jafomnntim  dUtinfpiam,  nt  ii  nori :  Folia  enitn  Cinnamoiuo  ttrtuiora.  ncr- 
Tia  ante  iMsin  coeuntibua  ut  inCamphorifera;  sulttus  rorc  crsio  Ulinita.  ut  Camphora, 
et  simulltnceolatt  ac  tcnoiori  lubitautift  qunm  pra!ccdeutI«."Xiiui.  Fior,  Zejflamcap.  62. 


1339]  Bewarks  on  Lahtus  Cc^va.  1,13 

other  respects  consiilerable,  he  had  not  the  means  of  detecting  tlie  discre- 
pancy, and  unsuspectingly  adopted  Barman's  figure  and  name  as  a  syno- 
nynj  to  his  plant. In  Rbeedes  Ilortus  Malabaiicus  (1  tab.  57)  he  found  the 
figure  uf  another  cinnamon,  even  more  closely  resembling  his  plant  in 
its  general  aspect  than  Bunnan's  figure,  this  he  also  associated  as  a  sy- 
nonym ;  and  Rheedes*  plant  being  lauded  on  account  of  the  aromatic  pro- 
perties of  its  bark  and  leaves,  which  resemble  the  true  cinnamon, 
though  it  is  not  the  genuine  cinnamon  tree,  he  seems  to  have  consider- 
ed himself  quite  safe  in  associating  this  also,  and  called  (he  three  species, 
this  tria  juncta  in  uno  plant,  Laurus  Camiat  and  assigned  it  as  the 
iource  of  the  officinal  **  Caasia  Litrnea  cortex,'* 

After  this  exposition  of  the  origin  of  the  species  Laurus  Cojtsiaf  it  can 
scarcely  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  no  two  botanists  liave  ever  agreed 
as  to  the  plant  which  ought  to  bear  the  name  :  nor,  that  not  one  of  them 
should  ever  have  surmised  what  plant  Linnsus  had  constituted  the  type 
of  his  ^pecies.  'It  is  not  my  intention  on  the  present  occasion  to  extend 
these  remarks,  by  tracing  the  various  conjectures  that  have  been  promul- 
gated on  the  subject  ;  sutlice  it  to  say  that  no  one,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
has  taken  a  similar  view  as  that  now  explained.  It  only  further  remains 
for  me  to  give  souie  account  of  the  three  species  thus  erroucously 
associated. 

The  first  mentioned,  Dawulkurundu,  Linnaeus'  own  plant  and  the 
tj-pe  of  the  species  is,  I  believe,  the  Zawnt*  involucrala  of  Vahl,  and  of 
Lamark  in  the  Encyclopedic  Method ique,  and  has  iu  Professor  Necs' 
monograph  of  the  Indian  Laurinae  (Wall,  Plant.  As.  rariorcs),  received 
the  name  of  Telradeniu  Zt't/lauica,  but  is  the  Litsea  Zcyfanica  of  a  for- 
mer wi^rk  of  his,  a  name,  which  I  presume  must  be  restored,  owing  to 
the  uiher  being  preoccupied.  The  slight  difference  of  structure  does  not 
seem  to  render  a  new  genus  necessary. 

The  second  and  third  have  both  been  referred,  by  the  same  eminent 
botanist,  to  his  variety  of  the  true  cinnamon,  the  Cinnamomum 
Zeyiant'cttmt  a  decision  to  which  I  cannot  subscribe,  as  I  cannot  per- 
ceive that  either  of  these  figures  are  referable  to  any  form  of  that  spe- 
cies, and  they  besides  differ  specifically  from  each  other. 
'  The  Ci/itiamomum  perpeluo  Jlorens  appears  to  me  a  perfectly  distinct 
iipecies,  very  nearly  allied  to,  if  not  actually  identical  with,  Nees'  own 
species  C.  Sulphuraium,  of  which  I  have  now  got  specimens  from 
Ceylon.  This  1  infer  from  the  appearance  of  the  [)lant  as  represented 
in  the  figure,  for  if  any  dependence  is  to  be  placed  on  the  description,  it 
is  impossible  to  admit  it  into  the  genus.  On  this  however,  I  do  not  feel 
di*j>osed  to  ]»laci»  much  reliance,  as  it  was  not  the  practice  a  century  ago, 


134  licmir^s  on  Luurus  Ca.sia,  [Jan. 

when  the  description  was  \vritten,  to  examine  the  structure  of  flowers 
with  the  same  care  that  is  now  bestowed.  Should  it  be  objected,  that 
the  species  I  quote  as  the  C.  perpetuo  forcns  is  clothed  with  yellow- 
ish pubescence,  which  is  not  mentioned  by  Barman,  then  I  have  another 
from  the  same  country  (Ceylon)  perfectly  glabrous,  agreeing  in  the  form 
of  its  leaves,  but  diflTering  in  having  more  numerous  and  smaller  flowers, 
which  may  he  substituted,  and  that  1  do  not  think,  more  than  the  other,  a 
variety  of  the  genuine  cinnamon  tree. 

The  Malabar  plant  Carua  (Hort.  Mai.  1.  tab  57),  on  the  other  hand,  I 
consider  a  very  passable  figure  of  a  plant,  in  my  herbarium  named,  by 
Nees  himself,  Chmamomum  iners  ;  but,  whether  or  not  I  am  right  in  the 
species  to  which  I  have  referred  it,  I  can  have  no  hesitation  in  giving  it 
as  my  opinion  that  it  is  not  referable  to  any  form  of  the  C.  Zeylanicum  ; 
neither  can  I  agree  with  him  in  thinking  the  plant  figured  under  the 
name  of  Lour  us  Cassia  in  the  Botanical  Magazine  No.  1636  is  referable 
to  the  Ceylon  species,  but  is  I  think  very  like  the  Malabar  one, 
the  only  species  of  the  genus  to  which  the  name  Cassia  should  be  ap- 
plied, ifthat  name  is  still  to  be  retained  in  botanical  nomenclature,  as 
being  the  only  one  of  the  three  associated  species  known  to  produce 
that  drug.  Another  plate  of  the  Botanical  Magazine  {Launis  Ci'namo- 
mum  No.  2028)  I  also  refer  here,  and  feel  greatly  at  a  loss  to  account 
for  its  introduction  into  that  work  under  a  diflcrent  name  from  tiie  pre- 
ceding. The  plant  which  Nees  formerly  considered  the  Laurns  Cassia, 
but  now  calls  C'mnanvjmum  aromatic um,  from  China,  is  a  very  nearly 
allied  species,  but  is  distinct,  and  furnishes  much  of  the  bark  sold  in 
the  European  markets  inuler  the  name  of  Cassia,  tho'it  has  nothing  what- 
ever to  do  with  the  Lauras  Cassia  of  Linnains,  which,  from  the  preceding 
history  appears  strictly  confinerl  to  Ceylon  and  India  proper,  and  that 
name,  not  being  referable  to  any  one  species,  ought  unquestionably  to 
be  expunged  from  botnni<al  nomenclature,  its  longer  continuance  there 
only  tending  to  create  confusion  and  uncertainty.  This  brings  me  to 
the  next  question — namely,  what  plant  or  plants  yield  the  Cassia  bark  of 
commerce  ? 

The  foregoing  explanation,  in  the  course  of  which  two  plants  are  re- 
ferred to  as  yielding  Cassia,  greatly  simplifies  the  answer  to  this  one. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  Malabar  Carua  figured  by  Rheede,  the  second 
Nees'  Ciiwnmomumnromaticum.  The  list,  however,  of  Cassia  producing 
plants  is  not  limited  to  these  two,  but  I  firmly  believe  extends  to  nearlv 
every  species  of  the  genus.  A  set  of  specimens,  submitted  for  my  ex- 
amination, of  the  trees  furnishing  Cassia  on  the  Malabar  Coast,  presented 
no  fewer  than  four  distinct  species  ;  including  among  them  the  genuine 


1339]  Remarks  on  Laurus  Cassia.  135 

cinnaraon  plant,  the  bark  of  the  older  branches  of  which,  it  would  appear, 
exported  from  that  coa*«t  as  Cassia.     Three  or  four  more  species  are  na- 
tives of  Ceylon,  exclusive  of  the  cinnamon   proper,  all  of  which  greatly 
resemble  the  cinnamon  plant,  and  in  the  woods  might  e;isilv  be  mist;ikeii 
for  it,  and  peeled,  though  the  produce  might  bo  inferior.  Thus  we  have 
from  Western  India  and  Ceylon  alone,  probably  not  less  than  six  plants 
producing  Cassia  ;  add  to  these  nearly  twice  as  many  more  species  of  cin- 
iiiniomum,  the  produce  of  the  more  eastern  states  of  Asia  and  the  Islands 
of  the   Eastern   Archipelago,   all  remj-rkable  for  their  striking  family 
likeness,  all  I  believe  endowed  with  aromatic  properties,  and  probably 
the  greater  part  if  not  the  whole  contributing  something  towards  the 
general  resulf,  and  we  at  once  see  the  impossibility   of  awarding  to  any 
one  individual  species  the  credit  of  being  the  source  whence  the  Cassia 
Lignea  of  commerce  is  derived  ;  and  equally  the  impropriety  of  applying 
to  any  one  of  them   the   comprehensive  specific  appellation  of  Cassia, 
since  all  sorts  of  cinnamon-like  plants,  yielding  bark  of  a  quality  unfit  to 
bear  the  designation  of  cimuiaion  in  the  market,  are  passed  oil  as  C;issia. 


Vl^Report  upon  the  Run  of  (he  Sea,  and  Set  of  the  Tides  at  Madras 
during  thp  North-East  Monsoon.-Bij  T.  0.  Taylor,  Esq.  Honora- 
ble  Company's  Astronomer, 

To  do  justice  to  an  enquiry  of  this  nature,  it  will  no  doubt  be  considered 
necessary  that  observations  should  have  been  continued  throughout 
wral  monsoons,  whereby  a  knowledge  of  maximum  and  minimum  ef- 
fects would  have  been  attained-instead  of  the  particular  ones  which 
have  been  observed  in  the  monsoon  of  18:J8,  upon  which  this  report  en- 
tirely depends ;  it  hence  appears  necessary  that  the  particulars  of  the 
nciither  experienced  in  the  monsoon  of  1838  should  tirst  be  stated. 

The  S.  W.  wind  continued  to  blow  steadily  up  to  the  16th  October, 
on  which  day  the  N.  E.  wind  set  in  in  a  somewhat  abrupt  and  threat- 
ening  manner ;  but,  relaxing  again  on  the  17th  to  the  S.  and  S.  W.,  the 
vcuther  continued  fine  until  the  24th,  when  the  wind  again  shifted  to 
the  N.  E. :  from  this  day  (which  may  be  considered  the  commencement 
of  the  monsoon)  up  to  the  lOth  December,  when  fine  weather  again 
returned,  the  subjoined  meteorological  register  will  exhibit  the  nature 
of  the  weather  experienced. 


136 


Report  upon  the  llun  of  the  Seat 


[Jan. 


Days. 

Barometer  at 

Thermome- 
ter at 

Kain. 

Direction  of  ' 

Bvind. 

^ 

• 

•5 

• 

1^' 

Sim 

Sun 

1*^ 

• 

•            1 

2 

1838 

< 

• 

p^ 

• 

<  . 

q:      "se. 

set.         <* 

« 

&4 

k*4 

O 

^ 

o 
Ins. 

o 

w 

o 

Ins. 

2 

^^^ 

'«*' 

o 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Oct.  24 

3U,010 

30,028  30,062 

83.3  a5,0;  82.0 

N   R 

N   E           , 

X   E 

25 

074 

000 

021'  8-1,0  8.5.0  80,3 

N  K 

R 

N 

'Mi 

0->2 

29,97  f 
0% 

OU)  »l,7  81.0' 82,5}          1 

INE           i 

.N  E 

N 

27 

OlJS 

29.99t'  79,3, 81,6,  79,5  1,174  0.467JN           | 

S 

28 

ooy 

.— 

9981  78,6 

—     79,3  0,367  !0,5;i5 

N.   N    E 

1 

N 

2«J 

a3!j 

960 

30,018 

78.6 

80,0  78,7 

0,147; 

N 

N               1 

1 

N  W 

.!() 

OOi 

990 

(66 

79,0:  79,4 1  78,2 

0.a34.  0,117 

K 

N               i 

N 

31 

040 

9i<0!      024 

78,7l  79.6!  79,4 

0,944 

N  W 

X               ' 

N 

Nov.] 

016 

978  29,990 

80,4 

82,5178,5 

0,217 

N   B 

X  E 

Calm 

2 

008 

958  30,000 

80,7 

83,8.79,9 

N  W 

N  E 

N    B 

S 

00« 

95 1' 

29,998 

81,4 

8t,0  80,3 

N  W 

N  W 

N 

4 

024 

^— 

30.0001 78,0 

— 

78,9 

0,667^0,167 

N  e 

N  W 

5 

29,990 

930 

29,976  77,6 

76,2 

76.4 

5.U)9  0,637 

N 

N  W 

N 

6 

9KS 

910 

906'  76,5 

77,0 

76,5 

1..382 

0,991 

N   E 

N  W 

N 

7 

920 

876 

916!  77,7 1  79,8 

78,4 

4,700 

S  W 

fS  B.  E 

E 

8 

9J2 

890 

940 

80,7 

81,8 

79,1  0,067 

E 

B 

M  B 

9 

966 

902 

958*  80,1 

82,0 

79,9  3,825:0,037 

K 

E 

N  B 

lU 

30,034 

914 

30.(XX) 

78,2 

79,0 

78,3 

1,014:  0,W)7 

B 

B 

N  W 

11 

03i 

_ 

003 

78,8 

— 

79.8 

1,534 

0.107 

N     N  W 

!C 

12 

063 

961 

02b 

78,2  79,4 

78,3 

0,127 

0,147 

B.  S  B 

E 

N 

13 

076 

990'      064 

81.8  81.4 

79,7 

0,217 

N  B 

E 

N  B 

14 

090 

30,(XX)       090 

81,6  79,9 

79.7 

N  E.  B. 

N  E.  E 

N  E.  B 

15 

12 1 

006'      068 

77,5  79,9 

78,3 

0,187 

0,377 

N 

N 

N   B 

16 

102 

0021      088 

81,1:80,5 

79,5 

N  E 

N  B 

N  B 

17 

110 

0221      078 

80,8"  80,8;  79.3 

N   E 

N  E 

X  B 

18 

076 

__ 

076  78,8 

— 

77,7 

N  B 

19 

067 

012 

056  79,5 

79,4 

77.6 

K 

N  B 

N 

20 

030 

29,958 

003  78,2 

80,0 

78,0 

N 

N 

Calm 

21 

29,982 

910 

29,952  76,3  78,8 

74,7 

X.  N  W 

N 

do 

22 

30,01 1 

960  30.006  76.9 

1 

79,6 

76,0 

N.  N  W 

N   E 

do 

23 

062 

974 

033  77.2 

79,5 

73,5 

W 

X  E.  E 

do 

21 

0S8 

986 

035 

76.4 

79,5 

76.0 

V 

N   B 

N  E 

25 

077 

054 

77,2 

— 

75,7 

B 

N 

26 

100 

30,001 

086 

77,3  78.0 

76,3 

N 

N  E 

N  B 

27 

112 

016 

126 

79,1  80.4  77.3 

0,147 

N  B 

E 

N  B 

28 

156 

072 

140 

76,3  79,0  78,2 

0.091 

N    W 

N  E 

N   B 

29 

126 

042 

124 

7jM)  78,8  76.5 

N 

B.  N  E 

E  N  E 

dU 

120 

042 

111 

7^3.  7K8:  77,5 

0,117 

N.  N  E 

N,  N  R 

N  E 

Dec.  1 

105 

016 

072 

77.8;  78,5' 75,7 

B.  N  B 

N  B 

N  E 

2 

086 

»38 

76,0 

-    176,11 

N  W 

N  W 

008 

77,8 

78,8 

77,8 

N.  N  W 

N.  N  W 

N 

3 

05S 

29,990 

4 

016 

914  29,978178,7 

79.8 

76,7 

X  W 

N  W.  N 

.H 

5 

29,968 

924 

94i  76,1 

78.0 

76.4 

0,190  0,317 

N 

N 

S 

6 

950 

*»74 

906  75.1 

76,5 

75,7 

1,781  0.232 

X.  N  W 

N.  N  W 

N  N  W 

7 

♦896 

910       9{)8|75.8 

76,8 

76,7 

1,634 

0,067  w.  N  w 

S 

8  B 

8 

30,081 

988  30,050,  78,8 

81,0 

77,8 

E.  S  B 

S  E 

B  Tf  B 

9 

062 

._ 

0)01 78,8 

— 

77,7 

N  E 

N   B 

10 

090 

oai 

108i 

78,7 

80,0 

77,8 

B 

B 

N 

N.  B.— The  correction  for  cappillarity  which  remains  to  be  applied=x,0a6. 
•  A  very  high  sea  and  terrific  surf— there  had  evidently  been  a  strong  gale  of 
whid  in  the   neighbourhood     One  dhoney  camo  ashore  and  the  Brig  Maiogay, 
hariugbroke   hex  aochor,  was  obliged  to  \\A  to  sea. 


1839] 


and  Set  of  the  Tides  at  Madras, 


137 


Weather. 


Remarks. 


•?!  10  A.  M. 

Si 

ol 


4  P.  M. 


10  A.  M. 


5]FI.  cl. 
3  Clear 
7  Cloudy 
Driz.  rain 

9  do      do 
^  do      do 

10  Cloudy 

6  Th.  haz  e 
3  Cloudy 
5.      do 

7Flcl. 
9  Rain 
10  Cloudy 
^      do 

5  do 
9F1.C1. 

9  Cloudy 
9     do 

8j     do 

SRain 

6  Fi.  irl. 
8     do 

7  Cloudy 
7FLcL 
6,Cleir 

5i  

5:P1.  cL 
6|  do 
S'Tb.  haze 

5  do    do 

3Haze 
Clear 
1    do 

6  Cloudy 
5F.d. 

5  do 
10    do 

6  Cloudy 

3  ad. 

7  do 

8  Haze 

7  FI.  cl. 

8  Rain 
10    do 

9  do 
5FI.CL 
3    do 
3    do 


Clear 

do 
Cloudy 


Cloudy 

do 

do 
Fl.  cl. 
Haze 

FLcl. 

Cloudy 
Rain 
Th.  haze 
Cloudy 

do 
do 


Cloudy 

do 

do 
Driz.  rain 
Cloudy 
FLcl. 

FlTcT 

do 
Th.  haze 
do    do 

Haze 
Clear 

Cloudy 
Fl.  cl 
Cloudy 
Driz.  rain 
Cloudy 
Fl.  cL 


Cloudy 
;F1.  cl. 

Cloudy 

Rain 
'  Cloudy 

Fl.  cl. 

Fl.  cl.        I 


Haze 
Clear 
Cloudy 
Driz.  rain 

Fl.  cl. 
Cloudy 

do 

FI.  cl. 
Clear 
Haze 

Driz.  rain 
do    do 
do    do 
do    do 

Clear 

Cloudy 

Fl   cl. 

Driz.  rain 

FLcl. 

Cloudy 
Clear 
Rain 
Clear 

Fl.  cl. 

FL  cL 
Clear 
Haze 
Th.  haze 
Clear 
Haze 

Clear 

do 

do 
Cloudy 

Fl.  cL 
do 
Rain 

FL  cl. 

FLcl. 
C  loudy 

do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
FL  cL 

do 

do 


Lightning  to  the  E.  at  night. 
Thunder  and  lightning  to  the  E.  do. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Lightning  do. 

Do.  do. 

Da    and  rain  do. 

do. 
Heavy  dew. 
Dew 

Thunder  and  lightning  at  night. 

'     Do.  do.  do. 

Squally  day  and  night. 

Heavy  rain  evening  and  night 

Vivid  lightning        do. 

Vivid  lightning  and    one  loud  and  terrific 

I  crash  of  thunder  at  7  P.  M. 

Lightning  at  night. 

Do.  do. 

Thunder  and  lightning     do. 


Do*  do. 

Lightning 

Thunder  and  lightning 
Lightning 
Do. 


do. 

do. 

do. 

do.  with  rain. 

do. 


} 


Hazy. 


Heavy  dew. 
Do,       do. 

Do.  do. 
Do.  do. 
Do.        do. 

Drizzling  rain  at  night, 
do. 


1 


Generally  cloudy  throughout  the    night, 
wind  strong  at  times. 


j  Squally. 


Strong  wind  or  light  gale  at   night— thun- 
Lightning.  [der  &  lightning. 

Do. 

Do. 


138  Report  upon  the  Run  of  the  S'tOt  [Jan* 

On  comparing  the  foregoing  register  with  similar  ones  during  the  last 
forty  years,  it  appears  that  the  monsoon  of  1838  has  uotheen  particu- 
larly distinguished — either  for  its  severity  or  mildness;  and  from  the 
evidence  of  the  shipping  in  the  roads,  it  would  appear  that  a  monsoon 
of  full  ordinary  strength  has  been  experienced  With  regard  to  the 
particulars  of  the  observations  from  which  this  report  has  been  drawn 
up,  I  may  at  once  proceed  to  state,  that 

The  Site  chosen  for  making  the  observations,  was  a  long  range  of 
verandah,  situated  in  front  of  the  Sea  Custom  House  and  Master  At- 
tendant's OHjce  ;  at  about  200  feet  from  the  edge  of  the  sea  and  29  feet 
above  its  moan  level — immediately  opposite  to  the  spot  on  which  stones 
had  been  thrown  down  for  the  proposed  breakwater.  On  this  verandah 
two  stations  were  selected,  205  feet  apart  (which  I  have  distinguished 
as  the  north  and  south  end  of  the  verandah),  from  which  I  was  enabled 
to  determine  the  situation  of  buoys,   &c. 

The  Instruments  employed  on  shore,  were,  a  five  feet  achromatic  by 
Dullond  (fitted  with  circles  of  4  in.  diameter,  reading  off  to  minutes,  for 
the  measurcmentof  altitude  and  azimuth,  and  supplied  with  a  position 
and  double  wire  micrometer),  and  a  9  inch  theodolite  by  DoUond — ^both 
circles  reading  off  to  minutes. 

The  Apparatus  employed  at  sea,  consisted  of  a  small  iron  buoy  (No. 
1),  anchored  in  18  feet  water,  immediately  opposite  to  and  828  feet  dis- 
tant from  the  S.  station  ;  and  a  similar  one  (Xo.  2),  situated  at  1131  feet 
distance  from  the  same,  and  exactly  in  a  line  with  No.  1 :  both  of  these 
buoys  were  held  to  their  anchors,  with  6  inch  coir  cable  of  18  fathoms  in 
length.  In  addition  to  this,  a  canoe  of  IG  feet  in  length,  decked  over  and 
well  caulked,  was  anchored  op})osite  to,  and  1200  feet  distant  from  the 
north  station  ;  the  canoe  was  furnished  with  a  slender  rod  of  8  feet  in 
length,  nailed  to  the  deck  at  right  angles  to  its  length,  for  the  purpose  of 
indicating  the  direction  of  the  current :  and  an  apparatus  (fig.  No.  1)  for 
measuring  its  velocity  : — where  A  represents  an  iron  flanche,  which  if? 
screwed  on  to  the  stern  of  the  canoe  and  supports  a  double  jimbol  £» 
on  which  the  connected  iron  rods  D  13  and  B  C  and  wooden  bob  C, 
are  free    to  move  in  every  direction.     In   the   case  of  no  current — ^E 


mtl  Stt  nfihe  Tidti  at  .Vadrat. 


13D 


C  KouM  be  perpendicular  ;  and  corresponding  to  any  given  an^'U' 
ufiDclination,  it  might  readily  be  computed  what  was  Ilic  velocity  or  the 
cnn^Dti  the  rod  E  C  being  situated  /n  the  u'^ler,  it  mms  ncccsa:iry  lo 
attach  an  index  D  B  (whose  inrlinalian  couhl  be  rcjd  ofT  iviih  tlic  |>ofii- 
rr  attached  to  the  5  feet  telrscope). 


The  Tines  proper  for  making  the  obserralions  were  next  to  be  consi' 
ii»rej  (  with  regnrd  to  the  tides,  the  ubservatioTis  on  the  days  near  to  (he 
new  and  full  moon  and  at  the  quarlers  were  evidciiily  ihe  most  pro- 
per; and  Tor  the  set  of  the  aea,  ihusedayd  in  wljidi  (he  surf  wns  liighcT 
tbui  usual  should  evidenlly  be  adopted ;  hence  I  sclcclfld  lie  d:iy*  fol- 
lowing the  lat,  2d,  3J  and  4lh  qii»rtera  of  the  moon,  when  hourly  obser- 
vations from  S  ^.  n.  to  6  p.  u.  should  be  regularly  registered,  and  on  any 
intennediaie  days  in  case  of  a  higher  surf  than  ordinary. 

TiB  Ron  of  the  Sea  has  been  measured  by  taking  the  differenfc  be- 
twccu  the  greatest  and  least  angles  of  depreMion  of  the  iron  buoy  No. 
t,  which  (as  has  been  already  stated)  was  anchored  in  la  feet  water  with 
ISblhomsof  cable;  these  di (Terences  being  reduced  into  feet,  are  as 


IBS 

«„..„. 

0..obef    16 
■1& 

■a 

Honnbei  3 
lU 
19 
3b 

DpconUr   3 

Rougb  »a 
Squ.lly 
Very  eairo 

HiRh  iutf 

|7b.  eh-jgh-  lOhJiih- 


3  2  3  tla  0  3   2 
2  2]2  t'i  -Iti   i 

\i  71-1  71-1  711    T 


b   0 


13 


4  94  94  13  6,4  4 

323232^424 
2-126323032 
|4  7U  7  4  3ig  Ul5  Ol 


On  the  morning  of  the  6tli  December  the  sea  and  surf  had  risen  to  an 
siatnal  height,  but  the  only  remaining  buoy  having  been  washed  on 
ihore,  I  was  imnble  to  make  further  observations.  The  difference  in 
blight  between  the  summit  and  lowest  point  of  the  breakers  could  nut 
bare  been  [ess  than  8  or  10  feel.  Breakers  or  suif  extejidiiig  i  miln 
ftWB  the  shore. 


Tai  Velocitv  op  the  Cubsewt.— It  was  my  intention,  to  have  tnea- 
WKd  the  velocity  of  the  current  by  the  "  Indicator"  as  already  ex- 
pltiMdi  but,  either  the  iron  work  was  not  sufficiently  strong,  or  it 
"^edtoogreat  a  temptulion  to  soinp  lliieviih  calamarain    man,— for  tlio 


140 


Report  upon  the  Run  of  (he  Seat 


[Jan. 


canoe  was  overset,  and  the  Indicator  wrenched  off  on  the  morning 
of  the  2J  November  ;  and  the  canoe  itself  broke  from  its  mooring  and 
came  ashore  on  the  following  day  :  thus  circumstanced,  1  have  caused  a 
catamaram  from  time  to  time  to  be  left  to  float  over  a  measured  space, 
from  which  the  velocity  of  the  current  has  been  computed ;  thus — 


Date. 

\ 

>locity. 

By  what 

means  measured. 

Octr.  1 

at  11 

A.  M. 

No  percep.current.j 

By  catamaram 

16—11 

0,80  miles  per  hour 

do 

25- 

-U 

1,30 

do 

26- 

-II 

2.50 

By  Massy'i 

5  Patent  Log 

26- 

-  I 

P.  M. 

2,52 

• 

By  catamaram 

27- 

-  7 

A.M. 

1,87 

Bv  Indicator   <i  ^  S  g  2  S 

-  8 

-  9 

1,87 

1,87 

'do 
do 

*"  rt  b  S  ^r^ 

c  ea  g  £  § 

S  .„  «  -c  S  CO 

«— - 

-10 

1,87 

do 

S'S'g.g^^ 

-11 

1,87 

do 

S  3  2  ^  "-S 

-^^ 

-12 

1,90 

do 

tmt      -^      f*                          ^S 

*  i)CC«  c  c   op 

g  H  ^  g  'S  .2 

— 

-  1 

P.M. 

2,50 

do 

— .- 

-  2 

2,50 

do 

1  «}^  c  S^  o 

-  3 

2,50 

do 

— - 

-  4 

2,90 

do 

— 

-  5 

2,90 

do 

Novr.3 

11 

A.M. 

1,50 

By  catamaram  ^  ^5  2i      3 

5 

P.  M. 

3,00 

Mo 

ri   w    0;  =5 

8 

11 

A.M. 

2,01 

do 

19 

11,30  A.M. 

1,40 

do 

5,30  P.  M . 

1,30 

do 

-  5  *l «  ^  3 

26 

11,30  A.M. 

0,76 

do 

5,0 

P.M. 

1,40 

do 

-Z""  l^  B-^ 

ae  O   g  ^  -^   fc- 
fl»C  .5   »:   >  $i 

Deer.  3 

11,30  A.M. 

0,90 

do 

4,30  P.  M. 

1,40 

do 

The  Tides. — The  apparatus  for  determining  the  times  of  high  and 
low  water,  was  a  pile  of  34  feet  in  length  ;  which  I  had  intended  should 
be  driven  in  the  sea  at  about  300  yards  from  the  shore :  to  the  upper 
end  of  this  pile  was  attached  a  hollow  iron  cylinder  of  8  feet  length, 
closed  at  the  bottom — which  would  always  he  underwater — with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  very  small  hole  ;  and  an  aperture  left  in  the  top  (which 


•  At  5  P.  M.  the  current  had  evidently  increased  in  strength,  insomuch  that  the 
catamaram  men  refused  to  go  off— saying  they  could  not  reach  the  nearest  buoy  under 
two  hours. 

The  direction  of  the  current  noticed  in  the  above,  was  generally  parallel  with  the 
shore,  but  on  one  or  two  occasions  1  fancied  it  had  a  slight  ioclination  (to  the  amount 
i>{  ^  or  3  tlctf rees ;  tutcardt  the  shore. 


18391  and  Set  of  the  Tides  at  Madras.  141 

would  be  above   water)  so  as  to  admit  a  slight  rod  to  pass  freely;  this 
rod  being  attached  to  a  light  hollow  copper  box — which  would  float  on 
the  surfece  of  the  water  within  the  cylinder, — the  variation  in   height  of 
its  upper  end,  would  indicate  to  an  observer  on  shore  the  variation  of  the 
level  of  the  sea,    &c.     This  apparatus  was  got  ready  and  one  attempt 
made  to  drive  it,  but  the  want  of  proper  anchors,  &c.  produced  a  failure, 
nnd  lip  to  the  present  time  I  have  not  been  able  to  procure  the  needful 
to  make  a  second  attempt.      Under  these  circumstances  I  may  be  permit- 
ted to  offer  observations,  which,  although  not  nearly  approaching  to  that 
de^e  of   accuracy  which  might   be   desired,  still  will   supply  usefully 
approximate  results.    The  observations  to  which  I  allude  consist   in  de- 
{lacin<5  from  the  observed  depressions  of  the   sea  and  buoys,  the  height 
of  the  telescope  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  thus,  on  the  3d  of  November 
at  G  A.  M.,  I  observed  the  line  of  tloatation  of  the  buoy  No.  I  to  be  de- 
pressed 2*  y  below  the  horizon  of  the  sea,   hence 


o      /       n 


Depression  below  the  sea 2    5    0 

Dip 5  30 

Depression  below  the  horizon 2  10  30  nat.  sin. =,03790 

distance  of  object — y  828  feet 


height  of  telescope  above  the  sea —  31.43  foet 


U2  Jteport  upon  ike  Run  ef  the  Sea,  [Jaj 

Obierved  eleretiont  of  the  Slalien  ahott   the  levtt  of  Ike   Sra  and  ilitlanft 

from  Ihe   shore  at  lehiek  the  outer  Surf  broke. 


Date. 

Ubstn- 

dwithth«KlulLtf. 

5  feeHchroiiialii- 

latbuoy    :idbuoriSurfhk» 

Caiioe    lislbuo> 

Kcet 

October27     ar7H.  A.M 

■i&7 

32,78 

8       „ 

32,W 

3'2,30 

ii9j 

33,31 

33,;!3 

a3,40 

375 

3.3.13 

{COct262I9Il        ,. 

B"^ 

5H'2i 

373 

32,47 

Soa  too  hiEh 
for     c»lan)3- 

-120 

2        ,. 

31,M 

31,75 

390 

3       ., 

31,92 

4       „ 

31,92 

326 

.12,11 

5       ., 

33.02 

32.50 

282 

32,61 

Ue>n 

32,43 

32,53 

12,41 

Mn  32,17 

. 

33.23 

1,69 

'"EShS,"'} 

h.in. 

h.  m.                      h.ni.                  ]i. 

2   0 

2  0                       2  30  or  tnnn-2  10 

C  culminates  at  7    8 

HighwatcrW.  <rulm,4  58 

Dalp. 

Observt 

a  Feel  Bi^broin.ilir.i 

lstbuny,2dbu<,y|     "•■'"»'>"■ 

3t.Ji 

aw 

32,11 

^  .. 

31.18 

31,57 

20H 

32.111 

.12,07 

3i,US 

D.R.U.         9      „ 

30,>'3 

30,h9 

206 

3ii,s; 

3U,HI 

(ON<"-2  5  46)  10    „ 

31, n 

41,22 

24J 

30,37 

,32.01 

12    „ 

32,79 

32,76 

310 

32.97 

M.n7 

2    .. 

33,47 

370 

33.70 

33,19      r  Ralli<Tbi>(h 

33,23 

W.9J 

.^7 

i    „ 

5    „ 

3251 

32,91 

310 

12,62 

32,27 

Mean 

3JM 

32,.ia 

1   32,(9 

32© 

Mem -33,77 

30;-9 

Xi.m 

206    1  30,W 

30.61 

Mi 

3,08 

r^jT 

2,55 

M™n-2,2i 

^^.^•"'"^ 

Km. 

h.  m.                     h,m.        h-m. 

h.tn 

8  30 

9    0                      9  30        8  30orrae«n-8  52' 

HighwatcrbeC  }   colm.  4  1 

and  Set  of  Ike  Jldf  at  Mudrai 


Obttrvtd  titvaliottt  of  Ike  Slulion  abcit  tkt  level  n/ihe  Sea.  ^c. 


sr«.«' 

ronialic 

Date.                   liibuo)- 

Sur.bk, 

l«[  buoy 

Pp<-t 

F.... 

F*M 

31,31 

309 

30,82 

2!'l 

10      ., 

31.79 

30B 

11,66 

.li.7 

31.90 

n.  II.  w.  12     „ 

3451 

M,75 

33S 

31.HJ 

T3,a* 

34^ 

;iio 

33.58 
33.a) 

5     .. 

M.7S 

ftet 

3116 

30138 

290 

Til6 
"33,58 
30,70 

MinmiuKi 

Piffortncc 

-Wis 

Mca],=2,7e 

til\  -^tCT           1                   8  30                                     8    0  or  m« 

Ii.  ni 
n-8   15 
lu  1   22 

HiRhwHirrbff.  2  cu 

Im  5    7 

llenL-Thf  outer  buoy  liad  broken  from  iW  mooring  and  come  oi 

shon  an  ilie  morning 

Oburved  »ill]  Ilieodolite.  {&  Tt'cl  ncl 

romalic. 

Dale. 

UlUuoy 

Surfbk. 

Ittbuoy 

m 

10  „ 

11  » 

32,75 

267 

3i,9a 

32.96 

2      .. 

31,5a 

3'6 

-11. S2 

4  ,. 

5  .. 

Blill 

''2D6 

3r,76 

fert 

32.1(1 

1   32..i3 

3j,23 

316      33,9i 

Minraum 

252        11,0* 

Difcteoc 

Ii.ni. 

J  culp.Luat. 

1...7    30 

Hi 

h  water 

bef.  J  cu 

m,  3  4i 

144 


Iteport  upon  the  Run  of  the  Sea, 


[Jan. 


Observed  elevations  of  the  Station  above  the  level  of  the  Sea,  SfC, 


I  a. 

<t  3 


s 

o 


<c 

S3- 

^ 

B 

a 

• 

m»* 

7Q 

^' 

^ 

P 

r*- 

ra 

1 

c 

« 

r» 

v=^ 

^ 

o 

• 

o 

c 

B 

s 

N— * 

•-•• 

o 

• 

B 

tm0  • 

o 

S 
P 

o 

CO 

5 

rt 

l^» 

f^ 

(A 

;3 

p 

r» 

3 

>^ 

.^ 

1 

wo 

¥^ 

IC 

• 

l>2 

Cji 

3 

00 


is 

coos 

en 

o  «o 

w  — 

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1839]  and  Set  of  the  Tides  at  Madras.  145 

Collecting  these  several  results  it  appears  that  the  amount  of  tide  ex- 
perienced at  Madras,  is 

Amouut  of  tide.  High  water. 

F.     I.  H.  M. 

At  the  oew  and  full  moon  2  10  ?  ^  ^^  .    /.    ^       i    •    . 

-      -  ,     ^  M  26  bef.   J  culminates. 

At  the  quarters 1    9  ' 

The  above  observations  and  results  are  the  best  under  the  circum- 
stances attending  them  that  I  have  been  able  to  obtain  ;  in  addition  to 
these  1  have  but  little  to  state,  and  that  little  being  more  the  result  of 
casual  than  precise  observation,    of  course  is  entitled  to  proportionally 
less  credit.    To  sum  up  the  whole,  it  appears  that,  on  an  average  of  40 
years,  the  north-east  monsoon  sets  in  on  the  19ih  day  of  October,  be- 
ing very  rarely  as  much  as  10  days  earlier  or  later ;  and  that,  although 
the  Dorth-ea5t  Hind  continues  generally  until  the  middle  of  February, 
stiUthe  force  of  its  effect  seldom  extends  beyond  the  lOth  of  December. 
It  furiber  appears  that  commencing  with  the  N.  £.  wind,  a  current  of  va- 
riable veloi'ity  sets  in  from  the  north,  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
tbure;  and  th<it  it  generally  increases  in  strength  in  the  course  of  the 
day,  and  decreases  during  the  night,*  and  is  moreover  influenced  by  the 
strength  of  the  wind ;  the  current  appears  to  reach  its  maximum  veloci- 
ty about  the  1st  of  November,  when  in  conjunction  with    the  tide  it 
aiQounts  to  three  miles  per  hour;  and  from  this  time  decreases  until  the 
lOih  of  December,  when  it  amounts  to  a  small  fraction  of  a  mile  per 
fcour  only.   During  this  interval,  the  sea,  upon  a  squally   day — such  as  it 
vonldbe  dangerous  if  not  impossible  for  boats  to  go  off  on,— may  be  stated 
to  rise  two  and  a  half  feet  above,  and  to  sink  as  much  below,  its  mean 
leTcl:— and  in  the  case  of  a  gale  of  wind  it  may  possibly  reach  to  the 
donble  of  this  amouut. 

Varying  with  the  run  of  the  sea  is  the  height  of  the  surf,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  shore  at  which  the  outer  surf  breaks ;  being  modified 
boireverby  the  wind  and  current.  In  a  squally  day,  such  as  would  be 
dangerous  to  catamarams  or  boats,  the  outer  surf  breaks  at  a  distance 
of  4'0  feet  from  the  shore,  and  in  the  case  of  a  gale  of  wind,t  the  surf 
bfokp  on  the  outside  of  the  nearest  buoy  (which  is  828  feet  from  the 
ihore|) :  but  on  otrcasions  of  this  nature  the  swell,  breakers,  and  surf 

*  This  remark  althoagh  not  iovariably  confirmed  by  the  foregoing  obsenrations,  is  ne- 
vntbclest  I  beiieTe  generally  true  t  the  catatfiaram  men  and  boat  men  state  that  the 
tsnvQt  U  always  stroniTer  in  the  afternoon  than  in  the  morning 

t  The  very  high  snrf  experienced  on  th^  6th  December,  altboMgh  not  resulting  from 
^ple  of  wind  at  Madras,  evidently  had  its  origin  in  one  at  no  great  distance. 

1 1  Was  not  at  the  beach  on  this  day  ;  but  from  the  testimony  of  the  Master  Attendant 
there  can  l>e  but  little  doubt  of  this  statement  being  correct. 


14G  The  comparative  cheapiicas  of  Large  and  Small  arched  Bridges*  [Jaw. 

merge  the  one  into  the  other,  so  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  decide  at 
what  point  the  surf  first  breaks.  The  particulars  with  regard  lo  the 
tides  (already  given  at  the  heginiiingof  the  last  page)  differ  in  some  res- 
pects from  those  found  some  years  ago  by  Col.  De  Havilland :  it  is  pro- 
bable, however,  that  his  observations  were  not  made  during  the^  north- 
east monsoon,  to  wliich  the  results  here  given  particularly  belong. 

Madras,  19/A  December ,  1838. 

N.  B— The  above  elevations  of  the  Statiun  above  the  level  of  the  sea  with  the  5  feet 
telescope,  have  for  the  sake  of  comparisou  been  reduced  to  the  same  clovalion  as 
those  of  the  theodolite— >ve  have—  If.  I. 

Elevation  of  theodolite  station  above  mean  level  of  the  sea 32  4 

, above  the  floor  of  the  vcraadah, 5  1 

Floor  of  verandah  above   mean  level  of  sea 27  3 


VII. — 2 he  coi/.paraiive  cheapness  of  Large  and  Small  arched  Bridges. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Madras  Journal  of  Literature  and  Science. 

Dear  Sir, — It  is  some  time  since  we  heard  that  Government  was  go- 
ing lo  construct  a  work  of  vast  public  utility  near  Trichinopoly,  namely 
a  permanent  bridge  across  the  river  Cauvery,  and  it  is  now  ruraoured 
that  the  Court  of  Directors  have  liberally  sanctioned  this  beneficial  un- 
dertaking; and  determined,  as  the  most  economical  mode  of  constnicti- 
on,  that  it  shall  consist  of  40  small  arclies. 

Now  as  I  feel  rather  sceptical  whether  this  notion  of  economy  is  cor- 
rect, and  it  would  be  a  pity  to  see  a  work  of  this  kind  constructed  with- 
out regard  to  appearance,  if  noihins^  is  gained  by  the  neglect,  I  have  de- 
termineil  to  submit  the  cjuestion  of  th^  comparative  cheapness  of  large 
and  small  arched  bridges,  to  tlif  learned  among  your  readers  ;  in  hopes, 
if  I  am  wrong,  of  having  my  doubts  riMiioved  ;  or,  if  I  am  right,  of  confer- 
ing  a  benefit  on  our  Trichinopoly  puolic  by  promoting  the  better  onia- 
mcnting  of  the  town. 

Then*  arc  two  ways  in  which  people  commonly  talk  of  bridges  :  either 
as  an  artiliciid  platforu],  from  one  side  of  a  river  to  the  other,  which  is 
cheap  in  proporlion  us  it  is  thin  ;  or  as  a  road-way,  supported  by  piers, 


1839]  The  eomparat'tve  cheapness  of  Large  and  Small  arched  Bridges.  147 

indless  costly,  as  it  lias  fewer  of  these  piers.  In  these  summaries  llic 
5Mt  pusition  ouly  seems  to  deserve  investigiition  ;  fjr,  if  I  am  riglitiv 
infunued,  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  materials  in  the  two  cases, 
\aries  only  as  the  span  of  the  arch,  and  is  not  aft*e«;ted  at  all,  by  the 
number  of  piers  ;  that  is,  the  strength  of  the  piers  may  be  regulated  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  span  of  ar.h  ;  if  the  span  be  double,  the  piers  too 
must  be  twice  as  thick  ;  so  that  in  the  whole  length  of  the  bridge,  the 
solid  dimensions  of  the  pier  work  are  equal,  whatever  be  the  di'^tance 
apart;  but  on  the  other  hand,  wider  arches  must  be  thicker  than  narrow, 
or  they  will  not  stand. 

Architects  tell  us,  that  a  bridge  arch  (of  any  but  the  very  smallest  di- 
mensions),  is  not  safe,  unless  it  have  at  least  one  and  a  half  feet  of 
tliickness  at  the  apex,  and  it  seems  to  be  further  agreed,  that  this  thick- 
ness is  sufficient  for  a  span  of  36  feet ;  all  smaller  arches  therefore  would 
leem  to  involve  a  waste  of  strength,  or  have  a  thicker  platform  than  is 
required,  and  therefore  they  ouglit  not  to  be  built. 

In  proportion  as  this  limit  is  exceeded,  it  appears,  then,  that  the  plat- 
form must  be  thickened,  whilst  the  piers  must  also  be  augmented,  as  be- 
fore described,  in  such  a  ratio,  as  to  make  the  total  of  their  thickness, 
just  what  it  would  be,  if  the  spans  were  no  more  than  36  feet;  we  may 
therefore  conclude  that  a  brick  bridge  contains  the  smallest  possible 
qoaiftity  of  materials  compatible  with  str«>ngth,  if  its  arches  have  a  span 
of  36  feet :  but  is  it  therefore  less  expensive  ? 

To  determine  this,  keeping  out  of  sight  for  the  present  the  question 
of  riik  from  more  impeded  water-way,  the  following  propositions  should 
be  solved  :  namely,    whether,  two  piers,  say  of  6   feet,  can  be  built   for 
the  same  money  as  one  of    12  feet;    whether  the   difiicuUy  and   conse- 
quent liability  to  error  is  increased  or  diminished  by  multiplying  the 
works  in  the  bed  of  a  river ;  whether  (remembering  that  bricklayers  are 
paid  by  the  day  and  not  by  the   quantity  of  work  done)  we  are  to  sup* 
pose  that  more   or  fewer  tiers  of  arch-work  will  be  laid  in  the  same  time, 
each  series  requiring  a  fresh  adjustment,  by  having  fewer  or  more  angles 
of  direction  to  consult  for  the  joints  ;    whether  (all  arches  being  consi- 
dered works  of  skill),  the  likelihood  of  individual  or  partial  failure  is  di- 
minished or  increased  by  the  numerical  amount  of  such  works  of  skill  ; 
whether  a  sinking  of  the  piers  is  more  to  be  anticipated  when   the  foun- 
dations are  many  and  narrow,  or  few  an. I  broad  ;  whether  danger  of    un- 
equal subsidence  of  the  arches  is  greater  orless^  as   there  are   many  or 
few  arches  to  subside  ;  and,  lastly,   whether  all  these  sources  of  error 
and  hindrances  to  the   workmen  would  not  in  the  end  render  the  many 
Mched  bridge  a  work  costing  more  money  than  one,  more  nearly  ap- 


148  Phenomenon  in  the  Indian  Seas,  [Jan. 

preaching  the  dimensions  which  are  now  usually  adopted  in  Europe :   I 
will  end  my  queries  by  asking  whether  1  am  still  entitled  to  subscribe 
myself 

A  non  contributing  reader  ? 

Amico-posticulus« 
Trichikopoly,  5th  August^  1838. 


VIII. — A  remarkable  Appearance  in  the  Indian  Seas  ;  in  a  Letter  frtm 
Lieutenant  Dawson.     Communicated  by  William  Newniiam,  Esq. 


I  beg  leave  to  lav  before  the  meeting  an  extract  from  the  private  jour- 
nal of  Lieutenant  Henry  Dawson,  a  very  intelligent  officer  of  the  Royal 
Navy,  at  present  employed  on  civil  dulies  with  the  Indian  Navy  at  Bom* 
bay,  containing  an  account  of  a  very  extraordinary  phenomenon,  which 
was  observed  on  the  passage  from  Bombay  to  the  Persian  Gulf  (the 
southern  passage),  on  board  the  Honourable  Conipany*s  sloop  of,  war 
Clive,  in  1832.  On  my  first  going  to  India,  I  was  in  the  habit  of  intima- 
cy with  the  late  Captain  David  Seton,  who  was  many  years  resident  at 
Muscat,  and  I  well  remember  hearing  him  relate  the  circumstance  of 
falling  in  with  the  white  sea,  described  by  Mr.  Dawson,  on  his  occasional 
voyages  to  Muscat,  during  the  period  of  the  south-west  moasoon.*  So 
many  years,  however,  have  since  elapsed,  I  am  unable  to  give  any  more 
detail  of  the  circumstance  related  by  that  officer,  and  merely  here  allude 
to  it  in  proof  of  the  phenomenon  having  been  before  observed. 

William  Newnham. 


During  a  passage  from  Bombay  to  the  Persiim  Gulf,  on  board  the 
Honourable  Company's  sloo})  Clive,  on  the  22nd  of  August,  1832,  at  a 
quarter  before  eight  o'clock  at  night,  a  phenomenon  appeared  of  the 
following  nature,  and  to  all  on  board,  of  an  unheard-of-kind,  which  gave 

•  Our  subsequeut  inquiries  serve  to  confirm  this  statement,  inasmuch  as  few  n»Tig»« 
tors  appear  to  hare  passed  along  the  eastern  coast  oT  Arabia,  in  the  months  of  June, 
July,  and  August,  without  noticing  the  discolourment  of  the  water  (but  during  the 
night  oniyj,  and  which,  on  examination  when  brought  on  board,  is  said  to  exhibit  no 
diflcrenct  whatcrer  from  tea-water  in  other  parts  of  th«  ocean.— £i>.  Jow,  B,  J,  S, 


1839]  Phenomenon  in  the  Indian  Sens,  149 

rise  to  transitory  feelings  of  apprehension  as  to  the  vcssers  contiguity 
to  danger.    Sailing  under  double-reefed  top-saiU  and  foresail,  at  the  rate 
of  nine  and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  before  a  strong  south-west  monsoon 
wind,  and  a  high  sea,  without  any  indication  of  a  change  in  the  elements, 
the  ship  was  surrounded  instanter  by  water  aH  white  as  milk  or  snow ;  it 
seemed  to  have  no  termination   until   it  reached  an  altitude  of  seventy- 
fi?e  or  eighty  degrees,  where  it  subsided  in  a  strongly  marked  ecliptic, 
above  which  the  heavens  presented  a  beautiful  and  bright  blueish  castt 
not  disssimilar  to  polished  steel.    No   line   of  horizon  was  visible  ;  the 
dead  white  colour  of  the  water  close  to  the  ship,   as  it  increased  in  dis- 
tance fix»m  her  very  gradually  brightened,  until,  whore  I  supposed  the 
horizon  to  be,  it  assumed  a  silvery  aspect,  which,  increasing  as  ii  n^cend- 
ed.  became  brilliant  and  dazzling  towards  the  zenith,  ohscuring  the  stars 
and  clouds  which  had  before  this  visitation  been  distinctly  visible.    The 
sea  in  a  moment  became  smooth  :  the  ship,  frcm  rolling  and 'ahnuring 
considerably,   quite  stea(?y ;  no  diminution    in  th«»  wind  ocrurn»d,  but  a 
sensation  ihat  it  had  fallen,  even  to  a  calm,  was  gener.d,  but  momentary. 
This  delusion  was  occasioned  bv  the  instantaneous  stcadinesK  of  the  ves- 
lei.  as  well  as  the  ccKsation  of  the  previous  noise  from  the  la)«hing  of  a 
noantainous  and  confnsed  sea  nsuptinst   the  vessers  sides,   and  on  her 
decks;  her  progress  through  the  sea,  however  closely  scrutinised,   could 
not  be  obsen-ed ;  the  disturbed  water  alongside  and  in  her  wake,  as  well 
as  the  foam  around  her  hows,   did  not  contrast  with  the  adjoining  unagi- 
tated  fluid,  notwithstanding,   from  the  velocity  of  the  ship  through  the 
water,  these  must  have  been  considerable.     Not  a  particle  of  pho'^phoric 
matter  was  once  observable,  either   in  the  surrounding  ocean,   or  in  the 
water  immediately  displaced  by  the  ship's  passage  through  it ;  but  when 
taken  up  in  a  bucket,  and  agitated  with  the   hand,  such  was  visible,   but 
not  in  a  greater  proportion  then  is  usual,   nor  did  the   water  vary  in  ap- 
pearance from  common  sea- water:  nothing  could  be  perceived  to  attri- 
bute thi:i  strange  phenomenon  to. 
Animalcules  of  a  minute   kind  were  perceptible,  as  likewise  a  few 
pieces  of  a  glutinous  substance   of  a  purple  colour,   but  neither  in  any 
considerable  quantity,    nordiflfering  from  what  is    usually   found  in  the 
seas  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

We  sailed  the  distance  of  fifteen  miles  without  the  slightest  change  in 
the  appearance  of  the  sea  or  sky,  when  in  a  moment  this  extraordinary 
phenomenon  vanished,  the  ship  at  the  same  instant  encountering  the  like 
high  and  turbulent  sea  as  previous  to  her  envelopement. 

The  ship  was  not  within  one  hundred  miles  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
Arabia,  or  of  soundings,  but  galling  in  what  is  termed  deep  ocean  water. 


150  On  the  Statistics  of  Duhhinu  [Ja>:. 

I  have  before  mentioned  tlnit  the  ship  was  quite  Bteady  during  hor 
progress  through  tlie  Avhiie  waier:  this  was  the  Ldse,  >^i1h  the  excep- 
tion, that  in  a  ft-w  instances  she  gave  a  heavy  roll,  as  if  inihifnccd  by  a 
following  swell ;  those  were  not  more  fretjuent  than  ouce  in  a  quarter  of 
an  hour.  Latiiuoe  iP  ^r.' ijoiih,  51  **  40' east ;  thennomoter  87®,  ba- 
rometer   twf-nty-nine  inches  and  nine-tenths. 

The  phenoMio.ion  I  have  attempted  lo  dtscribe  appeared  twice  after 
we  were  fust  extriiatt  d  from  it,  for  periods  of  al)out  twenty  minutes; 
its  brilliancy,  a^  weil  is  influence  over  th.e  ttave>,  as  previously  describ- 
ed"; the  tr  .msitiun  from  lii-h  and  mountainous  sca>  to  a  smooth  and 
seeming\v  quift  ocean,  and  cr.ani;**  ;igain  to  tuibuK  r.-e,  was  as  suddin  as 
a  flash  of  lightning. 

On  my  arrival  at  Mnsoat.  a  f-nv  <lay5  after,  I  cndeivourr'd  to  gain  some 
information  on  the  forCi^oing  matter,  but  b'\vonl  fni  ling  that  the  pheno- 
menon was  occasionally  met  dnring  the  strength  of  the  south-west  mon- 
soon, about  the  limit  noted,  and  that  the  water  was  then  quite  freah,  I 
could  ascertain  nothing  satisfactory'.  My  informants  were  the  Nakodas, 
or  captains  of  His  Highness  the  lm.im*s  ships  of  war,  who  frecpiently 
navigate  between  Muscat  and  Zanzibar,  consequently  most  pass  about  the 
spot  the  Clive  met  what  I  have  related.  The  Arab  captains  were  firm  ia 
their  assertion  in  the  particular  of  the  fresh  water,  although  they  con- 
fessed that  they  had  nevert  isted  it.  I  did,  as  also  the  surgeun  of  the 
vessel,  and,  as  I  mentiiaied  before,  it  did  not  vary  in  any  way  from  ordi- 
nary sea-water. — Journal  of  the  Royal  A.slat}c  Societt/y  Xo,  9 — p.  i9S-200. 

H.  D. 


IX — Special  Htporf  on  tic  SVft'A'/Vv  n/t^ie  Four  Cnl^ectorates  of 
D  khuH,  unci  r  th    Drlti-h  (jovtr-inuJif. 

[In  spelling  Oiiental  words,  tlio  n  i<  ihc  n  in  ^.7.  tV.e  w  as  in  hut ;  the  rest  have 

:he  e.su.d  Enj!;?h  >.»uii'I.j 

TuE  General  Committ.v  of  tlie  British  A'^so.Mation  which  met  at  Cam- 
bridge in  IS3.^  di  I  me  ihe  ho.i.  ar  to  j-ass  a  resolution  that  I  should  pre- 
pare tor  pub'ix'.iion  my  mav.UNcHpts  re-peetin::  the  Statistic^  of  Dukhun 
(D-^canV  I  l.rne  be.n  .inxi-*".^  ior:>p":ii  t"  >o  tl;;t  taring  a  desire  at 
an  ear;i»T  p.Mio  1.  hui  havin  :  pi .  \\1  my  nir.iv.i- ri,  ts  in  the  hands  of  a 
distinguished  p.^rson.  a;i  auxiliiry  to  his  scicntil'i.'  labours,  I   have  been 


1S39]  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  151 

deterred  from  reclaiming  them  until  the  objects  for  which  they  had  been 
placed  at  his  disposal  were  realized. 

In  resjpunding  at  last  to  the  call  of  the  British  Association,  I  feel  very 
considerable  embarrassment  in  adapting  my  materials  to  the  apace  which 
rau  be  afforded  to  me  in  its  annual  volume.  The  materials,  in  fact,  are 
ver)'  voluminous;  and  the  nature  of  my  subject  embracing  multitudinous 
details,  figured  statements,  and  lengthened  tables,  makes  it  a  work  of  no 
ordioar)-  difficuliy  to  digest,  abridge,  and  condense  them  without  in- 
TnUing  my  8ubje<'t  in  obscurity,  and  exposing  myself  to  the  imputation 
ofinetBcient  inquiry  from  the  hiatus  which  must  appear.  I  beg,  there- 
fore, distinctly  to  state,  that  the  absentee  of  information  observable  in  the 
following  Report,  is  attributable,  not  to  paucity  of  matter,  but  to  ttie 
want  of  a  sufficient  field  iu  which  to  display  it. 

Extent  and  Physical  Circumstances, 

1  propose  to  give  but  a  mea'ijre  sketch  of  the  stati'^tics  of  Dukhun  ;  a 
Here  enumeration  of  its  population,  products,  manufactures,  revenues, 
mil  di\ision3,  &:c.,  with  little  more  comment  than  may  be  necessary  to 
ensure  perspicuity. 

In  the  execution  of  my  public  duties  as  Statistical  Reporter  to  the 
government  of  Bombay,  my  researches  made  me  ac(iuainted  with  the 
siaiisdes  of  the  four  coUectorates  of  Dukhun,  denomin.ited  the  Poonji, 
Ahinednuggur,  Candeish  or  Khandesh,  and  Dharwar  CoUectorates  ;  facts 
were  also  collected  respecting  the  territories  of  the  Rajah  of  Sattarah, 
and  some  few  details  came  to  liand  illustrat  ive  of  the  state  of  the  pos- 
*<*ssion3  of  the  southern  Mahratta  Jagheerdars,  wliieh  are  under  Bri- 
tish protection.  In  adverting  to  the  whole  of  these  territories,  although 
1  shall  name  them  Separately  in  describing  their  extent,  physical  cir- 
fiflisumces,  and  civil  divisions,  it  will  only  be  to  notice  where  they 
diJer  from  each  other. 

The  ^  hole  of  the  above  territories,  containing  3,285,985  inhabitants, 
»prea<i  over  48,Ud7  square  miles,  and  aveiaging  io7  inhabitants  to  the 
S(|uare  mile,  lie  upon  that  elevated  plateau,  which  has  an  abrupt  termi- 
natiun  on  the  western  side  of  India,  in  what  are  usually  denominated 
the  Ghats,  but  which  plateau  gradually  declines,  occasionally  by  a  suc- 
cession of  low  steps,  as  is  seen  by  the  courses  of  rivers  to  the  Coroman- 
d*"!  roust,  excepting  in  Khandesh  (Khind  meaning  a  gap  or  trench,  and 
De?»h  a  country),  where  the  river  Tapty  disembogues  to  the  westw;yril, 
from  the  peculiar  configuration  of  the  narrow  vulley  in  which  this  col- 
Iwtofdte  lies.  Some  of  the  platforms  on  the  summit  of  the  Ghats  hive 
Ml  ele\-ation  of  5000  feet  above  the  sea,   but  the  general   level  of  the 


152  Oh  the  Stat'xtic3  of  DukhuH,  [J Ay. 

main  plateau  of  Dukhun  i«  abriit  2000  feet  high  near  th.?  Ghats,  and 
scarcely  fx«eeds  I0<0  feet  in  ilie  ei^steni  limits  of  the  collec- 
tonite^.  Tlie  wlmle  t**rritory  is  mountainous  neir  to  the 
Ghats,  an*!  h\s  nu»n*»roiis  valleys,  some  of  them  narrow  anl  tortuous, 
oth*«r«  broa'l,  open,  and  fl\t.  At  from  thirty  to  fifty  miles  eastward  frc'm 
the  Ghats.  mo$t  of  the  mountain  $pur9  which  produce  the  valleys  termi- 
nate, and  the  countrv*  becomes  open  and  tolerably  level  for  considerable 
distances,  with  an  occasional  step  down  to  the  ea«ti('ard :  the  country, 
in  fact,  bein:?  made  up  of  beds  of  trap,  the  b?  ds  extending  the  further  to 
the  eastward  the  lower  thev  are  in  the  series.  There  is  much  forest 
and  un  lerwuo-l  and  jungle  alune:  tho  line  of  the  Gliats :  but  to  the  east- 
ward the  country  is  open,  and  there  is  a  want  of  wood  :  parts  of  Khan- 
desh  and  Dhan^'ar  are  exceptions  to  this  description.  The  western 
tracts  along  the  Ghats  are  callvd  the  M.iwuls.  in  contradistinction  to  the 
open  count r\-,  uhi.h  is  cillevl  the  Deah  cr  Des. 

It  may  be  a^  well  to  >t  ite  h-re  that  a  1  lands  in  Dukhun  are  classed 
within  *^«>me  vil'Mg*^  boundary  or  other,  and  this  boinidary  is  maintained 
with  su  h  jealousy  and  tena  itv  by  the  inhabitanis.  as  to  lea  1  to  fre- 
quent f'^u  Is  and  lj|oodNh»»d  on  the  ^lightest  invasion  of  village  ri&^hts. 
Theviihgp  «on-titiuion  and  the  oocupaney  of  lands  will  be  mentioned 
undrT  !aiid-t''r.ures. 

Rivera. — Th'»  rivers  of  Dukhun.  whiih  in  the  monsoon  flow  with  a 
nucnit^crnt  vo'um»»  of  water,  in  the  hot  season  present  a  brojd  gravelly 
bed.  with  on'y  a  tliroid-lik**  stream  in  miny  of  them,  bat  from  natural 
barriers  ^.f  r.  rk  in  tli^*  be.l  of  the  Beemt.  GodavTj*.  Kisinah,  and  oth'^r 
lartfo  rJvT!  of  D  ikhan.  extensive  sheets  of  water,  called  Dho  or  Dhao, 
are  forin**d.   whirh  aboun  !  with  tish. 

Ro'fd^  nr.d  Rr'fis's.^lXv^  TLr.d*  in  D  ikhun.  with  the  exception  of  two 
grcit  I'.u'.'ar/  r.udN.  are  untouch  .*d  by  ait:  and  tew  of  the  rivers  can 
boa^'t  of  a  br:dfcc.* 

A  detailed  acco.mt  nf  th-*  afno-sphcri.:  ti  i-'s.  and  meie^rMos:)-  of  Duk- 
hun hivinf?  b— *n  puS'Sbed  in  tlv  Phi'r-opVwal  T'-amact'-HH,  I  shall 
limit  mv'ielf  to  a  ir^-^ription  of  such  broaJ  f-^a?iirr's  as  characterize  the 
clim.ite.  Th-  (1^  i^rs  .»n  i  the  Desh  I;.ive  d:stiiK'T  leaturo*.  The  tract 
aluug  the  line  of  ilio  funnor  has  a   lo«cr  mean  temperature,  much   more 

•  Ti,-  C-.'  ^j  nk"  0.^-.-i/i.  wh.'h  f.^:; -wf  Ir.  t\:*  -.a.v.  wx*  T*-r-:b:i*hM  by  u«  from 
Ihe  Tf'.ni-jxu  i-  /  r*.r  •;-■.  ,•  J."  S.n.-j  ,/Z*.  vi.n,  la  iLe  ITib  Nuabcr  of  iliii  Journal, 
p.  341.— E5:t  jA,  Xa-h.-uJ.wnal, 


1839]  On  the  Statistics  qf  Dukhtin.  154 

moUture,  greater  prevalence  of  westerly  winds,  a  more  limited  range  of 
the  thenuometer ;  but  a  greater  prevalence  of  fogs  before,  during,  and 
after  the  rains,  but  not  in  the  winter  months  ;  anl,  finally,  is  characte- 
rized by  the  absence  of  hot  winds.  The  Desh,  on  the  contrary,  has  the 
air  excessively  dry  in  the  hot  months ;  a  great  diurnal  and  annual  range 
of  the  thermometer,  a  comparatively  smill  fall  of  rain  in  the  monsoon, 
ihe  frequent  occurrence  of  hot  winds,  and  the  rareness  of  fogs. 

Barometer. — ^The  mean  monthly  pressure  of  ihe  atmosphere  is  great- 
est ia  the  ivinter  months  of  De^'ember  and  January  ;   it  gradually  dimi- 
nbhes  until  July  or  August,  the  most  damp  months,   wh'^n  it  is  at  its 
minimum;    it  gradually  increases  again  until  the  cold  months.     The 
greatest  diurnal  oscillation  recorded  by  me  in  several  years'  observations 
was '1950,  or  less  than  two-tenths  of  an  inch  ;    the  smallest  oscillation 
"0150.    The  mean  rise  of  the  barometer  from  sunrise  to  9  —  10  a.   m.  for 
three  years  was  *0445,  thermometer -r  7°-l.y.     The  mean  fall  from  9 — 10 
i.M.  to4 — 5  p.  M.,  for  four  years,  was  '1066,  thermometer  4  5***2r  ; 
and  the  mean  rise  from  4 — 5  a.  m.  to  10  — 1 1  p.  m.,  for  one  year,  is  '0^84, 
thermometer  — 7°*^'.     The  m.iximum  range  of  the  barometer  at  Poona, 
in  the  year  18*^0,  at  1823  feet  above  the  sea,  was  only  '672,  or  not  seven- 
tenths  of  an  inch.     The  mean  height  of  the  barometer  for  that  year  was 
2r-9254,  and  the  mean  height  in  th^»  monsoon  was  27** '8447  ;    so  that 
tbeconst.-int  moisture  of  the  monsoon  only  occasioned  a  mean  diminutl- 
ODuf  pressure  of  •0807»  or  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch.     At  Madras, 
for  twenty -one  years,   the  mean  height  of  the  barometer   was  29°*958' 
ioches ;  at  Calcutta,  the  means  of  three  years  make  it  29*764.    M.  Arago, 
at  Paris,  by  nine  years*  obs'^vvations,  reduced   to  the  level  of  the  sea, 
nwkes  the  mean  height  29'9546  inches,  being  almost  identical  with  the 
meAQ  height  at  Madras. 

Almoiphenc  tid'n. — There  are  four  tides  of  the  atmosphere  in  Dukhun, 

as  indicated  by  the  movement  of  the  barometer  :  two   diurnal,  and    two 

nocturnal :  the  diurnal  rising  tide  is  from  4 — 5  a.  m.  to  9     10  a.  m.,  and 

varies  from  '0200  inches  to  •O.'iOO  inches;  the  falling  tide  is  from  9—10 

A.  M.  to  4—5  p.  M.,  and  varies  from   -1950  inches  to  0150  inches.     The 

WKrtumal  rising  tide  is  from  4 — 5  p.  m.  to  10 — 11   p.  m.,  and  varies  from 

1)450 inches  to  '1140  inches;  the  nocturnal   falling  tide   is  from   10 — 11 

P.  M.  to  4 — 5  A.  M.,  and  is  about  '0442  inches.     This  order  was  never  de- 

r<mged  or  inverted  in  one  single  instance  in  many  tliousand  observations. 

Temperature. — The  climate  of  Dukhun  is  subject  to  very  considerable 

urialions  of  temperature;    more,   however,  in  the  diurnal  than  in'  the 

moutidy  or  annual  ranges  ;  indeed,  less  so  in  the  last  particular  than  in 

Earope.    In  1827,  the  extreme  range  of  the  thermometer  at  Edmonton 


15:1  On  the  Statistics  qf  Dukhan.  [Ja^i. 

was  75*  Fahrenheit;  at  Cheltenham,  C4**().  In  St.  Petersburgh,  the 
thermometer  has  been  as  low  as  35°-7'  Le^ow  zero,  and  as  high  as  91® -4; 
the  range,  therefore,  1 2/°- 1.  At  Berne,  the  annual  range  has  been  more 
than  75*.  In  182G,  I  ubser\e(l  a  range  of  53 ''•l,  viz.,  from  93** -9  on  the 
12th  March,  to  40°  50  on  the  15th  January  at  sunrise.  In  1827,  the 
maximum  range  observed  by  me  was  18^-8,  viz.,  frora96'^d  on  the  28tU 
March,  to  48°  on  the  12th  December  at  sunrise.  In  182S,  the  maximum 
occurred  on  the  7th  May,  being  101°,  and  the  minimum  was  56**,  the 
range,  therefore,  45°  ;  but,  for  a  very  short  time,  the  thermometer  rose 
on  the  7th  May,  between  two  and  three  o'clock,  to  105°  ;  and  this  was 
the  more  remarkable  as  I  was  then  en -amped  on  the  edge  of  the  Gh^ts 
at  the  source  of  the  Beema  riv.?r,  at  an  elevation  of  3090  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  This  instance  of  unusual  height  of  the  thermometer^ 
however,  is  not  confined  to  Dukhun,  for  we  learn  from  M.  Arago,  that  it 
has  been  higher  than  101°  Fahrenheit  in  ihe  shade  in  Paris. 

Monthly  mentis, — The  monthly  mranit  do  not  ditfer  more  than  from  IS* 

to  17°  from    each  other.     In  1826,  the  difft^rence  between  the   hottest 

month   (May,   83°-28),   and    the   coldest  (January,  65°  90),   was  only 

17®'38.     And  in  1829,  March  was  the  hot tesl  month,  and  November  the 

coldest,  their  difference  of  means  being  13°  06. 

Diurnal  range, — The  greatest  diurnal  range  in  I S2G  was  on  the  5th 
March,  being  37°-30,  from  50°-5  to  87° '8.  In  1827,  it  was  3f;*-5,  on 
the  I2th  December,  from  40°-5  to  89°.  In  I82S,  it  was  34° '8,  on  the 
I6lh  July,  from  56°  to  90°-8.  In  1829,  the  maximum  diurnal  range  was 
37** '5  in  December.  The  minimum  diurnal  range  occurs  in  the  monsoon 
months  of  June,  July,  August,  and  September;  indeed,  occasionally,  on 
some  days  in  those  months,  the  mercury  does  not  move  at  all. 

Mean  Tiwp  rature. — In  1828,  Dr.  Walker,  at  Ahmednuggur,  at  an 
elevation  of  1900  feet  above  the  sea,  m.-de  the  mean  temperature  78** ; 
and  thou2;h  I  was  living  iu  tents,  and  moving  ^about  the  countr}',  I  made 
it  only  77^*93.  Of  course,  on  higher  or  lower  levels  this  mean  tempera- 
ture will  be  dimini>hcd  or  increased.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  note 
one  remarkable  fact,  n.unely,  that  the  mean  temperature  of  places  on  the 
table-land  of  the  continent  of  India  is  much  higher  than  the  calculated 
mean  temperature  of  the  samr  pl.i.-es  agreeably  to  Mayer's  formula.  The 
calculated  mean  teinperaiure  of  Ahmednuorour  is  72°*27,  observed  78*  ; 
of  Poona72°78,  observed  77°-7;  of  Mhow,  in  Malwa,  69* -86,  observed 
74°:  temperature  of  a  spring  in  the  hill  fort  of  Hurreechundurghur 
69° '5,  calculated  temperature  65° -15. 

The  results  of  several  years'  observations  indicate  that  the  annual 
mean  temperature  of  i'°*30  a.  m.,  is  nearly  identical  with  the  mean  tem- 
perature deduced  from  the  maxima  and  the  minima. 


I«39]  On  the  Statiatics  of  Dukhun.  155 

With  respect  to  the  greatest  diunial,  and  the  greatest  monthly  range 
of  the  ihennoraeter,  ihe  winter  months  have  a  range  nearly  in  a  quadru- 
ple ratio  to  the  monsoon  months.    The  latter  have  mostly  the  tempera- 
ture ven*  equable,  the  difference  of  the  monthly  means  rarely  exceeding 
3*,  and  the  greatest  diurnal   range  in  five  years   only  once  amounted  to 
13"'6.    The  latter  end  of  March,  and  April,  and  May  arc  the  hottest  pe- 
riods of  the  year,  from  the  position  of  a  nearly  vertical  sun,   the  intensi- 
ty of  whose  influence  is  but  slightly  modified  bv  the  occasionallv  cloudy 
weather:  the  temperature  falls  in  June,   and  continues  nearly  stationary 
until  the  end  of  September :  it  then  rises  in  October,  but  falls  at  the  end 
of  the  month,  until  it>»  annual  mmimum  in   December  or  January.     It  is 
low  the  early  part  of  March,  but  rises  suddenli/ after  the  middle  of  the 
month,  occasioning  a  difference  of  G'*  or  8°  between  the  means  of  Feb- 
raanr  and  March,  which  is  more  than  double  that  of  other  consecutive 
months  in  the  year.     The  rise  in  October  is  also  sudden,  but  does  not 
0!.*casion  so  great  a  difference  of  means  as  between  February  and  Maroh. 
Itwiil  thu8  be  remarked  that  the  temperature  docs  not   follow  the  sun's 
<lecUnation,  owing  to  the    interference  of  the  monsoon. 

Mohture, — A  remarkable  feature  in  the  climate  of  Dukliun  is  the 
smill  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  generally  suspended  in  the  air,  com- 
pare! with  the  proximate  climate  of  Bombay  and  the  coast,  or  even  the 
billy  tracts  of  the  Ghats.  My  observations  were  made  with  Daniel Ts 
livgfometer,  and  extended  over  several  years.  There  is  a  gradual  in- 
crease of  moi-»ture  in  a  cubic  foot  of  air,  from  the  most  dry  month,  Feb- 
ruary, until  June  and  July.  Hence  the  moisture  remains  nearly  station- 
ar}- until  the  beginning  of  October,  when  it  diminishes  somewhat  rapid* 
ly  and  regularly  until  February.  The  annual  mean  dewing  point  is 
greater  at  9|  a.  m.  than  at  sunrise  or  at  4  p.  m.,  but  this  does  not  unifonn- 
ly  hold  good  in  each  month  of  the  year.  In  1826,  the  highest  dewing 
IK)iDt  was  at  four  o'clock  on  the  2lst  October,  being  76®*,  temperature  of 
the  air  84®  5,  a  cubic  foot  of  air  holding  9 •945  grains  of  water.  The 
lowest  dewing  point  was  on  the  4th  December,  at  sunrise,  being  44°, 
tfmperature  of  the  air  5G",  a  cubic  foot  of  air  conlaining  3*673  grains  of 
aqueous  vapour ;  but  the  lowest  dewing  point  did  not  indicate  the  dri- 
^t  state  of  the  atmosphere,  as  a  dewing  point  of  45°  in  November,  with 
a  temperature  of  87°  at  4  p.  m.,  gave  only  3*587  grains. 

Tlie  most  moist  month  was  July  ;  the  mean  weight  of  water  in  a  cubic 
foot  of  air  was  8775  grains,  and  the  point  of  saturation  was  only  4° -So 
from  the  dewing  point.  The  greatest  monthly  range  of  the  dewing 
point  was,  in  October,  30°,  and  the  smallest  range,  7°,  was  in  July  and 
Augn«t.    The  monthly  range  was  not  coincident  with  th^  movements  of 


156  On  the  Stat'Mks  of  Dukhvn.  [Jan-. 

the  barometer  and  thennompter;  but  there  were  curious  approximations. 
The  extreme  dewing  points  differed  .32**.  The  dewing  point  has  been  as 
high  as  7^^  f  tem)>erature  of  the  air  79^»  a  cubic  footofair  containing  10*049 
grains  of  aqueous  vapour  ;  but  this  is  a  rare  occurrence.  An  instiince 
occurred  of  the  dewing  point  being  obtained  at  3°  below  the  point  of  the 
congelation  of  water,  the  temperature  of  the  air  being  62^,  and  a  cubic 
foot  of  air  holding  2*146  grains  of  water.  There  is  also  an  instince  of  a 
dewing  point,  in  February,  1823,  being  61®  below  the  temp-^rature  of  the 
air,  VIZ.,  from  90®  to  29°,  but  I  never  afterwards  suc.eedeJ  in  determin- 
ing anything  like  so  great  a  depression. 

In  JanuaiT,  182",  there  vas  a  range  of  the  dewing  point  of  38®,  and 
the  extreme  range  of  the  year  was  47®,  viz.,  from  29**,  temperature  62®, 
in  January,  to  76^,  temperature  79®,  in  June.  In  182?),  the  mean  dew- 
ing point  for  the  monsoon  was  69® '62,  temperature  75®*83:  the  cubic 
footof  air  containing  8*191  grains  of  water.  In  1S30,  the  observations 
are  only  complete  for  9—10  a.  m.  ;  the  mean  dewing  point  was  61  ® "9, 
temi)erature  78®*4,  and  a  cubic  foot  of  air  contained  6*3.'»1  grains  of  wa- 
ter: the  extreme  range  of  the  hygrometer  was  47®,  the  lowest  dewing 
point  31®,  temperature  50*,  in  December.  It  might  be  supposed  that 
the  hottest  months  in  the  year,  March,  April,  and  M.iy,  woul.l  also  be 
the  driest ;  but  such  is  not  the  fact.  The  powerful  action  of  the  sun  on 
the  ocf  an,  in  the  middle  of  March,  raises  a  large  quantity  of  aqueous 
vajcur,  which  coritimies  to  increase  in  the  ratio  of  the  sun's  progress 
north :  the  westerly  winds  waA  this  vapour  into  Dukhun ;  much  of  it  is 
nrrested  by  the  Ghats  and  liil:y  tracts  east^'ard  of  these  mount^iins:  ac- 
counting for  the  sensible  moistness  of  the  air.  the  frequent  night  fogs, 
and  deposition  of  dew  in  this  line,  in  the  end  of  Mar..-h,  and  in  all  April 
and  May.  Tl'.e  supply  of  moisture  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  dis- 
tance eastward  from  the  sea,  to  the  limits  of  the  Coromandcl  coi«t  mon- 
soon. We  in  consequenv-^e  t'nd  the  Ghats.  Poona,  Ahmednuggur,  and 
the  Bala  Glut,  all  with  very  different  dewing  points  in  the  hot  months. 

The  hygrometric  state  of  the  air  in  Bombay  and  Dukhun  is  remarka- 
bly ccntrnsted :  in  fact,  there  is  more  aqueous  vapour  suspended  in  the 
air  in  FomLay  in  the  hot  months,  than  there  is  at  Poora  at  any  time 
diu-irg  the  monsoon.  In  April  and  May.  1^26,  in  R>mbav,  the  monthly 
mean  dt  wing  points  were  respectively  71:®  84  and  7^^° '59,  temperature 
83®*48  and84®-52,  a  cubic  foot  of  air  holding  8*988  grains,  and  9*74S 
grains  of  water  suspended:  whilst  July,  the  most  rainy  month  durin<^ 
the  monsoon,  at  Poena,  had  only  a  mean  of  8*775  grains  of  water  pus- 
pended.  In  1P27.  the  menns  of  ten  cays'  cbseivations  in  Bombay,  in 
April,   gave  10^43  giains  of  aqueous  vafour  in  a  cubic  foi>t  of  air:  and 


18S9]  On  the  Stal'stics  of  Dukhun.  157 

thf  greatest  mean  quantity  at  Poona  was  in  June,  and  it  amounted  only 
to  8*931  grains.  In  1828,  in  tlie  month  of  March,  tie  following  were 
the  dewing  points  in  consecutive  days,  travelling  from  Bombay  to 
Poona:  Bombay,  lOth  March,  4  p.  m.,  11-205  grains  of  water  in  a  cubic 
foot  of  air ;  at  Poona,  af  the  same  hour,  on  the  I4th  March,  *2*i73  grains. 
At  Bombay,  on  the  lOth,  at.  sunrise,  and  at  9i  a.  m.,  the  dewing  points 
were  rpsprctively  72°  and  71**,  t»»mperaiure  75**  and  81**  5,  a  cubic  foot 
of  air  containing  P-87JJ  grains  ;it  the  form^^r  hour,  and  8-4S7  grains  at  the 
lilur  hour.  The  following  morning  at  Kundaliah,  on  the  top  of  the 
Gh4t>,  1744  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  same  hours,  the  dewing  points 
were  36®  and  40**,  tempeniture  72**  and  78*,  equivalent  only  to  2-690 
gMJns,  and  3*034  grains  of  water  in  a  cubic  foot  of  air.  In  the  afternoon 
of  the  same  diy,  at  Karleh,  2015  feet  above  the  sea,  seven  miles  east  of 
Kundaliah.  a  cubic  foot  of  air  held  2*954  grains,  and  on  the  12th,  at  4 
?.  M.,  2*611  grains  of  aqueous  vapour.  On  the  summit  of  the  hill  fort  of 
Loghor,  8381  feet  above  the  sea,  and  1366  above  Karleh,  the  dewing 
point  at  sunrise  on  the  13th,  was  5^  Fahr.  below  the  freezing  point,  tem- 
perature of  the  air  67**»  and  a  cubic  foot  of  air  held  only  1*995  grains  of 
water  in  a  state  of  vapour.  These  facts  fully  establish  the  remarkable 
*^i«crepancies  between  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  air  in  Bombay  and 
Diikhun,  and  that  too  within  a  difference  of  a  few  miles  of  latitude  and 
longitude.  A  comparison  of  the  absolute  falls  of  rain  in  Bombay  and  in 
Poona,  for  the  years  8826-7-8,  shows  an  agreement  (to  a  certain  extent) 
in  their  ratio  to  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  air  at  Poona  and  Bombayi 
above  noticed.  The  mean  fall  of  rain  at  Bombay  in  those  years  was 
93*62  inches,  and  at  Poona  26*926  inches,   or  28 i  per  cent,  only  of  the 

fall  in  Bombay. 

Rain. — In  Dukhun  the  rains  are  light,  uncertain,  and,  in  all  years, 
barely  sufficient  for  ihe  wants  of  the  husbandman,  and  a  slight  failure 
Ofcasiocs  much  distress.  They  usually  commence  at  the  end  of  May, 
with  some  heavy  thunder  showers  from  E.  to  S.  E.,  the  lightning  being 
terrific  and  frequently  fatal,  ard  the  wind  furious  ;  but  they  do  not  set  in 
rrgularly  until  the  first  ten  days  in  June,  and  continue  until  the  end  of 
Septtrober  from  the  W.  to  the  S.  W.,  and  break  up  with  thunder-storms 
from  the  E.  to  the  S.  E.  before  the  middle  of  October.  During  the  re- 
maining months  of  the  year  an  accidental  shower  or  two  may  fall  from 
the  Coromandel  monsoon  ;  and  the  further  the  distance  eastward  from 
Poona,  the  greater  the  chance  of  showers  in  the  told  months.  The 
monsoon  temperature  is  equable  and  agreeable,  and  the  rain  occurs  al- 
most always  in  showers,  rarely  continuing  uninterruptedly  for  a  day  or 
more,  as  is  ccn  mon  en   the  coast  and  in  the  Konkun.    "Jhc  greatest 


158  On  the  Statistics  q/"  Dukhun.  [J ax. 

quantity  of  rain  falls  in  (he  months  of  June  and  July.  The  greatest  fall 
of  rain  in  any  one  day  was  258  inches,  on  the  6th  July,  1826  ;  at  Boni'- 
bay,  on  the 24th  June,  1828,  there  fell  867  inches;  and  at  Uumee,  on 
the  ]5th  June,  1829,  there  fell  8*133  inches  in  24  hours. 

The  mean  annual  fall  of  rain  for  all  England,  from  many  years'  obser- 
vations, appears  to  be  32*2  inches,  but  the  means  of  different  counties 
vary  from  67  inches  in  Cumberland  to  ID  inches  in  Essex. 

The  clouds  supplying  the  monsoon  rains  in  Dukhun  would  appear  to 
have  a  low  elevation,  as  I  have  frequently  seen  through  breaks  as  they 
were  passing  swiftly  from  west  to  east,  a  superior  stratum,  apparently 
stationary,  or  moving  slowly  in  a  contrary  direction,  and  gilded  by  the 
sun*s  ravs. 

Winds. — The  great  features  in  the  ob3er\'ations  respecting  the  winds, 
are  the  prevalence  of  winds  from  the  west  and  westerly  quarters,  east 
and  easterly  quarters,  and  the  extreme  rareness  of  winds  from  the  north 
and  south,  and  ihe  points  approximating  to  them ;  and  these  features 
appear  to  be  constant  in  successive  years.  Jn  5229  observations  the 
wind  blew  from  ihe  west,  or  points  adjoining,  2409  times  j  and  in  this 
number  the  S.  W.  (305),  and  N.  W.  (122),  amount  only  to  427.  From 
easterly  points  949  times,  including  246  from  the  N.  E.  and  S.  E.,  thus 
leaving  703  from  the  east.  From  the  north  115  times,  and  from  the 
south  30  times  only.  Another  feature  is  the  frequent  absence  of  wind, 
particularly  at  sunrise,  and  more  so  in  the  months  of  January,  February, 
March,  October,  and  November  than  in  other  months  of  the  year.  The 
cessation  of  wind  from  May  to  September  inclusive  is  comparatively 
rare ;  and,  generally,  throughout  the  year  the  absence  of  wind  at  4  p.  m., 
may  be  looked  upon  as  unusmil.  In  my  records  there  are  1720  observa- 
tions of  **  No  wind,"  and  847  of  these  belong  to  sunrise,  452  to  9 — 10 
A.  M.,  and  304  only  to  4  p.  m. 

The  observations  were  continued  through  five  years,  three  times  daily ; 
sunrise,  9 — 10  a.  m.,  and  4  p.  m.  There  is  considerable  uniformity  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind  in  the  same  months  in  consecutive  years.  The 
westerly  winds  begin  to  prevail  in  March,  alternating  with  easterly 
winds,  which  blow  the  latter  part  of  the  night ;  but  the  easterly  winds 
disappear  as  the  monsoon  approaches,  and  do  not  re-appear  again  till 
October.  In  October  the  winds  are  variable,  and  the  records  of  "No 
wind,*'  increase  suddenly  and  rapidly.  A  few  easterly  winds,  however, 
about  the  end  of  the  month,  indicate  the  change  which  is  to  tike  place  ; 
they  gradually  increase,  and  with  those  from  the  N.  E.  and  S.  E.,  almost 
entirely  supersede  the  winds  from  the  westerly  points  during  the  cold 
months. 


IS39]  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  loD 

lo  March,  ftom  the  sun's  approach,  tlie  interior  land  during  the  day 
gets  heated ;  an  influx  of  air  from  the  sea  coast  commences  daily  after 
JO  A.  M. ;  but  as  the  earth,  at  this  period,  cools  more  rapidly  than  the 
sea  at  night,  the  interior  is  cooler  than  the  coasts,  and  there  is  a  reflux 
of  air  towards  the  ocean ;  the  easterly  and  westerly  winds  thus  alternate 
day  and  night.  This  alternation,  hoivever,  diminishes  in  the  ratio  of 
the  sun's  increasing  power ;  and  when  the  earth  gets  so  thoroughly  heat- 
ed that  it  cannot  reduce  its  temperature  by  radiation  below  that  of  the 
sea,  the  consequence  is  the  prevalence  of  winds  from  the  westerly  points 
to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of  those  from  easterly  points.  In  June 
the  westerly  winds  set  in  regularly.  There  are  occasional  instances  of 
the  wind  blowing  with  much  steady  violence  from  the  west  for  many 
hours  in  the  hot  months  with  a  sunny  sky.  In  the  early  part  of  March 
some  unaccountably  cold  winds,  affecting  vegetation  even,  have  been 
known  to  blow. 

Iht  fFinds. — The  well-known  hot  winds  of  tropical  continents  do  not 
prevail  near  the  Ghats  ;  but  the  same  wind,  which  is  pleasant  in  their 
neighbourhood,  may  become  a  hot  wind  as  it  travels  to  Ahmednuggur 
and  Arungabad.  The  east  wind  is  characterized  by  its  extreme  dry- 
ness, and  it  is  dangerous  to  sleep  exposed  to  it. 

Whirlwindt. — Those  curious  whirlwinds  noticed  by  travellers  in  Af- 
rica, and  which  in  the  deserts  are  dangerous,  are  of  common  occurrence 
in  Dukhun  in  the  hot  months.  A  score  or  more  columns  of  dust,  in  the 
forai  of  a  speaking  trumpet  or  water-spout,  maybe  seen  rapidly  coursing 
over  the  treeless  plains,  marking  a  vortex  of  heated  air.  They  are  suf- 
ficiently powerful  to  unroof  a  thatched  house,  strike  tents,  and  whisk 
away  all  light  matters. 

^oi7  5foii«#.— Hail  stones  of  considerable  magnitude  sometimes  fall 
io  the  thunder-storms  of  the  hot  months. 

Dews, — Dews  appear  plentifully  after  the  monsoon,  and  during  the 
Bights  of  the  cold  mouths  ;  but  their  frequent  local  occurrence  has  often 
excited  surprise. 

Fogs.-^Yo^s  are  of  so  rare  occurrence  in  the  Desh,  or  country  eiist- 
ward  uf  the  Ghats,  that  I  have  only  nineteen  records  of  them  during  five 
rears.     Along  the  Gh&ts  they  are  much  more  common ;  and  during  April 
and  May,  for  three  or  four  nights  in  the  week,  fogs  drift  rapidly  to  the 
eastward  from  the  Konkun,  or  low   country  at  the  foot  of  the   Ghtits. 
On  some     nights   no   drift  takes   place,     and   the   fog  remains   rest- 
ing on  the   Konkun;   and,   seen  from  the   crest  of  the   GhMs  at  sun- 
rise,  has  the  appearance  of  a  sea  of  milk.  As  the  sun  rises  the  fog  creeps 
up  the  chasms  of  the  Gh^its,  and  finally  disappears  by  10  A.  M. 


160  On  the  Sfatiatics  of  Dukhun.  [Ja*. 

Salubrity  of  the  Climate. — With  respect  to  the  salubrity  of  the  open 
parts  of  the  country,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  state  that,  in  my  little 
camp,  consisting  of  more  than  a  hundred  souls  (nativeb),  I  had  not  a  sin- 
gle death  of  an  adult  during  6  years  ;  nor  acase  of  illness  (exceptiug  one) 
that  I  did  not  cure  without  regular  medical  aid.  Dr.  Walker,  long  civil 
surgeon  in  the  city  of  Ahmednuggur,  found  the  casualties  in  182S  in  that 
city  (exclusive  of  losses  from  spasmodic  cholera)  to  be  only  I  "82  per 
cent.,  or  1  in  55*1  persons;  and,  including  cholera,  2*48  percent.,  or 
1  in  40*2  persons.  Dr.  Lawrence,  in  charge  of  a  regiment  of  na- 
tives 1,000  strong,  lost  only  085  parts  of  an  integer  per  cent.,  per  an- 
num, or  about  5  men  in  600  during  the  years  the  regiment  was  in  Duk- 
hun. 

Parts  of  Khandesh  have  not  credit  from  the  same  salubrity. 

Botany. 

Under  this  heiid  I  shall  confine  myself  to  a  simple  enumeration  of  the 
agricultural  and  garden  products,  and  wild  fruits.  To  enter  into  the 
botany  of  DuUhun  generally  would  be  misplaced  in  this  digest.  And 
first  with  regard  lo  cultivated  native  fruits  ;  there  are  forty -five  in  num- 
ber, viz. 

Cultioaied  Fruits. — Amba,  Mangi/era  in'fira  *  ;  Oombnr,  Ficus  glome' 
rata  ;  Phunnus,  Aitocarpus  integrifoiia  ^ ;  Cheents,  Tamariniu$  inds' 
ca^ :  Ambarra,  spondias  A^angif^ra^;  Ilurparewree,  Cicca  disticha ; 
Ramphal,  Annona  rettcuhta  ^  ;  Seetaphul,  Annona  squamosa  ;  Raeebor^ 
Zizyphus  jujuba  ;  Jamblee,  Cahjptranthes  caryophyllifolia ;  Awlee, 
PhyUanthus  embl'fca ;  Bail,  ^yle  Marmelos  ^  ;  Wowulee,  Mimusops 
elengi  ;  Narlee,  Cocos  ttuci/ca  S ;  Jamb,  Eugenia  Jamhos  ^  /  Mohha, 
Bassia  laiifoUa  ;   Toot,  Moras  alba^  ;   Shatoot,  Morus  indica^  ;    Choou- 

choo,  Morus ^  ;  Kurumbul,  Ave.rrh'm  Caram^>olam  ;Kuweet,  Fero- 

nia  elephantum  ^  ;  Bhokur,  Cordia  laf 'folia;  Anjeer,  I'icus  Cartcao  . 
Daleemb,  Punica  granatnm,  (two  kinds)  p  ;  Weer,  Citrus  I'tm  m  a  ;Chako- 
tur.  Citrus  decumanus  r  ;  Maloong,  Citrus  medica «  /  Nareeng,  Citrus 
aurantium  ^  ;  of  these  there  are  several  kinds  ;  Ambut  neemboo,  Citrus 
acida "  ;  Sakur  neemboo.  Citrus  Union  var.x  ;  Peroo,  Psidium  Pyrife^ 
riferumy ;    Pcroo  tarabra,    Red    Guava;    Kajoo,   Anacardium    occiden- 

a  Maniso.  b  Jack  fruit.  c  Tamarind.  d  Hog-plum, 

e  Swcpp-sop.  f  Bengal  quince.  g  Cocoa  nut.  h  Rose  apple. 

^   White  mulberry.       k  Red  mull>eiry.  I  Small  mulberry,  m  Coun.  gooseberry 

n  Wood  apple.  o  The  garden  fig.  p  Pomegranate.  q  Lemon, 

r  i5hadock.  s  ^  itron.  t  Orange.  u  Lime. 

X  Sweet  \imft.  y  Guara. 


l839]  On  (he  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  161 

tale  «;  Gondnea,  Cordia  myxa;  Tarh,  Borassus  flabelliformis  ;  Phopy, 
Pupeea  Carica ;  Badam,  Terminalia  catappa  ;  Sooparee,  Jreca  fau* 
fel^:  Kujoor,  Phcenix  dactilifera  c  ;  Kel  or  Kail,  Musa paradisiaca  d, 
there  are  several  species  or  varieties.  Sonkel,  Afusa  sapientum  ; 
Draxbs,  Vitis  Finifera  «.  There  are  seven  species  of  grapes  in  Duk- 
huu,  the  Mahratta  names  of  which  are  Kalec,  or  black  ;  Ahbee,  or  wa- 
tery; Pbukree,  or  Muscadina;  Saheebee,  Bedana,  or  seedless;  SooU 
tanee ;  and  Suckree,  or  sugary.  Khurbooz,  Cucumis  Melo  '  ;  Phoot» 
Cueumis  momordiea ;  and  Kulungrab,  Cucurbita  Citrullus  e.  There  are 
sevenil  species  or  varieties  of  the  melon. 

Wild  Fruits. — ^The  wild  fruits  are  twenty-two  in  number,  viz.  Beebah| 
Semiearpus   anacardium  ^  ;  Cher,     Chirongxa  sapida  ;  Ratambee,    Gav" 

cmia i;   Torun,  Zixyphus  alhens  ;  Kurwund,  Carissa   Carandas 

and  diffusa^  both  of  them  excellent  fruits  ;  Seendee,  Phcenix  SylvestriSf 
or  Elate  Sylvtstris  i  ;  Jungle  Jaeephul,  Myristica  dactyloides  ^ ;  Peem- 
pref,  Ficu*  comosa  ;  Rahbor,  Zizyphus  Xylopyrus  ;  Bunkeil,  Musa  tro' 
glodytarumf  1   two  varieties  ;  Gooloom,  Loranthus  hicolor  ;   Lotowl,   a 

genos  and  species  not  determined  ;  Ambgoolee,    Elaagnus ,  a 

Teiy  nice  fruit,  tasting  like  a  gooseberry.    Ulloo,    Vanqueria  spinosa  ; 

Temboomee,    Gardenia^  ;  Thurtee,    Capparis  erytkrocarpus  ; 

Xeptee,  Capparis  aphylla;  W2igsXee^  Capparis  Zeylanica;  Makur  Neem* 

bonce,  Citrus ™;  Wuhr,  Ficus  Indica  ;    Loheer,  Ficut » 

aooble  tree,  80  to  100  feet  high. 

The  above  comprise  the  wild  fruits  of  Dukhun  ;  many  of  them  are  not 
only  passable,  but  very  palatable,  particularly  the  Ambgoolee,  the  Kur- 
vund,  and  the  Char.  The  Ratambee,  or  wild  mangostein,  is  in  extensive 
nie  as  an  acid  seasoner,  and  is  met  with  for  sale  in  most  markets  in  a 
dried  state.  The  wild  nutmeg  is  frequently  imposed  upon  the  ignorant 
for  the  real  nutmeg.  The  oil  of  the  Beebah  is  used  for  marking  linen, 
like  indelible  ink ;  but  the  kernel  roasted  is  agreeable.  The  wild  lime 
(CUrusJ  is  only  met  with  in  the  Ghkis  ;  it  forms  a  handsome  dense  tree, 
tmt  the  cultivated  fruit  is  so  abundant  that  the  wild  is  not  made  any 
Qse  of.  Many  of  the  above  fruit  trees  produce  good  timber.  With  res. 
pect  to  the  mango,  which  is  met  with  both  cultivated  and  wild,  it  is  con* 
tidered  by  the  people  less  as  a  luxury,  than  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  neces« 
saries  of  lifci  or  as  a  substitute  for  them  in  seasons  of  scarcity ;  for  the 

a  Cashew  nut.  b  Beetle  nut 

<  l)ate.  d  Plantain.  e  Orapen.  f  Mink  melon. 

K  Wtter  melon.  h  The  marking  nut     i  The  wUd  mangoitein      J  Wild  date, 

k  Wild  antmtg,  1  Wild  plantain.       m  The  original  apparently  of  some  of  the 

speciet  of  CHtrut  in  Dukhun. 


162  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhwu.  [Jaw. 

mango  is  in  fruit,  and  seldom  fails  an  abundant  crop,  at  a  time  when  the 
earth  is  parched  up  by  the  heats  of  May  and  beginning  of  June. 

Jgriculiural  Products. — A  brief  notice  only  of  the  agricultural  pro- 
ducts can  be  given.  The  harvests  are  of  two  distinct  kinds;  one  is  the 
Khurrcef,  or  rainy  season  havvesit;  the  other  is  the  Rubee,  or  dry,  or  cold, 
or  spring  season,  harvest. 

fi^'et  Season  Harveat.^lhXs  harvest  produces  twenty-two  kinds  of 
grain  and  pulse  ;  but  the  products  of  the  Desh,  or  open  country,  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  Mawuls,  or  hilly  tracts  along  the  (ihats.  The 
following  are  the  products  of  the  monsoon  crop  in  the  L)es»h  :  Jondia, 
Andropogon  Sorghum^  and  of  these  there  are  many  varieties  ;  Sujgoora, 
Panicum  spicafum ;  Rahleh,  Panicum  Italicum  ;  Bhadlee,  Ponpalum 
pilosum  ;  Kodroo,  Paapalum  frumentaceum ;  Mukka,  Zea  Alays^ ; 
Moog,  Phasvolus  Mungo ,  Oorced,  PhascO'Ux  radiaius  ;  Tooreo,  Cy- 
tx$M9  cajan  ;  Muht,  Phaseolns  acon'uifvtius  ;  Teel,  Sesamum 
orienlale,  two  kinds  ;  Ambaree,  Hibiscus  Cannabinui  ;  Oolgeea, 
Dolichos  hifloris\  Waal,  Loichos  spkatts  ;  Rajgferab,  Amaranthvs 
oltraccus  candidvs  ;  Cbuwluya,  Lolichot  cat'arg ;  and  Gowarya,  Doiichos 
fabaformis  :  there  are  thus  seventeen  products  of  the  monsoon  harvest 
of  the  Desh.  The  first  six  are  bread  grains,  and  are  reduced  to  flour; 
Teel  and  Rajgeerah  Are  eaten  unground ;  Ambaree  is  a  cordage  plant, 
the  rest  are  pulse,  and  are  cooked  in  a  variety  of  ways  Tooree  is  the 
universal  substitute  for  the  split  pea  of  Europe ;  it  is  much  more  agree- 
able than  the  pea,  and  is  more  commonly  used. 

The  produce  of  the  rainy  season  hanest  in  the  hilly  tracts  is  Dhan, 
Oryzasathai  ^  seventeen  or  eighteen  kinds  ;Natchnee,  EUvsiie  coracana, 
or  Cynosurus  coracanus  ;  Sawa,  Panicum  miliareum  ;  Wuree,  Panicum 
miiiare  ;  and,  finally,  Karleh,  FcrbfS'fia  safiia.  All  these  require  a  su^ 
perabundance  of  water.  The  rice,  which  is  the  chief  support  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  hilly  tracts,  is  sown  in  the  valleys,  because  it  can  be  constantly 
flooded.  Karleh  is  an  oil  plant  only  ;  the  others  are  sown  on  the  sides 
of  the  mountains,  in  places  inaccessible  to  the  plough.  They  are  either 
used  whole,  or  are  reduced  to  flour  for  bread.  Rice  is  never  reduced  to 
flour. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood,  that  the  above  products,  as  separated  into 
those  of  the  hilly  tracts  and  Desh,  are  rigidly  cx)nfined  to  those  tracts  ; 
where  the  physical  circumstances  permit  of  if,  they  are  indiscriminately 
cultivated  in  both  tracts.  The  returns  of  some  of  the  above  plants  are 
prodigiously  great.     I   have  seen  a  [»lant  of  Paspalum  frumentmceum 

%  Indian  com.  b  Rice« 


1839]  On  the  Siatistiea  of  Dukhun.  163 

with  twenty  stalks  radiating  from  a  common  root,  and  with  thirty-three 
spikes  of  grain,  giving  the  astonishing  retam  of  61,3d0  for  1  ;  a  single 
head  of  Andropogon  Sorghum  gave  2895  for  1  ;  eight  stalks  of  Panic  um 
tpicatum  from  a  single  root  16,960  for  1  ;  and  a  single  head  of  Panicum 
ItaUtrwn  produced  1850  for  I  ! ! 

Z>ry  or  Spring  Season  Harvest, — The  next  harvest  is  th  it  of  the  Ru- 
bee,  or  dry  or  spring  season  of  the  Desh.  In  this  harvest,  of  twenty- 
three  products,  there  are  four  species  of  fine  wheat,  viz.  Guhoo  Bukshee, 
Tutimm  speUa;  Kupleh  Guhoo,  Triticum  ;  Kateh  Guhoo,  7Vi/i- 

e«f»^— —  ;  and  Pobteeyai,  Triticum ,  called  bellied  wheat,   from 

thp.  sped  being  very  much  swelled  out  in  the  middle.  Urburee,  Cicer 
Arieiinum  ;  Shaloo,  Andropogon  iaccharatum  ;  Juw,  Hordeum  hexasti' 
thm  *  .•  Watanah,  Pisum  sativum  ^  /  Kurdee,  Carthamus  Persicus  / 
Juwas,  Linum  usiiadssimum  ;  Mohuree,  Sinapie  racemosa^  and  two 
otherkinds ;  Taag,  Cro/o/area  junc«a  ;  Yerund  Tambra,  Picinus  com, 
wmis  «  ;  Yerund  Eerwa,  Picinus  viridis  ;  Cos  Tambra,  Saccharttm  offi» 
marmn^  ;  Cos  Poonda,  Saccharum  *^  ;  Cos  Pandra,  Sacharum 

— —  '  ;   Oos  B^t,  Saccharum,  ■  g  ;  Shet   Wallook,  Cucumis 

" ,  the  literal   meaning  is  field  cucumber  ;    Pawteh,    Dolichos 

^ ;  Tumbakoo,  Nieotiana  tabacam ;   Shet  Kapoos,   Gonsypium 

kerhaeeum  ^  ;  Bhoeemoong,  Arachia  hypogtpa,  ^ 

Theabovearecbiefly  produced  in  theDesh,  in  the  dry  season.  Urburee, 
CietrarietinumM  the  universal  substitute  for  oats  forhorses:  and,ezcepting 
in  the  rains  when  green  grass  is  obtainable,  the  juicy,  6weet,and  nutritious 
ilalks  of  the  Shaloo,   Andropogon  sorghum,   and  varieties,  is  their  only 
Ibruge.  Oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  Kurdee,  Juwus,  Mohuree,  and 
Tennd.  Juwus  is  not  used  for  its  flax.    Although  there  are  four  kinds  of 
so^-cane,  and  much  raw  sugar  is  produced, the  processes  of  refining  are 
not  carried  on.    The  bark  of  Taag  is  used  for  ropes   and  coarse  canvas. 
The  returns  from  the  wheat  are  very  considerable  ;  I  have  a  specimen  of 
Kupleh  Guhoo,  with  twenty-five  stalks  from  one  root,   giving  a  return 
of  1450  for  i  ;  ten  stalks  are  very  common  ;  a  specimen  of  the  Kateh 
Guhoo,   also  in  my  possession,   with  fifteen   stalks  from  a  single  root, 
giving  a  return  of  4S0   fori.    The  average  on  tolerable  land  is  eight 
ttalks  or  ears  to  a  plant.    The    tobacco  from  some  parts  of  the  country 
is  reckoned  very  fine. 

The  dry  season  harvest  of  the  hilly  tracts  is  almost  entirely  confined 
to  Mttssoor,  Ervum  hirsutum ;  and  Fawta,  a  variety  of  Dolichos  Lahlah. 

» Bttlcy.  b  Peif.  e  Castor  oil.  d  Red  iugmr  cane. 

*  Viikgated  sugar  cane.  f  White  sugar  cane.  g  Reed-like  sugar  cane. 

b  Field  cotton.  i  The  earth  nut 


164 


On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun, 


Pah. 


Garden  produce, — The  produce  of  the  gardens  is  of  great  importance 
to  the  natives  of  India,  from  their  poverty  limiting  them  very  much  to  a 
vegetable  diet,  corrected  by  aromatic  seeds  and  condiments.  Most  of  the 
plants  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  the  Desh  are  also  produced  in  the 
gardens,  where  they  exist,  (which  is  rarely)  of  the  hilly  tracts.  The  pro- 
ducts are  forty-six  in  number,  viz.,  Dhuny a, Cor tann^rum  satitmm*^  ;  Mehtee, 
Trigonella  fcenugrecum  ;  Shepoo,  Aneihum  sowa ;  Bureeshep,  Anethum 
fceniculum  ^;  Wowa,  Liguiticum  agivaen;  Hulwee,  Lepidum  sativum; 
Meerchya,  Capsicum  annuum  c  ;  of  this  there  are  many  species. 
Patee,  Allium  cepa,  d  red,  white,  and  yellow  ;  some  of  which  are  so 
mild  as  to  be  used  as  vegetables.  Chakweet,  Chenopodium  tUbum  ; 
Chooka,  Rumex  Vesicarius  «  /  Wahlea,  BaseUa  rubra  and  alba; 
AtiLoOf  Arum  campanulatum ;  Tandoolja,  Amaranthus  polygamus  ;  Maat 
Tambree,  Amaranthus  oleraceus,  var.  ;  Paluk,  Beta  Bengalensis ; 
Mohtee  gohl,  Owalis  monadelphus;  Gohl,  Portulaca  oleraeea  ;  Pokulla, 

Amaranthui, ;  Poodna,  Mentha  virtdis;  Chundun  Butwa,  Chenopo* 

diumf ;  Bbang,   Cannabis  saliva  ^  ;      and  Nagwail,  Piper  Betel* 

The  most  valuable  of  the  above  plants  produce  aromatic  or  pungent 
seeds  ;  most  of  the  rest  are  pot-herbs  held  in  considerable  estimation. 

Edible  roots. — The  next  division  of  garden  produce  is  denominated 
Mool  Bojee,  which  literally  means  **  root-greens, *»  properly  edible  roots, 
Mooleh,  Raphanus  sativus^  :  Rutalee,  Convolvulus  batatas  ^  ; 
Kohn,  Dioscorea  purpurea  or  alala  i  ;  Gajur,  Daucus  carota  i  ;  Lus- 
soon,  Allium  sativum  ^  ;  Soonin,  Arum^  — ;  Rungeh,  Dioscorea 
fasciculata  ;  AUuh,  Amomum  Zingiber  ^  . 

Fruit  vegetables, — A  further  division  is  made  of  Phul  bajee  or  fruit 
greens,  which  means  fruits  eaten  as  vegetables,  viz.,  Bhendee,  Hibiscus 
esculentus ;  Wangee,  Solanum  melongena,^  several  species  or  varie- 
ties ;  Gewree,  Dolichos, ;  the  seeds  are  eaten  as  pulse,  and  there 

are  several  varieties;  Dorkee,  Cucumis  acutangulus :  Gosaled,  Luffa 
psntandria ;  Karlee,  Afomordica  Charantia ;  Tondlee,  Momordica  mo- 
nadelphia ;  Purwal,  Trichosanthes  anguina  ;  Purwar,  Trichotanthes  cw 
cumerina;  Turkakree,  Cucumis  usitatissimus ;  ^  Kateh  Wallook,  Cn- 
eumis  sativus,  warty,  prickly  cucumber;  Doodh  Boplah,  Cucurbita tonga ; 
Boplah-tambra,  Cucurbita  Pepo,  red  pumpkin ;  specimens  of  this  fruit 
are  sometimes  more  than  eighteen  inches  in  diameter ;  Kohwall,  Cueur* 
hitaalba;  Dhendsee,  CucKr6iV(»,  — ;  Kasee  Boplah,  Cuc«r6i/a  lagc 


nana. 

a  Coriander. 

b  Sweet  fennel* 

c  Chilly. 

d  Onions. 

e  Blister  sorrel. 

f  Hemp. 

g  Radishes. 

h  Sweet  potatoc; 

I  Yam.           j  Carrots. 

k  Garlic. 

1  Ginger 

m  Eggplant. 

n  Common  cucumber. 

1839]  On  the  StatUtia  of  Dukhun.  165 

Such  are  tbe  cultivated  garden  products  of  the  natiret:  it  will  be  seen 

that  they  are  rieh  in  the  cucurbitaceous  family,  and  not  less  so  in  the 

aromatic  and  pungent  plants ;  and  the  edible  roots  are  various.     Edible 

leaves,  used  as  greens,  are  very  numerous,  particularly  those  produced 

•pontaneously.     My  limits  do  not  permit  me  to  give  even  the  names  of 

wild  plants  producing  greens,  fruits  used  as  vegetables,  or  edible    roots ; 

the  flowers  of  some  plants  are  used  as  greens;   such  as  the  i^ngustee* 

JEtckjfnomene  grundiflora  ;    the  Sbewga,  Hyperanthera  morunga,  or 

horse-radish  tree  ;  and  those  of  the  Kanchun,  Bauhinia  purpurea  ;  the 

foot-stalks  of  the  flowers  of  the  splendid  Convolvulus  candicans  are  used 

in  a  similar  way.    The  tender  twigs  of  the  common  bamboo  are  good  as 

greens,  and  they  are  also  made  into  a  pickle.    The  flower,  stalks,  and 

roots  of  the  Lotus  (Nympka  esculentaj  are  reckoned  fine ;  but  I  must 

ftop. 

GrMS§s. — ^The  grasses  are  innumerable,  and  are  not  less  distinguished 
for  their  beauty  than  their  variety.  One  of  the  most  common  is  that 
highly  nonrishing  grass  the  AgrostU  linearis,  which,  it  appears,  is  a  na- 
tire  of  Cornwall,  under  the  name  of  Panicon  dactylon.  In  biting  the 
knots  or  joints  of  the  Ghateea  fAndropogon  Martini  ?)  there  is  a  strong, 
paogent,  aromatic,  and  oleaginous  exudation.  The  well-known  aroma- 
tic Khus  Khus  (Andropogon  muricahu)  is  abundant  in  Dukhun,  as  well 
vthe  sacred  grass  Dnrb,  Poa  cgnosuroides.  In  speaking  of  the  grasses 
it  may  be  as  well  to  say  that  it  is  not  the  practice  of  the  natives  to  make 
ksf  from  meadows ;  they  allow  the  grass  on  waste  lands  to  become  per- 
fectly dry,  and  then  cut  it  down  with  the  sickle,  as  a  substitute  for  hay. 

Wild  cordage  planti, — ^The  spontaneous  cordage  plants  are  the  Gayal, 
dgm!€  vivipara  ;  the  Kaswuree,  Sida  patens ;  and  some  others. 

Wild  oil  plants, — ^The  wild  oil  plants  are  the  Kurunj,  Galedupa  arho' 
ng ;  and  the  Kurd  Kangonee,  a  small  tree  of  the  class  and  order  Pen- 
trndria  monoggnia. 

Wild  tanning  plants. — The  plants  used  in  preparing  leather  are  the 
Chambar  Heerda,  Terminalia  Chebula ;  Rahn  Turwur,  Cassia  auricula- 
^s;  the  Sadrah  or  Aaeen,  Terminalia  alata  glabra;  and  the  Baubul, 
Mmota  arabica,  the  bark  of  which  is  in  great  repute. 

Medicinal  plants. — ^The  medicinal  plants  are  numerous.  Amongst  the 
Btoftt  useful  are  the  Khyr,  Mimosa  catechu ;  the  Seegeekaee,  Mimosa  ab' 
stergens;  many  species  of  Datura  ;  Kuntuh  Kareeka,  Solanum  jaequini ; 
Saignrgotta,  Cessalpinia  bonduccella  ;  Korpur,  Aloe  succoirina ;  Dadma- 
ree,  Euphorbia  tiruculli;  Gooleea  Eendrawun,  Cucumis  colocynthis; 
l^ii,  Se^indus  detergens ;  Sahl  Phul,  Boswellia  thurifera ;  Bawcheea, 
Psorslsa  corgli/olia;  some  of  the  Ocimums,  and  many  of  the    Asclepias 


166  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [Jau, 

family.  Of  the  powerfully  scented  plants,  the  Mich  ilia  ChampacOf 
(Champa),  Pandanus  oJorati-ssimuit  several  species  of  Jasmine,  Polyan- 
thus, Rose,  &c.,  abound. 

European fru'ta, — Very  few  of  the  European  fruits  are  cultivated  in 
Dukhun  :  indeed,  those  produced  are  almost  confined  to  peaches  and 
strawbi^rries,  both  of  which  areas  fine  as  in  Europe.  All  the  European 
vegetables  thrive,  such  as  cauliflowers,  cabbages,  asparagus,  spinacht 
and  broccoli.  Potatoes,  when  properly  attended  to,  are  also  good.  Car- 
rots, tunU|>8,  an'l  radishes  are  indigenous. 

Flowering  plant  a, —  It  is  not  within  my  present  view  to  attempt  an 
cnumemtion  of  the  wild  flowering  plants  of  Dakhun,  many  of  which  are 
splendid  and  curious.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  magnificence  and  beauty 
of  the  vegotation  in  the  Gh^ts  during  the  monsoon.  The  brilliancy  of 
the  EnjthrincB,  the  CassicB  (particularly  the  Cassia  Jistularia,)  the 
lofty  BombuXf  the  varieties  of  the  Liliacpoe,  CanncB,  Convolvulacece,  and 
MalvacecBi  would  surprise  and  delight  a  European  florist. 

In  the  Desh,  the  dwarf  Cassia  auiicvlata^  with  its  numerous  yellow 
flowers,  enlivens  the  whole  country ;  and  the  numerous  species  of  Aft- 
tnojf a  (particularly  the  Mimosa  odoraiissima),  perfume  the  air. 

The  Dukhun  j)roduces  few  ferns  and  no  heaths,  and  none  of  the  coni- 
ferous family,  excepting  Cupressus ;  the  Muse i  (true  mosses)  are  rare; 
there  are  many  of  the  Euphorbiacets  ;  no  oaks,  elms,  or  hazels,  or  indeed 
any  of  the  Amentacecp,  excepting  SaUx  ieirasperma  ;  multiplied  genera 
and  species  of  the  Jasminete,  LabiatCBy  Compos'ittBf  Umbell'tfertBi  Legtt' 
tniyiosce,  and  Cucurbitace^ ;  tbe  Crucifertt  are  not  abundant ;  but  the 
Cappar'tdes  are  very  much  so.  The  rosaceous  plants  are  rare  ;  but  the 
Solanacetp  (Lurid(B)  are  very  abundant ;  although  the  potatoe  is  not  in- 
digenous. 

Such  is  the  meagre  sketch  of  the  botany  of  Dukhun  ;  for  the  elalxHra- 
tion  of  which  there  are  abundant  materials  at  the  India  House,  in  a 
Hortus  Siccus  collected  by  myself. 

I  must  not  omit  to  notice  that  the  Sandal -wood  tree,  Santalum  albumj 
is  met  with,  both  in  the  cultivated  and  wild  state. 

Timber  trees. — The  Warsa,  Bignonia  quadrilocularis :  the  Tamarind* 
TamarinJus  Indica  ;  the  Jack,  Artocarpus  integrifolia  ;  and  the  Ban- 
hineopf  produce  excellent  wood  for  furniture  ;  and  all  the  species  of  Mh 
mosa  furnish  hard  durable  wood  for  tools  and  machinery. 

Zoology. 

Like  the  account  of  the  botany,  the  zoology  must  be  confined  to  little 
more  than  a  mere  catiilogue  of  the  beasts  and  birds  of  the  country* 


1939]  Oh  the  Statistics  of  DuAhun.  167 

The  inhabitants  of  Dukhun  have  the  Georgian  form  of  skull :  their 
stature  is  low,  but  not  very  slender;  the  colour  of  the  skiu  is  broun, 
ifith  shades  ninuing  ioto  yellow  and  white  in  the  higher  cla^ses,  and 
black  in  the  lower ;  ihe  females  are  not  distinguished  for  beauty  or  ferti- 
lity, the  average  number  of  births  to  a  marriage  being  less  than  in  Eu- 
rope ;  more  males  are  bom  than  females,  and,  unlike  Europe,  ihey  pre- 
ponderate through  all  periods  of  life. 

Quad'  umana, — Of  the  monkey  tribe  I  met  with  only  two  kinds,  Sem- 
wpi'kecvs  Enfellus  and  Macacus  radiatus.  A  new  species  described  by 
me,  Cercfypithecus  albf^gu'ariSf  was  not  from  Dukhun. 

Cheiroptera. — Three  species  of  bats,  Wurbagool,  Pleropvs  medias ; 
Nyctinomus  pUcatus ;  and  Rhtnolphus  Dukhumns's. 

P/on^i^frac/a.^-Chuehoondur,  Sorcx  Indicus,  or  musk-rat  ;  Aswail, 
Ut$v»  labia tuSf  or  labiated  bear;  Juhl  Manjur,  Lutra  A  air,  otter. 

Digit -grada. — Of  these  animals,  the  first  is  the  Kolsun  or  wild  dog, 
C»is  Dukhunensit,  which  was  first  described  and  brought  to  Europe  by 
nyself ;  Landguh,  Canit  pallipes,  wolf,  a  new  species  ;  Rholah,  Catfis 
ursus,  jackal ;  Kokree,  Conh  Kokree,  a  new  species  of  fox  ;  of  the 
Viveridee,  the  Juwadee  Manjur,  Viverra  Indica  or  civet  cat  of  Dukhun  ; 
Moongos,  Herptstu  griteut,  Mungoose  ;  God,  Paradoxurits  Typus* 
The  HyfBna,  Turrus  of  the  Mahrattas,  Hycena  vulgaris,  is  common  in 
Dnkhnn,  and  is  capable  of  domestication  like  a  dog.  The  Felhiidce  are 
oaoeroiis,  not  only  in  individualR,  but  in  species,  excepting  (he  liont 
vbich  is  not  met  with.  Puttite  Wagh,  Felts  tigr's,  royal  tiger  ;  Cheeta, 
Ftlii  teojtardus  or  genuine  leopard,  is  rare  ;  but  the  Beebeea  Wagh,  or 
pnther,  ^e//<9  Panthar,  is  most  abundant.  Cheeta,  Filis  jubata,  or 
kniiting  leopard,  is  common.  Mota  Rahn  Manjur,  Felts  chaus  ;  Lhan 
Bahn  Manjur,  FeUs  torquatust  or  lesser  wild  cat ;  the  preceding  being 
oontidered  the  larger  wild  cat.  The  species  of  the  genus  Felts  here  ter- 
niiiate.  Of  the  rat  family  there  is  the  Ghoos,  Afus  giganleus,  or  Bundi- 
koot rat ;  Chooa,  Afttj  eferumonu^,  or  Norway  rat;  AIus  musculuSf  the 
wmse;  and  a  very  pretty  field  mouse  of  a  bright  chesnut  colour,  which  is 
anew  Mu$  o^eraceus,  also  a  second  new  mouse,  Mus  platythrix.  Of  the 
squirrel  family  there  are  only  two  species  ;  the  first,  a  splendid  animal 
u  Urge  as  the  Sciurvs  max'mus,  of  a  chesnut  colour,  with  a  whitish  tail ; 
I  have  called  it  Semrut  Elphinsfoniit  the  Mahratla  name  is  Shekroo  :  the 
other  species  is  the  Khurree,  or  Scinrus  palmarum.  The  porcupine, 
SajTdl,  is  anew  species,  which  I  have  called  Hystrtje  leucvrus.  The  hare, 
Suttub,  which  abounds  in -Dukhun,  is  the  Lrpus  nigricoUis  of  P.  Cuvier. 
That  very  curious  animal,  the  Pangolin,  Manis  crass^caudata,  is  common  • 
(he  Mahrattas  call  it  Kuwlee  Manjur,  or  tiled  cat,  the  scales  bein^*^  im- 


l^S  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [J Air. 

bricated  as  tiles  on  the  roof  of  a  house.  The  Dookur,  or  wild  hog,  Sus 
scro/at  abounds :  every  village  also  has  a  number  of  tame  hogs,  which 
are  the  public  scavengers,  but  all  property  in  them  is  abjured  by  the 
inhabitants.  The  Dukhun  is  celebrated  for  a  breed  of  fine  horses  with 
a  dash  of  the  Arabian  blood  in  them  :  the  pony  also  is  bred  to  a  great  ex- 
tent to  carry  baggage.  The  Ass,  Gudha,  Equus  asinus^  is  not  much 
larger  then  a  good -sized  Newfoundland  dog;  it  is  not  met  ivith  in  the 
wild  state. 

7? t/mfnan/m.— The  Dromedary,  Oont,  Camelus  dromedariusi  is  rarely 
bred  in  Dukhun,  but  is  in  general  use;  the  two-humped  camel  is  un- 
known. Of  the  other  Ruminants,  the  first  is  a  beautiful  little  creature 
called  Peesoreh,  Moschus  memitia;  the  next  is  the  Sambur,  Cenms  equi^ 
n%Uy  of  the  size  of  a  small  cow  ;  the  third  is  the  Baikur,  Cervus  munt" 
jak:  all  the  above  are  inhabitants  of  dense  woods.  Of  the  anteloj^es 
there  are  four  species  ;  Bahmunee  Hum,  Antilope  cervirapra;  Kalese- 
pee,  or  black  tail,  a  new  species.  Ant  Hope  Benn^fti ;  Antilope  quadri* 
eonm;  and  finally,  the  Rooee,  AntMope  piclat  or  Nylgau:  the  two  for- 
mer are  only  found  on  the  open  plains ;  the  two  latter  prefer  the  woodSt 
but  are  sometimes  seen  on  the  plains.  Goats,  Bukree,  Capra  hi  reus  f 
abound ;  and  sheep  are  so  extensively  bred  in  Dukhun,  that  flocks  of 
many  thousands  are  constantly  met  with  grazing  on  the  uncultivated 
lands ;  the  wool  is  coarse  and  crisp ;  the  price  of  a  sheep  is  from  two  to 
four  shillings ;  they  afford  excellent,  although  small  mutton.  The  Pohl 
is  the  Brahmany  bull,  with  its  remarkable  hump,  Bos  taurusv&r.  IndimSf 
and  is  a  noble  animal  ;  when  put  into  the  yoke,  or  when  employed  in  car- 
rying loads,  he  is  called  By  hi,  and  he  loses  his  hump  and  his  fine  appear- 
ance. The  cow  does  not  yield  much  milk.  Cattle  are  extensively  bred,  as 
it  is  chiefly  by  their  means  the  transit  of  merchandize  is  eflTected.  The 
female  buffalo,  Muhecs,  Bos  huhalus,  is  highly  valued  for  the  quantity 
of  milk  she  gives.  The  male,  called  Tondgah,  is  used  in  the  hilly  tracts 
in  ploughing  the  muddy  fields  for  rice.  The  above  is  the  catalogue  of 
the  Mammalia  of  Dukhun,  and  a  few  comments  will  8u6Sce  respecting 
it  The  musk-rat  is  a  pest,  from  its  infecting  with  its  nauseous  odour 
everything  with  which  it  comes  into  contact,  even  a  bottle  of  wine,  al- 
though corked.  The  bear  is  harmless.  The  wild-dog  hunts  in  troops 
in  the  woods,  and  runs  down  the  fleetest  of  the  ruminants.  The  wolves 
sometimes  attack  women  and  children,  but  never  men.  The  jackals  are 
in  large  troops,  and  do  much  damage  in  the  vineyards.  The  fox  is 
mostly  solitary  or  in  pairs.  The  moongus  is  useful  in  destroying  snakes. 
The  hyana  is  cowardly,  entirely  nocturnal  in  his  movements,  and  never 
atUcks  live  animals.    The  royal  tiger  and  the  leopaxd  are  fonnidable  to 


1839]  On.  the  Staiisties  tif  Dulhun.  1G9 

man  and  beast :  bat  the  people  consider  themselves  safe  against  the  at- 
tacks of  tbe  panther  and  smaller  cafs,  when  armed  with  a  good  stout 
stick.  The  Mug  giganteus  undermines  buildings.  Of  the  rest  of  the 
wild  animals  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  more,  than  that  they,  like  those 
just  enumerated,  are  most  of  them  objects  of  the  chase  with  the  Mah- 
rattas,  who  are  capital  horsemen,  and  many  of  them  keen  sportsmen. 

Birds. — The  birds  are  very  numerous :  many  of  them  not  les^  useful 
to  man,  than  agreeable  from  their  plumage.  Song-birds  are,  however, 
rare.  My  catalogue  contains  232  species  of  the  several  orders,  families* 
and  genera. 

Rapiores, — There  are  13  genera  of  the  first  order  Raptores, — Vultur 
ImdicnSf  Vuitur  Ponti^erianu$^  Vultur  Betigalensis,  Neophron  Percnop- 
lertUf  HatutetuM  Ponficerianiu,  Circaetus  brachydacty^w^  Aquila  chry* 
smeta,  ^quila  bi/aeciata,  Hmmatornus  Bacha^  Accipiier  Dukhunentig^ 
Aecipifer  Du*9umieri^  Atlur  Hyder,  Falco  TinnuncuhSf  Falco  Chic- 
quera^  Circus  pailidus,  Circus  varieyatus,  Mihus  Govindot  Otus  Ben» 
gatensis,  Sirix  Javaniea,  Sirix  Jndranee,  Ketupa  Leschenaulti,  and 
Noctua  ladica.  Of  the  above  order  there  are  two  new  Accipiters,  one 
new  species  of  Circus,  one  Miivus,  and  a  Sirix,  The  Neophron  is  the 
Ractamah  of  Bruce,  the  sacred  vulture  of  the  Egyptians,  and  it  is  a  most 
naefdl  scavenger,  removing  all  offal  matters.  The  golden  eagle  is  the 
tame  as  that  of  Europe,  and  so  is  the  Falco  Tinnunculus  ;  and  the  bar* 
riers  axe  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  European  birds.  The  falconSf 
hawks,  and  goshawks,  are  used  by  the  natives  in  hawking. 

Ingessores. — ^There  are  53  genera,  and  116  species  of  the  order  Inses* 

Mfss.     Few  or  none  of  these  can  be  said  to  be  useful  to  man,  and  only 

two  of  the  species  are  songsters  : — Merops  viridis,  Ilir undo  filif  era,  Hi» 

Twmdo  Jewan,  Hirundo  concolor,  Hirundo  erythropyyia,  Cypselus  affinis^ 

CsfprimuJlguM  wumticulus,  Caprimulyus  Asiaticut,  Caprimulyus  Mahrat- 

feam,    Halcyon    Smymensis,     Alcedo      rudis,     Alcedo    BengalensiSf 

Ceyx    tridaeiyla,    Muscipeta     Paraditi,    Muscipeta    Indica,    Musci- 

pefa    fimmmta,    Muscipeta    peregrina,    Muscicapa    melanops,    Mus* 

ticmpa     BanyamuSf     Muscicapa     Poonsnsis,     Muscicapa     cceruleo* 

cepkalOf     Muscicapa     picata,    Rhipidura     albqfrontata,     Rhipidura 

fiucmoentriSf     Dicrurus     Balicassiw,    Dicrurus     coerulesrens,    Hyp* 

sipttui  GaneesOf  Collurio  Lahtora,  CoUurio  erythronotus,  CoUurio  Hard* 

mekH,  Lmuus  Muscicapoides,  Graucafus  Papuensia,  Ceblepyris fimhrla- 

Ad,  CskUpyriM  canus,  Oriolus  galbula,   Oriolus  melanocephalvs,  Oriolui 

Xinioo,  Twrdus  maerourusi  Turdui  Saulans,    Turdus  cyanotus,  Petro* 

cmc2b  PandoOf  Petracincia  Maal,  Petrocincla  cinclorhyncha,    Timalia 

IfileolRJy  Timtdia  Somermllei,  Timalia  Chatarma,  Ixos  jocosus,  Iwos  Mu 


170  Oh  the  Statistics  qf  Dukhun.  [Jan. 

fett  Ixos  fulicattUf  Pomatorhinus  Horsfieldii,  lora  Tiphia,  Sylvia  moti' 
tana,  Sylvia  sylviella,  Sylvia  Rama,  Prinia  socialis,  Prinia  inomala,  Or^ 
ihotomvs  Bennettii^  Ortkotomus  Lingoo,  Budytes  citreola,  Budytet  mela^ 
nocephalaj  Budytes  Beema,  Molacitta  rariegata,  MotaciUa  DukhunensiM^ 
Megalurus  rvficeps,  Anthiu  agiliit,  Saxicola  rubicola,  Saxicoia  bicolor, 
Saxicola  rubecuioideSt  Saaicola  eryihropt/gia,  Phoenicura  atrata,  Phmnu 
cura  Sueciea,  Parus  atficeps,  Parus  xanthogenys,  Alauda  Gulgulaf 
Alavda  Deva,  Alauda  Dukhunensis,  Mirafra  phwnicura,  Emberiza  me- 
lanocephala,  Emberiza  hortulana,  Emberiza  criMtala,  Emberiza  tubcrU' 
iata,  Linaria  Amandava^  Ploceus  Philippensii,  Ploceus  flavicoUU,  Fritt^ 
gilla  cruciyera,  Lonchurm  nisoria,  Lonchura  cheet,  Lonchura  leuamotay 
Passer  domes ticus.  Pastor  tristis,  Pastor  Mahrattensis,  Pastor  rossuSf 
Pastor  Pagodarum,  Corvus  culminatus,  Corvus  splendens,  Coraeias 
Indicaf  Buccros,  several  species,  Palcsornis  torquatus,  PatiBomis 
melanorhynchus,  Bucco  Philippensis,  Bucco  caniceps,  Picus  Mah" 
rattensisj  Upupa  minora  Leptosomits  Afer,  Eudynamys  orientalist  Cucit^ 
lus  canoruSf  Cuculus  fvgax,  Ceniropus  Philippensis,  Chloropsis  auri» 
frons,  Cinnyris  lepida,  Cintiyris  currvcariOf  Cinnyris  Vigorsiif  Cinnyris 
minima^  Cinnyris  Mahrattensis,  and  finally,  Cinnyris  concolor.  The 
above  catalogue  requires  very  few  observations.  The  weayer-birdt 
Ploceus  Philippensis,  is  remarkable  for  its  pendent  nest,  woven  in  the 
most  curious  and  ingenious  manner  from  fibres  of  grass.  Not  less  curi- 
ous are  the  nests  produced  by  the  tailor-birds,  the  Prinia  sociaUs  and 
the  Orfhotomvs  Bennettii,  which  sew  leaves  together  to  inclose  their 
nests,  with  the  skill  of  a  vcritaUe  knight  of  the  thimble.  The  lark, 
Alauda  Gulgula,  has  the  habits  and  delightful  song  of  the  skylark  of 
Europe  ;  and  two  or  three  species  of  the  genera  Budytes  and  MotaciUa 
have  sweet  notes  :  the  Collurio  Lahtora  has  also  a  sweet  note.  The 
Muscipeta  Paradita  and  Indica  are  distinguished  for  their  beautifully 
elongated  tail-feathers.  The  Coraeias  Indica  is  characterized  by  its 
splendid  colouring ;  and  not  less  so  is  the  Cinnyris  Figorsii,  The  cuo- 
koo  is  the  identical  bird  of  Europe,  and  so  is  the  sparrow.  In  the  above 
list  I  have  named  many  new  species  of  Insessores,  and  have  introduced 
one  new  genus. 

^cuore^.^That  order  so  highly  useful  to  man,  the  Rasorss,  does  not 
contain  one  single  species  in  Dukhun  that  is  not  valuable  as  an  article  of 
food.  There  are  12  genera  and  40  species.  Ptilinopus  ElphinstonHf 
Columba  moena,  Columba  tigrina,  Columba  humitis,  Columba  rasori&f  Cih 
lumba  CambayentiSf  Columba  jEnaSi  Meleagris  GaUopavo^  Pavo  erisisf 
iust  GcUlus  giyanteus,  Gallus  Sonneratii,  GaUus  domesticus^  Oallus  «M> 
rtO|  GaUus  crispus,  N%unitla  ASsleagris,  Columix  daclyliwnaiUt  Coim* 


1839]  On  the  Siatisiics  of  Dukhun.  171 

war  texiiiis,  Coturntx  Argwindah,  Cofumiw  Pentaht  Colurnix  eiylhro" 
rkyncha,  Perdix  picttij  FrancoitHus  Pondicerianus,  Francolinus  spadice* 
us,  PleroeltM  exustus,  Pteroeies  quadricinctus,  Hem'podius  pugnaxt  He' 
mipodhiu  Targoor,  Hemipodiu»  Dussumier,  Otis  nigriceps,  and  Otis  ful' 
ra.    Of  the  above,  torkeys  and  guinea  fowls  are  not  indigenousf,  and  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  gigantic  cock  be  a  native.     The  original  of 
the  domestic  fowl  is  most  abundant  in  the  woods  of  the  Gh&ts.     The 
real  partridge,  Perdue  picta^  is  found  in  the  valleys  of  the  Gh^ts.     What 
is  Qsually  denominated  a  partridge  in  Dukhun,  is  the  Francolinus  Pon- 
dieerianus  ;  it  is  numerous,  and  affects   cultivated  lands  and  garden 
groonda.    The  common  quail  of  Europe  is  a  native  of  Dnkhun  ;   and 
three  new  species,  which  I  have  described,  as  well  as  the  Coturnix  tex^ 
tiUs,  literally  swarm.    That  noble  bird  the  Olis  nigriceps  is  met  with 
in  large  flocks,  and  the  floriken  is  by  no  means  scarce. 

Groihttores. — Of  the  fourth  order,  Orallatores  or  Waders,   there  are 

25  genera  and  46  species,  and  very  many  of  the  species  are  common  to 

Europe.     Otus  Antigone^  Ardea  Egretta,  Ardea  Garzetta,    Ardea  Asha^ 

Ardea  cinereaf  Ardea  nigrirostrist   Ardea  Malaccenals,    Ardea  Caboga, 

Ardea  Oragii,  Ardea  Javaniea^  Ardea  clnnamomea^   Botaurus  stellarigf 

Ngctlenrax  Europotui^  Phmnicopterm  ruber,  Platalea  leucorodia,  PlaiO" 

Ita  junior,  Ciconia    leucocephalaj  Cicon'a   Argala,   Anastomus    TypuSf 

Tantaius  leucocephalus,  Ibis  rehgiosa,  Ibis  ignea,  Ibis  papillosa,  Ibis 

faieiH^ay  Totanus   ochropus,     Totanus   Glareola,  Totanus  hgpoleucos, 

Limosa  Gloiloldes,  Limosa  Horsfieldiij  Gallinago  media,  Gallinago  mini" 

ma,  Rhynchea  picta,  Pelidna  Temminckii,  Parra  Sinensis,    CaUinula 

Jacaniea,  Rallus  Akool,  Porphyria  Smaragnotus,  Fulica  atra,  CursO' 

rius  Asiaiicus,  Vanelhts  Goensisi  Vanellus  bilobus,  Charadrius  pluvialiSf 

Choradrius   Philippensis,   Himantopu^  mehtnopterus,   and    (EtHcnemus 

crepitans.    Of  the  above,  the  Ibis  religiosa  is  undoubtedly  tlie  sacred  or 

mammy  Ibis  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  according  to  Cuvier*s  description. 

The  species  of  the  family  of  the  Ardeido  are  varied  and  beautiful.  The 

snipes  are  those  of  Europe,  as  well  as  most  of  the  species  of  the  Scolo- 

foeidm,  and  some  of  the  Rallid<B, 

Nataiores, — ^The  last  order,  Natatores^  or  swimmers,  contains  13  ge- 
nera and  20  species,  and,  as  in  the  preceding  order,  several  of  the  species 
arc  common  to  Europe.  Plectropterus  melanotus,  Anser  Giria,  Tadorna 
ntiU,  Anas  strepera,  Rhynchaspis  virescens,  Mareca  paecilorhyncha^ 
Mwreea  fisiularis,    Mareca  Awsuree,    Querquedula  Circia,    Querquedula 

Crteca,  Fuligula  rufina,  Fuligula ,  Fuligula  cristata,  Podiceps  Phi" 

'•PP*iim,  Phalacrocorax  Javanicus,  Plotus  melanogaster.  Sterna  acuti' 
^"''^  Sterna  stmiliSf  Sterna  Seena,  and  Firalva  AngUca,    The  geese. 


172  On  the  Stathllcs  of  Dukhun,  [Jav. 

ducks,  and  teals  abound  most  in  the  cold  season,  and  are  at  that  period 
excellent  eating.  The  domestic  goose  and  du^ k  of  Europe  is  not  in» 
eluded  in  the  above  list,  but  both  are  extensively  bred  in  Dukhun. 
That  rare  English  bird  the  Viralva  Anglica  is  very  common  in  Dukhun. 
I  did  not  meet  with  the  Pelican,  although  it  is  a  native  of  India. 

Ichthi/ology,— The  rivers  of  Dukhun  abound  with  fish,  and  some  of 
them  are  not  only  palatable,  but  very  fine  flavoured,  particularly  the 
Tambra,  a  hew  species  of  Cyprinus,  and  the  Waam,  MacrogncUhus  ar» 
malus;  the  Singhala  or  Pimelodus  is  also  in  very  general  use  by  the 
people,  but  is  not  esteemed  by  Europeans.  The  fish  observed  by  me 
consisted  of  forty-six  species ;  two  belonged  to  the  sub-order  Apodet^ 
three  to  Thoracic^  and  forty-one  to  AbdominaUs,  The  whole  were 
comprised  in  twelve  genera.  There  was  one  Murena^  one  Macrogna' 
thuSf  one  Chanda,  one  Ophiocephalus^  one  GobiuSf  two  species  of  ^t7«- 
fuSi  nine  of  Pimelodus  and  sub-genera,  one  Ageneiosus,  one  Mystu9, 
twenty -four  of  Cyprinus  and  sub-genera,  one  EssoXj  and  three  species  of 
Cobittts.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  fresh  water  Essox  of  Dukhim  so 
closely  resembles  ihe  salt  water  species  of  England,  as  to  be  scarcely 
distinguished  from  it,  not  only  in  external  characters,  but  in  the  colour 
of  its  bones. 

Jieptilia. — Reptiles  are  numerous  in  Dukhun.  The  Trionyx  Indica 
abounds  in  the  rivers,  and  there  are  two  smaller  species.  Many  genera 
of  the  Saurian  family  are  met  with  from  the  four  to  five  feet  Monitor 
to  the  minutest  Lacfr/a.  Serpents  of  all  kinds,  from  the  gigantic  Boa 
Constiictor  to  the  small  and  beautiful  carpet  snake.  The  first,  how- 
ever, I  have  only  seen  carried  about  the  country  by  people  who  exhibit 
the  feats  of  the  reptile  in  swallowing  small  animals.  Independently  of 
the  deadly  Cobra  da  CapeUo,  (Caluber  Naag)  there  are  some  other 
poisonous  species,  but  in  general  the  snakes  are  harmless. 

Crustacea, — Of  the  Crustacea^  I  shall  have  only  to  notice  the  Ken- 
kra,  Thelphusa  cunicularis,  a  new  species  which  pervades  the  valleys 
and  table-lands  of  the  Gh4ts,  and  whose  numbers  are  so  great  that  their 
burrows  riddle  the  earth  ;  they  remain  quiet  in  their  holes  during  the 
cold  and  dry  seasons,  but,  in  the  monsoon,  they  are  abroad  in  such  num- 
bers, that  travellers  drive  over  them,  ride  over  them,  and  trample  upon 
them  in  the  high  roads  :  they  are  not  an  article  of  food  with  the  natives, 
but  are,  I  believe,  wholesome. 

Testacea. — There  are  some  few  genera  and  species  of  land  and  fluvia- 
tile  shells,  the  largest  of  which  is  a  Unto ;  but  they  do  not  call  for 
notice. 


1839]  On  the  Statist ics  of  Dukhun.  173 

Entomology. — Like  all  tropical  climates,  the  Dukhun  teems  with  in- 
sects. The  domestic  fly  is  a  pest  at  certain  seasons  ;  the  most  rigid  pre- 
cautioDs  and  the  greatest  cleanliuess  cannot  secure  the  most  fastidious 
person  from  the  inroads  of  the  bed-bug  ;  and  there  is  no  getting  beyond 
the  '*  maatimum  leap  of  a  flea'* ;  the  fact  is,  these  plagues  are  not  only 
the  constant  companions  of  the  people,  but  the  flea  inflicts  serious  in- 
jury on  poultry,  dogs,  and  cattle.  Domestic,  and  indeed  wild  animals 
are  subject  also  to  the  attacks  of  a  small  blue  tick,  (Acarut^)  which 
multiplies  upon  them  in  such  an  incredible  manner  as  to  affect  the  vital 
functions  and  produce  paralysis  and  death.  Tliere  are  three  species  of 
honey-bee  in  Dukhun,  the  honey  from  the  whole  of  which  is  remarkably 
fine.  It  boasts  also  its  lac  insect.  Coccus  laccus  ;  and  several  silk-pro- 
ducing moths,  particularly  the  Kolesurra,  Bombyx  Paphia. 

The  most  destructive  of  the  insect  tribe  is  the  white  ant,  Termes^ 
tvhjch,  working  under  cover  with  the  most  indefatigable  perseverance 
finds  its  way  everywhere,  and  everywhere  occasions  loss  and  injury ; 
books,  papers,  clothes,  leather,  wood,  &c.,  are  indiscriminately  devour- 
ed. Several  species  of  genu  me  ants  are  also  a  great  nuisance.  A  spe- 
cies of  sphex  makes  its  earthen  nest  within  the  locks  of  the  doors,  and 
blocks  np  the  key-holes.  The  musquito,  Culex^  is  not  quite  so  trouble- 
some in  Dukhun  as  on  the  coast.  The  scorpion,  of  which  there  are  two 
or  three  species,  so  abounds  in  the  stony  lands  of  Dukhun,  that  on  en- 
camping my  regiment,  on  the  march  from  Punderpoor  to  Ahmednug- 
gur  in  18l8f  I  had  from  two  to  three  hundred  brought  to  me  in  the 
course  of  a  day  by  my  men:  their  sting  produces  intolerable  pain  for 
a  few  hours,  but  is  not  dnngerons  unless  to  the  diseased  and  weakly. 
The  centipede  does  not  attain  the  growth  of  its  type  in  South  America, 
nor  is  it  very  numerous. 

As  in  other  countries,  the   Cofeopferous  order  is  the  most  numerous. 

Some  of  the  genera  are  remarkable  for  their  habi ts,  f'Co/jrirfd?,^  and  some 

are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  (Buprestidtp),     Amonp;st  the  Leptdop* 

tera  many  are  very  handsome,  both  in  the  diurnal  and  nocturnal  families 

(PapHio  Hector  and  Bomhyx  AVan),    In  the  Hemipterous  order,  the 

Cnmcidig  abound,  and  are  cursed  with  all  imaginable  abominable  smells. 

In  the  order  Orthopfera,  the  GryUid<p  are  numerous  ;  but  the  locust  is 

Qnknown  as  a  scourge.     In  this  order  also,  the  multiplied  and  strange 

fbnns  of  the  Mant's  and  Phasma  are  very  striking.    The  Blntta  is  trou- 

Wcsome  and  injurious.    The  Hymenoptera  includes  some  valuable  and 

interwting  genera.    Of  the  Apterous  insects  I  have  already  spoken. 

'^  N^uroptera  are  both  numerous  and  beautiful,  some  of  the  Libellula 

^  Myrmefeons  particularly  so.    Of  the  D'lplertif  the  genera  Afusca, 


174  On  the  Statistics  qf  Dukhun,  [JaK. 

Culex,  Bombilius,  HippoboscOf  and  TipuJa^  exhibit  the  greatest  number 
of  species  and  individuals.  In  Ararhnida  ihe  genera  are  endless.  The 
prevalence  of  scorpions  I  have  spoken  of. 

Civil  Divisions. 

The  British  territories  in  Dukhun  are  divided  into  four  collectorates^ 
Poona,  Ahmednuggiir,  Dharwar,  and  Khandesh  or  Candeish.  Over  each 
of  these  there  is  a  European  civil  servant  of  the  Company,  with  several 
European  assistants,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  revenue.  These 
gentlemen  are  armed  with  magisterial  powers,  and  can  call  upon  the  mi- 
litary authorities  for  assistance.  These  collectorates  are  divided  into 
Talooks  (great  divisions),  provinces,  Pergunnalis  (counties),  and  Turrufs 
(hundreds)  j*  and  native  officers  called  Mamlutdars,  aided  by  inspectors 
of  cultivation,  accountants,  treasurers,  and  a  police  force,  are  placed  over 
one  or  more  Pergunnahs.  All  these  terms  are  of  Moosulman  introducti- 
on ;  the  ancient  Hindoo  civil  officers  being  diiferencly  named,  and  their 
territorial  divisions  were  Pr6nt,  Deshmookee,  and  Naikwaree.  The  ag- 
gregations of  habitations  are  called  Sher  (city),  Kusbeh  (market-town), 
Mouzeh  or  Ga6n  (village),  and  Waree  (hamlet).  The  cities  and  towns 
may  comprise  several  villages,  and  they  have  their  suburbs  called  Peit, 
The  village  constitution  is  noticed  under  land  tenures. 

Poona  CoUectorate, — The  Poona  Collectorate  is  the  nearest  of  the 
four  collectorates  of  Dukhun  to  fiombav  :  its  boundaries  towards  the 
coast  approach  within  about  fifty  miles  of  tliat  presidency,  but  they  do 
not  descend  the  Gh^ts  into  the  strip  of  land  at  the  foot  of  the  GhAts, 
called  the  Konkun  (Concan).  This  collectorate  lijfe  an  area  of  82S1 
square  miles,  including  the  lands  held  in  military  tenure  (Jagheer). 
It  contains  550,313  inhabitants,  1897  townsf  and  villages,  and  114,887 
bouses  ;  averaging  66*45  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile,  4*79  to  a  house, 
247-36  to  a  village,  exclusive  of  the  population  of  Poona.  The  chief 
town  is  Poona,  recently  the  capital  of  the  Mahratta  empire,  containing 
a  population  of  81, 3 15  souls.  The  other  principal  towns  are  Tullegaon 
(2050  males,  2007  females),  Joonur  (4218  males,  3759  females),  Kheir 
(1999  males,  1794  females),  Goreh  (1154  males,  1145  females),  Ootoor 
(2521  males,  1928  females),  Narraingaon   (1286  males,  llSO  females), 

•  Provinces,  counties,  and  hundreds  are  not  the  exact  equivalents  of  the  native  terri- 
torial divisions,  but  they  afford  sufficiently  approximate  types. 

+  Trifling  tiansfers  have  Uken  place  between  the  different  collectorates,  so  that  this 
may  not  be  the  exact  amount  at  th«  present  moment, 


1839]  On  the  SlatUiics  of  Dukhun.  175 

Alley  (1396  males,  1064  females),  Sassor  (1880  males,  1696  females), 
Jeejooree  (885  males,  860  females),  Tullegaon,  Turruf  Paubul  {\7 10 
males,  1427  females),  and  some  others;  but  the  most  populous  of  the 
number,  as  is  seen  above,  contains  only  7977  souls.  There  are,  exclud- 
ing Sholapoor,  8  pergunnahs  and  32  turruffs  in  the  Poona  collectorate. 
In  Sholapoor  sub-coll ectorate  there  are  4  talooks,  19  pergimnahs,  and  12 
turruffs:  but  as  divisions  vihich  in  the  other  collectorates  are  called  tur- 
ruffs, are  here  called  pergu  nnahs,  there  are  few  turruffs.  My  limits  will 
not  permit  of  detailed  descriptions  of  these  pergunnahs,  although  there 
are  many  physical  fi»cts  of  interest  connected   with  some  of  them. 

The  following  number  of  towns  and  villages  constitute  the  different 
pergunnahs  and  talooks  :  Sewncre  190,  Indapoor  86,  Kheir  236,  Pabul 
65,  Poorandhur  130,  Beemthuree  92,  Hawailee  165,  the  Mawuls  233, 
Sholapoor  122,  Mohol  145,  Indee  236,  and  Moodebehal  226.  This 
nakes  a  total  of  1926,  which  is  29  villages  more  than  was  previously 
stated,  but  this  is  owing  to  depopulated  villages  being  included  ;  of  this 
1926,  47  towns  and  1429^  villages  belong  to  the  British  ;  4  towns  and 
2641  villages  are  held  in  free  gilt  (Eenam),  and  3  towns  and  178  villages 
are  held  on  tenure  of  military  service  (Surinjam). 

HUlforts.^ln  the  Poona  Collectorate   are  situated  many  remarkable 
hill  forts,  impregnable  in  feet  if  properly    defended,  from  their  geo- 
logical structure,    which  consists   of   beds  of  basalt,    with  vertical 
edges,  alternating  with  beds  of  amygdaloids,  whose  edges  form  a  talus. 
Many  of  these  in  their  superficial  plane  manifest  a  strong  disposition  to 
a  trigonal  character.    Such  is  the  case  with  Teekonee  (the  word  being 
almost  Greek,)  or  three-angled,  Koaree,  and  some  others.    Koaree  is  si- 
tuated at  the  edge  of  the  Gh^ts  in  the  civil  division  called  the  Powar 
Khorefa ;  its  summit  is  2910  feet  above  the  sea  ;  and  some  parts  of  the 
rock  within  its  area  are  so  powerfully  magnetic,  as  to  draw  the  needle 
quite  round  the  compass.    The  hill  forts  of  Singh ur,  Poorundhur,  and 
Wnxeerghur  are  seen  from  Poona :   the  summit  of  the  first  is  elevated 
4192  feet  ahove  the  sea,  and  the  second  4471  feet.    The  hill -fort  of  Sew- 
nair,  in  which  the  celebrated  Sewajee  was  bom,  is  situated  close  to  the 
city  of  Joonnr  (Jooneer).    Jewdun,  is  on  the  edge  of  the  GhAts,  a  few 
miles  westward  of  Joonur,  and  Hurreechundurghiir,  which  is  said  to  be 
eifi^teen  miles  in  circumference  at  its  base,  is  situated  a  few  miles  N, 
^*  of  Joonur.     But  I  have  not  space  to  enumerate  all  these  points  of  de- 
fence provided  by  nature, — Loghur,  Eesapoor,  &c.  &'c. 

BoM  eave-tempies, — Some  works  of  art  must  not  be  overlooked.  The 
€nt  is  that  magnificent  cave-temple  situated  in  the  civil  division  called 
^aneh  Mawul ;  it  in  usually  denominated  the  cave  of  Karleh  (Carlce), 


1/6  On  the  Siatntics  of  Dukhun.  [Jast. 

from  being  within  two  miles  of  a  villjige  of  that  name  ;  the  temple  is  as- 
sociated wiili  many  cave-chambers.  The  other  Boodh  excavations  are 
pierced  in  the  hills  around  ihe  ciiy  of  Joonur,  under  the  hill-fort  of 
Joonur,  and  at  Ihe  crest  of  the  pass  into  ih^  Konkun  from  Joonur,  called 
the  Naneh  Gh^t.  Numerous  insciiptions,  in  so  antique  a  form  of  the 
Sanscrit  alphabet  as  not  to  be  readable  by  raodom  Sanscrit  8?:hoUrf» 
abound  in  these  caves.*  These  astonishing  works  of  art,  resulting  from 
the  labour  of  ages,  and  which  are  met  with,  not  only  in  the  Poona  CoU 
lectorate,  but  in  many  other  parts  of  India,  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  country  was  once  inhabited  by  a  Boodhist  population,  although  it 
has  so  entirely  disappeared,  that  not  a  solitary  worshipper  of  Boodh  re- 
mains in  the  peninsula  of  India. 

In  the  Under  Mawul,  at  the  village  of  Mhow,  there  is  an  extraurdiaa- 
ry  large  Wuhr-tree  (Ficus  Indlca) ;  it  has  sixty-eight  stems,  most  of 
them  thicker  than  a  man's  body,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  original 
stem,  the  whole  of  them  orig^inate  in  roots  let  down  from  the  branches; 
it  was  capable  of  affording  shade,  with  a  vertical  sun,  to  20,000  men, 
being  201  feet  long  by  150  feet  broad.  At  the  town  of  Munchur,  in 
the  pergunnah  of  Pabool  and  Turruf  Wurgaon,  there  is  a  Baubel-tree 
(Mimosa  Arabica J,  of  surprising  magnitude  ;  at  eighteen  inches  from 
the  ground  the  trunk  measures  nine  feet  and  half  an  imh  in  circumfer- 
ence ;  its  head  is  ramous  and  dense,  and  it  gives  a  vertical  shade  cover- 
ing 5964  square  feet :  this  species  produces  gum  arabic.  In  the  turruf 
of  Chakun,  pergunnah  Rheir,  near  to  Mahloongah,  on  the  slopes  of  some 
hills,  the  shrub  or  small  tree,  producing  the  gum  olibanum,  (Bosw^ia 
ihurifera),  is  met  with  ;  and  it  is  seen  also  in  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. At  Mahloongah  there  is  a  garden  of  flourishing  cocoa-nut  trees  : 
and  considering  that  they  are  at  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  100  miles 
inland,  the  fact  is  sufficiently  remarkable  :  clumps  of  them  are  also  met 
with  at  Pabool  and  other  places. 

2iivers, — The  rivers  flowing  through  the  Poona  Collectorate  are  the 
Mota,  the  Mola,  the  Indemnee,  Under,  Beema,  Goreh,  and  Kokree,  and 
tome  smaller  streams.  All  these  have  their  sources  in  the  Gh&ts,  with- 
in  the  limits  of  the  collectorate  ;  they  converge  to  the  Beema,  which  fidls 
into  the  Kistnah,  and  thus  finally  reach  the  Biy  of  Bengal.  The  rivers 
are  only  navigable  during  the  monsoon,  and  then  only  partially.  Boats 
with  sails  are  not  seen  upon  them. 


*  Within  the  last  year,  those  indefatigable  and  learned  orientalists,  Principal  Mill, 
Mr.  lames  Prinsep.  and  Mr.  Stevenson  hare  succeeded  in  reading  most  of  the  ioseriptU 
•ns  which  are  found  to  relate  exclusively  to  BooUhism  and  Boodhists. 


I'^l  On  th4  Staf'iUlc9  of  Dukhun.  \JJ 

Akm^nuggur  Colfecioraie, — The  Abmednuggiir  Collectorate  adjoins 
the  Poona  Collectorate  on  the  east  and  north.  Part  uf  its  frontier  is 
along  theGhatt ;  the  re^t  is  bounded  by  the  Chandore  range  uf  hills  on 
the  north,  and  bj  the  Nizam's  territories  on  the  east  and  S.  E. 

Ahmednuggur  faasan  areaof  if9l0  square  milos ;  it  contains  GG6,37G 
inhabitants,  dispersed  in  2465  tov^-ns anil  rillngcf:,  averaging  20347  in* 
habitants  to  a  village,  (exclusively  of  the  population  uf  Ahniednuggur); 
67*24  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile  ;  136,273  houses  and  4*89  inliabilants 
to  a  house*. 

Abmedcugguris  divided  into  14  talooks,  36  pcrgunnahs,  and  51  lur* 
niff*.  Talook  Ahmrdnuggnr  contains  157  towns  and  villages,  Kurdeh 
172,Sunguronair226,  Akoleh  194,  Newassa  359,  Nasseek  280,  Sinnur 
l07,Chandwur  153,  Patodeh255,  Wun  Dindoorec  1/5,  Barsce  124,  Kur- 
mulleh  82,  Jamkheir  90,  and  Kortee  115.  The  total  of  these  is  21-^8, 
instead  of  2465  ;  the  difference  originates  in  23  depopulated  vilhigcs 
being  included.  Of  the  above,  43  towns  and  1858^  villages  belong  tj 
the  British  ;  in  27  towns  and  55  U  vill:iges  the  British  governmwMit  has  a 
qnit  rent,  these  villages  being  cilled  Doomaleh,'**  alienated.  Only  one 
village  in  free  gift  was  returned  tome,  and  one  to^n  and  three  villages 
in  military  or  feudal  tenure;  but  the  villages  in  free  gift  (Eenani)  are 
included  In  the   Doomaleh  villages. 

The  chief  town  is  Ahmcdnuggur,  with  a  population  of  17,83S  souls  in 
1832:  men  5953,  boys  3350,  total  males  9303;  women  5976,  girls  2559, 
totil8535.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Kurdeh,  Nasscek,  Cliandorc, 
Snogumnair,  Pamair,  &c. ;  but  their  population  I  cannot  stite,  as  the 
total  amount  of  the  population  of  pergunnahs  only  was  sent  to  me  by 
the  collector ^.  The  most  populous  pergnnnah  would  appear  to  be  Nas- 
K(k,  contiining  71,581  inhabitants.  The  least  populous  pergunnah  was 
Soa^aon,  containing  only  9400  inhabitants. 

Hhen. — ^Thc  rivers  running  through  the  colic  'torato  are  formed  by 
OQmerons  streams  originating  in  the  Ghats  and  Chandore  rang*?, — such 
Mtbe  Peera,  tJie  Mool,  the  Doomah,  and  the  Oooee,  which  converge  to 
tlttt  Doble  stream  the  Godavery,  which  also  has  its  rise  in  this  collectc- 
fatfinnr  Trimbuck,  and  flows  to  the   eastward  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

*  Tnii  fetam  is  for  IS  pergiinnah«  only. 

*  The  piopfr  meaning  of  Doomaleh  is  "  two  properlies,"  the  chief  part  of  the  re- 
Tfoof  being ilienated.  hut  the  government  having  a  quit  rent 

t  Tlie popolatlon  rctomt  forwarde<t  hy  me  not  having  l>cen  lillcd  up,  in  «?on4iiHiuence 
•faeenmtofthe  population  having  been  made  by  tho  oollector  himielf  within  three 
y«n  pncedinf . 


179  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [Jah. 

The  Seenais  the  only  river  of  consequence  which  does  not  originate  in 
the  Ghits.  It  has  its  course  at  the  edge  of  the  plateau  on  which  the  eitf 
of  Ahmednuggur  stands,  about  ten  miles  north  of  the  city»  and  flows  ill 
a  S.  S.  £.  direction  into  the  Beema. 

There  are  sereral  remarkable  hill  forts  in  the  western  part  of  the  col- 
lectorate,  such  as  Trimbuck,  &c.  Ahmednuggur  was  once  the  ci^tal 
of  the  Ahmed  Shahee  dynasty  of  kings. 

Khandesh  or  Candeiih  Colleciorate, — The  area  of  the  prorinee  or  cd- 
lectorate  of  Candeish,  deduced  from  a  map  in  the  Deputy  Sarveyor  Ge- 
neral's  Office,  including  tracts  belonging  to  foreign  states  and  to  Jag- 
heerdars,  is  12,527  square  miles.    It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Sautpoora  mountains ;  on  the  east  by  the  province  of  Berar,  belonging 
to  the  Nizam ;  on  the  south  by  the  Indyadree  range  of  mountains,  which 
separate  it  from  Ahmednuggur ;  and,  on  the  west,  by  Dang  and  Raj 
Peeplee,  which  bring  it  into  contact  with  Goojrat.    It  is  literally  a 
Khind  or  Khuud,  a  great  gap  between  ranges  of  mountains,  whence  its 
name  of  Khandesh  or  Candeish.    Some  of  the  northern  and  western 
parts  are  little  better  than  a  jungle,  and  the  whole  province  is  miserably 
depopulated.    The  populated  part  of  the  collectorate  belonging  to  the 
British,  derived  from  the  returns  of  the  lands  of  1982  populated  villageSt 
give  an  area  of  6760  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  neariy  56   inha- 
bitants to  the  square  mile  ;  but  supposing  1684  alienated  and  deserted 
villages  to  have  a  proportionate  quantity  of  lands,  the  area  will  be  12,504 
square  miles,  with  38-^  inhabitants  only  to  the  square  mile,  and  this  I 
believe  to  be  very  near  to  the  truth.     It  is  curious  that  the  area  deriyed 
from  the  village  lands  should  approximate  so  closely  to  the  area  deter* 
mined  trigonometrically. 

The  collectorate  is  divided  into  sixty-six  pergunnahs,  some  of  which 
do  not  contain  more  than  one  village  each,  whilst  the  largest,  Kandoor- 
bar,  has  25U  towns  and  villages,  Nowapoor  236,  Sooltanpoor  23SI|  Ra- 
were  160,  Jamnair  144,  Aroulnair  140,  and  Bhamere  150,  including  de* 
serted  villages.  The  total  number  of  towns  and  villages  is  3666  ;  bat  of 
this  number  .^0  are  pyegusta,  which  means  that  the  villages  are  deaert* 
ed,  but  that  part  of  the  lands  are  cultivated  ;  999  are  entirely  deserted  | 
but  great  confusion  and  uncertainty  prevails  in  the  details,  for  of  this 
number  there  are  51  whose  limits  are  unknown,  12  whose  sites  are  ini- 
known  but  names  known,  and  135  whose  namet  and  sites  are  unknown 
but  a  record  remains  of  their  number.  There  are  227  populated  Ja^ 
heer,  or  alienated  villages  ;  and  many  amongst  the  Pyegusta,  and  de- 
serted also,  belong  to  Jagheerdars,  so  that  it  does  not  appear  that  more 


1839]  On  the  StaiMa  of  Dakhun.  170 

than  2032  pepalated  villages  belong  to  the  British  *;  of  this  number  1968 
sent  in  population  returns.  The  most  populous  town  in  Khandesh 
was  Nandoorbar,  and  it  had  only  6429  inhabitants;  and  only  one  other 
town  (Chopra)  bod  a  population  of  6000.  The  towns  and  villages  aver- 
age only  178  inhabitants,  and  each  house  averages  3*96  inmates.  The 
total  of  the  inhabitants  is  478,457. 

From  the  village  lands  in  Khandesh  being  kept  universally  in  Bee- 
gahs,  the  amount  of  land  under  cultivation  is  readily  determined.  It 
would  appear  tliat  15,958  acres  were  w.aered  by  perennial  streamlets. 
Lands  so  watered  are  called  pa///«/u/,  and  are  the  most  valuable  of  all, 
as  the  supply  of  water  is  mostly  permanent,  and  tiie  chief  labour  re- 
quired is  to  open  the  channels  and  let  it  flow  over  the  lands ;  46,064 
acres  were  watered  from  wells,  and  lands  so  watered  are  called 
Mohiitul  :t  600,556  acres  were  undor  field  cultivation,  and  are  not 
watered, — these  lands  are  called  Zerhaeet,  The  per  centage  of  cultivate 
ed  and  waste  lands  in  this  collectorate  is  as  follows  :— 

Watered  by  perennial  streams^ 

Watered  from  wells >•     15'32  per  cent. 

Field  cultivation } 

Waste  land 81*68  do. 


100... 


AfVfrr^The  River  Tapty  runs  through  the  whole  length  of  the  col - 
leitoratc,  and,  unlike  the  rivers  of  the  other  collectorates,  disembogues 
into  the  Gulf  of  Caniliay,  below  Surat;  the  water-shed  of  the  country 
being  in  fact  from  the  east  to  the  west,  instead  of  from  the  west  to  the 
esit :  there  are  some  exceptions  in  rivers  which  rise  in  the  Western 
Ghit%  or  the  Cbandore  range,  and  run  to  the  east  for  some  distance,  then 
sweep  round  in  a  segment  of  a  circle  imd  join  the  Tapty  ;  such  are  the 
Guirod,  Roharep,  the  Moosum,  &c.  Timber  is  floated  duwn  the  Tapty 
in  the  monsoon. 

Bwdk  Caoe  Temples. — ^Near  to  the  Adjunta  Pass,  through  the  Clian- 
dore  mage,  from  Alimednuggiir  into  Khandesh,  or  a  multitude  of  those 
astonishing  remains  of  Boodhist  art,  consisting  of  excavations  in  the  mn- 
nd  fiftcci  of  the  trap  rocks,  the  interior  walls  of  which  excavations  are 

'  In  the  (TolIeetOT's  revenue  retam  for  18^-8  the  numlier  of  villages  is  stated  to  be 
KV!(.  10  that  33a.l  of  the  deserted  villages  had  become  inhabited,  independent  I5 
of  IWimiobabited  Tillages  whose  lands  were  included  in  the  return. 

^  Pftht  means  a  water-rhannel,  and  Moht  means  a  well-bucket ;  implying  in  the  fiftt 
ta^ttnec  Uitt  lands  are  watered  from  »treauilct«.  and  in  the  second  in<itanco  from  well*. 


180  On  (he  SiatUfics  of  Dukhwr.  (Jaw- 

covered  with  bas-reliefs ;  indeed,  with  fresco  paiutings  also,  illastrative 
of  tbe  arts  and  social   relations  of  life,  like  the  paintings  on  the  tombs  of 
the  Egyptian  kin 5s. 

Dharwar  CoHetorate, — Agreeably  to  information  obtained  from  the 
Revenue  Survey  Department,  that  part  of  tbe  southern  Mahratta  coun- 
try, bounded  on  the  north  by  tbe  Kolapoor  territory  and  the  Kristna 
river,  on  the  east  by  the  Nizam*s  dominion<i,  on  the  south  by  Mysore 
and  the  Toomboodra  river,  and  on  the  west  by  Soonda  and  the  Sybadrce 
Gb€\ts,  comprises  an  area  of  11,/^/  square  miles,  namely. 

Square  Miles. 

British  possessions SSZ^'^S? 

Po.  Manowlee  Talook,  from  the  Kolapoor  territory 31K)'474 

Sawanoor  Jagheer 74*750 

Sawunt waree  territory , 188*934 

Nizam's  territory 47*930 

Gudjimdiirghur  j;igbeer 69*344 

rut\vurJ«..u  and  other  jagheors 2597-167 


Total 11747-03^ 

The  Talooks  of  Cheekoortc^  354  square  miles,  and  Mimowlee,  390 
square  miles,  hive  been  added  to  Dharwar,  so  that  the  area  of  the  col- 
lectorate  now  amounts  to  9122*913  square  miles;  but  39  per  cent,  of  this 
consists  of  wood  and  jungle,  and  uncultivated  lands,  and  Gl  per  cent, 
appears  upon  the  returns  as  cultivated. 

IJharwar  is  divided  into  22  Talooks  and  137  Turriiffs^  Mahh,  SummufSf 
or  A'AiVya/^,  independently  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  Talooks  of  Chee- 
koorce  and  Munowlec.    TheTalook  of  Dharwar  has  13G  towns  and  Ul- 
lages, Mecsreekoht  133,  Furusghur  59,  Nowlgoond  43,  Hoongoond  170, 
Dumbul96,  Bnnkapoor  115,  Nuwee  Ilooblee  97,   Ranee  Beednoor   139, 
Kettoor  81,  Sumpgaon  70,  Beereeh  135,  Rhone  77 f  Bagulkoht  141,  Han- 
gull  173,  Cfoottull  133,  Badamec  148,  Padshapoor  202,  Kohr  182,  Talooks 
of  Chcekooree,  and  Munowlee  22r).    To  the  above  arc  to  be  added  189 
villages,  47  of  which  sent  in  poppulation  returns,  although  the  irnames 
were  not  in  the  government  list ;  108  were  not  included  because  thry 
were  Jagheer  or  Eenam  villages  ;  and  34  were  depopulated  and  over- 
looked.   The  total  number  of  villages  in  the  coUectoratc  amounted  to 
2734  ;  of  this  number  2491  were  populated,  and  213  were  deserted.    Of 
the  above,  189'^  British  villages  sent  in  returns,  22d  did  not  send  returns ; 
155  were  deserted,  but  their  lands  were  under  cultivation  by  neighbour- 
ing vilhigers  ;  230  alienated  villages  sent  in  returns,  137  alienated  vil- 


lS39j  On  the  StatMa  of  Duhhun,  18| 

Ijges  diJ  not  send  in  returns;  and  88  deserted  villages  had  not  thr»ir 
Linda  under  cultivation.  With  the  aid  of  some  trifling  estimates  the 
total  amount  of  population  appeared  to  be  S3S,757,  averaging  919-1  in- 
habitants to  the  square  mile,  33671  to  a  village,  and  4'4B  to  a  house. 
Of  the  119  British  towns,  tliere  arc  only  three  whose  population  exceeds 
10,000  souls,  viz.  Dharwar  11,802;  Belgaon  lliOST  ;  and  Mujeedpoor 
15^H7.  One  town  has  above  8000  inhabitants,  (Bagulkoht)  ;  two  with 
6000  :  one  5000  ;  thirty-six  with  from  2000  to  4000 ;  and  seventy-seven 
vi'xxh  from  1000  to  2000  souls.  All  tlte  village  landri  being  kept  in  de* 
finite  measurements,  it  appear«d  that  the  cultivated  land  of  the  whole 
collectorate wa^  61*11  percent.,  and  waste  only  38'89  per  cent. 

Rhtrs. — All  the  chief  rivers  of  Dharwar  flow  to  the  eastward  ;  thoy 
bave  their  sourt'c  in  the  Ghats,  and  join  the  Ki«<tnah.  The  principal  are 
the  Gutpurba,  the  Malpurba,  and  the  Wurdah  :  the  falls  of  the  (iiitpur* 
ba,  near  to  Gukank,  are  said  to  be  strikingly  fine. 

iliUForfi, — Dharwar,  like  the  other  collectorates,  has  to  boast  of  it.« 
hill  forts. 

Viewing  Dharwar,  whether  with  ref?pert  to  its  numerous  towns  and 
well-peopled  villagos,  the  comparative  density  of  its  i»opul;»tion,  tlip  size 
cf  its  farms,  the  quantity  of  Liud  in  cullivition,  tin'  jirmmnt  of  its  reve- 
nues, the  lightness  with  which  they  press  supposing  they  were  raised 
asapolltais,  the  indications  of  manufai'tviring  industry  (so  languishing 
elsewhere)  in  th^  number  of  its  weavers,  and  its  Kuperi<»r  nipans  of  srhool 
instruction,  it  is  nni|uestionably  the  finest  of  the  British  ]»osscssions  in 
Diiklmn. 

Popufalion. 

The  great  feature  in  the  population  of  Dnkhun  i«i  the  cxc»^ss  of  male!* 
owr  females  in  a  greater  proportion  than  exists  in  Europe.  By  the  last 
^msQi in  England  there  were  100  males  to  93  females.  In  the  British 
possessions  in  Dukhun,  in  a  population  from  which  returns  have  been 
received  of  2,302,902  souls,  there  are  100  males  to  87-36  females,  and 
this  diftfrence  obtains,  with  very  little  variation,  throughout  the  differ- 
ent casts.  It  is  subject  to  modification,  however,  by  a  very  singular  fact, 
wliibiied  in  the  excess  of  grown  up  women  over  men  wherever  the  re- 
turas  distinguish  the  adults  from  children  ;  but  the  excess  of  male  chil- 
dren over  female  leaves  the  ultimate  preponderance  in  favour  of  the 
"wdc*.  From  Sir  Stamford  Raffles'  History  of  Java ^  the  same  relative 
proportion  of  the  sexes  would  appear  to  exist  in  that  island.  Ho  states 
tW  the  proportion  of  males  and  females  bom  in  Bmtam,  and  over  the 
whole  of  Java,  is  nearly  the  same  ns  in  Europe,  and  as  is  found  gcn^rali^ 


182  Oh  the  Statistics  of  Dulliun.  [jA^r, 

to  exist  wherpTPr  accurate  statements  can  be  obtained.  From  the  infor- 
mation he  collected  in  a  very  careful  survey  of  one  province,  the  pre- 
ponderance seemed  to  be  on  the  side  of  male  children  to  an  extraordina- 
ry degree  ;  the  male  children  being  about  42,000,  and  the  female  35,500, 
i.  e.  100  males  to  84'52  females.  He  savs  also  there  were  formerly  ereat 
drains  on  the  male  population,  and  which,  in  advanced  stages  of  life, 
might  turn  the  balance  on  the  other  side ;  indeed,  in  some  of  his  returns 
this  is  shown  to  be  the  case. 

In  Dukhun,  wherever  the  means  have  been  aflforded  to  me  of  ascer- 
taining, I  have  found  the  preponderance  of  male  over  female  children  to 
be  in:irked,  not  only  in  births,  but  as  long  as  they  continue  to  be  classed 
as  cliihlren  :  although  a  great  mortality,  at  a  subsequent  period,  makes 
the  grown  up  females  outnumber  the  grown  up  males. 

Males  aud  fimalcs — In  the  Poona  Collectorate  in  1826  the  births  of 
males  in  32  turrulT*  were  100  to  04-27  fomal«^s,  or  very  nearly  20  males 
to  19  fu'males.  The  result  of  eighteen  years*  very  careful  observations 
for  all  France,  from  1817  to  1 834  inclusive,  gives  1/  males  for  16  fe- 
males :  and  as  this  is  doiiveil  from  more  than  seventeen  and  a  half  mil- 
lions of  births,  ir  is  worthy  of  every  confid»*nce.  Taking  each  year  of 
the  above  porioil,  the  extreme  variation  was  from  15  male?  to  14  females 
as  far  as  19  males  to  IS  females.  My  deduction  varies  so  little,  that  we 
mav  fairly  say  the  s  unc  law  cqimlly  obtains,  whether  in  a  tropical  or  an 
«\lra-tr«>pi  mI  iliniate.  Anioiii^^i  illcjxitimati*  births  in  Fnnci*  it  would 
ri]»]'f»:ir  t'ir-it  the  niiiiil..  !•  •  r  ftMin!i»s  a;.pr!'X.imates  more  m'ariy  to  miller 
than  in  ili^»  lci»i?imit'* '»irihji  :  th.^  niim!)er>,  A-.'-onlino:  to  the  Knnirli 
t:il.lc>.  ••  ins;  24m\l«*s  to  23  fem:il»s :  re.luciiig  dl  thes-.?  tu  a  common 
di^nominalion.  we  have  in  the 

Pnoiii  Cor.»Morate 94-27  per  cent,  of  female  hirths. 

In  Friiice.  the  u-.^rag.*  % 
«)f  IS  vears.   legiti-  loMl         do.  do. 

.     .    '  ) 

In"Fnn:;.:'iegitima;;^^3  3^^  do.  ao         ) 

for  1  \  oar \  ^•""  V 

•  cxirem*' 
In   FrnKO,   legitimat*>>  4  ^ 

-     ,  1  91*73         do.  do.         I 

for  1  y.Mr. .  .....-*  ul.        ^ 

In  France  iUt'  .i:imate,  >  ^.  ^^  ,  • 

..  ,,  '  9j-S3         do  do. 

iivrriiTO  oi   l>ye.irs,  \ 

It  wor.:.l  thus  ajipear  that  amongst  ilUgiiimue  children  there  arp 
n-Mriv  two  ra-r?  femal'*-!  hern  to  every  hv.ndrea  male*  than  amon<;>t 
I'^giiiin  .te  l.ii  ;i.- . 


1839] 


Oh  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun. 


183 


In  the  abstract  of  the  census  of  the  population  of  the  Ahmednuggur 

Collectorate,  taken  in  1822,  the  boys  were  to  the  girls  aii  100  to  62*16  ; 

a  singular  disproportion  ;  there  being  in  the  whole  cullectorate  96f447 

boys,  and  only  59,956  girls  ;  but  the  men  were  to  the  women  only  as 

100  (o  102*  18f  the  number  of  men  being  146,750,  and  the  women  il9,t)45. 

In  the  city  of  Poona,  in  1822,  the  boys  were  to  the  girls  as  100  to  73*26, 

a  greater  disproportion  than  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  found  in  Java  ;  at  the 

sune  time  the  adult  men  were  to  the  women  as   100  to   103*40.     In  the 

classes  only  of  the  Brahman  priests,  mendicants,  and   traders,  were  the 

Biea  found  to  exceed  the  women.     In  the  city  of  Ahmed nuggur,  in  1826, 

there  were  lOO  boys  to  67*62  girls,  but  100  men  only  to   106*06  women ; 

bat  the  ultimate  relation  of  males  to  females  was  as  100  males  to  92*46 

fenales. 
The  following  table  shows  the  proportion  of  males  to  females  in  the 

dilforent  collectorates,  and  their  principal  cities  and  towns : 


Collectorates. 

Males  to 
Females. 

Cities  and  Towns. 

Males  to 
Females. 

Pwna  Collectorate 

100  to  88 

Poona  

100  to  94 

Ahmednuggur  do. 

100  to  86 

Ahmednuggur  .... 

100  to  92 

KIuDdesh  do 

100  to  85 

Joonur 

100  to  89 

Oharwardo 

100  to  89 

Dharwar 

100  to  98 

Belfiraun 

100  to  91 

Baffiilkoht  

100  to  101-25 

Gunness  Part 

100  to  101*14 

^^ht,  Deaths^  end  Marriages. — Returns  of  births,  deaths,  and  mar- 
'^■ges,  ID  an  available  form,  were  received  only  from  32  turruffs  of  the 
^'^^wa  Collectorate,  comprising  1109  towns  and  villages,  but  not  includ- 
ing the  city  of  Poona,  containing  81,315  inhabitants;  my  information, 
^Wibre,  on  these  subjects  must  necessarily  be  circumscribed,  but  the 
little  there  is  is  valuable  from  its  novelty.  Some  returns  came  to  hand 
^nithe  Collectorate  of  Dharwar,  but  they  were  merely  additions  of  the 
^toli  of  inregnlar  numbers  of  villagcsi  (from  2  to  12,)  and  I  hesitated 


184  On  the  StatWc;^  of  Dukhun,  [Jav. 

to  trust  to  results  which  I  could  not  test  by  the  originiil  returns.  Re- 
specting birthSf  deaths,  and  mnrria^s  in  the  Ahmednuggur  and  Khan- 
deiih  Collertorates,  I  am  totally  without  information,  excepting  a  solita- 
ly  return  of  deaths  in  the  city  of  Ahme<lnut^giir  in  182S,  which  is  worthy 
of  every  confidence,  as  it  was  compiled  by  my  friend  Dr.  WalLer,  late 
Civil  Surgeon  at  Ahmednuggur. 

Births. — lu  the  Poona  CoUectonite  the  average  births^  in  a  population 
of  250,300,  amounted  only  to  one  in  50-52  persons,  or  not  quite  two  per 
cent.;  the  Bnihmans  having  the  smallest  proportion,  (lin57'29),  and 
the  Moosul mans  the  greatest  proportion,  (1  in  40*80);  the  range  of 
births  in  the  ilifTtTont  turruffs  was  from  1  in  lo'TO  to  1  in  153*00  persons; 
and,  on  the  whole,  the  hilly  tracts  had  a  greater  number  than  the  ])1ains. 

Deaths. — The  deaihs  were  1  in  37"34  persons  in  the  32  turruffs,  or 
2*67  per  cent.,  indicating  a  somewh:U  alarming  diminution  in  the  popu- 
lation;* the  range  varied  from  1  in  17*21  to  1  in  70  persons,  the  fewest 
deaths  being  in  the  hilly  tracts.  It  must  be  considered,  however,  tha^ 
the  spasmodic  cholera  was  raging  in  the  country  in  that  year,  and  that 
the  deaths  from  that  unaccountable  and  dreadful  malady  in  two  turruffs 
amounted  to  nearly  5  per  cent.,  and  in  one  turruff  to  6  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  population.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  therefore,  in  the  ab(;ence  of 
cholera,  the  births  would  exceed  the  deaths,  as  was  in  fact  the  case  in 
some  of  the  Mawuls,  or  hilly  tracts,  where  it  was  known  the  cholera  did 
not  penetrate.  In  deaths  the  Moosulmans  were  the  greatest  average 
sufferers,  (I  in  20*15)  and  the  low  casts  were  the  least  sufferers,  (I  in 
42-91). 

As  Dr.  Walker  found  that  the  cholera  in  the  city  of  Ahmednuggur 
increased  the  usual  deaths  0*GG  per  cent.,  the  loss  being  2*48,  while  the 
cholera  raged,  and  only  1*82  per  cent,  when  the  scourge  ceased,  it  is 
but  fair  to  infer  that  such  would  have  been  the  case  in  the  country  at 
large;  and  this  element,  applied  to  the  mortality  in  the  Poona  Collec- 
torate,  would  reduce  the  annual  loss  to  2*01  per  cent.,  or  one  death  in 
50  persons,  which  would  indicate  a  greater  degree  of  healthiness  than 
all  France,  all  Belc^ivim,  or  the  town  of  Glasgow,  the  loss  in  all  these 
places  being  1  in  39  and  a  fraction. 

Marriages. — The  average  number  of  marriages  in  the  Poona  CoUecto- 
ratc  is  proportionably  more  than  in  Kngland  and  France,  being  1  in 
125*87 souls;  the  proportion  in  England  being  1  in  I2S,  and  in  France 
1  in  130*4  inhabitants.  The  range  in  the  different  turruffs  is  from  I  in 
40*11  to  1  in  493.77;  but  in  14  turruffs  the  average  is  considerably  un- 

•  Th«  rlfiaths  ia  tb«  kiutfUom  of  Ntploi  for  183C— 37  was  1  in  37  and  a  fraction. 


1839] 


On  the  Statiitict  qf  Dukhun, 


185 


der  that  for  England.  The  Shoodruhs  (Mahrattas  proper)  and  Moosul- 
mms  are  almoet  identical,  in  their  proportional  number  of  marriages, 
namely,  I  in  116*21  and  1  in  116*86,  and  they  have  the  greatest  number 
of  marriages  ;  the  low  casts  have  the  fewest  marriages.  The  births  in 
1826  being  only  4954  and  the  marriages  1998,  the  average  of  children  to 
a  marriage  was  2*48  or  not  quite  2|.  In  France  the  average  is  3*72 
diildren  to  a  marriage ;  in  England  and  Wales  3*55.  In  Java  the  births 
were  1  in  39,  deaths  I  in  40  persons. 
The  constituents  of  the  population  in  the  different  collectorates  were 


Consdments  of  the  Population. 

Brahmans. 

Ri^poots. 

Shoodruhs, 

&c.Mahratta 

Cultivators, 

&c. 

Atee 

Shoodruhs 

or  low 

casts. 

Moosulmans. 

Poona 

Per  Cent. 
11-58 

Per  Cent. 
041 

Per   Cent. 
7385 

Per  Cent. 

9-78 

Per  Cent. 
4-38 

/^bmednuggur. .. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Kbandesli 

5-40 
4*48 

3-47 

G9-58 

14-72 

638 

Dharwar 

0*60 

74.53 

11.895 

8  495 

In  the  above  analysis  the  chief  features  are  the  permanent  and  neariy 
equal  pioportiens  of  the  Shoodruhs  or  Mahratta  cultivators  and  other 
genuine  Mahrattas,  which  obtain  in  the  different  collectorates  ;  the  fact 
being,  that  three-fourths  of  the  population  are  of  that  most  useful  cla.ss 
the  Shoodruhs  ;  and  it  will  be  seen  by  the  notice  on  agriculture,  how 
largea  proportion  of  them  are  engaged  in  tillage.  In  the  Poona  Col- 
leetorate,  as  might  be  expected  from  its  having  been  the  chief  seat  of  a 
Biahman  government,  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  Brahmans  ; 
ereij  ninth  person,  in  fact,  being  a  Brahman.  In  the  other  collectorates 
•careely  one  in  twenty  persons  is  a  Brahman.  Genuine  Rajpoots  are 
litde  known  in  Dukhun,  and  I  should  doubt  whether  or  not  the  3|  per 
cent  of  Rajpoots,  in  the  returns  from  Khandesh,  should  be  added  to  the 
Mahntta  population ;  who,  by  the  bye,  have  some  pretensions  to  being 
detcended  from  the  Rajpoots.    The  proportion  of  low  casts,*  men  who 

*  IV  low  etsti  comprise  til  that  part  of  the  Hindoo  population  which  cannot  claim  to 
W  Sboodnihs,  tueh  as  Mahrs,  Ohcrt,  Maangs,  shoemakers,  ikinners,  Ramoosees, 
Bcndi,  «nd  Bhecls*  The  M ahn  and  Dhers  are  the  scavengert,  the  Maangs,  execution- 
en  ;iiMemaken  and  skinners  speak  for  themselres;  the  Ramoosees  and  Berudsare 
Wathiercs,  or  are  thieres  by  cast,  and  they  are  usually  employed  for  the  protection  of 
*Uh|cs.  on  the  principle  of  setting  a  thief  to  catch  a  thiefl  The  Bheelf  are  supposed  to 
^tksiboiigiiict  of  the  countries  where  they  are  found. 


JS6  On  the  Siati'sihs  of  Dukhun.  [Jan. 

are  only  cngMfrcd  in  vilo  or  discreditable  ofTiocs  by  the  natives,  although 
otherwise  cuiployod  by  tlio  British,  does  not  differ   very  much  in  the  dif- 
ferent collectorates  ;  the  increase  in  the  Kh.indesh  collectorate  is  attri- 
butable to  lar^n>  tr.icts  of  the  country  being  inhabited  by  Bheels.  who   arc 
alow   ca*it ;     in  fact,  b'ss   than  every  seventh   person    is  a   low  cast :  in 
Poona   about   every    tenth,  and  in  Dhinvar  about  every  eighth.     The 
Monsiilmans  are  few  in  number  in  the  Poona  and  Ahmednuggur  Collect- 
orates, uot  being  one-twentieth  of  the  population   in   the   first,    nor  one- 
fifteenth  in  the  second  ;  but,  in  the  Dharwar   Collectorate    they  displace 
the  Brahmans,  and  amount   to  nearly  one-eleventh.     Although  the  Moo- 
sulman  power  has  been    paramount  nearly  throughout  all  India  for  cen- 
turies,   it  is  believed  they   have   never  constituted   one-fifteenth  of  the 
whole  population.     In  the  abstmct  of  the  population    returns  from  the 
Ahmednuggur  Collectorate,  the  casts  are   not  distinguished ;  but,  ui  a 
return  of  182S,  from  the  city  of  Ahmednuggur,  the  Hindoo  inhabitants 
are  distinguished  from  the  Moosulraan ;  and   it    is   found   that  there  is 
the  very  unusual  proportion  of  one    Moosulraan  to   3*45    Hindoos,  or  29 
per  cent,  of   the  whole  population.     This  is  to  be   referred  to  the  fact  of 
Ahmf  dnuggur  having  once  been   the  capital  of  the   Ahmed  Shahee  dy- 
nasty of  Moosulman  kings ;  with  these  exceptions,  although  I  have  not 
detailed  returns  to  guide  me,  I  believe  that  the  constituents  of  the  po- 
pulation of  the  Ahmednuggur  Collectorate  do  not  differ  in  their  propor- 
tions from  those  of  the  Poona  Collectorate,     In  the  census  of  1822,  the 
families   in   the  fifteen    pergunnahs   in  the  Ahmednuggur   Collectorate, 
with  a  populution  of  409,*-^79  souls,    were  enumerated,  and   it  appeared 
that  there  were  4  53  persons  to  a  family.     With  respect   to  the  styles   of 
building  in  the  Ahmednuggur  Collectorate,  it  will  be  fully  illustrated  by 
the    facts,    that  the  //7ef/ houses  amount  only  to   10-d4per  cent,  of  the 
whole  :  the  tliatt  lied  houses  to   32"27    per  cent. ;  and   the  mud  flat-ter- 
raced houses  to  56*^9  i)cr  cent. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  clouds  of  horse  that   rovered  the   Dukhun  in  the 
war  of  1817,  it   is  sufficiently  remarkable  that   in  1822,    in  the    whole 
Collectorate  of  Ahmednuggur   there    were  only   105   full-grown    horse •? 
1298  full-grown  mares  ;  the  tot;il,  including  colts  and  fillies,  being  only 
2500  ;  the  ponies  amounted  to  1 2,G32,  of  all  kinds. 

Proportions  engaged  in  agriculture. —h\  1828,  in  this  collectorate,  1S78 
British  villages  contained  41, 9 18  cultivators  or  f.irmers,  and  a  populatiou 
of  512,818  sovds.  and  allowing  five  persons  to  a  cultivator's  familr, 
40*89  per  cent,  of  the  people  were  engag<^d  in  an:riculture.  In  Poona 
there  wer'^  r)2.G(iS  fanners,  being  a  percentage  of  r),")  50,  with  five  persons 
to  a  fainily.     In   Dharwar  GO, 701   cultivators,    Ijcing  a  per  ceutage  of 


1839]  On  ihi  Stait.ii:ci  of  Duhhun,  187 

41 'Te^,  and   in   Khandesli   44*608  cultivators,   being  a  per  centage  of 

53*16  occupied  in  agriculture.     It  is  to  be  understood  th?>e  proportions 

h^re  reference  to  the  population  of  British   villiges  only,  and  not  to  the 

whole  population  of  each  collectomte.     Moreover,   as  these   pro})ortion8 

are  dt?rived  fr^m  the  registered  farmers  only,  and  as  they  are  in  the  habit 

of  sub-liftting their  lands,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  my  opinion 

that  exact  returns  would  prove  that  three-fourths   of  the  pop'ilition  are 

directly  engaged  in   agricultnre.     In   the   Poona  Colleetorate,    fainilies 

were  not  enumerated,  excepting  in   the   return  fr(>:n   tlie  <  ity  of  Po<jna, 

and  here  families  average  4  82  persons  ;  each  hous'.^   in   Poona   averaged 

6.|  |)ersons  ;  but,  for  the  whole  colleetorate  4*79  persons   to  a  house  ;  so 

that  it  is  probable  the  returns  of  the  number  of  houses    would   give  the 

number  of  families.     In  Khandesh   the  proportion  of  inhabit  mis  to  a 

house  falls  short  of  the  other  coiiectorates,   being  only  'i'i)G  persons.     In 

Dharwar  the  number  is  4*48  to  a  bouse,  for  the  whole  coUectoru  o  ;  but 

the  towns  exhibit  other  figures  \  namely,  Belgaon  5*24,  Chabee  5*78,  and 

Gunness  Pait  5*77  inhabitants  to  a  house  ;  England  and  Wales  has  oGO. 

The  average  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile,  in  the  dilferent  collectorutes^ 

has  been  noticed  under  the  head  of  civil  divisions  ;  and  the  fewness  will 

disappoint  European  expectations  ;  but  there  is  plainly  a  great  mistake 

in  the  common  estimation  of  the   denseness  of  the  Indian  population. 

Bengal   proper  is  said  to  have  203   inhabitants  to   a  square   mile,  and 

Orissa,  in  the  cultivated  parts,  agreeably  to  Mr.  Stirling,   the  coniniissi- 

oner,  has135;  but,  for  the  whole  area  of  Orissa,  the   average   is  only 

14^  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  ;  England  has  102. 

Southern  Jagheerdara. — The  Southern  Jagheerdars  have  917  villages, 
with  an  estimated  population  of  263,236  souls. 

Rajah  of  Sattarah*9  territories. — The  Rajah  of  Sattarah,  in  his  terri* 
tones,  has  1703  towns  and  villages,  with  an  estimated  population  of 
488,846  inhabitanU. 

With  the  data  in  my  possession  I  am  enabled  to  give  an  estimate  of 
the  population  of  the  late  Peshwa's  territories  in  Dukhun  ;  it  utlbrds  a 
closer  approximation  to  the  truth  than  has  hitherto  been  obtained. 

*  lododiiigsoiiie  returns  of  Alieaatcd  villagca,  an  cstiuutc  makm  it  18  per  ceut. 


186 


On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun. 


lAK. 


Collect- 
orate. 


Ahmednug. 
gur. 


Poona  Col- 
lectorate. 


Towns 
and  Vil- 
lages. 


1655^ 


223 


586} 


23 


2488 


8951 


212} 

56 
4 


574 


155 


Explanations. 


The  census  of  1822,  in  the 
AhmednuggurCollectorate,  in 
16554  towns  and  villaees,  ex- 
clusive of  the  city  of  Ahmed- 
nuggur,  each  village  averag* 
ing  263*47  inhabitants,  gave.. 

223  British  villages  of  Ta- 
looks,  KurmuUehy  and  Kor- 
teh,  from  which  population  re- 
turns were  not  received,  aver- 
aging 263*47  souls,  give 

586}  alienated  towns  and 
villages,  from  which  returns 
were  not  received,  averaging 
267*47  souls,  will  give  .•..•• 
Depopulated  villages 

Total  villages  in  the  Ahmed- 
nuggur  Collectorate. 

In  the  collector's  revenue 
statement  for  1828  there  ap- 
peared 1469}  British  villages ; 
viz.  895}  towns  and  villages 
inclusive  of  the  city  of  Poona, 
which  sent  in  population  re- 
turns in  1826,  ttie  villages 
averaging  226*10  inhabitants, 
exclusive  of  the  population  of 
the  city,  ^iye  • 

212}  alienated  villages  sent 
in  population  returns 

96  alienated  towns  and  vil- 
lage8,and  4  British  villages, 
dia  not  send  in  rettim8,averag- 
ing  a  population  of  226*  fO 
souls  each • 

574  British  villages  of  the 
Sholapoor  sub-collectorates 
did  not  send  in  returns,  ave- 
raging by  estimate  226*10 
souls  each  •» 

Had  the  average  number 
of  inhabitants  toa  villacrein 
the  Ahmednuggur  collect- 
orate been  used  as  an  element, 
the  result  would  have  been 
151,145 

155  alienated  towns  and  vil- 
lages of  the  Sholapoor  sub-col- 


Number 
of  inha- 
bitants. 


Total  in- 
habitants 
in  each 
Collect- 
orate. 


453,098 


58,753 


154,525 


666,376 


283,567 
48,048 


13,566 


164,294 


183d] 


On  the  StalUtici  of  Dukhun. 


\m 


Collect- 
orate. 


Khandesh 
Collector- 
ate. 


Dharwar 
Collector- 
ate. 


Towns 

and    Vil 

lages. 


29 


1926 


1%8 


64 
330 


335} 


14 
3001 

654 


3666 


1899 


225 


Ei^planalions. 


lectorate  at  266*10  souls  each 
Depopulated  villages. 

Total  towns  and  villages  in 
the  Poona  Collectorate. 

In  the  collector's  revenue 
statement  for  1828,  there  were 
2697i  villages ;  of  this  num- 
her,  1968  British  towns  and 
villages  sent  in  population 
returns  in  1826,  averaging 
1 87-39  inhabitants  to  a  village, 
equal  to 


64  villages,  refused  returns, 
at  127  souls  each 

330  villages  are  cultivated, 
but  not  inhabited,  making^a 
total  of  2362  villages.  To 
make  up  the  number  in  the 
collector's  revenue  statement 
therefore,  335i  villages  must 
be  added  as  having  become 
populated  since  the  population 
returns  were  sent  in,  at  127 
souls  each 

14  Jagheer  villages  sent  in 
returns 

Jagheer,  or  alienated  vil- 
lages, did  not  send  in  returns, 
at  an  average  of  187*39  souls 
each 

Depopulated  villages,  lands 
not  cultivated. 

Total  towns  and  villages  in 
the  Khandesh  Collectorate. 

In  the  collector's  revenue 
statement  for  1828,  there  ap- 
peared  2279  towns  and  vil- 
lages; of  this  number,  1899 
British  towns  and  villages 
sent  in  population  returns, 
averaging  348  inhabitants  to 
each  village 

225  British  villages  in  the 
talooks  of  Cheekoree  and  Mu- 
nowleedid  not  send  in  returns; 
estimating    their  population 


Number 
of  inha- 
bitants. 


40,838 


Total  in- 
habitants 
in  each 
Collect- 
orate. 

550,313 


368,781 
8128 


42,608 
2623 


56,317 


478,457 


660,852 


190 


Oti  the  Stati'ilics  of  Dukhun. 


[JaV. 


Collect- 
orate. 


Towns 

ami    Vil- 

lasfcs. 


Southern 

Ja^lieer- 

dars'  lauds. 


Rajah  of 
Sattarali's 
territories. 


155 
230 
137 

88 


2734 
917 


1703 


12,155 
1,279 


Explanations. 


from  the  revenue  they  yield, 
falling  as  a  poll-tax  as  in  other 
parts  of  Dbarwar,  there  are . . 

British  depopulated  vil- 
lages, lands  under  cultivation. 

Alienated  villages  sent  in 
population  returns. . .  •  • 

Alienated  villages  did  not 
send  in  population  returns,  at 
tlie  lowest  average  of  popula- 
tion, 23G-3()  each 

Deserted  v  illages,  lands  not 
under  cultivation. 


13,434 


The  area  of  the  Southern 
Jagheerdars*  territories  is 
207«i*l  25  square  miles  at  8839 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile, 
thelowestavcrage  of  the  Dhar* 
war  Colle«".torate  gives  by  es- 
timate  • 

1703  towns  and  vil  i ages  un- 
der the  Sattarah  goverument, 
with  an  estimatea  population 
of  287*05  inhabitants  to  a  vil- 
lage, which  is  the  mean  be- 
tween Dharwar  and  Ahmed- 
nuggur,  will  give 

Populated  villages. 
Depopulated  villages. 

Total. 


Number 
of  iuba- 
bitants. 


65)805 


79,727 


32,373 


263,236 


488,846 


Total   ill- 
hubiuuiLi 
ill  eairli  < 
Cullet.'t-  j 
orate. 


838,75/ 


263,236 


488,846 


3,285,985; 


1839] 


On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun. 


lOI 


ABSTRACT  OF  THE  ABOVE. 


Collrctorate  or 
Territory. 


jPoona 


;Abinednuggur. 


Kliaiidesh, 


-Dharwar. 


iSoutliem       Jagheer- 
'    dars ...'. 


Rajah   of   Saltarah'a 
territories 


Total, 


Area, 
square 
miles. 

Number 
olTowns 
and  Vil- 
lages. 

8281 

1926 

0910 

2488 

12,527 

3666 

9122 

27S1 

2978 

917 

6169 

1703 

48,987 

:i3,ia4 

Populati- 


on. 


Aver- 
age to 

the 
square 

mile. 


Average  to 

a  village    Average 
for  the 
whole  Col- 

lectoratc 


550,313 


666,376 


478,457 


838,757 


263,236 


483,846 


3,285,985 


66-45 


67-24 


3819 


91-94 


8839 


79-25 


67-07 


•  247-36 


to  a 
house. 


t   2*j3  47 


479 
■IS!) 


178--39   i     3-90 


33(3-7 


-     I 


28705 


28705 


4-4S 


Not 
known 


Not 
known. 


270-31 


Average  number  of  inbabitants  to  a  Tillage  for  all  the  collectoratcs, 
270-34. 

The  above  population  does  not  include  the  army,  camp  followers, 
Bheels,  or  tbe  wandering  tribes. 

It  would  appear  tbere  are  1279  uninhabited  villages  in  the  four  col- 
lectoratcs of  Dukhun,  principally  in  Khandesh ;  making  a  total  of  10,814 
towns  and  villages  in  the  British  possessions,  and  of  13,434  in  the  late 
Peshwah*8  territories  in  Dukhun  ;  exclusive  of  those  belonging  to  the 
Kolapoor  state. 

Total  alienated  villages  in  the  four  coUectorates,  1695i.  Total  Bri- 
tish populated  villages,  78394;  total  deserted,  1279.  Total  villages  in 
\\it  four  collector (UeSi  10,314. 

Education. 

E<lucation,  as  a  regular  system,  is  certainly  unknown  amongst  the  peo- 
I'lc  in  Dukhun.  The  few  schools  existing  are  wholly  disproportioned  in 
inmiber  to  the  population ;  and  even  were  they  more  numerous,  the  pre- 
^•?t^t  general  poverty  of  the  Koonbees,^  and  the  imperious  calls  upon 
'l^pm  for  the  semces  of  their  children  in  agriculture,  and  in  attending 
their  cattle,  would  disable  them  from  letting  their  children  profit  by  in- 
struction, even  though  gratuitous.     In  a  stage  of  civilization  which  is  by 


'  ^xclosire  of  the  population  of  the  city  of  Toona. 

*  txclosiveof  the  population  of  the  city  of  Ahmednuggur. 

*  ^' this  number,  1279  arc  depopulated,  and  the  depopulated  villaRes  of  the  Southern 
^^JS^iPfidarstnd  Bajah  of  SatUrah's  territoiics  are  not  known  to  me. 

^  ^ihratUculti?atorf. 


192  On  the  Siatistics  of  Dukhun.  [Jam. 

no  means  contemptible,  the  general  illiterateness  of  the  cultivators  is  re- 
markable.   It  might  have  been  supposed  that  the  pressure  of  the  incon- 
veniencies  and  the  risk  of  loss  attending  the  solving  their  constantly  re- 
curring arithmetical  computations,  whether  in  settling  their  assessments 
with  government,  in  ascertaining  the  amount  of  their  produce,  or  in  com- 
puting its  saleable  rate  to  ensure  a  profit,  or  in  their  money  transactions 
with  each  other,  would  have  stimulated  some  families  of  the  past  or  pre- 
sent generations  to  have  pursued  steadily  a  course  of  instruction    for 
their  children,  which,  by  its  example  and  the  visible  heneficial  results 
attending  it,   would  have  originated  a  thirst  of  knowledge,  and  advanced 
the  march  of  intellectual  improvement    The  Shoodra,   however,  is  led 
to  believe  by  the  wily  Brahmans  that  letters  and  science  are  not  within 
his  province,  and  the  farmer  is  content  to  go  on  mastering  his  arithmeti- 
cal difficulties  with  the  assistance  of  his  fingers,  and  relying  upon  the 
village  clerk  for  the  keeping  his  accounts  with  the  government,  and  on 
his  ability,  judgment,  and  secrecy  in  the  management  of  his  private  cor- 
respondence,  which,  it  may  be  supposed,  will  not  be  very  important  or 
voluminous.     Were  it  ascertained,  I  believe  not  one  cultivator  in  a  hun- 
dred would  be  found  able  to  write,  or  count  up  to  100  but  by  fives  ;  and 
my  daily  unreserved  intercourse  for  hours  with  numbers  of  this  class  of 
persons  has  given  me  facilities  for   forming  this  opinion.    And  yet  the 
Koonbees  are  far  from  wanting  intelligence ;  they  are  not  slow  in  observ- 
ing; they  are  quick  in  communicating,  and  the  rationale  of  an  agricultu- 
ral process  is  frequently  explained  with  a  simplicity  and  effect  which 
we  might  not  always  meet  with  in  the  educated  English  fairmer.  There 
would  not  beany  difi^culty  in  teaching  the  Koonbees,  provided  the  in- 
struction were  gratuitous,  and  that  the  farmer  could  spare  his  children  ; 
and  several  important  effects  might  attend  this  instruction  :    the  mind  of 
tlie  cultivator  would  be  invigorated  with  new  ideas  ;  enlarged  views  of 
action  would  break  in  upon  him  ;  a  spirit  of  improvement,  enterprise, 
and  innovation  might  spring  up,  in  place  of  the  apathetic  routine  that  at 
present    prevails  in  rural  c^conomy  and  in  the  social  relations  of  life  ; 
and  an  amelioration,  both  physical  and  moral,  would  take  place  in  his 
condition.     But  at  present  the  little  education  that  exists  is  confined  to 
the  Brahmans  and  to  the  shopkeepers,  Shai tees*,  and  Mahajuns.f 

The  Koolkumees|,  or  accountants  and  village-clerks,  are  always  Brah- 
mans ;  many  of  them  are  shrewd  and  very  quick,  and  possessed   of  infi- 

*  Headg  of  trades.  +  Bankers. 

t  Village  clerks  and  accountauts. 


I  839]  On  the  Statisiicjt  of  Dukhun.  193 

Dite  ingenuity  in  avoiding  the  detection  of  a  fraud  or  mistake  in  their 
papers  ;  many  of  this  class,  however,  I  found  too  stupid  to  keep  an  in- 
dividuars  account,  much  less  the  complicated  details  of  a  village  assess- 
ment The  shopkeepers  being  generally  people  from  GoojrAt,  keep 
their  accounts  in  the  Goojntee  language.  The  character  in  universal 
use  for  business  is  the  Mohrin  the  districts.  The  following  will  shovr 
the  number  of  schools,  as  far  as  the  returns  received  from  the  collectors 
will  permit,— not  any  account  of  scl'.ools  was  received  from  the  collector 
of  Ahmednuggur.  In  the  CoUectorate  of  Dliarwar  there  is  one  school 
to  2452  inhabitants ;  in  Khandesh  there  is  only  one  school  to  4369  souls ; 
and,  in  the  Poona  CoUectorate,  deducting  the  population  of  the  city  of 
Poona,  there  is  one  school  to  3337  souls.  It  is  fair  to  infer  therefore, 
that  as  Dharwar  supports  proportionably  so  many  more  schools  than  the 
other  collectorates,  that  information  is  more  generally  spread  amongst 
the  people,  and  that  they  are  better  able  to  manage  their  afiUirs  than 
others  less  instructed ;  and  the  breadth  of  cultivation,  <ind  general  manu- 
£icturing  and  commercial  industry  of  the  people,  would  seem  to  justify 
the  inference. — Report  of  the  Seventh  Meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tlonfor  the  advancement  of  Science. 

(To  be  concluded  in  our  next.) 


Proettdingi  of  Societies : 
X. — Pane  IIS  ni  NOB   at   Socici 


Proeifdingt    qf  tkt  Madrm    LHerary    Sactely    and    AugHiary    vf  th» 
Royal   jitiatie   Society. 

Wednesday,  30rA  Janunry  1839. 
PRESENT. 


UHYN,  Prttidtnt  tn  tht  Ckair 
Re\.  P.  Spring, 
Hev.  W.  Taylor, 


Tht  Honourabli  Sir  BaBERI 
A.  F.  Bract    Eeq. 
Bob«rt  Cole,  Bsq. 
John  Carnac  Morria,  Esq  . 

J.  MiNCHin,  E»q.  Secretary. 

The  Secretary  Bubmilled  lo  tbe  Meeting,  KtaUmenla  of  the  Society'* 

'a  for  the  past  year. 


Balance  in  favour  of  tlie  Society  as  enhibi 
in  the  Slatrmml  submitted  to  Ilir  ani 
General  Meeting  heldonllie  31sc  Janu 
1638 

Total  amount  of  Subscriptioiii  received  fi 
the  IbI  January  lo  IheSlst  December  IG 

Differeiiceof  interest  in  favour  oflhe  boc 
Bi  slated  in  Meaari.  Binny  and  Cn.'t 
count  cleied  uii  ilie31sl  December  1838. 


Ueisra.   Binny  and   Co.'b  commission 

R™iited°lo  MeMt^/WmlH-Allen  BiidCo. 
bonlucUet* 

Pay  uf  tile  Eatablisbincnt 

Foatflge 

Suciunery 

Cooly  hire'...> ......i.---.^ 

Sundries 

Expensei  incurred  in  binding  books... 

SuDBcnplion  and   poituge  for  the  Bombay 
Courier.  Src 

Subscription  and  postage  for  the  Bengal  He- 
raid.  &c 

Books  purcbased  at  Madra.i 

Paid  for  printing  ailrertiaemerita,  &c. . . 

PaidHeisri.  OuchierlonyandCo  forialrage 
churgeB.  &c.  on  one  parcel  of  books  nared 
from  the  wreck  of  the  Jtoirol  If'tlliam  t  - '' 
Cap 


i$391  Madriu  L'll.  Sac.  and  Attx.  S.  A.  S. 

AbttratI  StattmenI  rf  Iht  Pmit  <^  Ike  AHalie  Dtpatlmm. 


DtUBO 

INTO 

Re 

BIPTS. 

B6lM«  in  bmar  of  ihe  Society  u  exhibited 
in  Ih(  i^taUrmcnt  aubmilled   lo  tlip  r.rneral 
SI»no(t  held  on  ihc  3l.i  Jmiuty  IS)8. . . . 

Tot«t  ammint  of  Subscmili^iu  received  from 
ibr  (Ft  Jimuarv  lo  th<  31tt  Dfcembor  1839. 

AniouDl  rPBliird  by  ihe  mI*  of  Ihe  Madnu 
Jnuni*)  of  Liienilure  4nd  Scienee 

Diffmnce  oTianre»c  in  furour  orifaeSacietr 
uMilfd  in  Menn.  Binny  uid  Co.'i  ic- 
coml  doied  on  tlie  3lil  December  J638. .. 

1376 
796 
47 

35 

11 

12 
U 

0 

7 

0 

U 
6 

0 

979 
1106 
•1265 

26 

3378 
2271 

1107 

s 

10 

s 
15 

"lo" 

0 

8 
0 

5 

Piid  ror  priniioE  Ihe  IBih.  19lh.  autli  tod  !l«t 
Km.  of  .he  Msdru  Juuma]  of  Lileraiiire 

Fiid  Preighl,   &c.  on  four  boxes  of  booki 

~r 

Balance  in  favout  of  Iho  Society. 

~o' 

The  following  dooation*  having  been  made  (o  the  Society  lince  th« 

lastinnuBl  geneml  Meeting,  the  ihanka  of  tlie  Societ;  were  unanimoiu- 

Ij  rated  to  the  donor*  : — 

HI  Copin  of  Ancient  and  Hodem  Alphabets  of  ihe  Sou- 

them  Peniaiula   of  India Madru  Gdvemoient. 

I  Ciipiei  of  Mr.  Bruce'i  Report  on  the  Manufacture  of 

ihe  Black  Tea ditto 

iCopiei  of  Hr.  Tumour'f  .Mahawanio ditto 

BcpoRiof  1  CoDimitlee  for  I  nmti  gating  the  Cool  and 

Mineral  Betourcea  of  India J.  Prinnp  Eiq. 

Ihuinat  ul  lint  or  the  Treaiury  ofSdenee Bengal  Aaiatic  Society. 

ACitaloguc  of  Sanicrit  book ditto 

inler'iHiaeand  Progreu  of  the  Briliih  Power  in  In- 
dia, 3d  tol Madrai  Goverament 

>tnlloftbcMadratObaervationifor1836a]idlS37....  ditto 

i  Tglomea  of  Report!  on  Ihe  Poor  Lana Captain  F.  Senior. 

BRoUeclionaoflheDecean Capuin  T.  J.Taylor. 

fw  St  George  Gaxette  for  1831, 1633  and  1^31 1.  C.  Morrie,  Esq. 

GottruMDt aod  Conmerceof  India ditto 

Htdpto  on  the  La*  and  Police  of  NepU ditto 


*  iBom  atnec  naliied  and  itmltted  to 


).  BIddj  and  Co.  fiom  the  att*  •(  the 


i^  Proceedings  of  Societiti:  [Jak. 

Reeve*s  English  and  Canarese  Dictionary College  of  Fort  St.  George. 

Morris's  Knglish  and  Teloogoo  Dictionary  1st  vol....  ditto 

Brown's  Verses  of  V^mana ditto 

Reeve's  Canarese  and  English  Dictionary ditto 

Curaland  Naladiyar  (Tamil) ditto 

Cadamunjari  (Tamil) ditto 

A  Snake  preserved  in  a  bottle Z.  Macaulay  Esq. 

A  large  beetle  called  the  Bharine  purugii C.  P.  Brown  Esq. 

A  mutilated  Jaio  image Lieut.  Newbold. 

Notice  surdes  V^tements  avec  des  Inscriptions  Arabes, 

Persanes  ct  Hindoustani—par  M.  De  Taisy.... The  Author. 
Notice  du  Traits  Persan  sur  les  Vertus  De  Hu^ain 

Waiz  Kaschifi,  intitule  Akhlaqu^i  Muhcini— par 
M.  De  Tassy ditto 


It  was  announced  that  the  following  gentlemen  have  been  elected 
members  of  the  Society  since  the  last  Annual  General  Meeting  : — 


J.  C.  Wroughton,  Esq. 
C.  R.  Howard,  Esq. 
A*  F.  Arbuthnot,  Esq. 
J    Cadenhead,  Esq. 
Dr.  Murray, 
Lieut.  W.  T.  Nicolls, 
Lieut  G.  Balfour, 


E.  C.  Hey  wood,  Esq. 

A.  J.  Cherry,  Esq. 

Mi^or  Alexander, 

Kt  liev.  The  Lord  Bishop  of  Madras, 

Rev.  A.  Clliomson, 

Lt  Gen.  Sir  Jasper  NicoUsj  k.  c.  b. 


During  the  past  year  the  Society  have  lost  13  members  by  death,  re- 
tirement or  departure  for  Europe. 

It  having  been  ascertained  that  the  name  of  Baron  Von  Hammer,  who 
was  several  years  ago  elected  an  Honorary  Member  of  the  Society,  has 
been  inadvertently  omitted  from  the  list— it  is 

Resolved,  that  his  name  be  duly  entered,  and  that  a  letter  of  expla- 
nation be  addressed  to  the  Baron  on  the  subject. 

The  Meeting  proceed  to  elect  three  members  for  the  Committee  of 
Management  for  the  ensuing  year,  in  succession  to  the  Rev.  F.  Spring, 
Walter  Elliot  Esq.  and  R.  Cole,  Esq,  who  go  out  by  rotation :  when  Dr, 
Murray  was  duly  elected,  and  the  Rev.  F.  Spring  and  R.  Cole  Esq.  re« 
elected* 

Moved  by  the  Honourable  Sir  Robert  Comyn  and  seconded  by  J.  C. 
Morris  Esq. — ^That  the  thanks  of  the  Society  be  given  to  the  Rev.  W- 


183!)]  Madras  Lit,  Soc.  and  Aux,  R,  A,  S.  197 

Taylor  for  the  manner  in  which  the  2d  and  3d  volumes  of  the  Restored 
Mackenzie  Manuscripts  have  been  prepared  for  the  Society,  and  bound  at 
his  own  expense — Carried  unanimously. 

The  Rev.  W.  Taylor  being  present  returns  thanks. 

Read  letter  from  Lieut.  Newbold,  enclosing  copies  of  manuscript  in- 
scriptions from  the  Ceded  Districts. 

Resolved,  that  the  thanks  of  the  Society  be  given  to  Lieut.  Newbold, 
and  that  the  mscriptions  be  referred  to  the  Committee  of  Papers. 

The  Secretary  to  the  Committee  of  Papers  in  the  Asiatic  Department 
announces  that  the  Committee  has  associated  with  him,  as  joint  Secreta- 
ry, C.  P.  Brown,  Esq.  of  the  Civil  Service,  who  undertakes  that  office 
lo  the  Class  of  Orie^ilal  Literature}  while  he  will  continue  to  officiate 
in  the  Physical  Class, 

The  business  of  the  Meeting  being  concluded,  the  thanks  of  the  Meet- 
ing were  unanimously  voted  to  the  Honourable  the  President  for  his  able 
conduct  in  the  chair. 

(Signed)     J.  Mincuin.  (Signed)     Robert  Comyn. 

Secretari/.  President' 


198  Horary  Metitorological  Observations  at  the  Madnu  Obtervatori;.  [Jan. 


XI,— Horary  Meteorological  Observations  made  agreeably  with  the  sug- 
ge»fioni  of  Sir  John  Herschel,  at  the  Madras  Observatory— By  T. 
G.  Taylor,  Esq.  H.  E,  L  C.  Astronomer, 


1  Thkrmj- 

MCTER. 


Time 


Barmo. 


Dry. 


Wet 


Dec.2 1 
6  a.m. 

7 


»» 


8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

]p 

.M 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

lA 

.M 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

1p 

.M 

2 

3 

4 

5 

ti 

30.106 
30.116 
30.150 

30.158 

30.136 

SO.  108 

30.082 

30.061 

30.0.)4 

30.0o0 

:>0.05S 

S0.06S 

30.0761 

30.0i)2 

30.102 

30.100 

30.094 

30,0S6 

30.074 

30.058 

30.050 

30.050 

30.048 

30.0^)4 

30.0«8 

30.118 

80.140 

30.132 

30.124 

30.098 

30.0r8 

30.0()2 

30.05  i 

30.058 

30.064 

30.076 


71.1 
71.6 

73.7 
76.4 
78.1 
78.2 
78.9 
79.4 
79.9 
79.8 
79.8 
78.8 

77.'i 
76.4 
76.0 
75.9 
7'>.7 
75.5 
74.9 
74.5 
74.4 
73.6 
72.8 
72.0 
72.0 
72.3 
72.7 
74.6 
76.5 

77.S 
78.4 
79.4 
79.9 
80.0 


68.0 
68.6 
70  6 
70.6 
70.9 
71.0 
71.0 
70.9 
71.0 

71.0 
70.5 

70.5 
70.1 

69.7 
69.6 

69.4 

69.6 

68.5 

68.5 

69.1 

69.3 

67  5 
68.0 
68.0 
68.0 

68  6 
69.5 
70.7 
71.0 
70.0 
70.  r 

70.7 
70.8 
71.0 


79.9;  71.(' 
79.0|  70.5 
78.01  71.0 


D«  reel  ion 

• 

of  wind. 

CO 

Remarks. 


N.  w. 
R.  N.  E* 

Do. 

N. 

N.   E. 
E. 

N.  E. 
E.  N.  E. 
N.  C.  N* 
N.  E.  N. 

N.  E. 

N.  E. 

N.  E. 

N.  E. 

N.  E. 

N.  E. 


N.  £. 
M.   E. 

N. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N«  W.  N. 
N.  E. 
N.  E. 
E. 
N.  E. 
N.  E. 
N.  E. 
N.  E. 
N.  E. 


calm 
calm 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 
calm 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

I 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 


Flying  clouds  to  the  south. 

do.  do. 

do.  do. 

Clear. 

do. 

Flying  clouds. 
Clear. 

do. 

do. 
Flying  clouds. 

do.       do. 

do.       do. 
Clear. 

do. 
Flying  clouds. 

do.         do. 

do.         do. 

do.         do. 

do.         do. 

do.         do. 

do.        do. 

do.         do. 
Clear. 
Flying  clouds. 

do.         do. 

do.         do. 
Clear. 
Clear. 

Flying  clonds. 
Flying  clouds. 
Clear. 

do. 

do. 
Flying  clouds. 

do.        do. 
Clear, 
do. 


Barary  MtUorological  Obtervalion 


Btrary  littrorclogical  Obtervalinnt  made  at  the  Summer  Sohtier,   1838,    i 
Iht  Trivandrum  Obtervalorg. — By  i.  Caldecott,  Est]. 


iST 

t 

■^ 

"   .£• 

1         ^ 

^a-C 

j- 

^  S  a 

1 

1 

■it 
IP. 

1: 

= 

1 

1 
3J72.13 

1  i 
1  1 

3      > 

■B      Clouds,  Oflpeel   of  llie  aky  nnd 
S                          remarks. 

1 

Juoc 

■il 

6.,^ 

■ssu 

74.0  1 

Sky  obiciirod    Willi    ihick  cum.- 

CdlJ  Willj. 

.m 

76.U 

173.43 

Nby« 

do.        Bt  7h.  3(hn.  Iieavy  rein. 

.as 

77i 

2  75.»^ 

1 

Nbj» 

'      Ze:itb  cirar ;  bank  ofcum.inN  .W. 
^       horizon. 

.621 

8au 

a75.!>0 

■3   Fl,cl.;dp.al9h.50m.-I,ravvr.in. 

.sai 

00.5 

y;649 
1 

sbyvf 

=  Skjrov»redHilhcuin.allOh-30ni. 
°       dD.  nilfa  Ihutidrr. 

.ay 

75.8  2.5  7231 

Nwbyw 

3           do.                   .IrMRCnldwird. 

.823,75.91 1«;7a3i 

9          do.                         ligUl  rool  Bit. 

.SOU  76.8 

.173.83 

*         do.                                d... 

.78S|793 

S  76.81 

;2           do.                      «t2h  aornrun. 

.J«77  5 

4  74.12 

N    w 

I,  Somewhal  cienrer—    tVeih  breexc. 

.766  ;U  3 

7  75-95 

•I  Cloudy  and  Ihx'.iruinK. 

.760  79.2 

3  74.5S 

IS  do.  do  .I5b.  30,„.r.in-a.ld«iiid. 
\o  Sky covsrcd with uimbi-r^iDiDBdo. 

.791  76.8 

7  72» 

« 

.m  75-3 

4.7a30 

.g              do.                            d...      " 

.(Ol  75.3 

173.64 

U      ^j--        ,V™  ■'''"'"'''■ 

.8M  75.5 

874.37 

.set  75.3  C 

-974.23 

1              do!              (I  lUli^iani,  rain. 

■8W74.51.9J7I.75 

.880  74.0  0.4  73.13 

,•-            do.      rain  wiih  strong  wind. 

..^ 

Midn. 

,!             do,              dd.           •'do. 

.858  77.8 

2  70.'2O 

do 

a         do           do. 

il59  74.41 

■!  "^ 

''e 

B      do.dp.(,iighilj)lighln.in8.W. 

.1  72.62 

Nwbys 

a              do.                dn 

.St£»  74.U1 

.7  73.00 

»«bj» 

c            do.          do.  lightn.  in  S.W. 

.618  74,5 

.9;3-2a 

1?             do-           oloi. 

.833  74.4 

.3  73.53 

1.;^;;- 

.855  73.l>i  .2,71.W 

»wbyw 

1              do.       [al6h,30in.lie-vvrfliq. 

.865  75.31    2  7159 

i-              do. 

t« 

il7177.l    .4,75.14 

N    K    W 

3, 1             do. 

.911  77.3  2.8  7a33 

n  M«    1 

i\t              do  riinlngnilhstmnaHiad 
B|            do.      do.           rr,'th  breeze. 

!.'„ 

.W6  73,Ull.9|70.2I) 

■Si '3.3 

.670.96 

6|       do.  raining  alidhlly.—iiiodr.brfeae 

898  74.6 

.li\nA9 

do 

4.21 1             do.           do.                     do. 

.851177.0 

i7711b 

do 

3;      iCleariiig                      Bentle  breeza 
4.     lB.lii.r,.le»n-r                       du. 

3,0-72.71 

:X: 

ii%l'.6 

:1.7' 72.74 

i\      :FlvillKI.4uud>                      liffaKlo. 

.807 176.5 

.7,74.10 

1)1     ISkv  aiKiD  Dbicurcc)                  cilm 

lU 

.8^J^ 

176.5 

2.872,49 

2|     1     do.  nunrngiliHhlly,  ligbtbreew 

""npnvaUed  m>  much  throimhout  these  36  June  21sl  fiillofrain  from 

™™^";  Attt  depr«ttioni>  indicate  ihe  tem-  6*.  y.to      6r.u.  138 

Jf""7 »•*» rain, ralhertlian  the  hygromelric  do  ep.w.  to-23d6A.  M.  1  59 

"*l*  "''lxmii«phere.  June  22d  (M  of  rain  from 


Total  in  the  36  hours  4.1 


t,  and  ntuated  exactly  as  before, 


Horary  Metearaiugical  Ohservat 


at  Ihe   ^lUumnal  Eqiihiot  133^ 
Bif  J.  Caldbcott,  Esi|. 


|¥F 

» 

■= 

1^= 

^^ 

^ 

= 

i 

££■ 

i 

5-1 

^ 

S 

Clauds.    eipMI    of    the    .^ky,  an 

s  1 

■| 

11 

1 

KmarLs. 

^ 

i 

1 "! 

1 

If 

t 

'5 

1 

.Q 

^J 

a-E 

a 

*^^,'e..M 

29.701  73.0 

2.1 

68.89!     „ 

08 

7 

.727  7S.6 

2.9 

7140        „ 

3,0 

do.                        do.                   do. 

8 

.7-13  79.1 

4.1 

7.^29!     R   w 

'3 

73 

do.                    do.  gentle  »iui 

9 

.761  Btl 

6.1 

73  52 

( 

2.6 

Obncurrd.                            d<>. 

10 

.y59&1.0 

7.9 

72.85 

ilo 

0.5 

do.                                Oo. 

.751  A4  3 

9.7 

70.30 

do 

7.0 

Fl.  cldi. — cum.aboul  bar.  liuhtai 

NooD. 

.728 

85.4 

10.3  '70.eO 

do 

12.0 

do.              do.              do. 

IP.  «. 

.705 

82.0 

8.4  69,77 

.wb,w 

1) 

SVyobicuredwilhihkkd.   do 

3 

.71VI 

82.8 

S  1  71.IS 

do 

2 

5.5 

rlearinK                         penile  uiiii 

3 

.693 

83.9 

9.6  70.00 

whys 

2 

as 

Zpn-elear-flyingclouda     d... 

« 

.697 

81.8 

8.1  70.03 

do 

■i 

0 

a 

.673 

ao.5 

6  3  71.45 

do 

2 

0.5 

Clearer                                    do. 

6 

.69b 

79.2 

6.9  ,70.61 

1 

do.                                          do 

7 

.72a 

7S.4 

41  72.10 

NW 

LiEht   cloudi   in  »en— cum.  aboi 
HCilem  hotiion      light  air 

B 

.741 

78.1 

4.0  7238 

i 

Driizlingand  Ihieateiiing    calm 

9 

.777 

7.B 

3.7  7251 

do.                                    do. 

10 

.sua 

77.0 

2.B  72.86 

3I  s 

Raining                 moderate  breeii 

II 

.807 

76.5 

2.9  72.S1 

do 

li 

Overcut  and  ihreilcninir  do. 

Miilii. 

.799:7fi.O 

3.* 

71.06 

do 

do.                do.           "do. 

„  22 

.730174  6 

1.7 

7215 

dd 

Raining                        a1mo!<i  calir 

2'" 

.711736 

1.2 

7186 

2  -3 

Overcaat  al  2lt.  4Sm.         drizzlint 

3 

.TO! 

735 

1.2 

71.76 

1 

Zen.  clearinft                 wiud  colli 

4 

.703 

73.5 

a9 

72.20 

do 

Cleat                                   do. 

b 

.753 

73  5 

0.9 

7220 

do 

Overeaii  auain. 

6 

,759 

73.S 

1.2 

71.7b 

da 

do.        at  fib.   45ii>.   driulin 

1           ■  rainbow 

7 

-76S 

74.5 

0.9 

73.22 

da 

3.2  Zen.  cleariiiB-olherwiM  cloudy. 

,782 

77  9 

2.6 

'"* 

' 

5.0  Zen.  d»r'bazc     alioui    horuo 

1     ligbtbreeie. 
4.0,LigIitctoud«abi>u<   E.  hor.  other 

9 

.795 

90.0 

49 

73.06 

do 

3 

1 

1     wiK  cloudy         mode  rale    do. 

10 

.789 

82.0'  6.17141 

do 

2 

5.0          do.                do.                do. 

.757 

M-0|  fl.6  71.75 

3 

12.8  Quiie  c|e»                             do. 

Noon. 

.751 

85-2'  9.6  71.52 

W  by  s 

.7Uii't«.3  10.9  70.fS 

do 

8  11.1          do.                           fmh  breeii 

.787.86  1}  mo  70  15 

do 

8    8,1          do.                                     do. 

3 

.674  85.*  10  a 

70.27 

9    1.1         do.                                do. 

-t 

.1173  W.5'  94 

7223 

"d'o* 

8   1.9  Plying  clond*  in  ten.          do. 
4    0.2;Clearml!ieien.  cinuds  about   S 

5 

-«»8i6  6,5 

7tt30 

1       1 

1    horizon                    eenlte  bren, 

e 

.727 

S0.5 

69 

70.49 

« 

,. 

do.            do.                    do. 

I'be  bAromelcr  h  a  Standard  one  bv  Nennia 
iving  an  half  inch  lube)  nhich  h:is  lately  bee 
:eivcil  ill  excellent  order— it  in  gilaeeil  in  the  ailua 
n  of  the  rornier  one.    The  other  inNlrumenti  are 


September  224  do. 

6n.  u.  to6  r.  H.         K..oe 
Total  ID  ihe36bourt.0.1lilO  incbct 


18J9]  Horary  Meteorological  Obtrrvalion*  at    Trtvandrum 


Uorerv  Mtleorotogieal  Obiervationt  mode  at  the   Wittier  Sohtire,    1838, 
■I  (.(  Trrcandrum  Oiittreatoi-jf. — Ji^  G.  SpSEtscNBiDEH,  Suptrintendent. 


s=   1 

a 

i 

fill 

-=1 

■i 
1 

j    J 

i 
1 

E 

.1 

Cloudi,  iip^cl  of  the  Ay,  aad 

39,767  67.4    79  3370 

yshyf 

i 

'.kv  ilrir— cum.  almut  Ihe  N    E. 

huriiuQ                    |te  title  wind. 

7 

.Tft^GW)   S.3  5!^- 

d'l 

4 

dn.            d«.                 cold  wind. 

8 

313  :uU   9  1  56.61 

do 

46 

da          do-  wind  hirdli  p-reepl. 
do.           dn.     do.  JUKI  perceptible. 

9 

.ei7  79Sl3-ia7  95 

2   6.U 

10 

.rea'sitt  16.915881 

do 

S   (.5 

do.           'lo               aeulle  irind. 
do.clnr.ciiiii.«boiittTielf.haT.do. 

li 

9  4.5 

S«m. 

w 

2.11 

do.          do.             neirly  cdm. 

If.h. 

.729,864  14.5  IbiW 

••   5.8 

do.           do.            acntle  "ind. 

3 

.iift&^.s'ij."  aiM 

•  w    'j  .  I 

0  6.1 

do.            do.  ple.«ntbrirtB.l«. 

a 

.OM4S62l39|6:i.77 

IW      1 

0  2.5 

do.  gCraiain  the  N.      do. 

* 

.7»lPi.4  la9,64.6* 

.b}-« 

1.5 

Sky  ilMr                         do. 

<Io.              wind  hardly  percept. 

5 

.ilblM^.b 

i;i.5 

63119 

6 

.724iW.6 

HJ.7 

6393 

do.                           nt^iychn. 

7 

.732  79.3 

98 

63.99 

do.                                     do. 

8 

.;4;7J.U 

61.30 

^ 

do.                                 do. 

9 

.76a75.S 

9.2 

6t.85 

i 

do.              wind  hardly  petttpl. 

IQ 

.77972.4 

5.0 

64.47 

'5 

do.                                                   "I"' 

I 

.776'7y.6 

aa 

61.&1 

n'e 

e 

do              wind  juBt  perceptible. 

Mid. 

.7bI71.0 

4.2 

8(,30 

do 

s 

do.                     do. 

ai».«. 

.7S2m.tl 

3.4 

6354 

do 

-g 

fky  pratly  cleat               ci,ld  wind- 

2 

.737  68.5 

3.4:63.01 

do 

* 

3 

.736I67-0 

2.9  62.31 

X 

do^                                      "Im. 

4 

.736  67.1)]  4  4  59.77 

J 

do.                                            do. 

t 

.75(1  et&i  5  3  57  65 

KBbjN 

do.                                            do. 

6 

.761,662   5.3,.07.33, 

Sky  covered  with  liahldouda  do. 
do.         Hind  hardly  petceptibli. 

7 

.78167.7    5,e5B.ll 

1  3 

8 

.79173J    8.G59.V7 

do 

2   S5 

do.            do.    juat            do. 

9 

.810  7B.9li(.l  S9  38 

do 

6.0 

d...          wind  hardly        do. 

10 

.800  82.-1  15.3  57..S 

1    9. 

do.                        do. 

n 

.782  813  17.0  55.50 

1    95 

Sky  clear.              do. 
do.              wind  jiiBI  pere^ptiblp. 

Noon. 

,748tti.e'19.3'55.{l6 

2112,-' 

-7I6|W.5|I9.2  1)6.25 

du 

3,  (i7 

do.                                Benllewind. 

i"' 

.696-«-'.i6.B  57.16 

do 

J    38 

do.                                   do. 

3 

.696  8...7, 17.2  59.22 

3   4.5 

do.                                   <9«. 

4 

.6>S  t&.6  16.5  .'>9.21 

do 

2    S-l 

do.                                   do. 

i 

.722  8*1  14  8  60.60 

W    1  w 

ll  2.5 

do.                                   do. 

6 

.741  81.4 

123 

t.1.91 

'\ 

do.                                       d<K 

Mo  thunder,  lightning 


'e  littuileJ  anaclly  lu  before. 


Mtirorolcgical  Stgittt. 


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JSIiili§KiiJ£iilSiJtliS|5l=5!l| 

._j_^u--"— — 2===:^5=»=s=sasasKsss5 

MtUoTologieal  Rtgi$ttr. 


j 

3 
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i 

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iai9]  Meteoroiogicat  Register.  905 

The  InstraTnents  with  which  the  foregoing  obserrations  are  made,  are 
>lacecl  in  the  Western  Verandah  of  the  Honourable  Company's  Obser* 
ratory:  at  about  5  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  27  feet 
ibove  the  level  of  the  Sea. 

The  barometer  employed  is  No.  1,  one  of  two  Standards  which  I  had 
:on«tructed  at  the  end  of  the  year  1836,  to  supply  the  place  of  those 
iroken  during  the  storm  :  the  indications  set  down  ure  those  immediate- 
y  read  off  from  the  instrument,  and  consequently  require  in  addition 
o  the  ordinary  correction  for  temperature,  the  correction  4-,0jI  for 
sapillarity  :  from  a  late  comparison  of  these  with  a  magnificent  standard 
jy  Newman  which  had  l>een  constructed  with  all  the  advantages  of 
modem  improvement  for  the  Trevandnim  Observatory,  it  appeared 
that  when  corrected  for  capillariti/,  the 

Trevandram  Standard  stood  at 30,000  in<*he8. 

the  Madras No.  1 30,001     do. 

No.  2 29,993     do. 

The  thermometo'  was  made  on  purpose  for  the  Observatory,  and  at 
7!^  (the  only  point  at  which  a  comparison  has  been  made)  it  was  found 
to  differ  insensibly  from  the  Royal  Society's  Standard  : 

A.    M.    e» 

Longitude 5     21    8  £• 

LaUtode. 13o     4  8^  N. 

T.  6.  Tatlos, 

J/.  C.  Jetronomer^ 


MADRAS  JOURNAL 


or 


LITERATURE   AND  SCIENCE. 


Ko..  22— April  1839. 


I-— iVotei  on  the  Duty  of  Oovernment  in  periods  of  Famine.^By  JoHir 
F.  Thomas,  £sq.  Afadtat  Civil  iiervice. 

(Continued  from  the  laet  dumber  page  JSJ* 

Thb  enquiry,*  which  on  a  more  extended  examination  of  the  subject 
1  would  confine  to  famine  alone,  is  one  at  all  times  of  such  extreme  im« 
potuce  to  the  people,  and  has  acquired  so  much  additional  interest  from 
tbe  present  circumstances  of  part  of  the  Northern  Circars,  that  I  am  ia« 
doefd  to  prosecute  it  more  at  length.  I  am  anxious  also  to  avoid  a  mis- 
oonttraction  to  which  the  former  remarkst  are,  I  fear,  liable ;  that  be« 
Ante  I  am  disposed  to  question  in  the  present  state  of  Southern  India  the 
KuoDing,  and  the  principle  of  the  circular  order  of  1833,  deprecating  any 
btrrfemiceon  thepartof  Govprnment;  I  would  therefore  advocate  an  op* 
polite  course  ;  and  recommend  a  constant  and  general  tampering  with  the 
giUB  trsde  of  the  country.  This  is  far  from  my  intention  The  sole  ques- 
^  1  would  mise,  is  the  propriety  of  Government  interference  at  periods  of 
r^t  exigency, — at  those  times  only,  when  the  drought  has  been  general 
**tt  large  tracts  of  country,  and  there  has  been  a  failure  of  the  standard 
eiopi  throughout  a  whole  province — when,  in  fact,  we  have  either  cause 

*  Set  Itmwr  brief  oteervatlont  No.  XXII.  p.  78,  rit.  **  Whether  there  are  not,  as 
Dr. Brtfli  HMM  froM  ht»  mmded  lao^aage  to  adroit,  meant  open  to  the  GoTerament* 
*Uch  Bay  not  be  improper  for  it  to  adopt  in  perioda  of  drcuxht.  by  which  that  rooat 
^'>*^l  Koiiiie,  the  absolute  famlnea  which  now  periodically  deaolate  our  proTincea, 
■if  btwhoQj  prerented,  and  acarrity  at  all  timeagreaUy  mitigated,  without  a  departure 
AiMioaadfnMTal  prineiplea,  aod  at  bo  gnrat  tharxe  on  the  fiaaiAceaof  the  State." 

^>itXo.XXIl.  pp.  71-71. 


2(^8  Notes  on  the  Duty  of  Government  [April 

to  dread,  or  are  experiencing  famine  with  all  its  fearful  destruction  of  life 
and  property  ;  such  as  has  been  witnessed  in  our  provinces  in  1807»  in 
1823-24,  and  recently  in  1832.  I  need  scarcely  add,  that  it  is  further  still 
from  my  views,  to  propose  any  measures  for  fixing,  or  regulating  the  price 
of  grain,  or  similar  arbitrary  interference  with  the  freedom  of  the  grain 
mer-hant.  Such  measures,  there  can  be  no  doubt  must  be  injurious,  by 
impeding  the  traffic  in  grain  generally  ;  but  above  all,  by  preventing  that 
frugal  use  of  the  stock  in  hand,  witheut  which  it  would  be  impossible 
for  the  people,  at  periods  even  of  partial  scarcity,  to  escape  all  the  hor- 
rors of  fainiue. 

In  entering  upon  this  investigation  it  is  of  great  moment,  that  the  real 
practical  question  for  examination  should  be  distinctly  brought  before  uSf 
it  appears  to  me  that  it  may  be  fairly  stated  in  these  terms.  Is 
it  the  duty  of  the  Government  in  periods  of  drought,  to  look  on  as  at 
present,  almost  passively,  whilst  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  the 
population  are  swept  off  in  a  few  mouths :  or,  are  there  now  safe, 
and  legitimate  means  of  interference  within  its  power,  through  which 
it  can  secure  much  larger  supplies  of  food  for  th^  people,  than  they 
could  otherwise  obtain,  and  thereby  lessen  the  mortality  of  famine? 
It  is  only  when  the  question  is  put  in  this  form,  and  we  keep 
in  view,  the  enormous  waste  of  life  and  of  national  wealth  in  this 
country  in  seasons  of  severe  drought,  that  the  subject  is  placed  in  its 
true  light. 

During  the  drought  in  Guntoor  in  183*2  there  are  grounds  to 
conclude,  that  more  than  one  third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  district, 
or  upwards  of  200,000  persons  perished,  in  a  population  of  little 
more  than  500,000,  within  a  short  period.  The  returns  of  popula- 
tion in  the  year  prior  to  the  famine,  give 
Population  of  Guntoor,  512,000,  in  the  year  subsequent,  but  one 

Fu8ly....r241  ?^?'?*7  halfor  255,000,  and  four  years  later,  bui 

r^44  26/1714  267,000,  and  it  is  asserted  that  there  w« 

little  or  no  emigration.  Previous  fiimines  have  also  been  estimated  t( 
have  destroyed  one  third  of  the  inhabitants  of  those  districts,  in  whicl 
drought  was  general.  And  we  might  perhaps  fairly  assume  this  propor 
tion,  as  the  ratio  of  mortality  in  famines  in  India,  when  they  are  left  U 
work  out  their  natural  effects  unchecked.  In  examining  therefore  th< 
present  system  of  non-interference,  under  which  the  people  depend  solel] 
on  private  enterprize  for  additions  to  their  stock  of  food,  the  loss  oflifi 
throughout  the  whole  population  must  be  calculated  at  this  rate;  anc 
ve  might  probably  also  safely  estimate  the  loss  of  the  laboureis  of  i 


1839]  in  ptriods  rf  Famine.  309 

proTince,  including  men   and   women,  at  a  hiRher  average,  for  it  is  upon 
this  clans,  that  famine  presses  with  such  pe«uliar  severity. 

If  this  ratio,  either  of  loss  of  life  or  of  labcmr  be  considered  too  high, 
one  much  lower  may  be  assunaed,  and  the  magnitude  of 
the  evil  will  still  be  readily  admitted;  and  it  will  also  I  believe 
be  Emitted,  that  if  the  Government  could  afford  relief  without  se- 
nous  detriment  to  any  class  of  society,  and  wMthout  involving  its 
finances  in  inextricable  difficulties,  it  would  be  both  its  duty,  and  its 
interest  to  give  this  relief. 

This  brings  us  immediately  to  the  consideration  of  the  arguments  of 
Dr.  Smith,  and  other  great  authorities,  which  ^o  to  shew,  that  a  Govern- 
mcDt  has  no  power  to  afford  relief  in  such  emergencies,— that  its  inter- 
itrence  must  do  harm,  and  further, — that  its  interposition  is  uncalled 
lbr,asall  available  aitl  will  best  be  rendered  by  the  operation  of  self- 
interest,  inducing  the  private  trader  to  throw  in  additional  supplies  of 
fcodfor  his  own  profit :— aud  that  non-interference  is  consequently  the 
<»ilr  sound  policy  of  a  state. 

The  validity  of  this  doctrine  in  the  circumstances  of  Europe,  miy  be 
feadily  granted.  Nor  do  I  see,  that  Dr.  Smith's  artniments  can  be  shaken 
ODasingle  point,  when  applied  to  countries  like  Great  Britain  in  an  ad- 
vanced stage  of  society,  and  situated  within  the  temperate  zones:  which 
tre  nerervisited  by  absolute  famine,  as  the  effect  of  the  season  alone,  but 
«ttlybyscarcitv.  But  I  hesitate,  without  further  and  more  full  investiga- 
tion, to  acknowledge  its  truth  in  respect  to  South  1  ndia ;  for  much  of  the 
KftsoDing  of  Smith  appears  to  me  inapplicable  to  this,  or  to  any  tropical 
wontry  in  an  early  stage  of  civilization.  Where,  the  people  are  d^pen- 
<lent  for  their  food,  almost  wholly  on  the  periodical  rains,  and  where,  as 
'weipcrience  has  demonstrated,  it  is  not  merely  scarcily  with  which  we 
H^e  todeal,  but  absolute  famine  extending  at  the  same  moment  over 
^fMc  tracts ;  and  where  we  must  add  also, — the  resources  of  the 
inhabitants  are  almost  as  nothing,  compared  with  the  resources  and 
Beans  of  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain,  or  highly  civilized  European 
lUtes. 

Bat  to  proceed  to  the  examination  of  Dr.  Smith's  views  in  detail.  On 
•nalyiing  them,  bis  doctrine  of  total  non-interference  with  the  provisi-i 
<^ing  of  the  people,  appears  to  be  based  chieHy  on  these  grounds.- 
^mt,  that  a  famine  is  never  the  effect  of  a  bad  season  alona,  for  that 
^iccasioiu  only  scarcity.  Secondly,  that  it  cannot  be  caused  bv  unjust 
combinations  on  the  part  of  the  dealers  in  grain,  for  their  interest  is  the. 
*iiiie  with  the  people.  And  thirdly,  that  there  are,  from  facility  of  inters 
coBUBQBication  and  oUier  circumstances,  resources  in  Europe  available 


210  Noiei  on  the  Duty  of  Government  [Af^il 

to  the  people,  which,  comhined  with  a  frugal  con«nmption,  effec- 
tually secure  them  against  famine,  if  there  is  no  interference  with  th« 
com  trade  by  the  Government. 

He  first  remarks,  that  though  a  real  scarcity  is  ordinarily  occasioned 
by  the  fault  of  the  season  alone,  a  famine  is  never  so  occasioned ;  or  to 
give  his  own  ivords.  "  Whoever  examines,  i»ith  attention,  the  history 
"  of  the  dearths  and  famines,  which  have  afflicted  any  part  of  Europe 
•«  during  either  the  course  of  the  present  or  that  of  ihe  two  preceding  ccn- 
'*  turies,  of  several  of  which  we  have  pretty  exact  accounts,  will  find,  I 
*'  believe,  that  a  dearth  never  has  arisen  from  any  combination  among  the 
•*  inland  dealers  in  com,  nor  from  any  other  cause,  but  a  real  scarcity* 
«•  occasioned  sometimes,  perhaps,  and  in  some  parricular  places,  by  the 
"  waste  of  war,  but  in  by  far  the  greatest  numb«'r  of  cases  by  the  fault  of 
*'  the  seasons,  and  that  a  famine  has  never  arhenfrom  any  other  cauMe^  bnt 
**  the  violence  of  Government  attempting ^  by  impnper  meane,  to  remeehf  tk^ 
*'  incotivenienres  of  a  dearth.^*  And  he  adds,  that  '*  the  scantiest  crop,  if 
*'  managed  ^ith  frugality  and  economy  will  maintain  through  the  year, 
*'  the  same  number  «)r people  that  are  commonly  fed  in  a  more  affluent 
«*  manner  by  one  of  moderate  plenty."*  It  ib  deserving  of  notice  that 
throughout.  Dr.  Smith  speaks  only  of  the  *'  inconveniences*'  of  dearth; 
and  never  once  contemplates  appurently,  a  people  in  the  fearful  state  of 
destitution,  to  which  a  season  of  general  drought  now  reduces  the  po- 
pulation of  this  country  :  i^hen  if  allowed  to  run  its  course,  famine  cuts  off 
one  third  of  the  inhabitants,  with  the  great  mass  of  their  cattle.  For 
drought  in  the  tropii  s,  does  not  as  drou^iht  or  excessive  wet  in  Europet 
affect  ouly  the  standard  crops  of  the  country ;  but  it  is  in  the  expressive 
language  of  scripture,  "  a  drought  upon  the  land,  and  upon  the  moan- 
**  tain^,  upon  that  which  ttie  ground  bringeth  forth,  and  upon  men,  and 
**  upon  cattle,  and  upon  all  the  labour  of  the  hands."  This  utter 
destmctiou  of  all   the  resources  of  the  people,  1   apprehend  to  be  the 

*  **  In  an  exteniire  corn  country  between  all  the  diflCprent  parts  of  which  there  is  a 
*'  free  commerce  aud  communication,  the  aearcity  occasioned  by  the  moat  unikvoarabis 
•'  seasons  can  nerer  be  so  great  as  to  produce  a  famine ;  and  the  scantiest  crop.  It 
"  managed  with  frugality  and  economy,  will  maintain,  through  the  year,  the  same  nnmbcr 
**  of  |>eople,  that  are  commuuiy  fed  in  a  mure  afllueut  manner  by  one  of  moderate  plenty. 
*'  The  sensons  rooi»t  unfavourable  tu  the  crop  are  those  of  excesstre  drought  or  excessive 
*'  rain.  But  as  corn  grows  equally  upon  high  and  low  lands,  upon  grounds  that  are 
'*  disposed  to  be  too  wet,  and  upon  those  that  are  disposed  to  lie  too  dry,  either  tiis 
*'  drought  or  the  rain,  which  is  hurtful  to  one  part  of  th«*  country,  is  fiavourable  to  aao* 
**  ther,  and  though,  both  in  the  wet  snd  in  the  diy  season,  the  crop  is  good  deal  leaatliaa 
'•  in  one  more  properly  tempen*d.  yet,  in  liotli,  «bat  is  lost  iu  one  part  of  the  country  is 
*'  in  aome  measure  cumpensated  by  what  is  gained  iu  the  other.  "«>4reo<<A  ef^eHtm 
iV  cAs/».  F.  Digrtutum  vuneening  the  m/ru  tmie  and  corn  Uueu 


1S»]  In  periods  of  Fam'mt.  211 

true  character  of  Indian  droni^htA;*  ani  I  believe  it  also  to  be  cer- 
tiioy  that  the?  do,  without  any  adventitious  cau^e  save  what  may 
be  found  in  the  existing  condition  of  society,  uf  themselves  con- 
itinily  oec&sion  the  most  desolatini;  famines.  If  this  be  denied,  and  it 
ii  contended,  as  Dr.  Smith  is  disposed,  though  with  some  hesitation  to 
contend,  that  the  droughts  of  India  are  not  so  intense,  nor  so  universal  as  of 
tkimielvet  to  occasion  famine— I  would  :i8^,  how  has  it  then  occurred,  that 
tens  and  even  hundreds  of  thousands  have  perished  by  actual  stan^af 
tka  under  British  role,  whilst  it  is  certain,  that  there  his  been  no  tam<- 
periogon  the  part  of  Govenim^'nt  with  the  grain  trade  of  the  country, 
ind  the  people  have  been  left  to  the  freest  use  of  their  own  resources, 
lo  opposition  to  Dr.  Smith's  suppOHitinn  **  that  the  drought  is  bcarce 
erer  so  univergal  as  necessary  to  occasion  a  famine  if  the  Go* 
nminent  would  allow  a  free  trade.''  1  should  muintain,  (hat  no 
^  it  DOW  |ierhap8  better  e8tablii«hed  in  Indian  siatia^ticSf—thatnot 
karcity,  bat  absolute  famine  in  all  its  severity*  is  caused  by  the  fault 
%ttk$  sfason  alone,  and  that  it  is  not  brought  on  by  any  improper  regu« 
Ifttions  on  the  part  of  the  Govpri«ment.t 

Should  this  be  conceded,  it  appears  to  me  to  strike  at  the  root  of  the 
doctrine  of  non-interference  in  tropical  countries,  and  cons'^quHntly  that 
v«  are  not  warranted  in  applying,  as  the  circular  order  of  Government 
does,  Dr.  Smith's  principle  without  limitation  to  Southern  India  :  but 
ttntt  confine  its  application  to  cases,  similar  in  their  character  to 
leutitiesin  Europe.  To  seasons  for  example  of  very  partial  drouglit  or 
of  dearth,  where,  either  from  the  previous  stores  of  grain  in  the  pits  of 


*  Th»  dUfetraee  between  the  bad  leison  of  the  tropical  and  the  temperate  lone,  if 
itmigiy  marked  in  the  following  report  of  the  oat  turn  of  the  late  bad  aeason  in  1838 
liCiMt  Britain  and  Ireland. — Rentlttqfthe  Uarteit  in  Ireland.  In  thiji  country  the  har* 
^M  iiataa  end,  with  the  exception  of  isolated  mountain  diatricti.  The  result  rony  bt 
teAortljsiated.  Wheat  is  generally  speaking,  fully  one-third  short  of  an  arerage 
<N^  sad  the  grain  is  deficient  in  yield.  As  fki  as  the  farmer  is  concerned,  the  price  will. 
extent,  make  ap  foi  what  is  wanting  in  quality  and  quantity.  But  the  super* 
of  the  oat  crop  b  admitted  in  ail  quarters  and  barley  and  potatoes  are,  with 
^  few  exceptions,  also  beyond  an  average  crop.  In  fccr,  allowing  for  the  partial 
AOvtof  whc«t,  this  yvar  will  be  one  of  the  best  the  Irish  farmeis  hare  had  for  a  long 
!>>«•  We  are  much  better  off  than  oui  neighbours  either  in  England  or  Scotland.— 
A>Ui«  /W,  Tueadt^  week, 

^  **  la  riee  eonotriea,  where  the  crop  not  only  requires  a  rery  mt>ist  ■(til,  but  where. 
*"  is  a  certain  period  of  its  growing,  it  must  be  laid  under  water,  the  eflects  of  a 
*'  ^saght  are  mneh  more  dismal.  Even  in  such  conntries,  however,  the  dr«iugbt  is 
**  IHfcaiis,  aearce  erer  so  anirersal  as  net'eaaaril)  to  occasion  a  famine,  if  the  Government 
"naldalUiwa  Ikee  crade.    The  drought  in  Bengal,  a  few  years  a^ro.  mifrht  probably 

■Wf  occaaiOBed  a  very  great  deoftk.  Some  improper  reflation,  some  injudicious 
"iMrsbts  impoaedby  the  servants  of  the  East  India  Company  upon  the  rice  trade, 
"  Matribated,  peihapa,  to  twn  thai  dearth  Into  a  famine.**'— Mc«llA  q^  AoIioim  Beok  IF 
<%  r.Dignmim  ^omwutng  tkttam  ind§  ami  cam  tonw. 


212  Notes  on  the  Duty  of  Government  [Apiil 

tHe  ryots,  or  from  the  limited  area  over  which  the  drought  extends  (as  it 
is  probable  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  Northern  Circars).  The  means  of 
alleviation,  and  of  staying  off  famine  are  accessible  to  the  great  bulk  of  the 
popuLition. 

That  Dr.  Smith's  doctrine  can  only  be  justly  applied  to  such  cases, 
will  I  think  be  further  evident,  upon  consideration  of  the  arguments  ad- 
vance 1  in  its  support  by  himself  and  Dr.  Chalmers,  who  has  f<>llowed 
out  his  views  at  length,*  both  laying  much  stress,  upon  the  natural  alle- 
viations, or  the  palliatives  to  scarcity,  at  all  times  within  the  reach  of  the 
people  of  Europe. 

They  ob8er\'e,  that  the  variety  of  soil  and  climate  greatly  modiB^s  the 
effect  of  bad  seasons,  that  there  are  substitutes  for  the  food  of  man  io 
the  grain  raised  for  cattle,  (and  we  might  add  a  certainty  in  the  tempe- 
rate zone  of  a  supply  of  water  for  animal  life),   that  the  large  amount  of 
the  external  commerce  of  the  different  states  of  Europe,  gives  to  each  a 
command  at  all  times  over  the  products  of  the  other,  and  that  these, 
with  other  alleviating  circumstances,  amply  secure  the  inhabitant   of 
Europe  against  absolute  famine  or  starvation.     So    effective  indeed  are 
these  palliatives  in  Europe  immediately  within   the  reach   of  the   peo- 
ple, and  so  dissimilar  is  European  dearth,    from   In iian    or  tropical 
famine;  that  whilst  we  number  deaths  by  tens  of  thousands  in   a  few 
months.  Dr.  Chalmers  hesitates  not  to  affirm  (see  his  late    Bridge  water 
Treatise.  **  On  the  moral  and  intellectual  constitution  of  man**   vol.  II. 
p.  46)  "  that  the  country  em'^rges  from  the  visitation  of  dearth,  without 
*^  in  all  probabiity,  the  starvation  of  one  ind'ridual.**     And  again   at  p. 
49.     **  It  is  in  tli»»se  various,  ways  that  a  country  is   found  to  sun'ive   so 
"  well  its  hard'^'^t  and  heaviest  visitation,  and  even  under  a  triple  price 
**  for  the  first  articles  of  subsistence,   it  has  been  found  to  emerge  into 
**  prosperity  again,  without  an  authentic  inst^mce  of  starvation  throughout 
♦*  all  its   families."     These  pas.*«ages  must  I    think  carry  conviction  of  a 
truth,  which  lam  anxious  to  establish,   of  the   first  importance  in  this 
enquiry — that  there  is  nothing  parallel  in   the  case  under  the  review  of 
Smith,  Chalmers,  and  other  political  economists  of  Europe,  to  the  cir- 
eurostances  before  us  in  India:  and  I  would  rest  my  first  objection  to 
the   unlimited    application     of    the    principle    of  non-interference   io 
periods  of  famine  in  South  India,  on  the  manifest  dissimilarity  between 
the  circumstances  of  dearth  in  the  two  countries. 

Should  this  objection  be  considered  of  any  weight,  we  may  then  be 
permitted  to  question,  whether  the  authority  of  Adam  Smith's  great 
name,  can  properly  be  thrown  into  the  scale  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of 
non-interference,  in  the  peculiar  exigency  of  famine   by  the  fault  of  the 

•  S«e  Dt.  ClMlmen'  PoHtietl  Beoaomy,  and  his  Ule  Bridgew«ter  TiMtttM. 


1939]  iu  periods  of  Faming^  S13 

leaBon  alone.  And  it  may  also  then  be  open  to  discussion,  whether  th« 
general  principles  of  his  work  lead  us  to  conclude,  that  it  is  the  duty  of 
aGoTemment  at  periods  of  excessive  drought,  rigidly  to  abstain  from  all 
tttempts  to  increase  the  quantity  of  food  in  the  couutry,  or  whether  it 
nay  not  by  a  judicious  application  of  its  means,  secure  enlarged  sup- 
plies, and  lessen  the  mortality  ;  and  the  consequent  destruction  of  labour 
and  of  capital. 

Certain  it  is,  that  Malthus*  and  other  writers,who  hare  ranked  high  as 
followers  of  Smith,  have  maintained,  that  the  provisioning  of  the  country 
cannot  always  be  safely  relinquished  to  the  operation  of  the  ordinary 
laws  of  supply  and  demand,    which  govern  less  necessary  articles ; 
lod   that   there   are  considerations    affecting  the  food    of  a  people, 
which  may  take  it  out  of  the  ordinary  rules  of  Political  Economy.    Th« 
ease  of  South  In  lia  during  famine,  is,   I  am  disposed  to  think  precisely, 
one  of  these  cases,  requiring  therefore  to  be  dealt   with  under  peculiar 
regolations.     And  as  it  is  no  argument  against  the  corn   laws  of  £ng« 
land,  that  there  is  always  a  compensation  for  the  produce  lost  by  a  bad 
leason  in  our  own  country,  in  the  abundant  crops  reaped  by  our  neigh- 
bours— unless  we  are  at  the  same  time  assured,  that  that  abundance  will 
sot  be  withheld  from  British  ports,  from  hostile   motives  or  commercial 
jealousy.    So  in  like  manner,  it  is  no  argument  in  favour  ofnon-inter<« 
ference  in  this  country,  to  urge,  that  the  grain  lost  by  the  failure  of  the 
noBsoon  in  some  one  of  our  provinces,  is,  in  the  merciful  dispensations 
of  God,  invariably  compensated   by  the  superabundant  crops  of  other 
^gdoms,  or  provinces.     Unless  it  can  also  at  the  same  time  be  clearly 
proved  to  ns,  that  this  excess  of  produce  of  the  favoured  province,   will 
flsw  into  those  suffering  from  drought;  and  that,  in  time  to  prevent  the 
teniction  of  the  inhabitants,  and  with  them  the  very  sources  of  national 
prosperity.     Unless  this  can  be  shewn,  this   peculiar  dispensation    of 
M'i  providence,  by  which  the  deficiency  of  one  portion  of  the  world 
■ight  be  supplied  from  the  superabundance  of  another,  is  utterly  un- 
•vailable,  for  it  amounts  to  nothing  to  tell  us  that  such  extra  supply 
Sexist  elsewhere,  it  might  as  well  not  exist,  if  we  have  not  at  the 
•use  time  the  assurance,  that  it  will    reach  those  who  must  perish  with* 
out  it. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  another  of  Dr.  Smith's  maia 
>v<niients,that  this  abundance  of  favoured  districts  will  readily  find  its  way 
uto  bmine  districts,  if  Government  do  not  interfere.   In  establishing  this 

*  See  Tracts  on  the  Com  Laws. 


St4  Notei  on  ilu  Duty  of  Oovenmmi%  [Apmn 

point  be  first  ably  disposes  of  the  objection  which  might  be  made  to  hit 
▼iews,  in  limine,  that  famine  or  excessive  dearth  may  be  caused  by 
a  combinaiion  of  the  dealers  to  raise  the  price  of  com  at  th0 
cost  of  the  people.  This  he  shews  to  be  impracticable,  and  provei 
that  there  is  an  identity  of  interest  between  the  com  dealer  and  the 
consumer,  which  precludes  injurious  combination.  His  argument  on  this 
head,  1  believe  to  be  in  a  great  degree  applicable  to  this  country.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  quite  possible  under  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  South 
India,  that  cases  have  occurred,  and  may  again  arise,  in  which  the 
wholesale  d'^alers  and  importers  in  our  provinces,  who  are  not  in 
danger  as  in  Europe  of  having  their  trade  encroached  upon,  have  com- 
bined to  prevent  additional  supplies  of  grain  being  introduced  :  or,  what 
amounts  to  the  same  thing,  have  remained  inactive,  with  the  view  of  en- 
hancing the  value  of  the  stock  in  hand.  But  such  cases  must  I  should 
think  be  very  rate,aa  in  general,  it  is  decidedly  the  interest  of  the  deal- 
ers  to  bring  in  as  large  supplies  as  practicable,  and  obtaiu  the  high  prices 
of  s^'arcify. 

But  it  is  not  upon  this  part  of  Dr.  Smith's  reasoning  that  I  would  re* 
mark.  It  may  be  readily  granted  that  it  is  the  interest  of  the  dealer  to 
supply  the  people  in  times  of  fiimtne  with  food,  as  plentifully  as  he  pos- 
sibly can  ;  but  it  is  his  power, — his  ability  to  do  so  effectually,  in  the 
present  condition  of  this  'o  mfre,  that  I  qu<>stion. 

Dr.  Smith  assigns  the  facility  of  intercjm*nunication  between  the  dif- 
ferent provinces  of  a  state,  and  different  countries,  as  one  prominent  ground 
of  his  opinion,  that  when  a  Government  does  not  improperly  interfere,  the 
supply  of  grain  will  be  ample  and  sufficient  to  pi^vent  famine.  And 
when  the  nations  of  Europe  are  at  peace,  and  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
her  merchants  from  a  free  intercourse  with  every  state,  it  is  no  doubt 
true,  that  the  wants  of  one  kingdom  or  province  in  periods  of  scarcity, 
will  be  immediately  provided  from  the  stores  of  others,  by  the  ordinary 
motives  and  exertions  of  self-interest  But  1  hesitate  to  make  a  similar 
admission  in  the  case  of  this  country,  for  we  must  first  ask,  does  this  faci- 
lity of  intercommunication  now  exist  in  Southern  India?  And  are  not  the 
defects  and  imperfections  in  the  means  of  communication  between  the 
several  provinces  of  this  Presidency, and  also  distant  markets,  such,  as  to 
raise  a  barrier,  which  the  private  merchant  cannot  now  overcome,  to  the 
timely  importation  of  those  large  supplies  of  grain  required  in  districts 
visited  by  severe  drought.  And  may  it  not  perhaps  be  fairly  questionable, 
whether  the  just  infereuce  from  Smith's  reasoning  under  these  circum- 
stances, is  not,  that  the  Government  of  a  half  civilized  country,  of  which 
this   defect    of  intercommunication   is  the    common    feature,   should 


1839.]  in  periods  of  Famine.  215 

tbstain  from  interference  in  the  emergency  of  famine;  but  whether 
it  should  not  for  the  time,  come  forward  and  afford  such  aid,  as  may 
place  her  grain  merclinnts  in  the  period  of  severe  drought,  as  much  as 
possible  on  a  level  in  the  means  of  communication,  with  ihc  dealers  in 
more  advanced  nations,  by  undertaking  part  of  the  labour,  and  bearing 
part  of  the  charge  of  transit.*  But  whether  this  be  a  legitimate  infer- 
ence, or  not,  it  is  I  think  clear,  that  till  there  is  that  facility  of  intercom- 
munication which  Dr.  Smith  assumes,  neither  his  principle,  nor  his  rea- 
soning can  be  justly  applied  to  this  country. 

There  can  also  I  think  be  little  doubt,  that  in  laying  dov^n  his  great 
doctrine  of  non-interference.  Dr.  Snaith  had  under  consideration,  the 
tbuudance  of  capital  in  private  hands,  the  extensive  credit,  and  the  known 
enterpriie,  and  spirit  of  adventure  in  British  and  European  merchants  ; 
as  well  as  the  intimate  connection  of  the  whole  mercantile  body 
of  Europe;  by  which,  the  merchants  of  London,  Liverpool,  or  Dantzic 
can  obtain  with  ease,  an  immediate  consignment  of  com  from  each  other» 
or  from  any  quarter,  at  the  shortest  notice.f  Whilst  the  large  and  con- 
itant  commerce  by  sea,  and  the  good  roads  generally  throughout  Euro- 
pean states,  remove  all  impediments  to  an  early  augmentation  of  the 
food  of  the  country,  even  from  distant  markets,  whenever  scarcity  prices 
>h;ill  make  this  pro6table.  All  these  circumstances  are,  I  apprehendf 
included  as  the  grounds  of  Dr.  Smith's  views  ;  and  I  cannot  but  think, 
they  differ  widely  from  the  actual  circumstances  of  this  Presidency. 
Not  only,  are  the  means  of  intercommunication  by  land  between  our 
provinces  very  defective ;  but  it  must  also  be  allowed,  that  the  mari- 
time commerce  of  the  Presidency  is  in  its  infancy; — that    the    whole 

*  As  an  illttttration  I  would  propose  the  question,  whether  in  the  event  of  ahsolute  fa- 
■use  in  oar  provinces  bordering  on  the  Punjab,  it  would  be  an  injudicious  interference  on 
tbeputof  Government,  at  a  moment  of  pressing  exigency  to  offer  the  native  merchant 
ftf  Bengal  and  Bombay,  the  use  of  the  Government  i>team  vessels  on  the  Indus  and  tho 
Oaofnatalow  charge,  and  thus  give  him  the  means  of  introducing  supplies  in  one-fifth 
of  the  ordinary  time.  And  whether  this  increased  facility  of  importation  at  such  a  pe- 
riod, sad  thus  raising  the  country  pro  tempore  to  a  level  with  more  civilised  states  in  the 
■Ctttt  of  intercommunication,  would  not  rather  be  in  accordance  with,  than  a  departure 
from  8mitb*s  principles ;  if  care  weie  at  the  same  time  taken  by  bounties,  that  no  mer- 
chaat^ould  suffer  loss  by  his  more  tardy  impoitations.  Or,  to  apply  the  case  to  the 
Madras  Presidency,  would  it  be  an  improper  act,  if  the  Government  were  to  offer  the 
Miivc  oierehant  at  periods  of  famine,  the  use  of  vessels  to  bring  up  his  grain  against 
the  monsoon,  when  the  native  craft  eiiher  could  not,  or  would  not  move. 

i  The  extensive  credit  which  the  European  merchant  enjoys,  is  the  consequence  of 
the  general  integrity  of  the  class;  and  this  integrity,  not  only  gives  him  a  command 
•ver  the  capital  of  others,  but  secures  a  faithful  execution  of  his  orders  in  foreign  mar- 
kets. It  is,  1  have  reason  to  believe,  the  difficulty  the  European  capitalist  in  this 
covatry  finds,  in  obtaining  through  native  agency  a  similar  upright  and  faithful  execution 
of  ordtn,afldtapplies  of  groin  of  good  quality,  which  keeps  him  from  embarking  in  tht» 
trade,  ertD  when  lai|^  profits  are  to  be  made  in  it. 


916 


Notes  on  tk§  Duty  of  Government 


[Apiil 


mtrcantile  body  is  small,  in  proportion  to  the  mass  of  the  population, 
$knd  its  capital  and  credit  limited :  and  that  these  causes,  whatever  may 
be  the  strength  of  the  motives  of  self-inierest,  by  which  the  dealers  are 
prompted,  must  tend  greatly  to  obstruct,  if  not  to  prevent  the  succestt 
of  any  effort,  they  may  make  to  supply  the  urgent,  and  \*ast  demand  of 
districts  visited  hy  famine. 

As  already  observed,  the  actual  fact  is,  that  they  do  not  novr  in  any 
measure  meet  this  demand,  even  when  supplies  have  been  obtain^ 
able  with  comparative  ease;  and  that  grain  has  nut  hitherto  been 
introduced  by  the  private  merchant  in  seasons  of  famine  into  dis- 
tricts, in  time  to  prevent  the  starvation  of  the  population.  'J'he  single 
fact,  the  great  mortality  of  the  labouring  classes  which  now  taket 
flace  in  every  season  of  general  drovght^  appears  to  me  fully  to 
demonstrate  of  itself,  the  total  inefficacy  of  private  exertion  in  the 
present  state  of  South  Indian  commerce.  But  to  place  this  point  beyond 
dispute,  I  annex  a  table  of  the  prices  of  grain  at  Ganjam,  Vizagapatam, 
and  the  neighbouring  provinces  throughout  the  entire  period  of  the 
late  famine  in  Gunfoor.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  table,  that  in  the  year 
1832,  whilst  tens  of  thousands  were  perishing  in  Guntoor  from  the  want 
•f  food  and  consequent  disease,  and  grain  w*as  there  more  than  triple 
its  ordinary  price,  it  was  to  be  had  at  near  markets,  with  which  there 
was  moreover  an  open  sea-communication,  at  the  ordinary  rate,  or  at 
one-third  of  the  price ;  and  that  throughout  the  whole  period  of  the 
famine,  private  enterprize  never  brought  in  enough,  either  to  lower  the 
prices  considerably  in  Guntoor,  or  to  raise  them  much  in  Ganjam  and 
Vizagapatam.  So  manifest  is  it,  that  the  abundance  of  one  district  in 
South  India  is  not  now  made,  through  the  instrumentality  of  private  ex« 
ertions,  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  another. 


Fusly  1231 
AD.  1831-2 
Fusly  1232 
AD.  1832-3 


Guntoor, 

RiceRaggy 
(  154  ,,197 

I  200  ,,218 


Ganjam, 

Rice  Raggy 
50  „  71 

61  „  87 


Vizagapa- 
tam, 
Rice  Raggy 

47  .,  60 


»i 


69  ..  90 


»i 


Rajamun- 

dry, 
RiceRaggy 

57  „  66 
102  „  141 


MasuHpO' 

tarn. 
Rice  Raggy 

59  ,.  75 


9» 


123  „  184* 


If  it  were  possible  to  obtain  them  correctly,  it  would  be  desirable  to 
add  to  these  facts,  data  which  might  shew  the  limited  amount  of 
capital  in  the  hands   of  the  grain  merchants,  and  the  low  state  of  trade 


*  The  prices  are  given  for  these  two  importaut  grains  for  the  entire  period  of  tht 
iuBiae,  but  it  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  Masulipatam  also  siufTered  paitially  from 
the  same  drought  which  afflicted  Guntoor,  and  the  high  price  there,  b  probably  to 
b?  accounted  for  by  that  circumstance,  and  not  by  the  supplies,  witbdiawn  for  iht^ 
l^e  o(  Guntoor. 


1839]  m periods  of  Fmrnine.  21^ 

in  ffeneral,  and  from  them  also  to  prove  the  inability  of  the  dealers 
to  meet  the  extraordinarily  large  demand  of  famine.  But  on  these 
points  I  must  refer  to  the  remarks  made  in  the  former  part  of 
these  notes  ;•  and  I  would  ground  my  second  and  further  objec- 
tion to  the  applteatton  of  Dr.  Smith's  doctrine  to  this  country,  upon  the 
&Gts  ju5t  adduced.  They  appear  to  me  to  establish  this  important 
point.— Ttiat  hoi*  great  soever  may  be  the  incentive  of  self-interest,  and 
the  intelligence  of  the  mercantile  body  of  this  Presidency,  there  is  not 
now  praetically,  that  intercommunication  between  our  provinces  or  dis* 
tant  markets,  which  would  enable  the  private  dealer  (as  Dr.  Smith  as- 
sumes) readily  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  district  suffering  from  bad  seasons ; 
and  that  if  left  to  private  exertion,  the  country  must  experience  all  the 
horrors  of  famine  e\ety  season  of  general  drought.  And  such  accord^ 
logly  was  the  case  in  1824,  when  hundreds  and  thousands  perished  at 
Madras  and  its  neighbourhood,  although  it  Was  then  confidently  pre- 
dicted by  the  first  authorities,  that  if  left  to  himself,  the  private  merchant 
vould  bring  in  ample  supplies. 

Thoagh  I  do  not  think  any  thing  further  is  required  to  establish   the 
isadequ-icy  of  private  effort  to  meet  the  exigency  of  famine,   there  is  a 
consideration,   applicable  chiefly  to  the  rural  districts  of  the  Presldencyi 
which  it  may  be  well   to   bring  under    review.    In  such  districts,  a 
difficulty,  wholly  unknown   in   Europe,  to  the  timely    and    adequate 
supply  of  food  in  seasons  of  famine,  arises  it  is  probable   from  the 
peculiar  condition  at  this  date  of  South   Indian   society.    Kine-tenths 
and   more  of  the    population  of  those   districts   are   agricultural,  or 
tubsist   directly    from  the  land;  and  a  large  proportion    depends  for 
entire  support  on  the  out-turn  of  the  year.    The  agricultural   labourers, 
the  great  bulk  of  the  population,  do  not,  as  in  Europe,   receive   their 
wages  in  money,  and  obtain  their  supplies  of  food  from  the  baker,  who 
has  capital  embarked  in  the  grain  trade,  and  who  procures  his  com  from 
a  distance  or  near,  as  may  best  suit  his  interest ;  but  they  are  paid  their 
waget  in  kind^  when  the  har\'est  is  gathered  in,  and  On  that  they  must 
subsist  through  the  year.     If  the  harvest  fails,    whence  are  their  wants 
to  be  sapplied  ?    It  is  not,  I  conceive,  in  the  nature  of  things,  that  the 
petty  village  grain  merchant,  whose  ordinary  traffic  is  confined  to  the 
npply  of  a  few  families,  by  purchases  made  on  the  spot,  should  have  a 
ttock  in  hand  to  meet  the  large  extra  demand  of  the   labouring  classy 
tbich  he  could  give  to  them  on  credit.     And  even  the  substantial  ryot, 
when  he  has  no  store  left  firom  the  crops  of  former  years,  cannot  I  should 
toppose  venture  to  give  any  aid  at  such  a  crisia — so  that  it  may  be 
dtNibted^  unless  supplies  of  grain  are  introduced  by  foreign  agency,  and 

•  No.  XXU.  p.  74. 


218  Notes  on  the  Duty  of  Government  [Amil 

brought  to  the  door  of  the  village  chitly,  if  there  is  capital,  or  agency  in 
the  district,  whereu  ith  the  demand  of  the  labouring  classes  for  food,  can  at 
such  seasons  be  met.  In  a  society  differently  constituted,  like  that  of  Great 
Britain, where  more  than  one  half  of  the  population  are  non-agricultural,  the 
labourers,  both  manufacturing  and  agricultural  can  fall  back  upon  their 
employers;  and  wherever  there  is  a  large  manufacturing  and  commercial 
class,  there  also,  is  a  large  grain  trade,  and  a  body  of  dealers  accustomed 
to  import  supplies,  who  in  time  of  high  prices  will  greatly  enlarge  their 
transactions,  and  the  increased  demand  of  the  people  for  foreign  grain 
can  be  met  without  difficulty.  But  in  the  circumstances  of  the  rural 
districts  of  this  Presidency,  I  see  no  means  of  meeting  a  like  demand  ; 
and  hence  there  may  be  a  necessity  for  Government  interference  whilst 
•ocieiy  is  in  its  present  condition. 

Independently  of  the  several  considerations  which  have  been  already 
advanced,  I  would  also  remark  that  it  appears  necessary  to  the  ej»tablish- 
ment  of  Dr.  Smith's  great  principle  of  nou-interference,  that  all  the  cir- 
cumstances to  which  he  adverts  should  exist  combinedly.  it  is  not 
enough  for  example,  that  it  is  physically  true  in  any  country,  that 
scarcity  only,  and  not  famine  is  caused  by  a  bad  season  ;  but  it  must  also 
be  established,  that  there  is  a  total  absiinence  in  that  country 
at  the  same  time  from  unjust  combination  by  the  dealers  in  com. 
For  if  an  unjust  combination  does  ejcist,  then  I  conclude,  the  Govern- 
ment must  and  ought  to  interfere,  for  its  interference  can  alone  pre- 
vent the  starvation  of  the  people,  even  in  a  period  of  scarcity.  Again, 
let  there  be  no  unjust  combination,  yet  if  a  facility  of  intercommu- 
nication does  not  co-exist  simultaneously  with  perfect  freedom  of  trade, 
and  all  barriers  to  the  ready  transfer  of  the  grain  of  one  province,  or  one 
market  to  another,  are  not  removed;  the  Government  may  even  in  that 
case, be  called  upon  to  interpose,  in  order  effectually  to  secure  the  timely 
introduction  of  the  necessary  supplies  of  food.  So  that  in  applying  Dr. 
Smith's  principle,  we  must  not  look  only  to  specific  points  ;  but  enquire, 
whether  the  circumstances  of  a  country  are  the  same,  or  very  similar 
in  all  points  to  those  he  had  under  review,  before  we  can  recognize  the 
validity  of  his  principle.  If  the  facts  in  South  India  are,  that  in  a  bad 
season,  instead  of  scarcity,  we  have  famine,  and  in  lieu  of  an  immense 
body  of  traders,  too  numerous  to  combine,  with  abundant  capital,  and 
intelligence  equal  to  the  greatest  enterprizes,  we  have  but  comparatively 
a  small  body,  who  can  combine,  of  limited  credit  and  capital,  and  not 
ordinarily  engaged  in  distant  speculations.  And  if  instead  of  a  facility  of 
intercommunication  between  the  different  provinces,  and  distant  marts 
there  are  great  impediments  existing,  not  to  be  readily  surmounted  br 


1839.]  inperloJn  of  Famine.  219 

private  eiTort :  then,  not  only  if  all  these  circinnshmces,  but  if  any  one 
exists,  we  have  not,  I  am  dispoged  to  think,  a  foundation  u{)on  which 
Dr.  Smith's  doctrine  can  be  safely  erected,  and  we  must  question  its 
applicability  to  this  country. 

But  whilst  this,  with  much  of  what  has  been  advanced,  may  be  admit- 
ted, yet  the  inference    which    would  follow,  that   Government    inter- 
ference is  culled  for,  may  not  be  conceded  ;  for  it  will  perhaps  still  be  ar- 
gued, that  privite  exertion,  if  wholly  unfettered,  will  be  found  the  safest 
and  hf»t  means  of  supply  insf,  even  the  greatest  and  most  urgent  wants  of 
the  people.     Or  to  use  Dr.  Smith's  languag(»  **  that  the  natural  etfort  of 
every  individual   to  better  his   own  condition,   when  suifered   to  exert 
itself  with   freedom  and  security,   is  so  powerful  a  principle,  that  it  is 
alone,  and  without   any  assistance  capable  of  carrying   on  a  society  to 
wealth  and  prosperity,  and  of  surmounting  a  hundred  obstructions  with 
which  the  folly  of  human  laws  too  often  encumbers  its  op'^rations.'*   Book 
IV.  chap.  V.  Digression,  &c.     There   is   so    nui.  h    fore    in    this   state- 
ment, that  if  the  fact  did  not  stare  us    in  the  f.ice,  that    thes»^   natural 
efforts  do  not  in  any  adequate   mciisure  now  meet  the  case  of  famine  in 
this  Presidency,  I  should  not  venture  to  advocHte  even  the  uiost  cautious 
Government  interference;  although  I  think  it  demonr:!lnible  that  the  rea- 
soning by  which  the  doctrine  of  non-inlcrference  has  been  hitherto  sup- 
ported, is,  so  far  as  South  India  is  concernel,  untenable.     Dvit  so  long  as 
famine  in  this  Presidency  occasions   any  thing  like  the   present    fearful 
mortality,  and  destruction  of  property,  and  so  long  as  entire  provinces  are 
desolated  by  a  single  season  of  severe  drought  ;  it  appears  ahnost  a  moral 
duty, before  we  rest  satisfied  with  the  present  passive  system,  to  institute 
the  fullest  enquiry, whether  there  are  not  at  the  command  of  the  Govern- 
ment legitimate  means  of  adding  to  the  food  of  the  country,  and  thereby 
lessening  the  misery  and  ruin  of  such   periods.     I  would  therefore  ask, 
whether  there    are    solid    objections    on    general    principles,  to    the 
Government,  in  the    exigency  of    famine,   throwing  additional  supplies 
into    the    market    by    the    instrumentality   of  the    gnin     merchants 
theiDgelves,  by  offering  them  facilities  for  their  commerce,  not  ace  'ssible 
^themat  other  times.  In  advances  of  Govemme.it  capital, — in  increased 
neans  of  transit, — in  premiums  on  importation  in  the   fo»m  of  bounties, 
or  of  return  cargoes  of  Government  salt ;    or  similar  public  aid,   which 
would  not  tend  to  supersede,  but  to  stimulate  their  exertions.     Nor  am  I 
prepared  to  allow,  that — if  the  Government  went  a  step  further,  ami  im- 
ported supplies  of  foreign  grain  at  its  own  ri-k,  not  to  be  brought  into  the 
^f^rketfor  sale  to  compete  with  the  grain   mcr  haut,   but  to  be  d(?alt  out 
as  rations  to  the  people  driven  by  extreme  poverty   to  work  on  the  roads, 


Sl!20      ^otes  on  the  D:tty  of  (joremment  in  periods  of  Fanvne,       [April 

or  other  public  works — an  interference  with  the  provisioning  of  the 
people  to  this  extent  would  be  faulty  in  principle.  For  this  class, 
it  must  be  remembered,  has  no  means  of  obtaining  food  from  private 
Bources  in  exchange  for  their  labour,  nor  could  they  without  Govern- 
ment aid,  become  at  such  times  purchasers  from  the  grain  merchants. 
The  payment  for  their  labour  in  kind  by  rations,  could  not  therefore 
trench  unjustly  upon  the  interests  of  the  dealers,  nor  lessen  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  grain  trade.  And  till  some  experiment  of  this  character 
ha«  been  made,  and  failed,  are  we  fairly  in  a  position  to  carry  out  Dr. 
Smith's  great  principle  of  total  non-interference,  as  the  only  sound 
policy  of  the  state,  at  the  sacrifice  now  periodically  made  of  an  enormous 
waste  of  life  and  of  national  wealth  ? 

And,  lastly,  even  if  it  shall  be  found  upon  the  most  ample 
examination,  and  after  judicious  experiment,  that  the  magnitude  of 
the  evil  of  drought  in  this  country  is  such,  that  the  Government  cannot 
safely  meddle;  from  tlio  just  fear  that  it  will  lead  to  an  undue  expectation 
of  relief,  and  to  a  less  economic  and  frugal  use  of  the  stock  in  hand;  and  that 
any  interferenre  on  the  part  of  Government  with  the  grain  trade  how* 
ever  cautiously  attempted,  paralyzes  private  effort,  and  aggravates  the 
general  distress,  and  that  the  present  system  is  consequently  right ; 
there  is  one  means  of  future  alleviation,  which  might  gradually  lessen 
the  present  amount  of  evil,  still  open  to  the  Government.  If  the 
well-lands  of  the  country  were  relieved  from  taxation,  and  advances  made 
generally  to  ryots  (as  practised  partially  in  South  Arcot  in  1836)  to 
deepen  and  enlarge  their  wells,  or  to  construct  new  ones,  it  is  probable, 
that  the  capability  of  the  country  to  bear  up  under  the  visitation  of 
famine,  could  be  greatly  increased,  and  the  permanent  resources  of  the 
Government  proportionally  improved.  And  if  it  be  certain,  that  no 
measure  for  adding  directly  and  immediately  to  the  food  of  the  people 
in  periods  of  drought  is  practicable,  this  would  then  seem  to  be  the  best 
safeguard  against  famine  with  all  its  present  horrors,  and  national  loss; 
and  this  measure  at  least,  might  perhaps  be  pressed  on  the  attention 
of  the  Government,  as  an  act  at  once  of  duty,  and  of  the  soundest  policy. 

Madras,  March  1839. 


iAnaa  %Xt$r.  Ztt.  J^SkMntB^ 


IW/XI 


Ojlp'ole    p 


rxrraUeL^^f/\_ 


TanttUd,  ef^/C  *_. 


^aTraI/e^.^^^l_ 


MADRA 


ranuOd/^SL 


TdHehwry 


CHART 


THE    ISOCLIMAL  LINES 

SOUTHERN  INDIA, 


1839.}  ObservtUlont  on  the  direction,  ^e.  221 

II. — Observaltons  on  the  Direction  and  Intentity  of  the  Terrestrial  Mag- 
netie  Force  in  Southern  India,  made  by  Thomas  Glanville  Tatlor, 
Esq.  Jetroaomer  to  the  Honourabte  Ea^t  India  Company,  and  John 
CALDBcoTT,£sq.  Director  of  the  Trivandrum  Observatory. — Communi' 
eated  6y  the  former  Gentteman. 

As  far  back  as  the  year  1831,  at  the  suggestion  of  Professor  Kiipffer, 
I  had  projected  making  a  series  of  observations  upon  the  magnetic  dip 
and  intensity  in  India ;  but  having  failed  in  procuring  the  necessary  ap- 
paratus here,  and  having  been  equally  unfortunate  in  an  application  in 
England,  I  was  necessarily  compelled,  pro  temp,  to  give  up  my  inten- 
tion.    In  the  year  1837,  having  been  favoured  by  Captain  Moresby,  of 
the  Indian  Navy,  with  the  loan  of  a  dipping  needle,  which  had  been  sup- 
plied to  him  by  the  Geographical  Society  of  Bombay,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  making  observations  upon  the  coast  of  India;*  and  liaving, 
through  the   kindness   of  Captain   Drinkwater    Bethune,  R.  N.,  been 
fevoored  with  the  temporary  loan  of  two  of  the  intensity  needles,  which 
had   been  employed  in  the  magnetic  survey  of  Ireland  ;  I  determined  to 
employ  the  former,  and  to  construct  some  needles  of  the  latter  descrip- 
tion,  wherewith  to  undertake  for  India,  a  series  of  observations  similar 
to   that  so  ably  accomplished  in  Ireland. 

With  regard  to  the  plan  of  observation :  the  lines  of  equal  dip  and  in- 
tensity in  India  being  nearly  parallels  of  latitude,  it  was  evident  that 
the  observations  should  be  made  in  a  line  at  right  angles  to  these,  or 
along  the  coast ;  accordingly  I  resolved  on  commencing  at  Ongole,  in 
lat.  15*  12^  N.,  and  proceeding  at  intervals  of  20  or  30  miles  along  the 
<:oast  to  Cape  Comorin  (the  southern  extremity  of  the  Peninsula) ;  and 
Irom  thence  along  the  western  coast  to  Goa. 

To  have  performed  the  whole  of  this  by  myself,  would  have  taken  up 
more  time  than  could  be  conveniently  spared  consistently  with  the  pro- 
secutioa  of  my  astronomical  duties ;  which  determined  me  to  invite  the 
assistance  of  individuals  resident  in  India,  to  take  a  part  in  the  observa- 
tions. My  application  was  not  long  in  meeting  with  attention  from 
nanj  in  various  parts  of  India;  but  the  aid  of  only  one  of  these  (J.  Cal* 
decott,  Esq.  of  the  Trivandmra  Obsenatoryt)  was  available  to  an  extent 
which  promised  to  be  useful.     Accordingly!  lost  no  time  in  making 


•  The  Oeogr^bieal  Society  of  Bombay  were  pleased,  subsequently,  to  allow  me  to  re* 
tain  the  ne«dles  so  long  as  I  found  occasion  for  them. 

•*■  TTm  OtMerratory  at  Trivandram,  baring  been  very  lately  established,  is  perhaps  at 
ptrpsent  hot  little  known,  but  the  excellence  of  its  arrangements,  and  the  superiority  of 
the  f  natrtuneDtt  which  hare  been  ordered,  added  to  the  indefati;^ablc  teal  of  its  superin- 
ewuiot  Ikil  soon  to  render  it  an  establishment  of  importance. 


222  Observations  on  the  dtrecfion  and  intensity  of  the  [April 

arrangements  with  Mr.  Caldecott,  as  to  the  parts  we  shoulii  each  take  in 
the  labour;  when  it  was  eventually  agreed  that  I  should  undertake  the 
observations  on  the  eastern,  and  that  Mr.  Caldecott  should  m:»ke  those 
upon  the  western,  coast. 

For  this  purpose  I  lefi  Madras  on  the  23J  day  of  July  1837,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  southward,  making  observations  every  day,  at  intervals  of 
about  twenty-five  niiU's;  until  on  the  2d  August  I  arrived  at  Tranquebar- 
Here  I  was  met  by  Mr.  Caldecott,  whose  zeal  in  the  cause  would  not 
allow  nie  to  make  my  own  observations  unassisted.  In  the  observations 
for  dip,  I  had  hifhi^rto  only  found  time  to  employ  three  out  of  the  four 
needles  suppli-.^d,  viz.  Nos.  1,  2  and  3;  but  the  presence  of  Mr.  Calde- 
cott suggested  tin*  propriety  of  employing  the  remaining  needle  (No.  4), 
and  of  takin;^  a  double  siH  of  observations.  This  would  have  been 
accomplislied,  but  that  a  few  preliminary  trials  at  Tranquebar  with 
needle  No.  4,  conviii.cd  u**  of  its  utter  uselessness  for  the  purpose  in- 
tended, in  cons(*»]uence  of  the  want  of  rovmdness  of  the  steel  pivots. 
This  discovery  led  to  a  minute  examination  of  the  other  needles  ;  when 
No.  2,  (which  hid  in  the  course  of  observation  exhibited  singularly 
discordant  re.«iults),  appeared  likewise  to  differ  fro»n  a  cylinder  in  the 
form  of  its  pivots.  These  circumstances  naturally  led  to  the  rejection 
of  the  observations  hitherto  made  with  needle  No.  2,  and  the  Non-em- 
ployment  of  No.  4  in  the  remaining  parts  of  the  work.  But,  before 
proceeding  further,  I  may  as  well  give  some 


Account  of  the  Instruments  employed. 

They  consisted  of  a  dip  apparatus  by  Gilbert,  furnished  with  four  needles 
(two  useless)  of  4i  inches  in  length :  a  pocket  chronometer  by  Arnold, 
and  three  intensity  needles.  The  dipping  needles  were  apparently  cut 
out  of  flat  plates  of  steel,  and  were  hardened  at  the  ends  (see  fig.  1); 
the  agate  planes,  Vs  for  centering,  and  levels,  &c.  &c.  differed  in  no 
respect  from  the  ordinary  construction.  The  intensity  needles  I  had 
caused  to  be  constructed  here,  after  the  plan  of  Captain  Bethune*s,  to 
agree  nearly  with  th»*  model  of  those  of  Professor  Hansteen;  viz.  each 
needle  uas  2,7  inch»»s  in  length,  and  15  inches  in  breadth,  cylindrical, 
and  rounded  at  the  end-^  :•  they  were  first  turned  in  a  lathe,  from  pieces 
of  English  steel  M'ire,  an  I  then  hardened  by  }dunging  them,  when  at  a 
|>ale  red  heat,  into  cold  water;  after  which  they  were  softened  in  the 
middle  by  placing  them  upon  a  red-hot  poker.    They  were  now  mao-. 

^PrwfcMor  Ilaastc«a*«  were  pointed  «t  the  cncb. 


^■1^ 


Hill 


'III 


■    l>! 


1S39]  Terrettrial  Magmtk  Force  in  Southern  India.  223 

netizr^-'i  to  saturation  by  a  powerful   iiia^not,  and  employed  during  two 
month'*  previously  to  my  depurtun*,   for  tho  purpose  of  diseovoring  if 
tlieir  int'^usities  remained  eonslant.     E  ^'h  needle  Wiis  fitted  into  a  brass 
stimp  (see  tig.  2),  for  the  purpobe  of  bL-inc;  attai'hed  to  a  few  filaments 
of  untwisted  silk,  by  which  it  was  suspj^niled  wliun  in  use;  and  when 
unemployed,  \^as   tiliod    wilh  an  iirin:»(ure  of  suft   iron.     When  the  ob- 
servation was  to  be  made,  tbe  nen^ile  was  suspencb-d  in  a  square  wooden 
bux,  of  fuur  in -lies  on  the  side,  un«l  li  inches  high:  the  top  of  this  box 
wjs  titteJ  wilh  a  plate  of  E^hxss,  in  the  <tntre  of  \^hich  the  end  of  a  hol- 
low  glass    cylinder  of  eight   inches  in  length  (a  piece  of  broken   l)aro- 
mcter  tnbe)  was  cemented;  to  the  uppor  end  of  this   cylinder,  one  end 
of  the  silk  filaments  supporting  the  ncedln  was  secured,  so  a**,  ]>:issing 
through  the  cylinder,  to  leave  the  needle  suspended  by  the  other  end  at 
half  an  ini'h  above  the  bottom  of  the  box,  when  its  oscilhitions  could  be 
Been   tbrough   the  glass   plate  at  t«»p,  or  through  two  gla^^s    windows, 
placcil  opposite  to  each  oth«  r  in  the  sides.     At  th**  bottom  ol   the  box 
inside,  aline  was  drawn  in  the  dire^'tion  of  the  two    windows;  and  at 
angles  of  20  degrees  on  either  side  of  this,  were  drawn  two  other  lines; 
ibe  centre  line  being  made  to  correspond  with  the  dirertion  taken  up  by 
the  Litrpdle  when  at  rest  (the  magnetic   meridian),  and  the  other   lines, 
ezhibiiing    azimuths  of  20'  to  the  east  and  west  of  this,    shewing  the 
arcs  at  wliich  the  observations  were  alwiys  to  eomm«^n.'e.     On  one  sule 
of  this  box  a  delicate   thermomeier  was  fixed,  whose   indications   could 
likewise  be  seen  through  the  glass  plate  at  top.     The    porket   chrono- 
iiieter    by  Arnold  was  one   of  ordinary   gooihiess;  in   addition  to  which 
Mr.    Caldecott   l.ad    provided    himself  with  a  pocket   chronoiuetor  by 
Bamud,  and  an  artificial    horizon  and  sexlant,  for  determining  the  lati- 
tadtrs  of  places  which  could  not  be  identified  on  the  map.     We  will  now 
mention  oi.o  or  two 

Partic^darf  with  regard  lo  the  modes  of  ohsernu<r, 

ITi;lierfo,  it  had  been  my  custom  to  watch  the  decreasing  vibrations  of 
til-*  dippinsf  ne*"dle,  and  regibter  its  indic.Hiou  when  stationary.  Such  a 
dj'kIo  of  ob>f»r\ation.  however,  often  led  to  unsatisfactory  results ;  f<»r, 
€.n  t'T'P'"^  ^'*^  apparatus  gently,  without  un-nentering  the  needle,  it  frc- 
«iu<*ntlv  cNliibited  unaltered  position,  to  the  amount  sometimes  of  forty 
</r  fifir  iriinnto.s;  ynd  an  approximate  result  only  could  be  obtained,  by 
ukin-T  fb"  mean  of  the  readings  after  repeatedly  tapping  and  re-eeutering 
fhe  needle.  This  circumstance  led  to  an  alteration  in  the  mode  of  ob- 
ser\in'»  whi'*U  consisted  of  first  centering  the  needle  on  the  agate  planes, 


224  Obsirvaiions  on  the  Direction  and  Int^ntUy  of  the        \Aw\ 

and  then,  by  means  of  a  magnet,  causing  it  to  vibrate  through  an  arc 
60*  (i  e.  30®  on  either  side  of  the  stationary  position),  and  noting  i 
successive  diminisliing  arcs  of  vibration  of  one  of  the  ends  ;  after  wh 
the  needle  was  again  centered,  and  the  arcs  of  vibration  of  the  ot 
end  similarly  read  off  &c.  &c.,  when  the  stationary  point  was  obtaii 
by  interpolation.    Thus  at  Tranquebar,  August  9th,  Needle  No.  1.— 

End   A  Vibrated  End   B  Vibrated 

from  to  I  =  from  to  J  -^ 

o  o  o  o  o  o 

—  33,9  .  —  30,9  . 

[  -h    27,0  .•.—2,75  [  +    24,3  .•.— 2,< 

—  31,1  ~28,2\ 

(  +    24,2         2,77  I  -h    21,7         2,i 

—  28.4  \  —  25,6  { 

f-i-     21,6  2,75  }+     19,3  %i 

—  25,8)  —  23,2i 

(  -h     19,2  2,70  [  +     16,9  %i 

—  23,4;  -  20,8* 

^     16.9  2,65  [  +     14,6  X 

—  21,0  ^  —  18,5^ 

Mean  =        -^2,72  =r  —  %. 

and  the  mean  of  both  readings  =  2°,  65  ==  2**  39'. 

In  this  way,  five  or  six  readings  were  generally  obtained  in  eacl 
the  eight  several  positions  of  the  needle,  and,  in  addition  to  this, 
readings,  when  the  needle  had  come  to  rest,  were  likewise  register 
thus,  in  the  case  just  cited,  the  whole  of  the  readings  when  redact 
ware  as  follows  : — 

Readings  Readings 

when  at  rest.  when  oscillatin 


/ 


Face  of  Inst,  east:  axis  direct  —  3  35  —  3  40  —  3  4  —  3 

west      ■            —  3  5  —  3  5  — 2  52  —  2 

invd.  —  3  7  —  3  15  — 3  4  —  3 

east 3  20  —  3  10  —  2  43  —  2 

Reversed  the  poles 


•  The  obserrations  of  the  needl(»  'vhcn  ribrating  were  read  off  iu  degrees  and  MU 
a  degree,  in  consequence  of  the  rapidity  of  the  vibrationa  not  affording  time  to  rag 
two  figures,  which  generally  would  occur  in  the  minutea ;— the  enor  Of  reading 
tarelj  txcecded  one-tenth  of  a  degree,  or  nx  minutei« 


1889]  Tgrretirial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India.  225 

Fice  of  Inst,  east:  axis  direct  4-  8  10  -|-  8  15  -|-  7  54   4-  8  C 

i.     — •         west     7  10  7  0  7  16  7  3 

—  ' invd.        8  15  8  0  7  25  7  17 

—  east 7  15  7  25  7  4  7  8 

I        The  mean  =  +  2**  12'  52"  +  2°  11'  15"  f-  2°  14'  30"  +  2®  12  15" 
J  ■  •**Th6tniedipor  a  —  +  2"*  12'   4"  ^-  2°  13'  22" 

The  above  is  one  case  out  of  many  which  occur,  in  which  although 
|f   Ui?e differeDces  are  found  in  the  several  single  readings,  still  the  means 
ire  coincident;  other  cases  there  are,  however,  in  which  the  means  dis- 
•ptt:  thus- 
Mean  of  Readings        Mean  of  Readings 

when  at  rest.  when  oscillating.    Difference. 

NcSlfNSl'rgave  \    «  =  +  2^  4G'  41"     +  2«  31'  30"       0°  15'  11" 

— .    No.  3 .  =       1      6  30  1     22  51  0    16  24 

AanqnebarNo.    3  =       1    47  48  2    11  U  0   23  23 


[ 


Jj  Ihese  results  from  the  needles  when  vibrating  appearing  invariably 
i  Bore  consistent  than  those  derived  in  the  usual  way,  1  have  not  hesitated 
!■  togivetbem  the  preference,  and  reject  the  stationary  observations. 
i  Tbeobsen-ations  with  the  intensity  needles  require  but  little  notice 
MJ^ beyond  ibe  mention  that  th«^y  have  been  uniformly  made  by  noting 
« *  ftetimeof  describing  the  first,  second,  and  third  hundred  vibrations,  com- 
Sr  BenciDg  from  an  arc  of  20  degrees  on  either  side  of  the  meridian.  Add* 
^,  ^  to  this,  it  only  remains  to  state  that  the  observations  botli  for  dip  and 
!*  iitcnnty  were  aniformly  commenced  between  the  hours  of  9  and  1 0  in 
y  fcioming,  and  finished  at  2  or  3  in  the  afternoon. — We  will  now  re- 
'     *w  onr  jonmey. 

deleft  Tranquebar  on  the  evening  of  the  13th  AuGjust,  and  proceeded 
b  the  southward,  making  observations  every  day  (at  distances  of  from 
^to25  miles),  and  arrived  at  Trivandrum  on  the  26th  Ausjust.  Here 
Vfebad leisure  to  examine  our  observations;  and  the  result  of  it,  as  will 
%^  in  the  sequel,  was  not  so  satisfactory  as  could  be  wished :  it  ex- 
k^ited  an  uncertainty  in  the  dip  ob8er\-atious  at  several  places,  to  some 
iBooiit.aiid  the  intensity  observations  were  not  altogether  free  from  blame. 
Tiui  determined  me  to  re^observc  on  my  return  homeward,  at  those  places 
itvhiehdoabtfal  results  had  been  obtained;  and,havingmetwitha  clever 


22G  Observations  on  the  Ditection  ami  Intensity  of  the         [April 

workman  (in  the  ])f»rson  attaclird  to  the  Trivandrum  Obsen-atorv,  for  the 
l-urposc  of  repairing instrumonts,  ki\)  I  procured  the  re-turning  of  the 
])ivotsof  the  hitherto  useless  needles  (No.  2  and  4),  and  the  construction 
of  two  new  intensity  needles. 

Thu^  equipped  I  leftTrivanihum  on  the  20th  Se|»teniber,  and  employ- 
ing all  four  nf  the  dippii.g  needles  and  five  intensity  needles — which 
practice  liad  now  enabled  nie  to  aeeoniplish   unassisted — I  again   made 
observations  at  those  places  \*hich  had  hitherto  given  contradictory  re- 
sults; and  eventuallv  arrived  at  M;idras  on  the  15th  October. 

It  had  been  agreed  upon  by    Mr.  Caldecott  and   myself,  that,  before 
completing  the  observations  to  llie   northward  of  Madras,    the   instru- 
ments should  be  sent  to  him,  to  perform  a  portion    of  the    work    to    the 
northward  of  Trivandnuii ;  this  was  done,  and  the  observations,  as  far  as 
Tellicherry,  were  made  In-  Mr.  Caldecott,   in    the    mouth   of  November 
following.     It  h:id  been  Mr.  C  dd^^cott's  intenti-m  to  have   completed  the 
series  on  the  western  coast  at  a  no  very  distant  date  ;  but  the  unNatisfac- 
tory  results  now  arriv(»d  nt,  induced  him  to   await   the   arrival  of  a   new 
dip  apparatus  and  needles  from  Kn<^dand  (wlneh  he  had   ordered   of  Mr. 
Thomas  Jones  for  this  purpose),  and  to  rettirn  the  needles  to  me  f  >r  the 
prosecution  of  the  observations  on  this   coast.     I   was   anxious   for   the 
completion  of  the  work,  but  had  already  beeu  too   long  absent  from  the 
Obser\'atory,  whereby  coinputations  Imd  accumulated,  and    observations 
had  been  neglected  to  some  extent ;  thus  circumstanced.  I   availed   my- 
self of  the  services  of  a  very  intelligent  and  careful  native  (Tannyachel- 
lura)  who,  after  makini^  observations  on  the  dip  and  intensity  every  day 
during  three  months,  had  a^'quiredas   correct  a  habit  of  observing    as 
could  be   expected   or   desired.     Tannvachellum   accordingly  was  des- 
patched from  Madras  on  the  27th  April    183S,  with  directions  to  make 
observations  of  the  dip  antl  intensity  at  distances  of  about  25  miles  apart* 
from  hence,  along  the  coast  as  far  as  Ongole;  and  to   rc-observe  at   the 
same  places  on  his  return.     This  was  accomplished  by   the  end  of  June  ; 
and  with  the  exception  that  the  dip  obser\ations  were  made  in  the  usual 
way,   not  hy  our  met  hod  of  *'  vibrations  f''     I  venture  to  assert  that   the 
results  he  has  obtained,  are  not  less  accurate  thau  I  miglit  have   arrived 
at  myself. 

The  new  dip  apparatus  by  Jones,  much  to  our  disappointment,  did 
not  arrive  at  Madras  till  September  183S,  just  before  Mr.  Caldecott's 
departure  for  England:  on  examination  it  appeared  in  every  respect  to 
be  a  very  superior  instrument ;  but  the  results  arrived  at  here,  both  by  Mr. 
Caldecott  and  myself  (Mr.  Caidecott  being  at  M.idras  by  this  time)  were 


1S39]  Terrestrial  Magneia'  Fune  in  Suuthtrn   In  Ha,  *2*27 

not  more  ncoordant  than  those  alreadv  oblaiinul  IVom  tin-  nilir-r   uocdit^s. 

■ 

Notwithstanding  this  ^^'r*  CaMci'ott,  at  some  eon^iderablfincouv^Miirncc 

to  himsplf.  repeated  his  observations  \Nilh  tlie  nt'VV  needle  at  Cochin  and 

Allepee,  previously  to  his  departure  for  Europe.     1  have  thouLrht    it    ne- 

ce$$:ir\' to  mention  th'*.se  particulars,  in   ord«T  to  a  eomit    f'«»r   havirj;  so 

long (li'liived  fu' filling  HIV  promi'*«M)f  irixini^   th«'se  ol)servitinns  ;   Imt  my 

di^iw  to  renrh?r  tlie  w<irk  eoriinIett\  ei'eii  now  makes    it  dn^htfi'l  )f  I  hid 

nothftter  vat/ for  the  o' seiV'itw)is  on   the   uesitrn  roast :  ])ul,  with  thus 

niu?hby  way  of  apology,  and  the  promise  that,  at   sonu?    f'uUire.  not    far 

distant  time,  the  observations  on   the  w<\st«'ni  «'oast  will    l)e    C')n)])Ieled  ; 

we  may  at  once  turn  to  theobsenations,  and  iheii  discussion  :  and,  >ince 

there  will  be  much  to  say  in  the  way  of  dis  iissioii.  it   may  be  a«<  well  to 

leave  the  intensity  observations  for  the  pn»senf,    and  <'oinmen»;e  tl\e 

jDixct'ftxion  of  the  Dip  Ohsercationa, 

Tlie  disrorrlant  result-*  which  have  been  met  with  by  (iptaiu  Sahine* 
an<io!hPT<«  in  measuring  the  dip  by  diffi-rent  instruments,  reiidrrs  it  de- 
sirablf  dial  a  comp.iris»in  of  llie  net»dles  n*»w  usfd  wiili  otliJ'rs  shoidd 
be  iuatitutod;  accordingly  I  have  availed  myself  of  two  observations 
nade here  with  a  dip  apparatus  belonging  to  Captain  Drinkwater  Bethunc 
R.  N.,  and  of  three  observations  made  with  Mr,  Caldccott's  needles  — 
^^  get  altogether  aa  follows : — 

Dip  for  Madra<j. 

•    /         //  O        /         // 

NeeJle     D.  B.  No.  1  from  1  observation  ^  =  -f-  G  55    4  >      c  ro  in 
^     D.  B.     ,.    -2  1      =      6  49  oG  J  -r*'  ^-  ^« 


—  T.  G.  T. 


—  J.  C. 

—  J.  C. 


1    — 

—  2 

2  — 

1 

3  — 

^  2 

4  — 

—  1 

1  — 

-  I 

n 

2  — 

—  2 

6  4.3  22  '\ 
«  41   13  ( 


—  T.G.T.     „2  1      =      ^>  '^l  13     4.6  50    9 

-^T.G.T.    „4  1     =       6  54    4  J 


g^J^;fG5230 


Mean       =       6  51   19 

The  discrepancies  here  met  with,  probably  for  the  most  part  arise  from 
error  of  observation ;  since  only  one  or  two  results  from  each  needle  have 


Math^olMerrations  lately  maili'  for  the  nms:iictic  stirvoy  of  In-lan«l.  Oioro  app'-nrs,  in 
MexiftniecMe,  a  difference  of  41' bet  wood  the  results  from  two  of  the  netMllos  cra- 
Plojed, 


li2S        Ohservationt  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  /Ac  [April 

been  obtained:  we  perceive,  that,  employing  the  needles  1  and  3 
T.  G.  T.,  an  error  from  the  mean  of  a  few  seconds  only  would  be  coiuiuit- 
ted;  and  that  employing  1,  %  3,  and  4,  T.  G.  T.  or  1,  and  2.  J.  C,  in  eithL-r 
case  our  results  would,  as  far  as  constant  error  is  concerned — possess 
nearly  the  same  degree  of  accuraiy  as  if  made  from  the  whole  8  needlrs. 

In  the  Report  of  the  British  Assuciation  relative  to  the  magnetic  ob- 
servations mide  in  Ireland,  it  is  mentioned,  **  of  tlie  eight  results  ob- 
"  tained  with  needle  (P),  there  is  cmly  one  whi.-h  dillers  from  the  mean 
**  of  the  eight  by  a  single  minute."  Such  accuracy,  however,  cannot  be 
the  boast  of  the  Madras  observu lions;  for,  as  it  will  be  seen  presently, 
K  single  degree^  instead  of  a  siugie  minute  ,  will  occasionally  be  thrust- 
ing itself  in,  between  observation  and  the  truth.  But,  not  to  be  too  has- 
ty in  statements,  it  maybe  as  well  to  mention,  that,  by  reason  of  the  fee- 
bleness of  niiignetic  force  in  Indin,  arising  from  proximity  to  the  ma^r- 
netic  equator  on  the  one  hand,  and  high  temperature  on  the  othiT,  one 
carefully-made  set  of  dip  observations  under  every  advanljige,  cuniioi  be 
expected  to  arrive  nearer  than  within  8  or  10  minutes  of  the  truth.  On 
looking  over  the  whole  of  the  results,  however,  di'*cordan«;es  are  found 
to  an  amount  far  exceeding  this,— one  indeed  which  would  render  the  ob- 
servations altogether  useless,  were  there  no  means  loft  of  aocnniiiing 
and  making  allowance  for  the  same.  I  became  aware  of  the  discordances 
which  affect  our  observations,  when  at  work  on  their  reducti(m  at  Tri- 
▼andrnm;  at  first  1  felt  inclined  to  attribute  the  discrepancies  to  h»cal 
causes  and  error,  but  a  little  reflection  convinced  me  that  I  must  give  up 
such  a  supposition,  since,  from  the  care  we  had  taken  in  every  paiticular, 
the  one  was  highly  improbable  and  the  other  impossible;  for  we  had 
been  careful  to  observe  in  sheds  or  under  trees,  far  removed  from  local 
disturbing  causes,  and  had  not  omitted  to  lay  aside  our  keys  and  the  buc- 
kles from  our  stocks  and  braces,  &c. ;  so  that  we  must  look  to  some  other 
cause  for  an  explanation  of  the  discrepancies. 

In  the  course  of  our  travels,  I  had  noticed  at  one  place  (Camjshandy 
I  think),  that,  on  applying  the  magnet  to  one  end  of  the  needle  to  ascer- 
tdn  the  position  of  the  poles,  the  edge  a  (fig.  1)  attracted  the  needle  and 
•'repelled  it  i but,  on  again  applying  the  magnet  to  a,  its  pole  had  ])ecome 
changed  to  the  same  denomination  as  a';  and  on  immediately  vibrating 
the  needle,  its  indication  had  altered  about  50  minutes.  Having  at  Tri- 
Tandrum  met  with  a  similar  anomaly,  I  was  led  to  enquire,  whether  the 
discrepancies  which  appeared  in  some  of  the  observations  could  not  be 
accounted  for  in  this  way :  might  not  the  magnet,  in  the  act  of  reversing 
the  poles,  have  pressed  upon  one  edge,  and  have  established  a  pole  at 
a  or  a'  instead  of  the  end  e?    To  resolve  this  difficulty,  1  availed  myself 


1839]  Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India.  229 

of  a  very  bad  obscn-ation  (one  in  which  I  had  purposrly  been  careless), 
and  one  which  proved  very  discordant,  to  discover,  by  thrusting  the  nee- 
dle among  some  iron  filings,  where  the  poles  were  sitiLited;  when,  my 
diso(»rddnt  ubsprvation  was  fully  explained  by  the  poles  having  chosen 
to  take  up  a  position  at  a  and  6,  forming  an  angle  of  U  degrees  with  the 
ends  e  and  e\ 

I  now,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  inclined  the  magnets  n  little,  so  as  to 
€M.ib1i>h  the  poles  at  a' and  b\  and,  as  might  be  expected,  a  result  difler- 
in^  3|  degrees  from  that  just  made,  immediately  resulted :  the  former 
beius  as  much  in  excess  as  the  latter  was  in  defect. 

I  now  set  to  work  systematically— thus — at  Trivandrum  Aiigust  30lh— 
13lh  September  1837.— 

Keeille  employed.  Observed  dip.  Remarks. 


t' 


Keedle  No.  I  =  — 3  17  30  /'  Kach  result  being  the  mean  of  5  ohserva- 
=  tH'iOO  I  tiuns  in  one  povition  of  ihc  needle  only; 
=  3  22  30  I  made  with  the  greatest  possible  care,  tliat 
=     3  22  30  V  tbe  poles  should  be  settled  iit  the  ends  e,  e\ 

f  Each  derived  from  5  observations  in  the 
=r  —  4  7  Oj  same  position  as  above,  by  causing  a  slight 
s=       4    7    0  1  degree  of  inclination  in  one  of  the  magnets, 

C  whereby  the  poles  were  situated  at  e  and  a. 

{From  the  mean  of  5  obser\'ations  in  the 
same  jwsition  as  above,  magn(*ti/ed  by  in- 
elinino;  both  magnets  slightly,  whereby  the 
poles  took  up  tlie  position  b'  and  a. 

SEach  result  being  derived  from  5  obser- 
vations in  one  position  of  the  needle  only, 
magnetized  by  causing  a  slight  inclination 
of  both  magnets,  or  poles  at  a'  and  6. 

—  •.  0  'tTSO  C     ^^'^  result  being  derived  from  5  obser- 
~  *"  Q  ol  Oi)  J  vations  in  the  Siune  position  as  above,  in- 

—  0  35  30  /  ^^^^^'^^  *^°®  ®^  ^^^^  magnets  only,  or  poles 

{Each  result  being  determined  from  5  ob- 
sen'ations  in  the  same  position  as  above, 
both  magnets  being  drawn  to  the  ends ;  or 
poles  at  c  and  e\ 

In  a  similar  way  the  following  were  obtained— 

Keedle  No.  3 — 3  55  23    Mean  of  8  observations,  poles  at  a  and  b' 

—  3  20  0     e  and «' 

14230     — —  a' and  A 


^^^  Ohserratiom  ou  the  DireciioJi  and  hit  east  f-^  r,f  the  [Arfirr. 


// 


N<'C(11p  Xo.  2—4    7  10     Moan  of  8  oljS''rv.ilii»n>,  polos  at  //'  an<l  a 


2  22  jG 

2  22  43 

2  2S41 


V  and  b 

e  iiin!  e' 

a  and  6' 


Tlie  ahuvi^  resulfs,  b'.Miiu;  derivtMl  from  one  poMlinn  of  the  ivcille  only,  do 

rot  rfjinsiMii  ih(»  true  dip,  but  funiish,  bv  means  i}i  dilFoivnco,  what  we 

roqinr(!:  ♦lius  taking  the  means — 

Noedlc  No.  1  s>h.'\vs— that  if  tlir*  pnle«,  instead  of  being  situated  at  c,  e' 

should  I. ike  up  a  position  such  as  e  and  rr,  (which  in 
j)r.iciiee  his  occasionally  oefurred)  then,  the  reading 
wo  iM  ho  erroneous  to  iIh*  anii-init  -*  ()^,49',0"  ;  and 
tint,  in  an  extreme  ca^e,  when  both  i)oles  are  a<tr;iy, 
th'*n  an  orror  in  thi*  n'adin^'^  to  no  irly  doulde  of  this 
a'liounl  (or  t.  1*,3j',23"j  re;ijults:-"or,  we  nhtain  on  the 
wliolo. 


The  Pnlci  teiug  .situa'eil  of 


Needle, 

e  \  e' 

1 

«'  A-  A' 

i-y{*. 

a  4-  // 

«'  Sc  b 

1 

error. 

error. 

error. 

error. 

error. 

O           / 

O            / 

O        / 

o          / 

0 

No.  1 

0       0 

xO    -4U 

4-  1    3o 

-2 

0       0 

0      0 

-i-  0     6 

1     44 

—  3 

0      0 

1    37 

—  4 

0      0 

4-0      37 

1  -v 

M'MU. 

0      0 

0      0 

-i-  0    G 

-r-O      42 

+-  1    r>s 

A  greater  degree  of  consistency  would  no  doubt  exi.nt  between  these 

numbers,  were  the  ends  of  the  ne^vlles  symmetrical,  and  of  exactly  the 

same  si/.'*:  then   we  shouM  expect  to   find  °      ' 

Pules  «  and  «'  ihe  eirorof  observatiun  =     0      0 

a  and  b  or  a'  and  6'    —       ■  =00 

9  and  6  or  n  wA  b'     } 

t'  and  a  or  f'  and  a'    S 

a  an  1  b'  or  a'  and  b    — 


=  fO    49 
=  M    3S 


The  greatest  di'.agreement    from  these   being  in  the  case  of  needle 
Nu.  4,  (poll's  at  e  and  «';.  1  liave,   since   writing   the  above,   turned  to 


1839.]  Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India*  931 

examine  it,  when  the  want  of  symmetry  in  one  of  its  ends,  fully  justifies 
the  accuracy  of  the  +  0*,37'  found  above.  The  other  needles  are,  how- 
ever, singularly  perfect ;  so  that  the  mean  values  here  found  belong  to 
needles  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3:  and  for  No.  4  us  far  a»  concerns  the  poles  a  and 
b'  and  a'  and  b ;  but  for  the  positions  e  anfl  a'  the  correction  =r  — 0^.37' 

aud  we  may  conclude,  for e  and  6'    ^    +1.1 

aud  for  the  remaining  positions  e'  and  b  an<i  e'  and  a    ^—  =    +  0.49 

Id  the  actual  determination  of  the  dip,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  in« 
▼ert  the  poles:  so  that  putting p  and  P  for  the  corrections  which  apply 
to  needles  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3;  we  may 

in  one  position  of  the  poles  of  the  needle — read  off      /A    +  S^ 

u  +  J. 

and  in  the  inverted  position  of  the  poles  we  might  read  off  .  <  B   +    ^ 

U  ±  p 

A  H-  B 

where  — ^ — =  I  the  true  dip,  or,  takingall  the  possible  combinations 

of  these  six  readings,  the  values  for  i,  resulting  from  either  of  the 
needles  1, 2,  or  3,  and  for  several  cases  of  No.  4, 

are  —  JtJ  or  a  ±  0.  0.  0 

or  6  ±  0.24.30 

or  at  0.49.  0 

or  a  ±  1.13.30 

. ^       or  a  f  1.38.  0 :— 

and  since,  in  the  remaining  cases  of  needle  No.  4,  there  are  seyeral 
Talaes  entering,  which  the  observations  afford  no  clue  to  identify,  if  they 
are — poles  at  e  and  a'  or  at  e  and  b\  it  will  in  cases  of  doubt  be  as  well  to 
reject  the  observations  of  needle  No.  4.  With  this  view  of  the  case,  and 
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number  of  cases  no  correction  whatever  will  be  necessary — the  poles 
will  have  identified  themselves  with  the  extreme  ends  of  the  needle,-* 
we  will  now  consult  Table  I,  and  endeavour  to  discover  what  proper 
compenaations  may  be  applied  to  the  values  there  given,  to  obtain  tht 
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1839]  Tmrreslrial  Magnttic  Force  in  Southern  India. 


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1839.] 


Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India. 


235 


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1839.]  Terrestrial  Magnstic  Force  in  Southern  India.  237 

Consulting  the  above  observations,  with  reference  to  the  remarks  at 
page  231  we  may  conclude  as  follows  : — 

Ongole. — The  obsenations  Nos.  I*,  2,  4,  5  and   7  appearing  consistent, 

there  is  little  fear  of  their  not  representing  the 
true  dip :  No.  3  probably  requires  the  second 
correction  or  4-  0**  49'  0"  ;  No.  6  the  Ist  cor- 
rection, and  No.  8  being  doubtful,   bad   bet- 

(*.•  «  =  +  ll**  36'  40")  ter  be  omitted. 

Ramyapatar/i.^Ucre   we  have  four  results,  Nos.  3,  5, 6  and  7»   telling 

nearly  the  same  tale,  and  in  all  probability  the 
right  one ;  in  which  case  Noe.  1  and  2  require 
the  minor  correction— 24'  30"  and  Nos.  4  an^ 

(•••  «  =  i-  10**  44   14")    8  the  second  correction  or— 0°  49'  0". 

Alloor, — Here  Nos.  1*  2,  4, 5,  6  and  7  are  coincident,  exhibiting  a  defici- 
ency to  the  amount  of  the  ist  correction  -^ 
(.-.  «  =  4-  10^  18'  46")  0^,  24'  30*  in  Nos.  Sand  8. 

Nellore.^^os,  2,  3, 4, 5,  6  and  8  arc   coincident ;  exhibiting  an  excesi 

in  Nos.  1  and  7  to  the  amount  of  the  2d  cor- 
rection or— 0**  49'  0"  ;  and  No.  8  probably  re- 
quires the  first  correction  or  -f-  0^  24'  30",  but 

(...  5  =  +  9**  41'  16")     being  doubtful  we  will  omit  it. 

fFoo^W/y.— Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6  and  7  are  coincident,  exhibiting  a  deficiency 

in  No.  1,  and  an  excess  in  No.  2  to  the  amount 
of  the  minor  correction  0**  24'  30"  :  No.  8  being 

(.•.«  +  8**  49'  20")  doubtful  is  omitted. 

.  5oo/oorpe/.-- Nos.  I,  2,  4,  5,  6  and  7  are  coincident,  exhibiting  a  deficien- 
cy in  Nos.  3  and  8  to  the  amount  of  the  second 
correction    or   4-   0^   49'  0" ;   but  No.  8  had 
(...  I  ;==  ^  8**  1 1'  17")    better  be  omitted. 

PoorffliTfly.— These  observations  are  the  most  discordant  of  any  that  have 

been  made;  they  exhibit  in  Nos.  14  and  15 
nearly  the  two  extreme  cases  which  can  hap- 
pen ;  on  looking  over  the  several  values,  from 
the  coincidence  found  in  Nos.  1 ,  2,  3,  4,  6,  9 
and  10,  we  naturally  conclude  that  they  re- 

•  ThcM  nuttbtrt  refer  to  the  order  in  which  the  vtluet  ttaad  In  the  Uhle. 


238        Ohstrvations  on  the  Direction  and  Intemity  of  the        [April 

present  the  true  dip ;  in  which  case,  Nos.  5 
and  12  require  the  third  correction ;  Nob.  7  and 
8  the  1st;  and  Nos.  11  the  4th  or  largest  cor- 
(.-.  *  =  +■  7**  16'  46")     rection. 

ilfoiira*.— Nob.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 7,  8,  12,  14,  16,  17,  i8  and  19  probably 

exhibit  the  true  values  of  the  dip— in  which 
case  Nos.  9,  11  and  15  require  the  second  cor- 
rection, and  Nos.  10  and  13  require  the  first  or 

(.*.  i  =  -t-  6'  50'  4")      minor  correction  only. 

Sadras. — The  general  mean  will  probably  be  pretty  near  the  truth. 
(.-.  «  =  +  5*»  31'  23") 

Thaumpaukum, — ^Nos.  1  or  2  require  the  minor  correction  to  produce 

an  agreement  ititer  se,  but  since  in  either  case 
we  might  possibly  be  in  error,  it  will  be  vls 
well  to  take  the  mean,  and  mark  the  result  as 

(.-.  «  =  +  4*»  57'  54")     doubtful, 
doubtful. 

Allumparva. — Was  visited  on  my  return  homeward,  instead  of  Thaum- 
paukum, in  consequence  of  its  affording  better 
shelter  than  the  latter  place :  the  observations 
all  agree  pretty  well,  although  No.  4  probably 

(/•  ^  --  -f  4®  50'  16")  requires  the  minor  correction. 

Pondlcherry. — The  first  and  third  observations  with  needle  No.  3  appa- 
(•/  5  =  -f  4°  27'  12")  rently  require  the  minor  correction. 

Porto  Novo. — The  first  observations  apparently  requires  the  minor  cor- 
(.*.  «  =  -i-  3**    6'  15")  rection. 

SheaUy. — The  observations  with  Nos.  2  and  6  seem  to  require  the  minor 
(/.  a  =  +  2'  28'  13")  correction. 

Tranquebar. — No.  12,  which  we  may  as  well  omit,  seems  to  require  the 
(/.  ^  =  -f  2®     5'  17")  minor  correction. 

(Negapatam.'^lt  i*  quite  impossible  at  first  sight  to  form  any  idea  of 

the  true  dip  from  these  observations.  On  con- 
sulting those  made  on  2d  October,  we  may 


1839]  T$rre$trial  Magmlic  Forc$  in  Southtrn  India.  239 

adopt  with  equal  propriety,  the  mean  of  Nos.  1 
and  4  (1**  38'  30"),  or  of  Nos.  2  and  3  (!•  22' 
20  )  as  the  true  dip.  On  consulting  the  previ- 
ous observations,  we  find  that  they  may  be 
brought  to  agree  with  the  first  of  these  values, 
by  allowing  the  second  correction  in  Nos, 
J,  3  and  4,  and  the  first  correction  in  No.  2; 
whereas  to  reconcile  them  with  the  second  va- 
lue found  above,  we  must  admit  the  third  cor- 
rection  in  Nos.  1  and  3:  and  the  second  in  No. 
4.  Hitherto  the  minor  correction  only  having 
been  found  sufiiicient  to  reconcile  the  observa- 
tions made  by  myself,  I  think  it  little  likely 
that  th§  third  correction  should  apply  (wie§  at 
the  same  station,  particularly  as  the  observa- 
tions  on  the  second  day  were  made  with  more 
than  ordinary  care  on  account  of  the  disagree- 
ment met  with  on  the  first  day  of  observation : 
or,  it  would  appear  on  the  whole  that  the  most 
probable  value  for  the  true  dip  will  be  found, 
by  allowing  the  first  correction  in  Nos.  2,  6 
and  7;  and  the  second  correction  in  Nos.  1,  3 
(/.  «=:-f  r  42'  10'0and4. 


Manargoody. — One  or  the  other  of  these  observations  probably  repre* 
/  .^  a  =  H-  0**  39'  8"\  sents  the  true  dip,  in  which  case  the  other  ob- 
V         or  -f-  1       o   38  /  servations  requires  the  minor  correction. 


Puifooeottah. — ITie  mean  of  these  is  probably  pretty  near  the  truth. 
(-.-  a  =   4-  0**  55'  0") 

Mnnamalegoody, — ^The  mean  of  these  is  probably  pretty  near  the  truth. 
(.'.  a  =  -i-  0*^  10   31") 

Kalehenary.^  Do.  do.       /.  a  =  +  0*     6'  22". 

Hamnad. —  Do.  do.       •*•  a  =-—  1®  24'  42 "• 

P<i«m6ajt.— No.  4  appears  to  require  the  minor  correction. 
(/.  a  =  —  !•  35'  30") 


340        Obsirvations  on  thi  Direction  and  Inteniity  of  Ike        [APBit 
Carrtfihandy. — Observations  coincident —  /.  3  =  —  1     51'  52  . 

Fadinaium.-^  Do.  do.  ••.«  =  —  1     33    51  . 

PouHtnu-^  Do.  do.  /.  5  =  —  2    46    10  . 

Tutocorin — No.  4  appears   to  require  the  minor    correction,   but  the 
•*•  2  =  —  2**  37'  42")   amount  being  doubtful  it  had  better  be  omitted. 

Palamcottah, — The  large  quantity  of  dust  floating  in  the  air,  and  the  hoi 

land  wind,  rendered  observing  irksome  and  diffi- 
cult on  the  24th  August,  which  may  account  for 
the  magnetising  of  the  needles  having  been  less 
successfully  accumplished  than  heretofore :— it 
would  appear  ihat  No.  1  requires  the  second 
correction,  and  No.  2  the  third;  but  they  had 

(/.  a  =  -—  2°  46'  1")    better  all  ihree  be  omitted. 

NagracoxL — Nos.  4  and  5  appear  each  to  require  the  minor  correction. 
(••.  5  =  —  3^  53'  3") 

Tr'vandrvm. — The  observation  with  needle  No.  4  had  better  be  omitted ; 

Nos.  10  and  11  apparently  require  the   minor 
(/.  a  =  — 3**  15'  24")   correction. 

QttiVon.^The  observations  are  coincident.    •*.  5  =  —  2°  21'  35". 

^liepee— These  observations  are  so  singularly  discordant,  tliat  no  sort  of 
{••  S  =:  —  X    )  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  vulue  of  i. 

Balghatty. — No.  4  apparently  requires  the  minor  correction. 
(••.  a=-|-  0°  18' 46") 

O       /         f> 

CAf/traye.— Observation  coincident —  /•  5  4-  I  12  34. 

Penaney. —  do.  do. —  •*•  £  -f-  1  11  25. 


1839]  Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India.  241 

Calicut. — Observation  coincident-*  •*•  3  -t-  2  42  43 

Tellicherry. — The  observations  made  nt  this  plare  are  so  singularly  dis 

corrlant,  that  ihev  hud  better  stand  over  for  the 
present. 

The  above  values  of  the  dip,  when  laid  down  upon  a  map,  exhibit  an 
appearance  something  resemhling  a  series  of  parallels  of  latitude, — save 
that  the  errors  of  observation  (which  somewhat  disturb  their  uniformi** 
ty),  prevent  our  discovering  if  these  lines  he  parallel  to  the  equator,  or 
if  their  inclination  tends  towards  it  on  the  eastern,  or  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Peninsula.  To  arrive  at  a  more  correct  knowledge  of  this 
matter,  we  will  in  the  first  place  suppose  them  to  be  parallel,  and  pro- 
ceed to  find  the  latitudes  of  the  magnetic  equator,  corresponding  to  the 
several  longitudes,  from  the  well  known  formula 

tan  i  :=^2tan\ 

where  ^  represents  the  dip  and  \  magnetic  the  latitude  of  the  place.  It 
may  be  objected— that  this  formula  obtains  only  on  the  old  hypothesis, 
of  there  being  two  magnetic  poles  symmetrically  situated  in  a  diameter 
of  the  earth,  and  near  to  its  centre, — an  hypothesis  which  is  not  com* 
pletely  home  out  by  our  present  improved  knowledge : — however  valid 
this  objection  maybe  with  reference  to  high  latitudes;  a  slitrht  consi- 
deration of  the  subject,  renders  it  clear,  that  in  the  case  of  our  observa- 
tions (which  twice  cross  the  magnetic  equator;,  a  result  very  nearly  ap- 
proaching to  the  truth  will  be  obtained  by  this  formula:  accordingly  wc) 
get  as  follows — 


292         Obstrtaiiimi  an  the  Dinction  and  Inteugiti/  of  th§        [Apiil 


Qeographicai  situation  of  rarious  places  oh  the  Coart  cf  India,  with 
the  oUerred  Dip,  and  corresponding  dtduced  Latitude  qf  the  Mag- 
netic Equator. 


Long. 


Latitodel        ^ 


Latitude  of  I 
Mag.  Eq. 


Remarks. 


Ongole 

Ramapatam 

Allo^r 

Kellore 

'Woogelly 

Sooloorpct 

Poodway 

Madraa 

Sadraa 

Thaumpaukum  . . 

Alluinpan-a 

Pondicberry 

Porto  Novo.  •  •  •  •. 

Sheally 

Tranqtiebar 

Negapatam 

llanargoody 

Puttoocottah  . . . . 
Muoaiueli*  goody 
Kalehennan*  ..'.. 

Bamnad 

Paumban 

Carryshandy  .... 

%'adiiiHlruin 

Powani 

Tutocorin 

Palameottah...... 

Kagracoil 

Trivandnim 

Quilon 

AUepee 

Balghatty 

Chetwaye 

Penaney 

Calicut 

TcUicherrv 


/  ff 


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80  11 
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80  12 
80  2 

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79  54 

'79  48 

9  50 

79  55 

9  51 

9  32 

79  23 
79  15 
9  0 

8  51 

9  5 
><27 
8  10 

77 


fi 


15 
15 
14 
14 
14 
13 

•i:< 
1213 

l'2 
112 

•  12 
11 

•  11 
111 

ill 
:io 

10 


8  11 

/  4% 

7  28 

(;59 

656 

70  21 

6  17 

76  4 

-5  5S 

75  49 


I 


rO 

10 

9 

9 

9 

9 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11 

II 


30  N 

3 
41 
28 

I 
41 
21 

4.9 
32 
12 
14 
54 
29 
16 

I 
46 
40 

27 
3 
40 
22 
17 
11 
57 
49 
48 
44 
11 

30  35 
54  0 

31  0 
58  30 

32  6 
46  3» 
15  25 
45  0 


/» 


+  11 
10 
10 
9 
8 
8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
4 
4 
3 
2 
2 
1 
0 
1 

0 
0 

4-    U 

_  1 

1 

I 

1 

2 

2 
2 
3 
3 
2 

+  0 

\ 

1 
2 


36  40 
44  14 
l»46 
4f  16 

49  20 
II  I7i 
16  46; 

50  4 
31  23 
57  54 
90  16 
27  12 

615 

5  wl 
42  10- 
39  8 

338 
55  0 

10  3jj 

6  221 
21  42; 
■^5  ^) 

51  -2! 
33  .>| 
46  10 

37  42 
46  I 
53  3 
15  24 
2135 

'  I 
18  46 
12^1! 

11  25 
42  43 


o    /   // 


38 
3^ 
29 
35 
^5 
31 
42 
38 
45 
46 
48 
40 
55 
I 

9  5^ 
954 
IU20 
10  8 
9  59 
9  57 
936 


r9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 

lO 


3 

40 
5 

17 

28 

5 

14 

?? 

46  DoubtfixL 

36 

!2 

48 

51 

21 

51 


Tbe  latter  of  thesa 


Doubtful. 

10  •  j  IS  no  doubt  correct 

30' 


lO 
10 
10 
9 
10 
10 
!0 
10 
10 
10 


4 

4 
6 
43 
1 
6 
7 
7 
8 
4 


43 
49 
2i 
46 
57 
56 
28 
54 
3 
40 1 

2^1 
49 


} 


It  would  appear  tbat 
this  value  of  ^^  re- 
quires the  8<i  'cor* 
roction  or  JJ  ^^  — 
©•42«38'.  ' 
This  value  of  g  pro- 
bably requires  the 
Second  correction, 
or^  =  — 2*22'5l"• 


l 


9  49    7 

9  55  4S 

10  '0  46 

9  53  51 


Neglecting  the  ubservatiun  at  Thaumpauhtm,  and  adopting   the  se- 
cond value  fur  Manor  goody,  we  get  as  follows  : — 

Latitude.      Longitude.    Lat.  of  M.  Equator. 


/     ti 


From    9  Stations  in 


II 


K  12  32  X 
i  15  30N 
\  2  I4N 
>  9  11  N 
i  8  57  X 
-;  8  1 1  N 
f  M  15  N' 


80  6  47 
/9  27  23 

77  3  3S 


9   /    // 

9  37  28 
9  56  4o 

10  1  51 


1839]  Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India.  243 

On  comparing  each  of  these  with  its  several  constituent  values,  we  find 
that  the  mean  error  at  a  single  station  is  6',  33" ;  from  which  we  should 
conclude,  that  the  latitude  of  iho  magnetic  equator,  derived  from  the 
first  9  stations,  as  far  as  error  of  observation  goes,  is  probably  not  above 
2  or  3  minutes  in  error :  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  result  from  13, 
and  of  that  from  1 1  observations.  Hence  we  are  free  to  infer  that  the 
discordance  which  exists  between  these  three  values,  as  compared  with 
the  longitude,  is  without  the  limit  of  error  of  observations;  and  since  Ho 
simple  value  of  inclination  of  the  isoclinal  lines  would  reconcile  both 
the  longitudes  and  latitudes,  we  are  left  to  conclude,  either  that  the 
isoclinal  lines  (arising  from  local  causes)  are  undulating,  or  that  we  have 
assumed  an  erroneous  theory. 

Having  come  to  this  conclusion,  we  will  now  proceed  with  the  obser- 
vations at  these  three  groups  of  stations,  to  obtain  values  for  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  isoclinal  lines  to  the  meridian  (0)  i  and  the  rate  of  variation  (r) 
corresponding  to  a  variation  (of  one  minute  for  instance)  in  the  latitude. 
For  this  purpose,  let  \  and  /t  represent  respectively  the  longitude  and 
latitude  of  any  principal  station  (O)  to  which  we  wish  to  refer  a  group 
of  ob8er\ations ;  and  \,  and  /*^  the  same  for  any  one  of  the  other  sta- 
tions. Let  P  represent  the  pole  of  the  earth;  P  O  the  meridian  of  the 
said  principal  station,  and  P  Q  the  meridian  of  any  one  of  the  stations 
which  we  wish  to  refer  to  O.  From  Q  let  fall  Q  R  perpendicular  to  P  O  j 
or,  since  R  O  and  R  Q  will  in  no  case  exceed  1 J  or  2  degrees,  we  mayi 
fur  simplicity  sak^*,  make  R  0  a  parallel  of  latitude;  when 

R  O  =  A  =  X-\, 

and  R  Q  =  B  =:  (^— /«,)  cos  \, 

Let  O  S  represent  an  isoclined  line,  making  the  single  O  S  P  ==(^ 
with  the  meridian,  and  draw  Q  T  =  jo  perpendicular  to  it ;  then  we  get 

p  =  (B.  cos  ^  -^  A.  sin  $)  nearly. 

Now,  within  the  limited  range  of  each  group  of  stations,  we  may  safely 
allow,  that  the  dip  varies  as  the  distance — that  r  remains  constant  ;— 
hence 

^—^,  =r  rp 

or   ^ — ^^  =  r  cos  $.B  -{-  r  s'm  0.  A  ;  where,  substituting  x,  and  y,  for 
the  terms  r.  sin  0  &  r.  cos  0,  and  restoring  the  values  of  A  &  B, 

a-a,  =  (/*—/*,)  cos  X,.  a?  +  (>•— X)  y. 

The  stations  proper  to  be  chosen  for  principal  stations,  are  evidently 
those  which  arc  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  group,  or  such  as  we 
have  already  obtained  ;  where 


344        ObsiTvaiiont  on  thi  Dir$ction  and  Intensity  of  tke        [April 


// 


4-  H    2  20 

10  :^3  51 

9  24  11 


80  6  47 
79  27  23 
77    3  38 


h 

•     / 

// 

+ 

8  46  -19 

-t- 

4  11 

4 

.. 

1  15 

13 

whence  we  deduce  the  following,  for  the  first  group, 


Place  of  ob- 
seryation. 


\ 


/*/ 


A 

or 


B 

or 

(a*  -  h^ 

COS.     \, 


1) 

or 


0      / 

O       / 

/ 

Ongole    .... 

-i-15  30 

-H80    5 

-^  88 

+     2 

-  169.9 

Ramapatam 

15    3 

80    6 

61 

1 

117,4 

AUoor    

14  41 

80    7 

39 

0 

92,0 

Nellore    . .  • . 

14  28 

80    2 

26 

5 

54,5 

Woogelly    . . 

14     1 

79  50 

+     1 

9 

2,5 

Sooloorpet  ... 

13  41 

80    3 

21 

4 

-h     35,5 

Potiway    

13  21 

80  11 

41 

—    4 

90.0 

Madras     •••. 

13     5 

80  17 

57 

10 

116.7 

Sadras 

12  32 

80  \1 

liO 

5 

iy5,4 

w 


4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
G 
9 
3 


Similarly  we  get  for  the  second  group. 


Place   of  ob- 
servation. 


X, 


I 


AUumparva 

Pondicherry    

Porto  Novo 

Sheall^r    

Tranquebar  ...... 

Negapntam 

Manarguody    . . . . 

Puttoocottah 

Munainelogoody... 

Kalehennary    

Ramnad    

Paumban 

Carrj'^shandy 


+  12 

n 
11 
11 
n 


14 

51 

29 

16 

1 


10  46 
10  40 
10  27 
10    3 


9 
9 
9 
9 


40 
22 
17 
11 


+80 

79 
79 
79 
79 
79 
79 
79 
79 
79 

78 


78 


A 

B 

or 

D 

or 

^/*"/*,) 

X 

or 

w 

1 

/ 

co^.  X, 

2 

—  loo 

--  34 

216  2 

3 

54 

80 

26 

19.-1  1 

7 

43 

55 

20 

112  I 

4 

53 

42 

22 

74  I 

3 

55 

27 

27 

51  2 

G 

51 

12 

23 

28  1 

3 

32 

6 

5 

4-   10  5 

2 

23 

-V       7 

-h     4 

19  I 

2 

15 

31 

12 

6.J  5 

2 

0 

51 

26 

67  7 

2 

54 

72 

32 

158  8 

2 

5 

71 

22 

169  6 

3 

27 

83 

59 

186  0 

2 

1839] 


Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India^ 


245 


And  further,  for  the  third  group. 


Place  of  observa- 
tion. 


Vadinatrum.... 

PoWHiU    

Tutoi;orin  . . . , 
Palaiiicottiih  . 
Na:^racuil  ... 
TrivHiidrum 

Qnilon 

A II  e| '(*..•••«... 
B.ilo|iai(y  .. 
diet  wave  .. 
P»  naney  .... 
C-ilirut" 


-h 


8  :i7 
8  49 
8  48 
8  44 
8  11 
8  30 

8  54 

9  31 
9  ^d 

10  32 
10  46 
U   15 


/*/ 


A 

or 


B 

or 

COS.  X^ 


O       / 

78  10 

f  27 

77  57 

35 

7H   14 

36 

77  4S 

40 

77  28 

73 

76  59 

54 

76  56 

30 

76  21 

-     7 

76  17 

34 

76     4 

68 

75  58 

82 

75  4if 

111 

-h 


(a-i) 


—  66    + 
52 
69 
43 
24 

5 

8 
42 
46 
59 
65 

74 


18 
90 
82 
10 

157 
IJO 

66 


—  94 

117 

146 
238 


2 
9 
4 
7 
8 
1 
3 


1 

9 

7 
0 


to 


2 
2 
4 
4 

4 
7 
2 

■  •  < 

6 

4 
2 
5 


We  have  found  above,  that 

i-^,  =  A  jr  -I-  By  ;— put  =D 

and  it  only  remains,  that,  with  the  above  values  of  A,  B,  {SS,)  =  D 
and  the  weight  (w)  (determined  from  a  consideration  of  the  number 
and  goodness  of  the  observations  constituting  each  result);  we  should 
now,  by  the  method  of  minimum  squares,  determine  the  most  probable 
values  for  x  ^  y:  to  accomplish  this,  we  must,  after  multiplying  the 
above  equation  by  it,  again  multiply  it  successively  by  the  coeflSci- 
ents  of  the  quantities  sought;  when  we  get  equations  of  the  form 

A«tra?-{-ABM'y=iADM; 
and  ABu?a7+B«  fry  =  BDM; 

from  which,  by  the  following  equations  of  conditions,  the  most  probable 
values  of  x  and  y  will  now  be  obtained : 


a'976* 

— 

704y=±  50801,8 

— 

704  a 

•  + 

16y  =  - 

1359,2 

14884 

— 

241    --f    28045,6 

— 

244 

f 

4    =- 

469.6 

6()8l 

— 

0    =+    14352,0 

— 

0 

+ 

0    = 

0,0 

2:u4 

— 

520    =+     5668,0 

— 

520 

-f 

100    =  — 

1090,0 

4 

f 

36 10.0 

+ 

36 

■f 

324    =  + 

90.0 

1764 

-f- 

a36    =  +      2982,0 

I 

d:\6 

+ 

64    =  + 

568,0 

l(>i»><6 

— 

9S4    =-»-    22140,0 

— 

984 

+ 

96    =  — 

2160,0 

29241 

— 

5J30    =-f-    59867,1 

— 

5130 

+ 

900    =  — 

10503,0 

2430O 

— 

1350    =+    62758,0 

— 

1350 

+ 

75    =- 

2344,8 

246        Obierpatlons  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the        [April 


taking  the  sum  we  get 

120U43  X  —    8560  y  =     24G207,5 


-    &560j:-f-  1579y=-  172G8,C 


and  for  the 

second  series 

+  30000  or 

+ 

10200  .V 

'=f   &1860.0 

4-  10200X+  3468  y=      22052,4 

44800 

+ 

14560 

=  + 108136,0 

14560  +  4732 

=  -}.    3-1I 1 1.2 

12100 

+ 

4100 

=  1-   21662,0 

4400  .   1600 

=  4-    8968.0 

5292 

+ 

2772 

=  -1-     9336,6 

2772  +  1452 

=  ^    4«90,6 

4374 

+ 

4374 

=  +     8294,4 

4374  -f  4374 

=  -r     8294,4 

432 

-f 

828 

=  +    ion.6 

828  f  1587 

=  f    1938.9 

72 

+ 

60 

=  -      1 26,0 

GO  +      50 

=  -      105,0 

98 

-(- 

56 

=  +       267,4 

56  +      32 

=  f      152,8 

1922 

r 

744 

=  -f-     3937,0 

744  -1-    288 

=  -h    1521,0 

5832 

f 

2808 

=  +     7311.6 

2608  -}-  1352 

=  +    3520,4 

10368 

■f 

4606 

=  -f-  22867,2 

4608  -r  2048 

=  4-  1016^J,2 

17787 

-f 

5082 

=  -f-  39177,6 

5082  -f-  1452 

=  jf.  11193.6 

13778 

■f 

9794 

=  f  30876,0 

9794  +  6962 

=  +  2l94tt,0 

taking  the  sum  we  get 
146855  *  -I-  60286  y  -    320611,4 

and  for  the  third  series 


60286  X  -f  29397  y=    129685,5 


1458  2 

—    3564 

y  =  +      982,8 

2450 

—  3640 

=  -f    6363,0 

5184 

—  9936 

=  -1-  11865,6 

640g 

-  6880 

=  +  14512,0 

21316 

—  7008 

=  +  46077,6 

20412 

+  1890 

=  +  45397,8 

1800 

-f-    480 

=  -1-    3978,0 

6936 

-.  938i 

=  +  19196,4 

18496 

—16048 

=  +  40228,8 

13448 

-10660 

=  +  24068,8 

61605 

-41070 

=  +132090,0 

—  3564  « -I- 

—  3640  f. 

—  9936  4- 

—  6880  -f- 

—  7008  -I- 
4-  1890  + 
+  480  -f 

—  9384  + 
—16018  + 
-10660  4. 
-41070  + 


8712  y 
5408 
190  H 
7396 
2304 
175 
128 
12696 
13924 
8450 
27380 


—  2102,4 

—  9153,0 
:  —22742,4 
: -15600,4 

—15148.8 
:+  42aV' 
:-f  106(),8 
:— 25971.6 
=  -^9(»4,4 
:— 19071,0 
: -88060,0 


taking  the  sum  we  get 
159506  *  -105820  y  =    34  4750,8 


-105820  X  +  105617  y  =  -228090,3 


Resolving  these  three  pairs  of  equations,  we  get 

«  y 

-f  2,072i8  -1-  0,29708 

2,353<55  —  0,41532 

2,17310  +  0,01770 

and  since  *  =  r  sin.  0  and  y  =  r  cos.  0 ;  we  get 

—  =  tan.  0        or  iu  numbers. 


1839]  Terrciinal  Majneiic  Forcd  in  Southern  India.  24? 

0  r 

-h       81  50  2,0934  for  one  geographical  mile. 

100     1  2,31)00     

89  32  2,1731 

Shewing  that  a  flexnre  takes  place  in  the  direction  of  the  isoclinal  lines, 
aa  represented  in  fig.  3 — much  at  variance  with  the  suppose<l  uniformity 
of  their  curyature, — and  with  reference  to  r,  a  determined  variation  from 
the  theory  (tan.  6  =  2  tan.  \)  in  which  r  cannot  exceed  2 :— If  we  now 
refer  to  page  243  for  the  mean  values  of  h  and  \ :  we  can,  from  the  above 
vdues  of  r  and  0,  compute  more  correct  values  than  we  have  yet  obtain* 
ed  of  the  latitude  of  the  magnetic  equator;  thus 

!»,  Lat.  of  Mag.  Equator. 

O  f        II  O         t        II 

80    6  47  4-  9  53    4 

79  27  23  10    3  35 

77    3  38  9  58  53 

These  values  are  no  doubt  very  near  the  truth;  the  only  doubt  which 
can  exist,  is,  whether  we  ought  not  to  have  rejected  the  observations  at 
Kalehannary  and  Vadinatrum  ?  If  we  had  done  so,  the  above  2d  and  3d 
values  would  each  be  increased  about  two  minutes. 

Intensity  Obsekvations. 

I  have  already  mentioned  that  the  intensity  needles,  employed  for  a 
great  portion  of  this  work,  were  constructed  by  myself,  immediately  be- 
fore quitting  Madras, — when  1  had  observed  wi^h  them  for  about  30  or  40 
days  only.  During  this  time,  no  perceptible  alteration  in  the  magnetic 
intensity*  of  either  of  them  having  taken  place,  I  determined  to  trust 
to  their  invariabilityt — or  rather  to  give  the  results,  if  on  my  return  to 
Madras  it  appeared  that  the  needles  had  not  varied  j — and  the  needles 
constructed  by  Mr.  Caldecott,  had  not  been  in  use  for  a  day  previously  to 
my  quitting  Trivandrum.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  will  naturally 
be  expected  that  our  intensity  observations  are  of  little  worth ;  particu- 
larly since  the  observations  have  been  made  over  a  tract  of  country, where 
from  theory  we  know  that  an  almost  invariable  inteni^ity  must  prevail ; 

•  The  needles  of  this  construction  cmployod  in  England  for  measuring  magnetic  in- 
tensity, have  gentrally  been  found  to  part  with  their  intensity,  during  the  first  two  years 
aflcr  being  magnetized. 

t  The  two  needles  to  whicli  this  remark  lK*lon;;«,  remained  suspended  in  their  boxes 
during  this  time ;  had  they  been  handled  «veu,  experience  since  shews  thut  a  difierMM 
woald  probably  have  been  obtained. 


248        Ohservationt  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the        [April 

and  that,  to  trace  the  law  of  its  variation  under  thes*^  circumstance^!, 
observations  of  far  more  than  ordinary  accuracy  should  be  employed.  I 
had  however  other  motives  in  view  in  making  these  observations  tluin 
that  of  discovering  from  them  the  law  of  magnetic  intensity.  My  object 
was,  not  to  discover  the  law,  but — assuming  the  law  according  to  theory — 
how  far  it  was  transgressed  by  incidental  or  local  causes :  for, with  regard 
to  the  latter,  our  track  along  the  Cororoandel  coast,  surrounded  by  ex- 
tensive sandy  plains,  would  form  a  fair  field  for  exhibiting  the  effect  of 
local  disturbances,  when  contrasted  with  the  vast  granitic  formations 
and  elevations  to  be  met  with  in  and  near  to  Travaucore  and  along  the 
Western  coast  generally. 

With  thus  much  by  way  of  explanation,  I  will  now  lay  before  the 
reader  the  whole  of  the  observations,  even  those  which  I  shall  even- 
tually propose  to  reject,  in  order,  that  no  more,  or  less  importance  may 
be  attached  to  them,  than  they  are  fairly  entitled  to.  I  will  here  mention 
one  trifling  circumstance  with  regard  to  Mr.  Caldecott's  needles ;  namely, 
that,  with  a  view  to  try  if  their  intensities  might  not  be  rendered  at  on«  e 
invariable,  before  leaving  Trivandrum  I  submitted  each  of  them  to  rather 
rough  usage  by  hard  friction.  The  effect  of  this  was,  that  a  diminution 
of  intensity  ensued  at  once — to  the  amount  of  about  20  seconds  in  per- 
forming 100  vibrations.  How  far  this  might  be  carried,  is  a  matter  of 
interest  for  which  1  amy  not  pause  here,  save  t.*  remark,  that,  us  far  as 
my  experience  goes,  a  needle  may  by  this  means  at  once  be  broui^ht  to 
a  fixed  intensity  ;  of  which  more  presently.  It  only  remains  for  inc  to 
add,  that  the  same  obser\ers  and  the  same  stations  as  those  mentioned 
in  the  dip  observations,  apply  to  these. 

Corrections  to  be  applied  to  the  Intensity  Olservations, 
The  corrections  to  be   applied  to  the  observed  time   of  one  of  these 
needles,  performing  100  vibrations,  are  three  in  number. 

1st. — On  account  of  R  the  rale  of  the  chronometer ;  which  renders  ne- 
cessary the  correction 

,       ,-  86400       \ 

rate  =  I-(IX    ^^^^  ^  ^  ) 

2d. — On  account  of  arc.  To  reduce  the  time  of  vibration  performed  in 
a  circular  arc  commencing  from  A°,  and  terminating  at  a®,  to  that  which 
would  have  been  noted  had  the  vibrations  been  performed  in  an  infinitely 
small  circular,  or  a  cycloidal  arc,  the  correction  is 

sin.  (A  -f  a),  sin.  (A  —  a) 

corr.  for  arc  =  4-  I   X      ...>  xr  n •  — i i ; r 

'  32  M  (log.  sm.  A  —  log.  sm.  a) 

where  M  =r  the  logarithmic  modulus  =  2,302585 ;  and  A  and  a,  through- 
out—have always  been  20^  and  6i®  respectively  ;  or  correction  for  arc 
=  +  (I  X,0022). 


1839] 


Terrestrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India. 


249 


3d. — On  account  of  temperature  — It  being  found  that  a  magnetized 
needle  exhibits  a  greater  degree  of  intensity  in  cold  than  in  warm 
weather,  it  is  necessary  to  render  the  obsen'ations  comparable— that  they 
should  either  all  be  made  at  the  same  temperature,  or  that,  if  the  tem- 
perature vary,  a  correiition  proportionate  th(*reto  should  be  employed: 
for  this  purpose  I  have  lately  made  several  observations  with  the  three 
needles  empl«)yed  by  myself,  at  temperatures  between  70'  and  80' ;  by 
observing  in  a  cool  room  of  uniform  temper.iture,  and  afterwards  in  one 
wlih  a  low  roof  with  a  higher  temperature,  when  the  following  rates  of 
alteration  were  observed  : 


No.  ob- 
servati- 
ons. 


Needle  No.  1 


Faht. 
therm. 


Time  of 
100  vib. 


Needle  No.  2 

Faht.   \  Time  of 
therm.  1  100  vib. 


Needle  No.  3 


Faht. 
therm. 


Time  of 
100  vib. 


from  3 


/-fii.o 
r  hi  1,4 


I  -i-  0,37 
i.  f  ,70 
1,4-    »57 


t  -f  14.5 

/'+  10  8 

\r  -h  12.3 


I ,  -i-  0,90  /'+  8.0 
1,,-f  0,60  r-i-  8.8 
I, +  0,70/^  9.1 


r,..  f  0,65 
I.,  -h  0,27 
I.  \-  0,44 


where  I,  l„  l„,  represent  the  time  of  performing  100  vibrations  at  the 
lower  temperature  (/') — If  I  r'^pres'^nt  the  time  of  prrformini;  100  vibra" 
lions  at  the  standard  teinperatarc  t ;  and  I,  that  of  performing  the  same 
at  any  other  temperature  f  then  the  correction 

I  —  I   =  a  I  it—t") 
I-I, 


or 


I  (/-O 


s       s  s 

In  which  1, 1„  1,„  were  282,  312,  and  277  respectively;  whence 

a  =  ,00018  for  needle  No.  1. 

—  ,00019 No.  2. 

-_  ,00019      No.  3. 

This  near  and  unusual  agreement  inter  se^  arising  no  doubt  from  my 
not  having  employed  artificial  heat  (as  has  been  usual  in  observations  of 
ttiis  nature),  has  induced  me  to  suppose  that  the  remaining  two  needles 
require  the  same  correction,  which  consequently  has  been  applied  in  the 
reductions  (Table  III).     This  premised,  we  may  now  proceed  to  the 


Discussion  of  the  Intensity  Observations. 

In  the  examination  of  the  intensity  observations,  it  will  be  found  con- 
venient and  necessary,  to  divide  them  into  three  several  classes,  and  to 
discuss  the  observations  with  each  needle — cylinder  rather — in  eadi 
elass  separately ;  thus-* 


250         Observations  on  the  Direction  and  Intensi/i/  of  the        [April 

Class  1st. — Observations   made  from   Madras  to  Trlvandrum  and  hack 
again, 

—  2(1. — Observations  made  from  Tellicherry  to  Trivandrum. 

—  3d. — Observations  made  from  AJadras  to  Oti^ole  and  back  again* 

Class  I. 

If  we  now  attentively  examine  Table  II,  in  which  this  arrangement 
has  been  made  for  the  first  class  of  the  cylinder  T.  G.  T.  No.  1,  we 
perceive  that  the  numbers  in  the  column  **  difference,"  decrease  pretty 
uniformly,  in  something  like  a  geometrical  progression,  corresponding  to 
an  arithmetical  advance  of  the  time, — until  at  Nagracoil^  we  fitid  that  for 
nearly  a  month,  no  alteration  had  taken  place  in  its  intenriily.  If  we 
examine  the  observations  with  cylinder  T.  G.  T.  No.  2,  we  find  that  pre" 
cjsely  the  same  circumstance  occurs ;  and  on  examining  T.  O.  T.  No.  3, 
it  appears,  that— with  the  exception  of  a  difference  of  10,00  seconds 
caused  by  the  cylinder  having  been  let  fall, — during  nine  weeks  its  in- 
tensity remained  unchanged.  If  then  it  be  admitted  for  cylinders  Nos.  1 
and  2,  that  they  had  arrived  at  a  fixed  s*tate  of  intensity  on  the  25lii 
August;  and  that  No.  3  had  done  so  on  the  2d  August,  it  oidy  reinainb, 
that  we  should  cancel  the  observations  made  previously  to  these  dates, 
and  adopt  those  made  subsequent  ther»»to.  One  circumstance,  however, 
must  be  noticed  with  regard  to  cylinders  Nos.  1  and  2,  namely — that  the 
observations  at  eight  stations  made  in  the  course  of  our  onward  march, 
(between  Negapatam  and  Palamcottah),  have  purposely  been  omitted  ; 
the  cylinders  when  at  these  places  not  having  arrived  at  a  fixed 
state  of  intensity,  the  observations  must  ne<e<sarily  be  given  up.  With 
regard  to  the  two  cylinders  constructed  by  Mr.  Caldecott,  I  have  alroiuly 
mentioned  that  I  had  submitted  them  to  rather  rough  usage ;  by  which 
their  intensities  had  at  once  been  reduced  to  the  amount  of  several 
seconds  for  performing  100  vibrations;  my  intention  was  to  bring  them 
at  once  to  a  fixed  state  of  intensity,  for  I  can  state  with  considerable 
confid»*nc'e,  that  when  a  wedle  is  magnetized  to  saturation^  its  loss  of 
magnetic  intensity  is  due  alcnf  to  the  necessary  violence  employed  in  its 
use,  I  have  employed  a  cylinder  which  was  magnetized  to  saturation 
for  a  month — not  touching  it — without  its  having  parted  with  any  portion 
of  its  magnetism ;  but  on  applying  the  armature,  and  then  again  vibrating 
it,  a  change  of  several  seconds  has  immediately  resulted.  In  confirma- 
tion of  these  views,  it  will  be  nolicid  that  on  the  nturn  of  cylinders 
J.  C.  1  and  2  to  Trivandrum,  after  an  absence  of  ten  weeks,  in  which 
thev  had  travelled  over  1200  miles, 

S 

No.  1  had  varied  its  intensity  -f-  0.40^  in  performing 
2    —  O.bZWOOvibrationii. 


lS3d] 


Terreittrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Soulfwrn  India, 


251 


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1839] 


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1839] 


Terreitrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India, 


255 


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1839]  TerrttIrM  Afagiitlic   Force    r'n  S<,ulhem   InHa.  857 


ss 


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ss.|5.SS.3--'tl*.l'.t  a    IS33ISISSSIII 


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258  Obiervatiotu  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the        [Afbil 

A  few  days  after  my  arrival  at  Madras,  having  completed  the  obser- 
vations of  Class  I.,  I  despatched  the  cylinders  in  abanghy  parcel  forCccAin, 
where  they  were  met  by  Mr.  Caldecott,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
observations  which  follow.  In  comparing  the  times  of  performing  i 00 
vibrations  at  Trivandrum  now  observed,  with  those  obtained  when  I  left 
there,  it  appears  that  the  Cylinder  T.  G.  T.  No  1,  had  diminished  its  in- 
tensity* by  about  6  seconds,  and  No.  2  had  diminished  1,2  secondst  in 
performing  100  vibrations;  a  circumstance  which  could  only  be  expect- 
ed,  on  considering  the  rough  usage  to  which,  in  all  probability,  parcels 
are  subjected  by  thebanghy  runners  ;  such  however  is  not  the  case  with 
the  other  cylinder  (No.  3),  nor  with  J.  C.  Nos.  I  and  *2;  these  last  no 
doubt  owe  their  in  variableness  to  the  rough  usage  to  which  I  had  pre- 
viously subjected  them — having  performed  at  once  what  oilierwise 
would  have  been  performed  by  degrees.— In  addition  to  the  two  cylin- 
ders J.  C.  No.  1  and  No.  2,  Mr.  Caldecott  had  now  constructed  a  third  ; 
which  appears  to  have  arrived  at  a  fixed  state  of  intensity  ;  since,  dur- 
ing *27  days  (in  which  observations  of  this  class  were  being  made)  its 
intensity  diminished  only  0,  ids.  for  100  vibrations  :  this  cylinder  dif- 
fered from  the  other  two,  in  its  length  only  ;  a  circumstance  which  arose 
from  its  extreme  brittleness,  by  which  one  end  (about  i  an  inch)  broke 
off,  in  polishing,  after  it  had  been  tempered. 

*  It  is  somewhat  curious,  although  quite  accidental  no  douht,  that 

s 
No.  1  has  lost  altogether    Si0,68  in  performing  100  vihrations. 

9  —        —       ao.afi 

3    SiO.54 

•f  This  decrease  of  intensity  In  No.  8  is  1  think  rather  chargeable  to  other  causes. 


I83B]  Terrtttriai  MagnelU  Fvtrt  in  Soiilhtrn  India.  259 


li! 


1 1 1  ■JiSISSSslS  £^SISSag« 


+       1+1+++++ 


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_5    ssfet?fi^sss?  s     ESES-s^«-A 


I .  tsMSgil 


H        o'<m!.i.«t- 


o^moSCe: 


nil 


262        Observatiom  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the        [April 

CLASS  III. 

Immediately  after  making  the  above  observations,  which  were  per- 
formed altogether  by  Mr.  Caldecott,  he  despatched  the  cylinders  to 
Madras,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  me  to  make  the  observations  to  the 
north  of  this  place  ;  the  carriage  of  them  was  necessarily  effected  as 
before  by  the  banghy  runners  ;  save  (hat  Mr.  Caldecott  had  taken  the 
precaution  to  place  the  cylinders  in  grooves  cut  in  a  little  box,  made  on 
purpose  for  their  reception ;  and  the  whole  was  tightly  secured  by  cot- 
ton. Notwithstanding  this  precaution,  on  the  arrival  of  the  box  at  Madras, 
the  cylinders  were  all  found  huddled  together  in  one  comer  of  the  box, 
the  insufficient  quantity  of  cotton  which  remained,  allowing  them  to 
play  about  in  any  manner  they  pleased ;  it  was  in  fact  but  too  evident 
that  the  box  had  been  opened  to  ascertain  its  contents,  and  bad  not  been 
packed  again  with  anything  like  care.  Thus  circumstanced,  the  needles, 
which  had  necessarily  lost  a  considerable  degree  of  intensity,  were  now 
employed  during  two  months  by  my  assistant  Tannyachellum,  by  way  of 
learning;  when,  finding  that  during  this  time  they  bore  rough  handling 
without  losing  any  portion  of  their  intensity,  on  the  21st  April  I  des. 
patched  them  by  Tannyachellum  to  Ongole,  when  the  following  obser- 
vations were  made  ; — 


1839] 


Terrestrial  Magnetic  force  in  Southern  India. 


263 


6 


c 


CO 

< 


.3 

c 

o 

•n 

u 

o 


S 
H 


< 


I 

O 


ft. 


^2 


-I 


E     S! 


o  > 


O 


o 
u 

4 


^ 


8 


SB 

'J 
C4 


CO 


opi) 


»2^ 


S5 


%i$ 


COCO 


3^ 


»0 


+  + 


S3 


—  O 


•T^i;;     !;:5     2!«Q     TT*^ 

OCO       <0^       ^05       »Orf> 

•*^  ^^^  •••«  •v 


—  3 


•a 

—  o 


s 

s 


I 


CM 


S8 

;0  0 


I  00 

CO 


S5    8 


o 

PL4 


J  » 

O 

o 

CO 


2: 


< 


I 

a 

OS 


8':2     i^     gt-     »-w 


03-. 


<v)        CO  ^Jr^ 


>?2 


«-      ^c      ^o      do 

^3       ^3       »*'«       '^'^ 


o  o 


IS 


'^A^X 


^i 


8§    ^^ 


•  S!2*    3    '^-'^    3"^    "^^    '^►'^«   •^.'«.    '^•^    •^^ 
S5    g    ^-o.    S3    gS5    S!^    8S5    gg^  $$" 


^2£     <=>     22£     «■«>     ot-^     00 »     GOOD     odV    ot)oo 
goo^    o     o '^'^    ^^ 

i    I       1       I   i       I   i       II       II       II       II       II 


SS   S   sq  ?!B   :;o   sio   83   25§   gi:: 

<^a    ^^    §^^    ^^    SS 


c 
O 


Sgl    rS5    5S§?    23 


do- 


264       Observaliom  on  ike  DirecUon  and  Intentity  of  the        [Apiil 


o 

d 

H 

h. 
o 

C 

o 


CO 
CO 


c 


2-5c2 


^   3 

o    ^ 


of 


0/ 


CO 
-   cf 


S       2? 

CO  CO 


cj 

53 


etS 

CO 


s 


CO 


CO 


2^  —        e*5       1^  o 


^•S   --   SS   ^^    Sg    nS    SS;    252    S3 
?•£{   ::;    S'sf   :2":5    2;^"   ^2    S"*    22"   2S? 

cooQ     CO     «co     crSo     coco     coco     Jv^co     coco     «CO 


.col 


7Si     Sfi&r     ^^     ®S^     ooo     aor>.     ODto     oo 

a   si   kji  J^S   j;,^^;   5?S   S3    ES 


o        •  f2r*i      !i     !2!2      '>«^     i^»>»      r<«r^      •>^*      i^r*      t^i 

•■g    ^    -SmS    §   8S    SS    88    8§    88    88    8 


»        M  ^M 


00 


0»^       O»o       QQQ 
«D&       0;0       ;00 


I    I 


wq,    o     lOr*     oo     oo     iT^o     oo     lOt^     oo 

•  ^8    ^   835    SS    3S5    SS    8S5    8S    Si8 


kOo     o     lOo     »o«o     oo     oo     oo     oo     oo 


goo 

I  I 


I 


SS    5?^  S^   S52    ScS    S5::    g5i  S3    ?2 

lOi^     —     £f^    ^Z?     ^-'c*?     c^pf     cc-r     c*5^     rfco 

OC  ro   CO   CO^   coco   coco   coco   re  CO   CO  ?o   cc  <o 


OS 


98 


^       :z;       < 


I 


E 


c 
O 


82    ^    8' 


r^co     Oi»^ 


^a    255    2S5    28 


^3        S 


OB    ^ 


es*t3 


OP 
•WO 


6  6 


•s-l 


1839] 


Ttrmtrtal  Magnetic  F^ree  in  Soulfiern  Inditu 


2G9 


S 

ft 


—•3 

s-s  a 


^ 

s 

CO 

Mi4 

=1 

S 

« 

s 

iS 

^    fO 

QD 

of 

<e 

of 

o>- 

~5» 

of 

^ 

S^ 

s; 

Si 

£3 

s; 

g 

{« 

7?     —     3.^    -«x)     ig^S     jsTr    1^:5*    ^*o    x^ 
i.  •    ^       .'5.    Or*     'n*3-    «^^     «^—     "'••t    "S^ 

-§1^^  S  ^'^  SI  S§  §1  l§  ^?  §-| 


3l 


o 


»>»      55 


P5"''       ®       "Jl®       e*/>        t«»<-^       O""       CQ<M       ^ir^       ., 

-.m  '^  fci  2^  ^s  S^  is  la  8. 

^<  •—       '^  ^H  ^»  »^ 


20 


-f- 


■5 


I 


e 
•I  o 


S 


00 

1 1 


9 

I    i 


4» 

o  > 


s 
1 

CO 


§ 


Q 


I 


Q,  C        6 


-3         «       js-fl 


«  2     ^ 


CO   S 


6  0 

-CO 


i^ 

•^-o 


3:^    2    2Z!I    z;2    25    22    «^'«    «•«    «t^ 
H'^^^^   «o^    «o->o    -^^^   «/^.    <o«    S/o    33    33 

I 


R'«-     *^.     0.0.     =>»^«     00      «0  0      00      0.1O      »qO 

S?S    2    S3    S3    3S5    0   f  S    Sg    Ssf 


0.0     o      ou-^     o»r^     •«»'5      00     tft^     00     »fto 

•.OCX)     o     »•     oox     22     oojo     QOadr    otTx     oooo 
"t*-l    ^     — ^     —^     ^'^     •-^^     •-•-<     ^^     ^^ 


22    g    !:3    ?9    8S    ?:S5    83    28    55t2 
s^s^   $:;   s;^   s:;if^   s;^   §S^   S$S$   S^S^  S^^ 


JO 
'o 

o 


gt.    r-    gt^    r^cr,    «-.    28    2S5    2a    S3 


pgj 


266       0&f#rwtftOfU  on  thg  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the         [April 

To  deduce  from  these  values  of  the  times  occupied  hy  each  cylindej. 
topeifunn  100  vibrations,  the  relative  horizontal  magnetic  intensities  at 
the  several  places  ;  let  T  represent  the  time  of  any  needle  perferming 
100  horizontal  vibrations  at  Madras  ;  and  T',  the  time  occupied  by  the 
same  needle,  to  perform  100  vibrations  at  any  other  place,  and  let  A,  and 
h'  represent  the  horizontal  utensities  at  those  places  :  then  we  get 


h 


It/- 


G.T.  2. 

T.G.T.  3. 

J.C.I. 

J.  C.  2. 

291,41 

206,06 

201,97 

277,64 

294.31 
293,57 

204.47 
204,07 

277  9i 

269,07 

278,78 

Applying  this  formula  to  the  Madras  and   Trivandrum   observations, 
and  putting  A  =3  1  we  have 

T.G.T.  1.    • 
Madras^ 27^,98 

TRIVAKDRUli....{    gg 

h'        —        ...   0,998032     0,982860     0,977899     0,977608     0,994905 

Mean  value  of  V     »     ,98626 

Assuming  h*  as  just  found,  if  we  now  compare  the  observations  made 
between  Fadinatrum  and  TelUcherry  with  those  made  at  Trivandrum  ; 
and  (recollecting  that  A  =  1,)  compare  the  obsen'ations  at  the  remain- 
ing stations  with  those  made  at  Madras^  we  get  altogether  as  follows : — 


1839] 


TerretiritU  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India. 


267 


o 

eS 


< 


9 


2 


1. 


s 

o 

o 


O 


"s- 


QD  f  -^ 

O-  «  QC 

O)  O)  Od  O  9> 


C:  O  O  O  O) 


CO 


1 J  C?  ^  CO  o 
Oi  9»  J)  O  O 

CO 

• 

iS 


o 

o 


S  —  ;0 

e  o  30 
o  o  o 


50  —  U5  ^o  to 

O  O)  0ft  Oi  9) 


!0  o  o* 


O  O  ■^00  M 
O  O  I'-  »o  ■* 

C3  O  A  O)  O 

02  O  O  A  o 


CO 


^OOI  oooo 

^-  IQ  O)  (-«  0> 

CO  10  »^  X  00 
O  3>  O)  3>  0> 


X  a>  o  o 

0>  9)  O  O 


O  CO  ->4 


?> 

Od 


O  Ci  CO  b»  ^ 
C5  0>  Oi  00  ?> 
O:  -r  X  X  ^* 

O)  wi  O)  Ci  w« 


eo 

IN* 


d 


S:  •  >•  ^  CO  ^« 

00  X  X  cr.  2> 
0>  o>  Oi  3>  Oi 

O 


«s 


d 


'^  «  O  O  o 
O  00  oo  «*«  c> 
oc  r*  t>»  X  /5 

O)  9>  C:  3^  O) 


1^  CO  O  —  o 

c)  00  o  o  ^ 

GC  X  O  -*  0> 

o>  O  O  O  O) 

>k      ^      »       *•       •> 

— "^  o 


00  piM  I^QD  X 
O)  A  O)  9>  C> 


o)  —  us  xco 

O)  Q  O)  O)  O 
0>  O  c;  O)  O 


0) 

o 


a 

as 


8.S? 


OS    ^2: 


0)  <S 


mSo^q  ^'o-^i.g  ^-S^scu 

cS'-oiO  22*""^  S^£3=^ 

/^«S'^»7:>  oo^ca—  oo_^c«> 

OA<Z^>  M^i2ca<<5  fVi^wHSz; 


M8  Oburvation*  on  Ike  Direction  and  Intensity  (/  tk«  [At-ttit 


11 

a 


«} 

a 


S: 


o 


S 
0) 


cocooo^tOOeoioo>ooeo^0>oooMt 


•-9 


•55 


Or^e^coa>oa>«^c<«x 

5X)OiXi'»r>.jcaborQOcr> 


O 


—  '^iOeo"^  —  5>^^C*^'^^•*• 
X3^XX  XCiX-^OCi 

O  «  F-^  o 


CO 

d 


O  CO  O  lO 
•*  'M  .N  l>* 

9>C)^O^9>a)9>0  C>  C:  O  O)  3^  O  C;  ST)  C<  7) 


<?0  t*  ^'J  »ft 


•cc  »-*  X  X   . 

,o>co)oa)oa)0%3:c%  Ci 


r>.  1^  CO  ^-i  a"  3>  'X  CO  CO  t- 

X  X  oCiOa  :~i  X 


rcgxoi  —  -foco-o^x^; 
'3X  CO  r^^*x  '^'  »G^  ^  5S 

!  o*  Ci  o  o>  3>  arj  o^aso^OiOi 


0> 
o 


•o 
o 

u  S  ^ 


M         —   C   3 


§ 


3    =    »    « 


_3 


§5 


...  p  o  c,^ 

a  o  c  iJ  s  « 

eB  o  5  J^  i:;  a 

o 


6SuS«£d>fiH£?5Ha<j:S5r£ 


IS39] 


Terreitrial  Magnetic  Force  in  Southern  India* 


269 


These  results  appear,  on  the  whole,  as  accordant  as  results  from  inten- 
lity  observations  generally  come ;  for,  independent  of  the  known  cor- 
rections and  unavoidable  errors  which  occur  to  observations  of  this  na- 
ture, there  are  without  doubt  others  of  whose   disposition  we  are  igno- 
rant ;  a  fact,  that  will  be  rendered  sufficiently  obvious  by  consulting  the 
foregoing  observations,  in  which  the  greatest  error  of  observation  from 
hom  causes,  I  estimate    can  never  amount  to  4-tenths  of  a  second  of 
time;  under  these  circumstances  it  will  be  turning  the  above  results  to 
the  best  account,  if  we  now  deduce  the  intensity  of  the  magnetic    equator ; 
for,  thus  employed,    we    may    fairly    hope    to  get    rid    of  errors  of 
every  kind.    To    arrive    at  the    most    accurate  result,  we  must  here 
bave  recourse    to    theory ;     and    although    the    theory    that  the   tan- 
gent of  the  dip   is  equal  to  twice  the  tangent  of   the  magnetic  lati- 
tude (tan.  5  =  2  tan,  X)   is  derived  from  principles   which  appear,  all 
circumstances   considered,  to  be  not  strictly  true;  still,  for  the  small 
space  over  which  we  have  occasion  to  employ  it,  and  that  only  in  a  dif- 
ferential sense,  its  accuracy  is  fully  equal,  and  indeed  superior,  to  our 
wants.    If  to  the  above  formula  we  add,  that,  A  =  A  cos.  \,  where  A 
represents  the  total  magnetic  force;   we  arrive,  after  a  litile  reduction, 
at  the  expression 


A  =  2  A  >/  3  ^  sec.«  h   > 
from  which  wc  will  now  compute  the 

TotaliiiUniiiy  of  the  Magnetic  force  at  the  Magnetic  Equator,   horizon 

tal  force  at  Madras  =  I. 


PlilCC. 


^gole 

^'Dapatam 

Alloor. . . 


'ore 


Nell, 

WtJOJilly 

Sooloorpet... 
J^oodaway..... 

Madfiis 

Sadras , 

AHmnparva  • 
Pondirherry. 
Porto  Novo. . 

Sheally 

Tranquebar.. 


Mean  value. 


0,9920 
,9879 
,9845 
,9922 
,99:« 
,9856 
,9933 

1,0019 
,0082 

0,9938 
,9980 
,9966 
,99:^9 
,9939 


0,9921 


Diflference. 


—  ,0001 

—  ,0042 

—  ,0076 
-+-  ,0001 
4  ,0012 

—  ,0065 
+  ,0012 
-i-  ,0098 
4  ,0161 
-t  ,0017 
4-  ,0059 
-I-  ,0045 
4-  ,0018 

-I-  ,0018 


270  Ohs9rvaiiont  on  the  Direction  and  tntensHy  qf  the 


[ApHil 


Place. 


Observed  values 
of  A. 


Mean  value. 


Difference. 


Negapataro 

Manargooily 

Pultoocottah 

Munainelegoody 

Kalhennary, 

Ramnad 

Pauiuban 

Cariyshandy 

Vaclinatrum 

Powani 

Teulocorin 

Palaincottah 

Nagracoil 

Trivandrum 

Quilon 

Allepee 

Balgnatty ..,.. ..  — 

Chetwaye  

Penaney ..., 

Calicut 

Tellicherry 


,9059 

,9  74 
,9747 
,9S26 
,9821 
,9/75 
,9953 
,9748 
,9730 
,9763 
,99:>8 
,9S72 
,9898 
,9867 
,9705 

,9771 
,99*29 
,9882 
,9958 
,9946 
.9901 


,09921 


-t-  ,0038 


+  ,0032 


-h  ,0037 

—  ,0049 

—  ,0023 

—  ,0054 

—  ,0156 

—  ,0l''»0 
-f  ,0008 

—  ,0039 
4-  .0037 
+  ,0025 

—  ,0020 


If  to  each  of  the  above  values  we  were  to  give  a  weight  proportionate 
to  the  number  of  cylinders  employed,  we  should  obtain  a  mean  value 
possessing  the  least  probable  error  of  observation;  but,  since  in  this 
case  the  errors  due  to  local  causes  would  not  be  fairly  dealt  by,  it  be- 
comes a  question — if  a  more  correct  mean  value  would  not  be  attained, 
by  taking  the  mean  without  reference  to  the  number  of  observations 
employed ;  to  pursue  a  middle  course,  however,  we  mjy  safely  give 

to  1  observation  a  weight     1 

—  3  or  4     2 

and  —  5  or  6     —    3 

(when,  assuming  the  horizontal  intensity  at  Madras  =1.) 
The  total  magnetic  force  at  the  magnetic  equator  =  ,9906 
or,  rejecting  the  observations  at  eight  stitions  made  only  with  cy- 
linder T.  6.  T.  No.  3,  we  get  the  horizontal  intensity  of  the  mag- 
netic equator  =  ,9921 : — On  comparing  this  with  the  several  consti- 
tuent  values,  we  obtain  the  column  "  difference;"  oxhibiting  the  amount 
of  error  of  observation,  mixed  up  with  the  effect  of  local  disturbances; 
the  largest  of  these  (that  at  Sadras),  might  possibly  be  accounted  for  by 


1839]  Terrutrial  Magnetic  F^ree  in  Southern  India.  Vi 

Ihe  granitic  formations  there  met  with  (the  Sadraa  hills),  hut  if  so^ 
Palamcottah  and  Nagracoil  (at  which  places  similar  hut  larger  causes 
for  disturhance  exist)  ought  to  shew  the  same;  whereas  they  exhibit  a 
very  small,  but  opposite,  tendency.  Or  it  would  appear  on  the  whole, 
that  the  distribution  of  magnetic  intensity  in  Southern  India  is  but  little 
interfered  with  by  lucal  causes ,  and,  with  reference  to  Madras,  that  the 
location  chosen  for  making  the  observations  exhibits  an  intensity  in  ex- 
cess, to  the  amount  of  1,0098  to  1. 

Assuming  this, we  will  now  compare  the  magnetic  intensity  of  Madras, 
and  of  the  magnetic  equator  with  that  of  London ;  for  which  purpose 
we  have  the  following  observations  made  with  the  two  intensity  cylin- 
ders belonging  to  Captain  D.  Bethune,  already  adverted  to  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  paper.  The  observations  in  London  were,  I  pre- 
«nme,  made  by  Captain  Bethune,  whereas  those  at  Madras  in  1837  were 
made  by  Capt.  B.  and  myself  conjointly,  and  those  in  1839  by  myself 
alone. 

Mean  time  occvpipd  by  CtjUni m  No.  3  X  and   No.  3   in  nuiking  10 
^tUions,  at  the  temperature  of  HO^. 

at  Madras.  in  London. 

No.  3  X      No.  3  No.  3  X        No.  3 

Bate.  s  s 

Inthe  year  1835 442.76        461.96 

1837. 

"^^^^3^  300.30      309.74 

1839. 

Jan.  29 303.26      310.83 

-^  mere  glance  at  these  numbers,  shews  that  one,  if  not  both  of  the 

^.^litiders,  had  diminished  its  intensity  at  the  lime  of  making  the  first  ob- 

^^''^a.tions   at  Madras;  and   that  after  twenty-one  months  (when  the 

^^cond  observations  were  made)  they  had  still  further  diminished  their 

'"^*^nsities  No.  3  X,  by  2.96s  and  No.  3,  by  1.09*;  hence  it  would  appear 

l^'^^^ible  that  in  1835,  when  the  London  observations  were  made,  these 

**y' ii^iders,  with  their  then  stronger  intensities,  at  Madras  would  have 

l^^^'^'orraed  100  vibrations  in  something  like  294*  and  307*  respectively : 

**  ^fee  numbers  now  stand  (recollecting  that — .=^ — J    ;   and    putting 
^^^^s^  1  for  the  horizontal  intensity  of  London) 


V2  Tsrresirial  Mapuiie  Fwrce  in  SouiUm  Imdim.  [Apkil 

we  get  from  cylinder  No.  3  X  ;  A  =z  2.174 
and     No.  3         ik' =  2.225— 

whereas,  from  the  somewhat firobable  numbers  we  hare  just  assumed, 

cylinder  No.  3  X  gires  k,  =r  2.268 
No.  3         —    A  =2.2&4 

The  latter  numbers,  if  admitted,  now  remain  to  be  diminished  in  the 
proportion  of  1.0098  to  1.0000  for  the  local  influence  at  Madras;  when, 
with  reference  to  the  formula  at  page  269,  we  get 

Horizontal  Intensity.  Total  Intensity. 

in  London.  1  1 


In  conclusion,  I  cannot  hut  feel  regret  that  I  have  devoted  so  much 
space  to  the  discussion  of  obseirations,  which  in  the  end  have  furnished 
results  of  but  comparatively  little  importance;  but,  viewing  these  ob- 
servations as  a  part  only  of  a  series,  which  will  probably  ere  long  be  ex- 
tended to  the  most  northern  limits  of  India,  and  perhaps  some  parts  of 
Persia,  it  becomes  a  question,  whethery  on  the  whole,  they  are  not  just 
what  could  be  desired. 

Madras  Observatory,  > 
9ih  diarchy  1839.       ( 


*®^!r  The  Madras  Light  Boute.  273 


m.— ^fi  Inveitigation  of  the  Nature  and  Optical  efficiency  rf  the 
combination  qf  Mirrors  used  to  augment  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  Madras  Light, — By  Captain  J.  T.  Smith,  Engineers^  F,  R.S, 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Madras  Journal  of  Literature  and  Science^ 

Sir, 
On  looking  through  some  old  papers,  I  have  met  with,  and  have  the 
pleasure  to  send  you  the  accompanying  essay,   which  was  written  in  the 
year  1833,  with  a  view  to  publication,  but  which  from  accidental   causes 
Was  then  laid  aside.     As  the  subject   has  more  of  a  local  than   general 
interest,  and  as  the  evils  which  are  herein  pointed  out  are  likely  to  be 
»oon  remedied,  I  should  not  now  have  ventured  to  request  you  to  give 
it  insertion  in  your  pages,  were  it  not  possible  that  some  benefit  might 
iresult  from  an  exhibition  of  the  defects  of  a  contrivance,  which  has  hi- 
therto been  but  little  studied,  and  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  possess 
considerable  merit  for  its  simplicity ;  at  a  time  when  the  increasing  in- 
tercourse between  the  different  parts  of  India,  and  the  urgent  demand  for 
the  better  illumination  of  our  coasts,  renders  the   adoption  of  a  correct 
theory,  and  more  efficient  means,  every  day  more  and  more  desirable. 

The  analysis  which  fonns  the  chief  object  of  this  paper,  owes  its  ori- 
gin to  an  enquiry  in  which  I  was  engaged  at  the  time  I  have  mention- 
ed, some  scattered  memoranda  of  which  were  collected  and  arranged  in 
the  way  in  which  they  now  stand;   and,  in  order  to  introduce  the  subject 
to  the  perusal  of  the  general  reader,  I  have  thought  it  necessary  to  pre- 
mise a  few  general  observations  on  the  distribution  of  light,   and   the 
nature  and  objects  of  Light-house  illumination,  together  with  a  few 
remarks  upon  the  leading  principles  by  which  the  latter  is  governed ;   a 
distinct  understanding  of  them  being  almost  indispensable  to  a  clear 
explanation  of  the  mode  of  investigation  which  has  been  adopted. 

Madras,  December  Sth  ,  1838. 


Preliminary  Observations. — Every  luminous  point  whatever  throws 
Out  rays  in  all  directions,  and  is  equally  visible  at  the  same  distance  in 
every  possible  situation.  This  may  be  illustrated,  by  supposing  it  plac- 
^^  in  the  centre  of  a  hollow  sphere,  every  portion  of  the  surface  of 
^l»ich  would  receive  an  equal  number  of  its  rays,  and  be  equally  illumi- 
*»ated  by  it. 

I  shall  hav  e  occasion  hereafter  to  speak  of  the  upper  half  of  this  sphere 
*^  the  upper  hemisphere  of  rays  (Fio.  1   Pl.  3),  and    the  lower  half  as 


^ 


2i4  Mature  and  Optical  Ejficieney  of  tie  Mirrors  (ApRit 

the  lower  hemisphere.  In  the  same  manner,  of  two  other  similar  divi- 
sions of  it,  formed  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  former,  (which  is 
supposed  to  be  horizontal)  as  the  frout  and  rear  heraispheres,  as  regvirds 
the  situation  of  the  light  in  reference  to  a  reflector  or  any  particular 
object.  The  rays  proceeding  directly  from  a  luniiuous  body  to  the  eye, 
and  thus  visible,  may  be  termed  the  original  or  direct  light,  in  contra- 
distinction to  that  visible  after  r^ect'wn  from  any  bright  surface. 

Under  most  of  the  circumstances  in  which  light  is  usually  required, 
as  for  instance,  in  illuminating  apartments  &c.  the  whole  of  tlie  riys  of 
direct  light,  corresponding  to  every  part  of  the  above  sphere,  are  of 
equal  value,  those  proceeding  in  an  upward  direction  serving  to  illumi- 
nate the  ceiling  and  upper  parts  of  the  room,  and  those  proceeding  in  a 
direction yVowj  the  eye,  being  reflected  from  other  objects  aud  render- 
ing them  visible  ;  the  intention  being  in  this  case,  to  afford  as  much 
light  as  possible  to  the  various  objects  placed  in  different  situations 
round  the  luminous  body,  and  not  particularly  to  throw  a  large  quantity 
towards  the  eye ;  as  it  is  not  the  I'tghtj  but  the  objects^  which  it  is  most 
desirable  should  be  seen. 

In  a  Light-house,  however,  the  case  is  just  the  ref  er«e,  for  there  are 
here  no  objects  whatever  to  be  illuminated,  the  great  point  to  be  attain- 
ed being  to  throw  as  much  light  as  possible  to  the  obs^^rver.  Now  as 
it  is  evident  that  in  respect  to  a  luminous  body  placed  in  a  Light-house 
the  eye  can  never  be  situated  in  any  part  of  the  upper  half  of  the  sphere 
of  rays  above  alluded  to,  since  the  line  connecting  the  light  and  the  ho- 
Hzon  would  be  barely  even  horizontal,  it  follows  that  the  whole  of  those 
rays  must  be  entirely  lost.  If  the  Light-house  from  being  insulated  be 
required  to  illuminate  the  circumference  of  the  horizon  all  round,  nearlj^ 
all  the  remaining,  or  lower  half  of  the  sphere  of  rays,  will  be  effective,  as 
those  which  fall  below  the  horizon  line  will  be  visible  from  points  nearer 
to  the  light,  and  consequently  forming  an  angle  of  depression  with  it ; 
and  the  only  rays  of  the  lower  hemisphere  lost  will  be  those  intercepted 
by  the  brick  work  of  the  building  itself.  This  will  I  hope  be  clearly 
understood  by  a  reference  to  Fio.  2  which  represents  a  vertical  section 
of  a  Light-house  situated  as  above  supposed,  and  in  which  the  unser- 
viceable rays,  or  those  lost  in  consequence  of  their  emanating  in  di** 
rections  above  the  level  of  the  horizon,  are  comprised  within  the  semi- 
circle ahc  (which  is  the  section  of  the  upper  hemisphere  before  spoken 
of)  while  the  serviceable  rays,  or  those  which  are  visible   from  points  at 

different  distances  fiom  the  building,  are  included  within  the  lower 
•emicircle  d  e  f. 

In  many  instances,  however,  illumination  may  he  required  to  extend 


tt»]  in  tks  Madras  Light  Hout§.  S79 

to  only  half  of  tbe  whole  circumference  of  the  horizon,  which  if 
frequently  the  case  when  the  situation  of  the  Light-house  is  on  the 
edge  of  a  straight  line  of  coast,  (as  at  Madras)  and  it  is  required  merely 
to  be  visible  from  the  sea.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  evident« 
that  only  a  half  of  the  before  mentioned  hemisphere  of  terviceabU 
rays  are  available  for  the  purpose  required,  since  all  that  emanate  to* 
wards  the  opposite  hemisphere  fall  in  rear  of  the  line  of  coast,  and 
are  consequently  entirely  useless,  as  exhibited  in  figure  (No.  3).  In 
other  words,  in  such  a  situation,  out  of  the  whole  sphere  of  rays  pro- 
ceediug  from  the  luminous  object,  one  half  is  lost  owing  to  their  being 
projected  in  directions  a6or«  the  horizon,  and  one  half  o^ Me  remoiiufi^ 
half  by  falling  in  rear  of  the  line  of  coast. 

In  other  cases,  when  the  situation  is  such  as  to  require  a  greater  or 
le&i  portion  of  the  circumference  of  the  horizon  to  be  illuminated,  at 
for  instance,  if  the  Light-house  be  placed  upon  a  promontory,  or  within 
a  channel  or  harbour,  the  ratio  of  the  serviceable  rays  to  the  whole 
illuminating  power  of  the  lower  hemisphere  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  that  part  of  the  circumference  whence  they  are  requir- 
ed to  be  seen,  to  the  whole  periphery  of  the  circle.  When  this  ratio  is  one 
half,  or  180^  the  proportion  of  the  rays  from  which  benefit  is  derived  isae 
before  stated,  one  half  of  the  inferior  hemisphere,  shown  in  Fio.  2, 
or  I  of  the  whole  of  the  rays  proceeding  from  the  luminous  body,  no 
advantage  whatever  being  derived  from  the  remaining  three-fourths. 

The  great  loss  of  light  here  shown  to  occur  in  situations  similar  to 
that  of  the  Madras  Light-house,  has  led  amongst  other  contrivances,  to 
the  invention  of  metallic  and  glass  mirrors  for  the  purpose  of  re6ecting 
as  many  as  possible  of  these  truant  rays,  by  diverting  them  from  their 
natural  directions  into  others  in  which  they  would  be  visible. 

These  mirrors  may  be  either  plane  or  curved. 

It  is  my  intention  in  this  paper  merely  to  consider  the  properties  of 
plane  mirrors,  with  a  view  of  estimating  the  assistance  they  afford  when 
arranged  in  the  manner  in  which  they  are  at  present  applied  in  the 
Madras  Light-house,  my  object  in  selecting  that  work  being  prin- 
cipally to  put  an  end  to  all  doubts  as  to  the  possibility  of  great 
improvement  in  it,  and  at  the  same  time,  if  possible,  to  lead  the 
way  to  the  rejection  and  removal  of  a  clumsy  contrivance,  by  demon* 
•trating  the  extreme  inefficiency  of  the  arrangement,  and  tracing  it  to  ite 
proper  causes. 

Previous,  however,  to  entering  upon  this  investigation,  it  is  necessary 
to  prepare  the  way  for  it  by  a  brief  attention  to  a  few  of  the  fundamental 
laws  of  optics  upon  which  it  is  founded,  and  which  I  hope  I  shall  be  ex* 


276  Nature  and  Optical  Efficiency  of  the  Mirrors  [April 

cused  for  taking  notice  of  in  this  place,  as  although  devoid  of  novelty 
and  interest  lo  the  scientific  reader,  they  are  nevertheless  indispensable 
to  a  proper  understanding  of  what  follows,  by  those  who  may  bave  devo- 
ted less  of  their  time  and  attention  to  the  subject. 

When  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  a  luminous  point  are  reflected 
from  a  plane,  they  proceed  aper  reflection  in  lines  which  will  slope  as 
much  from  the  plane  as  they  before  sloped  toicards  it.— Narnpiy,  if  A  r/, 
A  c/'  (Fio.  5)  be  any  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  a  point  A  and  strik- 
ing a  plane  BC,  they  will  after  reflection  slope /ro/w  tho  plane  at  angles 
Brfe,  Brf'e'— equal  to  the  angles  A  rfC,  A  rf'  C  at  whiv.h  they  before 
sloped  towards  it.  Hence  it  may  be  easily  deduced  that  the  obliquity 
of  the  rays  d  e  d  e' — from  the  front  of  the  pbne  is  exactly  the  sam**  as 
that  of  the  line^  d  i,  d'  t',  in  which  they  would  have  proceeded  to  the 
rear  of  it  if  not  intercepted.  The  eflect  of  the  reflection  being  exa  tly 
the  same  as  of  the  liglit  at  A  were  turned  half  round  an  imaspnarr  axis 
B  C  to  a  new  position  at  F,  so  that  the  rays  proceeded  to  the  front  in- 
stead of  the. rear  of  plane  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

It  must  also  be  remarked,  that  the  divergence  of  the  rays  with  respect 
to  one  another  remains  unaltered,  the  angle  tfe'  being  in  every  ctse  un- 
changed, and  continuing  equal  to  the  angle  t  a  t',  the  edfect  being  merely 
to  reverse  the  whole  of  the  rays  composing  the  hemisphere  of  light  next 
the  plane,  without  in  the  least  interfering  with  their  relative  inclinations. 

If  we  now  suppose  a  plane  polished  surface  to  be  placed  immediately 
in  rear  of  the  imaginary  sphere  of  light  before  spoken  of,  it  will  be  easy 
to  understand  from  what  his  just  been  explained,  that  its  effect  would  be 
to  turn  the  whole*  of  the  rays  comprised  in  the  rear  hemisphere,  and 
cause  them  to  proceed  in  directions  exactly  similar  to  those  pursued  by 
the  rays  emanating  from  the  front  one.  In  applying  this  to  the  aid  of 
Light-house  illumination,  therefore,  such  a  contrivance,  would,  in  cases 
when  only  half  of  the  circumference  of  the  horizon  is  required  to  be 
illuminated,  double  the  useful  light,  by  in  fact  converting  one  complete 
sphere  of  luminous  rays  into  two  fronts  instead  of  one  front,  and  one 
rear  hemisphere. 

What  has  been  hitherto  said  has  referred  only  to  a  single  luminous 
jHnnt  infinitely  small,  but  as  the  same  is  equally  true  regarding  ever}* 
point  constituting  a  body  of  light  of  any  size,  it  follows  that  in  every 
situation  from  which  it  has  been  shown  that  the  rays  from  a  single  point 


*  This  of  eoarne  tupposm  the  pUae  to  be  ualimited  in  extent,  as  the  rayn  nearest  the 
diuneter  AD  wontd  not  meet  it,  except  at  an  inflnite'distance.  In  practice,  therefore,  the 
wkote  of  the  ray*  cannot  be  returned  by  a  plane  mirror,  for  the  name  isi  true  also  wh(>n 
taken  in  a  lateral  direction,  and  the  number  lost  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  plane 
and  its  distance  from  the  radiant  point 


.Vai&aiJita-  Lii  fJa* 


1839]  in  the  Madras  Light  House.  277 

'would  be  visible,  in  the  same  situations  the  rays  from  the  other  points 
^vould  also  be  seen,  constituting  images  of  the  flame  or  luminous  body, 
of  whatever  kind. 

In  this  manner  an  image  of  a  candle  will  be  seen  by  reflection  from  a 
circular  looking  glass  or  mirror,  in  all  those  situations  embraced  by  a 
cone  of  rays  proceeding  from  it  in  the  directions  pointed  out  by  the 
above  law— namely,  if  A  (Fig.  7  Pl.  4)  be  the  light,  and  B  C  a  circular 
"plane  mirror,  a  reflected  image  of  A  will  be  visible  from  any  point  with- 
in the  frustum  of  the  cone  B  C  gh^  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays 
impinging  on  the  circular  area  BdCe. 

If  the  mirror  be  square  then  a  reflected  image  of  the  light  will  be 
visible  in  any  part  of  the  pyramid  of  rays,  formed  in  the  same  way,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  8. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  the  former  part  of  this  paper,   taken  in 
connection  with  these  circumstances,  it  will  be  easily  seen,  that  in  order 
to  produce  the  utmost  beneficial  eff*ect,  no  part  of  a  plane  mirror,  if  placed 
vertically,  ought  to  be  above  the  uppermost  part  of  the  light  to  which  it 
is  adapted,  as  in  that  case,  the  rays  which  would  be  reflected   from  that 
part  of  it,  would  be  those  belonging  to  the  upper  hemisphere,  which   1 
have    already  shown  to  be  useless  (vide  Fig.  9).  I  am  not  aware  whether 
this  circumstance  has  been  attended  to  in  the  disposition  of  the  reflectors 
in  the  Madras  Light-house,  having  never  examined  the  apparatus,  but  I 
shall  suppose   such  to  be  the  case,  and  that  they  are  disposed  to  the 
greatest  advantage  they  are  capable  of,  as  even  were  it  not  so,  it  is  a  de« 
feet  which  could  be  very  easily  remedied,  and  it  is  my  object  to  show, 
i)ot  that  a  bad  use  has  been  made  of  efl&cient  means,  but  that  the  con- 
trivance itself,  under  the  best  arrangement,  is  of  much  less  value  and 
a^saistance  than  has  generally  been  supposed. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  a  description  of  the  lantern  of  this  Light-house^ 
^nd  to  dissect  the  operation  of,  and  calculate  the  value,  of  the  assistance 
tendered  by  the  reflectors  contained  in  it.  In  doing  this,  I  shall  as  I  be« 
^ore  stated,  suppose  every  mirror  to  be  placed  in  the  most  advantageous 
Position  (with  regard  to  height),  viz.,  so  that  the  image  reflected  from 
the  upper  portion  of  it  is  visible  on  the  edge  of  the  honzon,  and  that  the 
lower  portions  in  turn,  successively,  afford  light  to  the  points  nearer  to 
t.he  building  itself. 

The  shape  of  the  lantern  is  an  octagon,  three  sides  of  which,  to- 
Vrards  the  land,  arc  opaque,  and  the  remaining  five  sides  glazed.  On  the 
three  first  opaque  sides  are  placed  the  reflectors,  in  three  rows,  one 
^bove  the  other ;  they  are  squares  of  one  foot  each  side,  of  looking- 
glass,  and  occupy  the  centre  of  each  of  the  sides  of  the  polygon  as  shown 
in  the  plan  Fio.  13. 


37d  Nature  and  Optical  Efficiency  of  the  Mirrors  [April 

The  lamps,  which  are  12  innumher,  are  also  arranged  in  three  tiers, 
corresponding  to  those  in  which  the  mirrors  are  placed,  but  the  number 
in  each  row  is  not  the  same,  that  of  the  top  row  being  3,  in  the  second 
4,  and  in  the  third  5. 

From  the  accompanying  section  (Fio.  11)  it  is  evident,  that  no  assist- 
ance whatever  is  derived  by  any  lamp,  from  any  of  the  mirrors  except 
those  in  the  same  tier  with  itself,  an  inspection  of  the  figure  showing  at 
once,  that  the  image  reflected  from  a  mirror  situated  in  the  row  beneath 
the  lamp,  would  be  merely  visible  at  the  very  foot  of  tlie  Light-house* 
even  if  it  did  not  fall  within  the  limits  of  the  building  itself  ;  and  I 
have  before  said  enough  to  explain,  that  no  benefit  T*h«tever  would  be 
derived  by  any  aid  from  a  mirror  in  the  tier  above  it,  all  the  rays  of 
which  would  strike  the  roof  of  the  lantern,  or  be  lost  in  the  air.  It 
ii  unnecessary  therefore  to  pay  any  attention  to  the  operation  of  the 
reOectors,  with  reference  to  any  of  the  lamps  except  those  belonging  to 
the  same  tier,  and  I  shall  therefore  proceed  to  enquire  into  the  aid  af- 
forded by  those  in  each  row  to  every  lamp  belonging  to  it,  in  turn ;  and 
admitting  the  very  favourable  assumption  before  alluded  to,  that  the 
images  when  visible  at  any  point  on  the  horizon,  will  also  be  visible  at 
every  point  in  a  direct  line  between  it  and  the  Light-house,  shall  now 
measure  the  extent  of  the  circumference  in  a  lateral  direction  through 
which  this  eflfect  will  take  place. 

In  order  to  calculate  this,  it  is  merely  necessary  to  consider,  that  the 
reflected  image  of  any  one  of  the  lamps,  will,  as  before  explained,  be 
▼iaible  in  each  mirror  merely  within  the  limits  embraced  by  the  pyra- 
mid of  rays  reflected  from  its  surface,  and  also,  that  any  attention  to  the 
vertical  divergence,  or  angle  formed  between  the  upper  and  lower  sides 
of  this  pyramid,  is  rendered  entirely  unnecessary,  by  assuming  that  it 
produces  the  greatest  possible  effect  it  is  capable  of,  in  rendering  the 
image  visible  to  the  very  foot  of  the  Light-house.  It  will  therefore 
only  remain  to  ascertain  the  lateral  extent  of  these  rays  from  each  mir- 
ror, to  obtain  the  number  of  the  degrees  of  the  horizon  illuminated  by 
the  reflected  light  of  the  lamp  from  which  they  proceed,  and  within 
which  its  image  will  be  visible  ;  and  by  repeating  this  with  each  lamp 
and  each  mirror,  ascertain  the  effect  produced  by  the  whole  combined. 
Now,  it  has  been  before  observed,  that  the  divergence  of  the  rays  before 
and  after  reflection  remains  the  same,  and  that  the  sides  of  a  cone  or 
p3nramid  of  reflected  light,  have  exactly  the  same  mutual  inclination,  and 
comprehend  the  same  angle  after  quitting  the  plane,  which  they  sub- 
tended before  reaching  it.  For  instance,  that  if  a  be  the  lamp^(Fio.  12) 
anda(,  ac  the  limits  of  a  pyramid  of  rays  striking  the  surface  of  the 


1899]  til  the  Madrat  Lir^kt  ff^ut9.  ff^ 

ttirror  h  e  and  reflected  from  it  in  the  directions  bd^  ee,  thit  the  tng^e 
dhe  comprebended  between  the  sides  of  the  reflected  pyramid  ai€«i 
vill  be  equal  to  the  anij^le  bac. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  ascertain  the  lateral  extent  embraced  by  tkth 
pyramid  of  reflected  rays,  it  would  answer  the  purpose  just  at  well)  if 
instead  of  projecting  and  taking  the  measurements  of  these  rafs  theOK 
selres,  we  were   to  substitute  for  them  the  angles  which   each    lamp 
forms  with  the  two  edges  of  each  mirror,  viz.  if  the  angle  bac,  shown 
in  the  annexed  plan,  be  substituted  for  its  equal  dhe.  As  ibis  is  a  much 
less  troublesome  operation,  and  as  it  renders  the  figure  less  complicated, 
i  have  accordingly  done  so  ;  and  the  following  arc  the  measurements 
of  these  angb  s,  for  the  three  rows,  taken  separately,  as  shown  in  the  a«- 
companying  plan,  Fig.  13. 

^ViWe,  showin/f  the  breadth  of  the    angular  spates    illuminated  kjf  the 
reflection  of  the  light  of  each  lamp  from  the  different  mirrors^ 

No.     I    Tl€R. 

Of  three  lamps  and  3  reflectors. 
Lamp.     Reflector.    Angle.    Total. 
1 


»f 

3 

ft 


a 

22 

Hi 

c 

12i 

a 

li) 

b 

19 

e 

19 

a 

m 

b 

Hi 

c 

22 

49 


57 


49        155* 

In  each  table  the  numbers  refer  to  the  different  lamps  belonging  to 

^Vie  tier,  which  are  numbered  from  left  to  right  as  shown  in  the  plan* 

^^he  letters  «,  6,€,  refer  to  the  three  reflectors,  which  are  taken  in  tbo 

^^me  order.    **No.  !,«''  consequently,  refers  to  the  rays  proceeding 

^irom  the  iffi  hand  lamp,  and  reflected  from  the  mirror  nearest  it  on  iho 

Hame  side* 

From  the  above  measurements  it  appears,  that  a  reflected  image  of  tha 
centre  lamp  will  be  visible  throughout  57  degrees  of  the  circumfoiw 
ence  of  the  horiion,  and  of  the  other  two  in  49  degrees  each. 

Therefore,  if  the  effects  be  equaUg  distributed  over  the  whole  il]a« 
minated  space,  there  would  be  visible  from  the  upper  row  of  lamps  and 


280  Nmimrt  cW  OpiiemL  Bfeiemey  of  ike  ATtrron 


[Arsii. 


mirron  ooly  one  reflected  image  in  creiy  part  except  25  degrees,  which 
is  erideot,  since  the  sum  of  all  the  above  angular  spares  contaioiii^  one 
reflected  image,  is  onlj  equal  to  155°,  or  25®  short  of  the  complete 
semicircle. 

In  the  same  way  the  angles  of  the  second  and  third  rows  hare  been 
obtained,  as  follows  :— 


No.  2,  Ties. 

0/  4  Lampt  and  3  Refeetors. 

Lamp.    Reflector.    Angle.    Total. 


48' 


56< 


56' 


1 

a 

aoi 

n 

b 

14 

n 

e 

13i 

% 

a 

21} 

9f 

b 

18 

9ff 

e 

16i 

3 

a 

16i 

n 

b 

18 

n 

c 

21} 

4 

a 

13} 

ft 

b 

14 

It 

e 

aoi 

48* 


ToUl  of  No.  %  208* 


No.  3,  TiEB. 

Of  5  Lamps  and  3  Reflectors. 

Lamp.    Reflector.    Angle.     TotaL 


No.  I 

i» 
2 


n 

3 

n 
ft 

4 

ft 
5 

}f 


a 
b 
c 
a 
b 
c 
a 
b 
e 
a 
b 
e 
a 
b 
c 


21 

m 

12 

23 

17 

154 

19 

19 

19 

154 
17 
23 
12 
13| 
21 


464 


554 


OS 


55 1 


464 


ToUl  of  No.  3  =  261  • 

The  values  of  the  different  angles  here  laid  down,  hare  been  ascer- 
tained geometricallj   from  plans  on  a  large  scale,  and  as  the   measure- 
ments have  been  made  with  considerable  care,  thev  may  be  considered 
if  not  exactly  accurate,  as  suflKciently  near  the  mark  for  practical  pur- 
poses.    From  the  results  thus  obtained  it  appears,  that  the  sum  of  all  the 
angular  portions  of  the  horizon  in  which  reflected  images  will  be  visible 
is  624*,  whence,  if  the  effects  of  the  different  mirrors   were   carefully 
equalised,  by  distributing  the  illuminated  portions  over  the  whole  cir- 
cumference, there  would  be  reflected  images  of  three  lamps  visible  in 
every  part  of  the  horizon,  and  of  four  in  84  degrees  of  it :  in  this  latter 
portion  therefore,  the  effect  of  the  12  lamps  would  be  increased  to  six- 
teen, and  in  the  remaining  part  of  the  semi-circumference  to  flfteen,  pro- 
vided that  the  brilliance  of  a  reflected  image  were  equal  to  that  of  the 
lamp  itself.    But  this  is  6ir  from  being  the  case.     In  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  vol.  XC.  is  an  account  of  some  experiments  made  by  Sir 
W.  Herschel  on  this  subject,  and  it  is  there  stated,  that  •*  after  many  ex- 
periments with  plain  mirrors,  the  result  was,  that  out  of  100.000  inci- 
dent rays  67-262  only  were  returned."    Now  if  this  be  true  when  the 


r,j(.xvL 


/  . 

r^Uettd-  Ityhi  preottdiiifi  /ram 


M»y^ 


1839]  in  the  Madras  Light  House.  281 

material  composing  the  mirror  was  speculum  metal  of  highly  brilliant 
lustre,  and  polished  in  the  most  exquisite  manner,  it  would  not  be  assign- 
ing too  little  to  mirrors  of  looking-glass  of  the  common  description,  to 
assume  that  they  would  only  return  50  out  of  100.000,  or  one  half  of  the 
incident  rays.  In  this  case,  what  would  be  the  value  of  the  nine  re- 
flectors? In  the  most  favourable  situation  it  would  appear  that  they 
would  increase  the  brilliance  of  the  12  lamps  so  as  to  render  them  equal 
to  fourteen^  and  in  less  favourable  ones,  that  their  assistance  is  not  much 
superior  to  the  addition  of  a  single  extra  lamp. 

I  am  aware,  however,  that  this  estimate  has  been  made  to  rest  upon  an 
assumption,  which  may  not,  upon  examination,  be  found  to  correspond 
with  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  case.  It  is  indeed  highly  probable 
from  the  nature  of  the  apparatus,  that  the  duly  regulated  distribution, 
necessary  to  produce  an  exact  equality  of  light  may  not  be  attainable, 
and  that  great  irregularity  in  this  respect  may  be  found  to  exist.  Admit- 
ting such  however  to  be  the  case,  the  above  would  still  be  a  correct 
measure  of  the  average  effect  produced  throughout  the  whole  extent  of 
the  horizon,  and  a  fair  statement  of  the  benefit  derived  from  the  appara« 
tus,  as  it  is  evident,  that  if,  owing  to  such  inequality,  it  should  be  found 
that  the  effect  produced  in  any  particular  point  of  the  circumference 
were  much  in  excess  of  what  is  above  assigned,  such  a  circumstance 
could  only  be  occasioned,  by  a  corresponding  defect  in  some  other  quar- 
ter, which  would  fall  short  in  an  equal  degree. 

In  order,  however,  to  prevent  this  point  remaining  a  subject  of  doubt,  I 
have  thought  it  worth  while  to  lay  down  on  paper,  in  the  accompanying 
plans  (Figs.  16,  17  and  18),  the  whole  of  the  diverging  rays,  in  the  situa- 
tions in  which  they  are  actually  reflected,  making  the  angles  of  incidence 
and  reflection  equal,  in  accordance  with  the  law  in  optics  before  alluded 
to,  seas  to  exhibit  in  one  view  the  whole  of  the  spaces  in  which  the  re- 
flected images  of  every  lamp,  from  the  surface  of  each  reflector  are  to  be 
found.*  The  manner  in  which  this  has  been  done  is  represented  in 
Fio.  14,  where  the  positions  of  the  rays  ceand  bdt  have  been  ascertained 


*  It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  I7th  and  I8th  figures  one  angular  space  on  each  side  If 
B>^  to  orerlap,  and  in  part  to  fall  in  rear  of  the  line  g  f  ot  Fio.  14,  parallel  to  the  surface 
of  the  central  mirror,  and  it  is  evident  that  not  only  these,  but  also  a  small  portion  of  the 
vsys  in  front  of  them,  towards  A  and  C  could  not  be  visible,  owing  to  their  being  inter- 
cepted by  the  opaque  sides  A  and  C.  I  have  thought  it  better  however  to  leave  them  in 
FiGuiis  17, 18.  and  19,  in  the  places  to  which  they  would  be  directed  by  reflection,  in  order 
tlut  each  group  of  rays  might  be  duly  accounted  for,  but  they  have  afterwards  been  de- 
ducted in  summing  up  the  effects  and  arranging  them  in  a  tabular  form. 


2S2  Nature  and  Optical  Fjfficteucij  of  the  Mirrors  [Apbii 

by  markiDg  off  the  angles  /  b  d  and  fc  e  equal  to  llieir  corresponding 
^glts  of  incidence  a  h  g  and  a  c  p. 

The  »ame  having  been  done  regarding  the  other  two  reflectors  A  and 
Ci  a  similar  operation  was  performed,aud  a  similar  set  of  angles  obtained 
from  the  second  or  middle  lamp,  and  afterwards  from  the  third,  until  th« 
whole  set  belonging  to  the  first  tier  of  lamps  and  reflectors  was  com- 
plete. 

As  the  figure  would  have  been  very  much  confused  from  the  intersec- 
tion of  so  many  diverging  lines  from  different  points,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  referring  them  to  their  respective  centres,  and  comparing  their 
relative  directions,  I  have  in  the  diagrams  representing  the  spaces  illu- 
minated by  the  three  different  tiers  (Figures  16,  17,  and  18),  referred 
the  whole  to  a  common  centre,  an  arrangement  which  greatly  facilitates 
their  comparison  with  one  another,  as  it  exhibits  them  combined  under 
one  view,  at  the  same  time  that  it  does  not  in  the  least  affect  the  truth 
Qf  the  representation,  as  the  distances  of  the  real  points  of  divergence 
from  the  central  point  of  the  light  room  to  which  they  are  referred,  is  so 
sm^ill  when  compared  with  the  distance  of  the  circumference  of  the 
horizon  on  v^hich  the  angular  spaces  are  measured,  that  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  change  in  position  which  such  an  anangtment  requires^  is 
in  reality  entirely  imperceptible. 

Id  order  to  render  the  operation  here  alluded  to,  still  more  easily  un- 
derstood, I  have  represented  the  manner  of  effecting  it  in  »he  figure  last 
given.  The  point  to  which  all  the  cones  of  rays  are  referred  is  there  re- 
presented by  «~  6  d  and  c  «,  are  the  resulting  lines  of  direction  of  the 
two  rays  ab,  ac  proceeding  from  the  lamp  a  and  reflected  from  the  mirror 
B.  The  angle  which  they  subtend  with  one  snother,  and  the  general 
direction  of  the  cone  of  ravs,  is  at  once  obtained  by  producing  them  till 
they  meet  in  K,  and  the  angle  which  is  substituted  fur  it  at  the  point  x 
is  found  by  dmwing  xy  and  xz  parallel  to  kd  and  k  e.  In  the  three  figures 
Nos.  16,  17  and  18,  these  angles  have  been  laid  down  separately  for  each 
row  of  reflectors  and  lamps,  as  it  has  before  bt-en  shown,  that  no  reflected 
light  is  visible,  from  the  lamps  of  one  row  and  mirrors  of  another.  In 
order  to  distinguish  the  different  sectors  of  rays  from  one  another,  they 
have  all  been  marked,  both  with  the  number  of  the  lamp  whence  the 
light  originates,  and  the  particular  reflector  from  which  it  is  thrown,  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  tables  before  given.  For  greater  convenience 
in  summing  ap  the  results  also,  the  number  of  degrees  comprehended  by 
each  group  of  rays  is  also  marked  upon  the  plan,  and  in  Fio.  19,  the 
whole  of  the  preceding  results  are  brought  together  at  once,  by  com- 
bining the  three  Figures  16,  17  and  18,  into  one.    In  considering  the 


l^]  in  the  Madras  Light  House  283 

result  tbas  obtained,  it  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind,  that  each  of 
tlie  sectors  laid  down  in  the  three  figures,  represents  the  angular  portion 
of  the  horizon  throughout  which  the  reflected  image  of  some  owe  of  the 
lamps  is  rendered  visible,  by  means  of  one  of  the  reflectors,  and  conse- 
quently, that  when  two  or  more  of  these  angular  spaces  occupy  the  same 
part  of  the  horizon,  or  overlap  one  another,  two  or  more  images  will  be 
seen,  and  so  on. 

The  object  of  the  arrangement  adopted  in  the  19th  figure,  is,  by  ex- 
hibiiino;  the  whole  of  the  reflected  rays  in  one  view,  to  point  out,  both 
where  irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  the  light  exists,  and  also  the  ex* 
act  qimiitum  of  ailvantage  derived  from  the  reflectors  in  every  separate 
portion  of  the  horizon,  as  thf!  number  of  reflected  imai^es  visible  in  any 
particular  point  of  it  ^W  of  course  be  shown  by  the  number  of  angular 
spaces  of  rays,  >vithin  whose  confines  it  miy  happen  to  be  situated.  With 
regard  to  the  first  point  it  uill  at  once  be  seen  from  the  figure,  that 
very  grat  in*  quality  in  the  diffusion  of  the  light  prevails,  the  whole  of 
the  diverging  beams  appearing  to  be  huddled  together  near  two  points 
equidistant  from  the  centre  of  the  semi-circumference*,  while  that  part 
itself,  and  the  portions  near  the  diameter  a  b  (in  Fio.  15)  are  in  corn- 
parison  \ery  scantily   supplied. 

As  there  is  some  difficulty,  owin^  to  the  number  of  lines  indispensable 
to  the  figure,  in  distinguishing  the  angular  si)aces  from  one  another,  and 
ascertaininir  the  numher  which  lie  over  any  particular  part,  I  have  in 
Fig.  20  given  another  representation  of  the  same  semi-circumference,  in 
which  the  differently  illuminated  parts  are  marked  o<t,  and  distinguished 
from  one  another  a^'cording  to  the  number  of  reflected  images  visible 
within  them,  and,  as  the  number  of  degrees  of  each  of  these  spaces  is 
marked  on  it,  as  well  as  the  number  of  images  visible  throu^^hout  it;  this 
figure  contains  within  itself,  a  condensed  view  of  the  whole  of  the  re- 
sults exhibited  in  the  other  four  diagrams. 

I  have  also  given  a  tabular  form  to  the  contents  of  the  last  diagram 
No.  20,  in  ordt^r  to  a  Imit  of  a  mvm  b-^ing  found,  and  a  comparison  made, 
with  the  estimate  of  the  average  effect  formerly  taken.  This  has  been 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of  images  visible  in  any  part  of  the 
horizon,  by  the  breadth  of  the  space,  expressed  in  degrees,  throughont 
which  that  number  is  seen,  and  adding  the  whole  of  the  products 
together,  and  dividing  by  the  number  of  degrees  contained  in  the  entire 
semicircle;  by  this  process,  and  after  rejecting  the  first  5}  degrees  in 
each  quadrant  represented  in  Fio.  19,  in  consequence  of  their   falling 

Meuurini;  about  30*  oa  each  tide,  from  the  point  E  (of -Fio.  15). 


284 


Nature  and  Optical  Efficiency  of  the  Mirrors 


[April 


euteide  of  the  semi-circle,  the  sum  of  all  the  products  is  found  to  be 
601},  which  divided  by  180°  gives  3.34  as  representative  of  the  mean  va- 
lue expressing  the  number  of  reflected  images  throughout  the  whole  cir- 
cumference, a  result  which  corresponds,  pretty  nearly,  with  that  formerly 
obtained  which  represented  less  than  four  and  more  than  three  images, 
and  in  nearly  the  same  proportion,  viz. 

A  ^  «  21  «. 

q  and or  3  — ,    =  *»'4  — 

•*  ISOths  *^  "^  45ths 

In  the  following  table  the  different  spaces  have  been  marked  down  in 

the  order  in  which  they  occur,on  tracing  the  circumference  from  South  to 

North,  or  from  a  to  6  in  the  annexed  diagram  No.  15. 

TABLE 

Of  the  breadths  of  the  various  portions  of  the  horizon  differently  iL 
lumtnat'^d  by  the  reflected  light,  with  the  number  of  images  visible 
in  each. 


Southern  Quadrant. 

Breadth  of  the  Number  of 

spaces  illumi-  images  seen 

nated.  in  them. 


NoRTiiBRN  Quadrant. 

Breadth  of  the  Number  of 

spaces  illumi-  images  seen 


nated. 


in  them. 


Degrees., 

.  16 

.  •  •  • 

3 

Degrees...  2\ 

•  •  •  • 

2 

II 

•  •  •  • 

2 

7i 

•  •  •* 

3 

31 

3 

\oi 

•  •  •  • 

2 

I 

•  •  •  • 

2 

n 

•  •  •  • 

1 

3J 

•  •  »  . 

1 

Oi 

•  •  • » 

3 

lOJ 

•  •  •  • 

2 

0^ 

•  •  •  • 

4 

4 

•  •  •  • 

4 

34 

•  •  •  • 

6 

4 

•  •  •  • 

3 

3 

« •  •  • 

7 

3 

•  •  •  • 

4 

4 

•  •  •  • 

8 

1} 

•  •  • 

3 

1 

•  •  • . 

^ 

21 

•  •  •  • 

4 

Oi 

•  •  •  • 

6 

2i 

•  •  •  • 

5 

01 

•  •  •  • 

5 

H 

.  •  • 

4 

ll 

•  •  •  • 

4 

ot 

•  •  •  . 

5 

3^1 

•  •  • . 

5 

oi 

•  •  •  • 

6 

?i 

•  •  •  • 

4 

1 

«  •  •  . 

7 

•  •  • . 

3 

4 

•  •  •  • 

8 

3 

4 

3 

•  •  •  • 

7 

4 

3 

3i 

•  •  •  • 

6 

4 

•  • .  • 

4 

Of 

•  •  •• 

4 

101 

•  •  •  • 

2 

Oi 

•  •  •  • 

3 

34 

•  •  •  • 

1 

U 

•  •  •  a 

1 

1 

2 

loj 

•  •  •  • 

2 

3i 

3 

7i 

3 

H 

•  •  •  • 

2 

'M 

.... 

2 

16 

3    b 

i 

E 


/ 


li^-Xl 


1839J  in  the  Madras  Light  Houn.  285 

By  arraDging  the  contents  of  this  same  table  in  another  form,  by  adding 
together  the  spaces  in  which  the  effects  produced  an  equal,  it  will  appear 
that  there  are  94  degrees  in  which  only 

one  image  is  visible 1 

52     in  uhich   2 

64i   „  3 

23i  4 

6i    „  5 

8     6 

8     ,         7 

Or  to  condense  it  still  more,  that  out  of  the  whole  semi-circumference 
of  180  degrees,  the  portion  in  which  1.2.3  and  4  images  of  a  tingle  light 
only  are  visible,  amounts  to  140®,  or  7-9ths ;  the  remaining  2-9ths  be- 
ing illuminated  by  5.6.?  and  8.  When  it  is  recollected  that,  as  before 
shown,  the  brightness  of  these  images  is  only  one  half  as  vivid  as  that 
of  the  direct  unassisted  light,  and  when  it  is  also  considered,  that  the 
total  value  of  this  direct  light  is  represented  by  12  of  these  doubly 
powerful  images,  visible  throughout  the  whole  circumference  of  the 
horizon,  it  will  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  light  in  its 
present  condition,  although  stated  in  the  Almanac  to  be  visible  (by 
which  I  understand  possible  to  be  seen)  at  a  distance  of  27  miles  from 
the  mast-head  of  a  large  ship,  is  in  matter  of  fact  with  difficulty  dis« 
cerned  at  15  or  even  10. 

It  might  have  been  expected,  that  the  very  great  difference 
above  shown  to  exist  in  the  value  of  the  assistance  afforded 
by  the  reflecting  apparatus,  as  seen  from  different  points,  would 
have  occasioned  a  material  inequality  in  the  brightness  of  the  beam 
generally,  as  viewed  from  a  distance  in  different  directions  ;  which,  had 
it  prevailed  to  any  extent,  could  not  fail  to  have  attracted  attention; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  would  have  obtained,  if  the  whole  ef- 
fect produced  by  reflection,  bore  any  thing  like  a  large  proportion  to 
the  whole  illuminating  power.  But  it  has  been  before  shown,  that  in 
the  situations  where  it  is  most  powerful,  and  even  within  the  very  small 
limits  in  which  8  reflected  images  are  seen,  the  actual  increase  of  the 
refulgent  power  exclusively  due  to  reflection  has  no  more  effect  than 
would  be  derived  from  the  addition  of  4  extra  lamps ;  or  that  the  share 
of  effect  due  to  the  assistance  of  the  reflectors,  is  even  then,  only  ont- 
fourlh  of  the  whole  brightness  of  the  visible  beam.  It  is  therefore 
hardly  to  be  expected,  that  a  gradual  increase  or  diminution  of  power 
which  at  its  maximum   does  not   exceed    l-4th,   and  whose    averagv 


296  Tke  Madras  Light  Hwte.  [Ahlil 

iMureljr  exceeds  l-8th,  should  be  capable  of  producing  any  very  sensi- 
ble alteration  ;  which,  even  if  it  did  take  place,  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  is  here  shown  to  be  possible,  would  be  entirely  lost  in  the 
fitful  and  uncertain  glimmering,  which  characterises  the  whole  beam  at 
great  distances. 

It  has  been  my  object,  however,  in  what  I  have  above  written  to  de- 
monstrate, not  so  much  that  the   light  must  of  necessity  be  defective, 
as    that    if   it  should   happen  to  be   so,  abundant  reasons  might  be 
shown    to  exist    for  auticipating    such   a  circumstance,   from   causes 
which  it  has  been  my  endeavour  to  point  out«     I  leave  the  (act   of  its 
being  so  or  not,   to  be  established  by  the  testimony  of  those  who  may 
be  able  to  speak  from  experience,  and  will  at  present  merely    add, 
that   if  the  opiuion  which    I  at    the   commencement    of   this    paper 
ventured   to  express,  regarding  the  extreme   inefficiency  of  the  con- 
trivance as   it   exists  at   present,  be   granted   to  be  correct,    it  would 
not    be    unreasonable    to     anti«npate,  that    a  consi.lerable    improve- 
ment in  it  might  be   effected,   if    the  importance  of  the  light  were 
con8i(*drid    sufficiently  great,   to   warrant    the  expence  of   its    being 
remodelled   upon   a  more   scienti6c   |'lan,  and  which   I    feel   satisfied 
might  be  done  without  any  very  alarming  outlay.     It  was  my  intention  to 
have  ap|>eaded  to  this  some  observations  on  the  spiierical  and  |Kirabolie 
mirrors  used  in  England  for  this  purpose,  in  the  hopes  of  attracting  tft 
the  subject  the  attention  of  others  more  com|ietent  to  examine  it  than 
myself;  but  I  have  already  been  carried  to  a  length  90  far  beyond  what  I 
originally  intended,  and  the  subject  is  one  of  so  little  interest  to  the 
general  reader,  that  I  cannot  expect  to  be  granted   the  indulgence  of 
farther  occupying  the  pages  of  yoor  valuable  work,  to  the  esclusion  of 
moie  important  matter,  and  I  must  therefore  content  myself  with  the 
hope,  that  should  communications  of  this  kind  be  suited  to  the  character 
aad  objects  of  the  **  Madras  Jommai  of  Litermtmre  and  Science,^'  I  may 
at  iomc  fiitore  period,  have  it  io  my  power  to  make  up  for  the  deficieocy. 

I  remain,  &c. 

J.  T.  S. 

Mmdnu,  November  1833. 


1839]      On  the  Cnjttalline  Structure  of  the  Trap  Dykes,  <S|C.        287 

'v.— Om  the  CrystaUhie  Strticture  of  the  Trap  Dijken  in  the  Sienite  qf 
Amboor  :  with  an  Enquiry  into  the  Caiues  to  which  th's  Peculiarity  of 
certain  Igneous  Rocks  is  due, —  By  Ricuaro  Baird  Smith,  Lieutenant, 
Madras  Engineers, 


The  phenomena  exhibited  by  the  internal  structure  of  certain  rocksi 
which  a  large  class  of  facts  clearly  prove  to  have  been,  more  or  less, 
acted  on  by  subterranean  heat,  have  lately  had  the  attention  of  observers 
specially  directed  to  them;  and  a  wish  has  been  expressed  by  an  emi- 
nent geologist,*  that,  since  the  study  of  these  peculiarities  has,  as  yet, 
received  but  little  attention,  it  would  be  therefore  desirable,  that  informa- 
tion should  be  collected  relative  to  them,  for  the  pu^pose  of  enabling  us 
to  enquire  into  the  causes  of  their  production.  Having  lately  been  ena- 
bled lo  examine  the  geology  of  the  route  from  Madras  to  Bangalore,  I 
was  especially  interested  in  the  results  of  an  examination  of  the  trap 
dykes,  in  the  sienite  around  the  village  of  Amboor;  and  since  in  these 
the  phenomena,  above  alluded  to,  were  strikingly  exhibited,  I  have  ven- 
tured to  throw  together  a  few  remarks  deduced  from  these  observations. 
Since  the  field  is  one  of  comparative  novelty,  perhaps  interest  may  be 
excited,  and  the  attention  of  those  qualified  to  explore  it,  be  directed 
more  particularly  towards  collecting  the  iuformation  relative  to  it,  so 
much  desired. 

The  underlaying  rock  of  the  plain  on  which  the  village  of  Amboor  is 
situated,  is  the  sienite  so  universally  met  with  throughout  the  range  of 
the  ghauts.  This  sienite  outcrops  at  various  points  in  the  plain, 
and  occasionally  by  its  disintegration,  gives  rise  to  boulder-like  masses, 
which  are  found  scattered  around  in  great  abundance.  Mingled  with 
these,  are  weathered,  and  apparently  water-worn,  fr^igmcnts  of  other 
rocks,  as  of  granite,  gneiss,  &:c.  varieties  of  trap,  compact,  and  vesi- 
cular felspar,  quartz,  and  porphyries.  The  non-appearance  of  the  parent 
rocks,  from  which  these  fragments  have  been  derived,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, or  actually  in  situ,  proves  that  some  transporting  agent  has 
been  acting  upon  them.  This  perhaps  may  have  been  the  nullah  which 
intersects  the  plain,  and  seems  to  take  its  rise  among  the  distant  hills, 
where,  doubtless,  the  rocks  above  mentioned  are  largely  to  be  met  with, 
since  all  belong  to  the  primary  series.  These  may  have  formed  the  bed 
of  the  stream,  and,  thus  being  subject  to  continued  abmsion,  they  would 
readily  yield  to  any  increased  force  the  current  might  acquire,  from  the 

•  Mr.  Do  la  B  "chc— "  Ilovr  to  ObaerTc." 


^88  On  the  Crystalliae  Siructur$  of  ikt  [ArsiL 

ivll  of  rain,  or  other  similar  causes,  masses  would  be  detached,  and 
borne  along  to  distances  according  to  their  size  and  weight.  They 
seemed  all  nearly  of  the  same  size,  and  of  equal  specifij  gravity,  hence 
we  may  infer,  a  transporting  power  of  equal  intensity  had  acted  on  all, 
and  hence,  also,  an  adiiition.il  argument  might  be  deri\ed  for  tlieir  being 
tme  bouKlers.  On  finding,  however,  that  in  one  part  of  its  course,  the 
nullah  was  confined  by  an  arti6cial  bund,  mniitly  com|>osed  of  masses 
similar  to  those  strewed  over  the  plain,  the  pos»ibiliiy,  that  the  latter 
might  have  been  derived  from  the  former,  suggested  itself,  and  naturally 
tended  to  throw  doubts  un  the  first  idea,  that  the  masses  had  been 
brought,  by  the  force  of  the  stream,  from  the  distant  hills;  evidence  is 
however,  wanting  to  enable  the  inquirer  to  furm  any  decided  opiniou, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  best  to  rest  satisfied  with  a  simple  statement  of  facts, 
without  attempting  to  draw  conclusions,  for  which  these  cannot  be  deem- 
ed sufficient  warrant. 

The  road  to  Palliconda  intersects  the  range  of  hills  which  forms 
the  enclosure  to  the  plain  of  Amboor,  at  a  distance  of  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  latter  place.  At  this  point,  the  road  winds  along 
between  two  hills  forming  portions  of  the  main  range.  To  the  left  hand 
of  one  of  these,  my  attention  was  j>anicularly  directed*,  and  on  examiua- 


*  At  PalUconda,  I  examioed  nith  much  int<fnr»t  the  geological  filatures  of  alai^  hill 
U  it*  Tieinity  which  1  »ub«vqueDtly  found  had  beeu  Uf^crilied  by  Dr.  Beuza.    On  com- 
pariag  my  note*  with  his  d««cription  1  found  there  wm  no  eMsential  differeuce   between 
tiiem.  MTe  in  one  or  two  trifliuj;  uutances,  ari*ing  from  the  different  degree*  of   atten- 
tioD  with  which  we  had  examined  different  localitit«.    I  w  ill  annex  theiefore  in  tht*  note 
ODly  armpid  sketrh  of  the  re*ults  of  my  oUenration*.  referring  thute  deftirou*  of  seeing 
the  subject  treated  in  greater  detail  to  the  paper  ab<iTe  alluded  to.    The  plain  at  the  base 
of  the  hill  i* sandy,  and  *trewed  OTer  it,  there  are  msMes  of  a  sifnito,  which,  a*  is  proved 
by  the  natural  sections  exposed  at  rarious  point*  in  the  beds  uf  the  neighbouring  nullahs, 
fbrasthe  wndei lading  rock  of  the  whole.    Trarersing  this  there  are  djkes  of  trap  and 
porphyry,   with   veins  of  quarts  and  felspar.    The  two  latter  are  sometimes  fuund  to. 
gpther— the  quarts  ma&sire  and  the  felspar  crycUUine,   forming   together  a  compound 
coming  under  the  class  porphyry.    Since  it  is  a  general  principle,  recognised  in  naming 
difierenl  members  i<f  this  class,  to  distinpiish  these  by  affixing  the  uame  of  the  matrix  in 
wUdi  the  cr}»tals  are  imbedded  to  that  of  the  general   clas«.  I  hare  adopted  the  name  of 
qoMts  porphyry  foi  the  above.  It  may  be  remarke<l  in  .  a»^inj;  that  it  is  of  the  grt^au^r  im- 
poitanee  to  adhere  to  some  general  principles  in  the  nomenclature  of  grolvgy,  as  few  sci- 
•BMW  have  sutler^  mvre  from  these  ha%  ing  l^een  Ktst  sight  ol.    The  {  rogress  vf  our  studies 
is  Boot  atTioasly  impeded  by  the  different  arbitrary  system*  authors   have  employed,   and 
theocecoaity  fur  a  table  of  synonyms  is  absolute   when  we   wish  to  com|«are   different 
wock*.  eoch  of  which  perhaps  describes  the  same  rock  under  name*  so  different  as  to 
tooder  their  identification  qaite  impossible.  Investigating  a  portion  of  this  quarts  porphyry, 
I  foand  a  simple  mineral  to  which  I  could  not  assign  a  name,    uevf  r  ha^  ing  seen  it  before. 
The  ehararteri«>lies  of  thisaie  as   ful low— lustre   highly  metalUr,  inclining  to  adamaa- 
liae— coloar  dark  gtey,  nearly   black— hardness  bi'twcen  7  and   »— fracture    splintery— 
Unctttic  »—»'■"•■  »*    m^n^f  fimTity  not  noaerieally  determioed,   bat  high— cry stalliue 


1839]  Trap  D^kes  in  the  Sienife  (^  Amboor.  28^ 

tion,  I  found  it  to  be  wholly  composed  of  sienite,  intersected  by  variout 
trap  dykes  of  different  dimensions.  These  dykes  niaintained,  throughout 
their  whole  extent,  one  uniform  and  parallel  direction,  being  all  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  the  road  intersecting  the  main  range,  and  conse- 
quently parallel  to  the  main  range  itself. 

The  trap,  of  which  these  dykes  arc  composed,  consists  of  a  matrix  of 
dark  coloured  granular  hornblende,  throughout  which  small  grains  of 
mica  are  interspersed. 

On  examining  the  trap  at  ifs  lines  of  junction  with  the  including 
sienite,  decided  marks  of  alteration  are  observable  iu  the  former,  though 
not  in  the  latter — the  hornblende  becoming  of  a  much  lighter  colour, 
while  the  grains  of  mica  become  larger,  and  most  distinctly  developed. 
Traversing  the  dykes,  and  invariably  at  right  angles  to  the  cooling  sur- 
faces  of  the  sienite,  I  found  small  cracks  or  fissures — a  similar  remark  to 
this,  has  been  made  on  the  comparatively  recent  ejections  from  certain 
volcanoes,  and  more  especially  on  those  of  mount  Vesuvius,  of  which 
Mr.  Lyell  remarks — **  There  is  a  tendency  in  all  Vesuvian  dykes  to 
divide  into  horizontal  prisms,  a  phenomenon,  in    accordance  with  the 


form— a  flat  rbomboidal  prism,  having  an  obtuse  anglessabout  130*and  an  acute  angle* 
about  50^:  the  want  of  a  goDiomcter  put  it  out  of  my  power  to  do  more  than  approxi- 
mate to  the  side  of  the  angles  of  the  ihomboid-clearage,  regular  and  single  in  a  plane 
at  right  angles  tu  the  axis  of  the  crystal.  Exposed  to  the  action  of  undiluted  muriatic  acid 
it  deepened  the  colour  of  this  to  a  dark  and  beautiful  orange  hue— to  nitric  acid  it  commu- 
nirated  a  greenibU  tinge,  while  in  sulphuric  acid  no  action  whatever  took  place.  From  the 
two  first  eflccts  I  was  ltd  to  suspect  the  mineral  to  be  one  of  the  crystalliied  salts  of  iron, 
and  under  this  impression  I  added  to  each  of  the  acid  solutions,  ammonia  and  oxalic  acid, 
expecting  precipitation  to  follow.  In  this  however  I  was  disappointed  ;  no  such  effect 
being  produced.  The  mineral  strikingly  resembles  in  external  appearance  the  specu- 
lar iron  ore,  but  in  comparison  I  found  they  differed  in  crystalline  form,  the  latter  being 
octahedral  while  the  former  as  was  before  stated  is  rhomboidal. 

Ou  examining  the  main  body  of  the  hill  I  found  it  composed  of  sienite,  intersected  by 
numerous  trap  and  porphyritic  dykes— one  of  the  latter  I  found  capping  the  sienite,  so  M 
to  seem  at  first  night  to  be  an  overlaying  rock,  but  on  further  examination  its  true  nature 
is  easily  detected  and  its  limits  observed.  Much  variety  is  observable  in  the  composition 
of  the  dykes  and  veins.  Sometimes  the  quarts  of  the  porphyries  disappears  altogether, 
when  we  have  puie  felspar  left.  Sometimes  hornblende  predominates,  and  aome* 
times  nothing  but  quartz  is  seen.  The  felspar  was  often  of  a  pinkish  hue,  and  generally 
%o  much  decomposed  on  the  surface  as  when  pressed  in  the  hand  to  crumble  into  dust— i 
sometimes  it  became  dendritic,  the  tree-like  forms  being  due  to  small  vesicular  caritiet* 
presenting  a  very  beautiful  appearance.  In  the  vicinities  of  the  nnllahs  abundance  of 
water-worn  masses  of  basalt,  greenstone,  claystone,  fcc.  are  met  with,  though  as  might 
be  anticipated  they  are  more  sparingly  distributed  at  a  distance  from  these.  For  further 
particulars,  see  Dr.  Kenza's  paper  on  the  Geology  of  the  route  from  Madrai  to  the  Ilillj, 
in  No.  XII  of  this  Journal. 


290  On  the  Crysialline  Structure  of  the  [April 

fovination  of  vertical  prisms  in  horizontal  beds  of  lava,  for  in  both  casrs, 
the  divisions  which  give  rise  to  the  prismatic  structure  are  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  cooling  surfaces." Now  in  thetrapof  Amboor,  I  was  es[)eciaUy 
interested  by  finding,  that,  independent  of  these  fissures  at  right  angles 
to  the  cooling  surfaces,  there  were  also  distinct  planes  of  cleavage,  or  as 
miners  call  them  **  joints,"  which  when  combined  with  the  fissures,  render 
the  trap  divisible  inlo  these  very  prismatic  forms,  spoken  of  by  Mr.  Lycll. 
I  found  it  impossible  to  break  the  trap  otherwise  than  into  regular,  and 
prismatic  fragments;  and  this  regularity  of  internal  structure  clearly 
proves,  that  crystallizing  forces  must  have  been  in  operation  throughout 
the  whole,  to  produce  such  striking  results.  The  cleavage  planes  inva- 
riably  exhibited  an  ochroous  hue,  as  if  a  portion  of  the  oxide  of  iron, 
which,  in  a  greater  or  less  proportion,  ever  forms  a  constituent  of  horn- 
blende, had  been  decomposed,  and  determined  towards  these  planes,  by 
an  action  analogous  to  that,  by  which  certain  bodies  are  determined  to- 
wards the  different  poles  of  a  galvanic  battery. 

Additional  interest  is  attached  to  the  phenomena    above  described, 
when  we  learn  they  are  members  of  a  class  which  has  been  largely  re- 
cognised throughout  the  natural  world.    The  following  remarks  by  Pro- 
fessor Sedgwick,  will  prove  their  existence  throughout  large  districts  of 
England  and  Wales.     In  both  of  these  countries,  the  slate  formation  is 
of  great  extent,  and  speaking  of  certain  parts  of  it,  he  had  examined 
with  much  care,    Professor  Sedgwick  remarks—'*  Besides  the  planes  of 
cleavage,  formerly  spoken  of,  we  often  find  in  large   slate  quarries,  one 
or  more  sets  of  cross  joints,  which,  when  combined  with  cleavage,  divide 
the  rock  into  rhomboidal  solids.     These  solids  are  not  capable  of  inde- 
finite subdivision  into   similar  solids,  except  in  one  direction,  namely 
that  of  true  cleavage,  and  in  this  way,  we  may,  even  in  hand  specimens, 
distinguish  the  true  cleavage  planes,  from   the  joints/*     This,  I  found, 
was  a  matter  of  great  ease  in  the  trap  of  Amboor,   for,  independantly   of 
the  ocbreous  hue  before  mentioned,  as  characteristic  of  the  cleavage 
planes,  the  joints  or  fissures  being  free  from  this,  it  was  vain  to  attempt 
to  fracture  a  mass,  save  in  the  direction  of  the  sides  of  the  prisms,  while 
when  the  effort  was  made   in  this  manner,  division   was  easily  accom- 
plished.    Speaking  of  the  joints,  Professor  Sedgwick  continues — ** These 
last  are  fissures,  placed  at  definite  distances  from  each  other,  the  masses 
of  rock  between  them  having,  generally  speaking,  no  tendency  to  cleave 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  them.'*     This  remark  is  also  applicable  to  the 
trap  of  Amboor,  the  direction  of  cleavage  never  being  parallel,  but  inva* 
riably  perpendicular,  to  that  of  the  fissures.    These   last  may  be  attri- 
buted to  the  mechanical  action,  produced  on  the  rovk,  cither  during  ccn- 


1839]  Trap  Dykes  in  the  Sieniie  qf  Amboor,  291 

traction,  while  the  fiised  mass  originally  ejected  from  the  interior  of  the 
earth  in  a  fluid,  or  semifluiH,  was  passing  into  a  solid  state,  the  tension 
thus  caused,  producing  more  or   less  regular  sets  of  cracks,  or  fissures.  It 
is  impossible,  however,  to  attribute  to  a  like  origin   the  phenomena  of 
cleavage  planes,  they  being  distinctive  of  crystalline   forces,   and  afford- 
ing proofs,  that  the  ultimate   particles   of  the  rock  have  been  subjected 
to  chemical  action,  whereby  this  peculiar  arrangement  ha«  been  effected. 
In  instituting  the  following  enquiry  into  the   causes  to   which  these 
phenomena  are  due,  the  first  step  will  be  to  collect  as  many  analogous 
ones  as  possible,  and  thus  to  form  a  series  of  classes,  whose  relations  to 
«ach  other  may  be  observed,   and  a  clue   thus  obtained,  by  which  the 
common  cause  operating  on   all,  may   be   at  length   discovered  as   the 
leading  member  of  this  class,  and  the  head  under  which  the  others  are 
^o  be  ranged  may  be  placed. 

(1).  The  phenomena  of  dykes,  observed  under  different  circum- 
sfances,  both  in  the  volcanic  rocks  of  the  present,  and  in  those 
of  past  eras.  By  a  fair  and  close  induction  from  observed  facts, 
geologists  universally  agree,  that  these  rocks  were  originally  eject- 
ed in  a  fluid,  or  viscous  state,  and  have  gradually  assumed  their 
3)resent  hard,  and  compact  nature,  as  they  parted  with  the  temperature 
they  then  possessed. 

(2).  The  slates  of  Cumberland  and  Wales,  described  by  Prof.  Sedg- 
wick, the  analogy  between  the  peculiarities  of  whose  structure,  and 
those  of  the  trap  dykes,  has  already  been  noticed,  belong  to  a  class  of 
rocks,  to  which  Mr.  Lyell  has  applied  the  term  "  metamorphic;  *'  such 
rocks,  this  eminent  geologist  considers,  to  have  a  sedimentary  origin, 
being  originally  deposited  from  water,  but  subsequent  to  their  deposi- 
tion, he  conceives  them  to  have  been  modified  and  acted  on  by  internal 
heat.  Whether  that  heat  was  sufficient  to  reduce  them  to  the  fluid 
state,  so  that  polar  forces  might  act  with  greater  freedom,  is,  as  will  af- 
terwards be  proved,  a  question  of  little,  or  no  importance,  as  bearing  on 
the  present  enquiry.  It  is  sufficient  for  this,  that  heat  should  have 
been  in  action  at  all,  its  intensity  being  of  comparatively  little  conse- 
quence. 

(3).  Intimately  connected  with  the  two  preceding  classes,  are  the 
phenomena  exhibited  by  altered  rocks,  or  those  iu  the  immediate  vicini- 
ty of  decidedly  volcanic  products.  These  rocks  are  sometimes  in  ac- 
tual contact  uith  the  originally  fused  masses,  as  when  they  form  the 
walls  of  a  dyke,  and  then  at  the  planes  of  junction  on  both  sides  and  to 
some  distance  beyond  them,  phenomena  analogous  to  the  preceding  are 


292  On  the  Crystallhie  Structure  of  the  [April 

most  commonly  met  with—Clmlk  in  the  vicinity  of  basalt,  is  known  to 
become  beautifully  crystalline  ;  the  crystallization  being  most  perfect,  in 
the  immediate   neighbourhood   of  the  altering  rock,  while  it    becomes 
gradually  less  and  less  distinct  as  we   recede  from  this.     Numberless  in- 
stances similar,  and  even  more  striking,  thin    the    above  might   be   ad- 
duced, the  facts  however  are  so   familiar    to   every  gpologist,    that  I  do 
not  consider  it  necessary  to  advance  more  ;  in  all,   however,   this    is  ob- 
served,  that   crystals   only   appear  in  those  localities,  affected   by  the 
dyke.     The  sienite,  including  the   trapdykes  of  Amboor,  exhibited  no 
signs  of  alteration;  but  this  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  circumstance, 
and  it  finds  a  ready   explanation,   when    we  bear  in  mind,  that  the  origi- 
nal temperature  of  injected  rocks  may  vary  considerably,  and   also  that 
the  conducting  powers  of  different  rocks,  on  which  their  susceptibility 
of  alteration   materially  depends,   are  also   very  variable  ;  from    these 
two  causes,  it  may   frequently   happen,  that  certain   rocks  exhibit  no 
signs  of  alteration,  under  circumstances   apparently   similar   to  those  of 
others,  in  which  these  signs  are  strikingly  apparent.* 

The  three  preceding  classes  belong  peculiarly  to  the  province  of  the 
geologist,  all  being  taken  from  his  particular  science.  Now  in  this,  it 
most  frequently  happens,  that  effects  only  remain  to  us,  the  causes  to 
which  these  are  due  having  ceased  to  act  ;  it  therefore  becomes  necessa- 
ry to  advance  with  caution,  in  our  enquiry  as  to  what  these  causes 
may  have  been,  and  rigidly  to  examine  and  verify  each  step  we  take. 
Hence,  then,  it  is  very  natural  for  us  to  enquire,  if  there  is  a  possibility 
of  producing  effects  analogous  to  those  observed  in  the  natural  world, 
while  we  can  watch  also  the  cause  in  operation  to  produce  them.  This 
remark  leads  us  to  the  consideration  of  a  fourth  class,  by  which  some 
additional  light  is  thrown  on  the  enquiry. 

(i).  In  this  class,  I  purpose  including  the  results  of  the  researches 
of  several  eminent  chemists,  on  the  production  of  crystals,  similar  to 
those  occurring  in  nature,  through  the  agency  of  heat,  of  greater  or  less 
intensity.  Among  these,  Mitscherlich  of  Berlin  has  been  the  most  suc- 
cessful, and  to  him  we  are  indebted  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  new 
and  interesting  information  these  researches  have  furnished.  Having 
bv  careful  analvsis,  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  proportions,  ex- 
istin<^  between  the  component  parts  of  different  minerals,  he  fonneda 
*  mixture,  in  which  these  were  retained,  and   after  exposing  this   to  the 


•  On  examining  the  sienite  of  Wanianiboddy  in  which  trap  dykes  are  also  abundantly 
met  with,  I  wan  equally  unsuccessful  in  my  search  after  si<^s  of  alteration.  Benxa 
howeTermeutioas  having  met  with  them  occasionally.  In  Antrim,  Isle  of  Anglesca, 
he.  thestt  alttrations  ar«  remarkable. 


1839]  Trap  Dykes  in  the  Sicniie  of  Amhoor.  'iUa 

action  of  a  furnace  till  fusion  took  place,  when  it  was  removed,  and  al 
lowed  to  cool,  he  thus  ohtaincd,  synt helically,  those  very  minerals,  in  a 
slate  quite  analogous  to  that  in  which  they  had  been  found  in  the  na- 
tural world.  Having  in  this  manner  combined  the  elements  of  mica,* 
he  succeeded  in  forming  beautiful,  and  distinct  crystals  from  them,  in 
this  case,  finding  it  ebsential,  that  the  fused  mass  should  cool  \erY 
slowly.  This  remark  is  very  interesting  as  connected  with  the  formation 
of  sienite,  granite,  &c.  in  wiiich  mica  occurs  so  abundantly.  Similarly, 
having  combined  the  elements  ofaugitet,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  it  in 
a  crystalline  form,  more  rapid  cooling  being  requisite  for  it  than  for 
mica.  This  also  is  quite  consistent  with  the  observations  of 
mineralogists,  who  remark  that  augite  is  always  found  associated 
with  such  rocks,  as  have  experienced  a  rapid  decrease  of  temperature. 
So  material  is  the  influence  exerted  by  riipid  cooling,  on  the  nature  of 
certain  minerals,  and  especially  on  augite,  that  it  is  often  the  only  cause 
of  their  diflfering  from  certain  others.  Thus  in  reference  to  augiie,  its 
composition,  and  many  of  its  external  characters,  are  precisely  similar  to 
those  of  hornblende,  so  mui'h  so,  that  Professor  Rose  of  Berlin  has  pro- 
posed, to  consider  them  as  one  and  the  same  mineral. 

Since  hornblende  enters  so  largely  into  the  com  j)osition  of  all  trap  rocks, 
and  especially  abounds  in  the  trap  of  Amboor,  the  following  remarks,  re- 
lative to  the  cause  of  the  difference  between  it  and   augite,  are  very  in- 
teresting : — **  It   is  well  known,"  says  Allen,  from  whose  useful  work  on 
ijiineralugy  I  quote   "  that  augite  and  hornblende  seldom  occur  together: 
and  that  when  they   du,    it   is   in   trachytic    rocks    and   lavas    of  later 
date,   in   which     the   one  fonns    crystals    in    the    cavities,   the    latter, 
a   portion    of   the  mass.      The  frequency    of   augitic  forms,  and    the 
non-occurrence    of  hornblende,    among    crystalline    slags — the    results 
of    Mitscherlich    and  Berth eor's  experiments  in  producing  augite  ar- 
tificially,  whereas  they  never    succeeded  in   forming  hornblende,  and 
lastly,  the   general  occurrence    of    hornblende,  associated   with  quaitz, 
felspar,   &c.,  and    such    rocks    as  have  experienced   a   slow  decrease  ' 
of  temperature,  while  augite  is  always  associated  with  others    as  oli- 
vine which  are   known  to  have  cooled  rapidly — all  concurred,  in    lead- 
ing Rose  to  conclude,  that  the  crystalline  form  presented  by  each  of  these 
sub^tanres,  depended  entirely  on  the  more  or  less  rapid  cooling  to  which 
they  had  been   exposed.     Uj)on  fusing  in  consequence,  a  mass  of  horn* 
blende  in  a  porcelain  furnace,  he  found  that  it  did  not  in  cooling,  assume 
its  previous  shape,  but  invariably  look  that  of  augite."     Such  being  the 

•  Buckland's  Bridge  water  Treatise. 
•*        do.  do.  do. 


5)4  On  the  Crystalline  Structure  of  the  [Apicil 


case,  Rose  concluded  (liey  ought  (o  be  looked  upon  as  the  same,  and  in- 
cluded in  one  class;  of  the  propriety  of  which  step,  the  preceding  re- 
marks seem  to  leave  but  little  doubt.    These  experiments  are  most  inter- 
esting, when  viewed  as  furnishing  us  with  a  standard  of  comparison,  by 
which  we  may  form  some  idea,  of  the  different  limes  required   for  the 
production  of  different  minerals  in  nature.  The  rate  of  coolinsr  may  also 
be  estimated,  from  the  peculiar  forms  assumed  by  the  minerals  produced, 
as  for  instance,  in  the  sienite,  so  frequently  mentioned  in  this  paper,  the 
ingredients  of  which,  the  quartz,  felspar,  and  hornblende,  are  all  known 
to  require  slow  cooling  for  their  production  ;  and,  therefore,  we  conclude 
the  sienite  to  have  passed  very  gradually,  from  its  highest  point  of  tem- 
perature, down  to  its  present  stite— similarly,  with  reference  to  ihe  trap 
dykes  under  consideration,  in  which  hornblende  and  mica  prevail,  sub- 
stances also  requiring  slow  and  gradual  cooling  for  their  production. 
The  earliest  experiments  on  record,  by  which  the  connection  between 
the  crystalline  structure,  and  the  application  of  heat  was  exhibited,  are 
those  of  Sir  James  Hall,  in  1798;  in  1801,  Mr.  Wall  pursued  the  same 
subject  in  greater  detail,  while  in  our  own  diy,  WoUastone,  Mill  en,  and 
Haidcnger,  have  been  occupied  in  the  s  ime  train  of  research.     I  do  nut 
intend  to  enter  farther  on  this  point,  since  enough  has  been  adduced  to 
prove  the  analogy  subsisting  between  these  operations  of  men  in  their 
laboratories,  and  those  due  to  the  action  of  the  general  laws  by  which 
God  governs  the  material  world,  and  which  are  included  in  the  three 
first  classes. 

Now,  the  general  and  connecting  link  of  the  whole  series  of  pheno- 
mena above  described,  is  their  dependance  on  the  application  of  tem- 
perature, but,  it  will  readily  be  observed,  it  is  not  so  much  on  the  abso- 
lute degree  of  this,  to  which  the  substances  exhibiting  them  have  been 
subjected,  that  the  phenomena  depend,  as  upon  the  fact,  that  the  original 
temperature  has  undergone  variations  of  greater,  or  less,  extent.  Had 
the  original  heat  applied,  remained  the  same,  only  the  effec^ts  due  to  this 
i¥ould  have  been  exhibited;  as,  for  instance,  if  the  heat  hid  continued  at 
the  points  of  fusion,  or  of  viscidity,  the  bodies,  of  course,  would  ever 
have  remained  in  a  fluid  or  viscous  state :  but,  the  gradual  diminution  of 
the  temperature  has  given  rise  to  new,  and  striking  phenomena,  depend- 
ant on  it  for  their  development,  and  following  it  invariably,  as  effects  fol- 
low their  cause.  Assuming  then  for  the  present,  that,  as  a  natural  law, 
including  a  certain  series  of  phenomena,  provided  disturbing  causes  arc 
not  in  operation,  **  signs  of  crystallization  will  fdlovv  on  a  hotly,  kept 
in  a  fluid  or  partially  fluid  state  by  the  action  of  heat,  ag.iin  becoming 
solid,"  it  is  natural  for  us  to  enquire  if  the  law  can  be  extendel  further, 
and  be  rendered  more  general  in  its  expression,  and  application.    And 


td39]  Drop  Dt/k€s  in  the  Sieniie  of  Jmboor.  295 

first  to  show  that  neither  fluidity,  nor  viscidity,  arc  neceasary  for  crystaU 
lization,  I  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  certain  facts  included  in  class — 

(5).     In  the  collection  of  a  friend,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  examining 
t  fragment  of  sandstone,  which  had  originally  formed  part  of  the  floor  of 
a  baker's  oven.    On  breaking  np  the  floor  for  the  purpose  of  repairing 
it,  the  whole  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  sandstone  was  found  most 
regularly,  and  beaeuti fully  crystallized,  in   prismatic  columns  of  6  or  8 
sides,  being    the  very  forms  so  frequently  assumed  by    basalt,    and 
certain  other  rocks  of  igneous  origin,    and  exhibited,  on  a  gigantic 
«cale,  at  the  Isle  of  Staffa  and  the  Giant* s  Causeway.    The  sandstone 
was  I  think  about  2  or  '2\  inches  thick,   while   the  columns  extended 
from  a  thin  layer  at  the   upper  surface,  of  about  |  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, down  throughout  the  remaining  thickness  of  the  mass.    Look- 
ing at  the  exposed  surface  which   formed  the  floor  of  the  oven,  no 
fligns  of  the  column  beneath  could  be  detected,  and  only  when  a  frac* 
ture  was  made  were  they  discovered.    The  sandstone  was  taken  from  a 
«qnarry,  the  rock  of  which  was  a  member  of  the  coal  series  :  its  texture 
^aa  close,  and  gnmular,  and  its  general  appearance  proveJ,  that  though 
the  heat  to   wliich  it   had  been   subjected,   was   suflicient  to  produce 
crystallization,  it  had  not  in   the  sliglitest  degree,  caused  it  to  fuse. 
in  farther  illustration  of  this  point,  it  may  be  stated,  that  Professor 
Afitscherlich   found,    on    exposing  prismatic   crystals  of  sulphate  of 
«ii':kel,»  in  a  close  vessel,  to  no  stronger  heat  than   that  of  the  sun, 
that,  though  externally  unchanged,  yet,  on  being  broken  up,  were  whol- 
ly composed  of  octahedrons;  while  the  same  cause,  changed,  in  a  few 
€oconvls,   prismatic  crystals   of  zinc,   also,    into  octahedrons.     Crystals 
of  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  of  sulphate  of  zinc  when  boiled  in  alcohol 
gradually   lose  their  transparency,  and  on  being  opened  are  found  to 
he  composed,  internally,  of  numberless  minute  crystals,  totally  different 
in  form  from  the  originals.     Most  striking,  indeed,  are  tlie   views  such 
facts  g^ve  us  of  the  state  of  the  matter  by  which  we  ai-e  surrounded; 
all  seems  in  relative  motion,  and  substance^  which  to  our  senses  seem 
as  hard  as  adamant  may,   and  indeed,  judging    from  the    preceding 
facts,  actually  are  in  a  state  of  continued  and  increasing  motion — who 
can  say,  but  that  the  interior  even  of  the  diamond,  excited  by  no  greater 
cause  than  the  warmth  of  the  hand  that  wears  it,  would,  were  its  particles 
and  the  effects  produced  upon  them  equally  appreciable  by  our  senses,  ex- 
hibit a  scene  of  as  much  turmoil,  and  change,  as  that  produced  by  a 

*  Mrs.  Somcrvillc'A  ConnecUon  of  (he  Sciences. 


296  On  the  CrystaUlne  Structure  of  the  [April 

furnace,  on  tbe  metal-filled  cauldrunt*  of  an  iron   fuuudarj,   or  on  the 
water  in  tbe  boilers  of  a  steam-engine. 

Tbe  further  we  advance,  in  our  knowledge  of  the  wonders  of  creation, 
the  more  reason  do  we  find  to  adure  the  infinite  power  of  ibat  great, 
and  glorious  Being,  to  whom  all  is  due :  a  power,  of  which  we  may  form 
some  slight  idea,  from  the  toil  and  labour  required  on  our  parts,  to  invea* 
tigate  those  laws  by  which  it  workft,  when  applied  to  the  govennDent 
of  tbe  natural  world.  Little  cause  is  there  for  intellectual  pride,  when 
we  reflect  that  the  profoundest  investigations,  and  tbe  most  refined 
■ystems  of  analysis  adopted  by  mathematicians,  tbe  most  extenttve 
observations  of  the  natural  philosopher,  reaching  almost  literally  from 
pole  to  pole,  or  the  most  laborious  researches  of  the  chemist,  all  and 
each,  are  only,  as  it  were,  so  many  lines  by  which  we  are  enabled  to 
sound  the  depths  of  the  power  and  i^isdom  of  that  God,  who,  by  tbe 
simple  expression  of  his  will,  called  all  those  laws,  as  well  as  tbe  matter 
on  which  they  opemte,  into  existence.  The  progress  of  discovery  proves 
to  us  how  little  yiQ  have  known  of  those  depths  ;  and  gives  to  the  follow- 
ing remarks  of  one,  who,  perhaps,  if  any  human  being  could  be  entitled 
to  glory  in  his  intellect,  to  him  the  right  would  be  conceded,  a  beaoty 
and  force,  which  make  it  one  of  the  most  striking  on  record. — '*  I  deem 
myself,**  says  Sir  Isac  Newton,  to  whom  I  refer,  ♦'  to  be  like  a  little 
child  playing  on  the  seashore — the  waves  every  now  and  then  washing 
to  my  feet  a  smoother  or  a  prettier  pebble,  while  the  great  ocean  of 
truth  is  unexplored  before  me.*' — I  now  return  to  tbe  consideration  of 
the  classes  which  still  remain. 

(6)  Since  my  attention  was  directed  to  collecting  facts  for  this  en- 
quiry, I  have  been  much  interested  by  obsen'ing  the  regular  forms, 
into  which  tbe  fine  mud,  forming  the  bottoms  of  tanks  and  pools,  di- 
vides itself,  after  the  evaporation  of  the  surface  water.  "Whenever 
the  surface  of  the  mud  is  exposed  to  the  bent  of  the  sun,  the  outlines 
of  the  6gure8  begin  to  develope  themselves,  and  as  the  evaporation  of 
tbe  water  combined  with  the  mud  proceeds,  these  outlines  ^adually 
become  more  and  more  distinct,  till  at  length  complete  separation  takes 
place,  and  the  whole  mass  becomes  divided  into  columnar  prisms,  of 
various  sizes,  and  bounded  by  difiTerent  regular  figures — sometime! 
tbe  bases  are  triangular,  sometimes  quadrangular,  but  the  most  ge- 
nerally prevalent  forms  are  pentagons  and  hexagons.  Both  tbe  sides 
and  angles  of  the  different  prisms  vary  in  these  dimensions,  as  indeed 
might  be  expected  when  we  consider  how  much  the  affinity  of  cry^talli- 
jjation  must  be  limited  by  the  nature  of  the  mud,  and  also  by  local  cir- 
camstances,  some  portion  being  more  freely  exposed  to  the  ac  tion  o 


1830]  Trap  Dykei  in  the  Sifnit^  of  Ambaar.  297 

the  ran*!  hm%  than  others,  and  the  state  of  division  in  which  the  par* 
tides  are,  being  also  variable* 

In  the  ditch  of  the  fort  at  Bangalore,  I  found  the  general  depth  of  the 
prisint  to  be  about  4  or  5  inches  ;  in  one  place  however  this  was  increas* 
ed  to  as  much  as  8,    Sometimes   the  lines  bounding  the  figures  are 
fiiglitly  curved,  but  these  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule,    in  spite  of 
the  irregularity  which  modifying  causes  have  produced  on  these  fonnst 
it  is  impossible  to  conceive  they  are  due  to  simple  mechanical  con- 
traction alone,  and   I  cannot  convey  the  view  I  ain  induced  to  take  of 
their  origin  better,  than  in  the  languiige  employed  by  Professor  Sedgwick» 
relative  to  the  analogous  phenomena  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumbrian  slates. 
**  We  may  safely  affirm"  says  tlii:)  eminent  geologist  '*  that  no  contrac« 
lion  of  dimensions,  no  retreat  of  parts   in  passing  from  a  fluid  to  a  solid 
•tatet  can  explain  such  phenomena  as  these.    They  appear  to  me  only 
resolvable,  on  the  supposition,   that  crystalline  or  polar   forces  acted 
on  the   whole  mass  simultaneously,    in  given  directions,  and  with  a 
definite  power.."    Similar  appearances  to  the  above  are  to  be  observed  in 
^he  hard  sun-dried  soil  so  abundant  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  canton- 
inent  of  Bangalore ;  also  traces  are  to  be  noticed  in  chunam  which  has 
^ied  rapiilly,  on  being  exposed  much  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  combined 
irith  the  occasional  presence  of  moisture.    There  are  certain  peculiari- 
ties connected  with  this  class,  which,  however,  must  be  deferred,  till  the 
general  enquiry  U  more  advanced — and  therefore  1  proceed  to  the  const* 
deration  of  the  last  of  our  series. 

(7)  Tliis  class  will  include  certain  phenomena  which  have  been  exhi« 
bitedby  ice  during  a  tlinw,  and  which  are  strikingly  analogous  to  the  pre* 
ceding  classes,  thus  extending  the  law  of  the  connection  of  crystalline 
form  with  variation  of  temperature,  to  an  extent  which  scarcely  could 
have  been  anticipated.  The  phenomena  referred  to,  are  described  by  CoU 
Jackson  in  the  Journal  of  the  Geographical  Society  4  Mr.  Lyell,  to  whose 
work  I  am  indebted  for  the  account  of  them,  quotes  it  to  show,  that  the 
phenomena  are  analogous  to  those  of  certain  igneous  rock?,  but  he 
offers  no  explanation,  and  indeed  says  •*  this  tendency  to  a  jointed  struc- 
ture is  by  no  means  understood :  but  it  appears,  from  recent  observations, 
that  ice  sometimes  presents  a  similar  arrangement  of  parts.  Scoresby,^ 
indeed,  had  long  ago,  when  si>eukin«;  of  the  icebergs  of  Spitzbergen,  stat- 
ed "that  they  arc  full  of  rents,  exicnding  perpendicularly  downwards,  and 
dividing  them  into  innumerable  columns.*'  Colcnel  Jackson  has  lately 
investigate!  the  subject  wiili  more  attention,  and  has  found  that  the  ioe 

"'  Arctic  Voyages. 


fd8  On  the  Cryttalline  Strtetm  of  tki  [irtit 

on  tbe  Neva  at  St.  Petenburgh,  at  tbe  beginning  of  a  thaw,  when  two 
feet  in  thicknesSfis  traversed  by  rows  of  minute  air  bubbles  exlending  id 
straight  lines,  sometimes  a  little  inflected,  from  the  upper  surfuce  of  th« 
fce,toward8  the  lower;  at  from  two  to  five  inches  of  which  ihey  terminate.*' 
Other  blocks  presented  these  bubbles  united,  so  as  to  form  cylindrical 
canals  a  little  thicker  than  a  horse  hair. — Observing  still  further,  hc 
says,  *'l  found  blocks,  iu  which  the  ])roccs8  was  more  advanced,  and  two^ 
three  or  more  clefts  siruck  off,  in  different  directions,  from  the  Yerti- 
eal  veins,  so  that  a  section  perpendicular  to  the  veins  would  represent 
in  miniature  the  star-formed  cracks  of  timber.  Finally,  in  some  pieces 
these  cracks  united  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  veius,  separating  the  whole 
mass  into  vertical  prisms,  having  a  greater  or  less  number  of  sides.  Id 
this  state  a  slight  shock  was  suflicient  to  detach  them :  and  the  block, 
with  its  scattered  fragments,  Wcis  in  all  respects,  the  exact  miniature 
resemblance  in  crystal,  of  a  Giant's  Causeway.  The  surface  was  like  » 
tesselntod  pavement,  and  the  columns  rose  close,  adhering,  and  parallel, 
from  the  compact  masif-,  of  a  few  inches,  at  the  lower  surface — more  or 
less  time  is  required  for  the  process,  which  I  have  seen  in  all  its  different 
stages.''  This,  as  well  as  the  preceding  class,  confirm  n  remark  previously 
made,  namely  that  the  phenomena  in  question  depended  essentially  on 
variation  of  temperature,  and  it  matters  not  whether  this  variation  is 
caused,  by  the  bodies  losing,  or  gaining  heat,  as  may  readily  be  obseri'ed 
by  comparing  the  circumstance  of  the  different  classes  with  each  other* 
In  the  last  case,  the  phenomena  are  first  observed  when  a  thaw  com- 
mences, and  their  development  keeps  pace  with  the  progress  of  this,  so 
that  their  connection  with  the  variation  ol  temperature,  during  the  pas- 
Kar;c  of  the  solid  ice  into  water,  is  thus  evidently  seen.  In  the  former 
classes  the  variation  was  consequent  on  the  passage  of  fluids  into  solids, 
and  was  iherefoie  dependant  on  the  obstruction  of  heat— in  this  it  is 
exactly  vice  versd. 

Having,  iu  the  preceding  seven  classes,  included  all  the  phenomena 
analogous  to  those  ©f  the  trap  dykes  of  Amboor,  with  which  1  am  ac- 
quainted, it  now  becomes  necessary  to  consider  with  more  care,  and  in 
greater  detail,  the  mutual  connection  that  subsists  between  them  ail- 
so  that,  if  it  be  possible,  we  may  by  this  means  be  led  to  some  more 
definite  ideas  of  the  cause  to  whith  they  are  due,  than  we  can  now 
have. 

Varied  as  the  cirouni«^tances  of  the  fliffcrent  cases  have  been,  attention 
has  occasionally  bern  direrted  to  that  one  point,  in  which  all,  without 
exception,  have  beeu  found  to  agree.     Now,  it  is  a  rule  in  enquiii<.s  of  a 


I83IJ  Trap  Dykes  in  the  Sientte  qf  Ambom-.  2Q9 

l»!uie  like  the  presenf,  if  we  find  Ihat  •«  in  our  group  of  facts  there  19 
anjone  circumstaDce  in  which  they  all  without  exception  agree,  that  cir- 
emnstaDce  may  be  the  cause  in  question,  or  at  least  a  collateral  effect  of 
the  same  cause,  if  there  be  but  one  such  point  of  agreement,  this  possi- 
bility becomes  a  certainty,  and  if  on  iha  other  hand,  there  are  more  than 
one*  they  may  be  concurrent  causes*.** 

Looking  then  to  the  group  here  assembled,  we  find  that  their  subjec- 
tion to  a  variation  of  temperature  is  the  single  point,  in  which   they  all 
agree  ;  this,  therefore,  according  to  the  above  rale,  given  by  Sir  John 
Henchei,  must  be,  either  the  cause  itself,  or  intimately  connected  with 
the  cause.    We  now  proceed  to  examine  this  point,  and  in  order  that  the 
tesnlts  may  be  more  clearly  exhibited,  one  instance  will  be  taken,  and 
the  Tariout  circnmstances  connected  with   it  examined  and  discussed. 
Selecting,  then,  lor  this  purpose,  the  trap  dykes — we  know,  from  gene- 
rally acknowledged  geological  theories,  that  the  trap  of  which  they  are 
formed,  was  originally  ejected  from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  at  a  tem- 
perature so  high  as  to  be  kept  by  it  in  a  state  of  fluidity  similar  to  that 
of  the  lava  currents  of  existing  volcanoes.   Let  us  therefore  suppose 
we  have  before  us  a  formation  of  ibis  kind,  an  intensely  heated  and  fused 
mass,  included  between  two  walls  formed  by  the  fissured  rock.    From 
the  action  of  that  law,  by  which  bodies  tend  to  an  equalization  of  tem- 
perature, the  moment  contact  was  made  between  the  heated  trap  and  ita 
ioclading  rock,  an  abstraction  of  caloric  from  the  former  by  the  latter 
Would  take  place,  and  as  the  heat  travels  slowly  from  particle  to  particle 
of  the  including  rock,  to  distances  dependant  on  its  conducting  power^ 
a  continual  demand  is  made  on  the  trap,  su  that   we  may  conceive   two 
currents  to  be  established  flowing  from  each  side  of  the  dyke  through 
the  adjoining  rock  forming  its  walls.    Now  it  is  a  singular  fact,  and  one 
by  which  this  enquiry  is  most  materially  advanced,  that,   under  circum- 
stances precisely  similar  to  those  under  which  the  trap  is  here  described 
as  being,  a  combination  is  formed,  by  which  large  quantities  of  electri- 
city are  developed,  and  this  development  seems  to  be  an  effect  of  the 
variation  of  temperature.  Hence,  then,  the  idea  that  the  cause  we  are  in 
search  of  is  this  variation,  becomes  merged  into  the  more  definite  one — 
that  electricity  in  the  active  and  operative  agent,  to  which  we  are  to 
attribute  the  phenomena  whose  production  we  are  investigating.    In 
electricity  we  have  all  the  essential  requisites   for  a  cause  by  which  na- 
tural phenomena  may  be  explained,  we  know  of  its  existence,  of  its  be- 

*  Sir  J.  Herschers  DIscourf«  on  Natural  Philosophy. 


JOd  On  (he  Crystalline  Slruciure  of  the  [April 

ing  what  Newton  calls  a  "vera causa,***  we  have  examples  of  the 
eff<*cta  it  produces  as  an  agent  in  natural  operations  ;  we  may  therefore 
safely  reason  about  its  efficiency  in  this  case,  and  if  we  are  supported  by 
strong  analogies  derived  from  its  *<  modus  operandi**  in  other  instancesi 
we  may  be  allowed  to  infiM*  its  bt^ng  the  active  agent  in  this,  since,  to 
use  the  words  of  onef  well  qualified  to  judge,  "  we  are  not  to  deny  tb« 
existence  of  a  cause,  in  favour  of  which  we  have  the  uuanimous  agreement 
of  strong  analogies,  though  in  the  particular  case  it  may  not  be  apparent 
how  the  crtuse  produces  its  effects.'* 

These  remarks  naturally  lead  us  to  the  more  detailed  examina- 
tion of  the  cause,  to  which,  from  a  discussion  of  the  assembled 
group  of  phenomena  and  the  np|>licariun  of  special  rules  to 
these,  we  have  been  led— and  fir«t,  we  may  establish  the  fact 
of  its  existence  under  circumstances  like  those  of  trap  dykes,  to  which 
we  still  adhere  as  the  representative  of  the  others.  The  discovery  that 
electricity  might  be  excited  by  the  partial  application  of  heat  to  a  circuit, 
into  which  no  fluid  entered  as  an  elementary  part,  was  made  as  early  as 
1822,  by  Professor  Ssbeech  of  Berlin.];  He  employed  a  single  bar  of 
antimony,  and  having  wound  round  the  two  extremities  of  this  several 
coils  of  brass  wire  forming  the  poles,  he  applied  the  heat  of  a  spirit 
lamp  to  one  end  of  the  bar — immediately  a  current  of  electricity  waa 
established,  of  intensity  sufficient  to  affect  most  sensibly  the 
needle  of  a  galvanometer,  placed  under  the  circuit.  This  discovery 
of  what  has  been  called  thermj-electricity  (from  the  cause  of  its 
development)  excited  much  interest,  and  the  subject  was  pursued 
with  great  zeal,  so  that  the  thermo-electric  relations  of  numer« 
ous  substances  were  determined ->all  that  seemed  essential  to  the  exhi* , 
bition  of  these,  was,  that  one  part  of  the  circuit  should  have  a  higher 
temperature  than  the  other— the  immediate  consequen  :e  of  which  was, 
the  determination  of  an  electric  current  in  a  direction  from  the  hot  part 
towards  the  cold.  There  is  no  necessity  for  the  substances  employed 
being  metallic,  for  M.  Nobili§,  a  Florentine  philosopher,  has  lately  pro- 
duced electric  currents,  by  the  contact  of  two  pieces  of  moist  clay,  one 


*  Professor  Whewell  in  his    **  History  of  the   Inductive  Sciences'*    quettioni  tht 
right  of  electricity  to  l)e  considered  a  **  vera  causa/'  on    the   ground  of  its  not  being  a 
physical  reality,  but  due  to  the  vibrations  of  an  etheriol  medium.    I  use  the  expression 
without  any  special  reforence  to  the  nature  of  electricity,  of  which  we^now  so  little 
but  simply  ts  a  means  of  conveying  the  desired  expression  as  to  the  propriety  of 
soning  concerning  its  operations  in  the  natural  world. 

i  Sir  J.  Herschel. 

X  Dr.  Roget's  Treatise  on  Electro-Magnetism. 

)  Mrs.  Somerville's  Connection  of  the  Sciences. 


1839]  Trap  Dykes  in  the  SiefiJte  qf  Amhoor.  :K>1 

of  whicb  was  botter  than  the  other.  I  c:innot  pas«  by  this  cunous  cxpe- 
Hment,  wilboat  attracting  attention  to  the  hiteresting  bearing  it  bai 
upon  the  phenomena  of  the  clay  and  mud,  previously  doscribe«l  under 
dau  6.  The  circumstances  of  each  are  exactly  Riniilar,  for,  it  will  be 
remembered,  the  phenomena  I  described  followed  the  evaporation  of  the 
water  mixed  with  the  clay,  and  it  is  most  natui-al  to  suppose,  that  the 
•mi*B  heat  would  not  operate  on  every  j»art  with  the  same  degree  of  in- 
tensity ;  henre  then  we  have  the  exact  arrangement  of  Nobili*s  experi- 
ment vis.  moist  clay,  of  variable  temperature,  in  comact  throughout.  We 
nay  therefore  conclude,  that  electric  currf^nts  would  traverse  it.  Furtbe^^ 
on  this  point,  it  is  known,  that  evaporation  is  itself  one  of  our  most  fruit- 
ful sources  of  electricity,  and  if  the  water  evaporated  holds  any  substancei 
cither  earthy  or  saline,  in  solution,  the  quantity  of  this  is  proportionally 
^leater;  the  currents  circulating  through  the  clay  would  thus  be  increase 
cd  in  quantity,  tliongh  their  intensity  would  be  small;  but,  as  will  beafter* 
-wards  proved,  this  is  the  state  best  adaptf'd  for  producing  those  cflTects 
attributed  to  them  in  this  paper. 

To  prove  further  that  it  is  a  matter  of  indiflference  whether  the  circuit 
l^ainsor  loses  heat,  provided  only  that  variation  takes  place,  I  may  give  a 
lusty  sketch  of  some  observations  made  on  thi^*  subject*  by  Oei.^ted,  the 
celebrated  discoverer  of  ele>-tro-magnetism.     He   made  a  hexagon,  the 
altemute  st.les  of  which  were  autiinony  an  I  bismuth,  the   two  metals 
whose  junction  gives  rise  to  the  strongest  currents.  First  he  heated  one  of 
the  soldered  angles,  and  immediately  the  galvanometer  needle  was  de- 
fiCvted,  when  two  altenvite  angles  Ix  ing  heated  the  deflection  became 
greater;  and  greater  still,   when  the  spirit  lamp  was  applied  to  three. 
Changing  his  plan,  be  re>lured  the  temperature  of  one  angle  by  means  of 
ice  (doing  which  was  vertically  raising  the  opposite)  and,  as  might  be 
anticipated,  the  needle  was  again  most  sf'nsibly  affected.    On  applying 
tem|>erature  to  these  alternate  angles,  and  ice  to  the  intermediate  onest 
Oeisted  obtained  the  greatest   effect  from  the  currents— thus  shewing 
that  the  intensity  depended  on  the  difference  between  the  respective 
temperatures  of  the  elements  of  the  circuit.    Mr.  Becqueral  arrived  at  a 
similar  result,  finding  that  the  intensity  increased  with  the  heat,  though 
a  limit  seemed  ultimately  to  be  put  to  the  law,  varying  in  different  sub- 
stances.   To  shew  that  the  electricity  derived  from  the  above  sources  is 
identical  both  with  that  from  the  machine,  and  the  galvanic  pile,  I 
may  mention,  that  one  Italian  philosopher  has  succeeded  in  decomposinjj 

•  Dr.  Roeet's  Treatise  on  Hcc'ricity.— Society  Cseftil  Kaowltdfft. 


302  On  tht  Crystalline  Structure  of  the  [April 

water  and  several  solutions  by  its  means,  while  another  bas  produced 
from  it  a  clear  and  distinct  spark. 

Sufficient   has  now,  I  trust,  been  said,  to  establish  satisfactorily  the 
development  of  electricity  under  circumstances  analogeus  to  tbose  of  trap 
dykes.    In  the  latter  there  is  every  essential  for  such  an  effect,  the  ori- 
ginal high  temperature  of  the  injected  trap,  the  consequent  abstraction 
of  its  heat  by  the  including  rock,  in  which  the  temperature  was  much 
lower,  are  iu  themselves  the  elements  of  thermo-electric  currents,  and  a 
remark  due  in  common  with  many  others  of  a  like  nature,  to  Dr.  Faraday, 
"  that  wlien  a  solid  whicli  is  not  a  metal  becomes  fluid  it  almost  entirely 
loses  its  power  of  conducting  heat,  while  it  acquires  a  capacity  for  con- 
ducting electricity  iu  a  high  degree,'*  proves  to  us  how   favourable  their 
original  slate  was,  for  being  traversed  by  currents  thus  excited.     Indeed 
from  views  which  have  thus  gradually,  and  step  by  step,  developed  them- 
selves during   the   progress  of  this   enquiry,  I  cannot  bat  look  on  trap 
dykes  as  being  essentially  electrical  machines,  developing  continued  cur- 
rents of  electric  energy  during  the  time  that  their  temperature  remains 
above  that  of  the  including  rocks — these  currents,  following  the  law  of 
intensity  formerly  announced,  being  proportional  to  the  difference  of 
temperature  between  the  elements  of  the  circuit.    Viewed  in  this  light, 
trap  dykes  contiin  within  themselves  both  the  agent,  and  the  substance 
acted  upon,  the  electricity  developed  during  the  process  of  refrigeration 
being  the  one,  the  constituents  of  the  mass  the  other.  The  preceding  form 
another  of  those  many  links  by  which  heat  and  electricity  are   connected, 
and   though  confesse(ily  this  bond  yet  remains  enwrapped  iu  mystery,  the 
time  seems  not  far  distant  when  greater  light  will  be  tlirown  upon  it,  as 
analogies  are  becoming  stronger  and  stronger,  and  materials  for  the  dis- 
covery, we  might  almost  say,  of  their  identity  are  rapidly  accumulating. 
It  would  be   quite  foreign    to  our  subject  to  digress  on   this   point,  I 
would  therefore  now  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  efficiency  of  the  cause 
to  produce  the  effects  I  have  attributed  to  it,  and  enquire  into  the  con- 
nection subsisting  between  electricity  and  the  phenomena  of  crystalliza- 
tion; our  enquiry  must  here  be  exclusively  analogical,  for  it  is  only  thus 
we  are  permitted  to  conduct  investigations  like  the  present,  where  effects 
remain  after  the  cause  to  which  they  are  due  has  ceased  to  operate. 

Electricity,  as  known  in  the  natural  world,  may  be  considered  as  of 
five  kinds,  to  which  the  names,  common,  voltaic,  magnetic,  thenno  and 
animal  electricities  have  respectively  been  given ;  now  one  of  the  tri- 
umphs of  modern  science  has  been  to  establish,  beyond  a  doubt,  the 
identity  of  these  varieties,  by  clear  an  I  distinct  proofs.  Similar  effects 
have  been  produced  by  all :  composition  and  decomposition,    deflection 


1839J  Trap  Dyh*  in  the  Sienite  of  Jmhoof.  SO) 

of  the  needle,  and  the  obtaining  of  sparks,  are  the  chief  links  of  that 
ehain  which  binds  them  to  one  common  source.    The  Ust  to  which  thia 
has  been  extended  is  the  animal  electricity,  or  that  derived  from  those 
animals,  as  the  torpedo,  to  which  God  has  given  the  power  of  adoiiaU- 
tering  shocks,  as  their  weapons  of  defence.    Professor  Linari  of  Sienna 
has  obtained  both  the  direct  and  the  induced  spark  from  the  torpedo* 
and  Dr.  Davy  has  decomposed  water  by  its  means.    <*  It  has  been  for^ 
ther  proved,  that  the  apparent  differences  are  due  to  the  peculiar  statu 
ia  which  the  electricity  respectively  exists,  with  relation  both  to  iU 
qoantily  and  its  intensity."     Now,  according  to  Dr.  Roget,  these  states 
are  three  in  number,  first  the  state  of  highest  tension,  or  that  in  which 
eleotricity  derived  from  the  common  machine  exists,  when  it  accumulates 
till  its  force  is  sufficient  to  enable  it  to  make  its  way  through  the  aiiv 
which  is  nearly  a  perfect  non-conductor.    Second,  in  a  similar  degree 
of  tension  as  when  derived  from  the  galvanic  battery,   where  the  path  is 
more  open  to  it,  and  therefore  it  does  not  accumulate  so  much  as  in  the 
common  battery.    The  metallic  parts  of  the  galvanic  battery  are  good 
conductors,  but  the  fluid  ones  are  not  so  easily  traversed,  the  quantity 
circulating  is  therefore  greater,  though  its  intensity  is  smaller  than  ia 
the  preceding  case.    Third,  in  the  smallest  of  all  degrees  of  tension,  as 
in  thermo-electric  currents,  throughout  the  whole  of  which  no  impedi* 
ment  to  the  free  passage  of  the   electricity  is  met  with,  the  circulation 
taking  place,  as  it  were,  from  particle  to  particle,  without  any  non-con<^ 
ducting  medium  being  interposed  as  in   the  two  first  cases.       Tha 
peculiarity  therefore  of  thermo-electric  currents  is,  that  while  their  in- 
tensity is  next  to  nothing,  the  quantity  is  comparatively  very  great.  Now 
it  will  be  considered  as  a  striking  fact  in  coaneclion  with  this  enquiry, 
when  it  is  known,  that  batteries  whose  principles  of  action  are  the  clos« 
est  possible  to  those  of  thermo-electric  circuits,  have  been  extensively 
used  as  the  means  of  producing  crystillization  in  a  very  great  number  of 
bodies.    Those  singular  experiments  due  to  Mr.  Crosse,  and  which,  firom 
the  sensation  they  excited,  are  still  doubtless  fresh  ih  the  memories  of  all, 
were  performed  under  the  circumstances  above  referred  to.    Feeble  cur* 
rents,  derived  from  batteries  excited  by  no  stronger  agent  than  purs 
water,  but  continued  for  a  long  time,  were  the  means  in  operation  bj 
which  crystals  of  quartz,  arragonite,  carbonate  of  lead,  lime  and  copper, 
&c.  were  produced.    These  experiments  I  partially  repeated  some  time 
after  their  announcement  with  most  satisfactory  results.     I  employed 
more  powerful  batteries,  and  obtained  crystals  more  rapidly,  but  these  arc 
never  so  perfect  as  when  formed  by  long  continued  action.    Mr.  Becque- 
ral,  who  has  with  much  success  pursued  this  new  path,  found  that  years 


904  On  tht  CryitalUnB  Structure  of  the  [Ar«a 

were  required  for  the  production  of  some  crjrstaU.  I  believe  this  pbilo- 
topTier  has  been  the  means  of  forming  a  Company  at  Paris,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  certain  precious  stones  by  the  above  means,  in  which  I  am 
told  by  a  gentleman  who  saw  them,  they  have  so  completely  succeeded, 
that  the  ruhies  of  the  Company  could  not  be  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  jeweller.  Now  I  cannot  but  consider  it  as  strikingly  con6rmative 
<^  the  view  I  am  inclined  to  take  of  the  cause  to  which  the  crystalline 
fttmeture  of  the  trap  dykes,  &c.  is  due,  that  the  electric  action  in  them 
is  so  precisely  similar  to  that  in  the  above  cases.  It  is  even  more  favour- 
able in  the  dyke,  for  the  circulation  of  the  currents  is  more  free,  espe* 
eially  at  first ;  of  course  as  solidification  progresses  this  is  diminished,  but 
Ibis  process  goes  on  very  slowly,  as  is  proved  by  lava  currents  retain- 
ing their  heat  for  such  immense  lengths  of  time,  when  the  upper  surface 
'.becomes  solid,  so  as  to  oppose  the  further  abstraction  of  heat 

It  is  further  interesting  to  learn  that  already  have  electric  currents 
"been  detected  in  metalliferous  veins,  as  by  Mr.  Fox  in  those  of  the 
Cornwall  mines;  and  though  the  electricity  generated  seems  more  due  to 
<$hemical  actions  between  different  materials  in  the  vein,  than  to  any 
TBTiations  of  temperature,  still  we  know  the  identity  of  the  two  kinds, 
and  therefore  if  one  produces  a  certain  series  of  effects,  it  is  natural  to 
conclude  the  other  would  do  so  likewise.  Of  Mr.  Fox's  experiments  by 
which  he  was  led  to  the  above  discovery,  Professor  Wheatstone  remarks 
**  the  value  of  these  interesting  researches  consists,  in  the  exact  analogy 
they  bear  to  what  actually  takes  place  in  mineral  veins  f  and  the  re- 
sult proved'how  true  this  remark  was.  The  details  of  these  experiments 
are  now  before  me,  but  I  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  enter  into  fur- 
ther detail  on  this  point,  as  I  trust  analogies  sufficiently  powerful  and 
numerous,  have  now  been  brought  forward  to  demonstrate  the  efficiency 
of  thermo^!lectricity  to  produce  the  phenomena  as  observed  in  the  struc- 
ture of  trap,  and  also  in  other  rocks  placed  under  analogous  circum- 
stances. 

This  principle  of  explanation  will  readily  be  applied  to  all  the  classes 
forming  the  ground  work  of  this  enquiry,  which  here  might  fairly  be 
brought  to  a  conclusion,  since  of  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  electri- 
city acU  in  producing  crystallization,  little  or  nothing  is  known.  Tliat 
it  docs  do  so  we  have  seen,  and  beyond  this  all  is  comparative  uncertain- 
ty;  itis  therefore  with  most  unaffected  diffidence  that  I  venture  to  offer 
a  few  remarks  grounded  on  what  is  known  on  this  subject,  as  I  can 
scarcely  deem  my  enquiry  complete  till  such  an  addition  has  been  made 
to  it  I  feel  my  incompetency  to  do  any  thing  like  proper  justice  to  this 
question,  yet  as  some  interesting  information,  tlougb  small  in  quantity, 


n»)t  Trdp  Dylu  In  the  Siewte  of  Amloe^:  3D9I 

hu  been  collected,  I  will  conclude  this  paper  with  a  few  obserf  ationv 
dedaced  from  it 

Crystallization  being  an  arrangement  of  the  ultimate  particles  or  atom* 
of  the  crystallized  body,  according  to  certain  definite  laws,  it  is  thene« 
evident  that  these  atoms  are  of  determinate  bulk,  and  that  matter  cannot 
in  consequence  be  regarded  as  infinitely  divisible,-  but  must  ultimately 
arrive  at  a  limit.    What  this  limit  is  we  know  not,  but  when  it  is  attain* 
ed,  the  atoms  have  also  determinate  figures,  as  well  as  bulk ;  for  it  is 
known,  that  certain  crystals  can  only  be  built  up  complete  by  the  con- 
tinued addition  of  those  elements  i^hose  form  is  fixed.    Magnitude  and 
form  necessarily  imply  density,  and  it  is  known  that  the  particles  of  a 
body,  however  dense  that  may  be,  are  not  in  actual  contact,  but  are  sepa* 
rated  from  each  other  by  indefinitely  small   spaces.    Now,  considitring 
electricity  as  a.  fluid  of  the  highest  state  of  elastieity,  M.  Mosotti  of 
Corfu  conceives,  that  these  minute  spaces  are  filled  with  the  electria 
fiuidfSO  that  each  particle  is  confined  within  an  atmosphere  composed  of 
it.    Further,  and  as  consistent  with  the  general  phenomena  of  eleotricity* 
he  conceives  that  the  atoms  of  the  fiuid  repel  each  other ;  the  molecules 
ef  the  matter  also  repel  each  other  ;  while  there  is  a  mutual  attraction' 
between  the  particles  of  the  fluid  and  of  the  matter.    Few  indeed  could 
follow  the  refined  and  elaborate  analysis  by  which  M.  Mosotti  has  suc*- 
eeeded  in  adjusting  these  forces,  but  we  can  all  understand  and  follow 
the  conclusions  at  which  he  has  arrived.    He  has  proved  that  wiik^ 
m  certain  limits  the  particles  of  bodies  repel- each  other,  the  forca 
of  repulsion  diminishing  rapidly  as  the  distance  increases — beyond  a 
certain  limit  the  force  becomes  attractive,  and  hence  there  must  be  some 
point  at  which  equilibrium  between  these  two  forces  exists,  and  there  is 
then  no  tendency  either  to  repulsion  or  attraction ;  if  therefore  we  attemj^ 
compression,  the  repulsive  force  resists,  if  we  attempt  disruption,  tha 
attractive  force  or  the  force  of  cohesion  then  comes  into  play.    The  limit 
at  which  the  negative  force  becomes  positive  varies  according  to  tern* 
perature,  and  to  the  nature  of  the  molecules,  and  determines  whether  the 
body  is  to  be  solid,  fluid  or  aeriform.    Beyond  the  neutral  point,  the- 
attractive  force  increases  till  it  attains  a  maximum,  and   then  dimi* 
nishes,    till  as  soon  as  the  particles  are  separated  by  sensible  distances 
it  varies  directly  as  the  mass,  and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  dis- 
tances^-the  well  known  law  of  universal  gravitation. 

Such  are  the  results  of  M.  Mosotti's  profound  investigations ;— applying 
them,  therefore,  to  the  case  before  us,  viz.  crystallization,  it  is  evident* 
that  the  form  of  the  ultimate  particles  would  materially  influence  the  <U* 
fection  of  the  attractive  and  repulsive  forces,  and  hence  arises  our  con*- 


t9f.  Oh  tkg  Cry9taa%n$  Strueiure  of  M#  [Apftf& 

«eptktt  of  the  polari^  of  mattery  an  inftance  of  which  in  a  great  stale, 
is  given  in  the  case  of  the  magnetic  needle,  the  polarity  of  which  is  now 
considered  due  to  its  electrical  condition.  Now  the  phenomena  of  crystal- 
lisation entitle  us  to  infer,  that  there  is  something  like  a  definite  polarity 
in  every  particle,  hy  which  it  is  compelled  to  turn  in  a  given  direction, 
and  to  group  itself  with  other  particles  in  definite  forms — the  polarity 
in  the  **  glaring  instance"  is  due  to  electricity — may  we  not  reasonably, 
from  the  above  remarks,  infer  the  same  cause,  to  produce  a  like 
effect,  in  an  instance,  less  under  the  immediate  cognizance  of 
our  senses. 

By  reference  to  some  observations  I   made  about  a  year   ago,*   I 
find  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  above   opinions,  noted  as  hav- 
ing occurred  during  the  crystallization  of    fused    sulphur.      On  the 
vessel,  in  which  the  sulphur  was  melted,  being  removed  fit>m  the  furnace, 
and  allowed  to  cool,  the  upper  surface  of  the  mass  became  covered  vrith 
thin  needle  shaped  crystals,  about  one-eighlh  of  an  inch  in  length,  and 
about  the  thickness  of  hairs.  To  these  crystals,  it  seemed  as  if  a  power  of 
Bpontaneous  motion  had  been  communicated,  since  they  flew  about  in  all 
directions,  first  from  one  side  of  the  vessel  to  the  other,  then  back  again, 
then  across,  and  indeed  they  kept  unceasingly  on  the  move.    On  close 
examination,  I  found  all  the  phenomena  of  polarity  exhibited  by  these 
imall  bodies  toward  each  other,  and  on  watching  two,  I  observed  them 
jgradually  approaching  each  other,  till  they  almost  seemed  in  contact, 
then,  suddenly,  both  started  back  from  each  other  to  some  distance. 
Turning  round  they  approached  each  other  again,  apparently  with  those 
sides  turned  towards  each  other,  which  admitted  of  the  attractive  force 
coming  into  play,  for  they  would  rush  together,  and  form  what  then 
seemed  to  be  but  one  crystal.    This  process  was  going  on  throughout 
the  whole,  and  this  alternate  advancing  and  retreating  was  the  cause  of 
the  incessant   motion.    The  forms  of  the  acicular  crystals  were  quite 
different  from  those  resulting  from  their  continued  aggregation,  the  one 
being  long  and  thin,  the  other,  bright  prisms  of  nearly  equal  length  and 
breadth,  and  from  oue-quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  remark  is 
quite  agreeable  to  the  researches  of  crystallographers,  who  have  found 
that  such  thin  crystals  following  certain  rules  of  superposition  and  ranged 
in  a  certain  order,  produce  others  of  entirely  different  forms. 

I  will  not  enter  further  upon  this  point,  but  I  trust  the  few  remarks 
I  have  made  will  not  be  altogether  devoid  of  interest,  shewing  as  they  do, 
the  connection  subsisting  between  the  electrical  condition  of  the  parti- 

•  These  were  made  in  the  laboratory  of  Mr.  K.  T.  Kemp,  to  whom  I  beliere  th« 
credit  of  harlog  lint  remarked  the  sixigular  phenomena  is  due. 


1899]  Trap  DyJce$  in  the  Siinite  of  Amhwr.  Wt 

des,  of  a  body,  and  the  arrangement  of  these  particles  in  their  definite 
fimat,  a  point  of  so  important  a  bearing  on  the  nature  of  this  enquiry* 

At  a  future  time,  I  trust  to  be  able  to  add  one  more  link  to  the  chain 
of  reasoning,  by  which  the  preceding  results  have  been  arrived  at,  by 
giving  the  details  of  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  effects  of  electrical 
currents  passed  through  bodies  in  a  state  of  fusion,  from  which  I  antici« 
pate  additional  confirmation  to  the  foregoing  view  of  the  cause  to  which 
the  crystalline  structure  of  trap,  basalt,  and  other  rocks  of  igneous  origia 
is  due,  as  well  as  that  of  certain  sedimentary  deposits,  acted  on,  and  al« 
tered,  by  heat  of  variable  intensities. 

Perhaps  it  may  now  be  advisable  to  cast  a  retrospective  glance  at  th6 
•ground  over  which  we  have  passed,  and  to  exhibit,  by  a  short  recapitula* 
tion,  the  steps  of  our  enquiry,  so  as  to  enable  the  memory  to  retain  tha 
leading  t>oints  the  better,  by  divesting  them  of  the  intervening  details. 
The  object  to  be  attained  was  to  determine,  as  far  as  we  could,  the  cause 
of  the  crystalline  structure  of  trap  and  other  igneous  rocks.  To  this 
end  analogous  phenomena  were  classified,  and  discussed,  their  general 
bearing  in  regard  to  each  other  exhibited,  and  the  bond  of  union,  tha 
point  in  which  they  are  all  agreed,  was,  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  in* 
duction,  considered  as  either  the  cause  itself,  or  intimately  connected 
with  the  cause  of  the  phenomena  in  question.  A  law,  based  on  the  facta 
.feviewed,  was  there  expressed,  at  first  limited  in  its  application,  but  sub* 
sequently  extended,  by  the  discussion  of  other  phenomena,  till,  com* 
mencing  with  masses  in  a  state  of  intense  heat,  it  gradually  descended 
till  it  was  found  to  apply  to  frozen  water.  The  law  of  the  connection 
of  crystalline  forms  with  variation  of  temperature,  as  exhibited  in  the 
7  classes,  was  then  more  minutely  examined,  and,  by  its  extended  discus* 
sion,  variation  of  temperature  was  found  to  be  a  fruitful  source  of  one 
of  the  most  active  secondary  agents  in  the  natural  world,  viz.  electricity. 
The  peculiar  case  of  trap  dykes  was  chosen  to  illustrate  the  action  of 
this  power,  into  which  the  original  one  was  now  resolved.  Its  develop- 
ment, its  efficiency,  and  its  mode  of  action,  were  successively  examined  in 
detail,  and  analogies  were  brought  to  bear  on  these  different  points.  The 
field  of  inquiry  is  yet  far  firom  being  exhausted,  the  dependance  of  cry* 
stalline  form  on  chemical  composition  as  exhibited  in  the  laws  of  iso* 
morphism,  the  resolution  of  chemical  action  into  the  preponderance  of 
different  electrical  forces,  as  lately  proved  by  Dr.  Faraday,  the  connection 
subsisting  between  heat,  light  and  electricity,  are  all  paths  open  to 
and  inviting  research,  full  of  interest,  and  promising  most  rich  and  fruit- 
ful returns. 


908        On  the  Crystalline  Structurt  of  the  Trap  Dyket,  S^c.    [ApBit 

Id  conclusion,  it  may  be  permitted  roe  to  remark,  that,  in  seeking  to 
extend  the  domain  of  a  power  already  so  universal  in  its  agency,  so  ex- 
traordinary in  its  nature,  it  is  impossible  to  refrain  from  oft  times  having 
the  heart  raised  to  that  God  whose  handy-work  we  are  investigating,  and 
to  whose  name  I  would  desire  to  ascribe  that  tribute  of  praise,  too  often, 
I  regret  to  say,  withheld  by  many  who  devote  their  talents  and  time  to 
laying  open  the  secret  laws  by  which  He  governs  the  world  in 
which  we  dwell.  It  gives  us  no  mean  idea  of  his  power  to  mark,  how, 
with  one  instrument,  such  varied,  such  numberless  effects  are 
produced.  Nor  is  this  idea  diminished,  when  we  examine  the  nature 
of  the  instrument  itself,  and  find  it  so  worthy  of  an  Almighty  hand. 
Traversing  space  with  a  duration  less  than  the  millionth  part  of  a 
second  ;  passing  through  solid  bodies  more  rapidly  than  light  travels 
through  the  regions  of  the  planets  ;*  at  one  time  rending  rocks  asunder, 
at  another  the  obedient  slave  of  man;  contributing  both  to  his  wants, 
and  his  pleasures ;  residing  in  the  magnet,  it  guides  the  sailor  on  his 
pathless  way,  labouring  in  the  caverns  of  the  earth,  it  is  daily  produc- 
ing more  abundant  supplies  of  the  various  metals  so  necessary  to 
man*s  social  comfort  and  earthly  happiness  ;  nay,  some  would  even  lead 
us  to  suppose,  that  it  is  the  great  link  by  which  world  is  bound  to  world, 
that  the  great  principle  of  gravitation  is  to  be  merged  into  the 
ttill  greater  one  of  electrical  action.  Be  this  as  it  may,  electri- 
city  is,  even  supposing  it  fulae,  an  instrument  sufficiently  wonder- 
ful to  lead  us  to  admire  and  to  glorify  Him  by  whom  it  was  created, 
and  by  whom  it  is  now  directed  in  all  its  vast  and  varied  operations* 

*  Soch  aretome  of  the  striking  results  to  which  Professor  Wheatstone's  researches 
on  etectricity  hare  condacted  him.  I  am  indebted  to  Tamer's  Elements  of  Chemistry 
for  a  short  account  of  these,  Mr.   Wheatstone  has  found— 

(1)  That  the  velocity  of  electricity  along  a  copper  wire  exceeds  that  of  light 
through  planetary  space. 

(2)  The  liRht  of  electricity  of  high  tension  has  a  less  duration,  in  passing  as  a  spark, 
thim  the  millionth  part  of  a  second. 

In  a  letter  to  Dr.  Buckland,  Mr.  W.  says,  in  reference  to  the  economical  applicati- 
ons of  this  power,  "  it  requires  not  the  tongue  of  a  prophet  to  foretel  that  the  voltaic 
pile  will  hereafter  create  as  great  a  revolution  in  our  chemical  manufactories  as  the 
steam  engine  has  already  efiected  in  the  mechanical  arts."— Bridge  water  Treatises.— JVote. 


1839]        Btnr  Dunes  on  the  hanJcs  of  the  Hogri  and  Pennaur.        3(» 

y. -^Notice  qf  Bker  Dunes  on  the  banks  of  the  Hogri  and  Pennaur.^ 
By  Lieutenant  Newbold,  a.  d.  c.  to  Major  General  Wilson,  c.  b. 


Passing  through  Honoor,  a  village  about  20)  miles  S.  by  E.  from  Bcl- 
larjr  on  the  Bangalore  road,  I  observed   small   ranges  of  sand  hills,  co- 
vering the  black  cotton  soil  to  a  considerable  extent,    that  had    very 
much  the  appearance  of  the  dunes  on  the  Malabar  Coast.     Not   recol- 
lectxng  the  vicinity  of  the  Hogri  river,  I  was  at  a  loss  to  account  for 
their  appearance  in  this  locality;  but,  on  ascending  one  of  the  highest, 
I  perceived  the  wide  sandy  bed  of  the  river  at  a  considerable  distance 
to  the  west.    This,  and  the  clouds  of  sand  blown  in  my  face,  were  now 
sufficiently  indicative  of  the  cause  of  the  elevation  of  these  ambulatory 
bills.    The  direction  of  the  ridge  on  which  I   stood  was  nearly  north  and 
south :  it  ascends  from  the  west,  t.  e.  from  the  river,  in  a  broad  sweep  of 
drifted  sand,  covering  the  intervening  land  for  nearly  a  mile,  and  termi- 
nating in  a  rather  abrupt  and  steep  descent,  which  falls  to  the  east. 
This  line  is  by  no  means  regular ;  as  the  arenaceous  phalanx  advances 
most  in  those  parts,  where  there  is  least  obstruction  from  vegetation* 
One  of  these  advanced  dunes  I  observed,  in  the  act   of  crossing  the  dry 
bed  of  a  nullah.     Many  of  them  are  prevented  making  progress  by   the 
embraces  of  the  long  fibrous  plants  that  have  grown  up,  and  are  inteir* 
woven   with  their  substance  :   the  kaki  heyru,  and  jihar  chettvo  are 
the  plants  usually  seen  in  this  situation.    Small  fresh-water  shells,  prin- 
cipally univalves,  have  been  carried  along  with,  and  imbedded   in  the 
sand:  the  wind  has  left  ripple-like  marks  on  its  surface,  and  it  only 
requires  consolidation  to  transform  the  sand  of  yesterday  into  a  rocky 
fossil iferous  ridge. 

On  arrival  at  Honoor,  the  following  information  was  given  me  by  the 
head-man,  and  some  of  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  the  place.  The  sand 
hills  advance  in  an  easterly  direction,  every  year,  during  the  months  of 
June,  July  and  August,  when  the  western  winds  blow  strongest.  On  an 
average  they  progress  two,  or  two  and  a  half  yards  annually.  About  eight 
years  ago,  when  the  rain  was  scant,  and  the  wind  unusually  high,  one 
of  these  dunes  advanced  on,  and  buried  land  under  cultivation  to  th« 
extent  of  more  than  eight  chains,  which  has  not  since  been  reclaimed. 
During  the  &mine  about  seven  years  ago,  the  dunes  threatened  to  over- 
whelm Honoori  and  the  sand  actually  rose  in  the  streets  to  the  height 


310       Bk§r  IhNus  on  Ike  bofdn  qf  the  Hogriand  Pemnaur.       [Apeil 

of  fire  feet  In  order  to  prerent  the  recunreDce  of  such  a  disaster,  the 
villagers  allow  the  iatenrenhig  kiM,  and  other  trees  to  grow,  whkh 
they  were  foraoerly  in  the  habit  of  cutting  down.  The  present  distance 
between  the  nearest  sand-hill  and  the  village  does  not  exceed  more  than 
400  yards.  In  the  memory  of  the  oldest  native  of  the  spot,  the  sand 
was  confined  to  the  inunediate  vieinitv  of  the  river  hanks :  he  attributes 
Its  advance  to  the  cutting  down  of  the  joogle,  and  the  comparatively 
dby  seasons  that  have  since  prevailed. 

The  village  of  Bodnrti,  in  the  Conignl  district,  about  three  koss 
hence,  was  totally  overwhelmed  about  10  or  1 2  years  ago.  I  visited  the 
lite  of  this  village,  and  found  it,  with  the  exception  of  a  foot  or  two  of 
the  old  walls  rising  above  the  sand,  completely  buried  under  a  large 
dune.  The  expelled  inhabitants  have  built  another  village,  not  far  from 
the  site  of  its  predecessor,  whose  name  it  now  bears.  I  have  met  with 
sand  dunes  on  the  banks  of  the  Pennaur  in  the  Cuddapah  district,  and 
have  ridden  over  the  remains  of  an  old  village  and  pagoda,  in  the  vici« 
nity  of  Jummulmudgoo,  now  completely  covered  by  the  sand.  They 
occur  also  on  the  Malabar  Coast,  and  contribute  greatly  to  the  formation 
of  those  singular  lakes  of  sea  and  fresh-water,  termed  back  waters. 
These  sand  hills  resemble  the  dunes  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Garonne  to  the  district  of  Bayonne,  described  by  De  la  Beche,  blown  up 
by  the  westeriy  winds,  and  preventing  the  drainage  of  the  country,  and 
forming  marshes  in  their  rear.  It  would  be  worth  while  to  examine  the 
deposit  now  forming  in  the  Malabar  back-waters.  In  those  of  the  Ga- 
ronne are  often  found  alternations  of  marine,  fresh-water  and  terrestrial 
deposits. 


1839]  On  the  Table  land  of  Cumhaucim  Droog.  311 

VI. — Extract  of  a  Let Ur  from  Captain  J.  A.  Smith,  Civil  Engineer 

!«/  Dirisionf  dated  Sd  Jpril  1839,  on  the   Table   land   qf  Cumhaucum 
Droog. 

(Communicated  by  the  Madras  Government.) 

I  have  visited  and  examined  the  table  laud  in  tlie  vicinity  of  tbe  Pu« 
licat  lake,  described  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Montcilh  iu  the  Madras 
Jdumal  of  Literature  and  Science,  No.  12. 

Tbe  hill  on  which  tbis  table  land  is  situated  is  part  of  a  ridge  con- 
necled  with  tbe  eastern  range  of  ghauts,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Cumbaucum  Droog,  tbe  inhabited  spot  adjoining  to  it  being  a  village  in 
the  Calastrie  Rajab's  territory,  called  Tallaripett,  distant  about  10  miles 
from  the  Pulicat  lake,  the  nearest  points  of  wbicb  are  at  Tudda  and  Bo- 
lingarpollium,  both  situate  on  the  high  nortbern  road. 

From  Tallaripett  the  distance  is  about  tbree  milcF,  the  road  winding 
tbrougb  a  tbick  jungle  to  the  foot  of  the  hill.  The  ascent  is  irregular 
and  in  some  parts  steep,  but  alihough  there  is  no  formed  road  there  is 
little  difficulty  in  reaching  the  table  land,  which  may  be  done  on  foot, 
cr  even  on  horseback.     The  length  of  the  ascent  is  about  four  miles. 

On  completing  the  ascent,  a  comparatively  level  surface,  of  fully  two 
square  miles  in  area,  is  met  wiib,  the  general  appearance  of  which  is 
that  of  a  flat  basin  surrounded  by  bluff  ridges  in  every  direction,  and  in* 
tersectcd  by  ravines.  Tbe  soil  appears  to  be  good  and  is  said  to  have 
l)een  productive  and  fertile,  there  are  traces  of  cultivation,  and  the 
rains  of  a  pucka  building  were  pointed  out  to  me. 

On  my  first  visit  to  tbis  spot  on  the  8lb  ultimo,  a  series  of  barometri- 
cal observations  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  height  of 
the  table  land  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  result  of  which  gave  an 
altitude  of  about  1650  feet;  that  of  the  nearest  adjoining  peak  to  the 
eastward  of  it,  being  nearly  lUOO  feet. 

On  a  subsequent  visit  on  the  'iSth  of  the  same  month,  a  fresh  series 
of  observations  gave  the  altitude  of  the  table  land  nearly  1/00  feet,  and 
ihcit  of  the  highest  of  tbe  surrounding  peaks, viz.  of  one  distant  about  three 
miles  to  the  south-east  of  the  ruins  before  mentioned,  about  2300 above 
the  level  of  tbe  8ea.  On  the  first  visit  the  thermometer  in  tbe  shade  of 
a  tn-e" stood  at  80°  to  81°,  at  10^  and  11  a.  m.,  a  strong  southerly  wiud 
prevailing  at  the  time,  and  the  sensation  to  tbe  feelings  bein^  coul  and 


31*2  On  the  Table  land  qf  Cumhaucum  Droog.  [April 

agreeable.  On  the  28tb  a  dry  hot  wind  was  felt  at  intervals,  and  the 
heat  was  very  oppressive  ;  the  thermometer  standing  at  98*  and  99®  at 
noon  in  a  tent,  and  the  air  being  parched  and  scorcljing.  The  water, 
however,  procured  from  tlie  reservoir  in  the  bed  of  the  torrent,  which 
passes  down  a  ravine  intersecting  the  table  land,  and  \ihich  being  sup- 
plied from  internal  springs  may  be  considered  to  represent  the  average 
temperature  of  the  spot,  was  found,  even  in  the  latter  visit  (the  28th), 
to  possess  a  temperature  of  only  64**;  so  that  the  occurrence  of  the 
extreme  hot  weather  then  experienced  is  the  more  remarkable,  and  may 
be  perhaps  an  unusual  circumstance. 

The  supply  of  water  appeared  to  be  abundant,  and  it  was  of  a  limpid 
clear  appearance.  It  is  also  considered  of  good  quality  by  the  natives 
in  the  neighbourhood,  but  various  streams  which  I  tasted  had  all  a  bitter 
taste,  which  in-as  accounted  for  by  the  natives  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  water-courses  being  choked  wiih  leaves  and  vegetable  matter,  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  that  objection  would  be  obviated  by  clearing 
them  out,  or  by  deriving  the  supply  required  from  wells. 

The  fact  that  this  elevated  region  is  not  exempt  from  the  occasional 
influence  of  the  hottest  winds,  may  perhaps  be  considered  likelv  to  de- 
feat its  usefulness  as  a  sanatarium  for  invalids ;  and  to  take  away  consi- 
derably from  the  beneficial  effects  which  its  bracing  atmosphere  might 
at  other  seasons  offer. 


1839]  Report  on  the  Macheyizie  Manuscripts,  313 

^•'^Fi/th  Rtport  of  Progress  made  in  the  Examination  of  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.,  tcith  an  Abstract  Account  of  the  fVorhs  examine 
ed,—Bif  the  Rev,  Williau  Taylor,  Member  qf  the  Madras  Litf 
tary  Society,  ^c. 

A.-TAMIL. 


a.    Palm-leaf  Manuscripts. 

1.    Cdsi'Cdndamf  or  the  section  of  the  Scdnda  purdna  which  relate* 
to  Benares. 

No.  9— Countermark  51. 

This  is  a  large  manuscript,  though  fornnng  only  a  part  of  the  Scanda 
purana.  It  is  written  in  the  kind  of  Tamil  verse  termed  Viruttam^ 
a  difficult  kind  uf  measure.  Its  translation  into  this  metre  is  ascribed 
popularly  to  /idi'vira  Pandiyan^  which  is  the  case  with  several  other 
works,  too  numerous  to  be  probable;  except  possibly  as  regards  patro- 
nage of  the  different  authors.  But  the  ascertained  fact,  that  the  Col  • 
lege  at  Madura  was  founded  with  a  special  view  to  the  transfusion  of 
Sanscrit  works  into  Tamil,  and  for  the  spread  of  the  Hindu  religion  in 
the  extreme  south,  may  account  for  many  dedications  or  ascriptions 
of  works  to  one  king.  There  is  a  reference  in  this  poem  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Vindhya  mountains  by  Agasfya,  extravagantly  hyperbolized, 
but  the  greater  portion  relates  to  the  river,  and  /iV/Vm*  or  pools,  to 
shrines,  and  to  the  legends  of  individual  devotees  at  Benares.  The 
Cdndam  or  book  is  divided  into  one  hundred  Adhydyas,  or  subdivisions. 
A  specification  of  the  contents  of  these  adhydyas,  with  a  brief  occabion- 
al  explanation  may  suffice  as  regards  this  document. 

1.  Nareda's  inspection  of  the  Vindhya  mountain.  Nareda  taunted 
the  Vindhya  mountain  with  being  inferior  to  Malia-meru  in  size,  and 
also  inasmuch  as  the  sun  turns  round  Meru  in  its  course.  The  Vind- 
hya mountain,  feeling  itself  insulted,  elevated  its  summit  even  to  the 

skies. 

2.  The  celestials  visit  to  Brahman''  world.  As  the  Vindhya  moun- 
tain had  obscured  the  light  of  the  sun,  the  celestials  went  and  com* 
plained  og^iinst  it  to  Brahma,  who  referred  them  to  Agasiya. 


314  Htporl  OH  the  Maeienzie  AfanitscripU,  [ArmiL 

3.  The  visit  of  the  celestials  to  the  hermitage  of  Jgfitttfo,  They 
made  knovm  to  him  the  haa[>htiness  of  the  fimdhya  mountain. 

4.  The  praise  of  matronlv  chastity.  The  celestials  describe  the 
wife  of  Ayattya,  as  a  pattern  of  matronly  virtues 

5.  The  visit  of  Agat'ya  to  the  Findhi/a  mountain,  jigasiya  went 
near  to  it,  when  it  bowed  down,  and  paid  homage  at  his  feel.  Apaffya 
•aifl  **  I  am  going  to  Pothaiya,  and  until  1  return  remain  always  thus",  a 
command  whirb   cou'd  not  be  broken. 

6.  Accouot  of  the  Tirl*h<u,  The  virtues  of  the  river  Ganges  are 
slated,  and  those  of  many  other  rivers,  and  reservoirs  connected  there- 
whh,  of  superior  efficacy  in   the  removal  of  crimes. 

7.  The  praise  of  towns  adjacent  to  Benares.  These  places  h>ive 
their  excellencies  declared. 

8.  Tlie  account  oi Sica-janma  and  Yama»  The  fonner  was  a  royal 
devotee,   at  whose  death    Yama   took  his  soul. 

9.  The  \Lsit  to  the  solar  orb.  laina  took  the  said  persons  soul, 
and  shewed  it  that  world. 

10.  The  visit  to  the  world  of  the  celestials.  Fa  ma  shewed  this 
world   to  the  soul  of  Sica-janma, 

1 1 .  The  visit  to  Agni-hca,  Varna  shewed  to  the  disembodied  soul 
the   worlds  of  fire. 

12.  The  visit  to  the  quarter  of  Nairiti,  guardian  of  the  south- 
west. 

13.  The  visit  to  the  quarters  of  rayaru,  and  Caivra,  regents  of  the 
north-west  and  north-east    quarters. 

14.  The  \isit  to  the   world  of /*rora,  and  Chandra, 

15.  The  visit  to  the  worlds  of  Tdraga,  and  Budha^  or  the  starry 
sphere,   and  the  planet   Mercury. 

16.  The  visit    to  Sucra-loca,  or  the  phmet  Venus, 

17.  The  visit  to  Mars,  Jupiter,  aud  Saiurn. 

18.  The  visit  to  the  regions  of  the  seven  RUkis,  or  the  north  polar 
celestial   sphere,    especially  ursa-mnjor* 

VJ.  The  visit  to  the  Dhruva-mandalum,  or  north  polar-star  ;  the  said 
visit,  like  the  prccfdiiig  ones,  beiug  performed  by  the  soul  of  Siva 
Jatima  under  the   guidance  of  yama, 

20.  Eulogy  of  Dhruva. 

21.  Apotheosis,   or  beatification  of  Dhruva, 

22.  Vibit   to  Mufia-toca  and  the  four  oilier  superior    worlds. 

23.  The  coronation  of  f'i.sh?tUf  as  seen  by   Sica-jimma. 

21.  Sira-janma's  beatification.  As  this  king  had,  during  liis  life, 
been  a  great  benefactor,  aud  had  aboimdod  in  liberality,so  after  his  death 


183d]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuseripti.  315 

Yama  took  him  on  the  long  celestial  pilgrimage*  above  intimated  ;  at 
the  close  of  which  he  obtained  full  beatification. 

5i5.  The  visit  of  Agastya  to  Subrahmanya.  On  occasion  of  this  visit 
Subratimanya  conducted  Agastya  through  Benares,  and  explained  to  him 
its  various  distinguishing   features  and  excellencies. 

26.  Eulogy  of  the  female  sex  at  Benares,  by  Subrahmanya  to  Jjrasfya. 

27.  Eulogy  of  the  Ganges  ;  in  the  same  way  narrated. 

*2>^,  The  depositing  of  bones  in  the  Ganges.  If  the  boues  of  those  who 
die  be  deposited  in  the  Ganges,  the  beutitication  of  tlie  dep;irted  is  as- 
sured, 

29.  The  specification  of  the  thousand  names  of  the  river  Ganges. 
30.  The  praise  of  f^dranasi  or  Benares.  The  morality  of  this  adhydya 
is  observable.  A  woman  entertained  an  imj. roper  affection  for  her  own 
son,  who  remonstrated,  and  denounced  on  her  total  destruction.  But 
on  her  death,  advice  was  given  to  cast  her  bones  into  the  Ganges,  at 
Benares  ;  in  consequence  of  which  her  soul  attained  to  Sverga,  Hence 
Casi  acquired   the  name   of  Varanash 

31.     The  manifestation  of  i^Aa/Vai;«  a  terrific  formof^/ra, 

3'A  The  manifestation  of  Tandapani,  A  devotee  paid  homage  to  a 
form  of  Siva,   and  received   favour   from  so  doing. 

33.     The  magnificence  of  Crt.vi,  declared  to  Agastya,  by  Subrahmanya. 

31.  The  beatification  of  Calavati.  The  legend  of  a  woman,  who 
took  permission  from  her  husband  to  quit  domestic  life;  and,  going 
to  Benares,   acquired  beatification. 

35.  The  declaration  of  household  order.  This  section  relates  to  the 
duties  of  those  not  devoted  to  an  ascetic  life,  or  the  Grihasthas. 

36.  The  duties  of  the  order  o( Brahma  chart  or  religious  novice. 

37.  The  excellencies  of  the  female  sex  :  a  eulogy  of  their  perfec- 
tions. 

33.     The  duties  and  deportment  of  the  Brahmanical  order. 

39.  The  duties  of  alms  giving,  by  householders. 

40.  The  deportment  of  6au'a-ascetics  :  rules  as  to  their  diet,  and 
general  conduct. 

41.  The  knowledge  of  fatal  in<lications.  Certain  signs  are  specified, 
by  which  a  person  may  know   the   near  approach  of  death.     In  such 


*  In  this  extensive  celestial  tour,  the  narration  of  which  occupies  from  section 
V  to  24  there  is  a  sort  of  wild  sublimity  ;  upon  the  whole  very  superior  to  some  pue- 
rilities of  nyron  ;  written,  it  may  be  conjectured,  under  like  inspirations.  See  his 
Cain. 

+  See  Wilson's  Sans.  Diet.  1st  edition,  page  796,  or  2d  edition  page  735  for  ths 
derivation  of  the  name.  The  above  passage  would  seem  to  indicate  a  different  one. 


316  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  MamueripU.  [April 

cases,  in    whatever  place  he  may  be,  he  is  recommended  to  repair  to 
Benares,  that  he  may  thereby  attain  beatification. 

42.  Account  of  Abimuteaam,    This  person  by  great  devoteeism  to 
Siva,  obtained  much  approbation,  and  many  secular  advantages. 

43.  The  story  of  Tilotattan  ;  in  subject,  resembling  the  preceding. 

44.  The  m.i^iiificence  uf  C<i«i,  a<^in  declared. 

45.  The  visit  of  ascetics  ioCa^i  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  beatifi- 
cation. 

4'}  to  51.  Legends  of  individual  devotees,  at  Cmi, 

52.     Account  of  Brahma's  sacrifice. 

53  to  57.     Visits  of  deities  to  Cast. 

58  to  85.  Legends  of  individuals,  and  formation  of  images,  bearing 
some  of  their  names. 

86.    The  sacrifice  of  Dacsha. 

89.     The  same  subject  continued. 

89  to 9!).     Different  legends  of  individuals. 

100.  A  brief  repetition  or  summary  ;  and  description  of  the  homage 
paid  to  the  emblem  oiSiva, 

Hemark, — From  this  very  brief  indication  the  prevailing  inanity,  and 
wiliness,  of  the  work  may  be  inferred.  The  SVhala  puranaSf  or  local  le- 
gends, of  most  of  the  distinguished  Hindu-fdues,  are  drawn  up  generally 
on  the  same  model.  The  bearing  of  such  documents  on  the  explanation 
of  manners,  and  mythlogy,  is  very  important.  As  to  history  there  is,  I 
conceive,  nothing  in  this  document  of  any  value. 

Note. — The  manuscript  is  of  comparatively  recent  hand-writing  ;  re- 
maining fresh  and  uninjured.  It  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p. 
166.  Art.  X. 

The  following  are  Tamil  versions  from  the  great  epic  poem  the  Ramd* 
yana. 


2.     Ramayajia,  No.  1.— Countermark  I. 

This  m  in uscript  contains  a  copy  of  C amhan^ s  Ramayanamj  ^osun  io 
the  end  of  tlie  fifth  Candaniy  or  book  ;  and  by  consequence  including  the 
Bala — Ayddhya-^Aranya — KiMinda  and  »yM;*(/ara-books,  or  Cdndams. 
So  far  the  work  is  complete;  and  so  very  slightly  injured  that  it  may  be 
considered  to  be  in  good  state  of  preservation.  It  is  entered  in  Des. 
Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  163.  Art.  I. 


3,     Yuddha  Candanif  No.  2. — Countermark  2. 


1839]  Itepod't  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  317 

This  manuscript,  which  is  equal  in  size  to  the  foregoing  one,  contains 
the  sixth  book  in  continuation  of  the  preceding,  narrating  tlie  war  wiib 
B6vana,  It  is  also  in  good  preservation.  With  this  book,  strictly 
speakmg,  the  work  of  Camban  concludes.  It  differs,  in  some  minor  par- 
ticulars, from  the  Sanscrit  poem  by  Vdlmica, 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  I.  p.  164.  Art.  IV. 

/?c»irtr^.— The  Uttara  Candam  or  supplement  is  wanting  in  the  above 
copy.  That  supplement  relates  to  the  ancestry  and  family  relatives  of 
Jtdcana,  Tradition  ascribes  its  authorship  to  Otta  Cuttan  ;  but  adds 
that  Camban  approved  it,  and  incorporated  it  within  his  own  work  ;  an 
addition  which  seems  doubtful. 


4.  Aranyaf  Candam^  and  Kishkinda  Cdndam  or  3d  and  4th  sections 
of  the  Ramdyana,  No.  4. — Countermark  2, 

In  this  copy  the  Ist  leaf,  the  49th  and  a  few  leaves  at  the  end,  are 
wanting.  The  M.S.  is  very  old,  and  much  worn  away  at  the  edges  ; 
having  also  one  or  two  leaves  broken ;  but  it  is  untouched  by  insects. 
The  necessity  of  restoration  is  obviated  by  the  existence  of  a  complete 
copy  in  No.  I. 

This  manus'-ript  seems  to  be  part  of  one  uniform  ropy,  together  with 
the  two  following  portions,  which  in  every  respe^-t  resemble  it,  in  exter- 
nal appearance,  in  age,  and  in  tho  hand-'writing.  Such  being  the  case  the 
copy  wants  the  two  first  sections,  or  the  Bdiaj  and  Jyddhya  Cdndamt, 

5.  Sundara — Cdndam^  No.  5.— Countermark  3. 

The  copy  is  complete  ;  the  leaves  are  a  little  injured,  the  M.S.  being 
very  old,  but  not  to  any  serious  extent. 

Consequent  on  the  above  remark,  the  sixth  section,  or  Yuddha  Cdw 
dam,  is  wanting. 


6.     Uttara  Candam^  No,  3.— Countermark  5, 

This   copy  is  complete;  very  old  ;  and  only  slightly  injured. 

That  this  copy  belongs  to  the  preceding  second  series,  is  determined  by 
*ts  appearance,  and  general  characteristics,  which  forbid  its  being  consi- 
dered as  a  supplement  to  Nos.  1  and  2.  However  being  taken  with  1  and 
2,  it  forms  a  complete  copy  of  the  entire  work  ;  and  one  copy  completef 
as  to  matter,  I  deem  sufficient  for  the  collection. 


311 


,  pitise 


„,„„„<.««-"»•"•''' 


7.    »"*'""""  ..„..W« 

\ieve,  ("^ '"^  .       u  \*  pr'"*'"'"  .    „  1G5.     Art-'*-  - 


^' ,,i„,dtk«" 

llu    colli'"  , 

'  i,iit  it  >"  "  ,        ;.i  .-iiiU'iue- 


18^^)9.}  n*port  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuscripU.  Z\9 

However  apparently  it  belongs  not  properly  to  the  Mackenzie  col- 
lection.   It  lias  nutliing  wlialevcr  of  tlie  outward  adorning  bestowed  on 
liie  Mackenzie  palm-leaf  MSS.  is  of  the  plainest  possible  appearance, 
ha^  no  label  or  number  ;  and  none  of  the  usual  marks  of  having  passed 
t/i  rough  the  hands  of  Prof.  Wilson  ;  only  the  name  Bamdt/ana  in  Tamil 
^^tt^Ts  written  in  ink,  on  one  of  the  boards.    Hence  I  look  upon  it  as  a 
"^-^S.  more  recently  introduced  to  the  collection,  by  whomi  or  for  what 
P«-*  •"pose,  cannot  be  slated. 

*^he  following  manuscripts  are  Tamil  versions  from  the  Mahdbharafa, 

O.    Subhii'parva  the  second  book  of  the  Bharatam^  No.  4G— Couii* 
^*^  i^iuark  7. 

10,    Another  copy,  No.  47— Counterir.ark  7. 

Both  of  these  manuscripts  contain  an  inferior  version  of  the  abore 
Mentioned  pcrtion  of  the  Mahabharata,  It  is  said  to  have  been  a  pro- 
duction of  one  Ni  njai,  u  Bi  oilman  woman,  and  to  be  known  familiarly 
by  ihe  name  o{  Navga  pdltu  (or  the  chant  of  Navgai),  The  versifica- 
tion :s  plain,  and  of  common  order,  adapted  to  the  comprehension,  and 
pronunciation  of  women,  and  occasionally  is  sung  about  the  streets  iu 
balhid  stvlc. 

The  first  of  the  two  copies  is  in  regular  and  gooJ  order,  and  complete : 
the  other  copy  is  damaged  and  \try  imperfect,  at  the  begining,  but 
being  part  of  the  same  work  the  damuge  is  of  no  consequence. 

Whut  remains  proceeds  as  far  as  to  the  sojourn  of  the  Pdndavat  in 
the  wilderness;  and  thenceforward  is  what  is  termed  Pulantaran  dutu,  be- 
ing an  account  of  the  sending  of  a  son  of  Arjuna  to  the  household  of 
DurifOd/iana,  and  his  deportment  there.  The  former  part  seems  to  be 
only  introductory  to  this  latter  portion,  which  latter  portion  is  com- 
plete. By  consequence  this  manuscript  is  improperly  entitled  Sdbha- 
parva  ;  being  a  work  dilTcring  from  the  Lhdraiam, 


11.     UJjofja'parvat  No.  ^IS — Countermaik  48. 

This  book  contains  not  only  the  whole  of  the  above  mentioned  sec* 
lion  of  the  Tamil  B/idratam,  but  also  a  portion  of  the  Fuddha'parvap 
«lown  to  the  seventeenth  day^J  comb  ;t.     It  has  the  appearance  of  age  ; 


320  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [April 

but  is  in  extremely  good  preservation.  It  is  part  of  a  version  by  ViU- 
puttur-dluvdri  and  is  commonly  termed  Jluvhr  pddal ;  which  version  is 
esteemed  the  best  of  three  others  by  Hindu  poets.  The  inferior  ver- 
sions are  by  Nala-pHlai,  and  by  Bangha-ndtkapuluvan,  This  copy, 
it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  is  in  elegant  Tamil  verse. 


12.     Yuddha-parva,  No.  49— Countermark  6. 

This  manuscript  contains  the  whole  of  the  above  mentioned  section 
of  the  Bhdrata,  in  an  inferior  kind  of  versification,  by  an  obscure  or 
unknown  author.  It  is  supposed  to  be  part  of  a  version  made  by  some 
one  of  the  Paria  tribe,  who  are  reported  to  have  such  a  version  among 
themselves. 

One-half  only  of  the  book  contains  the  said  section.  The  other  half 
is  a  portion  of  some  work  on  medicine,  by  whom  written  is  unknown. 
It  is  not  complete  either  at  the  beginning,  or  end  ;  and  is  damaged,  by 
the  edges  of  some  leaves  being  broken  oflT. 

KoTB. — Six  portions  of  the  Mahabharata  are  entered  in  the  Des. 
Cat.  vol.  1,  p.  165,  ark.  vii.  I  do  not  find  more  than  four  MSS.  now  re- 
maining. 


12.  Hanumanta'patiu  a  chant  in  praise  of  Hanuman^  No.  204 — Coun* 
termark  182. 

This  is  a  book,  very  small  in  size,  and  brief  as  to  contents.  It  con- 
tains ten  stanzas,  as  a  eulogy  of  Hanvman^  for  the  assistance  rendered 
to  Aama  in  the  war  against  Zanca.  The  eight  diminutive  leaves  on 
which  the  book  is  written  are  much  damaged  by  insects. 

There  is  an  appendix  of  eight  similar  leaves,  of  which  only  four  are 
written  on  ;  the  contents  being  an  unfinished  poem  in  praise  of  a  local 
goddess,  termed  Periya^nayaki-amman,  in  good  preservation. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  228,  art.  lii. 


13.    Trincomalee  .yrAa^aTJ/irflWflrw?,  or  legend  of  the  fane  at  Trinco- 
malee  Nos.  17  and  18. — Countermark,  !25  and  26. 

It  is  termed  Arndchella  puranam  in  the  manuscripts. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  32| 

It  contain  12  Sargams  or  sections.  A  brief  abstract  is  here  offered. 

1.  The  first  Sarga  has  the  usual  invocations  and  eulogies,  and  an- 
nounces the  name  of  the  writer  or  author,  that  \^  Yellapa-Vddhyar  of 
the  Saica  class,  who  states  that  he  translates  into  Tamil,  from  the  San- 
scrit original  by  Vyasa,  It  was  originally  delivered  by  Nandi  to  Mdr- 
candeya,  by  Mdrcandeya  to  Fyasa,  by  hiin  to  Suta,  and  by  Suta  to  the 
riiih':s  of  the  Na'mi^ara  wilderness. 

2.  This  section  contains  the  legend  on  which  the  distinctive  name  of 
Amache'lam  is  founded.  Siva  appeared  as  a  fiery  mountain,  and  to 
settle  a  dispute  between  Brahma  and  Vishnu^  as  to  which  was  the 
greatest  of  the  two,  they  agreed  to  try  if  they  could,  to  discover  either 
the  foundation  or  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  Brahma^  assuming  the 
shape  of  a  goose  or  swan,  flew  upwards,  and  Vishnu^  in  the  form  of  a 
boar,  dived  downwards.  The  latter  returned  and  stated  that  he  had  not 
succeeded  in  discovering  the  foundation,  but  Brahma  came  back  and 
said  he  had  seen  the  summit,  bringing  a  flower*  suborned  to  bear  false 
witness.  Siva  in  consequence  doomed  Brihma  to  be  without  fanes  or 
worshippers,  for  his  falsehood,  and  declared  Vishnu  to  be  superior  to 
Brahma^  though  confessedly  inferior  to  himself. 

3.  This  section  in  the  commencement  narrates  Dacsha^s  abuse  of 
Siva;  the  sacrifice  of  Dac*Aa  to  which  his  daughter  the  wife  of  Siva 
desired  to  go,  and  going  perished  ;  in  consequence  Siva  (it  is  here  said) 
produced  Vira-Bhadra  from  his  frontlet  eye,  who  went  and  destroyed 
the  sacrifice  returning  afterwards  to  CaVasa,  Subsequently,  while  Siva 
was  performing  severe  penance,  one  Sura-padma^  an  asura^  acquired  so 
much  power  as  to  trouble  both  gods  and  men.  Complaint  being  made  to 
Brahma,  he  announced  the  future  marriage  of  Siva  with  Parvati,  and 
also  the  birth  of  Suhrahmanya  by  whom  the  asuras  would  be  destroyed. 
Indra  sent  Manmathi  to  destroy  the  penance  of  Si va^  and  Siva  opening 
his  frontlet  eye  reduced  the  assailant  to  ashes.  Subsequently  Siva  re- 
lumed to  CailasOf  where  the  celestials  represented  to  him  the  expedi- 
ency of  marrying  Itvari  the  daughter  of  Parvata-rayen  (or  the  mountain 
king)  to  whioh  he  consented,  and  the  marriage  was  conducted  with 
the  customary  state  and  splendour.  At  the  prayer  of  Retij  ^i&a  pardoned 
Manmatha,  who  came  and  paid  homage  without  any  visible  form,  in 
consequence  of  his  body  having  been  turned  to  ashes.  The  oppression 
exercised  by  Sura-padma  being  stated  to  Siva  he  produced  six  fires  from 
bis  frontlet  eye,  by  the  union  of  which  Suhrahmanya  with  six  faces  was 

•  The  K^taki,  or  Pandanus  odoratissimus  :  vrhich,  partaking  of  the  cune,  is  never 
used  by  the  Hindus  in  honouring  the  gods.— Editor. 


born.    lie  foaght  with  and  conqoerfd   the  mturas  acd  Lv.icz   >vre  »: 
reUinifd  to  CmHtui, 

4.  After  the  manijige  ceremoDT  wis  orer  PmrraSi  mskri  .9'r«  «l  r*: 
were  the  tun  and  the  moon;  he  replied  lh»r  were  Lis  two  eye* ;  wbcre- 
nptw  /*«rrfl/i  shaded  both  eyes  with  her  LacJs:  ih*  con<-q  *cc.-e  ^ks 
muTeml  darkcees  orer  the  world  ;  an-J  ill  bein  ;*  l.-st  the  u>?  cf  ttci: 
ejes.  5ira  incensed  opeoe  J  his  f.-ootlet  rre,  :.:.;  d^^ija^ed  :he  il.r**.- 
ii«««.  Partnli  was  deemed  to  do  p?LaQce  oa  e;*r:!!,  ^l.icj  si:?  -ii  *  i:n  i-:: 
a  mango-tree  at  Canjercmm,  acd  there  ere  re  i  a  s:cr.i!  ii.-^e  c  f  i?.--:!  . 
She  snbs^qiifDtlj  went  on  a  \isii  to  Jmac\tlcm.  an  !  ilttk^r  Ccutama 
the  r«#'/%  and  others,  inclusiTC  otSica  hiaisrlT,  i  Iv^  ciiii^. 

5.  Thi«  seett',^  in  the  coxaaence aic.it  relat'.'s  to  M  'yjdi.%i'rc  vi.c 
io  a  fencer  birth,  f:r  a  fault  committed,  «  uS  cen  •  ran*^]  to  Le  Lon:  5>  i 
buffdlo.  Acquiring  great  iiomcr /jrr ?r«  set. t  for  Z>iir  a  t»  ga  ai;J  Li.i 
him.  A  toir.bat  look  place  in  wLi:h  Maya^avjira*  was  slain.  An 
emblem  cf  Sitm,  arose  cut  of  his  remain?.  Sub»e:;u^n:!v  ^'ra  r.  nic  to 
Afndchil'am  on  his  buUojk  Tehicle,  an  1  lh?re  inr^ij-v/ra^-d  J*iari  i.-lo 
Lis  ov.n  form,  so  that  en  the  right  side  th?  foni:  wf  67ra  wa*  pr-?<oi:t.' J, 
acd  on  the  left  side  tb;&t  of  Parta'.h 

C  Thu  eeciion  coc'aics  the  story  of  Varanrc  Panuifcn,  an  ob-^t:aot 
of  which  was  before  given,  from  a  copy  of  this  Sarga  in  a  i::L:nusv  rij:  t 
book.    See  :^d  Report  A.  Tamil  M.S.  back.  No.  20  sectiun  5. 

7.  Notice  of  the /j>/*A<w,  or  sacred  jiocls.  A  Z?.-a'/ wo  ■«  spnio^jfrcm 
the  perspiration  of  Gautama  ruhi,  at  Arnache^'am.  He  became  hicro- 
phant  to  the  fane.  Seven  females  wers  bom  from  sfven  blades  of 
DarVha  grass,  who  became  danscu$ei  to  tlie  go<l.  To  the  tast  of  the 
lane  is  the /flrfra-pool.  India  bathed  therein  :  by  doing  so  lomoved 
his  former  defect;  and  obtained  pra'^perity,  to-Ci.isicnt  wiih  the  sun  ;;iid 
moon.  To  the  south-ca^t  is  the -4^i-pool.  If  any  one  bathe  therein  at 
the  full  moon  in  Panquni  (March-April)  the  doing  so  will  remove  the 
crime  of  infanticide.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  the  raOTa-iool.  If  ury 
one  l^lhc  therein  the  body  will  be  healed  of  disease,  and  a  golden 
coloured  form  acquired.  Also  ui  the  fool  of  the  hill  is  the  A'ain/i-pool  ; 
all  sinsare  removed  by  bathing  therein.  On  the  west  of  the  hill  is  the 
Farvfia-pool.  By  bathing  in  it,  the  advantages  bestowed  by  the  nine 
phinett  are  acquired.  Beyond  is  the  rii^m-pool;  by  bathing  in  it  all 
sorrows  depart.  On  the  north  side  is  the  Cu o^a-pool  ;  by  bathing  in 
which  poverty  is  removed,  and  weaUh  acquired.  Near  to  it,  towards 
the  cast,  is  the  pool  formed  by  th 3  two  Jutinis.    If  any  one  bathe  in 

•  The  tuuia,  'j;llju«  cb-'s  lia<l  facts  likt;  LuA'alvc«. 


1339.]  Report  on  t\c  Macle'n'>€  iJanvsrripts^  323 

if,  he  Mill  approach  the  feot  of  Paramhrnrer  (or  obtain  beatification) 
afler  death.     To  the  oast  of  the  before  mentioned  J^awa-pool  is  the  pool 
fiiAgastya.    Those  nho  bithe  in  it  will  acquire  Sarasvali  and  Laothmi 
(intellectual  skill  and  outward  abuudanoc).     There    is  also  the  pool  of 
VatUh'a.    If  any  one  bathe   therein   in -*^/7>7>i  month  (September-Octo- 
ber) he  will  acquire  all  the  learning  of  the  age.     Tiierc  are  besides,  says 
the  Purana,  many  other  tirt'has,  the  merits  of  which  cannot   be   told. 
To  the  north  of  the  hill  is  a    river,   Nri  nadi,   the  effect   of  bathing  in 
which  is  to  cause  Laahmiio  dwell  wiih    Vishnu   (or  to   produce  order 
and  plenty).     Other  rivers  are  mentioned,  which  remove  crimes.     Be- 
bides  there  is  the  Pumja-nxQx  (vid^O  Ponniar).    A  certain  king  bathed 
in  it,  and  changed  an  efleminale   to  a  masculine  form.     Tl:c    Cheijar 
derives  its  name  from   a  weapon  of  Subrahmimija,  the  velf  which  he 
dropped  into  it,  and  recalled.    There  is  within  the  fane  oi  Triiiomali, 
the  pool  o(  Siva,     If  any  one  daily    think  on  it,   all  kinds  of  crime  will 
be  removed.     To  the  east  of  it  is  the   Chayi-a   reservoir.     During  the 
Varaha'avataram  Maha  Vitthnu  bathed  therein,  and  by  doing   so  acquir- 
ed all  the  glorv' connected  with   the  high  oflice  of    Fishnu.      All   who 
bathe  in  it  will  obtain  health.     Finally  there  is  the  pool  of  Brahma.   By 
bathing  therein,  all  the  evils  thnt  float  in  the  sea  of  this  life  w  ill  be  re- 
moved, and  eternal  happiness  acquired.     If  any  one  on  its  bank  give  a 
bit  of  gold,  however  small,  he  will  acquire  possession  of  all  that  is  en- 
closed within  the  seven  seas  surrounding   the   world.     If  a  cow  be  f^o 
given,  the  merit  of  the  gift  is  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  describe.    If 
any  one  so  give  a  white  cow,  sujh  a  one   will  asciend  to  CaiVa^a,  on  a 
white  (or  silver)  vehicle,  and  be  praised  by   all  the   residents  there.  If 
any  one  give  a  mirriage  dower  on  its  bank,  such  a  one  will  visit  the 
Satya-lcca  (world  of  Brahma)  ;    and  afterwards    permanently  obtain  to 
the  paradise  ofSiva.     If  any  ona  give  a  donation  of  hmd,  the  reward  is 
loo  great  to  be  described.     If  any  persons  cause  a  pond,  or  well,  to  be 
dug  at  Arnachellam^  they  will  acquire  tha  prosperity  of  Indra,  Further, 
on  the  place  of  sacrifice  there  being  a  little  dust,  a  crow  flying  by  swept 
off  the  said  dust  by  the  concussion  of  air  from  its  wings,  and  Siva,   in 
return  for  the  unintentional  service,  gave  the  crow  beatifleation.  Besides 
a  large  kind  of  rat  (bandicoot),  from  dt^lving  in  tha  ground,  cast  up  a 
jewel  (^»ian/ry«wi J  before  the  shrine;  and  the  god,  saying  it  had  sup- 
plied him  with  a  light,  gave  a  gracious  reward.  A  sj)ider  spinning  a  web 
in  the  shrine,  the  god  was  rejoiced   in  being  suj)plied   with  a  garment, 
and  caused  the  spider  in  the  fir^  t  pi  ice  to  be  born  a  king,  and  afterwards 
to  be  beatified.    Such,  says  Suta  to  the  rmhtft,  is  the  glory  of  the   fane  of 
Arnachcllum, 


32i  Report  on  the  Muchenzie  Manuscripts,  [April 

8.  This  section  specifies  the  rewards  consequent  to  walking  round  the 
hill,  and  to  b^itbing  on  certain  days  of  the  week.  For  example,  to  walk 
three  steps  when  circumgyrating  the  hill  is  equal  in  merit  to  the  perform- 
ance of  an  af  rawed' hiji  sacrifice.  To  bathe  on  Sunday,  secures  the  bliss  of 
Paremesvarer  ;  on  Monday,  secures  not  only  equal  power  to  that  of  Jndra 
over  the  seven  worlds,  but  also  a  form  like  that  of  Siva  ;  on  Tuesday, 
removes  poverty,  secures  wealth  here,  and  beatitude  hereafter  ;  on  Wed- 
nesday will  give  the  power  of  acquiring  all  magical  knowledge  and  se- 
cures beatification;  on  Thursday  will  give  the  privilege  of  becoming 
gurut  or  spiritual  preceptor,  to  the  Trimurti  or  Hindu  Triad  ;  on  Fri- 
day will  secure  the  beatification  of  Fishnu*s  world  ;  on  Saturday  will  se- 
cure perfect  happiness,  and  is  equal  to  the  merit  of  bathing  on  the  night 
of  Siva,  at  the  new-year,  and  in  the  months  of  Arpisi,  Carticeya  and 
Margali  (or  Octobf*r,  November  and  December).  The  contents  of  this 
section  were  narrated  by  Brahma  to  Sanaca^  the  great  sage. 

9.  Brahma  to  Sanaea  in  continuation,  declares  the  extreme  penalties 
incurred  by  those  who  presume  to  say  any  thing  against  the  shrine  of 
Arnachellam^  involving  death,  seizure  by  Yamd*t  messengers  and  severe 
punishment  in  Naracs,  or  the  lowest  hell.  Brakma  continues  stating 
that  the  thousand- rayed  sun,  coming  rudely  with  his  horses  and  chariot, 
to  the  point,  or  peak,  of  the  hill,  was  reproved  by  him  (Brahma)  and 
told  to  go  and  pay  obeisance  to  the  lord  of  the  shrine.  The  sun  paid 
homage,  which  was  accepted,  and  he  now  uniformly  passes  to  the  left 
(north)  side  of  the  hill. 

10.  The  legend  of  Praditya-raja,  Brahma  tells  Sanaea  the  extreme 
punishment  incurred  by  those  who  presume  to  steal  anything  from  the 
shrine  of  AmacheUam,  being  seizure  by  Yama'i  agents,  and  consequences, 
as  in  the  last  section.  An  example  is  given  in  tlie  case  of  Pradatya-roja, 
who  came  from  the  north,and  coveted  a  part  of  the  possessions  of  the  fane, 
for  which  his  fece  was  turned  into  that  of  ababoon,  and  on  seeking  pardon 
for  the  fault,  his  proper  coimtenance  was  restored ;  by  consequence  no  one 
can  with  impunity  covet  the  possessions  of  this  shrine. — See  a  fuller  ab- 
stract of  the  contents  of  this  section  2d  Report  Tamil  MS.  book  No.  20. 
section  4. 

11.  This  section  relates  to  the  removal  of  crimes.  Brahma  tells  Sanaea 
that  the  eight  yatus  (or  leaders  of  celestial  hosts)  becoming  vain  and 
proud  of  the  merit  of  their  penances,  and  performances,  boasted  of  the 
same  in  the  presence  of  Aya»tyar,  who  denounced  on  them  loss  and  de- 
gradation. To  recover  their  former  situation  they  were  directed  to  go  and 
do  homage  at  AmacMlam.  Accordingly  the  eight  Fosum  did  homage, 
at  the  eight  points  of  the  compass,  and  were  restored.    Other  crimes 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manincr-ptt,  325 

smong  celestials  are  specified,  as  removed  at  this  shrine.  Among  them 
Chandra  (or  the  moon)  committed  a  fault  in  reference  to  Hohinx  and  was 
punished  by  Dactha,  but  the  punishmi^nt  was  removed  by  paying 
homage  here.  ' 

12.  This  section  relates  to  Pulacaiipa,  an  asura,  who  provided  the 
perfume  of  civet  for  the  shrine,  and  acquired  great  merit  for  so  doing. 
Since  then  civet-cats  are  kept,  ard  the  reward  of  offering  ihat  yer- 
fume  is  very  great.  A  recapilulation  of  the  transit  of  the  contents  of 
ihe  Purana,  down  to  its  latest  delivery  to  the  rishis^  with  the  men- 
tion of  which  the  book  ends. 

Note. — The  MS.  No.  27  is  complete.  It  is  old  and  somewhat  da- 
maged by  insects.  The  MS.  No.  18  is  fresher  in  appearance;  but 
also  a  little  damaged.  The  damaged  leaves  in  this  copy  I  have  had 
restored  by  the  aid  of  both  copies,  and  one  being  complete  may  suf- 
iice.  Both  MSS.  are  in  verse  with  a  prose  explanation.  They  are  en- 
tered in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  168   art.  xvii. 

Remark.— If  the  reader  shall  have  perused  the  foregoing  abstract* 
it  will  be  only  necessary  further  to  observe,  that  in  Saiva  fanes  of  the 
Peninsula,  to  local  Purdnam,  and  not  the  Fedat  gives  the  religion 
of  the  votaries. 


1 4.     Dandi  Jianearam,  or  the  rhetoric  of  Dandi,  No.  63 — Countermark 

In  this  book  there  are  two  copies  tied  up  together.  The  first  copy 
contains  the  mulam,  or  original  poetical  stanzas  of  Dattdi,  together 
with  exemplifications  or  examples,  and  is  complete.  The  second  copy 
contains  the  original  sutras  together  with  the  urai  or  commentary,  in 
verBc,  by  some  other  unknown  author;  added  to  which  are  the  exempH- 
lications.  This  last  copy  wants  a  few  leaves  at  the  end  of  the  com- 
mentary. The  book  is  a  little  injured  in  one  or  two  places,  by  insects ; 
but  not  seriously.    The  work  is  not  scarce. 

Dandi  next  to  Calidasa,  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  celebrated 
poet  at  the  court  of  Bhoja-raja,  He  has  the  traditionary  reputation,  in 
the  Peninsula,  of  having  been  Ubaiya-cavi,  or  a  poet  in  two  languages* 
the  Sanscrit,  and  the  Tamil.  The  above  work  is  on  thirty-five  kinds 
of  poetical,  or  rhetorical,  ornament ;  and,  with  reference  to  the  Tamil 
art  of  poetry,  the  work  is  considered  to  be  valuable. 


526  Report  on  the  Mcikaizie  Mamucnpts.  [Apbil 

This  book  is  briefly  enlercd  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  252,  art.  vi. 


1 5.  Jata-.a  Kerah  alancaram,  a  treatise  on  astrology  No.  C9— Coun- 
termark 233. 

This  manuscript  is  a  poem  of  one-bundred  palin-leaves;  probably 
written  according  to  the  notions  of  astrological  science  prevailing  in  the 
Keraladesarrit  or  Mahi/a^am  conniry.  It  has  a  great  variety  of  details 
on  different  circuinslancos,  occurring  in  the  course  of  life  ;  respecting 
wliicb  m mkind  have  usually  been  found  to  have  an  anxious  eye  direct- 
ed towards  the  future.  A  full  detail,  as  to  native  ideas  on  astrology,  is 
quite  requisite  to  a  knowledge  of  their  manners,  or  motives,  or  guiding 
principles. 

Astrology  is  inseparable  from  their  mythology,  and  both,  to  an  amaz- 
ing degree,  inHuence  the  couJuct  of  a  Hindu,  Both  tie  him  fast  under 
Brahmanicarascendaiicy.  An  exposition  of  Hindu  astrology,  by  a  ver- 
bal translation  of  recoi^nized  systems,  seems  to  me  d?3irab!e.  It  would 
be  a  more  than  usually  ditRcult  work,  and  might  require  the  undivided 
attention  of  someone  individual,  for  some  length  of  time.  Without  a 
knowledge  of  the  local  mythology,  and  the  received  astrology  of  any 
portion  of  our  Hindu  fellow  subjects  aud  fellow  men,  it  seems  to  lae 
that  legislators,  and  religious  teachers,  must  equally  labour  in  uncertain 
twilight,  without  a  clear  discernment  of  the  subject  on  which  they  ope- 
rate. 

NoTC. — The  book  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  255,  art.  vi. 


IJ.  A'jrytt.sa4/r«,  or  the  art  of  building  a:i.!  n>ivigatinj  vessels,  \o. 
73 — Countermark  259. 

Some  directions  are  given  respecting  the  materials,  aud  dimensiou5, 
of  vessels.  But  the  work  is  chiefly  astrological ;  in  matters  relatlo<r  to 
proguosti valions  conccruiiig  navigation.  At  ihc  close  there  is  a  leaf  or 
two  on  tlie  roja-tjojam  :  children  bom  under  that  astrological  sign  will 
acquire  xQry  groat  success,  and  prosperity. 

Rlaivrs.— Soven  I  avos  of  this  tract  were  rcVovoreJ  from  MS.  No. 
97,  an  !  b  »ing  added  to  tlie  b.»ginning  of  this  d.>cumc'nt  render  it  now 
caiaplvne.  h  is  aUj  in  tolerably  good  orler,  and  written  in  a  very  legi- 
ble h;ial.     It  se^'ius  to  be  a  work  of  som^irhut  an-*:eat  composition. 


IB39«]  Report 'on  the  Mackenzie  Manuseripti.  327 

The  Sutrae  are  without  commentary. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  261,  art.  ii. 


17.    Rangha  Calampacamt  or  incense  to  Vishnu,  No.  144— Counter- 
mark 167. 


X  8.    The  same  (duplicate)  No.  145— Countermark  203. 

Tl'his  is  a  poem  of  one-hundred  stanzas,  in  praise  of  Rangha,  a  name 
®^  ^t'MiiMat  iSrt-raii^/iaifi  and  other  places.  The  word  which  I  hav^ 
'^'^vi&dered  **  incense"  signifies  more  properly  a  mixture  of  odoriferous 
P^^umes,  of  which  I  need  not  extract  the  quintessence.  It  is  also 
^  '^^chnical  name  of  one  class  of  Tamil  Prahandhaa,  as*containing  a  mix- 
^*^«"eof  various  poetical  measures.  The  first  manuscript  is  perfect  and 
^^Vlojared,  the  second  copy  is  somewhat  damaged  by  insects,  and  will 
'^'^c^aire  to  be  looked  at  occasionally,  though  its  restoration  is  not  imme* 
*^**tely  urgent;  it  is  otherwise  complete. 

One  copy  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  225,   art.  xxxix;  but 
^'ifhout  any  mention  of  a  duplicate  ;  both  MSS.  bear  the  usual  marks. 


19.    Siva-vacya-padal,  or  the  chant  by  Stva-vacjfar,  No.   132 — Coun- 
termark 132. 

This  is  a  didactic  moral  poem,  characterized  chiefly  by  its  monotheis* 
Ucal  purport.  It  is  very  severe  on  idol  worship,  and  on  various  abuses 
Connected  with  the  common  Brahmanical  system  ;  maintaining  the  ne- 
Ccasity  of  rejecting  the  names  of  »%a  and  Vishnu,  and  worshipping  one 
Only  god.  Hence  it  has  always  been  made  great  use  of  by  native 
Christians  in  disputing  with  Hindu  natives.  I  was  told  some  years  ago 
that  the(i.»c<f/tM  (or  Pandarams)  of  the  Saica  class,  seek  after  copies  of 
this  poem  with  avidity,  and  uniformly  destroy  every  copy  they  find.  It 
is  by  consequence  rather  scarce  j  and  chiefly  preserved  by  native  Chris, 
tians. 

This  copy  is  complete,  as  to  the  No.  of  palm-leaves,  but  very  much  in- 
jured by  insects.  Collating  it  with  a  copy  heretofore  belonging  to  the 
late  Dr.  Rottler,  now  in  my  possession,  I  have  had  one  good  copy 

carefully  restored. 


328  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [Apkil 

NoTE.«»It  18  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.   2*25,  art.  xxxvii,  as  con- 
taining "stanzas  in  praise  of  Siva  as  the  only  supreme  or  Parsmeivara." 


'20.    Nahadipadwuraif  No.  99 — Counterniark  208. 


2).    The  same  work,  No.  100 — Countermark  209. 

These  two  manuscripts  are  copies  of  a  moral  work,  the  contents  of 
which  relate  to  the  duties  proper  to  various  ages  of  life,  particularly 
those  of  penance  and  alms-giving,  on  which  latter  subject  there  is  much 
said,  and  much  on  the  use,  and  abuse,  of  riches.  Certain  evils  and 
crimes,  are  denounced  as  leading  to  future  punishment  in  Nmraca,  The 
work  is  of  superior  composition  in  quatrains  ;  and  as  each  line  is  term- 
ed in  Tamil  poetry  a  foot,  hence  seemingly  came  the  title  of  Naladiyar, 
by  which  it  is  popularly,  and  respectfully,  denoted  that  is  **  the  respect- 
able four  lined  one.'* 

It  is  ascribed  as  regards  authorship  to  the  Samanar  {Bauddkisto^  or 
Jainas),  and  had  the  rare  merit  of  being  spared  by  th*^  bigotted  Brak* 
mans,  when  they  destroyed  all  other  books  of  their  opponents,  by  cast- 
ing them  into  the  Vaigai  river  at  Madura  ;  after  the  triumph  of  the 
Saivas  in  the  reign  of  Kuna  Pandiyan,  The  story  is  that,  whereas  all 
the  other  books  went  down  with  the  stream,  this  one  ascended  /knar 
feoi  against  the  stream,  by  reason  of  which  wonder  it  was  taken  oat 
and  preserved.  This  tale  is  however  merely  symbolical.  A  better 
reason  may  be  its  being  free  from  sectarian  peculiarities,  and  available 
to  the  advantage  of  Brahmanism.  In  the  same  manner  the  Curat 
passed  the  Bra/iman-ordeal,  for  a  similar  reason  ;  but  not  without  a 
symbolical  tale  being  invented  to  give  a  colour  of  reason,  and  to  render 
the  acceptance  of  a  Pariar*s  work  pardonable. 

Remark. — As  a  moral  didactic  work  esteemed  to  possess  high  merit, 
invested  with  the  sanction  of  the  Madura  college  and  being  of  high 
popular  repute,  a  good  translation  of  the  Naladi-pada-urai,  well 
edited,  would  be  an  acquisition  ;  and  I  am  happy  to  learn  that  such  a 
yersion  is  in  progress  in  able  hands.  The  poem  does  not  easily  admit 
•f  being  abstracted  except  in  a  brief  indication.  The  two  copies  are 
complete,  and  in  tolerably  good  prcserxation.  The  first  of  the  two  is 
the  most  recently  written.  They  are  entered  in  the  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i. 
p.  246,  art.  Ixxii. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  MacHnzie  Manuserijft**  329 

22.  Ulaga-nUi,^  treatise  on  morals,  No.  186~Countermark  191. 

This  is  a  very  concise  little  book,  chiefly  consisting  of  brief  prohi- 
bitions agaimt  vices  or  evik  ;  witii  a  few  at  the  close  declarative  or 
hortatory.  It  is  a  school-book  for  children  :  but  in  the  higher  dialect. 
The  authorship  it  ascribed  to  Ulaga-ntWha ;  who,  though  his  name 
signifies  "  lord  of  the  world,"  was  a  man  of  the  barber  tribe.  The 
title  may  be  rendered  either  "  worldly  rectitude*',  or  Uhga*$  Tnatiti 
on  Morals.    The  latter  I  suppose  to  be  the  right  rendering. 

NoTB. — The  manusL-ript  is  fresh,  and  in  good  condition.    It  is  en- 
tered in  the  Des.  Cat  vol.  i.  p.  231,  art.  Ix. 

23.  Adi  Chudi  Fenpa,  No.  174— Countermark  204. 

24.  Another  copy,  No.  17&^Countennark  205. 

These  are  two  copies  of  a  didactically  sententious  and  moral  work, 
used  in  schools,  ascribed  to  Avvai  or  Awalyar ;  a  sister  of  Tiruvalluvar^ 
author  of  the  Cural,  Her  name,  like  his,  is  merely  titular  :  what  may 
have  been  the  proper  name  of  either  is  uncertain.  This  work  was  enti* 
tied  by  the  authoress  Niti-eholf  **  a  word  on  morals,"  or  as  it  may  be 
rendered,  **  a  discourse  on  rectitude  ;"  but  some  later  writer  prefixed 
stanzas  of  invocation  addressed  to  Stvih  or  Ganesat  using  the  words  adi* 
chddi,  at  the  beguining  of  his  panegyric,  whence  the  book  has  improper- 
ly acquired  its  popular  title.  The  alphabetical  order  is  followed,  be- 
ginning each  line  or  sentence  at  first  with  the  vowels,  and  then  with  the 
consonants,  and  syllabic  letters.  Hence  the  two-fold  object  is  subserved 
of  fixing  the  alphabetical  order  in  memory,  and  of  ingrafting,  upon  the 
whole,  useful  precepts.  A  translation  by  Dr.  John,  of  Tranquebar,  was 
inserted  in  the  Asiatic  Researches.  When  the  book  is  used  in  Christian 
schools,  the  spurious  prefix  of  praise  to  false  deities  is  rejected. 

Note. — No.  175  is  complete,  and  makes  rather  a  large  book,  owing 
to  very  little  being  written  on  each  lea£  It  is  injured  by  insects.  No. 
174  in  addition  to  the  Niii'chol,  in  a  compressed  form,  has  prefixed  the 
Tandalvjar-satacam^  a  poem  containing  praise  addressed  to  Siva,  There 
are  86  stanzas  out  of  the  100,  which  form  a  complete  poem  of  this  kind ; 
and  appended  are  some  loose  leaves  seemingly  belonging  to  another  book, 
containing  portions  of  a  Tevaram^  and  Manica»va9acar'padul;  both  Saiva 
works  of  hymnolog}'.    This  copy  is  in  good  preservatioQ. 

Both  copies  are  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  245.  Art.  Ixix. 


830  Rupert  4m  tie  Mackenzie  Manuscript i,  [Apkil 

25.  Cdnrirenian,  No.   170— Countermark  170. 

This  is  another  scbool-book,  by  the  same  authoress,  following  al*o 
the  alphabetical  order  :  hot  with  sent  en  lions  maxims  a  little  longer, 
and  a  little  more  difficalt :  adapted  to  a  child  that  has  gone  through  the 
former  one.  This  book  was  also  called  Nili-choi ;  but  acquired  the 
eommon  term  as  above,  from  a  modern  and  spurious  invocation  to  GoHe' 
ta,  A  translation  of  it  by  Dr.  John  was  printed  in  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches. 

Note. — The  copy  is  complete  in  six  small  palm-leaves,  written  in  a 
rude  and  school  boy's  hand  :  by  consequence  the  measure  of  wisdom 
which  it  contains  is  concentrated. 

It  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  I.  p.  245.  Art  licx. 

26  Cummi-patiu  a  poem,  No.  203 — Coimtermark  158. 

Tlus  is  a  fragment  only  of  a  work  by  Vedanayak  of  Tanjore,  a  Christian 
poet  of  considerable  attainments,  and  eminence.  He  made  extensive 
use  of  Scriptural  subjects,  put  into  a  poetical  form,  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  recite  in  the  public  places  at  Tanjore,  after  the  manner  of 
native  minstrels  ;  Homeric  also,  if  we  may  credit  tradition.  This  work 
be  addressed  to  his  daughter,  as ''  wise"  or  '*  well  taught",  ending  his 
lines  with  that  phrase,  as  many  natives  do  with  the  sort  of  expletive 
amtndmSf  when  addressed  to  some  goddess,  or  lady  of  quality.  In  this 
poem  there  are  severe  strictures  on  idolatry,  and  idolatrous  customs ; 
with  cautionary  prohibitions  against  assimilation  to  them.  From  the 
beginning  forwards  there  are  21  closely  written  palm-leaves  ;  but  much 
afterwards  is  wanting. 

NoTB. — It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  224.  Art  xxxiii,  but  so 
as  to  lead  to  the  inference  of  its  being  an  ethical  production,  mixed  up 
with  astrology. 

27.    DevaTayen-pala-padal  ^o,  190— Countermark  175. 


28.  same  title,  No.  157 — Countermark  176. 

These  two  manuscripts  seem  to  be  parts  of  two  copies  of  the  same 
composition  ;  purporting,  according  to  the  title,  to  be  various  chants  by 
Dmoa'Toyen.  Neither  copy  ii  complete,  and  in  each  one  there  is  trans- 
position, and  confusion.   The  copy  of  one  must  have  been  made  by  a 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mcckenzie  Manuscnpti,  331 

Roman  Catholic  Christian,   indicated  by  an  expression  at  the  begin- 

niog;    and    there  is    one    virutham  or  stanza,  which    declares    the 

unity  of  the  Supreme  Being,   and   the   vanity  of  idols,    in   such  a 

manner,  as  evidently  to    be   the  composition  of  a  Christian.     The 

remainder,  in  both  copies,  as  far  as  complete,  is  a  sort  of  centum  of  verses 

extracted  from  various  authors,  and  without  much  coherence  ;  so  as  ta 

wear  rather  the  appearance  of  such  kind  of  poetical  extracts   as  are 

sometimes  made  in  an  album.    Both  copies  seem  to  me  quite  useless ; 

and  are  allowed  to  remain  as  I  found  them.    They  are  entered  in  the 

Des.  Cat.  vol.  1.  p.  226,  art.  xlvi,  and  are  stated  to  contain  "  praises  of 

Vishnu  and  Sina,  and  especially  of  the  forms  of  the  latter  and  his  spouse 

worshipped  at  Madura,  or  5unfifare^/7ra  wad  Minakshi-AmmaU*    This 

definition  of  the  contents  is  very  incorrect. 

29.  Nannul PadaveyaljTajml  etjrmology — No.  60 — Countermark 211. 


30.    Nanntdf  a  Tamil  grammar— No.  61 — Countermark  212. 

The  first  of  these  manuscripts  (or  No.  60)  is  a  part  of  the  Nannulf 
being  the  chapter  on  etymology  termed  j9(u/it;«^a/,  treating  of  words*  It 
Contains  the  original  suiras,  with  the  comment  of  Sancara-Nama-iivaya 
in  Shen-Tdmi],  and  another  comment,  or  explanation  of  the  comment,  in 
Coc^wn-Tamil,  or  the  commou  dialect.  This  MS.  is  written  on  Talipat 
leaves  (used  in  the  extreme  south)  ;  and  is  in  good  preservation. 

The  other  M.S.  (No.  61)  is  an  imperfect  copy  of  the  same  &moas 
grammatical  work  by  Pavanandi,  abridged  from  the  Tolcapiyamt  as  the 
latter  is  said  to  have  been  abridged  from  a  still  larger  work  of  Agattya, 
The  Nannul  had  three  explanatory  commentators  ;  the  comment  in  this 
MS.  is  that  by  Sancara-Namorgivaya  Pulavan  alone.  The  MS.  is 
however  very  deficient ;  at  the  beginning  it  wants  the  preface,  the  two 
first  chapters,  or  sections,  and  a  small  part  of  the  third  at  its  commence- 
ment. Part  of  the  4th  section,  at  the  end,  is  wanting  ;  and  all  the  re- 
mainder, what  there  is  of  the  contents  is  on  orthography  only.  The 
leaves  of  the  book  are  not  of  equal  size  ;  and  seem  like  fragments  of  two 
books  put  together ;  being  a  fragment  still.  The  leaves  are  of  the  broad 
kind  common  only  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  peninsula.  They  are  in 
tolerably  good  condition. 

NoTB. — The  two  copies  are  entered  in  Des.  Cat  vol.  I,  p.  247,  art.  2. 
— It  will  be  seen  from  what  precedes  that  if  both  MSS.  were  put  to- 
gether they  would  not  form  a  complete  copy  of  the  entire  work. 


332  Report  on  the  Mackenxie  Manuscripts,  [Afkil 

31.  Tonnul'vilacam,  a  grammar  of  rhetoric,  No.  62— Countennark 
313. 

This  is  a  work  of  high  reputation  by  Viramamuni^  or  Beschif  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  Missionary  of  the  early  part  of  the  l^th  eentury  •  whose 
philological  works  stand  quite  apart  from  those  of  any  other  European 
writer.  He  had  many  learned  natives  to  assist  him.  He  m-as,  however, 
beyond  all  question,  the  most  distinguished  Tamil  scholar  of  his  age. 
This  work  is  a  grammar  of  the  iS/i.-'fi-Tamil  inclusive  of  prosody,  tropes 
and  rhetorical  embellishments.  It  was  translated  by  Mr.  Babingtonof 
the  Madras  Civil  Service ;  and  is  still  a  standard  work  for  reference. 

This  copy  wants  five  palm  leaves,  of  the  index  only,  at  the  beginning ; 
the  remainder  is  complete.  The  leaves  and  writing  are  qoite  fresh  in 
their  appearance  ;  and  remain  undamaged. 

NoTB. — It  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat  vol.  1,  p.  218,  art.  3. 


33.     Ckitambara  Jgradi  No.  66 — Countermark  224. 

This  manuscript  is  a  yocabulaiy  (termed  mgmii  or  nigamdu)  of  the 
Tamil  language,  by  Retemm,  Siddkmr  of  Ckittsambrmm.  It  is  in  Smira^  or 
in  brief  verses,  and  does  not  extend  the  alphabetical  order  of  axrange- 
ment  beyond  the  first  letter  ;  under  which  order  simply  the  words  are 
amnged,  and  the  meaning  or  meanings,  given.  It  is  a  moch  mora 
brie(  and  simple,  eompoaition,  than  the  MmmdalmpMrmsk'UiguMJu;  bat 
better  adapted  for  memory,  or  as  a  manual.  The  copy  is  complete«  of  re- 
cent band- writing,  and  in  good  preservation. 

It  is  Ix'iefly  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  1,  p.  252,  art.  viii. 

S3.    Hmri*  Filmkmm  h  vmns  to  Sitm. 


3#.    ^gatfy « wysaash  the  wisdom  of  AgmMhf, 

These  works  were  found  tied  up  together  with  a  few  pages  of  the 
iVavya-aaifra,  which  last  pages  were  discovered  to  be  wanting  in  that 
mann^eript  itself,  and  being  restored  to  the  proper  place  cmnpleted  it. 
Peihaps  the  whole  originally  fonaed  one  book  ;  since,  in  siie  and  ap* 
pesxaaoe.  they  correspond. 


1839J  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manufcrtptg.  333 

The  Hari'vilakam  is  mystical  poetry,  of  a  kind  needing  no  special 
abstract. 

Agastya-nyanam,  is,  I  am  persuaded,  a  literary  forgery,  the  work  of 
some  Uttra  Saiva  devotee,  ascribing  his  own  composition  to  Agastya, 
In  the  work  of  creation  the  order  of  the  rrimurti  is  Siva,  Brahma, 
FwibiM ;  in  the  manner  of  the  modem  Ultra  Saivas  of  the  Peninsula. 
Very  strong  and  pointed  condemnation  is  given  of  the  Fedas,  as  well  as 
of  the  Ramayana,  Bharatam,  and  in  short  all  Faiih-nava  books,  or 
tbose  that  are  consonant  to  the  more  universally  received  Hindu  sys- 
tem. The  writer  professes  to  give  an  account  of  his  own  birth  as 
being  AgaHya,  and  mentions  some  of  his  works.  Some  moral  sentences 
are  mingled  up  with  the  other  matter.  I  am  not  sure  that  it  is  not  a 
forgery  of  the  days  of  Robert  de  Nobili  under  an  Uttra  Saiva  veil  ;  but, 
at  all  events  the  name  of  Agastya  is  a  nom  de  guerre,  to  serve  some 
special  purpose.  The  Hari-vilakam  is  a  little  injured  by  insects,  the 
rest  of  the  book  is  in  very  good  order,  and  complete. 

See  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  22B,  art.  liii. 


35.    Sivapraeasicaf  a  work  on  austerity,   or  self-control,  No.  130. 
—Countermark  57* 

This  poem  is  of  the  kind  treating  of  the  tatva  system  or  different 
parts,  properties  and  regulation,  both  of  the  material,    and  immaterial, 
portions  of  the  human  body.    The  allegorical  description  of  the  body, 
as  a  city  ;  having  gates,  and  a  resident  within,  or  the  soul,  is  contained 
herein.    The  same  allegory  is  found  in  the  Bhagavatam,  ascribed  to 
iVarec/a;  and  also  in  other  distinct  productions,  of  which  the  present 
is  one.    The  body  is  divided  into  five  elements,  and  five  qualities  of 
the  mind  are  specified;  to  the  varied  union,  or  combination   of  which 
elements,  certain  operations,  both  corporeal  and  mental,  are  ascribed* 
Absolute  renunciation  of  all  earthly  attachments,  that  to  father    or  mo- 
ther being  included,  is  taught.    Severe  penance,  and   personal  subjuga- 
tion are  enjoined.    The  worship  of  Vishnu  is  to  be  rejected ;  and  the 
system  of  Siva  alone  ought  to  be  observed.    The  work  bears  the  name 
of  the  author  Sivapracaeica  (one  having  the  splendour  of  Siva),  and  the 
contents  are  sufficient  to  indicate  his  having,  been  a  Pan^jaram  (or  as- 
cetic) of  the  Saiva-order.    There  is  a  monasterium  of  that  class  at  Ma- 
dura, another  at  Mailapur,  and  others  in  different  places. 
Note. — The  MS.  is  complete,  and  only  a  little  injured,  at  present 


334  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [April 

not  sufficient  to  call  for  restoration  ;  but  it  will  require  to  be  occasion- 
ally looked  at  for  better  preservation. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  231f  art.  Ivii. 


36.  Aruna'giri-nat'ha'tirU'pugerzh  or  hymnology,  No.  138— Coun- 
termark 203. 

37.  Same  title,  -  No.  139— Countermark  179. 
33.    Same  title, No.  140— Countermark  66. 

39.  Same  title, No.  142— Countermark  1078. 

No.  138  contains  106  stanzas,  and  is  complete. 

The  MS.  is  old,  and  the  leaves  are  considerably  damaged  by  insects. 
No.  139  contains  50  stanzas,  and  remains  incomplete  at  the  end.  It  is 
fresh  and  in  good  condition.  No.  140,  contains  55  stanzas,  not  finish- 
ed ;  it  is  old,  and  damaged  by  the  breaking  of  one  or  two  leaves  at  the 
beginning,  and  at  the  end.  (It  is  supposed  from  the  Nos.  that  there 
should  be  another  copy  ;  but  this  has  not  been  met  with). 

No.  142  contains  84  stanzas,  wants  the  33d  and  40th  leaves,  and  does 
not  finish  at  the  end.  The  palm-leaves  are  comparatively  fresh ;  but 
damaged  by  insects  in  several  places. 

These  manuscripts  are  portions  only  of  one  great  work  ;  reputed  to 
contain  in  all  sixteen  thousand  stanzas,  of  the  kind  termed  Viruttam 
by  Aruna-giri'-naUhat  so  called  after  the  god  at  Trinomaii.  His  name 
forms  parts  of  the  above  title,  and  the  words  tirwpugetMh  mean  sacred 
panegyric.  This  panegyric  is  contained  in  a  series  of  hymnology ;  ad- 
dressed to  a  form  of  Subrahmanya,  worshipped  at  Tirtani,  near  Madras. 

Note.— The  title  appears  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  i.  p.  225,  art,  xxxviii ;  but 
only  one  copy  seems  to  be  therein  entered. 

40.  Tiruvachaeam  Hymnology  by  Monica  Fasacar,  No.  103— -Coun- 
termark 161. 

41.  Same  liile No.  104— Countermark  162. 

42.  Ibid.  No.  105— Countermark  i6a 

43.  Ibid,  ■  No.  106— Countermark  wanting. 


183d.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  MonuscripU*  335 

These  are  copies  of  a  collection  of  panegyrical  st?inzas  by  Manica* 

»«Wflr  whose  story  is  narrated  iu  the  fadur,  and  Madura   SVhalapura' 

^u>   After  relinquishing  his  oflSce  of  nunister  of  state  to  the   Madura 

king,  and  undergoing  severe  treatment,  as  narrated  in  those  legends,  he 

became  a  devotee  of  iSi'va  ;  and,  exclusive  uf  disputing  with  the  Baud' 

^'^/«,  he  wandered  about  in  the   manner  of  ascetic  minstrels,  such  as 

^ppaff  Svndarar  and  others,  and  composed  brief  panegyrics  of  different 

foraiSjor  emblems,  of  5if!a,  worshipped  at  different  places.    The  entire 

3ni*junt  of  such  chants  was   fifiy.one  ;  which  chants  (consisting  at  least 

^*  20  stanzas,  hut  generally  one,  two,  or  three  more)  make  up  a  total  of 

•^^  hundred  and  sixty  stanzas  of  the  kind  termed  viruttam,   with  a  few 

^^  the  plainer  kind  termed  ogaval.    For  a  further  account  of  the  work 

*^^  abstract  of  the  Fadur  Si*/talapuranam, 

^0,  103  is  complete.    There  are  addc  d  27  chants  from  the  Tevaram^ 
similar  collection  by  Appar,   Sundarar,  and  Sampanfar.    The  whole 
^  ^tms  asmall  sized  pocket  volume,  which,  though  raiher  old,  is  quite  un- 
^^jured. 

No.  104  is  complete.  It  also  contains  a  portion  of  the  l^cvaramt 
^Kit  complete.  This  small  book  is  ohl,  but  nevertheless  in  good  prescr- 
iption ;  save  only  a  little  wear  at  the  edges. 

No.  105.  This  copy  wants  seven  chants,  in  different  places.  Forty 
^sght  stanzas  are  appended  of  a  polemic  poem  against  the  BauddhaSf 
^ot  complete.  This  manuscript  is  fresh,  slightly  punctured  by  insects, 
\)ut  to  a  trivial  degree. 

No.  106  has  33  chants  wanting.    It  has  two  appendages,  being  frag- 
ments of  poems  of  the  F§npa  kind,  without  title ;  but  containing  praises 

tifSiva. 

These  four  copies  are  entered,  with  a  brief  mention  of  contentSi  iu  the 
Des.  Catal.  vol  1.  p.  224.  Art.  xxxv. 


44.    Vriddhachala  Purananh  No.  21 — Countermark  30. 

This  copy  is  in  verse  only,  and  is  complete.  It  is  generally  in  good 
order ;  but  with  an  exception  of  five  leaves  in  the  middle»  which  have 
been  restored,  in  order  to  preserve  the  manuscript  legible  and  entire. 


45.    Sam0  litle,    No.  22 >- Countermark  31. 


336  Report  on  the  Afaekenzie  ManuscripU,  [April 

This  copy  contc\ins  the  original  verse,  with  a  prose  explanation.  It 
is  in  good  preservation;  except  four  leaves,  near  the  middle,  which  liave 
been  restored.  It  is  now  complete;  having  had  two  sections,  before 
wanting,  added  to  it  from  the  next  copy. 


Same  title.   No.  23 — Countermark  32. 

This  copy  is  in  verse,  and  prose  ;  but  is  very  incomplete  ;  wanting 
five  xarjfat,  or  sections,  from  No.  14  to  18  inclusive.  What  remains  is 
without  defect ;  and,  being  apparently  of  recent  writing,  it  is  in  perfectly 
good  preservation.    It  enabled  me  to  complete  the  preceding  copy. 

Another  book,  having  the  same  title  on  the  envelope,  was  found  to 
he  ti  copy  of  the  Fadttr  SVhala'purdnam,  Five  copies  of  the  Friddha- 
wfkala'puranam  are  mentioned  in  the  Des.  Catalogue.  The  fifth  is  not 
now  in  the  collection. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  contents. 

1.  The  prefatory  section.  Invocations  to  deities,  and  to  Apptrr,  Sun- 
daroTf  and  other  Saira  poet*.  It  is  given  as  narrated  by  Sttta-rtsfii,  who 
received  it  firom  6Vela-Mimi  ;  he  from  ryasi;  the  latter  from  Subrak' 
mmmya,  who  heard  Sira  relate  it  to  Uma. 

2.  T\ke  giri'Sarga^  or  section  concerning  the  hill,  narrated  by  Jran  or 
Sha  to  Vtma.  Though  the  legend  is  unkno tin  to  Brahma,  or  yuknut 
yet  there  is  a  propriety  in  relating  it  to  Cma  though  young,  from  her 
being  mountain  bom.  The  pre-eminence  of  the  hi!l,  alK)ve  all  other 
hills,  is  asserted  :  so  that  even  thinking  of  it  will  remove  evil,  produce 
good,  and  lead  to  beatification;  which,  by  means  of  this  hill,  even  the 
most  stupid  of  people  may  acquire.  Its  excellence  arises  fipom  its  being 
a  copy  of  the  form  of  Stra, 

3.  Concerning  the  place;  narrateil  by  Xaiha-tauma-mttmi to  his  wife, 
named  ^Yffdrcfi.  It  relates  to  a  sacred  pool  for  hathing  named  Tirwam- 
riiefhmrmm,  formed  by  the  MmUm-madi  river.  Bathing  therein  accom- 
panied with  certain  observances  removes  the  crimes  of  ingmtitude,  theft 
drinking  ardent  spirits,  killing  cows,  or  Bnhwutms,  coveting  the  wife  of 
a  Bfmkmmmy  or  a  neighbour.  If  dogs,  jackals,  or  such  like  animals,  die 
at  this  place  ibey  will  attain  to  Siva's  world  ;  being  taught  instmctioB, 
white  dftodled  in  his  lap^  The  ills,  or  crimes,  done  by  children  will  be 
pardoned  even  as  those  of  gn>wn  up  people.  Tiie  names  of  the  seven 
great  ritkit  are  mentioned,  who  obtained  gif^s,  according  to  their  desire 
at  this  place. 

4.  This  section  relates  to  the  high  value  and  excellence  of  the  Xfmitm^ 


18390  Hepoi't  on  ihe  Mackenzie  ManueeripU.  337 

nadi  river.  The  merit  of  bathing  in  it  is  related.  For  example,  if  it  be 
only  seen,  by  the  £ivour  of  the  god,  sin  will  be  removed.  To  bathe  in  it 
is  equal  to  the  merit  of  an  asvamedka  sacrifice,  and  to  remain  in  it  during 
one  bright  half  of  the  natural  day  ensures  beatification.  Agaetya  and 
several  others  by  bathing  therein,  acquired  sanctity. 

5.  leu  enquires  of  Uma  concerning  the  shrine.  A  special  eclipse  is 
adverted  to,  at  which  time  the  vimana  appeared,  with  various  marvel- 
lous accompaniments.  The  benefits  of  worshipping  thereat  are  narrat- 
ed. 

6.  The  section  of  Fiba-chittu.    One  of  Cuvera's  precious  jewels,  was 
picked  up  by  a  particular  kind  of  bird  (mistaking  it  for  its  food)  and  car- 
ried to  the  top  of  a  tree  ;  when  the  bird  dropped  it  on  the  head  of  a  per- 
son named  Fiba^chiitUf  doing  penance.     He  did  not  know  what  to  do 
with  it ;  and,  while  wandering  about  on  the   mountain,  an  aerial   voice 
directed  him  to  deposit  the  gem  in  a  vaittti- tree,  and  then  to  go  and  re- 
ceive instruction  from  Romasa  riehu    He  did  so,  and  the  riehit  by  his 
merit  formed  a  Calpa-vriceha,  or  tree  of  plenty  ;  yielding  every  thing 
desired.     In  consequence  Fiba»chiUu  had  a  golden  image  made  for  the 
abrine  with  all  other  needful  appurtenances  :  and    ultimately  *'  attain* 
ed  the  feet  of  the  god,*'  or  was  beatified. 

7.  The  liru-ndda  section,  narrated  by  Brahma,  and  downward 
through  various  celestials.  It  relates  to  a  particular  locality,  on  the 
hill  where  birds  are  fed  termed  tiru^amrita  kunram  ;  where  also  Sitm 
Condescended  personally  to  make  an  appearance,  and  to  receive  adorati* 
on. 

8.  The  section  oiAgaitya*  This  relates  to  AgaelyaU  journey  to  the 
^outh  ;  being  resisted  by  the  Vindhya  mountain,  he  trampled  on  and 
lowered  it ;  he  afterwards  met  with  Vdthan  and  yU-vathan  who  were 
Accustomed  to  kill  and  eat  travellers  when  passing  by  :  he  denounced 
his  anger  on  them  and  destroyed  them.  He  then  proceeded  to  Vrid^ 
eihachala,  where  he  bathed  ;  and,  seeking  pardon,  fur  having  killed  the 
%aid  caxmibals,  Siva  appeared,   granted  his  request,  and  then  vanished. 

9.  The  Calinga  section.    A  Calinga  king,  did  not  pay  proper  res- 
pect to  Romaca  maha  riehi,  but  mocked  him ;  in  consequence  of  which 
t.he  riehi  denoimced  on  him  the  doom  of  becoming  an  evil-spirit-poasess- 
fKl  wanderer.     He    embraced  the  sage's  feet,  demanding   when  and 
xvhere,  the  crime  would  be   expiated,  and  was   told  it  would  be  eX^ 
Vriddhachala,     He  accordingly  became  possessed  with  an  ill-spirit,  and 
xx)aming  about,  came  to  Friddhachala,  where  bathing  in  the  Mutta-nudi 
lie  was  relieved.    As  a  moral,  a  caution  is  added  not  to  mock  sages, 
^ho  are  performing  penance. 


333  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [Afril 

10.  The  section  on  removing  the  evils  of  the  Cali-yuga,  The  sages 
enquired  of  5*1/ /a-rt<Ai,  the  magnificence  of  the  lord  of  Frlddhaehalam, 
and  he  answered  by  saying  that  Sanat-cumara,  and  others,  went  to 
Brahma  on  Maha-merut  who  enquired  the  reason  of  their  sadness.  In 
reply  a  pathetic  detail  was  given  of  the  poverty,  and  other  evils  of  the 
Calt-yuga  ;  in  which  the  kings  were  Sudras,  the  sacred  beads  indiscri- 
minately worn  by  all,  and  many  other  ills;  on  ^hich  a  petition  was 
founded  that  Brahma  would  form  a  shrine  to  remove  them  all.  There- 
quest  was  answered  by  the  means  of  the  shrine  at  Tiru-amrlta-kunramf 
Ykhich  removes  or  sets  aside  all  the  evils  of  the  degenerate  age. 

11.  The  6'ire/a  section.  Sweta  was  a  king  of  the  Curu  race,  who 
ruled  over  many  persons  with  the  integrity  of  a  Chacraverli,  till  losing 
his  wife  by  death,  he  became  desirous  to  renounce  the  world,  and  to  ac- 
quire as  quickly  as  ])ossible  instruction  as  to  the  means  of  obtaining  final 
happiness.  In  pursuit  of  his  object,  he  went  on  pilgiimage,  and  among 
other  places  to  the  shi ine  of  Jamhukesvara  at  Timvanica.  In  an  in* 
terview  with  Agastya,  the  latter  stated  the  advantage  he  had  acquired 
by  doing  homage  at  Vrlddhachala ;  and  recommended  his  pursuing  the 
kame  course  ;  which  advice  he  followed  ;  and,  in  consequence  Siva  ap- 
peared to  him,  and  bestowed  on  him  the  gift,  and  happiness,  which  he 
desired. 

12.  The  section  of  devout  worshippers.  The  benefit  of  aiTectibnate 
worship  is  illustrated  by  reference  to  a  Chetti  who  had  four  sons  ;  three 
of  whom  were  liberal  and  charitable,  and  were  beatified,  at  other  fanes 
specified ;  the  fourth  was  of  a  vicious  disposition,  and  conduct,  in  conse- 
quence of  which,  and  of  his  slighting  the  BrahmanMthie  brought  oi^  him- 
self the  visitation  of  ^raAma-Aal/i.  When  sutfenng  under  this  inflic- 
tion he  met  with  a  Brahman,  and  asked  how  his  disorder  could  be  re- 
moved, who  directed  him  to  be  liberal  in  donations  to  the  shrine  at 
Vrlddhachala.  He  accordingly  became  extremely  munificent,  an  pro- 
viding butter-oil  for  the  anointing  of  the  image,  and  for  lights,  and  in 
gifts  to  the  BrahmanM  and  servants  of  the  fane.  By  persevering  in  this 
course,  in  the  space  of  a  year,  he  m  as  entirely  relieved  of  bis  disorder, 
and  obtained  consolation.  The  benefit  of  devout  homage  at  this  shrine 
is  hereby  apparent. 

13.  The  Siva-puja  section.  Siva  replies  to  Uma's  enquiries.  This 
section  relates  to  various  symbols  of  Siva,  and  to  plants,  and  herbs,  used 
in  the  ritual  ceremonies  o(  Siva^s  worship. 

14.    The  Fiftw/Ai-section.    Declared  by  Siva,  to  the  four  orders  of 

Sattniyasif   VanaproMVha,  Brahwachari  and  GrihasCha.     It  relates  to 

the  formation!  and  use,  of  the  sacred  ashes  used  by  Saitas,  and  the  parts 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Mantiscriptt,  339 

oftbe  body  to  which  the  same  ought  to  be  applied.  This  being  done 
^Im  ?ery  person  of  god  (saethat-kadaord)  resides  in  the  wearer.  Any 
Ckandalas  who  ridicule  the  use  of  these  ashes  will  go  to  Aarnca,  The 
eulogy  of  the  Saiva  worship  is  added. 

15,  The  rudractha  section,  uarmted  hv Nat*ha  Saumaio  jinavati.  The 
different  varieties  of  beads  termed  rudracsha  are  specified  ,  as  appropri- 
ately belonging  to  the  brnhmanicfii,  kingly,  mercantile,  and  servile, 
classes ;  and  the  advantage  of  wearing  them  is  declared.  (Peihiips  the 
origin  of  their  use  may  have  been  a  simple  device  to  distinguish  the  dif- 
ferent classes,  or  orders,  of  men). 

16.  The  Ktrti  section.  The  same  person  relates,  to  the  same  indi- 
vidual, the  fame  of  this  place  ;  stating  that  thou|^h  beatification  is  of 
difficult  attainment,  generally  sppaking  in  the  Cali-yvga,  yet  that  it 
May  be  easily  attained  at  Friddhachtla,  If  any  one  at  this  place,  repeat 
tbenameof^jcti  three  times,  at  the  mention  of  the  first  Siva  will  appear, 
^dgive  what  is  wanted  ;  at  the  mention  of  the  second,  there  will  be  a 
'irplui  of  merit  ;  and  the  third  will  secure  his  residence  within  the 
'f^orshipper.  Hence  even  the  thousan<l  tongues  of  Adiseshan  could  not 
^ellall  the  excellence,  nnd  fame,  of  tliis  place. 

J?.    The  section  of  the  bullock  mountain,  narrated  by  the  same  to  the 
*^tne.  Pai-riti  performed  homage  to  a  particular  image,   until  Siva  ap* 
P^ared,  and  ask^d  what  gift  she  desired;  to  which   the  reply  was,  that 
**^e  wished  a  shrine  to  he  formed  at   the  same  locality,  t(i  be  called  after 
'^^endi,  his  bullock  vehicle,  and  the  request  was  conceded.     At  this  place 
tiAvu,  Brahmn^  and  the  celesti<ds  did  homage,   and  obtained   gifts, 
any  r'uhig  did  the  same. 
18.    The  section  of  Sash'-vanna.    Siva  declares  to  F'shnft,  the  excel- 
•^nce  of  his  (^iW  a)  votaries.     Sashivanna  was   the  son  of  a  ^raA/itaii, 
^t  one  who  despised  Siva,  the  Vedns,  the  Brfhrnans,  and  true  equity, 
t  the  same  time  he  lived  a  bv:d  life  ;  so  that  many  of  his  family  went 
o  Naraca,  and  he  became  a  Chaiida^a,  afflicted  with  leprosy.     In  con- 
cquence  he  performed  penance;  and  enquiring  how  to   get  his  disease 
emoved,  he  was  directed   to  the  above  mentioned  bullock-mountain- 
hrine,  whither  he    proceeded ;  berame  entirely  cured ;  and  obtained 
beatification,  both  for  himself,  and  for  his  relatives,  who  before  had  gone 
^o  Naraca.    Hence  the  eflficacy  of  that  shrine  is  deduced,  by  way  of  in- 
ference. 

It  is  added,  in  conclusion,  that  whosoever  reads,  hears,  or  copies  ott< 
^bis  Satva-puranam  will  obUin  happiness,  learning  and  beatification. 
The  end  of  the  rrJdd'iachih'puranam. 
N0TE.-T0  any  who  hai  read  through  the  preceding  abstract  it  will  be 


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1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Xfanu^cripts,  341 


superior  intellectual  qualifications  he  was  chosen  by  the  Pdndijan  king 
^  msntri,  or  minister  of  state ;  in  which  capacity  he  conducted  the 
affairs  of  the  kingdom  with  great  equity.  He  received  40  crores  (of 
money)  from  the  king  with  an  order  to  purchase  horses;  and  on  his 
journey,  with  that  object  in  view,  at  Tini-perunturai  was  fascinated  by 
the  god,  Stva  as  Jangama-svamif  chanting  mystic  songs.  He  went  near 
with  his  whole  retinue,  and  listened  with  great  delight. 

3.    The  Tiru-perunturai  section.    So  far  Manica'vasacarj  was  merely 
a  hearer  at  a  distance ;  but  he  was  now  brought  specially  into  the  pre- 
sence of  the  god,  and  was  introduced  to  the  sai  1  Siva^  seated  on  a  throne. 
Sim  condescended  to  teach  him  the  mystic  sense  of  the  agaman^  and 
''arious  Saiva  formula:  in  consequence  of  which  his  eye  of   ignorance 
departed,  and  he  was  spiritually  illumined.    When  fully  taught,  the  god 
^ted  what  present  (as  customary)  he  intended  to  pay  as  the  price  of  his 
'Vitiation  to  disciple-ship  ;  when  he  laid  the  whole  40  crores,    received 
'*'«  above,  as  an  offeiing  at  the  feet  of  the  god,  who  was  greatly   rejoiced, 
^*^i\t  Manica-vasQcar  w'as  thus  engaged,  his  attendants  wondered  what 
^'^  become  of  him  ;  and  seeking  him  out,  reminded  him  of  the  king's 
"'^^iness,  and  the  need  of  attending  to  it.     He  was  absorbed  in    contem- 
plation, and  paid  no  attention  to  them:  on  their  becoming  more    urgent, 
'^  cpened  his  eyes,  asked  them  who  they  were,  and  who  was   the    Pa«- 
'.Vcw  king  of  whom  they  spoke;  adding  that  they  did  not  appear  to 

*  '^  to  be  votaries  of  SivOy  and  told  them  to  depart.  They  accordingly 
^^t,  and  reported  the  matter,  to  the  king  ;  who,  being  much  incensed, 
*^^tc  a  severe  letter  and  sent  it  to  his  lethargic  minister.    The  latter, 

,^^    receifing  it,  appealed  to  the  god;  who  directed  him  to  send   word, 

•  ^t  on  such  a  day  of  such  a  month,  horses  would  come.  The  king 
.  ^^  quired  if  there  was  any  appearance  of  horses  at  Perunturai  ;  and  be- 
^^  ^answered  in  the  negative,  he  sent  peons,  with   directions  to   seize 

kd  bring  the  minister  to  him;  which  was  don\     AlanJca-vasacar    was 

It  in  irons,  and  cast  into  prison  for  several  days ;  treatment  which    he 

^dured  with  composure  ;  and  occupied  himself  in  chanting  the  praises 

4.     Horses-section.    According  to  the  word  which  Siva  had  direct* 

^d  to  he  sent,  the  said  god,  assembled  all   the  jackals  throughout  the 

Country,  and  turning  them   into  horses,   caused   the   celestials,   under 

Viuman  forms,  to  mount  them  as  riders,  while  he  himself  assumed  the 

f^orm  of  the  king  of  Ariya-desam,*  whence  the  horses  were  expected  to 

>>e  procured ;  and,  on  the  day  appointed,  the  whole  cavalcade   came  to 

ihc  town  of  the  Pandiyan  king.     The  latter  was  extremely  well  satisfi. 

*  Fait  of  Tiavancore. 


342  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [April 

ed  ;  bad  the  qualities  of  the  horses  examined  ;  and,  finding  them  to  he 
superior,  appointed  their  locution.  While  at  the  same  time  he  released 
his  minister  from  durance  vile,  who  went  to  his  house,  and  sang  the 
praises  of  Siva,  Duiing  the  night  by  the  power  of  Chocapa  (the  form 
of  Hiva  at  Madura)  the  horses  re-assi  med  their  natuial  forms  as  jac- 
kals;  and  greatly  disturbed  the  whole  town.  'Ihe  king,  doubly  incensed, 
and  greatly  disappuiuted,  commanded  the  seizure  of  Manica-vasacar, 
and  his  being  put  to  u  certain  species  of  torture  in  the  dry  betl 
of  the  fai^rtt  river.  Tliis  torture  consisted  in  his  being  stretched 
out  on  the  sand  with  a  heavy  black  stone  on  his  body,  to  keep  him 
down;  suifering  from  the  burning  sun,  and  scorching  sand,  by 
day,  and  cold  by  night ;  until  the  40  crores  should  be  re-imbursed* 
Man'ica-vatacar  endured  with  fortitude,  invoking  the  aid  of  Siva. 

3.  The  Cooly-sectiun.  The  god  knowing  the  sufferings  of  his  vota- 
ry directed  Ganja  Bhavani^  to  go  down  to  earth,  and  relieve  his  distress. 
Accordingly  Gunga  Bhavani  came  duwn  ;  and,  filling  the  channel  of 
the  Faigait  cau.<«cd  an  inundation  exteuding  even  to  the  walls  of  the 
fane.  The  king  directed  the  customary  oittrin^s  to  be  paid  to  Ganga  \ 
but,  un  throwing  ihcae  into  the  water,  the  inundation  swelled  still  high- 
er, threatening  destruction  to  the  whole  town.  The  king  wo^i  at  a  loss 
as  to  what  want  of  equity,  on  his  part,  was  the  cause  ;  but  diiected  re- 
pairs of  the  damages,  and  of  the  banks  of  the  river.  Every  person  m  the 
town  had  au  allotted  portion  of  work  to  do.  A  poor  widow  who  hud  no 
son,  and  lived  by  making  and  aeiling  balls  of  rice-flour,  represented,  to 
the  god  in  the  fane,  her  inability  to  do  her  own  portion  of  work.  Soon 
aAer  the  god  himself  came  with  the  appearance,  and  usual  implements 
of  a  cooly,  crying  out  for  work  ;  and  was  engaged  by  the  wiaow  as  her 
rooly.  On  his  enquiring  about  wages,  she  replied  that  bhe  could  only 
pay  ill  the  commodity  by  the  making  and  selling  of  which  she  gained  her 
subsisieuce.  lie  took  a  portion  in  advance  ;  and  on  being  shewu  by  the 
widow  her  share  of  work,  threw  carelessly  hait  a  large  hoe-full  of  earth 
into  his  basket :  and  then,  dancing  about  as  he  proceeded,  the  widow 
suspected  a  bad  bargain ;  but  he  told  her  to  go  home,  and  be  would 
finish  the  work.  Instead  of  doing  so  he  laid  down  to  repose  uudc4  a 
tree.  The  king,  coming  to  in^peot  the  progress  of  the  repairs,  found 
the  widow's  portion  neglected,  and  was  pointed  to  her  cooly  asleep  un- 
der a  tree.  Arousing  the  slet»pcr,  the  king  prepared  to  give  him  a  blow 
with  a  rattan  ;  seeing  ivhicU  the  god  protected  his  L-ft  side,  and  receiv- 
ed the  blow  on  the  right ;  a  blow  which  \*as  felt  by  the  whole  creation. 
i/oAica-iNA^acar  startled  at  receiving  a  blow  on  the  side,  enquired  into 
the  circumstance,  and  discovered  it  to  be  an  amusement  of  Siva^  who  had 


1839.]  liepori  on  the  Mackeniie  Manuscripts,  343 

disappeared.     Manica'tasacar  w»»nt  to  Peruntara^  and,  at  his   request^ 
the  god  appeared  ;  taught  both  him  and   the   king   some  lessons  ;  and 
dirpcted  that  Manica-vasacar  should  be  employed  in  disputing  with  the 
-&4iuddhas. 

6.    The  fane-section.  Afaniea-vasacar^  again  at  Perun-turaitjur,  repre* 
tuted  all  his  sufferings  to  the   god,  and  received   various   instructions 
'dm  Sita,     The  god  then  assembled  all  his  votaries,  an(f  told  ihem  that 
'^^  was  about  to  return  to  Cailasa,  that  after  his  doing  so,  a  fire  would 
'^^[^pcur,  into  which  all  his  followers,  with  the  *iole  exception  of  Manica^ 
^^^^Jacar,  were  todast  themselves  ;  and  on  their  doing  so,  their  beatifica* 
^^Dn  would  be  assured.     On  the  departure  of  Siva  according  to  the  pre- 
'^  ^i.'iiiig   dcilaration,    Afon'rco  vasarar  fell    on  the  ground,    on  the  spot 
^^^erethe  god  had  been,  ;in  I  wept  greatly.  Soon  after  a  large  fire  appear- 
^,  into  which  the  «S«t pa  votaries  cast   themselves,   as  they   had    been 
^^Idtodo.     Afan/ra-raacar  left  the  place,  and  set  out  on   pilgrimage  to 
_  ^ne  various  iSazra-^^hrines  in  the  souihf^rn  pirt  of  the  peninsula,  such   as 
^njeveram  and  others  ;  at  each  of  which  shrines   he    composed,  and 
Planted,  hymns  in  praise  of  its  local  numen  (the  assemblage  now  form- 
^g  the  riri/racAafam).     He  subsequently   returned   to   the   neighbour- 
lood  of  Chillambram;  where  he  constructed   for  himself  a  hut,  or  sort 
f  nest,  in  a  tree.     Here  he  continued  rendering  homage  to  Siva. 
7-     The   i?a2/(/ //la-section.      Manica-vasacar   had  studied,  and    was 
[eeply  versed  in  the    Tatva  system  (relative  to  the  corporeal  and  men* 
al  qualities  of  human  nature,  their  relations,  union,  and  consequences)  ; 
ind   being  now   disposed   to   visit   Irzadesam  (Ceylon)  he   proceeded 
"thither,  and  every  where  proclaimed  the  name  oi  Siva,  under  a  particu- 
lar title,  by  which  he   is   known   at    Chiilambram.     In  consequence  of 
"bearing  so  much   about  this  name,  the  king  sent  for  Munica-vasacat 
^n  i  desired  to  know  what  it  meant ;  when  it  was  explained  to  mean  the 
musical  sounds  proceeding  from  the  shrine  of  Sivadt  Chiilambram.     The 
liing  of  Irza-desam,  in  consequence  announced  his  intention  of  sending 
a  colony  of  his  own  people,  with  sacerdotal  attendants,  to  that  place,  to 
construct   there  a  shrine   of  the  god  worshipped   hv  himself,   that  is, 
Buddha,    The  colony  was  accordingly   sent,  and  the  fane    built.     Bat 
the  three  thousand  votaries  of  5/t'a   dwelling   in   the   Tilli   wilderness, 
became  alarmed  at  this  innovation  ;  and  going  to  the  new   settlers,  told 
them   to  depart.     As   they   refused  to  do  so,    information  on  the    sub- 
ject  was   sent  to  the   C/zo'a  king  of  the  country.    Ultimately  both  the 
king  of  Irza-nadf  and  the  Chofa  king,    came  to  Chiilambram  ;  when  it 
was  agreed  on  to  hold  a  public   disputation.    In   the  interim,  the  god 


344  Report  on  the  Macktnzi^  Menuseripis*  [ArtiL 

appeared  to  his  votaries  •  and  told  them  not  to  engage  in  the  discussion, 
since  they  would  not  be  able  to  compete  with  their  opponents;  but  in- 
structed them  to  trust  the  entire  management  of  the  question  to  Manica^ 
vaaaear.  In  consequence  Manica-vaiocar,  was  put  in  the  seat  of  honour, 
and  the  Bauddhas  directed  the  discussion  agiunsl  him,  using  the  Taiua 
system  ;  and  were  greatly  surprised  that  they  couM  nut  overcome  him 
therein.  SeeiAg  this  state  of  the  case  the  Irza  king  told  Afanica-vasaear 
that  be  had  a  daughter  bom  dumb,  and  if  A/anica-vaeacar  could  mak« 
her  speak,  then  he  and  all  his  people  would  adopt  the  Saica  mark,  and 
the  Saira  way.  The  dumb  girl  was  accordingly  brought  forward,  and 
as  AfoMica-vasacar  gave,  or  restored,  the  power  of  speech,  the  king  be- 
came aSaiva,  together  with  his  followers,  and  paid  homage  at  the  CAiV- 
lambram  shrine. 

8.  The  sacred  feel-obtaining  section  (or  the  bcalifioation).  Thegotl 
assumed  the  form  and  api>earance  of  a  Brahman  bearing  writing  mate- 
rials, and  an  iron-pen  in  his  hand;  in  which  shape  lift  came  to  Manica- 
vasacaTf  who  encpiirod  whence  he  was.  The  apparent  Brahman  said 
he  came  from  the  Pandiya  kingdom,  and  as  the  fame  of  Manica'TOsa* 
ear*t  chants  in  the  Tiru-vachacam  was  now  every  where  spread  abroad, 
it  was  his  (the  Brahman\)  desire  to  be  peimii'ed  to  iirite  them  down 
from  the  composer's  own  dictation.  AJanica-vatacar  consented,  and  the 
chants  were  committed  to  writing,  by  th(»  Brahman;  who,  having  com- 
pleted the  whole,  disappeared,  together  with  the  book.  Mawca'vasa' 
ear  sought  him  every  where  in  vaiu  ;  and  now  discovering  that  it  was 
an  illusive  form  of  the  god,  he  wept  over  his  departure.  The  book  was 
however  tiken  by  the  god ;  and  deposited  ou  one  of  the  five  lettered 
steps,  immediately  in  front  of  the  shrine.  The  following  morning, 
when  the  attendants  on  the  fane  opened  the  doors,  ihey  were  surprised 
at  finding  a  book  laid  on  one  of  the  sacred  steps,  and  paid  it  divine 
honours.  On  looking  it  through,  it  was  found  to  bear  the  autograph 
signature  of  Tiru-ambaianf  or  the  lo.^l  numen,  and  it  was  respectfully 
carried  to  A/a«;ca- tiz^arar  \^ith  the  request  that  he  would  explain  its 
meaning.  To  this  he  re.idily  consented ;  and  then,  going  with  them 
to  the  presence  of  the  image  in  the  shrine,  he  there  unfolded  the  mean- 
ing, and  explained,  that  the  said  image  formed  its  sum  and  substance. 
Having  completed  the  exposition,  a  flame  appearcvl  enveloping  the 
place,  being  the  emanation,  or  effluence  of  the  divine  essence,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  soul  of  A/anica-vcsacar,  quitted  his  body,and  became 
united  with  the  said  divine  essence  :  forming  the  union  and  identifica- 
tion with  the  divine  nature,  which  is  regarded  as  the  highest  degree  of 
beatification.    Here  the  purana  ends. 


1839.]  Report  an  the  Mackenzie  ManuseripU*  345 

Remark. — There  is  a  close  co-incidence  between  this  puranam^  and 
the  Madura  local  legend,  as  far  as  to  the  end  of  the  fourth   section  of 
this  one.     The  Madura  legend  refers  to  the  present  document  for  the 
rest;  briefly  mentioning  that  Jya/tica-vo^acar  disputed  with  iXx^Bauddhat 
at  ChiUambrami  and  there  became  united  with  the  essence  of  the  deitr. 
There  is,  I  think,  clear  evidence,  in   this  document,  that  the   Madura 
country  had  not  adopted  the  Saiva  religion  in    the  time  of  Afteniea-vasa- 
ca^.    The  7th  section  is  of  some   histori  ml   importance ;  and  will  be  of 
fror?ice  in  its  place.    The  account  of  the  Tiru-vachacam  is,  at  the   least, 
curious.    A  native  proverb  declares  that  the  person  who  is  not  affected 
^y  the  tale  and  writings  of  Manica-vasacar  will  be  affected   by  nothing. 
X*l)iA  KTork,  at  the  commencement,  that  is,  in  the  1st  section,  is  stated 
be  the  compositiim  of  Kadavul-nayandr. 

l^ote.— The  three  MSS.  Nos.  36,  37,  33,  are  entered  in  Des.  Catal. 
1.].  p.  201.  Art.  xvi  with  a  brief  account  of  the  subject;  having 
ly  one  or  two  apparent,  and  slight  inaccuracies. 


h.     Manuscript  Books. 
Manuscript  book  No.  1  —Countermark  17, 

Palani'puranam.     The  legend  of  Pyney. 

Of  this  large  manuscript,  thirteen  sections  were  abstracted  in   my  last 
■^port.     What  follows  is  a  continuation. 
Section  14.    The   narrative    concerning    Brahmendiran,    The   rishi 
^>amed  Angirata  had  a  son  who  was  named  Agni'tama,  a  name  which 
"Vras  afterwards  changed  to  Brahmendiran,     He   was  carefully  taught  ; 
^nd,  by  his  own  application,  became  well  read.     A fter  making  profici- 
ency in  study,  he  proceeded  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  whole  of  the  Saiva 
%nes,  and  after  visiting  other  places  he  came  with  a  retinue  of  disciples 
Xo    Tiruvavanankudi    (another  ruiwe    of  Pyney).     The    followers    of 
^roAmenrfiran,  greatly  approved  of  the  locality;  and  recommended  the 
iixing  a  residence  there.   The  whole  body,  by  consequence,  continued  at 
that  place,  doing  penance.     At  length  the  local  deity,  Subrahmanga,  ap- 
peared; desiring  to  know  what  gift  or  reward   they    required;  and,  at 
their  request,  gave  to  the  whole  of  them  beatification. 

RemarJc. — This  section  is  of  considerable  consequence;  inasmuch  as 
it  clearly  marks  the  first  immigration  of  Brahmans,  settling  at  Pyney  ; 
in  the  same  way  as  the  first  location  of  another  Brahman  colony  at  Cbil- 
lambram  was  before  noted.    Vide  3d  Report. 


346  Report  on  the  Afackemie  Manmcripli,  [April 

Section  15.    The   narralive  concerning  Nitya-nat^ka.    This  account 
refers  to  the  period  of  the  Treta-yuga    Nitija-naVha  was  a  son  of  Nala^ 
raja.    He  was  powerful  and  wise.  Proceeding  on   pilgrimage   he  came 
to  the  CongH-nad  (modem  Coimbatore  in   which   Pyney  was   situated). 
He  visited  seven  ^Satta-fanes  in  that  country.     He  built  a  town  which 
was  called  Raja-raja-puram,     Afterwards  he  proceeded   to    Tiruvava' 
nankudi;  and  there  performed  penance.     Subrahmanya  appeared;  and, 
being  praise<l  by  his  votary,  asked  what  gift,  or  reward,  the   latter  re- 
quired }  who  answered  that  he  desired  to  reach   the  sacred  feet  (obtain 
beatification)  without  the  pain  of  future  binhs.    The  said  god  then  in- 
structed him  in  the  aManga-yoga  (or  eight-membered-meditation  ;  that 
is  aiitJita,  makima^  karlma,  takima^  &c.  Vide  Oriental  Historical  M8S.  vul. 
],p.  128)  ;  and  assured  him  that  if  he  practised  these  larious  foims  of 
contemplation,  he  would  attain  6nal  beatitude.  As  so  many  persons  per- 
fonned  penance  at  this  place,  it  acquired  the  appellation  of  Yogavanam 
or  the  site  of  contemplation. 

Remark, — Thi:*  section  indicates  the  ingress  of  the  military  tribe  to 
the  extreme  south  ;  while  a  reference  back  to  section  10  would  seem  to 
imply  that  the  Chera  race  was  aboriginal,  and  nut  Hindu,  Comparing 
section  15  with  section  14,  there  is  visible  a  d*  licate  reserve  of  the 
privileges  of  Brahmans  above  Cshetriyas  :  inasmuch  as  the  former  were 
beatified  at  once  ;  but  the  latter  after  instruction  and  study. 

Section  16.     The  story  of  Chonna-cuttan, 

There  dwelt  in  the  Conga  country  a  person  who  was  called  Choniui^ 
euttan,  with  his  wife  named  Kesai,  He  worshipi  ed  both  6'traand 
Vishnu ;  and*his  wife  paid  homage  to  Lacskmi,  and  Aarrayana,  Peruwuil 
{ri4fhnu)  came  to  this  beautiful  country.  The  said  pair  besought  from 
bim  the  giftof  a  child.  He  replied  that  if  a  child  were  granted,  it  would 
soon  die.  They  answered  that  their  de>ires  would  be  satisfied,  if 
they  might  see  their  own  child,  and  afterwards  if  needful  it 
might  go,  they  would  relinquish  it.  Fnhnu  thereupon  directed  the 
chank  (or  conch),  in  his  hand  to  be  lH»m  ^s  a  child  ;  and  at  the  end  of 
Bre  years  to  return  to  him.  It  was  accordingly  horn,  and  reared  by  its 
parents,  as  aforesaid,  very  carefully.  They  in  acknowUdgn^ent  bestow- 
ed many  ornaments  both  on  the  Saiva  and  Vaisht.atHi  fanes.  The  child 
did  well  and  grew,  until  its  fifth  year  came.  It  was  accustomed  to  rove 
about ;  playing  in  the  sacred  buildings  and  pools  of  water.  One  day 
when  sporting  in  the  Camadhena-tirt'ha^  or  )>ool  so  called,  the  remem- 
brance of  its  former  state  revivtrd  ;  and  it  in  consequence  return^,  and 
re-entered  the  conch  of  Vishnu,    A  report  was  brought  to  the    parents 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Afac/cenzie  Manuscripts*  347 

that  their  child  had   fallen   into  the  pood.     They   were  exceedingly 
grieved  ;  went  to  the  place,  and  carefully  sought   for  the  body  ;  which 
however  was  not  to  be  found.     They  roamed   about  seeking  it ;  b^ing 
beyond  measure  distressed  at  their  loss.     They  both    thought  of  casting 
themselves  into  the  fire ;  so  severe  was   their  anguish.     Suhrahmahya 
at  length  appeared  to  them,  in  the  likeness  of  a  child.     They   were    re- 
juiced,  as  he  seemed  to  be  their  own  child.    They  took  him  up  in    their 
arms,  and  fondled  him  ;  when  the  seeming  child   re-assumed   his  usiial 
appearance,  haying  six   heads,   and  twelve   arms.     He  told  them   that 
their  child  had  been  a  gift  of   Fishnu,  and  hud  resumed  its  own  form,  aa 
the  chank  of  that  deified   personification  ;  adding  that  from   regard   to 
thera,  and  with  a  view  to  alleviate  their  sorrow,  he  had  appeared  to  con- 
vey to  them  this  annunciation.     He  further  staled  to   them   that  there 
Was  no  difference  between  himself,  and  the  said  Perumal,  or  Fishnu, 

Section  17.     The  legend  of  Vasumanta7i, 

Vtuumantan  was  a  king  w  ho  resided  at  Deva-puram,  A  rishi  recom- 
Ki:ieuded  him  to  do  penance  at  this  place,  where  many  others  were  so 
Employed.  An  account  of  his  penance  is  given.  In  a  former  state,  or 
Viirlh,  he  was  of  ihe  brahmanical  order,  and  a  descendant  of  Casyapa; 
liut  in  consequence  of  dwelling  with  a  Sudra  woman,  he  lost  his  caste, 
^nd  sank  to  the  level  of  a  Sudra,  The  effect  of  his  penance  was,  by 
'Kneans  of  the  homage  paid  to  Subrahmanya,  to  assure  his  regaining  the 
Tank  of  a  Braliman,  in  a  following  birth,  with  all  connected  privileges. 

Section  IS.  Account  of  the  six  faced  river.  Sulrahnwnya,  looking 
from  Varaha-yiri^  saw  another  hill ;  and  was  told  by  a  Brahman  that 
six  torrents  ran  down  it,  uniting  to  form  a  river  at  the  base.  As  the 
hill  had  six  rivulets  corres}>onding  with  his  six  faces  {Aru-muchan  *' the 
six  faced  one"  is  a  title  of  Subrahmanya)^  he  granted  to  the  river  below 
this,  the  peculiar  quality,  or  virtue,  of  washing  away  the  guilt  of  every 
crime.  In  consequence  of  this  especial  privilege  having  been  bestow- 
ed, the  fane,  which  is  situated  on  the  said  hill  at  Tirwravanankudi,  it 
a  superior  place  ;  and  final  beatification  is  there  of  certain  attainment. 
Subrahmanya  is  represented  as  taking  occasion  to  specify  six  placet 
where  he  is  worshipped,  as  being  of  especial  consequence.  |These 
are  Tiru-paran-Kunram — Alavayi'Carai — Tiru'chcndur — Tiru'vavanam" 
kudi — TirU'varacam  and  Para-mutal-choli :  the  latter  being,  as  I  am 
informed,  another  epithet  of  Pyney. 

Note, — The  abstract  of  the  foregoing  five  sections  may  suffice,  for  the 
present,  iu  continuation.    The  remaining  five  sections  would   properly 


3#^  B/yttn  tm  i'tt  iimcftaxa  J£ewu€r^§^ 


#e-n«i»L  U*  marb  on  otkcr  midl^r.  wLSch  I  *»  «sxkias  ::■  jaa  oct  of 
nr  pcfbapf  be  iMmd  ui  a  foilcvia^  ivpcfft. 


Maaafi-ript  book,  Ko.  17— Co-3iit*r3iik  910. 

TTiH  d':<5]&?3:  if  «it3re*j  oeeiipied  mii']  13  acc^r^at  of  difffr^nl  tribe?, 
and  or!erf  of  m<^  id  tb«  i/a/ayA'ai  ?oaa:ri-.  Fif:«e=  kinds  of  Bnhmans 
are  f|««ri&e4  c  the  ^Vos^'VciAss  b^ingat  the  bekd.  SixiM^n  sabordi- 
nal«  Of»'er«,  or  trit**,  ar?  celail^  :  one  of  then  be: a 2:  ih*  OA^/r  jr«-  or 
kioii^r  ea»t^,  mod  another  the  S^mmim  rajmf.  or  chiefs,  at  Calimt.  Of 
feTeraJ  of  the  <j:flerect  c]a5«e«,  noCires  hare  appeared  in  ih^  shape  of 
ab«^raeM  from  papere  io  the  MmlmymJ^m  bngnages :  jet  nvt  to  sach  an 
extent  a«  tosapeT«e<Ie  the  fuller  detail  coi^taiDed  in  this  To^ume.  They 
are  manr  of  them  r^rr  minote,  extending  to  a  specification  of  distinctiYe 
snod^  of  dr****,  and  like  detail?.  The  distance  to  be  observed  br  each 
trihe  in  approaching  another,  is  stated.  An  abstract  of  su^h  matters 
would  be  in  a  manner  impossible.  A  tnmslation  might  be  carious  ; 
and  to  some  degree  interesting ;  bnt  it  might  be  deferred  antil  other 
docnments  had  been  previooslr  disposed  of.  This  book  is  of  small  size, 
and  whollr  written  on  stoat  China  paper:  the  ink  being  very  legible. 
Theliand'writinj^  if  p^Hmliar;  being  the  Tamil  writing  of  a  native  of 
Malavalam.  The  book  has  escaped  injury  remarkably  well :  the  paste 
of  the  covers  has  attracted  insects,  bat  their  work  of  destruction  seems 
to  have  been  interrupted ;  and,  with  common  care,  the  book  will  last 
as  it  is,  for  some  time  to  comt. 


Mann-cript  book,  No.  r>2— Countermark  1021. 

According  to  the  English  label  this  book  originally  contained  copies 
of  inscriptions  from  the  south  of  India.  The  number  assists  in  referring 
Io  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.2,  p.  cxxvi :  from  which  it  appears  to  have  con- 
•istedof  126  copies  of  inscriptions  on  stone  and  copper  from  Coimba- 
tore,  Caroor,  and  Dharapuram,  The  book,  ns  received  by  me,  has  onlv 
the  covers  I  all  the  inside  being  wanting.  How  tins  loss  occurred  I 
cannot  say,  but  I  return  the  envelope  simply  as  received. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  349 

Manuscript  book  No.  50 — Countermark  1019. 

Section  5.  Several  leaves  intended  to  have  been  filled  with  copies  of 
inscriptions,  from  various  places  in  the  Jagbire,  have  been  left  blank, 
in  the  said  book. 

Section  6.  Copies  of  inscriptions  at  Tiru  Karz-kunram,  and  other 
neighbouring  places. 

1.    Commemorates  an  extensive  grant  of  land,  with  reservoirs,  &c. 

^o  the  image  of  the  above  fane,  termed  Bhakta-varchatta-svamithud  also 

3  gift  of  250  pieces  of  money,  arising  from  the  sale  of  a  village,  made  in 

^be  lime  of  iJari-hara-rni/er,  but  without  date  of  year,  and  signed  by  the 

^Onors. 

^.    Gift  by  Ccmda-rayen  of  1360  funamSf  to  the  said  fane  attested  by 
**^  i  tnesses,  and  not  to  be  reclaimed.    The  astronomical  day  specified; 
*^*^^  t  no  date  of  year. 

3.  Gift  by  the  son  of  Canda-myen  of  1560  fanams,  inalienably  be- 
^^«wed  on  I  he  said  fane:  astronomical  date  of  cycle  given,  and  Friday 

ecified. 

4.  Gift  by  weavers  of  jO/anams^  date  as  before. 

5.  Donation  by  traders  of  a  proportion  of  their  profits;  being  2  per 
'  ^nt.  on  some  articles  and  3  percent,  on  others,  to  the  said  fane.  No 
^iate  of  year. 

6.  Dated  in  the  42d  year  of  Kulottunga  Chola  ;  a  long  strain  of  poe-* 
^  Seal  panegyric  being  prefixed.  It  commemorates  the  gift  of  a  tax  on 
*^  evenue  proceeds,  for  the  benefit  of  the  said  fane. 

7.  Dated  in  the  'i^th  year  of  Kulottunga  Cholan,  Gift  of  700  current 
^>ash  (probably  gold  cash)  for  the  purchase  of  a  village,  presented  to  the 
^ane,  to  maintain  a  perpetual  light,  during  their  own  time,  and  that  of 
%.heir  latest  posterity  ;  by  two  brothers,  laniled  proprietors  in  the  neigh- 
\)ourhood  of  Madurantacani ;  attested  by  several  witnesses. 

8.  Dated  in  the  33d  year  of  Kulottunga  Cholan,     It  commemorates 
no  gift;  but  seems  to  be  a  record  defining  limits  and  privileges. 

9.  Gift  of  22   cows    to  provide  butter-oil,  for   the  maintenance   of 
lights  in  the  fane,  by  persons  who  subscribe  the  deed  of  gift. 

iO.     Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1328,  in  the  time  of  Hari-hara  Bukha»rayer, 
Gift  by  him  of  land  for  the  service  of  the  above  mentioned  fane. 

11.  Dated  also  in  Sal.  Sac.  1328.  Gift  of  land  and  of  60  gold  pieces 
by  Bukha-rayer  to  the  fane. 

12.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac,  1320  in  the  time  of  Deva-rayer  of  the  line  of 
Ilarihara  Bayer.    Bestowment  of  land  in  free  tenure  to  the  fane. 


350  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuscrlplM.  [Apru 

13.  Dated  in  the  13lh  year  of   Fira  Pandiya-dever.     Gift  of  laud' 
without  any  reserves  to  the  fane, 

14.  Dated  in  the  time  of  Sri-vira  Fijai/a  Bhupati-rayer  (all  titular 
names),  cycle  year  only  mentioned.  Gift  of  land,  by  a  union  of  various 
classes  o  f  people  specified,  for  the  advantage  of  the  fane. 

15.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1330  In  the  time  of  Bhupati-rayer.  Gift  of 
32  cows,  &c.  to  the  fane,  for  the  supply  of  oil  for  lights  to  be  maintained 
therein. 

16.  Dated  in  the  1st  year  of  Sambhura-devcr,  Gift  of  350  fanams 
for  the  service  of  the  image  in  the  same  fane. 

17.  Dated  in  the  time  of  Z^f'ua-inaAa-rayer  son  of  Vira-vijaya  Bhu- 
pati-rayer, Gift  of  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  these  villages  ;  amount-^ 
ing,  in  all,  to  820  funums  (kind  not  specified)  ;  from  persons  sub^ribing 

their  names. 

18.  Dated  in  the  21  st  year  of  Tribhuvana-dever.  Gift  of  land  for 
the  sen'ice  of  the  fane* 

19.  Dated  in  the  1st  year  of  Suudara  Paiidiya-dever,  Gift  from 
several  persons  of  the  KCn  tribe  (beanng  that  affix  to  their  names).  Gift 
of  cows,  &c.  to  provide  butler-oil  for  lights  in  the  fane. 

20.  Dated  in  the  1st  year  oi  Sunday  a  Pandiya-dever,  Gift  of  a  pro- 
portion  of  rice-grain,  at  the  time  of  harvest,  and  22  fanams,  from  four 
Panda ramt  to  the  fane. 

21.  Dated  in  the  1st  year  of  Sundara  Pandiya-dever.  Gift  of  67 
fauams  to  the  fane  by  certain  persons,  who  subscribe  their  names. 

22.  Gift  of  S50 /anamSf  for  the  service  of  the  fane ;  no  date  of  j^ear 
specified :  incomplete  at  the  end. 

23.  Dated  in  the  3d  year   of  Kulottunga   Cholan,    Gift  of  land,   to 

the  fane. 

24.  Commemorates  the  building  of  a  Mantapa^  or  porch,  by  Canada 
rayent  for  the  accommodation  of  all  the  m'Ai>,  andthe  330  millions  of 
celestials. 

25.  A  fragment  of  a  few  words ;  of  no  connected  meaning. 

26.  The  same. 

27.  A  fragment,  somewhat  longer,  but  incomplete. 

Bemark, — The  copies  of  the  foregoing  inscriptions  contained  in  sec- 
tion 6,  are  iu  good  presen'ation ;  both  as  regards  iukaud  paper. 

Section  7.  Copies  of  inscriptions  at  Timporur  (vulg.  Tripaloor)  and 
other  places  between  Mavaliyeram,  and  Madras. 

1.  Gift  of  a  proiwrtion  of  rice-grain,  for  the  miiutenance  of  Brah* 
mans  at  Tripaloor  :  the  fane  is  one  of  Subrahmanya* 


1839.]  Report  &n  the  Mackenzie  Manuscript $,  331 

2.  Gift  of  a  village  to  the  said  fane ;  from  persons  who  subscribe 
their  names. 

3.  Dated  in  the  15th  year  of  Vijnya»Canda  Gopala-dever,  Gift  of 
3  cows  to  supply  butter-oil  for  a  light  in  the  fane. 

4.  Dated  in  the  1 0th  year  of  Vicrama  Cho!a7u  Gift  of  a  piece  of 
land  to  the  fane  by  prirate  individuals. 

The  preceding  are  the  only  inscriptions  at  Tiruporur;  but  it  is  added 
in  m  note  that  the  fane  wa^  built  in  Sal.  Sac.  1429 ;  and  that  some  much 
tlefaced  inscriptions  remain,  having  been  chipped  out  by  a  chissel.  The 
Writer  asks  instructionfi  as  to  whether  more  labour  and  pains,  ought  to  be 
^^stowed  on  them,  or  not. 

Copy  of  an  inscription  at  Taiyur. — I.  Dated  in  the  time  of  AvkyUta* 
^^wafayer  in  Sal.  Sac.  1458.  Gift  by  an  individual  named  Titta  Pilial, 
*o^  of  Appaiyar,  of  a  village  for  the  support  of  the  fane,  with  a  heavy 
^^ntmciation  against  any  one  alienating  the  donation  to  other  purposes. 

Copy  of  an  inscription  at  Fellichakoliuiur.—l,  Gift  of  a  tax  by  weav* 
on  the  productions  of  their  looms  for  the  benefit  of  the  fane. 

Inscription  at  Tiruvottiyur, — 1.    Gift  of  a  certain  proportion  of  grain; 
r  the  use  of  the  fane,  by  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed. 

Inscription  at  T^irtivaian/at  village* — 1.  Dated  in  the  11  th  year  of  Sri 
'ovi  raja  Ketari.  Gift  of  land  for  the  service  of  the  fane  of  Varaha* 

'^ami  (of  the  appellative  nHya^calyana-svami^  a  name  of  the  image  at 
'ovalam)  by  certain  VaishnavaM^  who  commemorate  the   donation   by 

liis  inscription. 

2.  In  the  time  of  KuUoitunga  Cholan,  Gift  of  rice,  and  other  matters 
^o  the  Brahmans  of  the  fane. 

3.  Dated  in  the  1 9th  year  of  the  rule  of  Covi  A'tfA-ari.  Gift  of  a  tax 
in  kind,  of  rice  and  other  agricultural  productions,  by  cultivators,  to  the 
«hrine. 

4.  Dated  in  the  8th  year  of  Cola-raja  (Chola-rqja  f)  **  the  decapita- 
tor  of  the  Pand'iyan,**  Gift  of  a  proportion  of  grain  from  the  harvest, 
by  cultivators, 

5.  Dated  in  the  8th  year  of  Feniarat'fpan.  Gift  of  93  goati*,  to  pro« 
vide  butter-oil  foi  lamps. 

Inscriptions  at    Mamalipuram,-^T\ns  name  s(Tm«»  to  bo  int'^nded  for 


352  Report  on  iho  Afaekentie  Manuscripts.  [Apkil 

Mavaliveram,    It  commemorates  a  gift  of  grain  from  persons  subseribing 
their  names  ;  but  is   without  any  date. 
9.    Gift  of  land  by  persons  subscribing  their  names.    No  date. 

3.  Dated  in  the  time  of  Deva-rayer,  Gift  of  d32  pieces  of  gold,  and 
of  some  smaller  sums  for  the  service  of  the  fane,  for  gathering  flowers  to 
adorn  the  image,  and  similar  matters  ;  the  various  allowances  for  diflfer- 
ent  purposes  being  minutely  speciOed. 

4.  Gift  of  land  with  a  reservoir  fertilizing  tbe  same  to  the  Fauknava 
sbrine. 

5.  Gift  of  twenty-two  cows,  to  provide  a  lamp  with  butter-oil.  No 
date. 

6.  Gift  of  a  piece  of  land  with  cocoa-nut  trees  growing  tbereon. 
Cycle  year  only  specified. 

Section  8.  Tamil  inscriptions  extracted  from  a  manuscript  (a  pencil- 
led explanation,  in  Colonel  Mackenzie's  liund-writing,  no  longer  legible). 

1.  An  inscription  of  Deva-rayer  Sal.  Sac.  1270. 

Tlie  purport  of  this  inscription  is  to  commemorate  the  oonstruction  of 
an  Qgrahiram  for  Brahmans  by  Deva-rayer  ;  who  ia  termed  the  son  of 
HarUhari-rayen ;  and  his  ancestry  is  traced  upwards.  Bukhmn  is  said 
^o  have  founded  Fijayanayaraw^  on  the  banks  of  tbe  Tunyabkadra  river. 
Deva-retyen  was  respected  by  other  kings,  and  praised  by  Brahmans, 
wben  they  came  into  his  presence.  A  minute  specification  is  given  of  the 
location  of  Brahmans,  distinguished  by  their  yotra^  or  tribe,  and  by  the 
Veda,  which  they  studied:  the  entire  inscription  is  curious. 

2.  The  genealogy  of  the  Rayer  dynasty  is  given.  It  is  dated  in  Sal. 
Sac.  1300,  at  Pennaconda.  It  commemorates  the  building  or  founda- 
tion, of  the  town  of  Pennaconda,  ascribed  to  Sika-deva-raysn.  It  is  very 
brief. 

3.  Date<l  in  Sal.  Sac.  1303.  This  inscription  gives  a  particular  state- 
ment of  the  parentage  of  Bukha'rayent  the  founder  of  the  Rayer  dynasty ; 
mentions  his  brothers,  the  name  of  his  wife;  and  states  bis  son  to  have 
been /fori  Aara-raym.  It  is  of  considerable  importance;  particulariy  as 
to  the  parentage  of  Bukka-rayem, 

<  The  said  Hari^hara-rayen  built  an  agraharam  for  Brakatams,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  said  alms-house  among  them  is  specified,  by  tribes 
and  portions. 

5.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1701.  The  commencement  of  the  Innar-race  is 
given,  and  deduced  through  the  line  of  Cn'skna  of  the  Fadava-ncet  rol- 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripti.  353 

itig  at  Dwaraethpurem.    One  of  thia  line,  named  Sdluva,  saw  a  hare 

chase  a  tiger,  and  considered  the  pUce  to  be  propitious 

(Here  there  is  a  chasm,  by  reason  of  some  leaves  being  cut  out  from  tha 
book). 

19.  CruhneL-rayer^Aehyuta^reufer^Rama-rajfer^  TirumalO'rayer  BXid  Sad€* 
va-rayert  are  mentioned  ;  and  an  account  follows  of  a  repulse  experi- 
ced  by  Nat Mingha^rayer  in  an  attempt  to  take  Seringapatam.  The 
umption  of  power  by  Rama-rayer,  and  his  defeat  by  the  Maliomedant 
stated.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sri-rangha'rayen  wbo  ruled  at 
^^^nmaeonda.  He  established  his  brother,  named  fencatapati^rayer,  at 
^^^andra-gtri,  and  another  brother  named  Rama-^ayen  at  Seringapatam. 
€ter  the  death  of  Rama-rayer^  a  district  chief  took   Seringapatam,  and 

e  news  coming  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Pennaconda  ruler ••• 

(The  following  matter  is  wanting,  oa'ing  to  the  leaves  having   been 
t  out  from  the  book.    This  last  fragment  is  not  an  inscription  •  but 
rt  of  some  historical  narrative  the  value  of  which  cannot  uow   be  de- 
^nnined). 

General  Remark  on  MS.  Book,  No.  50. 

The  whole  of  the  conti>nts  of  this  book  have  been  carefully  investigat- 

d,  and  brief  results  indicated  in  different  portions  of  my  several  reports. 

pies  have  been  taken  of  various  portions  where  the  ink  was  found  to 

e  pale,  and  becoming  illegible.    Section  6,  herein  noted,  is  in  good  pre* 

^Mrvation,  and  has  not  been  re-copied.    A  copy  has  been  taken  of  section 

^,  because,  though  unhappily  very  imperfect,  its  contents  are  of  value. 

"The  whole  examination  gives  no  results  of  great  antiquity.    There  ara 

«orae  few  documents  of  consequence.    The  greater  portion  are  of  little 

Tiistorical  use,  from  wanting  the  dates  of  the  Sacai  year  ;  but  they  iUos- 

trate  the  spread,  and  influence  of  Brahmanism;  and  give  views  of  the 

practical  working  of  idolatry,  which  in  any  bearing  upon  the  improve* 

ment  and  elevation  of  the  people  at  large,  are  of  momentous  import  As 

such,  may  the  brief  outlines  given  be  well  considered. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  13 — Countermark  obliterated. 

Section  1 .    Account  of  the  Nayanmar^  in  the  Malayalam  Country. 

A  specification  of  local  customs,  and  usages  of  four  subdivisions  of  the 
Nayanmar  named  respectively  //am,  SurHham,  Tamils  and  Patka'wuu^ 
gala.  Social  intercourse  :  what  persons  can  enter  the  houses  of  othera. 
Astrological  precautions,  before  determining  on  marriage.     Mode  of  con- 


854  Hiport  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuseripU.  [April 

dacting  marriage  ceremonies.  Plurality  of  husbands;  and  consequent 
manners,  of  great  laxity.  Modes  of  proceeding,  consequent  on  the 
death  of  any  one  of  the  parties.  Modes  of  dress.  The  Nayanmart  have 
lengthened  ears,  like  the  Afaravat  of  the  Tinnevelly  country';  and,  like 
them,  wear  jewels  in  tlieir  ears.  (This  custom  on  enquiry  I  find  to  be 
peculiar,  in  Malayalani,  to  the  Ntiyant),  Other  deiails  concerning 
the  intercourse,  of  the  most  licentious  kind,  between  the  wives  of  the 
NayoTi^  and  the  Namburi  Bralimans.  Modes  of  subsistence.  The 
Nayan  sometimes  officiate  as  accountants ;  but  they  disdain  any  trad- 
ing, or  trafficking,  employment.  They  eat  flesh,  and  drink  strong  liquors. 
They  are  debauched,  and  irregular,  in  their  habits.  They  are  destitute 
of  honesty  and  moral  principle;  so  much  so,  that  their  word  merely  is 
never  taken  ;  and  people  will  trust  to  nothing  but  wiitten  security  from 
them.  Their  momincr  and  evening  meals ;  utensils,  habitations,  and 
connected  matters.  Depraved,  and  polluted,  as  this  class  are  stated  to 
be,  yet  it  is  observable  that  if  one  of  a  lower  caste,  or  if  an  oatcaste, 
trespass  in  even  so  small  a  degree  the  prescribed  distance  of  approach, 
the  Nayar  must  bathe  in  order  to  wash  away  the  contamination  ;  thus 
following  a  very  common  error  of  making  a  ceremonial  contamination  a 
matter  of  greater  magnitude  than  moral  turpitude.  Some  other  details 
follow,  concerning  the  modes  of  proceeding  by  {mrents,  in  marrying  out 
their  children.  Means  employed  of  providing  for  children,  who  have 
lost  one,  or  both,  of  their  reputed  parents. 

The  customs  of  the  Potemar  are  stated.  They  are  a  class  of  Brah- 
mans,  and  have  their  own  customs.  Some  of  these  indicate  their  having 
come  from  the  Tuluva  country ;  that  is,  the  most  northern  division  of 
Malayalam. 

Rbmakk.— The  foregoing  paper  affords  further  attestation  of  the  affini. 
ty,  as  to  origin,  between  the  Maravas  and  Nayars ;  heretofore  observed 
In  a  note  on  a  paper  formerly  abstracted. 

SetHom  2  to  16.  Are  entirely  occupied  with  minute  details,  as  to  al- 
lowances daily  to  temples;  revenue  proceeds;  and  the  like;  of  no  con- 
sequence whatsoever ;  and  therefore  passed  by,  without  being  re-copied, 
and  not  susceptible  of  abstract 

Seciitm  16.  Boundaries  of  Pim/ii&im. — From  a  slight  mistake  of  my 
directions  the  writer  copied  this  sectiuu :  as  it  is  somewhat  more  con« 
iwcted  than  preceding  matter,  but  it  is  of  no  consequence. 

StcHoH  17.  Account  of  the  £ine  of  AiakadevUf  at  Pvh/o/ajm.— The 
etymology  of  the  word   PuHtulamt   is  from  pu  a  flower  and  ^/'Aa/o, 


IW,]  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  MatiuscnpU.     •  355 

a  place ;  which  by  the  rules    of  Tamil    orthoepy    becomes  Puntalam. 
What  little  is  stated  is  Dot  of  any  consequence. 

Sections  IS  Knd  19. — The  former  a  rude  attempt  to  delineate  the  fort 
of  CmnUur,  with  its  fane  ;  the  latter  a  trifling  account  of  revenue  pro- 
ceeds ;  passed  by  as  useless. 

Section  20.  Notice  of  the  Panikar  living  in  Conatur  district. — A  few 
^«tails  concerning  this  class  have  been  copied  ;  but  of  trifling  conse- 
^  vience. 


SeclioHM  31  to  26  having  little  or  nothing  in  the  book  answering  to 
e  section  titles  prefixed,  the  few  loose  and  insignificant  details  given» 
ve  been  passed  by. 

Section  27. — Account  of  Famanapuram  the  residence  of  the  A  tinged 
hieflains.^A  brief  statement  concerning  this  town  has  been  copied; 
ttt  it  is  insignificant. 


Section  28.     Account  of  the  Irzhavar    tribe.-^A   few     unimportant 
'Matters,  respecting  them,  have  been  copied. 

Sections  29  to  32.  Indicated  in  the  section- titles  to  contain  revenue 
details,  have  only  3  or  4  pages  answering  thereto  iti  the  book,  of  trifling 
and  insignificant  matters. 

Section  33.  Account  of  the  Nambiyar  Brahmans  at  Cochin.-^  A  legen- 
dary statement  as  to  their  origin. 

Section  31.     List  of  commercial  goods  in  the  district  of  Puranad. 

Section  38.  Legend  of  Afdnica-ceheiram,  at  the  village  of  Irankol" 
gitdi, — An  ascetic  discovered  a  jewel;  which,  in  process  of  lime,  came 
to  be  MTorshipped  as  a  god. 

Section  42,     Ace  mnt   of    Piifo/>«ndrf.~ Some  legendary  matter  of  no 

val  lie. 

Section  41.  Account  of  Codagnalur.—The  derivation  of  the  name  m 
given. 


856  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [Apkil 

Rbv ARK. — This  book  having  been  found  to  be  in  a  wretched  plight  M 
to  paper,  ink  and  general  preservation,  was  given  to  a  copyist  to  do 
what  he  could  with  it ;  and  the  results  are  stated  in  what  goes  before,  af- 
ter hearing  the  whole  read  over.  They  are  of  6o  little  value,  that  the 
book  might  have  been  allowed  to  perish ;  though  it  is  my  wish  not  to 
permit  any  part  of  the  collection  to  do  so  if  it  can  be  preserved ;  that  is 
if  recoverable. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  7 — Countermark  900. 

SeefioH  i.  Details  concerning  the  Brahmanical,  and  other  tribes,  in 
Malay alam.— Some  details  concerning  Brahmans,  and  divisions  of  tribe, 
originated  by  Parasu  Hama,  Afterwards  the  Musu-jati,  a  tribe  of 
temple  servants  are  described,  and  the  Vaitiyar^  or  medical  class.  The 
uril'-paricki  deduce  their  origin  from  the  circumstances  of  a  war  entered 
into  by  Kulatec*hara  PetumaL  The  Ctketriya-jati,  or  military  class, 
is  subdivided  into  three  tribes.  Ambala^vasi  or  dwellers  in  a  fane,  are 
of  mixed  origin.  The  Puthpacanmar  have  no  restriction,  as  to  not 
marrying  a  second  time ;  they  gather  flowers  for  the  use  of  the  idol. 
The  Pskdrodi,  derived  their  origin  from  a  Brahman  who  forfeited  the 
privileges  of  his  tribe.  The  Variyar  derive  from  the  marriage  of  a 
Brahman  with  a  Sudra  woman  ;  and  perform  various  offices,  as  servile 
assistants  to  Brahmans.  The  Aiarayan-jati  beat  drums,  &c.  in  fanes  at 
the  time  of  offerings,  llie  Curupu  play  a  kind  of  lute.  Ckdkiydr-nam' 
hiydr  are  minstrels,  who  sing  the  praises  of  Brahmans,  and  kings.  Atizal 
were  Brahmans,  who  from  becoming  worshippers  of  the  Sacti,  or  nega- 
tive power  in  nature,  became  degraded.  A  list  of  subdivisions  of  the 
Sudra  tribe  follows. 

Section  2.  Account  of  the  &ne  at  Tirukan-kodu  from  the  writing  of 
a  Brahman. — In  the  year  of  the  Collam  era  98i,  two  brothers  gave  tome 
land  to  this  place.    There  is  nothing  else  in  this  very  brief  section. 


3.  Account  of  proceeds  of  different  kinds  of  lands  in  the 
Osf«fa^cr>ii4tdL — This  i^hort  paper  relates  to  revenue  proceeds,  of  no 
permaneot  consequence. 

Stciiim  4.    The  genealogy  of  the  leroindar  of  the  said  district,  is  in 
the  Telttgu  language.  (^See  that  part  of  ihis  report). 


l$39.]  Reporl  oh  th0  Mackenxh  Mantucripts.  357 

Section  5.     Copj  of  a  record  concerDiog  Calicut^  preserved   in  the 

band-writiDg  of  a  Senatipati,  written  before  the  times  of  disturbance.*-* 

(This  section  is  in  the  Tamil  character,  and  in  the  midst  of  Tamil 

documents ;  but,  on  e&amination,  the  language  was  found  to  be  Malay- 

alam). 

The  above  mentioned  Sgftaptiti,  or  commander  of  troops,  was  in   the 
service  of  the  Calieut-re^a,     He  was  of  the   Taracal-vamga ;  a  family 
vhich  possessed  peculiar  privileges,  as  military  chiefs,  in  connexion  with 
the  raja.    Mention  is  made  of  one  such  chief,  and  of  the  subsequent  want 
of  posterity,  supplied  by  adoption.    Various  kinds  of  deeds,  grants,  or- 
ders, and  the  like,  were  not  valid,  merely  on  the  signature  of  the  raja; 
fequiriDg  also  that  of  the  chief  of  this  family,  and  the  signature  of  ano- 
ther minister  of  the  Mangnatacha  ^mily.     These  things  bear  on  the  local 
customs  s*nd  government,  of  that  part  of  the    Malayalam  country;  but 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  thing  of  historical  interest  of  a  general 
kind. 

Section  6.  Geographical  account,  written  in  the  Maluyalam  language. 
"^  In  this  paper  also  the  characters  are  Tamil,  the  language  is  Maluyalam. 
The  document  is  an  itinerary,  or  travelling  journal,  of  one  named  Ca- 
'^rK-A^«m5iftrt,  during  a  period  of  11  or  1*2  years,  between  Collam  era 
%3  and  874,  respecting  his  journey  from  the  Malayalam  country  to  Casi 
^  Beaares;  stating  the  names  of  places  of  repute,  as  shrines,  or  bathing 
pool»,  visited  by  him  ;  and  lying  intermediate  between  Benares,  »nd  Ra- 
inaseram.  He  further  adverts  to  Himalaya,  on  the  north,  and  to  Irta, 
^  Singhdfai  on  the  south ;  the  latter  of  which  he  terms  Lanca, 

Section  7.     Copy  of  a  palm«>leaf  record  of  the  Cutheri-vafta-nai/ar  of 
^^vattam  in  the   Palcad  district.— This  section   is  also  Malayalam, 
*^  the  Tamil  character.     It  relates  to  the  local  rules,   or  customs  on 
^Ijich  the  fief  or  barony,  of  the  said   Nayar  is   held  from  the  «Sa- 
^^iu-rajot  or  Calicut  ruler.      On   the  instnlLition  of    a  new  Nayar, 
^  certain  sum  is  paid  to  the  minister  of  the  Calicut  ruler.     On  the 
^tb  of  a  Nayar    information  must  be    sent    to  Calicut,   with    the 
*«ntion  of  the  legal  apparent  successor  whose  nomination  needs  con- 
finn-dtjon  from  Calicut.     The  expences  incurred  on  occasions  of  the  in- 
stallation, marriage,  or  funeral,  of    a  Nayar,  are  stated.      The  form 
^^vriting  to  the  Calicut  chief,  announcing  the  death  of  a  Nayar,   with 
tJje  legal  successor,  and  the  form  of  the  Calicut  ruler*s  official  reply,when 
*ffiaiutive,  as  to  a  successor,  are  given. 


358  Repdrt  on  the  MacHmie  Manuscript s,  [AfeiL 

Section  8.  Copy  of  an  old  record  of  the  Puthucheri  agrahdram^  pre- 
served in  the  band- writing  of  the  Manradiyar  of  Vadacheri,  in  tlie 
Palead  disfrict. — ^llie  Manradiyar  was  a  petty  chief  who  held  a  ^mall 
country,  of  a  few  leagues  in  circumference,  which  was  forcibly  wrested 
from  Iniu,  by  the  Travancore  king;  and  afterwards  made  over 
to  the  Calicut  ruler.  The  chief  portion  of  the  paper  relates 
to  the  laws,  and  regulations,  of  the  said  small  barony;  as  to  marriage 
customs,  and  observances ;  domestic  rules,  and  restrictions ;  rights, 
and  privileges  of  Brahmans  ;  and  the  illegality  of  any  sale  of  land,  which 
must  go  by  hereditary  descent  It  is  of  local  importance  only ;  bnt  the 
existence  of  distinct  laws,  in  various  small  districts,  confirms  other  in- 
diuitions,  as  to  the  want  of  extensive  imperial  power  in  the  Malayalam 

COUUtT)  . 

Section  9.    Account  of  the  fane  at   Tiruvdiattur, ^There  are  some 
loose  and  unconuected  lines  asjto  Chittur  village,  and  Tiruvalattur  fane, 
but  mere  fragments,  and  by  consequence  of  no  use  whatsoever. 

Generat  Remark. — This  book  was  observed  to  be  in  a  damaged  state : 
it  has  (with  the  exception  of  sect.  9)  been  restored;  section  1  to  Sin  tlie 
Tamil  language  ;  section  4  is  in  Telugu  (see  that  portion  of  this  report) 
section  5  and  6  as  found  in  the  Tamil  character ;  but  section  7  and  8  are 
copied  in  the  Malavalam  character,  as  best  suited  to  the  Malayalam  lan- 
guage. The  Tamil  character  disiguised  the  language  of  the  latter  sec 
lions,  at  first ;  es|)ecially  as  the  opening  sections  were  wholly  in  Tamil. 
The  importance  of  the  contents  does  not  seem  to  be  great ;  but,  on  llie 
whole,  it  may  be  of  some  use  to  have  rescued,  what  is  of  any  conse- 
quence, from  destruction. 


Manuscript  Book,  No.  12— Countermark  905. 

Seetitm  I.  Account  of  a  shrine  of  Crishna  at  the  village  of  AmhaUi- 
pmrai  in  Malayalam.— A  child  troubled  a  Sannyasi,  by  doing  mischief 
to  sacrificial  implements  which  made  the  said  ascetic  angry  ; 
whereon  the  child  disappeared,  and  was  discovered  to  have  been 
an  apparition  of  the  god.  Much  inane  matter  connected  there- 
with ;  leading  however  under  the  influence  of  superstiiioua  ere-* 
duHty,  and  of  the  Namburit,  to  the  construction  of  a  fane,  with 
its  shrines,  out-bnildings  and  appurtenancen  of  festivals,  allowauc- 
es  for  them,  and  grants  in  land :  the  wIioIp  dedicated  to  the  ser- 
vice of  Crishna,    At  a  late  period  the  minis^ter  of  the  Travancore   raja 


1839.]  Bfpori  on  the  Mackenzie  MantitcripU.  359 

made  war  against  the  head  yamburi  of  this  place.    The  details  indicate 

^hat  the  head  ^iamburia  had  acquired  great  influence,  and  consequence. 

The  account  was  collected  hy  Nitala-Narrayant  who  visited  the  vari* 

«ns  fanes  accompanied   by    Mr.  Ward.     According  to  the  description 

^ren,  this  one  with  its  various  appendages,  is  of  more  than  usual  mag* 

nitude,  and  splendour^ 

Section  2.     Account    of    the  Syrian  Christians,    in  TravanCore.— 

Jfitala-Naratfan  states   that  being  in  company  with  Mr.  Ward  (an  of* 

£cer  of  the  survey  department)  a  document  in  the  Lebbi  language  (pro* 

bably  Syriac)  was  explained  to  him  in  Tamil,  which  he  embodied  in  the 

contents  of  this  paper. 

At  a  former  time  seven  persons  of  a  strange  religious  persuasion  came 
to  Travancore ;  among  whom  the  name  of  Mar  Thomas  occurs.  Thd 
king  of  the  country  had  previously  received  some  admonitions  respect* 
iog  them  in  a  dream.  They  called  on  the  king  to  embrace  their  system, 
and  to  allow  them  to  build  places  for  their  mode  of  worship.  The  king 
demurred  to  their  claims  and  said  these  must  be  proved.  He  also  turn* 
moned  a  council  of  Brahmaus,  enquiring  if  the  new  system  ought  to  be 
received ;  who  replied  most  certainly  not.  The  foreign  persons  as« 
cribed  to  themselves  the  faculty  of  retaining  the  soul  (when 
departed  from  a  body)  in  the  air  above,  and  of  recalling  it,  so 
as  to  re-animate  the  body  ;  and,  aa  stated,  gave  a  proof  of 
this  power  in  the  case  of  one  among  themselves.  The  king,  however, 
resisted  their  claims.  Soon  after  the  king's  younger  brother  diedi 
whereupon  the  recently  arrived  strangers  told  the  king  that  if  he  would 
build  seven  charches  in  different  places  th^y  would  restore  his  brother 
to  life.  The  king  made  the  promise,  and  the  body  of  this  brother  be« 
came  re-animated,  awaking  as  if  out  of  sleep.  In  consequence  both  the 
king,  and  his  brother,  adopted  the  new  system,  and  along  with  them 
sixty-four  householders  with  their  families  :  these  received  the  initiatory 
rite  of  baptism.  Thirty-two  householders  refused  to  adopt  the  new  mode 
of  credence ;  and  created  disputes.  The  younger  brother  requested  from 
the  king  one-tenth  of  his  revenues,  which  the  king  granted ;  and,  with 
the  proceeds,  the  younger  brother  had  seven  churches  built,  in  different 
villages.  Mar  Thomas  was  killed,  and  afterwards  respectfully  buried. 
In  consequence  uf  the  disputes,  a  message  was  sent  to  Syria ;  whence 
a  person  came,  on  board  ship,  as  spiritual  superior  of  the  Christians.  At 
a  later  period  Afanica-va^focar,  a  person  who  chanted  panegyrics,  came 
to  Malayalam,  and  disseminated  the  Saiva  five-lettered  system  ;  teach- 
ing to  swallow  the  Saha  compound  ot  five  substances ;  and  to  use  the 


360  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  Mantueripis.  f  At»RlL 

Vihuthx^oT  sacred asbes.  He  drew  away  several  families.  The  head  of  the 
Christians  received  various  privilei^es  and  imnnunitiea  from  Chenimau 
J^erumaif  who  always  directed  the  elecliun  of  ihe  Melran,  A  couocil,  or 
synod,  was  formed  for  the  settling  of  disputes.  Other  details  are  given ; 
with  mention  of  the  first  arrival  of  the  Portuguese,  termed  the  Cochin- 
Ferin^his.  An  interference  of  a  Roman  Catholic,  claiming  authority 
over  the  Chrisrians,  is  mmiioned;  whom  the  Cochin  raja  |ut  in  fetters. 
A  reference  was  made  to  Rome  on  the  subject.  Subsequent  matters  are 
stilted ;  chiefly  relating  to  discussions  between  the  Syrian,  and  Roman 
Catholic  Christians.  A  Roman  Catholic  bishop  arrived  ;  whom  the 
Syric.ns  refused  to  recognise.  1  he  affairs  of  the  Syrian  church  in  Tra- 
Tancore  are  narrated,  down  to  a  recent  period. 

Remark. — The  prece  lin^  abstract  is  much  too  brief;  and  very  imper- 
fect. But  I  have  allowed  it  to  be  so,  partly  because  it  is  probable  that 
I  may  take  an  early  opportunity  to  translate  the  document,  which  is  of 
some  length;  and,  as  it  seems  to  me,  of  some  value  as  an  authority* 

Section  3.  Account  of  the  fane  of  Callara-coia  in  Malayalam.-^ 
Legendary  reference  to  birds  killed  with  an  arrow  by  Jrjuna,  A  fane 
was  built;  bat  there  is  no  SV hcda-puranam  relative  thereto. 

A  sort  of  itinerary  follows,  written  by  Kitala  Narayan:  briefly  men* 
tioning  heathen  edifies  visited  by  the  way.  Four  of  these  have  only  a 
few  lines  appropriated  to  each  ;  with  trifling  details  of  no  value.  In  the 
table  of  coutenls,  each  of  these  short  paragraphs  is  entered  aa  a  section* 
Section  8,  relates  to  Vallahha  Cnhetramt  concerning  which  a  long  legen* 
dary  account  is  given,  but  as  puerile  as  can  well  be  possible.  A  few 
dates  of  the  early  part  of  the  Coliamem  are  stated,  with  mention  of  some 
rulers,  which  may  be  of  use.  The  place  seems  to  have  risen  to  celebrityf 
and  to  be  one  of  much  resort  at  its  festivals.  Sections  i^,  10,  11,  12,  are 
merely  brief  paragraphs  of  an  itinerary  :  the  subjects  relating  to  places 
of  inferior  note. 

Section  \3,  AccoMnt  q(  ihe  fdne  o(  Panniyanna-naru^cdvu  Bhagavati 
near  to  Manar^  in  the  district  of  Txruvalla. — With  this  section  a 
third  division  of  the  manuscript  book  begins.  Some  legendary  mat- 
ter, of  no  consequence,  is  stated,  it  then  appears  in  the  state- 
ment, that  an  annual  human  sacrifice  of  peculiar  atrocity,  was 
accustomed  to  be  oflfered.  1  he  person  proper  to  be  so  sacrificed  was  a 
woman,  pregnant  ^'\i\x  her  first  child.  Such  a  woman,  being  selected 
WttS  brought  to  the  shrine;  and  there  killed  by  being  beheaded 
with  a  sword;  so  that    the  head  rolled  up  to  the  image,  and  the 


18'}9.]  R^pwl  on  tht  Mackenzie  Manmcripti,  Sdl 

blood  of  the  Tictirn   was  sprinkled  thereupon.      The  origin    of  thit 
iiQ^inary  sacrifice,  a^  to  any  date,   is  not  spe'ified;   but    it  is  stal- 
ed to  have  been  regularly   of  aiinuil  ob^ervanje,  down  to  the  year 
of  the    Cailan    era   illS.     In   C.  £.   dl^,  an  dvhham  or   possession 
of  the  spirit    resident    in   the  said  imi^e,     came   on  a  by«st<inderf 
»t  the  time  when  the  sacrifice  wh   to  have   taken    pla'ie,  directing 
iuat  fur  the  future  human  sacrifices  at  her  shrine  should  be    discoo- 
tinaed.  (That  year  corresponding  with  A.  D.  1^43  the  said  afflatus  of  the 
^^1  spirit,  can  be  accounted  for,  as  a  preiumtionary   measure).     From 
^hat  date  human  sacrifi^'es  have  been  set  aside.     Moreover  the  posterity 
^f  the  woman  and  child,  sp  ired  on  that  occasion,  now  bear  the  name  of 
^dichamar,  who  live  in  a  village  divided  into  the  north  and  south   quar* 
^^rs,  being  four  or  fivehouseholds,and  inclusive  of  their  children,  amount* 
^^S»  when  the  account  was  wriiten,  to  40  or  50  souls.     Ihey  receive  of- 
^•^rings  made   to  the  shrine;  and  by  an  order  from  ihe  rajah  theyaif 
lempted  from  the  payment  of  any  taxes.     There    is  a  small   river 
ear  the  said   fane,  and  since   the    Collam    year    920    annually     on 
he    day    when  tho  sacrifice   used   to    be  made,   the    headless   trunk 
f  a  dead  body   is    seen    on     the    river    bank.     No    explanation   of 
'%:his  circumstance  is  offered:  and,  if  any  be  askel,    the   Oiily   reply 
^iven  is  that  it  is    **  a  divine    secret.*'*     (The   inference  of  course  is, 
"^hat  the  sacrifice  was  only   publicly  discontinued,  but  in  siill  privately 
'Jractise  1,    possib'y  daring  the    night).     At   the   present   day  a   public 
sacrifice  of  sheep  is  substituted  for  the  human  sacrifice.  At  this  fane  thera 
is  neither  inscriptiom  nor  St^hala-puranam. 

Section  \4.  Accowni  of  the  Si oa-cah^t 'am  at  Corandi,  in  the  same 
district.—  In  the  time  of  ParaiU'/iama^^n  evil  spirit  built  this  ftuiH,in  the 
course  of  one  ni^ht.  No  females  are  allowed  to  enter;  not  even  the 
queen.  These  must  pay  homage  outside,  men  only  in^y  enter  within* 
side. 

Sert'on  15.  Account  of  the  village  district  of  Sanganaeherif  with  its 
villa:;e  of  ihe  same  name. — There  is  nothing  of  any  consequence  in  this 
section,  beyond  the  mention  of  the  building  of  the  viil.ige  fane. 

Section  16,  Account  of  «9iffa-cM'*/ram  of  Candiyur  in  the  Mavalim 
j^/7rat  district. — The  name  of  the  district  is  derived  from  MahabaU* 
ehacrarerfi.  The  fane  is  one  of  Criuhna,  The  term  Candiyur  arises 
from  Mahabali  having  been  resident,  or  seen    there.    (An  example  of 


S62  Rfwt  on  the  Maekennit  AfanutcripU»  [Apbil 

the  liberties  taken  as  to  Dames  and  localities).  It  bad  its  own  ebief  i 
bat  in  ColUm  era  920  it  was  seized  by  the  Ti-avancore  raja.  Access 
to  the  St'hakhpurana  could  not  be  gained. 

Section  \7-  Account  of  the  fane  oi  Maha-deva  at  the  Tillage  of 
Pandala' — Tbe  name  of  the  village  seems  to  be  properly  Puniala, 
meaning  *<  a  flower  garden."  This  district  had  its  proper  chiefs.  A 
Pandiyan  king  ruling  over  Ten-Cast  (the  southern  Benares),  having 
no  ofi&pring,  adopted  a  child  ;  but  the  people  of  the  king  refused  to 
recognize  that  adoption.  In  consequence  the  rejected  person  took 
away  much  wealth  from  the  place,  and  with  it  retired  to  Malayalam  ; 
where  he  purchased  extensive  esiates,  forming  this  district :  over 
which  he,  and  his  posterity,  ruled.  It  was  however  forcibly  seized  by 
the  Travancore  raja  ;  and  a  few  descendants  only  of  the  original  pro« 
prietors  remain  ;  these  being  now  poor  and  miserable. 

Section  18.  Account  of  the  fme  of  Maha-deva  in  the  village  of 
VenmaMni,  of  the  Puntala  district. — Certain  lands  were  made  over  to 
the  fane,  in  the  hands  of  Brahroans  of  the  Fotemar  tribe  ;  who,  in  con* 
sequence,  conducted  the  usual  ceremonies  and  offerings. 

Section  19.  Accoont  of  Tumhyman,  a  fane  of  SuhreJimanya^  in  the 
Puntala  district. — A  possession  of  the  spirit  of  Suhrakmanya  camo 
upon  a  certain  Brahman,  ordering  a  fane  to  be  built;  which  was  accord* 
ingly  done.     Nothing  further  is  mentioned. 

Section  20.  Aeconnt  of  the  Sevncshetram  of  Senganur^\ik  the  Ma9^ 
Ukarai  districi — Legendary  matter,  as  to  an  appearance  and  marriage  of 
Siea  with  Parvati.  At  tbe  time  of  the  primary  marriage  the  concourse 
was  so  great  that  the  eartVv  could  not  bear  the  burJen.  A  certain  rt'M  re- 
ceived an  order,  in  consequence,  to  go  to  Senganur,  He  objected  to  the 
doing  so,  without  having  seen  the  mArriage  ceremony;  but  was  dismissed 
with  the  assurance  that  Siva  and  Parvaii  would  come  thither  and  be 
married,  for  the  fourth  time.  The  promise  was  accordingly  ful- 
filled ;  and  on  that  event  the  construction  of  the  fane  and 
observance  of  its  festivals,  are  made  to  depend.  Pa-raii  being  subject 
to  ceremonial  desecration  (according  to  the  custom  of  women),  cere* 
■Kmial  homage  should  not  at  those  seasons  be  paid  :  but  a  NawAuri 
Brahman  ignorantly  going  to  the  shrine,  at  such  a  time,  was  violently  as- 
Molted  by  the  spirit  of  the  image,  and  afflicted  with  serece  vifitation  of 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  S6S^ 

the  variola  fever.  A  Tantri^  of  another  class  of  hierophanf8,gave  a  proper 

explanation  of  this  circumstance ;  in  consequence  of  which,  processiona 

'^ere  formed  to  carry  the  image  to  the  river  to  bathe,  after  the  said  time 

IV as  past.    Festival  observances  are  connected  with  these  processions. 

CTTo  all  evasions  as  to  images  being  only  tokens  of  remembrance  of  one 

&^upreme,  assisting  the  mind  in  His  worship,  such  instances  as  the  pre* 

<5cding  may  be  opposed  in   reply.    The  puerility  of  idolatry,  amazing  as 

^^  is,  could  hardly  proceed  further  than  in  the  aforesaid  example  :  it  is  on 

%^is  account  solely,  that  I  allow  of  its  mention).  The  fane  was  burnt  to 

le  ground  in  Collain  year  940 ;  and  not  a  vestige  remains. 

Section  21.     Account  of  Armulai  fane,  in  the  district  of    Tiruvalla.^^ 

eference    to  the  times  of  the  Pdfidavasi    and  to  five  places  dedicated 

y  Bhishtna  to  Bhu-devi  or  the  god  less  of  the  earth,  of  vvhich  this  was 

ne.    At  the  festivals  large  bamboos  (termed  Mulai)  were  brought   from 

mountains,  to  form  a  booth  before  the  f.me;    whence   the  name  Ar* 

ulai  (six  bamboos)  is  derived.     Certain  old  observances  formerly  ex* 

^ted;  but  have  not  been  revived  since  the  place    was  burned  down  to 

lie  ground  in  C.  E.  940  (A.  D.  1764). 


Section  22.     Account  of  the  fane  of  Pattali  Bhagnvatt^  in  the  CoUa* 
ami  district. — A   spirit  of  Bhadra-Cali    seized   vaiious  animals    as 
tigers,  alligators,  and  the  like;  doing  much  mischief  to  the   country. 
%he  also  appeared  to  three  persons    in  a  dream ;  ordered    a  fane  to  be 
1>uilt;  and  promised  in  such  case,  to  guarantee  the  country  from  hostile 
:luvasion.     In  consequence  an  image  was  painted  on   glaRs,  according  to 
^e    form  of  her  appearance  in  vision  ;  the  same  was  placed,  and  ritual* 
ly  set  apart  by  Praiishta,  in   a   fane  built   to  her  honour:  in  which  the 
usual  observances  were  continued. 

Section  23.  Account  of  the  fane  of  M ann&di'  Bhagavatiy  in  the  village 
of  Mannddi. — A  potter,  and  his  wife,  lived  on  the  banks  of  a  stream  t 
where  a  ferry  boat  was  stationed.  Two  Brahman  women,  and  two  Sudr9 
women,  called  to  the  potter's  wife,one  day,to  send  over  the  boat;  which 
the  stated  herself  to  be  unable  to  do.  They  bid  her  loose  the  boat;  and  it 
would  come  of  itself.  She  obeyed,  and  the  boat  went  over,  and  return* 
ed.  The  four  females  thanked  the  potter's  wife;  and  announced  to  hep 
much  good.  She  begged  of  them  to  lodge  for  the  night ;  to  eat  in  one 
hat;  and  sleep  in  another  one.  They  consented;  and  the  potter  aided  hU 
wife  in  procuring  for  them  fruits,  and  other  refreshments.  In  return 
they  announced  to  him,  that  he  would  be  chief  of  the  district.    During 


364  Report  on  the  MacktHMe  Munuseripti,  [Apmn. 

the  night  all  four  were  found  to  have  disappeared;  and  a  possessed  Ca' 
radi,  or  black  bear,  appeared ;  commanding  in  the  name  of  Bhrndra-Cali 
that  a  fane  should  be  built,  which  was  dune.  The  |K>tter»  and  his  wife, 
by  means  not  staled,  became  possessed  of  the  duilrict.  In  bringing  of* 
ferings  to  the  shrine,  the  people  who  do  so  prcseut  them  to  the  descen- 
dants of  the  said  family. 

Section  24.  Account  of  the  fane  of  Pdcmmpdci-dever,  in  a  Tillage  of 
the  same  name  in  the  Mantpat'i  district. — Ihe  orij^iu  of  ihi:}  fane  is  as* 
cribed  to  the  following  cinumstunce.  A  w cod-cutter  in  the  service 
of  a  ^^^atfar  when  performing  his  work  in  the  woods,  whetted  his  in- 
strumeut  on  a  stone ;  and  some  others  did  the  same.  During  three 
days  nothing  jmrticular  occurred ;  but  on  the  evening  of  the  fourth  day, 
when  the  instrument  was  being  whetird,  blrod  flowed  forth  from  the 
stone.  The  man  told  the  circumstance  to  the  Noyar;  who  came,  toge- 
ther with  three  or  four  Potemar  Brahmans.  These,  supposing  it  to  be 
some  god,  had  a  booth  erected  over  it ;  w  Inch  in  )  rocess  of  time 
became  a  shrine  and  fane ;  having  its  attendants,  festivals,  oflerings,  and 
the  like,  as  usual  in  other  places. 

Section  25.  Account  of  the  fane  at  Cdyan  Colamt  belonging  to  the 
Cs«c«Mt  people.— Formerly,  and  more  than  three  hundred  years  ago,  in 
consequence  of  a  disturban:e  in  the  CoMcoJi,  several  persons  emigrated 
thence  and  came  to  Malayalam,  where  they  receive  J  permi:*sion  to  set- 
tle, firom  the  Cochin  raja.  In  conseqience,  they  formed  a  distinct  com- 
Buniiy  ;  and  built  for  themselves  fanes :  the  one  mentioned  among 
others ;  connected  with  the  usual  observances. 

Seetiom  26.  Account  of  the  mosque  of  the  loma^mapula  people  io 
Trmvancore. — Their  caxi,  and  some  other  leading  persons,  are  mentioned. 
Their  pecular  usages,  and  customs,  are  adverted  to.  Their  class  is  said 
to  have  received  great  increase  from  the  accession  thereto^  as  well  of 
^mmtkmru^  as  of  other  people. 

Attached  to  this  section,  is  a  further  brief  mention  concerning  the 
Syrian  Christians  termed  Amtrmtfi  (that  is  Naxareues) :  it  chiefly  relates 
to  ancient  books.  One,  written  (bur  hundred  years  since,  is  stated  to 
be  in  the  old  Af«/«f«/a-/i/M  or  character.  Others  are  s|  ok  en  of  ms  in  the 
Syria  iipi,  and  are  probably  intended  to  denote  the  old  Sytian  MSS.  of 
the  Scriptures;  one  of  which  was  purchased  by  Dr.  Bucl.ar.an.  The 
name  of  Mar  Thomas  herein  occurs;  and  also  some  mention  of  tb^ 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Machenxie  Manuscripts.  30fi 

Sfrian  bishops  ;  but  the  brief  notice  is  such  as  a  Brahman,  and  a  stran- 
ger, might  be  expected  to  write.  There  does  not  seem  lo  be  any  wilful 
prejudice. 

Section  27.  Account  of  the  fane  of  Hani  Cavu^  in  the  village  of  Ram" 
pvlamm  Travancore. — It  belongs,  as  hereditary  property,  to  a  Namburi 
Brahman  who  officiates.  Little  else  is  added,  and  besides  many  letter* 
liave  been  destroyed  by  insects. 

Section  7A.    Account  of  the  fane  of  N'angaiyar  Curangnari,   in  Tra- 

^'ancore, — Fabled  to  have  been  the   hermitage   of  M ricandiya-riM,     A 

^oman  and  chiUl,  passing  t1)at  way,  bathed  in  a  neighbouring  pool ;  and 

'^ieditated  on  Vithnu.     In  consequence  Fiuknu  personally  appearedi  and 

'^^ican  Uyar  seeing  this  appeamnce,  there  placed  an  image  of  Fishnv^ 

'^bich  now  receives  all  customary  honours. 


Section  29.     Account  of  a  fane  of  Suhrahmanya  at  An'pattUt  in  Travan* 
^^re. — The  circumstance  chiefly  referred  to  iu  this  paper  is  that  of  a  great 
Vimber  of  Brahman  children  being  fed  at  this   fane  ;  and   spoken  of  as 
donging  to  it.    A  superstitious  dread  of  saying,  or  doing,  any  thing 
^ainat  them  prevails.    Ramarja  of  Travancore,  once  seized  and  im- 
lisoned  one  of  them,  for  some  nii:ichief  committed:  for  doing  so   his 
Tm  swelled;  and  he  released  the  boy,  paying  a  fine    to  the  fane,    and 
pologiziog  for  his  ignorance.     Hence  no  one   dare   spe.ik   against   the 
^^^d  children;  without  incurring  the  anger  of  Suhrahmanya,    The  docu- 
'^nent  has  suffered  great  injury  from  insects. 

Remark. — This  book  was  put  into  the  hands  of  a  copyist  to  be  restored* 

T>n  account  of  its  greatly  injured  stale  by  termites.    The   doing  so  has 

^nly  been  partially  successful ;  many  omissions  of  letters,    words,  and 

sometimes  sentences,  remaining.    The  contents  are  of  greatly  difiering 

interest,  and  value.     Heathen  superstition    is  herein   painted  by   the 

hand  of  Nitala-narayant   himself  a  Brahman,  in  its  most  puerile  form. 

Moreover  the  shocking  cruelty  mentioned  in  section  13,  can   hardly   es* 

cape  notice.     Surely  no  one  can  regret  that  Christianity  has   planted  its 

foot,  diffusing  more  genial  influences,  in  that  very  neighbourhood. 


Manuscript  Book,  No.  53 — Countermark  1027. 


Inscriptions  on  stone,  and  paper  grants  in  the  Malayalam  country* 


160  Ii9porl  <Ni  the  Afaekenzie  ManuseripU.  [APit«*. 

The  materials  on  which  this  book  is  written,  are  China  and  comitiy 
paper;  and  witli  some  mere  memoranda  in  pencil.  The  language  is 
quite  a  melange  ;  consisting  of  a  little  Malayalam,  some  Sanscrit  ^oeeu^ 
a  large  proportion  of  Tamil,  mingled  with  Grantha  letters,  and  some 
few  portions  of  documents  in  what  is  termed  Malayalam  lipi  (characters). 
A  perusal  of  the  whole  shews  the  contents  to  he  incriptions,  but  of  no 
considerable  antiquity  ;  being  subsequent  to  the  formation  of  the  Coliam 
era,  and  entirely  referring  to  grants  of  land  and  other  immunities,  to 
fanes,  and  their  attendants,  by  the  raja  of  Cochin  and  a  raja  of  Cherakal; 
the  origin  of  both  of  whose  power  is  subsequent  to  the  division  of  the 
country  by  Cher uman- Per umaL  Such  being  the  case  I  have  neithe 
thought  these  documents  worth  minute  abstract,  nor  the  book  wo; 
re-copying  where  practicable.  At  a  subsequent  period,  if  leisure  or  op- 
portunity occur,  it  may  be  looked  at  again,  and  any  documents  that  may 
be  in  danger  of  perishing  can  then  be  restored.  The  book  will  continua 
legible  as  it  is,  for  a  few  years  lungor. 


Manuscript  Book,  No.  12— Countermark  54. 

Muppantottlluld  a  panegyrical  poem  on  SSma-ndt^hn^  the  tutelary 
at  Mufypaiitotti, 

This  book  contains  a  poem,  of  the  kind  termed  ttla,  referring  to  th 
fane  of  Sdma'nai'ha,    and  consisting  of  seven  adhydyae,  or  sections ;  th 
subject  of  each  section  referring  to  a  distinct  saeti,  who  is  represented 
coming  to  the  shrine,  and  becoming  enamoured  by  the  perfections  of  th 
idol.    The  book  is  somewhat  damaged  by  insects,  and  the  ink  ia  rath 
pale.     I  deem  it  however  unworthy  of  restoration. 

NoTB. — The  entry  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  \77t  art  38,  would  hare 
led  me  to  expect  something  better  from  it.    However  there  remains 
palm  leaf  copy  No.  228  to  be  examined  ;  referred  to  a  subsequent  report...-- 


Manuscript  Book,  No.  40 — Countermark  336« 

Account  of  Tintnamaiat\  or  Trinomalee. 

This  book  is  a  thin  duodecimo ;  with  only  about  one  third  written. 
Its  object  is  to  commemorate  the  visits  to  the  shrine,  of  four  kings,  or 
local  chiefs;  that  is  rajraMga- PancUtfan  ;  Sambhrnpa-rayer  ;  VtUakL" 
rayet  and  Drva-maha-rayer,  These  persons,  on  their  visits,  made  cer- 
tain additions  to  the  fane.  In  the  times  of  disturbance,  occasioned  b/ 
Hyder  Ali|  several  documents  belonging  to  the  place  were  lost* 


1839. J.  Report  on  the  Mackwxie  Manu9eript9»  '997 

Remark* — ^Though  this  brief  mention  of  the  contents  is  probably  sofi* 
cienr,  as  to  any  valuable  purpose ;  yet  as  the  pikers  are  loose,  the  country 
paper  very  thin,  and  partly  injured  by  insects,  I  have  on  the  whole 
thought  it  as  well  to  have  it  restored. 

NoTi. — ^The  book  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  L.  art.  40, 


Manuscript  book,  No.  8-- Countermark  762. 

Secticn   I.     Account  of  Periyohaiya   Condama^tayak,  local  ehief  of 
Ayncudi  in  Coirobatore. — The  account  commences  with  the  dates  of 
C.    Y.  4400,  and  S.  S.   1321,  when    the    head    of    this    line   wae 
despatched,  by  the    Padshah   of  Delhi,    against    the    Mahrattas.    A 
sanguinary  contest  occurred,  leading  to    an    explanation,   and  sub- 
sequent agreement.     Vbalya  Condama,  was  afterwards  invested  with 
honours  and  distinctions.     He,  wilh  his  family,    emigrated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Padshah,   whom   they    served,  requiring    wives    from 
tbeir  tribe  ;  to  which  they  could  not  consent  They  settled  in  the  south, 
at  AhChalam,    The  defeat  of  the  Pandiyan,  by   the  Chola'taja,  subse- 
quently occurred;  leading  to  the  appeal  of  the  former  to  the  Payer  ;  and 
the  sending  of  Nagama  Nayakar,     His    usurpation ;  the    sending  of 
VUvandClia  to  bring  his  head;  the  accession  of  Visvanat^hato  the  rule  at 
Madura ;  the  building  of  a  new  fort ;  the  appointment  of  Ariya'mutha" 
laiyar  to  be  chief  minister  of  state,  are  narrated.    Subsequently   there 
is  legendary  matter  to  account  for  the  establishment  of  the  fane  of  Jh6batam 
isvara.    The  first  of  the  line  ruled  there  as  a  feudal  chief  for  30  years  i 
his  son  15  years.    Other  descents  of  the  chieftainship  are  mentioned. 
There  is  nothing  particular  beyond,  except  the  Mysore  invasion ;  andf 
at  a  later  time,  the  war  against  Tanjore.    The  subsequent  transactions, 
towards  the  close  of  which  the  English  became  concerned,  are  narrated* 

Note. — This  paper  as  being  of  some  value,  and  from  the  ink  of  the 
record  being  faded,  has  been  restored. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  assumption  of  the  pdlliyam^  by  Government'; 
and  also  an  incomplete  notice  of  the  line  of  Rama  Bhadra  Nayak^  fol- 
low. The  first  is  of  no  moment ;  and  a  full  notice  on  the  latter  has 
heretofore  been  given. 

Section  2.  Account  of  Padmachala,  and  of  its  fane,  in  the  Coimbatore 
country. — ^This  account  professedly  is  extracted  from  the  SeandoF* 
fmrdnam  ;  some  adhydyas  of  which  are  copied.    The  object  is  to  accoirat 


368  Riport  on  the  MaeUnzie  MatiuscripU,  [ApHiL 

mythologically  for  the  veneration  said  to  be  due  to  the  hill ;  and  to 
narrate  the  first  formation  of  diflferent  «Satoa  emblems  found  thereon, 
with  their  connected  shrines.  Nothing  beyond  this  simple  indication 
of  contents  is  required. 

Section  3.  Legend  of  the  fane  of  Narasinha  Perumal  in  the  Tinne- 
velly  district. — Under  this  section  brief  notices  of  various  Saiva  em- 
blems are  comprised;  oSering  nothing  deserving  of  special  notice. 

Section  4,  Account  of  Tddi-Combuy  an  agrahdram,  in  the  Coimbatore 
district. — The  account  does  not  ascend  higlier  up  than  S.  S.  1400,  and 
has  some  minor  details ;  not  meriting  much  notice. 

Seclkn  5.  Account  of  the  fane  of  AhChala^  named  after  Narasinha- 
svdmL — Legendary  details  concerning  this  fane,  and  others  in  the 
neighbourhood,  are  comprised  under  this  section. 

Section  6.     Account  of  Cuiheraichuni. 

Section  7.  Account  of  Canmvddi  and  Cofopalli.—k  legend  as  fo  the 
first  mentioned  place ;  and  other  legends  of  places  in  the  Cannivddif 
and  Cotapapalli,  districts,  are  stated:  each  one  brief  and  of  no  impot- 
tance. 

Section  8.  I^egend  of  Manar-loil,  at  Cape  Comorin.— The  legend 
IS  founded  on  a  mythological  fiction  of  Siva*s  coming  to  the  south; 
and  there  being  again  married  to  Parvati,  as  Caiiya-Cumari,  Similar 
legends  are  common  to  most  of  the  Saiva  fanes,  in  the  peninsula. 

General  Remark, — This  hook  is  a  little  injured  in  the  covers*  and 
slightly  touched  by  insects:  the  ink  also  is  faded.  Still  it  will  last,  as 
it  is,  and  be  legible  for  several  years,  with  only  common  care.  Its  con- 
dition would  point  it  out  for  restoration,  were  the  contents  worth  it; 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  section,  does  not  seem  to  be  the 
case.  All  the  remainder,  at  least  for  the  present,  is  passed,  without 
further  attention. 


Manuscript  book,    No.  5— Countermark  50. 


1^9.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  d60 

This  Tolume  is  a  thin  folio,  and  contains  two  parts ;  the  first  a  legen« 
dary  account  of  PdJmachala,  professedly  extracted  from  the  Scanda^^ 
fmranam  ;  the  second  an  incomplete  copy  of  the  Bhugdla-pramdnam,  or 
system  of  Hindu  geography.  To  the  legendary  details  of  tlie  first  it 
snay  perhaps  be  expedient  to  return,  more  at  leisure ;  as  a  few  grains  of 
'Vk'heat  may  be  picked  out  of  the  chaff;  and  the  more  especially  since 
'Che  country  paper  is  a  little  touched  by  insects  and  the  ink  in  several 
;S>]aces  faded  More  important  matters  requiring  notice,  this  may  be 
3)assed,  for  the  present,  with  a  general  indication  as  to  its  state  of  pr^ 
serration.  The  other  fragment  is  written  on  Europe  paper,  and  will  re- 
3nain  legible  along  time.  It  may  also  be  referred  to  the  notice  of  a 
^lalm-leaf  Tamil  MS.  bearing  the  same  title,  with  the  like  contents. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  53 — Countermark  1022. 

The  contents  of  this  book  are  of  a  very  miscellaneous  description.  In 
the  index  three  sections  are  specified,  as  containing  respectively  in- 
scriptions from  Trichinopoly,  Coimbatore,  and  Tanjore.  The  included 
matter  will  appciir  from  the  following  brief  outline. 

1.  At  Trichiuopoly,  gift  of  land  at  Jyilur,  by  Faiyapa-nayak,  who 
deduces  his  descent  from  Aclnjuta-nayak  to  whom  a  long  string  of  titles 
is  ascribed.  The  gift  is  perpetual,  to  support  car-fesiivals,  and  other 
expences  of  the  fane  of  Tiruvalesvarer^  with  heavy  denunciation3 
agaiost  any  alienation  of  the  gift  to  other  purposes. 

2.  A  hanl-writing  given  in  by  one  or  two  individuals,  specifying  cer- 
tain donations  relative  to  a  large  lake  for  irri^^ation.  One  uncertain  date 
appears,  and  another  date  S.  S.  1634,  with  the  name  of  Crishna-raja' 
udiynr  (of  Mysore). 

3.  A  Canarese  inscription.  It  records  certain  donations  made  by 
Crhhnn-raja-udiyar  of  Mysore,  to  a  fane  of  ViuvanaCha-ivami  at  Bhu* 
Vani-kudaf,  in  the  Coimbatore  province.  The  grants  consisted  both  of 
land  and  money  ;  of  which  a  list  is  given.  There  does  not  appear  any 
Sacai  year;  but  the  date  of  course  is  modern. 

4.  Legendary  matter  as  to  the  establishment  of  a  Saiva  emblem  in 
the  Dharapuf  district,  by  the  command  of  a  visionary  appearance.  Some 
gifts  made  to  it  were  partly  continued,  and  partly  subverted  after  the 
Mysore  conquest. 

5.  Details  concerning  an  agraharam  in  Coimbatore  province,  with 
gifts  made,  and  fluctuations  of  power.  The  establishment  of  the  alms^ 
house  is  dated  in  S.  S.  1  lOO.     It  is  signed  by  3ome  inhabitants. 


970  Export  OM  the  Maekenie  MmuuenpU*  (Apul 

6.  Details  coocerniDg  another  agraharam,  and  fiaetiiatiofis  of  power 
indicated.    Constructed  in  Sal.  Sac.  1523. 

7.  Particnlars  of  grants  made  to  the  fane  of  Jniiyur  in  the  Coimbo- 
tore  district,  the  earliest  date  is  S.  S.  1502. 

8.  Specification  of  grants  to  an  agraharam  at  HMaiiif  in  the  ^if 
itjfur  talook,  the  earliest  date  is  Sal.  Sac.  1200;  the  interference  of  My 
•ore  kings  appears.    No  tax  paid  to  the  Honourable  Company. 

9.  Like  matter  with  reference  to  an  agraharam  at  Samba^  going  up 
to  the  13^h  century  of  Salivahana. 

10.  An  oral  statement  of  a  person*  concenung  some  claims  referred 
to  the  collector. 

11.  With  reference  to  an  agraharam  in  Chaera-giri  hundred*  meti* 
tion  b  made  of  the  early  Congu  line  of  rulers,  and  then  of  the  succession 
of  the  Rayer  dynasty.  No  certain  date  is  specified  higher  up  than  tho 
13th  cent,  of  Salioahana. 

12.  Particulars  concerning  a  fane  in  the  Antiyur  hundred  and  men* 
tion  of  wild  tribes  living  cm  a  hill  near  it,  who  wear  no  clothes,  and  live 
on  roots,  or  other  spontaneous  productions  of  the  earth.  Mention  of  a 
fort  built  by  a  Vedar  king. 

13.  Particulars  of  an  agraharam,  and  its  possession  going  up  to  S.  S 
1105,  and  descending  through  various  fluctuations  of  power  as  respects 
tBTation  imposed. 

14.  Matters  relative  to  an  agraharam  at  Andiculam.  A  composition 
as  to  tax  in  S.  S.  1620,  in  the  time  of  a  Mysore  ruler. 

15.  Reference  to  a  fane  of  Subrahmanya  at  Sicala-pwri,  where  the 
said  Subrahmanya  for  some  unknown  cause  chose  to  dwell.  Mention  of 
a  teacher  of  great  repute  who  had  many  followers. 

16.  Certain  specialties  relative  to  a  fane  which  has  several  images 
within  it  and  a  great  number  without  side. 

16i.  Stanzas  in  praise  of  an  aminan.  In  that  fane  there  are  no  rites  of 
homage  practised. 

17*  Refers  to  Agatewara,  or  a  shrine  of  Siva  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Agasfya,  and  mention  of  his  coming  to  the  south  to  dissipate 
the  darkness  of  ignorance.     Legendary  reference  to  former  yugas. 

18.  An  inscription  dated  in  the  10th  year  of  Vira'Pandiya-dever. 
Gift  of  land.  Letters  of  the  iascription,  from  being  very  old,  cannot,  it 
is  stated,  be  read  or  copied. 

19.  Hand-writing  of  specified  individuals  relative  to  an  agraharam. 
The  earliest  date  ^ven  is  Sal.  Sac.  700,  hut  it  is  doubtful  if  the  writers 
did  not  mean  about  700  years  ago.  Nothing  answering  to  so  high  anti* 
quity  as  S.  S«  700  appears. 


IS39.]  Report  on  the  Afaekinde  ManuterlpU.  371 

20.  A  local  legend  relative  to  a  shrine  of  Suhrahmanya  as  the  slajer 
of  5tircn.  Reference  to  the  13th  adhyaya  of  the  Scandapuranam  for  an 
Accoant  of  the  splendour  of  the  place.     Certain  old  records  were  lost  in 

Cajnes  of  disturhance. 

21.  Account  of  a  fane  at  Cadiyur  in  the  district  of  Dharapuram^ 
^i^en  by  Bralmcns,    Legend  of  Siva  dancing  in  the  forest.    A  Pandiya 

ing,  directed  by  a  vision,  obtained  a  victory  in  the  said  wilderness.  The 
^lirine  has  the  traditionary  fame  of  being  self  originated ;  that  is  of  an< 
cnown  antiquity. 

22.  Account  given  by  Brahmint  at  Agalesvara  fane.    Some  jejune 
latter  panegyrical  of  «Su*a  introducing  the  mention  of  his  marriage  at 

Lara.  Agastya  is  mingled  up  with  the  account,  and  his  fixing  a 
\a\va  emblem  in  the  neighbourhood  led  to  the  name  of  Agalesvara' 
^anam*  Various  tiri*haf  specified  with  mention  of  the  distinguished 
leities  such  a^  Indra,  Suhrahmanya,  and  others,  who  did  homage  at  this 
.ocality. 

23.  Account  given  by  BrahmanM  of  Caiigaya  fane  in   Dh^rapuram 
■^i^strict  carried  up  to  the  Krela-yugnm,  and  a  penance  ])»^irorraed  by 

-"■Brahma.  Other  matter  equally  inane.  As  Parvati  diil  penanre  there^ 
'^he  place  seems  to  derive,  from  that  alleged  circumstance,  its  chief  re- 
bate.    The  legend  is  said  to  be  found  in  tlie  Curma'puranam. 

24.  Legendary  matter  from  older /^uri/iaf,  applied  to  a  particular  lo« 
caUty,  with  some  appended  jejune  details.  Inscriptions  in  troublous 
times  were  lost. 

25.  Account  supplied  by  Brahmang  of  the  fane  at  Kannipuram,  in 
the  Canyaya  hundred  of  the  Dharopur  district.  Legendary  matter  to 
account  for  the  name.  Besides  older  matter,  the  five  Pandavastae  said 
to  have  dwelt  there,  which  affords  some  test  of  the  veracity  of  the  whole* 

23.  Legendary  matter  as  to  a  fane  at  Tiruvalur  which  refers  back 
to  sixty «four  great  ages;  to  Marcandrya-rithit  and  some  later  matters  | 
of  equal  importance,  and  veracity. 

27*  Inscription  and  account  of  Tiruvalur  fane  in  the  Valagudi  hnn« 
dred,  in  the  Trichinopoly  district.  Valmica  was  performing  penance  in 
this  neighbourhood  when  a  Vedar  or  wild  hunter  shot  at  him  an  arrow ; 
but  the  sage  taught  him  wisdom.  Reference  to  the  Vishnu^puranam 
for  full  accounts  of  the  fane.  It  was  greatly  distinguished  by  ancient 
rulers  ;  but  was  allowed  to  go  to  decay.  Chokarangha-nayak,  of  modern 
date,  bad  it  repaired  ;  and  made  to  it  a  grant.  It  suffered  from  the  Ma« 
homedans.  A  few  subsequent  details  down  to  the  time  of  the  Honoura- 
ble Company.  For  a  time  its  festivals  were  obsened }  but  were  after* 
wards  discontinued. 


3r2  Report  en  the  Maekentte  Manuscripts,  inkr*^.^ 

28.  Record  of  a  grant  by  Crithna-rayer  of  various  sums  of  money  to 
VaUhnava  fanes,  in  the  Tanjore  country ;  and  a  mention  of  his  great 
munificence  in  the  Chola  kingdom. 

29.  A  grant  made  to  the  fane  of  Govinda-raja^  at  Chiitambartun,  or 
Chillambram. 

30.  Record  of  a  donation  by  Achyuta^rayer  in  Sal.  Sac.  1461,  to  a 
fane  at  the  same  place. 

31.  An  inscriptiun  dated  in  the  8th  year  of  Sri-coperu'Slnghwdevar, 
Commemorating  a  gift  of  land  by  the  Chola  king,  apparently  intended 
by  the  above  name,  to  the  fane  of  Sani-isvara-bhagavan^  at  the  same 
place. 

32.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1400.  Inscription  in  the  fane  of  Sabha-ndf  ha f 
to  which  nnmen  a  string  of  titles,  verging  on  the  ludicrous,  is  attributed. 
Donation  of  a  village,  in  free  tenure,  to  the  fane ;  by  certain  head-ment 
whose  names  are  specified. 

33.  Ins -ription  on  the  eastern  porch  at  Chittambaram,  Dated  in  Sal. 
Sac.  1503,  in  the  time  of  f^encalapati-rayer  of  the  race  of  Hari'hara'rayer, 
Gift  by   certain  head-men  of  (he  revenues  of  a  village  to  the  fane,  for  the 
customary  offerings  and  ceremonies. 

34^     Inscription  on  the  third  wall.    Dated  on  the  14th  day  of  the  rule 
of  Reya'i-aja-drvar,     Gifts  of  fruits,  and  other  productions,  at  the  appro* 
priate  seasons,  for  the  use  of  the  fane,  from  persons  of  the  fViyalvar  tribe, 
CeUmgo'rayen  is  the  first  name,  but  several  others  are  included  among 
the  donors. 

35.  Inscription  on  the  great  porch  of  the  fane  of  Narasimka'Svami  at 
MamsirJtoriL  Dated  in  Caii  YHsra  4442,  in  the  time  of  Cruhna-rayer, 
The  copy  is  imperfect,  and  what  was  given  is  not  clear ;  but  it  seems  to 
have  been  revenue  arising  from  land. 

36.  On  the  third  wall.  Dated  in  the  lOtbyearof  «Sri-rq;a-rff/a.iitfr«r. 
Gift  by  Ca//ii7<i-fciynit  and  others,  of  gmin  arising  from  cultivation,  for 
the  service  of  the  fane  which  contains  the  inscription. 

37.  Inscription  dated  in  the  16th  year  of  Raja-raja-dever,  A  gift  of 
land  by  some  head-men  to  the  fane. 

3*^  Gift  of  some  money  to  purchase  furniture,  or  utensils,  for  the  fane 
in  the  reif^n  of  KuWtmmpit  Cko'tt. 

39.  At  ChiHa'nharam  in  the  time  of  rriV^fl-r«yer,  in  Sal.  Sac.  1436, 
Mmnnnp't'maymkar,  gave  a  lar«:e  grant  of  land  to  furnish  food  for  the 
Brnkmems  to  p'.ant  a  flower  g»r\len  and  to  buiM  a  choultry  or  sartLt. 

40.  At  the  same  place.  Dated  in  the  5th  year  of  Kuta^Sec' kmra* 
derer.  Gift  of  money  to  supply  all  customary  articles  of  food  for  Bruk* 
mettiSm 


1899.]  Report  on  the  MackenzU  Manvscnpis*  SfS 

41   and  42.     Donations  by  Vicrama  Tribhavana-raja. 

43.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1515.     Crighnapa  Condapa   gave  some  landa 
to  provide  butler-oil  for  the  fane. 

44.  At  Srl'Tangha-ndt'ha  fane,  on  the  2d  wall.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac. 
1  »51.  Gift  of  a  village,  for  the  service  of  the  said  image,  by  one  named 
^^'tjayapar, 

45.  Same  place.    Gift  of  300  Amm*,  to  Utlama  Nambi,*by   Vijaya- 

^  ^upati  rayer. 

46.  Dated  in  1393.     Gift  of  some  money  by  head-men  of  villages,  in 
•  lie  time  of  Raja-vipada.     Also  a  gift  of  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  cer- 

in  lands  for  the  service  of  the  fane. 

47.  Dated  in  i343.     Gifr  of  some  lands  for  the  service  of  the  fane. 

48.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  15^0.     Mutiira  liaman  gave   some   land,   the 
roceeds  to  supply  food  to  the  Brahmans  in  the  four  pillared-porch. 

49.  In  the  time  c»f  Fira-pratapa'dever  Sal.  Sac.  1400.     Gift  of  some 
and,  for  festival  processions. 

50.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1433,  in  the  time  of  CrMna^rayer.    A  roer- 
hant  gave  some  land  for  the  service  of  the  fane. 

51.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1446»  in  the  time  of  Crishna'rayeri  his  gene- 
gave  some  land  for  the  use  of  the  attendants  on  the  shrine. 

52.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1590.    Gift  by  MiUta  Raman  of  money,  and 
^ice-grain,  for  the  festival  services* 

53.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1445.     Gift  of  land  by  Jppaiyan, 

54.  Dated  in  the  time  of  Achyuta-rayer  in  S.  S.  1452.    Gift  of  money 
^y  two  or  three  persons,  whose  names  are  mentioned. 

65.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1496,  in  the  time  of  Fera-pratapa-dever-maha' 
rayer.  Gift  of  a  village,  including  wet  and  dry  lands,  the  produce  to 
inpply  food  to  the  servants,  or  attendants,  of  the  fane. 

56.  Gift  of  two  villages  by  Anna-mutlamal^  a  lady  so  named*  No 
date  of  year, 

57.  Dated  in  S.  S.  1459,  in  the  time  o{  Achy uta* dever-rayer.  Gift  by 
Roma  Paitar  of  Uriyur  village ;  for  the  celebration  of  festival  proces- 
sions. 

58.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1C02.  Gift  of  some  lands  made  over  to  mana- 
gers of  the  fane  ;  name  of  the  donor  does  not  appear. 

59.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1473,  in  the  reign  of  Sada-Siva.  Gift  of 
CAo/«*jiA//tfr  village,  and  109  pieces  of  money,  to  supply  food  for  the 
fane. 

60.  Dated  in  the  time  of  Trt'bhuvana  Cliaeravgrti'Rajtndta-Ch^la* 
c/ec#r,  7  th  year  of  reign:  gift  of  a  flower  garden  to  supply  flowers  for 
♦he  image  by  Narasingha-Noyak* 


874  Sepori  an  tht  Mackenzie  Manuseriptr*  \^kti 

61.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1696.  Gift  of  money,  for  the  service  of  t 
fane,  by  some  bead-men. 

62.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1588.  Gift  of  four  hundred  kuns  by  an  a 
nual  impost  on  a  village  to  supply  butter-oil,  for  the  lamps,  and  for  U 
tivals. 

63.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1591.    Gift  of  two  villages  by  Alagiriyan 
the  fane. 

64.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1593.  Gift  by  Basavapa-nayak  of  some  lane 
for  the  service  of  the  idol. 

65.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1613.  Some  regulations  as  to  the  order  fir 
second,  thinl,  and  so  on,  in  which  certain  Brahman*  were  to  pot  garlan 
on  the  idol,  nt  the  time  of  public  processions. 

66.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1588.  Gift  bv  sixtv  head-men,  of  land  i 
the  support  of  Prohman  fiimilies,  in  an  agrahdram. 

67.  Dated  in  S.i!.  Sao.  1596.  Choka-naV ha-nayaker  gare  a  Tillage 
the  pn>ceeds  to  supp!y  food  to  Brahmans. 

63.  An  inscription  romnieroorating  the  self  immolation  of  a  manag 
of  the  fine  ut  Sri-ran  ikam  (n«»:ir  Trichinopoly)  whose  name  was  A 
f^nn-ftyt'tpar.  In  conseqnotice  of  all  supplies  to  the  fane  being  wit 
held,  in  a  bad  lime,  he  as  endetl  ihe  Rayer-pt^ura  or  lofty  tower,  ai 
precipitated  himself  to  the  ground.  The  24tli  of  Tat  of  a  cycle  year  on 
is  mentione«i.  The  precise  time  of  this  occurrence  cannot  be,  from  t\ 
ckK'umeni,  ascertaiited.  But  |K>ssibly  it  is  the  incident  related  by  Kl 
Onae ;  and  by  him  ascribed  to  a  somewhat  diffenpnt  cause. 

69.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac«  1596.  Gift  of  a  Tillage  by  Ck^lm-ndi'h 
aaylyr  of  the  Hue  of  ristmmmi'km^nMymk^r^  for  the  supply  of  food,  ai 
Ibr  expenses  of  festiral  processions. 

70.  Dated  in  SaI.  Sac«  1  ITi*  relative  to  the  fine  of  Ck^iJescmrm-wm 
in  the  dis4tnct  of  DXmrmpmr^ixccmtl*^  Gift  of  a  Tillage;  by  whom  do 
not  apy-cjo-. 

Tl.  In  Ccimbatcte«  Gift  of  six  elephants,  to  vtut  place  is  no:  sp 
ei£ed. 

n.  Ia$ei^pii«>T!i  dattrd  in  Sal.  Sac.  1449.  Gift  of  a  Tilla^,  by  who 
d«M«  no«  appear.     The  «!tft  ts  t^  a  Vmisimmrm  fane, 

7X  In  DJuunti^vrmm  dMmct.  lnKnp(N««  CiMBmemoniin^  the  gi 
of  a  Tilla^i^e. 

74.  Dtated  ia  SaL  Sar.  1:151  in  tbe  tiaae  of  r^^^imitn-Jenr.  Gift  o| 
Tiiia^^  ibe  r««TV4r  i*  supply  water  ior  aasi::n^  the  xsaa§e« 

73k  Ilaiei  ia  SaL  Sac,  IX^U  CUft^facemai  ponias  «f  Ittd  ;  tl 
prctfte^  U  <Hf^J  sa."ii6oei  aoi  oittia^ 


MW}  Report  wi  ike  Mackenzie  ManuscrtpU.  375 

76,  Gift  of  a  yillage,  by  two  persons  mentioned,  to  a  fane  of  Fara'> 
^a-raja, 

77'  Inscription,  publishing  charitable  grants  at  the  Faishnava  filneof 
Miuca,  in  the  hundred  of  Ceunfurai  in  Cuimbatore. 

7S.  At  Dondesvara  fane,  in  the  same  district.  A  record  of  cfaarita- 
^le  donations. 

79.  Gift  to  Brahmans  at  Safijaw daman galam  in  the  Cali-yuga  year 
1^07  J  (more  probably  Sal.  Sac.  1607). 

80.  Dated  in  Cali-yuga  4432.     What  was  given  not  legible, 

©i.     Diited  in  the  3J  year  of  Fira-raja'devan :  the  letters  of  the  in- 
•<5i"iption  could  not  be  copied. 

82.  Dated  in  Cali-yuga  4632,  in  the  government  of  Pilla-rdja;  gift 
^^f    a  village,  to  a  fane. 

83.  Inscription  at  Agastes^vara  fane  in  Dltarap''ram,  Dated  in  Co/t- 
S^^M^a  4633,  in  tbe  time  of  Devanuha-raja.  Gift  uf  cows,  and  other  cat- 
^^^,  by  a  trader. 

84.     Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1621.    Gift  of  3  reservoirs,  a  grove,  and  fertile 
^^"•nd,  during  the  power  of  Chitamhara-ndC ha-Muthali, 
€5.     Dated  in  Sal.  Sal.  1 121.     Gift  of  land. 

86.  Dated  in  Sal.  Sac.  1333.    Gift  of  a  village,  and  of  a  house,  for  the 
^intenance  of  a  daily  rite  of  homage. 

87.  In  the  time  of  the  Valldla  king.     Gift  of  a  water  reservoir. 

88.  Dated  in  the  5lh  year  of  Ficrama  Chola-dever.    Gift  of  a  garden^ 
«11  and  cows,  for  the  use  of  a  fane. 

89.  Dated  in  Tribhuvana  Chacraverd'g  reign.     Gift  of  some  coins, 
Virrent  at  that  time. 

90.  Gift  of  food  for  the  servants  or  attendants  of  a  fane  by  the  headr 
ten  of  a  village. 

91.  A  similar  donation. 
[It appears  to  me  profilless,  and  uninteresting,  to  continue  so  minute- 

^.  detail,  the  whole  has  been  carefully  examined;  but  in  what  follows 
^liat  only  which  seems  to  be  a  little  more  special  is  given]. 

92.  In  the  time  of  Achyuta-raj/er  Sal.  Sac.  1200  :  a  gift  of  land. 

93.  A  tabular  list  of  inscriptions;  with  the  date;  year  of  kings' 
^eign;  or  other  distinctive  mark ;  which  may  be  of  use  to  refer  to:  the 
dumber  is  but  small. 

94.  A  paper  referring  to  some  modem  affairs,  in  the  wars  of  the  south ; 
"^he  names  of  English  officers  occurring, 

95.  A  few  dates  which  refer  to  later  periods  of  rule,  than  Sal.  Sac. 
1600. 


376  Remarks  upon  Colonel  ReicCs  attempt  [Apbil 

Remark. — ^The  materiel  of  this  book  waR  observed  to  be  in  a  rapidly 
perishing  condition ;  and  restoration  by  a  copyist  was  necessary  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  contents.  This  may  be  judged  of  from  what 
goes  before.  My  own  estimate  would  be  but  moderate ;  though  there 
certaintly  are  dates,  and  names,  that  are  of  use  in  confirming  or  correct- 
ing other  written  documents.  The  book  itself  will  not  long  continue 
legible ;  but  the  restored  copy  can  be  referred  to»  should  occasion  so  re- 
quire. 

(To  he  continued.} 


VI I L — Remarks  upon  Colonel  Reid*s  "  Attempt  to  develop  the  Law  of 
*S/on»w."*— By  T.  G.  Taylor,  Esq.  Astronomer  to  the  Honourable 
East  India  Company. 

The  author  commences  by  stating,  that  his  attention  was  first  directed 
to  study  the  subject  of  storms,  when  employed  at  Burbadoes  in  rebuilding 
the  Government  offices  which  had  been  blown  down  in  (he  hurricane  of 
1831 ;  when  **  1477  persons  lost  their  lives  in  the  short  space  of  seven 
hours."  Pursuing  the  subject.  Col.  Reid  has  collected  from  various 
sources,  a  large  connected  mass  of  information  ;  from  which  it  would  ap- 
pear— that  the  character  and  disposition  of  the  larger  gales  of  wind,  or 
hurricanes,  are  not  of  that  casual  order  that  they  have  generally  been 
supposed  to  be. 

We  may  mention,  that  Col.  Reid  has  not  exactly  proposed  a  new 
theory,  but  in  the  end,  has  rather  instituted  an  inquiry  into — how  far  the 
whole  of  the  facts  relative  to  humcanes  (derived  principally  from  the 
logs  of  different  ships)  may  be  explained  hy  a  theory. 

Col.  Capper,  as  far  back  as  ]  SOI,  had  mentioned  in  his  history  of  storms 
upon  the  Coromandel  Coast,  that  **  it  would  not,  perhaps,  be  a  matter 
of  great  difficulty,  to  ascertain  the  situation  of  a  ship  in  a  whirlwind,  by 
observing  the  strength  and  changes  of  the  wind.  If  the  changes  are  sud- 
den, and  the  wind  violent,  in  all  probability  the  ship  must  be  near  the 
centre  of  the  vortex  of  the  whirlwind;  whereas  if  the  wind  blows  a 
great  length  of  time  from  the  same  point,  and  ihe  changes  are  gradual,  it 

♦  Ai  Attef^pi  to  develop  ihe  Law  cf  Storms  6y  mean*  of  facts,  arranged  according  to  place 
and  fime ;  and  hence  to  point  out  a  cause  for  tfte  f'ariable  n'inds,  with  the  Hew  to  practical 
tue  in  A'arigation.  Illustrated  by  charts  and  uood  cuts.-^By  Lieutenant. Colonel  Rkij>,  c.  b. 
( qjftke  Roffoi  £nginetnj,  London,  1838. 


lo  (Uvelop  iU  law  qf  Siot^ns.  ZlJ 

be  reasonably  supposed  the  ship  is  near  the  exlreraity  of  it,"* 
&8e  views  too  had  likewise  been  entertained  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Redfield  of 
Mr  York,  from  a  consideration  of  the  storms  occurring  in  the  West  In- 
dicts. On  Ujring  down  on  a  chart  the  position  of  ships  situated  at  vari- 
otas  places  within  the  ranges  of  several  of  these  storms,  Col.  Reid  found* 
^li^L*  ^*ihe  more  exactly  this  was  done^  the  nearer  appeared  to  he  the  ap" 
Jtimation  to  the  tracks  of  a  progreesive  whirlwind,*' 
o  understand  the  effect  of  a  progressive  whirlwind,  it  is  only  neces- 
to  inspect  the  figures  1,  2,  and  3,  PI.  8.  In  figure  1,  the  Island,  with 
rence  to  the  circle  to  the  right,  would  experience  a  northerly  gale; 
,  supposing  the  storm — the  whirlwind — to  be  travelling  towards  the 
*  ^  ^^^»  or  due  west,  the  northerly  gale  would  continue,  until,  by  its  progres- 
^*^J^ amotion,  the  island  were  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  circle,  when  a 
^"■n  might  be  expected;  after  which,  the  gale  would  assuredly  set  in 
»Ti  the  directly  opposite  quarter  (from  the  south)  ;  until,  having  arrived 
t-he  position  occupied  by  the  circle  to  the  left,  the  storm  would  here 
^se. 

^f,  instead  of  an  island.  We  consider  the  case  of  a  ship  under  sail}  the 
"^umstances  might  be  considerably  altered ;  for,  were  the  ship's  coarse 
^        ^  same  as  that  pursued  by  the  storm,  it  might,  by  keeping  pace  with 
^  ^^  storm,  continue  for  days  within  its  influence  ;  whereas,  by  an  oppo« 
e  course,  it  would  in  a  comparatively  short  time  be  got  rid  of.     If  the 
""^  ^p  were  situated  at  c,  as  in  fig.  2:  supposing  the  direction  of  the  whirl- 
nd  to  follow  the  course  abed,  then,  the  wind  at  the   commencement 
the  g;ile  would  set  in  from  the  N.  E. ;  after  which  it  would  shift  to  the 
St,  and  terminate  eventually  at  S.  E. :  but,  were  the  ship  situated  in 
^^e  lower  portion  of  the  circle  (at  c),  then  the  wind  would  set  in  from 
e  K.  W.,  after  which  it  would  shift  to  the  west,  and  eventually  ter- 
inate  at  S.  W.     If,  however,  the  whirlwind  were  to  follow  the  direc- 
"^^on  c^  c  6  er ;  the  direction  of  the  wind,  both  at  the  commencement  and 
^nd  of  the  storm,  would  be  different :  for  the  upper  position  (c),  the  wind 
Xjvould  in  this  case  commence  at  S.  W. — shift  to  the  west,  and  terminate 
^tN.  W. ;  and  for  the  lower  position  in  the  figure  (e),  the  wind   would 
f!ommence  at  S.  E. — shift  to  the  east,  and  terminate  at  N.  E. 

Hence  it  became  a  matter  of  some  importance,  to  learn— if  whirlwinds 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  revolved  in  the  same  direction  as  did  those 
in  the  northern.  The  investigation  was  difficult,  from  the  few  observa- 
tions which  could  be  met  with  in  the  southern  hemisphere;  but,  on  the 
whole,  it  appeared  that  there  was  no  exception  to  the  general  rule,  that 
the  whirlwinds  in  fhe  northern  hemisphere  all  revolved  after  the  order  iV. 
}V»  S,  E,  (according  to  fhe  order  of  the  signs  J  ;  whereas  those  in  the 

•  Rbid,  p.  2. 


178  Jfemmris  upm  Ca!w9i  i?«iJ'«  tUtempi  t^FKn. 

fMclJbni  kemitpkere  all  retolt§d  in  th§  ojp^ut§  direetiam,  or  N,  S.  S.  W% 
(ctmirmry  to  ike  ortUr  q'*  ike  9i^ns), 

If  we  could  DOW  disooTer,  that  the  tracks  of  storms  in  varioiit  parts  of 
lie  globe,  followed  fixed  laws  ;  for  instance— that  the  tracks  of  stormt 
on  the  Coronandel  Coast  travelled  from  east  to  west  a/avays, — that  tho 
lifaaritiiis  storms  pursued  a  south  westerly  course ;  and  that  the  atorms 
peculiar  to  the  West  Indies  originated  from  the  eai^t,  and,  recunring  pa* 
lallel  to  the  coast  of  America,  terminated  in  a  westerly  course  ; — cou-d 
we  be  sure  that  these  laws  ^ere  alwm^M  observed  by  storms,  we  shonld 
be  then  in  possession  of  facts,  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  sail  in  a  direction 
ftt  the  commencement  of  a  storm,  so  as  to  avoid  encountering  its  worst 
tffwts*  With  regard  to  the  rate  of  progression  of  storms,  it  appears  tba^ 
they  are  various;  being,  in  some  cases,  as  low  as  seven  miles  per  hoar| 
whilst  others  there  are,  whose  velocity  has  reached  forty  or  fifty  miles 
per  hoar. 

Id  Col.  Reid*s  work,  the  tracks  of  nine  storms  which  have  occuired  in 
the  West  luilies  are  laid  ^o\m\  in  a  chart.  In  each  of  th^'se  the  course  of 
the  sereral  storms  has  been  ac«-uratt>ly  traced  to  be  from  W.  by  K.  to  W. 
K.  W.,  when  encountered  within  the  limits  of  10—20  degrees  of  north 
latitude;  af^er  whiih,  gradually  curving  towards  the  north,  in  the  90th 
degree  of  N.  lat.,  its  course  becomes  due  north  :  from  thence — apparent* 
ly  with  perfect  symmetry <-the  curves  incline  towards  the  easL 

The  Kiist  Indian  gales  appear  invariably  to  travel  from  the  coast  of 
Arracau:*  tomards  the  west;  the  curves  conforming  gradotilly  to  the 
slope  of  the  shore,  until  in  about  the  latitude  of  Madras,  when  their 
coarse  is  due  south :  after  ahi.h  the  curve  bends  again  towards  the  west, 
the  violence  of  the  storm  seldom  extending  below  Cuddalore,  or  Porto 

»KoTO. 

The  Mauritius  and  Madagascar  storms  appear  likewise  to  trarel 
from  the  ea«t«ard  at  their  commencement :  but  the  point  of  recurving, 
,1001  want  of  sufficient  observation,  does  not  appear  yet  to  have  been 
eleairiv  mjde  out.—  We  meet  with  the  following  description  of  the  harri* 
eane  at  the  M  «uritius  in  1813. 

«'  La  s^Ue  de  spectacle  est  un  tr^s-grand  Edifice.  Sa  forme  est  celle 
*'  d*un  T  dent  la  t^te  est  on  avant-^x^rps  consid^mbYe,  puisque  la  partie 
**  po»i^ear^,  fi»rmant  la  queue  du  T.  a  scu)o  .^3  pieds  de  largeur  snr  d2 

de  long.  Si  cet  Edifice  eAt  M  brist^  par  ia  tempcte  on  aurait  pu  atlribue 


«lsna#flt»a^f«rtdtoeMMft>MtlM««twii4  4irKt,b«t  uie  »auef  »  vcty  4oaU. 


1839]  to  develop  (he  law  of  Slorms,  379 

**  cet  ^v^neroent  &  la  mani^re  dont  il  ^lait  construit ;  mais,  ce  qui  est  ^- 
**  peine  croyable,  eel  immen-e  arri^re-corps  cle  34  pieds  et  surm(»nt6  d'ua 
**  oomble  en  cliarpente,  H6  en  outre  avec  I'avant-corps  qui  forme  la 
•*  f»9iide,  a  cependant  cliassd  de  pr^s  de  cinq  pieds sur son  soubassement. 
*•  Quelle  force  f»rodigieuse  que  celle  qui  a  pu  produire,  le  d^i'lacement 
**  liorizontal  d'une  telle  masse !  son  renversemetit  eut  M  un  pli^no* 
**  m^ne  ordinaire ;  sa  tranalatiun,  si  Pon  peut  employer  ce  terme,  ue  ae 
**    eon9oit  pas/'* 

In  the  concluding  cliapter,  we  find  as  follows. 

"  It  is  a  well  known  fact,  thai  some  parts  of  the  globe  are  more  subject 
**  t.o  stotms  than  oihers ;  and  I  have  throughout  this  investigation  felt 
*•  i•npre^'8«*d  with  the  opinion,  tlmt  the  force  and  trequency  of  stormi 
•*     xxiay  have  some  t-onnexion  with  the  law  of  magnetic  intensity. 

•  •The  iitlauds  of  Mauritius  and  St.  Helena  are  nearly  in  the  same  de* 

•*     ^ree  of  south  latitude ;  yet  at  St.  Helena  a  gale  was  scarcely  ever 

**     Itnown,  and  it  is  said  to  be   entirelv  free  from   actual    storms.    Those 

-^ho  ^tudy  Major  Sabine's  report  on   the  magnetic  intensities  of  tht 

^lobe,  and  follow  his  isodynamic  lines  which  express  unity,  will  find 

tbem  opening  from  each  other  in  the  northern  part  of  the  south  Atlail" 

^ic,  and  including  a  space  which  thus  really   appears  to  be  the  true 

Pacific  Ocean  of  the  world.     Within  this  space,   on   Major  Sabine's 

charts,  will  be  found  two  other  lines,  marking  intensities  in  decimal 

]>arts  le$:8  than  unity;  and  he  states  that  the  intensity  at  St.   Helena 

«s  observed  by  Captain  Fitz  Roy,  is  0,  84:   the  lowest   denomination 

recorded,  and  the  locality  of  the  weakest  intensity  yet  observed  on  the 

globe. 

**  When  we  examine  the  lines  of  the  greatest  intensity,  we  find  them 
*  approaching  each  other  in  longitude  110*  and  '^60*"  (100*  W.),  but 
in  different  latitudes  ;  for  the  line  of  least  intensity  docs  not  coincide 
with  the  earth's  equator.     In  the  Chinese  sea,  in  longitude   110*  E., 

*  it  is  to  the  north  of  the  equator, proceeding  thence  in  a  direction  south- 

*  ward  of  St.  Helena. 

**  Of  the  su]>posed  four  magnetic  poles,  the  positions  of  the  two  in  the 
••  noriliern  hemisphere  are  the  best  ascertained.  The  meridians  which 
•*  run  through  these  two  poles,  run  also  through  the  Chinese  sea  and 
••  near  the  Cari')be;»n  sea,  the  localities  of  typhoons  and  hurricanes  ;  and 
•*  Maj(»r  Sabine's  isodynamic  lines  indicate  the  magnetic  intensities  so 
**  strongly  rairked  there,  that  we  arc  led  to  the  belief  that  there  must  be 
'*  some  connexion  between  the  magnetic   intensity  and  the   force  of 

*«  storm."  t 

«  Rbid,  p.  lil.  Ibid,  p.  415, 


«« 
<« 

c« 


m> 


Kemarkt  up<m  Coionel  ReuPs  attempt 


The  nbove  contains  the  spirit  of  pretty  nearly  all  the  sobjectt  advert- 
ed to  in  Col.  Reid's  work.  Among  the  rest,  there  are  suggestions  for 
registermg  the  state  of  the  barometer  at  the  several  light-houses  at  places 
on  this  side  of  the  Cape,  and  for  collecting  information  from  the  logs  of 
ships  which  have  encountered  bad  weather,  &c.  Account  of  waters 
spouts — whirlwinds,  &c.  In  furtherance  of  these  wishes  I  will  here 
nention  one  objection — which,  although  not  disproving  the  theory  that 
storms  arise  from  rotatory  and  progressive  whirlwinds — still  renders  ne* 
cessary  some  explanation  beyond  that  of  rotation  and  progression.  In 
England,  for  several  years  I  had  been  in  the  daily  habit  of  noting  the 
indications  of  the  barometer,  and  on  the  occurrence  of  gales  of  wind, 
my  attention  was  very  particular.  I  have  no  memoranda  by  me  at  this 
moment  to  offer  in  evidence,  but  I  may  mention,  that  I  had  invariably 
noticed— /All/  the  rate  at  which  the  barometer  rose  after  gates  had  reach' 
td  ihwr  etimax,  was  always  much  more  rapid  than  that  it  had  observed 
m  falling  previousltf  thereto;  and,  on  consulting  the  obser\*ations 
made  at  Madras  and  other  places,  the  same  circumstance  I  find  always 
occurs.  Thus,  during  the  gale  of  wind  at  Madras  in  1797>  we  have  the 
following  recorded  observation : — 


Date.  Barometer 

inches. 
Oct.  25th  at  noon  30.005  > 

27th  —  2  P.  M.     29.465  ' 
28th  —  6  A.  M.    29.819  S 


Hourly     Wind. 


var. 


.011 
.022 


Remarks. 


Gale  of  wind. 
Do.  at  height. 
Do.  had  subsided. 


In  the  gale  of  wind  at  Madras  in  October  1818  : — 


Oct.  33d  at    8  P.  M.  29.80 

24th  —  5  A.  M.  29.50  ( 

24th— lOi  A.M.  28.78 J 

24th  — 12    A.M.  29.28 ( 


.131 
.333 


N.  Very  high  wind. 

N.  A  violent  jrale. 

calm  An  awful  lull. 

S.  Hurricane  at  1 1  h. 


In  the  gale  of  wind  at  Madras  in  May  1S20  : — 

Oct.   8ihat  10  A.M.    29.750     N.W.  Very  strong  wind. 

8ih  •—  8  P.  M. N.W.  Strong  gale. 

9th— 6  A.M.    29.400     Gale  increasing. 


9th  — 12  A.M.  29.135  i 

9lh—  3  P.M.  2S.816J 

9th  —  5  P.  M.  28.670  \ 

9ih  —  9  P.  M.  2S.5*   I 

lOth  —  6  A.  M.  29.633  i 


.106 
.073 


.1 


23 


W.  Ditto. 

• Still  stronger. 

•  Continues. 

SW.  Gd^atitsheighf 
Moderate  weath 


Ij^is  is  osamed  with  ivfoivr.ce  to  the  two  pierioos  cV&rrratioas,  but  it  appeals 


ia3&}  /•  develop  the  law  of  Stwm»,  38? 

In  the  gale  of  wind  nt  Madras  in  October  1836: — 

30th  at  12  A.M.    29.707     N.    Approaching  a  gale. 

30th—  1P.M.         .586     N.    Briskgale. 

30th  —  2  .321     N.     Do.    do.         [gale. 

30th  —  3  .269     , N.    At  times  a  violent 

.... —  4  .111      N.     Very  violent  gale. 

••••"•^  28.891  >  266  N.    Approaching   to  a 

....  —  6  .625 J  [hurricane. 

....  — 7-45m. —    .285/  rcrt  N.     Approaching  a  calm. 

^-VKrr.  7o^i  calm    From    7.15  to  7.45 

....  —  »- JU  m.  —    ./25  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^j  j^jj^ 

....  —  9  29.027  J  '  S.    A  furious  hurricane. 

...    — 10  .258     —     A  strong  gale. 

....  — II .415     —    Very  strong  wind. 

In  Colonel  Reid*»  book  there  are  given  several  registeries  of  the  baro- 

"^^ter  during  storms,  but  these  having  been  made  on  board  of  ships  (which 

ProXjably  occupied  different  places  at  the  different  times    of  observations) 

^^^    not  available   for  our  present  purpose.     There  is,   however,   one 

^***^icane  (which  occurred  in  March  1836  at  the  Mauritius),  in  which 

^^  barometer  was  not  only  registered  on  shore,  but  that  too,  with  more 

^^H  ordinary  care  :♦  thus — 

Mean  Time.       Barometer      Hourly        Direction  Remarks. 

X^  inches.  var.  of  wind. 

^^rch6at    6  A.M.     29.220.  from  S.     to    E.  ^ 


« •  •  • 


\      .050 
—    8  .120]  E.N.E.    to    S.W.byW. 

\      .137 

_  10  28.845;  Do.      to        Do. 

.150 


^  -  . . . .     —  12  28.545  \  Do.      to        Do. 

\  .107 
•^ —    2  P.  M.    28.330  {  N.  E.      to    S.  W. 

\  .037 
» —4 28.255^  S.  by  W.  moderate. 


—  5J  28.235       calm. 

—  7  28.275  >       ,   . 

—  8  28.4-20  S      '^^^ 


CO 

«^ 

3> 

a 
oa 

Q 
O 


Varying  with  the  barometer,  is  likewise  the  intensity  of  the  storm,  as 

%ill  be  seen  with  reference  to  the  above  five  cases,  thus — 

Storm  observed  Interval  between  the 

at  begin,  and  mid.  mid.  and  end. 

D.    H.  D.     H. 

Madras      in      1797   2.2   0.10 

—     18 '8  0.  5    0.  2 

.       —     1820    1.11   0.9 

.       —    1836  ..... 0.10 0.  4  or  5 

Mauritius—    1836 0.22  O.U  Dovi>B\.W\. 

•  i?«lP  p.  155, 


382  Colontl  ReitTs  Work  on  Storms:  [Afkid 

Now  the  continued  occurrence  of  phenomena  of  this  nature,  niilitafes 
against  the  theory,  **  that  storms  are  progressive  whirlwinds,"  or  rather 
— as  I   have  observed  before — leaves  the  theory    incomplete  :  for,    we 
should  naturally  expect  from  a  whirlwind,  that  its  sectional    outline 
would  bo  circular,  and,  that  the  time  occupied  between   the  commence- 
ment and  middle,  would  correspond  with  that  observed  between  ihemid-^ 
die  and  termination,  whereas  we  have  just  found  them    to  stand  in    the 
proportion  of  2 1  to  I.     In  other  respects  too,   the  theory  adopted  by  Co- 
lonel  Reid  has  not  met  with  complete  confirmation,  as   will  be  seen  with 
refereuce  to  particulars  observe*!  in  the  Madras  storm  of  .KJ6  :  it  appears 
from  the  little  information  I  was  then  able  to  obtain,  that    the  centre  of 
this  storm  passed  over  a  ship  (theWafer  Witih),at  a  distance  of  780  miles 
|0  the  eastward  of  Madras,  ai  4  past  7  o'clock  on  the  evening  of  the  29th 
October — just  24  hours  before  it  reached    Madras;   exhibiting  a  velocity 
of  progression  of  ^^2  miles  per  hour:  hence,    whatever  may  have   been 
the  rotatory  velocity  of  any  point  such  as  a  dv,  3  (rail  it  x),  it   follows, 
that,  at  some  place  (b)  to  the   northward  of  Madras,  a  hurricane  of  the 
velocity  x  -f-  32  miles  per  hour  must  have  been  f  xperienced  ;  whereas  at 
a  corresponding  place  (c)  to  the  southward,  a  velocity  x — 32  miles    per 
hour  only  would  have  been  experienced  ;  or,since  »  repiesents  the  velocity 
which  would  be  experienced  at  Madras,  it  would  appear,  that   the  gale 
must  have  been  64  miles  per  hour  more  rapid— stronger — lo  the  northward 
of  Madras  than  it  was  to  the  southward  :  whereas,  from    enquiries  made 
at  the  time,  it  appeared  that  a  trifling  difference  only  was   experienced. 
With  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  will,  perhHps,  eventually  be   found   ne- 
cessary  to  admit,  that  the  onward  progression   of  stonns  is  propagated 
by  undulations^  and  not  by  an  actual  movement  of  the  particles   compos* 
ing  the  whirlwind  : — and*,  further,  with  reference  to  fig.  3 — if  the  smaller 
circle  d  e^  represent  the  space  within  which  the   air  was   quiescent,    th^ 
theory   would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  at  rf  and  9  a   similar  strength   o^ 
wind  would  be   experienced;  whereas,  in  the  storm  of  1826,  as  well  a^ 
that  of  1818,  and  indeed  in  every  storm  which  has  occurred  at   Madras, 
the  wind  experienced  after  the  lull,  is  far  more  violent   than  that   whicl 
preceded  it. 

In  conclusion,  I  may  say  for  myself,  that  I  have  been  led  to  mak^  — i* 
these  remirks,  not  with  a  view  of  finding  fiault  with  Colonel  Reid'  ^^^  ': 
book  or  his  theory,  but  with  an  earnest  desire  of  forwarding,  to  the  bea^^  > 
of  my  abilities,  what  he  has  so  ably  commenced. 

Madras  Observatory :  > 
Ut  June,  1839.       S 


Colimtfl  Capper^s  Whirlwindi,  383 


[We  have  been  induced  to  make   the   three  following  extracts   from 

C^olonel  Reid's  book,  as  a  supplement  to  Mr.  Taylor*6  paper  ;  the  first, 

^rom  the  local  interest  it  possesses,  as  exhibiting  the  fact  that  the  first 

observation   leading  to   the   new    theory  was  mailc  by  a  distinguished 

3fadra8  OflScer,  from  what  passed  before  his  eyes  here  on  our  own  coast ; 

-^be  second,  as  describing  a  phenomenon  calling  for  elucidation,   which 

•may  probably  be  rendered  by  some  of  our  readers   in    ihe  Straits,  or  by 

those  who  voyage  thither  ;  and  the  third,  because  it  explains  the  useful 

practical  results,  which,  it  is  hoped,  may  spring  from  the  new  theory. 

Colonel  Reid  seems  not  to  have  been  aware  of   the  able  meteorolo- 
gical observations  made  by  Mr.  Goldingham,  late  Astronomer  of  Ma- 
<lras,  published  in  the  Jpj^endi'x  to  the  3d  vol.  of  the   Trangaction*  of 
ihe    Royal  Asiatic  Society  and  republished    in  this  Journal,   No.  12, 
p.  157. — Editor.] 

Colonel  Capper'e  Pykirlwinds.— The  late  Colonel  James  Capper's 
opinion,  that  hurricanes  are  vast  whirlwinds,  was  formed  during  twenty 
years'  observation  and  study  of  the  subject,  on  the  coast  of  Coromandeh 
In  the  preface  to  his  work,  published  in  1801,  he  says,  that  when  he 
first  attempted  an  investigation  into  (he  winds  in  India  he  had  great 
doubts  of  success,  from  the  number  and  variety  of  them :  but  as  he  pro- 
ceeded, he  found  that  there  were  many  words  to  express  the  same  thing, 
and  that  the  hurricane,  the  typhoon,  and  the  tornado,  were  but  English, 
Greek,  or  Persian,  and  Italian  or  Spanish  names,  for  a  whirlwind. 

In  classing  the  winds,  he  observes,  '*  the  tempest  is,  both  in  cause 
and  effect,  the  rame  as  the  hurricane  or  whirlwind ;  and  that  the  storm, 
or  what  the  Englishman  calls  a  hard  gale,  is  likewise  nearly  the  same." 
He  also  states,  that  it  is  a  long  standing  error  that  hurricanes  in  India 
occur  only  at  tlie  changes  of  the  monsoons  ;  and  that  Dr.  Halley  must 
have  been  misinformed  on  that  subject. 

There  is  this  difference  in  the  observations  of  Colonel  Capper  and  Mr* 
Redfield,  that  the  former  seemed  of  opinion  that  all  whirlwinds  are  local 
and  temporary,  whilst  Mr.  Redfield  has  clearly  shown  that  they  are  pro- 
gressive. It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  some  storms  are  local, 
and  end  nearly  at  the  same  place  where  they  began. 

The  accounts  of  those  storms,  quoted  by  Colonel  Capper,  extracted 
from  Orme's  History,  all  occurred  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel :  but  the 
reports  given  of  the  winds,  though  they  show  that  these  hurricanes  were 
whirlwinds,  are  not  sufficiently  detailed  to  enable  us  to  determine  their 
tracks,  and  from  what  directions  (if  they  were  not  local)  they  came. 


384  Colonel  Raid's  JTark  on  Storm*  :  [Armit 

The  following  are  extracts  from  Colonel  Capper's  work  on  the  winds 
and  monsoons. 

•*  During  the  siege  of  Poinlit  berry,  at  the  time  of  the  N.  E.  monsoon 
and  on  the  30th  of  December,  1760,  ibe  weather  was  fine  in  the  evening; 
but  a  heaTT  swell  rolled  on  the  shore  from  the  south-east.  The  next 
morning  the  sky  was  of  a  du^jky  hue,  accomp<«nieii  by  a  closeness  of  the 
air;  but  without  that  wild  irregularity  wbirh  prognosticates ahnrricane. 
Towards  the  evening,  however,  the  wind  freshened  from  the  norih-wett, 
and  at  8  at  night  incrta^ed  considerhbly.  About  midnight  the  wind 
veered  round  to  tht*  north-tast  ;  fell  calm,  with  a  thick  haze  ;  and,  in  a 
few  minutes,  flew  round  to  the  fonth-east,  whence  it  blew  with  great 
violence.  Almost  all  the  ^hips  might  hive  been  saved,  bad  they  taken 
advantage  of  the  wind  blowing  o9*  the  land  :  but  the  roaring  of  the  wind 
and  sea  prevented  the  captains  from  hearing  the  signals  for  standing 
out  to  sea.  The  Newcastle  and  Protector  were  driven  on  shore,  a  few 
miles  south  of  Pondicberry,  and  the  crews  were  s.ived.  The  Norfolk, 
Admiral  Stevens,  returned  nest  day ;  and  on  the  7th  came  in  the  Satis* 
bury,  from  Trinco  Trincomalee,  south :  and  the  Tiger  from  Madras,  north  : 
so  that  in  these  opposite  direi^tions,  of  east,  north,  and  south,  the 
violence  of  the  storm  hid  not  been  felt.* 

*•  The  next  in  succession  wa<  that  o(  1773  :  on  the  20th  of  October 
that  year,  many  days  after  the  nortb-ea^t  mons«.H>n  had  apparently  com- 
menced, the  wind  began  to  slacken,  nn  I  tbe  ilouds  iu  the  evening  ap- 
peared uncommonly  red:  pariivMlarly  on  the  day  preceding  the  storm. 
On  tbe  rooming  of  the  21>t,  a  s:n>ng  wind  blew  o«Tthe  liiud  ;  and,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours,  flow  all  round  the  compass.  At  lhi>  time  the  Nor- 
folk, man  of  war.  Admiral  CorniNh,  with  tbe  America  and  Weymouth,  and 
the  Princess  Char\« If e,  cx^untr)-  ship  of -l«  0  tons,  remained  in  Madras 
roads,  wi:h  several  i»iber  in^unrry  ves-e!>.  Th  •  win  i  beg:m  to  blow  from 
the  north-west,  an  1  cv^nrinued  from  th  it  qaartrr  tor  three  or  four  hours  •  of 
which  time  the  men  of  nnr  .iv.iib  ,\  ihom-selves  to  put  to  sea  :  but  it  then 
$uddei;ly  shified  to  il.c  <'<T>/ir»r/,  and  prt»Vf*nled  mo^t  of  the  countrv 
ships  from  following  their  e^Lampie.    After  having  blown  with  incessant 


*  After  tbis  v^nit  to  the  Pnns.  I  chc^n^  f»om  the  Admirattj-.  eopkt  of  the  log 
Ivwkft  of  tbe  Norfolk,  the  Salisbanr.  T;iyT.  Y»»rk.  Jiaa  oih^r  »hip»  of  Adairml  StrTens* 
•qmidnMi  ia  176S-1.  The  Mora  above  alltt«ike<ii  to  be^aa  4S>ut  x.  x.  v..  aad  ended  aboat 
s.  s.  >. 

Tlte  Tifer.  u  well  as  the  SaK»banr.  York.  a»a  W^yTn^-«at^,  vere  all   to  tbe  »omikm»d 
of  Poadv^kerrr  ;  aiMl  were,   in  diffM^at  place*,  wi:h;a   the  inSxience  of  this  storm ;  ap- 
pareoitlj,  ahowin^  that  tbia  »torai  came  i'ri>xa  the  d;:,:v-:.oa  of  the  equator,  as  well  as  tb« 
otben.  althoufh  it  mast  bare  ncred  a  i.:t!e  souths: nr  a:  Poodicberrj,  by  tbe  wind 
Teecincftoaix,  s.  w.  lo  a.  s.  b. 


1839]  Colonel  Capper's  fVhirlwlnds.  3S5 

violence  for  fourleen  hours,  and  with  almost  equal  strength  fiom  every 
point  of  the  compass,  it  at  length  ceased;  but  literally  left  only  wrecks 
behind. 

*'  All  the  vessels  at  anchor  were  lost,  and  almost  every  person  on 
board  perished ;  but  the  men  of  war  and  Princess  Charlotte  returned 
into  the  roads  on  the  2Uh.  The  former  had  felt  the  gale  very  severely 
whiUt  near  the  coast ;  but  without  sustaining  any  material  injury  :  the 
latter  vessel  likewise,  ft  om  staying  rather  too  long  at  anchor,  had  lost 
her  fore  and  main  masts,  and  was  otherwise  much  damaged.** 

After  accounts  of  other  storms,  Colonel  Capper  continues  :— 

*'  Ships  which  put  to  sea  in  due  time,  very  soon  get  beyond  the  in- 
fluence of  the  hurricane  to  the  eastward  ;  and  it  is  very  well  known  that 
they  never  extend  far  inland.  All  these  circumstances,  properly  con- 
sidered, clearly  manifest  the  nature  of  these  winds,  or  rather  positively 
prove  them  to  be  whirlwinds,  whose  diameter  cannot  be  more  than  120 
miles;  and  the  vortex  seems  generally  near  Madras  or  Pulicat.  Those 
which  happen  in  the  north-east  monsoon,  generally  fall  with  most 
violence  within  a  few  leagues  of  this  place,  and  never,  I  believe,  reach 
south  of  Purlo  Novo. 

**  But  at  the  commencoment  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  violent  gales 
are  sometimes  felt  on  the  east  side  of  Ceylon,  and  the  southern  extre- 
mity of  the  coast." 

After  describing  a  hurricane,  encountered  in  south  latitude  by  the 
Britannia,  Indiaman,  on  the  lOth  of  March,  1770,  and  explaining  that  it 
did  not  extend  above  30  leagues,  since  the  Britannia  fell  in  with  twa 
ships  which  were  within  this  distance.  Colonel  Capper  proceeds : — 
'•  Thus  then  it  aj»pears,  that  these  tempests  or  hurricanes  are  tornadoes 
or  local  whirlwinds,  and  are  fdt  with  at  least  equal  violence  on  the  sea 
coast  and  at  some  little  distance  out  at  sea.  But  there  is  a  material  dif- 
ference in  the  situation  of  the  sun  when  they  appear  at  different  places  \ 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandcl,  for  example,  they  seldom  happen,  particu- 
larly to  the  northward,  except  when  the  sun  is  in  the  opposite  hemiS' 
phere.  On  the  Malabar  coast  they  rage  with  most  violence  during  the 
monsoon,  whilst  the  sun  is  almost  vertical.  Near  the  island  of  Mauri- 
tius, they  are  felt  in  January,  February,  and  March,  which  may  be  deemed 
their  summer  months ;  and  in  the  West  Indies,  according  to  Mr. 
Edwards's  *  History  of  Jamaica,*  the  hurricane  season  begins  in  August 
and  ends  in  October." 

In  Colonel  Capper's  work,  we  find  Franklin's  explanation  of  what 
first  led  him  to  observe  that  the  north-east  storms  of  America  came  from 


396  Colonel  ReitTs  Work  on  Siormt :  [April 

the  south-west  It  is  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Alexander  Small,  dated  the  12th 
of  May,  1760,  and  is  as  follows : — 

"  About  twenty  years  ago,  we  were  to  have  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  at 
Philadelphia,  about  9  o'clock ;  I  intended  to  have  observed  it,  but  was 
prevented  by  a  north-east  storm,  which  came  on  about  7t  vith  thick 
clouds  as  usual,  that  quite  obscured  the  whole  hemisphere;  yet  when  the 
post  brought  us  the  Boston  newspaper,  giving  us  an  account  of  the  same 
storm  in  those  parts,  I  found  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse  had  been  well 
observed  there,  though  Boston  is  north-east  of  Philadelphia  aliout  400 
miles.  This  puzzled  me,  because  the  storm  began  so  soon  with  us  as  to 
prevent  any  observation ;  and,  being  a  north-east  storm,  I  imagined  it 
must  have  begun  rather  sooner  in  places  further  to  the  north-eastward, 
than  it  did  at  Philadelphia;  but  I  found  that  it  did  nut  begin  with  them 
until  near  II  o'clock,  so  that  they  had  a  good  observation  of  the 
eclipse.  And  upon  com  pairing  all  the  other  accounts  I  received  from 
the  other  colonies,  of  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the  same  storm,  and 
since  that,  of  other  storms  of  the  same  kind*  1  found  the  beginning  to 
be  always  later  tlie  further  noth-eastward." 

Whilst  introducing  the  above  paragraph.  Colonel  Capper  savs,  it  af- 
fords us  a  proof  that  a  current  of  air  in  America  moved  many  hundred 
miles  during  a  north-east  storm,  probably  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
Boston.  Thus,  having  stated  his  belief  that  hurricanes  were  whirl- 
winds, he  was  upon  the  point  of  showing  also  that  they  were  progres- 

SiTC.* 

Ripplingt  in  the  SiraiU  of  Malacca.-- A  disturbance  of  the  surface  of 
the  sea  of  a  different  kind  has  been  observed  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
which  is  not  easily  accounted  fur ;  and  1  shall  here  insert  Horsburgh's 
descripticm  of  it,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  create  inquiry  and  observation. 

"  In  the  entrance  of  Malacca  Strait,  near  the  Nicobar  and  Achen 
Islands,  and  betwixt  them  and  J unksey Ion,  there  are  often  very  strong 
ripplings,  particularly  in  the  souih-west  monsoon ;  these  are  alarming  to 
persons  unacquainted  with  them,  for  the  broken  water  makes  a  great 
noise  when  a  ship  is  }>a.H.sing  through  the  ripplings  in  the  night.  In 
most  places,  ripplings  are  thought  to  be  produced  by  strong  currents, 
but  hero  they  are  frequently  seen  when  there  is  no  perceptible  current* 
Although  there  is  otten  no  perceptible  current  experienced,  so  as  to 
produce  an  error  in  the  course  and  distance  sailed,  yet  the  surface  of 
the  water  is  impelled  forward  by  some  undiscovered  cause.     The  rip- 

*  Rb»,  pp.  96S.T 


839] 


Ripplings  in  the  Straitt  ofMalmcca, 


387 


lUngs  are  seen,  in  calm  weather,  approaching  from  a  distance,  and  in 
he  night  their  noise  is  heard  a  considerable  time  before  they  come 
lear ;  they  beat  against  the  sides  of  a  ship  with  great  violence,  and  pass 
>n,  the  spray  sometimes  coming  on  deck  ;  and  a  small  boat  could  not 
dwayt  resist  the  turbulence  of  these  remarkable  ripplings." 

Naval  officers,  who  have  often  seen  these  ripplings,  represent  them 
IS  being  met  with  out  of  soundings,  and  in  other  localities  besides  the 
Straits  of  Malacca.  Th«'y  are  8U}>po8ed  to  be  circular  in  form,  and  of 
various  diameters,  from  a  few  hundred  yards  to  a  mile.  The  ripples  are 
obliterated  by  strong  winds,  which  raise  waves  on  the  8urf«Ace  of  the  sea ; 
>ut  they  are  distinguished  from  other  imdulations  by  a  breeze,  which 
las  carried  a  ship  two  knots  an  hour  with  sky-sails  set.  If  two  ships 
n  company  meet  these  ripplings,  they  might,  by  heaving'to  on  opposite 
ides  of  the  disturbed  portion  of  the  sea,  observe  if  there  were  any  cir- 
cular current.  If  water-spouts  are  electrical  phenomena,  and  if  the 
Drontes  was  carried  forward  by  such  a  cause,  the  same  cause  might 
yive  motion  to  the  sea  in  the  manner  described,  and  might  agitate  its 
surface. 

The  great  height  to  which  the  salt  water  of  the  sea  is  sometimes  car- 
ied  up  into  the  air,  whether  by  the  mere  force  of  the  wind  driving  it  as 
pray,  or  by  some  lifting  motion,  as  in  the  water-spouts,  deserves  atten- 
ion.  That  which  follows  is  an  extract  from  the  April  report  from  Barra 
.ight-house  for  the  present  year  (1838),  sent  me  by  Mr.  Robert  Steven- 
>n,  the  engineer  to  the  northern  light-houses. 

••  On  the  16ih  it  rained  spray  and  snow  all  day  ;  so  that  for  a  week 
^r  we  had  no  fresh  water  on  the  island.''  And  Mr.  Stevenson  added 
lis  note  to  the  report :— **  The  top  of  the  island,  or  base  of  the  light- 
3U8e,  is  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea." 

It  had  blown  a  storm,  and  the  height  of  the  barometer  was,  according 
>  the  same  report,  as  follows  : — 


April,  1838. 

Barometer. 

Wind. 

Saturday  14 

9  A.  M.  29.30 
9  p.  M.  28  9') 

s.  w.  &  w.  breese. 

Sunday    15 

9  A.  M.  28.80 

N.W. 

9  p.  M.   28.93 

Ditto. 

Monday  16 

9  A.  M.  28.94 

Ditto. 

9  P.  M.  28.96 

Ditto. 

Tuesday  17 

A.  M.  29.20 

K .  N .    »V. 

p.  M.  29.84 

North. 

33S  Colonel  Rt'uTs  Work  on  Storms :  [Aran 

Rule6'/or  laying  Ships  to  in  Hurricanes, — That  tack  on  which  a  8lii[ 
should  be  laid-lo  iu  a  hurricane,  has  hitherto  been  a  problem  to  bi 
solved  ;  and  is  one  which  seamen  have  lung  considered  important  U 
have  explained. 

In  these  tempests,  when  a  vessel  is  lying-to,  and  the  wind  veers  b) 
the  ship*shead,  she  is  in  danger  of  getting  stern-way,  even  when  n< 
sail  is  set;  for  in  a  hurricane,  the  wind's  torce  u|)ou  the  masts  and  yardi 
alone  will  proiluce  this  effect,  should  the  wind  veer  a-head;  and  it  i: 
supposed  that  vessels  have  often  foundered  from  this  cause. 

When  the  wind  veers  aft,  as  it  is  called,  or  by  the  stem,  this  dangei 
is  avoideii  ;  and  a  ship  then  comes  up  to  the  wind,  instead  of  having 
to  break  o/f  from  it. 

If  great  storms  ob»*y  fixed  laws,  and  the  explanation  given  of  them 
in  this  work  be  the  true  oue,  then  the  rule  for  laying  a  ship  to,  follows 
like  the  corollary  to  a  problem  already  solved. 

In  order  to  define  the  two  sides  of  a  storm,  that  side  will  be  here  call- 
ed the  right-hand  semicircle  which  is  on  the  right  of  the  storm's  coorse. 
as  we  look  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  moving  ;  just  as  we   speak  oi 
the  right  bank  of  a  river. 

The  rule  for  laying  a  ship-to  will  be,  when  in  the  right-hand  semi- 
circle, to  heave-to  on  the  starboard  tack  ;  and  when  in  the  left-hand 
semicircle  on  the  larboard  tack,  in  both  hemispheres. 

Fig.  4,  Plate  8,  is  intended  to  represent  one  of  ihe  West  Indian  hurri- 
canes, moving  towards  the  east-north-east,  in  the  direction  uf  the  speai 
drawn  obliquely.  The  commander  of  a  ship  can  ascertain  what  part  ol 
a  circular  storm  he  is  falling  into,  by  observing  how  the  wind  begins 
to  veer.  Thus,  in  the  figure,  the  ship  which  falls  into  the  right-hand 
semicircle,  would  receive  the  wind  at  first  about  east  by  north  ;  but  il 
would  soon  veer  to  the  east,  as  the  storm  passes  onwards-IThe  shipwhich 
falls  into  the  left-hand  semicinle,  would  at  first  receive  the  wind  at 
north-east  :  but  with  this  latter  ship,  instead  of  veering  towards  east,  it 
would  veer  towards  north. 

The  explanation  of  the  rule  will  best  be  made  ont  bv  attentivelv 
inspecting  fissures  4  and  5.  In  both,  the  black  ships  are  on  the  proper 
tacks  :  the  white  ships  being  on  the  wrong  ones. 

Figure  5  is  intended  to  represent  one  of  those  hurricanes  in  south 
latitude  whi:h  pass  near  Mauritius  procc'din^  to  the  south-westward. 
The  whirlwind    is  supposed   to  be   passing  over  the  vessels   in    the 


1839]  Ruha  for  layhg  Ship*  to  in  Hurricangg,  389 

direction  of  the  spear  head.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  black  ships 
are  always  coming  up,  and  the  white  ships  always  breaking  off;  and 
that  they  are  on  opposite  tacks  on  opposite  sides  of  the  circles.  Thus, 
the  Astrea,  commanded  by  the  late  Sir  C.  Schomherg,  was  on  the  pro- 
per tack  on  the  !^Oth  of  March,  1811  ;  and  an  inspection  of  the  logof 
that  ship  shows  how  gradually  she  came  up  ;  but  the  Buccleuch,  on  the 
22d  of  January,  1831,  having  had  the  wind  from  east-south-east,  veering 
to  south,  and  then  to  south-south-west,  thereby  proving  her  to  be  in  the 
right-hand  semicircle  of  a  storm  moving  southerly,  was  in  the  wrong 
position  when  laid-to  on  the  larboard  tack.  Had  she  been  on  the  other 
tack,  the  wind  in  veering  would  have  drawn  aft ;  then,  perhaps,  she 
would  not  have  lain  so  long  **  with  her  broadside  in  the  trough  of  the 
Sea,   and  with  her  lee-waist  full  of  water.'* 

If  hurricanes  were  to  move  in  the  opposite  course  to  that  which  they 
have  hitherto  been  found  to  follow,  then  would  the  rule  be  reversed  ; 
for  the  white  ships  would  come  up,  and  the  black  ships  break  off. 

It  can  require  no  comments  to  point  out,  that  if  the  Mind  in  storms 
follows  a  fixed  law,  much  advantage  may  be  g-ained  by  the  knowledge 
of  that  law. 

In  following  the  tracks  of  storms  here  detailed,  we  find  that  the  hur- 
ricane drawn  on  Chart  VI.  passed  over  the  Island  of  Antigua  in  six 
liours.  Yet  the  ship  Judith  and  Esther,  not  far  from  that  island,  was 
twenty-four  hours  in  the  same  storm ;  for  that  ship  ran  alon^^  with  it ; 
^nd  many  other  instances  of  the  same  nature  occur  in  this  inquiry. 

If  one  side  of  a  storm  be  to  a  ship  in  her  voyage  a  foul  wind,  the  op- 
posite  side  of  the  same  storm    would  be  a   fair  one.     Thus,   within  the 
tropics  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  left-hand  semicircle  is  a  fair  wind    for 
ahips  in  their  voyages  from  Iiidi<i  to  the  Cape  of  Good  H  )pe,  whilst   the 
i-ight-hand  side    will  hss  st  the  voyages   of  outward  boiA.id  ships  :  but 
there  is  this  important  di-Verenco,  that  in  the  first  case  ships  would  carry 
the  fair  wind  with  them  ;  whereas  in  the  other  semicircle,  owing  to  the 
ship  sailing  in  the  ••ontrary  direeiion  to  the  pn)gression  of  the  gale,  she 
would  have  the  hem  fit  of  it  during  a  short  time  only.     Thus,  if  a  hurri- 
cane coming  from  the  eastward  were  passing  over   Mauritius,  moving  at 
the  rate  of  ten  miles  an    hour,  and  a  ship  sailing  eastward  were  to  fall 
into  the  side  of  the  storm  next  the  equator,  the  ship  and  storm    would 
pass  each  other  in  half  the  time  in  which  the  huriicane  would  pass  over 
the  island,   since   they   would  be  travelling  at  the  same  rates,   but  in 
opposite  directions. 


390  Rul9sfor  laying  Sh%p9  to  in  Ilurrit'ttnet.  [April 

In  the  12ni  edition  of  the  '  Araerican  Coast  Pilot/  will  be  foand  some 
practical  rules,  by  Mr.  Redfield,  applicable  to  ships  meeting  storms  in 
the  North  Atlantic,  and  all  I  have  collected  proves  that  these  rules  are 
correct.  Tliat  a  seaman  may  be  able  to  apply  them,  however,  requires 
that  he  should  study  the  subject  and  understand  the  principle. 

When  storms  recurve  in  eii her  hemisphere,  and  cross  the  tracks  of 
ships,  the  practical  application  of  such  knowledge  as  we  have  gained 
becomes  more  complicated.  This  will  frequently  happen  to  ships  on 
their  homeward  voyage  from  India,  and  as  they 'cross  the  meridians  of 
the  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  about  the  25lh  degree  of  south 
latitude.  This  may  be  a  reason  why  the  neighbourhood  of  these  islands 
is  so  much  dreaded  ;  for  the  Mauritius  hurricanes,  instead  of  originating 
there,  appear  to  come  from  the  eastward. 

]f  two  ships,  one  in  each  hemisphere,  were  sailing  west,  and  each  met 
storms  after  they  had  recurved,  the  centres  of  both  of  which  storms  were 
also  on  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  as  the  ships,  the  vessel  in  north 
latitude  would  meet  the  wind  at  south,  and  that  in  south  latitude  would 
meet  the  wind  at  north.  Each  ship  would  be  most  likely  to  avoid  the 
storm  by  putting  her  head  cowards  the  equator  :  but  they  would  be  on 
opposite  tacks.  The  .«hip  in  north  latitude  would  be  on  the  starboard 
tack,  the  ship  in  south  latitude  on  the  larboard.  In  both  cases  the  wind 
would  veer  towards  west,  and  both  ships  would  come  up  until  the  storms 
passed  by  them,  in  their  progress  towards  their  proper  poles ;  after 
which  the  wind  might  be  variable. 

The  storm  tracks  here  traced  are  for  from  sufficient  in  number  to  aflford 
that  knowledge  of  the  winds,  at  which  we  are  now  capable  of  arriving. 
My  object  has  been  to  prove,  that  the  subject  deserves  the  attention  of 
abler  men  than  myself,  and  that  we  have  hitherto  studied  meteorology 
in  far  too  confined  a  sphere.  Since  our  own  country  is  too  limited  for 
the  comparisons  required,  nations  should  combine  to  study  the  atmos- 
pheric laws.  The  light-houses  along  the  coasts  of  the  civilized  world 
might  exchange  their  observations  for  this  end.  The  great  steam  navi- 
gation companies  might  place  their  log-books  where  easy  reference 
could  be  made  to  them;  and,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  many  useful  obser- 
vations be  made  by  the  large  body  of  Englishmen  settled  there  as  mis- 
sionaries. A  more  perfect  knowledge  of  the  subject  would  improve 
international  communication,  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind.* 

«  Rbio.  pp.  423.31. 


1839]  On  tU  Statistics  <^  Dukhun.  3»I 


IX. — Special  Report  on  the  Slatistia  qfthe  Four  Collectorates  of 
Dukhun,  under  the  British  Government, 


{Concluded  from  our  last.) 

Irrigation, 

Prelirainary  fo  spotiking  of  agriculture,  it  is   necessary  to  slate  that 
lands  are  watered  ariificially  in  two  ways.     First,  by  conducting  stream-^ 
lets  from  running  rivers  or  brooks.     Lands  so  watered  are  called   Paal- 
sthul,  from  Paat,  a  channel,  and   Sthul,  a  field.*     These  streamlets  do 
»iot  always  last  through  the  hot  season  ;  and  though   this   species  ofir- 
x-igation,  while  available,  is  infinitely  less  onerous  and  less  expensive  to 
the  cultivator,  affording  also  a  more  plentiful  supply  of  water  than  th« 
veil  watering  and  great  returns  ;  yet  it  is  not  so  certain,  and,  on  the 
'vrhole,  is  less  permanently   efficient    than  well  watering.     The  second 
viiethod  Is  by  well  watering.     Lands  so  watered  are  called   Moht  Sthul, 
from  Moht,  the  water-hurket,  and  Sthul,  a  field.     There  is  a  good  deal 
of  trouble  ;»t  lending  this  method,  and  it  requires   the  continual  expense 
of  the  support  of  two  or  four  bullocks,  the  wear  and  tear  of  materials, 
and  the  keep  of  one  man,  who,  however,  can   readily   manage  two  buck* 
ets,  and  two  pairs  of  bullocks  :  at  the  same  time   it  requires  also  a  boy 
in  the  garden  or  field  to  open  an  1  shut  the  different   channels.     This  is 
themost  common  m»^thol  of  irrigation  in  the  districts  reported  on.     Usu- 
ally only  two  bullo  ks  are  attached  to  each  bucket ;  in  some  instances, 
however,  where  the  wells  are  df ep,    four  buUoi-ks  are  attached  to  each 
bucket.     The  cattle  pull  down  an  inclined   plane  and  discharge  the  wa* 
ter,  and  readily  walk  backwards  up  the  plane  to  the  highest  part  of  it  ; 
on  the  bucket  being  refilled,  they  go  down  the  plane   again  ;  the  driver 
sings  to  them  and  rides  down  on  the  rope.     The  process   is   suspended 
for  an    hour  or  two  during   the    middle  of  the    day.     A   very  consi- 
derable quantity   of  water     is   brought   up    by    this     method.      The 
buckets  in    use    vary  little  in    size,   and   the    wells,   probably,  range 

•  Literallj^  ••firm  Und.*' 


392  On  the  Stathlfcs  of  Dukhun  [ArmiL 

from  25  to  45  feet  deep  :  some  experiments  of  mine,  therefore,  to  as- 
certain the  quantity  of  water  brouglit  np  from  a  w«-ll35  feet  deep  in  a  cer- 
tain time,  may  be  considerod  as  an  average  of  the  efficiency  of  this  me- 
thod of  irrigation.  I  found  a  moht  (of  six  paahls)  average  a  delivery  of 
198  wine  bottles  of  water  each  time  The  botile  contained  28  ounces 
of  water,  apothecaries'  measure,  consequently  the  bucket  contained 
5544  ounces  wine  measure,  231  quarts,  or  57  gallons  3  quarts.  There  is 
a  singular  uniformity  of  time  between  the  delivery  of  two  buckets,  sel- 
dom exceeding  seventy  seconds  ;  a  man  and  a  pair  of  bullocks,  there- 
fore, in  an  hour  deliver  2931  gallons  of  water;  and,  labouring  seven 
hours  a  day,  gi^'e  '20,517  gallons  wine  measure;  and  the  some  man  with 
two  pairs  of  bullocks  delivers  41,034  gallons  of  water  ;  a  quantity  in- 
finitely exceeding  what  Europeans  usually  believe  to  be  drawn  up  by 
the  simple  means  employed.  At  eight  pounds  troy  to  the  gallon,  the 
weight  of  water  dinwn  up  by  one  pair  of  bullocks  in  one  diiy  will  be 
164,l:i6-lbs.  troy  ;  and  by  two  pairs  of  bullocks, 328,272.1bs.  tioy.  This 
account  appears  very  considerable,  but  my  expeiimcntsi  have  been  re- 
peated with  care  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  the  delivery  of  Abater  may  be  ra- 
ther underrated  than  overrated. 

Near  the  village  of  Piroorgoot,  I  observed  a  simple  method  of  watering 
a  field.     The  bedof  a  nullah,  or  rivulet,  with  very  low  banks,  had  been 
dammed  up  ;  three  pieces  of  wowl,  like  a  gin,  were  put  over  the  water 
a  scoop  was  suspended  by  a  rope   to   the  apex  of  the  gin,   and  a  mau 
scooped  out  the  «ater  into  his  field.     The  labour   was   great,   and  the 
supply  of  water  small.     This  apparatus  is  called  Dohl. 

It  would  appear  to  be  of  considerable  importance  to  encourage  the 
making  of  wells,  as  the  only  means  of  increasing  the  very  limited  ex- 
ports of  the  Dukhun. 

Agriculture, 

Some  general  observations  will  be  necessary,  as  the  crops  and  agricul- 
tural prot-ess  in  the  MxwuU*  differ  materially  from  the  crops  and  agri- 
cultural process  in  the  Desh.t  The  principal  crop  of  the  Mawuls  is  thai 
of  the  rains,  and  the  most  valuable  of  its  produce  is  rice.  The  severe 
labour  attending  the  preparation  of  the  rice  ground  in  the  hot  weather 
is  great,  and  in  the  rains  the  cultivator  has  to  trample  up  to  his  knees  in 
water  and  mud  ploughing  the  rice  field,  probably  in  a  deluge  of  rain,  but 


«  Hilly  districts  along  the  crest  of  the  ChiLts. 
i  Flat  country,  eastwartl  of  the  MawuU. 


1839]  On  the  StatUtict  of  Dukhun.  393 

with  bis  hea»l  and  back  most  securely  protected  by  ibe  Eerluh,*  how- 
ever much  exposed  the  rest  of  his  body  may  be.     The  transplantation 
is  performed  under  similar  exposure.     The  other  monsoon  grains  of  the 
Mawuls  arc  the  Sawa,   Wuree,   and  Natchnee,  and   Karlee,  or  Kalec 
Teelt  which  is  an  oil  plant  of  the  only  other  monsoon  product. 

The  labour  attending  the  cultivation  of  these  grains,  in  a  very  unfa- 
vourable climate,  at  the  time  they  are  grown,  falls  very  severely  on  the 
people,  but  they  are  compensated  for  their  labour  and  sufTering  by  good 
returns  of  that  valuable  produce  rice;  and  thj  returns  of  the  other  grains 
are  great,  and  the  crops  seldom  fuil. 

The  Koonbees,  or  furmt^rs  of  the  Mawuls,  also  have  an  advantage 
which  those  of  the  Desh  are  not  always  assured  of,  i.  e.  the  certainty  of 
finding  a  market  for  one  of  their  products,  rioe. 

Dry  Se-:son  Crop  (  Mawuls  J, — The  dry  crop  of  the  Mawuls  does  not 
call  for  any  m^'ntion  in  this  place. 

Dry  Season  Crop  (Desh ).^'Wil\\  respe«^t  to  the  Deih,  the  most  va- 
luable is  the  Rubb^^,  or  spring  cropj.  The  agricultural  processes  in 
l>oth  crops  is  ccrtainlv  defe  :tive,  less  owing  to  the  ii^norance  of  the  cul- 
tivators,  who  are  well  aware  of  the  advantage  of  a  ploughing  adapted  to 
the  character  of  the  soil,  of  good  manuring,  complete  wee<ling,  rotations 
of  crops  and  fallows  ;  thuu  to  their  necessities,  which  eonpcl  them  to 
rack  their  lanl  ;  they  oannot  generally  atTjrl  to  purchase  a  sufliciency 
of  manure,  they  have  not  any  stable  yards,  an!  the  dearth  of  fuel  com- 
pels them  to  burn  much  of  ih^ir  cow-dung  ;  an  1,  with  a  singular  fatuity 
and  injurious  caution,  ihey  sow  half  a  dozen  grains  and  pulses  together 
in  the  same  field,  which  necessarily  impede  the  growth  of  eat  h  othert 
exhaust  the  soil,  and  give  limileil  returns.  The  professed  object  is  to 
assure,  in  the  occa'^ional  uncertainty  of  the  monsions,  some  kind  of  re- 
turn at  least  for  their  labours,  which  might  have  been  wholly  unproduc- 
tive hiid  one  grain  only  been  sown.  In  short  they  want  to  have  half  a 
dozen  strings  to  their  bow  instead  of  one. 

fVet  Crop  (Desk  J. — The  grains  so  sown  ripen  in  succession,  and  two 
of  them  remain  on  the  ground  between  nine  and  ten  mouths  ;  that  is  to 
gay,  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  end  of  February.  In  their  ma- 
nagcmenl  of  the  i)luugh,  the  ivoonbees  do  not  want  dexterity.  Their 
cattle  have  all  names,  know  their  names,  and  are  obedi*»nt  to  them  ^ 
with  four  bullocks  to  a  plou^^h,  the   leaders   are   guided  entirely  by  the 

*  Cerluh»  or  basket-work  hood,  coveied  with  leaTesand  quit*  impervious  to  rain, 
i  Wet  season  crop  (Mawuls). 

S  Consisting  of  wheatu,    gram,    barley;  8haIoo,    {Andropogon  Saccharatum) ;  Dfaal^ 
{CyliiUiQQ^an)^  oil-plant«,  &c. 


'  s  \..  of  Dukhun. 

"'  »■  "■  '^;  ,■: ; » ^^  "'■- "' .":  .TT^;  >!»-  "■'='.• 

:;Le  ge.e.ny  coo.-  «^^f^^  ,,^  ..„a  <UW  s.ept. 
,eing  .u.-"y  <=°'-^"X»  their  l.eartV.s  fields  b,  the 

„d  from  ibe  asbe»  »»"'^';        „,  f,,m-yara.  from  l  ^cd 

,,.  are  carud  to  ^^^  ^;  t  hon.ont.a  rude  f--;;;,^;,  ^  of 

a.    Tbis  consist,  o^^^  ^,,,,Wo  M  l'^--^   ';,,  suflieientW  ^^^ 
thick  a,le-.ree    and  «  re      ^^^  tra.r>e-.  «rV    are  »       .  ^  ^^^  ^^  ft. 

I  ,o«d.  .-n.  P^-f  J°  ,,t  tbe  cart  .o  »pse..  ^ J  ,,,„,e  vebKle 
•«.  and  con-quentlg«^J^„  ,  3„,  '^"Cban  tbe  tire  round 
„t  a„  occurrence.    >«  i,on  about  tbe  cart  .^  ^^^^,le^ 

,^,tbemwbobaJ   -^  .^^^,,.  ^^^  ^^,,,,,in. 

,„o.eUtotbeK.««^:„  ,,  -'•'^^^  7ra  .«>'-  ''"^  ''^•"^fi^edTn 
,omer  of  cne  «f  .b-  ^^^^^^  -.  a  poW.  -U  d J  ^^^^ 

^„ed  by  beating  and   o-        =  ^'\'''-;^  J^ o.  6  i-V.es.    In  tbe 

l.e  centre  of  tt.    1-2,,,  ,;^e*  totbodevb  "^  arebrokenoff 

ligneous  puW".  '^''^.^  ,  and  in  tbe  ber  '«cec  ^.^^  ^^  ,,gh 

?„a  strewed  round  O^e  p^e^^^^^^^  ^^.^,,  ^''"V:.    ed  »ide  by  side,  bai 
.„a  straw-coln>  g-«"^;  ,,  ^'^^'''''^  ^'.      ey   are  muzzled  and 

„,„orebuao.ksa-^  h,U  on  tbe  "^' l^^.^.^^^^  - 

on  one  side  of  tbe  pole  ^^^^^^^  g„„,    Tb     P  j^effi-^ent, 

driven  round  tbe  pole.  t^^^^^^^^^^^„„^,.      'Jn.Uui.v.  and   widel, 

""  '"Tin  Deuteronomy,  ^^v.  4-  «    -^- 

nraciisfd-'  ""  y  .    „,,,..U  out  (he  corn.  .  t,^e  grain.  This 

'beo**!'-^^;!  t^\:«hrougbttotbe..  n^^^^^^^^  ,„,„,,„  in  the 

^''""'"■'?- Kleb"  and  .ben   there   -;"«„,,,,  u carried  on st- 
U  done  in  the  Kuileh  ^^^  ^^^,^^,„g,  the    P  ^^^  ,er- 

«vduneously  with  the 


|r   ■  . 

''I     • 


•A 


1839]  On  the  SiaiUtics  of  DuAhum.  395 

tamljr  not  very  effi-ient,  as  it  is   dependent  on   the  wind   blowing.     In 
c:ase  the  wind  blows  very  bard,  the  grain  is  blom-n  away  ;  and   in  case 
'the  wind  is  not  strong  enough,  the  husks  fall    with    the  grain.     A  man 
stands  upon  a  tall  three-legged  form,  called  the  H'awhrgff  and  pours  the 
^rain  taken  up  from  the  treading  ground,  out  of  the  winnowing   basket 
Koopumcuiee),     The  full  grain  falls  perpt- ndicularly    and    is  pretty  free 
'from  husks,  but  the  lighter  grain  falls  obliquely,  and  is  partially  mixed 
^ih  the  husks.    A   m.tn   sits  at  the  base  of  the  stool   or  form  with  a 
broom  (aatueej  in  his  baud  to  assist  in  removing  the  chafT  from  the  e^ge* 
^fthe  mass  of  fallen  grain.     After  all  is  done,  however,  it  is  requisite  to 
fass  a  good  proportion  of   the  grain  through  the  sieve  {Chalun)»     After 
^^e  grain  is  winnowed  it  is  carried  home  and  laid  iu  store. 
Preservitig  Grain. — There  are  Tarious  ways  of  preserving  the  grain. 
Where  the  soil  is  sufhcientlv  drv,  chambers  are  du^  in  the  earth  for  it; 
^Uft  the  most  usual  plan  in  th^  districts  is  to  prt^serve  it  in  large  baskets, 
^^lled  Kuneeng,  made  of  twigs  of  ih**  N<^ergoondee,  {f'itex  tr'tf^lht,)  or 
^f  those  of  the  Tooree,  (Cyliitu*  cajun).    These  baskets  are  plastered  with 
^Ow-dung  inside  and  out,  and  are  perfectly  imper\'ious   to  rain  or  damp. 
^Vhere  the  habitations  are  sufficiently  large,  or  the  baskets  few  in  num- 
^^r,  they  are  lodged  in  the  house,  but  not  unfrequently  are  placed  outside 
^r  the  house  within  reach  of  any  pilfering  hand.    A  few  stones  arc  put 
Under  each  basket ;  the  lid,iu  case  it  has  a  lid,  is  sealed  down  with  cow- 
^ung",  and  iu  case  it  has  not  a  lid,  a   plaster  of  cowdung  a  couple  of 
iriches  thick  ih  put  over  the  grain  ;  a   little  cap,  or  roof  of  grass,  is  put 
Over  the  basket,  and  it  is  left  exposed  lill  required,  being  deemed  equally 
X>rotected   from  the  elements  and  man.     In  the  Mawuls,   in   the   hot 
<>ionths,  the  whole  of  the  grain  baskets  of  the  villag*^,  full  of  grain,  may 
b>e  seen  assembled  in  front  of  the  village,  temple,  and  left   to  the  custody 
i^ftbe  village  god.     The  roofs  of  all    the   houses  are  of  grass    in  the 
^f  awulrj,   and  the  dread  of  fires  (the  people  having  no  chimneys  to  tlieir 
liousps)  induces  them  to  put  their  monsoon  and  winter  stores  in  a  placs 
of  safety,  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  jveriod  rendering  accidents  by  fire 
frequent.     It  is   not  an  unfrequeut  practice   with  the  Koonbees   of  the 
'Mawuls  to  unroof  their  houses  for  the  months  of  April  and  May. 

In  addition  to  the  baskets  for  the  preservation  of  grain,  earthen  jarSy 
called  Kothee,  made   by  the  people   tliemselves,  are  met  with   to  hold 
grain,  but  they  are  not  common. 

Preparing  Grain  for  Food, — The  preparation  of  grain  for  food  is  the 

last   process.      Husk  grains,  such  as  rice,  Wuree,   ( Pan'c.im  miliare); 

and  Sawa,  (Panicum  fume  nt  ace  urn ) ;    and  the  Johr,  or  husked  wheat, 

require  to  be  pounvled  to  remove  the  husks.    This  proi:eis  is  entirely 


396  On  the  Sfatislics  of  Dukhun, 

within  the  province  of  the  women  :  the  implement*  used  mav  h 
the  pestle  and  mortar;  the  mortar  is  called  the  ookul,  Hnd  the 
moosul.  The  mortar  in  the  Mawuls  is  frequently  very  rud-^  i 
being  a  rough  stone  with  a  hole  scooped  in  the  middle  of  it  to 
the  grain.  In  the  Desh,  however,  the  mortar  is  of  wood,  of  a  go 
end  8om(>times  carved.  The  m'^otui,  or  pestle,  is  always  of  wo( 
or  tive  feet  long,  tipped  with  iron,  and  in  thickness  and  weight 
to  the  strength  of  the  person  fo  u-^e  it.  The  final  process  is  th 
ing  the  corn  ;  this  also  is  the  duty  of  the  women,  and  two  of  t 
usually  employed  at  the  mill.  Christ  says,  "  There  shall  be  twc 
grimling  at  the  mill  ;*  one  shall  be  taken  and  the  other  left." 

Hand  Mill. — The  mill  is  portable,  and  is  called  Jatuh  :  it  coi 
two  flat  cir'ular  stones,  fourteen  or  eighteen  inches  in  diameter, 
on?  on  the  other  ;  the  lower  one  has  an  upright  pt»g  in  it,  the  u|i 
has  a  hole  in  the  centre  through  which  th*^  peg  of  the  lowc 
passes,  and  the  upper  stone  is  made  to  perform  an  horizontal  i 
motion  round  the  peg  by  means  of  another  upright  peg  near  its 
The  grain  is  put  in  at  the  hole  in  the  centre.  This  form  of  mill ; 
very  ancient,  for  I  saw  remains  of  such  mills  in  the  ruins  of  P 
and  one  nearly  perfect  in  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  villa  of  Sir  ^ 
Hickes's  estate  near  Cheltenham,  Glouce8ter>»hire. 

Raw  Sugar  MUL^Vnder  the  head  of  agriculture  it  will  be  ne 
to  speak  of  the  Gool,  or  raw  sugar-mill.  Sugar  cane  is  not  so  mur 
vated  as  it  might  be,  and  it  is  seldom  found  but  at  populous  villn 
have  seldom  seen  more  than  two  mills  at  a  village  ;  and  as  the 
and  accompaniments  are  somewhat  expensive  for  the  circumstan 
cultivator,  the  mills  are  seldom  found  belonging  to  him,  but  he  is  i 
of  them  for  the  term  requisite.  The  mills  are  in  the  open  air,  a 
sist  of  two  vertical  screws  which  are  sunk  in  a  square  chamber  e 
ed  in  the  earth ;  one  of  them  is  moved  by  a  double  lever  so  much 
ed  above  the  level  of  the  field  as  to  admit  of  bullocks  being  atta 
the  ends  of  the  lever.  The  cattle  go  round  incessantly  in  a  circ 
work  the  mill.  The  bits  of  sugar  cane  are  passed  twice  betw 
screws,  and  the  juice  runs  out  into  a  wooden  or  copper  vessel  pi 
receive  it.  The  fire-place  (Choolangun)  and  great  iron  pan  (Ku 
to  boil  the  juice  in,  are  close  at  hand ;  a  ladle  to  stir  and  skim  the 
it  boils,  and  some  circular  holes  in  the  ground  to  receive  the  juie 
sufficiently  thick,  complete  the  material  and  close  the  process 
work  is  continued  night  and  day  till  the  cane-field  is  exhausted, 
in  not  refined  in  the  Dukhun. 

•Matth.  ixiv.  tt. 


1830]  Ou  the  Slaiisiics  </  Duthmn.  397 

Oil  Milli, — AUboogb  the  oil  mills  belong  to  a  dan  of  persons  vho 
are  not  agricuUiirisbc,  ihe  Koonbee  is  quite  depemleut  on  them  to  turn 
bis  numerous  oil  seedi  to  acccunt  ;  some  menuon  tlierefore  of  them  is 
necessary  under  "agriculture."  Tbe  boJy  of  ibe  mill  is  generally  of 
■tone,  and  the  machinery,  even  wbeo  of  the  rudest  eonttruction,  shows 
«  good  deal  of  ingenuity  and  an  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  mecha- 
nic powers.     It  U  entirely  the  wurk  of  the  village  carpenter. 

At  Neelsee,  a  Kohlee  village  in  the  wiUls  on  the  brink  of  the  Gbits. 
tbe  body  of  the  mill  is  of  wood,  the  lever  works  in  the  hollow  of  an  up- 
right cylinder,  and  by  the  great  weight  attachei  to  its  upper  end  con- 
stantly presses  against  the  si- les  of  the  hollow  and  forces  the  oil  from 
the  seed  which  is  put  into  the  mill.  The  whole  expense  of  the  macM. 
nery  of  thi^  particular  mill  was  only  five  rupees*.  In  the  Desh  the  bo- 
dy of  the  mill  is  of  stone,  the  machinery  is  the  same  as  in  this  mill.  It 
is  worked  by  a  bullock. 

AveragM  Size  of  Farnu, — There  are  not  any  firms  of  large  size  under 
the  management  of  a  single  farmer  ;  the  largest  I  recollect  meeting  with 
was  about  200  acres,  but  in  general  they  average  very  considerably  less 
in  size.  In  the  Poona  Collectorate  tbe  average  size  was  29  beegahttt 
in  Ahmednuggnr35  beegahs,  in  Dhurwar  43779-  beegahs,  and  in  Khan* 
deeh  I^T'fs  beegahs.  The  average  rent  of  a  farm  in  Poona  was  less  than 
48  shillings  per  annum  ;  in  Ahinednuggur  about  86  shillings;  in  Dhar- 
war  64  shillings  •  and  in  Khandesh,  where  a  good  deal  of  the  land  cul- 
tivated is  garden  land,  74  shillings  per  annum.  In  Poona  the  average 
rent  per  beegah  is  within  a  fraction  of  two  shillings  ;  in  Ahmednuggur 
about  two  shillings  and  six  pence  per  beegah  ;  in  Dharwar  not  quite 
eighteen  pence ;  and  in  Khandesh,  where  there  is  proportionably  a  good 
deal  of  garden  land,  it  is  somewhat  more  than  three  shillings  a  beegah. 
Jht  average  for  the  whole  of  the  lands  of  Dukhun  is  two  shillings  and 
ninepence,  one-eighth  per  English  acre^  or  one  rupee  and  fourteen  real 
per  Dukhun  beegah. 

Proportion  of  Yoke  Cattle  to  each  Farmer, — Generally  in  the  popula- 
tion returns  there  were  great  omissions  of  the  draft  or  yoke  cattle  of  the 
cultivators  ;  no  very  satisfactory  statement  can  therefore  be  given  of 
their  agricultural  means  in  this  kind  of  stock.  In  one  Talook,  or  county 
of  the  Dharwar  Cullectomte,  the  yoke  cattle  w^ere  filled  in,  with  the  ex- 
[^eption  of  two  or  three  village  returns,  and  the  proportion  is  only  1*33 
bullocks  to  each  culiivator  ;  but  as  the  ploughs  are  3733  in  number  in 
theTiilook,  at  two  bullo -ks  to  a  plough,  the  proportion  should  be  2*89 

*  About  ten  shillings. 
4  Th«  DiikhuD  brrgnh  isthrce-fcuiUiS  oi  an  Eiiglish  acre.    Tbe  rupee    is  Ttlced  at 
iwotliUlings. 


898  Ort  ike  Statistics  of  Diikhun.  [Apkii. 

* 

bullocks  (nearly  3)  foa  cultivator  :  the  returns  roust  be  defective,  for  I 
am  satisfied,  although  a  farmer  may  not  have  two  bullocks  to  each  of  his 
ploughs,  and  he  has  generally  a  heavy  plough  and  a  light  one,  yet  he  has 
al^  ays  two  bullocks  at  least  fcfr  one  of  his  ploughs. 

In  the  Ahiueduuggur  Collectorate  the  yoke  cattle  are  not  distinguish" 
cd  from  the  pack  or  carriage  cattle,  but  the  whole  amount  is  very  consi- 
derable, being  212,008.  In  the  Poona  Collectorate  the  returns  give 
2*  voke  bullocks  to  each  farmer,  but  the  farmers  near  to  the  city  of 
Poona  are  much  better  off,  averaging  3|  bullocks  each.  Only  a  portion 
of  the  returns  from  Khandci^h  had  the  column  of  draft  or  yoke  cattle 
filled  up;  it  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  give  the  proportion  to  each 
fanner  for  the  whole  collectorate  ;  but  as  far  as  the  returns  went,  it  ap- 
peared that  each  farmer  aveniged  only  1*62  bullocks,  not  quite  H. 

MUch  cattle. — The  proportion  of  milch  cattle,  on  which  so  much  of  the 
comfort  of  the  pf^ople  depends,  whether  rural  or  urban,  in  the  Dharwar 
Collectorate,  is  greater  than  in  the  other  coUectorates,  b  eing  one  cow  or 
mih'h  buffalo  to  2*45  souls.  In  Poona  it  is  1  to  5*24  persons :  in  Ahmed- 
nuggur  L  to  3*04  persons  ;  and  in  Khand^^sh  I  cow  or  buffrilo  to  2-26 
souls. 

Ploughs, — As  I  have  before  stated,  ploughs  are  of  two  kinds,  the  Nan- 
guror  heavy  ploui^h,  and  the  HulkaNangur  or  light  plouijh  ;  the  same 
obtains  with  respect  to  drill  ploughs,  no  grain  being  sown  broadcast,  the 
heavy  drill  plou;:^h  being  called  Mo^urh,  and  the  light  Pabhar.  The 
proportion  of  ploughs  in  the  Dharwar  Collectorate  is  1*41  to  each  culti* 
vator,  or  nearly  three  ploughs  to  two  firmers  ;  the  number  of  ploughs  in 
the  returns  beting  99,883,  and  the  number  of  cultivators  70,488. 

Carti. — Were  a  judgment  to  be  formed  of  the  state  of  the  roads,  and 
of  the  facility  of  communication  and  transit  by  wheel  carriages,  from  the 
proportion  of  carts  to  the  formers,  the  estimate  would  be  low  indeed-* 
In  the  Dharwar  Collectorate  there  is  only  one  cart  to  thirteen  fannen. 
The  carts  are  universally  of  two  wheels. 

Pack  Cattle. — The  unusual  number  of  pack  bullocks  which  carry 
loads  on  their  backs,  in  the  Dharwar  Collectorate,  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  they  are  the  chief  means  by  which  agricultural  and  other  pro* 
duce  is  transported  from  place  to  place.  In  Khandesh  there  is  the  least 
number  of  paok  cattle,  and  the  greatest  proportional  number  of  carts.  In 
Poona  a  great  number  of  pack  cattle,  and  only  one  cart  to  eleven  farmers. 
The  proportion  in  Abmednuggur  I  do  not  know. 

•  It  is  nevertheless  true,  that  had  the  farmers  carts,  they  could  rarely  use  them  from 
the  waat  of  roads,  udIcss  in  the  dry  season. 


IM]  On  the  Statittiet  of  Dukhun.  399 


Land  and  other  TenureSt 
Lands  are  held  under  a  great  variety  of  tenures  in  Dukhun,  some  by 
Tirture  of  offices  which  are  hereditary,  some  as  hereditary  freehold  pro- 
perty, some  in  free  gift  from  the  state,  some  in  Jagheer  or  military  or 
feudal  tenure,  some  on  a  quit  rent,  and  in  many  other  ways  ;  but  a  nu 
pid  notice  of  the  different  tenures,  and  of  the  office-bearers  holding  lands* 
will  best  assist  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  their  quality  and  number. 

In  the  first  place,  the  proprietary  right  of  the  soil  was  (and  is)  in  th« 
people,  and  not  in  the  sovereign.    The  sovereign  could  assess  the  land 
as  he  pleased,  and  assign  away  a  part  of  the  whole  of  the  revenue  arising 
fxom  the  land-tax  or  assessment,  either  in  free  gift  (Renam),   militaiy 
tenure  (Jagheer),  or  quit  rent,  or  in  any  other  way  ;  but  he  could  not 
jMl/y  take  away  a  man's  land  either  for  his  own  purposes  or  to  give  it  to 
others ;  although,  as  a  despotic  prince,  like  all  other  princes  of  India,  ha 
had  the  undoubted  ability  to  do  so  at  his    pleasure  :  yet    few  instance! 
are  known  of  this  oppressive  exercise  of  their  power,  and  there  are  ma- 
ny instances  on  record  of  their  purchasing  land  from  their  subjects.    I 
have  laid  before  the  public  translations  of  official  documentSi    in  which 
the  sovereigns  have  been  parties,  containing  the  most  irresistible  proofii 
of  the  people  having  the  uncontrolled  right  to  dispose  of  their  lands  at 
they  pleased, by  gift,  or  sale,  or  devise,  or  in  other  ways.    These  tram- 
laiions  are  too  lengthened  to  be  introduced  in  this  report,  but  they  will 
be  met  within  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britido 
a.iid  Ireland. 

All  lands  in  Dukhun  were  classed  within  some  village  boundary  or 
Other  ;  and  to  this  day  these  boundaries  are  guarded  with  such  jealousy 
by  the  inhabitants  as  to  be  productive  of  broils  and  bloodshed  on  their 
%ligrbte8t  invasion.    The  village  lands  were  divided  into  family  estates^ 
Called  Thuls,  which  bore  the  name  of  the  family,  and  the  estates  bear 
tbe  name  to  this  day,  although  the  family  be  extinct  or  Gutkool,  as  it  ift 
Oa.lled  ;    and  half  the  estates  in  Dukhun  are  now  Gutkool,  but  preserve 
^beir  family  names.    These  estates  were  hereditary  and  freehold,  bar* 
tliened  only  with  the  sovereign's  land-tax,  and  assessments  for  village 
Expenses,  as  a  gentleman*s  estate  in  England    is  burthened  with  land- 
tux  and  assessments  for  highway  and  poor-rates,  &c. ;  there  were  not  any 
tithes,  but  in  each  village  there  were  lands  assigned  for  religious  objects^ 
wittier  to  temples  or  to  sacerdotal  persons.     Every  village  had  a  consti* 
tatton  for  its  internal  government ;  it   consisted  of  the  Fateel  or  chief,^ 
a.ssistedby  aChowguIla;  the   Koolkumee,  or  village  accountant,  kepi 
the  village  records  and  details  of  assessment  and  revenue  ;  and  therc^ 


400  Oh  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [Aful 

were  twelve  hereditary  village  oflBcers,  the  well-known  fiara  BulIooteh« 
whose  numbers  were  complete  or  otherwise  as  the  population  of  the 
villages  was  capable  of  supporting  them.  All  these  officers  and  the 
chief  land-owners  formed  a  village  council,  called  Pandreh*  which 
managed  ihe  external  and  inlemil  relations  of  the  village,  whether  with 
respec  tto  raising  the  government  assessments,  managing  its  police,  or  in 
settling  civil  disputes,  excepting  in  cases  where  Panchaeits  or  juries  of 
^ve  persons  were  specifically  appointed  to  arbitrate  by  mutual  consent 
of  the  litigating  parties.  And  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  this  isola« 
ted  and  internal  government  has  withstood  the  shocks  uf  all  the  changes 
of  dynasties,  invasions,  rebellious  and  the  destructive  anarchy  which  have 
80  frequently  disgraced  the  annals  uf  India. 

A  certain  number  of  villages  constituted  a  Naikwuree,  over  which  was> 
an  officer  with  the  denomination  of  Naik.     Eighty- four  villages  consti- 
tuted a  Deshmookee,  over  which  was  an  officer  called  a   Deshraook,   or 
governor,*  possibly  equivalent  to  our  lord-lieutenaut  of  counties  ;  thift 
officer  was  assisted  by  a  Desh  Chowgulla  ;  and  for  the  branch  of  accounts 
there  was  a  Deshpandeh  or  district  accountant   and   register.     The  linkB 
connecting  the   Deshmooks  with  the   prince  were   Sur-Deshmooks,  or 
heads  of  the  Deshmooks;  they  were  few  in  number.    It  is  said   there 
were  also   Sur-Deshpandehs.      The  Sur-Deshmooks,  Deshmooks,   and 
their  assistants,  Naiks,  Pateels,  and  Chow^ullahs,  indeed  all  persona  in 
authority,  were  Mahrattas  ;  the  writers  and   accountants   were   mostljr 
Brahmans.     Such  was  the  state  of  things  under  the  ancient    Hindoo 
governments.    The  Moosulmans  on  their  conquest,  in  the  civil  divisions 
of  the  country,  introduced  the  terms  of  Soobeh  (a  province),  Pergunnah 
(county),  Tallook  (manor,  lonlship),  andTurruft*(a  division  of  a  county). 
The  Hindoo  hereditary  officers  were  deprived  of  their  authority,  (except* 
ing  those  in  the  village  constitution,)  but,  very  liberally,  they  were  not 
deprived  of  their  tenures ;  and    their  places  were  supplied  by  ^emin- 
darSft  Maamlutdars,  Sheristehdars,  Havildars,  &c. 

I  have  stated  that  the  family  estates  were  called  Thuls,  from  the  San- 
scrit Sthul,  **  firm  land  ;'*  and  in  case  the  family  became  extinct  or  Gut- 
kool,  from  the  Sanscrit  Gut,  •*  gone,  passed  away,"  and  A'oo/,  **  a  race 
or  family,'*  the  property  did  not  pass  to  the  sovereign,  but  it  was  at  the 


•  Called  also  Desaee  or  Deshaee  in  some  parts. 

t  llisukes,  vei}  serious  in  their  consequences,  hare  been  made  with  respect  to  tlie 
■upposfd  rights  of  Zi'mituUrs.  They  were  introduced  by  the  Moosulmans,  sopeicediog 
the  ar.oient  Hindoo  D<  >hinook4  and  Dosaet's.  and  were  <roTernment  officeis  for  the 
coUectiun  of  the  teveuue,  and  for  the  civil  gorcrnmeut  uf  di>tricts.  la  Bengal,  the 
Briti«h  considered  them  {iruprietors  of  the  soil,  and  constituted  them  as  frcttt  fret* 
holder  t ;    sveeping  air  ay  the  Tillage  CreehoUia. 


m^  On  the  StatMct  of  Dukkun.  4D1 

disposal  of  the  Pateel  solely,  or  the  village  corporation  conjointly,  to  do 
as  they  plea^ied  with  it ;  and  I  have  inultiplied  proofs  in   my  possession 
of  freebolils  having  been  created  in  such   estates  of  extinct  families,  by 
etters  of  inheritance,  called   Meeras  Putra,  which   were  granted  by  the 
I^teel  or  village  authorities  for  a  sum  of  money;  and  sujh  letters  be- 
^came  title-deeds,  similar  to  those  of  an  estate  in  England.    The  law  of 
■uecession  by  primogeniture  not  obtaining  amongst  the   Hindoos,  these 
.estates  became  necessadly  much   divided,  and  the  indiviilual  holders 
were  called  by  the  Hindoos  Th'ilwaee  or  Thulkuree  ;  and   the  light  in 
which  the  Moosulmans  looked  upon  such   proprietors,   when  they  took 
possession  of  the  country,  is  sufficiently  manifest  by  the  term  they  ap- 
plied to  them,  namely,  Meerasdars,  or  patrimony-holders,  from  the  Ara- 
bic word  Meeras,    **  patrimony,*'    "  heritage,"  and  Dmr,  "  a  holder  ;" 
and  this  is  the  term  by  which  sii«h  proprietors  are  distinguished  at  the 
present  day.    The  Meerasdars  were  of  two  kinds ;  the  descendants  of 
the  original  proprietor,  whose  surnames   and  the  name  of  the  estate  or 
thul  were  identical,  and  those  who  had  obtained  a  share  of  the    estate 
by  purchase  or  othervvise,  whose  surnames  were  not  the  same  as  that  of 
the  estate.     In  no  instance,  that  I  am  aware  of,  hive  the   former  class 
documentary  proofs  of  their  right  j  with   the   latter  class  documentary 
proofs  are  not  uncommon. 

There  is  further  proof  of  the  Moosulmans  having  acknowWged  here- 
ditary rights  in  the  term  they  applied  to  the  Deshmooks,  Desaees, 
Deshpandehs,  and  others,  namely,  Hukdar,  /Jukt  in  Arabic,  meaning 
«*  right,"  and  Dar  **  a  holder;'*  these  persons  in  virtue  of  their  offices 
having  lands  in  tenure  and  fees  in  money  and  kind  in  the  districts  in 
which  these  duties  lay.  The  Meerasdars  considered  that  they  might 
be  temporarily  dispossessed  of  their  freeholds  in  case  of  non-payment  of 
the  government  assessments  and  dues,  but  they  claimed  to  resume  them 
whenever  they  had  liquidated  their  debts ;  and  they  did  not  consider  the 
question  of  these  freeholds  compromised  by  the  government  doing  jus  ties 
to  it8«»lf,  any  more  than  the  existence  of  freehold  property  would  be 
questioned  in  England  because  the  owner  might  be  compelled  to  yield 
up  his  property  in  payment  of  arrears  of  land-tax,  poor-rates,  &c. 

Meerasdars, — Meerasdars  set  a  very  high  value  upon  their  lands,  and 
they  clung  to  them  with  that  feeling  of  personal  and  family  pride  which 
are  characteristics  of  freeholders  in  Europe ;  even  under  the  most  grind- 
ing oppressions  of  their  own  government  and  its  local  officers,  it  was 
only  when  driven  to  despair  that  they  abandoned  them.  The  Meerasdar 
had  to  pay  the  government  land-tax,  all  fees  in  kind  to  the  district  and 
Tillage  officers  in  common  with  the  tenant  at  will  or  leaseholder ;  more* 


402  On  ikt  Siatisiics  of  Dukhun.  [AmiIl 

over,  he  bad  to  pay  a  tax  applicable  to  himself  only,  called  Meerasputtee, 
a  kind  of  smart-money  for  the  distinction  his  freehold  gaye  him ; 
this  was  levied  every  third  year.  Such  was  the  Meeras  tenure  of  land. 
His  advantages  were,  first,  the  distinction ;  next,  bis  being  a  coxuitita* 
ent  of  the  Paodreh,  or  village  corporation,  which  the  mere  renter  nas 
not ;  and  thirdly,  in  some  parts  of  the  country  where  such  taxation  ex- 
isted, he  was  exempt  from  marriage  fees,  widows'  marriage  fees,  buAdo 
tax,  hearth  tax,  and  he  may  have  paid  a  diminished  per  centage,  in  the 
rights  of  district  officers  levied  in  kind.  Of  late  years,  from  the  low 
prices  of  agricultural  produce  and  the  comparatively  heavy  money  as* 
•essments,  Meeras-land  has  scarcely  hnd  a  saleable  value.  The  terms 
Meerasdar  and  Wuttundar  have  usually  been  considered  identical,  bat  in 
•ome  village  papers  I  observed  them  classed  separately  ;  and,  on  asking 
Ibr  an  explanation,  was  told  that  the  Wuttundars  were  hereditary  office- 
bearers, or  the  relations  of  hereditary  office-bearers  vrith  the  possible 
right  of  succession,  whilst  the  Meerasdars  were  merely  hereditary  land- 
holders ;  a  Wuttundar  would  necessarily  be  a  Meerasdar,  but  a  Mee- 
rasdar was  not  necessarily  a  Wuttundar. 

Oo/wrfc.— From  the  extinction  of  numerous  Mahratta  families  who 
were  in  possession  of  estates,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land  in  Duk- 
hun  is  without  proprietors,  and  much  of  it  is  rented  to  Oopnrees  or  an- 
ncial  tenants  by  the  Pateel  or  village  corporation,  under  native  govern- 
ments; but,  under  the  British  government,  by  the  collector  or  big  of- 
ficers. The  term  Oopuree  means  ^'  a  stranger,"  or  a  renter  of  land  in  a 
^lage  in  which  he  has  not  corporate  rights  :  of  course,  Meerasdars  can 
let  their  lands  to  each  other,  but  they  do  not  become  Oopnrees.  The 
Oopuree  holds  his  lands  on  the  Ooktee,  or  word-of-mouth  tenure,  which 
is  a  verbal  agreement  for  one  year. 

Kowl  Jttawa  — The  thiid  tenure  is  that  of  Kowl  Istawa  ;  Kowl  means 
a  contract,  and  Istawa  is  applied  to  lands  let  under  their  value.     In 
practice,  to  induce  cultivators  to  break  up  land  that  has  long  lain  waste, 
a  lease  is  given  of  three,  Ave,  seven,  or  nine  years  ;  the  first  year  a  tri- 
fling rent  is  fixed,  and  it  is  annually  increased,  until  in  the  last  year  of 
the  lease  the  full  rent  is  paid  ;  this  tenure  is  highly  desired,  and  great 
abuses  exist  under  it  *.  the  permanently  a$:s>>ssed   cultivator  is  prompted 
to  quit  his  village,  and  abandon  even  his  hereditary  lands,  and  get  Kowl 
Istawa  lands  in  another  village  ;  and  the  moment  the  favourable  lease  is 
np  he  changes  his  location,  and  endeavours  to  obtain  similar  terms  else- 
where :  the  practice,  therefore,  is  detrimental  to  the  permanent  revenue, 
detrimental  to  the  sound  advancement  of  agriculture,  and  detrimental  to 
the  cultivator  himself  in  encouraging  vagrant  habits.     The  local  autho- 
rities also  are  found  to  be  great  occupiers  of  Kowl  Istawa  lands. 


1839]  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukkun.  403 

Owand  tenure, — Any  inhabitants  of  a  village,  cultivating  lands   in  a 
neighbouring  village,  but  not  residing  in  that  village,  do  so  on  the  Owand 
teuure.    The  rate  and  terms  are  the  Ooktee,  and  with  respect  to  the  vil- 
lage such  cultivator  is,  in  fact,  an  Oopuree,  but  his  distinctive  appella- 
tion is  Owand-Kuree. 

The  above  are  the  tenures  on  which  the  government  land  revenue  it 

raised,  which  in  the  four  coUectorates  of  Dukhun  amounts   to  82*372  per 

€:ent.  of  the  whole  revenue  ;  this  per  centage,  however,  includes  some 

trifiiog  rents  from  government  lands,  gardens,  orchards,  grass  lands,  and 

sheep  grazing,  quit  rents,  fees,  Hukdars,  and  extra  cesses. 

Tenures  involving  alienations  of  lands, — I  have  now  to  speak  of  ten- 
iires  which  involve  alienations  of  lands,  from  a  few  beegahs  in  a  village, 
to  whole  districts  :  these  are  Jaghcer  and  Eenam  in  Khanlesh;  Surinjamt 
^enam,  and  Doomalla  in  the  Ahmednuggur  Collecluraie  ;  Eenamt  Hurin^ 
Jam,  Sind ^esapkut  in  Poena;  and  in  Dliarwar,  Jooree  Eenam,  Surtpa 
£enam,  aiud  Jagheer  I  at  least,  such  teruis  appeared  in  the  population 
returns  sent  to  me,  and  in  the  public  papers  which  I  have. 

Jagheer, — Jagheer,  which  is  a  Persian  word  in  its  orign,  is  applied  to 

lands  given  by  government  (or  the  government  share  of  the  rents)  for 

personal  support,  or  as  a  fief  for  the  maintenance  of  iroops  for  the  service 

of  the  state  :  some  service  is  implied  in  the  personal  asi  well  as  in  the 

military  Jagheer.     In  the  CoUectorates  in   Dukhun  upwards    of  400 

populated  villages  appear  to  be  alienated  in  Jagheer. 

Eenam, — Eenam  is  a  word  of  Arabic  origin,  meaning  a  "  gift,"  "  pre- 
sent ;*'  and  lands  so  held  should  be  entirely  free  from  tax  to  government ; 
but  a  subsequent  explanation  of  various  tenures  will  show  that  Eenam 
has  a  much  wider  signification  than  is  generally  supposed.  This  tenure 
is  very  extensive  in  Dukhun  ;  for  independently  of  the  grants  of 
whole  towns  and  villages  to  individuals,  of  which  there  are  231  alienated 
in  the  Poona  coUectorate  alone,  and  the  other  coUectorates  have  a  pro- 
portional share  ;  independently  also  of  grants  for  temples  and  religious 
institutions,  almost  every  village  has  Eenam  land  held  by  the  Pateel, 
Eoolkurnee,  and  Mahrs,  and  very  commonly  the  Deshmooks  and  Desh- 
pandehs  have  also  land  rent  free  appertaining  to  their  offices  in  the 
villages  of  their  districts.  The  Bara  BuUooteh,  or  twelve  village  artizans 
and  officers,  have  often  Eenam  lands,  but  their  Eenam  is  qualified  by  the 
imposition  of  some  professional  service,  and  it  pays  also  a  quit  rent 
Many  of  the  Eenams  are  very  curious  in  their  objects;  for  instance,  at 
the  village  of  Wangee,  Fergunnah  Wangee,  Poona  coUectorate,  16 
beegahs  of  land  to  a  mendicant  for  reading  stories  before  the  goddess 
Dawai  at  her  festival ;  15  beegahs  to  the  tabor  players  at  the  temple; 


4<K  On  th$  Staiisikii  of  Dukhun* 

30  beegabs   to  tbe    tumbling  and  dancing  women    at    tbi 

the   clarionet    and    double-drum    players     bad    respective) 

Eenams  ;  rhe  gardener,  for  the  supply    of  flowers,   bad  30    I 

!<2{  acres.    These  Eenams  existed  untouched  under  tbe  bigc 

sulman  government,  and  still  remain. 

Surinjam, — Lands  held  in  Surinjam  involve  the  condition  i 
service  :  the  term  is  of  Persian  origin,  meaning  **  furniture," 
tus,"  implying  that  tbe  lands  are  to  defray  tbe  expense  of  ec 
in  fact,  Suiinjam  is  synonymous  with  military  Jagbeer.  In  i 
Collectorate  181  villages  appear  to  be  alienated  in  Surinjam. 

Doomalla, — Doomalla,  in  the  etymology  of  the  word,  met 
rights"  or  •*  properties,"  from  Do  two,  and  Maal  property  :  t 
only  found  in  the  list  of  villages  of  the  Ahmednuggur  Collect 
plied  to  villages  and  lands  granted  to  individuals,  on  which  g< 
has  a  reserved  right.  In  this  sense  tbe  tenure  appears  to  be  tl 
rent,  and  the  term  is  synonymous  with  the  Jooree  £enam  of  I 
war  Collectorate.  In  the  Ahmednuggur  Collectorate  581 1  vi 
pear  as  Doomalla,  but  this,  no  doubt,  includes  Jagbeer  and  £ 
lages. 

Eesaphut. — In  the  Poona  Collectorate  the  term  Eesapbut  is  a 
37|  villages  :  it  is  probably  a  corruption  from  tbe  Arabic  Z^i^A 
ing  "  feast,"  **  entertainment."  Lands  so  held  are  rent  free, 
have  been  given  toass^ist  in  celebrating  festivals. 

In  the  Dharwar  Collectorate  the  terms  Jooree  Eenam,  Surw 
and  Jagbeer  occur  :  the  first  corresponds  to  the  Duomalla  of 
nuggur,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  quit  rent  tenure  ;  the  second  means  *' 
from  Surwa  **  all,"  and  Eenam  **  gift,"  there  not  being  any 
upon  these  lands  :  Jagbeer  hiis  been  explained  before. 

Tenure  rf  Deshmook  and  Desaee, — It  is  a  general  belief  that 
ficers  were  coeval  with  the  establishment  of  the  land  instituti( 
Mabratta  people. •  Deshraooks  were  the  civil  governors  of  dist 
lectors  of  the  revenue,  and  executive  oflicers  of  the  go^ 
The  name  is  probably  a  corruption  of  the  Sanscrit  Dethukt  a 
or  ruler.  In  early  times  they  were  exclusively  Mahrat 
not  Brah roans  or  Moosulmans.  The  importance  of  the  offi 
tested  bv  the  fact  that,  in  the  earliest  mention  of  the  chiefs  of  th 
great  Mahratta  families,  they  are  styled  Deshmooks  of  such 
districts.  Their  rights  were  hereditary,  and  saleable,  wholly  oi 
like  those  of  every  other  hereditary  office  or  right  i  tbe  right  of  s 

*  I  mean,  of  course,  long  antecedent  to  the  Mootuhnan  inrasioii. 


1839]  On  the  Statistics  qf  Dukhun.  4<MI 

is  proved  by  diflferent  casts  being  now  associated  in  tbe  office*  At 
Abmednuggur  a  third  of  the  Desbmookee  belongs  to  a  Brahman,  and 
two-  thirds  to  the  ruling  Mabratta  family  at  Nagpoor.  Similar  instances 
are  very  numerous.  In  some  cases  a  Deshmook  is  also  Pateel  of  one 
of  the  villages  in  his  district.  The  rights  and  emoluments  of  the  Desb- 
mook  are  very  extensive,  but  not  uniform  throughout  tlie  country  ;  they 
had  a  per  centage  on  tbe  revenue  varying  from  one  to  five  per  cent.  In 
the  Poona  CoUectorate  the  mean  charge  for  Deshmooks  and  Desbpan- 
dehs  amounted  to  306  per  cent,  of  the  gross  revenue,  but  on  tbe  nett 
rtvenue  it  amounted  as  nearly  as  po8:iible  to  six  per  cent ;  although  these 
persons  are  now  non- efficient,  their  authority  being  superseded.  As  a 
•ingle  illustrative  instance,  it  may  be  as  well  to  state,  that  at  the  village 
of  Ankoolsur,  Talouk  Ahmednuggur,  out  of  a  village  revenue  of  4d33 
rupees,  the  Desbmook  received  265  rupees,  and  the  Deshpandeh  150 
rupees  ;  the  former  hhuriug  d'84  per  cent.,  and  the  latter  3*31  per  cent. 
Their  next  advantage  is  in  some  of  them  enjoying  villages  in  free  gift* 
tbe  third,  in  possessing  £enam  land  in  most  of  tbe  villages  in  their  dis- 
tricts, sometimes  to  a  large  amount.  At  Mobol  Talook  Mohol,  tbe  two- 
sharer^i  in  the  office  uf  Deshmouk  have  each  450  acres  of  free  (or  Eenam) 
land.  The  fourth  right  of  the  Desbmook  is  a  portion  of  grain  from  each 
village,  called  Googree,  from  all  the  land  under  cultivation.  In  addition 
to  the  above,  from  some  villages  they  were  entitled  to  a  sheep  and  some 
butter  annually  ;  from  some  villages  a  dress,  from  others  a  turbaud, 
and  where  sugar-cane  was  cultivated,  they  had  a  portion  of  the  raw 
sugar.  They  possessed  the  above  advantages  on  the  tenure  of  execut- 
ing the  duties  previously  stated.  They  were  to  a  district  what  a  Pateel 
is  to  a  village. 

Deshpandehs, — The  Deshpandehs  are  contemporary  in  their  institution 
with  the  Deshmooks  ;  they  were  the  writers,  accountants,  and  registers 
of  districts;  they  were  always  Brahmans.  The  terms  appear  to  be 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit  Desh,  country,  and  Punnah,  to  do  business. 
They  were  to  districts  what  Koolkurnees  were  to  a  village  :  tliey  had, 
and  have  nearly  the  same  rights  and  emoluments  as  the  Deshmooks,  but 
in  a  diminished  ratio  of  from  25  to  50  per  cent.  The  offices  of  Desh- 
pandeh  and  Koolkumee  are  sometimes  found  united.  Their  duties  are 
in  abeyance,  but,  like  the  Deshmooks,  they  enjoy  their  rights. 

Pateet. — The  next  and  the  most  important  tenure  of  all  is  that  of 
Pateel  or  headman  of  towns  and  villages.  Pateel  is  a  Mahratta  term, 
and  may  be  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  Putlruh,  **  deed,''  "  lease,"  the 
Pateel  anciently  having  had  the  disposal  of  ail  vacant  lands   in  his  vil* 


406  On  the  SioHsties  of  Dukhun.  [Ann. 

lage  by  deed  or  lease.  Originally  the  Pateels  were  Mahrattas,  but  sale, 
gifc,  or  other  causes  have  now  associated  in  the  office  various  casts,  and 
there  are  sometimes  six  or  seven  or  more  sharers  in  the  office,— Brmh« 
mans,  Mahrattas,  Moosulmans,  Shepherds,  Lingaeets,  &c.,  and  these 
not  holding  in  equal  proportions.  I  have  elsewhere*  given  a  translati- 
on of  a  very  remarkable  and  curious  Mahratta  document,  proving  in  the 
most  distinct  manner  the  right  of  the  Pateel,  not  only  to  sell  his  famfly, 
or  hereditary  property,  and  the  lands  he  held  in  virtue  of  his  office,  but 
also  the  lands  of  extinct  families,  and  his  other  emoluments  and  ad- 
vantages ;  but,  in  doing  so,  he  also  alienated  part  of  his  dignity,  rights, 
and  authority  as  Pateel  :  the  honours  went  with  the  lands.  The  rights 
and  emoluments  of  the  Pateel  are  very  numerous;  free  land,  fees  of 
grain  on  the  cultivation,  called  googree,  presents  on  investitures,  on 
granting  letters  of  inheritance,  on  marriages ;  annual  presents  from  the 
shoemaker  of  shoes,  from  the  potmaker  of  pots,  from  the  shopkeepers  of 
cocoa-nuts,  &c  ,  market  fees,  all  the  sfmepM-heads  offered  in  the  temple  if 
Dawai  !  daily  service,  and  supply  of  wood  and  water  by  the  Mahr  and 
the  potmaker  ;  precedence  in  all  religious  or  other  festivals,  in  commn* 
nicating  with  government,  and  with  others.  The  details  of  the  transla- 
tion before  noticed  show  with  what  jealousy  the  Pateel  maintained  all 
the  minutest  rights  and  dignities.  Of  such  importance  and  so  profitable 
was  the  office,  or  in  such  estimation  was  the  dignity  of  Pateel  ancient- 
ly, that  princes  of  the  Mahratta  empire  established  themselves  wholly  or 
in  part  in  the  office  in  various  towns  and  villages  ;  Holkur^  for  instance, 
at  Munchur  ;  Seendeh  CSindiahJf  at  Jamgaon  ;  the  Nagpoor  BhoeUh 
at  Ahmednuggur,  and  Powar  of  Dhar  at  Multun  and  Kuweeteh.  There 
are  traditional  accounts  of  a  share  of  the  Pateel's  office  having  been  sold 
for  7000  rupees. 

The  right  of  the  Pateel  to  dispose  of  the  village  lands  not  occupied 
by  hereditary  proprietors,  together  with  his  responsibility  for  the  govern- 
ment revenue,  involves  the  proof  that  the  government  assessment  was 
anciently  Mozehwar,  or  by  the  whole  village,  and  not  by  direct  agree* 
ment  between  the  government  agents  and  individual  farmers.  The  vil- 
lage, in  fact,  was  assessed  at  a  certain  fixed  sum,  which  was  called  the 
Tunkha,  which  means  an  assignment;  and  this  Tunkha  appears  in  village 
accounts  to  this  day,  although  no  longer  a  standard  of  assessment,  as  the 


*  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

t  This  prince  has  six  out  of  seven  shares  in  the  office  ;  neyertheless  the  poor  Iffahratta 
who  ba«  the  seventh  share  has  precedence  of  the  prince. 


J9]  On  the  SiatiaUcg  of  Dukhun.  407 

tisb  government  settles  directly  with  the  farmer,  and  has  also  abro- 
ed  the  right  of  ihe  Patecl  and  the  village  corporation  to  dispose  of 
ste  lands;  in  alienated  villages,  however,  these  rights  remain.  Al- 
•ugh  the  translaiion  before  noticed  gives  a  minute  detail  of  the  rights 
i  emoluments  of  the  Patieels  of  Kuweeich,  it  is  to  be  understood  they 

not  uniform  either  in  number  or  value  throughout  the  country.  An 
a  of  the  value  of  the  Googree,  or  right  to  a  share  in  the  grain-produce 
cultivated  lands,  may  bp  formed  from  the  fact,  that  at  Kurjut,  Ahmed- 
^gur  colleclorHte,  in  1827»  there  were  8491  beegahs  of  land  under 
tivation,  nnd  the  Pateel  was  entitled  to  rJ8  seers  for  every  120  bee- 
is  ;  he  received  therefore,  9057  seers  of  grain,  a  sufficiency  for  the 
luul  support  of  25  persons. 

The  duties  of  the  Pateel  were,  to  be  responsible  for  the  revenue  of  the 
age,  to  superintend  its  police,  and  regulate  its  internal  economy.  He 
I  power  to  seize,  impiison,  and  fine  offenders, 

rVith  rcs^ard  to  joint  proprietary  in  Ihe  office,  independently  of  shares 
ng  hell  by  diiferent  casts  and  families,  the  Hindoo  liw  of  inheritence^ 
ich  gives  equal  shares  of  all  property  to  all  chil  Iren,  ne^-essarily  made 
ny  joint  owners  in  a  family;  but  as  the  executive  duties  are  only 
formed  by  the  head  of  the  family,  this  person  is  aiWed  AJ ok uddnm^ 
hief'  or  **  leader  ;'*  and  the  term  of  course  is  applicable  to  the  head 
;ach  proprietary  family,  who  is  designated  in  the  village  papers  as  half 
kuddum,  quarter  Mokuddum,  or  seventh  Mokuddum,  according  to  the 
ire  of  the  Paleelship  held  by  the  family. 

K.oolkurnce, — The  next  village  tenure  is  that  of  Koolkurnee,  from  the 
iscrit  Kool  "  to  count,"  and  Kroot  **  to  do,*'  "  make  ;*'  literally  an 
ountant.  The  office  is  of  very  great  importance,  for  the  Koolkurnee 
lot  only  the  accountant  of  the  government  revenue,  but  he  keeps  the 
vate  accounts  for  each  individual  in  the  village,  and  is  the  general 
anuensis  ;  few  of  the  cultivators,  the  Pateels  frequently  inclusive,  be- 
•  able  to  write  or  cypher  for  themselves.     In  no  instance  have  I  found 

office  held  by  anv  other  cast  than  the  Brahmanical.  The  office  is 
letimcs  united  with  that  of  Deshpandeh,  and  not  unfrequently  to  that 
Johesee  or  village  astrologer.  The  Koolkurnee,  like  the  Pateel,  has 
nam  land,  sometimes  salary,  fees  of  grain,  and  miscellaneous  rights  of 
ter,  raw  sugar,  &c.,  raroly  having  equal  rights,  either  in  number  or 
ue,  with  the  Pateel,  but  commonly  avt^raging  from  25  to  75  per  cent. 
ow.  Where  the  villages  are  very  small,  there  is  only  one  Koolkurnee 
several  \illages,  as  in  the  case  of  TurruffMuhr  Khor,  Poona  coUec- 
ite,  where  the  duties  of  this  individual  extend  to  one  small  t^wn  and 


408  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [Apftit 

eleven  villages.  He  is  here  paid  by  a  money  rate  for  every  30  be«- 
gafas  of  land  under  cultivation  ;  it  varies  from  1  rupee  the  30  beegahs  to 
3  rupees. 

Unlike  the  Deshraooks  and  Patecls,  no  in9tance  came  to  my  know- 
ledge of  shares  uf  the  office  being  alienated  from  the  family;  the  nu- 
merous sharers  being  all  connected  by  ties  of  blood,  who  each  in  turn 
take  their  annual  duties  ;  and  these  sharers  are  sometimes  so  numerous, 
that  at  on'^  town  the  execution  of  the  duties  only  came  to  the  same  in- 
dividual after  a  lapse  of  20  years.  The  executive  duties  should  be  con* 
fined  to  the  same  person. 

Mahrt  Tenure. — A  very  important  tenure  in   villages   is  that  of  the 
low-cast  people,  called  Mahr  by  the  Mahrattas,  and  Dker  by  the  Moo* 
tulmans.    They  have  Eenam  lands  in  all  villages,   divided  into  Hurkee 
and  Arowlah  ;  the  former  is  rent  free,  and   generally  bears  a  small  pro* 
portion  to  the  latter,  which  pays  a  low  quit  rent.     The  Mahrs  conceive 
that  they  have  the  right  to  mortgage  or  otherwise  dispose   of  lands  held 
for  the  performance  of  specific  duties  to  the  village  and  the  government, 
and  numerous  instances  of  mortgage  came  to  my  knowledge  ;  but  wh&> 
ther  they  can  wholly   alienate  their  lands  or    not,   they  cannot  absolve 
themselves  and  their  descendants  from   their  duties  :  theie  are  to  cut 
wood  and  grass  for  government  officers  and  travellers,   to  act  as  guides, 
as  porters  to  carry  baggage  from  village  to  village,  and  to  go  as  messen- 
gers ;  they  have  to  attend  strangers   and  see  to  their  wants  being  sup- 
plied, and  if  the  strangers  be  of  consequence,   they  or  the    Ramoosei 
have  to  look  to  the  safety  of  their  baggage  at  night.    They  are  the  guar- 
dians  of  all  village   land-marks  ;  they    are  the  PateePa    messengers, 
(something  like  parish  beailles,)  and  it  is  their  duty  to  carry  the  collec- 
tions   to    the    treasurer    of  the   district  ;    they    have    to    pass  on  all 
news   or   information   received,  whether  written     or  verbal,    whether 
by  sign  or  by  token,  to  all  the  surrounding   villages,  and   it  is  perfect- 
ly astonishing   the  rapidity   with    which    intelligence  is    ditTused  by 
their  means.     It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  distant  public   event    to 
be  whispered  about  in  towns  before  any  account  of  it   has  been  received 
by  the  government  post.     Occasionally  the  answer  to  my  inquiries  res- 
pecting the  duties  of  the  Mahrs  was,  that  they  were  to  do  every  thing 
fbey  were  ordered,  whether  by  the  Paleel,  the  village  corporation,  or  by 
the  government.     There  are  many  families  of  them  in  every   village  :  in 
some  villages  they  have  to  pay  a  tax  to  governmf^nt  called  Babta  Afahr, 
and  this  is  in  lieu  of  personal  service  in  cutting  wood  and  grass  for  the 
officers  of  government,  but  it  does  not   absolve   them  from    their  other 


1839]  On  the  StatMcs  of  Dukhun.  409 

duties.  So  strictly  is  it  Iheir  province  to  cut  wood  and  grass,  that  their 
iiguature  to  all  village  or  pubM':  documents  is  a  sickle  or  hatchet  to  cut 
grass  and  wood,  and  a  rope  to  tie  them  up.  In  addition  to  thf  ir  Eenam 
lands,  the  Mahr<,  in  virtue  of  their  office  as  one  of  the  Bara  BuUooteh 
or  twelve  village  officers,  er.ifiSMien,  and  \)rofessions,  receive  fees  in  kind 
from  all  the  cultivatois  ;  the  fee  in  kind  is  a  per  centa2;e  upon  the  pro- 
Uuce,  but  it  is  not  uniform  in  amount  throug^hout  the  Dukhun.  Thesa 
twelve  village  officers  are  divi.Ied  into  three  classes,  according  to  the 
supposed  importance  of  their  servit^es  to  the  village  ;  the  first  class  in 
some  villages  received  50,  the  secon  1  20,  and  the  thirJ  10  or  15  bundles 
or  sheaves  of  Joaree,  {Anh'opo;;on  s rgham,)  sta'k  and  graiu  included 
upon  every  1000  cut  down;  an  1  the  same  proportion  of  oiher  grains. 
Alany  farmers  in  various  parts  of  the  country  assured  me  that  they  put 
by  25  per  cent,  of  their  prudu^-e  f  jr  the  village  craftsmen  and  profes- 
sions ;  and  as  ili»*  Mahrs  from  th  ir  usf-falnoss  share  in  aM  those  classes, 
their  returns  must  be  coiisidorable  ;  th"  iulividual  br^nefit  d.^pending  of 
course  upon  the  magnitude  of  the  bo'ly  constituting  this  class  of  persons 
in  the  village.  As  low  cists  dj  not  cultivate  their  Eenam  lands,  they 
derive  less  ad\antat;C  from  thim  tl  aii  other  Eenanidars,  but  make  the 
best  terms  they  can  wiih  the  Koonbcs  to  cultivate  their  Ian  Is  for  them. 
The  Mahr  does  not  pay  any  tax  to  goYt'rnment  upon  his  BuUooteh.  In 
the  whole  of  the  duties  of  the  Miihrs,  whether  for  government,  the  vil- 
lage, or  individuals,  they  are  not  bound  to  go  beycnd  the  village  next  to 
their  own  :  here  they  hand  over  their  charge  and  return.* 

Biira  BaUooth  Tenure. —The  twelve  crafismen  or  professions  which 
were  originally  in  every  village  were,  the  Sociar  (Carpenter),  Chambar 
(Shoemaker),  Lohar  (Ironsnuih),  and  Alahr  ;  these  constituted  the 
Torlee  Khas  or  first  class.  In  the  Mudlee  Khas,  or  second  class,  were  the 
Puree!  (Washerman),  A*ot>;//6ar  (Pot-maker),  Nahwee  (Barber),  and  Maan^ 
(Skinnerand  Rop^-maker).  And  in  the  third  or  Dhaktee  Khas,  the  ATo/i/ftf 
(Waterman),  Joheaee  ( Astrologer), G.;or«u'  (ch  an^ r  of,  and  attendant  at 
jhe  temple),  and  the  Sonar  (Silversmith) ;  and,  since  the  Moosulman  rule, 
the  MooUnia  or  Mnosulman  piie-t  and  schoolmaster  has  been  added.  These 
persons,  in  th  Mr  several  lines,  find  nc'ording  to  their  several  abilities, 
were  to  do  f-r  the  cultivators  indivdwally  and  the  village  collectively 
whatever  mi^hi  he  required  from  them  j  and  ihey  were  paid  by  an  aa- 


•  In  spcakin-?  of  the  duties  of  tlie  Malirs  I  ou.,'lit  to  hive  uspd  the  past  tenae  insteiid 
of  the  preseut  in  *0'»c  cttjf*.  KoviTimn'nt  having  i»artly  absolved  them  from  duties,  the 
performance  of  which  is  their  tenure  foi  holdinij  their  land*  and  fees. 


410  On  the  Stathtict  of  Dulthun.  [Afhii. 

nual  per-centage  in  kind  npon  the  produce  of  iLe  farmer  ;  and  this  was 
called  ilieir  Bullcoleli,  whtnce  the  term  Bara  BuUooto.h  :  tbe  fee  being 
called  Bullooteh,  and  the  receiver  of  it  BuUoo*ebdar.  Very  rarely 
could  I  get  either  farmer  of  Bu'.lootehdar  to  slate  specifically  what  the 
one  gave,  and  ihe  other  \»as  entitled  to  receive  ;  it  depended  very  much 
upon  tbe  crops,  and  also  upon  the  extent  of  services  performed  for  each 
individual  cultivator.  These  craftsmen  have  frequently  small  portiong 
of  Eenam  lands,  and  part  of  their  BuUootth  goes  to  govemmentas  a  tax. 

Shet  Sundec  Tenure, — Lands  were  given  to  a  kind  of  militia  in  the 
districts  in  place  of  pay,  for  the  performance  of  certain  duties,  princi- 
pally in  th**  protection  of  their  villages  :  this  tenure  is  calif d  Shet  Sun- 
dee  from  V/tf.'  *' a  field,"  anl  Sunnud  **  a  grant;**  constituting  the 
holders,  in  fa<-t,  a  landed  militia.  Although  this  tenure  may  have  been 
general  at  one  period,  I  only  observed  lands  set  apart  as  Shet  Sundee  in 
five  Pergunnahs  of  the  Poena  col'ectoratc,  and  I  remarked  it  also  at 
KurmuUa,  Ahmednuggur  coUectorate. 

Tenure  of  Chowgulla. — There  are  several  other  tenures,  of  which  a 
brief  notice  only  may  be  given.  The  ChowguUa  is  tbe  Pateel*s  assis- 
tant ;  be  is  found  in  most  villages  ;  sometimes  he  has  a  trifling  grant  of 
land,  but  most  commonly  grain-fees  from  the  landholders.  This  per- 
sonage is  called  Buglab  where  the  Kanree  language  is  spoken. 

In  some  Turruffs  a  Havildar  is  met  with  ;  the  tenn  is  of  Arabic  ori- 
gin,  from  Hawala  "charge,**  "custody,**  and /)ar  "agent,"  ** holder." 
This  officer  was  introduced  by  the  Moosulmans  as  a  supervisor  in  the 
collection  of  the  revenue  of  a  certain  number  of  villages.  He  replaced 
the  Hindoo  Naik,  who  is  still  met  with  in  some  of  the  hill  districts. 
The  Havildar  was  paid  by  half  a  seer  of  grain  from  each  beegali  under 
cultivation;  and  for  the  Hindoo  officer  the  same  is  levied,  under  the 
name  of  Naikwaree.  At  Kanoor,  Ahmednuggur  coUectorate,  tbe  Naik- 
waree  is  12  seers  of  grain  on  every  30  beegahs  under  cultivation. 

2'ulwar. — In  the  southern  villages  bordering  on  the  Kanree  tracts, 
I  met  with  the  village  or  Turruff  officer  called  Tulwar  ;  but  the  term  is 
unknown  to  the  genuine  Mahratias.  His  duties  assimilate  him  to  the 
Havildar  and  Naik  of  more  northern  tracts. 

Tenure  of  Uamooses, — Between  the  parallels  of  latitude  17*  and  19® 
north,  and  longitude  73°  40'  and  75°  E.,  there  are  few  villages  in  Duk- 
hun  without  their  Ramooses.  These  vagabonds  are  thieves  by  birth  and 
cast,  which  is  abject ;  most  of  the  villages  have  them  in  employ  to 
guard  the  village  from  robbcjy.  In  some  villages  they  have  Eenam 
lands,  but  they  are  generally  paid  in  foes  of  grain  upon   tbe  cultivation. 


1839]  On  ihe  Stathtics  of  Dukhun.  411 

There  is  a  perfect  community  of  interest  amongst  tlie  fraternity,  liowcvcr 
dispersed  •  nnd  ns  they  are  dissipated,  idle,  and  reckless,  they  not 
unfrequently  assemble  in  bands,  take  to  the  liills,  and  commit  depreca- 
tions in  the  country,  and  it  is  necessary  to  chase  them  back  to  their  vil- 
lages by  means  of  the  regular  troops.  They  are  expert  sportsmen  and 
good  shots. 

Bheelt, — Where  the  Ramooses  are  wanting,  their  places  are  mostly 
supplied  by  the  Bheels,  or  by  the  Kohlees  ;  the  former  are  low  casts, 
the  latter  are  Shoodnths.  Their  duty  is  to  afford  protection  to  the  vil- 
lages, and  they  have  either  Eenam  lands  or  fees  in  grain.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in  Khandesh,  the  inhabitants  of  entire 
villages,  and  even  districts,  are  Bheels,  or  Kohlees  (Coolies). 

Shfteh. — Sheteh  is  the  person  by  common  consent  admitted  to  be  tht 
head  and  spokesman  of  the  mercan I ilo  and  trading  classes,  in  places 
in  the  districts  where  thty  arc  in  snfl'cieni  numbers  to  require  one;  and 
as  combination  is  universal,  he  is  of  some  importance  in  the  districts  as 
their  organ  in  regiilaiing  prices.  The  Sheteh  is  assisted  by  the  MahaJMn, 
which  properly  means  a  hankor  ;  but,  as  the  colleague  (»f  the  Sheteh, 
he  is  an  inferior  |)erson:»ge  in  the  districts  :  both  these  people,  in  soma 
towns  and  villages,  have  trifling  Een;.m  lands  and  claims  for  money  and 
grain  ;  but  on  what  tenure  of  service  to  the  community  is  not  very 
apparent. 

Sur  Pateelf  and  Sur  Deshmook,  and  Sur  Desffee.—  i  9ho\\]A  scarcely 
have  introduced  any  mention  of  the  Sur  Pateel,  and  Sur  Deshmook,  and 
Sur  Desaee,  as  it  has  not  come  to  my  notice  that  they  hold  lands  in  te- 
nure, but  their  names  frequently  occur  in  village  accounts  as  Hukdars,* 
or  entitled  to  certain  rij^hts  in  money,  grain -fcf^s,  &c.  One  of  the  Sur 
Pateelsbips  is  vested  in  the  great  family  of  Eshwunt  Rao  Dabareh,  of 
TuUegaon ;  and  one  of  the  Sur  Desaeeships  in  the  ancient  family  called 
Chaskur.  Captain  Grant  Duff,  in  his  History  of  the  M ah rattas,  makes 
mention  of  several  Sur  Deshmooks,  and  says,  that  Arungzebe  allowed 
the  old  Sur  Deshmooks  2  per  cent,  on  the  revenue.  But  the  Sur  Desh- 
mookee  of  modem  limes  \>hich  appears  in  all  village  accounts,  was  10 
per  cent,  of  the  Moghul  revenue,  exacted  by  Sewajee  from  the  Moosul- 
mans  ;  it  was  levied  over  and  above  the  land  tax.  The  sufferers,  there- 
fore, by  Mahratta  violence  were  the  Mahratta  cultivators;  and  on  the 
whole  of  the  possessions  of  the  Moosulmans  coming  into  the  hands  of  a 
Mahratta  government,  the  Sur  Deshmookee  should  have  been  abandon- 


•  Huk  «•  a  ripht/'  andcter  "  a  holder," 


112  On  the  StatUtic*  of  Dukhun.  [Apmn. 

ed,  bat  it  remains  to  ihis  day  ;  for  instance,  at  Jehoor,  near  Abmedoug- 
gur,  the  Tunkba,  or  guremnient  revenue  or  assignment^  from  the  tovn 
WM  10,817  Tu\,ee9t  2  qr.,  3  leus;  tfaeSur  Defthiuuokee  1 3^0 rupees, 3qr., 
3  n-a«  ;  but  the  Kuuiiil,  ur  total  sum  raised  from  the  cultivators,  in::lud- 
ing  village  exppi.scs  and  Hukdars,  was  I9,3C3  rupees.  3  qr.,  1  reas  :  so 
that  the  Moosulmans  originally  took  little  more  than   hulf  of  the  reve- 
nue  now  niised  from  the  town,  that  is   to  sar,   the   Moosulmaus   took 
10,SI7  rii[>ees:  then  came   Sewajee,  the  Mahratta,  and  wrenched  from 
them  10  p^r  rent,  of  their  revenue,   \^hich  should  have  been  10^1  ra« 
pees.     The  Moosulnians,  instead  of  paying  it  out  of  lO.S  17  rupees,  clap- 
ped the  demand  of  Sewdjee  ui>on  the  town  as  an  additional  burthen  ; 
and  iuHtPud  of  honestly  fixing  it  at  1081  rupees  (10  per  cent,  of  10,SI7), 
thev  adroit!?  took  occasion  to  exact  a  little  more  from  their  Mahratta 
6  ubjef'ts. 

Many  individuals  have  shares  in  the  vil'a^^  revenues  unier  the  names 

of  Mokaaaf  Sahofray   BaUee,   and   Nargctcra.     The  most  intelligible 

way  to  describe  these,  is  to  say  that  persons  have  money   assignments, 

amounting  to  a  definite  per  centage  on  the  revenue,  under  these  names. 

In  their  origin,  Mokassa  is  6G  p<*r  cent.,  Sahotra  6  p^r  cent.,  Babtee   25 

per  cent.,  and  Nargowra  3  per  cent,  of  (he  Choui^  or  fourih  of  the  whole 

Moghul  revenue,    which  was   extorted   ftoin    the    Moosulmaus   by   the 

Mahrattas.     Sewajee  and  his  chiefs  shared  it  amongst  themselves  ;   the 

chiefs  ha<l  the  Mokassa  for  military  services  ;  the  Saliotra  was  given  to 

the  Punt  Suchew,  one  of  Sewajee's   ministers  ;  the  princess  own   share 

was  the  Babtee  ;  and  the  Nargowra,  which   is   synonymous   with    Sur 

Pateel,  or  chief  of  all  the  Pateels,  was  at  the  disposal  of  the  prince.     As 

these  grants  were  hereditary,  the  equal   division  of  property  and  rights 

amongst  children  has  occasioned  the  reduction  of  some  of  the   shares  to 

the  most  trifling  amount  where  families  have  multiplied. 

Such  are  the  tenures  that  came  under  my  notice  ;  and  it  is  necessary 
to  state  that,  with  the  8in>:le  exception  of  Surwra  Eenam  or  **  entire  gift,** 
there  was  an  obligation  of  specific  service  on  tlie  individual  or  parties 
enjoying  advantages  under  the  several  tenures;  the  non- performance  of 
these  duti**s  involved  the  forfeiture  of  their  rights  ;  but  independently 
of  such  forfeiture,  all  grants  whatever  (unless  specified  to  the  contrary) 
were  resumabie  by  the  sovereign  or  other  grantee.  Grants  for  religious 
purposes  were  rarely  recalled;  bur  for  other  objects  they  were  frequent- 
ly  abrogated,  particularly  Jagheer,  Surinjanii  and  Ilakdur  grants.  To 
such  au  extent  did  this  exist  under  the  IVshw  I's  government,  that  the 
Hon.  M.  Elphinstoue,  in  his  report  us  coiumissiuneri  enumerate*  as  an 


1839] 


On  the  Staiisftct  of  Dukhun. 


413 


item  of  revenue,  f^uttun  Zuheeif  or  sequestered  lands   of  Zuiniindars, 
mhicb  yielded  aimuail}  50,o00  rupees. 


Jiercnue. 

A  few  figures  perspicuously  armnged,  are  more  effieacions  in  affording 
just  iiu(/rt*SNioDi»  of  the  resource-*  of  a  country,  their  ramitications,  pres- 
sure, and  avai.aliility,  than  the  must  laboured  verbal  details.  In  1827- 
28  the  assessments  in  the  four  eollectoratts  of  Dukhun  amounted  to 
8,435,214  rupees,  3  qr.  79  reas,  being  a  duuinution  of  53b,  99  rupees, 
2  qr.  80  reaM  in  thi*  revenue  of  Fuslee  1231,  a.  d.  1822,  as  stated  in  Mr. 
Chaplin's  report;  from  this  sum  also  were  to  be  deducted  the  remissi- 
ons of  415,0j0  rupees,  I  qr.  25  reas  in  the  Ahmeduuggur,  and  4 1 6,320 
rupees,  3  qr.  in  the  Poena  coliectorate  in  1827- *^i  Hmounting  to  a  total 
diminution  of  1,360,725  rupees,  3  qr,  05  reas,  or  15  lii  decL  per  cent,  of 
the  revenue  of  1822. 

Tlie  revenue  of  1827-23  in  its  constituents  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : — 


Denomination 
of  Hevcuue. 


Fuslee  12^.— Retenue,  A.  D.  1827-28. 


Puuna 
Collet  lorate. 


Nutrifur 
Coliectorate. 


Land  revenue 


'rupees,  qr.  reatt-  rupees,  qr.  reas. 
1,5  6,323  ..  37,l,tt'5.87  ..   .. 


Sahyer*. 


Customs. 


Miscellaneous. 


231.262    1  ..{      59,(X)7    3  78 


Dharwar      |     Khaudesh 
Colleciorate.    i   Coliectorate. 


rupees,  or.  reas.jnipees.  qr.  reas. 
1,1^.323  2    08  1.6r>4.904  3    32 


334,668  ..     bd\  131,710    3     .. 


3301 


241,114    125     159.150..   ..I  141,524  2     46    155,560    3     .. 


Total 1,992,000  2    6212,033,994    3  78 


2,421,516  1     <9 


35,556    2    68 


1,987,7  i3  . .    : 


Grand  Total  8,435,2H  rupees  3,  qr.  79  reas. 


From  the  preceding  table  it  will  be  seen  tliat  in  the  several  collecto- 
nites,  although  of  very  disproportiunate  superficial  extent  and  population 
in  Ahmednuggur,  Poona,  an  I  Khaniesh  th'^re  U  a  close   approximation 
in  the  total  amount  of  their  revenues,  although  with  some   difference    in 
the  value  of  their  great  bran^'hes. 


*  Bahyer  is  the  revenue  raised  from  shops,  markats,  liquors,  fcc.  Sabyer  is  a  '*  market 
in  Saiucrit, 


•• 


414 


On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun, 


[Afi 


The  following  table  exhibits   the  proportion  per  cent,  of  the  gw 
branches  of  the  above  revenue. 


Denomination 
of  Keveaue. 

Proportion  per  cent,  of  the  great  branches  of  revenue. 

Poona 
Collectorate. 

Nuggiir 
Collectorate. 

Dbarwar    |   Khandesh 
Collectorate. , Collectorate. 

Land  revenue. 

per.  cent. 
7612 

percent. 
h9-275 

per  cent. 
80-335 

per  cent. 
fe3-76 

Sahver !        11-62 

2-900 

13  820 

6-63 

Customs 

12-0 

7^25 

5-815 

7-8i 

Miscellaneous 

016 

•  • 

•  • 

1-79 

100. 

100.           1       100. 

100. 

There  is  considerable  uniformity  in  the  respective  proportions  of  0 
land  revenue  in  the  different  coUectorutes.  Poona  has  the  smallest,  b 
it  is  compensated  for  in  the  magnitude  of  the  Sahver  and  customs. 
Ahmednuggur  the  proportion  of  the  land  revenue  exceeds  that  of  Poo 
by  13  per  cent,  but  this  is  counterbalanced  by  th**  singular  sma'.lness 
the  Saliyer  branch.  In  the  land  revenue  of  Dharwar  and  Khandc 
there  is  a  sufficient  approximation  to  a  mean  per  centage  for  the  fi 
collectorates,  which  averages  82*30  decls.  per  cent.  The  whole  revet 
of  England  being  ^52,000,000,  has  only  a  land  revenue  of  £2,0v.K),00C 
3*846  decls,  per  cent.  The  whole  revenue  of  France  being  £40,000,0 
the  land  revenue  is  12,000,000. or 30 percent. 

The  following  table  shows  (in  1827-28)  the  amount  of  the  land 
venue  in  each  collectorate,  the  number  of  cultivators,  the  average  real 
farms,  the  number  of  British  populated  villages,   and  the  average  r< 
nue  of  a  village  :  the  last  column  is  intended   to  show   the  pressure 
eluding  land  Sahyer  and  customs)    of  the  assessments  and  taxes,  y'vc' 
as  a  capitation  tax. 


Names  of 

Conecto- 

rates. 


Poena.. 


NugRur  .. 


Khaniiesh 


jDharwar. 


Total 


Numlxjri 

of    Bri-  Average  re-ji^  ^ 

tish   po-j  venue  per    ***i"  "^evenue. 

pulated  I    village, 
villages 


1469§ 


18781^ 


ru 


p.   qr.   rs. 
1253    1  98 


1083    2  99 


2367i      839    3    7 


rup    qr.  rs. 
,516,323  ..  37 


1.815,837 


Kurabor 

ofCulti- 

vators. 


52.668 


41,948 


1.664,905  . 


2104     i     %H    2  33  i  1.943,323    2  80 


44,608 


60,701 


Average 

rent  of 
farms. 


rp.  qr.rs. 
28    3  16 

STl  15 

37    1  33 

32  ..  19 


7819^       887    3  32  i6,942.388    1  77]  199.925    34    S  90 


Land  rereo* 
Sahyer,  Costo 
ate.,  viewed  • 

capitation  tm 

rp*qr.rs.!£.  f. 
4     1  78:  0   8 


3  S77|  0   T 

4  1  92   0    S 


3    1  60 


4  ..  OJ 


0    9 


1839]  On  th€  StatiilicM  of  Dukhun.  415l 

The  population,  inclusive  of  Sholapoor  and  Cheekoree  and  Munowlee, 
of  the  Company's  possession  in  Dakhun,  but  exclusive  of  alienated  vil- 
lages, is  2,105,886  souls,  and  the  gross  revenue  84,435,245  rupees; 
equal,  therefore,  to  4  rupees,  0  qr.  02  reas  per  head. 

In  forming  the  above  table,  the  collectors  were  good  enough  to  sup- 
ply the  number  of  villages  an  I  cultivators  in  1827-28,  and  the  amount 
of  the  land  revenue  was  obtained  from  the  Accountant-General's  office. 
In  striking  the  average  revenue  per  village,  I  have  omitted,  in  the  divi- 
sion of  the  Dharwar  collectorate,  175  villages,  (subsequently  reduced  to 
155,)  which  I  found  by  the  population  returns  lately  completed  were 
uninhabited,  but  parts  of  whose  lands  were  under  cultivation  bv  neigh- 
bouring villagers,  and  therefore  included  by  the  collector  in  his  list.  In 
Khandesb  330  villages  have  been  struck  out  under  similar  circumstances. 
In  Poona  and  Ahmednuggur,  villages  of  this  class  are  very  limited  in 
number,  and  I  have,  in  consequence,  not  made  any  deduction  on  their 
account. 

To  give  a  fair  average  of  the  village  revenues  in  the  Poona  collecto- 
rate, 151 ,241  rupees,  including  a  share  of  the  customs,  have  been  deduct- 
ed from  the  whole  revenue  for  the  city  of  Poona  previously  to  striking 
the  average.  The  manner  in  which  the  Poona  capitation  tax  is  struck 
is  as  follows :— 1108  towns  and  villages  sent  in  population  returns,  con? 
taining  331,615  inhabitants,  averaging  226  souls  and  a  fraction  to  a  vil- 
lage. The  population  of  the  city  of  Poona  (81,315  inhabitants)  being 
deducted  before  striking  the  average  ;  of  these  villages  212|are  alienat- 
ed, leaving  895 1  British  villages  with  a  population  of  283,507,  includ- 
ing Poona.  These  in  1827-28,  yielded  a  gross  revenue  of  l,261,711t 
averaging  4  rupees,  1  qr.  78  reas  to  each  person. 

The  capitation  rale  in  the  Ahmednuggur  collectorate  is  obtained  as 
follows :  in  1827-28,  1877^  towns  and  villages  were  on  the  collector's 
list;  they  contained  494,669  souls,  estimated  from  the  average  number 
of  inhabitants  to  a  village,  namely,  263*47,  struck  from  the  census  of 
1822,  to  which  the  present  population  of  the  city  of  Nuggur  is  to  be- 
added,  namely,  21,208.  The  revenue  from  the  collecto»te  was 
2,033,994  rupees,  3  qr.  78  reas;  equal,  therefore,  to  3  rupees,  3qr.  77 
reas  per  head. 

In  Dharwar  the  averages  have  the  following  elements  i — in  1827-28, 
2279  British  towns  and  villages  produced  a  revenue  of  2,421,516  rupees, 
1  qr.  39  reas.  This  included  the  villages,  revenue,  and  population  of 
the  Talooks  of  Cheekoree  and  Munowlee,  received  from  the  Kolapoor 
state;  population  returns  were  nut  received  from  these  Talooks  ;  their 


416 


On  the  Sua'uticM  of  Dukhun. 


[Armii. 


rerenae  from  225  Tillages,  namely,  197,406  nipees,  3  qr.  29  reas,  it 
therefore  deducted  from  tbe  total  revenue  of  the  collectorate,  leaving 
2*224,199  nipees,  2  qr.  lOreas,  and  2054  villages.  From  the  latter  are 
to  be  deducted  175  depopulated  Tillages,  but  having  a  small  part  of  their 
land  cultivated  by  neighbouring  villagers,  leaving  1879*  British  villages, 
with  a'population,  agreeably  to  the  census,  of  65-^892  souls,  giving  3 
rupees,  1  qr.  60  reas  per  head. 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  ascertaining  how  the  revenue  of  Khandesh 
would  &11  as  a  capitation  tax,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  number 
of  villages  (335^)  rendered  productive  siuce  1825-26,  (the  date  of  the 
population  returns,)  their  population  not  being  known.  In  1825-26 
the  inhabited  villages  amounted  to  2032,  and  330  were  Pyegusta,  i.  e. 
deserted,  but  having  part  of  their  land  cultivated  by  neighbouring  vil- 
lagers. Supposing  the  new  villages  to  be  peopled  in  the  same  ratio  as 
the  old  ones,  the  number  of  inhabitants  m  the  government  villages  in 
1827-28  would  have  been  443,548,  which  is  24,031  souls  more  than  I 
have  put  into  the  population  returns ;  and  as  tbe  revenue  was  1,987,733 
rupees,  the  people  averaged  an  individual  payment  of  4  rupees,  1  qr. 
92  reas  :  nevertheless,  I  have  reason  to  doubt  the  actual  ^increase  in 
population  to  the  extent  1  have  given  Khandesh  credit  for  ;  and  should 
it  have  remained  stationary,  the  revenue  as  a  poll-tax  would  amount  to 
5  rupees,  1  qr.  40  reas  per  head. 

With  respect  to  the  branch  of  revenue  called  Sahyer,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  different  colleclorales  raise  it  in  very  unequal  proportions.     The 
unusual  lowness   of  it  in   the   Ahmednuggur  collectorate  is  of  difficult 
explanation.    The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  persons  of  each 
class  paying  this  tax,  the  amount  paid,  and  tbe  average  per  head. 


Collectorates. 

Number  of  taxable 
persons. 

Amount  of 
taxes. 

Average  per 
head. 

Sahyer. 

Bullooteh. 

Poona 

14.551 

8181 

rup.  gr.  rs. 
231.262  1    00 

rup.  gr.  rs. 
10       ..    16 

Ahmednuggur. 

9,287 

4980 

59,007  3   78 

4      ..    54 

Dharwar 

29,()46 
9,147 

25»ll 

334,668  . .  45 

10      2     02 

Khandesh .... 

2348 

131,711  ..  .. 

11       1      83 

It  is  consequently  found,  that  Ahmednuggur,  with  a  greater  num- 


*  Subsequently  increased  to  1899,  with  a  population  of  6e0,85a. 


1839]  On  the  Statistict  of  Dukhun.  417 

ber  of  taxable  persons  in  the  Sahyer  branch  than  in  Khandesh,  averages 
a  payment  per  head  of  liitle  more  than  one-third  of  what  the  shopkeep- 
ers, trades,  and  Bulloteh  pay  in  Kh:in<le>h  ;  and  the  tolerable  uniformi- 
ty in  the  individual  averages  of  the  coUectorates  of  Poona,  Dharwar,  and 
Khandesh,  proves  that  their  Sahyer  taxes  are  raised  equitably.  I  hive 
to  notice,  that  in  village  papers  there  is  a  want  of  uniformity  in  the 
classification  of  the  extra  cesses,  sometimes  articles  being  placed  un- 
der the  heads  of  Sahyer  which  bear  upon  the  land,  and  others  again  be- 
ing classed  with  the  land  which  are  money  commutations  for  labour. 

From  the  definite  character  of  the  elements    in    the  preceding  table, 
great  confidence  may  be  placed  in  the  correctness  of  deductions   from  it. 
The  numbers  of  taxable  persons  in  1827-28  were  supplied  to  me  by    the 
collectors,  and  the  amount  paid  is  extracted  from  their  Jummabundy  set- 
tlements for  that  year. 

Customs. —The  customs  vary  considerably  in   the  different  coUector- 
ates; those  of  Poona,  being  above  12  percent,  of  its   whole  revenue, 
may  be  looked  upon  as  high,  but  their   magnitude  m  inifests  a  favoura- 
ble commercial  industry.     Contrary  to  expectation,  Dharwar,  which  has 
indications  of  internal  comparative  prosperity,    has   the    lowest  revenue 
from  customs,  with  a  greater  population,  a  greater  revenue,  and   falling 
lighter  upon  the  people  than  in  any  of  liie  other  cullectorates,  and  with 
more  than  ten  times  the  number  of  manufacturers*  to  be  found  in  Poo- 
na and  Khandesh,  nevertheless  shows  a  commercial  retum  52  per  cent, 
less  than  that  of  Poona,  and  even  25\  per  cent,  below  the   exhausted 
province  of  Khandesh.     It  seems  anomalous  that  the  proportional  per- 
centage of  the  customs   on  the   whole  revenue   in   Ahmednuggur  and 
Khandesh  should  be  identical,  the  population  of  the  former  being  23.75 
per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  the  latter,  whil^  a  parity  seems  to  exist  in 
the  wants  and  export  resources  of  the  people  of  both. 

Expenses. — I  have  put  into  juxtaposition  some  of  the  items  of  ex- 
pense in  the  coUectorates,  and  their  rate  percent,  on  the  gross  revenue ; 
but  the  want  of  a  systematic  classification  of  charges  mider  common 
heads  throughout  the  coUectorates,  renders  a  rigid  comparison,  item 
for  item,  unattainable.  The  information  is  extracted  from  the  Jumma- 
bundy  returns  of  the  collectors  for  1827-28.  A  government  form  for 
this  paper  for  common  adoption  would  render  the  multitudinous  details 
involved  in  it  more  available  for  comparison  by  inspection  than   in  the 


*  Thirteen  thousand  and  forty-five  wearen. 


418 


On  the  Statistics  of  DukJiun. 


[Apin. 


present  forms.    The  total  expenses  of  two  of  the  collectorates  only  is 
given  in  the  following  tables. 

Few  comments  are  necessary,  as  the  charges  and  the  rate  per  cent, 
they  bear  upon  the  gross  revenue  of  each  collectorate  are  seen  at  a 
ghmce. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  EXPENSES. 


Denomination 
of  expenses. 

Expenses  1827-23. 

Poona 
CoUectorate. 

Nuggur 
CoUectorate. 

Dharwar 
CoUectorate. 

Khandesh 
CoUectoraie. 

VUlage  &  land 
expenses.  .. 

rup.         qr.  rs. 
136,659  ..12 

rup.      qr.     rs. 
149,761     2  26 

rup.      qr.    rs, 

•  •            •  •      •  • 

rup.      qr.    rs 
388,016  .... 

Native     esta- 
blishment for 
collections.. 

•  •             •  •      •  • 

• .      •  •  •  • 

246,174    3  ?0 

157,202    2  .. 

Mokassa 

55,997    3  43 

.  •      •  •  •  • 

.  •      •  •  . . 

45,358  ..   .. 

Hukdars 

61,005    3  00 

115,876     1  25 

. .      •  •  . . 

• .      . .   .  • 

Contingent 
charges,  in- 
cluding pre- 
sents  

.  •      •  •   •  • 

101,055    3  22 

190,768    3  39 

339,410    3  .. 

Shet      Sundee 
or  native  mi- 
litia  

.34,435    2  43 

.  •      •  •   •  • 

.  •      . .  •  • 

• 
•  •        ... 

Pensions,  Een- 
ams 

. .      •  •   •  • 

466,491    3  89 

33.522    2  94 

45,619    2  24 

Cellectur's  sa- 
lary  

. .      •  •   . . 

59,653    1  33 

113.745  ..  42 

93,277    1  75 

European    Ju- 
dicial     

• .      .... 

53,546    2  58 

•  •      • .  .  * 

16,909    1  41 

NativeJudicial 

• .      • .  • . 

229.366    2  73 

.... 

•/OfoUD    . «    .  . 

Total 

288,098  . .  98 

875,754    1  26 

584,211    2  55 

1.176,099     2  40 

Remissions   .. 

416.3W0    3  .. 

415,005     1  25 

None. 

None. 

To  H.H.Seen- 
deh 

•  •             •  •      •  • 

• .      . .   • . 

a  .            .  .      .  • 

90,796    3  33 

f839] 


On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun, 


419 


TABULAR  VIEW  OP  THE  PROPORTION  PER  CENT.  OF 

EXPENSES. 


Denominations  of 
expenses. 

Proportion  per  cent,  of  the  expenses  on  the  whole 
revenue  in  the  several  Collectoratei. 

Poona 
Collectorate. 

Nuggur     1 
Collectorate. 

Dharuar 
Collectorate. 

Khandesh 
Collectorate. 

Villajie,  land  and  Sah- 
yer  expenses 

per  cent 
6-86 

per  cent. 
7-36 

per    cent. 

•  • 

per  cent. 
1952 

Native  establishment  for 
collections 

>  • 

•  • 

1017 

792 

M okassa ••••••.« 

2-81 

• . 

•  • 

228 

Hukdars 

1        306 

S'70 

•  • 

•  ■ 

Contingent  charges. . . . 

•  • 

4-96 

7-87 

17  08 

Shel  Sun'lee,  militia.. . 

173 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

Pensions,  Eenams  .... 

'          •  • 

818 

1-39 

2-29 

ICoUector's  salary 

•  • 

2^9< 

469 

467 

European  Ju«iicial.... 

•  • 

2-63 

>  • 

085 

Native  Judicial 

•  • 

1127 

•  • 

452 

Total 

14-46 

4303 

24- 12 

59*13 

Remission 

20  89 

20-40 

None. 

None 

Grand  Total 

35  35 

C3-43 

2412 

59  13 

For  ihe  proper  understanding,   however,   of  some  omissions    in  the 
above  abstracts,  short  notices  are  called  for. 

Under  the  items  of   "  village,  land   and  Sahyer  expenses,'*  **  Shet 
Sundee,"  **  Mokassa,"  and  **  Hukdars,*'  there  are  blanks  in  the  Dhar* 
war  collectorate,  the  whole  land  expenses  amounting  to  24- 1*2  percent. ; 
it  is  to  be  presumed  the  charges  under  these  heads  havt^  merged  in  the 
«*  Native  establishment  for  collections.**  Under  Khandesh  there  is  a  blank 
for  the  Hukdars  ;  the  expense  of  these  persons  is  no  doubt  included  in 
*»  village,  land,  and  Sahyer  expenses.'*     Under  Nuggur  there  are  blanks 
under  *'  Mokassa"  and  *♦  Shet   Sundee  ;**  they  must  be   included  in   the 
**  Land  and  village   expenses.*'  Of  the  omissions  in  the  Poona  abstract  it 
is  unnecessary  to  speak,  as  they  are  intentional. 

The  charges,  revenup,  magisterial,  and  judicial,  upon  the  revenue  of 
Ahmednuggur  in  1827-28,  amounted  to  4303  per  cent.,  and  remissions 
were  granted  in  that  year  to  the  amount  of  20-40  per  cent.  ;  the  total 


420  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [April 

deduction  from  tlie  revenue  was  63*43  per  cent.  In  Ehandesh,  without 
any  remissions,  the  charges  were  nearly  six 'tenths  of  the  whole  revenue. 
In  Poona  I  have  only  shown  the  charges  which  are  strictly  and  perma- 
nently fixed  upon  the  land  in  all  the  coUectorates,  which  are  not  mutahle» 
and  therefore  scarcely  susceptible  in  justice  of  modification ;  these 
amount  to  14-46  per  cent. :  they  comprise  village  expenses,  militia,  Mo- 
kassa,  and  Hukdars.  In  Dharvar,  the  collector's  establishment  has 
been  added  to  the  above,  and  it  brings  the  charges  strictly  bearing  on 
the  land  to  24*12  per  cent,  on  the  revenue. 

A  review  of  the  above  tables  and  abstracts  suggests  the  following  ob- 
senations.  The  coUectorate  of  Dharwar,  having  the  smallest  area*  (with 
the  ex<'epiion  of  Poonaj  of  the  coUectorates  of  Dukhun,  has  the  greatest 
population,  and  produces  the  greatest  revenue,  which  bears  lightest  by 
average  upon  the  inhabitants  individually.^  Judging  from  the  lowness 
of  the  customs,  it  has  the  weakest  indications  of  commercial  industry  ; 
neverlhele^js,  the  manufacturers,  pariicularly  the  weavers,  exceed  those 
of  the  other  coUectorates  in  the  ratio  of  100  to  11,  or  89  per  cent.  The 
shopkeepers  and  trades  people  are  very  numerous,  and  their  individual 
taxesc  rise  to  the  average  of  those  of  Poona  and  Khandesh.  Finally, 
the  means  of  the  people  (remissions  not  being  called  for)  must  be  more 
efficient  than  in  the  other  coUectorates,  and  a  proportional  ratio  of  im" 
ports  and  exports  might  have  been  looked  for. 

Khandesh  has  the  largest  superficial   extcnt,<l   a  population©  29  per 
cent,  less  than  that  of  Poona,  or  granting  an   increase   to  its  population 
15*32  per  cent,  less,  with  a  revenue  nevertheless  equal  to  that  of  Poona, 
bearing  in    consequence    with    unusual    pressure    upon    the    people, 
its    average    being    5  rupees,  1  qr.  40    reas  to    each  soul  ;     involving 
the  fa.'t  that  the  assessments  in  this    coUectorate    are   greater    than 
in  any   of  the  others.     Admitting,    however,  the    estimated    increase 
to  the    population    previously      noticed,    (which     certainly    exceeds 
the  tnith,)   the  average^  individual   payment  will  still  exceed  that  in 
the  other  coUectorates.     It  is   possible   this  apparent  pressure  may  be 
referred  to  the  extent  of  its  garden  cultivation,  which   is  much  greater 
than  that  of  Dharwar,  and,  as  far  as  1  can  judge  from  observation,  that 


a  9122  square  miles,  including  the  cuUivated  area  of  the  Talooka  Cheekore«  and 
Manowlee. 

b  83>«,757.  includinq  the  estimated  population  of  the  Talooks  of  Ckeekoree  and  Manow 
lee.  3  rupees,  1  qr.  6  reas  per  head . 

e  10  rupees,  2  qr.  8  reas.  d  12,527  square  miles. 

e  371,404,  but  supposed  this  year  to  be  443,548  in  government  villages. 

f  4  rupees.  1  qr.,  92  reas. 


1839]  On  the  Stalislicit  of  Dukhun.  4*^1 

3f  Poona  and  Ahmednuggur  also.  In  Khandesh  in  1926,  there  were 
^2,697  beegahs*  of  garden-land,  being  y*36  per  cent,  of  the  whole  cul- 
ivated  land,  the  gardeu-land  iu  Dliarwar  nut  amounting  to  one-half  per 
cent.  In  the  Nuggur  and  poona  coUectorates,  in  the  towna  of  Kuruial- 
leh,  Kurjut,  Angur,  and  Rawgaon,  the  proportion  of  garden  to  field-land 
ID  cultivation  was  5*45  per  cent.  only.  But,  under  all  circumstances, 
the  villages  of  Khandesh  average^  the  least  revenue  in  Dukhun;  it 
stands  third  in  the  number  of  its  cultivators,<^  but  second  in  the  amount 
3f  the  rent  of  its  farms. d  The  magnitude  of  this  rent,  it  is  inferred,  ori- 
ginates in  the  comparative  high  rate  of  assessment  per  beegah,  and  not 
in  the  greater  size  of  the  farms.  I  have  not  the  number  of  beegahs  of 
land  in  cultivation  in  1827-28  in  Khandesh,  but  justify  my  inference 
from  the  following  data  : — In  1826  there  were  37,311  cultivators,  and 
883,548  beegahs  under  cultivation,  averaging  23*68   beegahs  to  each 

farm.«    Last  year,  there  were  44,608  cultivators,  and  supposing  them  to 
hold  individually  the  avera  ge  number  of  beegahs  of  1826,   the  result 

will  be  as 

cult     beegnhs.      cult.     beegaht. 

37,31 1  :     88.348 :  :     44,608  :  1,056,345  ; 
and  as  the  land  revenue  of  1827-28  was  1,664,901    rupees,  the  rate   per 
beegah  is  therefore  1  rupee,  2  qr.   30  reas,'  which   exceedsB  that  of  the 
other  coUectorates  from  50  to  100  per  cent. 

In  the  Sahyer  branch  of  revenue  the  increased  pressure  is  still  visible 
upon  the  people  ;  it  exceeds  the  mean  pressure  of  Dharwar  and  Poona 
10-35  decL  per  cent.,  and  that  of  Ahmednuggur  in  the  extraordinary 
ratio  of  63*91  per  cent. 

The  customs*  per  centage  on  the  whole  revenue  is  identical  with  that 
of  Ahmednuggur,  although,  in  the  present  state  of  Khandesh,  it  could 
not  have  been  looked  for. 

Ahmednuggur  stands  second  in  superficial  extent.^  The  land  revenue 
is  only  inferior  in  amount  to  that  of  Dharwar,  although  it  has  the  least 
number  of  cultivators*  in  all  the  coUectorates.  The  average  rent  of 
fenns  therefore  is  the  greatest ;  and    from   averages  struck  in  diiferent 


a  62.023  acres.  b  839  rupees,  3  qr..  7  reas.  c  44,608. 

d  37  rupees.  1  qr.,  33  reas. 

e  Beegahs  883.448.  f  Rupees  1,664,904    ru.    qr.   rs. 

=  a;J-68.  =1       ^     30  per  beegah. 

Cultivators  37,:i]l.  Bttgahs  l,0r>6,345 

g  Puona  and  Nujipur  3  qr.  58  rras  per  beegah.  including  garden-land.    The  whole 

of  Dharwar  2  qr.  94  reas  per  beegah,  including  garden-land. 

h  9910  square  miles.  i  41,948  cultiyatori. 


422  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [Afiik 

villages  in  various  purts  of  the  Desli  in  this  collectorate,  I  would  refer  it 
to  the  increased  size  of  the  farms  rather  than  to  enhanced  assessments. 

In  a  table,  which  will  be  met  with  in  treating  of  the  condition  of  the 
people,  farms  are  made  to  average  about  45  beegahs  each  ;  and  the  as  - 
sessments,  including  extras,  do  not  amount  to  a  rupee  per  beegah.*  In. 
the  hilly  tracts  the  farms  are  necessarily  much  reduced  in  size,  and  aa 
average  for  the  whole  collectorate  would  bring  them  down  probably  to 
35  beegahs  each  ;  41,948  cultivators  therefore  would  occupy  1,463,180 
beegahs  of  land,  which,  divided  into  the  land  revenue,  (1,815,837  ru- 
pees,)^ give  1  rupee,  95  reas  per  beegah.  1  am  rather  disposed  to  rely 
upon  the  general  average,  than  upon  the  average  struck  from  the  exami- 
nation of  the  papers  of  a  few  towns  in  the  most  favourable  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  very  low  amount  of  the   Sahyer,  which  is  only  2*90  per   cent,  of 
the  whole  revenue,  has  been  already  adverted  to.    The  taxable  persons,<5 
nevertheless,  under  this  head,  exceed  those  of  Khandesb. 

The  customs  bear  a  fair  proj)ortion  to  the  whole  revenue. 

The  average  revenue^  per  village  may  be  subject  to  a  slight  modifica- 
tion, as  in  the  number  of  British  villages,  amounting  to  18781,  furnished 
to  me  by  the  acting  collector,  .which  paid  revenue  last  year,  deserted 
villages  are  not  distinguished,  part  of  whose  lands  are  under  cultiva- 
tion ;  and  (he  want  of  population  returns  disables  me  from  ascertaining 

them. 

The  revenue,  viewed  as  a  poll  tax,®  bears  easier  than  in  any  other 
collectorate,  excepting  Dharwar.  The  means  to  insure  an  approximate 
accuracy  in  this  calculation  have  been  already  explained. 

Puona  has  the  smallest  land  revenue,  and  the  smallest  superficial 
extent.f  Previously  to  the  addition  of  the  four  Talooks  of  Sholapoor, 
Mohol,  Moodeebeehall,  and  Indee,  agreeably  to  information  furnished 
by  the  Survey  Department,  it  comprised  an  area  of  4990  square  miles 
only.  Neither  the  extent  nor  population  of  these  Talooks  being  known, 
it  was  necessary  to  estimate  them  ;  the  process  was  conducted  by 
analogy,  which  has  been  explained  elsewhere ;  2888  square  miles 
resulted  from  the  calculations,  giving  the   Poona   collectorate  an  area  of 


b  Rupees  l,8ir).837    rp.   qr.   rs. 

a  2».  M.  per  mere.  =  1      0     95  p^r  beegah. 

Beegahs    1,468,180 

c  14.267.  d  1082  rupee*,  2  qr.  99  teas. 

«  Rerenue  as  a  poll  tax,  3  rupees,  3  qr.  77  reas. 

f  Area  7878  square  miles. 


1839]  071  the  StatutiCM  of  Dukhun.  428 

7^73  square  miles.  Poona  has  the  greatest  number  of  cultivators*  ex- 
cepting Dharwar ;  and  this  is  to  be  attributed,  not  to  the  extended  cul« 
tivation,  but  to  the  Mawul,  or  hilly  tracts,  occupying  a  great  deal  of  the 
collectorate,  where  the  farmers  are  multiplied  and  the  individual  agri- 
cultural operations  of  very  limited  extent.  In  the  whole  TurrutFof 
jMburkboreh  the  farms  average  only  13  becgabs  each  ;  ^  but  in  the 
eastern  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the  collectorate  they  have  the  same 
mverage  as  is  given  to  Ahmednuggur.  From  the  above  facts  the  £irms 
might  be  expected  to  average  a  very  low  rent,  as  is  found  to  be  the  case« 
The  following  estimate  justifies  the  inference  that  the  land  assessments 
are  comparatively  not  very  onerous. 

In  the  Desh,  or  Table  Land,  the  farms  average 45  beegahs* 

In  the  Mawulsy  or  hilly   tracts 13      do, 

2)58 


• 


Mean  average  of  farms 29  beegahs 

In  1827-28  there  were  52,668  cultivators,  which  multiplied  by  29,  the 
average  number  of  beegahs  to  each  farmer,  will  give  l,527,iJ72  beegahs 
of  land  under  cultivation ;  and  as  the  land  revenue  of  1827-28  amounted 
to  1,516,323  rupees,  37  reas  ;  the  assessments  would  only  be  at  the  rate 
of  3  qr.  97  reas  per  beegah,c  including  garden  land  and  extras.  There 
are  still  however  some  marked  features  which  are  not  satisfactory :  the 
villages  average  a  greater  revenue  (excluding  the  city  of  Poona)  than  la 
the  other  collectomtes,  although  the  average  village  population  is  less 
for  that  part  of  the  Poona  coUecturate,  whence  population  returns  have 
been  received. 

The  574  villages  of  the  sub-collectorate  of  Sholapoor  average  1272 
rupees,  1  qr.  12  reas  each,<^  including  customs.  The  magnitude  of  the 
average  of  the  remaining  villages  may  be  attributed  to  the  great  amount 
of  the  customs ;®  but  deducting  a  suitable  proportion  of  the  customs^  for 
the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Poona,K  and  the  whole  of  the  revenue  of 
the  city,  Sahyer,^  laud,i  and  Abkauree,l^  and  miuit  ;  villages  (always 
excluding  the  fuur  talooks  of  Sholapoor)  still  average  1241  rupees,  1  qr. 
76  reas  each,  which  is  higher  than  in  any  other  collectorate ;  and  as  the 


c  Rupees  1,516,31^ 

=»  3  nr.  87  reas  per  beegab, 

•  53,668.  b  ^  acres.  Beegahs  1,527.372 

d  Revenue  of  sub-collectorate  of  Sholapoor  730.289  rupees,  1  qr.  93  reas. 

e  215.361  rupees,  2  qr.  37  J  reas.  f  61,756  rupees,  1  qr.  63  reas. 

g  81,515  inhabitants.  h  56,S0i  rupees,  3  qr.  50  reas. 

i  :r7,981  rupees,  ai}  reas.  k  13,0<X)  mpect.  1  3301  rupe«». 


424  On  the  Statttiics  of  Dukhun.  [A^eil 

villages  in  this  part  of  (he  collectorate  average  a  fraction  more  than  226 
inhabitants,*  the  taxes,  assessments,  and  customs,^  after  deducting  the 
•hare  for  pQona,  151,241  rupees,  fnll  upon  the  people  with  the  unex- 
ampled pressure  of  nearly  5^  rupees  per  head,c  while  ihc  people  in  the 
city*  average  only  one  rupee,  3  qr.  44  reas  per  head,  including  a  pro- 
portional share  of  the  customs,  and  the  city,  Sahyer,  and  land-tax,  &c. 

For  the  whole  col iectorate  of  Poona,  including  the  four  talooka  of 
Sholapoor,  by  a  process  previously  explained,  (he  assessments  average 
4  rupees,  1  qr.  7^  reas  per  head,  which  closely  approximates  to  lliat  of 
Khandesh. 

Poona  has  the  greatest  number  of  taxable  persons*  after  Dhanrar  in 
the  Sahyer  branch  of  the  revenue,  and  ranks  second  in  the  total  amount 
of  the  sum  raised,  which  falls  with  a  less  pressure  individually  than  in 
Dhamar  and  Khandesh,  but  gr«^a(er  than  in  Ahmednuggur.  The  ma- 
nufacturers, as  contributors  to  the  Sahver,  are  very  limited  in  number. 

The  prop»»r(ion  (hat  the  customs  bear  to  the  whole  revenue  is  a  very 
striking  ftature:  (hey  are  derived  principally  from  imports,  a  good  part 
of  which  passes  on  to  (he  eastward;  much  is  consumed  in  the  city  of 
Poona,  and  (he  rest  is  disj)ersed  into  the  districts.  I  have  ob8er\'ed  that 
imports  from  the  coast  have  gradually  cheapened  in  their  retail  price 
within  the  last  three  or  four  years,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  combined 
causes  of  increased  importation  and  scarcity  of  money  in  Dukhun. 

The  co11p«  (orate  of  Dharwar,  whether  viewed  with  respect  to  the 
quantity  of  land  under  cultivation  ;  the  size  of  its  farms;'  the  amounts 
of  its  revenue  ;  the  lightness  with  which  it  falls  upon  the  people,  con- 
sidered as  a  poll-tax  ;B  (he  njagni(ude  of  its  Sahyer;  the  comparative 
denseness  of  its  population ;  its  numerous  towns^  and  tolerably  well- 
peopled  villages;  (he  facility  oflfered  for  instruction  in  the  number  of  its 
schools,  and  (he  manifcbtations  of  manufacturing  industry  in  its  nume- 
rous weavers,*    is  unquestionably  the  finest  Biiiish  province  in  Dukhun. 

Dhanrar  Land  lievenue, — The  land  revenue,  in  its  proportion 
to  the  whole  revenue,  stands  third  in  the  Dukhun  collectoraled, 
being  S0*336  per  cent. ;  but  this  apparently  inferior  station  is  to 
he  attributed,  not  to  the  diminished  quiuitity  of  land  under  cultivati* 


a  891i  villafjes  with  inhabitants,  202.253.  b  1.110,470  ruppcs. 

c  5  rujuM's.  1  qr.  9G  reas, 

it  luhabilants  of  Touna  81.315.    Taxes  and  proportionate  share  of  customs  Sec.  151,241 
upces. 

c  23,042.  f  32-74  ncTcs,  or  43(>5  bfcj;uh«!,  g  3  ruptc?,  1  qr.  CO  reas. 

k  liy.  i  1?.34.".. 


1839]  On  lie  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  425 

on,*  which  fi^r exceeds  that  in  ibe  other  eolle«(orate,  (i.  e.   ^\'\\  dfcU 
per  cent,   of  the  whole   lands,   Icavirg  only  38  89  decls,  per  cent,  of 
waste,)  but  to  the  lowness  of  its  land   asseKsmetits,    amounting  only  to 
2  qr.   94  reas  per   beegah,  including  all  extras    falling  on  the  land. 
The    process  by   which  this  average    assessment     was    struck    is  as 
follows.     In  1827,  agreeably  to  the  population  returns,   the  laud  inoc- 
cupation of  a   cultivator  averaged   32*7^  dech.   acres,   or  43 1)5   declt, 
beegahs  ;  in  i82S,  in  the  Jummabundy  settlement,  there  were  60,701 
cultivators,  which,  multiplied  by  43*65  (/ecA-.  gives  2,649,598.  6b  dee U, 
beegahs  of  land  under  cultivation.     These  divided  into  the  land  reve* 
nuts  1,945,323  rupees,  2  qr.  8  reas,  give  291  reas  per  beegah,  alow  rate, 
which  neither  the  examination  of  village  accounts,   nor  a  similar  pro- 
cess, will  give  in  Poona,    Ahmednuggur,   nor  Khandesh.^     This  light 
assessment,  equal  only  to  Is,  ll|(/.  per  acre,  is  certainly  advantageous 
in  insuring  the  realization  of  the  revenue  ;  but  when  put   into  compari- 
sou  with  the  rent  of  land  in  England,  shows  the  unproductive  and  limit- 
ed character  of  Indian  agricultural  resources, 

The  Sahyer  branch  of  the  revenue  is  highly  favourable,  amounting  to 
nearly  14  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and,  though  so  productive,  falls  as  a 
tax  lighter  on  individuals  than  in  Khandesh.  The  customs,  being  2 
per  cent,  lower  than  in  Khandesh  and  Ahmednuggur,  is  at  variance  with 
the  tolerably  efficient  character  of  the  general  resources  of  theDharwar. 

From  the  examination  of  village  papers  I  find  that  remi^sions  were 
very  rare  under  native  governmenls,  and  the  facility  with  which  they 
are  granted  under  the  British  government,  and  their  magnitude,  testify 
strongly  to  its  paternal  character.  Great  caution,  however,  is  requisite 
in  granting  them,  not  less  on  account  of  the  government  than  on  ac- 
count of  the  cultivator  himself.  If  obtained  with  facility,  and  without 
rigid  and  sharp  examinations,  and  some  personal  inconvenience  to  the 
applicant,  (from  the  habitual  indolence  of  the  native  character,)  his  or- 
dinary industry',  which  always  requires  stimulating,  would  be  paralys- 
ed, applications  multiplied,  labour  diminished,  and  the  farmer  would 
trust  to  the  forbearance  of  government  rather  than  to  his  own  exertions. 
There  is  another  reason  for  caution  in  the  strong  motives  that  the  native 
agents  have  for  urging  remissions,  with  a  view  to  intercept  them  in  the 
transit  of  accounts  through  their  hands. 

The  collector  canuot  possibly  personally  ascertain  the  truth  of  one- 

*  2,308, 0C4  acics  in  18v7. 

b  Abmednugijur  1  rujjti',  0-3  reas  ;  Nuggur  and  Poona,  partial  avcrase,  3  qr  ub  reas; 
EUaudcali  I  ru:n.-e,  2  or.  liO  u-as  ;>ei  beegah. 


426  On  the  Statuses  of  Dukhun.  [AprIi. 

hundredth  part  of  the  claims  set  up  ;  he  must  leave  this  labour  to  his 
servantSi  and  it  can  scarcely  be  believed  they  will  not  avail  themselves 
of  the  opportunity  to  turn  the  discretion  given  to  them  to  private  pro- 
fit ;  in  facti  I  know  such  to  be  the  case. 

in  an  examination  of  the  papers  of  the  villages  of  Muhrkoreh,  Poona 
collectoraie*  1  found  that  many  of  the  cultivators  had  paid  instalmentf 
of  their  assessments  (for  1827-28)  previously  to  remissions  being  grant- 
ed, which  exceeded  the  amount  they  were  required  to  pay  after  the  de- 
duction of  the  remissions  ;  the  poverty  of  some  of  the  cultivators,  con- 
sequently, must  have  been  misrepresented.  1  ascertained  also  that  part 
of  the  remissions  of  1827-28  had  been  intercepted.  Remissions  arc  un- 
avoidable in  all  calamitous  visitations  of  Providence,  which  are  notx)f 
confined  or  local  operation,  and  which  affect  the  returns  of  the  earth  i 
but  to  insure  the  benefit  of  the  remissions  to  the  cultivator,  they  should 
be  made  in  a  definite  per  centage  on  his  total  assessment,  and  the 
amount  should  be  proclaimed  more  than  once,  and  by  different  persons, 
in  the  public  place  of  every  villiige. 

A  few  words  in  conclusion  will  suffice  with  respect  to  the  great 
branches  of  the  revenue.  It  is  seen  that  82*30  decls,  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  is  deiived  from  the  land  :  already  the  supply  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce exceeds  the  demand,  and  the  farmer  has  a  difficulty  i  n  finding  a 
mart.  In  the  present  state  of  agriculture  therefore,  this  branch  ofre- 
Tenue  is  at  its  maximum,  and  will  probably  decline  until  supply  and 
demand  be  adjusted. 

The  prospects  of  improvement  in  the  Suhycr  branch  are  not  more  fa- 
Tourablc  than  in  the  land  revenue. 

The  trades  pay  to  the  full  extent  of  their  means  at  present,  and  manu- 
factures cannot  increase  when   the  European   importers  of  cottons  can 
alTord  to  undersell  the  native  manufacturers.     Indeed   I   believe  little 
more  than  coarse  Sarhees^  for  women,  and  common   tent  cloth,  are  now 
manufactured  in  the  British  provinces  in  Dukhun. 

The  improvements  in  customs  should  usually  depend  upon  increased 
wealth  and  commercial  industry  in  the  people.  The  extent  of  imports 
will  only  be  commensurate  with  the  means  of  purchase.  If  therefore 
the  opinions  I  have  advanced  on  the  land  revenue  and  Sahyer  be  well 
founded,  with  respect  to  the  limited  means  of  persons  paying  taxes  un- 
der those  Ltads,  the  customs  will  be  influenced  by  causes  affecting 
them. 

a  Dresses, 


1639]  On  ike  Stathtics  of  Dukhun.  427 

Any  general  improvement  in  the  revenue  would  seem  to  require  the 
creation  of  exportable  articles  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  or  nianufac- 
lures;  and  to  effect  this  desirable  object,  the  introduction  of  persons 
with  capital,  enterprize,  ingenuity,  commercial  tact  and  industry,  is 
necessary  ;  essentials,  of  which  the  country  is  at  present  destitute. 

The  manner  in  which  the  revenue  yielded  by  a  village  is  parti tioned, 
is  well  exemplified  in  Neembawee,  Pergunnah,  Kurdeh,  Ahmednuggur 
collectorate.  The  \illage  is  in  Jagheer  to  Bala  Sahib  Rastia,  one  of  the 
great  Jagheerdars.  The  shares  in  the  village  are  called  amuls^  and 
there  are  six  of  them ;  Rastia  has  three,  Suchew  b  Punt  one,  and  the 
Honourable  Company  two.  The  whole  shares  are  considered  as  an  in« 
teger  of  1  '23  parts. 

Sun,  1236.— A.  D.  1826. 

Rastia  has  the  Jagheer  ^ , 50 

Sur  Dcshmookee  and  Nuzzur<i 23 

Russur,  e  or  remainder , •«•     7 

80 

Suchew  Punt  has  the  Saliotra 23 

23 

The  Honourable  Company  has  the  Mokassa 15 

and   the   Neem  Chowthace,   or  half  of  the  tribute  called 
«*  Fourth" 5 

20 

ToUl  123 

In  addition,  the  fixed  money  rights  on  the  village  are— 

Rupees. 

SurPateel  Dabaree  of  Tellegaon  6 

Kundeh  Kurdehkur  Deshmook     «»• 101 

Amrut  Row  Joonurkur  Deshpandeh lOl 

Besides  the  Pateel  and  Koolkurnee,  ChowguUa,   Bullooteh,  who  have 
their  fees. 
It  would  seem  very  desirable  to  aholish  the  above  ahsurd  verbal  dis- 


a  Amul,  ••  rule/*  ••  sway." 

b  Suchew,  "  friend,"  "  minister  ;*'  one  of  the  eight  ministers  of  the  Rajah  of  Sattan. 

c  A  fief. 

d  Naz&r,  "  sight."  "  look,"  a  present  made  on  introduction  to  a  person. 

c  Kasr,  "  a  fraction." 


^%>^'  •"■r«r..  -•■«»*  ^""'•'■"i.i.r. 


8s.  pe^  ^^^ 


Tauas.  under  the  deo-.n;^^^,  c--'1\"U  H-^oo  ^e-' -\*^ 
&c.  witU  a  v.ew  o  A-  g  ^.eg-ah  •,  but  ije  ^  „„iy  be  equal 

Torn,  and  appre"'*i;;^^,,„{  different  va^^  i„   .be 

plying  to  quantity.  *«  °*^^,^  yenniy  m  P^""  ^-.^wtUe  mea- 

tLn  tbere  existed  an  a^^^d'    ^^  ^^  ^^^  .^  „a„         ^. ^^  .^^^^„„, 

««m.a«»r.<iM«nor^uud      ^^^^^^^  type  ._^  ^^^, 

:„r«aMun.Kundhee.«.-         ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^  Te    't--P' »" ^"^'-■'^" 

U  vreU  double  MayS.isiO. 

,  na-lca  =.a  tl^»  """"= 


iB39J  On  the  Slatistics  of  Dukhun.  429 

on  of  acres  :  the  ramiHcations  of  ancient  usages  amongst  a  people  are  in 
general  too  deeply  fixed  lo  be  eradicated  by  legislative  enactments.  A 
plant  maybe  cut  off  by  the  surface,  but  there  is  always  a  latent  dispo* 
siiion  to  reproduclion  from  the  untouched  roots.  "Whatever  may  be  our 
success,  a  revenue  survey  was  imperatively  called  for  under  the  indefi* 
nite  Hindoo  land  denominations,  to  enable  a  collector  to  regulate  his 
assessments  with  a  shadow  of  equity. 

With  respect  to  the  denominations  under  which  land  is   assessed  in 
the   comparatively   limited   space   of  my   inquiries,   their  variety  and 
absurdity  demonstrate  a  wanton  hizarrenesa  that  could  scarcely  have 
been  looked  for  in  a  people  reputedly  simple  and  uniform  in  their  opini- 
ons and  economy.  The  assessment  on  a  beegah  is  definite  as  it  depended 
on  positive  measurement,  and  I  have  remarked  that  it  obtains  at,  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  establislied  seats  of  Moosulman    authority,  as 
at  Ahmednuggur,  Turunda,   Sholapoor,   Mohol,   Barlonee,    Wamoree, 
Tacklee,  ^'c.     The  Chahoor  and  Rookeh,  as  at  Alkootee,   Kheir,  Wan- 
gee,  Tainiboumee,  Kurkumb,  Angur,  Mahrch,  Kurmalleh,  Kurjul  and 
Meerujgaon,  being  multiples  of  the  beegah,  are   intelligible.     Even  the 
Doree  or  rope,  us*'d  at  Hungawarreh  and  Neembee,  as  it  implies  measure- 
ment and   superficial   extent,  is  admissible.     The   old   Hindoo  terms, 
Kurdhee  and  Mun,  at  Ranjungaon,  Jamgaon,   Parnair,    &c.  &c.  as  they 
nre  founded   on  positive  properties,    furnish   sufficiently  precise  ideas. 
But  the  Tukeli,  with  its  constituents  of  Sujgunnees  and   Piceh,  (copper 
coin,)  at  Dytnaand  Ankolner,  the  seer  of  weight  and  its  Nowtanks  or  | 
Seer,  as  at  Koorul  and  W'angee,  and  the  Pyhnee  and  its   Annas*  at  Ser- 
rolee,  Bruhmunwarreh  and  Muhr,  are  not  reducible  by  any  operation 
of  the  mind  to  an  appreciable  portion  of  land,   whose  produce  shall 
ridmit  of  the  government  share  on  it  being  equitably  assessed.    The  as- 
sessment by  the  hatchet,  rude  as  it  is,  still  involves  the  idea  of  as  much 
copse-wood  land   as  one   hatchet  can  clear,  and  one  man  can  sow  and 
reap  in  the  year.     To  add   to  the  confusion,  similar  denominations  of 
land  are  not  made  up  of  common  and  uniform  constituents.     The  Tukkeh 
at  Kothoul  is  raised  from  the  Rookeh,  each  of  which  is  supposed  to  con- 
tain 10  beegahs,  or  T\  acres.     At  Ankolner  the  Tukkeh  is  composed  of 
Sujgunnees,  Piceh  and  Rookeh ;  the  Rookeh  being  equal  only  to  2|  bee- 
gahs, or  1 2  acres.    At  Lakungaon  there  are  10  Tukkeh  to  one  Pyhnee, 
and  as  the  Pvhnee  is  said  to  contain  30  beegahs,  the  Tukkeh  here  con- 
tains   only   3   beegahs  instead   of  4S0,  as  at  Tellegaon  }  or  210,  as  at 
Ashtee. 

u  One-sI\tecnth  of  «  rupee. 


430  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun,  [Arait 

In  respect  to  the  Mun  at  Ranjungaon,  it  is  rated  at  10  beegahs  ;  at 
JamgaoDy  belonging  to  Seendeh,  it  is  not  reducible  into  beegahs  at  all ; 
at  Parnair6|  beegahs  only  are  equal  to  the  Mun.  The  Pyhnee  at  See- 
rolee  has  the  Chahoor  of  120  beegahs  as  a  typical  standard,  4  Pyhnees 
being  equal  to  one  Chahoor,  or  120  beegahs ;  at  Muhr  the  Pyhnee  of  30 
beegahs  is  considered  as  identical  with  the  Kundhee  of  20  Muns,  reduc* 
ing  the  Mun  therefore  to  1}  beegahs. 

Under  such  complex  definitions  and  involved  contradictions,  my  limits 
will  nut  permit  me  to  give  further  explanations,  but  which  my  lengthen* 
ed  tables  afford. 

The  principal  assessment  necessarily  falls  on  the  land,  and  it  is  raised 
on  the  various  land  denominations  above  noticed  ;  the  land  in  the  first 
instance  being  separated  into  the  two  great  classes  of  Bhaghacet,  or 
garden-land  ;  and  Zerhaeet,  or  field -land.  Both  these  terms  are  evident- 
ly of  Moosulman  introduction,  Bhaghaeet  being  a  word  of  Persian  origin, 
meaning  **  gardens,*' «* orchards;*' and  Zerhaeet,  of  Arabic  derivation, 
meaning  a  **  sown  field,**  "  sown  land.*' 

There  are  marked  traces  of  the  land  assessment  having  once  been 
systematic  in  the  Sostee  or  permanent  rate,  which  was  uniform  and 
unchangeable  for  all  lands  of  the  same  denomination.  This  rate  is  found 
in  most  villages,  it  is  distinctly  stated  in  the  accounts,  and  separated 
from  subsequent  and  increased  assessments,  and  its  existence  is  a  proof 
that  assessments  formerly  were  not  on  the  superficial  extent,  but  on  the 
productive  power  of  the  soil ;  since,  as  lands  were  not  all  equally  fertile, 
more  of  the  unfertile  land  must  have  been  held  than  of  the  fertile,  to  ena- 
ble the  cultivator  to  pay  a  fixed  sum  in  quantity  of  grain  for  a  piece  of 
landunder  a  common  denomination.  The  Sostee  Dur^  or  permanent  as- 
sessment, was  the  pride  of  the  Meerasdar,  but  unhappily  not  his  safeguard. 
The  various  governments  which  have  passed  away  do  not  appear  ever  to 
have  raised  the  permanent  rate^  but  they  rendered  the  advantages  deriva- 
ble under  it  abortive  from  gradually  adding  extra  cesses  ;  their  excuses 
in  the  first  instance  being  unlooked-for  contingencies.  The  cesses  were 
originally  mostly  in  kind,  and  temporary;  but  the  exigencies  of  govern- 
ment, or  the  facility  with  which  they  were  raised,  made  them  perennial, 
and  their  pressure  upon  the  cultivator  has  been  enhanced,  particularly 
under  our  government,  by  the  cesses  in  kind  being  commuted  into  money 
payments.  The  Moosulmans,  on  introducing  measurements,  must  ne« 
cessarily  have  subverted  the  Sostee,  or  uniform  rate,  since  the  same  rate 
could  not  have  been  equitable  for  beegahs  of  land  of  dilferent  qualities. 
We  find,  in  consequence,  liuit  when  the  lands  are  classed  in  beegahs 


1839]  On  the  Statutics  of  Dulhun.  431 

otherwise  ihan  as  constituents  of  Hindoo  land  denominations,  that  there 
the  assessments  are  on  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  vary  accordingly. 

Gardens  being  dependent  on  the  local  advantages  of  a  suitable  supply 
of  water  and  some  depth  of  sioil,  usually  met  with  in  hollows  or  on  the 
banks  of  livers,  it  might  be  expected  that  considerable  uniformity  would 
prevail  in  the  quality  of  garden-land,  and  that  it  would  rarely  be  divid- 
ed into  classes;  such  is  usually  found  to  be  the  rase.  Most  commonly 
all  garden-land  appertaining  to  a  village  pays  the  same  rate  per  beegah  ; 
and  where  classification  exists,  it  is  founded,  not  on  the  quality  of  the 
land,  but  on  the  extent  of  the  supply  of  water. 

The  first  great  feature,  in  this  respect,  is  whether  the  garden  is  water- 
ed from  small  streams  con<lucted  from  rivulet**  or  rivers,  or  whether  it 
is  watered  from  wells  ;  in  the  former  case  it  is  called  Paatsthul,^  and  in 
the  latter  Mohtsthul.^  Most  Pahts  failing  in  the  dry  months  of  March, 
April,  and  May,  the  foimer  land  is  usually  assessed  at  a  lowor  rate  than 
the  latter,  as  at  Tellegaon  and  Pamair ;  but  where  the  Paht  supply  in 
perennial,  as  at  Dytn:i,  both  descripiions  of  land  pay  the  same  rate.  De- 
pendent on  these  primary  distinctions,  are  modifications,  affecting  garden 
assessments:  laud  w  iih  a  perennial  and  sufficient  supplv  of  water,  uhe- 
ther  from  pahts  or  wells,  is  called  Wohol-AVaho,  or  fully  watered,  and 
pays  the  highest  rate;  this  rate,  unless  on  rice  land,  and  isolated  spots, 
where  fruits  of  considendjle  value  ure  raised,  such  as  grapes  and  *j(»lden 
plantains,  &c.,  as  at  Joonur,  within  my  observation,  has  never  excee<led 
6  rupt»es  per  beeqah,c  in(  ludinp  sugar-cane  land.  The  other  classes  of 
land  are  cimiprised  in  the  Kord  Waho  or  not  fully  watered.  It  is  readily 
intelligible  that  a  well  may  supply  a  .•sufficiency  of  water  for  great  part 
of  a  garden  wiihin  a  reascjnable  distance  of  the  well,  but  that  the  extre- 
mities may  be  inadequately  watered,  and  this  affords  just  grounds  to  de- 
mand a  lighter  tax  for  the  extremities :  two  classes  should  result  from 
such  circumstances,  i.  e.  fully  watered  and  not  fully  watered,  and  such 
is  generally  the  case  where  distinctions  are  made  at  all :  but  at  Ahmed- 
nuggur  there  is  an  affectation  of  discrimination,  which  hns  determined 
that  garden-land  receives  its  waterini^  in  the  proportions  of  "  lully," 
♦'thlrteen-iwentieths,'*  ♦*  three-fifths/*  and  **  one-half,**  and  such  lands 
are  respectively  assessed  at  5  rupees,  3J  rupees,  3  rupees,  and  2^  rupees 
per  beegah.  The  assessment  on  garden -land  at  present  is  unequal,  and 
the  whole  requires  revision.  There  is  every  motive  to  make  garden- 
cultivation  assessments  ligiht  with  a  view  to  insure  to  each   cultivator. 


»» 


ft  From  Paat  "  a  channfl,"  an<l  Sthul  "  aGfld. 

b  From  Moht  "  a  water-bucket,"  and  Sthul  a  "  field."  c  16#.  M.  per  acre. 


432  On  Ihe  StatisUct  qf  Dulhun.  ^^V^'^ 

if  possible,  bis  well  and  lirtle  plot  of  garden  gronnd.  Gardens  pro- 
duce all  the  year  round  ;  they  are  comparatively  unaffected  by  the 
droughts  which  destroy  field  crops ;  and  independently  of  the  constant- 
ly saleable  garden  stuffs,  fruits,  and  aromatic  seeds,  there  is  usually 
room  for  a  becgah  or  more  of  bukbhee  or  johr  wheats,  which  require 
watering,  and  a  plot  or  two  of  su^ar-cane.  To  his  garden  the  cultiyator 
is  indebted  for  many  of  the  little  enjoyments  his  situation  is  susceptible 
oL  In  some  instances,  in  the  Mahloongeh  Turruff,  Poona  collectorate, 
I  fonnd  cultivators  paying  their  entire  assessments,  and  reaping  profit 
by  their  garden  produce  of  chillies*  alone,  wliicb  were  sent  into  the 
KonkuD. 

Usually  it  has  been  deemed  sufficient  to  arrange  Zerhaeet  or  field* 
Und  into  four  classes,  as  at  Jehoor,  namely,  Awul  (best),  usually  black 
land,  Rehscc  (modified  black),  Burrud  (dashed  with  lime  and  some  de- 
composing greenstone),  and  finally,  Khurrud  (stony,  thin,  and  poor). 
The  first,  throughout  the  country,  does  not  average  more  than  1  rupee 
the  beegah,  the  second  },  the  third  -}- J,  and  the  last  tV  of  a  rupee  per 
beegab  ;  but  at  other  places  there  are  other  distinctions.  In  the  Ma- 
wuls,  or  hilly  tracts  along  the  Ghauts,  lands  are  classed  as  Bhat,  Khatan, 
and  Wurkus,  the  first  being  rice  land,  the  second  wheat  and  grain  land, 
and  the  third  being  on  the  slopes  of  hills,  producing  the  dry  grains 
Sawa^  and  Wuree  ;c  there  being  a  great  deal  of  red  soil  also  in  these 
tracts,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  term  Tambut  or  copper-coloured.  The 
Awul,  or  best,  where  it  occurs,  is  called  Kahvut  (black),  and  the  rocky 
and  stony  Maal. 

These  explanations  are  sufficient  to  show  that  where  assessments  on 
the  quality  of  the  land  have  been  introduced,  uniformity  has  not  obtained 
in  distinguishing  the  qualities  ;  they  show  also  that  the  people  were 
satisfied  to  limit  the  qualities  to  four  gradations;  but  at  Ahmednuggur, 
the  Shaikdar  or  inspector  of  cultivation  has  had  the  microscopic  ability 
of  vision  to  mark  twelve  shades  of  difference  in  the  field-land.  The  ac- 
connts  are,  in  consequence,  amass  of  perplexity,  and  it  is  very  probable 
the  revenue  is  frittered  away  in  distinctions  which  the  cultivator  never 
dreamt  of,  and  never  profits  by. 

Field-lands,  on  which  the  cultivators  sink  wells,  are  not  assessed  as 
garden-lands.  At  Kanoor,  Nuggur  collectorate,  I  found  lands  so  circum- 
stanced had  been  free  from  any  extra  assessments  from  a  period  beyond 
the  memory  of  man. 


a  Capslenm  annuum*  and  other  apecieg. 

b  Panicum  frumentaceum.  c  Panicum  xniliarc. 


iS3d]  On. the  SlatUlics  of  Dtikhun.  483 

The  above  nolices  are  sufficient  to  show  the  anomalous  character  of 
the  money  assessments  strictly  on  the  land.  Not  only  are  they  arbitra- 
rily fixed  on  the  productive  power  of  the  land,  or  on.  measurements,  real 
or  supposed  ;  but  lands  of  the  same  denomination  and  quality  are  differ- 
ently assessed  in  neighbouring  villages  without  apparent  cause. 

The  average  of  all  the  rates  at  many  towns  and  villages  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  derived  from  personal  inspection  of  the  village  accounts, 
gives  3  rupees,  41  reas  for  a  beegah  of  garden -land,  or  8*.  3Jrf.  for  an 
English  statute  acre.  The  average  of  field-land  is  3  qr.  93i  reas  per 
beegah,  or  2^.  7hd,  per  English  acre. 

To  detennine  an  approximate  average  assessment  per  beegah  -in 
Kliandesh,  1  may  use  elements,  which  although  not  just,  may  be  ex- 
pected to  give  results  not  very  far  from  the  truth  ;  namely,  the  total 
number  of  beegahs  of  land  under  cultivation  in  the  population  returns  in 
1826,  and  the  land  revenue  in  1827-2S  :  the  former  is  883,543  beegahs, 
and  the  revenue  1,664,904  rupees  :  the  average  rate  per  beegah  is  1  ru- 
pee, 3  qr.  54  reas,  a  much  higher  rate  than  exists  in  the  other  collectot;- 
ates. 

These  assessments  comparatively  with,  those  of  all  European  coua- 
tries,  of  most  Asiatic  countries,  and  relatively  to  the  valuable  nature  of 
the  garden  produce,  comprising,  independently  of  the  ordinary  fruits  and 
vegetables,  grapes,  oranges,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  two  kinds  of  fine  wheat, 
and  aromatic  and  pungent  seeds, — the  field  produce  also  embracing  all 
the  bread  grains,  gram,  and  other  pulses, — are  unquestionably  very  low; 
and  were  there  no  extra  cesses  even  in  the  present  depreciated  value  of 
agricultural  produce,  could  not  only  be  borne  by  the  cultivator,  but  he 
might  flourish  under  them  even  with  the  burthen  of  25  per  cent,  on  his 
produce — fees  paid  to  the  Hukdars  and  Bullootehdars.  These  ratea, 
however,  are  considerably  enhanced  by  extra  cesses  called  Puttees,  ma^ 
nyof  which  were  levied  for  contingencies  and  particular  exigencies,  or 
resulted  from  the  conversion  of  voluntary  olTeiings  in  kind  into  conrv 
pulsory  money  payments. 

These  cesses  are  no  less  than  62  in  number  in  the  three  collectorates 
of  Poona,  Ahraednuggur,  and  Khandesh,  and  the  whole  of  them  are  for 
different  objects  ;  many  of  them  result  from  local  circumstances,  and  are 
therefore  of  a  local  bearing.  The  majority  of  these  Puttees  are  not  of 
uniform  operation  in  the  three  collectorates,  but  one  or  more  of  them  up 
to  a  score  may  be  found  in  every  village. 

A  few  observations  on  the  origin,  character,  and  practical  effects  of 
some  of  these  Puttees  may  be  necessary.  Most  of  them  profess  to  bear 
directly  on  the  land,  such  as  those  for  jg^Di  forage,  and  ropes  to  govern* 


434  On  the  StatisCicit  of  Dukhun.  [April 

ment,  grain  to  Ramooses,  Havildar,   Gosawees,  and   Meeras  tax,  tax  for 
sugar,  &c. :  uther  taxes  which  originally  fell  upon  trades  people,  such  as 
those  for  skins,  shoes,  wool,  blankets,  and  oil,  are  no  longer  derived  from 
their  legitimate   sources,  but  fall    upon  the  cultivator.     Milch  cattle, 
fowls,  mango  trees,  and  pumpkin  beds  respectively  continue  to  supply  the 
means  to  pay  ihe  taxes  for  Ghee,  thickened  sour  milk,   fowls,  and  fruits. 
Some  of  the  Pui tees  involved  personal  labour,  such   as   those   for  grass 
cut  and  furnished  gratis  to  government,  for  firewood,  for  dinner  plates 
composed  of  leaves  sewn  together,  for  monsoon  great  coats  made  of  wick- 
er work  and    leaves,  and   for  sticks    to   pound  rice  with.     TheKabta 
Mdhr,    spoken  of  imder  **  tenures,"  is   in   lieu   of  personal    services. 
Some  of  them  in  their  name  indicate   their   |.roft  ssedly  temporary  cha- 
racter, sueh  as  the  Eksalee,  or  for  oneyeur,  and  yet   iliey  have  been  per- 
petuated.    The  Shadee  or  marriage  ce««s  at  Aiigur,   Pergunnah  Mohol, 
and  Ash  tee  Pergunnah  Oondurgaon,  amounted  to  nearly  12  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  revinue  of  the  towns,  and  could  only  have  been  for  a   passing 
event.     The  Wurgut  at   Wangee  and  Ashtee,  which   was  raised  by  the 
tillage  auihoriiies  for  village  expenses,  is  one  of  these  unjustifiable 
taxes.     At  Ashtee,  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  Ashtee  and  capture    of  the 
Sattarah  princes,  in  1818,  the  Wurgut  was  1405  rupees,  in  a  revenue  of 
6386  rupees,  or  22  per  cent.  ;  of  this    sum  government  took  UOO  rupees, 
leaving  505  rupees  to  the  villagers  for   their  expenses.     This  Puttee  at 
the  town  of  Kuijut,  Pergunnah  Kurreh  Wullet,  is  6  annas  per  rupee,  or 
374  per  cent,  on  the  land  and  Sahycr  assessmen's,    and  Bnrgoojur  or  tax 
on  betel  garden<«.     At  Rawgaon,  the  Wurgut  amounted  to  14i  annas  per 
rupee  on  the  land  assessments  and  taxes,  or  more  than  90  per  cent.    The 
Kaateh  Momawul,  or  pecuniary  punishment,  inflicted  on  a  village  for  a 
Mamlehdar's  running  thorns  into  his   feet    on   perambulating    its  lands 
should  have  had  some  limits   in   its  duration.     The  Puttees  for  sturdy 
Gosawees,  Havildars,  Ramooses,  Naikvvarees,  should  have  ceased  when 
there  vicre  no  longer  Gosawees  to  beg  with  arms  in  their  hands,  or  Ha- 
vildars, Naiks,  and  Ramooses  to  exercise  respectively  certain  functions. 
The  fractional  aj)portioning  the  above  taxes  to  the  ctiltivators,  involv- 
ing also  the  compound  operation  of  providing  redaced  shares  for  the  pri- 
vileged classes,  the  fractional  deductions,    in  a   certain   ratio  in  case  of 
remissions,  the  fluctuating   amount  of  the  individual   shares  dependent 
on    the  fixed  commutation   cesses,   being    yearly   divisible    amongst 
a  variable  number  of  cultivators,  the  mutable  character  of  the  Sce- 
rusteh   Butta,    which    necessarily    changes    with  the    yearly  varying 
total    assessments    of   the    village,    and    which    Seerusteh    Butta   is 
not  determinable  until  all  other  assessments  be  fixed,  combine  great 


1839]  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  435 

evils,  and,  unless  to  the  most  practised,  patient,  and  persevering  in- 
vc's^n^jMlor,  present  an  inextricable  mass  of  confusion.  The  evils 
are,  ilhit  a  culii valor,  be  he  lettered  or  not,  cannot  by  possibility  know 
\\h.ti  he  will  ha\e  to  pay  the  ensuing  or  even  the  present  year,  because 
fixe  i  sums,  payable  by  the  village,  are  divisible  amongst  a  varying  num- 
bei  ul  luliivatois.  Even  if  fixed  sums  were  divisible  amongst  a  fixed 
number  of  cultivators,  the  limited  progress  in  arithmetic  of  the  poor 
p«uple  would  utterly  dibable  ihim  fiom  determining,  their  respective 
fraciional  shares  ;  for  instance,  of -i  rupees  for  skins  and  shoes,  1  rupee 

fo.  beu,a  4j  for  ghee,  and  1  ^*-  for  leaf  plates,  &c.  &c.  In  the  whole 
course  of  my  personal  intjuirie*  amongst  this  class  for  more  than  six 
years,  1  never  met  with  one  Koonbee  who  could  or  would  give  me  a 
detail  of  his  assessments  or  their  amount ;  the  constant  reply  was, 
*' The  Koolkurnee  knows."  This  very  uncertainty  of  their  means  and 
liabilities  makes  men  improvident  and  careless. 

The  next  evil  is,  that  the  Koolkurnee,  in  apportioning  the  fixed  sums, 
and  the  Seemsteh  Uutta,  the  commutation  money  for  grain,  for  ghee, 
sugar,  pumpkins,  &c.  &c.  is  assured  of  impunity  in  defrauding  the  cul- 
tivators, from  their  want  of  ability  in  their  accounts,  even  if  they  were 
aware  of  the  value  and  amount  of  the  cesses  and  the  number  of  persocs 
they  were  to  hear  upon.  It  is  almost  waste  of  labour  to  give  the  cultiva- 
tor a  note  from  government  of  what  he  will  have  to  pay,  as  in  nine 
instances  out  of  ten  he  cannot  read  it ;  his  expounder  is  the  Koolkurnee, 
or  the  Koolkurnee*s  relations,  and  they  read  it  agreeahly  to  their  own 
calculations. 

The  above  is  an  exposition  of  the  assessments  as  they  now  bear  on 
the  land,  which  produces  8230  per  cent,  of  the  whole  revenue.  The 
remaining  portions  of  the  revenue,  which  appear  in  village  papers  are 
usuallv  classed  under  the  term  Sahyer,  and  are  in  fact  taxes.  The  two 
principal  heads  of  Saliyer  are  Mohturfa,  properly  *•  Arhan,'*  or  taxes  on 
shops,  houses,  and  professions  ;  and  Bullooteh. 

Operation  of  Sahyer  Taxes. — An  idea  of  the  operation  of  these  taxes 
wilj  be  formed  by  the  following  details  from  VVangee,  Pergunnah  Wan- 
gee. 

Wanees,  or  sellers  of  grain  and  groceries,  from  4  to  6  rupees 

a  shop  ;  oilman,  for  one  oil-mill  in   work 6  rupees. 

"Weavers,  per  loom , 3      do. 

Other  tradesmen  pay  proportional  taxes.     The  threshold  tax  is  called 


a  Beit,  "  a  present. 


•> 


436  On  the  Statistics  qf  Dulhun.  [ApMt 

Oombraputtee,  from  Oombra,   ilireshold  :    it  is  generally  a  rupee  per 
house. 

At  Tellegaon,  Pergunnah  Paubul,  Poona  collectorate,  the  taxes  on 
trades  are  fixed  on  a  scale  of  annas  relativuly  to  the  visible  means  and 
))rofits  of  the  tradespeople.  The  anna  is  considered  equivalent  to  3| 
rupees.  The  trades  are  taxed  from  ith  anna  to  2  annas,  or  7  rupees, 
which  is  the  highest  sum  for  one  shop. 

The  highest  tax  on  one  weaver  is  half  an  anna,  or  l^  rupee  ;  oilman, 
highest  rate  one  anna,  or  3  J  rupees  ;  the  saddler,  dyer,  and  butcher,  at 
half  an  anna  each,  or  1 1  rupee;  fishermen,  dealers  in  sweet  potatoes, 
and  makers  of  bridles,  1  rupee  each;  the  community  oi  hx^zi^xs,  10 
rupees.  All  the  Momeens  who  are  Moosulmans  and  weavers  of  turbands 
taxed  in  the  lump  at  25  rupees  ;  shepherds  at  14  rupees.  These  taxes 
are  not  raised  on  any  systematic  principles  of  application. 

Buttooteh  TVu?.— The  Bullooteh  is  a  tax  levied  on  the  persons  called 
the  Bara  Bullooteh,  or  ariizans  and  functionaries  twelve  in  number,  who 
are  important  personages  in  the  village  constitution. 

The  taxes  on  the  Bullooteh  are  generally  deemed  to  be  on  the  exer- 
cise of  their  profession ;  but  this  is  a  mistake,  as  the  astrologer  and 
Guruw,  or  sweeper  of  the  village  temple,  puy  Bullooteh  tax,  although 
not  artizans  ;  and  I  have  known  individuals  of  a  trade  (in  one  instance 
a  boy  the  survivor  of  a  family)  paying  from  20  to  25  rupees  per  annum, 
which  they  could  not  possibly  do  from  the  gain  of  their  handicrafts. 

The  fact  is,  the  Bara  Bullooteeh  have  annual  grain  fees  from  the  cul- 
tivators ;  and  government,  in  former  limes,  deeming  these  fees  more 
than  commensurate  with  the  value  of  the  labours  performed,  took  a  part 
of  them  in  money.  The  taxes  on  the  Bullootehdar,  are  therefore  in- 
directly derived  from  the  land  ;  some  of  these  taxes  fall  very  heavily. 
At  Wangee  three  carpenters  pay  ofi  rupees  Bullooteh  tax,  Wurgut  9 
rupees,  and  house  tax  3  nipees  for  three  houses.  At  Tellegaon,  Tur- 
ruff,  Paubul,  the  Bullooteh  taxes  are  yet  higher  :  carpenter  50  rupees, 
shoe-makers  60  rupees,  Guruw  or  sweeper  of  tlie  temple  30  rupees, 
barber  24  rupees,  washerman  8  rupees,  Moulana,  or  Moosulmau  priest, 
who  also  gets  Bullooteh,  8  rupees;  but  the  cultivators  are  numerous, 
and  the  lands  of  Tellegaon  under  cultivation  extensive.  The  Bulloo- 
tehdar on  the  whole  therefore  reaps  a  rich  harvest,  in  spite  of  government 
participating  in  his  fees,  from  the  cultivators.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
multiply  instances  of  the  bearing  of  the  Sahyer  taxes.  Taxes  for  the  sale 
of  spirituous  liquors,  and  the  amount  of  customs  or  transit  duties,  rarely 
appear  in  village  papers,  as  those  branches  of  the  revenue  are  mostly 
farmed. 


1839]  On  the  Statisties  of  Dukhun.  437 

My  limits  do  not  permit  me  to  give  a  detailed  statement  of 
the  manner  in  which  village  accounts  are  kept  under  a  native 
government.  It  wouhl  much  assist  to  illustrate  the  internal  oeconomy 
of  a  village  and  many  local  usages,  hut  I  have  not  space.  I  can  only  say 
that  the  whole  accounts  of  a  village  are  kept  on  a  ribbon  of  paper,  about 
live  inches  wide  and  some  yards  long,  not  rolled  up  but  folded  in  lengths 
of  twelve  inches  or  more:  one  of  these  is  required  for  each  year.  At 
Wangee  it  is  called  Goo  Jarah^  or  village  search  ;  at  Kurmulla  Jhartee 
Akaar,  or  figures  or  signs  of  search;  at  Barlonee  it  has  the  compound 
term  of  Lownee  Puiruckt  (detail  of  cultivation,)  and  Zumeen  Jarha, 
(land  search)  ;  at  Rawgaon  it  is  called  fVussoolJarha,  or  search  of  col- 
lections: occasionally  it  \s  J kaar bund,  or  roW  oi  signs,  ilems,  figures. 
These  varying  names  result  from  the  union  of  two  papers  which  are  usu- 
ally kept  separate;  namely  the  ThulJarha,  or  roll  of  lands  by  family 
estates;  and  the  Lownee  Putntck,  or  roll  of  cultivation  and  assessments. 

In  closing  the  notice  of  assessments,  a  few  words  are  necessary  to  ex- 
plain the  melhoil  of  keeping  village  accounts.  At  the  head  of  the  paper 
called  Gao  Jarha  is  the  name  of  the  village,  the  Pergunnah  and  Soobeh 
it  is  in,  the  year  and  the  name  of  the  government  it  is  under;  this  is 
followed  by  the  Tunkha  or  Moghul  money  assignment  upon  the  village, 
the  Moosulmans  having  fixed  each  village  to  pay  a  definite  sum,  leaving 
the  whole  details  of  assessment  and  distribution  to  the  Pateeland  vil- 
lagers; then  follows  the  total  quantity  of  land  belonging  to  the  village: 
deductions  are  made  for  land  in  boundary  disputes,  for  Eenams  of  all 
kinds,  whether  to  the  temples,  to  the  village  officers,  to  the  Deshmook 
or  Deshpandeh,  or  to  individuals,  the  quantity  to  each  being  carefully 
marked;  all  these  being  deducted,  the  remainder  is  distinguished  into 
garden  and  field-land;  then  follows  a  roll  of  the  cultivators,  with  a 
number  of  columns  to  record  the  quantity  of  land  held  upon  each  tenure, 
and  the  amount  payable  for  each  ;  a  column  for  the  share  of  the  extra 
assessments,  previously  noticed,  including  the  share  of  village  expenses, 
which  is  always  considerable;  also  columns  for  totals  of  the  different 
heads.  Then  follow  rolls  of  the  Bullooteh,  shopkeepers,  trades,  and 
others  subject  to  fixed  taxes,  with  columns  for  the  proportion  of  tax  up- 
on the  particular  trade ;  the  Bullooteh,  the  house-tax,  and  share  of  extra 
assessments,  which  these  people  pay  although  they  are  not  landholders. 

An  abstract  of  the  preceding  details  is  now  made,  called  the  Ekunder 
TereBJ,  The  contract  for  the  transit  duties,  if  not  farmed,  is  added ;  and 
the  Kumall,  which  means  **  total,"  "  all,'*  "  whole,"  is  put  at  the  bot- 
tom. Then  follow  the  deductions  under  the  heads  of  money — ^Eenams, 
Hukdars,  village,  and  other  expenses,  every  item  of  which  is  detailed. 


i 


438  On  the  Stalhiics  of  Dulhun.  t^nit 

Amongst  the  expenses  are  village  festivals,  dinners  to  government  offi- 
cer!, donations  to  bmhmans,  fee<ling  pilgrims,  interest  on   money    bor- 
rowed, expenses  of  the  Pa  teel  nntl   village  officers    when   attendintr  the 
governor  of  the  district,  oil  in  the  temples,  ihe   Moo^ulmaii  saini*s  tomb 
(if  there  be  one)  coming  in  for  its  share  of  donation  or  annual  alnw  in  e, 
strange  as  it  may  appear,  from    Hindoo  cultivators,     i  regret  niu«h  that 
my  limits  do  not  permit  me  to  detail  the  expenses,  miny  of  which  are 
very  curious,  and  illustrate  habits  and  customs.     The  expenses  beinw  de- 
ducted from  the  collections,  a  balance  is  struck,  which,  under  native  go- 
vernments, hft  the  Tunkha,  or  government  original  assignment,  together 
with  any  extra  jissessment,  if  levied,  such  as  Sur   Deslimookee,  Chonth, 
&c.  &c.    To  show  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  village  collections  did 
not  go  to  governent,  in  one  village,   whose   accounts    I    translated,    ihe 
Tunkha,  or  government  share,  was  5500  rupees;  and  the  Kumall,  or  to- 
tal collections,  8522  rupees;  so  that  3022  rupe»»8,   or  more  than  3.>  per 
cent,  of  the  whole,  went  in  village   expenses,  Hukdars,  (Deshmooks  aud 
Deshpandehs,)  and  other  claims. 

ITacjes. 

The  amount  of  wages  of  agricultural  labourers  is  of  so  much  importance 
to  the  class  constituting  the  major  part  of  the  community,  an<l  it  assists 
the  judgment  so  materially  in  estimating  the  condition  of  the  pei.ple, 
that  I  shall  offer  all  the  details  I  was  able  to  collect  in  the  Dukhun 
bearing  on  the  question. 

Farmer^  Aii'fiBrsi'  Work  executed  for  Fees  in  Kin-I, — The  trifling 
artificers'  and  mechanics*  work  required  by  the  farmer  being  performed 
bv  the  village  artisans,  in  virtue  of  their  offices  and  for  fees  in  kind,  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  enlarge  on  the  remuneration  for  their  labour: 
but  to  afford  distinct  ideas  of  its  value,  at  the  end  of  this  paper  I  shall 
put  into  juxtaposition  the  rates  paid  by  the  Peshwah's  government  and 
the  British  government  to  artificers,  mechanics,  and  others. 

I  made  my  inquiries  on  the  subject  of  wages  in  towns  and  villages 
the  most  distant  from  each  other,  to  prevent  the  mistake  of  the  adoption 
of  local  rates  for  those  of  general  operation. 

Wages  of  Hushandmenand  other  Labourers  at  Nandoor. —  At  Nandoor, 
a  British  town  in  the  Ahmednuggur  coUectorate,  in  March,  1827,  I  found 
that  yearly  husbandry  servants  got  from  12  to  20  rupees*  per  annum  and 
their  food ;  a  smart  active  man  got  about  15  rupees  per  annum  and  sup- 
plied himself  with  clothes. 

a  From  24  to  40  ibilllngs. 


1839]  Oh  the  Statisiics  of  Dukhun,  439 

Day  labourers,  when  paid  in  cash,  get  \\  anna  per  d.iy,  or  ^y  of  two 
shillings,  (about  two  pence  farthing,)  supplying  themselves  with  every 
thing:  but  day  labourers  are  never  paid  in  money  unles  when  grain  is 
very  dear. 

Quantity  given. — The  mosl  usual  plan  in  harvesting  crops  is  to  givo 
each  labourer  three  sheaves  of  whatever  grain  he  is  cutting  down  ;  and 
provided  he  lies  up  the  sheaves  and  stacks  them,  he  gets  five  sheaves  a 
day. 

lvalue  of  Wages  m  Kind,  converted  into  A/ow^y.  — The  grain  in  five 
sheaves, in  ordinaiy  seasons,  amounts  to  about  two  seers.  At  the  price  of  Baj- 
ree»,  in  March  1827,  at  Nandoor,  namely  42  seers  per  rupee,  the  value  of 
the  labour  was  one  penny  and  y^^^ihs  per  day.  Joareet,  at  56  seers  per 
lupee,  was  -i*j\ths  of  a  penny  per  day,  or  rather  more  than  three  farth- 
ings. Wheat,  at  18  seers  per  rupee,  would  have  been  two  pence  -j-^^^, 
or  something  less  than  two  pence  three  farthings  per  day.  Allowing  the 
grain  in  live  bundles  to  be  double  the  quantity  staled,  which  is  rather 
possible  than  prubable,  the  highest  wages  in  harvesting  wheat  would 
not  have  been  five  pence  halfpenny  per  diem.  When  men  are  employed 
in  ploughing  or  harrowing,  nine  limes  out  often,  they  are  paid  two  seers 
of  liajree  for  their  day's  work,  from  daylight  to  night,  allowing  one  hour 
for  dinner. 

At  Kanoor.  —  ki  Kanoor,  a  town  in  Jagheer,  Alimeilnuggur  collector- 
ale,  in  March  1827,  I  found  that  the  two  Tateels  had  each  a  permanent 
domestic  servant  in  his  employ  ;  one  paid  his  man  15  rupees  per  an- 
num and  his  food  ;  the  other  gave  i5  rupees  per  annum,  food,  and  five 
articles  of  wearing  apparel,  the  value  of  which  was  3i  rupees. 

Wages  at  />y/t'Mr^e.— At  Dy wuree,  Nuggur  coUeclorate,  in  Novem- 
ber 18:.:6,  the  cultivators  did  not  pay  their  day-labourers  in  money,  but 
gave  th»^m  Hve  sh  'aves  of  grain  for  every  hundred  cut  down ;  a  very  able 
man  indeed  might  cut  down  two  hundred  sheaves  in  a  day,  which  would 
give  him  four  seers  of  gr^iin,  the  value  of  which  (Bajree)  in  November, 
182(3,  was  about  y^^ths  of  a  rupee,  or  three  pence  English. 

Images  atDgtna. — At  Dytna,  Nuggur  collectorate,  in  February  1827, 
I  found  a  man  getting  25  rupees  per  annum,  his  food  and  a  blanket,  his 
son  being  also  in  employ  at  six  rupees  a  year,  food  and  clothes  ;  but  this 
was  looked  upon  as  high,  and  the  individuals  getting  such  wages  fortu- 
nate :  the  village  belonged  to  a  Gosawee  {  who  paid  his  people  well. 

Wages  of  Women  Day  Labourers. — At  Charabergoondeh,  a  large  town 
belonging  to  Seendeh,  Nuggur   collectorate,    in  November  1827,  women 

•  Properly,  Sujgoorch,  Panicum  sjiicatum. 
+  Proijerly,  Jondleh,  Androyvgon  Sorghum. 


440  On  the  Stalisiics  of  Dukhun,  [April 

weeding  in  fields  got  ^uthof  a  rupee  per  day,  or  one  penny  halfpenny, 

and  worked  from  sunrise  to  sunset. 

fVagesMt  Kurkumh. — At  Kurkuinb,  a  Jaglieertown  in  the  Poonacol- 
lectorate,  in  December  1827,1  found  a  husbandry  servant  getting  only 
twelve  rupees  per  annum,  and  food  twice  a  duy  :  no  clothes.  A  man 
watching  a  field  of  ^rain  was  a  monthly  servant  at  three  rupees  a  month, 
without  food  or  clothes. 

Highest  Wages  at  Kurkumh. — From  the  authorities  of  the  town  I 
learned  that  the  highest  mte  paid  for  the  cleverest  gardener's  assistant 
or  ploughman  was  25  rupees  per  annum  and  daily  food,  but  without 
clothes.  The  monthly  rates  for  agricultural  servants  were  from  2}  to  3 
rupees,  without  food,  or  clothes,  fee,  or  advantage. 

Pay  o/Seypoys  at  Jngur.^hi  Angur,  a  British  town  in  the  Poona 
collectorate,  on  the  9th  of  January,  1828,  in  looking  over  the  village  ac- 
counts, I  found  two  village  seypoys  charged  respectively  three  rupees 
and  two  rupees  for  a  month's  pay. 

Wages  qf  Womsyi  Labourers  at  Poona —On  the  21st  July,  1827t  I 
found  a  great  number  of  women  weeding  in  gardens  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  city  of  Poona  ;  they  received  each  six  pice  in  money,  or  ^^thf 
of  two  shillings,  (two  pence  one-third  per  day,)  and  worked  from  day- 
light until  dark.  This  mav  be  considered  high  wages,  and  its  amount  is 
to  be  attributed  to  the  paucity  of  field  labourers  in  a  great  city. 

Wages  at  PuU,^ At  Pait,  a  Jagheer  town  in  Pergunnah  Kheir,  in  the 
Poona  collectorate,  on  the  16fh  February,  1829,  in  my  evening  excursion, 
I  overtook  twelve  or  fourteen  men  and  women  with  bundles  of  wheal  in 
the  straw  on  their  heads  ;  on  inquiry  I  found  they  had  been  employed 
as  labourers  in  pulling  up  a  field  of  wheat  at  Pait.  Their  wages  had 
been  fiveshcavfs  for  every  hundred  gathered  :  two  or  three  of  the  men 
only  had  got  five  sheaves  each,  the  majority  of  them  only  four,  and  the 
women  none  more  than  three.  Five  sheaves  they  said  would  yield 
about  four  seers  of  wheat,  and  as  wheat  was  selling  in  Pait  at  28 seers 
per  rupee,  each  man  with  five  sheaves  received  for  his  labour  nine  pice, 
or  3\d.  English.  These  poor  people  belonged  to  the  town  of  Owsuree, 
five  miles  distant  from  Pait ;  thev  had  therefore  a  march  often  miles  to 
make  hesides  their  day's  labour. 

Wages  atJoonur. — At  the  city  of  Joonur,  at  the  end  of  February  1829, 
I  found  a  brahman  cultivating  the  Hubbus  Baugh  (al»out  80  beegahsof 
land)  ;  he  employed  numerous  labourers.  While  1  was  encamped  near 
his  garden,  fields  of  wheat,  and  gram,  and  Booee  Moong*,&c.  were  harvest- 

*  Earth*  nut,  Jlraekit  kypogea. 


W39] 


On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun% 


441 


ed.  For  the  wheat  and  gram  and  bread-grains  the  men  got  five  sheaves 
per  cent,  in  ihe  field  of  Booee  Moong  tliere  were  between  fifty  and  six- 
ty women  employed;  and  I  learned  that,  in  this  particular  product,  from 
the  labour  and  tediousnessof  digging  it  up,  and  the  cheapness  of  the  pro- 
duce, the  labourers  were  allowed  one-fourth  of  the  whole.  In  cutting 
down  sugar-cane,  gailierinir  fruits  or  veget<ibles,  and  indeed  where  the 
produce  was  too  valuable  to  give  the  labourer  a  share  of  it,  the  Brahman 
paid  a  man  eight  pice  a  day  (little  more  than  2}flf.)and  a  woman  four, 
and  they  worked  from  daylight  until  dark,  with  an  allowance  of  one 
hour  for  dinner. 

The  above  data  are  gathered  from  places  widely  separated  in  the  Poo- 
na  and  Ahmednuggurcollectorates  ;  and  although  in  different  years,  are 
remarkable  in  their  uniformity  ;  they  supply  therefore  just  estimates 
for  the  general  rates  of  wages,  and  it  may  be  fairly  stated  that  the  high- 
est money  wages  paid  by  the  natives  to  any  husbandry  or  domestic  ser- 
vant is  four  rupees  per  month,  with  which  he  finds  bis  own  food  and 
clothes,  and  2^'^  rupees  permonthis  the  pay  when  the  master  supplies 
food  and  clothes;  and  the  most  favourable  wages  to  a  man  day-labourer 
are  eight  pice  per  diem*,  and  to  a  woman  five  picet. 

Artificer^''  and  servants^  wages^  and  price  of  Bread-grains  under  the 

Peshwa^s  and  Brilixh  Governments, 


Rdlesj  «>f  lure   for  a  month  of  thirty  days 
of  artificers,  servants,   and  labourers  lo 
Oukhuti,    under    the    British   govern 
inciit   in  1828,   and   Peiibwa's    govern 
ment  in  A.  D.  1814 


Prices  of  grains,  pulses,  and  other 
articleH,  the  ordinary  consump- 
tion of  artificers,  servants,  labour 
ers,  8ic.  at  Foona  in  Dukhun,  un 
der  the  Peshwa's  j^overument,  be- 
\n^  a  mean  of  tive  years  from  1811 
to  1815,  and  under  the  British  in 
1828. 


Denomination 

of 

artificers,  servants, 


Monthly  Pay. 


Maistry,  or  head) 

carpenter I 

Second  or  underdo. 

Maistry,  or  head 
carpenter,finest 
worker 


0) 

♦-  -a 
a  M 

;3 


Hupeed. 
25,  35,  40 

23&25 


30,  35,  &  45 


•d   so 

»-  is 
Ji-a 

C   V 


Rupees. 
15 


Grains,  pulses, 

ana 
other  articles 


12 


15,20,40 


Rice,  Putnee  ••.. 
Do.  Ambemor  .. 
Do.  Rajawul.,,, 

Wheat,  Buckshee 
Do.  Potce 

Joaree  (Andro- '. 
pogon  Sorghum) ', 


Seers  per  Rupee 


•  About  24d. 


f  About  1|<I. 


or 

Brtiflret",  •erviuil", 

Lit. 

MonthWpBy. 

Graidi,  p..l«., 

and 
o^irratticlcs. 

S«T.  pef  Rupe..| 

1- 

11 

I' 

C.rp,nler.    rom-l 

moo  worker . .  f 
Two  8R»seii  •... 

Haiiliv,  ur   b<^(<lt 

15  &  Wl 
IS  &  tl 

23&30 

IS 
6,  S,  &  13; 

15 

Pi 

15 
9i.    12 

a5&35 

IS 

15  8:20 
7  ID  9 

J  u>  3 

30 

7,  B.  &  9 
.       15 

Kupeei, 

n 

8 
80 
1:1 

21 

n 

Vl 

12 
9 
9 
■0 

1S&  20 

14 

6 

5 

3  1..  4 
3 

8 

(> 
5 
5 

la 
at 
12 

6-7,&S 
id 

Il<i.iri>s  {Paaiam'l 
rpiealum)    ....% 

Dhdil  {Cgliimt 
rah'i) S 

C:l.i'»      (..■liiiili.-J* 

28 
IG 
2 

U 

Sien. 
l>rV. 

HtW 

11.0  II 

pt  Peihw.. 

HHtlarrniiUrBr.... 

sEE:i,--:::i 

Muslry,  or  h»'J| 
iHtlitr  w.FikcrJ' 

Lpulhrr   worker, 
harnirii  iimkef; 

Bricklaifr"'!!!!.'. 
m«i.lry f 

«i.tk.r S 

Tailut 

S.-"J:;z-'.:::: 

Bny          <Jd 

Muc.-..lum,        ..<) 
chief  uf  DuulvV 
bPBieri ^ 

„..,.„. ,.,„..... 

]th'.'«f'r   lUmiill:. 
Wu««.lum.       ..r; 
cbierortlamalti: 

Tlie  above  l;iUe  slio«'»  a  markerl  eriliiin''i'mi'nl  in  Hip  wiigrs  t 
cLis-M  of  haiuiicr.ifu  and  tcrvaiirM,  iitilic.ugh  gniii  lieciime  from  20 
|)pri-<'nL  chwiper  iinilet  llie  Biilisli  lli.m  iiiiiicr  llie  IVsliwn.  I 
nMj^p*  of  tlu;  numerous  senaiil*  of  Eur.)iipau  g.-nllomm  tlic  siiir 
vance  has  taken  place.  The  sui-tnoi  ditaiiness  in  some  grai' 
exivudcd  to  more  tUim  100  i>er  cent. 


1839]  On  the  Statislics  of  Dukhun.  443 

In  the  above  notices  the  rupee  has  been  considered  equal  to  two  shil- 
lings ;  the  seer  of  weight  equal  to  1  lb.  15  oz.  8  drs.  IRj  grs.  avoirdupois, 
or  2  lbs.  4  oz.  6  grs.  troy  ;  and  tht  seer  of  capacity  lo  2lbs.  6  oz.  3  drs. 
24  grs.  92  dec.  avoirdupois  of  Jerwail  rice;  its  cubic  contents,  72  in. 
2  dec.  of  waler  at  a  temperature  of  75®  Fahrenheit,  ui  a  temperature  of 
60°  therefore  being  equal  to  48  per  cent,  less  than  two  imperial  quarts, 
or  very  nearly  one  quart.  Rigidly,  the  seer  is  4*17  dec.  per  cent,  larger 
tlian  an  imperial  quart. 

Mativfactnres, 
Celebrated  as  was  India  for  its   costly  and   ingenious   cotton  fabrics, 
liitle  more  than  tlio  memory  of  them  now   remains.     The  machinery  of 
Enghindhas  enibled  lier  manufacturers  to  take  the  raw    material  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  grower,  and  return  it  to  the  continent  of  India,  worked 
up  in  various  ways,  without  even  affording  an  opportunity  for  the  ap- 
plication of  a  prop  or  stay  to  the  sinking  industry  of  its  once  flourishing 
manufacturing  classes.     As  far  as  relates  to  Dukhun,  its  cotton  and  silk 
fabrics  are  confined  to  coarse  dresses  for  women,   tent-clothi,  some  silk 
handkerchiefs,  and  trifling  pieces  of  silk   for  bosom  cloths   for  women. 
From  an  examination  of  the  cotton  and  silk  goods,  for  sale  in  the  mark- 
ets of  Poona,  in  July    1829,   it  appeared  that   every  produi^t  of  the  loom, 
without  any  exception,  with  any  claim  to  notice  from  texture,  costliness 
of  material,  or  ingenuity  in  the  design  or  workmanship,    was  an  import 
into  the  collectorates  from  native  states  not   under  the  British  govern- 
ment.    Turband  cloths,   varying  in  length  from  24  to  60  cubits,  in 
breadth  from  three-quarters  lo   1}  cubits,  and  in  price  from  one   rupee 
up  to    sixty   rupees    each,    were    from    Peytun,    Bheer,   Narrainpait, 
Tahr    Putruh,  Wuswunt,    Nandergaon,    and  Shaghur,  in    the   Nizam's 
dominions  ;     Boorhanpoor  and    Jehanabad,   in   Seendeh's  (Scindiah*s) 
dominions,    and    Chundaree    in    Malwa,    while    those    made    in  the 
city  of  Poona  did   not  exceed  three  rupees  each    in  value.     The  only 
valuable  Dutvuhs  or  loin  cloths,  in  length  from  20  to  22  cubits,  breadth 
2i  to  2|  cubits,  and  in  piice  from  10  to  40  rupees,   were  from   Mnliesh- 
wur,  in  Malwa;  the  rest  were  from  the  Nizam's,  Holkar's,  and  the  Rajah 
of  Berar's  (Nagpoor)  territories.    Shahpoorand  Belgaon,  in  the  Dharwar 
collectorate,  produced  some  loin  cloths  of  the  value  of  25  rupees  ;    those 
from  Poona  did  not   exceed    three  rupees  in  value.     The  Dooputtehs  ot 
ShelehHf  cloths  for  throwing  over   the  shoulder   and  enfolding  the  body, 
in  value  from  10  to  200  rupees,  were  from  Peytun,  Jehanabad,  and  Boor- 
hanpoor ;    those   from  Poona    were  uf   the    value   of  five    rupees  only. 


444  On  the  Siaiistiet  of  Dukhun.  [Apiit 

Loogreh  or  Rarhehs*,  varying  in  length  from  13  to  20  cubits,  in  breadth 
from  II  to2i  cubits,  and  in  price  from  i|  rupee  to  80  rupees,  bad  a  wi- 
der field  of  production,  even  Poona  producing  these  dresses,  from  one  or 
two  looms  only  I  believe,  of  the  value  of  80  rupees.  New  Hooblee, 
and  Shahpoor,  in  theDharwarcollectorate,  produced  some  dresses  of  the 
value  of  30  rupees.  CAo/^un  or  bosom  cloths  are  manufactured  at  the 
above  places  :  the  highest  value  of  one  would  appear  to  be  10  rupees, 
and  the  lowest  about  ihree-pence.  The  silk  handkerchiefs  were  chiefly 
from  the  Carnatic. 

The  price  of  the  above  articles  is  influenced  partly  by  the  colours, 
partly  by  the  fineness  of  the  fabric,  but  chiefly  by  the  quantity  of  gold 
and  silver  thread  worked  up  in  them. 

Some  cotton  carpets  are  manufactured  at  Ahmednuggur,  and  in  the 
Jail  at  Poona,  but  do  not  call  for  notice. 

Turbands  are  dyed  of  twenty-one  colours,  but  I  have  not  space  to  give 
the  names ;  few  or  none  of  tbem  are  &st  colours,  with  the  exception  of 
black  and  red. 

The  only  woollen  manufacture  in  the  collectorates  is  that  of  a  black 
smooth  blanket,  (Kumhe)  the  colour  being  that  of  tbe  wool.  In  ge- 
neral the  blanket  is  coarse,  but  there  is  a  very  fine  fabric  from  Bijapoor. 
The  low  state  of  manufactures  is  otherwise  attested  by  the  fact  that,  in 
the  Poona  collectoi*ate, in  tbe  population  returns  sent  tome,  the  weavers 
only  amounted  to  0-35  per  cent,  of  the  people,  or  one  weaver  for  every 
280  souls  ;  in  Khandesh  057  percent.,  or  one  to  every  173  inhabitants; 
and  in  Dharwar  1*80  per  cent.,  or  one  in  55  inhabitants,  which  is  prodi- 
giously above  the  other  collectorates.  I  estimate  the  proportion  in  the 
Ahmednuggur  collectomte  to  be  the  same  as  that  in  Poona. 

Transit  Duties. 
The  transit  duties  are  farmed  ;  the  stations  for  collecting  them  are 
numerous ;  the  rates,  although  fixed,  are  unjust,  as  they  are  not  levied 
on  uniform  principles  with  respect  to  definite  tracts  of  country.  The 
Carrier  is  not  only  interrupted  at  irregular  intervals  by  British  stations, 
bat  the  alienated  towns,  so  numerously  interspersed  in  the  British  terri- 
tories, endeavour  to  levy  duties;  moreover,  he  is  perplexed  by  the  money 
claims  of  hereditary  district  officers  upon  the  duties,  independently  of 
the  customs-farmer's  dues.  How  the  conflicting  interests  are  arranged 
I  do  not  know  ;  but  they  are  so  various  and  troublesome,  that  the  mer- 
chant is  commonly  driven  to  the  expensive  necessity  of  contracting  with 

*  Women*!  dresses. 


1839]  On  the  StatisUc*  of  Dukhun.  445 

a  class  of  people,  called  Hoondeekuree^  who  undertake  tor  k  fixed  svm 
to  pass  all  the  merchandize  through  a  country  to  its  destination,  paying 
alidutie^s;  constant  practice,  adroitness,  and  bullying,  enabling  them 
to  arrange  with  the  coUectori*  better  than  the  merchant  could. 

All  transit  duties  shouMbe  abolished  ;  their  amount  in  the  interior  of 
a  country  materially  affects  cousumption,  and  is  therefore  injurious  to 
tradtf. 

Coins. 

The  only  coins  in  use  in  Dukhun  are  silver  rupees,  half  rupees,  and 
copper  pice.  The  rupees  are  of  many  mints,  and  have  a  different  value 
in  relation  to  the  copper  coin,  resulting  from  the  age  of  the  rupee,  and 
the  number  of  punches  or  marks  it  may  have  on  it  made  by  the  Shroofs 
or  money-changers  in  passing  through  their  hands*  ;  the  game  rupee,  of 
the  same  standard,  and  same  mint,  has  not  the  same  value  in  copper  in 
neighbouring  districts ;  this  value  fluctuates  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
money-changers.  On  what  principles  they  regulate  the  relative  values 
I  do  not  know.  The  multiplicity  of  coins  of  different  mints,  and  the 
gradations  of  coins  of  the  same  mint,  are  great  evils.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  enumerate  these  coins,  as  they  are  in  the  Bombay  Almanac. 

Weights  and  Meusures, 

A  very  considerable  diversity  prevails  in  every  district,  and  often  in 
neighbouring  villages,  in  the  weights  and  measures  in  use,  whether  of 
weight,  length,  or  capacity  ;  this  diversity  goes  mo  far,  that  the  subdivi- 
sions are  often  found  not  to  be  in  a  determinate  proportion  to  each 
other.  All  this  confusion  is  referrible  to  the  want  of  an  ancient  perma- 
nent standard  :  to  the  abrasion  or  decay  of  the  weights  and  measures 
tolerated  by  govemnieut,  the  knavery  of  the  owners  of  the  weights,  and 
the  apathy  or  connivance  of  the  district  authorities  f.  Everywhere 
the  apparatus  of  nietiology  is  characterized  by  clumsiness  in  construc- 
tion: rough  stones  are  commonly  substituted  for  stamped  metal  weights, 
and  joints  of  the  hollow  bamboo  for  authorized  definite  measures  of 
capacity.  The  se^r  of  weight  was  dirocted  by  the  authorities  at  Poona 
and  Ahmednuggur  to  be  of  eighty  Ankoosee  rupees,  and  such  a  weight 
may  be  in  use  where  the  district  officers  are  located,  but  in  very  few 
other  places.  With  respect  to  measures  of  capacity,  not  only  has  each 
village  its  own,  but  I  might  almost  say  that  each  shopkeeper  has  his 
own,  for  it  is  rare  that  the  weights  and  measures  of  any  two  shopkeep- 

*  Thete  markf  occasion  a  depreciation  of  one  or  more  per  cent. 

^  So  ifreat  are  the  discrepancies,  that  they  range  from  41  per  «ent.  belov  to  l<»  "^w 
cent,  above  the  Poona  standard. 


<46  On  the  StalisliCs  of  Dukhun.  [Al»lilL 

ers  are  identical  ;  and  wlioii  it  docs  ocour  it  must  be  referred  to  accident. 
Even  the  stamping  of  weights  and  niexures  by  government  officers  hat 
not  been  effectual  to  insure  uniformity  ;  for  in  a  table  that  I  drew  up  of 
the  discrepancy  between  the  weights  and  measures  of  some  scores  of 
places  all  over  the  country,  very  many  of  the  weights  and  measures  had 
the  government  stamp  upon  them. 

One  feature  of  the  measures  of  capacity  i<,  that,  with  some  exceptions, 
those  of  villages  are  always  larger  than  those  of  towns  and  cities.  The 
extent  to  whicli  this  fraud  has  been  carried  in  military  cantonments  and 
large  bazaars  immediately  under  British  control,  is  shown  in  the  fact  of 
the  reduction  of  the  Serroor  cant«mmeut  seer,  one-twentieth  below  the 
standard  of  Poona  city,  one-fourth  below  the  standard  of  Ahmednuggur 
city,  and  two-elevenihs  below  the  measures  of  neighbouring  districts. 
But  in  Bombay  it  is  still  more  glaring,  the  origin  of  whose  weights  and 
measures  is  unquestionably  referrible  to  the  Dukhun  and  Konkun  ;  and 
yet  the  Bombay  measure  of  capacity  is  41  per  cent,  less  than  that  of 
Poona,  and  about  33  p<^r  cent,  less  than  that  at  Panwell  in  the  Konkun, 
the  nearest  great  mart  to  Bombay  on  the  continent  The  diminution  in 
the  seer  of  weight  in  Btmibay  is  even  more  striking.  I  found  the 
standard  seer  of  weight  in  ilie  collector's  office  in  B<.imbay  to  weigh  4970 
grains  troy  only,  while  the  Panwell  seer  weighed  13,110  grains,  and 
the  Poona  seer  weighed  1 3,800  grains,  troy.  The  Panwell  seer  there- 
fore was  103  per  cent,  and  the  Poona  seer  177  per  cent,  larger  than  the 
Bombay  seer.  The  knowledge  of  these  facts  is  of  importance  to  the 
European  and  native  merchant,  as  well  as  to  the  general  consumer. 

The  evil  of  a  progressive  diminution  in  the  weights  and  measures  of 
Dukhun  is  arrested  in  the  cities  of  Poona  and  Ahmednuggur  and  the 
neighbouring  cantonnients,  by  standards  being  kept  in  the  collectors' 
offices  ;  but  as  they  are  not  fojin<led  on  any  scientific  principles  by  which 
they  could  be  restored  if  lost  or  fes.^rfiedf  their  safe  custody  is  of  great 
moment.  'Ihe  seer  of  w*'ight  is  directed  to  be  made  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  pieces  of  the  current  silver  coin,  and  can  therefore  be  tested  with- 
out dilhciilty  ;  but  there  is  not  any  test,  saving  the  solitary  standard  in 
the  collector's  office,  for  the  measure  of  capacity.  It  will  be  seen  thai  F 
have  given  the  weight  of  water  of  a  certain  temperature  these  measures 
contain,  and  this  determination  may  be  of  use  at  a  future  period. 

Grain  mensuren. — The  largest  measure  of  capacity  in  use  is  the  Ad- 
^o/tf«  ,  of  two  seers  ;  its  name  means  *' the  half,"  it  being  the  half  of 
the  Puheelet't  of  four  seers,  which  is  not  in  use.  This  measure  is  in  the 
form  of  an  hour-glass.  I  found  the  Poona  city  sUindard  to  contain 
36,400  grains  troy,  of  water,  at  a  temperature  of  75°  Fahr.,  or  5  lbs. 
3  02.  3  dr.  5i  grs.,  or  144*4  cubic  inches ;  and   at   a  temperature  of  60. 


1839]  Oti  th$  Statistiea  of  Dukhun.  447 

Fahr.  it  contained  36,462  grains  troy,  being  48  per  cent,  less  than  an 
imperial  gallon,  or  very  nearly  two  quarts  ;  rigidly,  the  seer  is  4'17  per 
cent,  larger  than  an  imperial  quart.  It  is  curious  that  the  first  subdi- 
vmon  of  ihe  ^dhoiee  is  not  one-half  but  one-fourth,  or  half  a  seer,  a 
seer  measure  being  veiy  rarely  in  use;  then  a  quarter  of  a  seer,  and 
finally,  one-eighth.*  In  8cnie  places  there  are  what  are  called  male  and 
female  Adholees,  one  being  a  little  larger  than  the  other ;  retail  tradera 
buy  with  the  largest  and  sell  by  the  smallest.  The  multiples  are  2 
Adholets  1  Puheehe  or  4  seers,  12  Pvheelees  1  Afun  (Maund),  and  20 
Muns  1  Kundee  (Candy)  ;  but  in  seme  places  there  are  16  Fuheelces  to 
the  Mtifi  :  and  along  ihe  Gh^ts,  and  in  the  Konkun,  there  are  only  3i 
seers  to  the  PuheeUe.  Determined  by  the  weight  of  the  contents  of 
the  Adhohe  of  well-dried  Jerwail  rice,  the  Ktndee  would  be  20  cwt.  1  qr, 
26  lbs.  10  oz.  12  drs.  16  grs.  avoirdupois. 

It  is  necessary  to  menticn  that  the  four  of  all  grains  is  sold  by  weight 
and  not  by  measure. 

Oil,  spirits,  and  milk,  are  sold  by  different  measures  of  capacity. 
These  are  all  professedly  founded  on  the  seer  of  weight ;  but  their  dis- 
crepancies may  well  render  it  doubtful.  At  one  place  I  found  the  seer 
of  oil  measure  to  contain  26  ru]  ees*  weight  of  water,  at  others,  66  ru- 
pees*, 80  rupees*,  &c.  The  forms  of  these  measures  are  various.  Tha 
same  observations  apply  to  spirit  measures.  The  seer  of  milk  in  one 
place  contained  88  rupees*  weight  of  water,  in  another  93,  and  elsewhera 
up  to  109  rupees*  weight. 

Weights. — The  standard  seer  of  weight  in  Poona  weighs  SO  Ankoosea 
rupees  or  13,800  grains  troy,  or  1  lb.  15 oz.  8  dwts.  18i  grs.  avoirdupois  ; 
but  the  most  common  seer  in  use  in  Dukhun  is  one  of  76  rupees  ;  the 
A\\\s\o\^s  dxe  Adh  setr  O'^lf)*  -^flo  **er  {{\yiSiXier)f  Adh  pao  oxNowtank 
(one-eighlli),  and  Chettank  (one-sixteenth).  For  the  convenience  of 
calculation,  the  seer  is  divided  into  72  tanls  or  iollahs,  and  one-eighth, 
of  course  ,  is  K<  wlavk  or  nine  tanks,  and  one-sixteenth  is  Sarhee  char' 
lank  or  4J  tanks,  which  is  corrupted  into  Cheltank.  The  multiples  are 
Panch  xeer  (five  seers),  thr  mun  of  40  seers  equul  to  78  lbs.  13  oz.  11  drs. 
11  grs.  avoirdupois,  or  95  lb.  10  oz.  troy  exactly  ;  the  PuUah  of  3  muns, 
and  the  Kundee  o{  20  muns.  But  I  have  shown  how  far  the  weights 
really  in  use  dillcred  from  the  above,  and  in  the  tract  lying  between  the 
Seena  iind  Beenia  rivers,  the  weight  called  ihe  Pureedee  hvid  not  aven 
the  same  constituents  or  multiples  as  the  Poona  weights. 

*  Svllors  of  gvr€f  tmcats  hart  l>16th  of  a  fttr. 


44d  Oh  the  Stututics  of  Duhhun.  [AtBit 

Goldtmilhs'  uiifrhu.-^lhe  lowest  goldsmiths'  weight  is  nominaUj 
the  mustard  .seed,  hut  the  lowest  I  met  with  was  the  Goonj,  a  seed  of 
the  ^6rM#  pr^rfl/oWw*,  the  mean  weight  of  which  was  1*91410  grdina 
troy  :  %  goonj  make  u  toi/ah,  which  shouhl  therefore  weigh  183*7536 
grains  troy  ;  but  as  the  tollah  is  the  72d  part  of  a  seer  of  13,800  gnuns, 
it  should  ^*<igh  191, (;66  grains  troy;  the  goldsmiths*  weights  in  use 
consequently  are  below  the  nomin:»l  standard.  Eight  goonj av  four  wao/t* 
make  one  mast/ah ^  and  twelve  massah  one  tollah  I  put  the  goldsmith's 
weights  to  the  same  test  in  different  parts  of  the  counliy,  I  did  those  of 
capacity,  and  found  that  two  weights  of  the  same  denomination  iu  dif- 
ferent shops  were  seldom  uniform.  The  scales  used  by  goldsmiths  vire 
called  A'r/;</r/A,  and  are  of  metal  ;  those  used  by  dealers  generally  are 
called  Tajwa  or  Tagrte,  and  are  made  of  leather  or  paiciiment. 

Itinerary  and  Lt>7ig  Mcamres. — Distances  hetween  places  are  e«//iiiff/«/ 
by  the  Kolm  (coss),  I  cannot  say  tnfasured^  for  I  believe  the  actual  deter- 
mination of  (lislances  between  places  was  as  little   attended    to  hy    the 
native  governmonts,   as    the   facilitating   communications    through  the 
country  by  the  eonstiuetion  of  roads   and    hiidges.      I  think   the    Koht 
averages  ab(»ut  two  miles    Enj^liih,    varying,  however,    from    IJ    to   2J 
miles.     In  Mahrattu  writings    loni^  m<'asiirc  is   raised   from    the  harley- 
com  :  8  Jnw  or  barleycorns  make  a  Uoht  or  finger,  24  fingers  a  llaht  or 
cubit,  (18  inches),  4  cubits  a  Dunooah  (a  bow")  or  fathom,  measured  by  a 
man*s  outspread  arms,  and  8000   cubils  or  2C00    fithoms    a  Kohs,     The 
Koht  therefore  would  equal  2 J  English  miles  and  40 yards.  In  Sanscrit  2 
Kohs  make  a  Cutci/otce,  and  2  of  the  latter  make  a  Yojun  or  9  miles  and 
IGO  yards;  hut  tliese  terms  are  unknown  to  the  common  people*.  In  fact, 
however,    the    measure  of  length  originates  in  the  well-known  Ilaht  or 
cubit,    determined   bv   ihe  mean  Iniirth   of  five   men's  arms,  measured 
from  the  elbow-j«unt  to  the  end  of  the  mid<lle  finger:  the  Haht  or  cubit 
so  determined,  is  a  little  more  than  18  inches  in  length;  this  is  divided 
iulo2  /lee/*  or  spans,  into  6  Mooshfecs  or  fists,  and  each  fist  into  4  BoJit* 
or  fingers,  and  the  latter  into  8  barlc\  corns  each.      Tailors  and  sellers  of 
cloth  use  a    (tuj,  which  is  divided  into   16    China,  eavh  of  U   Tussoo, 
each  Tussoo   of  2    //o/>/.v,  and  as  each  Boht  is  equal  to  a  fraction  more 
than  J  of  an  inch,  the  (iuj  would  be  a  little  more  than  an  English  yard. 

^apfrjiciot  Meosurr. — The  i>nly  land  measure  of  any  exact  and  appre- 
ciable extent  is  the  Heegah,  which  is  of  Moosulman  derivation,  but  by 
some  referred  to  the  Sanscrit  word  IVer*^ruhnh,  although  this  word  is 
wot  applieil  to  land  mcas\ircments  ;  «nd  as  all  genuine   Mahratta   terms 

•  W«al  is  ibo  *cvd  \'i  xhv  C»^^a\\  iisia  >3ipaD, 


1839]  On  the  Statistiof  qf  Dukhan.  449 

applied  to  the  capacity,  extent,  or  capabilities  of  land,  are  not  referrible 
to  the  Beegah  or  its  multiples,  I  must  consider  the  Beegah  of  Moosul- 
niun  introduction.  Like  itinerary  m'^asures,  it  is  raised  from  the  Hahi 
or  cubit  of  a  fraction  more  than  18  inchos  in  length;  5  Jlahts  and  5 
A/ooshtees  (fists  or  palms)  make  I  Kattee  or  stiok,  20  square  Katiees 
or  sticks  make  1  PaanJ,  and  20  Paands  a  Beegah  ;  reduced  to  English 
measurements,  the  5  Ilahfs  and  5  Mooshfees  will  be  equal  to  105  inches 
in  length,  and  the  square  of  this  sum  will  be  11,025  inches  in  a  square 
KaUce  or  stick,  and  20  Katiees  a  Paarid  equal  to  220,500  inches,  and 
20  Paands  a  Beegvih  or  4,110,000  square  inches;  and  as  the  English  sta- 
tute acre  contains  lo,560  scpiure  feet,  the  Beegah  is  to  the  acre  as  70| 
is  to  100,  or  as  211  to  MOO,  being  a  trifle  more  than  seven-tenths  of  an 
acre.  But  as  the  llaht  or  cubit  is  a  fraction  more  than  18  inches,  the 
B«*egah  may  fairly  be  consiilered  equal  to  three-fourths  of  an  acre  :  but 
I  very  much  doubt  whether  any  other  than  garden  lands  were  actually 
measured  by  the  Moosulmans;  and  in  converting  the  Hindoo  terms 
Kujidee,  Man,  Doree,  and  tifty  other  denominations,  into  Beegahs,  it 
was  done  by  estimate  ;  and  this  explanation  will  account  for  the  variable 
size  of  the  Beegah  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  whi<  h  the  British 
survey  has  discovered.  The  only  multiples  of  the  Beegah,  to  my 
knowledge,  are  the  Rookeh  of  6  Beegahs  or  4i  acres,  and  the  Chahoor 
of  120  Beegahs  or  90  acres:  these  terras  are  of  Mousulman  origin. 

Adverting  to  the  past  and  |)resent  state  of  the  knowlcd:^e  of  native  go- 
vernments in  politics,  political  economy  and  science,  it  would  be  idle  to 
refer  the  origin  of  their  weights  and  measures  to  scientific  principles, 
immutable  standards,  or  even  to  any  uniform,  although  arbitrary  system. 
Their  long  measure  is  derived  from  the  human  arm,  and  their  weights 
from  a  seed.  In  these  derivations  they  have  not  been  a  whit  more  irra- 
tional than  the  good  people  of  England, whose  standard  measure  of  length, 
the  Ulna  or  Ell^  is  derived  from  the  arm  of  one  of  their  kings,  (Henry 
the  First),  and  their  weights  from  grains  of  wheat.  There  is  a  great 
coincidence  between  the  native  weights  and  measures  and  those  of  anti- 
quity. The  first  five  subdivisions  of  the  scripture  measures  of  length 
are  identical  in  their  derivation,  and  nearly  so  in  their  length,  with  those 
of  Dukhun;  namely,  the  finger,  fist  or  palm,  span,  Haht  or  cubit,  and 
fathom  ;  both  also  have  the  coincidence  of  being  destitute  of  a  measure 
equivalent  to  a  foot.  The  foot  was  a  constituent  of  the  ancient  Greek 
and  Roman  measures  ;  but  in  practice  these  nations  used  the  finger,  palm, 
and  cubit  ;  and  the  Pecus  or  great  cubit  of  the  Greeks  was  precisely  of 
the  length  of  the  Dukhun  cubit,  namely,  a  fraction  more  than  18  inches. 


450  On  the  Statistics  of  Dukhun.  [Aptf^ 

The  ancient  grain  and  liquid  measures  of  England  were   raised  from 
weight  from  a  pound  troy.     For  a  very  long  period   I  had  believed  ibe 
measnrps  of  capacity  in  Dukhun  to  be  entirely   arhin-ary  :  but   in   the 
sonthem  part  of  the  country  between  the  Seena  and   the   Beema   rivers» 
Imetwith  Adholees  with  stamps  on  them,  directing  that  they  should  con- 
tain a  certain  weight  of  grain :  for  instance,  at   Punderpoor  the   Adholes 
was  to  contain  as  much /oAr  Guhoon  (wheat),  as  would   weigh    200  An- 
koosee  rupees,  at  Muhol  1 60  rupees*  weight  of  Joaree  {Andropogon  Sar* 
^Attw),  at  Taimbournee  131  rupees*  weight  of  Joaree,   and   at  Kothool, 
near  to  Ahmednuggur,  200  Aukoosee  ru|>ec'8*  weight  of  Bajree  (Pani* 
cum  spicalumj,     1  know  not  whether  this  slight  indication  of  systematic 
deduction  of  measures  of  capacity  from  those  of  weight  is  attributable  to 
the  MuoRuImans  or  to  the  Hindoos.     The  places  where    they   were  met 
with,  with  one  exception,  had  until  ret^ently,   been   for  ages   under  a 
Moosulman  government  (the  Nizam's),  but  it  mij/ht  have  been  practised 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Moosulmans.     It  does  not  appear  to  have  occur- 
red to  the  natives  to  use  the  weiijht  of  water,  as   the  least  changeable 
standard  by  which  to  fix  the  capacity  of  a  measure. 

Armt/. — The  army  consists  of  some  of  ihf}  royal  troops  paid  by  the  In- 
dia Company;  of  European  regiments  of  ariillery  and  infantry  belonging 
to  the  Company,  and  of  native  regiments  of  cavalry,  infantry,  and  pioneers* 
armed,  clothed  and  disciplined  in  the  same  manner  as  the  European 
troops.  The  army  is  separated  into  divisions  commanded  by  General 
Officers  and  Brigadiers-General,  and  the  divisions  are  divided  into  bri- 
gades, which  are  so  statione  I  as  to  co-operate  in  the  readiest  and  most 
cflBcient  manner  in  emergencies,  for  the  protection  of  the  country  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  civil  power. 

yuWictf.— -Not  having  been  able  to  get  blank  forms  tilled  up  at  the 
India-House  with  the  necessary  data  respecting  crimes  and  punishments, 
I  abstain  from  any  notice  of  judicial  matters. — Report  of  the  Seventh 
Meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the   advancement  of  Science. 


tt39]  Literary  and  Scientiflc  InteUigenu.  4dl 


X. — LlTKRART  AND   SciBTTriFIC  InTELLIOKNCI. 

Oar  meteorologrical  correspondents  will  be  glad  to  learn  that  their 
observations  are  valued  and  will  be  turned  to  account  by  Sir  John  Her- 
scHEL,  who  thus  writes  to  us  from  Hunover,  under  date  24tb  July  1838. 

"  When  I  left  the  Cape,  1  desisted  from  the  further  prosecution  of 
the  solsticial  and  equinoxial  observations,  but  my  best  thanks  are  due  to 
all  those  gentlemen  who  have  supplied  me  with  corresponding  obser- 
vations, and  it  will  be  one  of  ray  first  objects,  so  soon  as  I  shall  be  re- 
turned to  England  and  in  possession  of  a  fixed  residence,  as  well  as  of 
all  my  papers,  and  of  some  degree  of  leisure,  to  enter  upon  the  task  of 
their  arrangement  and  reduction — to  do  justice,  in  so  far  as  in  me  lieS| 
to  the  great  zeal  and  ability  manifested  in  the  communications  of  the 
observations  which  have  reached  me  from  various  quarters. 

"  I  regret  to  say,  however,  that  the  stations  at  which  these  observa- 
tions have  been  made  have  neither  been  sufficiently  numerous,  nor 
(except  in  some  few  cases)  the  observations  at  each  sufficiently  conti- 
nuous, to  enable  me  to  draw  any  general  conclusions  from  them.  Beyond 
the  latitudes  4-^0  and  —  40,  indeed,  as  I  have  already  taken  occasion  to 
state  in  a  circular  addressed  to  all  my  meteorological  correspondents,  the 
epochs  themselves  are  not  sufficiently  numerous;  and  to  be  of  service  the 
observations  would  require  to  be  prosecuted  monthly  instead  of  quarterly, 
and  pursued  for  many  successive  years,  in  stations  systematically  dis« 
tributed. 

«*  In  India,  where  the  meteorology  is  more  simple  and  determinate, 
even  a  single  year's  series,  is  capable  of  affording  interesting  information, 
and  I  shall  therefore  be  very  glad  to  see  the  observations  to  which  you 
allude,  as  being  made  at  three  stations^  in  Southern  India.  In  all  cases  I 
would  recommend  that  such  observations  should  be  published  in  tbe 
scientific  Journals  most  accessible  at  the  points  where  they  are  made. 
The  transmission  of  MSB.  is  hazardous  and  circuitous,  and  there  is  a 
great  advantage  in  placing  the  data  on  which  theories  are  to  be  grounded 
as  early  and  extensively  as  possible  before  the  puhlieJ'* 


•  Madras— TreTandrnra—ind  Hoonsoor.    We  regret  that  we  h  ave  not  received  thei 
fr«m  the  latter  itation  iiace  March  1838.— Editor. 


452  Literary  and  Scientific  InleU'/gente,  [Apia 

Tlie  Reverend  William  Taylor,  Collator  and  Examiner  of  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.  has  sent  in  his  5th  report,  the  6th  and  7th  being  under 
preparation.  He  concluded  his  labours  in  January  last/ which  have  been 
carried  on  with  industry  and  ability  liighly  creditable  to  him.  He  has 
furnished  five  magnificent  folio  volumes  of  restored  manuscripts,  indica- 
ted in  the  course  of  his  reports;  each  of  them  consisting  of  between  7 
and  800  pages,  which  are  really  beautiful  specimens  of  native  caligra- 
phy,  in  various  languagen,  on  the  best  English  paper,  and  handsomely 
and  substantially  bound  in  green  Morocco  leather.  The  style  of  gel- 
ting  these  volumes  up,  is  entirely  the  spontaneous  offspring  of  Mr.  Tay- 
lor's liberal  mode  of  executing  his  task,  which  pledged  him  to  nothing 
but  a  simple  transcript  of  the  injured  MSS.  We  hope  to  be  able  to 
introduce  at  a  future  period  a  more  elaborate  notice  of  Mr.  Taylor's  la- 
bours; with  some  critical  examination  into  the  intrinsic  value  of  these 
far-famed  and  cosily  (though,  wc  believe,  much  over-rated),  oriental  ma- 
nuscripts. 


1839]  Horary  Meteorological  Observations  at  Madras. 


453 


XL — Horary    Meteorological    Ohservatiom  made  agreeably    with    the 

suggestions  of  /Sir  John  llLiisciicL. 

\st. — At  the  Madras  Observatory.^ 8t/  T.  G.  Taylor,  Esq.  H.  E,  /.  C. 

Astronomer. 


1 

B.MIO- 

Thlrmo- 

Ml.TER. 

1839 

Time. 

Wind. 

Remarks. 

MGTGII. 

A  %  Btf  •»•  fM  •%  Ck  9  • 

Dry. 

W  et. 

Id. 

Mar.  21 

6  a.m. 

30.051  82.0  77.6 

N.  w. 

Gentle  wind,  thick  liuzf. 

7    „ 

.078:«0.4   77.5 

w. 

do.              do. 

»    „ 

.100  82.3.  78.1 

N.  w. 

do.              do. 

9    ,. 

.116  83.4   78.5 

do. 

doi-  breeze,  f\yor.  cldg. 

10    „ 

.100184.7 

76.8 

do. 

do.                do. 

H     ,. 

.068' 86.3  78  0 

8.    E. 

Moderate  wind,  flyg.  cldff. 

la   „ 

.O.H  N7.8   76.4 

S.  E. 

do.         fly^.  elds. 

1  l-.M. 

.004,88.0  77.5 

6.    E. 

do.            do. 

2    „ 

.000  87.9;  77.9 

S.   E. 

Strong  wind,  eleur. 

■i    ,. 

29.984  H7.7j  79.0 

E.  by  .s. 

do.            do. 

<     ,, 

.966  87.8  78.9 

E.  N.  E. 

do.            do. 

5     ,. 

.060  86.0   77.5 

E.  N.  E. 

do.            do. 

0     „ 

9741 84.2 1  77.4 

N.  E. 

do.           do. 

7    „ 

30.002  8.3.6   77.0 

S.    E. 

do.            haze. 

8     „ 

.036'  83.0   77.0 

S.    E. 

do.       cloudy  light- 

ning to  the  west. 

!)     „ 

.02s 

82.8  77.0 

E. 

do.      do.        do      do. 

10    „ 

.050' 82.8   77.0 

E. 

Gentle  wind     do.     do. 

11     .. 

.038'  82.0  77.0 

S .  £.  r.. 

do.              clear. 

li     ,. 

.026  8l./> 

E. 

do.         flyg.  clouds 

1  A.M. 

.002  81.8 

Calm,             c4oudy. 

.002  K0.5 

do.                  do. 

3      „ 

.000'  79.8!  76.2 

N.  W. 

Gentle  wind— clear. 

•»      .. 

29.980  79  K  75  5 

w. 

do.                    do. 

5    „ 

.000  79.6 

75.2 

W. 

do.                    do. 

«    .. 

.976  76.7 

7\M 

w. 

<lo.                    do. 

7    ,. 

30.002  77.51  70.7 

Cjilm                    do. 

«    ,, 

.OlOjSI.3'  77.1 

s.  w. 

Gentle  wind,        do. 

9    ,, 

.0j4,S3.5;  77.^ 

w. 

do.             flyg.  clouds 

10    „ 

.0(;6:8o.0'  76.0 

N.  E. 

Breeze                  do. 

11     „ 

.054 

80.7    77.6 

E. 

Gentle  wind,        do. 

12    „ 

.032 

87.6.  77.1 

E. 

Strong  wind,       clear. 

1  P.M. 

.000 

88.3,  75.9 

E. 

Moderate  wind,    do. 

2    „ 

29.085 

80.0 

74.5 

•          R. 

do.                    do. 

3    „ 

.961  i  88.0 

76.5 

s.  E.  ))y  r. 

do.                    do. 

4     ,, 

.950  86.5 

77.5 

do. 

do.                    do. 

•>     „ 

.952  85  5;  77.0 

do. 

do,                    do. 

6    ,. 

.954 

84.0    76.5 

do. 

do.                    do. 

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458  Mcltoro^ogtcal  R'ghter.  [A  Pan 

The  Instruments  with  which  the  foregoing  observations  are  made,  are 
placed  in  the  Western  Verandah  of  the  Honourable  Company's  Obser- 
vatory ;  are  about  5  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  grouudi  and  27  feet 
above  the  level  of  tlie  Sta. 

The  barometer  employed  is  No.  I,  one  of  two  Standards  which  I  had 
constructed  at  the  end  uf  the  year  1836,  to  supply  the  place  of  those 
broken  duringr  the  storm :  the  iudicatioas  set  down  are  those  immediate- 
]y  read  off  from  the  instrument,  and  consequently  require  in  addition 
lo  the  ordinary  correction  for  temperature,  the  correction  •\-fibi  for 
capillarity :  from  a  late  comparison  of  these  with  a  magnificent  standard 
by  Newman  which  hid  been  constructed  with  all  the  advantages  of 
modem  improvement  for  the  Trevaudri^m  Obsesvatory,  it  appeared  that 
when  corrected  for  capillarity  ^  the 

Trevandrum  Standard  stood  at 30,000  inches. 

theMadras No.  1 30,001     do. 

No.  2 29,91)3     do. 

The  thermometer  wai  made  on  purpose  for  the  Obsenatory,  and  at 
72*  (the  only  point  at  which  a  comiwrison  has  been  made)  it  was  found 
to  differ  insensibly  from  the  Royal  Society's  Standard : 

A.    m.     s. 

Longitude 5     21     8  K. 

Latilu.le 13^*   4'  8V>  N. 

T.  G.  Taylor. 

//.  C  Astiononer. 


THE 

MADRAS  JOURNAL 

OF 

LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE, 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES 

OF  THE 

MADRAS  LITERARY  SOCIETY 

AND 

AUXILIARY  OF  THE  ROYAL  ASIATIC  SOCIETY. 


VOL.  X. 


I 


THE 

MADRAS  JOURNAL 

OP 

LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE, 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES 

OF  THE 

MADRAS  LITERARY  SOCIETY 

AND 

AUXILIARY  OF  THE  ROYAL  ASIATIC  SOCIETY. 


EDITED  BY 

ROBERT  COLE,  Esq. 

K4DaA.S  KIDIOAL  BST.\BLI8UXBNT, 

AND 

C.  P.  BROWN,  Esq. 

M40BAS  CIVIL  81BTI0I« 

SECRETARIES  TO  THE  ASIATIC  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  SOCIETY. 


VOL.    X. 

July  ^  December  1839. 

MADRAS: 

PRINTED  AT  THE  ATHENiEDM  PRESS, 

DT  J.   B.    PHABOAn,    AND    PUBLISH FD    BT  J.   P.   BAMTLBMAK, 

AT   THE    COLLIiGB. 

MPGCCXXXIX. 


I 


CONTENTS. 


#  Page, 

I. — Fifth  Report  of  Progress  made  in  the  Examination  of  the 
Mackeazie  MSS.,  with  an  Abstract  Account  of  the  Works 
examined. — By  the  Rev.  William  Taylor,  Member  of  the 
Madras  Literary  Society,  &c 1 

II. — Essay  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of  the  Telugus. — 

By  Charles  P.  Brown,  Esq.  of  the  Madras  Civil  Service.    43 

III. — Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  the  Peninsula  of  India,  arranged 
according  to  the  modern  system  of  Classification  ;  with 
brief  Notes  on  their  Habits  and  Geographical  distribution, 
and  description  of  new,  doubtful  and  imperfectly  described 
Species  — By  T.  C.  Je&don,  Assistant  Surgeon,  2d  Madras 
Light  Cavalry 60 

IV. — A  Catalogue  of  the  Species  of  Mammalia  found  in  the  Sou- 
thern Mahratta  Country  ;  with  their  Synonimes  in  the 
native  languages  in  use  there. — By  Walter  Elliot,  Esq., 
Madras  Civil  Service 92 

V. — Some  Account,  Historical,  Geographical  and  Statistical,  of 
tho  Ceded  Districts. — By  Lieutenant  Nbwbold,  a.  d.  c.  to 
General  Wilson,  c.  b.  commanding  the  Ceded  Districts 
Division  of  the  Madras  Army 109 

VI. — Journey  of  the  Russian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara. 
Translated  by  Colonel  Monteith,  k.  l.  s.  Chief  Engineer 
of  the  Madras  Army 132 

VII. — Report  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  the  extent  and 
produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Assam. — By  C.  A.  Bruce, 
Superintendent  of  Tea  Culture 169 

Literary  a:sj>  Scientific  Intelligence 198 


ii  CONTEKfS. 


Page. 

VIII. — Ist. — Horary  Meteorological  Observations  made  agreeably 
with  the  suggestions  of  Sir  John  Ilerschel. — By  T.  G. 
Tatlor,  Esq.  H.  £.  I.  C.  Astronomer 201 

2d. — Horary    Meteorological    Observations  made  at  the 
Summer  Solstice  1839,  at  the  Trevandrum  Observa- 
tory.— By  G.  Spebscuneider,  Superintendent 202 

Meteorological  Journal  kept  at  the  Madras  Observa  tory. — 
By  T.  G.  Tatloe,  Esq.H.  E.  I.  C.  Astronomer 203 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Art.  I. — A  Catalogne  of  the  Species  of  Mammalia  found  in  the 
Southern  Mahratta  Country  ;  with  their  Synonvmes  in  the 
Ndiive  Languages  in  use  there  {Concluded), — By  Walter 
Elliot,  Esq 207 

IL— Catalogue  of  ihe  Birds  of  the  Peninsula  of  India,  arrang- 
ed according  to  (he  modern  system  of  Classification  ;  with 
brief  Notes  on  their  Habits  and  Geographical  DistrihutidUt 
and  description  of  new,  doubtful  and  imperfectly  described 
Species  {Continued). — By  T.  C.  Jerdon,  Assistant  Sur« 
geon,  2d  Madras  Light  Cavalry 234 

IIL^On  Chemical  Tests. — By  Lieutenant  Braddock 270 

IV. — Essay  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of  the  Telugus. — By 

Charles  P.  Brown,  Esq.  of  the  Madras  Civil  Service  360 

V. — Sixth  Report  of  progress  made  in  the  Exnminition  ©f  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.,  with  an  Abstract  Account  of  the  Works 
examined. — By  the  Rev.  William  Taylor, 388 

VL — Literary  and  Scientific  Tntelligenee • 432 

Reports  requested,  Researches  recommended,  and  Desiderata 
noticed  by  the  Committees  of  Science  at  the  Newcastle 
Meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science. 

On  Halley's  Comet.— By  Sir  Jonw  F.  W.  Hbrschel,  Bart. 
F.  R.  S,&c 437 

AlifLaila 439 

Note    on  Dr.    Benza  and  his  nomenclature  of  Indian 
minerals ••••••  0«.««i ••••  440 


U  COKTBNTS. 

Page, 
VI. — Horary  Meteorological  Observations  made  agreeably  with 
the  sugcrcBtioiiH  of  Sill  John  Herschel. 
Ist.—  Ar  f  I  e  Madras  Observatory. — By  T.  G.  Taylob,  Esq.  H. 
E.  I.  C.  Asiroiiorifier 442 

2u — .  At  tlie  Trpvatulrrm  Observatory. — By  the  Rev.  G.  Sfer- 

scHMEiDLR  Superintendent 443 

Meteorological  Register  kept  at  the  Madras  Observatory  ; 
for  the  monibsof  July  ;  August  and  September  of  1839.  444 


MADRAS  JOURNAL 


or 


LITERATURE     AND     SCIENCE. 


No.    2A—July  1839. 


I. — Fifth  Report  of  progress  made  in  the  Examination  of  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.,  tril/i  an  /Abstract  Account  of  the  Works  examined.—" 
By  the  liev,  Wiiliam  Taylor,  Member  of  the  Madras  Literary 
Socteii/j^'C,     (Continued  from  our  last  No.) 

B.-TELUGU. 

a.    Palm-leaf  manuscripts. 

I.     Vdni'vildsat  a  miscellany,  No.  76— Countermark  458. 

This  is  a  large,  and  rather  closely  written,  manuscript,  containing  a 
poem  on  multifarious  topics  by  Rangha-sayi  of  Tiruvatlur.  The  literal 
rendering  of  the  tiile  is  "  the  sport,  or  pastime,  of  Sarasvati  ;*'  the  said 
Sarasvalif  as  consort  of  Brahma,  being  regarded  as  the  patroness  of 
poetry,  and  eloquence.  There  are  seventy-seven  chapters  in  this  poenif 
each  on  a  distinct  subje^'t;  to  abstract  which  fully  seems  in  no  wise 
requisite  ;  a  brief  indication,  of  the  contents  of  each  chapter,  will  suf- 
fice, in  order  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  work.  It  is  narrated  by  Suta- 
rishi  to  Sonaca-rinhi. 


2  Rtport  on  the  Alackenzii  Manuscripts.  U^'^'^ 

1.  Discourse  between  Varuna  and  Bn'ghu,  on  beneficence,  or  chari- 
table donations  to  Brahmans, 

2.  Discourse  between  Siva  and  Parvati,  on  the  duties  and  deportment 
of  females. 

3.  The  perfections  of  the  deity,  discoursed  of  by  Suta, 

4.  Some  geographical  details,  as  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  ; 
the  seas  ;   and  similar  topics. 

5.  The  merit,  and  usefulness,  of  the  three-lined  horizontal  Saiva 
mark,  on  the  forehead  with  Vib'huti^  or  iushes  of  cow-dung. 

6.  Conceniing  the  age  of  Brahma. 

7.  Relates  to  the  formation  of  mundane  eggs,  or  various  rudiments 
of  worlds,  or  systems  of  worlds,  within  the  body  of  Brahma  ;  ihut  is  (htt 
universe. 

8.  BhuISca-pramdnajn,  or  sVdiemeui  concerning  the  earth,  and  the 
seven  upper  worlds  j  Sati/a-l6ca,  or  the  world  of  Brahma,  being  lh« 
highest. 

9.  Concerning  the  celestial  sphere,  or  the  region  of  the  stars. 

10.  The  conformation  of  the  human  bod  v. 

11.  Keluting  to  the  origin  of  water,  in  general ;  and  seas,  or  rivers,  in 
particular. 

12.  The  legend  of  Gaya.  The  excellency  of  the  place,  and  fane, 
at  Gaya,  and  merit  of  pilgrimage  thereto. 

13.  The  legend  of  Calhida,  a  river  at  Gaija. 

14.  The  legend  of  the  Godareii  river,  its  virtue,  or  excellency. 

15.  The  legend  of  Bhadrachalam,  a  hill  so  called  iu  Telingana, 

16.  The  legend  of  D'herma-puri,  a  town  or  village. 

17.  The  legend  of  Fejicatachala,  or  Tripeti. 

18.  The  legend  of  Cauchi-puram,  or  Conjevcram. 

19.  The  excellency  of  Saiva  fanes  in  general. 

20.  The  merit  or  power,  of  the  Pravara-c  handa,^  formularj-  of  prayer 
concerning  family  lineage  ;  used  at  morning,  noon,  and  evening. 

21.  The  superiority  of  the  Brahmanical  tribe,  ur  caste. 

22.  The  importance,  and  value,  of  friendly  })atronage. 

23.  Concerning  the  Annlcam,  a  formulary  of  evening  devotion. 

24.  The  formation  of  the  human  species  by  Brahma. 

25.  The  three-fold  homage  of  Brahma  to  the  Supreme  Being. 

26.  The  splendour,  or  variously-coloured  brilliancy,  of  the  itars. 

27.  The  beneficent  art  of  medicine. 

28.  The  different  kinds  of  presents,  or  donation:*,  suitable  to  be  wad*; 
by  females,  to  others  of  their  own  sex. 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  3 

29.  Rules,  or  previous  observances,  in   the  proper  conduct  of  war  in 
gcniTal. 

30.  Tlie  attrihufc^,  marks,  qualilies,  of  ihe  ten    kimU   of  Brahmans^ 
as  tlie  Xii/ojis,  Vashtnvas,  J'aitutji-i,  ^-c, 

31.  Observance  of  feeding  Ihahmais,  on  the  recurrence  of  the  anni- 
Yprsary  of  ihe  deatli  of  a  parent,  or  other  near  rehiiive. 

Vi'l,     RuIp  for  tlie  Brahman  partaking  of  such   food,  as   to  time  and 
quantity  ;  fulness,  evon  to  rojjletion,  being  allowed. 
33.     The  origin  of  the  Tulasi  plant,  or  basil. 
31.     The  moril,  or  excclleni  v,  of  the  Tulasi  plant. 
35.     The  merit  of  maintaining  a  lamp,  in  a  fane,  near  an  image. 
3G.     The  nierit  of  presenting  food  to  the  image,  in  a  fane. 
rV.     The  merit  of  presenting  a  cow,  or  eows,  to  a  Brahman. 
3S.     The  merit  of  giving  food  to  Brahmans,  or  other  persons   in  need. 

39.  The  merit  of  presenting  a  female  in  marriage,  to  any  personi 
d.'»fr»ying  the  attendant  expenses. 

40.  The  merit  of  giving  water  to  thirsty  travellers,  in  water-booths, 
or  otherwise. 

41.  The  duty  of  repaying  loans,  or  clearing  oiT  debts,  and  the  crime 
of  not  doing  so. 

42.  The  nieiit  offasiiu':^  on  the  Yecddash  or  eleventh  day  of  the 
moon's  bright,  and  dark,  fortnight. 

4.3.  Th(^  f^inry  o^  Burmiifa'dhara,  :i  king  and  a  devotee  of  J'ishnu, 
who  would  not  hr<*ak  that  fast ;  adducetl  as  an  example   to  kings. 

44.  Concerning  the  birth-dav  of  Bama;  a  festival  of  nine  davs  ob- 
servancp. 

4'j.     The  virtue  of  reading;  especially  of  the  Vedas, 

4d.     The  virtue  of  meditation  on  the  Vsdas, 

47.     Relates  to  astndogy. 

J-  These  relate  to  the  sexes,  and  their  mutual  intercourse. 

49.  J 

50.  Consequences,  good  or  bad,  of  journeying  on  different  days  of 
the  week. 

51.  Concerning  th*^  Cal>)a,  or  great  period  of  time  so  called;  the 
Manuvanteras,  an!  VugnHy  or  included  ag«^s. 

52.  Concerning  the  ages,  or  duration  of  life,  of  mankind. 

53.  Relates  to  drpaining,  and  the  particular  import  of  dreams. 

54.  A  count  of  the  6'a/K/7tar6tf*,  or  choristers  o(  Indra*s  world,  and 
their  tendency  to  earthly  attachments. 

55.  Relates  to  mo«U'S,  places,  and  merit,  of  bathing. 

56.  On  musical  recitative,  or  minstrcNv. 


4  Report  ofi  the  Mackenzie  Manweripti.  [Jvlt 

57.  On  the  art  of  arcbery. 

58*  Meat  of  retuling  the  six  Sagiras, 

59*  Equity  among  relatives. 

60.  Rules  concerning  interest ;  crime  of  usury. 

61.  Rehites  to  the  Sanc'hya  systeiOi  or  ritual  taught  hy  Capita. 
6*i.  Concerning  fatal  sickness. 

63.    Relates  to  the  nie<iitation  of  a  Togi,  or  ascetic. 
61.     Concerning  the  Afimamsa  system  ;  the  purva-carma^  or  ritual  of 
/aim IN  I. 

65.  On  the  Vpi-S'^i'ra ;   explained  as  referring  to  the  meaning  of 
VOriU,  and  proving  the  meaning  hy  examples  fnwn  books. 

66.  On  the  art  of  dmcin?,  with  its  atten  taut  musio. 

67*     On  the  motions  of  the  han  Is,  or  g«^tures,  in  dancing. 

6?}.     "I  These  relate  to  the  didferent  classes,  and  various  perfections, 

69.  /  of  the  fe*na1e  sex, 

70.  Relates  to  |vilmistr}',  or  divination  by  means  of  mirks  on  the 
palm  of  the  hands. 

71.  Ou  the  dignity  of  the  mode  of  convey an.?e  by  riding  on  an  ele- 
phant :  proper  only  to  kinirs  or  pencons  of  high  rai<k. 

7-.  Relates  to  tl  e  mo-Je  of  convevance  l»v  riding  on  a  cxmeL 

73.  Relates  to  riding  on  horse -back . 

74.  On  wearing  jewels,  as  ornaments,  ini  :heir  valae. 

75.  On  accounts,  or  practi  al  aritbme'i  ^ 

76.  On  ibe  medical  treatment,  esj»ev;iAl.y  by  caurery.  cfcows,  ind 

tiaiUr  animal  s« 

7T.    On  day-dpwiBcs:  or  Tis'orts  s**c.  it*  ii'e--p:c£.  i  cr-.nz  '-i*  ^y. 

Thtts  i:  may  ap|wnr  ibac  a  w^^tm:t  ba<  b<ea  ^n'*iI:r^i.  $i:h  a«  r.a.d 
Bd  prv«"ed  from  any  o  her  mini  ih.a  sha:  cf  a  £f.«  ■-  A*  i*  .■^— i::r* 
€f  vt:)kxo^  a:>i  rtacn*-*.  I  c-tsii^r  :he  work  :-^  "r«*  :f  ."vc-siierAb'-e 
^«ew  It  u  cv-arl^te,  auj  vjzire  cn'n;  :r<-:.  See  a  r-.ff  ^r-ry  ia  the 
D<ei-  Ca*t\  ^v.  I.  p.  341  art.  Ixi.  ^h-f^f.a  ::  «^-=*  :r  b»  auC  ia- 
•pthr  tOMed  -a  iczas&rr  ef  :be  reli^lcas  aai  *>: -i.  #7^f:ar  U  :ie  Hi*- 


a.     C«7i<<>rnM>ncsc««.  Xc;.  ::I— Coc^err^-i  -CC 


|«Jy  4a  ffiLt^oH  ,v  *  ai*f  r«:«K-CrI  w.r4«     !'   i*  t^*'  ^"T   a  T^frsiu-a   i'  A? 

4  auTf  ^fcm'.;  ami  ^ 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  5 

naVha,  before  adverted  to.  Fencata  Rama'yar,  states  in  this  book,  that 
he  epitomizt»d  in  Telugu  verse,  DOt  only  ihis  work  but  a- so  the  Ilarii- 
Chandra  Nuldpdgndnam,  the  Cavyam,  and  the  Raghnra-pandityam  ;  and 
hence  the  term  Cfwi-carnara^aya,  is  used  by  him  as  a  general  title  of 
all  these  works ;  this  book  form  ini,'  only  apart.  It  con'Hins  the  sub- 
stance of  the  Ramayana  of  Falntha,  h'^rein  divided  into  the  Z^.i/a.  /iy6' 
dhya,  Kiahkin'la^  Saadnra^  an«l  Vudha,  Cdndawi.  The  conienls  of  the 
Aranya  section  are  blended  with  that  of  Kiskkinda, 

The  manuscript  i<*  complete,  anl  genprally  in  good  order.  The 
first  25  leaves  have  tlie  appriran^e  of  bMng  v(»ry  much  older 
than  the  remaining  portion.  Considered  as  a  poem,  it  Ins  probab'y  great 
merit  in  point  of  versification.  To  the  author  of  the  Harisvhnidra 
A^a/(J;i?ff^na?iam,  if  this  writer  were  the  author,  the  composiiion  of  any 
other  kind  of  versification,  must  have  been  little  more  than  amusement. 

Note. — The  book  is  briefly  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  328 
art.  xxxi. 

3.  Ballana  raju  charitra,  the  tale  of  king  Baliana,  No.  55— 
Countermark  345. 


4.    The  same,  No.  57— Countermark  344. 

This  is  a  story,  or  perhaps  a  satire,  in  which  the  piincipal   persons 
are  the  said  king,  and   Siva  under  an   assumed   form.     Ballana-raja^ 
was  a  very  liberal  king,  who  gave  to  all  comers  what  theyd'sired  :  and, 
like  the  CA^tfravf Wi>  of  old,  on  no  condition  swerved  from  a  promise 
once  given.     Parvati  is  represented  as  discoursing  with  Sica  respecting 
the  exemplary  devotedness  of  this  votary  ;  and  it  is  agreed  on,    between 
them,  to  put  the  same  to  a  severe  proof.     He  ac^iordingly  assumed  the 
form  of  a  very  personable  Saiva  ascetic  of  the  Janjftm'i  class,  causing 
great  admiration  by  his  appearance.     On  presenting  himself  before  the 
king,  the  latter  asked  what  he  wanted :  and  he  requested  to  be  presented 
with  a  wife  who  could  be  certified  to  be  virtuous.    The  king  acceded 
to  bis  request,  and  then  had  enquiry  made  among  four  castes  of  femaleSi 
and  from  house  to  house,  by  his  messengers.     The  result  of  the  enquiry 
being  fruitless,  the  king  was  reduced  to   the  necessity  of  otferinghis 
own  wife,  which  he  preferred  to  breaking  his  word  of  promise.    The 
proof  of  devotedness  being  complete,  Siva  appeared  in  his  proper  form ; 
and,  after  bestowing  many  gifts  on  his  follower,  returned  to  Cailaua. 

No.  55,  is  complete  :  the  leaves  are  a  little  worn,  or  broken,  at  the 
edges,  but  not  otherwise.  The  hand- writing  is  rude,  and  old  fashioned. 
I  think  the  MS.  must  have  been  copied  many  years  since. 


(•  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [Jci.r 

No.  57.  is  also  complete,  and  the  appearance  of  the  palm-leaves  is 
more  recent ;  a  little  perforate'l  here  and  there  by  insects,  hut  not  so  as 
to  injure  the  sens".  The  hand-writing  is  not  modern  ;  neither  is  it  so 
rude,  and  antique  as  that  of  the  other  hook. 

NoTc. — Th'»y  arc  entered   in   Des.  Catal.   vol.  1.  p.  319    art.  vi. 

A  third  palm-loaf  copy  was  briefly  adverted  to  in  my  3d  R^^port  ;  at 
which  time  I  had  not  thi»  advantage  (now  po^ssesscl),  of  having  all  the 
not-examined  palm-leaf  Telugu  manuscripts  in  my  possession. 


5.  Chandrangada  charlira  "  the  story  of  Chandranyada^'^  No.  29 — 
Countermark  352. 

This  manuscript  wants  thirty  four  palm-leaves  at  the  beginning; 
thenceforward  it  is  complete  to  the  end  :  the  palm-leaves  are  old,  worn, 
and  a  little  perforated  by  insects,  at  the  end.  The  hand-writing  is  large, 
bold,  and  modern. 

The  above  title  writt«m  on  the  label  both  in  English  and  Telugu,  is 
erroneous.  The  contents  are  only  a  fragment  of  the  Sri-rangha-mahat' 
mya  in  Telugu,  in  the  kind  of  versification  called /)i?/-/?a(/tf.  The  subject 
of  that  legend  is  the  bringing  of  the  image  to  Srirangham,  an  islet  of 
the  Caverif  by  Vihushana.  An  absti-art  of  the  legend  was  given  iu  my 
2d  Report,  from  the  Tamil  copy.     It  may  be  consulted. 

Note.— This  MS.  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  I.  p.  321,  apparently 
as  a  duplicate  copy  of  the  following  MS.  from  which  it  differs  whollvi 
in  subject,  and  iu  kind  of  versification. 


C.     Chandranjada'charitra^     No.  2j^ — Countermark  353. 

This  is  a  poetical  love  story,  ending  in  a  marriage,  and  is  a  work  of  in- 
vention ;  at  the  same  an  effort  of  poetical  talent,  by  Vencatapati' 
raja^Ai  first  a  soldier,  and  afterwards  one  of  the  poets  of  CrUhna-rayer's 
court.  To  abstract  such  a  story  is  not  required.  Tt  is  divided  into  six  dsvd- 
iamnsy  or  chapters,  and  is  written  in  the  Padi/a-cdvi/amu  kind  of  versifi- 
cation, in  recondite  language,  employing  classical  expressions,  from  the 
best  works:  and  being  redundant  in  words  from  the  Sanscrit.  The  copy  is 
on  palm-leaves,  not  very  old  ;   yet  variously  perforated  by   insects,    at 


1339]  ItepoYt  on  the  Mach$nzi$  ManuseripU,  T 

prosent  not  to  the  iDJiiry   of  the  sense  ;    but  requiring  to  be  looked  at, 
from  time  to  time :  the  liand-writing  is  neat,  and  modern. 

NoTE.~lt  is  enttMcd  in  Dcs.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  321  art,  xii,  to 
which  entry  I  refer. 

7.  Narasa-hhupnliyamf  a  poem,  No.  3G  — Counlermurk  183. 

8.  The  same.  ibid.     „     37.  „  4S2, 

The  same.  ibid.     „     38.  „  481. 

The  copy  No.  36,  is  complete  in  sixty-six  palm-leaves,  of  recent  ap- 
pearance ;  two  or  ihrce  leaves  at  the  beginning  are  touched  by  insecti  : 
the  remainder  is  in  excellent  order. 

No.  37,  is  written  on  Talipat  leaves  :  the  two  first  are  wanting,  also 
the  4tli  and  9tli ;  right  thence  to  the  3'2d  leaf,  where  it  breaks  olf  with- 
out being  finished.  A  few  of  the  leaves,  at  the  beginning,  are  damaged 
by  mildew,  and  one  leaf  is  torn. 

No.  33,  is  an  old  manuscript,  wanting  seven  palm-leaves  at  the  be- 
ginning, but  complete  thence  to  the  end,  save  only  four  leaves.  It  has 
the  same  title  in  English,  on  the  label,  as  the  other  two  jbut  though  on 
the  same  general  toi)ic,  as  a  flattering  tribute  to  Crishna-rayer^  yet  it  is  a 
diflfereut  work,  by  a  different  author,  and  on  another  heroine  named  Cfiati' 
drica.    See  the  nulice  ol'  the  book  entitled  Chandrka Partnaya,  below. 

The  two  first  manuscripts  are  copies  of  a  poem  by  one  of  the  A^kta* 
digajwt  at  njayanaguratn  ;  there  having  been  eight  learned  men  so 
termed,  by  way  of  distinction.  Timma-raju,  or  by  title  Bhatiu-muriif  from 
poeticaleminence,  was  one  of  these  eight  poets  of  Crishnu'rai/er's  court. 
This  work,  written  by  him,  is  eniiiled  after  the  father  of  CrMna-rayer\ 
and  as  usual  contains  the  genealogy  of  the  patron.  Its  subject  is  rheto- 
rical and  poetical,  on  the  lawb  of  the  drama  and  poetical  composition.  It 
is  highly  esteemed,  and  regarded  as  a  very  superior  work. 

The  three  coj)ies  arc  entered  in  Dcs.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  352  art.  i  but 
the  last  MS.  should  have  been  noted  as  a  second  copy  of  art.  xiv  p.  32*i 
vol.  1.  tt/  infra, 

9.  Cha?idn'ca-pan'fiai/af  No.  06 — Countermark  355- 

10.  Another  copy  (labelled  IVuraswlhupaliyam),  No.  38— Counter- 
mark 484. 


B  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [JvtT 

The  first  copy  is  complete  from  the  beginning  to  the  12Sth  leaf,  con- 
taining seven  d9V(ha;f,  or  sections  ;  but  the  8th  is  wanting  to  make  the 
copy  complete.  It  is  apparently  nitlier  old;  but,  with  a  very  slight  ex- 
ce))tion,  is  uninjured  as  to  condition. 

The  copy  No.  38  wants  7  leaves  at  the  beginning,  und  about  four  at 
the  end.  It  is  seemino;Iy  as  old  as  the  other  one  ;  but  not  being  like  that 
guarded  by  boards,  it  has  suffered  by  breaking  in  the  first,  and  last, 
leaves. 

This  work  is  a  poem  by  Mdihava-raya  of  the  Rechalu  family  (see  ac- 
count of  the  Vellujotivaru),  The  heroine  is  named  Chantlricaf  with 
whom  Naraita-hhupaUya  (an  epithet  of  Crishna-rai/er),  became  en- 
amoured, and  took  lier  to  his  court.  On  this  foundation  a  poem  is  con* 
structed  :  of  course  claiming  no  further  notice. 

The  MS.  No.  66  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  322  art.  xi? 
and  No.  38.  at  p.  352.  ut  supra. 


11.    Sancara-vijayanit  the  triumph  of  Siva,  No.   118 — Countermark 
321. 


12.  Soaroch'sha-mnnu-BamVhatamha,  the  tale  of  the  birth  of 
Svarochisa,  No.  30— Countermark  4;')G. 

These  are  two  copies,  neither  one  complcto,  of  the  same  poem;  though 
the  first  is  erroneously  entitled  on  the  label,  both  in  English  and 
Telugu,  apparently  by  some  ullra-'Sa'ri  devotee. 

The  copy  No.  118  wants  the  3rd  leaf  in  the  first  section,  and  the  1st 
leaf  in  the  second  section:  all  the  rest  is  complete,  in  six  sections. 
The  copy  No.  30  wants  the  two  first  sections,  the  3rd  and  10th  sections 
are  found,  and  the  5th  and  6ih  sections  are  wanting. 

Both  copies  bear,  within  them,  the  title  of  the  \)oem  Svaroehisha-manu 
samb'havambat  and  the  name  of  the  author  AUusani-peddana,  son  of 
Chocahja.  The  writer  makes  the  tale  to  proceed  from  an  enquiry  pro- 
pounded by  Marcantiei/a  to  Vachchasa  :  and  the  outline  of  the  subject 
proceeds  on  the  wish  of  a  Brahman  to  visit  the  Himalaya  mountains  : 
his  wish  is  gratified  by  supernatural  means,  and  certain  adventures  re- 
sult ;  when  ultimately  ScaronJi'isa-mauu  was  born,  as  the  offspring  of  two 
Gandhdrbast  and  became  sovereign  of  Jambu-dicipa.  The  real  object 
of  the  poem  is  to  please,  panegyrize,  and  flatter  the  poet's  pa- 
tron, CrishntL-rayer,  son  of    iVarasinha-rayer.      Allasanl-peddana   was 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  9 

one  of  the  "  eight  elephants"  of  Cruhna-rayer^s  court;  and  of 
high  eminence  amung  those  eight  poets.  He  was  greatly  esteem- 
ed by  his  patron ;  and  seeras  to  have  entertained  a  lively  grati- 
tude, in  return  for  the  kindness  shewn.  As  regards  fine,  and  har- 
monious, poetry  these  books  are  valuable ;  though  one  complete  copy 
cannot  be  formed  from  them  ;  but  there  is  nothing  of  historical  value  in 
them.     As  such  I  pass  them  by ;  without  minute  abstract,  or  detaiL 

Note. — No  118  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  3I4  art.  xix 
under  its  erroneous  title  o(''  Sankara  CherUra  ;"  and  is  stated  to  contain 
an  act'ount  of  Sankardcharya,  and  to  l>e  written  by  Andhra-kalidas* 
venkataya^  in  which  entry  ih»»re  must  be  a  serious  oversiglit.  Andhroim 
Ifa^idas  did  translate  the  Sanscrit  work  entitled  Sancara-vijaya  into 
Teliii^u  :  but  this  MS.  is  not  a  copy  of  that  production.  According  to 
the  Catalogue  there  should  be  a  copy  of  the  Sancara-vijaya  in  the 
collection  in  iht*  Nan  iinagari  character  ;  but  it  is  not  in  the  portion  of 
the  collection  transmitted  to  MiiHras ;  and  the  compiler  of  the  Catalogue 
knowing  the  contents  of  the  Sanscrit  work,  was  possibly  misled  by  the 
erroneous  title  on  the  label.  1  do  not  know  how  else  to  account  for  the 
mistake ;  which,  for  the  rest,  is  not  my  concern.  The  copy  No.  30  is 
entered  in  vol.  I.  p.  3:^9,  art.  lix  under  its  proper  title  ;  with  a  brief, 
butsufhcient,  and  satisfactory,  indication  of  the  contents. 

No.  118  is  in  good  preservation.  No.  30  is  rather  injured  by  insects  j 
but  not  to  any  material  degree. 

13.  Deoa-mallu'charitra,  the  story  of  Deva-mailu,  No.  32 — Coun- 
termark 36. 

This  is  a  panegyrical  poem,  composed  by  a  BraA /nan  named  VeneaiyOt 
in  praise  of  a  district  chief  named  Deva-tnaUu,  or  Cupal-mallu  ;  the 
word  mallu  denoting  the  tribe,  and  cupal  being  an  epithet  applied  by 
the  eulogist,  in  consequence  of  the  liberality  of  his  patron,  who  gave 
money,  not  by  count  but  by  handfuls.  Deva-mallu^  had  two  brothers 
named  respectively  Ramasrami  and  Vencata-ramanaiya.  The  maUu 
tribe  derive  their  name  from  living  on  hills,  and  are  connected  with  the 
VdnddulUf  and  similar  wild  tribes,  not  aboriginally  Hindu,  The  Khondi,  I 
understand  call  themselves  Mallaru,  or  hill  people.  This  Deva-wiallu 
seems  to  have  been  a  mountain-chief;  though  the  precise  locality  of  his 
residence,*  or  rule,  is  not  determinable  ;  and  indeed  the  mountaineers 
do  not  appear  to  form  towns.  As  to  the  subject  of  the  poem,  it  contains 
a  pedigree  and  detail  of  banners,  and  prowess;  but,  for  the  rest,  the 

*  V&rioui  mtatioa  •/  tb«  M«Uii«raltrf  occuii,  in  local  papen  eOBMming  T%Ung<i»i^ 


10  Report  on  the  Maekenxie  Manu$cfipts.  [JuLt 

Brahman  seems  to  have  drawn  largely  on  his  own  inventive  powers,  in 
the  first  instance,  and  then  largely  onthe  patron's  eulogised  munificence. 
The  work  is  of  no  serious  moment,  as  to  history  ;  yet  otherwise  not 
without  use.  Though  in  Telugu,  as  to  hasis,  it  is  full,  to  affectation,  of 
Sanscrit  terms,  in  the  usual  manner  of  Brahmanical  composition.  There 
is  some  error  in  numbering  the  palm-leaves,  by  the  copyist,  but  the  work 
is  complete.    It  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal,  vol.  1  p.  324,  art.  xx. 


14.  Sarischandra-eadha,  the  tale  o(  HarUchandra,  No.  33— Coub- 
termark  368. 

15.  Another  copy  No.  34— Countermark  365. 

The  substance  of  the  narrative,  contained  in  this  poem,  is  derived  from 
irn  episode  in  the  Mahahharata,  It  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  FasUhtaf 
tB  narrated  by  him  to  Fisvamitra,  in  a  dispute  which  occurred  be- 
tween them.  Harischandra  was  a  great  prince,  of  extreme  liberality^ 
and  being  a  Chacraverti  it  was  not  permitted  him  either  to  deg^rade  him* 
self  as  to  caBte,  or  to  tell  a  lie.  One  day  a  mendicant  Brahman  obtained 
from  him  a  promise,  which  involved  a  very  large  gift  of  money.  The 
Brahman  did  not  then  take  the  money  ;  but  went  away,  and  returned 
after  many  years  :  claiming  his  money  with  the  interest  due  (hereon* 
The  king,  unable  to  liquidate  the  debt,  sold  his  kingdom,  and  still 
there  was  a  balance  due.  llie  Brahman  said  that  if  he  would  tell  a 
lie,  or  marry  an  out-caste  woman,  the  whole  of  the  money  should  be 
restored  ;  but  the  king  preferred  abandoning  his  kingdom,  and  selling 
himself,  his  wife,  and  son,  as  slaves  in  order  to  pay  the  debt.  In  pur- 
suance of  this  design  he  came,  so  this  book  says,  to  Cast;  where  his 
Irife  and  child  were  purchased  by  a  Brahman,  and  he  himself  by  a  Chan* 
ddla,  whose  office  was  to  attend  burning-grounds.  The  Brahman,  sent 
the  boy  out  one  day  to  gather  wood,  where  being  bitteti  by  a  snake  the 
child  died,  and  was  by  the  mother  taken  to  the  burning-ground,  at  which 
her  husband  was,  by  this  time,  stationed  to  perform  the  work  of  a 
Vhanddta,  He  refused  to  do  what  was  customary,  without  fees;  and  the 
mother  had  nothing  to  pay.  He  said  that  if  she  would  give  him  the 
marriage  token  (synonymous  in  effect  with  a  ring)  it  would  suffice.  She 
Irefused;  but  conjectured,  from  this  demand,  that  the  man  must  be  her 
husband,  as  no  one  else  knew  that  she  possessed  any  such  thing.  At 
this  juncture  officers  of  the  king  of  the  country  came,  and  took  away  the 
childf  on  suspicion  of  its  being  the  king's  own  child  that  was  missing  s 


1899]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Mmnuicriptt*  \l 

«Dd,  the  likeness  being  great,  the  king  sent  instructions  that  the  man 
at  the  bumiug-grouod  should  put  the  woman  to  death  with  a  sword. 
Harieehandra  struck  one  blow,  when  flowers  burst  forth ;  he  was  about 
striking  a  second,  when  Bhagavan  (or  god)  appeared;  praised  his  enjtvor 
plary  virtues ;  and  restored  him  to  the  possession  of  his  former  prosperity. 

Rbmark. — This  work,  of  the  Upa-jndnm  class,  of  course  bears  evident 
marks  of  artificial  structure ;  and  the  source,  whence  it  is  taken,  being 
poetical  it  deals  in  the  ornamtnfak  The  Telugu  poem  is  Dvi'pad<h  or 
in  two-lined  stanzas,  by  Vellana,  brother  of  the  distinguished  poet 
named  Alkuani  Peddana,  who  was  also  entitled  Gaura-wwntru 

NoTB.— Both  MSS.  are  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  I.  p.  326,  art. 
zxiv  and  xxv. 

As  to  condition  No.  33  is  in  good  order,  though  old;  but  wanting 
some  leaves  at  the  end.  No.  34  is  old,  and  considerably  damaged,  at 
the  edges ;  it  also  wants  four  leaves  at  the  beginning,  and  the  45th  leaf 
in  the  middle. 


16.  Hariechandrm  Naldpdgndnam^  No.  3i^Countermark  369. 

This  is  a  manuscript  containing  five  chapters,  with  two  leaves  left 
blank,  towards  the  end  of  the  first  chapter  ;  the  same  having  been  defici- 
ent in  the  one  copied  from.  What  remains  is  thenceforward  complete, 
and  in  tolerably  good  order,  being  only  touched  by  insects,  in  one  or  tw^ 
places,  without  serious  damage.  It  is  an  unusually  beautiful,  an4 
modem,  hand-writing. 

It  is  a  production  of  a  peculiarly  difiicult  kind  ;  being  read  one  way 
it  contains  the  story  of  Harisehandray  and  in  another  sense  it  gives  the 
story  of  Nata,  There  are  according  to  the  Pes.  Catalogue  two  other 
copies  on  paper,  hence  the  deficiency  in  this  one  is  not  of  consequence. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  I.  p.  326  art.  xxiii. 

17.  Daearatha-raja-nandana-eharitrai  the  narrative  of  king  Datara- 
tha.  No.  95 — Countermark  558. 

This  manuscript  is  complete  in  four  sections ;  and  remains  in  tole- 
rably good  preservation.  It  is  a  version  in  Telugu  metre,  of  peculiar 
difliculty,  concerning  the  father  of  Rama»chandra,  that  is  Dataraiha  ; 
bis  sacrifice ;  of  the  services  of  Vuvamitra ;  the  birth  and  early  adventures 
of  Rama^  down  to  his  marriage  with  Site^  the  daughter  of  Janaca^jaya^ 


12  Report  6n  the  Mackenzie  Manuseripte,  [Jult 

rqja.     It  is  the  production  of  Bassavapa-cavi,  a  Vaishnava  and  votary  of 
Rama,  whose  taste  for  poetry  was  formed  by  the  early  study  of  the  San- 
scrit Ramayana;  a  part  of  which  he  trausfused  iuto  Telugu,  in  this  pro* 
duction,  which  is  held  in  high  esteem. 

NoTE.^It  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1.  p.  322  art.  xvii. 


18.     Cavt'Corna-rasaya,  No.  54— Countermark  376. 

This  book,  with  the  same  title  as  No.  101,  before  adverted  to,  is  by  a 
different  author,  and  more  varied  in  subject.  Like  that  it  is  in  the 
Padya-cdvyam  measure,  and  in  five  asvAsasy  or  sections.  The  author's 
name  is  Naraaimha  who  was  pratronized  by  a  Chola  king,  but  from  the 
MS.  being  defective  in  the  place,  where  that  circumstance  is  mentioned, 
the  king's  name  cannot  be  made  out.  The  king  is  introduced  as  asking 
questions,  on  various  subjects,  and  the  poet  replies.  Hence  the  subjects 
of  the  five  sections  relate  to  the  name  and  iiorshipofGod— the  Vedanta* 
system— the  customs,  rights,  and  privileges  of  ihe  Brahmanical  order — 
the  legend  of  the  image  and  fane  at  Sri-rangham  (near  Trichinopoly) — 
and  the  subject,  in  brief,  of  the  Ramoyanam.  As  being  an  epitome,  on 
these  subjects,  extracted  from  different  books,  the  title  is  suitable | 
intimating  a  poetical  abridgment  recited  in  the  ear  of  another. 

N  OTE.— There  is  oiily  one  copy  under  this  title  entered  iu  the  Des^ 
Catal.;  and  from  the  No.  of  the  label  I  apprehend  this  to  be  the  copy, 
though  the  indication  of  contents  in  that  entry  agrees  with  the  MS.  No. 
101.  This  book  had  not  come  under  my  notice,  when  the  other  one  was 
abstracted. 

This  MS.  is  old ;  only  slightly  damaged  by  insects  ;  there  is  one  leaf 
broken,  and  the  half  lost,  in  the  mitldle  ;  and,  at  the  beginning,  the 
tops  of  the  leaves  are  broken  off,  through  wear  and  usage;  so  as  some* 
times  to  destroy  the  connexion,  and  sense,  of  the  versification. 


19.  Carnhhoja-raja'charilra,  a  tale  of  a  king  of  Gamboge,  No.  87 
—Countermark  373. 

The  .foundation,  or  introductory  matter,  of  this  work  is  made  to  be  the 
pilgrimage  of  AJahudu,  a  king  of  Gamboge,  who  was  afflicted  with  le. 
prosy  ;  and,  who  after  relinquishing  his  kingdom  to  his  son,  visited  dif- 
ferent rivers  and  sacred  pools,  for  the  purpose  of  bathing  therein  ;  but 
withoat  obtaining  a  core.    In  consequence  he  directed  his  footsteps  to- 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  18 

wards  the  FriddJia-ganga  (or  ancient  Ganges),  and  by  the  way  met  a 
woman,  who  enquired  his  ubject;  and,  on  hearintr  it,  directed  him  to 
another  place,  to  obtain  a  cure;  teaching  him  a  mantra,  or  forinule  proper 
to  be  used.  In  consequence  of  iliis  insJtructiont  he  went  to  a  river  whertt 
the  sage  Ddttaire^a  ^liS  employed  in  teaching  disciples.  He  bathed 
in  that  river,  and  wax  cured.  He  then  attt  nded  to  the  »uge*a  instructi- 
ons, and  the  substance  of  these  is  given  in  the  following  portion  of  the 
work ;  which,  as  announced,  should  contain  six  sections.  These  in« 
structions  are  of  the  Vaisknava  kind  ;  and,  in  the  earlier  part,  relate  to 
the  floating  of  Vishnu,  as  Sardyana,  on  a  leaf,  on  the  surface  of  the 
waters  ;  the  birlh  of  Brahma  from  a  lotus  flower,  proceeding  from  the 
naval  of  Vishnu;  the  creasion,  and  defltruction  of  worlds;  some  account 
of  the  Mnfsgn,  and  other  avatnras,  t»f  Vishnu;  and  ihenreforward  is  a 
series  of  minor  narrativ»»s,  in  whirh  the  legf^nd  of  the  shrine  at  Sri^ 
rangha,  bus  a  precrdcnre  to  ihe  other  tulcs.  '1  hese  relate  chiefly  to 
immuniii(*s  proper  to  Brahwavs;  sm  1  *end  to  enforce  respect  to  that  or- 
der, and  obedience  to  their  dirpciions,  by  examples  of  benefit  derived 
from  obedience,  and  of  injnr>' smsing  fiom  an  opptisite  course.  Out  of 
ihe  six  sections  there  arp  only  three  complete;  the  fourth  breaks  off  ab- 
ruptly, evidently  owing  to  the  copyist  not  having  completed  his  task. 
The  document  is  very  slightly  touched  by  insects-  and  may  be  consider- 
ed in  good  order. 

Note.— It  is   entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.   1.  p.  o27  art.   xxix   with  a 
brief  indication  of  the  contents. 


h.     Manuscript  books. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  37— -Countermark  374,  Cambhoja-raja-charitrt^ 
a  tale  of  a  king  of  Gamboge. 

This  ia  an  imperfect  copy  of  the  same  production  as  the  preceding 
one.  The  book  contains  only  the  two  first  sections,  with  the  title  page 
of  the  third  ;  and  the  appearance  of  the  book  would  seem  to  intirrate  that 
some  portion  has  been  taken  out,  or  lost.  The  paper  is  somewhat  injured 
by  insects;  but  the  fragment  does  not  claim  restoration.  It  maybe 
mentioned  that  both  copies  are  in  ordinary  Telugu  prose. 

Note. — The  book  is  entered  in  the  Des.  Catal.  as  above. 


14  Report  on  ike  Mackenzie  Manuteriptt*  [JvLH 

Manuscript  book,  No.  8 — Countermark  698. 

Seefian  1.    Account  of  the  village  of  Sarpavaram  in  the  district  of 
PiVhapuTy  in  the  province  of  Rqjamahendri, 

The  commencement  is  quite  legendary.  A  brief  reference  is  subse- 
quently made  to  the  Dvoapara-yuga ;  to  Janamej'aya,  and  to  kings  of  his 
posterity,  down  to  the  cessation  of  the  Chandra-vamta,  Many  kinga 
subsequently  ruled;  being  the  Chalukiya  race;  commencing  with  Fyay* 
dditya,  whose  son  was  f^ixknu-terddhana,  and  his  son  was  V'^ayddityOm 
Kuiakeei,  Kirti-vermayBXid  other  names,  follow ;  down  to  a  supercessioQ 
by  the  ruler  of  Cuttack,  and  then  by  a •/'atna  king.  Afterwards  the 
Yddavm  race  governed ;  several  names  are  specified.  As  usual,  grants 
to  fanes,  and  other  buildings  are  alluded  to;  and  the  first  date  that  oc- 
curs is  Sal.  Sac.  1017  (A.D.  1095)  :  others  follow  down  to  S.S.  1430;  and 
they  relate  respectively  to  different  periods  of  the  rulers,  as  above  men- 
tioned. The  lat  ter  part  of  the  document  adverts  to  Mahomedan  influence, 
and  interference. 

Remark. — Though  very  briefly  abstracted,  yet  the  reading  over  of 
this  document  leaves  the  impression  that  its  contents  are  of  considerable 
value ;  meriting  to  be  developed  in  full  translation. 

Section  2.  Account  of  Jallur,  in  the  before  mentioned  district,  and 
province. 

The  Jainas  ruled  at  a  very  early  periodt  in  this  district.  After  the 
mention  of  thai  rule,  in  general  terms,  the  document  adverts  to  the  race 
of  Janamajeya,  and  theuce  deduces  the  line  of  Vijayaditya^  the  first  of  the 
Chalukiyai,  who  took  their  name  from  a  fort  on  a  hill  named  Chalukiya" 
giri.  The  names  of  the  Chahkiyas  are  given,  as  in  the  last  paper.  The 
tale  of  Sarangadhara  and  Ckiirangi,  is  narrated,  in  substance,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  occurring  in  the  race  of  the  Rajahmendri  rulers.  The  date  of 
Sal.  Sac.  lVi4  subsequently  occurs,  as  that  of  the  installation  of  MaUapa^ 
deva  Chacraverii.  The  race  of  Kdkati-prolaya  is  given  ;  one  distin- 
guished among  them  being  Pratapa-rudra  :  these  are  usually  termed 
the  Ganapati  dynasty.  The  power  of  the  Reddis  followed,  who  ruled  in 
Conda-viiL  The  account  subsequently  narrates  various  details,  relative 
to  the  Mahomedan s ;  and,  after  giving  the  names  of  some  zemindars, 
advertM  to  the  government  of  the  Honourable  Company. 

Remark. — ^This  document  also  appears  to  be  of  value  ;  to  be  used  in 
comparison  with  similar  ones. 


Section  3.    Account  of  Corukondu  village  in  the  sillah  of  Sarpavaram 
ia  the  Bajamahendri  province. 


1839)  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  MtKnuteripte.  15 

The  commencemeiit  is  legendary,  and  relates  chiefly  to  the  founda- 
tion of  Saiva  fanes  ;  of  which  one  hundred  and  one,  are  said  to  have 
been  constructed.  The  foundation  of  Corukondu  is  ascribed  to  an  ascetic. 
The  names  of  Pratapa'rudra,  and  of  Mallapa^raja  occur,  in  reference 
to  the  fortification  of  the  place.  A  marriage  alliance  with  the  Cuttack 
sorereign  is  mentioned ;  and  various  consequent  details.  An  account 
is  given  of  the  siege  of  the  fort,  and  its  betrayal  by  treachery.  It  was 
taken  by  Govindwraja  of  the  Gajapati  race,  and  its  defences  destroyed. 
The  power  of  the  Reddu  succeeded.  Details  concerning  fanes,  with  their 
endowments,  and  images  ;  and  inscriptions  commemorating  grants. 
One  of  the  later  chiefs  named  ttaghunaVha-raja  died  without  posterity ; 
and  subsequently  the  district  came  under  the  control  of  the  Honourable 
Company. 

Section  4.  Account  of  Chamurla'Cota  or  Bhima-varem^  in  the  Pit* 
hapur  district  of  the  Rajahmendri  province. 

Mention  of  certain  shrines,  and  images.  Subsequently  Rama-hkimif* 
vara,  son  o{ Bhima-raj a  of  the  Chalukiyait  founded  a  town,  and  esta- 
blished festivals,  and  other  usual  observances.  When  the  fane  had  gone 
to  decay,  the  Gajapatu  and  Reddis,  had  it  re-edified.  In  Sal.  Sac  1438 
Criehna-rayer  subdued  this,  and  surrounding  towns.  Subsequent  detaib 
relate  to  English,  and  French,  ascendancy  ;  and  alternations  of  power. 
Nitam-ali-IUum  interfered ;  and,  after  wounding  three  local  chiefs  in 
battle,  conquered  the  country.  This  indication  of  contents  of  course  is 
little  more  than  an  index.  There  follow  some  minor  details  as  to  rivers, 
and  lands  fertilized  thereby  ;  of  no  consequence ;  not  complete  ;  and 
not  copied. 


Section  5.  Account  of  the  village  of  ATimmtirti  in  the  district  of  Pif< 
hapur. 

The  foundation  is  ascribed  to  a  Kirata-raja,  or  a  barbarian  chief,  near 
to  the  Vindliya  mountain.  Some  details  are  added  concerning  hit 
descendants  :  forest  lands  were  cleared,  and  towns,  built  by  them.  At 
a  later  period  some  of  the  Condo'Vandlu  peopled  portions  of  the  neigh* 
bourhood.  In  Sal.  Sac.  1124  Aiallapordeva  ruled  in  this  country; 
and  made  grants  of  land  to  a  fane  which  is  specified.  Traces  of  the 
Chahtkiya  rule  appear,  in  the  matter  of  grants  made  to  village  fiinet. 
The  power  of  Pratapa'rudra^  at  a  later  time,  succeeded.    He  was  the 


16  JRrport  on  iht  Mackenzie  Manuscripte.  [Jvlt 

most  celebrated  of  the  chiefs  of  fTarawAo/.  After  him  came  tlie  ReddU. 
Ctishna-rayer  afterwards  conquered  this  district.  When  the  Gajapati 
power  reverted  to  its  fornier  state,  the  ReddU  again  ruled.  Timma-raja, 
and  afterwards  Narayana,  a  Ganapati  prince,  governed.  Subsequently 
one  named  Silupi-khan  acquired  authority.  The  ascendancy  of  Bala 
hhadra'Toja^  of  the  Pusa-pati  race,  followed.  ^  iirdar  from  Golconda 
subdued    the  country.     Some  fighting,  in  which  the  Muhomedans  were 

concerned (here  the  remaining  two,  or  perhaps  three,    leaves 

of  the  book  are  lost). 

Gbneral  Remark. — This  book  was  found  to  be  very  much  damaged  ; 
by  reHSon  of  damp,  and  destruction  of  large  portions  of  paper,  near  the 
outward  edges,  by  insects.  One  cover  was  wanting ;  as  also  a  few  sheets 
on  that  side  of  the  book  -.  the  remaining  leaves  are  loose,  and  separated 
from  the  front  cover.  The  hand- writing,  being  huld  and  Lirge,  facili- 
tated the  restoration  ;  which  has  been,  upon  the  whole,  accomplished, 
though  not  without  some  unavoidable  bre<iks  in  the  connexion.  The 
contents,  i'.  may  a|>|;ear,  are  of  average  interest.  The  writer  seems  to 
have  had  most  at  heart  a  record  of  matters  connected  with  fanes,  and 
images  :  but  the  dates  and  names  of  rulers,  given  in  connexion  therew  iih» 
are  of  some  value  ;  certainly  more  than  1  had  at  tirsi  aiiticit)ated. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  I — Countermark  894. 

This  book  is  marked  Malayalam,  but  probably  as  relating  to  that 
country  :  the  language  is  Telugu. 

Section  1.  Account  of  ancient  matters  relative  to  the  Valnctd  (pt 
Wynaad)  district. 

The  earliest  rulers  of  this  district  were  of  the  Vedar  tribe  ;  concern- 
ing whom  the  same  general  outline  is  given,  in  this  paper,  as  in  sect.  11, 
MS.  book  No.  3  (B.  Malayalam  2d  Report)  ;  to  which,  by  consequence, 
1  refer.  CurMM^a  chiefs  subsequenily  ruled.  The  boundaries,  and  di- 
visions, of  the  distrii-t  are  stated  ;  and  some  detail  is  added  as  to  one  vil- 
lage, in  ihe  proximity  of  which  a  species  of  earth  yielded  a  proportion 
ofg«»ldore,  worked  by  three  zemindars.  A  notice  is  given  of  ^anaftira- 
eota,  a  steep,  and  remarkable,  mountain :  iradiiionally  said  never  to  have 
been  ascended  by  any  human  being :  with  some  legendary  adjuncts.  De- 
tails  follow  of  vegetable  productions  of  Wynaad,  and  some  reference  to 
traders,  as  also  to  a  few  scatlered  Fa/V/nara,  and  «Sutva,  fanes,  and  a 
amall  proportion  of  Brahmans  found  (herein. 

Section  2.    Legend  of  Tirunelli-csheiramt  in  the  Malayala  country. 


1B39.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  ManutcripU^  IT 

It  derives  its  name  from  a  Nelli  tree  (pbyllauthus  emblica)  under 
which  Brahma  paid  homage  to  Siva,  Many  Brahmas,  to  the  number  of 
seventy- two,  worshipped  Siva  there.  In  a  cleft  some  petrified  NeUu 
fruits,  and  an  emblem  of  Siva^  are  traditionally  said  to  have  been  found, 
by  a  Brahman,  A  specification  of  tirt'ha$t  ^^  sacred  pools,  belonging 
to  the  place  is  given. 

Section  3.  Notice  of  the  buildings  at  the  fane  of  Rama-svami  tit 
Talacheri  (or  Tellicherry). 

The  details  of  this  brief  paper  are  not  adapted  for  abstracting  ;  nor 
are  ihey  required  for  any  useful  purpose. 

Section  4.  Account  of  the  principal  fanes,  and  shrines,  in  the  Tra« 
vaucore  country. 

These  are  situated  at  Cant^a-cumarif  or  Cape  Comorin  ;  at  Susendram  ; 
at  Padmandba-puravi  ;  at  Tiru-vitan-kadu,  of  which  the  ^yaiva  image  is 
called  Keralhvara  (from  having  been  established  by  a  Kerala  king)  j 
at  TiruvaltarUj  a  Vahhnava  slirine  ;  and  some  subordinate  places  at 
Colattur;  also  at  Chengamir^  dated  as  far  back  as  ihe  time  oi Parasu^rama* 
The  details  of  these  shrines  are  of  no  great  importance ;  except  only  as 
they  yield  faint  traces  respecting  rulers,  by  whom  they  were  founded. 

General  Remark. — This  book  being  damaged,  written  in  pale  ink,, 
and  injured  by  insects,  was  re- copied  j  though  the  contents,  are  not  of 
great  consequence. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  54— Countermark  744* 

The  contents  are  four  journals  from  Narrayan-rao ;  the  first  from 
January  to  July  IS  15,  in  the  Fenratagiri,  and  Udii/agiri,  districts  of 
Telingand^  the  other  three  are  relative  to  the  Hyderabad  country,  and 
extend  from  December  1815  to  the  end  of  March  IS  18.  One  or  two 
leaves  are  loose  owing  to  careless  binding:  the  ink  is  good  ;  the  country 
paper  in  the  middle  is  touched  by  insects;  but  the  leaves  having  been 
ungiued,  and  separated,  the  progress  of  injury  has  been  arrested.  The 
book  will  last,  as  it  is,  for  several  years. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  55 — Countermark  745. 

It  contains  three  journals  of  Feneata-rao  for  1318-1 9-20,  in  the  Hyder- 
abad country;  is  written  on  various  descriptions  of  country  paper,  some 


18  Export  OH  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  [Jvlt 

free  from  injury  others  touched  by  insects ;  though  but  slightly;  the  ink 
is  good  ;  the  whole  perfectly  legible,  and  calculated  to  last  for  a  consider- 
able period. 


Manuscript  book,  No  ^6— Countermark  746. 

A  paper  or  journal  of  Fencaia-rao  for  March,  and  April  1818,  in 
the  Hyderabad  countrj-,  and  three  joumals  of  Ananta-rao  for  1817 
18-19,  in  various  parts  of  Te'ingana;  chiefly  in  the  Bunder  district,  or 
neighbourhood  of  Masulipatam.  The  first  document  is  in  }  erfect  pre- 
servation ;  the  others,  in  various  degrees,  touched  by  injects.  The 
leaves  have  been  separated,  and  exposed  to  the  air.  The  whole  is  legi- 
ble; and,  with  common  care,  will  last  some  time. 

Remark.— I  have  no  doubt  that,  making  allowance  for  the  limited 
Tiew  which  a  native  usually  takes,  as  much  of  interesting  incident,  and 
description,  might  be  gleaned  from  these  as  from  other  ordinary  books 
of  travels.  But  this  gleaning,  if  ever  attempted,  must  be  an  afcer  work 
to  my  present  introductory  examination,  and  report.  As  heretofore  ob- 
served, in  similar  cases,  I  pass  these  journals  by,  without  minute  atteu- 
lion. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  32— Countermark  722. 

Account  of  the  niVrs  of  Jnrmacondu  and  Orngalu,  otherwise  called 
ElatlHt-nnrjaras  with  their  ronqnests  in  TeH*gana, 

Geographical  site  of  A.  um^condn  defined.  Logendiiry  statement  con- 
cerning the  marria'^e  of  Sira,  as  accounting  fur  the  formation  of  the 
shrine.  Subs»*quen'1y  a  re//ar-rrt*a  named  Yeiuka-devaraja  laid  the 
fbandation  of  a  villajje,  h\  Anumaconda  ;  locating  his  family  and  relatives 
there.  His^ons  were  Anumavu  and  Cowhdu,  A  8ma'l  fort  uas  built. 
The  latter  of  the  two  formed  another  vil'.aije,  called  after  his  own  name ; 
his  relatives  followed  the  same  example,  by  forming  other  villages. 
About  this  time  the  Jaiuas  prevail»*d  ;  and  a  Ja'na  fane  was  f«»rmed,  on 
the  top  of  the  hill.  Bhima-razu,  a  chief,  ruled:  hut  whether  a?<  a  subor- 
dinate, or  head,  cannot  be  determined  ;  as  a  Mahom^dim  had  built  a 
•tone,  containing  an  inscription,  into  the  wall  of  hi^  h()n*>e  :  s  >  that  only 
one  side  of  it  was  legible.  Hhlnara^u  is  sup](8ed  to  have  been  a 
Jaina.  The  account  is  commenced  with  the  men  i«'n  nf  one  of  the  ATa- 
kali  race,  who  built  the  large  for're^s:  and  \^hai  foUows  relates  to  that 
nee.    The  lunar-race  is  specified  down  to  Cshtmaca.    From  that  line 


1839,]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  IS 

are  deduced  Vijnyaditya  and  SCmevdra,  The  son  of  the  first  waa 
Fishnu-rerdd^ana  :  of  ihe  oiher,  ihe  stm  was  Ut/unga-hhii^ja,  Thest 
t Ho  latter  Hivided  the  coiinirv  between  them.  Vishnu  verddhana  set- 
tled at  Dhermapuri  on  tlie  western  bank  of  the  Godavery  river.  Four 
hundred  villages,  or  towns  befMme  subject  to  him.  His  son  w^as  Nanda 
who  built  a  town  calle.i  Nanda-ghi,  in  which  the  four  castes  of /Tinrfii^t 
were  located.  His  minister  was  named  Danda  Sasd-nayaca,  Nanda 
formed  a  marriage  alliance  with  the  dauj^hter  of  a  Chola  king,  at  Con- 
jeveram  ;  and  on  returning,  equitably  governed  his  kingdom.  His  son 
was  Vijaya-paln^  who  was  munificent.  The  son  of  the  latter  was  S6ma' 
drva-rnja,  who  formed  extensive,  and  numerous  e!*tal)lihhments  for 
Brahmans.  He  assembled  various  herds  of  cows,  altogether  antount- 
ingto  3100,  whi-h  were  placed  under  the  care  of  various  herdsmen  ;froin 
Ehahdchala,  ev  n  to  the  banks  of  the  Godavery.  B  la-hodi/^  ruler  of 
Cattaca-pvri  (Cuttack),  hearing  of  this  circums'anre,  made  a  foray,  and 
took  away  some  cattle.  A  war  followed,  in  wdiich  S^ma-dera  lost  his 
life.  His  widow  t«'ok  refuge  in  the  hrmse  of  a  Prohman,  where  she 
had  a  son  named  iWf//at?rrOTfl  who  conquered  his  father's  eneray»  and 
installed  the  son  of  the  latter,  on  the  throne  at  Cuttack.  Hearing  of 
which  the  aforementioned  I'eruka-dtva-raj'i  fled,  and  Madhava-verma 
took  possession  of  his  district.  The  date  of  .Wachava  vrrma  is  carried 
as  far  back  as  S.d.  Sac.  3l0  (A.  D.  468)  ;  and  his  reign  is  extended  to 
160  years.  His  s<-n  was  Padmisenn^  who  ruled  7^  years  :  down  to  Sal. 
Sac.  461.  He  overcame  the  Cuttack  ruler,  fhit  had  assnulted  him;  and 
levied  tribute  from  that  country.  Th'^  son  of  Padmn-sena  was  fenama- 
ruja^  who  ruled  73  years,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  5.17.  His  son  was  Oranga- 
rcwwa,  who  ccmquered  the  invading  Cuttack  ruler,  and  put  his  son  in 
the  father's  place.  He  conquered  other  chiefs,  and  ruled  7'^  years, 
down  to  Sal.  Sac.  610.  The  son  oWrangi-rewa  was  named  Bendi-gun. 
damaraja.  He  took  some  villages  from  the  Mahomedans,  and  levied 
on  them  eight  lakhs  of  gold  coins.  He  fought  for  3  months  with  the  Cuttack 
ruler;  and,  having  conquered  him,  took  thence  fifty-fivt^  lakhs  of  gold  coins. 
He  was  liberal.  He  ruleil  7^  years,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  688.  His  son  was 
Yeruca-deva-raju ;  who  being  a  child,  the  mother  exercised  authority  as 
regent.  She  levied  extensive  tribute  on  surronn  ling  countries,  and 
fighting  six  mouths  with  the  Cuttack  ruler,  overame  him,  and  put  hie 
gon  in  the  father's  stead  ;  at  the  same  time  taking  tribute.  The  young 
ix\,m  Yeruca-deva-rrjn  was  by  her  caused  to  be  crowned.  This  queen, 
whose  name  was  KSntafa-dev',  governed  19  years,  down  to  S.  S.  702. 
J'rrMCi-r/eta  conquered  the  ruler  of  Deva-f>iri  (Deo-ghur  or  Dowlata- 
bad  ?)  and  look  eighty  lakhs  of  gold  coins  from  him  as  tribute.     He  also 


iiO  Ifeport  on  the  AfaeAenMte  Manuscripts.  [JulY 

-overcame   and  took   tribute  from   Vijaya-narasiuha-vijaya-rayalut   the 
Tuler  of  Vijayanagaram,     He  made  suitable  largesses  ro  the  Brahmant ; 
tnd  ruled  79  years,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  7s6.   His  son  was  Bhuvanaxea-malla^ 
who  conquered  the  Cuttack  king,  taking  away  banners  ;  and,  as  before, 
installed  the  son  in   the  father's  place.     Not  being  satisfied  with   the 
tribute  paid  by  the  ruler  at    Vijayanagarutih  he  again  levied  war,  and 
teceived   further    villages  and  presents    together  with    five  superior 
ivomen,  as  wives  ;  to  whom  he  made  grants  in  free  tenure  of  lands,  ex- 
tending even  as  far  as  Conjeveram,  to  find  them  betel  and  areca  (or  pin- 
money).    He  also  gave  an  agreement,  engraven  on  gold,  to  the  chief  at 
Vtjayanagarum,  certifying  that  he  would  not  a^ain  levy  war.    He  large- 
ly built,   and  endowed,   various  fanes  and   bhriiies.     He  ruled  86  years 
down  to  Sal.  Sac.  872.    His   son  was  Tri^:h"vanamaUa,   who  as  before, 
fought  with  the  Cuttack  prince,  and  installed  his  son.     He  governed  86 
years,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  956.     The  son  of  Trthhuvana-malla,  was  Kaka- 
ti'prSUraJH  who  being  a  minor,  his  ministers  disagreed  among  them- 
selves;   which /?a//a- A «wrf«  the  Gaytpati  of  Cuttack  hearing,  besieged 
^numaeonduf  during   twelve  years,   by    troops   under  the  orders   of  a 
general  named  ViKvanaCha-deva  ;  who  was  in  the  end  repulsed  by  Kakatu 
prol-rajiu    The  latter  formed  a  resilience  at  some  distance,   at  Gangd- 
puranit  and  the  people  of  Anumacondu  were  arcustomed  to  send  thiiher 
presents,  on  a  small  cart.     One  day  the  axle  of  the  cart  broke ;  and,  be- 
ing left  on  the  spot,  the  next  day  the  iron   was  found  to  be   transmuted 
into  gold.     The  king,  going  to  the  place,  found  there  a  golden  symbol  of 
Siva;    and  iron,  brought  thiih<^r,  ho\\vr  chan:;ed  into  gold,  ht»  thence 
acquired  the  means  of  extensile  building.     The  said  symbol  was  remov- 
ed, and  established  on  a  small  hill,  consisting  of  a  simple  rock  (whence 
the  name  eka-sila  in   Sanscrit,  and   ornvgal  in  Telugu).     A  fane   was 
built,  and  also  a  town  around  ir;  in  which  there  were  500  Saira  fanes  and 
300  Vaishnuva  fanes,  ten  shrines  of  Gancsa  and  ten   of  Virabhadra  ;  to 
trhicli  festivals,  and   all   customary  api-nrtenances   wore  appropriated. 
As  iron,  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  aforesaid  im  igo,   was  uni- 
ibnnly  transmuted  into  gold,  he  in  consequence  had  a  vast  quantity  of 
golden  utensils  formed,  so  that  he  acquired  great  celebrity ;    and,  in   his 
time,  the  custom   of  weighing  gold  was  first  introduced.    He  had  two 
vons:  the  eldest,  being  bom  in  a  muhurtam^  or  astrological  time,  unpro- 
pitious  to  the  father,  the  said  child  was  taken  and  lodged  in  a  fine  ;  the 
officiating  hierophant  in   which    gave   to  the  boy  the  name  of  Rudra, 
His   father  one   night  went  alone  to  the  fane,  and  Rudra  mistaking  his 
fkther  for  a  thief,  mortally  wounded  him  with  a  sword.    The  king  made 
known  to  all  around,  that  the  child  was  his  son  ;   and,  causing  him  to  be 
install ed|  died  eight  days  after  receiving  the  wound.    Kakati-prol-raju 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Madtnzie  Manuscripts.  91 

ruled  73  years,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  1031.  The  aforesaid  Rudra  added  to 
the  number  of  fanes  ;  among  others  those  of  Gannpati  (or  Ganesa)  and 
made  war  against  the  Cuttack  rnjay  whom  he  killed  ;  put  his  son  in  the 
father's  stead ;  and  levied  tribute  on  the  country.  He  also  subdued 
other  countries ;  and  ruled  78  years,  down  to  Sal  Sac.  1 109.  1  he  son  of 
Kakali-rudra-raju  was  Ganapati-raju.  His  uncle  Maha-deva-rt^ju, 
the  younger  son  of  Kalcati-prol,  and  younger  brother  of  Rudreif  was  in- 
stituted as  second  in  authority  (in  the  same  relation  as  Cajsar  stood 
to  Imperator  at  Rome);  an:l,  going  on  an  expedition  against  Z^era- 
giri,  was  therein  slain.  His  secondary  rule  lasted  three  years,  down  to 
Sill.  Sac.  1112.  The  minister  of  Ganapati  was  named  Siva-dcvaiya ; 
and  the  said  Ganapati  making  war  against  the  Dera-giri  ruler,  who 
had  killed  his  uncle  aforesaid,  conquered  that  chief,  and  took  his  daugh- 
ter, named  Rudranadevi,  to  be  his  wife.  This  prince  was  munificent  to 
Brahmans.  He  male  war  on  Falla-nada,  and  took  tribute  from  it :  re- 
turning thence  to  Nellore,  he  had  a  dispute  with  Ancana-bhuja  from 
whom  he  took  som<*  biinners,  and  re-instated  there  the  former  ruler, 
whose  nume  was  Mon  na  hasih'ki.  He  had  a  reservoir  formed  at  that 
place;  and  twenty-four  forts  c  mstru'te  I.  He  subdue  I  64  towns.  He 
hud  many  other  works  aciMimp'ished  :  amonfy  whi  h  the  building  a  town 
near  Gun<i^n  puram  Cnim-d  after  himself  Gannpnti-pi.min)  was  one.  He 
conquered  the  OcfWr/tf  (Oris^a),  and  Pandiyi^  kiiiij:^;  t<»ok  many  coun- 
tries; and  Ifvit'd  tribute.  He  cmstructeil,  at  Sri  Sailum^  four  Saiva 
fanes;  some  Fa t>'n'<i?^  fines  ;  and  had  four  reservoir'*  ex^'avaied.  To 
his  spiritnil  preceptors  he  gave  eleven  vilhges.  A  daughter  born  to  him, 
named  Umaea,  he  gave  in  marriage  to  V'lra-bhadfa'ra'a.  and  relin(|uish- 
ing  his  own  kingdom  to  Siva  devaiyan^  his  minister,  he  died  in  Sal.  Sac* 
1 180,  after  luling  68  years.  His  widow  Rudrama'devi  ruled  with  celeb- 
rity, for  some  years;  and  then  transferred  the  cn)wn  to  Prahipt-iira 
rudroy  a  son  of  her  daughter,  Uniaca^  by  Fira-bhadra-raja,  al  a  lime 
when  he  was  sixteen  years  of  age.  She  exen-ised  the  regency  during 
3!^  years,  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  Til 0.  Pratapa-vira-rudra  patronised  the 
Brahmans,  descendants  of  those  first  settled  in  the  country,  and  provided 
for  them  proper  employments.  It  is  said  that  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Mahomedans.  He  reigned,  as  supposed,  about  76  years  ;  and  after 
that,  he  and  his  wife  died.  The  manuscript  contains  a  minute  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditure  of  this  prince;  needless  to  be  detailed. 
His  minijiter,  and  his  younger  brother,  fled  into  the  woods,  and  wilds. 
His  son,  who  succeeded  him,  was  named  Vira  bhadra-rajut  who  carried 
on  war,  for  twelve  years,  against  the  Narapali-rayalu  o(  rijayanagarum. 
But  the  Mahomedans  coming  to  the  assistance  of  the  Rayula  oveicame 
rira-hfiadrUf  and  relinquished  lo  him,  only  a  small  portion  of  his  former 


2*  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manwtcripfs*  [Jult 

dominions.    Afterwards  MUla-de-a,  of  the  Raghara  race,  ruled;  as  ap- 
pears hf  an  inscription.     But   Sitapikhin,  a  Mohomedan,  coming  from 
Delhi  took  Orangal;  and,  as  the  descemhints  of  ihe  Kakali  family  were 
within  the  fort,  he  gave  them  just  enough,  for  their  subsistence  ;  while 
he  himself  conducted  the  governra^^nt.     A  Sanscrit  inscri|)tion,  in  his 
time,  is  dated  Sal.  Sac.  1425.  Subsequently  when  Criahna-rayaU  ruled  at 
Fijftya7iagarum,  he    took  Condavidi,  Condapallr,  iHam'-condaj  Bafapa^ 
conda,  Nagarjana-con  Ja,  and  other  forts  ;  he  hIsjo  overcame  the  Maho- 
medans  at  OrangaU  and  assumed  rhe  place.     lie  gave  !«>  the  Kakaiiya 
race  a  sufficient  subsistence.     In  the   time  of   Ach'f^ita-rayaUi,  Orangal 
was  under  his   rule.     Rama-rayaln  was  se^^ond   in  power   to  Sada-giva 
raj/aht;  but,  6ghting  against  five  Pad  Aa/»«, confederated  a^ainsJ  him,  he 
was  killed  by  them ;  and  they  assumed  the  government  of  OranyaL     The 
Shah,  ruling  at  Gilcon i ih,h id  authoritv  over  Oranyal.  nnd  Anumi'eon* 
da.     The  A^/zaw  of  Hvderabad,   nwweX  A uip't-gth,   ruled  over  Oran^a/. 
His  son  Nizam  alt  khan,  inspecting  the  fori  of  Ora  iga\  had  some  of  the 
guns,  which  were  placed  there  by  the  Knkati  race,  transmitted  to  Hyder- 
abad.    He  gave  the  siid  fort,  as  a  ja«»hire,  to  Nuran-mulk :  it  remained 
with  the  same  in  the  li'ue  q{ Slcajilar,  sjn  of  Nintm-uli.      Orangal  was 
plundered  by  Plndarri  Mahratlas  in  Sal.  Sa.-.  \7^^  (A.  D.  1816).     The 
descendants  of  the  Kakatiya  race  had,  by  thlK  liau',  retired  altogether 
to  some   patrimonial  estates,  fLiBassmava,  and  other   places,    whi'her 
the  Nizam  sent  to  demand   from  them  tribut*,  or  taxation  ;  when  thev 
transmitted  to  him,  in  return,   cowries,  or  smdl  shells,  current  in  some 
places  for  small  sums  of  money.    The  Nizam,  understanding  thereby  that 
they  were  very  poor  people,   remitted  tliencrefurward    all    tax  or  tribute 
from  them  ;  and  they  continued,  when  the  a -couat  was  written,  to  reside 
at  Batsanava,  and  other  villages. 

Remark. — The  preceding  is  a  very  important  manuscript.  Its  authen- 
ticity, iu  some  places, may  be  matter  of  question, |»articularlv'  in  the  dates; 
but  all  deductitms  bt-ing  made,  this  will  remain  one  of  the  valuable 
documents  in  the  collection. 

There  follows,  in  the  book,  another  document  ;  being  an  account  of 
Calyana  pafnam. 

The  contents:  the  legend  ofiVanrfi.the  vehicle  of  5iVa  coming  down  to 

^lu-th the  origin  of  the  Fira  saiva  hqci — andan  ;«cconnt  of  circumstances 

which  occurred  at  Madura.  Any  fuller  notice  of  this  docun:ent  is  refer- 
red to  the  abstract  of  the  Telngu  palm-leaf  manuscript  No.  128.  332 
entitled  Basavesvara  Calagnana. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Afanuscripia,  23 

Manuscript  book,  No.  7. — Countermark  697. 

Section  1.     Account  of  ^anrfar-»*ac/i//;7a/?*aifi  (or  MasuUpatam). 

Local  situation  with  reference  to  the  Crishna  river  j  its  fanes  specified. 
Its  roads  are  frequented  by  shipping.     Fishermen   reside  in  neighbour- 
ing villages.     A  new  town  named  fnamu-kuthuru  now  callefl  Ina-kuthu' 
ru  was  built  not  far  off.     A  town  was  also  built   by  the   Muhmdi  kings 
called  after  their  own  name.     A  Mukandi  king,  according  to  an  inscrip- 
tion in  a  neighbouring  fane,  removed  the  Bauddh'iH  and  Jan(famas   and 
established  the/? rfl/[/ita7i*  in   their  room.     The  name  of    MavhU-bander 
\H  said  to  have  arisen  from  a  very  large  fi-,h  being  caught  by  a  Baunddhm 
so  that  he  was  called  Matsja-baunddha,  the  name  devolving  on  the  place 
where  he  lived  ;  and  becoming  corrupted  in  Dekhini  to   Macklibandar, 
or  MacUli'patnam  (whence  also  the    European  corruption   into   Masuli. 
pai:im). 

The  Mukundi  rajas  ;  Pratupa-rvdra  ;  the  Gajapatis  ;  the  Reddit  ; 
Crishna'vayer  ;  and.  (»thers  ;  are  stated  to  have  successively  ruled  over 
this  place,  and  neighbourhood.  A  list  is  given  of  suburban-villages, 
founded,  or  enlarged,  by  various  persons,  from  S.  S.  1480,  down  to  S.  S. 
1739  (A.  I).  I55S — 1817).  It  was  under  the  Hyderabad  govenment 
down  to  Fusly  1178  (A.  D.  1770).  For  seven  years  afterwards  it  was 
under  Monsieur  Bussy,  and  the  French,  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  as  a  jaghire  from  the  Nizam  AH  Khan.  A  total  of  village  dis- 
tricts is  given  ;  several  of  which  manufacture  salt.  Some  further  parti- 
culars are  added  as  to  fanes,  and  their  festivals,  dX  Inamu-kuthuru. 

Section  2.     Account  of  Mavnnje-mntlur, 

The  account  of  this  place  commences  with  S.  S.  1606  (A.  D.  1684). 
Sometime  after  Anavema-reddi  institute*!  a  Brahman, named  Mrttanjlyar^ 
to  the  charge  of  the  fane,  whose  son  was  Somayojln  ;  and  the  line  of 
Brahmans  downwards  is  given.  The  Mahomedans,  under  Sultan  Abdal- 
la  Hiissein,  continued  the  privileges  of  the  fane.  Various  details  of 
Mahomedan  interfercriC*^.  Aurengzebe  took  tribute  thence.  There 
are  also  revenue  detiiils  of  proceeds,  and  expenditure,  connected  with 
the  village,  or  town,  and  its  adjuncts. 

Section  3.  Catalogue  of  books  in  the  possession  of  Lingaya'chetti, 
son  ot  A/amtddi'veiicaiya  chelti. 

The  catalogue  was  made  at  the  request  of  Col.  Mackenzie,  and  given 
in  to  him.  It  exhibits  the  names  of  Sanscrit  and  Telugu  manuscripts, 
to  the  total  amount  of  282  books,  or  volumes,  on  various  subjects  of 
ritual  observance — mythology — poetry — fictitious  romance— some  littl« 
history — law— and  miscellaneous  subjects.    Several  of  the  titles  ar« 


24  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  \Jvvr 

those  of  maDUBcripts  now  in  (his  collectiou  ;  rendering  it  probable  that 
these  were  purchased  from  the  person  above  mentioned. 

Section  4-  Account  of  the  village  district  of  Amritalur, 
A  herdsman  of  old  cut  down  ihe  forest-wood  and  established  a  small 
fane  ;  called  by  the  name  of  Amritesrara,  After  the  introduction  of 
the  era  of  Salivahanat  the  Gajapatis^  and  others,  ruled.  The  first  date 
is  Sal.  Sac.  1607  (A.  D.  1685)  in  the  time  of  Gana-pati-deva  ;  who 
coming  to  bathe  in  the  river  Crishna,  at  the  time  of  an  eclipse,  made 
over  this  district  to  certain  N'yrgi-Erahmam,  Various  traders  had 
settled  in  the  village  :  these  all  left  it,  after  the  snpercession  of  the 
former  rule  by  the  Mahomedans.  In  the  time  of  Nazir-jtrng-bahader 
this  village  district  was  made  over  to  the  French.  In  Fusly  1168,  it 
came  under  the  Honuurable  Company  ;  who  continued  all  customary 
observances. 

Section  5.  A  connected  account  of  seven  village  districts,  in  the 
Ellore  Circar. 

Nara^Mia-rayer  ruled  over  the  whole  of  these  villages  in  Sal.  Sac. 
1 166  (wrung  dale).  His  successor  /?ajwa-raya/tt  introduced  a  colony  of  Brah- 
mans  to  Gudlapaili.  The  Mahomedans  subsequently  plundered,  pil- 
laged, and  burnt,  in  these  districts,  during  two  months  ;  giving  over  the 
management  on  their  account  to  Raganatlia-pautahii  a  Brahman,  Sub- 
sequent ^miVf,  and  a  war  connected  with  the  administration  of  one  of 
them,  are  specified.  All  other  details  relate  to  land-holders,  and  their 
respective  rights  and  tenures. 

Section  6.     kccownx  oi  Gokama-maV ham  o{  Mavunje, 
In  early  times  a  person  of  eminence  had  the  waste  lands  cleared,  and 
a  fane  built,  bearing  the  name  of  C7oA:arna<«vami.     Details  of  the  pupils 
of  the  hierophant,  and  their  respective  successions.  Other  details  chiefly 
relate  to  revenue  proceeds. 

Section  7.  Account  of  Mavunje-modukur,  in  the  district  of  Satena^* 
palli, 

A  merchant  had  the  district  cleared,  and  a  fane,  and  village,  built.  In 
Sal.  Sac.  15'>6,  the  district  was  made  over  to  the  Niyoji  Brahmans,  by 
the  Ganapati'Tuj a.  In  the  \\me  oi  Kutottunga'thola^  some  additions 
were  made  in  the  matters  of  fiines  and  fentivaU.  Ganapali-raja,  son  of 
JTflJfr/i/i-rfltya,  subsequently  made  other  lik<*  additions.  After  the  Maho* 
medan  supercession,  the  district  wa^  given  over  to  Brahman  managerst 
on  their  account.  About  1225|  Fusly,  the  Government  of  the  UonouraUt 
Company  succeeded. 


1839.]  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  ManureripU.  2^ 

Section  8.     Account  of  Mavunje'chanduvolu  village. 

Legendary  statoraent  of  its  names,  in  the  three  first  ages.  It  waf 
cfilled  Chandavolu  in  the  Caii-yugam,  After  the  commencement  of  the 
era  of  <W/raAf/wa,  several  fanes  were  const mrted,  with  various  appur- 
tenances, by  Ku/otlunga-c/tola.  in  S.  S.  903*  there  was  a  Jaina  ruler. 
In  S.  S.  1215,  Pratopa-rudra  ordered  seme  addiiional  matters,  for  the 
advanta^'e  of  ilie  fane,  to  be  constructed.  The  rule  of  the  ReddU  follow- 
ed. In  S.  S.  1250  they  had  erected  a  fort ;  and  they  ruled  from  S.S.  1300 
down  to  S.  S.  USG.  The  Mahomedan  authority  followed,  under  the 
Nizam  Ali  Mulk.  The  district  was  made  over  to  the  French.  The 
mention  ^i  SatyanaC han,  and  his  successor,  as  Roman  Catholic  minis- 
ters of  re'igion  oc.  iirs.  On  the  defeat  of  ihe  French,  the  English  power 
succeeded.  Some  new  fane**  were  constructed.  A  few  details  on  this 
latter  point  conclude  the  paper. 

Sect'i'  n  9.     Account  of  the  village  of  Ch^brolu. 

Other  names  in  previous  Vugns  :  called  Chcbrolu  in  the  Cali'yugam, 
Tr'thnrnna'di'va-malln'r^'ja  of  the  Chtdnkiyas,  coming  to  bathe  in  the 
Godavcry  rivt*r,  m:«d<',  at  the  instance  of  his  minister,  a  donation  to  the 
f.ine,  coinmemonited  by  ;in  inscription.  The  Jaiuas  were  numerous,  in 
tlioso  diiys  :  and  this  village  was  sometimes  called  Jatnnbrolu,  Rudra* 
deva  of  the  Ka! ali  race,  added  much  to  the  fane,  in  reference  to  Saioa 
eioblems.  Nothing  further  particular  occurs,  down  to  the  Mahomedan 
rule. 

RK'fA::K. — The  condition  of  this  book  w^as  so  bad,  by  reason  of  injury 
from  damp  and  insects,  that  I  doubted  the  practicability  of  its  restoration. 
It  has  however,  on  the  whole,  been  successfully  effected ;  and  though 
the  details  are  but  of  minor  interest;  yet  the  investigation  will  as- 
sist in  estimating  the  value  of  similar  books.  From  the  specimens  that 
have  been  given,  it  is  found  that  there  is  a  prevailing  uniformity,  as 
to  the  indicated  succession  of  leading  powers  in  the  north:  the  outlines 
being  the  same  in  all. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  15 — Countermark  705. 

Section  I.     Account  of  the    zemindar   of  the  <Saroc^  district  in  the 
Northeni  Circars. 

Anciently  this  was  a  wild  country  under  a  Cdthu  raja,  who  ruled  over 
savages.    Subsequently  one  named  Savayi-Singh  caiue  from  Gocula 

*  Thii  date  is  uncertain. 


!16  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Afanuscripte.  [July 

Brindhavanam,  and  colonized  tlie  neighbourhood  ;  forming  a  town,  with 
various  appurtenances. 

Section  2,  Account  of  the  Puritshoftama'deraSf  and  rajas  of  former 
•ages. 

A  Sanscrit  title.  R(»feronce  to  the  Saff/a-yuga,  with  its  character  ; 
and  mention  of  Maha-bali,  and  VUhnu,  in  the  famana  avatar. 
Reference  to  other  Vuiras^  to  Paratsu-ramat  and  his  destructi- 
on of  the  Ceheiriyas.  Rtferenre  to  Manus,  and  periods  of  their  rule. 
Some  kings  of  the  solur-lin?.  Excessive  periods  of  lime  ascribed  to 
them.  Some  kings  loosely  mentioned  in  the  Caliyuga;  who  ruled, 
as  we  know,  in  ditferent  and  distant  countries  ;  but  are  herein  brought 
together  in  one  successive  line,  Tliere  is  rather  a  more  connected  list 
of  Gajapati  princes ;  but  with  incredible  dules  ascribed  to  the  several 
periods  of  reign.  Some  other  loose  details  follow-,  down  to  the  accessi- 
on uf  the  English  Government. 

Remark. — The  first  part  of  this  paper  is  merely  a  crude  extract,  from 
the  substance  of  old  pnranas  ;  and  resembles  very  much  what  is  termed 
Bhugu^a-pramannm  in  a  distinct  Tamil  manuscript.  'I he  account,  so 
fiir,  is  of  no  value;  and  the  remainder  partakes  very  much  of  the  same 
character:  disappointing  the  expectntion  that  might  be  founded  on  the 
-English  heading  prefixed  to  the  section. 

Section  3.  Account  of  Xardi/an-suru-harischandrai  zemindar  of  the 
Tarla  district. 

The  founder  of  the  district  came  originally  from  Nagpore;  and  served 
one  of  the  Gajapati  princes  of  Orissa.  "  By  favour  of  JaganaVha^*^  the 
idol  so  called,  he  acquired  this  district;  and  there  are  added  some  de- 
tails concerning  the  successors  in  the  zemindary. 

Section  4.    Account  of  four  villages,  of  the  said  district. 

Merely  a  list  of  small  districts;  and  of  towns,  or  villages,  contained 
in  them. 

Section  5.     Account  of  Cari-cala-clwlan. 

This  paper  contains  an  account  of  two  Chola-rajaf :  the  first  name 
that  occurs  is  Vlra-vicrama-cholanf  with  some  details  concerning  hini ; 
such,  for  example,  as  his  fixing  pillars  of  victory,  as  far  north  as  Hima- 
laya. Cari'Caia-cholan  is  next  mentioned;  and  an  extravagant  account 
of  the  extent  of  his  power,  being  puerile  exaggeration,  is  given.  In  the 
embankment  of  the  Caveri  the  god  Israra,  it  is  said,  assisted.  The 
Chola  king  put  out  one  of  the  throe  eyes  of  the  MukanVhi  kings.  Manjr 


1839.]  Beport  on  ike  Mackenzie  AfanuscripUi  ^TT 

kings  were  summoned  to  assist  in  the  embankment  of  the  Cdv^i  ;  and 
those  who  refused  to  come  were  punished.  The  whole  of  the  remainder 
relates  to  Cari-cala-cholan's  acts  of  government.  The  wife  of  the  BalDi^ 
la  king  was  of  great  assistance  to  his  kingdom,  [it  is  supposed  that  the* 
wife  of  VishnU'Verddhantt  is  intended].  According  to  this  paper  Cart' 
cala-eholati  exercised  hd  extensive  influence;  but  the  marks  of  exag^ 
geration  contained  render  the  authenticity  of  the  document  doubtful;  at 
all  events,  great  deductions  are  requisite. 

General  Remark. — In  point  of  condition,  this  book  is  in  tolerably 
good  order  and  preservation.    There  is  nothing  of  value,  unless  the  last- 
paper  may  be  considered  to  possess  that  character.    This  may  merit  re* 
ference  and  further  consideration  ;    and  with  ordinary  care  will   lasfe^ 
miiny  years,  for  that  purpose,  without  urgent  need  of  restoration. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  2 — Countermark  692. 

In  this  small  octavo  book,  divided  into  thirty  sections,  are  brief  ae<* 
counts  of  thirty-six  villages,  and  six  agraharamt,  or  Brahmanical  es- 
tablishments. The  details  are  minute,  and  trifling;  frequently  being 
little  more  than  a  list  of  different  places  :  the  whole  not  requiring  any 
abstract.    The  book  is  at  present  in  very  good  preservation. 

Manusciipt  book,  No.  8 — Countermark  892. 

This  small,  and  thin,  quarto  contains  a  journal  of  Crithna-rao,  during 
his  journey  through  the  5Mnf/a  district  from  August  1813  to  May  1814. 
It  is  labelled  "  Canarese/*  but  is  in  tho  Telugu  language;  the  said  label, 
as  in  similar  cases,  referring  rather  to  the  district  than  to  the  language. 
It  is  written  with  indelible  ink ;  injured  only  as  regards  compactness  of 
binding;  but  for  the  rest  in  good  preservation. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  9— Countermark  893. 

This  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  person's  journal,  down  to  August 
1814.     It  is  in  very  nearly  as  good  preservation  as  the  last  mentioned; 
book,  and  the  binding  in  better  order.    Both  are  passed,  as  usual  in  the- 
case  of  such  journals. 


28  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [July 

Manuscript  book,  No.  5 — Countermark  802. 

This  book  is  endorsed  as  relating  to  the  Ceded  Districts  ;  and  the  con- 
tents refer  to  seventeen  villages,  with  their  districts,  containing  dt'iails 
similar  to  those  heretofore  given  in  similar  cases.  Whenever  such  biwks 
have  been  found  to  be  damaged,  and  in  danger  of  speedily  perishing,  and 
have  been  restored,  I  have  then,  in  reailing  over  the  restored  copy  in  col- 
lation, at  the  same  time  abstracted  the  contents.  This  book  is  in  perfect 
condiiion ;  and  will  last  a  long  time.  In  such  a  case  the  minute  labour 
of  abstracting  does  not  seem  to  me  to  be  called  for;  unless  the  contents 
were  of  commanding  importance,  which  is  not  the  case  in  this  iuedauce. 
This  book  is  complete. 

Manuscript  book.  No.  6 — Countermark  803. 

This  book  relates  to  twenty  villages  of  the  Ceded  Districts.  A  part  of 
the  leaves,  in  one  place,  has  been  torn  out,  and  lost.  The  remaind'^r  of 
the  book  is  in  perfect  preservation  ;  and  the  same  remark,  as  in  ihe  last 
instance,  is  applicable. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  10 — Countermark  807. 

Account  of  the  Cusbah,  or  revenue  district  of  Tanda-pafti  in  the 
Ceded  Districts. 

This  is  also  a  local  account ;  with  the  usual  legendary,  and  minute, 
details.  It  is  in  perfect  preservation  ;  and,  for  the  present,  needs  no 
further  attention. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  12 — Countermark  809. 

In  this  book  are  contained  local  details  of  fourteen  villages  in  the 
Ceded  Districts.  The  paper  is  quite  uninjured,  and  the  ink  indelible. 
Two  leaves  were  loose,  and  the  back  of  the  cover,  having  been  merely 
pasted  on,  was  loose.  These  little  defects  being  amended,  the  book 
remains  in  perfect  preservation,  and  is  subject  to  the  same  remark  as  No. 
5.  The  four  books  from  that  No.are  labelled  as  pertaining  to  the  Ceded 
Districts  :  hence  it  may  be  as  well  to  note,  that  the  language  in  which 
they  are  written  is  not  Canarese,  but  Telugu. 


-/■■/ 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Afanuscripit.  29 

Manuscript  book,    No.  7— Countermark  900. 

Section  4. — Genealogical  account  ot  the  Nayar  of  Cavalapa-nad  in 
Malayalam. 

The  introductory  matter  is  legendary,  and  has  been  before  adverted 
to  (See  3rd  Report). 

A  woman  was  delivered  of  a  female  child  near  the  hermitage  of  a 
rishif  who  took  compassion  on  it,  though  it  was  of  outcaste  origin.  But 
in  consequence  of  some  orarular  communication  that  this  child  would 
become  his  wife,  the  rishi  indignantly  Hung  it  into  a  river;  down  which 
it  floated  ;  until  it  attracted  the  compassion  of  a  Brahman  woman,  who 
took  it  and  reared  itas  her  own.  After  some  time,  when  her  prot eg Se 
w-as  drying  her  hair,  after  bathing,  the  Brahman  woman  discovered  that 
her  elevee  was  of  an  outcaste  tribe,  and  drove  her  away.  The  banished- 
one  wandered  about ;  and,  in  process  of  time,  had  twelve  children  by 
different  persons,  each  of  which  children  was  abandoned,  and  reared  by 
foster  parents  :  the  several  children  being  adopted  into  the  tribe  of  the 
persons  bringing  them  up.  Among  these  children  were  Cnmaren^  and 
Raman  ;  who  became  headmen  of  a  district,  and  the  ancestors  of  the 
Nayars  of  Cavalapa-nad'  Their  line  of  descendants,  divided  into  four 
lineages,  is  given.  In  some  cases  where  children  failed,  others  were 
adopted.  The  rule  of  the  four  lines  seems  to  have  been  over  an  exten- 
sive tract  of  country.  A  few  details  are  given;  but  it  is  staled  that  in 
times  of  foreign  invasion,  some  records  were  lost.  Account  of  expenses 
incurred  at  the  installation  of  a  Nayar,  A  list  of  towns,  or  villagefli, 
forming  a  district.  Several  inhabitants,  as  settlers,  were  allowed  for  a 
time  to  clear,  and  cultivate  ground,  rent-free  ;  but  afterwards  paying  a 
tax.  An  account  of  interference  from  the  Cochin,  and  Travancore, 
ro/ff*  appears.  Afterwards  Hyder  Ali  gave  trouble.  The  English  are 
mentioned;  and  especially  tlie  name  of  GovernorJDuncan, of  Bombay.  The 
English  opposed  Hyder  Ali.  From  the  time  of  Tippu  Sultan,  the  district 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Honourable  Company.  The  situation  of  the 
district  is,  I  understand,  midway  between  the  former  possessions  of  the 
Cochin,  and  Calicut,  rajas. 

Remark. — The  other  papers  in  this  book  are  noticed,  in  the  preced- 
ing Tamil  portion  of  this  report  (which  see).  In  point  of  condition  this 
paper  is  in  better  order  than  any  other  one  in  the  book.  With  ordinarjr 
care  it  will  continue  legible  for  several  years  ;  and,  since  such  is  th« 
case,  the  contents  do  not  seem  to  be  of  such  importance  as  to  reqninr 
restorakion  at  the  present  time. 


30  Report  OH  the  Mackertzie  Majiuscrlpts.  [JuLr 

Manuscript  book,  No.  21— Countermark  366  and  No.  22 — Couuter- 
mark  367. 

Tliese  are  two  thin  quarto««,  containing  the  two  copies  of  the  poeny 
entitled  HarUchandra  XalopA-jfian'im,  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  por- 
tion of  this  report.  Bnth  copies  are  complete,  in  ^se  anvisasj  or  sec- 
tions. The  ink  is  good ;  the  country  paper  slightly  toui-hed  by  worms  ; 
but,  with  a  little  care,  both  copies  will  last  for  many  years. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  32 — Countermark  320. 

Veluifotlvdru-vamaavali,  or  account  of  the  local  chiefs  who  ruled  at 
Vencatajiri, 

An  abstract  of  MS.  book,  No  49,  section  8,  was  given  in  ihy  second 
report,  being  the  same  subject.  This  copy  had  not  then  met  my  eye  ; 
not  having,  at  that  time,  the  collection  entirely  at  my  control.  It  forms 
of  itself  a  neat  small  quarto,  strongly  bound  in  leather,  and  in  very  good 
preservation,  it  is  also  complete,  and  fills  a  larger  document  than  the 
section  above  referred  to,  from  being  written  in  a  bolder  hand,  with 
spaces  left  between  divisions  of  the  geneml  narrative. 


C.-MAHRATTI. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  I —  Countermark  644. 
Ibid,  No.  2 — Countermark  615. 

Cadha-ca^pa-tarut  or  an  abridgement  of  various  //t;i(/w  writings  in  the 
Bkaratam,  Bhagavatam,  Hamayanam,  Puranaa^  &c. 

This  title,  written  in  English  at  the  beginning,  tolerably  well  defines 
the  contents.  The  term  Calpa-taru,  is  however,  raiher  more  ingenious 
than  therein  appears.  In  the  paradise  of  Vishnu  there  is  said  to  be  a 
tree  of  plenty,  called  Cfl//;a-f/tV*^'' a,  which  offers  whatever  is  wished 
for,  by  the  person  approaching  it.  Even  so,  this  book  gives  variously, 
and  plentifully,  to  the  reader.  The  work  is  in  two  volumes,  written  on 
French  paper,  with  good  ink  ;  and  continues  in  perf^^ctly  good  prescrva- 
tion. 


1839]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  3faniiscr'pts,  31 

The  BaJband  character  is  employed,  being  only  a  slit^ht  variation  from 
Deva-nn^ari  :  the  langrtiagp  is  a  Pracrit,  having  so  large  an  admixture 
of  Sanscrit  words,  and  dprivatives,  mingled  wiih  the  Mahratta  idiom,  a* 
to  m*ke  it  a  sort  of  hisfh  dialect.  The  work  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat. 
vol.  2  p.  98.  art.  v  with  so  full,  and  good,  an  index  of  con  tents,  as  to  ren- 
der any  similar  minnte  specification,  in  this  place,  not  requisite. 

Manuscript  book,  No.   64— Countermark  861. 

A  journal  of  Naraynn-rao,  in  his  journey  through  the  Ceded  Dis- 
trict*!, from  August  iSOf),  to  July  ISIO.  The  ink  is  good;  the  paper 
only  very  slightly  injured.    The  book,  as  it  is,  will  last  for  many  years. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  66— Countermark  863. 

Two  journnls  of  Jnanfa-rao,  in  his  progress  through  the  Ceded  Dis- 
tricts, from  January  to  September  1811;  and  from  October  1811,  to 
August  1813.  The  paper  very  little  injured  where  written  on,  and  the 
ink  durable. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  69 — Countermark  866. 

Journal  of  Anantarao  for  1811  ;  letters  sent  by  him  iu  1810  :  letters 
sent  by  Naraynta-rao  in  !811.  Journal  of  Xarayana-rao  from  January 
to  June  1S13,  in  progress  through  the  Ceded  Districts. 

Letters  sent  by  him  in  the  years  1S12,  and  1813,  and  journal  for  the 
year  1811,  when  travelling  in  the  above  districts.  A  rather  large  book, 
closely  written  with  durable  ink,  on  country  paper,  but  veiy  slightlv 
damaged. 

Such  journals  I  pass  without  minute  remarks.  They  may  possess 
some  details,  not  wholly  destitute  of  interest  ;  but  the  voluminous  na- 
ture of  the  collection  forbids  any  loss  of  time,  where  the  field  of  research 
has  little  promis**.  All  such  journals  ought  notwithstanding  to  be 
read  over  at  some  future  period. 

Manuscript  hook,  No.  3G — Countermark  790. 

Section  1.  Account  of  iVarai/an-jii/ar,  one  of  the  managers  of  the 
fane  at  Sri-ranfrham, 


32  Jtepori  on  (he  Machenzie  Manuscripts.  [Jult 

The  account  commences  by  giving  a  reason  for  the  name,  which  it 
may  l'**  sufficient  for  us  to  know,  is  dated  backwards  only  twenty-eight 
A/<iha-i/ug as  since.  At  a  much  later  period  Hie  place  was  under  the 
charge  of  fourteen  persons;  the  names  of  some  of  whom,  with  their 
panegyrics,  are  stated.  The  management  downwards  is  mentioned  ; 
with  llie  number  of  years  during  which  each  manager   held  authority. 

Rbmark. — The  document  is  in  verse,  with  a  very  large  proporlion 
of  Sanscrit  words.  It  is  very  greatly  injured,  being  eaten  away  at  the 
edges,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  within  the  pages,  so  as  to  destroy 
the  connexion  of  the  sense;  and,  on  that  account, .  a  successful,  or  con- 
nected, restoration  of  the  writing  is  impracticable.  The  loss  is  per- 
haps not  of  much  consequence.  From  the  titular  name  oi  jiyar,  I  re- 
cognize this  line  of  managers  to  be  the  antagonists  of  the  Anwanga 
line  before  adverted  to,  in  a  preceding  statement.      See  3rd  Report. 

There  is. piistod  into  the  book,  and  not  properly  belonging  to  it,  six 
pages  octavo  size,  of  defective   Tamil  writing,   relating  to  the  Cattaia» 

jatif  and  Cougtifajaft,  two  very  rude  kinds  of  savages,  who  live  in  the 
mountains  near  CoHawkotai^  and  Cannapalli  ;  their  modes  of  life,  cus- 
toms, kind  of  religion,  and  similar  matters.     The  want  of  completeness, 

^  in  these  pages,  is  to  be  regretted.  Several  years  since  i  was  apprized 
of  the  existence  of  such  a  people,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Dindigul  dis- 
trict, scarcely  raised  above  animal  existence.  From  other  papers,  we 
find  remnants  of  them,  in  various  low  stages  of  civilization,  scattered 
over  the  peninsula  ;  usually  in  mountain  retreats.  Having  alre;idy,  more 
than  once,  adverted  to  the  conclusions  indicated  by  the  extensive  exis- 
tence of  such  rude  tribes,  I  need  not  add  more,  in  this  place  ;  except 
the  hope  of  finding  some  connected  account  of  these  Cat  i  at  as  amd  Congalas 
elsewhere  in  the  collection. 

Section^,    History  of  Chetiffi  kings  in  the  Drav'ida  country. 

This  paper  which  is  promised  in  the  table  of  contents,  appears  to  be 
wanting.  Either  the  foregoing  document  may  have  been  erroneously  so 
designated,  or  else  the  paper  in  question  may  have  been  mislaid,  and 
those  loose  leaves  pasted  into  the  book,  in  its  room. 

Section  3,     Account  of  the  eighteen  Chola'rajasy  &c. 

The  writer  professes  to  extract  from  the  Bhavi^hotriya-puranam,  and 
makes  Parvati  to  enquire  of  Siia  at  Cailasa,  concerning  the  place 
where  beatification  may  be  obtiiined.  Siva  then  is  made  to  narrate  what 
follows. — In  the  wilderness  there  was  a  man,  and  his  wife,  of  the 
Cunumbi  tribe,  to  whom  Siva  appealed  \  a^ud  they  asked  him  permission 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  33 

to  become  rulers  of  ihe  country.  I'heir  request  was  accord'^d  ;  on  con- 
dition uf  building  n  gro.it  inany  Su'va  it'iupli'S.  Tbe  hiiid  man  ruled 
ninety  years  ;  aii.l  sj)j  .i.il.y  (li<iii.i^  its.ie  I  hinHelf  by  kiiling  SuranuraHf 
who  hadgre^itly  in n^'stc  1  the  p.'as;e1ul  inhabitants  of  tlie  cDuntry.  From 
this  circum^^uiice,  lii>  pjwi'r  m  ould  appear  to  o  i^iiiate.  He  transmitted 
his  rule  tu  his  iles  -oihl  ln^s.  [Hi*re  unhappily  a  ch:i9m  in  the  manuscript 
occurs],  Meiitioa  of  K tlottatifri  Cho  u ;  uul  oi.  ^^iva-Hnga-Chota,  afflict- 
ed  with  leprosy;  and  of  oiIi'T  iraUvirtioiH.  Tiie  entint  period  of  the 
Cho'a  rule  was  ll5j  vvars.  Th"  ai'ouui  was  written  at  Tanjore  in  the 
Cro  lliaiia  <;yt:le  year  by  Fei'oji  ogo/Ot  who  stales  in  the  conclusion^ 
tlut  if  th»»  learnf*!  •*hall  di-jcover  in  his  pro^iujtion  diiy  mistakes,  or 
errors,  tht^y  arer-'qiesteJ  to  cxtcni  to  these  their  indulgence,  auJ  par- 
don. 

Remark.— On  the  docnmont  i<«  an  Enijli'*h  enilorsement  rs  follows: 
**A(*C'»uiir  of  \6  C'lola  rtjujtj  pourel  at  Capi-slalum,  in  whii:h  three 
pa;;es  are  lost.'*  Tlii»  a;)ol;)ij;y  of  the  auihor,  at  the  close,  must,  be 
wt'ighe.ii  ;  for  it  iinpli.^s  hi-*  own  cons'ionsness  of  possible  errors,  or  de- 
fioiencies.  It  is,  however,  to  be  noted  that  ih'»  passage  about  the  killing 
Suramran  ill nst rates  a  se.rtion  of  the  Seven  ihi  nfitala-paranam,  wherein 
the  first  f  )an  ler  of  (Jrif/ur,  Jin-l  rrichinopoly,  is  termed  Sarc^vathittan^ 
or  **  the  slayer  of  Sura ;"  and  is  therein  described  as  the  first  ruler. 
The  term  of  11.39  years,  for  the  C/to/a  dynasty,  is  too  great:  divided 
among  IS  it  w  )n!d  give  about  65  ye.irs  to  each  ;  and  we  otherwise  know 
the  term  to  b;?  too  greit.  As  regjir  Is  the  Cununtbi  trilx*,  I  understand 
that  C'</(.v//<6/ is  a  co:n!n')n  Mdiratii  term  to  express  a  tribe,  or  caste, 
whi-h  is  not  j)f ////I  .*«  cxtr.iciion. 

This  doeu  n 3nl  l)"si  I  ^s  ')..'ij  ( in »o'noletp,  Wtaitin;^ a  leaf  in  th?  midsti 
and  some  others  at  the  end,  i*  also  greitly  d.imiged,  by  in 'i»ct8  eating 
away  portion*  n  »:ir  the  out'>r  margin.  It  is  only  not  quite  so  far  gonei 
as  the  first,  sectioii  in  th'*l)K>k;  and  a  complete,  or  conn'3Ct(>d,  restora. 
tion  of  wh it  ri?m  dns of  ilij  d>  'n  n ;nt  is  not  practicable.  Nevertheless 
as  all  versions  of  iha  CWa  dynasty,  are,  desirable;  as  this  document 
throws  a  ray  of  light  on  the  St*ha!a-pHrana  of  Tri.hinopoly ;  and  is  need- 
ful to  support,  on  refTencii,  the  absir.ict  herein  given;  I  have  had  its 
restoration  attempied:  which,  upon  the  whole,  has  been  successful. 


Section  4.     Acconnt  of  the  establishment  of  Tanda-mandalam. 

According  to  this  p.iper,  there  wereonly  fonr  or  five  huts  of  Kirata  peo- 
ple (wild  savajj-es)  previous   to  its  subjugiitiou  by  the  CV<o/«king.  He,w 


94  Beport  on  the  Mackmzie  Munusri'iptt.  {luvt 

herein  said  to  Imve  ]j«»en  lonprrliildless,  and  at  length  to  have  bad  a  legi- 
timate son  whom  h<' estahli^liiMl  in  a  separate  p.iliice.  A  \isiunof  the 
god  is  iitiroditvtcd  us  ;ipp.Mrin^'  lo  tlie  Cliavruvrf}  who  first  ruled  the 
Tonda-mauifaUint  (i.e.  <7</'»'/f/i,  najne  liereni  not  m*MH'uine«l)  diri'cting 
him  to  a  cort.tin  pla(:«>,  wlieniM*  he  w.'is  to  in\iie  and  imroilii -e  the  O'o- 
BrahmtiHs,  and  he  iliil  so.  He  ^^ent  on  a  pilj(rima:;j»  to  Sri-aaUam  ; 
and  died  .soon  ut'ter  his  return. 

The  d«)cninont  lh<'U  adverts  \o  Sr'>-rcn^ha'ij('iJnva-r(iyitlu.  and  after 
him  to  Fira-nard»fatia-riv:ahi^  Dcra-rayaiiy  anti  »iihers,  ;js  ni  its  of  jtjreat 
power;  the  whole  Ijcing  18  in  nnnihor  (the  Rnijer  ilyiinsiy).  'Mic 
Gobttr  people,  fmni  tho  north,  ar«*  n»'xt  s.iiil  to  liiive  i^nue,  ;in  1  a<-(|iiirt>d 
power.  Afti'rwar.ls  the  Malioiiu'dois  from  ilnathni'if.ir'*,  or  I)«lhi, 
fonght  witli  iht^  (iounr  jn'ople,  I'on'iueri'il  them,  and  cxlcndcd  their  do- 
minion over  the  Dacahhij  or  south  i-ountry. 

Remark. — This  docunient  is  coinpletp.  un.I  has  r^ca))ed  «lesfrnction, 
by  having  a  hiri^e  ou*i*r  margin,  fKirily  d'stroye.l,  but  h-ivinjf  the  writ- 
ing withhi  only  nli^Iitiy  injme  I.  Tlie  p:iper  v.iri-^s,  ut  the  outset,  from 
Tamil  documents,  concerning  AdonJai  :  hot  agr-.-es  in  the  f^eneral  out- 
line. The  pilgrimage  of  y/f/o»*f/ai  to  .SVi-SVi/'a/w  has  not  before  appear- 
ed, in  previous  doLiinuMils.  The  nien.ion  of  the  iiubnr  people  seemed 
to  point  to  the  jy(i/(.-(r//r/.y  ;  ami,  on  eii([Miry,  I  atn  told,  that  there  is  a 
class  of  M  liirattas,  at  I'oonah,  who  hear  ih.it  appeli.ilion. 

I^OTB. — A<  the  do'-uMient.,  ihon^h  n'»w  recover-ible.  woolil  very  soon 
cease  to  be  ro  :  \\iv\  as  it  has  some  vahu*,  taken  in  eouiparison  w  ilh 
other  papers,  J  have  had  it  restored. 

Setfion  5.    Chronoloj^ical    aceoi.int  of  the  fonn'T  rajas'  with  dates,  &c. 

This  do  iiment  is  .i  e«iil"etion  of  mitteis  ir.iiher».Ml  froio  the  Pardncs^ 
of  the  ratju'ituira  kind;  but  put  lo^eiher  very  nin  Ij  .ii  ran  loin,  and 
mukinu  ihe  >il«»  of  .dl  t^iriv  trMns:i  •tion>.  fo  l>  ■  Onirfiu.  win  li  ^^e  other- 
wise  know  to  hive  ari>eu  fr.nn  o'^s.'iir.'y,  only  t;ivvar's  the  tlei-iiue  of 
the  Majjitul'm  kini;(loin.  Tlure  ar'',  I  think.  i,b.iniii-s  lo  bi»  gathered, 
concerniu:;:  li'iies  SMb-j-'imnl  lo  l^imnn'tU  f  ,u  :  Ijtii  ih'^  .luthoritv  of  the 
doeUMKMii  Keenis  lo  n»e  \eiv  li>\v,  an  1  ih"  uiini,  .il  the  elose,  8.i\n  he 
had  gathered  the  m.iteria'is  tVoni  ohi  b»«oks,  to  ilie  besj  of  his  abiliij-. 
The  viriting  iij  very  b't;ibie  ;  hut  liie  p:ipcr  rninh  injur*. I  by  inse.;t«. 
On  the  wliole  it  has  seemed  expetiitni  to  resrue  ii  from  de-itruitii'n,  by 
re-copying  it  ;  leaving  its  meaaurc  of  value,  us  an  authority,  to  be  ad- 
jiuied  at  ;»ume  other  time. 


1839.]  Report  on  ike  Macl-emie  ManHseripls,  35 

Section  Q.     Account  of  ChoIa-s'mfia'puram> 

Legend  of  a  ^llrine,  on  a  hill,  n^xncd  Oadakaihala;  oflTcring  nothing, 
that   1   can  perceive  of   consequence. 

There  ia  a  deficiency  in  the  hook:  and  the  corre^pon»lcnce  of  the 
papers,  with  the  tahle  of  contenti>i  U  henceforward  doubtful. 

Section  7.     Account  of  grants. 

Corresponding  witli  this  section,  as  I  suppose,  is  the  mention  of  nine 
village  distri'is,  sai<i  to  luve  hecn  made  over  hy  the  Honoiirble 
Company  for  the  8ii|'port  of  the  fune,  adverted  to  in  the  preceding  article. 

Section  8.     Ai-coniit  of  rajas. 

There  folhAVs  a  list  of  some  kings,  and  afterwards  a  list  of  towns  ; 
but  after  sect.  5  the  correspondence  of  papers,  with  the  index  of  con- 
tents i<i  obscure,  and  doubt Tul.  With  the  exception  of  sect.  10,  pro- 
mining  "  an  account  of  the  war  of  Chengi  kings  with  the  Moguls,'* 
which  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  book,  1  do  not  perceive  any  other  loss 
to  occasion  much  regret.  Generally  speaking,  however,  it  is  a  pity 
that  the  collection  has  siifl\;red  so  much  injury. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  6— Countermark  872. 

Section   I.     Account   of  Syed-yakuh    of  ^futtur•Chennapa^nam,    in 
Mvsore. 

A  reference  to  somo  Mahomi^dan  affairs  150  years  since,  in  the  time 
of  Aurungzebe,  or  Alemi^uir,  and  minor  paltry  details  of  inter-marriages, 
•ubsequently  :  the  whole  entirely  won  hi  ess. 

Section  2.  Details  of  merchandize  in  the  Ekri-iagur,  district  of 
Bidanur. 

Monfy;  weights;  measures;  provisions;  ordinary  commodities,  &c. 
without  any  utility,  as  regards  the  present  enquiry. 

Section  3.     Account  of  agriculture  in  the  district  of  Chandra -gudi. 

This,  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  ia  a  document  that  might  be 
deemed  curious,  or  interesting;  but  irrelevant  to  my  object. 

Four  other  sections  follow,  concerning  betel  and  areeanut  gardens» 
weights,  coins,  &c.  In  the  English  heading,  a  notice  of  yedartf  or 
hiinterS)  is  mentioned;  but  is  nut  to  be  found  in  the  book  itself.    At 


36  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripti.  [Jult 

the  close  the  writer  states  that  some  things,  which  he  had   forwarded, 
were  erront'ous ;  jiiomising  to  send  a  better  account  another  day. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  eiiiire  coiitenis  of  this  bt.ek    Nu.  6,   seem   to  be 
destitute  of  any  periuaiient  value,  it  is  therefore  lel't  as  it  was  found. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  8— Countermark  874. 

(Some  sections  in  the  Cauarese  hmguage). 

Section  5,     Account  of  Chitra-durga  (orChittledroog)  with  the  genea- 
logy of  its  feu'lal  chirfiains. 

Legcndiirv  oiiirin,  ro-eval  with  the  times  of  Cri  kfta,  and  the  five  Paw- 
davat,     S4i!>sequ»'uily  it  was  n  waste,  or  wilderness,  for  \7'24  years.     In 
Sal.  Sa".  1   7'  (A   0.1350),  Timnia-ita  a-nayakf  ^md  homage  here.     In 
th«»  time  of  JVara'nha,  there  was  war  with  the  Bayer  of  njajanayaram^ 
A  lhou<«an(l  ./'>' uca.v  (here   mi-anin;^' '\r;ihs)    were   engaged  as     stipen- 
diaries  in  the  war.     'Ihere  f illnvi  de:ai's  <if  suby.^qucnt  chiefs,  and  their 
Wars.     At  Ifugth  a  M  ihoine  lau,  n  ni  d  Ca/iut  Khan,  took    the  fort.     A 
Klahiattii  chief  (iiove  aviay  tht>  M  ih.Mih-d.tn  :  an<l,  afier  re-instating  the 
hinnu  chiefiain,  rrhirn^'d   to    Poin-ili.     Various    minor  details    follow, 
down  to  ihe  iim»'  of  Hv  Icr  Nayak,  who  to^-k  liie  fort ;  logethor  with  other 
phiccs;  the  doing  which  bitiUj^hi  on  a  war   with  the  Matiratlas,    and  an 
invasion  of  Serin^apatani.     In  the  various  aTaiis,  connected    with    the 
Mhhrattas,  mention  of  ihe  English  occurs.     Tiie   paper  comes  down   to 
the  assault  of  Serin^^  tpi'-uin,   by   the   MahratUs;    and  then   abruptly 
breaks  ufT. 

NoTK.— Tlie  pre:'eding  document  as  regard**  the  writing,  and  the  mate- 
rial writien  on,  which  is  verw  inferior  Frenrh  paper,  mi^ht  be  allowed 
to  remain  ;  but  several  of  the  h'aves  are  loose  and  the  pre3'?rvation  of  the 
whole,  in  this  "itaie,  cannot  be  d«*ppnlod  upon.  On  the  whole  therefore 
I  have  judiio  I  it  my  duty  to  have  the  document  restored;  seeing  that 
must  of  the  details  are  historical. 

Section  6.     Account  of  Springapatam. 

A  legend  of  the  formation  of  a  fane,  on  the  site  of  the  town.  Rama 
tubseqnently  visited  it,  and  ya'»(fc/r/^/</,  the  riahi^  resided  there;  whe 
was  mnrh  anno\ed,  bv  the  ft'cding  of  the  river  taking  away  his  hermit- 
fige.  /i'a7//a  reiuoved  I  lie  unpleasantness,  by  conmianding  the  river  to 
coniinne  restricted  w  ithin  certain  bounds.  Sica-sancara  was  a  ruler 
at  this  place  ;  cunceruiug  whom,  and  some  wars  with  his  ueighbourty 
there  are  some  details.    The  foundation  of  Talrad  is  mentioned.    The 


183!)]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manwcripts.  37 

Peiiihwa  of  the  M.ihrattas  drove  away  the  chief  of  this  place,  who  escap- 
ed on  liorspback,  mi^l  nMreatc  I  to  the  woo<U.  Subsequeutly  (he  rule  of 
Srirangha  ra'foiu  (broilier  of  Trntnaraju  of  Pewiaco'tda)  is  stated.  The 
iiHiiie  oi  Sriranghatn  Meeni'*  to  luv**  originated  from  liim.  He  went  to 
T'a/ca//,  an(i  dl«"l  there.  The  nil*;  of  a  lord,  without  specification  of 
proper  name,  \»  advi-rled  to,  who  fnuo  led  the  Cham'tnla  fine.  The  sub- 
sequent dynasty  of  native  kings.  The  MHliPinedm  usurpation  was  set 
aside  by  the  English ;  who  re-estiiblishcd  ilie  ttiruier  dynasty. 

Remark. — The  commencenient  of  the  document  is  mere  legend  j  but 
afterwards  there  i^*  matter  of  more  value.     As  the  paper  on  which  it  is 

written  is  loose,  and  the  ink  pale,  I  have  had  it  restored.  From  the  in- 
tervention of  the  M-thrattiis,  down  to  the  close,  there  would  seem  to  bo 
matter  that  might  merit  trauslaiion. 

Section  7,     List  of  kings  of  the  Surya-vamsa. 

The  legend  of  Sacara'Capila-mimi,  and  Bhagirat''ha^  is  given,  with 
a  few  niiMies  of  the  solir  line,  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  therewith 
the  Mahratta  dynasty  of  Poonah.  A  few  names  of  kings  of  other,  com- 
paralivi  ly  modern,  races  are  nnconnectedly  added.  The  document  is 
brief,  and  very  roughly  written,  wi»h  pale  ink.  On  the  whole  I  have  judged 
it  expedient  to  prestirve  a  fair  copy, 

Sec'ion  8.     L'^gen  I  of  the  fane  at  Harikara  in  Mysore. 

Nair:i!e>l  by  /urara,  to  Dherma-raja.  It  relates  to  a  special  bathing 
p^ae,  in  rhe  Tanyabftadra  river;  and  a  legendary  tale  is  connected 
th*^  wnh.  The  language  is  jiartly  Mahratti,  and  partly  Sanscrit  sloeas, 
in  the  Mahratti  character.  Both  as  regards  writing,  and  paper,  it  is  la 
good  preservation. 

Section  9.     Genealogy  of  the  chieftains  of  YaJuha-nhd  in  Mysore. 

Seven  per-^ons,  being  relatives,  emigrated  from  the  Canchi  district 
and  located  them^ehes  in  Mysore,  in  places  specified.  The  foundation 
of  the  fane  of  nra-hhadra  in  Sal.  Sac.  13H0,  is  ascribed  to  a  vision. 
The  "hi  f,  ruling  over  a  dintrict  yielding  ten  thousand  rupees  revenue, 
went  jint  f«  nght  aj;ainst  Juni-bangalUr,  and  took  the  country.  Being 
troubled  in  mind,  he  rode  out  on  horsebick  for  exercise ;  and,  coming  to 
a  wild  placrt,  siw  a  hire  and  log  playing  together;  induced  by  which 
favijurable  omen,  he  had  a  fort  built  on  that  place,  to  which  the  name  o 
Bangalur  was  given.  He  fought  with  Sanca-nayak  and  took  his  coun- 
try. His  successor  built  several  fanes.  A  list  of  descendants  appears. 
The  Mahomedaus  made  an  imiptiuD|  and  captured  the  countiY  \  W\i^* 


3d  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  [JuLir 

established  this  crhief.  Some  other  fluctuations  of  power  are  narrated. 
Marriage  relations  with  Mysore.  The  usurpation  ofHyder.  This  chief 
thereupon  retreated  to  Pawjanur, 

Remark. — This  document  seems  to  be  locally  of  some  historical 
Value.     It  is  ill  good  preservation. 

Section  10.     Account  of  the  fane  at  Malluri  in  the  Mysore  country. 

Reference  to  ascetics,  and  their  liermitages ;  in  the  midst  of  Curumbar 
people.  One  of  the  ascetics  discovered  treasure  in  the  earth,  and  made 
known  his  discovery  to  a  chief,  who  came  and  saw  it.  The  result  was 
the  building  of  a  fane.  At  a  suhspqn«mt  period  the  Rayers  of  Fijaya' 
ftarraram  built  many 'other  sacred  edifices  ;  especially  an  agraharam  for 
Brahmans  at  Srmjeri, 

Remark. — This  paper  has  a  mixture  of  fact  and  legend.  It  is  in 
moilerately  good  preservation. 

Svcfion  II.     Narrative  of  Fg/ia^/Vf,  a  Z/w^orf^art. 

This  is  merely  an  account  given,  by  the  said  person,  of  his  family  ori* 
gin  from  Afia:fuud\ ;  emigration  thence  to  the  Mysore  country;  practice 
of  medicine;  support  derived  from  Hyder  Ali ;  and  subsequent  loss  of 
livelihood.  It  is  contained  in  two  pages,  of  very  rough  hand>writing  ; 
and  is  of  no  value. 

Section  12.     Account  of  Balla-hakfapur, 

Reference  to  an  enjigration  of  brothers  from  Canchif  to  the  neigh* 
bourhood  of  Talcad,  in  fu>ly  y4S.  Tiiree  boxes  came  down  the  streamy 
containing  images ;  and  a  vision  of  these  gods  pointed  to  hidden  trea* 
sure,  with  which  a  fnne,  a  fort,  iVc.  were  ctmstiucted.  An  incursion  of 
Mahomedans,  who  captured  the  fort.  Intervention  of  Mahrattas.  Af* 
fairs  of  Tippu  Sultan.  His  treaty  with  the  Mahrattas.  Details  of  the 
war  of  the  English  against  Tippu  ;  ending  in  his  overthrow,  and  the  re- 
establish in  en  I  of  the  former  Mysore  sovereignty. 

Remark. — A  former  paper  occurred  on  this  same  subject;  but  notqiiite 
so  full.  This  document  being  written  on  thin  China  paper,  of  which 
the  sheets  are  become  loose,  and  one  lost,  it  seemed  expedient  to  copy 
•  ut  the  whole  in  a  more  penuanent  form. 

Section   13.     Account  of  the  Cannes  of  BaUwhakiapur, 

This  statement  of  revenue  districts  is  connected  with  the  foregoinvi 
and,  being  in  like  condition,  has  been   added  to  the   restored  copr  | 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  39 

though  were  it  found  alone  and  unconnected,  it  would  not  have  heen 
deemed  of  importance. 


Section  14.     Account  of  the   kings  of  Kaladi  metropolis  in  Birlanur, 
(hodie  Killudee). 

Copy  of  a  record  in  the  hands  of  a  person  menfinned.  Anciently  the 
country  was  a  wilderness.  The  founder  of  the  dyn:i<»ry  was  a  lo^al  chief, 
ruling  in  a  town  called  ACh'tjar-aagara^  which  the  ruler  at  Jnayuwfi 
hearing  of,  sent  fur  him  in  Sill.  Sal.  1422,  (\.  D.  1500)  and  formally 
installed  him,  as  a  feudatory  chief.  He  huilt  a  fort  in  the  pla'^e  where 
he  had  before  dwelt ;  and  governed  for  13  years,  and  seven  mtmths.  His 
son  was  Sada- sira-nn-  afc,  who  ruled  13  years  ;  and  his  son,  Dada-sarapa' 
nayak,  ruled  seven  years  and  one  mouth.  In  all  sixteen  descents  are  spe- 
cified ;  occupying  263  years.  Some  mention  occurs  of  their  proceedings, 
in  reference  to  their  neighhoure,  and  their  benefactions  to  fanes  and 
Brahmans.  (The  above  period  would  come  down  to  17^3  A.  D.).  It  is 
added  that  Hyder  Ali,  acting  under  the  orders  of  Cnshfiaraja-udiyar^ 
king  of  Mysore,  about  that  time  captured  this  fort ;  together  with  others, 
"which  are  mentioned  in  the  neighbourhood. 

So  much  is  contained  in  one  part  of  the  document :  another  part  is  to 
the  following  purport. 

The  place  was  anciently  a  wilderness.  One  Basavapa,  a  merchant, 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  family  ;  and,  together  with  his  wife,  was  very 
munificent.  They  had  two  sons.  A  sort  of  power  was  exercised  by  him, 
and  his  sons.  A  vision,  in  the  shape  of  a  Brahmun,  directed  them  tea 
place  where  a  symbol  of  Siva  tixed  by  Rama^  was  to  be  found.  Subse- 
quently a  serpent,  under  a  tree,  directed  them  to  buried  treasure,  in* 
structing  them  to  build  therewith,  a  town  and  residence. 

A  reference  is  also  made  to  the  foundation  of  the  Rayer  dynasty  :  the 
means  of  doing  whi^h  is  ascribed  to  a  momentary  shower  of  gold,  sent 
down  by  Virupacshaf  a  form  of  Sam,  By  that  means  the  celebrated 
monasterium  of  Sringeri  w<is  founded  ;  and  other  munificent  donatives 
were  bestowed.  The  Mahomcdans  afterwards  conquered  the  country  ; 
and  placed  therein  a  descendant  of  the  formei  family,  as  their  tributary. 

Section  15.     Account  of  Seringapatam. 

Legendary  matter  as  to  the  formation  of  a  shrine.  Mention  of  some 
local  chiefs,  and  pc^riods  of  their  reign ;  and  statement  of  their  donatives 
given.  Interference  of  the  Peishwa  power;  of  Hyder  Ali;  Tippu 
Sultan.  Tliese  matters  are  intermingled  with  panegyrics  of  the  rulers^ 
at  different  periods. 


^0  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuseriptt.  [JvtT 

Section  16,     Account  of  Rdnt-rajagata. 

The  situation  is  about  12  coss  westward  of  ChUra-durga  (or  Chittle- 
droog)  and  was  the  siie  of  a  local  chieftain's  power.  Some  details  of 
his  family,  and  (heir  proceedings  are  given  ;  but  the  paper  is  a  fragment 
of  only  four  pages,  and  what  is  contained  is  only  of  tuoderate  importance. 

NoTF. — The  three  papers  from  section  14  to  16  inclusive,  are  written 
on  strong  Europe  paper  not  d.imagpd:  wiih  ink  only  a  little  fiided.  It 
is  my  Inif'ntion  to  aitach  these  to  a  Canare^e  document,  in  like  preserva- 
tion, at  'h'»  bcgirniincr  of  ihe  book  ;  and  then  all  the  loose  papers  fol- 
lowing will  be  of  no  further  coiis  quence;  htvingbeen,  with  only  one 
slight  exception,  restored  in  a  permanent  form. 

Incident  at  Jnagundl, 

A  writing  of  two  pages,  on  damaged  and  fragile  paper,  not  noticed  in 
the  table  of  contents  prefixed  to  the  book,  was  found  pr^fixtvl  lo  section 
12.  It  contains  the  same  narrative  as  ih.it  in  MS.  b.K>k,  No.  9  Coun. 
termark  875,  sec.  2  (Vide  4!h  Report)  but  soiiie«hat  fuller,  and  as 
bringing  connected  circumstaui^es  down  to  th^  period  of  a  reference  lo 
Madras.  It  has  been  re-copied,  immediately  after  the  document  in  sec- 
tion  13.  The  Mahratti  portion  of  ihiii  book  has  now  been  abstracted; 
and,  for  the  greater  part  of  it  (as  was  urgently  needed),  permanently 
restored. 

Manuscript  book.  No.  37 — Countermark  791. 

Ancient  record  of  the  Chacranertis  and  Yadava  rajas* 

The  contents  of  this  book  resemble  those  of  MS.  B.  No.   45  (Vide  2d 

Report).     It  is  a  distinct  statement  on  the  same  subject ;  that  is  chiefly 

the  Yadava  line  of  princes.     It  should,  I  think,  be  also  fully  translated. 

The  volume  is  a  thin  quarto  with  very  little  written  on  each   page.     It 

is  well  bound,  and  otherwise  in  perfect  preservation. 


D.— SANSCRIT. 

Palm*leaf  manuscripts. 

I .    Sifpi'fostram  No.  94 — Countermark  256,    Grant* ha  character* 

This  is  a  treatise  generally  on  every  hranch  of  the  art  termed  SUtn' 
9(utram.    It  refers  to  the  plans,  and  arrangement,  of  fanes  for  idol  wor- 


1839]  ItqDort  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuteripts,  41 

ship;  to  the  construction  of  towns,  &  included  buildings ;  to  the  formation 
of  images  of  every  kin  1,  intended  for  the  purposes  of  homage,  or  worship. 
With  these  matters  much  of  astrology  is  mingled  ;  as  to  ihe  configura- 
tions of  planets;  their  effects  on  particular  days,  and  the  proper  timeg 
to  he  chosen  for  commencing,  and  carrying  forward,  any  work  :  if  these 
directions  are  not  observed,  loss  and  damage  will  follow.  There  are  also 
formularies  prescribed  to  be  used,  on  the  above  several  occasions. 

This  manuscript  of  63  palm-leaves  is  of  recent  appearance  ;  slightly 
touched  by  insects  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  in  good  preservation. 


2.     SiIpi-s<uttram,^o.  95— Countermark  257  ( Gran/* Aa  character). 
In  this  manuscript  two  different  works  are  contained. 

1.  The  first  is  a  little  old, in  appearance  ;  and  treats  of  the  workman- 
ship of  images,  whether  made  of  earth,  of  wood,  of  stone,  or  brass,  &c. 
Particular  directions  are  given,  as  to  the  choice  of  wood  ;  if  that  mate- 
rial be  employed.  Astrological  times,  and  observances,  are  connected 
with  these  formations.  The  work  then  proceeds  to  treat  of  the  forma- 
tion of  towns,  and  villages  ;  and  states  the  eight  kind  of  substances 
which  are  required  towards  the  formation  of  images,  in  fixing  them 
aright;  these  are  termed  ashta-bandanam.  This  last  subject  is  contain* 
ed  in  a  single  leaf. 

2.  The  other  work  is  of  recent  appearance  ;  and  contains  various 
meditations  on  the  qualities,  or  attributes,  of  different  ideal  deities.  These 
are  Brahma^  Viahnu,  Rudra^  Maheivara^  SivUt  Maheevari,  Caumarif 
Faralii,  Mahendrij  Chamundi^  A$tra-deva  (a  form  of  Siva) t  Chocapa^ 
Vikenesvara.  These  meditations  consist  of  reflections  on  the  visible 
attributes,  hands,  arms,  weapons,  &c.,  with  which  the  images  of  those 
idealities  are  usually  represented  ;  and  which  have  an  allegorical  mean- 
ing, though  not  usually  known,  or  attended  to. 

There  are  furthersome  details  of  attributes  of  Brahm,  or  the  Supreme ; 
these  being  properly  what  are  termed  perfections,  and  without  visible 
symbols. 

The  meditation  of  Nandif  the  vehicle  of  Siva  and  bis  Sacti  ;  of  Maha^ 
Cali'Saati ;  and  of  Bhairava,  Meditation  concerning  the  door  of  the 
fane  ;  its  security  ;  and  its  porters,  or  warders ;  its  steps  ;  its  bolt.  The 
mantra  on  opening  the  said  door,  and  similar  details  : 

These  matters  are  curious,  and  give  an  idea  of  the  minutiflc  connected 
with  idol  service,  not  usually  met  with,  in  other  kinds  of  books. 


42  Rfport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [JuLT 

3.     Siipi'Saetra  (firanVha  character),  No.  96 — Countermark  258. 

This  is  a  very  small  book,  in  twelve  half  sized  palin-leaves;  complete, 
and  in  good  order,  its  subject  is  the  observation  of  the  nac^hetra,  and 
other  astrological  formula,  requisite  to  be  observed,  before  beginning  the 
architectural  construction  of  fanes,  towers,  images,  cars,  and  any  large 
buildings.  The  different  aspects  of  the  planets  ;  the  rulers  of  special 
times,  and  seasons  ;  their  fricnd6hip,or  enmity:  these,  and  similar  things, 
are  all  to  be  carefully  observed,  and  compared,  bt'fore  the  commencement 
of  any  work ;  so  that  bad  times  may  be  avoided,  and  good  ones  chosen. 
Note. — The  foregoing  three  MSS.  arc  entcr^'d  in  the  Des.  Catal. 
vol.  1,  p.  261  art.  I,  as  Tamil  works;  but  they  also  seem  to  have  an 
entry  under  the  head  of  Sanscrit  works  in  p.  131    and  132. 


4.    Silpi'SOifra  (Telugu  character).    No.    114 — Countermark    491. 

This  is  a  rather  old  book,  and  incomplele  ;  both  in  the  middle,  and 
at  the  end.  The  contents  are  multifarious  ;  but  all  relate  to  the  one 
leading  subject  only  of  the  formation  of  images.  These  images,  whe- 
ther formed  of  brass,  wood,  or  clay,  have  ditlerent  observations,  astrolo- 
gical, and  otherwise,  connected  with  them.  Certain  tokens  are  given 
&8  to  the  cutting  of  wood  ;  .shewing  what  ought  to  be  rejected,  and  what 
chosen.  Different  kinds  of  earth,  and  of  diffi-n-nt  colours,  are  to  be 
Belected  for  images  of  diff*erent  deities,  as  most  suitable.  The  baking  of 
earthen  images  in  kilns,  and  the  proper  time  of  taking  them  out,  are 
described.  The  whole  of  the  details  are  too  minute  to  be  specified  in  an 
abstract.  The  author's  name  is  Peddanachari,  The  subject  is  more  than 
a  mere  matter  of  curiosity  :  it  is  however  one  on  which  it  is  not  necessary 
that  I  should  enlarge. 

Note. — This  manuscript  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  357,  art. 
V,  as  a  Telugu  work  :  and  it  also  appears  as  Sanscrit,  Telugu  character, 
at  p.  132,  art.  vi. 


Conclusion, 
The  fifth  section  of  ray  general  report  here  finishes. 
Madras:  September '60th  1838. 


1839]  Essay  on    Telugu  Literaturw.  43 

II. — Essay  on  Ihe  Langtrage  and   Literature    of  the    T$lvgus,-^By 
Charles  P.  Brown,  Esq.  of  the  Madras  Civil  Service, 

The  morals  and  happiness  of  a  people  must  always  be  primarily  af- 
fected by  the  state  of  literature  among  them;  and  when  we  find  a  na- 
tion possessed,  like  the  Telugus,  of  an  ancient  and  extensive  literature, 
constantly  perused,  and  therefore  constanily  acting  upon  their  condition, 
the  nature  and  extent  of  that  literature  becomes  a  question  of  interest. 
For  in  ari^uing  with  one  of  another  nation,  we  shall  always  find  it  pro- 
fitable to  know  what  has  been  the  education  pursued  among  those  whom 
we  perhaps  wish  to  instruct.  Happily  for  the  Telugus  a  strong  desire 
to  know  English  is  daily  gaining  strength  among  them,  though  it  is 
hiilierio  studic  1  not  by  one  in  a  tliousand.  But  the  w^orks  honoured 
among  them,  as  written  by  their  favourite  bards,  are  as  likely  to  last,  as 
those  of  Shakspeare  and  Milton  among  ourselves.  Aw  outline  of  their 
most  popular  poems  may  be  useful  to  the  foreigner,  as  guiding  his  judg- 
ment: t>fi<'n  liable  to  error  on  account  of  the  crude  and  partial  state- 
ments 01. illy  given  us  by  Telugus  regarding  their  own  literal uie.  It  will 
be  perceivtil  ili.u  I  liive  been  led  to  form  a  low  opinion  of  some  favourite 
works,  pariicul.irly  in  the  philological  class  :  and  have  pointed  outapath 
whi'h  I  hope  N\  ill  prove  more  short  and  agreeable  than  that  which  many* 
learned  Dram  ins  may  advise. 

1.  Telugu  or  reutigu,  also  called  A'n^lhra  (and  by  Musulmans  Te- 
linga  or  TaiiiMga),is  the  language  ofa  Hindu  nation  filling  a  semi-circle, 
of  which  Rajahmundry  may  be  assumed  as  the  centre,  while  the  radius 
extends  to  Madras.  Trilinga  and  IVailinga  are  modern  pedantic  names 
unknown  to  the  ancient  authors. 

2.  The  Telugu  language  borrows  largely  from  Sanscrit  and,  in  collo- 
quial use,  from  Hindustani— yet  it  is  an  original  tongue,  and  he  that  is 
already  acquainted  with  Sanscrit,  with  Hindustani,  or  any  other  lan- 
guage, may  yet  find  himself  unable  to  understand  poetry,  correspondence 
or  conversation  in  Telugu. 

3.  The  alphabet  used  shews  that  Telugu  originated  in  the  Carnataca 
(Cannada  or  Canarese)  language,  spoktn  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula: 
the  ancient  Telugu  princes  are  spoken  of  as  Carnataca  Doralu  :  but  in 
modern  days  the  two  languages  are  as  diflerent  as  Welsh  and  English. 
The  Telugu  alphabet  resembles  that  of  no  language  except  Carnataca. 

4.  All  Sanscrit  literature  in  this  part  of  India  is  preserved  in  the 
Telugu  character:  in  which  as  in  the  other  alphabets  of  Southern  India, 
Sanscrit  is  written  with  perfect ea^^e.  Indeed  we  here  rarely  meet  with 
any  Sanscrit  volume  in  any  other  character.    The  pronuuciatiou  of  San- 


44  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature,  [  Jclt 

scrit  among  the  Telugus  corresponds  with  the  purest  pronunciation  used 
at  Benares. 

5.  The  Telugus  frequently  advert  to  the  idea  that  Sanscrit  is  the 
mother  of  their  language,  just  as  in  older  times  we  used  to  look  upon 
Latin  as  the  source  of  English.  This  notion  very  naturally  arises  from 
their  ancient  grammars  being  written  in  Sanscrit,  and  constructed  on 
Sanscrit  principles.  Yet  Sanscrit  is  far  from  beini^  generally  cultivated: 
perhaps  among  the  educated  classes  one  third  of  the  Telugus  can  read 
the  vernacular  poets  :  and  of  that  third  not  one  in  twenty  has  ever  been 
instructed  in  the  Sanscrit  literature.  Indeed  Telugu  poetry  though 
thickly  interspersed  with  Sanscrit  words  is  unintelligible  (as  is  Telugu 
conversation  also),  to  many  a  foreigner;  as  for  instance,  a  Tamil  or  Ca- 
uarese  Bramin:  notwithstanding^  his  command  of  Sanscrit  literature  he 
may  remain  unable  to  read  or  even  to  pronounce  Telugu.  Others  assert 
that  at  least  Telugu /joe/ry  originates  in  Sanscrit.  This  is  easily  dis- 
proved. In  orthography  all  the  laws  of  permutation  and  elision  are  wide- 
ly different :  and  every  law  of  the  Telugu  prosody  is  totally  dissimilar 
to  Sanscrit,  although  five  or  six  metres  (out  of  some  hundreds)  have 
been  imitated  from  that  language. 

6.  The  circle  which  has  been  mentioned  does  not  include  all  those 
parts  of  the  Indian  peninsula  where  the  language  is  spoken:  for  the 
Telugus  have  emigrated  to  various  parts  of  Southern  India,  thus  a  know- 
ledge of  this  language  will  be  available  in  the  Tamil  districts,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  neighbourhood  of  Madras.  We  find  however  no  signs 
of  emigration  into  the  Telugu  di^^lricts  :  the  tyranny  of  the  Musulman 
rulers  of  Telingana  in  former  days  is  generally  referred  to  as  accounting 
for  this  fact. 

7.  Christianity  has  hitherto  made  a  scarcely  perceptible  beginning 
among  the  Telugus:  the  bulk  of  whom  are  Hindus,  of  the  two  bramini- 
cal  sects  called  Vaishnavite  and  Saivite  ;  and  of  the  Jangaraas  who  look 
upon  the  others  as  mere  idolators :  while  they  themselves  worship 
the  symbol  of  I'swara  suspended  in  a  reliquary  on  their  breasts.  These 
three  sects  are  perhaps  equal  in  numerical  strength,  if  among  the  Sai- 
vites  we  reckon  the  Smartas  who  arc  a  sort  of  free-thinkers. 

8.  The  Musulmans  are  widely  spread  through  the  country  but  are  in 
a  degraded  state;  ihey  continue  to  talk  Hindustani,  but  few  can  write  it ; 
indeed  they  are  so  illiterate  that  their  accounts  and  correspondence  ge- 
nerally are  in  the  Telugu  writing  of  a  Bramin:  they  have  sunk  into  a 
menial  condition  and  their  language  has  disappeared  from  the  records 
e?en  of  Government,  excepting  a  few  departments  wherein  the  law  re- 
quires the  Persian  character. 


1839]  Essay  on   Telugu  Literature,  45 

9.  But  under  their  dominion  which  lasted  about  a  century  and  a  half 
Telugu  literature  fell  very  low,  and  has  only  gradually  revived  under 
the  British  Government.  Yet  no  part  of  the  ancient  and  favourite  vo- 
lumes has  perished,  and  a  great  fondness  for  their  popular  poems  has 
been  in  recent  days  the  motive  of  continual  publications  that  issue  from 
the  presses  at  Madras. 

10.  When  we  first  read  their  poems  we  are  led  to  suppose  that  the 
dialect  used  is  entirely  different  from  that  we  daily  speak  and  write. 
But  a  little  advance  in  knowledtre  will  shew  us  that  the  polished  dialect 
of  Telugu  used  in  the  poets  deviates  no  more  from  the  spoken  dialect, 
than  the  language  of  Milton,  Pope,  and  Byron  difTors  from  the  English 
we  speak  and  wiite.  My  attention  was  first  railed  to  this  fact  from  ob- 
serving, many  years  ago,  that  a  well  educated  Telugu,  fluent  in  colloquial 
English,  was  wholly  unable  to  read  a  page  of  Marmion.  Now  the  Bhas- 
cara  Satacam,  a  common  school  book,  written  in  flowing  verse,  and  ea- 
sily understood  by  boys  and  girls  is  parallel  in  style  to  the  writings  of 
Walter  Scott,  or  Sad i  in  Persian;  yet  perhaps  the  reader  of  this  page 
never  met  with  three  Englishmen  who  had  read  tliat  easy  school  book. 
Let  us  not  then  call  poetical  Telugu  difficult  merely  because  we  have 
not  studied  it. 

11.  From  the  hannony  of  this  language  some  have  called  it  the 
Italian  of  India;  doubtless  in  the  poems,  and  in  the  pronunciation 
of  retired  villages,  it  is  very  melodious;  but  like  Italian  it  has  many  a 
rough  and  coarse  dialect:  and  the  Telugu  used  in  our  courts  of  justice 
is  a  strange  jargon  in  which  English  and  Persian  phrases  are  thickly  in- 
terspersed, forming  a  jumble  that  may  be  difficult  to  an  Englishman  who 
othervvise  may  be  a  good  proficient  in  the  language.  In  another 
very  important  respect  it  resembles  Italian ;  for  no  part  of  the  lan- 
guage, not  even  in  the  oldest  poems,  has  become  obsolete.  And  to 
a  beginner  we  could  not  recommend  an  easier  volume  than  the 
Prabhu  Linga  Llla,  which  is  supposed  to  be  about  seven  hundred  years 
old.  Some  attribute  it  to  a  more  remote  age:  but  it  certainly  was  writ- 
ten before  the  Musulmans  invaded  the  country. 

12.  The  Telngus  themselves  think  that  the  dialect  used  in  the 
northern  (or  what  they  themselves  call  the  eastern)  part  of  the  country, 
is  remarkably  elegant;  and  the  worst  dialect  is  that  spoken  at  Madras. 
A  foreigner  may  be  excused  for  perceiving  little  difference:  it  appears 
to  be  evervwhere  equally  corrupted  with  Hindustani  and  English  phra- 
ses. Nay  some  of  the  modem  poets  (witness  the  tale  of  Bobbili,  and 
the  Bhalira  Cari  Velpa  Satacam)  are  full  of  foreign  words.    Indeed  the 


46  Essay  on  Telugu  Liter aturit  [Jult 

colloqaial  Telugu  is  just  as  corrupt  as   English  was  in  1700  when  every 
speech  was  interlarded  villi  French  or  Spanish. 

Yet  I  am  far  from  denying  the  utility  of  the  Hindustani  dialect:  as 
we  may  denominate  the  mixed  Telugu.  There  are  many  convenient 
English  and  Hindustani  words  in  every-day  use,  which  do  not  admit  of 
intettigible  translation  into  Telugu.  The  number  of  these  doubtless  will 
increase  (not  unprofitably)  in  time:  I  would  only  deprecate  the  exces- 
sive use  of  this  slipshod  jargon. 

13.  If  we  wish  to  learn  the  language  completely,  to  have  any  degree 
of  ease  in  speaking  or  accuracy  in  writing,  we  must  devote  some  time  and 
labour  to  reading  -a  few  of  the  easiest  and  most  popular  poems.*  Indeed 
common  consideration  will  shew  us  that  foreigners  who  study  a  language 
must  of  necessity  learn  it  in  the  poets  :  because  this  is  the  easiest  as 
well  as  the  securest  path.  Wliat  should  we  think  of  the  English  acquire- 
ments of  a  foreigner  who  could  read  neither  Goldsmith  norCowper? 
should  we  condemn  him  for  wasting  his  hour?»,  if  he  devoted  himself  to 
studying  those  authors  (though  popularity  may  have  rendered  them  vul- 
gar) who  among  us  have  attained  classical  rank  ? 

14.  In  the  literature  of  the  Andhras  three  bright  ajras  are  generally 
pointed  out  :  the  first,  that  of  Nannaya  Bhatta  and  Bliimana  ;  coeval 
with  the  writers  of  the  three  earliest  Jangama  poems.  The  next  (assigned 
to  A.  D.  1200)  is  that  of  Ti^cana  Somayaji  and  about  two  centuries  later 
was  the  brightest  noon  of  lparning,illuminated  by  Bhattu  Murti  and  other 
bards  who  are  emphatically  called  the  **  gems."  From  the  want  of  dates 
in  Telugii  literature  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  prec  isely  the  ccra  at 
which  these  writers  flourished;  but  it  would  seem  that  their  illustrious 
patron  Krishna  Rayalu  died  in  the  year  H5jR,  of  the  Christian  sera  : 
corresponding  with  year  1387  of  the  oera  of  Salivahana.t 

•  Such  as  Votnana.'the  Saranga  Dhara  Dwipada,  the  Vijaya  Vilasam  and  the  Antruddha- 
Charitra,  which  one  vrill  be  able  to  read  after  perusing  a  frw  common  trials  such  as  he  can 
borrow  from  any  criminal  couit.  He  may  then  proceed  to  the  Mahabharat.  Yet  I  look 
upon  the  Lila  as  sufiiciont :  it  is  not  more  dilHcult  in  style  than  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  : 
in  sweetness  and  jmrity  of  diction  it  equals  Theocritus:  but  its  popularity  among  the 
Jan<?amas  is  looked  upon  with  an  eril  eye  by  the  Vaishnavites  and  Saivites  who  hold  it 
heretical.  In  point  of  morals  it  is  far  purer  than  the  works  which  they  consider  sacred, 
and  1  know  no  Telugu  book  so  agreeable  or  profitable  to  a  beginner.  An  edition  and 
translation  of  this  will  I  hope  soon  be  prepared.  The  Nala  Catha  Dwipada  is  also  an 
excellent  book  for  a  beginner. 

+  This  date  is  preserved  in  the  following  couplet : — 
Araya  Sulivahana  sac  abdaniul,  apri  "vj  A(1ni  .somv  lun 
Tarana  vatsaramhuna  ni  dai^hadinamhnna,  Chaitra  sucla  sash 
ThT,  Ravi  vasarambuna,  Nti—  sirahani  Krishnudu  chere  swargam.     A' 
Dwaracan  unna  Krishn'a  yava  tara  Samaptamu  chendu  caivad'in' 


1839]  Es9ay  on  Telugu  Literalurs,  47 

15.  Before  proceeding  to  further  details  it  may  be  worth  while  to 
describe  the  state  of  the  national  taste,  among  the  learned  and  the  less 
literate.  The  few  Bramins  who  cultivate  Sanscrit  learning  generally 
study  grammar,  a  few  of  the  works  on  divinity,  metaphysics,  law  and 
logic:  also  some  portion  of  the  poetical  and  theatrical  writers.  To  read 
through  a  poem  is  thouglit  quite  superfluous,  and  those  who  assert  their 
complete  mastery  of  the  Magba,  the  Ramayan,  and  other  leading  clas- 
sics, seldom  can  prove  that  ttiey  have  perused  more  than  a  few  chapters 
in  each. 

16.  Another  class  devote  their  attention  to  Telugu  learning  and  ac- 
quire a  good  mastery  of  the  Vasu  Charitra,  Manu  Charitra,  Vishnu 
Chittiyam,  and  other  poems  of  celebrity.  Even  among  these  scholars  the 
grammar  of  (heir  language  is  as  little  cared  for  as  English  grammar  is 
among  the  English.  They  talk  of  their  native  philologists  with  enthu- 
siasm; but  the  celebrated  p;ranii!.ar  written  by  Ntmnaya  Bhatta,  has, 
with  all  his  commentators  nearly  fallen  into  oblivion:  perhaps  not 
twenty  men  can  at  the  present  day  be  produced  throughout  Telingana 
who  can  prove  their  acquaintance  with  it. 

17.  The  pedantry  of  their  treatises  on  prosody  has  led  to  similar 
disuse.  The  Siva  Andhra  is,  like  its  Sanscrit  model  the  Amara  Cosha, 
very  widely  taught : — about  one  quarter  of  the  Cosha  is  taught  to  nearly 
every  school-boy.  He  also  commits  a  few  moral  stanzas  to  memory, 
and  is  taught  writing  and  arithmetic.  This  usually  terminates  his  edu- 
cation, and  hundreds  even  of  clerks  in  our  public  offices  have  but 
this  limited  instruction. 

18.  We  often  hear  the  Puranas  and  the  Ramayan  spoken  of  along  with 
the  Vedas  as  being  the  scriptures  of  India  ;  but  they  are  very  little  stu- 
died. I  may  here  mewtion  that  oniy  three  Vedas  exist  ;  each  Bramin's 
progenitors  professed  one  of  these  three;  and  no  man  would  even  admit 
the  other  two  into  his  house ;  as  mutual  hatred  is  the  only  remaining 
trace  of  braminical  zeal.  The  Jangamas  alone  profess  to  obey  the  Vedas 
and  Calpas  (or  systems),  and  even  these  sectarians  have  entirely  renounc- 
ed the  ri/wa/ portion  of  these  laws.  They  reject  all  the  puranas  and 
the  Ramayan  itself,  and  are  therefore  held  in  theological  hatred  by  the 
Bramins. 

In  thii  it  is  distinctly  stateil  that  king  Krishna  Rayal  died  in  the  Salirahana  year  IMff : 
the  year  being  denoted  in  the  usual  ingenious  mode  by  four  words  '•  mountains,  ele* 
phauU,  fires  and  Moon— i.  e..  seven,  eight,  thiee  and  one,  which  figures  being  rerersed 
give  the  ajra.  This  mode  of  numerical  nototion  has  been  fully  explained  in  an  essay  on 
the  subject,  written,  if  I  recollect  right,  by  Mr.  Piinsep  of  Calcutta.  The  date 
assigned  in  the  table  framed  by  Colonel  Mackeniic  (which  is  printed  In  the  IntroductU 
on  to  Mr.  Campbell's  Telugu  Grammar),  is  six  yean  earlier ;  or,  A.  D.  14&8. 


48  Eisay  on  Telugu  Literature.  [Jolt 

19.  The  Ramayan  is  more  generally  in  vogue  than  any  other  sacred 
legend,  and  has  been  repeatedly  translatpd  into  Telugu.  The  version 
written  in  couplets  (dvvipada)  by  Rau:^i  Nat  ha  is  an  especial  fiivourite, 
and  when  we  see  circles  of  Hindus  passing  the  evening  sitting  in  the 
moonlight  to  hear  a  volome  chanted  and  explained  for  their  amusement^ 
we  shall  generally  find  it  is  this  "  tale  divine.**  But  they  irrationally 
look  upon  the  meaning  as  very  generally  superfluous,  and  think  with  the 
Musulman  and  the  Catholic  that  if  they  cannot  understand  a  good  book, 
they  at  least  have  the  merit  of  reading  or  listening  to  it. 

20.  The  version  in  stanzas  (padya)  bears  the  name  of  Bhascara ;  who 
was  assisted  by  other  poets.  The  style  is  very  poetical,  but  being,  like 
the  Mahabharat,  written  in  the  Sanscrit  dialect  of  Telugu  (resembling 
Johnson*s  and  Parr's  Latinized  English)  is  sometimes  above  the  compre- 
hension of  common  persons :  and  accordingly  I  think  this  version  is 
much  more  applauded  thin  read.  All  these  versions  are  greatly  abridg- 
ed from  the  Sanscrit  original. 

21.  Another  abridged  version  of  the  Ramayan  is  written  in  very  flow* 
ing  Telugu  verse  by  the  poetess  MoUi,  who  was  the  daughter  of  a  pot- 
ter— another  called  the  Niroshtha  (or,  non  labial)  Ramayan,  is  a  pedan- 
tic composition :  a  mere  feat  of  ingenuity,  and  merits  little  notice.  I 
mention  it  (as  well  as  several  other  books  in  the  present  pages)  to  warn 
the  reader  of  ihe  real  value  of  puerile  compositions  whi«h  among  Bra- 
mins  have  attained  an  undeserved  celebrity.  In  this  absurd  poem,  the 
very  name  of  the  hero  (Rama)  is  excluded  because  the  letter  M  is  labial, 
and  the  poet  chooses  to  write  without  using  (p,  ph,  b,  bh,  m)  a  single 
labial  letter. 

22.  The  Ramabhyudayn,  another  poem  on  the  same  popular  theme 
(by  Rama  Bhadraya)  belongs  to  an  early  age;  it  is  always  spoken  of 
with  high  applause,  but  manuscripts  of  it  are  rare:  in  fact  I  never  saw 
but  one  copy  which  I  obtained  from  Vizagapatam.  The  Uttara  Ra- 
mayan has  been  elegantly  translated  by  Canacanti  Papa  Raz,  who  also 
wrote  a  pleasing  poem  called  the  Vishnu  M^ya  Vilasam.  The  Adh vat- 
ma  Ramayan  again  is  a  separate  poem   written  in  an  inflated   (utpr^xa) 

style,  and  is  little  read. 

23.  The  Telugu  version  of  the  Mahabharat  also  enjoys  a  deserved 
popularity  as  the  great  standard  of  the  language :  indeed  the  verse 
flows  as  pure  and  sweet  as  that  of  Pope  or  Dryden  in  their  happiest 
translations.  In  this,  it  is  contrasted  with  the  Bhagavat,  the  Telugu 
version  of  which  (like  Pitt's  version  of  Virgil),  is  more  faithful  but  is 
unpopular,  being  considered  (zabbu)  mean  or  unpoetical  in  style.  The 
Bharata,  if  printed  in  the  same  manner,  would  extend  to  nearly  the  size 


1839]  Es9(iy  on  Telugu  LUeraturt.  4^ 

of  Shakspeare*s  plays :  being  about  twice  as  long  as  either  the  Bhaga- 
▼at  or  Ramayan.*  It  is  considerably  abridged  from  the  Sanscrit  original} 
many  hundred  verses  being  often  condensed  into  a  paragraph,  written  in 
prose :  indeed  prose  is  interspersed  in  all  the  Telugu  legends  and  poemSy 
but  no  where  so  profusely  as  in  the  Bharata.  The  first  three  parvamst 
or  books  were  composed  by  Nannaya  Bhatta  and  his  associate  Erra  Pre- 
gada.  The  remaining  fifteen  parts  are  the  composition  of  Ticcana 
Somayazi :  these  authors  unitedly  are  emphatically  called  (Cavi  Trayam) 
the  three  bards. 

24.  The  text  of  the  Mahabharat  has  unavoidably  been  much  corrupted, 
in  the  course  of  >  ears :  an'l  the  Adi  Parvam,  or  first  book,  being  a  com- 
mon school  book,  has  suffered  more  than  the  rest.  The  whole  has  now 
been  revised  and  the  devious  readings  found  in  difTerent  manuscripts 
have  been  recorded;  on  this  foundation  a  new  edition  is  now  in  progress, 
and  the  first  book  is  in  the  press. 

In  this  ancient  version  of  the  Mahabharat  some  episodes  are  omit- 
ted :  being  too  sacred  to  be  translated.  These  are,  the  Bhagavat  Gita  (a 
portion  of  the  Bhishma  Parva  or  sixth  book),  the  Vishnu  Sahasranama, 
the  Bhishma  Stava  Rajam,  and  the  Anusmriti.  The  first  of  these,  the 
Gita,  has  in  later  times  been  translated  into  Telugu  under  the  usual 
title  Krishna  Arjuna  Samvadam. 

*  It  contains  a  little  more  than  33.000  padyams  or  stansas  (the  prose  being  reckoned 
aa  rerae),  of  four  lines  in  each. 

^  The  eighteen  books  are  in  the  Telugu  rersion  divided  into  tixty  three  (asrasa)  can- 
tos. The  books  are  never  mentioned  in  numerical  order,  but  by  certain  names :  thus 
the  third  book  of  Homer  was  originally  called  the  Might  of  Diomede.  The  eighteea 
names  are  1  Adi  Parvam,  2  Sabha  P..  3  Aranya  P.  or  Vana  P..  4  Virata  P.,  5  Udyoga  P., 
6  Bhishma  P..  7  Diona  P..  8  Cama  P. .  9  Salya  P.,  10  Sauptica  P.,  11  Stri  P.  IS  Santi  P..  18 
Annsisanlca  P.,  14  Aswam§dha  P..  15  A's'ramavasa  P..  16  Mdsala,  17  Maha  Prasthinfca 
P.,  and.  18  Swargi  rdhana  Parram.  To  recollect  these  names  it  may  be  osefiil  to  ha?t 
the  following  ludo  lines  : — 

Adi  Sabh  Aranyaraque  VirSt  Udyogaque,   quinqae: 

Bhishmas  Dro  Car  Salyaque  Sauptica,  (pr»lia  quinqae). 

Stri,  Saupt  atque  Anu«as;  Asv',  A'srama  (quindecimum  fit). 

Mdsala  Prasth&nic  et  Swargam,  Bharata  complent. 
The  names  of  the  divisions  or  books  in  the  Ramayan  ara  denominated  Canda.    That 
Bata  Canda  is  the  phrase  for  the  first  book  of  the  Ramayan.    The  names  may  be  thus 
ivcollected— the  seventh  being  the  Uttara  Ramayan,  or  supplement. 

1  Bilas,  2  Ayddhya  Canda,  et3  Arany^m.  4  Cishkindhftque  : 

5  Sundara,  6  Yuddh*  atque  7  Uttara,  sunt  Rameide  septem. 

The  books  of  the  Bhagavat  again  are  called  by  numerical  names ;  so  that  a  Tolame  sa* 
perscribed  **  Dasamam"  would  in  English  phrase  be  **  the  tenth  book  of  the  Sri  Bhaga- 
rat :"  and  "  Uttara  Dasamam'*  denotes  *'  the  second  part"  of  the  tame  book.  I  notiot 
these  because  (like  the  **  Ashtamam**)  they  often  occur  in  lists  of  Saascrit  Ubrarits* 
the  name  **  Bhagavat"  being  omitted. 


50  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature,  [July 

25.  Next  in  popularity  is  the  Telugu  version  of  the  Bhagavat:*  of 
which  the  tenth  book  (Dasamam)  describing  the  life  of  Krishna,  is 
eagerly  perused  ;  yet  even  in  tbis  th«^ir  knowledge  is  very  slight.  Two 
or  three  favourite  legends  (as  the  Rucmini  Ciilyanam  and  Gajendra 
Moxam)  with  the  (Jalacrida  or  Krishna  Lila),  sports  of  Krishna  with 
the  naiads,  are  in  general  use — other  parts  of  the  Bhagavat  that  teach  a 
mysterious  and  incomprehensible  sort  of  philosophy  are  likewise 
popular:  but  we  rarely  find  any  Telugu  who  pretends  to  understand 
what  he  so  devoutlv  reads. 

■ 

26.  We  may  here  remark  that  the  Telugu  translators  take  liberties 
(more  than  poetical)  with  their  originals,  for  they  consider  a  general 
outline  quite  sufficient  to  form  a  copy:  thus  they  omit,  transpose  and  in- 
sert, whatever  they  })lease.  In  the  life  of  Krishna,  not  only  has  the 
translator  (Bammera  Potu  Raz)  amplified  the  passages  regarding  love 
and  beauty,  but  has  omitted  and  transposed,  what  he  pleased.  He  has  even 
gone  further  and  changed  the  story  in  some  places,  giving  statements 
which  are  not  found  in  the  Sanscrit  original.  Besides  (possibly  wishing 
to  conceal  these  deviations),  the  Telugu  translators  in  all  books  set  aside 
the  numerical  order  of  the  Sanscrit,  melting  down  ten  or  twelve 
(adhyaya)  chapters  into  one  (asvasa)  book  or  canto.  Thus  it  is  not  easy 
to  trace  in  the  original  any  passage  regarding  which  comparison  may  be 
required. 

27.  The  Padma  Puranf  has  been  translated  into  beautiful  Telugu 
verse  by  Venuelacanti  Surapa  Raz  :  he  also  translated  the  Vishnu  Puran; 
wherein  the  seventh  (aswasam)  book  describing  the  life  of  Krishna,  cer- 
tainly has  much  merit  though  it  repeatedly  exhibits  passages  stoleu 
from  the  poet  who  wrote  the  Telugu  Bhagavat,  just  as  that  poet  evi- 
dently had  stolen  much  from  the  Prabhu  Linga  Lila. 

28.  We  scarcely  need  stop  to  mention  the  other  works  of  this  nature, 
which  are  little  read ;  such  as  the  Curma  Puran,   the   Marcandeya    Pu- 


•  The  word  BhagaceU  has  led  to  errors  :  used  in  various  combinations  it  denotes  va- 
rious volumes.  The  Bhagavad  Oita  is  a  portiou,  as  has  now  l>eeQ  noticed,  of  th« 
Mahabharat.  The  history  of  Krishna  is  usually  denominated  8ri  Dhigavat.  to  discri- 
minate it  from  the  Devi  BhSgavnt,  a  separate  and  heretical  work,  wherein  Ridha  (an 
apocryphal  goddess)  is  exalted  into  the  supreme  power  as  the  Bona  Dea.  And  in  its 
fourth  sense  the  word  denotes  a  comedy,  regarding  the  deeds  of  Krishna  ;  being  found- 
ed on  the  tales  recorded  in  the  Sri  Bhagavat.  Thus  the  Gita  is  on  divinity  ;  the  next  is 
the  legend  of  Krishna  or  Apollo  :  the  third  is  the  fable  of  Radha  or  Venus,  and  the 
fourth  is  a  miscellaneous  entertainment. 

i  Turf  nam,  or  chronicle  denotes  a  fable,  or  poem  like  Ovid's  Metamoiphoses  :  de- 
-scribing  the  four  ages  of  the  world,  called  Crita,  Treta,  Dwapara  and  Call ;  or,  gold,  aiU 
Ttr,  brazen,  and  iron. 


1839]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature.  dl 

ran,  and  the  Skanda ;  wherein  the  Kasikhand  was  loosely  written  in 
Telugu  by  Sri  Natha,  and  varioui  other  portions  are  the  work  of  inferior 
poets. — All   these  are  written  in   the  Sanscrit  dialect. 

29.    The  remaining  Puranas  have  not  been  translated  :  indeed  it  will 
be  seen   tliat  most  of  the  poets  have  chosen  themes  in  favour  of  the 
Vishnu  sect ;  thus  the  puranas   that  honour   Siva  have  fallen  into  dis« 
repute,   and  those  which  inculcate  magic  are  looked  upon  with  abhor- 
rence. 

oO.  Some  other  books  are  denominated  puranas,  which  are  either 
heretical,  apocryphal,  or  fictitious.  All  these  are  very  popular — one  is 
the  Canyaca  Putrin,  another  the  Visvacarma  Puran,  while  the  Basava 
Puran  and  Mari  Basava  Puran  are  ancient,  and  have  for  many  ages  been 
eagerly  read  among  the  Jangamas.  In  the  same  class  (though  they 
would  rather  merit  the  name  of  poems)  are  usually  placed  the  Raghava 
Pandavyam,  written  by  Suranna,  an<l  the  Jaimini  Bharata  composed  by 
Chiuua  Viranna  :  this  book  is  sometimes  called  <*  pancha  dabbu"  or 
•*  mere  fiction,*'  It  is  greatly  admired  by  the  learned  :  the  people  how- 
ever care  little  for  poems,  however  beautiful,  as  the  perusal  is  mere 
self  gratifioation,  and  dues  not  convey  that  religious  merit  which  is 
throughout  the  puranas  assigned  to  such  as  read  their  silly  and  dis- 
gusting legends. 

31.  The  two  books  now  named  are,  like  the  Puranas,  braminical 
works  :  but  the  Basava  Puran  and  others  named  with  it  are  strongly  dis- 
liked by  the  Bramins  ;  nor  without  reason  :  for  one  great  end  of  the 
pauranica  legends  is  to  exdt  the  Bramins  into  gods:*  and  these  books 
deny  them  that  pre-eminence.  Every  portion  indeed  of  Hindu  literature 
is  thoroughly  amalgamated  with  their  religion,  and  the  authors  of  even 
the  most  lascivious  poems  always  begin  their  works  with  expressions 
extolling  the  particular  creed  to  which  the  poet  belongs.  Thus  we  find 
even  a  dictionary  dedicated  to  Siva  and  using  his  name  as  the  chorus 
of  every  memorial  stanza  :  an  artifice  met  by  a  Vishnavite  philologist ; 
who  stole  the  verses  and  appended  the  name  of  his  patron  idol. 

32.  We  have  thus  completed  an  outline  of  the  Lbobnds  ;  and  before 
proceeding  to  describe  the  popular  Poems,  which  are  very  numerous,  it 
will  be  requisite  to  give  an  account  of  the  Philologists  :  who  are  the 
guides  of  poets,  and  are  guided  by  the  authors  already  described.  This 
unattractive  theme  may  be  rather  tedious ;  but  it  is  essential  to  the  com- 

•  Philip  Skelton,  in  his  Deitm  Revealed^  1751  p.  207  olMorres  '*  It  wu  Mlf-sufficieney 
made  the  devil  aspiie  to  independency  :  he  thought  himself  too  wise,  too  gT^t,  and 
glorious  a  being,  to  be  any  thing  less  tlian  God.  He  said  *  I  will  exalt  my  throne  above 
the  sUts  of  God :  I  wUl  be  like  the  most  high.*  '* 


52  Bisay  on  Telugu  Literature.  [July 

fort  of  the  student :  who  is  often  advised  by  his  native  tutors  (as  I  was) 
to  study  some  obscure  treatises  which  ultimately  prove  quite  unprofita- 
ble. Indeed  so  absurd  is  tlie  native  course  of  tuition  that  I  have  known  . 
some  docile  Englishmen  who  have  imprinted  on  their  memories  the  most 
abstruse  Sanscrit  canons  of  the  ancient  Telugu  grammarians  ;  and  yet 
remained  unable  to  construe  a  common  poem  such  as  many  a  half  edu- 
cated native  reads  for  amusement.  1  look  back  with  regret  to  the  period 
I  passed  in  studying  the  Telugu  treatises  on  grammar  and  etymology, 
being  fully  convinced  that  half  that  time  and  less  than  half  that  labour, 
had  it  been  devoted  to  the  Telugu  classics,  would  have  been  much 
more  profitable.  The  result  to  which  experience  led  me  being  diarae- 
trically  opposed  to  the  opinions  held  by  ordinary  native  teachers,  it  is 
requisite  to  poii.t  out  the  true  value  of  the  critics  whom  they  so  highly 
honour. — Nor  is  that  honour  undeserved.  I  only  plead  exemption  from 
a  fruitless  study  ou  behalf  of  the  foreigner. 

33.  The  oldest  and  most  venerated  critic  (his  chief  predecessors  having 
perished),  is  Nannaya  Bhatla,  already  mentioned  as  the  translator  of  the 
A'di  Parvam :  who  is  believed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century  of 
the  Christian  aen.  This  celebrated  author  compiled  a  brief  grammar  of  the 
language,  entitled  A*ndhra*  Sabda  Chintamani  which  is  written  in  San- 
scrit verse  :  just  as  Wall  is  composed  his  grammar  of  English  in  Latin, 
because  in  discussing  one  language  it  is  always  convenient  to  make  use 
•f  another. 

34.  It  would  be  easy  to  point  out  many  important  subjects  which  the 
learned  author  passes  over  in  silence :  and  I  allnde  to  these  deficiencies 
to  caution  the  English  reader  against  expecting  much  aid  from  this  ob- 
scure though  standard  work,  which  native  scholars  who  rarely  examine 
for  themselves  will  declare  to  be  in  all  respects  complete. 

35.  Bala  Sarasvati,  the  oldest  commentator  on  these  dicta,  wrote  in 
Telugu  J  his  work  if  printed  would  be  about  the  size  of  Valpy's  Latin 
Grammar.  Of  course  he  discusses  no  subjects  beyond  those  given  in 
his  text.  Many  assert  that  the  commentator  was  a  pupil  of  the  ancient 
grammarian  himself. 

86.  After  translating  and  closely  examining  this  work  some  years 
ago  I  perceived  that  it  is  not  a  grammar  ;  but  a  mere  essay  on  disputed 
points.  The  principles  of  elision  and  permutation  of  letters  are  amply 
discussed:  but  the  verb  is  summed  up  in  a  few  obscure  verses,  and  the 

*  A'ndhra  it  the  Sanscrit  name  for  Telugu,  just  as  Gallia  was  the  Roman  name  for 
France.  In  the  Lawg  of  Menu  (chap.  x.  36,),  the  Audhraa  (dudhras,  not  findhraa)  are 
mentioned  as  a  savage  tribe  :  and  perhaps  were  the  aborigines.  The  absurd  name  Gen- 
tuo,  formerly  used  among  th«  English  for  Telugu,  is  now  pretty  nearly  forgotten. 


1839]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature.  0<f 

syntax  is  scarcely  noticed.  Now  in  a  grammar  formed  on  European 
priDci|)le8,  the  Telugu  syntax  would  611  much  more  room  than  here  is 
given  to  the  entire  grammar  even  inchiding  the  Telugu  commentary. 
And  even  in  this  brief  treatise  more  than  half  is  devoted  to  questions  of 
etymology,  which  according  to  European  arrangements  ought  to  be 
placed  not  in  a  grammar  but  in  a  dictionary,  or  in  a  separate  treatise. 

37.  The  next  philological  work,  in  point  of  age,  is  the  Telugu  pro- 
sody composed  by  Bhimana  (Andhra  Chhandam)  or  rather  in  his  name 
by  his  son  Mallaya  Re9a.  This  is  a  pedantic  treatise  full  of  magic  and 
mysticism. 

38.  We  may  here  advert  to  the  Adharvana  Carica  ;  a  work  which  is 
mentioned  by  Nannaya  Bhatta.  Of  this  work,entitled  Vaicriti*  Vivecam, 
cmly  fragments  remain  which  are  found  scattered  through  the  writings  of 
Abobala  Paudit  and  other  critics.  They  are  so  obscure  that  the  most 
sagacious  grammarians  of  modem  days  look  upon  them  as  miintelligible 
without  the  aid  of  a  commentary. 

39.  Some  ages  after  these  critics  there  lived  Appa  Cavi ;  whose 
writings,  otherwise  very  valuable,  are  infected  with  the  pedantry  of  his 
day.  He  undertook  to  frame  a  commentf  in  metre  (in  eight  books)  on 
the  writings  of  Nannaya — but  his  style  was  voluminous,  and  he  finished 
little  more  than  five  books  ;  wherein  he  treated  only  of  etymology  and 
prosody.  These  two  subjects  he  has  entirely  exhausted,  but  unhappily 
has  superadded  a  farrago  of  unprofitable  rules  regarding  magic  and  omens 
which  fill  more  than  half  his  work. 

40.  Appa  Cavi  is  the  first  author  who  mentions  the  strange  notion 
that  the  name  **  Telugu"  is  corrupted  from  **  Trilinga.*'|  If  Nannaya, 
Ranga  Natha,  Ticcana  Somayazi,  and  other  leading  poets,  were  ignor- 


*  Vaicriti  sifj^ifies  Peculiar  (vic&ram)  or  tecondarff :  a  phrase  used  by  seme  philologists 
for  Telugu  ;  distinguishing  it  from  Sanscrit,  or  the  perfected  language,  and  Pracrit  or 
the  unculticaled  dialects. — See  Wilson's  remarks  on  the  Vayu  Furan,  in  Asiatic  Journal, 
1834.  page  806. 

-t-  The  title  is  Andhra  Prayoga  Ratnacaram,  or  Ocean  of  Instances.  The  various 
words  for  *'  sea"  are  used  in  the  titles  of  books  just  as  we  use  the  word  system,  or  view. 

t  I  am  well  aware  that  the  word  Trilinga  occurs  in  the  Amara  Cosha,  regarding  gender, 
9»  also  in  the  Bramhottara  Khandam  chapter  xvi :  but  there  it  is  applied  not  to  language 
or  country,  but  to  the  tripundracam,  or  triple  line  drawn  by  Saivites  across  the  fore- 
head. The  citation  from  Adharvana  Chari  in  support  of  the  word  Trilinga,  as  a  name  of 
the  language,  possibly  is  apocryphal :  for  this  writer  preceded  Nannaya  who  does  not 
mention  the  word  Trilinga.  In  the  citation  from  the  Dipica  (See  Ellis's  note  in  Camp- 
bell's Orammar  Introduction,  page  2,  and  also  page  13)  I  observe  that  Trilinga  is  given  as 
the  root  of  Telugu  and  Tenugu :  but  to  these  is  added  Telungu  :  a  reading  that  does  not 
appear  in  the  Dipica. 


44  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature.  [JoLr 

ant  of  this  pedantic  wliim  (equally  unknown  even  now  to  the  nation  at 
large),  surely  we  are  justified  in  n*jeo(ing  it  as  absurd. 

41.  In    etymology  Appa  Cavi  disci iiniiiates  Telugu  words    into  four 
classes,  called  I.Tatsama,  ll.Tadbliava,  III.  Dosya,  IV.  Gramya.  lomit 
otber  refinements:  but  these  four  phrases  so  wften  occur  that  they  call 
for  remark.    I.  Tatsama  **  equivalent"  denotes,  **  altered"  from  Sanscrit : 
thus  carmnm  an  act  becomes   carmamu.    Sivnca   becomes   Sevacudu,  a 
servant  and  Haja  a  king,  liazu.  Thus  in  Ejjglish  we  derive  capital  from 
capiialis,  puet  from  poeta,  nation  from  naiio,  temple  from   templum,  cir- 
cle from  circulns,   ration  from  ratio,   tradition   from  traditio.     These  of 
course  are  distinct  from  Sanscrit  words  used  in  an  unaltered  form,  such  as 
cavi  a  poef,  or    stri  a  woman — like  doctor,  tutor,  and  so  forth  in  English. 
II.  Tadbhava  *•  proceeding"  denotes  much  altered  :  thus  samudrah,{he  ne^f 
becomes  sandram^  yatra,pilgrimage,  becomes zatra;  thus  from  the  Pracrita 
word  pavdlof  coral,  is  formed  pavadani :   from  canso,  bell   metal,  comes 
can9u.     Thus  in  English  we  change  ratio  into  reason,  salio  into  season : 
traditio  into  treason  and  moneta  into  money.     III.  Desya,  or  primitive 
Telugu  words,  such  as  gurrAm  a  horse,  cannu  an  eye,  illu  a  house,  and  so 
forth ;  which  like  the  corresponding  English   words   are  primeval   and 
cannot  be  traced  to  any  root.     A  subdivision  of  this  class  is  Anyadesya, 
or  local.     Thus  the  words  polali,  toyyali,  melatix,  and  many  other  words 
for   woman;  rautu  a  soldier,   reddi  a  farmer,    gid.la  a  bullock,    muduca 
old,  bittari  beauty,  biitali  naked,  and  many  more  ;  some  of  which  are 
supposed  to  be  Tamil  and  others  are  Canada:  just  as  we  consider  some 
of  our  words  English,  others  Scutch,  and  others  Irish.    IV.  Gramya,    or 
barbarisms*    including  all  Hindustani  and  other  corruptions. 

42.  Appa  Cavi's  work  may  indeed  be  valuable  as  a  guide  in  forming 
accurate  ideas  on  the  themes  he  discusses.  But  it  seems  to  have  deter- 
red many  (at  least  such  is  the  general  belief)  from  poetical  composition: 
as  according  to  this  Aristarchus  it  is  almost  impossible  to  write  cor- 
rectly. But  they  may  observe  that  he  is  not  iufillible:  for  after  defining 
all  that  is  of  good  and  evil  omen  to  the  poet,  he  has  left  his  own  work 
less  than  half  completed. 

43.  The  next  grammarian  to  be  spoken  of  is  Ahobula  Pandit,  author 
of  the  Cavi  iSiro  Bhushanam,  a  voluminous   commentary  wriilcn  in  San- 


son this  subject  the  following  observation  occurs  in  Rees's  CyclopoHlia,  under  this 
•word.  •*  Barbarism  is  often  charged  with  great  justice  on  modern  writers  in  the  learu'* 
*'  ed  languages  :  the  Latin  books  of  late  ages  are  full  of  Anglicisms.  Gallicisms  and  tht 
"  like.*  But  what  shall  we  say  to  those  who  accuse  evon  Ciceio  himself  of  iMtrbarisnu 
"  in  his  own  language  ?"  Thus  Appa  Cavi  declares  the  exordium  of  the  Telugu  Naishad- 
ham  to  cuutain  (gramya)  barlMirisms. 


1839]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature,  55 

scrit  on  the  Sutras  of  Nunnaya.  This  work  is  of  modern  date,  written 
(as  the  author's  descendants  inform  me),  about  the  middle  of  the  hist 
century.  It  is  very  pedantic  ;  strives  to  deduce  every  Telugu  rule  from 
a  distorted  Sanscrit  ruh», and  after  a  verbose  preface,  on  every  subject  that 
could  be  introduced,  fails  to  solve  real  ditlicultie?.  For  instance  ;  it  is 
well  known  that  the  great  stumbling  block  in  Telugu  is  regarding  the 
classes  of  words  denominated  Cala  and  Drula.  On  this  topic  (quite  as 
ahstnise  as  the  rule  regarding  the  Greek  accents),  the  author  gives  up 
the  discussion  :  merely  reiterating  what  Bala  Saraswati  had  stated,  and 
not  even  adducing  a  new  instance  in  proof. 

44.  The  treatises  which  have  been  mentioned  are  generally  denomi- 
nated after  their  authors.  Thus  the  Appa  Caviyam,  Ahobala  Panditi- 
yam  and  Nannaya  Bhattiyam.  Those  to  be  next  mentioned  have  sepa- 
rate titles.  All  the  more  ancient  of  these  will  be  disposed  of  in  a  very 
few  words. 

45.  Indeed  none  of  these  books  have  risen  to  much  celebrity  :  the 
Aiulhra  Caumudi  is  a  Telugu  grammar,  apparently  as  ancient  as  the 
Bhattiyam,  but  framed  wholly  on  Sanscrit  principles;  just  as  the  anti- 
quated English  grammars  were  on  a  Latin  mode.  'Jliere  are  also  seve- 
ral vocabularies,  imitated  from  the  Amara  Cosha,  as  has  been  already  no- 
ticed ;  being  the  Siva  Andhram  ;  and  its  rival  the  Vishnu  Andhram.  The 
A'ndhra  Ratnacaram,  the  Andhra  Bhasb  Amavam  (now  about  to  be 
printed),  an<l  many  more. 

46.  There  are  various  treatises  on  Telugu  prosody,  such  as  the  differ- 
ent Chhandams  named  after  Hanumanta,  after  Marri,  and  after  A'nanda 
Ranga  Raz  (also  called  Laxan'a  Chudaman*i);  the  Laxan'a  Dipica, 
Laxan'a  Rajiyam.  and  several  more.  All  these  works  and  others  on 
etymology  have  fallen  into  comparative  oblivion:  though  it  is  possible 
a  few  may  merit  publication. 

47.  The  last  work  to  be  described  is  one  that  deserves  honourable 
mention  being  the  Telugu  dictionary  compiled  by  Mamadi  Vencaya, 
a  learned  merchant  (comati)  of  Masulipatam  ;  who  died  in  1816.  This 
work  is  arranged  alphabetically,  in  the  European  method,  and  every 
word  found  in  the  ancient  lexicons  {but  no  more)  is  briefly  explained  in 
Telugu  or  Sanscrit.  This  work  will  always  be  of  value  to  those  who 
study  the  poets.     The  title  is  Andhra  DipicA. 

48.  In  one  important  point  the  arrangement  is  defective  ;  and  for  my 
own  use  I  was  obliged  to  re-arrange  the  whole  dictionary  to  remedy 
this  evil.  In  Telugu  the  four  initials  of  each  varga  or  class  (K,  kh,  G, 
gh  ;  also  ch,  chh,  J,  jh  :  also  T,  th,  D,  dh,  and  P,  ph,  B,  bh,)  are 
changeable  :  so  that  many  thousand  Telugu  words  (Sanscrit  words  arc 


56  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature*  [JuLS 

independant  of  this  peculiarity)  change  the  initial  T  into  D,  or  P  into 
B  &c.  Thus  we  meet  with  the  word  zoccam,  elegance  :  and  are  told  to 
search  for  it  under  90ccam  :  thus  g&-jeyuta,  to  accomplish,  must  be 
souglit  under  ca  not  gk  :  indeed  a  learned  native  assistant  when  asked 
will  often  reply  that  either  initial  is  good.  After  some  years  I  perceiv- 
ed that  the  evil  lay  in  separating  letters  that  were  originally  one.  Ac- 
cordingly I  caused  the  new  arrangement  to  be  made,  which  at  once  re- 
medied the  evil  :  thus  each  of  these  sets  of  letters  (k,  kh,  g,  gb,  for 
instance),  now  forms  but  one  alphabet,  just  as  I  and  J  used  to  be  ming« 
led  in  the  English  dictionaries.  The  approbation  it  has  received  from 
sound  scholars  leads  me  to  believe  that  the  new  arrangement  is  such  as 
necessity  called  for.  It  certainly  much  facilitates  the  task  of  finding  an 
article  when  required.  The  principle  of  softening  initial  consonants 
is  found  in  Welsh,  in  Gaelic,  in  Irish,  and  in  other  languages  of  the  Cel- 
tic school.  Thus  words  beginning  with  K,  ch,  T  anl  P  may  substitute 
G,  J,  D,  and  B.  It  is  curious  to  trace  the  same  principle  in  languages  so 
far  removed  fr(»m  each  other. 

49.  Besides,  Mamadi  Vencaya  has  diminished  the  utility  of  his  lexi- 
con by  giving  into  some  foolish  rules  of  spelling  that  are  very  dear  to  the 
dulness  of  modern  days.  If  these  doctrines  be  right,  then  all  the  and' 
ent  manuscripts  of  all  the  poets  are  wrong.  I  will  briefly  mention  these 
rules,  that  the  reader  may  understand  their  true  value,  when  they  are 
urged  on  his  attention  by  Telugu  pedants. 

50.  The  letter  R  has  two  forms,  the  Telugu  form  and  the  Canarese 
form  :  which  differ  from  one  another  in  shape,  but  not  perceptibly  in 
sound  ;  just  as  the  small  **  i***  in  the  obsolete  Saxon  alphabet  differs  in 
shape  from  the  Roman  letter  r  which  we  now  use.  Those  few  Telugu 
poets  who  wrote  in  the  earliest  ages  used  one  form  in  some  words  and 
the  other  form  in  other  words  :  stating  that  these  two  could  not  rhyme 
together.  In  sound,  perhaps  one  differed  from  the  other  in  old  days, 
just  as  much  as  the  aspirated  and  unaspirated  Rho  did  in  Greek.  Or  like 
the  two  sounds  of  R  used  in  Hindustani.  Yet  even  in  those  days  usage 
evidently  was  various  and  it  is  clear  that  the  Jangama  bards  coeval  with 
Nannaya  admitted  no  such  canon.  But  in  the  third  or  golden  age  of 
Telugu  literature  (before  Appa  Cavi  appeared),  this  distinction  had  pe- 
rished :  and  (unless  in  the  commentators)  we  find  no  traces  of  it  in  the 
Vasu  Charitra,  the  Parujat  Apaharanam,  the  Vishnu  Chittiyam,  the 
Vijaya  Vilasam,  or  the  Manu  Charitra  :  names  which  in  Telugu  litera- 
ture rival  the  poems  of  Pope  and  Dryden,  Goldsmith  and  Scott  among 
ourselves.  Now  if  we  determine  that  words  which  the  Saxons  wrote 
with  their  peculiar  R  cannot  in  English  rhyme  to  similar  words   bor- 


1839}  Essay  on-  Telugu  Literature.  57 

rowed  from  Latin,  we  may  easily  fram«  a  rule  according  to  which  Pope 
and  Dryden  should  be  proved  illiterate.  If  we  then  proceeded  to  Btuff 
ihe  English  dictionary  ad  libitum  with  the  Saxon  R  surely  we  should 
render  it  unintelligible  to  the  common  reader;  and  this  is  precisely  what 
^ppa  Cavi  has  done.  Mamadi  Vencaya  has  without  good  reason  bowed 
to  his  decision.  As  I  have  iJreadv  hinted,  this  rule  deviates  from  the 
spelling  used  in  all  the  existing  manus^-ripts  of  all  the  poets.  It  cannot 
then  deserve  to  be  revived  after  falliiig  into  merited  oblivion.  Among 
the  Canarese  it  is  still  in  use,  but  among  the  Telugus  it  is  so  utterly 
forgotten- that  its  shape  is  now  given  to  the  capital  vowel  U^  and  we 
«hall  rarely  meet  with  a  Telugu  who  can  read  words  written  with  R  in 
this  obsolete  form ;  which  is  called  bandi  repha. 

51.  This  forgotten  letter  has  not  appeared  in  any  modern  editions  of 
the  Telugu  poets,  though  a  pains-taking  Telugu  news-paper  editor  oc- 
casionally treats  his  readers  to  words  written  in  the  obsolete  mode. 

52.  A  minor  inconvenience  of  the  Andhra  Dipica  (likewise  caused 
by  AppaCavi's  refined  rules)  arises  from  the  use  of  the  semicircle,  de- 
noting the  (arddh  anuswaram)  nasiil  sound.  Thus  the  words  tCdeiUf  a 
'wolf,  enfi</u  an  elephant,  vddu  he^  SivudUf  BrofiUianudut  &o.t  are  spelt 
tondelu,  enungii,  vamlu,  Sivundu,  Bramhanundu,  and  so  forth.  Now  this 
spelling  is  peculiar  to  poems,  wherein  the  character  used  is  ihe  circle^ 
not  the  semicircle  :  and  in  modern  days,  this  semi-nasal  has  been  dis- 
used*  In  common  talking  we  shall  often  find  illiterate  Telugus  pre- 
serve the  antique  nasal  twang,  just  as  the  rustic  English  often  do. 
But  the  educated  classes  have  laid  aside  this  disagreeable  sound  :  and 
pedants  blame  them  for  this  innovation. 

53.  Mamadi  Vencaya,  likewise  uses  the  marks  1  and  2  to  denote  the 
hard  and  soft  sounds  of  cha  and  Ja  (i.  e.  9a  and  za)  but  this  is  quite  su- 
perfluous :  as  all  who  have  learnt  the  mode  of  reading  the  Telugu  al- 
phabet are  already  independent  of  these  signs. 

54.  I  have  given  these  details  regarding  Mamadi  Vencaya's  lexi- 
con out  of  a  respect  for  the  talents  and  diligence  of  the  writer  :  which 
are  peculiarly  honourable  to  a  man  who  was  by  birth  and  situation  a 
shopkeeper  at  Masulipatam.  He  previously  compiled  a  valuable  San^ 
acrit  and  Telugu  lexicon  called  the  Sabd  Artha  Calpa  Taru,  which  has 
been  used  in  the  admirable  Sanscri:  dictionary  by  professor  Wilson. 
But  we  shall  always  find  this  unprinted  dictionary  useful  as  giving  Te- 
lugu synonymes  for  Sanscrit  compressions. 

55.  Its  arrangement,  imitated  from  the  M^diniCdsha,  is  inconvenient 
to  the  beginner.  The  words  are  classed  according  to  their Jinal  sylla- 
ble :*  then  according  to  the  number  of  syllables,  and  lastly  according  to 

•  At  i»doii9  in  Hoogeveen's  Greek  lexicon,  and  in  tke  Arabian  lexicon  named  Kamu«. 


58  Es9ay  on  Telugu  Literature,  [July 

the  initial  :  so  in  looking  for"  Vaitaliya"  we  must  turn  to  letter Y,  un- 
der which  are  the  successive  classes  containing  words  of  one,  two,  three, 
and  four  syllables.  This  last  being  traced,  the  rest  of  the  arrangement 
is  alphabetical ;  on  the  European  mode. 

56.  The  latest  philological  work  compiled  in  Telugu  was  the  unfi- 
nished treatise  written  by  Patahbi  Ramaya  Sastri  :  an  account  of  which 
is  given  in  the  Introduction  to  Mr.  Campbell's  grammar.  It  evidently  i^ 
a  work  of  curiosity  and  of  value  to  those  who  take  an  interest  in  etymo- 
logy and  the  affiliation  of  languages;  but  is  of  no  utility  to  the  foreigner. 

57.  Before  proceeding  to  speak  of  the  poets  it  is  requisite  to  consider 
8ome  other  imbecilities  in  the  modem  style  of  **  fine  writing,"  which 
are  conspicuous  in  many  Telugu  publications  particularly  in  translations 
from  English  books,  and  in  the  Telugu  newspapers.  The  ancient  gram- 
marians having  defined  the  principles  of  elision  and  permutation,  tchich 
of  course  were  intended  for  poetical  usage  alone,  these  laws  have  been 
transferred  into  the  colloquial  style  of  business^  and  of  education .  If  we 
can  imagine  a  common  newspaper,  printed  in  modern  vulgar  Greek  using 
the  ampullas  et  sesquipedalia  verba  the  oratorical  elegancies  of  Pindar, 
or  uEschylus  it  will  convey  some  idea  of  an  absurdity  which  it  is  hard  to 
describe  intelligibly  to  the  English  reader. 

58.  Indeed  this  folly  has  gone  to  an  extent  hardly  credible;  a  ver- 
sion of  part  of  the  Bible  itself  has  been  prepared  by  a  learned  Bramin  in 
a  stilted  style,  spelt  in  a  manner  unintelligible  to  the  common  reader, 
and  justly  condemned  by  good  scholars.  Happily  it  has  not  as  yet  been 
printed ;  and  as  it  possesses  real  merit,  it  should  be  prepared  for  publi- 
cation by  being  transcribed  into  the  intelligible  dialect.  This  can  be 
done  by  any  sensible  copyist,  who  will  transmute  its  whimsical  spelling 
into  the  plain  Telugu  used  in  business  or  in  common  correspondence. 
Unless  this  precaution  is  taken  the  version  may  indeed  be  published  but 
will  never  be  read. 

59.  The  remedy  for  such  delusions   happily  is  within  the  reach    of 
every  one.     Let  the  foreigner  stuoy  the  language   in  common  criminal 
trials  (civil  trials  being  more    intricate)   and  ordinary   letters :  he    will 
soon  be  able  to  detect  and  shun  the  nonsensical  refinements  which  are 
now  so  popular. 

60.  Let  it  not  be  imagined  that  I  am  peculiar  in  my  view  of  these  ca- 
prices. That  distinguished  scholar,  the  late  Head  Telugu  Examiner  in 
the  College,  Gurumurti  Sastri,  who  died  about  three  years  ago,  fully 
concurred  in  the  opinions  given  in  the  present  essay.  I  mention  his 
Dame  because  his  talents,  learning  and  good  sense  always  entitled  h\$ 
judgment  to  respect:  but  I  could  easily  name  other  sound  authorilieci 


1S39]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature.  69 

now  living;  as  for  instance  my  friends  the  pan'His  in  the  Court  of  Sudr 
Udaluf.  They  are  Telngu  Bramins  and  during  more  than  fifteen  years 
have  given  rae  much  lilcrary  assistance.  Well  aware  that  my  statements 
will  incur  the  roproa'hes  of  many  a  half  educated  Sastri  and  self-styled 
pandit,  I  am  haj^py  in  mentioning  men  of  such  well  known  talents  (I 
might  easily  adduce  many  others  also)  as  disapproving  these  follies. 

61.  Again  : — It  is  acknowledged  that  the  regulations  and  acts  of  Go- 
verament  are  very  ably  translated  into  Telugu — yet  they  are  wholly  free 
from  all  these  elegancies  of  style  (bandi-repha,  ardha-bindu,  sandi,  and 
saral-adesam)  which  poor  pretenders  to  learning  timidly  cultivate.  If 
such  pedants  are  right,  then  the  laws  of  the  Government  are  written  in 
bad  Telugu;  because,  according  to  their  notions,  nothing  can  be  correct 
which  is  easy  to  read. 

62.  When  it  is  considered  that  the  reader's  progress  is  greatly  imped- 
ed by  the  refinements  I  have  described  I  shall  appear  justified  in  giving 
to  much  space  to  remarks  which  cannot  be  generally  interesting. 

On  re-perusing  the  present  essay  I  observe  with  much  regret  how 
little  advantage  we  can  derive  from  the  historians  (so  to  call  them)  and 
popular  grammarians.  With  a  few  rare  exceptions  in  the  former  class, 
these  are  a// unavailable  to  the  Englishman.  But  if  he  wishes  to  read 
the  language  in  its  perfection,  to  know  it  as  the  natives  know  it,  he  must 
resort  to  the  i1/M#arMiii  c7/ on/*,  the  **  Cavyamul"  or  favourite  bards:  of 
whose  popular  works  I  propose  to  give  a  summary  in  the  next  essay. 

In  that  paper  some  seleciions  will  be  given  from  poets  already  named: 
but  in  the  present  pages  I  have  endeavoured  to  compress  all  that  preli- 
minary information  which  the  reader  will  most  frequenily  require:  what 
remains,  may  be  of  slighter  moment. 

SUBJECTS    MENTIONED    IN    THE   PRESENT   ESS  AT. 

Adharvana,  section  3S,  Adhyatma  22,  Ahobola  38,  43,  Andhra  Dipica,  33,  47, 
•18,  AppaCavi,  39— 42  Arddh  anuswar,  &2.  Bala  Saraswati,  35,  Barbarisms,  41, 
Basava30,Bha^avat  23,  Bhascara  Ramayan,  20,  Bhimnna,  37,  Bubili,  12,  Canya- 
ca,  30,  Conceits,  21,  Tourse  for  a  beginner  13, 59,  Desya,  41,  Dialects,  10,  12; 
Dwipada  Ramayan,  19,  Kducatioo  15,  16,  Elision  58  eras  of  literature,  14,  Ga- 
jeDdra25,  GeDtoo,33,  Gita,  24,  Gramyn.  41,  Hindustani  2,  12,  Jaimini  Bharat,  30, 
Jangama,  7,  18,  30.  Kasi  Khand,  28,  Krishn  Arjiina  Samvad,  24,  Mahabharat  23, 
24,  Mamadi  Vencaya  47— 48,  Musulmaas,  8,  9,  Nannaya  Bhatt,  33,  Nasal,  52 
Niroshtha21,  Padraa  Puran,  27,  Tancha  Dabu.30,  Parvam  23,  Pattabbi  Ra- 
maya,  5&^  Poetical  Dialect,  10,  Pmbbulinga  Leela,  U,  Prose  23,  Prosody  37,46, 
Puranas,  18.  27,  29,  30.  H ;  (Obsolete  form  of  this  letter,)  50,  Hamabyudaya,  22, 
Ranaayan,  19,  20,  21,  2i,  Rrgulations,  61,  Rucmiui,  2.5,  Sabdartba  Calpa  Tarn, 
55,  Saivas,  7,  Sanscrit,  4,  5,  15,  55,  Sanscrit  dialect,  20,  Scanda,  28,  sects  7 
Siv'andhra,  17,  31,45,  Sniaitas,  7,  Sri' Natha,  28,  Tadbhava,  41,  Tatsama,  41, 
Ticcana  Somayaji,  23,  Trailinga  and  TriliDga,40,  Utprexa^  22,  Uttara  Ramayan, 
22,  Vaicriti,  39,  Viihnu  Puran,  27. 


60  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Jutt 


III, ^Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  the  Pevinsufa  of  India ^  arrangedac 
cording  to  the  modern  system  of  Classification  ;  with  brief  A oieM  an 
their  Habits  and  Geographical  distribution^  and  description  of  nwff 
doubtful  and  imperfectly  described  Species, — By  T.  C.  Jbrdos,  AsM' 
iant  Surgeon^  2d  Madras  Light  Cavalry, 

Until  a  very  few  years  ago  we  did  not  possess  a  single  collective  ac- 
count of  the  birds  of  this  vast  country.  In  1831  a  Catalogue«of  birds 
collected  on  the  banks  of  the  Gan^t?s  and  the  Vindhian  range  of  moun- 
tains by  Major  Franklin,  was  published  in  that  useful  compendium  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  This  comprised  156 
species,  of  which  more  than  20  were  described  for  the  first  time,  many 
of  them  very  common  birds,  as  Otns  Bcfigalevsis,  Thimalia  Chatanfa, 
Alauda  Gu^gula^  Mirafra  phoenicura^  ^c,  ^c.  Notwithstanding  the  dif- 
ference of  latitude  in  which  these  were  collected,  there  are  only  €  or  7 
which  I  have  not  met  with  in  Southern  India,  which  shews  the  very 
great  similarity  of  the  ornithology  of  this  country  throughout.  In 
1832  a  catalogue  of  birds  collected  by  Colonel  Sykes  in  the  Bombay 
presidency  was  published,  in  the  sume  work  as  the  last.  In  this  aro 
enumerated  226  species  (I  omit  the  domestic  birds  included),  of  which 
above  40  are  described  for  the  first  time,  many  of  them  common  and 
abundant  birds.  This  ratalooue  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  ac« 
count  of  the  birds  of  India  pnblishetl,  and  contains,  in  addition  to  the 
bare  catalogue  and  desiriptions,  many  highly  interesting  obserratioDS 
on  the  habits,  food  and  structure  of  many  of  the  species  there  mentioned. 
Of  those  enumerated  by  Colonel  Sykes  there  are  about  9  or  10  which 
I  have  not  yet  observed,  most  of  which  are  probably  peculiar  to  the 
more  northern  lortion  of  the  ranprc  of  ghauts  and  neighbouring  table- 
land. During  the  short  period  I  have  been  in  this  country  I  have 
traversed  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Madras  presidency,  both  on  the 
eastern  and  wcs;ern  sides  of  the  Peninsula,  and  have  been  fortunate 
enough  to  add  a  considerable  number  of  species  to  the  Indian  Fauna,  a 
few  of  which  are  apparently  new  to  science  or  but  imperfectly  known. 
The  total  number  of  my  catalogue  is  nearly  390;  which,  however  in- 
cludes those  10  of  Sykes,  not  hitherto  obtained  by  me,  and  nearly  as 
many  more  observed  by  W;ilter  Elliot,  Esq.,*  Madras  Civil  Service,  who 
has  kindly  placed  his  valuable  notes  on  the  birds  procured  by  him  at 
my  disposal ;  by  which,  in  addition  to  the  new  species  added,  I  have 
been  enabled  to  elucidate  several    donbtfid   points,  to  add  some   most 

*  Mr.  E!1i(it  saw  this  catalogue  prrvions  to  its  jsuLmission  to  press ;  uid  some  iv« 
marks  of  his  ¥riUl>e  found  as  foot-notes,  bearing  bis  initials,  throughout  the  paper.— 
£ditob« 


1939]  0/  the  Peninsula  of  India.  CI 

interesting  information  on   various  birds,   and  to  give  the  correct  na- 
tive names   of  most  of  the  species  enumerated   by  bim. 

I  must  here  say  a  few  words  in  explanation  of  the  limits  of  the  dis- 
tricts alluded  to  in  the  following  catalogue  as  the  **  habitat''  of  the  dif- 
ferent birds.  With  reference  then  to  physical  features  and  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  the  birds,  I  divide  the  Peninsula  into  four 
great  districts  or  divisions — 1st,  The  Northern  Ciicais — Vd,  The  Carna- 
tic — 3d,  The  Western  Coast— 4th,  The  great  central  table-land. 

Ist.     The  Northtrn  Circars. — This  district  comprises  a  narrow  tract  of 
land  extending   (between   16^  and  20*^  N.  lat.)   from  the  sea  coast  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Peninsula  to  the   eastern  ghauts  by  which  it  is 
separated  from    the   great   table-land.     It  is  a  tolerably  level  district, 
with  occasional  spurs   from    the   ghauts    approaching  the   sea   coast ; 
has  little  or  no  natural  wood,  except  towards  the   ghauts,  the  sides  of 
which  are  in  some   places  clad  with  thick  jungle  of  bamboos  and  forest 
trees,  and,  with  the   exception  of  large  groves  of  palm  trees,  has  but 
little  wood  throughout  it.     This   district  is   perhaps  hardly  separable 
firom  the  Camatic  by  its  physical   features  alone,  but  the  difference 
of  latitude,  causing  a  change  in  climate  and  a  greater  variation  of  tem- 
perature, perhaps  authorize  its  separation,  which  is  partly  confirmed  by 
the   fact  of  one  or  two  birds  common  in  the   one,  being  rare  or  not  met 
with  in  the  other  district. 

2d.  Car«a/ic.— Under  this  head  is  included  the  whole  of  the  coun- 
try lying  south  of  the  Northern  Circars,  along  the  coast  as  far  as  Cape 
Comorin,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  range  of  eastern  ghauts, 
except  in  the  Coimbatoor  district,  where  the  eastern  as  well  as  wes- 
tern range  of  ghauts  is  broken.  It  has  but  little  natural  wood,  ex- 
cept partially  on  the  sides  of  the  ghauts  and  occasionally  at  their  bot- 
tom; is  a  level  and  low  lying  country,  with  occasional  isolated  rocky 
hills,  and  low  ranges,  sometimes  bare,  in  other  places  dad  with  low 
brushwood.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  large  towns  and 
villages  there  are  large  topes,  and  many  of  the  roads  are  lined  with 
magnificent  avenues  of  banian  and  other  large  trees. 

3d.  Western  Coast. — This  includes  Travancore,  Cochin,  and  Mala- 
bar, and  comprises  a  strip  of  land  of  various  width  lying  between  the 
sea  on  the  western  side  of  India,  and  the  range  of  western  ghauts  which 
it  includes.  It  is  mostly  undulating  or  hilly,  and,  unlike  the  other 
three  districts,  is  almost  every  where  covered  with  jungle  of  every  de- 
scription, from  low  bushes  to  the  most  lofty  forest  treos:  most  of  the 
roads  here  too  are  lined  with  splendid  avenues  of  banian,  cashew  and 
Tarious  other  tine  trees.    The  climate  is  moist  and  comparatively  cool. 


(12  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [JuLt 

The  Wynaad  district,  and  generally  the  wooded  parts  bordering  the 
summit  of  the  ghauts,  may  be  also  included  in  this,  which  they  resem- 
ble in  climate  and  productions,  though  more  correctly  they  belong  to 
the  next  division. 

4th.  The  Great  Central  Table  Z,ffn</.— This  includes  Mysore,  the 
Baramahl,  the  Ceded  Districts  (Bellary  and  Cuddapah),  the  kingdoms 
of  Berar  and  Hyderabad,  the  Southern  Mahratta  country,  and  the  Deccan 
(the  four  so  called  Bombay  Colleclorates,  Colonel  Sykes's  district). 
The  whole  of  these  countries.with  the  exception  of  the  parts  immediately 
bordering  on  the  ghauts,  consists  of  a  vast  undulating  plain  of  various 
height,  almost  entirely  devoid  of  trees,  except  close  to  villages  and 
towns,  and  with  but  little  low  jungle  even.  Here  and  there  low 
ranges  of  hills  appear,  and  isolated  rocks,  or  drooga,  mostly  bare, 
others  covered  with  low  brushwood.  Towards  the  north  and  west 
large  steps  occur,  and  the  country  is  more  broken  by  hills  and 
ravines  than  in  the  southern  part.  Here  too  we  have  greater 
abundance  of  low  jungle,  and  even  stunted  trees,  and  in  many  of  the 
ravines  wood  abounds.  Considerable  tracts  of  long  grass,  or  *  rumnahs' 
occur  here  and  there,  especially  towards  the  more  northern  portion* 
The  whole  of  this  district  was  formerly  named  the  Deccan,  and  accord- 
ingly in  the  following  catalogue  I  shall  indiscriminately  mention  it  as 
the  Deccan  or  table-land,  except  when  a  bird  is  peculiar  to,  or  more 
abundant  in,  one  portion  of  it  than  another.  The  Neilgherries  are  justly 
entitled  perhaps  to  a  separate  mention,  as  well  from  their  climate  as 
their  productions,  and  probably  approaching  them  in  these  respects  are 
the  Pulny  and  Auiraally  hills,  both  to  the  southward. 

The  classification  I  have  adopted  is  that  of  Swainson  (as  recently  given 
in  his  most  admirable  treatise  on  birls*, which  I  have  ever  foundmost  na- 
tural as  regards  the  habits  of  the  Indian  birds  he  has  classed  together, 
especially  the  Brachupod'mcv  and  Crateropodinm.  Among  other  instan- 
ces, where,  by  his  acumen  and  discrimination,  he  has  rightly  located, 
from  their  external  character  alone,  birds  before  his  time  most  im- 
properly and  unnaturally  placed,  I  mny  instance  Thamnohia  (an 
Ixos  of  former  authors!)  and  GnjUivora  among  the  Stone-chats ; 
Hypsepetes  among  the  Bu^buls ;  Pomatorhinus  among  the  J5a66/er*  ; 
Coracias  in  the  Fissirosires,  and  Phoentcopterus  among  the  ^na- 
ttna;  and  1  am   happy   to  be   able  by  personal   observation  of  their 


•  The   JVaturaJ  History  and  doMsiJiration   of  Birds.— Bij   WiLLiAM  SwAlNiON,    rols. 
1st  and  2^—Lardncr's  Cabinet  Cyclopedia, 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  OS 

habits  to  confirm  his  views  as  to  their  natural  situation.  If  in  some 
parts  his  classification  is  deficient,  it  is  from  want  of  material  alone,  as 
in  the  Raptor es  generally,  and  the  StngidcB  in  particular.  Here,  how- 
ever, fortunately  importiint  aid  has  been  derived  from  another  quarter, 
viz.  from  the  accomplished  iMr.  Hodgson,  Resident  at  the  Court  of  Ne- 
paul — who,  in  the  papers  he  has  published  in  the  Indian  periodicals, 
has  shewn  that  he  combines  the  greatest  talent  for  minute  observation 
of  peculiarities  of  habits  and  manners  with  most  critical  skill  in  the 
more  abstruse  and  scientific  art  of  classifying,  to  whom  we  may  here- 
after confidently  look  for  filling  up  many  of  the  outlines  and  deficiences 
of  Swainson's  system,  and  whose  promised  work  on  the  Fauna  of  Ne- 
paul  is  80  anxiously  expected.* 

It  only  requires  for  me  to  add  that  in  the  following  catalogue  the 
length  is  reckoned  in  all  cases  from  the  tip  of  the  bill,  and  when  the 
length  of  a  toe  is  mentioned,  it  includes  the  claw  also,  unless  the  contra- 
ry is  particularly  mentioned. 

The  following  abbreviations  are  used  in  reference  to  the  native 
names  :— 

H.  Hindustani. 
Cim.  Canarese. 
Mah.  Mahratta. 
Mai.  Malyalum. 


Order  I.     RAPTORES. 


Family  VULTURIDiE. 


Genus  VULTUR.— Auct.  Vulture. 

The  species  of  this  genus  may  be  speedily  collected  on  exposing  a 
carcass  on  the  open  plain,  though  none  were  previously  in  sight.  They 
are  readily  distinguished  in  the  air  by  their  manner  of  soariDg  with 
wings  turned  obliquely  upwards. 

1.  r.  Indicus,  Lath.— Temm.  P.  C.  2(i.—Geedh,  U.-^Afahah-Dhoh 
of  Mahrattas.     Large  brown  Vulture. 

2.  r.  hengalensis, — Gmel. — Gray  and  Hardwicke  III.  Ind.  Zool.— • 
F.Cinereus,  Temm.  var. — V.  «ei/cono/oj,  Gray  and  Hardw. — Old  bird  P— 
Geedhf  H. — Small  brown  Vulture. 

3.  V.    PondicerianuSf  Lath— Rung  Geedh,  H.— Black  Vulture. 

*  Bee  Uterary  and  Scientific  Inielligenet,  at  the  end  of  this  Joomal.— Eoitob, 


64  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Jwlt 

Colonel  Sykes  correctly  says  of  tins  bird  '  mostly  solitary/  Two  or 
three  may  however  frequently  be  fouml  bunting  together  over  high 
rocky  and  bushy  hills.  On  the  Neiigherries  I  have  seen  flocks  of 
twenty  or  thirty  of  what  I  conceived  to  be  this  species  bunting  in  com- 
pany over  the  hills,  occasionally  reconnoitering  some  spot  where  some- 
thing unusual  attracted  their  attention,  and  circling  over  it  for  some 
time — and  then  pursuing  their  onward  course.  As  I  did  not  procure  a 
specimen,  this  may  be  a  distinct  species,  perhaps  the  allied  one  *  auri- 
cularis'  or  social  vulture,  which  is  stated  in  some  works  to  occur  ia 
India. 

Genus  NEOPHRON,  Sav. 

4.  N,  Percnojiterusy  Sav. — Kul-moorgh,   H. — Dung  bird — Scavenger.— 

White  Vulture. 

Very  common;  most  numerous  in  cantonments  and  large  villages, 
where  it  is  of  the  greatest  utility.  As  Colonel  Sykes  remarks, '  they 
are  most  efficient  scavengers.* 


Family  FALCONIDiE. 
Sub  Family  XQVllA^ JE.^Eaglcs. 
Gencs  PANDION,  Sdv^—Fiah- Eagle,  or  Fish-Hawk. 

5.  /*.  HaU(BetuSy  Sav. — A.    llalioeetiiSt  L. — Mucharera,  H. — Osprey. 

This  bird  appears  to  have  been  hitherto  unrecorded  as  Indian,  for  in 
Yarrell's  •  British  Birdb*  and  Sir  W.  Jaidine's  later  work  in  the  *  Natu* 
ralist's  Library*  there  is  no  mention  of  its  occurrence  here,  though  its 
geographical  distribution  is  particularly  recorded.  I  have  seen  it  on 
the  Trichoor  Luke,  and  near  Ponanv  on  the  west  coast,  and  a  short 
time  ago  obtained  a  specimen  as  far  inland  as  Jaulnah.  My  specimens 
correspond  pretty  exactly  with  the  description  of  Biitish  ones.  The 
pectoral  band  was  distinct  on  all— Irides  bright  yellow, 

6.  P,   lineatus  ? — //a/.  lineatut,  Gray  ? — Pand,  Ifidiaig,  Hodgs.  ? 

I  several  times  observed  a  large  Fishing  Eagle  on  the  Chilka  lake, 
which  at  a  short  distance  appeared  of  an  unifonn  greyish  green   colour. 


18391  o/  the  Penimuta  of  Indite  ^ 

This  may  have  been  the  species  figured  in  Gray  and  Hardwicke's  Illus- 
tf^tions,  but  I  did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  a  specimen.  I  frequently  saw 
it  plunge  completely  under  water  (a**  tlip  Osprey)  and  bear  oflf  a  large 
fish  in  its  talons  to  some  neighbouring  eminence. 


Sub  Genus  HALI.'EETUS.— *S'«a  Eagle. 

7.  //.  bt(igru.9f  Less. — F.  h^agrus,  Shhw.^F.feucogasler,  Latb.— -/^i</^«. 
Ocean'que f  Temm,  PI.    Col.  Ad.— Greg  backed  ilea  Eagle, 

The  descriptions  of  this  bird  vvliich  I  possess,  are  not  very  satis- 
factory', hut  I  have  no  doubt  it  is  the  bird  named  as  above  in  Lesson 
and  Griffith's  Cuvier.  It  is  rert^iiuly  not  very  common,  I  first 
observed  it  sailing  over  the  Chilka  lake,  at  a  considerable  elevation, 
from  whence  it  mude  an  unsnccess,ful  swoop  at  a  duck  I  shot.  I 
again  saw  it  at  Ponany,  sitting  sluggishly  on  the  sandy  beach  cloRe 
to  the  sea,  aud  again,  near  C;ili«-uf,  saw  a  pair  skimming  very 
closely  over  some  low  bushy  ground.  The  stomach  of  the  speci- 
men I  proi'ured  was  empty.  The  fishermen  at  Ponany  assert  that  it 
lives  chiefly  on  fi^li,  and  frcpiently  carries  one  off  from  their  boats  or 
nets.  It  doubiles^,  however,  varies  its  food  according  to  opportunity,, 
and  like  its  European  analogue  the  H.  albicilia,  nothing  may  come 
amiss  to  it.  Its  flifjht  at  fir-^t  after  risine  is  heavv,  but  when  once  fairlv 
on  the  wing  easy  and  powerful,  rising  to  a  great  height  by  large  and 
graceful  sweeps.  It  agrees  ex  ictly  with  the  characters  of  Halitsetus  as 
lately  defined  by  Yarrell  and  Hodgson.  This  sub-genus,  though  not 
admitted  by  Swainson,  appears  necessary  to  join  Aquila  and  Pandiont 
and  may  perhaps  be  marked  as  a  sub-genus  of  the  hitter,  leaning  towards 
it  by  its  rougliish  soles,  length  of  wings,  whi»*h  reach  beyond  the  tail , 
and  fe«toone<i  upper  mandible.  I  add  a  brief  description  of  my  specimen*. 
Back  and  wings  light  hlueish  grey,  occasionally  tinted  with  brownish- 
ash.  Quills  and  tail  brownish  black,  the  latter  broadly  margined  with 
white — rest  of  the  body  pure  white;  feathers  of  head  and  neck  acuminat* 
ed  ;  bill, horn  colour;  cere,yellowish ;  legs,dirty  yellowish- white  ;  irides, 
brownish  yellow.  L^ns^ih  about  30  inches,  wing  to  end  of  3d  4uill  24 
inches,  tail  10  inches,  tarsus  3J,  middle  toe  and  claw  4. 

8.     H.  Iclhyoetusy  Horsf. 

1  have  not  mvself  observed  this  species  of  marine  Eagle,  but  it  was 
obtained  by  Mr.  Elliot,  in  the  Southern  Mahralta  country.  It  is 
said  to  live  upon  fish,  but  not  solely :  in  one  specimen  there  was  the 


66  Catalogue  of  the  Birdt  XJ^vtt 

skin  of  a  bird.  Its  talons  are  rounded  like  those  of  the  Osprey.  Bilt 
strongly  toothed;  it  and  cere  black;  legs  dirty  whitish  ;  ii  ides,  brown. 
Length  of  a  male  bird  27|  incli,  tarsus  3^  inch. 

Gexus  AQVlLiL.^Eagle. 

9.  A,  ChryS€Bto9 — Golden  Eagle. — Joomiz  or  Joombizj  H. 

I  several  times  observed  birds  of  this  species,both  single  and  inpairs,in 
the  more  northern  parts  of  the  Deccan,  many  of  which  shewed  the  white 
mark  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  \vhich  gained  for  it  the  name  of  riugtailed 
Eagle,  and!  procured  a  specimen  neartheGoJavery  river.  1  frequently  also 
see  them  near  Jaulnah,even  close  to  the  cantonment,  and  they  are  occasi- 
onally seen  to  pursue  and  strike  at  hares,  florikin  and  other  game  started 
by  sportsmen.  This  £aglemay  generally  be  seen  seated  on  the  ground, 
or  on  a  stone  on  the  rocky  hills,in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jaulnah, whence, 
after  the  sun  has  been  up  for  some  time,it  takes  a  flight  in  search  of  prey, 
at  no  great  elevation,  hunting  slowly  over  the  bushy  valleys  and  ravines 
and  also  over  the  cultivated  ground  occasionally,  after  which  if  uLsucess- 
fill  in  its  search, it  reseats  itself  on  a  stone  on  some  emiuencf,or  even  per- 
ches on  a  neighbouring  tree,  where  it  patiently  waits  till  some  quarry  is 
raised  or  viewed,  or  till  hunger  again  prompts  it  to  take  a  flight.  I  ob- 
tained  a  specimen  alive  some  time  ago,  it  having  been  slightly  wounded 
and  it  is  now  in  my  possession,  in  perfect  health.  It  feeds  most  greedily 
on  raw  meat,  preferring  it  to  birds  or  animals  either  dead  or  living.  It 
is  very  sluggish  and  inactive  even  when  urged  by  hunger.  It  generally 
drinks  a  gulp  or  two  of  water  after  eating.  The  only  cry  1  have  heard  it 
utter  is  a  harsh  croaking.  I  shall  now  for  the  sake  of  comparison  add  a 
brief  description  of  this  bird,which  exactly  corresponds  in  plumage  with 
the  other  specimen  I  shot. 

Upper  part  of  head  and  neok,  pale  buff  cream  colour,  some  of  the  fea- 
thers on  the  forehead  broadly  strenked  with  dark  brown,  and  a  few  other 
detached  ones  entirely  of  an  orange  buff  colour.  Quills  nearly  black,  tail 
of  a  dark  hoary  grey,  barred  and  clouded  with  blackish,  and  broadly  ter- 
minated by  the  same  colour.  Under  tail  coverts  pale  brownish  white, 
all  the  rest  of  the  body  of  a  rich  glossy  dark  brown,  tinged  on  spots  with 
lighter  brown  :  on  the  scapulars,  there  are  one  or  two  white  feathersjjand 
one  or  two  more  edged  by  the  same  colour.  Cere  and  legs,  yellow,  w  ith  a 
tinge  of  green.  Irides,  brownish  yellow.  Lfni^ih  about  3  feet,  wings 
to  end  of  4th  ({uill  2G  inches,  tail  13,  tarsus  about  4,  middle  toe  and 
claw  3-,'^^ths.  On  the  internal  and  middle  toe  there  arr  4  larg^ 
scales  each,  and  the  division  between  the  larijc  scales  and  the  small- 
er one  s,is  not  nearly  so  marked   as  is  reproeiitcd   iu  ilie   woodcut    in 


1S39]  of  ihe  Ptninsulm  of  India.  6? 

Tarrell '8  British  Birds;  this,  however,  may  dq)eDd  on  age.  Another 
■light  difference  from  the  description  of  the  European  hird  is,  that  the 
Boeirils  are  almost  quite  transverse,  and  do  not  point  so  much  backward 
as  is  represented  both  iu  plates  and  descriptions. 

10. — A.  btfasciafa,  Gray  &  Ilardw. — Double  handed- Eagle^ 

I  have  only  spen  this  Eagle  two  or  three  times  close  to  Jaulnab,  but 
liave  hitherto  failed  to  procure  a  specimen.  One  was  lately  seen  to 
strike  at  a  florikin. 

11. — A,  Vimlhianaf  Frank] . — A^punctata,  Gray  ? — A.fuica,  Gray?— 
A.  fulvescens^  Gray? — fVokliab,  H. — Lesser  Indian  Eagle, — Mottled  or 
variable  Eagle. 

I  possess  a  living  specimen  of  an  Eagle  which  corresponds  as  nearly 
as  possible  with  the  doscription  by  Franklin  of  ^.  Vindhiana  in  his  cata- 
logue ;  and  T  also  possess  specimens  which  have  so  great  a  resemblanee 
to  the  three  Eascles,  figured  as  distinct  in  Gray  and  Hardwicke's  Illustra* 
iioju  of  Indian  Zoology^  as  to  warrant  a  conjecture  that  they  are  one  and 
the  same  species.  In  this  conjecture  I  am  strengthened  by  finding  that 
such  is  also  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Elliot. 

I  shall  here  briefly  describe  some  of  my  specimens  to  show  their  si- 
milarity : — 1st,  one  resembling  A.  fulvescens,  Gray^  which  I  consider  as 
the  youngest  state  of  this  Eagle.  Head  and  neck  of  a  fulvous  orange  co- 
lour. Quills  and  greater  coverts  blackish  brown,  the  latter  edged  with 
pale  greyish.  Tail  greyish  brown,  much  barred  with  blackish.  Rest  of  the 
body  of  a  light  brownish  grey,  with  a  strong  tinge  of  fulvous  yellow 
throughout,  the  feathers  of  the  lower  parts  streaked  in  the  centre  with 
darkish  brown. 

A  second  specimen  has  nearly  cast  off  the  whole  of  the  light  fulvous 
colour,  which  only  appears  on  the  feathers  of  the  abdomen  and  under 
tail  coverts,  a  feather  sometimes  being  dark  brown  on  one  side  of  the 
shaft,  and  fulvous  on  the  other,  but  specks  and  streaks  of  this  yellow 
appear  in  many  parts,  especially  on  the  head,   back  of  neck,  and  breast^ 

as  in  A.  punctata* 

A  third  specimen  is  nearly  of  an  uniform  brown  colour.  In  the  living 
bird,  the  head,  throat  and  breast  are  of  a  very  deep  brown,  almost  black; 
and  this,  though  an  old  bird,  is  yet  evidently  not  in  its  perfect  plumage. 
This  bird  varies  in  length  from  25  (the  male)  to  28  or  even  29  (the 


68  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [XuLV 

fem.).  In  a  female  2S  inches  long,  the  wings  are  21  inches.  Expansion  of 
do.  about  5  feet.  Tail  11  inches.  Tarsus  :i ;  mid  toe  and  claw  3.  Cere 
deep  yellow.  Feet  a  little  paler  do.  Irides  hazel  bro^n.  The  JVokhah 
is  the  raost  abundant  Eagle  in  iudia.  I  have  sern  it  both  in  the  CamaliCi 
though  more  rarely,  und  on  the  table-land,  w  here  it  is  tolerably  common. 
In  the  Camatic  it  chiefly  frequents  hilly  districts  clad  with  low  jungle. 
In  the  Deccan  it  frequents,  by  preference,  the  cultivated  lanis  near  vil- 
lages. Till  an  hour  or  two  after  sunrise,  it  may  be  seen  seated  on  the 
top  of  some  tree,  after  whirh  it  sallies  forth,  s<iiling  about  at  a  muderate 
height  in  gtneral  (though  it  varies  luuch  iti  this  respt'ci)  over  the  tields^ 
valleys,  and  ravines,  with  a  slow  and  circling  flight,  ur  in  company  with 
the  kites,  like  which  it  is  ever  on  the  look  out;hovers  over  vilIa)(es,towas 
and  cantonments.  They  prey  upon  hares,  (as  I  have  ascertained,  in  one 
or  two  instances,  from  ihe  contents  of  their  stomacll,)  and  other  game; 
also  rats,  lizards,  snakes  and  injects  ;  occasional ly  also  pounce  on  an  uii« 
wary  bird,  and  in  fact  feed  upon  almost  any  kind  of  food,  living  or  deady 
which,  however,  they  obtain  p'Mliaps  loss  by  their  own  industry  than  by 
robbing  other  birds,  kites,  falcons,  and  other  birds  of  prey.  From  Mr. 
Elliot's  notes,  1 '"xiract  the  following — *'The  Wokfiah  v*>  very  trouble- 
some in  hawking  after  the  sun  becomes  hot,  mistaking  the  jesscs  for 
tome  kind  of  prey  and  pouncing  on  the  falcon  to  seize  it.  1  have  once 
or  twice  nearly  lost  ShaJuens  inconsequence,  they  flying  to  great  distances 
from  fear  of  the /^rV. Via 6.*'  The  one  I  possess  alive,  is  not  very  parti- 
cular as  to  its  food.  It  frequently  snatches  morsels  from  the  golden 
Eagle  kept  with  it,  to  which  the  latter  in  general  quietly  submits  ;  is  a 
very  noisy  bird,  frequf^ntly  uttering  its  shrill  scream,  and  has  a  great 
share  of  curiosity,  walking  up  to,  andcaretully  and  thoroughly  examining 
every  new  corner  I  place  in  the  same  apartment.  It  is  apparently  a  very 
easily  domesticated  bird,  and  perhaps  might  be  taught  to  hunt  hares,  &c.* 

11     Aq.  ?  Neilgherry  Eagle. 

On  the  summit  of  the  Neiloherries  there  is  very  freqnently  seen  a 
black  Eiigle,  larger  than  the  Ji'okhabt  but  of  which  1  was  unable  to  pro- 
cure u  specimen.     1  have  heard  it  is  also  often  met  with  in  Coorg. 


•It  is  considered  too  5l«»w  mid  heavy  for  purpos«»s  of  Falconry.  I  differ  only  with  Mr. 
Jerdon  in  thhikin^  thu  daik  sipccics  :.^7 .  Jitjira,  (Jray;,  to  In*  the  young  bird,  whi'jh  throws 
lighter  by  age,  and  becomes  ./.  Jlatuons  wheu  old.— W.  E. 


1839]  of  the  P$nin8ula  qf  India.  69 

Genus  NISAETUS,  Uodgsou^—Hawk-gagle.  . 

12.— A^.  niveusf—F.  nheus,  Teram.  P.  C— 127  ?— White  hellied 
Haick  Eagle* — Mhorungak  or  Mhorungee^  H. 

I  presume,  from  the  meagre  descriptions  I  possess,  that  my  specimen 
is  identical  with  the  Javanese  bird,  named  as  above  by  M.  Teinmiuck. 
It  appears  to  belong:  to  the  new  genus, which  Mr.  Hodgson  has,  I  think, 
most  justly  separated  and  named  very  happily. •  This  species  is  not 
created,  but  otherwise  agrees  exactly  with  the  characters  given,  which 
are  (among  others)  short  high  bill,  short  wings,  rather  long  but  nervous 
tarsus  and  immense  feet  and  claws.  M.  Lesson,  I  see,  has  ranged  this 
bird  as  a  Spizaeiuf,  which  however  is  remarkable  for  its  small  feet. 

The  Mhofungah  is  certainly  a  rare  bird  in  Southern  India.  I  have 
only  seen  it  twice,  once  in  the  Baramahl,  seated  on  the  edge  uf  a  tank  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  a  jungly  district,  and  Hgain  a  pair  seated  on  a  lofty 
tree,  in  a  tope  in  open  country  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Deccan.  I 
know  nothing  of  its  habits  or  food  from  pprsonal  observation.  Mr. 
Hodgson  says  the  habits  of  the  genus  are  us  follows  :  **  Prevs  on  jungle 
fowl,  partridges,  hires — watches  from  a  lofty  perch,  usually  pouncing 
on  its  game  when  near  it — sometimes  pursues  with  energy  on  the  wing." 
Mr.  Elliot  met  it  occasionally  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  country,  and 
from  his  notes  I  extract  the  following  observations :  <*  Is  the  noblest  of 
the  Indian  Eagles,  being  seldom  seen,  and  then  generally  at  a  great 
height  in  the  air,  in  wild  and  savage  places.  It  preys  on  the  bare — I 
once  saw  a  pair  of  them  hunting  in  company,  which  nearly  surprised  a 
peacock,  pouncing  on  him  on  the  ground."  I  suppose  it  is  more  an  in- 
habitant of  jungly  and  wooded  districts  than  of  the  open  plain,  as  are 
the  true  Eagles.  I  add  here,a  brief  description  of  my  specimen  :-— Abovet 
hair  brown,  most  of  the  feathers  edged  with  a  lighter  tint,  and  some 
white  about  the  head  and  sides  of  neck.  Below,  pure  white,  feathers  nar- 
rowly streaked  in  the  centre  with  dark  brown— feathers  of  leg  and  tar- 
sus, thickly  barred  with  pale  fawn  brown.  Bill  of  a  greenish  horn  colour. 
Cere  and  legs  greenish  yellow.  I  rides  bright  yellow.  Length  27  inches 
— wings  19 — tail  lOJ — 2\  inches  beyond  wing— tarsus  3J — middle  toe 
3.,«yths  of  an  inch.    Eyebrows  prominent. 

Genus  CIRCAETUS.— Vieill. 
Ilarrie  r-  eagle — Serpent-eagle. 

*  Joumai,  JUiatic  Society^  Bengal  No.  65. 


70  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [JuLV 

13 — C,  braehydaeiylvs. — A.  hrachydactyla^  Meger.  White  bellied 
Harrier  EagU  or    SerperU'Eagle — Samp^mar^  H. — Mulpatur,  Can, 

This  species  is  very  generally  spread  over  Ihe  country.  It  affects 
cliiedy  the  open  plains  and  patches  of  cultivated  ground.  It  may  fre- 
quently be  observed  perched  on  a  low  trcei  or  even  a  bowrie  poley  or 
seated  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  whence  it  occasionally  darts  upon  its  quar* 
ry,  but  generally  takes  a  long  and  lofty  circling  flight,  or  flies  heavily 
along,  but  a  few  yards  above  the  ground.  The  most  favourite  food  of  the 
samp-mar  is,  as  its  Indian  name  implies,  snakes.  It  will,  however, 
lake  other  food.  Colonel  Sykes  found  a  rat  in  the  stomach  of  one.  I 
saw  one  strike  at  a  wounded  hare,  and  another  make  a  swoop  at  a 
teal  that  was  shot.  From  Mr.  Elliot's  notes  I  take  tlie  following:— 
"  Pounces  on  snakes  and  guanas — my  meer  shikar  has  seen  them  on 
the  ground  with  tlieir  claws  on  the  snake's  head,  its  body  coiled  round 
the  bird's  wings,  in  which  state  the  herd-boys  sometimes  kill  them. 
The  Yerklees  say  it  has  a  figure  of  the  God's  chuKram  under  each 
wing,  by  which  it  prevents  the  snake  going  forward.  In  the  stomach  of 
one   I  found  a  snake,  about  2  feet  long,  and  a  centipede." 

Irides,  orange  yellow.  Legs,  pale  and  dirty  yellow.  Lengthof  a  fe- 
male 30  inches— of  wings  to  end  of  4th  quill  23— tail  12— tarsus  4— mid- 
dle toe  3 — outer  and  inner  toes,  Without  the  claws,  nearly  equal. 


14 — C.  ?    vndulalus, — Ilcemntorm's  undulatus,  Vig.-^Gould,    Cent. 
Him.  Birds. — Goom-can-mooryala^  Mah. — Crested  Serpent-Eagle. 

As  I  see  Mr.  Swainson  has  claimed  the  priority  of  the  name  Hcema^ 
iomis  for  his  crested  bulhuls,  I  have  at  present,  though  with  hesitation, 
retained  this  species  under  the  genus  CircaetuSy  to  which  it  is  evidently 
strongly  allied  in  parts  of  its  structure  (more  especially  its  legs  and 
feet)  as  well  as  in  habits  and  food,  and  of  which  it  will  probably  be 
found  hereafter  to  form  a  sul)-genns.  1  have  found  it  in  Goorosoor 
Trarancore,  Malabar,  and  the  Baramahl.  It  almost  alwavs  aflTects 
woody  situations,  preferring  lofty  jungle,  over  which  it  may  often  be 
observed  slowly  sailing,  or  seated  on  a  lofty  tree,  watching  for  its  prey. 
Its  chief  food  is  snakes,  which  I  have  found  in  every  instauce  that 
came  under  my  observation.  Mr.  Elliot  says  *•  utters  a  plaintive  cry,  feeds 
on  insects,  lizards  and  snakes." 


1839}  0/  the  Peninsula  of  India.  71 

Length  of  male  24  to  26  inches,  of  female  28  to  30.  Of  a  female  23 
inches  long,  the  wings  were  17,  tail  lOJ,  tarsus  3^,  middle  toe  2},  tail  2 
inches  longer  than  the  wing. 


Sub    Family  CYMlNDlN-f:,  Sav.— rr^^  Kites. 
Genus  ELANUS,  Sav. 

15.    E.  melanopterus, — Kupdsee,  H — Blackwing^  Hodgs. 

Though  very  generally  spread  over  India,  this  kite  is  by  no  means 
common.  It  is  most  frequent  in  woody  districts.  Its  general  food  is  in- 
fleets  (chiefly  grasshoppers  and  locuHts),  lizards  and  mice.  I  shot  one 
in  Groomsoor,  which  was  devouring  the  carcass  of  a  dove ;  this,  however, 
appeared  to  have  been  dead  for  some  time,  and  I  doubt  if  it  was  killed 
by  the  blackwing.  The  Kupdsee  often  frequents  long  grass  and  grain 
fields,  over  which  it  may  be  seen  to  hover  like  the  Keslril.  It  is  com- 
paratively rare  in  the  Deccan,  owing  to  the  country  being  so  devoid  of 
trees.  For  a  full  account  of  this  bird,  its  habits,  &c.  and  accurate  mea* 
flurements,  vide  a  paper  in  this  Journal  No.  16  by  Mr.  Hodgson* 
Iridefl  fine  crimson.  Legs  deep  yellow,peculiarly  soft  and  gummy. 

Sub   Family  BUTEONIN.f:— ^i/zzarrf^r  and  Harriers,  ^c. 

Genus  MILVUS,  Auct. 

16.    Af.  Cheele, — M.  Govinda,  Sykes. — Cheel,  H.— Cowiwow  or  Pariah 

Kite. 

This  very  useful  bird  is  extremely  numerous,  more  especially  in 
cantonments,  villages  and  camps,  and  is  continually  on  the  look  out 
for  refuse  of  every  description.  Colonel  Sykes  says  **  constantly  soar- 
ing in  the  air  in  circles,  watching  an  opportunity  to  dart  upon  a  chicken, 
and  upon  refuse  animal  matter  thro>\Ti  from  the  cook-room."  I  rather 
think  that  the  blame  of  carrying  off  chickens  is,  occasionally  at  least, 
unjustly  attributed  to  this  bird.  Vide  postea,  Spizaetus.  Away  from 
cantonments,  it  preys  chiefly  on  reptiles,  is  also  remarkably  fond  offish, 
both  fresh  and  dried.  Has  a  very  shrill  cry  or  squeal.  Irides  dark  brown, 
bill  black,  yellow  cere,  legs  yellow,  anterior  scales  large  and  transverse, 
all  the  others  small,  irregular.  Length  23  to  26  inches  ;  of  one  23 
inches  long  the  wings  are  IS,  tail  10 A,  tarsus  2,  middle  toe  2-1tv 


72  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  ZJvtT 

\7'  A/,  pondicerianus, — Hal'itpetua  pondicerianus.'^RoO'fnuhttrik 
^Angl.  hippy  face^,  //. — vulgo,  BaJimunee  cheeL — Brahminy  kite  of 
Europeans. 

Tliere  is  great  dispute  among  naturalists,  as  to  the  true  situa- 
tion of  this  very  common  bird  :  most  writers  refer  it  to  the  genus 
Hali(Bclu»  or  sea  eagle.  Swainson  refers  it  to  the  AccipitrintB  or 
hawk  family,  but  at  the  same  time  allows  its  near  alliauce  to 
Pandion,  Hodgson,  the  only  wriler  who  has  obser\'ed  it  in  its 
wild  state  (except  Colonel  Sykos  wlio  refers  it  to  HalitpetusY 
calls  it  a  paltry  milvine  bird,  nnd  st^ys  it  should  be  placed  as  a 
Buleo  or  Milvus,  With  this  opinion,  I  nearly  agree,  and  accordihg-- 
ly  place  it  for  the  present  as  iiMifvus,  of  which,  or  of  Buteo,  it  will 
probably  be  hereafter  found  to  constitute  a  sub-genus.  The  great- 
est difference  is,  perhaps,  the  shape  of  the  bill,  and  in  the  young 
bird,  this  is  much  less  perceptible.  Its  manners,  mode  of  life,  &c,,  are 
certainly  similar  to  those  of  the  kite,  being  much  on  the  wing,  sailing 
over  tanks,  paddy  fields,  and  rivers,  at  a  moderate  height,  and  with  a 
flight  like  that  of  the  kit**,  but  perhaps  with  more  frequent  motion  of 
its  wings,  Hodgson  says  it  quests  like  Circus,  This  I  have  only 
seen  in  wooded  country  (in  Travancore)  and  then  its  flight  was  higher 
and  not  nearly  so  regular.  1  may  also  remark  that  its  squeal  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  kite.  Hodgson  says,  it  lives  chiefly  on  insects* 
Colonel  S}kes  says,  it  never  feeds  on  carrion  but  always  on  fish  (living). 
From  my  own  observations,  made  chiefly  in  the  Caniatic,  where  it  is  very 
abundant,  I  should  say  it  prefers  aquatic  food.  It  may  frequently  be 
observed  to  carry  oflT  a  fi^h  from  the  surface  of  water,  but  1  never  saw 
it  dip  under,  as  Colonel  Sykes  relates.  It  also  feeds  nmch  on  crabs 
from  tanks  and  paddy  fields,  also  on  frogs  and  various  aquatic  insects  • 
and  occasionally  c:irries  off  ad^^ad  or  wounded  snipe,  or  other  bird,  and 
even  carrion,  an<l,  it  is  also  credibly  said,  young  birds,  chickens  and 
pigeons,  though  I  have  not  myself  witnessed  it.  I  have,  though,  very 
rarely,  seen  it  whip  an  insect  off  a  tree  or  standing  grain:  this,  and  its 
food  generally,  if  not  heavy, it  often  devours  in  the  air,  like  the  common 
kite,  or  seated  on  the  edge  of  a  tank,  or  river,  or  bank  of  a  paddy  field. 
It  partake^*  very  greedily  of  the  small  fish  so  generally  dried  by  the 
poor  on  our  co;i8t,  an<l  I  have  repeitedly  seen  it  catch  one  thrown  up 
in  the  air  for  that  purpose  by  a  native.  From  this  we  must  conclude 
that  it  varies  its  food,  according  to  opportunity,  but  undoubted- 
ly it  prefers  the  neighbourhood  of  \vater,  and  aquatic  food,  as  crdhn, 
frogs  and  fish,  when  procurable.  It  is,  as  is  well  known,  sacred  to 
Vi^hnoo. 


1839]  of  the  Penitisula  of  India.  J^ 

Length  18  ro  22  inches — of  one  I84  inches  long,  the  wings  to  4th 
quill  are  15  inches  ;  tail  8}  ;  tarsus  and  middle  toe  about  equal,  nearly 
2  inches.  Irides  brown  ;  legs  dirty  yellow  ;  anterior  scales  large  trans- 
verse— posterior  smaller,  in  a  dwible  row— lateral  scales  small,  bill 
greenish  bom  colour,  whitish  at  tip  ;  cere  greenish  white. 

Genus  PERNIS,     Cuv. 

Honey-  buzzard — Shahu/elXf     II. 

18 — P.  crisfata, Cuv. — F.ptilorhynchus^'^emm. — CresiedHoney-buzzard. 

I  have  only  met  with  this  bird  in  the  jungles  of  the  Western  Coast 
and  Neilgherries.  It  is  by  no  means  common.  I  occnsionally  saw  it 
seated  on  a  tree,  alternately  raising  and  depressing  its  peculiarly  formefl 
crest,  and  on  the  Neilgherries  frequently  saw  it  questing  diligently 
backwards  and  forwards  over  the  dense  woods  there.  I  procured  a 
female  at  the  foot  of  the  Conoor  pass,  and  a  male  on  the  summit  of  the 
hills.  Their  usual  flight  is  rather  slow,  but  I  once  observed  one  flying, 
mnch  more  rapidly  than  in  general  with  a  continued  motion  of  its  wings, 
and  every  now  and  then  stopping  and  attempting  to  hover,  which  it  did 
with  its  wings  turned  very  obliquely  upwards;  this  seemed  a  great  ex- 
ertion to  it  and  was  very  clumsily  peifonned.  In  the  stomach  of  the 
female  I  shot,  was  a  soft  green  mass  which  looked  like  vegetable  matter, 
but  which  was  probably  the  half  digested  remains  of  green  caterpillars^ 
In  the  stomach  of  the  male  there  was  a  large  quantity  of  pure  honey. 
(Mr.  Elliot  found  the  hair  of  a  rat  in  the  stomach  of  one — in  another 
ants,  wax,  and  honey).  The  female  contained  an  egg  ready  for  expul- 
sion, which  was  very  different  in  colour  from  that  of  the  English  honey- 
buzzard,  recently  figured  in  the  *  Naturalist's  Library,*  and  closely  re- 
sembled that  of  the  common  European  kite,  also  figured  there* 

As  my  specimens  differ  somewhat  from  the  descriptions  of  this  bird  in 
Cuvier  and  Lesson,  I  shall  briefly  describe  them.  Female— colour  of 
plumage  pale  brown  ;  lightest  below  and  darkest  on  the  scapulars  and 
larger  coverts  ;  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  of  head,  neck  and  breast,  dark 
brown  ;  an  occipital  ^crest  of  3  or  4  deep  brown  oval  feathers  ;  a  few 
white  blotches  on  the  belly  increasing  in  number  towards  the  vent; 
tail  light  greyish  brown,  numerously  barred  with  deep  brown,  three  of 
the  bars  being  conspicuously  broader  than  the  others.  Bill  blackish 
blue  colour  ;  legs  and  feet  yellow  ;  irides  bright  yellow. 


74  Catalogue  of  Me  Birdt  [Jdlt 

The  male  bird  is  tliroughout  of  an  uniform  dark  clove  brown,  with 
rather  less  white  about  the  bellv  and  vent. 

» 

Length  of  male  24,  of  female  27  inchea  :  of  the  latter  the  wings  arc 
18  ;  tail  1 1 ;  tarsus  2i  ;  middle  toe  3f^ths  ;  outer  and  inner  toes,  without 
the  claws,  nearly  equal.  The  irides  of  one  of  Mr.  Elliot'^  specimena 
were  blood  red. 

19. — P,  EUiolti,  Jameson's  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal  (no 

description). 

The  following  account  of  this  new  species  of  honey-buzzard,  I  take 
entirely  from  Mr.  Elliot's  notes,  who  met  with  it  in  the  Southern  Mah- 
ratta  country,  and  took  home  specimens,  which  are  deposited  in  the  Col- 
lege Maseuro,  Edinburgh,  and  in  honour  of  whom  it  was  named  by  Pro- 
fessor Jameson,  of  Edinburgh.     I  have  never  met  with  it. 

Description. — Hind  head  considerably  crested;  colour  above,  brown^ 
the  crest  and  shades  on  the  back  very  dark;  head,  neck,  and  middle 
coverts  very  pale,  intermixed  with  white;  ocular  band  dark  brown  ; 
cheeks  and  beneath  white  ;  throat  with  a  few  brown  lines  ;  quills  with 
darker  bands  on  the  inner  webs;  tail  irregularly  dark  banded  with  5  or  6 
bands,  edged  with  whitish,  and  passing  into  pale  brown  in  the  centre  of 
the  intermediate  spaces  ;  cere,  legs  and  irides  yellow;  beak  and  talons 
black,  the  former  paler  at  base.  In  another  specimen  the  space  in  front 
of  the  eyes  and  a  band  below  the  eyes  also  were  dark,  and  the  tail  had 
two  broad  dark  bands  near  the  base,  and  one  near  the  tip,  with  between 
them  about  six  narrow  pale  transverse  stripes,  also  whitish  extreme 
tip.* 

Length  of  male  about  2  feet ;  beak  Ij^'yths  of  an  inch  to  front ;  tail  10 
inches,  exceeding  wings  by  2^  or  3  inches  ;  tarsus  2^^^^^^  !  middle  toe  3 ; 
claw  alone  -j^ths  ;  bill  strong  bent  with  scarcely  a  festoon;  claws 
strong,  bent  and  channelled.  In  the  stomach  of  one  were  some  frag- 
ments of  black  ants,  some  hair,  and  what  was  supposed  to  be  the  rough 
skin  of  a  monitor  lizard  :  another  had  eaten  honev,  wax  and  bees. 


*  It  differs  entirely  from  the  former  in  baring  a  smaller  crest,  and  being  altogether  of  a 
light  colour,  and  tchite  beneath  ;  the  Ftiloryhnchut  being  nearly  black,  dotted  with  y^hM 
beneath  and  under  the  wing8,and  the  tail  with  fewer  bands.— W.  E. 


1839]  of  the  Pgninsula  of  India.  7« 

Genus  SPIZAETUS,  VieilL- i?a^/#  buzzard, 

20. — S,  milvoiJes, —  New  species.  ? 

Deseripfion. — Head  and  liiud  neck  of  a  pale  orange  brown,  the 
feathers  lanceolate  and  streaked  in  centre  with  dark  brown.  Some  of 
the  feathers  of  the  occiput  entirely  brown  and  elongated,  showing  that 
the  bird  has  been  probably  crested  (I  did  not  see  it  in  the  fresh  state)  ;  a 
narrow  supert'iliary  stripe,  and  a  band  from  the  angle  of  the  mouth  to 
the  ears  and  chin,  deep  brown.  Rest  of  the  upper  plumage  of  a  sepia 
brown  ;  middle  coverts  and  some  of  the  scapulars,  broadly  edged  with 
whitish  brown,  causing  a  conspicuous  broad  light  coloured  mark  on 
the  wings,  as  in  B,  t.e$a  and,  though  less  conspicuously,  in  the  Mii»u9 
ch^ele  ;  tail  darker,  barred  indistiuctly  on  the  inner  web  only.  Beneath, 
dark  reddish  brown — palest  on  the  feathers  of  the  tarsi.  Cere 
and  nasal  portion  of  the  bill  yellow — feet  do.  Bill  small,  bending 
from  the  base;  cutting  edge  almost  perfectly  straight.  Inner  edge  of 
the  centre  claw,  dilated,  as  in  Pemis»  Feet  short ;  length  23  inches ; 
wings  16};  tail  beyond,  2;  from  base  9;  tarsus  2^,  stout;  mid« 
toe  2} ;  three  broad  scales  at  the  base  of  each  claw,  inner  claw  very  large. 

This  is  the  bird  alluded  to,  under  the  head  of  the  common  kite,  as  the 
one  to  which  the  blame  of  carrying  off  chickens,  pigeons,  &c.  should,  at 
all  events  from  the  accounts  I  received,  be  sometimes  attributed.  My 
attention  was  first  called  to  this  bird  atTrichinopoly,by  Mr.  Hooper,C.S. 
who  kindly  gave  me  a  specimen  shot  by  himself  in  the  act  of  pouncing 
on  some  of  his  pigeons.  I  occasionally  afterwards  recognised  it,  as  I 
thought,  among  the  kites,  and  saw  it  attempt  to  swoop  off  chickens  and 
pigeons,  though  I  failed  in  procuring  a  second  specimen.  Its  appear- 
ance in  the  air  and  mode  of  flight  much  resemble  that  of  the  kite,  but 
the  crows  appear  to  distinguish  it  readily,  and  often  clamorously  pursue 
it.  I  have  not  hitherto  observed  it  elsewhere.  I  have  given  it  provi- 
vlsionally  the  name  of  A/iVvoiV/et  from  the  general  similarity  of  its 
markings,  and  its  usual  association  with  the  common  kite. 

Genus   BUTSO.-~Auct.  Buzzard. 

21.  B.  longipes.—^ew  species?— F.  albidus ?—Temm.  P.   C—Chooa 

mir,  H  'i-^Long  lejyed  buzzard. 

This  bird,  if  a  true  species  of  buzzard,and  hitherto  andescribed,  maybe 
named  as  above,  from  its  long  tarsi,which  evidently  ally  it  to  the  Hani- 


76  CatahKjue  of  the  Birds  [JuLT 

ers.     It  approaches  somewhat  to  the  description  of  B,  alhidus^  Less. 
but  that  is  said  to  be  crested,  and  if  so,  is  more  probably  a  honey-buzzard. 

Description. — I  possess  two  specimens  differing  a  good  deal  from  each 
other,bolh  of  which  I  shall  briefly  describe. — The  first  has  general  ground 
tint  of  a  yellowish  brown,  purest  on  the  liead,  neck,  throat  and  breast, 
most  of  the  feathers  are  centred  darker.  On  the  back  the  tint  is  nearly 
lost  by  the  prevalence  of  the  darker  shade,  an  edging  of  the  lighter  co- 
lour only  being  left ;  quills  with  outer  web  greyish,  inner  web  blackish 
from  tip  to  deep  sinuosity ;  white  beyond  ;  tail  reddish  grey  and  indis- 
tinctly barred.  Belly,  vent,  thigh,  coverts,  deep  auburn  brown  ;  the  line  of 
demarcation  be  I  ween  this  and  the  lighter  tint  of  the  breast  strongly  and 
abruptly  marked.  Cere  pale  greenish  yellow  ;irides  yellow  ;  legs  dirty 
yellow;  length  26 inches  ;  wings  18J  ;  tail  10;  tarsus  nearly  4;  mid  toe  2^. 

My  other  specimen  I  at  present  possess  alive,  havingonly  very  slight- 
ly wounded  it  :  its  head,  necl(,  throat, breast,  and  belly  are  white,  streak- 
ed on  some  of  the  feathers  with  reddish  brown  ;  back,  as  in  the  other 
specimen,  but  rather  lighter  ;  tail  with  the  outer  webs  reddish  white  ;  in- 
ner white,  indistinctly  and  incompletely  barred  with  darker  ;  cere  yel- 
lowish green;  irides  pale  yellow.  This  is  apparently  the  younger  bird  of 
the  two. 

This  bird  differs  from  the  characters  of  Bufeo  in  its  higher  bill  and 
larger  cere  and  nostrils.  In  these  respects,as  well  as  in  its  length  of  tarsus, 
it  approaches  the  C/?ci,  bu  tlias  remarkably  short  though  strong  feet  and 
claws,  a  r<»bu8ter  make, and  different  habits.  Tai*sus  shielded  anteriorly 
and  posteriorly  with  large  and  well  defined  scales  ;  toes  only  furnished 
at  their  extremity  with  large  scales  ;  outer  and  inner  toes,  without  the 
claws,  sub-equal  ;  wings  with  4th  quill  largest,  reaching  to  end  of  tail, 
which  is  slightly  rounded;  four  first  quills  much  notched. 

This  is  certainly  a  rare  bird.  I  have  hitherto  only  seen  it  near  Jaul- 
nah,  perched  on  low  trees  or  on  the  ground,  in  fields,  or  near  water,  and 
taking  a  low  and  short  flight  to  another  similar  perch.  In  the  stomach 
of  the  specimen  1  shot  there  was  a  Gryllota^pa.  Mr.  Elliot,  who  met 
with  this  species  only  in  Guzrat,  says,  **  This  bird  evidently  preys  on  the 
field  rats  which  abound  in  the  sandy  soil  of  this  province.  He  is  seen 
sitting  on  low  trees  or  bushes,  over  the  rat  burrows,  and,watching  his  op- 
portunity, darts  down  on  his  victim.  In  the  stomach  of  one  were  the 
exuviffi  of  a  rat  (Arvicola)  and  a  large  beetle."  He  also  says,  "eye- 
brows very  prominent ;  large  eye  ;  full  pupil  ;  irides  pale  dun." 

22 — B.  feeiOj    Gray. — Circus  ttesa^  Fr  mkl. — F.  tricirgatuSf   Temm. — 

Aalur  HydeVf  Sykes. — 2\e$a^  H. 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  qf  India.  77 

I  shall,  for  the  present,  here  place  this  somewhat'anomalous  biid,  and 
shall  consider  it  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  buzzards  and  falcons. 
Colonel  Sykes,  and  others,  consider  it  as  an  /fWwr,  to  which  it  certainly 
has  some  resemblance  ;  but  as  in  Swainson's  classification  the  falcons 
and  not  the  hawks  are  united  to  the  buzzards,  and  as  it  certainly  in 
many  points  is  allied  to  BuUOf  I  have  accordingly  left  it  as  the  medium 
of  junction  of  the  two  families.  I  am  by  no  means  certain,  however,  that 
it  should  remain  here ;  for  its  small  size,  its  manner  of  flight,  and  other 
habits,  tend  to  remove  it  from  this  h&ivy-flying  family.  I  have  only 
hitherto  seen  the  Ttesa  in  the  more  northern  portion  of  the  Deecan,  and 
it  increases  in  number  as  you  advance  to  the  northward  ;  about  Jaulnah 
it  is  very  numerous.  It  frequents  topes,  as  well  as  the  open  country t 
where  it  may  be  seen  seated  on  low  trees  and  bushes,  an  ant  hill,  or  the 
banks  of  rivers,  whence  it  pounces  on  mice,  lizards,  small  snakes  and 
various  large  insects  and  their  larvse.  Mr.  Elliot  in  his  notes  says,  "  It 
is  8aid  to  be  fond  of  crabs.  It  certainly  does  not  refuse  them.  I  saw  a 
Pardee  catch  one  directly  by  baiting  his  springs  or  nooses  with  a  crab.  " 
The  flight  of  the  Teesa  is  tolerably  rapid,  performed  by  repeated  strokes 
of  the  wings,  exactly  like  that  of  the  Kestril,  for  which  at  a  distance 
I  have  occasional) y  mistaken  it.  Its  flight  too  in  general  is  low.  I 
have  seen  it  several  times  take  a  much  more  extended  flight  than  usual 
over  a  rumna,  flying  at  a  low  elevation,  and  now  and  then  rising  slowly 
a  few  feet,  and  I  observed  it  apparently  capture  a  locust  or  some  other 
insect  on  the  wing.  I  possess  at  present  a  pair  of  the  Teeea  alive,  a 
young  male  and  adult  female.  The  male  has  much  white  below, streak- 
ed with  brown,  and  the  brown  of  the  upper  parts  is  not  so  dark  as  in  the 
adult  specimen.  The  irides  are  light  brown.  I  had  lately  also  brought 
me  a  full  fledged  young  bird,  which  had  dropped  from  the  nest.  In 
this  the  head,  back  of  neck,  and  all  below,  were  of  a  reddish  fown  colour, 
streaked  with  brown.  The  light  wing  spot  was  also  of  a  reddish  white 
colour,  and  the  irides  dark  brown,  in  other  respects  it  did  not  differ  ma* 
terially  from  the  older  birds  ;  has  a  plaintive  but  crowing  call,  consist- 
ing of  two  notes.  Irides  silvery  white  ;  cere  and  part  of  bill  yellow ; 
tip  of  the  latter  blackish;  legs  and  feet  yellow.  Length  16 — 17i  ; 
of  a  fem.  17^,  the  wing  12— tail  6|— tarsus,  2^,  mid.  toe  2. 

I  shall  here  add  a  few  particulars  respecting  the  structure  of  this  cari- 
ous bird.  Bill  rather  short,  edge  of  the  mandible  scarcely  festooned, gradu- 
ally bending  from  base,  nostrils  rather  small,  pyriforro,with  narrow  p<nntf 


78  Catalogue  qf  the  Birds  [JuLT 

placed  upwards  and  forwards ;  wings  reaching  to  within  ahout  an  inch 
of  end  of  tail;  3d  and  4th  quills  longest  and  nearly  equal ;  four  first,  with 
webs,  notched,  but  not  so  deeply  as  in  the  last  species.  Legs  and  feel 
moderate,  strong;  anterior  scales  large,  transverse ;  posterior  not  so 
distinct,  in  a  double  row.  Internal  lateral  scales  small,  irregular.  Ex- 
ternal ditto,  larger.  Feet  short  ;  inner  toe  without  the  claw,  shorter 
than  the  outer  one  ;  whole  length  of  the  toes  covered  with  broad  scales. 

Genus  CIRCUS,  Bechstein— Harrier. 

23 — C\  palliduSi  S\  kes.—  C  ct/arieus,vdr^ — Dust-mal,  H.-^Indian   ffar* 

rier  and    Ringtail, 

Besides  the  peculiarities  of  plumage  which  induced  Colonel  Sykes  to 
sepamte  this  bird  from  the  European  Harrier^  it  differs  in  having  the 
wing  longer,  being  in  some  specimens  14^  inches  long,  and  reaching 
within  1^  inch  of  the  end  of  the  tall ;  it  also  difiers  somewhat  in  the  pro- 
portionate length  of  the  quills. 

The  Indian  Harrier  is  very  generally  spread  and  in  many  parts  indeed 
very  abundant.  It  frequents  the  open  stony  plains  and  cultivated 
ground;  especially  when  the  grain  is  high — occasionally,  though  raijely,  I 
have  seen  it  in  cantonment,  hunting  along  a  hedge  side.  I  have  seen 
it  perch  on  trees,  though  very  seldom.  Its  chief  food  is  lizards,  locusts 
and  grasshoppers ~ also  mice  and  small  or  young  birds,  especially  quail, 
if  an  opportunity  occurs  of  suddenly  snatching  them.  Mr.  Elliot  says  in 
his  notes,  **  migrates  from  Southern  Mahratta  country  in  February^ 
and  returns  at  the  end  of  the  monsoon  like  the  DhyreeJ** 

24.— C  eineraceuSt   Mont. — C  Moiitagui,  Vieill.* — Montague^s    Hav 

rier. 

This  species  is  I  think  more  abundant  even  than  the  last  in  the  table 
land,  but  I  did  not  observe  it  in  the  Carnatic.  It  frequents  the  same 
ground,  and  has  the  same  habits  as  the  last.  It  differs  remarkably  from 
it  in  the  length  of  the  tarsus,  which  is  only  2J  inches  in  the  male  bird, 
whilst  in  C,  pallidum  it  is  about  three  inches. 

•  f  cannot  help  thinking  that  Nos.  23  and  24  are  the  Mme  bird.  I  deposited  a  seriei 
of  Bpeeimens  showing  the  varieties  uf  age  and  ^ox  in  what  I  oonsideied  to  be  three  ape- 
ciea,  but  which,  on  comparison,  were  found  to  agree  pretty  exactly  with  a  full  aeries  of 
Snglish  specimens  in  the  College  museum  £dinbur*jfh,  and  by  which  I  was  satisfied  of  the 
existence  of  two  well  defined  species  only,— Clf»cu*  cyaneut  and  C.  cineTaceus,ot  MotUagui. 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  79 

25.— C.  rti/us,  Brisg.— C.  variegaUis,  S)  kes*  adult  hudL.-'Mauhlfarritr. 

— Kuotur,  H. 

I  venture  to  bring  these  synonymes  together  on  tlieauthority  of  Gould, 
as  mentioned  in  a  late  volume  of  the  Naturalist's  Library  on  British 
Birds.  The  marsh-harrier  is  generally  spread  throughout  India,  but  is 
not  nearly  so  common  as  either  of  the  former  species.  It  prefers  hunting 
over  rivers,  tanks,  marshes  and  pnddy  fields,  but  also  is  frequently  seen 
skimming  over  the  dry  grain  fields ;  it  feeds  on  various  water  insects, 
fish,  frogs,  mice  and  small  birds.  The  irides  of  (he  adult  bird  are  yel* 
low,  of  those  in  imperfect  plumage,  dark  brown.  Length  of  one  specimen 
21 1  inches,  wing,  16,  tail,  9,  tarKus,  3-y\th$,  mid.  toe,  2}. 

26. — C  Melanoleueus.—Black  and  White  Harrier, 

Though  I  have  not  yet  procured  a  specimen  of  this  rare  Harrier^  \  have 
seen  it  occasionally  both  in  the  Carnatic  and  West  Coast,  and  it  is  includ- 
ed in  Mr.  Elliot's  catalogue  of  the  birds  in  (he  Southern  Mabratta 
country,  from  which  I  take  the  following,  measurements: — Length  17 — 
18  inches;  taisi  2-tV^'»  weak;  mid.  toe  1^  ;  bill  and  cere  black  ; 
legs  yellow  ;  wings  l./^ths,  shorter  than  tail. 


Sub  Family   FALCONINiE,  True  Falcon. 

Genus  FALCON.— Auct.  Fakon, 

27. — F,  peregrintu,  Peregrine  Falcon, — Bhgrei,  H. — the  male  being  the 

Bhyree  hucha. 

It  is  surprising  that  the  Peregrine  falcon  has  not  hitherto  been  re- 
corded a?  an  inhabitant  of  India,  as  ills  universally  spread  and  much 
used  in  Falconry  by  the  natives.  No  mention  of  its  having  been  found 
here  is  made  in  '  Yarrell's  British  Birds,'  nor  in  Sir  W.  Jardine's  later 
work,  though  in  the  latter  it  is  stated  '  we  think  it  much  more  than  pro- 
bable that  it  may  also  be  found  in  the  Alpine  regions  of  India.'  The  Bky' 
tee  is  found  even  in  the  hottest  parts  of  the  peninsula.  I  obtained  one 
alive  at  Trichinopoly  which  was  said  to  have  fallen  into  a  tank.  Many 
are  yearly  captured  about  Kamnad  and  also  in  the  Northern  Circars, 
I  shot  a  speciuicn  on  some  rocks,  in  the  sea  of  Tellicherry,  at  the  end  of 


80  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [JoLT 

April;  and  it  is  tolerably  abiin<lant  in  the  more  norlhern  parls  of  the 
Deccan,  as  near  Jaulnali,  occasionally  coming  inio  cantonment  and  car- 
rying off  chickens,  &c.  Mr.  Elliot  in  his  notes  says,  **  It  is  niigralory, 
appearing  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  peninsula  in  September  or  Octo- 
ber, and  remaining  till  Marcli  or  April, when  it  dis:ippears  for  the  purpose 
of  breeding  and  moulting."  (I  think  I  have  observed  it  as  late  as  June 
near  Jaulnah,  but  cannot  be  certain).  **  Great  numbers  are  caught  every 
year  in  the  Northern  Circars  by  a  cast  named  Yarhleesy  and  sold  to  the 
falconers  of  Hyderabad,  Kurnool,  &c.,  at  an  average  of  10  rupees  each. 
The  falconers  distinguish  three  kinds,  the  black,  the  red  and  the 
white,  according  to  the  shades  in  ilieir  plumage."  The  Bhyree  affects, 
in  general,  open  country,  rocky  hills  and  deep  valleys  where  brush- 
wood abounds,  also  frequents  tanks,  an)  preys  much  on  paddy  birds, 
ducks  and  other  water- fowl.  It  is  more  esteemed  for  its  courage  and 
powers  of  flight  than  either  of  the  other  two  large  falcons  found  in 
this  country.  It  does  not  differ,  as  far  as  I  can  judge,  from  the  de- 
scriptions of  British  specimens. 

28. — F.  luggur,—^ew    species  ?—F.    lannrlvs,  L,?—Luggurf  H. — the 

male  being  the  Juggur.* 

This  species  of  falcon,  apparently  undes  Tibed,  appears  much  to  re- 
semble the  description  of  F,  lanarins  or  tlie  Latiner  ;  but,  owing  to  the 
only  description  I  have  access  to  being  very  brief  and  imperfect,  I  can- 
not speak  with  any  certainty.  It  is  said  by  Mr.  Gould  to  exceed  the 
Peregrine  in  size,  and  if  so,  is  probably  distinctas  the  Indian  bird,  though 
much  about  the  same  length  as  the  Peregrine^  is  not  so  large  or  heavy  a 
bird.  Mr.  Gray  has  given  the  specific  name  of  juggur  to  a  falcon, 
which  I  do  not  know,  but  which  does  not  resemble  this  one  in  the  least. 

The  lugger  is  the  most  common  of  the  large  falcons  of  India  ;  unlike 
the  last  it  breeds  here  and  on  trees  durincr  the  hot  weather. 

Deser, — Above,  of  a  uniform  brown  colour  ;  below,  white,  with  a  few 
brown  spots  and  brown  check  stripe  ;  cere  and  legs,  blueish  ;  wing  fea- 
thers hardly  reach  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  Quills  and  rectrices  with 
numerous  white  spots  on  their  inner  webs  ;  young  bird  is  entirely  brown 


•  The  old  bird  at  the  5th  year  is  figured  in  Gray  &  ilardwiekp,  very  correctly  ;  vol.  li. 
pi.  26.  Mr.  Jerdon'a  remarks,  seem  to  refer  entirely  to  the  younj;  bird.  It  is  probably 
anew  species,  differing  from  the  Lanwr  ;  is  about  the  same  size  is  ihe  SAaheen.^nd  much 
•mailer  than  the /*eregrine.—W.  E. 


!«««]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  81 

below.  It  loses  the  brown  of  the  breast  at  its  first  moultinfr,  and  that 
of  the  belly  with  the  two  following  moults.  Length  of  an  adult  female, 
first  year,  19  inches.  I  have  derived  most  of  the  above  information,  re- 
garding the  change  of  colour  of  the  luggur,  from  Mr.  Elliot's  notes,  as, 
though  it  is  far  from  being  uncommon,  and  I  have  frequently  seen  it, 
I  have  hitherto  only  procured  young  birds.  One  was  brought  to  me 
alive  at  Trichinopoly  ;  it  was  a  bird  of  the  year,  and  entirely  brown. 
Another  I  shot  lately  at  Jaulnah,  has  the  head  and  hind  neck  of  a  light 
fawn  colour,  broadly  streaked  with  brown ;  chin  and  throat  white  ;  fea- 
thers centred  with  brown ;  under  tail  coverts  fawn,  barred  with  brownish 
grey,  rest  of  the  plumage  dark  brown,  the  feathers  margined  with  a 
lighter  tint. 

The  Lugger  is  flown  frequently  at  the  crow,  in  pursuit  of  which  much 
sport  is  said  to  be  afforded.  It  is  a  bird  of  heavier  and  slower  flight  than 
any  of  the  other  falcons  of  India. 

29. — F,  Shafieen, — New  species. — Shaheen,  H.  j  the  male   being  the 

kogla,* 

This  also  apparently  undescribed  falcon,  very  much  resembles  the 
colouring  of  the  F,  j'uggur  of  Gray,  but  differs  in  wanting  the  rufouf 
head  of  the  latter.  It  is  not  so  common  as  the  last,  I  think,  and  preferf 
a  wooded  country,  or  at  all  events  does  not  dislike  it,  for  I  have  shot  it 
in  Travancore,  in  a  thickly  wooded  district,  and  seen  specimens  from  other 
parts  of  the  West  Coast.  From  Mr.  Elliot's  notes  I  extract  the  follow- 
ing :  ''  The  shahfen  is  a  native  of  India,  and  breeds  pretty  generally 
among  rocky  mountains.  The  moulting  begins  about  March,  when 
they  also  pair,  and  the  young  begin  to  fly  about  June,  when  they  are 
caught  by  the  falconer.  Their  natural  flight  is  a  high  hovering  in 
the  air,  from  which  they  pounce  on  their  prey.  This  the  falconer  im- 
proves into  a  standing  gait,  and  makes  them  stoop  on  partridges, 
florikin,  &c.  I  have  also  heard  of  their  being  made  to  fly  at  duck  and 
teal." 

Description. — Above,  of  a  slate  blue  colour,  lightest  on  the  rump ;  head, 
hind  neck  and  cheek  streak  nearly  black  ;  beneath,  brownish  orange,  or 
a  sort  of  chesnut  colour,  which  gradually  disappears  on  the  throat, 
breast  and  upper  part  of  belly,  being  replaced  by  white.  In  the  young 
bird  the  parts  beneath  are  spotted  with  dark  brown  drops,  which  gra- 
dually disappear  from  the  crop  downwards.   Cere  and  legs  yellow  ;  irides 

•  It  is  figured  correctly  in  Temminck,  PI.  lUum.  ai  F.  Aldotrandii.—'W,  E. 


82  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [3vvt 

deep  brown  ;  quills  and  tail  blackish  grey.  Length  of  female  17 — 17 J 
inches;  of  a  male  bird  14} :  wings  to  end  of  second  quill  10} ;  tail  5  J;  tarsus 
IJ;  middle  toe  2J.  It  differs  in  structure  from  the  Peregrine  in  having 
a  shorter  wing,  shorter  tarsus,  and  in  the  3cl  quill  (if  my  specimen  is 
in  perfect  i)lumage)  being  considerably  shorter  than  the  first. 

The  Shaheen  is    said  to  be    very  speedy,  even  more  so   than  the 
Peregrine,  though  it  will  not  hold  out  so  long. 


30. — F,  cJiicquera,  Lath. — F.  ruficolNs,  Swain. — Fem.  Turoomtes — male 

Chetwa,  H. 

The  specific  name  of  Chicqutra  has  been  erroneously  apiplied  to 
this  species,  being  the  Indian  name  for  the  common  sparrow  hawk  of 
the  country.  It  corresponds  in  colouring  exactly  to  the  description 
by  Swainson  of  his  supposed  new  species  ;*  the  black  marks  round  the 
ear  and  beneath  the  eye,  supposed  by  him  to  distinguish  his  ruficoUut 
are  always  present.  It  is  generally,  however,  a  larger  bird.  The  /«- 
roomtee  frequents  patches  of  wood  or  single  trees  in  the  open  country, 
and  even  gardens.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  peninsula,  is  a  bird 
of  great  courage  and  activity,  generally  hunts  in  pairs,  rising  alternate- 
ly over  their  prey,  and  sometimes  following  closely  on  the  wing*.  I 
have  seen  it  hover,  occasionally,  though  rarely.  It  preys  chiefly  on  small 
birds.  Mr.  Elliot  has,  **  will  not  suffer  other  birds  to  approach  their 
perch,  but  drive  away  even  the  wokhub,  hovering  over  him  with 
shrill  cries.  The  turoomtee  is  occasionally  reclaimed  and  flown 
at  small  birds,  especially  at  the  common  jay  or  roller  {Coraciaa  Bengal 
lensis),  in  pursuit  of  which  much  amusement  is  afforded  from  the  clum- 
sy evolutions  and  harsh  cries  of  the  quarry."  Naked  space  round  eyes, 
cere  and  base  of  bill  yellow  ;legs  do. ;  length  14 — 15  inches, — of  chetwa 
11 — 12.     Tail  exceeding  wing  by  nearly  two  inches. 

21. — F.  ttnnunculus,  L. — Kestril  or  windhover. — Nurzee  Nurzanuck^  H. 

The  kestril  is  an  extremely  common  and  abundant  bird,  frequenting 
chiefly  the  open  plains  and  bare  rocky  hills.  Its  chief  food  is  lizards, 
also  large  insects,  and  occasionally  young  birds.  The  male  is  occasion- 
ally as  large  as  the  female. 

•  V.  Birds  of  W  est  Africa,    vol.  1. 


^39]"  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  aS 

Sub  Family  ACCIPITER.— ^air/t*. 
Genus  ACCIPITER,  \T\\\,^ Sparrow  Ifauk. 

1^2. — J.  duJchunensis,  Sykes.— ^.  dvsmmerii,  Temm,  f-^Chicquera  or 
Shikra,  H.  ;  the  male  chipka,--  Common  sparrow  hawk. 

Colonel  Sykes  has  accurately  described  the  young  state  of  this  bird  ; 
but  the  adult  plumage  differs  so  mudi  that  it  might  be  niisfakcn  for  a 
distinct  species,  and  I  shall  accordingly  describe  it :  — Above  of  a  delicate 
bluish  grey  colour,  darkest  on  the  head,  ears  greyish  fawn,  throat  white, 
with.in  some  instances.a  faint  longitudinal  stripe -.breast  and  belly  white, 
very  numerously  barred  with  narrow,  transverse,  fawn  coloured  marks, 
so  much  so  as  almost  to  conceal  the  white  ground.  Lower  belly,  thighs 
and  under  tail  coverts  pure  white;  a  brownish  red  mark  extends  partially 
round  the  upper  part  of  the  back  of  ihe  neck,  forming  a  half  cellar, 
only  conspicuous  however  when  the  neck  is  stretched.  Quills  blackish. 
Tail  with  '-i  middle  and  2  outer  fealhers  not  barred,  the  remaining  ones 
only  on  their  inner  webs.  Cere  bright  yellow  ;  irides,  deep  orange  yellow; 
feet  buff  yellow  ;  length  of  male  12  J  inches;  of  female  14  J  ;  of  ihe  latter 
the  wing  to  end  of  4th  quill  is  8  j^\hs  ;  tail  4  inches  beyond,  from  base 
nearly  7 ;  Jursus  about  2;  mid.  toe  l-yV'^^^  »  tarsus  with  anterior  scales 
large,  transverse  ;  posterior  scales,  smalt  and  numerous  above,  larger 
below,  and  in  two  rows  ;  external  lateral  scales  distinct  and  transverse.; 
internal  lateral,  indlstinct,or  confounded  with  the  posterior. 

This  widely  spread  hawk  prefers  a  woody  situation,  though  not  in 
general  found  in  thick  jungles.  It  hunts  about  avenues,  hedge  rows, 
topes  and  open  spcices  in  the  jungle,  often  enters  gardens,  approaching, 
close  to  houses.  It  takes  its  prey  by  a  sudden  pounce,  seldom  attempt- 
ing to  follow.  Its  chief  food  is  lizards  and  small  or  young  birds.  The 
Shikra  is  very  commonly  reclaimed  ;  in  this  state  it  is  a  bird  of  great 
courage,  and  will  easily  strike  down  partridges,,  crows,  and  even  larger 
birds,  as  the  small  hombills  {8.  gingianus)  and  young  half  grown 
peafowl.  I  am  informed  that  at  Hyderabad  it  has  been  trained  to  hunt 
hares.  Mr.  Elliot  says,  '*  a  variety  without  the  black  line  on  throat  is 
called  meeluriy  and  is  particularly  esteemed  in   falconry.'' 

I  think  it  barely  possible  that  the  F,  Dtusumerii  of  Temm.  may  be  iden- 
tical with  this  bird  ;  though  I  see  Colonel  Sykes  has  referred  to  this 
another  species,  and  Mr.  Elliot  considers  it  as  properly  belonging  to  the 
next  species^. 


84  Catalogue  of  the  Bird*  [July 

33.—-^.  Dussumerii.^F.  Dussumerii,  Temm.V.C.  ?^£asha  (the  female) 

Bashecn   (the  male),H. 

I  have  not  hitherto  seen  this  sparrow  hawk,  and  take  the  following 
brief  description  from  Mr.  Elliot's  notes  :  "Above,  brown,  white  eyebrow 
tail  with  5  or  6  bars;  beneath,  white  barred,  and  a  tinge  of  reddish  on 
breast ;  utters  a  plaintive  cry  like  the  hesra  ;  legs  lung  and  thin."  Colonel 
Sykes  says,  *  Irides  bright  yellow,  wings  short,  tail  long  and  narrow  {6| 
inches) ;  total  length  of  a  female!  2^  inches.'As  I  before  stated,!  think  that 
this  species  may  be  yet  undescribed,  for  several  specimens  ofF,  Duseu' 
merit  appear  to  have  been  taken  home  by  the  French  travellers,  and 
the  Shikra  is  the  only  species  at  all  common. 

84. — A.  Besra, — New  species  ? — Besra  (female),  Dhotee  (male),  H. 

Of  this  species  I  am  also  ignorant,  and  am  indebted  again  to  Mr.  El- 
liot's notes  for  the  following  very  brief  notice. 

**  Above,  brown  ;  beneath,  white  with  brown  spots  ;  becoming  more 
cinereous  with  age,  and  the  spots  beneath  becoming  broad  bars;  cere 
and  legs  greenish  yellow  ;  eyes  yellow,  large  pupil ;  length  about  12  in- 
ches, tarsus  2,V  of  an  inch."* 

35. — A,  fringillarius. — Etigltsh  sparrow-hawk,^ 

I  shot  a  specimen  of  w  hat  I  suppose  may  be  the  European  species  in 
thick  and  lofty  jungle  on  the  Coonoor  pass  of  the  Neilgherries,  at  about 
5000  feet  of  elevation— I  add  a  description  of  my  specimen  : — Above  of  a 
deep  clove  brown  with  black  reflections,  head  and  back  of  neck  almost 
black,  tail  light  grey,  with  4  broad  dark  bars  on  the  centre  feathers,  and  6 
on  the  external  ones,  face  and  ears  dusky,  throat  white,  with  a  longitu- 
dinal stripe,  and  a  few  streaks  of  dusky  black ;  breast,abdomen,  and  thigh 
coverts,  white,  numerously  and  broadly  barred  with  rufous  brown,  mixed 
vith  dusky  brown  ;  under  tail  coverts  pure  white  ;  cere  and  legs  lemon 
yellow  ;  irides  bright  yellow;  total  length  14J  ;  wings  to  end  of  4th  quill 
7J  ;  tail  5-yVhs  ;  tarsus  2  j  middle-toe  l-yVhs  j  tarsi  thin,  with  the  ante- 
rior and  posterior  scales  each  of  one  entire  piece;  no  lateral  scales. 

*  I  hare  only  met  with  it  in  the  Soonda  jungles, where  it  is  taken  young  by  a  caste  call. 
ed  halapykt,  and  sold  to  falconers  from  Hyderabad. — W.  E. 

t  I  think  the  Basha  will  ultimately  turn  out  to  be  identical  with  this.    My  impression 
on  seeing  the  Basha  in  the   Gyktcart  Shikar  Kkanah  at  Baroda,  was  that  it   was  the  Eng- 
lish sparrow  hawk.    It  was  Tery  like  the  Box  in  miniature,  which  I  here  axst  identified 
■s  the  Co9hawk,-^yi .  £. 


18391  (if  the  Peninsula  of  India,  85 

Genus  ASTER.— Go.¥/*aM;/^. 

36. — ^,palambariu8, — Goshawk, — Baz  (female), /oora^  (male),  H. 

I  obtained  a  specimeti,  of  what  I  consider  as  the  young  male  of  this 
bird,  seated  on  a  bough  on  one  of  thethick  woods  of  the  Neilgberries  close 
to  Ootacamund.  I  several  times  afterwards  observed  a  pair  of  apparent- 
ly the  same  bird  hunting  together  near  Coonoor,  where  they  had  com- 
mitted several  depredations  on  some  pigeons,  and  I  one  day  saw  them 
make  an  unsuccessful  swoop  at  a  flock  of  pigeons  close  to  the  house. 
Their  flight  was  swift,  similar  to  that  of  sparrow-hawks,  but  at  a  consider- 
able height,  whenc:e  they  made  a  sudden  pounce.  I  add  a  description 
of  my  specimen: — Above  of  a  dark  brown;  the  eyebrows  white,  and  the 
feathers  of  the  head,  hind  neck,  and  upper  part  of  back  narrowly  edged 
with  whitish,  and  with  white  base;  tail  of  a  lighter  tint,  barred  with  4 
dark  bands  on  centre  feathers,  and  5  on  the  rest;  beneath,  white;  on  th« 
sides  of  the  breast  a  cluster  of  large  oval  brown  spots,  and  a  few  others 
sparingly  distributed  over  the  abdomen;  the  thigh  coverts  are  tranflr« 
versely  banded  with  brown;  cere  and  feet  lemon  yellow;  irides  bright 
yellow;  length  16J  inches;  wing  8^  to  the  end  of  4th  quill;  tail  beyond 
4^,  from  base  7 ;  tarsus  2y'^ ;  feathered  in  front  more  than  half  its  length  ; 
middle  toe  2  inches;  anterior  and  posterior  scales  large,  transverse  ;  ex- 
ternal lateral,  small  irregular.  I  see  by  Mr.  Elliot's  notes  that  he  con- 
siders the  celebrated  Baz  of  India  to  be  identical  with  the  European 
goskawk. 

Family  STRIGID^.— Oi^?&. 

Sub  Family  STRIGIN-ffi.— Typica/  owls. 
Genus  STRIX,   Auct. 

37. — S,  Javanica,  Horsf.^S,  flammea,  var.  }^Kar9yaj  or  Kurml  H. — 

vulyot  Boores  Chooree, —  White  Owl, 

This  has  been  separated  from  the  European  species  on  account  ef 
some  slight  though  permanent  deviations  of  colour,  which  many  dd  n#l 
consider  as  suflBcient  to  warrant  a  specific  distinction.  At,  however, 
Colonel  Sykes  has  followed  Horsfieli,  I  shall  also  do  so.  The  white 
owl  frequents  wooded  places,  topes,  busby  nullahs,  and  trees,  near  tanks 


%  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Jult 

and  rivers.  Though  gpnerally  spread,  it  is  not  very  common.  It  alters 
a  harsli  shrill  cry  at  night;  Mr.  Elliot  in  his  notes  says,  "The  natives 
assert  that  in  doing  so,  drops  of  blood  are  forced  from  its  bill,  and  should 
any  of  these  fall  on  the  backs  of  cattle,  they  became  wciik  in  the  loins.*' 
The  chief  food  of  this  owl  is  rats  and  mice.  Whilst  at  Madura  lately, 
one  flew  into  my  room  at  an  open  window  after  a  rat  that  was  running 
about,  and  I  secured  it  alive;  length  of  one  specimen  from  tip  of  bill  17; 
(from  top  of  disk  14)  wings  12;  tail  5;  tarsus  2| ;  middle  toe  2|;  ex« 
X)an8ion  of  wings  3  feet. 

38. — S.  Longtmemhris, — New  species  ? — 5.  Javanica^  var.  ? 

On  the  Neilgherries,  near  Coonoor,  in  a  bushy  valley,  I  obtained  a  spe- 
cimen of  an  owl  very  similar  to  the  last,  but  differing  in  some  structural 
points,  as  well  as  in  the  shade  of  plumage.  If  it  should  be  considered 
a  distiui^t  species,  it  may  be  named  as  above,  from  the  comparative  length 
of  both  wings  and  legs. 

Description, — The  ground  tint  of  the  plumage  is  similar  to  th:it  of 
&  Javanica^  but  lighter  or  more  yellow.  The  grey  tint  on  the  upper 
plumage  of  the  latter  is  replaced  by  a  deep  brown  colour,  and  the  white 
spots  are  less  numerous.  Below,  the  white  is  much  tintei  with  oche- 
rooB,  and  the  brownish  red  spot  on  the  disk  of  the  common  species  is 
here  of  a  very  deep  brown.  The  roost  important  differences,  however, 
are  structural,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  measurements  with  those 
of  the  last. 

Total  length  about  17^  ;  of  wing  \A\  ;  tail  5}  ;  tarsus  3^  ;  middle  toe 
2}.  The  wings  reach  two  inches  and  more  beyond  the  tail,  whilst  in 
Javanica  they  only  reach  half  an  inch  or  so.  A  simibr  species  to  this 
is  indicated  in  Griffith's  Cuvier  as  follows—"  Tuidara,  owl— jS.  perleUat 
Lieht — S.  Tuidarat  n.  &c.  Like  ^S.  Jlammea,  but  the  legs  are  longer— 
Brasil." 


Genus  OTUS,  Auct. 

39.— O.  hraehyotos,  Cuv. — Short  eared  OioL^Chota  Ghooghoo^  H, 

I  have  hitherto  only  obtained  this  species  on  the  table-land,  though 

I  am  informed  it  is  also  found  in  the  Carnatic  and  Northern  Circars  in 

suitable  ground.    It  is  not  very  common — frequents  long  grass  on  the 

open  plains,  and  is  occasionally  flushed  when  beating  for  florikio.     Of 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  87 

two  specimens  I  possess,  one  is  nearly  white  below,  whilst  the  other  is 
of  a  deep  ochreous  tint  throughout. 

40.—^.  ?   luguhris,  Tickell*— Jour.   As    Soc.  Ben.  No.   23.— CAo^Aurf 

Besruhy  H. 

As  I  have  never  seen  this  species  of  owl  I  merely  place  it  here  pro- 
visionally. It  probably  does  not  belong  even  to  this  sub-family,  for  Mr, 
Elliot  (to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  my  knowledge  of  it  as  a  peninsular 
species)  says,  "  It  seems  to  belong  to  the  falconine  owls,  with  a  short 
tail,  of  Cuvier." 

Description. — Above  of  a  uniform  dusky  brown,  beneath  whitish, 
barred  wilh  rusty  brown  like  the  Besrah — this  barring  decreases  in 
quantity  every  year.  A  white  line  on  the  forehead,  wings  and  tail,  with 
dark  transverse  spots  ;  burs  of  the  tail  five  in  number,  and  the  latter  tipt 
with  white.  Irides,  large, yellow;  cere  greyish,  fringed  wilh  black  hairs; 
legs  greyish,  covered  with  hairs  to  the  toes  ;  length  about  12  inches, 
breadth  26.  This  owl  inhabits  hills,  rocky  and  jungly  places.  Mr. 
Tickell  says,  **  inhabits  the  retired  parts  of  the  thickest  jungle,  coming 
tow^ards  the  edges  and  open  parts  at  night.  It  is  completely  nocturnal, 
and  in  a  calm  moonlight  night  its  cries  may  be  heard  to  a  great  distance, 
resembling  strongly  those  of  a  strangling  cat.'*  Mr.  Elliot  says,  **  when 
seized  cries  like  a  child.'' 

Sub  Family ?    Suh-typicel  Group^  Sw. 

Genus  URRUA,  Hodgson.t 

41. — U,  Bengalensis. — Otus    Bengalensis^   Frankl.    and   Vig. — Gould* 
Cent.  pi.  3 — Googooy  H. — Common  Indian  horned  OwL 

Tliis  large  and  handsome  owl  is  the  most  abundant  and  most 
universally '  spread  of  the  large  owls  of  India.  In  the  Carna- 
tic    the   googoo    frequents  rocky  barren    hills    chiefly,  where    seve- 

•  I  have  adapted  the  name  given  to  this  species  apparently  by  Lieut.  Tickell,  of  the 
Bengal  airay,  in  an  excellent  account  of  a  few  birds  collected  by  him  in  the  jungles  of 
Borabhum  and  Dholbhum.  It  would  not  I  hope  be  too  much  to  expect  from  him  a  fiill 
catalogue  of  the  birds  of  the  vast  plains  of  Bt-ngal,  and  neighbouring  countries,  arranged 
according  to  the  modern  nomenclature,  in  which  his  former  list  is  rather  deficient. 
From  this  lUt  (published  in  1833)  he  appears  highly  qualified  for  the  task,  and  U  it  is 
undoubtedly  a  desideratum,  I  trust  he  will  be  induced  to  undertake  it, 

t  Journal  Asiatic  Society  Bengal^No.  65. 


SS  Catalogue  qf  the  BirJs  [Jult 

ral  may  often  be  seen  seated  even  for  some  hours  after  sunrise. 
In  the  Deccan  it  frequents  rocky  ravines,  banks  of  rivers,  and 
holes  in  the  steep  sides  of  the  precipitous  trap  hills — also  often 
found  about  old  buildings,  fortK  and  walls.  On  tlie  Neilgherries  it  is 
however  generally  found  in  the  dense  woody  glens  there.  Though 
partially  diurnal,  it  ehiefly  preys  during  the  night ;  its  chief  food  is  rats 
and  lizards,  occasionally  birds,  crabs,  and  frequently  large  locusts  and 
mantides.  I  have  at  present  a  pair,  male  and  female,  of  this  species 
alive  in  my  possession.  Their  usual  cry  is  a  single,  loud,  clear  and 
prolonged  hoot.  I  occasionally  at  night  heard  them  utter  a  low  indis- 
tinct strangling  sort  of  cry.  They  vomit  bones  and  feathers  in  the  form 
of  a  pellet  When  alarmed  they  hiss,  and  make  a  loud  snapping  noise 
with  their  bills.  If  a  dog  or  other  animal  approaches,  they  lower  the 
head  almost  to  (he  ground,  erecting  the  whole  of  the  feathers  of  the 
body,  and  spreading  out  their  wings  to  their  full  extent ;  these  from  the 
•tooping  position  of  the  bird  are  nearly  vertical,  almost  touching  the 
ground  with  their  upper  edge ;  and  from  their  extent  the  bird  presents 
a  formidable  front  to  an  intruder.  Their  egrets  certainly  seem  con- 
nected with  their  exalted  sense  of  hearing,  being  generally  raised 
whilst  in  the  act  of  listening.  They  are  also  erect  during  sleep,  at 
which  time  the  wings  are  also  occasionally  brought  forward.  I  may 
here  remark  that  the  egrets  of  this  bird  are  drawn  too  large  in  Gould's 
Century,  and  besides  they  are  never  permanently  raised  in  the  position 
there  indicated,  being  kept  much  more  erect,  nearly  vertical  indeed. 

Gbnus  BULACA,  Hodgson,  foe.  ci/.—SCOTI APTEX,Sw.? 

iSL-r-B.  Sinensis. — S,  Sinensis,   Gray,  Gray  and   Hardw.  III.  I.  Z, — S. 
pagodarum,  Temm.  P.  C. — S,  s^io-putOj  Horsf. — S,  Indranee, 

Sykes  P — Young  bird  ? 

I  have  only  once  observed  this  very  elegantly  marked  species,  which 
I  have  referred  provisionally  to  Mr.  Hodgson's  lately  proposed  genus. 
I  met  it  in  a  tope,  and  some  large  single  trees,  near  Yerdupettah  to  the 
S.  of  Madura  on  the  Palamcottah  road.  If,  as  I  suspect,  S. pagodarum 
«Qd  S.  selo'puto  are  identical  with  this  bird,  Mr.  Gray's  specific  name 
must  be  abandoned.  It  is  an  owl  of  pre-eminent  beauty,  both  as  re* 
gards  the  shade  of  the  plumage  and  the  softness  and  delicacy  of  the 
markings. 

Length  (from  top  of  bill)  21  inches;  of  wing  15;  tail  7} ;  tarsus  2;^; 
middle  toe  2-y\ths ;  irides,  deep  brown.  Has  aharsh  and  dissonant 
cry  at  night. 


c^T^uAmi/ Aec/m-cubi. 


1839]  of  the  Pentnaula  of  India.  89 

Genus  SCOPS,  Sav. 

43.—S' Javanicusy  Less.— 5.  Lempyi,  Horsf.  ?— S.  «oc/«/a,Tcmm  ?— /n- 

dian  Scops  Owl, 

I  procured  a  single  specimen  of  a  small  owl,  that  answers  the  brief 
description  of  Lesson,  in  the  western  gliauts  near  the  Peria  pass. 

Descripliorf.—  Ahovet  brownish, varied  with  ferruginous  and  blackish. 
Quill  feathers  with  the  outer  webs  marke  I  by  several  stiongly  defined 
bars  of  buflf;  beneath  of  a  ferruginous  tint,  finely  vermiuulated  with 
brownish,  and  the  feathers  streaked  in  the  ceutre  with  blackish.  Length 
(from  tip  of  bill)  9^  ;  wing  6;  tail  2};  tarsus  yV^^s;  4th  and  5th  quill 
feathers  longest,  and  the  2d  is  equal  to  the  7th. 

Sub  Family  AETOGLAUCINjE,  Hodgson. -^flyr/e  Ow/#. 

Genl'S  HUHUA,  Hodgson,  loe,  cit. 

44. — H,  pectoralis, — New  species  ? — Ooman,  Mai. 

Description. — Above  of  a  deep  sepia  brown,  having  in  some  lights 
a  golden  tint ;  most  of  the  feathers,  especially  on  the  wing  coverts,  ter- 
tials,  scapulars  and  tail,  barred  and  mottled  wiih  light  bufi*.  Egrets 
long,  with  narrow  bars  of  whitish  ;  face,  ears,  rictal  and  mental  bristles 
silvery  grey,  very  strong  and  rigid  j  the  frontal  feathers  also  rigid  and 
bristly.  Bcneaih,  while,  feathers  barred  with  brown  numerously  on  the 
throat,  less  so  in  the  belly  and  vent,  and  the  bars  are  larger  and  takt 
an  arrow-headed  form.  A  narrow  pectoral  band  of  brown,  with  a  golden 
tinge,  and  edged  with  buif  as  above.  Iridesdeep  brown  ;  cere  greenish 
yellow  ;  bill  greenish-horn,  with  a  tinge  of  flesh  colour;  toes  dirty  red- 
dish yellow. 

Though  I  have  placed  this  bird  under  Mr.  Hodgson's  new  genus 
JIuhua,  with  which  it  agrees  in  some  of  the  most  important  cha- 
racters, especially  in  its  large  and  lengthened  bill,  large  egrets, 
short  stout  and  feathered  tarsi,  strong  toes,  and  immense  talons, 
yet  it  differs  in  the  following  respects  :  the  bill  is  hardly  straight- 
ened beyond  the  cere,  it  has  an  obsolete  festoon,  the  nares  art 
partially  covered  with  bristles,  which  extend  the  whole  length 
of  the  bill  ;  the  5th  and  6th  quills  are  longest  and  sub-equal,  and 
the  tertials  arc  nearly  as  long  as  the  primaries  ;   the  hind    talon  like* 


'Cafalcgue  of  the  Birds  XJvut 

^vriae  is  rather  larger  than  the  outer  fore  ;  the  toes  are  nearly  covered 
by  bristly  feathers,  an  1  there  are  3  large  s  ales  on  each  of  the  toes 
next  the  talon^i.  Thpse  differences,  however,  probably  only  entitle  this 
bird  to  rank  as  an  ^iberrant  species,  or  it  may  be  as  a  sub-genus.  Length, 
fi'i  inches;  wing  16^;  tail  8^;    tarsus  2;  mid  toe  3;  inner  3^. 

I  have  hitht*rro  only  found  this  powerful  and  splendid  owl  in  the 
dense  and  lofty  forests  of  Malabar.  It  is  chiefly  nocturnal,  issuing  forth 
to  the  more  0|ieii  spaces  about  dusk.  I  was  informed  by  an  intelligent 
native  lint  it  feels  on  various  mammalia,  and  also  on  fish,  and  that  it 
wili  dive  to  some  depth  for  these.  The  stomach  of  the  only  specimen  I 
procured  was  empty.  It  had  just  perched  on  a  large  palmyra  palm  over- 
looking a  tank.  It  utters  a  low  moaning  cry  at  inten'als.  Should  it 
prove  undescribed,  it  may  be  named  as  above,  from  the  marked  pectoral 
band. 

Gf.nus  CULTRUNGUIS,  Hodgson.— AV«/)a,  Less. 

45. — C  LfschenauU'ti. — Ketupa  Leachenaultiif  Less. — Temm.  P.  C.  20. 

—5.  Hardwickii,  Gray,     Gmy  an  i  Hardw.   III.  I.  Tt^.-^Amrai  ka 

Googoo,  H. — Large  horned  wood  Owl, 

I  have  here  adopted  Mr.  Hodgson's  excellent  and  classical  name, 
though  that  of  M.  Lesson  has  the  priority,  not  more  on  account  of  his 
accurate  generic  definition,  fhm  from  the  excellent  composition  of  the 
word.*  This  powerful  bird  is  generally  spread  throughout  India,  though 
fivr  from  being  common.  It  frequents  chiefly  the  more  wooded  districts, 
though  also  foun^  in  lopes  and  avenues  in  open  country.  It  is  partially 
diurnal.  Its  voice  is  a  loud  and  harsh  hollow  laugh.  I  know  noth  in  g 
of  its  food.  Mr.  Hodgson  says  that  the  genus  is  piscivorous,  and  thus 
the  analogy  of  its  feet  and  legs  with  those  of  Patid on  are  beautifully 
explained.  The  markings  of  the  species  figured  as  S.  Hardwtckii  in 
Gray  and  Hardwicke's  Jtiustratiotufi  appear  not  to  differ  from  those  of  our 
present  subject,  and  I  suspect  the  sentillaiiun  of  the  tarsi  there  repre- 
sented is  an  embellishment  of  the  native  artist,  most  probablvi  and  that 
fhis  must  therefore  stand  as  a  synonyrae. 

■•  It  is,  I  think,  much  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Hodgson,  who  in  this  and  other  initancet 
has  shewn  his  talent  in  the  formation  of  classically  compounded  words,  should  in  general 
adopt  unmeaning  (to  most  readers)  and  cacophonous  generic  names  from  the  vernacular 
dUalect  of  Nepal. 


1839]  •/  ih9  Peninsula  of  India.  01 

Sub  Family  .—Hawk  Owls. 

Gekds  NOCTUA,  Sav.— Hodgson.— ^//Atnt  of  recent  authors.— iVyc/i- 

p$i€S,    SW. 

I  shall  here  retain  for  the  present  the  generic  name  olNoctua,  though 
it  has  been  properly  objeclei  to  that  it  had  been  previously  applied  to  a 
genus  of  moths. 

46. — N.  cuculoideSf  Vig. — GouUl  Cent.  pi.  4. — Jungfe$  ohoghud,  IL— 

Jungle   Hawk  OtcL 

This  very  handsomely  plumage  I  little  owl  is  said  in  Goulds's  Cen* 
tury  to  be  "  supposed  to  be  confine  I  to  the  Himalayas."  I  have  fbund 
it  wherever  there  is  lofty  jungle.  In  Goomsoor,  on  the  eastern  side;  and 
on  the  west,  in  Travancore  and  Malabar,  where  it  is  by  no  means  rare. 

It  frequents  lofty  trees  and  flies  about  actively  in  the  day  time,  at  least 
when  disturbed  ;  I  have  generally  found  it  single,  rarely  in  small  flow-ks.. 
It  feeds  on  various  large  insects,  chiefly  coleopterous, 

I  rides  golden  yellow;  bill  and  legs  greenish  horn  colour.  Length  9 
inches  ;  wing  5;  tail  3 ;  tarsus  T%ths ;  mid  toe  1^. 

47,— N.  Indica,  Frankl.— 5".  hramun  Tem.  P.  C.  68  —Choi^hud,  H.— 
Peenglah,  Mah. — Little  sjiotted  Owl — Dicinirg  Owl, 

This  little  owl  is  extremely  abundant  inSouthem  India  (more  so,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Carnatic,  I  think,  than  in  the  Deccan),  and  is  often  very 
annoying  from  its  familiar  and  noisy  bibits.  It  generally  roosts  during  the 
day  in  large  trees,  but  frequently  also  in  the  caves  of  houses  or  under  the 
roof,  and  though  it  is  most  active  and  noisy  during  the  night  time,  feed- 
ing then,  yet  it  is  often  very  noisy  during  the  day,  uttering  its  harsh 
squabble,  three  or  four  joining  in  chorus  at  the  same  time.  Its  usual  cry 
is  something  like  •  jukljukljulV,  repealed  very  quickly. 

About  sunset  it  usually  sallies  forth  from  its  roosting  place  to  feed ;  its 
chief  food  is  beetles  and  other  insects,  but  it  occasionally  captures  mice* 
It  takes  insects  sometimes  on  the  wing,  or  snaps  one  oflfthe  ground  or 
the  trunk  of  a  tree,  during  its  low  undulating  flight,  which  is  generaU 
ly  8hort,  but  at  time^  prolonged  to  some  distance  over  the  plain. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  divi- 
nation. 

(To  he  continued,) 


W  C^- .  .'r*^    -^  SI  inn  t^^  'JrtT 


Ltt  T *•*;■-<:•: -re- :,   .*  i  ;i;t    ::  :1*   !:*"_  :^'i  -f-.jii   T.-ri-'i*  ifce   *cw:3 
cf  e1^  DTiri-.   -:-~;iT   ci^.-i:!?   S.     1^"-  Mti-i'.ii.  C-i-:rr.    uril 

jiirsillj  *;«%iirr  :-  z.:"  .:±  :'.-!^  "j-  -.      '     .-  ^  .:  Sl_ -t.«:..ch,  fcrjtird- 
gej^tri.  T  :.I  ri  :?.?  Gi*:*;  i  :f.-:n  -^Lic-  l:,»r--f--  :::r*frT  i--':*s  oiiIt 

JLg  •.'■*  :.*:r'--*:  n  ir. :     _€  Lx -::.:•,:  izr  i:fc.-:z:  ^J-^.:*s    .:  inia;*;* 
cxis*:r  2"="*'-i^  it*  ..z:.'.*. 

<Ki'/£ir*  cf  ^L*  Tz.-r.  •£:-*:-§  rrgiic   of:"-*  G_a:*  :o  their  <  .zz^w*^  iij  i 
clochirr  *h*  Ta!Ie7*    :i:%:  '^x-fri  b^ire  n   'Irir   d:f"*r*ct   riigfs.     It 
ah-Jt-ij  with  :bc  !e:k  eni  Tih.-*  '::'::^r  .. 'v  f.r^s:  trfVKt,  fr^:c-:nei  br 
enonc-'is  per-rnral  ■::*-?: rrs.      ILe  bin:-..:  :,rci-  i  :l!.k  ir.i     (iXMri&nt 
JsrA.*rm^A  fa  son*  p'ac*«.  wh:I^  o-b*rs  areez;:rr*j  ^.  ^n.  aci  ibebuiks 
of  minv  :;*ir  ?-ni  r.jii  s  r>ani§  f-:w!cg   il-r:-sh::.   alocci    vi:h  the 
bIi4Ht  fej-p^T  J- an!-    ibe  wii  cino&nioa   ar.i    oiler  c-i.nfen; as  sLmhs. 
P<>rt; -Hi  of  :k  s  f :>r-?-«t  ar*  o::*n  left  etrlre^T  unrciiclfd   bj   ihe  ax*  or 
keif?,  fording  a  tLik  icpemc-*  shade  f:r    :Le  ^rirr.h   of  ;L«   b]i«ck 
p«?pp^T.  "aHamcm  aci  Mari  jaln: — iCtfrjj.Ti  IS'tn-t  .     TLfse  are  called 
ifrdu  an:  ire  tTo:i'::c  resjrts  of  viil  iniziils. 

To  the  east  of  the  regri  ar  f:,re5:  lies  a  tn::  c-liei  :he  Mulnad^  or 
r«in-''OK*/rv  ■'^thv izh  :Le  r2.*.ives  cf  the  tlain>  cfien  in. I.; :e  the  tkmri 
0€/orui.  -frier  ihe  s^me  d  ncn  Iha::*.:.  i.in  u  Lich  the  Ttes degenerate  iDte 
large  ba»bc»,  the  basi'ooo  ilnio^t  entire' v  crises,  ar.d  cjliira^icc,  chieflv 
of  rice,  becomes  each  ci: re  frequei.t.  Tie  L-shes  ccLsist  cbicflT  of 
the  kmrmmiiaj  the  p^iiht.  A::,  h  ib-;iris  in  tirl*  ar  i  a-:*.,  ial  fe«erToi.^ 
forpcrposes  of  irrigatioD. 


1839]  i;{  th$  Southern  Mahralia  Country,  93 

East  of  the  Miilnad  is  a  great  extent  of  alluvial  plain,  producing  fine 
crops  of  wheat,  cotton,  maizes,  millet,  &c.*  and  on  the  Nizam's  frontier 
are  found  a  succession  of  low  dry  hills,  with  tabular  summits,  often  rising 
in  abrupt  scarped  precipices,  and  intersecting  and  traversing  the  plains 
in  various  directions.  They  are  clothed  with  low  thorny  jungle  of  babul 
and  acacia  f  and  their  bases,  and  the  valleys  between,  composed  of  a  light 
sandy  soil,  are  cultivated  with  millet,  vetches,  &c.t 

The  Hrst  or  mountainous  division  consists  chiefly  of  micaceous,  clay, 
and  other  schists,  which  to  the  northward  are  succeeded  by  basaltic  or 
trap  formation.  The  Mulnad  is  composed  of  undulating  clay-slate  hills, 
which  become  covered  with  basalt  to  the  north.  This  trap  formation 
extends  in  a  slanting  direction  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  nearly  coinciding 
with  a  line  <irawn  frum  Sadasheaghur  on  the  coast,  to  Beejapoor  and 
Sholapoor — and,  what  is  remarkable,  is  almost  coincident  with  that  mark- 
ing the  separation  of  the  two  great  tribes  of  the  population  using  to- 
tally distinct  languages, — the  Mahrattas  and  Canarese. 

The  hills  to  the  N.  E.  and  E.  are  all  of  primitive  sand-stone,  sometimes 
resting  on  schists,  sometimes  immediately  on  granite,  which  latter  is 
the  rock  nearest  the  surface  in  the  central  and  eastern  plains.  Bat  a 
well  defined  range  of  hills  to  the  S.  W.,  called  theKupputgud,  is  entirely 
composed  of  micaceous  and  clay  slates,  resting  on  granite.  The  hills  more 
to  the  N.  and  N.  \V,  are  basaltic.  The  extensive  plains  lying  between 
these  diflcrent  lines  of  hills  and  eminences  are  composed  of  the  rich, 
black  mould,  called  »!»//«/',  or  cotton  ground,  resulting  from  decomposed 
basaltic  rocks.  To  the  N.  E.  a  considerable  tract  of  limestone  is  found, 
resting  on  the  sandstone,  about  Bagnlkote,  Badami  HCingiind,  Miidibi* 
hal,  &c. 

The  distribution  of  species  throughout  these  different  tracts  is  shown 
in  the  following  table ;  those  marked  *  arc  confined  to  one  tract  only  : — 

*  Uolcus  torghumt  Panicum  Halicuntt  Cicer  arielimtm. 
t  Panicum  tptcatuntt  Panicum  miiiare,  Phateolm  maXf  PfUueolut  mungo.  Ice. 


94 


Catalogue  of  Mummaliu 


[JuW 


a; 

u 

a 
*— i 

X  >* 

o  • 

M 

s 


3 

c 


2> 

CB  "3' 

fees 
a  « 

^  a 


o 

3 


•^    3    O  ,S 


a 
J* 


&    9 


c 

.a 
32 


3   3 

s  a. 
sua 


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4) 


■    8.2 

;3 


es 

■3 

3 

ca 

a 
o 


C  •  X*  o 


II 

3  MM 

3    3 


*    3 

>  a 


c 


2   O    —    «» 

-^"-^^ 
y 

3 


« -6  -5  --  25 

3  •-■  5 


^S.2 


a 


15    1     l<Q 


3 

2 


l2 


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a 

3 

o 

a 

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E 

-5 

3 

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U 

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s 

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*   3         =00 

a  rt  ^—  C 

«  a  3  S ,« 

-  S-5.2  ==»^ 


H  3.^  i;S,^ 

z  2 

3—  «e   J 


=:d  5?S 


v:X»Jxt 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Comtry.  M 


GATALOOUC. 

1. — Simia  (MacacusJ  liudiatus, — Cfrcocebus  /?a</ta/u«,  GooflT. 
Kotif  Canarese "tjV^^8 

Mutgyft,     do o3o  O^j 

MungOf       do cSoOy^ 

Bandar,  Dekhani y^\^ 

Malada,  Mahratta 

Kerda,  do.  of  the  Ghals 

This  s|;pcie8  abounds  over  the  whole  counfry,  sometimes  inhabitin;^ 
the  wildest  jungle^,  at  others  living  in  populous  toMn^t,  and  carrying  off 
fruit  and  grain  from  the  ^hops  of  the  dealers,  wiih  the  greatest  coolness 
and  address. 

2. — Simia  (S'fnnopithecus)  Entelius.^Cercopifhecui  Entelitis,   Geoff. 

Afoosja,  Canarese o5oo  ^^ 

La/f^ur,  Dekhani fjj 

IFdnur,  Maliratta 

The  black-ficed  monkey  of  Europeans. — Abounds  more  particularly  in 
the  forests,  where  its  loud  wild  cry  is  particularly  striking.  They  are 
both  useful  and  troublesoii»e  to  the  sportsuiJin,  who  may  often  judge  by 
their  agitation  and  chattering  of  the  vicinity  of  some  beast  of  prey  ;  while 
he  himself  is  apt  to  be  assailed  in  a  similar  uianner  when  iryiug  to  steal 
upon  the  more  timid  km  Is  of  gamo.  The  species  is  celebrated  in  Hin- 
du mythology,  fur  having,  under  their  leailer  Ilanuman,  assisted  the  hero 
and  demi-god  Rama,  the  first  Hin^lu  conqueror  of  the  forests  of  Southern 
India,  as  rtlaied  iu  the  Ramnyana. 

The  Entellus  appears  to  want  the  cheek  pouc)ies  characteristic  of 
Semnopithicu^*  An  adult  male  measured,  from  muzzle  to  insertion  of 
tail  I  foot  lOJ — length  of  tail  alone  3  feet  2} — height  from  heel  t* 
crown  3  feet  2J — weight  22  lbs.— du.  of  an  adult  female  IS. 

S.—Pferopus  EduVis  medhis.-^Pteropus  Mcdius,  Temminck  ;    Monag. 

de  Mam.     I.  176. 

Tojgal  Bawali,  Canaiese, OJ^T<(!i)0Xya oS^ 

Slkatyelle,            Do.  of  the  Wuddur  caste.  2^WQ<S> 
Gaddaf,  Dekhani \^^ 

Barhagal,  Do jS^ll  J 


96  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Jul? 

The  flying-fox  of  Europeans.  Its  flesh  is  esteemed  good  eating.  The 
tongue  of  this  animal  is  remarkable,  being  covered  with  large  papills, 
pointing  backwards,  and  each  one  terminating  in  a  brusli  or  collection 
of  bristly  points. 

Length  of  the  male,  12  to  13  inches — weight  29oz — of  a  female,  20  oz. 
Expanse  of  wings  upwards  of  •!  feet. 

When  disturbed  during  the  day,  they  fly  slowly  round  and  round,  with 
a  low  screaming  noise,  and  soon  settle  again  ;  hovering  for  a  moment 
over  a  bough,  they  catch  suddenly  with  the  claw  at  the  angle  of  the 
wing,  and,  allowing  the  body  to  drop,  they  swing  with  a  single  hold. 
They  vary   considerably  in  shade  and  colour. 

4.-  Pieropus  iCynopteruit)  Marginatum,  Fr.  Cuvier. — P(er9pui   Margi" 
natugf  Temminck  ;  Monog,  de  Mam,  I.  202. 

Length,  4)  inch.  Weight,  2oz.  a  male. 

The  dentition  agrees  with  the  statement  of  Fr.  Cuvier,which  he  adopts 
as  the  character  of  his  genus  Ct/nopterus. 

Incisors  -J  canines  }  ^  molars  J  J=:  30.  Is  somewhat  rare  ;  found  in 
clusters  on  the  folded  leaves  of  the  plantain,  the  palmyra,  &c. 

3. — Fespertilio  (Megaderma)  Carnatica  ?— New  species  ?    Af.iyra  f 

General  name  for  all  bats,  Kankapati,  Can.  "^oraDlFTrS 

Chamgidar,  Dekh .••..•.,,,,, Aki^ 

Shab  par ak,  Do ,        j  4^ 

This  species  differs  from  the  dentition  commonly  assigned  to  Mega^ 
</tfrwa,  in  having  incisors  ^  canines  I -j.  molars  |  ^  =  24  ;  whereas  the 
molars  according  to  Geoflfroy  are  ^  A. 

Above,  mouse  colour  ;  beneath,  paler.  Nasal  appendage  large,  oblong, 
reaching  to  the  base  of  the  ears,  with  a  plait  or  fold  down  in  the  centre. 
Oreillon  cordate,the  anterior  lobe  high  and  pointed,  the  posterior  rounded; 
the  muzzle  truncate,  the  uuder  lip  cleft.  Four  mammoe.  Female  gene- 
rally larger.* 

Female*  Male, 

Length Scinches.. 3  inches. 

Expansion  of  wings  19^  18 

Ear  (behind)   \^\ 

*  Temminck  itates  that  the  females  and  young  of  some  bats  lire  apart  £iom  the  males  at 
eertainteaaons,  which  may  account  for  this.    Mon.  do  mam.  Tom.  ii.  p,  5. 


1839]  in  the  Souih$m  Makraiia  Couniry.  $f 

£ar(before) l^V 

Carpus 2} 

Tarius    1  3^-lOths. 

Additional  length^ 
of    the  iuierfe-  >   1^ 
moral  membrane  J 

Weight los.  lOdrs loz.3drs.  lOgrs. 

These  were  the  largest  dimensions  ascertained  from  14  females  and 

7  males,  obtained  at  various  times.  They  are  common  in  the  Mulnad,  in 

old  temples,  caves,  &c. 

6. —  Vupertilio  (Rhinopoma)  Hmrdwickii. 
Weight.. ..  10  drs.  Male. .  8  drs.  13  grs.  Female. 

Length  of  body ,  •• 2^  inches. 

tail 2tV 


carpus  2tV 
tarsus  2tV 


5  ' 


T» 


Ex  panse  of  wings.. .13. 

This  is  probably  the  species  already  described  by  General  Hard« 
wicke,  but  the  means  arc  not  at  hand  of  verifying  his  description. 

This  species  has  the  muzzle  long,  thick,  truncated  and  surmounted 
with  a  small  leaf.  Oreiilon  oblung,  bi-ncuminated  ;  forehead  concavCt 
with  a  fos^a  or  channel  running  down  the  centre.  The  nostrils  are 
placed  in  the  truncated  plane  of  the  mnsz-e,  being  covered  with  a  mem- 
brane slit  transversely,  and  with  a  small  round  puncture  in  the  middle  of 
the  slit.  By  means  of  this  apparatus  the  animal  is  enabled  to  open  or 
shut  its  nostrils  at  pleasure.  The  leaf-like  process  rises  from  the  tame 
plane  of  the  muzzle.  Found  in  old  ruins  to  the  eastward  of  the  province* 

RhinolophuMt  Geoff. 

This,  and  the  two  following  species,  seem  to  form  a  subdivision  of  the 
section  Rkinolopkus  (GeofTroy),  differing  in  the  number  of  teeth  and  hav- 
ing in  common  a  remarkable  peculiarity  common  to  all,  not  included  in 
his  specific  characters,  which  may  be  described  as  a  circular  cavity,  or 
sac,  behind  the  nasal  crest.  This  cavity  the  animal  can  turn  out  at 
pleasure,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove  ;  it  is  lined  with  a  pencil  of  stiff  hairs^ 
and  secretes  a  yellow  substance  like  wax.  When  alarmed,  the  animal 
opens  this  cavity  and  blows  it  out,  during  which  it  is  protruded  and 
withdrawn  at  each  breathing.  Temminck  notices  it  under  the  name  of 
a  eyphoDi  orpurae  in  B.  Ina^ii  and  Sp§mi* 


96  Catalogue  of  Mammaliu  fJour 

Dentitioiifiiicisors  f  •  canines  \  4-;  molars  i  ^28;  whereas  in  Geoffroy** 
group  the  molars  are  *  *,  and  the  total  number  30.  Bat  Temminck 
makes  them  vary  from  \  \o  f .  The  upper  incisors  are  distant,  placed 
near  the  canines  and  triangular,  broad  at  the  edge  and  sloping  back  to  the 
root,  the  lower  ones  are  close  together,  crenelate  at  the  edge,  each 
having  three  points.  In  all  other  respects,  the  characters  are  the  same 
as  Bhinolophus.  Nose  furnished  with  a  complicated  crest.  jLars  dis- 
tinct, marked  wiihtmnsverse  distant  wrinkles.  Interfemordl  membrane 
large.    Warts  on  the  pubes. 

7. — Rhinolophus    Speoris  ? — R.    Crumeniftrt^     Teron.-^It.    Marsa" 
.jfialin,  Geoff. — R.  Dukhunennis^  Svkes. 

Ears  large,  erect,  acuminate,  rounded  to  the  base.  Muzsle  shorty 
crest  very  complicated,  consisting  of  a  simple  transverse  membrane,  or 
leaf  extending  between  the  eyes,  behind  which  is  ihe  circular  sac.  la 
front  is  a  cavity,  in  which  are  pierced  the  complicated  nostrils,  and  sor* 
mounded  by  another  smaller  membrane  ;  the  upper  portion  next  the 
frontal  leaf  thick  and  f  cahy,  the  lower,  above  the  lip,  fine.  On  either 
side  without  this  are  three  smaller  paial lei  membranes  or  fringes,  reaching 
from  the  eyes  downwards.  Body  short,  thick,  of  a  light  mouse  colour. 
Interfemoral  membrane,  narrow,  square,  including  the  tail,  which  conMSts 
of  about  four  joints,  the  half  of  the  last  joint  being  free  at  the  point 
Pubes  naked,  large,  with  one  or  two  warts.  Two  pectoral  mamme,  two 
inginual.*    Females  with  the  frontal  sac  less  developed. 

On  a  comparison  of  about  IS  specimens,  the  measurement  of  tlie 

largest  was — 

Mate,  Female, 

Length 2-j^  inches 2^^ 

oftail     1  1 

Total 3tJ  3,1 

■  of  exserled  portion  oftail  i  J-IOths. 

■  of  ear J^ 

ofcarpus 2 

— ^^  of  tarsus ^^ 

Expansion  of  wings 13 .,    itHi 

Weight 6drs.  I3grs 6  drs. 

Found  in  old  buildings,  wells,  &c. 

The  Dukhunenvs  of  S>  kes  is  said  to  differ  from  Speoris  in  the  length 
of  ihe  carpus,  but  iuTeiuminck,Monog.  de  Mara.  T.  II.  p.l7,the  forei 


*  Whether  the  latter  are  false  or  real  ii  doubtful.  It  has  been  said  they  h«v»ao  laetMl 
l^ands,  but  I  hart  constantly  remazked  them,  and  that  they  axe  smalltr  ia  the  jsuc 


i839]  in  th€  Southern  Afahratta  Country,  99 

18  stated  to  be  shorter  than  the  whole  length,  and  the  difference  ofcotour 
is  not  sufficient  to  constitute  a  specific  difi*erence. 

8, — Rhinohphut  Marinus, — New  Species. 

Ears  large,  erect,  rounded  ;  muzzle  short,  with  a  tranverae  frontal  leaf 
or  membrane,  and  the  sac  behind  it  as  the  last,  and  in  front  a  simple 
membrane  round  the  nostrils.  Body  short,  and  thick.  Interfemond 
membrane  large,  including  the  tail,  all  but  the  extreme  tip.  Pubes  small 
covered.  Mammce  as  in  the  preceding,  colour  dusky  brown,  paler  be* 
Death. 

Male. — Length  l-i^;  tail  1  |t**Vt  ^  ^^>^  W>  <^i'pusl  i^S  tarsus,, 
barely  -^  ;  expansion  of  wings  10}  ;  weight  4  drs.  20grs.— The  sexes- 
nearly  alike. 

9. — Rhinolophus  fidgens. — New  Species. 

This  re^iembles  the  last  in  every  respoct,  but  the  membranes  of  the- 
crest  are  more  developed.     Colour  a  bii.,hl  fawn  above,  and  golden  be- 
neath.    Membrane  of  the  win^^s  blackish. 

Length  1  ^  ;  •^il  t^— 2tV  •  ^ar  tV  »  carpus  \^ .  tarsus  barely  yV  » 
expansion  of  win^^s  10}  ;  weight  4  drs.  24grs. 

Very  rare.    The  above  is  the  description  of  an  adult  male. 

It  cannot  be  identified  y^  ith  the  R.  larvatus  of  Horsfield,  which  it  re» 
sembles  in  colour,  because  it  (the  Larvalut),  has  the  complicated  crest 
and  dimensions  of  Speoris, 


10. —  TaphozouA 


Of  this  only  one  specimen  was  obtained  of  which  the  description  has 
been  lost. 

VespertUio  Proper, 

Two  small  species  are  common,  but  neither  of  them  have  been  identi*- 
fied. 


11. — Vesperiillo 


Ears  small,  sub- triangular,  shorter  than  the  head  ;  oreillon  oblong,, 
rounded,  colour  above  pale  dusky  brown,  beneath  lighter. 

Length  2  inches;  tail  ^^—2^^ ;  carpus  l-^  .;  expansion  of  wings  IQ 
inches. 

12. — VespertxHo . 


Smaller  than  the  last.  £ars  larger,  rounded,  nearly  as  long  as  the  head^. 
Oreillon  curved  and  rounded  at  the  end.  Colour  dark  brown  above  and. 
below. 


100  Catalogue  ofMammaUa  fJvftf 

Length  I A  ;  tail  tV-^^V  ;  carpus  1  i  expansion  of  wings  7|. 

13. — Sortau  Indicut,  Geoff. 

Sondeli,  Canarese lOOO-SiD 

ChachundaT,  Dukbani jAf  iij^|f*- 

\4.^Uriu$  (Prochilui)  Labiatus.— Urtus  LabialuSf  Blainvillc. 

Kaddit  Karadif  Canarese Ir    o   & 

Binch,  Dukbani Aj^ju 

Atwalf  Mahratta 

The  peculiar  dentition  of  this  animal,  distinguishing  it  from  Gen. 
Ursut,  has  been  remarked  by  Colonel  Sykes.  There  are  never  more  than 
4  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.  1  possess  several  crania,  one  of  them  with 
the  milk  teeth  just  giving  way  to  the  adult  ones,  all  agreeing  in  this  pe- 
coliarity.  Their  food  seems  to  be  black  ants,  termites,  beetles,  firait* 
particularly  tlie  seed  of  the  Cassia  fistula,  of  the  date  tree,  &c.,  honey. 
When  pursued,  they  carry  their  cubs  on  their  back.  1b  1933  a  bear  was 
chased  and  killed,  having  carried  her  two  cubs  in  this  manner  nearly 
three  miles.  It  appears  to  be  a  long-li\ed  animal.  Instances  are 
known  of  their  living  in  a  state  of  captivity  for  40  years. 

15. — Luira  Nair,  Fr.  Cuvit^r. 

yirnai,  Canarese,  (literally  **  water  dog.**)  p^TJcP^OOa 

Daltcai  htkk  Do.  of  the  Wuddar  tribe "^5^tta1^<J  1S\> 

xr 
Panikutta,  Dukbani,  (literally  "water  dog")  ItC^Jlt 

Hud  nr  Uada,  Mahratta  of  the  Ghats. 
Jatmanus  ana  Jal  mamjar,   Mahratta... 

16.— Cam's  Familt'aris,  [tcild  van's f y). ^Canis  Dukhunensis  of  Sykn. 
Jungli  Kutta Dukbani itT     \t\^ 

The  wild  dog  was  not  known  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country  until 
of  late  years.  It  has  now  become  very  common.  The  circumstance  of 
their  attacking  in  a  body  and  killing  the  tiger,  is  universally  believed 
by  the  natives.  Instances  of  their  killing  the  wild  boar,  and  of  tigers 
leaving  a  jungle  in  which  a  pack  of  wild  dogs  had  taken  up  their  qnar- 
ters,  have  come  to  my  own  knowledge  :  and  on  one  occasion  a  party  of  the 
officers  of  the  18th  regiment,  M.  N.  I.  saw  a  pack  run  into,  and  kill,  a 
large  Sambar  stag  near  Dharwar.  I  once  captured  a  bitch  and  seven 
tof  this  speciesi  and  had  them  alive  for  some  time. 


1839]  in  th$  Southern  Mahraita  Country.  101 

17.^  Cants  Lupus,  Lin. 

Tola Canarese "3l/d^^ 

Landgah Dukhani \f  ju) 

This  species  does  not  appear  to  differ  from  the  common  wolf.  Three 
young  ones  which  I  had  alive  for  some  time  agreed  very  much  with  the 
description  of  the  Canit  pallipes  of  Colonel  Sykes,  hut  several  adults 
that  1  shot  differed  in  their  colours  and  general  character.  The  head 
was  large,  the  muzzle  thicker,the  colours  in  some  cases  more  iuclining  to 
rufous^particularly  on  the  fore  legs ;  which  in  some  cases  were  deep  red  ; 
and  the  same  colour  was  found  on  the  muzzle  from  the  eyes  to  the  nose. 
Others  have  more  rufous  on  the  hind  legs,  together  with  some  hlack  on 
the  thighs,  rump,  and  tip  of  the  tail. 

Length  from  muzzle  to  insertion  of  tail  36  to  tij  inches ;  do.  of  tail  16 
to  17if  height  at  shoulder  24  to  26;  length  of  head  10 ;  circumfer« 
enee  of  do.  16  to  17  i    weight  of  an  adult  female  42  lbs. 

The  wolves  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country  generally  hunt  in  packs, 
and  I  have  seen  them  in  full  chase  after  the  goat-antelope  {GaztUa  Arof 
6<ea).    They  likewise  steal  round  the  herd  of  Antelope  Cervieapra,  and 
conceal  themselves  on  different  sides  till  an  opportunity  offers  of  seizing 
one  of  them  unawares,  ns  they  approach,  whilst  grazing,  to  one  or  other 
of  their  hidden  assailants.    On  one  occasion,  three  wolves  were  seen  to 
ehace  a  herd    of  gazelle  across  a  ravine,  in  which  two    others  were 
lying  in  wait    They  succeeded  in  seizing  a  female   gazelle  which  wae 
taken  from  them.    They  have  frequently  been  seen  to  course  and  ran 
down  hares  and  foies ;  and  it  is  a  common  belief  of  the  ryots  that  in  the 
open  plains,  where  there  is  no  cover  or  concealment,  they  scrape  a  hole 
in  the  earth,  in  which  one  of  the  pack  lies  down  and  remains  hid,  while 
the  others  drive  the  herd  of  antelope  over  him.    Their  chief  prey  how- 
ever is  sheep,  and  the  shepherds  say  that  part  of  the  pack  attack  and 
keep  the  dogs  in  play,  while  others  carry  off  their  prey ;  and  that,  if  pur. 
sued,  they  follow  the  same  plan,  part  turning  and  checking  the    dogs' 
while  the  rest  drag  away  the  carcass,  till  they  evade  pursuit.     Instances 
are  not  uncommon  of  their  attacking  man.     In  1824  upwards  of  30  chil* 
dren  were  devoured  by  wolves  in  the  Purgunnah  of  Rone.    Sometimes 
a  large  wolf  is  seen  to  seek  his  prey  singly.    These  are  called  tspfi-lo/a, 
and  reckoned  particularly  fierce. 

IS.-^Cants  Aureus,  Lin. 

Nari Canarese ......  7*  8 

Kolah Dukhani j  ^ 

Skigkal ,,,,     do... Mia 


102  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [JvtY 

The  native  sportsmen  universally  believe  that  an  old  jackal,  which 
they  call  bhaluy  is  in  constant  attt-ndnnce  on  the  tiger,  and  whenever  his 
cry  is  beard,  which  in  peculiar  and  different  from  that  of  the  jackal  gene* 
rally,  the  vicinity  of  a  tiger  is  confiilently  pronounced.  I  have  beard  the 
cry  attributed  to  the  bhalu  frequently. 

19. — Catiis  Bengalensitf  Shaw  and  Pennant. — C,  Kokree,  Sykes.. 
JConk ....Canarese "iSv^O* 


Kemp  nari    (red  jackal)      do "^  ol^pp  0 


Chandak  nari do ..,  2J  Oo  ^^ & 

Lomrif  Nomri Dukhani tf  *-o  J 

Kokri Mabratta 

Length  from  nose  to   insertion  of  tail   20  inches  ;  do.  of  tail  14  in.  ; 
weight,  male  7ilb. ;  female,  6J  lb. — both  large  specimens, 

Sbuw*8  animal  appears  to  be  identical  with  the  Canis  Kokree  of  Co1(k 
nel  Sykes.  Its  principal  food  is  rats,  land  crabs,  grasshoppers,  beetleSt 
&c.  On  one  occasion  a  half  devoured  mango  was  found  in  the  stooiaeh. 
It  always  burrows  in  open  plains,  runs  with  great  speed,  doubling  like 
a  hare;  but  instead  of  stretching  our  at  first  like  that  animal,  and  trusting 
to  its  turns  as  a  last  resource,  the  fox  turns  more  at  first  and  if  it  can 
fatigue  the  dogs,  it  then  goes  strait  away.  It  is  remarkable  that  though 
the  brush  is  generally  tipt  with  black,  a  white  one  is  occasionally  found, 
while  in  other  parts  of  India,  as  in  Cutch,  the  tip  is  always  white. 

20. —  Viverra  Indica,  Geoff. — Rasse,  Horsfield. 

Punagin  bekk Canarese «\3)  p/S^  CS^Jo 

Muthakhilli Dukhani ]^^  .    ^>.  ^ 

Kasturi , Mabratta 

Lensjth  from  the  nose  to  insertion  of  tail  22  inches  ;  do.  of  tail  15J  in« 
— total  37| — weight  .5 J  lb. — an  alult  female. 

Varies  much  in  the  distribution  of  the  marks  on  the  fur.  Specimens 
from  the  S«»uthern  Mahratta  C  'untry  illustrative  of  this  variety  have 
been  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

21. — Mangueta  Mangos, — Herpesfes  GriseuSy  Desm. 

MuffgU Canare«e oSoooJ^oD 

Mangoes ., .Dvxkb^uv ^,,  ij^^jk^ 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  103 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  d<ff Tence  between  the  Mang'futa 
Afungo  and  ManguMta  Cafra^  both  of  which  are  referrible  to  the  Htrpes' 
i€9  grueui  of  De&roarest. 

22. — ManguMta  VitticoHit.—IIerpestet  FiuicoUis,  Bennett,  Proceed. 
Zool.  Soc.  1835,  Part  hi.  p.  67. 

A  specimen  of  this  animul  was  ]>rociired  in  the  thickest  part  of  the 
ghat  forests  by  accident,  iu  J829.  and  is  now  deposited  in  the  British 
Kluseum.  It  is  very  rare,  inhabits  only  the  thickest  wood,  and  its  habits 
are  little  known.    Size  the  same  as  M,  Urniet. 

As  the  unimal  has  never  been  figured,  a  drawing  is  given. 

23. — Paradoxurus   Typus, — Fr.  Cuv. 

Kera  Bek, Can If^  <Sw 

Mefiurif Dekh ^  •A>rfO 

Common  in  the  Mulnad,  living  in  trees,  thatched  roofs  of  houses  and 
huts,  &c. 

Dimensions. 

Male.        Ft,    inch.  Female,  Ft.    inch. 

Length  of  body , ,  1     I OJ  1      Vd 

Do.    tail I       7i  16 


3        6  2      llfV 

Length  of  head 5^o   ^\ 

Do.        ear... Itt  ,  ^tV 

Distance  between  the  ears  3-fo    • 

Length  of  sole  of  fore  foot  2tV  I  Vr 

Do.        do.        hinddo.  3^}^  2?^ 

Weight bjlbs 5J  lbs. 


^ 


21. — Ilyana  vulgaris. 

Kirha Canarcse,,  ..•«..  "t^TT  ^ 

Kult  kirba do.... ^f^'^TT^ 

Taras Dakhani ct 

Length  from  nose  to  insertion  of  tail  3  ft.  6  in. ;  do.  of  tail  1  ft.  5  in. 
— ^total  4  ft.  11  in. ;  do.  of  head  1ft.  10  in.;  circumference  of  do.  i  ft. 
8^  in. ;  weight  74  lb. 


104  Catalogue  of  Mummalia  [JotT 

25. —Felt's  Tigris,  Lin. 

Hulif  Canarese •••• 

Bagh,  Dukliani ^^  \l 

Palayai  Bag,      do jjf{i  l^^Mi 

Wdhag,  Maliratta 

The  tiger  is  common  over  tlie  whole  district,  breeding  in  the  forest  ind 
mountain  tracts,  and  coming  into  the  op^n  country  when  the  grain  is  on 
the  ground.  In  some  places  they  do  much  mischief,  and  have  been  even 
known  to  carry  off  the  inhabitants  out  of  the  villages,  whilst  sleeping  in 
their  verandahs  during  the  niglit. 

The  following  are  the  largest  diment ions  of  any  tiger,  male  and  fe- 
male, killed  in  the  Southern  Mahmtta  Country,  between  the  years  1829 
and  1U33  inclusive,  and  in  afibrding  a  comparison  of  from  70  to80ui- 
dividuals. 

jIduH  Male.  Do.    Adult  Fewwk.  Do. 

ft.    in.      ft.    in       ft.    in.     ft.  in. 
Length  from  nose  to  insertion  of  tail      6    2        5    6....5    «*»i         5    2 

of  tail a     1}      3    3. ...2     II        3    2 

Total 9    3J  8    9.. ..8    2J  8  4 

Height  at  the  shoulder 3    2  3    0....a    9  2  9 

Length  from  top  of  shoulder  to  end 

oftoes 3    7}  3    7. ...3    2}  „  „ 

■         from  the  elbow  to  the  extremity 

ofthetoes 1     10  „    „ 1     ^\  „  ,f 

Circumference  behind  the  shoulder  4    3  3     1l|..3    6  „  „ 

—— of  the  forearm  below  the  elbow  18  1     7....1     2|  „  „ 

—  oftheneck 2    8  2    10i..2     1^  „  ,^ 

ofthehead 2    9  3    \....2    3  „  ,* 

offorearm  above  the  elbow....  2    3  „„....„„  „  ,', 

Weight 3801b8.  360 lbs.  .249  lbs. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  in  detailing  the  measur<»ments  of  this 
species,  because  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  hear  of  tigers  of  12 
14,  and  even  15  ft>et  in  length.  Most  persons  content  themselves  with 
measuring  the  skin  of  an  animal  after  it  is  taken  off;  andl  ooce  mea- 
sured a  lion  of  9  feet  4  inches, which  was  noted  bv  another  of  the  party 
iu  his  journal,  as  1 1  feet ;  and  by  a  third  an  |2— the  one  having  mea- 
sured  the  skin  newly  taken  oflT  and  pulled  out.  the  other  when  it  was 
stretched  to  the  uttermost  by  pegs,  to  dry.  1  do  not  believe  that  any 
tiger  has  ever  been  known  that  would  exceed  ten  feet. 


1839^  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  i05 

The  following  particulars  relative  to  the  habits  of  the  tiger  were  col- 
lected during  several  years. 

The  female  has  from  2  to  4  young,  and  does  not  breed  at  any  particu- 
lar season.  Their  chief  prey  is  cattle,  but  they  also  catch  the  wild  hog, 
the  samhar,  and,  more  rarely,  the  spotted  deer.  It  is  naturally  a  cowardly 
animal  and  always  retreats  from  opposition  until  wounded  or  provoked. 
Several  instances  came  to  notice  of  its  being  compelled  to  relinquish 
its  prey  by  the  cattle  in  a  body  driving  it  off.  In  one  case  an  odicial 
report  was  made  of  a  herd  of  buffaloes  rushing  on  a  tiger  that  had  seized 
the  herd-boy  and  forcing  it  to  drop  him.  Its  retiring  from  the  wild 
dog  has  already  been  adverted  to.  Though  the  wild  hog  often  becomes 
its  prey,  it  soineiimcs  falls  a  victim  to  the  successful  re&istun'-e  of  the 
wild  buar.  I  once  found  a  full  grown  tiger  newly  killed,  <»vidently  by 
the  rip  of  a  boar's  tusk  ;  and  two  similar  instances  were  related  to  me, 
by  gentlemen  who  had  witnessed  them,  one  of  a  tiger  the  other  of  a 
panther.  It  is  generally  believed  that  a  tiger  always  kills  his  own 
food  and  will  not  eat  carrion.  I  met  with  one  instance  of  a  tigre^8  and 
two  full  grown  cubs  devouring  a  bullock  that  had  died  of  disease.  I 
saw  the  carcass  in  the  evening,  and  next  day,  on  the  report  of  tigers 
having  been  heard  in  the  night,  I  followed  their  track,  and  found  they 
had  dragged  the  dead  aniii'al  into  the  centre  of  a  corn-field  and  pick- 
ed the  bones  quite  clean,  after  which  they  found  a  buffalo,  killed  it, 
and  eat  only  a  sm-^U  portion  of  it.  Another  instance  was  related  in  a 
letter  from  a  celebrated  spoitsman  in  Kandeish,  who  having  killed  a 
tigress,  on  his  return  to  his  tents,  sent  a  pad  elephant  to  bring  it 
home.  The  messenger  returned  reporting  that  on  his  arrival  he  found 
her  alive.  They  went  out  next  morning  to  the  spot  and  discovered 
that  she  had  been  dragged  into  a  ravine  by  another  tiger  and  half  the 
carcass  devoured.     They  found  him  close  by  and  killed  him  also. 

The  Bheelsin  Kandeish  say,  that  in  the  monsoon,  when  food  is  scarce, 
the  tiger  feeds  on  frogs,  and  an  instance  occurred  some  years  ago,  in 
that  province,  of  one  being  killed  in  a  state  of  extreme  emaciaiion,  from 
a  porcupine's  quill  that  had  passed  through  his  gullett  and  prevented 
his  swallowing,  and  which  had  probably  been  planted  there,  in  his  at- 
tempts to  make  one  of  these  animals  his  prey. 

Many  superstitious  ideas  prevail  among  the  natives  regarding  the 
tiger.  They  imagine  that  an  additional  lobe  is  added  to  his  liver  every 
year;  that  his  flesh  possesses  many  medicinal  qualities  ;  that  his  claws 
arranged  together  so  as  to  form  a  circle,  and  hung  round  a  childs  neck, 
preserves  it  from  the  effect  of  the  evil  eye.  That  the  whiskers  constitute  a 
deadly  poison,  which  for  this  reason  are  carefully  burnt  off,  the  instant 
the  animal  is  killed.     Several  of  the  lower  castes  eat  his  flesh. 


i06  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [JuLT 

26. — Felt*  Pardus,  Lin. 

Of  this  species  there  appear  to  be  two  varieties,  a  large  and  a  small 
kind,  though  others  are  of  opinion,  that  the  smaller  animal  is  the  leo- 
pard.*   The  natives  distinctly  recognize  the  two  kinds  by  different 

names,  t 

The    large  variety — Honisa,  C:»narese....'i3L/5  0p>\ 

TendwUf  Dakhani UjJlxJ 

Tendjtcat  of  ihe  Bauris  or  chila  catchers* 
Asfiiea^  Mahratta  of  ihe  Ghats.  ^        ^ 
The  smaller  one — /TerAa/,  Canarese  "v^^otT*^^ 

Gor6ac/i^,  Dukhuni ^^,     f 

Biblaj  of  llie  Bauris, 

The  most  remarkable  difference  between  these  seems  to  be  that  of 
size,  but  on  a  careful  inspection,  other  particuhirs  are  detected. 

An  examination  of  a  large  collection  of  skii.s,  that  hail  heen  brought 
for  the  Guvcrnmeni  reward,  imd  were  deposited  in  the  office  of  ihc 
district,  gave  the  following  characters.  The  larger  skins  measured 
from  4 J  to  o  feet  ;  the  tail  2]  — 7|  ;  the  height  appeared  to  be  2Jj  the 
smaller  ones  were  3  to  3^  ft.  long  j  the  tail  2J — 6  ;  the  height  was 
from  1  i  to  2. 

The  colour  of  lh(»  larger  skins  was  generally  pale  fulvous  yellow,  the 
belly  white,  whilst  others  w-ere  deeper  and  more  tawny,  some  being  a 
sort  of  redditth  yellow,  without  any  white  at  all,heneath.  In  the  Ktrkal 
there  is  also  a  great  variety  of  shade.  But  generally  a  greater  number 
of  llonigas  are  pale  coloured  and  of  the  KerkaU  dark  ;  whence  probably 
the  name  of  the  latter  from  keray  dark  or  black.  As  a  general 
rule  too,  the  fur  of  the  Iloniga  is  shorter  and  closer,  that  of  the  Kerkal 
longer  and  looser.  The  character  of  the  spots  is  al  ways  the  same.  They 
may  be  characterised  as  iH)perfect  annul i,  consisting  of  groups  of  spots, 
arranged  in  imperfect  circles  ;  but  sometimes  approximating  more  and 
becoming  like  irifoils  •.•,  squares:  :,  or  like  the  impression  of  a  dog*s 
foot,  pariicuKirly  along  the  dorsal  line,  and  on  the  head,  neck,  shoulders, 
loins  and  legs.  Where  the  ground  colour  is  dark,  the  spots  are  more 
confused.  The  tail  is  without  annuli,sj)otied  throughout,  but  sometimes 
the  spots  run  into  each  other  at  the  end,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  black 
tip. 

*  Cul.  Sykes  olsodUUngubhes  two  kiods  ofc7<c7a,  but  cousidors  the  larger  one  to  be 
the  leopard. 

+  Shaw  Mys.the  leopard  is  distinguished  from  the  panther  by  its  paler  yellow  coloor.uid 
ftgain  that  the  leopard  is  coniiiderably  the  smaller  of  the  two.  Here  the  palei  is  the 
larger. 


1899]  tVt  the  Southern  Mahralta  Country.  tOf 

The  large  variety  is  found  cliiefly  among  the  rocky  hills  to  the  east- 
ward»  the  smaller  is  more  common  in  the  wooded  country  of  the  Mul- 
nad.  The  former  is  a  taller,  slighter,  more  active  animal,  exceedingly 
strong  and  fierce,  the  latter  is  smaller,  and  stouter,  and  varies  much  in 
size,  some  heing  not  bigger  than  a  large  tiger-cat,  ihoagh  the  skull  prov- 
ed them  to  be  adult  animals.  The  latter  may  be  killed  ea8ily,while  the 
Honiga  is  a  very  formidable  assailant ;  and  several  instances  occurred  of 
as  many  as  four  men  having  been  killed  by  one,  before  it  wa«  put 
hots  de  combat. 

The  strongest  marked  difference  of  character  that  I  observed,  was  in 
the  skulls,  that  of  the  Uonign  being  longer  and  more  pointed,  with  a 
ridge  running  along  the  occiput,  and  much  developed,  for  the  attach* 
ment  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck — while  those  of  the  kerkal  were  roun« 
der  and  the  bony  ridge  was  wanting,  if  this  character  is  universal  and 
permanent,  it  will  atlbrd  a  good  ground  of  distinction. 

At  present  I  should  be  disposed  to  consider  the  Indian  species  as 
consisting  of  three  varieties  : 

(a.)    The  larger  or  Honiga, 

(6.)  Ditto  of  a  uniform  black  colour,  the  spots  appearing  when  the 
light  shines  strongly  on  the  skin,  from  the  Malabar  Coast. 

(c,)    The  smaller  variety  or  kerkal. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  a  very  large  Aoni^a  killed  in 
the  Malnad  :  length  of  body  from  nose  to  insertion  of  tail  4  ft.  6  in* 
tail  3-2 ;  in  all,  7-8  ;  height  at  the  shoulder  2rt.  Siin.    from  ends  of  toes 

to  top  of  shoulder    2 — 7 ;  circumference  of  the  arm  below  the  elbow 
1-3;  head  1-11. 

This  was  a  very  large  male  called  by  the  natives  a  Mar  honiga^  stoatec 
than   the  generality  of  the  larger  kind. 

27. — Felit  Jubita,  Lin. 

Chirchay  Chirtsa,..Cdnhrese 3"  ZTlflr      ^Tf^^^^ 

Siwungif  do.       9  wO/a 

Chita,  Dakhani ULk^ 

Yuz,  Hindustani  of  the  trainers 

They  are  caught  in  the  district  and  trained  to  kill  the  Antelopo  ceroi 
eaprcu  They  are  taught  always  to  single  out  the  buck,  which  is  gene« 
rally  the  last  in  the  herd  ;  the  Meer  Shikars  are  unwilling  to  slip  until 
they  get  the  herd  to  run  across  them,  when  they  drive  on  the  cart,  and 
unhood  the  cheeta. 


]0d  Mammalia  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country ,  [Jolt 


2S.— fe/f>  ChauSf  Gould. — Felts  JffinxSt  Gray, 
Maut  Bek  Canarese 


Kadu  belr  or  Knr  lek, .  f  Do.  of  the  Waddar  caste  f 
Bella  bek  I      who  eat  them L    ^^^ 


XT 


Javgli  billi  Dakhani J^     HTl^^ 

Bhaoga  Mahratta  of  Ghats 

From  an  examination  of  a  number  of  skins  deposited  by  me  in  the 
British  Museum,  Mr.  Gray  seems  to  consider  the  /fffinis  to  be  identicul 
with  Chaus, 

29.— /V/;*. .    JVagati,  Mahratta  of  the  Ghats. 

This  animal  I  was  unable  to  identify  with  any  of  the  species  described* 
80  it  may  p»*rhaps  be  a  new  one.  It  seems  to  differ  both  in  size  and 
colour  from  the  Felts  Viverrinus  sent  home  byMr.  Heath,  and  described 
by  Mr.  Bennet.*  It  is  peculiar  to  the  western  ghat  forests.  It 
approaches  most  nearly  to  the  Felis  Tigrina  or  Margag,  Gm,  ;  the  Felu 
Javaneuais  or  Kuwuk^  Ilorsf. ;  and  the  Felis  Diarai, 

The  fFagati  (un  adult  male)  is  26  inches  long,  from  the  muzzle  to  the 
insertion  of  the  tail,  which  is  nearly  11  more — in  all  nearly  37  inches. 
The  colour  is  pale  yellowish  grey — darker  on  the  back — ^yellowish  white 
or  pale  yellow  on  the  .^ides — white  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body.  The 
forehead  has  4  longitudinal  spots.  In  a  line  with  these,  from  the  vertex, 
four  lines  run  to  the  shoulders,  the  outer  broader,  the  centre  ones  nar- 
rower, and  these  two  last  are  continued  almost  uninterruptedly  to  the  tail ; 
the  others  break  diagonally  into  large  l()nL(itudinal  spots,  which  arc 
continued  in  rows  of  smaller  rounder  spots  to  the  centre  of  the  belly. 
There  are  about  six  rows  on  each  side,  exclusive  of  the  two  dorsal  lines. 
Two  smallerbanils  run  fiom  the  eye,  and  along  the  upper  lip,  to  a  throat- 
band  runninj;  transversely  below  thv;  ears.  Two  other  similar  trans- 
verse  bands  cross  the  br^'ast  with  a  row  of  spots  between.  The  inside 
of  the  arm  has  two  broad  bands,  and  tlh»  soles  are  dark  brown  or  nearly 
black.  The  tail  is  spotted  on  the  upper  half  aui  indistinctly  annulate 
towards  the  tip.  It  is  very  fierce  — living  in  trees  in  the  thick  forests  ;  and 
preying  on  birds  and  small  quadrupeds.  A  shtkaree  declared  that  it  drops 
on  larger  animals,  and  even  on  deer,  and  eats  its  way  into  the  neck  ; 
that  the  animal  in  vain  endeavours  to  roll  or  shake  it  off,  and  at  last  is 
destroyed. 

•  Proceed.  Zool.  8oc.  1833.  Part  I.  p.  O. 

(To  be  continued,) 


1839]  Account  qf  the  Ceded  Districts^  109 

V. — Some  A ccotmt, Historical,  Geographical  and  Statistical,  qf  the  Ceded 
Districts,-^ By  Lieutenant  Newbold,  a.  d.  c.  to  General  Wilson^ 
c.  B.  commanding  the  Ceded  Districts  Division  qf  the  Madras  Army» 


Geographical  position  and  artificial  divisions* — The  Ceded  Districts 
are  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  Peninsular  India,  between  the  13th 
and  17th  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  76th  and  80th  east  longitude. 
They  comprize  an  area,  in  no  part  touching  on  the  sea  coast,  of  about  235 
miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  ahout  195  broad  from  north  to  south. 
Tlje  superficial  extent,  not  including  the  Kumool  and  Sondur  territories, 
amounts  to  23,557  square  miles  of  which  about  one-third  is  under  cul- 
tivation. Though  constituting  a  single  military  division, under  command 
of  a  general  officer,  they  are  divided  into  two  distinct  collectorates,  viz. 
the  western  portion,  termed  Bellury,  and  the  eastern,  termed  Cuddapah. 
The  former  has  an  area  of  13,056  square  miles,  and  is  subdivided  into  17 
taluks  or  provinces  ;  the  latter  with  an  area  of  10,501  square  miles  con- 
tains 16  taluks — viz. 


BELLA  RY. 

1  Adoni.  10  Kudliehi. 

2  Bellary.  11  Kuraply. 

3  DurroftTerani.  12  Mudauckscra. 

4  Oooleum.  13  Pennaconda. 

b  Gooty.  14  PanchapoUem. 

6  Harponhully.  15  Raidroog. 

7  HoTin  HudguUy.  16  Tarputtri. 

8  Hundi  Anantapur.  17  Yadaki. 

9  Kodikonda. 


CUDDAPAH. 

1  BanaganpuUy.  9  Gurrumcondah. 

2  Budwail.  10  Jummulmudgoo . 

3  Camlapur.  11  Koilcoontla. 

4  Chinnur.  12  Muddenpilly. 

5  Chitwail.  13  Poolrendla. 

6  Cummum  14  Puncanur. 

7  Doopaud.  15  Raichooty. 

8  Doovoor.  16  Sidhout. 


Each  taluk  is  subdivided  into  more  minute  divisions,  containing  a  cer- 
tain number  of  villages,  the  total  of  which  is  14,969.  To  each  collec- 
torate  is  appointed  a  principal  collector  of  revenue,  uniting  to  this  office 
the  functions  of  a  magistrate  ;  and  a  sub-collector,  with  one  or  twoassis- 
tants.  In  the  judicial  department  a  judge  and  register.  The  whole  of 
the  above  are  European  civil  servants  of  the  Company.  Over  each 
taluk  is  a  local  native  collector,  termed  a  tahsildar,  who  resides  general- 
ly in  the  kusbah  or  capital  town  of  the  taluk.  Under  the  judges  are 
15  district  native  assistants  munsif^^,  two  muftis  at  the  zillah  courts  of 
Bellary  and  Cuddtipah,and  two  pundits.  Over  each  village  are  potails  or 
berediiary  headmen. 

As  a  military  division  the  Ceded  Districts  have  two  cantonments, 
viz.  Bellury  and  Cuddapah,  and  two  small  stations  occupied  by 
detachments,  viz.  Gooty  and  Cummum.  The  division  headquarters 
is  usually  at  Bellary,  where  a  native  cavalry  corps,  a  regiment  of 
Queen's  infantry,  a  company  of  European  foot  artillery,  and  two  regi- 
ments of  native  infantry,  arc  usually  cantoned.  It  was  recommended  as 
a  military  post  by  Sir  T.  Munro  in  1802,  during  the  disturbances  at 
Baichoor,  in  order  to  curb  the  unruly  Poligars,  to  be  a  check  on  the 
l^abob  of  Kumool,  and  to  overawe  the  petty  zemindars  re«idx\i^m\2DL^ 


110  Some  Account f  Historical,  Geographical  [Jolt 

Nizam's  dominions  between  the  Tumbuddra  and  Kistnah  rivers,  which 
from  the  distance  from  Hyderabad  had  always  been  a  disturbed  diftrfct, 
and  entirely  beyond  the  control  of  the  Nizam.  One  regiment  of  na- 
tive infantry  is  stationed  at  Cuddupah,  and  from  these  two  principal 
stations  two  companies  of  native  infantry  are  detached  to  6ooty»  and 
one   to  Cummum. 

Bou?idaries, — The  boundaries  of  the  Ceded  Districts  (including  Kur- 
nool)  on  the  nurlh  are  the  Tumbuddra  and  Kistnah  river8,  separating 
the  districts  from  the  territories  of  Hin  Highness  the  Nizam;  the  lat- 
ter river  also  divi  les  thern  from  a  portion  of  Guntoor ;  on  the  south 
they  are  bounded  by  Mysore  and  northern  Arcot ;  on  the  east,  Nellore, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Southern  Mnhratta  Country,  and  a  portion  of  the 
Nizam's  dominions;  the  Tumbuddra  here  forming  the  line  of  demar*^ 
cation. 

Historical  Sketch, — The  Ceded  Districts  of  the  Balaghat,  a  compound 
word  signifying  a  tract  on  the  summit  of  the  mountains,  anciently  form- 
ed part  of  the  Hindu  empire  of  Bijanugger,  situated  in  the  Carnatic. 
This  old  Hindu  geographical  division  originally  comprised  the  whole 
of  the  vast  plateau  in  Southern  India  situated  above  the  eastern  and 
western  ghats,  but  has  been  misapplied  by  modem  writers  to  the 
tract  along  the  eastern  coast,  in  consequence  of  its  being  under  the  no- 
minal or  real  sway  of  the  Hindu  rulers  of  the  Camata.  It  is  a  well 
known  historical  fact,  that  the  site  on  which  the  present  city  and  fort  of 
Madras  stands  was  ceded  to  us  by  one  of  the  later  sovereigns  of  the  Car- 
nata,  Sri  Rung  Rayel,  a  fugitive  from  his  capital  of  Bijanugger,  and  then 
residing  (1693  A.  D.)  at  Chunderghiri,  a  place  to  the  N.  W.  of  Madras. 
The  existence  of  the  Bijanugger  empire  can  be  traced  as  far  back  as  the 
commencement  of  the  14th  century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  comprized 
within  its  limits  the  capital  of  the  Hindu  princes  (vide  Bijanugger)  ; 
while  the  rule  of  the  Chitwail  Rajas  extended  over  the  wild  and  jungly 
belts  of  the  eastern  frontier.  After  the  defeat  of  R;im  Raj,  on  the  plains 
of  Talicota,  by  the  four  Mussulman  sovereigns  of  the  Deccan  (A.  D. 
1564)  the  Ceded  Districts  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Bijapore  and  Gol- 
conda  princes;  and,  about  16B9  A.  D.,  under  that  of  the  wily  Aurung- 
zebe.  After  the  demise  of  this  monarch  in  1707  A.  D.,  and  on  the  con- 
sequent decline  of  the  Mogul  empire,  most  of  this  part  of  India  was 
annexed  to  the  dominions  of  the  Nizam  ul  Mulk  of  Hyderabad,  from 
whom  it  was  won  in  several  hard-fought  campaigns  by  Hyder  Ali,  be- 
tween the  years  1767  and  1780.  By  the  treaty  of  1792,  the  Nizam  oh- 
tained,  as  his  share  of  Tippoo's  dominions,  that  part  of  the  Ceded  Dis- 
tricts extending  from  the  Kistnah  beyond  the  Pennaur  river,  including 
the  forts  of  Cuddapah  and  Gundicota:  the  British,  the   Baramahl,  tho 


1839]  and  Statistical,  of  the  Ceded  Districts.  Ill 

Sultan's  possessions  on  the  Malabar  coast  and  the  lower  ghats.  On  the 
fall  of  Tippooin  I7^d,  the  Nizam  acquired  the  districts  about  Gooty 
and  Gurrumcondali,  and  the  tract  of  country  around  Colar,  Nundidroog, 
Chiltledrt>og,  and  Sera,  the  Britisli  retaining  the  forts.  To  the  Mah- 
rattas  were  to  be  allotted,  among  other  districts,  upper  Soonda,  Anna* 
gundi,  Uarponhuily,  and  part  of  Chittledroog  and  Beduore,  on  certain 
stipulations.  On  ilie  12lh  October  1800,  the  British  government  con- 
cluded a  new  treaty  with  their  late  ally  the  Nizam,  by  which  he  ceded 
to  the  Company  all  the  territory  of  the  Balaghat  south  of  the  Kistnah 
and  Tumbuddra  rivers,  and  in  short  the  whole  of  ihe  possessions  he  had 
acquired  by  the  treaty  of  Seringapatam,  dated  18th  March  1 792,  and  by 
that  of  Mysore  on  22d  June  1 799.  The  taluk  of  Adoni,  which  had  been 
held  in  jaghire  from  the  Nizam  by  the  son  of  Muhabet  Jung,  was  given 
up  to  the  English  in  lieu  of  the  fortresses  of  Copal-droog  and  Gujander- 
ghur  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Tumbuddra.  Part  of  Gudipet  and  two- 
thirds  of  Punganoor  were  subsequently  exchanged  for  some  of  the  terri- 
tories that  had  been  set  apart  as  the  conditional  share  in  the  spoil  of  the 
Peshwa,  in  case  he  acquiesced  in  the  British  arbitration  of  the  dif- 
ferences  existing  between  himself  and  the  Nizam,  and  in  the  exemption 
of  the  latter  from  the  payment  of  that  odious  tribute,  the  chout.  These 
conditions  were  not  acceded  to  by  the  Peshwa,  and  the  reserved  territo- 
ries were  divided  by  the  Nizam  and  the  British  in  the  proportion  of 
two-thirds  to  the  former.  In  return  for  the  districts  thus  ced^d,  the  Bri- 
tish government,  among  other  things,  agreed  to  defend  the  Nizam  from 
hostile  aggression,  both  external  and  interna] ;  a  regiment  of  native  ca- 
valry and  two  of  native  infantry  were  added  to  the  subsidiary  force, 
wrhich  increased  it  to  1,000  horse  8,000  foot,  and  a  detachm;*nt  of  artil- 
lery. The  cession  of  territory  was  made  ostensibly  to  guarantee  to  us 
by  its  revenue,  valued  in  the  schedule  at  17,58,000  pagodas,  the  regular 
payment  of  the  expense  of  the  troops  placed  at  the  Nizam's  disposal; 
or,  to  use  a  native  expression,  as  a  tunkah,  in  lieu  of  upwards  of  two 
lacs  of  rupees  (or  Arcot  rupees  24,17,100  annually)  paid  in  monthly  by 
him  for  the  support  of  six  infantry  battalions,  a  proportion  of  artillery 
and  a  cavalry  regiment,  the  subsidiary  force  of  179B.  BanaganpuUy 
was  continued  in  Jaghire  to  Assad  Ali,  Sondur  to  the  Peshwa,  and  Kur- 
nool,  after  paying  its  annual  peshkush  for  two  year*  to  the  Nizam,  was 
finally  to  be  transferred  to  the  Company. 

The  collection  of  the  revenue  and  civil  administration  of  the  Ceded 
Districts  was  first  entrusted  to  the  able  management  of  that  sound  and 
practical  statesman,  Sir  Thomas,  then  Major,  Munro,  who  found  the 
country  in  a  state  of  anarchy  and  misery,  arising  from  the  mal-adminia- 
tration  and  negligence  of  the  Nizam's  ofllcers.    Proceeding  on  the  so- 


112  Some  Account ,  Historical,  Geographical  [Jutt 

called  "  permanent  system"  they  had  carelessly  confided  the  cd- 
lection  of  the  revenue  to  numerous  petty  Poligar  zemindars, 
brought  up  in  a  lawless  country,  which,  since  the  expulsion  of 
its  Hindu  sovereigns,  bad  been  shattered  by  repeated  foreign  invasions, 
and  torn  by  domestic  broils:  on  one  side  tyranny  and  rapacity  prevailed, 
on  the  other  a  determined  obstinacy  in  withholding  the  sircar  dues,  either 
by  fraud  or  corruption,  or,  when  strong  enough,  by  open  resistance. 
The  authority  of  tlie  Nizam  was  set  at  nought  by  all  parties.  His  own 
soldiery  wrested  their  arrears  of  pay  with  interest  from  the  villages  on 
which  they  were  billeted;  while  upwards  of  eighty  Poligars,  with  about 
thirty  thousand  armed  followers, occupying  the  forts  and  walled  villages, 
were  en:^.iged  in  endless  and  bloody  feuds  with  each  other.  Bands  of 
robbers  pillaged  with  imj)unity ;  and,  in  short,  murder  and  rapine  stalk* 
ed  trium]jhant  throughout  this  war-stricken  land.  But  the  roaster-hand 
was  upon  it.  Under  the  vigorus  measures  of  Munro,  the  disorderly  soldi- 
ery of  the  NizMm  was  expellel  within  three  months;  and  before  a  year 
had  rolled  on  the  most  refractory  of  the  contumacious  Poligars,  whom 
neither  the  Delhi  viceroys,  the  Mahrattas,  the  Nizam,  nor  Uyder  and 
Tippoo,  could  keep  in  subjection,  were  eith-^r  reduced  to  obedience  or 
compelled  to  quit  the  country.  Order  being  at  last  restored,  this  excel- 
lent public  servant,  after  a  laborious  Investigation  into  the  land  tcniirei^ 
and  such  of  the  revpnue  accounts  as  had  escaped  destruction,  lost  no  lime 
in  laving  the  foundation  of  that  admirable  systcfu  of  revenue,  known 
under  the  term  royetwar,  which  still  exists  under  some  modification.  This 
he  found  (he  more  easy  to  do,  inasmuch  as  the  ancient  Hindu  sovereigns 
of  the  CededDistricts,  like  the  Malayan  princes  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
and  the  chiefs  of  other  ultra  gangetic  nations,  had  always  been  considered 
aslordsof  ihesoil :  consequently  all  lands,  with  the  exception  of  some  that 
had  been  given  away  in  enaitm,  reverted  to  Government. 

It  has  been  said  (hat  the  race  of  Poligars  first  sprang  up  between 
the  fall  of  Bijanugger  and  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe :  but  they 
cxiiited  long  previous  to  this  period,  and  often  proved  rebellious 
vassals  to  thtMr  liege  lords,  the  Hindu  princes  of  Bijanugger,  to 
whom  they  jaid  peshkush.  Among  the  most  powerful  were  rank- 
ed the  chiefs  of  Anantapur,  Raidroog,  Auk,  Punganoor,  Har- 
ponhully,  Gurrumcondah,  Ohuttu  and  Bellary ;  the  three  first  are 
said  to  have  formerly  held  the  great  oflUces  of  state  under  the 
Hindu  administration,  and  to  have  been  presented  with  land  in  jaghire 
in  order  to  enable  them  to  support  their  official  dignities.  The  descend- 
ants of  the  Hindu  sovereigns,  who  for  many  generations  had  been  per- 
mitted to  retain  Annagunfli,and  some  other  places,  in  jaghire  from  their 
Mahomedan  conquerors,  remained  in  quiet  obscurity,  residing  principal- 
ly at  Camlapur  in  the  suburbs  of  the  ruined  capital  of  their  ancestors, 
and  at  Pennuconda,  indu\g)u»  iW  ^tm  Vio^e,  (oxxuded  upon  an  old  Hindu 


1839}  and  Slatutical  of  the  Ceded  Dtslrictf.  1  It 

prophecy,  that  they  will  one  diy  regain  the  lost  possessions  of  the 
fiimily.  The  next  of  kin,  a  young  boy  about  10  years  of  age,  resides  at 
present  in  Annagundi  under  the  care  of  the  Dalwai,  or  hereditary  prime 
minister,  enjoying  a  handsome  pension  of  16,532  rupees  per  annum,  and 
the  revenue  of  a  few  villages,  from  the  British  government ;  also  of  cer- 
tain districts  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tumbuddra  from  the  Nizam.  The 
descendants  of  the  Harponhully,  Raidroog,  Pungnnoor  and  other  chiefe 
are  likewise  handsomely  pensioned.  The  Nabob  of  Kumool  pays  an 
annual  peshkush  for  his  dominions  of80,0Q0  Company's  rupees.  It 
was  settled  at  a  lac  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  diflference  of  coins^ 
amounts  only  to  the  sum  just  specifiei. 

Physical  aspr'ct. — A   considerable  diversity  exists  in   the   physical 
aspect  of  the  country.     The  Qfeneral   character  however    is   th^it  of  an 
extensive  plateau  elevated  on  the  shoulders  of  the  western  and  eastern 
ghats,  the  plain  of  which    forms  a  considerable  angle  with  the  horizon, 
inclining  towards  the  e  istem  coast  of  the  peninsula.     For   iustance,  we 
find  the  height  of  the  plain  east  of  the  western  ghats  at  Belgaum  in  the 
Southern  Mahratla  Country  to  be  2,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea— 
at  Bellary  1,600  feet;  the  average  of  the  plain  east  of  Bellary  and  Gooty 
1,182  feet — proceeding  easterly  to  Cuddapah  507   feet,  and  the   average 
oh  the  eastern  limit  of  the  district  450  feet.  The  western  ghats  clearly 
form  the  anticlinal  lin'^,  to   whi  h  the  arenaceous  and  schistous  eastern 
ranges  are  more  or  less  conformable.    The  plain  has  another  and  mor^ 
gentle  dip  towards  the  north,  viz.  to  the  beds   of  the  Kistnah  and  Tura- 
budlra,rising  southerly  as  it  passes  the  frontierto  Nundidroog  in  Mysore* 
whence  it  slopes  to  the  southward,  forming  the  table-land  on  which 
stands  the  cantonment  of  Bangalore.    The  bed  of  the  Kistnah  on  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  Ceded  Districts  is  1 ,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea:  the  plain  rises  as  we  ))roceed  southerly  to  the  centre  of  the  district  to 
1,500  feet ;  on  the  north  frontier   of  Mysore  to    2,223  feet ;  at  Nundi- 
droog to  about  3,500  feet ;  whence  it  sinks  southerly   to  Bangalore^ 
which  is  about  3,000  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean.    The  granitic 
cluster  of  Nundidroog  constitutes  the  axis   of  elevation  of  this  part  of 
the   country.    Towards    the  centre  of  the  district,  the   surface  of  the 
plain  presents  a  monotonous  and  almost  treeless   extent,  bounded  by 
the  horizon,  and  unbroken  save  by  a  few  rocky   elevations  that  stand 
forth  abruptly  from  the  sheet  of  black  soil,   like  rocks  f^om  the  ocean* 
The  country   from  Bellary  to  Tarputry,  and  from  Pennaconda,  Qooty  and 
Adoni  to  the  Kistnah,  is  much  of  a  similar  nature.    Sir  T.  Munro  might 
well  observe  thit  these  districts  are  more  destitute  of  trees  than  any  part 
of  Scotland  he  ever  saw,  and  that  the  traveller  scarcely  meets  with   one 


114  Somt  Accwint^  HUiorical,  Geographical  [Jclt 

id  twenty  miles,  and  no  where  with  a  clump  of  fifij.*  The  coimiiy 
arouDii  Cuiidapah,  Gurruucoudah,  Cummum  and  Badwail  consists  of 
flal  lands  at  ihe  bases  of  hills,  well  watered  by  streams  and  springs  from 
the  nt- i^hbouriiig  heights,  and  studded  wiih  topes  and  tanks.  Id  the 
Chi. wail  ta-uL  the  soil  is  said  to  be  fertile  and  water  abundant,  yet  its 
chief  proJuoe  is  ra^gi.  The  country  to  the  west  of  fiellary  is  wild  and 
hilly  to  the  verge  of  the  Kumply  hills,  nheuce  it  de>cends  in  a  gently 
sloping  plaiu  to  ihe  lied  of  the  Tumbuiidra,  its  wer^tem  boundary  ; — here 
it  uieets  with  the  limits  of  the  Nizam*s  dominions,  the  Southern Mahratta 
Countnr  and  Mvsore. 

HfU.  —The  hill  rauges  most  worthy  of  note  are  those  of  the  NnUa 
Klulia&LaDca  Mullah  to  the  east,  of  Sondur  aud  Kumply  to  the  west,and 
of  Gurrumcoudah  and  Puoganoor  to  the  south.  The  former  take  a  S.  by 
easterly  course,  by  Cummum  lo  Cuddapah,  whence  they  turn  in  a  soaih- 
easterly  direction  towards  the  famous  hiil-shriue  of  Tripetty.  Their 
formation  is  clay  slate,  sandstone,  quartz  rock,  siliceous  and  arenaceous 
Bcbist,  with  a  few  hilU  of  blue  and  grey  limestone  :  the  base  of  these 
rocks  is  granite.  The  Sondur  aud  Kumply  ranges  have  a  somewhat  pa- 
rallel direction.  Granite,  laminar  granite,  graniioidal  gneiss,  gneiss  in 
distinct  strata,  horubleude  rock,  mica,  hornblende,  chloritic,  ferrugi- 
nous  and  siliceous  sjhists,  prevail.  A  blue  limestone  imbedding  iioa 
pyrites  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  Cuddaf^ah  plaiu,  where  it  occurs 
in  beds  dipping  generally  at  an  angle  of  5°  to  the  east.  Granite  occun 
in  clustered  and  detached,  dome-sha])ed  masses  ,  often  crowned  with  tors 
and  loggini^  stones.  The  principal  clusters  are  those  of  Bijanugger  in 
the  N.  \V.  fron;ier — lo  the  S.  at  Palsamudrum,  to  the  N.  at  Adoui,  and 
to  the  S.  tho»e  ot  Pciinacouda,  &c.  The  greatest  elevation  attniued  is 
Ly  the  slate  ana  s.  n  Istone  formation  of  the  ^^ullah  Mulla,  some  of  whose 
peaka  ri>t:  to  aloui  3,^00  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  One  of  the 
peaks  of  the  schiiatous  ranges,  to  the  west  of  Bellar}*,  has  an  elevation 
(by  tiigonometricai  u.ia>uumeiitj  of  3,  NS  feet. 

Valient* — There  are  no  vallev  s  that  lean  satisfy  myself  have  been 
entirely  caused  by  the  eroisive  actiou  of  water,  but  there  are  many  rifts 
in  the  san  istone  and  slate  hil.s,  that  liave  beeu  dt^pened  and  widened 
from  this  cause,  lu  the  same  hiils  we  s.'e  ravines  and  cul  de-sae  hol- 
lows, which  have  evideutly  been  formed  by  the  water  rushing  down  te 
the  plains  during  the  rains.     Deep  vertical  fi:<sures  cross    the  sandstone 

*  Since  bis  time  tlie  late    cullector  Hr   Robertson  bos  done  ciucL  to    improre  the 
app^wance  of  the  t.uatry  by  the  plaut  Atioa  of  aumercuj  tope*. 


1839]  dnd  Statistical  of  the  Ceded  DislricU.  115 

ranges  oFien  cleaving  the  hills  to  their  bases  ;  which  appear,  from  the 
absence  of  (Hsturbanue  in  the  stratification,  to  have  originated  in  the 
contraction  of  the  rock  itself,  during  its  solidification  ;  and  subsequently 
enlarged  by  the  action  of  springs,  which  are  often  seen  to  burst  forth  at 
these  discontinuations  of  the  strata,  and  the  rivers  that  find  a  vent  through* 
and  wash  the  biise  of  the  cliffs.  The  pass  of  Ganjecotta,  and  the  fis- 
sures of  the  hills  south  of  Cuddapah  afford  good  examples  of  these*  con* 
tractions.  The  principal  valleys,  however,  follow  the  direction  of  eleva- 
tion, that  is  southerly  and  easterly. — The  spaces  between  the  gianile 
hills,  (for  they  cannot  with  propriety  be  termed  valleys,and  their  flatness 
is  only  interrupted  by  sm  ill  tali  round  the  hills  of  alluvial  matter  washed 
from  the  rocks  by  tho  rains),  are  ufien  strewed  or  blocked  up  by  large 
masses,  preoi[)ltaied  by  spontaneous  splitting  and  exfoliation  from  their 
sides  and  summits^ 

Rivers. — The  Kistnah,  Tumbud'ira,  Pennaur  and  Hogri  are  the  most 
considerable  streams.  The  Kistnah  rises  in  the  Mahabaleshwar  jiills, 
enters  the  Ceded  Districts,  or  rather  Kumoo),at  Calloor,  where  i'  meets 
with  the  Tumbuddra  a  few  miles  to  the  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Kumool, 
and  tdkingan  E.  by  N.  course  quits  the  territory  a  little  to  the  east  of 
the  Hoosaimi;ger  ghat,  falling  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  after  a  course 
of  about  700  mile**,    at  Sipelar  point. 

The  Tumbnddra  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  two  rivers — the 
Tiinga  and  the  Bhadra:  the  first  rises  amon;  the  western  ghats  south 
of  Bednore  {  the  latter  among  the  Baba  Booden  mountains.  The  «Mn- 
gum,  or  point  of  confluence,  is  at  the  sared  village  of  Good  I y  near 
Hooly  Honour.  The  united  rivers  enter  the  S.  western  frontier  of  the 
Ceded  Districts,  nine  miles  north  from  Hurry hur,  taking  at  first  a  N.  by 
W.  course,  but  shortly  turning  to  the  E.,  flow  in  a  north  easterly  directi« 
on,  dividing  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Bijanugger  and  Anna- 
gundi,  to  Hullaykola,  where  they  are  joined  by  the  Hogri  about  40  milest 
N.  by  E.  from  Bellary.  At  the  foot  ef  the  walls  of  Kumoolthe  Tum- 
buddra  is  met  by  the  Hendery,  and  shortly  afterwards  mixes  its  wateri 
with  those  of  the  Kistnah  at  Calloor. 

The  Hogri  river  has  its  rise  near  the  B.iba  Booden  mountains  in  My- 
sore ;  pursuing  a  northerly  course  of  about  200  miles  to  the  Tnnibuddra,it 
entei-s  the  S.  W.  limit  of  the  district  about  12  miles  S.  of  the  hill  fort  of 
Raidrooof,  passing  about  9  miles  eastward  of  Bellary. 

The  Pennaur  8prinQ:s  from  the  granite  hills  near  Nundidroog  in  My- 
sore. It  enters  the  southern  boundary  of  the  district  at  Challoor;  pur- 
sues a  N.  by  W.  course  to  Ooderpidroog,  whence,  passing  easterly  by 
Tarputry  through  the  chasm  in  the  Gundicota  chain,  and  washing  tho 


116  Some  Account,  Iligtorical,  Gtographitml  [Jtn»f 

iouth-eAstem  base  of  the  Cuddapah  bills,  it  escapes  through  the  ▼allej 
of  Sidhout  and  the  Nellore  district  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  lis  tribiilary 
streams  are  the  Chitravati,  the  Coond,  the  Paupugni,  the  Maandairiav 
the  Paugher,  the  Baugonuddi,  the  Saggelair,  the  Goof^aina,  and  a  few 
others  of  minor  note. 

None  of  the  rivers  of  the  Ceded  Districts  are  navigated  for  the  pur- 
poses of  trade  beyond  the  transit  of  merchandize  over  the  ferries;  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Kistnah  and  the  Tumbuddra,  serve  merely  for 
the  purposes  of  irrigation  and  as  channels  of  drainage  during  the  rains. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  beds  present  a  sandy  waste,  and 
the  banks  a  succession  of  barren  sand  dunes.  The  Kistnah  and  Tom- 
buddra  have  in  many  places  rocky  banks  and  beds,  which,  added  to  the 
rapidity  of  their  currents,  are  great  obstacles  to  navigntion.  They  are 
unfordable  commonly  from  June  to  October  or  November  f  but  this  of 
dourae  must  depend  on  the  monsoon.  A  large  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
lime  js  deposited  in  all  by  their  tributaries,  on  whose  banks  it  is  oftea 
seen  in  mounds  and  large  beds,  often  forming  a  conglomerate  with  the 
pebbles  and  sand  brought  down  by  the  streams. 

Ferries, — The  principal  ferries  from  the  Ceded  Districts  Into  the 
Nizanrs  countries  over  the  former  are  those  of  Moorconda  and  Purwot* 
tum  :  and  over  the  latter  those  of  Kumool,  Madaveram,  Naguldinnyr 
Hulhully,  Bijanugger,  Hum|;8agur  and  Mangala.  The  two  last  lead  to 
the  Southern  Mahratta  Country. 

Tliese  ferries  are  crossed  by  means  of  the  well  known  basket  boats; 
one  or  two  of  which,  belonging  to  the  Govcrnmenf,are  generally  station- 
ed at  each  ferry,  and  a  similar  number  belonging  to  the  Nizam  on  the 
opposite  bank;  but  in  cases  of  emergency,  for  inHtiince  for  the  passive 
of  troops,  from  twenty  to  thirty  can  be  collected  at  any  given  spot  at  a 
few  days  warning.  They  are  generally  from  six  to  eleven  feet  in  din* 
meter,  and  the  largest  will  readily  admit  of  the  transit  of  B  mounted  6 
pounder.  One  of  15  feet  in  diameter  and  between  3  anil  4  feet  deep, 
with  flat  bottom,  and  straight  or  slightly  curved  sides,  will  carry  a  brass 
18  pounder  or8  inch  howitzer  mounted, or  a  tumbril  loaded  with  ammuni- 
tion. The  boats  can  be  easily  carried  with  trotrps  on  the  ahoulders  of 
coolies.  The  invention  of  these  useful  means  of  transport  is  of  consi- 
derable antiquity  among  eastern  nations:  Herodotus  observed  boats  of 
a  similar  construction  on  the  Euphrates  near  Babylon.  The  banks  of  the 
Turabuddra,  at  the  princij)al  military  ferry  into  the  Southern  Mahratta 
Country  at  Hnmpsagur,  are  1,159  feet  asunder  j  at  Hulhully  into  tlia 
Nizam's  country  1,642  feet,snd  at  Madaveram  and  Kumool ;  on  the  mili- 
tary roadi  from  Bellary  and  Bangalore  to  Hydrabud^  aboot  1^900  ftet 


16391  nnd  SMittkal  tif  the  Ceded  Dittriete.  117 

La  keif  Marshes  and  Springs. — There  are  no  lakes  nor  marshes  of  any 
note :  the  springs  and  wells  are  often  impregnated  with  muriate  of  soda 
and  carbonate  of  lime  in  varying  proportions.  Saline  and  fresh 
springs  sometimes  occur  in  almost  immediate  proximity  ;  a  pheno- 
menon to  be  ascribed  probably  to  the  almost  vertical  strata  through 
which  they  rise.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  many  gardenSi  particular^ 
ly  at  Bellary,  formerly  extremely  productive,  now  yield,  compa^ 
ratively  sneaking,  little  or  nuthing:  this  I  have  found  to  arise  from  (hs 
practice  ol  irrigatmg  them  with  water  drawn  from  brackish  springs ; 
the  water  evaporating  leaves  its  saline  contents  disseminated  in  the  soilf 
which,  by  constant  progressive  accumulation,  first  diminishes,  and  even* 
tually  destroys  the  power  of  vegetation.  Copious  springs  of  fine  watsr 
occur  in  the  Paliconda  hills,  a  little  to  the  south  of  Cuddapah;  falling 
from  precipices  occasioned  by  deep  rifts  in  the  sandstone  rocks  they  add 
much,  during  the  rainy  season,  to  the  picturesque  character  of  the  wild 
scenery  among  which  they  are  situated.  Some  of  the  springs  near  the 
base  of  the  hills  rise  from  a  considerable  depth,  as  indicated  by  the 
slightly  thermal  character  I  found  them  to  possess.  The  thermometer, 
immersed  in  the  water  close  to  the  orifice  from  which  it  bubbles  up  from 
the  rock,  indicated  a  temperature  of  84*  Fahrenheit ;  while  tliat  of  the 
water  iu  the  rivulet  close  by  amounted  only  to  72^.  The  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  was  65^.  There  is  a  saline  spring  in  the  blue  lime- 
stone at  Jummulmudgoo,  into  which  the  newly  dyed  chintzes  are  dipped 
for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  colour.  The  water  contains  a  considenN 
ble  proportion  of  muriate  of  soda,  which  is  also  found  in  thin  efflores- 
cing layers  on  the  edges  and  between  the  planes  of  the  lamin«  of  the 
rock* 

Soil, — The  soil  is  principally  the  regur,  or  black  cotton  ground, 
miugled  more  or  less  according  to  situation  with  calcareous  matter^aris- 
ing  from  the  kaukrous  deposii  so  common  in  many  parts  of  India,  the 
debris  of  the  subjacent  rocks,  and  decayed  animal  and  vegetable  matter  | 
the  latter  in  small  proportion.  In  the  Bellary  division,  for  instancef 
where  the  rock  formation  is  chiefly  granite,  gneiss,  and  its  associated 
schists,  the  regur  is  mingled  with  decomposed  felspar,  gritty  particles  el 
quartz,  and  often  covered  with  angular  pebbles  of  white  quartz,  ferrugi- 
nous quartz,  jasper,  &c.  The  bases  of  the  hills  are  generally  surround* 
ed  with  the  soil  arising  from  their  own  disintegration,  which  is  carried 
to  a  considerable  distance  by  the  transporting  power  of  streams  and  rain. 
In  the  Cuddapah  district  the  decomposition  of  the  limestone,  calcareouft 
veins,  clay  slate  and  sandstone,  imparts  a  lighter  colour  and  a  looser 
texture  to  the  i-egur;  which,  added  to  the  nature  of  the  stratifleatioii 


118  Some  Accouut,  Historical,  Ceographical  [Joif 

and  greater  abundance  of  springs  in  tlie  limestone  and  sandstone,  ren- 
ders it  favourable  for  the  cultivation  of  indigo,  there  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  The  trap  dykes  decompos'^  into  a  deep  red  or  coffce- 
eoloured  soil,  which  apppars  to  be  more  fertile  than  that  resulting  from 
the  decomposition  of  granite  and  gneiss.  The  term  m.vs9vh\^  often  in- 
discriminately applied  to  all  reddish  soils,  but  native  agriculturists  con- 
fine the  word  to  the  mixod  bla<'k  and  red  soils.  Of  all  soils,  the  most 
sterile  are  those  where  saline  efflorescences  are  observed ;  and  those  re* 
suiting  from  the  decomposition  of  beds  of  unmixed  quartz. 

Agriculture. — Cnltivntion  may  be  classed  under  two  heads,  v\t,  the 
dry  and  wet,  the  kfiu<hl'i  and  tari  of  the  Moguls.  The  former  depends 
on  the  heavens  for  a  supply  ofwuter  ;  the  hitter,  th**  extent  of  which  is 
estimated  at  about  one-seventh  of  the  total  snperfices  of  cultivation,  on 
wells,  tank*,  anicut*,  aoqu»»duct8  and  streams.  Dry  cultivation  is  divid- 
ed into  two  season?*,  vi/.  the  crops  usually  sown  in  Juiie»terraed  mungari, 
including  the  staple  articles  of  protluce,  viz.  red  and  yellow  juari  {Art'* 
drapogon  Sorghum),  bajra  {fJolciisSpiatuO*  culti  {Glycine  tomentosa\ 
and  dal  ;  and  the  crops  sown  affer  the  rains  in  Sept.  or  October,  called 
hingari,  embracing  cotton,  white  juari,  wheat,  and  chenna,  tobacco, 
rice,  sugar-cane,&c.  are  articles  of  wet  cultivation  or  artificial  irrigation ; 
the  first  is  sown  in  September.  Rice  is  generally  sown  in  June  and 
July,  and  also  in  October  and  November.  Indigo  i^  a  triennial  plant,  pro- 
ducing two  and  sometimes  three  crops  in  the  year,  and  requires  much 
care. 

The  expense  of  bringing  waste  regur  lands  into  cultivation  falls  heavy 
on  the  rayet.  The  surface  U  first  cleared  of  the  kikar,  turwer,  and  other 
bushes  and  thorns.  The  next  process  to  disencumber  the  soil  from 
roots,  weeds  and  superfluous  stones,  by  ploughing  it  three  times  succes- 
sively ;  the  second  lime  at  right  angles  with  the  first  and  the  third  in 
an  oblique  direction.  This  is  a  most  lab(»rious  process,  Listing  often 
nearly  two  months,  and  is  done  by  means  of  the  Urge  plough  d»*awn  by 
from  ten  to  sixteen  bullocks.  It  is  however  absolutely  necessary,  in 
order  to  break  up  the  roots  of  that  bane  of  Hindu  cultivators  the  nutk 
grass,  particularly  that  partially  choked  by  the  gurraka  nuth,  for 
which  no  remission  is  made  by  government,  except  when  it  completely 
covers  the  land  and  requires  the  great  plough  to  eradicate  it.  A  remis- 
sion of  rent  is  allowed  for  regur  lands  which  have  lain  waste  six  years 
or  more,  and  for  ground  encumbered  with  patches  of  the  kundai  nutk. 
After  the  first  clearing,  the  great  plough  is  laid  by  for  the  next  12  or  20 
years.  All  th-it  is  necessary,  preparatory  to  sowing  the  succeeding  crops, 
is  to  run  the  soil  over  with  the  light  common  plough.     After  the  ground 


1839]  mnd  SlatUiscal  of  the  Ceded  Disiricts.  HjT 

has  been  thoroughly  broken  up,  it  is  thrice  harrowed  for  about  a  month; 
after  which  the  cotton  seed  is  sown  with  kusum  or  kungoni  by  means 
of  a  drill  plough,  the  drills  being  usually  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
asunder.  If  the  season  be  favourable,  the  cotton  makes  its  appearance 
in  about  5  days.  The  weeding  plough,  furnished  with  the  double  or 
treble  hoe,  now  comes  into  use,  and  is  employed  from  time  to  time 
until  the  pod  is  ready  for  gathering,  viz.  from  January  to  March.  The 
rayets,  aware  of  the  tendency  of  cotton  to  exhaust  the  fertilizing  prin- 
ciple of  the  soil,  sow  it  in  rotation  biennially  with  white /uar i  :  and 
sometimes  even  in  triennial  rotation,  viz.  one  crop  of  cotton  after  two 
of  juari.  Many  agriculturists  sow  th«Mr  regur  lands  in  the  following 
order,  viz.  cotton,  juari,  chenna,  and  so  on.  The  cultivation  of  cotton 
has  been  on  the  increase  for  th«;  last  few  years,  owing  to  the  increasing 
demand  for  the  raw  articles  in  European  mnrts.  Ii  has  been  tried  in  the 
musKul)  soils  of  Bel lary  and  Mysore,  bu    without  profitable  results. 

The  cultivation  of  the  mussub,  or  red  soil,  is  too  well  known  to  require 
expl  anation  here.  It  is  simply  cleared  of  rubbish,  shrubs  and  roots, 
and  run  over  two  or  three  times  with  the  common  plough.  The  chief 
products  are  hajra  iHolcus  Spicaius)  y eWow  juari  and  cuUi,  The  prin- 
cipal rice  or  wet  land  districts  are  those  of  Pennaconda,  Mudducksera, 
Codyconda,  Durmaveram,  Anantipur,  the  Cummum  valley,  the  banks  of 
theTumbuddra,  and  taluks  lying  near  the  beds  of  ihe  Pennaur  and  Hogri 
rivers.  Indigo  is  grown  principally  in  the  Cuddapah  coliectorate,  in  a 
regur,  mixed  with  the  detritus  of  the  limestone  kunkar  and  sandstone. 
It  has  lately  been  introduced  into  the  Bellary  coliectorate  at  Tarputry. 
Sugar-cane  flourishes  best  in  the  mixed  black  sedimentary  and  red 
soils,  containing  both  protoxide,  peroxide  of  iron,  and  lime,  near  the 
banks  of  rivers,  ami  in  the  beds  of  tanks.  It  is  cultivated  with  ihe 
greatest  success  in  the  western  taluks  of  the  Bellary  coliectorate,  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  TumbudJra,  and  under  tanks.  It  is  planted  by  cut- 
tings, generally  from  February  to  the  end  of  April,  and  ripens  in  about 
nine  months.  The  crops  are  made  to  alternate  once  in  three  or  four  years 
with  rice.  I  need  hardly  observe  that  the  seasons  of  sowing  and  reap- 
ing all  the  crops  depend  upon  the  timely  supply  of  water,  the  failure 
of  which  caused  a  severe  famine  in  1803  and<great  scarcity  in  1833.  In 
18^8,  the  early  crops  failed  from  a  similar  reason  :  in  some  places  not  a 
blade  appeared  above  the  ground,  the  plain  presenting  a  dreary  black 
waste;  in  other  situations  the  crops  did  not  come  into  ear,  and  the  straw 
was  cut  for  forage. 

Implements  of  ^Agriculture. — The  implements  for  agriculture  in  com- 
mon use,  are  a  variety  of  small  ploughs,  drawn  each  by  two  bullock8,and 


120  Some  Account,  Historicali  Qeograpkicml  [Jult 

the  great  plough  that  requires  from  eight  to  sixteen.  The  latter  is  used 
to  break  up  the  roots  of  the  nuth  grass,  in  preparing  waste  or  choked  np 
regur  lands  for  the  smaller  plough.  Drill  ploughs  with  three  or  four 
shares,  are  employed  fur  sowing ;  and  for  weeding,  large  and  small  har- 
rows, furnished  with  small  hoc.^,  cutting  almost  horizontally.  They  are 
drawn  commonly  by  two  bullocks.  The  bilUhook  and  pickaxe  are  aoeie- 
times  employed  in  clearing  the  land.  The  mamotie,  or  Indian  hand 
spade,  is  in  universal  use.  The  total  number  of  ploughs  in  the  Ceded 
Districts  amounts  to  about  155,522. 

Manure, — It  is  a  remarkable  quality  of  the  best  sort  of  regar  or  black 
foil,  that,  provided  proper  attention  be  paid  to  the  due  rotation  of  crops, 
it  does  not  require  manure  nor  irrigation,  beyond  the  usual  pt^riodical 
supply  afforded  by  the  rains  and  dews.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Tillages  we  sometimes  see  its  refuse  thrown  on  the  mixed  black  soil,  but 
lam  assured  by  many  intelligent  rayets  that  the  first  sort  of  regur  would 
be  deteriorated  by  manure.  We  must  therefore  consider  its  component 
parts  blended  together  in  proportions  too  accurately  balanced  to  need 
addition.  The  most  common  manures  for  the  inferior  sort  of  regur  and 
mussub  lands,  are  sheep  dung,  mixed  with  village  ashes,  rubbish,  &c. 
ploughed  in  for  dry  grain  lands,  once  every  three  or  four  years.  Red 
soils  are  also  manured  annually  by  folding  large  flocks  of  sheep 
upon  them ;  1,000  sheep  being  calculated  to  be  sufficient  for  six  acres 
ki  ten  nights.  Cow-dung  for  sugar-canes  is  considered  inferior  to  sheep 
dung, which  is  used  annually,  and,  when  the  soil  requires  loosening,  mix« 
ed  with  a  little  red  earth.  Cow  dung  is  also  in  great  request  in  the 
Ceded  Districts,  where  fire-wood  is  scarce  as  a  fuel ;  for  which  purpose 
it  is  made  up  into  thin  cakes,  termed  hratties,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  piled 
into  stacks  :  the  ashes  form  a  good  manure.  In  the  indigo  districts  I 
have  seen  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  the  plant,  after  the  extraction  of  the 
dye,  used  as  a  manure,  sometimes  twice  a  year,  particularly  to  wet  rice 
grounds.  In  other  districts  the  leaves  of  wild  plants,  such  as  the  Cassia 
auriculatQi  mixed  with  sheep  dung,  are  employed.  In  gardens,  sheep's 
blood,  garbage,  stale  fish  and  other  stimulating  matter,are  applied  annu* 
ally  to  the  roots  of  the  grape  vines,  which  are  bared  for  the  purpose.  To 
betel  plantations,  sheep's  dung,  wood  ashes  and  red  earth  mixed,are  ap- 
plied once  in  from  three  to  seven  years.  To  the  roots  of  the  cocoa  and 
areca  palms,  cow  and  sheep  dung,  mixed  with  the  sedimentary  deposit 
ttom  the  beds  of  tanks  and  pools,  should  be  applied  once  a  year.  Some 
natives  apply  a  quantity  of  common  salt  to  the  very  top  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  tree,  which  dissolving  is  supposed  to  penetrate  downwards  to  the  root 


183^  and  Statutlcal  of  ike  Ceded  Dittriciw.  nr 

and  increase  the  produce  of  fruit :  others  apply  it  to  the  toil  around  the 

root  of  the  young  tree. 

Irrigation, — ^Irrigation  is  conducted  by  means  of  tanks,  wells,  rivers, 
rivulets,  water-courses  leading  from  the  larger  streams.     Water  is  gene- 
rally drawn  up  from  the  wells  at  a  depth  of  from  6  to  50   feet  by  tbe 
common  mote,  or  water-wheel,  turned  by   front  two   to  four  bullocks 
moving  down  an  inclined  plane,  the  length  and  degree  of  inclination  of 
which  is  dexterously   adapted  by  the  nalivi^s  to  the  depth  of  the  welt» 
The  water  is  thus  drawn  up  in  a  large  leathern  bag,  or  bucketi  and  pour- 
ed into  a  channel  artificial iy  raised  above  the  level   of  the  land  to  be 
irrigated,  and  diffused  by  stnall  acqueducts  over  its  whole  extent.    The 
skill  and  ingenuity  displayed  by  the  Hindus  in    this  practical   branch  of 
hydrostatics,  is  no  where  better  exemplified  than  in  the  ruins  of  Bijanng- 
ger ;  where,  by  means  of  a  number  of  magnificent  dams,  or  antcutfr, 
thrown  across  the  course  of  a  large  and  rapid  river,  its  wateis  were  plen- 
tifully distributed  by  stone  acqueducts  in  many  placet  raised  on  pillarii 
to  every  corner  of  a  most  extensive  and  populous  city,  and  to  this  day  irri- 
gate large  and  fertile  tracks  on  the  river's  banks.     By  means  of  the  mote- 
water  is  also  raised  to  the  surface  from  the  deep  beds  of  rivers,  and  pour« 
cd  into  the  a<ljaoent  fields.     The  yetlum,  or  balance  beam,   turning  on  a 
wooden  pivot,  and  moved  on  the  principle  of  a  lever  by  a  single  cooly,  is 
much  employed  in  garden  and  other  cultivation  of  small  extent.     The 
principal  t^nks  are  those  of  Cummum,  Hundi,  Anantipur,   Bukapatnam, 
Dunnaikenkerra,  Durmaveram,  Daroji,  Hem  Toombul,  and  Yerratimraja 
Cherru.    The  keeping  in  repair  of  the  embankments  of  the   tanks  and 
of  the  anicuts,  is  provided  for  by  Government,  and  confided  to  the  charge 
of  the  civil  engineers.    The  number  of  anicuts*  over  large  rivers  in  the 
Bellary  collectorate,  amounts  to  46 :  over  small  streams  to  285.  The  num- 
ber of  tanks,  that  are  kept  in  repair  and  conduce  to  irrigation,  in  the  same 
collectorate  is  1401,  and  of  wells  22,440. 

Meteorology. — The  wind  blows  generally  from  S,  W.  to  W.  and  N.  W. 
from  March  to  October,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  fromN.  E.  to8.  E« 
In  January  and  February,  it  often  shifts  from  the  N.  E.  to  the  S.  W., 
W.,  and  N.  W.  and  is  usually  strongest  in  March  and  April.  Showers 
fall  from  April  to  November,  at  first  attended  with  severe  thunder  storms. 
March,  April,  May  and  June  are  the  hottest  months;  November,  !>««• 
cember  and  January  the  coldest  months  during  the  year.    The  greatest 

*  The  micuts  are  eonstrueted  of  large  masses  of  granite,  in  many  places  elamped  tege- 
tber  with  iron.  They  are  built  in  great  part  on  masses  of  rock  whieh  reduces  the  boi^ht 
of  the  artifielal  stonework— much  of  which  is  only  five  or  six  feet  high.  The  gcoeraJL 
height  of  the  anicuts  from  the  rirer-bed,  is  from  9  to  18  feet 


122  Some  Aceouni,  HUtorical,  Geographical  [JuLr 

quantity  of  rain  generally  falls  ia  September  and  October :  though,  in 
1838,  more  fell  in  July  than  in  October.    On  account  of  its  centrical  in- 
land poBitiun,  Bellary  is  removed  from  the  full  force  of  either  monsoon  ; 
this  renders  the  periodical  changes  which  occur  with  comparative  re- 
gularity in  tropical   regions,  subject  to  vicissitude  and   uncertainty ; 
therefore,  what  is  here  said  regarding  its  climate,  &c.  must  be  taken 
merely   as  approximative.    The  theimometer  (Fahrt.)  ranges  during 
the  year  from  48*  to  98°    in  the  shade.     Less  rain  is  supposed  to  fall 
at  Bellary  than  at  any  otber  place  in  Southern  India.    During  the  year 
1838,  only  1 1  \  inches  of  water  fell ;  but  it  must  be  recollected,  that  this 
was  an  uncommonly  dry  season.    Hail  is  rather  uncommon :  I  have  seen 
it  fall  during  the  thunder  storms  in  May,  in  globular  concretions  varying 
in  size  from  a  swan  shot  to  a  musket  ball.    The  quantity  of  moisture  in 
the  atmosphere  indicated  by  the  hygrometer,  during  the  months  of  De- 
cember and  January,  is  extremely  minute,  although  the  air  is  remarka- 
ble for  its  transparency.    Humidity  increases  the  transparency,  as  may 
be  observed  a  few  hours,  or  even  a  day  before,  or  after  a  fall  of  rain.  The 
degree  of  electricity  it  contains,  is  evinced  by  the  simple  experiment  of 
passing  a  brush  rapidly  through  the  hair  once  or  twice,  after  it  has 
been  dried  :  this  frequently  produces  a  harsh  crackling  noise,    the  ex- 
plosions of  a  shower  of  electric  sparks   plainly  visible   in  a  darkened 
room.    Mirages  and  halos  are  of  frequent  occurrence.     I  have  witness- 
ed a  curious  species  of  the  former   phenomenon  on  dewy  nights  and 
mornings,  caused  by  the  rays  of  the  moon,  when  low  in  the  zenith,  fall- 
ing at  an  acute  angle  on  the  horizontal  plane  of  the   bank  of  vapour. 
This  lunar  mirage  produces  the  illusive  spectacle  of  a  vast  sheet  of 
water,  tranquil  and  glittering  as  the  surface  of  a  polished  mirror.     Ob- 
jects seen  at  a  distance  on  the  undulations  of  the  extensive  plains  by 
the  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  are  often  singularly  magnified  to  more  than 
double  their  natural  size  :  this  deception  vanishes  as  the  sun  advances 
in  the  heavens.     Meteors     are  most     frequent    from     November    to 
March.    On  the  2d  January  1831,  a  meteorolite   fell  in  the   Cudda- 
pah  district,  a  fragment  of  which   is    deposited    in  the    Museum    of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.    Few  experiments  have  been  made,  or  at 
least  their  results  not  made    public,    on  those    interesting  objects  of 
meteorological  enquiry,  vix.   radiation,  light,   electricity  and   moisture; 
but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  branches  of  research  in  a  climate  so  re- 
markably influenced  as  thatof  the  Ceded  Districts,  will  be  more  carefully 
attended  to.    The  mean  temperature   of  Bellary,  result  of  a  year's  ob- 
tervations,  is  80**  5"  Fahrenheit,  the  temperature  of  a  spring  is  a  little 
below  this. 


1839]  and  Statistical  of  the  Ceded  .Districts.  138 

Fences. — ^The  waste  lands  are  never,  and  the  cultivated  Beldom, 
divided  by  fences,  except  during  the  time  the  grain  is  on  t^^e  ground, 
and  then  they  are  merely  slight  enclosures  formed  by  a  few  thorns. 
The  betel  and  oilier  gardens  and  orchards  are  permanently  fenced,  gene- 
rally with  diw'tnah  gunna^  milk-hedge,  aloe,  prickly-pear,  or  hinna,  the 
latter  is  rare  and  usually  seen  in  gardens.  Loose  stone  walls,  resem- 
bling those  in  Wales,  or  the  hilly  parts  of  England,  are  met  with  in  rocky 
situations,  such  as  Chillumcoor,  Chitwauripully,  &c. 

Domestic  animals. — Most  of  the  animals  useful  to  man  and  common 
to  Peninsular  India,  are  found  in  the  Ceded  Districts.  The  horse  i* 
rarely  bred  :  those  used  hy  the  natives  being  generally  brought  from 
the  banks  of  the  Bhima  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  Tattoos,  or 
ponies,  of  a  hardv  description  are  bred  in  abundance.  The  ass  is  small- 
er than  that  of  Europe,  though  largo  for  India.  The  bull  and  cow  are 
of  the  common  Indian  species.  They  are  of  a  hardy  description, 
capable  of  mii'^h  fafi^ie,  though  not  so  large  as  those  of  Guzerat  or 
Nellore.  The  buffalo  is  of  the  long-horned  variety ;  and,  from  the 
animal's  pirtiality  for  water,  much  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  wet 
cultivation  than  the  buUock.  The  sheep  is  remarkable  for  the  e xcel- 
lence  of  its  wool ;  from  which  cumltesoi  the  best  description  are  manu- 
factured (prin  i pally  in  the  HarponhuUy  taluk),  both  for  local  consump- 
tion and  exportation.  The  number  of  black  cattle  in  the  Ceded  Districts, 
is  estimated  at  1,353,930,  of  sheep  961,520. 

Wild  animals, — The  pri nci pal  yVr<»i?a/wr<p  that  come  under  notice,  are 
monkeys,  principally  of  the  genus  Semnopithecus,  the  common  and  g^at 
bat,  the  flying  fox,  and  other  members  of  the  cheiropterous  family.  The 
great  black,  orlabiated  bear,  the  jackal,  mongoose,  royal  tiger,  the  cheta, 
or  hunting  leopard,  the  leopard,  the  tiger-cat,  the  hysena,  the  wolf,  fox, 
hare,  wild  boar,  porcupine,  and  the  common,  spotted,  and  goa(-ante« 
lopfe.  I  have  seen  elk  in  the  forests  of  the  Nulla  Mulla,  they  occur  also 
among  the  Sondur  hills,  the  sciuri  or  squirrel  tribe,  are  numerous. 
Among  birds  are  the  Indian  eagle,  vulture,  varieties  of  the  hawk  and 
falcon  tribe,  paroquets,  doves,  king-fishers,  wood-peckers,  the  common 
sparrow,  swallow  and  the  crow,  pea  and  jungle  fowl,  partridge,  rock 
pigeon  (the  pterocfes  exustus  of  Temminck),  quail,  bustard,  floriken, 
plover,  snipe,  stork,  heron.  Among  palmipedes,  we  have  a  variety  of 
gulls,  terns,  the  common  wild  duck  and  goose,  the  black  backed  goost 
(anser  melanoiosj,  teal  and  pelicans.  Among  chelonians,  are  the  fresh 
water  and  geometrically  shelled  tortoise,  and  of  saurians,  we  have  the  alli« 
gator,  iguana,chameleon,  and  a  great  variety  of  lizards.  Among  ophidians 
ranks  first  in  deadliness  the  cobra  di  capello  and  venemous  whip-snake* 


124  Sams  Account,  Hiitoricalf  Gec^apkimti  [JoLt 

The  rock  snakt  is  uncommon,  but  there  are  numbers  of  green  tnaket  that 
glide  among  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  from  which  ihey  are  with  4iflkul(f 
discernible.    There  is  a  countless  variety  of  insects,  among  the  moit 
useful  of  which  rank  the  silk- worm,  the  lac  insect,  and  the  boDey-bec 
Tr€99  and  Plants  moit  utefid  to  man, — ^The  most  useful  timber  trees 
grow  on  the  Nulla  Mulla  and  Lanca  MuUa  hills,  on  the  east  of  the  die- 
tricts,  and  in  the  Sondur  and  Kumply  ranges,  on  the  west.    These  hilly 
tracts  produce  teak,  bla('kwood,moochie  and  cbandan  woods;  abunduiett 
of  excellent  bambus  and  other  woods  used  for  building,  agricnltunl  im- 
plements and  for  fuel.    In  the  sandy  alluvial  flats,  and  moist  lowgroDDda^ 
especially  towards  the  eastern  frontier,  the  feathery  cocoa-nut,  the  gnee* 
ful  palmyra  ( BorassusflabelliformisJ,  used  for  rafters,  the  odorifenMis 
dwarf  date  (Elate  sylvesiris)  abound.    The  plains  yield  trees  and  shrabs, 
many  of  which  are  employed  in  medicine^  agriculture,  and  the  arts— the 
indigo/era  ^oerulea,  yielding  a  blue  dye,  the  kusum   or   carthamnu  <(S^ 
tortus,  pink  aud  scarlet,  the   muddi  {Terminaliaalata),  and  the  Monnit 
aitri/oHai  yielding  red  dyes,  the  common  milk-hedge  used  asa  bliickd/f 
for  leath*»r,  turmeric,  the  Parkinsonian  the  nim  or  matgosa  useful  U 
its  timber,  and  the  bitter  medicinal  oil  expressed  from  its  seeds,  (be 
sacred  banyan,  the  j'aman,  the  juice  of  which  is  employed  to  precipilste 
the  colouring  matter  of  (he  indigo,  the  graceful  tamarind  whose  acidul- 
ous fruit  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  in  medicine,  dyeing,  and  other  irtt 
affords  a  strong  durable  timber,  though  the  natives  I  am  assured  are  avene 
to  its  use  in  house-building.     The  bark  of  the  useful  and  hardy  Aettis 
Arabica,  or  babul  tree,  often  the  only  prominent  object  in  the  booodleii 
plain,  is  used  in  tanning,  and  in  medicine,  its  wood  for  the  harder  isiple* 
ments  of  agriculture,  the  thicker  branches  for  tent  pegs  ;  and  the  gsa, 
which  closely  resembles  tfiat  of  the  Arabian  tree,  in  medivhie  and  tbs 
arts.    Thehvivkof  the  turtcer  {Cassia  aurieulata),  the  mmstldas  {Cstsm 
Jistula),  and  the  juice  of  the  ytrewn  (Asclepias  gigantsa)^  is  used  it 
staining  and  preparing  leather :  the  latter  and  the  milk-hedge  afford  tks 
charcoal  used  by  natives  in  the  preparation  of  gunpowder.    The  flovefs 
of  the  Nyctanikes  are  used  as  a  yellow  dye,  and  the  leaves  of  the  tkssr 
hali  (Fitex  negundo),  that  loves  the  sandy  beds  (tf  rivulets,  and  the  M^ 
of  the  trailing  Elaierium  in  medicine.    The  wild  oleander,  whose  driici* 
ously  scented  flowers  are  held  sacred  by  the  natives,  grows  in  loxumictf 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tumbuddra.   The  verdant  guruwi  {Imora  pmv^kn)s 
whose  branches  are  universally  used  as  torches,  is  found  grofwiog  cstk^ 
low  jungly  hills.    The  shrub  jatropha  glandulifera  is  almost  confined  1^ 
the  cotton  ground  plains.    That  singular  siliceous  snbstanee  tabsshifii^ 
produced  in  the  joints  of  the  bambus  that  cluster  the  sast^m  ftnstiiii^ 


1839]  and  Statititcal  of  the  Ceded  Districts.  125 

used  by  the  natives  in  medicine  as  a  tonie.  Teak  and  other  valuable  tim- 
ber is  floated  down  the  Tambuddra  from  the  forests  of  Mysore  and  Ca- 
nara,  during  the  S.  W.  monsoon,  and  landed  near  the  anicut  of  WulIavB« 
pur  on  the  western  frontier. 

Mineral  products. — The  chief  mineral  products  are  iron  of  good  qualU 
ty,  copper,  lead,  antimony  and  manganese,  diamonds,  alum,  culinary 
salt,  natron  or  native  soda,  saltpetre,  gun-flints,  novaculites,  and  an  infe- 
rior description  of  marble  at  Kurnoul.  It  is  probable  that  coal  may 
exist  in  the  limestone  and  sandstone  formation  around  Cuddapah, 
and  the  bed  of  the  Pennaur,  The  formation  in  this  vicinity  resem- 
bles that  of  the  saliferous  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Araya,  describ- 
ed by  Humboldt  as  mostly  sandstone  and  conglomerate,  resting  upon 
a  compact  bluish  grey  limestone.  Salt  is  produced  in  the  Cudda^ 
pah  formation,  though  not  confined  to  it.  T  have  seen  this  mineral  in 
the  black  soil,  lying  immediately  above  granite  and  gneiss,  and  in  layers 
between  laminse  of  ferruginous  schist,  associated  with  chloritic,  and 
hornblende  slate,  also  between  those  of  blue  limestone,  arenaceous  slate 
and  sandstone.  Lend  and  antimony  are  found  near  Jungumrazpully  in 
the  Nulla  Mullas.  Copper  and  manganese  and  iron  ore,  also  exist  in 
these  hills;  the  latter  in  considerable  quantity.  Copper  ore,  the  green 
carbonate,  is  found  in  the  ferruginous  siate  clay  at  the  base  of  the  crest 
of  the  southern  epaulement  of  the  copper  mountain  near  Bellary  ;  pxca- 
vations  are  still  to  be  seen,  said  to  be  the  remains  of  mines  excnrated 
by  order  of  Hyder  Ali,  but  which  were  given  up  in  consequence  of  the 
expence  exceeding  the  produce.  The  most  celebrated  dinraond  mines 
are  those  of  Condapetta,  Ovalumpully,  Punchagupaiiu  and  Lamdoor 
near  Cuddapah,  at  Banaganpully ;  and  ut  Muni  Mudgoo  and  Wudjar 
Caroor  near  Gooty.  1  have  found  them  invariably  situated  in  the  sand- 
stone breccia  and  conglomerate.  Manganese  is  found  in  the  copper 
mountain  and  Sondur  ranges. 

jlrtt  and  Manufactures, — There  are  manufactories  for  cotton  piece 
goods,  principally  salis,  dupattas,  turbans,  palampores  and  carpets  at 
Cummum,  Cuddapah,  Kumply,  Bellary,  Tarputri  Adoni :  for  woollen 
cumblies  (native  blankets)  at  Harponhully,  for  brassware  at  Hirrihal 
and  Hospett,  for  glass  bangles  at  Pennaconda.  The  descendants  of  tht 
diamond  polishers  of  Golconda,  are  still  to  be  found  at  Muni  Mudgoo,  in 
the  Punchapoliam  taluk  near  Gooty.  There  are  gold  and  silver  smiths  al 
Bellary,  Cuddapah  and  Banaganpully  ;  dyers  at  Jummulmudgoo,  and  vari- 
ous  other  villages ;  indigo  manu^ctories  in  the  Budwail  and  other  taluks 
of  the  Cuddapah  collectorate.  Dolls  and  other  painted  wooden  and  com- 
position toys  for  children  are  made  at  Harponhully  and  Gooty.    Images 


126  Some  Account ,  Historical,  Geographieal  [JuLT 

are  sculptured  frorn  a  soft  purplish  stone  at  Tarputri.  Cups  and  rases 
from  variously  coloured  limestone  at  Ryelcherroo :  here  there  was  a  ma- 
nufnctory  for  gun-flints  in  the  time  of  Tippoo.  Pyrotechny  and  the  art 
of  making  gunpowder,  are  well  understood  by  natives  in  must  large  vil- 
lages, and  also  that  of  metallurgy,  as  far  as  the  smelting  of  the  ores  of 
iron  and  copper  is  implicated.  Potters,  smiths  and  carpenters  are  to  be 
found  every  where,  being  necessary  members  of  each  little  village  re- 
public. The  basket-makers  and  stone-cutters  are  in  generally  roving 
tribes,  settling  temporarily  where  their  services  are  required.  Silk-weav- 
ing is  but  little  practised. 

Trade, — The  principal  exports  are  cotton,  indigo,  coarse  sugar,  iron, 
woollen  cumlies,  silk  and  cotton  cloths,  cotton  thread,  dry  grain  and 
tobacco,  chiefly  to  the  eastern  coast,  Mysore  and  Southern  Mahratta 
Country.  The  chief  articles  of  import  are  betel,  and  cocoa-nut  from  My- 
sore, raw  silk,  sugnr,  iron  and  steel  from  Mysore,  cotton  and  cottoa 
thread  from  the  Nizam's  and  Nuwab  of  Kumool's  territories,  and  the 
Southern  Mahratta  Counlry.  The  exports  from  the  Belbry  collectonite 
for  1837-8  amounted  to884 ,5 11  Company's  rupees;  the  imports  to  2,682,468. 
—Exports  from  the  Cuddapah  collectorate  to  55, 117  Company's  rupees. 
Imports  476,263  Company's  rupees. 

Land  Revenue. — According  to  Hamilton,  it  is  traditionally  asserted 
that  the  Hindu  sovereigns  assumed  half  the  produce  in  kind,  and  con- 
verted it  into  money  at  a  rate  unfavourable  to  the  farmers  and  culti- 
vators. The  Mussulman  princes,  after  the  fall  of  Bijanugger,  also  took 
half  the  produce  in  kind,  but  levied  additional  duties  on  the  farmer's 
share,  after  converting  their  own  into  money  at  the  average  of  the  ten 
preceding  years.  When  the  British  took  possession  in  1800,  the  rayet- 
war  system  was  introduced  by  the  first  collector.  Major  Munro,  with 
progressive  advantage  to  the  state  and  to  the  cultivator.  The  village 
system,  which  assimilates  that  of  the  zemindari  in  the  modus  operandi^ 
was  subsequently  introduced,  bat,  I  believe,  proved  a  total  failure.  The 
modified  rayetwar  system,  which  now  obtains,  was  then  reverted  to,  and 
is  briefly  as  follows* 

The  cultivated  lands  of  each  village  are  carefully  measured,  and  as- 
sessed agreeably  to  the  average  value  of  the  crops.  The  tahsildar,  or 
native  collector  of  each  taluk,  visits  every  village  under  his  charge,  early 
in  the  season,  in  order  to  inspect  the  lands,  to  grant  leases  of  waste 
lands,  to  receive  back  any  which  the  rayet  may  not  wish  to  continue  or 
have  the  means  of  cultivating,  and  to  settle  the  probable  amount  of  re- 
venue for  the  next  season.  When  the  crops  are  nearly  ripe,  the  Enro- 
pean  collector  assembles  the  rayets  of  each  taluk,  examines  the  esti- 


1839]  and  Stalistieal  of  the  Ceded  Diitricts.  127 

mates  and  reports  of  the  tahsildars,  and  compares  them  with  the  scpa^ 
rate  detailed  accounts  kept  by  the  curnuras,  or  accountants  of  each  vil- 
lage, and  the  vivd  voce  statements  of  the  rayets  themselves  touching 
the  lands  they  hold.  From  their  accounts  a  minute  statement  of  the 
quantity  and  value  of  ground  occupied  by  each  cultivator,  the  num- 
ber of  his  family,  cattle,  &c.  the  sums  paid  by  him  to  government  for 
several  years  past,  is  prepared  by  the  people  of  the  kutcherry,  on 
i^hich  the  collector's  final  settlement  is  eventually  based.  The  col- 
lector again  checks  these  estimates  by  enquiry  from  the  rayets  them- 
selves, to  each  of  whom  he  finally  gives  in  open  kutcherry  a  pu/^aA, 
containing  a  short  abstraA  of  the  rayets  holding  and  demand  upon 
him  for  the  year.  These  lenses  are  renewed  annually,  but  the  rayet 
cannot  be  ejected  from  the  land  so  long  as  he  continues  to  pay  the  go- 
vernment dues. 

The  revenue  is  collected  from  the  rayets  by  the  village  potails,  cur- 
nnms  and  the  regular  village  servants  under  their  authority,  and  deliver- 
ed into  the  treasury  of  the  tahsildars  of  their  taluks,  by  whom  it  is  re- 
mitted to  the  general  treasury  of  the  district.  Receipts  are  regularly 
passed  between  the  different  parties,  not  only  expressing  the  total  of 
the  amount  delivered  over,  but  specifying  minutely  the  different  coins 
in  which  the  sums  have  been  severally  paid.  The  average  amount  paid 
by  rayets  upon  lands  held  direct  from  government,  amounts  in  the  Bel- 
lary  districts,  to  about  23  rupees  14  annas,  and  in  the  Cuddapah  collector- 
ate  to  about  15  rupees  9  annas  per  annum.  The  average  of  total  revenue 
annually  paid  by  each  inhabitant  in  the  former  district,  is  about  2 
rupees  8  annas,  in  the  latter  2  rupees. 

The  other  sources  of  revenue  are  the  land  customs,  the  moturpha^ 
which  includes  taxes  on  shops,  trades,  &c.,  the  abkarij  duties  on  intoxi- 
cating liquors  and  drugs,  the  stamps,  and  a  few  small  farms. 

Regarding  the  amount  of  revenue  derived  by  the  Bijanugger  princes 
from  the  Ceded  Districts,nothing  satisfactory  is  known.  It  was  valued  in 
the  deed  of  cession  in  1800  at  1,651,545  star  pagodas,  but  Sir  T.  Munro 
was  of  opinion  that  the  revenue  had  been  decidedly  and  purposely  over- 
rated in  Tippoo*8  schedule  of  1792,  in  consequence  of  his  deeming  it  cer- 
tain thatmost  part  of  the  teri'itory  would  be  shared  by  the  British  go- 
vernment and  the  Nizam.  The  first  settlements  were  therefore  fixed 
much  lower  than  the  former  estimates — that  for  1801  amounted  to 
1,102,000  pagodas,  exclusive  of  village  servants  ;  the  next  year  it  was 
calculated  at  between  twelve  and  thirteen  Incs  :  in  1817  it  amounted  to 
1,740,304  star  pagodas— in  1836-7  to  5,362,738  Company's  rupee8,and  in 
1837-8  to  5,517,700  Company's  rupees.    The  disbursements  amounted 


128  Som$  Account,  Uistorical,  Geographical  (.Joir 

to  879,894  Company's  rupees,  leaving  a  profit  to  the  state  of  4,637*806 
Company's  rupees. 

Population, — The  population  of  the  Ceded  Districts  amounted  in  1805 
to  1,917,376 ;  it  now  (lS3d)  amounU  to  2,V1I,I6B,  or  a  little  more  than 
93  to  the  square  mile,  of  whom  about  121,777  are  Mussulmans  and 
2,03'J,391  Hindus.     The  population  of  Scotland,  which  has  aaareaa 

little  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Ceded  Districts,  amounted  by  ihft 
latest  statislicul  accounts  to  2,365,930,  or  a  little  less  than  80  t4>  tbt 
square  mile.  The  population  of  the  Bellary  coUectorate  slightly  exceeds 
that  of  Cuddapuh  :  the  former  being  estimated  at  1,1:^9,907  and  the 
latter  at  1,081,261.  The  number  of  males  is  greater  than  that  of 
females  by  an  excess  of  105,868.  The  fact  of  there  being  fewer  females 
than  mules  in  India,  ivhere  a  plurality  of  women  is  permitted,  1  have 
also  noticed  in  ultra  gangetic  countries  particularly  on  the  Malayan 
peninsula.  Whether  the  proportion  of  males  ai;tually  born,  exceeds  that 
of  the  females  born,  or  not,  is  a  point  of  interesting,  though  diffilcult  en* 
quiry ;  at  least  during  the  present  state  of  our  social  relations  with 
natives.  The  expense  of  rearing  female  children  is  doubtless  in  some 
instances  productive  of  infanticide,  and  might  possibly  induce  many 
parents  to  neglect  them  from  their  earliest  infancy,  when  most  in  need 
of  support  and  protection,  and  thus  passively  permit  the  feeble  spark  of 
dawning  life  to  wane,  and  be  extinguished  long  ere  fully  lit  From 
many  enquiries,  I  am  led  to  believe,  that  the  fecundity  of  the  females  of 
India  does  not  on  the  whole  average  less  than  that  of  European  females* 
although  it  has  been  so  stated  by  political  economists. 

The  artizans,  tradesmen,  agriculturists  and  shepherds,  are  generally 
Hindus.  The  Mussulmans  dislike  agriculture,  preferring  the  chance 
of  employment  as  peons,  Sec,  under  the  civil  authorities,  rearing  silk 
worms,  weaving  and  cleansing  cotton,  &c.  A  few  enter  trade  as  cloth 
merchants,  perfumers,  druggists  or  farriers.  They,  as  well  as  the  Beders 
(the  military  class  of  Hindus  in  the  Ceded  Districts),  can  with  difficul- 
ty be  persuaded  to  enlist  as  sepoys, preferring  idleness  and  almost  starva- 
tion. Mahomedans  are  to  be  found  both  of  the  Suuni  and  Shiah  sects  ; 
the  former  is  the  most  numerous.  The  prevailing  castes  of  Hindus  are  the 
Kunbi,  Lingayet,  Beder  and  Dhungar.  Brahmins  are  numerous  of  the 
Yaisbnava  and  Smarta  sects.  Tiie  Sri  Vashnavam  is  comparatively 
rare.  A  few  of  that  persecuted  tribe,  the  Jains,  still  exist,  maintaining 
themselves  commonly  by  trading  in  brassware  and  cloths.  A  wild 
race,  termed  Chensuar,  roam  the  forests  of  the  Nulla  Mulla  hills,  sub- 
sisting on  wild  fruits,  honey,  insects,  routs  and  the  spoils  of  the  chace, 
also  by  barter  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  plaius. 


1839], 


and  Slallstical  of  the  Ceded  Disiricis. 


l» 


Slate  of  Education. — The  Hindus  appear  to  me  to  be  better  educated 
than  the  Mussulmans ;  they  have  numerous  schools,  which  remind  one  of 
those  of  the  Lancastrian  system,  and  they  are  often  excellent  accountants. 
A  few  of  the  brahmins  know  as  much  of  astronomy  as  will  enable 
them  to  calculate  an  eclipse  with  tolerable  accuracy.  The 
education  of  Mussulman  children,  is  almost  confined  to  reading 
and  writing,  the  knowledge  of  their  creed,  a  few  prayers^*  and 
a  section  or  two  of  the  Koran.  The  number  of  native  schools  in  the 
Ceded  Districts  amounts  to  about  1,030. 

Prevailing  Language, — The  prevailing  language  spoken  from  the 
western  frontier  to  Gooty,  is  Canarese :  from  Gooty  to  the  eastern  limits 
Telinghi.  The  Chensuars  it  is  said  possess  a  dialect  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. 

Roads, — The  direct  military  road  from  Madras  to  the  head-qunrters- 
of  the  division,  stands  much  in  need  of  repair.  Coolies  and  loaded  ban- 
dies, to  avoid  if,  often  take  the  circuitous  route  of  Nundidroog,  preferring 
the  great  additional  distance  to  the  inconveniences  of  the  direct  route  by 
Cuddapah.  It  is  said  that  Government  has  it  in  contemplation  to  open 
the  Nundi  Cunnama  pass  over  the  Nulla  Mulla  range,  this  work  will 
afford  a  direct  communication  between  the  Ceded  Districts,  Nellore  and 
the  ports  north  of  Madras  on  the  eastern  coast,  and  is  likely  to  prove 
highly  beneficial  to  the  trade  of  these  countries.  The  following  are  the 
marches  on  the  principal  roads  through  the  Ceded  Districts  fronk 
Bellary :—  % 


TO  MADRAS. 
M.  P. 


TO  BANGALORE. 
M.  F. 


M.P. 


Cuggul 10    0 

Goddacul 13    3 

GooDtacul 10    4 

Ameenapilly  ..81 

Gooty \'i    I 

Ryelcherroo...  14    7 

TarpuUri 16    6 

Tallapodatoor .  11    1 


Chettywaripilly 11  9 

Chilmacoor 14  3 

Appiapully 14  5 

Cuddapah 12  0 

Wontimctta 16  4 

Nundaloor 12  4 

PoUumpett 13  2 

Codoor 16  3 

208  5 


Boodihal 8  9 

Honoor 13  1 

Bellagoopah 14  7 

Gollah 9  « 

Rampoor 9  1 

Peroor 9  6 

Teiimany 10  % 

Goghirry 10  1 

Jalipett 6  % 

Palsamudrum....  11  7 

loiT^ 


TO  HYDERABAD. 

M.  F. 

KarlaRoondy 10  0 

TauUoor 9  1 

Lingadahully 12  3 

Adoni 11  A 

Heera  Toombul 12  6 

MadaTeram 15  ^ 

71    5 


TO  8.  MAHRATTA  COUNTRY. 

M.F. 

Courtney U    C 

Gooricoopah 8    1 

PaupnaikbuUy 11    t 

llospett 7    7 

Balahoonsee 13    • 

Uumpsagnr 15   0 

67    0 


130  Some  Account t  Historical,  Geographical  [Jolt 

Antiquities. — ^The  ruins  of  the  ancient  capital  of  Bijanugger  are  wor- 
thy of  notice,  presenting  to  the  admirer  of  Hindu  sculpture  and  archi- 
tecture an  interesting  study,  principally  of  the  style  of  the  1 4th  and 
15th  centuries.  The  Caryatid  figures  supporting  many  of  the  entabla- 
tures, the  elegantly  grouped  columns  of  the  Viddia  Vittel  temple,  their 
richly  ornamented  shafts,capital8  and  architraves,  the  entablatures  of  the 
throne  terraces,  covered  with  spirited  bas-reliefs,  representing  combats, 
fetes,  hunting  scenes,  and  mythological  events,  the  colossal  statues  of 
the  sacred  bull,  the  lion  avatar  and  the  elephantine  god  Ganesa,  hewn 
from  solid  granite,  basal  tic  homblende,green8tune,  and  a  dark  green  talcose 
rock,  beautifully  polished,  arrest  the  attention  of  the  traveller.  The 
arch,  the  alleged  ignorance  of  the  turning  of  which  has  been  repeatedly 
adduced  as  an  unanswerable  proof  of  Hindu  barbarism,  may  be  seen  in 
some  portals  and  in  the  winding  passages  leading  up  to  the  summits  of  the 
goparSf  or  pyramidal  tow  ersof  the  pagodas,  which  assimilate  the  propylsea 
of  Egyptian  temples.  The  angularity  and  heaviness  of  many  of  the 
shafts,  the  lownessand  gloom  of  the  apartments,  the  excessive  minuteness 
of  detail,  coupled  with  the  want  of  general  design,  keeping  and 
harmony  of  conception,  have  often  struck  mc  when  gazing  on  the 
works  of  Hindu  artists;  defects  from  which  even  these  ruins  are 
not  exempt.  But,  we  are  lost  in  admiration  when  we  behold  the 
stupendous  masses  of  hewn  granite,  fitted  and  placed  with  the 
utmost  nicety,  one  upon  the  other  in  the  Cyclopean  masonry  of  the 
mortarless  walls  and  fortifications,  that  begird  the  city  with  a  seven- 
fold cincture.  The  perspective  view  afforded  *by  the  colonnaded  vista 
of  the  Humpa  street,  running  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  river,  its 
grass-grown  pavement,  the  solitude  and  air  of  desolation  that  prevails,  is 
almost  free  from  the  defects  above  mentioned,  and  might  bring  to  mind 
the  deserted  streets  of  Pompeii.  The  mixed  Hindu  and  Saracenic 
character  of  some  of  the  later  buildings,  speaks  intelligibly  of  the  spread 
of  the  Mahomedan  power  that  finally  overwhelmed  the  Hindu  empire  of 
i/vhich  this  city  was  the  capital.  There  are  numerous  inscriptions  oo 
pillars  and  stones  interspersed  among  the  ruined  temple8,copies  of  most 
of  which  are  in  possession  of  the  Branch  Asiatic  Society  of  Madras.  A  few 
specimens  of  the  rudor,  or  Cyclopean,  style  are  to  be  met  with  in  every 
part  of  the  district.  Ancient  places  of  sepulture,  marked  by  rude  circles 
of  stones,  mounds  and  barrows,  resembling  those  of  Britain  and  Northern 
Europe,  monuments  to  the  memory  of  heroes  slain  in  battle,  and  to  such 
^f  their  widows  that  perished  on  their  husband^s  funeral  pile,  mutilated 
statues  and  ruined  fnnes,  remnants  of  the  subverted  religion  of  the  Jains, 
are  scattered  over  the  country.  The  most  sacred  Hindu  shrines  are  those 
of    Humper,     Sondur,   Tarputri  and  Purwuttum  on  the    south    bank 


1«3B]  and  Statistical  of  the  Ceded  Districts.  131 

of  the  Kistnab,  Numberless  rude  representations  on  stone,  many  ap^ 
parently  of  great  antiquity,  of  serpents  collected  together  in  temples, 
under  trees,  and  the  walls  of  the  older  villages  are  evidences  of  an  ophi- 
tic  virorship  that  prevailed  anciently  to  an  unknown  extent.  To  this  day 
remnants  of  it  exist,  the  clue  aflforded  by  which  it  might  be  of  Interest 
to  trace.  1  here  are  some  singular  mounds  of  a  scoriaceous  substance, 
containing  carbonate  of  lime,  in  the  vicinity  of  Bellary. 

Co/«#.— The  numerous  political  changes  and  revolutions  that  have 
convulsed  this  part  of  India,  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  great  variety  of 
coins.  Among  the  most  ancient  of  those  formerly  current  are  the  golden 
pagodas  and  half  pagodas  of  the  Bijanugger  sovereigns,  and  of  their  vas- 
sals, the  chiefs  of  Harponhully,  Raidroog  and  Gundicota,  known  by  the 
names  of  the  A  chit  Raya,  Kishen  Raya,  the  old  and  new  Harponhully, 
Venratpati  and  Timma  Naid  Pertap  pagodas.  Next  succeeded  those  of 
the  Mahomedan  kings  of  the  Deccan,  the  Mogul  empire,  and  their  vice- 
roys, called  the  Mahomed  Shahi,  Alurogiri,  Farsipadi  and  Jummulmud- 
goo  pagodas  ;  some  of  thft  later  of  which  were  coined  at  Adoni,  Cudda- 
pah  and  Jummulmudgoo.  The  gold  coins  of  the  Mahratta  conqueror 
Morari  Row  were  the  Gooty  Mahomed  Shahi,  the  Subaroyi  and  the  Tar- 
puttry  pagodas.  A  number  of  gold  pagodas  were  introduced  by  the  Asaph 
Jahor  Hyderabad chiefs,aroong  which  were  the  Rarkmodi,coined  at  Kark- 
mod,  Masulipatam,  &c.  Lastly,the  conquests  of  Hyder  andTippoo  over- 
whelmed the  country  with  the  Mysorean  currency  from  the  mints  of  Serin- 
gapatam,  Mysore  and  CulHcota.  Their  pagodas  are  generally  known  by 
the  terms  of  Bahaduii  and  Sultani.  Those  of  Hyder  bearing  the  Ara- 
bic initial  of  his  name,  and  those  of  Tippoo,  his  name  and 
title.  Ashrafis  or  gold  mohurs  were  rare,  those  of  Delhi  and  the  Ahmadi 
being  the  only  specimens  current.  The  gold  fanams  rank  next  to  the 
pagoda:  those  of  the  Bijanugger  dynasty  are  rare.  The  Naid  if  anam,  coin- 
ed by  Timma  Naid  of  Gundicota,  is  worth  5  annas  10  pice.  That  of  the 
PoligarsofGhuttu3anna8  6pice.  This  is  also  the  value  of  the  Kanjit  gold 
fanam  introduced  by  the  Cud'lapnh  Nuwabs,  Hyder  and  Tippoo. 
I  have  not  met  with  any  silver  or  copper  coins  of  the  Bijanugger  sove- 
reigns :  those  formerly  in  circulation  consisted  almost  entirely  of  ru- 
pees and  fanam8,iniroductions  from  the  Nizam*s  dominions,  Mysore  and 
Arcot.  The  Adwani  rupee  was  coined  by  Basalet  Jung  at  Adoni,  and 
is  now  valued  at  15  annas  2  pice.  The  Imami  Nokhara,  a  double  rupee 
coined  by  Tippoo  at  Seringapntam,  is  valued  at  2  rupees  1  pice;  the 
Pulachari  of  Hyder  at  1  rupee.  The  whole  of  the  varieties  termed  Che- 
lavani  from  the  Nizam's  dominions  fetch  12  annas  10  pice. 


1B2         Russian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara^  [JfTtT 

VI. — Journey  of  the  Russian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,*-^ 
Translated  by  Colonel  Monteith,  k.  l.  8.  Chief  Engineer  rf  the 
Madras  Army, 

To  the  SscBETABT  to  the  Madbas  Litebart  Socubtt, 

and  Auxiliart  Rotal  Asiatic  Socxbtt* 

Sir, — I  have  the  pleasure  to  send  you  a  translation  of  iheJourney  of  the 
Russian  mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  during  the  years  1820  and 
1821.  The  author.  Baron  Mbyendorff,  attached  to  theRussian  emhassy, 
gives  also  some  account  of  the  different  states  in  Tartary,  which  it  had 
been  my  intention  to  translate  also ;  but  the  map,  without  which  it  would 
be  unintelligible,  has  unfortunately  been  mislaid:  the  remainder  ifl 
therefoie  deferred  till  a  future  period. 

I  have  never  seen  another  copy  of  this  work  in  India,  and  very  few 
in  England,  though  containing  much  useful  and  novel  information,  and 
giving  the  route  from  the  Russian  frontier  to  those  of  CHptain  Bumes 
and  others  to  Bokhara.  This,  with  Colonel  Maravielle's  route  from  the 
Caspian  to  Khiva,  completes  the  different  lines  of  road,  by  which  a  force 
may  attempt  to  reach  Affghanistan. 

The  route  now  described,  appears  almost  impracticable  for  an  army, 
which  would,  in  my  opinion,  follow  the  banks  of  the  Lake  of  Aral,  on 
which  the  provisions  and  heavy  baggage  might  be  conveyed.  This 
project  I  have  heard  discussed  in  high  military  circles  in  Russia  :  the 
object  then  was  to  chastise  the  Khivians  for  their  depredations  on  Rus- 
sian subjects,  which  was  expected  to  be  immediately  carried  into  execu- 
tion. In  fact  1000  Yaik  Cossacks  actually  established  themselves  on  an 
Isbnd,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oxus,  and  only  returned  in  compliance  with 
the  orders  of  the  Russian  government.  There  are  still  two  other  land 
routes  from  the  Russian  frontier,  but  not  so  favourable  as  the  one 
directly  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Aral  lake  ;  viz.  round  the  western  and 

southern  shore,  and  the  second  along  the  east  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea : 

they  have  long  been  known,  and  passed  by  many  travellers,  who  have 

given  their  journals  to  the  public,  consequently  do  not  require  notice  at 

present. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be, 

Yours  most  obediently, 

Wm.  Monteitr. 
Madras,  29^A  August,  1839. 

•  roffage  d'  Orenhourg  a  Boukhara,  fait  en  1820,  a  trarers  les  %teppet  qui  *'  etendent  a  Vett 
de  la  mcr  d*  Aral  et  au-dela  de  Vancien  Jaxarie$  ;  Redige  par  At  le  Baron  OsoiOBS  «te 
SfiTSNDOBPP,  Colonel  2l  Tctat  major  dc  8.  M.  TEmpereur  detoutes  kB  RuMies  ;  et  rttn 
forM,  le  Chevalier  Ajibdeb  Jaubbet,  &c.-i-FftrM,  182§. 


1839J  Russian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  133 

TBANSIiATIOH. 

BOOK  FIRST. 
Chapter  I. 

Preparations  for  the   journey — Departure — Dangers  on    the    road. 

The  persons  attached  to  the  embassy  to  Bokhara  arrived  at  Orenbourg 
in  the  course  of  the  month  of  August.  About  the  same  time,  an  order 
was  given  by  goneral  D'Essen,  military  governor  of  Orenbourg,  for  the 
Cossack  soldiers  andBaschirc^s  intended  to  form  the  escort :  but  the  party 
could  not  be  assembled  before  the  middle  of  September,  and  the  fine 
season  was  passed  away.  From  economical  motives,  we  had  at  first 
intended  to  use  carts  for  the  carriage  of  provisions,  &c.j  but  we  were 
obliged  to  give  up  this  plan,  from  the  information  we  received  of  the  • 
nature  of  the  country,! hrough  which  we  had  to  pass,  and  we  determined 
to  substitute  camels  to  carry  the  baggage,  and  merely  to  take  25  carts 
for  the  tran:3port  of  any  of  the  people  who  might  fall  sick  or  meet  with 
accidents  by  the  way.  Each  cart  was  drawn  by  four  horses,  driven  by  a 
B;ischire.  As  we  had  to  cross  rivers  in  the  steppe  of  Kirghiz,  we  were 
provided  with  two  boats  placed  upon  carts — the  carts  being  bo  construct- 
ed, that,  by  fixing  them  upon  the  boats,  they  formed  rafts  capable  of 
bearing  20  men. 

Our  march  in  the  desert  being  likely  to  last  two  montb8,it  was  necessary 
to  carry  about  500-lb5;.  of  biscuits  for  each  soldier,  and  5  quintals  of  oats 
for  each  horse  ;  besides  meal  for  the  people,  a  double  allotment  of 
ammunition  for  our  two  pieces  of  artillery,  15  kabitkas,or  felt  tents,  200 
casks  for  carrying  water  across  the  desert,  and  several  barrels  of  brandy, 
320  camels  we  loaded  with  the  provisions,  &c.  for  the  escort,  and  38  with 
thebagg.ige  and  provisions  of  the  ambassador's  suite.  The  military 
governor  had  made  arrangements  with  the  Kirghiz  chiefs,  that,  upon  the 
payment  of  1 10  paper  roubles  (about  £4  10«.general  exchange,  25  to  the 
£  sterling,  the  358  camels  we  required,  were  to  be  at  the  gates  of 
Orenbourg  on  the  6th  of  September  ready,  each  to  carry  a  burden  of 
6404bs.  The  long  wished  for  day  came,  but  not  one  Kirghiz  appeared. 
The  market  of  Orenbourg  was  unable  to  provide  us  with  the  quantity  of 
oats  indispensable  for  our  escort,  and  we  were  therefore  obliged 
to  dispatch  messengers  to  seek  it  in  the  surrounding  country 
that  is  to  say,  15C  verstes  from  Orenbourg,  and  we  did  not  obtain  it  till 
20th  September. 


134         Russian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara*  [Jolt 

The  expense  of  the  escort  during  its  abAeiice  from  Russia,  was  calcu- 
lated at  about  7%Q0Q  roubieSi  which  it  was  absolutely  indispensable  to 
take  with  us  in  rash,  that  we  might  obbiin  supplies  at  Bukhara.  The 
export  of  Russian  coin  being  forbi<lden,  it  was  necessary  to  obtain 
ducats,  but  the  merihunts  at  Orenbourg  did  not  possess  a  sufScient 
number  of  that  coin,  iind  we  sent  to  Troitski,  a  town  about  600  verstes 
distance,  and  being  then  also  unsuccessful,  we  were  at  last  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  the  exchange  at  Moscow,  a  distance  of  1,500  veretes 
from  Ort*nbourg.  Many  unexpected  diffi.^ulties  thus  retarded  our  depar- 
ture. The  fine  season  had  passed,  h.ilf  the  month  of  September  was 
already  gone,  and  hard  frosts  were  beginning  to  appear,and  the  cold  bad 
set  in  with  a  constant  succession  of  rain,  hail   and  snow. 

We  were  therefore  on  the  eve  of  commencing  a  journey  during  the 
storms  and  fogs  of  October  and  November.  I  thought  of  the  suflferings 
endured  by  the  army  of  Timour  against  Khiva,  relatod  by  Sherif  Gudin, 
when  "  some  lost  their  ears,  noses,  hands  and  feet;  the  sky  looked  like 
a  cloud,  and  the  earth  was  but  a  mass  of  snow.*' 

We  were  about  to  pass  through  a  colder  country,  than  that  which 
caused  the  destruction  of  this  fiimous  conqueror;  and  I  felt  compassion 
for  our  poor  soldiers ;  who,  unprovided  with  furs,  would  be  exposed  to 
the  inclemency  of  a  very  severe  winter.  We  had  much  consultation 
with  the  Kirghiz,  to  determine  which  route  we  were  to  pursue,  and  to 
make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  difficulties  we  were  likely  to  en- 
counter. Five  of  them  were  chosen  as  guides  ;  the  principal  of  whom 
was  named  chief ;  having  also  the  command  of  sixty  other  Kirhgiz,who 
were  engaged  to  load,  drive,  and  take  care  of  the  camels. 

These  animals  belonged  to  different  proprietors,  anl  are  usually  in 
herds  of  from  twenty  to  sixty,  called  koch,  led  by  a  Kirghiz  chief. 
Th(^  haggage  Iras  distributed  among  the  different  kochs  ;  we  made  a 
trial  of  the  way  of  loading  the  camels,  and  found  packs  of  a  long  shape 
the  best  for  that  species  of  carriage.  On  the  9th  of  October,  arrived 
the  last  of  the  camels  we  required,  and  our  departure  was  positively 
fixed  for  the  following  day. 

At  last,  on  the  lOib,  the  whole  escort  as'^embled  in  the  great  square 
at  Orenbourg,  and  passed  in  review  before  the  govemor-general.  He 
caused  mass  to  be  said,  and  a  blessing  pronounced  upon  the  travellers. 
There  was  something  solemn  and  imposing  in  the  religious  ceremonies, 
the  loud  vocal  music,  the  benediction  bestowed  on  the  eve  of  so  long  a 
journey  through  immense  deserts  ;  and  it  acquired  a  fresh  interest  from 
the  presentiment  of  the  dangers  and  difficulties  to  which  such  an  expe- 
dition was  likely  to  be  exposed. 


1839]  Eussian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara.  135 

In  fact,  the  dangers  to  be  apprehended  were  Rufficiently  numerous  :  it 
was  very  possible,  that  the  Kirghiz,  always  greedy  of  plunder,  and  un- 
willing that  the  Russians  should  explore  these  deserts,  might  attack  us 
during  the  night,  nor  was  this  fear  without  foundation, for  not  far  from 
Sir-d^ria  in  1803,  Lieutenant  Gaverdvosky  was  attacked  by  the  Kirghiz. 
He  himself  escaped  after  the  most  obstinate  resistance,  but  his  wife, 
his  physician,  and  the  fourth  of  his  escort  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
savages.  Even  supposing  the  Kirghiz  did  not  dare  to  attack  so  numerous 
a  party,  they  still  had  it  in  their  power  greatly  to  increase  the  difficulty 
of  our  journey,  nay,  even  render  it  impossible  for  us  to  go  on,  by  burn- 
ing the  grass  and  recvls  on  the  steppe  through  which  we  had  to  pass. 
Another  very  usual  species  of  attack  among  those  tribes  is  by  steal- 
ing nearly  all  the  horses,  when  grazing  at  night,  carrying  off  a 
number  of  them  with  incredible  celerity.  These  sort  of  attacks  are 
greatly  to  be  dreaded,  as  a  small  band  of  robbers  might  occasion  us 
irreparable  injury,  if  they  surprized  us  from  the  negligence  of  our 
sentinels. 

General  D'Essen,  who  foresaw  all  these  dangers,  gladly  accepted  an 
offer  made  by  the  powerful  Sultan,  Haroun-ghazi  Aboul-ghazi,  of  accom- 
panying the  embassy  as  far  as  the  Sir-d&ria,  with  a  party  of  a  few  hun- 
dred faithful  Kirghiz.  The  effect  this  offer  would  have  upon  the  minds 
of  the  Kirghiz,  greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  the  offer  in  the  general's 
eyes. 

The  Khivians  who  occupy  a  part  of  the  country  to  the  south  of  thtt 
sea  of  Aral, were  however  much  more  to  be  feared  than  even  the  Kirghiz, 
as  they  are  no  less  skilful,  and  more  united  ;  sometimes  making  preda- 
tory excursions  in  bodies  of  from  4000  to  5000  men.  Though  a  party 
of  horse  like  these  would  not  give  much  cause  of  alarm  to  our  soldiers, 
the  escort  would  still  not  be  sufficiently  strong  to  defend  a  troop  of  700 
camels,  including  those  of  the  Bokharian  merchants  who  had  placed 
themselves  under  our  protection. 

The  cunning  displayed  by  the  predatory  tribes  in  plundering  the  cara- 
vans, increases  the  difficulty  of  defence.  Their  attacks  are  always  very 
sudden,  and  unexpected.  They  terrify  the  camels  by  shouts  and  yells, 
and  the  animals  once  dispersed,  easily  fall  iu  their  power.  The  best  way 
of  preventing  so  dangerous  a  disorder  is,  by  making  the  camels  crouch 
down,  as  they  do  not  willingly  rise  again,  but  often  there  is  not  time  to 
take  these  precautions — and  then  the  caravan  is  certainly  lost ;  for 
being  without  camels  in  the  steppe  of  the  Kirghiz,  is  attended  with  the 
most  imminent  danger,  and  often  with  the  loss  of  life. 

It  was  very  possible,  that  it  was  not  during  the  journey  alone  we 
were  exposed  to  danger  *,  we  might  well  feel  doubts  of  our  safety  in 


136  Ru48tan  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara*  [Jult 

Bokhara,  a  country  belonging  to  a  warlike  and  unciFilized  nation. 
Before  our  arrival  at  Orenbourg,  some  Bokharian  merchants  bad  said 
in  confiflence  to  their  friends—**  Perhaps  none  of  the  Christian  travel- 
**  leis  will  retumto  their  own  country.  Even  supposing  the  Khan  of 
**  Khiva  allows  them  to  pass,  our  own  Khan  would  not  commit  that 
**  folly.  Why  should  we  allow  the  Christians  to  become  acquainted 
**  with   our  country  V* 


Chapter  II. 

Appearance  of  the  desert — Kirghiz  Encampments — Junction  of  the  Mis* 
sion  with  Sultan  Ilaronn-ghazi — Huntiny  of  the  Antelope, 

The  distance  to  be  traversed  is  divided  into  three  parts  ; — the  first  in- 
chides  a  spare  between  Orenbourg  and  the  mountains  of  Moughodjar^ 
which  we  passed  between  the  streams  of  Cara-akenti,  and  Touban, 
about  434  vcrstes  from  Orenbourg ;  the  second,  the  space  between 
these  mountains  and  the  Sir-deria;  lastly,  the  third,  between  the  Sir- 
d^ria  and  Bokhara. 

The  ground  througjh  the  whole  extent  of  the  first  portion  is  nearly  the 
same.  You  see  generally  an  undulating  surface,  divided  by  chains  of 
hills,  of  which  the  slopes  are  so  gentle  as  frequently  to  extend  to  fifteen 
and  twenty  verstes.  The  absence  of  wood,  and  the  trifling  elevations  of 
these  eminences,  always  offer  an  extensive  prospect,  when  the  eye  in 
vain  seeks  an  object  to  fix  itself  on.  Sterility,  uniformity,  and  silence,  are 
the  characters  of  a  steppe.  Towards  the  end  of  May,  the  sun  had  burnt 
up  the  vegetation,  and  the  ground  assumed  a  brownish  yellow  colour. 

Through  all  this  extent,  trees  are  only  found  in  two  places;  every 
where  else,  a  few  thorny  bushes,  about  three  feet  high,  are  so  thinly 
scattered,  that  to  the  eyes  of  an  European  they  scarcely  break  the  mono- 
tony of  these  vast  deserts. 

A  considerable  number  of  streams  cross  the  route,  presenting  almost 
always  the  same  appearance,  and  generally  follow  the  same  direction. 
From  the  Oural  to  the  Sir,  they  are  fordable,  and  are  nearly  dry  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn.  The  Ilek,  Emba,  Temir,  Or  and  Irghiz,  merit  how- 
ever the  name  of  rivers,  and  are  never  dry,  though  sometimes  very 
shallow.  Many  of  these  streams  only  leave  ravines  to  mark  their  course 
in  the  dry  weather ;    others  form  a  chain  of  ponds,  frequently    several 


1839]  Russian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara*  137 

toises  in  depth  joined  by  a  minute  thread  of  water  but  sometimes  un- 
connected. The  steppe  is  every  year  covered  with  deep  snow,  which 
melts  with  great  rapidity  early  in  spring,  when  the  heat  is  frequently 
great.  At  this  period  the  rivers  and  streams  rise,  and  form  rapid  tor- 
rents,  which  scoop  out  deep  ravines  in  the  clay  soil  which  universally 
characterizes  these  plains. 

Thirty  verstes  from  Orenbourg,  we  found  on  the  Djilandu-tepeh,  the 
highest  hill  in  the  neighbunrhood,  two  fossil  specimens,  a  belemnite 
and  ammonite.  Between  the  Ouzoun-Bourt6  and  the  Cara-boutak, and  from 
that  to  the  mountains  of  Moughodjar,  we  saw  also  many  of  these 
fossils,  and  a  vast  quantity  of  shells. 

The  soil  is  generally  clay  ;  dry  and  strewed  with  flints  of  different 
colours.  The  hills  are  usually  round,  with  gentle  slopes,  as  if  water  had 
smoothed  the  inequality  of  the  ground. 

Near  the  hills,  of  Bassagha,  we  saw  a  number  of  petrifactions, 
shells,  and  even  a  shark's  tooth,  which  appeared  to  us  a  proof  that 
the  sea  had  once  covered  this  spot.  At  Berdianka  we  observed  traces 
of  an  exhausted  copper-mine,  mentioned  by  Pallas,  and  also  of  another 
near  the  Kizil-ova.  They  were  merely  excavations  of  an  inconsiderable 
depth,  beside  which  there  were  heaps  of  stones  intermingled  with  cop- 
per ore,  about  7  verstes  from  our  encampment.  On  the  Ouzoun-Bourt6 
we  found  coal,  which  we  tried  in  our  forge  and  it  burnt  very  well.  On 
our  arrival  at  Cara-boutak,  we  were  agreeably  surprised  by  the  sight  of 
a  small  wood  of  black  alders  ;  there  aliio  appeared  to  be  an  improvement 
in  the  soil ;  we  had  hitherto  not  seen  any  thing  approaching  to  a  heal- 
thy vegetation  in  the  steppe,  and  were  rejoiced  to  perceive  it  shortly  ar 
ter,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilek.  The  eyes  of  the  traveller,  wearied  with 
the  nakedness  of  the  desert,  are  refreshed  by  the  sight  of  plants,  trees, 
bushes,  poplars  and  willows  which  are  here  very  numerous ;  the  pas- 
turage, also,  wherever  the  river  overflows  its  banks,  is  very  fine,  and 
therefore  a  favourite  resort  of  the  Kirghiz.  This  is  the  largest  river  we 
met  with, before  reaching  the  Sir — it  is  10  fathoms  broad  and  very  rapidt 
flowing  over  a  gravely  bottom,  and  abounds  with  various  sorts  of  flsh, 
such  as  pike,  perch,  gudgeons,  carp,  &c.  It  was  on  the  banks  of  this 
river,  we  saw  the  first  village  of  Kirghiz  tents.  Our  attention  was  first 
attracted  by  the  flocks  of  sheep,  to  the  number  of  from  5,000  to  6,000— 
and,  on  approaching  nearer,  we  saw  50  tents  of  white  or  brown  felt,  of  all 
dimensions,  pitched  in  irregular  groups  of  three,  four  and  six. 

We  learned  that  it  was  the  camp  of  the  Sultan  Haroun-ghazi,  one 
of  the  principal  Kirghiz,  who  was  waiting  to  accompany  us  as  for  m  the 
Sir;  anxious  by  this  act  of  kindness  to  demonstrate  his  attachment  to 


138  Russian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokksara.  [JoiiT 

the  Russian  government,  whose  support  was  in  truth  necessary  to  him 
on  account  of  his  incessant  quarrels  with  the  Khan  of  Khiva.  The  day 
after  our  arrival,  the  Sultan  came  on  horseback  to  visit  Monsieur  N^gri. 
He  was  accompanied  by  a  hundred  Kirghiz,  and  wore  a  turband,  though 
it  is  not  custoniai7  in  the  desert,  but  considered  as  a  mark  of  piety  in  a 
Mahomedan  who  is  desirous  of  being  distinguished  from  the  general 
mass  of  the  Kirghiz.  All  the  people  that  bad  accompanied  him  insisted 
upon  entering  the  ambassador's  tent,  and  as  many  as  it  could  hold  made 
their  way  in,  and  immediately  squatted  down  after  their  fashion. 

The  interior  of  the  tent  filled  with  these  beartled  faces,  had  a  most 
grotesque  appearance.  The  Sultan  was  the  only  person  with  a  fair 
complexion,  line  and  large  black  eyes,  and  a  mild  though  serious  ex- 
pression, denoting  a  chviracter  of  strong  natural  sense.  He  remained 
an  hour  and  a  half.  The  following  day  I  returned  his  visit.  On  the  road 
we  encountered  about  fifty  Kirghiz,  assembled  to  carry  into  execution 
the  sentence  awarded  by  the  Sultan  against  one  of  their  countrymen, 
who  had  stolen  a  horse.  He  was  condemned  to  death  according  to  the 
law  of  the  Koran, — but  the  elders  of  the  Kirghiz  interceded  for  him 
that  providence  may  prosper  the  journey  on  which  they  were  going, 
and  that  uiercy  extended  to  the  culprit  may  be  a  favourable  omen  to 
their  union  with  the  Russians.  The  Sultan  yielded  to  their  solicitation, 
and  substituted  a  corporal  punishment  for  the  sentence  of  death,  which 
had  first  been  awarded.  This  was  immediately  carried  into  execution 
in  the  following  manner.  The  robber,  half  naked,  having  about  his 
neck  some  stripes  of  black  belt,  was  forced  by  two  men  on  horseback 
who  carried  large  whips,  to  run  to  the  nearest  tent,  where  his  face  was 
blackened  with  soot  and  marched  through  a  group  of  Kirghiz;  they 
then  tied  him  to  the  tail  of  a  horse,  and  forced  him  to  hold  a  cord  be- 
tween his  teeth.  He  was  thus  constrained  to  run  after  the  horse  which 
was  pushed  into  a  smart  trot.  The  rest  of  the  Kirghiz  followed  flog- 
ging  the  culprit  with  whips.  The  greater  part  of  those  engaged  shouted 
and  laughed  with  all  their  might.  In  a  few  minutes  he  was  set  at  liber- 
ty, and  immediately  went  to  thank  the  Khan,  promising  never  more  to  be 
guilty  of  theft.  During  this  time  the  horse  of  the  robber  suffered  the 
punishment  at  first  intended  for  his  master ;  the  throat  was  cut,  and  the 
carcass  divided  into  pieces,  and  instantly  portioned  among  the  spectators, 
but  not  without  much  noise,  disturbance  and  blows  of  the  whip. 

After  witnessing  this  scene,  I  proceeded  to  the  habitation  of  the  Sul- 
tan, who  made  me  wait  some  minutes,  to  enable  him  to  decorate  and  ar- 
range his  habitation.    At  last  we  entered,  and  found  him  seated,  in  the 


1S39]  Jtussian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara.  139 

middle  of  a  large  round  tent :  his  Ariends  were  placed  in  a  semi-circle  on 
one  side ;  on  the  other  seats  had  been  prepared  for  our  accommodation. 
The  floor  was  covered  with  a  carpet,  wearing  apparel  hung  on  a  cord| 
and  skins  of  tigers  were  stretched  against  the  sides ;  a  rich  diadem  of 
gold,  very  high,  and  ornamented  with  turquoise  and  rubies,  the  head  dress 
of  Kirghiz  women ;  by  their  side  might  also  be  seen  raw  meat  hanging 
on  hooks,  large  leather  bags  of  mare's  milk,  and  some  wooden  vessels  of 
diflferent  kinds.  It  was  a  strange  mixture  of  rich  objects  placed  beside 
those  of  the  most  ordinary  description ;  the  love  of  magnificence  and 
show  joined  to  the  tastes  and  customs  of  a  half  savage  society. 

After  quitting  the  Ilek,near  the  road  to  Tandy -laman,  on  a  hill  of  red 
stone  we  discovered  some  large  ammonites,  of  nearly  2^  feet  in  diame* 
ter,  besides  some  rich  specimens  of  copper  ore,  probably  brought  down 
by  the  river.  Not  far  from  the  junction  of  the  Soui'ouk-sou,  four  rivers 
fall  into  the  Ilek,  which,  as  well  as  the  country  through  which  it  flow8» 
from  this  poiut,  is  called  Bech-tomak,  or  the  five  rivers. 

There  is  a  very  extensive  view  from  the  summit  of  the  Bas§agha,  the 
ascent  to  which  is  so  gradual  that  one  Ih  quite  surprised  at  finding  so  great 
an  elevation.  This  hill  is  composed  of  crystallised  gypsum,  and  the 
whole  steppe  in  this  neighbourhood,  is  covered  with  the  same  substance* 
The  Bassagha  appears  to  be  only  about  thirty  fathoms  high,  the  slope  is 
very  easy  on  the  north  eastern  side,  and  steep  in  the  south  western,  a 
peculiarity  observable  in  almost  all  the  hills,  on  this  side  of  the  Sir. 

Beyond  Bassagha,  the  soil  becomes  more  and  more  barren— Aatooti/ 
(camel  grass)  hitherto  abundant,  becomes  uncommon;  and  nothing 
meets  the  eye,  but  a  clayey  barren  soil  producing  but  a  few  miserable 
plants  of  a  species  of  wormwood  ;  the  ground  is  burnt  and  cracked  in  a 
thousand  places  by  the  excessive  heat  of  the  sun. 

We  forded  the  Eoubleili-t^mir,  after  having  broken  the  ice  that  covered 
it  witli  a  hatchet.  Tliis  river  was  about  three  fathoms  broad,  and  was 
in  some  places  a  fathom  deep.  The  water  is  good,  the  bottom  sandy, 
and  the  banks  are  covered  with  reeds ;  among  which  the  wild  boar  is 
occasionally  seen.  I  here  observed  a  gang  of  Kirghiz,  who  had  been 
working  in  the  water  for  about  ten  minutes  to  break  the  ice.  They  re- 
turned to  the  lind  to  deposit  their  axes,  and  then  without  appearing  to 
dread  the  painful  degree  of  cold  that  existed,  they  plunged  three  times 
into  the  water,  a  striking  proof  of  the  physical  insensibility  of  the 
wandering  tribes.  The  Koubleili-t^mir  is  merely  a  brook,  and  I  should 
not  have  considered  it  worth  mentioning,  but  from  the  circumstance  of 
our  having  found  a  great  number  of  belemnites  and  skeletons  of  mice  at 
the  foot  of  a  precipitous  spot,  about  ten  fathoms  high.  This  attracted  our 


140  Russian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhartu  [JuLT 

attention  to  the  bank  of  the  river.It  was  composed  of  many  layers  of  conglo- 
merate  of  gravel  and  clay,  very  interesting  to  a  geologist.  I  was  walk- 
ing along  by  the  precipice,  sometimes  on  the  ice,  and  sometimes  on  the 
ground  seeking  petrifaction^,  or  other  curious  objects,  when  I  suddenly 
saw  in  the  air,  a  large  animal  that  had  just  sprung  from  the  top  of  the 
hill,  and  appeared  about  to  precipitate  itself  upon  me.  I  drew  back, 
and  he  fell  directly  at  my  feet,  on  the  ice,  fracturing  his  limbs  in  his 
fall.  It  was  a  saiga,  a  species  of  antelope,  the  first  I  ever  saw.  It 
had  been  hunted  by  the  Cossacks  belonging  to  the  escort,  and  they 
had  pursued  it  from  the  plain  to  the  top  of  the  precipice.  In  its  anxiety 
to  escape  them,  it  met  its  fate,  owing  to  the  blind  terror  characteristic 
of  the  saigas,  and  which  often  throws  them  into  the  hands  of  the 
hunters.  The  Kirghiz  know  how  to  take  advantage  of  it;  they  station 
themselves  by  the  rivers,  near  the  places  where  these  animals  are  ac- 
customed to  resort,  for  the  purpose  of  drinking — and  they  drive  upon 
an  inclined  plain  several  rows  of  shurp  reeds  placed  in  a  semi-circle, 
one  behind  another  ;  at  intervals  of  about  twelve  feet  on  each  «ide  of 
these  reeds,  they  raise  mounds  of  earth,  and  thus  form  an  arch,  of  which 
the  extremities  are  about  fifty  fathomsapart.  When  the  herds  of  ante- 
lope come,  the  concealed  Kirghiz  start  up,  and  frighten  them  towards 
this  arch.  The  animals  take  the  mounds  for  men,  and  fly  towards  the 
reeds,  and  entangle  themselves  in  great  numbers.  The  Cossacks  of  the 
Don  chace  them  in  another  manner.  During  the  great  heats  of  summer, 
the  antelopes  assemble  in  flocks  of  from  400  to  500,  and  emigrate  to  a 
cooler  region,\vhen  they  swim  the  Don  ;  the  Cossacks  throw  themselves 
into  the  river  armed  with  a  knife,  and  kill  vast  numbers  in  the  water. 

People  worthy  of  credit  have  assured  me,  that  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Goubcrlinsk  or  Oural,  during  the  season  of  the  emigra- 
tion of  the  antelopes,  which  takes  place  in  June,  herds  of  8000 
and  yOOO  are  seen.  The  flesh  of  these  animals  is  delicious,  and  the 
skins  are  used  for  clothes.  It  is  in  general  very  difficult  to  approach 
them,  except  during  the  groat  heats.  The  beasts  then  search  some 
shade,  and  when  there  are  no  bushes  or  frees  on  the  great  plains,  twenty 
antelopes  will  frequently  place  themselves  close  behind  each  other,  the 
leading  one  putting  its  head  ibehind  a  great  stone,  or  in  a  hole ;  the 
hunter  can  then  approach,  and  if  he  succeeds  in  killing  the  leading  one, 
those  that  are  behind  will  generally  take  its  place,  and  several  may  be 
shot  in  succession. 

The  antelope  has  a  very  peculiar  nose,  it  is  arched  like  those  of  the 
Kirghiz  sheep,  formed  with  two  large  and  deep  nostrils,  covered  with  a 
toft  and  very  elastic  cartilage.    These  nostrils  are  so  open,  that  flies  and 


1839]  Russian  Mis^^ion  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  141 

insects  frequently  enter,  and  oblige  the  antelope  to  stop  and  sneeze; 
their  horns  are  not  straight,  as  it  is  said,  but  spiraL  Nothing  can  be 
more  gnueful  than  ihe  motions  of  the  antelope  when  not  frightened; 
they  change  from  a  high  trot  to  light  and  fantastic  bounds.  These  ani- 
mals, when  young,  are  easily  tamed;  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Orenbourg 
they  are  seen,  following  their  masters  like  dogs. 

From  the  T^mir,  we  marched  lowards  the  heights  of  Moussevil,  which 
resemble  those  of  Bassagha.  We  had  got  a  sight  of  the  mountain  of 
Moughodjar,  distant  60  verstes,  the  blue  appearance  of  whose  summitSi 
which  rise  majestically  and  are  strongly  delineated  on  the  horizon, 
hare  a  very  picturesque  effect.  Notwithstanding  we  were  anxious  to 
see  them  behind  us,  in  hopes  of  escaping  the  extreme  cold  and  storms  of 
this  region.  By  the  account  of  the  Kirghiz,  the  southern  face  of  these 
mountains,  enjoys  a  much  milder  climate.  However  thus  far  we  had 
been  fortunate.  1  he  sun  had  shone  clear,  and  the  cold  at  night  seldom 
below   5  or  8  degrees  of  Reaumur ;  once  only  it  was  at  1 0^. 

This  cold,  however  trifling  it  may  appear,  was  much  felt  by  people 
who  had  been  exposed  all  day,  and  had  nothing  but  felt  to  cover  them 
at  night ;  and  for  fuel,  miserable  bushes  of  very  small  size — too  happy 
when  even  they  were  to  be  procured. 

The  Cara-akenti,  15  verstes  distant  from  the  Moughodjar,  has  only 
br.ickish  water,  dirty  and  with  an  earthy  smell ;  it  is  contained  in  a  few 
holes,  and  was  ilie  worst  we  had  ever  seen.  The  Kirghiz  laughed  at 
the  faces  we  made  on  first  tasting  it.  To  us  it  was  hardly  drinkable  with 
tea;  among  the  Kirghiz,  who  frequently  came  to  drink  tea  with  us,  I 
have  seen  several  who  swallowed  8  pints  of  this  liquid. 


Chapter  III. 


appearance  of  the  Com tri/— Kirghiz  Tomb^Proofs  of  the  diminution  of 

the  Sea  of  Aral — Mouth  of  the  Sir, 

On  the  29th  of  October,  we  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  Moughodjar 
rocky  mountHins,  composed  of  irregularly  grouped  peaks;  their  appear- 
ance was  wild,  and  they  were  covered  with  stones,  rocks  of  porphyry, 
serpentine,  granite,  &c. 

The  valleys  offer  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  mountains  ;  in  the  hol- 
lows, wherever  the  water  collects  and  lodges  for  any  length  of  time,  the 


l42  JUusm  A\j.Mr«/-r.K   Cnaun^u'c  u  Bakkmrm,  [Sett 

vegeiatiac  is  'crtnErr.  mi£  ibs  soil  V:ac^  ani  icriije:  tbe  Kifgliix  tike 
sidrHii:s^£»^  of::  :i:»'"l  ic  nLsrate  etkl.  Enn  itlso  w  pMEOnge  for  their 
ckit>.  piiridrf  :r'€:r  tfrri  etdpte  :b»  Li  .&.  sr  s>  to  cibtiis  abdtcr  frm 

Tbt  i-.tL-r.  jte..i:  c'  :••*  MimrbctiiLx  ttmiHa  150  K-iffep)  abofc  the 
lertl  r-f  *Jb'  p'tir^  :f  niiZTt:  A':r.nL.l — &  nuDf  nrnifrinf  ifioSatod,  and  it 
»  in  ffcr:  fc  Tf-T  TOF!  6  7i:«iLiiikri  in.  e*  i:  i»  rprr  iiiijcb  higber  than  an? 
of  tie  oib^r  L.  is,  I:  i*  tl*:-  ck'.ed  A:r3ur::ik  .:«•  ^oried,  en  aceomtof 
tLc  !t:  ppLk«  »r  -.l:  •'■ti-t:*.:*  ihf  m.-^ziiiin.  Ggpgra.  !t  gpnting,  the 
E'rcL  I  iT-T*  Terr  ih..i'.  tt-nsijC  slxl-**  r:  :b*  ^*-^  :l:"c<ngb  mfaicb  ibey 
j'iifs — mB  f:r  €XL2i:;>.  :ri*  n.-zsTkir*  t.ir  ::  i^e  sr-atn  of  the  Alronk- 
U|:l,iJ»kacnrL  1«t  'be  si^ri*  r-''  7cii  cscrL  cc  bid  td:  uriais*.  those  to  the 
iiw"/l.  are  d-d  A #.&./. i-.-rr'-  or  rcKC  ii-.'ur.*tin«w  :'rie  fonD«T,  because 
ti*T  ar»  z..iD:^«^t  iej..::ir.*  of  Lcrbtr?,  v'Li.s^.  or  iLe  litier  the   Kir^ghis 

Tb?  M :■:!£:'  c*:;*r  iie  eTrif-LCr  a  c:ci:ruau:<a  cf  ibe  Gonberlmtk 
iDocBUiiEL  'ht  u:.::'n  c:  ::  e  :w;  :bt±«  rsir  be  awn  b^veen  the  for- 
treff  »;  &i.iD-:  i.  Liid  \ht  for:  of  C^k :  ::  i$  z>e^  tV.e  same  f  poc  that  the 
OuHl:  hi*  ::T=ie5  a  r.-i  for  i:«.f  ±r?z^b  ibe  :bain  cf  r^«ks,  and  that 
it  £c  v-$  ir  «  i.arr.'r  cb-i:i.t'.  l»*:w*»i-  r:»:kr  ta"!  *T*tp  bkuks  of  the  mme 
latur*  aTitppeLTirrt  £5  !b»  Tr.&-::iiiri*.  Tb*  b:  U  assume  the  name 
of  Tk:Lk::'.h:n  iui  :f  Ckric-uliepeb,  >epkratei  at  firsi  bj  the  Kir-gfaeldiv 
tbej  r6-iii.i:e  l:  ibe  ii^rasre  cf  «bo;::  30  rer«>:e«  frosa  the  Oiuraly  from 
wkenre  ib*T  ex!*ai  to  ib?s:z'Ji  cT»ra^  e'e^-ai^dpliin,  afienrards  fonn* 
img  tie  Ocrka:  h.  c  r  zn:uT:tk:3«  of  tbe  Our.  :b^s  c&'led  from  the  Our  or 
Or,  wbicb  5oK-«  =:  :b^ir  feet-  Xetr  t':e  f-rurrrf  of  :ii  »  rirer,  the  moon* 
taiu*  0-:ktt!(r^;-:3  ::.e  M>x:^\.»iyj"  r3>;si:a  ns^  wriirh  exteni  to  the 
ac^ntb-ea-:.  Tn^o  riii«:^5  of  bill*  fpr.rar  fr.-«ra  th?  O^katch.  one  sepa* 
rates  the  bisiz  .f  :be  llek  fr>:a  ihil  of  ibe  Ojral :  tbe  otber  separates  the 
bano  of  tbe  liek  fr.TiJ  ibo**?  if  :h*  TeTir.  ard  ihe  Embi.  The  lakhchi- 
tagh  lie  od  the  riirb:  l*aiUk  cf  ihe  Ojr,  ani  .five  i:  to  join  the  Kanudor 
hill*,  a  name  s'enyyir.z  ibe  j  jcrti.n  cf  tbe  mi?uii:ain*. 

Tbe  Mvi:£*r,-d;ir  ar^  :h?  b:::h*«:  b:*..?  ia  ih?  r'-^in.  inbabited  bv  the 
Kirebirof  tl:-^  les*-*:  bori-*.  Tb-f-y  ire  :be  ri!2:£j:A:ion5  of  ihe  Ounil,  none 
ofi:sbnin  les,  lome^rr.  ex'-iil  i^- the '.v fir  rzr.ge  of  the  Altai*.  The 
fyasoee  of  th"*  M  uih'-^-j  r  is  Ax>:k\  6  vers: :^  {4  miirs *  berond  these 
hill*  :  tb*  tT:ow  ^-biv'ir.  f  .'i>  12  ar.T  e^eit  quaiitirr :  mben  the  climate  is 
hotter,  ani  lie  «^:1  icjr?  b  irren  ;  stunted  jlic's  of  vormwocid  of  a  dark 
co'vor  are  ^hi^ly  *cs*!--re i  over  a  ci^un^nr.  whirb  appears  in  dismal 
mouining.  Id  as|kice  of-KW  verstes  from  Uie  river  Kacunijourto  the  Sir, 
we  did  not  find  a  sincie  stream. 


1839]  Jiuiiian  ATtstion  from  Orinhtmrff  to  Bokhara.  148 

On  quitting  this  range  of  mountains,  we  crossed  a  level  country  of 
moving  sand,  with  some  few  mounds  or  hillocks  of  clay,  bare  and  utter« 
ly  devoid  of  vegetation  near  their  base  ;  they  were  cut  by  deep  fissures, 
which  appear  to  have  been  excavated  by  water. 

Supposing  a  level  plain,  with  several  brackish  lakes,  with  a  clay  soil  of 
a  blue  colour,  so  soft  as  to  allow  cattle  to  sink  into  it,  with  all  the  ordi- 
nary symptoms  of  having  been  once  covered  by  the  sea,  a  correct  idea 
will  be  formed  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  of  this  country. 

The  first  plain  of  this  kind  which  we  met  with,  extended  from  the 
rivulet  of  Touban  to  the  Kaoundjour  in  the  bed  of  which  we  found  only 
some  holes  full  of  water.  The  Kaoundjour,  only  flows  in  spring  in  a  bed 
of  from  4  to  5  toises.  Every  drop  of  water  is  precious  in  such  a  situa- 
tion, and  a  Kirghiz  never  forgets  where  he  has  once  focftid  it  in  any  period 
of  his  life.  Our  guide,  £mantchi-beg,  who  had  not  visited  these  parts 
for  10  years,  advised  us  to  halt  at  the  Kaoundjour,  after  a  march  of  only 
20  verstes ;  as  we  should  not  find  water  again  nearer  than  Khodja« 
koul,  a  lake  distant  15  verstes  further.  We  were  not  inclined  to  believe 
him,  AS  the  Kirghiz  who  had  an  interest  in  delaying  our  march  bad  fire- 
quently  deceived  us.  We  therefore  continued  our  journey ;  the  day 
closed,  and  we  saw  nothing  of  the  lake.  When  night  came  on,  which  at 
this  season  of  the  year  is  generally  dark,  it  became  extremely  difiicult 
to  find  our  road,  which  was  hardly  marked,  even  in  the  day.  We  could 
no  longer  see  the  tops  of  the  hills,  or  Kirghiz  tombs ;  objects  by  which 
the  people  direct  their  course.  The  more  prudent  of  the  party  advised 
us  to  halt,  and  save  ourselves  and  cattle  from  useless  fatigue, 
and  sleep,  in  place  of  seeking  to  allay  our  thirst ;  but  as  we  bad  de- 
clared that  we  would  go  to  the  lake,  we  considered  it  necessary  to  per- 
severe; several  Kirghiz  did  all  they  could  to  prevent  our  losing  our  road; 
they  dispersed  in  a  line  before  us,  endeavouring  to  discover  some  path« 
which  is  here  a  certain  indication  of  being  near  water.  A  well,  a 
hole  filled  with  water,  or  lake,  are  points  where  the  nomades  of  the 
desert  assemble,  and  are  the  only  places  where  even  a  path  is  discerni- 
ble. We  had  already  wandered  for  some  hours  in  a  dark  night,  and  we 
became  alarmed  at  having  lost  our  proper  direction,  when  suddenly,  a 
Kirghiz  in  front  struck  a  light,  which  had  a  great  effect  on  onr  tired 
party ;  who  now  hastened  to  join  the  person  who  had  fallen  on  this 
expedient  of  assembling  the  dispersed  travellers.  It  is  the  usual  mode 
followed  by  the  Kirghiz  in  the  desert,  when  they  haltf  to  unsaddle  and 
refiresh  their  horses. 

We  followed  our  new  guide  for  3  or  4  verstes,  and  at  8  a.  m.  arrived  at 
the  lake,  on  the  banks  of  which  we  halted,  near  several  tombs ;  this  was 
the  first  lake  we  met  with  in  the  desert. 


144  Euuian  Misiion  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara*  [Jult 

All  the  tombs  are  of  clay,  mixed  with  chopped  straw,  except  that  of 
Khodjaf  which  is  of  unbumt  bricks.  In  the  interior  of  these  sepulchres 
there  is  another,  smaller,  where  the  Kirghiz  pray.  These  monumenlB 
become  more  numerous  as  you  approach  the  Sir,  and  appear  like  cities. 
The  rich  Kirghiz  frequently  bring  artificers  from  Bokhara  to  make  their 
clay  tombs ;  they  are  very  durable  on  account  of  the  dryness  of  the 
climate.  The  custom  is  to  construct  these  buildings  on  the  most  ele- 
vated spots  of  small  hills  ;  if  not  built  of  clay,  the  friends  and  relations 
assist  in  elevating  these  rustic  sepulchres  ;  and  each  must  bring  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  stone  or  earth. 

The  Kirghiz,  like  all  other  eastern  nations,  have  a  great  respect  for 
the  dead  ;  generally  all  the  relations  of  the  deceased  attend  the  funeral, 
except  the  women,  who  remain  at  home  tearing  their  hair,  and  uttering 
loud  cries.  The  relations,  after  the  funeral,  condole  with  the  widows, 
who  soon  yield  to  their  solicitations,  and  kill  horses  and  sheep  to  enter- 
tain their  guests.  There  never  is  with  the  Kirghiz  an  asbembly, 
festival,  or  ceremony,  which  does  not  end  in  a  great  repast. 

One  of  the  greatest  festivals  with  these  nomades,  is  the  day  the  head 
of  a  family  has  died,  and  particularly  the  first  after  it.  The  sons  assem- 
ble the  people  of  their  acquaintance  to  the  number  of  3,  4,  or  even  600  ; 
and  the  pleasures  of  the  table  are  always  joined  to  the  ceremonies  of 
religion. 

We  soon  quitted  the  banks  of  Khodja-koul,  which  were  covered  with 
reeds.  In  autumn,  the  lake  is  much  reduced  in  size  ;  but  in  spring, 
when  the  Kaoundjour  overflows,  it  extends  to  a  great  distance. 

We  proceeded  towards  Coul-koudouk  (well  of  the  slaves),  situated  on 
the  edge  of  the  desert  of  Borzouk,  15  verstes  of  which  we  passed. 
It  is  entirely  of  moving  sand,  presenting  the  singular  aspect  of  nearly 
perpendicular  banks  of  sand,  close  to  each  other,  and  3or4toise8in 
height ;  these  change  their  situation  with  every  gale  of  wind,  some 
thorny  bushes,  herbs,  and  a  species  of  ro6 mm,  grow  here  and  there. 
The  long  roots  of  these  plants  resemble  serpents  ;  and  when  totally 
uncovered,  extend  on  the  sides  of  these  moving  hills. 

We  had  great  difficulty  in  riding  through  these  deep  sands  j  the  more 
so,  as  our  horses  had  become  weak  from  bad  forage.  After  our  arrival  at 
Coul-koudouk,  we  burnt  10  of  our  carriages  ;  the  materials  of  which  fur- 
nished U8  for  some  days  with  a  comfortable  fire,  free  from  the  smoke  of 
green  busJies,  which  had  been  for  so  long  our  only  fuel. 

At  Coul-koudouk  there  are  several  abundant  springs,  the  water  of 
which,  had  a  mineral  taste,  and  in  the  dry  bed  of  a  pond  we  collected 


1839]  Bus^iian  Man  ion  from  Oienhourg  to  Bokhurtu  145 

some  bitter  salt.  Our  Cossacks,  giiidod  by  the  Kirghiz,  from  a  distance 
of  about  2  vers^es  to  the  riv;hr,  brought  u<)  comuioD  suit,  which  tiiey  found 
ill  liij'ers  of  uiic  or  two  inches  thick. 

Tiie  salt  of  these  I.ikes  is  not  so  strong  as  our  common  kitchen  salty 
and  is  mixed  with  a  groat  deal  of  earth,  thoui;h  peifectly  white.  From 
Coul-koudouk  we  mot  several  of  these  salt  lakes  in  the  desert,  and 
frequently  a  space  ( f  10  vcrstcs,  is  covered  with  a  white  cffiorescence 
of  a  fine  white  powdo;,  \\hi.  h  rises  in  passing  through  it. 

The  9th  November,  we  halted  near  the  hill  of  Sari-bouhik,  after  hav- 
ing pusseil  near  Siikanatji,  tlie  highest  prak  of  the  mountains  of  Mough- 
o-ijar,  to  th'.^  IImIc  IJorz'juhs  sandy  hill.s,  or  dunes,  whicli  commence 
to  rise  about  10  vorslos  from  wlu're  we  were,  and  res^'mble  the 
great  B'»rzouks.  "\Vhc»i  e  we  rH)x.>cjl  them,th''y  were  nut  more  than  2  verstei 
in  breallh  ;  the  ?  iiid  wliith  wa^;  froz'.^n  did  not  appear  to  bedeop.  Both 
the  little  and  gro.it  U  »rz'iiks  are  near  the  lake  of  Aral;  these  last  hive  a 
northerly  direuti-^u,  an  1  th.^  other  extends  in  greater  masses  b.'tween  the 
hike  of  Aral  and  tlicCaspiiUi,  ending  about  10  mnrchesfrom  Khiva.  The 
country  continued  to  und'd  ae  and  the  slopes  were  always  very  gradual* 
the  armoi^e  (moth wort)  is  the  only  plant  which  our  horses  had  to  sub- 
sist on,  for  from  the  Mough'^djar  thore  is  no  forage.  After  passing 
Akhch^koudouk  we  baw  to  u^i  a  new  species  of  thorn,  well  known  in 
the  desert  u:i  ler  the  n.im^  o{ sikaou!. 

The  Kirghiz  and  uU  iXu  people  who  dwell  in  the  desert  set  a  high 
value  on  this  jdant ;  (hi  charcoal  of  which  remains  alive  during  hdf  a 
day.  If  fire  is  made  with  th<*  saksaof/l/in  the  evening  the  embers  slowly 
consume  to  a  while  'dnder,  keeping  a  gentle  h'Vit  in  the  tent  all  night, 
this  shrub  is  a  species  of  the  tamarisk  ;  it  has  a  leaf  like  tl;e  jimiper,  a 
browni>h  yellow  b  uk,  the  wood  is  very  hard,  he;ivy,  and  more  easy  to 
break  th<>n  cut.  The  sakifaoul  is  little  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter 
in  this  quarter;biU  near  the  Djin-d^ria  it  becomes  a  tree  of  ahalf  foot  ia 
diameter,  and  I^  in  lieigiit,  an  J  so  numerous  as  to  form  perfect  thickets. 

The  <outhein  part  of  the  S.iri-boulak  is  remirk.ible  for  a  great  num- 
ber of  excavations,  extending  two  or  three  verstes.  The  northern  side 
of  the  hill  is  covered  wiih  worm-wood,  and  the  slope  is  easy  ;  the  south 
side  is  composed  of  barren  clay  ploughed  up  by  torrent*,  or  scooped  into 
caves,  surrounded  by  prociijices  '20  or  30  tuises  high.  I  climbed  one  of 
these  eminences,  and  found  Liyers  three  or  four  feel  thick  of  little  shells, 
as  well  as  som^  fossil  shells  about  2  or  3  inches  long,  and  a  great  quantity 
of  the  bones  of  fi^h,  scatterei  over  the  sides  of  the  hill.  From  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Sari-boulak,  I  discerncil  the  hills  of  Kouk-tcrmik, which  are  at 
a  distance  of  60  verstes ;  the  sea  of  Aral  approaches  their  base.. 

I  remarked  to  our  Kirghiz  the  traces  I  had  observed  on  the  Sari-bou« 


146  Ruitian  Mission  from  Orsfibourg  to  Bokhara,  [Jult 

lak  of  water  having  once  flowed  there,  and  they  assured  me  that  their 
£skthers  had  seen  the  sea  of  And  extending  to  the  foot  of  this  hillt 
though  it  does  not  now  approach  nearer  than  sixty  verstes.  So  many 
Kirghiz  have  declared  the  same  thing  to  me,  that  I  can  have  no  doubt 
tOf  the  fact,  which  shows  how  considerable  and  how  ra^id  tlie  decrease 
of  the  sea  of  Aral  is;  it  still  continues,  and  one  of  our  guides  recollected 
having  seen  the  sea  extend  heyond  Kulli  and  Sap^k,  places  which  we 
passed  on  the  1-lth  and  15th  of  November,  less  than  a  year  ago,  the 
Camechlu-bach,  a  large  bay  of  the  Sir-deria,  extended  three  verstes  far- 
ther than  at  the  time  of  our  journey. 

At  about  25  verstes  from  Sari-boulak,  we  passed  the  soHtarj'  hill  of 
Dennan-bachi  ;  it  is  known  to  the  Kirghiz  by  the  name  of  Terniemb^s, 
and  is  so  called  by  all  their  tribes,  though  it  is  common  enough  for  them 
to  give  different  names  to  the  same  place.  The  smallest  of  the  hills  we 
saw  near  the  Termembes,  and  in  fact  all  those  we  saw  between  the  Sari- 
boulak  and  th«»  sea  of  Aral,  have  their  slopes,  on  the  side  towards  the 
lake,  intersected  by  ra\ines  and  destitute  of  gras<».  They  present  a  mass 
of  hillocks,  barren  anl  always  round  at  the  summit,  whilst  the  slopes  on 
the  opposite  side  are  gentle,  and  covered  with  wormwood  ;  signs  of  tht 
action  of  water  on  all  those  hills  is  inconfestible. 

Before  reaching  the  Aral  lake,  we  enter'd  the  Cara-coum,  or  black 
sandsiy  a  desert  thus  called  without  its  being  pnss'ble  to  assign  a  reason. 
All  the  saudy  deserts  offer  nearly  the  same  itspcct.  The  Cara-coum  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  water,  whi<h  is  f)und  by  digcing  one  or  two 
toiscs.  The  Cossacks  who  preceded  ue,  dug  seventeen  wells  at  Belirat- 
chai-koudouk,  containing  but  little  water,  each  n:ore  or  le<s  brackish. 

The  Cara-coum  extends  to  the  lake  of  Aral,  and  in  some  I'laces  to  the 
river  Sir,  far  to  the  eastward,  where  it  is  niu(  h  wider.  In  returning 
from  Bokhara,  1  crossed  this  desert  in  eight  days,  about  26S  verstes, 
that  is  from  the  Sir  to  the  Irghiz.  After  having  passed  near  the  Sari- 
tchaghanak,  or  yellow  bay,  a  creek  of  the  Aral,  we  again  entere*!  into 
the  Cara-coum,  and  did  not  leave  it  till  near  Camcchlu-hach,  The 
banks  of  the  lakeof  Aral,  from  Sari-tchaghanak  to  the  mouths  of  the 
Sir,  are  compised  of  s;md  hills  driven  up  from  the  Cara-coum.  To  the 
south  of  Kouwan,  sand  is  again  met  with,  inteisected  at  intervals  by 
patches  of  clay  extending  to  the  lake.  From  the  Sir  dferia,  to  Kouwaa 
it  is  entirely  of  clay,  flat  and  capable  of  cultivation,  if  water  could  be 
procured  for  irrigation. 

The  water  had  for  a  long  time  been  so  indiflerent,  that  we  thought 
^hatof  the  C:imechlu-bach  excellent;  and,  lying  down  upon  the  ice,  w« 
drank  it  with  inex|)rcbsible  plcbsuio.    The  Crmechlu-bach  is  acouside* 


1839]  Russian  Mistion  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokkaram  147 

Table  bay.formod  by  the  Sir,  about  50  verstesin  circumference;  it  ia  the 
largest  corecti<»n  of  fresh  water  we  met  with  during  our  journey. 

The  morning  after  our  arrival,  I  started  with  some  of  my  companions 
nnd  Cossicks  to  see  the  mouth  of  tlie  Sir.  We  went  round  the 
largos^  ha' f  of  the  Camechlu-bach,  and  observed  two  places  where  the 
bay  b<*  ymes  narrower  and  joins  the  Sir.  After  having  travelled  about 
twenty  vcrstes  by  the  side  of  the  river,  which  had  been  covered  with  ice 
for  two  (lays,  wc  reached  the  spot  where  the  waters  of  the  Sir,  mingling 
with  those  of  the  sea  of  Ara1,rontr<ict  a  saltish  taste,  and  the  river  begins 
to  widen.  At  the  distance  of  (ificen  verstes  it  becomes  forty  toise  sin  width; 
the  d<lta  thus  formei  is  covered  with  reeds,  and  the  water  upon  it  is  not 
above  four  feet  deep,  while  the  river  itself  is  navigable  as  far  as  Kokani 
and  is  probably  many  toisc**  deep  the  whole  wJiy. 

We  di<l  not  quite  attain  our  end,  the  h^^ight  of  Caraiar,And  of  On-ademt 
small  promontories  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Sir,  partly  conceal- 
ed the  view  of  th«*  sch  of  Aral.  We  were  still  about  20  verstes  from  the 
summit  of  these  hills,  and  had  already  travelled  more  than  50,  but  as  we 
had  acromplisliod  the  principal  object  of  our  excursion  by  seeing  the 
mouth  <»f  the  Sir,  we  inrnel  back  again. 

Near  the  Camechlu-bat^h  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Sir,  we  met  a  great 
number  of  Kirghiz,  whohad  lied  fromthecoM  of  the  northernsteppe.toseek 
a  milder  climate.  We  also  saw  others  who  had  been  robbed  of  their  cattle 
by  the  Khivians.  Thoir  destitute  condition  had  obliged  them  to  become 
fishermen  and  ai^ricnUurists — occupations  which  among  the  Kirghiz  in« 
dicate  extreme  poverty-  Those  two  tribes,  half  savages,  have  alternate- 
ly  pillaged  cuh  other  i'nr  the  last  30  y»Mrs,  sometimes  as  aggressors,  at 
others  to  retaliate.  Afier  this  period  they  began  to  make  use  of  flour  in 
their  food.  Habit  and  economy  soon  taught  them  to  consider  it  almost 
indispensable.  They  use,  however,  but  a  trifling  quantity,  and  come  for 
the  purpose  of  buying  it  lo  the  frontier  towns  of  Russia  or  to  Bokhara 
and  give  in  ex  -hmge  sheep-hides,  goat*s  and  camel's  hair.  This  ap- 
pears to  them  a  f.ir  plea.santer  state  of  existence  than  the  painful  cultiva- 
tion of  the  ground  Be<;ides  which,  they  have  a  great  dread  of  becoming 
serfs  of  the  soil,  and  consider  it  the  height  of  felicity  to  be  as  free  as  the 
birds  of  the  air.  This  is  their  favourite  comparison,  when  they  speak  of 
their  wandering  life. 

It  is  therefore  easy  to  imagine  why  Kirghiz  in  easy  circumstances  ne- 
ver cultivate  the  ground — besides  which  they  have  an  ancient  tradition 
which  says  "  The  Kirghiz  shall  lose  their  liberty  whenever  they  begin 
to  live  in  houses,  and  to  follow  agricultural  pursuits;''  and  the  tradition 
acquires   new  strength  from  the  example  of  the  Bachkirs,  of  wbo^f? 


149  Eusiian  Mmion  from  Orenhourg  to  Bohharu.  [Jclt 

fate  they  entertain  a  great  dread.  None  tlierefore  but  the  x>oorest  Kir- 
ghiz, who  have  nothing  to  give  in  exchange  for  com,  raise  it  for  themselvei 
in  a  few  spots  near  the  IlcU,  the  Emba,  the  Irghiz,  and  ihe  Or,  in  the 
▼alleys  of  the  Moughodjar  and  Ourkatch  mountains,  along  the  banks  of 
the  Khodja-koul,  and  of  the  Ak-sakal,  near  the  Camoclilu-bach,  and  the 
Sir-deria,  and  above  all  between  the  Djan  and  the  Kouwan-tleria,  in. 
habited  about  15  years  since  by  the  Cara-Calpak,  or  Kara  Kalpak  (black 
C.)bs)  Tartars. 

They  prefer  the  spots  where  the  wafer  collects  during  the  niny  sea- 
ROn,  or  from  the  melting  of  Ihe  snows,  .ind  often  seek  a  soil  which  can 
be  irrigated  by  means  of  small  canals— ilie  fij-lds  n^ar  the  Sir  and  the 
Caroechlu-b'ich  are  thu^  sitnatrd.  In  other  instances  they  conduct  the 
water  of  a  riser  into  re8er^•oi^s,  out  of  whifh  th^^y  draw  it  to  water  the 
lands.  This  laborious  modcof  cultivation  is  f«'llowed  near  the  Emba 
and  the  Irghiz,  and  does  not  allow  the  fields  to  be  of  great  extent — in- 
deed they  are  to  be  seen  only  a  few  toises  pquire.  The  Kiighiz  sow 
them  with  millet,  wlii  h  produces  a  hundred  fold,  and  very  rarely,  if 
ever,  disapjioints  the  rullivator. 

Near  the  Sir,  there  are  can:ils  five  and  six  foct  deep,  and  dug 
before  the  Kirgliiz,  w  ho  I  cfn>ider  incapable  of  so  arduous  a  work,  had 
established  themselves  in  the  countn*.  Fields  of  a  nuieh  greater  extent 
are  to  be  met  with  there— the  Kirghiz  cultivate  otits  and  barley — they 
sow  the  first  in  autumn  and  the  other  in  the  S[)ring.  I'here  are  also  a 
few  melon  grounds,  and  they  preserve  their  crop  in  small  pits  under 
ground.  The  fodder  for  the  few  horses  and  cattle  they  possess,  consists 
of  the  leaves  of  the  young  reeds,  whose  growth  is  accelerated  bv  burn- 
ing the  plan's  of  the  former  year,  giving  a  must  hideous  aspect  to  the 
banks  of  the  Sir. 

The  embassy  arrived  on  the  19ih  November,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sir- 
deria,  opposite  the  hill  of  Cara-tppeh  ;  dunng  the  last  15  verstes,  we  had 
crossed  a  l.irge  plain  covered  with  reeds,  and  constantly  ovcrllowed  during 
the  spring. 

This  plain  extends  about  SO  verstes  from  the  mouth  of  the  Sir.  It  is 
10  or  15  verstes  in  breadth,  and  in  some  spots,  especially  close  to  the 
banks  of  the  river,  the  reeds  ui^c  plaee  to  very  fine  grass.  After  passing 
through  this  plain,  we  again  saw  the  smdy  plains  of  the  Cara-eoum,  ex- 
tending almost  as  far  as  the  Sir,  and  running  parallel  with  it  for  the 
space  uf  150  vers'es. 

Wafer  is  very  abundant  in  the  Cara-conm  :  it  is  principally  inhabited 
during  the  winter.  The  Kirghiz  then  retire  with  their  kibitkas  into 
some  hollow,  ithcrc  they  are  sheltered  from  the  wind.    Near  the  Sir-de- 


1839]  Jlussian  Mission  from  Orenlourg  to  Bokhara.  149 

ria,  the  asual  retreat  of  the  poor,  misery  had  multiplied  the  namber  of 
robbers,  and  in  crossing  this  part  of  the  countrv%  we  perceived  on  the  tops 
of  the  hills,  Kirghiz  who  nppoarod  to  be  watching  an  opportunity  of 
seizing  upuii  sonic  stnigglor,  or  our  horses.  Tlie  guides  had  warned  ub, 
and  we  kept  on  our  guard. 

The  Sir  near  its  mouth  is  about  sixty  toises  in  breadth — fifty  verstcs 
higher,  its  width  exceeds  150  toises-  It  is  rapivl,  and  navigable,  at  least 
as  fir  as  Kukan.  Some  of  the  Kirghiz  told  us  it  was  fordable  about  150 
vcrstes  from  its  mouth— only  during  the  very  great  heats.  Others  de- 
clare it  cannot  be  forded  at  any  s^'-ason  of  the  year. 


Chapter  IV, 

Manners  and  Customs  of  the  ICirghfz — Election  of  the  Ch'te/i — tJieir 
Dissensions — Examples  of  Cruelty — Severe  poUct/  of  the  Chinese^ 
with  regard  to  the  Kirghiz, 

The  countries  watered  by  the  Sir,  are  the  paradise  of  the  steppe  of 
the  Kirghiz,  who  are  pmud  of  the  existen-  o  of  so  large  a  river  in  their 
territories.     To  pii<:s  the  winter  with   their  liucks,  on  its  banks,  is  the 
object  of  their  most  ardf-nt  wishes.    The  ruld  is  much  mildpr  there  than 
on  the  banks  of    the   Ilek,    the  Or,  and  Irghiz;    and  also   than  the 
Monghodjar  and  Dourgalch   mountains,   and  the  sandy  ]dains  of  the 
Cara-coum.     On  the  banks  of  the   Sir,  the  frost  is  never  sufficiently 
severe  to  kill  Ihc  catil'%  nor  to  incommode  people  living  in  their  habita- 
tions of  felt — but  daring  the  last  six  years,  the  rich  Kirghiz  are  de- 
prived of  the  pleasure  of  spending  the  winter  on  this  favoured  8i)or,  as 
their  enemies,  the  Khiviaus,  come  and  plunder  them  whenever  they 
have  the  opportunity. 

The  Kirghiz  delight  in  wintering  nniidst  the  recdsi  which  grow  so 
thick  as  to  afford  a  shelter  trom  tlie  storms  of  wind,  which  oci-asionally 
occur.  The  wandering  tribes  are  generally  of  a  melancholy  disposition! 
and  the  murmur  of  the  waters  of  ilie  Sir  has  a  charm  for  their  idle 
moments,  which  are  in  fact  pretty  numerous.  In  truth,  nothing  disposes 
the  mind  to  rrvery  more  than  the  sound  of  a  river,  which,  like  lime, 
runs  its  course  with  a  monotonous  rapidity.  The  Kirghiz  often  past 
half  the  night  sealed  on  a  stone,  g-.izing  at  the  moon,  and  singing  melan- 
choly impromptu  words  to  airs  not  less  so.  They  also  have  historical 
songs,  which  celebrate  the  great  actions  of  their  heroes,  but  these  are 
chaunted  only  by  professional  singers,  and  I  greatly  regret  not  having 
heard  them.     I  often  told  the  Kirghiz  I  would  willingly  hear  their . 


150  Russian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara.  [JtlT 

songs  ;  their  impromptus  were  merely  compliments,  and  did  not  deserve 

to  be  remembered. 

These  cliildren  of  the  desert  have  remained  perfectly  independent  of 

foreign  manners  or  civilization,  except  in  religion,  which,  it  is  perhaps 

neetUess  to  observe,  is  the  Mcdiomedan  of  Sunni  sect.     After   having 

seen  the  Kirgliiz,  a  correct  opinion  may  be  formed  of  tlie  nomade  life — 

highly  prizing  his  liberty,  and  despising  every  thing  that  can  impose  a 

restraint  on  his  actions.    Undaunted,  warlike  and  ferocious,  the  Kirghiz^ 

on  horseback  and  alone,  fearlessly  enters  the  desert,  and  traverses  five 

or  six  hundred  verstes  with  the  most  astonishing  rapidity,  toseeaparent 

or  friend  in  another  tribe.     In  his  journey,  he  stops  at  almost  every  oba 

(camp)   he  meets,  gives   what   news  he  may  have,  and  is  certain  of  a 

kind  receptiiMi  every  where,  even  when  not  known;  he  partakes  of  the 

food  of  his  host.     This  is  generally  krout  (cheese  known  in  Persia  and 

Afghanistan  by  the  name  of  pionh'er),  hairan  (tyre  of  India)  meat,   and 

when  they  have  it,    konmes,  a  drink   prepared  from   mare's  milk,  and 

much  esteemed  in  the  desert.     He  never  forgets  the  appearance  of  the 

csuntry  through  which  he  has  j)assed,   and  returns  to  his  own    home 

after  some  days  stay,  wiih  abundmee  of  new  stories,  and  enjoys  himself 

with  his  wife  and  children  till  some  new  object  calU  him  away.     The 

women  are  his  only  servants  :  they   cook,  make  his  clothes  and  saddle 

his  horse,  whilst  he,  with  tiie  most  perfect  nonchalance,  confines  himself 

to  the  care  of  his  cattle,  sheep   and  horses.     We  saw  the  brother  of  a 

sultan,  much  respected  anmng  the  Kirghiz,  leading  his  sheep  during  15 

days,  mounted  on  a  good  horse,    and  dressed  in  a  red   cloth    cloak, 

without  considering  it  derogatory  to  his  dignity. 

The  Kirghiz  are  governed  by  elders,  heads  of  families,  begs,  beha- 
dirs,  sultans  and  kh  uis. 

The  title  of  beg,  properly  sjieaking,  is  heredit  ary,  but  any  person 
who  cannot  support  his  situation  by  his  talents,  courage  or  conducr, 
soon  loses  it  j  whilst  those  who  make  themselves  respected,  obtain  it 
either  from  the  habit  people  acquire  of  calling  them  sultan,  or  by  an 
assemblage  of  the  tribe,  who  confer  this  honourable  distinction. 

An  elder  is  generally  an  old  man,  whom  the  people  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  con*«ulting  ;  he  must  be  rich  and  have  a  numerous  family — he 
must  possess  these  two  recjuisites  ;  besides  a  solid  soimd  judgment 
Whatever  may  be  tjie  moral  character  of  a  Kirghiz,  if  he  is  rich,  he  will 
always  have  friends,  and  will  be  powerful  according  to  the  number  of 
his  family. 

The  behadirs  among  the  Kirghiz,  are  more  celebrated  for  their  cou- 
rage, of  an  enterpriiking  and  clear  judgment,  and  act  as  partizans  during 
a  war. 


1839]  Ruisian  Misiion  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara,  151 

The  saltans  are  the  relations  of  the  khan  ;  who  always  exercise 
tome  influence  among  the  Kirghiz.  They  are  likewise  called,  ioura,* 
and  this  title  always  ensures  them  great  respect  from  the  lower  orders. 
But  without  merit,  they  will  possess  no  power  among  the  tribe,  who 
will  not  be  commanded  without  some  great  personal  quality. 

The  khan  has  in  (act  the  power  of  life  and  death  among  the  Kirghiz, 
^'ho  have  no  security  against  his  tyranny,  except  public  opinion,  and 
no  where  is  it  so  powerful  as  among  the  pastoral  tribes.  The  discon- 
tented party  quickly  desert  an  unjust  judge,  and  choose  another  for  them- 
selres.  The  khan  is  consequently  obliged  to  follow  the  eRtablished 
custom**,  and  to  conform  to  the  laws  of  the  Koran.  This  conduct  in- 
creases his  power.  He,  however,  takes  care  to  keep  a  moVah  entirely  de- 
voted to  his  interests,  and  who  will  explain  the  laws  according  to  hit 
wishes  ;  and  as  the  sacred  volume  an-l  its  commentaries  are  susceptible 
of  many  divers  inteq^retations,  the  khan  knows  how  to  take  advantage 
of  it  to  authorize  proceedings  he  woiild  never  otherwise  venture  upon. 
He  also  is  careful  to  be  surrounded  by  counsellors,  usually,  all  Kirghii 
respected  by  the  tribe, and  he  endeavours  to  render  himself  popular  with 
them  by  means  of  flattery  and  presents.  Huwever  all  these  precautions 
would  be  insufficient  to  overcome  the  natural  inconstancy  of  his  subjects, 
if  he  did  not  also  insure  their  favour  by  his  activity,  boMness,  couraget 
and  also  excite  their  a\Aeby  occasional  acts  of  severe  Justice  when  indis- 
pensably necessary.  The  power  of  the  khan  therefore  depends  upon 
the  general  consent  of  the  people.  When  he  has  once  received  that, 
he  may  reign  despotically,  as  long  as  he  acts  for  the  interests  of  the 
people  ;  his  power  is  limited  by  the  public  opinion  on  that  head,  it  is 
necessary  it  should  be  in  his  favour  to  enable  him  to  govern.  Woe  to 
him  who  would  strive  to  brave  it— the  Siimc  power  that  established, 
would  not  fail  to  overturn  him. 

I  saw  the  following  instance  of  the  cruelty  of  the  Kirghiz  :  several  of 
the  people  that  accompanied  us,  fancied  that  in  a  beggar  whom  we  met, 
they  recognized  a  robber  of  iheir  tribe— tliey  took  away  his  horse,  tied 
his  arms,  and  wanted  to  cut  oflf  his  head,  though  they  had  no  right  to 
do  so.  They  only  waited  for  the  order  to  be  given  by  a  young  sultan  to 
whom  their  chief  had  delegated  his  authority,  and  they  had  sent  to 
solicit  if.  Permission  was,  however,  refused,  and  the  beggar  was  set  at 
liberty  ;  but  had  great  difficulty  in  escaping  from  the  ill  usage  and 
abuse  with  whiih  he  was  assailed. 

I  was  w  itness  to  another  case  which  shows  their  ferocity.  The  sultan 
Haroun-ghazi  who  accompanied  us,  caused  the  march  to  be  led  by  seve- 
ral hundred  Kirghiz — and  they  unknown  to  us,  attacked  the  hamlet  of 
the  sultan  Manem-beg  Djanghazi,  one  of  the  enemies  of  HarouD,  sad. 

•  This  nrait  mt  an  ttra  or  bnnahi 


152  RusMH  Mission  from  Ortnlourg  to  B  ok  harm.  [JuLT 

attached  to  the  party  of  tlie  khan  of  Khiva.  Manembeg,  warned  in 
time  of  the  intentions  <»f  his  aflveisary,  had  ])rudently  fled — but  fail 
wives,  his  brother  lakad),  and  all  his  flocks  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Haroun-ghazi«  We  saw  tiiein  near  the  Sir-ileria — the  flo(  ks  were  bcut 
into  Ookh-iria,  and  the  women  coiiiiiied  in  their  tents  on  the  banks  of 
the  river,  were  delivered  up  to  the  brutality  of  the  brother  of  the 
suUan. 

So  far  from  pitying  these  unfortunate  captives,  they  only  laughed  at 
them,  and  suid  it  w;is  the  right  of  the  conqueror  \\hich  no  person  could 
dispute,  fakacli,  guarded  by  five  Kirghiz,  and  mounted  on  the  worst 
horse  they  could  find,  followed  riaroun-yhazi,who  would  never  consent 
to  see  him.  lakuch  hud  served  as  a  guide  to  the  Kliivians  some  mouths 
before,  when  they  had  plmidored  Ilaroun-ghazi.  This  unfortunate  per- 
son was  only  tvvonty-two  years  of  agp,  of  a  prepossessing  appearance, 
and  seeing  the  fate  thul  awaited  him,  hud  a  melaucholy  and  downcast 
look. 

An  old  Kirghiz  presented  himself  before  the  conqueror,  and  thus  ad- 
dressed him — '*  My  sons  were  massacred  by  lakach  during  the  excur- 
"  sion  of  the  Khivians  ;  the  institutions  of  God  and  man  direct  that  the 
**  dead  should  be  avenged."  The  law  of  retalialii-n  is  firmly  establi>hed 
among  the  Kirghiz.  Haroun-glMzi  was  obliged  to  d»*liverup  his  cousin, 
whose  death  was  instantly  deoidod  on.  The  old  Kirghiz  approached 
lakach,  who  was  mounted,  snapped  his  gun  close  to  his  back  ;  it  missed 
fire  ;  but  other  Kirghiz  fell  on  him,  taking  off  his  clothes  to  prevent 
their  being  dirtied;  anvl  deaf  to  the  prayers  of  th'Mr  victim,  th^^y  cruelly 
cut  his  throat  like  a  sheep,  with  ono  cf  ilie  small  knives  which  they 
always  carry  with  them;  thus  satiating  the  revenge  they  had  vowed 
against  this  unfortunate  young  man. 

The  Kir^'hiz  are  very  passionate,  the  most  trifling  cause,  and  fre- 
quently an  unsuccessful  attempt,  is  suihcicnt  to  excite  them  to  the  most 
cruel  revenge. 

These  people  have  for  several  years  been  molested  by  the  Khivians, 
which  induced  them  to  sulicit  the  aid  of  the  Bokhnrians,  several  of 
whose  caravans  had  also  been  plundered  by  these  banditti ;  the  Kirghiz 
supposed  the  government  of  Bokhara  would  not  fail  to  lend  their  assist- 
ance. Deceived  in  this  expectation  they  became  furious— one  of  their 
chiefs  cut  off  the  tail  of  Ids  horse,  and  came  to  the  minister  at  Bokhara, 
saying,  *'  as  this  tail  has  been  severed  from  my  horse,  so  am  I  from 
•*  you;  henceforth  consider  me  your  implacable  enemy."  He  departed 
shortly  after  with  two  or  three  friends,  and  carried  off  eight  camels 
and  two  men.  They  commenced  the  first  hostilities,  which  this  wan 
alone  dared  to  declare  against  all  Bokhara.  His  ferocious  and  violent 
eonduct  gives  an  idea  of  the  daring  character  of  these  people. 


1839]  Russran  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  153 

The  most  trifling  motive  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  induce  the  most 
honest  Kirghiz  to  indulge  in  his  favourite  passion  for  pillage;  so  firmly 
is  the  spirit  of  rapine  roote<i  in  the  hearts  of  these  people.  The  great 
and  little  horde,  have  for  the  last  fifty  years  been  subject  to  a  govern- 
ment, a  little  more  settled,  and  now  enjoy  a  greater  state  of  tranquillity 
than  the  other  Tartars.  It  is  to  a  warlike  spirit,  and  indifference  to  the 
fiatigues  of  long  and  fatiguing  marches,  hut  above  all,  the  fanatical  spirit 
80  prevalent  among  this  rude  people,  which  their  chiefs  know  well  how 
to  excite,  which  renders  them  so  fit  for  any  dangerous  enterprizc.  It 
may  be  easily  imagim^d,  then,  after  a  severe  winter,  which  is  attended 
wiih  great  hardship  and  loss  to  the  Kirghiz,  their  shepherds  assemble  to 
make  an  irruption,  or  establish  themselves  under  a  milder  sky,  such 
as  Bokhara,  so  celebrated  by  them,  and  so  much  more  fertile  and  beau- 
tiful than  their  own  deserts.  Thus  the  emigration  of  these  barbarians 
may  again  take  place  into  countries  where  artillery  is  little  used, 
and  regular  troops  unknown. 

I  will  finish  this  digression  on  the  snhjoct  of  the  Kirghiz,  by  a 
remark,  that  they  never  make  use  of  this  name  among  them- 
selves ;  they  invariably  style  themselves  Kasak  ;  which,  according 
to  some,  signifits  horseman,  and  to  others  warrior.  They  say  the 
Bachkirs  call  thom  Kirghiz,  but  are  ignorant  from  whence  the 
name  is  derived,  and  it  is  used  only  in  speaking  of  the  great  horde. 
This  tribe  has  no  khan,  and  is  governed  by  different  sultans;  many  of 
whom  have  sought  the  protection  of  Russia,  others  that  of  China,  but 
their  sole  object  is  to  obtain  presents  and  assistance  from  either  party. 
The  Kirghiz  of  the  great  horde  greatly  fear  the  Chinese,  whose  severe 
and  even  cruel  policy  is,  however,  justified  by  necessity.  A  Chinese 
caravan  was  plundered  near  the  frontiers  of  Soungarie,  garrisoned  by  the 
advanced  posts  of  the  Maud'.hous  Tartars.  The  Chinese  retaliated,  and 
thousands  of  the  Kirghiz,  innocent  as  well  as  guilty,  paid  with  their 
lives  this  agression.  Some  such  examples  have  put  a  stop  to  theagrei- 
sions  of  these  tribes  on  the  frontier  of  the  Chinese  empire. 

In  the  other  two  hordes,  the  khans  ought  to  be  confirmed  by  the  em- 
peror of  Russia,  who  exercises  a  great  influence  in  their  election,  and 
they  swear  fidelity  to  him. 

The  tribes  of  Turkoman  now  pay  a  tribute  to  the  khan  of  Khiva  and 
Bokhara  ;  probably  one  day  the  Kirghiz  will  be  obliged  to  do  the  same  to 
Russia.  But  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  they  should  find  the  ad- 
vantages of  her  protection,  in  defending  them  against  the  irruptiooB  of 
the  Khivians. 


154  Bussian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara.  [Jcit 

Chaiter  V. 

Passage  of  the  Sir — Bridge  'of  reeds — Hunting  the  wild-hoar — Ruim — 
Drying  up  of  the  Djan-deria — Route  passed — Kizii'eoum — Plunder, 

In  the  month  of  June,  the  melting  of  the  snow  on  the  great  range  of 
Aba-tagh,  swells  the  waters  of  the  Sir-deria,an(l  overflows  the  lands  on 
each  side,  which  are  so  greatly  fertilized  by  it,  that  grain  is  produced 
iRriih  very  little  trouble.  Fruit  trees,  willows,  plane  trees,  also  tbriTC, 
and  it  appears  capable  even  of  producing  the  silk-mulberry  and  cotton. 
At  the  time  of  our  journey,  the  river  was  frozen,  and  we  crossed  it  with 
the  greatest  precaution.  The  ice  gave  way  after  the  passage  of  our  two 
guns.  A  camel  even  broke  it  with  his  weight,  and  was  got  out  with  the 
greatest  difficulty.  The  Kirghiz  burnt  bundles  of  reeds,  and  spread  the 
ashes  on  the  ice,  to  prevent  the  camels  sliding.  At  last,  after  much  noise 
and  quarrelling,  we  passed  the  Sir,  so  celebrated  in  antiquity  under  the 
name  of  the  Jaxartes. 

On  our  return  in  the  month  of  April,  the  passage  was  much  more  slow 
and  difficult.  Two  boats  which  we  carried  with  us  served  as  a  raft  to 
transport  our  artillery— the  horses  were  swam  over.  Three  large  Kirghiz 
boats  used  to  feny  over  caravans,  served  to  transport  our  provisions, 
on  the  payment  of  a  trifling  sum.  These  boats  were  built  of  the  wood  of 
the  poplar,  without  iron,  and  very  frail  j  they  had  been  brought  from 
Khiva  by  the  lake  of  Aral.  A  water  communication  exists  between 
TChiva  and  the  Sir,  used  by  the  poorer  Kirghiz,  as  a  sim])le  coasting 
trade.  The  boats  are  sometimes  brought  from  Turkestan,  where  they 
are  dearer  than  at  Khiva. 

The  camels  were  swam  over,  and  it  was  a  singular  sight  to  see  ten  or 
twelve  of  these  animals  tied  together,  and  directed  by  naked  Kirghiz  of 
the  most  athletic  forms  ;  sometimes  they  held  hard  on  the  camels,  or 
swam  by  them  shouting  to  encourage  the  beasts.  They  continued  this 
work  nearly  a  whole  day,  three  camels  were  drowned,  but  brought  on 
shore,  and  having  their  throats  cut  with  the  usual  Mahomedan  ceremony 
were  eaten  by  the  by-standers. 

In  swimming,  the  camel  leans  on  one  side,  so  as  to  present  a  greater 
surface  to  the  water;  his  hump  appears  to  assist  him,  and  is  always  near- 
ly covered  with  water.  The  passage  of  the  river  on  our  return  kept  us 
two  whole  days. 

On  our  march  towards  Bokhara,  we  crossed  the  Kouwan-deria  with 
great  ease,  the  ice  being  sufficiently  strong.     It  is  a  branch  of  the  Sir, 
very  rapid,  amd  the  banks  covered  with  reeds;  it  may  be  about  20  or  30 
yards  broad,  and  from  5  to  10  feet  deep,  the  water  is  particularly  clear. 

On  our  return  we  halted  at  a  part  of  the  same  river  (Kouwan-deria) 


1839}  Russian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  155 

where  there  were  the  remains  of  a  briilge  of  reeds,  and  re-constructed  for 
our  convenience  of  great  fi^ines  made  of  this  plant  tied  together,  and 
laid  on  cables  of  tlie  same  materials  fixed  to  posts  firmly  planted  into 
the  opposite  banks — these  famines  were  attached  with  strong  ropes  and 
n  second  layer  put  on.  In  this  manner  they  formed  a  bridge,  over  which 
camels  passed  with  safely  fully  loaded  ;  we  were  not  however  without 
fears  that  the  current  would  carry  away  this  new  kind  of  floating  bridge. 

Sometimes  in  place  of  reeds  they  employ  bales  of  cotton  so  tightly 
tied,  that  the  water  penetrated  very  little  into  the  material. 

The  land  between  the  Sir  and  Djan  deria  is  covered  with  sand-hil- 
locks of  3  or  4  toises  in  height,  resting  on  a  bed  of  clay  ;  after  passing  an 
extent  of  clay-soil,  you  frequently  again  enter  a  tract  of  sand. 

On  leaving  the  Sir,  we  crossed  a  plain  covered  with  reeds,  evidently 
overflowed,  which  oblisred  us  to  make  several  circuits  ;  the  Kouwan 
which  we  ful lowed  for  4  days,  flows  in  a  clear  stream,  through  bed*  of 
sand,  which  extend  to  25  verstes  of  the  place  ;  we  passed  if,  on  going  to 
Bokhara  ;  and  it  approaches  much  nearer  in  some  places.  On  our  return, 
we  came  on  the  banks  of  the  Aral u-Koullar,  lakps  which  run  parallel 
to  the  Kouwan,  to  the  place  where  the  Djan-deria  detaches  itself;  some 
of  the  sheets  of  water  are  nearly  10  verstes  in  circumference,  whilst  others 
are  mere  holes  filled  with  water— they  dry  up  in  summer,  and  the  beds 
are  then  culivated  by  the  Kirghiz. 

This  is  the  least  barren  part  of  the  steppe,  and  the  marks  of  extensive 
cultivation  are  slill  seen  in  fitilds  which  were  tilled  by  the  Cara-calpaks, 
as  late  as  1803.  These  people,  of  the  same  race  as  the  Kalmouks,  poor 
and  powerless,  were  unable  to  resist  the  incessant  incursions  of  the  Kir- 
ghiz. After  having  in  vain  solicited  the  aid  of  Russia,  Khiva  and 
Bokhara,  they  abandoned  their  fertile  fields,  and  removed  into  the  terri- 
tories of  Khiva  and  Bokhara;  thus  divided,  they  now  w^ander,  one  party  to 
the  south  of  the  lake  of  Aral,  subject  to  Khiva,  the  other  under  the  domi- 
nion of  Bokhara,  have  their  station  to  the  west  of  Samarcand,  and  north 
of  Sarewchau.  Not  being  rich,  and  possessing  few  camels,  they  use 
carts  drawn  by  oxen  or  horses. 

The  Djan-deria  is  bounded  on  each  side  by  plains  of  clay,  here  and 
there  intersected  by  sand-hills,  which  extend  to  the  Kouwan  and  Kizil- 
coum. 

In  this  plain  there  are  several  thickets  of  the  saktaoulst  affording 
cover  to  different  kinds  of  beasts  of  prey ;  wolves,  tiger  cats,  and  even 
tigers.  The  Kirghiz  informed  us  that  they  have  been  obliged  to  with' 
draw  their  flocks  from  this  quarter,  to  prevent  their  being  destroyed  by 
these  animals,  not  venturing  to  attack  them  when  they  are  in  numbers 


156  Ruitian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  [Jcit 

together,  should  they  appear  singly,  tlien  20  or  more  men  will  assemhie, 
armed  with  matchlocks,  near  the  reeds  where  the  tigers  hide  themselves, 
and  set  fire  to  them ;  the  heat  and  smuke  forces  the  tiger  to  quit  his 
haunt,  when  he  his  shot  by  the  hunters.  A\^e  had  seen  something  of  this 
kind  of  hunting  on  the  hanks  of  AralukouUar  and  Kouwan-deria, 
¥rhich  are  likewise  covered  with  reods,  and  swarming  with  wild  hog,  of 
vhich  we  killed  a  great  number,  one  day  no  less  than  eighteen  in  less 
than  three  hours. 

This  mode  of  hunting  offers  a  very  singular  spectaclewto  Europeans. 
In  the  midst  of  a  great  plain  covered  with  reeds,  rise  columns  of  smoke 
and  flame,  through  which  mny  be  seen  a  hundred  Cossacks  riding  their 
horses  at  full  speed,  sometimes  before  us  and  then  behind  ;  our  horses  fre- 
quently leading  us  directly  on  these  ferocious  animals,  who  plunge  into 
the  swamps,  or  suddenly  disa}ipear  into  the  reeds,  to  return  with  greater 
fury  on  the  liunters.  Shots  from  guns  and  pistols  are  heard  on  every 
tide,  with  the  neighing  of  the  wounded  horses,  which  were  instantly 
purchased  by  the  Tartars  to  eat.  The  Cossacks  enraged,  were  every 
where  attempting  to  spear  the  hogs  ;  one  officer  of  Cossacks,  offended 
at  being  told  he  feared  the  chase,  dismounted  and  laid  hold  of  an  im- 
mense boar  which  bad  been  wounded,  and  fired  his  pistol  close  behind 
its  ear.  To  comprehend  the  scene,  it  must  be  witnessed*,  no  description 
can  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  boar  hunting  in  the  desert. 

I  cannot  describe  to  the  reader  the  pleasure  we  experienced  in  again 

finding  ourselves  among  wood,  the  rustling  of  the   wind  among  the 

branches,  and  a  confined  horizon,  might  be  said  to   be  for  us  a  novelty, 

recalling  a  fond  recollection  of  our  country.     It   is   in  the  deserts  and 

among  nomades,  that  the  true  happiness  of  an  European  life  is  felt. 

The  ruins  of  old  canals  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  this  country  •  prov- 
ing that  it  was  once   much  better  peopled  than  at  present. 

Aboul-ghazi,  khan  of  Khiva,  generally  passed  some  months  of  the 
summer  on  the  banks  of  the  Kizil-deria,  celebrated  for  their  fine  pas- 
tures. 

In  no  part  of  ihe  Kirghiz  steppe,  are  to  be  so  frequently  seen  traces 
of  ancient  habitations  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Djan-deria.  I  have  seen 
the  ruins  of  Koul-tchomktau,  which  is  composed  of  elevations  of  earth 
of  150  toises  in  length,  and  the  highest  may  have  3  toises  (18  feet)  in 
height.  It  is  clear  these  buildings,  whatever  they  may  have  been,  were 
built  with  sun-burnt  bricks  ;  near  these  ruins  are  small  canals  about 
1  toise  or  6  feet  broad  and  two  deep ;  a  great  quantity  of  broken  pottery 
is  also  to  be  met  with.  These  ruins  are  about  15  verstes  from  the  Djan- 
deria.     The     Kirghiz   could  give  us  no  account  of  their  use  or  date,  but 


1839]  Etusian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara,  157 

supposing  they  must  have  been  erected  by  the  Nugais,  the  name  by 
which  they  call  ihe  people,  who  occupied  tliese  steppes  before  tliem. 
They  also  stated  that  these  ruins  are  much  more  numerous  in  the  eastern 
part  of  ihe  Kirghiz  country,  and  are  also  met  with  on  the  Tobol,  th« 
Ilek  and  Embi,  those  in  tbe  best  preservation  and  most  celebrated  are 
thoseofDjankend,  which  tliey  suppose  to  have  been  the  residence  of 
the  Ouz  chief.  Djankend,  situated  about  40  verstes  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Sir,  between  that  river  and  the  Kouwan,  was  built  of  burnt-bricks. 
The  ruins  are  surrounded  with  canals  of  irrigation  and  cultivated  fields 
of  far  greater  extent  formerly  than  at  present. 

The  Djan-deria  is  probably  nothing  more  than  the  ancient  bed  of  the 
Kizil-deria;  it  is  also  possible,  this  river  might  have  also  flowed  more 
to  the  south  ;  for,  40  verstes  in  that  direction  from  the  Djan-deria,  we 
found  the  traces  of  the  bed  of  a  great  river.  The  Djan-deria  was  a 
considerable  river  even  in  1816,  of  greater  dimensions  than  the  Kouwan. 
At  present  its  dry  bed  only  marks  the  former  course.  It  may  be  100 
toises  (600  feet)  broad,  and  the  banks  18  or  24  feet  in  height.  A  few 
holes  here  and  there  filled  with  water  alone  mark  this  once  great  river. 
This  drying  up  has  n  uch  astonished  the  Kirghiz,  who  are  ignorant  of  the 
true  cause  ;  some  attribute  it  to  the  construction  of  a  dam  to  throw  the 
water  into  the  Kouwan  at  the  spot  it  separated  from  this  river. 

Others  suppose  the  bed  has  been  filled  with  sand  from  the  Kizil-coum, 
which  appears  the  most  probable;  they  may  also  account  for  this  unfor- 
tunate drying  up  of  the  water  to  the  great  extent  lost  by  evaporation  and 
absorption  into  the  sands  of  the  desert.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause,  it 
is  a  most  surprising  fact, that  the  Djan-deria  has  disappeared.  The  water 
still  found  in  the  old  bed,  smells  a  little  of  sulphur,  and  is  the  most  un- 
healthy we  met  with  in  our  journey ;  it  was  still  more  dangerous  fpom 
our  not  being  able  to  replenish  the  supply  during  5  days  march  in  the 
great  desert  of  Kizil-coum,  which  must  be  crossed  to  go  to  Bokhara. 
This  water  occasioned  pains  in  the  stomach  to  all  our  soldiers,  and  to 
some  the  most  violent  cramps.     One  died  in  strong  convulsions. 

We  left  the  Djan-deria  on  the  3d  of  December,  and  found  ourselves 
on  the  groat  road  which  leads  to  Bokhara.  I  call  it  the  great  road,  for 
it  was  a  track  about  3  toises  wide,  and  very  much  beaten  by  the  multitude 
of  travellers  in  that  direction.  The  road  first  passed  through  a  small 
forest  of  saksaoul; — it  was  less  distinctly  marked  along  a  clayey  plain 
which  ends  at  the  distance  of  about  57  verstes  from  the  Djan-deria,  and 
was  again  very  visible  in  the  Kizil-coum,  where  it  crosses  valleys  formed 
by  sandy-hillocks.  This  road  is  very  much  frequented  by  all  the  cara- 
vans which  travel  from  Bokhara  to  Orsk,  or  to  Orenbourg,  and  by  all  the 


158  Ryuian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  io  BoUiara.  [JulT 

Kirghix  of  tlie  western  sile  of  the  steppe  who  carry  cattle  to  the  markets 
of  Bokhara,  ihey  take  care  to  cross  the  KUil-coum  at  the  narrowest 
part  and  on  their  return,  they  provide  themselves  with  water  from  the 
famous  well  of  Boukhan,siiUiited  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  desert. 

The  hanks  of  the  Djan-deria  form  a  line  of  distinction  in  the  nature 
of  the  country  between  Orenbourg  an  I  Bokhara  ;  the  clay,  without  be- 
ing more  productive,  on  account  of  the  dryness  of  the  climate,  it  much 
stronger  ;  and  the  soil  here  rests  on  argillaceous  rocks,  whilst  those 
of  the  steppe  hive  for  a  base  sandstone  or  lime. 

The  climate  also  is  very  diiferent.  Lmd  tortoises,  rare  to  the  north  of 
the  Djan-deria,  are  very  common  in  the  Kiiil-coum:  very  little  snow  falls 
during  the  winter,  and  it  never  rem  lins  long  upon  the  ground,  so 
that  everv  thin?  denotes  a  warm  clim.ite.  The  banks  of  the  Kouwan, 
and  the  Djan-deria  are  inhabited,  prinoipilly  in  the  neighboorhood 
of  the  sea  of  Aral,  by  some  Kirghiz  tributary  to  Khiva. 

The  barrenness  however,  is  perfectly  astonishing:  from  the  Djan*de« 
ria,  to  the  place  where  culuwition  recommence*,  not  a  single  river  is  to 
he  met  with  in  a  space  of  500  verstes,  and  water  is  only  to  be  obtained 
from  wells — sometim-»s  abundant,  sometimes  lite  reverse  :  but  in  gene- 
ral containing  brackisli  water. 

At  the  spot  where  we  crossed  the  Kizil-coa^n.  it  was  100  verstes  wide* 
Its  length  is  very  considerable — for  it  exienJs  from  the  Sir-deria,  where 
it  is  mu.di  wider,  to  the  sea  of  Aral  and  to  the  Araou-deria.  Tbis  desert 
is  remarkable  f^^r  i:s  sterility.  Spring  water  is  no  where  to  be  met  with. 
It  is  said  that  there  were  r>rmerly  three  wells  near  the  roai  ivhich  we 
followed.and  liial  they  were  f.Ueii  up  to  prevent  iheiri>eing  resorted  to  hj 
the  robbers,  who  generally  retn.iined  iu  ambush  among  ihe  surrounding 
hills.  The  n.>bbers  have  a  lu  dly  l>ee3  exi^elled  from  the  Kisil-coom, 
but  they  at  |  resen:  hide  iu  the  ravines  of  the  Bokhua  mountains,  and 
when  they  tVel  themselves  strong:  eiio  igh,  f  Jl  upon  the  travellers  pass- 
ing th  it  way — pi".'..ig*,  aa,i  sooieiirjes  kil.  theai.  if  they  make  anj- re- 
sist anoe. 

T«e  welt  of  Riukh  a.is  a:  pnpsr»nt  as  !.ir^*r:as  astbe  Kixil-coum  used 
tob^f:  partic  i'.arly  R<  i:  ;s  ^.e  j^-.rc  A  the  r:i:  l^eiween  Bokhara  and 
Oreuboirv:.  :ha:  i>  reiire"*:  :•  Kh.va.  -\r.  *  i::?  Khiviacs  are  cooitantlr  on 
bad  tena*  mi;h  the  B^k  ijLri.tns.  or  :l:e  K:-^  -.I,  or  scmeames,  as  in  the 
rear  1^^,  w;:a  l^rh  i:  :>.e  sa-je  tijie.  O  .r  rar:y  ihe.-efore  was  on  the 
alert,  and  patr/.e*  werv-  sect  ia:c-  :he  cei.^-s  cf  the  Boakhan — ^fortunate. 
Irwe  achieve-i  th:s  oan^rvK.s  f  as^^^g-^  n:::  j.::  .»:ir  A.vijent — bot  10 
days  a'^erwurvis  a  carav^in  oi  B.kjarur*  aui  Kir^hii  was  f  tll^ged  br 


1^39]  Hussian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to    Bokhara,  159 

the  Khivians,  who  assembled  at  the  well  of  Boukban,  fell  upon  Ihem, 
and  pursued  the  fugitives  as  far  as  the  Kizilcoura,  where  they  met,  and 
engaged  with  a  troop  of  Kirghiz.  On  our  return  we  found  on  the  road 
the  bodies  of  more  than  100  people  who  had  perished  on  the  occasion 
of  this  irruption  of  the  Khivians.  * 

Almost  every  day  we  met  with  caravans  of  Kirghiz  coming  from  Bokha- 
ra; who,  after  selling  their  sheep,  brought  buck  barley,  tobacco,  meal  and 
cotton,  from  that  town.  We  felt  much  pleasure  in  conversing  wiih  these 
bazartchi  (that  is  to  say  peojde  returning  from  market),  and  felt  great 
interest  in  hearing  accounts  of  Bokhara,  and  enquired  how  long  it  was 
since  they  had  left  the  city.  We  considered  ourselves  very  fortunate 
in  being  so  near  the  end  of  so  long  and  troublesome  a  journey,  of  which 
we  were  beginning  to  get  heartily  tired. 

We  had  travelled  in  the  Kizil-coum,  from  42  to  46  verstes  (30§  miles) 
a  day — the  marches  were  very  long,  as  we  were  constantly  encountering 
deep  sand-hills— it  was  absolutely  necessary  we  should  not  loiter,  so  as 
to  be  too  long  without  the  opportunity  of  getting  fresh  water. 

Our  horses  had  met  with  very  indifferent  forage  in  tlie  Kizil-couro, 
and  were  becoming  visibly  thinner.  The  Bachkir  horses  were  skele- 
tons, and  could  no  longer  draw  the  six  waggons  that  remained  of  25 
which  we  brought  from  Orenhourg,  and  we  were  obliged  to  replace  them 
by  Cossack  horses,  which  had  until  then  been  employed  to  carry  for- 
age. All  our  people,  anil  particularly  the  foot  soldiers,  were  much 
emaciated— in  short  it  was  absolutely  necessary  we  should  arrive  very 
shortly.  We  carried  ice,  and  the  water  of  the  Djan-deria  in  leather 
bags,  or  barrels,  notwiihstunding  it  was  very  difficult  to  convey  suffici- 
ent ^ater  for  four  and  a  half  days,  for  our  numerous  party  of  men  and 
horses. 

On  our  arrival  at  louz-koudouk,  one  of  the  baggage  horses  drank 
to  such  excess  that  he  fell,  and  was  not  able  to  rise  for  several  hours. 
Notwithstanding  these  numerous  inconveniences,  not  one  of  our  saddle 
horses  died,  but  we  lost  almost  all  the  cart  horses ;  particularly  one  day, 
when  six  were  so  perfectly  exhausted,  they  could  not  follow  us. 

From  the  Djan-deria  to  louz-koudouk,  the  distance  is  two  hundred 
and  eleven  verstes  (51  leagues),  which  we  traversed  in  five  days  with  the 
artillery,  through  a  sandy  desert,  destitute  of  water  and  grass,  that  after 
having  performed  1000  verstes  with  the  greatest  celerity,  camels  car- 
ried our  infantry  by  turns  ;  but  after  all  it  was  very  difficult  for  a  mili- 
tary body  to  accomplish  such  a  march  in  so  short  a  time. 

•  Two  pages  of  my  copy  of  M,  MeyendorlTs  work  are  here  loit— 2Vfliiifa/or. 


160  Ruisian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara.  [JuLt 

ClIAPTLR   VI. 

Gold  Mines—  Jghatma — Fine  country — Reception  ly  the  inhabitants^^ 
European  prisoners — Interview  with  the  Couch-beghi — Entry  into 
Bokhara, 

After  passing  tlie  Kizil-coura,  we  crossed  a  plain  covered  with  absin- 
the, bounded  on  the  right  by  the  mountains  of  Bokhara.  The  Bokba- 
rians,  who  arcompanied  us,  dreaded  a  surprize  from  the  Khivians  ;  as 
they  saiil  it  was  to  take  the  nearest  road  to  louz-kondouk  ;  this  pre- 
vented our  examining  ihe  mountains  of  Bouklian,  which  I  was  not  able 
to  do  till  our  return  the  next  spring;  like  the  mountains  of  Moughodjar, 
they  rise  to  the  height  of  about  600  feet  above  the  plain,  very  much 
scarified,  rocky,  composed  of  quartz,  mixed  with  sienite  and  diabase, 
forming  numerous,  but  very  narrow  glens.  Near  the  wells  of  Boukhan 
a  small  spring  runs  from  the  mountains,  which  disappears  a  few  hun- 
dred toises  in  the  plain.  The  best  road,  and  the  shortest,  is  however 
that  which  runs  from  the  Kizil-coum,  near  the  mountains,  to  louz- 
koudouk. 

After  passing  the  plain,  I  have  just  mentioned,  we  entered  an  elevated 
district,  through  which  runs  the  mountains  of  Boukhan,  louz-koudouk 
Kapkantach  ;  whit  h  are  ramifications  of  the  great  range  situated  to 
the  south  of  Khoklian  and  east  of  Bokhara, 

Near  the  wells  of  Boukhan,  this  chain  turns  to  the  west,  extending 
to  the  Amou-deria,  separating  near  its  banks  into  the  hills  of  Tchavas* 
wali  and  Vasilkura,  famous  for  their  rich  veins  of  gold.  It  is  said,  this 
induced  Peter  the  Great  to  send  the  expedition  of  Bekevitch,  At  pre- 
sent the  khan  of  Kliiva  forbids  the  working  of  the  gold  mines  of  Vasil- 
kara,  not  to  attract  the  cupidity  of  the  Russians.  There  is  perhaps 
exaggeration  in  tliese  stories,  as  I  saw  at  Orenhourg  a  piece  of  8ulphu« 
reous  pyrites,  found  at  Vasilkara,  which  might  have  deceived  people, 
who  take  every  shining  yellow  substance  for  gold. 

The  mountains  which  we  had  just  passed  are  composed  of  sienite  and 
diabase,  or  greatly  mixed  with  calcareous  matter,  they  were  generally 
of  a  dark  green.  These  stones  split  into  their  flakes  like  slate,  and  the 
hills  have  a  much  more  rounded  appearance,  and  less  conical  than  those 
of  Moughodjar.  The  soil  and  the  valleys  are  also  more  sterile,  even  the 
absinthe  is  very  rare. 

In  some  place?,  the  rond  is  rugged,  in  others  open,   and  easy   for  car- 
riages,   louz-koudouk,  or  the  hundred  wells,  is  a  valley,   where    there 
are  two  wells  about  18  feet  deep,  afTordiug  abundance  of  excellent 
water  ;  besides  thirty  others,  small,  and  generally  dry, 
Tlie  mountainous  region  commences  at  seven  verstes,  below  loax* 


1839]  Ruisian  Misnion  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara.  161 

koadouk  on  the  road  we  followed,  and  extends  about  thirty-four  verstes 
to  Kapkantacb,  when  we  attain  entered  the  plain,  leaving  on  the  left  thm 
Bech-boulak,  or  Bukbouldouk,  a  low  hill.  Bukbuuldouk  signifies 
a  quail,  a  word  invented  by  the  Kirghiz,  in  imitation  of  the  cry  of  that 
bird. 

At  Ka|kantach,  there  are  several  sulphureous  springs,  with  a  strong 
smell,  and  very  saltish;  our  horses  woiill  hirdly  drink  it,  but  on  our  return 
in  the  spring,  ahorse  emptied  five  backets  of  this  niuseous  water.  As 
the  weather  was  very  hoi  even  at  this  season,  the  men  suffered  from 
thirst,  and  we  had  great  diffi<rulty  to  prevent,  even  for  a  few  minutes^ 
our  soldiers  from  drinking  this  detestable  liquid, which  at  the  same  time 
was  very  cool. 

At  twenty«two  verstes  from  Kapkantach,  commences  the  sands  of 
Batkak-coum,  which  are  twenty-eight  verstes  broad — there  are,  howeyer^ 
only  the  four  last  which  are  h<^avy — twenty-six  verstes  from  these 
sands,  we  ag-ain  entered  a  hilly  country,  which  is  called  Sousiz-carSy 
(bla<'k  without  water).  Th»»se  hills  are  in  fact  of  a  black  colour;  the 
snr&ce  perfectly  bare,  water  is  found  in  two  wells,  which  we  left  ten 
▼erstes  to  our  left.  Our  water  being  expended,  we  made  use  of  the 
snow  which  lay  in  our  route,  principally  on  the  hills,  where,  notwith- 
standing  their  slight  elevation,  we  experienced  a  very  sensible  change 
in  the  temperature.  We  at  last  arrived  at  Cara-aghatch,  after  having  per- 
formed the  last  forty  verstes  over  a  flat  country,  though  surrounded  with 
hills. 

Two  verstes  from  Cara-aghatch,  four  custom-house  officers  met  the 
mission,  and  after  a  salutation,  addressed  us  the  usual  compliments  of 
khoch  amedid  (you  are  welcome),  informing  us  that  the  khan  had  sent 
provisions  for  us  to  Aghatma,  distant  thirty-eight  verstes  from  Cara* 
aghatch.  Monsieur  N^gri  politely  expressed  our  gratitude,  we  resamed 
our  journey  and  arrived  with  these  officers  at  Cara-aghatch. 

It  was  in  thisi  place  we  siw  for  the  first  time  trees;  about  a  hundred 
old  mulberry  bushes  growing  round  a  spring  of  sulphureous  water— the 
heat  of  which  was  nearly  15  degrees  of  Reaumur,  66^  Fahrenheit.  Some 
Mahomedan  saint  planted  these  trees — near  which  he  had  lived,  and  is 
buried  there. 

The  water  is  said  to  possess  some  miraculous  qualities ;  all  the  Maho- 
medans  of  our  party  bathed  in  it.  The  spring  issues  from  a  low  hill  of 
clay,  and  all  the  busiies  are  covered  with  pieces  of  cloth  and  rags  tied 
on  the  branches  as  an  offering  to  the  saint. 

The  water  of  this  spring  is  very  abundant,  forming  a  little  brookf 
which  is  however  soon  lost  in  the  clay  solL    Notwithstanding  we  had 


162  Euisian  Misiion  from  Ortnhaurg  to  Bokhara.  [JutT 

been  inarching  without  intermission  for  four  days,  we  set  off  again  on  the 
fifth,  to  get  out  as  soon  as  possible  of  thi<i  barren  region,  and  enjoy  the 
provisions  prepared  for  us  by  the  khan  of  Bokhara. 

We  arrived  at  Aghatma  the  25th  December,  after  having  crossed  the 
Cara-aghatch,  a  mountain  of  considerable  height,  whose  slope  is  very 
gentle  towards  Aghatma.  The  Bokhariaiis  say  that  in  this  place  there 
m'as  formerly  a  city,  which  a  neighbouring  hillock  covered  with  broken 
bricks  appears  to  confirm.  Aghatma  is  a  kind  of  basin,  with  some  ap- 
pearance of  having  been  once  flooded,  forming  a  lake  which  soppUes 
this  city  with  uater. 

There  are  still  two  strong  springs  of  sulphureous  water,  but  not  so 
hot  as  those  of  Cara-aghatch.  We  remarked  at  Aghatma,  a  small  tower 
or  hut  of  mud  with  a  vaulted  roof,  serving  as  a  kind  of  advanced 
post  towards  Khiva :  here  the  Bokharians  keep  a  guard  when  thej 
dread  an  excursion  of  the  Khivians,  or  the  arrival  of  a  caravan 
from  Russia;  the  sentinel  placed  on  the  roof,  commands  an  extensive 
view  of  the  country  round. 

On  the  road  to  Aghatma  an  officer  of  the  khan,  having  the  title  of 
louzbticht,  with  about  20  horses  met  the  ambassador,  informing  him  he 
m^as  directed  to  be  his  conductor  to  Bokhara,  and  provide  every  thing 
the  mission  could  require.  Several  of  the  horsemen  then  approached 
Monsieur  N^gri,  and   took   his  hand  in  the  European  manner.* 

We  here  quitted  the  desert,  through  which  we  had  performed  a  tedious 
and  monotonous  journey  of  70  days.  The  desert  ends  at  these  last  men- 
tioned sandy  plains,  beyond  which  we  found  ourselves  every  where  sur- 
rounded with  villages,  gardens,  plantations,  mosques,  &c.— in  fact,  we 
appeared  to  be  suddenly  transported  into  a  fairy  land. 

If  the  appearance  of  this  country  excites  feelings  of  admiration  in 
Europeans  accustomed  to  the  sight  of  populous  and  well  cultivated 
fields,  how  strong  must  be  the  impression  produced  upon  the  Kirgbis, 
and  other  inhabitants  of  the  desert?  How  is  it  possible  they  should 
not  long  to  invade  a  country  so  much  favoured  by  nature,  and  which  in 
summer  would  afford  them  vast  plains  for  the  indulgence  of  their  wan- 
dering habits — whilst  in  the  wiuter  they  could  take  refuge  in  the  numer- 
ous towns  and  villages  from  the  inclemency  of  the  season. 

Every  thing  excited  our  curiosity  in  this  country,  which  is  almost  un- 
known to  Europeans.  It  may  be  imajrined  with  what  interest  we  con- 
templated the  oriental  tribes,  dressed  in  their  blue  clothes,  and  whito 
turbands,  who  flocked  to  meet  us — some  mounted,  others  on  foot^some 
riding  on  horses,  others  on  asses — who  crowded  round  us,  saluting 
us  after  the  fashion  of  this  country.     Several  showed  their  joy  on  ap- 

*  Here,  flso,  is  a  hiatus  of  two  pajcs  of  unimportaat  matter.— rrcnw/aror. 


1639]  Russian  Mission  from  Orenbourg  to  Bokhara^  163 

proacliing  us,  by  addressing  us  a  few  obliging  words  in  tlie  Russian 
language.  Their  signs  of  astonishment — their  cries,  and  in  fact,  the  tu- 
multuous agitation  of  the  whole  crowd,  gave  our  entry  into  Bokhara  the 
appearance  of  a  festival,  which  we  should  have  enjoyed,  but  for  the  pre- 
sence of  the  people  connected  with  the  police — whose  voice  sounded 
above  all  the  tumult,  and  who  armed  with  great  sticks, struck  indiscrimi- 
nately on  every  side  to  make  room  for  us.  The  sight  of  this  violence 
saddened  us  when  we  reincii)bered  that  our  arrival  was  the  occasion  of 
all  this  confusion,  and  that  the  wish  to  see  so  many  Ourousses  was 
stronger  than  the  fear  of  blows. 

It  was  with  feelings  of  the  most  painful  nature,  that  we  observed,  in 
the  midst  of  this  Asiatic  population,  some  Russian  soldiers  reduced  to 
the  sad  condition  of  slaves.  The  greater  part  of  them  were  old  and  in- 
firm ;  at  the  sight  of  their  countrymen  they  could  not  rcstiiain  their  tears; 
they  faltered  out  a  few  words  of  their  mother  tongue — they  strove  to 
cast  themselves  among  us — so  great  was  their  emotion  at  the  sight  of 
our  warriors.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  these  affecting  scenes  which 
wrung  our  hearts. 

We  were  informed  at  Khatoun-koudouk  that  the  Couch-beghi,  one  of 
the  principal  officers  of  the  Bokharian  government,  was   waiting  for  us 
at  the  next  village — at  the  distance  of  about  a  verst,  from  where  cultiva- 
tion begins,  a  chief  of  100  men,  Pendja-bachi,  came  to  meet  us  with  200 
horsemen.     He  led  us  through   the  crowd,   and  our  infantry,   beating 
drums,  marched  to  the   tent  where  the   Couch-beghi  was  seated.     We 
dismounted  about  30  toises  from  it  to  advance   through  two  rows  of  foot 
soldiers  seated   on  the  ground,    who  rose    when  the  charge  d'  affaires 
passed.     We  saw  several  tents  of  different  colours,  a  great  number  of 
richly  caparisoned  horses,  covered  with  chabragues  embroidered  in  gold 
were  picketted,  tied  by  the  head  and  the  hind  feet;  the  tents   were  sur- 
rounded by  officers  and  slaves ;  and,  in  short,every  thing  that  surround- 
ed us  added  to  the  solemnity  of  this  our  first  interview. 

The  Couch-beghi, named  Hakim-beg,  was  seated  in  his  tent  with  four 
Bokharian  noblemen;  when  Monsieur  de  N6gri  had  taken  the  scat 
assigned  to  him,  the  chief  addressing  himself  to  the  persons  attached  to 
tlie  embassy,  said  "  Be  seated,  for  you  are  strangers  to  us,  and 
y^e  feel  great  pleasure  in  seeing  you.**  M.  de  N6gri  having  nfterwardn 
conferred  with  the  Couch-beghi,  about  the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  on 
bifi  presentation  to  the  khan,  did  not  agree  entirely  with  that  officer.  The 
audiences  had  begun  undermost  favourable  auspices,  but  before  its  ter- 
mination, the  Bokharian  character  was  completely  unveiled.  The 
Couch-beghi  was  so  indiscreet  as  to  request  M.  de  N6gri  would  present 


164  Ru$9ittn  Mistion  from  Orenhourg'to  Bokharm.  £Jolt 

oar  two  pieces  of  artillery  to  the  khan  ;  whpn  he  found  he  was  unable 
to  obtain  them,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  ask  for  M.  de  Negri's  carriage  for 
bis  master  ;  vet  h^  was  not  ienomnt  that  we  had  several  camela  loaded 
with  presents  for  the  Court  of  Bokhara. 

The  Couch-beghi  might  have  been  about  50  year^  old,  bis  long  dark 
brown  beard  was  beginning  to  turn  grey.  He  was  tull,  the  expreauioo  of 
his  countenance  plea*>ing  and  benevolent.  He  s|>uke  with  great  ease  in 
Persian,  wore  n  white  Cashmere  Khawl  for  a  turban,  a  khilaut  of  the 
same  mHterial, figured  with  laige  flowersyand  a  sable  pelisse,  covered  wiih 
striped  fashmtre. 

Our  journey  had  been  as  pleasant  as  we  could  have  wished.  With 
the  exception  of  some  foggvdays,  andaf'^vv  hours  of  snowy  weather  or 
drizzling  rain,  the  weather  had  been  generally  so  fine,  that  the  Kirghis 
said  we  had  doubtless  a  svint  in  our  party.  This  continued  fine  weather, 
rendered  our  march  much  easier,  by  preserving  us  from  all  the  discom- 
forts that  would  have  been  caused  bv  rain,  snow  and  cold. 

We  passed  the  night  of  ilielTih  of  December,  near  a  small town,called 
Wafkend,  after  passing  through  a  well-cultivated  and  populous  country, 
the  same  flourishing  appearan'-e  continued  the  following  day,  when  we 
arrived  at  Bazartchi,  a  la'ge  town  about  two  verstes  from  B<  khara.  We 
had  travelled  40  verstes  since  our  interview  with  the  Couch- beglii,  and 
during  the  two  last  days  we  were  constantly  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of 
people.  The  police  were  constantly  driving  them  off  with  their  stit  ka, 
the  most  inquisitive  allowed  themselves  to  be  beaten,  fled  and  then  re- 
turned to  the  charge.  Our  soldiers  marched  in  fhe  greate^'t  order,  they 
were  in  complete  uniform,  and  the  beat  of  their  drums,  which  was  heard 
everv  now  and  then,  caused  exclamations  of  astonishment  from  the 
crowd.  We  pursued  O'lr  course  in  the  midst  of  tumult,  aud  public  marks 
of  the  joy  excited  by  our  arrival. 

Near  Wafkend, four  chiefs  paid  a  complimentary  visit  toMonT.  N^gri, 
delivering  a  letter  of  congratulation  from  tht'  khan.  One  was  a  relation 
of  this  prince,  but  did  not  understand  a  word  of  Persian,  he  was  tl>e  only 
Ouzbek  1  saw,  who  did  not  speak  that  language.  Two  others  were 
slaves  of  the  khan;  one  an  Afghan,  the  other  a  Persian,  the  latter  was 
simply  dressed  in  a  cloak  made  of  camel  wool,  the  others  in  rich  dresses 
of  gold  and  red  silk. 

About  15  verstes  from  Bokhara,  the  chief  of  the  lassaoul,  with  about 
30  of  his  men,  came  to  meet  the  ambassador,  and  accompanied  us  to  Ba- 
zartchi,whcre  we  were  lodged  in  a  house  belonging  to  the  Couch-beghi; 
the  rooms  were  so  damp,  we  preferred  sleeping  in  our  kibitkaSt  not- 
withstanding  the  strong  inclination  we  bad  to  quit  them. 


1889]  Rusiian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokkarm*  165 

After  thirty-six  hours  of  discussion,  the  ceremonial  of  our  reception 
Tras  arrang^ed  ;  and  the  khan  agreed  that  Monsieur  N^gri  should  be 
•eated  in  his  presence. 

On  the20lh  December,  we  made  our  public  entry  into  Bokbarn,  a  de- 
tachment of  Cossacks  iiidrclied  in  front  with  the  ])resent8,  which  consist- 
ed of  furs,  Chinrt,  crvstals,  watches  and  f^uns.  Another  party  of  Cossacks 
were  in  the  r*».ir,  and  the  march  was  brousjbt  up  by  a  detachment  of  in- 
fantry. An  Onzbek  of  rank,  who  ]  erfectly  understood  Persian,  con- 
ducted the  ambassador  to  the  palace* 

In  this  order  we  slowly  advanced,  and  after  passing  the  jrate  which  was 
▼ery  h»ft\,  we  continued  our  route  through  a  narrow  windinji:  street,  of 
gloomy  houses,  built  of  earth,  and  flat  roofed.  At  last  we  arrived  at  the 
great  square,  surrounded  with  mosques,  colleges  or  madrissa,  and  the 
enclosure  of  the  palace. 

After  dismounting,  we  entered  a  vaulted  corridore  built  of  brick;  but 
with  soldierR  on  each  side,  in  number  about  400,  armed  with  muskeis  of 
every  difierent  shape  and  length.  We  then  entered  a  Rmall  court,  the 
passage,  in  wliii-h  there  were  about  10  guns  without  carriages,  and  at  last 
arrived  in  a  square  court,  hounded  by  vails, round  which  were  seated  300 
or  4- '0  people  of  Bokhara,  dressed  in  white  turbans  and  coats  of  gold 
brocade.  Turning  to  the  right,  we  reached  the  anti-chamber,  which 
joins  the  hall  of  au(Hen<:e,  wh^Te  the  khan  was  seated  on  cushions,  co- 
vered with  red  cloth,  ornamented  with  rich  gold  fringe:  on  the  floor  was 
a  common  Persian  carpet,  the  walls  of  white  plaster  and  the  ceiling  of 
coloured  planks. 

This  hall  was  double  the  length  of  its  breadth  :  the  khan  was  seated 
with  his  back  lo  the  w  all  opposite  the  door  we  entered ;  on  his  left  were 
his  two  sons,  one  about  15  years  of  age.  On  his  right  was  the  Courh- 
beiHii,  on  each  side  of  the  door  were  five  grandees.  Monsieur  N6)pi 
su])portedby  two  chamberlains,  advanced  to  within  12  pacen  of  the 
khan,  whom  he  addressed  in  Persian,  presented  his  credentials  through 
the  Cou«h-beghi ;  the  officers  of  the  mission  remained  standing  with 
their  backs  to  the  wall,  on  each  side  of  the  door. 

The  rou«h-beghi  immediately  presented  the  emperor's  letter  to  the 
khan;  the  prince  read  it  aloud;  after  which  he  requested  Monsieur 
Negrito  order  some  of  the  soldiers  to  enter  the  anti-chamber,  who  left 
their  arms  outside;  on  seeing  them,  the  khan  laughed  like  a  child  i 
in  the  expression  of  his  countenance,  there  is  very  little  intelli- 
gence ;  he  may  be  about  45  years  of  age,  with  a  full  beard,  black  eyes, 
and  an  olive  complexion;  appearing  much  debilitated.  He  wore 
a  dress  of  black  velvet,  omameuted  with  precious  stones  5  a  muriin  tur- 


1 66  Rusiian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhara*  [Jolt 

ban ;  on  it  was  an  aigrette  of  heron's  feathers,  with  a  gold  band  crossing 
obliquely,  and  much  resembled  tlie  Kalewi  or  head  dress,  of  the  grand 
vizier  or  kizl;ir-agas>i,  of  Constaniinoplp.  The  Couch-beghi,  and  three 
other  principal  officers,  in  place  uf  turbans,  wore  cylinder  caps  of  fur. 
The  master  of  ceremonies  carried  a  sort  of  halbert,  with  an  axe- 
shaped  head  of  silver.  The  presents  were  delivered  to  the  khan  in 
another  room;  the  audience  broke  up  in  about  20  minutes,  when  we  all 
assembled  outside  the  palace.  Our  escort  returned  to  Bazartchi,  and 
bivouaced  in  a  garden,  during  the  whole  remaining  part  of  the  winter. 
Monsieur  Negri  and  the  attaches  of  the  mission,  were  lodged  in  a  large 
house,  within  the  city  of  Bokhara,  belonging  to  the  Couv:h-beghi. 

We  remained  in  this  city  from  the  20ih  December  1820,  to  the  10th 
March  1821  ;  the  weather  was  very  fine,  when  we  proceeded  to  Bazart- 
chi.  The  bivouac  in  the  garden  appeared  preferable  to  us  to  the  dull 
houses  of  the  town. 

The  22d  of  March,  we  left  Bazartchi,  and  on  the  25th,  quitted  the 
country  of  Bokhara,  well  pleased  at  having  seen  this  country,  and  still 
mure  so  ut  leaving  it. 

(  To  be  continued.) 


1839] 


Bussian  Mission  from  Orenhourg  to  Bokhartu 


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183D.]  lleport  on  the  manufaclure  of  Tcctt  ^c.  1C9 


Vlf. — Iteporl  on  fhr  mauiifacturp  nf  Tea,  and  ov  t/ie  ertent  anrl  produce 
of  the  Tta  Pluhtations  i>i  A.su(im,—Bij  C.  A.  BuucE,  SuperbiUndent 
of  TiQ.  Cidiwe, 

(rrcscnted  by  the  Tea  Committee-,  Au<;ust  IClh,  1639.) 

I  M-biiiil  lliis  r(^i>(  ri  f  v  o'^r  A.s^ani  Tea  wiili  niurli  difTi  Icnre,  on  ac- 
C(>ujit  nf  ilioii('u!)l»'s  i;i  n  liicli  this  frontior  lias  bc^n  unfortunately  involv- 
ed. I  have  \\w\  sonnMhintj  nuMC  tlim  Tea  to  orciinv  my  mind,  and 
have  consfqueiiily  not  been  able  to  commit  all  my  thoughts  to  paper  at 
one  time;  thi^  I  liop«^  v^ill  a-connt  for  ibe  rambling  manner  in  which  I 
hive  treuKHl  tlie  »;ubj"ct.  Such  as  my  report  is,  I  trust  it  will  be  found 
acceptable,  as  tlirowiui^  some  nt^»\v  ligbt  on  a  subject  of  no  little  impor- 
tance to  British  in-lia,  and  the  British  public  generally.  In  drawing 
out  this  report,  it  givrs  me  mii<  h  pleasure  to  say,  that  our  information 
and  knowledge  ropctinj:^  Tea  and  Tea  tracts  are  far  more  extensive 
than  when  1  last  wrote  on  this  subject ;— the  number  of  tracts  now 
known  amounting  to  120,  some  of  them  very  extensive,  both  on  the  hills 
and  in  the  plains.  A  .sufTnriency  of  seeds  and  seedlings  might  be  e(d- 
lected  from  iliose  tr.K-ts  in  the  course  of  a  f »w  years  to  plant  olT  the 
whole  of  Assam;  and  1  feel  couvinced,  from  my  diflferent  journeys  over 
the  country,  that  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  localities  are  as  yet 
known. 

Last  year  in  going  over  on'^  of  the  hills  behind  Jaipore,  about  300 
feet  liiyh,  I  came  upon  a  Tea  tract,  which  must  have  been  two  or  three 
miles  in  length,  in  Tact  I  did  not  see  the  end  of  it ;  the  trees  were  in 
most  j)arls  as  thick  as  they  could  grow,  and  the  Tea  seeds  (smaller  than 
what  I  h  id  seeu  before)  flue  and  fresh,  literally  covered  the  ground  ; 
this  was  in  the  mi  Idle  of  November,  and  the  trees  had  abundance  of 
fruit  and  flower  on  them.  One  of  the  largest  trees  I  found  to  be  two 
cubits  in  circumference,  and  full  forty  cubits  in  height.  At  the  foot  of 
the  hill  I  found  another  tract,  and  had  time  permitted  me  to  explore 
those  parts,  there  is  no  doubt  but  I  should  have  foand  many  of  the  Naga 
hil's  covered  with  Tea.  I  have  since  been  informed  of  two  more  tracts 
near  this.  In  going  along  tlie  foot  of  the  hills  to  the  westward,  I  was 
informed  that  there  was  Tea  at  Teweack^  or  near  it :  this  information 
came  too  late,  for  I  had  passed  it  just  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  Dacca 
river,  at  a  place  called  Cheriedoo^  a  small  hill  projecting  out  more  thao 
the  rest  on  the  plain  to  the  northward,  with  the  niins  of  a  brick  temple 
on  it ;  here  I  found  Tea,  and  no  doubt  if  there  had  been  time  to  exa- 


170  Report  on  the  manufaclure  of  Tea,  and  on  the  [Jult 

mine,  I  should  have  found  many  more  tracts.  1  crossed  the  Dacca  liver 
at  the  old  furl  of  Ghergong,  and  walked  towards  the  hills,  and  alnaost 
immediately  came  upon  Tea.  The  place  is  called  Hauthoweah,  Here 
I  remained  a  couple  of  days,  goinc;  about  llie  country,  and  came  upon 
no  fewer  than  thirteen  tracts.  A  Dewaniah  who  assisted  me  to  hunt  out 
these  tracts,  and  who  was  well  acquainted  with  the  leaf,  as  he  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  drinking  tea  during  his  residence  with  the  Singphoes, 
informed  me  that  he  had  seen  a  large  tract  of  Tea  plants  on  the  Naga 
mountains,  a  day's  journey  west  of  Chiridoo,  I  have  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  veracity  of  this  roan  j  he  offered  to  point  out  the  place  to  me,  or 
any  of  my  men,  if  they  would  accompany  him  ;  but  as  the  country  be- 
longed to  Raja  Poorunda  Sing,  I  could  not  examiue  it.  I  feel  convinc- 
ed the  whole  of  the  country  is  full  of  Tea. 

Again,  in  going  further  to  the  south-west,  just  before  I  came  to  Gi»6- 
retc' hill,  I  found  the  small  hills  adjoining  it,  to  the  eastward,  covered 
with  Tea-plants.     The  flowers  of  the  Tea  on  these  hills  are  of  a  plea- 
sant delicate  fragrance,  unlike  the  smell   of  our  other  Ten-plants;  but 
the  leaves  and  fruit  appear  the  same.     This  would  be  a  delightful  place 
for  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  as  the   country  is  well  populated,  has  abun- 
dance of  grain,  and  labour  is  cheap.     There  is  a  small  stream  called  the 
Jhangy  river,  at  a  distance  of  two  hours  walk ;  it  is  navigable,  I  am  in- 
formed, all  the  year  round  for  small  canoes,  which  could  carry  down  the 
Tea;  and  the  place  is  only  one  and  a  half  day's  journey  ivom  Jorehaut,  the 
capital  of  Upper  Assam.     South-west  of  Gahrew  Purhut  (about  two  days 
journey)  there  is  a  village  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  inhabited  by  a  race 
called  Norahs;  they  are  Shans,  I  believe,  as  they  came   from  the  east- 
ward, where  Tea  abounds.     I  had  long  conversations  with  them,  and 
the  oldest  man  of  the  village,  who  was  also  the  head  of  it,  informed  me, 
that  when  his  father  was  a  young  man,  he  had  emigrated  with  many 
others,  and  settled  at  Ttpum,  opposite  Jaipore,  on  account  of  the  con- 
stant disturbances  at  Munkum\   that  they  brought  the  Tea-plant   with 
them  and  planted  it  on  the  Tipum  hill,  where  it  exists  to  this  day  ;  and 
that  when  he  was  about  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
Tipum,  on  account  of  the  wars  and  disturbances  at  that  place,  and  take 
shelter  at  the  village  where  he  now  resides.    This  man  said  he  was  now 
eighty  years  of  age,  and  that  his  father  died  a  very  old  man.     How  true 
this  story  is,  I  cannot  say,  and  do  not  see  what  good  it  would  do  the  old 
man  to  fabricate  it.    Tliis  was  the  only  man  I  met  with  in  my  journeys 
about  the  country  who  could  give  any  account  of  the  Tea-plant,  with  the 
exception  of  an  Ahum,  who  declared  to  me  that  it  was  Sooka,  or  the  first 
Kacharry  Rajah  of  Assam,  who  brought  the  Tea-plant  from  Munkum: 


1839.]  exienl  and  produce  oftht  Tea  Plantaticiu  in  Aitam.        171 

he  said  it  was  written  in  Ins  Putty ^  or  history.  The  Ahum- Putty  I  have 
never  been  able  to  get  hold  of;  but  this  I  know,  that  the  information 
about  the  Tea-plant  pointed  out  by  the  old  Norah  man,  as  being  on  the 
Tipum  hill,  is  true  ;  for  I  have  cleared  the  tract  where  it  grew  thickest, 
about  300  yards  by  300,  running  from  the  foot  of  the  hill  to  the  top. 
The  old  man  told  me  his  father  cut  the  plant  down  every  third  year,  that 
he  might  get  the  young  leaves. 

To  the  west  of  Gabrew  I  did  not  find  any  Tea  ?  but  to  the  westward  of 
the  Dhunseeree  river  I  found  a  species,  though  not  the  same  as  that  we 
use.  If  the  people  on  the  west  side  of  the  Dhunseeree  river  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  true  leaf,  I  think  Tea  would  be  found.  I  planted  it 
all  along  the  route  I  went,  which  may  lead  to  its  eventual  discovery;  bat 
people  should  be  sent  to  search  for  the  plant  who  are  really  acquainted 
with  it.  I  think  a  vast  quantity  of  Tea  would  be  brought  to  light  if  this 
were  done ;  our  tracts  are  distributed  all  over  the  country.  How 
much  Tea  they  would  all  produce  if  fully  worked,  I  will  not  pre- 
tend to  say;  but  in  the  course  of  this  subject,  I  will  mention  such 
matters  relative  to  the  tracts  and  the  plants  on  them,  that  every 
one  may  make  his  own  calculation.  Until  lately  we  had  only  two 
Chinese  Blaik-Tea  makers.  These  men  have  twelve  native  assist- 
ants ;  each  Chinaman  with  six  assistants  can  only  superintend  one  lo- 
cality, and  the  Tea  leaves  from  the  various  other  tracts,  widely  separat* 
ed,  must  be  brought  to  these  two  places  for  manufacture.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  an  additional  number  of  labourers  must  always  be  em« 
ployed  to  bring  the  leaves  from  so  great  a  distance.  The  leaves  suffer 
when  brought  in  large  quantities  from  a  distance,  as  they  soon  begin  to 
ferment,  and  ihe  labour  of  only  preparing  them  so  far  in  process  that 
they  may  not  spoil  by  the  morning,  is  excessive.  The  men  have  often  to 
work  until  very  late  to  accomplish  this.  When  labour  falls  so  very  heavy 
and  on  so  very  few,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  it  can  be  equally  well  ex- 
ecuted, as  if  more  had  been  employed.  The  leaves  last  gathered  arc  al- 
so much  larger  than  they  ought  to  be,  for  want  of  being  collected  and 
manufactured  earlier;  consequently  the  Tea  is  inferior  in  quality.  I 
mention  this,  to  shew  the  inconvenience  and  expense  of  having  so  few 
Tea  makers. 

The  samples  of  Black-Tea  made  by  the  twelve  assistants  having  been 
approved  of  by  the  Tea  Committee  in  CaKatta,  it  was  my  intention  to 
have  distributed  the  men  amongst  the  different  tracts,  but  the  late  dig* 
turbances  on  our  frontier  have  prevented  this  arrangement;  and  I  have 
been  obliged  to  employ  ten  men  in  Assam  (two  others  having  gone  to 
Calcutta  in  charge  of  Tea)  at  the  tract  called  Kdfmng^  which  is  becoming 


]72  Report  on  (he  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  fkt  [July 

a  very  extensive  and  important  Tea  locality — so  many  others  beiu^  near 
it,  wliieb  can  all  be  thrown  into  one.  When  we  liave  a  sufficieut  num- 
ber of  muniifacturcrs,  so  that  we  can  ufTord  to  have  some  at  each  tract,  or 
garden,  as  they  have  in  China,  then  we  may  hope  to  compete  with  that 
nation  in  clieapness  of  produce;  nay,  we  might,  ami  ought,  to  undersell 
them;  for  if  each  tr.utl,  or  garden,  had  its  own  Tea  maker  and  labourers, 
the  collecting  of  the  leaves  would  not  perhaps  occupy  more  than  twelve 
days  in  eacli  crop;  after  which  tlie  men  mi-ht  be  discharged,  or  profit- 
ably employed  on  the  Tea  grounds.  But  now,  fjr  the  want  of  a  suffici- 
ent number  of  labourers  an<l  Tea  mikcrs,  there  is  a  con^itant  gatlierin-^  of 
leaves  throughout  the  month;  and  as  I  said  beforey  those  gitliere.i  hist 
can  only  make  inferior  Teas  ;  besides  the  great  loss  by  the  leaves  g:'(ling 
too  old,  and  hereby  unfit  for  being  maiie  into  any  Tea;  and  all  this  en- 
tirely for  want  of  hanils  to  pluck  the  le.ive-*.  li  is  true  ue  have  gained 
twelve  Black-Tea  makers  this  year,  in  addition  to  the  last;  and  twelve 
more  native  assistants  have  been  appointed,  who  may  be  available  next 
year  to  manufacture  Tea  independently,  as  they  were  learning  tho  art 
all  last  vear.  We  have  also  had  an  addition  to  our  establishment  of  two 
ChincbC  Green  Tea  manufacturers,  and  tv^elve  n.ilive  assistants  have 
been  placed  under  them  as  learneisj  but  what  are  those  compared 
to  the  vast  quantity  of  Tea,  or  the  ground  the  Tea  plants  cover,  or  might 
be  made  to  cover  in  three  years,  but  a  drop  of  water  in  the  ocean?  We 
must  go  on  at  a  much  faster  pace  in  the  two  great  essentials —  Tea  ma- 
nufactureis,  and  labourers, — in  order  to  have  them  available  at  each 
garden,   when  the  leaves  come  into  season. 

If  I  were  asked,  when  w  ill  this  Tea  experiment  be  in  a  sufficient  slate 
of  forwardness,  so  as  to  be  transferable  to  speculators  ^  I  would  answer^ 
Mhen  a  sulucient  numher  of  native  Tea  manufacturers  have  been 
taught  to  prepare  both  the  Black  and  the  Green  sort ;  and  that  under 
one  hundred  availabli  Tea  manafacLurers,  it  would  not  be  worth  while 
for  private  speculators  to  take  up  the  scheme  on  a  large  .scale;  on  a 
small  one  it  would  be  a  diaerent  thing.  Jn  the  couise  of  two  or  three 
years  we  ought  to  have  that  number.  Labourers  niu*l  be  introvluced,  in 
llie  first  m^tance,  to  give  a  lone  to  ihe  Assam  U|)ium-eaiers ;  but  the 
great  fear  is,  that  these  latter  woidd  corrupt  the  new  comers.  If  the 
cultivation  uf  Tea  were  eucouraj^ed,  and  the  i'oppy  put  a  5)top  to  in  As- 
sam, the  Assamese  would  make  a  splendid  set  oi  Tea  manufacturers 
and  Tea  cultivators. 

lii  giving  a  statement  of  ihe  number  of  Tea  tracts,  when  I  say  that 
Tinirrij  or  any  oiher  tract  is  so  Imgand  so  bioa«l,  iiujustbe  understood, 
that  space   to  that  extent   only  has  been  cii  ared;  being  found  to  contain 


1839.]        extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Assam.  173 

all"  the  plants  which  grew  thickly  together  ;  as  it  was  not  thought 
worth  while  at  ihe  coiumenceuient  of  these  experiments  to  go  to  the 
expense  of  clearing  any  more  of  the  fores»t  for  the  sake  of  a  few  btrag- 
gling  plants.  If  those  straggling  plants  were  followed  up,  they  would 
in  all  probability  bo  found  gradually  heconiing  more  numerous,  uutil 
you  found  yourself  in  another  tract  as  thick  and  as  numerous  as  the  one 
you  left ;  and  if  the  straggling  plants  of  this  new  tract  were  traced,  they 
would  by  degrees  disappear  until  not  one  was  to  be  seen.  But  if  you 
only  proceeded  on  through  ihcjtingles,  it  is  ten  to  one  that  you  would 
come  upon  a  solitary  Tea  plant,  a  little  further  on  you  would  meet  with 
another;  until  you  gradually  found  yourself  in  another  new  tract,  as 
full  uf  plants  as  the  one  you  hud  left,  growing  absolutely  so  thirk  as 
to  impede  each  others  growth.  Thus  I  am  convinced  one  might  gu 
on  for  miles  from  one  truct  into  another.  All  my  Tea  tracts  about 
Tv.'gri  dnd Kahunff  me  formed  in  this  manner,  with  only  a  patch  of 
jungle  between  them,  which  is  not  greater  than  what  could  be  conre- 
niently  filled  up  by  thinning  those  parts  that  have  too  many  plants.  At 
Kahunj  I  have  lately  knocked  three  tracts  into  one,  and  I  shall  most 
probably  have  to  continue  doing  the  same  until  one  tract  shall  be  made 
of  what  now  consists  of  a  dozen.  I  have  never  seen  the  end  of  Jufjgui^ 
dovi'it  Tea  tract,  nor  yet  Kujadot/a  or  Ningnw's,  I  feel  coufideut  that 
the  two  former  run  over  the  hills  and  join,  or  nearly  join,  some  of  our 
tracts  m  ihQ  Muttuck  country.  Nor  have  I  seen  the  endoiKahung 
tract,  all  about  that  part  of  the  country  being  one  vast  successiou  of 
Tea  from  Ruwjagurra  on  the  Debreiv^  to  Jaipore  on  the  Buri  Dehing, 
The  Tea  localities  are  thickly  scattered — those  that  are  known;  and 
they  are  but  a  small  portion  compared  to  those  that  are  unknown* 
There  is  the  Namsong  tract  on  the  Naga  liills,  the  largest  that 
hhs  yet  been  seen,  and  the  extent  of  which  is  not  ascertained. 
The  tracts  on  the  Gubind  hills  are  unknown;  and  this  is  likewise 
the  case  with  Ilaut  Ilolah  and  Cheridoo  ;  so  that  there  is  a 
large  field  for  improvement  throughout,  to  say  nothing  of  the  6Vm- 
gho  tracts,  which  may  be  found  to  be  one  unbounded  link  to  Iloo" 
kum;  and  who  knows  hut  it  crosses  the  Irrawaddy  to  China? 
Many  Tea  tracts  I  know  have  been  cut  down  in  ignorance  by 
the  nativts,  to  make  room  for  the  rice  field,  for  firewood,  and  fences, 
but  many  of  these  tracts  have  sprung  up  again,  more  vigorous  than  be- 
fore. Witness  that  at  NingreiCf  where  the  natives  say  that  every  thing 
was  cut  down,  and  the  land  planted  with  rice,  except  on  the  high 
ground. 

With  respect  to  the  Tea  plant  being  most  productive  on  high  or  low 


174  Report  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea^  and  on  the  [Jult 

ground,  I  cannot  ^viell  say,  as  all  our  tracts  are  on  the  plains ;  but  from 
what  little  I  have  seen  of  the  hill  tracts,  I  should  suppose  they  were  not 
more  productive.     In  China  the  hill  tracts  produce  the  heH  Teas,  and 
they  may  do  the  same  here.    Almost  all  my  tracts  on  the  plams  are 
nearly  on  the  same  level,   I  should  think.    Nudwa  perhaps  is  a  little 
higher  thun  Tingri,  uiul  Tingri  a  little  higher  than  Kahung,  but  I  be- 
lie ^re  they  are  equally  productive;  although   if   I  leaned  towards  any 
side,  with  my  limited  experience,    I    should  say   that  the  low    land, 
such  as  at  Kohnng,  %vhich  is  not  so  low  as  ever  to  be  inundated   by  the 
strongest  rise  in  the  river,  is  the  best.    The  plants  seem  to  love  and  court 
moisture,  not  from  stagnant  pools,  but  running  streams.    The  Kahung 
tracts  have  the  water  in  and  around  them  ;  they  are  all    iu  heavy  tree- 
jungles,  which  makes  it  very  expensive  to  clear  them.     An  extent  of 
300  by  300  will  cost  from  200  to  300  rupees  ;  i.  e.  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  miserable  Opium-smoking  Assamese  work.     This 
alone  ought  to  point  out  the  utility  of  introducing  a  superior  race  of 
labourers,  who  would  not  only  work  themselves,  but  encourage  their 
women  and  children  to  do  the  same} — in  plucking  and  sorting   learea 
they  might  be    profitably  turned   to  account   for  both  parties.    This 
I    have    not    been    able    to    instil  into  the    heads   of  the  Assamese^ 
who    will   not  permit   their    women    to    come   into  the  Tea  gardens. 
Indeed   unless   more   labourers   can    be    furnished,    a  larger  amount 
of  tea  must  not  be  looked  for  at  present.    Last  season  it  was  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  that  I  could  get  a  sufficient  number  of  hands  to  gather 
the  leaves.    The  plucking  of  the  leaves  may  appear  to  many  a  very  easy 
and  light  employment,  but  there  are  not  a  few  of  our  coolies  who  would 
much  rather  be  employed  on  any  other  job  ;  the  standing  in  one  posi- 
tion  so  many  hours  occasions  swellings  in  the  legs,  as  uur  plants  are  not 
like  those  of  China,  only  three  feet  high,  but  double  that  size,  so  that 
one  must  stand  upright  to  gather  the  leaves.    The  Chinese  pluck  theirs 
squatting  down.    We  lie    under  a  great  disadvantage  in  not  having 
regular  men  to  pluck  the  leaves  ;  those  that  have  been  taught  to  do  so, 
can  pluck  twice  as  many  as  those  that  have  not,  and  we  can  seldom  get 
hold  of  the  same  men  two  seasons  running.    I  am  of  opinion  that  our 
trees  will  become  of  a  smaller  and  more  convenient  size  after  a  few 
years  cultivation ;  because,  trimming  of  the  plants,  and  taking  all  the 
young  leaves  almost  as  soon  as  they  appear,  month  after  month  and  year 
after  year,  and  the  plants  being  deprived  of  the  rich  soil  they  had  been 
living  on  from  time  unknown,  must  soon  tell  upon  them.    Transplanting 
also  helps   to  stunt  and  shorten   the   growth  of  these   plants.     The 
Chinese  declared  to  me,  that  the  China  plants  now  at  Deenjoy  would 


1839.]        extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Aseam,        175 


• 


never  have  attained  to  half  the  perfection  they  now  have,  under'tcn  year* 
in  their  own  country. 

I  may  here  observe,  that  the  sun  has  a  material  effect  on  the  leaves ; 
for  as  soon  as  the  trees  that  shade  the  plants  are  removed,  the  leaf,  from 
a  fine  deep  green,  begins  to  turn  into  a  yellowish  colour,  which  it  retains 
for  some  months,  and  then  again  gradually  changes  to  a  healthy  green, 
but  now  becomes  thicker,  and  the  plant  throws  out  fur  more  numerous 
leaves  than  when  in  the  shade.    The  more  the  leaves   are  plucked,  the 
greater  number  of  them  are  produced;  if  the  leaves  of  the  first  crop 
were  not  gathered,  you  might  look  in  vain  for  the  leaves  of  the  second 
crop.    The  Tea  made  from  the  leaves  in  the  shade  is  not  near  so  good 
as  that  from  leaves  exposed  to  the  sun ;  the  leaves  of  plants  in  the 
san  are  much  earlier  in  season  than  of  those  in  the  shade ;  the  leaves 
from  the  shady  tract  give  out  a  more  watery  liquid  when  rolled,  and 
those  from  the  sunny  a  more  glutinous  substance.    When  the  leaves  of 
either  are  rolled  on  a  sunny  day,  they  emit  less  of  this  liquid  than  on  a 
rainy  day.    This  juice  decreases  as  the  season  advances.     The  plants 
in  the  sun  have  flowers  and  fruit  much  earlier  than  those  in  the  shade, 
and  are  far  more  numerous ;  they  have  flowers  and  seeds  in  July,  and 
fruit  in  November.     Numerous  plants  are  to  be  seen  that  by  some 
accident,  either  cold  or  rain,  have  lost  all  their  flowers,  and  commence 
throwing  out  fresh  flower-buds  more  abundantly  than  ever.    Thus  it  is 
not  unfrequent  to  see  some  plants  in  flower  so  late  as  March   (some 
of  the  China  plants  were  in  flower  in  April)  bearing  at  once   the  old 
and  the  new  seeds,   flower-buds,  and  full-blown  flowers — all  at  one 
and  the  same  time.    The  rain  also  greatly  affects  the  leaves;  for  some 
sorts  of  Tea  cannot  be  made  on  a  rainy  day  ;  for  instance  the  Pouchong 
and  Mingehew,    The  leaves  for  these  ought  to  be  collected  about  10 
A.  M.  on  a  sunny  morning,  when  the  dew  has  evaporated.    The  Pouchong 
can  only  be  manure tured  from  the  leaves  of  the  first  crop ;  but  the 
Mingehew,  although  it  requires  the  same  care  in  making  as  the  other, 
can  yet  be  made  from  any  crop^  provided  it  is  made  on  a  sunny  morning. 
The  Chinese  dislike  gathering  leaves  on  a  rainy  day  for  any  description 
of  Tea,  and  never  will  dd  so,  unless  necessity  requires  it    Some  pre- 
tend to  distinguish  the  Teas  made  on  a  rainy  and  on  a  sunny  day, 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  they  can  distinguish  the  shady  from  the 
sunny  Teas — by  their  inferiority.    If  the  large  leaves  for  the  Black- 
Tea  were  collected  on  a  rainy  day,   about  seven  seers,  or  fourteen 
pounds,  of  green  leaves  would  be  required  to  make  one  seer,  or  two 
pounds,  of  Tea ;  but  if  collected  on  a  sunny  day,  about  four  seers,  or 
eight  pounds,  of  green  leaves,  would  make  one  seer,  or  two  pounds,  of 
Tea  ;"-so  the  Chinamen  say.    I  tried  the  experiment,  and  found  it  to 


176  Report  on  the  7fianu/\tclare  of  Tsuiy  a}}. I  on  tie  [Jult 

br»  oorrpct.  Onr  ?<  a«on  for  Tea  in:ikin£j  gcnpniUy  commences  about 
th*?  mi  '(111*  of  .M.irch;  tlio  s(»«;r)nd  »Top  in  llie  mi«l..ll»*  of  I^Iiiy  ;  the  third 
crop  ;iS«)iit  till"  fir^i  of  July;  but  ihe  lime  vmi^'s  a«'cor(ling  to  the  rain» 
S'ltMi'^  in  >fu>n''r  in- l.itrr.  As  tlj«>  in:njnf;i!tiir(M»f  tlif*  ^ychee  and  ihc 
Muitse' etc  Hl;u-k-T«'cMS  has  iievor  bcM-n  d-s<ril>'^i!,  1  will  here  attempt  to 
givr  sori'O  iil  ;i  liow    if  is  p«'rfoniioil. 

Si/che"  IJLick-Tcn.  'I'hr*  l^av^s  of  this  are  tlie  Souchong  and  Pow 
chon  '.  Affr^r  th'\v  h.ive  been  pMilicred  imd  dried  in  the  sun  in  ihe 
\i^\u\  way  (spo  my  f-rmer  iiccuiint  of  Bh'irk-Tea)  they  :in^  heaten  and 
j)iit  uway  four  fiiOcrent  liinev; ;  they  are  then  put  into  b.isktts,  pressed 
duwn,  Jind  a  cloth  ]:ut  over  lli<  m.  When  the  leaves  beeome  of  n 
browni>]i  ri'lonr  hy  the  heat,  they  throw  out  and  have  a  peculiar  smell, 
and  are  then  lewly  fc.r  tlie  j^:in,  the  l)ottom  of  which  is  made  red  bot- 
Thi««  psin  i-<  fixed  in  nia«;«.nry  breast  liigh,  and  in  a  slopincj  po**ition, 
forming  an  amh'  of  fi»rfy  d'*i.'.rr»os.  Thus  the  pan  beinp:  placed  on  an 
inclined  idanc,  the  h  avrs,  wIkmi  to-Sf^dahout  in  it  cannot  escape  behind, 
or  on  the  sid*"*^,  us  it  i^  built  high  np,  but  fall  out  near  th^rdi;^  c-oseto 
the  manuf  irtun^r,  anl  always  into  his  hands,  so  as  to  bo  swept  out  easi- 
ly. W'hi'ii  tb<»  hf)itom  of  'his  pun  has  been  made  red  hot  by  a  wood 
fire,  the  opmafnr  puts  a  cloth  to  his  mouth  to  prevent  inhaling  any  of 
the  hot  vapour.  A  man  on  the  l«>ft  of  him  stands  ready  with  a  basket 
ofpr-'pared  l<'a\es:  ouf*  or  two  m^n  s^tand  on  his  right  with  dollahs, 
or  >hallr)w  h.iskf'ts,  to  refpive  the  Ic.ives  fr(»m  tlm  pan,  and  another 
keips  lifiin;^  the  hot  h'aves  thrown  out  of  the  pan  into  the  dollah,  that 
tliey  may  qiii;kly  cool.  At  a  given  signal  from  tlip  Chinaman,  the  per- 
son with  th»"  basket  of  prepar^'d  leaves  seizes  a  handful  and  dashes  it  as 
quick  as  thought,  into  the  red  hot  pan.  The  Chinaman  ti  ssos  and  turns 
the  erackling  leaves  in  the  pan  f'-r  half  a  minute,  then  draws  Ihem  all 
out  by  seizirg  a  few  leaves  in  each  hand,  Using  ihem  hy  way  of  u  brush, 
not  one  hfiiig  left  b'  hind.  They  arc  all  caught  by  the  man  with  the 
d  dlah  or  basket,  who  with  his  disengaged  hand  continues  lifiincv  the 
leaves,  at  db-lling  them  fall agjiin,  that  they  may  (piickly  cool.  Should 
a  leaf  he  left  hchind  in  th.n  pan  by  any  a-cidcnt,  tlie  cloth  that  is  held 
ready  in  the  mouth  is  aj  plied  to  bin.sh  it  out;  but  all  this  is  done  as 
qui-k  as  lightning.  Th-^  man  that  holds  the  bask«^t  of  leaves  watchf»s  the 
pro-jf^ss  sharply;  for  no  sooner  is  the  last  leaf  out  of  the  pan,  then  he 
dfishes  in  another  handful,  so  that  to  an  observer  at  a  little  distance,  it 
appears  as  if  one  man  was  ilashing  the  leaves  in,  and  the  other  as  fast 
dashing  them  out  again — so  quickly  and  dexterously  is  this  manaf^ed. 
As  soon  as  one  ha^kct  has  received  about  four  handsful  of  the  hot  leaves 


1839.]         $xicn(  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantatlont  in  Aaam,        177 

from  the  pan,  it  is  removed,  and  another  basket  placed  to  receive  the 
Uaves;  and  soon,  until  all  is  finished.  A  roaring  wood  fire  is  kept  up 
Under  the  pan  to  keep  the  battom  red  hot,  as  the  succession  of  fresh 
leaves  tends  greatly  to  cool  the  pan,  which  ought  always  to  be  scrubbed 
and  washed  out  after  the  process  is  ever.  In  China  these  pans  are 
made  of  cast  iron,  and  if  great  care  is  not  taken  they  will  crack  in  the 
cooling;  to  prevent  which,  one  man  keeps  tapping  the  inside  of  the 
edge  of  the  pan  briskly  with  a  wet  broom,  used  in  the  cleaning  of  the 
vessel,  while  another  pours  cold  water  in  gently ;  thus  it  cools  in  a  few 
seconds,  and  is  ready  for  another  batch  of  Tea.  The  leaves  are  rolled 
and  tatched  the  same  as  the  other  Teas,  and  put  into  the  drying  basket 
for  about  ten  minutes.  When  a  little  dry,  people  are  employed  to  work 
and  press  the  leaves  in  the  hands  in  small  quantities,  of  about  one  and 
a  half  to  two  rupees  weight  at  a  time,  for  about  half  a  minute ;  they  are 
then  put  into  small  square  pieces  of  paper  and  rolled  up  ;  after  this  they 
are  put  into  the  drying  basket,  and  permitted  to  dry  slowly  over  a  gentle 
fire  for  some  hours,  until  the  whole  is  thoroughly  dry.  This  Tea  is  not 
sold  in  the  China  market,  it  is  used  principally  as  ofTerings  to  the 
priests,  or  kept  for  high  days  and  holidays.  It  is  said  to  be  a  very  fine 
Tea,  and  there  is  not  one  man  in  a  hundred  who  can  make  it  properly. 
The  Ponehong  tea  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  St/chee,  with  this 
ex'^eption,  that  it  is  not  formed  into  balls. 

Mingehew  Black-Tea.  The  leaves  {Pouchong)  are  plucked  and  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  are  then  beaten  and  dried  in  the  shade  for  half  an  hour; 
this  is  done  three  successive  times,  and  the  leaves  arc  very  much  shaken 
by  a  circular  motion  given  to  them  in  a  sieve,  so  as  to  keep  them  rolling 
and  tumbling  about  in  the  centre  of  it.  This  treatment  continues  until 
they  are  very  soft;  they  are  then  allowed  to  remain  for  a  short  time  ; 
the  contents  of  the  first  sieve  are  then  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  close 
worked  bamboo  basket  with  a  narrow  edge,  and  the  leaves  are  divided 
into  four  equal  parts.  The  contents  of  the  second  sieve  are  placed  in 
another  bamboo  basket  like  the  former,  and  this  basket  is  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  first,  and  so  on,  piling  one  basket  upon  another  until  all 
is  finished  ; — there  may  be  about  two  pounds  of  leaves  in  each  basket. 
The  red  hot  pan  is  used  the  same  as  in  Sychee,  only  now  the  men 
cast  in  one  division  of  the  leaves  into  the  basket,  and  this  is  tumbled 
and  tossed  about  in  the  red  hot  pan,  like  a  plaything,  for  about  thirty 
seconds,  and  then  swept  out ;  another  division  is  cast  in,  and  so  on, 
until  all  the  prepared  baskets  have  been  emptied.  The  contents  of  each 
basket  are  still  kept  separate,  by  placing  the  leaves  when  they  come  out 
of  the  pan  in  separate  baskets.  The  whole  is  a  brisk  and  a  lively  scene, 


17S  Report  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  the  [  Jvlt 

and  quite  methodical,  every  one  knowing  his  station,  and  the  part  he 
has  to  perform.  The  baskets  are  then  arranged  on  shelves  to  air;  the 
contents  are  afterwards  tatched  the  same  as  our  Blatk-Teas,  and  fired  in 
the  drying  baskets,  but  with  this  difference,  tliut  each  division  is  placed 
on  paper  and  dried.  When  it  is  half  diy  (the  same  as  our  Teas)  it  is 
put  away  for  the  night,  and  the  next  morning  it  is  picked,  and  put  iuto 
the  drying  baskets  over  gmtle  deadened  fires,  and  gradually  dried  there; 
it  is  then  packed  hot.    This  Tea  is  a  difficull  sort  to  make. 

Shung-Paho  Black-Tea.  Pluck  the  young  (Paho)  leaf  that  has  not 
yet  blown  or  expanded,  and  lias  the  down  on  it ;  and  the  next  one  that 
has  blown  with  a  part  of  the  stalk  ;  put  it  into  the  sun  for  half  an  hour, 
then  into  the  shade ;  tatch  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  in  tatching  roll  the 
leaves  occasionally  in  the  pan,  and  spread  them  all  round  the  sides  of 
the  same  ;  again  roll  them  until  they  begin  to  have  a  withered  and  soft 
appearance  ;  then  spread  them  on  large  sieves,  and  put  them  in  the 
shade  to  air  for  the  night ;  next  morning  pick,  and  then  fire  them  well. 
Some  Tea  makers  do  not  keep  them  all  night,  but  manufacture  and  pack 
the  Tea  the  sjime  day.  This  Tea  is  valued  in  China,  as  it  is  very 
scarce  ;  but  the  Chinamen  acknowledge  that  it  is  not  a  good  sort.  They 
prefer  the  Teas,  the  leaves  of  which  have  come  to  maturity. 

The  China  Black-Tea  plants  which  were  brought  into  Afuituck  in 
1837,  amounted  in  all  to  1609 — healthy  and  sicklv.  A  few  of  the  lat- 
ter died,  but  the  remainder  are  healthy,  and  flourish  as  well,  as  if  they 
had  hecn  reared  in  China.  The  leaves  of  these  plants  were  plucked  in 
the  beginning  of  March,  and  weighed  sixteen  seers  or  thirty -two  pounds. 
Many  of  the  plants  were  then  in  flower,  and  had  small  seeds.  They 
are  about  three  feet  high,  and  were  loaded  with  fruit  last  year,  but  the 
greater  part  of  it  decayed  when  it  had  come  to  maturity,  as  was  the 
case  with  the  Assam  Tea-seeds,  and  almost  every  seed  of  these  wilds, 
in  the  past  year.  The  seeds  should,  I  think,  be  plucked  from  the  plant 
when  thought  ripe,  and  not  be  permitted  to  drop  or  fall  to  the  ground. 
I  collected  about  twenty-four  pounds  of  the  China  seeds,  and  sowed 
some  on  the  little  hill  of  Tipum  in  my  Tea  garden,  and  some  in  the 
Nursery- ground  at  Jatpore ;  above  three  thousand  of  which  have  come 
up,  are  looking  beautiful,  and  doing  very  well.  I  have  since  found 
out  that  all  the  China  seedlings  on  Tipum  hill  have  been  destroyed  by 
some  insect. 

The  Assam  and  China  seedlings  are  near  each  other;  the  latter  have 
a  much  darker  appearance.  I  have  made  but  few  nurseries,  or  raised 
plants  from  seed,  as  abundance  of  young  plants  can  be  procured,  of 
any  age  or  bize,   from  our  Tea  tracts.    There  may    be  about   6,000 


1839.]         extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Asiatn,       ■*  1 79 

young  seedlings  at  Chuhwa ;  at  Deenjoy  about  2,000;  at  Tingri  a 
few;  and  some  at  Paundooah,  In  June  and  July,  1837,  17»000 
young  plants  were  brought  from  Muttuck,  and  planted  at  a  place  called 
Toongroong  Patar^  amongst  the  tbick  tree  jungles  of  Sadiya. 

In  March  of  the  same  year  six  or  eight  thousand  were  brought  from 
Muttuckt  and  planted  in  different  thick  jungles  at  Sadiya  ;  many  of 
tl)ese  died  in  consequence  of  the  buffaloes  constantly  breaking  in 
amongst  them  ;  ilie  rest  are  doing  well,  but  I  am  afraid  will  be  killed 
from  ihe  above  cause ;  and  now  that  1  have  removed  to  Jaipore,  they 
are  too  far  off  for  my  personal  superintendence. 

In  1838,  52,000  young  Tea  plants  were  brought  from  the  Nemsong 
Naga  hill  tracts,  about  ten  miles  from  Jaipore ;  a  great  portion  of  these 
have  been  lately  sent  to  Calcutta,  to  be  forwarded  to  Madras;  should 
they  thrive  there,  it  is  my  opinion  that  they  will  never  attain  any  height, 
at  least  not  like  ours,  but  be  dwarfish  like  the  China  plants.  Deenjoy^ 
Chubwa,  Tingri,  and  Geela-Jhan  tracts  have  been  filled  up  or  enlarged 
with  plants  from  the  jungle  tracts.  In  transplanting  from  one  sunny 
tract  to  another,  when  done  in  the  rains,  very  few,  if  any,  die;  if  the 
plants  be  removed  from  a  deep  shade  to  a  sunny  tract,  the  risk  is  greater, 
but  still,  if  there  is  plenty  of  rain,  few  only  will  die.  If  from  a  deep 
shade  to  a  piece  of  ground  not  a  Tea  tract,  and  exposed  to  the  sun— for 
instance  from  the  Naga  hilU  to  Jai;io/e— if  there  be  plenty  of  rain,  and 
the  soil  congenial,  as  it  is  at  this  place,  few  will  die  ;  if  shaded  by  a  fevir 
trees,  less  will  perish  ;  if  taken  from  shade,  and  planted  in  shade  and 
the  soil  uncongenial,  but  there  is  plenty  of  rain,  the  greater  portion 
will  live  ;— witness  Toongroong  Patar  ni  Sadiya,  If  the  plants  are  brought 
from  deep  shade,and  planted  in  the  sun  in  uncongenial  soil, let  them  have 
ever  so  much  rain,  not  one  in  fifty  will  be  alive  the  third  year  ; — witness 
30,000  brought  to  Sadiya.  I  believe  the  Tea  plant  to  be  so  hardy  that 
it  would  almost  live  in  any  soil,  provided  it  were  planted  in  deep  shade 
when  taken  to  it.  There  should  be  plenty  of  water  near  the  roots,  but 
the  plant  should  always  be  above  inundation.  As  soon  as  it  has  taken 
root,  which  it  will  soon  do,  the  bhade  may  be  removed,  and  there  will 
be  no  fear  of  the  plant  dying. 

The  advantage  of  getting  plants  from  the  jungle  tracts  is,  that  you 
can  get  them  of  any  age  or  size  ;  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  send 
a  few  coolies  early  in  March,  just  as  the  rains  commence,  and  have  the 
plants  of  the  size  required  removed  to  your  own  garden  ;  and  if  they 
are  of  a  moderate  size,  you  may  gather  a  small  crop  of  Tea  from  them 
the  next  year.  As  these  plants  are  very  slender,  it  would  be  best  to 
plant  four  or  live  close  together  to  form  a  fine  bush.    If  the  plants  are 


180  Report  on  (Tie  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on.ike  [JcLT 

raised  from  seed,  you  may  expect  a  small  crop  of  Tea  the  third  year, 
but  they  do  not  come  to  maturity  under  six  years.  It  is  said  they  life 
to  the  age  of  forty  or  fifty  year^.  The  Cbinese  way  of  dig^ng  a  hole, 
and  putting  in  a  handful  or  two  of  seed,  does  not  succeed  so  well  in  this 
country,  as  putting  two  or  three  seeds  on  small  ridges  of  earth  and 
covering  them  over,  which  I  have  found  to  answer  better. 

In  clearing  a  new  Tea  tract,  if  the  jungle  trees  are  very  large  and 
numerous,  it  would  be  as  well  to  make  a  clean  sweep  of  the  whole,  by 
cutting  them  and  the  Tea  plants  all  down  together  ;  for  it  would 
be  impossible  to  get  rid  of  so  much  wood  without  the  help  of  fire. 
The  Tea  plants,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  be  of  little  use  after 
they  had  been  crushed  and  broken  by  the  fall  of  the  large  trees,  and 
dried  up  by  the  fire  ;  but  admitting  that  they  could  escape  all  ibis, 
the  leaves  of  trees  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  high  could  not  be  reach- 
ed, and  if  they  could,  they  would  be  almost  useless  for  Tea  raanu£ic* 
tore,  as  it  is  the  young  leaves,  from  young  trees,  that  produce  the  best 
Teas.  But  if  all  were  cut  down  and  set  fire  to,  we  should  have  a  fme 
clear  tract  at  once,  at  the  least  expense,  and  might  expect  to  have 
a  pretty  good  crop  of  Tea  one  year  after  the  cutting,  or,  at  furthest,  the 
second  year  ;  for  it  is  astonishing  with  what  vigour  the  plant  shoots  up 
after  the  fire  has  been  applied.  And  we  gain  by  this  process  ;  for,  from 
every  old  stock  or  stump  cut  down,  ten  to  twelve  more  vigorous  shoots 
spring  up,  so  that  in  the  place  of  a  single  plant  you  have  now  a  fine 
Tea  bush.  I  think  from  what  I  have  seen  of  these  plants,  that  if 
cut  down  every  third  year,  they  would  yield  far  superior  Teas;  neither 
am  I  singular  in  this  opinion  ;  the  Green-Tea  Chinamen  having  told  me 
that  they  cut  down  their  plants  every  ninth  year,  which  may  be  reckon- 
ed equivalent  to  our  third  year,  taking  into  consideration  the  size  of  our 
trees  and  the  richness  of  our  soil.  Our  trees,  or  plants,  are  certainly 
more  than  four  or  five  times  the  size  of  theirs,  and  must  consequently 
yield  so  many  times  more  produce ;  theirs  is  the  dwarf,  ours  the  giant 
Tea.  The  size  of  the  leaf  matters  nothing,  in  my  opinion,  provided  it 
is  young  and  tender ;  even  their  diminutive  leaf,  if  one  day  too  old,  is 
good  for  nothing. 

As  the  Green-Tea  Chinamen  have  just  commenced  operations,  I  will 
try  to  give  some  account  of  this  most  interesting  process.  All  leaves 
up  to  the  size  of  the  Souchong  are  taken  for  the  Green-Tea.  About 
three  pounds  of  the  fresh  leaves,  immediately  they  are  brought  in,  are 
cast  into  a  hot  pan  (sometimes  they  are  kept  over  night  when  abun- 
dance have  been  brought  in,  and  we  have  not  been  able  to  work  all 
up);  they  are  then  rolled  and  tossed  about  in  the  pan  until  they 


1839.]        extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Atiom,         181 

become  too  hot  for  the  band.    Two  slips  of  bamboo,  each  about  a  foot 
long,  split  at  one  end  so  as  to  form  six  prongs,   are  now  used  to  tum- 
ble and  toss  the  leaves  about,  by  running  the  sticks  down  the  sides  of 
the  pan,  and  turning  the  leaves  up  first  with   the  right  hand,  then 
with  the  left,  and  this  as   fast  as  possible;    which  keeps  the  leaves 
rolling  about  in  the  pan  without  being  burnt;   this  lasts  about  three 
iniuutcs ;  (he  leaves   will  theu  admit  of  being  rolled  and  pressed  with- 
out breaking.     They  are  now  taken  from  the  pan  and  rolled  in  doUahs, 
much  the  same  as  the  Black-Tea,  for  about  three  minutes,  in  which  pro« 
cess  a  great  quantity  of  the  juice  is  extracted,  if  they  be  fresh  leaves  i 
but  if  they  have  been  kept  over  night,  very  little  juice  can  be  expressed 
from  them  in  the  morning,  on  account  of  its  having  evaporated.     The 
Chinamen  say,   this  does  not  matter,  as  it  makes  no  dififereuce  in  the 
Tea.    The  leaves  are  then  pressf^d  hard  between  both  hands,  and  turn- 
ed round  and  pressed   again  and  again,  until   they  have  taken  the  shape 
of  a  small  pyramid.     They  are  now  placed   in  bamboo-baskets  or  dol- 
lahs  with  a    narrow  edge,  and  the  dollahs  on  bamboo  frame-work  (see 
fig.  2  of  my  former  account  of  Black-Tea)  where    they  are  exposed  to 
the  sun  fur  two  or  three  minutes,  after  which  these  pyramids  of  Tea  are 
gently  opened  and  thinly  spread  on  the  dollahs  to  dry.     "When  the  Tea 
has  become  a  little  dry,  (which  will  be  the  case  in  from  five  to  ten  mi« 
nutes  if  the  sun  be  hot)  it  is  again  rolled,   and  then  placed  in  the  sun  as 
before ;  this  is  done  three  successive  times.     But  should   the  weather 
be  rainy,  and  there  is  no  hope  of  its  clearing,  all  this  drying  is  done  over 
the  fire  in  a  small  drying  basket,   the  same  as  with   Black-Tea.    The 
Green-Tea  makers  have  as  great  an  aversion  to  drying  their  Tea  over 
the  fire,  as  the  Black-Tea  makers.    The  third  time  it  has  been   rolled 
and  dried,  there  is  very  little  moisture  left  in  the  Tea ;  it  is  now  put  into 
a  hot  pan,  and  gently  turned  over  and  over,  and  opened  out  occasionallyf 
until  all  has  become  well  heated  ;    it  is  then  tossed  out  into  a  baskety 
and  while  hot  put  into  a  very  strong  bug,  previously  prepared  for  it, 
about   four  feet  long,  and  four  spans  in  circumference.     Into  this  bag 
the  Tea  is  pressed  with  great  force  with  the  hands  and  feet;  from  four- 
teen to  twrnty  pounds  being  put  in  at  one  time,  and  forced  into  as  small 
a  compass  as  possible.    A^'iih  bis  left  hand  the  man  firmly  closes  the 
mouth  of  the  bag  immediately  above  the  leaves,  while  with  the  right 
hand  he  pommels  and  beats  the  bag,  every  now  and  then  giving  it  a  turn ; 
thus  he  beats  and  turns  and  works  at  it,  tightening  it  by  every  turn  with 
one  hand,  and   holding  on  with  the  other,   until  he  has  squeezed  the 
leaves  into  as  small  a  compass  as  possible  at  the  end  of  the  bag.    He 
now  makes  it  fast  by  turns  of  the  cloth  where  he  held  on,  so  that  it  may 


182  Report  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  the  [July 

not  open  ;  and  then  draws  the  cloth  of  the  bag  over  the  ball  of  leaves» 
thus  doubling  the  bag,  the  mouth  of  which  is  twisted  and  made  fiist. 
The  man  then  stands  up,  holding  on  by  a  post  or  some  such  thing,  and 
M'orks  this  bull  of  leaves  under  his  feet,  at  the  same  time  alternately 
pressing  with  all  his  weight,  first  with  one  foot  and  then  the  other, 
turning  the  ball  over  and  over,  and  occasionally  opening  the  bag  to 
tighten  it  more  firmly.  When  he  has  made  it  almo^stas  hard  as  a  stone, 
he  secures  the  mouth  well  and  puts  the  bag  away  for  that  day.  Next 
morning  it  is  opened  nut  and  the  leives  gently  separated  and  placed  on 
dullahs,  then  fire  I  und  dried  until  they  are  crisp,the  same  as  the  Black-. 
Tea,  after  which  they  are  packed  in  boxes  or  baskets.  In  China  the 
baskets  are  made  of  double  bamboo,  with  leaves  between.  The  Tea  may 
then  remain  on  the  spot  for  two  or  three  months,  or  be  sent  to  any  other 
place  to  receive  the  final  process.  This  first  part  of  the  Green-Tea  pro- 
cess is  so  simple,  that  the  natives  of  this  country  readily  pick  it  up  in  a 
month  or  two. 

The  second  process  now  commences  by  openini*  the  boxes  or  baskets, 
and  exposing  the  Tea  on  large  shallow  bamboo  baskets  or  dollahs  (see 
former  account,  fig.  1)  until  it  has  become  soft  enough  to  roll ;  it  is  then 
put  into  cast  iron  pans,  set  in  brick   fire-places,  the  same  as  described 
in  making  the  St/fkee  Black-Tea.     The  pan  is  mide  very  hot  by  a 
wood-fire,  and  seven  pounds  of  the  leaves  are  thrown  into  it  and  rub- 
bed against  the  pan,  with  the  right  hand  until  tired,  and  then  with  the 
left,  so  as  not  to  make  the  process  fatiguing.    The  pan  being  placed  on 
an  inclined  plane  the  leaves  always  come  tumbling  back  towards   and 
near  the  operator,  as  he  pushes  them  up  from  him,  moving  his  hand 
backwards  and  forwards  and  pressing  on  the  leaves  with  some   force 
with  the  palms,  keeping  the  envls  of  the  fingers   up,   to   prevent  their 
coming  in  contact  witli  ih;  hot  pan.     After  one  hour's   good  nibbing 
the  leaves  are  taken  out  and  thrown  into  a  large  coarse  bamboo-sieve, 
from  this  into  a  finer  one,  and  ag.iin  a  still  fiuer  one,  uutil  three  sorts 
of  Tea  have  been  separated.     Th  *  fi  *sf,  or  largest  sort,  is  put  into  the 
funnel  of  the  winnowing  machine,  which  has  three  divisions  of   small 
traps  below,  to  'et  th*^  Tea  out.    A  man  turns  the  wheel  with  his  right 
hand,  and  with  the  left  rcc;ulates  the  quantity  of  Tea  that  shall  fall 
through  the  wooden  funnel  above,  by  a  wooden   slide  at  the  bottom  of 
it.     The  Tea  being  thrown  from  the  sieves   into  the  funnel,   the  man 
turns  the  crank  of  the  wheel,  and  moves  the   slide  of  the  funnel  gra- 
dually, 80  as  to  \*it  the  Tea  fall  through  g<Mitly,  and  in  small  quantities. 
ITie  blast  from  the  fan  blows  the  smaller  particles  of  Tea  to  the  end  of 
the  machine,  where  it  is  intercepted  by  a  circular  moveable  board  placed 


1839.]         extejit  and  produce qf  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Assam,  183 

there.     Tlie  dust  and  smaller  partifles  are  blown  against  this  board,  and 
fall  out   at  an  opening  at  the  bottom  into  a  basket  placed  there  to  re- 
ceive it.     The  next  highest  Tea  is  blown  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  ma- 
chine, and   falls  down  through  a  trough  on  the  side  into  a  basket;  this 
Tea  is  called    Young  Hyson,    The  next  being  a  little  heavier,  is  not 
blown  quite  so  far;  it  falls  through  the  same  trough,  which  has  a  divi- 
sion in  the  middle  ;  tliis  of  course  is  nearer  the  centre  of  the  machine. 
A  basket  is  placed  beneath  to  receive  the  Tea,  which  is  called  Hyson. 
The  next,  which  is  still  heavier,  falls  very  near  to  the  end  of  the  fan, 
this  is  called  Gunpowder  Tea;  it  is  in  small  balls.     The  heaviest  Tea 
falls  slill  closer  to  the  fan,  and  is  called  Big  Gunpowder ;  it  is  twice  or 
three  times  the  size  of  Gunpowder  Tea,  and  composed  of  several  young 
leaves  that  adhere  firmly  together.    This  sort  is  afterwards  put  into  a 
box  and  cut  with  a  sharp  iron  instrument,  then  sifted  and  put  among  the 
Gunpowder,   which  it  now  resembles.     The  different  sorts  of  Tea  are 
now   put  into  shallow  bamboo  baskets,  and  men,  women,  and  children 
are  employed  to  pick  out  the  sticks  and  bad  leaves ;  this  is  a  most  tedi- 
ous process,  as  the  greatest  care  is  taken  not  to  leave  the  slightest  par- 
ticle of  any  thing  but  good  Tea.    But  to  assist  and  quicken  this  tiresome 
process  beautiful  bamboo  sieves,  very  little  inferior  to  our  wire  ones,  and 
of  various    sizes,  are  employed.     The  different  Teas  are  thrown  into 
sieves  of  different  sizes,  from  large  Gunpowder  to  Dust  Tea ;  they  are 
shaken  and  tossed,  and  thrown  from  one  person  to  another  in  quick  suc- 
cession, making  the  scene  very  animating  ;  in  this  way  a  great  portion 
of  the  stalks  arc  got  rid  of.  After  the  Tea  has  been  well  sifted  and  pick- 
ed, it  is  again  put  into  the  hot  pans  and  rubbed  and  rolled  as  before,  for 
about  one  hour;   it  is  then   put  into  shallow  bamboo  baskets,  and  once 
more  examined,  to  separate  the  different  Teas  that  may  still  remain  in- 
termixed, and  again  put  into  the  hot  pan.    Now  a  mixture  of  sulphate 
of  lime  and  indigo,  very  finely  pulverized  and  sifted  through  fine  muslin, 
in  the  proportion  of  three  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter,  is  added ;  to 
a  pan  of  Tea  containing  about  s'^ven  pounds,  about  half  a  tea-spoonful 
of  this  mixture  is   put  and  rubbed  and  rolled  along  with  the  Tea  in 
the  pan    for  about  one  hour,  as   before  described.    The  Tea   is  then 
taken  hot   from  the  pan   and  packed  firmly  in  boxes,  both  hands  and 
feet  being  used  to  press  it  down.    The  above  mixture  is  not  put  to  the 
Tea  to  improve    its  flavour,  but  merely  to  give  it  a  uniform  colour  and 
appearance,  as  without  it  some  of  the  Tea  would  be  light  and  some 
dark.    The  indigo  gives  it  the  colour,  and  the   sulphate  of  lime  fixes 
it.    The  Chinese  call   the  former   Foungtin,   the  latter  Acco.    Large 
Gunpowder  Tea  they  call  Tycken  :  little  Gunpowder  Ckeocheu  ;  Hyson, 


184  Report  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  the  [July 

Chingcha;    Yoiins;  Hyson,   Uch'tn ;    Skin-T<?a,  or  old  leaves  in   small 
bits,  Poocha;  tlie  fine  dust,  or  Powder-Tea,  Chamoot. 

The  leaves  of  the  Groen-Tea  are  not  plucked  the  same  as  ibe  Blackt 
although  the  tree  or  plant  is  one  and  the  same,  which  has  been  proved 
beyond  a  shad<»w  of  doubt ;  for  I  am  now  plucking  leaves  for  both  Green 
and  Black  from  the  same  tract  and  from  the  same  plants;  the  diflTer- 
ence  lies  in  the  manufacture,  and  nothing  else.  The  Green-Tea  gatherers 
are  accommodated   with  a  small  basket,  each  having  a  strap  passed 
round  the  neck  so  as  tu  let  the  basket   hang  on  the  breast.     With  one 
band  the  man  holds  the  branch,  and  with  the  other  plucks  the  leaf,  one 
at  a  time,  taking  as  high  as  the  Souchong  leaf ;  a  little  bit  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  leaf  is  left  for  the  voumr  Ic.if  to  shoot  up  clo*e  to   it ;  not  a 
bit  of  stock  must  be  gathered.    This  is  a  very   slow  and  tedious  way  of 
gathering.    The  Black-Tea  maker  plucks  the  leaves  with  great  rapidity 
with  both  hands,  using  only  the  forefinger  an  1  thumb,  and  collects  them 
in  the  hollow  of  the  hand ;  when  his  hand  is  full  he  throws  the  leaves 
into  a  basket  under  the  shade  of  the  tree ;  and  so  quickly  does  he  ply 
his  hands  that  the  eye  of  a  learner  cannot  follow  them;  nor  see  the 
proper  kind  of  leaf  to  be  plucked ;   all   that  he  sees,  is  the  China- 
man's hands   going  right  and  left,    his  hands  fast  filling,   and  the 
leaves    disappearing.      Our    coolies,  like    the  Green-Tea   Chinamen, 
hold    the  branch   with    one    hand,    and  deliberately    pluck  off    the 
leaf  required,  then  the  next,  and  so  on,  by  which  process  much  time  is 
lost,  and  a  greater  number  of  hands  are  wanted.     Not  having  a  regidur 
set  of  pluckers  is  a  very  great  drawback  to  us;  for  the  men  whom  we 
teach   this  year  we  see  nothing  of  the  next;  thus   every  year  we  have  to 
instruct  fresh  men.     This   difficulty  will   be  removed  when  we  get  re- 
gular people  attached    to  the  Tea  plantations;  or  when  the  natives  of 
these  parts  become  more  fixed  and  settled  in  their  habitations,  and  do 
not  move  off  by  whole  villages  from  one   place  to  another,  as  they  have 
of  late  years  been  doing ;  and  when  the  aversion  they  have  throughout 
Assam  to  taking  service  for  payment,  has  been  overcome.    They  seem  to 
hold  this  as  mean  and  servile;   preferring  to  cultivate  a  small  patch  of 
ground  which  barely  yields  a  subsistence.     I  can  perceive,  howeveri 
that  there  is  a  gradual  change  taking  place  in  the  minds  of  the  labouring 
class  of  people,  or  coolies;  for  occiisionally  some  good  able-bodied  men 
come  forward  for  employment.    The  generality  of  thos«  that  have  hither, 
to  offered  themselves,  has  been  from  the  ver}'  poorest  and  the  most 
worthless  in  the  country.     In  the  cold  season,   when  the  men  have 
nothing  to  sow  or  reap,   two  or  three  hundred  can  be  collected;   but  as 
Roon  as  the  rains  set  in,  all  but  those  that  have  not  bonds,  or  are  not 


1839.]        €xtint  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Auarn*         185 

involved  in  debt,  go  off  to  their  cultivations,  at  the  very  time  when  oui 
Tea  operations  commence.  As  long  as  things  continue  in  this  state^ 
the  price  of  Tea  will  be  higli ;  but  if  this  drawback  were  removed,  there 
is  nothing  to  prevent  our  underselling  the  Chinese,  except  the  experi« 
«nce  of  a  few  more  years. 

But  let  us  return  to  our  Teas,  and  lake  a  comparative  view  of  the 
qualities  of  the  Black  and  Green-Teas,  which  may  nearly  be  as  follows s 
Faho  Black-Tea  leaf  would  muke    Green-Tea,  some  Gunpowder,  and 
some  Young  Hyson.    Pouchong,  although  classed  as  a  second  Black- 
Tea,  on  account  of  the  price  it  fetches   in  the  market,  is  a  third-rate 
leaf,  for  it  is  rather  larger  than  the  Souchong.    Some  of  it  would  make 
Young  Hyson,  and  some  Skin-Tea.     Souchong  would  make  Hyson  and 
Young  Hyson.     Toychong  would  make  Skin-Tea. — I  will  hear  mention 
the  different  kinds  uf  Bla(*k-Teas,  to  make  the  matter  more  clear  to 
those  who   take  an  interest  in  the  subject.     Thowung  Paho  (the  Sung 
fa  is  the  same  leaf  as    this)    is  the  downy  little   leaf  not   expanded, 
and  the  one  next  to  it  that  has  just  unfolded  a  little.    This  Tea  when 
made  appears  full  of  small    white  leaves,   which  are  the  little  downy 
leaves  just  mentioned.  Twazee-Paho  is  from  the  second  crop,  and  near- 
ly the  same  kind  of  Tea,  only  a  little  older  ;  the  leaf  next  the  small  dow- 
ny one  (being  a  little  more  expanded)  and  the  small  leaf  below  this, 
are  taken,  making  three  in  all ;   this  has  also  numerous  white  leaves, 
but  not  so  many  as  the  former.    Souchong  is  the  next  largest  leaf ;  this  is 
well  grown,  but  embraces  all  the  leaves  above  it.  When  the  upper  leaves 
have  grown  out  of  season  for  Thowung- Paho ^  and  T^ir.vzee- PaAo  they  are 
all  plucked  for  the  Souchong  from  the  third  and  fourth  of  the  upper  leaves. 
From  Souchong  leaves,  the  Minchong  and  Sychee  Teas  are  made  in  the 
first  crop,  and  no  other.     Pouchong  is  the  next  largest  leaf;  it  is  a  little 
older  and  larger  than  the   Souchong,    From  this  leaf  the  Sychee  and 
Minchong  Teas  can  be  made  in  the  first  crop  only.    The  Pouchong  is 
never  made    in  the   second  crop,  on  account  of  its  not  having  a  good 
flavour  :  many  of  the  Souchong  leaves  are  mixed  up  in  this  Tea.    The 
7*oyc/ion^  leaves    are  those  that  are  rejected  from  the    Souchong  and 
Pouchong,  as  being   too  large  and  not  taking  the  roll.    When  the  Teas 
are  picked,  these  leaves  are   put  on  one  side.    The  Chinese  often  pal 
them  into  a  bag,and  give  them  a  twist,  something  in  the  Green-Tea  way t 
and  then  mix  them  up  with  the  Souchong  to  add  to  the  weight.    This 
ItAf  (Toychong)  becomes  worse  in  the  second    and  third  crops  ; — it  is  a 
cheap  Tea  and  sold  to  the  poor.    All  the  Black-Teas  that  are  damaged 
have  the  flower  of  what  the  Chinese  call    Qui  fa,  and  another  called 
Son/Of  mixed  up  with  them.    One  pound  of  the  flowers  is  put  to  each 


\ytx  *Sy  -m •?  I T-Jj.  A'-r  h •  T»  s  '  -.Te  V'r»cr  v-11  '..♦  t?i  jnd  mixed 
oj)  «i'!i  '/»'.  r -'.'-,  ?.}»■-«;  I--H7-.'-  t;"v^  »'".r  c  ^  t.>n<i-.;  fr.g-*nce-  Thd 
Sottja  ].'..ii.\  i-  :*b-.iit  |w.,  ff;:  I  '3'.,  ^iiil  k-*i:t  »n  £v«er  fot*  :  i:  Upro- 
puif-i'f'l  ffO'ii  IK  ■  ro /t'.  Ih^  Oif/a  jlint  i*  fMin  three  to  f.nr  feet 
h:{;li  ;  *.n/»  pO'.nd  of  ili**  f*  ,'»--r'.  is  j.'ir  tj  a  mox  of  Tei.  Th'*  pUn:  iraj 
»*!efi  in  lilt  15  ?.i.ic*tl  (jir'l*»ns  i»l  dl  ni'n  hy  our  Ch:iie-e  iiiterpreter* 
Tli»?  flovr-*  of  th'"  I  Un*  a»c  '.«•.  -wl'-c  1  fiij»jr  ih tti  thc-re  of  th'»  Son  fa, 
I  -Aunt^x  a  pMijjIi  d  .;wiii:5  of  e  i .  '1  of  t!i  'm,  a*  pvcn  to  ine  br  ibe  inter* 
pfter  ;   l!i»-r!o's  in  t!?'- d:i%vings  j-re  inU'i:  icd  forsmaVt  fiowf^rs.* 

Til"  B!.ir;k-T'a  ni.k'rs  iiiijcir  lo  me  to  be  very  ariitrary  in 
thf'ir  iriortc  of  iiMniifrictiirf' ;  soinrMJincs  tbey  will  lake  ihe  leaves 
€>r  llie  7'/'Ow»ny'Ptiho,  or  j-eiliaps  Twnz  e^Paho:  but  if  it  bai 
bcon  niiiiiif;,  or  tlicn;  is  any  want  uf  coolies  10  pluck  the  leaves 
qiiii'kly,  or  fr^.m  any  otlicr  c  m^e,  th^y  will  let  the  leavrs  grov 
a  fi'W  dnyH  lotif^r-r,  nnil  turn  all  into  Soarhunj  ;  whicb  it  must  be  re- 
miMiib'TMd,  fak<-s  ail  tbe  !iin:ill  leaver  above  ir.  If  it  is  ibe  first  crop, 
th"  Snurhofifr  and  Ponchnvg  le:ivcs  nuiy  all  be  turned  into  Souchong 
T«'n;  but  c\cn  if  it  is  the  »♦  conl  Top,  whi'u  tb»*  Po"vhong  leaves  ongbt 
Hot  to  !)»•  p-.ithcTf'd,  ibcy  are  neveriliel^ss  pluikc  I  nnd  mixed  up  uiib  the 
JS'ouchonff  \vnvf**i  AIiiu)Sl  all  our  Bla'k  an' I  all  th".  Green  Teas  huve 
just  bfi-n  made  from  one  garden.  Wben  tlie  Gr»*en-Tpa  makers  com- 
plainrd  that  the  lrave«<  wcie  bp^inning  to  get  too  large  for  them — that  is, 
Ibcy  were  fast  growing  out  ot  Soii<h'm_t  and  running  into  Pouchfmg — the 
Bhii'k-Tea  nrikiTs  ti)ok  up  the  manuTit'ture,  )dui-ked  all  the  leaves,  and 
in>ide  excelli-nl  Powhong;  80  that  between  the  two,  there  \s  not  a  leaf 
lost.  WiiiMi  the  lUack-Tca  makers  have  a  garden  to  tbeniselvea  they  are 
truel  plui-kerK,  for  they  almost  strip  the  tree  of  leaves  for  the  SunchoHg^ 
auil  are  not  at  all  nice  in  the  plucking;  the  third  and  even  the  fourth  leaf 
on  a  tender  t\^ig  is  nipped  ufl*in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  ;  (bey  then  look 
about  for  more  young  leaves,  and  away  go  the  Pouvhofig,  and  Toychong 
too,  which  id  (he  largest  leaf  of  all.  But  the  Grceu-Tea  men  pluck  qui- 
etly, one  by  one,  down  t«)  Soucho»g,  The  Black.Tea  men  separate  all 
their  Teas  into  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  crop ;   but  the  Green-Tea 


*  ThcNe  two  iikptchi'4  an*  not  doomed  sufnctrntly  instnictiro  to  bo  melded  here.  On* 
•f  ttirni  i«  i*iitiiU'(l  Qui /it  wliivh  i«  the  nanio  of  the  Olea  frngrans,  or  Sweet-icenttd 
Olire,  thi'  (Iowpim  nf  which  iire  9Aui  to  hf  usvsl  fvtr  perfuming  Teas.  Hut  it  i  morelik* 
tbe  A);lR{a  mloritit.  a  vi-ry  lii iron'Ut  plant,  which  is  also  siippojU'il  to  be  applird  i&  China 
|k>ra  nimilar  ptir|H)»o.  Thiii  la«t.  howvrer,  is  r.ilhd  Ttjiuhnt;  hy  the  Chine>e.  accord- 
liif  to  Uiimpf.  mil!  Sam  yW/>  ^lfl  acconliiig  to  Koxbuigh.  The  other  tketrh,  entitled 
l4iH/<i,  aeein*  to  lio  iutomUMi  for  a  liliaccou*,  or  at  any  rate  aa  e&dogeaoni  pUat.  X 
««  uualile  to  oAbr  aay  conjecture  about   il.—N.  W. 


1839.]         eatcHt  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Planfaiions  m  Assam.  187 

manufacturers  make  no  distinction;  they  prepare  all  the  Tea  they  can, 
throiigliont  the  s«'ason,  box  or  bas^k^t  it  up,  an.l  when  ihe  season  is  over, 
thoy  sei  of  for  Canton  with  their  produce;  at  least  all  those  who  do 
not  wijjii  to  sell  their  Tea  on  ihe  spot.  The  ditforent  merchants  go  in 
quest  of  ii  there.  It  now  in  liscriiiiiniiiely  un  lergoes  the  second  process  ; 
that  is,  the  dilferent  crops  are  all  mixed  up  to«rether.  No  old  leaves  can 
be  mixed  in  the  Green,  as  in  the  Bl  rkTeas  ;  for  the  long  rolling  in 
the  pan  crushes  them,  and  the  fan  blows  thcLO  away,  so  that  only  the 
younq;  leaves  are  left. 

We  shall  now  take  a  companitive  view  of  the  number  of  m?n  required 
by  the  Black  and  tlie  Green-Tea  mikiTs  fi»r  one  pair  of  pans. 

For  the  Black-Tea  makers  Iherv*  wi'l  he  required, 

to  tafeh, 2  men 

"^"^  r o II,  •■•.••>■■•«.••,•«.•    »•«.•••••••.••••«      4      ,, 

—  attend  to  the  Ihe, 1     „ 

—  dry, 1     „ 

-— beac  and  put  in  the  sun, 2    „ 

Total  number  of  men 10 

To  keep  these  men  fully  at  work,  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cooliet 
will  be  required  to  pluck  leaves,  and  they  will  turn  out  about  two  boxes 
of  Tea  per  diy,  (weighing  one  maund,  or  80  poun^ls)  if  the  weather  be 
fine  and  sunny  ;  but  scarcely  half  that  quantity  if  it  be  rainy,  on  account 
of  the  coolies  not  plucking  so  much  on  a  rainy,  as  they  would  on  a  fair 
sunny  day.  As  the  people  of  the  country  become  acquainted  with  the 
gathering  and  manufacturing,  three  boxes,  of  forty  pounds  each,  may  be 
expected  in  fine  weather,  adding  perhaps  a  few  men  to  the  number  of 
coolies. 

A  pair  of  pans  for  the  Green-Tea  makers  would  require  during  the 
first  process, 

totatch, 2  men 

—  receive  the  Tea  from  the  pans, 1     i, 

—  roll,    8    „ 

—  attend  to  the  fire, I     m 

—  put  the  leaves  iu  the  sun  and  turn  them, 4    i, 

Total  number  of  men, 16 

Thirty  coolie:^  would  be  required  to  keep  these  men  iu  full  play,  and 

they  would  turn  out  two  boxes  of  twenty -three  seers,  or  forty-six  pounds 
each,  per  day;  in  all  ninety-iwo  pounds  of  Tea.  If  the  weather  be 
rainyy  of  course  the  produce  is  much  lest :  as  the  gatherers  then  do  only 


188  Beport  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  the  [JrLr 

half  work.  Thus  tlie  cliTiMcnce  between  Black  an'l  Greon  is,  that  the 
former  requires  six  manutHtruiLTs  less;  ami  that  when  the  Black-Tea  is 
finished,  boxed,  iind  reiidy  for  oxporintion,  the  Gr<*on  \\\^  only  under- 
gone the  first  process,  and  is  but  half  finished  ;  alllionvh  it  is  ready  for 
exportation  to  any  appointed  place  to  receive  the  fiiMi  and  f  roublesoine 
as  well  as  most  ex|MMihivc  part  of  the  pio-'ess.  Nevertheless  the  first 
part  of  the  Gr<*cn-Tca  preparation  is  easily  learnt  by  the  natives  of  this 
place  in  about  two  or  three  months.  In  speaking  of  the  trouble  and  ex- 
pense attending  the  second  proi^ess  of  llie  Green-Tea  making,  I  beg  to 
observe  that  it  appears  to  me,  from  what  little  I  have  seen  of  it,  that 
machinery  might  easily  be  brought  to  bear;  and  as  Assam  is  about  to 
become  a  great  Tea  country,  it  behoves  iis  to  looU  to  this.  The  Tea 
half  made,  as  above  described,  I  am  informed  by  the  Green-Tea  China- 
men now  with  mo,  is  put  either  into  boxes  or  baskets,  wiili  bamboo 
leaves  between ;  it  has  to  make  in  this  state  a  long  journey  by  land 
and  water,  and  then  to  go  one  or  more  months  in  a  boat  by  sea,  be- 
fore it  reaches  Canton,  where  it  is  laid  atside  for  one  or  two  months 
more,  before  it  undergoes  the  second  process*  making  in  all  about 
five  months  from  the  time  it  was  first  prepared.  All  that  is  r'^quired 
is  to  keep  it  dry.  Now  if  all  this  be  true,  which  1  have  no  doubt  it  i^, 
I  sec  no  reason  why  we  could  not  send  it  to  England,  and  have  it 
made  up  there.  I  rather  see  every  thing  in  favour  of  such  a  plan, 
&nd  nothing  against  it.  After  a  year's  instruction  under  Chinamen,  it 
might  be  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  Englishmen  to  roll,  sift,  and  clean  the 
Tea  by  machinery,  and,  iu  fact,  reduce  the  price  of  the  Green-Tea  nearly 
one-half,  and  thus  enable  the  poor  to  drink  pood  unadulterated  Green- 
Tea,  by  throwing  the  indigo  and  sulphate  of  lime  overboard.  At  all 
events  the  experiment  is  worthy  of  a  fair  trial,  and  the  first  step  to- 
wards it  would  be  to  manufacture  the  Tea  at  Calcutta;  or  perhaps  it 
would  be  better  to  let  the  China  Green-Tea  makers  go  direct  to  Eng- 
land along  with  it,  and  have  it  manufactured  there  at  once. 

Now  for  a  word  about  the  Lead-canister  maker,  who  is  a  very  impor- 
tant man  in  our  establishment;  lor  ^^ithout  him,  we  could  not  pack  our 
Teas. — On  two  tiles  about  an  inch  thick  and  sixteen  inches  square,  is 
pasted,  on  one  side,  a  sheet  of  very  fine  thick  paper,  said  to  have  been 
made  in  Cochin-China,  over  this  another  sheet  is  pasted  only  at  the 
edges.  The  pa]>cr  must  be  very  smooth,  and  without  any  kind  of  hole, 
knob,  or  blemish.  To  make  it  answer  the  purpose  better,  fine  chalk  is 
rubbed  over  it.  The  tiles  thus  prepared  arc  laid  one  over  the  other 
and  moved  backwards  and  forwards,  to  ascertaiu  if  they  work  smoothly. 


1839.]        extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  tn  Assam,  189 

The  lower  tile  rests  on  two  pieces  of  wood,  about  four  inches  in 
thickness,  and  the  exact  length  of  the  tile.  The  room  where  the  sheets 
of  lead  arc  made  must  be  very  smooth  and  level,  as  the  tiles  are  aj)t  to 
break  when  there  is  any  unequal  pressure  on  them.  In  the  corner  of 
the  room  there  is  a  sunken  brick  fire-place,  the  upper  part  of  which 
rises  just  a  little  above  the  floor ;  into  this  fire-place  is  inserted  one  of 
the  cast  iron  pans  used  for  making  Tea,  and  in  one  corner  of  the  masonry 
is  a  vent  hole  on  which  iu  general  a  Tea-kettle  stands.  The  pan  is  heat- 
ed by  a  wood  fire  ;  an  iron  ladle  with  a  handle,  about  six  or  eight  inches 
long,  answers  the  purpose  of  taking  the  lead  out  of  the  pan  when  re- 
quireil.  The  pan  mny  hohl  about  twenty  pounds.  There  is  also  ano- 
ther ladle  with  a  long  handle,  and  holes  at  the  bottom,  to  take  the  dross 
off.  When  lead  for  the  sides  of  the  boxes  is  required,  the  proportion  of 
one  mound  of  lead  to  five  seers  of  tin  is  put  into  the  pan.  When  well 
melted  and  freed  from  dross,  the  two  tiles  above  mentioned  are  placed 
on  the  two  pieces  of  wood,  one  piece  being  nearly  under  the  centre, 
and  the  other  at  the  edge  of  the  luwer  tile  ;  the  upper  tile  is  placed  on 
the  lower  tile  even  and  square,  projecting  perhaps  a  little  backward  to- 
wards the  operator.  The  tiles  being  thus  placed  near  the  melted  lead, 
the  Chinaman  squats  down  on  them,  placing  his  heels  near  the  edge, 
with  his  toes  towards  the  centre;  while  with  his  left  hand  he  lays  hold 
of  the  comer  tile,  and  with  the  right  holds  the  short  ladle,  which  he 
dips  into  the  boiler,  and  takes  out  about  half  a  ladleful  of  the  molten 
metal,  tipping  up  the  upper  tile  with  the  left  hand  about  three  inches, 
at  the  same  time  assisting  this  operation  by  pressing  on  his  heels  and 
gently  lifting  his  toes.  The  upper  tile  being  thus  raised  he  dashes  in 
the  contents  of  the  ladle  between  both,  lets  go  with  the  left  hand,  and 
presses  on  with  his  toes,  which  brings  the  upper  tile  with  some  force 
to  its  former  position  over  the  lower  one,  and  occasions  the  superfluous 
lead  to  gush  out  right  and  left  and  in  front.  The  upper  tile  is  then 
raised  like  the  lid  of  a  box,  while  the  lower  one  rests  on  the  piece  of 
projecting  wood  underneath,  and  a  fine  thin  sheet  of  lead,  nearly  the 
size  of  the  tiles,  is  taken  out,  and  thrown  on  one  side ;  the  upper  tile  is 
then  gently  lowered  down,  another  ladle  of  hot  lead  dashed  in,  and  so 
on  in  quick  succession,  about  four  sheets  of  lead  being  made  in  one 
minute.  The  lower  tile  projecting  a  little  beyond  the  upper  one  assists 
the  man  to  lay  the  ladle  on,  and  pour  in  the  metal  firmly  and  quickly. 
To  vary  the  operation,  the  man  sometimes  stands  up  and  places  one  foot 
on  the  upper  tile,  working  with  his  heel  and  toes,  the  same  as  if  both 
feet  were  on,  and  just  as  quickly.    Many  interruptions  take  place,  such 


190  R.^poi't  -'n  .'A.f  manu/a''fure  of  TecL,  and  on  the  [Jult 

as  exsniiiiinij  the  papf^rs  on  tlie  tiles  nihbinjf  thnni  wi^i  chalk,  tiirning 
tlicm  ic'ii  vl,    ;.ii  I   i«  \ii>iii«;  ilieni.    Sdiiutlnv's  linlf  a  split  LHmboo  ia 
placed  in  f.-  n'  hw  1  un  l»'r  "he  lilo**,  wirh  a  piei-e  of  p.iper  on  it,  to  receive 
the  leai  'I'.iiJ  i.li^  !:r.vn,  s'»  thai  if  ni  y  m'»i   come  in  ro»ta*t  with    the 
ground.     Tlii-^  I'J'I  is  ovt»ry  now   .\w\   hem  tikeu  up  anJ  put  hark  into 
th»»b.'i!cr.     A  :.i  .uii  1  oflei'd  may  ninke  Ji!»i;iU  twelve  or  thineun  boxes, 
which  wi  I  h  hi   t<'r!y  pui.u.l--.     Th»re  hp'  hI.s-i  iwu  ojher  lil  -s.  «b<»nt  a 
cubit  squa!"  ;  tl:i"»e  rin'  use  1  f  t  m-.kinij  the  um  s  of  lIi'J  cuni-Jicrs,  whicli 
are  gem»rfiny  "f  lin  ou'y,  hut  can  aUo  b*-  male  from  ili«'  ahove  mix:  ira. 
It  is  nt'cc^^iry  in  iiink'iiij  :his  shect-Ii*.  il,  to  hoM  th**  .sh«*ets  up  and  ex- 
amine then)  ;  for  if  nol  jr-perly  pr»i  .»^l^l,  Miere  are  »so:netim<»'<  a  nuinher 
of  very  line  holes  i.i  ih-in,  whi  h  are  not  piTcepti'ile  when  lyinor  ,,h  \\^q 
ground  or  t:Abl'».     On  this  account  the    tirst  t\ve:iiy  *•  beets  ofleaJ  ara 
thrown  asi  le  :ind  rejetMed,  eve  i   without  .my  ex  Miinifitm.     Wh?n   the 
tiles  h.iv«»  becom'^  nice  :in  I   warm,  it  is  then  th-^  tine  an!  even    «h«'etSf 
without  holes,  are  obt;iine  1.     Bjf<'ie  a  sijeet-le;i'l   c.ini.-ter  c^m  I»e  made, 
it  is  neoess.iry  to  have  a  mo  hd  hex  uiad'^  to  fir  into  the  wooden  box,  that 
is  to  hold  the  "sheet-lcid  cani<ier:  on  this  hox<»r>hidI  the  sJiert  leaJ  ea- 
nislt^- is  ma-le.     1'  has  a  h(»le  at  the  b:>t!>in   to  pnvi'nt.  :inv  sn 'ti'>ii  in 
pultii'g  it   iij,   <T  dr.iw'ng    it  out   of    the  Ix'x    or    ennist'T:    anl    ia« 
stt-ad  of  a  top    it  his  a    b.ir  of  wood  u^toks,    by  whirh  it   i*  drawn 
out.      Fur  Si'id  liii-,  tin,   with   the  eiglith  or  twcdf  h  part  uf  quick- 
•liver,    aid    mi'.'c    r«  sin  ;ire  ust  d.     'Jiie  wood  p.irt   cf  >oiiie    of  the 
bcx's  is  eo\«K''l  with   piij^er  p;i»jie'l   on  and  dried  in    the  sun       To 
give  thf*  ]i.«per  on    the  l.'ox»'s  :i  yellow  c<dour,  a  mixture  of  piste  with 
pulv.Mi'/rd  and  silted  sailuui    is  laid   on  luul  dried.    The  paper  on  the 
corners  of   the  boxes  is  orn;unented  by  means  of  a  wooden  block  will] 
flowers  carve  I  on  it  ;  on  this  bit  of  wood  very  ihin  pip»»r,  cut  to  its  size, 
is  placi'd,  and  a  mixture,  con^iistin^  of  pulverizi'd  saffron,  indigo,  and 
Trater,having  a  deep  ^vt^en  colour,is  luid  sin'4:ly  <  n  ea -h  bit  of  paper  with 
a  brush  made  of  eot-o-anut  fibres.  These  slips  of  pajjer  are  put  one  above 
the  other,  twenty  thiik,  oi  as  lon^  as  the  paper  takes  the  impression  of 
the  cawed  wood  bel«>w.     Wh(»n  the  corn»^rs  of  the  boxes  have  been  or- 
namented wiih  ti'.is  pciper  iind  dried,  another  mixture,  about  the  propor- 
tion of  four  seers  of  oil  to  three  seers  of  rosin,  boiled   together,  is  appli. 
ed  Willi  a  coco-iinut  brush  over  all  the  boxes  as  a  finish;  after  these  are 
dry  they  are  ready  for  the  Tea. 


1839.]        extent  and  produce  of  the  T$a  Plantations  in  Assam*  191 

The  following  tabic  will  shew  the  size  nnd  produce  of  Ibe  Tea  Iractt 
now  worked,  and  the  ]>robable  aiuounl  of  Tea  for  this  and  the  next 
season. 


Names    (if   Tea 

trnctfl   fully 
woikvd  in  l^iS. 


No.  1  Trinsjri, 
tin.  i  Tiin^iri, 
No.  1  Kiiliiiii*;. 
^o.   1  Cliub^a, 
Deviijoy 


L('n;;th   and 
breadth  uf 
Tea  tiaois. 

NntnbtT  of 
t>iiiiitM  ill 
v'M'h  T»'a 
fr..rt. 

•,>h7  l>y    90 
i:>5  by    70 
4jiO  1  y  3!0 
1(H)  liv  100 
223  by  lU 

5.(()0 

1.3«.(m0 

8,400 

From  Shady  Tracts, 


Averajp  pro- 
tlupo  of  Kinj^Ie 
Tea  i>iaiits. 


Produce  la 
1K38. 


4  Sn.  W.Mjrbt.     1  SW  Seen* 
I'MI      .. 


:M2S:«    VV,.jJ,t, 

4  8a.  Wri^'bl. 

"4  Sa.  Weiyhl, 

is  £Sa.  Weight, 


f:hO 
'110 
ifiO 


1,720 
390 


3.110 


The  probable  increase  of  the  above  Tracts  for  1839. 
Probable  i»Tc»dupo  of  1839 


527 


Remaiks. 


2,037  Set'r« 


The  pinnts  art 
sinull  in  thli 
tract  iiicludinf 
China  plants. 


5,S74  Ihi. 


Kamea  of  the 
tracts  to  bi> 
Urorkediu  1840. 


No.  2  KaVon;;, 
No.  3        Do. 
No.  2  Chiibwa, 

N(>vhulea, 

Tipwn, 

Jii)>uiidoo, 

Ningrew, 


Len<;th  and 
bre  dth  of 
Tea  tracts. 


192  by 
215  by 
IfO  by 
476  b> 
344  by 
400  by 
300  by 


NumltoT  of 

plants  in 

each  Tea 

tract. 


Proba>ile 

pro('ih'e  i>f  one 

Tia  plant. 


114     ' 

4.7-JO 

7<) 

3.440 

70 

2.  IJO 

160 

iri,4H0 

Z-l 

21  (;.0 

5J0O 

17.;  00 

lb9 

12.200 

3  8a.  Weljrht, 

3  8«.  Weiffht, 

3  Sa.  Wcltrht, 

3  Sa.  Wei;;ht, 

3  Sa.  W.ij;ht, 

3  Sa.  Weijrht, 

3  Ba.  Weight. 


The  Probable  produce  of  the  above  7  tracts.... 
Add  the  piobable  produce  of  the  other  5  tracts. 


Proba*  le  produce  of  ell  the  tracts  in  1840. 


ProUble 

uiuiliif'c  in 

1840 


177 
129 

618 
frJ2 
648 
4ri9 


2,943 
2,63: 


Remarks. 


\ 


The  plants  III 
these  tractt 
now  small  I 
will  not  yield  t 
i;ood  crop  for 
two  years. 


«.580    11,160  lbs. 


It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  is  a  rough  calculation,  and  I 
only  give  th^  f  robuble  amount.  Most  of  these  plants  are  very  young,  or 
have  betn  recently  cut  down;  a  few  years  hence  the  plums  may  yield 
twice  the  above  quantity.  The  first  table  exhibits  the  absolute  produce 
of  I8;'i8.  Now  let  us  suppose  a  new  settler  were  to  take  land  in  these 
parts:  what  would  be  his  expenses  if  he  were  only  to  cultivate  Tea,  and 
had  to  clear  forest  land  (in  the  vicinity  of  the  Tea)  ten  times  the  size  of 
Aotr/fo/eaA,  which  is,  say  400  by  '^00  yard.*!,  and  which  would  rost  him 
20u  Rupees  to  clear.  Tf  n  such  tracts  would  cover  8,00,000  square  yards* 
Kow,  to  cover  this  surface  of  ground  with  Tea  pLmts,  and  the  plants  six 
feet  apart  each  way.  3,55,555  plants  would  be  required;  but  if  two  plants 
were  to  be  placed  together,  as  I  would  recommend,  then  7fH, 110  plant* 


192                 Report  on  the  manufacture  of  Tea,  and  on  the  [July 

would  be  required.    The  cost  would  probably  be  at  the  rate  of  five  an- 
nas for  300  plants ;  thus : 

The  clearing  of  10  tracts,  each  400  by  200  yards, 2,000  0  0 

7,11,110  Tea  plants,  at  5  annas  for  300,. 740  11  8 

Planting  the  above 474  0  0 

Weeding  each  tract  3  times  each  ye;ir,  at  30  Rs.  each  tract,     900  0  0 

5  Tea  houses,  at  50  Rs.  each, 250  0  0 

200  Iloes  at  1  Rupee  each, , 200  0  0 

100  Axes  at  1  Rupee  each 100  0  0 

100  Daws  at  1  Rupee  each 100  0  0 

Dollahs,  Chullonis,  &c.,  bamboo  apparatus, 200  0  0 

5  Saws  at  5  Rupees  each, % 40  0  0 

Charcoal  and  firewood  for  baking  the  Tea, 200  0  0 

40  Cast-iron  pans,  at  4  Rs.  each, 160  0  0 

Paper  for  Tea  boxes, 100  0  0 

Chalk  and  Indigo, 50  0  0 

3  Maunds  of  Nails  of  sizes,  at  10  Rs.  per  mauud, 30  0  0 

2  Elephants  at  150  Rs.  each, 300  0  0 

2  Elephant  mahoots  at  6  Rs.  each  per  month,  ..« 144  0  0 

2  Elephant  mates  at  4  Rs.  em-h  per  month, 9G  0  0 

Bice  for  2  Elephants, 96  0  0 

Lead  for  888  boxes,  at  3  seers  per  box  containing  20  seers, 

at  8  Hs.  per  maund, 532  12  9 

A  Cooly  sirdar  at  10  Rs.  per  month, 120  0  0 

10  Duffidars,  or  Overseers  of  coolies  at  3  Rs.  per  month,...     360  0  0 
Coolies  to  collect  leaves,  30  to  each  tract,  20  days  to  each 
crop;  for  3  crops,  or  GO  days,  at  3  Rs.  for  each  man 

per  month, 1,800  0  0 

4  Native  carpenters,  at  12  Rs.  ditto, 576  0  0 

8  Sawyers,  at  4  Rs.  ditto, « 384  0  0 

2  Native  Lead-canister  makers,  at  12  Rs.  ditto, 288  0  0 

Coolies  to  bring  in  timber  for  Sawyers 150  0  0 

6  Chinamen  at  30  Rs.  each  per  month, 1,800  0  0 

120  Native  Tea  makers  at  5  Rs.  each,  for  5  months,  or 

one  season, 3,000  0  0 

Freight  to  Calcutta, 400  0  0 

Pilto  to  England, 1,000  0  0 


Total  outlay  for  10  tracts,  Co*s.  B8...16,591     8    5 


1839]        extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Assam.         193 


Deduct  charges  that  are  not  annual^  viz, — 

Clearing  of  tracts, * 2,000 

Purcliiise  of  Tea  plants, 740 

Planting  ditto, 474 

Building  Tea  houses, 150 

Purchase  of  Hoes, 200 

Do.  Axes, .... , , ,  100 

Do.  Daws, 100 

Do.  Siiws, 40 

Do.  Bamboo  apparatus, 200 

Do.  Elephants, 300    0    0  4,304    0    0 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


8    5 


Total  annual  outlay  on  10  tracts,  12,287 
Average  produce  of  3,55,555  tea  plants  at  4  Su.  \ 
Wt.  each  plant,   is  444  Mds.  or    17,777   Srs.  f  qa  »i«i^    n    n 

or  35,554  lbs.  at  2jr.,  or  I   rupee,  per  pound  f'"      ^'^^*    ^    " 
would  be, ) 


Aiinual  outlay  Go's.  Rs. 

For      10  tracts, 12,287 

For    100  tracts, 1,22,870 

For  1000  tracts, 12,28,700 


Annual  profit  on  10  tracts,  Go's.  Rs.  23,266     7    7 

Annual  projitg         Go's.  Rs. 

On      1 0  tracts 23,266 

On    100  tracU 2,32,660 

On  1000  tracts, 23,26,600 


N.  B.—The  deduction  of  4304  Rs.  not  being  annaal   ouUajr  is  not  included  in  this 
calculation  abore  10  Tracts. 


Tea  tract. 
Required  for  i 

for       10 
for      100 


Takelab. 

Coolies. 

10 

30 

100 

300 

1000 

3000 

Duflfadars. 
1 

10 
100 

It  must  be  remembered  that  this  calculation  has  been  made  on 
3,55,555  plants,  not  on  double  that  number  as  I  proposed,  viz.  to  plant 
them  in  pairs,  which  would  certainly,  on  the  lowest  calculation,  increase 
the  profits  thirty  per  cent.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  also,  that  4  sicca 
weight  is  not  the  full  produce  of  each  plant ;  when  full  grown  it  will 
yield  double  that,  or  8  sicca  weigh t,and  some  even  as  high  as  10  to  12  sic- 
ca weight.  I  have  calculated  at  the  rate  of  4  sicca,  which  was  absolutely 
produced  in  1838.  The  plant  will,  I  should  think,  produce  25  per  cent 
more  this  year,  and  go  on  increasing  to  what  I  have  above  mentioned. 
But  then,  on  the  other  hand,  the  items  which  1  have  set  down,  are  not  all 
that  will  be  required  to  carry  on  this  trade  on  an  extensive  scale.  The 
superintendence,  numerous  additional  artizans  that  will  be  required,  and 
a  thousand  little  wants  which  cannot  be  set  down  now,  but  which  must 


IM  BifdH  on  ihe  maiuifadure  of  Tea,  and  on  th§  [July 

necessarily  arise  from  the  nature  of  (be  culiivaiion  and  manufkcturfy 
Tvill  go  far  to  diminish  the  profits,  and  swell  the  outlay  ;  but  this  of 
course  will  last  but  a  few  years,  until  the  natives  of  the  coontry  have 
been  taught  to  compete  with  Chinamen.  It  should  also  be  remembered, 
that  the  calculation  1  have  made  on  ten  tracts  is  on  a  supposition  that 
we  have  a  sufficient  number  of  native  Tea-makers  and  Canister-makers, 
which  will  not  be  the  case  for  two  or  three  years  to  come.  It  is  on  this 
point  alone  that  we  are  deficient,  for  the  Tea  phinls  and  lands  are  be^re 
us.  Yes,  there  is  another  very  great  drawback  to  the  cultivation  of  Tea 
in  this  country,  and  which  1  believe  I  before  noticed,  namely  the  want  of 
population  and  labourers.  They  will  have  to  be  imported  and  settled 
on  the  soil,  which  will  be  a  heary  tax  on  the  first  outlay  ;  but  this,  too, 
will  rectify  itself  in  a  few  yeara ;  for,  after  the  importation  of  some 
thousands,  others  will  come  of  themselves,  and  the  redundant  population 
of  Bengal,  will  pour  into  Assam,  as  soon  as  the  people  know  that  they 
will  get  a  certain  rate  of  pay,  as  well  as  lands,  for  the  support  of  their 
fiiroilies.  If  this  should  be  the  case,  the  Assamese  language  will  in  a  few 
years  be  extinct. 

I  might  here  observe,  that  the  British  Government  would  confer 
a  lasting  blessing  on  the  Assamese  and  the  new  settlers,  if  immediate 
and  active  measures  were  taken  to  put  down  the  cultivation  of  Opium 
ii  Assam,  and  afterwards  to  stop  its  importation,  by  levying  high 
duties  on  Opium  land.  If  something  of  this  kind  is  not  done, 
and  done  quickly  too,  the  thousands  that  are  about  to  emigrate  from 

the  plains  into  Assam,  will  soon  be  infected  with  the  Opium-mania, 

that  dreadful  plagug,  which  has  depopulated  this  beantiful  country, 
turned  it  into  a  land  of  wild  beasts,  with  which  it  is  overrun,  and  has 
degenerated  the  Assamese,  from  a  fine  race  of  |>eop1e,  to  the  most  abject, 
servile,  crafty,  and  demoralized  race  in  India.  This  vile  drug  has  kept, 
and  does  now  keep,  down  the  population  ;  the  women  have  fewer  chil« 
dren  compared  with  those  of  other  countries,  and  the  children  seldom 
live  to  become  old  men,  but  in  general  die  at  manhood  ;  Tery  few  old 
men  being  seen  in  this  unfortunate  country,  in  comparison  with  others. 
Few  but  those  who  have  resided  long  in  this  unhappy  land  know  the 
dreadful  and  immoral  effects,  which  the  use  of  Opium  produces  on 
the  native.  He  will  steal,  sell  his  properly,  his  children,  the  mother 
of  his  children,  and  finally  even  commit  murder  for  it.  Would  it  not  be 
the  highest  of  blessings,  if  our  humane  and  enlightened  Government 
would  stop  these  evils  by  a  single  dash  of  the  pen,  and  save  Assam,  and 
all  those  who  are  about  to  emigrate  into  it  as  Tea  cultivators,  from  the 


1839]        extent  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Planiaiions  in  Assam,  195 

dreadful  results  attendant  on  the  hiibitual  use  of  Opium  P  We  should 
in  the  end  be  ricldy  rewarded,  by  liaving  a  fine,  healthy  race  of  men 
glowing  up  for  our  plantations,  to  fell  our  forests,  to  clear  the  land  from 
jungle  and  wild  beasts,  and  to  plant  and  cultivate  the  lunory  of  the 
world.  This  can  never  be  affected  by  the  enfeebled  Opium-eaters  of 
Assam,  who  are  more  effeminate  than  women.  I  have  dwelt  thus  long 
on  the  subject,  thinking  it  one  of  great  importance,  as  it  will  affect  our 
future  prospects  in  regard  to  Tea;  also  from  a  wish  to  benefit  thii 
people,  and  sa?e  those  Mrho  are  coming  here,  from  catcbiag  the  plague^ 
by  our  using  timely  measures  of  prevention. 

Monthly  outlay   of  th4  present  standing  EittMishment, 

Co:*  R$. 

Superintendent , 500  0  0 

Ist  Assistant  to  Do 100  0  0 

2d         Do.          Do 70  0  0 

I  Chinese  Black-Tea  maker, 55  11  6 

1  Ditto  Assistant  to    Ditto 11  1  6 

1  Ditto  Tea-box  maker, 45  0  0 

I  Ditto  Interpreter, 45  0  0 

1  Ditto  Tea-box  maker, 15  8  6 

2  Ditto  Green-Tea  makers,  at  15:  8:  6  each, 31  1  0 

1  Ditto  Tea-box  maker, 33  4  6 

1  Ditto  Lead-canister  maker, 22  3  0 

24  Native  Black-Tea  makers,  at  5  each, 120  0  0 

12  Native  Green-Tea  makers,  at  5  each,  ...•••  t 60  0  0 

1  Native  Carpenter, 4  0  0 

1  Coolie  Sirdar, 10  0  0 

4  Mahoute,  at  6  each, 24  0  0 

4  Ditto  Mates,  at  4  each, , 16  0  0 

Bice  for  4  Elephants  per  month, *••#••  18  0  0 

4  Sawyers,  at  4  each, •  16  0  0 

2  DiUc  runners,  at  3:  8:  0  each, 7  0  0 

4  Duffadars,  at  3  each, 12  0  0 

Fixed  monthly  expenditure  in  Assam,. • •       1,215  14    0 

Cash  paid  to  Chinese  families  in  China, 131    2    G 

Total  monthly  ezpeoditurei 1»347    0    6 

or  16,000  a  year,  not  including  coolies  and  other  items.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  this  establishment  has  been  confined  to  a  few  tracts 


196  Report  on  (he  manufacture  of  Tea^  and  on  the  [Jult 

An  experiment,  and  has  never  been  fully  worked.    The  Chinese  Oreen- 
Tea  makers.  Canister-makers  and   Interpreter,  have  lately  been  added 
to  the  eatablisliment ;  their  services  have  not  as  yet  been  brought  into 
account.    We  are  just  now  availing  ourselves  of  them  by  making  Green^ 
Tea ;  and  as  the  natives  at  present  placed  under  them  become  available, 
large  quantities  of  excellent  Green-Tea  will  be  manufactured.    1  suppose 
two  Chinamen  might  qualify  twenty-four  natives  for  the  first  process; 
the  second,  as  I  have  already  recommended,   might  be  performed  io 
England,  which  in  my  humble  opinion  would  effect  a  great  saving,  by 
getting  machinery  to  do  the  greater  part  of   the  work.     At  all  events, 
it  never  could  be  manufactured  in  Assam  without  a  great  expense,  and 
this  for  want  of  labourers.     However,  it  is  gratifying  to  see  how  fast  the 
Chinese  acquire  the  Assamese  language;  for,  after  they  have  been  a 
year  in  the  country,  they  begin  to  speak  sufficiently  well  for  all  ordina- 
ry purposes,  so  that  an  interpreter  can  very  well  be  dispensed  with.  Our 
Chinamen  can  speak  the  Assamese  language  much  better  than  ihe  in- 
terpreter can  the  English  language.    They  are  a  violent,   headstrong, 
and  passionate   people,  more   especially  as  they  are  aware  we  are  so 
much  in  their  power.     If  the  many  behave  as  do  the  few,  a  Thannah 
would  be  necessary  to  keep  them  cool. 

With  respect  to  what  are  called  the  Sivgpho  Tea  tracts,  I  am  sorry 
to  say  we  have  not  been  able  this  year  to  get  a  leaf  from  them,  on 
account  of  the  disturbances  that  have  lately  occurred  there;  nor  do  I 
believe  we  shall  get  any  next  year,  unless  we  establish  a  post  at  AVji- 
grew^  which  I    think  is  the  only  effectual  way  to   keep  the  country 
quiet,  and  secure  our  Tea.    The  Tea  from  these   tracts  is  said  by  the 
Chinamen  to  be  very  fine.    Some  of  the  tracts  are  very  extensive,  and 
many  may  run  for  miles  into  the  jungles  for  what  we  know ;  the  whole 
of  the  country  is  capable  of  being  turned  into  a  vast  Tea  garden,  the  soil 
being  excellent,  and  well  adapted  for  the  growth  of  Tea.    On  both 
sides  of  the  Buri-Dehing  river  the  Tea  grows   indigenous ;  it  may  be 
traced  from  tract  to  tract  to  Hookum,  thus  forming  a  chain  of  Tea  tracts 
from  the  Irrawaddy  to  the  borders  of  China,  east  of  Assam.    Ever  since 
my  residence  at  Sudiya  this  has  been  confirmed  year  after  year  by  many 
of  my  Kamtee,  Singpho,  and  Dewaneah  acquaintances,   who  have  tra- 
versed this  route.     It  is  therefore  important  for  us  to  look  well  to  oar 
Eastern  frontier,  on  account  of  our  capability  to  extend  our  Tea  cultiva- 
tion in  that  direction.    England  alone  consumes  31,829,620  lbs.  nearlj 
four  laks  of  maunds,  annually.    To  supply  so  vast  a  quantity  of  Tea,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  cultivate  all  the  hills  and  valleys  of  Assam  ;  and  on 
this  ?ery  account  a  post  at  Ningttw  becomes  doubly  necessary.    A  few 


1839]        egtetU  and  produce  of  the  Tea  Plantations  in  Assam.  197 

years  hence,  it  may  be  found  expedient  to  advance  this  frontier  post  to 
the  top  of  the  Patkai  hill,  the  boundary  line  of  our  eastern  frontier. 
Any  rupture  with  Burmah  would  add  to  our  Tea  trade,  by  taking  from 
them  Hookwn  and  Munkoom,  and  having  the  Irrawaddy  as  our  boundary 
line.  These  countries  are  nominally  under  the  Burmese,  as  they  pay  a 
small  annual  tribute  ;  but  this  can  never  be  collected  without  sending 
an  armed  force.  Tbey  are  said  to  be  thinly  inhabited,  the  population 
being  kept  down  by  the  constant  broils  and  wars,  which  one  petty  place 
makes  upon  another  for  the  sake  of  plunder.  All  the  inhabitants  drink 
Tea,  but  it  is  not  manufactured  in  our  way ;  few,  it  is  said,  cultivate 
the  plant.  I  have  for  years  been  trying  to  get  some  seeds  or  plants  from 
them,  but  have  never  succeeded,  on  account  of  the  disturbed  state  in 
which  they  live.  The  leaves  of  their  Tea  plants  have  always  been  re- 
presented to  me  as  being  much  smaller  than  ours. 

Muttuck  is  a  country  that  abounds  in  Tea,  and  it  might  be  made  one 
extensive,  beautiful  Tea  garden.  We  have  many  cultivated  experimental 
tracts  in  it;  we  know  of  numerous  extensive  uncultivated  tracts,  and  it 
appears  to  me  that  we  are  only  in  the  infancy  of  our  discoveries  as  yet* 
Our  Tea,  however,  is  insecure  here,  ft  was  but  a  month  or  two  ago  that 
so  great  an  alarm  was  created,  that  my  people  had  to  retire  from  our  Tea 
gardens  and  manufacture  at  Deenjoy  and  Chubwa,  which  will  account 
for  the  deficiency  of  this  year's  crop.  Things  must  continue  in  this 
state  until  the  government  of  the  country  is  finally  settled ;  for  we  are 
at  present  obliged,  in  order  to  follow  a  peaceful  occupation,  to  hare  the 
means  of  defending  ourselves  from  a  sudden  attack,  ever  since  the  un- 
fortunate affairs  at  Sudiya.  Before  the  transfer  of  the  Tea  tracts  in  this 
country  can  be  made,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  justice  to  all  parties,  to 
know  if  Muttuck  is,  or  is  to  become,  ours  or  not.  The  natives  at  present 
are  pennitted  to  cultivate  as  much  land  as  they  please,  on  paying  a  poll- 
tax  of  two  rupees  per  year;  so  that  if  the  country  is  not  ours,  every  man 
employed  on  the  Tea  will  be  subject  to  be  called  on  for  two  rupees  per 
annum,  to  be  paid  to  the  old  Bura  Senaputy's  son,  as  governor  of  the 
country.  This  point  is  of  vital  importance  to  our  Tea  prospects  up  here« 
Many  individuals  might  be  induced  to  take  Tea  grounds,  were  they 
sure,  that  the  soil  was  ours,  and  that  they  would  be  protected  and  per- 
mitted  to  cultivate  it  in  security. 

In  looking  forward  to  the  unbounded  benefit  the  discovery  of  this 
plant  will  produce  to  England,  to  India, — to  Millions,  I  cannot  but 
thank  God  for  so  great  a  blessing  to  our  country.  When  I  first  discover- 
ed it,  some  14  years  ago,  1  little  thought  that  I  should  have  been  spared 
long  enough  to  see  it  become  likely  eventually  to  rival  that  of  China 


199  Literary  and  Scientific  InUlligence.  [Jm 

and  fhat  I  should  have  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  bringing  it  to  so  suc- 
cessful an  issue.  Should  what  I  have  written  on  this  new  and  interest- 
Ittg  subject  be  of  any  benefit  to  the  country,  and  the  commnnity  at  large, 
and  help  a  little  to  impel  the  Tea  forward  to  enrich  our  own  dominions, 
and  pull  down  the  haughty  pride  of  China,  I  shall  feel  myself  richly  re- 
paid for  all  the  perils  and  dangers  and  fatigues,  that  I  have  undergone 
in  the  cause  of  British  India  "^ea, — Journal  of  the  Atiatie  Society  of 
Bengal,  No,  ^O.—^une  1839. 

Jaipore,  \Oth  June,  1839. 


Literary  and  Scientific  Ixtelligence. 

Adverting  to  the  merited  eulogium  passed  by  Mr.  Jebdon  at  page  63 
of  this  Number,  on  B.  H.  Hodosom,  Esq.  British  Resident  at  llie  Court  of 
Nipal,  we  regret  to  ind  from  the  former  gentleman  that  difficulties  lie 
in  the  way  of  the  publication  of  the  projected  work  on  the  Zoology  of 
N  ipal,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  passage  of  a  letter  received 
by  Mr.  Jebdon  from  Sir  Wm.  Jardinl: — **  About  200  species  of  birds 
from  Nipal  are  now  in  my  possession,  one  half  of  which  are  new ;  but 
I  am  pledged  not  to  describe  any  of  them,  except  in  a  general  and 
entire  work;  and,  notwithstanding  the  large  list  of  Indian  Subscribers, 
we  cannot  get  a  bookseller  to  run  the  risk  of  publishing^  on  accountir 
they  say,  of  the  difficulty  of  eoUectiiig  the  Indian  money.*' 

The  publication  will  not,  however^  with  such  admirable  materials  in 
csistence,  be  permitted  ultimately  to  fail  for  want  of  peciuiiasy 
we  are  sure»  but  the  delay  is  deeply  to  be  regretted. 


Oriental  Translation  Fund. — The  committee  of  the  Oriental 
Translation  Fund  being  desirous  of  submitting  to  the  Subscribers  a 
general  summary  of  their  proceedings  for  the  past  year,  believie  they 
cannot  do  so  more  clearly  than  by  giving  the  subjoined  notice,  extracted 
from  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  delivered  at  the  anniver- 
sary meeting  of  that  Society  on  the  1 1th  of  May,  the  materials  for  which 
notice  were  furnished  to  the  Council  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Commit- 
tee, as  has  been  customary  for  several  years  past.  And  to  these  Reports 
the  Committee  take  the  present  opportunity  of  referring  the  Subscri- 
bers  of  the  Fund,  as  exhibiting  succinct,  and  they  trust  satisfactory 
statements  of  the  operations  in  which  they  have  been  engaged  in 
canying  into  effect  the  designs  of  the  institution  confided  to  their 
naaagiement. 


1939]  Literary  and  SeUntifii:  iutelligencB,  199 

Extract.—**  In  adverting  to  the  condition  of  the  Oriental    Tranala- 
tion  Fund, — an  institution,  the  success  of  which  must  be  a  matter  of 
interest  to  every  Member  uf  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society^    the  Council  are 
happy  to  state  that  it  continues  to  enjoy  the   support  of  alarg«  number 
of  the  patrons  of  Oriental  literature,  both  at  home  and  abroad  ;   and 
that  its  operations  are  carried  on  with  a  zeal  and  activity  fully  commen* 
surate  to  its  means.    The  most  recent  of  its  publications  are  two  valu* 
able   Sanscrit  works,   with  Latin  translations,   one  translated    by  Dr. 
Stenzler,    and     entitled    the  '  Kumdra  Sambhavn,'  being    an    aacient 
Sanscrit  poem  attributed  to  Kaliddsa,  who  flourished  a  century  before 
the  Christian    era  ;  the   other  entitled  the  *  Rig  Veda  Sanhitii,'  a  col* 
lection  of  sacred  hymns  from  the   Vedasi  translated  and  edited  by  the 
lamented  Dr.  Rosen.    To  his  translation  the  editor  designed  to  add 
extensive    critical    annotations,   but  only  a  few  sheets  of  them   were 
finished  at  the  time  of  his  decease.    The  work  is  consequently  deprived 
of  the  valuable  additions  contemplated  by  the  learned  Doctor ;  but,  as 
it  is,  it  remain  s  a  monument  of  his  great  philological  acquirements,  and 
of  his  laborious  ardour  in  the  study  of  this  highly  polished  and  classical 
language   of  Indiu.    The  disappointment  of  the  expectations  of  tha 
Committee  occasioned  by  this  melancholy  event   will  however  be  ob- 
viated by  the  kindness  of  Professor  Wilson,  who  has  undertaken  to 
prepare  a  translation  of  the  entire  work  into  English,    with  notes  illus- 
trative of  the  peculiarities  of  the  language  of  the  original  text,  and  of 
the  religious  system  of  the  Vedas. 

<*  The  loss  sustained  both  by  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and  the 
Oriental  Translation  Committee,  in  the  decease  of  Dr.  Rosen  will 
long  be  deplored,  and  his  merits  as  a  man  and  a  scholar  long  remem- 
bered. The  Committee  recorded  upon  their  minutes,  and  communicated 
to  his  father,  the  expression  of  their  deep  regret  ;  and  many  Memben, 
both  of  the  Society  and  the  Committee,  readily  subscribed  a  sufficient 
sum  to  erect  a  marble  monument  over  his  grave,  as  a  small  but  dut 
tribute  to  his  memory. 

"  Another  volume  of  the  Arabic  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  edited 
and  translated  into  Latin  by  Professor  Flfigel,  will  appear  in  a  feir 
weeks  ;  as  will  also  the  first  volume  of  M.  Garcin.de  Tassy's  *  Histuire 
de  laLitterature  Hindoui  et  Hindoustani,' containing  notices  of  many 
hundred  Eastern  authors  and  their  writings,  evidencing  much  acute  and 
laborious  research.  Besides  these,  the  printing  of  Mr.  W.  F.  Thomp^ 
son's  translation  of  the  Akhlak-iJal&ly,  from  the  Persian  of  Fakir  JAny 
Muhammad  As^d,  is  completed.  Mr.  Thompson  has  entitled  his  work 
'  Practical  Philosophy  of  the  Muhammadan  People,  exhibited  in  its 
professed  connexion  with  the  European,  so  ai  to  reader  either  an  iutro- 


200  Literary  and  Scientific  Intelligence,  [JOLT 

duction  to  the  other  ;*  and  to  it  are  appended  numerous  explanatory 
notes  and  references.  This  translation  cannot  fail  to  be  highly  appre- 
ciated by  all  who  take  an  interest  in  metaphysical  and  ethical  studies. 
''  Among  the  works  in  the  course  of  printing  by  the  Fund  may  be 
mentioned  the  '  Vishnu  Purana/  translated  by  our  Director,  a  member 
of  the  Oriental  Translation  Committee,  whose  well  known  attainments 
in  Sanscrit  are  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  saying  that  the  task  could  not 
have  fallen  into  hands  more  competent  to  do  justice  to  this  curious 
mythological  work  of  the  Hindus. 

*'  The  History  of  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in  Spain,  translated  from 
the  Arabic  of  Ahmed  Ibn  Muhammad  Al-makdri,  by  Seiior  P.  de 
Gayangoz,  is  also  in  the  press. 

**  A  complete  history  of  the  Muhammedan  empire  in  Spain  has  long 
been  a  desideratum  in  our  historical  literature,  which  will  now  be 
supplied.  The  work  under  notice  comprises  a  narrative  of  events 
during  a  period  of  nine  centuries,  that  is,  from  the  time  of  the  invasion 
of  Spain  in  710  of  our  era,  to  the  final  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes  in 
1610,  and  contains  ample  details  of  the  manners,  customs,  and  literature 
of  the  Western  Arabs. 

''  Of  the  works  in  the  course  of  preparation  for  the  press  we  may 
notice  an  interesting  History  of  the  Ghaznavides,  and  of  the  Conquests 
of  Sult&n  Mahmud  of  Ghuzna,  translated  by  the  Rev.  James  Reynolds, 
from  the  Arabic  work  called  *  Kit&b-aUYamini,  by  Abii  Nasdr  Muham- 
mad Ibn  Al-Jabb&r  Al-Utbi;'  also  a  translation  by  Professor  Julien,  of 
the  '  Li-ki,*  a  celebrated  and  standard  Chinese  work  on  morals. 

"  The  Committee  have  recently  received  a  proposal  from  Baron  Mac 
Guckin  de  Slane,  of  Paris,  to  translate  into  English  Ibn  Ehallikan'a 
Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  of  Isldmisra,  the  text  of  which  has  recently 
appeared  under  the  editorship  of  the  Baron. — Dr.  Sprenger  has  pro- 
posed a  translation  of  Ali-Souithi's  History  of  the  Ehalifs.  The  list 
of  manuscripts  announced  for  translation  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Committee  contains  many  other  desirable  works. 

"  The  Council  are  also  aware  that  the  Committee  have  received  seve- 
ral other  proposals  from  eminent  scholars  of  translations  of  valuable 
works,  which  they  are  precluded  from  accepting  only  because  of  their 
being  already  engaged  in  printing  to  the  full  amount  of  the  funds  at 
their  disposal.  It  deserves  remark  that  the  list  of  books  published  by 
the  Committee  now  comprises  fifty -three  works,  most  of  which,  it  is 
probable  could  never  have  been  presented  to  the  public  but  for  the 
institution  of  this  Fund." 

RoTAL  Asiatic  Society's  House, 
14,  Grafton  Street,  Bond  Street^ 
24M  Mag,  183U. 


1839]  Horary  MettoroUgieal  Obtmreationt  at  Madnt.  301 

VIII. — tterary ifettorolngieal    Ohxrrcatimt    madt  agreeabfji   trith    ihm 
luggrttiont  of  Sir  Johm  Hbbscbbl. 


A 

i 

1 

J 

1 

i^ 

1 

Behikki. 

June 

1 

21 

6    AM 

20,756 

81  ..1176.0 

1  w 

0 

Breeze                 dew. 

7 

Vii.772 

8.1,0:78.0 

0 

Calm                      do. 

a 

ag.'Wi 

S5,578.5 

0 

Gentle  wind           do. 

D 

2!».H|- 

H7,7l78,2 

1  w 

0 

Do.    do.             do. 

10 

29.8  lb 

90,0 1 7^1) 

0 

Do.    do.             do. 

11 

29,800 

89,779.7 

1 

Do.    do.             do. 

12 

29.772 

89,9W).-,i 

2 

Moderate  wind       do. 

1  P.  u. 

a9,r53 

89,5  BO.a 

3 

Strongwind             do. 

2 

29,7:^8 

89,5.80,4 

BB 

2 

Do.     do.              do. 

3 

29,707 

88,6'80.7 

3 

Do.     do.              do. 

4 

29,70^ 

88,4'B0,5 

3 

Do.     do.              do. 

5 

2!i.700 

86.8179,0 

4 

Do.     do.              do. 

G 

29.718 

83,0  80,J 

2 

Do.     do.              do. 

7 

29,726 

84.6 

»0.\ 

It   X 

3 

Do.    do.             do. 

8 

2r.:4183,8 

S0,8 

3 

Do.    do.             do. 

9 

29,766  83,5 

80,7 

S  K 

•i 

Moderate  wind — quite  cltai, 
and  lij^hlning  to  the  we»L 

10 

^9,79^  83,6'ai,6 

2 

Do.    do.  base    do.    do. 

11 

2'),790  84.0  8:^.0 

2 

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12 

29.796  M,0  Bl.5 

sw.byw 

1,^ 

Gentle  wind,  cto.idi-.  vivid 
lighmingtotlieNW&SW. 

1   *.    H. 

29.791  84,0  81,5 

,  w.by  w 

1.2 

Geniie  wind,  driMliog,  vivid 

lightning   to    the     NW. 

2 

29,-90  M3,8 

80,5 

1  w 

1.2 

Gentle  wind,  cloudv,  vivid 
lightning  and  thunder  to 
the  NW. 

3 

29,762  83,0 

80,0 

*«.  by« 

3  Sirong  winiJ,clear,yivid  light. 
ninft  to  Ihe  w»L 

4 

29,762  83,^ 

79,0 

,w.  by* 

5  Very  do.  do.  do.  do.  do.  da. 

S 

29,762 

82,0 

78,7 

s«,  by  s 

5  Do.    do.  do.  a.  cl.    do.    do. 

1 

to  the  NW. 

6 

29,784 

S  1,5  77,2 

■ 

1  Modente  wind  and  thick  bant 

7 

29,810 

8:1,3,78,1 

B.  ■  W 

1      Do.        do.           do    do. 

« 

29,832 

S5|2  79,l 

s  w 

1      Do.    do.  clouds  in  the  N. 

horiwn. 
1  Gentle  wind,   flying  clouds. 

0 

29,831 

87,479.4 

■  w 

10 

29,828 

><8.4l79,4 

•  w 

1 

Gentle  brrev,  huze. 

11 

M9.H12 

89,0|81,7 

1 

Do.                 do. 

12 

29,B0M|88,T]8|,7 

2 

Moderate  wind  do. 

IP.  H. 

29.780,89,0  81,8 

Do.          do.  do. 

2 

29.760  88,4  81,0 

Strong        do.  thick  luM. 

3 

29,7:t8:H7.48l,0 

Do.         do.    do.      do. 

4 

29,72-1,87.2  81.5 

Do.         do.    do.     do. 

5 

29,73018.1.9  80,0 

Do.         do.    do.     do. 

6 

29,744  84,0|8 1,0 

» 

Do.         da.    do.     do. 

03        fforarg  Mtfiarological  Obarvalion 


3. — BbraryMeleorohgical  ObtereaHoiu  made  at  the  Summer  5btt/i>«1839, 
at  Iht  TreBandmm  Obiervalory. — B;/  G.  Spebbc&heideb,  Si^itritUendeHt, 


i 

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206  Meleorological  Reghter.  [July 

The  Instruments  with  which  the  foregoing  observatiODs  are  made,  are 
placed  in  the  Western  Verandah  of  the  Honourable  Company's  Obser- 
vatory ;  at  about  5  feet  above  the  surfdce  of  the  grouDd,  and  27  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Sea  ;  the  thermometer  was  made  on  purpose  for 
the  Observatory,  and  at  7^^  (the  ouly  point  at  which  a  compiirison  has 
been  made;  it  was  found  to  difier  insensibly  from  the  Royal  Society's 
Standard;  I  he  barometer  is  one  of  two  Standards  which  I  have  latelj 
constructed,  and  may  be  depended  upon  to  0,0100  an  inch. 

T.  G.  Taylor, 

H,  C  A9tronom§r. 


MADRAS  JOURNAL 


OF 


LITERATURE     AND     SCIENCE. 


No.  25^0ctober  1839- 


I. — J  Catalogue  of  the  Species  of  Mammalia  found  in  the  Southern 
Mahraita  Conntry  ;  with  their  Synonymcs  in  the  Native  Languages  in 
use  there, — By  Walter  Elliot,  Esq. 

(Concluded  from  No,  24,  page  108J 

Mus^ 

The  different  Indian  species  of  this  family  have  hitherto  been  classed 
under  three  groups,  Mus — Arvicola — Gerbillue, 
The  species  described  are — 
Mus    Giganteus Hurdwicke. 

—  Decumanus Pallus. 

—  Rattus.,,, Lin, 

—  Platythrijc Sykes. 

Oieraceus Sykes. 

—  Musculu^ Lin. 

Arvicola   Indica, Gray  and  Hardwicke. 

Gerhillus  Indicus Hardwicke. 

None  of  these, however,except  the  species  common  to  Europe^seem  to 
have  received  more  than  a  general  description  of  their  outward  form, 
and  accordingly,  on  looking  closer  into  the  details  of  their  structure,  and 
particularly  to  the  character  of  their  teeth,  a  different  disposition  seems 
necessary.  0{  Arvicola  there  is  no  example  ;  the  species  characterised 
by  Gray  having  molars  with  flat  coronals,  and  strong  radicles,  in  this 
respect  assimilating  with  the  sub-genus  Neotoma^  established  by  Messrs. 
Say  and  Ord  in  the  Philadelphia  Journal. 


20^  Cat^.gue  of  Manwkoiis.  [Oct. 

The  Mu$  GigoMteui  of  Hardwicke  exhibits  similar  duncten,  bat 
therbolb  (LS?r  frcm  the  Florid*  rat,  the  type  ol  Xtoiama  (as  figured)* 
in  baTiog  the  naked  sc^Iy  tail  cf  the  commoD  rat,  wbereM  in  the  Florida 
species  it  is  covfTe^l  with  Lair. 

The  G-rhillu»  Indieut  of  Hardiricke  aiiites  both  these  ebaractets,  the 
surface  of  the  molan  bein^  the  same  as   that  of  the   two  Indian  species 
indicated  above,  while  ihe  tail  Las  the  same  peculiarity  as  the  Florida 
fat,  with  the  addition  of  a   tuft  at  the  extren  ity.     But    it  is  separated 
from  the  latter  by  the  length  of  the  bind  feet,  and  the  disposition  of 
the  foes,  and  by   the  carina  ted  upper  incisors;   characters   |eculiarto 
Gtrbillut.    The>e  cc  mmeu  po  nts  of  resemblaiice,  bowe\er,  show  bow 
intimately  the  different  grou|  s  are  connectrd,  and  how  gradually  they 
pais  into  each  oihrr.    The  remaining  S|^-ies  all  belong  to  the  group  of 
Mum  proper,  with  tuberculated  cheek  teeth. 

Of  the  other  species,not  included,  that  haye  been  indicated  by  anthers, 
no  examples  have  been  observed.  These  are  Mus  Indicus  of  Geoffrey, 
Cat.  Mus.  Par.  Desm.  VI.  299,  which  may  perhaps  be  identified  with 
Gray*s  Arvicola,  The  Mut  Striatum  of  Seba,*  adopted  by  Linnsus, 
Shaw,t  and  tlie  French  NatiiralL^ts,!  has  never  been  observed;  neither 
has  the  spiny  nit  of  Pondicherry  (M.  Perchal). 

The  species  obsen'ed  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country  were— 

With  flat  molars: 

a.  scaly  tails — short  metatarsi  {Neotomd). 
Mus  Giganteus. 

Articola  Indica. 

b.  with  hairy  tail — long  metatarsi  {Gerhillui). 
Gerhillus  Indicus, 

With  tuberculated  molars  : 

a.  Covered  with  soft  hair      {Mus), 

Mus  Decumanus Lin. 

Hatlus Lin. 

MettaJe Newsp. 

Golundee New  sp. 

Olrraceus Sykes. 

HujuSt  ..•• •••••..Mew  sp. 

Musculus Lin. 

h  Covered  with  hair  and  spines, 

Platythrix, Sykes. 

Boodaga Newsp. 

•  Thrs.  II.  e?.  +  Zool.  VI.  t.  133.  %  Ency.  Meth.  t.  6«.  f.  6. 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country  209 

The  first  division  have  3  molars  in  each  jaw,  with  strong  al- 
veolar processes;  the  anterior  or  largest  one  divided  into  three  sections 
by  transveree  ridges  of  enamel ;  the  middle  into  two,  and  the  third 
partly,  or  entirely  so,  as  the  centre  ridge  of  enamel  extends  altogether, 
or  only  partly  across  the  surface.  In  Oiganteug  and  GerhWus  the 
enamel  of  the  posterior  molar  of  the  upper  jaw  generally  forms  only 
a  deep  indentation.  In  Gerbillus  the  incisors  are  more  prismatic,  the 
upper  ones  divided  by  a  longitudinal  furrow  passing  down  the  centre. 
In  the  other  two  species  the  incisors  are  smooth,  rounded,  with  a  lon- 
gitudinal mark  on  ihe  worn  under  surface.  The  upper  iucisors  in  Ger* 
6i7/i/«  also  are  much  more  curved  downwards  than  in  the  other  two. 
In  the  former  the  nasal  and  superior  maxillary  bones  project  consider- 
ably beyond  the  iucisors ;  in  the  latter  the  iucisors  extend  beyond  these 
bones. 

30. — Mu$  (Neoloma)  GiganteuSf  Hard.  Lin.  Trans. — Mas  Malabo-' 
ricus,  Pennant,  Quad. 

Begg'iti, Canarese /\    f® 

Pandi  koku Tel.  of  the  Wuddur  caste . . .  .?So©r*»j^, 

Ghons .Dekhuni f 

The  English  name,  bandicoot,  is  a  corruption  of  pandi-koJcu,  literally 
pig-rat. 

Lives  in  granaries  and  stack-yards ;  feeds  entirely  on  grain.  Fierce, 
bold.     Makes  a  peculiar  grunting  noise  when  frightened  or  angry. 

Female  with  12  teats.  Incisors  dark  olive  green  at  the  base;  becom- 
ing yellow  at  the  extremities. 

31  — Mus  (Neotoma)  Providens»^Mus  Indicust  Geoff,-^Arvicoia  Iw 
dicttf  Gray. 

Kok Canarese W^l^ 

It  seems  necessary  to  distinguish  this  species  by  a  new  name,  that 
of  Indicus  being  too  general  and  indefinite.  Geoflfroy's  animal  is  not 
sufficiently  particularized  to  indicate  which  of  the  InJian  species  he 
meant ;  and  Gray's  was  given  under  the  supposition  that  it  applied  to  an 
Arvicola,  which  he  subsequently  discovered  it  did  not :  Journal  Zool. 
Soc.  July  28,  IS35,  p.  lOS.  The  present  term  seems  sufficiently  appli- 
cable to  its  habit  of  laying;  up  a  large  store  of  grain  for  its  winter  food. 
The  koku  is  from  13  to  14  inches  in  length,  and  weighs  upward-^  of 
6  oz.  Its  figure  is  thick  and  strong,  with  powerful  limbs,  the  head 
short  and  truncated,  the  ears  small,  sub-ovate  or  nearly  round,  and 
covered  with  a  fine  down  or  small  hairs.    The  tail  naked  and  nearly  as 


^10  Catalogue  qf  Mammalia  [Oct. 

loDg  as  the  body,  whiskers  long  and  fall.  Fur  long  and  somewhat 
harsh,  brown  mixed  with  fawn,  the  short  fur  softer  and  duskf.  The 
colour  generally  being  something  like  that  of  the  brown  rat,  with  more 
&wn  or  red  intermixed,  and  lighter  beneath. 

In  iu  habits  it  is  solitary,  fierce,  living  secluded  in  spacious  burrows^ 
in  which  it  stores  up  large  quantities  of  grain  during  the  harvest,  and 
when  that  is  consumed  lives  upon  the  huryaUe  grass  and  other  roots. 

The  female  produces  from  8  to  10  at  a  birth,  which  she  sends  out 
of  her  burrow  as  soon  as  able  to  provide  for  themselves.  When  irri- 
tated, it  utters  a  low  grunting  cry,  like  the  bandicoot.  Incisors  entirely 
of  an  orange  yellow  colour. 

The  dimensions  of  an  old  male  were  as  follows  : — length  of  body  7 
inches;    of  tail  6 J  ;    total  13| :  of  head  I  ^  ;   of  ear  T^^ths  ;  of  fore 

palm^\^ths;  of  hind  l»*j.ths.  Weight  6  oz.  5  drs. 

The  race  of  people  known  by  the  name  of  fFudJurs,  or  tank-diggers, 
capture  this  animal  in  great  numbers  a^  an  article  of  food ;  and  during  the 
harvest,  they  plunder  their  earths  of  the  grain  stored  up  for  their  winter 
consumption,  which,  in  favourable  localities,  they  find  in  such  quantities, 
as  to  subsist  almost  entirely  upon  it,  during  that  season  of  the  year.     A 
single  burrow  will  sometimes  yield  as  much  as  half  a  seer  (about  a  lb) 
of  grain,  containing  even  whole  ears    of  jowaree   (Uolcus  sorghum). 
The  Kok  abound  in  the  richly  cultivated  black  plains  or  cotton  ground, 
but  the  heavy  rains  often  inundate  their  earths,  destroy  their  stores  and 
force  them  to  seek  a  new  habitation.  I  dug  up  a  winter  burrow  in  August 
1833,  situated  near  the  old  one,  which  was  deserted  from  this  cause. 
The  animal  had  left  the  level  ground,  and  constructed  its  new  habitation 
in  the  sloping  bank  of  an  old  well.    The  entrance  was  covered  with  a 
mound  of  earth  like  a  mole-hill,  on  removing  which,  the  main  shaft  of 
the  burrow  was  followed  along  the  side  of  the  grassy  bank,  at  a  depth 
of  about  1  or  1}  foot.    From  this,  a  descending  branch  went  still  deep- 
er to  a  small  round  chamber,  lined  with  roots  and  just  large  enough  to 
contain  the  animal.  From  tlie  chamber  a  small  gallery  ran  quite  round  it, 
terminating  on  either  side  in  the  main  shaft  at  the  entrance  of  the  cham- 
ber ;  and  the  passage  then  continued  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  bank, 
and  opened  into  the  plain.    Near  the  upper  entrance,  and  above  the 
passage   to  the   chamber,  was  another  small  branch,  which  terminated 
suddenly,  and  contained  excrement.     But  these  burrows  are  by  no  means 
on  a  uniform  plan.    Another  occupied  by  an  adult  female  was  likewise 
examined  in  the  same  'neighbourhood.     It  was  much  more  extensive, 
and  covered  a  space  of  about  15  feet  in  length  by  about  8  in  breadth,  al- 
so in  a  grassy  mound,  of  which  it  occupied  both  sides.    Six  entrances 


1889]  in  the  Southern  Mahraita  Country.  211 

were  observed,  (and  there  may  have  been  more,)  each  covered  with 
loose  earth.  The  deepest  part  of  the  burrow  near  the  chamber  waa 
about  three  feet  from  the  surface  ;  the  chamber  raised  a  little  above  the 
shaft, which  terminated  abruptly  and  was  continued  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  chamber.  The  chamber  itself  was  lined  with  roots  of  grass  and 
bark  of  the  date-tree.  The  branching  galleries,  of  which  there  were  six, 
from  the  principal  shaft,  appeared  to  have  been  excavated  in  search  of 
food. 

A  variety  found  in  the  red  soil  is  much  redder  iu  colour  than  the  com- 
mon Knku  of  the  black  land. 

Another  variety  is  said  to  frequent  the  banks  of  nullahs  and  to  take 
the  water  when  pursued,  but  the  specimens  1  have  seon  differed  in  no 
respect  from  the  common  kind  (of  which  they  appeared  to  be  young  in- 
dividuals), except  in  size. 

32. — Mns  (GerhiUus)  Indieus,  Hardw. 

Bil/a  I  lei Canarese.  ^^^OOOOD 

reri  ytlka       |  ^^  Wuddurs.  •[)  ei)58ot»r  ^  t>^^^ . 

I  el  yelka         )  ^  *^ 

This  species  has  already  ^een  fully  described,  and  some  peculiarities 
in  its  cranium  have  been  noticed  above.  The  muzzle  appears  to  be 
more  pointed  than  stated  by  General  Hardwicke,  who  characterizes  it  as 
<*  very  round,"  and  the  colour  is  always  of  uniform  bright  fawn,  without 
any  admixture  of  brown  spots,  which  have  never  been  observed.  The 
incisors  are  always  of  a  deep  yellow  colour  j  the  eyes  very  large  and  full, 
the  tail  longer  than  the  body. 

A  large  adult  male  measured  :— length  of  body  7  inches  ;  of  tail 
8to  ;  of  head  2J^;  of  ear  ^^^\  of  fore  foot  4^;  of  hind  foot  2.  Weight 
6 1  oz. 

They  are  said  to  be  very  prolific,  bringing  from  16  to  20  at  a  birth 
but  this  seems  an  exaggeration,  and  the  litter  probably  seldom  exceeds 
12.  It  is  the  common  prey  of  foxes,  owls,  snakes.  Lives  in  numerous 
societies,  making  extensive  burrows  in  the  red  gravelly  soil  of  the  Mul- 
naad,  generally  in  or  near  the  root  of  shrubs  or  bushes.  The  entrances, 
which  are  numerous,  are  small,  from  which  the  passage  descends  with  a 
rapid  slope  for  2  or  3  feet,  then  runs  along  horizontally,  and  sends  off 
branches  in  different  directions.  These  galleries  generally  terminate  in 
chambers  from  ^  a  foot  to  a  foot  in  width,  containing  a  bed  of  dried 
grass.  Sometimes  one  chamber  communicates  with  another,  furnished 
in  like  manner,  whilst  others  appear  to  be  deserted  and  the  entrances 
closed  with  clay.    The  centre  chamber  in  oae  burrow  was  very  large. 


212  Caialogne  of  Mammalia  [Oct. 

which  the  Wnddurs  attributed  to  its  being  the  common  apartment,  and 
said  that  the  females  occupied  the  smaller  ones  with  their  young.  They 
do  not  hoard  their  food,  but  issue  from  their  burrows  every  evening,  and 
^un  and  hop  about,  sitting  on  their  hind  legs  to  look  round,  making  as- 
tonishing leaps ;  and,  on  the  slightest  alarm,  flying  into  their  holes. 
The  Wuddurs  eat  this  species  also. 


SSS^foeooD 


33. — Mus  Decumanus,  Lin. 
Manet  ilei Canarese. 

Chooha,  and        ?  ^  , ,      .  ^ 

Ghur  ka  chooha.  \  "'='''"""'  ^  >-  ^J  ^J^ 

Not  so  common  above  the  Ghats  as  helow. 

34. — Mtii  Raitufj  Lin. 
Rare. 

35. — Mus  lanug'mows, — New  species. 

Mellade of  the  Wuddurs "aafj^a. 

Kerailei, Canarese "^iSoeoQD 

The  name  adopted  to  designate  the  species  is  taken  from  the  word 
mettade,  meaning  soft,  in  allusion  to  its  fur,  which  is  fine  and  ^oh^mei' 
tani  meaning  soft  in  Telugu.  It  is  also  called  meltan-y^lkai  mettan" 
ganda,  from  the  same  cause.  It  is  about  half  the  size  of  the  H'okf  which 
it  somewhat  resembles.  The  head  is  short,  but  the  muzzle,  instead  of 
being  square  and  truncated,  is  sharp ;  the  ears  are  larger  in  proportion 
and  more  ovate.  The  general  form  is  not  so  stout.  The  tail  is  shorter 
than  the  body.  The  colour  above  is  reddish  brown,  vi'iih  a  mixture  of 
fawn ;  lighter  beneath,  close  and  soft,  with  a  few  longer  hairs  projecting. 
A  large  adult  male  measured  :— length   of  body,  5  j\  th  inches;   of 

tail,  4-j-yhs;  total  O-jS^ths  ;  of  head  l-J^th ;  of  ear  0-rVth.  Weight  2-^  oz. 

The  mettadc  lives  entirely  in  cultivated  fields,  in  pairs,  or  small  socie* 
ties  of  five  or  six,  making  a  very  slight  and  rudchole  in  the  root  of  a  bush, 
or  merely  harbouring  among  the  heaps  of  stones  thrown  together  in  the 
fields,  in  the  deserted  burrow  of  the  kuk,  or  contenting  itself  with  the 
deep  cracks  and  fissures  formed  in  the  black  soil  during  the  hot  months. 
Great  numbers  perish  annually,  when  these  collapse  and  fill  up  at  the 
commencement  of  the  rains.  The  monsoon  of  1825  having  been  defi. 
cient  in  the  usual  fall  of  rain  at  the  comm  ncement  of  the  season,  the 
mettadet  bred  in  such  numbers  as  to  become  a  perfect  plague.  They 
ate  up  the  seed  as  soon  as  sown,  and  continued  their  ravages  when  the 
grain  approached  to  matuiity,  climbing  up  the  stalks  of  jotcaree^  and 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  213 

cutting  off  the  ear  to  devour  the  grain  with  greater  facility.  I  saw 
many  whole  fields  completely  devastated,  so  much  so,  as  to  prevent 
the  farmers  from  paying  their  rents.  The  ryots  employed  the  IVuddurs 
to  destroy  them,  who  killed  them  by  thousands,  receiving  a  measure 
of  grain  for  so  many  dozens,  without  perceptibly  diminishing  their 
numbers. 

Their  flesh  is  eaten  by  the   Tank-diggers.    The  female  produces 
from  6  to  8  at  a  birth. 

36. — Mas  Hirsutus, — New  species. 

Gulandi       ^  Canarese  . . 

or  >       of 

GulatyelJca)  the  Wuddurs....  (jt&t^jSiSjCwr, 

The  Gulandi  U  about  the  size  of  the  last  species,  or  a  little  larger— 
but  differs  from  it  in  living  entirely  above  ground,  in  a  habitation  con* 
structed  of  grass  and  leaves,  generally  in  the  root  of  a  bush  at  no  great 
height  from  the  ground,  often  indeed  touching  the  surface.  The  head 
is  longer  than  that  of  the  Mettade,  but  the  muzzle  is  blunt,  rounded, 
and  more  obtuse,  and  covered  with  rough  hair.  The  face  and  cheeks 
are  also  rougher  than  those  of  the  other  rats  ;  the  ears  round  and 
villose  ;  tlie  eyes  moderate ;  the  whiskers  long  and  very  fine.  The 
tail  naked  and  scal^ ,  somewhat  villose.  The  colour  is  an  olive-brown 
above,  mixed  with  fulvous ;  beneath  yellowish  tawny ;  sometimes 
paler,  or  light  yellowish  grey. 

A  male  Gulandi  measured  :— length  of  body,  6^lh;  of  tail,  4y'^th; 
total  10^»yth:  of  head,  lyV^;  of  ear,  0-j\th.  Weight  nearly  3  oz. 

The  Gulandi  lives  entirely  in  the  jungle,  choosing  its  habitation  in  a 
thick  bush,  among  the  thorny  branches  of  which,  or  on  the  ground,  it 
constructs  a  nest  of  elastic  stalks  and  fibres  of  dry  grass,  thickly  inter* 
woven.  The  nest  is  of  a  round  or  oblong  shape,  from  6  to  9  inches  in 
diameter,  within  which  is  a  chamber  about  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter, 
in  which  it  rolls  itself  up.  Round  and  through  the  bush  are  sometimes 
observed  small  beaten  pathways,  along  which  the  little  animal  seems 
habitually  to  pass.  Its  motion  is  somewhat  slow,  and  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  the  same  power  of  leaping  or  springing,  by  which  the  rata  in 
general  avoid  danger.  Its  food  seems  to  be  vegetable,  the  only  contenta 
of  the  stomach  that  were  observed  being  the  roots  of  the  huryaUe  grass. 
Its  habits  are  solitary  (except  when  the  female  is  bringing  up  her 
young),  and  diurnal,  feeding  during  the  mornings  and  evenings. 


214  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Oct. 


j  Cunarese C 

V     of  } 


37.-"^w*  OleraceiiSt  Sykes. 
jMeinalkcif     ')  Cunarese 

or  _ 

Meina  yelka)  the  Wuddurs ("Sd'Scx)?'. 

Marad  tlet\ Canarese oSoTTo^iD 

This  species  has,  by  mistake,  been  designated  as  M,  Longicaudatut 
in  the  distribution  list  at  page  94,  a  term  applied  to  it  in  my  notes, 
some  years  ago,  when  I  believed  it  to  be  undescribed,  as  in  fact  it  was 
at  the  time,  but  it  was  subsequently  noticed  by  Mr.  Bennet  from  a  spe- 
cimen taken  home  by  Colonel  Sykes.* 

Its  colour  is  a  bright  chesnut  above,  beneath  pure  while.  Head  mode- 
rale,  muzzle  somewhat  obtuse,  ears  ovale,  tail  naked. 

The  dimensions  of  a  young  female  were: — length  of  body,  3  inches; 
of  tail,  4-j-Vths  ;  total  ZyV^^s  ;  of  head,  1  ;  of  ear,  O-j-^ths. 

The  Meinalka  is  extremely  active  and  agile,  and  difficult  to  catch. 
I  never  procured  iis  nest,  but  was  tuld  by  the  Wuddurs  it  lived  always 
in  bushes  or  trees,  up  which  it  is  able  to  run  with  great  facility.  Colonel 
Sykes  merely  observes  that  **  it  constructs  its  nest  of  leaves  of  olera- 
ceous  herbs,  in  the  fields.''  Whence  the  designation  he  has  adopted 
for  it. 

38. — Mu8  Flavescens, — New  species. 

This  species  somewhat  resembles  the  last,  but  is  nearly  dou- 
ble  the  size,  is  of  a  paler  yellow  colour,  and  was  met  with  only  in 
out-houses  and  stables  at  Dharwar,  but  there  in  considerable  numbers. 
Habits  social.  It  has  been  designated  as  Afuh  Rufus  in  the  list  at  page 
94;  but  besides  that  this  term  has  been  appropriated  to  other  species,  it 
does  not  express  the  particular  colour  so  well  as  that  now  adopted.  This 
is  a  pale  yellowish  brown  above,  and  white  beneath.  The  head  is  long, 
^he  muzzle  pointed,  the  ears  very  large,  sub  ovate. 

Dimensions  of  an  adult  male  :— length  of  body  5\  inches;  of  tail 
6J;  total  12.   Weight  2J  oz. 

39. — Mus  MuscultiSf  Lin. 

Manet  Buduga^  Canarese o3S^^^3?^% 

This  I  always  considered  to  be  the  common  mouse,  but  Mr,  Gray 
considered  a  specimen  given  to  the  British  Museum  to  differ  from  the 
European  species. 

•  Proceedingt,  Zool.  Soc.  July  2«,  1833.— P.  121, 


1839]  in  tne  Southern  Mahraita  Country.  51* 

Spiny  Rats* 


40.  — ^/tt*  PlafythrijPt  Sykes. 

Leggyad^  >         .  nr    i^  ^^*' 

V      of  Wuudurs 

Bal  ye'ka  S  "^  gg&>«»^ . 


Kul  ilei  Canarese If^^aD 

The  legyifQffe  has  also  bpen  described  by  Mr.  Bennet  from  Colonel 
Sykes'  specimen.*     I   had  proposed   to  call  it  3f.   Saxicota  as  better 
expressive   ofits   habits,  and  as  b«ing  exactly  equivalent  to    its  native 
name  ;   pfnfithr'x  pxpressinjif  a  generic  rather  than  a  specific  character* 
Ir  his  th.*  h'^iid  long,  the  muzzle  pointed,    the  ears  rather  largft,  ob- 
long, ronridp  1.    Incisors  yellow.     Colour  light  brown,  mixed  with  fawn; 
be'ieith  pure  nhi-e;  th'^  white  separated  from  the  brown  by  well  do- 
fined  pal^  fa  An  line.     The  flattened  spines  are  transparent  on  the  back, 
beii^aih  ^mrtller,  and  forming  with  the  fur  a  thick  close  covering. 
Tlie  dimensions  of  an 

AdjUMnle.  do.  Female. 

Length  of  body 3  ^*^  inch  3    inches 

of   tail 2^.^  2  ^V 


Total        5  y'f^  5    .*^  or  nearly  5J 

of  hpad 1  v'tj^ 1    tV 

of   ear ^\j. ,» 

of   fore  palm  ...     „    i»  tV 

of  hind  palm...     „ >>  tV 


Weieht  ...    I  oz 15  drs. 

The  leggyadft  lives  entirely  in  the  re  i  gravelly  soil,  in  a  burrow  of 
moderate  depth,  generally  in  the  side  of  a  bank.  When  the  animal  is 
inside  the  entrance  is  closed  with  small  pebbles,  a  quantity  of  which 
are  collected  outside;  by  which  its  retreat  may  always  be  known. 
The  burrow  leads  to  a  chamber,  in  which  is  also  collected  a  bed  of 
small  pebbles,  on  which  it  sits,  the  thirk  close  hair  of  the  belly  pro- 
tecting it  from  the  cold  and  asperity  of  such  a  seat.  Its  food  appears 
to  be  vegetable.     In  its  habits  it  is  mono/ijamous  and  nocturnal. 

In  one  earth  which  1  opened,  and  which  did  not  seem  to  have  been 
original ly  constructed  by  the  animal,  but  to  have  been  excavated  by 
anis,  i  found  two  pairs  j  one  of  which  were  adults,  the  other  young  ones 

*  Proceedmss  Zuol.  Soc.  ^6th  Jvme  li33.  p.  121. 


216  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Oc». 

about  three  parts  grown.  The  mouth  of  tlie  earth  was  very  large,  and 
completely  blocked  up  with  small  stones  ;  the  passage  gradually  wi- 
dened into  a  large  cavity,  from  the  roof  of  which  some  other  passages 
appeared  to  proceed,  but  there  was  only  one  communication  with  the 
surface,  viz.  the  entrance.  The  old  pair  were  seated  on  a  bed  of  peb- 
bles, near  which,  on  a  higher  level,  was  another  cellection  of  stones^ 
probably  intended  for  a  drier  retreat.  The  young  ones  were  ia  one  of 
the  passages  likewise  furnished  with  a  heap  of  small  stones. 

41. — Mug  Lepidus, — New  species. 

BudugOf  Canarese ^^1 

Chitt»  hurkani^^ 

Chit  yMa,       VTel.  of  Wuddurs.fi^^T'S).  «Xe»r-  ^Ko^. 

Chitta  ganda,  j 

This  pretty  little  species  resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  only  abont 
one  third  of  the  size.  The  colour  is  similar,  but  paler,  and  it  has  the 
same  pure  white  under  surface,  separated  from  the  upper  by  an  exact 
line.  The  spines  are  small,  fine,  transparent,  and  of  a  dusky  tinge, 
tipt  with  fawn.  The  head  is  very  long,  being  nearly  one  third  the 
length  of  the  body,  and  the  muzzle  pointed.  The  ears  are  large,  ovate, 
naked.  Incisors  white.  Tail  naked,  scaly.  Limbs  rather  long,  fine; 
the  3  middle  digits  of  the  hind  foot  produced,  as  in  GerbiUuSf  the  two 
outer  ones  much  shorter  and  nearly  equal. 

The  dimensions  of  an  old  male  were — length  of  body  2-fQth.  inch  ; 
of  tail,  2,V^;  total  5,V^;  of  head  ^yh  ;  of  ear  4i-10th;  of  fore 
palm  2J-10th;  of  hind  palm-j.fij.th;  weight  6  drs.,  but  in  general  it  does 
not  exceed  a  ^  of  an  oz.  (or  4  drs.). 

Lives  generally  in  pairs  in  the  red  soil,  but  sometimes  a  pair  of  young 
©nes  is  found  in  the  same  burrow  with  the  old  ones.  Does  not  pro- 
duce more  than  4  or  5  at  a  birth. 

42. — Sciunis  Palmaram^  Gmel. — Rat  PalmisiCf  Brisson. 

a.  common  variety. 

b,  darker  coloured,  peculiar  to  the  Ghats.        ^ 
Alalu Canarese... ,..,..,  ©S^CX) 

GUheri Dokhani ,.  .  i^j^^ 

Urta of  the  Wuddurs....^iSf$. 

The  common  species  is  sufficiently  well  known;  the  other, found  only 
in  the  forests  of  the  Ghats,  is  darker,  the  front  and  the  back  between 
the  stripes  reddish  brown,  the  stripes  small,  narrower  than  in  the  com- 
mon kind,  and  not  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  back. 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  217 

The  size  of  both  is  the  same.— Length,  13  to  14  inches;  weight  of 
males,  4  oz.   12  drs  ;    females  4  oz.  11  drs- 

The  young  are  born  without  any  hair,  but  three  dark  liaes  are  vi(dbl» 
along  the  back  indicating  the  position  of  the  future  stripes. 

4!^,—Sciurus  Maxmus^  Gmel. — S,  Elphlnstonii,  Sykes. 

Shekra, Mahratta  ...  > 

of  the  Ghats..  ( 

Kes  Annalu, Canarese. 


oif  thrHriapykV.  j  ^"l^"?^ 


I  have  observed  the  same  uniformity  of  colour  in  the  Ghat  varieiy 
that  has  been  described  by  Colonel  Sykes;  but  it  seems  doubtful  whe- 
ther mere  difference  in  colour,  constitutes  sufficient  grounds  for  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  species.  I  have  had  both  the  black  and  the  red  kinds 
alive,  and  tame,  in  my  possession,  for  months  together,  and  I  observed 
the  most  perfect  similarity  in  their  habits,  cry,  and  in  every  particular 
except  in  that  of  colour. 

Though  I  never  met  with  individuals  of  the  S,  Maximus  in  the  forest^ 
I  have  often  obtained  them  from  the  people  of  the  country,  who  said 
they  caught  them  in  the  Southern  parts  of  the  mountain  range.  The 
same  disposition  to  vary  in  the  shade  and  distribution  of  colour  has  been 
remarked  by  Dr.  Horsfield  in  the  Java  congener  of  the  Indian  'species, 
the  Jeralangf  or  Leschenaults  squirrel,  aspecimen  of  which  has  been 
described  by  Geoffroy  as  S,  Alblceps  from  a  casual  diflference  of  this 
kind.  These  varieties  probably  depend  on  locality,  and  have  given  rise 
to  a  great  multiplication  of  species.  Thus  we  have  the  S,  Macrurus  of 
Gmel.,  identified  by  Cuvier  with  S,  Mcueimus:  S,  Ceylonensis  of  Ray  ; 
<S.  Indicus  said  to  come  from  Bombay,  &c.  Fischer  makes  the  distinction 
between  S,  Maximus,  and  Macrurus  to  consist  in  the  former  having  the 
eheek  stripe  terminating  simply,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  forked.  J.  6. 
Fisch.  Syn.  p.  363. 

44.— P/ero7w^*  Philippemis  ? — New  species  ? 

Pukhya , 2  Mahratta  ....•, 

or  ^ 

Pakya >  of  the  Ghats..... 

Mr.  Gray  designated  the  specimens  of  this  species  presented  to  the 
British  Museum  by  the  specific  name  of  Philippemis^  and  showed  a  for- 


21  i  Catalogue  of  MammaJia  [Oct. 

mer  description  of  them  under  this  title,  the  source  of  which  I  have  mis- 
laid. I  cannot  however  find  any  such  species  indicnted  in  Griffith's  Sy- 
nopsis, in  Fischer's  Mammalia,  nor  in  any  work  to  which  I  have  access. 

The  length  of  the  male  is  20  inches, and  the  tail  21  =»  41  inches:  that 
of  the  female  19,  and  the  tail  20  =  39  inches. 

The  colour  above  is  a  beautiful  grey,  caused  by  ihe  intermixture  of 
black  with  white  and  dusky  hairs ;  beneath  it  is  white,  the  leg«  and 
posterior  half  of  the  tail  black.  The  male  is  distinguished  by  an  irre- 
gular patch  of  rufous  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  which  in  the  ft^male  is 
a  sort  of  pale  fawn.  It  is  very  gentle,  timid,  and  m  ly  be  tame!  ;  but 
from  its  delicacy  is  difficult  to  preserve.  Lives  in  the  holes  of  trees  in 
the  thickest  part  of  the  forest. 


45. — Hyitrix  Leucums,  Sykes.  ^ 

Ytd  Canarese tJ5o 

Sirsel  T  I 

I  ^'^J'^ 

Sayal  ^  Dekhani •  i 

Salendra        Mahrafta    of> 

the  Ghats.  5 

Saori  or  Chaodi  of  Guzerat 


46. — Lepm  NigricoUis,  Fr.  Cuv. 

MallOf        Canarese.. "^J^Q^ 

Sassa,        Mahratta 

Khargoshf   Dekhani *  ^  • 

47. — Manis  Crassicaudata^  Griffiths — M.  Pentadactyla^  Lin. — Pan^ 
golin  a  Queu  Courtef  C\iv,^  Broad- tat  led  Manis  ^  Pen, 
Kowli  Mahf  Mahratta  of  the  Ghats... 
T'hiriya  do 

iitawa  (         ®^  *^®  Wuddurs ©00 

fhalmT\     oftheBaiiris 

The  manis  burrows  in  the  ground,  in  a  slanting  direction,  to  a  depth 
of  from  8  to  12  feet  from  the  surface,  at  th*^  end  of  which  is  a  large  cham* 
bcr,  about  6  feet  in  circumference,  in  which  they  live  in  pairs,  and  where 
they  may  be  found  with  one  or  two  young  ones  about  the  months  of 
January,  February,  and  March.    They  close  up  the  entrance  of  the 


1839]  tn  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  219 

burrow  with  earth,  when  in  if,  so  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  them; 
but  for  the  peculiar  track  they  leave. 

A  female  that  I  kept  alive  for  some  time,  slept  during  the  day,  bat 
was  restless  all  night.  It  would  not  eat  the  termites  or  white  ants  pat 
into  irs  box,  nor  even  the  large  black  unt  (ilfyrm^j;  indf/eksa,  Syken) 
though  its  excrement  at  first  was  full  of  tliem.  But  it  wouM  lap  the 
water  that  was  offered  to  it,  and  also  conjee  or  rice  water,  by  rapidly 
darting  out  its  long  extensive  tongue,  which  it  repeated  so  quickly  as  to 
fill  the  water  with  froth. 

When  it  first  came  it  made  a  sort  of  hissing  noise,  if  disturbed,  and 
rolled  itself  up,  the  head  between  the  four  legs,  and  the  tail  round  the 
whole.  The  claws  of  the  forefeet  are  very  strong,  and  in  walking  are 
bent  under,  so  that  the  upper  surface  is  brought  in  contact  with  the 
ground  ;  its  gait  is  slow,  and  the  back  is  curved  upwards. 

After  its  death  a  single  young  one  was  found  in  it  (Sept.  15th),  perfect- 
ly formed,  and  about  2  inches  long.  The  murks  of  the  future  striated 
scales  were  distinctly  visible,  and  its  long  tongue  was  hani^ing  out. 
The  tongue  of  the  old  one  was  12  inches  in  length,  narrow,  flat,  fleshy 
to  the  tip,  the  muscle  along  the  lower  surface  very  strong. 

The  length  of  the  animal  was  40  inches.    The  weight  21-lb8. 

AS.-^Elephas  Indicus,  Cuv.  Mem,  de  Vlnsi. 
Aneit        Canarese ©J^v 

Hatht,     Dekhani i   4' l^ 

The  elephant  is  rare  above  the  ghats,  but  occasionally  a  stray  male 
makes  his  way  up,  and  does  much  mischief  to  the  rice-fields  and 
gardens. 

49. — Sua  Scrofaf  Lin. 

Mikka,  C  Canarese ....  -jTSoOai  U<8  "^^^  aBoT^a 

Stir,  S  ^^*^"*"*-  •  •  •  '^J       J^-*  V  -^ 

Dukur,  Mahratta. 

The  Indian  wild  hog  differs  considerably  from  the  German.  The 
head  of  the  former  is  longer  and  more  pointed,  and  the  plane  of  the 
forehead  straight,  while  it  is  concave  in  the  European.  The  ears  of 
the  former  are  small  and  pointed,  in  the  latter  larger  and  not  so  erect. 
The  Indian  is  altogether  a  more  active  looking  animal ;  the  German 


220  Catalogue  of  Mawimalia  [Oct* 

Ims  a  stronger  heavier  appearance.    The  same  differences  are  percepti- 
ble in  the  domesticated  individuals  of  the  two  countries, 

50. — Moickus  Metnina,  Erxleben.->i&femtifa,  Knox. — Ceylon  p.  21^— 
JPissay,  Ham.  Yoy.  £.  Ind.  I.  p.  261, 

K«,(  Canare8e...oioTr^r^ 

Piseif   }  Mahratta C 

Pisurif  S  of  the  Ghats I 

Common  in  the  forest  and  even  occasionally  seen  in  the  Mulnad  .* 

51. — Cervus  (Rusa)  Hippelaphus,  Cuv. 

Kadavi Canarese ^3^cSS) 

TMahratta^ 
Samher,^., <       and      \  jX^\»a 

(Dekhani  ) 

•,        „.  ,  <     Erroneously 

Bara  Sinha <  '' 

C  of  Mahoraedans 
Meru Mahratta  of  the  ghats. 

There  is  only  one  species  of  Rusa  found  in  the  Western  forests,  which 
is  common  also  to  all  the  heavy  jungles  of  Southern  India.  None  of 
the  descriptions  given  by  Hamilton  Smith  to  thedifterent  Indian  species, 
under  the  names  of  Hippefaphusy  Aristolelts,  Equmus^  ^^PP^y  exactly  to 
it:  but  I  have  little  doubt  that  all  three  are  only  varieties  of  the  great 
Indian  stag,  originally  described  by  Aristotle  under  the  designation  of 
HippelaphuSf  and  discriminated  as  such  by  M.  Duvancel,  in  the  Asiatic 
Researches,  vol.  xv.  p.  171 ;  to  which  it  is  not  improbable  the  C  Uni* 
color  or  Gona  of  Ceylon,  is  also  referrible. 

The  points  of  distinction  that  have  been  noticed  are,  the  characters  of 
the  horns,  size,  colour,  absence  or  presence  of  a  disk  on  the  buttocks, 
canine  teeth,  and  minute  distinctions  in  the  proportions  of  the  bonee  of 
the  skull. 

The  horns  of  different  individuals  present  great  diversities  of  form. 
The  only  common  characters  are  those  of  a  basal  antler,  springing  di- 
rectly and  equally  with  the  beam  from  the  burr;  and  the  beam  termi- 
nating in  a  bifurcated  extremity,  formed  by  a  branch  or  snag  separating 
posteriorly  and  pointing  obliquely  to  the  rear.  But  I  have  met  with  in- 
stances of  medial  antlers,  of  trifurcated  extremities,  and  in  one  case, 
with  the  extremity  showing  a  fourfold  division,  as  in  the  annexed  sketch 
of  a  Samber  killed  by  Captain  Green,  Madras  Engineers,  in  the  Bella- 
rungin  Hills  between  Mysore  and  Coimbatore.     Plate  4  fig.  1. 


1839]  7n  the  Simthem  Mahratta  Country.  221 

The  size  of  the  Southern  Rtua  is  large,  sometimes  eicceeding  14  hands 
in  height.    The  colour  varies  from  dark  brown  to  dark  greyish  black  or 
slate-black  ;   with  the  chin,  the  inner  sides  of  the  limbs,  the  under  part 
of  the  tail,  and  the  space  between  the  buttoeks,7ellowish  wbite,pa6sing 
into  orange  yellow,  but  never  extending  into  a  large  circular  disk  on 
the  buttocks.     In  several  instances  I  have  met  with  the  hinds  of  a  pale 
yellow  or  light  chesnut  colour.    These  were  young  individuals,  but[the 
skikaries  always  declared  them  to  be  the  same  as  the  common  kind,  and 
no  other  difference  was  perceptible.     The  cranium  of  one  of  these  light 
coloured  females  presents  no  structural  differences  from  that  of  a  young 
black  female.    Both  sexes  have  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  springing 
from  the  suture  between  the  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones.     The 
neck    and    throat    are    clothed    with    a    long    mane.      The  suborbi- 
tal sinus   is  very  large.     When  the  animal  is  excited,  or  angry,  or 
frightened,  it  is  opened  very  large,  and  can  be  distended  at  pleasure. 
The  new  horns  are  soft  and  tender  during  the  monsoon ,  from  June  to 
September,  about  which  time  the  rutting  season  commences.  The  stags 
arc  then  fierce  and  bold.     I  have  seen  one,  when   suddenly  disturbed, 
face  the  intruder  for  a  moment,  shaking  his  head,  bristling  his  mane, 
distending  the  suborbital  sinus  and  then  dashing  into  the  cover. 


52. — Cervus  Axis,    Erxleben. 

>  Canarese 
Savagn . •  • .  ) 

r    Mahratta 
Chilal  ,••• 


\and  Dekhani  (JjL;^ 


^3.—CervHs  MunijaJc,    Zimmermann. 

Kankuri Canarese  "'S^'?"  ^  9 

Jungli  Bukra . .  Dekhani   . . . .   J^^  ij)^^ 

Bekra Mahratta 

ITiis  animal  does  not  seem  to  differ  in  any  respect  from  the  Kijang  of 
the  Eastern  Islands. 

A  young  male  of  this  species  was  in  my  possession  for  many  monthst 
and  was  quite  tame.  It  was  of  a  deep  chesnut  colour,  which  becomes 
browner  as  the  animal  grows  older.  On  the  face  appeared  the  plaits 
or  ribs  of  skin  between  the  eyes,  running  up  to  the  fore-head  and  end- 
ing in  a  triangular  patch  of  stiff  hairs  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  at  the  up- 
pe'r  side  of  which  the  horn  afterwards  sprouted,  making  its  first  appear- 


222  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Oct. 

cince  in  the  month  of  August.  It  had  white  spots  in  front  of  the  fetlocki 
of  all  the  four  legs,  an«l  a  little  white  likewise  on  the  chin,  upper  throat, 
inside  of  arm-pits  and  thighs,  and  under  the  tail,  but  none  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  throat  or  on  the  belly.  It  used  to  lick  its  face  with  its  tongae» 
which  was  remarkably  long  and  extensible,  reaching  back  over  the  eyes 
and  tho  whole  fa  e,  and  frequently  uttered  a  short,  small  cry,  sharper 
than  that  of  a  kid. 

It  obtains  its  Canarese  name  from  iU  habit  of  frequenting  the  KanSt 
or  natural  forest  gardens. 

54. — Ant  Hope  Cervicaprat      Pallas. 

Chigri Canarese.         S-^8  ^ 

Mriga Sang.  ^^2> 

Hurn I  n '\^u*^*.*  ^""^  )  ^/* 

(  Dekhani  /  ^^^ 

Kalweet \  Mnhratta and  V The  Buck. 

i  Dpkhani.         V  ^«^  JIJ 
Phundayat ,     Mahratia.       J        •*  ' 

«—     {Sw^'STheDoe.    c^^. 

Alali,  of  tlie  Baoris,*   the  Buck. 
GitndoU,         ditto        the  Doe. 

Frequents  the  black  plains,  in  herds  of  sometimes  20  or  30  ,each,  of 
which  has  only  one  hutk  of  mature  age,  ihe  others  being  young  ones. 
The  buck  of  the  herd  always  drives  off  the  others,  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  turn  black,  in  the  course  of  which  desperate  combats  ensue,  by  which 
their  horns  are  often  broken. 

The  horns  of  the  male  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country  seldom  ex- 
ceed  9  or  20  inches.  The  longest  I  have  seen  of  a  great  number  of 
specimens  is  22  inches,  with  4  flexures  in  the  spiral  twist ;  but  I  have 
seen  a  pair  of  horns  from  Hyderabad,  24  inches  long,with  5  flexures  and 
50  rings  or  annuli ;  and  another  pair  from  Kattewar  which  were  25 
inches. 

The  rutting  season  commences  about  February,  or  March  ;  but  fawns 

are  seen  of  all  ages,  at  every  season.    During  the  spring  months  the 


•  The  Baoreet  or  hum  shikareet,  called  also  Arati-Chinchers,  are  a  singular  nomad« 
tribe,  who  live  entirely  by  capturint;  antilope  by  meanH  of  springes,  in  which  they  are 
very  successful.  Thoy  abo  catch  the  Chita  {Felit  Jubala)  for  the  Meer  Sfukariet.  They 
vrear  a  dress  of  a  sort  of  brown  coloured  cloth  peculiar  to  themselves,  aad  speak  a  dialect 
•f  Hindu  with  a  very  singular  intonation. 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  CounJtry.  223 

buck  often  separates  a  particular  doe  from  the  herd  and  will  not  suffer 
her  to  join  it  again,  cutting  her  off  and  intercepting  every  attempt  to 
mingle  wiib  the  rest.  The  two  are  often  found  alone  also  but  on  being 
followed  always  rejoin  the  herd. 

When  a  herd  is  mot  with,  the  does  bound  away  for  a  short  distance  and 
then  turn  round  to  take  a  look — ihe  buck  follows  more  leisurely,  and  ge- 
nerally brings  up  the  rear.  Before  they  are  much  frightened  they  al- 
ways bound  or  spring,  and  a  large  herd  going  off  in  this  way  is  one  of 
the  finest  sights  imaginable.  But  when  at  speed  the  gallop  is  like  that 
of  any  other  animal. 

Large  herds  are  found  about  Hookerry,  and  thence  towards  theRistnat 
keeping  to  the  high  rocky  basaltic  eminences,  called  by  the  Natives  imlL 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  gazelle  is  rare  on  these  situations  so  well  adapt- 
ed to  their  habits.  Some  of  the  herds  are  so  large,  that  one  buck  has 
from  50  to  60  does  and  the  young  bucks  driven  from  these  large  flocks 
are  found  wandering  in  separate  herds,  sometimes  containing  as  many  as 
30  individuals  of  different  ages. 

They  show  some  ingenuity  in  avoiding  danger.  In  pursuing  a  buck 
once  into  a  field  of  toor,  I  suddenly  lost  sight  of  him  and  found  after  a 
long  search  that  he  had  dropt  down  among  the  grain  and  lay  concealed 
with  his  head  close  to  the  ground.  Coming,  on  another  occasion,  upon 
a  buck  and  doe  with  a  young  fawn,  the  whole  party  took  to  flight,  but 
the  fawn  being  very  young,  the  old  ones  endeavoured  to  make  it  lie  down. 
Finding,  however,  that  it  persisted  in  running  afterthem,  the  buck  turn- 
ed round  and  repeatedly  knocked  it  over  in  a  cotton  field  until  it  lay  stilly 
when  they  ran  off  endeavouring  to  attract  my  attention.  Young  fawns 
are  frequently  found  concealed  and  left  quite  by  themselves. 

55.— Antilope  Arabica,  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg  Fischer's  Synop- 
sis 6.  5.  p.  460,—^.  Bennettii,  Sykes. 

•n  J    '  S     Canarese  of        \ 

^"'''"*'»  I  southern  talooks.    ]  ^cx^i^ 

-  _    ,     .  s       Canarese  of      >        ^     ^ 

Madart,  j  northern  talooks.   \  -jSo  TSb 


Tiskap  Canarese 

Chikara,  Dekhani  ^J^ 

Porsyat  of  Baoris,  the  Buck. 
Chart,  ditto.     Doe. 


224  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Oct. 

The  Indian  gazelle  always  appeared  to  me  to  be  new  and  undescrib- 
ed,  until  I  met  with  the  Arabian  sp'^cies  on  the  Southern  and  Eastern 
shores  of  Arabia  in  1833;  a  careful  examination  of  several  individuals, 
both  in  a  state  of  captivity,  and  that  had  been  shot,  convinced  me  that 
they  were  identical  with  the  Indian  species.  And  in  this,  I  was  con- 
firmed by  the  opinion  of  M.  Riippell,  formed  on  inspection  of  a  stuffed 
skin  taken  home  hy  me.  They  abound  also  in  the  islands  of  the  Red  Sea» 
particulrtrly  in  Dlialak,  and  on  the  western  shores  about  Massowa,  and 
probably  all  along- (he  Abyssinian  Coast.  The  gazelle  of  the  Hauran 
and  of  Syria,  appeared  also  to  be  of  this  species  ;  but  I  never  had  an 
opportunity  of  examining  one  closely.  If  this  be  the  case,  the  Chikara 
possesses  an  additional  interest,  in  being  the  same  animal  as  the  roe 
and  thp  roe  buck  of  Scripture.  The  modern  name  for  the  gazelle  in 
Yemen  is        .1.    Dabi  or  Dzabi  which  is  the  same  as  the  Hebrew  word 

Uanslated  **  Rue.**     Deut.  14,   5.     It  is  likewise   the  gazelle  of  the 
Arabian  poets,   as  up  ptars  from  the  common  saying        A^W  \C  \ 

**  The  eves  of  the  Dabi  are   the  most  beautiful  of  all." 

It  is  found  on  the  red  sandy  plains,  or  among  stony  open  hills,  and 
abounds  in  the  basaltic  formation  of  the  Dekhun,  in  the  valleys  of  the 
sandstone  formation,  and  generally  among  the  jungles  of  the  red  soil 
to  the  eastward  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  It  is  never  seen  on 
the  blark  {dains,  nor  among  the  western  jungles,  nor  in  the  Mulnad. 

It  is  found  frequently  in  herds  of  three,  generally  a  buck  with  two 
does;  also  of  5,  6,  or  7,  or  more.  The  young  expelled  bucks  are  also 
found  in  separate  herda  like  those  of  A.  errvicapra.  When  two  bu-ks 
fight  they  butt  like  rams,  retiring  a  little  and  slrikuig  the  foreheads 
togeiher  with  great  violence.  When  alarmed  it  utters  a  sort  of  hiss  by 
blowing  through  the  nose  and  stamps  with  the  fore-foot,  whence  ita 
Canarese  name  of  Tiska, 

The  dimensions  of  an  adult  male  procured  at  Dumbal  in  the  Southern 
Mahratta  Country,  the  skin  of  wlich  is  now  in  the  Brilibh  Museum, 
wfre  as  follows  :  height  at  the  shoulder  2  feet,  2  inches  ;  at  the  croup 
2  feet  4J  inches  ;  length  from  the  nose  to  insertion  of  the  tail  3feet,  5J  in- 
ches; of  tail  Si  inches;  of  ear  6  inches  ;  of  horns  11  in.;  of  head  9  in. 
Weight  4S-lbs. 

But  these  are  by  no  means  the  largest  dimensions  observed.  At 
Deesa  in  Goozerat,  where  it  is  much  more  common,  I  measured  three 
crania,  the  dimensions  of  the  horns  of  which  were 

Length,  lOJ  in.  lOf  in.  IIJ  inches. 

Di'^tance  between  )    ^1  ni  5 

the  points.  / 

Number  of  aiinuli    14  16  18 

includin*'  the  two  '\u>]^evkc\.  v)\\\i»  ucui  the  tip.    The  third  ur  largest 


^iigdnts  ^Afur  Ivb^mJ'Stisinu- 


Vcl.    X.  it   4 


i 


\ 


/ 


)   -7 


/  , 


/ 


y 


^^•''•#*-         ^  ^ 

^ 


^tu^ 


^.     ''^IuL-<^    <^  o^t^^i^fi^     -^a^^  -  /^^»-^ 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country,  225 

were  very  little  lyrated;  the  2d  were  the  strongest  and  thickest.  I 
have  also  killed  the  buck  weighing  5Mbs.,  the  docs  weigh  from  35  to 
40-lbs.  This  is  about  half  the  weight  of  Cervicapra  which  varies  from 
90  to  lOO-Ibs. 

The  adult  female  has  the  horns  inclining  more  to  the  rear,  curved 
backwards,  the  tips  forwards,  slightly  wrinkled  at  the  base,  the  rest 
smooth  and  black,  nnd  nearly  equidistant. 

In  both  the  laclnyraatory  sinus  is  small  and  black.  There  is  a  dark 
spot  on  the  nose,  and  aline  from  the  eyes  to  the  mouth  surmounted  by 
a  light  one.  Knee-brushes,  tail  and  fetlocks  behind,  bla  k;  chin, 
breast,  and  buttocks  behind,  white.  Rest  of  the  body,  dark  fawn  deeper 
where  it  borders  the  white  on  the  sides  and  buttocks.  Ears  long,  3 
ridges  of  hair  along  the  inner  surface. 

Inguinal  pores,  2  mammae.  Horns  of  the  female  sometimes  with  a 
few  imperfect  annuli,  and  never  corresponding  \iiith  each  other 

56.— ^n/i7ope     SuhA'Cornntus  ?^New     species  ?^Jntilope    Chi- 
kara,  Hardvvicke.— J5roM7i  Ajit'ilope,  Sykes. 

Kondgiirif  Canarese.  "^^^^^OT^Q 

Junglihukra^  Dekhani.  ^  •        »/• 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  chihara  (a  name,  by  the  way  most 
incorrectly  applied  to  this  species,  being  restricted  by  all  natives  to 
the  preceding  one),  the  Quadricomis  of  Blainville,  and  the  Siriaticornh 
of  Leach — all  refer  to  the  same  animal.  But  the  descriptions  being 
only  from  isolated  individuals,  have  not  been  sufficiently  discriminat- 
ed to  determine  the  point. 

The  detailed  description  of  General  Hardwicke  in  the  Linmean 
Transactions,  differs  in  many  important  particulars  from  tbechnra<.terd  of 
the  Dekhan  species.  This  is  much  larger,  and  the  colour  varies  consi- 
derably both  from  the  Hindostan  chikara^  in  which  it  is  of  a  "  uniform 
bright  bay,"  and  in  the  shades  of  individuals  of  different  ages  in  the 
Dekhan.  The  spurious  horns  are  so  small,  as  rarely  to  be  met  with 
in  adult  individuals,  and  are  situated  on  two  osseous  bumps  or  risings 
(strongly  marked  in  the  cranium)  from  which  they  seem  to  be  easily 
detached.  These  osseous  risings  are  immediately  in  front  of  the  true 
horns,  between  the  orbits,  rather  in  front  of  a  line  drawn  across  the 
forehead  through  the  centre  of  the  eyes,  and  become  covered  with 
black  callous  skin,  after  the  loss  of  the  corneous  tips.  The  true  horns 
are  situated  behind  the  eyes  or  between  the  eyes,and  the  ears,  inclining 
backwards  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  curve  forwards,  straight,  parallel, 
round,  smooth,  thick,  and  strong  at  the  base  which  has  a  few  wrinkles 


226  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Oct* 

and  tapering  to  a  pointi  their  colour  black.  Those  of  a  very  old  male 
were  4}  inches  in  length  and  had  3  strong  wrinkles,  and  one  imperfect 
one  at  the  base.     Plate  iv.  tig.  2 

The  dimensions  of  a  young  adult  male  were  : 

Height  at  the  shoulder,  'i  feet  1^  inch;  croup  2  feet,  3  inches, 
length  from  the  muzzle  to  the  insertion  of  the  tail,  3  feet,  6  inches;  of  tail 
5  inches  ;  ear  4j  ;  horn  4 ;  from  the  muzzle  to  the  ba^e  of  the  horn,  6  ; 
of  head  8  ;  leg  I  ;  foot  5  inches.   Weight  43-1  bs. 

But  I  have  found  them  even  heavier.  The  doe  is  about  the  same 
size  and  has  no  horns,  nor  any  bony  projection  above  the  eyes.  The 
mammee  are  four  in  number.  The  colour  is  brown,  of  various  shades,  not 
bright,  but  sometimes  so  light  as  to  approach  a  dull  fawn,  darker  than 
the  Cervicaprai  but  not  so  bright  and  deep  as  in  the  gazelle.  The 
Bhade  is  browner  on  the  hind  quarters,  and  darkest  on  the  middle  of 
the  back.  It  becomes  lighter  on  the  sides  till  it  passes  gradually  into 
white  in  the  middle  of  the  belly,  without  the  well  defined  dark  line  of 
separation,  observable  in  the  other  two  species.  The  forelegs,  parti- 
cularly above  the  knee,  the  inside  of  the  fetlocks,  the  nose  and  edge  of 
the  ears,  are  very  dark.  A  narrow  line  between  the  fore-legs  which 
gradually  widens  towards  the  hinder  flanks,  the  inside  of  the  arms  and 
thighs,  are  white  as  is  the  inside  of  the  ear,  in  which  the  hairs  are  long, 
and  arranged  in  indistinct  ridges.  The  lachrymatory  sinus  is  long, 
narrow  and  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  nose. 

In  its  habits,  it  is  monogamous,  and  is  always  found  in  pairs,  fre- 
quenting the  jungles  among  the  undulating  hills  of  the  Mulnad.  It  is 
never  found  in  the  open  country,  or  among  the  hills  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  district,  neither  does  it  ever  penetrate  into  the  western  fo- 
rests. The  droppings  are  always  observed  in  heaps  in  particular  spots. 
It  is  said  to  be  fond  of  licking  the  salt  efflorescence  of  the  soil,  from 
which  habit  the  incisors  of  old  individuals  are  often  found  to  be  much 
worn,  and  sometimes  wanting  altogether. 

57. — Damalis  R'ma,  Hamilton  Smith. — Antilope  pieta^  Pallas.— 
Neelgao,  Buifon  and  Shaw. 

Maravi,       Canarese.  SSo^TJa 

Rofh,         Dekhani.  . 

Buhi,  Mahratta. 

It  is  found  in  the  thick  low  jungles  of  the  Rone  and  Chudi  Pergun- 

nahs,  in  those  of  Goonjeehal  near  the  Sungam  of  the  Ristnah  and  Ghat- 

parba  rivers  in  the  Mubiluhal  talook,  and  in  the  Moolwar  Nala  towards 

fieejapoor,  but  never  in  the  open  black  plains,  the  Mulnad,  or  the  Ghat 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  227 

forests.  It  is  comparatively  rare,  and  is  becoming  more  so,  cTery  day. 
The  country  people  are  apt  to  confound  it  with  the  Sambnr;  but  ihe  lo- 
calities frequented  by  the  two  animals  are  totally  different.  The  Sam' 
bur  is  impatient  of  heat,  and  requires  shade  and  deep  cover,  the  Neelgao 
is  indifferent  to  the  sun,  and  in  the  open  plains,  at  noon,  it  requires  a 
good  horse  and  a  long  run  to  come  up  with  it.  I  had  a  tame  female  of 
each  kind  for  a  long  time  in  the  same  paddock.  The  Neelgao  used  to 
drop  on  its  knees  to  feed,  and  attacked  and  defended  itself  by  butting 
with  the  head.  The  Sambur  on  the  other  hand  never  knelt,  and  when 
irritated,  used  to  rise  on  its  hind  legs,  and  strike  with  the  fore-feet.  Jn 
Goozerat  the  Neelgao  is  found  in  the  open,  grassy  plains  ;  the  herd 
marches  in  aline,  the  bull  leading  with  8  or  10  cows  following. 

58. — Bos  (Bibos)  Cavifrons,   Hodgson— Journal  Asiatic  Society  Ben- 
gal, vol.  VI.  (1837)  pp.  223,  499,  745. 
Bos  Gaurus,  Griffiths. — Goury  Geoff. 

Kar  kona,  Canarese "^^3o  ^^'V/^Sf© 

JungH  JkhoolgGf  D  ekhani i/j    <    i /• 

Gavii/a^  Mahratta 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  one  of  the  largest  animals  of  the  In- 
dian Fauna,  frequenting  all  the  extensive  forest  tracts  from  Cape  Como- 
rin  to  the  Himalayas,  should  only  have  been  indicated  distinctly,  within 
the  last  two  years.  I  have  seen  specimens  from  Tinnevelly,and  likewise 
from  the  whole  range  of  the  Syhadree  mountains  up  to  Mahableshwar, 
and  I  know  that  the  animal  has  been  killed  near  Vellore,  in  the  Sher- 
waroyah  hills  near  Salem,  at  Aseergurh,  in  Kantles,  Rajahmundry,  and  I 
doubt  not  that  it  will  likewise  be  found  in  all  the  deeper  recesses  of  the 
eastern  ghauts,  and  on  the  banks  of  all  the  great  rivers  passing  through 
them.  An  imperfect  cranium  which  seems  to  belong  to  a  female  of  this 
species,  in  the  United  Service  Museum,  is  labelled  thus  "  Head  of  a 
Bison  from  Kuddah,  Straits  of  Malacca,  presented  by  Lieutenant  Colo- 
nel Frith,  Madras  Artillery.** 

The  following  memoranda  were  made  in  1833  in  the  Southern  Mah- 
ratta Country  at  a  time  when  I  had  frequent  opportunities  of  seeing  the 
animal.  "It  is  called  Gaviya  by  the  Mahrattas,  Jungli  khoolga  and 
Uma  by  the  Mahommedans  (though  it  has  not  the  slightest  affinity  with 
the  buffalo  to  which  both  of  these  names  apply),  and  Karkona  by  the 
Canarese,  which  is  of  similar  import,  from  Kadu,  a  forest,  and  Koua  a 
buffalo. 

It  differs  also  very  remarkably  from  the  common  ox,  and  though  it 
approaches  considerably  more  to  the  descriptions  of  the  bison,  the  name 


228  Catalogue  of  Mammalia  [Oct, 

generally  applied  to  it  by  Engli?*h  sportsmen,  it  exhibits  marked  struc- 
tural ditferences  excluding  it  from  the  Bisontine  group  as  defined  by  Cu- 
vier.  These  consist  in  the  plane  of  the  fore-head  being  **  flat  and 
even  slightly  concave,"  and  in  the  possession  of  only  13  pair  of  ribs.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  it  will  be  found  to  constitute  a  connecting  link 
between  the  Bisontine  and  Taurine  groups.  The  most  remarkable  cha- 
racters in  the  animal  are  an  arched  coronal,  or  convex  bony  ridge,  sur- 
mounting the  frontal  bone,  and  projecting  beyond  it  so  as  to  make  the 
line  from  the  vertex  to  the  orbit  a  concave  sweep;  the  continuation  of 
which  from  the  orbit  to  the  muzzle  is  slightly  convex.  The  other  dis- 
tinctive mark  is  the  prolongation  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae 
of  the  back,  from  the  withers  to  the  loins  where  they  cease  abruptly. 
These  processes  are  12  in  number  and  their  prolongation  gives  the  ani- 
msd  a  very  extraordinary  appearance. 

The  largest  individual  I  met  with,  was  killed  in  an  island  of  the  Kala 
Nuddee  in  the  district  of  Soonda,  in  1827.  A  noted  shikaree,  the  Potel 
or  head-man  of  Alloor  (a  Hubsheeornogro  descendant  of  someofthenume- 
rous  African  slaves  imported  in  the  I5th  century  by  the  Mahomm^dan 
kingsofBeejapoor,andwhostillexistas  a  distinct  racp,int  his  di8trict),called 
us  at  day  light  and  promised  to  show  us  one  of  the  animals  described  l)y 
him  as  a  wild  buffalo.  Crossing  the  river  in  a  canoe,  we  struck  into  the 
forest  and  soon  came  upon  a  track,  which  he  pronounced  to  be  that  of  a 
large  bull.  On  this  he  proceeded  with  the  steadiness  and  sagacity  of  a 
blood  hound,  though  it  was  ofteu  imperceptible  to  our  eye^.  At  times 
when  a  doubt  caused  us  to  stop,  he  made  a  cast  round  and  on  recovering 
the  track  summoned  us  to  proceed  by  a  loud  whistle,  or  by  imitating 
theory  of  the  spotted  deer,  for  not  a  word  was  spoken,and  the  most  per- 
fect silence  was  enjoined.  As  we  advanced  he  pointed  silently  to  the  bro- 
ken boughs  or  other  marks  of  the  passage  of  a  large  animal,  and  occa- 
sionally thrust  his  foot  into  the  recent  dung,  judging  by  its  warmth  of 
the  vicinity  of  the  game.  We  followed  his  steps  for  three  miles  to  the 
river,  then  along  the  banks  towards  Dandelly,  where  the  animal  appear- 
ed to  have  passed  to  the  other  side.  Wading  across,  we  ascended  the 
hank  of  a  small  island  covered  with  thick  underwood,  and  some  large 
trees,  amongst  wliich  it  had  lain  down,  about  fifteen  yards  from  where  we 
stood.  I'he  jungle  was  so  thick  that  we  found  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
more  than  a  great  black  mass  among  the  underwood.  On  firing  the  ani- 
mal got  on  his  legs,  received  two  balls  more,  and  rushed  into  the  jungle 
where  he  became  very  furious,  and  we  were  obliged  to  shelter  ourselves 
behind  the  trees,  to  avoid  the  repeated  charges  he  made,  though  one  ball 
through  the  shoulder  which  had  broken  the  bone  above  the  elbow,  pre- 


^®3^]  in  the  Souihern  Mahratta  Country,  229 

vented  his  moving  with  fn(:ility.  He  then  became  exhausted  and  lay 
down  snorting  loudly  and  rising  to  charge  when  any  one  approached. 
A  bull  in  the  furcliead  caused  him  to  roll  over  the  precipitous  bank  into 
the  river.  Still  however  he  was  not  dead  and  several  balls  were  fired 
into  his  forehead  behind  his  ear  and  the  junction  of  the  head  and  neck 
without  life  becoming  extinct,  one  ball  which  had  struck  the  vertebr« 
of  the  neck  was  taken  out  almost  pulverized. 

When  drawn  ashore  and  examined  more  minutely,  the  first  sentiment 
produced  in  all  present,  was  astonishment  at  his  immense  bulk  and 
size ;  but  on  measuring  his  height  we  found  him  much  taller  than  his 
breadth  at  first  led  us  to  imagine. 

The  head  is  very  square  and  shorter  than  in  the  common  ox,  the  fore- 
head ample,  the  bony  ridge  rising  about  five  inches  in  height  from  the 
plane  of  the  frontal  bone  over  which  it  inclines.  When  viewed  behind 
it  rises  suddenly  and  abruptly  from  the  nape  of  the  neck,  from  whence  to 
the  vertex  it  measures  seven  inches,  the  horns  make  a  wide  sweep  in  con- 
tinuation of  the  arched  bony  ridge,  and  turn  slightly  backwards  and  up- 
ward* forming  an  angle  of  about  35®  with  the  frontal  bone,  the 
whole  of  the  head  in  front,  above  the  eyes,  is  covered  with  a  coat  of 
close  short  hair  of  a  light  greyish  brown  colour  which  below  the  eyes  is 
darker  approaching  almost  to  black.  The  muzzle  is  large  and  full,  and 
of  a  grayish  colour,  the  eyes  are  smaller  than  in  the  ox,  with  a  fuller  pu- 
pil of  a  pale  blue  colour,  the  ears  are  smaller  in  proportion  than  in  the 
ox,  the  tongue  is  very  rough  and  covered  with  prickles,  the  neck  is  short 
thick  and  heavy,  the  chest  broad,  the  shoulder  very  deep  and  muscular, 
the  forelegs  short,  the  joints  very  short  and  strong,  the  arm  exceedingly 
large  and  muscular.  Behind  the  neck  and  immediately  above  the  shoul- 
der rises  a  fleshy  gibbosity  or  hump,  the  same  height  as  the  dorsal  ridge, 
which  is  thinner  and  firmer,  rising  gradually  as  it  goes  backwards  and 
terminates  suddenly  about  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  hind  quarters 
are  lighter  and  lower  than  the  fore,  fal line;  suddenly  from  the  termination 
of  the  ridge,  the  tail  very  short,  the  tufi  only  reaching  down  to  the  hocks. 

The  dimensions  of  this  individual  were  carefully  noted  as  follows  : — 

feet     Inches. 

Height  at  the  shoulder 6  1  ^ 

Do.     at  the  rump  (taken  from  hoi»f  to  insertion  of  tail).  5  5 

Length  from  the  nose  to  the  insertion  of  the  tail 9  6J 

Do.         do.     to  the  end  of  the  tail  which  was  2  ft.  10  in...  12  4J 

Do.  of  dorsal  ridge  including  the  hump 3  4 

Hei^htof        do.  do 0  4J 

Girth  (taken  behind  the  forelegs) 8  0 


230  Catalogue  of  MainmaUa  \0 


,*  a* 


Breadth  of  the  forehead 1  3^^ 

From  the  muzzle  to  the  top  of  the  arched  hony  ridge 2  Ij 

Distance  between  the  points  of  the  horns  2  1 

Circumference  of  horn  at  base 1  7  J 

Between  the  roots  of  horns     0  13^ 

Length  of  the  ear 0  10^ 

Circumference  of  the  ni*ck 4  4 

Depih  of  the  shoulder  (from  the  elbow  to  the  oud  of  the 

spinal  ridge) 4  2^ 

From  the  elbow  to  the  knee  (i.  e.  the  fore-arm) 1  5} 

From  the  elbow  to  the  heel $ 2  7 

Circumference  of  ihe  arm 2  6 

The  skin  on  the  neck  and  shoulders  and  on  the  thighs  is  very  thick  be- 
\\\^  about  two  inches  in  this  one,  which  has  already  shrunk  from  lying  in 
the  sun.  It  is  used  for  making  shields  which  are  much  prized.  On 
examining  the  skeleton  picked  clean  ky  the  vultures,  we  could  only 
distinguish  thirteen  pair  of  ribs. 

The  cows  differ  from  the  male  in  having  a  slighter  and  more  graceful 
head,  a  slender  neck,  no  hump,  a  less  defined  dew-lap  and  the  points  of 
thf  horns  do  not  turn  towards  each  other  at  the  points,  but  bend  slightly 
backwards,  the  horns  are  smaller  too,  and  the  frontal  bone  narrower,  but 
the  coronal  or  ridge  is  distinctly  marked.  The  bulls  have  the  forehead 
broader  in  proportion  to  their  age.  In  the  young  bull  it  is  narrower  than 
in  the  cow  and  the  bony  ridge  scarcely  perceptible.  The  horns  too  in 
the  young  specimen  turn  more  upwards. 

The  t<eneral  colour  is  dark  brown,  the  hair  thick  and  short  but  in 
old  individuals  the  upper  parts  are  often  rather  bare.  That  on  the  neck 
and  breast  and  beneath  is  longer,  the  skin  of  the  throat  is  somewhat 
loose  giving  the  appearance  of  a  slight  dew-lap.  The  legs  are  white 
with  a  rufous  tint  on  the  back  and  side  of  the  forelegs.  The  skin  of  the 
under  parts  when  uncovered  is  a  deep  ochrey  yellow.  The  cow  has  the 
legs  of  a  purer  white. 

The  breeding  season  is  said  to  be  early  in  the  year  and  the  calves  are 
born  after  the  rains.  The  bidls  are  often  found  separate  from  the  herd 
which  consists  generally  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  cows  and  a  bull.  They 
generally  feed  during  the  niy;lit  browzingon  the  young  grass  and  the  ten- 
der shoots  of  the  bamboos  of  which  they  are  verj^  fond.  In  the  morning 
they  retire  to  some  thicket  of  long  grass,  or  young  b.imboos  where  they 
lie  down  to  runiinale.  When  disturbed  the  first  that  perceives  the  intru- 
der stamps  loudly  with  its  foot  to  alarm  the  rest,   and   the    whole   rush 


1639]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country,  231 

through  the  forest  breaking  down  every  obstacle  and  forcing  their  way 
with  a  terrific  crash, 

dat  euntibus  in^ns 

Silva  locum,  et  maguo  cedunt  virgulta  fragore. 

Mn.  vii.  676. 

When  suddenly  approached  in  ihe  night  they  start  off  with  a  loud 
hissing  snort. 

In  1831  I  saw  a  young  Bison  calf  in  the  possession  of  some  Gowlees 
the  owners  of  large  herds  of  buflfaloes  in  the  Hangul  talook.  It  was 
caught  when  ju^tt  dropt,  in  the  month  of  May,  and,  when  I  saw  if,  was 
seven  months  old,  very  tame  and  gentle,  though  timid,  licking  the  hands 
of  the  Gowle«^s  and  frisking  about  with  ilie  buffalo  calves.  It  was  the 
same  colour  as  the  old  nnimil,  very  dark  brown  with  white  l^gs.  The 
head  small,  the  forehead  warning  the  breadth  so  remarkable  in  the  adult, 
and  the  bony  ridge,  of  the  crown  was  hardly  perceptible.  The  horns 
were  just  beginning  to  sprout,  the  ears  were  lari^er  and  rounder  than 
thos-^  of  the  buffalo,  the  eyes  a  pale  grey  or  cerulean  colour.  The  hair 
on  the  throat  was  long  and  the  dew-lap  sliihtlv  indicated.  No  hump 
was  perceptible,  but  the  dorsal  ridge  was  di?<tinctly  marked. 

The  Gowlees  say  they  see  great  numbers  of  Bison  when  pasturing 
their  herds  in  the  n-^ighbouring  forest.  They  describe  them  as  very  ti- 
mid and  watchful,  more  so  than  any  other  wild  animal,  always  reposing 
in  a  circle  with  their  heads  turned  outside,  rea<ly  to  tike  alarm.  They 
add  that  they  see  most  calves  from  June  to  October  but  the  greatest 
number  about  August.  They  do  not  know  how  long  the  cow  goes  with 
calf,  but  suppose  the  period  of  gestation  to  be  the  same  as  thnt  of  the 
buffalo,  or  ten  months  and  ten  days.  The  old  male  drives  the  others 
from  the  herd  at  the  breeding  season,  and  the  single  ones  seen  in  the 
jungle  are  young  males  of  this  description,  and  it  is  probable  the  very 
old  bulls  are  sometimes  expelled  also  by  younger  and  stronger  males." 

For  the  following  particulars  derived  from  the  observation  of  the  ani- 
mal in  the  Shervaroyah  hills,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Fischer,  of  Salem  : 
"  TheBison  ordinarily  frequentsthe  hills,  seeking  the  highest  and  coolest 
parts,  but  during  the  hottest  weather,  and  when  the  hills  are  parched  by 
the  heat,  or  the  grass  consumed  by  fire,  the  single  families,  in  which 
they  commonly  range  the  hills,  congregate  into  large  herds,  and  strike 
deep  into  the  great  woods  and  valleys;  but  after  the  first  showers,  and 
when  verdure  begins  to  re-appear,  they  again  disperse,  and  range  about 
freely.  In  wet  and  windy  weather,  they  again  resort  to  the  valleys,  to 
escape  its  inclemency,  and  also  to  avoid  a  species  of  fly  or  gnat  which 
harasses  them  greatly.  In  the  months  of  July  and  August,  they  regu- 
larly descend  to  the  plains,  for  the  purpose  of  licking  the  earth  impreg- 


232  Catcdogne  of  Mammalia  [Oct. 

nated  will)  natron  or  soda,  which  seems  as  essential  to  their  welUdoing 
as  common  salt  is  to  the  domestic  animal  when  kept  in  hilly  tracts. 

The  chief  food  of  the  Bison  seems   to  be  the  following  grasses  and 
plants, 

Yadanjdn  crdy 

VaUaum  piUoo A  species  of  Sacharum,  used  for  thatck 

Odeserefigan  pilloo 

The  eoUay  mooUoo  leaf Ricinus  Commnnis.  Castor  oil  Plant, 

MuUum  piUoo Anthystiria  polystachia,  Roxh. 

Canavum  pilloo , Sorghum  muticum.     Wild  Cholum, 

Cheeuum  pilloo Broom  grass,     (Aristida). 

Cattoo  Coravgan  leaf. A  species   of    Convolcidus.      Ipomcea 

StaphyUna  f 
but  they  will  eat  with  aviclity   every  species  of  grain  conimonly  culti- 
vatt don  the  liilli  or  plains,  as  the rvols  find  10   tl  eii    cost.     The   Bison 
particularly  is  so  fond  of  tht*  avaray   cottay   {Ddichos  Lablab,  Aiushe),* 
when  in  blossom,  that  they  will  invadr,  and  destroy  fic.'ulti  of  it,  in  open 
daylight,  in  de>pile of  any  resistance  the  villagers  can  offer.     In   other 
respects  it  is  a  very  inoffensive  animal,  very  rarely  atiaLking  any  one  it 
encounters,  except  in  the  case  of  a  single  bull    driven   from   the   herd. 
Such  a  one  has  occasionally  been  known  to  lake  up  his  location  in  some 
deep  bowery  jungle,  and  deliberately  quarter  himself  on  the  cultivation 
of  the  adjacent  villages.    The  villagers,  though  ready  to  assist  Europeans 
in  the  slaughter  of  Bison,  will  not  themselves  destroy  ihem  (the  inviola- 
bility of  the  cow  extending  to  the  Bison)  ;    and  so  bold  does   this   free- 
booting  animal  become  in  consequence,  that  he  has  been  known  to  drive 
the  ryots  from  the  fields,  and  deliberate!)    devour  the  produce.     But  in 
general  it  is  a  timid  animal,  and  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  within  gun-shot 
of  them. 

The  period  of  gestation  is  with  the  Bison  the  same  as   with   the  do- 
mesticated animal;  they  drop  their  young  in  the  months   of  September 
and  October.     I  once  had  one  brought  to  me  so  young,  the  navel  string 
was  still  unseparated.    I  should  think  it  was  then  about  the  size  of  a 
common  country  cow*s  calf  of  four  months  old.     It   s»*ems  a  slow  grow- 
ing animal.     A  calf  I  had  for  three  years  was  eviikntly  in  every  respect 
still  a  mere  calf.    They  seem  very  difl[icult  to  rear.     I  have  known  it  at- 
tempted at  different  ages,  but  never  knew  the  anini.d  to  live  beyond  the 
third  year.     Mr.  Cockbum  has  tried  it  in  vain,  in  its  native  climate,  the 
Sherwaroyah  hills,  and  I  have  made  the  attempt  at  Salem  repeatedly.  At 
one  time  I  had  five  in  my  farm-vard  ;   one  lived  for  three  years  :  but  this 
one,  with  all  the  others,  died  suddenly  in  the  same  week  from  some  dis- 
ease, marked  by  refusal  of  food,  running  fr^m  the  nose,  and  an  abomina- 

*  CovitittY  beta. 


%• 


1839]  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  288 

ble  stench  from  the  mouth.  A  similur  disease,  it  may  be  noteH,  prevaiU 
ed,  I  was  informed,  at  the  same  time,  among  the  Bison  of  the  Sherwa- 
royah,  Shandi^mungalum  and  N^-ilaherry  hills.  The  calves  I  had,  never 
tecame  in  anv  decree  domes. icated  :  the  domesticated  cow  could  never 
be  induced  to  suikle  them." 

I  may  add,  that  the  persevering  ferocity  of  the  Bison  of  the  Sub-Himn- 
lavan  range,  described  by  Mr.  Hodg'^on,  is  quite  foreign  to  the  character 
of  the  animal  in  the  southern  forests.  When  wounded,  it  is  true,  it 
charges  its  assailant  with  determined  courage,  and  many  instance'^  have 
come  to  my  knowledge  of  its  doing  so  with  fatal  effect,  among  which  I 
may  cite  those  of  two  officers  within  the  last  few  years,  bolh  of  whom 
were  killed  at  the  Mahabaleshwar  hills  ;  but  in  general  it  will  always 
seek  its  safety  by  flight,  if  permitted. 

The  figure  at  Plate  5  is  tiiken  from  an  indifferent  sketch  made  of 
the  very  old  bull,  described  at  page  229,  and  gives  a  tolerable  idea  of 
the  character  of  such  an  animal,  though  not  quite  correct  in  all  its  de« 
tails.  The  dorsal  ridge  is  too  prominent  ;  the  expression  of  the  head, 
particularly  about  the  muzzle,  is  too  heavy,  and  the  hoofs  of  the  hind 
feet  are  too  large,  these  being  in  reality  only  half  the  size  of  those  on 
the  fore-feet. 

Plate  6  shows  the  crania  in  front  and  profile  of  another  very  old  bull, 
killed  on  iheNeilgherry  hills,  now  in  my  possession ;  and  of  a  young  cow. 
The  difference  produced  in  the  sha|)e  of  the  horns  by  age  is  distinctly 
shown.  The  great  expansion  of  the  bull's  horns  is  entirely  the  effect  of 
age,  in  the  young  males  ihey  are  more  erect,  and  the  points  turned  to 
each  other,  while  in  this  individual  they  are  altogether  divergent,  one 
being  half  broken  off,  and  the  point  of  the  other  worn  and  ragged,  which 
is  always  found  to  be  the  case  with  adult  bulls.  The  dimensions  of  this 
cranium  are — 
Height  from  the  end  of  the  maxillary  bone  to  the  vertex... Inches.  22 

Breadth  of  front  between  the  edges  of  the  horns 13  to  14 

Length  of  horn  from  base  to  point  in  a  straight  line 21 

Do.  do.  along  the  curve 80 

Diameter  (longest  section)  inside • 6^ 

Do.         (broadest  do.) ^      4f 

Circumference  at  the  base .18^ 

Distance  between  the  points 39 

The  above  catalogue  being  confined  to  the  animals  of  a  single  pro- 
vince, does  not  comprise  the  whole  number  of  species  found  in  Southern 
India  ;  but,  from  the  very  diversified  character  of  its  surface,  it  includes 
by  far  the  greatest  proportion.  In  a  future  number,  I  propose  adding  a 
supplementary  list  of  species  peculiar  to  the  CarnatiC;  and  so  to  complete 
the  fauna  of  Southern  India. 


284  Catalogue  of  Birds  [Oct. 

H.— Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  the  Peninsula  of  India^  arranged  ac' 
cordhnf  to  the  mo'-em  system  of  Clasfi/ication ;  uith  brief  Notes  on 
their  Halnta  and  Geographical  Distributing  and  description  of  new, 
d  u''ful  and  imperfectly  described  Sper'es: — By  T.  C.  Jebdon,  AssiS" 
tant  Surgeon,  2d  Madras  Light  Cavalry, 

{Continued  from  No,  24  page  91.) 
Supplement  to  Raptores. — By  Walter  Elliot,  Esq. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  first  portion  of  Mr.  Jerdou's  Catalogue,  I 
Lave  b  en  enabled  to  aild  another  beautiful  accipitrine  bird  to  his  list. 
It  beloni^s  to  Gcmis  NisiETos,  Hndgson  ;  and  should  fwUow  immediatel/ 
after  A'.  Aiv  us  ?     No.  12  in  the  Catalogue. 

12}.  N,  Crs'aiel'a,  Temm.  PI.  Col.  p.  2S2— 5/mA  Baz,  H. 

Ailuli  ma'.e  »»f  1st  year — Total  length  24  inches;  length  of  tail,  HxV* 
of  bill,  straight  o  gape,  1  -j^^  ;  tarsus  froui  the  angle  of  the  outer  bend 
to  ihe  sole  ly*5«hs  ;  central  d  .;it  2  ;  d  >.  claw  I  jV^^  '  ^^'"^  *^igi^  'tV^^*  » 
do.  claw  \y^\  of  win 2;  close  1  Ui  inohes ;  two  central  crest  feathers, 4 ;  two 
next,  2^:  colour  brown ;  b^neaih,  brown  intermixed  with  white;  each 
feather  being  brown  with  a  while  edge,  which  increases  with  successive 
moultings  until  the  brown  is  reduced  to  a  mere  line.  Crest  dark  brown, 
approaching  to  black.  QuiUs  barred  transversely  with  darker  brown. 
Tail  with  4  well  defined  bands,  the  last  forming  the  tip,  and  an  imper- 
fect one  near  the  base  making  a  fifth.  Feathers  of  the  tarsi  with  a  slight 
fawn  tinge  spotted  with  brown. 

Sits  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  on  the  watch  for  hares,  pea-fowl, 
jungle-fowl,  on  which  it  swoops  from  its  elevated  perch.  Solitary. 
Shot  in  the  tlampoor  juugle,  inland  from  Nellore,  at  the  foot  of  the  eaa« 
tern  ghats. 

I  have  now  before  me  a  living  specimen  of  the  species  distinguished 
as  NiscBtos  NiveuSf  and  two  skins  of  the  same  bird.  The^corres ponding 
dimensions  of  an  adult  male  of  several  moul tings  are — total  length,  26 
inches  ;  length  of  tail  ll ;  of  bill,  straight  to  gape,  2  ;  tarsus,  from  the 
angle  of  the  outer  bend  to  the  sole,  4 ;  central  digit  2xV^^8 ;  do. 
claw  IrV^hs  ;  hind  digit  lyV^^sj  do.  claw  l^V^s  j  wing  closed  18 
weight  3-lb.  ia|  drs. 

The  Mhorungee  is  not  crested.  It  is  stronger  and  altogether  more 
powerful  than  the  5AaA  i&az.    Tarsus  shorter;  talons  more  powerful. 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  235' 

Beneath  whiter,  because  older,  the  brown  being  reduced  to  the  shafts  of 
the  feathers  only.  Tail  with  7  bars,  the  last  forming  a  broad  dark  band 
at  the  tip,  the  others  narrower,  indistinct,  particularly  those  next  the  tip. 
Quills  dark  brown,  not  banded.  Cere  and  legs,  pale  yellow ;  bill  plum- 
beoos  at  the  base,  black  at  the  tip. 

There  is  little  doubt  this  is  anew  species.  Temminck's  bird  is  only 
25  inches,  and  the  wings  have  a  band,  and  the  tips  of  the   quills  brown. 

In  habits  it  differs  much  from  the  last,  seeking  its  prey  more  frequent- 
ly on  the  wing,  hunting  in  pairs  and  stooping  on  hares,  pea-fowl,  &c. 

The  living  one  was  caught  at  the  rocky  mountain  of  Awulkondah  in 
the  Arcot  district,  where  a  pair  of  them  were  used  to  resort,  by  baiting 
some  falconer's  springes  with  a  fowl,  on  which  they  both  descended. 
One  was  caught  in  the  snares,  the  other  alighted  on  a  tree  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood and  was  shot.    The  female  measures  28  inches  in  length. 


OaDER  II.  INSESSORES. 

Tribe  DENTIROSTRES. 

Family  LANIADiE.— »S'^riA;^^. 

Sub  Family  LANIADiE.— Trw^  Shrikes, 

Gknus  LANIUS,  Auct. — Collurio,  y'lg,— Shrike  or  Butcher  Bird. 

48. — L.  Hardwickii, — Coll.   Hardwickii,  Vig — Gould  Cent. — Peck- 

anukf  H. — Bay  backed  Shrifie, 

This  handsome  little  shrike  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  Indian  spe- 
cies, and  is  tolerably  common  in  every  purt  except  the  West  Coast.  It 
frequents  gardens,  hedges  and  cultivated  ground,  but  chiefly  delights  in 
low,  thorny,  but  open,  jungle — feeds  on  locusts,  grasshoppers,  and  also 
on  small  birds. 

Bill  black — Irides  hazel  brown  j  length  about  eight  inches;  tail  nearly 
four. 

49.  L.  lahtora. — Coll.  lahtorot  Sykes. — L,  excubitorf  var.  C  Lath, — 
Doodhea  latora^  H. — Large  grey  Shrike. 

Generally  spread,  except  on  the  Western  Coa8t,where  it  occurs  rarely, 


236  Catalogue  of  Birds  [Oct. 

if  at  all — more  abundant  on  the  table  land  than  below  the  ghaufs — fre- 
quents open  baubul  jungle,  or  single  trees  ou  the  open  plain,  or  culti- 
vated ground.  Seldom  approaches  villages  or  cantonmentSy  as  the  last 
does,  but  has  the  same  habits  and  food. 

Irides  hazel  brown— bill  and  legs  black— length  9i  inches  ;  tail  5. 

50.  L.  erythronotus, — Coll.  erythronotus,  Vig. — Latora,  H. — Rufous* 
backed  Shrike, 

This  shrike  is  a  rare  bird  in  the  Camatic,  less  so  in  the  Decrun,  com- 
mon on  the  West  Coast,  ;in  1  most  abundant  on  the  Neiigherrie^.  It  pre- 
fers a  more  wooded  country  than  the  two  last  species — freqiients  low 
bushy  ground  or  open  spaces  in  the  jungle,  and  has  similar  manners  aud 
food  to  others  of  the  genus. 

Length  10  inches  ;  tail  4  J ;  irides  hazel  brown — ^bill  and  legs  black. 

51.  L,  nigriceps. — ColL  nigrtcepSf  Frank. — Black  headed  Shrike, 

I  have  hitherto  only  ob-ierved  this  species  in  Goomsoor,  perched  on 
trees,  at  the  edges  of  thirk  junejle. 

Irides  deep  brown — length  10^  inches ;  tail  5. 


Sub  Family  DICRURINiE. 

Grn.  TEPHRODORNIS,  Swainson. 

1  think  that  this  genus  rather  belongs  to  the  Thamnophilina,  or  bush 

shrikes,  judging  from  its  manners ;  but  as  Swainson  looks  upon  it  as  the 
union  of  the  two  families,  it  may  retain  its  place  among  the  '  swallow 
shrikes.' 

52.  T,  Sylvicola, — New  sp.  ? — Pharee  Latora,  H. — Jungle  wood 
shrike. 

This  apparently  undescribed  species  inhabits  the  dense  and  lofty 
forests  of  the  Western  Coast  and  ghnuts.  I  have  found  it  on  the  Coonoor 
pass,  as  high  as  5000  feet.  It  climbs  and  hops  about  the  larger  boughs 
of  trees,  seeking  for  and  picking  insects  of  various  kinds,  but  chiefly 
coleopterous,  oflf  the  bark,and  occasionally  making  a  swoop  at  one  it  has 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  237 

spit  d  on  a  branc})  at  a  short  distance.     ?een  singly,  or  in  small  flocks, 
wi  en  ihey  geiiCially  keep  up  a  noisy  and  harsh  chattering. 

Desvr. — A  hove,  slaty  cinereou* — an  eyeband,  extending  from  nostrils 
to  half  an  inch  behind  the  eye,  bhuk — rump  and  beneath  white,  the 
breast  with  a  tins:e  (-f  red<lish  lincreous — winces  and  tail  dusky  brown. 
Length  8^  inches  ;  tail  3J  J  wing4J;  tarsus -j/yths  ;       bill     (to    gape) 

l_?^ths ;  irides  greenish  or  wax  yellow. 

53.  T,  sifperciUosust  Sw. — Lan,  muscicapoides,  Frankl. — L.  Keroula^ 
Gray— Gray   and   Hardwicke,  III.  Ind.  Zool.    (bad  figure). — Common 

wood  shrike. 

This  species  has  been  lately  accurately  described  by  Swainson,*  but 
without  the  svnonyme.s,  of  which  h<»  was  probably  unaware.  Itis  generally 
spread  throughout  Southern  India,  but  in  no  place  abundant,  though  it  is 
far  from  being  rare  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  I  have  seen  it  most  nu- 
merous in  Gourasoor,  and  in  theWu'  liar  jungle  (in  the  gap  of  Coimbsitore). 
Colonel  Sykes  says  it  is  rare  in  the  Dec<an — this  is  to  be  expected,  from 
the  bareness  of  the  country.  Though  never  found  in  dpnse  jungle  like 
the  preceding  one,  the  wood  shrike  is  found  in  open  jungle,  in  open 
spaces  on  the  borders  of  thick  forests,  woody  nuHuhs,  tope^,  avenues, 
and  even  thick  hedges  occasionally.  It  has  similar  habits  with  the  last ; 
slowly  traversing  the  branches  of  the  trees  it  frequents  in  search  of  in- 
sect*, chiefly  col^optera.     Like  it  also  it  hunts  in  small  flocks,  or  sinjjly. 

Length  6J  imhes;  wing  3J ;  tail  2}. — Irides  greenish  wax  yellow  (as 
in  the  last). 

Gen.  OCYPTERUS,  Cyx^.-Suallow  Shrike. 

54.  0.  leucorhynchos. — Afth-coloured  Swallow  Shri/ce. 

Appears  to  be  universally  spread  over  India ;  but  is  by  no  means  com- 
mon, and  I  have  had  very  few  opportunities  of  observing  it.  It  prefers  a 
wooded  country,  andalwajs  I  believe  takes  its  food,  which  consists  chief- 
ly of  soft  winded  insects,  in  the  air.  I  saw  a  flock  once  flyingover  an  open 
space  in  the  Wulliar  jungle  like  swallows;  again  near  Palamcottah,  in  a 
palmyra  tope,  a  small  flock  of  them,  one  every  now  and  then  darting 

•  TtcoCenimariet  and  a  Quarter  qf  Birds,  either  new,  or  hitherto  imperfectly  detcrtbed.-^AiU' 
maJ4  in  Menageries,  Part  3,  No.  9 :— Lardner't  Cabinet  CycU 


966  Catalogue  of  Birds  [Oct. 

from  il8  perch  on  the  top  of  a  pa1m-tree,and  making  a  short  circuit  in  the 
air  after  insects,  reseating  itself,  though  not  generally  on  the  sume  tree. 
On  another  occasion  I  saw  it  in  Travancore  skimming  over  the  surflice 
of  a  tank,  and  returning  to  rest  on  a  low  bout:;h  over-hanging  the  water. 
Its  flight  is  rapid,  elegant,  and  remarkably  like  that  of  the   swallow. 

Length  about  7  inches  ;  wing  5;  tail  2 -j^^ths;  bill    light  cmereoofl, 
darker  at  tip  ;  legs  slate  colour. 

Gen.  DICRURUS,  Vieill.— Edolius,  Cuv. 

Drongo  Shrike,-^ Fork  taiUd   Shrike. — King  Crow  of  Europeans  in 

India. 

.')5.  D.  halicaasmSf  Vi'^ill. —  Common  K'ing   Crow* — Kolsah  or  Bojunga^ 
H. — Sometimes  also  called   "  Cotwal.'* 

This  is  the  most  common  and  abundant  species  of  Dicrurvs,  and  is  to 
be  mot  with  in  every  pnrt  of  the  countrv,  nnd  inhabits  alike  the  open 
country  und  wooded  districts,  but  is  never  found  in  dense  jungle.  The 
king  crow  may  be  seen  perched  on  a  tree  or  hedge,  the  top  of  a  low 
bush  on  the  plain,  or  a  stack  of  prain—  fr^qnentlv  also  on  the  top  of 
a  wall  or  old  building,  the  b-mk  of  a  paldy-field,  or  even  a  clod 
of  earth, or  ant  hill — and  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  one  on  th« 
back  of  cattle,  sheep  or  eoats, while  grazing.  From  this  perch  it  watches 
eagerly  for  the  stirring  of  an  insciU  below — on  observing  one, flies  rapidly 
to  the  spot,  Hnd,  genenilly  aliorhting  for  an  instant  on  the  ground,  seizes 
its  prey — frequently  however  the  devoted  grasshopper,  or  oiher  insect, 
being  al*'0  on  the  look-out,  makes  an  attempt  to  escape,  but  is  closely 
pursued  by  the  king-crow%  who  either  snaps  it  up  on  the  wing  or  just  as 
it  has  alighted.  Having  secured  ir,  ihe  koisa  flies  'off* generally,  but  not 
always  to  its  former  perch,  devours  it  at  leisure,  and  then  uttering  its 
usual  cry  is  again  ready  for  a  fresh  capture.  Such  is  the  usual  mode  of 
feeding  of  this  bird.  It  very  frequently,  however,  captures  various  mall 
insects  on  the  wing,  from  the  top  of  a  free  or  some  lofty  branch,  some- 
times ascending  almost  perpendicularly  for  several  feet— occasionally 
whips  one  off"  a  blade  of  grain,  or  from  the  surface  of  a  pool  of  water. 
On  the  ifsuing  of  the  winged  termites  from  a  nest  in  a  hedge  row,  or 
near  the  bottom  of  a  tree,  there  are  generally  several  assembled  to  par- 
take of  the  feast,  together  with  the  crows  and  minas.  This  bird  gels  its 
popular  name  of  king-crow  from  its  general  habit  of  following  crows 
most  clamorously   and  persevering,  every     now    and  then    pouncing 


1639]  oS  the  Peninsula  of  India,  239 

down  on  them,  though  it  seldom  strikes.  It  pursues  kites  and  various 
other  birds  aUo,whence  one  of  its  common  Hindostanee  names  {cotwal). 
In  the  hire  D.^ctan  I  h ive  often  seen  one  or  two  king-crows  high  in  the 
air,  traversing  the  conniry,  but  apparently  not  hunting. 

The  usual  cry  of  this  shrike  is  a  sort  of  crow  or  chu(^Ue,  succeeded 
by  two  or  thr^e  sweeter  notes,   but  it   has   several    other  cries.     It  is 
the  first  bird  whose  song  is   heard  in  the    morning,  often  long  be- 
fore sunrise,  and  sometimes  on  moonlight  nights  throughout  the  whole 
night.     Its  flight  is  in  general   undulating,  not  very  rapid,  performed 
with  few  flappings  j  but  when  it  exerts  itself  after  a  crow  or  other  bird, 
it  is  capable  of  great  speed,  and  always  overtakes  its  enemy  with  ease. 
It  occurs  singly  or  in  small  families.  I  once  found  its  nest,  in  the  month 
of  August,   in  the  Carnatic,  situated  in  the  fork  of  a  banian  tree,  at  a 
moderate  elevation' — it  was  composed  of  twigs  and  roots,  carelessly  put 
together,  and  without  any  lining,  and  contained  three  eggs,  white,  spar- 
ingly spotted   with  purplish  red.     Its  chief  food  is  grasshoppers  of 
various  kinds,  also  bees,  moths  and  other  insects,  chiefly   coleopterous. 
Mr.  Elliot  in  his  notes  sfiys,  it  migrates  from  the  Southern  Mahratta 
Country  during  the  monsoon.     In  the  Carnatic  I  never  observed  any 
diminution  in  its  numbers  at  any  season,  but  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Deccan  (at  Jaulnah)  it  certainly  becomes  much  more  rare  at  that  time* 
and  indeed  is  hardly  met  with.    The  kolsa  is  occasionally  tamed,  and 
will  perch  on  the  head  or  hand  of  its  master,  and  fly  down  after  a  grass- 
hopper or  other  insect. 

Length  12  inches;  tail  6^;  wing5f;  4lh  quill  perceptibly  larger 
than  the  3d  and  5th,  which  are  about  equal — tarsus  a  little  more  than 
-j7^of  an  inch. 

56.  D,  casrulescent,  Vieill. — Lan,  Fhgal,  Shaw. — E,  leueoffoster,-^ 
Pharee  Bojunga,  H. — fVhite  bellied  king-crow. 

This  species  appears  to  be  generally  spread,  but  no  where  plentiful. 
It  frequents  open  though  lofty  jungle,  and  well  wooded  districts,  bat  is 
occnsionally  met  with  in  topes  and  avenues  in  the  Deccan  and  Camatfc. 
I  have  seen  it  most  numerous  in  theWulliar  jungle,  and  theSegour  pass 
of  the  Neilgherries,  where  I  found  it  at  a  considerable  elevation.  It 
almost  always  captures  its  insect  prey  on  the  wing  (sometimes  however 
picks  one  oflfihe  ground)  :  it  perches  near  the  top  of  a  high  tree,  vi  hence 
it  pounces  on  its  prey  generally  at  no  great  distance.    It  has  a  sweet 


240  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  IOct. 

song,  not  to  be  compared,  liowever,  to  that  of  one  of  the  genus  btreafter 
mentioned.     IridcK  blood-red. 
Length  9J ;    tail    nearly  5;    wing  4J;    tarsus  nearly  y^,      much 

weaker  than  that  of  balicassit/s. 

57-     D.  MacrocercuSf  Vie  ill.  ? 

This  is  the  rarest  of  all  the  Indian  Dicruri,  I  have  hitherto  only  seen 
it  in  the  Segour  puss,  and  on  the  summit  of  the  Neilgherries,  in  both 
places  on  lofty  and  tolerably  dense  jungle.  I  observed  it  in  the  fonner 
place  sally  from  its  perch  near  the  summit  of  a  lofty  tree,  and  make  a 
considerable  circuit,  apparently  capturing  several  insects,  and  then  re« 
seating  itself  on  some  other  tree.  Several  birds  were  thus  engsged 
together,  though  at  some  distance  from  each  other,  and  returning  scpap 
rately  each  to  its  own  perch.  In  this  respect  it  makes  a  nearer  ap- 
proach than  any  other  Indian  species  to  the  manner  of  the  African 
Drougo  shrikes,  as  described  by  Le  Vaillant,  hunting  in  flocks  like  swal« 
lows,  and  mentioned  by  Swainson  as  being  the  general  habits  of  the 
genus.  Flight  of  this  species  similar  to  that  of  balicassiuSf  but  more 
rapid  and  elegant. 

As  I  cannot  be  certain  of  this  being  the  species  indicated  by  Vieillot, 
I  add  a  description.  Above,  glossy  bluish  black — beneath,  dusky,  blaek- 
ish,  with  a  faint  gloss  of  bluish  ;  wings  and  tail  brownish  black,  with  a 
faint  gloss  of  bluish  also— under  tail  coverts  (in  my  specimen)  edged 
with  white — bill  and  feet  black—bill  more  depressed  than  in  baHcastiuif 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  D,  carulescens,  but  ditfers  also  from  that. 

Length  nearly  11  inches;  tail  very  nearly  5^;  wing  5;  tarsus  about 
half  an  inch;  tail  feathers  more  slender  than  in  either  baltcassiui  or 
carulescens.  The  chief  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  its  short  and 
feeble  tarsus  and  foot. 

58.  D,  <p7iew5,  Vieill. — /).  muscipetoidest  Hodgs. — Bronzed  Drougo 
Shrike, 

This  species  is  always  found  in  the  most  dense  and  lofty  jungle«  I 
have  only  seen  it  in  the  forests  of  the  Western  Coast,  and  have  met  it  at 
an  elevation  of  4000  feet.  It  is  generally  found  in  small  parties — sta* 
tions  itself  near  the  top  of  some  lofty  tree,  whence  it  makes  frequent 
short  sallies  after  insects,  exactly  like  the  flycatchers,  and  returns  gene- 
rally to  the  same  branch.    It  sings  most  charmingly,   being  perhaps 


1839]  of  tlie  Pemtisula  of  India.  241 

only  surpassed  l)y  the  Gryllivora  longicauda.  Its  food  consists  of 
various  insects,  both  hard  and  soft  winged.  The  name  of  Muscipe" 
toidest  given  by  Mr.  Hodgson  (Indian  Review  No.  viii),  is  pecu- 
liarly appropriate,  as  well  from  the  form  of  the  bill,  which  is  weak 
and  highly  depressed,  as  from  the  similarity  of  its  habits  to  those  of  the 
flycatchers ;  and,  if  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  its  being  the  (Bue^is  of 
Vieillot,  should  be  adopted  at  once. 

Length  9  to  9J  inches;  tail  -IJ  ;  wing  4J  ;  tarsus  J  inch ;  irides  dark 
brown  J  bill  and  legs  black. 

59.  2).  reti/er, — LaiL  Malaharicus,  Shaw. — Bh^rm  or  Bhrxng  raj 
H. — Kate-ongali  Mahr. — Racket  tailed  Drougo  Shr'de, 

This  splendid  bird  is  tolerably  abundant  in  many  of  the  lofty  jangles 
of  the  west  of  India, both  above  and  below  ihe  ghautn,  it  being  very  pl'»n- 
tifiil  in  the  Wynaud  district.  It  appears  to  wander  more  in  search  of 
its  food  than  other  of  the  jD/crMH,  flying  from  tree  to  tree  at  no  great 
elevation,  making  an  occasional  swoop  at  an  insect  on  the  wing,  or  whip- 
ping one  oil*  a  branch  ;  frequently,  however,  it  feeds  like  its  congeners 
from  a  fixed  station. 

It  generally  hunts  singly  or  in  pairs,  occasionally, however.it  is  seen  in 
small  parties.  Its  food  is  chiefly  large  coteopterous  insects,  also  large 
bees  and  wasps.  It  has  a  very  peculiar  cry,  consisting  of  two  parts,  the 
first  a  sort  of  harsh  chuckle,  ending  in  a  peculiar  mf^tallic  sound,  some- 
thing like  the  creaking  of  a  heavy  wheel.  Mr.  Elliot  says  on  this  sub- 
ject *' ils  general  note  is  a  deep  sonorous  cry  something  like  tse-rung^ 
tse-ru7ijf  tse  rimgj*  It  has  many  other  notes  besides  this  ;  all  of  which 
however,  have  more  or  less  clangor  or  metallic  sound.  I  have  seen  it 
pursue  a  bird  of  prey  {JIcBmatomus  undulatus,  Gould)  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  common  king-crow.  It  moults  about  September.  Although  it 
chiefly  inhabits  lofty  jungles,  I  have  seen  it  in  comparatively  low  jungle, 
and  I  am  informed  that  it  often  enters  gardens  iu  the  cantonment  of 
Cannanore.  The  Bhcrm-raj  is  occasionally  taken  and  tamed  :  it  used  to 
he  very  frequently  in  former  days,  and  sold  for  a  very  high  price  at  Hy- 
derabad. It  is  said  to  imitate  the  notes  of  all  other  birds,  and  hence  is 
also  called  the  *  Iluzar  Dustarit'  or  bird  of  a  thousand  tales. 

Length  to  end  of  true  tail,  14  inches  ;  length  of  ordinary  tail  6}; 
louf'  tail  I'eathcrs  beyond  12,  or  more,  even  ;  irides  dark  hazel  brown  ; 
\vii)g6J:  tarsus  «^  or  nearly  an  inch;  bill  and  legs  black. 


242  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

Sub  Family  CEBLEPYRINiE,  Swdinson.'-CalerpWar  catchers. 
Genus  CEBLEPYRIS,  CyxY.—Sphif/  rumped  Shrihe. 

60. — C.  Papueytsis.—Graucufus  Papuensis,Temm,^Lar(/e  spine  rump. 

This  bird  prefers  well  wooded  situations,  though  not  a  denizen  of 
thick  jungle  ;  hence  is  moat  abundant  in  the  Western  Coast.  It  is  also 
found  in  the  other  ports  of  India  in  topes,  avenues,  palm  groves,  and  oc- 
casionally even  enters  garden-*.  It  lives  partly  on  insects,  chiefly  raan- 
lid'^s,  grylli,  caterpillars,  and  soft  insects,  which  it  searches  for  among 
the  foliage  of  large  trees;  and  partly  on  fruit,  esperially  the  fig  of  the 
banian  tree.  It  is  rather  a  «hy  nnd  wary  bird  ;  flying  before  you  from 
tree  to  tree,  utteiing,  as  it  «'ili};hl8,  two  or  three  rather  sweet  and  melloir 
notes  ;  but  it  has  also  a  very  harsh  rattling  scream.  It  flies  in  an  unda* 
lating  manner,  with  few  vibrations  of  its  wings.  Its  flesh  is  eaten  and 
esteemed  by  some  of  the  natives. 

Irides  fine  lake  red;  length  about  12  inches;  of  wing  G^  ;  tail  5 ; 
tarsus  nearly  an  inch. 

61. — C^  JimbriatuSf  Temm. — Smaller  spine  rump. 

This,  like  the  last  species,  is  most  abunlant  in  woody  country,  and 
therefore  on  the  West  Coast,  but  is  also  found  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
country  in  avenues  or  thick  hedges,  gardens,  &c.  It  is  to  be  met  with 
at  all  seasons  on  the  Western  Coast,  but  I  think  only  repairs  to  the 
Carnatic  (1  speak  particularly  of  the  country  about  Trichinopoly),  after 
the  commtncemeni  of  the  rainy  season  there,  in  October  or  November: 
at  all  events  it  is  much  more  numerous  then.  This  spine  rump  hunts  sin* 
gly,orin  small  families  of  both  sexes,  flying  from  tree  to  tree,slowly  and 
carefully  examining  the  foliage,  prying  searchinglyall  around,  and  un- 
der the  leaves,  to  discover  a  suitable  morsel.  It  continues  its  search 
hopping,  flying  from  branch  to  branch,  till  the  tree  has  been  well  in- 
spected, when  the  flock  flies  off"  together  to  another  tree.  Its  favourite 
food  is  caterpillars,  pui)a?,  grubs,  and  soft  insects,  but  also  ants  and  co- 
leopterous insects.  My  specimen,  both  of  male  and  ftmal**,  correspond 
pretty  exactly  with  the  description  in  Lesson  *  ManueUV Ornithlogie.* 
The  females  appear  much  more  numerous  than  the  male<,  but  this  may 
partly  be  accounted  for  by  the  young  muUs  beiug  clothed  in  the  fe- 
male garb. 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India,  243 

Irides  reddish  dark  brown;  length  about  7i  inches;  of  wing 4;  tail  3; 
tarsus  about  j^q^^* 

62 — C.  Canus. 

I  have  not  hitherto  been  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  this  species  of 
spine  rump,  and  there  is  such  a  cuutrariety  of  description  in  the  published 
accounts  I  have  met  with,  that  I  wish  Colonel  Sykes  had  given  a  de« 
ficription  of  his  species,  which  I  suspect  after  all  only  to  be  the  adult  male 
of  the  last. 

Genus  PHCENICORNIS,  Svr.-^lted  bird. 

63. — Ph.  princeps,  Vig. — Gould  Cent. — Large  red  bird. 

I  shot  one  specimen  of  this  splendiJ  biid  in  a  dense  and  lofty  jungle  in 
Goomsoor,  hopping  about  the  upper  bi-anches  of  high  trees,  and  only 
once  again  observed  it.  At  this  lime,  which  was  just  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  hot  season,  and  when  insects  were  least  abundant,  it 
dewcended  to  the  ground  lo  pick  up  an  insect,  and  returned  immediately. 
This  habit,  I,  on  several  occasions  about  the  same  time,  saw  resorted  to 
by  other  birds,  from  whose  usual  manners  it  was  equally  foreign,  viz, 
true  llycaichers  (M.  Banyumas  and  il/.  Melanops)  ;  on  the  same  tree  was 
a  grey  and  yellow  bird  of  the  same  size,  which,  judging  from  analogy, 
was  the  female.  In  the  stomach  of  the  one  I  killed  weie  the  remains  of 
various  insects  chiefly  coleopterous. 

Length  of  my  specimen  9  inches;  of  wing  4  yV^^  *  ^^^^  ^*  tarsus 
nearly  -ja^ytlis. 

This  splendid  species  diflfera  from  P,  flannneus,  which  sometimes 
nearly  approaches  it  in  size,  in  the  length  of  the  wing  and  tarsus,  as 
well  as  in  the  iufiuitcly  richer  hue  of  the  red. 

64.    P.  BreviroslrisiWg, — Gould's  Cent. — Short  billed  red  bird, 

I  was  also  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  this  well  marked  and  dis- 
tinct species  in  Goomsoor,  and  procured  three  individuals,  an  adult  mule, 
a  young  male  and  a  female.  It  had  the  same  manners  as  the  last,  fre- 
quenting the  tops  of  high  trees — on  one  occasion,  however,  I  observed 
a  flock  of  the  females  hunting  together  over  a  thick  hed<>c.  In  the 
stomach  of  those  I  killed  frnguienta  of  coleopterous  insects  only  were 
observed. 


•244  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

The  short  billed  red  bird  has  !)een  most  justly  separated  from  P. 
flammeus,  as  well  from  its  deeper  shade  of  plumage  as  from  various 
structural  points  of  difT-Tence.  The  female  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
P.  flammcuK,  except  in  the  structural  points,  and  a  somewhat  duller 
shade  of  yellow.  The  young  male  I  possess  has  the  grey  upper  pin- 
mage  of  the  female — bcneatii  while  with  a  reddish  tinge,  and  the  red 
marks  on  the  wings  and  tail  nearly  developed. 

Lengths  inches;  tail  4;  wing  3J;  tarsus  less  than  y^  of  an 
inch;  feet  much  smaller  than  P.Jfaotmeus.  I  see  that  Swainson  sup- 
poses this  species  to  be  synonymous  with  P,  miniata, 

65.     P.  flammeus, — Muse,  flammea^  Auct. — Pkaree   Boolal  Chusm 
H. — Common  r^d  bird. 

This  species  of  red  bird  is  tolerably  abundant  iu  most  of  the  lofty 
jungles  of  the  Western  Coast — both  above  and  below  the  glunts  :  and  I 
have  seen  it  as  high  as  5000  leet  on  the  Coonoor  ghaut  of  the  Neil- 
gherries.  It  is,  I  think,  more  abundant  on  the  table  land  of  the  Wynaad, 
than  in  most  other  places  I  have  obs'^rved  it  in.  It  is  a  restless  bird, 
wandering  from  tree  to  tree,  examining  the  loftiest  branches  in  search  of 
various  insects  and  their  larvae,  which  constitute  its  favourite  food.  It  is 
either  found  singly  or  in  small  parties  of  three  or  four,  and  the  sexes 
are  generally  seen  apart  from  each  other. 

Irides  dark  brown;  length  8  to  8J  inches;  of  wing,  3  t'^;  tail 
3J  to  4;  tarsus  not  quite  j'y. 

n6.  Phwnicornis  pereynnusy  Vig. — Gould  Cent. — Parus  peretfrinus^ 
Auct. — Boolal  Chusm^  H. — Small  red  bird. 

This  pretty  and  lively  little  bird  is  more  numerously  and  extensively 
spread  than  any  of  its  cong-^nors,  and  is  to  be  found  in  most  woody 
situations  even  iu  the  dry  Caruatio,  in  jungle  and  in  thick  hed^jes  and 
avenued  occasionally,  and  in  some  of  the  larger  topes  in  the  Deccan  it 
may  also  be  occasionally  seen.  It  is,  however,  most  abundant  on  the 
West  Coast.  It  is  a  restless  and  active  little  creature,  ever  engaged  in 
diligently  examining  the  extreme  branches  of  trees,  gleaning  among  the 
foliage,  and  hanging  from  the  slender  twigs  like  a  titmouse.  It  feeds 
upon  various  larva?  (which  are  its  favourite  food)  and  small  insects. 

Irides  brown  \  length  6  inches  :  of  tail  3. 


1 SS9]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  UiS 

Fam.  MERV lid JE.-^Thrushes, 

Sub-Fam.  BRACHYPODINiK.— 5Aor^  legged  thrushes,  or  BulhuU. 
Gen.  HYPSEPETES,  Vig.— />roi/^o  or  black  Bulhul. 

67. — //.  Gatieesa,  Sykes  Cat.  No.  49. 

I  Iiavonot  yet  been  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  this  bird  (which  I 
set*  has  been  lutoly  figuretlin  Jardine's  I Ihistratioiis of  Ornithology,  new 
series  No.  1),  so  transcribe  part  of  Colonel   Sykes'  account.     "  Flight 
very  rapid,  found  only  in  the  dense  woods  of  the  ghauts,  stony   fruit 
found  in  the  stomach." 

6S, — //.  Neilgherriensis, — New  species. — //.  psaroideg,  Vig. — Gould 
Cent.  H.  B.— iVe/fyAerry  Black  Bulbiil. 

This  species  of  HypsepeteSi  though  very  strongly  allied  to  the  Hima- 
layan spe>'ics,  I  am  inclined  to  consider  distinct,  as  it  varies  perma- 
nently in  size  and  some  markings. 

Descr. — It  liHs  the  same  glossy  black  lanceolate  feathers  of  head  and 
liind  neck,  the  same  grey  tint  of  the  bo'ly,  and  blackish  tail ;  but  differs 
in  having  the  quills  entirely  black,  instead  of  being  grey,  tipped  only 
with  black  ;  wants  the  small  black  streak  running  back  from  the  eye, 
and  has  the  under  tail  coverts  edged  with  while. 

Length  about  10  inches;  of  wing  5;  tail  ^^  ;  tarsus  ^\;  bill 
and  legs  orange  red ;  irides  brownish  red. 

If  new,  it  may  be  named  as  above  from  its  locality,  or  it  might  be  nam- 
ed Atripeiinis^  in  contradistinction  to  the  Himalayan  species  it  so 
much  resembles.  I  have  hitherto  only  found  this  bird  on  the  summit 
of  the  Neilgherries,  in  the  dense  woods  of  which  it  is  very  abundant. 
It  lives  in  small  flocks,  feeding  on  various  benies  and  fruit,  generally  on 
the  top  of  trees.  I  on  no  occasion  found  any  thing  but  fruit  of  different 
kinds,  but  chiefly  stony,  in  its  stomach.  It  usually  keeps  up  a  lively 
and  agreeable  warbling,  which  it  continues  during  its  occasional  flight 
from  one  tree  or  patch  of  wood  to  another.  Its  flight  is  undulating,  and 
not  very  rapid.  Its  manners  on  the  whole  much  resemble  those  of  the 
bulbuls,  with  which  they  have  been  classed,  and  justly  so,  I  think  by 
awinson. 


246  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

Genus  BRACHYPUS,  Swainson. 

G9. — B,    rubineuf. — New   species. —  Inos  concotor,  Temm.  ? — liuby 
throated  Bulbui. 

This  species  approaclies  in  colour  the  Turd'ts  dispar,  Horsf.  (or  T.  con-- 
color,  of  Tomm.  P.  C.  137),  a  native  of  Juvji,  but  appears,  from  the  de- 
scription I  possess,  to  be  distinct,  and  if  so  m-^y  be  named  as  above. 
I  have  only  met  with  the  ruby  throated  bnlbul  in  the  forests  of  Mala- 
bar, and  even  here  it  is  rare  ;  it  frequents  the  more  open  spaces  of  the 
jungle,  and  generally  prefers  thickets  in  the  neighbouihood  of  waters. 
It  lives  in  small  families,  is  sprightly  and  active,  hopping  about  the  smal- 
ler branches  of  trees,  uttering  now  anl  then  its  pleasant  twitter,  much 
in  the  manner  uf  the  common  crested  biilbuls.  It  lives  on  various  fruit 
and  berries. 

Degcr. — Head  and  cheeks  pure  glossy  black;  plumage  above  yellow- 
ish green;  chin  spot  black;  throat  of  a  beautiful  shining  ruby  red:  the 
feathers  much  divided  cind  somewhat  bristly ;  rest  of  th»*  ptuinns^e  be- 
neath yellow;  quills  with  a  ting«?  of  dusky  on  their  inner  webs:  feathers 
of  the  bank  loose  and  discomposed  ;  irides  liijht  yellow;  bill  black;  legt 
greenish  du^ky.  Length  about  6§  inches;  of  wing  3  ;  tail  2J  ;  tarsus  ra- 
ther more  than  ^  an  inch. 

70.     5.  pr?of f/>/iato.— New  species. —  JVhite  eyed  BulhuL 

Descr, — Crown  of  head,  ocniput  and  throat  bluish  grey — forehead 
siskin  green.  Bickwings  and  beneath,  oil  green,  lighter  towards  the 
vent.  Rump  feathers  li;^hl  yellowish  green,  broadly  streaked  with  blacky 
as  in  *  B,  enttlotus,*  Jard.  Tail,  with  centre  feathers  greenish,  broadly 
edged  with  grey,  lateral  do.  black,  also  broadly  terminated  with  li<Tht 
grey.  Under  tail  coverts  light  grey;  irides  bluish  white;  bill  and  legt 
of  a  green  horn  colour;  length  7  inches;  wing  3;  tail  2  ^^  ; 
tarsus  about  half  an  inch. 

I  only  once  saw  an  1  obtaine  1  a  specimen  of  this  bird  near  the  foot  of 
the  Peria  pnss  in  Malabar.  Its  manners  and  food  are  similar  to  the 
last.  It  very  much  resembles  in  colouring  a  new  species  lately  figured 
in  Jardine's  New  Ser.  of  111.  of  Orniih.  B.  entilotus,  an  inhabitant  of 
Malacca,  especially  in  the  markings  of  the  rump  feathers,  but  is  less, 
aud  otherwise  varies.  Stony  fruit  found  in  its  stomach. 


1839.]  of  tJie  Peninsula  of  India,  247 

Gen.  CHLOROPSIS,  J dnLdLndSeihy. —Emerald  or  green  BulbuL 

71.  C.  Jurifronsy  Jard.  and  Selbv. — T.  Malabaricus. — C.   Sonnerati 

Jard.    female. — Golden  fronted  green  BidbaL 

I  have  only  found  tins  elegant  species  in  the  forests  of  Malabar  and 
other  j)aris  of  tlie  West  Coast.  On  the  Coonour  pass  I  have  seen  it 
above  4000  feel  high.  It  hops  hnd  flies  actively  about  the  branches  of 
treesjrequently  at  no  great  height,  and  lives  on  both  fruits  and  insects, 
chit'fly  the  latter,which  it  seizes  on  the  brandies  or  leaves.  It  is  gene- 
rally found  in  pairs  or  singly,  oecasionally  three  or  four  together.  Irides 
light  yellowish  brown :  bill  blackish  ;  legs  cinereous. 

The  female,  which  either  appears  to  be  undescribed,  or  to  be  the 
C.  ^otmerati  f  of  the  proposers  of  this  well  marked  genus,  differs  from 
the.'^^iale  in  wanting  the  golden  forehead,  and  in  the  black  gorget  and 
blue  maxillary    streak,  being    somewliat    smaller.     Bill  rather  more 

lengthened  than  in  next  species.  Length  7^  to  8  inches;    wing  3  -f^j 
tail  nearly  3;  female  somewhat  smaller. 

72.  C  Cochensinensis, — Melliphaga  Jav€mic£t,' lionL — Common 
green  Bulbul. 

This  species  is  much  more  generally  dispersed  than  the  former  one, 
being  found  wherever  there  is  thick  or  lofty  jungle.  I  have  seen  it  in 
Goomsoor,  and  the  Tapoor  pass  on  (he  eastern  side  of  India,  and  it  is  far 
from  being  uncommon  on  the  West  Const,  even  in  wooded  cultivated 
ground  and  gardens.  Its  habits  arc  similar  to  the  last.  I  have  seen  ity 
while  feeding  on  insects,  take  an  occasional  flight  of  a  foot  or  two,  to 
secure  an  ii  sect  that  was  attempting  to  escape.  Its  most  usual  food 
however,  is  fruit  of  different  kinds.  As  there  appears  to  be  some  doubt 
of  the  plumage  of  both  sexes,  I  shall  here  briefly  describe  their  differ- 
ences. 

Male,  with  chin,  throat  and  gorge  deep  black,  surrounded  by  a  green- 
ish yellow  band,  which  extends  through  the  eyes  to  the  forehead— max* 
illary  streak,  hyacinth  blue. 

Female,  with  parts  black  in  male  of  a  light  bluish  green,  surrounded 
(as  in  the  male)  with  the  yellowish  band — maxillary  streak  light  azure. 
Length  7i  inches;  wing  3J  ;  tail  2 J.  Irides  light  brown;  bill  dusky; 
legs  cinereous. 


248  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

Genus  IORA,  Horsf. 

73.  I.  (iphia, — Motaetiplita,  Brown,  Til.  Zool.pl.  36. — SItou;  Bkee* 
gah,  or  Show  Bheegee,  H. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  common  Indian  birds  in  most  part  of  the 
ccuntiy,  daily  lo  be  seen  in  almost  every  j»ar:ien.  Its  habits  are  even 
fitill  more  active  and  restless  ih  m  those  of  anv  others  of  this  familv. 
being  much  like  those  of  the  titmouse.  It  may  be  seen  diligently  and 
carefully  searchlrg  the  smaller  branches  and  twigs  of  trees,  climbing 
actively  among  them,  peering  under  the  leaves,  and  occasionally  hangingi 
like  a  titmouse,  from  a  shnd'^r  twig,  all  the  while  keeping  up  aloud 
n^arbling  straii»,  or  a  low  querulous  soit  of  note,  very  different  from  each 
other.  1 1  is  not  confined  to  cultivated  ground,  but  is  also  an  inhabitant 
of  the  open  spaces  of  jungles.  Its  flight  is  performed  by  a  succession 
of  quick  vibrations  of  the  wing,  and  causes  a  loud  whining  sound.  Its 
food  consists  of  various  inserts,  and  their  larvse,  spiders,  &c.  I  have 
only  found  the  male  bird  at  certain  seasons  in  its  full  plumage  of  black 
and  yellow,  and  even  then  you  seldom  meet  with  two  clothed  exactly 
alike.  On  this  account,  I  nn>  inclined  to  think,  that  it  is  only  in  the 
breeding  season  that  the  black  plumage  is  put  on,  and  that  the  I<fra 
scapularis  of  Ilorsfield  may  be  i  'cniical  viith  both  sexes  of  this  in  its 
ordinary  plumage.  This  supposition,  however,  needs  further  enquiry. 
I  once  in  the  West  Coast,  in  the  month  of  Septmber,  met  with  a  nest  of 
this  species  in  the  f»)rk  of  a  low  tree.  It  was  more  neatly  and  carefully 
made  than  any  other  of  the  few  nests  I  have  seen  in  this  country.  It 
contained  young  ones.  It  gets  its  Hindustanee  name  from  its  cry,  being 
said  to  repeat  the  syllables  •  show  bheega/  *  show  bheega/  before 
rain. 

Genus  TRICHOPHORUS,  Temm.— J5rw//^  necked  Thrush. 

74.  T.  virescens.^Ixosvirescensj  Temm.  P.  C.^fVhite  hrowedbris* 
tie  neck. 

Although  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  this  species  of  bulbul  may  enter 
into  Swainon's  g^^nus.  AtdropaduH  rather  than  Tricophorug,  as  I 
have  in  some  ca^es  though  not  in  all,  detected  a  slight  crenation  at  the 
tip  uf  il  e  upppr  mandihle,  and  the  bill  is  shorter  than  in  Tricophorus, 
yei  I  have  for  the  present  kept  it  in  that  genus,  as  its  nuchal  hairs  are 
very  distinct.    It  is  a  widely  dispersed,   though  not  very  common  bird, 


1830.]  of  Oie  Peninsula  of  India.  249 

except  in  some  few  localities.  It  prefers  a  wooded  district.  I  have 
found  it  ill  Goomsoor  in  opon  jungle  j  in  the  Carnatir  seldom,and  only  in 
the  vicinity  of  jungle,  in  thick  hedges  and  bushy  nullahs  ;  in  tlie  neigh- 
bourhood  of  Coimbatoir;  in  low  thickets,  in  the  Wulliar  jungle,  and 
very  abundant  in  a  bushy  tract  along  the  West  Coast.  It  flies  actively 
along  from  bu«*h  to  bush,  hiding  itself  in  the  thi.  kets ;  lias  a  loud  c!ear 
thrush-like  warble,  and  feeds  entirely  on  fruit  of  various  kinds.  Irides 
blood  r(»d;  bill  black;  logs  dusky.  Length 7 J  iaches j  wingSJ;  Uil  3J 
tur.<!ius  nearly  y>^, 

75- — ^«  ftulicus.—Tw'dus    Indicus^  auct. — Merle   olioe    des  IndeB^ 
Vieillot— Encyc.  Method,    p.  ^(S7. 

I  am  not  aware  whether  this  well  marked  species  of  Trieophorus  has 
been  uunied  or  not,  but  as  it  appears  to  correspond  with  Turdus  Indictu 
of  the  older  authors,!  have  no  hesitation  in  applying  that  specific  name. 

This  bribtie  necked  thru^li  fre.pients  only  thi  k  and  lofty  jungle  on 
the  West  Coast,  being  found  occasionally  as  high  as  5000  feet.  It  lives 
in  small  flocks,  flying  from  tree  to  tree,  and  keeping  up  a  continual,  and 
pleasing  bulbul-like  warble.  In  all  the  specimens  I  have  examined,  I 
have  found  fruit  only  in  its  stomach,  but  from  the  strong  bristles  at  tho 
bati<*.  of  the  bill,  I  suppose  it  may,  at  certain  seasons,  partake  of  insects. 
I  add  abrief  description.— Above  olive  green;  eye  streak  extending  to 
the  forehead,  aud  beneath  yellow;  quill  feathers  dusky  on  internal  web ; 
tail  olive,  beneath  shafts  of  the  feathers  yellow*;  bill  and  legs  black; 
irides  bluod  red.  Length  7^  to  8  inches ;  wing  4 ;  tail  3^ ;  tarsus  rathec 
more  than  ^^. 

Gejius  HiEMATORNIS,  Sw.— Cw/tfi  BulbuL 
76. — /i.  C(\fer, — Lanius  Enter ia,  Shaw, — Bulbul,  H. — Common  BulbuL 

This  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  abandant  birds  of  India,  fre- 
quenting both  gardens  and  cultivated  ground,  and  low  bushy  jungle. 
It  is  never  found  in  dense  jungle.  It  is  found  even  ou  the  Neilgherrics 
at  Coonoor  and  Kotagherry  at  6000  feet  of  elevation ;  but  I  have  not  ob- 
served it  in  the  more  elevated  and  central  parts  of  the  hills.It  lives  in 

*  I  we  a  new  species  from  the  Himalayas  has  lately  been  described  by  Oottld  (Proc. 
Zooi.  6oc.  \^Z^],  'nhich  if  ically  distiuct  differs  only  in  being  crested. 


260  Catalogue  of  (he  Birds  [Oct. 

pairs,  or  gmall  ^imilies,  feeds  chiefly  on  fruit,  being  destructive  to  pease 
and  other  garden  produce,  but  also  occasionally  on  insects,  frequently 
repeating  its  usual  note  while  hopping  about  the  branches,  and  wander* 
ing  from  tree  to  tree.  It  flies  in  a  direct  manner  with  a  quick  flapping 
of  its  wings,  and  usually  uttering  it?  note  when  ou  the  win^.  It  is  very 
commonly  caged  in  the  Camatic,  and  kept  fir  fighting,  which  it  does 
tirithsome  spirit,  and  it  is  said  that  the  antagonists  ofi en  sf^ize  each  other 
by  the  red  under  tail  coverts,  and  endeavour  to  pull  them  out.  The 
buibul  is  also  said  to  imitate  the  notes  of  vurious  other  birds  in  con* 
fiiiement. 

77. — ff*  jocosus, — Lanius  J0C08US,   L. — Pharee   Buibul^  H  — Hill  or 
jungle  BulbuL 

This  sprightly  and  pleasing  bird  is  in  general  found  in  the  Peninsula, 
only  in  lofty  jungle,  as  well  as  on  the  Eist  Coa8^  (as  in  Goomsoor),  as 
the  West  Coast;  but  I  have  also  seen  it  in  low  bushy  ground  on  the  sea 
coast,  between  Calicut  and  Teilicherry,  and  it  iH  most  abiuidant  on  the 
Bummit  of  the  Neilgherries,  in  gardens,  and  shrubby  ground.  It  is  a  most 
lively  and  active  bird,  always  ou  the  move,  and  warbling  its  pleasant 
chirruping  notes,  which  are  much  sweeter  than  those  of  the  common 
bulbul.  It  lives  chiefly  on  fruit  and  seeds,  but  also  on  insects  occasi- 
onally, which  I  have  seen  it  picking  off  the  ground.  Its  flight  is  like 
that  of  the  last,  steady,  but  not  rapid,  and  its  crest  is  never  erected  dur- 
ing flight,  but  always  the  moment  it  alights.  A  deserted  nest  was 
pointed  out  to  me,  in  a  low  shrub  close  to  a  house  in  Ootacamund,  as 
that  of  the  hill  bulbul.  It  was  very  nearly  made  with  moss,  lichen, 
small  roots  and  twigs,  and  well  lined  with  hair  and  down. 

Irides  yellow  brown;  length  varies  from  7  to  8  inches.  Specimens 
from  the  Neilgherries  are  larger  than  those  from  the  coast. 

Sub-Family  MYOTHERINiE,  Swainson.— ^«^  Thrushes. 

Genus  MYOTHERA,  111. 
Sub  Gbnus  BEACH YPTERYX,  Uorsf.Shorhwing. 

78.-5.  atricept. — New  species  ? — Black'hcaded  short  teing, 

I  know  not  if  this  little  species  has  been  described  or  not,  so  shall  for 
the  present  consider  it  as  new.  It  is  only  found,  as  far  as  my  observft- 
tions  extend,  among  the  thickest  underwood  in  dense  lofly  jungle.  I 
have  seen  it  in  the  Trichoor  and  Wurguncherry  jungles,  and  also  on  the 
Coonoor  ghaut,  and  in  the  Wyoaud.    It  is  a  restless  lively  litUe  bird 


1839.]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  251 

livingin  small  flocks  of  five  or  six,  and  contiDually  hopping  about  the 
low  thick  bushes  and  underwood,  with  an  incessant  low  twittering  note, 
and  has  much  of  the  general  habits  of  the  Thimalice.  In  its  stomach  I 
found  small  mantides,  grasshoppers  and  other  insects. 

Descr, — Head  and  cheeks  black ;  back,  wings,  tail,  and  under  tail  co- 
verts brownish  olive,  darkest  on  tail  and  wings;  below  whiTC  with  a 
tinge  of  olive,  brown  on  the  sides,  and  towards  the  vent;  feathers  of 
back  and  rump  much  discomposed.  Length  nearly  5^  inches;  of  tail  2; 
of  wing  '2  Y^ths ;  tarsus  yV^^*    Irides  pale  orange  butf. 


Genus  MYOPHONUS,  UotbL—FowI  Thrush,  Swainson. 

79. — AT  Horsfieldiif  Wgors.^Large  blue  Thrush, 

I  have  hitherto  only  seen  this  bird  twice  lonce  in  the  Trichoor  jungle, 
hopping  on  the  ground  like  a  black  bird ;  and  again  in  the  Segoor  pass 
of  the  Neilgherries,  flying  before  me  from  tree  to  tree  near  the  ground, 
I  have  also  seen  a  specimen  shot  in  the  Pulney  hills,  and  several  pro- 
cured in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cannanore.  Lcngih  12  inches ;  of  wing 
6^;  of  tail  5;  of  tarsus  1  yV^^=^  ^^^°  ^°c^*  Bill  and  legs  black;  irides 
dark  brown. 

Genus  PITTA,  Temm.—Ant  Thrush. 

80. — P.  Brachyura. — Nou-rung,  H.  (i.  e.  nine  coloured  bird). 

Though  by  no  means  common,  this  bird  is  occasionally  met  with  in 
gardens  and  topes  in  the  Camatic,  as  at  Madras  and  Trichinopoly,  dur- 
ing the  cold  weather  only,  I  believe.  It  however  generally  frequents 
high  jungle,  and  is  therefore  more  common  on  the  West  Coast  than  in 
other  parts  of  the  peninsula ;  I  have  also  seen  it  in  Goomsoor.  It  feeds 
on  the  ground  in  small  flocks,  generally,  but  not  unfrequently  singly, 
and  readily  perches  on  being  disturbed. 

In  the  few  instances  when  I  have  obtained  specimens  of  the  Nou-rungf 
I  have  not  found  their  food  to  consist  of  ants,  but  of  other  insects,  chief- 
ly coleopterous.  Length  6^  inches;  of  wing4j  ;  tail  1} ;  tarsus  1  |%ths . 
Irides,  hazel  brown ;  bill  black ;  legs  yellowish  pink. 


252  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

Sub-Family  MERULIN.E.— Trwi?  Thrushes, 

Glnus  rETIlOCINCLA.— 7?oc^-  Thrush. 

8!. — P.   PandoOf  Sykes. — P,   Maal,  Sykcs. — Indian  Roch  Thrush-^ 
Shamah,  H. 

In  accordance  with  Colonel  Sykcs*  opinion,  I  pliioe  this  bird  as  distinct 
from  the  P,  Cyavea  of  Europ**,  which  it  innch  resembles.     The  i^kawuJi 
is  a  rare  bird  in  the  boiiihern  pnrt  of  the  Peniiisuhi.   I  have  only  seen  it 
on  the  Neilgherrics,  near  Cownoor  and  Kolugherry,  in  busliy  and  rocky 
valleys.     Towards  the  more  norihern  pans  it   becomes   more  frequent. 
I  observed  it  severul  tim<-s  about  the  central  part  of  the  table  land,  both 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  villages,  and  in  ro  ky  valleys  and  hills.     About 
Jaulnah  it  is  far  from  being  uncommon,  frequenting  chiefly  the  old  mud 
walls  of  villages,  and  rocky  hills,  and  occasionally   seen  about  houses 
and  stables  in  cantonment,  perching  now  and  then   on   the  house    tops. 
I  first  observed  it  iliis  year  (l839j  in  the  beginning  of  October,  coming 
in  at  the  same  time  with  many  other  biid<,  and  it  stays  here    (Jaulnah) 
till   April.   It   is  always  solitary,  feeds  on  various  insects.   I  have  found 
the  P,  maa\  of  Sykes,  in  the  same  localities  as  his  P.  jtandoo,  and  con- 
sider it   as   ihe  young  bird  or  female,  v\hich  is  ulso  the    opinion  of   Mr, 
Elliot,     From   his   noies  I  lake  the    following  extract: — '*  very   tame, 
often  coming  into  houses  and  hopping  about  verandalis;  has  a  tine  song, 
and  is  trained  and    domesticated  by   faqueers  and   others;  coiumon  on 
the    coast   from   Vingorlah     to   Cambay."     Length   8J   inches;  wing 
nearly  15;    tail    3;  lar^ius  1  iuch.    liidcs  deep  brown ;    bill  and  legs 
black. 

Genus  PETROPHILA,  Swainson. 

82.     P,    cinchrhyricha,    Sw.^Peirocincla    cindorhi/ncha,    Vigors. — 
Gould,  Cent.  pi. 

This  bird  i-evtuinly  differs  from  the  last  in  its  habits,  as  well  as  form, 
but  the  generic  name  adopted  by  Swainson  is,  I  think,  unfortunate,  as 
I  have  hitherto  only  met  it  perched  on  trees  in  dense  and  lofty  jungle 
in  the  Coonoor  pass  of  the  Neilgherries,  on  the  summit  of  (be  hills 
nearCoonoor — and  once  in  the  jungles  of  Malabar,  at  no  great  cleva- 
tion  above  the  sea.  On  one  occasion  only  I  observed  three  or  four  toge- 
ther ;  at  all  other  times  it  was  solitary.  Its  stomach  contained  various 
fndt  and  berries. 


1839.]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  258 

A  young  bird,  I  possess,  is  of  a  brownish  olive  colour  above,  with  a 
linge  of  blue  on  the  shoulders  and  tail,  rump  feathers  edged  with 
rusty ;  beneath  white,  much  tinged  with  rusty  on  breast,  and  the  fea- 
thers barred  transversely  with  olive  brown.  Length  7J  inches;  wing 
rather  more  than  4  ;  tail  2i  ;  tarsus  -S^^ths  of  an  inch ;  irides  brown. 

GEsts  TURDUS,  L.,  Auct.—MERULA,  Sw. 

83.-7'.  simUUmus, — New  species. — NeVgherry  black  bird. 

This  blaik  bird,  generally  considered  by  residents  on  the  Neilgher* 
ries  to  be  identical  with  the  European  species,  so  closely  resembles 
it,  that  I  wait  unable  to  decide  accurately  from  the  descriptions  I  pos- 
sess, till  I  procured  some  specimens  from  home  of  the  British  bird. 
It  however  differs  invariably  (besides  in  other  points  hereafter  to  be 
mentioned)  in  the  iM»lour  of  its  legs,  which  are  always  yellow,  whilst 
those  of  the  T,  m'ru'a  are  brown  (I  had  overlooked  this  point  in  the 
descriptions).  The  NeHgherry  black  bird  has  exactly  the  same  habits 
and  song  »s  its  European  analogue,  though  I  think  in  this  latter  respect 
it  is  surpassed  by  the  British  bird. 

I  have  only  observed  it  on  the  Neilgherries,  in  the  dense  woods  of 
which  it  is  very  common,  and  may  be  daily  heard  pouring  forth  its 
charming  song,  esi>ecially  towards  evening,  and  in  cloudy  weather. 
It  is  found  alone  or  in  small  fimilies.  It  lives  chiefly  on  fruit  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  especially  of  the  pleasant  Brazil  cherry,  now  so  abundant 
in  the  woods  th(Te  ;  also  feeds  on  worms,  caterpillars,  and  other  soft 
insects.  I  possess  a  specimen,  given  me  by  Major  Campbell,  33d  N.  I., 
^ho  shot  it  OD  the  Pulney  hills,  which  is  identical  with  the  Neilgher- 
ry  ones. 

/>ejcr.  — Male  bird  entirely  black,  coaspicuously  darkest  on  the  head 
and  back  of  neck,  lightest  below,  and  tinged  with  dusky  brownish. 
Female  of  a  dark  olive  browu  above,  of  a  much  lighter  tint  below. 
Bill  and  edj;es  of  eyelids,  in  both  sexes,  orange  yellow  j  feet  dark  yel- 
low, with  a  tinge  of  dusky  in  the  female  ;  claws  of  same  colour  as  toes. 
Irides  dark  haz^^l  brown.  Length  10  inches ;  of  wing  a  little  more  than 
5  inches  ;  tail  rather  more  than  4  ;  tarsus  nearly  I  -^'^fths. 

The  youpg  birds  are  of  a  similar  colour  to  the  females;  the  feathers 
especially  of  the  head,  neck  and  breast,  have  a  central  streak  of  a  light 
brou  \\\>\\  yellow.  In  the  European  bird,  this  central  streak  is  of  a  much 
darker  and  more  rufous  hue.  One  of  the  chief  points  of  difference,  be- 


254  Catalogue  of  (he  Birds  ].0 

tween  this  species  and  the  European  bird,  is  the  length  of  bill,  which 
is  considerably  longest  in  the  Neilgherry  bird.  This,  with  the  differ^ 
ence  of  colour  of  legs  and  claws,  and  the  distinct  (though  slight) 
variation  of  the  tint  of  the  plumage  are  sufficientf  I  should  imagine^ 
(independent  of  its  difference  of  locality),  to  stamp  this  as  a  distinct 
an<i  independent  species.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  if  this  spe- 
cies w:i8  contined  to  the  small,  but  highly  elevated  table  lands  of  the 
South  of  India,  or  had  a  more  extended  geographical  distribution. 

84.— r.  cyamtus,  Jard.  111.  Omith. — i6,^B!ue  backed  Thrush. 

This  neatly  marked  species  is  found  only  in  dense  and  lofty  jun- 
gles. 1  have  seen  it  in  Goomsoor,  in  the  Malabar  Coast,  and  most 
numerously  in  the  bamboo  jungles  of  the  Wynaud,  though  far 
from  being  common  even  there.  It  is  always  found  solitaryt 
perched  on  the  lower  branches  of  trees,  and  its  flight  is  low  and 
rHpid.  Feeds  chiefly  on  stony  fruit.  Colonel  Sykes  says  also  on 
cicadce  and  other  insects.  I  never  heard  it  utter  any  note.  Irides  dark 
brown;  length  8  inches;  of  wing  4i  ;  tail  nearly  3;  tarsus  if^oths 
of  an  inch. 

85.— r.  variuSy  Uots{.— -Elegant  Thrush, 

I  onlv  once  saw  and  obtained  a  specimen  of  thi9  elegantly  marked 
and  form*'d  species  of  thrush,  in  a  small  tope  clohe  to  Rumbah,  oa 
the  Chilka  l.ik'»,  in  the  neis;hbonrhood  of  a  high  jungle;  its  flight  was 
very  mpid.  Its  stomich  contained  various  fruit  and  seeds.  Irides 
durk  hazel.  Lenj^^th  about  10  inches;  of  wing  rather  more  than  5|;  tail 
3}:  tarsus  1  -j^^ths.  The  first  quill  is  very  small ;  the  second  slightly 
Kl«ortr»r  than  the  fifth,  the  third  longest  and  perceptibly  longer  than  the 
fourth.     Bill  brownish  ;  legs  and  feet  dirty  yellow 

Sub  Family  CRATEROPODIN.'E,  Swains.— J?aMfer^. 

This  siib-family  has  received  a  most  appropriate  name  from  Swain- 
son,  who  has,  I  think,  most  justly  located  in  it  the  various  Indian  genetm 
Pelhrneum,  Crateropus,  Pomatorrhinui  and  Thimalia,  which  much 
resemble  each  other  in  their  manners,  though  they  do  not  in  general 
evince  a  partiality  for  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  nor  do  they  inhabit 
the  thickets  of  reeds  and  other  aquatic  plants,  as  said,  in  Swainson,  to 
be  the  general  habits  of  the  family.  The  notes  of  rU  tht  species  m 
leud. 


C  rat  f  ropuR  Cacliinnaus 


18S9J  of  the  Peninsula  of  India,  255 

Gen.  PELLORNEUM,  Swains. 

S6.~^P,  olivaceum? — New  species. — P.  vifcepSt  Sw.  N.Z  ? — Red 
headed  Babbler, 

Descrip, — Above  and  sides  of  a  dark  brownish  olive  ;  head,  and  back 
part  of  neck,  rusty  red  :  chin  wliite  ;  breast  an  I  be'Iy  white;  many  of 
the  feathers,  of  ihe  breast  especially,  broadly  centred  with  olive.  Irides 
brick  red  ;  bill  above  dusky  ;  below  dirty  yellow;  legs  yellow  with  a 
tinge  of  flesh  colour.  Length  G}  inches;  wing  2};  tail  2y*^ths ; 
tarsus  l-rVth. 

I  have  not  met  with  any  description  of  this  bird,  but  as  the  species 
given  as  type  of  this  genus  has  been  called  ruficeps  by  its  talented 
founder,  I  strongly  suspect,  that,  as  the  name  is  applicable  to  this 
species,  it  may  be  the  one  intended,  so  have  put  it  as  a  synonynii  till 
further  information  is  obtained. 

I  have  met  this  curious  little  bird  in  the  jungles  of  Trichoor,  War* 
guncherry  and  Manantoddy,  but  it  is  by  no  means  common.  It  asso- 
ciates in  small  flocks,  among  the  low  shrubs  and  thickets  in  lofty  jun- 
gle, descending  to  the  ground,  where  it  hops  about  in  search  of  various 
insects,  and  from  thence  running  up  and  climbing  the  small  branches, 
keeping  up  a  continual  chattering,  and  every  now  and  then  one  of 
them,  perched  on  a  low  bough,  elevating  his  head  and  neck,  and  giving 
utterance  to  a  sort  of  crowing  laugh,  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Cror 
teropus  next  described.  On  being  disturbed,  they  retreat  through  the 
trees  and  underwood,  at  no  great  height  from  the  ground,  and  indeed 
they  never  appear  to  climb  to  any  height. 

Gen.  CRATEROPUS,  Sw. — X anthocincla, Gould.— GanulaxiSiLcss, 

87.— C  cachinnauM — New  species  ? — IVhite  browed  Babbler.-^ Laugh* 
ing  Thrush  of  the  N eilgherries. 

Descrip. — Above  and  under  tail  coverts  of  a  dark  olive,  head  dusky 
black,  eyebrows  and  eyelids  white,  lores  and  chin  black,  ears,  throat, 
hreast  and  belly  bright  rufous.  Irides  fine  lake  red  ;  bill  black  ;  legs 
dusky  greenish.  Length  about  9  inches;  wingSy^  ;  tail  nearly  4; 
tarsus    lyV 

Tliis  noisy  bird  is  to  be  met  with  in  all  the  thick  woods  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Neilgherries,  and  its  loud  laughing  call  is  often  heard  when 
the  bird  itself  remains  unseen.     I  have  met  it  in  no  other  locality* 


256  CaiaJogve  of  (he  Bird$  [Oct. 

Like  others  of  the  family  it  lives  in  small  flocks,  forages  about  the 
thick  brushwood,  and  densely  interwoven  woody  creepers.  On  being 
observed,  they  bop  and  climb  up  tlie  stem  and  thick  branches  of  the 
nearest  large  tree ;  but  they  do  not  appear  to  ascend  to  the  tops  of  trees. 
I  occasionally,  though  rarely,  observed  them  hopping  and  feeding  on  the 
ground.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  structure  of  their  wings,  they 
fly  heavily,  and  never  to  any  distance.  The  cry  of  the  '  laughing 
thrush' is  very  peculiar,  and  once  heard  cannot  be  forgotten.  It  is  a 
sort  of  cracked,  punch  and  judy  laugh,  and  is  no  sooner  commenced  by 
one,  than  several  others  take  up  the  chorus.  Their  chief  food  is  fhiit 
of  various  kinds,  also  caterpillars,  grubs  and  various  other  insects. 

88. — C.  Delessgrli, — New  species  P 

The  only  specimen  I  have  seen  of  this  bird  was  in  the  coUeetioa  of 
M.  Delessert,  who  was  some  time  on  the  Neilgherries.  It  was  killed 
near  Kotagherry,  and,  if  new,  may  be  named  in  honour  of  that  gentle* 
man,  who  took  home  with  him  large  collections. 

Deicr, — Irides  light  red  ;  bill  yellow  at  the  base  of  the  lower  maodi- 
blc,brown  above ;  head  and  nape  brownish  black ;  chin,  throat  and  breast 
white  ,  shoulders  and  back  dark  rufous,  growing  lighter  towards  the  tuil ; 
wings  reddish  black  ;  belly  and  vent  light  reddish  brown  ;  tail  black: 
legs  pale  reddish.  Length  about  li  inches;  wing  4/^ths  ;  tail  4^tb$; 
tarsus  lyV^^^* 

Sub-Genus  POMATORHINUS,  HorsC 
89.— P.  Horsfieldii,  Sykes.-^HorsfieliPs  BahbUr. 

I  have  seen  this  bird,  but  rarely,  in  Goomsoor,  in  bamboo  jungle,  ii 
thick  and  tangled  wood  near  Mannntoddy,  and  among  under-wood  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Kotagherry.  It  has  a  very  loud  cry  which  has  bees 
well  expressed  by  Colonel  Sykes,  as,  *  hoot  whoot,  whooi  ,*  to  which  the 
female  (when  they  are  in  pairs)  answers  '  hoot,  hooee,*  I  saw  it  once  in 
pairs,  at  other  times  in  small  families,  keeping  up  a  continual  loud  eallf 
and  climbing  about  the  branches  .with  great  facility.  It  is  a  remarkiUy 
shy  and  wary  bird.  Various  small  insects  were  found  in  the  stomach  of 
those  I  procured. 

Irides  dark  red;  bill  yellow ;  horn  colour  at  the  base  of  the  Q|^ 
mandible  ;  legs  greenish  black.  Length  9  to  9|  inches;  wing  V*^ 
tail  3} ;  tarsus  l^Vths. 


1889]  of  (he  Peninmla  of  India.  ,    257 

Gfiiics  THIMALIA,  Horsf. 

90.— 7*.  Malcolmiy  Sykes. — Large  Babbler.-^Ghoghoye,  H. — Oougya, 
Can. — KoktUfeef  M. 

This  large  Thimalia  has  a  peculiar  distribution.  In  the  South  of  In- 
dia it  is  only  found  on  the  elevated  table  lands.  I  have  observed  it  on 
the  Neilgherries  near  Coonoor  and  Kotagherry,  in  low  bushy  ground, 
and  seen  specimens  from  the  Slievaroy  Hills  near  Salem.  It  is  not  found 
in  the  Carnatic,  Northern  Circars,  nor  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  the 
Deccan,  but  towards  the  north  begins  to  opcur  more  frequently,  and  at 
Jaiilnnh  is  very  lommon.  The  Ghoghoye  frequents  topes  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  villages  and  cultivation,  also  occasionally  low  and  open 
jungle.  Lives  in  snuill  troop-',  fpeding  chiefly  on  the  ground,  especially 
around  the  trunks  of  large  trees.  Ii  keeps  up  a  continual  chattering,  oc- 
casionally chiingedto  a  louder  cry,  resembling  *  quey,  quey,  quey,  quo, 
quo,'  pronounced  very  gutturally.  Its  flight,  like  that  of  all  the  species 
of  Th'tinatt'a,  is  fe«»ble  and  struggling.  Mr.  Elliot  says  **when  the  Shikra 
(F.  Dukhunensis)  is  flown  at  them  they  defend  each  other  with  great 
courage,  mobbing  the  hawk,  and  endeavouring  to  release  the  one  she 
has  seized."  Lives  on  various  grains,  seeds,  and  insects,  chiefly  grasshop- 
pers:! have  seen  oneattempt  in  vain  to  catch  a  grasshopper  on  the  wing* 

Irideii  light  yellow.   Length   11^  inches;  wing4y^ths;  tail  5| ;  tar* 
sus  iT^^ths. 


91. — T.  SomerviUei,  Sykes, — Jungle  Keir  or  Kayr,   H. — Jungle  grey 

babbler, 

I  have  always  found  this  species  of  Thimalia  in  tolerably  dense  jangle, 
and  never  in  open  country,  like  the  next  one  which  much  resembles  it. 
It  is  fiu:  from  being  uncommon  in  most  jungles.  I  have  seen  it  in 
Goomsoor,  in  theTondiman*s  country,  in  the  Carnatic, and  in  most  of  the 
jungles  of  the  West  Coast.  I  have  also  lately  procured  it  in  a  densely 
wooded  nullah  in  low  jungly  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jaulnah* 
It  has  similar  habits  to  others  of  the  genus  living  in  tolerably  numerous 
and  noisy  troops,  and  feeding  on  various  grains  and  insects. 

Irides  pale  yellow;  bill  and  feet  dirty  yellow.  Length  9  inches  ;  of 
wing4T'^th,    tail  4J  ;  tarsus  ly^ths. 

I  may  here  remark  that  my  specimens  from  two  localities  differ  some- 
what from  each  other  in  the  shade  of  their  plumage,  and  also  slightly 
from  Colonel  Sykes'  description.  This  may  depend  on  diflference  of 
age.  A  specimen  from  Goomsoor,  however,  has  a  bill  remarkably  differ- 
ing from  those  of  the  others,  in  having  the  edge  of  both  mandibles,  es' 
pecially  of  the  under  one,  scooped  out,  as  it  were,  from  the  centre  to  the 
tip  of  the  bill,  so  as,  when  they  are  closed,  to  leave  an  open  space.  I  pos- 


9^6  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  C^cr 

sess  but  one  specimen  from  this  locality,  and  so  am  not  aware  wbether 
it  is  an  accidental  or  permanent  character.  If  the  Litter,  it  will,  with 
some  other  slight  variations,  cousiiinte  it  a  separate  species;  and  from 
the  peculiar  disiribution  of  others  of  this  truly  Indian  genus,  and  the 
general  similarity  of  colour,  as  remarkably  shown  in  the  likeness  of  ibis 
to  the  next  species,  lam  inclined  to  think  that  hereafter  other  si>ecies 
may  be  separated,  closely  alii <?tl  in  plumajic  and  general  structure,  yet 
differing  in  some  permanent  character,  both  of  structure  and  plumage,  ai 
well  as  in  geographical  disiributioxi.  This,  however,  deserves  further  in- 
vestigation. 

92. — T,  grisea. — T.  griseuSf  Lath. — Ket/r.  H. — KuUee  Couravee^  Tam. 
{Hedge  bird).  ^  Dirt  bird  of  some  Europeans. — Fouiite-merde  of  French 
in  India  (Vieillot) — Common  Orey  Babbler, 

This  species  so  much  resembles  the  last  in  its  general  appearance 
that  I  was  long  un^iati^fied   of  their  distinctness,   notwithstanding    the 
striking  difference  of  colour  of  the  irides,  and  di0erent  localities  of    the 
two.    This   is  one  of  the  commonest  birds  of  the  Carnatic,  and  may  be 
seen  in  every  garden,  and  about  the  hedge  rows,  avenues,  trees  and  to()es 
throughout  that  district.  I  have  never  seen  it  above  the  ghauts,   nor  in 
the  Northern  Circars  even,  but  it  occurs  sparingly  in  the  uiore  open  por- 
tions of  the  West  Coast.    Like  the  others  of  its  genus,  it   lives  in   nu- 
merous families  of  6,  8,  10,  or  more.     They  feed  chiefly  on    the  grouud, 
on  which  they  may  be  seen  to  drop  one   after  the  other   from  the   tree 
they  may  have  been  perched  on — hop  briskly   about,  picking  up   various 
seeds  and  insects,  occasionally  seeking  the   latter  from  heaps  of  dung 
(whence  they  have  received  their  usual  denomination,  as  well  from   the 
French  as  English  in  India,  who  on  this  account   are  prejudiced  against 
them).  On  being  driven  from  the  ground  or  leaving  it  from  choice,  iheyfly 
up  successively  as  they  dropped  down,  and  hop  and  climb  up  the  Lir  ge 
branches  of  the  nearest  tree,seldom  stopping  till  they  have  nearly  reach- 
ed the  top  or  the  other  side,  from  which  if  still  watched  they  fly  uflf,  one 
after  the  other,  to  another  tree.     1  hey  often  appear  to  pick  insects  off* 
the  bark  of  trees.     They  have  an  incessant  loud  whispering  kind  of  ch«it- 
ter,  which  they  all  repeal  at  once,  especially  when  feeding,  or  on  being 
observed  by  any  cne      '\\\v  Keyr  is  a  veiy  familiar  bird   if  undisturbed 
feeding  close  to  bouses,  hui  if  closel}  observed  or  followed  becomes  eir- 
eunispect  and  wary.     It  is  also  a  ver>'   quarrelsome  bird.    I  have  seen 
lh  '  nefct  of  this  species  placed  in  a  tree  at  no  great  height.    It  was  made 
of  small  twigs  and  roots  most  carelessly  put  together,  and  contained  four 
bluish  eggs.    I  shall  here  add  a  desciiption  of  the  Carnatic  bird. 


1839]  of  the  Penimtda  of  India.  259 

Genernl  shade  of  plumage  light  brownisb  grey,  head  and  nape  mach 
lighter  tint,  almost  whitish,  and  appearing  so  roost  distinctly  at  a  dis- 
tance (whence  they  are  vulgarly  calleci  by  some  while  headed  bobs). 
Quills  and  tail  brown,  obsoletely  barred  with  darker  band^,  central  tail 
feathers  lighter  at  the  base,  feathers  of  the  back  darkish,  lightest  in  the 
shaft  and  at  the  edges,  rump  feathers  pale  fawn,  much  discomposed. 
Feathers  of  the  chin  and  throat  dark  in  the  centre,  at  the  base  and  ex- 
tremity of  a  bluish  white.  This  gives  a  bluish  appearance  to  this  gular 
band,  uhich  is  distinctly  separated  from  thf^  surrounding  plumage. 
Breast,  belly  and  under  tail  coverts  pale  yellowish  fawn  colour,  most  of 
the  fcatheis  are  bluish  at  the  base. 

Length  V^  ;  wing  4  ;  tuil  4 ;  tarsus  I  tV^^^  *  irides  silver  white ;  bill 
and  legs  yellow.  It  differs  from  the  last  species  structurally  in  the  form 
of  I  he  bill,  which  is  shorter  and  more  elevated  at  the  base,  and  in  the  hind 
toe  also,  whirl)  is  shorter  than  in  T,  SomervtUei, 

Mr.  Elliot  has  in  his  notes  the  description  of  a  Thimalia^  met  in  the 
Southern  Mahratta  Country,  which  appears  nearly  to  correspond  with 
this,  the  only  difTereme  I  tan  detect  from  his  description  is  in  the  bill 
and  legs,  which  he  calls  **  whilish."  If  identical  it  would  mark  a 
curious   distribution,  as  I  have  seen  it  in  no  situation  above  the  ghauts. 

Plumage  above,  chin  and  tliroat,brown  cinereous,  shafts  of  the  feathers 
lighter;  head  and  nape,  whitish,  rump  cinereous;  tail  brown,  with  indis- 
tinct  darker  bars ;  belly  whitish  like  the  head.  Irides  silver  while,  bill 
and  legs  white.    Length  9\  inches. 

93. — T,  svhrufa,^^t\v  species. — Junglee  Keifr,  H, — Rtfous  bellied 

Bdbllcr. 

This  apparently  undescribed  species  is  only  found  in  thick  jungle.  I 
have  hitherto  only  ^een  it  in  the  bamboo  jungles  of  the  Wynaadnear 
Manuntoddy.  1 1  has  similar  manners  to  the  others,  feeding  on  the  ground, 
and  onbting  distu  bed  retreating  to  the  thick  chimps  of  bamboos,  through 
which  ihey  make  their  way  with  much  adroitness,  chattering  all  the 
while,  and  generally  contrive  to  conceal  themselves  from  view.  Their 
note  is  similHr  in  character,  though  quite  distinct  from  any  of  its  con- 
geners. Is  colours  mark  an  approach  to  the  Crateropi.  Mr.  Elliot 
mtiitioiis  iliis  spei  ie>  in  his  notes  as  found  in  the  jungles  of  the  Southern 
Mahratta  Country  ;so  it  is  probably  found  in  most  of  the  elevated  jungles 
along  the  ran^e  of  the  ghauts,  though  not  as  far  as  I  have  seen  found 
below  the  mountains. 


260  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

Descr. — Above  darkish  brown  olive,  below  rufous,  darkest  on  the 
neck  and  breast;  forehead  pale  bluish  ash  colour  ;  frontal  feathers  rigid; 
bill  brown  above,  yellow  below.  Legs  yellow,  iridea  bright  yellow. 
Length  9 J  ;  wing  3  T7Tihs;  tail  4^;  Ursus  ly^ths. 

94. — T.  Chaiareea,  Frank  1.  Cat. — Gen.  Malacoeircus^  Swainson  ? — 
Doomree^  H. — ffoonee,  Tam.  ? — Striated  Babbler, 

Before  entering  on  the  account  of  the  bird,  I  may  here  introduce  some 
excellent  remarks  of  Mr.  Elliot.  He  says,  s^^eaking  of  the  Thimalim 
**  there  is  another  group,  the  Doomreet^  differing  somewhat  in  habit,  less 
noisy »  still  in  companies  and  flying  along  woody  nullahs,  hedge  rows, 
bushes,  &c.  where  they  ensconce  an  1  conceal  themselves.*'  In  the 
three  species  next  described  there  is  certainly  a  slight  difference  both 
In  structure  and  habits  from  the  more  typical  species  of  TkimaluB* 
Whether  this  is  sufficient  to  entitle  them  to  sub  generic  distincfion  or 
not  cannot  be  satisfactorily  determine^!,  till  a  complete  analysis  has  been 
made  of  the  whole  family  of  the  Crateropodtjug,  of  which  Swainson  con- 
fesses that  enough  is  not  yet  known  to  enable  him  to  arrange  them  per- 
fectly. 

The  Doomree  is  found  all  over  the  peninsula,  in  the  open  plains  when 
covered  with  a  few  scattered  bushes,  or  in  low  but  thin  jungle.  It  is  a 
shy  and  wary  bird,  flying  before  you  from  bush  to  bush,  and  having  a 
whistling  sort  of  cry  which  it  is  frequently  heard  repeating.  It  flies  low, 
and  like  others  of  the  genus,  alternately  with  a  few  rapid  beats  of  the 
wing,  and  a  sailing  with  outstretched  wings.  Feeds  on  various  insects, 
caterpillars  and  grubs.  Irides  reddish  brov^n;  bill  brownish  ;  legs  dirty 
yellow.   Length9  to  9|;  wing  about  3;  tail  4;  tirsus  1. 

95, —  T.  hypoleucaf  Frduk\, —  White  bellied  or  singing  Babbler. ^-^Sku." 
kur  Doomree^  H.  ? 

This  neatly  clothed  little  ThimaUaj  is  far  from  being  common  towards 
the  8')uth  of  the  Peninsula.  I  have  seen  it  in  a  bushy  tract  at  the  edge  of 
the  Wulliar  jungle  ;  also  in  hecltrcs  on  low  jungly  districts  near  the  base 
of  the  Shaudee  mungalum  hills  in  the  Salem  district,  and  again  at  Roya* 
cottah  in  similar  situation.  Near  Jaulnah  it  is  generally  to  be  met  with 
in  the  low  jungle  iu  the  neighbourhood,  also  in  woody  nullahs  and  thick 
hedges.  It  is  not  unfrequently  to  be  seen  alone,  but  generally  in  small 
parties  of  four  or  five,  which  fly  before  youj  and  m-mage  to  conceal  them- 


1839]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  261 

selves  in  some  thick  bush.  They  have  a  low  chattering  when  together, 
neither  loud  however,  nor  ofi  en  heard.  I  have  on  several  occasions  heard 
a  single  one  perched  conspicuously  on  a  bush  or  hedge,  pour  forth  a  re- 
markably sweet  song.  Feeds  on  ants  and^various  other  iosects,  &c. 
Irides  deep  brown,  surrounded  by  a  narrow  circle  of  buff  5  bill  black  ; 
eds^es  of  the  nostrils  and  naked  skin  round  eye,  orange  yellow;  legs 
deep  yellow.    Length 6^10  6Jj  wiug  2 -j^^ihs  5  tail  3 J  ;  tarsus  1  yV^h. 

96.— r.^yp^r^Mra,  Frankl.  Cat.— 4$%aA2>oomree|  H.  }^Smaliest  babbler. 

This  small  species,  but  for  its  high  and  strongly  compressed  bill,  might 
readily  be  mistaken  for  a  Prima  or  some  other  of  ihe  warblers.  I  have 
seen  it  but  very  seldom,  once  at  the  top  of  the  Tapoor  pass  in  thick  jun- 
gle, and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jaulnah,  in  jungly  district,  in  thick 
hedges,  and  thick  wooded  nullahs.  From  the  dense  nature  of  the  bushes 
&c.  it  frequents,  it  is  with  difficulty  observed  and  obtained.  1  have 
generally  seen  it  in  parties  of  five  or  six,  occasionally  giving  out  a  low 
and  indistinct  sort  of  chattering.  Fragments  of  various  insects  were 
found  in  the  stomachs  of  those  I  procured.  Irides  yellowish  brown; 
bill  horn  colour;  legs  flesh  coloured  with  tinge  of  yellow.  Length  5J; 
wing  2  -pV^^^J  ^^^^  '^i'  tarsus,  nearly  -j^^ths. 

Sub  Family  ORIOLlNiE.— Orw^/u*. 
Genu«  ORIOLUS,  L. — Oriole.— Mango  Bird  of  Europeans  in  India. 

97.— O.  aureus,  Gmel.— 0.  Oalbuloy  Sykes*  Cat.— O.  Kundoo,  Sykes — 
Young  bird — Peebeck,  H. — Indian  Oriole  or  Mango  bird. 

This  species,  generally  considered  to  be  identical  with  the  European, 
0.  Galbula,  differs  in  the  black  eye-sireak  extending  to  some  distance 
above  ihe  ear  coverts,  and  in  its  shorter  wing. 

Colonel  Sykes  says  of  this  bird  **  very  abundant  in  the  Deccan  just 
before  the  rains."  In  the  Carnaiic  it  is  most  abundant,  I  think,  during 
the  cold  weather,  disappearing  or  nearly  so  during  the  hot  months. 
This  corresponds  with  the  period  of  their  greatest  abundance  in  the 
Deccan.  It  is  most  numerous  in  the  West  Coast,  and  well  wooded  situ- 
ations; frequents  topes,  gardens,  avenues  and  large  single  trees,  feed- 
ing on  various  fruit,  especially  the  fig  of  the  banian  tree.  It  is  not  met 
with  in  thick  forest  jungle.    Its  flight  is  undulating.    It  has  a  loud 


262  Catahgue  af  the  Birds  [Oct.' 

mellow  plaintive  cr}',  sometliinsr  resembling  pee-ho.    Length  9J  ;  wing 
5J;  tail  3^ ;    tarsus  i^ths;    bill   brownish  red;    irides  fine  lake  red; 
feet  slate  colour. 
The  O.  kuTidoo,  of  Sykes  I  consider  the  young  bird. 

98. — O.  melanocephalus,  L. — Black  headed  Mango  bird  or  Oriole, 

This  species  is  in  f^eneral  onlv  met  with  in  thick  and  lofty  jungle, 
but  in  parts  of  the  WeKt  Coast,  as  about  Pal  ghaut  and  Trichoor,  it  is  com- 
mon in  top**s,  avenues  and  girdens.  I  have  seen  it  also  in  Goomsoor  in 
open  jungle,  but  not  in  the  Camatic.  Like  the  last,  it  is  seen  singly, 
or  in  pairs.    Length  9  inches  ;  wing  5;  tail  3J. 

99. — O.  Chinensis,  Gmel. — O,  hippocrepis,  Wagler, — O.Maderaspa* 
tonus f  Frankl.  Cat.,  Young  bird  ? — Blach-naped  Oriole, 

I  have  not  myself  observed  this  species  of  Oriole^  but  find  it  recorded 
in  Mr.  Elliot's  notes,  as  occurring  sparingly  in  the  jungles  of  the  Sou* 
them  Mahratta  Country. 


Genus  IRENA,  Horsf. 

1 00. — /.  puella^  Horsf. — Edolius  puellus,  Temm. — Fairy  blue  bird. 

This  most  lovely  plumaged  bird  is  far  from  being  uncommon  in  many 
of  the  lofiy  forest  jungles  of  Malabar.  I  have  seen  it  in  ihe  jungles  near 
Palghautcheriy,  Trichoor,  the  Wynaad,  and  on  the  Coonoor  ghaut,  as 
high  as  4000  feet  and  upwards,  it  is  only  found  in  the  densest  portions 
of  the  jungle. 

The  fairy  blue  bird  lives  generally  in  small  parties  of  four  or  five,  or 
more,  occasionally  in  pairs,  frequents  the  loftiest  trees  near  their  sum- 
mit,  and  feeds  on  various  fruit  and  berries.  It  has  a  loud,  mellow,  agree* 
able  warble, which  it  is  frequently  heard  repeating;  by  which  I  have 
generally  first  detected  their  presence  in  the  thick  and  umbrageous  parts 
of  the  forest  they  inhabit.  As  this  bird  was  not  observed  either  by  Mr* 
Elliot,  or  Colonel  Sykes,  I  presume  it  docs  not  extend  far  to  the  north* 
ward.  In  one  or  two  instances,  I  observed  two  or  three  hairs  arising 
from  the  nape,  as  in  the  Tricophori.  I  rides  fine  ruby  red  ;  bill  and  legs 
black.  Length  10  inches;  wing 5;^;  tail  4  ;  tarsus  ^^ths. 


1839.]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  263 

Fam.  SYLVIA DiE.—  W^arWm. 

Sub  Family  SkXlCOlA'^JE.'^Stanechats, 
Gen.  GRYLLIVORA,  Swains.— Kittacikcla,   Gould. 

101. — G.  intermedia^  Sw. — Graenla  Savlar-s^  L.^^Turd'fS  Jmcenutf 
Horsf.? — Pastor,  Teinni, — Lan.  Mlndanensis,  AvLcL^^Little  Indian  Pie, 
Edw.  pi.  181. — Dial  bird,  Lath  ^^Dayyur  or  Deyr,  H.^Large  or  Mag* 
pie  Robin, 

This  bird,  so  long  with  others  of  its  genus  banded  about  by  authorSt 
has  at  lengtli,  I  hope,  found  a  firm  resting  place  among  the  Stoneehatnt 
to  which  it  is  certainly  most  closely  allied  in  manners  as  well  as  in 
structure.  I  think  that  this  generally  spread  Indian  bird,  is  referable 
to  Swainson's*  species  named  as  above.  It  is  far  from  being  numerous 
in  the  Camatic,  or  Deccan,  except  in  well  wonded  nituations  ;  is  more  so 
in  the  Northern  Circars,  but  must  abundant  on  the  Western  Coast,  as 
well  in  the  jungles,  as  in  gardens,  avenues,  topes,  &c.  It  is  solitary^ 
frequents  thirk  trees  and  bushes,  feeds  on  the  ground,  flying  down  from 
a  low  branch,  its  usual  perch,  and  frequently  hopping  a  few  steps  on  the 
ground,  jerking  its  tail  well  up  every  now  and  then.  On  securing  an 
insect  it  flies  back  again  to  its  perch,  elevating  its  tail  on  reseating  it* 
self,  and  uttering  a  pleasant  warble.  Towards  evening  it  may  often  be 
seen  near  the  top  of  some  lofty  tree  in  the  jungle,  pouring  forth  its 
agreeable  song;  which,  however  beautiful,  must  yield  the  palm  to  that 
of  the  next  species  mentioned.  It  is  occasionally  caged  for  its  song* 
Its  chief  food  is  small  grasshoppers  and  similar  insects.  Irides  hazel 
brown;  bill  black;  legs  dusky.  Length  7^  to  8  inches;  wing  about 
4 ;  tail  3  j^ihs  ;  tarsus  I  yV^b. 

I  have  hitherto  procured  so  few  specimens  from  diflferent  localities 
that  I  cannot  say  ^ihether  Swainsnn*s  new  species,  if  it  be  from  India, 
(G,  brevirosfrd)  be  well  founded  or  not.  I  possess  a  specimen  shot  in 
thick  jungle  which  certainly  has  a  smaller  bill  than  the  common  species^ 
and  only  3  of  the  tail  feathers  on  either  side  are  pure  white,  the  next 
one  being  edged  with  black ;  and  as  this,  though  a  young  bird,  is  the 
only  one  I  shot  in  high  jungle,  it  may  turn  out  to  be  a  distinct  species. 
Another  species,  not  uncommonly  seen  in  cages  in  the  Camatic,  is,  I 

•  V.  Swains.  Classification  of  Birds.   Part  5. 


264  Catalogue  of  the  Bird$  [Oct. 

tbinky  the  O.  magnirostra  of  Swainson — this  I  ha?e  hitherto  not  met 
in  a  state  of  nature,  and  it  is  said  to  be  brought  over  from  Malacca^ 
Ceylon,  Java,  and  other  Eastern  Islands.  It  sells  for  a  high  price,  and 
sings  most  charmingly. 

102.  G,  longicauda,  Swains. — Turdus  macrouruSy  Gmel. — Long  tail' 
ed  thrushf  Lath. — Long  tailed  Robin, — Indian  Nightingale^ — AbbekOf  H. 

This  most  charming  songster  of  the  forest,  is  unfortunately  rather 
rare,  and  only  found  in  the  most  retired  and  impervious  parts  of  the 
thickest  forest  jungle.  I  have  seen  it  in  the  bottom  of  the  Coonoor 
pass,  and  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  a  tract  of  forest  west  of  Sultan's 
Battery,  in  the  Wynaad;  in  both  places  in  the  densest  thickets.  It  ig 
solitary,  perches  on  low  branches,  and  hops  to  the  ground  to  secure  a 
grasshopper,  small  mantis,  or  other  soft  insect.  When  alarmed  it 
flies  before  you  from  tree  to  tree  at  a  low  height.  Its  song  is  heard  in 
the  greatest  perfection  towards  evening,  and  is  certainly  surpassed  by 
no  Indian  bird,  if  indeed  it  is  by  the  celebrated  Nightingale.  1  believe 
it  is  occasionally  caught  and  caged  for  its  song  in  the  Northern  pro- 
vinces, and  sells  for  a  high  price  at  Calcutta.  Iiides  hazel  brown  ;  bill 
black;  legs  pale  flesh  colour.  Length  12  inches,  of  which  tail  nearly  8; 
wing  3} ;  tarsus  1  inch. 

G8NU8  THAMNOBIA,  Swains. 

103.  T>  fulicata. — Ixoe  fulicatus, — Motac,  fulicata,  L.— ifulcAo*- 
ree,  H. — Indian  Robin, 

This  well  known  bird  (with  regard  to  which  similar  remarks  to  those 
made  on  Gryllivora  as  to  its  previous  situation  and  nomenclature  apply 
even  more  strongly),  is  tolerably  common  in  most  parts  of  the  country, 
and  its  familiar  habits  have  gained  for  it  the  name  of  •*  Indian  Robin." 
It  is  found  mostly  about  villages,  pagodas,  walls  and  old  buildings  and 
houses ;  often  perching  on  the  roof  or  pandaul,  and  feeding  in  the 
verandahs,  or  occasionally  even  entering  houses.  It  is  generally 
seen  single  or  in  pairs;  feeds  on  the  ground,  on  which  it  runs  with 
great  agility,  frequently  pursuing  and  capturing  several  insects 
before  it  reseats  itself  on  its  perch,  either  on  a  house,  or  some  neighbour- 
ing tree  or  bush.  At  all  times,  but  especially  when  feeding,  it  has 
the  habit  of  jerking  up  its  tail,  by  successive  efforts,  so  as  almost  to 
overshadow  its  head.    The  male  has  a  very  sweet  little  song,  which  it 


1 839.]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  265 

warbles  forth  from  the  top  of  a  wall  or  low  tree — and  it  ts  occasionally 
caged.  The  Kulchooree  is  not  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  villages,  &c. 
but  is  very  common  on  stony  hills,  and  in  various  other  situations. 
Irides  dark  brovTn.  Length  6|  inches  ;  wing  2i^th8  ;  tail  2};  tarsus  1 
inch. 

I  hare  twice  seen  the  nest  of  the  bird,  once  built  among  a  heap  of 
targe  stones  raised  from  a  boury,  and  the  bird  made  its  nest  during 
the  time  the  well  was  being  blasted,  and  continued  the  process  of  in- 
cubation till  the  young  ones  were  hatched,  when  it  was  accidentally  de* 
stroyed.  On  the  oiher  occasion  it  had  built  its  nest  in  a  hole  inside  the 
wall  of  a  house.  It  has  4  eggs,  light  dusky  bluish  colour,  spotted  with 
purplish  brown. 

Gem.  SAXICOLA,  Bechst.— 5/onecAa/. 

104. — S.  rubecolaf  Temm. — European  Stonechat. 

I  have  seen  this  bird  in  all  parts  of  India  during  the  cold  weather, 
making  its  first  appearance  in  the  beginning  of  October.  It  frequents 
bushes  on  the  plains,  hedges,  and  grain  fields,  and  feeds  on  the  ground 
on  ants  and  various  other  insects.  Irides  dark  brown  ;  bill  and  legs 
black.    Length  5^;  wing  2}  ;  tail  1};  tarsus  iV^hs. 

105. — St  caprafttf  Vieill — Mot. caprata^lA»  P.  £.235. — Sax,  fruticola^ 
Horsf.  ? — Sax.  hicolor  and  S.  erythropygia,  Sykes.'—Indian  StoMchat.'^ 
NeUgherry  or  Hill  Robin, — KcUa  Pidda  (i,  e.  Black  Warbler),  H, 

There  are  two  varieties  (of  size  only  however)  of  this  bird  found  in 
the  peninsula.  The  smaller  kind  is  found  throughout  India.  I  have 
Been  it  in  the  Carnatic,  Deccan  and  West  Coast — the  larger  variety  I 
have  only  seen  on  the  Neilgherries,  but  as  they  nearly  correspond  in 
size  with  those  found  by  Colonel  Sykes,  there  is  a  regular  gradation 
from  the  mentioned  length  of  the  S.fruticola  of  Horsf.  (viz.  4J  inches) 
to  that  of  the  hill  variety,  which  reaches  6|  inches,  and  as  from  the  de- 
scriptions there  appears  no  discrepancy  in  the  colour  of  the  plumage, 
I  think  that  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  they  are  mere  varieties 
of  one  bird.  The  S.  erythropygia  of  Sykes,  as  might  indeed  have  been 
guessed  from  his  own  description,  is  the  female  of  his  bicolor  (our  pre- 
sent subject)  as  I  have  ascertained  beyond  a  doubt — as  well  from  dissee- 


266  CaialogMe  of  the  Birde  [Ocr. 

tion,  as  from  being  so  Qniversally  met  with  together  in  M  localities. 
This  bird  is  not  very  common  in  the  low  country,  and  is  perhaps  most 
Dumeroas  in  bunhy  and  jungly  districts,  frequenting  bushes,  low  trees, 
hedges,  &c.  On  the  Nt^ilgherries  it  is  extremely  abundant,  and  there 
obtains  the  name  of  //tV/  Robin,  It  has  the  same  manners  as  others  of 
its  genus,  darting  down  to  the  ground  from  its  perch  on  the  top  of  a 
bush,  or  branch  uf  a  tree,  and  having  secured  an  insect  returning  to 
its  seat.  It  has  a  short  little  song,  as  well  as  the  usual  chattering  note 
common  to  the  StOKechaU,  and  from  which  they  derive  their  name. 
Varies  in  lenfi;th  from  5  to  6^  inches.     Of  one  6^  inches,  the  wing  ii 

^rirths  ;  tail  2j;  tarsus  rV^s-  Iridesdark  brown.  Bill  and  legs  black. 
The  young  bird  is  brown,  spotted  or  streaked  with  light  rufous. 

106. — S.  rubecoloideSf  Sykes. — Indian  red  breast. 

This  curious  little  species  is  clothed  almost  in  the  plumage  of  the 
well  known  European  Robin.  It  is  a  rare  bird.  I  have  only  seen  it 
twice  or  thrice  in  topes  in  the  neighbourhood  of  villages  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  table  land.  It  is  seen  in  small  flocks,  as  well  as  siin^ly, 
perched  on  the  lower  boughs  of  some  large  mango  or  tamarind  iree,  it 
hops  to  the  ground  to  pick  up  ants  and  other  insects,  occasionally  hop- 
ping a  step  or  two,  and  then  flying  back  frequently  alights  ou  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  clinging  to  it  for  some  seconds.  It  occasionally  takes  a  very 
short  flight  from  its  perch,  and  back  again,  but  whether  to  capture  an 
insect  in  the  air  or  not,  1  do  not  know.  It  differs  f  om  the  Slonechaie  in 
structure,  approaching  the  flycatchers  in  its  broader  and  more  depn  ssed 
bill,  and  weak  feet  and  legs.  Irides  dark  brown  ;  bill  and  legs  brown. 
Length  5  inches  ;  wing  2  j^thfi ;  tail  2 ;  tarsus  about  j<^ths. 

107.    5.  nigrorufa, — New  species. — Orangt  Robin, 

This  prettily  plumaged  and  apparently  new  species,  I  have  only  met 
on  the  summit  of  the  Neilgherries,  in  the  dense  woods  of  which  it  nay 
occasionally  be  seen,  preferring  the  most  close,  retired  and  damp  s|>ots. 
Here  it  may  be  seen  seated  motionless  on  a  low  bough,  suddenly  dart« 
ing  to  the  ground  to  feast  on  a  caterpillar  or  other  insect  it  may  have 
spied.     I  never  heard  its  note. 

Description — Head,  f<kce,  back  of  neck  and  wings  dnsky  black;  rest 
of   body  bright  cinnamon  rufous  or   orange ;  palest  on    the  belly. 


1839  ]  0/  Me  Peninsula  of  India.  267 

Length  about  4^  to  5;  wing  2^;  tail  2;  tarsus  -^tbs.    Irideg  hazel 
bruwn ;  bill  black ;  legs  dirty  reddish. 

Sub  Family  PHILOMELlNiE,  Swains.— Zary^  Warblers. 

Genus  PH.ENICURA,  Swains.— /?e<i»/oW*. 

108.— P.  atrata,  Jard.  ^n^  SAhy,— Indian  Redstart. -^Thirt-hira^l^^ 
i.  e.     Tre,noler,  or  Quaker f  from  the  motion  of  its  tail. 

This  bird  is  very  common  in  most  parts  of  India  during  the  cold  wea- 
ther, but  more  so  in  the  table  land,  I  think  than  in  the  Carnatic.  it  is 
solitary,  frequents  wooded  placeSi  gardens,  hedges,  old  walls  and  build- 
ings, being  often  seen  about  the  roofs  of  houses.  Feeds  on  the  ground 
on  wasps,  ants  and  various  other  insects.  Has  a  most  peculiar  quiver- 
ing motion  of  its  tail  especially  after  feeding.  The  young  bird  has  a 
brownish  colour,  where  in  the  old  bird  it  is  blackish  cinereous.  Length 
about  6  inches  ;  of  wing  ^  ;  tail  2y%th8. 

109. — P.  Suecica.^M.  Suecica,  L. — Hoosenee  Pidda,  H. — Sltie 
throated  Redstart. 

I  have  not  seen  this  beautiful  Redstart  in  the  Carnatic  ;  and  in  the 
Deecan,  it  is  far  from  being  common,  and  is  only  found  during  the  cold 
season,  from  October  till  March.  It  frequents  thick  hedges,  gardens, 
sugar  cane  fields,  and  long  grass  or  weeds  in  beds  of  tanks,  &.c.  ;  occa- 
sionally coming  close  to  houses;  and  feeds  on  the  ground,  on  which  it 
runs  ulong  picking  up  various  insects,  and  does  not  return  so  quickly  to 
its  perch,  I  think,  as  the  last  species  ;  neither  has  it  that  peculiar  quiver- 
ing of  the  tail,  though  while  feeding  on  the  ground,  it  occasionally  jerks 
it  lip.  It  generally,  when  observed,  tries  to  conceal  itself  among  tie 
bushes  it  frequents.  Few  of  those  I  have  seen  were  in  perfect  plum- 
age. Irides  dark  brown ;  bill  and  legs  brownish.  Length  nearly  6 
inches ;  of  wing  2  ^^ths ;  tail  2. 

Genus  PHILOMELA,  Swains. 

110.— P.  Orphea.'—S.  Orphea,Temml—P.  melanocephala  f  111.  Or- 

nilii. — Largest  Blackcap. 

Though  I  am  far  from  certain  that  my  specimens  are  identical  with 
the  European  bird,  yet  from  the  brief  and  imperfect  description  I  possess, 


26S  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  [Oct. 

I  conclude  they  may  be  so,  if  indeed  it  is  not  the  species  referred  to  in 
Swainson's  Synopsis  as  P.  melanocephala,  a  description  of  which  I  havft 
not  seen.  This  bird  is  found  during  the  cold  weather  in  hedges,  thic- 
kets, large  trees  and  gardens,  and  even  on  the  low  bushes  on  the  plains. 
It  is  active  and  restless,  moving  about  from  branch  to  branch,  clinging 
to  the  twigs,  and  feeding  on  various  insects,  grubs,  caterpillars,  also  on 
flower  buds.  I  have  seen  it  alone,  and  also  two  or  three  together.  It  is 
rather  an  uncommon  bird.  I  have  seen  it  occasionally  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Jaulnah,  and  on  one  occasion  only  in  the  Camatic. 

I  shall  here  udd  a  brief  description.  Head,  face  and  back  of  neck, 
black  in  the  male  ;  dark  slaty  in  the  female  ;  back  and  wings  brownish 
ash  grey  ;  quills  dusky  brown ;  tail  greyish  black  ;  external  feathers 
white,  with  black  shaft,  and  edged  internally  with  blackish;  next  thre« 
feathers  lipped  with  white ;  beneath  white,  with  a  reddish  tinge  on 
breast  and  belly  ;  bill  blackish  horn  colour ;  legs  reddish  brown.  Irides 
dull  greenish  yellow.  Length  6^  to  7  inches;  bill  ^  inch  to  front 
wing. 

GsNUS   CURRUCA,  Swuins. — Phoolaraeoy  II.  — i.  e.  Flower    eater  or 

Flower  pecker, 

ill. — C.  cinereat  Selby. — S.  cinerea,  Temm,^ White-throat , 

Though  I  have  the  same  uncertainty  with  regard  to  this  species  as 
the  last,  I  shall  refer  it  at  once  to  the  European  bird,  giving  a  brief 
description  to  determine  it  more  exactly.  This  is  more  common  than 
the  last  species,  but  like  it  is  only  found  during  the  cold  season,  re- 
maining till  March.  It  frequents  similar  situations,  and  has  similar 
habits  and  food.  I  have  sometimes  seen  them  feeding  on  the  same  tree. 
On  one  occasion  I  observed  it  in  the  month  of  March  very  numerous  in 
a  hedge  row  in  the  Carnatic,  and  found  it  had  been  feeding  on  the  pupse 
of  some  ants,  to  seize  which  it  hopped  down  on  the  ground  ;  feeds  also 
much  on  flower  buds.  I  frequently  have  heard  its  pleasant  warbling 
song.     Irides  of  a  reddish  brown  yellow. 

Description, — Head  and  neck  cinereous;  ears  dark;  rest  of  outer 
tail  feather  nearly  all  white ;  rest  tipped  with  white  only  ;  the  plumage 
above  reddish  cinereous  ;  wings  and  tail  brownish;  throat  white;  rest 
beneath  white,  with  a  tinge  of  reddish;  bill  and  legs  brown.  Irides 
brownish  yellow.   Length  5^  to  6  inches. 


1 839.]  of  the  Peninsula  of  India.  269 

112. — Cgarrulaf  Selby. — S.  *yZvri^a,Penn.— Zewer  ufhiie»ihroat, 

I  have  less  hesitation  in  referring  this  bird  to  the  European  species, 
as  it  is  included  in  Colonel  Sykes'  Catalogue.  It  is  more  common  than 
either  of  the  last,  frequents  the  same  places  and  has  similar  habits, 
feeding  on  insects  and  flower  buds,  and  incessantly  moving  about  the 
upper  and  extreme  branches  of  the  trees  it  frequents.  Irides  light 
brownish  yellow  ;  bill  blackish,  pale  beneath  ;  legs  dark  slaty  Length 
rather  more  than  5  inches. 


Gknus  AGROBATES,  Sw. 

113. — A,  hrunnescens. — New  species  P 

Description. — Above  light  olive  brown,  darkest  on  wings  and  tail,  and 
lightest  on  the  rump  j  beneath,  and  eyebrow,  whitish,  with  a  tinge  of 
olive  yellow ;  wings  and  tail  beneath  cinereous ;  plumage  soft  and  silky  } 
bill  dark  brown,  flesh  coloured  at  base  of  lower  mandible  ;  legs  horny. 
Irides  dull  greenish  yellow  ochre.  This  curious  bird  I  have  placed  for 
the  present  as  a  species  of  Swainson's  genus  ilyro6a/e«.  With  which  it 
agrees  in  its  large  thrush  like  bill,  strong  feet  and  legs,  and  slender 
claws  ;  differing  however  in  the  tip  of  the  bill  being  distinctly  though 
slightly  notched,  and  in  having  a  few  bristles  at  the  gape.  It  is  an  un- 
common  bird.  I  have  seen  it  in  the  Camatic,  near  Tricbinopoly ;  also 
near  Jaulnah,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  table  land.  In  its  manners  this 
bird  somewhat  approaches  the  Orthotomi  and  Prinia,  I  have  found  it 
in  high  grain  fields,  to  the  stalks  of  which  it  was  seen  clinging,  and  on 
being  observed  concealed  itself  among  them.  At  Jaulnah  I  have  late- 
ly seen  it  in  my  garden,  hunting  about  various  low  shrubs,  peas  and 
beans,  &c.  among  which,  on  being  observed,  it  immediately  withdrew, 
most  carefully  hiding  itself,  and  being  with  difficulty  driven  from  its 
place  of  refuge.  I  occasionally  heard  it  utter  a  harsh  clucking  note.  I 
found  its  food  in  two  instances  to  consist  of  small  grasshoppers  and 
ants.  Length  7  to  8  inches,  of  one  8  inches  long  the  wing  is  3^  ;  tail 
about  3;  tarsus  I  xoths;  bill  above  nearly  i^^ths,  to  gape  above  one 
inch. 

(To  be  continued,) 


270  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

III.— On  Chemical  Tests^-^By  Lieutenant  Bkaddock. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Madras  Journal, 

Sir, — Having  experienced  the  want  of  a  book  of  reference  on 
chemical  tests  and  re-a^ents,  I  hive  made  the  followinflf  compilation, 
which  may  perhaps  be  found  not  only  generally  useful,  but,  as  geologi- 
cal research  seems  to  be  gaining  ground  in  South  India,  such  a  compila- 
tion  may  be  parliculagly  acceptable  to  many  of  the  subscribers  to  your 
Journal,  who  interest  themselves  in  such  like  scientific  pursuits  and  in- 
vest iga  tion  s. 

II.  That  more  regard  to  chemical  testing  ought  to  be  paid  by  writers 
on  the  mineralogy  of  this  part  of  Inflia,  seems  to  be  evident  from  the 
following  observations,  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  Captain  Campbell, 
Assistant  Surveyor  General,  who  has  favoured  me  with  them,  and  who 
has  had  occasion  to  make  extensive  experiments  in  the  "  qualitative  ex- 
amination*' of  the  minerals  of  sundry  districts  under  the  Madras  Presi- 
dency. 

III.  Captain  C.  says,  *'  Chemistry  as  applit^d  to  the  examination  of 
*'  minerals  has  been  too  much  neglected  in  India.— In  Europe,  where 
"  almost  every  mineral  is  known,  having  been  examined  by  professional 
''  analysts,  this  is  of  no  consequence ;  for  a  mineralogist  can  provide 
''  himself  with  examined  specimens,  and  is  able  to  name  any  newly 
**  found  mineral,  by  comparing  it  wiih  the  specimens  in  his  cabinet. 
"  But  in  India  this  cannot  be  done.  Great  numbers  of  our  Indian  mine- 
"  rals  are  quite  unknown  in  Europe,  hardly  any  of  them  have  been 
"  analytically  examined,  and  the  comparison  of  them  with  the  speci- 
"  mens  of  a  cabinet  of  European  minerals  is  almost  useless.  In  fact 
*^  I  consider  that  no  person  can  be  a  good  mineralogist  in  India,  who  is 
'*  not  also  an  expert  (mineralogical)  chemist. 

IV.  "  The  consequence  of  this  neglect  of  the  chemical  examination 
"  of  minerals  has  been,  that  Indian  minerals  have  been  most  carelessly 
**  and  incorrectly  named  by  various  writers  in  this  country  :  and  to  such 
**  an  extent,  that,  as  the  knowledge  of  geology  becomes  more  attend- 
**  ed  lo  in  India,  the  descriptions  of  the  first  writers  who  have  taken 
**  up  the  subject,  will  become  next  to  obsolete.  Buchanan,  Christie, 
"  Malcolmson,  and  Benz:i,  have  all  described  the  black  pillars  of 
**  Tippoo's  tomb  at  Seringipatam,  as  being  hornblende,  apparently 
"  without  one  of  them  testing  it  even  by  the  blow-pipe.  On  analysing 
"  the  mineral,  I  find  it  to  be  composed  of  silica,  magnesia,  alumina, 
'*  and  iron  :  and  the  silica  and  magnesia  being  in  the  largest  propor- 
'<  tion,  it  is  therefore  a  silicate  of  magnesia ;  and  contains  no  lime, 
**  and  is  quite  infusible,  while  the  characteristics  of  hornblende  are 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TtHt.  371 

**  that  it  does  contain  lime,  and  is  very  fusible.  Dr.  Benza  has  called 
*'  a  mineral  which  is  found  in  the  Palioondah  hills,  an  euiite,  but  which 
**  I  find  to  be  very  fuhiblCi  and  that  it  proves  to  be  a  silicate  of  alumi- 
**  na,  with  iron  and  an  alkali  in  combination.  The  same  writer  has  ap« 
"  plied  the  term  silicious  schist  to  a  mineral,  which  Dr.  Clark  has  called 
'*  homstone,  which  latter  terra  I  believe  to  be  the  most  correct.* 

V.  **  The  reasons  why  the  chemical  examination  of  minerals  has 
*^  been  so  liitle  attended  to  in  this  part  of  India  are  probably,  first,  that 
**  the  apparatus  required  is  supposed  to  be  too*  bulky  for  convenient 
*'  carriage ;  secondly,  that  chemical  tests  are  not  easily  procured  in 
**  India,  and  thirdly  that  a  chemical  library  is  necessary. 

VI.  "  With  regard  to  the  first  reason,  if  apparatus  was  required  for 
**  experiments  with  gases,  and  for  chemical  purposes  generally,  it 
**  would  doubtless  be  too  bulky  to  be  portable;  but  as  applicable  to 
"  mineralogical  purposes,  the  whole  apparatus  required  may  be  eon* 
**  tained  in  a  box  24  inches  long,  12  wide,  and  6  deep.  A  common 
**  country  blacksmith's  forge  is  always  at  hand  as  a  furnace,  and  a 
**  rough  analysis  of  a  mineral  may  be  made  in  an  afternoon  in  a  tent. 

VII.  **  With  respect  to  tests,  the  tests  and  precipitants  required  in 
*'  mineralogical  analysis  are  few  and  simple ;  they  are  easily  made, 
*'  and  almost  every  bazar  affords  at  a  small  cost  the  materials  re- 
**  quired. 

vin.  '*  The  third  difficulty  appears  to  carry  the  most  weight,  for  to 
**  acquire  the  knowledge  necessary  to  conduct  an  analysis,  many  ex« 
**  pensive  works  are  wanted,  and  continual  reference  from  one  to 
'*  another  is  necessary  to  glean  and  arrange  the  information  required. 
*<  Rose,  is  the  best  work  ou  the  subject,  but  it  is  perplexing  to  a  begin- 
**  ner,  who  is  bewildered  with  a  multiplicity  of  tests,  and  the  elaborate 
**  detail  of  precipitation  and  separation  with  which  the  work  is  filled. 
**  Such  information  is  indeed  of  the  greatest  value,  but  to  the  inex- 
**  perienced  analyst,  who  is  unable  to  discriminate  between  what 
*<  it  is  necessary  to  attend  to,  and  what  may  be  neglected,  it  seems  like 
'*  a  labyrinth,  only  to  bewilder  and  confuse ;  and  he  soon  finds  that 
<*  he  wants  something  simpler."  That  want  the  following  pages  may 
perhaps  in  some  degree  supply. 

IX.  The  sources  of  information  that  I  have  consulted  have  been  the 
best  I  could  obtain,  but  they  have  been  almost  limited  to  my  own  li- 
brary, which  has  furnished  me  less  copiously  than  I  could  have  wished. 
This  paper  therefore  I  look  upon  only  as  a  first  imperfect  at- 
tempt to  form  a  work,  which  under  abler  hands,  with  some  additions, 
would  be  found  extremely  useful  to  all  who  are  not  professed  chemists, 

*  See  Note  at  the  end  of  this  Number.— Editob. 


27J  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

but  who  are  either  learning  that  science,  or  wlio  occasionalljr   employ 
themselves  in  chemical  investigations. 

X.  Accum's  Tests  by  Maugham  gave  me  the  first  idea  connected  with 
this  compilation,  antl  the  ind^^x  to  his  book  formed  an  easy  guide 
for  the  alphabetical  order  which  I  have  adopted.  His  book  and  the 
following  works  are  those  to  whii^h  I  have  been  chiefly  indebted  for  the 
information  I  have  here  colletel  and  put  together,  viz.  Rose's  Analyti- 
cal Cliemistry  translated  by  Gritiin  ;  Henry's  Chemistry  ;Ure*8  Chemical 
Dictionary  ;  New  edition  of  iheEucyclo|iaB  lia  Briitannica  ;  Joyce's  Mine- 
ralogy ;  some  chemical  tables;  the  London  an  I  Edinburgh  Philosophical 
Magazine,  and  some  other  scientific  Journals. 

XI.  I  should  have  been  gltd  to  have  made  the  descriptive  ar^tion 
of  the  tests  more  satisfactory  if  I  cwuhl,  hut  chemical  authorities  I 
find  do  not  always  ajjree,  and  there  are  some  great  discrepancies 
among  them.  Besides,  the  colours  and  precipitates  produced  by 
re-agents  are  very  much  influenced  by  quantity,  as  well  as  by 
foreign  substances  that  may  be  held  in  solution,  so  that  colours 
especially,  cannot  always  be  correctly  defined.  Jf  a  test  acted  on  a  so- 
lution of  one  substance  only,  and  that  substance  was  pure,  no  doubt 
but  its  preci-e  aciion  and  the  colour  of  the  precipitate  might  be  correct- 
ly delineated,  but  when  sin  unknown  compound  is  to  be  examined,  the 
direct  object  of  testing  is  to  ascertain  ihe  several  substances  that  make 
lip  the  compound,  and  to  arrive  safely  at  this  point  it  is  necessary  to 
make  use  of  several  test>^,  especially  of  those  that  are  distinctive,  if  such 
are  known,  and  to  be  had. 

xii.  There  are  two  methods  of  doing  this,  and  by  the  two  conjointly, 
viz.,  by  the  blow  pipe,  and  by  re-agents,  analytical  investigations  are 
successfully  performed-  I  have  combined  both,  and  have  endeavoured 
to  attain  the  object  in  view  as  far  as  my  means  allowed. 

xiii.  I  presuppose  that  those  who  may  use  the  following  compilation 
are  acquainted  generally  with  the  proper  methods  of  testing,  and  with 
the  use  of  the  blow-pipe.  But  those  who  are  not  I  will  briefly  put  in 
the  way,  premising  only  that  the  examples  given  are  as  plain  and  sim- 
ple as  I  could  make  them;  but  not  at  all  professing  to  go  into  the  mi- 
nute detail  necessary  when  mineral  or  other  substances  are  to  be  ana- 
lized,  and  the  quantities  of  their  component  parts  are  to  be  specified  by 
weight. 

XIV.  Suppose  an  alkaline  earth  to  be  picked  up,  and  you  wished  to 
know  what  it  consisted  of.    The  first  step  would  be  to  dissolve  it*  in 

*  Or  as  much  of  it  as  Ls  soluble. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests,  278 

pure  water,  stir  it  well,  and  filter.  The  clear  liquid  might  then  be 
thrown  into  dean  test  tube«,  or  wine  glasses.  If  reddened  litmus  paper 
was  dipped  into  one  of  them,  and  ihe  liquid  turned  the  paper  hlue,  it 
would  indicate  the  presence  of  a  carbonated,  or  of  a  free  alkali.  To  as- 
certain if  carbonic  acid  was  present,  a  little  dilute  nitric  acid  might  be 
diopped  into  the  same  glass ;  Khould  effervescence  occur,  it  would  en- 
tablish  the  fact  of  carbonic  acid  being  present ;  but  if  there  was  no  effer- 
vescence, a  free  alkali  may  be  assumed  lo  be  held  in  solution,  and  to 
have  chang(  (I  the  colour  of  the  paper. 

XV.  The  solution  might  then  be  noutralixed  by  nitric  acid,  and  it 
would  he  known  to  be  in  that  state  when  it  affected  neither  blue  nor 
reddened  litmus  paper ;  or  it  might  bem^de  a  little  acid.  A  drop  of 
nitrate  of  silver  might  then  be  added,  and  if  a  white  precipitate  took 
place  that  blackened  in  the  sun,  and  that  was  soluble  in  ammonia,  it 
would  indicate  ihe  presence  of  muriatic  acid. 

XVI.  If  a  drop  or  two  of  oxalic  acid,  or  oxalate  of  ammonia,  were  add* 
ed  to  the  liquid  in  another  test  tube,  and  a  white  colour  or  precipitate 
took  place,  It  would  indicate  that  lime  was  held  in  solution. 

xvij.  If  another  portion  of  the  liquid  was  now  concentrated  by  e?apQ« 
ration,  anU  put  aside  to  cool,  perhaps  crystals  would  shoot  in  it.  If  these 
crystals  detlagrated  when  thrown  on  red  hoi  charcoal,  they  would  indi- 
cate that  the  earth  contained  saltpetre. 

xviii.  if  the  crystals  were  removed  from  this  concentrated  solution,  when 
cold,  and  it  was  evaporated  slowly  to  dryncbs,  probably  something  like 
common  salt  would  be  seen  to  form.  And  if  the  taste  in  some  measure 
corresponded  therewith,  it  would,  with  the  test  of  nitrate  of  silver,  indi- 
cate that  the  earth  was  a  saltpetre  earth,  mixed,  as  it  usually  is,  with 
muriate  of  soda  or  common  salt,  and  other  substances. 

XIX.  The  earth  that  remained  m  the  filter  might  be  next  examined— 
suppose  dilute  muiiatic  acid  poured  upon  it  dissolved  a  considerable 
portion  with  effervescence,  leaving  only  a  quantity  of  sand  behind.  If 
the  acid  solution  gave  a  white  precipitate  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  ox%ltc 
acid,  it  might  be  presumed  that  the  earthy  part  which  was  iusolubie  in 
water  was  chietly  carbonate  of  lime,  and  sand. 

XX.  I  purposely  abstain  from  going  into  niceties,  because  that  woald 
involve  a  dissertation :  whereas,  to  ascertain  the  chief  qualities  of  the 
earth  is  all  that  is  here  aimed  at,  or  designed. 

XXI.  But  as  some  further  insight  into  the  method  of  examining  an  un- 
known substance,  may  be  desired  by  the  young  enquirer,  I  add  the  fel* 
lowing  directions  from  Rose,  which  I  have  re-arranged,  and  endea?eur- 
ed  to  make  plain  and  intelligible. 


874  On  CkmicaL  TnU.  [Oct. 

zxii.  METHOD  OF  axAiiiNiNG  a  iiiNsmAL,  om  compound  smMTAHcB, 

eONSISTIMQ  ONLY  Gt  A  BA8B  COMBINBD  WITH  AN  ACID  ;  OB  OF  A  MBTAI. 
COMBINED  WITH  A  NON-MXTAXXIC  BODY ;  ITf  CONSTITUBNTS  BBIHO  AMOICO 
THX  FOIXOWINO  SUB8TANCXS. 

BASES. 

1  Potasb  14  Peroxide  of  iruH 

2  Soda  15  Oxide  of  cadmiam 
8  Ammonia                                     16  Protoxide  of  lead 

4  Barytes  17  Oxide  of  bismuth 

5  Strontian  18  Deutoxide  of  copper 

6  Lime  19  Oxide  of  siWer 

7  Magnesia  20  Protoxide  of  mercurj 

8  Alumina  21  Peroxide  uf  mercury 

9  Protoxide  of  manganese  22  Oxide  of  gold 

10  Oxide  of  zinc  23  Protoxide  of  tin 

11  Oxide  of  cobalt  24  Peroxide  of  tin 

12  Oxide  of  nickel  25  Protoxide  uf  antimony 

13  Protoxide  of  iron 

ACIDS,  AND  NON-METALLIC  BODIES. 

1  Sulphuric  acid  4  Arsenic  acid 

2  Nitric  acid  5  Bomcic  acid 

3  Phosphoric  acid  6  Carbonic  acid 

7  Chlorine  ) 

8  Fluorine   > combined  with  a  metal  of  the  above  named  XmMttw* 

9  Sulphur  J 

TO  DISCOVER  THE  BASE  OR  METAL. 

XXIII.  Reduce  the  mineral  or  substance  to  powder,  and  treat  it  first 
with  distilled  water,  and  the  remainder  with  dilate  muriatic  acid,  assist- 
ed by  heat  if  necessary.'*'  If  it  be  a  sulphuret,  or  if  it  contain  sil?er, 
mercury,  or  lead,  dilute  nitric  acid  must  be  used  instead  of  muriatic  acid; 
for  muriatic  acid  combines  with  silver,  mercury,  and  lead,  and  prodooes 
an  insoluble  powder.  The  foregoing  metals  and  bases  may  be  dissolved 
by  this  process,  bnt  quartz,  flint,  silex,  and  such  like  hard  stony  natter 
cannot  be,  nor  can  the  sulphates  of  barytes,  strontian,  lime,  and  lead. 


*  The  water  may  be  testtd  fint,  and  afterwardi  the  add  lolatioa,  ot  both  bmj  bs 
edtofetheSi 


183d.]  On  Chitnical  TuU.  2U 

zziy.  Provide  a  number  of  test  tubes  or  other  glasses :  pour  a  little  of 
the  clear  solution  into  each**  th9  solution  being  made  somBwhai  acid,  and 
proceed  as  follows.  Each  following  letter,  from  a  to  n  is  supposed  to 
be  a  distinct  portion  of  the  solution  to  be  tested,  in  a  different  glass,  or 
test  tube. 

First. — Examination  by  means  ofwatsrf  fuUy  safuraisd  uUh  sulphu* 
retted  Hydrogen. 

XXV.  a.  Add  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen  4  if  no  precipitate  occurs, 
the  base  is  included  from  No.  1  to  13.— If  a  precipitate  takes  place*  the 

14.  Perox:  Iron.  ^***^  ^*  contained  in  from  No.  14,  to  25,  and 
IS*  pJ5tox*^***i?iS"'  *^  *^®  precipitate§  be  white  and  milky,  it 
17.  Ox :  bismuth.                    js  a  proof  that  of  all  the  before  enumerated 

15.  Deutox  :   copper.  *^ 

19.  Protox:  silver.  bases,    peroxide  of  iron,  alone,  is  present  | 

20.  Protox :  mercury,  .-.,,,     1       *i.     .  •  t    aU     ^ 

«i.  Perox:  mercury.  but  if   it  be  black,    the  base  18  one  of  tlio«e 

83*.  PrVto?:  tin.  from  16  to  22.    These  bases  may  be  thus  dis- 

S4.  Perox  :  tin.  •     •      »   j 

85.  Protox  :    antimony.  cnminated. 

xzvi.  6.  Add  ammonia  :  if  the  solution  turn  blue,  the  base  is  deuto* 
xide  of  copper :  or  if  the  clean  blade  of  a  knife,  or  piece  of  clean  iron 
be  dipped  into  the  solution,  it  will  soon  be  coated  with  copper,  if  cop- 
per be  present. 

xxvii.  e.  Add  a  large  quantity  of  water.  If  a  milkiness  occurs  it  in- 
dicates that  the  base  is  oxide  of  bismuth.|| 

XXVIII.  c^.If  nitric  acid,  and  not  muriatic  acid,ha8  been  used,  add  a  drop 
or  two  of  dilute  muriatic  acid ;  a  white  precipitate  will  indicate  the 
presence  of  silver,  or  mercury.    If  it  be  silver,  the  addition  of  suffici* 

*  In  many  cases  a  mere  drop  of  the  soluUon  upon  a  slip  of  glass  may  be  tested,  lad 
the  substance  be  ascertained  from  the  indications  given  by  the  test. 

t  Distilled  water  is  always  intended  whether  specified  or  not 

t  Anenic  is  also  precipitated  by  sulphuretted  bydrogen,  but  the  metallic  oxides  um 
precipiuted  sooner  than  arsenic,  and  may  be  separated  from  it  by  rapid  filtration.  Th« 
filtered  solution,  (which  should  smell  strongly  of  sulphurttted  hydrogen)  may  then  be 
boiled  and,  if  a  yellow  precipitate  occurs,  whicb  is  soluble  in  hydrosuJphnret  of  amnA* 
nia,  the  presence  of  arsenic  may  be  considered  certain. 

)  The  word  precipitate  in  its  largest  signification  includes  the  idea  simply  of  cloudinets 
or  ditcolooration  on  the  adding  of  a  test  An  immedtait  preeipltate  depead*  genertlly 
on  the  quantity,  not  on  the  quality,  or  nature,  of  a  substance. 

U  Other  tests  in  all  these,  and  the  following  cases  may  be  used,  and  oi^t  to  be,  In 
order  to  verify  the  examination.  Thus,  on  referring  to  the  alphabetical  list  oC teats,  N«. 
41,  bbmuth,  it  will  be  seen,  is  discriminated  before  the  blow  pipe  by  fiising  into  a  bril> 
tie  globule  that  flies  to  pieces  under  the  hammer ;  and  if  the  substance  exanioed  it  sup- 
posed to  contain  several  bases,  those  tests  should  be  selected  which  are  abselntely  die* 
criminative  of  only  one  base  if  sush  can  be  found.  For  instance,  eleaa  iron  diacilmi- 
nates  copper  beyond  all  doubt,  and  without  UablUtj  of  mittakt.  let  M  t  and  Mk 


276  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

cnt  ammonia  will  rc-dissolve  the   precipitate:  but  if  it  be  mercury,   the 
ammonia  will  turn  it  bluck,  or  grey,  but  not  dissolve  it. 

XXIX.  e.  Add  caustic  potash  in  excess  :  if  a  yellow  precipitate  ccciirsy 
the  base  is  peroxide  of  mercury. 

XXX.  /.  Add  sul])lmte  of  iron  :  should  a  brown  precipitate  be  formed 
it  may  consist  of  merallic  gold.* 

XXXI.  g.  Add  sulphuric  acid,  or  the  solution  of  a  sulphate,  if  a  white 
precipitate  takes  place  ihe  base  is  oxide  of  lead. 

xxxn.If  the  precipitate  formed  by  the  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is 

Milk  while.... the  base  is ....  Peroxide  of  iron. 

Dnik  brown... .         do Protoxide  of  tin. 

Orange  re«I do Protoxide  of  antimony. 

Yellow do Peroxide  of  tin,  or  oxide 

of   cadmium,    but    to  distinguish    which  of   these    last    two  bases  is 
indicated,  proceed  as  f -Hows  : 

xxxiii.  h,  Neuirafizt;  the  8v»lution  with  ammonia,  then  add  hydrosul- 
phuret  of  ammonia,  and  if  a  yellow  precipitate  falls,  which  is  not  solu- 
ble in  an  excess  of  the  hydrosul  phuret  of  ammonia,  the  base  is  oxide  of 
cadmium  ;  but  if  the  precipitate  is  easily  dissolved  in  exce>8  of  hydro* 
flulphuret  of  ammonia,  then,  the  base  is  peroxi  le  of  tin. 

XXXIV.  This  completes  the  examination  of  Nos.  14  to  25  for  the  base, 
or  metal :  but  if  peroxide  of  tin  ;  protoxide  of  antimony,  and  arsenic 
acid,  be  all  of  them  present  in  solution,  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate 
these  three  substances  with  certainty,  and  to  demonstrate  their  co-exis* 
tence.  Other  tests  must  then  be  employed  to  corroborate  and  cnnfirm 
the  foregoing  indications.  See  the  several  articles,  antimony  :  arsenic  : 
tin. 

Sbcond. — Examination  with  Hydrosulphuret  of  Ammonia, 

xxxv.If  the  acid  solution  of  the  substance  nnder  examination  gives  no 
precipitate  with  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  base  is  not  one  of 
those  just  examined,  viz.  14  to  25.  Another  portion  of  the  solution 
should  then  be  neutralized  with  ammonia,  put  into  several  other  test 
tubes,  and  be  proceeded  with  as  fdlows: 

XXXVI.  j.  If  on  adding  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia  a  precipitate  is  pro* 

8.  Alumina.  duced,  the  base  is  contained  in  from  No.  8 

jj;  P^I^J •  ™»nganew.  to   13,  and  if  the  precipitate  is  black,  the 

isiox'SdilM  ^^®  "  ^'^'  ^^'  ^^*  ^^  ^^'    f^Yi^^e    three 

IS.  Protox :  iroa.  may  be  distinguished,  one  from  the  other,  by 

the  following  experiment. 
*  Oold  it  diMolTtd  only  bjr  aitro«muriaUs  acid. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  277 

xxxvn.     k.  Add  carbonate  of  potash,  or  of  soda;  if  the  precipitate  is 

First  whiip,  tlien  grt'pn  anfl^ 
fina'ly    brownish    red   at   tlie>  the  bnse  is  Protoxi'le  of  iron. 
fiurfcM-e.  ) 

Dirty  red do.    ...Oxide  of  cobalt. 

Bright  green do.    ...Oxide  of  nickell. 

xxxmi.  /.  Add  hydrosnlphuret  of  ammonia:  if  ;i  flpsli-red  preeipiiate 
oci'urs,  the  base  is  protoxide  of  manganese  j  but  if  it  is  white,  the  base 
will  be  either  zinc,  or  ahimina.     Tliey  may  be  disiinguished  thus  : 

XXXIX.  771.  Supersaturate  wiih  caustic  ammonia,  and  if  the  white  preci- 
pitate re-dissolves  on  adding  ihe  ammonia,  the  base  is  oxide  of  zinc 
but  if  it  does  not,  the  b;ise  is  alumina. 

XL.  Noie. — If  stroniia,  b-irytos,  lime  and  magnesia  be  present  in 
combination  with  phosphorit;,  or  boracic  acid,  or  when  their  metallic 
bases  are  combined  with  fluorine,  thi-y  may  also  be  precipitated  by 
caustic  ammonia.  Phosplioric  and  boracic  acid  and  fluorine  ought  not 
therefore  to  be  present  when  ammonia  is  used,  nor  ought  indeed  mag- 
nesia by  itself  simply,  fur  mngnesia  is  aUo  precipitated  by  caustic  am- 
monia. 

XLi.     Third. — If  the  acjW  solnlion  does  not  give  a   precipitate   with 

liquid  sulphuretted  liydrogeu  ;  nor  the  »ew- 
2.So*h!^'  elLimT*^"'        f'-al   solution   with   hydrosulpliuret   of    am- 

jiAm.mma.       7.  Magnesia.        monia,  the  base  is  not  included   in  Nos.    8 

to  25.  but  in  N(»8.   1.  to  7. 

xLTi.  n.  Add  to  the  neutral  solution,  carbonate  of  potash.  If  a  white 
precipitate  ociurs,  the  base  is  from  No.  4  to  7.  To  discriminate  which, 
observe  th  it  a  while  flocculent  precipitate  indicates  magnesia  :  but  if 
only  after  some  time  a  precipitate  is  forme  I,  the  base  is  barytes.  If  no 
precipitate  appears,  the  bi.se  is  either  lime  or  strontian. 

XLiii.  0.  To  distinguish  between  lime  and  strontian,  dilute  the  nfti- 
iral  ^olution  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  test  with  a  few  drops 
of  sulphate  of  potash,  or  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  If  a  precipitate 
is  immediately  produced,  the  base  is  strontian  ;  but  if  no  immediate  pre- 
cipitate takes  place,  but  after  some  time  a  crystalline  precipitate  ap- 
pears, the  base  is  lime. 

XLiv.  Fourth. — If  neither  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen;  hydrosul- 
phuret  of  ammonia;  nor  carbonate  of  potash  gives  a  precipitate,  the 
substance  must  be  from  1  to  3,  that  is,  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia. 

XLV.  p.  To  distinguish  these;  co?ice«/ra/tf  the  solution.  Add  con- 
centrated caustic  potash,  and  hold  over  the  liquid,  a  rod  dipped  in  mu- 
riatic acid  ;  if  white  clouds  appear,  the  base  is  ammonia. 

XLvi.    q.  Add  to  another  portion  of  the  concentrated  solution,  chloride 


278  On  Chemical  Tesis*  [Oct. 

of  platinum,  if  a  yellow  precipitate  takes  place,  the  base  is  potash:  if 
no  precipitate  occurs,  the  base  is  soda. 

XLTII.  Tug  FOREGOISG  examinations  having  disposed  of  THS  BASBSy 
AND  MBTAI^,  I.'  CLDDED  IN  THE  LIST  BEFORE  BNUMEBATED,  THE  FOXJiOW- 
INO  EXPERIMENTS  ARB 

TO  DISCOVER  THE  ACID,  OR  NGN-METALLIC  BODY. 

XLvni.  r.  To  the  substance  di^tsolved  in  water,  or  pounded  and  mixed 
with  a  little  water,  add  muriatic  acid;  if  effervescence  occurs,  accom- 
panied with  the  well  known  odour  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  it  in- 
dicates the  presence  of  a  sulphuret :  but  if  the  gas  is  in-odorous,  it 
indicates  carbonic  acid  in  combination  with  some  of  the  foregoing  bases. 

XLix.  To  ascertain  whether  both  carbonic  acid  and  sulphur  are  presentf 
provide  a  vial  with  a  small  glass  tube  bent  twice  at  right  angles,  nace 
a  portion  of  the  pulverized  substance  in  a  vial  and  pour  upon  it  dilute 
acid  :  place  one  leg  of  the  tube  in  the  vial  and  allow  the  gas  to  pass 
through  the  tube  into  another  vial  containing  a  solution  of  muriate  of 
barytes,  or  lime  water,  to  either  of  which  a  little  ammonia  has  been  add- 
ed; let  the  other  leg  of  the  tube  dip  below  the  liquid  in  this  second 
vial,  and  close  both  vials.*  If  a  white  precipitate  takes  place,  which 
dissolves  with  effervescence  in  dilute  acid,  the  substance  contains  car- 
bonic acid.  The  sulphur  will  be  recognized  by  the  smell  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

L.    s»  If  muriatic  acid  produces    no  effervescence  add  to  a  neutral  so* 

-  ,  .     .      .      .    ,  lution  of  the  substance,   muriate  of  barytes. 

Sulphuric,  phosphoric,  '  '       ' 

Arsenic,  boracic,  fluoric.  and  if  a  white  precipitate  takes  place  the 

presence  of  one  of  the  acids  in  the  margin  is  indicated.      To  ascertain 
which,  proceed  as  follows : 

u.  Add  muriatic  acid  to  the  precipitate  ;  if  it  remain  unaltered,  the 
acid  is  sulphuric:  but  if  it  dissolves,  the  following  experiments   most 

be  made. 

Lii.  Reduce  a  portion  of  the  substance  under  examination  to  powder, 
and  add  thereto  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  either  in  a  leaden  or  a  pla- 
tina  dish  ;  prepare  a  piece  of  glass  coated  with  wax,  and  trace  any  figure 
through  the  wax  reaching  to  the  glass.  Warm  the  mixture  gently* 
cover  it  with  the  glass,  and  if  the  glass  after  some  time  becomes  cor- 
roded where  the  tracings  were  made,  the  substance  proves  to  be  a  fluo- 
ride, i.  e.  containing  fluoric  acid. 

uii.  If  this  effect  does  not  occur,  put  a  portion  of  the  pulverised  sub- 
stance into  a  porcelain  or  platina  capsule,  and  add  a  few  drops  of  sul« 

•  It  is  necessary  that  the  muriate  of  barytes,  or  lime  water  should  be  shielded 
the  atmosphere. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Testa.  27t> 

phuric  acid.  Then  mix  with  it  gome  alcohol,  and  inflame  it :  if  a  green 
flame  is   produced,  tbe  acid  in  combination  iK  boracic  acid. 

Liv.     /.  If  neither  fluorine,   nor  boracic   acid  be  present,  add  to  the 
aciW  solution  of  the  substance  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  boil 
it:  if  a  yellow  precipitate  is  formed,  soluble  in  hydrosulphuret  of  am- 
monia, it  indicates  arsenic  acid.* 
Carbonic  acid.  lv.     u.  When  it  has  been  ascertained  that  none  of  the 

Sulphuric  acid, 

Boracic  acid,         foregoing  substances  are  present,  add  to  a  portion  of  the 

Arsenic  acid,  o        o  ,  .     .  . 

Pho)«phoric  acid,  substance  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  nitrate  of  sil- 
riuorine.  ver ;  aud  if  a  white   precipitate  is   produced,  which  is 

not  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  but  which  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  then 
the  substance  contains  chlorine  in  combinnlion  With  one  of  the  bases 
before  enumerated. 

Lvi.  Lastly,  if  none  of  the  foregoing  substances  have  been  discover- 
ed throw  :i  portion  of  the  pulverized  mineral  on  red  hot  charcoal.  If 
lively  combustion  occurs,  or  if  deflagration  tcikes  place,  the  acid  in  com- 
bination is  nitric  acid. 

LVI  I,  Note,  As  before  observed,  each  paragraph  beginning  with 
a  letter,  i.  e.  from  a  to  ti,  details  a  distinct  experiment,  which  is  to  be 
performcl  with  a  fresh  and  distinct  portion  of  the  substance  in  solution, 
as  dire  ted:  except  the  last  experiment  (lvi)  in  which  the  mineral  or 
substance  is  to  be  pulverized. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

LViii.  The  foregoing  detailed  experiments  suppose  that  the  nature  of 
the  substance  is  \k holly  unknown  to  the  experimentalist;  but  whether 
it  is  partially  known  or  not,  he  f^hould  assure  himself  of  the  accuracy  of 
his  determinations  by  other  te^ts  which  he  will  find  in  the  following  pages. 

LiX'  In  using  the  alphabetical  list  of  tests,  it  will  be  frequently 
seen  that  several  tests  act  on  the  metal,  or  substance  to  be  tested. 
The  learner  may  be  at  a  loss  which  test  to  choose  :  but  in  those  c<ue9 
where  the  test  is  distinctive,  its  indieations  are  printed  in  italics;  by 
running  the  eye  therefore  over  any  article,  wherever  the  indications 
of  the  tests  are  seen  printed  in  italics,  those  tests  are  to  be  pre/erred, 
09  being  those  uhieh  may  be  most  reHed  on, 

LX.  When  testing,  it  is  desirable,  in  almost  every  case,  to  refer 
to  the  tables  of  tests  at  the  end  of  this  paper  in  order  to  ascertain  at 
a  glance  how  other  tests  affect  the  substance  tested.  This  should  never 
be  neglected  by  the  inexperienced. 

*  If  neither  sulphuric,  arsenic,  boracic  nor  fluoric  acid  is  present,  then  the  ptedpi- 
tate  (L.  i)  must  prove  to  be  tlie  only  remaining  acid,  vie  the  photphoiie. 


280  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

LXi.  It  may  lastly  be  meutioned,  to  prevent  misronception  by  the 
young  beginner,  that  in  all  cases,  except  where  otherwise  apecified,  the 
test,  and  the  sabstance  tested,  is  to  be  in  the  state  of  solution.  And 
that,  where  neutralization  is  mentioned,  he  will  remember  that  ncids 
are  neutralized  by  alkalies,  and  alkalies  by  acids.  When  a  solutioB 
is  neutralized  it  affects  neither  blue,  nor  reddened  litmns  papers; 
i.  e.  the  solution,  so  neutralized,  does  not  change  the  colour  of  either. 
Some  neutral  salts  hov^evtr  uffeci  litmus  paper.  See,  Nos.  77  in  the 
subsequent  list  of  test. 

Lxii.  0*  It  will  be  highly  conducive  to  improvement,  and  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  most  useful  knowledge  relative  to  the  action  of  tests 
if  the  young  experimentalist  exercise  himself  in  the  examination  of 
easy  compounds  made  up  by  him  of  known  combinations  :  for  instiineey 
let  him  mix  a  little  common  salt,  and  saltpetre  together  in  solution,  and 
test  them  for  the  bases,  potash  and  soda ;  and  for  the  acids  muriatic,  and 
nitric.  Let  him  refer  to  those  four  articles  in  the  list  of  testa,  and 
endeavour,  from  the  directions  given,  to  ascertain  both  the  bases, 
and  the  acids  to  his  own  satisfaction,  and  beyond  doubt.  He  will  learn 
more  by  this  one  experiment  than  by  pages  of  printed  directions  not  re- 
duced to  practice.  Of  course  he  is  supposed  to  understand  the  modem 
nomenclature,  and  to  be  aware  that  common  salt  is  muriate  of  soda; 
and  that  saltpetre  is  nitrate  of  potash:  or,  in  other  words,  that  com* 
mon  salt  is  muriatic  acid  in  combination  with  soda,  and  that  saltpetre  is 
nitric  acid  in  combination  with  potash.  From  this  experiment  he  maj 
proceed  to  others ;  and  after  he  has  attained  some  facility  and  skill,  he  may 
examine  other  combinations  making  them  more  complex  and  difficuUt 
in  proportion  as  his  knowledge  increases,  and  as  he  obtains  more  confi- 
dence and  dexterity  in  qualitative  examinations. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  BLOW  PIPE. 

txiii.  So  also  with  regard  to  the  use  of  the  blow  pipe,  practice  is  the 
only  efficient  teacher :  and  the  unpractised  experimentalist  should  ini- 
tiate himself  by  operating  first  on  small  fragments  of  known  minerals 
and  metals.  A  few  concise  observations  here  follow  with  respect  to 
the  examination  of  minerals. 

txiv.  Take  a  minute  chip  of  the  mineral,  and  place  it  in  a  hollow  made 
in  a  piece  of  well  burned,  hard,  charcoal.  Apply  the  blow-pipe,  At  ilrat 
at  the  extremity  of  the  flame  where  there  is  the  least  heat,  and  after- 
wards gradually  at  the  point  of  the  blue  flame  where  there  is  the  great- 
est heat.    Observe  the  phenomena  that  occur,  such  as  phosplwrescciiee 


1839.]  On  Chemiccd  Tests,  231 

ebullition,  intumescence,  vapours,  odour,  such  as  of  sulphur,  or  garlic, 
the  latter  indicating  arsenic,  decrepitation,  fusibility,  colour,  &c. 

Lxv.  The  same  process  and  the  same  observation  of  phenomena  should 
be  repeated  wiih  fresh  fragments  of  the  mineral,  fluxing  them  first 
with  soda,  then  with  borax,  and  lastly  with  microcosmic  salt,  the 
latter  being  a  flux  made  of  five  parts  of  crystallized  phosphate  of  soda 
and  two  parts  of  phosphate  of  ammonia.  The  indications  produced  by 
all  these  methods  are  given  in  a  table  at  the  end  of  this  article; 
and  by  comparing  the  phenomena  observed  in  his  experiments  with  the 
indications  specified  in  the  table,  the  experimentalist  in  all  ordinary 
cases  will  be  able  to  identify  the  mineral  or  metul  under  examination. 

Lxvi.  If  the  substance  should  decrepitate,  it  may  be  inclosed  between 
two  pieces  of  charcoal,  and  the  flame  be  directed  on  it  through  a  hole 
in  the  charcoal  made  for  the  purpose.  lu  the  case  of  earthy  minemls, 
they  may  be  wrapped  tu  a  piece  of  platina  foil. 

LXVI  I.  All  phenomena  occuring  upon  the  use  of  chemical  tests,  and 
appearances  produced  by  tue  blow  pipe»  should  be  noted  down  im- 
mediately in  a  memorandum  book  in  regular  methodical  order. 


ANALYSIS  OF  MINERAL  WATERS.* 

Lxviii.  The  following  observations  may  perhaps  be  useful  in  direct- 
ing the  student's  attention  to  a  few  of  the  leading  points  in  the  exami- 
nation of  mineral  waters. 

Lxix.  In  examining  a  mineral  water,  it  is  of  importance  to  ascertain 
its  specific  gravity,  which  gives  some  insight  into  the  proportion  of  its 
saline  ingredienis.  Mr.  Kirwan  (Essay  on  Mineral  Waters,  p.  145.)  has 
given  the  following  formula  for  calculating  the  proportion  of  saline  sub* 
stances  in  a  water  of  known  specific  gravity :  "  subtract  the  specific  gra- 
vity of  pure  water  from  that  of  the  water  examined,  and  multiply  the 
remainder  by  1.4.  The  product  is  equal  to  the  saline  contents  in  a 
quantity  of  the  water  denoted  by  the  number  employed  to  indicate  the 
specific  gravity  of  distilled  water.  Thus,  suppose  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  water  =  1  *079,  and  that  of  pure  water  =  1 000  then  79.  X  1 .4  s= 
110.6  =:  saline  contents  in  1,000  of  the  mineral  water."  It  is  advi- 
sable  to  conjoin  this  method  with  the  following: 

Lxx.  Evaporate  a  given  weight,  say  1,000  parts,  to  dryness,  and 
expose  the  residue  for  24  hours  to  a  temperature  not  exceeding  300 

*  From  Brands. 


282  On  Chemical  TeaU.  [Oct. 


upon  a  platinum  capsule ;  weigh  it  while  warm,  and  the  mean  obtained 
from  this  and  the  former  experiment  will  give  the  proportion  of  dry  va- 
line ingredients  within  a  trifling  error.  Thus  suppose  1000  parts  of  the 
above  mentioned  water  give  by  evaporation  114*4  dry  re8idne,  then 
110.6  4  114-4  =  225  +  2  =  112.5  =  quantity  of  saline  matter  in  a 
dry  state  (salts  deprived  of  water  of  crystallizaiion)  existing  in  the 
water. 

Having  ascertained  the  relative  quantity  of  foreign  matter  in  the 
water,  the  nature  of  the  substances  present  is  next  to  be  inquired  into. 
The  substances  which  have  been  found  in  minerdl  waters  are  extremely 
numerous,  those  which  very  ordinarily  occur  are  the  following :~ Oxy- 
gen, nitrogen,  carbonic  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonate  of  lime* 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  carbonate  of  iron,  muriate  of  magne:«ia,  chloride 
of  sodium,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  sulphate  of  boda,  and  sulphate  of  lime. 

Lxxi.  Oxygen  and  nitrogen  exist  in  the  greater  number  of  spring, 
waters  in  the  proportions  constituting  atmospheric  air ;  the  proportion 
of  nitrogen  is,  however,  not  unfrequently  predominant.  These  gases 
give  no  peculiar  flavour  to  the  water. 

Lxxii.  Carbonic  acid  renders  waters  sparkling  and  effervescent:  it 
is  detected  by  occasioning  a  precipitate  in  aqueous  solution  of  baryta, 
which  dissolves  with  effervesceuce  iu  dilute  muriatic  acid. 

Lxxin.  The  presence  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  known  by  its 
odour,  by  the  production  of  a  black  precipitate,  on  dropping  into  the 
water  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  ;  and  by  the  deposition  of  sulphur, 
on  adding  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid. 

Lxxiv.  The  carbonates  are  dissolved  in  the  water  by  excess  of  car- 
bonic acid,  and  consequently  fall  upon  its  expulsion  by  boiling.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  and  magnesia  are  deposited  in  the  form  of  a  white  pre- 
cipitate. Carbonate  of  iron  occasions  the  separation  of  a  brown  powder, 
and  the  water  is  blackened  by  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  galls. 

Lxxv.  Mr.  Phillips,  in  his  analysis  of  Bath-waters,  has  shown  that 
the  delicacy  of  galls,  as  a  test  for  iron,  is  affected  by  the  presence  of 
certain  salts:  if  the  iron  be  in  the  state  of  protoxide,  its  detection  is  fa- 
cilitated by  salts  with  a  base  of  lime,  and  by  alkalies ;  if  in  the  state 
of  peroxide,  lime  prevents  the  action  of  the  test.  This  is  well  shown 
by  dissolving  a  very  minute  portion  of  protosulphate  of  iron  in  a  glan 
of  distilled  water,  and  adding  a  drop  of  tincture  of  galls,  which  occa- 
sions no  immediate  discoloration;  but  a  drop  of  lime  water,  or  other  al- 
kali, instantly  renders  the  presence  of  iron  evident ;  so  that  the  quan> 
tity  of  iron  present  in  a  water  cannot  be  correctly  judged  of  by  the  dt- 
gree  of  precipitation  occasioned  in  it  by  tincture  of  galls. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  283 

Lxxvi.  Fenrocyanuret  of  potassium  is  also  a  good  test  to  show  ini» 
nute  quantities  of  iron  in  water,  by  the  blue  precipitate  which  it  occasi' 
ons;  its  action  is  aided  by  previously  adding  two  or  three  drops  of  ni- 
tric acid  to  the  water;  but  it  U  an  equivocal  test  compared  with  galls. 

Lxxvii.  The  presence  of  chlorides  or  muriatic  salts  is  indicated 
on  adding  sulphate  of  silver  by  a  white  cloud,  insoluble  in  nitric  acid. 

Lxxviii.  The  sulphates,  when  present  in  water,  afford  a  white  preci- 
pitate on  the  addition  of  nitrate  of  baryta,  which  is  insoluble  in  nitric 
acid. 

Lxxix.  Lime  is  recognised  by  a  white  cloud  on  dropping  oxalate  of 
ammonia  into  the  water.  A  portion  of  the  precipitate  collected  upon 
leaf-platinum,  and  heated  before  Ihe  blow-pipe,  may  be  burned  into 
quick  lime. 

Lxxx.  Magnesia  is  rendered  evident  by  adding  carbonate  of  ammo« 
nia,  which  throws  down  the  lime,  and  subsequently  dropping  in  pho8« 
phate  of  soda,  which,  when  magnesia  is  present,  carries  it  down  in  the 
form  of  a  granular  precipitate  of  ammoniaco-magoesian  phosphate. 

Lxxxi.  Such  are  the  readiest  means  of  recognising  the  presence  of 
the  various  substances  that  commonly  occur,  by  the  action  of  re-ngents 
or  te8ts;  and,  having  gained  such  general  information,  we  next  proceed 
to  the  analysis  of  the  water,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  gaseous  and  saline  ingredients  which  it  holds  dissolved. 

Lxxxii.  To  ascertain  the  relative  proportions  of  the  gaseous  con- 
tents of  water  with  perfect  accuracy,  is  difficult,  and  rarely  necessary  5 
the  following  method  is  sufficiently  precise  in  all  ordinary  cases.  Pro- 
vide a  florence  flask  capable  of  holding  rather  more  than  a  measured 
wine  pint,  which  quantity  of  the  water  under  examination  is  to  be 
introduced  into  it,  and  a  cork  carefully  fitted  to  its  neck,  having 
a  perforation,  in  which  is  inserted  a  glass  tube  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  rising  perpendicularly  about  eighteen  inches,  and 
then  bent  so  »s  to  pass  conveniently  under  the  shelf  of  the  mer- 
curic, pneumatic  apparatus.  (Where  a  sufficiency  of  mercury  can- 
not be  procured,  warm  water  may  be  substituted,  if  only  carbonic 
acid  be  present,  and  it  may  be  absorbed  by  transferring  the  jar 
containing  it  to  a  solution  of  potassa).  The  flask  should  be  placed 
over  an  argand  lamp,  and  heat  gradually  applied  till  the  water  fully 
boils.  The  gas  evolved  is  to  be  collected  in  the  usual  way,  in  a  gra* 
dnated  jar  over  quicksilver,  and  submitted  to  the  following  examination. 

Lxxiii.  Throw  up  a  small  quantity  of  solution  of  potassa,  which, 
if  carbonic  aoid  be  present,  will  absorb  it,  and  the  quanlily  will  be  shown 
by  the  diminution  of  bulk. 


284  On  Chemical  TeUs.  [Oct. 

Lxzxiv.  Iiilroduce  the  remaining  air,  or  a  portion  of  it,  into  a  small 
beut  tube,  containing  a  bit  of  phosphorus ;  heat  it  so  as  to  kindle  the 
phosphorus,  and  note  the  diminution  of  bulk  mhen  cold.  It  is  pro- 
portional to  the  oxygen  present,  and,  if  equal  to  one- fifth  of  the  whole 
bulk,  the  gas  may  be  regarded  as  atmospheric  air. 

Lxxxv.  If  sulphuretted  hydrogen  be  present  it  may  be  separated  by 
alcoholic  solution  of  iodine,  which  absorbs  it,  and  scarcely  takes  np 
more  than  its  own  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Chlorine*  added  to  a 
mixture  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  will  also  prodoce 
the  absorption  of  the  former,  if  a  little  water  be  present ;  hot  it  cannot 
be  conveniently  used  over  mercury. 

Lxxxvi.  During  the  ebullition  it  not  un frequently  happens  that  a 
precipitation  ensues,  indicating  that  the  substances  thrown  down  were 
dissolved  by  carbonic  acid  ;  and  in  that  case  they  should  be  separated 
upon  a  filter,  (a)  after  which  the  remaining  water  may  be  evaporated  to 
dryness  in  a  glazed  porcelain  basin ;  the  dry  residue  must  be  transferred 
to  a  silver,  capsule  and  perfectly  desiccated  at  a  temperature  not  exceed- 
ing 500*  (6). 

Lxxxvii.  The  precipitate  (a)  may  consist  of  carbonate  of  lime,  of 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  or  of  oxide  of  iron ;  or  it  may  be  a  mixture  of 
the  three.  Dissolve  it  in  dilute  muriatic  acid,  and  add  oxalic  acid,  which 
throws  down  oxalate  of  lime  ;  separate  this  by  filtrdtion,  an  J  saturate 
the  filtrated  portion  with  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  precipitates  the 
peroxide  of  iron,  and  having  removed  this,  evaporate  the  residuary 
mixture,  and  expose  the  dry  salt  to  a  red  beat  in  a  small  platinum  cap- 
sule; the  magnesia,  if  any  were  present,  will  remain;  if  not,  there  will 
be  no  residue;  for  the  oxalic  acid  and  muriate  of  ammonia  will  be 
destroved  and  volatilized. 

Lxxxviii.  When  carbonic  acid  holds  iron  in  solution,  the  metal  is  iu 
the  slate  of  protoxide,  and  if  air  be  excluded,  it  requires  long  boiling 
to  decompose  it ;  for  the  same  reason,  if  the  water  be  exposed  under 
the  exhausted  receiver  of  the  air-pump,  it  does  not  readily  become 
brown,  as  is  the  case  when  it  is  exposed  to  air ;  a  drop  or  two  of  nitric 
acid  facilitates  the  deposition  of  the  red  oxide. 

Lxxxix.  The  dry  residue  (b)  is  to  be  digested  in  six  or  eight  parti  of 
boiling  anhydrous  alcohol,  which  will  take  up  muriate  of  magnesia* 
and  in  some  rare  cases  (where  no  sulphates  are  present)  muriate  of 
lime.  Filter  off  the  alcoholic  solution,  and  wash  the  residue  (c)  with  a 
little  fresh  alcohol,  which  add  to  the  former,  and  evaporate  to  dryness, 
the  dry  mass  (d)  exposed  for  soine  time  to  a  heat  of  500,*  is  general* 
ly  pure  muriate  of  magnesia :  if  it  contain  muriate  of  lime,  the  latter 
earth  may  be  separated  by  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  in  the  state  of  oxalate 
of  lime. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  285 

xc.  It  is,  in  some  cases,  convenient  to  convert  the  muriates  of  lime, 
and  magnesia  into  sulphates,  by  pi'Uring  upon  them  excess  of  sulphuric 
acid,  evaporating  to  dryness,  and  heating  the  dry  mass  red  hot.  The 
sulphate  of  magnesia  may  then  be  almost  completely  separated  from  the 
sulphate  of  lime,  by  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water;  or  a  saturated  so- 
lution of  sulphate  of  lime  may  be  used,  which  takes  up  the  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  and  leaves  the  sulphate  of  lime. 

xci.  The  residue  (c)  insoluble  in  alcohol,  may  contain  chloride  of 
sodium,  sulphate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  sulphate  of  lime  ; 
digest  it  in  ten  parts  of  boiling  distilled  water,  which,  when  cold,  will 
have  taken  up  every  thing  but  sulphate  of  lime,  of  which  an  inapprecia- 
ble portion  only  will  have  been  dissolved ;  separate  the  solution  into 
two  equal  portions,  a  and  b:  which  may  afterwards  be  further  diluted. 

xcii.  To  ▲  add  nitrate  of  silver,  and  wash  and  dry  the  precipitatef 
which  is  chloride  of  silver,  146  parts  indicate  60  of  chloride  of  sodium. 

xciii.  To  B  add  acetate  of  baryta  as  long  as  it  occasions  a  precipitate, 
which  is  sulphate  of  baryta,  (e)  and  which  is  to  be  separated,  dried,  and 
weighed.  117  grains  are  equivalent  to  72  of  dry  sulphate  of  soda  and  60 
of  dry  sulphate  of  magnesia. 

xciv.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  magnesia  present,  and 
consequently  the  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  belonging  to  it,  evaporate 
the  liquid  filtered  off  the  barytic  precipitate  (e)  to  dryness  ;  it  will  con. 
tain  chloride  of  sodium,  acetate  of  sodi,  acetate  of  magnesia,  and,  pro* 
bably,  a  portion  of  the  added  acetate  of  baryta ;  ignite  the  dry  maxs,  and 
wash  it  to  separale  the  chloride  of  sodium  and  the  soda  ;  magnesia  and 
carbonate  of  baryta  will  remain  insoluble,  upon  which  pour  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  ;  digest,  filter,  and  evapomte  the  clear  liquor  to  dryness  ;  it 
is  sulphate  of  magnesia,  equivalent  of  course  to  the  original  portion 
of  the  salt ;  deduct  the  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  it  from  the  whole 
in  the  precipitate  (e),  and  the  remainder  will  give  the  quantity  united  to 
the  soda. 

zcv.  To  estimate  the  quantity  of  sulphate  of  lime  in  the  water,  the 
residue  of  the  evaporation  of  one  pint  may  be  washed  with  cold  saturat- 
ed solution  of  sulphate  of  lime,  which,  in  most  cases,  will  dissolve 
every  thing  but  that  aulpbate,  and  which  may  thus  be  obtained  and 
weighed  ;  or,  add  oxalate  of  ammonia  to  a  given  quantity  of  the  bulled 
and  filtered  water,  collect  the  precipitate,  and  give  it  a  red-heat  with 
excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  by  which  it  is  converted  into  sulphate  of  limei 
equivalent  to  the  original  in  the  water. 

xcvi.    Besides  the  substances  now  enumexated,  and  which  may  be 


286  On  Chemical  TesU.  [Oct. 


considered  as  the  most  frequently  occuring  ingredients  in  mineral 
ters,  the  following  are  occasionally  present. 

xcvii.  Carbonate  of  $oda  is  known  to  exist  in  water,  when,  after 
haying  been  boiled  down  to  half  its  bulk,  and,  if  necessary,  filtered,  it 
reddens  turmeric  paper,  and  restores  the  blue  of  litmus  reddened  by 
▼inegar ;  it  also  atTords  an  efTen'escent  precipitate  with  nitraie  of  baryta, 
voluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid.  This  carbonate  is  incompatible  with  the 
soluble  salts  of  lime. 

xcTiii.  Muriate  of  lime  may  also  be  used  to  detect  the  alkmlinc 
carbonates,  with  which  it  affords  a  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
Carbonate  of  soda  is  distinguished  from  that  of  potassa,  by  the  latter 
affording  a  precipitate  in  neutral  muriate  of  platinum,  which  the  former 
does  not.  Carbonate  of  ammonia  is  discoverable  by  its  smell,  when  act- 
ed  on  by  cauKtic  fix^d  alkali  or  lime:  also  by  its  action  on  tesl-paperK. 

xcix.  Silica  is  detected  by  evaporating  the  water  to  dryness,  and 
boiling  the  residue  in  dilute  muriatic  acid.  The  silica,  if  present,  re- 
mains as  a  white  powder  not  altered  by  a  red*heat,  but  instantly  fusing 
with  a  particle  of  carbonate  of  soda. 

c.  Boracic  acid  and  borax  have  been  found  in  certain  lakes  in  In- 
dia, and  in  some  parts  of  Italy.  To  detect  boracic  ar*id,  evaporate  to 
one-eighth  the  original  bulk  of  the  water,  and  add  carbonate  of  soda  as 
long  as  it  occasions  any  precipitate;  buil  and  filter.  The  filtered  liquor 
will  contain  borate  of  soda  with  some  other  salts  of  the  same  basis; 
evaporate  to  dryness  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and  digest  the  residue  in 
three  or  four  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  its  bulk  of  water.  If 
boracic  acid  be  present,  it  will  separate  in  micaceous  crystals. 

ci.  Alumina  has  been  found  in  a  few  mineral  waters  in  the  state 
of  a  sulphate.  It  may  be  separated  by  the  following  process  :  evapo- 
rate to  dryness,  digest  in  alcohol,  and  redissolve  the  residue  in  eight 
parts  of  water  ;  filter  and  add  oxalic  acid,  which  throws  down  lime,  and 
which,  being  separated,  leaves  magnesia  and  alumina  in  solution. 
Carbonate  of  ammonia  throws  down  the  alumina  and  leaves  the 
magnesia. 

cii.  Pure  ammonia  throws  down  both  alumina  and  magnesia.  These 
earths  may  be  separated  by  solution  of  potassa  which  dissolves  the  former 
but  not  the  latter. 

cm.  Manganese  is  sometimes  found  in  water,  but  only  in  very  small 
proportion,  so  as  not  to  amount  to  more  than  a  trace.  Dr.  Scudamora 
found  a  trace  of  Manganese  in  the  waters  of  Tunbridge  Wells,  waA  it 
has  never  been  discovered  in  larger  proportion. 


1839]  071  Chendcal  Tests.  287 

CIV.  Certain  nifrofes  are  occasionally  present  in  water.  Nitrate  of 
lime  will  be  taken  up  from  the  residue  of  evaporaliou  by  alcoliol,  and 
may  be  decomposed  by  carbonate  of  potassa,  so  as  to  afford  carbonate  of 
lime  and  crystals  of  nitre. 

cv.  It  sometiujes  happens  that  water  contains  li'ad,  which  may  be 
defected  by  evaporation  to  one-eighih  its  hulk,  adding  a  few  drops  of 
nitric  acid,  and  then  sulphate  of  soda,  which  gives  a  white  insoluble 
precipitate;  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  forms  a  black  cloud. 
These  precipitates  may  be  reduced  by  heating  them  before  the  blow-pipe 
upon  charcoal,  mixed  with  a  little  black  thix. 

cvi.  If  vef/etMe  or  ani:n<il  matter  be  contained  in  water,  it  gives 
it  a  brown  colour,  especially  when  cvaporaied.  It  may  be  destroyed  in 
the  dry  residue  by  iguiiing  it  with  a  small  addition  of  nitrate  of  am- 
monia. 

evil.  Iodine  and  Bromine  must  always  be  sought  for  in  mineral 
waters.  Where  they  are  suspected,  the  water  should  be  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  the  residue  triturated  with  a  little  distilled  water,  which 
will  take  up  the  iodic  and  bromic  salts,  they  are  recognized  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  solution  of  starch,  having  previously  added  a  few  drops  of 
solution  of  chlorine  ;  the  iodine  will  turn  blue,  but  if  no  iodine  bepiesent 
the  chlorine  will  turn  the  bromine  of  a  yellow  lint. 


A  DZCTZONARY 


OR    ALPHABETICAL    LIST  OF 


1-  ACID  acetic^  detects  resin  and  gluten  which  dissolve  in  it,  but 
on  the  addition  of  water  the  resin  precipitates:  the  glutj»ii  does  not. 
See  103.  Acetic  acid  dissolves  camphor,  and  essential  oils ;  and  com- 
bines  with  earths,  alkalies  and  metals,  forming  the  class  of  salts,  called 
aceUtes.  These  salts  are  decomjwsed  by  strong  sulphuric  acid,  which 
liberates  the  acetic  acid,  when  the  latter  may  be  dcucied  by  its  weil  known 
edourt  which  is  thai  of  strong  vinegar,  see  IS  a. 

a  Acetic  acid  may  be  contaminated  by  sulphureous  and  sulphuric 
acids;  tbey  may  be  discovered  by  thcirpropcr  tests,  see  40,  and  70a. 


288  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

^-  AOlD  arsen'ouSf  the  whire  arsenic  of  the  shopSi  detects  and  18 
detected  by  hydrosulpburets,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ga«,  with 
mhich  it  produces  a  yellow  precipitate.  The  liquid  contained  in  the 
stomach  of  a  rabbit  poisoned  with  three  grains  of  arseniou^  acid,  afford* 
ed  a  white  precipitate  with  nitrate  of  silver,  greyish-white  with  lime 
water,  green  with  the  ammonia-sulphate,  and  djep  yellow  with  sulphu* 
retted  hydrogen  water,  see  39. 

a  When  a  particle  uf  arsenic  is  sublimated  between  two  plates  of 
glasiji,  it  forms  nebulous  (>atches,  considerably  like  those  formed  by  sul- 
phur, sublimated  iu  the  same  manner,  but  the  microscope  makes  a  great 
distinction  between  them.  The  suljihur  is  globular  or  semi- globular ; 
the  arsenic  is  crystallized:  this  methud  might  be  used  as  an  auxiliary 
in  detecting  small  quantities  of  arsenic,  see  39. 

3.  ACID  boraeiCf  is  indicated  by  its  characteristic  green  flame 
when  a  solution  of  tt  in  alcohol  is  set  on  fire.  To  distinguish  a  borate 
from  other  salts,  digest  it  in  sulphuric  acid  slightly  in  excess,  evaporate 
to  dryness,  and  digest  the  residue  in  alcohol,  which  dissolves  the  boracic 
aciJ  Set  free  by  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  its  presence  is  then  iDdicatei 
as  above.  Boracic  acid  turns  turmeric  paper  brown ;  it  has  but  a  slight 
action  on  litmus  paper. 

4.  ACID  carboniCf  is  detected  by  barytes,  see  40  e.  By  Kt* 
mus,  see  77.  By  lime  water,  see  75  ;  By  sulphate  of  iron,  see  67  6. 
and  by  the  mineral  acids  which  drive  it  o]f,  or  set  it  free  with  efferveS' 
cence,  see  11  e,  13jf,  and  18<7.  Carbonic  acid  detects  lime  in  so- 
lution, precipitating  it  as  carbonate  of  lime.  Carbonates  may  be  easily 
distinguished  from  other  salts,  by  their  effervescing  without  smell,  on 
the  addition  of  a  mineral  acid ;  see  45 


3,    ACID  chloric,  or  hydro'chloric,  see  11. 

6.  ACID  chromic,  see  48. 

7.  ACtD  fluoric,  see  18  tf,  and  54. 

8*  ACID  gallic,  detects  iron  in  solution,  forming  ink.  The  solotioa 
should  be  of  the  per-oxide  of  iron  for  the  test  to  act  immediately,  see 
55.  Gallic  acid  may  be  distinguished  from  tannin  by  producing  bo  pi«^ 
cipitate  when  added  to  a  solution  of  gelatine. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tetts.  289 

9.  ACID  hydtioeUc,  This  acid,  or  any  of  the  hydriodates  may  hg 
delected  by  adding  thereto  sulphuric,  or  nitric  acid,  or  chlorine,  which 
sets  the  iodine  free ;  the  iodine  may  then  be  recognized  by  its  blue  colour^ 
The  best  wjiy  of  testing  is  to  add  starch  to  the  bolution,  and  afterwarda 
a  drop  or  two  of  slroog  sulphuric  acid,  which  will  produce  the  charac- 
teristic blue  colour,  if  iodine  be  present.  If  liquid  chlorine  be  employ- 
ed it  must  not  be  added  in  excess,  for  if  it  is,  it  destroys  the  blue  colour, 
and  becomes  a  fallacious  test.  Chlorine  gas  may  be  thrown  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquid,  and  be  thus  used  successfully,  producing  the  samo 
blue  appearance,  see  63  and  113. 

a  Hydrioilate  of  potass  or  iodine  is  acted  on  by  several  tests ;  but 
none  are  so  distinctive  as  the  foregoing.  Corroi^ive  sublimate  forms  a 
fine  carmine  red  precipitate  of  the  bin-iodidt*  of  mercury.  Acetate  of 
lead  thrown  down  a  fine  yellow  precipitate  of  the  iodide  of  lead.  Pro- 
tonitrate  of  mercury  precipitates  protiodide  of  m«>rcury,  which  is  a  yel- 
low powder  that  fades  gradually  into  a  dirty  brown.  Muriate  of  plati- 
num produces  a  brown  precipitate  of  iodide  of  platinum. 

10.  ACID  hydro-cyanic,  or  Prussic  acid  may  be  known  in  its  free 
slate  by  the  similarity  of  its  smell  to  the  odour  of  peach-blossoms*  But 
if  the  acid  is  strong,  great  care  should  be  taken,  not  to  smell  it  too  hasti- 
ly ;  as  it  is  deadly  poisonous.  To  detect  it  in  solution,  add  first  proto- 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  then  pure  ( otass  slightly  in  excess,  which  will 
precipitate  the  protoxide  of  iron.  Let  the  whole  be  exposed  to  the  air 
for  five  or  six  minutes,  and  then  add  sufficient  muriatic,  or  sulphuric  acid 
to  re-dissolve  the  precipitate;  and  if  hydro-cyanic  acid  be  present, 
there  will  be  a  formation  of  prussian  blue.  Nitrate  of  silver  is  also  a 
test  for  prussic  acid,  see  108,  6. 

a  To  ascertain  the  strength  of  a  solution  of  this  acid,  precipitate  with 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  dry  the  precipitate.  100  parts  correspond  with 
20.83  of  pure  hydrocyanic  acid. 

6.  Both  the  bitter  almond,  and  the  cherry  laurel,  as  well  as  the  flowers 
and  kernels  of  some  fruits,  contain  more  or  less  of  this  violently  poison- 
ous acid. 

11.  ACID  muriatic,  chloric  or  hydrochloric.  These  three  names 
may  be  considered  as  synonymes  for  the  same  acid.  Muriatic  acid  de- 
tects (a)  silver ;  (6)  lead ;  (c)  manganese ;  {d)  ammonia ;  (e)  carbonic 
acid.  Muriatic  acid  is  detected  by  sulphuric  acid  and  other  tests,  see 
18,  47,  and  108. 

a.  Muriatic  acid  detects  and  is  detected  by  solution  of  silver,  by  a 
copious  white  precipitate  of  the  muriate  or  chloride  of  Silver  ijohich  is 


ic90  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

soluble  m  ammonia^  insoluble  in  dilate  nitric  acidj  and  which  blackens 
171  the  sun,  see  47,  lOG. 

b.  Lead,  by  a  white  precipitate,  which  is  not  soluble  in  ammonia,  bul 
whicli  is  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  sec  69. 

c.  Manganese,  by  th-Mlisengagcinent  of  chlorine  gas.  Melt  soda,  or 
bor»x  in  a  platina  spoon,  add  a  little  manganese,  or  ore  containing  man- 
ganese, and  a  rod  colour  will  appc  ir  on  keeping  llie  spoon  in  the  inte- 
rior Hame  of  a  candle,  but  it  gradually  disappears;  add  nitre  and  place 
the  spoon  in  tlu'  exterior  tljmeand  the  red  colour  again  becomes  visiblei 
which  confirms  the  test,  see  81. 

(jl)  Ammonia,  by  dpn^e  white  clouds,  thus;  dip  a  r«.>d  in  muriatic 
acid,  and  if  free  ammonia  be  present,  on  holding  the  rod  over  the  sub- 
stance to  be  examined,  dense  white  clouds  of  muriate  of  ammonia  will 
be  seen  to  form,  see  2/,  and  28. 

{(p)  Carbonic  acid,  by  (he  eflTcrvescence  produced  on  adding  muriatic 
acid  to  either  a  minenil,  or  a  solution  in  which  carbonic  acid  is  present. 

(y)  ^"^^  muriatic  acid  is  colourless,  but  it  frequently  contains  iron 
or  chlorine  whi'di  may  be  known  by  its  being  then  of  a  yellow  colour. 
It  may  also  contain  sulphuric  acid.  Both  the  iron  and  the  sulphuric 
acid,  may  be  detected  by  their  proper  tests,  see  55  and  40. 

{g)  The  specific  gravity  of  muriatic  acid  should  be  1*170,  but  that  of 
commerce  is  generally  from  1'15G,  to  I'lCO. 

12.  ACID  mcconic.  This  acid  yields  a  red  colour  with  the  persalts 
ofiron,andan  emerald  green  with  the  sulphate  of  copper.  By  these 
tests  the  presence  of  opium  may  be  discoverd 

(a)  M.  Couerbe  gives  the  following  table  of  the  colours  produced  by 
agitating  the  peculiar  substances  contained  in  opium  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  air.  The  experiment  is  to  be  made  in  a  four  ounce  vial  with  six 
grains  of  the  substance,  and  nearly  half  an  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid 
mixed  with  a  little  nitric  acid.  Strong  agitation  is  to  be  employed  and 
the  colour  is  dc\ eloped  in  a  few  minutes. 

Pure  Sn-phuric  acid. 


Sulphuric  acid  mixed  with  a    little 

nitric  acid. 
Thebaia.     Instuuily  red,  becoming 

deeper. 
Narcotina.  Ycllow%  turning  red. 
CodeiH.       Very  pale  green. 
Morphia.     Green,  almi>st  immedi- 

nt<dy. 
Meconin.     In  24  hours  superb  rose 

colour. 
Narccia.      Mahogany  colour. 


Thebaia.      Rose  colour,  shade  of 

yellow. 
Narcotina.  Blood  red. 
Cod-ia         (Jrecn. 
Morphia.     Brown. 

Meconin.    Turmeric    ynllow  j   af- 
terwards red. 
Narceia,    Chocolate  colour. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests,  291 

6.  Morphia  and  its  salts,  form  a  deep  greenish  blue  solution  with  per- 
luuriate  of  iron  ;  and  turn  brown  on  adding  a  drop  or  two  of  iodic  acid. 

The  proper  solvents  of  morphia  are  alcohol,  and  diluted  acids.  Ni- 
tric acid  turns  it  orange  red,  or  if  much  acid  is  used,  yellow,  all  the  aalts 
of  morphia  are  intensely  bitter,  see/. 

c.  Narcotine  is  distinguished  rather  by  negative  than  positive  chemi- 
cal properties.  If  pure  it  is  not  affected  by  permuriate  of  iron,  nor 
nitric  acid.  Wlien  morphia  and  narcotine  are  crystallized  together  in 
an  alcoholic  solution,  and  when  they  are  not  quite  pure,  the  narcotine 
forms  tufts  of  pearly  thin  tabular  crystals,  while  the  morphia  is  in  short 
thick  adamantine  prismatic  crystals. 

d.  Codeine  differs  from  morphia  and  narcotine  in  being  moderately 
soluble  in  water  and  from  this  solution  it  may  be  obtained  in  large  crys- 
tals tending  to  the  form  of  octahedrons. 

e.  In  cases  of  poisoning  by  tincture  of  opium,  it  is  difficult  to  detect 
it,  if  it  has  lain  in  the  stomach  a  few  hours. 

/.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  strong  aqua-ammonin,  and  alcohol  will 
produce  in  laudanum  a  crystalline  precipitate  of  morphia  in  a  few 
hours.  This  precipitate  of  morphia  may  by  being  twice  dissolved  in 
acetic  acid,  and  twice  precipitated  by  ammonia  be  obtained  quite  white. 

13.    ACID  nitric,  detects  (a)  resin  ;  (b)  starch ;  (c)  nitrogen ;  (d) 
uric  acid  ;  (c)  iron  from  steel ;  (/")  tin ;  {g)  carbonic  acid. 

a.  Resin.  When  concentrated  nitric  acid  is  digested  repeatedly 
with  gum,  mucilage,  gluten,  jelly,  extract,  gum-resin,  or  other  immedi- 
ate vegetable  product,  it  is  partly  converted  into  oxalic  acid,  but  resin 
is  not.  The  resin  results  as  a  pale  orange  coloured  mass,  soluble  in 
water,  but  possessing  no  resinous  properties,  see  I  and  103. 

b.  Starch.  If  a  vegetable  substance  is  digested  for  some  days  in 
dilute  nitric  acid  ;  on  the  addition  of  alcohol,  starch  will  be  precipitated 
if  present,  see  113  a. 

c.  Nitrogen.  This  gns  is  set  at  liberty  when  animal  matter  is  digest- 
ed with  nitric  acid. 

d.  Uric  acid  is  detected  in  the  analysis  of  urine  by  a  pink  or  rose 
colour  on  the  addition  of  nitric  acid.  If  a  little  of  the  solution  contain- 
ing the  nitric  acid  be  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  watch  glass  over  a  spirit 
lamp,  a  beautiful  purple  colour  is  produced,  which  is  improved  by  the 
addition  of  water. 

e.  Dilute  nitric  acid  dropt  on  iron  produces  a  grey  spot,  but  on 
steel,  a  black  spot,  see  114 


292  On  Chemical  Tests.  [OcT. 

/.    Tin  is  precipitated  by  nitric  acid  in  the  state  of  pure  oxide. 
ff.  Carbonic  acid  is  liberated  with  effervescence  by  nitric  acid,  in  the 
same  manner  as  by  muriatic,  or  sulphnric  acid.  See  lie,  and  18  ^. 

14-  ACID  nilric  detected.  If  a  solution  contain  nitric  acid  free  or 
in  combination  with  a  base,  it  xcill  not  by  itself  dissolve  gold  leaf  but  on  the 
addition  of  muriatic  acid  the  gold  will  be  dissolved^  nitro- muriatic  acid  being 
formed.  Morphia  turns  nitric  acid  of  a  beautiful  orange  red  colour.  Nitrate 
salts  deflagrate  when  thrown  on  red-hot  charcoal.  Nitrates  are  also  de- 
tected by  S(ii|:buric  acid,  see  18  a.  Strong  sul|huric  acid  and  copper 
filings  being  put  into  a  test  tube  with  a  nitrate  salt,  the  acid  will  be 
detected  by  the  disengagement  of  orange-yellow  vapour*. 

a.  Nitric  acid  should  be  as  limpid  as  water  and  be  kept  in  a  dark 
place  to  prevent  its  conversion  into  the  nitrous  kind.  It  may  be  adul- 
terated with  sulphuric,  or  muriatic  acid,  either  of  which  may  be  detected 
by  the  proper  tests:  see  40,  and  108. 

b.  Concentrated  nitric  acid  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1*500,  but  it  if 
teld  om  found  so  heavy. 

13-  ACID  oxaliCi  d»»tectg  lime  producing  a  white  precipitate  of 
oxalate  of  lime.  See  35,44,72.  See  35  for  precautions  in  U!»ing  the 
test  of  oxalic  acid  for  lime.  Many  of  tbe  metals  are  acted  on  by  this 
test ;  see  table  of  re-agents.  If  nitrate  of  silver  be  dropped  into  a 
solution  of  oxalic  acid,  a  white  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  silver  occurs, 
which  being  collected  on  a  filter,  dried,  and  heated,  first  becomes  brown 
on  the  edges,  then  fulminates  and  is  dispersed. 

a.  Oxalic  acid  oxidizes  lead,  copper,  iron,  tin,  bismuth,  nickel,  cobalt, 
zinc  and  mcingnnese.  It  also  combines  with  alkalies,  earths,  and  metal* 
lie  oxides  and  forms  salts  known  by  tbe  name  of  oxalates. 

b.  Oxalic  acid  is  detected  by  muriate  (or  hydro<:hl orate)  of  lime, 
producing  a  white  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  lime,  soluble  in  nitric  acid; 
which  distinguishes  it  from  sulpbate  of  lime.  On  the  other  hand  oza* 
late  of  lime  is  not  soluble  in  a  sfnall  quantity  of  muriatic  acid,  and  this 
distinguishes  it  from  the  tartrate,  citrate,  carbonate  and  phosphate  of 
lime.  Sulphate  of  copper  gives  a  faint  bluish  white  or  greenish  wliita 
precipitate  of  oxalate  of  copper,  not  soluble  in  a  small,  but  soluble  in  a 
large  quantity  of  muriatic  acid.  Its  insolubility  upon  adding  a  few 
drops  only  of  muriatic  acid  distinguishes  it  from  the  carbonate  and 
phosphate  of  copper.  Nitrate  of  silver  produces  a  detonating  precipi- 
tate as  before  mentioned,  which  is  a  good  distinctive  test  of  oxalic  acid. 
The  citrate-  and  tartrate  of  silver  become  brown  and  froth  up,  and  the 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  293 

former  deflagrates  on  applying  sufficient  beat,  but  neilber  of  th^in   ful- 
minates like  the  oxalate  of  silver. 

16.  ACID    prussic  \  aee  lO, 

17.  ACZD  phosphoric  is  detected  by  proto-nilrate  of  mercury  which 
produces  a  precipitate  of  phosphate  of  mercury  ;  by  acetate  of  lead 
which  gives  a  white  precipitate  ;  and  by  nitrate  of  silver  which  yields 
a  yellow  precipitate.  All  these  precipitates  are  soluble  ia  nitric  acid. 
No  alkali,  or  alkaline  earth  should  be  present,  see  83  e.  The  detection 
of  phosphoric  acid  is  frequently  attended  with  difficulty. 

a.  Solutions  of  the  neutrni  phospliates  of  alkalies  produce  precipi- 
tates with  the  muriates  of  barytes,  and  lime;  and  with  lime  water  and 
barytcs  water.  These  precipitates  are  soluble  in  muriatic  and  nitric 
acidij ;  and  in  solutions  of  amnioniacal  sails. 

18.  ACIB  sulphuric,  (see  116)  detects  (a).  The  acids  in  combina- 
tion with  Silts;  (6),  barytes;  (c),  stromian ;  (rf),  lime;  (e),  lead; 
(/),  mercury;  (^),  carbonic  acid;  (A)  vegetable  or  carbonaceous 
matter. 

a.  The  salt  to  be  examined  should  be  in  the  solid  state  or  near- 
ly so  :  it  is  to  be  pounded  and  covered  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
heat  is  then  to  be  empl(»yed.  If  the  salt  is  a  nitrate^  the  nitric  acid 
will  be  evolved  in  white  vapouri  without  effervescence,  and  if 
copper  filings  be  added,  red  vapours  accompanied  with  effiervescencc 
will  be  disengaged.  See  14.  If  the  salt  be  a  muriate^  the  muriatic 
acid  will  be  driven  off  in  white  vapours,  which  will  forra  a  dense  white 
cloud  round  a  rod  held  in  them,  if  it  be  first  dipped  in  ammonia.  See  il  d^ 
28  6.  Acetic  acid  will  be  discovered  by  the  vapours  smelling  like 
vinegar,  see  1.  Fhioric  e/ci(/ is  driven  olT  in  poisonous  fumes,  which 
must  not  be  inhaled,  and  which  corrode  glass  if  it  be  held  in  or  over 
them  for  a  few  minutes,  see  54.  The  whole  of  the  foregoing  indica- 
tions may  be  confirmed  by  other  tests. 

h»  Baryta  detects  and  is  delected  by  sulphuric  acid  either  free,  or  in 
combination,  as  in  the  state  of  sulphates,  by  the  production  of  a  white 
precipitate,  see  40,  and  115  e. 

c,  Sironiid  is  affected  in  the  same  m&nner  as  barytes,  see 40,  and  1X5. 

d.  Lime  is  detected  by  sulphuric  acid,  but  the  solution  should  be 
concentrated,— oxalate  of  ammonia  is  a  better  test  for  lime,  see  35,44,72. 

«•  Lead  gives  a  white  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead,  when  tested 
ivilh  sttlpharic  acid,  see  61). 


294  On  Chemical  Tests,  [Oct. 

/.  Mercury  also  gives  a  white  precipitate  with  sulphuric  acid,  which 
becomes  yclluw  wheu  boiled.  But  there  Are  other  more  useful  tests 
for  mercurr,  see  82. 

g.  Carbonic  acid  is  discovered  by  its  elTrrvescence  on  adding  sul- 
phuric acid,  in  the  same  wanner  as  before  mentioned  uudcr  the  head  of 
muriatic  acid. 

It,  When  water  containing  vegetable  or  carbonaceous  matter  is  eva- 
porated after  adding  sulphuric  acid,  it  acquires  a  distinct  brown  colour, 
which  becomes  deeper  as  the  liquid  bec^omes  mure  concentrated. 

19.  ACID  tartaric  distinguishes  potn.sh  from  soda.  The  solution 
must  be  concentrated,  and  the  tartaric  acid  be  added  in  excess.  With 
potash  it  produces  a  precipitate  of  bi-tartrate  of  potash,  or  cream  of 
tartar;  with  soda  it  produces  no  precipitate. 

a.  To  detect  tartaric  acid  ;  add  to  a  solution  which  must  be  concen- 
trated an  excess  of  lime  water,  and  a  precipitate  will  be  formed  which 
18  soluble  in  a  small  quantity  of  ammonia : — or  add  carbonate  of  potash 
which  will  precipitate  tartrate  of  potash ^  or  cream  of  tartar, 

20.  ACID  uriCi  see  13,  c^  for  its  detection. 

21.  ACIDS  free,  are  detected  by  litmus  or  turmeric  paper,  or  bjf 
tinctures  or  solutions  of  litmus  and  turmeric ;  but  the  litmus  test  is  not 
universally  distinctive,  sec  77.  Acids  in  combination  with  salts  and  other 
bases,  are  discovered  by  a  variety  of  tests,  see  all  the  foregoing   articles. 

aa,  ALBUUBfiN  is  detected  by  the  per-muriate  of  mercury,  see 
53.  It  is  also  indicated  by  the  muriates  of  gold,  and  tin  j  by  sub-ace- 
tate of  lead,  and  nitrate  of  silver  ;  but  these  tests  arc  not  decisive,  as 
they  are  affected  by  other  substances,  see  87.  When  a  liquid  contain* 
ing  albumen  is  submitted  to  galvanism  (which  is  considered  a  most 
delicate  test)  it  coagulates  on  the  wire  connected  with  the  positive  pole 
of  the  battery,  and  pure  soda  is  found  at  the  negative  wire. 

a.  The  precipitate  by  the  per-chloride  of  mercury  is  soluble  in  acetic 
acid,  and  is  not  altered  by  boiling.  Sulphate  of  copper  added  to  the 
solution  produces  a  green,  and  chloride  of  iron,  a  yellowish-brown  pre- 
cipitate. 

6.  An  excess  of  sulphate  of  copper  completely  precipitates  albumen 
of  a  green  colour,  which  is  dissolved  by  an  excess  of  albumen.  Am- 
monia  dissolves  this  precipitate  forming  a  dark  blue  solution.  Potash 
produces  a  violet  solution.  A  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  dissolves  it 
completely,  occasioning  a  violet  colour.  Potash  throws  down  the  cop- 
per, but  in  the  filtered  liquor,  no  sulphuric  acid  can  be  detected.    The 


1839]  On  Chemical  Tests.  295 

precipitate  consists  of  albumen  and  protoxideof  copper;' the  per  cent- 
age  of  the  oxide  being  about  1*65. 

c.  Albumen  is  not  precipitated  by  phosphoric  nor  by  acetic  acid. 

d.  If  water  containing  rvvv  of  its  weight  of  albumen  be  boiled,  it 
will  be  rendered  perceptibly  opaque.  This  is  a  distinguishing  charac* 
terislic,  and  sufficiently  delicate  for  practical  purposes. 

e.  Ferrocyanate  of  potash  is  a  delicate  test  also,  but  a  slight  excess 
of  acetic  acid  should  be  previously 'added. 

23.  ALOOBOL  is  useful  in  analysis,  and  for  making  tinctures.  Its 
strength  is  known  by  its  specific  gravity,  which  in  the  strongest  is  about 
0.800.  It  detects  the  adulteration  of  volatile  or  essential  oils  with  fixed 
oils,  thus;  mix  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  almonds,  or  of  olives,  with  any  es- 
sential oil,  say  oil  of  lavender,  and  pour  alcohol  on  the  mixture;  the  es- 
sential oil  will  dissolve  in  the  spirit,'  but  the  fixed  oil  will  not.  Pour  oflf 
thealcholicsolution,  and  add  thereto  distilled  water ;  the  water  will 
unite  with  the  alcohol,  and  set  the  essential  oil  at  liberty,  which  may  be 
thus  obtained  pure  and  freed  from  the  adulterated  oil.  See  73  regarding 
the  action  of  alcohol  with  acids,  andeethers. 

a.  Alcohol  dissolves  soap,  vegetable  extract,  sugar,  oxalic,  cam- 
phoric, tartaric,  gallic  and  benzoic  acids,  volatile  oils,  resinS)  balsams; 
fixed  oils  it  dissolves  but  sparingly  except  castor  oil  which  it  dissolves 
in  considerable  quantity .r  It  combines  with  sulphur,  phosphorous,  and 
the  pure  alkalies,  but  not  with  their  carbonates,  nor  when  pure  with  any 
of  the  earths.  Some  salts  in  solution  particularly  sulphates  are  preci* 
pitated  on  the  addition  of  alcohol ;  by  this  means  salts  insoluble  in  al- 
cohol are  sometimes  separated  in  chemical  analysis. 

5.    When  alcohol  is  set  on  fir^,  mingled  with  boracic  acid,  the  flame 
is  green;  with  nitre,  common  salt,  and  the  salts  of  barytes  the  flame ia 
yellow:  with  strontia,  rose-red  ;  with  salts  of  copper,  a  greenish  huei 
and  a  red  colour  with  the  salts  of  lime  and  lithia. 

24.  AULAUm  and  their  earbonatetf  may  be  detected  by  litmui 
paper,  see  7^*  Potash  is  distinguished  from  soda  by  the  tests,  Nos. 
19.97.110.  Alkalies  and  their  carbonates  act  on  almost  all  the  metals,  so 
that  they  are  not  discriminative  testSi  but  are  useful  auxiliaries.  See 
table  of  re-agents. 

25*  AZiVMiNA,  muriate  of  detects  carbonate  of  magnesia  in  so- 
lution.    If  an  alkali  be  present  it  must  first  be  neutralized. 

26*  AXiUMiNA  if  pure  is  white,  but  is  often  yellowish  and  horny 
when  obtained  by  gently  drying  the  hydrate  of  alumina.  It  is  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  acids  if  it  has  not  been  ignited.  After  ignition 
it  is  best  dissolved  by  digestion  in  concentrated  muriatic  acid,  diluted 


996  On  Chemical  Tests.  £Oer. 

with  a  very  small  proportion  of  water — no  free  acid  produces  a  precipi- 
tate  in  aluminous  salts. 

Potash  produce.^  in  neutral  solutions  a  bulky  precipitate  of  the  hy- 
drate of  alumina  soluble  in  excess  of  the  potash.  Muriate  ef  ammonia 
(if  the  precipitate  be  re-dissoWed  by  the  potash)  produces  in  such  so- 
lution a  precipitate  of  alumina. 

^fiMioitia  gives  a  voluminous  precipitate     insoluble  in  an  excess  of 

the  ammonia.     The  presence  of  muriate  of  ammonia  does  not  prevent 

the  production  of  this  precipitate,  (see  34)  nor  yet  of  the  precipitates 

by  the  following  re-agents,  on  which  account  salts  of  alumina  cannot  be 

mistaken  for  those  of  magnesia. 

Carbonate  of  potash.,,.^      a      i      •  •  •.  ^       i  li    •        .j 

Carbonate  of  ammonia  [     ^  voluminous  precipitate  soluble  m  acids. 

Phosphate  of  soda....)  ^°^  '°  ^  «^^"^»«°  ^^  P*^^^'^' 

Oxalic  acid,  neutral  oxalates^  prussiate  of  potash,  tartaric  aeH 
liquid  indphuretled  hydrogen,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  produce 
no  precipitates. 

Hydtosulphuret  of  ammonia  produces  a  precipitate  of  pure  alumina 
and  so  does  muriate  of  ammonia,  see  34  and  36. 

a.  Aluminous  minerals  before  the  blow-pipe  on  charcoal  produce 
a  blue  flame  if  moistened  with  nitrate  uf  cobalt. 

h.  Salts  of  alumina  are  distinguished  by  a  sweet  astringent  taste. 
They  are  not  precipitated  by  oxalate  of  ammonia,  nor  tartaric  acid, 
which  distinguishes  them  from  salts  of  yttria  ;  nor  by  tincture  of  galls, 
or  prussiate  of  potash,  in  whi -h  they  differ  from  the  salts  of  yttria  and  of 
glucina«  If  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  sulphate  of  potash  be  dropped  into  a 
solution  of  alumina,  or  its  salts,  and  the  liquid  be  allowed  to  repose,  crys. 
tals  of  alum  soon  make  their  appearance. 

e.  Solutions  of  alumina  are  distinguished  from  those  of  alkaline 
salts  by  producing  a  white  precipitate  with  ammonia  :  from  solutions,  of 
barytes,8tronia,and  lime  by  a  white  precipitate  with  ammonia,and  no  pre« 
cipitate  with  sulphuric  acid  which  produces  a  precipitate  in  those  earths 
except  in  the  case  of  dilute  solutions  of  lime.  Alumina  is  distinguish- 
ed  from  magnesia  in  solution  by  its  behaviour  with  potash,  and  muriatt 
of  ammonia.  In  neutral  aluminous  solutions,  potash  produces  a 
bulky  precipitate,  which  wholly  re-dissolves  in  an  excess  of  potash ; 
and  in  such  a  solution  of  alumina  in  potash,  muriate  of  ammonia 
produces  a  precipitate  of  alumina.    Distinguished  from  glucina.  see 

»7.  a. 

d.  The  hydrate  requires  very  careful  washing  and  long  conUnned 
heat  in  drying  for  quantitative  analysis. 


1889]  On  Chemical  Tests.  797 

27.  AMMOiriA,  detects  copper,  turning  the  solation  blue.  Am* 
monia  acts  on  a  ^eat  number  of  the  mptals.  See  table  of  re-agents.  It 
it  defected  by  mvriatle  acid^  see  11,  d.  Pure  liqaid  ammonia  is  liable  to 
attract  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere,  bnt  this  acid  may  be  detected 
by  baryta,  see  40,  or  lime  water,  see  75. 

a.  Ammonia  is  acted  on  by  a  spirituous  solution  of  chloride  of  pla« 
tinum,  and  by  sulphate  of  alumina  in  the  same  manner  as  potash  is, 
namely,  the  former  produces  a  bright  yellow  precipitate,  and  the  latter 
produces  crystals  of  alum,  if  the  solution  be  acid,  and  concentrated. 
Tartaric  a(  id  produces  in  concentrated  solutions  of  ammonia  a  crystal- 
line precipitate  of  bitartrate  of  ammonia.  Hydrofluosilicic  acid  preci« 
piiates  its  own  silica  in  solutions  of  ammonia,  but  it  must  not  be  add* 
ed  to. saturation,  the  ammonia  must  be  in  excess^otberwise  no  precipitate 
is  produced. 

b.  When  dry  ammoniacdl  salts  or  concentrated  solvjUons  of  (hem ;  and 
caustic  or  carbonated  alkalies ^  or  earths  are  triturated  together,  an  rmme- 
diate  odour  of  ammonia  escapes ;  and  the  presence  of  ammonia  is  infaUi* 
bly  detected  by  presenting  to  the  mass,  or  the  liquid,  a  rod  dipped  in  rather 
strong,  but  not  fuming  muriatic  acid, 

c.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  be  aware  of  the  remarkable  pro- 
perty possessed  by  ammonia  of  forming  triple  salts  with  earths  and 
metallic  oxides,  as  is  the  case  when  the  sulphates  of  magnesia,  lime» 
and  iron,  occur  together. 

d.  If  a  mineral  water  contain  free  carbonic  acid,  or  carbonate  of  mag. 
nesia,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  the  addition  of  ammonia  will  take  up  part 
of  the  carbonic  acid,  and  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  thus  formed  will 
throw  down  carbonate  of  lime. 

e.  Liquid  ammonia  dissolves  several  of  the  metallic  oxides,  and  with 
some  of  them  forms  crystallizable  compounds.  It  dissolves  the  oxides 
of  silver,  copper,  zinc,  arsenic,  antimony  and  tellurium:  the  protoxides 
of  iron,  cobalt,  and  nickel ;  and  the  peroxides  of  tin,  mercury^  gold,  and 
palladium.  These  compounds  are  all  decomposed  by  heat.  The  com- 
pounds of  ammonia  with  the  oxides  of  gold,  silver,  and  platinum  deto- 
nate when  heated,  and  the  oxide  and  ammonia  are  both  decomposed. 

28.  AMMOWIA,  salts  of,  are  detected,  (a)  by  corrosive  stibli* 
mate;  (6),  by  heat;  (c),  by  caustic  potash,  and  some  other  tests. 

a.  To  a  neutral  solution  of  an  ammoniacal  salt,  add  a  drop  of  any  alka- 
li ;  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  or  perchloride  of  mercury  then 
added,  becomes  a  delicate  test  for  ammonia  by  producing  a  white  pre- 
cipitate. 

b.  Hiut  libtrates  the  ammonia .  in  an  ammoniacal  salt,  and  the  ammo^ 


298  On  Chemical  Teits,  [Oc 


ma  may  he  detected  by  holding  a  rod  dipped  in  muriatic  acid  in  tka  ra- 
pour.    See  W^d,  and  27  h, 

c.  Cautiie  potash  produces,  when  added  to  em  amuumiacai  seJit  ike 
odour  of  ammonia.  This  distinguishes  these  salts  from  other  alkaline 
salts.  See  27,  b.  Chloride  of  platinum  detects  salts  of  ammonia  by  a 
yellow  precipitate  of  very  small  crystals,  hut  as  it  acts  also  on  salts  of 
potash,  the  one  may  be  mistaken  for  the  other,  if  the  chloride  of 
platinum  test,  only,  be  employed.  Ammoniacai  salts  are  not  precipita* 
ted  by  iniiision  of  nut  galls,  nor  by  pnissiate  of  potash. 

d.  If  to  an  ammoniacai  salt  dissolved  in  water  a  little  of  any  salt 
containing  magnesia  be  added,  and  afterwards  phosphate  of  soda  be 
dropped  in,  a  copious  white  precipitate  falls. 


.  29'  AMMONIA,  benzoate  of,  is  an  excellent  test  for  separating  iron 
from  manganese  when  together  in  one  solution,  which  should  be  ac- 
curately rendered  neutral.  It  also  liberates  iron  from  all  earthy 
salts,  and  from  nickel,  cobalt,  zinc  and  some  other  metals. 

30.  AMMOVKA,  carbonate  of,  detects  copper,  turning  the  solution 
blue,  when  neutral.  This  test  acts,  generally  speaking,  like  am- 
monia. See  table  of  re-agents.  Carbonate  of  ammonia  in  its  solid 
state  should  be  entirely  volatilized  by  heat.  It  may  contain  impu- 
rities, and  may  be  examined  in  the  same  manner  if  used  as  a  test 
as  carbonate  of  potash,  see  98,  d, 

dl«  AMMOVIA,  fluate  of,  detects  lime,  but  the  oxalate  of  ammo- 
nia is  a  more  common  test,  though  Dr.  Henry  says,  he  finds  the 
flaate  of  ammonia  to  be  the  most  delicate. 

92.  AMKKOltlA^ferrocyatutte  of,  this  test  is  of  use  only  in  the 
analysis  of  saline  substances.  It  may  happen,  for  example,  that  a  fluid 
contains  neutral  salts  with  alkaline  bases,  together  with  metallic  salts. 
In  this  case  ferrocyanate  of  potash  cannot  be  well  applied  to  separate 
the  metallic  salts,  because  it  then  would  be  difficult  to  ascertain  whether 
the  alkaline  salts  were  originally  present  in  the  solution  or  not ;  but  if 
ferrocyanate  of  ammonia  be  employed,  no  ambiguity  can  result;  forihe 
metallic  salts  need  only  be  precipitated  by  this  test,  and  the  earths  by  bi- 
carbonate of  ammonia,  in  a  temperature  of  180**,  or  upwards,  in  order  to 
ensure  the  decomposition  of  magnesian  salts,  which  this  carbonate  does 
not  effect  in  the  cold.  The  liquor  may  then  be  separated  by  filtration^ 
and  boiled  to  dryness,  and  the  dry  mass  exposed  to  such  a  heat  as  is 
sufficient  to  expel  the  ammoniacai  salts.    This  application  of  heat  will 


1839.]  On  Cliemlcal  Tests.  299 

drive  off,  also,  nny  excess  of  the  ammoniacal  carbonate,  which  might 
have  retained  id  solution,  either  yttria,  glucina,  or  zirconia.  The  alka« 
line  salts  may  be  separated  from  these  earths,  by  boiliDgthe  mixture  ia 
water,  and  filtering  and  evaporating  it.  The  salts,  with  bases  of  fixed 
alkalies,  will  remain  nnvolatilized.  By  this  process,  indeed,  it  will  be 
impo8>ible  to  ascertain  whether  ammoniacal  salts  were  originally  pre* 
sent ;  but  this  may  be  easily  learned,  by  adding  to  the  salt  under  exa* 
mination,  before  its  solution  in  water,  potash;  which,  if  ammonia  b« 
contained  in  the  salt,  will  produce  the  peculiar  smell  of  thatalkali. 

33.  AMMONXA,  hijdro-sulphurei  of.  This  test  acts  on  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  metals.    See  the  tables  of  rc-agents. 

34.  AKMOiriA,  hydro-Morate,  or  murtal^  of,  or  sal-ammofdac,  de- 
tects platinum,  producing  a  bright  yellow  precipitate,  if  the  platinum 

be  pure.  If  a  solution  contain  both  gold  and  platinum,  the  gold  may 
be  precipitated  by  green  sulphate  of  iron,  see  67,  and  the  platinum  by 
muriate  of  ammonia.  This  test  separates  alumina  from  its  alkaline  so- 
lutions; the  alkali  combines  with  the  muriatic  acid,  and  the  liberated 
ammonia  determines  the  precipitation  of  the  alumina,  which  after  being 
washed  and  dried,  is  perfectly  pure. 

a.  Muriate  of  ammonia  dissolves  more  or  less  of  all  the  earthy  car- 
bonates ^hen  both  are  together  in  solution.  See  pages  95, 178  andSdS, 
of  the  London  and  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Science,  A.  D.  1837,  for  its 
action  on  metals. 

b.  Sulphate  of  lead  is  completely  decomposed  by  a  solution  of  muri- 
ate of  ammonia ;  which  also  acts  upon  silver  with  the  assistance  of  air 
and  dissolves  it.  Muriate  of  silver  is  partially  dissolved  by  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  muriate  of  ammonia,  and  is  still  further  acted  on  if 
boiled. 

c.  Sal-ammoniac  or  muriate  of  ammonia  used  as  a  test,  ought  to  be 
entirely  volatilized  by  a  low  heat,  when  laid  on  a  heated  iron;  if  sul* 
phate  of  ammonia  be  also  present  in  it,  it  may  be  detected  by  baryta, 
see  40. 

35  AMMOirxA,  oxalate  of,  IS  a  capital  test  for  detecting  lime  which 
it  is  said  to  indicate,  if  lime  be  diluted  to  the  extent  of  24,000  times  its 
weight  iu  water.  It  also  occasions  a  cloudiness  with  magnesia,  bat  the 
mignesia  does  not  precipitate  till  it  has  stood  for  several  hours.  In  using 
this  test  or  oxalic  acid,  if  a  mineral  ;>cid  be  present,  it  must  beneutra- 


300  On  Chemical  Tests,  [Oct. 

l«ed;  if  baryta  or  strontia  be  present,  tbey  roust  both  be  removed  previ* 
ously  by  sulphuric  acid.  The  following  numbers  should  also  be  referred 
to,  as  sulphuric  acid  acts  on  solutions  of  lime,  as  well  as  on  baryta  and 
strontia;  18, 6,  c,  <i:  40:  44:  72:  115.  The  presence  of  other  earths  in 
solution  along  with  lime  impedes  decomposition  by  oxalic  acid,  and  the 
oxalates.  Tlius  a  wateiy  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  sulphate 
of  lime  is  not  precipitated  by  these  tests. 


36.  AMKOKXA,  succinate  oft  acts  like  the  succinate  of  soda,  which 
detects  the  peroxide,  but  not  the  protoxide  of  iron,  occasioning  a  brown 
precipitate.  It  precipitates  also  alumina,  if  the  solution  be  not  too  acid. 
Succinate  of -ammonia  throws  down  glucina,  zirconia  and  baryta.  See 
115  c.  Both  the  succinates  are  useful  in  separating  peroxide  of  iron 
from  the  oxide  of  manganese ;  the  iron  however  re-dissolves  in  an  excess 
of  the  precipitant. 

37.  AHZIKAL  MATTBB  is  detected  by  nitric  acid,  which  occasions 
it,  with  cold  digestion,  to  give  off  nitrogen.  Animal  matter  is  thus  dis- 
tinguished from  vegetable  matter. 

38.  ANTIMONY  I  solutions  of  the  protoxide  of  antimony  which  are 
usually  of  a  brownish  yellow  colour,  are  best  and  most  readily  known  by 
their  action  with  hydrosnJphuret  of  ammonia,  which  produces  a  red  preci' 
pitate,  completely  soluble  in  an  excess  of  the  precipitant ;  and  by  liquid 
sulphuretted  hydrogen^  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  either  of  which  oc 
casions  both  in  acid  and  neutral  solutions,  a  red  precipitate.  If  there 
should  be  at  first  merely  a  red  colour  in  neutral  solutions  the  precipitate 
is  immediately  produced  by  adding  muriaiic  acid,  or  by  heating  the  to* 
lution. 

a.  Metallic  zinc  precipitates  antimony  in  a  black  metallic  powder. 
Tin  also  precipitates  it. 

b.  Before  the  blow- pipe  with  soda,  the  salts  of  antimony  are  reduced 
in  the  inner  finme,  and  the  bead  of  metallic  antimony  remains  long  in  the 
melted  state  after  being  removed  from  the  flame,  and  gives  off  a  thick 
white  smoke.  Afterwards  the  bead  is  covered  with  a  net  work  of  crys- 
tals of  protoxide  of  antimony. 

c.  Potash,  ammonia,  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of  potash,  carbonate 
of  soda,  phosphate  of  soda,  oxalic  acid,  gallic  acid,  prussiate  of  potass,  all 
produce  a  white  precipitate  insoluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitant.  Wa- 
ter produces  a  white  precipitate  which  is  a  disalt. 

d.  Neiiher  nitric,  si^lphuric,  phosphoric,  nor  carbonic  acid  fbrmt 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  801 

salts  with  protoxide  of  antimony,  at  least  we  are  not  acquainted  at  pre. 
sent  with  any  siicb  combinaiiong. 

39.  ARSSKIG  is  detected  (a),bynitrate  of  silver  ;(6),sulphate  of  cop- 
per; (c),  sulphuretted  hydrogen;  («/),  soda;  (e),  iron.  It  is  also  pre- 
cipitated by  salts  of  lead  and  by  lime  water;  the  precipitates  being 
white. 

a.  By  nitrate  of  silver,  which  gives  a  yellow  precipitate  in  arsenites, 
and  a  brown  precipitate  in  arseniates,  but  the  solution  ought  to  be 
slightly  alkaline.  This  test  however  must  not  by  itself  be  considered 
decisive,  as  it  is  acted  on  bv  manv  other  substances. 

6.  By  sulphate  of  copper  or  by  acetate  of  copper,  both  of  which  give 
green  precipitates,  but  in  this  case  a  little  carbonated  alkali  must  be 
present  in  solution. 

c.  By  fiulphurelled  hydrogen,  which  produces  a  bright  yellow  colour 
in  acidulated  solutions  of  arsenic,  but  a  precipitate  does  not  form  till 
after  long  standing. 

d.  By  soila.  If  arsenic  mixed  with  a  little  soda  be  submitted  to  the 
action  of  the  blow-pi{>p,  a  smell  of  garlic  occurs. 

e.  The  red-acetale  of  iron  detects  arsenic  by  forming  a  bright  yellow 
deposit.  Pure  hydrate  of  iron  recently  made  and  suspended  in  water, 
completely  precipitates  arsenious  acid. 

/.  Note,  There  is  much  difficulty  in  detecting  small  quantities  of 
arsenic,  and  much  caution  is  required  lest  false  conclusions  should 
be  formed ;  especially  in  investigations  connected  with  cases  of 
poisoning.  The  garlic  like  smell  by  heat  is  a  good  criterion,  and 
still  better  if  confirmed  in  the  following  manner.  Mix  the  substance  8up« 
posed  to  contain  arsenic  with  fresh  made  charcoal,  or  with  black  flux,  in 
a  small  glass  tube  ;  submit  it  to  heat,  and  if  arsenic  be  present  it  will 
sublime  to  the  upper  part  of  the  tube,  where  it  will  be  deposited  and 
may  be  recognized  by  its  steel  coloured  lustre.  The  open  end  of  the 
tube  must  be  loosely  stopped  with  a  piece  of  cotton,  or  other  porous 
substitute,    see  2,  a  :  and  the  remainder  of  this  article. 

g.  The  following  method  for  detecting  arsenic  has  been  published 
by  professor  0*Shaughnessy  at  Calcutta.  See  Journal  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Bengal,  February  1839.  Also  Jameson's  Journal  No.  42,  or 
the  Arcana  of  Science  for  1837. 

h.  The  beautiful  process  invented  by  Mr.  Marsh  of  Woolwich,  for 
the  detection  of  minute  quantities  of  arsenical  poison  consists  in  placing 


302  On  Chemical  TetU,  [Oct. 

the  suspected  substance  in  very  dilate  salpbnric  acid,  and  introducing 
a  slip  of  pure  zinc.  The  hydrogen  is  evolved  in  combination  with  the 
metallic  arsenic,  and  on  examination  presents  most  distinct  and  remark- 
able pbenomeni.  If  ignited,  the  flame  is  of  a  leaden  blue  colour,  and 
diffuses  a  powerful  smell  of  garlic  and  a  dense  white  smoke.  If  the 
flame  be  reduced  to  the  size  of  a  pea  and  applied  to  the  interior  of  a  thin 
glass  tube,  a  crust  of  metallic  arAenic  is  formed  in  the  tube,  surround- 
ed by  a  white  ring  of  arsenious  acid.  To  this,  by  a  little  dexterous 
management,  the  several  tests  may  be  applied,  namely  the  ammoniacal 
nitrates  of  silver  and  copper,  and  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  But 
this  process  is  not  entirely  distinctive  of  aH  the  arsenical  poisons;  and 
tartarized  antimony  gives  almost  the  same  indications  upon  testing,  as 
the  arsenical  solutions. 

k.  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  examined  the  contents  of  the  stomach  of  a 
young  woman  who  had  been  poisoned  with  crysUllized  yellow  orpi- 
m  j!)t,  (silplmi-jt  of  ar:i2.v. ;)  but  th*  yelloY  pjwler  which  was  se- 
parated from  the  contents  of  the  stoma'^h  when  treated  by  the 
above  process  gave  no  indication  whitever  of  tha  presm^e  of  arsen- 
ic. He  then  converted  the  sulphuret  into  an  oxide,  namely,  by  boiling 
the  yellow  matter  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  and  after  the  sulphu- 
ret was  thus  converted  into  arsenious  acid,  the  process,  when  applied 
gave  its  proper  indications.  In  examinations  by  this  process  the  Pro- 
fessor therefore  recommends  that  the  insoluble  contents  of  the  stomach 
or  a  part  of  these  contents  in  cases  of  poisoning,  should  be  boiled  in  a 
capsule  of  glass  or  porcelain  with  small  quantities  of  nitric  acid  until 
red  fumes  are  no  longer  given  off.  The  mass  should  then  be  diluted 
with  water,  neutralized  with  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda,  and  lastly  ex- 
amined by  Marsh*8  process. 

m.  With  respect  to  the  indications  of  t;irtarized  antimony,  or  tartar 
emetic.  Dr.  0*Shaiighne^sy  suggests  that  the  encrusted  tube  when  cold 
should  be  moistened  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  distilled 
water,  and  then  be  held  over  the  mouth  of  a  bottle  containing  strong 
ammonia,  so  that  the  vapour  may  traverse  the  tube.  If  the  crust  be 
arsenical  it  instantly  assumes  a  vivid  canary  colour,  owing  to  tbe  forma- 
tion of  arsenite  of  silver;  but  no  such  effect  is  produced  by  an  timonial 
compounds.  This  test  therefore  affords  a  simple  and  conclusive  check 
on  Marsh's  process. 

n.  NaU. — ^The  zinc  of  commerce  often  contains  arsenic  :  the  zinc 
used  should  therefore  be  tested ;  and  the  same  zinc  should  not  bt 
twice  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

39}.  BARTTBSor  fiary/a,when  pure  is  of  a  greyish  white  coloiir,and 
?ery  friable.    It  slakes  like  lime,  falling  into  a  powder  with  beat 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  303 

when  a  little   water  is  poured  upon  it.    Solution  of  bary tea  in  water 

has  a  caustic  taste;  and  turns   reddened  litmus  paper  blue.    Pure  bary- 

tes  does  not  fuse  at  a  red  heat.    The  following  tests  discoTcr  barytes, 

as  well  as  its  salts,  see  also  36. 

oil  '  T    ^  J  ^  m         f     A  white  precipitate  in  very  dilute  so- 

Siilphuric  acid  produces ,,,.<  ,   ..  .^K        .  ^  i  ui    •        -j 

^  (  lutions ;   It  IS  not  soluble  in  acids. 

{     After  some  time  a  crystallino  precipi- 
Ilydrofluosilicic  acid  •••••.<  tate  which  is  almost  insoluble  in  free  mu- 

V^  riatic  or  nitric  acid. 

(     A  voluminous  precipitate    which  al- 

Pure  caustic  potash <  most  disappears  on  adding  a  quantity  of 

(  water. 

Caustic  ammonia No  precipitate. 

Carbonate  of  potash  \       *      i  •*  •   -j  *         i   i-i     •        »!  ► 

Carbonate  of  ammonia  \     ^  «ln  «  precipitate  soluble  in  mtric 

Neutral  pLphale  of  ,orfa  /  O' """•'»"<=  ""<!• 

^     ,.   ^^ . .  f     No  precipitate.    But  if  the  solution  be 

Uxaltc  acta  i    *.        *      i •    u      jj  j  •   - 

Binoxalale  of  potash  ]  f  °"8  ""''  """n""*  be  added,  a  precipe 

''  ^  (^  tate  occurs* 

ht/drosulfhurel  of  ammonia ") 

Prussiate  of  potash  >  No  precipitate. 

Bed  prussiate  of  potash  J 

a.  To  detect  the  presence  of  barytes  in  sulphate  of  baryles,  a  portion 
is  boiled  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda  and  filtered.  The 
insoluble  remainder  is  treated  with  muriatic  acid,  the  solution  is  filter- 
ed, and  tlien  tested  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  which  produces  a  preci- 
pitate. The  sulphate  of  strontian  is  insoluble  in  acids.  The  muriatic 
solution,  supposing  both  baryta  and  strontian  to  be  present  may  alsojbe 
dilated  with  water,  filtered,  and  hydrofluosilicic  acid  be  added :  the 
barytes  will  be  precipitated  as  shewn  above;  but  the  strontian  will 
not  be  affected.  By  this  test  sulphate  of  barytes  may  be  discriminated 
from  sulphate  of  strontian,  see  40  d^  1 15  b,  d,  e, 

b.  Baryta  is  precipitated  white  by  phosphates  and  oxalates  (see  the 
test,  oxalic  acid  in  this  article)  ;  pale  lemon  yellow  by  chromates,  and 
white  by  carbonates,  see  40  h* 

c.  Barytes,  strontites,  lime,  and  magnesia  are  found  always  combined 
with  acids,  which  are  generally  the  carbonic,  sulphuric,  fluoric,  boracic 
and  phosphoric. 

40.  BARYTA,  Solution  of  ;  and  the  acetate ;  muriate ;  and  nitrate 
of  barytes.  These  four  tests  act  alike  namely  detecting  sulphuric  acid, 
either  free  or  in  combination  ;  and  also  carbonic  acid.  They  produce  a 
white  precipitate  in  cither  case;  but  the  sulphuric  precipitate  is  inao» 


904  On  Chemical  Tests.  [O 

luble  n  hile  the  carbonie  precipitate  is  soluble  in  tceml  muriatic,  or  nitrie 
acid.  Suppose  5ulpbate  of  potash  and  carbooate  of  polash  to  exist 
together  in  solution,*  on  adding  any  one  of  the  baryta  tests,  a  white 
precipitate  will  fall  of  sulphate,  and  carbonate  of  barrtes  mingled  toge- 
ther. They  may  be  separated  and  their  weights  ascertained  thus. 
Waj»h  the  precipitate  with  pure  water,  dry,  and  weigh  it.  Then  add 
dilute  muriatic  or  nitric  acid,  and  the  carbonate  of  b^rytes  will  dissolve 
with  efferrescence ;  the  sulphate  will  remain  untouched.  Tbe  sulphate 
washed,  and  dried,  will  give  its  own  weight,  and  the  difference  between 
the  weight  of  the  sulphate,  and  the  original  weight,  will  be  tbe  weight 
of  the  carbonate. 

a.  Solution  of  barytes,  or  barytic  water  is  made  by  dissolving  pure 
baryta  in  distilled  water.  It  may  be  employed  to  separate  baiyta  frmn 
ttrontia  in  a  neutral  solution  ;  the  baryta  having  a  stronger  affinity  for 
acids  will  be  taken  up,  and  the  strontia  will  be  precipitated.  As  haiytic 
water  soon  spoils,  it  should  be  used  fresh. 

h.  Baryta  and  its  combinations  are  poisonous.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  its  salts  are  insoluble  in  water. 

c.  Baryta  in  solution  is  distinguished  from  the  alkalies  by  its  pro- 
ducing a  white  precipitate  with  carbonated  alkalies,  and  with  dilate 
sulphuric  acid. 

d.  To  distinguish  barytes  from  strontia,  dip  a  piece  of  paper  in  the 
solution.  Barytes  bums  yellow  ;  strontia  red,  see  115  c.  To  distinguish 
barytes  from  lime,  see  44,  72  d,  and  79  <f. 

e.  Baryta,  acting  on  carbonic  acid,  is  of  course  equally  acted  on  and 
decomposed  by  the  carbonated  alkalies  :  but  in  this  case  their  precipi- 
tate as  before  shown  in  this  article  is  soluble  with  effervescence  by 

dilute  acid,  either  nitric  or  muriatic.    Both  the  nitrate  and  muriate  of 
baryta  are  soluble  in  water,  tbe  sulphate  is  not. 

/.  It  has  been  remarked  by  Berzelius,  that  when  sulphuric  acid  is 
precipitated  from  some  of  the  weaker  bases  by  a  barytic  salt,  the  preci- 
pitated sulphate  of  baryta  is  combined  with  a  portion  of  those  bases. 
Thus  when  sulphate  of  iron  or  copper  is  decomposed  by  muriate  of 
baryta,  the  sulphate  of  baryta,  when  dried  and  calcined,  assumes  a  red- 
dish colour  in  the  first  case,  or  a  yellowish  green  in  the  second.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  determine  with  precision  the  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid, 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  excess  of  oxide  by  some  acid  in  which  it 
is  soluble. 

g.  By  the  cautious  addition  of  acetate  of  baryta,  as  long  as  it  occa- 
sions any  precipitate,  all  the  sulphates  existing  in  any  solution  are  de- 
composed, and  their  bases  are  obtained  united  with  acetic  acid.  By 
evaporating  the  liquid  to  dryness,  and  calcining  the  residaum,  the 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  806 

tic  acid  is  destroyed,  and  the  bases  of  these  sails  may  be  obtained  se- 
parate, or  combined  only  with  carbonic  acid,  and  in  this  state  may  bt 
recognised  by  properties  which  are  more  characteristic  than  those  be- 
longing to  tbem  in  a  state  of  more  energetic  combination.  In  this 
way  the  alkaline  bases  may  be  obtained  separately  from  the  earthy 
ones  ;  for  the  addition  of  water  to  the  incinerated  mass  takes  up  the 
former,  and  leaves  the  latter. 

h.  Phosphoric  and  oxalic  salts  occasion  a  precipitate  also,  with  bary- 
tic  solutions,  which  is  soluble  in  dilute  moriatic  and  nitric  acids  with- 
out effervescence.    See  the  last  article  b. 

41.  BISKUTB,  ^Atf  salts  of  bismuth  may  be  recognized  by  water  pre* 
cipitating  them ;  by  the  precipitate  becoming  black  by  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and  by  a  black  precipitate  with  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia. 
Before  the  blow-pipe  they  fuse  easily  into  a  brittle  button^  which  fUes  to 
pieces  under  the  hammer  ;  the  charcoal  becoming  coated  with  a  yellow  paw* 
der.  They  are  distinguished  from  lead  by  giving  no  precipitates  with 
sulphuric  acid  ;  and  by  the  brittleness  of  the  fused  globules  from  the 
blow-pipe. 

a.  Carbonate  of  baryta  perfectly  separates  the  oxide  of  bismuth  in 
cold  solutions  from  peroxide  of  copper,  and  from  lead,  manganese,  and 
nickel.  The  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  also  precipitate  bismuth 
whether  in  hot  or  cold  solutions.    See  69,  c. 

b.  The  following  tests  tend  further  to  discriminate  bismuth. 
Potash,    ammonia,  carbonate  of  potash,  and  tarbonate  of  ammonia-^ 

produce  white  precipitates  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  the  precipitant. 

Phosphate  of  9oda,  a  white  precipitate. 

Oxalic  acid  :  no  immediate  precipitate  but  after  some  time  a  crystal- 
line precipitate  is  perceptible. 

Prussiate  of  potash  ;  white  precipitate  insoluble  in  muriatic  acid. 

Red  prussiate  of  potash  ;  pale  yellow  precipitate  soluble  in  muriatic 
acid. 

Hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia  ;  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  svi^ 
phuretted  hydrogen  gas  in  a  current,  produce  a  black  precipitate ;  but  if 
the  bismuth  be  in  small  quantity  a  dark  brown  precipitate. 

Metallic  zinc,    A  black   spongy   precipitate. 

c.    Solutions  of  the  salts  of  oxide  of  bismuth  redden  litmus  paper. 

42.    BRAZILWOOD  PAPER.    See  litmus  77,  which  may  be  used 

as  a  substitute. 


80G  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

48.  OADMIUM,  Solutions  of  cadmium  are  recognized  by  their 
giving  yello\y  precipitates  with  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  with  a 
current  of  hydrogen  gas.  This  precipitate  resembles  orpiment,  but  it 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  facility  with  which  it  dissolves  in  muria- 
tic acid  and  by  its  bearing  a  red  heat  without  being  altered.  Before 
the  blow  pipe,  with  soda,  the  salts  of  cadmium  coat  the  charcoal  with 
a  brownish  red  or  orange  coloured  powder. 

a.  A  considerable  number  of  the  salts  of  cadmium  are  soluble  ia 
water,  and  the  solutions  are  colourless,  or  have  a  slight  yellow  tinge. 
The  insoluble  salts  are  white  powders,  and  dissolve  in  acids. 

b.  The  pure  oxide  of  cadmium  gives  a  reddish  brown  powder.  The 
hydrated  oxide  is  white.  The  oxide  is  soluble  in  ammonia  and  easily 
dissolves  in  acid^,  and  acts  towards  re-agents  as  follows. 

c.  Potash,  carbonate  of  potash,  and  carbonate  of  ammonia  produce  a 
white  precipitate,  and  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia,  in  neutral  solutions, 
a  yellow  preripitHte  ;  all  of  which  precipitates  are  insoluble  in  an  ex- 
cess of  the  precipitant.  Henry  says,  the  fixed  alkalies  throw  downs 
white  hydrated  oxide  soluble  in  ammonia.  Prussiate  of  potash  and 
oxalate  of  ammonia  cause  a  white  sediment. 

d.  Ammonia  produces  in  neutral  solutions  a  white  precipitate, 
easily  soluble  in  an  excess  of  ammonia ;  oxalic  acid  does  the  same. 

e.    Solutions  of  the  neutral  cadmium  salts   redden  litmus  paper. 

/.  A  plate  of  zinc  immersed  in  a  solution  of  cadmium  precipi- 
tates it  in  dendritical  leaves  ;  or  according  to  others  in  grey  coloured 
spangles. 

g.  Cadmium  resembles  tin  very  nearly,  in  colour,  lustre,  and  the 
sound  it  emits  when  bent.  It  melts  below  a  red-heat,  and  volatilixei 
at  a  heat  not  much  greater  than  that  which  volatilises  mereary; 
it  condenses  in  drops. 

44;  OALOmH,  lime  is  detected  by  oxalate  of  ammonia^  oxaUe  acid, 
or  bin-oxalate  of  potash,  aU  of  which  produce  a  white  precipiiate  of  ojm- 
late  of  lime  which  is  soluble  in  nitric  acid; — the  precipitation  is  assisted  jy 
the  addition  of  amtnoniato  neutralize  any  free  acid.  See  15,35,73.  Sulpha- 
lie  acid,  and  the  carbonated  alkalies,  and  phosphate  of  soda,  also  de- 
tect lime,  but  not  so  satisfactorily  as  oxalic  acid,  or  the  oxalates. 

a.  Calcareous  salts  are,  in  concentrated  solutions,  distinguished  fioiD 
alkaline  salts  by  giving  a  white  precipitate  with  carbonate  of  potash;  or 
dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Lime  is  distinguished  from  barjtea  by  its  givioj 
no  precipitate  with  hydrofluosilicic  acid.    See  40,  72  6 ;  Tdd. 


1839]  On  Chemical  Tests.  307 

b,  A  concentrated  solution  of  lime  is  acted  on  as  follows  by  the  un- 
dermentioned tests. 

Carbonate  of  potash;  or  potash.    Dense  white  flocculent  precipitate. 
Stdphuric  acid.    Dense  white  powdery  precipitate. 
Oxalic  acid.     Dense  white   cloud  which   precipitates  more  slowly 
than  the  others. 

c.  Hydrochlorate  of  lime  in  crystals  deliquesces,  hydrochlorate  of  ba- 
ryta does  not.  The  crystals  of  the  latter  are  four  sided  tables,  the 
crystals  of  hydrochlorate  of  strontian  are  delicate  six  sided  prisms. 
These  characteristics  may  assist  in  distinguishing  baryteB,  lime,  and 
strontia,  from  one  another:  see    72  e,  and  79  d. 

43.  CABBONATS  of  lime  and  some  other  carbonates,  are  useful  in 
analysis  to  separate  different  substances,  see  65  c,  d\  69  c. 

f^.  Carbonates  are  sometimes  not  acted  on  by  acids  when  in  com* 
bination  with  alcohol  and  sBther,  see  73. 

46.  CB&niM  gives  with  the  following  tests  the  indications  speci- 
fied opposite  to  each. 

Potash  \     ^   white  voluminous   precipitate;   in- 

'*" • ?  soluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitant. 

Ammoni  \     '^''^  same;  gelatinous.     Insoluble  in 

^ ^  an  excess  of  ammonia. 

Carbonate  of  potash  I     The  same;  soluble  in  excess  of  preci- 

Carbonaie   of  ammonia  ^pitant,  but  precipitated  if  boiled. 

„,       .   ^      -      ,  S     White  precipitate  in  neutral  solutions, 

Phosphate  of  soda ^soluble  in  nitric  and  muriatic  acid. 

Oxalic  acid White  ciirdy,    do.    do.        do. 

e  7  1  /.    ^     .    L  (     Crystalline  precipitate,  if  the  solution 

Sulphate  ofpotaih |  ^^  „  J^  ,^^  jj,,!,^     V 

Prussiaie  of  potash White  chalky  precipitate. 

drosulphuret  of  ammonia Do.    of  protoxide  of  cerium. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  ffos     )      xt  •   •*  . 

Gallieacxd      "     "     ^         \      No  precipitate. 

Pure  hydrate  of  cerium  is  white,  becoming  yellowish  by  exposure  to 
the  air.    The  neutral  salts  redden  litmus  paper. 

a.  The  detection  of  protoxide  of  cerium  in  the  compounds  of  protox- 
ide of  cerium  which  are  insoluble  in  water  is  attended  with  some  diffi- 
culty. The  best  way  is  to  dissolve  such  a  compound  in  an  acid  and  to 
place  a  crust  of  crystals  of  sulphate  of  potash  in  the  solution,  which 
will  produce  the  double  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  cerium  and  potash, 


308  On  Chenueal  Tests.  lOcr. 

which  is  insoluhle  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  potash,  and  sparinglf 
soluble  in  water. 

b.  A  mixture  of  cerium  and  iron  may  be  separated,  by  boiling  in 
oxalic  acid  ;  the  iron  dissolves  and  the  cerium  is  left  in  the  state  of  a 
white  powder  decomposable  by  heat,  see  65  d. 

c.  Solutions  of  protoxide  of  cerium  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
alkalies,  barytes,  stroutian,  lime  and  magnesia,  in  the  same  manner  as 
solutions  of  alumina  are  distinguished  from  those  substances,  see  26  e. 
From  alumina  and  glucina,  the  protoxide  of  cerium  is  distinguished  by 
its  insolubility  in  an  excess  of  potash ;  from  thoriua,  by  its  relation  to 
heat.  The  latter  does  not  become  red  when  ignited,  neither  does  it 
give  a  coloured  bead  when  fused  with  borax,  or  microcosmic  salt,  befwe 
the  blow-pipe.  When  this  proof  is  made,  the  substance  must  of  course 
have  been  freed  from  iron.  Protoxide  of  cerium  is  distinguished  from 
yttria  in  the  same  manner  as  from  thorina,  and  also  by  its  behaviour 
towards  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  potash. 

47.  CRLORlMEi    Muriates  or  chlorides  are  detected  by  nitrate  ef 

silver  which  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  muriate,  or  chloride  of  silver 
insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble  in  ammonia,  and  blackening  in  the 
lightf  or  more  quickly  in  the  sun,  see  108.  Solutions  of  lead  and  mer- 
cury also  detect  muriatic  salts,  but  pure  chlorates  are  not  affected  by 
these  tests.  See  70  b,  and  83  b, 

a.  The  precipitate  by  nitrate  of  silver  is  not  decomposed  at  a  red  beat: 
but  it  melts,  and  upon  cooling  forms  a  crystalline,  sometimes  translu- 
cent mass,  which  cuts  somewhat  like  horn,  from  which  it  has  been  call- 
ed horn-silver :  it  is  the  lunar  caustic  of  the  apothecary,  which  is 
soluble  in  water,  and  is  then  a  proper  test  for  muriatic  acid. 

48.  CBROKIUM,  or  chromic  acid,  is  detected  by  proto-nitrate  of 
mercury  which  forms  a  red  precipitate  becoming  green  when  strongly 
heated :  also  by  hydro-sulphuret  of  ammonia,  and  prussiate  of  potass, 
both  of  which  produce  green  precipitates.  Rose  says,  prussiate  of 
potass  produces  no  precipitate.  Nitrate  of  silver  produces  a  carmine 
colour  changing  to  purple,  and  nitrate  of  copper  a  chestnut  red.  Sec 
the  tables  of  re-agents. 

a.  The  salts  of  chromic  acid  are  precipitated  by  salts  of  lead  of 
a  yellow  colour  :  by  salts  of  silver  of  a  reddish  brown ;  by  protoxide 
salts  of  mercury  of  an  orange  colour,  and  this  precipitate  heated  leaves 
protoxide  of  chromium.  Salts  of  baryta  produce  a  lemon-yellow  pre- 
cipitate. When  mixed  with  a  little  alcohol  and  nitric  acid,  chromic  acid. 


1839]  On  Chemical  TesU.  309 

immediately  assumes  a  bluish-green  colour  which  preserves  the  same 
shade  even  after  dessicatioD. 

b.  Solutions  of  chromium  are  distinguished  by  their  green  colour,  tehiek 
undergoes  no  alteration  on  being  treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen* 
Chromium  gives  an  einerald  green  before  the  blow-'pipCt  and  imparts  a 
beautiful  green  colour  to  the  fluxss.  This  colour  is  discriminative  ;  it 
occurs  both  in  the  inner  and  outer  flame,  and  distinguishes  chromium 
from  copper,  which  produces  a  green  bead  only  in  the  outer  flame, 

49.  OODAftT.  Pure  oxide  of  cobalt  has  a  greenish  grey  colour . 
and  both  it  and  cobcdt  salts  are  easily  detected  before  the  blowpipe  by 
producing  an  intensely  blue  glass  when  mixed  with  20  times  its  weight 
of  borax.  It  may  also  be  known  by  its  solution  in  acid  being  of 
a  violet  red,  or  rose  colour  ;  by  alkalies  producing  a  precipitate 
of  violet  blue,  and  by  alkaline  hydro-sulphurets  giving  a  black 
precipitate.  Carbonate  of  potash  produces  in  cobalt  solutions,  a  red 
precipitate,  which,  upon  being  boiled  becomes  blue.  See  table  of 
re-agents. 

a.  The  following  tests  act  on  cobalt,  and  produce  the  colours 
specified. 

Potash,    Blue;  after  repose  green  :  if  boiled  dirty  pale  red. 

Ammonia.  Blue;  more  ammonia  turns  the  precipitate  green,  and 
still  larger  quantity  dissolves  the  precipitate  and  forms  a  green  solution. 

Carbonate  of  potash.     Red  ;  if  boiled  blue. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia.  In  neutral  solutions,  led ;  soluble  in  mu« 
riate  of  ammonia. 

Phosphate  of  soda.    In  neutral  solutions,  blue* 

Prussiate  of  potash.     Green  turning  grey, 

Hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia.    In  neutral  solutions,  black. 

b.  Solutions  of  cobalt-salts  are  particularly  distinguished  from 
einc,  manganese,  Eirconia,  cerium,  yttria,  thorina,  glucina,  alumina, 
and  the  earths  and  alkalies,  by  producing  a  black  precipitate  with 
hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia.  This  precipitate  is  bydrosuiphuret  of 
cobalt. 

c.  An  impure  oxide  of  cobalt  fused  with  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
potassa,  produces  a  blue  glass,  which,  reduced  to  powder,  is  known 
in  commerce  by  the  name  of  smalt. 

d.  Neither  cobalt  nor  nickel  is  precipitated  by  the  carbonate  of 
lime  or  of  magnesia. 


910  On  Chemkal  TesU.  [Oct. 

30.  COliUKBlUll.  Tliere  is  great  difficulty  in  separating  co- 
lumbium  from  other  substances.  The  infusion  of  galls  produces  in 
solutions  of  columbium  an  orange  precipitate,  and  the  recently  pre- 
pared oxide  of  the  metal  is  soluble  in  citric,  tartaric,  or  oxalic  acid. 
The  columbate  of  potash  is  crystallizable,  and  the  oxide  of  the  metal 
is  immediately  precipitated  on  the  addition  of  an  acid. 

31.  COPPER  in  solution,  is  detected  by  ammonia  which  in  small 
quantity  turns  it  first  green,  then  blue;  but  if  iron  be  also  in  solution, 
it  ought  first  to  be  removed.  Clean  iron  free  from  rust  precipitates 
metallic  copper,  and  this  distinguishes  copper  from  nickel,  for  ammo- 
nia turns  nickel  also  blue.  Metallic  zinc  causes  a  black  precipitate* 
The  ammotiia  and  iron  conjointly  are  decisive  tests. 

Potash  produces  a  voluminous  blue  precipitate  (hydrated  oxide) 
which  when  boiled  with  an  excess  of  potash  turns  black  and  quickly 
subsides.    If  the  potash  is  insufficient,  a  light  green  precipitate  occturs. 

Ammonia,  in  small  quantity  occasions  a  green  precipitate  which  ea<tily 
dissolves  in  more  ammonia  and  produces  a  blue  solution.  If  this  solu- 
tion be  boiled  with  caustic  potash  a  dense  black  precipitate  is  formed. 

Carbonate  of  potash,    A  blue  precipitate,  rendered  black  by  boiling. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia.    Same  as  ammonia. 

Phosphate  of  soda,  A  greenish  white  precipitate  soluble  in  ammonia 
and  if  potash  be  added,  a  dense  black  precipitate  takes  place  on  boil* 
ing. 

Oxalic  acid.    A  greenish  white  precipitate, 

Prussiate  of  potash,  A  reddish  brown  precipitate  insoluble  in  muri* 
tic  acid.  This  and  clean  iron  are  trust-worthy  tests,  but  the  solution 
should  be  either  neutral  or  slightly  acid,  and  not  alkaline. 

Red  prussiate  of  potash,  a  yellow  green  precipitate  insoluble  in  muria- 
tic acid. 

Hydfosulphuret  of  ammonia^  liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen^  and  a 
current  of  sulphuretted  hydroijen  gas,  give  black  or  dark  brown  precipi- 
tates according  to  the  quantity  of  copper  in  solution. 

Metallic  zinc  or  tin  precipitates  copper  black. 

Metallic  iron,  pure  copper. 

ff.  Persalts  of  copper  turn  blue  with  ammouia;  blue  with  potassa ; 
reddish  brown  with  prussiate  of  potassa,  and  black  with  hydrosulphuret 
of  ammonia.  By  these  indications  copper  may  be  distinguished  from 
other  metals  and  from  nickel,  as  before  stated,  as  well  as  also  by  its 
action  with  solution  of  potassa,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen:  the  first  of 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  311 

which  turns  nickel  apple  green,  but  copper  blue;  and  the  second 
produces  no  immediate  precipitate  with  nickel,  but  with  copper  it  does. 
The  hy<i rated  blue  oxide  of  copper  is  converted  to  black  by  boiling. 

b.  The  greater  number  of  the  salts  of  copper  are  soluble  in  water, 
and  speedily  acquire  a  blue  or  green  colour  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
salts  of  sub-oxide  of  copper  are  never  blue  or  green,  but  white,  red, 
brown  or  black. 

c.  The  deutoxide  of  copper  is  black :  it  fuses  on  exposure  to  a  very 
strong  heat.  It  readily  dissolves  in  acids.  The  solution  has  generally 
a  blue  colour.    The  muriate  solution  is  of  an  emerald  green  colour. 

d.  The  solutions  of  neutral  salts  of  deutoxide  of  copper  redden  lit- 
raus  paper. 

€,  Before  the  blow-pipe  with  soda  on  charcoal  the  salts  of  copper  are 
reduced  to  a  metallic  globule.  With  borax  they  give  a  dark  green  in 
the  exterior,  and  a  reddish  brown  colour  in  the  interior  flame. 

/.  Copper  m  solution  may  he  decisively  disUnguished  by  the  joint  ac" 
tion  of  ammonia  and  clean  iron.  Clean  iron  d'pped  into  and  remaining 
a  few  minutes  even  in  a  weak  solution  of  copper t  becomes  coated  with  it, 

g.  Persalts  of  copper  have  a  blue  or  green  colour,  prosalts  are  colour* 
less,  but  absorb  oxygen  rapidly  and  become  blue. 

52.  COPPER,  metallic  detects  and  precipitates  silver  in  solution. 
The  solution  should  be  somewhat  acid  in  order  to  precipitate  the  silver 
completely. 

a.  Tlie  following  analysis  may  be  introduced  here  to  point  out  the 
method  of  separating  copper,  from  nickel  and   zinc.  See  also  41,  a. 

b.  2  i  J  grains  of  copper,  12  grains  of  zinc,  and  20  grains  of  oxide  of 
nickel  were  dissolved  in  uitromuriatic  acid.  The  solution,  strongly 
acidified  with  muriatic  acid,  was  diluted  with  about  a  pint  of  water; 
a  current  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  was  then  passed  through  the 
solution  until  all  the  copper  was  precipitated  ;  the  bisulphuret  of  cop- 
per thus  formed,  having  been  well  washed,  was  acted  on  by  nitric  acid, 
which  dissolved  the  copper  and  left  some  sulphur;  after  the  separation 
of  the  latter,  the  solution  of  copper  was  boiled  with  caustic  soda  to 
precipitate  the  peroxide,  which  after  ignition  weighed  30.4  grains 
which  is  equal  to  21. 3  grains  of  copper.  The  solution  containing  the 
zinc  and  nitkel  was  carefully  evaporated  to  dryness  to  expel  the  excess 
of  acid,  and  the  residue  dissolved  in  water  acidulated  with  one  fluid 
ounce  of  strong  aceiic  acid  S.  G.  1.069  and  warmed  to  assist  the  action. 
AVhen  this  was  eifected,  the  solution  was  diluted  to  about  a  pint,  and  a 
stream  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  was  passed  through  it  until  the  gas 
WHS  in  excess.  A  dingy  white  precipitate  of  sulphuret  of  zinc  fell 
which  weighed  18  grains,  equal  to   12  grains  of  metallic  zinc.    The 


312  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

remaining  solution  containing  the  nickel,  after  being  heated  to  expel 
the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  was  decomposed  by  caustic  soda ;  this  gare 
hydrate  of  nickel,  which,  when  reduced  to  protoxide  by  strong  ignition, 
weighed  20.1  grains.  In  this  experiment  there  was  a  loss  of  0.3  grains 
of  copper,  and  a  surplus  of  0.1  grain  of  oxide  of  nickel;  errors  so  small 
that  they  are  evidently  those  of  manipulation.  London  and  Edinbaigh 
Journal,  vol.  8,  page  81,  1836. 

c, — Nitrate  of  copper  is  reduced  by  zinc,  lead,  cadmium,  and  tin : 
cobalt  acts  very  si  only,  and  bi^^muth  but  imperfectly  even  when  the 
solution  is  hot.  The  reduced  copper  appears  with  metallic  lustre  only 
upon  cobalt,  lead,  and  clean  iron,  with  other  metals  it  forms  a  brown, 
or  black  alloy.  Chhride  or  muriate  of  copper  is  easily  decomposed  by 
iron,  tin,  zinc,  cadmium,  and  cobalt,  and  slowly  by  lead  if  the  solu- 
tion be  not  acid.  The  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  is  reduced  only 
by  zinc,  iron,  and  cadmium,  not  by  tin,  lead,  or  cobalt.  Zinc  is  by  fitf 
the  most  effectual  precipitant  of  copper. 

58.  OOBROSnrs  BUB&IMATB  called  also  per-muriate  ;  oxifwaai" 
ate ;  bichloride^  and perchhride  of  mercury  detects  albumen  and  ammonia ; 
heat  must  be  employed  to  separate  the  whole  of  the  albumen  contained 
in  any  solution  ;  it  will  fall  down  in  a  flocky  precipitate,  which  when 
carefully  dried  will  contain  about  7H  per  cent.  o1  albumen.  To  de« 
tect  ammonia,  see  28.  Corrosive  sublimate  is  detected  by  lime  wateff 
see  75.85. 

a.  The  perch! oride  of  mercury  in  solution  remo?es  stains  on  the 
skin  caused  by  nitrate  of  silver,  and  it  also  effaces  the  so  called 
indelible  ink  for  marking  linen,  the  base  of  which  is  nitrate  of  silver, 
or  the  lunar  caustic  of  the  apothecary. 

34.  riiUORiine  fluatesy  fltwric  add,  these  substances  are  detected 
by  glass,  thus ;  the  fluoride^  or  fiuate  is  to  be  reduced  to  powder,,  and 
mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  to  the  thichness  of  paste,  it  may  iken  be  pud 
into  a  leaden  dishy  and  heated  over  a  spirit  lamp;  fluoric  acid  will 
escape,  and  if  glass  be  held  over  its  fumes  it  will  be  thereby  corroded. 
If  the  glass  is  covered  with  wax  and  tracings  be  marked  on  it  down 
to  the  glass,  etchings  may  be  produced.  The  gas,  or  fumes  of  the 
acid  are  poisonous,  and  must  not  be  inhaled.    See  18,  a. 

53.  OAIiIiS,  tincture  of  detects  iron  in  solution  turning  it  bladk  or 
purple.  See  8. 65.  Alkaline  or  earthy  salts,  if  present,  influenee 
the    colour   changing    it    to   violet    or   purple.     Sulphate    of   lime 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  813 

makei  it  first  whitish,  and  afterwards  black.  When  the  quantity 
of  iron  is  small,  as  in  some  mineral  waters,  a  slice  of  gallnut  may  be 
suspended  in  the  liquid  by  a  silk  thread  for  two  or  three  days.  The 
iron  ought  to  be  in  the  stale  of  peroxide  for  the  gall  test  to  act  imme- 
diately. If  it  be  in  the  slate  of  protoxide,  the  test  does  not  act  till  af- 
ter some  time.  Gall  tincture  acts  also  on  other  metals.  See  the  tables 
of  re-agents. 

a.  By  applying  tincture  of  galls  to  a  solution  before  and  after  boiling, 
it  may  be  known  whether  the  iron  is  held  in  solution  by  carbonic,  or 
by  a  mineral  acid.  If  the  tincture  acts  before  boiling  and  not  after- 
wards, carbonic  acid  is  the  solvent.  If  it  acts  both  before  and  after 
boiling,  a  mineral  acid  is  the  solvent.  If  by  the  boiling,  a  yellowish 
powder  be  precipitated,  and  yet  the  gall  tincture  continues  afterwards 
to  discolour  the  solution,  the  iron,  as  often  happens,  is  held  in  solution 
by  both  carbonic,  and  a  mineral  acid. 

46.  QBliATZNE,  see  jelly. 

57.  oiiUOiHA  is  detected  by  the  carbonated  alkalies.  See  the  ta- 
bles of  re-agents.  Salts  of  glucina  are  not  precipitated  by  oxalate  of 
ammonia,  nor  tartrate  of  potash,  which  distinguishes  them  from  the 
salts  of  yttria.  The  tests  for  alumina  act  in  the  same  manner  with  glu- 
cina as  they  do  with  alumina.    See  26. 

a.  Glucina  is  distinguished  from  alkaline  and  calcareous  salts  in  the 
same  manner  as  alumina.  It  is  distinguished  from  alumina  by  giving 
no  crystals  of  alum  with  potash  and  sulphuric  acid;  and  by  the  colour 
of  its  flame  before  the  blow-pipe  becoming  dark  grey,  or  black ;  and  not 
blue,  like  alumina. 

6.  Litmus  paper  is  reddened  by  the  neutral  salts  of  gluoina. 

c.  Glucina,  yttria,  and  zirconia  occur  in  but  few  minerals,  and  in 
small  quantity.    They  are  rarely  met  with. 

3m,  aiiUTSN  detected,  sse  1. 

39.  QOftD  is  detected  by  sulphate  of  iron,  or  by  sulphurous  acid, 
which  produce  in  very  dilute  solutions  first  a  blue  colouring,  and  after* 
wards  a  brown  precipitate  of  metallic  gold  }  by  oxalic  acid  which  ocr 
casions  a  greenish  black  colour,  metullic  gold  afterwards  subsiding ;  and 
by  fresh  made  muriate  or  proto-chloride  of  tin  which  gives  a  purple 
precipitate,  see  \2$,    Soluiiom  qf  Gold  nm^  lf$  dUtingui^h^  ky  the 


3U  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

united  action  of  these  three  tests,    Hydrosulphurets  produce  a  dark 
brown,  or  black  precipitate.    See  the  tables  of  re-agents. 

a,  Protonitrate  of  mercury  precipitates  gold  as  a  mixture  of  calomel 
and  metallic  gold.  Sulphurous  acid  precipitates  gold  in  the  metallic 
state.  Gold  is  easily  reduced  by  soda  on  charcoal  before  the  blow-pipe. 
It  is  refined  by  cupellation,  and  by  quartation. 

60.  OOftDi  muriate  qf,  detects  tin  producing  a  purple  precipitate, 
but  a  little  carbonate  of  soda  should  be  present  in  solution  .  The  colour 
of  the  precipitate  varies  in  proportion  to  the  relative  quantities  of  the 
tin  and  the  test.  The  colour  produced  may  be  violet,  or  even  rose 
coloured,  see  122. 

61.  mrDROOEN  sulphurettedf  acts  on  most  of  the  metals.  See 
the  tables  of  re-agents.  This  test  is  useful  in  analysis  either  by  itself 
in  the  form  of  gas,  or  in  combination  with  water,  it  precipitates  many 
of  the  metals  in  the  form  of  sulphurets.  See  62  for  detecting  this  sub- 
stance. 

62.  BTDR08U&PBURET8  in  solution  are  detected  by  acetate  of 
lead  producing  a  black  precipitate ;  by  nitrate  of  silver,  or  nitrate  of 
mercury  producing  also  a  black  precipitate;  by  arsenic  us  acid  produ- 
cing a  yellow  precipitate,  and  by  silver  leaf,  or  quicksilver  which  be- 
comes tarnished,  see  the  tables  of  re-agents. 

63.  lODlNB  is  detected  by  starch  which  produces  an  indigo  blue 
colour;  but  this  blue  colour  is  discharged  when  the  solution  is  made 
hot.    Starch  and  iodine  are  reciprocal  tests. 

a.  In  testing  for  iodine  the  iodine  must  be  free,  if  not,  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  acid  must  be  added.  The  solution  of  starch,  (i.  e.  the  test)  most 
be  used  cold.  The  precipitate,  ioduret  of  starch,  is  soluble  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.  Iodine  is  soluble  in  alcohol.  A  stream  of  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen  destroys  the  blue  colour,  after  starch  has  produced  it  in 
any  solution  that  may  be  under  examination,  see  9  and  113. 

64.  IRIDZUM  is  detected  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  which  produ- 
ces a  dark  brown  or  black  precipitate,  but  this  precipitate  is  not  dis- 
tinctive of  the  metal.  Ammonia  and  the  fixed  alkalies  produce  a  yel- 
low precipitate  ;  and  tincture  of  galls  instantly  destroys  the  red  colour 
of  the  solution.  Iridium  may  be  precipitated  (reddish  brown)  by  ma- 
ziate  of  ammonia,  or  the  chloride  ofpotassa,  but  both  the  test  and  the 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests,  31^ 

metallic  solution  must  be  concentrated,  and  then  very  strong  alcohol 
must  be  added  so  that  the  liquid  may  contain  60  per  cent  of  it  in  vo- 
lume. The  precipitate  will  be  chloride  of  iridium  and  the  alkaline 
matter,  both  of  which  are  insoluble  in  alcohol.  The  solution  should 
contain  a  small  excess  of  chloride  of  potassium;— the  precipitate  may 
be  washed  with  spirits  of  wine. 

a.  The  muriate  of  iridium  is  iridescent  having  a  brown  or  green 
tinge;  yields  a  red  solution  with  water,  which  is  rendered  colourless 
by  alkalies,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  ferrocyante  of  potash,  and  infusion 
of  galls.     No  precipitate  is  produced  by  carbonate  of  soda. 

65.  moif  is  detected  hy  tincture  of  gcdls,  which  produces  a  purple 
colour  i  see  55  .•  also  hy  ferrocyanate  of  potash  which  produces  a  blue  colour, 

a.  Solutions  of  protoxide  of  iron  may  be  discriminated  by  their  action 
with  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia  which  gives  a  black  precipitate^  and  by 
the  red  prussiute  of  potash  producing  a  dark  blue  precipitate  ;  and  the 
peroxide  of  iron  by  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia,  prussiate  of  potash,  and 
liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen;  by  which  the  indications  are  respectively, 
a  black  precipitate  by  the  firsts  a  dark  blue  precipitate  insoluble  in  muri" 
atic  a'iid  by  the  second;  and  a  milky  white  precipitate  of  separated  sul^ 
phur  by  the  last.     These  tests  discriminate  iron  from  other  bases. 

b.  The  neutral  solutions  of  iron  redden  litmus  paper. 

e.  When  carbonate  of  lime,  or  carbonate  of  magnesia  is  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  peroxide  of  iron;  and  protoxide  of  mauganese,  the  iron  is 
completely  precipitated,  and  the  whole  of  the  manganese  remains  held 
in  solution.  See  29. 

d.  When  protosalts  and  persalts  of  iron  exist  together  in  solution, 
if  the  solution  be  boiled  with  carbonate  of  magnesia,  the  persalt  is  com- 
pletely separated,  and  precipitates  in  the  state  of  a  sub-salt.  See  36. 
The  carbonate  of  lime,  of  baryta,  of  strontian,  or  of  magnesia,  when  ad- 
ded to  a  cold  solution  of  peroxide  of  iron,  so  completely  separates  it, 
that  no  re-agents  indicate  a  trace  of  it  afterwards.  The  carbonates  of 
baryta  and  strontia  are  to  be  preferred.  This  is  said  to  be  an  excellent 
process  for  procuring  also  oxide  of  cerium  entirely  free  from  peroxide 
of  iron. 

e.  The  following  list  shews  the  colours  of  the  precipitates  of  the 
protoxide  and  peroxide  of  iron,  using  the  same  test  in  both  cases. 


316 


On  Chemical  Tests. 


[Oct. 


PROTOXIDE:  (blue). 

Potash,   flocky    hydrate   preci- 
pitate  nearly  white   changing    to 
grey,  green,  an4    finally    reddish 
rown,  wliere  in  contact  with  the    iron, 
atmosphere. 


PEROXIDE:  (red). 

Potash^    voluminous        reddish 
brown  precipitate   of  hydrate  of 


Ammonia,  same  as  potash :  if 
muriate  of  ammonia  be  present  no 
immediate  precipitate,  but  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air  a  small  green  pre- 
cipitate falls. 


Ammonia^  same  as  potash. 


Carbonates  of  polashf  smd  antmo- 
nia,  reddish  brown  with  botb 
tests. 


CarbotuUe  of  potash,  and  carbo* 
nate  ammonia,  white  precipitate  of 
carbonate  of  iron,  becoming  green, 
and  then  reddish  brown,  soluble 
in  muriate  of  ammonia,  which 
however  lets  fall  a  green  precipitate 
after  standin|^  exposed  to  the  air. 

Phosphate    of  soda,    white :    if 
Pho^haip  o/ioda  white,  turning    ammonia  be  added  brown,  and  af- 
green.  ter    some    time    completely    dis- 

solves. 


Oxalic  acid,  after  some  time  a 
yellow  precipitate  of  oxalate  of 
iron  soluble  in  muriatic  acid. 

Prussiafe  of  potash,  light  blue 
changing  dark.  Insoluble  in  mu- 
riatic acid. 

Bed  prumate  potash,  immedi- 
ate dark  blue.     Insoluble  in  acids. 

Hydrosiilphuret  of  ammonia, 
black,  being  sulphuret  of  iron, 
turning  reddish  brown  iu  air.  This 
brown  colour  distinguishes  iron 
from  niekel  and  cobalt. 


Oxalic  acid,  no  precipitate,  but 
a  yellow  colour. 

Prussiate  of  potash,  immediate 
dark  blue;  insoluble  in  muriatic 
acid. 

Red  prussiate  of  potash,  qo  pr^ 
cipitate. 

Hydrosulphurei  of  ammonia, 
black  pre.'ipitate  becoming  red- 
dish brown  in  air. 


Liquid    sulphuretted     hydrogen. 

Liquid   sulphuretted  hydrogen;     and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  m 

and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas, —    neutral  solutions    a  milky     white 

No  precipitate.  precipitate  of  sulphur;  and  the  w^ 

lution  becomes  protoxide. 

Muriate  of  f     Precipitate  becomes  gradually  purple,  but  a  little  car- 
gdd*  \  bonate  of  soda  should  be  added. 


1^39.]  On  Chmieid  Teify.  il7 

/.  Iron  ores,  as  raagnetic  iron  orest  sometimes  eontals  both  protoz^ 
ide  and  peroxide  of  iron.  To  detect  tbem  dissolve  the  ore  in  a  closed 
flask  with  concentrated  muriatic  acid :  add  to  one  portion  of  the  sola* 
tion  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  a  milky  white 
precipitate  will  indicate  the  peroxide.  Dilute  with  water  the  other  por« 
tiou  of  the  solution  and  test  it  by  red  prussiate  of  potash  and  the  dark 
blue  precipitate  will  indicate  the  protoxide.  See  36;  also  letter  d  of 
this  article. 

^F.  The  protoxide  salts  of  iron  which  are  insoluble  in  water  are 
nearly  all  soluble  in  muriatic,  or  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  This  resulting 
acid  solution  when  supersaturated  with  ammonia,  generally  precipitates 
the  salt.  Hydroi^ulphuret  of  ammonia  added  thereto  blackens  tbis 
precipitate.  The  same  remark  is  generally  applicable  to  the  persalts 
of  iron. 

h.  Before  the  blow-pipe  the  salts  of  iron  yield  with  borax  a  glass, 
wliichi  in  the  outer  flame,  is  of  a  deep  red,  becoming  lighter  as  it  cools. 
In  the  inner  flame  it  is  green  when  hot,  but  colourless  when  coldi 
unless  a  large  quantity  of  protoxide  of  iron  is  present.  To  mierocosmio 
salt,  very  small  quantities  of  iron  impart  a  green  colour  while  hot, 
which  fades  in  cooling  and  disappears  entirely  when  cold.  With  soda 
on  charcoal  the  salts  of  iron  are  reduced  and  yield  after  washing  away 
the  particles  of  charcoal,  a  magnetic  powder. 

66.  moir,  melallie  is  a  good  test  for  copper  in  solutioD,  precipita- 
ting it  in  the  state  of  pure  copper.  The  solution  should  be  slightly 
acid,  and  the  iron  should  be  clean  and  free  from  rust.  The  weight  of 
the  copper  cannot  however  in  delicate  experiments  be  correctly  aseer^ 
tained  by  this  method  of  precipitation. 

•7.  IRON,  protoBulphaie  fit,  ^<sXtG{%  1,  oxygen  gas  in  water,  which 
shortly  after  the  test  is  applied  turns  turbid  :  2  gold:  8  palladium,  both 
of  which  are  precipitated  in  the  metallic  state :  4,  gallic  acid,  which 
turns  purple.    It  also  detects  hydrocyanic  acid ;  see  10. 

a.  Sulphate  of  iron  may  be  likely  to  contain  copper;  if  used  as  a 
test,  the  copper  may  be  detected  by  ammonia :  any  copper  that  may  be 
present  may  be  precipitated  by  clean  iron,  and  the  solution  be  thus  pu- 
rified. 

6.  I  am  indebted  to  a  friend  for  the  following.  Protosniphate  of  iron 
is  a  convenient  test  for  ascertaining  whether  a  piece  of  chunam  (or  mor- 
tar) is  combined  with  carbonic  acid,  or  not  If  a  piece  ofplaisterba 
taken  which  is  partly  combined  with  carbonic  aeid  and  partly  not,  and 


318  On  Chemical  Tests,  [Oct. 

be  dipped  into  a  solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron,  a  deposit  of  the  pro- 
toxide of  iron  takes  place  on  that  part  which  is  not  combined  with  car- 
bonic acidi  and  turns  it  of  a  dark  green  colour,  changing  eventually  to 
an  orange  yellow.  Many  other  metallic  solutionsi  such  as  the  bichlo- 
ride, and  the  proto  and  per  nit  rates  of  mercury  and  the  nitrate  of  silver, 
do  the  same  thing,  but  the  colours  produced  by  them  are  different  from 
the  foregoing. 

68.  JWltltY,  or  gelatine,  is  detected  by  tan,  or  tanning*  which  pro- 
duces an  adhesive  mass.  An  inunediate  precipitate  with  tan  maybe 
conniilered  as  a  pretty  certain  indication  of  gelatine.  The  test  acts  on 
albumen  also,  but  not  immediately,  see  118.  Corrosive  sublimate  does 
not  act  on  gelatine,  but  it  acts  powerfully  on  albumen. 

69.  LEAD  is  detected  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  by  muriatic  acid.  The 
sulphuric  acid  mny  be  free,  or  in  combination  as  sulphate  of  soda,  or 
potash.  The  precipitate  by  muriatic  acid  is  soluble  in  twenty-two  parts 
of  water  at  60®  Faht.  and  in  weak  nitric  acid.  It  is  also  soluble  in 
boiling  water  and  crystallizes  ou  cooling.  Alkaline  sulphates  are  good 
tepts  for  lead.     See  the  tables  of  re-agents. 

a. — The  solutions  of  protoxide  of  lead  may  be  distinguished  by  their 
action  with  sulphuric  acid  which  produces  a  ^^hite  precipitate;  and 
from  alkaline  earths  by  hydrosulphuret  of  nnimonia,  which  produces  a 
black  precipitate  wiih  lead,  but  not  with  the  earths. 

b, — Sulphate  of  lead  is  soluble  in  pure  pottsh,  but  very  sparingly 
soluble  in  dilute  acids.  Treated  with  soda  on  charcoal  lefore  the  blou' 
jiipe  all  the  salts  of  lead  give  button^  or  globules  of  metallic  lead, 

c.  Carbonate  of  lime,  or  of  baryta  added  to  a  cold  solution  of  nitrate 
of  lead,  and  nitrate  of  bismuth,  pnnipitates  the  bismuth;  but  if  the 
mixture  be  boiled  both  metals  are  completely  precipitated.  Lead  may 
be  thus  si*purated  from  the  bismuth  of  commerce,  and  also  from  alloys 
of  copper,  see  41  a. 

d.  Pure  protoxide  of  lead  is  yellow,  but  its  powder  has  a  reddish 
hue.  The  best  solvent  for  it  is  nitric,  or  acetic  acid.  When  it  does 
not  wholly  dissolve  in  these  acids  it  is  impure.  The  red  oxide  of  lead, 
is,  by  a  strong  heat  converted  into  protoxide  of  lead  :  when  put  into 
nitric,  or  acetic  acid  it  becomes  brown  being  partly  converted  into  pro- 
toxide which  dissolves  in  the  acid,  and  partly  into  the  brown  oxide  of 
lead,  which  if  heated  gives  out  oxygen  gas,  and  is  changed  into  the 
protoxide  without  going  into  the  intermediate  state  of  the  red  oxide. 

e.  The  following  tests  act  on  protoxide  of  lead  in  solution  as  follows. 
Potash.   A  white  precipitate  soluble  in  excess  of  precipitate. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  319 

Ammonia,  A  iiliite  precipitate  insoluble  in  ammonia :  acetate  of 
lead  is  not  affected  by  ammonia,  but  after  some  time  a  sabsalt  is  de« 
posited. 

Carbonate  bfpotn.h      1     ^  ^,^j     precipitate  soluble  in  pure  potash. 
Carbonate   oj  ammonia )  r        r  r         r 

Phosphate  of  soda,        Tlie  same,  but  the  solution  must  be  neutral. 

K!s;atei/ potash       ]     '"^  °«^*^*^  solutions,  a  wbite  precipitate, 

Hed  prussiate  of  potash.     No  precipitate. 

Hydroi^ulphuret  of  ammonia.    A  black  precipitate  insoluble  in  excess. 

Metallic  zinc,  precipitates  metallic  lead  in  blackish  grey  shining 
spangles,  or  if  it  be  suspended  by  a  silk  line  in  a  solution  of  lead  iha 
latter  forms  around  it  a  crystalline  arborescence. 

70.  LSAD,  acetate  of,  detects  (a)  sulphuric  acid  ;  (6)  muriatic  acid; 
(c)  alkaline  and  earthy  carbonate:^;  (d)  phosphoric  acid;  (c)  liydro- 
sulphurets  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  (/)  carbonic  acid ;  and  (^) 
boracic  acid. 

a.  Sulphuric  acid,  and  the  alkaline  sulphates  are  detected  by  giving 
a  white  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead. 

b.  Muriatic  acid  is  also  detected  by  giving  a  white  precipitate,  which 
ia  muriate,  or  i-hloride  of  lead. 

c.  Alkaline  and  earthy  carbonates  are  detected  by  a  white  precipi- 
tate ;  but  if  the  solution  in  which  they  are  contained  be  first  saturated 
with  nitric  acid  the  test  does  not  discover  them. 

d.  Phosphoric  acid  and  phosphates  produce  wiih  this  test,  a  white  pre- 
cipitate that  meltsbefore  the  blow-pipe  into  a  pearl  white  globule,  which 
eventually  becomes  pure  lead. 

e.  Hydrosulphurets,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  turn  black  on  the 
application  of  this  test. 

/.  Carbonic  acid  is  better  discovered  by  other  tests  than  by  acetate 
of  lead. 
ff.  So  also  is  boracic  acid,  see  3. 

71.  ILEAD,  subacetate  of  deprives  wine  of  its  colouring  matter.  It 
acts  on  a  variety  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters,  and  is  not  therefore  a 
discriminative  test. 

a.  if  acetate,  or  subacetate  of  lead  used  for  testing  should  be  mixed 
with  acetate  of  lime,  or  baryta,  the  former  i.  e.  lime  may  be  detected  by 
adding  to  a  dilute  solution,  oxalic  acid,  or  oxalate  of  ammonia ;  and  the 
latter  by  sulphuric  acid,  the  solution  being  largely  diluted.    Acetate  of 


d20  On  Chemical  Tests  [Oct. 

lead  ought  to  be  entirely  soluble  in  water:  any  insoluble  matter  may  be 
regarded  as  an  impurity. 

92,  Lms  is  detected  hy  oxalate  of  ammonia  ;  see  15  b,  and  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  but  the  latter  will  not  discover  lime  if  it  is  held  in  Tery 
dilute  solution,  see  15,35,44. 

a.  A  considerable  number  of  the  salts  of  lime  are  insoluble  in  water. 
Some  of  those  that  are  soluble  cannot  be  easily  crystallized.  When  a 
salt  of  lime  is  insoluble  in  water  if  it  be  boiled  for  some  time  in  a  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  potash,  a  white  powder  remains  which  is  soluble  in 
nitric  acid  with  effervescence,  and  which  possesses  all  the  properties  of, 
and  is  in  fact  carbonate  of  lime. 

h.  To  distinguish  precipitated  sulphate  of  lime  from  the  sulphate  of 
barytes,  or  of  strontia,  wash  it  well,  and  boil  it  in  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  water;  filter,  and  divide  into  two  portions;  to  one,  add  muriate 
of  barytes,  to  the  other  oxalate  of  ammonia.  If  a  white  precipitate  be 
produced  in  both  cases,  and  the  precipitate  by  the  muriate  of  baryta  be 
insoluble  in  muriatic  acid,  then  the  base  of  the  sulphate  is  lime.  The 
sulphate  of  baryta  is  insoluble  in  water  ;  the  sulphate  of  strontia  is  not 
quite  insoluble,  but  very  nearly  so. 

0,  Salts  of  lime  are  distinguished  from  alkaline  salts  by  giving  white 
precipitates  with  carbonate  of  potash,  and  if  not  too  dilute  with  sulphu- 
ric acid. 

d.  Lime  may  be  distinguished  from  baryta  by  its  giving  no  precipi- 
tate with  hydrofluoric  acid;  and  when  in  very  dilute  solution,  by  its 
giving  no  precipitate  with  sulphuric  acid.  Baryta  is  acted  on  by  both 
those  tests. 

e.  Lime  may  be  distinguished  from  strontia  by  sulphuric  acid,  bat  the 
lime  must  be  in  weak  solution.  Strontian  gives  a  white  precipitate  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  acts  more  rapidly  on  adding  ammonia,  but  if  the  solu- 
tion of  strontian  be  very  dilute  the  precipitate  does  not  take  place  im- 
mediately. The  same  method  of  discrimination  may  be  followed  with 
respect  to  barytes.  Sulphuric  acid  detects  both  strontia  and  barytes  in 
much  weaker  solutions  than  it  detects  lime,  see  79  d.    Lime  may  be 

further  distinguished  from  barytes  and  strontia  thus :  nitrate  of  lime 
crystallises  hi  prisms,  is  very  deliqnescent,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol. 
The  nitrates  of  baiytes  and  strontian  crystallize  in  octahedrons,  or  seg- 
ments of  octahedrons  ;  are  not  deliquescent,  and  do  not  dissolve  in  pure 
alcohol,  see  44  c. 
/.  Lime  is  always  found  in  nature  combined  with  an  acid,  see  39^  e. 


1839.]  On  Chettucal  Tests.  321 

g.  Lime  and  magnesia  are  frequently  found  together  in  magnesian 
lime  stonu  ;  they  may  be  separated  as  shewn  under  the  article  magnesia, 
79  e. 

73.  LIME,  carbonate  of.  Anhydrous  alcohol ;  sulphuric  CBthert 
and  acetic  aether  disguise  more  or  less  the  properties  of  the  strongest 
acids.  Their  solution  in  these  etherial  spirits  does  not  redden  litmus 
paper  nor  decompose  a  great  number  of  the  carbonates.  But  artificial 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  even  marble  itself  is  attacked  with  extreme  vio* 
lence  by  a  solution  of  muriatic-acid-gas  in  alcohol,  although  diluted 
with  many  times  its  volume  of  water.  This  gas  in  alcohol  altackflr, 
also,  but  less  strongly  the  carbonates  of  barytes,  strontia,  magnesia  and 
soda,  even  when  they  have  been  previously  calcined  ;  but  it  does  not 
decompose  carbonate  of  potush.  Concentrated  nitric  acid  mixed  with 
alcohol  does  not  decompose  carbonate  of  potash,  but  it  acts  energeti- 
cally upon  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  strontia;  it  acts  less  powerfully 
on  the  carbonates  of  barytes,  magnesia,  and  soda. 

a.  Oxalic  acid  which  disengages  carbonic  acid  from  the  carbonates 
of  stronpH,  magnesia,  and  barytes  does  not  act  at  all  on  the  carbonate 
of  lime,  or  of  potash  in  alcoholic  solutions.  These  facts  shew  that  on 
some  occasions  in  which  alcohol  is  employed  in  chemical  investiga* 
tions,  it  will  prevent  the  operator  from  discovering  the  presence  of  aa 
acid  by  litmus  paper. 

b.  A  mixture  of  about  six  parts  of  absolute  alcohol  and  one  part  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  does  not  act  upon  any  neutral  carbonate; 
but  it  decomposes  acetate  of  potash. 

c.  Carbonate  of  lime,  and  some  other  carbonates  are  useful  in  analy- 
sis to  8epara*e  different  substances,  see  65  c.  d,  and  69  c. 

d.  To  distinguish  carbonate  of  lime  from  lime,  see  67  6* 


74.  Lim,  muriate  of,  may  be  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  discover  alka* 
line  carbonates.  The  carbonates  of  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia  separates 
from  this  test  the  lime,  and  the  muriatic  acid  in  the  test  combines  with 
the  alkali  producing  muriate  of  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  alkaline  base  must  be  discovered  by  appropriate  tests, 
see  28,  98,  110. 

75.  liiKS  WATBB,  detects  earbonic  acid  producing  a  white  preci- 
pitate of  carbonate  of  lime.  With  salts  having  a  base  of  magnesia  or 
alumina, and  with  sulphates  it  gives  a  cloudiness  or  a  precipitate.  It  also 
detects  corrosive  sublimate  producing  a  precipitate  of  a  yellow,  or  bri4;k 
dust  colour,  which  becomes  transparent  on  the  addition  of  an  acid. 


839  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

a.  Lime  water  soon  spoils  if  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  made  bj  ad- 
ding distilled  water  to  fresh  slacked  lime  and  stirring  it  repeatedly  du- 
ring 24  hours.    It  should  be  kept  in  well  stoppered  bottles. 

b.  Where  neither  uncombined  carbonic  acid,  alkaline  nor  eartbj 
carbonates,  alumina,  nor  oxide  of  iron  exist  in  a  mineral  water,  lime 
water  is  one  of  the  best  precipitants  of  magnesia.  One  twelfth  part  of 
a  grain  in  a  pint  of  water  may  be  detected. 

c.  Lime  water  decomposes  a  neutral  solution  of  platina  if  exposed 
to  the  sun's  rays.    See  96,  d. 

7B.  LiTBiA,  the  detection  of  this  substance  by  re-agents  is  some* 
what  difficult.  But  the  litbia  in  salts  of  lithia  may  be  detected  before 
the  blow-pipe.  When  a  portion  is  melted  upon  the  end  of  a  platina 
wire  bent  into  a  ring,  and  the  melted  mass  is  placed  at  the  point  of  the 
inner  flame,  then  the  outer  flame  acquires  a  beautiful  and  very  strong 
carmine  red  colour,  see  115  g.  The  chloride  of  lithium  acts  the  most 
strikingly.  When  the  lithia  salt  is  mixed  with  a  potash  sail,  then  the  red 
colour  alone  is  produced  before  the  blow -pipe,  and  the  presence  of  po« 
tasb,  even  when  the  assay  contains  more  potash  than  lithia,  cannot  be 
detected  by  its  behaviour  before  the  bluw-pipe.  When  on  the  contrary, 
a  lithia  salt  is  mixed  with  a  salt  of  soda,  then  only  the  reaction  of  the 
soda  is  observable,  and  the  outer  flame,  even  when  an  excess  of  lithia 
is  present,  acquires  merely  a  yellow  colour.  This  is  also  the  case  when 
a  lithia  salt  contains  salts  of  both  potash  and  soda. 

a.  The  spirituous  solutions  of  lithia  salts  burn  with  a  beautiful 
carmine  red  flume,  particularly  when  the  spirit  is  nearly  consumed,  and 
the  burning  liquid  is  stirred  with  a  glass  rod. 

b,  Tne  presence  of  lithia,  in  solutions  of  the  salts  of  lithia,  is  best 
determined  as  follows.  The  operator  first  assures  himself,  by  the  ad* 
dition  of  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash  or  carbonate  of  soda,  that  the 
salt  in  solution  is  actually  an  alkaline  salt,  which  point  is  determined  if 
this  test,  on  being  added  to  a  not  very  concentrated  solution  of  the 
compound,  produces  no  precipitate.  In  the  next  place,  if  the  solution 
be  not  troubled  by  solutions  of  tartaric  acid  and  chloride  of  platinumt 
the  absence  of  potash  is  determined.  If  farther,  the  solution,  on  being 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  and  ammuma,  produces, 
after  some  time,  a  strong  precipitate,  the  presence  of  lithia  is  deter^ 
mined,  and  that  substance  is  hereby  distinguished,  more  particularly 
from  soda,  but  also  from  potash.  Finally,  lithia  can  be  sufficienUy 
discriminated  from  the  other  two  alkalies  by  its  behaviour  before  the 
blow-pipe. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  328 

c.  Neither  carbonate  nor  phosphate  of  soda;  phosphate  of  potash  ; 
tartaric  acid ;  oxalic  acid ;  chloride  of  platinum  ;  hydrofluosilicic  acid, 
nor  sulphate  of  alumina  produces  any  precipitate  in  solutions  of  lithia. 
If  phosphate  of  soda  and  then  ammonia  be  added  to  a  solution  of 
lithia  a  precipitate  is  produced  but  not  instantly. 

d.  The  solutions  of  the  salts  of  lilliia  act  upon  reddened  litmus 
paper  in  the  same  manner  as  the  corresponding  salts  of  potash  and  soda, 
see  98  c,  and  110  d. 

97.  lilTMUS,  the  solHtioH  and  tincture  o/Htmus,  and  litmus  paper  aU 
act  in  the  same  manner^  namely,  from  hlue^  their  natural  colour  they  turn  red 
mi  the  application  of  an  acid.  See  73,  for  exceptions  to  this  general 
rule,  also  b  in  this  article. 

a.  Fixed  acids  turn  litmus  permanently  red  ;  volatile  acids  produce 
a  transient  red  which  disappeai*s  on  the  application  of  heat,  or  when 
the  paper  gels  diy.  Carbonic  acid  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  wa- 
ter turn  litmus  a  transient  red,  before,  but  not  after  boiling. 

b.  The  salts  of  silver  and  manganese  have  no  effect  on  litmus  pa* 
per.  The  salts  of  nickel  and  cobalt  affect  it  slightly,  but  solutions  of 
the  neutral  salts  of  all  the  following  substance  turn  it  red  : — 

Antimony,  Iron, 

Alumina,  Lead, 

Bismuth,  Mercury, 

Cadmium,  Platinum,  the  oxide,  not  the  chloride, 

Cerium,  Tin, 

Copper,  Yttria, 

Gluciua,  Zinc, 

Gold,  Zirconia. 

c.  Solution  of  boracic  acid  changes  blue  litmus  to  red  or  reddish  ; 
and  renders  turmeric  paper  brown. 

78.  UTBniS  reddened.  Litmus  or  litmus  paper  reddened  hy  dibUed 
vinegary  or  by  any  very  weak  add  becomes  a  test  for  alkalies.  The  blue 
litmus  is  a  test  for  acids.  Suppose  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  to  be 
dipped  into  a  weak  acid,  it  will  turn  red  ;  if  it  then  be  dipped  into  an 
alkaline  solution  it  will  turn  blue,  and  regain  iU  natural  colour.  This 
effect  will  be  produced  as  often  as  it  is  dipped  alternately  into  an  acid 
or  alkaline  solution  of  equivalent  strength.  See  99,  c. 


524  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

a.  The  alkaline  earths  baryta,  stronlia,  &c.  also  restore  the  blue  co- 
lour. To  discover  whetber  alkalies,  or  their  carbonites,  or  alkiiline 
earths  have  acievl  on  the  test,  add  sulphuric  acid  to  the  solution,  the 
earths  will  be  precipiiated ;  but  the  alkalies  will  not. 

79.  mAONESlA.    ^"re  magnesia  is  a  white  powder,  infusible  by 

hcHt,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  water.  If  laid  on  reddened  litmus  paper 
and  moistened,  it  changes  the  colour  to  blue. 

The  fidlowing  t?sts  indicate  magnesia. 

Potash.  A  voluminous  flocculent  precipitate  in  neutral  solutions. 
Muriate  of  ammonia  m;iy  diminish  or  prevent  this  precipitate,  according 
to  quantity. 

Ammonia,  A  bulky  precipitate  in  neutral  solutions,  which  entirely 
disappears  on  ad  ling  muriate  of  ammonia. 

Carbonate  of  po*a  h.  The  s  ime.  If  muriate  of  ammonia  be  previ* 
ously  present,  no  precipitate  occurs  in  this,  or  the  last  case.  If  the 
solution  however  be  boiled,  a  precipitate  occurs. 

PhO'p hate  of  soda  added  to  caustic,  or  carbonated  ammonia  produces 

a  precipitate  in  neutral  solutions. 

Sulphuric  acid 
Jlydrofiuoailic  acid 
Oxalic  acid 
Binoxnlate  of  potaxh 
Hydrosulph'uret    of    ammonia 
Prussiate  of  potash. 

a.  Magnesia  is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  by  the  pnre  alkalies  as 
a  bulky  hydrate,  whi.'h  is  soluble  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  This  latter 
circumstance  distinguishes  magnesi:i  from  other  alkaline  earths,  their 
sulphates  being  very  sparingly  soluble. 

b.  Magnesia  in  neutral  solutions  is  distinguished  from  alkaline  salts 
by  its  producing  white  precipitates  with  caustic  ammonia,  and  carbonate 
of  potash;  and  from  solutions  of  baryta,  stronia  and  lime  by  caustic 
ammoni  I,  which  does  not  precipitate  those  three  earths. 

c.  Miigni'sia  in  aci.l  solutions  may  be  distinguished  from  the  salts  of 
potash,  soda,  or  ammonia  by  producing  a  white  precipitate  with  phos- 
phate of  soda  after  having  been  supersaturated  with  ammonia.  From 
the  svdts  of  lithia,  magnesia  may  be  distinguished  by  giving  a  precipi- 
tate with  an  excess  of  potash,  especially  when  the  mixture  is  boiled. 
From  baryta,  and  strontia,  it  may  be  distinguished  by  producing  no 
precipitite  wiih  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  from  lime  by  its  giving  no  preci* 
pitate  with  oxalic  acid. 

d.  Suppose  baryta,  strontia,  lime,  and  magnesia  to  be  held  together 
in  solution,  they  may  be  thus  distinguished  :  add  ammonias  if  the  so« 


No  precipitate. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  325 

lution  18  neufral,  a  white  flocculent  precipitate  will  fall,  indicating 
magnesia.  Filter  the  solution,  and  add  bydrofluosilic  acid;  after  some 
time  a  precipitate  will  be  formed,  indicating  barytes.  Filter,  and  to 
the  remainder  of  the  solution  add  water,  diluting  it  largely  ;  then  add 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  a  precipitate  will  fall  indicating  strontian. 
After  this  has  completely  separated,  to  the  clear  solution  add  oxalate 
of  ammonia,  and  a  cloudiness  will  indicate  the  presence  of  lime.  In 
this  case  all  4  substances  are  supposed  to  be  present,  but  if  the  tests 
do  not  act,  as  above  stated,  the  absence  of  that  substance  to  whi:h  the 
test  is  appropriate  is  to  be  inferred,  see  1 15,  b.  c.  d,  e  44  c.  and  75,  b. 

e.  Lime  and  miignesia  mny  be  thus  separated.  To  the  solution  add 
oxalate  of  ammonia,  slightly  acidulated  with  oxalic  a<id,  collect  the 
precipitate,  wash,  and  dry  it  at  212.®  lOO  parts  of  the  dry  precipitate 
indicate  38  or  39  of  lime.  Another  process  is  to  add  muriate  of  am- 
monia to  a  muriatic  solution  of  lime  and  magnesiia,  and  afterwards  to 
add  caustic  ammonia  slightly  in  excess;  if  necessary,  filter.  Then  add 
oxalate  of  ammonia,  and  separate  the  oxalate  of  lime  by  filtration.  Phos- 
phate of  8cd:i,  or  phosphate  of  ammonia  now  added  will  precipitate  the 
magnesia,'as  an  ammonia  magnesian  phosphate,  which  dried  at  a  heat  of 
100'  probably  consists  of 


Ammonia              I 

....                  Xf                   a.) 

14.41 

Magnesia             1 

>  .  .  .                  mU                  •  .  • 

16.96 

Phosphoric  acid  1 

»  .  .  •                 wVf                  .  «  • 

30.45 

Water                  5 

...         45         ... 

...                tJO.lo 

1 

>.«.           119              ..< 

....       100.00 

so.  UAONB8IA,  carbonate  q/*,  see  25,  65  c. 

81.  aSAiroANESE.  Liquid  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia  produces  in  a 
solution  containing  manganese  a  white  precipitate,  insoluble  in  an  ex- 
cess of  the  alkali,  changing  to  brown,  and  at  the  point  of  contact  with 
the  atmosphere,  to  black.  Carbonate  of  potash  produces  in  solulions 
of  proto.salts  of  manganese  a  white  precipitate,  which  on  exposure  to 
the  air,  does  not  change  colour,  but  remains  white.  Prussiate  of  potash 
produces  a  white  or  pale  red  precipitate  which  is  soluble  in  free  acids. 
Hydrosulphurets  produce  a  white,  grey,  or  reddish  precipitate.  Chlo- 
ride of  soda  (ccmmon  salt)  dropt  into  a  solution  of  protoxide  of  man- 
ganese  produces  a  black  bulky  precipitate  of  deutoxide  of  manganese, 
a.  The  following  tests  discriminate  manganese  more  particularly. 


326  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

PROTOXIDE.  DEUTOXIDE. 

Potash  produces  a  white  precipi-  Potash.    In  a  muriatic  solution  a 

tHte,  changing  in  air  to  yellow-  dark  brown  volaminous  precipi- 

isb,  then  brown  and  finally  blatk.  tate. 

Ammorua;     a   white     precipitate  Ammonia.     The  same  as  potash. 

which   in  air  soon  turns    brown 

and  finally  at  the  point  of  con- 
tact with  the  air  black. 

Carbonate  of  potash  ;    a  white  pre-  Carbonate  of  potash.     The   same 

cipitate:  not  changing  in  air.  as  potnsh. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia  ;  the  same  Carbonate  of  ammonia »    The  same 

as  carb  :  potash.  a»  potash. 

Phosphate  of  soda,    a  white  preci-  Phosphate   qf  soda,   in  a  neutral 

pitate.  mnriaiic  solution  a  light  brown 

precipitate. 

Oxalic  add,    and    oxalates,    pro-  Oxalic  acid.     No  precipitate  but 

duce  if  the  solution  be   concen-  after  a  time  it  makes  the  solution 

trated,  ifit  contain  no  muriate  colourless. 

of  ammonia,  and  it  be  nut   acid, 

crystals  of  oxalate  of  magnesia  ; 

ammonia  added    assists    these 

tfS'S.  . 

Prusvate  rf  potash,  a  while  or  pale    Prusiiate  of  potash,  a  greyish  green 

red  precipitate   soluble  in  free        precipiiate. 

a^'id.s. 
Hydrosulphuret    qf  ammonia,    in    The  same  as  the  protoxide. 

neutral  solutions  A  yellowish  or 

flcbh   red  precipiiate.     In   air  it 

becomes  oxidised  and  brownish 

black. 
Liquid  sidphuretted  hydrogen,  and    These  tests  produce  a  milk-white 

sulphuretted    hydrogen   gas  no        precipitate  of  sulphur   and  the 

precipiiate  in  neutral  solutions:        deutoxide  is  reduced  to  prutox- 

if  the  solutions  be    made   acid        ide. 

and  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  be 

added  a  pale  flesh  red  precipitate 

occurs. 

6.  The  salts  of  manganese  treated  on  charcoal  with  borax  before  the 
blow-pipe,  produce  a  bead,  which  acquires  in  the  outer  flame  an  ame- 
thyst colour;  but  this  colour  disappears  in  the  inner  flame;  it  howeyer 
may  be  made  to  re-appear  by  placing  the  bead  again  in  the  outer 
flame.  The  smallest  portion  of  manganese  can  be  detected  before  the 
blowpipe  by  fusing  it,  or  its  salt,  with  soda  an  platina  foil :  the  melted 
mass  exhibits  a  green  colour  in  the  outer  flame. 

c.  If  a  mineral  substance  is  supposed  to  contain  manganese,  reduce 
Hto  powder,  pour  upon  it  muriatic  acid,  and  apply  a  moderate  heat 
If  chlorine  gas  should  be  abundantly  produced  the  mineral  is  chiefly 
manganese,  see  11  c,  also  41  a. 


1839.] 


On  Chemiccd  Tests. 


327 


82.  MBRCUmv.  This  metal  is  acted  on  by  a  great  number  of  tests. 
It  may  be  deieoted  by  muri.uic  acid,  which  pioluces  a  while  precipi- 
tate insoluble  in  simple  acids;  but  rendered  black  on  the  addition  of 
ammonia. 

a.  The  following  list  shews  the  different  colours  or  precipitates  pro- 
duced by  the  same  test  in  solutions  of  the  protoxide  and  peroxide    of 
mercury. 


PROTOXIDE. 


Potash,    Black. 


Ammonia.     Black. 

Carbonate  of  potash.  Dirty  yel- 
low, which  becomes  black  by 
boiiincf. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia^  grey :  but 
ill  larger  (|uantify  black. 

Prussiate  of  potash.  While  gelati- 
nous. 

Iodide  of  potassium  ;  greenish  yel- 
luw  ;  test  added  in  larger  quan- 
tity, the  colour  is  blackish,  ex- 
cess of  test  dissolves  the  preci- 
pitate. 


PEROXIDE. 

Potash.  Reddish  brown ;  added 
in  larger  quantity  yellow :  if 
much  free  acid,  or  if  muriate  of 
ammonia  be  present  the  preci- 
pitate is  white. 

Ammonia.     White. 

Carhonate  of  potash.  Reddish 
brown.  If  muriate  of  ammonia 
be  present,  white. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia.     White. 

Prussiate  of  potash.  White,  chang- 
ing after  exposure  to  blue. 

Iodide  of  potassium,  A  cinnabar 
red,  soluble  in  exress  of  tests 
also  iu  muriatic  acid. 


b.  Silver  and  mercury  precipitated,  or  held  in  separate  solution  may 
be  thus  distinguished  from  each  other.  If  in  solution,  drop  a  very  lit- 
tle of  both  solutions  on  different  parts  of  a  piece  of  clean  copper:  rub 
them  with  a  cleau  finger ;  in  each  case  a  silvery  whiteness  will  ap- 
pear: but  for  the  silver,  its  action  will  be  more  certain  if  it  be  rubbed 
with  a  little  common  salt  and  cream  of  tartar  mixed  together.  Then 
apply  heat  to  the  copper:  the  mercury  will  be  dissipated,  but  tl^e  silver 
will  remain.  If  solutions  of  mercury  and  of  silver  be  respectively  pre* 
cipitated  by  muriatic  acid,  ammonia  turns  black  the  mercurial  precipi- 
tate, but  dissolves  the  precipitate  of  silver. 

c.  Protosalts  of  mercury  mixed  with  dry  soda,  placed  in  a  glass  tube 
closed  at  one  end,  and  heated  to  redness  by  the  blow-pipe  are  reduced, 
and  the  mercury  sublimes  in  the  form  of  a  grey  powder,  which  on  being 
rubbed  produces  globules  of  metallic  mercury. 

d.  Hydro-sulphurets,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  tarnish  quicksilver; 
and  turn  its  solutions  black. 


328  On  Chemical  Tests,  [Oct. 

e.  Pure  protoxide  of  mercury  'n  black :  the  peroxide  is  red,  but  when 
finely  pulverized  it  becomes  somewhat  yellowisli.  A  strong  heat  decom- 
poses both  into  metallic  mercury,  and  oxygen  gas. 


',  protom'trateof,  made  by  dissolving  mercurj  in  nitric 
acid  without  heat,  detects  the  follouing  substances. 

a.  Uncombined  aromoniai  with  which  it  produces  an  ash-grey,  or 
black  precipitate. 

b.  Muriatic  acid,  which  gives  a  white  precipitate  insoluble  but  tura- 
ing  black,  in  ammonia. 

c.  Muriate  of  gold,  which  on  adding  the  test  gives  a  dense  bluish 
black  precipitate. 

d»    Muriate  of  platinum,  producing  an  orange  coloured  precipitate. 

e.  Phosphoric  acid; — a  white  precipitate  is  produced,  soluble  in  an 
excess  of  the  test,  and  also  in  nitric  acid.  In  testing  for  phosphoric 
acid  it  is  essential  that  no  free  alkali,  or  alkuliue  earth  be  present 
See  17. 

/.  Sulphuric  acid,  indicated  by  a  w*hite  crystalline  or  pulverulent 
precipitate  that  becomes  yellow  when  repeatedly  washed  with  boiling 
water. 

84.  MBBCSURY  prussiate  o/)  or  cyanuret  of,  is  a  delicate  test  for 
palladium,  which  it  separates  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish  white  preci- 
pitate.   See  95. 


S5.  MBROmiT, /'^^^'ntinVi^,  oxymuriate^  or  perchlaride  ^  may  be 
detected  thus.  Place  a  drop  of  its  solution  on  a  piece  of  clean  polished 
gold,  and  lightly  rub  the  gold  through  the  solution  with  the  blunt  point 
of  a  penknife  ;  the  part  touched  will  become  white.    See  53,  82. 

a.  Lime  water  throws  down  a  lemon  yellow  precipitate,  more  lime 
water  produces  a  reddi&h  yellow  tint  ,  a  further  quantity  restores  the 
lemon  yellow  colour.  Caustic  potash  produces  a  yellow  precipitate. 
Caustic  ammonia  causes  a  fine  white  flocculent  precipitate  which  is  a 
triple  compound  of  ammonia,  chlorine  and  mercury.  Carbonate  of  po- 
tash gives  a  brick  red  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  mercury.  Ferrocya- 
nate  of  potash  occasions  a  white  precipitate  of  ferrocyanate  of  mercury, 
which  gradually  but  slowly  becomes  yellowish  and  at  length  pale  blue. 
Polished  copper  becomes  rarnished,  and  if  rubbed  becomes  of  ailveiy 
whiteness.  Solution  of  albumen  causes  a  white  precipitate  soluble  in 
excess  of  albumen. 


1339.  ]  On  Chemical  Tests.  329 

b.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  precipitates  the  bi-sulphuret  of  mer- 
cury ;  if  the  solution  is  not  very  dilute  a  white  or  yellowish  colour  is 
produced  before  it  becomes  black.  Hydriodate  of  potash  causes  a  beau* 
tiful  scarlet  coloured  precipitate  of  biuiodide  of  morcury,  which  is  so- 
luble in  an  excess  of  the  test.  Protochloride  of  tin  produces  a  white 
precipitate  changing  with  more  of  the  test  to  a  greyish  black  ;  the  solu- 
tion must  be  excluded  from  the  air,  otherwise  bichloride  of  tin  is  form- 
ed which  does  not  act  on  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

c.  Many  of  the  foregoing  tests  acts  on  other  solutions  of  mercury, 
besides  the  perchioride.    See  82. 


MOLTBDBNOM.  No  acid  but  the  nitric  or  nitro-muriatic  acts 
on  this  metal,  but  several  acids  act  on  its  oxide  and  afford  blue  solutions. 
Molybdic  acid  gives  with  nitrate  of  lead  a  white  precipitate  soluble  ia 
nitric  acid  ;  with  the  nitrates  of  mercury  and  silver  a  white  flaky  pre- 
cipitate; with  nitrate  of  copper  a  greenish  precipitate,  and  it  affords  a 
white  precipitate  with  neutral  solutions  of  all  the  following  tests;  sul* 
phate  of  zinc ;  muriates  of  bismuth,  antimony,  platinum  and  gold ; 
and  nitrate  of  nickel.  Deutoxide  salts  of  molybdenum  are  precipitated 
brown  by  alkalies  and  their  carbonates,  see  the  tables  of  re-agents. 

a.  There  are  two  oxides  of  molybdenum;  the  protoxide,  which  ia 
black,  and  the  deutoxide,   which  is  brown. 

87.  MUCUS  detected ;  sub-acetate  of  lead  instantly  acts  on  animal 
mucilage,  or  mucus,  and  produces  with  it  a  copious  white  and  flaky  pre- 
cipitate, but  subacetate  of  lead  is  not  rendered  turbid  by  a  solution  of 
animal  gelatine.  This  test  acts  on  a  variety  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matters,  and  is  not  therefore  a  distinctive  test  for  mucus,  but  as  mucus 
is  not  aflfected  by  tan  the  action  of  tan  may  serve  to  distinguish  be- 
tween mucus  and  gelatine,  see  118. 

88.  MUBIATIC  AOID,  AMD  MUBIATSS,  detected.  See  11,  83  bf 
and  108. 

88.  VICKB&.  Pure  oxide  of  nickel  is  dark  grey :  the  hydrate  is 
green.  The  solution  is  green.  The  following  tests  detect  nickeL 
There  are  two  oxides :  the  protoxide  and  the  peroxide. 

Potash^  apple  green  precipitate. 

.^mmonta,  in  small  quantity  a  green  troubling ;  on  adding  a  larger 


380  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

qaantity  a  fine  blu^  colour  inclioing  slightly  to  violet ;  after  an  hr-ar 
or  two  the  blue  changes  to  violet  or  to  an  amethyst  red.  A  solutron 
of  potash  produces  after  adding  the  ammonia,  an  apple  green  preci- 
pitate. 

Carbwiaie  of  potash,  apple  green  precipitate. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia^  apple  green  precipitate,  soluble  in  excess  of 
this  test  and  forming  a  bluish-green  solution. 

Oxalic  acid,  after  some  time  a  g  eenish  precipitate. 

JJt/drosulphuret  of  (immotnaf  a  bla'*k  })recipitate. 

Liquid  sulphureVed  hydntgen,  and  sulphuretted  hyrhogen  gas,  blacken 
the  solution,  and  after  a  very  long  time  a  small  precipitate  jppears,  but 
only  in  neutral  solutions. 

a.  To  distinguish  salts  of  nickel  from  copper,  see  51  a,  from  cobalt 
they  may  be  knov^n  by  their  action  with  antmonia;  and  by  potash  on 
adding  it  to  the  ammoniacal  solution,  as  mentioned  above. 

b.  The  soluble  salts  of  nickel  are  »listinguihhed  by  a  beautiful  emer- 
ald green  colour,  while  the  colour  of  the  insoluble  suits  is  usually  light 
green,  and  in  some  cases  leek  green. 

c.  To  separate  nickel  from  copper  and  zinc,  see  52 ;  from  bismuth 
41  a. 

d.  A  great  number  of  non-volatile  organic  substances  hinder  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  oxide  of  nickel  by  alkalies,  but  not  by  hydrosulphuret 
of  ammonia. 

0.  Before  the  blow-pipe  salts  of  nickel  produce  with  borax,  or  micro* 
cosmic  salt,  a  reddish  coloured  bead,  which  fades  on  cooling,  and  the 
colour  often  quite  disappears  when  the  bead  is  cold.  With  soda,  on 
charcoal,  they  are  reduced  to  a  white  metallic  and  magnetic  powder* 

•O.  NITRZC  ACID  AKD  NZTBATBS,  detected,  see  14.  • 

•1.  NZTROOEM  liberated  by  nitric  acid,  see  13  c. 

•2.  OPlVK  detected,  sec  12. 

93.  OSMIUM.  The  solution  of  oxide  of  osmium  is  best  detected  by 
infusion  of  galls,  which  presently  products  in  it  a  purple  colour  tha^ 
soon  after  changes  to  a  deep  vivid  blue.  "With  pure  ammonia  and  vith 
lime  the  solution  of    osmium  changes  to  yelloWf  but  it  is   not  af- 


1889.]  On  Chemical  TeOs.  ^1 

fected  by  ehalk,  or  by  pure  magnesia.  The  solution  With  lime  gives 
a  deep  red  precipirate  with  galls  which  turns  blue  by  aeid^.  Osniiuni 
heated  in  the  air,  and  in  distillation,  has  an  odour  somewhiit  like  chlo- 
rine. If  a  very  small  piece  of  pure  osmium  be  placed  on  a  slip  of  pla- 
tina  foil  near  its  edge,  and  be  brought  into  the  flame  of  burning  spirits 
of  wine,  and  be  held  so  as  to  allow  a  portion  of  the  flame  to  rise  freely 
by  the  side  of  the  platinum  the  fl>ime  becomes  suddenly  very  brilliant 
just  as  if  pure  olefiant  gas  had  been  inflamed. 

•4.  OXTOEM  GAS     in  water  detected,  see  67, 

95.  PALLADIUM.  Mercury,  as  well  as  protosulphate  of  iron  throws 
down  palladium  in  a  metallic  form  :  cyanuret  of  mercury  separates  it 
in  the  foim  of  a  yellowish  while  precipitate  [cyamirel  of  palladium]  but 
the  solution  of  palladiniu  must  in  this  case  be  neutral.  This  precipitate 
detonates  when  heated.  Palladium  forms  a  red  solution  with  nitric 
acid,  and  precipitates  in  a  brown  powder  on  adding  protomuriate  of  tin  ; 
but  if  the  solution  be  much  diluted  this  re-agent  produces  a  fine  emerald 
green  colour.  Prussiate  of  potash  produces  an  olive  coloured  precipi- 
tate ;  sulphuretted  hydrogen  a  dark  brown  ;  and  all  the  metals  except 
gold,  or  silver,  and  platina  precipitate  metallic  palladium.  The  alkalibs 
occasion  an  orange  coloured  precipitate. 

fl.  Almost  all  the  salts  of  palladium  are  soluble  in  water,  and  thfe 
colour  of  the  solutions  is  a  fine  red. 

96.  PZiATXMA.  Platinum  in  solution  which  is  generally 
brown,  or  yellowish  brown  is  detected  by  muriate  of  ammonia,  see 
34,  and  by  protomuriate  of  tin,  which  is  a  delicate  test,  and  produces 
an  orange  coloured  precipitate  (Accum),  see  122.  Protochloride  of  tin 
communicates  to  solutions  of  chloride  of  platinum  a  deep  reddish  brown 
colour  withont  producing  a  precipitate  (Rove).  Potash  and  ammonia 
and  their  carbonates  produce  yellow  precipitates  of  chloride  of  the  test 
and  platinum.  Prussiate  of  potash  changes  the  colour  from  yellow  to 
green 

The  following  tests  give  further  indications  of  platinum. 

Potash  and  ammonia  and  their  carbonates  produce  yellow  precipitates 
as  before  mentioned,  particularly  when  muriatic  acid  is  added  to  the 
solution.  These  precipitates  are  not  soluble  in  free  acidj  but  those  by 
potash  and  ammonia  are  soluble  in  an  excess  of  those  alkalies,  when 
they  are  heated ;  and  if  the  solution  is  afterwards  supersaturated  with 
muriatic  acid  a  white  precipitate  is  produced. 


332  On  Chemical  Tests.  [Oct. 

Phosphate  of  soda,  oxalic  acid,  cyanurei  of  mercury,  and  ^pnUontl" 
phaie  of  iron  produce  no  precipitate. 

Hydroeuiphuret  of  ammonia  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  prodace  a 
brown,  or  brownish  black  precipitate.  Metallic  zinc  precipitates  pla- 
tinum in  the  state  of  a  black  metallic  powder. 

a.  Solutions  of  chloride  of  platinum  do  not  affect  litmus  paper;  but 
folntions  of  the  oxide  redden  it- 

b.  Before  the  blow-pipe  the  compounds  of  platinum  are  completely 
reduced)  and  impart  no  colour  to  the  fluxes. 

c.  Potash  and  ammonia  discriminate  platinum  from  all  other  sub- 
stances; the  solution  should  be  acid. 

d.  If  lime  water  be  added  to  a  neutral  solution  of  platina,  and  it  be 
exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  an  instant  copious  white  precipitate  will  oc« 
cur ;  if  the  platina  be  in  excess  the  precipitate  will  be  pale  yellow.  A 
neutral  solution  of  platina  is  decomposed  by  oxalic  acid,  as  well  as  by 
the  oxalates,  in  the  sun's  rays,  with  a  copious  disengagement  of  gas. 


PLATnrA,  muriate  or  chloride  of,  is  a  valuable  test  for  distin- 
guishing the  suits  of  potash  from  the  salts  of  soda ;  it  produces  with 
all  the  salts  of  potash  a  yellow  precipitate  but  it  does  not  affect  salts 
iivith  a  base  of  soda.  It  is  essential  when  this  test  is  used,  that  there  be 
neither  ammonia,  nor  excess  of  acid  present  in  the  solution,  which  should 
be  somewhat  concentrated.     It  is  also  a  test  for  tin,  see  121. 

The  action  of  this  test  with  the  Halts  of  ammonia  is  the  same  as  with 
salts  of  potash.    See  28  c,  and  the  next  article. 

•8.  POTASH  and  its  salts,  distinguished  from  soda  and  its  salts ; 
also  from  ammoniacal  salts,  see  28,  110  a.  The  best  re-agents  for  de- 
tecting potash  in  solutions  are  the  chloride  of  platinum,  and  tartaric 
acid.  But  as  the  chloride  of  platinum  acts  towards  ammoniacal  salts 
in  the  same  manner  as  towards  the  salts  of  potash,  the  ammonia  in  so- 
lution, if  any,  must  be  first  removed  wheu  testing  for  potash  with  this 
re-agent. 

a.  If  a  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate  of  alumina  be  dropped  into 
a  salt  of  potash,  octahedral  crystals  of  alum  will  be  soon  deposited. 

6.  Salts  of  potash  may  be  thus  distinguished.  Fuse  before  the  blow- 
pipe a  little  borax  to  which  a  small  portion  of  oxide  of  nickel  has  been 
added.  A  yellowish  glass  is  obtained.  Fuse  this  yellowish  bead  with 
a  little  of  the  salt  under  examination  and  if  it  contain  potash  the  bead 
will  assume  a  bluish  or  violet  colour. 


1 839.]  On  Chemical  TeHi.  333 

c.  The  neutral  phosphate,  arseniate,  borate  and  carbonate  of  potaah, 
and  the  fluoride  and  sulphuret  of  potassium  turn  reddened  litmus  paper 
blue. 

d.  Pure  carbonate  of  potash  dissolves  in  twice  its  weight  of  cold 
water.  Common  carbonate  of  potash  usnd  as  a  test  should  first  be  exa* 
mined;  it  may  contain  sulphate  and  muriate  of  potash,  and  siliceous 
and  calcareous  earths.  Nitrate  of  silver,  baryta,  and  oxalat  e  of  am- 
monia are  proper  tests  to  try  it  with,  after  saturating  it  with  pure  nitric 
acid.  Potash  also  may  be  examined  in  the  same  way.  A  solution  of 
pure  potash  will  remain  transparent  on  the  addition  of  barytic  water. 
Pure  potash  is  apt  to  become  carbonated  by  keeping  even  in  glass  stopt 
bottles. 

99.  POTASH,  prussiaU,  or  ferro'prussiate ;  or  ferro'cyanate  off 
is  a  valuable  test:  it  forms  precipitates  with  most  of  the  metals,  and 
from  the  colour  of  the  precipitate,  the  particular  metal  in  many  cases 
may  be  inferred.  It  is  not  affected  by  the  alkalies.  It  is  chiefly  used 
for  detecting  iron  with  which  it  produces  a  blue  colour.  See  the  table 
of  re-agents  for  its  action  with  metals  generally. 

a.  If  ferrocyanate  of  potash  diluted  with  water  gives  immediately  a 
blue  colour,  or  precipitate,  with  muriatic  acid,  it  is  not  pure ;  and  may  af- 
ford fallacious  results  if  so  used  as  a  test.  Neither  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, the  hydrosulphurets,  the  alkalies,  nor  the  tincture  of  galls  produce 
any  precipitate  in  solutions  of  this  salt. 

too.  POTASH,  redferroct/ante  of,  precipitates  the  profosalts  of  iron 
blue  or  green  according  to  the  quantity  in  solution  :  but  does  not  pre- 
cipitate the  persalts  of  iron.  It  is  a  more  delicate  test  for  protoxide  of 
iron  than  the  common  ferrocyanates. 

a.    This  test  precipitates  the  following  metals,  and  gives  the  follow- 
ing coloured  precipitates,  viz. 

Tin White.  Copper Dirty  brown. 

Silver Orange  coloured.    Cobalt    and   uranium Different 

2inc... Do.  shades  ofreddish  brown. 

]Nfickpi Brown.  Mercury,  protoxide,  and.  peroxide. 

Bismuth Do.  Brown. 

Titanium Do. 

loi.  POTASH,  wlphate  of,  acts  as  a  test  like  sulphate  of  soda, 
see  112. 


334  On  Chemical  Tests.  [OcT« 

xoa.  Qunrm,  sulphate  of,  if  a  solution  containing  this  satt  it  aci- 
dulated with  sulphuric  acid,  and  solution  of  hydriodate  of  poUsb  be 
added,  a  yellow  precipitate  will  take  place,  wbicti  will  gradually  be- 
come of  a  greenish  colour,  and  finally  change  to  reddish  brown« 

IX.  Pure  sulphate  of  quinine  wlieu  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallisa- 
tion by  a  heat  of  212^  should  lose  only  from  8  to  10  per  cent  of  water. 
This  salt  is  often  adulterated  by  sugar,  gum,  starch,  ammoniacal  salts, 
and  earthy  salts  as  the  sulphates  of  lime,  and  magnesia,  and  the  acetate 
of  lime.  Gum  and  starch  are  left  undissolved  wheu  (he  impure  sulphate 
of  quinine  is  digested  in  strong  alcohol. 

t03.  BBSnr  is  detected  by  nitric  acid.  When  concentrated  nitric  acid 
is  repeatedly  digested  with  gum,  gluten,  jelly,  or  other  immediate  vege- 
table products,  it  converts  them  partly  into  oxalic  acid  ;  but  true  resin 
suffers  no  such  change,  it  merely  becomes  a  pale,  porous,  orange  colour- 
ed mass,  see  1 :  13  a. 

104.  aBODZVM.  Pure  metallic  rhodium  is  not  soluble  in  any  of  the 
acids,  but  in  alloys  it  dissolves  with  other  metals.  With  ammonia, 
potassa,  soda,  or  muriate  of  platina  it  gives  a  yellow  precipitate  :  and 
a  brown  precipitate  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  hydrosulphuret  of 
ammonia.  There  are  two  oxides :  the  protoxide  black,  and  the  perox* 
ide  yellow.  Henry  says  it  is  not  precipitated  by  ferrocyanate  of  potassa, 
muriate  of  ammonia,  hydroaulphuret  of  ammonia,  nor  by  carbonated 
alkalies. 

a.  The  salts  of  rhodium  have  as  yet  been  but  imperfectly  examined: 
those  containing  the  peroxide  are  mostly  of  a  red,  or  orange  colour ; 
they  are  precipitated  by  cyanuret  of  mercury,  by  ferrocyanuret  of  potas- 
sium and  by  muriate  of  ammonia.  The  action  of  the  pure  alkalies  on 
them  is  very  indefinite.  The  perchloride  of  rhodium  yields  a  diffit:ultly 
soluble,  dingy,  yellow  precipitate  with  excess  of  ammonia  :  muriatic 
acid  redissolves  it,  and  forms  a  red  solution. 

105.  SI&ICA,  is  soluble  in  hydrofluoric  acid,  and  forms  silicated  flao- 
ric  acid  gas ;  it  dissolves  in  no  other  acid  after  the  silicate  has  been  ig- 
nited. Before  the  blow-pipe  silicic  acid  is  best  distinguished  by  its 
fusing  into  a  perfectly  clear  bead  with  soda  on  charcoal  ;  carbonic  acid 
gas  being  at  the  same  time  disengaged  with  effervescence. 

a.  Of  siliceous  mineral  20  or  30  grains  may  be  conveniently  decom- 
posed in  the  following  manner.    Prepare  a  leaden  vessel  of  about  6  m- 


1639.]  On  Chemical  Tests,  3d5 

ches  in  diameter  and  3  inches  deep— cover  the  bottom  to  the  depth  of  Jof 
an  inch  with  a  paste  of  fluate  of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid.  Place  in  the 
vessel  H  sballoiv  platina  dish  supported  by  leaden  feet  and  spread  thinly 
therein  the  siliceous  matter  to  be  acted  on.  Cover  the  vessel  vrith  a 
leaden  lid  and  submit  it  to  gentle  heat,  either  in  a  sand  bath,  or  over 
a  lamp.  The  mineral  will  be  decomposed  in  an  hour  or  two.  During 
the  operation  the  |)owder  must  be  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of  water  ; 
and  when  finished,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  drop  by  drop  most  be 
added  as  long  as  any  hydro- fluo-silicic  acid  is  given  off,  using  at  the  same 
time  a  gentle  heat.  Finally  the  sulphuric  acid  is  to  be  driven  otf  by 
continued  heat  and  evaporation  to  dryness.  The  dry  residue  ia  then  to 
be  moistened  with  muriatic  acid,  and  boiled  in  water. 

b.  Some  silicates  are  soluble  in  concentrated  muriatic  acid  and  form 
a  gelatinous  mass ;  on  adding  water,  the  bases  previously  combined 
with  the  silicic  acid,  are  dissolved  in  the  state  of  metallic  chlorides, 
and  the  free  silicic  acid  remains  in  the  form  of  delicate  flocks.  Other 
silicates  which  resist  the  action  of  acids,  are  converted  into  alkaline 
silicates  soluble  in  water,  by  first  fusing  them  with  three  times  their 
weight  of  carbonate  of  potash  in  a  silver  crucible.  The  fixed  masa 
being  heated  with  concentrated  muriatic  acid,  the  silicic  acid  is  preci- 
pitated as  a  jelly,  and  when  well  washed  with  water  (which  ina^  dis- 
solve it)  and  the  water  is  evaporated,  pure  silicic  acid  remains  in  the 
form  of  a  gritty  white  powder  without  smell  or  taste. 

a06.  snvSR.  Muriatic  acid  fresj  or  in  cottdinatiant  as  in  e<mmon 
salt,  gives  a  white  curdy  precipitate  in  solutions  of  silver.  This  precis 
pitate  turns  black  in  the  sun ;  and  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  the  precipitate  given  by  muriatic  acid  in  solutions  of 
mercury  or  of  lead.  Iron,  zinc,  and  copper  precipitate  silver  from  its 
solutions  in  a  metallic  state.  The  alkalies  and  their  carbonates  also 
act  on  silver,  and  so  do  several  other  tests,  see  11  a,  and  82  6.  and 
table  of  re-agents. 

a.  Pure  oxide  of  silver  is  a  greyish  brown  powder,  readily  soluble 
in  nitric,  and  some  other  acids.  The  following  tests  act  on  solutions  of 
ailver. 

b.  Potash  and  ammonia,  and  carbonate  of  potash,  carbonate  of  am- 
monia and  oxalic  acid  produce  precipitates,  all  of  which  are  soluble  in 
ammonia.  The  colour  of  the  first  two  is  brown ;  of  the  tluree  others 
white.  Phosphate  of  soda  and  phosphoric  acid  give  a  yellow  precipi« 
tate,  also  soluble  in  ammonia,  but  the  solution  when  this  test  is  used 
must  be  neutral.  Hydrosulphurets  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  produce 
black  precipitates. 


Sda  On  Ckemieal  Teitt.  [Oct. 

c.  Metallic  iron,  eopper,  or  zinc  precipitates  silver,  metallic ;  near  the 
fine  the  siWer  is  black,  farther  from  it  white* 

d.  Muriatic  acid  and  the  chlorides  give  white  curdy  precipitately 
vhen  much  silver  is  held  in  solution,  but  onljr  an  opalescence  if  it  be 
in  small  quantity. 

ۥ  Protosulphate  of  iron  precipitates  silver  in  a  white  metallic  state. 
/.  Brfore  the  biow-pipe  taUs  of  silver  are  reduced  to  the  metedlie  ttaU 
hy  fusion  with  eoda  en  ehareo<U» 


toy.  msTait  acetate  off  acts  as  a  test  precisely  like  the  nitrate  of 
silver ;  but  it  is  sometimes  more  convenient  to  use  It  in  analysis  than 
the  nitrate. 


tot.  snVBBt  nitrate  of,  is  an  excellent  test  for  discovering  mniia- 
tic  acid,  and  chlorine,  as  nell  as  muriates  and  chlorides.  It  produces 
with  them  white  curdy  precipitates  that  blacken  in  the  sun,  and  that 
are  soluble  in  ammonia.  As  this  test  is  acted  on  by  alkaline  and  earthy 
carbonates,  and  by  sulphuric  and  sulphurous  acids, >and  their  combina* 
tions,  these  acids  must  be  first  removed  by  nitrate,  or  acetate  of  barytei^ 
and  the  alkaline,  or  earthy  carbonates,  by  fully  saturating  them  with 
nitric  acid.  Carbonate  of  silver  is  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid  with 
effervescence :  the  muriate  or  chloride  of  silver  is  not  See  also  15  and 
106,  for  other  substances  which  act  on  solutions  of  silver. 

a.  With  the  assistance  of  an  alkali,  nitrate  of  silver  is  a  test  for  de- 
tecting minute  portions  of  arsenic,  with  which  it  produces  a  yellow 
precipitate,  see  39.  It  likewise  indicates  minute  portiens  of  sulpfaoret- 
ted  hydrogen,  and  hydrosulphurets  in  general,  producing  with  them 
a  black  precipitate  of  sulphuret  of  silver.  With  chromic  acid  it  yields 
a  carmine  red  precipitate  of  chromate  of  silver.  Vegetable  eztnietive 
matter  also  acts  on  nitrate  of  silver )  the  precipitate  is  brown  and  dis- 
solves in  nitric  acid. 

h.  Nitrate  of  silver  detects  hydro-cyanic  acid  with  which  it  produces 
a  white  precipitate  of  cyanide  of  silver  even  in  a  very  dilute  solution 
of  the  acid.  This  precipitate  is  distinguished  from  other  white  preeipi- 
tates  of  silver  by  its  being  insoluble  in  nitric  acid  at  ordinary  tempeiv 
tures,  but  readily  soluble  at  a  boiling  beat ;  and  by  its  retainiag  its  pure 
white  colour  when  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  see  10.  Cyanide  of 
silver  when  dried  and  heated  emits  cyanogen  gas  which  is  easily  known 
by  the  beautiful  rose  red  colour  of  its  flame. 

c.  Fused  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  contaminated  as  a  test  with  cop- 
per, and  perhaps  with  gold.  But  both  are  said  to  be  precipitated  OD 
the  caustic  being  dissolved  in  water.    If  nitrate  of  silver  be  made  by 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  837 

dissolving  silver  directly  in  nitric  acid,  the  silver  should  be  pure.  Pure 
silver  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  carbonate  of  potash  with  precipitated 
muriate  of  silver,  and  melting  the  mixture  in  a  strong  heat.  The  re- 
sult will  be  pure  metallic  silver.  The  muriate  of  silver  before  it  is  melt- 
ed should  be  well  washed  with  pure  water. 

109.  scbVBR,  sulphate  of,  is  used  sometimes  in  analysis  in  prefer* 
ence  to  the  acetate,  or  nitrate,  but  similar  precautions  should  be 
adopted,  as  in  using  the  nitrate  of  silver. 

lio.  SODA  and  its  salts,  may  be  distinguished  from  potash  and  its 
salts  by  tartaric  acid,  and  chloride  of  platinum,  see  19,  and  98.  Salts  of 
soda  tinge  the  outer  flame  of  the  blow-pipe  yellow,  which  is  the  best 
discriminative  test. 

a.  Potash  and  soda  may  be  very  readily  distingraished  by  the  micros- 
cope thus.  Add  nitric  acid  and  thus  change  the  alkali  into  nitrate  of 
soda,  or  nitrate  of  potash  as  the  case  may  be.  Spread  a  drop  on  a  slip 
of  clean  glass  and  slowly  evaporate  it;  place  the  glass  under  themi<« 
croscope  and  if  the  base  be  soda,  cubic  or  rhomboidal  crystals  will  be 
seen,  but  if  potash,  needle-like  crystals  of  saltpetre ;  the  solution 
should  not  be  too  concent  rated*  nor  the  evaporation  too  rapid,  or  the 
crystals  may  become  confiised  and  irregular. 

6.  The  solutions  of  the  neutral  phosphate,  arsenite,  borate,  and  ear* 
bonate  of  soda,  and  of  fluoride  and  sulphuret  of  sodium,  tarn  reddened 
litmus  paper  blue. 

e.  Carbonate  of  soda,  used  as  a  test,  may  be  examined  in  the  same 
manner  as  carbonate  of  potash,  see  98  d. 

111.  SODA,  euceinate  of,  see  36. 

aia.  SODA,  sulphate  of,  or  sulphate  of  potash  detects  lead.  The 
precipitate,  sulphate  of  lead,  is  insoluble  in  water  and  in  liquid  am- 
monia, but  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  when  assisted  with  heat  The 
solution  is  blackened  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  These  indieations 
distinguish  sulphate  of  lead  from  sulphate  of  barytes. 

a.  Sulphate  of  soda  as  a  test  should  not  contain  an  excess  either  of 
acid,  or  of  alkali ;  both  of  which  may  be  ascertained  by  bloe,  or  redden- 
ed litmus;  see  77, 78,  nor  should  it  contain  earthy  or  metallic  salts; 
the  former  of  which  are  detected  by  carbonate  of  potash,  and  the  latter 
by  prussiate  of  potash.  If  it  contains  muriate  of  soda,  it  may  be  detect- 
ed by  sulphate  of  silver. 


3o8  On  Chemioal  TesU.  [Oct. 

119.  STABOB,  see  63.  When  solutions  of  starch  and  iodine  are 
added  to  each  other,  indigo-blue,  reddish-blue,  violet,  or  black,  are  the 
colours  that  may  be  produced  ;  the  colour  depending  on  the  quantities 
and  proportions  of  the  two  substances. 

a.  Starch  in  solution  is  precipitated  by  subacetate  of  lead;  and  if 
boiled  for  a  considerable  time  with  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  12  parts 
of  water,  sugar  is  formed. 

114.  STBBIi  may  be  distinguished  from  iron  thus:  put  on  the  arti- 
cle to  be  examined  a  drop  of  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  let  it  remain  one  or 
two  minutes.  If,  on  washing  it  oflfwith  viater,  a  black  spot  is  left,  tlie 
article  examined  is  steel ;  hut  iron  if  the  spot  be  of  a  whitish  grey 
eolour. 

IM.  STROVTZA,  iu  a  pure  state  resembles  baryta  in  ita  properties. 
It  is  detected  by  sulphuric  acid  which  produces  a  white  precipitate,  in« 
soluble  in  diluted  free  acids.  Even  a  small  quantity  of  strontian  salt 
produces  a  white  precipitate  with  sulphuric  acid ;  but  the  precipitate 
which  does  not  form  till  after  some  time,  is  insoluble  in  diluted  acid. 

a.  Either  oxalic  acid,  or  binoxalate  of  potash,  troubles  neutral  so* 
Intions  of  strontian:  if  they  are  very  dilute  the  opalescence  does  not 
occur  immediately.  The  precipitate  is  instantly  augmented  by  the  ad« 
dition  of  caustic  ammonia. 

h,  Strontian  salts  may  be  distinguished  from  barytie  salts  by  throw- 
ing them  into  alcohol  and  setting  fire  to  it.  They  occasion  a  carmine 
red  flame^  particularly  when  stirred,  and  when  the  alcohol  is  nearly 
burnt  away  :  baryta  does  not  produce  this  coloured  flame,  see  g. 

c.  Neutral  succinate  of  ammonia  produces  an  immediate  precipitate 
in  concentrated  solutions  of  barytes;  but  none  in  concentrated  nentral 
solutions  of  strontia,  at  least  not  until  after  some  time.  This  test  there- 
fore distinguishes  baryta  from  strontia. 

c/.  M.  Liebeg  states  that  the  iodate  of  soda  is  an  excellent  re-agent 
for  separating  barytes  from  strontia;  the  latter  is  not  at  all  precipitated 
by  it,  while  the  former  is  completely  thrown  down  in  ntutral  solutions. 
The  precipitate  is  flaky. 

e.  For  discriminating  strontia  from  lime,  &c.,  see  72,  and  79  d^  from 
barytes,  see  40  d,  from  lithia  see,y  in  this  article. 

/.  Hydro-fluo-silicic  acid,  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia,  prossiate  of 
potash,  and  red  prusaiate  of  potash  produce  no  precipitate  in  solutions 
of  strontia. 

g.  Salts  of  strontia  impart  to  the  flame  of  the  blow-pipe  a  bright 
carmine  red  colour,  i^hen  fused  on  the  platinum  wire.    Lithia  does  the 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  Sd9 

same,  but  strontia  is  distinguished  from  lithia  by  its  giving  a  precipitate 
with  the  carbonated  alkalies  which  lithia  does  not. 

h.  Strontia  is  found  in  nature  always  combined  with  an  acid,  see 
39^,  c. 

lie.  SU&FBURIC  ACID:  and  sulphates  Sulphuric  acid,  free  or  in 
combination  i^  best  detected  by  barytes,  see  40.  To  detect  the  presence 
of  sulphuric  acid  in  the  sulphates  which  are  either  insoluble  or  very 
sparingly  soluble  both  iu  water  and  iu  acids,  such  as  the  sulphates  of 
barytes,  strontian,  lime,  and  protoxide  of  lead,  it  is  necessary  to  boil 
the  compound  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash  or  of  soda.  The  so- 
lution is  filtered  from  the  undissolved  residue,  and  after  being  super- 
saturated with  muriatic  acid,  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
barium.  This  immediately  produces  a  white  precipitate  of  sulphate 
of  barytes,  provided  the  insoluble  substance  contained  sulphuric  acid. 

a.  Before  the  blow-pipe,  sulphuric  acid  is  detected  in  the  sulphates, 
and  especially  in  those  which  do  not  contain  a  metallic  oxide,  by  the 
following  experiment  :  a  portion  of  the  salt  is  added  to  a  clear  colour- 
less  bead  formed  by  the  fusion  of  soda  with  silica  on  charcoal,  and  the 
whole  is  heated  in  the  inner  flame.  The  colour  of  the  bead  is  thereby 
rendered  dark  brown,  or  with  small  quantities  and  when  it  is  cold  red. 
When  a  sulphate  is  melted  with  soda,  on  charcoal,  in  the  inner  flame» 
and  the  mass  is  taken  from  the  charcoal,  laid  on  a  bright  piece  of  silver, 
and  moistened  with  water  the  silver  acquires  a  black  or  dark  yellow 
stain. 

b.  The  specific  gravity  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  should  be  1.848  at  60^ 
Fah.  If  it  be  heavier,  there  is  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  some 
impurity.  If  a  sediment  occur  on  adding  distilled  water  it  contains 
sulphate  of  lead.  If  iron  be  present  it  may  be  detected  by  diluting  the 
acid  and  adding  a  little  carbonate  of  potash  and  then  prussiate  of  po- 
tash, or  tincture  of  galls,  see  55,  For  delecting  copper,  test  by  ammo- 
nia, see  51. 

c.  All  sulphates  in  solution  may  be  decomposed  by  acetate  of  bary- 
tes ;  see  40  g. 

d.  The  sulphates  are  an  important  class  of  salts :  the  greater  part 
are  soluble  in  water.  Insoluble  sulphates  may  be  mixed  with  3  times 
their  weight  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  ignited  ;  they  then  form  soluble 
sulphates  of  soda,  and  may  be  tested  by  barytes.  The  sulphates  of 
potassa,  soda,  lithia,  lime,  baryta,  and  strontia  resist  a  white  heat  with- 
out decomposition  :  the  other  sulphates  evolve  when  heated  intensely, 
sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous  acid  and  oxygen.  Many  of  them  are  decom- 
posed at  high  temperatures  by  the  action  of  hydrogen,  which  carries 


340  Oft  CJumieal  Tests.  [Oct. 

off  tb€  oxygen  of  the  acid,  and  of  the  base,  and  leaTet  ametallie  anl- 
pburet.  They  are  all  decomposed  by  cbarcoal  at  a  red  heat,  and  most 
of  them  are  tbns  converted  ioto  snlpbareta ;  caibonic  acid,  and  carbonic 

oxide  being  at  the  same  time  evolved. 

117.  SUUPBinumi.  It  it  well  known  that  certain  oxides  posse» 
the  property  of  precipitating  others  from  their  solationst  by  combining 
with  the  acid  of  the  dissolved  oxide ;  and  this  process  has  been  adopted 
for  the  separation  of  certain  metallic  oxides. 

Metallic  sulphurets,  prepared  in  the  asual  way,  may  be  employed  in 
the  same  way  as  the  oxides,  for  precipitating  oxides  from  their  solu- 
tions ;  the  latter  are  then  converted  into  sulpborets*  whilst  the  metal 
of  the  sulphuret  continues  in  the  state  of  oxide  with  the  acid,  previons- 
ly  united  with  the  metal  precipitated ;  this  action  of  the  aulphnret, 
frequently  possesses  advantages  in  chemical  analysis. 

The  results  obtained  by  employing  eight  metallic  sulphurets  will  be 
stated  ;  they  were  prepared  either  by  precipitation  with  sulphuretted 
liydrogen  or  an  alkaline  hydrosulphate.  In  operating  on  the  solution 
of  a  salt  by  a  sulphuret,  the  sulphuret  was  always  nsed  in  excess, 
and  the  mixture  was  exposed  to  a  boiling  heat  for  about  a  quarter  of 
an  hour. 

Sulphuret  of  lead  precipitates  nitrate  of  silver,  sesquichloride  of  iron, 
nitrate  of  copper;  it  does  not  precipitate  nitrate  of  cobalt,  nitrate  of 
cadmium,  nitrate  of  manganese,  sulphate  of  nickel. 

Sulphuret  of  cobalt  precipitates  acetate  of  lead,  sesquichloride  of  iron, 
sulphate  of  cadmium,  sulphate  of  copper,  nitrate  nickel,  nitrate  of  silver ; 
it  does  not  precipitate  sulphate  of  manganese. 

Sulphuret  of  iron  precipitates  nitrate  of  lead,  sulphate  of  cadmium, 
sulphate  of  copper,  nitrate  of  silver;  it  does  not  precipitate  nitrate  of 
cobalt,  sulphate  of  manganese,  nitrate  of  nickel. 

Sulphuret  of  cadmium  precipitates  nitrate  of  lead,  sulphate  of  copper, 
nitrate  of  silver ;  it  does  not  precipitate  nitrate  of  cobalt,  sesquichloride 
of  iron,  sulphate  of  manganese,  nitrate  of  nickel. 

Sulphuret  of  manganese  precipitates  acetate  of  lead,  nitrate  of  cobalt, 
sesquichloride  of  iron,  sulphate  of  cadmium,  sulphate  of  copper,  nitrate 
of  nickel,  nitrate  of  silver. 

Sulphuret  of  copper  precipitates  nitrate  of  silver ;  it  does  not  preci- 
pitate  acetate  of  lead,  nitrate  of  cobalt,  sesquichloride  of  iron,  sulphate 
of  cadmium,  sulphate  of  manganese,  nitrate  of  nickel. 

Sulphuret  qf  nicA'«/ precipitates  acetate  of  le«nd,  sesquichloride  of  iron, 


1839.]  On  Chemieai  TeiU.  S41 

sulphate  of  cadmiam,  sulphate  of  copper,  sulphate  of  silver;  it  does  not 
precipitate  nitrate  of  cobalt,  sulphate  of  manganese. 

Sulphuret  of  silver  does  not  precipitate  acetate  of  lead,  nitrate  of  co« 
bait,  sesquichloride  of  iron,  sulphate  of  cadmiunii  sulphate  of  copper, 
sulphate  of  manganese,  nitrate  of  nickel. 

It  will  be  observed  on  examination  that  sulphoret  of  manganese  de- 
composes all  the  solutions  of  metallic  oxides  tried,  while  the  sulphuret 
of  silver  did  not  decompose  any  one  whatever ;  it  results  from  these 
facts  that  if  silver  has  the  strongest  and  manganese  the  weakest  affi- 
nity for  sulphur,  all  the  other  metals  are  intermediate  as  to  these,  and 
arranged  according  to  their  degrees  of  affinity  for  lalphnr ;  they  stand 
thus  :  silver,  copper,  lead,  cadmium,  iron,  nickel,  cobalt,  manganese. 

The  metals  are  here  so  arranged  that  any  one  of  them  in  state  of 
sulphuret  does  not  act  upon  a  solution  of  the  metals  following:  thus 
for  example,  the  sulphuret  of  nickel  precipitates  the  salts  of  silver, 
copper,  lead,  cadmium  and  iron,  but  effects  no  change  in  those  of  cobalt 
and  manganese. 

There  is  only  one  exception,  it  is  that  the  sulphuret  of  iron  precipi- 
tates the  nitrate  of  lead,  whilst  the  sesquichloride  and  pemitrate  of 
iron  are  only  partially  precipitated  by  the  sulpharct  of  lead.  London 
and  Ed.  Journal,  Page  138.     1838. 

SuLFHURtTs,  may  be  detected,  some  by  fire  which  drives  off  the  sal- 
phar :  and  those  soluble  in  water,  by  being  treated  with  muriatic  or 
sulphuric  aeid,  which  disengages  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  if  the 
solution  be  not  too  dilute,  effervescence  occurs.  This  gas  may  be  known 
by  its  smell,  or  by  its  tarnishing  silver.  Or  the  sulphuret  may  be  pul- 
verized and  digested  with  strong  nitric  acid ;  this  converts  the  sulphur 
into  sulphuric  acid,  which  may  be  detected  by  a  solution  of  barytes, 
or  of  lead. 

118«  VAM,  Of  tannin  is  employed  fox  detecting  animal  gelatine,  or 
jelly,  with  which  it  forms  an  elastic  adhesive  mass,  that  soon  dries  in 
the  open  air,  and  becomes  converted  into  a  brittle  resinous-like  sub* 
stance,  insoluble  in  water,  and  capable  of  resisting  a  great  number  of 
chemical  re-agents.  It  resembles  overtanned  leather.  Tan  also  acts 
on  albumen,  but  the  precipitate  does  not  take  place  immediately  :— 
with  gelatine  an  immediate  precipitate  occurs.  A  solution  of  tan  may 
be  made  by  pouring  hot  water  on  bruised  gall-nuts,  or  oak-bark,  cate- 
chu, &c.,  and  allowing  the  infusion  to  stand  some  time,  filtering  it  when 
it  becomes  cold. 

a.  If  corrosive  sublimate  does  not  act  on  the  liquid  under  exami- 
nation the  absence  of  albumen  may  be  inferred  with  certainty.    Then 


342  On  Chemical  TeU».  [Oct. 

ndd  the  test,  fan,  till  the  vhole  of  the  gelatine  be  precipitated,  bnt  not 
in  excess ;  the  flocculent  precipitate  that  occara  it  a  mixture  of  tan 
and  gelatine,  which  if  weighed  and  multiplied  by  0*6  will  Tcry  nearijr 
give  the  true  weight  of  the  gelatine. 

tl9.  TB&&UBZUM.  In  a  nitro-muriatic  solution  of  tbia  metal,  wa* 
ter  produces  a  white  precipitate,  wbich  fuses  at  a  white  heat  and  sub- 
limes. Tellurium  is  precipitated  in  a  metallic  state  by  ralphnroas  acid; 
by  sulphate  of  ammonia;  by  iron,  and  by  zinc.  Tinctnre  of  galls  pro- 
duces a  yellow  flaky  precipitate,  and  solutions  of  potash  and  soda  white 
precipitates  soluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitant,  see  table  of  re*agcnts. 

a.  The  oxide  of  tellurium  forms  salts  with  acids  and  alkalies :  com- 
bines with  hydrogen  yielding  a  colourless  gas  absorbable  by  water,  and 
forming  a  claret  coloured  solution,  with  an  odour  like  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen. 

lao.  TBORIMA  after  ignition  is  insoluble  in  all  acids  except  hot 
sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  an  equal  weight  of  water.  It  is  precipitat- 
ed white  by  ferrocyanate  of  potash,  phosphate  of  soda,  hydrosulphuret 
of  ammonia,  and  by  oxalic  acid.  It  forms  a  colourleas  glass  withbozaz, 
before  the  blow-pipe. 

a.  Solutions  of  thorina  may  be  distinguished  from  alkalies,  and  from 
barvtes,  strontian,  and  lime,  by  giving  a  gelatinous  precipitate  with  am- 
monia: from  magnesia  by  its  action  with  anmionia  :  and  by  hydrosul- 
phuret of  ammonia,  which  produces  no  precipitate  with  magnesia,  bnt 
in  neutral  solutions  of  thorina  it  precipitates  hydrate  of  thorina;  and 
from  solutions  of  alumina  and  glucina,  by  producing  with  a  solution  of 

potash,  a  precipitate  which  does  not  redissolve  in  an  excess  of  the  preci- 
pitant. 

121.  Tnr  is  detected  by  muriate  of  gold,  see  60.  Muriate  of  platina 
produces  in  solutions  of  tin  an  orange  coloured  precipitate ;  ferriMsyanate 
of  potash,  a  white  precipitate ;  perchloridc  of  mercury  black,  with  pro- 
toxide sails,  but  white  with  the  peroxide:  and  a  plate  or  slip  of  leady 
metallic  tin.    See  table  of  re-agents 

a.  A  slip  of  tin  immersed  in  a  muriatic  solution  of  gold  becomes  co- 
vered with  a  purple  powder  which  gradually  diffuses  throughout  the 
fluid,  and  imparts  to  it  the  colour  of  red  wine,  but  the  colouring  matter 
soon  precipitates. 

b,  A  bar  of  metallic  zinc  precipitates  tin  from  the  solutions  of  its 
protosalts  in  the  metallic  state  in  the  form  of  small  greyish-white  span- 


1639.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  848 

gles ;  but  in  solutions  of  perealts  of  tin,  it  disengages  hydrogen  gat,  and 
causes  a  white  gelatinous  precipitate  of  peroxide  of  tin. 

c.  Before  the  blow-pipe,  salts  of  tin  are  easily  discriminated  hy  pro* 
ducing  a  button  of  metallic  tin.  They  should  be  added  to  a  little  soda 
on  charcoal  and  be  submitted  to  the  inner  Jlame, 

d.  Proto-salts  of  tin  are  easily  recognized  by  their  action  with  the  so- 
lution of  gold,  see  59;  and  60,  the  persalts  maybe  distinguished  by 
giving  with  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia  a  yellow  precipitate  which  is 
completely  soluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitant,  and  with  liquid  sulphu* 
leiied  hydrogen,  or  a  current  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas;  but  in 
these  cases  the  yellow  precipitate  does  not  take  [lace  immediately. 

e.  Nitric  acid  precipitates  tin  in  the  state  of  pure  oxide. 

/.  In  an  ncid  solution  of  antimony  and  tin  with  the  assistance  of  a  va- 
pour bath  heat,  the  antimony  may  he  precipitated  by  immersing  a  plate 
of  tin  and  keeping  the  solution  acid.  The  antimony  should  be  well 
washed  and  dried  before  it  is  weighed. 

122.  TIH,  proto-muriate  of,  is  a  delicate  test  for  platinum,  with  the 
solutions  of  which  it  produces  an  orange  coloured  precipitate.  See  96. 
It  also  detects  gold  producing  a  purple  precipitate.  See  59  and  60.  With 
the  neutral  salts  of  palladium  this  test  gives  a  dark  brown  precipitate, 
but  if  added  in  excesp,  the  liquor  remains  of  a  fine  transparent  emerald 
green  colour.  With  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  it  produces  a 
dark  brown  precipitate.  The  proto-nitrate  of  tin  is  said  to  be  a  mora 
delicate  tent  than  the  proto-muriate ;  it  yields  with  solutions  of  silver ; 
platina,  palladium,  and  tellurium  precipitates  similar  to  that  produced 
in  a  solution  of  gold. 

a.  Thifi  test  is  best  when  fresh  made :  it  is  apt  to  acquire  a  further 
portion  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  become  a  permuriate  which 
does  not  act  like  the  proto-muriate.  It  should  be  kept  In  well  stopt  hot- 
ties. 

b,  Proto-muriate  of  tin  reduces  iron  to  a  minimum  of  oxidation  in  those 
compounds  in  «hich  the  metal  is  peroxidixed:  thus  red  sulphate  of 
iron  is  reduced  by  it  to  the  green.  It  blackens  the  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate. 

123  TlTAWnTM,  is  precipitated  from  solutions  in  which  it  exists 
as  titanic  acid,  by  ammonia,  which  gives  a  bulky  precipitate  simi* 
lar  to  that  of  alumina.    Titanic  acid  is  also  precipitated  but  not  com* 


844  Ou  C^mieal  Teds.  {Oct. 

pletely  by  boiling.  InfuBion  of  gall-nuts  precipitates  it  onoige  red : 
ferrocyanates,  brown ;  and  metallic  sine  produces  a  purple  powder  if 
the  solution  be  nearly  neutral.  Chemists  are  still  far  from  being  able 
to  separate  titanis  acid  with  accuracy  from  all  other  substances. 

a.  The  carbonated  alkalies  also  precipitate  titanium;  and  if  pros* 
slate  of  potash  gives  a  green  colour  it  is,  according  to  Lowitz,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  iron  :  an  alkali  dropped  in  after  this  test,  produces  a 
purple  precipitate,  becoming  blue  and  eventually,  white.  Zinc  im- 
mersed in  weak  solutions  of  titanium  changes  their  colour  from  yellow 
to  violet,  and  ultimately  to  an  indigo ;  tin  produces  in  them  a  pale  red 
lint  which  deepens  to  a  bright  purple  red.  Hydrosulphuret  of  potash 
throws  down  a  brownish  red  or  according  to  others  a  dirty  grass  green 
precipitate.  Salts  of  titanium  in  solution  are  not  decomposed  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. 

IS4.  TUiroivnr.  Gaustie  or  carbonated  alkali  produces  in  solu- 
tions of  tungsten  white  precipitates ;  prussiate  of  potash  dirty  yellow, 
and  tincture  of  galls  brownish  red.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  produces 
no  precipitate. 

a.  Tungsten  has  a  greyish  white  colour  like  that  of  iron,  and  a  good 
deal  of  brilliancy.  It  is  not  magnetic.  It  is  extremely  hard  and  brittle, 
and  requires,  a  heat  of  170^  Wedgewood  to  melt  it. 

1S4.  UBAirniM.  A  solution  of  uranium  in  nitric  acid  is  yellowp 
or  inclining  to  yellow,  and  by  proper  evaporation  crystals  of  a  citron 
yellow  colour  may  be  separated.  In  such  solution  the  alkalies  produce 
a  pale  green  or  yellow  precipitate  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  alkali ;  fer* 
rocyanate  of  potash  a  blood  red  precipitate  ;  iron,  no  precipitate*  The 
proto-salts  of  uranium  are  of  a  pale  green  or  yellow  colour,  and  are  not 
precipitated  by  carbonate  of  potash ;  Thomson  says  they  are  precipi- 
tated by  alkaline  carbonates;  but  the  precipitate  is  soluble  in  an  excess 
of  the  precipitant :  the  peroxide  is  of  an  orange  colour ;  nut  galls  pro* 
duce  a  chocolate  coloured  precipitate. 

a.  No  precipitate  is  produced  in  solutions  of  uraninm  by  sine,  iion, 
or  tin, 

lae.  VAVADIUM.  Tlie  salts  of  vanadium  are  generally  of  a  fine 
blue  colour.  Carbonated  alkalies  turn  the  solution  brown.  Moriatic 
solution  of  vanadium  is  orange  red,  with  ^borax  vanadium  Idims  befoft 


1839.]  On  Chemkal  TeHs.  US 

the  blow-pipe  a  fine  green  glass,  which  appears  brown  when  hot,  and 
when  tin  is  added  the  colour  becomes  blue. 

127.  TTTBIA^  Pure  hydrate  of  yttria  has  a  white  colour  which 
ignition  turns  dirty  yellow.  It  easily  dissolves  in  acids,  forming  salts 
having  a  sweet  astringent  taste.  The  following  tests  indicate  yttria. 

Potash         I  yfYdtt  voluminous  precipitate  insoluble  in  excess. 
cZ^$':^!Znia   }Do.    «.I«bleinexce... 

2SK/"***  }»«•    wluWe  in  muriatic  acid. 
Hydrotulphuret  ammofiia^  a  precipitate  of  yttria. 

Prussiate  potass,  white  chalky  precipitate. 

a.  The  solutions  of  the  neutral  salts  of  yttria  redden  litmus  paper. 

b.  Solutions  of  yttria  are  distinguished  from  solutions  of  alkalieii 
barytesi  strontian,  lime,  and  magnesia,  in  the  same  manner  as  solutions 
of  alumina  are  distinguished  from  those  substances.  From  solutions 
of  alumina  and  glucina,  those  of  yttria  are  distinguished  by  producing 
with  a  solution  of  potash,  a  precipitate  which  does  not  redissolve  in  an. 
excess  of  potash.  Yttria  and  thorina  are  distinguished  by  the  double 
salt  produced  by  sulphate  of  potash,  which  if  it  contain  thorina,  is  inso* 
luble  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  potash,  but  soluble  if  it  con* 
tain  yttria. 

e.    Yttria  precipitates  glucma,  zirconia  and  alumina. 

laa.  snre.  Pure  oxide  of  zinc  is  white.  When  heated  it  becomes 
of  a  lemon  yellow  colour,  but  regains  its  whiteness  when  cold.  It  is 
not  volatilised  by  heat  and  readily  dissolves  in  adds.  Zinc  may  be 
detected  by  the  following  tests* 

Potash,  ammonia,  and  carbonate  of  ammonia  prodaee  a  white  gelali* 
nous  precipitate  soluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitant. 

Carbonate  of  potash.  White  precipitate  insoluble  in  excess  of  pre* 
cipitantt  but  soluble  in  potash  or  ammonia.    If  muriate  of  ammonia  be 


us  OmChemkalTegU  [Oct. 


preteota  this  test  produces  no  effect  in  the  eold,  but  if  lioiled  tfll  the  amr 
moDiacal  salt  be  decomposed  a  preci imitate  falls. 

Pi^spkais  of  soda  in  neutral  aolations,  a  white  precipitate  solnble  in 
adds*  potash  and  ammonia. 

O^aUe  acid.  In  dilute  solutiooft,  a  troubling.  In  stronger  aotutions» 
if  neutral,  a  white  precipitate,  soluble  in  potash,  ammonia  and  acids. 

Prussiate  f^oiath  white  gelatinous  precipitate,  iu«olul>le  in  free  muri. 
atic  acid. 

Bed pmssials  potatk  yellowish  red  precipitate,  soluble  in  free  muria- 
tie  acid. 

Hydro$ulphur$i  qf  ammonia.  White  precipitate  of  sulphuret  of  aine 
If  iron  be  present  the  precipitate  may  be  grey,  or  bWk. 

Liquid  sulphuretted  hydrogen^  and  eulifkuretted  hydrogen  goM^  a  white 
precipitate  in  neutral  solutions. 

a.  The  solutions  of  the  neutral  zinc  salts  redden  litmus  paper. 

h,  A  white  precipitate  produced  by  hydrusulphuret  of  ammonia  in  a 
clear  and  strongly  alkaline  solution  can  consist  of  nothing  else  than  sul- 
phuretofzinc  (Rose). 

c.  Be/ore  the  bloW'pipe  the  ealtt  of  zinc  are  peculiarly  easy  ofdetee' 
ikon.  If  heated  on  charcoal  with  soda  in  the  interior  flame  they  spread 
an  the  charcoal  a  white  coat  of  oxide  of  zinc.  Moistened  with  nitrate  of 
cobaltf  and  heated  in  the  blow-pipe  flamcy  they  assume  a  fine  green  co* 
iaur.  With  borax,  or  with  microcosmie  salt,  oxide  of  zinc  melts  into  a 
clear  glass,  which  flaming  renders  milky. 

d.  Metallic  sine  is  employed  as  a  re-agent  for  separating  coppert 
lead,  tin,  silver,  and  tellurium  in  a  metallic  state  from  their  solutions 
inaeids.    The  solution  should  be  somewhat  acid. 

e.  To  distinguish  sulphate  of  zinc  (white  vitriol)  from  sulphate  of 
magnesia  (epsom  salts)  a  mixture  which  professor  O'Shaughnetsy 
found  to  have  been  sold  in  the  Calcutta  bazar,  add  to  each  of  the  sola* 
tions  a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  Place  a  little  of  the  precipitate  on  a 
piece  of  red  hot  charcoal,  and  urge  the  heat  with  a  blow-pipe.  The 
sine  will  appear  of  a  splendid  yellow  colour ;  but  the  magnesia  will  re- 
tain its  whiteness. 

/.  To  separate  zinc  from  copper  and  nickel,  see  52. 

g.  Zinc  in  solution  may  be  distinguished  from  alkalies  by  its  behaTi* 
onr  with  carbonate  of  potash.  And  from  earthy  salts  by  its  giving  a 
white  precipitate  with  hydrusulphuret  of  ammonia. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  TesU.  347 

129.  smooiriA.  The  hydrate  of  zirconia,  like  that  of  alumina 
forms  a  pale  yellow  horny  mass  easily  soluble  in  acid.%  particularly 
with  heat.  Ignited  hydrate  of  zirconia  is  insoluble  in  mo^^t  acids:  but 
if  digested  a  considerable  time  in  sulphuric  acid,  it  becomes  soluble  in 
boiling  water. 

Potash,  ^     Produce  a  voluminous  precipitate  inso- 

jlmmonia.  Muble  in  an  excess  of  the  precipitant.  The 

Carbonafs  of  potash.  f  carbonates,  however,  if  greatly   in  excess 

Carbonate  of  ammonia.  J  dissolve  a  portion  of  it. 

Sulphate  of  potash.  I     ,^{T  ^  'Y^  ''"*''•  ^.'^^' r ""  precipitate 

f.         J  f,   ^o*  ^  soluble  in  a  large  quantity  of  muriatic  acid. 

Pruseiaie  of  potash.  A  white  precipitate* 

Hydrosulphuretrf ammonia.        A  precipitate  of  zirconia. 

fi!;:wft;2:^y;r-l  no  precipiute. 

a.  The  neutral  solutionsof  zirconia  redden  litmus  paper. 

h.  Solutions  of  zirconia  are   distinguished  from    solutions  of  alka. 
lies,  barytcs,  strontian,  lime,  and  magnesia,  in  the  same  manner  as  so- 
lutions of  alumina  are  distinguished  from  those  substances.    From  alu- 
mina and  glucina,  zirconia  is  distinguished  by  its  insolubility  in  an  ex- 
cess of  potash.    From  thorina  andyttria,  by  giving  with  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  potash,  when  heated,  a  precipitate  which  is  nearly  insolu- 
ble, not  only  in  water  but  in  acids;  while  the   precipitates  produced 
by  sulphate  of  potash  in  solutions  of  thorina  and  yttria,  can  be  dissolved 
by  a  large  quantity  of  water.    Zirconia  is  also  distinguished  from  yttria 
by  being  rendered  insoluble  in  acids  (with  the  exception  of  sulphuric 
acid)  by  ignition,  whereas  the  ignited  yttria  dissolves  pretty  easily  in 
muriatic  acid.    Finally,  it  is  distinguished  from  protoxide  of  cerium  by 
not  acquiring  the  red  colour  of  peroxide  of  cerium  on  exposure  to  heat, 
and  by  not  producing  when  fused  with  borax  or  microcosmic  salt  before 
the  blow-pipe,  a  coloured  bead,  either  before  or  after  cooling,  provided 
the  zirconia  has  been  completely  freed  from  iron. 


048 


OmCiewdetdTeMs. 


[Oor. 


TABLE   or  BE-AGnn:  COMFHAD  fBOM  VBASMK. 


Metal. 


AntlMCMlT  •••• 

Artcnic 

Ane&ie 

Bitmath 

Cadmiam.  •••• 

Ccnum**.  •••• 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Copper 

Gold. 

Iron 

Iron 

Iron'. 

Lead 

Manganese.  ••• 

Mercurjr 

Mercury 

Mercury 

Molybdenum. . 

KickeL 

Otmimn..*... 

FaUadium.... 

Platinum. .. 

Sitter 

Tellurium.  •• 
TeUttrium... 

Tin 

Tin 

Titanium..  •• 
Titanium..  •• 
Uranium -•• 
2inc  .•••••• 


Solution. 


Tartrate  of  anti 
m(»oy  k  potaisa 
White  oxide 

Anenkacid 

Tartrate  bismuth 

and  potassa 
Chloride 

Sulphate 

Chloride 

Proto  chloride 

Nitrate 

Muriate 

Neutral      sul- 
phate 
Per  sulphate 

Per  muriate 

Nitrate 

Neutral   muriate 

Acid    nitrate 

Do. 

Cerro :  sublimate 

Chloride 

Sulphate 

Aq:  sol:  oxide 

Muriate 

Chloride 

Nitrate 

Chloride 

Sulphate 

Acid  chloride 

Acid  per  chloride 

Acid  muriate 

Neut:  sulphate 

Sulphate 


Irpcsion  op 
Galls. 


PacaaiaTB 
Potash. 


Straw    colour, 

white 
But  little  change 


Copious     yellow 
orange 


Yellow 

Yellow,  white 

Yellow,  brown 

Green,  gray 

Brown 

Purple 

Black,  blue  black 


Htpbo.*  Svlp 


White 

White 

Pale  green 

Lilac 

Deep  brown 

Green 

White  pale  blue 


Dingy  tcUow 
Dirty  yellow 
Yellow 
Do. 


Brown 

Yellow  green 
Bluish  purple 


Brownish  green 

Curdy  brown,  dir- 
ty yef 

Yellow 


Straw  colour, 

yellowish 
Fawn,  colour  do. 

Brown  red : blood 

red 
Blood  red 


Prussian  blue 
White 
White 
Greenish  white 

Do. 
White 


Gray 


Olive 
Yellow 
Cream  colour 


Bright  onage 
YeUov 
Oo. 
Dm^  blows 
Tdlow 

Proto  salts,  whilt 
Coptoss  black 
BrowB 

Brown  and  hhtk 
YeHow 
Black,  abnsdant 

Black,  abandaat 
Brown  and  black 
CopHMis  yeiiow 
Black 

Do. 

Do. 

BUek 

MetalUc 
Brown 
Pale  brown 
Brown 


Dark  brown;  red- 
dish 
Acid  chloride      (Dirty  yellow 


White  then  yel- 
low and  bluish 
Pale  yellow 

Deep  blue  (from 

acid) 
Sap  green 

Deep  broim 

Yellowiih  white 


Black 

Deeporoage 
Apple  green 
BUek 
Green 

Blackish  brown 
Straw  copiottt 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Tests.  349 

TABLS  OF  BS-AQSKTS. 

To  he  tued  in  conjunction  with  the  foregoing  Alphabetical  List  of  Tests. 

1  Ammonia.  10  Muriatic  acid.  19  Potaata,  iodide. 

2  „    etrbonatt.  11  Muriates.  SO    „     pruasUte. 

8     „    hydrosulphuret.  19  Oxalic  acid.  gl    „     ted  prusaiate. 

4  Copper,  metallic.  18  Oxalates.  tt  Soda,  phosphate. 

5  Galls.  Uncture.  14  Potash.  83  Sulphuric  acid. 

6  Iron,  meUlIie.  IS    „  carbonate.  U  Sulphatet. 

7  ..    protosulphate.  16    „   chromate.  19  Sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

8  Mercury  eyanuret  17    „    bi-carbonate.  86  Tin,  proto-muriate. 

9  „    protonitratt.  18   „   bin-oxalate.  87  Zinc,  metallle. 

Alumina — Numbers  1,  2,  3, 14, 15,  17,  22  of  the  above  tests  produce  a 
Toluminous  precipitate.  12,  20,  21  and  25  produce  no  preci* 
pitate. 

Antimony — 1,  2,  12,  14, 15,  17,  20,  22  produce  white  precipitates,  3,25 
produce  a  red,  or  orange  precipitate,  27  precipitates  metallio 
antimony  io  a  black  powder. 

Arsenic— 25,  produces  a  bright  yellow  precipitate ;  but  see  the  article 
No.  39,  in  the  foregoing  dictionary  of  tests. 

Bartta~2,  15,  22,  23,  24  produce  a  white  precipitate  ;  14  and  17  also 
if  the  solution  is  concentrated.  1,  3, 20,21  produce  no  preci- 
pitate, neither  does  12,  but  if  the  solution  be  very  concentrated 
a  precipitate  appears  after  some  time. 

BiSMUTH^l,  2,  14,  15, 17»  20, 22  white  precipitates — 16,21,  yellow  pre- 
cipitates—3,  25  black  precipitates— 19,  brown  precipitate — 13 
crystalline  precipitate  after  some  time— 27  metallio  precipi- 
tate of  black  powder — ^5  produces  an  orange  precipitate. 

Cadmium— 1,  2,  12,  14,  15,  17,  22  produce  white  precipitates.  20  white 
passing  into  faint  yellow.  3,  21,  25  yellow  precipitate.  27, 
metallic  precipitate  of  small  glancing  grey  spangles,  or  dendri- 
tical  leaves. 

Cbbium— 1, 2,  3, 12,  14, 15,  I7f  20,  22  produce  white  precipitates.  21, 
25  produce  no  precipitate.  Hydrosulphurets  produce  a  brown 
precipitate  becoming  deep  green.    Accum. 

Chromium — 1,  greyish  blue  precipitate.  2,  3, 14,  15, 17,  22  light  green 
precipitates.  16  deep  brownish  yellow  precipitate.  25  no 
precipitate.  1%  20,  21  no  precipitate.  5  brown  precipitate. 
(PrussiateSi  green  precipitates,  Accum). 


'JStH  im.-: 


w 


jfl  tijr.*  .■T-f.frif^-     T  ^    ■pcasnir'  pea 

^cji—  i  J.  3n»riiu'»  ^^.\nw  3resofisk£e&     i.  li  IT.  It 
]:^r^i4.     :,t  tf  tine  HI  a«:Ttaiu   tin 

3iirif»»  jnsrri^iMrif.    T  lark  ir-vn   szv-cigiranft.  lai:  if 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Te$t9.  ^l 

TABLE   OF  RB-AGBNT8. 


16  PoUsh,  ebromate. 

SO  Fotasb,  pmstiate. 

24  Sulphates. 

17    „     bi-carbonate. 

21    M     red  pruniate. 

85  SalpbuTetted  hydrogen. 

18    „     biD-oxalate^ 

S2  Soda  pboapbate. 

S6  Tio,  proto-muriate. 

19    ,.     iodide. 

23  Sulpburic  acid. 

87  Zinc.  metaUic, 

iRoy—peroxide,    1,  2,  14,  15,  17  cause  reddish  brown  precipitates. 
3  black  precipitate.    25  milky   white.    20  immediate  dark 
blue.    21  no  precipitate.    22  white  precipitate. 

Lead— 1,  2,  5,  10,  12,  14, 15, 17,  20,  22,  23,  24  produce  a  white  preci- 
pitate. 3,  25  give  black  precipitates.  27  metaUic  precipi- 
tate in  the  form  of  blackish  grey  shining  spangles.  16,  19 
produce  a  yellow  precipitate;  the  precipitate  by  16  when 
digested  in  caustic  alkali  assumes  a  fine  scarlet  colour. 

Lime — 1,2,  14,  15, 17,  22  act  the  same  as  they  do  on  barytes.  See 
Barytes  in  this  table.  12,  13  produce  a  white  precipitate  ; 
23,  24  also  produce  a  white  precipitate,  but  the  solution  must 
be  concentrated,  and  not  dilute.  3,  20,  21  produce  no  preci- 
pitate. 

LiTHiA— 22,  if  ammonia  be  added,  produces  a  white  precipitate  |  12,  no 
precipitate. 

Magnesia — 1, 15  produce  a  bulky  precipitate,  soluble  in  muriate  of 
ammonia;  14  produces  a  voluminous  fioccalent  precipitate* 
2, 3,  13,  17,  20,  21,  23  produce  no  precipitate. 

Manganese— />rotoxt£2e.  1,  14  white  precipitates  changing  to  browa 
and  black.  2,  15,  22  white  precipitate  not  altered  by  expo- 
sure to  air.  3  yellowish  red  precipitate.  20  white  or  pale 
red  precipitate.    21  brown  precipitate. 

deuioxide.     1, 2, 14, 15,  17i  22  brown  precipitates.    20  greyish 
green  precipitate.    25  milk  white  precipitate. 

JAERCvnr^protoxide.  1,  3,  14,  25  produce  a  black  precipitate.  17 
white  precipitate,  turning  black  on  boiling.  10,  12, 20,  22 
white  precipitates.  19  greenish  yellow  precipitate.  16  red 
precipitate,  peroxide;  1,  2, 12,  22  white  precipitates.  14,  21 
yellow  precipitates.  3,  25  black  precipitates.  19  cinnabar 
red  precipitate.    20  white  changing  to  blue. 

MoLYFDENUM — (The  molybdates  of  potassa  and  soda  give  a  precipitate 
with  almost  every  metallic  solution).  9  gives  a  white  preci- 
pitate in  solutions  of  molybdenum,  so  do  the  muriates  of  zinc, 
and  manganese.  The  muriate  of  cobalt  gives  a  rose  coloured 
precipitate,  and  26  a  blue  precipitate.  5  produces  a  bright 
yellow  colour  and  20  a  dark  brown  precipitate. 


3.52  On  Chefmeai  TeHi.  [Oct. 

TABLE   or  BB-AGXHTf. 

1  Ammonia.  6  Iron,  meUlUe.  11  Marialef. 

5  „     carbonate.  7    „    protosulphatet  18  Oxalie  acid. 
8     ,,     hydrosulpharet         8  Mercury  cyanuret.             IS  Oxalate*. 

4  Copper,  metallic.  0    „     protonitrate.  14  Potash. 

6  Oallfl,  tinctore.  10  Muriatic  acid.  15    „     carbonate. 

Nickel — 2, 14,  15, 17  apple-green  precipitates.  12  no  immediate  pre- 
cipitate, but  ufier  some  time  a  greenish  precipitate.  20 
white  precipitate  tending  to  green.  8  black  precipitate.  25 
af.er  a  time  solution  blackens. 

Osmium — 5  purple  changing  to  deep  blue.  3  yellow.  Solution  of 
lime  and  of  carbona!e  of  soda  produce  a  yellow  colour  :— 
solutions  of  lead,  yellowish  brown. 

Palladium — 7  precipitates  metallic  palladium.  8  bright  yellow  preci- 
pitate, but  not  immediately.  20  olive.  25  dark  brown.  26 
brown  precipitate  in  nitric  solution. 

Platinum — 1,2,  14,  15,  17  cause  yellow  precipitates.  7, 8,  12,  22  pro* 
duce  no  precipitate.  26  deep  reddish  brown  colour.  19  the 
same  with  a  precipitate.  3,  25  brownish  black  precipitate,  but 
25  not  immediately.  27  metallic  platinum  in  black  powder 
20  changes  solution  from  yellow  to  green. 

Rhodium — 1, 14  yellow.  Muriate  of  platina  gives  a  yellow  precipitate. 
Alcohol  and  wafer  a  rose  red  colour.     3,  25  brown  precipitate. 

SiLVEB^i,  14  brown  precipitate.  2,  7»  10,  11,  12, 15,  17,  20,  26  pro- 
duce white  precipitates.  22  yellow.  19  white  inclining  to 
yellow.  21  reddish  brown.  3,  25  black  precipitates.  4, 6, 27 
precipitate  oxide  of  silver. 

Tbllubium — is  soluble  in  the  nitric, nitro-muriatic  and  sulphuric  acids. 
The  nitric  solution  is  permanent  when  diluted  :  but  the  nitro- 
muriatic  lets  fall  a  snbmuriate  on  the  addition  of  distilled 
water.  The  sulphuric  solution  is  of  a  deep  blue  or  purple 
colour.  Heat  precipitates  the  metal  white ;  but  if  diluted  with 
water,  black.    5  produces  a  flaky  yellow  precipitate. 

Tin — protoxide.  1,  2, 12, 14, 15, 17,  21,  22  cause  white  precipitates  j 
20  white  gelatinous  precipitate.  19  white  ilocetdent  precipi- 
tate inclining  to  yellow  or  red.  3,  25  yield  dark  brown  preci- 
pitates. 27  metallic  tin  in  the  form  of  small  greyish  white 
spangles. 


1839.]  On  Chemical  Teste.  36^ 

TABLB  OF  BB«AGBNT« 

16  Fotuh,  ehromate.  90  Potash,  prataiato.  94  Sulphates. 

17  „    bi-carbonate,  21    ,,    red  pnisaiate  25  Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 

18  M    bin-oxalate.  99  Soda,  phosphate.  96  Tin,  proto-muriate. 

19  .,     iodidft  93  Sulphuric  acid.  97  Zioc,  metallic. 

Tiv-^peroxide.     1,  2,  14,  15,   17,22  occasion  white  precipitates.    12 
19,  21  no  precipitate.    3  yellow  precipitate  if  solution  be  neu- 
tral.   25  yellow  precipitate,  but  not  immediately.    27  a  white 
gelatinous  precipitate. 
Titanium— 1, 14  give  white  precipitates.    3,  20  green  precipitates.    5 

brownish  red  precipitate. 
Thobina — 1,  2, 3, 14, 15  produce  precipitates.     12,  20  produce  a  white 
heavy  precipitate.    22  white  flocky  precipitate.    2],  25  pro- 
duce no  precipitate. 
ToKGSTEK — I,  2,  14,  15  white  precipitate.    5  brownish  red.    20  dirty 

yellow.    25  no  precipitate. 
Uranium — 1,  14  cause    yellow    precipitates.    3  dark   brown.    20  fine 
brown.     Hydriodric  acid,  yt^lhiw.    5  chocolate  bruwn  precipi- 
tate in  neutral  solutions.    No  precipitate  by  zinc,  iron  or  tin. 
Yttbia— 1,  2,  12,  14, 15,  17,  20,  22  all  produce  a  white  precipitate.    21| 

25  produce  no  precipitate. 
2^c— 1,  2,  3,  12, 14, 15, 17, 20,  22  produce  white  precipitates,  some  of 
which  are  gelatinous.    25  produces  a  white  precipitate  in  neu- 
tral, but  not  in  acid  solutions.    21  yellowish  red  precipitate.. 
5  no  precipitate. 
ZiBCONiA — 1,  2,  3, 12,  14,  15,  17,  20,  22  produce  voluminous    precipi- 
tates.   21  and  25  produce  no  precipitate* 


354 


On  Chemical  Te$U. 


[Oct. 


TABLE  OF  RE-AGENTS.     TO  BE  USED  IN  CONJUNCTION 


1  Antimony 

2  Arsenic. ...... 

3  Bismuth 


4  radmium...... 

5  Cprium 

6  Chromium.. .. 

7  Cobalt 


Ammonia 


White 


8  Poluuibium 

9  Copper 

10  Glucma.... 

11  Gold 

12  Iridium. ... 


13  Iron  protoxide. 

14  Iron  peroxide.. 

15  Lead 

16  Manganebe,ox  : 


17  Deutoxide.... 

18  Mercury  oxide. 

19  Peroxide 

20  Molvbdenum... 

21  Nickel 

22  Osmium 

23  Palladium.... 

24  Platinum 

25  Silver 


White 

White 
White 
Grey,  violet 
Blue,  green 


Blue 

Voluminous 
Yellow 
Yellow 

Flocky  white  chg.  White 

brown} 
Brown  Brown 

White  White 

White  chg.  black  White 

Brown  Brown 

Black  Black 

White  White 


Carbonate 
Ammonia 


White 


White 

While 
White 
Light  green 
Ked    ^ 


Htdrosolph 
Ammonia 


Blue 

Voluminous 

Yellow 


Red,  orange 
Yellow 
Black,  brown 

Yellow 
White 
Light  green 
Black 

Light  brown 
Black,  browD 
Glucina 
Dark  brown 


TiNCTi-ax 
Galls 


White,strawooli. 


Red,   yellow  o^ 

ange 
None 
Yellowish 
Brown 
Whitish 
Red 

Brown,  Green 


Blue 


26  Tellurium 

27  Tin.  protoxide. 
^%  Tin  peroxide.. 
29  Titanium 


30  Thorina. 

31  Uranium. 

32  Yttria... 

33  Zinc 

34  Zirconia . 


Orange 
Yellow 
Brown,  dissolves 


White 
White 


Gelatinous 

Yellow 

Whiteft 

White  i^elatinous  White 

Voluminous  Voluminous 


Green 


Yellow 
White 


White 
White 


Precipitate 

White 

Whiteft 


Black 

Black 
Black 
Yellowish,  red 

Yellowish,  red 

Black 

Black 


Green,  brown 
Color  diachargtd 

Purple 

Purple 

Wbite,  yellowish 
Dirty    yellow, 


Black,  yeh  green 
Yellow,  metallic 
Brown 
Brown 
Black,  brown 


Brown,  orange 
Yellow,  green 
Black  or  gfeen 

Hydrate 
Blackish  brown 
Yttria 
White 
Voluminous 


Orange,  yellow 
Yellow 
Brown 
Grey,  green* 
Blue  purple. 


Green,  brownish 
Yellowish  bioea 

Yellow 
Straw  colour 
Yellowish  fawn 
Ked,  brown 


Chocolsae 
YeVlowuiT 


§  Chg :  means  changing,     ff  Voluminous.       *  No  change  ( Henry )k 
KoTS.— Prussiate  of  potash  is  represented  to  turn  solutions  of  titanium  green,  red, 

This  remark  is  applicaUa 


1839.] 


On  Chemical  Test9, 


355 


WITH  THE  FOREGOING  ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF   TESTS. 


Oxalic    Acid 


1  White 
2 

d  Crystals 


4  White 

5  White 

6  Red,  green 

7  White,  red 

8 

9  Greenish  white 

10 

11  Gold,  Kreen... 
12 

13  Yellow  crystals 

14  Yellow 

15  White 

16  Crystals 


Potash. 


White 


17 

18  White 

19  White 
^^U  Dark  Krey 
21  Greeoish  white 

22 

23  

24 

25  White 


White 

White 
White 
Light  green 
Blue 


Caebonatb 
of  potasu. 


Prussiatb 
OP  Potash. 


White 


Blue 

Voluminous 
Green,  black 
YeUow 

Flockv,  white 
chf;.  brown 
Brown 
White 
White  chang 

ing  black 
Brown 
Black 
Yellow 


White 

White 
White 
Light  green 
Red 


Blue 
Voluminous 


White 


Green 


26 

27  White 

28 

29  Curdy  hydiatef 


Orange 
Yelluw 
Bfown 


30  White  heavy 

31  Precipitate 

32  White 

33  White 

34  Voluminous 


White 
White 


White 

Brown 
White 
White 

Brown 

Yellowish 
Brown 


White 

White 

White 

Green 

Green 

Olive 

Brown,  reddish 


Phosphatb 
op  Soda. 


White 
White' 


White 
White 
Light  green 
Blue 


Green, 
Colour  flies 

Blue,  white 

Blue 
White 
White,  pale  red 

Green 

white.greenish 

White,greeni8b 


^ULPHTTD : 

Htoroosn. 


Greenish  white 
Voluminous 


Gieen 


Yellow 
White 


White 
White 


Gelatinous 

Yellow 

Whiteft 

White 

Voluminous 


Precipitate 
White 

Whilett 

White 

Voluminous 


White,  green 


Olive,  orange 
Yellow,  (none) 
Whitish 
colour 


White    yellow 
Gelatinous 
Green,    red, 

brown,  blue 
White  heavy 
Red,  brown 
White 
Gelatinous 
White 


White,  chang- 
ing green 
White 

White 
Whita 
Brown 

White 
White 


White,  greenish 


Yellow 


White 
White 


White  flocky 


White 
White 
Voluminous 


Red,  orange 
Yellow 
Black,  brown 

Yellow 


BUck 

Black,  brown 
Black  metallic 

White 

Black 

Palervd 

White 

Black 

Black 

Blackish 

MetaUic 

Brown  - 

Brown 

Black  mettUis 

Black 

Brown   • 

Yellow 

Nons 


Brown 
White; 


t  Solution  must  be  hot.  ff  Voluminous, 
brown,   and  blue.    A  sufficient  variety;  hat  to,  different  authorities  say  ths  test  acts, 
likewise  to  other  cases. 


356 


On  Chemical  Testa. 


[Oct. 


TESTING  BY  THE  BLOW-PIPE. 
AhbremoJtUms.  P.  means  platina  P,  w,  platina  wire.  P.    fo  :  plaHna  /bU 


SUBBTANCB. 


I  Alumioa. 


On  Platina. 


2  Antimony,  oxide 


3  Baryta.. •• 


•  •  •  • 


Hydrate... 
Carbonate.. 


4  Bismutb. 


No  change 


Fuses  readily,  tub 
limes  in  white 
fumcit:  preeipitQ' 
led  oxi«ie  burns 
like  tinder  into 
ant  imonious  acid. 

Infosibln 


Bubbles:  fuses 


On  Charcoal. 


Mo  change 


Is  reduced 


Infusible 


Is  absorbed 


(Oxide)  fuses  rea- 
dily, mass  dark 
brown :  yellowish 
on  cooling.  In 
very  intense  heet 
reduces  and  per-| 

(forates  the  foiL 
No  change 


6  Cerium,  oxide... 


Fuses   readily  into  I^ffervesces    becomes 
a    nXtiss    enamel   causticand  is  absorb 
white  when  cold.'  ed 
Flies  off  in  fumes  leav- 
ing a  mark  with  red, 
or   orange     edgcv, 
which  mav  be  dissi- 
pated in  k.  f.  with- 
out   colouring    the 
flame.    Oxidf*,    in- 
stantly redui  ed 
Soon  dissip«it«R:leaves 
a  reJ  or  orange  yel- 
low powder  on  the  ch. 


WiTB  Soda. 


Swells:  Infusible 


P:  w  :  fuses  into  a 
cl^ar  colourless  jf lass 
w  hich  becomes  white 
on  cooling 


On  ch.  the  hydrate  & 
carbonate  fuse  and 
are  absorbed 


Oxide    becomes 
peroxide 


7  Chromium  o»itfe 


8  Cobalt  oxide,, ». 


9  Columbium  oaridf 


10  Copper  oxide,,,. 


No  change 


Per.  ox:  docs  not  al- 
ter 


No  change 


On  p  :  w :  not  fustd 
on  ch.reiluced;  sob- 
limes  and  leaves  a 
ciicular  yellowish 
mark. 

On  ch.  not  fused,  soda 
abso.'-beil :  white  or 
greyish  white  oxide 
remains  on  the  ch. 


No  change 
No  change 


No  change 
No  change 


II  Glacina. 


No  change 


12  IroO| oxide.  .••••[Ox:  f:  no  change 


Ox.  f.  black  fflobnle; 
flows  over  tbe  char- 
coal ;  under  surface 
reduces.  R.  f  re 
duces  with  strong 
heat  gives  a  bead  of 
metal 

No  change 


\ 


R.  f.  blackens  and  be- 
comes magnetic 


On  p.  w.  and  ox.  f  dark 
orange  giass:  opa- 
que and  yellow  on 
cooling.  B.  f  opa- 
que, glaM  green  on 
cooling  Onch.ab- 
surbfHl  but  not  re- 
duced 

On  p.  w.  pale  red  by 
transmitted  ligh( 
grey,  cold. 

Combines  with  effer- 
vescence but  not  fii- 
sed,  nor  reduced. 

On  p.  w.  fine  green 
glass,  hot :  on  cod- 
ing coloniless  and 
opaque.  On  ch. 
absorbed  and 
duced 

No  action 


On  ch.  absorbed  and 
reduced:  not  fused. 


1839.] 


On  Chemical  T99U. 


^f 


Ch:  Charcoal.  Ox  :  /:    oxidaHng  flame,    R  :  /:  reducing  flwne. 


With  Borax. 


With  Phosphoric  Salt. 


1  Fusei  slowl)  :  clear  glass 

2  On  cb  :  dissolves  freely  fflassi 
v«lio wish, hot;  nearly  colour- 
less,  cold:  strong  li  f;  ^Ims 
becomes  opaque  and  greyish 


3  The  hydrate  and   carbonate 
fuse    readily    with    efferves 
cence  iotu  a  clear  gidss  which 
becomes   opaque  when  flam 
•d 


4  (Oxide)  ox  :  fl :   colourless 
glass,  U:   f;    partly   reduc 
ed:  muddy  greyish  glass 


Clear  glass 


P ;  w:  and  ox:  f :  glass 
yellowish,  hut:  colour 
flies  on  cooling. 


As  with  borax  but  they 
foam  and  intumesce 
envling  in  a  clear  glass 


Remarks. 


Fine  blue  glass  with  ni« 
tratt  cobalt  when  cold, 
strong  heat 


A  globule  of  different 
shades  of  red  which  flies 
on  cooling  with  nitrata 
of  cobalt 


5  On  p :  w :  yellowish  fflass, 
colour  flies  on  cooling.  On  ch 

SUss    bubbles  cadmium    re* 
uced,  sublimes,  and    leaves 
yellow  oxide. 

6  Ox.  f.  6ne  red,  or  deep 
orange  yellow  glass:  colour 
flies  un  ctK>linK:  cold,  yel- 
lowish tint,  enamel  white 
by  flaming.  In  r.  f.  loses  its 
colour 

7  On  ch.  fiises  difficultly,  glass 
emerald  green.  On  p.  w.  and 
ox.  f.  the  colour  flies,  and 
glass  becomes  yellow  brown, 
when  cold  a  faint  green 
tinge 


8  Fuses   readily,    deep    blue 
glass 

9  Colourless   clear    glass  be- 
comes opaque  by  flaming. 

10  Ox.  f.  fine  green  glass  which 
in  Y.  f.  becomes  colourless, 
h(;t :  but  cinnabar  red  and 
opaque  when  solid 


11  Clear  glass  with  a  large  pro 
portion  of  the  assay. 

12  Ox.  f.  dull  red  glass  becomes 
clear   and    yellowish   or  co 
lourless  by  cooling.    On  ch 
and  r.  /.  himsh  ^reea  giasi 


(Oxide),  ox  :  f :  yellowish 
brown  glass,  hot:  co- 
lourless but  not  quite 
ciear,  cold.  R  :  f :  clear 
and  colourless  glass,  hot: 
opaque  and  greyish 
black,  cold 

Dissolves  in  large  qaan- 
tity,  clear  glass:  on 
cooling  milk  white 


Ox.  f.  fine  red  glass,  co- 
lourless when  cold,  and 
quite  limpid 


Green  glass 


Fuses  readily,  deep  blue 
glass.  Colour  violet  by 
candle  lisht 

Fuses  easily,  glass  per- 
manently clear 

Ox.  f.  like  as  with  borax 
r.  f.  glass  usually  red, 
opaque  and  like  an  ena- 
mel 


Same  as  borax 
Same  as  borax 


With  sub.  carb.  af  potask 
black  glass  when  cold 


Black  or  dark  grey  masi 
with  nitrate  cobalt 


\ 


S58 


On  Chemical  Teits. 


[Oct. 


>UB8TANCB. 


13  Lead,  oxide.  • . . 


14  Lime 


Do.  carbonate, 


15  Magnesia. 


16  Molybdenum.. 


17  Nickel,  oxide.,  •• 


18  Telluxinm,  oxide. 


19  Tin,  oxide 


20  Titanium,  oxide. 


21  Tungsten. 


On  Platina 


On  Charcoal. 


Minium  becomes 
black  when  hot ; 
at  incipient  red- 
ness coangcs  to 
yellow  oxide,  fu 
sible  into  orange 
coloured  glass 

No  change. 


Becomes  caustic 
&  alkaline,  emits 
bright  light. 

No  change. 


Fumes  and  fuses; 
brown  yellow  on 
cooling;  in  R:  f: 
blue  ;  intense 
heat,  brown. 


No  change. 


Fuses  and  fumes. 


Orange  glass  reduces 
into  ahead  of  lead 


No  change 

Fuses  and  is  absorbed 
and  partly  reduced 


Takes  fire  and 
burns  like  tiuder 
into  peroxide. 

No  change. 


No  change 


Fuses:     effervesces  : 
reduces 


R:  f:  peroxide    does 
not  fuse,  but  redu 
ces  in  a  strong  pro 
longed  heat 

No  change 


With  Soda. 


On  P :  w :  clear  glass 
becomes  yellowisji 
&  opaque  on  cool- 
ing. On  ch.  in- 
stantly reduced 


No  action. 


On  P:    w:    effenres- 

ces ;    clear    jglais : 

becomes  milky  on 

cooling.  On  ch.  fuses 

and  reduced. 


On  ch.  absorbed  and 
reduced^  not  fused. 


R:     f:    blackens: 
not  reduced 


28  Uranium,  OTkf<;. 


23  Yttria. 


24  Zinc,  oxide. 


25  Zirconia 


No  change 


Yellow,  hot :  white, 
culd:  does  not 
fuse,     give     out 

{;rcat  Ii;;ht  at    n 
li^li  heat  &  white 
fumes  which  con- 
dense like  wool 
Infuftible:  emits  in* 
tense  light 


R :  f :  blackens :  but 
not  reducen 


Peroxide,  becomes 
oxide,  blackens  but 
does  not  fuse 

No  change 


On  P  :  w :  colourless 
glass,  white  on 
cooling.  On  ch :  re- 
duced. 

On  P  ;  w :  efftfrres« 
ces :  tumefied  in- 
fusible mast.  On  ch. 
readily  reduced 

Fuses  into  a  dear 
dark  yellow  glass; 
white  or  vrey  white 
on  cooling,  and 
crystallises  with 
evolution  of  great 
heat  On  ch :  not 
reducible 

On  p :  w :  dark  yel- 
low glass;  crrstal- 
lizes  on  cooling ; 
opaque  white  or 
yellowish  On  ch. 
r.  f.  reduced 

Onch :  brown  yellow: 
not  fused 


No  action 


Onch:  not  fused:  re- 
duced with  flame; 
white  fumes  which 
cover  the  charcoal 


Infusibl*:   emits 
tense  light 


in- 


Noacttoo 


Gold   Platina ^f 

j,*^.'"'" Uliodium C        These  metals  have  no  action  on  the  fluxta 


1380.] 


On  Chemical  TesU. 


969 


With   Bokax. 


13  Onp:  ":  cl««n  K^'^".  y«*l* 
low  hoi ;    oa  cooling  colour 

less. 


With  Phosphoric  Salt. 


Clear  colourless  glass 


14  Clear  glass  opaque  by  fl: 


♦  Fuses  with  cffenescence, 
with  more  carbonate,  clear 
glass:  crystallizes  on  cooling. 

15  Clear  glass  opaque  by  a : 


16  On  p  :  w :  clear  glass  in 
ox  :  f :  on  ch  :  and  r:  f:  glass 
becomes  diity  brown,  but  not 
opaque. 


17  Ox  :  f :  orange  yellow,  or 
reddish  glass:  becomes  yel- 
low or  nearly  colourless  on 
cooling. 

18  Onp:  w:  clear  colourless 
glass,  white  on  cooliug  on 
ch :  grey  and  opaque 

19  Fuses  with  great  difficulty  ; 
penuttucntly  clear  glass. 

20  On  p:  w:  fuses  easily; 
glass  colourless,  becomes 
milky  white  by  flaming. 
R.  f.  glass  assumes  a  dark 
amethyst  colour,  but  trans- 
parent. In  large  quantity 
on  ch :  and  r :  f;    glass  dull 


Hkmahks 


Fuses  in  large  quantity;  a  With    nitrate    cobalt  nn 

infusibla  black  or  grey 
mass. 


clear  glass 
Fuses  with  effervescence 


Fuses  readily ;  clear  glass: 
opaque  on  cooling  if  sa- 
turated with  magnesia 

On  p  :  w:  and  ox  :  f: 
greenish  glass  while  hot : 
colourless  cold.  Id  r:  f: 
becomes  opaque:  dull 
blue,  hot:  clear  fine 
green  on  cooling:  and  on 
cli :  same  phenomena. 

^ame  as  with  borax,  but 
the  colour  flies  almost 
wholly  on  cooling 


Ditto. 


Flesh  colour  when  quite 
cold  with  nitrate  cobalt 


Metallic  tellurium  heated 
in  a  glass  mattrass  first  gifes  off  vapour,  aad 
then  a  grey  metallic  sublimat  of  tellurium. 
In  a  tube  open  at  both  ends,  it- emits  abundant 
fumes,  which  condense  in  a  whit  e  fusibl«  powder 
Same  as  borax. 


Ox  :  f :  clear ;  colourless 
glass.  R:  f:  on  ch.  glass 
yellowish,  hot :  on  cool- 
ing, .  first  red,  then 
very  fine  blueish  vio 
let 


Black   or   greyish    black 
with  uitrate  cobalL 


yellow ;  when  cold,  deep  blue 
21  Onp:  w:  and  ox:  f;  cli*ai!Ox:    f:  yellowish   glasar 
glass  :  not  opaque  by  fl  amiiig      r :  f :  fine  blue  glass.  If 


22  On  p :  w :  dark  yellow  glass 
in  r :  f ;  becomes  dirty  green 


23  Clear  glass  with  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  assay:  opa- 
que by  flaming 

24  Ox:  fl:  fuses  easily;  clear 
glass,  becomes  milky  by 
flaming 


it  contains  iron,  blood 
red  glass.  Tin  makes  it 
greeuor  blue 

On  p :  w :  and  oz :  f :  clear 
yellow  fflass:  cold,  straw 
color,  sligbtly  green.  On 
cb :  r :  f :  fine  green  glass 

Same  aa  with  borax 


Nearlv  the  same  as  borax 


25  Clear  glass  with  a  large  pro- 
portion  of  the  assay:  opa- 
que by  flaming 


Same  as  with  hortx 


With  Nitrate  cobalt  black 
or  dark  grey  mass 


9&>  Hsisag  on  Tiingu  lAteraiurt,  [OdlL 

IV. — Essay  on    the    Language    and   Zit^raitire  cf  (h€    Tehiguf.-^^ 
CuABLEs  P.  Brown,  Esq.  of  the  Madras  Civil  Sercicem 

( Continued  from  our  Uut) 

63.  The  Telugu  Poelns  may  be  divided  into  two  classes ;  popular  and 
classical.  The  popular  works  (sEinSnya  c9Fvay;iiiMhi)  are  priBcifall/ 
ivritten  in  (dwipada)  uniform  couiilets  :  and  art  in;jch  iu  the  faiailiar  st)  It 
of  Ovid,  Gay's  Fables  or  Scott's  Marmion.  The  chsrioal  (nrilbft  cft^y- 
am)  are  usually  in  (padyamulii)  stansas  :  and  may  be  compared  to  the 
Odes  of  Ht)race,  or  Gray.  On  tbe  principles  adopted  in  westertt  critic 
cinm  tbe  taste  displayed  in  the  former  class  is  of teo' worthy  o£appvuba^ 
tion.  £ven  in  these,  bonibttsty  iinaajrality,  bad  laste  and  childiah  con- 
ceits, frequently  occur.  But  these  rhetorical  flourishes  are  far  more  pro- 
minent in  those  poem:!- which  are  written  in  stan^a*^;  dottbile^s  eaoh* 
oi  these  admired  works  contains  a  kernel  of  really  pleasing  poetry,  bat 
this  is  preceded  by  many  a  page  of  ill  judged  rhetoric,  wherein  the  poet 
is  cvideutly  a  mere  grammarian,  **  a  word  catcher  (as  Pope  says)  who 
lives  in  syllables.*'  He  rejoices  insynonymes,  and  the  diotronary  is  n©- 
▼er  out  of  his  thoughts.  In  many  stanzas  (particularly  in  the  metra 
called  sisa)  the  same  thought  is  thrice  reiterated  with  a  mere  change 
of  phrase.  Thus  **  the  fair  maid  decked  with  these  jeicels  entered  the 
ffresence  of  the  king,  Th*  bright  damsel  arrayed  uifh  these  gems  pass^ 
ed  into  the  court  of  the  prince.  Such  were  the  ffdornments  of  the  bmm* 
teoits  nymph  when  approachiny  the  royal  threshold,^*  Such  passages 
possebs  au  undeniable  value  as  regirds  the  foreigner,  who  wiM  find 
these  stanzas  a  most  convenient  substitute  for  iba  Amura  Cosha  and 
similar  vocabularies  of  syuonymes*  But  the  taste  they  display  is  paluy 
enough. 

The  absence  of  these  a«d  other  pedantries  renders  the  poems  written 
in  couplets  much  m*re  agreeable  to  a  foreigner :  who  will  value  them 
for  that  simplicity  which  is  a  fiiult  in  the  etMiinelioa  of  learned  bnuHioii 
Besides,  most,  perha()B  all,  the  Dwipada  poems  are  the  composition  of 
sudras;  whereas  the  Padya  poems  are  in  general  the  work  of  the  sacred 
tribe:  yet  the  great  boast  of  the  nation,  the  one  Bhat't'u  SfiT'KTiy  or 
**  inspired  bard,"  who  urote  the  Vasu  Charitra  was  himbelf  a  I9^dra. 

AVith  a  few  exceptions  all  the  poems  are  fouaded  on  a  popular  story 
borrowed  frum  the  Puranas :  which  the  poet  alters  at  his  own  pleasure 
till  it  deviates  as  widely  from  the  original  as  Byron's  Don  Juau,  or  Mil- 
ton's Agonistes  deviate  from  the  original  ground  work. 

64.  Most  of  the  papular  fables  have  been  framed  in  verse  both  iir 
Couplets  and  in  jbtanzas.    But  no  poet  that  J  recollect  h^at^  wriuta  ia 


1839. J  Essay  on  Telugn  Literature,  361 

both  styles;  unless  in  the  sangitas  which  will  presently  be  mentioned. 
The  dwipuda  version  usually  appears  to  be  the  oldest,  for  the  style  is 
comparatively  simple,  and  we  may  often  detect  expressions,  borrowed 
thence,  in  the  Padya  version.  The  two  versions  of  the  Rfim&yan  ap- 
pear to  be  independiint  of  one  another;  but  in  other  works  (as  the  Ba- 
sava  PurUn,  or  the  Prubhu  Linga  Llla),  the  padya  version  evidently  is 
a  superstructure,  and  introduces  conceits  and  extravagancies  which  de« 
viate  from  the  original  more  widely  than  Dryden's  and  Pope's  imita- 
tions of  Chaucer  vary  from  the  original.  On  the  other  hand  there 
iit  no  dwipada  version  of  the  Mahabli&raf,  though  the  tale  of  Nala  and 
several  other  legends  imitated  from  it  are  composed  in  couplets. 

One  class  of  the  poems  written  in  padyams  consists  of  the  Satacamt 
or  anihulogies ;  which  are  similar  to  the  centuries,  or  garlands 
which  some  old  fashioned  English  poets  composed:  being  a  series  of 
songs,  or  separate  epigrams,  bearing  a  general  resemblance  in  sub- 
ject, tnetre,  and  chorus.*  Some  of  these  are  of  acknowledged  poetical 
merit,  as  the  Bhascara  satacam,  the  £c§mra  Linga  S.,  the  Cftlahasti  S.» 
the  Dasarathi  S. — others  are  of  a  lower  class  such  as  the  Sumati  S.,  the 
Caluvai  S.,  the  C6dunda  Rama  S.,  the  CSnfa  Lal&ma  S.  and  others  again, 
as  the  Vemana  Satacam,  the  Siddha  R&ma  S.,  the  Sampagamanna  S. 
are  acknowleged  to  be  in  the  mere  colloquial  dialect,  and  are  composed 
with  no  scrupulous  regard  to  the  rigorous  laws  of  rhyme  and  elision* 
Though  deficient  in  elegance  of  phrase  these  rustic  songs  are  not  de* 
void  of  poetical  merit,  and  are  attractive  to  a  foreigner  on  the  ground 
of  exhibiting  a  famil  iar  style,  and  a  great  variety  of  useful  expressions. 
— These  centuries  are  again  divided  as  appertaining  to  (niti,  yoga,  and 
sring&ram)  morals,  mysticism,  and  love. 

65.  In  one  description  of  poems  alone  the  ''  couplets''  are  mingled 
with  "  stanzas."  This  class  is  called  (Sangltamul)  "  musical  compo- 
sitions'* such  as  the  SltS  Calyanam,  the  Lanca  Vijayam,  the  GaradS- 
chalam,  &c.  wherein  the  variety  of  tunes,  or  modulations  (padamulu) 
introduced  is  entirely  different  from  the  classes  hitherto  noticed.  Un* 
der  this  head  are  comprised  the  various  comedies  (natacamulu  and  bhS- 
gavatamulu)  which  are  performed  by  the  public  (bogamvandlu)  dancers 
and  actresses.  Finally  there  are  other  ballads  (cathalu)  of  great  length 
framed  in  a  peculiar  chant,  on  principles  different  from  all  other  sorts 
of  poetry.  Some  of  these  as  the  Bobbili  Catha  (or  Ranga  Rao  Cha- 
ritra),  the  Nagamma  Catha,  and  the  like,  are  chiefly  preserved  by  oral 
recitation  without  having  been  until  now  committed  to  writing.    These 

•  Many  of  these  Satacams  have  been  printed  at  MaUras :  a  aecond  edition  of  Vemana, 
much  extended,  has  lately  been  finished ;  to  which  an  Englisth  translatioa,  sepaiately 
printed,  it  subjoined. 


62  Essay  on  Tdugu  Uteraiure.  [Ocr. 

arc  every  where  popular :  though  de8pii»e'1,  a«  illiteratey  bjr  proilessed 
scholars.  7  he  name  Yaxa-gdrtam,  or  '*  melodies**  U  appropriated  to  the 
iSa/i^''i^7/^u//i  first  mcntioued  :  bnd  discriminates  tbem  from  the  Catkas: 
which  run  in  one  uniform  metre  with  a  chorus  constantly  reilermied. 

6G.  A  superstitious  monotonVf  fir  from  pleasing,  and  imitated  from 
the  Puranas  o-  curs  in  the  commencereent  of  every  (padya-civyam)  poem* 
The  Jangama  books  alone  deviate  from  this  routine,  and  arc  for  this 
particular  rPHSon  much  disliked  by  bramins.*  The  preface  first  estoU 
ViNhuu  or  Siva  urder  seme  attributes  that  designate  the  poet*s  creed. 
Tlicii  the  author  extols  the  patron  and  himself  in  no  measured  tenni^ 
sj^ecifving  the  respective  genealogiep.  Yet  be  rarely  meniiong  the 
date  when  tlie  poem  was  (•omi>osed.  Then  follows  a  request  nude  by 
his  patron  that  he  will  undertake  this  tale.  Thus  far  is  called  the  Aft* 
t&rica  or  pteface.  He  now  commences  by  describing  the  Naimisba 
forest  (the  Acad'  mm  of  India)  with  the  hermits  (muni),  or  philosophen 
who  there  vogetatp.  These  commence  an  enquiry  regarding  the  hero| 
and  re-iort  to  sonu*  mighty  teacher  (yogi)  usually  Suca  (the  parrot),  or 
Karuda  (Mercury)  who  consents  to  gratify  their  curiosity.  He  begins 
with  the  birth  of  the  hero,  and  this  terminates  the  6rst  (Ssrfisam)  can- 
to which  is  denominated  the  Cath'arambhiim  or  introduction.  The 
story  commences  from  the  second  book.  And  each  canto  opens  and 
closes  (ilsvasa  garbham)  with  high  flown  panegyrics  on  the  munificent 
patron. 

67.  The  following  list  comprizes  all  the  most  popular  poems  with 
the  names  of  the  authors.  The  more  celebrated  compositions  are  mark- 
ed in  capital  letters.  The  (t)  is  used  to  denote  that  the  text  has  in 
the  last  few  years  been  completed  and  corrected  by  the  aid  of  Tarions 
manuscripts.  In  this  operation  fifteen  copies  were  compared  for  the 
Dwipada  Bumayan,  twelve  for  the  Mahabh&rat,  eleven  for  the  Bhiga- 
vat,  and  smaller  numbers  for  poems  less  corrupted  by  timp. 

Such  us  are  marked  (c)  have,  besides  a  corrected  text,  a  commentary 
written  in  familiar  Telugu  which  explains  every  word  The  learned  men 
whom  I  employed  to  frame  these  commentaries  were  required  to  give 
a  literal  rendering :  but  the  art  of  criticism  is  yet  in  its  in&ncy  among 
the  Hindus,  and  much  remains  to  be  effected,  both  in  abridging  and 
amplifying  these  scholia. 

68.  The  first  poet  to  be  mentioned  is  Bhattumurti,  in  whom  his 
countr\Tnen  delight  as  greatly  as  the  English  Jidniire  Milton.  His  most 
celebrated  poem  is  the  Vasw  chaiitia  :  which  is  now  issuing  from  the 
prew  with  au  ample  commentary.    The  poet's  name  was  Rima  Risu : 

•  The  Jansamu  reftiae  erra  to  wiite  SH  Bama  at  the  coramMmment  of  books  and 
Ittten.   Indeed  tbcy  discoontenance  ererj  one  of  the  braminical  s^ustiUoas. 


1839.}  EsMay  on  Tdugu  Literature.  %^^ 

the  name  Bhattu  Murii,  or  Mirror  of  A/t7MfreZ«y  being  an  epithet,  which 
has  now  become  his  sole  appellation.  He  had  originally  designated 
Uie  Vasu  Chaiitra  after  bis  own  name  as  the  R&na  Razu  BhQshanam. 
Two  other  works  of  bis,  the  Narasa  Bhupaliyam  and  the  Harischan- 
DRA  Nal'op'akhy'anam  are  also  highly  celebrated.  In  the  latter  he  has 
imitated  the  Naishadham  by  framing  an  entire  poem  with  two  meanings. 
For  in  one  interpretation  of  the  words,  they  apply  to  the  monarch  Haris- 
chandra ;  in  the  other  to  the  spouse  of  Damayanti. 

The  Narasa  Bhupaliyam  is  thus  named  after  the  nominal  author  Narasa 
Rayalu,  the  poet's  royal  patron,  who  died  in  A.  D.  1430.  In  like  man- 
ner Calidasa  is  stated  to  be  the  author  of  the  Magha:  but  the  writer,  who- 
ever he  was,  has  distinctly  attributed  it  to  his  patron  '*  the  merchant 
Magha."  This  mode  of  adulation  is  followed  by  Hindus  at  the  present 
day,  for  they  often  propose  to  publish  in  the  name  of  an  Englishman 
books  written  by  themselves.  It  must  however  be  allowed  that  no  de- 
ception is  seriously  intended,  and  the  adoptive  author  never  really  gets 
credit  for  the  work, 

69.    The  style  exhibited  in  Bhattu  Murti  and  his  followers  will  never 
meet  with  much  applause  among  European  critics.    The  rapture  it  ex- 
cites among  his  countrymen  will  be  rightly  valued  when  we  recollect  the 
state  of  Hindu  taste.    The  ingenious  Thomas  Hood  has  in  many  of  his 
Facetiee  manifested  a  power  of  punning  which  would  have  gained  him 
a  very    exalted  seat  on  the  Indian  Parnassus.    For  the  most  admired 
poets  revel  in  learned  quirks,  the  (slesha)  double  and  triple  meanings 
of  words  both  Sanscrit  and  Telugu;  in  (chhekam)  jingle  of  sound:  in  a 
rhapsodical  sublimity  (utprexa)  which  answers  pretty  closely  to  what 
the  French  poets  call  charades:  performing  innumerable  feats  of  per- 
verted ingenuity  which  as  Dr.  Johnson  says  ''are  so  difficult  that  we  are 
inclined  to  wish  they  had  been  impossible."    To  learn  the  most  admir- 
ed verses  of  these  poems  bv  memory  is  a  task  imposed  on  many  a  Hindu 
schoolboy,  but  to  teach  him  the  meaning  is  never  even  attempted.    It 
will  not  be  easy  to  persuade  the  Hindus  that  a  mere  exercise  of  memorjr 
is  not  meritorious.     The  English  reader  cannot  expect  to  derive  much 
gratification  from  a  poem  which  is  avowed  to  be  so  obscure  that  even 
the  most  learned  pandit  is  in  many  places  obliged  to  confess  his  inabi- 
lity to  understand  many  pages  unless  by  the  aid  of  previous  study. 

Some  assert  that  this  poet  likewise  wrote  the  Panch&li  Parinayam  or 
Nuptials  of  Draupadi,  but  I  have  not  met  with  any  poem  bearing  that 
name.  It  only  remains  to  remark  that  the  title  Bhattu  Murti  was  be- 
stowed upon  him  by  his  royal  patron  Krishna  Rayalu,  who  was  the  son 
of  a  handmaid  of  Narasa  Rayalu  and  succeeded  to  his  throne. 

70.  In  noticing  the  faults  of  style  in  the  Telugu  higher  ^KitiB  it  is 
but  just  to  notice  that  they  are  free  from  that  sort  of  bad  wit  which  is 


364  Eimy  oh  Telngu  IMerature.  [Oct. 

called  (bandha  cavitvam),  or  verses  written  in  whimsical  figures.  Among 
the  dwipada  poems  this  conceit  is  unknown:  but  few  of  the  wtoiem 
padya  poems  are  free  from  it.  The  learned  commentator  on  the  Dasi- 
▼atfira  Charitra  has  in  such  passages  left  the  verses  unexplained,  and 
states  that  he  did  not  pretend  to  unravel  intricacies  which  all  the  great- 
er poets  had  despised.  I  mention  this  conceit  only  with  a  view  to 
warn  the  reader  that  such  verses  are  unworthy  of  study.  For  be  ii 
often  advised  by  bramins  to  turn  his  attention  to  a  variety  of  intricate 
refinements  which  further  experience  will  prove  to  be  worthless. 

71.  Allasani  Peddana,  author  of  the  Manu  Cbaritra,  or  Swfirachisha 
Manu  Charitra  (c),  who  also  wrote  the  Vi?hnu  CHiTTiTAit  or  Amucta 
MSlyada  (on  which  we  have  a  good  commentary  about  a  centary  old), 
and  the  Rasa  Manjiri,  which  last  is  not  now  known  to  be  extant.  The 
Telugu  version  now  read  of  the  Rasamanjari  purports  to  he  written  by 
one  Ananta.  Perhaps  this  is  a  name  assumed  by  the  author.  Peddanna 
was  a  Bramin,  and  received  from  his  royal  patron  Krishna  Ra3ra]u  th^ 
title  of  Andhra  Cavita  Pitamaha,  or  sire  of  Telugu  Poesy — ^which,  tra* 
dition  says,  was  denied  to  Bhattu  MOrti  on  the  ground  of  bis  beings 
Sfiira. 

In  the  preface  to  the  Vishnu  Chittiyam  the  poet  mentions  other  works 
which  he  had  composed.  These  have  not  come  to  light,  nor  do  I  erea 
find  them  quoted  in  Appa  Cavi. 

72.  Muccu  Timmana  (the  Ovid  of  the  language),  author  of  the  Pirn* 
j&t  A'puharan'am  (t)  and  the  V&ni  Vil&sam.  This  is  a  modem  author 
who  wrote  less  than  a  century  ago.  He  wrote  the  Rasica  Jana  Manob* 
hirama,  and  many  other  poems. 

73.  Tennala  R&ma  Lingam»  author  of  the  Pandu  Ranga  Vijayam* 
The  style  of  this  poet  is  remarkably  Intricate ;  as  is  noticed  in  the  fi)l* 
lowing  popular  epigram  on  the  four  poets  now  named  :^* 

''  AUasani  Peddan  aUica  jigibigi 

Muccu  Timman  Arya  mvddu  palcu 

Pdndu  Ranga  vibhuni  pada  gi/mbhanambu  nu 

Cdca  mdna  Rdya  ntki  tagura,** 

*'  The  rhetorical   powers  of  Peddana,  the  sweet  notes  of  TimmanSy 

the  abstruse  eloquence  of  R&ma  Linga,  all  unite  in  thy  lays,  O  (Bhstta 

murti)  bard  of  Cacam&na !" 

The  secondary  meaning  which  some  pretend  to  find  in  this  epigram 

is  not  worth  notice.* 

*  style  is  fimcifuUy  classed  as  that  of  the  gn^,  plantain,  and  eoeitMi-mtf.  Of  theee  flie 
irst,  drdjea  pdeam  is  exemplified  in  the  Telugu  Ramayan ;  being  quite  cftsy.  the  teeomA, 
€€tdal(  pacam,  wherein  part  of  the  fmit  alone  is  eatable,  is  assigned  to  a  more  rpflaed 
dialect:  and  the  third,  ndrikila  pdcam  designates  the  degree  of  rhetotteal  obMoreacii 
which  we  And  in  the  thiid  poet  here  named..  These  phrases  are  fluently  used  in  the 
conversation  of  learned  men,  and  I  notice  them  here  because  they  tie  unmentloMd  ia 
any  work  bitbeilo  piinleOi. 


1839.]  JEssay  an  Telugu  Liieraiure.  365 

This  Rfima  Lingam  is  usually  mentioned  as  a  humourist  and  a  pro- 
fligate. I  have  not  met  with  any  complete  copy  of  his  poem,  and  I  ob- 
serve that  the  volume  now  extant  is  ofien  attributed  to  another  writer, 

74.  Sri  Ndtha,  translator  of  the  Naishadham,  the  Kasi  Khandau 
(t)  and  Bhima  Khandam  from  the  Scdnda  Pur4n.  It  is  also  said  (hat  he 
wrote  the  Marudraja  Charitra,  the  Hara  Vildsani,  aud  the  S41i?4hana 
Sapta  Sati.    But  I  have  not  met  with  these  books. 

Srinatha  is  also  said  to  have  written  a  series  of  songs  called  the 
Vidhi  Natacam  of  wiiich  only  about  thirty  have  been  preserved  by  ornl 
tradition.  Some  of  these  have  considerable  beauty:  but  others,  written 
perhaps  by  his  imitators  are  &r  inferior. 

75.  Pingala  Su'rapa  Raz,  author  of  theR'AGHAVAP'ANDAVYAM(c),the 
Cala  Purnodayam,  the  Prabhdvati  Pradyumnam,  and  the  Linga  Pur&nam. 
This  last  is  not  now  extant. 

76.  Chemacura  Vengal  Raz,  author  of  the  S&ranga  Dbara  Charitra 
in  Padya  metre  (t)  and  the  Subhadra  Parinayam  also  called  Vijaya 

Vildsam  (c). 

Canuparti  Abbaya,  author  of  the  Aniruddha  Charitra  (c)  also  called 
Usha  Parinayain,  and  the  Pururava«  Charitra  (t)  :  which  is  also  called 
Cavi  Raja  Mauo  Ranjanam. 

Erra  Pregada — who  translated  part  of  the  (Aranya  Parvam)  third 
book  of  the  Mahabharat  (t):  he  likewise  wrote  the  Uari  Vamsam  in 
Telugu. 

Polu  Razu,  the  translator  of  the  Bhagavat,  (t)  which  has  already  been 
described.  The  poet  had  two  auxiliaries ;  Gangaya  who  executed 
the  fifth  book;  while  the  sixth  was  written  by  Singanna.  Poluraz 
likewise  wrote  the  Narayana  Satacam;  and  having  honoured  Vishnu  as 
the  deity,  in  the  Bhagavat,  he  wrote  likewise  the  Vlra  Bhadra  Vijayam 
in  honour  of  Siva. 

77.  Dharani  Devula  Nagaia^  author  of  the  Das  Avatara  Charitra  (c), 
a  very  popular  poem ;  being  a  highly  coloured  description  in  ten  books 
of  the  adventures  of  Vishnu,  or  Krishna. 

We  may  here  observe  that  the  great  popularity  of  the  Bhagavat  or 
Life  of  Krishna  arises  from  its  combining  all  the  reveries  of  mysticism 
with  broad  licentiousness.  The  poetry  of  the  Telugu  version  by  Potu 
Ra2  and  his  coadjutors  being  disapproved*  as  tame,  some  modem  Telugu 


*  It  is h&rd  to  reconcile  the  extraordinary  popularity  of  the  Teluga  version  of  the 
Bhagavat,  with  its  condemnation  by  stiict  grammarians.  They  frequenUy  tell  us  that 
Appa  Cavi  entirely  disapproved  it,  as  is  shewn  by  his  never  naming  it  But  he  aames 
many  other  volumes  with  condemnation,  and  a  more  reasonable  cause  may  be,  that  it 
was  written  afU'r  his  days.  The  style  is  very  florid  and  undeniably  l>eautiful,  though 
much  amplified :  for  instance,  in  describing  Krishna's  sports  with  the  nymphs  thete  are 
msoy  huadrtdliaei  which  the  poet  has  added  to  his  Stiucrit  origiaaU 


9^  Euof  09  Tdaffw  LOfrsivt.  fOcT. 


V 


fitni  or  Lo^ej  of  t-  *  t-n  sir*:  -ir-fn^-? :  -.r.i  •.'.'?  •.  ^xa-ziTirs  Bla£-;.nta2ii 
— fhat  i-,  t!:e  t*:*  of  Kr.fch^^^  a'^^ne^l  in  n-ivic*.!  Bi»V<i:=f.  I:i  tbes<? 
V>#k*  ^a*  in  ?h*  Ra  Ih*  Mi^biiTa  S^rn-aii-a  4-.d  i!:*  Devi  Brl?«Tit) 
th- pri.'icir/'*!  heroine  i*  Riiba,  a  nyrrph  wh:I.T  Tir.a-ri^i-Lr.e-:  ia  the 
origin*.  Bh4?4«a't  and  who  ow<?s  h*r  origin  lo  iL»  r-  e'ical  i=i.^si-iticii 
of  JaTH  D^rit,  the  Theocritus  of  Iniia^  acth-^r  of  the  cbarmin^  G:  a 
Go*  in  J-*. 

Th*?  well  known  t;o*m  wIM  AhJra  Sincrm^ina  Vi!a«~>m.  cr  th* 
in*r!^u*:i  of  Inira  (Jupiter  and  A!<:ni?iii^  is  the  seventh  bx>k  of  the 
Dasavafara  Charitra.  There  is  also  a  vep^nte  poem  beirin^  the  same 
name  in  five  b'y^ki :  bat  this  it  a  mere  cento  of  verses  borrowed  from 
fariou4  po«ei.  T!ie  author's  name  is  Mala^  Papaya. 

It  m^y  her  worth  while  to  remark  that  thoa^h  the  Telagas  po^se^s  no 
•la*ed  version  cf  the  Ibar  mo<it  celebrated  SmS'Trit  poems,  (:he  Magha* 
the  Cum^n  Stmbhairam,  the  M^gha  Dd*a  and  the  GiU  G6Tinda),  their 
bardu  h^ve  extracted  and  adapte-J  all  the  most  attractive  iceoes.  I  am 
aware  that  the  R-igfio  Vamsam  has  been  translated,  as  also  the  Sacim- 
tala — but  these  are  the  work  of  ordinary  Telugu  composers,  imstly  inli^ 
rior  to  the  c«;1<:;brate<l  originals. 

7S.  Niin<)imha,  author  of  the  Cati  Cabita  Ras'atan am,  or  adrentnres 
of  MdTidhata  (c ),  a  poem  which  has  received  very  high  applause. 

S'l'^liam  Ven-a^apati,  author  of  the  Tara  Sisaoca  Vijayam  (c)tOr 
**  Stella  and  llie  Genius,  a  Romance.*'  This  is  an  exceedingly  popular 
work. 

V^ncita  NttOia  (a  Cshatriyi).  author  of  the  Te!n^,ni  translation  of  the 
Punch  I  Tantrarn  (c).  This  was  originally  a  **  moral"  work ;  bat  as 
treated  by  tlie  Telugu  author  it  properly  belongs  to  the  romintic  class. 

To  these  may  be  ad  led  a  lonij  list  of  popular  novels  and  "  histories" 
(Charitra)  audi  as  the  Sunlbhan  I  E^waram  (c),  the  RA  Iha  M&dbara 
Sumvd'lam  (c)  Hud  the  Ila  Deviyam  (c),  also  called  Ra  Ihica  Santwanam : 
thi:4  iH  written  by  a  poetess  who  has  very  elegantly  remodelled  the 
Rudha  Madhava  S^imvadam  into  a  new  form  :  wherein  t;he  has  polished 
and  p^rf'icted  the  style  wherever  it  was  rustic.  The  Cachel-opakhyan 
(t)  in  three  cantos  U  likewise  a  very  popular  work. 

79.  But  whatever  popularity  has  been  attained  by  these  poets  phi- 
lolot^iitts  with  one  voice  declare  Ticcanna  to  be  the  unrivalled  model  of 
style  in  the  Telugu  language.  His  first  work  seems  to  have  been  the 
seventh  book,  or  supplement  (uttara  canda)  of  the  Ramayan  which 
Ticars  the  name  of  Bhascara.  Ayyala  Bhatta  and  Mallic  Arjana  were 
Bhascara's  coadjutors:  the  former  completed  the  sixth  book  and  the 
latter  wrote  the  fourth  and  fifth.    After  the  seventh  was  completed  by 


1839.]  Essay  an  Tehgu  LiUraturc,  367 

Ticcanna,  he  gained  the  epithet  Somayagi  or  Auspex  for  be  bears  this 
name  in  the  Mababharat.  Yet  regarding  so  popular  an  author  we 
have  no  biographical  accounts,  and  it  is  only  surmised  that  he  lived 
before  the  era  of  Krishna  Ray  el. 

I  have  mentioned  the  remote  age  usually  assigned  to  Nannaia  Bhatta 
but  perhaps  we  may  safely  place  him  in  the  century  preceding  that 
which  we  have  conjecturally  assigned  to  Ticcanna. 

Second  to  Ticcanna,  in  critical  estimation,  stands  AUasani  Peddanna 
who  has  already  been  spoken  of:  and  next  to  him,  as  regards  beauty 
of  style,  stands  Ayyal  Raz  RamaBhadraya,  author  of  the  Ramabhyudaya. 

80.  All  the  |>oets  now  named  appear  to  have  written  before  A.  D. 
1700— excepting  Maccu  Timmanna  and  the  author  of  the  Das  avat&ra 
charitra  ;  the  la^^t  century  produced  but  few  other  poems  of  any  note : 
one  is  the  Bilarama  Vijayam  (also  called  by  the  pedantic  name  Pra- 
bandha  Raja  Sird  Blm>hHnam),  and  another  is  the  Bahulasyn  charitra* 
These  are  little  more  than  imitations  of  the  Tlira  Catha,  Das  Avat6ra 
charitra  and  other  well  known  tales :  but  the  modem  poets  conscious  of 
their  inferiority  to  the  older  bards  attempt  to  outstrip  them  in 
grossness  of  immorality.  The  Satyabhama  Santwanam,  a  very  favourite 
modem  work  is  conspicuous  for  its  bad  taste  in  this  respect.  These 
poets  certainly  do  not  go  to  that  unutterable  excess  of  filthy  whimsies 
which  wc  too  often  meet  in  the  Mahabharat,  but  their  superior  ele- 
gance and  brilliant  adornment  perhaps  only  render  them  the  more 
pernicious. 

The  Jangama  or  Saivite  literature  is  as  remarkable  for  innocence  as 
that  of  the  Bramins  is  for  vice.  But  the  Saiva  poems  will  furnish  ample 
subject  for  another  essay.  The  Lila  and  the  Tale  of  Sarangadhara,  from 
which  selections  will  now  be  offered,  belong  to  this  class. 

81.  Among  modern  poems  high  applause  is  given  to  the  Bhanumati 
Parinayam,*  which  is  a  pretty  close  imitation  of  the  Vasu  Charitra. 
The  Telugu  versions,  likewise,  of  the  Bilbanam,  and  the  Krishna  Cama- 
mritalu  are,  as  well  as  the  Cama  Cala  Nidhi,  very  popular  poems  of 
the  18th  century.  Among  modern  writers  the  highest  place  however 
is  conceded  to  Muccu  Timmanna,  who  (particularly  in  his.Nlla  Parina- 
yam)  has  used  a  vast  variety  of  obsolete  phrases  which  excite  an  ir- 
rational admiration.  The  same  taste  is  displayed  in  the  Satyabhama 
Santwanam. 

82.  This  dialect  is  called  A<}9a  Telugu  (or  pure  Telugu),  a  name 
justly  due  to  many  thousand  lines  throughout  the  Puranas  and  poems, 

•  Distinct  from  the  Bhanumad  Vijayam,  a  Stirlte  poem  which  wUl  be  tlsewhcie  no- 
ticrd. 


968  Esamf  cm  Tek^  LiUratmf.  [On. 


As  here  applied  howerer,  it  denotes  an  Eapbaisdcal  dUlect  (to 
a  phrase  from  Soott's  "  Jfommstery'*)  wh:cb  certainly  aerer  was  sfokev, 
and  goes  upon  the  principle  of  excluding,  if  possible,  ereij  Sanaeril 
word.  3tLuif  of  the  phrases  ased  io  A99a  Teluga  are  supposed  to  be 
Canarese  words :  but  the  same  opinion  is  held  rpgarUing  manr  of  the 
obsolete  expressions  we  meet  in  the  Te!oga  MahabharaL  The  troth 
perhaps  is  that  these  words  were  originally  used  in  one  language  and 
in  the  lapse  of  time  transferred  to  the  other.  In  like  manner  Chaneer, 
Spenser,  and  Shakspeare  use  several  words  which  at  the  present  day 
are  not  English  but  Scotch,  or  German. 

83.  The  Hamsa  Vimsati  (t)  calls  for  notice  as  exhibitiiig  a  rarely 
of  singular  Telogu  expressions.  This  poem  is  the  work  of  Ayal  Has 
Narayanappa  whose  father  translated  the  Ramabbyodaya.  It  is  in 
fire  books  containing  twenty  tales;  which  for  morality  are  paralkl  to 
Boecacio  or  the  Tales  of  a  Parrot.  But  the  aim  of  the  work  is  to  em- 
body the  Tarious  words  oseH  in  erery  dialect  of  Tel.igu,  one  tale  is  re- 
garding a  weaver,  the  next  describes  a  potter,  the  third  a  forester,  and 
so  Ibrtb;  and  the  poet  has  ingeniously  introduced  erery  expreasioa 
which  each  particular  line  of  life  may  illustrate.  In  fiict  it  is  <»  the 
plan  pursued  by  Corderius  in  his  Latin  Dialogues,  or  by  Buonaroti  in 
bis  Italian  comedies. 

84.  The  Soca  Saptati  (r),  or  talcs  of  a  Parrot  (a  separate  poem, 
in  three  books)  seems  intended  as  a  supplement  to  the  Hamsa  Vimsati 
or  tales  related  by  a  Pbcenix.  In  a  poetical  point  of  riew  the  Saca  Sap- 
tati is  superior  to  its  predecessor;  and,  for  the  sake  cf  variety  ia 
amusement,  it  introduces  much  of  the  rough  primitive  dialects  and 
strange  pronurciations  found  in  various  pirts  of  the  Telugu  country. 
Many  of  the  miuor  poets  have  recorded  such  varieties  of  dialect  but  oo 
where  do  we  find  them  so  fully  displayed  as  in  the  two  works  now  men- 
tioned. 

85.  We  will  now  proceed  to  adduce  specimens  of  the  most  popu- 
lar POEMS.  A  few  lines  of  the  original  will  be  giren  in  the  English 
character  for  the  satisfaction  of  those  who  may  wish  to  compare  the 
poetical  language  with  that  of  erery  days  conversation.  But  the  entire 
extracts  being  too  prolix  for  admission  in  this  journal  wDl  be  printed 
separately  in  the  original  character. 

The  first  selection  is  from  the  Dwipada  Ramdyan  (t)  which  tfaongb 
remarkably  easy  in  style  ranks  as  a  (ca\7am)  standard  classic.  So 
clear  and  flowing  is  the  verse  that  several  good  judges  consider  it  even 
more  easy  than  Vemana  or  the  Prabhu  Linga  Lila  which  however  are 
far  more  attractive  to  the  English  reader. 


1839.]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature.  869 

I  did  not  at  first  recommend  it  to  the  reader  because  portions  of  it 
are  rather  above  the  reach  of  a  beginner :  but  it  has  one  strong  recom- 
mendation.  For  it  faithfully  reflects  the  Hindu  mind  and  acquaints  us 
with  all  its  qualities  whether  amiable  or  objectionable.*  Id  thbt  respect 
every  page  of  the  Dwipada  R&mdyan  is  worth  perusal:  and,  whether 
in  this  or  other  compositions,  the  reader  should  make  himself  thorough- 
ly acquainted  with  the  Dwipada  style  of  poetry  before  he  proceeds  to  the 
paflya  cdvt/am.  He  may  find  this  counsel  beneficial  though  his  native 
assistants  may  recommend  another  course. 

The  following  extract  from  the  Aranya  C6nda  or  3d  book  of  this 
version  of  the  RAmdyan  gives  the  tale  of  Sita,  the  heroine,  being  stolen 
from  her  lord  by  the  giant  R&vanfisura.  To  delude  the  hero,  Rama, 
Mdrichi  (a  giant)  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  golden  de^.  The  poet 
describes  its  radiance,  and  then  proceeds  as  follows : — 

86.  "  The  fairy  hind  was  of  extraoi*dinary  beauty :  as  it  rambled  about, 
'*  chewing  the  cud,  with  a  tail  as  freakish  as  that  of  the  peacock  ;  the 
"  whiteness  of  the  belly  gleamed  through  the  bowers;  again  its  reddish 
*^  sides  glistered  like  amber;  when  vaulting  it  looked  like  the  rainbow— 
**  or,  as  it  sprung  up  it  flashed  like  lightning.  The  forest  herds  of  deer 
*'  were  startled  at  its  singular  appearance :  for  it  lay  as  in  »nbush  an4 
**  its  form  was  suddenly  seen  now  here  now  there:  one  while  it  drew 
**  near,  and  then  as  though  startled  it  bounded  aloft,  rushing  through 
**  the  thickets — then  with  a  leap  it  took  refuge  in  a  bower.  One  while 
**  it  put  its  nose  to  the  ground  wagging  its  tail  and  pricking  its  ears  at 
"  distant  sounds.  Tlien  it  pricked  one  quivering  ear  and  flew  like  the 
^  wind  :  then  it  reposed  on  a  grassy  spot :  then  rising  it  drew  near  the 
**  hermitage,  it  scratched  its  ear  with  one  foot  and  shook  the  high  flow* 
**  ering'beughs  with  its  horns  so  as  to  pour  the  blossoms  on  the  soil.*' 
While  it  thus  strayed  among  the  bowers  of  the  recluses,  the  blooming 
Sita  with  tinkling  anklets  came  out  of  the  arbour  to  collect  the  opening 

*  The  Ramayan  written  in  couplets  is  more  faithful  than  other  versions  in  its  ad- 
herence to  the  Sanscrit  text.  I  may  mention  one  remarkable  instance.  In  the  JSSth 
chapter  of  the  sixth  book  (Yuddha  Canda)  is  a  long  description  of  worship  oSered  by 
Rama  and  his  companions  to  the  lingam,  or  symbol  of  Sirs,  to  atone  for  the  sin  of 
slaying  Ravanasa :  who  is  declared  to  be  a  sinful  wretch  and  meriting  death,  but  bis 
being  a  bramin  renders  it  a  mortal  sin  to  slay  him.  This  legend  incalcates  the  adora* 
tion  of  Siva  ;  and  likewise  shews  that  the  sin  of  braminicide  may  be  Temored.  This 
passage  occurs  in  Ranga  Natha*s  version,  and  also  in  the  Telugu  Adhyatma  Ramayan^ 
though  not  in  erery  manuscript :  and  the  entire  legend  is  omitted  in  Bhaaeara's  and  in 
two  other  yersions,  and  is  even  wanting  in  the  Sanscrit  copies  which  we  possess  in  Sou* 
the m  India.  Now  the  Ramayan  is  more  highly  honoured  than  any  other  poem  ;  it  is 
considered  as  absolute  scripture ;  and  yet  sectarian  bigotry  has  led  Bramios  thus  to 
mutilate  a  document  which  they  profess  to  hold  in  the  highest  Tcneratioa, 


370  Euay  on  Tebigu  LUefxUurc.  [Oct. 

flowers:  at  the  sight  of  this  fairy  fawD  she   was  filled  with  surprite; 
she  called  to  the  lord  of  men,  her  spouse,  and  thus  addressed  htm. 

Never  till  this  day  did  I  see  so  chaiming  a  creatare  as  this— how  I 
long  to  recline,  O  prince,  on  a  couch  foimed  of  its  skin*  O  thou  leader 
of  the  solar  race,  pursue  this  creature,  strike  it,  and  bring  me  its  hide — 
yet  why?  I  wish  thou  couldst  catch  it  without  fright uing  it,  wliieh 
would  be  far  better  :—0  my  spouse— we  should  keep  it  at  our  leafy 
dwelling,  and  when  our  appointed  term  finishes  let  us  take  this  golden 
fawn  home  to  the  city  and  shew  it  to  the  king  and  to  my  aunts  and 
cousins :~how  ihey  will  be  delighted  at  such  a  present!     (70—95). 

Thus  spoke  Slta  in  affectionate  tones ;  Laxmana  listened  to  her  and 
thus  addressed  Rdma:  was  there  ever,  brother,  seen  so  bright  hued  a 
&wnp  Can  it  be  that  a  brute  creature  has  such  wondrous  colours?  It 
must  be  a  mere  delusion,  unfit  to  be  credited  !  surely  it  must  be  a  vision 
raised  by  (asura)  demons — besides,  possibly  it  is  the  hermit  M4ri* 
chi  who  lives  here,  for  he  is  a  cruel  demon  and  continually  roams  the 
forest  in  a  superhuman  form.  Have  not  we  heard  so— possibly  it  is 
that  fiends  perchance  he  has  come  here  to  tempt  us  into  ruin.  Do  not 
then  set  your  gentle  heart  on  this  and  be  disquieted,  or  entertain  the 
thought  of  catching  the  fawn.  Besides — though  the  lady  of  Videha 
(i.  e.  Sita)  should  be  so  simple,  be  not  thou  so  foolish  O  prince  of  men  t 

At  these  words  R^ma  looked  on  the  bright  countenance  of  Slta  j  he 
smiled,  and  thus  addressed  Lacshman  (96—110). 

IVhy  be  agitated  at  this,  O  son  of  Sumitra.  Though  even  it  were  a 
giant-raised  vision  certainly  will  I  bring  the  deer  home,  and  I  will  slay 
the  mightiest  giants  that  can  come ;  believe  these  two  poiutn— one  or 
the  other  will  I  do  :  for  I  will  chase  it,  1  will  slay  it,  and  give  the  hide  to 
Janaca's  daughter.  After  so  long  a  time  she  has  made  only  this  one  re- 
quest. Can  I  neglect  Sita  ?  can  I  decline  the  deed  she  points  out  f  stay 
thou  with  her  affectionately,  neglect  not  the  lady  of  the  bower. 

He  said  and  committed  all  to  Laxmana  ;  and  gently  taking  his  bow 

from  his  brother's  hand,  he  bent  it,  and  duly  set  out,  like  Siva  when  he 

set  out  in  pursuit  of  the  Lion- giant  who  carried  off  the  sacrifice. 
*  *  •  ••••• 

"  He  went  on  slinking  behind  the  bush  stooping  as  he  walked,  bend« 
ing  and  running  alongside ;  whenever  it  looked  back  he  stood  concealedt 
be  was  on  the  point  of  catching  it,  it  escaped,  and  he  was  vexed.  He 
held  the  bow  and  arrows  ready  to  shoot,  he  laid  his  footsteps  softly  on 
the  soil  so  as  to  make  no  sound,  as  he  observed  its  traces,  he  eyed  its 
path,  and  goings  (neppu,  an  obsolete  word),  and  concealed  himselH 
Here  it  is<— I'll  catch  it — Here  it  comes — ^see — Its  mine,  cried  he 
merrily." 


k 


1839.]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature,  S7i 

''  Thas  thought  he,  but  the  deer  caught  a  glimpse  of  him  from  afar — 
it  let  him  draw  near ;  but  as  he  stretched  to  seize  it,  it  boun«Ied  from 
him  and  fled.    Alas   cried  he  in  anger,  as  it  stood  to  gaze  at  R&ma. 
Then  it  fled  to  the  horizon  while  the   foam  flowed  from  the  comers  of 
its  mouth — it  seemed  out  of  heart ;  then  looking  at  the  huntsman  it 
sprung  up  elastic  and  fled  at  speed,  while  the  skies  seemed  to  flabh  with 
its  biightness ;  then  it  vaulted*  away  ;  its  tongue  flashing  like  light- 
ning bright  as  a  waving  torch  ;  for  it  moved  as  rapid  as  a  potter's  wheel 
circling  at  speed.    Then  it  paused  as  though  faint,  it  seemed  to  drop 
close  to  him — then  like  a  goshawk  it  flew  up  to  heaven.    R&ma  was 
now  wearied  as  well  as  aslouished :  he  paused,  he  looked    around — but 
now  the  creature  to  cajole  him  stood  still — but  as  he  formed  the    idea 
of  shooting  it,  again  it  vanished :  then  as  he  gave  up  the  hope  and  turn- 
ed homewards,  behold  it  was  again  at  his  side,  like  a  vision  ;  and  car- 
ried the  son  of  Cacustha  who  was  now  wearying,    further  and  further, 
for  deluding  his  glance,  it  fled  into  inaccessible  hills  (112 — 150). 

Seeing  this  R&ma  perceived  that  this  was  a  £iiry  hind — he  exclaimed 
Where,  O  my  foe,  wilt  thou  hide  from  me?»     •     ••     ••• 

So  saying  he  levelled  the  celesti  al  arrow  at  the  prey— which  in* 
stantly  rolled  over  and  now  laying  aside  the  fairy  form,  uttering  a  de- 
lusive shriek^  cried    '*  O  Lacshmana!  O  Slta!"  (155-165). 

Then  stretching  his  prodigious  giant  coipse  on  the  soil,  the  wretch 
gave  up  his  life — it  seemed  as  though  all  the  giants  and  their  prince 
R&vana  fell :  as  though  their  capital,  Lanca,  perished. 

When  this  fairy  deer  fell  on  the  earth,  the  lord  of  Sita  was  well  pleas- 
ed :  for  he  clearly  saw  it  was  indeed  M4r!chi :  he  remembered  with 
approbation  the  words  of  his  brother.  How  deeply,  thought  he,  will 
he  and  the  bright  eyed  daughter  of  Janaca  grieve  at  hearing  their  names 
uttered  in  the  dying  shriek  of  this  deluder :  for  he  imitated  my  voice 
exactly :  I  marvel  where  they  are  and  what  has  become  of  them. 

So  saying  he  mournfully  pondered.  But  the  dreadful  cry  reached  the 
ears  of  STta,  and  struck  her  with  horror  to  the  earth :  then  when  she 
recovered  her  senses,  she  gazed  wildly  around  and  was  utterly  downcast. 
Then  in  her  agitation  she  raised  the  weeping  cry,  and  gazing  on 
Laxmana,she  exclaimed.  Alas!  son  of  Sumitra,  what  may  this  be 
that  has  befallen  us  this  day  :  surely  Rdma  cries  on  thee  with  weep, 
ing  voice.  O  hero,  listen  to  that  voice!  wilt  not  thou  give  ear  to  it  P 
or  does  it  not  reach  thy  ear  P   thou  shrinkest  not — thou  shewest  no  ter- 


•  (I  use  rarious  Bngliah  words  to  convey  Hie  vtriotts  Telugu  synoDjmes  employed. 
The  phrase  hexe  is  evffinehij 


372  .EiM^  OK.  Teimgm 

ror,  cr  bcTior,  xboa^n^re^z  coc — vhac  if  ihis  ?  vb.Ie  bj  k^krt  bcares 
Tiolmtlj  viiit  b'jrror  ^cd  despair  I  AIu  !  !ke  vest  «!:««  iaso  ue  iansL 
It  U  iate — &:^i  Le  ccni'^rb  cot — »areli-  'i«  ta:a  tl^  ixr  £^...01  sue  tbe 
ha!>ds  of  :Le  giants.  DcLtj  b<x — go,  I  [.r«T  ibee.  u«  the  pciare !  (IfiS— 
200.. 

She  sfok'*.  pooriag  £<x}da  of  teirs  sukS  LaxcniM  replied  ih as  to  the 
child  of  Jaiucj. 

Mother,  whj  ut  thoa  al&med  ?  sarelf  00  ctU  «hall  erer  bc&Il  tfaf 
ft(<o«^«e  R^jiu.  Duet  cot  ihi-a  knew  the  Tily^Tciihf  beloTcd  lord? 
Is  it  right  to  gire  Ten:  lo  vcrd<  to  agoaiziag  ?  sorelr  this  is  the  screia 
of  iome  demon  who  vish-^s  to  terrify  thj  heart.  Wbal  hath  sarh  a 
piuf  3I  shriek  to  do  ^ith  the  hero  cf  the  »^ar*  race.  O  daa^bter  of 
Jac^ca  wherefore  »n  thou  thoS  c^iiat^d  ?  I  v:li  vithovt 
follow  the  prioze  R4ma :  aci  «h%  !  the  giants  who  oppiase  hn 
t^n  their  footiag  ?  ih^j  are  n-:  w  re  than  crickets  that  exult 
wili£re.  Tlier  wi'l  in  the  en  i  f-  il  into  it  ani  t  jib  to  aibea  or  like  the 
mightr  lerpents  that  raiae  ihem-^Tlres  a^iiost  the  eagle  a»1l^eridi  in  hit 
taloofr— or  like  ^  herd  of  ele{  h«iils  tlua  rush  opoa  the  liocf  <20&— 244). 

No,  I  am  afiaid  to  lea^e  thee — do— be  not  wearj  of  Be — ^plaa:  these 
my  wordi  in  thy  beat.  Be  not  grieve-i.  O  daughter  of  the  kicg  of  bcb. 
At  these  word's  the  fire«  cf  wrath  arose  in  the  heart  of  the  ladraad 
griere-j,  sbe  tbof  adiressed  the  scnci"  Somitra. 

Tboa  I  art  thon  Cuthfiil  towards  Rama  I  whr  art  tfaoa  this  dar  so 
base  ?  eren  tboagh  thoa  hearest  Sn;  Rama  calling  on  tlv*e  hj 
thoG  art,  like  a  foe,  fi.led  with  hatred  in  thr  heart — ^is  thi^ 
iBg?*  •  ♦•  •  ♦ 

Thus  spoke  Laxmatu  with  bis  eyes  filled  with  tear%  and  m  his  heart 
ooold  bear  no  more  he  exclaimed  Mother,  I  am  gcMie,  I  will  vithoot 
delaj  bring  ihee  thr  lord,  griere  net ! 

He  said,  and  departed.  Bat  first  he  drew  seven  eirrles  ratiBd  the 
bower,  and  said  Mother,  pus  not  these  limits,  and  shoeld  aaT  one  sen- 
tore  to  cross  these  lines,  the  inlroder  ilull  itutantlj  pay  for  it  with  his 
head. 

Then  be  addressed  the  god  of  fire,  saying.    Be  sot  canriesa.    I 
mit  the  dame  to  thee ! 


*  The  two  most  SBckat  royal  hovics  of  ladia  are  tnee4Bp,«wMaSh«  ifa»^  Hwaihs 
to  the  Xooo. 


*  Whkh  u  reppoaed  to  feed  on  elepltaat^  fteik  aloBe.  Bcteaad  cftwvta*  I  fl^tght 
rluch  are  ▼erbuae  or  aeedlcm  in  a  men  Tenioa. 


«  Sri  is  cquiTakat  to  aaiat ;  oai  St.  G«of|C  wooU  far  fflnt  8ii 
pToeteds  to  violmt  Uaipui^e,  aadm  usml  iaidMS  by 


1839.]  Essatf  on  Telugu  LUerature,  37;$ 

Then  he  respectfully  bowed  to  the  dame,  and  anxiously  bent  his  way 
towards  Rama.  The  god  of  purity  (fire)  guarded  Sita,  and  to  delude  her 
foes  he  formed  a  fairy  image  of  her*  which  shone  mi>st  glorious :  so 
that  all  would  have  taken  her  for  the  real  Sita    245 — 265. 

At  that  moment  Rdvan^  the  giant  arose  with  agitated  heart.  In  one 
hand  he  bore  a  staff,  in  the  other  a  scrip  :  in  his  forehead  was  an  upright 
mark,  and  on  his  fingers  he  wore  large  rings  of  blessed  grass  with  the 
sanctified  thread  across  his  broad  breast :  his  right  hand  carried  a  large 
rosary  :  he  was  robed  in  clayed  dust  colour  vest,  with  a  necklace  ... 
of  the  blessed  tulasi  tree,  and  he  walked  along  stooping  with  the  weight. 
His  body  was  emaciated,  he  wore  sandals,  and  a  weather  beaten  um- 
brella ;  his  hair  was  rolled  up  in  a  large  bunch  ; — in  all  points  indeed 
he  was  a  feigned  friar  (sany&si),  and  walked  along  counting  over  his 
beads  and  muttering  his  breviary.  He  dreaded  lest  the  real  monks 
(muni)  should  see  and  detect  him  ;  his  head  tottered  with  hoar  anti- 
quity : — he  sidled  and  stole  along  peeping  to  st^e  where  the  fair  one  lay 
concealed.  Then  he  would  hilt  and  exclaim  Hari  !  Harif  then  a  little 
recovering  he  drew  near  the  skirts  of  the  bower.  At  this  sight  the  ru- 
ral deities  filled  with  alarm  exclaimed, — Alas  this  sinful  wretch  is  come 
to  bear  away  the  innocent  Sita!  he  now  stood  at  the  door  in  the  exact 
garb  of  a  monk.  The  daughter  of  Videha  instantly  arose,  suppos- 
ing that  this  hypocrite  was  in  truth  a  real  hermit :  she  folded  her  lily 
hands  [and  incautiously  crossed  the  magic  circles  drawn  around  her. 
These  words  are  spurious].  The  lady  paid  him  all  due  reverence, 
which  he  shuddering  received  and  as  he  viewed  the  damsel,  he  spoke 
thus. 

Lady  how  is  it  that  thou  dwellest  in  this  desolate  retreat  of  the 
forests :  how  art  thou  left  here  alone?  art  thou  Venus,  or  Psyche,  or 
Juno  or  how  can  loveliness  so  divine  be  found  among  the  dames  of 
earth- roaming  mortals  ? 


Who  art  thou,  O  fair  one,  why  art  thou    wearing  away  life  in  this 
wilderness,  O  tell  me.    (266  319). 

He  spoke  and  Sita  reverent  replied,  I  am  the  spouse,  O  saintly  one 
of  the  stainless  hero  R&ma.  My  sire  is  Janaca,  and  Dasaiatba  is  my 
ancle  :  my  name  is  Sita.    As  the  exalted  Dasaratha  hath  banished  us 

*  The  circles  of  fire  and  the  delustre  shape  are  mentioned  neither  in  the  Sanserit  ori- 
ginal nor  in  the  two  Telugu  rersions  named  Bb&seara  Ram,  and  Adhyatma  Bam :  the 
rerses  do  not  occur  in  all  the  manoMriptf  and  are  eridently  spurloui. 

4  Eqoiralent  to  Are  Maria. 


474  £jtm  m  Te^w  Xi&arM^re.  ZOcr 


a  f 'u.d*?.  iL.jui  ♦pyar**!  »  m^-.  vui  l'jck:^g  ar  tic  prnee  I 

r*  ciie— be  if  g'm/t  &»  «<i»x  i' :  kfzer  vLS:^  I  leiri  a  ireadid  orcf 

<»f  I  rrima  4£«i  b^ie  uai  b?f o«e  :  k^  if  ^^3ae  :  ami  ntxrmedi,  mat :  I 
kjKv  B0r  «bi*.ik  v^j  to  tsrs. 

SS>e  ff^^e,  aad  Isfokuif  %t  tie  hmsis  nki  EftcRni  Sir  tcQ  ae  joar 
mnoft  air!  vbr  t<«  ar«  tfjm^  ti  tbfs  p«&:<(. 

The  (>nr>»  of  Litnei  «er=p  cd  doc  u>  Ut  afc»i>  fiar  ftv^ile  ksi  hwahit 
gmt^  and !  1  -^  refr.  ;e :  (32fjhmj . 

La^r  of  tbe  genr.e  eres  h^a.*!  I  xa  tbe  n!«r  of  Lacm  im  t&e  aite 
of  fMtLg  ^if^^vi,  I  aa  th^  eskf  of  i^:^a%  t^  io«  of  TmrnrM,  aad 
brrKber'-f  Cot^ra  ;Ko*  .♦).  -ore  of  Yaz^*  (Gi 
▼iexorior^  :  l^  bsk^,  Riraiia  'or  Brur^oi]  he  who  w  Intde 
▼at^itiUh*^  fc^>th  dnfiei  and  gunU.  L*dj !  I  hard  of  ihe  ridips  of 
thy  UoomiDj^  f^e*,  and  as  com^^  full  of  ea^eraew  to  beboil  it.  Wbj 
O  dame  tbooldit  thoo  rbof  piaing  dwell  with  a  rakrr  fe^lov  in  tb?  wil- 
derneo*  ?*  all  my  realm,  O  brigbc  ered  lady  aball  be  at  thy  coMaoad 
with  iu  wealth — f^r  thy  eoaf'>n  aad  pcm!>  there  are  bright  charioci, 
and  all  other  princely  rehsc!e« :  aad  in  the  palaeea  tboo  ahftlt  he  wmited 
Qpoo  by  the  wiret  and  daofhren  of  biries  aad  demigoda,  genea  aad 
gtaaff.  When  the  light  of  thy  fboUtepi  ihinea  on  my  reafaa  it  t^H 
blaxe  as  with  a  wall  of  rabief.  O  Lady,  the  lilies  of  thine  eyea  shall 
shed  their  radiaaee  like  a  triamphal  wreath  over  my  gates.  Thy  sweet 
smiies  %ball  tbine  as  the  summer  moon  orer  the  ocean  of  ay  bappineai. 
Come  come  to  my  eity  of  Lanea  (335-362). 

He  said :  at  these  words  Sf  ta  was  indeed  filled  with  alann,  bat  like 
a  spirited  woman  she  looked  opoa  him  with  scorn,  and  plockiog  ap  a 
blade  of  grass/  fthe  tonied  her  heart  to  Rama  and  bendmg  her  eyes 
OD  the  grass  she  thns  spoke,  withoat  eren  looking  at  the  enemy  of  gods. 

Fellow !  is  it  fit  for  tbee  to  address  me  thus  ?  sorely  ambrosia  was 
created  lor  deities  and  not  for  dogs !  what  faee  hast  thoo  to  dare  to 
qpeak  to  me  who  appertain  to  the  god -like  Raaa?  be  decent  and  be 
gone  to  thy  noble  town.  If  tboa  wilt  not  go  away  by  fair  means,  and  if 
thoQ  ponderest  on  any  iniquity,  know  that  my  noble  lord  is  mfitcklea 
in  archery  :  it  was  he  uho  burst  the  bow  of  Sira  and  who  smote  the 
beads  of  the  giants.  He  will  reduce  tbee  and  tbine  to  nothing!  thoo 
art  to  him  no  more  than  a  fox  is  to  a  lion,  or  a  fly  to  an  elephant,  or 

*  A  eoBnoD  aetioii,  cxprettfnK,  I  do  not  eare  C«r  thrae  wotdL 


1839.]  Sii€^  OH  Telvgu  Ziieraiure.  S75 

a  streamlet  to  the  ocean,  or  a  crow  to  an  eagle  I  so  vast  is  the  differ- 
ence between  him  and  tbee.  Be  wise  then  and  retire  to  thy  Lanca 
(363-384). 

She  spoke  but  the  giant  looked  furiously  at  the  daughter  of  Janaca« 
and  throwing  oflf his  guise,  in  bis  insolence,  as  love  stirred  his  heart 
he  shook  with  eagerness  and  the  gems  that  adorned  his  ten  heads  faded 
away  :  then  had  love  more  power  than  his  twenty  arms  !  he  shone  glori« 
ous  in  f^emmed  panoply,  as  the  flames  of  love  lighted  up  his  visage. 
Dreadful  was  his  form,  and  at  the  horrid  sight  as  he  advanced  to  her, 
poor  Slta  fainted  before  him,  she  sunk  down  like  a  forest  blossom  before 
the  rushing  gale.  The  five  faced  giant  beheld  her  drowned  in  tears,  and 
with  panting  bosom  and  dishevelled  treAses  and  broken  garland  while 
her  whole  form  shuddered  with  anguish.  He  instantly  seized  the  lady 
of  the  bright  eyes,  and  placed  her  on  his  car ;  driven  by  fate  to  bear  with 
him  her  who  was,  to  him,  the  goddess  of  death,  this  foe  of  the  gods 
sprung  from  earth,  and  hurried  his  steeds  along  the  skyey  road.** 


We  will  now  insert  the  original  text  of  a  few  lines  in  the  English 
character,  to  shew  how  far  the  poetical  dialect  deviates  firom  Sanscrit 
as  well  as  from  the  colloquial  Telugu. 

110  Anina  Bftroodd  Sitayanan  ambujama 

GanugonI,  narvi,  Laxmanu  f  Achi,  palike : 

Cbeliimpaa  Stfki  Saumitri,  inU 

Ila  T&xasula  mftytl  edarani  nanun 

mrigam  aina  coni  rattu  mCt'l  raceaiula 
115  texan  Hi  pori  buttn  delasi  I  rent'i 

tempu  mai  Laxman'a  dbd  ven  dag^i 

^ampi  cbarmamu  tech'i,  Janakl— k  *  itta 

inni  nfiU'acu  s'elaru  I  cSrkS  vM'e 

Cbinna  battune— Sita  cbepplna  sCtal 
110  hitamatir  al  pQol  I  parnft  s'ftla-n 

ativa  CmaraeumlT  *  ani-y-appaf(inchl 

yallana  Ragbu-Rimud*  anujuni  cheta 

vill  andi  mO  pet'tf  verar  oppa  ved&li 

y^a  mrigaxnbu  muun  arthi  mS  conina 
1S5  yi  gaj  iiura  vafri  anvj  jennu  mlri 

fonca^u  poda  mamnguoa  ponchi  poncbi 

gTuncufu  nantanta  gfldi  b&xofunu 

magudf  sQ^atiyonu  maraguna  ntlacbi 

tagulu9tt  dappanga  tamacam  andu^na 
190  villun  ammula  vesa  yd^rcbi  cM  patti 

yallana  charanimbul  avani  paia  idu^u 

^appudfl  g9c*  undi  xfidi  gangonu^a 

^ppuna  neppunu  lilcbl  d'igufuna 

ad£  cb£rC  batt^dan  adfi  cb£ra  rach€a 
135  ade  10  badlyfin  &  cani  cbeliDguf una. 


t:-r^  -I  *  srurt 


-I  a  '.i-U.   rlxia  Utit  .t*?^  '^ 


.al   iL.  :•»-  *^  t  L  -.atu  a.a  v.    rusi 

v-u  i-io.  •  ■-  -*  r!.i  -  -:  :»r:ilrra  sirx;rx 
it.'.  tJ!  i>! 


• 


pti4  Ei.:i7i-.  :  -  i^i  ;■ .?  .is.  ;4  c.*Ar-  tt^j.  ii«i  fr*»  fr-iaa  ;<-iAS3T. 
Tt*  L-i-  •ir..-  :i  '.s^-:  ■>:=!  i  -*r7  ;•:;  l^.-  f*:*^- =i:-»  i^cc:  K  be 
p'io.  .f*:  «:  M«:r*.*.     I:  > -.li  u.-?    .:5.irt:."   D-.i.-.  wri-i-a  ia  ti 

Ttnr*-    P«^2  14   r-=.*ri./-.r  •'■. ■  -.'    -li:*  ii :  iwciTn***  .:f  ^r^I*:  Vat 

^  •  •  • 

ir^i  y.^.-^  .*  *i :.*::".  --:  i:  :5  &-:;:.ia.-.t  r«i  *:  :ie  pr^Kc:  day.  It  or 
«:=:i..f*»  :h*  r:.-*::  iii^-i-::  c' j-:«»^rT  -s^rJir.  Iu;£  the  »:tIc  .:  Boras  »}»vi 
Bir*  *et:  -4  :-«n  €.&-??..&-  eia::;  -:*-     Th-?  i-*.l;r  *:»:•?«  tiia:  he  ccn- 

Ciesia-.l-'i  A  i?.Lr.»..  T:  firr-*h.  1  Hv'.::*!  of  ihe  Ha»^i  zcniccfs 
Cnot  c':nc*ctei  mi  c.  fv-riL:.i  Ifrcrd*. .  I  w^^.  g.ve  1  fiTrmry  cf  this 
itcry.  It  11  ■'-.njiie'e'i  oj  B.-<vin:c<  i*  v-^rj  iaixncr.k'. :  it  is  predselj 
sim.Iar  to  E;.ron'i  t*I*  rf  Pi::*:l«:  tii!  :h*  b-"4=i-;--il  criterion  of 
moral;:?  i*  rAJlj  :;.  r.'j.'iiri: :  ::  ::e:-?=:c?  such  tarr^riTe*  while  it 
i«e«  no  hdLnn  in  li^  f:  -  .-.-»?  :"-it  £..»  :h*  Mihl'ihirat  and  Bhi^wt 

TALE  OF  SARANGA  DHARA. 

Ictn'Ja'tirr. :  z^r^V^zj  of  th*  b*ro:  hi<  binb.  H:s  £i*h?rcida 
porrralt  cf  Sa-iriza  D;.ari  t/K^r.  -ri  sect  i:  to  cth*r  ki=c« :  od?  of 
mhom  o5»r*  hi*  .i=ngh^-r  C  r.hra'- ^*'i  ••-■  h-  weiied  :o  hi?r.  D*».?rip:k-n 
of  her  charrs.  Th*  p.;.:^S  sT^^.r :  leln^  4-ni  to  her  *he  U  veddei  to 
itani  broizht  hoii*.  b .:  l.-«  fit' er  on  «^vin7  her  was  »  greulf 
enaracnr^d  that  he  i^r-rai-d  h-r  that  ihe  friining  represented  not 
his  sen  bill  hirr.«clf.  H-r^'iron  he  n.ase  hrr  bis  s^ond  wife:  the 
tint  «ho  w^^  n-.V.  lU in »  brirg  ih-?  lacihor  cf  Siranga  Dhaix 


1839.]  Es*ay  on  Telugu  Literature.  377 

The  king  one  day  goes  to  t!ie  chaae,  the  poet  gives  a  lively  descrip* 
tion  of  hunting  in  all  its  details.  Saranga  Dhara  happened  to  be  at  play 
wilh  other  boys,  a  favourite  pigeon  escaped  from  his  hand,  and  entered 
the  window  of  the  tower,  wherein  Chitrangi  was  seated,  talking  with 
her  parrot.  The  whole  description  is  minute  and  lively  :  she  caught 
the  pigeon,  and  desired  that  the  boy  might  be  sent  up  stairs  to  her. 
The  minister's  son  in  vain  warned  Saranga  Dhara,  against  entering  the 
seraglio ;  warning  him  of  the  peril  of  conversing  with  women.  The 
prince  rejected  his  advice,  and  entered  the  seraglio.  Description  of 
the  palace,  and  the  ornaments  of  the  chambers.  Interview  with  the 
princess.  He  fell  at  her  feet  but  she  at  once  gave  way  to  her  passions^ 
and  was  violently  enamoured  of  him.  He  replies  to  her  flatteries  by 
declining  all  her  civilities  a  long  dispute  between  them  after  which  he 
makes  his  escape  and  retires. 

Chitrilngi  being  now  driven  to  desperation  disfigured  herself 
in  a  soiled  dress  as  is  usual  in  mourning.  Description  of  evening : 
night  fall  and  the  rising  of  the  moon.  At  dawn  the  king  returns 
she  accuses  Saranga  Dhara  of  having  outraged  her.  The  king's 
fary :  he  details  the  charge  to  his  ministers :  their  horror :  they 
counsel  him  to  ascertain  the  truth  from  the  boy.  The  message  sent 
back  by  Saranga  Dhara.  The  king  commands  that  he  shall  be  put  to 
death :  and  delivers  the  royal  seal  as  a  warrant  to  the  executioners, 
who  were  ordered  to  cut  off  his  hands  and  feet,  and  leave  him  to  perish 
io  the  forest.  He  is  carried  to  the  place  of  execution :  the  horror  and 
grief  that  fill  the  city,  where  Saranga  Dhara  was  a  great  favourite. 

The  king  now  retired  from  the  court,  and  lay  down  on  his  couch  in 
deep  grief.     Description  of  evening. 

Saranga  Dhara*s  mother  hearing  the  dreadful  tidings  repaired  in 
agony  to  Chitrangi,  and  fell  weeping  at  her  feet. 

The  poet  describes  the  king  consulting  whether  he  ought  to  slay  his 
son  Saranga  Dhara  at  the  instigation  of  his  young  wife. 

The  minister  now  advises  the  king  to  exercise  patience :  he  tells  the 
well  known  story  of  the  weasel  killed  on  suspicion  of  killing  an  infant 
which  it  had  saved  from  a  serpent ;  and  to  exemplify  the  necessity  of 
caution  he  narrates  the  following  fable. 

Translation. 

In  old  times  there  was  a  prince  named  Vaidarbha,  who  had  no  offspring, 
and  was  fond  of  a  scarlet  parrot  whom  he  reared :  indeed  he  passed 
most  of  his  time  in  talking  with  it,  regarding  it  as  a  son.  He  lavished 
all  his  affections  on  it,  and  it  was  so  well  instructed  that  it  would  salute 
by  name  any  one  whom  it  saw.  After  some  time  passed  in  this  manner 
there  arrived  a  flock  of  other  parrots  from  the  western  isles  which  filled 
the  park ;  and  at  the  king's  permission  his  favourite  parrot  went  to 


t7S  Emmo^  cm  Tdmgm  JJigrata^  [Ocr. 

coDTerse  irith  them :  at  last  it  accompuued  them  to  their  home  is  the 
isle  cf  SalmalL  Here  ihe  rejoiced  in  the  Yuiety  of  strange  trees,  mid 
the  Dec tmr ecus  maogo  above  all.  She  was  aisured  tlui  those  who  ale 
of  it  fihouid,  lhoa«h  old,  recoTer  ihe  biu«:m  cf  yoath  ahe  considered  that 
her  prince  vould  be  beneficed  by  this  fruit ;  wlich  she  therefore  crop- 
ped io  ber  beak  to  bring  it  home  to  the  pal  are. 

But  there  was  a  serpent  lyin^  near  the  tree  who  saw  what  she  did  and 
in  irrath  exclaimed.  Suiciy  i  Lad  ccme  to  obtain  this  fruit,  ^nd  bare 
wilted  here  for  a  rear  in  anxious  ezpeetaticn  enduring  ererj  hardshipi 
abd  DOW  I  istn  ^et  neither  gocd  cor  bad  oflt.*  Is  it  fair  for  thee  to 
eany  it  off?  Give  it  me  ! 

But  the  parrot  ro<^e  np  in  the  air,  and  so  far  frcm  granting  his  request 
bent  her  way  home  to  the  palace,  and  laid  the  fruit  before  the  kin^  ie« 
lating  affectioiihtely  all  that  had  f-assed.  The  prince  was  dvlightedf 
and  thus  addrf»strd  his  irife  in  the  chamber.  If  1  avail  m\self  of  tbity 
I  »hall  indeed  reghiu  a  yuu'hful  foru,  bat,  lady,  this  viil  benefit 
myself  alone.  I  therefore  think  it  mi^er  to  ptant  this  as  a  iced, 
let  it  ^ipruut,  utA  bet  me  a  great  tree,  loaded  «ith  continoed  fruit,  and 
the  fruits  shall  be  distributed  to  the  aged  tu  restore  them  to  javeoility. 
Tl«as  shall  1  acquire  the  lame  of  a  vinnous  deed.  Bia  spouse  assent- 
ing tu  this  he  piaiitrd  the  noble  frait,  h«  duly  watered  it,  it  spnratedt 
SLd  grew  to  be  a  tree. 

But  the  serpent  who  erst  remonstrated  with  the  bird  did  not  tail  to 
pursue  her,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  a  termite-hill  at  the  foot  of  the 
tree,  rejoicing  to  ihiuk  he  would  now  be  revenged.  After  a  while  the 
maugo  tree  bloomed,  and  shot  forth  its  branches,  flovering  gailyraod 
bearing  abundance  of  fruit-  At  last  one  mature  fruit  fell  on  the  salt 
and  he  satiated  bis  malice  by  biting  it  so  as*  to  infuse  mortal  poison  iato 
it :  be  filled  ii  with  venom,  and  then  returned  with  all  speed  to  the  iile 
of  Salmali. 

The  watchers  in  the  grove  perceived  that  a  fruit  had  follen.  They 
took  it  to  the  king  who  rejoiced  over  it,  with  his  ministers,  and  mid 
'*  surely  this  is  the  first  fruit !  let  uzs  therefore  present  it  to  a  bramiiiy 
and  then  shall  we  securely  enjoy  the  rest.  He  therefore  sent  for  the 
(rdja-purohita)  royal  confessor,  and  reverencing  him,  requested  him  to 
eat  it.  The  bramin  ate  the  envenomed  fruit,  the  poison  struck  him»  and 
he  gave  up  the  ghost.  The  people  «ere  mute  with  horror,  at  beholding 
that  highest  of  crimes  the  murder  of  a  bramin.  The  prince  was  alarm- 
ed at  this  hurrid  event,  he  cursed  his  fate,  and  it  occurred  to  him  that 
the  parrot  had  brought  him  this  ill  fated  boon,  mishing  to  cause  bit 


•  This  and  stmilv  vulgarities  arc  contiBiially  net  with  in  the  TMaga  potaM :  cvta 
iheRsaayaa  aadthc  Yua  Ciuritfa;  sadsadnccfiadiaSpeBKraadShaksvcare. 


1839.]  Eiaay  on  Teltigu  Literature.  879 

perdition.  He  exclaimed  deatli  has  not  befallen  me  but  a  sin  worse 
than  death:  surely  this  wretch  is  not  iit  to  be  called  a  parrot!  let  me 
cut  the  sinful  miscreant  to  pieces.  He  therefore  sent  for  the  jewelled 
cage,  and  filled  with  fury,  grinding  his  teeth  with  rage,  cruel  as  a  fores- 
ter who  destroys  birds,  he  seized  the  parrot  in  his  left  hand,  and  with- 
out considering  what  he  was  doing,  while  it  screamed  out  he  slew  it. 

Now  listen.  There  was  in  that  town  an  actress  who  was  now 
aged.  She  had  in  her  youth  been  celebrated  for  her  talents  in 
the  dance  and  song  so  that  she  was  amply  patronized.  But  now  that 
she  was  old,  her  juniors  were  incessantly  flying  at  her,  and  torment- 
ing her  and  smiting  her,  so  that  they  drove  her  out  of  the  house,  and 
she  took  refuge  in  the  next  street.  She  reflected,  surely,  in  my  youth 
mere  words  and  harmonious  notes  obtained  me  large  gain :  for  the 
applause  of  the  multitude  was  lavished  on  me.  Now  my  fate  has 
made  all  men  my  foes,  and  as  the  proverb  says  '*  instead  of  dealing 
in  roses  I  am  come  to  selling  faggots."  Who  in  the  world  will  endure 
to  live  after  losing  the  fashion  ?  It  is  better  for  me  to  resolve  to  die  by 
partaking  of  the  celebrated  poisoned  mangoes  so  that  I  may  at  once 
relinquish  my  life. 

Full  of  these  thoughts  she  at  midnight  stole  to  the  enchanted  mango« 
tree,  and  out  of  the  piles  of  fallen  fruit  she  picked  out  one,  and  devour- 
ed it.  She  instantly  found  herself  a  girl  of  twelve  years  old:  she  was 
greatly  delighted,  and  as  the  eastern  sky  reddened  towards  dawn  she 
returned  home  dancing  and  singing,  as  she  passed  through  the  high 
street  so  that  all  who  saw  her  were  filled  with  astonishment.  This  was 
reported  to  the  king  who  was  incredulous.  But  when  he  saw  this  dan* 
satrice  in  the  bloom  of  youth  he  called  her  to  him,  and  by  the  bands 
of  his  servants  collected  the  fruit,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  people  de- 
livered them  to  his  ministers  who  took  them,  and  distributed  them  to 
alL  Hereupon  venerable  couples  who  had  been  wedded  for  a  century 
were  miraculously  restored  to  youth. 

But  when  the  king  reflected  on  the  good  brought  about  by  the  parrot 
be  was  filled  with  grief  at  the  folly  he  had  committed.  Alas,  thought 
he,  I  reared  it  as  a  son,  and  then  sitting  at  my  ease,  in  perfect  coolness 
I  have  broken  faith,  and  slain  my  hapless  favourite.  So  saying  he 
drew  his  sword,  and  gave  up  the  ghost.* 

And  when  she  thus  saw  her  lord  perish  before  her  face,  the  royal 
dame  accompanied  him  in  death. 

Therefore  reflect  that  if  yon  slay  your  son  as  this  king  slew  the 
parrot  without  due  consideration,  you  will  repent  the  deed. 

*  Suicide  is  perpetually  mentioned  in  the  Hiada  writings  as  no  sin. 


380  Easay  on  Telugu  Literature,  [Oct. 

THE  STORY    NOW   CONTINUES    AS   FOLLOWS. 

Saranga's  mother  now  approaches  the  king  weeping,  and  touching 
her  lord's  feet,  ami  praying  that  her  son  may  be  delivered  to  her  that 
they  may  depart  from  the  country.  The  king  not  relenting  she  entreatt 
the  intercession  of  the  spcctator^i  praying  a  sight  of  her  son.  This 
is  granted.  The  interview  is  very  finely  delineated.  The  argaments 
used  by  her  friends  to  console  her.  Evening  now  coming  on,  the  ex- 
ecutioners scparuto  him  from  his  mother,  and  convey  him  to  the  fatal 
spot  in  the  wilderness.  Description  of  the  fjrest.  He  prays  their  mer- 
cy in  vain,  aiid  at  last  they  cut  off  his  hands  and  feet.  411-472. 

He  is  left  to  die  :  but  his  senses  return  :  his  lamentations :  followed 
by  reflections  that  thcHC  evils  must  be  the  result  of  sins  committed  in 
a  former  birth.*  He  hears  a  voice  from  heaven  confirming  this  idea: 
stating  that  in  a  former  stage  of  existence  there  was  a  king  who  bad 
two  ministers  named  Jayunta  and  Sumuntn.  To  the  latter  the  king  en- 
trusted supreme  power,  and  the  former  wishing  to  be  avenged,  bribed 
one  of  the  queen's  handmaids  to  place  his  rival's  slippers  under  iha 
royal  bed.  The  troubles  that  result  from  this  fraud.  The  blamelen 
Suroanta  is  put  to  deatli.  His  son  was  in  a  succeeding  birth  thy  father 
and  Jayantiis  thyself:  hence  result  these  torments.  This  Chitrangi 
was  the  treacherous  hmdmaid.    Thus  spoke  the  heavenly  voice. 

It  now  fell  night.  Tlie  horrible  plight  of  the  maimed  wretch.  Hii 
groans  were  heard  by  a  (Siva-yogi)  hermit,  who  lived  on  the  mountain. 
He  put  on  his  {nogtiviifja^  )  shoes  of  swiftness,  and  was  transported  to 
where  the  victim  lay.  He  accosted  him,  enquiring  who  he  was.  He 
relates  all  that  had  happened,  and  a  long  conversation  terminates  in  the 
lopped  limbs  being  miraculously  restored. 

It  now  dawned.  The  executioners  returned  to  the  king,  and  related 
regarding  the  voi..e  heard  in  the  sky  :  the  king's  anguish — he  sends  for 
Chitrangi  who  persists  in  her  assertions,  and  requests  that  their  tale  may 
be  proved  by  producing;  the  amputated  limbs.  At  this  moment  the 
heavenly  voice  was  again  heard,  revealing  the  truth,  andestablishingthe 
innocence  of  Saranga  Dharn.  Chitrangi  is  put  to  death  with  univeisal 
execrations.  Afier  sundry  miraculous  occurrences  Saranga  Dhara 
is  restored  to  his  father,  and  at  his  prayer  Chitrangi  is  likewise 
raised  to  life.  The  poem  concludes  with  a  description  of  general 
rejoicing!*.  Saranga  Dhara  renounces  the  worldly  state,  and  retires 
to  the  wilderness  as  a  hermit,  where  he  acquires  supernatural  power*. 
The  poet  concludes  by  stating  that  he  wrote  this  poem  as  an  improve- 
ment  on  the  version  written  in  slanzas  by  an  older  bard. 

*  lIoiT  a!*ain  wc  m<^t>t  with  a  principle  t  hat  pervades  all  the  vritinf:*  of  the  Iliadw: 
"  the  it'sult  of  acts  committed  in  a  former  birth**  being  referred  to  ai  the  one  eolation  of 
all  evil  or  good  wlilch  wo  moot  in  this  life.  It  implies  a  vajue  reference  to  the  equity  of 
providential  dispensation <. 

t  These  are  described  as  serea-leagae  booti  worn  by  hermits  oa  active  ser  vice. 


1839.]  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature.  381 

In  this  short  ahstract  of  the  tnle,  it  has  been  necessary  to  omit  the 
romantic  incidenls,  various  conversations,  moral  precepts,  and  poetical 
descriptions  which  every  where  adorn  the  pleasing  original.  It  must 
be  acknowledged  that  all  the  popular  "  novelists'*  are  of  tedious  length, 
but  their  minuteness  of  description  furnishes  the  student  wi'h  an  am- 
ple stock  of  phrases,  and  as  is  elsewhere  noticed  spares  him  the  necessi* 
ty  of  following  the  native  fashion  in  committing  versified  vocabularies 
to  memory. 

The  next  extract  is  borrowed  from  the  Lihi  (Prahhu  Linga.  Lila),  or 
History  of  Allama  some  details  regarding  which  may  perhaps  be 
given  in  another  essay.  It  is  an  allegorical  poem  much  in  the  style  of 
the  Faery  Queene.  The  metre  is  dwipada,  and  another  author  has  in 
moderD  times  put  the  same  story,  nearly  word  for  word,  into  the  stanza 
metre.  That  version  is  in  point  of  eloquence  far  inferior  to  the  more 
ancient  poem. 

In  the  present  canto  the  poet  describes  the  birth  of  Maia  (Phantasy 
or  Cybele),the  goddess  of  delusion:  that  is,  Nature  :  who  in  this  allego- 
ry is  supposed  to  be  born  in  human  form,  for  the  purpose  of  trying  her 
temptations  upon  Allama,  or  '*  the  virtuous  man"  (the  Hercules  of 
Prodic us  which  Lowth  and  Shenstone  have  versified)  :  she  is  ultimately 
enamoured  of  him,  and  dies  of  hopeless  love,  on  his  vanishing  from  her 
grasp.  Allama,  a  human  appearance  of  Siva  (or  Saturn-Osiris)  is 
described  as  the  god  of  beauty  and  wisdom  (Apollo-Adonis),  and  in  the 
fable  regarding  Maia  we  may  trace  an  analogy  to  that  regarding  Venus 
and  Adonis. 


Lila — or  Prabhu  Linga 'Lila — Canto  III. 

There  is  a  country  named  Belagoli  lying  on  the  south  of  3feru]  king 
of  hills.  All  who  dwell  in  that  land  are  worshippers  of  the  Lord  of 
all:  all  of  them  are  veracious.  All  the  heroes  that  dwell  there  are 
steadfast  in  the  ways  of  uprightness  ;  all  are  noble,  all  are  virtuous  : 
their  virtue  proceeds  in  due  course  nor  does  any  sinner  ever  tread  its 
streets.  In  the  midst  of  this  land  is  a  city  bright  as  the  sun;  can  we 
call  it  the  abode  of  the  goddess  earth  :  or  shall  we  call  it  her  face?  Its 
name  is  Banavasi.* 

To  narrate  its  splendour  is  beyound  the  powers  of  Bramha !  Its  groves 
are  filled  with  blossoming  mango  trees  and  areca  trees  ;  with  budding 
lemon  trees  and  plaintains;  with  the  fruiting  artocarpus  (jaca)  and 
citron.  Also  the  charming  asoca  and  (mdlura)  oak  trees  with  the 
(sarja)  pine  tree  and  the  date ;  the  golden  champaca :  the  (vacula)  mi- 

*  iQ  the  SoonUa  country,  on  the  south  west  coast  of  the  Peniniula, 


382  Esiay  on  Telugu  Literature,  [Oct. 

musops  and  (bhunja)  the  flowering  birch:  these  and  thousands  more 
filled  the  fragrant  groves.  The<e  were  tenanted  by  the  linnet,  the 
parroti  and  the  redbreast  in  endless  flocks :  they  sported  aroiuid« 
singing  merrily.  The  fragrant  K6taki,  the  oleander,  the  laurel,  the  (pi^ 
gadi\)  conil  and  giant  jessamine  with  the  spherical  species  of  jessamine 
and  mountain  rouclle,  and  larger  curuvirtda  and  the  (p&rij&ta)  ama^ 
ranth:  the  various  jessamines  called  vdsaniiea  and  yirav&di^'^yi  and 
the  smaller  jaji  and  the  (chamanti)  orange-marigold;  for  at  all  seasons 
these  flowers  call  upon  the  devout  to  worship  their  God.  They  blossom 
without  intermission,  and  perfume  the  breeze  as  they  lie  scattered 
through  the  parterre.  The  piazzas  therein  erected  were  plaistered  with 
musk,  and  around  them  were  spacious  streets  :  these  were  adorned  with 
dolphin  crests  and  gay  garlands  whicM  were  daily  renewed  throughout 
the  town.  And  the  floors  were  sprinkled  mih  gomayam  dissolved  m 
essence  of  sandal  shedding  a  sweet  perfume  around.  And  who  is  it 
that,  tipsy  with  these  intoxicating  scents  wanders  around  the  banks  of 
the  lakes,  and  stealing  upon  the  sleepy-eyed  mai dentouches  her  bosom 
with  glee  ?  sportively  tossing  up  her  veil  he  plays  with  her  jetty  locks 
he  takes  every  liberty, — bestirs  the  spirit  of  merriment;  for,  roam- 
ing like  a  lover  through  every  alley  of  the  town,  welcome  to  eveiy 
cheerful  heart  he  strolls  at  will?  It  is  the  vernal  breeze,  Vertunmos 
himself.* 

'  The  height  of  those  bastions  the  depth  of  that  fosse?  angels  may 
'  tell  the  one  and  demonst  the  other !  no  other  can  comprehend  it  who 
'  then  can  even  imagine  the  loftiness  of  the  towers,  and  sky-touching 

*  pinnacles  ? 

'  The  roars  of  the  elephants,   the  clang  of  their  bells ;  the  gaudy 

*  heralds,  and  their  fluency  of  tongue  :  the  resounding  cries,  the  min- 

*  gled  voices  and  echoes,  and  the  clamour  of  the  people   who  can  des- 

*  Gribe  ? 

♦  ♦♦♦♦»♦♦ 

The  poet  now  describes  the  king  named  Mamacara  (Egotistes),  and 
his  wife  named  Mohini  (Formo;ia)  whose  child  is  (Maia)  Illusion.  He 
then  proceeds  as  follows  : — 

*  Now  Egotistes  and  Formosa  were  delighted  at  their  little  daughter 

*  Maia,  and  could  not  keep  their  eyes  off  her ;  all  their  thoughts  were 
'  bent  on  her ;  never  was  her  flgure  out  of  their  mind  :  they  would  clasp 

*  the  babe  to  their  bosoms,  nor  would  let  her  grieve;  they  laid  her  at 

*  their  side,  and  could  not  keep  away  from  her  a  moment  and  sorely, 

*  In  thia  pM8&g«  the  other  version  is  bombastic. 

f  In  hi!  Christian  poem,  the  Tcmbavaul,  Beschi  introduces  soch  flower*  of  rhetorie 
into  his  Tamil  composition. 


laaO.J  Euay  on  TeLugu  Literature.  SSS 

'  cried  prince  Egotistes  this  cannot  be  a  child  of  ours !  it  must  be  a  lairy 
'  babel  let  then  her  name  be  Maya. 

•  The  narses  gave  her  the  breast,  they  anointed  her  head  and  bathed 

*  her  nicely,  and  then  wiped  her  dry,  and  laid  her  on  the  lap ;  they  gave 

*  her  butter  and  honey,  and  touched  her  eyes  with  colly rium:  they  put 

*  a  mark  on  her  forehead  with  ashes,  for  luck,  and  spread  out  a  clean 

*  sheet,  in  which   they  affectionately  laid  her:  then  with  loud  voices 

*  they  began  the  lullaby,  till  she  fairiy   fell  asleep.    The  cradle  wa« 

*  richly  adorned  with  gems  that  reflected  her  image;  which  she  took  for 
'  another  child,  and  playfully  stretched  over  her  hands  towards  it :  she 

*  gently  passed  from  her  mother's  arms  to  the  arms  of  her  father :  and 
'  prettily  embraced  her  papa's  neck,  all  in  a  tremble  with  delight  as 

*  they  gave  her  kisses,  and  she  played  about  full  of  glee.    They  dcck« 
ed  her  feet  with  fair  rings  and  ancle ts  which  rang  as  she  stamped  in 

*  tottering  along.  Then  they  put  rings  and  gold  bracelets  mi  her  wrists* 
'  and  a  pretty  gold  fig  leaf  adorned  her  forehead.  They  next  put  on  a 
'  gold  necklace  of  the  oleander  petal  fashion  with  rows  of  large  beads  of 
'  fine  gold, 

*  Thus  completely  decked  out,  she  most  merrily  sported  about  with 

*  the  other  girls  :  while  the  hearts  of  her  parents,  nurses  and  playmates 

*  were  filled  with  joy.    Thus  did  M6ya  pass  her  infancy.    All  others 

*  were  astonished  at  her  cleverness,  and  praised  her  with  a  thousand 

*  mouths.    But  very  shortly  M&ya  (perfect  as  a  teacher  of  gymnastics), 

*  might  have  given  lessons  even  to  elephants  and  swans  in  elegance 

*  of  swimming  gait.    In  musical  melody  she  rivalled  the  linnet  and  the 

*  nightingale;  in  prettiness  of  accents  she  might  have  had  parrots  for 
'  pupils.  After  a  while  she  began  to  bloom  in  youth  :  for  the  tricksy 
^  maid  often  used  childish  words  but  kept  her  thoughts  to  herself :  she 

*  soon  learnt  to  roll  the  eye,  and  use  the  artful  beckon  with  the  hand  t 

*  or  with  the  frown  of  anger  on  her  brow,  and  frolicksome  fun  in  her 
<  breast.  Those  who  eyed  these  intoxicating  charms  at  once  turned 
'  fools,  and  fell  in  love  with  the  girl.    Then   as  she  attained  fuller  ma* 

*  turity,  her  manners  were  formed !  what  a  bloom,  what  loveliness, 
'she  displayed!   what  a  grace  in   walking!  that  delicate  waist,  that 

*  swelling  bosom !  that  forehead  !  those  swimming  eyt% !  those  elegant 
'  hands,  that  smiling  countenance !    those  flowing  tresses  !    surely  in 
'  these  charms  the  sweet  Mdya  outshone  all  other  women ! 

*  Now  the  king  built  a  palace  as  the  abode  for  M6ya  [Delusion]  who 
'  holds  the  universe  in  her  power.  He  raised  the  walls  blazing  with 
'  gold  and  rubies ;  therein  he  placed  courts,  abodes,  streets,  and  great 

*  storehouses;  he  encouraged  all  trades,  he  appointed  men  skilled  in  the 
'  elegant  arts  to  teach  poems  and  plays  to  the  damsel. 


S84  Essaif  on  Teltigu  LUerahare.  [Oct. 

*  In  the  next  place  the  Prince  Mamac6ra  contemplated  disposing  of 
'  his  daughter  in  marriage.'  &c.  &(\  &c. 

In  the  next  extract  iu  described  the  death  of  Mala  for  loye  of  Alia- 
ma  (or  Atys — Saturnu8).  Her  companion  Yiiuala  (a  personification  of 
Purity),  dies  with  her. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

'  But  when  Allama  thus  vanished,  Mtya  was  filled  with  the  deepest 
'  affliction  ;  she  cast  her  eyes  on  her  playmate  Vimala  and  exclaimed« 
'  with  downcast  looks—"  Now  with  what  grace  can  I  venture  to  appear 
"  in  the  presence  of  [Parvati]  the  Queen  of  Heaven  :  how  can  I  ap« 
**  proach  the  courts  of  Hara  (Jupiter)  and  his  awful  spouse  ?  Surely 
"  I  alone  out  of  so  many  attendant  ministers  ventured  on  this  arduous 
"  task  I  Alas  sad  Destiny  !" 

*  Thus  exclaimed  she,  grieving  in  her  very  soul  :  but  the  king  of  men 
'  now  entered  the  grove  in  quest  of  his  beloved  daughter  ;  after  some 

*  search  he  found  in  a  remote  spot,  with  her  handmaidens,  his  child,  all 

*  woe  be  gone  and  sunken  with  grief.    The  prince  and  his  spouse  affec* 

*  tionately  raised  and  embraced  their  daughter,  exclaiming.  "  Whit 
'  dreadful  grief,  my  darling  has  Siva  poured  on  thee !  There  is  even  now 
<•  a  mountain  chief,  son  of  a  king,  who  has  sent  to  demand  thee  in 
''  marriage,  but  thou  hast  to-day  thrown  thyself  away,  and  becomt  the 
'*  victim  of  a  minstrel !  how  canst  thou  have  fallen  into  this  sad  state  ? 
*'  How  many  counsels  has  thy  mother  given  thee  in  vain  at  midnight !  I 
''  am  leader  of  all  the  hill  chieftains,  and  thou  dost  not  even  think  on  me 
"  my  sweet  babe  !  Did  ever  any  body  ramble  in  this  way  like  a  rover 
*^  from  house  to  house,  and  break  the  established  laws  of  custom  ?  or 
''  do  they  ever  thus  depart  from  the  commands  of  their  parents?  It  is 
**  too  late !  what  is  the  good  of  building  a  bank  after  all  the  lake  has  ran 
'*  dry  ?  come,  arise,  mount  into  thy  litter,  and  return  home.*' 

*  But  Vimala  viewed  the  king,  and  in  bold  accents  thus  replied : 
'<  She  promised  the  Queen  of  Heaven  that  she  would  in  a  moment  seiie, 
*'  and  bring  him  to  her.  Such  were  her  words,  uttered  in  the  presence 
**  of  Siva,  before  she  descended  on  earth  ;  and  she  has  failed  of  aceom* 
*'  plishingwhat  she  swore  to  do.  She  and  I  will  immediately  depart  to 
*'  Olympus.  Have  done  then  with  these  vain  lamentations.  Return 
«« to  the  City.    Fare  ye  well !' 

'  She  said  and  Vimala  and  Maia  instantly  took  their  way  to  the 
«  Olympic  regions.**  fi ut  the  queen  and  her  lord  were  overwhelmed 
'  with  grief,  they  groaned  and  cried  saying   *'  Alas  my  daoghter,  my 

*  daughter !"  rolling  on  the  earth  they  were  defiled  with  dust,  wallow- 

*  A  phrase  understood  to  denote  sadden  death :  pxobeUy  soieldB. 


188$.]  Essay  on  Telugu  IMeratan.  S85 

« ing  and  wailing,  <*  thon  art  gone,"  cried  they— melting,  distracted 

*  tbey  cried  alas  alas  ;  agitated  with  anguish  and  beside  themseWeSy 

*  wringing  their  hand«,  and  beating  their  breasts,  Alas  cried  they,  my 

*  beauty,  my  ch;irnier,  my  own  delight,  my  sister,  0  shall  the  day  ever 
'  come  when  I  forget  thee  V 

*  Thus  cried  they  still  in  their  affliction,  when  the  noble  Ahanc&ra 

*  (the  king's  minister)  approached  them.  Why  exclaimed  he,  "  why 
"  this  grief  when  it  is  too  late!  is  it  pjssible  for  mortals  to  avoid  the 
^  doom  fixed  by  the  deity  ?  surely  the  fair  Maia  dwelt  among  us  for  a 
*'  certain  object,  and  she  is  now  gone;  she  is  no  more  a  daughter  of 
*^  yours :  surely  you  have  heard  this  in  the  last  words  of  Vimala ;  then 
«*  why  should  you  grieve  any  longer.  If  we  do  not  return  to  the  royal 
"  dwelling  the  hearts  of  men  will  be  filled  with  uneasiness  :  all  our 
**  dependants  will  quit  our  banners,  and  will  betake  themselves  to  other 
•*  princes." 

*  Such  were  his  counsels  to  Mamac&ra,  lord  of  men,  who  lent  an  ear  | 
'  he  brought  him  back  to  the  palace,  where  be  continued  to  rule  the 

*  land  prosperously. 

*  Meantime  Maia  and  Vimala  stood,  **  there*^  in  the  presence  of 
'  Sancara's  awful  Queen  :  they  hung  down  their  heads  and  drew  lines* 
'  on  the  floor.    The   goddess  at  once  perceived  that  Allama  had  not  fal- 

*  len  in  the  hands  of  Maia :  her  gay  cheer  vanished,  and  she  drew  d 
'  deep  sigh  :  the  daughter  of  Olympus  did  not  approach  her  lord,  but  he 

*  perceived  all  the  fnct :  forthwith  he  proceeded  to  the  dwelling  of  his 

*  fair  spouse,  and  with  overflowing  affection  consoled  her  :  then,  not  de* 

*  sisting  from  his  first  intent,  the  vanquisher  of  Pluto  thus  addressed 

*  the  dame,  in  words  that  conveyed  a  double  import.  *'  It  is  easy 
*'  enough  to  snare  thunderbolts,  and  roast  them  like  larks  ;  it  is  easy  to 
*'  handle  serpents  and  fiery  dragons  ;  to  seize  and  draw  out  the  fangs 
«  of  death;  but  where  shall  we  find  him  on  earth  who  will  be  able  to 
*'  tempt  and  conquer  Allama ?t  what  is  woman?  and  what  is  woman's 
'*  resolution  ?  But  never  mind  ;  the  affair  is  over,  O  daughter  of  hills ! 
*'  forget  the  grief  that  has  filled  thy  heart." 

*  Thus  he  arldre^sei  her ;  but  she  replied  saying- -when  I  sent  Maya 

*  on  earth  in  my  stead,  surely  thou  wentest  thyself  in   the  guise  of 

*  that  Allama,  and  thus  hast  thou  succeeded,  and  I  have  lost :  now  pray 

*  be  quiet.t    He  replied,  listen  Parvati,  you  had  the  presumption   to 

*  concentrate  all  your  (tamasam)  powers  of  delusion,  and  moulded  it 

*  into  woman ;  her  you  sent  to  earth,  and  you  have  brought  this  ridicule 

*  With  the  toe :  a  Hindu  ezpre«8ion  of  regret, 
f  AlUma  being  an  emblem  of  the  deitj. 

X  The  Homsrie  •implioitjr  of  phrase  gives  an  odd  appearanee  la  a  translation,  here  as 
elatwhevr. 


$dB  Eua^  <m  Teh^  L&erahan.  Oct.] 

*  cm  younelf.  Him  who  is  endowed  with  the  highest  innate  bliss  yra 
'  looked  upon  as  a  mere  mortal.  Can  delusion  or  illusion  contend  wilb 
'  him  P  Is  he  subject  to  any  of  the  (c&ya  guna)  ties  of  the  flesh  ? 

*  But  the  queen  listened  to  the  reiterated  arguments  of  her  sponge,  and 

*  now  wearied  she  replied  thus  alas  what  avails  my  much  speaking  I 
'  after  defacing  me  you  present  me  a  mirror!  what  am  I  that  I  should 
'  lay  the  blame  on  you:  thou  art  the  very  fountain  of  goodness:  then 
'  pardon  me. 

*  The  god  gased  on  his  fair  spouse,  and  kindly  said,  be  patient  if  pos« 
'  sible  this  once :  I  will  myself  heal  all  thy  grief.  She  arose  and  rever^ 
'  ently  saluted  him,  and  with  deep  devotion  she  folded  her  hande  and 

thus  replied :  In  what  way  wilt  thou  do  away  this  affliction  f 

*  Then  to  the  goddess  replied  that  chief  of  gods. 

'  Send  down  to  earth  that  pure  spirit  of  (j*&twica)  benignity  which 

*  is  in  thee  :  let  her  be  filled  with  faith  and  self  denial,  being  entirely 
'  released  from  the  law  of  works.  For  wherever  dwells  faith  (bbaeti) 
'  there  shall  the  lord  (Prabhu)  ahide.    Therefore  shall  be  yoluntarily 

*  draw  near  to  where  thy  Benign  spirit  (satwica  cala)  dwells,  he  vhall 

*  shew  forth  his  uiin  form,  and  full  of  grace  shall  he  bestow  exceeding 

*  gladness  on  the  damsel. 

*  The  goddess  listened  and  replied  great  is  thy  goodness.    Fortb- 

*  with  she  sent  the  spirit  of  love  (satwica  cala)  on  earth,  and  nov  was 

*  restored  to  hearlfelt  comfort.' 


What  has  now  been  cited  from  the  poems  written  in  eouplets  may 
sufSce  to  shew  the  general  turn  of  that  class  of  literature:  a  few  spe- 
cimens of  those  poems  which  are  framed  in  stanzas  may  perhaps  be  pro- 
duced in  a  future  paper.  Indeed  the  eavtams  are  like  the  odes  of  Ho> 
race  written  in  an  elevated  style  which  cannot  be  competently  repre* 
sented  in  a  prose  translation,  unless  we  were  to  use  such  a  dialect  as 
is  found  in  Darwin's  poems. 

The  higher  branches  of  poetry  in  Telugn  as  in  other  cultivated  lan« 
guages,  can  seldom  be  enjoyed  by  foreigners.  Indeed  among  natives 
few  alone  have  by  long  study  brcome  familiar  with  all  the  rv^fined 
phrases,  the  historical  and  mythological  allusions  that  occur.  And  we 
may  reasonably  entertain  a  doubt  whether  so  complete  a  knowledge  is 
worth  the  toil  of  acquisition.  But  those  popular  authors  who  have 
furnished  the  extracts  now  made,  are,  after  moderate  applieation  easily 
comprehended,  and  will  furnish  an  ample  stock  of  useful  and  agreeable 
reading. 


1889.]  JSssay  on  Tthigu  Liieraiure,  387 


niDlX  TO  TBI  PB18BKT  E88AT:    THB  RUUBBR8  BBFBlRXHO  TO  THB 

PABAGRAPH8. 

Aff a  Telagn,  89.  Abalya,  77,  Alliiani  Peddann,  71,  73,  79,  Amen  Cotba,  69,  Amueta 
IfalTada,  71,  ADiraddba.  76.  Aothonhip,  68,  Babolaaya.  80,  Balarama.  80.  Bandba,  ca- 
▼itram,  70,  BhagaTatamula,  65,  Bbagarat  Puran,  76,  77.  Bbanuniad  Vijayam,  81,  Bba« 
Bomati,  81,  Bbaacara  Ramajan,  79,  Bbaacara  Satacam,  64,  Bbatta  Murti,  63.  68,  73, 
Bbima  Kband.  74,  BUbanain,  81,  Bobbill  catba,  65,  C,  or  commentary,  67,  Calabaati 
Satacam,  64,  Gala  Pumodayam,  75,  CaloTal  Sat.  64,  Cama.  Gala  Nidhi.  81.  Ganta  Lala- 
ma  Bat  64,  Catba,  65,  Cari  Raja,  76,  CaTi  Gaina  Raa,  78,  Cbaritraa.  78.  Ghbeeam,  69, 
Claaaical  Poems,  63.  Godanda  Bama  Sat.  64,  Comedies,  65.  Couplets.  64,  Cucbelop,  78, 
Paaaratarm  Cbaritra,  70, 77,  79.  DeTi  BbagaTst,  77,  Dialects,  83,  83. 84,  Dwipadn,  63, 
Dwipada  Ramayan,  85,  Ecamra  Lln^  Sat  64,  Erra  Pregada,  76,  Garadacbalam.  65, 
HamaaVimsati.  83,  Hariscb:  Na]op,68.  Hari  Vamsam,  76,  Ila  DeWyam.  78,  latroduo- 
ttons  to  poems  66,  Jangama  books  66,  80,  KasI  Kband,  74,  Krishna  Cam  Amiita,  81, 
Kriahna  Rayel,  69,  Lanca  Vijayam,  65,  Mababbarat,  76,  89,  Maha  Caryam,  63,  Maad- 
hata  78,  Manu  Cba,  70,  Melodies,  65.  Monotony  of  Puranas,  66,  Muccu  Timmanna,  78, 
•0,  Musieal  compuaitions,  65,  Nagamma  cath.  65,  Naishadham.  68,  74,  Naln,  eatba,  64, 
Haanaia.  79.  Narasa  Bbupaliyam,  68,  69,  Narayana  Sat  76,  Natacam,  65.  Niti  Matae. 
€4,  Obsolete  Telugu,  88.  Padamulu  65,  Pancba  Tantra,  78,  Pancbali  Par.  69,  Panda 
Banga  Vijayam,  73.  Psmjat  Apahar,  72.  Potu  Ras,  76.  Prabandba  R.  8.  80,  PrabbaTstI 
75,  PururaTsa  76,  Radba.  M.  8.  77,  78,  Radbiea  Sant  78,  Raghara  Pand.  75,  Ragba 
Vams.  79,  Rams  Ras,  68,  Ramabbyndaya.  79.  Ramayan  dwip.  73,  85,  86,  Ranga 
Bao  Cbar,  65,  Raaa  Manjiri,  71,  Rasica  Jana  Manob,  79,  Sacontala  79,  Samanya, 
CaTyamol,  63,  Sampagam  Sat  64.  Sangitamol  65.  Saranga  Dbara,  76,  Satacam,  61, 
Batyabb.  81,  Slddba  Rama  Sat  64,  Sita  Calyan,  65,  Skanda,  74,  Slesba,  69,  Sil 
Natba,  74,  hringara,  64,  Stintas,  64,  Style  69,  73,  Suca  Sap,  84.  Subbadra  Par.  76, 
Burabband,  78,  T.  or  Text.  67,  Taste  displayed.  63.  64,  70,  Tenneia  Ramalinga,  73^ 
Ticeanna,  79,  Usba  Parin,  76.  Utprexa.  69.  Uttara  Ramajran,  79.  Vaoi  Vilas,  T8» 
Vam  Cbaritra,  63,  68,  Vemana,  64.  Vidbi  Natae.  74,  Vijaya  Vllaf.  76,  Virabhadr* 
TiJ.  76,  Vishna  CUtt,  71,  Yau  Oanao,  65,  Toga  Satac  64. 


388  Report  an  the  Mackenzie  Mamucr^,  [Oct. 


V. — Sixth  Report  of  progress  made  in  the  Examination  of  the 
Mackenzie  MSS.,  with  an  Ah  etr act  Account  of  the  works  txamned,^ 
By  the  Rev.   William  Taylob. 

A.^TAMIL. 

a.    Palm-leaf  manuscripts. 

1.     Bhdgavatam,  No.  12 — Countermark  18. 

This  manuscript,  with  another,  incomplete  copy  were  adverted  to  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  report ;  and  the  four  first  books  were  therein 
abstracted. 

The  following  is  a  continuation. 

Fifth  book,  or  Cdndam. 

The  story  of  the  eldest  son  of  Scayamhhuva  manu,  is  begun  by  the 
narrator.  The  name  of  the  said  son  was  Priyavrata.  He  was  taught 
by  Ndreda,  and  declined  to  comply  with  his  father's  request,  that  ha 
would  solicit  possession  of  his  father's  kingdom.  Brahma  came  and 
exp  'btulated  with  him  ;  on  which  he  consented  to  be  crowned,  or  in- 
stituted, to  the  kingdom.  On  devolving  his  charge  Svayamhhuva  retir* 
ed  to  the  taporanu,  or  wilderness  of  penan.'e.  Priyavrata  married  a 
daughter  of  Visvacarma  (artificer  of  the  gods),  and  had  ten  sons.  Three 
of  them  were  devout,  and  obtained  final  emancipation.  The  other 
seven  sons  acted  agreeably  to  their  father's  directions.  Priyoprata  had 
three  other  sons,  by  another  wife.  He  reigned  a  long  time.  A  celes- 
tial car,  sent  from  FUhnu,  came  down.  Mounting  this  car,  he  sar^ 
rounded  the  mo\mtain  Maha'Aferu  seven  times  in  se?en  days.  The 
tracks  of  the  wheels  formed  the  seven  seas;  the  intervals  between  them 
are  the  seven  great  dwipas,  or  islands.  The  name  of  the  seas,  and  in- 
termediate dwipas  are  given  :  (see  Or.  Hist.  MSS.  vol.  1,  p.  48).  The 
seven  obedient,  and  secular,  sons  of  Priyavrata  were  instituted  to  the 
kingly  rule  of  the  said  seven  dwipas.  Subsequently  Priyavrata  ob- 
tained beatification.  Agni  druhva  married,  and  had  nine  sons  by  Parva* 
sidhi  bis  wife,  who  was  a  special  gift  from  Brahma ;  and  who,  on 
dying,  returned  to  the  Satya  loca,  the  highest  orb,  or  Brakma*i 
world. — The  nine  sons  aforesaid,  ruled  over  nine  divisions  of  Jawtbn 
dwipa,  which  divisions  were  called  after  their  names.    Ayni  Drwkva^ 


1889.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  389 

inconsolable  for  the  loss  of  his  wife,  had  Tnany  great  sacrifices  perform- 
ed :  and  at  length  rejoin»»d  her  in  Brahma's  world.  Nahhi^  the  eldest 
of  the  nine,  performed  a  sacrifice,  directed  to  Vithnu,  for  the  sake  of 
ofl&pring.  Vishnu  appeared,  and  gave  him  a  promise  that  he  would 
himself  be  born  as  the  son  of  Ndbhi,  This  promise  was  arcomplislied 
in  the  birih  of  Rishahha  (always  reckoned  among  the  subor«iinate  in« 
carnations  of  Vishnu,  and  a  leading  personage  with  the  Jamas).  Both 
Either  and  mother  relinquished  their  rule ;  giving  it  into  the  hands  of 
Rithabha:  they  then  retired  to  an  ascetic  life,  and  finally  were  beati- 
fied. Itidra  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Rishabha  (nymbol  for  a 
felicitous  marriage).  Bharata,  and  one  hundred  other  children,  were 
born  ;  and  as  Bharata  ruled  the  country,  it  was  called  Bharataeandam 
(the  country  south  of  Himalaya),  The  dififerent  portions  of  his  sons 
are  specified.  Some  of  them  performed  ritual  ceremonies,  and  became 
Brahmans.  Rishabha  relinquished  all  his  possessions ;  and  went  away» 
followed  by  his  children.  He  advised  them  to  leave  off  the  use  of  cere- 
monies, and  to  practise  justice,  and  charity,  with  similar  instructions ; 
which  (in  their  place)  are  of  superior  character. 

Paricshit,  interrupting  the  narrative,  enquires  of  Suca  why  Rishabha 
relinquished  his  possessions.  Suea  replies,  detail iug  those  reasons ; 
the  tendency  being  to  enforce  such  a  renunciation.  Death  of  Rishabha, 
Account  of  Bharata,  He  was  guilty  of  misconduct ;  and,  as  the  result, 
in  transmigration  was  born  as  a  deer.  Doing  penance,  his  former  sense 
returned ;  and,  in  another  transit,  he  was  bom  a  Brahman.  A  chief 
being  without  children  vowed  to  present  to  Durga,  a  Narabali,  or  hu- 
man sacrifice.  Bharata  was  caught  by  the  people,  sent  out  for  the 
purpose,  and  by  them  was  forcibly  carried  to  a  shrine  of  Cali.  He 
was  painted  red,  and  covered  with  red  flowers,  and  other  ornaments. 
The  said  numen  was  greatly  incensed ;  came  forth ;  drew  her  sword ; 
cut  off  the  heads  of  the  people,  who  had  brought  the  purposed  victim  ; 
danced  about,  holding  their  bleeding  heads  iu  her  hands ;  drank  the 
blood  as  it  streamed  from  those  heads ;  and  then  retired  within  her 
dwelling,  satisfied.  The  mahapurusha  (or  Brahman)  thought  that 
certainly  Vishnu  was  present  (as  a  preserver),  and  then  retired  to 
the  fields  agam.  It  so  happened  that  a  king  of  Sindhudesam 
became  desirous  of  going  to  visit  a  sage,  who  had  obtained  high 
repute  for  teaching  the  taiva  system.  The  people  of  this  king 
pressed  the  before  mentioned  Brahman  as  a  palanquin  bearer.  He 
meekly  yielded ;  but,  in  the  effort,  was  quite  inferior  to  the  other 
bearers  :  and  could  not  carry  his  burden  even,  or  without  jolting.  The 
rqjOf  being  displeased,  enquired  why  the  other  palanquin  bearers  com- 


390  EepoH  (m  (he  Mackenzie  Mamueriplt.  [Oct. 

plained  8o  much  of  the  newly  pressed  bearer.  The  resalt  leid  to  a  dis* 
course  oa  spiritual  matters,  between  the  raja  and  the  Brahman.  The 
raja  was  so  much  pleased  with  this  discourse,  that  he  took  the  Brak' 
man  to  be  his  guru,  or  spiritual  preceptor.  The  latter  avowed  hima^ 
to  be  Bharatat  recounted  his  past  history;  and  then  taught  the  king 
of  ^tWAii,  spiritual  knowledge,  turning  on  the  yieiDsitudes  of  earthly 
things.  The  raja  returned  to  his  own  country.  The  Brahmmn  (i.  e. 
Bharata)  left  off  keeping  the  fields,  which  office  had  been  assigned  to 
him  by  his  former  master.  He  now  wandered  about;  passed  the  re- 
maiuder  of  his  life  without  control  ;  and  at  his  own  pleasure. 

The  posterity  of  Bharata  follows  in  suciession.  Afterwards  there  is 
a  full  description  of  the  seven  dmpas,  seas  and  other  matters,  acconU 
mg  to  Pauranical  geography.  The  channel  of  one  river  is  filled  with 
flowing  juice  of  mangoes;  they  who  partake  of  this  amriUh  or  nectary 
evereomc  death.  The  account  of  the  different  regions  is  full  and  par* 
ticular.  In  Pushcara'dwipa  the  diy  and  night  is  said  to  consist,  taken 
together,  of  a  year  (which  of  course  is  the  case  near  the  polar  regions) : 
no  distinction  of  caste  is  observed  there.  Beyond  is  CkaeravalP'giri 
(apparently  the  north  pole),  and  beyond  that  a  golden  conntry  (region 
unknown).  The  sun  goes  round  ChacravaU-girl ;  and,  in  that  land,  le- 
verses  its  order  of  rising  and  setting. 

A  transition  is  then  made  to  the  stellar  sky,  or  world  of  the  start. 
The  inferior  worlds  are  noticed ;  their  rulers  and  inhabitants  are  de- 
scribed, down  to  Naraca,  A  description  of  the  pains,  penalties,  and  se- 
vere inflictions  visited  on  the  guilty  in  Naraea  is  given.  It  is  mi- 
nute, circumstantial,  revolting;  and  it  fails  of  the  awful  sublimity  of 
the  Christian  revelation,  on  this  point,  as  to  simplicity  and  graodeor: 
inasmuch  as  the  details  sometimes  verge  on  the  ludicrous ;  and,  in 
other  instances,  are  shocking,  without  being  impressive. — With  the 
enumeration,  on  this  subject,  as  indicated,  the  fifth  book  concludes. 

Remark. — Upon  the  slightly  altered  plan  of  my  reports,  the  abstFMt 
of  one  book,  ut  a  time,  may  be  proportionably  sufficient.  Aeeording 
to  inferences  by  Sir  W.  Jones,  Svayambhuva  manu  has  been  identified 
with  Adam,  the  progenitor  of  mankind.  That  such,  however,  is  the  re- 
ference of  the  name  in  this  document  I  greatly  doubt :  the  facility  with 
which  the  same  names  are  applied  to  different  persons,  at  distant  placet, 
and  periods  of  I imo,  may  easily  reconcile  any  discrepancy.  That  /Vt- 
yavraia  is  said  to  have  had  ten  sons,  I  desire  to  be  noted  ;  witboat,  at 
present,  drawing  any  inference  therefrom.  As  to  further,  and  follow- 
ing matters  it  does  not  seem  needful  for  me  to  make  any  special  anno- 
tation. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  391 

2.  Sevendhi  SVhala  puranam,  or  legend  of  the  fane  at  Tricbinopoly, 
No.  25— Countennark  34. 

This  document  is  divided  into  thirteen  sections,  a  brief  abstract  of 
which  is  herein  added. 

1.  The  usual  invocations,  and  panegyric  of  Ganhat  &c. 

2.  The  glory  of  the  liill  on  which  the  fane  is  built.  Even  wikl 
beasts  lived  in  hannony  on  it,  and  sacred  rishis  dwelt  there.  Gautama^ 
rishi,  coming  to  visit  them,  narrated,  at  their  reqtiest,  the  excellen- 
cies of  the  place,  as  he  had  received  the  statement  from  Sanatcumara^ 
"who  had  receivt^d  the  same  from  Subrahmanya,  I'risira  dwelt  here  ; 
and  from  him  it  derived  the  name  of  Trisira-mcUL  Th'»  ruck  is  a  splin- 
ter from  Caiiasa,  originating  in  a  quarrel  between  Fa^u,  and  Adi'Sts- 
han.     It  acquired  the  name  of  the  southern  Cailasa. 

3.  The  penance  o{ Brahma  at  this  place:  the  legend  of  the  lie  told 
by  Brahma,  as  related  in  the  Scanda  purana,  and  Arunachala  purariam, 
is  introduced  ;  and  Brahma  being  doomed  by  Siva,  in  consequence  of 
that  falsehood,  was  told  that  the  evil  denounced  would  be  removed  by 
doing  penance  on  this  hill. 

4.  The  legend  about  Agasiya,  Oautama  relates  a  conversation 
between  Siva,'dnd  Ndreda.  The  latter  of  whom  told  the  former  that  the 
Vindhya  mountain  was  not  to  be  compared  with  Trisira-mali,  Agahtya^ 
being  sent  from  Cailasa,  was  directed  to  visit  this  hill,  and  afterwards 
to  proceed  to  Poihaiya-mali,  Agastya  accordingly  stamped  on  the 
Vindhya  mountain,  with  his  pilgrim's  staff,  reducing  its  level  thereby. 
He  afterwards  visited  Trisira  hill,  and  then  went  on  to  Poihaiya-mali^ 
in  the  extreme  south. 

5.  The  legend  of  Indra.  The  celestials  of  Indra^s  world,  being  un- 
able to  bear  the  oppression  of  Chemhan,  an  asura,  complained  to  Indra 
their  chief;  who,  under  directions  from  Siva,  killed  the  said  Chemban  ; 
and  then,  by  doing  penance  at  Trisira-mali,  effected  an  expiation  of 
the  crime. 

6.  The  legend  of  the  tirCha,  or  sacred  pool.  Uma  asked  Siva  the 
place  of  this  retreat :  in  reply  he  designated  Trisira,  a  hill.  She  then 
desired  that  a  reservoir  of  water  might  be  formed  there ;  and  Sioa  di- 
rected Ganga,  in  his  hair,  to  provide  one ;  which  accordingly  was  ef- 
fected, in  which   Uma  afterwards  bathed. 

7.  Legend  of  the  sacred  town.  Gautama  tells  the  rishis,  that  7>i- 
siras  was  one  of  the  relatives  of  Rdvana,  He  came  to  this  hill ;  and 
there,  of  his  own  accord,  rendered  homage  to  Siva,    He  built  a  shrine, 


S92  Report  on  ike  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  [Oct. 

and  a  town,  at  the  foot ;  surrounded  by  walls,  and  battlements.  He  re- 
ceived from  Siva,  at  his  solicitation,  the  privilege  of  having  the  rock, 
and  town,  called  after  his  name  ;  and  after  residing  there  some  time, 
he  died. 

8.  Legend  of  gifts  obtained.  Gautama  informs  the  rtshis,  that  ifama- 
Chandra,  Hanumdn,  the  five  Pdndavas,  and  many  other  distinguished 
persons,  paid  homage  here,  and  received  the  benefits  which  they  sought : 
in  consequence  of  which  the  fane  became  highly  distinguished. 

9.  Legend  concerning  Sdra-maka-mtini.  A  certain  Brakwuin  did  pe- 
nance at  Himalaya ;  and,  in  a  subsequent  transmigration,  was  bom  at 
Benares.  After  other  changes,  he  was  born  as  Sara-maha-muni ;  and, 
doing  homage  at  this  place,  acquired  the  gifts  which  he  desured; 
whence  this  place  became  highly  distinguished. 

10.  Legend  of  Sura  vatittan.  One  of  that  name  yisited  thb  cele- 
brated hill,  with  a  great  number  of  followers  ;  and,  after  erecting  Tarious 
buildings,  he  ruled  here,  as  a  district  chieftain. 

11.  The  same  subject  continued.  States  the  marriage  of  the  same 
person,  with  a  woman  of  foreign  birth ;  after  which  he  added  other 
buildings,  and  continued  his  rule. 

12.  The  destruction  of  Uriyur.  Sara-maha-muni,  before  mentioned, 
had  a  garden  planted  with  the  Sevendki  flower  plant.  A  person  was  in 
the  habit  of  stealing  these  flowers;  and  presenting  them  to  Parantaca^ 
Cholan,  the  king.  The  muni  one  day  detected  the  thief,  and  complained 
to  the  king  ;  who  took  no  notice.  In  consequence  of  this  neglect  the 
ascetic  performed  penance,  and  made  application  to  S{va ;  who  sent  a 
shower  of  mud,  which  destroyed  Uriyiir.  The  king,  with  his  wife,  fled; 
his  wife  was  pregnant,  and  cast  herself  into  the  Cdveri.  The  King, 
fleeing  on  horseback,  was  overtaken  by  the  mud-shower,  and  killed.  By 
the  favour  of  Siva,  his  wife  was  taken  out  of  the  Cdveri  alive ;  and  was 
entertained  by  Si  Brahman.  She  was  delivered  of  a  son  in  Jambu-divu  (a 
small  island  in  the  Caveri),  who  was  brought  up  by  the  Brahman, 
When  search,  by  means  of  an  elephant,  was  made  for  a  king,  the  ele- 
pliant  found  out  the  young  man ;  and  put  the  usual  wreath  of  flowers  on 
his  head.  He  was  installed  as  king,  and  as  the  Brahman  had  marked 
his  feet  with  charcoal,  he  acquired  the  name  of  Cari-Cdla-Cholan. 

13.  The  legend  of  Tayuman,  The  origin  of  Caveripum^patnam,  is 
ascribed  to  certain  women  casting  their  garlands  into  the  Caveri.  That 
town  was  very  flourishing,  and  a  Cketii,  or  merchant,  was  especially 
distinguished.    He  had  a  daughter,  who  was  married   to  a  person  at 

•  «•  Th«  dMtroyer  of  foreiffnert/'  an  epithet ;  other  books,  give  him  other  namei. 


1839.]  Report  on  (he  Mackenzie  Majoueripis,  39& 

Tricbinopoly,  named  TaiuKuttan.  Her  fether  named  Jthan  cuitcoH 
died,  when  sbe  was  in  an  advanced  stage  of  pregnancy;  and  as  she  had 
no  attendants  at  the  time  of  her  delivery,  5tva  himself  assumed  the  shape 
of  a  mother,  and  performed  the  o6Sce  of  accoucheuse ;  which  the  celestiaU 
beholding  showered  down  flowers.  'Whosoever  pays  homage  to  this 
same  Siva,  will  receive  ail  manner  of  benefits. 

Remark. — The   manuscript    is    completci    and    in    yery    good  or^ 
der.    The    earlier    legendary   portion    points    to  a  time    when  there 
were   no   Brahmans    in    the    country;  when    it    was  a  province   of 
Lanca,    or    Ceylon     (in    all    probability    connected     therewith    by 
an  isthmus)  ;  and  antecedent   to  Rama's    invasion :  which    also    ap- 
parently preceded   the  visit  of  Agastya,  who  first   led   on    colonist 
Brahmans,  and   directed  them  to  various  localities  in  the  Peninsulam 
The  mythological  treatment  of  Brahma^  can  hardly  escape  remark  : 
however  that  I  pass  by,  as  a  common  matter  in  Saita  SVhala  pvranasm 
The  10th  section  would  be  obscure,  but  for  a  glossary  afforded  by  a 
Mahratti  manuscript,  written  at  Tanjore,  and  abstracted  in  my  Fifth 
Report.    By  its  help  Sura  vdiitian  is  identified  with  the  first  of  the 
series  of  Chola  kings.    The  12th  section  has  heretofore  received  abun« 
dant  illustration :  see,  in  particular,  remarks  on  the  Choia  patayam  in 
my  Second  Report.    The  13th  section  upsets  altogether  the  fiction  of 
Tayuman-ndlU  as  a  founder  of  the  shrine  :  and  enables  me  to  perceive, 
that  the  wealth  of  the  famous  merchant  of  Cavertpum-patnam  (see 
Tamil  MS.bookNo.  1  Third  Report)  when  renounced  by  himself  went,  in 
a  great  measure,  to  this  place ;  so  that  Siva,  by  means  of  his  Brahmans, 
became  administrator  to  the  effects  of  the  bewildered  man,  when  un- 
able to  take  charge  of  them  himself.    Such,  in  my  view  at  least,  is  the 
interpretation  of  the  enigma  of  <S'tva  becoming  "a  nourishing  mother** 
designated  by  the  term  Tayuman^  or  the  Sanscrit  Matruhhuvisvara. 

3.    Mahratta  and  Tuluva^desa  ehariira,  or,  an  account  of  the  Mmh^ 
wait  a,  and  Canara,  countries. 


No.  234 — Countermark   57, 

This  manuscript  consists  of  loose  leaves;  for  the  greater  part  uncon- 
nected. At  the  first  reading  it  disappointed  me;  and  was  laid  by.  But 
reading  it  over  after  having  abstracted  the  Camataca  rajakal,  this  book 
appeared  to  possess  great  similarity,  in  such  fragments  as  were  at  all 
connected.    On  comparison,  it  was  found   to  consist  of  portions  of 


394  Bepart  on  the  Mackenzie  Mamucripii.  [Oct. 

another  ropy  of  that  work.  By  means  of  it  I  bave  been  enabled  to  com- 
plete the  restoraiion  of  the  larger  lacune  in  the  Camatacm  rajmkal, 
whicli  is  now  complete,  with  the  exception  of  only  one  palra-leaft  not 
recovered. 

No  IE. — llie  leaves,  and  writing,  are  recent  in  appearance:  a  little 
injured  by  insects,  which  is  of  no  consequence,  as  the  work  is  otherwise 
nearly  complete. 

4.  MahraUiya  rajalal,  Tvluva  rajakal,  kyfeyutt ;  or  account  of  the 
Mabratta,  and    Tutuva  kings,  No.  285 — Countermark,  wanting. 

The  mm  iiRrrij  t  has  not  the  beginning :  since  according  to  the 
number  of  the  palm  leaves,  26  are  wanting:  the  eight  following  ones 
down  to  .'U  are  regular;  but  the  mbole  is  a  mere  fragment.  The  27th 
alludes  to  Ivings  of  th«»  Cali-yuga,  it  contains  the  mention  of  Hara* 
Pratdpa-deva  rayer,  and  liif  descent  is  deduced  from  Janam^jayeu  The 
manuscript  has  a  discrimination  of  the  five  countries,  and  languages, 
comprised  unt'er  the  term  Pancha-Drdvidam.  From  Bameiuram  and 
Malayalom  to  Culufasfrt  \s  the  Tamil  Draridam.  From  Calahastri  to 
Ganji.m  is  the  Tel'nga  Dravidam,  From  Mysore  to  Gulccnda  is  the 
Caruataca  l^mvidam.  From  GolcondOf  to  Puna,  Sattara,  &c.  is  the 
Mahrasht'ta  Dmridam.  From  Sattara  and  Puna,  to  tbe  southward  of 
Delhi  is  ihe  Gtzeradi  Dravidam.  The  five  Gaudae  are  then  defined. 
Mention  of  ihe  r-ice  of  Janamejaya  down  to  Sara*igad'hara  the  last  of 
that  dynu^ity.  Fcur  names  are  given  as  the  dynasty  of  the  mantri,ox 
minister,  of  yurotna-itya.  There  is  then  a  mention  of  some  kings  of 
the  solar  line:  witli  the  name  of  Vlcrama  at  the  close;  apparaotly 
meant  fur  Vi<ramadiiya.  Sdtirdhana  is  next  mentioned,  with  an  interval 
of  more  than  2(00  velars;  not  accounted  for  in  the  dates.  Bhoja  rqj€. 
Transition  to  Cari- Cala-Cholan,  and  bis  works  on  the  Caveri,  Other 
Chola  rajas ;  one  of  whom  is  said  to  have  ruled  as  far  as  to  Ougeio. 
Special  notice  is  taken  of  Bajendra*s  endowment  at  Tiru-ottiyr.  He 
is  si  so  reprcftnted  as  havirg  patronized  Tamil  literature:  contrary  to 
other  documents  he  is  represented  as  the  father  of  Adondai.  However 
both /?a;  en r/ra  and  KuloUunga  (elsewhere  termed  father  of  yfcfom/at) 
are  both  titular  names.  Sundora-Chda  is  the  last  one  mentioned. 

Remark. — This  manuscript  I  also  find  to  be  a  fragment  of  the  Cumola- 
ca^rajakal,  and  it  is  of  no  consequence;  as  tbat  portion  is  complete  in 
the  lestored  copy.  What  remains  of  this  fragment  is  damaged.  The  label 
does  not  bear  all  the  usual  marks  But  from  the  consecntive  Not.  234 
and  235,  and  the  title  taken  together,  I  conclude  tbat  these  tvo  c<^ics 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Maniucripts.  89^ 

are  those  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  voL  I.  p.  200,  art.  13,  under  tbe  head 
of  Tuluva  desa  hatha, 

5.  Cusala  nalaca^  the  drama  of  Cusala,  the  son  of  Rama^Chandra, 
No.  113 — Countermark,  wanting. 

The  former  portion  of  this  manuscript  contains  the  said  drama,  en- 
tirely in  verse  of  the  viruttam  kind.     It  is  complete,  and  in  good  order* 

The  latter  portion  is  a  prose  version  of  the  adventures  of  iVa/a-ri^/ay 
according  to  the  episode  in  the  Mahahharata,  It  is  in  good  order,  but 
not  quite  complete  at  the  end;  a  few  leaves  only  remaining  to  be  written. 

Another  copy  of  the  drama  No.  11 4,  ought  to  be  in  the  collection,  ac- 
cording to  the  Des.  Catal.  but  it  is  not  now  to  be  found  therein. 

6.  Cusala-nataca,  the  same.  No.  115 — Countermark,  wanting. 

This  is  a  copy  of  the  drama  only,  in  verse,  with  a  prose  version,  and 
some  musical  indication^),  as  is  gathered  from  the  remains;  but  tbe 
whole  manuscript  is  so  greatly  injured,  by  insects,  as  to  be  almost  de- 
stroyed, and  quite  irrecoverable. 

Rbmabk. — The  story  oiNala  needs  here  no  further  observation.  Tbe 
drama  is  founded  on  the  birth  of  Cusala  and  Lava,  sons  of  Rama  of 
Ayodhya\  of  course  with  the  additions  and  inventions  customary,  in 
dramas. 

Note.— The  drama  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  213.  art.  ii. 

7.  Agasfyar  vaidyam^  a  medicinal  work  by  Aga9tya,  No.  79 — Coun- 
termark 242. 

This  work  contains  1500  stanzas,  on  medicine,  ascribed  to  Agasiya, 
The  book  is  complete,  and  remains  uninjured. 
It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  I,  p.  258,  art.  i. 

8.  Vaidyam  Munnur,  No.  88 — Countermark  248. 

This  work  on  medicine,  also  ascribed  to  Agastya,  should  contain  300 
stanzas.  This  copy  is  however  not  complete  :  at  the  beginning  thirteen 
leaves  are  wanting.' From  the  fortieth  leaf,  five  others  are  deficient.  It  is 
thenceforward  regular  to  the  eighty-seventh  leaf,  and  the  remainder,  at 
the  close,  is  not  found.    It  is  otherwise  in  good  order,  and  preservation. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  250,  art.  v. 


396  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuteripU.  [Oct. 

9.  Ttrwrnulur-Faidyam,  No.  92 — Countermark  2^5. 

This  also  is  a  medical   work,  complete  in  sixty-two  palm  leaves,  and 
not  injured  by  insects. 
It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  260,  art  z. 

10.  Vaidyam  Ndpaitettu,  or  forty-eight  stanzas  on  medicinei  No. 
91 — Countermark  251. 

A  tract  on  medicine,  ascribed  to  Agastya,  which  should  contain  48 stan* 
zas ;  it  wants  the  last  one :  the  remainder  is  complete,  and  in  good  order. 
It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  259,  art.  vii. 

11.  UUam  udiyan,  No.  67 » Countermark  230. 

12.  Another  copy.  No.  68 — Countermark  229* 

These  are  copies  of  a  work  on  astrology  and  divination.  The  literal 
rendering  of  the  title  is  "the  possessor  of  the  interior,"  whether  it 
relate  to  thought,  mind,  or  purpose.  The  title  is  also  that  of  an  indivi- 
dual to  whom  the  work  is  ascribed ;  but  I  rather  think  that,  the  author's 
real  name  being  unknown,  the  title  of  the  work  itself  became  in  progress 
of  time  apfilied  to  him,  as  a  distinctive  appellation.  The  work  is  po- 
pular; and  takes  in  a  great  compass  of  matter,  on  the  subjects  to  which 
it  relates.  These  are  the  influences  of  the  planets ;  the  effects  of  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac;  and  similar  matters  purely  astrological :  and  in  di- 
vination, it  teaches  the  art  of  discovering  things  lost,  or  things  con- 
cealed, and  of  explaining  to  persons  what  they  may  hold  folded  up  in 
their  hand,  or  what  may  be  the  secret  purport,  or  intent,  of  their  minds. 
In  a  word,  it  is  on  the  occult  sciences,  for  which  Egypt  and  Chaldea  of 
old  were  famous  ;  which  rule  in  this  country,  at  present,  with  absolute 
Bway  over  the  superstitious  minds  of  the  people;  and  of  which  rem- 
nants are  found  in  every  country  of  the  globe. 

The  composition  of  these  two  books  is  mingled  verse  and  prose;  but 
the  latter  predominating.  I  regret  that  I  cannot  make  the  sabject  one 
of  study  :  even  my  examination  of  such  a  work  must  necessarily  be  su- 
perficial. But  I  do  not  hesitate  to  state  my  opinion  that,  subordinate  to 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  history  and  mythology  of  the  Hindus,  the  next 
thing,in  point  of  importance,is  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  their  occult 
sciences.  By  the  means  of  this  work,  and  similar  ones  we  may  ac. 
quire  a  better  knowledge,  than  we  as  yet  possess,  of  the  Hindu  celes- 
tial sphere ;  absolutely  requisite  in  order  to  solve  the  astronomical 


1839  ]  Report  an  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts*  397 

eDigmas  which  abound  in  their  historical  and  mythological  works ;  but 
more  than  this  we  may  get  at  the  key  which  unlocks  the  popular  mind* 
Strong  as  may  be  the  bond  of  caste ;  powerful  as  may  be  the  spell  of 
mythological  fable  ;  neither  are  stronger  than  the  astrological  conjura- 
tioui  which  holds  the  people  under  a  charm,  more  potent  than  that 
effected  by  Prosperous  wand ;  and  has  in  past  ages,  even  down  to  the 
present,  rendered  high  and  low  orders  alike  subject  to  the  astrological 
Brahman :  not  daring  to  stir  a  step,  or  do  a  single  thing,  of  any  moment, 
without  his  permission  first  obtained.  So  varied  and  combined,  so  in- 
tricate and  confused,  are  the  various  connected  parts  of  astrological 
lore,  that  a  state  of  passive  inaction  is  the  only  safe  position  for  a 
genuine  Hindu ;  and  his  guide  can  shew  cause,  or  reasons,  almost  at 
bis  pleasure  to  cause  him  to  move,  or  to  stanl  still.  That  this  despo- 
tic influence  should  be  known,  and  expounded,  for  the  benefit  of  rulers, 
legislators,  and  teachers,  surely  must  be  highly  desirable. 

As  to  the  condition  of  these  two  copies.  No.  67  is  incomplete  ;  some 
palm  leaves  in  different  places,  to  the  extent  of  forty-three,  are  wanting ; 
neither  is  it  complete  at  the  end.  It  is  a  recently  copied  work  ;  but  not* 
withstanding  is  slightly  touched  by  insects.  No.  63  is  complete,  and 
wholly  uninjured  :  the  leaves  and  writing  are  quite  recent. 

Note. — Both  copies  are  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  1,  p.  254,  art.  iii. 


h.  Manuscript  Boors. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  15— Countermark  227,  Suhrahmanya  Cadavul, 
an  astrological  work. 

The  title  only  means  "  lord  Carticeya  ;"  apparently  technical,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  invocation  being  not  addressed,  as  most  usual,  to 
Ganesa,  but  to  Cumara,  The  rishis  arc  honoured,  the  plan  of  the  work 
is  given,  and  then  a  variety  of  astrological  particulars  follow  as  to 
friendly,  and  unfriendly,  aspects  of  planets,  influence  of  zodiacal  signs, 
lunar  asterisms,  and  similar  matters,  in  somewhat  full  detail.  The  work 
is  a  thin  folio.  It  is  cleanly  written,  on  strong  country  paper;  and  is 
in  perfect  preservation.     It  is  also  complete. 

An  entry  occurs  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  254,  art.  i. 


398  Report  on  the  Mackeiuie  Mojiuscrtpts.  [Oct. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  19 — Countermark  228,  Sarcardha  Ckintamanu 
jyotieha^  a  work  on  astrology. 

This  book  on  the  same  general  subject,  does  not  seem  to  be  complete  ; 
since  only  about  one-tbinl  is  written  on,  and  the  break  appears  abrupt. 
The  ink  is  a  little  pale ;  but  the  paper  good,  and  in  good  preserTation. 

Abstracts  of  such  works  are  imp:a':ticable.  Both  of  these  fall  within 
the  compass  of  remarks,  which  will  be  found  elsewhere  made  on  the 
importance  of  a  full  development  of  native  astrology. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  254,  art.  ii. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  15 — Countermark  908. 

Section  1.     Rules  of  oltservance  in  the  Onam  festival  in  Malayalam. 

A  general  festival  of  four  days  corresponding  with  the  DtpaO,  dated 
from  Maha  Bali,  an  I  the  circumstances  uf  the  Fdmana  avafdra,  said  to 
have  bi*en  tmnsacteJ  in  the  Malayalam  country.  During  this  festival, 
bathing,  putting un  new  cloths,  looking  at  spectacles,  or  joining  proces- 
sions, are  the  matters  detailed  ;  referring  to  manners  and  customs,  but 
also  shewing  how  carelessly  Hindu  fiction  deals  with  distant  times  and 
places. 

Section  2.     List  of  books  in  the  library  of  the  Travancore  raja, 

A  catalogue  amounting  to  181  books  is  giren,  the  titles,  being  writ- 
ten both  in  Teluyu,  and  Tamil,  characters.  Sections  3  to  5,  relate  to 
district  productions  in  Travancore,  and  to  revenue  details  :  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  book  is  occupied  with  mere  tabular  lists,  which 
might  have  been  of  statistical  value  to  a  District  Collector  at  the  time. 

Other  sections  from  6  to  18,  inclusive  may  be  seen  specified  in  the 
Descriptive  Cataloj^uc,  \u\.  2,  page  lOS;  but,  in  the  book  itself,  they 
are  now  in  conliis<-'d  armugoment,  sometimes  are  mere  memoranda;  andi 
in  other  cases  are  rough  translations  from  the  Malayalam.  On  look- 
ing over  the  whole,  it  is  found,  that  the  contents  (where  of  any  value), 
are  anticipated  by  abstracts  of  Malayalam  papers,  and,  for  ihe  rest, 
the  matter  appears  to  require  no  further  attention.  The  book  would 
need  restoration,  did  the  contents  merit  it :  which  i  judge  not  to  be  the 
case ;  and  therefore  pass  it  as  it  is. 


1889.]  Report  on  the  Maekenxie  Manuscripts.  899 

B.^TELUGU. 

a.    P.ilfn  leaf  manuscripts. 

1.     Vardha-p'irdnam,  No.  1 03— Countermark  290. 

The  subject  of  this  work  was  translated  froin  Sanscrit  into  Telugu 
verse  of  the  kind  termed  Padyacdvijam  by  Singhaiya  cam,  son  of 
Gaudanayakf  in  the  lime  of  Narusimha-raja,  son  of  Titnma  raja,  whose 
genealogy  is  prefixed ;  whence  it  is  deducible  that  he  was  the  poet's 
patron. 

The  following  is  a  brief  notice  of  the  contents. 

1.  y:^(/Ay a^a,  or  section,  ^di  vardha  {or  Vishnu),  hi  the  request  of 
Jihumi  devi  (the  earth  personified)  narrates  the  creation,  the  formation 
of  the  elements,  the  formation  of  solids  and  fluids,  the  origin  of  Brahma 
and  other  gods,  and  states  various  matters  relative  to  Casyapa,  Atri^ 
Ndreda,  and  other  rishis ;  also  concerning  Indra,  and  the  regents  of  the 
eight  points  (of  the  compass),  and  the  various  genera  of  Hving  beings  : 
these  matters  are  stated  in  some  detail.  During  the  Manwantira  of 
Chacshuska  Manut  a  king  named  Parivriddha^rayen,  divided  his  king- 
dom among  his  sons,  and  became  an  ascetic  in  the  Naimisdranya  wil* 
derness. 

Section  2.  Raibyan  a  king  became  desirous  of  acquiring  mystical 
knowledge  ;  relinquished  his  kingdom ;  and  went  to  the  same  wilder* 
ness  as  an  ascetic. 

Section  3.  His  grand  son,  named  Sudhyumna,  acquired  great  power 
and  fame;  and,  among  other  exploits,  went  to  the  world  of  Indra^ 
giving  an  occasion  to  describe  the  apsaras,  and  other  attendants  of  /»- 
dra^s  court. 

Section  4.  Indra  being  conquered  by  the  said  Sudhyumna,  went  to 
the  presence  of  Ft'M/'u,  who  protected  him  in  his  celestial  kingdom. 
Further  occasion  is  taken  by  the  poet  to  describe  the  world  of  Indra; 
its  buildings,  shrincF,  attendants  ;  their  magnificence,  ornaments,  and 
the  like;  the  model  being  the  metropolis,  and  court,  of  a  Hindu  king. 

Section  5.  This  portion  of  the  work  is  entirely  occupied  with  the 
narrative  of  Dacsha's  sacrifice ;  the  origin  of  Vira   Bhadra,  from  the 


400  Bepori  on  the  Mackenzie  Mantucrfptt.  {Ocr. 

nngcr  of  Siva,  and  oiher  matters;  which,  having  been  heretofore  gi?eo 
from  the  Bhdyava/Uf  need  nut  here  to  be  repeated. 

Section  6.  Mentions  the  transmigration  of  Z)artfAa*i  daughteft  and 
wife  of  ^iva  after  deaih ;  wlien  she  became  the  daughter  of  Himaia^  or 
Parvata-rayen ;  and,  after  a  long  penance  by  Siva^  was  again  married 
to  him  as  Purvuti. 

Section  7'  Contains  details  concerning  the  four  yugaSf  and  the  pro* 
gressive  degeneracy  of  mankind,  from  virtue  to  depravity. 

Sections.  The  ienatatdras  of  Vishnu  are  described.  Further  an 
account  is  given  of  the  materials,  from  gold  and  silver  don'nwards,  pro- 
per to  be  made  use  of  in  forming  images,  or  symbols,  of  those  incarna- 
tions. Those  persons  II  ho  present  offerings  to  such  shrines,  and  who 
feed  and  clothe  the  JBrahmaus,  have  their  beatification  assured. 

Seciioti  9.  Vishiu  repeats  the  instructions  which  were  given  by 
Durvasa-rishi  to  Bhndrdsura,  a  king.  They  relate  to  ceremouiali  on 
certain  days ;  especially  the  EcaJati,  or  eleventh  day  of  each 
lunar  fortnight,  and  dilate  on  the  merit  of  gifts,  and  offerings,  to  Brak* 
mans ;  which,  in  effect,  is  the  sub&tunce  of  the  said  inslructious. 

Section  10.  Mankind  enjoying  great  plenty,  and  many  persons  bar- 
ing acquired  wisdom,  or  initiation  into  mystical  knowledge,  the  jea- 
lousy of  Indra  was  thereby  excited,  so  that  he  went  to  the  presence  of 
Visht:u  and  complained.  Vishnu,  after  some  reflection,  determined 
on  the  introduction  of  various  irregular  systems  of  doctrine ;  such  as 
the  Jainas,  Pdshandas,  and  Dauddhas,  It  was  effected  by  means  of 
certain  Brahmans  going  to  the  presence  of  Gautama  rishi,  without  being 
attentive  to  the  usual  courtesies,  and  the  reverence  becoming  to  be  paid. 
In  consequence  he  denounced  on  them  the  doom  of  going  back  to  earth; 
full  of  intellectual  bkill,  but  destitute  of  right  knowledge,  and  a  good 
state  of  mind.  Thi'^e  persons,  under  the  said  perverted  bias,  iniroduc* 
ed  the  perversions  of  the  ^foresaid  s}  stems. 

Section  11.  Ccnccrning  Muheshusura,  This  person  acquired  great 
power :  so  that  ho  conquered  on  all  sides,  and  none  could  resist  bimp 
but  fled  hway.  An  a)  pcul  was  consequently  made  to  Pard'Saiti;  who^ 
nb  Lur^Q,  tncounieicd  the    i>iiid  MahMdsura;  and,  at  length,  killed 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscript.  401 

bim  with  an   arrow.    The  incideuts  of  this  combat  arc  given  in  some 
detail. 

Section  12.  Relates  to  modes  of  initiation  into  the  Sa'iva  and  Vaish- 
iiara,  systems  of  credence.  The  benefits  of  reading  this  Parana  are 
stated,  and  renpectful  mention  is  made  of  Vyasa^  throa^jh  whom,  instni- 
mentally,  all  \\\q purdnas  were  declared  to  mankind. 

Note.— Tliia  manuscript  is  a  Utile  old  in  appearance  ;  two  or  three 
leaves,  towards  the  conclusion,  are  (lamaged,  by  being  broken  :  the  book 
is  otherwise  complete,  and  in  good  preservation. 

It  is  entered  in  the  Des,  Catal.  vol.  I,  p.  273,  art.  xvii ;  and  is  stated  to 
contain  **  a  translation  of  the  entire  Vardha  Parana,**  The  contents 
appear  to  agree  wiih  ihe  summnry  of  contents  of  the  Vardha  Parana 
given  from  a  Sanscrit  coj>y,  vol.  l.p.  4/»,  art.  xi. 

Remark. — The  use  of  this  Parana  in   illustrating  mythology  is  consi* 
derable.     In  so  far  as    historical  enquiries  are  concerned  the  most  re- 
markable sections  are  10  and  11.     The  latter,   in  particular,  very  clearly 
relates  to   the  great    exterminatini^   war    mad«=»  against  the   votaries  of 
Baddha,     The  combat  o{  Dur^a  agaiM>t    Maheshdtara  has  been,   by 
some,  ridiculously  termed  the  ct)ml>at   of  perst>nifi*^d  virtue,  against  per- 
sonified vice.     No  doubt  there  i««  personification,  and   mystic  all'gory  ; 
but  not  precisely  to  that  said  eff'-ct.     There  are  several  great  wars  in- 
dicated in  Hhida  story  ;  some  of  them  undera  similar  mysiic  veil ;  asi 
1st.     'YXxai  oi  Siihrahmanyn  against  the /f*ara*. 
2d.     That  o(  Parasu  /^a//io  against  the  Cthetr'iyae* 
3d.     That  of  lidma  against  Havana^  and  other  Hacshasai^ 
4th.   That  of  Durga  against  Maheshdgara. 

And  MaheshasurOf  in  my  opinion,  is  very  propably  only  another  name 
for  the  mysterious  personage  more  usually  in  the  south  denominated 
Sdliodho  na. 

The  clue  of  symbolical  writing  which  I  have  been  enabled  to  get 
bold  of  in  the  course  of  these  enquiries  will,  I  am  persuadedi  if  pa- 
tiently, and  perseverinj^ly  followed  out,  by  individuals  more  capable  in 
the  earlier  languages  than  myself,  ultimately  tend  to  solve  much  of  the 
marvellous,  and  pauadoxical,  contained  in  Hindu  writings  ;  and  draw 
aside,  at  least  a  part  of,  the  cloudy  veil  which  now,  like  a  fog  of  great 
density,  hangs  over,  and  obscure^!,  our  view  of  remote  antiquity. 

2.  Vencate;svara  Mahdlmyamt  the  legend  of  the  fane  at  Tripetty, 
No  102. 

This  is  a  manuscript  of  two  hundred  and  two  palm  leaves,  a  little  old; 
but  in  good  preservation,  and  in  fine  hand-writing.    It  is  the  production 


402  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  Afiuuucripii.  [Oct. 

of  Srinicasi  otherwise  called  Srinafha  or  Vemeaiaraiy ;  vho  was  pa- 
tronized by  Anavema  reddi  of  Condariii,  It  is  in  the  dri-pada  me^ 
sure  ;  and  relates  wholly  to  the  various  shrines,  tir^tkas  (or  poclji),  and 
other  localities,  dtemed  s acred ,  on  the  Vfncaiaehala  hill,  at  Tripetty; 
considered  simply  as  a  faishnara  fane,  without  any  reference  to  its  for^ 
mer  character,  as  a  Saira  fane,  antecedent  to  RdmanyJaeharyeL  Of  course 
the  entire  production  is  comparatively  modern ;  and  consistent  with  the 
eraof  .9rtn/ra«i'. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  274,  art.  xviii.  together  with  a 
Talu;iLi]e  notice  of  the  shrine  at  Tripetty  ;  not  entirely  deduced  from  this 
legend,  hut  i^ith  additions  from  other  sources.  It  is  to  be  noted,  that 
though  Tondimdn  Ckacravtrti^  the  first  founder  is  said  to  have  lived  in 
the  beginning  of  the  Cali  age ;  yet,  from  many  sources  of  deduetiom^ 
we  can  prove  him  to  have  flourished  at  a  much  later  period.  Fcr  the 
rest,  the  place  owes  its  dibtinction  to  its  being  near  the  capital  of  the 
Yddava,  and  the  Chandragiri,  kingdoms. 

3.    Mantra  tdrdrCha  dipika^  the  concentrated  light  of  devotionil  for- 
mularies. No.  119 — Countermark,  wanting. 

This  is  a  work  of  an  ultra  Vaishnata  kind,  maintaining  all   things 
to  be  in  VishnUf  and  Vishnu  to  be  all  things.     It  contains  also  an  oat- 
line  of  various  formularies,  according  to  the  different  votaries  of  Rdma^ 
Crhhna,  and   other  impersonations  of  rithnu.    Men,  animals,  and  in- 
animate things,  are  only  furms,  or  manifestations, of  portions  of  Vishnu, 
The  tatva  system,  relative  to  the  union  and   harmony  of  mental  and 
corporeal   faculties,  and  results  produced  thereby,   is  found  among  the 
other  matter.    The  rise,  celebrity,  aud  death,  of   Rdmanujdcharya^ 
the  champion  of  this  ultra  Vaishnata  system,  is  given.     Mention  is 
made  of  some  shrines  of  Vishnu,  but  subordinated  to  the  leading  doc- 
trine of  the  work,  as  to  his  all-pervading,  and  all-absorbing  essence. 
It  would  indeed  be  a  work  strictly   monotheistical,  were  it  not  for  the 
admit>sion  of  local  shrines,  multiplied  acaldras,  and  the  pantheistic 
idea  of  matter  being  the   body  or  clothing,  of  a  pervading  soul. 

The  manuscript  is  complete,  and  in  very  good  preservation.  I  should 
suppose  it  to  be  valuable,  as  a  work  explanatory  of  the  system  of  Hmm' 
atiuja,  and  his  followers :  which  is  one  of  great  influence,  and  credit,  in 
various  parts  of  the  penin&ula. 

Note. — It  is  entered  with  a  brief,  but  accurate,  indication  of  the 
contents  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p-  349,  art.  372. 

4.  Ilamsa  vinsati,  er  twenty  (tales)  of  a  swan,  No.  77^-Countermark9 
wanting. 


1889.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  MawuscHpts.  403 

Tbis  book  contains  a  poem  in  five  asvdiai,  or  sections,  written  by 
Nardyana,  in  the  Pddya  Cavya  measure.  Tlie  introduction  of  the 
series  of  tales  relates  to  a  king  of  Ougein,  who  had  all  the  excellencies 
of  Harisehandrat  and  other  famous  monarchs;  to  whom  a  yogi,  or 
ascetic,  was  introduced.  This  ascetic  was  a  great  traveller,  having 
visited  Bellary,  Madras,  and  many  other  places ;  on  which  account 
the  king  deferred  to  his  superior  judgment  as  to  the  surpassing  at- 
tractions of  a  lady  of  whom  he  was  enamoured.  After  some  time 
the  king  was  absent  from  his  spouse,  who  was  inconsolable.  Bat 
a  bird  (Jiamsa)  of  the  genus  anser,  narrated  a  variety  of  tales,  in  order 
to  amuse  her,  to  divert  her  attention,  and  to  console  her  with  hopes  of 
his  return.  The  author  pays  his  respects,  in  the  usual  form,  to  jiUa^ 
sani  Peddana,  Tikanu'Somaydji,  and  other  distinguished  poets;  from 
which  circumstance,  and  the  mention  of  modern  tovns,  the  work  may 
be  considered  of  recent  composition ;  and,  except  perhaps  as  a  poem, 
it  is  of  no  value.  It  is  complete,  and  in  good  preservation.  Part  of  the 
leaves  are  very  recent ;  part  somewhat  older. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  vol.  1,  p.  325,  art.  xxii. 

5.  Narayana'dydna-padyalu,  verses  on  the  meditation  of  Vishnu,  No. 
107— Countermark  3S4. 

This  is  a  fragment  of  a  manuscript,  a  little  old  in  its  appearance; 
written  in  the  doi-pada  metre  ;  and  containing  stanzas  of  hymnology,  in 
praise  of  Nardyana, 

It  is  complete  from  the  first  to  the  ninth  leaf:  the  remainder  is 
wanting. 

The  above  title  is  taken  from  the  Telugu ;  the  label  in  English  hav- 
ing been  worn  off.  I  do  not  know  where  to  find  the  entry  in  the  Des. 
Cat.     It  is  not  found  under  the  above  title. 

6.  Vicramarca  Charitra,  or  tale  of  Vicramddilya,  No.  64— 
Countermark  4G3. 

Same  title  No.  65 — Countermark  464. 

These  books  contain  the  tale  concerning  Vicramddi lya,  and  his  at- 
tendant Fe/a/a,  or  familiar  demon;  popularly  well  known;  and  need- 
ing here  no  abstract,  No.  64,  is  old;  in  regular  order,  as  to  the  paging 
from  p.  1>  to  165 ;  but  it  is  considerably  damaged ;  not  so  much  from 
internal  perforation  of  the  book-insect,  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  from  the 
eating  away  of  portions  of  the  edgea  :  the  work  externally  as  it  seems, 
of  termites.  It  contains  thirty-two  stories  complete.  At  the  be- 
ginning the  narration  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Siva  as  told  to  Farvati 


404  JRep'jrt  on  the  Mac^renzie  yiamueripti,  rOcr. 

No.  15,  is  recent,  in  'a  neat  fcjrd-wi'.in?:  slightly  f  cn-turedt  aed  io- 
nured  within,  Ky  insecU;  f^r  '.he  re>t  ia  gooJ  pre^erratioo.  It  coBtaxai 
Gclr  tvo  of  ihe  tale«  cox^'.e:e. 

Note. — ^lliese  manus-jripts  are  entered  :n  the  Des.  Cat.  toL  I»  p.  30 
art.  IzrL 

7.     Veianta  ras'yanim,  the  sulst2n:e  or  essenre  of  the  FViaa/tf,  Xo. 

120— Co.nrerm.rk  472. 

Thii  is  a  rattier  sir.^'u'jr  w-.rk  ro  mert  with,  in   this  collection;  eoB« 
TeyingAD  emo'ion   of  |  Iea^-jr.»LIe  surrrns*.     It  i*  tLe  frodact:oo  of  a 
Telugu    Brahman,  by  bir::;:  b  •:  '.t'  one  mhj  hisd  becw::ir  a  Chrisiian, 
by  professicn:  ;in  1   i*   Tv-i'r-'i   }    -h   to  ex:!ji:i,  ao.1    to  ^AJv^ca'e,  Ibe 
Cbristiaii  rfligif.n.     T:  e  au'.hor  i  ai  s'c-ied  the  Veda?  ta  sjs't-m  cf  F^ 
a«a  dH  i  his  f«.'.loner^  ;  sind,  as  thhi  \<  !he  kuLstan.-e  •  f  the    Vtdm**  M 
in  this  V-^-k  h-?  givf^  tl  •*  ti:*s'crc'.  ».r  €**»:ii:e  tfthe  Htlj  S^nprnrff, 
espec'.a!'y  uf  il.-:  Ncir  Te*:i.niri.'.     Vado*-'*  jor  i*.ii*  of  ite  cuitrn^  of 
both  ilie  0!d  and  New  Te?rLs.-ri',  are  a:ver:e«i  tu,  t.r  Darr^'ei  :  and  the 
snperi'.ritv  •.ft  he  Christ:^::  r'=>jgi<.:i  U  ei;f.rcv±     The  Bhatmiatm^    £i«- 
gazatam,  *»n:  Scc^id-jm^  «\re  r.i-.er:e  1  :^  by  »jy  of  cu!i:ra*f.  *ai  C4.cfuU- 
tion  :  ani  idu!a:rv  is  stronsl'*  cicdcmnrJ.     Ti:*  term  Sarretrm^ra  Icon- 
men    amon^  Rox^in   Catlio.icsi   is    emiloied   lo    designt'e    toe  Su- 
preme h^'in-i :  ;tbose  unity,  as  o^'j  o:^ed  to  polv:hei«m,  is    B-«iL tailed. 
The  names  of  sjn-.e  P^rriar  b<  are  nic:n!:or.ed,  and  con  pared    viih  the 
lume  cf  ntfnr^.  su:h   as   T'cu-'^iro,    FifraaiVro,  a&d  oshers.     Lm:itar  to 
Hir.d-i«.     A  recommeni  iiion  i.f  the  Chr:s*i=ia   reli  ji. n  ;  the    neee>*i j 
of  baptism:  and  ihe  great  blcs^in^-i  of  CL-hver^r.ce  iri^m  ihe    jcwertf 
evi! ;  ire  o:'.:rrr  p:trii'jnj  of  ih-r  c.  n't:.:*.     The  au-h>r  gi^es  his   nhmc  as 
AitondalhK  <cn  cf  TimTwsya  qI  Mznjal^  giri,   cfihe   ^liroia^oira,   ct 
family.     As   .1u:n:':bM  is   :*.e   s?im-*,   in  cfe.',   wib  ^Ijiaji  ia  rao    or 
Art'jnda-rayer,  I  irii  enalieJ  to  Ttcgn'.z^  :h.  a  »:hcr  oi  beinj   the  saiLC 
wiih  A'Gnza-'aitr,  a  Br-l.m-n,  uf  w  i.tar.  atdincreLt  iinstrs  1  have  bcaii. 
acd  r*2 !,  5:xe:h':r^ :  but  wi'.h  whose   entire  biography  I  am  nsit  M- 
quaict-^i.     Yrcva    a   g- :.:!^.x^^.    mho   per*oa-»lIy     kaew   him,   I    have 
learned  ?hai  he  w»-.5  ac.us'.^m-i  to  m  ke  use  of  ^o::ie  *u.rb  woik  aj  tbiSi 
in   diii'v  c.LTrr^at'.cr.s.  a^I  dUcu>»K3s.   wiiJ /^rcA  a^kx  and  others.    I 
IV as  f either  gl-d  tc  L.-.r,  t..it  this  g^nilcniin  reg^rdcJ  Lim  as  a  siccere, 
thcygh  ir.  a:n.e  resp?c:?.  tc  iL-jerfiCt,  CLria'-iia.     He  whs   in  the   €■• 
ploy  uf  il.e  Rever'i.J  Mci^rs.  Cr-n.  a.. i  D-. ^5;^l^ge«,  <f  Vizagapatan; 
and,  as  I  c cr. joe- 'J re,  ttrnjo^ed  ilis  l>.-uk  at  the   siiggestioa  of  one, or 
boih  cf  tleni-  It  ii  mr:::cc  i:i  :he    P  d^a-cdryam  n:ei»ure  :  and  divided 
into  four  cfi'^.'^ai,  or  stciUns.    The  seventh,  eighth,  cinib,  acd  lentk, 


1339.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  i05 

palm  leaves  are  wanting;  all  besides  is  in  regular  order ;  and  the  ma- 
nuscript is  in  very  good  preservation. 

Note. — It  is  entered,  with  a  general  indication  as  to  the  contentSi  in 
the  Des.  Catal.  vol.  I,  p.  349,  art.  73. 

8.     Ifama  rnju  vijayam,  the  triumph  of  Bdma  raju,  No.  43 — Coun- 
termark 309. 

This  book,   otherwise  entitled  Narapati  vijai/am,  is  an  encomiastic 
poem  on  Hdma  rdju,  the  son-in  law  of  Crithna  rayer  ;  who  was,  at  first, 
the  minister ufiSae^a  6'it*a,  :md,  at  length,  usurped  the  sovereignty;  but 
was  afterwards  killed  in  buttle  against  the  Mahomedans  at  TalieoUa.    It 
is,  by  one  authority,  ascribrd   to   Timma-rajt   one  of  the   eight  poets  of 
Criihna-rayer*s  court ;  on  win-  h  point  1  am  doubtful.    The  subject  is, 
at  the  outset,  a  geneahtgy,  deduced  from  the  usual  Chandra  vamsa^  or 
line  of  llastinapuri :  after  the  close  of  that  race,  it  branches  off  into 
"what  is  termed  the  Sinha-ctUam^  or  lion  tribe.     It  comes  down,  through 
the  Chalukiya  race,  to    Hdmaraju  himself;  and  thence  forward  is   ex- 
travagant in  its  panegync.     It  must  be  observed,  that  the  genealogical 
list  is  very  lengthy ;  as  including  the  whole  of  the  lunar  line,  in  the  most 
ancient  portion  ;  and  quite  as  many  names  in  the  more  modem  series. 
How  far  the  author  hud  the  means  of  access  to  records,  subsequent  to 
the  cessation  of  the  Chandra-vamsa^  I  cannot   tell ;  but  it  is  in  that 
portiou  that  the  list  would  merit  to  be  compared  with  the  various  other 
documents  contained  in  this  collection.     It  seems  worthy  of  remark, 
that,  while  western,  and  southern,  Peninsular  records  always  mention 
Vicramdditya,  Sdlivdhana,  and  BhQJa  raja,  the  records  of  the  upper 
and  eastern  (lortion  of  Telingana  usually  continue  the  lunar  line  by 
transfer  to  the  Chatuklyas  ;  and  a  careful  attention  to  this  distin<;tioa 
may  ultimately  enlighten  all  that  is  obscure  in  the  early  centuries  sub- 
sequent to  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 

Note, — The  manuscript  is  old  j  written  in  a  very  small  hand-writ- 
ing ;  but  remains  without  material  injury.  Some  other  work  seems 
to  have  preceded  it,  as  the  No.  on  the  leaves  commences  with  50 :  it  is 
regular  thence  down  to  75,  where  the  writing  leaves  off,  without  having 
been  finished  (as  supposed)  by  the  copyist. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  1,  p.  297,  art.  ii.  with  the  later  portion 
of  the  genealogy,  immediately  preceding  Bama  raju, 

h.    Manuscript  books. 

1.  Manuscript  book.  No.  18— Countermark  810,  Narapalivijayamf 
or  Rama  raju  vtjayanu 


406  Report  on  (he  Mackenzie  McmtueripU,  [Oct. 

Narapafif  is  merely  the  titular  appellation  of  the  kings  of  Fv'o- 
yanagarum.  In  a  blank  leaf  is  an  entry  in  the  hand-writing  of  Colonel 
Mackenzie,  **  Nara putty  Vijaem,  copied  from  the  raja  of  Anagoondy's 
manu<:cript  1800."  It  is  the  same  poem  as  the  preceding  :  but  is  also 
incomplete.  The  ink  is  a  little  pale  ;  the  paper  good  ;  the  first  leaf 
loose  :  bat,  for  the  rest,  in  good  order ;  and  does  not  require  further 
notice. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  as  above. 

2.     Manuscript  book,  No.  13 — Countermark  810. 

Section  I.  Account  of  agricultural,  and  other  details  of  twenty-nine 
villages,  in  the  Chinta-kunda  district. 

The  details  are  of  minor  interest,  and  do  not  call  for  particular  notice. 
The  district  lies,  I  believe,  a  little  to  the  north  of  Cuddapah. 

Section  2.    Account  of  the  zemindari  of  Siallala  Samustanakula. 

In  this  section  the  details  chiefly  relate  to  matters  of  revenue;  ac- 
counts of  the  carnams  ;  and  the  like  :  of  no  material  consequence. 

Remark. — The  book  is  in  tolerably  good  preservation.  The  back 
is  loose,  and  a  few  of  the  leaves  slightly  touched  by  insects,  yet  not 
calling  for  re/^toration,  even  were  the  contents  of  consequence ;  inas- 
much as  (he  ink  is  indelible;  and  the  whole  can  be  everywhere  read 
with  the  greatest  facility.  It  should,  however,  be  looked  at  occasionally^ 
in  order  to  prevent  further  damage,  from  worms  or  insects. 

Manuscript  book.     No.  16 — Countermark  813. 

This  volume,  having  reference  to  the  Ceded  Districts,  contains  local 
details  relative  to  forty  villages,  and  seven  agrahdrams,  or  brahmanical 
alms  houses.  It  is  a  small  quarto  ;  and  of  course,  with  so  wide  a  coib- 
pasp,  the  details  are  brief.  They  consist  chiefly  of  notices  of  fanes,  and 
of  donations  to  them.  A  few  dates  of  inscriptions  are  mingled;  accord; 
ing  to  specimens  already  repeatedly  given.  Hence  minute  abstract  does 
not  seem  to  be  required ;  especially  as  the  book  is  written  with  perma- 
nent ink,  is  only  very  slightly  touched  by  worms,  and  otherwise  in  per* 
feet  preservation. 

Manuscript  book.     No.  5 — Countermark  695. 

Ancient  record,  containing  the  geography,  and  chronology,  notice  of 
Carnams,  and  limits  of  districts,  of  a  part  of  Telingana. 
The  contents  of  this  book  run  on  in  consecutive  order,  without  break, 


18S9.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Mamttcr^.  5|o7 

or  dhrision.    For  the  sake  of  perspecuity,  a  brief  index  may  be  nnm- 
bered. 

1.  A  definition  of  the  limits  of  the  country,  called  Cmdaviti,  with 
the  boundaries  on  four  sides;  and  a  specification  of  its  most  remarkable 
features,  as  to  rivers,  hills,  fanes,  tojrns,  reservoirs,  and  the  like  matters. 

2.  Names  of  kings  or  rulers,  in  the  Dwdpara-yuga.  The  ChandrW' 
FanuUf  with  Ficramadifyat  and  some  other  rult^rs,  specified. 

8,    From  Salivahana  down  to  the  Mukundi  king  Pratapa-Rudra. 

4.  A  few  names  of  the  Aevapati  race  (in  this  place  not  designating 
Mahomedans);  f  >llowed  by  mention  of  the  Gajapatif  or  Orissai  rulers  i 
and  of  the  Naraptui,  or  rayerg  of  Fijayanagaram. 

b.    The  Ganapaiie,  and  the  Reddie ;  with  the  specification  of  the 
periods  of  their  rule  over  the  Warankal  country. 

6.  From  CrUhna-rayer,  down  to  the  Mabomedan  conquest  of  hia 
dynasty  :  dates,  and  details,  are  given. 

7.  A  specification  of  village-districts,  and  viUages,  or  hamlets,  in* 
eluded  within  them,  as  comprised  in  the  Condaviti  principality,  follows* 
This  principality  was  under  the  rule  of  Pratdpa-Rudra* 

8.  Detail  of  the  Oajapati  rulers,  with  their  chief  ministers,  and  the 
influence  exercised  by  them  over  the  Condaviti  principality. 

Mention  of  twelve  different  subdivisions  of  Camams,  or  Niyogi 
Brahmans,  who  obtained  grants  of  lands  with  mirdMi  rights,  and  other 
immunities,  inclusive  of  agrahdrams,  received  from  Gajapati^  rulers,  from 
Pratdpa  Rudra,  or  from  the  Reddis,  during  their  rule;  illustrating 
the  colonization  of  the  country  by  the  secular  Brahmans. 

9.  Details  of  grants,  or  privileges,  bestowed  by  Asvapatis  ;  who  rul- 
ed on  the  north  of  the  river  Crishna, 

10.  Some  mention  of  the  rule  of  the  Natapati  princes,  over  the  dis« 
trict;  chiefly  with  reference  to  the  grants  and  donations  made  by  them. 

11.  Similar  specification  with  reference  to  the  grants  made  by  the 
Oajapati  rulers,  during  the  period  of  their  power* 

12.  Specific  mention  uf  grants  made  to  particular  Brahmans,  bjr 
the  ReddiSf  exclusive  of  more  general  ones,  before  adverted  to. 

13.  The  like  specific  mention  of  donatives  to  particular  Brahmans 
from  Crishna  Rayer. 

14.  Reference  to  a  particular  pergannah,  or  country,  having  11 
included  districts ;  which  received  immunities  from  the  Gajapatis. 

15.  Donatives,  to  the  same  locality,  from  the  Asvapatis,  and  from 
Satid'Siva  Rayer. 

16.  The  usurpation  of  the  entire  country,  by  the  Mahomedans^ 


^00  Bepari  cm  tke  Madumzie  Mamucr^fti»  [C>c& 

their  raising  the  taxation :  renting  out  to  Hinda  nanagent  mad  fHha 
proceedings ;  close  the  docomeDL 

Gbnbbal  RxMAaK.— Io  the  midst  of  much  unimportant  matter,  there 
are  historical  materials  scattered  through  this  hook,  of  some  Taloe     The 
eonstmction  of  the  social  system  naturally  gives  a  tineiorp  to  Hiada 
records.    As  with  them,  Brahmans,  howerer  needy,  are  higgler  in  lank 
than  princes,  next  to  gods  and  eren  *'  gods  on  earth ;"  and  since  dooatives 
to  them  are  the  highest  possible  act  of  virtue,  or  moniSceaee;  It  will  Ibl* 
low  that  historical  records,  especially  when  written  by  Brahmans,  seem 
to  notice  princes,  or  raters,  only  according  to  their  monificcnee  to  frnes^ 
shrines,  and  sacerdotal,  or  secular,  Brahmans,  with  their  eleeaosynaiy 
dwellings.    Hence  the  history  of  peninsular  India,  snbaeqneat  to  the 
general  influx  of  Brahmans,  secondarily  from  npper  Hiodostan,  and  pii- 
marily  from  some  as  yet  unknown  region,  usually  is  what  may  he  termed 
hierarchical,  since  the  epithet  ecclesiastical  cannot  with  accuracy  he 
applied  to  it.    With  our  different  notions,  allowance  must  l>e  made  ht 
the  stractnre  of  society  in  India ;  and,  in  re^ifying  the  materials,  we 
onght  not  to  despise  them,  as  in  some  eases  has  been  hastily  done,  be- 
cause they  are  not  formed  after  the  Greek,  or  Roman,  or  Gothic,  fHshion. 
For  the  rest,  we  can  shape  them  as  we  please,  to  make  them  fit  iats 
oar  boilding,  subject  to  this  remark.    I  think  the  materials  in  this  hook 
might  merit  a  being  brought  out  in  fiill  detail. 

^oT£  — ^The.band -writing  being  small,  and  the  country  paper  severe- 
ly injured,  by  worms  or  insects,  I  have  had  the  entire  document  res- 
tored. 

C— CANARESE. 

a.     Palm  leaf  manuscript 

1.  Saneara-Cadha,  account  of  SonearOf  No.  Z^^Comitermaik 
529. 

This  manuscript  consists  of  two  portions :  the  first  relating  to  Skaea* 
rdeharya^  and  the  other  to  Madhwdeharya,  the  founder  of  Firfyaniyr 
ram  or  Vtjayanagaruwt. 

1.  The  biography  of  Sancara^  narrates  his  birth,  in  the  Malayalsa 
country;  his  peril  in  crossing  a  river,  and  devoting  himself  by  a  vow  to 
an  ascetic  life.  He  afterwards  travelled  to  various  places;  and  en* 
conntered  a  variety  of  marvellous  adventures,  needless  to  be  detailed. 
At  a  more  advanced  period  of  life,  he  founded  the  mooasteriimi  oiSrm» 


1839.]  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  MoMueripit.  409 

geri.  He  was  the  champion  of  the  AdvUa  doctrine,  that  tliere  is  no  dis* 
tjnction  between  GoDf  and  the  human  soul;  and,  as  opposed  to  Ramanu^ 
jdeharya^  maintained  the  perfect  equality,  and  essential  unity,  of  Siva 
and  Vishnu,  He  is  head  of  the  Smaria  sect,  who  profess  to  follow  the 
Smrilis,  or  law  systems.  There  is  no  Hindu  teacher  whose  opinions, 
and  instruction,  have  had  a  wider  influence  than  bis ;  especially  in  the 
peninsula. 

2.  The  other  part  relates  to  Fidydfanya,  the  founder  of  V^myana* 
garum.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Brahman;  and  was  well  instructed  in  the 
FedaSf  and  other  learning.  He  performed  penance,  directed  to  Devi, 
for  the  acquisition  of  wealth  :  who  appeared,  and  told  him  his  request 
could  not  now  be  granted.  He  then  travelled  on  pilgrimage;  and, 
among  other  places,  visited  Srinyeri,  where  he  studied,  and  received 
thence  the  titular  name  of  Fidydranya  or  *'  forest  of  learning.*'  He 
was  purposing  to  visit  yyata,  in  the  north ;  and  took  with  him  a  rdah* 
«#«,  whom  he  met  ivith  near  the  Vindhya  mountain.  He  went  to  Cdeit 
and  on  coming  back,  parsing  through  the  Tuluva  country,  met  with 
Sangama-raytny  who  had  five  sous  ;  among  whom  were  Hari-hara,  and 
Sukha  ;  the  formor  of  whom  by  his  advice  and  assistance  was  esta- 
blished as  a  kiug  at  Fijayanayarum,  He  again  went  to  Sringeri^ 
which  shrine  received  muuificent  grants  and  privileges  from  Hari»Hara* 
rayen,  and  Bukha  ray  en.  There  are  two  dates  given  ;  one  being  Sal. 
Sac.  1265,  as  the  period  of  the  first  visit  to  Sringeri,  and  1258,  as  that 
of  the  foundation  of  the  town  of  Vijayanagarum ;  they  may  be  trans- 
posed, or  seventy-eight  may  be  read  by  conjecture  for  fifty-eight,  or  both 
may  be  fictitious.   However  Vijayanagarum  was  founded  about  that  time. 

Note. — This  book  is  old;  it  is  written  on  talipat  leaves ;  and  is  in 
perfect  preservation. 

It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  35,  art.  xlL  as  ''  a  short  account 
of  Sankarficharya.*' 

2.  Aannaya-Chariira,  account  of  Nannaya,  No.  69— Countermark 
517. 

This  book  in  the  Hala  kanada,  or  old  Canarese,  relates  to  a  teacher  of 
repute  of  the  Vtra  Saiva  class,  named  Nannaya,  not  to  be  confounded 
with  Nannaya  Bhatt,  a  Telugu  poet  of  eminence.  This  Nannaya  was  an 
ascetic,  who  had  many  scholars  ;  one  of  whom  took  down  the  substance 
of  his  instructions,  and  recorded  them  in  five  books.  The  subject  of 
these  instructions  turns  very  much  on  the  fanciful  tatva  system,  or  the 
union,  and  results,  of  the  corporeal,  and  mental,  faculties.    There  are 


410  lUpaH  €m  the  Madiemae  Mammierifit.  [Oer. 

alto  sectarial  descriptiomiof  Sir*  ;  of  his  pundise  ;  anrl  Totariei.  Tbe 
Unfiruage,  I  am  toM,  U  diMingaishable  from  the  oniiotrr  pbraseologj  of 
Brnhwtang;  and  it  would  seem  an  if  Bugfvapm^  b<>ad  of  the  sect*  was 
rather  a  warrior  of  the  Stdta  cU«t»  io  whit  h  case  Km»mmjfm,  and  the 
scholars  of  the  latter  woull  be  Sudrat'^^go,  The  system  is  ultra  niee; 
it  neglects  or  despises  the  FtdoM  ;  ao  i  procee^U  wholly  cm  the  TtmtwmM 
or  Agamas,  There  is,  however,  much  that  agrees  with  the  more  generjUlj 
rceived  system  of  Hindu'ftm.  Whi^e  the  Vira  SaUmt  Tary  from  other 
Hindia,  they  ar*?  the  still  more  direct  oppouents  of  ihtJaimoM  ;  aod  the 
ezt<*nnination  of  the  JainaM^  in  the  N.  W.  of  the  Penioifula,  was  chiefly 
efTe'.-ted  by  them.  They  are  usually  termed  LingmikariM  in  the  neigl^ 
hour  hood  of  Madras. 

Note. — This  manuscript  is  in  appearance  Tery  old  ;  it  ic  completer 
The  leaves  are  in  some  places  perforated  hy  worms  ;  occasionally  €»bli- 
terating  some  letters ;  though  this  injury  is  less  than  might  have  been 
anticipated.  When  first  opened  sereral  small  while  worms  were  toned 
OBt  of  it,  and  these,  in  a  month  or  two,  would  have  rendered  the  whole 
illegible.  A  little  care  is  necessary  with  these  aiaoijscripta,  in  occaii- 
onally  opening,  and  drying  them.  It  ooght  to  be  a  special  doty  of 
some  one  indiridnal. 

The  manuscript  is  entered  in  Des.  Cat.  toI.  2,  p.  31,  art.  zxxii. 

6.    MARuscEirr  Books. 
Manuscript  book.  No.  5 — no  Coantcmark. 

The  contents  of  this  document  are  partly  in  Mahratti,  and  partly  in 
Canarese.    The  former  has  been  before  attended  to  (see  4th  Beport  c). 

The  Canarese  is  now  adverted  to;  in  order  that  the  book  may  be  fine- 
ly disposed  of. 

Section  I.  (In  Mahratti).  It  has  a  page  of  Telogn,  in  Canarese  lei* 
ters,  relating  to  a  wonderful  tree,  looking  large  at  a  distance ;  diminish* 
ing  on  approach  ;  and  disappearing  on  coming  very  near.  It  can  only 
be  found  by  the  wise,  and  spiritually  enlightened. 

Section  2.  Beldtire  to  ChaMdra-drana  fmrvaimm^  is  paitly  in  Mah- 
ratti, with  a  supplement  in  Canarese  writing,  not  differently  aectioDeib 
but  which  supplement  is  properly,  a  legend  of  Daitiirefm, 

It  is  in  the  Canarese  character ;  but  the  language  on  ezaminatioa 
was  found  to  be  Telugu.     It  relates  to  the  sage  D^itair^Mf  and  his 


1839,}  lUportonthe  Mackemie  Manuscripts,  411 

matronly  wife.  Previous  to  retiring  from  his  hermitage  to  a  cave,  for 
the  purpose  of  entire  abstraction  from  tbe  world,  he  performed  some 
mantras  over  a  vessel  of  water,  which  he  then  gave  to  his  wife  ;  telling 
her  to  tnke  care  of  their  abode,  while  he  was  away  ;  to  entertain  all 
good  rishis,  or  devout  men,  with  cordial  hospitality  ;  but  if  at  any  time» 
she  should  be  molested  by  vulgar,  or  rude  persons,  she  might  sprinkle 
over  them  a  liltle  of  the  water  in  the  vessel,  and  accompany  the  doing 
•o  with  whatever  wish  she  might  please,  and  the  same  would  be  accom- 
plished. Dattdtreya  thereupon  retired  to  hi<)  cave ;  and,  after  some 
time,  his  wife  received  a  visit  from  some  rishis^  on  their  journey, 
claiming  her  hospitality.  She  placed  food  before  them,  of  which  tbey 
refused  to  partake,  unless  she  would  accompany  her  serving  it  up  with 
a  degrading  mode  of  menial  servitude.  She  reflected  for  a  moment ; 
and,  then  sprinkling  over  them  a  little  water,  wished  that  they  might 
become  children,  and  the  transformation  was  instantly  accomplished. 
She  then  put  the  infants  into  a  cradle,  attended  on  them,  and  nourish- 
ed them  as  such.  The  rishh  became  missing ;  and  the  celestials  went 
to  Par vn/t,  to  enquire  about  them;  who  narrated  what  had  happened* 
The  celestials  waited  on  the  matron ;  and,  at  their  desire,  she  sprink- 
led water  on  the  children  and,  by  a  wish,  restored  them  to  their  pre- 
vious form.  They  were  dismissed ;  and,  after  bathing,  went  their 
way.  Dattdtret/a,  soon  after  opened  his  eyes  ;  and,  leaving  his  abstract 
penance,  came  out  of  his  cave  :  on  learning  what  had  happened,  be  be-< 
came  of  opinion,  that  it  was  not  right  to  expose  his  wife  alone,  and  sub- 
sequently he  took  her  with  him  to  the  cave,  when  he  retired  thither. 
On  doing  so,  the  four  colours  (or  castes)  came,  and  watched  at  tbe  en* 
try.  At  length  unable  to  bear  the  heavy  dew,  and  the  cold,  they  went 
away.  One  Budda  Sahebf  a  Mahomedan,  hearing  of  the  fiame  of  the 
hermitage,  waited  there,  and  preserved  it.  After  some  time  Datidtrsya^ 
came  forth,  and  gave  him  some  instructions  ;  of  what  kind  is  not  speci- 
fied. 

Section  3.  Legendary  account  of  Baitadapur  in  the  Mysore  country. 
This  paper  is  in  Canarese  characters,  but  the  language  is  a  Pracritt 
or  corrupt  Sanscrit  It  relates  to  a  fane  of  Mallicarjuna,  There  are 
three  brief  adhydyast  or  sections ;  and  the  contents,  besides  some  le- 
gendary matter  at  the  commencement,  relative  to  a  dispute  between 
two  rishis,  has  the  usual  filling  up  of  St'hala  mahatmyasi  relative  to 
shrines  and  pools.  Eight  tirt*has  are  mentioned:  that,  is  those  of  ^gni, 
Mucti,  Gaurif  Ganga,  Bama,  Airdvata,  Dacsha^  Hanuman;  with  de- 
tails of  merit,  and  benefit,  of  bathing  therein.    In  the  second  section 


4I2  Bepmrt^OeMi 


die  mmtnAwt »  p^wett  of  srreral  pcnow  of  bsg^ 
p«d  att  thrio  £uie ;  tbcrebf  rttkec^mg  l«rtn 
kw  a  f|Ketal  iiefeie»e<  to  ArjnoM ;  to  bb 
eonmeef ed  aatt en ;  wlieaeis  it  woald  appear,  that  the 
emrjmmm^  a«  applj€«i  to  tbe  idol,   was  dexived.    TW 
file  aowh  of  ^ttrtdm  m  related  bf  hiai  lo  Gmrgmrm 


Settwm  A.    Aireoant  of  tbe 
diftrii:!  of  ^tdb»r. 

Tbe  leg^end,  in  the  Canarese  lan^oa^  is  evried  op  Co  tlte  tiae 
of  JmMmwyfjmjfm^  vbo  Tisited  thU  pUce ;  aai,  m  his  Cuher  FmrieMi 
died  bjr  duf  bite  of  a  serpent,  consequent  to  oieadiuy  a  ria^  be« 
tbe  son,  bad  a  serpent  aaerifiec  perfonned  on  tbe  hiafca  of  tbe  Tmm' 
gakkmdra  river:  be  tben  Bade  large  bene^ietions  to  tbis 
and  ia  tbe  •grakarmm,  located  varions  orders  ^  Bcabnuas  wbo 
ciiSed  hj  their  g6irm^  or  tribe,  sobieqneotif  in  tbe  tiae  of /Kailnfo-rvf  «b 
and  tbe  Afw$miHi  rolers,  tbe  laud  prinleges  vere  coariB<scd.  A  Toed 
ebie(  the  Mabomedaas,  tbe  Peisbwa,  and  otbers,  are  Bcntioned,  as 
▼arionsl  J  deporting  tbemselrea  towards  tbe  sbrine.  Tippoo  abrogat- 
ed its  pririleges;  bat  after  tbe  Eogtisb  bad  given  orer  tbe  eoontry  to 
tbe  Mjsore  prince,  its  pritileges  were  paitiaitjr  restored.  A  list  of 
luKSy  and  of  tbe  names  of  eighteen  bead  Brabmans,  of  diflerent  tribesv 
i«  added  to  tbe  document.  These,  it  maj  be  obaerred,  are  expressly 
spoken  of  as  introduced  from  tbe  north.  The  name  of  each  jsarfar,  or 
head  Brahman,  need  not  be  specified :  occasiooaU  j  two^  or  niugg,  of 
these  are  of  the  same  class;  bat  the  goirma  mentiancd  are  Carj^ 
AgOMiya^  SrivMita^  Gamimwm,  FasUkfrnf  CanusdaayOy  Bkmrmikemja^ 
HaridmM%  Jamadoffm,  The  place  took  its  name  because  Gnsfsom 
(or  bii  tribe),  first  establbbed  an  emblem  of  5tna  there. 

SaetUm  5.     Account  of  HalU^kcmmr  m  the  same  district. 

At  this  place  BaUala  raytm,  of  tbe  BaUmlm  race,  was  cured  of  leprosj 
bf  bathing.  In  conseqaeoce,  though  himself  a  Jmmm^  he  formed  a 
high  estimate  of  this  shrine,  at  which  he  boilt  a  fane,  and  made  rari- 
oos  grants  to  Brahmans.  He  boilt  an  agrakmrmm  for  them,  termed 
JEfa^t  timtinr  (Hooore),  amd  also  eonstmcted  a  small  Ibrt  there.  He 
mled  thirty  jears.  His  son  was  Tmrmfmmga^mjf€u^  who  mled  Ibrtj-one 
years.  His  son  was  FiMknU'Verddkamm^myem^  wbo  mled  fifty  yean. 
His  son  Fijaya  ATarasimka  niysa  ruled  twenty-tbree  years;  Firm'Smh 
Wa-rayen,  son  of  the  preceding,  ruled  Corty-fire  years.  Is  his  time 
•ne  named  Ganga  sila-ragen^  in  the  senrice  of  the  Delhi  Jhidahnbt  cam^ 


1839.]  Bepori  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  413 

assaulted,  plundered,  and  destroyed ;  and  then  went  away.    The  son 
of  Fira  Ballala-raysn,  was  Vtra-Narasimha  Ballala  ray  en,  who  ruled 
sixteen  years.     His  wife's  son,  named  Fira'Somesvarsn  ruled  nineteen 
years.    His  son  was  Vtra-Narasimha  Ballala'rayen,  who  reigned  forty- 
six  year^.     In  all  there  were  nine  of  this  race.    The  last  of  them  Bat-* 
lata  ray  en  f  is  represented  to  have  been  a  dissolute,  and  cruel    person ; 
and  among  other  misdeeds,  hung  his  elder  sister,  at  the  instigation  of 
his  wife.     Thereupon  bis  whole  family  became  deeply  afflioted,  and 
imprecated  upon  him  the  loss  of  his  kingdom.    The  Delhi- Padshah 
heard  of  these  things;  and  gave  bis  permission  to  the  two  brothers, 
named  Hari-hara  rayen,  and  Bukha-rayen,  to  make  war  upon   Ballala 
rayen.    They  did  so,  for  some  time,  without  success ;  but  at  length 
obtaining  the  favour,  and  assistance  of  the  sage  Vidy&ranya^  thev  suc- 
ceeded in  overthrowing  tbe  power  of  Ballala'rayen,  and  upon  the  ruins 
of  it  founded  the  town  of  Vtjayanagarum  (in  Sal.  Sar.  1258),  and  its 
connected  kingdom ;  of  which  Hari  Hara  was  made  the  first  king. 

The  names  of  thirteen  of  his  successors  are  given,  down  to  Sal.  Sac. 
1412  as  follows: 

Years. 

Hari-hara  rayen 14 

Bukha-rayen 31 

Hari-hara-rayen 29 

Vira-deva-rayen ••••...••••   •^.••.  17 

Pravuda-Bukha  rayen 16 

Mallicarjuna-rayen • 17 

Runghana-Rama  rayen ,.  9 

Singhana   Vijaya  Virupacsha  rayen 10 

Pravuda  deva  rayen  • , « • 16 

y irupacsha-ray en , 4 

Beva-rayen • •••••  6 

Rama-rayen • «..••••   )3 

Virupacsha-rayen  •••••.•••.  22 

The  total  it  is  said  makes  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  years,  which 
would  agree  with  the  interval  between  the  two  dates  given,  but  tlie  real 
total  is  two  hundred  and  four ;  leaving  the  inference  open  that  pre- 
cise accuracy  is  not  contained  in  the  number  of  years  ascribed  to  each 
ruler.  Besides  which  some  of  the  numbers,  where  double,  are  doubt- 
ful; as  they  may  imply,  and  probably  do  in  some  cases  imply,  years 
and  months.  Tbe  total  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  is  tbe  right  one 
to  be  followed,  with  an  adjustment  of  the  years  of  each  king. 


414  Eepori  on  the  Mackenzie  Manutcripis.  [Oct. 

From  Sal.  Sac.  U12,  down  to  148G,  eight  persons  ruled,  as  follows: 

Years. 
Pravuda  deva  raven,  son  of  Pravuda  Singlia  rayen..      5 

Vira  Narasimha  raven       ...■••••..       3 

Naraximha  rayen 12 

Crislma  raven • 16 

Sada  Siva  raven 5 

Achvutii  raven 12 

Timmaiya ri 

Kama  rayen,  in  the  name  of  Sada  Siva  rayen 22 

In  this  statement  there  is  a  discrepancy  of  eight  years.  During  the 
government  of  Rama  rayett,  in  the  name  of  Sada  Siva  rayen,  one  named 
Chickadeva  rayen  received  the  fort  of  HalU  honur,  and  with  it  a  coun- 
try producing  a  revenue  of  nine  lakhs,  from  Rama  rayen,  as  a  fief. 
After  Chiehadeva,  one  numt^d  Sada  Siva  nayak  ruled  four  years.  His  son 
was  Santana  nayak,  A  list  of  successors,  as  local  chi**fiain8,  or 
feudal  harons  of  Jlotmr,  follows ;  but  the  document  at  the  end  remains 
unfinished. 

Section  6.     Account  of  Uduguni  in  the  same  district. 

The  origin,  m  a  lejjendary  manner,  is  carried  up  to  the  time  of  the  fiv« 
Pdndavas.    The  Cadamba  dynasty  after wardd  ruled  over  this  placre.    Of 
the  Rayer  dynasty,  Deva  rayen  especially  distinguished  this  place. 
In  a  discussion  wiih  the  people  of  the  country,  occasion  arose  of  ap- 
proaching the  foot  of  a  tree  where  there  was  a  large  ant-hill,  out  of 
which  a  large  guana  lizard  issued ;  fell  upon  the  attendants  of  the  local 
chief;  and  bit  them  severely.    From  this  it  was  inferred  that  something 
special  was  connected   with   this  anthill ;  and  on  diggiug  it  up,  an 
image  of  Hanuman  and  of  Sala  devi  were  found.    A  fane  was  built  for 
these  images,  especially  for  Sala  devi,    and  from   her  name  the   word 
Uduguni  is  said  to  be  derived.     It  is  added  that  the  Cadamba  dynasty, 
ruled  down  to  Sal.  Sac.  1025.    For  a  time  it  was  not  nnder  any  king. 
Afterwards  the  Rayer  dynasty  is  adverted  to,  hut,  in  both  cases,  only 
with  a  reference  to   matters  connected  with  the  shrine   of   Saia  devi. 
A  sAssanam  remains,  whence  it  appears  that  in  Sal.  Sac.  1291,   Bukkm 
rayen,  gave  to  the  fane  the  two  villages  of  Muehari  and  Afudali. 

In  Sal.  Sac.  1416  the  Padshah  of  Bijapur,  captured  the  place,  and  gave 
it  in  charge  to  Fira  navadiyar.  The  Seringapatam  rulers  acquired, 
at  a  later  time,  the  sovereignty ;  and,  at  still  later  times,  it  was  under 
the  management  of  amildars. 


1339.]  Report  on  thi  Afaekenzis  MantueHptB.  4  IS 

Sections  8,  and  9,  in^Mahratti,  have  been  before  noticed. 

The  Canarese  papers  in  this  book,  with  the  exception  of  the  paper 
concerning  the  fane  of  Afaltiearjuna,  are  in  a  bad  state  as  to  preserra* 
tioD.    The  only  sections  of  permanent  value  are  four,  and  five.    The 
entire  contents  of  this  book,  No  5--Countermark  871,  have  now  beea. 
abstracted. 


Manuscript  book,  No.   4— Countermark  649« 

This  book  contains  a  fragment,  being  the  earlier  portion  of  the  Pan- 
chmtmhtra  cadha,  or  tale  of  the  *'  five  devices,"  a  highly  popular  work, 
found  iu  every  language  of  India.  In  this  copy  the  Mahratti  charac- 
ters are  employed }  but  the  langmige  is  Canarese.  The  paper  is  some- 
what damaged  by  insects ;  but  the  writing  perfectly  legible.  Being 
only  a  fragment,  and  that  too  of  a  very  common,  and  popular  work,  res- 
toration does  not  appear  to  be  required. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  7 — Countermark  873. 

This  is  a  thin  folio  volume,  in  perfect  condition  ;  being  written  with 
indelible  ink,  on  thick  Europe  paper,  not  even  touched  by  insects.  The 
writing  is  in  Mahratta  characters,  but  the  language  is  Canarese.  The 
contents  are  the  revenue  settlement  of  the  Ratfatu,  or  rulers  of  the  coun- 
try, for  the  district  of  Dankeni  eotta ;  being,  of  course,  details  not  re- 
quiring abstract  in  the  present  enquiry. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  20— Countermark  866. 

This  is  a  similar  book  to  the  preceding ;  containing  the  same  docu- 
ment in  the  Canarese  characters,  and  language  \  the  ink  being  a  little 
faded.  There  is  appended  a  comparatively  brief  paper  entitled,  Rai' 
raka,  or  settlement  of  the  rulers,  and  relating  to  the  district  of  Hona- 
kailif  copied  from  an  original  record  on  a  Cadatlam,  or  painted-cloth 
folded.  The  ink  in  this  latter  copy  is  good ;  and  the  paper  throughout 
in  perfect  preservation. 


416  Itepart  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuscripU,  [Oct. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  1 — Countermark  887. 

Section  1 .  List  of  ancient  rajas  procured  in  the  Sunda  district. 

Certain  kings  of  Magadha,  The  Cadamka  dynasty.  Trinetra 
Cadamba'Tayen  was  the  first  of  them,  who  ruled  forty-five  years.  His 
son  Mddhu  reigned  fifty  years  :  some  other  successions  down  to  May 
ttra  verma.  His  son  was  Trinetra  Cadamban,  The  successions  are 
continued  down  to  an  invasion  by  a  Coucana  king,  of  the  Parpara  dy. 
nasty.  Kings  of  this  race  follow,  twenty-one  in  number.  ViraCamO' 
deva^rayen  conquered  the  last  of  that  dynai>ty.  The  BaUala  dynasty. 
Their  capital  was  Dwara  Samvdram.  They  are  the  Oyitalas:  nine 
in  number.  Hari-hara  ra;;en  overcame  them  ;  and  ruled  in  Vidyana" 
garam.  The  line  of  the  Rayere  is  referred  to,  a^  having  been  before 
tranhmitted.  Their  becoming  enfeebled,  and  ruling  at  ^^nitar(m<fat,  is 
simply  mentioned.  The  rule  of  some  Nayakn  or  local  chiefs,  as  sup- 
posed in  the  6* tim/a  district,  is  staled.  The  Ch<da  dynastv  :  some  of 
the  names  are  the  same  as  in  other  lists,  others  are  different ;  but  we 
know  that  these  kings  had  two  or  three  titular  names.  A  reference  to 
BallalaSf  \vho  ruled  in  distant,  and  distinct,  places;  apparently  without 
successor:  one  at  Trinomali,  A  list  oi Andhra  kings;  town  not  speci- 
fied. Loose  mention  of  fVarankal,  and  other,  rulers.  There  is  then  a  re- 
ference back  to  the  Saovirathta-d^sam,  and  other  countries,  unconnect- 
ed in  form.  Malli  raja^  is  said  to  have  ruled  at  BaUaki-patnam  in  the 
Bengal  country  ;  and  Bhoja  raja  is  said  to  have  been  his  son.  One  or 
two  Udriya  kings  are  mentioned  ;  and  then  a  leap  is  made  down  to 
Madura :  the  name  of  Sundara'Pandiyan,  occurs,  with  a  transit  imme- 
diately afterwards  to  the  Kerala  raja.  Alter  other  scattered  notices  of 
individuals,  a  return  is  made  northwards  to  Qiigein,  and  Vicramaditya^ 
Then  a  reference  to  Delhi.  A  return  back  to  Madura,  and  to  A'kim 
Pand'iyan. 

Note. — The  only  value  of  this  paper  is  with  reference  to  the  Cadam* 
ba  line,  and  succeeding  races  down  to  the  conquest  by  Hari^hara  rayer. 
All  the  rebt  is  incoherent ;  both  as  to  times  and  places,  and  mere  names, 
such  as  a  person  might  casually  hear  mentioned  in  conversation,  as  of 
those  once  ruling  in  India.  There  are  no  dates  either  of  the  Cali  yugOf 
or  any  other  era.  The  ink  and  paper  are  in  suflSciently  good  preservati- 
on to  allow  of  reference  to  the  first  part,  many  years  hence  ;  if  need  be* 

Section  2.     Account  of  wild  tribes  in  Sunda  and  Canara. 
Nothing  answering  to  this  heading  appears;  and  there  are  marks  in 
the  book  of  several  sheets  having  been  torn  cut,  or  otherwise  lost. 

Stc  tion  3.    Account  of  the  Coramaru,  in  the  Svnda  coantrj. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  ManuscripU,  417 

There  are  four  classes  among  them,  some  of  their  bousehold,  or  do* 
mestici  customs  are  staled.  Marriage  settlements,  and  observances,  mode 
of  receiving  proselytes  into  their  class.  They  have  no  Brahmans 
amongst  them.  Mnnyofthem  live  professionally  by  theft.  They  ar« 
scattered ;  some  in  villages,  some  in  wilds,  or  forests. 

Section  4.     Account  of  the   Cunumbi  MahraUas. 

The  Surya  race  deduced  from    Brahma^  down  to  Va\va9vatu»menu  ; 
and  then  a  reference  to  Paricshit,  and  Nanda;   from  whom  various 
race«!  sprung  by  intermarriaajes.    Hence    the  Cunnmbie  deduce  their 
lineage ;  they  are  scattered  in  various  countries ;   both  in  the  north, 
and  in  the  peninsula. 

Section  5.     Account  of  the  Banljagar  tribe  of  Telugu  people. 

Their  household  customs.  Fourteen  minor  subdivisions  among  them 
specified.  Their  marriages.  Mode  of  correcting  offenders,  and  some 
other  details ;  of  no  consequence. 

Section  6.     Account  of  the  Cudi  Cumhhar^  or  tribe  of  potters. 

Various  local  usages,  and  customs.  Marriages  are  only  contracted 
by  adults.  They  sometimes  bum,  and  sometimes  bury,  their  dead. 
They  do  not  admit  of  proselytes  from  among  other  classes  of  people* 
These  with  minor  details,  form  the  subjects  of  this  paper. 

Section  7.    Account  of  the  Qongadicar^  or  gardeners  in  Sunda, 
Their  domestic,  marriage,  and  other  local,  or  peculiar, customs,  are  sta- 
ted ;  but  there  does  not  seem  any  thing  needing  special  note.    In  many 
points  their  customs  have  an  affinity  with  those  of  the  potter-tribe. 

Section  8.  Account  of  the  tribe  of  Manvettiyar,  or  diggers  of  water 
reservoirs. 

They  have  minor  distinctions  among  themselves;  and  their  customs 
are  stated.  They  dig  wells,  reservoirs,  channels  for  irrigation,  &c., 
being,  like  the  two  preceding  classes,  very  useful,  though  servile  ;  and 
are  apparently  derived  not  from  colonist  HlndtUt  but  from  aborigines 
of  the  country. 

General  Remark. — ^Though  the  papers  in  this  volume  are  in  some 
degree  curious,  as  to  local  tribes  and  manners,  and  the  first  of  some 
little  historical  value,  yet  they  do  not  seem  to  claim  restoration,  espeei- 
ally  as  the  ink  is  tolerably  good,  and  the  paper,  though  very  inferior, 
only  in  a  slight  degree  damaged  by  insects. 


418  Beporl  on  (he  Mackenzie  Manmeeripte,  [Oct. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  2 — Coontermark  888. 

Seetien  1.    Legend  of  the  fane  al  Banavatsi,  in  the  Sundm  distnct. 

Reference  to  seven  upa-purie,  or  second  rate  towns  (in  regard  tm 
mythology)  formed  by  Brahma,  Among  the  «e?en  was  BanacoMsi.  It 
bad  different  names  in  difiereiit  yugae  Legendary  matter  as  to  Saiva 
emblems  follows.  The  kings  in  the  Cali  yuga  beginoiDg  with  Pari- 
euhit  are  adverted  to.  Several  namei  that  follow  are  those  of  M^ga- 
dha,  down  to  Nanda;  and  a  division  of  country  among  his  nine  sods. 
Chandra  yvpfa,  and  nine  of  his  desiendantg.  F^hpamitra  set  the  last 
of  the  nine  asid';  i  and  assumed  the  sovereignty. 

Remabk. — Hence  it  appears  that  the  only  proper  reference  te 
Bancvai^i  is  legendary,  and  mythological.  What  is  stated  about  kings 
all  relates  to  Mdgadhot  or  modem  Bihar, 

Section  2.  Account  of  the  Chennaiya  eulam,  the  lowest  tribe  in  the 
Sunda  diRtrict. 

Domestic,  and  marriage^  customs.  The  paper  is  very  similar  to  like 
statements  in  the  foregoing  book ;  and  offers  nothing  worthy  of  special 
notice. 

Section  3.  Legend  of  the  fane  of  Siriei.  Notice  of  two  Salrm 
emblems.  A  fane  of  Ganesa^  another  of  Mariyammen  ;  to  the  last  of 
which,  a  grant  of  lands  was  made ;  and  it  now  receives  an  allowance 
from  the  Honourable  Company.  In  another  shrine  there  is  an  inscrip- 
tion dated  Sal.  Sac.  915,  but  its  contents  are  not  stated.  Mention  of  a 
fort  near  at  hand.  A  few  other  details  follow,  offering  no  special  point 
of  interest. 

Sectifm  4.    Account  of  the  Concniit  tribe  In  Sunda. 

Reference  to  the  formation  of  the  Cauda  and  Dravida  Brakmatie, 
by  Brahma.  The  narration  of  Parasu'rama,  his  destruction  of  the 
Csftelriyag,  nnd  gift  of  the  country  to  Catiyapa,  He  then  went  to  the 
Ma  lay  a  la,  or  Kerala,  country,  and  introduced  the  Brahmane  thither  j 
the  Concanin  being  among  the  number.  The  like  account  is  referred  to» 
in  the  paper,  as  being  contained  in  the  Scanda'purawam.. 

Section  5.    Account  of  the  Cunchi  vakkala  tribe  in  Sunda, 
There  are  minor  subdivisions  among  them ;  and  their  domestic,  Mid 
marriage,  customs  are  stated. 


1839.]  Meport  on  &ie  Mackenzie  Mamttcripta,  419 

Section  6.    Account  of  tbe  Metusacara  tribe  in  Svnda, 

Some  minor  rabdivisions.    Tbeir  customs,  and  observances,  are  more 

Hindu-like,  tban  tbose  of  other  tribes  before  noted.    Tbe  sUtement  is 

however  very  concise. 

SooitoH  7»    Account  of  tbe  Medari  tribe.  ' 

A  brief  reference  to  their  customs,  which  resemble  those  of  Hindus* 
The  tribe  bas  four  subdivisions. 

Sscfion  8.    Arcount  of  tbe  Padmo'ialit  or  weavers. 
Bight  subdivisions.     Local  manners ;    offering    nothing,  requiring 
special  remark. 

Section  9.    Account  of  the  Hallapaica  tribci  or  wild  people  in  Sunda. 

Domestic,  and  marriage,  customs ;  with  other  details,  under  similar 
heads,  asi  in  preceding  cases.  There  appears  to  be  a  mingling  of  ab- 
original, and  uf  Hindu,  customs.  Most  of  the  tribes  that  have  been 
described  afford  traces  of  resemblance  to  the  Condu-vdndlut  A  ay  are 
and  Maravas, 

Section  10.  Account  extracted  from  tbe  St*hala  mahatmya  of  Bona* 
va$$i  in  Sunda, 

Tbe  writer  Siiw  the  whole  legend  in  the  old  Canarese  languRge.  A 
•pecial  circumstance  was  by  him  extracted.  To  wit :  Mayura  verma 
established  in  his  capital  a  Brahman,  who  had  impress.d  him  with 
reverence,  by  refusing  to  eat  in  a  country  wherein  there  were  no  . 
£rahman^.  Chandrangaien,  son  of  Mayura  verma,  called  a  large  co- 
lony of  ^raAfnan# ;  and  located  tbem  in  Kerala,  \n  Tuluva,  ffaigairif 
Concana,  Carada,  The  first  speak  the  Mai  aval  am  language;  tbe  se- 
cond the  Tuluva  dialect,  the  third  Hala  Canada ;  the  two  others  differ- 
ent dialects  of  Mnharaehtram,  Paraeu  Rama  afterwards  came  to  this 
country,  bringing  with  him  a  colony  of  sixty  four  families,  among  whom 
he  established  his o wn  va''(/{ca,  (ascetical*)  system;  buthetween  these, 
and  the  others,  there  was  no  agreement.  The  Brahmans  introduced  by 
Para$u  Rama,  are  called  chitia-pavanar,  and  were  brought  from  Arya- 
ndd  (i  €.  upper  Hindustan).  The  Parpara  country  Brahmans  are 
called  Madhinyanal,  These  were  instituted  to  tbeir  rights  and  privi* 
leges,  by  the  aforementioned  Chandrangatan,  son  of  Mayura  Verma ^ 

*  Or  conformable  to  the  v€dt.  As  Parant  Soma  tame  from  the  head  quarters  of  Bia* 
daism,  he  most  probably  brought  with  him,  a  more  regular  system,  thap  that  of  scat- 
tered emifrants,  who  went  before. 


^20  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Mantucripti.  [Oct. 

The  paper  also  contains  n  mention  of  kings  of  Magadha,  similar  to  the 
first  section.  [The  conjecture  arises  that  (he  Cadamba  dynasty  origi- 
nated, in  consequence  of  shaking  off  (he  yoke  oi  Mdgadka^  uf  which 
country,  probabJy  it  formed  a  distant  province]. 

Genkral  Remark,— The  contents*  of  this  thin  octavo  Tolurae  may  he 
judged  of  by  means  of  (he  foregoing  brief  abstract.  The  accounts  of 
the  local  tribes  are  not  without  use.  The  last  pai)er  is  important ;  per- 
haps veiy  important.  It  explains  the  early  portion  of  the  Kerata^Ul' 
patti;  gives  a  further  view  of  the  location  of  ffraAsuiH-colonists ;  and 
indicates  n  time  where  there  were  no  Brahmans  in  the  country.  Under 
such  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  tribes  ofahorigioes  should 
remain  in  greater  numbers,  than  in  other  parts  of  the  peninsula ;  from 
which,  as  we  have  had  abundant  proof,  they  were,  to  a  prevailing  de- 
gree, exterminated. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  4— Countermark  888. 

Section  1.    Account  of  Rama-rqfa,  and  his  contests  with  the  Maho- 
medans. 

This  section  contains  somewhat  full  details  of  Rama-roja^M  negocia- 
tions,  and  battles,  with  the  neighbouring  Mahomedan  rulers.  A  pom- 
jious,  and  very  exaggerated,  statement  is  given  of  the  splendour  of  bit 
throne,  and  the  number  of  his  obsequious  attendants;  including  the 
kings  of  all  the  fif:y-six  countries  of  Hindu  geography.  A  list  of  bis 
army  is  also  given.  The  attacks  of  the  Mahumodan  chief:^,  separately, 
were  foiled  ;  but  a  grand  confederation  against  him  of  five  shahs,  at 
length  overthrew  him,  and  conquered  the  kingdom.  The  date  of  Sal. 
Sal.  1486  (A.  D.  1564),  is  given  ;  and  it  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
battle  of  Talicota,  Avhich  ended  the  power  of  the  Fijayanagarum, 
kingdom. 

Note.— This  document  Hill  continue  legible  for  some  years.    The 
paper  is  undamaged ;  but  the  ink  is  not  throughout  equally  good. 

<Sfc/tou  2.  Account  of  the  ^ani/ff^artf,  or  traders,  of  Boftivetsn  in 
the  Sunda  district. 

The  few  details  which  relate  to  this  class  of  LingadhariSf  and  mer- 
chants, chiefly   notice   (he   protection,  or  otherwise  received  by  them 
from  Sada-Siraf  downwards  to  the  times  of  Tippu  Sultan,   and  the  En- 
glish ;  and  the  whole,  in  any  general  point  of  view,  is  unimportant.    A 
brief  mention  of  weights,  measures,  and  commodities,  is  appended* 


1 839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  421 

Section  3.     Account  of  Bdnivassi  in  the  Sunda  district. 

The  years  contained  in  the  four  yugas.  The  subject  of  inscriptions 
is  adverted  to,  and  then  particularized.  Vicramaditya  is  stated  to  have 
wade  a  very  large  grant  of  land  to  the  fane,  at  this  place  ;  continued 
in  force  by  Bhoja-raja,  Sinhana  Bhupalan,  who  ruled  at  Rudraparam, 
in  the  neighbourhood,  also  made  munificent  largesses  to  the  same ;  and 
built  certain  gopurams,  or  towers,  over  the  porches.  His  son  was  Cali* 
Cala'Sudamani,  His  son  was  Sangha-Bhupalan.  A  detail  of  •/aiita-r a- 
Jas  follows.  In  addition  to  the  mention  of  a  few  names,  there  is  a  spe- 
cification of  their  books,  and  sastras,  or  religious  {Productions.  An  in- 
flated account  is  given  of  the  power,  splendour,  and  attendants,  of  tho 
said  kings. 

Remark  —This  document  seems  to  me  of  some  consequence.  Bana- 
vassi  is  a  place  of  known  antiquity ;  and  the  fact  that  Jaina  kings  of 
great  celebrity  ruled  there,  at  an  early  period,  is  to  be  noted.  The 
document  is  written  with  permanent  ink ;  and  is,  as  to  pnper^  in  tolera- 
bly good  preservation. 

Section  4.     Is  in  the  Mahratta  character. 

Section  5.    A  list  of  chieftains  of  the  Sunda  district. 

The  commencement  of  the  rule  of  these  chiefs  is  dated  in  Sal.  Sac. 
1478  (A.  D.  1556),  and  seven  names  are  given,  coming  down  to  Sal.  Sac. 
1685  (A.  D.  1763).  They  were,  by  consequence,  chiefs  who  found- 
ed their  power  on  the  downfall  of  the  Vijayanagarum  dynasty ;  as  was 
the  case  in  various  parts  of  the  peninsula.  A  sort  of  copy  of  their  seal 
is  given ;  one  contains  the  name  of  Immadi  arasapa'nayak  in  Balbund 
letters,  on  the  other,  the  word,  Nagaresvara,  and  Satia-Sivaf  can  be 
read  ;  aud  also  the  titular  phrase  *'  a  chief  splendid  as  the  moon;'*  but 
some  injury  by  worms  renders  the  connection,  in  so  small  a  surface, 
not  further  legible.  An  imperfect  copy  of  an  inscription  certifies  the 
gift  of  some  lands  to  a  tribe  of  Brahmans ;  but  the  donors  name,  and 
other  particulars,  arc  wanting. 

The  whole  of  the  remaining  portion  of  the  book  is  in  Mahratta  cha- 
racters ;  see  the  end  of  the  following  Mahratti  papers.  In  what  herein 
precedes,  sections  1  and  3  are  of  consequence.  The  name  of  Bona* 
vasii,  as  an  emporium  of  commerce,  appears  in  the  classical  writers ; 
and  it  then  seems  to  have  been  flounshing.  The  prevalence  of  the 
Jaina  credence  throughout  the  Sunda  country,  is  worthy  of  notice ;  and, 
by  comparison  with  the  foregoing  book,  we  may  discern  that  the  era  of 
Parasu  Rama  was  not  so  high  up  in  antiquity«  as  Hindu  exaggerations 
might  lead  any  one  to  suppose. 


422  Report  en  the  Mackenzie  Manuitripii,  [Oct. 

D.-MAHRATTI. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  47— Countermark  737- 

Ancient  record  concprninjif  19 arayan-varam. 

The  commencement  of  this  document  advprts  to  the  creation  by 
Srahma,  and  then  immediately  refers  to  Vaipatvati  menu;  to  hi**  son 
Icshvaea ;  and  to  the  ten  sown  of  the  latter,  who  have  names  given  to 
them  that  :ippear  to  he  fi -titidus.  Only  four  brief  pa^es  are  thus  oe* 
cupied.  There  i«t  then  a  marvellouR  aiiarhronism  in  referring  to  Cati* 
Cala'Chala,  and  to  a  fitory  which,  in  other  document*^,  is  conneete^l  with 
Kulottunga  Chof^n.  In  performing  pen:ince  at  Seehdchnlam  be  bad  a 
son  by  a  Naga  canyn,  which  son  is  simply  termed  Chacraverti  (aliter 
Tondaman  or  ^  hndai).  This  Chacraverti  going  to  Fencaidchala  had 
a  vision  of  the  god ;  and,  on  the  hill,foimi  a  stone  imai^e  which  he  eani* 
ed  to  he  enshrined,  and  endowed.  He  is  then  termeH  Oo-Chacravertu 
and  his  son  is  named  Sundhama  raja.  His  son  was  Sura  firat  add  bit 
son  Narayana  raja. 

The  narrative  then  Da<:8e8  at  once  to  MU'hUa  die  ami  i"  the  extreme 
north.    A  king  of  this  country  named  Govoiamhuna-reija  performed 
penance  addressed  to  VencatdehaXa  svami  (a  form  of  Vithnu)  accom- 
plished as  it  seems,  at  Fencatdchala  or  Tripety  :  on  the  god  appearing 
to  know  what  he  wanted,  he  requested  to  be  allowed  to  reign  over  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  fane,  transmitting  the  kingdom  to  his  posterity. 
The  request  was  granted  by  directing  the  worshipper  to  go  to  his  ser^ 
vant  Nardyanat  that  ruled  at  Narayan puri,^\xo  would  thereupon  make 
over  to  him,  the  applicant,  half  of  the  saii  NarayatCe  kingdom ;  which 
gift,  on  application,  Govasambuna  accordingly  obtained.    The  name  of 
his  eldest  son  was  Feneata  raja,  whose  three  brothers  were  retpectiff- 
ly  named  Ubajala-raja^  Acasa-reja^  and  Mitra'Werma'Tajeu    The  son 
of  the  last  mentioned  was  Acasa-rcija,  who  being  instituted  to  the  king- 
dom, the  father  retreat  el  to  do  penance.    Acata^aja,  having  no  child, 
made  a  golden  image  of  a  goddess  which  he  purposed  to  worship;  bot 
was  addressed  by  an  aerial  voice,  instructing  him  to  consider  that 
image  as  his  child,  by  the  name  of  Pafha4rinaii ;    and*  upon  doing 
so,  a  son  should  be  born  to  him.    In  a  neighbouring  wilderness  called 
Udyano'vanam,  the  muni  named  Nareda^  when  doing  penance,  saw  a 
very  beautiful  female   form,  and  on  asking  who  she  was,  a  replj  was 
given  that  she  was  called  Pacsha'irivani  and  was  the  child  of  Acdtm 
raj€^  Nareda  told  her  she  would  become  the  wife  of  VmteatudMmrMtmmi : 


1839.]  Report  on  (he  Mackenzie  ManuscripU.  423 

and,  ns  he  bad  said,  the  god  came  with  great  splendour,  and  was  married 
to  the  said  Pacthfi-trioati  ;  on  which  day  a  child  was  born  to  Acdta- 
raja,  afterwards  named  Fasumbana-raja ;  to  whom  be  made  over  his 
rale,  and  retired  to  do  penance.  As  Fasumbana-raja  had  no  offspring 
he  went  to  Vencaia-raja  of  the  aforementioned  Narayanpuri,  on  whom 
he  devolved  ihe  portion  of  the  king  lom  formerly  conceded  ;  and  thence- 
forward the  kingdom  became  one,  under  kings  of  the  Narayan-varam 
dynasty. 

The  son  of  Vencata-mja  was  SMu-raja.  In  his  time  a  Kiralan,  or 
barhariani  made  j^r^Mt  ravages  as  a  freebooter ;  and,  among  other  spoils, 
having  forcibly  taken  away  the  cow  of  a  Brahmanf  the  owner  went  to 
Sindu-raja  and  complained.  The  raja  assembled  some  forces,  with 
iihich  he  pursued  and  overtook  the  plunderer,  recovered  the  cow,  and 
gave  it  back  to  the  owner;  afterwards  continuing  a  prosperous  rule.  His 
son  was  named  Aeanasana  raja,  his  son  was  Paraeruti-raja,  and  his  son 
Adriea-raja.  His  son  Muhilha-raja,  His  son  ^tca/a-r a/a,  and  his  son 
JUbuftde-raja.  During  his  reign  enemies  invaded  the  kingdom  (their 
naime  not  specified),  and  overthrew  the  Fehcaia-rafa  dynasty. 

There  foUow^s  what  for  distinction  sake  may  be  termed  the  Rama-raja 
dynasty  ;  containing  a  lung  list  of  names  only,  without  any  incident. 

Rbhabk. — So  far  as  my  abstract  goes  which  I  have  made  somewhat 
minute,  and  particular,  there  is  a  vraisemblance  which,  in  the  leading 
points,  I  consider  to  be  assimilated  to  truth.  We  have  in  it  in  the  early 
history  of  Tripety,  from  the  time  of  its  founder  Adondai ;  but  apparently 
only  as  a  feudal  chieftainship,  merging  in  a  larger  one :  the  precise  locali- 
ty of  which  I  feel  at  present  unable  to  fix;  but  I  think  that  Naragana 
pui-i,  if  a  real  name,  must  have  been  the  metropolis  of  a  chieftain  only, 
somewhere  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  As  to  what  follows,  the 
names  are  so  numerous,  and  seem  so  much  to  run  in  cycles,  with  a 
repetition  of  nearly  the  same  names,  that  it  must  I  conceive  either  be 
an  encomiastic  genealogy  of  a  local  chief,  or  else  pure  invention ;  to 
which  observation  must  be  added,  that,  allowing  for  the  preceding 
lapse  of  time  from  Adondai,  there  would  not  be  space  for  the  following 
genealogy,  if  reckoned  downwards  at  the  rule  of  even  two  or  three 
years,  for  each  ruler. 

On  the  whole  this  document,  from  which  I  had  expected  something 
valuable,  must  be  estimated  as  of  very  moderate  authority,  and  import- 
ance ;  especially  in  the  latter  portion. 

Legend  of  the  Svarna  muc'hi  river. 

This  document  is  attached  to  the  foregoing  without  any  other  note 
of  distinction  than  a  single  blank  space  intervening. 


424  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscnpts*  [Oct. 

It  is  merely  a  legend,  ascribing  the  origin  of  the  river  to  ^^si/ya, 
who  was  instructed  to  form  it  by  an  aerial  voice.  Being  formed  it  was 
called  Svatna  muc'hi,  or  golden  faced  ;  aud  it  flowed  through  a  district, 
whf rein  many  anchorets,  and  retired  devotees,  dwelt.  It  ruiw  near 
Chandra giri ;  is  united  with  many  other  rivers ;  is  considerable  at 
Trtpety  ;  and  joining  the  northern  Punar,  runs  with  it  to  the  sea. 

Note. — It  remains  only  to  observe,  that  the  entire  book  ik  in  moder- 
ately good  preservation.  The  binding,  and  the  iuk,  are  both  good. 
The  country  paper  has  been  attacked,  in  the  inner  and  outer  margin, 
by  worms ;  but  the  examination  of  the  document  has  stopped  their 
progress  ;  and,  with  moderate  care,  the  book  will  last  along  time.  The 
early  portion  alone  is  of  any  value. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  46 — Countermark  736. 

Account  of  Vencatescara'Svami  at  Tripety. 

Reference  to  the  paurattie  legend  of  a  dispute  beteeen   j^dusetha, 
and  Fayu ;  in  the  course  of  which   they  passed  over  many  mountains, 
and  were  told  by    Vuhnu  that  their  dispute  should  be   ended  at  Ven* 
caiachala.    At  this  hill  Sesha  performed  penance  $  and  on  Fishnu  de- 
siring to  know  what  gift  was  wanted,  Sesha  replied  with  a  request  that 
Vishnu  would  reside  there,  which  petition  was  accorded ;  and  from  ihe 
residence  both  of  fithnu  and  sesha,  the  hi'l  is  called  both    Feneatd- 
chala,  and  Sesdchala.      In    Caluyuga  4900,  Tondaman    Chaeraverli^ 
coming  hither,  determined  on  building  a  fane  ;  being  directed  to  do  so 
in  a  vision.    He  in  pursuance  of  his  purpose  erected  one ;  and  provided 
the  me^ns  fur  celebrating  annually  a  nine  days  festival.    The  bestowing 
of  grants  to  this  fane,  is  thenceforward  the  leading  subject.     A  few  des- 
cendants of  T'onc/aman  gave  some  largesses.    The  Rayer  dynasty  of 
Fijayanagaram,  made  munificent  donatives ;  and  some  grants  are  said 
to  have  been  accorded  by  the  MahomedanH.    The  shrine  is  stated  to  be 
frequented  by  numerous   pilgrims ;  and  some  detail  is  given  of  the  sa- 
cred pools,  and  other  local  features  of  the  hill  of  Tripety.     There  is  a 
reference  to  a  local  incarnation  of  Fishnu,  at  Sri  Permatur,  near  Con- 
jeveram  ;  and  some  matters  connected  with  the  incarnation  of    Ftshmm 
as  Rama  the  son  of  Dasaratha, 

Remark. — The  date  of  Tondaman' s  founding  this  shrine,  ia  the  point 
chiefly  of  value  in  this  document.    His  offspring  of  two  or  three  des- 


1839.]  Report  on  ike  Mackenzie  Manuscr^,  425 

cendants,  are  only  mentioned  by  the  appellative  of  Tondaman ;  and  tbea 
Acdia-rt^a  ia  spoken  of  as  having  ruled  at  Narrayana-varam.  The 
Anagundi,  and  the  Mahomedan,  rulers  superseded  all  antecedent  ones. 
The  mention  of  them  is  however  a  secondary  object.  The  contents  seem 
derived  by  abstract  of  portions  of  the  ai'hala  mahatmya  of  Tripety. 

Note. — The  condition  of  this  book  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the 
last  mentioned  one. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  17— Countermark  883. 

Official  regulations  of  Tippu  Sultan,  as  to  tradf*. 

These  regulations  are  written  in  three  languages,  Persian,  Canarese, 
and  Mahratti.  Any  abstract  of  course  is  not  here  required.  The  book, 
in  every  respect,  is  in  good  preservation. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  18 — ^Countermark  884. 

This  book  has  an  endorsement  in  Colonel  Mackenzie's  hand  writing. 
"  Tippoo's  regulations  found  at  Cancoupa,  November  1800.  C.  M. 
K.''  These  are  in  the  same  three  languages  ;  but  very  brief.  The  book 
is  a  thin  octavo,  written  on  Europe  paper,  nevertheless  slightly  perfura* 
ted  by  worms;  but  on  the  whole  in  moderately  good  preservation. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  6— Countermark  643. 

Jndnatvari  Certasubddcha-pariyaya,  or  a  compendious  Mahratta  Dic- 
tionary of  difficult  words  of  various  meanings,  compiled  from  the  Bha* 
gavai  gita  in  Mahratti, 

This  title  prefixed  sufficiently  explains  the  purport,  and  contents,  of 
this  little  folio.  It  remains  therefore  only  to  observe,  that  it  is  written 
on  thick,  and  very  superior,  country-paper,  the  best  I  have  ever  seen, 
with  indelible  ink,  and  with  a  ealam  or  reed,  in  bold  letters  of  the  ^oZ- 
hand  character,  only  a  very  slight  variation  from  Deva-nagari.  One 
perforation,  by  termites,  through  the  cover  and  some  of  the  last  leaves 
of  the  book,  alone  prevents  its  being  considered  in  perfect  preservation. 
With  common  care  it  will  last  very  many  years. 


420  Report  on  the  Mcuskenzie  Afamucripts,  [Oct. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  0!} — Countermark  862. 

The  contents  of  this  small  quarto  are  four  reports  or  journals,  of  Na^ 
r&yan  Rao  in  bis  journeys  through  the  Ceded  Districts,  in  the  consecutive 
years  1810,  1811,  and  1813. 

Subject  to  a  general  remark  heretofore  made  on  this  class  of  docu. 
ments,  it  only  remains  to  note  that  this  book,  thougli  slightly  injured  by 
book-worms,  is  written  with  indelible  ink,  on  good  country  paper,  aod 
as  a  whole,  is  in  moderately  good  preservation. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  62— Countermark  753. 

General  account  of  the  Carnatic,  with  the  models  of  former  rules  co- 
pied from  ancient  records. 

The  earlier  portion  of  the  contents  of  this  book  relates  to  inamit 
(grants)  or  jaghires  (estates)  bestowed  by  the  Padshahs,  or  Mahume- 
dan  rulers,  on  different  fanes,  persons,  or  special  places. 

After  about  thirty  loosely  written  pages  of  the  said  matter,  a  document 
follows  unexpectedly^  which  is  of  a  historical  kind.  It  commences 
with  Janamejaya;  and  after  the  mention  of  a  few  of  his  des- 
cendants, passes  to  the  line  of  Jaraiandha,  noticing  several  of  the 
more  remarkable  events,  and  persons,  of  the  Mds^adha  kingdom. 
Its  transit  is  then  to  Pratdpa  rudra,  and  it  very  erroneously  makes 
'<  Bhojaraja  of  Ougein"  to  be  one  of  his  descendants.  Passing  to 
the  Vijayanagarum  dynasty  it  dates  the  foundation  of  that  town 
by  Vidyaranyat  in  the  9th  century  of  Salivahana^  which  is  proba- 
bly too  early.  It  has  most  of  the  usual  particulars  concerning  the 
Raytr  dynasty,  down  to  the  confederation  of  the  Mahomedans  against 
Rama  raju.  It  then  details  some  proceedings  of  Mahomedan  rulers,  as 
far  as  to  AUmguir^  who  employed  and  distinguished  Sahu  rtiga  of 
the  Mahrattas.  Concerning  these,  there  are  some  rather  full  details; 
and  then  a  transition  to  the  Mysore  kings ;  the  usurpation  of  Hydei; 
and  the  final  subjugation  of  Tippoo  by  the  £nglisb.  This  part  of 
the  book  is  in  very  good  preservation. 

The  following  contents  aie  rules  and  regulations  concerning  culti- 
vation, taxes,  and  the  like  as  fixed  by  Crithna  Raja  Udiyat  after  his 
restoration  to  the  kingdom  of  his  ancestors,  being  assisted  by  Pmnmya 
his  minister.  These  rules  were  deduced  after  an  investigation  into 
early  records,  antecedent  to  the  Mahomedan  usurpation. 

Remark. — It  may  thus  appear  that  this  document  is  not  without 
some  interest  and  value;  though  slenderly  so  in  any  historical  point 


1839.]  Report  an  the  Mackemie  Mqnascriptt*  427 

of  view,  as  we  possess  all  that  it  contains  in  other  and  perhaps  better 
documents.  The  whole  of  the  writing  is  with  indelible  ink,  on  good 
Europe  paper,  entirely  uninjured* 


Manuscript  book,  No.  4~Countermark  888. 
Sietions  1  to  3.     See   the  preceding  Canarese  portion  of  this  report. 

Section  4.  Account  of  Sonda,  the  capital  of  the  Sonda  country. 
This  account  ascends  up  to  the  time  of  a  descendant  of  Acaea 
raja,  of  the  Tondaman  line  at  Chandragiri;  who,  in  defect  of  positerity, 
is  stated  to  have  adopted  Vencatapati  nayak  of  the  race  of  Achyuia 
tayer  ;  and  there  seems  to  be  an  intimation,  though  the  passage  is  ob- 
scure, that  the  said  race  were  descendants  of  a  more  ancient  dynasty  at 
Sonda,  The  Tondaman,  having  a  son  born  to  him,  dismissed  the  aforesaid 
Vencatapati  nayak  with  some  money  and  troops  to  make  his  own  way ; 
and  he  succeeded  in  fixing  himself  at  Sititi ;  having  previously  con- 
quered Chennapatriawit  and  a  small  district  around  it,  by  the  way.  He 
took  Sirisi ;  afterwards,  built  a  town  and  fort  there;  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Chennopatnam.  He  further  assaulted  a  neighbouring 
fort  belonging  to  a  Fedar  chief,  which  he  could  not  take;  but  effected 
its  appropriation,  by  giving  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  Vedar  chief- 
tain. He  began  to  reign  in  the  town  of  Chennapatnam,  which  he  had 
built;  being  crowned  there  in  Sal.  Sac.  1121  (A.  D.  1198).  His  des- 
cendants, rulers  at  Chennapatnam  were, 

1  Rama  raja.  Arasapa  nayak. 

Rama  Chandra  raja.  Rama  Chandra. 

Vakta  vadiyaru.  Arasapa  nayak. 

Arasapa  Vadiyaru.  9  Raghu  nat*ha  nayak. 

5  Rama  Chandra  nayak. 
Subsequently  the  Xfahomedans  in  the  time  of  Fencapalinayak,  con- 
quered  the  country.  The  son  of  that  chief  was  named  Sada  siva  nayak; 
a  favourable  report  of  whose  capacity  reaching  Delhi,  that  Court  placed 
Sada  siva  nayak,  as  their  manager,  in  charge  of  the  country.  Various 
alternations  occurred  down  to  the  time  of  Hyder  AH  ;  who  assumed  the 
country  after  having  pillaged  it.  Passing  through  the  hands  of  Tippu 
Sultan,  it  came  into  possession  of  the  Honourable  Company. 

Remark. — This  document  seems  to  be  of  some  slight  local  impor- 
tance. 

Section  5.    See  preceding  Canarese  portion  of  this  report. 


428  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscriptt,  [Oct. 

Section  6.  Account  of  a  Jama  tnatam  and  of  an  ascetic,  or  hierophant 
of  the  Jainaa, 

(This  section  is  Canarese  in  Maliratta  characters). 

Formerly  what  is  now  termed  Ahohala  matam  was  a  Jaina^matam, 
that  is  shrine,  or  monastcriuxn  of  Jainas,  Some  time  subseqqently 
Chamundi  rayer,  of  the  race  of  Pandurayen,  went  to  inspect  the  wii- 
demess  called  Bivar^gov,  and  in  the  midst  of  it,  clearing  some  gronnd 
he  built  a  fane  to  Odstesvara;  wliile  the  celestials  came  and  performed 
all  the  usual  rites.  But  the  image  of  GSstesvara,  assumed  the  habit  of 
a  Jama  image ;  and  in  different  other  pluces  Jaina  fanes  were  formed ; 
several  of  which  are  specified,  at  the  close  of  this  brief  paper,  of  only 
four  pages. 

Section  7.  Account  of  Beleti,  in  the  Sonda  country,  and  of  a  race  of 
kings. 

An  accountant,  through  defect  of  posterity,  was  going  to  do  penance 
in  the  wilderness  where  he  met  with  the  fane  of  Goetesvara  evowd;  to 
which  he  paid  homage ;  and  by  doing  so,  obtained  two  sons,  who  on 
growing  to  manhood  fought  with  a  neighbouring  Vedar-raja,  and  took 
his  country ;  over  which  they  ruled.  They  were  named  Andavadlyar, 
and  Andana-vadiyar,  and  adopted  the  Jaina  credence.  One  or  two 
names  of  their  posterity  follow.  The  country  was  conquered  by  Bha- 
dra-nayak  ;  and  his  race  succeeded,  to  wit,  Bttavapa^nayak  (one  ille- 
gible name),  Soma^sancara  nayak,  Fira-Bhafira-nayak,  They  divided 
the  country  into  two  petty  sovereignties.  These  increased  their  domi- 
nions :  and  took  Sirisif  with  other  forts.  The  boundaries  of  their  role 
are  specified. 

Section  8.  Account  of  some  Jainast  who  came  by  sea  from  the  Bam-^ 
yo'deeam. 

Some  tribes  ofJainas,  styled  Samuntar  (as  I  suppose  Samunae)  came 
on  board  ship  from  Bavgadesot  under  the  ruleof  ^n^a-ro/o,  and  Ajata' 
raja.  These  conquered,  and  took  possession,  of  some  country  ;  of  which 
the  revenues  are  stated;  the  names  of  towns  so  captured  are  Cudiyatu 
and  Baracur,  After  some  time  a  chief  named  Bakhtyala  fought  with 
them  ;  and,  having  conquered  them,  they  went  away  to  l/dapv. 

RsMARK. — This  small  fragment  of  two  pages,  may  turn  out  to  be  of 
tome  use.  Cudiyalu  I  believe  to  be  the  same  as  Mangalore:  and 
Bnracvr,  a  town  near  UJapn,  is  stated  to  be  a  country  or  place  between 
Mangalore  and  Gokemam.    Bangu  desa,  I  have  usually  understood  to 


1839.]  Beport  on  the  Mackenzie  Manuscripts.  429 

be  Bengal.  It  Jainas  came  ihence  by  sea,  it  must  have  been  a  circui- 
tous voyage  ;  which  indor-es  me  to  think  some  other  country  intended. 
Ajala'raja  is  a  name  of  great  celebrity  in  Java,  of  Hindu  origin. 
Query,  whether  the  going  to  Udapu  m  ly  mean  sailing  thither  ? 

Section  9.     Account  of  Mirjan  in  Canara. 

In  early  times  Jaina-hhayardevi  built  a  town  and  fort,  by  the  side 
of  a  small  river  in  the  Afir/a  ft  district:  which  afterwards  came  under 
the  power  of  the  l^isiapur-Padshah,  One  Malllcar  son  of  B hat t  a 
Brahman  of  ihc  Haj/ga  vlds^  was  seen  by  his  preceptor  asleep  in  the 
sun,  shaded  by  the  hood  of  a  serpent;  on  which  the  preceptor  asked 
what  the  said  Malllcar  would  give  him,  on  coming  to  the  possession  of 
his  kingdom:  which  the  yoang  man  treated  as  a  jest.  But  after  some 
time  having  obtained  some  wealth,  he  therewith  raised  a  band  of  troops ; 
and  with  it  assaulted  the  dominions  of  the  Fisiapur  ruler;  took  this 
district,  and  governed  it  eighteen  years,  till  his  death.  It  then  revert- 
ed to  the  Mahomedans  ;  but  afterwards  came  under  the  Nagara-raja,  or 
king  of  what  is  I  believe  usually  termed  Nugger*^  iu  the  province  of 
Bida7tore» 

Section  10.  Account  of  y/na^an^a  and  other  kings,  from  a  writing 
by  Sivaiya  Jaina  Gaudu  of  Horanad  in  Canara. 

Anciently  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  (some  error  in  the 
date)  one  Bairasa-^vadiyar  a  Jaina  from  Uttara-madhyma-desa,  went  to 
the  country  of  Samdna-maha'rayer,  son  of  J inadattta,  caiTvingwith  him 
an  amman  or  image  of  a  goddess,  called  Padmdvati;  which  lie  placed 
in  a  shrine,  near  the  country  of  the  son  of  Jinadanta ;  and,  by  the  me- 
rit of  homage  and  offerings  to  that  shrine,  he  conquered  and  acquired 
the  whole  of  the  said  country  for  himself.  There  is  some  loose  legen- 
dary matter ;  for  instance,  mention  of  a  king  who  ruled  many  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  years,  which  docs  not  appear  to  be  of  any  credibility, 
or  consequence. 

^Section  11.     Account  of  ^aracur. 

This  account  goes  up  to  a  high  antiquity  referring  to  the  establishment 
of  seven  Saiva  emblems  by  Mareandeya-rishi,  said  to  be  narrated  in  the 
Marcandeya-puranam,  It  is  stated  to  be  the  locality  of  the  throne  obtain- 
ed  from  India,  and  the  seat  of  power  of  an  Isvara  Oord)  who  ruled  there- 
on two  thousand  years  (evidently  meaning  Vicramaditya).    Afterwards 

•  Perhaps  the  Magara  of  Ptolemy. 


4M  Beport  <m  ike  Matkemsie  MaMuter^  [Oct. 

Saifvahana  ruled.  The  name  of  i?«^pa/i.  as  a  tiioUr  name,  ocean.  Af 
this  loc.ilitr  was  one  of  much  commerce,  many  ships  going  and  eoaiing, 
it  was  jud^el  expedient  to  celebrate  a  humtn  sacrifiTe,  on  that  accomit ; 
and.  as  stated  in  the  paper,  a  man  was  taken  from  one  of  the  ships, 
and  offered  in  §acrific*».  But'dha-panta  raja  afterwards  mled.  The 
narrative  then  alludes  to  the  i^nance  of  Fidjfttfwi^m  jrnw;  to  eonse- 
qoeiice  of  whi'h  a  shower  of  gold  fell,  which  be  made  ose  of  in  fixing 
fiaha  and  Bukhn,  two  brother*  in  power,  at  ndymramya^  and  crowned 
or  anointed  them.  Later  down,  this  place  came  under  the  Vitmpmr 
government. 

1tsMABK.~This  paper  is  of  some  little  Talue :  the  abstract  maj  how- 
ever suSice. 

Sect  torn  12.  Account  of  some  Jaina  kings  of  HobimBi  and  ffofopcf- 
nam  in  Canara. 

One  Manu  wmha  mjm  came  from  Uttmra  ndfkm^  a  town  to  called,  to 
this  place,  lie  was  a  Jaina.  His  son  was  named  Jimm  dmnim^  who 
forming  an  improper  familiarity,  with  an  outcaste  person  of  the  rrdcr 
tribe,  the  father  considered  him  to  hare  forfeited  his  rights,  and  digni- 
ty :  which  the  son  learning  sought  safety  in  flight.  There  howerer 
the  nirrdtive  abruptly  ceas^es  ;  owing  to  some  pages  of  the  hook  at  the 
end  being  lost. 

Gknebal  Rbmark. — The  Mahratta  papers  in  this  book  are  quite  legi- 
ble, and  in  tolembly  good  ( resenat ion ;  with  the   exception  only  of 
]i<iving  been  badly   bound.      Tlie  abstracts  may  suffice,  in  poiBting 
to  general   indications  of  early  Ja'mm   rule  in  the   Canam  proTinee. 
There  is  further  an  interest  attaching  to  these  papers  from  their  relat- 
ing to  the  site  of  ancient  commerce  with  India ;  being  the  trade,  at  1 
suf'pose,  which  is  indicated  in  sect.  1 1,  though  we  should  not,  without 
such  a  guide,  hare  imagined  that  it  was  thought  needful  to  cement  it 
with  the  blood  of  human  victims.    The  port  first  made  hy  Hippaloi, 
in  crossing  the  Arabian  gulf,  that  is  Musiris,  is  conjectored  by   Dr. 
Robertson  (Disqu.  p.  50)  to  be  Merjee,  or  the  Mirjmn  of  sect.  9,  but 
I  rather  venture  to  infer  that   Mutkica  the  name  of  a  district,  was 
meant  by  Pliny ;  and  in  India  almost  erery  district  had  some  leading 
town  from  which  it  originally  took  its  name.     Further  the  same  writer 
conjectures  the  Barace  of  Pliny  to  be  Barcelore,  that  is  the  Bmrmemr  of 
sect.  8  and  II,  which  is  probably  accurate.     It  is  needless  for  me  to 
attempt  more  than   to  offer  a  clue  to  any  who  may  think  the  subject 
worthy  of  further  investigation. 


1839.]  Report  on  the  Mackenzie  Mamueripts.  431 

E.-PRACRIT. 

Manuscript  book,  No.  9— Countermark  648. 

Nigarndgama-Sdrat  or  tlie  essence  of  the  Nigama  and  Agamas. 

The  term  Nigama  is  somewhat  equivalent  to  **  Scriptures,"  in  a 
particular  mode  of  usage.  The  agamas  are  twwiy  eight  books  of 
Saiwi  principles.  In  this  work  the  substance  of  the  Fedas,  and  of 
those  Saiva  works,  is  professed  to  be  given.  It  is  a  moderate  sized 
octavo;  and  would  be  worth  trjinslation.  It  does  not  admit  of  ab- 
stract. The  character  is  Bmlband ;  rather  rudely  written;  and  the 
language  that  of  the  Brahmans  of  the  Mahrashitira-desoM,  The  paper 
and  ink  are  good.  The  writing  may  be  fifty  years  old  ;  though  proba- 
bly less. 

The  book  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  100,  art.  vii. 


Manuscript  book,  No.  3 — Countermark  652. 

Para%u  Rama  charilra,  or  account  of  the  sixth  avatar,  the  conqueror 
of  the  CiketriyaSf  and  founder  of  the  fane  named  after  him  on  th« 
western  coast. 

This  is  a  thin  folio,  in  extremely  good  preservation,  written  with  in- 
delible ink,  in  the  Balband  character,  and  in  language  similar  to  the 
preceding ;  prevailingly  Sanscrit,  but  with  Mahratti  intermingled, 
and  forming  a  local  Prdcrit,  The  subject  is  the  story  of  Paraeu  Rama, 
heretofore  given  :  it  contains  the  solar  and  lunar  lines  of  kings.  I  do 
not  find  the  book  entered  in  the  Dos.  Catalogue. 


Manuscript  book.  No.  10— Countermark  641. 
Do.        No.  11— Countermark  042. 

These  arc  small,  but  thick,  folios  written  in  the  Deva-nagari  charac- 
ter«  on  superior  country  paper,  with  indelible  ink.  The  contents  are 
entitled  OUa  Bhashya,  or  commentary  on  the  Bhagavat  Oita,  as  con- 
tained in  the  Bhhhma  parvam  of  the  Mahabhdratam,  The  language  is 
a  mixture  of  Sanscrit  slocas,  with  Mabratta  interpretation  ;  and  forms  a 


\ 


) 


452  LUerary  wnd  Scientific  ImUUigemee:  [Oct, 

doctrinal,  or  theological,  work  of  repute.    The  work  is  complete ;  lod 
ID  Tery  good  preservation.    It  is  by  Jtiamesvara,  alias,  Jnama  dtvm. 
It  is  entered  in  Des.  Catal.  vol.  2,  p.  97f  art.  iii. 

NoTAVDUM. — The  first  part  of  my  sixth  report,  on  the  collation  and 
examination  of  Mackenzie  Manuscripts,  here  concludes. 

Madxas,  October 


LlTEXAXT   AHP   SciXaTIFIC   ISTKLLIOKXCX. 

[Although  late,  owing  to  the  tardy  appearance  of  the  vcdume  containing 
the  Report,  which  has  just  reached  us,  we  think  it  right  to  pot  on  record 
the  following  notices  of  Desiderata,  &c.  published  by  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advaucement  of  Science. — Editor  Madnu  Jcmrwd^ 

Eeports  requested^  Researches  recommended,  and  DesidertLta   moHced  2f 
the  Committees  of  Science  at  the  NewcasUe  Meetings 

XCPORTS  ON   THE   STATE   OF   8CIXKCE. 

Prof.  Bachc,  of  Philadelphia,  was  requested  to  furnish  a  Report  on  the 
State  of  Meteorology  in  the  United  States,  for  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Association. 

Prof.  Johnston  Ti'as  requested  to  prepare  a  Report  on  the  present 
state  of  Chemistry  as  bearing  upon  Geology. 

Mr.  J.  £.  Gray,  F.  R.  S.,  was  requested  to  prepare  a  Report  on  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  Molluscous  Animals  and  their  Shells. 

Mr.  Selby  was  requested  to  draw  up  a  Report  on  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  of  Ornithology,  for  an  early  meeting. 

Mr.  Bryan  Donkin  (Secretary),  Dr.  Ure,  Dr.  Faraday,  and  Mr.  Cooper 
were  requested  to  Report  as  to  the  state  of  our  knowledge  on  the 
Specific  Gravity  of  Steam  generated  at  different  Temperatures  ;  Mr. 
Donkin  to  act  as  Secretary. 

Mr.  E.  Forbes  was  requested  to  Report  on  the  present  state  of  Ae 
knowledge  of  the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Pulmoniferoua  Mollusca 
in  Britain,  and  the  circumstances  which  influence  this  distribution. 

The  Council  were  requested  to  apply  for  a  Report  on  the  present 
state  and  recent  discoveries  in  Geology. 


iBSft]         British  AssoeiaUon  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.        438 

SpedJIc  Reeearchei  in  Science  involving  applications  to  Government  Of, 

public  bodies. 

MAONETICAL  0BSBBVATI0M8. 

Resolved, — 1.  That  the  British  Association  views  with  high  interest 
the  system  of  Simultaneous  Magnetic  Observations  which  have  been  for 
some  time  carrying  on  in  Germany  and  in  various  parta  of  Europe,  and 
the  important  results  towards  which  they  have  already  led;  and  that  they 
consider  it  highly  desirable  that  similar  scries  of  observations,  to  be  re- 
gularly continued  in  correspondence  with  and  in  extension  of  these^ 
should  be  instituted  in  varioitt.parts  of  the  British  dominions. 

2.  That  this  Association  considers  the  following  localities  as  particu- 
larly important : 

Canada,  Van  Diemen's  Land, 

Ceylon,  Mauritius,  or  the 

St.  Helena,  Cape  of  Good  Hope ; 

and  that  they  are  willing  to  supply  Instruments  for  the  purpose  of  obser- 
vation; 

3.  That  in  these  series  of  observations,  the  three  elements  of  horizon- 
tal direction,  dip,  and  intensity,  or  their  theoretical  equivalents,  be  in- 
sisted on,  as  also  their  hourly  changes,  and  on  appointed  days  their 
momentary  fluctuations. 

4.  That  this  Association  views  it  as  highly  important  that  the  defici- 
ency yet  existing  in  our  knowledge  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  should  be  supplied  by  observations  of  the  magne- 
tic direction  and  intensity,  especially  in  the  higher  latitudes,  between- 
the  meridians  of  New  Holland  and  Cape  Horn;  and  they  desire  strongly 
to  recommend  to  Her  Majesty's  Government  the  appointment  of  a  naval 
expedition  directed  expressly  to  that  object. 

5.  That  in  the  event  of  such  expedition  being  undertaken,  it  would  be 
desirable  that  the  officer  charged  with  its  conduct  should  prosecute 
both  branches  of  observations  alluded  to  in  Resolution  3,  so  far  as  cir- 
cumstances will  permit. 

6.  That  it  would  be  most  desirable'that  the  observations  so  perform- 
ed, both  in  the  fixed  stations  and  in  the  course  of  the  expedition,  should, 
be  communicated  to  Prof.  Lloyd. 

jfe  That  Sir  John  Herschel,  Mr.  Whewell,  Mr.    Peacock,  and  Prot 
Lloyd  be  appointed  a  Committee  to  represent  to  Government  these  re. 
commendations. 
8.  That  the  same  gentlemen  be  empowered  to  act  as  a  Committeei^ 


434  Literary  and  Scientific  JmteWgenee :  [On. 

with  power  to  add  to  their  number,  for  tlie  purpose  of  drawing  up  plans 
of  Scientific  co-operation,  &c.  &c.,  relating  to  the  subject,  and  reporting 
to  the  AsHociaiion. 

9.  That  the  sum  of  400/.  be  placed  at  the  di«:posal  of  the  above-named 
Committee,  for  the  purposes  above  mentioned.* 

ASTBONOMT. 

Sir  J.  Herschel  and  Mr.  Baily  were  requested  to  make  application  to 
Government  for  increase  iu  the  instrumental  power  of  the  Royal  Obser- 
vatory at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  addition  of  at  least  cue  as- 
sistant to  that  establishment. 

8CIJBNTIFIC   BKSGABeHES   IN   IKBIA. 

Resolved, — I.  That  the  British  Association  regard  the  measurement  of 
an  arc  of  longitude  in  India  comparable  in  extent  to  the  meridional  arc 
already  measured  in  that  country,  as  a  most  important  contribution  to 
other  &cts  illustrative  of  the  earth's  true  figure,  and,  by  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, to  the  progress  of  astronomy. 

2.  That  the  verification  and  comparison  of  the  standards  of  the  Indian 
and  English  surveys,  as  compared  with  the  proposed  Parliamentary 
standard,  is  indispensable  to  the  correct  knowledge  of  the  meridional 
and  parallel  arcs. 

3.  That  pendulum  observations  at  the  principal  elevations,  or  conti- 
guous plains,  and  on  the  sea-coasts,  if  possible,  on  the  same  parallels  of 
latitude,  will  afford  results  of  great  value  to  physical  science. 

4.  That  observations  for  the  determination  of  the  Laws  of  Refradioa 
in  the  elevated  regions  of  the  Himalayas,  and  at  the  Observatories  of 
Madras  and  Bombay,  will  be  a  most  important  service  to  science. 

5.  That  it  is  highly  desirable  also  that  magnetical  observations  should 
be  made  in  India  similar  to  those  which  are  carrying  on  in  other  parts 
of  the  world,  and  which  are  justly  regarded  with  so  much  interest. 

6.  That  a  topographical  map  of  India,  upon  a  large  scale,  accompanied 
by  statistical  and  geological  information,  would  be  highly  desirable.t 

*  The  applicatioa  to  Government  on  thU  subject  has  been  successful,  the  i  iiiiiiMtof 
ftn  expedition  to  the  Antarctic  regions  being  entrusted  to  Captain  J.  C  Ross. 

t  These  Resolutions  have  been  submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the  Directoit  of  the 
East  India  Company ;  and.  in  particular,  the  recomm«ndation  for  augaetical  obsarfatioBS 
been  promptly  acceded  to. 


1839.]       British  Association  for  the  Advancement  qf  Science,        435 


ORDNANCB    SURVEY. 


Resolved, — That  a  Committee  be  appoiDted  to  inquire  bow  far,  in  tbe 
future  progress  of  the  Ordnance  Survey,  tbe  several  metalliferous  and 
coal-mining  districts  could  be  represented  on  a  larger  scale.  Tbe  Com- 
mittee to  consist  of  Mr.  Greenough,  Mr.  Griffith,  Mr.  De  la  Beche,  and 
Major  Portlock. 


MI4NINO    SECORDS. 

*-  ■  *  ■ 

Resolved, — 1.  That  it  is  the  opinion  of  tins  Meeting,  that,  with  a  view 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  life  and  of  property  which  must  inevitably  ensue 
from  the  want  of  accurate  mining  records,  it  is  a  matter  of  national  im- 
portance tbat  a  depository  should  be  established  for  preserving  such 
records  uf  subterranean  operations  in  collieries  and  other  mining  districts. 

2.  That  a  Committee  be  appointed  to  draw  up  a  Memorial  and  to 
communicate  with  the  Government  in  tbe  name  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, respecting  the  most  effectual  method  of  carrying  the  ahove  resolu- 
tion into  effect. 

3.  Tbat  the  Committee  consist  of  the  following  gentleman,  with 
power  to  add  to  their  number  ;  The  Marquis  of  Northampton,  Sir 
Charles  Lemon,  Sir  Philip  Egerlon,  John  Vivian,  Esq.,  Davis  G.  Gil- 
bert, Esq.,  J.  S.  Enys,  Esq.,  W.  L.  Dillwyn,  the  President  of  the  Geo- 
logical Section  of  the  British  Association,  the  Pretiident  for  the  time 
being  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  the  Professors  of  Geology 
at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  London,  and  Durham,  H.  T.  De  la  Bcche,  Esq., 
John  Taylor,  Esq.,  John  Buddie,  Esq.,  Thomas  Sopwith,  Esq. 


Specific  Researches  in  Science  involving  Grants  of  Money. 

The  foUoiving  new  Recommendations  were  adopted  by  the  General 
Committee. 

That  it  is  desirable  that  the  meteorological  observations  made  at  the 
equinoxes  and  solstices,  agreeably  to  the  recommendations  of  Sir  John 
Herichel,  Bart.,  should  be  collected  together,  as  far  as  is  practicable,  and 
reduced  to  an  uniform  mode  of  expression,  so  that  comparisons  may  be 
made  of  the  same,  with  a  view  of  deducing  results  that  may  lead  to  the 
improvement  and  elucidation  of  meteorology. 


436  Literary  and  Scientific  Intelligenee  .*  [Oct* 

That  Sir  John  Herschel  be  requested  to  superintend  the  same,  and 
that  the  sum  of  100/.  be  placed  at  bis  disposal   for  that  purpose. 

That  it  is  desirable  that  the  whole  of  the  stars  observed  by  Lacaille 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  observations  of  which  are  recorded  i a 
his  Caelum  Auitrale  Sielli/erum,  should  be  reduced. 

That  Sir  J.  Herschel,  Mr.  Airy,  and  Mr.  Henderson  be  a  Commit- 
tee for  carrying  the  same  into  effect. 

That  the  sum  of  200/.  be  appropriated  to  that  purpose. 

That  it  is  desirable  that  a  Revision  of  the  Nomenclature  of  the  start 
should  be  m^M  ^^^^  ^  ^^^^  ^^  ascertain  whether  or  not  a  more  correct 
distribution  of  them  amongst  the  present  constellations,  or  such  other 
constellations  as  it  may  be  considered  advisable  to  adopt,  may  be  formed^ 

That  Sir  John  Herschel,  Mr.  Whewell,  and  Mr.  Baily  be  a  Commit- 
te,e  for  that  purpose,  and  to  report  on  the  same  at  the  next  meeting  of 
the  Association. 

That  the  sum  of  50/.  be  appropriated  to  defray  the  expences  that  may 
be  incurred  in  this  inquiry. 

That  loo/,  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Sir  D.  Brewster  and  Professor 
Forbes,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  Hourly  Meteorological  Ohserva- 
tiflis,  to  be  made  at  two  parts  in  Scotland,  one  at  Fort  George,  on 
the  coast,  and  the  other  at  some  central  part,  at  a  great  elevation  above 
the  sea. 

That  it  appears  to  the  Committee  desirable  to  diffuse  in  this  country 
the  knowledge  of  the  Scientific  Memoirs  published  on  the  Continent, 
and  that,  for  this  object,  lOO/.  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  a  Committee,, 
consisting  of  Dr.  Robinson,  Sir  John  Herschel,  SirD.  Brewster,  and 
Professor  Wheatstone,  with  power  to  add  to  their  number,  towards  pro* 
curing  the  translation  and  publication  of  such  memoirs  as  they  may 
approve. 

That  Mr.  Fattinson  and  Mr.  Richardson  be  requested  to  undertake 
experiments  to  ascertain  whether  any  perceptible  Galvanic  influence  is 
exerted  by  the  Stratified  Rocks  ofthe  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle,  and 
that  20/.  be  placed  at  their  disposal  to  meet  the  expenses  of  such  expe- 
riments. 

That  Dr.  Arnott  and  Dr.  Yelloly  be  a  Committee  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  Acoustic  Instruments  (in  reference  to  diseases  of  the  ear) 
with  25/.  at  their  disposal. 

That  Mr.  Cargill,  Mr.  Wharton,  Mr.  Buddie,  Mr.  Forster,  Professor 
Johnston,  and  Mr.  Wilson  be  a  Committee  for  inquiries  into  the  Statis- 
tics of  the  Collieries  of  the  Tyne  and  Wear,  with  50/.  at  their  disposal. 


m 


# 


1839.]  Sir  J,  Herschel  on  Halleys  Comet  437 

That  Sir  John  Robison  (Secrotary),  and  Mr.  J.  S.  Russell,  and  Mr. 
James  Smith  be  a  Committee  for  instituting  Experiments  on  the  Forms 
of  Vessels,  with  200/.  at  their  disposal. 


Researches  not  involving  Grants  of  Money  or  application  to  Government, 

The  Meteorological  Committee  was  requested  to  furnish  a  System  of 
Meteorological  Instructions  for  the  next  meeting  of  the  Alfociation. 

A  Committee  was  fonned,  consisting  of  Mr.  Greenough,  Mr.  De  la 
Beche,  Mr.  Buddie,  and  Mr.  Griffith,  to  draw  up  a  proper  form  and  scale 
of  the  Sections  to  be  sent  to  the  Geological  Society  by  the  engineers  and 
proprietors  of  railways. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  appointed  a  Committee  to  investigate 
the  Salmonidee  of  Scotland,  and  directed  to  place  themselves  in  commu- 
nication with  Mr.  Shaw,  who  has  offered  to  submit  his  experiments  on 
that  subject  to  their  inspection :  Mr.  Selby,  Dr.  Pamell,  Mr.  J.  S.  Men- 
teith,  Professor  R.  Jones,  Dr.  Neill,  Sir  W.  Jardine,  Bart,  Secretary. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  appointed  members  of  a  Committee  IflML 
stituted  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  Insects  of  the  gea^tr 
Erffffina  *ind  ^phist  which   attack  the  Pines  of  this  country  ;  Mr. 
Spence,  P.  R.  S.,  R.  K*  Greville,   LL.   D.,   Sir  W.   Jardine,   Bart.,  Mr. 
Selby,  Secretary. 

The  Committee  on  Diseases  of  the  Lungs  in  Animals  was  reappointed. 

The  Committee  for  obtainii^m^  complete  account  of  the  Fauna  of 
Ireland  was  altered  so  as  to  consist  of  Capt.  Portlock,  Mr.  R.  Ball,  Mr. 
W.  Thompson,  Mr.  Vigors,  Mr.  Halliday,  and  Dr.  Coulter,  who  was  re- 
quested to  act  as  Secretary. — Reports^  vol.  7. 


On  Halley's  Comet.    By  Sir  John  F.  W.  IIerscidsl,  Bart.  F.R  5.,  ^c, 

'*  One  of  the  most  interesting  series  of  observations  of  a  miscellaneous 
kind  I  had  to  make  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was  that  of  Halley's 
comet. — I  saw  the  comet  for  the  first  time  after  its  perihelion  passage 
on  the  night  of  the  25th  of  January.  Mr.  Maclear  saw  it  on  the  24th. 
From  this  time  we  both  observed  it  regularly.  Its  appearance  was  that 
of  a  round,  well-defined  disk,  having  near  its  centre  a  very  small  bright 
object  exactly  like  a  small  comet,  and  surrounded  by  a  faint  nebula. 
This  nebula  in  two  or  three  more  nights  was  absorbed  into  the  disc, 
and  disappeared  entirely.    Meanwhile,  the  disc  itself  dilated  with  ex- 


43S  Literary  and  Scientific  Intelligence  :  [Oct. 

traordinary  rapidity  ;  and  by  examining  its  diameter  at  every  fayoor- 
nble  opportunity,  and  laying  down  the  measures  by  a  projected  dure, 
I  found  the  curve  to  be  very  nearly  a  straight  line,  indicating   a  uni- 
form rate  of  increase ;  and  by  tracing  back  this  line  to  its  intersection 
with  the  axis,  I  was  led,  at   the  time,  to  this  very  singular  conclusion, 
viz.  that  on  the  21st  of  January,  at  2li.  p.  m.,  the  disc  must   have  been 
a  point — or  ought  to  have  had  no  magnitude  at  all !  in  other  words,  at 
that  precise  epoch   some  very  remarkable  change  in   the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  comet  must  have  commenced.     So  far  all  was  specula- 
Mon.     But  in  entire  harmony  with  it  is  the   following  fact  commoni- 
rated  to  me  no  longer  ago   than  last  month  by  the  venerable  Olbers, 
whom  I  visited  in  my    passage  through  Bremen,  and  who  was  so  good 
as  to  show   me  a  letter  he  had  just  received  from  M.  Boguslawski^ 
Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Breslau,   in   which   he  states  that  he  had 
actually  procured  an  observation  of  that  comet  on  the  night  of  the  21«t 
of  January.     In  that  observation  it  appeared  as  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnu 
tude — a  bright  concentrated  point,  which  showed  no  disc,  with  a  magni- 
fying power  of  140!     And  that  it  actually  was  the  comet,  and  no  star, 
he  satisfied  himself,  by  turning  his  telescope  the  next  night  on  that 
Wtfii  where  he  had  seen  it.     It   was  gone  ?    More  >ver,  he  had   taken 
cfrfe  to  secure,  by  actual  observation,  the  place  of  the  star  he  obsori^d  ; 
that  place  agreed  to  exact   precision   with  his  computation  ;  thU^tar 
tras  the  comet,  in   short.     Now,  i  think   this  observation  every   way 
remarkable.     First,  it  is   remarkable  for  the  fact,  that  M.    Boguslawski 
was  a6/«  to  observe  it   at  all  on  the  21  st.     This  could  not  have  been 
done,  had  he  not  been  able  to  direct  htii'^lelescope   point  blank   on  the 
spot,  by  calculation,  since  it  would  have  been   impossible  in   any  other 
way  to  have  known  it  from  a  star.    And,  in  fact,  it  was  this  very  thing 
which  caused  Mr.  Maclearand  myself  to  miss  procuring   earlier  observ- 
ations,    lam  sure  that  I   must  often  have  swept,  with  a  night-glass, 
over  the  very  spot  where  it  stood  in  the   mornings  before  sunrise  j  and 
never  was  astonishment  greater  than  mine  at  seeing  it  riding  high  io 
the  sky,  broadly  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  when  pointed  out  to  me  by  a 
notice  from  Mr.  Mud  ear,  who  saw  it  with   no  less  amazement  on  the 
24th.     The  next  remarkable  feature  U  the  enormously  rapid  rate  of 
dilatation  of  the  disc  and  the  absorption  into  it  of  all  trace  of  the  sur* 
rounding  nebula.     Another,  is  the  interior  cometic  nucleus.     All   these 
phenomena,  while  they  contradict  every  other  hypothesis  that  has  ever 
been  advanced,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  are  quite  in  accordance    with  a 
theory    on    the    subject    which    I    suggested    on    the    occasion    of 
some  observations  of  Biela's  comet, — a  theory  which  sets   out   from 


IS39}  Alif  LaUa,  439 

llie  analogy  of  the  precipitation  of  mists  and  dews  from  a  state 
of  transparent  vapour  on  the  abstraction  of  heat,  II  appears  to  me  that 
the  nucleus  and  grosser  parts  of  the  comet  must  have  been  entirely  eva- 
porated during  its  perihelion,  and  reprecipitated  during  its  recess  from 
the  sun,  as  it  came  into  a  colder  region ;  and  that  the  first  moment  of 
this  precipitation  was  precisely  that  which  I  have  pointed  out  as  the 
limit  of  the  existence  of  the  disc,  viz.  on  the  21st  of  January,  at  2h.  r.  m., 
or  perhaps  an  hour  or  two  later."— /6trf. 


The  second  volume   of  the  Macan  and  Macnaghten    edition  of  the 
original  Arabic  of  the  Arabian  Nights  has  just  been  published.     Asia 
occupies  the  attention  of  Europe  in  our  day  nearly  quite  as  much  as  it 
did  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades— all  eyes  are  turned  eastward.     The 
politician  loolts  to  Asia  for  the  solution  of  some  of  the  most   intricate 
and  important  questions  in  European  diplomacy.     Asia,  the  cradle  of 
civilisation,  is  now  beginning  to  receive  back   the  arts,  commerce  and 
literature  which  she  gave.    Even  the  British  public,   which  used   to 
think  about  In<li.i  (five  times  in  a  century)  as  a  place  of  transportation 
for  younger  sons  and  dowcrless  damsels,  has  begun  to  cast  its  self-wor- 
shipping  eyes  towards  Aoia  :  and  as  a  sign  of  the  times  there  are  at 
this  moment  three  translations  of  the  Arabian  Nights  in  progress.     The 
first  by  Mr.  Lane,  in    Lon«l(»n,   the  second  by  Mr.  Torrens,  in  Bengal, 
and  the  third  by  a  German  scholar  at  Stutdgart,  whose  name  the  writer 
of  this  notice  cannot  recollect.     Manners,   minor  morals  and  the  other 
conventionalities  of  Europe  and  Asia,  were,  and  are,  so  ditferent,  that 
a  verbatim  translation  of  those  celebrated  tales  never  can  be  made  into 
any  of  the   vulgar  languages  of  Europe— for  instance,  the  beautiful 
story  of  Zubeida  and  her  sisters   in  Galland's   translation,  is  in  the 
original  so  disfigured  by   highly  erotic  passages,  as  to  be  wholly  unfit 
for  translation   into  English — these   passages  are  often  in  verse,  pos- 
sessing all  the  poetic  grace  and  elegance,  and  more  than  the  prurience  of 
Lu  Fontaine,  or  Berauger,   or  Lord  Byron.     A  fe«r  of  the  new  tales 
(in  the  Macan  edition)  are  the  very  best,  but  to  enjoy  them  it  is  neces- 
sarv  to  be  an  Arabic  scholar.  Let  no  one  despair  :  De  Sacy's  grammar 
and   the  (Calcutta)    Kamoor*  Dictionary,  with   two   hours  a  day  hard 
study,  for  nine  months,  will  make  a  well  educated  man  of  average  intel- 
lect perfectly  competent  to  enjoy  the  Alif  Laila.  J.  M, 

•  For  iale  at  the  iluW^zy  .it  a  fifth  gf  (lieuri^inal  priw. 


440  Note  on  Dr,    Benza  [Oct. 

NoTB  to  p.  271. 

Tlie  necessity  of  noticing  some  remarks  by  Lieut.  Campbell  on  Dr. 
Bbmza'b  nomenclature  of  Indian  minemls,  reminds  the  £ditor,  mho  en- 
joyed the  pleasure  and  advantage  of  an  intimate  personal  fricndsbip 
with  that  lamented  individual,  that  no  record  has  been  entered  in  this 
journal,  which  his  contributions  have  given  an  imperi^jliable  value  to, 
of  the  untimely  death  which  put  an  end  to  his  labours  in  the  cause  of 
geological  science.  Dr.  Benza  returned  to  Europe  labouring  under  some 
not  well  defined  paralytic  symptoms;  the  result  of  a  fall  from  his  horse 
on  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  which  caused  some  ob?»cuie  injury  at  the  base 
of  the  skull.  It  is  understood  that  he  never  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  this  accident,  and  that  the  catastrophe  of  his  death  nas  caused  by 
his  sufferings  therefrom,  the  functions  of  the  brain  becoming  implica- 
ted, leading  to  that  degree  of  mental  alienation  which  induced  him  to 
perpetrate  suicide. 

Pasqual  Mabia  Bek£a  was  a  native  of  Italy,  and  was  in  the 
British  Medical  Service  under  the  Lord  High  Commissioner  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  Sir  Frbdekkk  Adam,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
his  Government  at  Madras,  having  obtained  a  commission  in  the  Medi- 
cal Service  of  the  East  India  Company.  Former  numbers  of  this 
journal  afford  the  history  of  his  movements  in  this  country.  In  profes- 
sional attendance  on  the  Governor,  he  visited  the  Neilgherry  HiiU 
twice,  and  in  the  12th  number  of  this  journal  will  be  found  a  geological 
itinerary  of  his  route  thither  on  these  two  occasions.  The  13th  num- 
ber contains  his  able  and  interesting  Memoir  on  the  Geology  of  the 
Neilgherry  and  Koondoh  MountaiMi  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributi- 
ons to  Indian  geology  that  has  been  given  to  the  vvorld.  Notes,  chiefly 
geological,  of  a  journey  throvgh  the  Northern  Circare,  is  the  only  other 
contribution  to  this  journal.  All  these  productions  were  transcripts  from 
his  note  books,  which  contained  more  extended  observations,  particu- 
larly of  his  route  from  the  Neilgherry  Hills  down  the  Cauvery  to  Per- 
mutty,  where  he  observed  the  geognc»stic  position  of  the  rock  contain- 
ing corundum,  a  most  interesting  point,  which  was  in  need  of  elucida- 
tion, very  valuable  observations  on  which  must  have  been  found  among 
the  papers  of  the  deceased.  Dr.  Bbnza  took  to  Europe  with  him  a  very 
extensive  collection  of  geological  specimens,  and  it  was  his  declared 
intention  to  publish  a  volume  on  Indian  geology,  when  leisure  and  the 
facilities  which  a  residence  in  Europe  afforded,  enabled  him  to  do  so. 
Such  a  work  would  have  contained  his  mature  views  on  the  subject, 
and  the  opportunity  of  careful  analysis,  would  have  ensured  exactitude 


1839.]  and  hU  nomenclature  of  Indian  Minerals,  441 

to  his  mineral  nomouclaturc,  which,  however,  we  have  no  reason  to 
think  WHS  not  displayed  in  his  publi^hed  ]mpers — and  this  leads  U8 
to  the  subject  which  has  elicited  the  above  notice. 

First,  with  regard  to  the  pillars  of  the  mausoleum  at  Seringapatam : 
It  is  certainly  siugular  that  one  so  intimately  acquainted  with  the  physi- 
cal characters  of  minerals  should  have  pronounced  the  material  to  be  a 
hornblende  rock,  for  both  Lieut.  Campbell's  analysis,  and  specimens 
now  before  us  presented  to  the  Society  by  Lieut.  Newbold,  taken  from 
the  mausoleum  and  from  the  quarry  at  Turivacary,  would  satisfy  the 
merest  tyro  that  it  is  a  species  of  steatite.  It  is  certain  that  Dr.  Benca 
never  could  have  examined  the  pillars  minutely,  but  that  he  must  have 
taken  Blciianan's  account  of  them  as  correct,  to  which  he  might  further 
have  been  led  by  the  external  aspect  of  the  pillars,  which  in  colour  re- 
semble hornblende.  Dr.  Benza  never  visited  the  quarry  at  Turivacary. 
The  only  rock  to  which,  in  our  opinion,  Dr.  Benza  stands  pledged  for 
mineralogical  accuracy  i^  the  hornblende  rock,  or  greenstone,  of  Serin- 
gapatam (No.  46  of  his  iliusirative  specimens),  a  fragment  of  which| 
wiih  Ins  own  label,  is  now  before  us,  and  is  clearly  what  he  has  desig- 
natod  it.  In  (he  ingredients  assigned  to  the  other  rock  by  Lieutenant 
Campbell,  and  in  its  infusibility,  it  exactly  answers  to  the  chemical 
characteristics  of  steatite  or  potstone.  In  a  descriptive  account  of  mi- 
nerals presented  to  the  Society  by  Lieut.  Newbold,  written  more  than  a 
year  ago,  that  offi  er  has  poinle^l  out  the  error  into  which  Buchanan 
had  fallen,  whom  Benza  followed,  and  he  therein  assigns  its  true  de- 
nomination to  this  rock. 

Secondly,  respecting  the  eitrite  of  Pulicondah,  Dr.  Benza  appears, 
from  Lieut.  Campbell's  own  showing,  to  be  in  no  error — Enrite  (an  old 
term  of  Werner's,  we  believe)  is  nothing  but  compact  felspar;  which  is 
fusible,  containing  silica,  alumina,  an  alkali,  and  iron — precisely  the 
components  of  the  rock  of  Palicondah,  according  to  Lieut.  Campbbll. 
We  can  further  state  that  Dr.  Benza's  own  specimens  of  eurite  in  our 
possession,  exhibit  all  the  external  characters  of  that  rock. 

Thirdly,  as  to  the  silicious  schist — that  rock  being  a  slate  composed 
principally  of  silex  ;  and  hornstone  being  of  similar  chemical  compo- 
sition, but  wanting  the  slaty  fracture  ;  if  the  schistose  character  is  ob- 
servable in  the  mass  (it  clearly  is  in  Dr.  Benza's  specimens),  the  term 
he  applies  is  likely  to  be  the  correct  one. — Editor, 


*'14S  Jlorarg  Meteorohgical  Obtercalioiu  atMadrat.  \iict. 

VII. — UoraryMtt'oriAogical    Obiervationt    made    agneahlg    teilJk    Iki 
tuggettiuiii  of  Sir  Juim  Ukbsciibi, 

\*t.—At  the  Madrai  Obienmtory.—Bs  T.  G.  Taylor,  Eatt.II.E.I.  C. 
AttroHomer. 


I 
29.90^  J6.S 

29,1(36;  77, 1 
a9,9687'l,0 

82,0 

z9.9S0fla,9  72,5 
29,934  8&,2  73,2 
'J!H.'J\7m.6  74.i 
■29.liMm,Q\7i.ii 
2g,8«l|SH,0  74U 
S9;*4S4,88,0  7.1,2 
33,874  87 ,0l73,K 
2y,tl92 1^,874,6 
29,!fO0H2,8;  7.5,5 
89,913  79,6  75,1 
29,9367M'"  ■ 


;w5,i 


S74,3 


29,93079,: 
2U,93(J80,4 
29,!)l'il40,0 

M.  29.9U6  78.4 
a9,WU78.0 
29.90a|77, 
29,900  7  ;,4'74.0 
^,906  76,8  73,» 
3»,942l77,3  71,9 
3a,9S2;76.5  71.S 
29.964  78.9|72,< 
29.974;M),8  73.I 
21),tl7i;83,0  73,5 
29.962  84.8  " 
29.92)1  »6,:i  75,i' 

«.29.9i>0|i*a,0,77.1 

■ja.iirG  m.3  76,6 

29.864,88.5  76,5 
20,'<6-l  8M  76. ■! 
23,872  sn.o  7G.0 
2».»90|85.4  78,2l 


Thick  haie,  strong  nind. 


Flj'in^  cloud* 
CI  par. 


Thick  l)aie — moderate  nind. 


genile  wind, 
strong  winiT. 
gentle  wind. 


1839.]  Horary  Meteorological  Observations  at  Trevandrum.        443 

Hd.—At  the   Trevandrum  Observatory, — By  the  Rev,  G.  SPEBscnNEiDEB, 

Superintendent, 


Dec. 
2) 


M  22 


-% 

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11 

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72.07 

1 1 
99 

Noon. 

.731  86.0   9.9 

71.97 

B 

9 

2;  4.5 

1   P.M. 

.692  87.6 

10.8 

72.38 

•  B 

412.7 

1 

2 

.669  86.6 

11.0 

70.87 

8 

311.5 

3 

.6r>6  85.6 

9.7 

71.82 

do 

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4 

.653  84.8 

9.1 

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do 

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5 

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8.7 

72.16 

do 

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do   j 

6 

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8.0 

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7 

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5.9 

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72  33 

w 

1 

> 

MIfl. 

.739  75.5    2.8,  71.48 

do 

f  f 

1a.m. 

.713  74.7    2.l!  71.66 

do 

f  f 

2 

.704 

74.2    2.1    71.14 

do 

f  f 

O 

3 

.678 

74.0    1.9'.  71.28 

do 

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^ 

4 

.663 

73.6    1.4 

71.46 

do 

f  f 

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5 

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6 

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68.92 

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7 

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69.95 

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do 

f  f 

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.742 

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do 

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4.5 

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.740 

83.8    8.1    72.32 

do 

ft 

5.5 

11 

.719  85.2 

928   71.20 

do 

i* 

1.8 

Noon. 

.700  h7. 3 

10. 0   73.»» 

B  B 

6 

8.5 

IP.M. 

.675:87.8 

11.0    72.29 

do 

6 

14.0 

2 

.646  87.2 

11.2    71.25 

do 

6 

5.0 

3 

.642  87.4 

11.1 

71.66 

do 

6 

cly. 

4 

.639  83.6 

8.5 

71.45 

It 

3 

re. 

5 

.667,79.3    4.7| 

72.61 

do 

1 

cly. 

6 

.687 

78.0 

3.5 

73.03 

do 

tt 

Clouds,  aspoct  of  the  sky  and 
remarks 


Sky  very  clear  calm 

Do.  cum.  about  the  taorizou  do. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Fly.  elo.  do. 

Zenith  clear— liglit  clouds  about  the 
horizon  do. 

Do.  do.  li^htair 

Do.    cum.  about  the  hurizuu— 

g<Mitle  wind 

Do.  do.  do. 

Cloudy  ralm 

Veryclo.  at4h  7m— drizzling— do. 
Clearing  do. 

Zenith  clear,  rest  becoming  clo.  de. 
Very  cloudy  do. 

Do.  do. 

Do.  do. 

Sky  getting  clear  do. 

8ky  rather  cle.  wind  just  percept. 

Do.  calm 

Quite  clear  do. 

Do.  'lo. 

Do.  do. 

Do.  do. 

Du.  do. 

Do.  haze  about  the  horizon  do. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Zenith  clc.  cum.  about  the  hor.  do. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Do.  du.  do. 

Sky  getting  cloudy  do. 

Li.  fl^.  clo.  in  the  zenith.do.  pit.  w. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Do.  do.  do. 

Threatg.— thun.  atShSOro— rmin— do 
Rain  continued  gentle  breeze 

Overcast— wind  just  perceptible , 

Do.  do. 


December  81st  fell  rain  from  C  a.  m.  to  6  r.  m.  None. 

do.  6  p.  M.  to  6  A.  M.      do. 

December  32d        do.  6  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.  -1304 


Totol  .1304 
The  Instmmenti  are  the  same,  and  situated  exactly  as  before. 


t'. 


i      1    H  1:1  1 


'dii-iii^  i\i^ti  ■s*fes  i'^^^'s«";i 
m;Ti  ;iS5liUHi!«H1!51Sil5».' 


'  -HSKS  |fM.S?JM'5U|KBS?|RS|6 


:1  HI  US.H  ISHUIUIiniSi  | 


1839.] 


Meteorological  Register, 


445 


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6C 

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=        ft 


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=  5  ^5 - 

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^•=  -  e  5 
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c  s 


3    nj    f?    X 


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t>V         >» 


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9  »  u  9  d  9 
O     .     .   O   3   3 


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9  W  3  a  d  3 


3  9  9  3  3 
3  3  O  O  3 


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•»i«a  5  i 


1839.]  Meteorological  BegUter.  Ai\ 

Tlif  Instruments  wilh  whidi  the  foregoinf^  observations  are  made,  an 
^:ice(l  in  the  Western  Verandah  of  the  Honourable  Company's  Obser 
▼atory ;  at  about  5  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  27  fee 
abovp  the  If*ve1  of  the  Sea :  the  thermometer  was  made  on  purpose  foi 
the  Ob^ervatl'r\^  and  at  75°  (the  only  point  at  which  a  comparison  hat 
been  made)  it  was  found  to  differ  insensibly  fn  m  the  Royal  Society'] 
Stundaid;  ihe  barometer  is  one  of  two  Standards  which  I  have  latel) 
constructed,  and  may  be  depended  upon  tu  0,0100  an  inch. 

T.  G.  Taylor, 

H,  C.  Astronomer, 


EllKATA. 

Page  line 

2S7        2(1    from  bottom  For  sulphureous,  re«d  sulphuroof. 

289        7th       do Erase  the  word  ••  Chloric.** 

308       14th       do.. -  Erase   "it  is,"   and  read,— The  lunar  caustic  of  the  apo 

thecary.  which  is  iuluble  in  water,  is  a  proper  test  foi 
muriatic  acid, 

323      14th       do.. For  substauce,    read  substances. 


ORIGINALS  of  the  passages  translated  front 
Telugu  Poems  in  the  Essay  on  Tehgu  Literature 
in  No.  25  of  the  Madras  Journal,  1839. 


MADRAS: 


PRINTED  BY  R.  W.  THORPE, 

AT  THK   VEPBRT  MISSION  PRB8S  OP  TAB  SOCIETY  FOK 
raOMOTINO  CHEISTIAN  KM0WLSDOB« 

1840. 


Originals  of  the  Extracts  from  Telugu  Poems  translated  in 
Essay  on  Telugu  Literature  by  C.  P.  Brown, 


Extract  from  Dwipada  Ramayan^  Aranya  Canda 
Tale  of  the  Golden  Deer. 


60    ^^^  S)2^o  "i';^  C^X  ;5^ye) 


46        Eaay  on  T§lugu  Literature^ 

TT^'^iT    il^dSS>  aSoobbe)  tf2&i5b 
^OTS^o  tiotb  i5boS$C^   ^ti6» 

kKW  oar*  iftxK  -vS^otM  ;ioe& 


Ramayan:  Tale  of  the  Magic  Deer.  47 

iftS^T^'t^^^  "its     ZitSi^K   }6iSy^ 
^^o^Kidoo^   §'490tfo«8  'Ao^Sb'd^   Ko'8 
:;&»cC3p$  e)*;^bao  ifo^ctf&T^   Tir»*j^ 

t9^a^  S'*3'S2j^  063©  *^^  "^^ 
V 

civ        '^  w^ 


48        £fMry  on  Telugu  Liieraturt. 

—   ^  r» 

to'oO  "a^^'^^g  '3^'?)''^\  ^^*> 

130    loasi'jS^oa  ^s(    -jdx  ll  ;glS 

^S-O  ^-Q  0*^5  ^''B  4tf  tf^ 

140     oO  "B^SoSb  fTflo  €r»o^  iCr^e^ 
^o^o  o>o>  "U*^^  ^^^  Atf* 

^HKs^  {jftSiS-W  O^s-iro  OAJ6 


Ramayan:  Tale  of  the  Magic  Deer.  49 

— 6    ft— 

150     f^'e)^   -u^s&^e^  "at^TCoQ  lC:e»jtoc«fia 

"StC  tSoSS  tfe>;j3  ^'?)^S'5?  **^ 
jfvK^Ti  JO'^.o^  -rogbsf  TPiS» 

160    oJbXbssa  ^'onSb  |tt^^^o«3  er*&x 

dt^cGo^ej  l&'d»^&f*^  c0S;6o935o  ig)2«2)a 
Sort's  Tr»«Slw;!5  oJx^  St^"3  •o^fi'wodfo 

170     dSiotf  Jfo'OB^  «j\Ko  »'55JC)  ^JJ^t5cS^>i 


180     TICtb  aSbo  s^fi  ^»  tfeac^ 

-u«^s>«6  OTJ^'^  (TtftfMsi  dl'e 


190    d&^j^e  W**c£^  tidbto  •^ow9«l6 

9 

CO 

'SfS^dQo)  "aeisssj^t}  t»kT^i»  oK^ik 
ii»ay^<5r*  aoui'  2^S  ^'**  ^^  ^"^ 

^o&(F»a  ?^yaa-u«<5S>  $?^ii'lb  S*&6 


Ramayan  :  Tale  of  the  Magic  Deer.  5 1 

210  ^^   r*«Sa5bDl^  ifsJao   "il©  rOa«x) 

ay 

9 

o^x>e)?t)^^  cr*-^*;^  er^»x  «5bo2^  i5b'o2» 
J^'ocCoo-i5b  -^Sx^l©   ?5'to3  »»*0  ^SCi 

|Jtx»jS»  S'&)  Jb?^  rfoato  SJ&daw 
nr-'S'^  m?)  d*oa>  1  "low  fioifoc^ 


52        &M9  M  Telmgm  Ldermimrr. 

S,9  eJ(k..ei9!&  lu*e  "^ffS^  tf^oA 


240     -o^Jfia*  'isr^  rs^c-  ffrljrdfiiS'  dbr"Sj 


V^^  "y^©  ^^^  U&^rt   8f>~B 


<(;(  A9  t'r  0e^  66i6»  -K^epihih 


no  ^- 

oa^sS^-^'^tSCj^  oodW  -B^I!  ^-ibj 


Ranuiyan  :  Tale  of  the  Magie  Deer.  53 

«5^ex)^>o2S  "ioo'i^owi^  e»j2SsS5a«» 
IKSb  j^  2^t58r.  r<£>  ^J  iS-O 


64        Eaay  on  Telugu  IM 

290    i^fio|0  [v^Xfi  iSt  »  «sd>ea 

xoXbi^  "j^r*©  svcia  jF^-o 

ofier*   '^^  &t'g  C366o|jC    tfaffijaxi 
"^'^oA  eOoMO?  a*«S^*ctf  SdD-O 

VB^  l5»e'%)  v^®"*)  ''^^''^ 

300    fe  "Aosd^  i^TS^a^^  v6  l^cb 

b  8lb*49  lS>^  "^  tiiSH}  &j«flo 

310     "a»«^  6-3'*r^0&  fc'S'o  oojotf 


Ramat/m:  Tale  ofiht  Magic  Deer.  6B 

T2r»f^  xS'K^iJm  TT»8b  2S^©  T5«6  •ftiJ 

^  -*  o         -i    «*•         . 

330     ^'^  ^^  ^-"^  »^A  06^^  lb  "ibb 

£R)  {53-»e»  tf-O^d  "^iS^eo  >^]d 
19«   7P«9c^  jjb^otfcfidi)  c^^iPcBSB^Jk 


56        Essay  on  Telugu  lAteratur^. 

Vl$  rf^Q  e>'fc»  Jr*e>5  tfj&o^  IPS' 
350     t>  dSjO(Jx>  Q&^S^3  u^  ^ecBS  ^lSMe9S 

360    c«^  ^i3^^  (J8tp«S»  -jT-'^er*  ^Jol^ 

S^a  -T^S\)0^  h^iA  T»^  «©e» 
370     iSv€^0  -^'^i   TT*  $^fi6  TP^^fife 


Ramayan :  Tale  of  the  Magic  Deer.  4^ 

5^^ So  flo;S^oM0?^SSj6  er*«5b^f6 
380     obS^  caSoe^i^iSM  K^  56»cx-7r«j^  fc^ 

— *  o 

qj  ^       CO 

390     ^^  ?'^&o«)    r*t5be»   ;r>e>fco^ 

400     $^i5  tfj^c«  »»»«)  tfr-TT*  tfo« 


58        Essay  on  Telugu  IMeraiurt. 

dtfSflS^'S^  ^SSctr  itfbfoOd  |i»l6{S> 

^ts^^^  Atfotis  tsd)ogs  lb*r 

IJC^  cx6(JG?g  er*»o    T'&"5t  i&^tcA 
U^i&5  d  fc2$Tr»  ;fetftf»  o'cr»iJ 

410    J^*^y^^  e^z^^  ;j'tfcfl6o'a  oBjO 

ra&o  «r»tf;^  "^t  S'jsft  t«ij  tp^-O 
If-        — * 

'3e>'ao  :Jpi»n^    Ce>?>o:S  S^nH 
ib^25  8r*tf  550^  fe   -fia   J^Siaj^ 


Extracts  form  the  Tale  of  Saranga  DAarn.-^Episode  of 
:he  Fairy  Fruit. 

In  theaa  pases  the  lines  of  verse  are  divided  at  the  rhyme« 
Phis  rhyme  is  called  yati.  The  second  syllable  of  each  line 
las  a  rhyme  called  Prasa. 


a 
"fi-C'O  ex6otfe 

1600Q&0  ir7&2(  f^'oib 


OooiT;^  "Bo* 
.  9 

akxno  isb*oil 


i^A  tf s^a  ^"^^^ 


«&Di  <^i&  ^?di        ••iS'ir*^  <& 
tf^  13«  f«r  Jfc^  ^A  'SC^  -Sm 


40     ^"ft   «f    1^^ 

50    &(6o*ca  -r»tf&9  ftasdoor 


£.1600  ir]b  iSdX' 


Skranga  Dhara  • 

60     S^dt  £(J$sSgS  15990     dbK  S^iftO^ot) 
70     <^x6  801S  i^'lr>o^ 


«1 


"S^tf  a9«K'tf»i^ 


9 

^oao&  i('i$^i& 


§i  Essay  on 

80    ti&iSi*s.9S  t6i^  a 


IV/ffgtt  Littraiurem 


100 


9 


90    tf^tfjTT*  tts^ifoov  d'K'a;^  "ftff^r 


tf7C&*or  ^60 IS 

^•ff^  "j5^a  IfO'O 
Kef 9^  {&r»tftfx>.  ^(f 

ei6  73'^  IF»0  dA« 


a_ 

^        -*       t» 
9 

tf«$1Sr>'2Sdt6idbl( 


Sarangu  Dhara.  S9 

e  9 

tiVJ}^  ^Ib;^  -&e»>  Jk0;g8  i&dlft 

es%}ir*%  i^rf  e'tfg  tfsS  8^1t>  j^is^ 

120    ^iSe  eotd  i^'oti)  iTofefo  ti*i6j 

1$^  ^^  oxr»  68  0>fe^  i)e6todA> 

Kid  Tpcs  ii^8  ab^  Ki5bc^o8X>  ^"Ty 


64  Eisay  on  Telugu  Literature. 

Extracts  from  the  Lila,  Canto  III.    The  Birth  and  youth 
of  Maia. 


10 


ipi^ts  tie  i^tf 

t&U*  Co  €)*{$'\to 


20     ;Sfff^'Ar«  d^iS 


&Jkr9o  »'o2$> 


;y2Si^'ar»  TP5'  ft  ^co^-tp  tftioil 


n 


JBxtracis  from  the  Prabhu  Linga  Lila. 


:65 


30 


40 


50 


sSdd^  ^^^^  ^"^         :Sd£5b9o;g)a5b3& 

;g^J&0    i5b^85b   ;£>02^     3g)f3^^    ?T»«SrO^ 


ctn  I    era 


<*l 


t*» 


66 


Essay  on  Telugm  LUeraiurt, 


cv» 


"rftf  V^^'Kift 


60     fc8Sc«6o«M  tSr^ift 

tips   TCsf^'J^jj^SM  2.'*^    ^e)^«   T5*ao 


fa'^  i^ii  er*i^ 


GIBS  6  i^dft'oe^ 

9 
SBi^ba  "C'daoX    e;'c^oK  ?6'CJSd^   i^if 


V 


-ij-' 


Utf  ;5[<^i5i6o»00 


Extract  jhm  the  Prabhu  Linga  Lila.  6f 

o 


isef  -Say  w^rgaof      «*t*i^  *oir> 


no 


^l?  ^S^  "^'S 
Sbtfo  SbotfQ  tfr><jBS 


•>    9       9 

en 

9   9 


Extract  fi^m  th€  Prabkfi  £tfl|fa  hila. 


tt 


ej  o 


CO 

9 


XeoMoO   tSs5 
9 

V  « 

«bfr«  11%  ^'V 


tso^  -r»oi^0oi  Qm      aroO  2SoMb»« 


66 


Essay  on  Telugm  LUeraiun* 


CO  99 


cv» 


tips   TCsf^'J^jj^Saa  J.'*^ 


70     &?^  oo6j>e^gS*o"Ba 


^^* 


Utf  ;5>;^i5|6o»00 


"?»'!r  igrto  er*i^ 

* 

• 

GIBS  6  "Ssi^otSi 
9 


Extract /hm  the  Prabhu 


Lila. 


6f 


80 


90 


«»*^  ?l:5j  v^ 
o 


iOO     TJ**i^*^mtf»S^ 

iser  -Say  w^rgaof     «^C*^  *oir. 


Esaiy  dR  T^hgm  Uierwhtrc 


Sbtfo  SdctfQ  i(r*<jBS 
120     ipIT  "^ooooOd 


130 


flbX*  ITS*  •*J6-ife 


r  »actf 


•>  9       9 

9   9 
tfoti»  '^*^^«& 


5^  C£ 


Extract  fr^m  th€  PrabKu  hin^a  JAla. 


tt 


ej  o 


140    1&'*8  tfjffff-^  •o»5' 


150    s^e^  r^^^'d^g  ■¥• 

CO 

160     ^'ctf>K8539;tfb  lfil»l& 
9 


9         ^ 


€9 

«b»«  11%  $1iL 


.'> 


72 


Essay  ^M  Tetagu  literature. 


220 


230 


240 


-aoo"a  c»  ifo|ji 

•»Di2»  ir*o7C©o<» 

ira^  -S^  «r«^^ 

t^y^cS^iH^   «P'5^ 

t^oTSao  tfo»tfce>» 

j^'oeSoff   K2SD 

;jb*o7Ce^o9»e>d  Oeoo 

5*'^«o  ?fi&to 

tfo"^  »i^  ooT[*fi5 

"a»t"6g'cX5a3rf)    . 

ifl6otfo230"7P    '^'^ 

■o**^  ffoi.ejD;6 

iboCJi^ocMi^  2'rf 

CI 

•«o^  jr^'-d^^ffoK' 

* 

It-         tr* 

^    «7*'2^0|&njb0 

^"  KT*a  aB^2(i , 

tfc^  M   tfc|jJbeo 

"zr»(^oo  "^ejotto 

&55;Sd  Co*©  oji* 

9f% 

S£l*CfiS    TTOCott* 

K2fc?&-JSb  «>'o?l 

s:;60o;g  iSd'otf 

T^  C)t*&   tft^cBS   * 

;s?'T3^6bg  ?^'jj{  . 

^<jbSos3oe>Sb  :$«o 

;5e>Sb;$b':$e^GD 

roroiT  tf^€)9S 

S'e^ro  ];|S(j]63o 

Xl- 

•sn"ior>^  •^jo'cA;^'* 

^to  cjts8r>sr;^os3d 

TT^f^oTC   i^'oSoj^  7r»' 

^oe^fi*  ;5cnc«l. 

JtOf^ico  t^S    "y^HTozOO 

i^jr^cr^  "$49 

«'36    X>i^  «SbK.o»o 

tf^s&ilv>A  8^tSo2» 

axS  liolTotio 
9 

L<J&SS  -TT-eTrt  -Ste'i^ 

• 

:Sa9«(^  'Z^HTSi^  »T»-0 

"aj^Sr^o^g)  i$}'o^ 

1^4^   i^c$093d^ 

a^nbnfi  ;&'o-a 

«^'r^fcoi$o«aoo 

ix>*£er»;;^i6Mek> 

Extract  from  the  Prabku  Linga  tila. 


73 


250 


260     "3tfo©  tJ^cei 

JCe  K'8  ro  tt^Q 
270     6r*e^5b;5  fir^J^  dO&^tf 


oL         to 


So—      e:, 


Extract  from  Canto  VIII.   describing  the  death  of  Maia. 


2S^XCJO-55d  SJcpcCd 


fii6bo  9»*er<So^ 


*^2  cw?r?fe 


74  Essaj/  on  Telugu  Literature. 


5S>"ae)'5^»  "So  ^&  jpQ  a^'0\ 

CD  (X^  .  <**  •» 

^^c5  ijcr>^^  "^)cCoSb•o^Sb«S)'3 


ExtraclM  from  the  Prabhu  Linga  Lila. 

*^  fej*  <*> 


75 


;^ot6 


e^r)iSx)i$ 


tabo   '^^js;'^   «^** 
iri^^N)  <SS3  oK    tSdS 


CO 

rSf^V  7LotSi6x>v 


tSoti  v^tf  o'o&OS  l5ifi(  -v^i^  tSi:) 


76  Essay  on  Telugu  Literature. 

cast)  f^o>>2.M2«   "StK  d£n  iSi^-W 

;i:)e>£<^  f^e)  tp  e?ciS»  "fjcflto  •Sii'o'S 


*ir  "2*?^  tf-sfex        36*jn'5^'dSB« 


Extracts  from  the  Prabhu  Linga  Lila. 


77 


90    tf»"%p'»  lb  «r*jD 


^Oo  A'eX)  ;6Vor 

CO 
CO 


100     a^So    "Tfcr-dSSoto  l^^     tf»S'^to>'-$'« 


CO 

110       "Sfifi'toSoBj    7T»' 

*  '^  CO 


78  Essay  on  Telugu    Literature* 


These  pa§e$f  45  to  7Sare$ohe  placed  at  the  end  of  No.  26  of  the  Mad* 
roe  Joumah 


MADRAS : 


PaxNTBD  BY  R«  W.  Thorps,  at,  tbb  Vbpert  Miisioh  Prsssi  av9 

PVBLISBEO  BT  J.  B.  PhAROAH. 

Price  1  Rupee. 


1840. 


J 


V"^.  ■ 


'*■