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PREFACE. 


t'.'E  are  now  enabled  to  speak  of  this  Magazine  with  a  confidence  which,  much  nearer  the  commencement  of  its  career,  would  have 
been  presumptuous.  A  definite  purpose  is  generally  contemplated  by  every  new  periodical  undertaking  of  a  literary  kind,  which 
has  nevertheless  to  be  afterwards  shaped  and  modified  by  events  that  were  not  anticipated,  and  by  circumstances  of  an  uncertain 
order.  Like  an  idea  of  a  bright  or  noble  character,  that  ripens,  and  swells,  and  gains  in  excellence,  as  we  proceed  to  develope  its 
proportions  in  a  written  form,  even  a  well-considered  monthly  magazine  will  after  a  time  become,  in  some  particulars,  a  more 
symmetrical  object,  if  uniformly  conducted  with  zeal,  than  was  ever  dreamt  of  by  its  projector,  however  deep  or  direct-sighted  he 
may  have  been.  New  fields  open  up,  the  tide  of  knowledge  sets  difl^erently  in,  the  taste  of  friends  take  a  slight  turn,  so  that 
altogether  the  offspring-shoot,  though  none  of  the  original  features  be  lost,  assumes  gradually  an  individual  and  peculiar  direction 
and  bearing,  as  much  indebted  to  the  style  of  its  nurture  as  to  its  parentage. 

But,  to  put  similitudes  aside — we  unhesitatingly  assert,  that  whatever  were  our  original  views  and  desires  in  reference  to 
the  "  Magazine  of  Botany  and  Gardening,"  none  of  them  have  been  varied  but  as  respects  their  progress  to  perfection,  whilst  some 
additional  topics  of  a  kindred  nature  have  been  introduced,  tending  greatly  to  enrich  the  work.  Allusion  is  particularly  made  to 
many  original  talented  papers,  several  of  them  agricultural,  but  all  connected  with  rural  economy,  in  a  manner  that  cannot  but 
be  appreciated  by  practical  people,  and  all  such  as  are  eager  after  useful  knowledge — the  great  object  of  desire  in  these  matter-of- 
fact-days.  It  will  also  be  apparent  to  our  readers,  that  there  has  been,  especially  towards  the  beginning  of  the  volume,  no  lack 
of  scientific  information  regarding  every  point  connected  with  the  philosophical  character  or  history  of  the  vegetable  world.  We 
may  say,  indeed,  that  the  physiology  of  plants,  their  chemical  properties  and  anatomical  structures,  have  been  treated  and  illus- 
trated in  every  manner,  and  by  numerous  hands.  Our  translations,  our  reviews,  our  original  papers,  have  been  largely  devoted  to 
these  branches  of  inquiry.  The  gardening  operations,  strictly  of  a  domestic  character,  and  gardening  e.\periments,  have  been  most 
variously  and  abundantly  introduced  ;  whilst  the  botanical  descriptions  of  plants,  both  according  to  the  artificial  and  natural 
systems,  are  numerous  and  interesting.  Of  the  plates,  and  the  coloured  figures  of  plants  represented  by  them,  we  know  not  what 
to  say  that  can  be  half  so  proper  as  that  which  one  glance,  especially  of  our  late  numbers,  will  suggest.  Sixteen  different  highly 
finished  plates  coloured  from  nature,  and  sixteen  close-printed  pages  of  valuable  matter,  for  one  shilling,  presents  certainly  a 
novelty,  even  in  this  age  of  cheap  publications,  and,  with  confidence  we  utter  it,  not  to  be  equalled  in  the  whole  history  of  embel- 
lished literature. 

Besides,  our  Magazine  still  maintains  its  distinctive  character,  as  compared  with  all  others  of  the  class.'  As  we  have  stated 
on  a  former  occasion,  the  periodicals  that  give  coloured  figures  uniformly  confine  themselves  to  a  peculiar  class,  some  being  re- 
stricted to  new  plants,  some  to  florists'  flowers,  some  to  fruits,  and  the  like  ;  ^'hereas  every  object  in  the  vegetable  creation  is 
embraced  in. our  pages.  We  may,  without  the  fear  of  contradiction  and  alone  declare,  that  from  the  number  of  our  pages,  from 
the  dense  and  varied  matter  which  fills  them,  and  from  the  labour  bestowed  on  every  portion,  that  no  work  in  existence,  of  double 
the  price,  contains. either  the  amount  of  delight  and  instruction,  or  the  number  of  embellishments  and  subjects  that  the  "  Magazine 
of  Botany  and  Gardening"  does. 

To  any  one  a  total  stranger  to  our  Periodical,  and  who  has  only  been  acquainted  with  our  predecessors  or  rivals,  the  above 
itle  may  suggest  a  mere  nomenclature  or  catalogue  of  plants,  and  a  gardener's  directory  for  the  months  as  they  come  round. 
Let  it  be  understood,  nevertheless,  that  we  embrace  a  far  different  field.  We  combine  the  names  and  knowledge  of  things  together  ; 
and  whilst  we  chiefly  strive  after  direct  utility,  we  flatter  ourselves  that  it  is  through  a  simple  and  intense  perception  of  the 
beauties  and  the  blessings  of  nature,  as  showered  around  us  in  the  parts  of  creation  more  immediately  contemplated  by  our  work. 
We  wish,  as  regards  this  enthusiasm,  we  could  impart  the  taste  to  all.  By  far  the  cheapest  and  most  lovely,  the  healthiest  and 
most  accessible  studies,  are  to  be  found  in  the  book  of  nature.  It  has  been  well  said,  that  most  studies  abstract  a  man  from  the 
sky,  the  earth,  and  the  sea  ;  from  the  world  of  wonders  that  is  every  where  around  and  above  us.  But  we  would  be  xhildren  still, 
plucking  flowers,  luxuriating  in  the  fields,  cultivating  the  friendship  of  every  little  monitor  that  grows  there.  In  so  far  as  our 
enthusiasm  goes,  it  matters  little  whether  it  be  the  stately  tree  "  that  summers  and  winters  with  us,"  or  the  tinier  and  more 
uncertain  visitants  of  the  field  or  garden.  They  are  each  and  all  our  companions,  most  of  them  our  subjects.  It  is  an  affecting 
truth,  that  every  plant  cultivated  by  man  assimilates  itself  in  some  measure  to  him,  laying  aside  its  natural  habits  and  forms,  and 
bending  to  his  tutorage.  But  we  are  running  wide  of  the  limits  and  purpose  of  our  Preface  ;  forgetting  that  the  delights  of  fancy 
are  not  the  only  or  chief  object  of  our  labours  ;  for,  as  rational  and  practical  men,  we  pay  the  highest  regard  to  the  substantial 
and  permanent  good  of  the  community.  We  endeavour  to  teach  the  blessings  of  rural  life,  domestic  economy,  and  innocent 
pursuits.  .4bove  all,  we  love  to  trace  the  hand  of  a  wise  and  benevolent  Creator  in  every  exhibition  of  nature  that  falls  to  be 
considered  by  us. 


ii  PREFACE. 

These  varioiis  points  and  ends  we  shall  continue  to  place  prominently  in  our  eye.  Indeed,  our  arrangements  and  means 
will,  in  future,  enable  us  to  surpass  anything  we  have  yet  done,  as  regards  the  beauty  and  value  of  our  periodical.  To  begin 
with  the  figures  of  the  plants — the  artist^  hitherto  employed  have  necessarily  been  acquiring  greater  dexterity  and  delicacy  in 
copying  the  matchless  forms  and  tints  of  nature  ;  and,  with  something  not  unlilse  the  ease  and  softness  with  which  the  sweet,  the 
blushing,  or  the  gorgeous  flower  Comes  forth,  can  almost  in  an  instant  design,  sketch,  or  colour,  with  extreme  fidelity,  the  object 
required.  It  is  on  this  account  that,  in  the  course  of  the  present  volume,  we  have  been  enabled  to  give  precisely  double  the 
former  number  of  coloured  figures ;  nor  could  any  one  otherwise  understand,  than  as  we  have  stated,  how  sixteen  highly  finished 
pictures  should  be  furnished  for  anything  like  the  price  that  the  entire  work,  letter-press  and  all,  amounts  to.  Of  the  late  and 
future  descriptions  and  selections  of  the  plants,  we  need  not  say  much.  Botanists  and  students  of  nature  must  at  once  perceive 
and  understand* the  accuracy  of  the  science  therein  displayed.  We  have  only  here  to  add,  that  if  half  a  lifetime's  devotion  to  any 
one  branchof-kpo;jj|ledge  be  k  guarantee  of  a  man's  superority  in  that  branch,  it  has  been  unequivocally  secured  by  us. 

Of  tile  more' miscellaneous_ ana  by  much  the  largest  proportion  of  the  literary  part  of  the  work,  it  becomes  us  to  use  a  few 
words. "  The  whole  of  the  letter-press  amounts  to  sixteen  double-columned  pages  quarto,  closely  and  handsomely  printed  :  in 
truth,  every  one  of  oftr  shilling  numbers  contains  as  much  matter  as  many  small  volumes  do.  In  the  course  of  this  year  it  will 
be  seen  that  we,  by  me&nSj^jf  a  smaller  type,  greatly  enlarged  the  quantity  of  letter-press — a  step  naturally  suggested  by  our 
greater  fai^^iliarity  with  the  various  Subjects  found  to  be  in  demand  by  the  public.  And  we  again  intimate,  that  for  the  future, 
we  shall  stilji-farther  increase  the  pagei  so  as  to.  be  better  suited  to  contain  the  additional  information  which  we  command,  for  every 
month  ;  ...and  tfiis  too  ^without  any  alteration  in  price.      Our  increasing  sale  affords  these  advances. 

t, ,  fA&t^tfi&irrtcise  subjects  to  be  hereafter  treated  in  our  pages,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  very  minutely.  In  what  belongs  ' 
properly  to  horticultute,it  is  not  so  miich  our  study  to  search  for  rasi  novelties  of  persons  of  no  note,  as  to  collect  the  discoveries 
and  experim'entsxif  skilful  and  scientific  "men.  Utility  is  our  great  aim.  Respecting  the  culture  of  all  sorts  of  plants,  our  pages 
may  be  looked  to  for  the  most  striking  lessons.  The  monthly  operations  as  a  calander  shall  be  continued,  and  during  the  dreary 
and  gloomy  winter  season,  we  purpose  to  enliven  our  readers  with  accounts  of  some  curious  and  lightsome  methods  by  which 
certain  garden  articles  may  simply  and  ingeniously  be  forced,  to  delight  the  eye  or  gratify  the  palate,  not  generally  practised  or 
understood.  Some  examples  may  be  found  in  the  last  number  of  this  volume,  shewing  how  the  summer  may  be,  to  a  certain 
extent,  transplanted  into  winter. 

It  will  be  observed  that  during  the  year,  but  more  particularly  towards  the  latter  end  of  it,  we  have  introduced  a  number  of 
agricultural  hints.  Several  papers  have  been  devoted  to  that  larger  field  of  rural  economy,  which  is,  we  think,  a  valuable  feature 
in  our  work,  inasmuch  as  it  holds  the  place  of  an  elder  sister,  and  can  never  be  entirely  disjoined  from  practical  gardening.  We 
may  especially  allude,  when  on  this  point,  to  the  articles  under  the  names  of  individual  counties,  that  treat  of  what  is  most  pro- 
minent either  in  their  excellence  or  their  defects,  as  respects  the  agricultural  art.  These  are  to  be  regularly  continued,  pretty 
nearly  in  an  alphabetical  order  ;  by  which,  at  the  close  of  the  whole,  the  cream,  so  to  speak,  will  be  gathered  into  a  small  compass, 
of  all  that  is  known  in  regard  to  husbandry.  It  has  already  been  in  our  power  to  shew,  that  not  merely  the  rearing  of  crops  will 
thus  be  described  according  to  the  most  advanced  practice,  but  that  dairy  husbandry,  which  nearly  concerns  the  prosperity  of 
every  gardener  and  every  cottager,  will  be  made  plain  and  interesting.  To  be  sure,  we  have  not  as  yet  reached  any  county  where 
the  highest  grain  culture  could  be  explained ;  but  wait  till  Berwickshire  appear  ;  and  then  it  will  be  seen  what  may  be  expected 
of  the  Lothians,   Norfolk,   Suffolk,  &c. 

The  earlier  numbers  of  this  volume,  as  we  have  before  mentioned,  are  full  of  scientific  information  regarding  the  vegetable 
kingdom  ;  and  throughout,  the  physiology  of  plants,  being  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  instructive  branches  of  study,  has  largely 
occupied  our  pages.  Science  will  ever  be  a  principal  object  in  our  labours,  both  as  illustrated  in  original  articles  and  in  the  works 
selected  for  review.  And  one  inducement  for  the  introduction  of  such  matter  is,  that  to  inquiring  minds  it  opens  paths  and  shews 
lights  by  which  new  researches  will  be  set  on  foot,  leading  to  new  discoveries.  This  is  one  mighty  advantage  connected  with  scien- 
tific studies,  that:  they  do  not  so  much  teach  how  the  truth  in  question  has  been  found  out,  or  what  may  be  its  amount  and  value, 
as  by  what  means  and  ways  further  research  should  be  conducted.  What  can  be  more  mischievous  than  to  induce  a  feeling  that 
nothing  more  is  to  be  known,  and  that  the  wonders  already  found  out  are  to  be  an  impassable  bar  to  the  advancement  of 
knowledge  ?  The  region  is  illimitable  which  man  may  explore,  and  the  example  furnished  by  what  has  been  done,  should  be  a 
stimulus  to  new,  bolder,  and  more  brilliant  enterprise  and  conquest. 

We  have  spoken  of  our  reviews.  In  these  our  own  remarks  are  studiously  short :  persuaded  that  an  author,  however  defec- 
tive his  work  as  a  whole  may  be,  must  present  choice  portions,  the  result  of  well-balanced  consideration,  which  are  more  worthy 
of  being  introduced  than  anything  we  can  be  supposed  to  have  in  our  power  to  state  on  the  topic.  We  give  briefly  and  fairly  an 
opinion  of  the  work  ;  and  then  by  the  course  taken,  extract  the  riches  of  many  an  expensive,  it  may  be  ponderous  tome,  so  as  to 
present  our  readers  with  the  wheat  without  the  chaff,  saving  them,  besides,  a  trouble  that  is  not  unfrequentiy  of  the  most 
irksome  kind. 

We  now  close  these  prefatory  remarks,  which,  in  the  fulness  of  our  hope  and  purpose,  seemed  to  us  suitable  to  the  second 
volume  of  this  Magazine.  It  is  only  our  desire  at  present  further  to  add,  that  with  increased  energy,  with  enlarged  resource*, 
and  with  better  prospects  than  ever,  we  enter  upon  a  Third  Volume,  and  a  New  Year. 


■^7      4 


Disposition  of  tke    Scales  iax  tke  Cones   of  Firs   &■  Rues. 


22 


Zoftxicft.  G-Mefi^tTson.  l,(?lclB a/lev. 


THE 


MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


1.  Chorizema  naniim. 

2.  Gentiana  Caucasea. 

3.  Babiana  stricta. 

4.  Laclienalia  rubida. 


5.  Melanthium  viride. 
Hedysarum  roseum. 


7.  Cyclamen  hederaefolium. 

8.  Thea  Chinensis. 


CHORIZEMA   NANUM. 

Decandria  Monogynia,  Linn;eus;  Leguminosse,  JossiEu. 
Calyx  tubulosus,  2-labiatus ;  labium  superius  emarginatum :  la- 
bium infeiiiis,  3-iidum  laciniis  acntis.     Cor.  papilionacea  carina 
brevissima.    Stylus  recurvus.    Legumen  oblongum  polyspermum. 

Chorizem'' nanuni;  caule  erecto  flexuoso,  foliis  ovalibus  obtusis 
spinoso-dentatis. 

Pultenaea  nana.  Bot.  Repot,  f.  434. 
A  MINUTE  shrub,  with  an  upright  wavy  stem,  hardly 
exceeding  five  or  six  inches  in  height.  Leaves  alter- 
nate, rigid,  holly-like,  eliptic,  blunt,  with  undulated 
spinous  margins.  Leaf  scales  minute  ;  spines  at  the 
angles  of  the  stem  and  the  foot-stalk.  Flowers  pa- 
pilionaceous, distant,  in  longish  flexuose  clusters, 
growing  upon  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Pedicels  very 
short,  mostly  recurved.  Calyx  tubular,  two-lipped ; 
upper  lip  broad,  notched ;  lower  lip  shorter  than  the 
upper,  three-toothed:  teeth  equal,  acute.  Standard 
large,  notched,  reflexed,  yellow,  with  a  red  streaked 
star  at  the  base  ;  wings  as  long  as  the  standard, 
very  narrow,  pendulous,  crimson  coloured.  Keel 
not  half  the  length  of  the  wings,  white,  with  purple 
tips.  Stamens  ten,  distinct;  anthers  globular,  white. 
Seed  organ  ovate-acuminate,  villous;  style  short, 
recurved;    summit  abrupt. 

M.  Labillardiere,  who  went  on  the  voyage  to  the 
south- sea  in  search  of  the  unfortunate  La  Perouse, 
has  given  the  first  account  of  this  genus  in  his  rela- 
tion of  that  voyage.  To  the  species  which  he  found 
on  the  south-west  of  New  Holland,  he  gave  the  ap- 
pellation of  Chorizema  ilicifolium,  deriving  its  speci- 
fic name  from  the  resemblance  of  its  leaves  to  those 
of  holly,  and  that  of  the  genus,  probably,  from  the 
inconvenience  its  spinous  leaves  must  occasion  to  the 
naked-footed  dancers  of  that  country. 

VOL.  II.  NO.  X. — JAN.  1834. 


Our  plant  is  evidently  not  the  same  species  as 
the  one  that  is  there  described  and  figured,  which  is 
larger,  and  has  narrower  and  more  pointed  leaves, 
but  less,  like  those  of  holly.  Specimens  of  both  are 
preserved  in  the  Banksian  Herbarium;  that  of  C. 
ilicifolium  collected  on  the  south-west  coast  of  New 
Holland  by  Mr.  Archibald  Menzies,  and  that  of  C. 
nanum  raised  in  the  Kew  garden  (where  it  flowered 
in  1804),  from  seeds  sent  from  the  same  by  the  late 
Mr.  Peter  Good. 

Propagated  by  seeds,  which  it  produces  with  us. 
It  requires  a  soil  similar  to  that  used  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  heaths,  and  merely  to  be  protected  from  the 
frost. 


GENTIANA   CAUCASEA. 
Pentandria  Digynia,  Linnaeus;  Gentianea;,  JussiEu. 

Corolla   1-petala.    Caps.  2-valvis,  1-locularis ;   Receptaculis   2, 

longitudinalibus. 

Gentiana   caucasea ;    coroUis    quinquefidis   hypocraterifovmibus, 

i'auce  barbatis,  foliis  ovatis  acutis  caiile  tetragono  ascendente;  pe- 

dunculis  axillaribus  calyce  longioribus. 

Root  biennial,  stem  square,  ascending.  Leaves 
opposite,  sessile,  ovate-acuminate,  three-nerved, 
smooth,  quite  entire.  Flower  stalks  axillary,  one- 
flowered,  as  long  as  the  leaf,  solitary;  at  the  extre- 
mity of  the  main  stem  there  are  frequently  four 
flowers  growing  together  crosswise,  so  that  the 
flower  stalks  issue  singly  from  the  axil  of  each 
leaf.  Calyx  tubular,  five-cornered,  splitting  with 
age,  five-toothed:  teeth  awl-shaped,  the  length  of 
the  tube  of  the  corolla.  Corolla  tubular,  saucer- 
shaped,  tube  longer  than  the  limb,  greenish  :  limb 
violet  coloured,  four-cleft,  segments  blunt,  throat 
bearded.   Stamens  five,  enclosed;  filaments  inserted 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    PLATES. 


at  the  base  of  the  tube;  anthers  white;  seed  organ 
linear;  summits  two,  divaricate.  Capsule  nine-pin- 
shaped,  clothed  with  the  persistent  calyx  and  co- 
rolla, one-celled. 

Mr.  Loddiges  raised  it  from  seeds  he  received 
from  Mount  Caucasus.  It  flowers  in  July,  and  is 
propagated  by  seeds  only.     This  is  a  hardy  plant. 


BABIANA    STRICTA,    VAR.  7. 
Triandria  Monogynia,  Linn^us;  IiideEe,  JussiEU. 
Babiana  stricta. 

Babiana  purpurea.     Curtis   119.  pag.  all. 
Ixia  purpurea.    Jocq.  Ic.  Rar.  2.  t.286.     Coll.  3,  26S.     Willd. 

Sp.  PI.  1.  198. 
Gladiolus  strictus.     Vahl.  Enum.  2. 118. 
Gladiolus  purpureus.    Id.  I.  c.  2.  114. 
Ixia  villosa.     /3.     Mart.  Mill.  Did. 

This  was  enumerated  by  Jacquin  and  Curtis  as  a 
distinct  species ;  but,  upon  comparing  the  living 
plants,  no  mark  of  specific  difference  appears,  nor 
indeed  any  difference  whatever,  except  colour  and 
scent.  It  was  imported  by  Messrs,  Lee  and  Ken- 
nedy from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  specific 
character  of  Babiana  stricta  is, — flowers  funnel- 
shaped  and  regular;  the  segments  fiat,  and  scarcely 
longer  than  the  tube.  It  is  propagated  by  off-sets 
in  sandy  heat. 


LACHENALIA    RUBIDA,    VAR.  «, 

Hexandria  Monogynia,  Linnaeus;  Asphodeleae,  Jussieh. 
Lachenalia  rubida  (floribus  majoribus)  foliis,  lanceolatis  pervaria 
macularum  aspersione ;  corolla  pedicellis  pluries  longiore,  pendulo- 
natante,  trigono-cylindiica,  subbilabicata,  staminibus  liuic  sub- 
aqualibus  imis  tribus  deflexo-convergentibus;  stylo  deflexo  ex- 
serto;  laciniis  intimis  subquarta  parte  longioribus,  quarum  infiraa 
e  suis  subbreviore  subdiiformi ;  extimarum  suma  suavum  longiore, 

triuicato  retusa. 
•Lachenalia  rubida.  Jacg.  Ic.  Rar.  2.  t.  398.    Coil.  5.  60.    Willd. 

Sp.  PI.  r.  179. 
(/3.)   Lachenalia  tigrina.     Jacq.  I.  c.  t.  399.     Coll.  5.  67.     Willd. 

I.  c.  180. 
(y.)  Lachenalia  punctata.  Jacq.  Let. 397.  Col  2  323.  Willd.l.c. 
Orchis  hyacinthoides  foliis  caude  et  floribus  maculatis.      Buxb. 

bent.  Plant.  3.  p.  12.  t.  20.     Olim  perpeTam  a  Linna:o  in  Mun- 

tissa  Alteridi  fVeltheiviiceJ  capensi  pro  synonymo  adscripta. 

Bulb  truncated,  oblong-ovate,  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  base  umbilicated  hollowed ;  leaves  two 
to  four,  lanceolate,  varying  much  in  the  spotting, 
having  however  the  stains  always  round,  sometimes 
very  strongly  marked  and  thick  set,  at  others  thinly 
sprinkled  and  faded,  sometimes  appearing  on  one 
surface  only,  at  others  on  both ;  stem  at  first  higher 
than  the  leaves,  more  or  less  coloured  by  close  and 
confluent  blood-red  dots;  cluster  lax,  few — many 
flowered;  flower  scales  small  ovate,  acuminate,  de- 
current,  membraneous ;  corolla  an  inch  or  more  in 
length,  trigonal-cylindric,  subbilabiately  patent  pen- 
dulous, several  times  longer  than  the  pedicles,  re- 
ceiving a  carmine  hue  from  numerous  thick-set  dots 
of  that  colour,  which  are  spread  over  a  transpa- 
rently whitish  ground;  segments  distinct  quite  to 
their  base,   outer  a  fourth  shorter,  appressedly  in- 


cumbent on  the  inner,  cuneate  oblong,  concave, 
thicker;  subcalycinate,  upper  one  the  longest  of  the 
three  truncately  retuse  and  glandulary  thickened  at 
the  top;  inner  ones  obcuneate-oblong,  patulous  up- 
wards, convolutely  concave  downwards,  lower  one 
rather  shorter  and  somewhat  differently  shaped; 
stamens  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  corolla,  to  which 
they  are  about  equal,  compressed  filiform,  the  three 
upper  a  little  the  longest,  diverging,  lower  ones  de- 
flex,  converging,  resting  on  the  lowest  segment ; 
anthers  reddish,  oblong-sagittate ;  style  slender, 
defies  protruded  considerably  beyond  the  stamens, 
attenuated;  summit  indistinct  when  magnified,  ap- 
pearing blunted  triquetral,  and  glandularly  pubes- 
cent; germen  pale,  ovate,  trisulcate,  three-lobed, 
trigonal,  lobes  pulvinate. 

A  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  should  be 
kept  in  the  green-house  with  other  bulbs  from  the 
same  country,  and  planted  in  a  small  pot,  with  a 
mixture  of  three-fourths  peat  earth  to  one  of  loam  ; 
blooms  in  the  autumn. 


MELANTHIUM    VIRIDE. 
Hexandria  Trigynia,  Linnjeus;  Melanthacise,  Jdssied. 

Bractea;  nuUse.  Corolla  infera,  sequalis,  ex  hexapetalo-partita 
varie  patente  ad  hypocrateritbrmem,  unguibus  in  angulorum 
coalitis,  laminis  stellatim  aut  rotatim  solutis.  Stam.  aut  immedi- 
ate hypogyna,  aut  adnata  unguibus,  aut  per  tubulum  decurrentia. 
Style  3,  sligmatosi,  rostratim  continui,  persistenses,  raro  filiformes, 
decidui.    Caps,  coriacea,  varie  pulvinatim  trigona.    Sera,  plurima, 

subglobosa  vel-corapresso  orbiculata. 
Radix  bulbus  solidus,  ovato-pyraniidatus,  hinc  basi  oblique  de- 
pressus,  membrana  saepius  Crustacea  vel  subputaminea  tectus(  a 
se  ipso  quotannis  renascens  frugifer,  dum  iile  precedentis  anni 
(functa  modo  vice  raatricis,  cseteroquin  stevilescens)  totus  emar- 
cescit.  Folia  tria-plurima  disticha  canaliculata-lanceolata,  vel 
angustiora  convoluta-concava,  rarius  subfistulosa,  deorsum  vagi- 
nantia,  conduplicantia.  Scapus  de  subnullo  bipedalem  usque. 
Inflor.  1-multiflora,  vel  spicata,  vel  racemosa-paniculata  pedun- 
culis  magis  minusve  decurrenter  adnatis,  modo  subcorymbosa. 
Stigmata  parum  manifesta  ad  lentem  rimulae  oblique  dehiscentes. 
Filam.  setaceo-subulata  Quando  laciniae  ad  infra  usque  germen 
sint  distincta  perstat  corolla,  dum  vero  coha-rescunt  istae,  ut  quo- 
modocunque  dictum  cingant  organum,  per  ejusdem  incrementum 
tandem  dejecitur.     Genus  Tulipae  adeo  propinquum  ut  vix  detur 

unde  distinguere. 
Melanthium  viride  foliis  caniculato-lanceolatis;  caule  folioso  pani- 
culato-racemoso,  peduncuHs  unifloris  deorsum  decurrenter-adna- 
tis  ;  corolla  persistente,  cernua,  laciniis  reflexis  juxtura  supra  genu 
areola  colorata  cum  disco  scrobiculatim  depresso  notatis;  stylis 

deciduis,  filiforniibus,  stamina  e.xsuperantibus,  divaricatis. 

MelanthiuiTi  viride.   Linn.  Suppl.2l3.  Hort.  Kerv.  1.4SS.  Tliunb. 

Prod.  67.    Bot   Rep.  t.  233.     Willd.  Sp.  PI.  2.  269. 

Ornithoglossum  glaucum.     Parad.  Lond.  t.  34. 

Bulb  solid,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  high,  ovate- 
pyramidal,  flatted  obliquely  on  one  side  of  the  base, 
covered  with  a  somewhat  crustaceous  membrane 
like  that  of  a  tulip  root;  leaves  opposite,  alternate, 
radical  one  close,  largest,  channelled-lanceolate,  far- 
acuminate,  recurved;  stem  leafy,  angular,  somewhat 
taller  than  root  leaves,  branched  downwards,  up'- 
wards  paniculately  racemose;  peduncles  divergent, 
numerous,  one-flowered  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
(which  become  gradually  smaller),  more  or  less  de- 
currently  adnate  to  the  stem,  recurved,  thickening 


THE    CONES   OP   FIRS. 


at  their  top  ;  corolla  cernuous,  hexapetously  di- 
vided persistent ;  segments  green,  edged  with  pur- 
ple-broun,  equal,  subulate-lanceolate,  reflex,  con- 
volutely  concave,  shortly  unguiculate,  marked  just 
above  the  bend  vi-ith  a  roundish  spot,  the  disk  of 
-which  is  slightly  hollowed;  filaments  exactly  hypo- 
gynous,  subulate-setiform,  one-third  shorter  than 
segments,  divergent,  recurved;  anthers  small,  sa- 
gittately  ovate,  brown;  germen  obconic-globular, 
rounded-trigonal;  styles  three,  green,  filiform,  ex- 
tending by  half  their  length  beyond  the  stamens, 
urceolately  divergent,  not  beakedly  continuous  with 
the  germen,  deciduous;  stigmas  inconspicuous,  ob- 
liquely slit,  hiant,  brown.  The  whole  plant  scent- 
less. It  should  be  kept  in  the  green-house,  and 
treated  like  other  Cape  bulbs. 


HEDYSARUM   ROSEUM. 

Diadelphia  Decandria,  Linn^us;  Leguminosce,  JussiEU. 

Calyx  5-fidus ;  Corolla  carini  transverse  obtusA.     Seg.  articulia 

1-spermis  compressis. 

Hedysarum  roseutn  ;   caulescens,  assurgens,  foliis  pinnatis  sep- 

teivjugis;  foliolis   ellipticis,  raceniis  capitatis  axillaribus  pedun- 

culatis,  vexillo  striato  emarginato  carina  longiore. 

This  plant  was  drawn  from  a  specimen  raised  by 
Mr.  Loddiges,  from  Mount  Caucasus.  It  is  pro- 
bably biennial,  as  some  of  the  plants,  but  not  all, 
flowered  the  same  year  they  were  drawn. 


CYCLAMEN    HEDERJEFOLIUM. 

Petandria  Monogynia,  LinNjEUS;  Primulacea;,  JossiEU. 
Corolla  rotata,  reflexa,  tube  brevissimo  ;  fauce  prominente.  Bacca 

tecta  capsula. 
Cyclamen  hederaefolium  ;  foliis  cordatis  angulatio   denticulatis. 

Hort.  Keio.  \.p.  1%.     mtld.  Sp.  PL  810. 
Cyclamen  Europseum.     Mill.  Diet.  1. 
Cyclamen  folio  hederae  et  vernum.     Lob.  Icon.  605. 
Cyclamen  romanum  foliis  hederse,  flora  carneo  et  flore  purpureo. 

Swert.  Florileg.  I.  49. 
Cyclarainus  orbicularis.     Dod.  Pempt  337. 
Cyclaminus  vernotempore  florens.     Chis.  Pan.  234-  Uist.  265. 
Cyclamen  hederajfolium.  Bauh.  Pin.  303.  Ger.  emac.  844.  T.f.h. 

Rait  Hist.  120fi. 
Cyclamen  vernum  flore  purpureo.  Park.  Parad.  195.  t.  197.  f.  1. 

The  ivy-leaved  Cyclamen  is  said  to  be  a  native  of 
Italy ;  is  a  very  valuable  plant,  on  account  of  its 
early  flowering,  sweet  scent,  and  beautiful  foliage. 
It  is  not  so  hardy  as  C.  Europseum,  but  can  be  cul- 
tivated in  the  open  grovmd.  May  be  propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  root.  It  was  cultivated  by 
Gerard  in  1596. 


THEA  CHINENSIS,    VAR.  /S. 
Monodelphia  Polyandria,  Linn^os;  Camelliese,  Jussied. 

Calyx  5 — 6  partitus;  corolla  5 — g.  petula.    Styli  3  coaliti.    Caps. 

3-locularis.     Sem.  solitaria. 
Thea  Chinensis ;  floribus  subhexapetalis  axillaribus  subsolitariis 

erectis,  frnctibus  nutantibus. 
a    Thea  viridis.     Sp.  PI.  7S5.     Willd.  2.  USO.     Jteich.  2.  5S9. 

Hill.  Exot.  t.  22      GaiTt.  Fruct.  2.  p   83.  t.  95.     Letts.  Monog. 

t.  1.     n'oodv.  Med.  Bott.  Suppl.  116,  t.  256. 
Thea  bohea  b.  stricta.     Hort.  Kew.  vol.  2.  p.  230? 
Thea  sinensis.     Blackw-  t.  351. 
B.  Thea  bohea;   Linn.  Sp.  PI.  734.      Hort.  Cliff.  204.    Amcen. 

Acad.l.p.Ti'd   t.i.  Hill.  Exot.  t.  22.  Blackw.  t.  S52.    Thunb. 

Jap.  225.    Willd.  2.  1180.   Hort.  Kew.  v.  2  p.  230.  var.  a  laxa. 

Mart.  Mill.  Diet.  Lettsom.  Man.  ed.  2  p.  41.  Ic. 
Thea  cantoniensis      Tnur.  Cochin.  339. 
Thee.    Kcempf.  Amcen.  605,  t  606. 
Theefrutex.    'Bartk.Acti.p.  l.t.l.  Bont.Jav.ST.t.SS.    Barrel. 

Rar.  123.  <.  904. 
Thee  Sinensium.     Breyn.  Cent.  Ill  /.  m    pag.  HI.  Ic.  17.  2.  3. 

Boc.  Mus.  114.  i.  94.  Rail  Hist.  619. 
Chaa  bauh.     Pin.  147.     Bauh.  Hist.  3.  I.  27.  c.  1.  p.  5. 
Euonymo  affinis  arbor  orientalis  nucifera,  flore  roseo,  Pluk.Phyt. 

t.as. 

Camellia  bohea.    Ker. 

It  is  now  nearly  ascertained  that  all  the  different 
sorts  of  tea,  prepared  in  China,  are  the  produce  of 
the  same  species ;  and  that  the  colour,  form,  and 
qualities,  depend  chiefly  upon  the  climate,  soil,  age, 
modes  of  preparation,  and  various  manipulations 
that  the  leaves  are  subjected  to.  The  bohea  variety 
appears,  however,  to  be  more  tender  than  the  green, 
and  will  not  endure  the  severity  of  our  winters, 
which  the  latter  bears  with  impunity. 

According  to  Mr.  Ker,  Thea  and  Camellia  cannot 
be  kept  apart,  but  must  be  united  into  one  genus. 
The  imbricated  calyx  of  the  latter  may  be  thought 
to  keep  them  distinct,  though  the  former  has  like- 
wise a  few  scales  at  the  base,  which  soon  fall  off. 
Most  certainly,  however,  even  in  the  Linneean  sys- 
tem, Camellia  and  Thea  ought  not  to  have  been 
placed  in  different  classes,  for  the  filaments  and 
petals  of  the  tea  all  coalesce  at  the  base,  and  always 
fall  off  united  in  one  piece,  though,  if  examined 
when  the  flower  first  expands,  the  filaments  will  be 
seen  firmly  attached  to  the  receptacle. 

The  variety  here  figured,  according  to  Loureira, 
grows  in  the  province  of  Fo-kien,  in  China ;  and 
occurs  also,  both  indigenous  and  cultivated,  in  the 
province  of  Canton. 

It  flowers  with  us  in  the  autumn,  and  when 
planted  in  the  open  ground  not  at  all,  except  in  the 
most  favourable  seasons.  It  may  be  propagated  by 
cuttings. 


ON  THE   DISPOSITION  OF  THE   SCALES  IN    THE   CONES  OF  FIRS.* 

BY   A.    BRAUN. 
See  Plate  22. 


In  1829,  Dr.  C.  Schimper  explained  to  the  Society 
of  German  Naturalists,  assembled  at  Heidelberg, 
the  notions  he  then  had  of  the  laws  which  reeulate 


the  relative  position  of  leaves.  This  gave  M.  Braun 
the  idea  of  studying  in  detail  the  cones  of  the  pines 
and  firs,  by  which  he  expected  to  throw  some  li^ht 


•  Nova  Acta  Phys   Med.  Acad.  Caes.  Leopold.  Nat.  Curios.  Bonn.     Tom.  xv.  p.  197. 


B    2 


4 


THE    CONES   OF    FIRS. 


on  tlii;  disposition  of  the  foliaceous  organs  in  gene- 
ral. We  will  follow  the  author  in  the  development 
of  this  idea. 

The  scales  of  fruits  in  the  Coniferae  are,  in  fact, 
only  leaves    accompanying  the  pistil,  that  do  not, 
like  the  floral  envelopes  of  other  plants,   form  a 
complete  cavity  surrounding  on  all  sides  the  sexual 
organs,  but  which  offers  a  slightly  concave  surface 
that  protects  them  only  on  one  side.     This  being 
n-ranted,  if  we  consider  attentively  the   cone  of  a 
pine  (Pinus  picea),  or  a  fir  (P.  abies),  we  first  ob- 
serve whether  the  scales  are  disposed  in  spirals  or 
whirls.     On  breaking  a  cone  of  the  P.  picea  (pi.  22, 
ficr.  4,)  in  the   middle,    three  scales  will  be   seen, 
which  at  first  appear  on  the  same  plan,  but  on  a 
more  attentive   examination  it   will   be  perceived, 
that  the  depth  of  their  insertion  are  really  different, 
and  also  that  they  are  placed  at  unequal  distances; 
so  that  tliey  must  not  be  considered  as  forming  a 
whirl,  but  rather  as  making  a  part  of  a  very  close 
spiral.     On  examining  the  external  surface  of  the 
entire  cone,  it  will  be  found  that  the  shells  are  dis- 
posed in   oblique  lines,  which  may  be  considered, 
first,  with  reward  to  their  composition,  or  the  num- 
ber of  shells  necessary  to  form  a  complete  spire ; 
second,   their  inclination,  or  the  angle  more  or  less 
open  or  obtuse  which  they  form  with  their  axis  ; 
third,  of  their  total  number,  and  their  arrangement 
round  the  common  axis,  which  constitutes  their  co- 
ordination.    Lastly,  we  should  endeavour  to  disco- 
ver whether  the  spires  turn  from  the  right  to  the 
left,  or  from  the  left  to  the  right. 

The  inclination  of  the  spires  on  their  axis  is  of 
little  importance ;  it  varies  according  to  the  length 
and  the  age  of  the  fruit.  The  question  as  to  whe- 
ther the  spires  turn  from  left  to  right  or  from  right 
to  left  is  equally  unimportant.  Nevertheless,  in 
order  to  avoid  confusion,  it  must  be  remarked,  that 
the  spectator  ought  to  consider  himself  as  forming 
the  axis  of  the  spire,  so  that  his  left  hand  is  changed 
to  the  right,  and  vice  versa,  exactly  as  if  he  beheld 
himself  in  a  glass. 

If  we  consider  attentively  the  spiral  lines  formed 
by  the  scales  of  the  P.  abies  (pi.  22,  fig.  1),  we  shall 
at  first  see  that  the  most  prominent  turn  from  left 
to  right,  and  that  they  are  of  the  number  of  five 
parallels  between  them.  The  first  of  these  spirals 
is  denoted  by  ciphers  1,  6,  11,  16,. . .  .-IG,  51,56, 

61,  66, 96,  101,  lOG,  111,  116,  &c. ;  the  second 

4,  9,  14,  19,  24,  54,  59,  64,  69,74,79, 109, 

114,  &c. 

After  some  researches,  we  shall  find  a  second 
kind  of  spirals  turning  the  contrary  way,  and  de- 
noted by  the  ciphers  1,  9,  17,  25,  33,  &c.  ;  this 
spiral  has  eight  parallels.  All  the  kinds  of  spires, 
however,  are  not  yet  exhausted;  they  become  less 
evident,  because  the  scales  which  constitute  them 
are  more  distant,  but  they  may  still  be  traced  by  an 
effort  of  attention,  and  it  will  be  remarked  that  they 


becc.\e  more  and  more  vertical.  Thus  it  will 
quickly  be  discovered  that  parallel  spires  still  exist 
(fig.  1),  one  of  which  answers  to  the  numbers  I,  14, 
27,  40,  &c.,  which  are  to  the  number  13 ;  and,  finally, 
we  shall  arrive  at  a  last  series  of  scales  which  is 
only  a  straight  line  entirely  vertical.  One  of  these 
vertical  lines  is  denoted  by  the  ciphers  1,  22,  43,  64, 
85,  106.  These  lines  are  of  the  number  21,  and 
they  are  named  ranks  (^Zeilen)  in  opposition  to  the 
true  spires  (Wendeln). 

We  here  make  a  remark  entirely  incidental,  which 
will  be  found  applicable  hereafter.  Ifwe  place  in 
succession  the  numbers 

21,  13,8,5, 
which  expresses  the  number  of  parallel  spirals  of 
each  kind,  we  shall  see  that  each  of  these  numbers 
is  the  difference  of  the  two  that  precede  it,  or  the 
sum  of  the  two  that  follow  it.  Thus  8zi21, — 13, 
and  13=8  +  5.  Not  being  able  to  continue  the  se- 
ries beyond  21,  which  expresses  the  parallel  vertical 
ranks,  evidently  the  most  numerous,  let  us  continue 
it  in  another  sense,  by  subtracting  each  number  from 
that  which  precedes  it : 

21,  13,  8,  5,  3,2,  1,  1,0. 

Neither  of  the  spires  which  vpe  have  hitherto  found 
is  the  true  one,  the  generative  spire,  since  each 
(abstracting  its  parallels)  comprehends  only  the  5th, 
the  8th,  or  the  13th  part  of  the  total  number  of  the 
scales  ;  but  with  patience  we  shall  at  length  find 
spires  which  have  only  three  parallels  (fig.  1.)  1, 
4. . . .,  16,  19,  22,  25,  &c.,  others  which  have  only 

2:   1,3 ,9,11, 17,  19,...,  &c.    The  figure 

2  represents  all  those  spires  denoted  by  different 
colours.  The  ranks  (Zeikn)  to  21  parallels  are 
marked  by  the  black  lines,  those  to  13  by  black  dots, 
those  to  8  in  blue,  those  to  5  in  red,  those  to  3  in 
yellow. 

By  the  method  of  exclusion,  we  shall  at  length 
arrive  at  a  single  spire  without  parallel.  We  con- 
firm this  result  by  marking  all  the  scales  which  we 
rank  according  to  this  spire,  with  a  particular  sign, 
and  recollecting  that  to  the  last  all  the  scales  of  the 
cone  are  marked  with  the  sign  which  we  have 
adopted.  The  spire  found  is  then  the  fundamental 
or  generative  spire  ;  all  the  others  previously  ex- 
amined are  only  false  appearances,  fictitious  series, 
a  secondary  result  of  the  primitive  disposition  of  the 
scales  ;  this  is  demonstrated  by  the  figures  3  and  4, 
where  the  ciphers  indicate  the  order  of  succession 
of  the  bracteas. 

Let  us  now  count  the  number  of  scales  which  form 
this  fundamental  spire,  or,  in  other  terms,  let  us 
ascertain  after  how  many  scales  we  meet  with  one 
placed  vertically  over  the  first ;  so  that  we  may  con- 
sider the  round  of  the  spire  as  commencing  again. 
We  shall  find  that  it  is  the  22d  leaf  (fig.  3.)  which 
corresponds  with  the  first,  and  that  the  spire  is  con- 
sequently composed  of  21  scales.     We  shall,  more- 


THE   CONES    OF    FIRS. 


over,  observe,  that  it  is  after  eight  turns  that  the 
22d  leaf  is  found  placed  above  the  first ;  conse- 
quently, when  we  would  give  an  idea  of  a  position 
of  leaves,  it  is  not  sufBcient  to  say  that  the  22d  is 
found  beneath  the  first ;  we  must  add  after  how 
many  turns   this   coincidence   occurs.     If  we  now 

place  (fig.  4.)  the  ciphers  1,  2,  3,  4 ,  21  at  the 

extremity  of  the  rays  which  traverse  the  summit 
and  the  base  of  the  scales  to  indicate  their  order  of 
succession,  each  of  these  ciphers  will  not  be  placed 
on  a  ray  contiguous  to  the  ray  of  the  following 
cipher,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  will  be  separated  by 
7  intermediate  rays  from  the  cipher  that  imme- 
diately succeeds  it.  We  explain  this  by  saying  that 
the  divergence  is  marked  by  the  number  8  ;  and  the 
spire  will  be  noted  by  means  of  the  fraction  ^V;  'he 
numerator  indicating  the  number  of  turns  on  the  di- 
vergence, the  denominator  that  of  the  scales.  In 
representing  on  a  plan  (fig.  S.)  the  projection  of  a 
cone,  in  such  a  manner  that  its  axis  reduced  to  0 
may  be  the  centre,  we  may  indicate,  with  different 
colours,  the  different  spires  according  to  which  the 
bracteas  are  disposed,  and  we  shall  clearly  see  that 
the  generative  spire  expressed  by  the  fraction  -jV  is 
the  only  one  that  comprehends  all  the  scales  of  the 
cone.  We  may  also  conceive  that  amongst  these 
diverse  spires  will  exist  arithmetical  relations,  which 
will  express  the  various  combinations  of  a  certain 
number  of  elements  disposed  in  a  regular  manner. 
Thus  we  shall  find  that  a  spire  which  has  5  parallels 
will  always  pass  by  the  5th  leaf,  the  leaves  being 
numbered  according  to  the  fundamental  spire,  that 
is  to  say,  it  will  pass  by  the  ciphers  1,  6,  11,  16,  21, 
26,  31,  &c.,  or  5,  10,  15,  20,  &c.  ;  tlie  series  to  three 
parallels  will  pass  by  the  numbers  1,  4,  7,  10,  &c. 
With  the  aid  of  this  table,  it  is  easy  to  enumerate 
the  bracteas  of  a  cone.  Beginning  from  a  scale 
taken  at  random,  we  mark  a  spire  to  S  parallels ;  for 
example,  the  ciphers  1,  9,  17,  25,  &e.,  of  which  the 
difference  is  always  S.  Commencing  from  the  same 
bractea,  we  describe  one  of  the  spires  to  13  parallels 
by  1,  14,  27,  40,  &c. ;  that  to  5  parallels  by  the 
ciphers  1,  6,  11,  16,  &c.  We  may  then  with  these 
three  kinds  of  spires,  by  additions  and  subtractions, 
proceeding  by  S,  by  13,  and  by  5,  mark  all  the  scales 
of  the  cone  ;  the  sjsirals  to  2  and  3  parallels  are  not 
sufficiently  evident  to  be  used  without  fear  of  error. 
When  the  whole  cone  is  enumerated,  the  series  of 
ciphers  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  permits  us  to  follow  that  of 
the  scales  in  the  generative  spire  which  before  was 
not  visible. 

When  we  have  denoted  by  -jV  the  divergence  of 
the  leaves  in  the  fundamental  spire,  we  have  not 
satisfied  ourselves  on  the  divergence  of  the  spirals 
deducted  from  the  generative  spire.  But  if  the  di- 
vergence in  the  latter  (fig.  4.)  is  ,V  between  the  first 
and  the  second  scale,  it  will  be  ^-f  between  the  first 
and  the  third,  moving  from  right  to  left  like  the  ge- 
nerative spire  ;  but  on  turning  the  contrary  way,  its 


divergence  will  be  only  ,V«  Oi^.  the  spiral  that  con- 
tains the  bracteas  1,  3,  5,  &c,  is  that  of  two  parallels  : 
its  divergence  then  will  be  /^.  At  the  same  time, 
we  observe  that  this  spire  turns  contrary  to  the 
generative  spire,  since  in  that  direction  we  find  the 
least  divergence.  The  fourth  leaf  of  the  funda- 
mental spire  will  again  fall  beyond  the  first;  or,  the 
spiral  which  goes  successively  from  the  first  to  the 
fourth,  and  to  the  seventh  bractea,  is  the  spire  of 
three  parallels ;  its  smallest  divergence  will  be  iV) 
and  the  spire  will  turn  in  the  same  direction  with  the 
fundamental.  These  arguments  apply  to  all  the 
other  spirals,  and  we  can  establish  the  series 

13      8       5       3       2       1       1       0 
21'   ^l'    Fl'    21'    21'   21'   21'    21* 

Since  /,  expresses  the  divergence  of  a  spiral  going 
in  a  contrary  direction  to  /y,  it  follows  that  i^  will 
also  be  contrary  to  the  generative,  while  -^V,  ttj  iti 
will  be  in  the  same  direction.  We  also  see  that  in 
order  to  find  the  divergence  of  any  line  whatever, 
or,  in  other  terms,  the  expression  of  that  spiral  itself, 
it  is  sufficient  to  subtract  each  numerator  from  that 
which  precedes  it. 

M.  Braun  afterwards  investigated  the  height  whieh 
separates  the  first  scale  of  a  spire  from  the  last ; 
wliich  is  termed  the  distance.  It  will  be  easily  con- 
ceived that  the  question  respects  only  the  relative 
distance  or  the  number  of  scales  interposed,  for  the 
absolute  distance  will  vary  not  only  with  each  cone, 
but  also  according  to  the  age  of  each  fruit  taken 
singly.  It  is  evident  that  the  generative  spire  ^\, 
which  takes  in  all  the  scales,  is  that  which  moves 
the  most  horizontally.  We  will  therefore  express 
the  distance  in  height,  which  separates  the  two  scales 
numbered  1  and  22,  by  the  expression  :5^V>  'he  spire 
of  tvs'o  parallels  by  jV,  in  such  a  manner  as  we  shall 
find  for  the  vertical  series  which  rise  parallel  to  the 
length  of  the  cone,  or  where  the  divergence  is  0, 
1}  which  agrees  with  the  experiment,  since  they  are 
composed  of  21  scales,  and  the  last  separated  from 
the  first  by  the  same  number. 

If  then  we  take  the  series  of  divergences,  and 
place  beneath  them  that  of  the  distances,  we  shall 
have  the  two  series  contrary. 

.2113      85       32       11        0 

21'    21'    21'    21'   21'   n'   21'    2l'   21' 
„       0       1       1       2       3       5       8      13     21 

2"l'    21'   2*1'    21'    21'    2"T'    2T'   21'    21* 

The  numerator  of  each  fraction  of  the  series  A, 
will  show  us  the  number  of  turns  in  each  spire,  and 
that  of  the  corresponding  fraction  in  B,  the  number 
of  parallel  spires  of  each  order.  Thus  the  spire  2^4- 
accomplished  its  revolution  in  5  turns,  but  it  has  but 
one  parallel,  or,  in  other  words,  there  are  but  two 
spires  of  this  order  in  the  whole  cone,  as  indicated 
by  the  fraction  ^\  placed  beneath.  The  common 
denominator  marks  the  number  of  elements  which 
compose  each  of  these  spires.     Second  inference  : 


THE    CONES   OF    FIKS. 


the  expression  ^V  denotes  in  the  series  of  distances 
B  the  generative  spire,  and  we  see  that,  being  twice 
found,  it  corresponds  in  that  of  the  divergences  to 
the  two  fractions  ^-f  and  ^\,  which  is  explained  by 

putting  -J-, — )  the  sign  V   indicating  that  the  two 

spires  correspond  to  the  same  generative,  but  that 
one  goes  from  right  to  left,  and  the  other  from  left 
to  right. 

The  whole  question  then  of  the  spires  is  reduced 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  divergence  and  of  the  num- 
ber of  scales  forming  the  generative  spire,  since, 
these  two  being  ascertained,  we  may  easily  conclude 
on  the  number  of  the  turns  and  the  distance  in  height 
of  all  the  others. 

The  determination  of  the  inclination  of  the  spires 
is  still  inferred  from  the  relation  found  between  the 
divergences  and  the  distances ;  it  is  equal  to  the 
divergence  divided  by  the  distance,  and  gives  the  fol- 
lowing series  of  quotients : 

">    TT>    ■B'J    T>     ■'l     2>     °>     '^•-'o- 

And  we  obtain  two  series,  one  descending  to  0, 
which  is  the  case  of  the  horizontality,  the  other  as- 
cending to  infinity,  which  explains  the  vertical  posi- 
tion. 

It  was  not  until  after  long  trials  that  the  author 
succeeded  in  finding  the  condition  indispensable  to 
the  determination  of  a  spire,  that  is,  the  divergence 
of  the  elements  which  constitute  it.  We  must  pur- 
sue a  more  expeditious  method  in  order  to  discover 
it  in  a  plant  or  a  cone.  In  the  Isatis  tinctoria,  it  is 
not  difficult ;  the  generative  spire,  like  the  cones  of 
the  Firs,  is  expressed  by  ^\,  and  it  is  at  the  same 
time  tiie  most  apparent.  But  it  is  not  always  so, 
more  frequently  the  fundamental  spire  is  the  least 
striking  of  all.  If  we  had  the  divergences  of  two 
kinds  of  spires  expressed  by  the  fractions  which  fol- 
low each  other  in  the  series  A,  it  would  be  easy,  by 
subtracting  them  from  each  other,  to  obtain  the  com- 
plete series  ;  but  it  often  happens,  as  in  the  invo- 
lucres of  the  Cinara  and  the  Corymbeferae,  that 
the  cone  is  not  terminated,  and  the  turns  of  the 
spires,  which  recur  only  at  a  great  distance  in  height, 
remain  incomplete,  because  the  axis  is  too  short. 
Nevertheless,  we  can  always  determine  the  number 
of  the  parallels  of  two  or  several  spirals.  Let  us 
suppose  that,  in  the  case  of  one  cone,  we  have  found 
that  it  had  spirals  of  5  parallels,  others  of  8  :  we 
should  have  established  by  addition  and  subtraction 
the  following  series  : 

0,  1,  1,  2,  3,  5,8,  13,  21,  34,  55 

On  one  hand,  the  series  has  no  limits  vmtil  we  have 
found  the  number  of  the  vertical  ranks  (21  in  the 
cone  of  the  fir)  ;  but  it  is  often  difficult  to  recognize 
these  lines.  We  must  therefore  seek  by  another 
process;  this  process  will  consist  in  counting  the 
number  of  spirals,  including  the  perpendicular  series 
{Zeilen),  which  approach  nearer  to  the  vertical  than 
those  which  we  have  noted.    Having  found  the  spires 


5  and  8,  there  are  still  two  which  are  less  inclined, 
one  5  +8  =  13,  the  other  13  +  8=21,  the  last  num- 
ber that  explains  the  vertical  ranks ;  the  series 
ought  therefore  to  stop  at  21.  We  have  seen  that 
the  numerator  of  the  fraction  of  the  distances  marked 
the  number  of  the  spires  of  each  order  in  a  given 
cone  ;  we  have  also  seen  that  the  series  of  distances 
is  that  of  the  divergences  reversed  (series  A  and  B), 
and  the  common  denominator,  the  number  express- 
ing that  of  the  vertical  ranges.  These  two  series 
being  established,  the  generative  spire  will  be  that 
where  the  fraction  of  the  distances  will  have  1  for 
its  numerator,  since  that  spire  is  always  singular. 
The  corresponding  fraction  in  the  series  A  will  give 
the  divergence  of  this  same  spire. 

Having  established  the  means  of  determining  the 
secondary  and  generative  spires  on  a  cone,  we 
must  now  enquire  whether  the  expression  ^V  found 
on  some  cones  of  pines  is  invariable  if  there  are  va- 
riations; and,  lastly,  if,  amidst  these  variations,  we 
can  seize  any  fixed  law. 

There  exist  two  varieties  of  spires.  At  first  sight 
it  often  happens,  that  after  the  spires  to  5  and  13 
parallels,  instead  of  finding  the  vertical  rank  (21) 
which  terminate  the  series,  we  still  find  13  +  21  =:34, 
and  21  +  34=55,  which  express  the  number  of  the 
parallel  ranks,  and  if  we  establish  the  two  series  of 
the  divergences  and  the  distances,  we  shall  have : 
0,  1,  1,  2,  3,  5,  8,  13,  21,  34,  55. 
55,  34,  21.  13,  8.  5,  3,  2,  1,  1,  0. 
55 
This  gives  ^  Vt  '  for  the  expression  of  the  genera- 
tive spire,  and  experience  proves,  that  in  these 
cones  the  twenty-second  leaf  is  not  found  placed 
vertically  over  the  first,  but  the  fifty-fifth.  A  slight 
twist  of  the  axis  is  sufficient  to  produce  this  result, 
but  it  is  not  purely  accidental ;  the  effect  of  growth 
for  example,  as  it  is  found  in  very  young  cones. 
All  this  does  not  weaken  the  general  law.  In  fact, 
these  irregular  cones  are  only  regularly  twisted,  so 
to  speak,  on  themselves  and  in  which  the  last  cipher 
of  the  series  expressing  that  of  the  vertical  ranks  is 
greater;  but  such  a  cone  contains  not  less,  as  a  ge- 
nerative element,  than  that  of  the  regular  cone. 

The  regular  generative  spires  of  the  cones  of  all 
the  species  of  pines,  analyzed  by  M.  Braun,  give 
the  following  series: 

0       1       1       2       3        .5        8     13     21     34       55 

T'    "2'     3"'     5'     8'     lli'    2"!'    si'    Sb'    89'    144' 

The  following  has  regard  to  the  species,  with 
their  fundamental  regular  spire. 

l-j-  Pinas  pinaster.  -j^J  P.  sylvestris,  P.  •pumU'io, 
P.montana.  P.resinosa,  P.halepensis.  i\  P.picea, 
P.  cemhra,  P.  larix,  P.  jiendula.  -^-3-  P.  strobus,  P. 
canadc  sis.  f  on  a  single  cone  of  P.  canadensis.  I  P. 
microcarpa.  The  divergences  J,  |  and  also  -J,  vvhich 
denote  a  rank  of  bracteas  placed  one  over  the  other, 
are  not  met  with  in  the  cones  of  the  pines. 

It  would  now  be  interesting  to  investigate  if  a 


M.    BIOT   ON   THE    SAP   OP   PLANTS. 


common  tie  re-unites  these  different  series  of  brac- 
teas,  whether  they  can  all  be  traced  to  a  common 
origin.  The  number  of  turns,  that  of  the  scales  of 
each  spire,  the  angles  of  divergence  give  nothing 
with  certainty. 

It  is  not  under  one  particular  point  of  view,  but 
the  whole  of  the  elements,  considered  collectively, 
that  we  find  fixed  and  invariable  relations.  Thus, 
in  the  preceding  series,  each  fraction  is  the  sum  of 
the  fractions  that  precede  it,  which  gives  a  certain 
proportion  between  the  number  of  turns  in  a  spire, 
and  that  of  the  scales  which  constitute  it.  Example : 
1+  J=:|. ;  therefore  each  fraction  is  a  proportionate 
arithmetical  medium  between  the  two  fractions 
which  precede  it,  and  we  establish  the  following 
equation : 

5      3+2     2+2+1 

13^  8  +  5^5  +  5  +  3 
That  is  to  say,  one  spire  is  equivalent  to  the  reunion 
of  several  others,  whose  sum  is  equal  to  the  fraction 
which  represents  it.    This  the  author  proves  by  the 
figures. 

M.  Braun  infers  from  the  series  which  we  have 
established,  a  number  of  other  conclusions  which 
are  only  results  of  calculations,  translated  in  vulgar 
language.  We  have  reported  enough  to  give  an 
idea  of  his  manner  of  proceeding,  which  in  his  de- 
ductions are  entirely  mathematical,  verifying  never- 
theless the  justness  of  his  calculations  on  nature. 


Does  any  relation  whatever  exist  between  the  dis- 
position of  the  bracteas  of  a  cone  and  that  of  the 
leaves  on  the  branches  of  the  same  species  of  pine? 
Experiment  proves  that  there  does.  Thus,  on  the 
P.  abies  and  P.  picea,  the  buds  containing  the  clus- 
ters of  leaves  are  disposed  like  the  scales  of  the  cone 
according  to  the  series  if,  sometimes  j-f,  and,  finally, 
sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  fi.  P.  Canadensis  tt, 
also  the  P.  sylvestris,  P.  Larix,  P,  Eiiropsa  W;  ex- 
pressions which  are  often  identified  with  those  which 
we  have  found  for  the  cones  of  these  different  species. 
The  examination  of  a  catkins  in  the  Amenlacece, 
and  particularly  in  the  section  of  the  Beiitlinece, 
gives  results  analogous  to  those  which  we  have  ob- 
tained from  the  coniferous.  The  Betula  alba  and 
B ,  piibescens  give  ^V  and  ^^.  The  B.fruticosa  ge- 
nerally TT-  The  Alnus  glutinosa  and  A.  incana  .^-y, 
rarely  t^.  The  small  catkins  of  Coryliis  often  exhi- 
bit anomalies.  The  regular  spire  of  the  C.  avellana 
is  2T-)  that  of  the  C.  Americana  and  C.  tubulosa  ^\. 
The  male  flowers  of  the  Quercus  rohur,  of  the  Popn- 
lus  Nigra  and  P,  tremula,  are  placed  according  to 
the  divergence  §.  The  male  catkin  of  the  Carpinus 
bettdus  are  disposed  J.  The  leaves  are  ranked  ac- 
cording to  the  more  simple  spires:  |  in  the  genus 
Fagus,  Castanea,  Carpinus,  Corylus;  §  and  f  in  the 
leaves  of  the  willows  fSalix  cinerea,  S.  caprcea,  S. 
fragilisj,  and  the  poplars  (Populus  Ilalica,  P.  tre- 
mula J ;  I-  in  the  oaks. 


M.  BIOT  ON  THE  SAP  OF  PLANTS. 


In  all  my  experiments  the  motion  of  the  sap  appears 
to  me  to  proceed  from  the  eminently  hygroscopic 
quality  of  the  vegetable  tissue.  The  sap  received 
at  the  roots  evaporates  by  the  leaves,  whilst  between 
these  points  the  vegetable  tissue  acts  precisely  as  a 
cylinder  composed  of  animal  charcoal,  covered  with 
an  impenetrable  envelope,  and  witli  its  lower  part 
immersed  in  liquid.  The  column  is  thus  supplied 
with  all  the  liquid  that  it  can  contain  ;  the  vegetable 
tissue  becomes  itself  in  the  state  of  saturation  that 
suits  its  mass  under  the  existing  temperature.  This 
kind  of  equilibrium  being  established,  should  any 
cause — a  sudden  change  of  temperature  for  in- 
stance— increase  the  evaporation  at  the  extremity 
of  the  branches,  these  will  act  by  suction,  draw 
more  from  the  roots,  and  the  equilibrium  is  still  pre- 
served. Should,  however,  the  roots  come  to  furnish 
more,  and  the  leaves  evaporate  less,  then  will  ensue 
turgescence  in  the  vegetable  tissue  ;  and  if  a  hole  be 
made,  the  sap  or  liquid  will  overflow.  1  his  is  pre- 
cisely what  is  observed  in  the  birch  tree  in  spring, 
when  its  sap  begins  to  rise,  and  before  its  leaves 
have  come  forth  or  are  able  to  perform  their  task  of 
evaporation. 

As  another  trait  of  resemblance,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, that  the  lateral  action  of  heat  on  an  hygro- 


scopic column,  such  as  we  have  represented  the 
vegetable  tissue  to  be,  would  have  the  effect  of 
rendering  it  capable  of  less  saturation,  and  conse- 
quently, would  oblige  it  to  throw  out  a  part  of  the 
liquid  it  contains,  'i'his  is  the  effect  which  the  sun 
produces  upon  the  birch,  and  upon  other  trees, 
whose  sap  runs  out  at  this  peinod.  When  the  leaves 
come,  these  phenomena  cease  ;  the  task  of  evapora- 
tion is  performed,  and  the  sap  bursts  neither  from 
the  bark,  nor  through  an  orifice,  if  made. 

Now,  suppose  we  replace  the  impermeable  or  air- 
tight envelope  by  one,  on  the  contrary,  capable  of 
absorption  from  within,  and  exhalation  without,  the 
state  of  things  will  be  changed.  The  issue  of  the 
sap  or  liquid  by  the  sides  of  the  envelope,  will  be 
more  frequent  and  facile.  The  diminution  of  the 
exhaling  power  by  a  sudden  cold  will  favour  it,  and 
the  sap  will  burst  forth  at  once  from  all  the  pores  of 
the  tree  equally,  taking  into  account  merely  the 
different  degrees  of  thickness  in  the  bark.  Such  is 
an  account  of  the  emission  of  sap  by  the  sides  of  the 
nut-tree  and  sycamore  in  spring. 

The  influence  of  the  leaves  on  the  internal  motions 
of  the  sap  in  trees  being  thus  explained,  let  us  ob- 
serve what  will  be  the  consequence  if  these  leaves,  or 
great  evaporating  organs,  be  enveloped  with  a  colder 


8 


ON    IVY. 


atmosphere.  The  sap  conveyed  to  them  being  no 
longer  evaporated,  will  rest  and  collect  on  their  sur- 
face, and  check  all  evaporation,  especially  at  night. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  vegetable  tissue,  or  hygrosco- 
pic column,  being  thus  overcharged,  will  let  fall  their 
superabundance  upon  the  parts  that  are  lower,  which 
will  produce  a  descent  of  the  sap.  Hence  proceed 
the  alternative  ascent  and  descent  of  sap,  such  as 
have  been  noticed.  Moreover,  these  effects  will 
become  continuous,  if  the  evaporating  property  of 
the  leaves  should  diminish  before  the  supplying 
power  of  the  roots  ceases  to  throw  up  the  sap;  and 
this  is  precisely  the  case  in  September :  the  same 
trees  that  afforded  me,  but  their  ascending  sap  in 
the  spring,  in  September  afforded  a  continual  sweat. 
The  latter  was  no  longer  the  same  as  the  spring  sap, 
for  it  contained  no  saccharine  principle. 


M.  Biot  concludes,  from  his  experiments,  that  the 
alimentation  of  the  foliaceous  organs  is  accomplished 
principally  during  the  day ;  whilst  the  alimentation 
of  roots,  and  the  formation  of  new  layers  of  them, 
is  effected  during  the  night,  when  the  diminution  of 
evaporating  power  in  the  leaves  precipitates  the 
sap  in  a  descending  course  towards  the  roots. 

That  in  deciduous  trees,  the  annual  increase  of  the 
trunk  and  branches  taking  place  in  summer,  the  in- 
crease of  the  roots  takes  place  in  winter.  The 
ascending  motion  is  thus  suspended  by  the  cold,  and 
the  absence  of  leaves  allows  the  sap  to  accumulate 
in  the  roots,  which  experience  little  of  the  atmo- 
spheric variations,  and  which,  in  the  first  warmth  of 
spring,  send  up  their  accumulated  juices  with  force, 
through  the  uppermost  parts  of  the  tree. 


ON  IVY. 


BY    CHARLES    A 

Thot3gh  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  useful  and  enter- 
taining publication  edited  by  you  is  neither  perhaps 
so  well  calculated,  or  at  all  intended  for  the  admis- 
sion of  communications  from  occasional  correspon- 
dents altogether  unacquainted  with  the  subjects  of 
which  it  treats  in  a  scientific  view,  yet  as  it  strikes 
me  that  you  may  introduce  into  some  of  your  own 
judicious  observations  or  lucubrations  a  hint,  either 
generally  or  particularly  beneficial  to  society,  I  take 
the  liberty  of  putting  you  in  possession  of  the  fol- 
lowing observations  and  suggestions,  which  I  some 
time  since  made,  and  of  which  I  was  again  reminded 
by  reading  in  your  fourth  number  Dr.  Johnston's 
remarks  on  Ivy. 

It  appears,  at  least  in  this  country,  to  be  a  very 
generally  received  opinion,  or  rather  let  me  call  it 
prejudice,  and  one  neither,  as  I  think,  supported  by 
experience  nor  judicious  and  right  reasoning,  obser- 
vation of  the  laws  of  nature,  and  analogous  results 
under  similar  circumstances,  that  permitting  ivy  ex- 
ternally to  cover  the  walls  of  houses,  occasions  an 
internal  damp,  and  is  therefore  injudicious  and  inju- 
rious ;  whereas  I  am  persuaded,  both  by  experience 
and  observation,  that  the  very  contrary  is  the  fact, 
and  that  if  it  could  be  as  promptly  applied  and  made 
available,  it  would  be  a  far  more  effectual  preventive 
against  damp  walls  than  weather-slating,  or  any  other 
at  present  in  use. 

I  was  some  time  in  the  last  summer,  vvith  a  num- 
ber of  others,  inspecting  the  repairs  of  a  public 
building  in  this  town,  from  the  western  gable  of 
which  (by  the  way,  the  part  most  exposed  in  our 
climate  to  rain  and  storm)  a  complete  covering  of 
ivy,  of  several  years'  growth,  had  been  unnecessarily 
just  cut  and  torn  down,  when  I  observed  that  this 
was  a  most  unwise  and  uncalled  for  proceeding.    At 


BREW,    ESQ.* 

my  opinion  respecting  it,  the  gentlemen  present  ex- 
pressed surprise,  saying  that  it  must  occasion  internal 
damp  ;  all,  with  the  exception  of  one,  who  agreeing 
in  opinion  with  me,  said,  that  the  driest  part  of  his 
house  was  that  which  was  many  years  covered  with 
ivy,  and  that  it  was  evident  this  must  be  the  case,  as 
the  inside  part  of  the  ivy  by  the  wall  was  covered 
with  cobwebs,  and  just  as  dry  in  the  wettest  weather 
as  the  back  of  a  stove ;  which,  as  I  then  and  fre- 
quently before  observed,  was  a  natural  consequence 
easily  accounted  for,  from  the  self-evident  facts,  that 
the  ivy-leaves,  hanging  one  over  another  from  the 
ground  to  its  highest  point  of  ascent,  not  only  pre- 
vents the  rain  beating  against  the  wall,  but  carries 
away  the  drip  from  it,  and  that  the  small  clasping 
fibres  which  the  ivy  shoots  into  the  crevices  of  the 
wall  to  support  its  ascent,  acting  like  so  many  roots 
thirsting  for  the  nourishment  of  moisture,  must  draw 
away  any  occasional  damp  which  the  walls  might  be 
naturally  supposed  to  imbibe  or  attract  from  the 
earth  or  the  atmosphere. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  observations,  I  shall 
merely  say,  that  the  wall  of  the  room  in  which 
I  sleep,  which  is  exposed  to  the  north-west,  and  was 
some  years  since  exceedingly  damp,  being  neither 
externally  plastered,  rough-cast,  nor  weather-slated, 
is  for  the  few  last  years,  since  nature  has  clothed  it 
in  a  delightful  evergreen  covering  coat  of  ivy,  per- 
fectly dry :  nay,  even  the  glass  and  frame  of  the 
upper  window-sash,  which  I  suffered  the  ivy  to 
cover  for  a  year  or  two,  I  found,  on  removing  it  in 
the  last  summer,  covered  with  dry  dust  and  cob- 
webs, and  without  the  smallest  appearance  of  having 
ever  been  wet  through  their  verdant  cloak. 

Ennls,  Oct.  22,  1833. 


Other  communications  from  our  intelligent  Correspondent  would  be  acceptable.— Editor. 


SCIENCE   OF   GARDENING. 


9 


THE  EDITOR  ON  THE  SCIENCE  OF  GARDENING.* 


The  Hand  Book  of  Gardening,  formerly  announced, 
is  now  published,  and  we  think  our  readers  may  be 
pleased  to  see  how  one  branch  of  the  subject  has 
been  treated,  namely,  the  Science  of  Gardening  ;  a 
department  which  has  hitherto  been  sadly  neglected, 
both  in  large  and  small  works,  and  was  certainly 
never  before  brout^ht  at  so  small  a  charge  within 
the  means  of  purchase  of  the  labouring  classes,  and 
never  before  brought  so  level  to  the  comprehension 
of  all.  This  is  saying  a  great  deal ;  but  not,  we 
believe,  an  iota  beyond  the  facts,  as  our  readers 
may  judge  for  themselves  from  the  following  ample 
specimen  upon  the  Science  of  Gardening,  which  it 
may  be  remarked,  begins  at  the  beginning  by  ex- 
amining the  organs  tlirough  which  plants  are  nou- 
rished with  appropriate  food,  as  indispensable  to 
their  life  as  to  the  lives  of  animals.  These  feeding 
organs  are  in  the  Hand  Book  denominated 

"  MOUTHS  OF  GARDEN  PLANTS. 

"  Unlike  the  mouths  of  animals,  which  are  placed 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  the  mouths  of  plants 
are  placed  at  the  lower  part — in  the  root ;  though 
not  in  the  body,  nor  the  crown  of  the  root,  but  at 
the  very  tips  of  the  root  fibres. 

"  At  the  tip  of  every  root  fibre,  there  is  a  little 
mouth,  or  rather  a  spongy  sucker  ;  and  though  we 
cannot  discover  any  opening  there,  we  can  always 
prove  that  water  and  other  fluids  are  sucked  up  by 
these  root  tips,  which  are  called  spongelets,  in  the 
same  way  perhaps  as  ink  is  sucked  up  by  a  bit  of 
bloating  paper. 

"  The  largest  spongelets  I  ever  saw  were  in  the 
root  tips  of  a  willow  which  had  shot  into  a  pond  at 
Woolwich.  They  are  also  large  in  evergreens,  in 
gooseberry  trees,  and  in  heaths.  In  the  turnip  they 
are  to  be  sought  for  only  in  the  small  fibres  at  the 
tail ;  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  the 
tips  of  the  claspers  in  ivy  with  the  spongelets,  which 
are  always  under-ground,  and  never  on  the  bark  of 
trees,  as  is  ignorantly  supposed.  Ivy  therefore  does 
not,  as  is  supposed,  injure  trees  by  feeding  on  them. 

"  The  openings  or  pores  of  the  spongelets  are  so 
very  small  that  they  will  admit  no  liquid  thicker 
than  water,  and  no  solid  substance  however  fine. 

"  It  will  be  obvious  from  this  that  all  manure 
must  be  not  only  rendered  liquid,  but  also  be  as  thin 
as  water  before  it  can  be  sucked  up  by  the  sponge- 
lets ;  and  hence  even  the  drainings  of  stables  and 
dunghills,  which  are  very  rich  in  nourishment  for 


plants,  are  too  rich,  that  is,  too  thick,  to  pass  th^ 
small  openings  till  they  be  largely  mixed  with  water, 
without  which  they  will  choke  the  crops  instead  of 
feeding  them.  When  the  leaves  become  yellow  from 
this  cause,  they  are  ignorantly  said  to  be  burnt  by 
the  heat  of  the  manure.  In  the  same  way,  the  finest 
soot,  or  the  finest  powdered  lime,  bones,  or  shells, 
cannot,  till  dissolved  in  water,  get  tlirough  the 
spongelets  into  any  plant. 

"  It  is  on  this  account,  that  in  transplanting,  the 
tips  of  the  root  fibres  are  pressed  and  obstructed  by 
the  earth  of  their  new  situation,  and  are  therefore 
unable  to  feed  till  they  can  place  themselves  in  simi- 
lar freedom  in  the  earth  as  they  had  before  trans- 
planting. When  they  are  bent  or  obstructed  in  this 
way,  their  growth  is  also  prevented,  and  new  fibres 
spring  from  other  parts  of  the  root,  out  of  the  ma- 
terials which  would  otherwise  have  enlarged  the 
old  fibres, 

"  Plants  thus  acquire  a  greater  number  of  mouths, 
the  oftener  they  are  transplanted,  a  circumstance 
usually  acted  on  by  nurserymen,  who  shift  their 
young  trees  and  other  plants  for  the  purpose  of 
multiplying  their  root  fibres,  and  consequently  of 
strengthening  the  plants,  by  giving  them  a  greater 
facility  of  feeding.  This  is  also  important  in  cul- 
tivating cabbages  and  greens. 

"  Every  removal,  however,  must  tend  to  obstruct 
or  injure  the  root  tips,  and  of  course  check  growth 
by  preventing  them  from  feeding.  But  by  lifting 
plants  with  balls  of  earth  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
root  fibres,  or  by  taking  great  care  not  to  injure 
these,  and  at  the  same  time  spreading  them  carefully 
out  by  hand  in  their  new  situation,  Sir  Henry 
Steuart,  Bart.,  of  Allanton,  has  introduced  the  novel 
and  successful  practice,  founded  on  science,  of 
transplanting  even  the  largest  trees. 

"  THE  SORTS  OF  FOOD  TAKEN  BY  GARDEN  PLANTS. 

"  The  tips  of  the  root  fibres,  where  the  mouths 
of  plants  are  situated,  cannot  travel  artjout  like  ani- 
mals in  search  of  food,  and  being  fixed  to  one  spot, 
can  only  take  such  food  as  they  find  there. 

"  The  indispensable  ingredient  in  all  plant-food  is 
water,  to  dissolve  the  other  ingredients,  and  enable 
them  to  pass  into  the  root  tips  in  the  same  way  as 
the  fluid  in  an  animal's  mouth  is  indispensable  to 
mix  with  solid  food  when  chewed  for  rendering  it 
easy  to  swallow.  But  water  alone  will  not  nourish 
any  plant  well,  as  has  been  erroneously  asserted. 


*  The  Hand  Book  of  Gardening,  in  Principle  and  Practice,  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Self-Instruction.     Written  at  the  request  o^ 
J.  S.  Menteath,  Esq.,  Close  Burn  Hall,  Dumlriesshire.     ISnio.  Orr  &  Smith,  London,  1S34. 

VOL.  II.  NO.  X. — JAN.  1834.  C 


10 


SCIENCE    OF   GARDENING. 


"  Another  indispensable  ingredient  in  plant  food 
is  air — tlie  common  air,  which  when  mixed  with 
water,  as  it  always  more  or  less  is,  gives  it  that 
agreeable  brisk  taste  tliat  boiling  destroys  by  driving 
off  the  air. 

*'  It  is  on  tliis  account  that  the  watering  of  a  gar- 
den in  dry  weather  by  throwing  over  it  buckets  of 
water  from  a  pump,  as  I  have  sometimes  seen  my 
neighbours  in  Kent  do,  is  of  far  less  use  than  if  the 
pump-water  was  thrown  through  the  fine  rose  of  a 
watering-pot,  so  that  each  drop  might  mix  with  and 
carry  down  a  portion  of  air.  Rain,  again,  which  falls 
from  a  considerable  height,  must  carry  down  a  great 
deal  of  air,  and  hence  it  is  found  to  fertilize  more 
than  any  sort  of  watering  by  hand. 

"  When  the  water  supplied  to  plants  has  its  mo- 
tion stopped  by  any  means,  such  as  by  a  stiff  clay 
soil  on  a  dead  level,  it  becomes  unwholesome  food 
for  plants,  chiefly  from  not  having  an  opportunity  to 
mix  with  air,  which  it  can  only  do  by  moving  or  cir- 
culating freely. 

"  Soils,  where  water  does  not  circulate  freely,  are 
popularly  termed  cold  and  sour,  though  their  chief 
defect  is  the  want  of  a  due  supply  of  air.  The  water 
of  such  soils,  indeed,  tastes  vapid,  somewhat  like 
water  deprived  of  air  by  boiling.  Too  much  water 
in  a  soil  is  certainly  injurious;  but  even  a  rather  wet 
soil  will  be  greatly  benefited  if  all  its  water  be  kept 
in  free  circulation  by  judicious  draining,  levelling, 
and  sloping;  or,  in  the  case  of  stiff  clays,  by  ma- 
nuring with  coal  ashes  and  the  like,  to  open  the 
texture  of  the  soil. 

"  Besides  common  air,  the  water  or  moisture  in 
garden  soils,  is  always  more  or  less  mixed  with  a 
substance  termed  by  chemists  humic  acid,  or  humin, 
which  is  the  chief  nutritive  ingredient  in  dung,  stable 
drainings,  rotted  leaves,  peat,  turf,  and  dark  coloured 
loam.  Humic  acid,  however,  when  pure,  will  not 
mix  with  water,  and  plants  cannot,  of  course,  feed 
upon  it  till  it  be  so  mixed  and  thinned  down,  This 
is  effected  by  combining  humic  acid  with  lime, 
potass,  or  ammonia,  when  it  readily  dissolves  in 
water. 

"  The  utility  of  lime,  in  one  point  of  view,  may  be 
thus  seen,  though  it  is  seldom  useful  to  put  much 
lime  on  a  garden.  Hence  also  we  may  see  the  use 
of  the  ammonia  (popularly  called  hartshorn),  wliich, 
as  the  smell  fully  shews,  is  produced  during  the  fer- 
mentation of  urine  and  dung  ;  and  when  more  of 
this  is  produced  than  the  humic  acid  can  combine 
with,  it  streams  off  in  a  pungent  strong  smelling 
vapour,  supposed,  but  without  good  proof,  to  be  a 
serious  w-aste  and  loss  as  to  quantity  of  plant-food  in 
the  fermenting  manure. 

"  All  these  ingredients  in  plant-food  are  com- 
posed of  a  few  simple  gases,  as  follow  : 

"  Water  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  hydrogen  and 
one  part  of  oxygen. 


"  Common  air  is  composed  of  twfenty  parts  by 
bulk  of  oxygen  and  eighty  parts  of  nitrogen. 

"  Humic  acid  is  composed  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen. 

"  Ammonia  is  composed  of  three  parts  of  hydro- 
gen and  one  part  nitrogen. 

"  Lime  is  composed  of  a  metal  called  calcium  and 
oxygen. 

"  Potass  is  composed  of  a  metal  called  potassium 
and  oxygen. 

"  Potass,  lime,  and  ammonia,  are  often  combined 
with  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  also  contained  in 
small  quantities  in  common  air. 

"  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  these  simple 
principles  is  carbon,  the  chief  ingredient  in  humic 
acid,  and  which  is  nothing  else  than  pure  charcoal. 
It  is  this  carbon  that  constitutes  the  greater  portion 
of  the  solid  substances  in  all  plants,  while  water  con- 
stitutes the  chief  fluid  portion  ;  and  hence  hydrogen, 
which  is  contained  in  water,  in  humic  acid,  and  in 
ammonia,  is  so  important. 

"  In  order  to  understand  these  simple  principles 
well,  some  knowledge  of  chemistry  would  be  requi- 
site ;  but  to  go  minutely  into  the  matter  here  would 
lead  us  away  too  far  from  our  immediate  purpose. 
What  has  been  here  said  will  suffice  to  show  the  na- 
ture and  general  ingredients  of  plant-food.  Those 
who  wish  to  learn  more  are  referred  to  the  Alphabet 
of  Scientific  Gardening,  and  Alphabet  of  Scientific 
Chemistry. 

"  The  mineral  part  of  the  soil,  which,  exclusive 
of  lime,  is  composed  of  clay  and  flint  earth,  in  the 
form  of  sand  and  gravel  of  various  fineness,  together 
with  sometimes  magnesia,  iron,  and  a  few  other 
metals,  contributes  little  or  nothing  to  the  food  of 
plants.  These  portions  of  the  soil  appear  to  be 
chiefly  useful  in  dividing  and  diffusing  the  nutritive 
parts  arising  from  decayed  plants  in  natural  soils, 
and  from  various  manures  in  artificial  culture. 

"  On  these  principles  we  can  easily  account  for 
the  barrenness  of  stiff"  clays,  dry  sand,  and  more 
particularly  soils  chiefly  consisting  of  granite  sand, 
as  in  Arran  and  near  Plymouth  ;  while  in  the  in- 
stance of  sand  or  clay  from  basalt  or  whinstone,  as 
well  as  from  limestone  and  chalk,  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  tends  to  greater  fertility,  as  in  the  Lothians, 
Ayrshire,  and  Kent.  No  mixture  then  of  clay  and 
sand  will  be  fertile  without  limestone,  chalk,  or  ba- 
salt, that  is,  whinstone  ;  and  more  particularly  with- 
out decayed  plants  or  manures,  containing  a  large 
proportion  of  humic  acid,  and  other  combination  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen. 

"  Somemineral  substances  are  positively  injurious, 
such  as  iron,  and  perhaps  all  the  metals,  when  com- 
bined with  oxygen  or  acids.  JVlany  good  soils  indeed 
contain  iron,  known  by  the  reddish  rust  colour  it 
imparts  ;  but  in  that  case  they  would  appear  to  be 
fertile  in  spite  of  (not  on  account  of)  the  iron. 


SCIENCE    OF  GARDENING. 


11 


"  Such  is  the  sort  of  food  which  all  plants  feed 
upon|;  and  that  they  require  a  large  quantity  of  this 
food,  appears  from  the  experiments  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Hales,  who  found  that  a  hop-plant  sucked  up  four 
ounces  of  water  in  twelve  hours  in  a  shady  place, 
and  eight  ounces  in  a  place  more  open  ;  while  a  plant 
of  mint,  whose  roots  were  set  in  a  tube  containing 
water,  made  this  water  fall  an  inch  and  a  half  during 
the  day,  but  only  a  quarter  of  an  inch  during  the 
night. 

"  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  plants  feed  most 
heartily  in  the  day  and  in  open  places,  being  most 
probably  influenced  to  this  by  the  light. 

"  Artificial  watering  may  be  supposed  on  this  ac- 
count to  be  most  beneficial  early  in  the  morning, 
just  as  the  plants  are  commencing  their  breakfast. 

"  CHANGES  UNDEBGONE   BY  THE  PLANT-FOOD. 

"  As  plants  have  no  stomach  like  animals  for  the 
reception  and  digestion  of  food,  and  no  moving  in- 
testines for  carrying  through  the  body  what  has  been 
digested,  the  necessary  changes  similar  to  digestion 
take  place,  first,  in  the  soil  without,  before  the  food 
enters  the  root  tips  ;  and  secondly,  within  the  plant, 
more  particularly  when  the  food  has  reached  the 
leaves. 

"  The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  soil  before 
the  food  enters  the  root  tips,  consist  of  the  fermenta- 
tion of  decaying  leaves  and  other  parts  of  plants, 
and  the  circulation  of  such  portions  of  these  through 
the  ground  as  become  mixed  with  the  moisture 
derived  from  rains  and  dews. 

"  Heat  is  indispensable  for  producing  such  changes, 
and  hence  in  this  climate  they  do  not  take  place,  or 
at  least  very  slightly,  in  winter,  and  in  the  cold  wea- 
ther of  spring  and  autumn.  This,  however,  is  of 
less  moment,  as  the  plants  are  then  torpid,  like  bats, 
bees,  and  squirrels,  and  take  very  little  food. 

"  It  will  follow  from  this,  that  when  a  soil  is 
known  to  contain  rotting  weeds  and  other  plants,  or 
has  rotted  manure  spread  over  its  surface,  it  cannot 
be  too  well  dug  and  raked,  in  order  to  mix  the  richer 
parts  of  these  with  the  less  rich  clay  and  sand  ;  on 
the  same  principle  that  at  dinner  we  mix  in  eating 
the  richer  beef  or  mutton  with  the  less  rich  potatoes, 
cabbage,  and  bread.  Both  we  and  the  garden  plants 
must  have  a  large  portion  of  water  to  thin  or  dilute 
the  food,  otherwise  health  will  suffer.  The  water 
which  we  drink  in  the  form  of  tea,  coffee,  or  beer,  is 
similar  in  kind  to  the  manured  moisture  sucked  up 
by  garden  plants,  which  feed  solely  on  liquid  food. 

"  THE   SAP  AND  THE    PULP. 

"  When  the  water  containing  air,  humic  acid,  and 
other  nutritive  materials,  is  sucked  in  by  the  root 
tips,  and  is  carried  up  into  a  plant,  it  takes  the  name 
of  Sap.     This  is  in  most,  if  not  in  all  plants,  a  clear 


fluid,  slightly  sweet,  the  bulk  of  it  being  water,  but 
becoming  thicker  as  it  rises,  probably  from  mixing 
with  what  has  been  farther  changed  in  the  leaves. 
The  milky  matter  in  lettuce  and  dandelion  is  not 
the  sap. 

"  It  is  not  yet  known  whether  the  sap  rises  through 
vessels  similar  to  the  blood  vessels  of  animals,  or 
whether  it  rises  tlirough  the  tissue  of  the  plant,  as 
ink  spreads  through  bloating  paper,  or  water  through 
lump  sugar.  The  latter  is  the  opinion  of  some  of 
the  highest  living  authorities. 

"  It  is  not  of  any  practical  importance,  so  far  as 
I  know,  which  opinion  in  this  matter  is  adopted. 

"  The  sap,  in  whatever  manner  it  does  rise  through 
a  plant,  at  length  arrives  at  the  leaves  in  a  somewhat 
thickened  state,  and  is  spread  out  under  the  very 
thin  skin  of  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  in  a 
similar  way  as  the  animal  blood  is  spread  out  for  the 
same  purpose  in  the  minute  blood  vessels  of  the 
lungs. 

"  On  the  leaves  are  very  numerous  minute  open- 
ings or  pores,  often  smaller  than  pin-holes,  which 
appear  both  to  admit  air  and  permit  the  escape  of 
moisture,  similar,  probably,  to  the  nostrils  of  animals, 
or  rather  to  the  breathing  pores  of  insects. 

"  These  pores  have  raised  lips,  varying  in  form, 
which  shut  when  they  are  wetted,  and  also  in  the 
dark  ;  but  open  in  dry  air,  and  when  exposed  to  svin- 
light, 

"  The  pores  of  the  leaf  lead  to  small  air-cells, 
which,  when  larger  than  usual,  form  the  white  or 
yellow  spots  on  plants  with  variegated  leaves. 

"  Through  these  pores  the  sap  gives  off  two-thirds 
of  its  superfluous  water,  in  a  similar  way  as  the 
animal  blood  gives  off  its  superfluous  water  by  the 
breath  and  by  perspiration.  The  third  of  the  sap 
that  remains  will  of  course  be  much  thickened  by 
the  loss  of  so  much  water. 

"  This  third  I  call  the  jiulp^  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  crude  watery  sap,  with  which  in  books  it  is  very 
commonly  confounded.  The  pulp  is  of  similar  use 
to  plants  in  promoting  their  growth,  as  the  blood  is 
to  animals. 

"  The  pulp,  which  is  chiefly  composed  of  the 
carbon,  or  charcoal,  derived  from  the  humic  acid  of 
the  sap,  is  of  a  dark  blue  colour ;  but  the  trans- 
parent tissue  of  the  leaf  in  which  it  is  enclosed 
being  more  or  less  yellow,  the  combination  of  the 
two  colours  forms  a  green.  When  no  pulp  is 
formed,  the  leaves  accordingly  become  yellow. 

"  Several  important  inferences  arise  from  these 
facts.  The  change,  for  example,  of  sap  into  pulp 
cannot  take  place  in  the  dark,  sunlight  being  indis- 
pensable to  open  the  pores ;  and  hence  plants 
growing  under  thick  trees,  or  any  thing  that  ob- 
structs the  sun's  light,  cannot  well  effect  this  im- 
portant change,  and  the  pulp  being  in  consequence 

c  2 


12 


SCIENCE    OF   GARDENING. 


only  prepared  in  small  quantity,  they  become  slen- 
der, yellowish,  and  sickly,  for  want  of  due  nourish- 
ment. It  is  ignorantly  said  that  the  trees  draw 
them. 

"  Plants  in  pots  in  an  ill-lighted  window  suffer 
the  same  inconvenience,  and  bend  their  heads  as 
much  as  possible  towards  the  light,  not  that  they 
have  any  knowledge  of  the  use  of  it,  no  more  than 
a  hungry  infant  has  of  the  use  of  the  milk  which  it 
greedily  sucks  ;  but  because  in  the  part  most  ex- 
posed to  the  light,  a  greater  quantity  of  pulp  is 
formed,  which  renders  it  firmer,  heavier,  and  shorter 
than  the  part  less  exposed,  whose  laxness  causes  it 
to  give  way  and  lengthen,  on  the  same  principle 
that  a  piece  of  somewhat  moist  paper  will  bend 
when  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  fire,  from  the  side 
nearest  the  fire  losing  its  moisture  and  contracting. 
When  the  change  of  sap  into  pulp  is  in  any  way 
prevented,  as  by  shade  or  by  moisture,  the  leaves 
naturally  become  yellow,  as  when  plants  in  pots 
have  more  water  given  them,  in  saucers  or  other- 
wise, than  the  sunlight  can  cause  to  pass  off;  or 
when  they  are  root-bound,  and  the  root  tips  have 
not  room  to  feed. 

"  By  tying  the  leaves  of  lettuce  near  the  top,  the 
inmost  leaves  are  kept  from  the  light,  and  hence 
little  or  no  pulp  being  formed  there,  they  are  ren- 
dered white,  crisp,  and  tender;  as  cabbages  and 
savoys  grow  of  their  own  accord  without  tying, 
though  tying  will  hasten  the  process.  This  is  called 
blanching,  which  means  '  whitening.' 

"  In  all  cases,  the  more  light  plants  are  exposed 
to,  the  hardier  they  will  be,  provided  they  be  not 
gorged  with  too  watery  food;  and  the  less  light 
they  have,  the  more  feeble,  sickly,  and  yellow  they 
will  be.  Light  from  above  also  is  greatly  better 
than  side  light. 

"  The  importance  of  wide  planting  in  most  cases 
will  therefore  be  obvious  ;  for  if  potatoes,  cabbages, 
or  other  plants  are  crowded  together,  they  become, 
at  least  at  their  sides,  nearly  as  much  shaded  from 
the  light  by  each  other  as  if  growing  under  trees. 

"  AIR. 

"The  common  air  contained  in  the  sap  when  it 
first  arrives  from  below,  is  composed,  as  already 
shown,  of  twenty  measures  of  oxygen  and  eighty 
measures  of  nitrogen.  At  the  same  time  then  that 
two-thirds  of  the  water  of  the  sap  passes  ofl'  through 
the  leaf-pores,  a  considerable  portion  of  this  oxygen 
is  given  ofit';  a  process  that  tends  to  restore  to  the 
atmosphere  the  oxygen  consumed  by  the  breathing 
of  animals  and  the  burning  of  fires.  This  effect, 
however,  only  happens  during  daylight. 

"  At  night,  plants,  instead  of  giving  off  oxygen, 
take  it  up  from  the  air,  giving  off  carbonic  acid  gas ; 
and  hence  plants  in  pots  must  render  bad  the  air  of 


rooms  where  they  are  kept,  except  during  daylight, 
when  they  improve  the  air  where  they  grow. 

"  From  these  facts,  the  importance  of  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air  to  the  healthy  growth  of  plants  must 
be  obvious  ;  and  hence  a  garden  cooped  up  between 
high  walls  or  bushes,  even  though  it  have  plenty  of 
sunlight,  which  is  still  more  indispensable  than  free 
air,  will  never  produce  good  crops.  It  has  been 
supposed  by  some  also,  that  plants  require  to  be 
somewhat  moved  and  shaken  by  the  winds,  as  a 
sort  of  exercise  for  circulating  the  sap  and  the  pulp, 
inasmuch  as  they  cannot  take  walking  exercise  like 
animals.  This,  however,  is  only  an  ingenious  fancy. 

"  CAUSES  OF  THE  GROWTH  OF  PLAKTS. 

"  When  the  pulp  has  been  formed  from  the  sap 
by  the  loss  of  its  water  and  some  of  its  oxygen,  it 
passes  back  from  the  leaf  to  the  branch  or  the  stem; 
though  by  what  channels  is  no  better  understood 
than  those  by  which  it  came  from  the  root.  '  No 
man,'  says  Solomon,  '  can  find  out  the  work  that 
God  maketh  from  tlie  beginnin<i  to  the  end.' 

"  As  the  blood  of  animals  prepared  in  the  lungs 
by  losing  water  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  goes  to  form 
or  increase  the  bones  and  the  flesh  all  over  the 
body ;  so  does  the  pulp  of  plants  go  to  form  new 
branches,  leaves,  and  roots,  and  increase  in  size 
those  already  formed. 

"  The  great  use  of  the  leaves  will  now  be  under- 
stood, as  being  nearly  as  important  to  plants  as  the 
lungs  are  to  animals. 

"  When  plants  are  accordingly  stripped  of  their 
leaves  by  accident,  such  as  by  the  ravages  of  cater- 
pillars or  the  browsing  of  cattle,  they  either  die  or 
become  sickly,  till  new  leaves  (as  will  happen  in 
vigorous  plants)  sprout  again  to  prepare  the  neces- 
sary supplies  of  pulp.  My  neighbour's  savoys  this 
autumn  (1833)  were  devoured  by  caterpillars  down 
to  the  stumps  ;  but  I  advised  him  not  to  pull  them 
up,  and  they  formed  very  fine  little  heads  in  two 
months.  It  is  therefore  an  error  to  pick  off  leaves, 
as  is  sometimes  done,  with  the  intention  of  exposing 
fruit,  such  as  grapes,  to  the  sun  to  hasten  their 
ripening  ;  for  a  supply  of  pulp  is  still  more  import- 
ant to  their  ripening  than  such  exposures,  and 
without  leaves  no  pulp  can  be  formed. 

"  REJECTIONS  OF  PLANTS  AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

"  Plants,  like  animals,  do  not  appropriate  all  the 
food  which  they  take ;  and  having  the  means  of 
separating  what  is  useful,  they  reject  what  is  useless 
and  put  it  aside.  Independent  of  the  great  quantity 
of  water  and  gases,  which  plants  throw  off  by  their 
leaves,  they  also  throw  out  from  the  roots  a  sort  of 
excrementitious  slime,  different  in  different  plants  ; 
but  poisonous  or  injurious  to  the  same  kinds  of 
plants  which  throw  it  out. 


SCIENCE    OF   GARDENING. 


13 


"  The  fact  has  been  long  known  to  gardeners  and 
farmers,  that  they  could  not  get  good  crops  of  the 
same  kinds  from  the  same  piece  of  ground  season 
after  season,  though  the  cause  of  this  has  only  been 
investigated  of  late  years,  and  has  been  proved  by 
experiments  of  Brugmans  and  Macaire,  not  to  arise, 
as  was  formerly  alleged,  from  the  food  in  the  soil 
being  exhausted,  since  all  plants  feed  nearly  alike, 
but  from  the  excrementitious  slime,  which  acts  upon 
the  same  sort  of  plants  that  produce  it  as  a  slow 
poison.  Thus  the  slime  from  a  crop  of  cabbages 
will  greatly  injure  another  crop  of  cabbages,  though 
it  will  do  little  or  no  harm  to  potatoes  or  peas  ; 
while  the  slime  from  peas  will  injure  peas,  though 
it  would  not  injure  cabbages  or  turnips.* 

"  When  this  is  known,  it  will  prevent  two  succes- 
sive crops  of  the  same  kind  from  being  tried,  unless 
the  ground  be  so  trenched  and  dug  as  to  bury  the 
slime  deeper  than  the  roots  can  reach.  In  many 
parts  of  Ireland,  and  probably  of  Scotland,  the  slime 
from  potatoes  is  so  mixed  with  the  soil,  that  a  good 
crop  of  potatoes  cannot  be  had. 

"  HEAT,  COLO,  AND  SHELTER. 

"  Plants,  though  not  so  warm  as  animals,  are  in 
general  some  degrees  warmer  than  the  soil  they 
grow  upon,  and  in  winter  a  little  warmer  than  the 
air.  As  the  heat  in  animals  appears  to  be  produced 
by  the  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  breath- 
ing, t  so  the  heat  of  plants  is  probably  produced  by 
the  change  of  sap  into  pulp. 

"  The  external  heat  of  the  air  is  indispensable  to 
the  due  flowing  of  the  sap,  and  hence  it  flows  very 
slowly  in  winter  and  in  cold  weather.  The  stop- 
page of  the  flow  of  sap  at  the  beginning  of  winter 
is  erroneously  ascribed  to  its  descent  to  the  roots 
at  that  season. 

"As  heat  then  is  probably  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  the  flow  of  the  sap,  the  artificial  heat  produced 
by  hot-beds,  and  also  by  any  sort  of  shelter,  tends 
to  forward  the  growth  of  plants. 

"  Heat  is  very  equally  distributed  among  all 
things  on  the  earth's  surface,  by  a  process  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  water  always  coming  to  a 
level ;  that  is,  heat  will  always  pass  from  a  hot  sub- 
stance to  one  near  it  which  is  colder — from  the 
warm  ground,  for  instance,  to  the  cold  air,  till  the 
heat  in  the  ground  and  in  the  air  becomes  equal. 

"  Now  this  off-streaming  of  heat  from  a  warm 
substance  to  a  cold  one,  is  as  easily  prevented  as 
the  passage  of  light  by  any  thing  non -transparent ; 
as  we  have  only  to  interpose  something  that  heat 
will  not  easily  pass  through,  such  as  canvass,  flan- 
nel, or  straw  ;  on  the  same  principle  that  we  pre- 
vent the  heat  of  our  own  bodies  from  streaming  off 


into  the  air  by  means  of  dress,  which  will  be  more 
or  less  warm  in  proportion  as  it  can  prevent  the 
escape  of  animal  heat. 

"  Upon  these  principles  are  founded  the  different 
modes  of  sheltering  plants,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
preventing  them  from  being  robbed  of  heat  by  the 
cold  air.  Shelter  will  be  most  wanted  in  gardens 
during  clear,  cloudless  nights  in  spring  and  autumn; 
for  when  there  are  clouds,  they  prevent  a  great  deal 
of  heat  from  streaming  off  into  the  upper  air,  and 
hence  no  dew  (which  is  always  caused  by  the  mois- 
ture or  vapour  in  the  air  losing  its  heat)  is  ever 
formed  on  a  cloudy  night ;  and  the  same  holds,  for 
the  same  reason,  of  hoar  frost.  As  dew  will  form 
on  the  under  side  of  leaves,  it  is  an  error  to  say  it 
falls.  Snow  acts  similarly  to  clouds  in  preventing 
the  heat  of  the  ground  from  streaming  off. 

"  Tender  crops,  such  as  lettuce,  may  be  on  these 
principles  sheltered  during  continued  frost  by  hoops 
bent  over  them,  and  covered  with  mats,  straw,  or 
fern  leaves.  They  must,  however,  always  be  un- 
covered during  the  day  in  open  weather,  to  admit 
light  and  air. 

"  Rhubarb,  and  other  plants  and  flowers  whose 
stems  die  down,  ought  to  have  their  roots  covered 
over  during  the  cold  season  with  long  dung,  straw, 
or  silver  fir  branches,  removing  these  when  the 
leaves  shoot  up  in  spring. 

"  Plants  in  pots  ought  on  the  same  principle  to 
be  well  exposed  to  light  (not  side  light  if  possible) 
and  air  in  the  day-time,  at  least  when  it  does  not 
freeze,  but  closely  housed  every  night ;  for  the  win- 
ter nio-hts,  even  in  open  weather,  are  too  cold  for 
geraniums,  hydrangeas,  and  other  favourite  window 
plants. 

"  All  the  preceding  remarks  apply  exclusively 
to  plants  which  are  past  their  seed-leaf;  but  the 
principles  applicable  to  seeds  before  and  after  sow- 
ing, till  they  get  into  their  seed-leaf,  are  so  totally 
different,  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  point  out  the 
difference. 

"  SEED  SOWING. 

"  Every  seed  has  a  shell,  more  or  less  hard,  to 
protect  it  from  external  injury,  and  at  its  base  what 
is  called  the  seed-pore  (popularly  the  eye),  for  the 
passage  inwards  of  the  nutrient  pulp  before  it  is 
ripe,  and  for  the  passage  outwards  of  the  young 
plant  after  sowing. 

"  Within  the  shell  is  the  kernel,  consisting  of  the 
embryo  plant,  with  its  radicle  or  root,  its  gemlet  or 
stem,  and  the  neck  between  these,  besides  the  seed 
lobe  or  lobes,  containing  materials  for  nourishing  it 
in  the  first  stage  of  growth. 

"  In  order  to  begin  the  growth  of  the  embryo, 


•  Seethe  details  of  M.  Macaire's  Experiments,  Field  Nat.  Magazine,  Decemtier  1833. 
t  See  Alphabet  »f  Scientific  Chemistry,  p.  105  ;  and  Alphabet  of  Zoolngi/,  p.  85. 


u 


SCIENCE    OF   GARDENING. 


four  tilings  are  indispensable  ;  heat,  water,  air,  and 
darkness. 

"  The  heat  is  required  to  soften  the  nutrient  ma- 
terials in  the  lobes,  but  without  water  it  would  be 
more  likely  to  harden  these.  Pure  water  is  more 
advantageous  than  water  containing  humic  acid  or 
other  rich  materials,  what  is  contained  in  the  lobes 
being  sufficiently  rich. 

"  Freely  circulating  air  is  indispensable  for  sup- 
plying oxygen  and  carrying  off  carbonic  acid  gas,  a 
process  the  reverse  of  what  takes  place  in  leaves 
exposed  to  sunhght.  For  the  same  reason,  light  is 
injurious,  by  carrying  off  the  oxygen  requisite  in 
this  stage  of  growth. 

"  In  sowing  any  sort  of  seed,  these  four  circum- 
stances must  be  carefully  attended  to.  For  want  of 
heat,  accordingly,  seeds  will  not  come  up  during 
frost ;  for  want  of  water,  they  will  not  come  up 
when  sown  in  dry  sand ;  for  want  of  air,  they  will 
not  come  up  if  too  deep  in  the  ground  ;  and  if  not 
duly  covered,  they  will  not  come  up  from  having 
too  much  light. 

"  Most  seeds  are  benefited  by  steeping  them  for 
an  hour  or  two  in  pure  water,  which  in  the  cold 
weather  of  spring  may  be  made  milk-wann.  Pickles, 
train-oil,  urine,  and  other  steeps,  must  in  most  cases 
be  injurious,  and  will  never,  as  is  ignorantly  pre- 
tended, kill  the  eggs  of  insects,  even  if  such  be 
among  the  seed,  of  which  I  know  not  a  single  in- 
stance. 

"  Too  much  water,  however,  will  be  certain  to 
injure  the  seeds,  by  gorging  them  and  rendering 
them  dropsical  and  liable  to  rot.  Hence  the  well- 
known  benefit  from  sowing  in  dry  weather,  to 
insure  only  moderate  moisture. 

"  The  seed-lobes,  when  in  part  exhausted  of  their 
nutrient  naatter,  are  changed  into  seed-leaves,  and 
go  on  to  prepare  pulp  from  the  sap  now  taken  up 
by  the  young  root. 

"  The  seed-leaves  are  now  therefore  so  important 
to  the  very  existence  of  the  plants,  that  when  they 
are  eaten  off  by  insects,  as  is  done  to  seedling  tur- 
nips, radishes,  and  cabbage,  by  the  turnip-fly,  the 
crop  perishes. 

"  METHODS  OF  MULTIPLYING  PLANTS   NOT  }3Y  SEED. 

"  The  most  common  way  of  procuring  a  great 
nimnber  of  plants  of  one  kind  is  by  sowing  seed  ; 
but  some  plants,  as  the  foreign  geraniums  and 
most  double  flowers  do  not  ripen  seed ;  others, 
as  the  rose,  the  seeds  take  as  long  as  two  years  to 
come  up,  and  several  years  after  to  blow ;  and  in 
others,  the  plants  from  seed  are  very  different  from 
the  parent  plants.  These  circumstances  have  led 
to  other  methods  of  multiplying  particular  kinds, 
as  follow  : 


"  DIVIDING  THE  EOOTS. 

"  Every  root  has  what  is  called  the  crown  or 
neck,  and  in  some  roots,  as  the  potatoe,  a  similar 
part  is  called  the  eye,  attached  to  which  is  the  body 
of  the  root,  with  the  fibres  and  their  feeding  tips 
or  mouths. 

"  The  crown,  neck,  or  eye,  is  in  most  roots  the 
only  part  of  a  root  that  can  send  up  a  stem.  The 
exceptions  to  this  are  the  roots  of  mint,  horse- 
radish, iris,  Jerusalem  artichoke,  and  a  troublesome 
weed  in  gardens  called  ash- weed,  from  the  leaf 
resembling  that  of  the  ash,  the  least  bit  of  all  which 
roots  will  grow  ;  because  they  seem  to  be  rather 
under-ground  stems  than  real  roots. 

"  It  will  follow,  that  with  these  and  a  few  other 
similar  exceptions,  roots  will  only  be  capable  of 
being  divided,  when  they  have  more  crowns  or  eyes 
than  one,  as  in  the  small  bulbs  that  grow  at  the  base 
of  the  larger  bulbs  in  lilies,  daffodils,  tulips,  and 
snow-drops;  the  eyes  in  potatoes,  rhubarb,  dahlias, 
and  peonies  ;  the  crowns  in  primroses,  auriculas, 
sea  pinks  or  thrift,  and  double  rockets  ;  and  the 
side  branches  in  border-box  and  carnations. 

"  The  crown  or  eye  ought  to  be  cut  with  a  sharp 
knife,  so  as  not  to  tear  or  bruise  the  parts  ;  and 
should  if  possible  have  both  a  piece  of  the  body  of 
the  root,  and  also  some  fibres  with  their  tips  unin- 
jured. This,  however,  is  not  indispensable,  for  the 
crown  or  eye  alone  will  often  grow  ^vithout  any 
fibres  at  first,  as  in  auriculas  ;  though  the  fibres  will 
in  no  case  grow  without  any  part  of  the  body 
attached  to  them. 

"  SEPARATING  OFFSETS,  LAYERS,  AND  SUCKERS. 

"  Many  plants,  instead  of  having  a  number  of 
crowns  or  eyes,  have  only  one,  and  send  off  short 
stems,  like  the  daisy  and  houseleek,  or  larger  run- 
ners, like  the  sweet  violet,  ground  ivy,  and  the 
strawberry,  with  young  plants  at  the  end,  which 
readily  take  root,  and  may  either  be  allowed  to  root 
after  cutting  the  runner,  or,  if  it  is  required  to  make 
them  rather  stronger,  before  the  separation. 

"  The  time  for  doing  this  must  be  in  some  mea- 
sure regvdated  by  the  growth  of  the  ofl'sets,  and  by 
the  season  of  the  year ;  for  it  will  in  all  such  cases 
be  important  to  have  the  young  plants  well  rooted 
a  month  or  so  before  the  setting  in  of  frosty  morn- 
ings in  the  autumn. 

"  When  the  offsets  are  not  naturally  fitted  to  take 
root  of  themselves,  as  in  the  carnation,  an  operation 
called  layering  is  performed,  which  consists  in  inter- 
rupting the  passage  of  the  pulp  downwards  by 
making  an  upward  slit  with  a  penknife  half  through 
the  stem,  and  by  several  other  methods ;  then  fixing 
the  cut  part  a  little  under-ground  «ith  a  hooked 
peg,  when  root  fibres   will  form,   and  the  rooted 


ON   RUST   IN   CORN. 


15 


layer  may  of  course  be  removed  and  planted  else- 
where. 

"  Many  other  plants,  such  as  double  wallflowers, 
lilacs,  honeysuckles,  roses,  sweetbriar,  laurels,  and 
most  evergreens,  may  be  layered  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, it  being  a  very  certain  as  well  as  an  easy  mode 
of  getting  a  number  of  plants. 

"  The  young  plants  called  suckers,  which  spring 
up  from  the  deeper  roots  of  some  shrubs  and  trees 
at  a  distance  from  their  trunks,  as  in  the  currant, 
gooseberry,  rose,  lilac,  and  plum-tree,  may  be  taken 
up  with  a  bit  of  root  (with  root  fibi-es  and  their  tips 
if  possible)  attached  to  them.  These  however  will 
take  nearly  as  long  to  come  into  bloom  and  bearing 
as  plants  raised  from  seed,  and  in  this  respect  are 
inferior  to  layers  from  the  older  branches,  which 
usually  blow  soon. 

"  In  the  monthly  rose,  suckers  make  the  best 
plants,  as  they  do  also  in  the  sweetbriar ;  but  this 
does  not  produce  many.  Such  suckers,  when  long 
and  easily  bent,  may  also  be  treated  as  layers ;  and 
as  many  ne^v  plants  may  be  obtained  as  there  are 
buds  on  the  sucker,  by  making  a  ring-cut  through 
the  bark  below  each  bud,  and  laying  over  the  whole 
sucker  when  pegged  down  a  shallow  covering  of 
rather  dry  earth,  when  a  stem  will  rise  from  each 
bud,  and  roots  grow  from  each  ring  of  bark  that 
has  been  cut :  a  good  mode  of  multiplying  rose- 
trees. 

"  STItlKING  OF   SLIPS  OR  CUTTINGS. 

"  The  younger  twigs  of  some  plants  and  shrubs, 
and  even  large  trunks  of  such  trees  as  willow  and 
elder,  when  planted  in  the  ground,  will  continue  to 
live  almost  as  well  as  a  layer  attached  to  the  parent 
plant,  till  they  acquire  root  fibres ;  and  in  this  way 
many  plants  are  multiplied. 

"  The  success  of  this  process  depends  on  the  end 
of  the  slip  or  cutting  not  being  too  young  and  soft, 


otherwise  it  will  become  gorged  with  moisture  and 
rot ;  in  its  not  being  too  old  and  hard,  otherwise  it 
will  not  take  up  moisture  enough  to  keep  it  alive ; 
and  hence,  when  possible,  the  end  should  be  cut 
with  a  slope,  so  as  to  have  one  side  rather  soft,  and 
the  other  rather  hard,  taking  care  not  to  bruise 
the  bark  nor  leave  it  ragged.  For  the  same  rea- 
sons, both  a  very  moist  and  a  very  dry  soil  will 
not  answer,  though  the  last,  and  even  pure  sand,  is 
preferable  for  delicate  plants,  with  frequent  gentle 
waterings,  so  as  not  to  gorge  and  rot  them. 

"  As  the  life  of  cuttings  must  be  somewhat  feeble 
till  roots  are  formed,  they  ought  not  to  have  much 
light,  and  may  be  slightly  darkened  by  a  bell-glass, 
nor  many  leaves  and  no  flower-bvids  left  on  to  ex- 
haust them ;  and,  as  has  been  said  of  seed  sowing, 
they  ought  not  to  be  planted  too  shallow,  for  roots 
dislike  light ;  nor  too  deep,  for  roots  cannot  do 
without  air. 

"  The  ease  with  which  cuttings  of  currant,  goose- 
berry, and  monthly  rose  trees,  southernwood,  gera- 
niums, thyme,  sage,  and  many  other  plants  grow,  is 
known  to  every  body,  and  extensively  practised  at 
haphazard,  without  knowing  the  principles  just 
stated  ;  and,  consequently,  when  the  same  method 
is  practised  with  the  moss-rose,  sweetbriar,  myrtles, 
double  yellow  wallflowers,  and  other  plants  more 
difficult  to  strike,  as  it  is  termed,  no  reason  can  be 
given  for  disappointments.  Perhaps,  however,  there 
are  no  plants  that  may  not  be  successfully  struck 
by  cuttings,  if  care  be  taken  to  nurse  their  enfeebled 
life,  by  excluding  bright  light  and  preventing  en- 
gorgement till  they  can  form  roots." 

These  principles  are  in  the  succeeding  parts  of 
the  book  applied  to  the  practical  parts  of  kitchen, 
fruit,  and  flower  gardening  ;  and  the  whole  is  con- 
cluded with  a  Calendar  of  garden  work  to  be  done 
in  each  month  of  the  year. 


ON   RUST   IN    CORN.* 

EY    M.    STANDINGER,    FARMER   AT    FLOTBECK,    NEAR    HAMBURG. 


Cultivators,  all  over  the  world,  attribute  rust  to 
the  influence  of  a  malignant  dew,  or  to  what  is 
termed  blighting  weather.  This  opinion,  however, 
is  not  less  erroneous  than  that  of  those  who  attri- 
bute it  to  the  vicinity  of  a  barberry  bush  (Berberis 
vulgaris).  Professor  Hornemann,  of  Copenhagen, 
planted  some  corn  in  a  garden,  and  surrounded  it 
with  barberry  bushes ;  this  corn  was  not  attacked 
by  the  rust;  the  experiment  repeated  several  times 
always  produced  the  same  result.  Since  the  pro- 
scription of  the  barberry,  the  rust  appears  not  less 
frequently  ;   of  this,  the  year  1830  is  a  proof. 


The  author  thinks  that  rust  may  be  attributed  to 
the  re-union  of  many  causes :  such  as  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  too  vigorous  a  vegetation,  a  sudden  change 
of  temperature,  and  continued  drought  or  rains. 

The  following  are  the  facts  which  the  author  has 
cited  in  support  of  his  opinion 

During  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  the  tillage  of  the 
environs  of  Altona  has  furnished  a  proof  that  an 
exuberant  vegetation  may  become  the  cause  of  dis- 
ease. The  lierring  fishing  produced  so  abundantly 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  that  the  fishermen  laden 
with  these  fish  returned  up  the  river  and  offered 


Oken's  Isis,  3rd  for  1832,  p.  262. 


16 


ON  GROWING  EARLY  POTATOES. 


them  to  the  peasantry  at  so  low  a  price,  that  the 
latter  bought  them  for  manure;  some  of  them  mixed 
it  with  a  certain  quantity  of  good  earth,  and  ob- 
tained a  fine  harvest,  especially  on  sandy  soils : 
others  covered  their  fields  with  these  herrings,  and 
were  much  astonished  at  finding  the  wheat  and  oats 
attacked  by  rust  before  the  ears  were  formed.  Cold 
lands  produced  only  a  moderate  crop.  Potatoes 
thus  manured,  at  first  grew  very  rapidly ;  their 
leaves  were  of  a  blackish  grey,  and  in  November 
they  were  besprinkled  with  spots  of  rust ;  the 
storks  under-ground  produced  only  small  abortive 
tubercles,  which  were  also  covered  with  spots  of 
rust. 

Those  who  had  manured  their  meadows  with  a 
mixture  of  earth  and  herrings,  gathered  a  good  crop 
of  hay,  but  the  grass  was  invaded  by  the  rust  as 
soon  as  it  reached  a  certain  height.  In  1830,  the 
same  phenomenon  was  observed  on  all  sandy  soils. 
Having  been  sufficiently  watered,  they  were  co- 
vered with  magnificent  corn  which  were  soon  de- 
voured by  the  disease, 

A  previous  observation  serves  to  support  this 
theory.     In  1794,  the  author  went  on  an  agricul- 


tural journey  through  Holstein.  The  division  of 
property  had  been  lately  adopted,  the  produce  of 
agriculture  was  rising  in  value,  and  the  cultivators 
loaded  their  land  with  manure,  bestowing  no  other 
labour  on  it.  It  was  then  observed  that  the  corn 
was  pressed  down,  and  rust  became  more  frequent 
from  year  to  year,  while  the  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
tion of  the  corn  increased.  The  peasantry  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Hamburg  and  Altona  attributed 
the  rust  to  the  introduction  of  the  potatoe.  In  this 
opinion  they  were  both  right  and  wrong,  for  this 
reason  :  the  Dutch  had  formerly  monopolized  the 
sale  of  potatoes,  and  exclusively  furnished  the 
marshes  of  Hamburg  with  them  ;  but  when  they 
began  to  cultivate  the  blue  flowered  variety,  called 
Dutch,  they  could  no  longer  support  the  concur- 
rence, and  the  price  of  corn  having  at  the  same 
time  considerably  increased,  the  farmers  began  to 
manure  their  lands  to  excess  with  the  mud  of 
Altona  and  Hamburg,  and  thence  the  rust  was 
introduced  into  their  fields.  Thus  may  be  ex- 
plained the  coincidence  of  the  introduction  of  rust 
with  the  culture  of  potatoes,  without  any  direct 
reference  to  cause  and  effect. 


A  NEW  WAY  TO  GROW  EARLY  POTATOES.* 


On  walking  out  the  other  afternoon,  in  company 
with  some  friends,  we  were  caught  in  a  thunder- 
storm, and  obliged  to  take  shelter  in  a  farm-house, 
the  owner  of  which  was  known  to  one  of  the  party. 
During  the  storm,  tlie  conversation  turned  upon 
gardening,  and  our  host  gave  us  a  plan  for  raising 
new  potatoes,  which  I  send  you.  It  may  appear 
strange,  but,  as  he  says,  he  has  tried  it,  and  found  it 
to  answer  very  well.  At  all  events,  I  think  it  wor- 
thy of  consideration  and  a  trial.  I  will  give  his  own 
words,  so  far  as  my  recollection  serves. 

"  I  was  getting  up  my  potatoes  one  year,  in  that 
field  below  the  house,  when  the  thought  struck  me, 
that  by  planting  the  smallest  of  them  again,  imme- 
diately, they  would  grow,  and  I  should  have  new 
potatoes  very  early.  I  resolved  to  try  the  scheme, 
I  had  no  hot-house  or  green-house,  and  was  there- 
fore obliged  to  hit  on  a  plan  for  keeping  off  the  frost, 
which  I  did  as  follows.  I  chose  a  part  of  the  field 
in  which  I  was  working,  and  made  trenches  along 
the  top  and  sides  to  keep  it  dry.  I  then  covered  it 
a  few  inches  deep  with  litter,  put  on  a  few  inches  of 
soil,  and  planted  the  potatoes,  covering  them  again 
with  soil.  In  order  to  keep  the  earth  from  falling 
down  and  smothering  them,  when  they  began  to 
shoot,  I  stuck  sticks  and  brushwood  over  the  last 
layer  of  soil,  and  put  on  a  quantity  of  litter,  covering 


the  whole  with  soil.  One  of  my  neighbours,  who 
saw  me,  was  surprised,  and  said  he  was  sure  I  should 
have  nothing  in  the  end ;  but  I  told  him  to  come 
again  on  new  year's  day,  and  we  would  see.  We  did 
so,  and  we  opened  the  bed  and  found  new  potatoes 
about  the  size  of  a  marble  ;  I  then  told  him  I  would 
leave  it  until  the  6th  of  March.  I  did  so,  and  on 
opening  it  again,  the  new  potatoes  vi'ere  as  large  as 
an  egg,  exceedingly  well  tasted,  and  quite  mealy. 
I  showed  some  to  the  gardeners  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, who  would  scarcely  believe  me,  when  I  told 
them  how  I  had  grown  them." 

The  situation  in  which  they  were  grown,  and 
which  I  myself  saw,  was  on  the  north  side  of  a  hill, 
in  the  northern  part  of  Lancashire,  not  the  warmest 
situation  in  the  world,  as  you  may  imagine. 

The  idea  of  growing  potatoes  in  the  manner  above 
stated  is  good,  but  my  informant's  mode  is,  I  think, 
capable  of  improvement  If,  instead  of  the  side  of 
a  field,  an  old  hot-bed  were  used,  and  hoops  placed 
so  as  to  prevent  the  soil  from  falling  down  and 
pressing  on  the  young  shoots,  which  would  not  grow 
very  high,  as  potatoes  when  deprived  of  light  do  not 
grow  so  much  above-ground  as  they  do  naturally, 
I  think  early  potatoes  might  be  raised  without  any 
expense.  I  intend  to  try  it,  at  all  events,  and  hope 
I   some  of  your  readers  will  do  so  likewise. 


*  From  Hort,  Register, 


Melanthiinn.    viride 


L 


v^' 


Cvclamen  NedecefoU'UBi 


Thea  Chinensis 


DENDROLOGY. 


17 


MR.  WALLIS'S  DENDROLOGY.* 


This  is  a  very  singular  book.  It  is  the  production, 
as  we  have  been  informed,  of  an  old  man  who  has 
been  successively  a  common  sawyer,  a  feller  of  tim- 
ber, a  milkman,  and  a  timber  surveyor,  who  can, 
moreover,  do  little  more  in  the  way  of  letters  than 
subscribe  his  own  name  to  an  accovmt  for  work 
done.  He  boasts  in  the  preface  (page  vi.)  of  never 
having  read  any  work  on  botany  in  his  life  (for 
the  best  of  all  possible  reasons,  we  guess),  for  which, 
he  says,  he  was  praised  by  no  less  a  person  than 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  ;  it  being  hence  obvious  that  the 
President  of  the  Royal  Society  deemed  botany  use- 
less to  a  practical  man  like  Mr.  Wallis. 

The  work  is  creditably  written,  notwithstanding 
the  sine  eruditione  of  the  author,  who  scruples  not 
to  quote  Latin ;  but  it  contains  such  strange  doc- 
trines, that  our  readers  might  suppose  it  more  likely 
to  be  the  production  of  a  closet  dendrologist,  who 
had  never  seen  a  tree,  than  of  a  practical  man. 
Such  anomalies  however  now  and  then  happen,  the 
practical  man  stepping  out  of  his  beat  to  wander 
into  the  mazes  of  theory.  We  had  in  a  former 
number  a  striking  instance  of  this  in  Mr.  Main, 
who  fancies  the  life  to  be  a  particular  member  of  a 
plant ;  and  here  we  have  a  still  deeper  plunge  into 
theory,  for  Mr.  Wallis  maintains  that  the  root  is  not 
essential  to  the  nourishment  of  plants  at  all.  It  is 
very  obvious  he  might  as  well  maintain,  that  his  ow  n 
mouth  is  not  essential  to  convey  food  to  his  stomach. 
Here  are  his  conclusions  from  a  few  facts  stated  in 
the  first  twenty-two  pages. 

"  From  the  various  specimens  and  experiments 
already  laid  before  my  readers,  they  will  be  able 
dearly  to  deduce,  that  trees  possess  the  following 
properties : — 

"  First, — That  trees  that  have  been  felled  in 
winter,  can,  nevertheless,  produce  leaves  and  shoots 
in  spring,  as  if  growing  in  their  natural  position  in 
the  earth. 

"  Second, — That  trees  have  their  bark  full  of  sap 
in  activity  in  the  spring,  although  felled  in  the  win- 
ter of  the  preceding  year. 

"  Third, — That  trees  that  have  lost  their  bark 
from  the  trimks,  can  produce  fine  heads,  and  live 
many  years,  and  even  throw  out  shoots, — a  circum- 
stance which  has  been  more  particularly  observed 
in  limes,  elms,  and  thorns. 

"  Fourth, — That  trees  that  have  been  ringed,  and 
have  at  tliat  part  had  their  liber  scraped  away,  can 
still  produce  heads  and  leaves,  and  a  greater  in- 
crease in  the  portion  of  their  trunks  above  the  ring, 
than  they  would  had  they  been  left  in  a  state  of 
nature ;   whereas,  no  increase  or  growth  ever  takes 


place  in  the  trunk  below  the  part  ringed ; — on  the 
contrary,  it  prematurely,  though  slowly,  dies. 

"  Fifth, — I'hat  the  branches  of  trees  continue  to 
live,  to  be  supported,  and  grow,  after  both  trunk 
and  bark  have  become  rotten. 

"  Sixth,^ — That  branches  possess  the  property  of 
forming  bark,  and  bark  the  property  of  producing 
boughs  and  roots,  some  of  which  latter  are  often 
found  projecting  and  hanging  down  from  many  feet 
above  the  earth,  and  even  growing  into  the  trunk 
again, — for  each  branch  is  perfect  in  itself,  and 
independent  of  its  trunk. 

"  Seventh, — That  decayed  trunks  grow  heads  as 
readily  as  sound  trees  ;  and  that  so  also  does  the 
mere  shell  of  bark,  which  is  well  shown  by  some 
aged  elms  in  Hyde  Park  at  this  time. 

"  Eighth, — That  bark  from  the  branches  grows 
downwards,  covers  and  shields,  or  heals  over,  that 
part  of  the  tree  from  which  limbs  have  been  lopped ; 
and  that  the  upper  portion  of  a  trunk  can  re- produce 
bark,  and  project  it  downward,  and  recover  parts 
stripped  of  their  bark. 

"  Ninth, — That  the  head  of  a  tree  can  live,  thrive, 
and  produce,  when  suspended  in  the  air,  and  even 
after  its  own  trunk  has  entirely  rotted  away. 

"  Tenth, — That  a  tree  will  even  continue  to  live, 
to  grow,  and  to  produce  leaves,  buds,  blossoms  and 
fruit,  for  years  after  its  trunk  may  have  been  di- 
vided, and  all  communication  with  the  earth  com- 
pletely cut  off. 

"  Eleventh, — That  gooseberry  and  other  trees 
will  grow  and  produce  roots  when  inverted, — their 
branches  set  in  the  earth,  and  their  roots  projecting 
up  in  the  air; — and  that  the  vine,  the  ivy,  &c.  will 
produce  roots  or  shoots,  at  either  end  of  their 
branches  indifferently,  or  from  any  knot  in  their 
structure. 

"  Twelfth, — That  trees  continue  to  live  after  their 
roots  have  rotted  away ;  and  without  branches  when 
all  of  them  have  been  cut  away, — as  in  the  instance 
of  the  withy. 

"  Last, — That  shells,  with  bark,  can  re-produce 
roots,  woody  fibre  and  heart,  and,  in  fact,  nearly 
constitute  itself  a  new  tree ;  and  so,  inversely,  can 
roots. 

"  If,  after  the  facts  already  related,  and  espe- 
cially after  the  ringing,  and  thereby  the  destroying 
of  the  vessels  supposed  to  have  the  only  power  to 
convey  the  sap  from  the  root  to  the  extreme  rami- 
fications,—I  say,  if  the  upper  part  do  still  continue 
to  live,  and  to  receive  a  due  supply,  nay,  even  to 
grow  more  luxuriantly,  whilst  all  parts  below  the 
ring,  and  its  bark  and  roots,  die, — I  say  then,  this 


•  Dendrology,  &c.  by  John  Wallis,  Timber  Surveyor.    8vo.  London,  1833. 
MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,    VOL.  II.  NO.  XI. — FEB.  1834. 


18 


DENDROLOGY. 


proves,  beyond  the  possibility  of  a  rational  doubt, 
that  the  juices,  or  immediate  causes  of  continuation 
of  life  and  circulation,  are  conveyed  through  other 
channels  than  the  roots,  or  upwards  through  the 
stem, — and  which  position  is  satisfactorily  main- 
tained by  the  very  extraordinary  fact,  that,  with 
due  precautions,  you  may  cut  through  the  trunk,  or 
remove  the  bark,  and  yet  that  the  portion  of  trunk 
and  branches  of  the  tree  above  the  division  will 
live,  increase,  and  produce,  for  years  after  such  dis- 
severance. The  roots  themselves  may  rot  away, 
and  yet  the  trvmk  can  live  on  and  form  new  roots. 

"  Now,  as  the  trunk  possesses  the  power  to  live 
without  its  roots,  so  ought  the  correspondent  part, 
the  plumula  of  the  seed,  to  possess  the  same  power ; 
and  I  have  ascertained,  by  the  following  experi- 
ments and  many  others,  that  it  does. 

"  I  removed  the  caudex  from  the  plumula  of  a 
growing  pea ;  yet  the  plumula  lived  on,  and  grew 
to  six  times  the  size  it  had  attained  prior  to  the 
removal  of  its  caudex ;  and  this  happened  in  spite  of 
the  cold  temperature  of  the  pi-esent  March,  and  the 
germination  being  caused  to  take  place  out  of  its 
natural  season. 

"  It  therefore  manifestly  appears  to  me,  that  the 
opinion  of  the  botanists,- — viz.  that  an  acorn,  (seed, 
or  the  like,)  when  germinating,  must  '  first  strike 
down  a  root,'  or  radicle,  for  the  support  of  the  plu- 
mula,— is  an  alogy  !  a  perfect  non-sequitur  !  And 
in  manifestation  hereof,  a  pea  (or  other  seed)  put 
into  water,  germinates  ;  and  by  the  time  the  peri- 
carpium  bursts,  the  plumula  is  in  existence,  and  a 
caudex,  not  furnished  with  radicula,  is  thrown  out; 
and  both  the  caudex  and  plumula  are  supported  for 
days  after  this  by  the  cotyledons  of  the  seed  alone, 
and  not  by  the  caudex  :  and  nearly  twelve  days  will 
elapse  from  the  commencement  of  germination  be- 
fore a  single  radicle  is  formed.*  Now,  very  long 
before  this  period  the  plumula  will  have  shot  out, 
have  erected  itself,  partly  have  expanded  its  leaves, 
and  doubly  outgrown  the  size  of  the  very  caudex 
itself, — v/nich  by  the  botanists  is  said  to  be  the 
means  of  support,— and  at  least  one  half  of  that 
caudex  will  generally  by  this  period  have  withered, 
and  its  end  be  twisted  upwards. 

"  The  radicles  are  now  about  formed,  and  sent 
out  by  the  remaining  portion  of  the  caudex,  or  im- 
mediately beneath  the  base  of  the  plumula,  or  by 
the  plumula  alone ;  and  then,  indeed,  when  the  cau- 
dex has  been  furnished  with  the  remainder  of  its 
parts,  i.  e.  tlie  radicula,  can  we  say  the  radix  is 
complete,  and  not  before. 

"  The  caudex  is  at  times  but  partially,  and  at 
other  times  not  at  all,  developed f  during  the  pro- 


cess of  germination ;  and  yet  just  as  vigorous  a 
plumula  is  formed,  and  as  fine  a  plant  is  produced, 
as  if  the  caudex  had  been  first  projected  from  the 
seed. 

"  And  hence  I  maintain  that  it  is  the  corculum 
itself  that  has  the  power  of  propagation  and  sup- 
port before  the  radicle  is  in  existence,  and  that  this 
power  in  the  corculum  is  first  exerted  to  complete 
the  plumula,  and  then  the  radix ;  and  that  if  it  fails 
in  this  its  primary  object,  the  radicle  will  not  be 
projected  at  all,  nor  will  any  plant  be  formed;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  the  caudex  may  be  pinched  or  cut 
off,  J  and  yet  the  plumula  may  live  on  and  produce 
the  plant. 

"  The  former  theory  in  explanation  of  tliis-sub- 
ject  by  the  botanists,  is  looking  to  a  secondary  cause 
for  a  primary  effect,  which  is  alike  contrary  to  fact 
and  reason;  and  I  ask.  If  the  corculum  and  seed  or 
pea,  have  the  power  to  form,  and  give  support  for 
a  time  to  both  the  plumula  and  the  radicle,  why 
should  it  be  thought  incapable  of  supporting  for  a 
time  the  plumula  alone,  which  requires  but  a  smaller 
portion  of  this  acknowledged  power  ? 

"  Having  collected,  brought  forward,  and  related 
in  the  foregoing  part  of  this  work,  reasons,  experi- 
ments, and  proofs  which,  I  think,  are  more  than 
sufficient  to  overturn  the  theories  and  the  received 
opinions,  that  the  roots  are  the  way  and  means,  or 
channel,  or  conduit  of  nutrition  from  the  earth ;  and 
that  the  radicle  is  the  primary  support  of  the  plu- 
mula,— I  shall  proceed  to  describe  a  more  simple 
theory,  founded  too  on  a  more  simple  process,  by 
which  I  think  a  tree  really  lives,  and  by  which  it 
carries  on  its  circulation,  and  whereby  I  get  rid  of 
the  difficulty  of  fluids  rising  against  gravity  :  viz. 
by  showing  that  the  sap  and  juices  descend,  and 
therefore  are  generally  assisted  by  that  power ;  and 
thus  vvill  the  theory  be  simplified,  and  anomaly  got 
over,  and  all  be  more  in  unison  with  the  general  law 
of  Nature, — omnipotent,  omniscient,  all-marvellous 
as  she  is. 

"  It  is  well  known  to  the  physiologist,  that  Nature 
ever  adopts  the  simplest  means  to  effect  her  pur- 
poses :  and  therefore  it  seems  more  than  probable, 
where  extravagantly  complicated  means  appear  to 
be  employed  in  producing  complicated  effects,  that 
we  are  totally  in  the  dark  as  to  the  true  modus 
operandi." 

On  the  subject  of  training  we  have  the  following 
remarks,  which  we  leave  our  readers  to  appreciate 
for  themselves. 

"  As  all  trees  receive,  as  I  have  proved,  their  only 
nutriment — the  sap — directly  through  their  top  or 
head,  it  is  evident  that  a  tree,  intended  to  grow  fast 


*  "  Is  not  a  sufficient  example  of  the  above  fact  exhibited,  by  a  slip  or  cutting  hanng  the  power  to  throw  down  a  root  ?  for  '  each 
branch  is  pel  feet  in  itself,'  as  is  truly  set  forth  in  the  Scriptures. 

f  "  This  latter  circumstance  occurred  in  two  instances  out  of  a  few  germinaling  peas. 
X  "  This  experiment  was  made  several  times,  and  with  similar  success. 


DENDROLOGY. 


19 


and  produce  good  wood,  should  always  have  the 
largest  possible  quantity  of  head  left  for  its  sup- 
port ;  never  forgetting  that  it  is  the  top  and  leaves 
alone  that  prepare  and  transmit  the  sap  and  nutri- 
ment. I  can  safely  assert,  that  one  half  the  timber 
grown  in  Great  Britain  is  utterly  spoiled  by  inatten- 
tion to  those  valuable  rvdes,  and  whicli  have  been 
drawn  from  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  descent 
of  the  sap. 

"  The  gardener,  alike  uninformed  on  this  practi- 
cal point,  and  acting  upon  the  old  received,  but 
mistaken,  belief,  viz.  that  sap  rises  from  the  roots, 
is  led  to  remove  even  the  last  year's  shoots,  and  to 
cut  away  too  largely  from  the  heads  of  trees :  and 
the  reward  of  this  false  theory  and  practice  is,  that 
his  constant  care  and  labour  will  invariably  lead  to 
a  very  diminutive  crop ;  and  the  fruit  so  produced 
will  alwaj's  be  found  less  in  size  than  the  same  trees 
would  have  borne  had  they  been  properly  pruned, 
or  even  left  wild. 

"  As  a  general  ride,  then,  no  fi'uit-tree  should  be 
cut  or  pruned,  or  leaves  removed,  except  during 
the  months  of  January,  February,  and  March;  and 
the  common  practice  of  cutting  wood  and  removing 
leaves  at  Midsvunmer,  when  the  tree  most  needs 
support,  is  highly  improper  and  injvirious,  and 
savours  of  ignorance. 

"  I  made  the  following  experiment  in  exemplifi- 
cation of  this  point.  The  vine  of  a  next-door  neigh- 
bour grew  up  the  back  of  the  house.  I  begged 
leave  to  train  over  the  party-wall  some  few  of  the 
branches.  I  carried  them  horizontally  along  my 
wall  above  a  window,  and  the  first  year  they  bore 
little  or  no  fruit.  I  let  them  grow  on  without  cut- 
ting any  part  from  them  until  the  next  winter ;  then 
I  cut  off  the  wood  1  did  not  wish  to  train  up.  In 
tlie  following  year  I  found  these  branches  grow 
luxuriantly,  and  throw  out  more  fruit.  I  again  let 
them  go  without  pruning  imtil  the  third  winter.  In 
the  following  season  I  had  an  immense  number  of 
bunches  produced,  considering  the  size  of  the 
branches.  My  neighbour,  who  pruned  his  part  of 
the  same  tree  at  Midsummer,  and  who  had  almost 
the  whole  vine,  and  in  the  same  aspect,  had  not  six 
bunches  of  his  grapes  that  weighed  so  much  as  some 
one  of  mine.  I  possessed  many  bunches  (of  these 
white  cluster  grapes)  a  pound  and  a  half  each  in 
weight 

"  But  to  conclude  the  subject  of  decay  in  timber, 
I  may  state,  that  when  a  large  portion  of  bark  is 
injured  or  bruised,  it  dies,  and  after  a  time  falls  off, 
and  then  the  surface  of  the  wood,  called  sap-wood, 
remains  exposed.  This  part  of  the  trunk  is  white, 
but  has  witliin  it  a  deeper-coloured  part,  called  the 
heart-wood,  and  this  is  most  distinct  and  best  seen 
in  oaks  and  elms.  The  bark  will  cover  over  the 
surface  of  this  defect ;  but,  nevertheless,  the  white 
wood,  called  sap-wood,  is  invariably  found  decayed 


when  the  tree  is  converted  into  use.  Yet  it  should 
be  observed,  that  underneath  the  bark  that  grew 
over  the  injury,  new  sap-wood  will  be  produced  the 
following  year  under  the  bark,  and  over  the  old  de- 
cayed wood  that  had  been  exposed  ;  and  even  new 
heart- wood  will  in  time  be  formed  exterior  to  the 
old  rotten  portion  of  wood,  which  the  year  or  two 
before,  viz.  at  the  time  of  the  injury,  was  the  outer 
portion  of  the  ti-unk,  but  which  has  now  become  the 
inner  portion  of  it.  So  complete  in  their  formation 
are  these  new-deposited  parts  upon  the  old  trunk, 
that  no  observer,  after  a  time,  is  capable  of  seeing 
any  defect  in  that  portion  of  the  tree  from  without. 
This  fact  is  too  well  known,  and  to  the  cost  of  the 
timber-merchant,  who  frequently  purchases  such 
trees  as  sound,  but  on  converting  them  into  use, 
finds  himself  considerably  out  of  pocket,  in  conse- 
quence of  such  portion  of  timber  not  being  fit  for 
the  purposes  to  which  he  had  designed  it. 

"  A  similar  defect  is  also  produced  when  the  bark 
is  removed  from  the  roots,  and  they  themselves 
have  become  rotten  This  is  the  cause  of  hollow- 
ness  towards  the  bottoms  of  trees ;  and  the  roots 
first  decay,  and  then  are  soaked  by  water  abun- 
dantly, which  gradually  finds  its  way  up  the  trunk. 
From  this  cause  1  have  often  observed  trees  to  be- 
come rotten  to  the  extent  of  twenty  feet  from  their 
base.  Such  old  shells  will  frequently  be  seen  to 
put  out  new  roots,  and  to  re-]iroduce  branches, 
which  thrive  and  grow  much  quicker  in  proportion 
than  those  of  young  and  sound  trees,  as  there  is  no 
longer  a  trunk  to  be  supported. 

"  When  roots  decay  without  mouldering  away, 
they,  by  conducting  wet  for  many  years,  produce 
red  or  foxy  timber,  which  is  totally  useless,  for, 
although  it  looks  sound  when  cut,  on  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere  it  soon  completes  this  incipient  de- 
cay, and  moulders  the  timber  into  dust,— a  circum^ 
stance  by  which  ship-builders  are  much  annoyed, 

"  Decayed  roots,  above  thus  spoken  of,  are  most 
frequently  met  with  in  those  trees  that  have  lived 
long  enough  to  become  feeble,  and  to  have  lost  the 
power  of  sufficiently  supplying  their  roots  with  sap, 
which  is  reason  sufficient  to  account  for  such  fre- 
quent decay  of  root  and  base  in  the  same  tree.  We 
most  frequently  find  this  peculiar  red  timber  in 
trees  that  have  grown  upon  stubs,  and  on  that  side 
of  the  tree  on  which  the  roots  have  died,  and  also 
on  that  side  of  the  tree  on  which  no  new  roots  have 
since  formed  from  the  bark. 

"  The  decaying  portion  of  old  root  always  leaves 
a  vacancy,  by  which  air  and  moisture  enter  the 
trunk  and  destroy  it.  If  such  trees  be  cut  down 
soon  enough,  the  timber  is  scarcely  injured ;  but  if 
cut  late,  it  is  found  to  have  become  red ;  and  if  al- 
lowed to  stand  still  longer,  perfect  rottenness  will 
invariably  be  found  to  have  ensued. 

"  I  have  now  proved,  to  the  satisfaction,  I  trust, 

D  2 


20 


ON   EXCRETIONS    FROM    THE    ROOTS   OF    PLANTS. 


of  my  unprejudiced  readers,  the  various  positions 
I  advanced  in  the  course  of  this  work  ;  and  I  hope 
I  have  clearly  shown  that  trees  and  vegetables  do 
not  receive  their  sap  or  nutriment  from  the  earth, 
but  that  it  only  serves  to  prevent  the  evaporation 
from  the  roots,  imparts  warmth,  and  acts  as  a  ful- 
crum !  1  have  shown  in  the  second  chapter  that  the 
leaves  prepare  the  sap,  and  that  the  bark  conveys 


and  circulates  it,  and  that  its  course  is  invariably 
from  above  downward,  through  the  trunk,  and  so 
onward  to  the  roots,  when  any  exist :  and  I  have 
set  forth  a  rational  method  of  pruning,  founded  on 
the  above  knowledge ;  and  I  have  shown  how  decay 
may  be  prevented,  and  a  larger  quantity  of  sound 
timber  grown." 


ON  EXCRETIONS  FROM  THE  ROOTS  OF  PLANTS. 

BY    MR.    TOWERS.* 


I  SHALL  state  the  facts  which  led  me  to  the  opinion 
that  I  formed  about  four  years  since,  and  in  which  I 
have  been  confirmed  by  repeated  subsequent  obser- 
vations. It  was  notorious  that  many  crops  could  not 
be  made  to  succeed,  if  repeatedly  placed  in  the  same 
individual  portions  of  ground.  Manures  were  found 
ineffectual ;  and,  therefore,  the  deterioration  of  the 
crops  coidd  not  proceed  from  a  want  of  sufficient 
aliment.  The  necessity  of  a  rotation  was  observ- 
able chiefly  in  the  farm ;  still,  however,  the  garden 
afforded  many  instances  confirmatory  of  the  fact. 
As  I  was  writing  solely  upon  the  produce  of  the 
garden,  it  occurred  to  me,  when  treating  upon  the 
singular  and  sudden  deterioration  of  the  raspberry, 
that  to  the  same  causes  which  produced  the  destruc- 
tion of  a  fruit-bearing  shrub,  might  be  ascribed 
the  debility  that  ever  followed  the  successive  repe- 
tition of  a  corn-crop  upon  the  farm.  I  had  observed 
that  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  the  raspberries  ac- 
quired a  peculiar  colour  and  texture  ;  it  differed 
from  that  of  any  other  soil  of  the  garden  :  manure 
was  freely  applied,  and  still  the  plants  became 
weaker,  shorter  in  growth,  and  less  fruitful.  I  did 
not  know  the  age  of  my  plants,  because  the  bed  had 
been  formed  before  I  came  into  possession  of  the 
ground  ;  but  I  really  ascertained  that  plants  of  the 
white  Antwerp  variety,  which  I  purchased  and 
placed  alongside  of  an  outermost  row  of  the  bed, 
would  not  take  to  the  soil ;  and  about  the  period 
that  the  whole  had  become  almost  worthless,  I  saw 
several  remarkably  fine  plots  of  the  shrub,  and  con- 
versed with  the  owners,  from  whom  I  learned  a 
variety  of  facts,  which,  though  detailed  in  the  plain, 
imishilosophical  manner  of  cottage  gardeners,  led 
me  to  conclude  that  the  raspberry  plant  deposited 
feculent  matter  in  the  soil,  which,  after  a  certain 
period,  rendered  the  soil  vitterly  unfit  to  support 
the  shrub,  and  enable  it  to  produce  fine  fruit.  Re- 
flection and  recollection,  at  the  same  time,  informed 
me  that  a  variety  of  vegetable  crops  imparted  a 
manifest  odour  to  the  soil;  so  much  so,  that  in  dig- 
ging uj)  a  crop,  the  whole  plot  was  perceived  to  be 


imbedded  with  a  specific  aroma.  I  confirmed  these 
facts,  and  then  wrote  the  passages  that  I  have 
quoted  in  the  early  part  of  this  article.  Subse- 
quent observations,  and  much  experience,  have  con- 
firmed the  opinion  that  I  then  noted  down  ;  so  that 
the  reader  may  rely  upon  the  correctness  of  the 
following  facts.  When  peas  are  sown  in  pots  or 
boxes,  with  a  view  to  future  transplantation  into 
rows  or  plots,  the  vessels  become  replete  with 
matted  roots.  Upon  removing  the  peas  to  their 
place  in  the  garden,  the  soil  they  grow  in  is  found 
to  be  completely  saturated  with  odorous  matter  ;  it 
emits  a  powerful  peculiar  smell,  that  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. Tlie  kidney-bean  (Phaseolus)  produces  a 
similar  effect,  but  the  odour  differs  from  that  of  the 
pea  :  the  same  may  be  observed  in  plants  of  the  le- 
guminous tribe  in  general ;  and  I  have  little  doubt 
that  this  tribe  will  be  found  particularly  to  require 
a  frequent  change  of  situation.  I  have  already  re- 
ferred to  a  well-known  effect  produced  by  the  pea 
upon  the  shallow,  loamy  soil,  of  that  eastern  part  of 
Kent  called  the  Isle  of  Thanet ;  and  the  experiment 
of  M.  Macaire  with  the  bean  (Vicia  Faba)  is  in  ac- 
cordance with,  or  at  least  may  be  adduced  in  sup- 
port of,  the  facts  named  above. 

The  Brassica  tribe,  cabbage,  brocoli,  &c.  also 
impregnate  the  soil  with  a  marked  and  peculiar 
odour. 

From  whence  do  the  gases  which  produce  these 
effects  proceed  ?  Many,  perhaps,  will  be  inclined 
to  suppose  that  it  is  not  tlie  soil  which  gives  forth 
the  smell,  but  the  root  itself;  but  how  can  any  plant 
retain  within  its  substance  an  odour  that  is  exter- 
nally sensible  ?  If  a  flower,  a  rose  for  instance,  be 
held  at  some  distance  from  the  nose,  the  specific 
aroma  of  that  delightful  flower  becomes  manifest ; 
but  could  this  be  the  case  if  the  rose  did  not  emit 
the  gaseous  vapours  which  disseminate  the  odour  ? 
Whatever  it  be  that  yields  odour  or  scent,  whether 
that  be  agreeable  or  offensive,  must  be  material, 
because  it  produces  a  positive  effect  upon  one  of  the 
senses  ;  and,  moreover,  the  odour  of  flowers  is  very 


*  From  the  Quart.  Journ.  of  Agvi;ulture. 


ON   EXCRETIONS   FROM   THE    ROOTS    OF   PLANTS. 


21 


frequently  productive  of  faintness  and  debility  ! 
If  the  roots  of  a  plant  radiate  odour,  the  earth  about 
them,  being  the  medium  in  which  they  germinate, 
must  receive  the  odorific  matter ;  and,  in  fact,  a 
spade  can  scarcely  be  put  into  a  plot  of  soil  that  has 
borne  a  crop  of  some  vegetables,  withovit  liberating, 
as  before  stated,  a  volume  of  vapour  sufficient  to  be 
discerned,  at  the  distance  of  a  foot  or  more,  above 
the  surface. 

Again,  if  soil  be  perfectly  fresh,  that  is  to  say, 
raised  from  the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  below  the 
surface,  it  will  generally  be  found  of  a  different 
colour  from  the  old  worked  soil  of  the  garden  or 
field.  A  hazel-loam,  which  is  a  combination  of 
sand,  aluminous  and  chalky  impalpable  matter,  co- 
loured by  oxide  of  iron,  is  frequently  found  at  the 
depth  mentioned,  and  may  be  considered  pure  virgin 
earth.  If  such  soil  be  planted  with  strawberries, 
or  almost  any  vegetable  crop,  its  colour  will  under- 
go a  change,  and  become  many  shades  darker.  Is 
this  change  of  tint  effected  by  carbonaceous  matter 
excreted  from  the  roots,  by  the  partial  de-oxidation 
of  the  ferruginous  constituent  of  the  earth  ?  The 
latter  may  probably  operate  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
I  hold  it  more  philosophical  to  conclude  that  the 
cliange  in  colour  is  to  be  ascribed  to  hydrogen  gas 
(holding,  perhaps,  carbon  and  other  matters  in  solu- 
tion), emitted  from  the  roots  into  the  soil,  and 
therein  effecting  chemical  decompositions  by  specific 
elective,  or  rather  electric  attractions. 

This  blackening  of  the  soil  may  be  suspected  by 
some  to  proceed  from  the  decomposition  of  carbo- 
naceous matters  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  it 
does  so  proceed ;  but  even  admitting  that  manures 
have  been  placed  in  the  soil,  their  decomposition 
and  absorption,  according  to  the  received  opinion, 
by  the  roots  of  the  crop,  ought  to  abstract  the  car- 
bon from  the  soil,  and  not  to  deposit  it  therein  ! 
But  I  am  supposing  a  case  wherein  pure  virgin  sandy 
loam,  without  manure,  is  employed ;  and,  to  simplify 
the  experiment,  I  say — let  a  middle-sized  garden- 
pot  be  filled  with  such  soil,  and  in  it  let  a  single 
vigorous  strawberry-plant  be  placed  in  the  month 
of  February,  and  be  regularly  watered  ;  by  the  end 
of  August  following,  that  is,  about  the  period  when 
the  growing  season  is  almost  passed,  the  soil  will  be 
found  of  a  deeper  colour,  by  many  shades,  than  it 
exhibited  wlien  placed  in  the  pot. 

My  experience  has  taught  me  this  fact,  and  I  as- 
cribe the  effect  to  the  matter  emitted  by  the  roots 
into  the  earth.  Earth  so  coloured  is  not,  I  con- 
ceive, exhausted ;  it  is  doubtless  changed,  and  in 
time  would  be  incapable  of  supporting  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  plant  which  had  deposited  the  colouring 
matter  within  it,  but  in  respect  of  mere  abstract 
quality,  it  is  unquestionably  richer  than  it  primarily 
was,  having  received  fnore  than  it  gave  out,  and  this, 
in  fact,  manure  for  another  species  of  vegetable. 


This  is  in  accordance  with  the  very  valuable  ex- 
periment of  M.  Macaire,  which  indicates  tliat  yellow 
colouring  matter  was  afforded  by  the  bean  to  pure 
water ;  which  yellow  matter  was  taken  up  by  "  plants 
of  wheat,"  that  "  lived  well,"  and  afforded  evidence 
of  having  "  absorbed  a  portion  of  the  matter  dis- 
charged by  the  first"  (the  beans.) 

My  own  reflection,  and  the  observation  of  facts, 
have  satisfied  me  that  certain  plants  do  emit  hydro- 
carbonous  compounds  into  the  soil,  that  poison  it, 
inasiuuch  as  refers  to  themselves  individually ;  but 
such  experiments,  as  those  of  M.  Macaire,  are  in- 
valuable, and  ought  to  be  persisted  in,  in  conjunction 
with  daily  observations  of  the  soil  of  the  field  and 
garden,  till  the  facts  in  all  its  bearings  be  esta- 
blished. I  for  one  intend,  if  life  be  spared  to  the 
next  spring,  to  follow  the  advice  to  "  prosecute 
those  interesting  investigations"  as  far  as  the  means 
within  my  command  will  permit,  for  they  can  scarcely 
fail  to  lead  to  important  results. 

It  remains  to  be  observed,  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  excretory  powers  of  plants  does  not  strictly 
apply  to  all  vegetables  ;  at  least,  it  is  manifest  tliat 
trees  and  many  shrubs  will  live  on,  and  improve  in, 
the  same  piece  of  ground  for  an  almost  indefinite 
period. 

Many  garden  vegetables  furnish  also  exceptions 
to  the  rule,  and  I  particularly  notice  the  potatoe. 
In  fact,  the  experiment  of  M.  Macaire  seems  to 
afford  evidence  that  this  vegetable  does  not  secrete 
matter  of  any  decisive  character.  I  know  those 
who  have  assured  me,  that  potatoes  have  been  set 
for  ten  or  even  twenty  years  on  the  same  land,  with 
little  or  no  other  manure  than  coal-ashes  and  the 
scrapings  of  road-sand.  This  sand  was,  in  the 
county  I  allude  to,  obtained  from  the  calcareous 
stone  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  it  proved  a  power- 
ful meliorating  substance  to  the  cold  clayey  soil  of 
the  district. 

I  venture  to  suggest,  that  grain  and  other  crops, 
which  expend  all  their  vegetative  energy  upon  ihe 
production  of  seed-vessels,  are  less  likely  to  pro- 
trude matter  from  their  roots  than  other  crops  which 
abound  with  large  bulky  foliage ;  they,  therefore, 
cannot  prove  manure  crops  for  their  con  years,  al- 
though they  may  render  the  soil  unhealthy  to  them- 
selves individually.  With  respect  to  the  potatoe, 
I  think  it  evident,  that  its  foliage  elaborates  much 
vegetative  matter,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  ex- 
pended in  the  production  and  support  of  tubers 
under  ground.  These  tubers  are  not  the  roots  pro- 
per, but  enlarged  processes,  the  depositories  of 
much  nutritive  matter.  It  is  highly  probable,  that 
the  plants  which  produce  bulbs,  tubers,  or  spindle- 
roots,  whose  foliage  is  abundant  or  very  large,  will 
in  general  be  innoxious  to  themselves,  at  least  com- 
paratively so,  in  consequence  of  the  absorbent 
powers  of  their  bidky  root  processes.     They  will 


22 


ON    THE    CULTIVATION    OF   MANGOLD   WURTZEL. 


in  proportion  also  be  of  little  service  to  corn  or  otlier 
crops,  unless  much  manure  be  previously  applied. 
In  a  word,  the  vast  foliage  which  they  develope, 
must  claim  a  great  supply  of  raw  sap  from  the  soil. 
This,  or  the  prepared  portion  of  it,  is  returned  with 
interest  to  the  roots,  but  it  is  then  diverted  into 
peculiar  channels,  and  is  employed  in  the  production 
of  those  processes  tliat  constitute  so  large  a  portion 
of  the  food  of  man  and  of  cattle.  The  bulb  or 
tuber-bearing  plants  are  generally  but  indifferent 
preparers  of  the  soil  for  other  crops,  for  they  must 
exhaust  its  decomposable  materials  ;  but  they  may 
be  grown  (though  not  to  full  perfection  perhaps)  on 
the  same  ground  without  becoming  diseased.    Such, 


I  think,  will  be  found  to  be  generally  the  fact ;  and 
this,  as  far  as  the  experiment  goes,  has  been  con- 
firmed by  the  observation  of  M.  Maeaire. 

From  all  that  has  been  said,  it  is,  I  think,  fair  to 
conclude,  that,  although  plants  decompose  and  take 
up  nutritive  matters  of  the  soil,  and  render  manuring 
indispensable,  yet  it  is  not  by  exhaustion  that  a  soil 
is  rendered  unfit  for  a  repetition  of  an  individual 
crop.  Facts  in  abundance  might  be  multiplied,  in 
order  to  prove  that  a  rotation  is  called  for,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  feculent  matter  previously  deposited 
affecting  the  nutritive  power  of  the  soil  in  support- 
ing any  individual  crop. 


ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  MANGOLD  WURTZEL. 

BY  MR.   RYAN,    GARDENER  AT  KILLAKEE-HOUSE.* 


The  cultivation  of  the  mangold  wurtzel  appears  to 
retro-^rade  rather  than  advance  in  this  country ;  so 
that  if  our  apathy  to  it  continue  much  longer,  the 
term  under  which  it  was  originally  introduced,  "  the 
root  of  scarcity,"  will  be  as  applicable  to  it  as  ever. 
It  has  been  cultivated  in  this  country  to  my  own 
knowledge  for  about  twenty  years,  in  which  time  it 
has  been  grown  on  every  description  of  ground,  from 
the  deep  black  bog  to  the  sand  and  gravelly  hill, 
where  the  soil  is  not  four  inches  deep.  It  however 
requires,  in  order  to  attain  its  greatest  degree  of 
perfection,  a  deep,  fresh,  friable  loam,  on  a  dry  sub- 
stratum ;  in  such,  when  in  good  heart  (and  if  it  be 
not,  it  must  be  rendered  so  by  manuring  with  rotted 
dung,  such  as  what  is  called  scavenger's  dung,  in 
Dublin,  and  may  be  had  there  in  any  quantity,  at 
from  six-pence  to  ten-pence  per  ton),  I  have  seen  it 
attain  the  enormous  weight  of  twenty-six  pounds. 
But  on  a  large  scale,  when  judiciously  treated,  I  have 
known  the  roots  to  average  five  pounds.  This,  sup- 
posing the  drills  two  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  a  foot 
from  each  other  in  the  lines,  will  produce  the  asto- 
nishing weight  of  seventy-five  tons  per  Irish  acre. 
I  am  aware  that  such  crops  are  seldom  had ;  but 
I  may  appeal  to  every  grower  of  this  root  on  good 
ground  for  the  truth  of  the  above  statement.  This, 
one  would  think,  would  be  sufHcient  inducement  to 
extend  its  cultivation,  particularly  as  we  know  there 
cannot  be  a  more  acceptable  food  for  cattle,  nor  one 
on  which  they  thrive  better,  nor  give  more  milk. 

The  cultivation  of  mangold  wurtzel  is  extremely 
simple,  and  not  liable  to  the  casualties  attending  a 
turnip  crop,  tliere  being  no  fly  which  appears  to  af- 
fect it.  The  ground  should  be  deeply  ploughed, 
and  rendered  as  friable  as  possible  with  the  brake 
harrow;  it  is  then  to  be  thrown  into  drills  about  two 


feet  apart,  in  which  rotted  dung,  in  quantity  accord- 
ing to  the  wants  of  the  ground  (the  more  dung  the 
better),  is  to  be  placed  and  covered  as  for  turnips  ; 
a  roller  is  then  to  be  drawn  over  the  ground,  and 
the  crown  of  the  drill  opened  to  receive  the  seed^ — - 
this  I  have  usually  performed  with  the  corner  of  the 
common  garden-hoe,  but  have  latterly  applied  a 
little  implement  which  I  got  at  your  brother's  esta- 
blishment, and  which  I  think  he  called  a  souflet,  to 
that  purpose,  which  I  find  it  performs  admirably. 
I  have  sketched  it  as  if  lying  on  the  ground,  and 
have  shewn  the  opening  into  which  a  handle  of  about 
four  feet  in  length  is  inserted.  It  was  recommended 
to  me  for  stirring  the  ground  amongst  vegetables, 
or  else  for  drawing  drills  in  a  garden,  which  it  also 
does  very  well.  A  man  opens  a  drill  with  this  al- 
most as  fast  as  he  can  walk  ;  and  the  drill  is  effec- 
tually covered  by  drawing  the  same  implement  on 
its  side  along  the  top  after  the  seed  is  sown.  I 
choose  dropping  weather,  if  possible  about  the  mid- 
dle of  April,  for  sowing  the  seed;  and  always  mix 
it  with  moist  sand  a  few  days  previous  to  sowing, 
first  being  careful  to  float  it,  and  skim  off  such  seed 
as  appears  small  and  light.  A  few  drills  being 
drawn,  I  set  two  little  boys  or  girls  to  drop  the  seed, 
which  is  now  swollen  and  beginning  to  bud,  deposit- 
ing a  seed  as  nearly  as  possible  every  six  inches  ;  a 
boy  follows  with  the  souflet  on  its  side,  and  with 
this  number  of  hands,  viz.  a  man  and  three  boys,  I 
sow  an  acre  a  day.  I  am  aware  that  machines  have 
been  invented  for  sowing  the  seed,  but  do  not  think 
they  can  perform  as  well  as  the  machinery  I  have 
described,  neither  is  the  plan  of  dropping  the  seed 
in  holes  formed  by  the  dibber,  whether  of  one  or 
many  prongs,  nearly  so  good  a  plan,  for  if  wet  wea- 
ther follow  the  sowing,  and  particularly  if  the  ground 


*  From  the  Irish  Farmer's  and  Gardener's  Magazine;  a  very  excellent  and  spirited  publication. 


ON    THE    CHANGES   IN    PLANTS. 


23 


be  stiff,  the  hole  becomes  a  reservoir  of  water,  and 
the  plant  perishes  or  assumes  an  unhealthy  appear- 
ance. About  three  pounds  of  seed  is  sufficient  for 
an  acre. 

If  the  weather  is  genial,  the  plants  will  make  their 
appearance  in  about  eight  or  ten  days  ;  and  as  more 
than  one  plant  will  generally  arise  in  each  place,  al- 
though but  one  seed  (or  rather  capsule  or  seed- 
vessel,  which  it  really  is,  each  containing  one,  two, 
or  three  seeds)  were  sown,  they  must  be  thinned  as 
soon  as  they  arrive  at  tlie  height  of  about  two  inches, 
the  strongest  of  cou'.se  being  left  with  those  that  are 
pulled  up :  any  misses  that  may  be  observed  must 
be  made  up.  This  is  the  only  case  in  which  I  re- 
commend transplanting  mangold  wurtzel,  for  it  is 
impossible  to  take  it  out  of  the  ground  vi'ithout 
injuring  the  tap-root,  and  that  once  destroyed,  the 
plant  becomes  forked,  and  seldom  acquires  a  great 
size.  The  plants  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and 
be  alternately  filled  so  as  to  stand  one  foot  apart. 

The  drill-han'ow,  with  the  lower  line  on  each  side 
bent  nearly  at  a  right  angle,  is  the  proper  imple- 
ment for  keeping  the  ground  clear  between  the  drills ; 
and  the  garden-hoe  will  remove  the  weeds  from  be- 
tween the  plants.  It  is  usual  after  the  drill-harrow 
to  raise  the  loosened  earth  to  the  plants  with  the 
double-mould-board  plough ;  but  this  practice  I  con- 
sider erroneous.  It  has  been  recommended  in  some 
of  the  periodicals  lately,  not  to  earth  up  potatoes  ; 
but  the  growth  and  nature  of  the  two  plants  are  very 
dissimilar  ;  the  latter  throws  out  runners,  and  forms 
tubers  in  the  loosened  earth ;  whereas  the  object  is 
to  get  the  former  to  strike  downwards.  I  was  led 
to  form  this  opinion  by  observing,  that  the  best  roots 
are  always  those  that  rise  highest  out  of  the  ground, 
and  are  most  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  air ; 
and  I  became  confirmed  in  it  by  the  result  of  experi- 
ments, which  I  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  comparative  value  of  each  mode  of 
treatment. 

Any  plants  which  appear  to  be  starting  for  seed, 
should  be  cut  down  nearly  to  the  point  from  which 


the  stalk  originates,  leaving  however  a  few  eyes. 
Should  they  make  a  second  attempt,  which  many  of 
them  will,  I  repeat  the  heading  down,  and  find  that 
I  thus  force  the  plant  to  acquire  a  tolerable  size. 
Cultivators  of  this  root  appear  to  be  divided  in  opi- 
nion as  to  the  propriety  of  taking  off  the  leaves 
during  the  growth  of  the  plant;  some  affirming  that 
we  lose  as  much  or  more  in  the  weight  of  the  roots, 
as  we  gain  by  using  the  leaves.  On  this  subject  I 
was  desirous  to  obtain  information ;  and  on  observ- 
ing that  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Doncaster  had 
published  a  report  on  this  subject,  possessed  myself 
of  it ;  but  what  was  my  surprise  to  find  that  this 
important  part  of  the  treatment  of  mangold  wurtzel 
was  not  even  alluded  to — the  only  mention  of  the 
leaves  being  a  recommendation  to  cut  them  together 
with  the  crown  off  at  the  time  of  taking  up  the  roots, 
and  carry  them  to  the  cow-house  or  feeding-yard  ? — 
no,  but  to  plough  them  down  for  manure.  In  want, 
then,  of  satisfactory  information  on  this  point,  I  ad- 
here to  the  plan  I  have  so  long  pursued  with  such 
good  effect,  which  is  to  take  off  the  large  flagging 
leaves  which  hang  down  on  the  ground,  of  which  an 
acre  will  supply  a  great  quantity  of  fodder.  I  have 
made  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
this  point ;  but  hitherto  they  are  not  conclusive. 
I  shall  repeat  them  ;  and  may  on  a  future  occasion 
make  known  through  the  "  Farmer's  and  Gardener's 
Magazine."  Towards  the  beginning  of  November 
these  roots  will  have  attained  their  full  size  ;  and  as 
they  are  very  easily  injured  by  frost,  should  be  se- 
cured on  being  taken  up.  Some  time  previous  to 
this  I  commence  cutting  off  the  tops,  and  carting 
them  to  the  piggery,  byer,  and  feeding-yard,  by 
which  means  I  never  have  a  greater  quantity  than 
I  can  use  whilst  fresh  ;  the  roots  being  taken  up  on 
a  dry  windy  day,  are  pitted  in  a  dry  situation,  or 
placed  in  a  shed  as  convenient  as  possible  to  the 
place  where  they  are  to  be  consumed  ;  if  in  the  open 
air,  I  place  some  straw  over  them,  which  I  cover 
with  earth  at  least  a  foot  thick  ;  if  in  a  shed,  a  little 
hay  or  straw  will  be  sufficient  covering. 


ON  THE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  IN  PLANTS  BY  CULTIVATION. 

BY  PROFESSOR   LYELL,   OF  KING's   COLLEGE,   LONDON.* 


Common  wheat  was  procured  by  Delille  from  closed 
vessels  in  the  sepulchres  of  the  [Egyptian]  kings, 
tlie  grains  of  which  retained  not  only  their  form,  but 
even  their  colour,  so  effectual  has  proved  the  pro- 
cess of  embalming  with  bitumen  in  a  dry  and  equable 
climate.  No  difference  could  be  detected  between 
this  wheat  and  that  which  now  grows  in  the  East  and 
elsewhere,  and  similar  identifications  were  made  in 
regard  to  all  the  other  plants. 


And  here  we  inay  observe,  that  there  is  an  obvious 
answer  to  Lamarck's  objection,  that  the  botanist  can- 
not point  out  a  place  where  the  common  wheat  grows 
wild,  unless  in  places  where  it  may  have  been  de- 
rived from  neighbouring  cultivation.  All  naturalists 
are  well  aware  that  the  geographical  distribution  of 
a  great  number  of  species  is  extremely  limited,  and 
that  it  V7as  to  be  expected  that  every  useful  plant 
should  first  be  cultivated  successfully  in  the  country 


*  From  "  Principles  of  Geology 


24 


ON   THE    CHANGES   IN  PLANTS. 


where  it  was  indigenous,  and  that,  probably,  every 
station  which  it  partially  occupied  when  growing 
wild,  would  be  selected  by  the  agriculturist  as  best 
suited  to  it  when  artificially  increased.  Palestine 
has  been  conjectured,  by  a  late  writer  on  the  Cerea- 
lia,  to  have  been  the  original  habitation  of  wheat  and 
barley,  a  supposition  which  appears  confirmed  by 
Hebrew  and  Egyptian  traditions,  and  by  tracing  the 
migrations  of  the  worship  of  Ceres,  as  indicative  of 
the  migrations  of  the  plant. 

If  we  are  to  infer  that  some  one  of  the  wild  grasses 
has  been  transformed  into  the  common  wheat,  and 
that  some  animal  of  the  genus  canis,  still  unre- 
claimed, has  been  metamorphosed  into  the  dog, 
merely  because  we  cannot  find  the  domestic  dog,  or 
the  cultivated  wheat,  in  a  state  of  nature,  we  may  be 
next  called  upon  to  make  similar  admissions  in  re- 
gard to  the  camel ;  for  it  seems  very  doubtful  whether 
any  trace  of  this  species  of  quadruped  is  now  wild. 

But  if  agriculture,  it  will  be  said,  does  not  supply 
examples  of  extraordinary  changes  of  form  and  or- 
ganization, the  horticulturist  can,  at  least,  appeal  to 
facts  which  may  confound  the  preceding  train  of  rea- 
soning. The  crab  has  been  transformed  into  the 
apple;  the  sloe  into  the  plum;  flowers  have  changed 
their  colour  and  become  double;  and  these  new  cha- 
racters can  be  perpetuated  by  seed  ; — a  bitter  plant, 
with  wavy  sea-green  leaves,  has  been  taken  from  the 
sea-side,  where  it  grew  like  wild  charlock,  has  been 
transplanted  into  the  garden,  lost  its  saltness,  and 
has  been  metamorphosed  into  two  distinct  vegetables, 
as  unlike  each  other  as  each  is  to  the  parent  plant — 
the  red  cabbage  and  the  cauliflower.  These,  and  a 
multitude  of  analogous  facts,  are  undoubtedly  among 
the  wonders  of  nature,  and  attest  more  strongly, 
perhaps,  the  extent  to  which  species  may  be  modi- 
fied, tlian  any  examples  derived  from  the  animal 
kinxdom.  But  in  these  cases  we  find,  that  we  soon 
reach  certain  limits,  beyond  which  we  are  unable  to 
cause  the  individuals,  descending  from  the  same 
stock,  to  vary  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  easy 
tp  shew  that  these  extraordinary  varieties  could  sel- 
dom arise,  and  could  never  be  perpetuated  in  a  wild 
state  for  many  generations,  under  any  imaginable 
combination  of  accidents.  They  may  be  regarded  as 
extreme  cases  brought  about  by  human  mterference, 
and  not  as  phenomena  which  indicate  a  capability  of 
indefinite  modifications  in  the  natural  world. 

The  propagation  of  a  plant  by  buds  or  grafts,  and 
by  cuttings,  is  obviously  a  mode  which  nature  does 
not  employ  ;  and  this  multiplication,  as  well  as  that 
produced  by  roots  and  layers,  seems  merely  to  ope- 
rate as  an  extension  of  the  life  of  an  individual,  and 
not  as  a  reproduction  of  the  species,  as  happens  by 
seed.  All  plants  increased  by  the  former  means 
retain  precisely  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  indivi- 
dual, they  have  only  a  determinate  existence ;  in 
some  cases  longer,  and  in  others  shorter.     It  seems 


now  admitted  by  horticulturists,  that  none  of  our 
garden  varieties  of  fruit  are  entitled  to  be  considered 
strictly  permanent,  but  that  they  wear  out  after  a 
time  ;  and  we  are  thus  compelled  to  resort  again  to 
seeds  ;  in  which  case,  there  is  so  decided  a  tendency 
in  the  seedlings  to  revert  to  the  original  type,  that 
our  utmost  skill  is  sometimes  baflfled  in  attempting 
to  recover  the  desired  variety. 

The  different  races  of  cabbages  afford,  as  we  have 
admitted,  an  astonishing  example  of  deviation  from 
a  common  type;  but  we  can  scarcely  conceive  them 
to  have  originated,  much  less  to  have  lasted,  for  se- 
veral generations,  without  the  intervention  of  man. 
It  is  only  by  strong  manures  that  these  varieties 
have  been  obtained,  and  in  poorer  soils  they  instantly 
degenerate.  If,  therefore,  we  suppose  in  a  state  of 
nature  the  seed  of  the  wild  Brassica  oleracea  to  have 
been  wafted  from  the  sea-side  to  some  spot  enriched 
by  the  dung  of  animals,  and  to  have  there  become 
a  cauliflower,  it  would  soon  diffuse  its  seed  to  some 
comparatively  steril  soils  around,  and  the  offspring 
would  relapse  to  the  likeness  of  the  parent  stock, 
like  some  individuals  which  may  now  be  seen  grow- 
ing on  the  cornice  of  old  London  bridge. 

But  if  we  go  so  far  as  to  imagine  the  soil,  in  the 
spot  first  occupied,  to  be  constantly  manured  by 
herds  of  wild  animals,  so  as  to  continue  as  rich  as 
that  of  a  garden,  still  the  variety  could  not  be  main- 
tained, because  we  know  that  each  of  these  races  is 
prone  to  fecundate,  and  gardeners  are  compelled  to 
exert  the  utmost  diligence  to  prevent  cross-breeds. 
The  intermixture  of  the  pollen  of  varieties  growing 
in  the  poorer  soil  around,  would  soon  destroy  the 
peculiar  characters  of  the  race  which  occupied  the 
highly-manured  tract ;  for  if  these  accidents  so  con- 
tinually happen,  in  spite  of  us,  among  the  culinary 
varieties,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  soon  this  cause  might 
obliterate  every  marked  singularity  in  a  wild  state. 

Besides,  it  is  well  known  that  although  the  pam- 
pered races  which  we  rear  in  our  gardens  for  use 
or  ornament,  may  often  be  perpetuated  by  seed,  yet 
they  rarely  produce  seed  in  such  abundance,  or  so 
prolific  in  quantity,  as  wild  individuals  ;  so  that  if 
the  care  of  man  were  withdrawn,  the  most  fertile 
variety  would  always,  in  the  end,  prevail  over  the 
more  steril. 

Similar  remarks  may  be  applied  to  the  double 
flowers,  which  present  such  strange  anomalies  to  the 
botanist.  The  ovarium,  in  such  cases,  is  frequently 
abortive,  and  the  seeds,  when  prolific,  are  generally 
much  fewer  than  where  the  flowers  are  single. 

Some  curious  experiments  recently  made  on  the 
production  of  blue  instead  of  red  flowers  in  the  Hy- 
drangea hortensis,  illustrate  the  immediate  effect  of 
certain  soils  on  the  colours  of  the  petals.  In  garden- 
mould  or  compost,  the  flowers  are  blue  ;  and  the 
same  change  is  always  produced  by  a  particular 
sort  of  yellow  loam. 


LIST    OF   GRASSES    AND    OTHER    PLANTS. 


25 


Linnseus  was  of  opinion  that  the  primrose,  oxlip, 
cowslip,  and  pol3'anthus,  were  only  varieties  of  the 
same  species.  The  majority  of  modern  botanists, 
on  the  contrary,  consider  them  to  be  distinct,  al- 
though some  conceived  that  the  oxlip  might  be  a 
cross  between  the  cowslip  and  the  primrose.  Mr. 
Herbert  has  lately  recorded  the  following  experi- 
ment : — "  I  raised  from  the  natural  seed  of  one  umbel 
of  a  highly-manured  red  cowslip,  a  primrose,  a  cows- 
lip, oxlips  of  the  usual  and  other  colours,  a  black 
polyanthus,  a  nose-in-nose  cowslip,  and  a  natural 
primrose  bearing  its  flower  on  a  polyanthus  stalk. 
From  the  seed  of  that  very  nose-in-nose  cowslip  I 
have  since  raised  a  nose-in-nose  primrose.  I  there- 
fore consider  all  these  to  be  only  local  varieties  upon 
soil  and  situation."  Professor  Henslow,  of  Cam- 
bridge, has  since  confirmed  this  experiment  of  Mr. 
Herbert,  so  that  we  have  an  example,  not  only  of 
the  remarkable  varieties  which  the  florist  can  obtain 
from  a  common  stock,  but  of  the  distinctness  of  an- 
alogous races  found  in  a  wild  state. 


On  what  particular  ingredient,  or  quality  in  the 
earth,  these  changes  depend,  has  not  yet  been  ascer- 
tained. But  gardeners  are  well  aware  that  particu- 
lar plants,  when  placed  under  the  influence  of  certain 
circumstances,  are  changed  in  various  ways  accord- 
ing to  the  species :  and  then  as  often  as  the  experi- 
ments are  repeated,  similar  results  are  obtained. 
The  nature  of  these  results,  however,  depends  upon 
the  species,  and  they  are,  therefore,  part  of  the  spe- 
cific character ;  they  exhibit  the  same  phenomena 
again  and  again,  and  indicate  certain  fixed  and  inva- 
riable relations  between  the  physiological  peculiari- 
ties of  the  plant,  and  the  influence  of  certain  external 
agents.  They  afford  no  ground  for  questioning  the 
instability  of  species,  but  rather  the  contrary;  they 
present  us  with  a  class  of  phenomena  which,  when 
they  are  more  thoroughly  understood,  may  afford 
some  of  the  best  tests  for  identifying  species,  and 
proving  that  the  attributes  originally  conferred,  en- 
dured so  long  as  any  issue  of  the  original  stock 
remains  upon  the  earth. 


LIST  OF  GRASSES  AND  OTHER  PLANTS  COMMON  IN  THE  PASTURES  OF 

CARNARVON  AND  ANGLESEY. 

BY   J.    S.    MENTEATH,    ESQ.,   CLOSEBURN   HALL.* 


Veronica  officinalis. 

■ chamtedrys. 

agrostis. 

arvensis. 

Pinguicula  vulgaris. 
Anthoxanthum  odoratum. 
Valeriana  locusta. 
Eleocharis  palustris. 
Scirpus  caespitosus. 
Eriopliorum  polystachion. 

angustifolium. 

— vaginatum. 

Nardus  stricta. 
Phalaris  arundinacea. 
Alopecurus  pratensis. 

■  geiiiculatus. 

Agrostis  canina. 

' —  \'ulgaria. 

• —  alba. 

Aira  cjespitosa. 

flexuosa. 

prsecox. 

caryoph3'llea. 

Holcus  lanatus. 

mollis. 

avenaceus. 


Poa  pratensis. 

annua. 

Triodia  decumbens. 
Briza  media. 
Dactylus  gloraerata. 
Cynosurus  cristatus. 
Festuca  ovina. 


vivipara. 

dui'iuscula. 

bromoides. 

pratensis. 

Bromus  mollis. 
Avena  fatua. 

pubescens. 

flavescens. 

Lolium  perenne. 
Triticum  repens. 

caninum. 

Scabiosa  succisa. 


■  arvensis. 


Sherardia  arvensis. 
Galium  saxatile. 


■  verum. 


Melica  crerulea. 
Poa  trivialis. 


Plantago  major. 

lanceolata. 

maritima. 

coronopiis. 


Alchemilla  arvensis. 

vulgaris. 

Myosotis  scorpioides. 
Primula  vxilgaris. 

veris. 

Anagallis  arvensis. 
Campanula  rotundifolia. 
Jasione  montana. 
Viola  canina. 
— —  tricolor. 
Chenopodiiim  album. 
Hydrocotyle  vulgaris. 
Bunium  flexuosum. 
Heracleum  Sphondylium. 
Chserophyllum  sylvestre. 
Nartliecium  ossifragum. 
Junci,  about  15  species. 
Erica  iiilgaris. 
Stellaria  media. 
holostea. 


■  grammea. 
Fragaria  vesca. 

sterilis. 

Tormentilla  officinalis. 
Caltba  palustris. 
Ajuga  reptans. 
Glechoma  hederacea. 


Betonica  officinalis. 

Thymus  serpyllum. 
Prunella  vulgaris. 
Rhinanthus  Crista-Galli. 
Euphrasia  officinalis. 
Radiola  palustris. 
Cardamine  hirsuta. 

pratensis. 

Polygala  vulgaris. 
Ononis  arvensis. 
Ulex  Europaeus, 

nanus. 

Vicia  sativa. 
Ornithopus  perpusillus. 
Trifolium  repens. 

pratense. 

procumbens. 

— minus. 

Lotus  corniculatus. 
Medicago  Lupulina. 
Leontodon  Taraxacum. 
Hieraceum  Pilosella. 
Tussilago  Farfara. 
Senecio  vulgaris. 
Bellis  perennis. 
Achillsea  Millefolium. 
Carex,  about  30  species. 


*  From  a  paper  communicated  by  the  author,  printed  in  the  Wevn.  Trans. 
MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANiT  AND  GARDENING,    VOL.  II.  NO.  XI, — FEB.  1834. 


26 


ON    CLUBROOT, 


LIST  OF  SNOWDON  PLANTS. 

BY   WM.    WILSON,    OF   WARRINGTON,   ESQ.    AUG.   1828, 


PLANTS    FREQUENTIORES. 


Saxifraga  nivalis,   Wyddva 

summit,    and  near  TwU 

Du. 
Cerastium  latifolium,  Clog- 

wyn  y  Garacold. 
Aspidium  Lonchitis. 
Serratula  alpina. 
Salix  herbacea. 
Epipactis  argifolia. 
Orchis   albida,   near   Llan- 

berris,     below     Ffyanon 

Freeh. 


Juncus  triglumis. 
Sedum  Fosteranium. 
Saxifraga  oppositifolia. 
Juniperus    nanus,     Glyder 

Fawr. 
Subularia   aquatica,    Lleyn 

Ogwen. 
Isoetes    lacustris,    Ffyanon 

Freeh. 
Chara  gracilis,  Lleyn  Idwal. 
Alisma  natans,  between  the 

lakes  and  Llanberris. 


FIiANT;E    RARISSIM^. 


Anthericum  seratinum,  near 

Twll  Du. 
Arabis    hispida,     Clogwyn 

Du'r  Ardhu. 
Saxifraga    csespitosa,     near 

Twll  Du. 
Woodsia   ilvensis, 

near  Llyny  Cwn  / 
W.      hyperborea,  >  Ferns. 

Clogwyn  y  Gar-  \ 

nedd 
Cyathea  (now  Cistea)  regia, 

Clogwyn  Du'r  Ardhu. 


Lobelia  Dortmanna,  Llan- 
berris lakes,  Lleyn  Idwal. 

Potentilla  a]  pestris,  Clogwyn 
y  Garcold. 

Asplenium  viride,  near  Twll 
Du. 

septentrionale. 

£pilobiumalsi!iifolium,Cwm 
Gaseg,belowGarned  Llen- 
llyn,  and  by  Aber  Water- 
fall. 

Rubus  saxatilis,  near  Twll 
Du,  also  at  Fachmere. 


Papaver  Cambricum,    near 

Llanben-is. 
Thalictrum  minus,  Clogwyn 

Du'r  Ardhu,  and  Twll  Du. 
alpinum,  do.  and 


Carex  rigida,  Wyddfa  sum- 
mit. 

atrata,  below  Ffynon 

Freeh. 

Draba  incana,  do. 

Galium  boreale, do.  andnear 
Twll  Du. 

Arenaria  venia,  do.  do. 

Rosa  villosa,  near  Llanberris 

Hieracium  alpinum,  near 
Lleyn  y  Cwm. 


near  Twll  Du. 
Poa  alpina,  do.  and  Clogwyn 

y  Garnedd. 

Glauca,  near  Twll  Du. 

Epilobium  angustifolium,  by 

Lleyn  y  Cwm. 

Asplenium  septentrionale,  Hyperborea,  and  Hieracium 
alpinum,  are  so  excessively  scarce  in  Carnarvonshire,  in- 
deed almost  extinct,  that  there  is  little  probability  of 
obtaining  them  :  they  are  more  plentiful  in  Scotland.  The 
first  of  these  is  found  chiefly  on  Arthur's  Seat. 

The  following  are  common  on  the  mountains : — 
Rhodiola  rosea.  Trollius  Europseus. 

Saxifraga  hirta,  platypetala.     Hieracium  maculatum,  near 


Twll  Du. 
Lycopodium  alpinum. 

■ selaginoides. 

selago. 

Hymenophyllum    Tun- 

bridgense. 
Vaccinium  Vitis-Idaea. 


Silene  acaulis. 
Gnaphalium  dioicum. 
Saxifraga  stellaris. 
Asplenium  trichomanes " 
Cistea  fragilis  ( 
Polypodium  Dryopteris  { 
Phegopteris   - 

Rubus  Chamsmorus  is  hardly  to  he  found  in  Carnar- 
vonshire. It  is  said  to  be  common  on  the  Berwyn  moun- 
tains, on  the  peaty  bogs  near  the  summits. 


ON    CLUBROOT. 

BY   THE    EDITOR. 


Clubroot  is  a  sort  of  galls  produced  by  insects  on 
the  roots  of  cabbages,  turnips,  holyhocks,  and  other 
species  of  cultivated  plants,  sometimes  called  an- 
bury, and  popularly,  but  mistakingly,  supposed  to 
arise  from  peculiarities  of  soil,  or  growing  the  same 
crop  successively  on  the  same  field,  or  to  variations 
of  seasons.  Nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  the 
disproof  of  all  these  theoretical  notions  :  take  some 
of  the  cabbages  or  turnips  whose  roots  are  infected 
with  anbury,  and  keep  them  in  garden-pots  covered 
over  with  close  gauze,  and  in  a  short  time,  if  the 
plants  be  kept  growing,  the  little  weevils,  evolved 
from  the  grubs  in  the  interior  of  the  roots,  will  make 
their  appearance,  ready  to  multiply  their  species,  by 
depositing  their  eggs,  as  their  parents  had  done,  on 
the  first  turnip  or  cabbage  they  can  find  ;  then  is  the 
critical  time  to  destroy  them,  and  prevent  their  in- 
crease.    The  weevil  thus  arising  continues  to  be  no 


less,  often  more,  destructive  than  the  grub  had 
proved  to  be  in  feeding  on  the  roots  ;  for  it  thrusts 
its  beak  [rostrum)  into  the  seed-leaf  of  the  turnip, 
and  greatly  injures  the  crop.  Neither  of  these  in- 
sects would  ever  be  bred  in  dung.  When  the  turnip 
is  advanced  to  the  rough-leaf,  these  insects  either 
die,  as  most  insects  do  when  they  have  laid  their 
eggs,  or  betake  themselves  to  some  other  plant,  such 
as  clover,  suited  to  their  taste. 

It  will  be  therefore  evident  that  no  peculiar  rota- 
tion of  crops,  nor  peculiar  manure  for  dressing  the 
soil,  can  be  of  any  avail  in  preventing  anbury,  or  in 
stopping  its  progress  when  the  insects  have  obtained 
a  lodgment  within  the  roots.  The  destruction  of 
the  adult  insects  before  they  have  laid  their  eggs  is 
the  only  remedy,  though  in  the  case  of  so  small  a 
species  it  is  peculiarly  difficult  to  put  in  practice. 


REPORT  OF  A  NURSERY  OF  HALF  AN  ACRE. 


27  _ 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  AGRICULTURE  AND  GARDEN  CULTURE. 

BY    A   CORRESPONDENT. 


It  has  ever  been  our  opinion  that  if  the  intelligence 
of  the  country  was  properly  brought  into  operation, 
that  we  might  so  improve  the  earth's  surface  as  to 
make  England  independent  of  foreign  corn.  This 
has  been  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Lance, 
and  the  reasonings  which  he  has  set  forth  in  his 
Agricultviral  Essays.  We  are  satisfied  that  more 
than  half  the  present  seed-corn  might  be  saved^ — 
that  labour  on  the  land  might  be  beneficially  in- 
creased— and  the  surface  in  tillage  be  made  to  pro- 
duce one-third  or  one-half  more  than  it  now  does. 
But,  then,  scientific  reason  must  guide  our  farmers, 
and  not  the  rule  of  thumb  alone.  In  addition  to 
what  has  gone  the  round  of  the  public  journals, 
relative  to  Mr.  Lance's  great  increase  of  corn  pro- 
duce, by  culture  and  careful  seeding,  as  now  ex- 
hibiting in  London,  we  are  favoured  with  the  fol- 
lowing additional  proofs  of  what  a  saving  of  corn 
will  do.  Mr.  Yovuig,  at  Farnham  Wharf,  being  the 
barren  Bagshot  sand  district,  set  some  peas  at 
regular  distances  in  properly  prepared  ground ;  they 


tillered  out  prodigiously,  some  to  three  or  four 
stems,  and  in  one  instance  he  counted  one  hundred 
and  forty  pods  from  one  pea,  and  the  produce  was 
seven  hundred  and  seventy  peas  ;  these  were  the 
Marlborough  grey.  A  new  sort  of  pea  has  been 
grown  by  J.  Langdon,  Esq.,  Broomsgrove,  Wor- 
cestershire, which  produced  ninety  pods  :  they  are 
exhibiting  at  the  Museum  of  Arts,  Leicester-square. 
Other  persons,  who  sow  in  the  usual  old  routine  of 
seeding,  get  about  six-fold  for  their  labour,  six  times 
only  what  they  put  in  the  ground.  The  same  Mr. 
Young  above  mentioned,  has  experimented  on  Mr. 
Lance's  plans ;  he,  unlike  other  farmers,  is  not 
frightened  at  the  word  experiment,  and  does  not 
consider  it  in  the  same  light  as  speculation.  He 
has  obtained  at  the  rate  of  eight  quarters  per  acre  of 
wheat,  and  in  one  particular  experiment  he  obtained 
sixty-fold  for  the  seed  he  put  into  the  ground,  on 
the  hitherto  despised  sandy  soil  a  few  miles  before 
you  reach  Farnham. 


REPORT  OF  A  NURSERY  OF  HALF  AN  ACRE,  AT  MUCRUSS,  COUNTY 

KERRY. 

BY    THE    REV.    T.    RADCLIFF. 


1801.  Planted  sixteen  acres  of  Turk  mountain, 
with  97,000  Scotch  fir,  oak,  ash,  and  sycamore,  and 
twenty-two  pecks  of  acorns  dibbled.  Transplanted 
98,000  forest  trees. 

1802.  Planted  nine  acres  of  Turk  mountain,  and 
thirteen  acres  of  Rusneagarry,  with  131,000  trees  of 
the  above  kinds.  Transplanted  184,000,  amongst 
them  70,000  larch  from  Scotland,  all  the  rest  reared 
at  home. 

1803.  Planted  sixteen  acres  in  various  directions 
with  104',000  forest  trees.  Planted  in  the  nursery 
131,000  seedlings,  principally  oak. 

1804.  Planted  sixteen  acres  in  detached  pieces 
with  114,000  forest  trees.  Planted  in  nurseries 
336,000,  300,000  of  which  were  oak,  reared  at 
home. 

1805.  Planted  ten  acres  with  oak,  &c.  so  as  to 
obtain  a  premium  from  the  Dublin  Society.  Re- 
placed the  wood  of  Tonris  1500  acres,  by  49,000 
three  year  old  oak.     Planted  5,200  in  the  nursery. 

1806.  Repaired  the  planting  of  the  years  1801, 
1802,  and  1803;  also  planted  about  three  acres. 
Transplanted  in  nursery  68,000  forest  trees. 


1807.  Repaired  the  planting  of  former  years, 
planted  small  pieces,  and  planted  in  the  nursery 
68,000  forest  trees. 

1808.  Planted  ten  acres  with  70,000  trees,  chiefly 
oaks.  Repaired  the  wood  of  Caiarnabawn.  Planted 
the  fall  of  the  last  year,  with  16,000  oak  of  eight 
years  old.  Planted  in  nursery  76,000  forest  trees. 
Sold  50,000  seedlings. 

1809.  Planted  the  fall  of  the  last  year,  with 
22,000  oak.  Planted  in  nursery  40,000  seedlings. 
Sold  30,000  seedlings. 

1810.  Planted  the  fall  of  the  last  year,  with 
12,000  oak.  Planted  in  nursery  32,000.  Sold 
35,000. 

1811.  Planted  the  fall  of  the  last  year,  and  a 
large  tract  coppiced  in,  with  40,000  oak  and  Scotch 
fir.     Planted  in  nursery  32,000.     Sold  35,000. 

1812.  Headed  down  all  the  oaks  in  the  planting 
of  1808,  and  planted  amongst  them  10,000  Scotch 
fir,  as  nurses.  Finished  planting  bavina  wood,  of 
4,300  acres.  Planted  in  nursery  30,000.  Sold 
35,000. 

E  2 


28 


ON   COTTAGERS    GARDEN   SOCIETIES. 


ON  COTTAGERS'  GARDEN  SOCIETIES. 

BY    JAMES    STUART    MENTEATH,    ESQ.* 


Few  employments  are  more  useful,  or  more  amusing 
than  gardening;  while  it  ornaments  the  country  with 
a  variety  of  beautiful  plants,  it  may  be  made  the 
means  of  contributing  to  the  comfort  and  sustenance 
of  numbers,  by  an  abundant  supply  of  vegetables. 

It  is  somewhat  extraordinary  that  in  Scotland,  a 
country  which  supplies  England  witli  some  of  her 
best  gardeners,  the  labouring  population  should  he 
so  little  acquainted  with  the  culture  of  the  garden. 
We  need  not  be  surprised  at  the  disappointment 
which  the  English  traveller  feels,  when  passing 
through  Scotland,  in  observing  the  garden  ground 
attached  to  the  cottage,  neglected,  ill  cultivated,  and 
for  the  most  part  overgrown  with  weeds  and  useless 
plants.  We  can  hardly  tell,  from  this  neglected 
state  of  the  cottage  garden,  how  it  should  come  that 
Scotch  gardeners  are  so  frequently  found  in  tlie  em- 
ployment of  the  richer  classes  in  England. 

To  remove  all  ground  for  such  remarks  on  Scotch 
cottage  gardening,  and  to  spread  among  all  the  la- 
bouring people  of  Scotland  an  universal  taste  for 
this  most  useful  art,  the  following  hints  are  sug- 
gested. 

In  almost  all  professions  we  observe,  that  the 
members  of  them,  in  order  to  advance  their  skill 
and  acquaintance  with  the  art  they  are  pursuing, 
form  themselves  into  a  society.  And  to  stimulate 
each  other  in  their  progress,  rewards  are  fixed  and 
distributed  among  the  most  deserving. 

Ploughing  matches,  and  horticultural  societies,  as 
every  one  knows,  have  done  much  to  improve  the 
skill,  dexterity,  and  intelligence  of  the  ploughman, 
and  the  gardeners  of  the  landed  proprietors. 

With  this  view  we  propose  that  a  Gardening  So- 
ciety, solely  confined  to  the  labourers  of  one  or  more 
parishes^  of  any  district,  should  be  formed.  That 
rules  and  regulations  be  drawn  out  for  regulating 
tlie  concerns  of  such  a  society.  That  regular  meet- 
ings at  different  periods  of  the  year  should  be  held, 
at  each  of  which  there  should  be  exhibitions  of  the 
produce  of  the  gardens  of  the  different  members. 
That  prizes  should  be  awarded  to  the  exhibitors  of 
the  best  fruits,  herbs,  roots,  and  vegetables,  and 
perhaps  of  the  more  ordinary  kinds  of  flowers.  That 
a  list  of  the  competitors  for  the  prizes  should  be 
published  sometime  before  the  meetings  of  the  so- 
ciety :  and,  to  afford  general  satisfaction,  that  the 
choice  of  the  judges  should  be  left  to  the  competi- 
tors. That  bee  husbandry  be  encouraged,  by  re- 
warding those  who  raise  the  greatest  quantity  of 


honey.  That  prizes  of  the  following  articles  be  dis- 
tributed— money,  packets  of  seeds,  each  packet  con- 
taining an  assortment  of  all  the  useful  kitchen  garden 
seeds,  with  a  few  flower  seeds,  garden  tools,  and  a 
few  useful  short  works  on  common  kitchen  garden- 
ing. That  the  smallest  annual  subscription  from 
each  member  be  received.  That  an  account  of  each 
of  the  meetings  be  drawn  out,  with  the  list  of  the 
names  of  the  successful  parties,  and  be  inserted  in 
one  of  the  county  newspapers. 

That  the  society  should  annually  purchase  a  quan- 
tity of  the  best  kitchen  garden  vegetable  seed,  and 
re-sell  it  at  a  reduced  rate  to  its  members,  in  such 
proportions  as  each  of  their  small  gardens  require. 

That  landed  proprietors  in  the  neighbourhood 
should  be  solicited  to  aid  the  usefulness  of  the  so- 
ciety, by  sending  for  distribution  among  its  members, 
hardy  evergreens,  cuttings,  and  seeds  of  useful  and 
ornamental  plants  ;  and  in  order  particularly  to  en- 
courage the  children  of  the  members  of  the  society 
in  the  same  taste,  that  prizes  should  be  given  to  such 
children  as  have  produced,  at  the  meetings,  flowers 
cultivated  by  their  own  hands  in  their  little  gardens. 
I'he  advantages  of  such  a  Cottage  Garden  Society 
must  be  so  apparent  to  all  as  scarcely  to  demand 
enumeration. 

Among  the  chief  advantages  would  be  that  of 
fostering  a  general  spirit  of  gardening  throughout 
the  district.  By  giving  prizes  at  the  several  meet- 
ings within  the  year,  deserving  and  meritorious 
members'  exertions  would  be  publicly  made  known, 
and  their  praiseworthy  industry  be  rewarded  in  the 
presence  of  their  fellows. 

Many  of  the  members — as  several  of  the  prizes 
would  consist  of  packets  of  seeds,  consisting  of  most 
of  the  most  useful  common  kitchen  vegetables,  would 
have  at  command,  for  sowing  their  gardens,  the  pro- 
per seed  ;  and  those  who  are  not  successful  in  ob- 
taining prizes,  might,  at  a  reduced  price,  purchase 
from  the  society  such  vegetable  seeds  as  they 
wanted. 

The  society,  also,  having  at  its  disposal,  by  the 
liberality  of  the  landed  proprietors  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, presenting  them  for  distribution,  hardy  ever- 
greens, cuttings,  and  seeds  of  useful  plants,  would 
give  these  away  among  its  members. 

Last,  not  least,  of  the  benefits  of  such  a  society, 
would  be  the  ample  increased  supply  of  wholesome 
garden  vegetables,  for  the  use  of  the  cottager's  fa- 
mily, of  his  pig,  and  of  his  cow.    And  in  addition  to 


*  Circular  communicated  by  the  author. 


ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  HYACINTHS. 


29 


this,  by  the  increasing  interest  the  labourer  would 
take  in  cultivating  his  garden,  his  health  and  com- 
fort would  be  vastly  augmented. 

The  skill  and  intelligence  of  all  being  thus  pro- 
moted, the  best  method  of  raising  the  greatest  pos- 
sible quantity  of  garden  produce  on  a  given  piece 
of  ground  would  be  discovered.  Many  useful  and 
valuable  vegetables,  unknown  and  uncultivated  in  a 
parish,  would  be  introduced.  Such  a  society  would 
also  be  a  little  seminary,  where  many  an  intelligent 
young  man,  learning  the  rudiments  of  gardening, 
would  be  qualifying  himself  to  manage  the  garden  of 
a  nurseryman  or  of  some  landed  proprietor. 

The  landed  proprietor,  while  witnessing  the  in- 
creased zeal  and  laborious  efforts  of  the  cottagers  to 
cultivate  their  gardens,  to  obtain  the  prizes  offered 
at  the  different  exhibitions,  could  not  fail  to  view 
them  with  the  liveliest  interest.  Kis  support  and 
kindness  to  them  would  be  rewarded  on  their  part 
by  the  most  grateful  feelings  ;  and  thus  the  links  of 
society,  now  too  far  apart,  would  be  drawn  closer 
and  closer. 

In  short,  the  success  of  such  a  parish  Garden  So- 
ciety as  is  just  pointed  out,  would  be  a  triumph  of 

Closeburn  Hall,  Dumfries-shire. 


knowledge  over  ignorance  ;  of  virtue  over  vice  ;  of 
happiness  over  misery.  And  instead  of  the  cottager 
indulging  himself  in  sloth  and  drunkenness,  we 
should  see  his  leisure  hours  spent  in  his  garden:  his 
pleasure  would  be  in  the  society  of  his  wife  and 
children  ;  and  his  anxiety  be,  that  they  should  share 
with  him  in  all  the  domestic  comforts  that  could  be 
afforded  by  his  garden. 

To  shew  more  fully  than  any  reasoning  can  do, 
the  good  effects  of  such  an  institution,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  a  society,  nearly  of  the  same  kind, 
has  existed  for  several  years  in  the  Glenkens  of 
Galloway,  formed,  we  believe,  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Grierson,  of  Garroch.  The  effects  in  that 
quarter  have  already  been  remarkable,  in  improving 
the  appearance  and  comfort  of  the  cottages,  and  in 
bettering  the  habits  of  the  labouring  classes. 

Were  these  Garden  Societies  once  established  in 
separate  parishes,  a  number  of  them  might  be  united 
in  one  district,  into  a  larger  Garden  Society,  as  has 
been  done  in  that  of  the  Glenkens  Society,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made,  and  prizes  of  a 
larger  amount  to  be  distributed  among  the  success- 
ful competitors  belonging  to  it. 


ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  HYACINTHS. 

BY    E.    ESBURY.* 


I  SEND  you  an  abbreviation  of  a  paper  on  this  sub- 
ject, by,  the  Honourable  and  Reverend  William 
Herbert,  which  contains  an  account  of  the  Dutch 
method  of  management,  and  as  the  author  is  known 
to  be  a  skilful  cultivator  of  bulbous-rooted  plants, 
may  be  considered  fully  sufficient  for  the  successful 
cultivation  of  these  beautiful  flowers  in  England. 

The  compost  used  at  Haarlem  (the  centre  of 
hyacinths  in  Holland),  is  rotten  cow-dung,  rotten 
leaves,  and  fine  sea  sand.  In  making  this  compost, 
the  Dutch  gardeners  prefer  the  leaves  of  elm,  lime, 
and  birch,  on  account  of  their  rotting  more  quickly 
than  those  of  other  trees.  The  cow-dung  which 
they  use  is  also  of  a  peculiar  quality,  being  collected 
without  any  mixture  of  straw  or  other  litter,  in  the 
winter,  when  the  cattle  are  fed  upon  dry  food.  The 
cow-dung  and  leaves  must  not  be  used  till  they  are 
thoroughly  decayed  ;  the  compost  should  then  be 
mixed  in  the  following  proportions,  viz,  one-sixth 
rotten  leaves,  two-sixths  pure  sand,  and  three-sixths 
rotten  cow-dung ;  and  it  should  be  allowed  to  be 
together  some  time,  to  ameliorate  and  incorporate, 
before  it  is  used  for  the  beds.  This  compost  retains 
its  qualities  about  six  or  seven  years,  but  the  Dutch 


avoid  setting  hyacinths  in  it  two  years  successively ; 
nor  do  they  set  them  in  it  the  first  season,  as  the 
fresh  manure  might  be  injurious  to  them.  In  the 
alternate  years  they  plant  tulips,  narcissi,  &c.  The 
beds  should  be  made  about  three  feet  in  depth  with 
the  compost,  and  must  not  be  trodden  down  hard, 
but,  trenches  being  opened,  the  bulbs  may  be  ar- 
ranged, and  then  carefully  covered,  from  three  to 
five  inches  deep.  They  should  not  be  dibbled  or 
pressed  into  the  compost.  A  little  pures  and  placed 
round  the  bottoms  of  young  bidbs  is  believed  to  pre- 
vent them  from  cankering.  The  later  sorts  nearest 
the  surface,  to  make  them  flower  earlier.  If  the 
situation  is  wet  in  winter,  the  beds  may  be  raised  six 
inches,  or  even  more,  above  the  level  of  the  soil,  to 
prevent  the  injury  which  the  bulbs  might  receive 
from  moisture ;  but  if  too  much  elevated  they  will 
suffer  from  drought.  The  Dutch  cover  their  beds 
with  dung  in  winter,  to  keep  off  the  frost,  but  this 
appears  unnecessary  in  our  climate.  When  the 
leaves  of  hyacinths  begin  to  wither,  the  bulbs  should, 
if  possible,  be  pulled  out  of  the  bed  by  the  hand,  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  cutting  them  with  a  spade  ;  the 
leaves  should  be  cut  off,  and  each  bulb  laid  on  its 


From  Hort.  Register. 


30 


DESCRIPTTON   OF    A   GARDEN. 


side,  covering  it  lightly  with  the  compost  about  two 
inches  thick  ; — in  this  state  they  should  be  left  about 
a  month  (but  the  tardy  sorts  are  usually  left  longer, 
and  more  lightly  covered),  and  then  taken  up  in  dry 
weather,  and  exposed  to  the  open  air  for  some  hours, 
but  not  to  a  powerful  sun,  which  would  be  very  in- 
jurious to  them.  They  should  after  this  be  carefully 
examined,  and  the  decayed  parts  of  any  bulbs  which 
may  have  cankered,  must  be  removed  with  a  knife ; 
for  which  purpose  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to 
cut  deep,  for  if  it  is  not  done  effectually,  the  whole 
bulb   becomes  diseased,  and  infects  others  which 


may  be  near  it.  The  bulbs  should  be  placed  in  an 
airy  store-room  about  the  end  of  June;  they  must 
not  be  suffered  to  touch  each  other,  and  must  be 
frequently  looked  over,  in  order  to  remove  those 
which  may  shew  fresh  symptoms  of  decay,  until 
November,  the  time  for  replanting.  Old  tan,  well 
decayed  and  pulverized,  may  be  substituted  in  the 
compost  above  described  if  leaves  cannot  be  ob- 
tained;  and  when  the  compost  has  been  in  use  for 
about  six  years,  it  will  be  necessary  to  renovate  it 
by  the  addition  of  some  fresh  materials. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   A   GARDEN. 

BY    MATTHiEUS    SYLVATICUS. 


Phcenicia's  gardens  have  enough  been  sung. 
Enough  the  praise  of  proud  Versailles  has  rung; 
Where  stiff  in  rows  the  walks  and  groups  are  made. 
And  Nature's  corpse  at  Euclid's  feet  is  laid. 
Rise,  rustic  Muse,  and  sing,  in  simple  strain 

''s  little  garden,  small  in  vain  ; 
Where  Art  in  Nature's  wildest  pathway  treads, 
And  boldly  follows  wheresoe'er  she  leads ; 
Where  rivers  flow,  where  rocks  stupendous  rise. 
And  where  th'  expanded  lake  reflects  the  skies. 

First,  from  the  house  o'er  level  walks  we  pass, 
With  flowers  bordered,  and  with  verdant  grass  ; 
Here  roses  and  diosmas  freely  grow. 
Here  heaths  and  beauteous  myrtles  deign  to  blow ; 
Here  clove  carnations  catch  the  dazzled  sight, 
And  helianthus  pours  a  blaze  of  light. 

A  rural  trelliage  gate  we  now  pass  through. 
Shaded  and  arched  o'erhead  by  lilac  blue  : 
The  sumach  with  the  dahlia  here  combines. 
And  coreopsis,  bright  in  beauty,  joins. 
Thence  to  the  left  we  turn,  ascending  high 
A  rising  hill  salutes  the  gazing  eye; 
Far  on  the  right  extends  a  verdant  mead  ; 
Rocks  on  the  other  side  to  rocks  succeed ; 
Pomona's  offerings  overhang  the  road, 
Scarce  can  the  branches  bear  the  luscious  load  ; 
Geraniums  smile  beneath  the  solar  ray. 
And  antirrhinum  courts  the  eye  of  day  : 
Thine  arms,  convolvulus,  each  tree  embrace, 
And  gentianella  beautifies  the  place. 
But  soft — behold  where  yonder  mountain's  brow 
With  lordly  scorn  surveys  the  vale  below ; 
A  nodding  wood  adorns  its  topmost  height, 
O'ergrown  with  shrubs  impervious  to  the  sight ; 
And,  where  a  torrent  once  its  passage  rent, 
A  rough  and  dark  defile  affords  descent : 


So  in  Breadalbane's  wilds,  'mid  forests  green, 
The  Trosach's  glen  contrasts  the  sylvan  scene. 

The  mountain  pass'd,  to  strike  our  wondering  eyes 
The  lake's  unnumber'd  beauties  next  arise  ; 
So  clear  the  flood  we  see  the  spreading  sands. 
The  garden  in  the  crystal  mirror  stands  ; 
While  China's  glittering  fish,  securely  gay, 
At  ease  within  its  bosom  bask  or  play. 

A  length  of  pleasant  walk  we  now  must  tread, 
To  reach  a  bridge  across  a  river  spread ; 
Here,  pleased  to  rest,  a  rustic  bower  we  view. 
Where  our  exhausted  strength  we  can  renew. 
Such  varied  charms  this  lovely  seat  can  boast. 
We  know  not  which  to  like  or  praise  the  most. 
Within,  all  neatness.  Flora  for  her  own 
Has  fix'd  this  spot,  and  here  has  placed  her  throne ; 
Without,  th'  acacia  waves  her  graceful  head. 
The  glo'.ving  cistus  all  around  is  spread ; 
The  holyoak  its  varied  beauty  shews. 
And  ivy  gives  the  scene  its  due  repose. 

Recruited  now,  we  leave  the  sylvan  seat, 
And  view  the  precincts  of  the  sweet  jetreat; 
Far  on  the  left,  old  Bacchus'  plant  appears, 
Each  lengthen'd  branch  the  luscious  fruitage  bears  ; 
No  trees  are  near,  and  here,  in  pomp  display'd. 
Are  all  those  flowerets  which  avoid  the  shade. 

Another  bridge  we  cross,  again  the  lake 
Displays  its  charms,  the  woodland  view  to  break : 
Unnumber'd  sweets,  around  its  borders  shewn. 
Our  every  sense  delight  and  make  their  own. 
A  grateful  coolness  tempers  here  the  heat, 
A  mulberry  grove  affords  a  calm  retreat. 

Border'd  with  grass  the  winding  path  proceeds, 
Thro' numerous  groups  of  flowers  it  homeward  leads; 
Again  the  flower  garden  paths  we  tread, 
And  to  the  house  by  Friendship's  hand  are  led. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    PLATES. 


31 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


POINCIANA   PULCHERRIMA. 

Decandria  Monogynia,  Linnaeus  ;  Cassiea,  De  Cond. 

Calyx  5-phyllus,  inferiore  majora.     Petala  5,  summum  diiForme. 

Stam.    longissima;    omnia   ftecunda,   discreca.     Legumen    com- 

pressoplanum,  bivalve,  pluviloculare.     Sem.  unicum  in  singulis 

loculamentis. 

Poinciana  pulcherrima  ;  aculeis  geminis.  Spec.  PI.  554.  Reich.  2. 

p.  258,  Hort.  Up.i.  101.  Horc.Kew.  2.  p.  54.  Jacq.  Amer.  122. 

Ld.  Pict.  62.  t.  120 
Poinciana.     I'ourn.  Just.  619.  t.  391.    Brown  Jour.  225.   Hughes 

Barbad.p.  201. 
Csesalpinia  pulcherrima ;    foliolis   oblongo-ovalibus   emarginatis 

calycibusque  glabris,  corymbes  simplicibus   petalis   imbriatis, 

staminibus  longissimus.      Swartz.  Obs.  166.     IViUd.  Sp.  PL  2. 

531.     3Iart.  Mill.  Dirt,  a   2 
Senna  spuria  arborea  spinosa,  &c.    Sloave  Jan.  2.  p  49. 
Crista  Pavonis  flore  elegantissimo  variegato.     Burn.  Zeyl  79. 
Crista  Pavonis  frute.K  pavonius.     Breyn.    Cent.  61.  t,  22.     Rail 

Hist.  981. 
Acacia  oi-ientalis  gloriosa,  colutese  foliis,  ad  genicula  spinis  ge- 

mellis  aculeata.     Piuk.  Alur.  5. 
Flos  Pavonis      Mer  Sur.  45.  t.  49. 
Tsietti  mandaru.     Rheede  Mai.  6.  p.  1.  f,  1. 

The  name  of  Poinciana  was  given  to  this  splendid 
shrub  by  Tournefort,  in  commemoration  of  M.  de 
Poinci,  governor  of  the  Antilles.  Its  English  appel- 
lation denotes  the  use  to  which  it  is  frequently  ap- 
plied in  the  West  Indies,  and  Jacquin  remarks  that 
a  hedge  made  of  this  plant,  especially  vshen  mixed 
with  Parkinsonia  aculeata,  forms  the  most  beautiful 
fence  imaginable ;  indeed  few  flowers  have  been 
described  in  more  enraptured  language.  Although 
long  since  widely  diffused  through  the  West  India 
isles,  and  frequently  found  of  spontaneous  growth, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  be  originally  indigenous 
there.  Ligon  says  expressly  that  it  was  imported 
into  Barbadoes  from  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands.  It 
is  cultivated  through  all  the  tropical  countries  of  the 
East,  especially  wherever  any  Chinese  are  settled, 
by  whom  it  is  called  the  Peacock's  breast.  It  was 
introduced  into  Holland  from  Amboyna  about  the 
year  1670,  and  cultivated  in  Chelsea  Garden,  by  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  in  1691 ;  but  as  it  cannot  be  preserved 
out  of  the  stove,  nor  propagated  except  by  seeds,  it 
must  ever  remain  a  rarity  in  northern  climes. 

The  flowers  are  said  to  be  sweet-scented  ;  but  the 
whole  plant,  when  bruised,  diffuses  a  disagreeable 
smell,  very  like  that  of  Savin,  which  it  appears  to 
resemble  in  virtue,  being  considered,  in  the  West 
Indies,  as  a  powerful  emmenagogue. 

Swartz  has  thought  proper  to  unite  Poinciana 
with  Cassalpinia,  in  which  he  has  been  followed  by 
Willdenow  and  Martyn  ;  but,  that,  according  to 
Gaertner,  the  seed-j)od  of  Cassalpinia  Sapan  is  one- 
celled,  which  in  our  plant  is  divided  by  a  transverse 
septum  between  each  seed;  and  in  respect  to  the 
form  of  the  flower,  Poincinia  seems  to  have  a  nearer 
resemblance  to  Parkinsonia, 


PELARGONIUM  PULCHELLUM. 

Monadelphia  Heptandria,  Ll-jN/Eos;  Geraniae,  Jdssied. 
Sect.  11.  Fructus  rostro  spirali  intus  barbate. 
Acantia  :  radice  rassifornii ;  filamentes  5  sterilibus.     P.  foliis  pin- 
natifidis,  laciniis  3-5-lobis :  pedicellis  brevissimis :  calycibus  ven- 
tricosulis,  ^■iscid^lo-pubescentibus  :  petalis  spatulatis,  inferioribus 
angustis.     Sponte  nascentera  in  Promontorio  Cap. 

The  tuberous-rooted  Pelargoniums  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  are  so  numerous  and  distinct  in  their 
habit,  that  it  is  greatly  to  be  wished  some  character 
could  be  found  to  separate  them  as  a  genus.  In 
every  flower  of  the  specimen  of  that  now  figured 
which  was  examined,  the  anthers  were  persistent, 
not  falling  off  soon  after  shedding  their  pollen,  as  in 
most  other  Pelargoniums  :  but  whether  this  circum- 
stance is  peculiar  to  the  whole  group,  or  even  con- 
stant in  this  one  species,  has  not  been  ascertained. 
It  seems  allied  to  Mr.  Kennedy's  Roseum,  well 
figured  in  the  Botanical  Repository;  and  the  calyx 
being  constantly  swelled  at  the  base,  may  perhaps 
disting-uish  it  from  that  and  some  others. 


PHYLLODOCE    TAXIFOLIA. 

Decandria  Monogynia,  LinNjEos;  Erica;,  Jdssied. 

Calyx  pi'ofunde  5-fidus.  Corolla  1-petala,  decidua.  Filamenta  10, 
toro  inserta.  Antberce  juxta  apicem  foramine  obovato  dehiscentes. 
Pericarpium  superum  5-loculare ;  septis  eniarginibus  valvarura, 
ab  axi  debiscentibus.  Semina  elliptica  scrobiculata.  Fruticulus 
semper  virens,  Folia  alterna,  lateribus  reduplicatis  quasi  subtus 
sulcata  ut  in  Ericfi.  Flores  ex  axillis  2-9  ultimis  fasciculura 
mentientes,  ramo  nunc  prolifero.  Bracteae  2  ad  basin  pedunculi 
praeterfolium,  persistentes.  Nomen  poeticum,  exemplo  immor- 
talis  Linnaeus  in  Andromeda  ad  hoc  genus  selagi,  quod  toto  anno 
etiam  subnive  foliis  ornatur.  Illi  valde  atfinis  est  Erica  Daboecii 
Sp.  PI-  quam  ob  dehiscentiam  fructusolim  ad  Menziesiam  retuli 
uti  nuper  Jussieu,  sed  cum  inflorescentiA  longe  diversa  folio  tan- 
tum  absque  bracteis  pedunculo  subjecta  nee  non  receptaculo 
seminum  abludat,  potius  erit  sui  generis. 

P.  foliorum  laminis  linearibus,  obtusis  :  corollae  tubo  urceolari. 

Erica  cajrulea.   If 'Hid.  Sp.  PI.  v.  2  p.  303. 

Andromeda  taxifolia.    Pall.  Fl.  Ro.is.  part  2. />.  54.  t.  72.  ,f.  2. 

Andromeda  caerulea.  FL  Dan.  t  57. 

Erica  foliis  acerosis  de  Gmel.  Fl.  Sib.  v.  4.  p   131.  t.  57. y.  2. 

Andromeda  caerulea    Linn.  Sp.  PL  ed  2.  p.  563. 

Erica  rarior  Norwegica.  Linn.  Ama'n  v    1.  edLugce.  Bat. p.  332. 

Andromeda  foliis  de  Linn,  FL  Lapp.  n.  164.  t.  \.f.  5. 

Sponte  nascentem  in  Lapland  abunde,  legit  C.  Linne :  in  Labra- 
dor coUibus  sicus,  legit  J.  Banks,  Baronettus ;  in  Kamschatka  et 
America  Borealis  oris  occidentalibus  lat.  52.  rupibus  muscosis, 
legit  G.  W.  Steller. 

The  stems  occasionally  attain  a  foot  in  height  when 
growing  among  rocks  and  mossy  banks.  The  leaves 
are  shining  green,  with  a  whitish  line  running  through 
the  middle  of  their  under  surface,  obtuse,  line-like, 
fringed  with  short  gland- bearing  hairs  at  the  bend, 
which  is  not  the  true  margin,  as  is  sometimes  sup- 
posed. Flowers  on  solitary  long  flower-stalks,  issu- 
ing from  two  to  nine  of  the  uppermost  axils  of  the 
leaves.     Flower-scales    two,   at   the   base   of  each 


32 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    PLATES. 


flower-stalk,  besides  the  leaf  which  supplies  the 
place  of  a  third  flower-scale ;  and  becomes  gradually 
a  little  shorter  and  more  like  a  flower-stalk  in  spe- 
cimens with  many  flowers,  all  persistent,  and  not 
caducous,  as  in  Menziesia.  The  calyx  is  finely 
haired  and  viscid ;  the  corolla  purple,  varyins;  to 
pale  red  and  white,  but  never  blue,  for  which  reason 
Professor  Pallas  has  very  justly  changed  the  name 
of  ccerulea  to  taxifol'mm.  The  anthers  are  long, 
without  nerves,  and  obtuse  at  the  base. 


DIAPENSIA  OBTUSIFOLIA. 

Pentandria  Monogynia,  Linn^us;  Ericse,  JussiEU. 

Calyx  S-phyllus,  peristens.  Corolla  1-petala:  Tubus  calathi- 
fovmis:  Linibus  recurvulus,  5-partitus:  decidua.  Filamenta  5, 
lata,  tubam  inter  lacinias  terminantia.  Anthers  didymse,  nunc 
basi  rostratOE.  Pericarpium  fere  totum  superum,  ovatum,  3-locu- 
lare  3-valve,  medio  loculorum  dehiscens.  Stylus  crassus.  Stigma 
3-lobani.  Semina  numerosa,  colo  retuso  ad  angulum  internum 
sessilia,  subovata.  Fruticuli  cajpitosi,  sempervirentes,  Calcilis, 
foliis,  emarcidis  vestitus.  Folia  alterna  subopposita,  in  resus 
conferta.  Flores  albi,  pedunculo  subnuUo  vel  longiusculo  1-rii 
terminales,  erecti.  Bractese  3  juxtacalycem,  praeter  unam  alter- 
amne  infra  sparsas.  Genus  in  serie  naturali  forsan  juxta  Azaleum 
locandam  cujus  duse  species  innotuerunt. 

D.  obtusifolia  foliis  spatulatis,  glabris :  antheris,  obliquis,  muticis. 

D.  lapponica.    Oed.  in  Ft.  Dan.  t,  47.  bova. 

D.  lapponica.  Linn.  Fl.  Lapp.  n.  88.  t.  \.  f.  1.  Sponte  nascen- 
tem  in  Lapland,  alpibus  muscovestitis,  legit.  C.  Linne :  in 
Norway,  horridis  scopulis,  legit.  G.  C.  Oeder :  in  Ins.  New- 
foundland, rupibus  maritimis,  legit.  J.  Banks,  Baronettus  :  in 
New  Hampshire,  alpibus,  legit.  J.  D.  Peck:  in  Kamschatka, 
legit.  J.  Dixon. 

D.  cuncifolia  foliis  lanceolato-cuneatis,  inferne  pubescentibus : 
antheris  hoiizontalibus,  basi  rostratis.  Pyxidanthera  barbulati. 
Michaux.  Fl.  Boreali-Am.  v.  1.  p.  152. 1. 17.  Sponte  nascentem 
in  North  Carolina,  montibus,  legit.  A.  Michaux. 

Stems  several,  leafy,  branching  closely  into  little 
tufts  or  cushions,  which  Professor  Peck  says  often 
become  large  and  firm  enough  in  the  White  moun- 
tains of  New  Hampshire  to  bear  the  weight  of  a  man 
standing  upon  them.  They  are  very  slender,  but 
woody,  and  covered  with  the  decayed  leaves  for 
years.  Leaves  dark  green,  and  more  or  less  tinged 
with  brown  on  their  upper  surface,  yelloviish  green 
on  their  under  surface,  from  four  to  seven  lines  long, 
very  closely  imbricated,  and  sitting ;  their  lower 
part  erect,  dilated  into  a  thin  membranaceous  mar- 
gin, and  hollow ;  from  thence  recurved,  spatulate, 
very  entire,  blunt,  quite  smooth,  slightly  channelled 
with  convex  sides,  flattish  underneath,  thick,  and 
hard.  Flowers  solitary,  and  without  smell.  Flower- 
stalks  terminating  most  of  the  principal  branches, 
from  six  to  ten  lines  long,  nearly  erect,  cylindrical, 
smooth.  Flower-scales  three,  imbricated  near  the 
calyx,  erect,  oval,  persistent :  besides  these,  one  or 
two  smaller  are  scattered  lower  down  ;  and  they  are 
all  similar  to  the  leaves  in  consistence.  Calyx  of 
five  leaflets :  these  are  somewhat  imbricated,  erect, 


oval,  often  slightly  crenulated  towards  the  top,  which 
is  rather  tumid,  quite  smooth,  nearly  equal  in  size, 
persistent.  Corolla  white,  full  three  lines  in  length  : 
tube  bowl-shaped  :  limb  slightly  recurved,  divided 
to  the  base  into  five  egg-oblong,  very  entire,  blunt, 
flattish  divisions :  smooth  on  both  surfaces,  deciduous. 
Filaments  five,  white,  terminating  the  tube  between 
the  divisions  of  the  limb,  broad,  short,  erect,  some- 
what narrower  towards  the  top,  quite  smooth,  hol- 
lowish.  Anthers  yellow,  confluent  with  the  filaments, 
retuse,  didymous:  lobes  oblique,  elliptical,  1-locular, 
2-valved,  splitting  lengthwise,  not  much  contracted 
after  the  pollen  is  discharged.  Pollen  yellow.  Seed- 
vessel  green  while  young,  hollow  within  the  sur- 
rounding torus,  upon  which  the  calyx  and  corolla 
are  inserted  so  as  not  to  be  quite  superior,  almost 
globular,  3-celled  :  when  fully  grown,  oval,  splitting 
in  the  middle  of  the  cells.  The  receptacles  of  the 
seeds  are  retuse.  Style  pale  yellow,  reaching  to 
about  the  height  of  the  anthers,  columnar,  round, 
smooth.  Summit  deep,  somewhat  egg-shaped,  very 
finely  scrobiculated. 

This  curious  little  shrub  is  from  Labrador:  in 
that  dreary  country,  as  well  as  others  near  the  Arctic 
circle,  it  grows  plentifully  upon  the  most  barren 
maritime  rocks,  insinuating  its  slender  roots  into 
crevices,  where  there  is  a  little  soil. 


VACCINIUM  BUXIFOLIUM. 

Octandria  Monogynia,  LiNNiEOS;  Ericae,  JossiEO. 

Pericarpium  inferum  4-5-loculare  succulentum,  clausum,  deci- 
duum.  Semina,  10-30  in  singulis  loculis.  Corolla  monopetala 
limbo  luevi,  4-5-fido;  decidua.  Antherje  8-10,  valvis  apice  ob- 
lique forarainosis.  Frutices  quidam  humillimi,  gemmiferi.  Folia 
alterna,  in  plerisque  dentata,  autumno  decidua,  vel  semper- 
virentia.  Flores  solitarii  fasciculati  spicative,  ssepius  axillaries. 
Folia  sempervirentia. 

V.  foliis  obovatis,  dentatis,  glabris,  subtus  aquatis  :  spicis  e  supe- 
rioribus  axillis,  dense  multifloris :  stigmatibus  hemisphasricis. 

V.  brachycerum.  Michaux  Ft.  Boreali-Amer.  v.  I.  p.  254.  Sponte 
nascentem  circa  Winchester  in  Virginia,  legit  A.  Michaux. 

The  stems  creep  a  little  under  the  ground,  and  are 
covered  with  a  short  rough  down.  Leaves  some- 
times oval,  without  any  callous  dots  on  the  under 
surface:  midrib  hairy  on  its  upper  surface.  Flowers 
bluish  coloured.  Common  flower-stalk  very  short. 
Calyx  and  corolla  generally  five-cleft.  Filaments 
ten,  attached  at  the  very  base  to  the  corolla,  but  in- 
serted like  it,  in  the  receptacle  which  surrounds  the 
top  of  the  fruit,  having  anthers  shorter  than  in  many 
others,  and  without  a  spur. 

A  beautiful  dwarf  species,  resembling  V.  Vitis 
Idsea,  from  which  however  it  may  always  be  distin- 
guished by  the  knobbed  summit. 

It  thrives  best  in  light  sandy  vegetable  mould, 
among  rock,  and  other  shrubs. 


2G 


CULTURE  OF   THE   PRICKLY  COMFREY. 


33 


ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  PRICKLY  COMFREY.* 

BY    J.    T. 


In  the  autumn  of  1830,  I  was  induced  by  the  re- 
commendation of  a  neighbour,  and  the  highly 
laudatory  accounts  in  some  of  the  public  prints,  to 
purchase  fifty  plants  of  tlie  Symphytum  asperrimum 
I  received  them  in  November ;  they  were  very 
small,  somewhat  resembling  young  primrose  plants. 
They  were  immediately  placed  in  a  bed  of  rather 
strong,  but  sandy  loam,  aboimding  with  chalky 
particles,  three  feet  asimder,  in  rows  four  feet 
apart.  In  spring  I  perceived  that  several  had 
perished,  in  consequence  of  a  large  quantity  of 
snow  that  had  accumulated,  and  lain  about  that 
particular  piece  of  ground  for  a  considerable  time. 
The  lost  plants  were  replaced  by  others,  procured 
in  the  beginning  of  April,  1831.  In  common  with 
many  other  herbaceous  plants,  the  Symphytum  will 
remove  with  the  greatest  safety  and  success,  just  at 
that  period,  when,  after  the  recession  of  the  winter 
frosts,  the  ground  is  in  a  meliorated  and  readily 
pulverable  state,  and  the  herb  in  an  excitable  state, 
and  just  beginning  to  push.  If  transplanted  in  the 
autumn,  when  dormant  and  unexcitable,  the  accu- 
mulated prepared  juices,  that  are  deposited  by  the 
leaves  before  their  final  decay,  frequently  become 
decomposed  by  frosts,  damp,  and  particularly  by  a 
mass  of  snow,  and  decay  takes  place.  This  seldom, 
however,  occurs  when  the  plant  has  remained  un- 
disturbed ;  because  the  vessels  are  not  lacerated, 
and,  therefore,  the  connection  between  the  root,  or 
hybernaculum,  and  the  soil  continues  uninterrupted. 
My  plants,  from  the  period  referred  to,  grew 
rapidly,  and  spread  extensively  ;  they  fully  occu- 
pied the  space  allotted  to  them,  and  notwithstanding 
the  memorable  and  extensively  destructive  frost  of 
the  7th  of  May,  I  could  not  perceive  that  a  leaf 
was  injured. 

I  had  occasion  to  remove  nearly  the  whole  of  my 
plants,  and  at  the  latter  end  of  February,  1832, 
transferred  them  to  a  broad  border  of  an  orchard 
with  a  north-east  aspect. 

The  greater  part  of  the  roots  were  found  to  be 
from  ten  inches  to  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  readily 
divisible  ;  they  were  very  succulent,  mucilaginous 
and  tender  ;  their  internal  substance  was  of  a  dirty 
white,  but  the  cuticle  of  a  dark  brown  colour. 
These  plants  stocked  the  border,  the  length  of 
which  is  twenty-six  yards,  and  the  breadth  about 
six  yards.  They  were  in  number,  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifteen,  and  were  set  in  holes,  distant  three 
feet  by  four  from  each  other  ;  and  by  the  end  of 


the  month  of  June,    the  leaves  met,  and  covered 
the  surface. 

After  these  general  facts,  I  proceed  more  parti- 
cularly to  notice  the  soil  in  which  it  grows.  Mr. 
Grant,  in  his  circular,  says,  "  It  will  grow  in  all 
soils  and  situations,  superior  to  any  other  plant ;  it 
may  be  planted  by  the  sides  of  ditches,  in  any 
waste  corner  of  fields,  orchards,  gardens,  &c.  where 
useless  rubbish  grows."  I  have  tried  my  plants  in 
every  species  of  soil  I  possess,  from  that  of  the 
unprepared,  untilled  land  of  a  field,  where  the  roots 
of  an  adjoining  plantation  of  elms  had  taken  undis- 
turbed possession  for  years,  to  the  richest  manured 
plot  of  a  kitchen  garden.  The  spot  where  the  bulk 
now  stands,  was  a  soil  degraded  by  rubbish  of 
every  kind  ;  it  was  artificial,  and  a  set  of  sheds  and 
out  offices  of  a  farm  yard  had  been  erected  on  it ; 
brick-bats,  lumps  of  chalk,  fragments  of  glass- 
bottles  abounded ;  and  what  with  these,  and  the 
roots  of  elm  trees,  the  work  of  trenching  was  ef- 
fected with  much  labour  and  difficulty.  If  the 
plants  have  thriven  better  in  one  soil  than  in  another, 
it  is  perhaps  in  a  sort  of  stiff"  but  pale  sandy  loam, 
which,  by  analysis,  I  have  found  to  contain  in  two- 
hundred  parts,  when  dry,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
parts  of  silicious  sand,  of  chalk,  fifteen  parts,  alu- 
minous impalpable  matter,  twelve  parts,  oxide  of 
iron,  six  parts,  and  of  vegetable  fibre  or  water,  not 
separated  by  the  previous  process  of  drying,  the  re- 
maining seventeen  parts. 

In  regard  to  their  propagation,  the  plants  may  be 
raised  from  seeds,  subject  to  the  difficulty  already 
alluded  to  ;  but  they  may  be  multiplied  to  any  ex- 
tent by  separation  of  the  roots.  These  may  be 
torn  asunder,  chopped  lengthways  with  a  spade,  or 
more  cautiously  divided  by  the  knife  or  bill-hook, 
during  any  period  of  the  growing  season  ;  but  de^ 
cidedly  by  preference  just  before  the  central  shoot 
has  pushed  above  ground.  They  succeed  under 
all  these  modes  of  separation,  and  make  fine  large 
plants  in  a  few  months.  Upon  this  subject,  how- 
ever, in  the  very  early  progress  of  my  experience, 
I  wrote  to  Mr  Grant,  and  received  a  reply  of  date 
May,  1831,  wherein  he  stated,  that  the  roots  "  may 
be  planted  at  any  time  when  you  may  wish  to  in- 
crease your  stock,  care  being  taken  to  have  a  part 
of  the  crown  with  each  cutting.  It  increases 
freely.  I  made  it  from  two  plants  to  forty  thousand 
in  five  years," 

The  very  young  plants  make  rather  slow  advances 


*  From  the  Quart.  Journ.  of  Agriculture. 
MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  OAKDENIN6,    VOL,  II.  NO,  XII. MARCH,  1834. 


34 


CULTURE    OF    THE    PRICKLY  COMFREY. 


after  removal  in  the  spring,  for  a  month  ;  but  if 
rains  fall,  and  genial  temperature  supervenes  to- 
ward the  middle  of  May,  they  set  off  rapidly,  and 
extend  in  every  direction ;  the  flower  stem  is  soon 
developed,  and  will  be  perfected  in  July.  But 
plants  made  by  separation  of  the  larger  plants,  I 
have  found  to  grow  and  expand  with  amazing  ra- 
pidity ;  they  resemble  in  this  respect  the  gigantic 
rhubarb,  (Rheumhybridum,var.)which  I  have  always 
observed  to  be  accelerated  by  removal  in  sjiring. 

"  I  went  down  to  Lewisham  last  week,"  says 
Mr.  W.  W.  Fames,  in  the  Farmer's  Journal  of  14th 
June,  1830,  on  the  growth  of  the  Symphytum,"  and 
can  assure  you  I  was  very  much  pleased,  I  may  say 
astonished,  at  the  produce  ;  it  was  beautifully  in 
bloom,  and  some  of  it  near  seven  feet  high. 

"  All  that  Grant  has  said  of  the  produce  and 
quality  seems  to  be  correct ;  from  the  taste  of  it, 
1  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  it  contains  a  great 
deal  of  nutritious  matter.  I  saw  one  plant  which, 
I  was  informed,  had  been  planted  three  years,  con- 
taining thirty-two  stalks,  none  of  them  less  than 
six  feet  high,  and  from  one  and  a  half,  to  four 
inches  in  circumference.  The  plant  was  cut  and 
weighed  this  day  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  W.  C. 
Selby,  of  the  Bridge-house  Farm,  Lewisham,  and 
weighed  fifty-six  pounds." 

I  never  saw  the  flower  stems  of  my  plants  above 
five  feet  high,  but  then,  till  the  present  season, 
none  of  them  have  been  at  rest ;  they  have  not 
been  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  soil,  and 
have  been  cut  over  so  repeatedly,  as  to  prevent  the 
roots  deriving  all  the  vigour  and  energy  which 
would  have  been  afforded"  by  the  foliage,  had  the 
stalks  been  sufl^ered  to  grow  uncut  or  unpulled 
during  one  entire  summer. 

The  experiments  that  have  come  under  my  notice 
have  been  made  in  latitudes  coinciding  with  that 
of  London  ;  but  I  have  observed  no  diiference  in 
the  strength  and  verdure  of  the  leaves,  be  the  as- 
pect what  it  might.  A  large  part  of  my  stock  of 
plants  is  shaded  by  a  south-west  fence ;  and  al- 
though hoar-frost  and  general  cold  temperature 
have  prevailed  throughout  March,  and  the  three 
first  weeks  of  April,  I  have  already  drawn  off 
the  leaves  in  succession,  from  above  one  half  of 
the  plants  ;  and  so  rapid  is  the  growth,  that  by  the 
time  the  whole  shall  have  been  pulled,  the  opera- 
tion may  be  recommenced.  A  bushel  basket  nearly 
of  the  leaves  is  collected  daily,  and  given  to  a  cow  ; 
and  this  in  a  season  when  the  grass  in  the  same  or- 
chard is  just  assuming  a  full  green  tint,  and  begin- 
ning to  lengthen  ;  and  on  an  adjoining  patch  of  last 
year's  lucerne,  is  only  protruding  its  first  shoots 
above  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Mr.  Grant  observes  that  he  once  "  cut  and 
weighed  one  square  rod  ;  the  average  was  seven- 
teen tons,  three  hundred  per  acre."  He  says  it  rises 


to  more  than  seven  feet  in  height,  and  so  thickly, 
as  completely  to  cover  the  ground  on  which  it 
stands  ;  that  by  the  first  of  April,  (1830,)  "  it  is 
now  fit  for  cutting."  I  have  not  as  yet  observed  it 
to  attain  so  great  a  height,  but  I  have  often  taken  a 
cutting  from  the  crown,  placed  it  in  the  border  or 
shrubbery,  and  have  seen  the  herb  spread  during 
the  same  summer  to  the  breadth  of  nine  or  ten  in- 
ches, the  flower  stem  to  rise  to  the  height  of  four 
or  five  feet,  and  the  root  to  penetrate  the  ground 
far  beyond  the  depth  of  a  spade,  and  to  an  extent 
that  would  have  furnished  three  or  more  fine  large 
plants.  Mr.  Grant  represents  the  leaves  to  be 
eagerly  eaten  by  horses,  and  this  I,  as  well  as  a 
highly  respectable  neighbour,  have  proved  to  be 
the  fact.  "  Cows  do  not  take  it  in  the  first  instance 
so  freely  as  the  horse,  but  they  all  soon  take  to  it, 
and  then  they  are  quite  as  eager  for  it."  The  fact 
is,  if  they  are  offered  to  a  cow  when  the  flower 
stem  is  grown  up,  the  whole  stalk  and  its  foliage 
are  so  very  prickly  and  rough,  that  the  animal 
seems  to  shun  it.  During  the  summer  of  1832,  I 
greatly  feared  that  the  attempt  to  feed  cows  with 
Symphytum  would  end  in  complete  failure.  In  that 
season  we  invariably  cut  it  over  with  a  reaping 
hook  ;  the  leaves  were  frequently  eaten,  but  the 
stems  were  left.  The  present  year,  however,  I 
determined  should  witness  another  mode  of  proce- 
dure, and  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  were  fully  ex- 
panded, I  directed  them  to  be  drawn  up,  and  not 
cut  off,  and  every  leaf  is  now  greedily  devoured. 
Dr.  Withering  says  of  the  common  comfrey  (Sym- 
phytum officinale),  cows  and  sheep  eat  it ;  horses, 
goats,  and  swine  refuse  it.  The  roots  are  gluti- 
nous and  mucilaginous."  The  roots  of  the  S.  as- 
perrimum  are  the  same,  and  I  find  that  cows  will 
eat  them  freely.  The  plant  also  will  etiolate,  or 
blanch  to  perfection,  as  I  discovered  by  finding  one 
in  a  bed  of  damp  leaves  ;  it  was  eight  inches  high, 
and  as  white  and  crisp  as  a  plant  of  celery.  "  Sheep 
and  lambs  will  take  it  freely.  Lambs  will  all  feed 
on  it  before  they  are  a  month  old,  and  as  it  is  such 
a  very  early  plant,  it  will  immediately  follow  the 
turnips."  I  cannot  from  my  own  experience  deter- 
mine the  correctness  of  this  observation.  Mr.  Grant 
finally  observes,  it  is  very  useful  to  pigs ;  that  he 
"  kept  a  sow  with  twelve  pigs  chiefly  on  it ;  she 
brought  them  up  well ;  they  all  fed  on  it  before 
they  were  three  weeks  old." 

Geese  do  well  with  it,  the  young  ones  will  feed 
on  it  as  soon  as  hatched  ;  I  have  invariably  found 
that  pigs  will  eat  the  Symphytum  leaves  freely,  and 
the  stalks  also  to  a  considerable  extent ;  but  as  to 
geese,  my  experience  by  no  means  justifies  Mr. 
Grant's  assertion.  I  have  left  leaves  all  night  about 
the  farm  yard,  when  the  geese  could  get  at  no 
other  food,  and  could  never  perceive  that  one  had 
disappeared.     The  goslings  also  refused  them  at 


ON   FARM    ORCHARDS 


83 


any  age,  even  when  shopped  up.  I  had,  however, 
the  experiment  repeated  yesterday,  that  I  might, 
before  closing  this  paper,  either  confirm  my  past 
observations,  or  obtain  an  exception  in  favour  of 
those  of  Mr.  Grant,  and  the  result  is  doubtful. 
The  goslings,  it  is  true,  had  grass  at  command,  and 
some  young  sprouting  clover.  They  would  not  eat 
the  cut  leaves  at  the  time,  but  they  have  disap- 
peared during  the  night.  I  conclude,  therefore, 
that  where  grass  is  of  ready  access,  the  geese 
greatly  prefer  it.  Upon  the  whole,  then  consider- 
ing the  precocity  of  the  crop,  the  plant  fairly 
rising  early  in  April,  if  the  weather  be  at  all  genial, 
and  extending  with  great  rapidity  ;  the  frequent 
recurrence  of  the  gatherings  ;  the  great  abundance 
of  green  food  yielded,  and  that  for  a  period  of 
seven  months  ;  the  quality  of  that  fodder,  which 
appears  to  be  nutritive,  and  of  a  mild  bland  fla- 
vour ;  I  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  Symphytum 
asperrimum  ought  to  be  considered  a  valuable  ad- 
junct to  the  byre  and  farm  yard  ;  that  it  ought  to 
be  tried  by  every  impartial  experimenter  without 
hesitation,  and  if  the  success  be  equal  to  what 
has  attended  my  trial,  I  have  little  hesitation  in  be- 
lieving, that  a  piece  of  comparatively  useless 
ground  may  be  profitably  set  apart  for  the  culture 
of  so  productive  a  vegetable. 

As  a  caution,  and  in  order  to  secure  the  perma- 
nency of  the  plantation,  I  vcould  enforce  the  prac- 
tice of  pulling  up  the  leaves,  instead  of  cutting  the 
whole  plant  over.  Grant  observes,  that  he  "  can- 
not pretend  to  say  what  effect  continual  cutting 
may  have  on  a  plant,  or  on  the  land  for  many  years 
together  ;  but  that  he  had  never  known  one  to  die ; 
though  some  have  stood  more  than  twenty  years, 
and  in  as  full  vigour  as  the  first,"  It  may  be  pulled 
three  or  four  times  at  the  least,  that  is  the  full 
grown  leaves  may  be  taken  from  around  the  stems  ; 
the  stems  as  they  advance  to  a  foot  high  may  be 
broken  off  to  within  three  inches  of  the  soil,  and 
thus  the  plant  may  be  always  kept  down  by  de- 
forming or  mangling  it,  and  some  foliage  will  at  all 
times  remain  to  be  acted  upon  and  stimulated  by 
solar  light. 


With  respect  to  tillage,  I  should  recommend 
that,  after  the  final  gathering,  the  spaces  between 
the  plants  (which  should  be  at  the  least  three  feet,) 
be  roughly  dug  or  ploughed,  and  left  neat  for  the 
winter  ;  that  during  the  first  dry  and  favourable 
interval,  about  the  middle  or  close  of  February, 
another  deep  moving  of  the  soil  be  given,  and  a 
little  of  the  mould  brought  round  the  plants  ;  and 
that  during  the  growing  season,  the  ground  be  kept 
clean  and  neat  as  time  will  permit.  If  at  any  time 
the  surface  become  hard-bound  by  treading  over, 
great  benefit  will  be  deiived  from  a  second  stirring 
of  the  soil,  but  that  not  to  such  extent  as  to  injure 
the  roots.  Manuring  may,  in  some  soils,  be  of  use, 
but  I  have  not  observed  that  it  has  produced  any 
great  advantage ;  my  plants  appearing  to  be  as 
strong  on  those  spots  where  none  has  been  applied, 
as  on  others  where  a  dunghill  had  previously  stood. 
I  hope  the  foregoing  remarks  will  stimulate  many 
liberal  minded  cultivators  to  introduce  this  plant. 
It  is  not  required  to  substitute  it  for  grass  or  other 
well  tried  staple  produce  ;  but  as  of  late  it  has  been 
the  earnest  endeavours  of  the  philosophic  writers  of 
the  day,  to  bring  into  notice  any  productive  vegeta- 
ble that  may  advance  the  comforts  of  domestic 
economy,  particularly  in  the  homesteads  of  those 
who  possess  but  a  small  portion  of  land,  and  very 
limited  means  of  support,  it  surely  is  desirable  that 
Symphytum  asperrimum  should  be  permitted  to 
take  its  chance  with  hemerocalis,  cichorium,  Italian 
rye  grass,  or  gama  grass.  The  wise  man  economises 
in  every  thing,  and  though  it  is  to  be  lamented  that 
the  price  of  the  first  parcel  of  Symphytum  must  be 
considerable,  (that  is,  presuming  it  is  still  rated  at 
20s.  per  hundred  plants,)  yet  fifty  of  these  would, 
as  I  have  found,  suffice  to  stock  a  large  piece  of 
ground  in  little  more  than  six  months.  I  believe 
that,  by  suffering  one  or  two  plants  to  ripen,  and 
detach  the  seeds,  and  by  a  careful  attention  to  the 
young  seedlings,  in  connection  with  a  proper  divi- 
sion of  the  roots  in  the  second  of  March,  after 
planting,  an  acre  of  ground  might  be  sufficiently 
cropped  with  this  prolific  herb. 


ON    FARM    ORCFIARDS. 

BY   MR.    MAIN  OF   CHELSEA.* 


It  is  expedient  that  every  farm  should  have  some 
portion  of  orchard  ground  attached  to  it.  Every 
landlord  should  encourage  and  assist  his  tenants  to 
plant  them,  where  there  is  yet  nothing  of  the  kind. 
It  is  an  improvement  which   bestows  benefits  on 


both  landlord  and  tenant.  To  those  who  may  have 
such  improvement  in  contemplation,  the  following 
observations  may  be  of  service. 

The  most  convenient  and  guarded  place  for  a 
farm  orchard,  is  immediately  behind  the  house,  so 


*  From  the  Quart.  Jouin.  of  Agriculture. 


F  2 


36 


ON   FARM  ORCHARDS. 


that  the  back  kitchen  door  may  open  into  it.  It 
matters  not  whether  it  be  on  the  north  or  any  other 
side  of  the  buildings.  Many  think  that  an  orchard 
should  be  in  a  low  sheltered  spot,  but  this  is  a  se- 
rious mistake.  Fruit  trees  do  best  on  a  moderately 
high  and  open  situation.  Shelter  from  wind  is  cer- 
tainly necessary,  but  this  protection  must  be  ob- 
tained, otherwise  than  by  planting  in  a  dell. 

A  deep  mellow  loam  is  most  suitable  for  an  or- 
chard. It  does  not  require  to  be  richly  manured, 
provided  it  is  fresh,  unexhausted,  and  sufficiently 
dry.  Whether  the  sub-soil  be  gravel  or  stone,  so 
as  such  beds  lie  not  too  near  the  surface,  it  will  be 
no  detriment  to  the  trees  ;  but  if  of  a  tenacious 
clay,  which  is  retentive  of  moisture,  then  draining 
must  be  resorted  to,  to  free  the  soil  from  superflu- 
ous moisture.  This  must  be  done  effectually, 
otherwise  the  defect  will  ever  after  be  regretted  by 
the  planter.  A  sloping  surface  is  better  for  all 
plants,  than  a  dead  level ;  not  because  a  heavy  or 
long-continued  rain,  or  melted  snow  runs  the  sooner 
off  such  a  position,  but  because  that  portion  of  it 
which  sinks  into  the  ground  gradually  passes  down- 
ward in  an  under  current,  leaving  no  portion  of  it 
to  stagnate  in  any  one  place,  so  as  to  be  prejudi- 
cial to  the  roots. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  orchards,  most  gene- 
rally of  apples,  as  being  on  the  whole,  the  most 
valuable  of  British  fruits.  Sometimes  there  is  a 
mixture  of  pears,  rarely  all  of  pears,  except  in 
those  places  where  perry  is  the  common  drink  of 
the  farmer  and  his  labourers.  Sometimes  we  meet 
with  orchards  of  heart  cherries  only,  which,  when 
near  towns,  pay  well.  In  some  counties  there  are 
extensive  orchards  of  Kentish  cherries,  the  soil 
being  a  light,  sandy,  and  dry  loam,  particularly 
suitable  to  this  variety  of  fruit.  In  other  places  we 
find  the  common  black  or  caroun  kinds  preferred  to* 
all  others,  as  being  not  only  richer  in  quality,  but 
the  most  certain  bearers,  and  consequently  most 
profitable  to  the  farmer  ;  considerable  quantities  of 
them  (or  their  juice)  being  annually  exported  to 
Spain  and  Portugal,  for  the  purpose,  it  is  said,  of 
colouring  wine.  This  sort  of  cherry-tree  grows  to 
a  stately  size,  and  yields  valuable  timber.  Some 
orchards  of  this  kind,  of  five  or  six  acres,  pay  an 
annual  profit  of  £100,  the  fruit  being  gathered  and 
sent  to  market  at  the  expense  of  the  purchaser, 
independently  of  the  ground  as  a  pasture. 

But  the  most  profitable  kind  of  orchard  is  that 
which  contains  all  kinds  of  hardy  fruit-trees  and 
bushes,  and  where  the  land  is  solely  appropriated 
to  that  purpose.  This  kind  resembles  gardening 
more  than  farming,  and  is  therefore  unsuitable  to 
large  farms,  but  quite  applicable  to  small  ones,  to 
which  an  acre  of  orchard,  requiring  no  horse  la- 
bour, would  be  of  essential  benefit.  In  such,  half 
standard  apple-trees  are  planted  in  rows  eighteen 


feet  from  each  other,  the  trees  being  twelve  feet 
apart.  In  the  same  line  with  the  apple-trees  are 
planted  either  gooseberry  or  currant  bushes,  or, 
what  pays  equally  well,  filberts.  The  latter  are  not 
allowed  to  rise  higher  than  about  four  feet,  and 
kept  spurred  in  exactly  like  the  white  currant. 
Gooseberries  gathered  green  for  tarts,  pay  the  far- 
mer better  than  when  ripe,  and  are  not  nearly  so 
troublesome  in  the  carriage  to  market.  As  such 
an  orchard  is  not  to  be  grazed,  two  feet  of  the  soil 
on  each  side  of  the  rows  of  trees  is  kept  bare,  and 
always  free  from  weeds.  On  this  a  mulching  of 
rotten  dung  may  be  laid  every  winter,  and  raked 
off  in  the  spring,  upon  the  intermediate  strips  of 
ground  to  be  planted  with  potatoes,  or  some  with 
onions,  turnips,  scarlet  runners,  or  any  other  crop 
which  the  cultivator  can  most  advantageously  dis- 
pose of  in  his  neighbourhood. 

For  such  an  orchard,  the  earliest  and  surest  bear- 
ing apples  shovdd  be  preferred.  The  greatest  ma- 
jority should  consist  of  the  hawthornden,  the  rest 
of  the  French-crab,  and  scarlet  nonpareil.  A  few 
of  the  earliest  pears  may  be  intermixed,  as  the  pe- 
tit muscat,  a  kind  which  fetches  a  good  price  on 
its  first  appearance  in  the  market.  The  most  hardy 
and  profitable  kind  of  plum  for  a  farai  orchard  is 
the  common  damson,  it  being  always  in  request  for 
baking,  preserving,  or  for  wine  making. 

In  preparing  the  ground  for  an  orchard,  different 
methods  are  followed.  When  the  spot  is  fixed  on, 
the  fence  (if  it  requires  one,)  shovdd  be  first  exe- 
cuted. This  is  best  done  by  a  well  planted  white 
thorn  hedge  and  ditch.  The  latter  should  be  on  the 
outside,  and  not  less  than  three  or  four  feet  deep, 
to  allow  a  bank  of  corresponding  heiglit.  Young 
plants  of  the  English  elm  should  be  planted  with 
the  thorns  for  a  hedge  row  screen  to  shelter  the 
fruit  trees,  except  towards  the  southern  exposure. 
The  elms  may  be  put  in  at  six  or  eight  feet  dis- 
tances, and  as  they  bear  lopping,  they  may  be  kept 
triaimed  up  to  form,  together  with  the  hedge,  a 
lofty  narrow  protection  against  wind. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered,  is,  whether  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  dry.  If  not,  rubble  drains 
should  be  made  across  the  slope,  (if  there  be  any 
declivity)  into  the  lowest  outside  ditch. 

The  ground  may  be  prepared  for  receiving  the 
trees,  either  by  trenching  it  wholly  with  the  spade, 
fifteen  inches  deep,  or  with  the  trenching  plough. 
This  trenching  is  particularly  necessary  when  the 
orchard  is  not  intended  to  be  a  meadow  or  pasture. 
If  the  soil  be  thin,  it  may  be  ploughed  into  ridges 
six  yards  wide,  twice  gcithered,  which  will  give  a 
sufficient  depth  of  mould  on  the  ridges  to  receive 
the  trees.  Another  way  is  to  trench  beds  eight  feet 
wide  for  the  trees,  and  prepare  the  rest  of  the 
ground  with  the  plough  and  harrows,  to  be  sown 
down  with  grass  seeds  and  a  single  cast  of  a  dwarf 


BEDEGUAR   OF    THE    ROSE. 


37 


growing  oat,  in  the  month  of  March  after  the  trees 
are  planted.  There  is  still  a  cheaper  way  of  plant- 
ing an  orchard  on  land  which  is  already  in  turf,  viz. 
digging  or  trenching  pits  six  feet  square  for  the 
trees.  This  is  done  by  first  taking  off  the  turf,  to 
be  relaid  when  the  tree  is  planted,  stirring  the  soil 
in  the  pits  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  adding,  if 
necessary,  a  barrowful  or  two  of  maiden  earth, 
mixed  with  a  little  rotten  dung,  to  place  the  tree 
in.  This  plan  may  be  pursued  when  the  soil  is  of 
sufficient  depth  on  a  gravelly  subsoil ;  but  if  on  a 
clay  subsoil,  it  is  the  worst  way  possible  ;  because 
these  pits  become  receptacles  of  stagnant  water  in 
wet  seasons,  and  are  of  course  injurious  to  the  roots 
of  the  trees. 

Whichever  mode  of  planting  is  determined  on, 
the  openings  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  made 
ready  for  the  trees,  which  should  be  had  from  the 
nearest  nurseryman,  carefully  taken  up,  and  as 
carefully  planted.  If  the  roots  are  broken,  or 
bruised,  they  should  be  smoothly  cut  back,  and  the 
shoots  of  the  head  pruned  into  about  one  tliird  of 
their  length,  in  the  month  of  April,  after  the  trees 
are  planted. 

For  a  farmer's  orchard,  which  is  also  intended 
for  a  penn  or  pasture,  the  trees  must  be  all  stand- 
ards, with  stems  six  feet  high.  This  precaution  is 
absolutely  necessary  where  cattle  are  permitted  to 


range.  They  should  be  grafted  on  free  stocks  and 
true  of  their  kinds.  The  sorts  of  apples  before 
mentioned  may  be  chosen;  of  cherries  the  caroun,' 
of  plums  the  damson,  should  be  the  principal. 
Any  favourite  sort  of  pear,  or  other  fruit,  may  be 
added  for  the  sake  of  variety.  But  there  is  a  safe 
rule  for  the  choice  of  fruit  trees,  viz.  to  prefer 
the  kinds  that  succeed  best  in  the  neighbourhood ; 
for  it  is  certainly  true  that  some  sorts  of  fruits  are 
affected  by  one  description  of  soil,  and  local  cli- 
mate, more  than  others.  This  circumstance  de- 
serves attention. 

Trees  planted  in  rows  at  twelve  feet  apart  from 
each  other,  and  eighteen  feet  intervals  between  the 
rows,  may  be  supposed  to  stand  too  thick  ;  but  as 
they  will  bear  a  good  deal  of  fruit  before  they  in- 
terfere injuriously,  the  underlings  may  be  pruned 
away  without  regret  when  this  takes  place.  The 
whole  should  be  placed  in  quincunx  order,  as  the 
one  affording  most  air  and  light  to  each  individual. 
It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add  that  every  tree 
should  be  securely  staked  up,  to  keep  them  steady 
against  wind,  and  be  carefully  cradled,  or  bushed 
before  any  kind  of  cattle  are  admitted  into  the  or- 
chard. An  acre  of  orchard  planted  at  the  above 
mentioned  distances,  would  require  above  two  hun- 
dred trees. 


BEDEGUAR  OF  THE  ROSE. 

BY   MR.    JESSE. 


I  HAVE  often  admired  a  small,  round,  mossy  sub- 
stance attached  to  a  branch  of  the  dog-rose  growing 
in  our  hedges,  and  which  I  was  imable  to  account 
for  until  the  following  circumstance  was  related  to 
me  by  an  ingenious  florist  and  nurseryman  in  the 
King's  Road.  Mr.  Knight,  who  informed  me, 
that,  having  been  requested  by  one  of  his  custo- 
mers to  endeavour  to  preserve  a  favourite  mulberry 
tree,  which  for  many  years  had  flourished  on  her 
lawn,  but  which,  with  the  exception  of  one  very 
large  branch,  was  either  dead  or  decaying,  he 
waited  till  the  sap  had  ascended,  and  then  barked 
the  branch  completely  round  near  its  junction  with 
the  trunk  of  the  tree.  Having  filled  three  sacks 
with  mould,  he  tied  them  round  that  part  of  the 
branch  which  had  been  barked,  and  by  means  of 
one  or  two  old  watering-pots,  which  were  kept 
filled  with  water,  and  placed  over  the  sacks,  from 
which  the  water  gradually  distilled,  the  mould  in 
the  sacks  was  sufficiently  moistened  for  his  purpose. 


Towards  the  end  of  the  year  he  examined  the  sacks, 
and  f  Hind  them  filled  with  numerous  small  fibrous 
roots,  which  the  sap,  having  no  longer  the  bark  for 
its  conductor  into  the  main  roots  of  the  tree,  had 
thus  expended  itself  in  throwing  out.  A  hole 
having  been  prepared  near  the  spot,  the  branch  was 
sawn  off  below  the  sacks,  and  planted  with  them, 
the  branch  being  propped  securely.  The  next  sum- 
mer it  flourished  and  bore  fruit,  and  is  still  in  a 
thriving  state. 

Having  heard  this  fact,  I  examined  the  massy 
substance  on  the  dog-rose,  and  found  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  bark  on  the  branch  on  which  it  was 
found  having  been  removed  by  some  insect,  the  sap 
in  receding  had  thrown  out  roots,  wliich,  from  the 
exposure  of  the  air,  produced  the  mossy  ball  in 
question,  and  which  was  probably  made  the  nest 
or  hybernaculum  of  some  insect.  If  this  mossy 
substance  be  examined,  the  larvae  of  an  insect  will 
be  found  belonging  to  the  genus  cynips. 


38 


PLANTS    INDICATING    THE    QUALITY    OF    SOILS. 


ON  SANDY  AND  GRAVELLY  SOILS. 

BY    COUNT   GYLLENBORG. 


Sand  and  gravel,  which  consist  of  a  stony  powder, 
or  exceeding  small  stones,  have  no  cohesion  of  their 
parts,  whether  wet  or  dry. 

There  is  a  kind  of  gravel  which  the  country  peo- 
ple make  use  of  as  mortar;  but  on  trial,  this  appears 
to  have  in  it  a  mixture  of  clay,  which  may  be  washed 
away  ;  of  calcareous  particles,  as  appears  by  its  ef- 
fervescence with  acids  ;  and  of  chalybeate  particles, 
which  aqua  regia  extracts  ;  whence  it  appears,  that 
this  gravel  is  a  natural  mortar. 

As  sand  and  gravel  are  vitriable,  they  give  way  to 
no  menstruum.  Neither  water  nor  the  most  corro- 
sive menstruums  can  separate  any  thing  from  them. 
Some  kinds  of  gravel  become  adhesive,  on  the 
addition  of  water,  owing  to  a  mixture  of  clay,  as 
already  observed  ;  and  on  drying  them  they  become 
very  hard  :  which  circumstances  can  be  applied  only 
to  the  above  mortar. 

Sand  and  gravel  do  not  conti-ibute  at  all  to  vege- 
tation; neithev  materially,  as  nourishment,  nor  in- 
strumentally,  unless  by  accident,  by  the  mixture  of 
other  earths.  They  indeed,  render  strong  earths 
more  porous  and  loose. 

They  render  spongy  turf  more  solid  ;  and  hence 
it  is,  that  we  find  that  the  slime  left  in  low  places, 
becomes  stronger  by  the  mixture  of  sand,  the  sand 
and  slime  uniting  into  a  more  solid  earth. 

They  admit  the  air  to  the  roots  of  plants  ;  and 
they  facilitate  the  culture  of  the  land. 

Some  think  that  flints  and  stones  render  the 
earth  more  fruitful,  from  a  salt  contained  in  them  ; 
but  they  are  much  mistaken.  Flints  and  pieces  of 
stone  may  become  useful,  from  the  shade  they 
yield  ;  especially  if,  by  rising  above    the  surface, 


they  protect  the  plants  from  the  heat  of  the  sun ; 
or,  as  water  cannot  enter  tliem,  all  the  rain  that 
falls  upon  them  goes  to  the  plants  and  their  roots  ; 
and  hence  it  is,  that  grass  looks  so  thriving  around 
stones,  provided  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  earth. 

Gravel  and  sand  become  rather  hurtful,  by  heat- 
ing too  much ;  for  stones  being  denser  than  the 
earth,  retain  the  heat  longer,  and  are  sometimes 
slower  in  admitting  the  cold.  They  render  the  soil 
too  loose  ;  whence  water  and  the  richness  of  the 
earth  are  soon  lost,  either  by  soaking  through,  or 
by  being  evaporated  :  and  hence  they  easily  admit 
cold  to  the  roots  of  plants.  Because  of  their  hard- 
ness, they  attract  little  or  no  moisture,  or  other 
matter  from  the  atmosphere  ;  so  that  neither  medi- 
ately nor  immediately,  can  they  in  any  way  contri- 
bute to  the  nourishment  of  plants. 

What  has  been  above  said,  shows,  and  experi- 
ence proves,  that  sand  is  usefid  in  wet  and  cold 
soils ;  and  hence  it  may  be  concluded,  that  such 
soils  may  be  usefully  laid  on  sand. 

In  judging  of  land,  particular  regard  must  be 
had  to  the  strata  or  layers  underneath.  The  upper 
layer  is  sometimes  poor  when  there  is  a  richer  soil 
beneath  it  ;  and  at  other  times  the  upper  surface  is 
more  friendly  to  the  growth  of  plants,  than  what  is 
met  with  lower  down.  What  has  been  here  said  of 
the  use,  or  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
the  several  soils,  must  be  understood  only  of  the 
upper  layer  considered  by  itself ;  knowing,  at  the 
same  time,  that  the  upper  layer  may  be  rendered 
better  or  worse  by  a  mixture  with  the  lower,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  qualities  of  each. 


PLANTS  INDICATING  THE  QUALITY  OF  SOILS. 

BY    MR.    NEVIN,    GARDENER    TO   THE    CHIEF   SECRETARY   FOR    IRELAND. 


[The  following  paper  upon  a  subject  of  great  in- 
terest, we  extract  from  the  Irish  "  Farmer's  and 
Gardener's  Magazine,"  a  spirited  periodical,  just 
commenced  in  Dublin,  under  the  superintendence  of 
two  able  editors,  Martin  Doyle  and  Edmund  Mur- 
phy, to  whose  practical  and  praiseworthy  under- 
taking we  wish  every  success. — Editor.] 

That  a  pretty  correct  estimate  may  be  formed  of 
the  quality  of  a  soil  from  the  plants  growing  spon- 
taneously thereon,  every  experienced  agriculturist  is 
ready  to  admit.  It  appears  therefore  a  subject  not 
of  the  least  importance  to  ascertain  whether  some 
arrangement  might  not  be  adopted,  whereby  to  de- 
termine the  proper  qualities  of  soils,  simply  from 


such  indications.  If  this  can  be  accomplished,  we 
have  undoubtedly  an  additional  argument  for  recom- 
mending the  study  of  plants  botanically  to  the  stu- 
dent of  agriculture.  In  all  such  cases,  a  scienlijic 
knowledge  should  exist,  not  merely  as  regards  the 
plants  used  in  agriculture,  but  also  with  respect  to 
those  indigenous  to  the  country. 

Numerous  indeed  are  the  productions  of  the  ve- 
getable kingdom,  and  very  different  are  the  soils 
and  situations  where  they  are  found  ;  and  althougli 
many  of  the  same  species  grow  in  soils  of  the  most 
opposite  character,  yet  the  qualities  of  soils  may  be 
very  accurately  ascertained  by  the  plants  that  more 
especially  predominate  on  them.  An  all-wise  pro- 
vidence has,  as  well  in  the  vegetable  as  in  the  animal 


PLANTS   INDICATING   THE   QUALITY  OF  SOILS. 


39 


world,  taught  plants  to  seek  the  food  best  adapted 
for  their  nourishment.  For  example — as  well  might 
we  expect  the  animals  of  the  land  to  live  in  the  sea, 
and,  vice  versa,  as  the  plants  of  the  mountain  to  exist 
where  the  floating  aquatic  flourishes  in  all  the  luxu- 
riance of  its  native  element. 

Valuable  and  interesting  as  Sir  Humphry  Davy's 
Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  unquestionably 
are,  yet  wlien  the  ]iractical  farmer  reads  the  follow- 
ing (which  it  may  not  be  improper  to  extract),  he 
must  feel  it  more  a  matter  of  fine  philosophy,  than 
capable  of  being  easily  applied  in  his  practice.  In 
describing  the  necessary  apparatus  for  analyzing  a 
soil.  Sir  Humphry  says,  "  The  instruments  for  the 
analyzing  of  soils,  are  few,  and  but  little  expensive. 
They  are,  a  balance  capable  of  containing  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  common  soil,  and  capable  of  turning  | 


when  loaded  with  a  grain ;  a  set  of  weights  from  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  troy  to  a  grain;  a  wire  sieve  suf- 
ficiently coarse  to  admit  a  mustard  seed  through  its 
apertures  ;  an  Argand  lamp  and  stand  ;  some  glass 
bottles,  Hessian  crucibles,  porcelain,  or  queen's  ware 
evaporating  basins;  a  wedgwood  pestle  and  mortar; 
some  filtres  made  of  half  a  sheet  of  blotting  paper, 
folded,  so  as  to  contain  a  pint  of  liquid,  and  greased 
at  the  edges ;  a  bone  knife ;  and  an  ap-paratns  for 
collecting  and  measuring  aeriform  fluids,"  &c.  &c. 
This  is  all  very  well  for  the  philosopher  or  chemist, 
but  for  every  day  use  it  appears  anything  but  suited 
for  the  practical  improver. 

The  present  subject  is  one  on  which  for  several 
years  I  have  bestowed  some  attention.  The  follow- 
ing Table  is  therefore  submitted  as  the  result  of 
these  observations. 


INDICATORS  OF  QUALITY  OF  SOIL. 


BOTANICAL   NAME. 


Tussilago  Farfara, 
Stachys  palustris, 
Holcus  mollis. 


Ranunculus  repens, 
Cnicus  arvensis, 
Senecio  Jacobea, 
Chrysanth.  Leucantliemum, 
Plantago  lanceolata, 
Bromus  mollis. 


ENGLISH  NAME. 


Colt's-foot, 
Clown's  All-heal, 
Soft  Grass. 


Crow-foot, 
Field  Thistle, 
Ragwort, 
Ox-eye  Daisy, 
Rib  Grass, 
Brown  Grass, 


Spergula  arvensis, 
Pteris  aquilina, 
Lolium  perenne, 
Triticum  repens, 
Viola  tricolor, 
Mentha  arvensis, 


Hippuris  vulgaris. 
Iris  pseud-acorus, 
Pinguicula  vulgaris, 
Juiicus  efRisis, 
Cardamine  arvensis, 
Orchis  latifolius, 


Spurry, 
Brake, 
Rye  Grass, 
Couch  Grass, 
Heart's  Ease, 
Wild  Mint, 


Eriopliorum  angustifola, 
Myrica  gale. 
Sphagnum  palustre, 
Comarum  palustre, 
Equisetum  palustre, 


Erica  vulgaris. 
Erica  carnea,  &c. 
Vaccinum  Myrtillus, 
Empetrum  nigrum, 


Mare's  Tail, 
Yellow  Iris, 
Butterwort, 
Soft  Rush, 
Lady's  smock. 
Orchis, 


Cotton  Grass, 
Sweet  Gale, 
Bog  Moss, 
Cinquefoil, 
Horsetail, 


Common  Heath, 

Purple  ditto, 

Blackberry, 

Crowberry, 


Clayey. 


Loamy. 


Sandy. 


Marshy. 


Boggy. 


Sandy  Peat. 


Retentive. 


Gravelly. 


Gravel  and  Sand. 


Clayey,  or  Clay 
and  Gravel. 


Loam,  Clay,  or 
Gravel,  or  decom- 
posed Gravel,  fre- 
quently at  great 
depth. 


Sand,    or   Free- 
stone Rock. 


40 


ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  REPRODUCTION  OF  PLANTS. 


ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  REPRODUCTION  OF  PLANTS. 

BY    W.  RHIND,    ESQ.    SURGEON.* 


Vegetables  are,  as  it  were,  the  clothing  of  the 
earth,  without  which,  it  would  be  bare,  rugged, 
and  unseemly ;  flowers,  and  shrubs,  and  trees,  the 
ornamental  embellishments  which  add  beauty  and 
splendour  to  the  face  of  nature.  There  is  a  softness 
and  appropriateness  in  the  subdued  tinge  of  green 
too,  which  is  with  very  few  exceptions  the  prevail- 
ing colour  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  something 
which  is  pleasing  and  refreshing  for  the  eye  to  look 
upon,  without  being  too  glaring  or  dazzling. 

Vegetables,  though  not  possessing  the  structure 
and  sensations  of  living  animals,  yet  have  a  species 
of  vitality  of  which  inert  matter  is  altogether  des- 
titute ;  they  form  a  link,  and  a  most  important  one, 
between  dead  or  unorganized  substances,  as  rocks, 
stones,  &c.  and  animated  beings. 

Vegetables  may  be  said  to  be  almost  the  sole 
medium  by  which  nourishment  is  first  extracted 
from  the  earth,  and  water,  and  air,  and  so  assimi- 
lated, as  to  form  the  food  of  animals  and  man  ;  for 
we  believe  that  the  great  mass  of  living  creatures, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  live  on  vegetable  matter. 
Numerous  quadrupeds  derive  their  sole  support 
from  grasses,  and  many  species  of  birds  from  grain 
and  seeds ;  these  become  the  prey  of  carnivorous 
animals,  and  afford  them  their  whole  means  of  sub- 
sistence. Fishes  prey  upon  flies  and  insects,  which, 
either  directly  or  indirectly  derive  their  subsistence 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  and  man  as  well  as 
some  other  animals,  lives  indiscriminately  both  on 
animal  and  vegetable  matter. 

It  is  an  important  office  of  vegetables,  therefore, 
that,  by  their  peculiar  structure  and  functions,  they 
decompose  the  air,  the  water,  and,  in  all  probabi- 
lity, the  several  salts  of  the  earth,  and  recombine 
these  again  into  new  substances  fit  for  the  suste- 
nance of  the  animated  kingdom. 

It  is  to  the  operation  of  vegetation,  too,  that  we 
owe  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  soil  which 
covers  the  earth.  A  seed  of  a  moss  plant  cast  on 
a  barren  rock  will  chng  to  it,  and  attracting  mois- 
ture from  the  atmosphere,  will  spring  out  a  living 
plant,  produce  seed,  and  then  moulder  into  dust. 
Others,  of  the  same  kind,  spring  up  from  its  ruins, 
and,  feeding  on  the  moisture  and  air,  and  the 
mouldering  rocks  beneath,  in  time  accumulate  a  cer- 
tain depth  of  soil,  which  still  goes  on  increasing, 
till  at  last  it  becomes  a  deep  bed,  fit  for  receiving 
and  nourishing  other  species  of  plants,  that  may 
be  driven  towards  it  by  the  agency  of  the  winds,  of 


birds,  or  other  means  which  nature  employs  for  the 
propagation  of  vegetables.  In  this  manner,  by  the 
accumulation  of  decayed  plants,  mingled  also  with 
the  dust  of  rocks  and  minerals,  acted  upon  by  the 
sun  and  air,  have  our  deepest  and  most  fertile  soils 
derived  their  origin.  We  find  also  in  peat-bogs  an 
accumulation  of  decayed  moss  plants,  extending 
sometimes  to  the  depth  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet. 

Vegetables  are  organized  substances,  consisting 
of  a  complicated  structure  of  tubes,  and  air  cells, 
and  various  organs,  all  performing  functions  tend- 
ing to  the  increase,  preservation,  and  multiplication 
of  the  several  species.  They  may,  therefore,  be 
looked  upon  as  possessing  a  living  principle  ;  and 
though  they  have  not  sensations  like  animals,  yet 
have  what  has  been  called  irritability,  which  in 
many  instances,  presents  phenomena  very  similar  to 
those  in  the  animal  kingdom,  as  is  exemplified  in 
the  shrinking  of  the  sensitive  plant  when  touched  by 
the  hand,  the  moving  of  the  tendrils  of  plants  to- 
wards the  light  and  air,  and  the  twining  of  many 
plants  round  other  neighbouring  substances  for  sup- 
port. 

Plants  consist  of  a  stem,  with  roots  passing  into 
the  earth,  of  leaves,  and  of  blossoms,  or  flowers, 
for  the  production  of  seeds.  Throughout  the  stem 
and  roots  there  is  in  most  plants  a  series  of  tubes 
and  air  vessels,  by  which  the  sap  passes  from  the 
soil  up  through  the  plant,  and,  combining  with  the 
vital  air  of  the  atmosphere,  through  the  medium  of 
the  leaves,  is  elaborated  into  nourishment  for  the 
growth  and  development  of  its  several  parts.  The 
outer  bark  of  the  plant  consists  of  a  thin  membrane, 
somewhat  like  the  skin  of  animals,  and  serves  a 
similar  purpose,  to  protect  the  parts  beneath  from 
the  air  and  all  external  injury,  serving  also  for  the 
exhalation  and  absorption  of  moisture.  Immedi- 
ately under  this  skin  is  a  soft  pulpy  structure,  con- 
sisting of  innumerable  cells,  being  of  a  green  colour 
in  almost  all  vegetables.  Of  this  kind  of  structure 
too,  the  leaves  of  plants  are  composed.  Under  this 
cellular  substance  we  find  in  woody  plants  the  true 
bark,  or  liber,  composed  of  numerous  fibres  run- 
ning in  a  longitudinal  direction,  and  having  the 
appearance  when  slightly  macerated,  of  a  fine  net 
work.  In  this  portion  of  the  bark  the  peculiar  vir- 
tues of  plants  principally  are  found  ;  such  as  those 
characterising  gums,  resins,  cinnamon,  essential  oils, 
the  astringent  matter  of  the  oak,  &c.  The  wood 
is  found  immediately  under  this,  in  circle  within 


From  "  Studies  in  Nutaral  History." 


ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  REPRODUCTION  OF  PLANTS. 


41 


circle,  extending  to  the  heart  or  pith,  which  is 
situated  in  the  centre.  The  outer  circle  of  wood 
next  the  bark  is  softer  and  whiter  than  those  in  the 
centre  ;  and  as  a  circle  is  formed  each  year,  the 
number  in  a  tranverse  section  near  the  root  denotes 
the  age  of  the  tree. 

Throughout  the  woody  fibres,  but  especially  the 
outer  circles,  there  are  numerous  sap  vessels,  ex- 
tending in  a  longitudinal  direction,  and  mixed  with 
these  many  cells,  generally  of  a  hexagonal  shape. 

The  pith  is  situated  in  the  centre  ;  and  in  young 
growing  plants  is  large  and  juicy  ;  but  in  older  ones 
it  becomes  small,  and  light  and  cellular. 

Its  proper  use  is  not  exactly  ascertained.  Some 
are  of  opinion  that  it  is  essential  to  the  plant,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  throw  offshoots  and  branches;  others, 
for  supplying  moisture  to  the  leaves,  when  there 
is  an  excess  of  perspiration.  In  few  herbaceous  plants 
is  there  any  pith ;  the  proportion  of  cellular  substance 
in  these  stems  is  greater  than  in  those  of  woody  plants; 
and  there  is  rarely  any  appearance  of  concentric 
circles  in  a  transverse  section. 

The  leaves  of  plants  are  most  important  appen- 
dages and  may  be  compared  in  some  degree  to  the 
lungs  of  animals.  Plants  will  not  thrive  if  deprived 
entirely  of  their  leaves,  or  if  these  have  not  free  ac- 
cess to  the  air.  The  juices  of  plants,  while  circu- 
lating through  the  minute  vessels  of  the  leaves,  un- 
dergo a  change  very  important  in  their  own  economy, 
and  by  which  the  purity  of  the  atmosphere  is  most 
materially  affected.  The  leaves  also  absorb  and 
give  out  moisture,  as  the  economy  of  the  plant  re- 
quires. In  spring,  when  after  a  season  of  torpidity, 
the  regulating  powers  of  vegetables  are  called  into 
activity,  the  sap,  extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  fi- 
brous roots,  mounts  up  through  the  vessels  of  the 
plant  with  surprising  force  and  impetus.  After 
undergoing  a  change  in  the  leaves,  it  descends 
through  the  plant,  and  gives  out  to  the  various 
parts,  the  peculiar  substances  which  enter  into  their 
formation,  and  which  form  the  distinctive  qualities 
of  the  particular  plant.  During  the  day,  and  in  the 
sunshine,  plants  absorb  the  carbon  and  azote  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  give  out  or  set  at  liberty,  the 
oxygen  or  vital  principle  ;  but  it  is  found  that  dur- 
ing the  night  this  process  is  reversed,  carbonic  acid 
being  given  out,  and  oxygen  absorbed. 

Light,  as  well  as  air,  is  essential  to  the  proper 
growth  of  vegetables  ;  for  almost  all  plants  growing 
in  the  dark  are  of  a  pale  sickly  aspect,  altogether 
devoid  of  colour,  which  may  be  seen  every  day  in 
potatoes  vegetating  in  dark  cellars  ;  it  is  singular, 
also,  that  if  the  least  ray  of  light  streams  in  through 
a  small  aperture,  the  shoots  of  these  potatoes  will 
be  found  directed  to  it,  and  spreading  out  to  meet 
the  light,  as  it  were  by  a  sort  of  instinctive  impulse. 

The  roots  of  many  plants  consist  of  a  covering 
of  bark  and  a  fibrous  structure,  similar,  in  a  great 


measure,  to  the  stems.  The  office  of  the  roots  is  to 
absorb  the  juices  from  the  soil.  That  water  forms 
a  considerable  part  of  the  food  of  plants  is  extremely 
probable  ;  but  that  other  ingredients  of  the  soil, 
such  as  the  saline  parts,  extractive  matter,  &c.  en- 
ters into  their  composition,  is  also  pretty  evident. 
Some  botanists  have  doubted  whether  plants  derive 
any  part  of  their  nourishment  from  the  earth,  main- 
taining that  they  grow  by  the  decomposition  of  air 
and  water  alone  ;  but,  besides  many  proofs  by  direct 
experiment  to  the  contrary,  we  think  it  is  evident 
that  they  do  derive  much  of  their  substance  from 
earth,  from  the  circumstance  that  many  animals 
purely  graminivorous,  not  even  requirin-r  water,  as 
rabbits,  sheep,  &c.  have  phosphate  and  carbonate 
of  lime  in  the  composition  of  their  bones,  which,  as 
far  as  we  know,  could  only  be  afforded  by  vege- 
tables assimilating  such  matters  from  the  soil. 

It  is  found,  however,  that  pure  earths  alone  will 
not  answer  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  the  various 
salts  and  extractive  vegetable  matter  beino-  useful 
either  as  stimulants,  or  as  entering  directly  into  their 
formation.  This  is  the  reason  that  manure  is  so 
essential  for  the  ground,  and  that  its  annual  renewal 
is  necessary,  if  full  and  luxuriant  vegetation  is  ex- 
pected. When  one  kind  of  vegetable  is  planted 
successively  on  the  same  soil  too,  it  exhausts  it  by 
extracting  the  particular  substances  which  enter 
most  abundantly  into  its  composition  ;  and  hence  the 
annual  change  of  crops,  which  farmers  know  so  well 
to  be  necessary. 

Nothing  more  beautifidly  demonstrates  that  na- 
ture, through  all  her  works,  proceeds  on  a  imi- 
formity  of  plan  and  design,  than  the  fact,  that  plants 
as  well  as  animals  are  possessed  of  organs  necessary 
to  accomplish  the  great  end  of  nature, — the  re-pro- 
duction and  continuation  of  their  species.  The  pistil 
which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  flower,  is  designed  to 
produce  the  seeds  ;  while  the  stamens  of  the  plant  con- 
tain a  peculiar  substance  necessary  for  fertilizing 
them,  without  which  substance  coming  in  contact 
with  the  pistil,  the  seeds  are  incapable  of  re-pro- 
ducing the  plant. 

Although  Linnseus  did  not  make  this  discovery, 
it  is  to  him  we  owe  its  complete  elucidation. 

From  remote  antiquity,  the  importance  of  these 
organs,  in  perfecting  the  seed,  has  been  known  ;  but 
it  was  not  untill  730  that  Linnseus  established  a  fact 
so  long  in  dispute,  and  proved  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils to  be  essential  to  every  plant. 

A  plant  may  want  its  leaves,  and  blossom  :  but 
these  organs  must  be  present.  An  example  of  this 
is  found  in  the  common  mare's  tail  of  our  ditches. 
Here  a  stamen  and  pistil  present  themselves,  but 
no  corolla,  and  scarcely  any  vestiges  of  calyx  or 
flower-cup.  In  most  animals  these  organs  are  se- 
])arate,  there  being  a  distinct  male  and  female  crea- 
ture ;  while  in  the  majority  of  the  more  highly  or- 


MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,    VOL.  II,  NO.  XII. —  MARCH,  1834. 


42 


MANAGEMENT    OF   CUCUMBERS. 


ganized  vegetables  they  arc  united  in  one  flower, 
altliougii  numerous  examples  are  not  wanting  of  a 
different  arrangement,  as  the  hazel,  oak,  Ijireli,  &c. 
We  find  some  flowers  having  stamens,  and  others 
pistils  ;  while,  in  another  division,  the  stamens  and 
pistils  are  on  different  individuals.     Of  this  the  wil- 


low is  a  familiar  example.  The  date- tree  fur- 
nishes another :  and  at  a  very  early  period  the 
Greeks  discovered  that,  in  order  to  have  abundant 
fruit,  it  was  necessary  to  plant  male  and  female  trees 
together. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  CUCUMBERS.* 


The  cultivation  of  the  cucumber,  at  an  early  period 
of  the  year,  is  attended  with  considerable  risk  and 
difficulty,  especially  when  grown  on  dung  beds,  as 
the  steam  and  moisture,  arising  from  the  dung,  are 
very  liable  to  damp  and  injure  the  plants ;  parti- 
cularly when  the  weather  continues,  for  any  length 
of  time,  in  such  an  unfavourable  state  as  to  prevent 
a  free  circulation  of  air  being  admitted  into  the 
frame. 

Wiien  this  fruit  is  wanted  at  an  early  period,  the 
seed  should  be  sown  the  latter  end  of  November, 
or  beginning  of  December.  Previous  to  sowing  it, 
there  should  be  a  one  or  two-light  box  or  pit  i)re- 
pared,  in  thickness  of  not  less  than  four  to  five  feet, 
of  well  concocted  dung,  or  leaves  and  dung  well 
mixed  ;  these  ingredients  should  be  two  or  three 
times  turned  together  previous  to  using,  and  allowed 
to  ferment  for  al)out  three  weeks  before  it  is  made 
up  into  a  bed,  wiiich  will  then  become  sweetened, 
and  will  retain  the  heat  much  longer  than  if  made 
up  in  a  recent  state.  When  the  bed  is  composed  to 
the  de])th  above  specified,  the  lights  should  be  kept 
close  siuit  up  two  or  three  days,  to  assist  in  draw- 
ing up  the  heat,  which  will  soon  arise,  when  plenty 
of  air  nuist  be  admitted,  to  allow  the  rank  effluvia 
from  the  bed  to  pass  away.  As  soon  as  the  violent 
heat  has  subsided,  the  bed  may  be  moidded  over  to 
the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  and  the  seed  sown 
in  pots  from  four  to  five  inches  diameter,  and 
plunged  in  the  moidd  half  way  to  the  rims. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  days  after  the  seeds  are 
sown,  the  cotyledons  of  the  plants  will  begin  to 
make  their  appearance  ;  and  wlien  these  are  fully 
expanded,  and  the  plants  about  two  inches  high,  it 
will  be  time  to  remove  them  into  other  pots ;  by 
placing  three  plants  in  each,  and  giving  a  gentle 
watering,  with  water  of  the  temperature  of  the  bed, 
to  settle  the  soil  about  the  roots. 

Much  care  and  attention  are  required  at  this  cri- 
tical season,  to  prevent  the  plants  from  damping  off; 
and  tiie  linings  round  the  beds  will  require  frequent 
turnings,  and  additions  of  fresh  dung,  to  prevent  the 
heat  from  declining,  whicli  would  otherwise  soon 
become  not  of  a  sullicient  warmth  for  the  plants. 

The  fruiting  bed  should  also  be  got  in  readiness, 
and  made  according  to  the  directions  above-men- 
tioned, at  this  wintry  period  of  the  year. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  a  strong  body  of  the 
fermenting  materials  together,  for  the  purpose  of 


kee])ing  up  a  good  heat  throughout  the  severest 
months  ;  but  as  the  season  gets  advanced,  the  beds 
may  be  prepared  of  less  thickness  than  that  speci- 
fied. When  the  first  or  second  rougli  leaf  makes 
its  appearance  on  the  seedling  plant,  it  will  be  time 
to  begin  to  pre])are  and  mould  the  beds  upon  which 
they  are  destined  to  produce  their  fruit.  The  soil 
should  be  collected  under  each  light  to  the  depth 
of  twelve  inches,  and  formed  into  round  hills  ;  the 
top  of  which  should  be  kept,  at  the  first  formation, 
pretty  near  the  glass,  as  they  will  be  sure  to  sub- 
side. The  mould  in  which  the  cucumber  will  grow 
freely  and  produce  fruit,  is  one  half  of  maiden  loam, 
one  fourth  leaf  mould,  and  one  fourth  of  decom- 
posed good  stable  dung  ;  which  ingredients  should 
be  well  incorporated  together  previous  to  using,  and 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the  bed  for  a  few  days, 
before  gathered  into  hills  for  the  reception  of  the 
plants.  As  soon  as  the  mould  is  in  a  warm  and 
congenial  state,  the  plants  may  be  removed  from 
the  seed-Dcd  and  committed  to  their  final  situation, 
placing  three  plants  in  each  hill  ;  they  should  like- 
wise have  a  little  water  to  settle  the  soil  about  their 
tender  fibres,  which  should  be  given  of  the  same 
temperature  as  the  atmosphere  of  the  frame,  as 
water,  at  this  season,  without  the  cold  air  being 
taken  off,  would  chill  and  injure  the  plants. 
During  the  winter  months,  the  cucumber  requires 
a  higher  temperature  for  its  preservation,  than  even 
the  pine  apple ;  consequently  the  atmosphere  in 
the  cucumber  frames  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall 
under  seventy  degrees,  and  should  be  permitted  to 
get  as  high  as  eighty  or  eighty-five  degrees  l)y  sun- 
heat.  The  external  dung  linings  will  require  to  be 
frequently  turned,  and  fresh  dung  added  to  renew 
the  heat. 

Air  should  likewise  be  admitted  at  all  favourable 
opportunities;  in  short,  even  in  the  most  severe 
weather,  a  little  ought  to  be  given  daily,  which  will 
encrease  the  vigour  and  health  of  the  plants,  as  no- 
thing is  more  pernicious  to  their  growth,  than  being 
shut  up  for  any  contimu'd  time  without  it.  When 
the  dung  that  is  applied  to  the  exterior  of  the  pits 
is  in  a  rank  state,  it  will  sometimes  apjjcar  neces- 
sary to  leave  the  lights  a  little  tilted  behind  during 
the  night,  so  as  to  allow  the  steam  that  may  collect 
in  the  frame  to  pass  away.  The  ends  of  the  mats 
must,  however,  be  lapped  over  the  apertures  thus 
left,  otherwise  the  frosty  winds  will  be  liable  to  in- 


•Fvom  "  Foi-bes'a  Ilovuis  Grnmineus  Woburnensis."     The  Editor  takes  this  opportunity  also  of  mentioning  that  he  was  wrong  in 
attributing  the  Salictum  Wobuni.  to  Mr.  Sinclair,  it  being  the  work  of  Mr.  Forbes. 


ON    APPROACH   IN   LANDSCAPE    GARDENING. 


43 


jure  the  plants.  When  the  weather  is  very  severe, 
the  beds,  or  pits  should  be  covered  early  in  the 
afternoon,  with  two  or  three  tiers  of  mats,  and  not 
uncovered  before  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
When  the  fruit  blossoms  begin  to  make  their  ap- 
pearance, it  will  be  necessary  to  assist  nature  at  an 
early  period  of  the  year,  by  taking  off  the  male 
flower,  and  inserting  its  anthers  into  the  fertile 
blossoms  when  it  is  fidly  expanded,  as  the  limited 
admission  of  air  that  is  given,  in  the  winter  season, 
is  not  sufficient  for  the  dispersion  of  the  pollen  for 
impregnation,  without  which  the  fruit  will  not 
swell ;  but  at  a  more  advanced  period  of  the  year, 
the  current  of  air,  and  the  bees  that  generally 
frequent  the  cucumber  and  melon  bed,  are  the  best 
and  most  natural  sources  of  fertilization.  As  the 
plants  advance  in.growtli,  they  should  be  regularly 
pegged  down  to  the  surface  of  the  bed  ;  also  gra- 
dually adding  mould  to  their  hills,  until  the  entire 
bed  is  covered  over  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  four- 
teen inches.  Occasional  waterings  will  be  re- 
quired ;  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  give  them  in 
such  quantities  as  will  sour  and  saturate  the  soil. 

The  dung  linings  which  surround  the  bed,  will 
also  require  to  be  frequently  attended  to,  and  re- 
newed, in  order  to  keep  up  the  requisite  degree  of 
heat  amongst  the  plants. 

Should  there  have  been  a  favourable  portion  of 
sun  throughout  the  month  of  February,  the  plants 
will  then  be  shewing  fruit,  and  will  be  fit  for  cut- 
ting by  the  beginning  or  middle  of  the  ensuing 
month.  When  a  large  supply  of  this  fruit  is  want- 
ed, a  succession  of  crops  will  require  to  be  kept  up, 
by  ridging  out  young  plants  every  month  or  six 
weeks,  till  June,  when  the  plants  put  out  on  the 
ridges,  for  prickly  cucumbers,  will  keep  up  a  sup- 
ply till  they  are  destroyed  by  the  frost. 

The  plants  in  the  frames  will  require  to  be  looked 
often  over  in  the  course  of  the  season,  and  thinned 
out  by  removing  such  superfluous  and  decayed 
shoots  as  may  appear  ;  they  will  also  require  large 
supplies  of  water  throughout  the  summer  months  ; 
by   all   which  processes    they  may  be   kept   in   a 


productive  state  for  eight  or  nine  months  in  the 
year. 

Cucumbers  may  be  also  successfully  grown  and 
brought  to  perfection  in  the  winter  months,  on  the 
back  flue  or  front  cm'b  of  a  pine  stove,  or  in  any  other 
compartments  in  which  the  temperature  is  kept 
from  sixty-eight  to  seventy,  or  seventy-five  de- 
grees ;  and  when  the  plants  can  be  placed  so  as  to 
receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun  and  light  in  the 
gloomy  months.  The  most  successful  cultivator 
of  this  fruit,  at  an  early  period,  that  I  have  yet  seen, 
is  Mr,  Forrest,  at  Sion  Gardens,  who  grows  it  in 
great  perfection  in  the  winter  season,  and  who  has 
got  a  particular  sort  of  cucumber,  that  he  calls  the 
iSion  Free  Bearer,  which  is  well  adapted  for  winter 
culture,  and  produces  fruit  in  great  abundance  in 
the  pine  stoves,  from  November  until  the  other 
sorts  come  in,  in  the  regular  frames.  The  seeds  of 
this  kind  are  sown  in  August,  and  nursed  in  small 
pots  until  fit  for  planting  out ;  wlien  the  plants  are 
placed  in  boxes  about  two-feet  long,  and  which 
are  made  so  as  to  stand  on  the  top  of  the  back  flue 
of  the  pine  stove,  where  they  are  placed.  There  is 
also  a  trellising  for  training  them,  formed  over  the 
back  part  of  the  pine-house,  where  the  plants  are 
exposed  to  the  greatest  degree  of  heat  and  light  in 
the  house. 

This  method  appears  to  be  most  simple  and  ef- 
fectual for  procuring  a  crop  of  cucumbers  in  the 
winter  season,  that  I  have  ever  seen.  It  is  a  plan 
that  has  been  long  pursued  by  Mr.  Alton,  in  the 
Royal  Gardens,  although  not  perhaps  with  the 
same  degree  of  success  ;  the  stove  in  these  gardens 
being  not  so  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  this 
plant,  as  those  at  Sion,  which  have  also  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  steam  boiler,  whereby  the  house  can 
be  at  pleasure  filled  with  vapour,  which  is  known 
to  be  most  conducive  to  the  health  and  vigour  of 
the  cucumber  plants. 

CUCUMBEKS    CULTIVATED, 


Lancashire  Prize  Fights, 
White  Turkey, 
Green  Turkey, 


Superlative, 

Early  Short  Prickly, 

Sion  Free  Bearer, 


ON  APPROACH  IN  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


Architecture  requires  symmetry ;  the  objects  of 
nature,  freedom  ;  and  the  properties  of  the  one,  can- 
not, with  justice,  be  transferred  to  the  other. 
Choice,  arrangement,  composition,  improvement, 
and  preservation,  are  so  many  symptoms  of  art, 
which  may  occasionally  appear  in  several  parts  of 
a  garden,  but  ought  to  be  displayed,  without  re- 
serve, near  the  house  ;  nothing  there  should  seem 
neglected  ;  it  is  a  scene  of  the  most  cultivated  na- 
ture ;  it  ought  to  be  enriched ;  it  ought  to  be 
adorned ;  and  design  may  be  avowed  in  tlie  plan, 
and  expence  in  the  execution. 


Even  regularity  is  not  excluded  :  so  capital  a 
structure  may  extend  its  influence  beyond  its  walls; 
but  this  power  should  be  exercised  only  over  its  im- 
mediate appendages  ;  the  platform  upon  which  the 
house  stands,  is  generally  continued  to  a  certain 
breadth  on  every  side  ;  and  whether  it  be  pavement 
or  gravel,  may  undoubtedly  coincide  with  the  shape 
of  the  building.  The  road  which  leads  up  to  the 
door  may  go  off  from  it  in  an  equal  angle,  so  that 
the  two  sides  shall  exactly  correspond  ;  and  certain 
ornaments,  though  detached,  are  yet  rather  within 
the  province  of  architecture,  than   of  gardening  ; 

G  2 


44 


ON   THE    HEAT    OF   VEGETABLES. 


works  of  sculpture  are  not,  like  buildings,  objects 
familiar  in  scenes  of  cultivated  nature  ;  but  vases, 
statues,  and  termini,  are  usual  appendages  to  a  con- 
siderable edifice  ;  as  such  they  may  attend  the  man- 
sion and  trespass  a  little  upon  the  garden,  provided 
they  are  not  carried  so  far  into  it  as  to  lose  their 
connection  with  the  structure.  The  platform  and 
the  road  are  also  appertenances  to  the  house  ;  all 
these  may,  therefore,  be  adapted  to  its  form  ;  and 
the  environs  will  thereby  acquire  a  degree  of  regu- 
larity ;  but  to  give  it  to  the  object  of  nature,  only 
on  account  of  their  proximity  to  others  which  are 
calculated  to  receive  it,  is,  at  the  best,  a  refinement. 
Upon  the  same  jirinciples,  regularity  has  been  re- 
quired in  the  approach  ;  and  an  additional  reason 
has  been  assigned  for  it,  that  the  idea  of  a  seat  is 
thereby  extended  to  a  distance  ;  but  that  may  be 
done  by  other  means  than  by  an  avenue  ;  a  private 
road  easily  known  ;  if  carried  through  grounds,  or 
a  park,  it  is  conunonly  very  apparent ;  even  in  a 
lane,  here  and  there  a  bench,  a  pointed  gate,  a  small 
plantation,  or  any  other  little  ornament,  will  suffi- 
ciently denote  it ;  if  the  entrance  only  be  marked, 
simple  preservation  will  retain  the  impression  along 


the  whole  progress ;  or  the  road  may  wind  through 
several  scenes  distinguished  by  objects,  or  by  an  ex- 
traordinary degree  of  cultivation ;  and  then  the 
length  of  the  way,  and  the  variety  of  improvements 
through  which  it  is  conducted,  may  extend  the  ap- 
pearance of  domain,  and  the  idea  of  a  seat,  beyond 
the  reach  of  any  direct  avenue. 

An  avenue  being  confined  to  one  termination,  and 
excluding  every  view  on  the  sides,  has  a  tedious 
sameness  throughout ;  to  be  great,  it  must  be  dull ; 
and  the  object  to  which  it  is  appropriated,  is,  after 
all,  seldom  shewn  to  advantage.  Buildings,  in  gene- 
ral, do  not  appear  so  large,  and  are  not  so  beauti- 
ful, when  looked  at  in  front,  as  when  they  are  seen 
from  an  angular  station,  which  commands  two  sides 
at  once,  and  throws  them  both  into  perspective  :  but 
a  winding  lateral  approach  is  free  from  these  objec- 
tions ;  it  may  besides  be  brought  up  to  the  house 
without  disturbing  any  of  the  views  from  it ;  but  an 
avenue  cuts  the  scenery  directly  in  two,  and  reduces 
all  the  prospect  to  a  narrow  vista.  A  mere  line  of 
perspective,  be  the  extent  what  it  may,  will  seldom 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  that  space  which  it 
divides,  and  of  the  parts  which  it  conceals. 


ON  THE  HEAT  OF  VEGETABLES. 

BY    SIR    HENRY    STEUART,    BART.    LL.D.    F.R.S., 


&C. 


It  has  been  doubted  by  some  phytologists,  whether 
trees  generate  heat.  I  believe  it  is  certain,  that  frosts 
of  very  extraordinary  severity  will  destroy  trees. 
The  nonconducting  property  of  wood,  may,  in  some 
measure,  protect  the  juices ;  but  their  chemical 
composition  is  such,  that  they  do  not  congeal,  unless 
the  cold  be  of  the  severest  sort  and  many  points  be- 
low the  freezing  point  of  water.  In  weather  so 
hard  as  to  occasion  the  juices  to  freeze,  the  wood, 
in  the  act  of  congelation,  is  violently  rent  asunder. 
But  in  the  more  common  destruction  of  woody 
plants,  it  is  not  so  much  the  degree  of  cold  that  kills 
them,  as  the  too  sudden  reapplication  of  heat. 

The  ingenious  Hassenfrats,  to  whom  the  chemi- 
cal world  is  under  some  obligations,  held,  that 
vegetables  are  not  fed  by  carbonic  acid.  In  a  me- 
moir on  the  nourishment  of  vegetables,  read  in  1792 
to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Paris,  having  shown,  as 
he  conceived,  that  water  and  air  are  insufficient  for 
all  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  he  attempted  in  a 
second  ingenious  paper  to  prove,  that  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  not  decomposed  and  digested  in  the  organs 
of  growing  vegetables,  and  that  they  cannot  be  fed 
by  it ;  because  oxygen,  escaping  from  combination 
in  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid,  and  water 
escaping  in  vapour  in  the  state  of  gas,  would  absorb 
caloric,  and  produce  cold  ;  whereas  by  the  experi- 
ments of  the  late  John  Hunterjliving  vegetables  con- 
tain a  degree  of  heat  greater  than  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere.     The  reason  of  this  differ- 


ence in  opinion  between  these  two  accurate  en- 
quirers may  possibly  be,  that  Hunter's  experiments 
were  made  only  in  the  autumn,  the  winter,  and  early 
in  the  spring,  when  the  activity  of  vegetation  was 
suspended,  which  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the 
case  respecting  those  of  Hassenfrats. 

It  appears,  however,  that  both  Riichert  and  Se- 
nebier  ascertained,  that  vegetables  do  decompose 
carbonic  acid,  retaining  the  carbon,  and  emitting  the 
oxygen.  Dr.  Woodward  made  many  experiments 
with  plants  of  mint  growing  in  water  ;  and  found 
that  a  plant,  in  water  from  the  Thames,  which  must 
certainly  have  contained  a  large  share  of  carbonic 
acid,  encreased  considerably  more  in  weight,  than  a 
plant  growing  in  pure  water.  Schoppet,  who  ex- 
amined the  temperature  of  growing  trees  in  New 
York,  found,  that  from  November  to  April,  when 
the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  was  put  into  a  hole  made 
in  a  tree,  the  mercury  rose  higher  than  in  the  open 
air.  And  Ingenhoutz  found,  that  a  piece  of  green 
paper  hung  on  a  tree,  in  a  warm  summer's  day,  felt 
sensibly  warmer  than  the  leaves.  Hunter,  likewise, 
who  was  fond  of  trees,  used  to  keep  thermometers 
in  them  for  months  together,  and  obtained  similar 
results.  The  subject  is  curious,  and  is  the  more  de- 
serving of  the  planter's  investigation,  that  the  state 
of  the  bark,  and  its  power,  when  thick  and  indu- 
rated, to  protect  the  sap-vessels,  are  so  intimately 
connected  with  all  facts,  that  tend  to  illustrate  the 
subject. 


ON    THE    STING   OF    THE    NETTLE. 


45 


ON  THE  EVAPORATION  OF  PLANTS. 


BY    KURT    SPRENGEL,    OF    BERLIN. 


In  the  parched  deserts  of  Africa,  where  the  quan- 
tity of  rain  in  a  century  rises  scarcely  to  the  height 
of  an  inch,  the  most  juicy  plants  are  often  found  to 
grow  to  an  astonishing  height.  They  can  only  be 
nourished  by  means  of  their  surfaces.  In  hot- 
houses, too,  we  never  attain  a  brisk  growth  so  much 
by  watering  the  roots  of  the  plants,  as  by  an  artifi- 
cial wetting  and  sprinkling  of  the  plants  from  above. 
Evident  as  all  this  is,  it  is  still  a  difficult  matter  to  ex- 
plain this  absorption,  upon  common  principles, 
through  the  closed  sides  of  the  cells.  We  might 
indeed  ascribe  this  effect  to  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves,  on  which  principally  the  slits  are  seen  ;  but 
as  dew  and  rain  much  more  frequently  fall  than  as- 
cend, we  cannot  avoid  confining  this  absorption  of 
the  vapours  and  fluid  drops,  to  tlie  upper  surface, 
on  which  supposition,  we  are  again  forced  to  betake 
ourselves  to  an  organic  perspiration. 

The  evaporation  of  leaves,  is  one  of  the  most  ob- 
vious and  important  of  their  functions.  No  person 
can  deny  it,  who  has  noticed  the  dropsof  clear  mois- 
ture on  the  points  of  leaves  even  in  hot-houses, 
where  they  cannot  be  affected  by  the  dew  ;  or  who 
has  traced  the  movement  of  a  mist  in  a  still  even- 
ing, as  it  raises  itself  from  fields  planted  with  vege- 
tables ;  or  who  has  seen  the  rising  of  clouds  from 
forests,  and  the  ascent  of  vapoury  colunms  from  the 
same  places  before  the  formation  of  a  storm.  In 
fact,  plants  lose,  by  evaporation  from  their  leaves, 
the  greatest  part  of  the  moisture  which  they  take  in  by 
their  roots.  The  proportion  of  the  water  absorbed,  to 
that  lost  by  evaporation,  is  as  fifteen  to  thirteen, 
seldom  as  four  to  one.  It  is  hence  that  a  branch 
without  leaves,  when  it  has  been  placed  in  water, 
becomes  heavier  than  one  in  a  state  of  frondescense, 
because  it  wants  the  organs  through  which  it  may 
rid  itself  of  its  superfluous  nourishment.  The 
organs  which  are  chiefly  employed  in  evaporation. 


are  the  slits,  and  also  the  hairs,  which  latter  organs 
are,  therefore,  more  abundant  in  young  shoots,  and 
in  those  parts  whose  evaporation  is  most  active. 

Evaporation  has  an  essential  influence  on  the 
economy  of  the  plants  themselves,  and  on  the  whole 
economy  of  nature.  The  activity  by  which  the 
plant  empties  itself  of  its  superfluous  matters, 
operates  as  an  incitement  to  the  other  functions, 
and  a  plant  is,  in  truth,  the  more  healthy,  the  more 
freely  it  evaporates.  Yet  there  may  be  an  excess 
in  this  also,  especially,  when  not  only  unformed 
juice,  but  the  prepared  and  proper  s'ap  is  given  off. 

The  evaporation  of  leaves  has  a  great  influence 
on  the  general  economy  of  nature.  As  in  the  tran- 
sition from  the  form  of  drops  to  that  of  vapour,  a 
greater  portion  of  heat  is  consumed,  the  quicker 
this  transition  takes  place  ;  we  find,  in  this  fact,  a 
principal  cause  of  the  low  temperature  which  the 
juice  of  living  plants  exhibits,  even  during  the  great- 
est summer  heat.  Nay,  the  shade  of  a  leafy  tree 
will  always  afford  a  greater  coolness  to  sentient  ani- 
mals, than  the  shade  of  lifeless  objects. 

The  influence  which  the  evaporation  of  leaves 
has  upon  the  whole  atmosphere,  as  well  as  upon  the 
earth  and  its  waters,  produces  very  extensive  effects. 
Forest  regions  are  not  only  cooler,  but  also  more 
productive  of  rain,  than  steppes  and  sandy  deserts, 
where  vegetation  is  entirely  wanting.  All  the 
streams  of  the  world  have  their  sources  in  mountain 
chains  covered  with  woods  ;  and  although  the  melted 
snow  is  their  immediate  cause,  they  would  neither 
continue  to  be  poured  along,  nor  grow  to  a  river, 
unless  forests  and  woods,  by  their  evaporation,  in- 
cessantly afforded  the  necessary  stores  of  water. 
The  largest  rivers  in  the  world  flow  in  South 
America,  in  Upper  India,  and  in  Northern  Asia, 
through  forests  of  immeasurable  extent. 


STING  OF  THE  NETTLE, 

BY    PROFESSOR    DRUMMOND,    OF    BELFAST,  f 


Three  species  of  nettle  are  natives  of  Great 
Britain  ;  the  Roman  nettle,  the  common  nettle,  and 
the  small.  The  first  is  limited  to  certain  situations, 
but  the  other  two  are  found  almost  everywhere. 
The  common  or  large  nettle  is  known  by  grievous 
experience  to  every  one,  though  perhaps  you  have 


never  yet  enquired  whence  the  pain  arises  from  touch- 
ing it.  You  have  often  been  pricked  with  a  pin  or 
needle  ;  but  you  \vi\l  recollect  that  the  pain  suc- 
ceeding that  injury  is  very  different  from  what  fol- 
lows the  stinging  of  a  nettle.  Now,  the  wound 
made  by  either  of  these,  is,  perhaps,  twenty  times 


*  From  the  German. 


f  From  his  "  Letters." 


46 


HARMONIES    OF    COLOUR    AND    FORM    IN    PLANTS. 


larger  than  that  made  by  the  sting ,  so  that  in  the 
operation  of  the  latter  there  must  be  something 
more  than  the  mere  extent  of  the  wound  to  account 
for  the  greater  pain  which  is  produced.  In  fact, 
it  is  a  process  altogether  analogous  to  the  stinging 
of  a  bee,  or  the  bite  of  a  venomous  serpent.  The 
sting  is  not  like  a  pin  or  needle,  solid  throughout, 
but  is  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  perforated  at  the 
point ;  and  when  touched,  it  is  not  only  sharp 
enough  to  pierce  the  skin,  but  also  is  so  constructed 
as  to  inject  a  particle  of  poisonous  fluid  into  the 
wound  it  makes,  and  that  is  the  source  of  the  pain 
which  follows.  The  wound  itself  is  so  minute,  it 
would  scarcely  be  felt,  but  the  poison  irritates,  in- 
flames, and  causes  the  well-known  pain  alluded  to. 

The  poison  fang  of  the  serpent  is,  in  some  re- 
spects, difl^erent  from  the  sling  of  the  nettle. 
There  is  a  gland  on  the  cheek  which  secrets  or 
forms  the  poison,  and  this  is  conveyed  by  a  duct, 
and  discharged  into  a  bag,  which  serves  as  a  reser- 
voir. With  this  reservoir  the  base  of  the  fang  is 
connected  in  such  a  way,  that,  when  the  point  of 
the  fang  presses  against  an  object,  the  resistance 
pushes  its  root  into  the  poisonous  fluid,  and  this,  of 
course,  passes  into  the  cavity  of  the  fang,  and  is 
ejected  from  its  aperture,  which  is  a  slit  at  some 
distance  liehind  the  point. 

Were  it  not  for  this  poison,  the  bite  of  a  serpent 
would  only  cause  a  simple  punctured  wound  ;  but 
by  the  contrivance  mentioned,  it  produces  death  in 
a  very  little  time,  even  in  the  largest  animal  which 


the  serpent  will  attack.  Let  us  not  pass  over  this 
subject  without  a  little  reflection.  It  offers  us  a 
striking  example  how  the  Almighty  can  turn  sim- 
plest circumstances  into  the  most  important.  Only 
a  small  number  of  the  serpent  tribe  are  armed  with 
the  poison  apparatus  ;  the  rest  have  simple  teeth, 
and  take  their  prey  by  suddenly  twisting  round  its 
throat  and  strangling  it.  The  poisonous  serpent, 
on  the  other  hand,  merely  gives  its  bite,  and  then 
watches  the  animal  bitten,  till  it  falls  dead. 

We  have  the  dreadful  venom  of  the  serpent  ela- 
borated from  its  blood  by  a  small  gland  placed  upon 
the  cheek,  and  to  analogous  process  we  are  to  refer 
the  poison  which  produces  the  stinging  pain  of  the 
nettle.  Heat  plant,  the  small  species  of  which 
(Artica  lireas)  stings  the  most  severely,  is  covered 
all  over  with  hairs  ;  but  by  using  a  microscope,  or 
a  magnifying  glass,  you  may  perceive  that  these  are 
not  all  of  one  kind ;  some  being  perforated,  which 
are  the  stings,  while  others  are  not.  Each  sting 
stands  upon  a  pedestal,  and  this  pedestal  performs 
the  office  both  of  gland  and  poison  bag.  It  is  cel- 
lular and  spongy  within  ;  the  sting  is  placed  on  its 
top,  and  may  be  moved  by  a  slight  pressure  to 
either  side,  or  round  in  a  circle ;  it  seems  to  stand, 
as  it  were,  on  a  universal  joint.  When  a  body 
touches  its  point,  the  base  is  pressed  down  into  the 
spongy  pedestal,  and  the  poisonous  fluid  rushes  up 
through  the  tubes  of  the  sting,  and  flows  out  of  the 
terminal  apertures. 


HARMONIES   OF  COLOUR  AND  FORM  IN  PLANTS, 


BY  T.  CASTLES,  M.D.,  F.L.S.* 


Nature,  in  the  creation  of  the  universe,  has  very 
beautifully  moderated  the  influence  of  colour.  To 
the  firmament,  she  has  given  a  beautiful  azure  tint; 
to  the  earth  itself,  a  variety  of  shades,  all  more  or 
less  harmonizing  with  the  blue  on  high,  and  the 
agreeable  green  of  plants.  If  she  had  given  to 
plants  a  yellowish  hue,  they  would  have  been  con- 
founded with  the  soil;  and  if  she  had  dyed  them 
blue,  they  would  have  been  confounded  with  the 
sky  and  waters.  In  the  first  case,  all  would  have 
appeared  earth,  in  the  second,  all  would  have  been 
sea  ;  but  their  verdure  forms  the  most  delightful 
contrast  between  them  and  the  grounds  of  the 
grand  picture,  as  well  as  consonances  highly  agree- 
able with  the  yellow  colour  of  the  earth,  and  with 
the  azure  of  the  heavens. 

In  giving  to  vegetable  productions  a  green  shade, 
though  only  one  single  colour  is  employed,  there 
are  certain  tints  which  appear  to  be  given  accord- 
ing to  the  situation  or  circumstances  under  which  a 


plant  may  grow.  Those  that  are  destined  to  grow 
immediately  on  the  earth,  on  strands,  or  on  dusky 
rocks,  are  entirely  green,  leaves  and  stem :  as  the 
greater  part  of  reeds,  grasses,  mosses,  taper-trees, 
and  aloes ;  such,  on  the  contrary,  as  are  intended 
to  issue  from  amidst  herbage,  have  stems  of  a 
brownish  hue,  like  the  trunks  of  most  trees  and 
shrubs.  The  elder,  for  example,  which  thrives  in 
the  midst  of  green  turf,  has  the  stem  of  an  ash- 
grey  ;  but  the  dwarf  elder,  which  otherwise  resem- 
bles it  in  every  respect,  and  grows  immediately  on 
the  ground,  has  the  stem  quite  green. 

Not  only  the  green  of  the  plant  is  given  to  har- 
monize with  other  objects,  but  even  the  flower  and 
fruit  have  their  shades  apparently  proportioned  ac- 
cordingly. 

It  seems  correct  that  the  blue  colour  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  flowers  or  in  the  fruits  of  lofty  trees, 
for,  in  that  case,  they  would  assimilate  with  the 
sky  ;   but  is  very  common  on   the  ground  in  the 


»  From  his  Introduction. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE    PLATES. 


47 


flowers  of  herbs:  as  in  the  corn-bottle,  the  icabiosa, 
the  violet,  the  liver-wort,  and  others.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  colour  of  the  earth  is  very  common  in 
the  fruits  of  lofty  trees:  as  in  those  of  the  walnut, 
the  cocoa,  the  pine,  and  so  on. 

In  the  form  of  flowers,  the  most  perfect  speci- 
mens of  harmony  might  be  selected,  which  would 
faithfully  shew,  that  even  in  pleasing  the  sight,  the 
greater  object  of  utility  is  combined,  if  not  in- 
creased. 

This  is  very  sweetly  shown  in  the  structure  of 
compound  flowers,  particularly  such  as  the  sun- 
flower and  daisy.  What  would  these  flowers  be  in 
appearance,  without  their  radii?  Yet  are  the  radi- 
ated petals  of  the  circumference,  not  only  given  to 
complete  a  pleasing  harmony  of  sight  to  the  tubu- 
lar florets  of  the  centre,  but  they  answer  as  impor- 
tant purpose  of  moderating  the  influence  of  heat, 
&c.  thus  is  the  double  object  of  utility  and  beauty 
combined. 

Another  point  productive  of  some  very  pleasing 


deductions,  is  founded  on  the  harmonies  from  con- 
trast. Plants  opposite  in  nature,  are  almost  always 
associated. 

'J  luis  round  the  faded  trunks  of  trees,  twines  the 
creeping  ivy,  or  the  great  convolvulus,  compensa- 
ting the  apparent  want  of  blossom.  The  fir  rises 
in  the  forests  of  the  north,  like  a  lofty  pyramid,  of  a 
dark  green  colour,  and  with  motionless  attitude. 
Near  this  tree,  you  almost  always  find  the  birch, 
which  grows  to  the  same  height  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  pyramid,  of  a  lively  green,  and  whose 
moveable  foliage  is  incessantly  playing  with  every 
breath  of  wind.  The  reed,  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
raises  erect  into  the  air  its  radiated  leaves,  and  its 
embroidered  stems,  while  the  nymptasa  spreads  at 
its  feet  its  broad  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  its  gold 
coloured  flower  ;  the  dark  blue  violet  is  contrasted 
in  the  spring  with  the  yellow  tints  of  the  cowslip 
and  the  primrose.  On  the  herbaged  angles  of  the 
rock,  the  fungus,  white  and  round,  rises  from 
amidst  beds  of  moss  of  the  most  beautiful  green. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


TRYPETHELIUM    SPRENGELII,    ACH. 

T.  Sprengelii,  Ach.  Liin-  J^Ieth.  Lick.  p.  18.  t.  iv  /.  8,9.— Fee, 
Meth.  JLich.,  p.  24,  t.  1,  f.  IS.  Ejmd.  Essai  Cryp  ccore  exot. 
qffic  ,  p.  6b.  tab.  xix.f.  1 — Spreng.,  Sgst.  Vegetab.,  iv,  1,  p. 
348. 

T.  Eleutherise,  Spreng.,  Anlist  A  nlest  zu  kent.  dev  Gervasch., 
etc.  3,  th.,  p.  350,  t.  x./.  95. 

Thallo  (crusta)  fulvo-flavescente,  effuso,  Isevi. 

Apotheciis  (verrucis)  tierinsphsericis,  glabris,  subnitentibus 
I'usco-ferrugeneis  ;  Thalamcis  (E  16)  suiiglobosis  ;  Perithecro 
crasso,  ater-rimo,  nuclee  albido ;  Sarcothecio  fulvo. 

Habitat  in  America  ad  corticem  Crotonis  CascarillEe,  nee  non  in 
Peruvia  ad  corticera  BonplandiEe  trinoliatfe, /co77.  tab.  xx.Jig. 
1,  A,  magnitudine  natural! ;  B,  fragmentum  auctiim :  C,  apo- 
therium  liorizontaliter  sectum  ;  D,  theca  ;  E,  gongylus. 

This  plant  abounds  on  the  bark  of  several  trees  in 
Peru,  St.  Domingo,  and  Guadaloupe,  and  pro- 
ably  in  many  other  localities. 


PHLOMIS    LYCHNITIS. 

Didynamia  Gymnospermia,  Linn.  ;  Labiatoe,  JussiEU. 

Calyx  angulatuz  ;  corollse  labium  superius  incumbens,  compres- 
sum,  villosum. 

Phlomis  Lychnitis,  foliis  lanceolatis  tomentosis,  floralibus  ovatis, 
involucris  Setaceis  lunatis. 

Sp.  PI.  819  Reich.  3  p.  70.  MUl.  Ic.  204.  Mart.  Mill.  Diet.  n. 
f>.     Unit.  Kew,  2.  p.  308. 

Phlomis  Lychnitis.  Clu.  Hisp.  379.  Hist.  2.  27.  Tourn.  Inst 
178.  Pena  in  Hist.  Lvgd..  K03.  Ed.  Gallic.  2.  p.  Wi. 
Ti'Assa.  Arrag.  n.  536.  Gh.  Prov.  264  2,  Villars  Dauph.  2 
p.  393.  QjieT.  Flor.  Espan.  v.  6.  p.  95.  Allioni  Ft.  Ped.  12l' 
IVilld.  Sp.  PL  3.  p  119.     Brot.  Flor.  Luset.  v.  J.  p.  166. 

P'.ilomis  foliis  legalatis  utrinque  tomentosis,  radiis  involucri 
setaceis  villosis.    Suav.  Mosp.  143. 


Verbascum  angustis  Salviae  foliis.  Baugh  Pin.  240.  Ger.  emac. 

767.  Rail  Hist.  511. 
Verbascum  sylvestre  foliis  salvias  tenuifolise.    Lob.  Ic.  558.y.  1. 

et  2.  advers.  p.  241. 
Verbascum  sylvestre  monspeliense,  flore  luteo  triante.  J.  Baugh. 

Hist  3.  p.  307,  quoad  descriptionem. 
Stadrys  prselongo  angustoque  folio,  flore  luteo.  Barrel,  Ic.  1321. 
Salvia  fruticosa  lutea  angustifolia.  Park.     Theat.  51. y.  10. 

Among  the  figures  above  quoted,  those  of  Clusius 
and  Pena,  Barrelier  and  Philip  Miller,  are  the  only 
original  ones.  Of  these,  that  of  Pena  expresses 
the  habit  of  the  plant  the  best,  but  was  taken  after 
the  flowers  had  dropped  off";  in  which  state  the  spe- 
cimens in  herbariums  are  often  found.  Perhaps  it 
was  this  circumstance  that  misled  Linnaeus  when 
he  describes  the  corolla  "  as  scarcely  larger  than 
the  calyx." 

It  is  a  native  of  the  south  parts  of  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal ;  growing  chiefly  on  dry  gravelly  hills  ; 
is  said  to  be  particularly  abundant  about  Mont- 
pelier,  and  in  similar  soils  in  other  parts  of  Lan- 
guedoc. 

It  owes  its  specific  title  of  Lychnitis,  as  well  as 
its  Spanish  name  Candelero,  to  the  use  to  which 
the  long  slender  radical  leaves  are  apjjlied,  as  wicks 
for  lamps  ;  which  purpose  they  are  said  to  answer 
very  well,  even  in  their  recent  state. 

It  was  cultivated  by  Miller,  in  the  Physic  Gar- 
den at  Chelsea,  in  1731,  but  may  be  considered 
with  us  as  a  very  rare  plant.  It  is  generally  treated 
as  a  green-house  shrub  ;  but  in  a  sheltered  situation 
and  dry  gravelly  soil,  it  would  probably  do  much 
better  in  the  open  air.     It  flowers  in  July. 


48 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


IRIS    LURIDA. 
Triandiia  Monogynia,  Linn  ;  Iridea;,  JussiEU. 

Calyx,  sheaths  bivalve,  separating  the  flowers,  permanent. 

Corolla  six  parted.  Petals  oblong,  blunt;  the  three  exterior 
ones  reflexed;  the  three  interior  upright  and  sharper;  all  con- 
nected at  tlie  claws  into  a  tube  of  different  lengths  in  the  dif- 
ferent species.  Stamens,  Filaments  three,  awl-shaped,  incum- 
bent on  the  reflex  petals.    Anthers  oblong,  straight,  depressed 

Pistils  with  the  seed  organ,  inferior,  oblong,  style  simple,  very 
short ;  summits  three,  petal  form,  oblong,  reeled  within,  fur- 
rowed without ;  incumbent  on  the  stamens,  two  lipped.  Outer 
lip  smaller,  and  notched  ;  inner  larger,  forked  and  sabinflected. 

Capsule  oblong,  cornered,  three-celled,  three-yalved. 

Seeds  several  large. 

The  nectary  in  some  (1. 9.)  is  a  longitudinal  villose  line,  engraven 
on  the  base  of  the  reflex  petals  ;  but  in  others  it  consists  of 
three  melliferous  pores  at  the  base  of  the  flower.  The  cap- 
sule in  some  is  trigonal,  in  others  hexagonal. 

ItIs  lurida. 

Ait.    Hort.  Keto  1,  68. 

Bearded,  stem  higher  than  the  leaves,  and  many 
flowered,  outer  petals  ri volute,  inner  from  erect 
bent  in,  somewhat  waved  and  slightly  eniarginate. 


ALOE    LINGUA    VAR.    A 

Hexandria  Monogynia.  LiNN;  Hemerocallidiae,  JussiEU. 

Alee  lingua ;  acanlis,  curviflora,  foliis  distochis,  base  imbricate, 
conduplicantibus,  lingua;  formibus,  punctnlis  instar  aranefe 
cuticuire  pnimatis,  variegatis,  corolla  subampallacea,  laciniis 
breviter  coalitis. 

Aloe  Africana  flore  rubro,  folio  maculisub  utraque  parte  notato. 
Knorr.  Thes.  Rhei.  Herb.  v.  3  A.  t.  14.  Camm.  Hort  Amst.  2. 
15.  <.8. 

Aloe  Africana  raaculata  flore  rubro,  secund  species.  IVernm. 
Phys.    Icorit.  57 

Aloe  africana  foliis  linguam  vitulinam  exprimentibus.  Sabbat. 
Hort.  Rom.  6  t.  71. 

(Aloe  a  hngua  di  vitello).  (E)  foliis  latioribus  obscurius  varie- 
gatis.    G. 

Aloe  obliqua.     Jucq.  Hort.  Schcenb.  4.  t. 

Aloe  nigricans.     Haworth.  Linn.  Trans.  7.  13. 

This  plant  grows  with  its  leaves,  near  the  ground. 
These  are  about  six  inches  in  length.  The  flowers 
are  in  slender  and  loose  spikes,  each  hanging  down- 
wards, of  a  red  colour  at  bottom  and  green  at  top. 


BIGNONIA    VENUSTA. 

Didynamia  Angiosiiermia,  Linn  ;  Bignoniae,  JussiEU. 

Calyx  5-fidus,  cyaithforniis ;  corolla,  fauce  campanulata,  5-fida, 
sobtus  ventricosa  ;  Siliqua  2-)ocularis  ;  semina,  membranaceo- 
alata. 

Bignonia  yenusta  scandens  ;  foliis  glabris,  infesiorbus  ternatis 
ecirrhosis,  superioribus  conjugatis  cirrhosis,  foliolis  oblongo- 
ovatis  acuminatis  basi  inoequilateri-oblignis,  petiolis  intri 
villosis  ;  calyce  brevi  cylin  drico-rotato  sequaH  denticnlis  5- 
teretibus  villosis  invincem  distantibus,  pedimentis  corymboso 
— pluri-floris. 

This  splendid  plant  was  received  about  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  ago  from  the  Brazils,  by  Lady  Liver- 
pool, and  flowered  first  in  this  country  in  1818,  in 
the  hot-house  at  Coombe  Wood.  The  figure  in  our 
plate  was  drawn  and  engraved  from  a  specimen  sent 
us  by  Mr.  Forbes  of  Woburn  Abbey,  accompanied 
with  the  following  letter  : 


"Woburn  Abbey,  Jan,  21st,  1834. 
"  Sir, — I  herewith  send  you  a  specimen  of  the 
Bignonia  Venusla,  which  is  at  present  in  flower,  in 
the  Garden  of  R.  Trevor,  Esq.,  Tingrith,  who  very 
kindly  sent  this  specimen  over  to  me  this  morning, 
to  forward  to  you,  should  you  consider  it  worth  a 
place  in  your  Magazine.  I  believe  it  is  very  rare 
to  see  this  species  of  Bignonia  in  flower.  This 
plant  is  growing  in  a  corner  of  the  pine  stove  at 
'J'ingrith,  and  the  roots  are  nourished  by  the  tan- 
bed,  and  frequent  waterings  with  liquid  manure, 
which  induces  it  to  grow  luxuriently  every  year  ; 
and  has  produced  this,  and  last  year,  an  incon- 
ceivable multitude  of  blossoms.  The  shoots  are 
trained  along  the  back  of  the  pine  stove,  as  well  as 
down  every  rafter  ;  and  when  in  flower,  they  have 
really  a  magnificent  appearance. 

"  I  understand  that  Mr.  Phillips,  Mr.  Trevor's 
gardener,  has  sent  specimens  of  it  to  Mr.  Loudon, 
lately,  with  the  particulars,  relative  to  his  manage- 
ment of  it;  which  he  informs  me,  is  to  appear  in 
the  next  Magazine.  If  you  should  notice  it  in  your 
Magazine,  you  will  of  course  mention  the  garden 
where  it  has  been  brought  to  such  high  perfec- 
tion in. 

"  I  remain,  Sir,  your  very  obedient  servant, 

"J.  Forbes." 

The  following  is  the  article  by  Mr.  Phillips,  above 
alluded  to: — B.  Venusta  appears  to  like  free  scope 
for  its  roots.  We  have  here  two  flowering  plants, 
which  are  planted  in  the  back  corners  of  the  bark- 
bed,  in  boxes  one-foot  square  and  five-feet  deep, 
formed  of  perforated  boards,  and  filled  with  a  mix- 
ture of  sandy  loam  and  leaf  mould.  The  roots  have 
passed  out  of  the  boxes  into  the  decayed  bark  of 
the  bark  bed,  in  which  there  is  always  a  gentle  heat, 
and  in  which  they  grow  and  spread  very  freely. 
We  water  liberally  with  the  drainings  from  the 
hot  beds  and  rain  water.  The  plants  are  trained 
perpendicular,  with  a  single  stem,  now  three-inches 
in  girth,  to  the  points  where  they  touch  the  rafter  ; 
and  to  this  point  the  branches,  when  they  have 
done  flowering,  are  always  cut  back,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  bark-bed  is  renovated,  and  the  roots 
reduced.  When  the  grape-vines  are  taken  out,  we 
lead  the  shoots  of  the  bignonia  along  two  wires  close 
under  the  rafters  over  the  path  a  foot  from  the 
grass.  When  the  grape  vines  are  taken  out,  we  lead 
the  shoots  of  the  bignonia  down  the  rafters,  and,  in 
its  flowering  season,  it  maybe  said  to  cover  the  whole 
house ;  and  it  has  a  most  splendid  appearance. 

In  1831-2,  the  B.  Venusta  began  flowering  on  Oc- 
tober 3  ;  in  1833,  two  or  three  weeks  later.  It  con- 
tinues blossoming  between  three  and  four  months, 
and  some  of  the  finest  specimens  have  upwards  of 
seventy  flowers  in  a  corymb.  A  branch  introduced 
into  the  greenhouse  has  flowered  sparingly.  Cut- 
tings of  the  young  shoots,  when  about  9  inches  long, 
will  strike  root  freely  in  a  hot-bed. 


f      '   ' If  1  llCrajttltiL.^  liycmi  :i  li.-: . 


49 


MR.  WILLIAM  GRIFFIN'S  MODE  OF  CULTIVATING  THE  PINE-APPLE. 


With  respect  to  the  most  appropriate  soil,  Mr.  Grif- 
fin, very  justly  it  would  appear,  laughs  at  those 
who  prescribe  many  different  strange  ingredients  for 
compost ;  adding,  that  after  numerous  experiments 
made  with  mixtures  of  deers'.sheeps',  pigeons',  hens', 
and  rotten  stable-dung,  with  soot,  and  other  manures, 
various  proportions  and  combinations,  with  fresh 
soil  of  different  qualities  from  pastures  and  waste 
lands,  I  can  venture  with  confidence  to  recommend 
the  following  : — Procure  from  a  pasture,  or  waste 
land,  a  quantity  of  brown,  rich,  loamy  earth,  if  of  a 
reddish  colour  the  better,  but  of  a  fattish  mouldy 
temperature  ;  that  by  squeezing  a  handful  of  it  toge- 
ther, and  opening  your  hand,  it  will  readily  fall 
apart  again  :  be  cautious  not  to  go  deeper  than  you 
find  it  of  that  pliable  texture  ;  likewise  procure,  if 
possible,  a  quantity  of  deers'  dung  :  if  none  can  be 
conveniently  got,  sheeps'  dung  will  do,  and  a  quan- 
tity of  swines'  dung.  Let  the  above  three  sorts  be 
brought  to  some  convenient  place,  and  laid  up  in 
three  different  heaps  ridgeways,  for  at  least  six 
months ;  and  then  mix  them  in  the  following  man- 
ner, covering  the  dung  with  a  little  soil  before  it  is 
mixed  ;  four  wheel-barrows  of  the  above  earth;  one 
barrow  of  sheeps'  dung,  and  two  barrows  of  swines' 
dung.  This  composition,  he  adds,  if  carefully  and 
properly  prepared,  will  answer  every  purpose  for 
the  growth  of  pine  plants  of  every  age  and  kind. 
It  is  necessary  that  it  should  remain  a  year  before 
applied  to  use,  that  it  may  receive  the  advantages  of 
the  summer's  sun  and  winter's  frost;  and  it  need 
not  be  screened  or  sifted  before  using ;  but  only 
well  broken  with  the  hands  and  spade,  as,  when 
finely  sifted,  it  becomes  too  compact  for  the  roots  of 
the  plants." 

In  rearing  the  young  plants,  he  generally  plants 
the  crowns  in  the  bark  till  they  have  struck  root ; 
but  the  suckers  he  pots  at  once,  unless  they  are  small 
and  green  at  bottom,  when  he  treats  them  like  the 
crowns.  The  pots  he  uses  for  both  crowns  and 
suckers  are  five  inches  diameter,  and  four  inches 
deep,  unless  the  suckers  are  very  strong,  when  he 
puts  them  in  pots  seven  and  a  half  inches  deep.  The 
plants  are  shifted  in  the  March  following  into  pots 
nine  inches  in  diameter,  by  eight  inches  deep,  turn- 
ing each  singly  out  of  its  present  pot,  with  a  ball  of 
earth  around  its  roots,  unless  any  appear  unhealthy 
or  any  ways  defective,  when  it  is  eligible  to  shake 
the  earth  from  the  roots,  and  trim  off  all  the  parts 
that  appear  not  alive.  He  plunges  them  in  the  bark 
(refreshed  as  at  each  shifting)  eighteen  inches  from 
plant  to  plant  in  the  row,  and  twenty  inches  distant 
row  from  row. 

Mr.  Griffin  shifts  for  the  last  time  in  the  October 


of  the  year  preceding  them  in  which  the  fruit  is 
expected ;  the  pots  he  uses  are  twelve  inches  in 
diameter,  and  ten  inches  deep.  He  plunges  them 
in  the  bark-bed,  about  twenty  inches  plant  from 
plant,  and  two  feet  distance  from  row  to  row.  He 
says,  "  place  the  first  row  eighteen  inches  from  the 
kirb,  angling  them  in  the  rows  as  you  go  on." 

It  is  of  some  consequence  to  remark,  that  Griffin's 
practice  in  not  divesting  the  plants  at  any  one  shift- 
ing of  their  balls  of  earth,  differs  from  that  of  Speech- 
ly,  Nicol,  and  most  other  practitioners,  excepting 
Baldwin.  It  appears  highly  probable,  that  by  not 
disturbing  the  balls  of  healthy  plants,  they  will  pro- 
duce their  fruit  both  earlier  and  of  a  larger  size  ;  for 
the  cutting  off  the  roots  must  produce  a  check  in 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  their  renewal  must 
occupy  its  chief  energies  for  some  time,  and  thus 
lessen  the  vigour  of  the  leaves ;  since  the  leaves  and 
roots  of  all  plants  assist  each  other  alternately  as 
occasion  requires. 

Those  who  advocate  the  practice  of  shaking  off 
the  balls  of  earth,  and  cutting  off  the  roots  of  pines 
in  the  second  year's  spring  shifting,  say,  that  though, 
at  first  sight,  it  has  an  unnatural  appearance,  yet,  on 
more  minute  inquiry,  it  will  be  found  congenial  to 
nature.  In  the  first  place,  they  say  that  they  only 
cut  aAvay  the  lower  decaying  roots,  and  preserveall 
the  others,  unless  they  are  bruised  by  the  shaking 
off  the  ball ;  or  injured  by  disease  or  otherwise.  In 
the  next  place,  they  state,  that  on  attentively  examin- 
ing the  pine-plant,  it  will  be  found,  that,  in  its  mode 
of  rooting,  it  may  be  classed  with  the  strawberry, 
vine,  and  crowfoot,  which  throw  out  fresh  roots 
every  year,  in  part  among,  but  chiefly  above,  the  old 
ones.  This  done,  the  old  ones  become  torpid  and 
decay,  and  to  cut  them  clear  away,  if  it  could  be 
done  in  all  plants  of  this  habit,  would,  it  is  said,  be 
assisting  nature,  and  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the 
new  roots,  though  it  will  ultimately  increase  the 
vigour  of  the  herb  and  fruit,  will  retard  their  pro- 
gress to  maturity. 

Speechly  has  the  following  jiidicious  observations 
in  allusion  to  those  who  recommend  always  shifting 
with  the  balls  entire. 

"  It  is  observable,  that  the  pine-plant  begins  to 
make  its  roots  at  the  very  bottom  of  the  stem,  and  as 
the  plant  increases  in  size,  fresh  roots  are  produced 
from  the  stem,  still  higher  and  higher;  and  the 
bottom  roots  die  in  proportion  :  so  that,  if  a  plant  in 
the  greatest  vigour  be  turned  out  of  its  pot  as  soon 
as  the  fruit  is  cut,  there  will  be  found  at  the  bottom 
a  part  of  the  stem,  several  inches  in  length,  naked, 
destitute  of  roots,  and  smooth  :  now,  according  to 
the  above  method,  the  whole  of  the  roots  decay  and 


MAG.4ZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.  II.  NO    XIJI. APRIL,  1834. 


50 


ON  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING; 


turn  mouldy,  to  the  great  detriment  of  those  after- 
wards produced." 

The  first  ball,  which  remains  with  the  plant  full 
two  years,  by  length  will  become  hard,  cloddy,  and 
exh,iusted  of  its  nourishment,  and  must,  therefore, 
prevent  the  roots  afterwards  produced  from  growing 
with  that  freedom  and  vigour  which  they  would  do 
in  fresher  and  better  mould. 

The  old  ball  continually  remaining  after  the  fre- 
quent shiftings,  it  will  be  too  large  when  put  into 
the  fruiting  pot  to  admit  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
fresh  mould  to  support  the  plant  till  its  fruit  becomes 
ripe,  which  is  generally  a  whole  year  from  the  last 
time  of  shifting. 

In  giving  air  and  water,  Mr.  Griffin  differs 
nothing  from  Nicol ;  he  waters  moderately  in  win- 
ter, and  more  liberally  in  the  growing  seasons,  from 
March  till  October ;  want  of  water  to  keep  the  plants 
moist,  he  considers  one  of  the  reasons  of  their  show- 
ing fruit  prematurely.  He  never  waters  over  the 
leaves  in  any  stage,  nor  gives  much  at  the  roots  in 
damp  weather. 

With  respect  to  temperature,  this  author  differs 
from  most  others  who  have  written  on  the  pine,  but 
not  from  many  very  successful  practitioners.  He 
recommends  60  degrees  as  the  heat  proper  for  the 
pine  in  every  stsge,  not  exceeding  five  or  six  de- 
grees over  or  under.  The  bottom  heat,  which  he 
considers  proper,  is  from  90  to  100  degrees. 

After  many  trials  and  experiments,  he  found  the 
following  the  most  effectual  wash  for  destroying 
insects  on  pines. 


To  one  gallon  of  soft  rain  water,  add  eight  ounces 
of  soft  green  soap,  one  ounce  of  tobacco,  and  three 
table  spoonfuls  of  turpentine ;  stir  and  mix  them 
well  together  in  a  watering  pot,  and  let  them  stand 
for  a  day  or  two.  Wlien  you  are  going  to  use  this 
mixture,  stir  and  mix  it  well  again,  then  strain  it 
through  a  thin  cloth.  If  the  fruit  only  is  infected, 
dash  the  mixture  over  the  crown  and  fruit,  with  a 
squirt,  untill  all  is  fairly  wet ;  and  what  runs  do^^'n 
the  stem  of  the  fruit  will  kill  all  the  insects  that  are 
amongst  the  bottom  of  the  leaves.  When  young 
plants  are  infested,  take  them  out  of  their  pots,  and 
shaking  all  the  earth  from  their  roots,  (tying  the 
leaves  of  the  largest  plants  together,)  and  plunge 
them  into  the  above  mixture,  keeping  every  part 
covered  for  the  space  of  five  minutes ;  then  take 
them  out,  and  set  them  down  in  a  clean  place,  with 
their  tops  declining  downwards,  for  the  mixture  to 
drain  out  of  their  centre.  When  the  plants  are  dry, 
put  them  into  smaller  pots  than  before,  and  plunge 
them  into  the  bark  bed. 

Mr.  Griffin's  object  seems  to  have  been  to  pro- 
duce large  fruit  in  the  proper  season.  \^'Tien  gar- 
dener to  J.  C.  Gerardot,  Esq.,at  Kelham,  near  Not- 
tingham, he  cut  twenty  green  pines,  which  weighed 
together,  87  pounds  seven  oimces.  In  July,  one  of 
the  New  Providence  kind,  weighing  seven  pounds 
two  ounces.  In  August,  one  of  the  same  kind, 
weighing  nine  pounds  three  ounces.  And  at  ano- 
ther time  he  cut  22  green  pines,  which  weighed 
together,  118  pounds  three  ounces. 


ON  ENGLISH  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


BY  WASHINGTON  IRVING,  ESQ. 


The  taste  of  the  English  in  the  cultivation  of  land, 
and  in  what  is  called  landscape  gardening  is  un- 
rivalled. They  have  studied  nature  intently,  and 
discover  an  exquisite  sense  of  her  beautiful  forms 
and  harmonious  combinations.  Those  charms, 
which  in  other  countries  she  lavishes  in  wild  soli- 
tudes, are  here  assembled  round  the  haunts  of  domes- 
tic life.  They  seem  to  have  caught  her  coy  and 
furtive  graces,  and  spread  them,  like  witchery, 
about  their  rural  abodes, 

Nothing  can  be  more  imposing  than  the  magni- 
ficence of  English  park  scenery:  vast  lawns  that 
extend  like  shofets  of  vivid  green,  with  here  and 
there  clumps  of  gigantic  trees,  heaping  up  rich  piles 
of  foliage.  The  solemn  pomp  of  groves  and  wood- 
land glades,  with  the  deer  trooping  in  silent  herds 
across  them  ;  the  hare,  bounding  away  to  the  covert ; 
or  the  pheasant,  suddenly  bursting  upon  the  wing. 
The  brook,  taught  to  wind  in  the  most  natural 
meanderings,  or  expand  into  a  glassy  lake — the  se- 
questered pool,  reflecting  the  quivering  trees,  with 
the  yellow  leaf  sleeping  on  its  bosom,  and  the  trout 


roaming  fearlessly  about  its  limpid  waters  :  while 
some  rustic  temple,  or  sylvan  statue,  grown  green 
and  dank  with  age,  gives  an  air  of  classic  sanctij;y  to 
the  seclusion. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  featu^res  of  park 
scenery ;  but  what  most  delights  me,  is  the  creative 
talent  with  which  the  English  decorate  the  unosten- 
tatious abodes  of  middle  life.  The  rudest  habitation, 
the  most  unpromising  and  scanty  portion  of  land,  in 
the  hands  of  an  Englishman  of  taste,  becomes  a 
little  paradise.  With  a  nicely  discriminating  eye, 
he  seizes  at  once  upon  its  capabilities,  and  pictxires 
in  his  mind  the  future  landscape.  The  sterile  spot 
grows  into  loveliness  under  his  hand,  and  yet  the 
operations  of  art  which  produce  the  effect  are 
scarcely  to  be  perceived.  The  cherishing  and  train- 
ing of  some  trees ;  the  cautious  pruning  of  others ; 
the  nice  distribution  of  flowers  and  plants  of  tender 
and  graceful  foliage ;  the  introduction  of  a  green 
slope  of  velvet  turf;  the  partial  opening  to  a  peep  of 
blue  distance,  or  silver  gleam  of  water  ; — all  these 
are  managed  with  a  delicate  tact,  a  pervading,  yet 


ON  ROTTED   DUNG. 


51 


quiet  assiduity,  like  the  magic  touchiiigs  with  which 
a  painter  finishes  up  a  favoui'ite  picture. 

The  residence  of  people  of  fortune  and  refine- 
meiit  in  the  country  has  diffused  a  degree  of  taste 
and  elegance  in  rural  economy  that  descends  to  the 
lowest  class.  The  very  labourer,  with  his  thatched 
cottage  and  narrow  slip  of  ground,  attends  to  their 
embellishment.  The  trim  liedge,  the  grass  plat 
before  the  door,  the  little  flower  bed,  bordered  with 
snug  box,  the  woodbines  trained  up  against  the  wall, 


and  hanging  its  blossoms  about  the  lattice ;  the  pot 
of  flowers  in  the  window,  the  holly  providently 
planted  about  the  house,  to  cheat  winter  of  its 
dreariness,  and  throw  in  a  semblance  of  green  sum- 
mer to  cheer  the  fire-side.  All  these  bespeak  the 
influence  of  taste,  flowing  down  from  high  sources, 
and  pervading  the  lowest  levels  of  the  public  mind. 
If  ever  love,  as  poet  sings,  delights  to  visit  a  cottage, 
it  must  be  the  cottage  of  an  English  peasant. 


ON  ROTTED  DUNG  AS  A  MANURE* 


It  is  certainly  an  erroneous  assumption  to  say,  the 
first  stage  of  fermentation  in  dung,  must  necessarily 
throw  off'  its  valuable  parts.  Every  dung-hill  of 
fresh  dung  throws  off  a  gaseous  exhalation,  a  very 
short  time  after  it  is  put  together,  and  the  quantity 
thus  thrown  oft',  is  regulated  by  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere.  But  this  exhalation  does  not  consist  of 
the  valuable  gases ;  it  is  a  mere  evaporation  of  the 
water  contained  in  the  dung.  The  same  hot  haze 
may  be  seen  flickering  over  a  fallow  field  on  a  svmny 
day  in  summer.  Nobody  could  with  truth  assert, 
that  this  haze  arises  from  the  disengagement  of  the 
gases  in  the  dung,  which  had  previously  been  inser- 
ted into  the  soil,  when  it  is  clearly  nothing  more 
than  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 
In  Saxony,  hay  is  made  by  heaping  together  the  cut 
grass,  fermenting  it  for  a  short  time,  and  afterwards 
drying  it  in  the  sun  :  but  in  this  process,  nobody 
would  say  that  the  nutritious  portions  of  the  grass 
are  dissipated,  when  it  is  only  the  superabundant 
aqueous  portions  of  the  grass  which  are  driven  off'  by 
heat.  To  say,  therefore,  the  first  stage  of  decompo- 
sition in  a  dung-hill  throws  of  "  the  most  valuable, 
and  the  most  efficient "  parts  of  the  dung,  is  just  to 
say  the  vapour  of  water  is  the  most  valuable  part  of 
dung. 

It  is  true,  were  the  fermentation  continued  after  all 
the  water  in  the  dung  was  evaporated,  a  considerable 
increase  of  temperature  would  ensue ;  and  when  the 
texture  of  the  fibrous  portions  of  the  manure  began 
to  decompose,  there  would  be  an  evolution  of 
valuable  gases.  Direct  experiment  has  proved  the 
escape  of  gases  from  a  heap  of  dung  which  has  been 
long  fermenting.  But  what  harm  accrues  to  the 
dung  as  a  manure,  from  the  escape  of  these  gases  ? 
None  whatever.  We  are  told  these  gases  constitute 
the  food  of  plants,  and  if  they  are  permitted  to  be 
dissipated  by  decomposition,  the  quantity  of  nourish- 
ment in  the  heap  of  manure,  will  of  course,  be  so 
much  diminished ;  that  if  the  bulk  of  the  dung-heap 
be  diminished  one  half,  or  one  third,  by  excessive 
fermentation,  the  quantity  of  nourishment  to  the 
crops  will  be  diminished  in  a  greater  ratio.  These 
cautions  have  long  been  whispered  to  the  ears  of 


practical  men,  but  they  have  listened  to  the  advice 
with  a  provoking  indift'erence.  Like  ducklings, 
when  tliey  first  take  the  water,  they  have  continued 
to  disregard  every  remonstrance  of  their  foster 
brethren  against  injurious  practices,  raising  and 
devouring  their  food,  and  enjoying  themselves  with 
the  greatest  complacency  in  their  vocation.  It  is 
true,  and  we  must  admit  it,  that  some  of  the  gases 
constitute  tlie  food  of  plants,  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  plants  would  receive  them  as  food,  directly  as 
they  are  disengaged  from  a  fermenting  and  heated 
mass ;  nay,  it  is  probable  they  would  rather  reject  the 
food  that  would  injure  them.  But,  as  plants  are  not 
endowed  with  locomotive  powers,  they  cannot  avoid 
the  food  wliich  is  directly  presented  to  them  ;  they 
will  therefore  be  obliged  to  partake  of  it  even  in  an 
injurious  state,  and  in  thus  taking  it  they  die.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  invariably  find  that  plants  suffer  from 
the  contact  of  fermenting  dung,  and  it  is  this  well- 
known  fact,  more  than  from  any  other  circum- 
stance, which  deters  farmers  from  applying  d\mg  in 
an  unprepared  state.  It  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
soil,  it  is  true,  in  an  unprepared  state,  but  long  before 
the  crop  is  brought  into  contact  with  it,  and  after  it 
has  undergone  fermentation  in  the  soil.  Though 
this  application  of  dung  is  recommended  by  men  of 
science,  it  is  performed  from  the  very  opposite  prin- 
ciple which  they  recommend.  They  recommend  it, 
because  the  gases  arising  while  the  dung  is  ferment- 
ing, are  absorbed  by  the  soil,  and  are  then  given  out 
for  the  use  of  plants ;  on  the  other  hand  farmers  per- 
form it,  because  the  fermentation  will  have  ceased 
before  the  crop  is  inserted  into  the  ground.  Wliich 
of  these  is  the  more  rational  reason  ?  'i  he  practical 
one  undoubtedly ;  for  it  is  surely  impossible  that  the 
slight  covering  of  earth  upon  the  dung  can  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  elastic  gas,  however  it  may  retard 
fermentation. 

We  may  conclude  from  analogy,  that  plants  like 
animals,  have  a  mode  of  consuming  their  food  pecu- 
liar to  themselves.  They  may  not  necessarily  con- 
sume the  food  in  the  state  we  choose  to  prepare  it  for 
them.  All  they  require  is,  that  the  material  which 
supply  their  food  shall  be  placed  in  the  soil  in  the 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture. 


H    2 


52 


ON    ROTTED    DUNG. 


state  least  injurious  to  them,  and  within  their  reach, 
and  will  feed  themselves.  Now,  what  is  the  least 
injurious  state  in  which  dung  can  be  presented  to 
any  crop  ?  Experience  has  always  said  in  a  "  soft 
cohesive  mass."  Recent  discoveries  show  that 
practice  has  always  spoken  in  accordance  with 
science.  Consequently,  this  concurrence  cf  science 
is  a  tardy  justification  of  practice. 

The  history  of  the  recent  discoveries  alluded  to, 
which  shew  the  scientific  accuracy  of  practice  in 
applying  dung  in  a  rotten  state  is  this.  In  1802,  the 
celebrated  chemist  and  analyst,  Klaproth,  received 
from  Palermo,  a  substance  which  exuded  sponta- 
neously from  the  bark  of  a  species  of  elm.  To  this 
substance,  Dr.  Thomson  gave  the  temporary  name  of 
ulmin.  It  dissolves  speedily  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  in  which  respect  it  is  like  a  gum  :  but,  when 
the  solution  is  very  much  concentrated  by  evapo- 
ration, it  is  not  the  least  mucilaginous  or  ropy,  nor 
does  it  answer  as  a  paste.  In  this  respect,  uhnin  differs 
very  essentially  from  gum.  When  a  few  drops  of 
nitric  or  oxymuriatic  acid  are  added  to  the  solution,  it 
becomes  gelatinous,  which,  when  slowly  evaporated 
to  dryness,  and  treated  with  alcohol,  and  again  eva- 
porated, leaves  a  light  brown,  bitter  and  sharp  resi- 
nous substance.  Thus,  it  appears  that  ulmin,  by  the 
addition  of  a  little  oxygen,  is  converted  into  a  resi- 
nous substance.  In  this  new  state,  it  is  insoluble  in 
water.  This  property  is  very  singular :  that  a  sub- 
stance soluble  in  water  should  assume  the  resinous 
form  with  such  facility  is  very  remarkable.  Bei'- 
zelius  has  found  this  curious  substance  in  all  barks ; 
Bruconnot,  in  saw  dust,  starch,  and  sugar.  But, 
what  is  more  to  our  present  purpose,  Sprengal  and 
Polydone  Boullay  have  found  it  to  constitute  a 
leading  principle  in  all  soils  and  manures.  Sprengel 
appropriately  calls  it  Humin,  {rom  its  existence  in  all 
soils  :  ulmin  being  given  to  it  by  Dr.  Thomson 
several  years  ago  as  a  temporary  name. 

Such  is  the  histoiy  of  this  remarkable  substance, 
which  performs  so  important  a  function  in  the  ac- 
tion of  putrescent  manures,  and  which  is  found  in 
abundance  in  "  the  soft  cohesive  mass"  of  rotten 
dung.     Let  us  see  how  it  operates  in  manures. 

The  chief  food  of  plants  consists  of  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  humic  acid  mixed  with  water.  Every 
manure  is  therefore  only  valuable  which  contains 
these  substances  in  the  greatest  degree,  and  in  such 
a  state  as  they  are  most  easily  available  to  plants. 
Now,  practice  recommends  the  rotting  of  every 
kind  of  dung,  whether  simple  or  compounded,  and 
the  reducing  it  into  a  uniform  dark  brown  "  soft  co- 
hesive mass,"  similar  in  consistence  to  fresh  peat,  so 
that  it  may  be  cut  with  the  spade,  because  it  main- 
tains that  dung  in  this  state  is  much  more  valuable 
to  crops  than  fresh  dung  or  mere  litter,  whatever 
may  have  been  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  had  evolved  during  its  fermentation.  Recent 
discoveries  have  proved  the  wisdom  of  this  recom- 


mendation of  practice,  because  they  have  proved 
that  rotted  dung  contains  much  more  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  humic  acid,  weight  for  weight,  than  fresh 
dung.  There  is,  it  is  true,  a  loss  of  bulk  in  rotting 
fresh  dung,  and  of  an  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
during  its  fermentation ;  but  the  question  is  not 
what  the  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas  alone  is  in 
dung,  but  what  is  the  most  available  state  in  which 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  dung  can  be  presented 
to  plants ;  and  this  is  the  rotted  state,  because  in  that 
state  alone,  it  contains  the  humic  acid  in  quantity. 
All  the  black  carbonaceous  matter  in  dung-hills  is 
the  humin  ready  to  be  converted  into  humic  acid, 
which  is  in  fact  the  cooked  state  of  the  food  of 
plants.  Moreover,  practice  finds  that  fresh  dung  Ls 
injurious  to  vegetation,  and  recent  discoveries  now 
inform  us  that  this  arises  from  the  acridity  of  the 
ammonia,  which  is  always  present  in  unfermented 
dung.  Fermentation  drives  off  the  acrid  ammonia. 
Fresh  dung  is  found  to  injure  plants  by  burning 
them,  which  is  a  very  appropriate  term  to  describe 
the  action  of  ammonia.  In  like  manner,  stale  liquid 
is  not  so  good  a  top-dressing  to  grass  as  fresh,  or 
when  it  is  largely  mixed  with  water;  because 
science  now  informs  us,  that  ammonia  becomes  con- 
centrated in  stale  liquid  manure,  and  is,  therefore,  in 
an  injurious  state  from  plants,  and  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  mix  liquid  manure  largely  with  water,  in 
order  to  dilute  the  ammonia,  and  allow  the  proper 
action  of  the  humid  acid,  which  exist  in  large 
quantity  in  them.  Again,  it  is  not  an  uncommon 
practice  to  cover  a  dung-hill  with  earth  in  hot  wea- 
ther, and  this  is  now  explained,  not  as  it  hitherto  has 
been,  that  the  earth  absorbs  and  prevents  the  escape 
of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  it  could  no  more  do 
than  a  balloon  made  of  gauze  could  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  hydrcgen  gas ;  but  that  a  violent  fermenta- 
tion in  the  dung  is  checked  by  the  earth  partly  ex- 
cluding the  atmospheric  air  and  rain  water,  the  oxy- 
gen in  either  of  which  is  indispensable  to  continue 
the  process,  it  being  this  oxygen  which  forms  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  by  uniting  with  the  carbon  of  the 
dung.  The  necessity  of  checking  a  violent  fermenta- 
tion in  a  dung-hill  which  contains  a  large  portion  of 
horse  dung,  is  to  prevent  it  being  what  is  technically 
called  "fi/refanget,"  a  state  of  dung  which  is 
useless. 

In  regard  to  composts,  it  is  found  that  to  mix 
lime  with  fresh  or  rotten  dung  is  to  waste  it,  because, 
as  is  now  explained,  the  lime  takes  up  and  renders 
useless  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  they  contain.  In 
like  manner,  a  compost  of  fresh  dung  and  weeds, 
green  leaves,  grass,  turf,  and  green  vegetables, 
without  lime,  is  valuable,  because  all  these  sub- 
stances supply  abundance  of  humin.  On  the  other 
hand,  lime  promotes  the  fermentation  of  peat  earth, 
dry  leaves,  and  every  thing  which  contains  hard 
woody  fibre,  and  supplies  humin  in  quantity. 

It  is  requisite  to  attend  to  the  seasons  of  manuring. 


ON  KITCHEN  GARDENING. 


53 


Dung,  in  any  state,  is  never  applied  to  the  land  in 
winter ;  it  is  best  applied  in  spring  :  it  is  injudicious 
to  expose  it  to  a  hot  sun  in  heaps ;  and  it  is  impro- 
per to  allow  it  to  remain  a  length  of  time  in  heaps 
on  the  field.  These  practices  are  now  easily  ex- 
plained, and  are  quite  in  accordance  with  science. 
In  winter  there  are  no  crops  in  the  field  to  which 
tlie  dung  can  be  applied  :  in  spring,  on  the  otlier 
hand,  plants  and  seeds  are  ready  to  shoot  forth  into 
life  ;  their  roots  are  then  most  active  to  devour  the 
nourishment  which  may  be  placed  within  their 
reach.  To  spread  out  rotted  dung  in  hot  weather 
and  let  it  lie,  must  be  to  suliject  its  component  parts 
to  the  highest  degree  of  evaporation,  and  to  allow  it 
to  remain  in  large  heaps  for  a  time  on  the  ground,  is 
to  give  the  portions  of  the  ground  which  are  covered 
by  the  heaps  an  undue  advantage. 

We  thus  see  that  science  now  agrees  with  that 
practice  which  has  been  pursued  for  years  with  un- 
exampled success.  It  is  consolatory  to  practitioners 
to  think  that  their  experience,  though  unknowingly 
to  them,  has  guided  them  to  success  on  really  scien- 
tific principles.  This  agreement  of  experience  and 
science  should  teach  every  one  that  science  and  ex- 
perience, and  not  science  alone,  ought  to  be  made 
the  tests  to  try  the  accuracy  of  opinions.  Unfortu- 
nately for  the  credit  of  science,  the  test  of  accuracy 
hitherto,  in  the  application  of  putrescent  manure, 
has  not  been  submitted  to  practice.  It  is  always  for 
the  interest  of  practice,  however,  to  listen  attentively 
to  the  suggestions  of  science.  One  of  these  sugges- 
tions as  a  rule  to  try  the  value  of  all  sorts  of  manures, 
is,  that  they  shall  be  judged  by  the  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  humic  acid  they  contain  or  may 
evolve  after  they  have  been  applied,  and  also  by  the 
quantity  of  water  "which  they  are  able  to  take  up 
and  retain.  The  rule,  when  confined  to  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  water,  was  supposed  to  lead  to  a  cor- 


rect view  of  the  subject,  independently  of  ascertain- 
ing the  proportion  of  humic  acid.  But  when  the 
rule  was  confined  to  these  substances  before  the  dis- 
covery of  the  importance  of  the  humic  acid,  we  see 
the  errors  which  even  men  of  science  fell  into. 
Knowing  now  the  effects  of  the  important  principle 
of  humic  acid,  it  ought  to  be  strictly  retained  as  a 
term  in  the  rule ;  because,  were  the  ability  to  retain 
water  alone  taken  as  a  test,  bog  earth,  the  most 
sterile  substance  in  an  undecomposed  state,  might 
be  decided  to  be  the  best  of  all  manures  ;  and  were 
the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas  alone  taken  as  a 
test,  chalk  should  be  an  excellent  man\ire,  and  so  it 
would  always  be,  could  it  be  brought  to  take  up  and 
retain  enough  of  water  to  dissolve  a  portion  of  it, 
which  it  can  do  by  means  of  the  humic  acid.  Now, 
let  us  apply  these  texts  to  rotten  dung.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  rotten  dung  is  very  much  supe- 
rior in  imbibing  and  retaining  water,  to  what  is 
fresh,  unfermented,  or  beginning  to  ferment.  A 
simple  experiment  can  easily  prove  this  to  those 
who  doubt  the  fact.  "  With  respect  to  carbonic 
acid  gas,  humic  acid,  and  the  minor  materials  of  the 
food  of  plants,"  says  a  recent  author,  "  there  can  be 
as  little  doubt  of  the  superiority  of  rotten  dung, 
which  is,  in  fact,  in  a  state  very  nearly  approaching 
to  the  best  leaf  mould  or  virgin  loam,  and  though  a 
weighed  quantity  of  fresh  dung  certainly  will  yield 
more  carbonic  acid  gas  than  when  this  same  quan- 
tity is  allowed  to  ferment  and  rot,  in  consequence 
of  much  of  it  being  given  off  during  these  pro- 
cesses, yet  the  weighed  quantity  of  fresh  dung  will 
bear  no  comparison  in  this  respect  with  rotted  dung. 
The  quantity  of  humic  acid  is  very  considerably 
greater  in  rotted  dung.  Hence,  in  treating  in  future 
of  all  putrescent  manures,  the  very  important  effects 
of  the  humic  acid  must  never  be  overlooked." 


ON  CONVERTING  A  LEY  FIELD  INTO  A  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 


BY    MARTIN    DOYLE,    OF    BALLYORLEY.* 


In  the  late  editions  of  my  "  Hints  to  Small  Farmers" 
there  is  a  brief  detail  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Radcliff's 
modes  of  sod  banking,  which,  as  it  may  be  new  to 
many  readers  of  this  Magazine,  I  shall  now  beg 
leave  to  restate : 

"  We  lightly  ploughed  half  anacreof  old  grassland, 
and  employed  boys  and  girls  to  collect  the  sods  into 
banks,  twenty  yards  asunder,  by  which  the  expense 
of  car  work  was  saved  When  this  was  done,  the 
spaces  between  those  banks  >vere  ploughed,  and 
drills  being  formed,  he  gave  the  usual  allowance  of 
manure,  and  planted  potatoes  in  them ;  then  that 
the  banks  (which  were  twelve  feet  in  breadth, 
and  two  feet  and  a  half  in  depth)  might  not 
be  unproductive,  he  had  them  also  planted  with 
potatoes   in  the    Munster   f  shion,  taking  care  to 


cover  them  sufficiently  from  furrows  at  each  side  of 
the  bank." — "  The  general  advantages  to  be  ob- 
tained from  this  plan,  Mr.  Radcliff  states  to  be  (and, 
in  his  opinion,  he  is  strongly  supported  by  the  flatter- 
ing approbation  of  the  veteran  agriculturist.  Sir  John 
Sinclair)  the  collecting  on  the  spot  a  great  quantity 
of  the  choicest  manure,  producing  valuable  crops ; 
while  it  is  rotting,  the  clearing  of  the  land  from 
weeds,  the  saving  of  a  ploughing  to  one  sixth  part 
of  itself,  and  the  bringing  into  action  a  body  of  fresh 
earth,  enriched  by  manures  washed  into  it  during  the 
preceding  years." 

The  following  circumstances  have  subsequently 
led  me  to  perceive  the  particular  excellence  of  this 
process,  as  applied  to  a  garden  : 

One  of  my  daughters,  about  two  years  and  a  half 


*  From  the  Irish  Farmer's  and  Gardener's  Mag. 


54 


ON  KITCHEN  GARDENING. 


ago,  married  a  person  of  my  own  line  of  life,  but 
more  of  a  grazier  than  a  general  agriculturist,  such 
as  I  am  pretty  well  known  to  be.  On  going  to 
the  house  of  her  husl;and,  she  found  that  he,  like 
many  men  of  his  cl  ss,  neither  knew  nor  cared  much 
about  a  garden.  His  small  patch  of  parsnips  and 
cabbages — the  only  vegetables  which  he  cultivated — 
were  usually  sown  and  planted  in  the  corner  of  his 
haggard,  or  in  the  headland  of  a  potatoe  field. 
Kitty  (mydaughter)  was  exceedingly  disgruntled  at 
this  obvious  deficiency  ;  and  having  inherited  from. 
Mrs.  Doyle  and  me,  a  fondness  for  the  pleasures  and 
comforts  of  a  garden,  determined  with  her  husband's 
acquiescence,  to  form  one,  and  I  was,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  consulted. 

Their  house  stands  at  one  end  of  a  well  enclosed 
field,  about  an  acre  in  extent — at  that  lime  (March 
1831)  covered  with  a  rank  grassy  sod.  Mr.  Kelly, 
my  son-in-law,  proposed  the  immediate  breaking  up 
of  this  luxuriant  ley  for  lazy  bed  potatoes,  as  a  good 
preparation  for  a  kitchen  garden  ;  but  his  plan  neces- 
s.rily  required  twelve  months  for  actual  effect;  and, 
therefore,  was  uncalculated  to  satisfy  Kitty's  im- 
patience. My  advice  to  proceed  immediately  on 
Mj-.  Radcliff's  plan,  as  given  in  my  "  Hints,"  was 
received,  and  instantly  acted  on.  The  various  pnd 
successive  operations  of  ploughing,  gathering,  and 
banking,  were  soon  executed  ;  and  never,  I  believe, 
with  better  result.  I  shall  state  the  minute  par- 
ticulars. After  the  abstraction  of  the  vegetable  sur- 
face, the  soil  proved  to  be,  in  many  places,  especially 
near  the  house,  fourteen  inches  in  depth,  and  not 
less  than  nine  inches,  except  in  one  portion  about 
half  a  rood)  where  the  extreme  shallowness  of  earth 
made  me  regret  the  spoliation  of  its  upper  covering. 
The  banks  (powdered  lime  having  been  scattered 
through  them  in  the  course  of  their  formation) 
were  well  planted  with  potatoes,  put  in,  according 
to  the  Munster  fashion,  with  the  back  of  the  spade, 
and  the  intervals  well  manured  and  well  dug,  occu- 
pied with  cabbages,  cavdiflowers,  parsnips,  carrots, 
artichokes,  lettuces,  &c.  &c.,  which  succeeded  per- 
fectly, affording  much  more  than  an  adequate  sup- 
ply for  the  master  and  mistress.  As  may  be  sup- 
posed, the  potatoes  in  the  banks  were  most  luxuri  nt, 
probably  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  barrels  per 
acre. 

But  it  was  in  the  succeeding  year  that  the  supe- 
riority of  this  mode  of  management  became  remark- 
al)le.  The  banks  after  two  or  three  perfect  diggings, 
and  exposure  to  the  winter's  frost,  became,  with  an 
application  of  a  moderate  quantity  of  rotten  dung, 
-critically  suited  to  the  asparagus  and  sea  kale  plants, 


which  soon  took  root  and  flourished.  Portions  of 
the  banks  were  thus  appropriated,  and  the  remaining 
parts  of  them,  under  similar  treatment,  were  occu- 
pied by  carrots,  parsnips,  mangel  wurzel,  white 
beet,  and  magnificent  celery.  The  intervals,  as  in  the 
former  years,  were  filled  with  cabbages,  cauliflowers, 
turnips,  brocoli,  and  artichokes.  In  short,  a  greater 
proportion  of  vegetables  (exceptin  the  particular  spot 
already  noticed  for  its  shallowness  of  earth)  never 
grew  on  the  same  space  of  ground,  and  there  the 
crops  were  imdoubtedly  bad.  But  a  whim  of 
Kitty's  led  to  the  remedy  of  this  deficiency;  she 
took  it  into  her  head  (and  very  properly)  to  have  an 
Italianated  grass  garden,  on  a  small  scale,  for  flower- 
ing shrubs  and  showy  flowers,  and  this  ornamental 
ground  she  desired  to  have  near  the  parlour  windows 
in  the  said  field,  and  on  the  very  spot  where  her 
husband's  calves  used  to  caper,  and  his  dirty  noisy 
geese  used  to  waddle.  To  gratify  her  longings,  my 
son-in-law  fist  rolled  aM'ay  (I  mean  by  deputy)  in 
wheelbarrows,  from  each  of  the  four  parallel  banks, 
(which  met  the  house  at  right  angles)  about  twenty 
yards  of  their  component  matter,  leaving  at  the 
bottom  of  each  merely  enough  of  stuff  to  form  half  a 
dozen  fancifully  shaped  beds,  for  the  reception  of 
shrub.s,  so  arranged  as  to  conceal,  in  a  very  few 
years,  the  kitchen  garden  beyond.  The  rich  com- 
post of  rotten  sods  removed  to  the  poor  patcli,  was 
laid  on  veiy  thickly,  at  least  six  inches  in  depth,  and 
has,  consequently,  rendered  that  spot  most  produc- 
tive. 

A  neighbouring  market  will  always  afford  a  ready 
and  profitable  channel  for  the  sale  of  the  vegetables, 
which  this  family  cannot  consume. 

The  portions  of  the  banks  which  are  not  per 
manently  devoted  to  the  production  of  asparagus 
and  sea  kale  will  be  gradually  transferred,  as  occa- 
sion may  require,  to  the  intervals,  rendering  them 
also  extremely  rich,  and  productive  of  the  more 
valuable  kinds  of  kitchen  vegetables,  onions,  cauli- 
flowers, &c.,  with  appropriate  diversions  for  fruit 
trees.  The  soil  in  the  parts  of  the  ornamental  patch, 
which  has  been  covered  with  thin  mountain  turf, 
was  previously  shovelled  off  evenly,  and  added  to 
the  earth  whicli  forms  the  beds  for  the  flowers  and 
shrubs,  so  there  is  no  particles  wasted. 

I  cannot  imagine  a  better  mode  of  forming  a  new 
garden,  under  similar  circumstances,  and  I  strongly 
recommend  its  adoption,  especially  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  cities,  where  seedsmen  and  gardners  have 
frequently  occasion  to  transmute  turf  (ley)  into  gar- 
den and  nursery  soil. 


55 


CATECHISM  OF  GARDENING. 


BY  MR.  MAIN. 


In  the  Biltish  Farmer's  Magazine,  Mr.  Main,  of 
Chelsea,  well  known  to  our  readers  as  a  practical 
man  of  extensive  and  soimd  experience,  has  com- 
menced to  give  in  detached  portions  a  catechism 
of  gardening,  which  we  are  given  to  understand  is 
to  be  published  separately,  as  soon  as  completed.  If 
this  intention  is  carried  out,  we  hope  for  the  sake 
both  of  the  author  and  of  the  public,  that  all  the 
questions  will  be  cancelled ;  for  amongst  all  the  cate- 
chisms which  we  have  ever  seen  constructed  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  simplification,  this  is  decidedly 
the  greatest  failure.  It  does  not  simplify  one  jot, 
while  the  questions  lumber  the  page,  increase  the 
expense  of  printing,  and,  worse  than  all,  they  ever 
and  anon  break  up  the  continuity  of  the  author's 
excellent  practical  statements  as  much  as  Uncle  To- 
by's Lillcbidlero  would  do  an  anthem  of  Handel's, 
and  as  offensively  to  our  taste  as  a  drain  from  a 
dunghill  would  be  if  carried  right  through  a  parterre 
of  flowers.  We  therefore  advise  the  author,  if  he 
have  any  wish  for  the  success  of  his  little  work 
when  published  separately,  to  recast  the  whole,  and 
leave  out  every  one  of  the  bungling  questions,  when 
it  will,  from  its  high  practical  character,  be  quite 
certain  to  sell  largely.  That  our  readers  may  see 
we  have  given  a  just  opinion  of  the  merits  of  the 
production,  every  way  creditable  to  Mr.  Main,  ex- 
cept in  the  stumbling  blocks  above  said,  we  shall 
give  his  fourth  chapter  entire. 

On  "  The  Cultivation  of  Leaves  and  Leafstalks." 

Q.  You  have  now  to  enumerate  and  describe  the 
leaves  and  leaf-stalks  used  as  food  :  what  are  they  ? 

A.  All  the  cabbage  tribe,  lettuce,  endive,  spinach, 
white-beet,  celery,  cardoon,  rhubarb,  lambs  lettuce, 
sorrel,  parsley,  mustard,  cress,  and  watercress. 

Q.  What  concerning  the  cabbage  ? 

A.  The  principal  and  most  useful  varieties  are, 
the  early  York  and  early  dwarf,  for  first  crops  ;  Bat- 
tersea  and  sugarloaf  for  latter  supplies ;  the  small 
red  for  pickling ;  and  the  drumhead  and  large  red 
for  field  culture.  The  early  Battersea  is_an  excellent 
sort  for  cottagers. 

Q.  At  what  seasons  should  cabbage  be  sowed  ? 

A.  For  the  principal  spring  crop  the  seed  should 
be  sowed  sometime  between  the  25th  of  July  and  8th 
of  August.  If  sowed  before  that  time,  many  of  the 
plants  run  to  seed  without  heading ;  and  if  later, 
they  do  not  come  in  soon  enough  for  the  table. 

Q.  Is  not  cabbage  seed  sowed  at  other  times  ? 

A.  Yes ;  as  a  succession  should  be  constantly 
coming  in  all  the  summer,  another  seed-bed  is  sowed 
in  September,  and  again  in  April  and  June,  from 


which  sowings  young  plants  may  be  had  to  keep  a 
supply  the  year  round. 

Q.   How  are  the  seed  beds  made  ? 

A.  An  open  spot  or  border  is  chosen,  well  ma- 
nured and  digged  ;  the  seed  is  scattered  regularly, 
firmly  trodden  in  and  raked  smooth.  As  the  seed- 
lings rise  they  must  be  guarded  from  birds,  and 
kept  free  from  weeds. 

Q.  Is  it  necessary  to  transplant  the  seedlings  to 
a  nursery  bed  ? 

A.  As  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  plants  of  what 
is  called  a  stocky,  i.  e.  a  stout,  low  habit,  it  is  good 
management  to  prick  out  all  the  strongest  into  a 
fresh  ijed,  not  only  that  they  may  have  ample  room 
to  spread  their  leaves,  but  because  the  underlings  in 
the  seed  bed  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  their  re- 
moval. 

Q.  How  is  this  part  of  the  business  done  ? 

A.  There  are  two  modes  practised.  The  first  is- 
to  prepare  a  bed  thiice  the  size  of  the  seed-bed  ;  on 
this  the  largest  of  the  seedjings  are  carefully  dibbed, 
four  or  five  inches  apart ;  here  they  stand  to  gain 
strength  till  they  are  finally  planted  out  in  October. 

Q.  What  is  the  other  method  ? 

A.  The  ground  (or  part  of  it)  intended  for  the 
principal  crop  of  cabbage  is  got  ready  soon  as  the 
seedlings  are  fit  to  prick  out.  Here  they  are  placed 
in  rows  twice  as  thick  as  they  should  ultimately 
stand — say  in  rows  ten  inches  asunder,  and  the 
plants  seven  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  About  the 
,5th  of  October,  all  the  ground  being  prepared  for 
the  reception  of  the  supernumeraries,  each  interme- 
diate row,  and  each  intermediate  plant  in  the  stand- 
ing rows,  are  transferred  to  their  proper  places  on 
the  vacant  ground,  to  complete  the  plantation. 

Q.  Is  there  any  other  way  of  raising  cabbage  ? 

A.  Yes.  Some  curious  persons  sow  the  seed 
thinly  in  drills,  and,  when  the  plants  are  fairly  up, 
thin  them  to  five  inch  distances ;  by  which  treat- 
ment they  grow  strongly,  and  are  in  excellent  con- 
dition to  be  finally  set  out  in  October  ;  but  this  is  a 
refinement  in  the  cultivation  which  is  not  absolutely 
necessary. 

Q.  What  is  the  general  management  and  its 
effects  on  a  plantation  of  cabbage  ? 

A.  The  bulk,  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  crop 
varies  with  the  character  of  the  soil.  In  light, 
sandy,  and  moderately  rich  ground,  cabbage  are 
earlier,  and  sweeter  in  flavour,  though  yielding 
smaller  heads;  of  course,  in  very  rich  land  (and 
all  the  tribe  require  rich  land)  the  crop  is  somewhat 
later  and  correspondingly  larger.  But  in  any  ground, 
in  good  heart,  if  well  digged  and  prepared,  a  crop  sel- 


56 


CATECHISM  OF  GARDENING. 


dom  fails  if  the  plants  are  hoed  among  and  properly 
earthed  up. 

Q.  What  are  the  usual  distances  at  which  cab- 
bage are  planted  ? 

A.  The  smaller  early  sorts  may  be  planted  in 
rows  eighteen  inches  asunder,  and  twelve  inches 
apart  in  the  row ;  the  larger  sorts  should  have  two 
feet  intervals  between  the  rows,  and  eighteen  inches 
distances  from  plant  to  plant.  The  planting  may 
be  done  as  the  digging  proceeds,  which  saves  break- 
ing the  ground ;  or  first  digged  and  planted  after- 
wards. 

Q.  What  precautions  are  necessary  in  transplant- 
ing cabbages? 

A.  That  the  plants  may  be  carefully  taken  up ; 
long  straggling  roots  may  be  shortened ;  and  should 
the  maggot  have  seized  the  root  or  stem,  the  tu- 
bercles must  be  paired  off.  In  dibbing  or  planting 
with  the  trowel,  the  plants  should  be  let  in  up  to 
their  lower  leaves,  and  made  perfectly  firm  in  their 
new  place.  If  the  ground  or  weather  be  dry,  give 
each  a  little  water. 

Q.  What  is  the  maggot  you  mention  ? 

A.  It  is  a  fly,  or  beetle,  which  deposits  her  eggs 
within  the  cuticle  of  the  lower  part  of  the  stem, 
causing  deformities  called  "  clubbing"  by  garden- 
ers, and  "  fingers  and  toes"  by  farmers. 

Q.  Is  there  any  preventive  against  this  insect? 

A.  It  is  found  tliat  soap-boilers  waste  is  useful ; 
and  probably,  were  the  seed  beds  occasionally 
watered  with  soap-suds,  the  parent  fly  might  be 
deterred  laying  her  eggs  on  the  plants.  Some  gar- 
deners make  a  puddle  of  earth,  soot,  and  lime,  with 
which  the  roots  are  smeared  before  planting,  but 
this  not  always  effectual. 

Q.  Wien  are  the  autumn  planted  cabbages  fit 
for  use  ? 

A.  Generally  about  the  beginning  of  May  fol- 
lowing. The  forwardest  are  tied  up  like  lettuce, 
which  serves  to  whiten  the  heart.  If  the  plants  be 
true  in  kind,  and  have  had  equal  treatment,  many 
come  in  together;  in  which  case,  a  good  plan  in 
using  them  is  not  to  cut  one  here  and  there,  but  to 
begin  at  one  side,  taking  row  after  row,  till  the 
whole  is  used.  The  advantage  of  this,  in  a  little 
garden,  is,  that  as  soon  as  one  row  is  cleared,  the 
ground  may  be  immediately  re-cropped. 

Q.  And  how  is  the  summer  supply  continued  ? 

A.  By  a  succession  crop  from  the  seed  bed  sowed 
in  September,  and  again  from  those  sowed  in  April ; 
from  the  last  of  which  plants  may  be  had  to  serve 
till  winter. 

Q.  Are  any  later  sowings  made  ? 

A.  Yes.  A  seed  bed  is  sowed  in  June,  to  raise 
what  are  called  coleworts,  or  open  cabbage,  during 
autumn  and  winter. 

Q.  Are  red  cibbages  sowed  and  cultivated  in  the 
same  way  ? 

A.  Yes:  nearly  so.     Sow  in  August  for  the  sum- 


mer supply :  and  again  at  the  end  of  March  for 
winter  service.  Red  cabbage  require  more  room  than 
other  sorts,  and  do  best  in  single  rows  ;  as  in  the 
alleys  of  other  low  crops.  Though  seldom  used  in 
cottages,  the  cottager  should  always  have  a  few,  as 
they  meet  ready  sale  in  market  towns. 

Q.  WTiat  are  those  greens,  of  which  so  many  are 
sold  in  the  London  market,  called  plants  ? 

A.  Young  cabbage,  or  coleworts,  sowed  and 
planted  out  at  any  time  of  the  year,  and  pulled  for 
sale  just  before  or  after  they  begin  to  form  heads. 
If  quickly  growed,  they  are  preferred  to  headed  cab- 
bage, being  more  mild  in  flavour. 

Q.  Which  is  the  next  variety  of  this  tribe  deserv- 
ing notice  ? 

A.  The  savoy  :  as  being  hardy  and  useful,  parti- 
cularly in  winter ;  indeed,  it  is  said  they  are  im- 
proved by  frost.  For  a  principal  crop,  the  seed 
should  be  sowed  about  the  middle  of  April.  Defend 
the  seedlings  from  birds  ;  and  prick  them  out  into 
nursery  beds, if  there  be  time  and  opportunity.  At 
the  beginning"  of  July  they  may  be  transplanted  out 
for  good,  on  well  digged  or  trenched  rich  ground,  in 
rows  two  feet  apart,  the  plants  being  dibbed  at  six- 
teen-inch  distances  in  the  row. 

Q.  Are  there  different  varieties  of  the  savoy  ? 

A.  There  are  three — the  green,  the  dwarf,  and 
the  large  yellow  ;  the  first  is  the  most  delicate,  but 
the  last  is  preferred  for  the  main  crop. 

Q.  What  is  borecole  ? 

A.  A  svilwariety  of  the  cabbage,  commonly  called 
Scotch  kail,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds,  as  the 
tall  and  dwarf  green,  the  brown,  the  Jerusalem,  the 
Buda,  &c.  All  are  hardy,  and  well  worth  a  place  in 
every  garden  ;  not  so  much  for  the  principal  heads  as 
for  the  great  number  of  sprouts  which  rise  in  succes- 
sion from  the  stem.  Woburn  kail  is  a  distinct 
variety,  being  a  perennial,  and  propagated  by  cut- 
tings from  the  old  stool  planted  in  spring. 

Q.  What  are  Brussel  sprouts  ? 

A.  A  sub-variety  of  the  Savoy;  the  head  is  incon- 
siderable ;  but  from  the  stem  come  forth  a  vast  num- 
ber of  little  compact  heads  of  excellent  quality,  and 
for  which  the  plant  is  chiefly  cultivated.  This,  and 
all  the  sorts  of  kail  are  raised  from  seed,  sowed  about 
the  20th  of  April,  and  transplanted  into  good  rich 
soil,  and  afterwards  managed  like  cabbage. 

Q.  What  have  you  to  state  relative  to  lettuce  ? 

A.  It  is  one  of  our  principal  sallad  herbs :  pleasant, 
sanative,  and  easy  of  culture.  As  lettuce  soon  runs 
to  seed ;  it  requires  to  be  frequently  sowed  in  the 
summer  months.  For  the  earliest  spring  supply, 
seed  beds  are  sowed  in  August ;  whence  a  part  of 
the  plants  may  be  removed  in  October  into  frames, 
or  to  some  warm  dry  situation,  where  they  may  be 
sheltered  from  the  north  and  east  winds,  and  be 
occasionally  covered  with  mats,  dry  fern,  or  branches 
of  evergreen  trees  during  severe  frost. 

Q.  Do  you  call  these  the  principal  crop  ? 


CATECHISM    OF    GARDENING. 


57 


A.  No.  The  principal  crop  for  summer  use,  is 
sowed  as  early  in  the  year  as  the  weather  will  per- 
mit, or  in  frames  under  glass,  from  whence  they  are 
planted  out  for  good,  when  the  leaves  are  about 
three  inches  long,  and  the  mild  spring  weather 
allows  the  tender  plants  to  be  set  abroad.  The  rows 
should  be  twelve  inches  asunder,  and  the  plants 
about  nine  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

Q.  What  is  further  to  be  observed  in  growing 
lettuce  ? 

A.  That  they  are  planted  on  very  rich  ground, 
which  should  be  frequently  hoed,  and  when  the 
plants  have  nearly  attained  full  size,  the  forwardest 
should  be  tied  up  to  assist  the  whitening  the  heart. 
Sometimes  this  crop  is  sowed  thinly  in  shallow  drills  ; 
the  supernumeraries  are  drawn  for  transplanting, 
which  prolongs  the  supply  from  one  sowing. 

Q.  Is  it  not  usual  to  sow  lettuce  with  other 
crops  ? 

A.  Yes ;  both  the  coss  and  cabbage  are  sowed 
with  spinach,  in  August,  and  the  former  among 
onions  in  March.  Those  sowed  among  spinach  are 
intended  for  transplantation  if  they  survive  the 
winter,  and  those  raised  among  onions,  are  drawn 
for  use  as  soon  as  fit,  or  when  they  damage  the 
onions. 

Q.  How  many  sorts  of  lettuce  are  cultivated  ? 

A.  About  twenty  varieties ;  but  the  hardy  white, 
hardy  green,  green  and  Egyptian  coss  kinds,  are  the 
best  for  connnon  use.  The  brown  Dutch,  common 
white,  and  grand  admirable  cabbage  sorts,  are  pre- 
ferred for  kitchen  use.  All  are  used  as  salad  herbs 
in  every  stage  of  their  growth  ;  but  the  larger  and 
whiter  hearted  the  coss  varieties  are,  the  more  they 
are  prized. 

Q.    Is  not  endive  allied  to  lettuce  ? 

A.  No ;  notwithstanding  their  properties  and  uses 
are  alike.  Endive  is  less  crisp,  and  more  bitter  than 
lettuce ;  but  it  is  capable  of  being  beautifully 
blanched,  and  thereby  becomes  palatable;  it  is  also 
more  hardy  than  lettuce,  and  therefore,  is  chiefly 
vised  in  the  winter  months. 

Q.  When  shovild  endive  be  sowed  ? 

A.  If  sowed  early  in  the  year,  the  plants  soon  run 
to  seed.  The  middle  of  the  months  of  June,  July, 
August,  and  Septeinber,  are  the  proper  seasons  for 
sowing,  in  order  to  have  a  full  supply  through  the 


autumn,  winter,  and  spring.  Whether  the  plants 
remain  in  the  seed  bed,  or  are  transplanted  in  rows 
into  fresh  beds,  they  req\iire  at  least,  twelve-inch 
spaces,  as  the  leaves  spread  widely  and  close  to  the 
ground. 

Q.  How  is  it  blanched  ? 

A.  By  tying  the  leaves  together  like  lettuce,  or  by 
earthing  up  the  full  grown  plants  with  dry  soil,  or  by 
placing  them  during  the  month  of  October  in  raised 
beds  of  dry  sand,  the  leaves  gathered  up  and  laid 
close  together,  to  be  guarded  against  rain  and  frost 
by  mats  or  frames,  or  they  may  be  stored  in  sheds. 
As  sallad  herbs  form  no  part  of  the  cottager's  fare 
during  winter,  endive  is  of  little  value  in  his  gar- 
den. There  are  four  varieties  of  this  plant ;  the 
white  curled  and  the  white  Batavian  being  the  most 
desirable. 

Q.  Mliat  is  the  use  and  culture  of  spinach  ? 

A.  The  leaves  are  a  delicate  green,  and  much 
used  in  superior  cookery.  Where  a  constant  supply 
is  wanted,  the  round-leaved  variety  is  sowed  on 
large  beds  broad  cast  or  in  drills,  monthly  from 
January  until  August.  The  seed  is  well  trodden 
before  the  ground  is  raked.  When  the  seedlings 
are  an  inch  or  two  high,  they  should  be  hoed  to  five 
inch  distances,  and  kept  always  free  from  weeds. 

Q.  Is  there  not  another  variety  ? 

A.  Yes,  the  prickly  seeded  of  which  the  prin- 
cipal and  largest  sowing  is  made  about  the  10th  of 
August.  This  yields  the  winter  and  spring  supply, 
the  leaves  being  repeatedly  picked  or  cut  from  the 
plants.  Even  to  the  cottager,  a  bed  of  spinach  may 
be  profitable,  as  it  is  a  pleasant  addition  to  the  rasher 
when  turnip-tops  are  scarce,  or  before  the  cabbage 
comes  in. 

Q.  Are  there  any  other  spinacious  plants  ? 

A.  Yes,  there  are  two ;  viz.,  the  New  Zealand 
spinach  and  the  white  beet.  The  first  is  only  culti- 
vated in  gentlemen's  gardens,  and  managed  much 
as  ridged  cucumbers  are  ;  though  if  sowed  in  May, 
in  the  open  ground,  and  allowed  to  ripen  and  shed 
its  seed,  which  it  will  do  in  autumn,  plants  will  come 
up  plentifully  in  the  following  summer.  The  second 
is  a  substitute  for  spinach  when  nothing  better  can 
be  had.  Ten  or  twelve  good  seeds  of  the  white 
beet,  dropped  in  a  drill,  on  well  manured  ground, 
are  sufficient  for  a  small  garden. 


ON  NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX.* 


This  highly  useful  plant  is  one  of  the  many  im- 
portant discoveries  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the 
late  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  who  says,  in  Cook's  First 
Voyage,  when  speaking  of  the  productions  of  New 
Zealand, 

"  But  among  all  the  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants  of  this 


country,  there  is  not  one  that  produces  fruit  except 
a  berry  which  has  neither  sweetness  or  flavour,  and 
which  none  but  the  boys  took  pains  to  gather,  should 
be  honoured  with  that  appellation.  There  is,  how- 
ever a  plant,  that  serves  the  inhabitants  instead  of 
hemp  and  flax,  which  excels  all  that  are  put  to  the 


*  From  Ciu-tis's  Botanical  Magazine. 
MAGAZINE  or  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL  II.  NO.  XIII. APRIL,  1834 


58 


ON    NEW   ZEALAND    FLAX. 


same  purpose  in  other  countries.  Of  this  plant  there 
are  two  sorts ;  the  leaves  resemble  those  of  flags, 
but  the  flowers  are  smaller,  and  their  clusters  more 
numerous  ;  in  one  kind  they  ate  yellow,  and  in  the 
other,  a  deep  red.  From  the  leaves  of  these  plants, 
with  very  little  preparation,  the  natives  make  all 
their  common  apparel,  and  they  also  manufacture 
their  strings,  lines,  and  cordage  for  every  purpose, 
which  are  so  much  stronger  than  any  thing  we  can 
make  with  hemp,  that  they  will  not  bear  a  compa- 
rison. From  the  same  jjlant,  by  another  process, 
they  draw  long  slender  fibres,  which  shine  like  silk, 
and  are  as  white  as  snow  :  of  these,  which  are  also 
suprisingly  strong,  the  finest  cloths  are  composed  ; 
while  of  the  leaves,  without  any  other  preparation 
than  splitting  them  into  proper  breadths  and  tying 
the  strips  together,  they  make  their  fishing  nets, 
some  of  which  are  of  an  enormous  size.  A  plant, 
which,  with  such  advantages  might  be  applied  to  so 
many  useful  and  important  purposes,  would  certainly 
be  a  great  acquisition  to  England,  where  it  would 
probably  thrive  with  very  little  trouble,  as  it  seerrs 
to  be  hardy,  and  to  aff'ect  no  particular  soil,  being 
found  equally  in  hill  and  valley,  in  the  driest  mould 
and  in  the  deepest  bogs.  The  bog,  however  it  seems 
rather  to  prefer,  as  near  such  places  we  found  it  to 
be  larger  than  elsewhere." 

The  seeds  brought  home  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  in 
1771  did  not  succeed,  but  the  New  Zealand  flax  was 
introduced  to  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew,  through  the 
medium  of  the  same  enlightened  individual,  in 
1789,  and  thence  has  been  liberally  distributed  to 
collections  in  our  own  country  and  upon  the  Con- 
tinent. By  Mr.  Actors  it  was  sent  to  the  gardens 
of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris  in 
1800;  and  in  that  country  it  has,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  nature  of  the  climate  in  many  of 
the  districts,  been  cultivated  in  the  open  air,  and  for 
the  first  time,  it  produced  flowers  in  the  department 
of  Drome,  in  1812,  but  it  bore  no  fruit.  Messrs. 
Labillardiere,  Faujas  de  St.  Fond,  Desfontaines, 
and  Freyconet  have  devoted  mvich  attention  to  the 
cultivation  and  to  the  manufacture  of  this  plant.  It 
has  even  withstood  the  severe  winters  of  Paris  ;  but 
in  the  south  of  France  it  has  been  propagated  with 
considerable  success,  and  survived  the  winters 
without  the  smallest  protection.  In  the  department 
of  the  west,  particularly  in  the  environs  of  Cher- 
bourg, it  has  perfectly  succeeded  and  yielded  ripe 
fruit.  It  is  readily  increased  too,  by  dividing  the 
roots.  M.  Faujas  de  St.  Fond,  gives  the  following 
mode  of  dividing  the  fibre.  He  dissolves  three 
pounds  of  soap  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  toge- 
ther with  twenty-five  pounds  weight  of  the  split 
leaves  of  the  Phormium  tied  up  in  bundles  ;  all  are 
then  boiled  during  the  space  of  five  hours,  until  the 
leaves  are  deprived  of  a  tenacious  gluten,  and  of  the 
gum  resin,  but  which  is  not  removed  by  the  ordinary 
process  employed  in  the  preparation  of  hemp  :  after 


which  they  are  carefully  washed  in  nmning  water. 

From  the  experiments  of  M.  Labillardiere,  the 
strength  of  the  fibre  of  this  plant,  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  Agave  Americana,  flax,  hemp,  and  silk 
is  as  follows  :  the  fibre  of  the  agave  breaks  under  a 
weight  of  7  ;  flax,  of  11 1 ;  hemp,  of  1 6| ;  phormium, 
23-7-1  Iths  ;  and  silk  of  24.  Thus  it  appears,  that  of 
all  vegetable  fibre,  that  of  phormium  is  the  strongest. 
It  possesses,  too,  this  further  advantage  over  hemp 
and  flax,  according  to  the  French  authors,  that  it  is 
of  a  brilliant  vs^hiteness,  which  gives  it  a  satiny  ap- 
pearance, so  that  the  cloths  made  of  it  do  not  need 
to  be  bleached  by  a  tedious  process,  or  through  those 
other  means,  by  which  the  quality  of  hemp  and  flax 
is  much  injured. 

There  scarcely  can  be  a  question,  seeing  that 
the  phormium  tenax  has  succeeded  remarkably 
well  in  the  open  air  of  Invernesshire,  Scotland, 
(apparently  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea,) 
without  any  shelter  in  the  winter,  and  without 
even  the  protection  of  a  wall,  that  the  opinion  ex- 
pressed by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  of  the  suitableness  of 
the   English  climate  to  it,  is  well  founded.     Indeed, 

we  know  that  the  late Yates,  Esq.  of  Salcombe, 

Devonshire  did  cultivate  this  plant  upon  a  rather 
extensive  scale,  and  made  preparations  for  con- 
verting it  into  thread,  which  his  sudden  death  pre- 
vented him  from  carrying  into  effect.  The  south  of 
Ireland  would  in  all  probability  be  found  to  be  well 
suited  to  its  growth  and  increase. 

The  phormium  tenax  is  indigenous  to  the  islands 
of  New  Zealand.  On  the  northernmost  of  the  islands, 
which  has  been  traversed  almost  in  every  direction 
by  Europeans,  it  is  found  in  greater  or  less  abund- 
ance, as  well  as  on  the  immediate  coasts  in  low 
situations,  subject  to  be  overflowed  by  the  tide,  as  in 
the  inland  county,  generally  in  grounds  more  or  less 
swampy. 

Extensively  diffused  as  this  valuable  plant  is  over 
the  surface  of  the  island,  it  is  along  the  western 
coast,  to  the  southward  of  the  parallel  of  35  degrees, 
and  in  Cook's  Strait,  the  greatest  quantities  have 
been  found,  where  it  is  said  to  grow  in  fields  of  in- 
exhaustible extent.  The  indigenous  growth  of  the 
phormium  is  not  limited  simply  to  New  Zealand, 
for  it  was  long  ago  discovered  in  a  wild  state  at 
Norfolk  Island,  where  it  forms  long  tufts  along  the 
cliffs,  within  the  influence  of  the  salt  spray  rising 
from  the  heavy  surfs,  which  ever  and  anon  lash  the 
iron-bound  shores  of  that  small  but  truly  beautiful 
spot  of  the  Pacific. 

The  preparation  of  the  flax  for  their  own  use,  or 
for  exchange  with  Europeans,  is  effected  by  the  na- 
tive women,  and  their  method  of  separating  the 
silky  fibre  from  the  long  flag-like  leaf  of  the  plant, 
of  which  it  forms  the  under  surface,  appears  simple 
enough.  Holding  the  apex  of  a  recently  cut  leaf 
between  their  toes  they  make  a  transverse  section 
through  the  succulent  matter  at  the  end  with  a  shell 


ON  NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX. 


&9 


(which  they  still  employ  though  they  possess  every 
species  of  iron-edged  tool),  and  inserting  the  shell, 
(said  to  be  of  the  genus  Ostrea)  between  that  sub- 
stance and  the  fibre,  readily  effect  its  separation,  by 
drawing  the  shell  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
leaf.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  separation  is 
always  performed  by  those  people  when  the  vegeta- 
ble is  freshly  cut:  nor  has  the  attempts  of  Euro- 
peans to  extract  the  filaments  from  the  leaf  by  ma- 
ceration, been  at  all  successful :  the  experiments 
that  have  been  made  at  Sidney,  showing  that  '  the 
large  proportion  of  succulent  matters  (for  so  the 
failure  was  accounted  for)  rendered  it  impossible  to 
effect  the  separation  by  decomposition  in  water, 
without  materially  injuring  the  strength  of  the  fibre.' 

Simple  as  this  mode  appears  of  separating  the 
flax  from  the  leaf  by  a  shell  in  the  hands  of  those 
savages,  still  the  European  has  not  succeeded  in  his 
endeavours  to  prepare  the  fibre  for  himself,  either 
by  that,  or  any  other  means  that  have  been  tried ; 
nor  has  any  insti-ument  or  piece  of  machinery  yet  been 
invented  to  enable  him  to  strip  off,  and  prepare  this 
valuable  filament  for  the  English  market.  The  Port 
Jackson  traders  must  still  be  dependent  on  the  na- 
tive women  and  their  shells  for  the  cargoes  they 
obtain. 

The  flax  thus  obtained  from  the  natives  by  the 
merchants  of  Sidney,  undergoes  no  heckling,  clean- 
ing, or  other  preparation,  previous  to  its  being 
shipped  for  the  English  market :  but  is  merely  made 
into  bales,  by  being  put  into  a  press  and  screwed 
down.  It  is  manufactured  into  eveiy  species  of 
cordage,  except  cables,  and  Mr.  Bigge,  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Enquiry  to  New  South  Wales,  observes  in 
his  report,  pp.  52,  53,  that  its  superiority  of  strength 
to  the  hemp  of  the  Baltic,  has  been  attested,  both  by 
experiments  made  at  Sidney,  and  by  one  that  was 
effected  under  his  own  observation  in  the  King's 
Yard  at  Deptford" 

I  have  not  heard  that  canvas  has  been  made  of  it, 
but  my  correspondent  (a  merchant  from  Sidney, 
now  in  London)  informs  me,  that  a  person  has  been 
trying  it  in  table-cloths,  napkins,  &c.  but  with  what 
success  he  was  not  aware. 

For  many  years  past,  has  some  communications 
been  kept  up  by  individuals  residing  at  Port  Jack- 
son, with  the  natives  of  New  Zealand  ;  but  it  is  only 
of  late  that  the  trade  in  flax  has  been  found  to  be  a 
profitable  speculation.  Of  this,  the  merchants  of 
Hobart's  Town  and  Launceston,  in  Van  Dieman's 
Land,  are  now  fully  aware ;  and  having  had  their 
attention  turned  to  its  advantages,  they  are  begin- 
ning to  prosecute  it  with  ardour. 

I  may  here  remark,  that  at  the  period  (years  ago) 
when  the  trade  with  this  noble  race  of  savages  was 
first  opened  by  persons  of  courage  and  enterprise  at 
Port  Jackson,  axes,  knives,  and  other  edged  tools, 
together  with  beads  and  similar  ornaments,  were 
received  by  them  with  avidity  ;  but  now  they  will 


hardly  take  any  thing  in  exchange  but  arms  and 
amunition.  With  these  last  named  articles  the  peo- 
ple are  not  all  likely  to  be  satiated :  there  is  no 
danger  of  there  being  a  glut  of  muskets  and  gun- 
powder, to  stop  the  trade  in  flax  or  Cawdie  timber ; 
but  the  arms  must  be  of  a  superior,  or,  at  least,  of  a 
good  quality  :  for,  as  Mr.  Bushby,  in  his  paper  on 
New  Zealand  just  published,  with  other  authentic 
information  relative  to  New  South  Wales,  justly 
observes,  (p.  61)  '  Houghi,  the  late  chief  of  the  Bay 
of  Islands'  tribe,  could  bring  into  field  five  hundred 
warriors,  all  of  the  aristocratic  or  free  class,  armed 
with  muskets  ;  and  so  well  are  they  now  acquainted 
with  the  qualities  of  the  latter,  that  a  vessel  which 
lately  took  down  two  hundred  could  not  dispose  of 
them  on  any  terms,  because  the  locks  were  only 
single  bridled.  The  same  vessel  sold  a  ton  and  a 
half  of  gunpowder,  in  exchange  for  flax,  in  a  few 
days,  and  would  have  had  as  little  difiiculty  in  dis- 
posing of  the  muskets  had  they  been  of  a  better  de- 
scription. Although  most  of  the  chiefs  can  now 
muster  a  large  force  armed  with  muskets,  their 
avidity  to  add  to  their  armoury  has  undergone  no 
diminution ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  blankets, 
red  woollen  shirts,  and  other  warm  clothing,  to- 
bacco, and  sugar,  scarcely  any  other  article  of  English 
manufacture  or  merchandise  has,  as  yet,  any  attrac- 
tion for  them. 

To  what  extent  the  trade  in  flax  has  increased 
with  these  islanders  of  late,  (say,  since  1828,)  some 
idea  may  be  formed  from  the  following  facts.  Ac- 
cording to  the  statistical  return  of  New  South  Wales, 
for  the  year  1828,  New  Zealand  flax  to  the  extent  of 
sixty  tons,  and  valued  at  2,600/.  was  exported  from 
Sidney  to  England,  during  that  year;  whilst,  during 
1830,  (according  to  the  returns  taken  from  the  Cus- 
tom-House  books,)  the  quantities  stated  as  the  im- 
ports of  it  into  Sidney  for  the  English  market,  were 
eight  hundred  and  forty  one  tons ;  and  in  1831,  one 
thousand  and  sixty-two  tons.  Its  present  price  in 
London,  my  correspondent  informs  me,  may  be 
stated  from  15/.  to  25/.  per  ton,  much  depending  on 
its  quality,  and  the  clean  manner  in  which  it  is 
brought  into  market.  Some  doubts  have  been  en- 
tertained by  merchants  of  this  kind  of  trade  with 
the  New  Zealanders  being  likely  to  continue.  In 
reply  to  this  doubt,  my  friend  observes,  that  he, 
among  others,  considers  it  doubtful  at  present :  for 
as  the  demand  for  the  raw  commodity  as  introduced 
into  the  London  market,  is  not  considerable,  and  at 
the  public  sales  of  it  there  is  but  little  competition  ; 
few  houses  having  commenced  to  manufacture  it,  it 
may  hardly  fetch  a  remunerating  price.  But  when 
its  character  has  become  more  generally  known, 
than  it  at  present  is,  and  its  superiority  to  Baltic 
hemp  more  fully  ascertained  by  rope  manufacturers 
in  England,  the  demand  for  it  will  increase,  and  the 
price  improving,  will  induce  Sidney  merchants,  to 
hold  out  to  the  New  Zealand  chiefs  such  novel  and 

i2 


60 


ADAM,    THE    GARDENER. 


costly  temptations,  in  the  way  of  trade,  as  would 
ensure  the  continuance  of  their  exertions  in  prepar- 
ing the  flax  for  them,  in  which  it  has  been  said  they 
have  rather  relaxed  of  late,  because  they  are  deter- 
mined to  see  what  new  articles  of  use  or  ornament 
we  could  offer  them,  that  would  be  worthy  of  their 
acceptance,  other  than  muskets  and  gunpowder. 

I  will  close  my  remarks  on  the  sulaject  of  phor- 
mium,  and  the  communication  which  it,  and  other 
indigenous  productions  of  the  soil  of  New  Zealand, 
have  brought  about,  between  its  half  civilized  in- 
habitant and  the  European,  in  the  words  of  Mr. 
Busby,  in  the  page  just  referred  to.  "  This  inter- 
course (with  commercial  men)  claims  the  attention 
of  his  Majesty's  Ministers,  from  the  advantage  which 


could  not  fail  to  result  from  fostering  and  protecting 
a  trade,  that  is  calculated  to  open  a  very  considerable 
demand  for  British  manufactures  ;  and  to  yield,  in 
return,  an  article  of  raw  produce,  not  only  valuable 
to  England  as  a  manufacturing  country,  but  indis- 
pensal)le  to  her  greatness  as  a  maritime  power,  and 
which  the  superiority  of  that  power  will  always 
enable  her  to  command,  independently  of  foreign 
countries.  And,  apart  from  all  luotives  of  interest, 
it  is  deserving  of  attention  from  the  opportunities  it 
affords  of  ciA'ilizing  and  converting  to  Christianity, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  races  of  people,  which 
British  enterprise  has  yet  discovered  in  any  quarter 
of  the  globe  ! 


ADAM,    THE    GARDENER. 

BY  C.  C.   CLARKE, 

Author   of  "  Tales    in  Prose,   from   Chaucer."* 


An  elegant  little  work,  full  of  pretty  writing  and  in- 
teresting information  to  young  gardeners  and  young 
botanists,  conveyed  in  the  form  of  narrative  and 
conversation,  and  arranged  under  each  month  of 
the  year,  beginning  with  January.     It  opens  thus 

JANUARY. 

"  Dread  Winter  spreads  his  latest  glooms, 
And  reigns  tremendous  o'er  the  conquer'd  year. 
How  dead  the  vegetable  kingdom  lies! 
How  dumb  the  tuneful!" 

Thomson. 

Adam  Stock  was  the  eldest  son  of  a  gentleman, 
who,  having  retired  from  London  to  the  southern 
coast  of  our  island,  had  there  purchased  an  estate, 
consisting  of  a  house,  a  large  garden,  a  field,  and  a 
poultry  yard.  He  knew  the  value  of  industry,  and 
that,  to  an  independent  and  contented  mind,  few 
things  are  }-eally  necessary  for  our  comfort ;  he, 
there,  determined  to  cultivate  his  own  ground  ;  rnd 
as  nearly  as  he  could,  to  do  every  thing  for  himself. 
This  is  the  true  meaning  of  being  independent.  He 
bought  a  cow,  and  some  pigs,  chickens,  ducks,  and 
geese.  Mr.  Stock  understood  the  principles  of  gar- 
dening, and  possessed  great  taste  and  knowledge  in 
the  cultivation  of  flowers,  his  garden  was,  therefore, 
always  beautiful  to  look  at,  and  the  more  so,  because 
you  knew  that  it  was  the  work  of  his  own  hands, 
and  that  all  you  saw,  was  done  with  pleasure.  This 
is  the  reason  why  a  cottagers 's  garden  is  a  more  plea- 
sant sight  than  a  rich  man's  :  for  though  the  rich 
man's  garden  may  be  larger  and  much  more  hand- 
some, yet  we  do  not  know  that  he  is  pleased  with  it ; 
because  it  is  only  his  money  which  makes  it  look 
beautiful.     But  when  we  see  a  neat  and  pretty  gar- 


den belonging  to  a  poor  man,  we  may  be  sure  that 
that  man  is  contented  and  happy  ;  and  a  happy  poor 
man  is  one  of  the  most  charming  sights  in  the 
world. 

"  Little  Adam  loved  his  father  very  much,  and 
was  fond  of  being  near  him  whenever  he  was  at 
work.  He  had  heard  his  father  say,  that  on  the  fol- 
lowing morning  he  should  rise  early  to  brew  some 
beer  for  the  family  :  and  Adam  dressed  himself  be- 
fore it  was  light,  and  came  to  call  his  father,  which 
pleased  him  veiy  much.  So  he  was  allowed  to  help 
in  the  brewing  ;  and,  as  a  reward  for  his  diligence, 
his  father  permitted  him  to  stay  up  all  night  till  the 
whole  process  was  finished.  '\\'Tien  Mr.  Stock  was 
employed  in  the  garden,  little  Adam  would  always 
be  at  his  side,  asking  him  the  names  of  the  different 
flowers  that  were  in  blossom,  together  with  many 
questions  about  the  way  of  cultivating  them.  He 
showed  such  delight  in  the  amusement,  that  his 
father  told  him  one  day,  that  if  he  would  be  a  good 
and  obedient  boy,  he  would  teach  him  to  be  a  com- 
plete gardener,  so  that  by  the  time  he  grew  up  to  be 
a  man,  he  should  be  able  to  do  every  thing  for  him- 
self, and  know  how  to  direct  others.  Adam  was 
delighted.  '  "Well  then,'  said  his  father,  '  this  is 
now  the  first  month  in  the  year,  and  to-morrow  we 
will  begin.  There  is  at  present  no  snow  upon  the 
ground,  and  the  frost  has  given  way.  I  will  buy 
you  to-day  a  spade,  and  a  rake,  and  a  hoe ;  and  I 
think  you  will  be  set  up.  One  thing  only  you  must 
promise  me ; — that  you  will  attend  to  what  I  tell 
you ;  and  endeavour  to  do  every  thing  in  the  best 
way  you  possibly  can.'  This  you  may  be  sure  he 
promised  to  do." 

Such  is  the  opening,  and  we  shall  now  dip  into 


*   12mo.     E.  Wilson.   1834. 


ADAM,    THE    GARDENEE. 


61 


what  immediately  claims  attention  in  this  "  merry 
month  of  May,"  whose  beauties  are  thus  touched 
upon  by  Mr.  C.  C.  Clarke. 

"  By  four  o'clock  Mr.  Stock  had  roused  all  the 
sleepers  in  his  house,  singing  to  them  in  the  words 
of  the  motto  in  this  chapter,  "  Now  the  bright  morn- 
ing star,"  &c.  "  Up  !  up  !"  said  he,  "  you  slug- 
abeds !  the  lark  is  awake,  and  the  bee  is  stirring  ; 
all  but  you  are  preparing  to  meet  the  rising  sun. 
The  flowers  are  getting  ready  to  open  their  dewy 
buds,  and  the  morning  air  is  blowing  softly  upon  them. 
Here  is  May-day  come  in  after  the  old  fasion,  cheer- 
fully and  bright :  so  we  will  keep  it  after  the  old 
fashion.  Come  !  up  with  you  !  make  haste — we 
shall  not  begin  it  properly,  if  we  do  not  see  the  sun 
rise.  Get  up,  you  lazy  dog  !  Adam — let  me  catch 
you  in  bed  in  five  minutes  time,  and  I  will  give  you 
such  a  cold  pig  as  shall  make  you  remember  May 
morning  for  some  time  to  come."  Who  could  sleep 
after  being  called  in  this  manner  ?  I  know  but  of 
one  ;  but  he  has  reformed  ;  and,  therefore,  shall  be 
nameless.  In  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  whole 
family  were  dressed,  and  hatted,  and  bonnetted,  and 
had  started  off, 

"  Bnishing  with  hasty  steps  the  dew  away, 
To  meet  the  sua  upon  the  upland  lawn." 

All  noticed  how  very  grave  every  thing  appeared ; 
there  was  such  a  stillness,  as  if  all  the  birds  and 
beasts  were  waiting  in  fear,  lest  the  sun  should  not 
rise  again.  Indeed,  I  have  often  thought  that  the 
first  breaking  of  the  dawn  was  vei-y  awful :  the  deep 
stillness — the  solemn  colour — and  the  cautious  un- 
folding of  the  light,  is  as  if  something  veiy  great 
and  good  was  about  to  be  done  in  Heaven — and  so 
there  is  ;  for  we  are  to  the  blessed  sun.  There  is  no 
solemnity  like  the  first  dawning  of  mom :- — 

"  That  vast  dumbness  nature  keeps 
Throughout  her  starry  deeps, 
Most  old  and  mild,  and  a^vful,  and  unbroken, 
Which  tells  a  tale  of  peace  beyond  whate'er  was  spoken. 

Leigh  Hunt. 
When  they  had  arrived  at  the  highest  part  of  a  rising 
ground  behind  their  house,  they  looked  over  a  tract 
of  country,  and  the  sea  beyond  it,  and  saw  the  great 
sun  slowly  moving  up,  while  all  the  clouds  around 
were  drawn  up  from  it  like  long  handfuls  of  wool 
dyed  rose  colour,  and  the  edges  of  them  dipped  in 
gold ;  the  wide  sea  was  gold,  and  all  the  sky  was 
gold.  "  We  cannot  wonder,"  said  Mr.  Stock,  "that 
some  people  should  worship  the  sun  as  their  God, 
when  we  behold  what  a  grand  object  it  is,  in  its 
rising,  and  when  it  is  at  the  height  of  noon,  and  in 
its  setting.  When  we  also  consider  that  there  is  not 
a  single  comfort  we  possess,  but  we  have  it  by  the 


means  of  the  sun.  If  the  sun  were  to  rise  no  more, 
everything  in  the  world  that  grows,  and  has  life, 
would  die  ;  and  ive  should  die.  There  would  be  no- 
thing in  all  the  world  but  the  ground ;  for,  without 
the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun,  everything  would  rot 
and  become  dust.  Therefore  we  cannot  wonder,  I 
say,  that  some  people  think  that  the  sun  is  their  07ily 
God  and  preserver.  But  then,"  continued  the 
father,  "  I  wonder  they  never  thought  that,  since 
no  one,  and  no  thing  that  we  know  of,  ever  made 
itself,  so  the  sun  did  not  make  itself;  and  that  who- 
ever made  the  sun,  he  was  God." 

They  now  continued  their  walk  into  some  pretty 
close,  and  winding  lanes ;  and  now  and  then  passed 
some  little  cottages,  the  children  of  which  were  all 
up,  and  had  been  out  Maying.  Some  were  making 
their  garlands,  and  some  had  finished  them,  hanging 
them  across  the  lane  before  the  door.  Adam  and 
his  sisters  said  they  should  like  to  make  a  garland 
too.  "  Then  pray  do,"  said  their  father,  "  but  I 
fear  you  will  not  find  any  white  thorn  blown ;  it  is 
as  yet  only  in  the  bud ;  yoii  must  be  contented  with 
what  field  flowers  you  can  pick  up;  unless.  Indeed, 
you  meet  with  some  black  thorn ;  which,  you  know, 
comes  into  bloom  before  the  other,  but  it  is  not  so 
pretty,  for  the  leaves  come  after  the  blossoms  have 
gone  off."  So  they  hunted  about,  and  plucked  all 
the  little  flowers  they  could  find,  and  put  them  into 
their  handkerchiefs,  because  the  heat  of  their  hands 
would  have  soon  killed  them.  While  they  were  busy, 
little  Tom  was  endeavouring  to  get  some  primroses 
that  were  on  the  top  of  a  high  bank  :  finding  them, 
however,  rather  out  of  his  reach,  he  asked  Adam  to 
pick  them  for  him,  who  refused ;  telling  him  to  try 
and  get  them  for  himself.  The  father  heard  this, 
and  rebuked  Adam  very  sharply  for  being  a  selfish 
and  unkind  boy ;  and  desired  him  to  gather  them  for 
his  little  brother  directly ;  which  he  did,  though  not 
very  willingly.  For  some  time  after  this,  he  seemed 
as  if  he  had  been  thinking  with  himself;  at  last  he 
said  "  I  thought  you  told  us,  papa,  that  we  were  to 
try  and  do  eveiything  we  could  for  ourselves  ;  and 
that  that  was  independent." — "Ay!  ay!"  said  his 
father,  '  but  I  did  not  tell  you  to  be  unkind  and  dis- 
obliging. You  are  to  endeavour  to  do  all  you  can 
for  yourself,  but  at  the  same  time  to  be  always  ready 
to  help  every  one  that  wants  your  assistance.  If  you 
were  a  man,  and  could  divine  very  well,  would  you 
not  try  to  save  a  fellow  creature,  who  could  not 
swim,  and  was  drowning  ?  Would  you  tell  him 
that  he  ought  to  help  himself,  or  else  he  would  not 
be  " independent  ?" 

Such  is  the  manner  in  which  useful  and  pleasing 
information  is  conveyed  in  "  Adam,  the  Gardener." 


62 


ON  BOTANICAL  THEORIES  AND  DR.  PROFESSOR  LINDLEY. 

BY  THE  EDITOR. 


The  term  theory  is  very  commonly  used  to  bemask 
some  wild  fancy  with  the  semblance  of  science  ;  and 
I  could  not  bring  a  stronger  example  of  this  than 
what  has  been  termed  the  metamorphosis  of  plants, 
as  must  appear  at  a  glance  to  every  reader  endowed 
with  common  sense. 

The  doctrine  in  question  is  alleged  to  have  ori- 
ginated with  Linnaeus,  in  1759 — 60,  but  the  distin- 
guished German  poet,  Goethe  thinks  very  lightly  of 
the  fancies  which  Linnaeus  termed  anticipation, 
while  he  claims  the  honour  of  discovering  (invent- 
ing, I  should  say)  the  doctrine  of  Metamorphosis  in 
1790,  a  doctrine  of  which  De  CandoUe  is  the  most 
distinguished  disciple. 

The  doctrine  bears  that  every  part  of  a  plant 
consists  of  "  disguised  leaves,"  and  hence  part  of 
the  stem,  the  flower-cup,  the  blossom,  the  stamens, 
and  pistils,  with  the  seed  vessels,  and  even  fruits 
themselves,  are  nothing  but  leaves  in  a  state  of  dis- 
guise or  metamorphosis.  "  These  are  all  the  same," 
says  Von  Martius,  "  in  their  essence,  and  only 
differ  according  to  the  intensity  of  their  metamor- 
phosis. 

Von  Martius  further  instructs  us,  that  evei-y  plant 
possesses  two  living  forces,  one  vertical,  the  other 
spiral,  by  the  action  of  which  forces  the  plant  is 
formed.  By  the  action  of  the  vertical  force  the  root 
goes  down  and  the  stem  rises  up ;  and,  by  the  spiral 
force,  the  leaves,  both  in  their  natural  state  and  in 
their  disguised  forms  of  flowers  and  fruit,  are  wound 
about  their  stem  in  spiral  whirls.  As  soon,  then, 
as  a  plant  begins  to  grow,  a  series  of  leaves  winds 
upwards  around  the  stem  in  a  spiral  direction,  and 
hence  a  whole  plant  is  considered  to  consist  of  no- 
thing more  than  a  vertical  axis  and  a  spiral  of 
leaves. 

In  the  more  recondite  parts  of  the  theory,  we  are 
told  that  a  stamen  is  only  a  leaf,  the  filament  being 
the  leaf-stalk  and  the  anther  the  leaf-plate,  while  the 
furrow  between  its  two  lobes  is  the  mid  rib,  and  the 
pollen  the  leaf  pulp  ;  that  a  disk  is  only  the  base  of 
the  foot-stalks  of  abortive  leaves ;  and  that  the  pistil 
with  its  summit,  is  only  a  mid-rib  denuded  of  its 
rind  at  the  tip,  while  the  seed  organ  is  the  expanded 
leaf-plate  of  the  leaf  folded,  with  its  upper  surface 
winding  round  the  axis,  and  having  its  edges  united 
and  adhering. 

A  leaf  thus  folded  up  into  a  seed-organ,  is  termed 
a  carpel,  the  adherin  gedges  forming  the  verge,  and 
buds  upon  these  two  edges  form  two  rows  of  nascent 
seeds.  In  some  plants,  several  leaves  are  said  to  be 
thus  folded  into  a  carpel,  and  hence  the  number  of 


verges  will  correspond  to  those  of  the  folded  leaf 
edges. 

The  cause  assigned  by  De  CandoUe  for  this  meta- 
morphosis of  leaves  into  flowers  and  fruit,  is  de- 
generacy, or,  as  Dr.  Professor  Lindley  terms  it, 
stunting,  the  parts  of  a  flower  being  therefore  abor- 
tive leaves.  "  A  flower,"  says  Dr.  Professor  Lind- 
ley, "  is,  in  reality,  a  stunted  branch,  that  is,  one 
the  growth  of  which  is  checked  and  its  power  of 
elongation  destroyed."  "  The  fruit  is,  in  common 
language,  the  flower,  or  some  part  of  it,  arrived  at 
its  most  complete  state  of  existence;  and,  conse- 
quently, is  itself  a  portion  of  stunted  branch." 

It  would  be,  I  conceive,  an  unprofitable  waste  of 
time,  to  expose  the  absurdities  of  these  fancies, 
which  have  been  generated  by  the  erroneous  logic 
of  raising  analogies  into  realities.  The  analogical 
resemblances  are  tolerably  made  out ;  but  we  would 
not  surely  conclude,  that  a  butterfly  is  a  bird,  or  a 
bat,  or  a  flying  fish,  because  the  wings  are  analo- 
gous, no  more  than  we  can  agree  with  the  theorists 
in  calling  a  rose  or  a  peach  a  bundle  of  abortive  leaves. 

It  seems  indispensable  for  every  theory  to  have  a 
loop-hole  through  which  to  escape  in  case  of  diffi- 
culties ;  and  in  the  present  instance,  the  escape  is 
made  by  maintaining  nat\ire  to  be  wrong  when  op- 
posed to  the  theory.  "  All  dissepiments"  (parti- 
tions), says  Dr.  Professor  Lindley,  "  whose  position 
is  at  variance  with  the  foregoing  laws  are  spurious." 
It  is  needless  to  remark  that  this  mode  of  decision 
at  once  quashes  all  objection,  and  puts  an  end  to 
every  appeal  to  fact.  Well  might  M.  Le  Vaillant 
say,  that  "  the  present  state  of  natural  history  often 
exhibits  nature  making  sport  of  our  systems."  M. 
Le  Vaillant  elsewhere  says,  that  "  one  fact  is  enough 
to  demolish  a  theory ; "  but  here  we  have  a  theory 
demolishing  the  facts,  and  calling  them  spurious. 

It  is  in  consequence  of  such  exposures  as  the  pre- 
ceding, that  Dr.  Professor  Lindley  has  thought  fit  to 
set  himself  against  the  Editor  in  private  and  in  public, 
both  in  acknowledged  wincings  and  (if  we  are 
rightly  informed)  in  anonymous  ejections.  Let  him: 
he  can  never  get  over  the  sheer  nonsense  he  has 
published,  nor  the  Editor's  exposure  of  the  same, 
not  even  with  the  aid  of  the  Bayswater  book  manu- 
factory, nor  of  his  friend  Dilke  to  boot.  He  must 
wince  on,  let  him  do  what  he  may  to  escape  through 
loop  holes,  unless  he  come  forward  in  a  manly  man- 
ner, and  acknowledge  the  fatuity  of  his  blunders.  Then 
his  love  of  truth  might  be  admitted ;  now  he  stands 
ashamed  of  his  errors,  and  tries,  though  unsuccessfuly , 
to  undermine  the  exposer  thereof  with  the  public. 


63 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


FRAGARIA  MONOPHYLLA. 

ONE-LEAVED  STRAWBERRY,  OR  STRAWBERRY  OF 
VERSAILLES. 

Class  and  Order. 

Isocaudi'ia    Poylgynia. 

Generic  Character. 

Cahjx    10 — fidus.     Petala   5 — Receptaculum  seminum   ovatum 

baccatum  deciduum. 

Specific  Character  and  Synonyms. 
Fragaria  monophylla  foliis  simpUcibus.  Lin.  Si/st.  Veg.  p.  476. 
Le  Fraisier  de  Versailles.     Duschesne  Hist.  nal.  des  Frais. 
p.  124. 

The  first  mention  made  of  this  strawberry  we 
find  in  the  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Fraisiers,  where  we 
have  its  complete  history,  and  from  which  we  learn 
that  it  was  originally  raised  at  Versailles,  in  the  year 
1761,  from  seeds  of  the  wood  strawberry. 

From  France  this  plant  has  been  conveyed  to 
most  parts  of  Europe,  how  it  has  happened  we  know 
not,  liut  it  is  certainly  very  little  known  in  this 
country:  in  the  14th  edit,  of  the  Syst.  Veg.  of  Lin- 
ruevs,  it  appears  as  a  species  under  the  name  of  mo- 
nophtjlla,  originally  imposed  on  it  by  Duchesne; 
Linnaeus,  however,  has  his  doubts  as  to  its  being  a 
species  distinct  from  the  vesca,  and,  in  our  opi- 
nion, not  without  reason;  for  it  can  certainly  be 
regarded  as  a  very  singular  variety,  only  its  origin 
is  indeed  a  proof  of  this ;  in  addition  to  which  we 
may  observe,  that  plants  raised  from  the  runners 
will  sometimes,  though  very  rarely  indeed,  have  three 
leaves  instead  of  one :  and  it  is  observed  by  the 
very  intelligent  author  of  the  Hist.  Nat.  above  men- 
tioned, that  seedling  plants  sometimes  produced 
leaves  with  three  divisions  like  those  of  the  wood 
strawberry.  Besides  the  remarkable  difference  in 
the  number  of  leaves  of  this  plant,  tlie  leaves  them- 
selves are  observed  to  be  much  smaller  in  the  winter 
season,  and  their  ribs  less  branched;  the  runners 
pIso  are  slenderer  and  more  productive,  and  the 
fruit  in  general  more  oblong  or  pyramidal.  As  an 
object  of  curiosity,  this  plant  is  deserving  a  place  in 
eveiy  garden  of  any  extent:  nor  is  its  singularity 
any  recommendation,  its  fruit  being  equal  to  the 
finest  wood  strawberry,  with  which  it  agrees  in  its 
time  of  flowering,  fruiting,  and  mode  of  treatment. 

FRANKLIN'S  TARTAR. 

A   SCARLET  BIZARRE  CARNATION. 

The  carnation  here  exhibited  is  a  seedling  raised 
lay  an  ingenious  cultivator  of  these  flowers.  We 
have  not  figured  it  as  the  most  perfect  flower  of  the 
kind,  either  in  form  or  size,  but  as  being  a  very  fine 
specimen  of  the  sort,  and  one  whose  form  and  colours 
if  is  in  the  power  of  the  artist  pretty  nearly  to 
imitate. 

The  Dianthus  Caryophyllus  or  wildclove,  is  generally 
considered  as  the  parent  of  the  carnation,  and  may 
be  found,  if  not  in  its  wild  state,  at  least  single,  on 
the  walls  of  Rochester  Castle,  where  it  ha.s  been 


long  known  to  flourish,  and  where  it  produces  two 
varieties  in  point  of  colour,  the  pale  and  deep  red. 

Flowers  which  are  cultivated  from  age  to  age  are 
continually  producing  new  varieties,  hence  there  is 
no  standard  as  to  name,  beauty,  or  perfection  amongst 
them,  but  what  is  perpetually  fluctuating  ;  thus  the 
red  Halo,  blue  Halo,  the  greatest  Granado,  with  se- 
veral others  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Parkinson, 
have  long  since  been  consigned  to  oblivion ;  and  it 
is  probable,  that  the  variety  now  exhibited  may,  in 
a  few  years,  share  a  similar  fate,  for  it  would  be 
vanity  in  us  to  suppose,  that  the  carnation,  by  assi- 
duous culture  may,  in  the  eye  of  the  florist,  be  yet 
considerably  improved. 

To  succeed  in  the  culture  of  the  carnation  we 
must  advert  to  the  situation  in  which  it  is  found 
wild,  and  this  is  oliscrved  to  be  dry  and  elevated  ; 
hence  excessive  moisture  is  found  to  be  one  of  the' 
greatest  enemies  this  plant  has  to  encounter ;  and 
on  this  account  it  is  found  to  succeed  better  when 
planted  in  a  pot,  than  in  the  open  border ;  because 
in  the  former,  any  superfluous  moisture  readily 
drains  oif ;  but  in  guarding  against  too  much  wet, 
we  must  be  careful  to  avoid  the  opposite  extreme. 

To  keep  any  plant  in  a  state  of  great  luxuriance, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  soil  in  which  it  grows  be 
rich,  hence  a  mixture  of  light  loam,  and  perfectly 
rotten  horse  or  cow  dung  in  equal  proportions,  is 
found  to  be  a  proper  compost  for  the  carnation. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  no  vporms,  grubs,  or  other 
insects  be  introduced  with  the  dung,  to  prevent  this, 
the  dung  when  sifted  fine,  should  be  exposed  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  on  a  hot  summer's  day  till  perfectly 
dry,  and  then  put  by  in  a  box  for  use,  still  more  to 
increase  the  luxuriance  of  the  plants,  water  them 
in  the  spring  and  summer,  with  an  infusion  of  sheep's 
dung  in  the  water. 

The  Carnation  is  propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  and 
pipings;  new  varieties  can  only  be  raised  from 
seed,  which  however  is  sparingly  produced  from 
good  flowers,  because  the  petals  are  so  multiplied  as 
nearly  to  exclude  the  parts  of  the  fructification 
essential  to  their  production. 

The  seed  must  be  sown  in  April,  put  in  boxes, 
very  thin,  and  placed  upon  an  East  border. 

In  July  transplant  them  upon  a  bed,  in  an  open 
situation,  at  about  four  inches  asunder;  at  the  end 
of  August  transplant  them  again  upon  another  bed, 
at  about  ten  inches  asunder,  and  there  let  them  re- 
main until  they  flower ;  shade  them  until  they  have 
taken  root;  and  in  very  severe  weather  in  winter 
cover  the  bed  with  mats,  over  some  hoops. 

The  following  summer  they  will  flower,  when 
you  must  mark  such  as  you  like,  make  layers,  frame 
and  pot  them. 

The  means  of  increasing  these  plants  by  layers 
and  pipings  are  known  to  every  gardener,  Such 
as  wish  for  more  minute  information,  may  consult 
the  new  Editon  of  Miller's  Gardener's  Dictionary. 


64 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


PRIMULA  A'lLLOSA,     MOUNTAIN  PRIMULA. 
PENTANDRIA  MONOGYNIA. 
Inrolucrum   umbellul.      Corolla    tubus    cylindricus:    ore  pa- 
tulo. 

Primula  villosa  foliis  obovatis  dentatis  villosis,  scapo  bre\is- 
simo  multifloro. 

Primula  villosa,  Jacquiii  Fl.  Austr.  app,  b.  v. 

The  plant  here  figured  has  heen  introduced  pretty 
generally  into  the  nursery  gardens  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London  witliin  these  few  years,  and  has  for 
many  years  been  cultivated  in  a  garden  in  York- 
shire. 

It  is  not  noticed  by  Linnaeus  :  Professor  Jacquin, 
in  his  Flora  Austriaca,  has  figured  and  described  a 
primula,  which,  though  not  agreeing  so  minutely  as 
could  be  wished  with  the  one  we  have  figured,  is 
nevertheless  considered  by  some  of  the  first  1  otanists 
in  this  country  as  the  same  species ;  he  gives  it  the 
name  of  villosa  which  we  adopt,  though  with  us  it  is 
so  slightly  villous,  as  scarcely  to  deserve  that  epithet. 

It  varies  in  the  brilliancy  of  its  colours,  flowers  in 
April,  and  will  succeed  with  the  method  of  culture 
recommended  for  the  round-leaved  Cyclamen. 


ERANTHUS  HYEMALIS.  WINTER  HELLEBORE  OR 
ACONITE. 

Polyandiia  Polygnia. 

Petala  5  fine  plura.    Nectaria  bilabiata,  tubulata. 

Capsulse  polyspermEe  rectiuscul^. 

Hellebonis  hi/emalis  flore  folio  iusidente.  Linn.  Syst.  Vegetal. 
p.  431,  Sp.  PL  p.  7S3. 

Aconitum  unifolium  bulbosum.      Bauh.  Pin.  183. 

The  Winter's  Wolfesbane.      Park  Purad.  p.  214. 

Grows  wild  in  Lombardy,  Italy,  and  Austria, 
affects  mountainous  situations,  flowers  with  us  in 
Februaiy,  and  hence  is  liable  to  be  cut  off  in  severe 
frosts.  "  It  is  propagated  by  offsets  which  the  roots 
send  out  in  sbundance.  These  roots  may  be  taken 
up  and  transplanted  at  any  time  after  their  leaves 
decay,  which  is  generally  by  the  beginning  of  June 
till  October,  when  they  will  begin  to  put  out  new 
fibres,  but  as  the  roots  are  small,  and  nearly  the  co- 
lour of  the  ground,  if  care  is  not  taken  to  search  for 
them,  many  of  them  will  be  left  in  the  ground. 
These  roots  should  be  planted  in  small  clusters, 
otherwise  they  will  not  make  a  good  appearance, 
for  single  flowers  of  these  small  kinds  so  scattered 
about  the  borders  ;  nd  scarcely  seen  at  a  distance, 
but  when  these  and  the  snow  drops  are  alternately 
planted  in  bunches  they  have  a  good  effect,  as  they 
flov>-cr  at  the  same  time  and  are  nearly  of  a  size." 


SCHIZANTHUS  RETUSUS. 

SCHIZANTHUS. 

Diandria,  Monootnia  :  Linn.  Scrophularinese,  Jissiec. 
Calyx,  five-parted  somewliat  unequal.  CoroUa,  limb  in  four 
parts,  lobed,  irregular,  plaited  while  expanding  ;  tube  narrow 
and  short.  Stamina  four,  two  upper  ones  barren,  filaments 
aU  adaate.  Anthers  inserted  below  in  tno  places,  confluent 
at  the  top.  Ovarium  of  two  locaments  placed  on  a  smooth 
fleshy  disk.  Stigma  compressed,  obtuse,  of  two  united  lobes. 
Capsula    of   two   places,    containing    many   seeds  ;    valves 


divided.  Dissepiments  parallel.  Placenta  two,  spongV; 
Seeds  simple,  shell-like,  having  a  hai'd  wripgled  integument; 
albumen  fleshy.  Embryo  arched  ;  the  rostel  roundly  obtuse 
and  twice  as  long  as  the  seed  leaves. 

This  flower  is  an  annual  plant  of  great  beauty,  of 
tolerable  easy  culture,  growing  from  seeds  which 
ripen  freely,  if  the  plants  be  kept  in  an  airy  situa- 
tion at  the  time  of  flowering. 

Those  intended  for  the  principal  flowering  should 
be  sown  the  previous  summer,  or  early  in  the 
autumn ;  and  in  Februaiy  and  March  two  more 
sowings  should  be  made  to  succeed  each  other.  The 
autumn  sowing,  or  rather  these  of  the  previous  sum- 
mer, should  be  made  in  the  middle  of  July  and 
beginning  of  August.  Light  rich  mould  is  the 
most  suitable  fur  the  purpose. 


GREWIA  ELASTICA. 

The  description  of  this  flower  must  be  deferred  till 
next  month. 

MECONOPSIS  aculeata. 

Meconopsis  aculeata,  caule  erecto  siUcato  ut  plantfe  omni 
parte  aculeato,  foliis  longe  petiolatis  oblongis  decurrentibus 
subpinnatisectis  sinubus  obtusis,  floribus  auxUlaribus  solita- 
riis  terminalihusve  paniculatis,  capsulis  oblongis,  utrinque 
acutis  dense  aculeatis. 

Stem  ascending,  erect,  from  one  to  two  feet  in 
height,  leavy,  furrowed,  and  like  every  part  of  the 
plant,  except  the  petals  and  stamens  densely  aculeate. 
The  leaves  long-petioled,  oblong,  subpinnatifid, 
■with  irregvdar  and  obtuse  sinuses,  frequently  decur- 
rent  on  the  petioles,  upper  ones  sessile.  Petioles 
broad  and  sheathing  at  the  base.  Flowers  axillary 
and  terminal,  often  in  the  axillae  of  all  the  leaves, 
long  peduncled.  Calyx  2-sepaled;  sepals  roundish, 
oval,  caducous,  aculeate.  Petals  4,  obovate  roundish, 
red.  Stamens  very  numerous  :  filaments  capillary ; 
anthers  cblong,  inserted  by  the  base  ;  ovary  ovates 
pointed,  aculeate.  Style  half  the  length  of  the 
ovary;  after  the  flower  has  fallen,  it  becomes  elon- 
g;  ted  and  twisted.  Stigm.  s  4,  cblong,  united  into 
a  capitate  head.  Capsides  oblong,  tapering  towards 
both  ends,  1-celled.  Verges  ribbed  intervalvular; 
valves  4  to  5,  separating  from  the  pkcentse  at  the 
apex  of  the  capsule  for  the  escape  of  the  seeds. 
Seeds  numerous,  minute. 

CORYDALUS  GOVANIANA. 
C.  Govaniana;  Wall.)  foliis  petiolatis  oblongis  bipinnatisectis, 
segmentis  cuneatis  profunde  pir-natilobatis,  lobis  lineari- 
obiongis  obtusis  cum  cuspidula  integris  vel  bilobis,  racerais 
secundis,  bracteis  foliaceis  cuneifcrmibus  inciso-lobatis  pedun- 
culos  superantibus,  supremis  l.Tnceolatis  integris,  calcare 
pedicello  suba^quali,  siliquis  pendulis  oblongis  urtinque  acutis 
apice  stylo  locgo  acuminatis. 

This  plant  was  first  described  ly  Dr.  Wallich,  in 
his  Tent.  Fl.  Nep.  p.  55,  and  there  is  little  to  be 
added  to  his  description.  It  was  supplied  to  him  1  y 
Dr.  Govan  from  Gurhwal.  It  is  extremely  com- 
mon in  the  Himalayan  mountains,  particularly  on 
the  Choor,  above  8,000  feet  of  elevation.  It  varies^ 
from  a  few  inches  to  nearly  a  foot  in  height. 


X 


ON  THE   EFFECTS  OF  REMOVING  POTATOE  BLOSSOMS. 


65 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  REMOVING  POTATOE  BLOSSOMS* 


BY    MK.  JAMES    MURRAY,    OF    ABERDEEN. 


The  experiment  was  made  according  to  the  plan 
laid  down  by  the  Highland  Society  in  their  list  of 
premiums  for  1833. 

The  quality  of  the  soil  was  not  the  best  adapted 
for  a  very  successful  potatoe  crop,  but  as  I  did  not 
think  of  making  the  experiment  until  after  the 
ground  had  been  sown,  I  had  no  alternative  left  me. 
At  the  same  time,  I  believe,  that  an  experiment  of 
this  nature,  although  made  upon  a  crop  raised  in 
soil  not  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  its  culture,  will 
be  quite  as  satisfactory  in  determining  the  advan- 
tages or  disadvantages  of  it,  as  one  made  upon  a 
more  congenial  soil.  The  soil  consisted,  throvighout 
the  two  acres  upon  which  the  potatoes  had  been 
sown,  of  a  very  shallow  loam,  upon  a  bed  of  what  is 
generally  called  till.  The  field  had  been  well  drained, 
but  like  every  other  field  of  the  same  nature  of  soil, 
(unless  where  Mr.  Smith,  of  Deanston's,  trenching 
plough  may  have  been  used,)  continues  in  what 
may  be  called  a  cold  damp  state,  and  therefore  an 
enemy  to  the  potatoe. 

The  variety  of  the  potatoe  sown,  was  one  which 
had  been  brought  from  Ireland  some  years  ago,  by  a 
gentleman  of  this  neighbourhood,  and  is  called  the 
red  potatoe  in  this  neighbourhood. 

I  divided  the  whole  field  into  parts  of  three  drills 
each,  and  having  explained  what  I  wished  to  be 
done,  to  a  few  children  of  from  nine  to  twelve  years 
old,  previous  to  the  appearance  of  any  blossoms, 
they  never  allowed  a  day  to  elapse  without  looking 
after  their  charge,  and  no  sooner  had  a  blossom  be- 
gun to  appear,  (or  in  bud,)  upon  No.  1.  of  each 
part,  than  it  was  certain  to  be  immediately  plucked 
off.  The  other  two  drills  of  each  part  remained  un- 
touched until  the  blossoms  upon  No.  2,  seemed  to 
be  fully  expanded,  when  they  were  also  plucked  off, 
while  No.  3,  was  allowed  to  ripen  its  fruit.  By  ar- 
ranging the  drills  in  this  manner,  I  could  depend  on 
being  more  correct  in  having  the  soil  of  each  of  the 
drills  of  each  part  exactly  similar  than  I  could  have 
been,  had  I  divided  the  field  in  the  manner  proposed 
by  the  society. 

The  preceding  part  of  the  experiment  was  (as  it 
must  appear  to  be)  very  simple  indeed,  and  attended 
with  no  expense  whatever ;  for  there  are  always 


children  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  farm,  who  will 
do  the  work  for  a  few  pence  a  day. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  experiment  to  ar- 
range, was  the  taking  up  of  the  crop,  so  that  there 
might  be  no  interference  between  the  different 
drills.  To  obtain  this,  I  took  three  carts,  one  of 
which  was  appropriated  entirely  by  No.  I,  of  each 
part,  another  by  No.  2,  and  the  remaining  one  by 
No.  3.  In  this  manner  I  prevented  the  very  slight- 
est mingling  of  the  potatoes. 

The  quantity  of  potatoes  which  each  cart  held, 
was  exactly  ascertained,  and  the  management  of 
this  part  of  the  experiment  being  given  to  one 
person,  it  was  his  business  to  mark  down  how  many 
loads  each  cart  took  to  the  potatoe  pit. 

After  the  whole  crop  had  been  taken  off  the  field, 
and  the  overseer's  note  book  examined,  the  follow- 
ing was  the  result :   - 

Drills,  No.  1,  being  those  from  which  the  blos- 
soms were  plucked  in  the  bud,  contained  30  bolls,  2 
bushels. 

Drills,  No.  2,  being  those  from  which  the  blos- 
soms were  plucked  when  in  full  flower,  contained  27 
bolls,  3  bushels. 

Drills,  No.  3,  being  those  upon  which  the  fruit 
was  allowed  to  ripen,  contained  26  bolls.  The  su- 
periority, therefore,  of  No.  1,  over  No.  2,  was  2 
IjoUs,  five  bushels  ;  over  No.  3,  was  4  bolls,  3  bushels; 
and  of  No.  2,  over  No.  3,  was  1  boll,  3  bushels. 

From  the  above  experiment  it  would  appear,  that 
the  potatoe  crop  had  been  improved  by  having  the 
blossoms  plvicked  off,  and  that  according  to  the  pe- 
riod at  which  it  had  been  done.  At  the  same  time, 
the  difference  is  perhaps  not  much  more  than  would 
be  counterbalanced  by  the  additional  trouble  given 
in  taking  up  the  crops  ;  for  although  regulated  as 
well  as  possibly  could  be  done,  still  it  could  not  be 
taken  up  in  nearly  the  time  in  which  it  would  have 
been  done,  had  the  drills  been  resorted  to  indiscri- 
minately. 

The  quality  of  the  potatoe  is  remarkably  good  :  it 
is  of  a  mealy  nature,  and  an  uncommonly  good 
keeper.  We  were  using  them  last  year  here,  in  pre- 
ference to  early  potatoes. 


*  From  the  Trans,  of  the  Royal  Highland  Society. 


MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.  11.  NO.  XIV. MAY,  1834. 


66 


ON  TRANSPLANTING  LARGE  TREES  * 


BY  E.  MURPHY. 


A  GREAT  book,  the  adage  says,  is  a  great  evil — an 
expensive  book  is  also  an  evil,  and  the  more  so,  if  it 
treat  on  subjects  which  ought  to  be  familiar  to  per- 
sons whose  means  do  not  admit  of  purchasing  ex- 
pensive works.  Both  these  objections  apply  with 
peculiar  force  to  a  work  pviblished  a  few  years  ago 
on  this  subject.  That  Sir  Henry  Steuart's  book 
possesses  an  uncommon  degree  of  merit,  both  as 
regards  the  subject,  and  the  manner  in  which  that 
subject  is  treated,  I  would  be  the  last  to  deny.  In 
arrangement,  elegance  of  style,  and  many  other  at- 
tributes, it  is  such  as  was  to  have  been  expected 
from  Sir  Henry's  classic  pen ;  its  almost  only  fault, 
in  ray  opinion,  is  the  length  to  which  a  subject, 
capable  of  having  ample  justice  done  to  it  in  a  few 
pages,  has  been  extended.  But  my  object  in  what 
follows  is  not  to  review  "  The  Planter's  Guide," 
which  I  earnestly  recommend  to  every  person  in- 
terested in  ornamental  planting,  and  who  can  afford 
to  possess  it,  promising  him  great  pleasure  and  much 
information  in  the  perusal  of  it — it  is  to  lay  down  a 
few  rules,  the  result  of  observation  and  experience, 
by  which  any  ordinary  planter  may  effect  what,  by 
the  learned  manner  in  which  Sir  Henry  Steuart 
has  treated  it,  many  suppose  to  be  attended  with 
almost  insurmountable  difficulty.  With  this  view 
it  may  be  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  nature  of  trees  in  general. 

Every  one  knows,  that  when  the  seed  of  a  tree, 
or  of  almost  any  other  plant,  is  committed  to  the 
earth  imder  favourable  circumstances,  it  vegetates 
and  produces  a  plant,  that  this  plant  also,  under  fa- 
vourable circumstances,  increases,  until  at  length  it 
becomes  a  perfect  specimen  of  its  particular  kind. 
These  favourable  circumstances  are,  in  the  former 
case,  a  certain  degree  of  air,  moisture,  warmth,  and, 
I  may  add,  exclusion  from  light — and  in  the  second, 
soil,  situation  and  shelter,  necessary  to  its  perfect 
development.  But  how  vegetation  in  the  former, 
and  increase  in  the  latter,  is  effected,  has  baffled 
the  ingenuity  of  the  most  acute  physiologists  to 
determine.  They  siippose  that  moisture  causes  the 
juices  in  the  seed  to  undergo  a  kind  of  ferment- 
ation, by  which  sugar  is  produced,  which  serves  to 
nourish  the  plant  until  it  is  provided  with  roots ; 
that  the  roots  being  formed,  ramify  and  suck  up 
from  the  earth,  by  their  fibres,  water,  either  pure  or 
having  dissolved  in  its  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stance, salts,  &c. ;  that  this  sap  having  ascended  to 
the  leaves,  is  spread  out,  and  parts  with  a  portion  of 
its  watery  particles,  which  are  exhaled  by  the  sun ; 
that  the  now  inspissated  or  thickened  juice,  returns 


by  ducts  (veins)  in  the  back  of  the  leaves,  and  in 
its  progress  back  to  the  roots,  not  only  supplies 
nourishment  to  the  different  parts,  but  deposits  an 
annual  layer  of  wood  beneath  the  bark. 

Taking  for  granted  that  this  theory  is  correct,  it 
follows,  with  respect  to  trees,  that  they  will  thrive 
best  in  a  deep,  friable  (^loose^  soil,  in  which  their 
roots  can  easily  spread  in  search  of  nourishment; 
one  capable  of  retaining  the  proper  degree  of  mois- 
ture, in  which  the  roots  will  neither  be  saturated  in 
winter  nor  parched  in  summer,  and  which  possesses 
a  quantity  of  decaying  vegetable  or  animal  matter ; 
and  this  we  find  in  practice  is  the  fact,  provided, 
which  is  generally  the  case,  that  such  soil  is  suffi- 
ciently sheltered.  It  also  follows,  that  the  fibres  of 
the  roots,  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree,  being  the  im- 
portant agents  in  vegetation,  the  more  of  each  the 
tree  possesses,  the  more  rapid  will  be  its  increase  in 
stature. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  above  principle,  we  may 
proceed  to  the  subject  of  removal,  which,  for  con- 
venience, may  be  treated  under  the  heads — selec- 
tion— preparation  of  the  soil — removal — after  treat- 
ment— expense. 

First — Selection.  Trees  which  grow  in  situations 
fully  exposed  to  the  wind,  and  which  stand  at  such 
a  distance  from  each  other  as  not  to  afford  mutual 
shelter,  are  found  to  possess  the  following  proper- 
ties: abundance  of  branches,  robust  trunks,  thick 
bark,  firmly  rooted  in  the  ground,  and  roots  corre- 
sponding in  quantity  and  in  extent  to  the  branches — 
whilst  those  which  grow  in  masses,  so  as  to  shelter 
each,  and,  to  use  a  practical  term,  draw  each  other 
up,  have  long  trunks,  with  few  branches,  and  these 
only  at  the  extremity,  a  thin  bark,  and  few  roots, 
running  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  for- 
mer are  only  fit  for  removal  into  open  situations,  the 
latter,  particularly  if  under  twenty  years  growth, 
may  be  removed  with  safety,  provided  they  be  re- 
planted in  large  masses  and  sheltered  situations. 
This  adaptation  to  particular  situations  has  been  in- 
sisted on  at  a  great  length  by  Sir  Henry  Steuart,  yet 
it  is  almost  never  sufficiently  attended  to  by  those 
who  remove  large  trees,  as  the  failures  and  unhealthy 
appearance  of  those  that  survive,  in  most  places,  suf- 
ficiently indicate  :  indeed,  it  is  not  a  little  extraordi- 
nary that  the  very  persons  sent  by  Sir  Henry  Steuart 
to  this  country  for  the  purpose  of  transplanting  large 
trees,  either  through  ignorance  (which  is  hardly  to 
be  supposed)  or  a  want  of  proper  subjects,  made 
use  in  some  places,  (as  at  Woodstock,  these  at  of 
Lord  R.  Tottenham,  in  the  county  of  Wicklow,)  of 


*  From  the  "Irish  Farmer's  and  Gardener's  Magazine." 


ON  TRANSPLANTING  LARGE  TREES. 


67 


those  quite  unfit  for  the  purpose,  and  the  failures 
have  been  proportionate  to  the  want  of  judgment 
displayed  in  the  selection. 

It  frequently  happens  that  trees  possessing  the  re- 
quisite qualities  for  removal  into  open  situations,  do 
not  occur  on  the  estate  where  they  are  required,  in 
which  case  handsome  trees  should  be  selected  in 
situations  where  they  can  be  spared,  and  all  others 
in  their  immediate  vicinity  should  be  removed,  not 
at  once,  for  then  they  would  receive  a  check  from 
which  they  would  slowly,  if  ever  perhaps,  recover, 
but  gradually ;  and  a  trench  should  be  opened  round 
about,  and  at,  perhaps,  three  yards  distance  from  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  (suppose  it  to  be  of  about  thirty 
years  standing)  ;  the  trench  shoiild  be  about  eighteen 
inches  wide,  and  at  least  two  feet  deep,  and  should 
be  filled  with  some  good  earth  or  compost,  for  the 
purpose  of  causing  the  roots  which  have  been  cut 
in  opening"  the  trench,  to  push  out  a  quantity  of 
fibres  ;  this  should  be  done  at  least  two  years  before 
the  tree  is  to  be  removed — if  but  one,  as  is  very 
often  the  case,  the  fibres  will  be  so  tender  as  to  be 
liable  to  be  destroyed  in  the  operation.  In  opening 
the  trench.  Sir  Heniy  Steuart  recommends  that  the 
very  strong  roots  which  may  be  met  with,  be  not 
cut  or  injured,  but  left  at  length  to  serve  as  stays 
for  holding  the  tree  steady  after  it  has  been  shifted. 
This  artificial  method  of  multiplying  the  fibres  was 
in  use  not  only  as  a  preparation  for  removing  fruit 
trees,  but  even  for  forest  trees — those  which  have 
grown  in  exposed  situations  do  not  require  it.  But 
the  best  method  of  preparing  trees  for  removal,  is 
that  long  since  practised,  and  recommended  by 
Boucher  in  his  excellent  work  on  nursery  business — 
namely,  to  remove  trees  intended  for  final  trans- 
plantation, at  a  large  size,  repeatedly — say  once  in 
three  or  four  years,  until  they  are  twenty  years  old. 
Were  nursery  men,  who  have  a  large  sufficiency  of 
land  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities,  to  apply  a  portion 
of  it  to  this  branch,  there  is  little  doubt  they  would 
be  remunerated,  sogreatan  object  is  it  to  afford  the 
person  of  taste  a  means  of  at  once  beautifying  his 
lawn  and  pleasure  ground. 

Preparation  for  receiving  the  tree  in  its  new  situa- 
tion.— To  determine  the  best  possible  site  for  the 
new  tree  is  sometimes  a  matter  of  considerable  dif- 
ficulty, in  which  case  the  judgment  will  be  assisted 
by  making  use  of  a  young  tree  of  such  a  size  as  that  a 
man  can  readily  carry  it — the  lower  part  of  the  trunk 
of  which  being  sharpened,  may  be  inserted  in  a  hole 
formed  by  a  stake  and  mallet — the  effect  will  by  this 
means  be  anticipated.  This  matter  being  determined, 
an  excavation  in  size,  corresponding  to  the  roots  of 
the  tree  intended  for  it,  which  for  a  tree  of  from 
thirty  to  forty  years  old  should  seldom  be  less  than 
eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  should  be  made  at  least 
two  and  one-half  feet  deep ;  the  good  earth  being 


laid  at  one  side,  and  the  bad  at  another,  with  a  space 
of  eight  or  ten  feet,  on  which  no  earth  is  to  be 
thrown  :  the  bottom  of  the  whole  being  loosened 
with  a  pick,  so  that  water  may  not  remain  in  it  after 
the  tree  is  planted,  the  sod,  if  suchthere  was,  is  to  be 
thrown  in  and  chopped  fine,  after  which,  good  earth 
formed  by  adding  friable  black  moor,  or  what  would 
be  far  better  well  rotted  dung,  to  the  earth,  which 
was  taken  from  the  hole  ;  it  is  to  be  put  into  the  hole 
so  as  to  raise  it  to  the  required  height — a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  compost  should  also  be  ready  for 
filling.  The  hole  being  thus  prepared,  the  tree  is  to 
be  raised,  in  doing  which.  Sir  Henry  Steuart  re- 
commends that  a  trench,  such  as  that  described  for 
preparing  the  tree,  be  formed  around  the  tree,  at  a 
distance  corresponding  to  the  size  of  the  tree,  gene- 
rally almost  as  far  from  the  trunk  as  the  branches 
extend.  Where  a  preparing  trench  was  made,  that 
now  described  must  be  formed  immediately  without 
it.  This  trench  being  about  two  feet  deep,  and  of 
such  width  that  a  man  can  stand  in  it  and  use  a 
shovel.  A  set  of  careful  persons,  six  or  eight  in 
number,  each  having  a  light  one  pronged  pick, com- 
mence at  the  inner  margin  of  the  trench,  and  with 
his  head  towards  the  trunk  of  the  tree  loosens  the 
earth,  letting  it  fall  into  the  trench,  from  which  it  is 
removed  by  the  man  with  a  shovel.  In  this  way 
much  fewer  roots  are  damaged  than  if  spades  were 
used.  The  roots,  when  exposed,  are  to  be  preserved 
from  injury,  by  being  tied  in  bundles  with  hay  ropes, 
and  some  of  the  largest  roots  are  to  be  pursued  to 
their  extremity,  and  taken  up  entire.  The  tree 
being  thus  disengaged,  the  timber  carriage,  which 
differs  in  no  respect  from  the  janker  used  in  all  sea- 
port towns  for  transplanting  logs  of  timber,  except 
that  this  is  much  lighter  in  construction,  and  has  a 
platform  or  bolster  above  the  axletree,  is  brought 
up  to  the  tree,  and  the  pole  of  it  fastened  to  the 
trunk  by  a  rope.  The  pole  of  the  machine,  with  the 
tree  attached,  is  then  pulled  down,  by  which  the 
roots  are  raised,  and  the  tree  is  now  ready  to  be 
drawn  to  its  destination — roots  foremost,  ^¥hen 
arrived  there,  any  roots  or  branches  which  may  have 
been  broken  by  accident  may  be  removed  :  but 
shoidd  none  be  injured,  none  are  to  be  taken  off'. 
In  planting,  the  side  of  the  tree  which  in  its  original 
situation  was  presented  to  the  storm,  must  now  be 
turned  from  it,  by  which  means  the  short  branches 
will  become  long,  and  the  long  ones  checked,  so  that 
the  tree  will  recover  a  just  balance.  Sir  Henry 
Steuart  has  the  merit  of  this  discovery  as  applied  to 
trees — every  gardener  practises  it  with  his  green- 
house plants.  The  tree  is  now,  we  will  suppose, 
seated  in  its  new  birth — to  retain  it  firmly  there.  Sir 
Henry  uses  no  other  means  than  carefully  ramming 
the  earth  around  the  small  ball  which  always  adheres 
to  tlie  tree,  and  disposing  the  roots,  which  are  to  be 

K  2 


68 


ON  LEAVES  OF  PLANTS. 


spread  out  in  their  natural  directions,  tier  above 
tier — filling  every  crevice,  and  firming  the  earth 
well  down.  But  with  larger  trees  than  Sir  Henry 
is  in  the  habit  of  removing,  and  in  more  exposed 
situations,  I  am  of  opinion,  that  additional  supports 
will  be  used  with  advantage.  I  have  elsewhere 
described  a  method  used  by  Mr.  Paxton,  at  Chats- 
worth,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  by 
which,  in  an  exposed  situation,  he  maintained  in  an 
erect  position  trees  of  an  astonishing  elevation. 
His  method  is — to  drive  three  strong  posts  into  the 
ground,  so  that  their  tops  shall  be  level  with  the 
upper  part  of  the  strong  roots  of  the  tree  ;  on  the 
tops  of  these  three  posts,  rails  pressing  upon  the 
roots  are  spiked ;  and  this  being  firmly  done,  the 
tree  is  immovable ;  tlie  earth  is  then  filled  in,  and 
raised  somewhat  higher  than  the  surrounding  ground 
to  admit  of  sinking ;  a  good  watering  is  given, 
which  must  be  repeated  occasionally  throughout  the 
spring  and  summer ;  and  a  coat  of  bog  stuff,  or,  if  it 
can  be  spared,  rotted  dimg,  must  be  spread  on  the 
surface,  to  prevent  evaporation.  Sir  Henry  Steuart 
recommends  shoves  (the  refuse  procured  in  dressing 
flax)  ;  but  the  manufacture  of  flax  being  unfortu- 
nately no  longer  worth  attending  to  in  this  country, 
shoves  are  not  to  be  had.  In  this  way  every  kind 
of  tree  may  be  removed ;  but  elms,  limes,  oaks, 
alders,  and   poplars,    with    least    risk.     Any  open 


weather,  from  the  fall  of  the  leaf  to  the  beginning 

of  March,  will  answer  for  performing  the  operation; 
if  the  ground  be  liable  to  retain  a  superabundance 
of  moisture,  or  be  much  exposed  to  storms,  spring  is 
the  best  season.  Under  other  circumstances,  autumn 
and  the  beginning  of  winter  is  decidedly  preferable. 
With  respect  to  expense,  that  will  of  course  de- 
pend as  well  on  the  size  of  the  tree,  as  on  the  dis- 
tance and  nature  of  the  ground  over  which  it  is 
necessary  to  transport  it,  rate  of  wages,  &c.  &c.  As 
general  approximate  it  maybe  said,  that  trees  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  years  growth,  the  roots  of  which  do  not 
extend  beyond  four  feet  from  the  trunk,  may  be 
taken  up  and  replanted  for  one  shilling  each.  I 
have  had  many  scores  of  such  removed  from  plan- 
tations where  they  were  too  close,  and  replanted  at 
two  pence  eacli ;  but  then  they  were  placed  in 
sheltered  places,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to  be  very 
solicitous  about  taking  them  up.  A  tree  of  about 
twelve  or  eighteen  inches  in  circumference  at  the 
ground,  as  many  feet  high, and  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years  growth  may,  imder  ordinary  circumstances,  be 
removed  and  replanted  for  about  eight  shillings.  For 
trees  considerably  beyond  that  size,  the  expense 
will  be  much  greater  than  the  proportionate  size  of 
the  tree  would  lead  a  person  inexperienced  in  the 
business  to  suppose. 


ON    LEAVES   OF    PLANTS. 


BY  J.  S.  DUNCAN,  A.M. 


The  curiously  mechanised  organs  of  the  root  and 
stem  manifestly  tend  in  the  first  place  to  the 
formation  and  evolution  of  leaves.  "  The  leaf," 
says  Thomson,  Lect.  ix.  p.  478.  "  is  a  temporary 
organ  of  plants,  which  performs  nearly  the  same 
functions  in  the  economy  of  vegetable  life  which  the 
lungs  perform  in  that  of  animal  life  ;  or,  in  fewer 
words,  leaves  are  the  respiratory  organs  of  plants : 
in  aphyllous  (or  leafless)  plants,  the  surface  of  the 
stem  performs  the  function  of  the  leaves.  But 
herbs,  and  the  soft  part  of  woody  plants,  absorb 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere  by  the  pores  of  their 
epidermis,"  That  moisture  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves, 
as  well  as  by  the  root,  appears  manifest  from  the  ex- 
periments of  Du  Hamel,  Mariotte,  and  Bonnet,  enu- 
merated by  Keith,  vol.  ii.  ch.  iii.  p.  92.  The  mois- 
ture, thus  imbibed,  is  quickly  decomposed  in  the  leaf 
by  &  continual  and  rapid  process  of  perspiration, 
which  appears  necessary  to  the  decomposition, 
elaboration,  and  assimilation  of  the  components  of 
atmospheric  air  and  of  water,  the  elaboration  of  the 
sap,  of  carbonic  acid,  and  of  oxygen. 

"  The  principal  part  of  the  elaboration  of  the  sap," 
vol.  ii.  ch.iii.  p.  136,  "  is  operated  in  the  leaf:  for  the 
sap  no  sooner  reaches  the  leaf,  than  part  of  it  is  car- 


ried off  by  means  of  perspiration,  perceptible  or 
imperceptible  ;  effecting  a  change  in  its  component 
parts,  and  by  consequence  a  change  of  its  properties." 

"  Bonnet  has  shewn,  that  most  leaves  absorb 
moisture  better  by  one  surface  than  another  ;  and  it 
is  known  that  some  surfaces  actually  repel  it,  as 
drops  of  rain  roll  along  the  upper  surface  of  the  cab- 
bage leaf  without  wetting  it,"  ch.  iii.  p.  97- 

Various  experiments  show  that  leaves  vary  in  re- 
spect to  this  capacity,  some  absorbing  lietter  by  the 
upper,  some  by  the  lower  surface.  The  absorption 
was  thus  demonstrated  ))y  Mariotte.  He  cut  a 
branch  terminating  in  two  twigs,  one  was  suspended 
within,  the  other  hung  without  a  vessel  filled  with 
water  :  that  whicli  hung  without  preserved  its  ver- 
dure, while  the  other  withered. 

Leaves,  during  the  day,  and  particularly  in  the 
sun,  inhale  carbonic  acid  gas;  "  but  the  gas  thus  in- 
haled is  not  assimilated  immediately,  or  at  least  not 
wholly,  for  it  is  known  to  be  evolved  when  they  ve- 
getate in  the  shade,  and  during  the  night." 

Ingenhouz  observed,  "  that  leaves  placed  in  water 
and  exposed  to  tlie  sun's  rays  evolve  oxygen  gas  :" 
Sennebier  afterwards  ascertained,  "  that  this  process 
only  takes  place  when  leaves  are  fresh,  and  the  water 


ON  LEAVES  OF  PLANTS. 


69 


impregnated  with  carbonic  acid."  Of  the  effect  of 
light  in  promoting  this  process,  there  can  be  no 
doubt :  how  it  operates  is  yet  among  the  unexplored 
secrets  of  nature.  The  root,  the  wood,  the  petals, 
and  leaves,  that  are  faded,  and  have  lost  their  health- 
ful colour,  (which  is  commonly  green,  of  various 
shades,  but  sometimes  red  and  variegated,)  are  not 
found  to  exhale  oxygen  gas.  The  effect  is  operated 
chiefly  by  the  parenchyma,  or  green  portion  of  the 
plant.     Keith,  ch.  iii. 

The  parenchyma  is  fluid  or  granulated  matter, 
found  in  minute  cells  of  leaves  and  leaf-stalks.  "  In 
thin  leaves,  the  cells  near  the  inferior  disk  are  more 
transparent  than  those  near  the  vipper  disk  ;  but  in 
both  we  perceive  a  number  of  granules,  which  are 
more  opaque  and  of  a  deeper  green  as  the  cells  con- 
taining them  approach  the  upper  disk.  In  succulent 
leaves,  and  those  which  maintain  a  vertical  position, 
the  opacity  and  green  colour  of  the  granules  are  the 
same  towards  every  face  of  the  leaf;  but  they  are 
generally  colourless  in  the  centre.  In  the  cells  of 
some  leaves,  regidar  crystallized  salts  are  found,  in 
others  the  fluids  are  tinged  of  different  hues,  in 
which  cases  the  leaves  display  the  same  hues  on  one 
or  both  surfaces."     Thomson,  Lect.  x.  p.  595. 

Mr.  Keith,  after  noticing  that  oxygen  gas,  that 
constituent  of  atmospheric  air  which  has  been  found 
to  be  indispensable  to  the  life  of  animals,  is  no  less 
so  to  the  life  of  vegetables,  yet  nevertheless,  that 
plants  thrive  better  in  common  air  than  in  pure 
oxygen  gas,  concludes  excellently;  "  From  whence 
it  follows,  that  oxygen,  though  the  principal  agent 
in  the  process  of  vegetation,  is  yet  not  the  only  agent 
necessary  to  the  health  and  growth  of  the  plant, 
and  that  the  proportion  of  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  atmospheric  air  is  just  what  it  ought  to  be,  as 
well  for  the  purposes  of  vegetable  as  of  animal  life, 
being  at  once  an  indication  Ijoth  of  the  wisdom  and 
goodness  of  Him  by  whom  it  was  established."  Vol. 
ii.  p.  175, 

"  Among  fallen  leaves,  which  have  been  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  in  a  damp  place,  we 
find  some  in  which  the  cuticle  and  pulp  are  com- 
pletely destroyed  ;  whereas  the  ribs  or  veins,  as  they 
are  erroneously  termed,  being  less  susceptible  of  de- 
composition, remain  almost  entire,  and  display  a 
beautiful  tissue  of  complicated  net  work.  This  is 
the  vascular  system,  and  the  leaf  in  this  state  is 
termed  a  skeleton  leaf.  Artificial  preparations  of 
skeletons,  by  macerating  skins  in  water,  preserve 
the  most  minute  cords  of  the  vessels,  and  enable  us 
to  trace  with  the  greatest  readiness  the  divisions, 
sub-divisions,  and  various  ramifications  of  the  vas- 
cular fasciculi.  In  Phil.  Trans.  1730,  No.  414,  p. 
371,  Francis  Nichols  gives  an  account  of  the  skel- 
eton of  a  pear  leaf,  the  net-work  of  which  he  sjilit 
into  two  equal  layers."     Thomson,  Lect.  x.  p.  549. 

"  The  fibres  are  not  only  subdivided  into  a  variety 
of  ramifications  forming  a  fine  net-work,  but  that 


net- work  is  double;,  consisting  of  two  layers,  the  one 
corresponding  to  the  upper,  the  other  to  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaf.  No  language  is  able  to  convey 
an  idea  of  the  delicacy  and  intricacy  of  the  web. 
Linnfeus  discovered  the  points  of  union  between  the 
layers,  and  remarked  that  the  net-work  correspond- 
ing to  the  under  surface  was  much  less  firm  and 
compact  in  its  texture  than  that  corresponding  to 
the  upper  surface."     Keith,  vol.  i.  sec.  iv.  p.  275. 

"  Leaves,"  saj's  Sir  J.  E.  Smith's  Grammar  of  Bo- 
tany, p.  9.  "  receive  the  sap  from  the  wood  by  one 
set  of  vessels,  and  expose  it  to  the  action  of  the  air, 
light  and  heat,  by  their  upper  surface,  while  what  is 
superfluous  passes  off  by  the  under.  The  sap  thus 
changed,  assumes  peculiar  flavours,  odours,  and 
other  qualities,  and  is  sent  by  another  set  of  vessels 
into  the  bark,  to  which  it  adds  a  new  layer  every 
year  internally,  and  another  layer  to  the  external 
part  of  the  wood.  Hence  the  concentric  circles  in 
trees;  the  number  of  which  shows  their  age,  and  the 
breadth  of  each  circle  the  abundance  and  vigour  of 
the  foliage  which  formed  it." 

A  volume,  or  rather  many  volumes,  instead  of  a 
general  indicative  outline,  or  short  essay,  might  be 
fully  devoted  to  trace  the  analogy  between  the  vas- 
cular system  of  animals  and  that  of  plants.  That 
such  analogy  does  exist  to  a  certain  extent,  every 
reader  of  the  works  of  Keith,  Smith,  and  Thomson, 
must  be  readily  convinced.  Animals,  as  well  as 
plants,  derive  nutrition  and  the  maintenance  of  their 
subsistence  from  extraneous  substances ;  vessels  are 
placed  just  where  they  are  indispensably  requisite, 
adapted  to  select  the  juices  suited  to  such  purpose  in 
the  forms  of  sap  and  chyle  :  other  vessels  are  adapted 
to  receive  the  first  modified  fluid,  and  to  promote  its 
necessary  changes  into  proper  juice,  for  the  purpose 
of  various  assimilation  into  blood,  and  bile,  and  sa- 
liva, and  synovia,  &c.  in  animals,  and  into  saccha- 
rine and  other  juices,  oils,  and  resins,  in  plants. 
Leaves,  like  lungs,  expose  the  involved  fluids  to  the 
action  of  air  which  they  decompose,  and  in  that  ac- 
tion undergo  changes  essential  to  vitality.  Not  to 
pursue  the  comparison  further  than  this  point  for  the 
present,  it  is  scarce  possible  not  to  perceive,  even  in 
this  cursory  glance,  that  the  wide  difference  between 
the  locomotive  animal,  deriving  nutrition  only  frojn 
the  introsusception  of  previously  organized  sub- 
stances, and  the  permanently  fixed  vegetable,  "  ef- 
fecting the  development  of  its  parts  by  the  introsus- 
ception and  assimilation  of  unorganized  substances, 
derived  from  the  atmosphere  and  from  the  soil," 
(Keith,  vol.  ii.  p.  471),  cannot  be  the  result  of  one 
uniformly  acting  undesigning  principal,  one  blind 
impulse,  attraction,  or  gravitation  :  that  the  adapt- 
ation of  the  nicely  measured  and  suited  parts  and 
vessels  to  the  successive  purposes  and  the  common 
obvious  end,  the  continuance  of  vital  subsistence, 
must  be  the  result,  in  plants  as  well  as  in  animals,  of 
an  operative  power,  which  made  long  beforehand 


7<J 


ON  LEAVES  OF  PLANTS. 


preparations  for  changes  predestined  to  exist  at  a 
remote  season  ;  changes  necessary  to  the  continual 
production  and  support  of  successive  races  of  living 
beings,  capable  at  least  in  part,  if  not  in  the  whole, 
of  moral,  as  well  as  of  physical  enjoyment,  for  a 
period  distinctly  limited,  as  to  each  individual  of 
successively  life-receiving  and  life-yielding  beings, 
through  a  long  succession  of  generations. 

But  nothing  can  more  simply,  clearly,  and  obvi- 
ously display  the  unlimited  extent  of  that  mysteri- 
ously operating  power  or  spirit,  which  has  pervaded 
and  modified,  and  still  pervades  and  sustains  every 
part  of  creation,  from  the  bright  centres  of  celestial 
systems,  from  the  ellipses  of  the  planets  and  the  co- 
mets, to  the  nervous  ganglion  of  a  worm,  or  the  ca- 
lyptra  of  a  moss,  than  the  infinite  diversity  of  forms 
and  modifications  of  the  most  familiar  objects.  It 
seems  as  if  an  angel's  voice  was  heard  from  every 
leaf,  exclaiming  to  the  systematic  caviller.  Look  at 
the  leaves  of  one  hundred  thousand  species !  In 
every  species  they  are  different ;  among  myriads  of 
myriads  of  leaves  no  two  exactly  resemlile  each 
other  !  Of  the  varieties  of  forms,  surfaces,  attach- 
ments, directions,  consistences,  colours,  pubescence, 
aggregation,  &c.  of  gems,  or  buds,  of  footstalks,  of 
leaves,  and  of  their  general  appendages,  thorns,  ten- 
drils, glands,  bladders,  spathes,  involucra,  &c.  seve- 
ral hundreds  are  enumerated  in  Thomson's  "  Me- 
thodical Index  of  Organs,"  In  some  plants,  whose 
stems  are  very  succulent,  leaves  are  wholly  wanting, 
such  as  salicornia,  cuscuta,  stapelia.  What  terms  of 
language  could  so  strongly  express,  what  characters 
could  so  intelligibly  designate,  the  eternally  import- 
ant truth — The  power  that  made  this  scene  of  won- 
der is  a  living  law  unto  itself :  it  is  without  limit, 
capable  of  infinite  diversity,  controlling,  not  con- 
trolled by  any  properties,  vital,  mechanical,  or  che- 
mical ;  the  source  of  all  the  means  of  all  diversified 
existence,  of  all  relations  throughout  all  extent  and 
variety  of  being  ? 

On  the  subject  of  vegetable  vitality,  Keith  forci- 
bly observes,  vol.  ii.  p.  438.  "  The  best  evidence  of 
its  presence  is  that  of  its  rendering  the  subject  in 
which  it  inheres  capable  of  counteracting  the  laws 
of  chemical  affinity.  This  rule,  which  seems  to 
have  been  first  instituted  (especially  insisted  on)  by 
Humboldt,  is  obviously  applicable  to  the  case  of  ani- 
mals, as  is  proved  by  the  process  of  the  digestion  of 
food,  and  its  conversion  into  chyle  and  blood ;  as 


well  as  from  the  various  secretions  and  excretions 
effected  by  the  several  organs,  and  effecting  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  individual,  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  acknowledged  laws  of  chemical 
affinity  ;  which,  as  soon  as  the  vital  principal  is  ex- 
tinct, (j.  e.  withdrawn,)  begin  immediately  to  give 
indication  of  their  action,  in  the  incipient  symptoms 
of  the  putrefaction  of  the  dead  body.  But  the  rule 
is  applicable  to  the  case  of  vegetables,  as  is  proved 
by  the  introsusception,  digestion,  and  assimilation, 
of  the  food  necessary  to  their  development ;  all  in- 
dicating the  agency  of  a  principal  capable  of  coun- 
teracting the  laws  of  chemical  affinity,  which,  at  the 
period  of  what  is  usually  called  the  death  of  the 
plant,  begin  also  immediately  to  act,  and  to  give  evi- 
dence of  their  action,  in  the  incipient  symptoms  of 
the  putrefaction  of  the  vegetable." 

It  must  be  further  observed,  that  the  relations  of 
leaves  extend  far  beyond  the  mere  nutrition  of  the 
plant,  of  which  they  form  a  part.  They  contribute, 
in  their  healthy  state,  to  maintain  the  purity  and  sa- 
lubrity of  the  atmosphere  during  the  action  of  light 
upon  their  surfaces,  which  surfaces,  it  is  obvious, 
must  far  exceed  in  their  aggregate  of  extent,  that  of 
the  whole  earth,  perhaps  of  the  whole  terraqueous 
globe,  They  afford  to  the  far  greater  number  of 
animals  the  principal  portion  of  their  food.  The 
teeth  and  stomachs  of  the  larger  grazing  animals, 
the  pachydermata,  and  ruminantia,  and  most  of  the 
rodentia,  demonstrate  their  special  destination  and 
adaptation  to  this  species  of  food.  Is  it  possible  to 
consider  these  extensive  relations  of  one  totally  dis- 
tinct class  of  beings  to  another  of  a  widely  different 
nature,  and  conclude  that  such  close  and  multitudi- 
nous connexions,  of  adaptations,  ties,  and  mutual 
dependences,  can  be  casual,  or  without  an  adapting, 
an  arranging  cause  ?  Is  svich  conclusion  reason,  or 
is  it  madness  ?  But  leaves  supply  no  small  portion 
of  the  food  of  man:  the  varieties  of  cabbage,  spinach, 
lettuce,  celery,  thyme,  sage,  sorrel,  parsley,  fennel, 
are  too  familiar  for  further  enumeration.  In  Britain, 
as  well  as  in  China,  tea  has  become  almost  a  neces- 
sary part  of  food  amongst  all  ranks  ;  and  since  the 
days  of  Raleigh,  the  luxury  of  tobacco  has,  with  ra- 
pid and  unexampled  progress  of  proselytism,  spread 
its  influence,  holding,  like  wine,  a  sort  of  middle 
rank  between  food  and  medicine,  from  the  western 
coasts  of  America  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  Asia. 


71 


ON  THE  EXCRETORY  POWERS  OF  PLANTS* 


BY  S.  W. 


I  HAVE  read  with  considerable  interest  the  articles  on 
the  rotation  of  crops  and  the  excretory  powers  of 
plants  in  the  two  last  numbers  of  the  journal,  and 
do  hope  that  some  of  your  correspondents  may  soon, 
by  further  experiment,  be  enabled  to  give  more  in- 
formation on  the  subject.  In  the  mean  time,  I 
would  offer  you  a  few  remarks  which  have  occurred 
to  my  mind. 

You  inform  us,  that  M.  Macaire  seems  to  have 
ascertained  that  plants  which  display  their  flowers, 
exude  matter  from  their  roots ;  and  I  am  inclined 
to  think  that  it  is  only  then,  or  when  plants  are 
forming  and  ripening  their  seeds,  or  dying,  that 
exudation  takes  place  to  any  extent,  or  such  as  to 
render  the  soil  again  unfit  for  carrying  the  same 
crop  to  advantage  ;  for  we  know  that  onions,  and  I 
believe,  I  may  say,  every  garden  vegetable,  may  be 
cultivated  in  the  same  plot  of  ground  year  after  year, 
with  the  assistance  of  manure,  to  advantage,  except 
pease  and  beans,  which  are  permitted  to  form  the 
seed.  Your  correspondent,  Mr.  Towers,  also  justly 
includes  the  rasp  amongst  the  defilers  of  soil,  which 
I  would  account  for  by  its  peculiar  growth,  namely, 
the  wood  dying  every  year,  after  having  yielded  the 
fruit. 

This  new  discovery  (if  I  may  so  call  it)  explains 
the  remark  of  that  wonderful  man.  Lord  Kames,  in 
the  "  Gentleman  Farmer,"  that  plants  exhaust  or 
defile  the  soil  chiefly  whenforming  and  ripening  their 
seed.  "  Culmiferous  plants,"  says  his  lordship, 
"  having  small  leaves,  and  few  in  number,  depend 
mostly  on  the  soil  for  nourishment,  and  little  on  the 
air.  During  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  they  draw 
probably,  their  whole  nourishment  from  the  soil,  as 
the  leaves  by  this  time,  being  dry  and  withered, 
must  have  lost  their  power  of  drawing  nourishment 
from  the  air.  Now,  as  culmiferous  plants  are  chiefly 
cultivated  for  seed,  and  are  not  cut  down  till  the 
seed  be  fully  ripe,  they  may  be  pronounced  all  of 
them  robbers,  some  more  and  some  less.  But  such 
plants,  while  young,  are  all  leaves,  and  in  that  state 
draw  most  of  their  nourishment  from  the  air. 
Hence  it  is,  that  when  cut  green  for  food  to  cattle,  a 
culmiferous  crop  is  far  from  being  a  robber."  But 
to  show  that  they  defile  it  only,  and  do  not  exhaust 
it, — I  tried  an  experiment  about  five  years  ago  : 
Having  often  seen  cresses  growing  in  flannel 
moistened  with  water,  I  took  that  plant  for  my  ex- 
periment, and  sowed  the  seeds  in  a  flower  pot  filled 
with  stocking,  well  washed  to  take  the  oil  out  of  it ; 


and  the  plants  not  only  grew,  but  ripened  their 
seeds,  thus  proving  that  plants  do  not  require  soil  to 
bring  them  to  maturity. 

The  practice  of  General  Beaston  sowing  wheat 
on  the  same  land  year  after  year,  (not  that  I  recom- 
mend it,)  cannot,  I  think,  be  explamed  on  any  other 
theory  than  that  of  destroying  or  decomposing  the 
exudation  of  wheat  by  fire,  that  he  was  enabled  to 
get  such  crops  as  he  did.  But  I  consider  liming  a 
better  way  of  decomposing  the  exudation  of  plants ; 
and  as  grass,  oats,  and  barley  are  all  of  the  same  fa- 
mily, I  have  no  doubt  that  this  is  one  reason  why  it 
answers  so  well  to  lime  land  when  laying  it  down  to 
grass,  and  sowing  barley;  namely,  the  lime  decom- 
po.ses  the  exudation  of  the  barley,  and  prevents  its 
injuring  the  grass  plants.  Many  old  fashioned 
farmers  are  still  fond  of  spreading  lime  on  grass 
land  before  breaking  it  up  for  oats ;  and  I  have  no 
doubt,  in  the  same  way,  the  lime,  by  acting  on  the 
exudation  of  the  grasses,  prepares  it  as  food  for  the 
oats,  which  it  might  otherwise  injure. 

I  therefore  hope  you  will  continue  to  encourage 
those  who  are  enabled  to  make  experiments  on 
grasses,  and  particularly  as  to  the  time  when  the 
exudation  from  their  roots  takes  place,  as  we  would 
then  be  taught  the  proper  time  for  cutting  hay  ;  we 
would  be  taught  if  it  was  desirable  to  depasture  our 
grasses  so  close  as  to  prevent  them  seeding  or 
flowering  ; — we  would  be  taught  whether  or  not  we 
ought  on  all  occasions  to  be  at  the  expense  of  peren- 
nial grass  seeds,  if,  by  the  dying  of  the  annual  rye- 
grass, the  land  is  rendered  afterwards  unfit  for  oats; 
— perhaps  we  would  be  taught  not  to  take  oats  at  all 
in  breaking  up  from  grass,  which  is  almost  the  uni- 
versal practice  at  present,  for  we  ought  to  remember 
that  oats  and  grass  are  of  the  same  family.  I  feel 
confident  that  in  this  particular,  alteration  may  be 
made  with  advantage  in  the  general  rotation  of  the 
countiy  ;  and  I  have  no  doubt  another  crop  may  be 
had  without  any  extra  manure,  which  would  be  no 
small  advantage  to  the  farmer.  I  am  not  prepared 
to  say  what  crop  should  be  taken  in  breaking  up 
from  grass.  That  must  depend  much  upon  the  soil 
and  other  circumstances  ;  but  I  have  known  beans 
taken  with  advantage,  and  it  must  be  either  beans, 
vetches,  pease,  or  potatoes  ;  then  oats,  turnips,  with 
dung,  barley,  grass,  keeping  the  land  in  grass  one, 
two,  or  three  years,  and  giving  lime  with  the  barley 
every  twelve  or  fourteen  years. 


From  the  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture." 


72 


ON  THE  GROWTH  AND  CULTURE  OF  TULIPS  * 


By  \V.  B.  p.  OF  HULL. 


The  plan  I  have  purs\ied  for  tlie  last  twenty  years 
is  simple,  and  one  I  have  always  found  to  answer  my 
most  sanguine  expectations  except  through  misfor- 
tune by  frost,  hail,  &c. ;  against  such  unforeseen  cir- 
cumstances it  is  almost  impossible  to  guard.  I  al- 
ways plant  my  tulips  about  the  8th  to  12th  of  No- 
vember, 3i  to  4  inches  deep,  on  a  bed  raised  by  side 
boards  about  a  foot  from  the  surface  ;  which  in  our 
heavy  cold  soil  gives  room  for  the  superfluous  water 
to  drain  off.  I  always  plant  them  in  the  soil  taken 
from  the  ranimculus  bed,  which  ranunculus  bed  I 
generally  manure  at  the  latter  part  of  the  year  with 
cow  dung,  and  throw  the  tulip  bed  on  the  ranunculus 
bed,  which  is  manured  again  in  the  same  manner, 
with  an  excejjtion  in  the  year  1832;  that  season  I 
manured  my  ranuncidusses  with  rape  dust.  I  took 
of  the  soil  as  before,  and  I  never  remember  having 
had  so  fine  a  bloom ;  this  at  once  proves  the  supe- 
riority of  the  manure.  I  generally  take  out  a  spade 
depth.  Some  florists  will  tell  you  manure  will  cause 
them  to  run  in  colours  ;  this  I  grant  will  be  the 
case  if  due  care  be  not  taken  to  use  the  manure  suf- 
ficiently old  and  well  neutralized,  and  deprived  of 
its  poisonous  qualities,  as  acids,  salts  of  iron,  and  all 
metallic  substances,  by  the  action  of  sun  and  air ; 
with  such  care  they  will  never  run,  as  I  have  tried 
maiden  soil,  soil  slightly  manured,  and  the  above 
soil  from  the  ranunculus  bed,  manured  with  rape 
dust,  and  I  never  witnessed  so  strong  and  regular 
a  bloom.  I  must  also  beg  to  differ  from  an  old 
grower  respecting  the  existence  of  those  small  worms 
which  are  not  wire  worms,  but  are  generated  in  the 
bulb  from  disease  or  injury  by  frost  or  hail  storms, 
and  not  from  a  disposition  of  adhering  to  good  flow- 
ers more  than  bad,  but  owing  to  the  finer  sorts  be- 


ing more  tender  and  delicate,  consequently  more  lia- 
ble to  be  attacked  by  disease,  which  may  also  be  oc- 
casioned by  a  portion  of  fresh  mjinure  coming  into 
immediate  contact  with  the  bulb ;  yet  I  believe  frost, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  is  the  prevailing  cause  of 
disease,  as  one  season  I  had  nearly  the  whole  of  my 
bed  injured  by  it  more  or  less,  and  the  whole  of  the 
injured  bulbs  were  attacked  by  those  small  worms, 
and  it  was  two  years  before  I  could  recover  them  ; 
many  were  completely  destroyed  in  the  ground,  and 
others  went  oif  after  being  taken  up.  I  this  season 
had  a  bed  lying  east  and  west,  which  were  all  more 
or  less  injured  by  a  severe  hail  storm  in  the  latter 
part  of  April ;  whilst  another  north  and  south  was 
not  injured  at  all,  though  only  a  walk  separated  the 
two  beds ;  the  former  on  being  taken  up,  were  many 
of  them  nearly  wholly  destroyed  by  hundreds  of 
those  marauders,  and  I  have  not  the  least  shadow  of 
a  doubt  of  their  being  attacked  in  consequence  of 
their  getting  diseased  by  one  or  both  of  tlie  above 
causes ;  and  as  a  preventive  I  should  recommend 
a  net  about  half  inch  mash,  to  be  thrown  over  the 
stage  about  the  latter  part  of  April,  as  we  have  for 
the  last  three  years  had  severe  storms  of  hail  about 
this  time,  and  suff'er  it  to  remain  until  it  is  necessary 
to  put  on  the  main  covering ;  this  will  not  injure  the 
flowers  or  weaken  them,  but  may  prevent  a  severe 
loss.  I  should  also  recommend  Tulipus  to  use  a  rich 
maiden  loamy  soil,  the  soil  from  his  ranunculus  bed, 
or  if  he  does  not  grow  them,  to  use  the  soil  from  his 
carnation  pots.  They  may  be  grown  in  the  loam 
one  year,  and  the  second  year  add  one  sixth  dung 
from  the  cucumber  bed,  and  one  sixth  coarse  sand. 

Hull,  June  13,  1833. 


ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS  IN  LANARKSHIRE.! 


BY  W.  AITON,    ESQ. 


The  modes  of  planting  and  managing  fruit  trees, 
have  been  variously  conducted  and  understood  by 
gardeners  and  orchardists,  and  many  plans  have  been 
suggested  for  promoting  their  growth,  and  render- 
ing them  productive  of  fruit  of  an  improved  qua- 
lity ;  but  some  of  these  plans  have  been  found  to  be 
rather  fanciful,  and  have  been  abandoned.  Per- 
ceiving that  all  sorts  of  trees  grow  well  in  rich  deep 
soil,  some  have  not  only  heaped  rich  earth  together, 
for  fruit  trees  to  grow  on,  but  have  laid  flags,  or 


formed  causeways,  under  the  trees,  to  prevent  them 
extending  their  roots  into  the  sub-soil.  It  has  been 
stated  in  favour  of  these  precautions,  that,  on  dig- 
ging up  an  ancient  garden  at  Deer,  it  was  found 
that  a  bed  of  rich  earth  had  been  laid  to  a  consider- 
able depth  over  the  sub-soil,  a  causeway  had  been 
formed  above  that  earth,  a  bed  of  sand,  of  a  foot 
deep  over  the  pavement,  and  into  which  the  trees 
had  been  planted.  This  sort  of  preparation  of  the 
soil  for  fruit  trees  appears  to  have  been  done  at  a 


From  "  Florist's  Magazine." 


t  From  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture." 


ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARDS. 


73 


vast  expense,  to  little  purpose.  The  two  causeways 
could  do  no  good,  as  the  roots  of  the  trees  would 
easily  penetrate  both  of  them,  and  enter  the  sub- 
soil in  spite  of  all  that  costly  preparation. 

The  intelligent  orchardists  in  Lanarkshire,  have 
acquired  more  correct  knowledge  in  managing 
orchards,  than  the  monks  had  prior  to  the  reforma- 
tion, so  that  their  horticultural  practices  have  re- 
quired reformation,  as  well  as  their  theological  opi- 
nions. Some  modern  orchardists  have  indeed  placed 
flat  stones  under  fruit  trees,  to  prevent  as  they  con- 
ceived, the  roots  reaching  the  sub-soil ;  but  it  has 
always  been  found  that  the  trees  extended  their 
roots  over,  around,  and  under  the  stones  into  the 
sub-soil.  Others  have  dug  pits,  several  feet  in 
width  and  depth,  and  filled  them  with  rich  mould  ; 
But  when  such  pits  were  dug  in  clay-land,  they 
could  not  fail  to  be  filled  with  water  among  the 
mould,  and  which  the  clay  would  retain,  so  as  to 
injure  the  roots  of  the  trees  far  more  than  if  no  such 
pits  had  been  dug,  and  the  trees  had  been  allowed 
to  follow  their  own  course  in  extending  their  roots. 
It  was  on  the  same  erroneous  principle  that  mounds 
of  rich  earth  were  raised  for  fences,  and  the  thorns 
planted  upright,  three  or  four  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  to  preA'ent  them  striking  root  in  the 
cold  tilly  sub-soil,  which  was  imagined  to  be  the 
cause  of  their  becoming  stunted  in  growth  and 
covered  with  fog.  The  folly  of  attempting  to  prove 
either  trees  or  thorns  to  grow  secundum  artem,  is  now 
seen  in  its  proper  point  of  view,  and  abandoned. 

Some  have  recommended  to  dig  or  trench  the 
ground  which  the  fruit  trees  are  to  occupy  about 
eighteen  inches  deep  ;  but  if  the  ground  is  nearly 
level,  and  the  sub-soil  retentive,  the  water  in  that 
case  would  remain  about  the  roots  of  the  trees  and 
injure  them.  If  trenching  the  ground  be  at  all  re- 
sorted to,  it  ought  to  be  extended  over  the  whole 
orchard  ground.  But  if  it  is  executed  in  a  sterile 
clay-soil,  resting  on  a  tilly  bottom,  the  better  earth 
would  be  buried  under  a  foot  of  barren  sub-soil, 
which  it  would  require  much  manure  and  labour  to 
enrich ;  while  the  former  soil  being  buried,  would 
soon  become  inert.  In  bare  clay-land,  like  that  of 
the  Clydesdale  orchards,  it  is  probably  the  best 
course  to  dig  up  the  soil  with  spades,  about  ten 
inches  deep,  preserve  it  from  being  buried  under 
barren  earth,  and  enrich  it  as  much  as  possible  with 
manure,  and  occasional  exposure  to  sun  and  frost  to 
render  it  friable. 

The  orchardists  in  Lanarkshire  have  relinquished 
the  practice  of  placing  flags  under  the  fruit  trees, 
and  they  neither  make  pits,  nor  trench  the  ground 
eighteen  inches  deep,  or  more  than  ordinary  delving 
with  spades.  They  plant  the  trees  only  from  six  to 
eight  inches  deep,  and  raise  the  earth  a  foot  or  18 
inches  round  them,  a  few  inches  above  their  roots, 
to  enable  them  to  withstand  the  blast. 

Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  in  La- 

MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANT  AND  GARDENING,  VOL  II.  NO.  XIV.- 


narkshire  as  to  how  far  the  fruit  trees  should  stand 
from  each  other,  and  errors  have  been  run  into 
both  in  planting  too  near  and  too  sparse.  In  the 
Dalziel  orchards,  and  some  others,  the  rows  of  trees 
are  twenty-two  feet  apart,  and  eleven  feet  distance 
in  the  rows.  The  trees  in  the  orchard  at  West 
Brownlee  are  closer.  In  the  new  orchard  on  the 
estate  of  Wishaw,  the  rows  are  at  thirty  feet  dis- 
tance, and  fifteen  feet  from  each  other  in  the  rows. 
On  the  Coltness  estate,  the  rows  are  twenty-seven 
feet,  and  the  trees  ten  and  a-half  feet  from  one  ano- 
ther in  the  rows.  Some,  however,  are  sparser,  and 
in  some  of  the  oldest  orchards  the  trees  are  irregu- 
larly planted.  In  general,  however,  they  are 
planted  closer  than  is  usually  done  in  the  English 
orchards.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  the  Clydes- 
dale orchards  to  plant  an  early  bearer,  alternately 
with  other  trees  in  the  rows  ;  and  some  plant  goose- 
berry and  currant  bushes  between  the  trees ;  while 
others  raise  only  potatoes,  oats,  &c. 

In  all  the  Lanarkshire  orchards,  every  spring  or 
damp  ground  is  carefully  drained,  with  either  open 
or  covered  drains.  But  in  all  clay-land,  a  covered 
furrow  drain  ought  to  be  formed  between  each  row 
of  trees.  The  great  advantage  of  furrow-draining, 
in  all  heavy  soils,  is  now  universally  admitted  :  and 
it  seems  more  necessary  in  orchard  ground  than  in 
arable  land,  as  the  trees  overshadowing  the  ground 
create  more  damp  than  when  the  grain  crops  are 
taken  ;  and  as  the  roots  of  trees  grow  deeper  into  the 
earth  than  those  of  corn  plants,  draining  in  orchards 
is  necessary  to  relieve  the  soil  of  all  stagnant  mois- 
ture. Young  fruit  trees  require  ropes  of  straw,  or 
sprigs  of  broom,  to  be  tied  round  them,  to  prevent 
their  bark  being  eaten  by  hares.  Either  of  these 
means  are  preferable  to  besmearing  the  trees  with 
soot,  or  any  other  nasty  substance. 

After  trees  have  been  planted  for  five  or  six 
years,  they  ought  to  be  divested  of  such  branches  as 
seem  to  point  too  near  to  the  ground,  and  that  rub 
upon  one  another.  Some  orchardists  liave  at- 
tempted to  train  their  fruit-trees,  so  as  to  send  out 
branches  in  every  direction,  and  to  have  the  tree 
open  in  the  middle.  This  method,  however,  is  not 
in  every  case  practicable  with  fruit-trees,  and  par- 
ticularly in  regard  to  pear-trees,  which  frequently 
tower  high  up  in  the  top.  It  is  a  better,  and  still 
more  common  practice,  to  allow  trees  to  take  every 
one  its  own  shape,  and  merely  to  lop  off',  with  due 
caution,  such  branches  as  hang  too  near  the  ground; 
and  they  are  not  so  much  shaken  by  the  wind  as 
branches  that  soar  higher.  Wherever  blotches 
appear  on  trees,  they  ought  to  be  cut  off  to  prevent 
their  forming  ulcers.  All  sorts  of  moss  ought  to  be 
removed  from  fruit-trees,  and  the  fruit  should  never 
be  pulled  from  the  trees  when  it  is  damp.  It  is 
better  to  take  the  fruit  off"  with  the  hand  than  to 
shake  the  trees,  which  injures  both  them  and  the 
fruit.  Those  who  purchase  the  fruit  have  the 
-MAY,  1834  ^ 


74 


ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  OKCHARDS. 


trouble  of  taking  it  off  the  trees  ;  but  they  do  not 
always  exercise  sufficient  caution  to  save  the  trees 
from  injury. 

The  produce  of  the  Clydesdale  orchards,  consisting 
of  apples,  pears,  plums,  and  small  fruit,  has  hitherto 
been  disposed  of  as  fruit  for  family  use,  or  sold  to 
retail  dealers  in  Glasgow,  Paisley,  Hamilton,  La- 
nark, &c. ;  and  part  of  it  has  often  been  disposed  of 
in  Edinburgh.  But  now  that  the  prices  of  apples 
and  pears  have  fallen  to  less  than  one  third  part  of 
what  they  brought  about  twenty  years  ago,  and  from 
the  great  expense  of  carting  fruit  to  market,  the 
orchardist  would  do  well  to  consider  if  it  could  not 
be  manufactured  into  cider  and  perry.  It  is  well 
known  that  apples  raised  from  a  clay-soil  make  the 
best  cider,  and  from  the  best  information  I  have 
been  able  to  procure,  from  twenty-four  to  thirty 
bushels  of  apples  yield  a  hogshead,  or  one  hundred 
and  ten  gallons  of  cider,  the  price  of  which  varies 
from  1/.  5s.  to  21.  2s.  per  hogshead.  In  Hereford- 
shire, twenty  hogsheads  of  cider  have  often  been 
made  from  the  apples  grown  upon  an  English  acre 
of  land,  although  no  more  than  forty  trees  grow  on 
an  acre.  If  a  part  of  the  fruit  in  Lanarkshire  were 
converted  into  cider  and  perry,  when  the  crops  are 
most  abundant,  and  only  the  marketable  part  of  the 
crop,  or  what  is  known  in  Glasgow  by  the  name  of 
"  shop  fruit,"  were  sold,  a  considerable  sum  might 
be  raised  by  beverages,  whilst  the  value  of  the 
marketable  fruit  might  be  kept  at  a  remunerating 
price.  Should  the  return  from  cider  and  perry  fall 
short  of  the  price  the  fruit  brought  some  time  ago 
in  the  Glasgow  market,  the  expense  of  the  carriage 
of  the  fruit  at  all  events  would  be  saved.  I  under- 
stand that  tlie  whole  apparatus  and  utensils  for 
making  cider  may  be  fitted  up  for  about  50/. ;  and 
that  two  or  three  of  these  establishments  would  be 
sufficient  to  bruise  one-half  of  the  fruit  that  these 
orchards  produce  annually. 

From  the  vast  quantity  of  gooseberries  and  cur- 
rants now  raised  in  the  Clydesdale  orchards,  and  in 
every  garden  in    that  country,   their  prices  have 


fallen  to  about  one-half,  or  two-third  parts  of  what 
they  brought  some  years  ago.  But  as  immense 
quantities  of  them  are  now  made  into  jam,  jelly,  and 
wine,  as  well  as  into  tarts  and  other  confectionary 
articles ;  condiments  so  wholesome  and  palatable 
cannot  fail  to  be  in  high  request  among  all  ranks  of 
people.  These  fruits,  in  fact,  occupy  the  same 
place  in  Scotland  that  the  vines  do  in  warmer  coun- 
tries. Apples  and  pears  are  eaten  in  France  and 
Belgium  as  food  along  with  bread  of  rye ;  and  in 
Cornwall  and  some  parts  of  England,  the  labouring 
people  eat  fruit  instead  of  bread  or  potatoes,  and 
prefer  the  fruit  to  either  of  them. 

Under  crops  of  potatoes,  oats,  beans,  barley,  &c., 
are  raised  to  a  considerable  extent  among  the  fruit- 
trees  in  the  Lanarkshire  orchards,  though  not  in 
that  regular  order  as  to  be  traced  to  any  specific  ro- 
tation of  cropping.  Potatoes  with  dung  are  gene- 
rally followed  by  oats,  and  next  by  clover  and  rye 
grass.  Where  the  trees  are  planted  near  to  each 
other,  the  orchard  small,  and  the  ground  steep,  the 
ground  is  dug  with  spades  for  the  under  cropping  ; 
and  even  where  the  plough  is  used,  three  or  four 
feet  on  each  side  of  the  trees  are  dug  with  the  spade, 
to  prevent  the  trapping  of  the  horses  injuring  the 
trees.  After  the  trees  have  grown  twenty  years, 
milch  cows  are  sometimes  allowed  to  browse  in  the 
orchards.  But  the  ground  requires  to  be  broken 
up,  manured,  and  cropped  every  few  years,  in  order 
to  enrich  the  soil,  for  the  benefit  of  the  fruit-trees, 
and  to  prevent  their  becoming  stunted  in  growth 
and  covered  with  moss.  The  tacksmen  of  the  cot- 
tage orchards  are  bound  in  their  leases  to  manure 
their  orchards  every  four  years.  This  is  necessary 
in  the  sterile  grounds  on  which  many  of  these  or- 
chards have  been  formed,  and  especially  when  the 
trees  are  young.  Even  in  richer  land,  the  health 
and  fecundity  of  the  trees  are  promoted  by  under 
digging,  and  the  application  of  manure.  The  under 
crops  themselves  far  more  than  repay  the  dung  and 
labour  bestowed  on  the  land. 


ROYLE'S  HIMALAYAN  BOTANY.* 


This  is  a  splendid  and  interesting  work  on  the 
botany  of  a  district  rich  in  the  productions  of  natural 
history.  The  opportunities  which  the  author  en- 
joyed as  superintendent  of  the  Company's  garden 
at  Saharunpore,  he  employed  in  forming  an  exten- 
sive herbarium,  and  procuring  all  possible  informa- 
tion on  the  subjects  of  his  peculiar  pursuits.  The 
results  are  to  be  published  in  the  work  before  us, 
which,  however,  being   in  parts,   we  have  as  yet 


only  a  small  portion  of  what  is  to  come.  He  com- 
mences with  an  introduction  embracing  a  few  ne- 
cessary geographical  details,  among  which  our  read- 
ers must  be  pleased  with  the  following : — 

"  The  plants  of  Kunawur  have  generally  a  dry 
sombre  aspect,  few  leaves,  and  those  small,  fre- 
quently inserted  in  a  cluster  round  the  root,  from 
the  centre  of  which  rises  the  scape  of  generally 
large  and  showy  flowers.      The  petioles  not  under- 


*  "  Illustrations  of  the  Botany  and  other  branches  of  the  Natural  History  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains,  and  of  the  Flora  of 
Cashmere."  By  J.  Forbes  Royle,  Esq.,  F.L.S.  &  G.S.,  M.R.A.S.  Of  the  Honourable  East  India  Company's  Medical  Esta- 
blishment ;  Member  of  the  Asiatic,  Medical,  Agricultural,  and  Horticvdtural  Societies  of  Calcutta ;  and  Late  Superintendent  of 
the  Honourable  Company's  Botanic  Garden  at  Sahaninpore. 


ROYLE  S  HIMALAYAN  BOTANY. 


75 


» 


going  decomposition,  from  the  dryness  of  the  climate, 
remain  attached  round  the  plant,  and  as  they  be- 
come pushed  outwards  by  the  growth  of  internal 
parts,  the  cellular  parts  are  destroyed,  while  the 
fibrous  remain,  and  protect  the  root,  as  with  a  cover- 
ing of  air,  from  the  severity  of  the  weather.  One 
peculiarity  is  remarkable,  and  that  is,  the  resem- 
blance externally  between  the  plants  and  this  cold 
region  and  those  of  the  desert-like  country  near 
Delhi ;  but  this  is  observable  only  in  the  parts  of 
vegetation,  and  not  in  those  of  fructification,  for  in 
the  cold  climate,  the  flowers  are  large  and  shoTi-y, 
and  in  the  hot,  small  and  inconspicuous :  in  both 
the  shrubs  are  stunted,  thorny,  and  frequently  hairy; 
the  wood  scanty,  hard,  and  compact ;  while  the  sur- 
face of  each  is  dry,  and  of  an  ash  grey  or  pale  green 
colour.  The  only  similarity  in  climate  is,  that  in 
each  there  is  great  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  ;  the 
the  resemblance  therefore  is  probably  dependent  on 
peculiarity  of  the  transpiratory  surface.  Capparis 
and  Salsola  are  almost  the  only  genera  common  to 
both  situations ;  the  latter  evidently  owing  to  the 
soil  of  each  being  covered  with  saline  efflorescence." 

We  are  much  pleased  with  general  remarks  of 
this  description,  and  wish  we  could  more  frequently 
see  them  introduced  in  works  on  botany,  though  it 
is  not  always  to  be  expected  that  a  mere  collector 
of  specimens  or  a  Jussieuan  botanist,  eagerly  dissect- 
ing fruit  and  flowers  to  detect  fanciful  analogies  run- 
ning through  what  he  terms  families  and  orders, 
can  either  have  leisure  or  tact  for  this  purpose, 
warped,  as  all  his  thoughts  must  be,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  a  theory.  We  are  glad  to  give  another 
specimen  of  the  matter  of  which  we  cordially  ap- 
prove, before  we  come  to  what  is  objectionable. 

"  If,"  says  Mr.  Royle,  "  instead  of  keeping  on 
mountain  tops,  we  descend  into  the  vallies  on  their 
northern  face,  we  shall  observe  that,  with  many  of 
the  phenomena  peculiar  to  such  localities,  there  is 
considerable  modification  in  the  vegetation  of  each, 
according  to  elevation  and  latitude.  The  valley  of 
Cashmere,  situated  between  the  thirty-fourth  and 
tliirty-fifth  parallels  of  latitude,  in  the  most  northern 
part  of  Himalaya,  and  to  which  we  descend  to 
the  snow-clad  summit  of  Peerpunjal,  is  described  as 
being  of  an  oval  form,  encircled  by  mountains  clothed 
with  vegetation,  which  are  themselves  girded  by  a 
higher  range  covered  with  snow.  The  level  of  the 
valley  is  of  considerable  extent,  being  about  sixty 
miles  in  length,  and  about  forty  in  breadth  in  the 
widest  part ;  its  elevation  is  estimated  by  the  late 
lamented  traveller,  M.  Jacquemont,  to  be  from  5,248 
5,576 ;  he  however  states  that  the  beauty  of  this 
valley  has  been  much  exaggerated,  both  by  his  coun- 
tryman Bernier  and  by  Mr.  Forster.  But  there  is 
no  doubt  that,  in  consequence  of  its  being  copiously 
watered  by  numerous  streams,  lakes,  and  canals, 
there  is  considerable  moisture  both  of  soil  and 
climate,  and   almost  constant  verdure ;  while  the 


numerous  gardens,  and  the  great  variety  of  fruit- 
trees  and  of  beautiful  flowers,  must  always  strike 
visitors  from  the  arid  plains  of  India,  whether  Eu- 
ropeans, as  Bernier  and  Forster,  or  Asiatics,  as 
Abul  Fuzl.  From  the  mixed  nature  of  the  culti- 
vation, the  climate  must  evidently  be  mild  and  tem- 
perate, for  even  in  the  warmest  months  of  summer 
the  breezes  which  descend  at  night  from  tlie  moun- 
tains are  always  cool  and  pleasant ;  the  periodical 
rains  consist  of  gentle  showers,  and  the  snows 
which  fall  in  winter  cannot  remain  long  upon  the 
ground.  Abul  Fuzl  says,  that  it  rains  and  snows 
here  at  the  same  season,  as  in  Tartary  and  Persia; 
and  that  during  the  periodical  rains  in  Hindoostan 
light  showers  only  fall  here,  though  with  great 
violence  on  the  mountains  which  form  the  barrier 
to  the  south-east. 

"  From  the  northern  latitude  and  great  elevation 
of  the  valley  of  Cashmere,  we  are  not  surprised  at 
finding  in  its  flora  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of 
European  countries ;  but  the  moisture  of  the  climate, 
and  its  mild  temperature  in  the  season  of  vegeta- 
tion, causes  so  great  an  extension  of  the  herbaceous 
parts,  as  well  as  of  the  flowers  of  plants,  that  many 
of  them  rival  in  luxuriance  those  of  tropical  coun- 
tries. The  mildness  and  moisture  of  the  climate  is 
indicated  by  the  extensive  cultivation  of  rice,  as 
well  as  by  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  Cticur- 
bitacea,  as  no  where  are  there  finer  and  larger 
melons,  water-melons,  gourds,  and  cucimibers.  The 
kidney  bean,  though  not  common  in  the  gardens  of 
the  north-western  provinces,  thrives  remarkably  well 
in  Cashmere,  as  well  as  the  egg-plant  and  the  cap- 
sicum, The  lakes  abound  with  Trophis  bispinosa, 
and  species  of  Nymphtea  Menyanthes.  The  existence 
of  hemp  and  of  species  of  balsam,  of  marsh-tree, 
and  common  mallow,  all  indicate  a  temperate  cli- 
mate, as  do  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  barley,  and 
saffron,  together  with  the  culture  in  their  gardens 
of  such  European  vegetables  as  turnip,  radish,  beet- 
root, and  cabbage  ;  and  the  usage  of  clover  as  fodder 
for  cattle ;  all  proving  the  approximation  in  vegeta 
tion  to  that  of  European  countries,  as  has  been 
already  indicated  with  regard  to  the  climate  by  the 
testimony  of  so  many  travellers.  The  other  genera 
of  which  species  have  been  brought  down  by  the 
plant  collectors  are  chiefly  European,  as  Viola,  Trol- 
lius,  Dianthus,  MatUola,  Cheiranthus,  Draba,  Cap- 
sella,  Hypericum,  Lythrum,  Spiraa,  Rubus,  Geum, 
Myricaria,  Eryngium,  Euphrasia,  Salvia,  Nepeta, 
Phlomis,  Trifolium,  Vicia.  Orobus,  Ononis,  Medicago, 
Lactuca,  Sonchus,  Iris,  Narcissus,  and  Crocus.  The 
species  which  have  been  already  identified  with  those 
of  Europe  are  the  following  :  Mentha  viridis,  Mentha 
arvensis,  Mentha  sylvestris.  Hibiscus  Trionum,  Cen- 
taurea  moschata,  Hieracium  sabaudum,  Dianthus  bar- 
batus.  Lychnis  coronaria,  Myosotis  palustris,  Dactylis 
glomerata,  Cucubalus  baccifer." 

We  now  turn  to  the  body  of  the  work,  which 


76» 


aOYLs's  HIMALAYAN  BOTANY. 


contains  a  detailed  account  of  the  Jussieuan  family, 
Ranunculace*,  which,  though  in  some  respects  it  is 
done  in  a  masterly  manner,  contains  a  very  erro- 
neous and  withal  a  highly  dangerous  doctrine, 
namely,  that  the  plants  arranged  in  a  family  like  the 
RanunculacetE  possess  "  the  same  sensible  properties 
and  modes  of  action  on  the  human  frame"  (page 
45),  a  doctrine  which,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  is 
contradicted  by  the  author's  own  details  ;  but  before 
coming  to  these  we  shall  stop  for  a  moment  to  ex- 
amine what  Dr.  Professor  Lindley  says  on  the  sub- 
ject— the  doctor  being  esteemed  among  his  clique  the 
great  oracle  upon  sucli  absurd  dreams  and  fancies. 
The  doctor,  when  engaged  for  the  Bayswater  book 
manufactory,  got  up  some  sad  contradictory  stuff  for 
the  Encyclopiedia  of  Plants,  of  which,  we  doubt  not, 
he  has  long  been  ashamed ;  but  there  it  is  in  good 
stereotype  print.  At  page  1052  of  this  work.  Dr. 
Professor  Lindley  tells  us,  that  when  the  natural 
order  of  a  plant  is  ascertained  (we  quote  from  the 
Editor's  Alphabet  of  Botany)  many  of  its  most  im- 
portant qualities,  such  as  "  medicinal  properties," 
may  be  "  safely"  inferred.  Now,  if  this  were  so, 
nobody,  I  think,  would  dispute  the  high  value  of  this 
Natural  system.  Unfortunately,  however,  this  prin- 
ciple is  virtually  contradicted  by  what  follows. 
Thus,  under  Celltjlares,  Order  viii..  Dr.  Professor 
Lindley  gives  us  "  Cetraria  Islandica,  &c.,  tonic  and 
nutritive,"  along  with  "  Evernia  vulpina,  poisonous." 
Under  Vasculares,  again.  Order  cxli.,  (to  say  no- 
thing as  to  size,  form,  and  stnicture,)  of  "  the  fig, 
the  mulberry,  and  the  bread-fruit  tree"  being  natu- 
rally (common  sense  wovdd  say  unnaturally)  classed 
"  among  worthless  weeds,"  such  as  "  the  common 
stinging  nettle,"  "  and  shabby  half  herbaceous 
shrubs,"  such  as  "  the  hemp  and  the  hop; "  what  are  we 
to  think  of  "safely"  inferringfrom  the  fig,  the  bread- 
fruit tree,  and  the  sago  plant,  the  "  medicinal  pro- 
perties" of  "  the  upas  tree,  now  known  to  be  the  An- 
tiaris  toxicaria,"  the  inspissated  juice  of  which,  to  use 
Dr.  Professor  Lindley's  own  words,  "  is  a  frightful 
jjoison"  (p.  1083)?  Were  I  the  proprietor  of  this 
work,  I  would  not  hesitate  an  instant  to  break  up  the 
the  stereotype  plates,  in  order  to  expunge  such  glar- 
ing contradictions  and  highly  dangerous  errors.  In 
his  own  work  on  the  Natural  System,  Dr.  Professor 
Lindley  alludes  to  the  discrepancy  in  these  words : 
"  The  fig,  the  bread-fruit  tree,  the  jack,  and  the 
mulberry,  are  all  found  here,  and  are  a  curious  in- 
stance of  wholesome  or  harmless  plants  in  an  order 
which  contains  the  most  deadly  poison  in  the  world, 
the  Upas  of  Java ;  the  juice,  however,  of  even  those 
which  have  wholesome  fiiiit,  is  acrid  and  suspicious, 
and  in  a  species  of  fig,  Ficus  toxicaria,  is  absolutely 
venomous."*  Now  had  the  author  not  been  blindly 
prejudiced  in  favour  of  the  system,  he  must  have 
Keen  that  instead  of  this  being  a  "  curious  instance," 


authorising  a  theoretical  suspicion  of  the  mild  fig, 
and  nutritious  bread  fruit,  is  fatal  to  the  whole 
doctrine  of  "  safely"  inferring  medicinal  properties. 
Dr.  Lindley  complains  bitterly  in  his  preface,  that 
"  the  Natural  System  of  Botany"  lias  to  contend 
with  a  great  deal  of  deeply  rooted  prejudice  ;"  but 
the  wonder  ought  rather  to  be  that  such  doctrines 
as  those  under  notice  ever  found  any  person  so  fool- 
hardy as  to  promulgate  and  defend  them. 

In  the  division  just  alluded  to,  which  is  the  fif- 
teenth class  of  our  Alphabet,  in  the  second  order, 
among  those  especially  called  the  true  nettles  ('as  if 
there  could  be  in  nature  any  false  ones),  we  find  the 
mulberry  tree,  side  by  side,  with  the  stiff  hemp  and 
the  light  climbing  hop.  Now  admitting  that  the 
seed  and  the  flowers  of  all  these  agree  in  structure, 
as  they  nearly  do,  it  must  appear  obvious  that  the 
plants  are  as  incongruously  and  unnaturally  grouped 
as  possible,  in  reference  to  their  general  form  and 
habits ;  while,  if  we  look  to  qualities,  what  can  be 
more  incongruous  than  to  rank  the  poisonous  upas 
of  Java  in  the  same  order  with  the  fig?  In  the 
seventh  order  of  the  eighth  class,  also,  we  find  the 
wholesome  potatoe  and  the  mild  shepherd's  club 
ranking  with  henbane  and  the  deadly  night-shade. 
In  the  third  order  of  the  eleventh  class,  we  find 
not  only  lofty  trees  ranked  with  dwarf  shrubs,  and 
tiny  slender  herbs,  but  we  have  the  cotfee  ranked 
with  the  well-known  emetic,  ipecacuanha,  and  this 
again  with  Peruvian  bark.  In  the  thirteenth  class 
we  have,  so  far  as  size  and  form  are  concerned,  the 
low-growing  pinks,  violets,  and  buttercups,  ranked 
not  only  with  the  tall  sun-flower,  but  with  the  stately 
horse-chestnut,  the  lime-tree,  and  the  maple ;  and 
these  again  with  the  climbing  vine,  and  the  waving 
barberry  shrub ;  while  we  could  not,  I  think, "  safely" 
infer  the  "  medicinal  properties"  of  the  poppy,  from 
which  opium  and  laudanum  are  procured,  gamboge, 
which  is  violently  purgative,  and  buttercup,  which 
is  an  acrid  pois(jn,  from  the  mild  cocoa  and  marsh- 
mallow,  and  the  wholesome  orange.  This  would 
indeed  be  altogether  preposterous.  The  fourteenth 
class  furnishes  precisely  similar  discrepancies.  In 
point  of  size  and  form,  we  find  the  spring  chick- 
weed,  one  of  our  smallest  British  plants,  ranked 
among  apple-trees  and  holm  oaks  ;  and  these  again 
with  the  light  climbing  passion  flower  and  goose- 
berry bushes.  The  "  medicinal  properties,"  how- 
ever, of  the  poisonous  elaterium,  the  acrid  stone- 
crop,  the  emetic  laburnum,  and  the  purgative  buck- 
thorn, could  not  be  "  safely"  inferred  from  tie 
nutritive  pea  and  bean,  or  the  wholsome  pear,  apple, 
and  gooseberry, — which  are  all  in  this  class. 

I  could  readily  fill  a  volume  with  the  similar 
discrepancies  of  this  so  preposterously  belauded  Na- 
tural  System,  which,  if  it  have  not  to  answer  for  the 
loss  of  human  lives  by  poisoning  upon  principle,  it 


*  P.  95.  "Lindley's  Natural  System  of  Botany." 


ROTLB  S  HIMAXAYAN  BOTANY. 


77 


is  no  fault  of  its  promulgators.  The  fact  is,  that  so 
far  from  being  more  natural  than  the  Linnsean  sys- 
tem, these  instances  now  given,  with  many  more, 
show  it  to  be  more  palpably  unnatural.  But  the  day 
of  philosophy  has  now,  as  I  fondly  hope,  at  last 
dawned,  and  rational  and  useful  studies  must  ulti- 
mately banish  mystery  and  nonsense,  though  these 
may,  for  a  season,  stalk  about  in  the  mask  and  under 
the  assumed  names  of  philosophy  and  science. 

So  far  from  the  Editor's  Alphabet  of  Botany  :  let 
us  now  turn  to  Mr.  Royle's  book,  in  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  these  highly  pernicious  doctrines  are  ad- 
vocated, though  expressly  contradicted  by  the  state- 
ments which  the  author  himself  furnishes  in  their 
support.  -•>;'     -■ 

"  The  Ranunculacea  form  a  very  natural  family,  riot 
only  with  respect  to  structure  and  geographical  dis- 
tribution, but  also  in  possessing  the  same  scTisible  pro- 
perties and  modes  of  action  on  the  human  frame.  This 
is  owing  to  their  containing  in  all  parts  an  acrid 
principle,  which  Krapf  ascertained  to  be  neither  acid 
nor  alkaline,  but  of  so  volatile  a  nature,  that  in  most 
cases  simple  drying  in  the  air,  or  infusion,  or  decoc- 
tion in  water,  is  sufficient  to  destroy  it;  that  its 
activity  is  increased  by  acids,  sugar,  honey,  wine, 
and  spirits,  and  is  only  effectually  destroyed  by 
water  and  vegetable  acids.  (^Fi-e,  Covrs.  d'Hist. 
Nat.  Pharm.  v.  i.  p.  373.)  Two  vegetable  alkalies, 
Delpia  and  Aconitia,  the  latter  little  known,  are  pro- 
duced by  the  plants  of  this  family ;  if  the  acrid 
principle  be  always  of  the  volatile  nature  that  it  is 
represented,  the  powerful  effects  attendant  on  the 
administration  of  the  root  of  Aconitnm  ferox  even 
after  it  had  been  preserved  ten  years,  must  be  as- 
cribed to  the  presence  of  some  principle  of  a  more 
permanent  nature.  According,  apparently,  to  the 
proportion  of  the  s.crid  principle  to  the  rest  of  the 
vegetable  substance,  or  perhaps  owing  to  the  pecu- 
liar nature  of  the  acrid  principle  in  each  species,  it 
is  found  that  they  act  either  on  the  system  gene- 
rally, or  in  different  degrees  on  particular  organs. 
Thus  several  species  of  Ranunculus  are  used  as  rube- 
facients and  vesicatories ;  while  the  roots  of  Zan- 
thorhiza,  Coptis,  and  Hydrastis,  as  tonics ;  and  those 
of  Thalictrum  majus  as  a  substitute  for  rhubarb.  Hel- 
lebore has  long  been  known  as  a  powerful  cathartic, 
and  Aconite  as  a  no  less  powerful  narcotic  and 
poison ;  while  some,  from  the  destructibleness  of 
their  noxious  property  by  water,  have  been  used  as 
food.  The  Mahomedan  physicians  in  India  having 
derived  their  knowledge  of  drugs  chiefly  from  Ara- 
bian authors,  who  translated  from  the  Greek,  it  is 
surprising  to  find  such  articles  as  Hellebore,  Pwony, 
Lycoctonum,  and  Stavesacre,  all  of  which,  as  well  as 
others,  might  be  grown  in  the  Himalayas, prescribed 
in  every  part  of  India,  though  the  druggists,  calcu- 
lating upon  the  ignorance  of  both  pri  ctitioners  and 
patients  respecting  the  true  drug,  generally  substi- 
tute some  which  they  consider  an  equivalent.     Yet 


it  is  interesting  to  observe,  that  independent  obser- 
vation has  introduced  into  Indian  practice  several 
drugs  from  this  family,  to  which  the  same  properties 
are  ascribed  as  in  Europe.  Thus  Ranunculus  scele- 
ratus  is  used  as  a  vesicatory.  The  roots  of  Thalic- 
trum foliolosum  as  a  bitter  in  the  cure  of  fevers— 
those  of  Aconitum  heterophyllum  as  a  tonic,  and  of 
Aconitum  ferox,  though  a  poison,  as  a  narcotic  in 
rheumatism.  Nigella  sativa  is  alone  cultivated  in 
India,  as  in  most  eastern  countries,  and  continues  in 
the  present  day,  as  in  the  most  ancient  times,  to  be 
used  both  as  a  condiment  and  a  medicine." 

Now,  how  does  it  prove  the  doctrine  of  all  these 
plants,  huddled  up  by  Jussieuan  botanists,  into  what 
they  call  a  family  "  possessing  the  same  sensible  pro- 
perties and  modes  of  action  on  the  human  frame," 
to  tell  us  that  some  of  them  are  used  to  blister  the 
skin,  others  as  tonics;  others  as  strongly  purgative  ; 
others  as  narcotic  poisons  ;  others  as  bitters  in  the 
cure  of  fevers ;  others  as  substitutes  for  rhubarb,  a 
mild  aperient ;  others  as  condiments,  &c.  ?  It  is  in- 
deed, nearly,  though  not  quite  so  bad  as  the  gross 
contradictions  of  Dr.  Professor  Lindley ;  for  here,  as 
in  his  case,  of  the  common  and  the  poison  fig,  we 
have  Mr.  Royle  telling  us  that  one  species  (Aconitum 
heterophyllum)  is  "  a  tonic,"  and  another  species  of 
the  same  genus  (A.  ferox),  a  "  virulent  poison,"  the 
terrible  drug  which  the  Hindoos  call  Bitch  or  Bish: 
This  is,  of  course,  a  great  deal  worse,  because  of  the 
dangers  it  may  lead  to,  than  that  of  classing  the  tall, 
climbing,  graceful  shrubs,  in  the  genus  Clematis,  or 
Virgin's  Bower,  with  such  minute  marsh  plants  as 
Ranunculus  hederaceus,  and  these  again  with  the 
gaudy  peony  and  the  plain  meadow  rue,  calling  the 
whole  a  "  a  very  natural  family."  It  would  appear, 
from  this  latter  phrase,  that  there  are  other  families 
in  the  so  called  natural  system,  which  are  not  so 
"  very  natural:"  if  they  are  more  discrepant  than 
this,  they  must  be  bad  enough  in  all  conscience. 

We  shall, in  order  to  give  Mr.  Royle  all  fair  play  in 
his  "  Illustrations  of  the  Natural  System,"  make  one 
other  extract  from  his  account  of  what  is  certainly 
a  more  natural  family,  if  for  once  we  may  borrow 
this  highly  objectionable  phrase.  Our  extract  shall 
be  from  the  Cruciferse. 

"  The  Crucifera  are,  like  the  Ranunculacea,  an  [«] 
European  family,  of  which  few  are  found  in  the 
plains  of  India,  but  numerous  species  in  the  Hima- 
layan Mountains.  These  belong  chiefly  to  genera 
which  are  common  in  Europe  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Asia  and  America,  and  of  which  several 
new  species  have  been  described  in  the  Floras  of 
Siberia,  Caucasus,  and  of  the  Altai  Mountains.  The 
species  hitherto  discovered  are  about  70  in  number, 
belonging  to  the  genera  Nasturtium,  Barbarea,  Tur- 
ritis,  Arabis,  Cardamine,  Dentaria,  Draba,  Thlaspi, 
Hesperis,  Sisymbrium,  Alliaria,  Erysimum,  Lepidium, 
Capsella,  Sinapis  ?  The  latter,  mentioned  with  doubt, 
as  the  only  species  known,  are  those  described  in  the 


78 


ROTLE  S  HIMALAYAN  BOTANT. 


Flora  Indica,  obtained  by  Dr.  Buchanan  from  Tibet. 
The  genus  Tauscheria,  which,  from  its  singular  fruit, 
I  had  named  Navicularia,  is  the  only  one  of  the  pe- 
culiar Siberian  genera  which  extends  to  Kunawur, 
where  the  arid  and  saline  nature  of  the  soil  must  be 
as  favourable  to  its  growth,  as  the  deserts  of  the 
Kirghis,  or  the  banks  of  the  Irtisch.  The  Euro- 
pean species  of  the  above  genera,  which  have  been 
found  extending  as  far  southward  as  the  Himalayas, 
are,  Turritis  glabra,  Thlaspi  arvense,  Capsella  Bursa 
Pastoris,  Alliaria  officinalis,  and  Sisymbrium  Sophia. 
Besides  Tauscheria  desertorum,  Crambe  cordifolia,  is 
another  plant  belonging  to  the  Flora  of  Siberia,  as 
well  as  to  that  of  Caucasus,  which  extends  to  Kuna- 
wur. Draba  radicans  of  the  present  work,  with  its 
radicating  stems  and  yellow  flowers,  is  closely  allied 
in  general  appearance  to  Draba  repens,  figured  by 
Ledebour,  1. 145.  The  other  species  of  the  same 
genus  are  closely  allied  in  habit  to  their  European 
congeners,  and  equally  inhabiting,  like  them,  the 
cold  and  exposed  summits  of  mountains. 

"  In  the  gardens  of  Northern  India,  Mathiola  in- 
cana  and  Cheiranthus  cheiri  are  common  ;  and  as  I 
have  received  specimens  of  both  plants  from  Cash- 
mere, there  is  no  doubt  that  both  have  been  intro- 
duced from  that  direction  into  India,  being  still 
much  used  in  medicine,  and  known  by  the  names 
of  white,  purple,  and  yellow  khueree,  or,  as  com- 
monly written,  cheiri.  In  the  plains  of  India,  but 
few  species  of  this  family  are  met  with.  Nasturtium 
officinale,  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  water  in  most 
parts  of  the  world,  seems  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of 
India,  though  the  natives  ascribe  its  introduction 
to  the  English.  I  have  found  it  near  Hurdwar; 
Dr.  Wallich  met  with  it  in  Rohilcund.  Lepidium 
sativum  belonging  to  a  genus,  of  which  species  are 
found  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Persia,  has  long  been 
known  and  cultivated  in  India.  From  the  medicinal 
and  dietetic  uses,  as  well  as  from  the  Arabic  and 
Persian  synonymes  of  this  plant,  it  is  probable  that 
it  was  introduced  into  India  from  Caubul  or  Persia, 
where  also  we  must  look  for  the  route  by  which  the 
cabbage,  radish,  and  turnip,  have  found  their  way 
into  India,  as  all  were  known  and  cultivated  there 
long  before  they  could  have  been  introduced  by 
Europeans,  I  have  received  the  seeds  of  all  from 
Cashmere,  and  grown  them  in  the  Botanic  Garden 
of  Saharunpore.  The  turnips,  moreover,  in  Kuna- 
wur, are  described  as  being  remarkably  fine.  Be- 
sides these,  which  are  confined  to  gardens  or  the 
neighbourhood  of  villages,  there  are  other  species 
of  this  family,  which  form  very  extensive  agricul- 
tural crops,  Ijut,  like  the  former,  only  during  the 
cold  weather  months.  The  majority-of  these  have  been 
referred  to  the  genus  Sinapis,  and  one  species,  which 
agrees  very  closely  with  Brassica  ervcastrum  to  both 
Brassica  and  Eruca  ;  this  is  called  tira  :  a  variety  ap- 
parently of  the  same  is  cultivated  in  the  hills.  The 
species  or  varieties  referred  to  Sinapis  still  require 


careful  revision.  Sinapis  ramosa  of  Dr.  Roxburgh  ap- 
pears tobe  the  species  which  is  called  r«ee,  Indian  mus- 
tard, and  is  much  used  as  a  condiment,  S.  glauca  may 
be  the  toria,S .dichotoma  the  kalee-surson,dLnA  S.juncea 
the  bunga-surson  ;  the  three  latter,  as  well  as  tira  and 
Sesamum  orientate,  being  extensively  cultivated  for 
the  oil  which  is  afforded  by  their  seeds,  as  the  na- 
tives of  the  greater  part  of  India  depend  upon  them 
chiefly  for  oil  for  burning  in  lamps,  as  well  as  for 
that  necessary  for  dietetical  piurposes.  Some  other 
species  are  described  as  being  indigenous  to  and 
growing  wild  in  India ;  but  regarding  all  there  is 
some  uncertainty,  and  though  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  cultivated  species  have  been  long  acclimated, 
yet  having  only  been  met  with  in  that  state,  their 
native  country  must  still  be  considered  undeter- 
mined. But  though  there  is  this  uncertainty  re- 
specting the  cultivated  Crucifcra,  species  of  this  fa- 
mily are  no  doubt  found  in  the  plains  of  India :  of 
this  a  curious  instance  is  the  existence  of  a  species 
of  Farsetia,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Delhi  and 
Agra,  where  it  was  first  found  by  Dr.  Hamilton,  and 
subsequently  by  myself  in  the  same  locality.  The 
existence  of  the  species  of  this  genus  only  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  north  of  India,  may  be  considered  as 
confirmatory  of  the  opinion  stated,  p.  7,  that  the 
Oriental  or  Persian,  or  better,  as  Professor  Lindley 
calls  it,  the  Syrian  region,  may  be  considered  as  ex- 
tending to  the  north  of  India.  Another  plant  more 
singular  was  also  first  discovered  by  Dr.  Hamilton, 
Cochlearia  flava,  and  has  been  described  by  Roth 
under  the  name  of  Alyssum  Cochlearioides  which  the 
celebrated  De  CandoUe  has  called  Cochlearia  ?  Alys- 
soides,  in  his  Prodromus,  with  a  query,  whether  it 
be  not  a  species  of  Vesicaria.  In  its  accumbent  coty- 
ledons, oval  dissepiment  and  convex  valves,  it  re- 
sembles Cochlearia,  but  it  differs  in  habit,  which, 
with  the  peculiar  rounded  form  of  its  silicule,  long 
funiculus,  yellow  flowers,  and  Indian  locality,  might 
entitle  it  to  form  a  new  genus.  It  is  found  all 
along  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  in  Northern  India, 
as  high  as  Hurdwar. 

"  The  Cruciferce,  one  of  the  most  natural  of  families, 
presents  also  the  most  perfect  analogies  in  respect 
to  sensible  and  medical  properties.  Most  of  the 
species,  though  of  course  in  different  proportions, 
contain  an  acrid  volatile  oil,  which  renders  the  In- 
dian, as  well  as  the  European  species,  useful  as  sti- 
mulants and  vesicatorics,  a  fixed  oil  in  their  seeds, 
for  which  many  of  them  are  cultivated,  together 
with  azote,  fecula,  mucilage,  and  saccharine  matter. 
When  the  acrid  principle  is  small,  in  proportion  to 
the  mucilaginous  or  saccharine  matter,  many  of  the 
Crucifera  become,  as  is  well  known,  useful  articles 
of  diet." 

We  hope  Mr.  Royle  will  take  our  strictures  in 
good  part,  and  will  take  care,  as  he  proceeds,  to 
avoid  contradictions.  We  shall  probably  return  to 
the  work  in  a  future  page. 


79 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


Convolvulus  turpethum. 

Foliis  cordatis  angnlatis  integrisque  obtusiusculis  mucronatis 
pubescentibus,  pedunculis  folio  brevioribus,  bracteis  2  mag- 
nis  tubum  corolla  fere  aequantibus,  caule  alato. 
Convolvulus  Turpethum.  Linn.  Sp.  PL  p.  221.  Willd.  Sp. 
PI.  V.  1.  p.  859.  Roxb.  Fl.  Ind.  v.  2,  p.  57.  Spreny.  St/sl. 
Veget.  v.  1,  p.  598. 
Shevttdia  Kodie. 

Stems  twining  or  procumbent,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, with  three  wings,  smooth.  Wings  de- 
current  from  the  petioles.  Petioles  flattened  above, 
and  slightly  winged  on  the  edges,  pubescent,  about 
li  inches  long.  Leaves  broadly  sviborbicular,  cord- 
ate, entire,  obtuse,  softly  pubescent ;  above  a  little 
harsh,  from  the  hairs  being  shorter  and  stiff'er.  Pe- 
duncles axillary,  round,  pubescent,  varying  in  length, 
but  usually  longer  than  the  petioles  :  at  first  two  or 
three-flowered,  but  afterwards  increasing  in  num- 
ber, owing  to  the  lateral  predicels  becoming  proli- 
ferous and  giving  off  fresh  ones.  Bracteas  large, 
membranaceous,  deciduous.  Cctlyx  five-parted,  outer 
segments  much  larger  than  the  others,  concave,  en- 
tire, villous,  mucronate,  speckled  within  with  nu- 
merous black  spots.  Corolla  white  :  tube  short,  con- 
tracted at,  and  nearly  closed  by,  the  filaments,  which 
are  much  enlarged  and  hairy.  Filaments  short : 
anthers  oblong,  spirally  twisted  after  shedding  their 
pollen.  Style  filiform,  longer  than  the  stamens. 
Stigma  capitate,  two-lobed.  Capsules  stipitate,  two- 
celled,  four-seeded,  enclosed  in  the  greatly  enlarged, 
and  now  smooth  greenish  white  calyx.  In  its  junior 
state  the  apex  is  covered  with  a  green  scale,  which 
drops  as  it  approaches  to  maturity,  leaving  the  cap- 
sule transparent  in  the  place  it  occupied. 


OXALIS  RUBELLA. 

Decandria  Pentagynia,  Linn;  OxalideK,  JussiEU. 

Co!.  5-pliyUus.    Petala  ungmibus  connexa.     Stam.   Inaequalia, 

S-brevlora  exteriora  basi  connata.    Caps,  angulse  dehiscens, 

5-gona. 
Oxalis  rubella;  caule  ramosa  folioso  erecto,  pedunculo  unifloro 

foliis  multoties  longiore  foliis  ternatis,  subsessilibus  linear! 

cvineiformibus,  corollis  campanulatis   obtusis  stylis  stamini- 

bus  intevioribus  brediaribus. — Willd.  Sp.  PI.  2  p.  796. 
Oxalis  rubella;  corollis  campanulatis,  stylis  intermediis,  fila- 

mentis  edentulis. — Jacq.   Collect.   3  p.    232.  Je.  Rat:   3   t. 

471. 
Oxalis  radia  fibrosa,  caulibus  ramosis,  foliis  ternatis  angustis, 

florum  petiolis  longissimis. — Burn.  Afr.  IX.  t.   28./.  2. 

Oxalis  hirta,  0.  rosacea, and  0.  re<Je/Za,are  very  much 
alike ;  perhaps  too  mvich  so  to  be  properly  considered 
as  distinct  species.  If  they  are  to  be  distinguished, 
tliis  plant,  having  obtuse  petals,  must  be  referred  to 
the  last  mentioned.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Cape,  and 
requires  the  shelter  of  a  green-house,  and  is  propa- 
gated by  tubers. 


MOR^A  COLLINA. 
Triandria  Mouogynia,  Linn.  ;  Liliaceae,  JuSSiEC. 

Morcea  collina  {multifiora ;  cor.  miformis ;  imberbis  ;)  foliis  lin- 
earibus,  convoluto-concavis,  nudis ;  coroUae  laciniis  subsequa- 
libus,  sursum  recurvo-patentibus,  deorsum  turbinatim  conni- 
ventibus,  elliptico  oblongis  subacutis,  extimis  basi  scrobiculo 
meUifero  notatis ;  stigmatibus  miminuto  petaliformibus; 
filamento  cylindraceo,  colvunellari,  pubescente. 

Morcea  collina.  Thunb.  Diss.  11.  n.  13.  Prod.  9.  Jacq.  Je. 
Rar.  2.  t.  220.  Fragm.  14.  n.  51. 

Morcea  miniata.  Bot.  Repos.  tab.  404. 

Sisi/rinchium  colUnvm.  Cavan.  Diss.  b.  346.  Willd.  Sp.  PI.  3- 
578. 

(a)  flore  miniato,  minore. — Bof.  Repos.  b.  c. 

(4)  flore  subminiato,  majore. 

(c)  flore  lutescente. — Jacq.  I.  c. 

Root,  a  roundish  bulb-tuber,  covered  with  fibrous 
coats ;  leaves  in  the  fertile  plant  generally  cauline, 
2-3,  in  the  sterile  plant  one,  radical  linear-lorate, 
narrow,  far  attenuated, caudate-cuspidate  convolute- 
concave,  naked  lower  on  reaching  far  above  the 
stem,  upper  shorter ;  stem  one  or  paniculately  ma- 
ny fascicled  ;  fascicles  2-3  flowered,  convolute  lan- 
ceolate, awned-acuminate  ;  corolla  ephemeral  regu- 
lar, upwards  uniformly,  and  recurvedly  patent, 
downwards  turbinately  converging  ;  segments  of  the 
same  length,  exterior  ones,  elliptic  oblong,  interior 
oblong,  narrower  ;  ungues  broad,  nearly  the  length 
of  the  laminae,  outer  having  at  the  base  a  small  ob- 
long melliferous  indentation ;  filament  columnar  cy- 
lindric,  entire,  pubescent,  about  the  height  of  the 
ungues  ;  anthers  linear-oblong,  sessile,  upright,  ad- 
pressed  to  the  stigmas,  than  which  they  are  very  lit- 
tle shorter;  stigmas  subpetaloid,  bilabiate,  barely 
higher  than  the  ungues ;  inner  lip  bifid,  with  subu- 
late segments,  but  just  longer  than  the  outer,  which 
is  the  broadest,  retusely  truncate  ciliate,  fringed  pu- 
bescent inward ;  capsule  membranous,  columnar 
slender,  indistinctly  trigonal,  about  an  inch  long. 

A  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  :  it  was  im- 
ported by  Messrs.  Lee  and  Kennedy.  It  blooms  in 
May,  and  is  a  green-house  plant. 


RANUNCULUS  POLYPETALUS. 
Polyandria  Polygynia,  Linn.  ;  Ranunculaceie,  Jussieu. 
R.  Polypetalus  scapo  unifloro,  foUis  reniformibus  crenatis  calyce- 
que  glabris,  petalis  oblongis  numerosis.  Species  distinctis- 
sima,  ad  Ficariam  accidens.  Berba  perennis,  csespitosa,  ru- 
dimentis  foliorum  emarcidorum  supra  tecta.  Radix  fibrosa, 
fusca.  Scapi  erecti,  fiUformes,  glabri,  uniflori,  semi  v.  poUi- 
cares.  Folia  petiolata,  reniformi-cordata,  crenata,  glabra, 
3  v.  4-lineas  lata  ;  dentibus  7-10,  magnis,  obtusissimis.  Pe- 
tioli  glabri,  semiunciales.  Calycis  foliola  5,  elliptica,  obtusa, 
subcoriacea,  glabra,  persistentia.  Petala  10  v.  15,  spathu- 
lato-oblonga,  obtusa,  flava,  calyce  longiora,  3  v.  5-nem?,  ba- 
si angustata,  poro  tubuloso  esquamato  aucta.  Stamina  du- 
plici  ordine  uumerosa :  filamenta  dUatata :  anthera  subro- 
tundie.  Torus  sphfericus.  Carpella  compressa,  glabra: 
rostro  subulato,  recto,  elongate. 


80 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


This  new  and  very  distinct  species  has  been  found 
on  the  peak  of  Kedarkanta,  in  the  East  Indies,  en- 
amelling the  ground  with  its  rich  yellow  flowers  im- 
mediately on  the  melting  of  the  snow. 

VIOLA  KUNUWARENSIS. 
Pentandria  Monogynia,  LiNNiEUS  ;  Violaceae,  JnssiEU. 
Calycis  sepala   insequalia :    petala  ina^qualia,  restivatione  con- 
voluta ;  stamina  nee   coalita  ;  filamenta  basi   dilatata,  an- 
theras  demissins   gerentia ;   ovarium   nunc    superum,    nunc 
semi-inferum  ;  valvulse  capsulse  elasticae. 

This  is  a  very  pretty,  though  not  a  very  showy, 
species,  the  flowers  being  rather  small  and  incon- 
spicuous, though  their  colour  is  clear  and  uniform. 
It  has  somewhat  the  habit  of  V.  canina,  though 
more  leafy,  the  leaves  being  oblong,  bluntly  pointed, 
and  slightly  waved  on  the  edges.  The  flower  stalk 
has  a  pair  of  flower  scales  (bractea^  a  little  below 
tTie  blossom.  The  five  divisions  of  the  corolla  are 
more  equal  than  in  V.  odorata,  or  V.  tricolor. 

CORYDALIS  CASHMERIANA. 
Diadelphia  Hexandria,  Linn.  ;  Fumariacese,  Jussietj. 
C.  Cashmericma  ;  caule  simplicissimoerecto,  foliiscaulinissubses- 
silibus  pinnatisectis,  segmentis  lineari-lanceolatis  integris 
rarisslme  subdentatis,  terminali  cuneato  trilcbato,  racemo 
coarctato  paucifloro,bracteis  foliaceis,  summis  integris  3-den- 
tatis,  ealcare  pedicello  hreviore  obtuso  incurvo. — Corollie  pe- 
tala externa  cajrulea,  inferiora  rotundato-ovata,  ungnicvdata. 
Petala  interiora  unguibus  flavis,  limbis  purpureis. 

This  beautiful  plant  has  been  as  yet  only  found  in 
Cashmere. 

ANEMONE  DISCOLOR. 
Polyandria  Polygyaia,  Linn.  ;  Ranunculaceje,  Jussieu. 
A.  Discolor ;  scapo  unifloro  maculate  foliis  3  v.  5-partitis  sericeo- 
villosissimis,  lobis  obtuse  inciso-serratis  cuneato-ovatis, 
involucris  triphyUis  sessilibus,  foliolis  cuneatis  lobatis  den- 
tatis,  sepalis  7  ovalibus  extus  pilosis,  intus  glabris,  ovariis 
ovatis  Mrsutis. 

The  root  is  fusiform,  and  appears  thicker  than  it 
actually  is,  in  consequence  of  being  surrounded  by 
the  sheatliing  bases  of  the  petioles  of  former  years, 
which  as  happens  in  many  other  plants  of  the  Hi- 
malayas and  of  Kunawur, remain  undecomposed, and 
protect  the  root  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  sea- 
sons. The  radical  leaves  form  a  spreading  tuft 
the  petioles  are  broad,  sheathing,  membranous  at 
the  base,  and  parallel- veined ;  the  leaf,  auricula te, 
acuminate,  3  or  5-lobed,  lobes  frequently  subtrifid 
oblong-cuneate,  coarsely  serrate,  villose,  soft  and 
velvety.  The  involucrum  composed  of  3  sessile  leaf- 
lets, which  are  entire  and  dentate,  or  3-lobed,  with 
the  lobes  oblong  linear  3-dentate.  The  scape  is  erect 
or  ascending,  round,  striated,  frequently  spotted, 
hairy.  Pedicels  either  single  or  double,  in  the  former 
case  equal  in  length  to  the  involucrum  during  aesti- 
vation, afterwards  twice  or  thrice  as  long ;  where 
there  are  two  flowers,  one  is  nearly  sessile,  the  other 
long  pedicelled,  with  frequently  a  two-leafed  invo- 
lucel.  The  flowers  are  erect.  The  sepals,  generally 
seven  in  number,  imbricate,  obovate,  three  times  as 
long  as  the  stamens,  varying  in  colour  from  white 
on  the  upper,  and  blue  on  the  lower  surface,  to 


entire  blue,  and  even  to  a  livid  hue.  The  stamens, 
with  broad  filaments  tapering  towards  the  apex. 
The  ovary  ovate,  oblong,  and  very  hairy. 

This  species  of  Anemone,  is  chiefly  found  on  thfe 
tops  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  Himalaya. 

SCILLA  AMvENA  VAR.  0. 
Hexandria  Monogynia,  LiNN.  ;   Liliacese,  JussiEU. 

Scilla  amaana  ;  foliis  pluribus,  extirais  oblongo-ligulatis,  obtusis 
cum  mucrone,  medio  nei'vosis  ;  scapis  pluribus,  varie  com- 
pressis.  nervoso  striatis  racemo  distante  ;  bracteis  minntis, 
solitariis  corolla  rotate ;  filaraentis  ea  duplo  brevioribus,  sub- 
ulatis,  planis,  hypogynis,  mis  laciniis,  et  mutuo  inter  se  co- 
haerentibus  sequalibus  ;  germine  oblongo  ovato  tritoroso,  nee 
in  stylmn  rostratum  abeunte. 

Scilla  ameena. 

(  a  )  racemo  7  multi-floro  ;  (lore  saturate  cyaneo  ;    filamea- 
tis  sursum  coloratis  ;   antheris  atro-cyaneis. 
( /3 )  racemo   1  — 4  floro  ;  coroUa  carulea  ;  filamentis  palle- 
scentibus  ;   antheris  subteruginosis. 

Scilla  sihirica. — Bot.  Repns.  tab.  365. 

Scilla  prtvcox. — Donn.  Cat.  Hort.  Cant  ?  Nee  ea  Willd.  Sp.  PI. 
2  28  ;  quae,  ipso  monente,  meraT«/oH«  varietas. — Vid.  Schro- 
der Journ.fur  die  Bot.  1799,  vol.  i.  p.  287. 

Bulb  tunic  ite,  about  the  size  of  the  walnut ;  leaves 
about  four, ambient,  convolutely  conduplicate  down- 
wards, from  upright  recurvedly  recumbent,  outer 
broadest,  oblong  ligulate,  slightly  concave,  nerved 
obtuse,  with  a  somewhat  glandular  point ;  scapes 
within  these,  than  which  they  are  shorter,  several,  va- 
riously compressed,  striated,  far-attenviated,  upright; 
floivers  spikedly  racemose,  rather  distant,  nodding ; 
pedicles,  shorter  than  these  ;  bractes  minute,  mem- 
branous, far  shorter  than  pedicles  ;  corolla  hexape- 
talously  parted,  campanulately  rotate ;  contracted  at 
the  base,  segments  oblong,  pointed  ;  filaments  about 
half  their  length,  flat,  subulately  attenuated ;  mem- 
branous, equal,  divergent,  cohering  at  their  bases 
among  themselves,  and  with  their  corolla ;  anthers 
ovate,  sagittate  incumbent ;  germen  pale,  ovate,  tri- 
pulvinate,  trisulcate,  uneven;  style,  about  the  length 
of  this,  erect,  filiform ;  stigma  a  terminal  point,  in- 
conspicuous above  the  anthers. 

The  plant  blooms  in  March,  and  is  hardy  and 
scentless. 

GREWIA  ELASTICA. 

(PI.  2S.  Fig.  6.) 
Polyandria  Monogynia,  Linn.  ;  Tiliaceae,  JussiEu. 
Calyx  5-sepalus  coriaceus  nitus  coloratus.  Pet.  5,  basi  intus 
glandulosa  aut  squamulosa,  imo  toro  stipitiformi  inserta. 
Stam.  CO  ex  apics.  tori  orta,  libera,  antheris  subrotundis. 
Stylus  1.  Stigma  4-lobum.  Drupa  4-loba,  4-pyrena  aut 
abortu  2- — 3-pyr.  Nuces  biloculares,  2-sperma2,  autabortes 
1-spermse.     Embryo  erectus. 

Blossom  yellowish,  with  rather  small  petals,  strap 
shaped  and  pointed ;  buds,  ash  grey,  as  are  the  flow- 
er stalks;  fruit  two  celled  and  purplish,  crowned 
with  the  persistent  pistil ;  leaves  alternate,  dark 
green  above,  hoary  underneath,  saw  toothed,  on 
short  foot  stalks,  with  minute  leaf  scales  at  the  base, 
somewhat  egg-oblong,  but  terminating  in  an  acu- 
minated point 


» 


81 


MR.  CONDUCTOR  LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENERS. 


BY  CHRISTOPHER  NORTH  ESQ.,  OP  BTJCHANNAN  LODGE.* 

We  have  often  wondered  that  nobody  has  hitherto  taken  the  trouble  to  unmask  the  shameless  wholesale 
plagiarisms,  tlie  vulgar  and  filthy  language,  and  the  utter  ignorance  and  presumption  which  issue  from  the 
book  manufactory  of  Bayswater,  and  pollute  the  taste,  and  unhinge  the  principles,  religious,  moral  and 
political  of  gardeners  and  others,  who  unthinkingly  drink  their  poison.  What  other  could  be  expected  from 
an  avowed  subscriber  to  support  Carlisle  of  Fleet-street  ?  We  were  ourselves  preparing  a  list  of  Bayswater 
plagiarisms,but  found  that  even  amodicum  thereof  would  occupy  some  thousand  or  so  of  our  pages,  when  we 
had  the  pleasure  to  see  the  cudgel  in  far  more  stalwart  hands  than  our  own,  and  the  redoubted  demohsher  ot 
of  literary  pretenders  mauling  the  "  clipper  "  about  with  his  terrible  crutch,  till  the  very  shears  dmled  in 
the  clipper's  hands,  and  the  poor  belaboured  body  would  have  been  fain  to  clip  out  all  he  had  ever  cribbed, 
and  leave  nothing  but  the  lank  fleshless  skeleton  to  escape  from  the  deadly  floorers  that  came  rattling  on 
his  patchwork  gaberdine  as  thick  as  hailstones,  from  that  fearsomeand  fearless  castigator,  Christopher  IS  orth. 
We  should  not  be  doing  our  duty  to  our  readers  did  we  overlook  the  wholesome  and  manly  exposure  ot 
the  doings  in  king-making,  match-making,  and  fiddler-making  of  Mr.  Conductor  Loudon.  All  readers  ot 
course  read  Blackwood— the  magazine  of  magazines,  the  touch-me-if-you-dare  with  its  chevmx  de  frise 
of  thistles,  and  all  gardeners  and  botanists  will  read  this  paper  which  so  nearly  concerns  them  ;  but  lest  any 
by  any  clnnce— the  merest  accident  in  the  world,  should  not  see  the  May  Maga,  we  here  place  a  part  ot  it— 
the  drops  before  the  shower— the  cuflF  preliminary— the  smack  initiative— the  cut  prefatorial--the  hit  intro- 
ductory—the gowf  prelusive— the  blype  by  way  of  beginning— the  touch  of  the  knout  to  tickle  the  creature 
into  flagellatory  trim— the  taste  indicative  of  the  trouncing  that  is  to  follow— the  fuge  thump  before  the 
awful  set-to— the  slogan  before  the  onslaught— the  pawing  play  of  the  lion  before  the  death-pounce— the 
hail-stone  before  the  the  thunderbolt— in  the  front  of  our  number— the  shower— the  set-to— the  onslaught— 
the  death-pounce  itself  in  our  next— together  with  a  little  bit  of  a  tail-piece  to  be  entitled  "  Bayswater  Libel 
on  the  Works  of  Creation,"  from  the  EncyclopEedia  of  Plants,  supposed  to  be  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  I'rotessor 
Lindley.  When  time  does  not  press,  we  may  possibly  glance  at  Mr.  Conductor  Loudon's  doings  in  spoiling 
landscapes  in  Oxfordshire  and  elsewhere.  It  would  be  sacrilege  to  omit  North's  opening  :  Sit  omnibus  silen- 
titim  ibi !  Cavele  ct  tacite,  Denson  et  Lindley  ! !     North  himself,  in  all  his  glory,  thus  begins  : 


We  have  all  our  lives  envied  Adam.  Yet,  would  you  believe 
it,  not  for  his  abode  in  Paradise.  The  soul  cannot  now  con- 
ceive a  perfectly  sinless  and  perfectly  happy  state  of  being  ;  and 
a  mere  name,  and  no  more,  to  our  ear  is  the  garden  of  Eden— 
ere  was  plucked 

"  That  forbidden  fruit,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world  aud  all  our  woe." 

Our  first  parents  are  not  felt  to  be  otir  first  parents  till  they 
are  fallen  ;  then  it  is  that  we  indeed  love  them  ;  our  filial  affec- 
tion is  made  tender  by  pity,  and  awful  by  fear,  and  we  weep  to 
think  of  them,  as  they, 

*'  Hand  in  hand,  and  slow 

Through  Eden  took  their  solitary  way." 

It  was  original  sin  that  made  this  earth  so  beautiful — that 
gave  it  a  beauty  dashed  and  broken  with  tears.  Look  long  at  a 
rose  bush  covered  with  lapsing  dew  drops,  and  you  grow  sor- 
rowful— full  of  sorrow.  If  there  were  not  the  consciousness  of 
some  great  loss,  and  the  presage  of  some  great  restoration,  a 
sight  so  simple  in  its  purity  coiild  not  so  profoundly  move  the 
spirit,  as  that  its  confessions  should  be  a  prayer.  Not  surely 
in  form  aud  colour  alone  lies  the  beauty  of  the  rainbows 

We  envy  Adam  because  he  was  driven  from  our  Paradise. 
For  a  while  the  earth  for  him  and  poor  Eve  brought  forth  but 
thorns,  so  is  it  writ.  But  as  the  wind  blew  from  Paradise,  it 
brought  seeds  that  sowed  themselves  in  the  desert,  till  ere  long 
the  desert  blossomed  like  the  rose.    Assisted  by  younger  hands, 


Adam  could  afford  to  steal  an  hour  or  two  as  the  sun  was  wes- 
tering, from  the  toil  of  field  tillage,  and  through  the  twdight, 
and  sometimes  well  on  into  the  night,  would  he  and  Eve,  not 
unregarded  by  the  stars,  work  by  their  two  selves,  shaping 
bowers,  and  arbours,  and  glades,  so  as  to  form,  by  a  model  im- 
perishable in  theirmemories  another  small  new  garden  of  Eden— 
not  indeed  so  delightful,  but  dearer,  far  dearer  to  their  souls 
because  every  leaf  was  tinted  by  grief.  Melancholy  names  did 
they  give  then  to  the  thoughtless  plants  and  flowers,  and  they 
loved  them  the  better,  that  henceforth  they  reminded  them 
always,  but  not  painfully  of  their  transgression,  now  suffering  a 
punishment  so  softened,  that  it  sometimes  was  felt  to  be  a  chas- 
tened peace.  Their  hill  side  garden  sloped  to  a  stream  that  no 
doubt  was  a  branch  of  the  holy  river,  of  which  the  blind  seer 
sings,  "  southward  through  Eden  went  a  river  large.  We  see 
the  vision  now,  hut  we  fear  to  paint  it.  Eve  is  still  in  her 
mortal  shrine  :  and  as  for  Adam,  not  Seth's  seU'  is  comparable 
to  his  sire,  though  his  parents  were  wont  to  say,  that  this  !5eth 
had  a  face  and  a  form  that  reminded  them  of  one  of  the  angels  : 
that  to  be  indeed  an  angel  he  wanted  hut  those  wings  that 
winnowed  fragrance  through  the  air  as  they  descended  on  Para- 

'"' And  thus  it  is  that  to  us  all  gardens  are  beautiful,  and  all 
gardeners  Adam's  "favourite  sons.       An  orchard  !   ffmil.es  of 
fnut  trees  "  nigh  planted  by  a  river,"  and  that  river  the  Clyde 
Till  we  gazed  on  you  we  knew  not  how  dazzling  may  be  the 


*  Blackwood's  Magazine  for  May,  1834.     Part  I. 
MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.   II.   NO.  XV. JUNE,   1834. 


82 


LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENERS. 


deUcatc  spring,  even  more  than  the  gorgeous  autumn  with  all 
her  purple  and  gold.  No  frost  ean  wither,  no  blast  can  scatter 
such  a  power  of  blossoming  as  there  brightens  the  day  with  pro- 
mise that  the  gladdened  heart  may  not  for  a  moment  doubt, 
will  be  fulfilled  1  and  now  we  walk  arm  in  arm  with  a  venerable 
lady  along  a  terrace  hung  high  above  a  river,  but  between  us 
and  the  brink  of  the  precipice,  a  leafless  lawn  :  not  of  grass, 
but  of  moss,  whereon  centuries  seem  softly  embedded,  and  lo  I 
we  arc  looking  to  the  right  down,  down  the  glen,  and  to  the 
left  up,  up  the  glen  ;  though  to  the  left  it  takes  a  majestic  bend, 
so  that  yonder  castle  seemingly  almost  in  front  of  us,  stands  on 
one  of  its  cliffs  ;  now  we  are  looking  over  the  top  of  holly  hedges 
twenty  feet  high,  and  over  the  stately  yew-pawns  and  peacocks  ; 
but  hark  1  the  flesh  and  blood  peacock  shrieking  from  the  pine  1 
An  old  English  garden,  such  as  Bacon,  or  Evelyn,  or  Cowley 
would  have  loved,  felicitously  placed,  with  all  its  solemn  calm, 
above  the  reach  of  the  roar  of  a  Scottish  flood  1 

But  we  shall  not  permit  the  visions  of  gardens  thus  to  sttfidy 
themselves  before  our  imagination  ;  and  since  come  they  will, 
away  must  they  pass  like  magic  shadows  on  a  sheet.  There 
you  keep  gliding  in  hundreds  along  with  your  old  English  halls, 
or  rectories,  or  parsonages,  some  alas  1  looking  dilapidated  and 
forlorn,  bnt  few  in  ruins,  and  thank  heaven,  many  of  you  in  the 
decay  of  time  renewed  by  love,  and  many  more  still  fresh  and 
and  strong,  though  breathing  of  antiquity,  as  when  there  was 
not  one  leaf  of  all  that  mass  of  ivy  in  which  the  highest  chim- 
neys are  swathed,  and  buried  all  the  gables.  Oh  I  stay  but  for 
one  moment  longer  thou  garden  of  the  cliffs  !  Gone  by,  with 
all  thine  imagery — half  garden  and  half  forest — reflected  in  thine 
own  turn,  and  with  thee  a  glimmer  of  green  mountains  and  of 
dusky  woods.  Sweet  visionary  shadow  of  the  poor  man's  cot 
and  garden  I  A  blessing  be  upon  thee  almost  on  the  edge  of  the 
bleak  moon  I  But  villages,  and  towns,  and  cities  travel  by  mis- 
tily, carrying  before  our  ken  many  a  green  series  of  little  rural 
or  suburban  gardens,  all  cultivated  by  owners  or  tenant's  hands, 
and  beneath  the  blossomed  fruit  trees,  the  ground  variegated 
with  many  a  flush  of  flowers.  What  pinks  !  Aye,  we  know 
them  well,  the  beautiful  garden  plats  on  the  banks  and  braes 
all  round  about  our  native  town,  pretty  Paisley,  and  in  among 
the  very  houses  in  nooks  and  corners,  which  the  sunshine  does 
not  scorn  to  visit,  and  as  the  glamour  goes  by,  sweet  to  our 
soul  is  the  thought  of  KilVmrchan,  the  loveliest  flower  in  heaven 
or  on  earth,  for  'tis  the  piize-pink  of  our  childhood,  given  us  by 
our  Father's  hand,  and  we  now  see  the  spot  where  tlie  fine 
grained  glory  grew. 

M'c  hope  our  stomach  is  not  out  of  order,  and  that  these  fan- 
cies are  not  the  fumes  of  indigestion,  as  Cabanis  and  the  mate- 
rialists say.  No,  our  stomach  was  never  out  of  order  in  its 
life,  not  even  in  "the  Bayof  Biscay  O."  At  all  events,  that  huge 
Eneyelopjcdia  of  Gardening,  beneath  which  our  table  groans,  is 
no  spectral  illusion;  and  might  bjillast  a  balloon.  It  lies  open  at  the 
one  thousand  three  humlrcd  anil  thirty-second  page,  and  we  espy 
much  matter  on  the  Education  of  Gardeners,  a  pleasant  prolific 
theme.  In  our  walks  over  the  world,  we  have  looked  in  upon  hun- 
dreds of  gardeners  in  their  own  houses,  and  have  always  met  with  a 
kind  welcome.  No  other  class  of  men  are  so  well  off  for  wives. 
How  lady-like  many  matrons  who  have  received  us  with  a  curt- 
sey, a  smile,  and  a  hand,  in  tree-shaded  dwellings  not  far  apart 
from  the  hall  or  mansii>n  house,  nests  in  scehukd  spots  which 
you  may  seek  for,  without  finding  among  the  wide  sweep  of  the 
demesne,  that  is,  its  elegant  cultivation  still  retains  something 
of  the  wild  character  of  the  forest.  Honest  men's  daughters, 
not  degraded  surely,  by  having  been  in  household  service  which 
they  adorned,  and  now  visited  familiarly  by  the  young  ladies, 
who  disdained  not  to  wear  the  bridal  favours  on  the  marriage 
day,  and  have  sent  her  baby-linen  duly  every  year.  Not  all 
such  ;  for  gardeners  intermarry  let  us  tell  you,  not  unfrcquently 
with  maidens  of  the  middle  ranks— the  daughters  of  statesmen 
(cock  lairds),  tradesmen  well  to  do,  and  clergymen.  And  we 
could  mention  instances  of  gentle  blood  blushing  in  the  faces  of 


the  children  of  bold  sons  of  the  spade.  What  matters  it  whom 
they  marry,  if  their  bosom  friends  be  chaste,  modest,  and  good  ? 
Many  a  pleasant  evening  have  we  passed  id  sijch  domiciles,  for 
wc  are  something  of  a  botanist,  though  that  not  much  ;  a 
florist  of  the  second  rate  in  knowledge,  and  of  the  first  in  love ; 
and  though  no  great  linguist,  we  have  studied  all  the  tongues  of 
trees,  and  not  a  language  spoken  in  the  forest  of  which  we  do 
not  know  all  the  roots,  and  most  of  the  ramifications.  Soon 
after  sunrise,  whatever  might  be  the  season,  we  always  took 
our  departure  ;  nor  empty-handed  were  we  allowed  to  go  our 
ways,  for  all  the  gardeners  who  were  friends  of  ours,  enjoyed 
the  privilege  of  giving  presents  of  a  dozen  or  two  of  green  gages, 
a  few  pints  of  grozets — say  the  roaring  lion  ou  the  fiery  dragon, 
and  if  still  the  vernal  breezes  were  blowing  in  our  breast,  a 
a  flower,  composed  of  many  flowers,  as  we  crossed  the  moor- 
land wilderness,  companioned  us  through  the  solitude,  as  if 
our  attendant  spirit  were  the  sweet-sccuted  spring. 

But  our  table  groans  again — and  fain  would  wc  relieve  it  from 
the  burden  ;  but  on  attempting  to  lift  up  the  Encydopsedia  of 
Gardening,  we  find  we  are  not  the  man  we  once  were,  and  our 
back  beseeches  us  to  remember  its  lumbago.  A  ponderous 
tome  I  But  is  it  not  now  republishing  in  numbers  ?  Tliat  is 
merciful.      Now  for  our  review. 

Mr.  Loudon  observes  that  the  terms  knowledge  and  igno- 
rance are  entirely  relative  ;  that  the  knowledge  of  a  chemist's 
porter,  would  have  subjected  him  to  be  hanged  and  burned  in 
the  dayscf  the  first  Popes;  and  that  any  bricklayer's  labourer 
who  reads  the  London  newspapers,  has  more  correct  ideas  on 
the  principles  of  political  economy,  than  nine-tenths  of  the  no- 
bility of  Russia  and;|Spain.  Will  he  persist  in  saying  so,  with 
the  i)roceeding3  of  the  Trades'  Unions  before  his  eyes  ?  In  spite 
of  the  much  vaunted  march  of  intellect  during  the  last  dozen 
years,  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  Educationists  to  enlighten  the 
labouring  classes,  they  seem  stone  blind  to  the  jilainest  and 
simplest  truths,  and  hurrying  headlong  on  the  road  to  ruin. 
What  does  Mr.  Loudon  know  of  the  Russian  nobility  ?  Among 
them  are  many  men  of  the  highest  mental  cultivation  ;  and 
Nicholas,  who  may  be  autocrat,  (how  few  who  call  him  so  know 
the  meaning  of  the  epithet !)  happening  to  possess  great  talents, 
knows  that  the  stability  of  his  throne  depends  now  on  the  in- 
tellect of  that  order.  Political  Economy — and  good  Political 
Economy  too — Storch  has  a  European  reputation — is  better 
stiulied  in  Russia  than  it  is  in  Britain  ;  and  Mr.  Louilon  himself, 
though  he  may  have  "  as  correct  ideas  on  its  principles"  as  any 
bricklayer's  labourer,  would  soon  be  made  to  sing  small  on  the 
question  of  Free  Trade  in  an  argument  with  any  fur-clad  Russ 
taken  at  random  from  ti.e  nine-tenths  of  the  nobility  whom  he 
ignorantly  honours  with  his  scorn.  The  Spanish  are  not  what 
they  once  were  ;  but  the  Spanish  bricklayers,  meaning  thereby 
the  Spanish  people  we  are  sorry  to  say,  may  be  safely  backed  at 
oilds  against  the  British,  in  the  practice  of  the  "few  plain 
niles"  which  suffice  them  whose  lot  it  is  to  cam  bread  by  sweat. 
We  know  the  character  of  our  countrymen,  and  we  honour  it; 
but  they  arc  puffed  up  with  foul  wind  blown  into  their  minds  by 
quacks,  and  if  it  be  not  beaten  out  of  them  they  will  burst. 
'ITicir  knowledge  of  their  own  trades  is  admirable,  and  in  strength 
and  skill  they  excel  all  the  nations  :  but  their  ignorance  of  the 
principles  of  Political  Economy  is  night  <lark,  and  they  go  reck- 
lessly groping  through  the  gloom,  stumbling  over  obstructions 
which  they  can  no  more  remove  or  surmount  than  they  can 
change  the  laws  of  nature. 

"  It  is  impossible,"  quoth  our  sage, '"to  set  limits  to  the 
knowledge  which  may  be  obtained  by  those  who  are  destined 
even  to  the  most  severe  and  constant  labour."  That  sounds 
grandly,  but  it  is  mere  nonsense.  Limits  are  set  to  knowledge 
by  severe  and  constant  labour  itself;  yet  are  they  not  narrow 
limits,  and  within  them  may  be  found,  within  the  four  seas, 
myriads  of  men  "  their  country's  pride."  Base  would  it  he 
to  seek  to  thwart  the  desire  for  instruction  ;  but  foolish  is  it 
to  direct  it  to  unattainable  objects  ;  or  encourage  it  to  go  be- 


LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OP  GARDENERS. 


83 


yond  the  sphere  of  those  essential  and  vital  duties  of  which  the 
performance  secures  the  corresponding  rights.  And  no  language 
can  be  conceived  more  foolish  than  this  loose  talk  of  Mr.  Lou- 
doL's,  to  which  the  whole  history  of  man  in  his  best  imaginable 
condition  gives  the  lie.  "If,"  says  he,  "  every  cook-maid, 
before  she  could  obtain  a  first-rate  situation,  were  required  to 
be  able  to  read  Apicius  Redivivus  in  the  original  tongue,  there 
would  be  no  want  of  learned  cooks  ;  and  if  no  gardener  could 
obtain  a  first-rate  situation  who  had  not  written  a  Thesis  in 
Greek,  or  who  had  not  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  there  woxdd  be 
soon  found  abundance  of  gardeners  so  qualified."  How  wise  and 
how  witty  ! 

Mr.  Loudon  holds,  that  every  rational  man  may  obtain  every 
thing  he  desires,  if  he  but  desire  it  strongly  and  steadily,  and 
carry  his  desire  into  continuous  action.  As  he  is  not  an  in-a- 
tional  man,  and  manifestly  desires  to  write  sense,  how  happens 
it  then,  that  he  has  jotted  down  so  much  portentous  nonsense  } 
"  Suppose,"  saith  he,  "a  man  desires  to  be  aking;  that  is  a 
desire  sufficiently  extraordinary;  but  if  he  will  first  make  him- 
self acquainted  witli  the  history  of  aU  men  who  have  raised 
themselves  from  nothing  to  be  kings,  and  then  consider  in 
which  part  of  the  world  he  is  most  likely  to  succeed,  he  may  very 
likely  obtain  his  object.^'  Suppose  Mr.  Loudon  himself  desires 
to  be  king  of  Dabomey.'  He  would  find  it  no  easy  matter  to 
kick  all  the  native  princes  out  of  his  way  to  the  throne  ;  and  we 
should  not  fear  to  lay  a  pine-apple  to  a  crab  that,  long  before 
his  ambition  was  gratified  by  finding  himself  sitting  in  state, 
almost  naked,  with  a  gold-rimmed  cocked  hat  on  his  regal 
head,  he  would  have  to  act,  not  as  king's  chief  drummer,  but 
as  chief  drum,  his  skin  haWng  been  skilfully  made  into  that 
warlike  instrument,  wherewith  the  slave  of  the  legitimate  and 
reigning  monarch  "affrighted  armies."  Would  he,  as  a  sim- 
pler speculation,  try  to  be  king  of  Brentford  }  That  monarchy, 
we  believe,  is  elective;  but  what  a  crowd  of  competitors! 
How  many  were  the  chances  even  against  Bamfylde  Moore 
Carew  himself,  who,  by  a  rare  concurrence  of  circumstances, 
was  chosen  by  acclamation  king  of  the  beggars  ! 

Suppose  again,  "  that  a  man  desires  to  possess  great 
wealth," — to  be  as  rich  as  Croesus,  while  he  chooses  to  con- 
tinue in  that  post  of  honour,  a  private  station.  He  may  at- 
tempt this,  Mr.  London  tells  us,  in  three  ways  ;  and  as  he 
mentions  but  three,  we  may  presume,  that  in  his  estimation 
there  are  but  three,  and  that  unless  he  follow  one  or  other  of 
them,  a  man  may  never  rationally  hope  to  be  rich.  "This  he 
may  attempt  in  three  ways — by  a  saving  of  income  and  gain  of 
time,  that  is  by  denying  himself  the  usual  gratifications  of  food, 
clothing,  and  rest,  and  laying  out  at  compound  interest  what 
is  gained  by  these  deprivations  ;  by  gambling  speculations  in 
property;  and  by  marriage."  Thank  heaven,  we  have  no  de- 
sire "  to  possess  great  wealth."  We  sometimes  dream  of  gold, 
yea,' much  fine  gold  in  mountains,  Alp  above  Alp — aChim- 
borazo  of  bullion — gold-bars  broader  than  the  sunset  clouds. 
Our  imagination  despises  Mr.  Canning's  famous  picture  of  a 
good  currency — a  mountain  of  paper  irrigated  by  a  river  of 
gold.  Wordsworth  had  us  in  his  mind  when  he  indited  the 
pregnant  line,  "  That  poor  old  man  is  richer  than  he  seems." 
But  all  the  stories  that  make  such  a  noise  in  the  world,  of  our 
worldly  wealth,  are  idle  ;  for  we  are  a  mere  annuitant  of  a  few 
thousand  pounds,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Buchannan  Lodge, 
(not  fifty  acres,  policy  and  all)  we  are  "  lords  of  our  preserve, 
and  no  land  beside."  Wbat  then  ?  We  are  not  the  man  "  to 
desire  to  possess- great  wealth,  by  denying  ourselves  the  grati- 
fication? of  food,  clothing,  and  rest.".  The  gi'atifications  of 
food  are  intense,  incluiUng,  of  course,  all  eatables  and  drink- 
ables ;  and  rather  than  forego  these,  might  we  cease  to  be. 
Yet  we  eat  rather  with  a  steady  than  a  voracious  appetite,  and 
pity  'tis  that  we  flourished  not  during  the  Grecian  mythology, 
that  Bacchus  and  Adriadne  might  have  taken  a  lesson  from  us 
how  to  turn  up  the  little  finger.  Neither  did  we  ever  feel  any 
inclination  to  deny  ourselves  the  gratification  of  clothing,   ex- 


cept when  taking  the  plunge  or  shower  bath  in  a  pool,  or  be- 
neath a  waterfall  of  the  Tweed.  Then  the  shepherdess  on  the 
liill  beholds  us  through  her  hollow  hand,  animated  image  of 
the  truth,  lustrous  amidst  the  vapours.  And  what  would  be 
human  life  without  rest  I  O  divine  privilege  of  leisure  I  To 
us  the  land  of  Drowseyhead  is  the  land  of  Faery ;  and  as  we 
awaken  at  the  touch  of  morn's  rosy  fingers,  what  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  otium  cum  dignitate,  in  the  person  of  one  neverthe- 
less well-stricken  in  years  I  We  scorn  the  assistance  of  red 
plush  breeches,  worn  by  a  celebrated  philosopher  to  prevent 
him  sliddering  down  the  inclined  plane  of  his  couch, — and 
though  we  lie  in  finest  linen,  trust  fearlessly  to  the  native 
tenacity  of  our  limbs  and  frame,  and  to  that  noble  organ  of 
adhesiveness  which  phrenologists  have  come  from  afar  to  ad- 
mire. "  Laying  out  at  compound  interest,  what  is  gained  by 
these  deprivations  of  food,  clothes,  and  restl"  The  idea  of 
compound  interest  is  to  us  so  shocking,  that  while  our  meta- 
physical genius  would  fain  analyze  it,  our  conscience  instinct- 
ively recoils  from  the  horror,  and  leaves  the  monstrous  mass 
in  all  the  loathsomeness  of  its  conglomeration.  Sufficient  for 
the  day  is  the  money  thereof,  enough  and  to  spare.  Nor,  we 
hope,  do  all  poor  people  go  unrelieved  from  our  hntel,  though 
now  and  then  an  idler  or  a  drunkard  may  with  his  heel  indent 
a  curse  on  the  gravel  walk,  or,  in  sullen  spite,  uproot  a  flower 
from  the  borders,  that,  like  two  harmless  and  splendid  snakes, 
sometimes  shrub-concealed,  glide  towards  our  porch.  Though 
silly  ones  seem  to  know  it  not,  we  have  all  our  lives  been 
lovers  of  simplicity  ;  so  no  wonder  we  delight  in  simple  inter- 
est, and  see  a  charm  in  two  per  cent,  beyond  the  reaches  of  a 
miser's  soul  in  his  most  avaricious  dream. 

And  what  say  we  to  Mr.  Loudon's  second  way  of  getting 
possession  of  wealth — "  gambling  speculations  in  property?" 
We  abhor  all  gambling,  but  all  speculations  in  property  are 
not  gambling ;  and  hundreds  and  thousands  of  British  mer- 
chants acquire  "  great  wealth  "  by  knowledge  working,  ac- 
cording to  a  rule  of  life  drawn  by  honour  and  conscience,  and 
rather  than  swerve  from  it,  they  would  be  poor.  "  The  ac- 
complished men  of  the  accounting  are  they  ; ' '  through  them 
has  this  empire  waxed  great,  and  may  the  seas  be  for  ever 
whitened  with  their  sails.  Too  many  gamblers  there  are  in 
trade,  and  they  are  seeking  now  to  strangle  their  native  soil, 
but  the  nobler  terrce  filii  will  not  suffer  them,  and  Ceres  smiles 
to  see  a  muzzle  put  on  the  mouth  of  the  blatant  beast  that  has 
been  so  fiercely  growling  for  cheap  bread,  reckless  all  the  while 
of  that  industry  which  has  already  filled  our  market-places  with 
cheap  corn,  and  will  keep  England,  "  meiTy  England  "  still,  if 
the  plough  be  not  palsied,  nor  the  natural  order  of  civilized 
society  inverted,  and  "  the  smiling  power  of  cultivation,"  which 
now  lies  on  many  a  once  unproductive  hill,  withered  by  insane 
legislation  for  false  friends  or  true  enemies,  who  hypocritically 
bless  or  sincerely  curse  us  for  our  power  and  our  dominion, 
from  lands  beyond  the  sea,  whose  slavery  we  yet  may  pity,  and 
whose  liberty  we  do  not  need  to  envy,  so  long  as  we  till  the 
glebe  that,  in  spite  of  snows  and  hails,  shows  its  rich  harvests 
to  the  sun,  ripening  in  frequent  glooms,  and  sometimes  reaped 
by  a  hardy  race  amidst  the  pauses  of  the  tempest. 

But  what  think  we  of  Mr.  Loudon's  third  and  last  way  of 
acquiring  "great"  wealth— by  marriage  ?  Why,  a  beautiful 
young  woman,  with  a  sublime  fortune,  is  not  to  be  sneezed  at 
in  nuptial  sheets,  unless  it  be  to  give  the  dear  creature  an  op- 
portunity of  saying  "  God  bless  you  I  "  An  ugly  old  woman,' 
on  the  other  hand,  in  the  stocks,  is  to  be  scunnered  at,  in  a 
similar  predicament,  were  it  but  to  induce  her  to  allow  you  a 
separate  maintenance,  and  all  the  privileges  of  a  bachelor. 
The  world  knows  we  are  engaged ;  but  were  we  offered  our 
choice  of  two  lovely  beings,  both  beautiful, — but  the  one,  sole 
child  of  an  eminent  banker, — and  the  other,  the  last  of  a  second 
series  of  daughters  raised,  as  the  Americans  say,  not  forced, 
from  the  time-honoured  bed  of  a  country  gentleman  impatient 
of  widowhood,  whose  ancestors  had  killed  their  own  mutton 


84 


LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENERS. 


from  time  immemorial — we  should,  unless  her  hail-  were  -very, 
■very  reJ  indeed,  take  unto  our  bosom  the  dowerless  damsel, 
were  it  only  for  the  pure  delight  of  seeing  her,  at  our  own  ex- 
pence,  "taking  off  her  marriage  clothes,"  or,  in  other  words, 
providing  herself  with  a  tasteful  trovssemc.  In  short,  we  would 
take  her  with  raptiu-e  into  our  arms,  though  she  had  just  a  shift 
to  her  hack,  and  but  one  pair  of  elastic  garters.  Like  the  moon 
without  a  cloud,  or  like  the  moon  veiled  in  clouds,  her  beauty 
would  thus  be  ours  too,  inasmuch,  as  we  should  be  the  sun 
that  illumined  the  lovely  orb.  Think  but  for  a  moment  of  your 
bride  buying,  out  of  her  own  dower,  you  being  farthingless, 
and  receiving  discount  for  ready  money,  not  only  the  four- 
posted  bed,  but  all  the  rest  of  the  furniture  ;  nay,  the  very 
house  to  which  you  bring  her  home,  and  of  which,  with  a  face 
of  the  most  brazen  assurance,  you  tell  her  to  consider  herself 
the  mistress — she  having  considerately  bought  up  the  few  duty, 
and  introduced  gas  !  Then  the  degradation  of  never  being 
permitted,  while  you  breathe,  to  put  on  or  take  off  your  bree- 
ches, without  the  consciousness  that  she  paid  for  them  (and 
consequently  is  entitled  to  wear  them  ad  libitum),  whether  vel- 
vet or  fusHan,  so  inexorable  is  the  law  of  the  association  of 
ideas.  Far  rather — so  help  us  heaven — would  we  wear  kilts 
till  we  dropped  into  the  grave. 

But  what  thinks  and  says  Mr.  London  ?  Why,  that  of  the 
three  ways  aforesaid,  "  the  first  is  slow,  but  certain, — the  se- 
cond is  dangerous, — and  the  third  doubtfut.  From  this,  it  is 
clear,  that  he  recommends  the  first,  and  would  have  all  prudent 
gardeners  (for  it  is  to  them  he  is  writing)  "  deny  themselves 
the  usual  gratifications  of  food,  clothing,  and  rest."  The 
second — "  gambling  speculations  in  property,"  lie  seldom  in 
their  way,  and  are  dangerous  ;  and  the  third  is  so  doubtful, 
that  better  far  a  son  of  the  spade  should  go  sans  meat,  sans 
drink,  sans  clothes,  sans  sleep,  sans  every  thing,  than  look  out 
for  a  lass  with  a  tocher.  But  why  call  the  third  mode  doubt- 
ful ?  Assure  yourself  of  the  precise  amount,  at  a  fair  valuation 
by  an  experienced  appraiser,  of  the  real  and  personal  property 
of  the  favoured  fair,  and  by  marrying  her  instanter  across  the 
bonnet,  you  make  yourslf  uUimus  et  solus  hieres,  to  speak  clas- 
sically, of  the  great  globe  herself,  and  aU  that  she  inherits. 
Nothing  doubtful  after  that,  but  as  sure  as  a  gun  are  you  an 
opulent  gardener.  Your  search,  by  the  premises,  was  not  for 
heart's-ease  or  none-so-pretty  ;  you  have  got  your  dandelion, 
a  flower  which  apprentices  call  by  a  grosser  name,  but  what 
you  wished  for  was  gold  ;  and  is  she  not  as  yellow  in  the  face, 
and  all  over,  as  a  gowden  guinea  ? 

Again — "  Suppose,"  quoth  our  beadsman,  "  a  man  wishes  to 
become  an  eminent  poet,  he  may  not  become  an  eminent  poet, 
he  may  not  become  such  a  poet  as  Burns  or  Lord  Byron,  be- 
cause the  clay  of  which  he  is  formed,  may  he  originally  of  infe- 
rior qiiality  to  that  of  these  men  ;  but  if  his  natural  faculties 
are  of  the  average  quality,  he  may  become  a  poet  of  respectable 
rank."  From  Mr.  Loudon's  cautious  use  of  the  "may,"  he 
seems  merely  to  think  that  the  probabilities  are  against  the 
generality  of  gardeners  becoming  absolute  Burnses  or  Byrons  ; 
the  thing  is  not  impossible,  for  though  their  "  clay"  may  be  of 
inferior  quality,  so  may  it  be  of  equal,  or  haply,  of  superior  ; 
and  from  soils  of  average  quality,  pretty  heavy  crops  of  poetry, 
which  may  be  sold  per  sample,  may  be  depended  on  with  ordi- 
nary management.  And  how  is  the  man,  gardener  or  not, 
"  wishing  to  become  an  eminent  poet,"  to  proceed  ?  "  First, 
let  him  read  all  the  poetry  that  has  been  written  in  such  lan- 
guages as  he  understands  ;  next,  let  him,  by  the  aid  of  books 
on  rhetoric,  and  on  the  art  of  poetry  and  criticism,  analyze  all 
the  best  poems,  and  treasure  up  in  his  mind  all  the  figures, 
metaphors,  &c.,  that  are  made  use  of  in  them.  Then  let  him, 
according  to  the  line  of  poetry  which  he  chooses  to  pursue, 
place  himself  in  circumstances  favorable  to  its  study,  and  per- 
severe till  he  produces  at  least  a  new  combination  of  former 
figures,  joined,  if  possible,  with  some  which,  as  Addison  has 
expressed  it,  are  both  '  strange  and  new.'  "  And  thus  may  he 
become  an  eminent  poet  of  respectable  rank. 


After  these  remarks  on  extravagant  desires,  that  is  to  say, 
on  desires  derided  as  extravagant  by  thoughtless  people,  and  on 
what  Mr,  Loudon  chooses  to  call  the  possibility  "  of  attaining 
ends  generally  considered  as  depending  on  fate,  original  genius, 
or  predestination,  it  will  not  be  necessary,"  he  says,  "  to  hint 
at  the  practicability  of  any  man's  attaining  eminence  as  an 
artist  of  any  description,  as  a  literary  character,  natural  or  ex- 
perimental philosopher,  mathematician,  divine,  lawyer,  or  phy- 
sician:" If  all  this  be  true  and  we  should  be  sad  and  sorry  , 
to  deny  it,  we  cannot  help  wondering  at  there  being  so  many 
professional  gardeners,  so  few  kings,  and  fewer  poets.  But 
our  enthusiastic  friend  drives  his  doctrine  on  desire  still  farther 
home,  assuring  us,  "  that  no  self-convicted  sinner  ever  failed  of 
being  converted,  nor  any  persevering  lover  of  getting  possession 
of  his  mistress."  How  does  he  account  for  remorse  committing 
suicide  ?  And  if  a  dozen  persevering  lovers  are  "  a'  wooin', 
puin'  at  her,"  will  they  all  get  possession  of  the  same  mistress  ? 
Other  faculties,  however,  are  necessary  to  ensure  success  in 
horticulture,  besides  desire,  and  of  these  the  chief  are  attention 
and  memory.  "  Unless,"  says  he,  "  we  pay  attention  to  what 
is  addressed  to  us,  whether  by  the  ear  or  eye,  it  is  impossible 
we  can  i-emember,  because  the  sight  or  sound  has  made  no  im- 
pression on  the  memory,  and  without  memory  there  can  be  no 
knowledge."  Of  the  truth  of  this  oi'iginal  observation,  he 
gives  a  very  striking  illustration.  "  It  is  a  common  thing  for 
a  person  to  walk  out  and  return  without  being  able  to  describe, 
or  even  mention,  any  one  thing  he  has  seen  ;  or  to  read  a  news- 
paper without  being  able  to  tell  what  he  has  read,  further  than 
to  give  some  vague  idea  of  the  subject."  But  attention  alone 
will  not  do  ;  and  he  instructs  the  young  gardener  how  to  cul- 
tivate memory  on  philosophical  principles,  after  a  fashion  that 
makes  small  beer  of  Feinagle.  The  generic  names  of  plants 
and  animals  are,  he  tells  us,  of  three  kinds  (just  as  there  was 
three  ways  of  getting  rich) ;  "  those  composed  of  words  indi- 
cating something  of  the  nature  or  appearance,  or  uses  of  the 
plants, — those  composed  of  the  name  of  some  eminent  indivi- 
dual,— and  those  composed  of  native  or  local  names.  Do  you 
wish  to  remember  the  name  of  some  plant  of  the  second  or 
third  class  ?     Then, 

"  Thus,  Gordon  was  a  nurseryman  at  Mile  End,  a  short, 
lame,  sailor-looking  man,  who  dressed  in  blue  trousers,  chewed 
tobacco,  and  was  without  offspring  ;  it  is  easy  to  imagine  his 
wife  reproaching  him  with  the  last  circumstance,  while  he  holds 
out  to  her  a  plant  of  Gordonia,  as  a  substitute  for  a  son  and 
heir.  Elettari  being  extensively  cultivated  as  a  spice  by  the 
natives  of  Coromandel,  we  may  imagine  a  group  of  these  In- 
dians arriving  after  death  at  the  gates  of  Paradise,  each  with 
a  bundle  of  the  plant.  The  porter  may  be  supposed,  on  first 
opening  the  gate,  to  be  about  to  shut  it  in  the  faces  of  these 
poor  black  fellows,  till  they  shout  out,  "  Elettari."  "  What 
then,"  says  the  porter,  "you  are  elect-are-ye  ?  "  and  lets  them 
in.  Elettari  is  the  only  native  generic  name  in  Monandria 
Monogynia ;  the  native  specific  names  in  the  same  class  and 
order  are  Allughas,  Zerumbet,  Cusumunar,  and  Mioga,  which 
may  be  easily  likened  in  sound  to  Hallilujah,][strumpet,  cheese- 
monger, and  Maijocchi  ? " 

All  other  names,  whether  of  science,  or  those  which  occur 
in  the  common  intercoui'se  of  life,  as  of  persons  and  places,  are 
to  be  recollected  "  on  the  same  principle,"  "  and  the  more 
ludicrous  the  association,  the  better  will  it  be  recollected."  AU 
this  may  be  extremely  witty  ;  but  then,  Mr.  Loudon  should 
recollect  that  a  sense  of  the  ludicrous  is  not  equally  given  to 
gardeners  ;  that  in  some  it  is  fine,  in  others  coarse  ;  in  some 
quick,  in  others  slow  ;  that  in  many  it  seems  almost  dead  or 
dormant,  and  in  most  suppressed  during  the  duties  of  daily  life, 
by  other  senses  of  a  higher  kind.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is  in- 
sulting and  injurious  to  vegetables  to  recollect  their  names  by 
ludicrous  associations  alone, — and  if  such  of  the  Monandria 
Monogynia  as  rejoice  in  their  native  specific  names,  could  be 
informed  of  Mr.  Loudon's  new  nomenclature,  they  would  rise 
up  to  a  plant,  and  push  him  from  his  stool  in  his  pride  of  place 


LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENERS. 


85 


The  coarse,  vulgar  wit  of  animal  matter  we  can  well  believe 
very  offensive  to  a  sensitive  vegetable  ;  and  coarse  viilgar  wit 
as  Mr.  Loudon's  here  as  ever  set  the  smiddy  in  a  roar.  What 
decent  gardener  would  call  anything  with  buds  or  leaves — 
strumpet  ?  What  gardener  who  had  read  his  Bible,  as  a  touch 
of  the  ludicrous,  would  change  allughas  into  Hallelujah  ?  What 
a  capon,  who  should  chuckle  to  call,  cusumunar,  cheesemonger  ? 
And  as  for  remembering  for  ever  Mioga,  by  pronouncing  it 
Maijocchi,  does  Mr,  Loudon  imagine  that  the  name  of  that  un- 
grateful reprobate  is  familiar  as  a  household  word  in  English 
gardens  ?  He  makes  such  free  use  of  the  scissors,  that  we  do 
not  always  know  when  he  is  original  and  when  he  is  indebted 
to  wits  no  way  inferior  to  himself  in  power  of  illustration.  Is 
the  following  his  own,  or  Feinagle's,  or  some  other  fools  ?  In 
spite  of  inverted  commas,  it  must  be  a  lump  of  Loudon. 

"  If  I  am  told  that  the  Dutch  merchant,  Schimmelphenninck, 
was  a  very  wealthy  or  religious  man,  that  will  not  assist  me  in 
recollecting  his  long  name  ;  but  if  I  say  to  myself  there  is  some 
resemblance  between  Schimmelphenninck  and  skim-milk-pen  and 
inky  the  resemblance  may  enable  me  to  do  so  ;  or  if  I  have  re- 
course to  a  Dutch  dictionary,  and  discover  that,  schimmel,  is 
grey,  phennick,  a  penny,  I  have  grey  penny,  as  a  synonyme, 
which,  with  the  operations  the  mind  has  undergone,  is  getting 
at  it,  will  most  probably  impress  the  original  name  on  the  me- 
mory. If  a  highlander  tells  us  his  name  is  Macpherson,  I  im- 
mediately interpret  it  Mac-parson, — son  of  a  parson — son  of  a 
Catholic  priest  and  a  Highland  maid  ;  and  I  figure  to  myself 
his  first  parents  of  a  former  age,  a  Franciscan  friar,  '  an  oily 
man  of  God,'  and  a  bare-legged  brawny  wench.  I  see  the 
monk  receive  her  into  his  cell,  take  her  confession,  lead  her 
from  the  confessional  to  his  couch,  there  to  kueel  and  join  with 
him  in  prayer  :  the  straying  hands  of  the  holy  father  surprise 
the  penitent,  but  he  consoles  her  :  *'  let  us  forget  ourselves, 
daughter,  all  flesh  is  grass,"  but  God  is  every  thing,  and  every 
thing  is  permitted  to  his  servant  St.  Francis, — let  our  bodies 
take  their  course  !'  Nine  moons  hence,  and  the  sun  rises  on  the 
plantlet  of  the  tree  ofMacphersou.*' 

Having  thus  strengthened  his  memory  by  the  same  means 
by  which  he  has  refined  his  taste,  the  gardener  cannot  fail  in 
giving  himself  "  an  intellectual  education,  independently  of  ac- 
quiring his  profession."  Eight  hours  per  day,  we  are  told,  is 
about  the  average  of  his  labour  throughout  the  year.  It  is 
not  often  severe  ;  so  he  has  eight  hours  for  '*  rest,  dressing 
and  undressing  ;  eight  for  labour,  and  acquiring  the  practice  of 
gardening,  and  eight  hours  for  refreshment  and  study.  On 
comparing  this  time  for  study  with  that  which  is  usually  de- 
voted to  it  by  young  men  at  college,  not  the  generality  of  young 
men,  but  those  even  who  attain  to  eminence,  we  will  find  the 
diflFerence  very  inconsiderable."  The  young  man  at  college,  Mr. 
Loudon  reminds  us,  require  the  same  time  for  rest  as  the  gar- 
dener, and  at  least  two  hours  more  for  dressing  and  undressing  ; 
for  breakfast  he  requires  an  hour,  and  for  dinner  and  tea  three 
hours.  It  is  so  long  since  we  were  a  young  man  at  college, 
that  we  cannot  speak  confidently  as  to  all  the  items  in  Mr. 
Loudon's  account.  But  never  shall  we  believe  that  we  required 
at  least  two  hours  for  dressing  and  undressing — washing  and 
shaving  of  course  included  in  the  bill  of  the  day.  For  undress- 
ing we  could  not  have  required  above  a  minute  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours  then — on  the  supposition,  a  liberal  one,  of  our  hav- 
ing undressed  twice — for  we  do  not  require  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, and  on  the  same  supposition,  more  than  two  minutes  noiv. 
Five  seconds  for  neckcloth,  five  for  coat  and  waistcoat,  cossacks 
five,  drawers  five  (for  if  you  hurry  you  tear),  and  stockings 
five  each — on  an  average  of  a  year^ — for  occasionally  we  keep 
dancing  about  on  one  leg,  with  the  silk  fiiped  over  the  instep  of 
the  other  foot,  and  clinging  to  it  with  an  obstinacy  that  would 
have  decomposed  the  man  of  Uz,  thougK  not  us- — and  that 
makes  one  minute.  No  allowance  is  here  made  for  shirt  or 
flannel  waistcoat — b\it  these  no  true  Scotchman  changes  above 
once  a  week  ;  that  is  a  work  for  sabbath  hours,  and  we  have 


known  it  take  double  the  time  of  all  our  other  dis- apparelling. 
No  young  man  at  college  will  ever  be  in  the  first  class,  or  senior 
wrangler,  who  cannot  undress  within  the  minute,  and  dress  with- 
in the  quarter  of  an  hour — so,  from  Mr.  Loudon's  most  extra- 
vanant  and  outrageous  allowance  of  two  hours,  subtract  one 
hour  and  twenty-eight  minutes,  which  add  either  to  sleep  or 
study,  or  in  equal  proportions  to  both,  for  surely  you  would 
not  add  them  to  eating,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Loiidon,  al- 
ready engrosses  four  hours,  withoxit  including  its  consequences, 
which,  however,  perhaps  fall  under  the  head  of  relaxation. 
Who  ever  took  an  hour  for  breakfast  ?  Why  we  could  make 
three  breakfasts — and  material  breakfasts,  too — in  that  long 
space  of  time,  were  it  not  for  fear  of  a  surfeit.  Three  hours, 
**  at  least,"  for  dinner  and  tea,  is  likewise  enormous  ;  and  a 
poor  creature  indeed  must  he  be,  who  takes  tea  at  all  when 
reading  for  honours.  He  makes  his  debut  in  the  world  in  the 
shape  of  a  wooden  spoon. 

It  finally  appears,  that  your  gardener,  who  works  on  a  yearly 
average  but  eight  hours  per  day,  has  more  time  for  study  than 
your  Oxonian  or  Cantab.  It  is  true,  allows  Mr.  Loudon,  that 
he  is  "  subject  to  the  time  employed  in  eating,  but  that  may 
well  be  considered  as  compensated  by  the  knowledge  of  botany 
he  acquires  in  the  garden  during  his  hours  of  labour."  The 
great  advantage,  however,  which  your  gardener  possesses  over 
your  Oxonian  and  Cantab  is,  "  that,  unless  his  religion  forbid, 
he  may  study  at  least  twelve  hours  every  Sunday."  Mr.  Loudon 
is  the  most  liberal  man  in  his  religious  opinions  we  ever  heard 
of,  as  you  will  see  by  and  by ;  meanwhile,  do  you  not  admire 
the  coolness  with  which  he  lets  drop,  "  unless  his  religion  for- 
bid," into  the  above  passage?  He  recommends  thatthe  Sunday 
shall  be  employed  thus  : — Morning  commenced  as  usual  with  a 
language;  "the  remaining  part  of  the  day  we  would  dispose 
of  in  portions  of  one,  two,  or  three  hours,  in  bringing  fonvard 
those  evening  studies  which  we  had  been  least  successful  in 
during  the  week,  or  found  ourselves  most  in  want  of  for  actual 
use.  This  day  is  also  particiilarly  adapted  for  drawing,  which, 
though  it  ought  not  to  be  neglected  with  artificial  light,  yet  goes 
on  best  with  that  of  the  sun."  Arithmetic,  mensuration, 
and  land-surveying,  mechanics  and  experimental  philosophy, 
essay  and  letter  writing,  "  both  with  a  view  to  impi'ovement  in 
the  style  and  penmanship,"  and,  if  possible,  miscellaneous 
reading  from  an  Encyclopsedia — these  are  the  studies  on  which 
the  gardener,  according  to  Mr.  Loudon's  scheme  of  education, 
is  to  be  employed  twelve  hours  every  Sabbath  or  Lord's  day. 

These  are  some  '*  of  the  branches  which  best  deserve  his  at- 
tention." But  this  gardener's  friend  holds  that  "  one  branch 
of  knowledge  is  as  much  as  any  person  ever  does  or  can  excel  in." 
A  gardener,  therefore,  should  not  he  thinks,  "  attempt  to  excel 
in  any  one  branch  of  Knowledge  besides  that  of  gardening." 
Even  in  botany  he  cannot  arive  at  great  perfection,  from  not 
having  an  opportunity  of  consulting  the  herbariums  and  books, 
which  are  only  to  be  found  in  the  metropolis.  Instead  there- 
fore, of  vainly  attempting  "  to  excel  in  any  one  branch  except 
gardening, "he  ought  to  follow  another  plan  entirely,  and  a  most 
plausible  one  it  seems  in  Mr.  Loudon's  simple  words.  "  He 
ought  rather  to  make  himself  acquainted  to  the  degree  that  cir- 
cumstances may  permit,  with  the  whole  cycle  of  human  know- 
ledge." But,  even  when  he  has  done  so,  he  must  not  think  of 
everbeing  able  to  become  "expert  at  chemical  analysis,  dissection 
of  animals,  solving  problems  in  any  of  the  higher  branches  of 
mathematics,  ortoexcelin  painting,  music,  or  poetry," 

Discouraging  doctrine,  and  we  hope,  unsound:  but  how  is  the 
gardener  to  find  means  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  the 
whole  cycle  of  human  knowledge  ?  "  To  the  degree  that  cir- 
cumstances may  permit,"  is  a  most  indefinite  degree  ;  and 
should  it  so  happen  that  the  gardener  has  found  a  place  "among 
the  farthest  Hebrides,"  the  degree  to  which  he  may  have  made 
himself  acquainted  with  the  whole  cycle  of  human  knowledge 
would  be  hardly,  we  should  think,  worth  taking,  except  for  the 
honour  of  the  thing,  and  to  be  worn  as  a  titular  ornament.    In 


86 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  RADISH  ROOT. 


happier  circumstances,  the  source  from  which  he  is  to  derive  his 
general  knowledge,  "  it  may  be  easily  conceived  is  chiefly  from 
boolis."  He  is  to  derive  aid  from  professional  men,  men  of 
talents,  and  learning,  wherever  he  has  an  opportunity  of  conver- 
sing with  them,  public  lectures,  artists,  arti5ans,  manufacturers 
of  every  description,  manufactories,  engines,  mines,  docls- 
yards,  and  aU  other  works  displaying  human  skill.  But  the 
grand  source  is  books,  and  the  question  is,  says  Mr.  Loudon, 
how  a  journeyman  gardener,  whose  wages  are  often  less  than 
those  of  a  common  labourer  is  to  procure  them .' 

Now  it  is  well  kno%^Ti  to  aU  persons  conversant  with  such 
matters,  that  there  are,  over  and  above  the  more  rare  and  un- 
common one  of  purchase,  three  ways  of  procuring  books,  beg- 
ging, borrowing,  and  stealing,  though  by  means  of  a  fine  but 
not  difficult  analysis,  all  the  three  nay  all  the  four,  may  be  re- 
duced to  one — to  wit,  stealing,  as  a  few  words  will  shew.  You 
pretend  to  purchase  books,  but  you  never  pretend  to  pay  for 
them ;  and  thus,  '•  to  the  degree  that  circumstances  may  per- 
mit, you  become  acquainted  with  the  whole  cycle  of  human 
knowledge."  The  distinction  between  begging  and  borrowing, 
is  so  slight,  as  to  be  at  times  almost  imperceptible  ;  but  beg- 
ging is  morenearlyakin  to  purchase  without  payment  ;.forinbot ! 
cases  alike  you  make  the  book  your  own,  with  consent  of  the 
precious  owner,  and  write  your  name  on  it,  not  only  witliout 
compunction,  but  with  a  rejoicing  conscience.  Borrowing,  you 
perceive  at  once,  is  stealing,  with  a  gentler  name,  aggravated 
by  audacity,  for  you  do  not  for  a  long  course  of  years  deny  the 
fact ;  but  on  the  contrary,  apologize  every  time  you  meet  the 
previous  owner,  which  however,  you  take  care  shall  be  as  sel- 
dom as  possible,  nay,  promise  to  return  it  on  Monday.  Your 
friend  cuts  you,  or  goes  abroad,  or  marries,  and  forgets  his 
books  in  his  children,  or,  best  of  all  dies,  and  the  book  or  books 
are  yours  for  life.  Mere  simple  stealing,  that  is  shop-lifting — 
though  common,  is  not  correct ;  but  being  committed  probably 
on  a  sudden  impulse,  on  the  sly,  and  with  shame,  it  is  a  venial 
offence  in  comparison  with  borrowing :  though  we  believe  that 
he  who  steals  many  books,  one  after  the  other,  never  gives  over 


doing  so,  even  after  frequent  detection  and  exposure,  will  be 
almost  sure  to  take  to  borrowing  at  last. 

With  such  sentiments  on  stealing,  we  were  startled  by  Mr. 
Loudon's  answers  to  his  own  question,  "  How  is  a  journeyman 
gardener,  whose  wages  are  less  often  than  a  common  labourer 
to  procure  books  ?"  Our  answer  is  borrow  them,  and  make  it 
a  fixed  rule  to  purchase  no  books  excepting  grammars,  dictio- 
naries, and  other  elementary  works,  and  of  these,  used  and 
and  cheap  copies."  And  from  whom  is  he  to  borrow  ?  Why 
from  the  head  gardener  to  be  sure.  And  how  does  he  procure 
them  ?  Why,  he  borrows  them  of  course,  from  "  the  patron 
under  whom  he  serves."  And  how  came  they  into  disposses- 
sion ?  Probably  by  purchase,  without  payment  ;  and  tlms  do 
the  journeymen  gardeners  over  all  Britain  "  become  acquainted 
as  far  as  circumstances  may  permit,  with  tiie  whole  cycle  of 
human  knowledge,"  at  the  expense  of  John  Murray,  Longman, 
and  Co.,  and  William  Blackwood!  We  pity  the  poor  book- 
sellers. 

The  sort  of  books,  says  Mr.  Loudon,  "desirable  to  borrow," 
independently  of  those  connected  with  professional  acquire- 
ments, are  treatises  on  chemistry,  zoology,  mineralogy,  and 
above  all,  a  good  Encyclopedia — one  systematically,  instead  of 
alphabetically  arranged  would  be  the  best ;  but  as  most  existing 
libraries,  he  says  are  now  stocked  with  the  Encyclopedia  Brit- 
tannica,  or  Hees'  Cyclopedia,  "  these  must  be  taken,  till  a 
well  executed  one,  on  the  plan  of  the  Encyclopedia  Metropo- 
litan, now  publishing  (but  badly  executed,)  finds  its  way  into 
general  use."  The  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana  is  not  badly 
executed,  as  this  conceited  gentleman  impertinently  says  in  a 
parenthesis,  any  one  number  of  it  being  worth  all  he  has  com- 
piled since  he  became  a  cHpper.  Then  there  is  the  Edinburgh 
Encyclopedia,  edited  by  Sir  David  Brewster,  now  complete,  and 
the  property  of  that  enterprising  bookseller,  Mr.  Tcgg,  full  of 
the  most  useful  information  of  all  kinds,  as  Mr.  Loudon  well 
knows,  though  he  has  kept  his  left  hand  thumb  upon  it,  all  the 
while  brandishing  in  his  right  hand  a  formidable  pair  of  shears, 
that  might  trim  a  privet  hedge,  or  the  mane  of  a  bonassus. 


[So  much  for  the  First  Fitte.] 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  RADISH  ROOT. 


It  is  well  known  to  most  observers,  that  at  tlie  sum- 
mit of  the  root  of  the  common  radish,  at  the  very 
base  of  the  stem,  or  that  place  which  the  French  call 
the  collet — the  English  the  neck,  is  £.n  appendage,  at 
first  resembling  a  membranous  sheath,  enwrapping 
the  young  root,  and  subsequently  as  the  root  distends, 
becoming  two  loose  straps  hanging  down  on  eachi 
side  of  the  root.  The  nature  of  this  appendage  was 
unknown  until  the  late  ingenious  L.  C.  Richard 
discovered  the  existence  of  two  modes  of  germina- 
tion, called  the  exhorhizal  and  endorhizal,  and 
suggested  that  the  radish  w.  s  an  example  of  the 
latter  mode,  a  notion  which  has  been  generally  ad- 
mitted by  recent  writers,  notwithstanding  the  cir- 
cumstance, that,  if  endorhizal,  the  radish  would  offer 
an  exception  to  a  very  general  law  that  endordizal 
germination  goes  along  with  endogenous  growth. 


M.  Turpin  has  lately  demonstrated  that  the  fleshy 
supposed  root  of  the  radish  belongs  to  the  ascending 
axis,  not  to  the  descending  one,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, it  belongs  to  the  system^  of  the  stem,  and 
not  to  that  of  the  root.  In  the  next  place,  he  asserts, 
that  the  tumour,  which  ultimately  becomes  the  rad- 
dish,  is  in  the  beginning  cylindrical,  and  that  its 
cuticle  loses  at  a  very  early  period  the  power  of 
distension  ;  in  short,  that  it  dies,  and  separates  from 
the  subjacent  living  matter,  just  as  dead  bark  sepa- 
rates from  liber  and  young  wood  in  old  stems.  Now 
this  premature  death  of  the  cuticle  is  connected  with 
the  rapid  lateral  distension  of  the  tumour,  the  cause 
of  the  existence  of  the  two  appendages  in  question, 
which  are  nothing  more  than  two  straps  of  dead  cuti- 
cle, rent  asunder  by  the  gradual  but  rapid  distension 
of  the  part  that  they  originally  ensheathed. 


87 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  TURNIPS. 

BY  MR.  HUGH  MUNKO,   ASSTNT  BY  EVANTON,  ROSSHIRE.* 


1  HAD  a  field  of  nine  acres  which  I  wished  returned 
into  grass,  and,  from  the  little  experience  I  have 
as  a  farmer  of  four  years  standing,  I  considered 
that  grass  after  turnip  eaten  off  by  the  sheep,  would 
be  better  than  after  any  other  course.  I  at  one 
time  thought  I  should  be  obliged  to  purchase  bone 
manurefor  this  field,  not  having  any  fold  manure;  but 
the  expense  of  bones  for  nine  acres,  at  twenty  five 
bushels  per  acre,  at  2s.  lOd.  (the  price  last  season), 
would  amount  to  31.  10s.  lOrf.  or  31Z.  17s-  6rf.  I  have, 
however,  heard  that  fourteen  bushels  of  bones  per 
acre  have  been  applied  to  raise  turnip  with  suc- 
cess, which  makes  11.  I9s.  8d.  per  acre,  or  lyZ.  IJs. 
for  nine  acres.  So  I  determined  to  try  and  find  a 
substitute  that  would  be  cheaper  and  equally  effec- 
tive, in  which,  I  am  happy  to  say,  I  have  succeeded 
beyond  my  most  sanguine  expectations.  I  got  some 
of  the  small  tenantry  to  bring  me  a  quantity  of  peat- 
moss, for  which  I  paid  21.  10s.  I  then  mixed  all  the 
chaff  from  the  mill,  the  fire  ashes  from  my  own 
house,  together  with  the  sweepings  and  fire  ashes, 
&c.  &c.  of  my  servants'  houses,  (for  which  I  gave 
straw  to  bed  their  pigs,)  the  scrapings  of  roads  and 
ditches,  and  then  wetted  the  whole  with  the  super- 
fluous urine  from  the  fold,  having  added  a  little  lime 
and  house  dung,  and  turned  it  frequently  till  it  was 
well  pulverised ;  and  in  this  way  I  prepared  forty- 
five  single  cart-loads.  During  the  winter,  I  drilled 
from  the  stubble  the  field  intended  for  turnip,  and 
let  it  be  exposed  to  the  weather  in  that  state  until 
the  end  of  May,  when  I  harrowed  it  smooth,  and 
then  drilled  it  again  by  splitting  the  former  drills. 
I  then  put  a  light  roller  over  the  drills  to  make  them 
smooth,  and  commenced  laying  down  the  turnip  in 
the  following  manner.  I  had  five  men  with  large 
dibbles  made  of  hard  wood,  with  which  they  made 
holes  eight  inches  apart  on  the  top  of  the  drills,  press- 
ing down  the  dibble  with  the  foot,  each  man  having 
a  single  drill,  followed  by  a  woman  with  a  basketful 
of  prepared  manure,  and  into  each  hole  made  by  the 
dibble  she  placed  a  handful  of  manure.  The  ma- 
nure is  taken  to  the  field  in  carts  from  where  it  is 
made,  and  the  driver  fills  each  woman's  basket  as 
they  may  require  it.  After  her,  followed  a  girl  with 
a  little  bag  of  turnip  seed,  putting  from  three  to  six 
or  more  grains  on  the  top  of  the  manure,  with  her 
fore  finger  and  thumb,  drawing  a  little  earth  over 
it,  and  in  this  manner  I  carried  on  five  drills  at  a 
time  with  fifteen  people  ;  viz.  a  man  and  two  wo- 
men to  each  drill.  I  only  expended  two  pounds  of 
turnip  seed  for  each  acre.  The  whole  went  on  like 
clock-work,  and  I  finished  the  nine  acres  in  four 
days,  at  an  expense  of  about  51.  including  purchase 
of  peat-moss.  The  turnips  grew  rapidly,  and  I  had 
them  cleaned  in  the  usual  manner,  sometimes  leav- 


ing two  plants  in  one  hole,  which  I  found  to  answer 
well,  especially  when  the  plants  happened  to  be  a 
little  distant  from  each  other,  say  about  two  inches. 
I  have  thus  raised  an  excellent  crop  of  large  turnips, 
by  applying  onhj  five  single  cart-loads  per  acre  of 
this  prepared  manure,  and  the  expense  of  the  whole 
dees  not  exceed  51. ;  indeed,  they  are  so  good,  that  f 
am  now  stripping  one  half  previous  to  putting  on 
the  sheep.  Every  one  who  has  seen  the  turnip  has 
been  surprised,  and  several  in  my  neighbourhood 
intend  adopting  the  same  plan  next  year.  I  shall 
now  attempt  to  make  some  observations  on  this  plan, 
which  I  have  iidopted,  and  which  I  believe  to  have 
originated  with  myself ;  at  all  events,  I  never  heard 
or  read  of  such  a  plan  before ;  and  you  will  readily 
agree  that  the  experiment  was  tried  on  an  extensive 
scale.     I  will  now  observe  that 

1st.  Where  the  land  is  foul  with  weeds,  the  usual 
mode  of  cleaning  should  be  adopted,  and  then  drill- 
ing the  land  once. 

2nd.  That  the  manure  to  be  prepared,  should  be 
made  as  strong  as  possible,  by  the  superfluous  urine 
of  the  court-yard  in  winter ;  and  that  the  scrapings 
of  roads  and  ditches,  with  rubbish  of  old  houses,  &c. 
would  be  preferable  to  peat-moss.  A  boll  of  lime 
should  also  be  mixed  with  every  ten  cart-loads,  and, 
when  well  attended  to,  less  than  five  cart-loads  per 
acre  will  be  found  sufficient. 

3rd,  I  observe  that,  although  the  season  may  be 
dry,  and  the  sides  of  the  hole  liable  to  fall  in,  yet, 
by  making  the  women  with  the  manure  follow  the 
dibble  quickly,  this  inconvenience)  and  I  may  say 
it  is  the  only  one)  will  be  obviated  in  a  great  mea- 
sure ;  and,  where  this  was  done,  I  found  no  differ- 
ence in  the  crop  of  turnips. 

4th.  This  plan  can  be  followed  in  all  kinds  of 
weather,  and  better  while  raining,  which  is  not  the 
case  n  the  usual  method. 

5th.  Where  five  or  more  grains  of  the  seed  come 
up  together,  (forced  on  by  the  strength  of  the  ma- 
nure, over  which  the  seed  is  immediately  placed,) 
they  will  force  themselves  through,  even  shoidd  the 
soil  be  barkened  by  rain,  wind,  and  sunshine.  And, 

6th.  Shoidd  dry  weather  be  the  character  of  the 
season  while  sowing  the  turnips,  they  will  show  a 
healthy  braird,  the  manure,  which  is  tlieir  food,  being 
close  at  hand,  and  they  not  being  obliged  to  push 
their  delicate  roots  through  a  quantity  of  earth  in 
search  of  nourishment,  as  in  the  method  now  in  use. 

I  have  now  given  a  statement  of  my  plan  of  culti- 
vating turnips,  with  the  observations  I  made,  as  far 
as  I  have  been  able  ;  and  I  am  certain,  that  whoever 
tries  the  above  plan,  will  not  be  inclined  again  to 
purchase  the  bone  manure,  at  its  present  price. 


*  From  Trans.  Highland  Society. 


88 


ON  THE  GENERATION  OV  PLANTS. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  GENERATION   OF    PLANTS,  PARTICULARLY  PUMPKINS, 

HEMP,  AND  LYCHNIS  DIOICA. 


BY  CH.  GIROU    DE   BUZAREINGUES,    COKRESPONDENT  OF  THE    ROYAL    ACADEMY  OF   SCIENCES. 


In  1832,  I  so\\'ed  in  my  garden  three  varieties  of 
the  pumpkin,  the  Barbarine,  the  Pastisson,  and  the 
Giraumon. 

I  cannot  conceive  that  any  foreign  pollen  could  be 
conveyed  by  the  wind  or  by  insects,  as  there  were 
not  for  three  leagues  round,  any  pumpkins  similar 
to  my  own,  nor  probably  Qther  piimpkins  of  any 
sort.  ■    :.;■  •,:  .   ;:.,^,;: 

About  the  27th  of  July,  I  took  care  to  destroy  all 
the  male  flowers  before  they  were  blown,  as  all  the 
female  flowers  which  had  blown  before  this  were 
abortive.  The  fruit  became  yellow,  wlien  about  the 
size  of  a  cherry.  The  number  of  abortive  plants 
were  fifteen  barbarines,  and  two  pastissons. 

After  the  27th  July,  I  began  a  series  of  different 
experiments,  either  by  means  of  artificial  fecunda- 
tion and  without  mixture,  by  hybridation,  or  by  the 
destruction  of  the  males  :  I  in  the  end,  left  my  pi  ,nts 
to  themselves. 

T  proceeded  with  the  artificial  fecundation, 
without  mixtiu'c  and  hybridation. 

il.  In  the  humid  way,  by  separating  the  stimens 
m'the  calyx,  and  by  diluting  afterwards  tlie  paste 
with  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  to  render  it 
liquid,  and  touching  the  pistils  with  this  liquor  by 
the  aid  of  a  caincl  hair  pencil,  or  by  turning  in  tlie 
bell-shaped  corolla  of  the  female  flower. 

2.  By  insertion,  placing  one  or  more  male  flowers, 
deprived  of  the  corolla,  into  the  female  flower,  and 
enveloping  them  as  it  were  in  a  jaurse,  by  the  aid  of 
a  ligature  around  the  side  of  its  border.  This  expc 
dienf  appeared  proper,  to  disperse  from  the  pistil  all 
foreign  influence  which  might  have  deranged  my 
experiments, 

3.  By  simple  insertion,  that  is  to  say,  by  placing 
many  male  flowers  in  a  female  flower  without  a  liga- 
ture. In  order  that  I  may  be  certain  of  the  hybri- 
d^itfon,  I  take  the  precaution  the  day  before  to  des- 
titoy,  previous  to  their  exp  nsion,  the  male  flowers 
of  the  variety  which  I  i)urpose  to  cross  on  the  mor- 
row. If  however,  after  this  precLiution,  it  some- 
times happens,  before  the  rising  of  tlie  sun,  and  the 
awaking  of  the  bees,  male  flowers  have  expanded,  I 
destroy  them  instantly,  and  leave  them  to  subsist 
wittout  artificial  fecundations,  the  females  which 
were  their  neighbours,  in  order  to  prove  if  there 
was  sufficient  nearness  to  the  male,  under  circum- 
stances little  fayour,.ble  to  the  dispersion  of  the  pol- 
leji,  to  the  females  that  were  fecundated,  and.  to 
render  useless  my  trials  of  Jiybridation.      „,■    j,>j,.^;; 

If  it  hajjpened  that  the  female  flowers,  .pfjiUe 
variety  which  I  wished  to  cross,  were  near  ex- 
panding, I  took  advantage  of  the  others  blpssomin.g. 


and  even  sometimes  by  an  incision  into  the  corolla, 
prevented  the  procedure  of  hybridation. 

I  tried  also  the  artificial  fecundation  with  .ijiftles 
gathered  the  day  before  and  withered.  ,  i..;jjfi,f 

Although  there  had  been  dry  weather  for:  t]ii;^e 
months,  my  experiments  were  attended  with  suc- 
cess, owing  to  the  care  I  was  at  in  waje^jiig,  the 
pvunpkins  abundantly  every  evening.  ;;-,.-,/,!,. 

In  fine,  to  avoid  confusion,  I  marked  all  the  female 
flowers,  the  object  of  one  experiment,  with  long  rods 
of  wood,  numbered  and  carefully  registered,       : 

I  would  however  have  been  liable  .to  mista,kes, 
if  I  had  not  first  destroyed  the  aborti\'e  fruit,  as  soon 
as  the  abortion  had  taken  place,  taking  up  the  cor- 
respondent rods,  ;ind  carefully  registering  this  with 
the  designation  of  the  proper  number. 

Here,  I  may  recapitulate  the  regult§  of  these  expe- 
riments. 

In  fourteen  trials  of  artificial  fecundation,  with.out 
mixture  by  the  humid  way,  one  only  was  successful. 

Upon  foiir  female  flowers,  which  had  each  a  male 
flower  of  their  own  proper  variety,  three  produced 
fruit,  only  one  was  abortive,  and  this  abortion  was 
owing  a  little  to  a  blossom  on  the  stem,  which  in  the 
lower  part  nourished  also  a  pumpkin  well  deve^ 
loped.  ,,,    :.     J  ,^,    ,; ,  1 

Upon  five  female  fiowefs  which  had  each  inapy 
males  of  their  own  proper  v..riety,  not  one  was  bar- 
ren, and  the  pericarps  were  filled  with  seeds  pro- 
vided with  kernels. 

Ujioii  fifty-three  feniale  flowers  of  the  barbarine 
wliicli  had  each  received  a  male  pastisson  flower, 
twenty  three  were  abortive,  among  which,  tWiO,h3,d 
received  two  males  gathered  the  day  beforevr.ii  v.'«.-l.' 

Among  these  which  prospered,  many  of  them  had 
not  blown  when  all  the  males  of  their  variety  were 
destroyed.  , 

In  three  female  flpwers  of  the  pastisson,  wihich 'had 
each  received  a  iijiale  h,a,ji!n3f iiie,i  S^pyir^v,. jiog^  Qf^ 
proved  abortivci. ,  ;  .  : ,,  ..   :  '■■  .    ■  ,    •,  y  ,  t  n.; 

Upon  nine  female  flowers  of  the  barbarine,  which 
had  eacli  a  male  of  the  Giraumon,  tlu'ee  only  were 
quite  abortive  ;  .one  only  was  filled  with  seeds,  and 
this  one  by  exception  had  been  fecundated  by  the 
males  of  its  own  variety,  and  it  was  demonstrated- 
to  me,  lJjat,it  was  so  in..eifi'ect.;t.  As.  to,  .^he., Either 

One,  was  of  the  diameter  of  two  inches  six  lines;  of 
a  size  above  the  medium  of  my  barbarines,  produced 
nothing  but  one  seed  provided  with  a  kei'nel,  and  in 
the  other  four  seeds,  one  of  wliich  was  of  more  than 
ordinary  bulk,  and  three  very  small,  the  whole  were 
destitute  of  kernels,  and  presented  only  the  episperm. 


1 


ON  THE  GENERATION  OP    PLANTS. 


89 


A  second,  of  the  diameter  of  twenty-two  lines 
produced  many  seeds,  one  of  which  only  was  pro- 
vided with  a  kernel. 

A  third,  of  the  diameter  of  twenty-two  lines,  pro- 
duced only  two  grains  destitute  of  kernel. 

A  fourth  of  the  diameter  of  eighteen  lines,  pro- 
duced nothing  but  two  very  small  seeds  destitute  of 
kernel. 

The  fifth,  of  the  diameter  of  sixteen  lines,  pro- 
duced many  seeds,  of  which  one  only  was  provided 
with  a  kernel. 

According  to  the  small  number  and  condition  of 
their  seeds,  these  five  barbarines  presented  a  striking 
contrast  with  all  the  others,  in  which  were  found  a 
great  number  of  seeds,  sometimes  more  than  a  hun- 
dred, of  which  the  greater  part  were  provided  with 
kernels. 

Of  two  female  pastissons,  each  of  which  had  re- 
ceived a  male  giraumon,  neither  prospered. 

One  female  giraumon,  which  had  received  a  male 
pastisson,  proved  abortive. 

Upon  seventeen  female  flowers  expanded  in  the 
morning,  when  the  precaution  had  not  been  taken 
to  destroy  the  males,  and  leave  them  without  arti- 
ficial fecundation,  after  the  destruction  of  the  ex- 
panded male  flowers,  seven  produced  fruit. 

Upon  thirty-one  females  expanded  in  the  morn- 
ing, after  having  taken  the  precaution  the  day 
before  to  destroy  the  males  which  could  be  dis- 
covered, and  to  suppress  in  the  morning,  previous  to 
the  rising  of  the  sun  and  setting  out  of  the  bees,  all 
those  which  having  escaped  the  first  investigation, 
and  were  expanded  thirty  were  abortive. 

Upon  sixty-two  female  plants  which  had  flou- 
rished after  the  conclusion  of  these  experiments, 
twenty-five  proved  abortive. 

The  pastissons  produced  by  these  experiments, 
have  been  wholly  without  a  crown ;  yet  I  have  taken 
seed  from  them  in  subjects  richly  provided  with  it ; 
they  have  been  on  the  other  hand,  a  little  crumpled 
or  warty  :  they  had  also  the  flat  or  discoid  form, 
and  the  yellow  colour  of  the  variety  from  which 
they  came. 

The  first  change  of  form  induced  me  to  suppose, 
that  the  seed  whicli  I  sowed  had  suffered  hybrida- 
tion by  the  assistance  of  the  wind  or  insects.  The 
possibility  of  hybridation  had  been  many  times 
proclaimed  as  deduced  from  various  experiments  ; 
it  has  been  proved  to  me  by  the  evolution  of  fruits 
coming  from  flowers  in  which  I  have  tried  it,  and  by 
the  sterility  of  those  placed  in  the  same  circum- 
stances, but  by  design  deprived  of  the  male  flower. 
But  I  was  permitted  to  observe  a  new  proof,  and  I 
did  not  neglect  it. 

I  sowed  in  1833,  the  seed  arising  from  my  mix- 
tures of  the  preceding  year. 

Mark  the  result  of  this  second  part  of  the  expe- 
riment. 

The  seed  furnished  by  the  barbarines  united  with 


the  pastissons,  produced  fruits  which  were,  some  the 
form  and  colour  of  the  pastissons,  others  the  colour 
of  the  pastissons  with  a  spherical  form. 

From  the  seed  furnished  by  the  pastissons  united 
with  the  barbarines,  were  produced  fruits  which  had 
completely  the  form  and  colour  of  the  pastissons  ; 
others  which  had  the  globular  form  of  the  barba- 
rines, and  the  colour  of  the  pastissons;  others  in  fine, 
which  had  the  lengthened  form  of  the  cucumbers, 
and  the  colour  of  the  pastissons. 

The  seed  produced  from  doubtful  hybridation  of  a 
barbarine  with  a  male  giraumon,  produced  me 
fruits  which  changed  these  doubts  into  certainties ; 
for  they  were  absolutely  the  form,  the  bulk,  and 
colour  of  the  barbarines. 

The  grains,  in  small  number,  furnished  by  the 
barbarines  allied  with  the  giraumons,  have  pro- 
duced nothing,  although  cultivated  with  care. 

Observations  on  the  Results  of  these  Experiments. 

The  females  which  flourished  in  the  period  when 
I  had  destroyed  with  care  all  the  males,  before  their 
expansion,  were  all  abortive.  There  is  at  the  same 
time,  first,  an  exception  of  one  in  twenty-nine  of 
those  which  I  wished  to  fecundate  by  the  humid 
way ;  second,  an  exception  of  one  in  tiiirty-one  of 
those  which  I  had  left  to  grow  without  artificial 
fecundation,  in  the  period  when  I  attempted  the  day 
before,  previous  to  their  expansion,  to  destroy  the 
males  of  the  variety  which  I  proposed  to  cross  two 
days  afterwards  ;  third,  of  those  which  I  wished  to 
fecundate  with  the  pollen  of  the  flowers  gathered 
the  day  before. 

Hybridation  with  the  giraumons,  was  only  par- 
tially successful. 

The  varieties  then,  of  pumpkins  employed  in  my 
experiments,  cannot  reproduce  without  the  concur- 
rence of  the  male. 

This  result  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  that  whicii 
was  obtained   by  M.  Desfontaines  in  1831. 

Among  the  other  results  of  my  experiments  1 
will  remark  the  following  : 

1.  The  defeat  of  fecundations  by  the  humid  way. 
This  fact  is  in  accordance  with  a  general  observa- 
tion that  rain  falling  at  blossoming  time,  occasions 
the  falling  off"  or  abortion  of  the  fruits.  Humidity 
co-operates  in  two  ways  to  produce  this  last  pheno- 
mena, as  an  obstacle  to  the  opening  of  the  cells  of 
the  anthers,  and  by  the  activity  which  it  gives  to  the 
vegetation  of  the  stem,  which  is  hurtful  to  that  of 
the  fruit. 

2.  Fecimdation  cannot  be  certain,  except  a  male 
flower  be  expanded  for  some  time  near  to  a  female 
flo^ver  also  when  this  expansion  only  takes  place 
before  the  rising  of  the  sun  and  the  awakening  of  the 
bees  :  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a  cause  to  set  at 
liberty  the  pollen,  and  another  which  may  transport 
it  to  the  female  flower. 


UAOAZINB  OF  BOTANT  AND  GARDENIXG,  VOL.  II.  NO.   XV. JUNE,   1834. 


m 


ON  THE  GEtJBRATION  OF  PLANTS. 


3.  Fecundation  is  uncertain  when  the  male 
flower  is  already  becoming  faded. 

4.  The  produce  of  fecundation  is  in  proportion 
to  the  abundance  of  the  pollen. 

5.  The  existence  of  a  small  number  of  sterile 
•seeds  are  sufficient  for  the  development  of  the  peri- 
carp. 

6.  The  possibility  of  hybridation  is  incontestible  ; 
but  it  is  more  or  less  difficult  according  to  the  dis- 
tance or  diiference  among  the  varieties  which  we 
wish  to  mingle. 

7-  Among  plants  as  among  animals,  the  influence 
of  the  male  upon  the  forms  and  the  colour  of  the 
produce,  may  be  such  as  to  render  imperceptible 
that  of  the  female. 

8.  By  hybridation,  we  can  obtain  anomalous 
farms,  which  may  neither  resemble,  not  even  in  a 
medium  degree  those  of  the  father  or  mother. 

Though  the  presence  of  the  male  may  be  as  neces- 
sary in  androgynous  or  monoicous  plants,  as  in 
hermaphrodite  plants,  to  the  fecundation  of  the 
female,  we  ought  not  to  conclude  that  it  is  the  same 
in  dioicous  plants.  In  these,  the  male  is  latent,  and 
in  the  female  plant  it  manifests  itself  at  the  same 
time,  sometimes  by  its  organs. 

To  deprive  this  female  of  all  commimication  with 
males  of  its  own  species,  it  is  not  necessary  to  rob  it 
of  the  unseizable  masculine  power  which  is  in  it : 
and  althoiigh  we  may  be  ignorant  by  what  means 
such  a  power  can  be  supplied,  it  does  not  follow  that 
there  cannot  be  such  a  power. 

When  an  organ  exists,  the  capacity  which  is  re- 
presented, is  contained  in  it :  to  suppress  this  is  to 
destroy  it.  But  because  there  is  not  an  organ  in  a 
plant,  or  in  an  animal,  by  which  it  may  concentrate 
itself,  or  by  which  a  faculty  is  unveiled  that  accords 
with  all  other  organized  bodies,  or  is  capable  of  be- 
coming so,  we  would  not  infer  so  much,  if  we  were 
not  authorized  by  constant  observation  to  draw  tliis 
conclusion  of  the  total  absence  of  this  faculty. 
Where  are  the  male  organs  of  the  polypus,  of  the 
female  aphis,  or  of  the  Daphnia  pulex,  and  the  like? 

Where  is  the  organ  of  vision  in  the  medusa,  or 
that  of  hearing  in  insects  ?* 

I  will  not  insist  more  upon  these  ideas  which  I 
have  already  presented  and  developed  in  my  book 
on  Generation  ;  I  pass  to  the  following  facts. 

I  repeated  my  experiments  upon  the  hemp  plant 
and  upon  the  Lychnis  dioica,  with  so  much  care  as  to 
authorise  me  to  affirm  that  these  plants  reproduce 
themselves  without  the  aid  of  the  male  organs. 

In  1832  and  1833,  I  attentively  examined  the 
flibwers  of  hemp  which  I  had  planted  out  for  my  ex- 
periment, after  having  destroyed  all  the  males  before 
blossoming  time,  in  order  that  there  might  be  no 
rudiments  of  the  stamens  in  the  envelope  of  the 
pistil.    The  observation  was  extended  to  seventy-six 


plants;  my  eyes  were  assisted  with  a  good  magnifying 
glass,  but  nothing  could  be  discovered.  I  do  not 
deny  so  far,  that  the  stamens  or  rudiments  of  the 
stamens  may  light  upon  the  females  of  the  hemp.  I 
have  found  it  so  myself  in  other  circumstances  :  but 
this  M'as  not  the  case  in  my  seventy-six  subjects. 
How  do  you  know  ?  tell  me  ;  have  you  verified  it  in 
all  the  flowers  ?  No  :  but  observation  has  taught 
me  that  it  is  in  general  sufficient  to  understand  the 
sexual  organization  of  one  flower,  to  comprehend 
a  little  of  that  of  all  the  flowers  on  the  same  plant ; 
and  I  have  only  occasion  to  study  one  flower  on  each 
plant :  I  verified  also  the  more  early.  Again,  can 
we  reasonably  suppose  that  the  rudiments  of  the 
stamen,  inclosed  in  the  envelope  of  the  seed  organ, 
can  be  able  to  fecundate  all  the  females  of  a  neigh- 
bouring plant  ?  My  observations  upon  the  pump- 
kins is,  that  fecundation  by  the  pollen,  does  not  make 
sport  of  all  these  obstacles,  and  that  it  is  more  to 
hinder  than  to  further  it. 

My  seventy-six  plants  of  hemp  were  all  blown, 
and  abundantly ;  the  seed  was  well  developed  ;  it 
was  completely  isolated  ;  there  was  no  hemp  field 
nearer  than  the  distance  of  half  a  league,  in  a  coun- 
try interrupted  by  hills  and  valleys,  the  vegetation 
was  early,  and  a  high  wall  acted  as  a  safe  shelter  from 
the  west  wind,  which  can  cany  pollen  a  long  dis- 
tance, if  any  exists,  I  will  add  that  the  flowering 
and  fructification  of  my  hemp  have  been  general 
and  of  short  duration. 

Upon  Lychnis  dioica,  I  commenced  wholly  (after  a 
complete  destruction  of  the  males  before  blossoming 
time,)  upon  the  female  subjects,  where  were  found 
the  rudiments  of  stamens  ;  but  as  it  is  necessary  to 
understand,  with  respect  to  this,  the  state  of  one 
flower  to  judge  of  all  those  of  the  same  plant,  it  has 
been  easy  to  suppress,  before  l)looming,  all  those 
plants  where  were  found  the  rudiments  of  stamens ; 
the  others  ha \'ing  produced  seed  in  great  abundance. 

I  wished  to  be  assured,  among  these,  in  the  course 
of  the  blossoming,  if  the  pistil  had  not  received  pol- 
len which  could  be  carried  to  it  by  the  wind  or  bv 
insects,  also  what  was  the  indisputable  cause  of  the 
precocity  of  my  Lychnis ;  and  for  this  purpose,  I  exa- 
mined many  of  their  pistils  with  a  microscope,  but 
could  not  discover  any  globule  of  the  pollen. 

I  continued,  upon  the  Lychnis  dioica,  my  obser- 
vations upon  the  aptitude  of  the  seed  to  produce  one 
sex  rather  than  the  other,  following  its  situation 
upon  the  stem  or  upon  the  verge,  (Jrophosperme). 

This  plant  is  dichotomous  by  the  abortion  of  the 
median  stem,  but  this  abortion  is  not  constant,  es- 
pecially among  the  females,  and  in  this  case,  th^ 
m.edian  stem  is  slender,  and  terminated  by  a  flower. 

After  the  observations  which  I  have  already  made 
and  communicated  to  the  academy,  from  which  it 
results,  tliat  the  aptitude  of  the  seed  to    produce 


•  See  Alphabet  of  Insects,  Second  Edition,  for  different  opinions  on  the  Hearing  of  Insects. 


A 


DUTROCHET    ON  DIASTASE. 


9T 


females  is  much  greater  at  the  top  than  at  the  base 
of  the  stem,  or  of  the  spike,  or  of  the  verge,  and 
also  upon  strong  and  more  vigorous  stems,  than 
upon  slender  stems,  I  ought  to  infer  that  it  will  go 
on  increasing  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  bifur- 
cations, and  that  it  will  be  less  upon  the  direct  con- 
tinuation of  the  stem  than  upon  its  branches.  These 
results  have  not  disappointed  my  attention. 

I  divided  my  seed  of  the  Lychnis  into  four  parts  : 
the  first  produced  from  the  lower  branches  ;  the 
second  from  the  direct  continuation  of  the  stem  ;  the 
third  from  the  second  pair  of  branches  in  going  from 
below  to  above  ;  and  the  fourth  from  the  third  pair. 

I  diNaded  the  second  part  into  two  sections,  of 
which  one  was  taken  from  the  base  or  lower  half, 
the  other  from  the  summit  or  upper  half  of  the 
verge. 

Here  are  the  results  : 

The  first  part  gave  me  268  males,  247  females  : 
in  the  proportion  of  1085  to  1000. 

The  second  part,  first  section,  186  males,  160 
females:  in  the  proportion  of  1162  to  1000. 

The  same  part  of  the  second  section,  200  males, 
182  females:  in  the  proportion  of  1099  to  1000. 

Total  of  the  second  part,  386  males,  342  females  : 
in  the  proportion  of  1129  to  1000. 

The  third  part,  217  males,  244  females  :  in  the 
proportion  of  889  to  1000. 

The  fourth  part,  201  males,  255  females  :  in  the 
proportion  of  788  to  1000- 

This  experiment  appears  curious  by  the  regula- 
rity of  its  results. 

New  experiment  on  the  Hemp. 

I  supposed  that  seed  of  a  high  colour  ought  to  be 


more  especially  formed  under  masculine  influence 
than  seed  of  a  pale  or  ashy  colour.  I  in  consequence 
sowed  separately,  in  1832,  from  seed  of  a  deep  green 
and  streaked  with  brown,  and  from  seed  whitish  or 
greyish  white. 

The  first  gave  me  137  males,  and  108  females  : 
in  the  proportion  of  1268  to  1000;  and  the  second, 
59  males,  and  68  females  :  in  the  proportion  of  868 
to  1000. 

The  experiment  was  repeated  in  1833. 

The  brown  and  streaked  seed  gave  me  265  males, 
258  females :  in  the  proportion  of  1007  to  1000. 

The  pale  seed  produced  153  males  and  175  fe- 
male :  in  the  proportion  of  874  to  1000. 

If  it  was  more  marked  the  first  year  than  the 
second,  it  is  a  little  owing,  either  to  the  differences 
of  the  colour,  or  still  more  to  the  form,  the  brown 
seed  being  more  flattened  than  the  pale  seed,  which 
was  more  globular. 

I  may  remark  that  in  1832,  brown  seed  had  been 
sown  in  two  different  parts  of  my  garden,  and  that 
in  both  places  it  produced  a  proportionally  greater 
number  of  males,  than  the  pale  seed. 

As  these  results  appear  to  me  rational,  I  have  no 
doubt  they  will  be  obtained  by  all  those  who  wish  to 
try  the  experiment. 

The  advantage  of  this  discovery  may  be  to  furnish 
cultivators  with  the  means  of  knowing  before-hand 
if  the  seed  which  they  intend  to  sow  ought  to  pro- 
duce a  greater  relative  number,  whether  of  males 
or  females,  a  circumstance  which  is  not  altogether 
indifferent  to  them. 


ON  DIASTASE*  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  IN  VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY. 

BY  M.  DUTROCHET,  MEMBER  OF  THE  INSTITUTE. 


The  tegumentary  envelope  of  the  grains  of  fecula  is 
burst,  and  the  substance  which  contains  these  grains 
is  set  at  liberty  by  the  action  of  many  agents.  The 
inost  generally  employed  of  these  agents  is  water 
heated  to  a  boiling  temperature.  When  the  quantity 
of  this  liquid  is  considerably  increased  by  the  sub- 
stance which  it  dissolves,  it  cannot  form  a  liquid 
paste,  we  see  that  when  it  is  left  to  cool,  it  precipi- 
tates, not  only  the  insoluble  teguments  of  the  fecula, 
but  also  a  great  quantity  of  the  substance  which  has 
been  dissolved  by  the  heat.  The  quantity  of  this 
substance  which  rests  dissolved  in  the  cooled  liquid, 
is  so  trifling  that  it  can  scarcely  be  perceived  to  aug- 
ment by  its  presence  the  density  of  the  water. 

I  have  proved  that  this  density  of  the  cooled 
water,  loaded  with  as  much  of  the  soluble  substance 
of   the  fecula  as  it  can  contain,  is  only^  1 .002,  the 


density  of  water  being  1.  When  the  quantity  of 
this  substance  dissolved  in  hot  water  is  very  conside- 
rable, it  coagulates  by  cold.  This  coagulation  is 
the  result  of  a  virtual  precipitation  of  the  soluble 
substance  of  the  fecula,  the  substance  which  rests 
suspended  in  the  liquid,  ceasing  to  deserve  that 
name  ;  and  is  that  which  is  called  the  paste  (colle) . 
The  interior  substance  of  the  fecula  also,  indefinitely 
soluble  in  boiling  water,  is  very  little  in  cold  water. 
We  can  reasonably  conceive  that  the  boiling 
water  determines  the  bursting  of  the  teguments  of 
the  grains  of  the  fecula  by  softening  them,  and  dila- 
ting by  heat  the  substance  which  they  contain.  We 
ought  to  add  to  these  causes  of  bursting,  the  endos- 
mose  which  cannot  fail  to  be  very  energetic  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  density  of  the  liquified  substance 
that  encloses  the  grains  of  the  fecula,  bathed  exte- 


*  As  chemists  are  not  yet  agreed  upon  the  composition  of  fecula,  and  in  consequence  the  number  or  names  of  substances  in  which 
it  is  contained,  I  abstain  from  adopting  here  any  of  these  names. — Author. 


92 


DUTROCHET  ON  niASTASR. 


riorly  by  tTie  ll'ot'\\^feT. ''  'The  fendbsitiobfe  introduces 
water  into  these  small  vesicles,  which  become  also 
extremely  turgid  and  which  finish  by  bursting. 

The  diastase,  without  being  at  all  considered  us'a' 
chemical  menstruum,  produces,  notwithstanding,  the 
dissolution  of  the  fecula  with  great  rapidity.  TTie 
manner  in  which  the  diastase  acts  in  performing  this 
phenomenon,  appears  to  me  easy  to  be  determined. 
The  diastase  cannot  dissolve  the  teguments  of  the 
fecula.  This  fact  is  proved  by  experience  ;  for  the 
prolonged  action  of  the  diastase  upon  the  teguments 
of  the  fecula  previously  separated,  do  not  cause  them 
to  lose  any  of  their  weight.  It  is  not  consequently, 
by  attacking  these  teguments  that  it  occasions  their 
bursting.  It  appears  then  neces.sary  to  have  recourse 
exclusively,  to  the  action  of  the  diastase  upon  the 
interior  substance  of  the  fecula.  We  have  said 
above  that  this  last  is  very  little  soluble  in  cold 
water.  But,  the  accession  of  an  excessive  small 
quantity  of  diastase,  0.000.5  for  exam])le,  gives  ra- 
pidly to  this  substance  an  extreme  solubility  in  water. 
The  mode  of  this  chemical  action  is  unknown  ;  but 
the  fact  that  is  thus  unveiled  to  us,  is  one  of  great  im- 
portance, not  only  in  chemistry,  but  also  in  physio- 
logy. It  is  evident  that  it  is  to  this  augmentation 
of  the  solubility  of  the  interior  substance  of  the  fecula, 
we  must  refer  the  bursting  of  the  teguments  which 
enclose  it.  By  reason  of  its  acquired  solubility,  this 
substance  forms  with  the  water  a  liquid  very  thick  ; 
it  exercises  in  consequence  an  endosmose  very  ener- 
getic, and  for  thi«  reason  it  makes  the  delicate  tegu- 
ments of  the  grains  of  the  fecula  swell  rapidly.  To 
verify  this  theory,  I  experimented  comparatively 
upon  the  force  of  the  endosmose  of  cold  water, 
saturated  as  far  as  possible  with  the  soluble  substance 
of  the  fecula,  by  the  previous  action  of  boiling  water, 
and  upon  the  force  of  the  endosmose  of  cold  water, 
loaded  with  a  quantity  of  this  same  substance,  mo- 
dified and  rendered  soluble  by  diastase.  The  first 
of  these  liquids,  the  density  of  which  was  1.002  did 
not  produce  the  slightest  endosmose  ;  the  second,  in 
which  the  water  was  loaded  with  the  interior  sub- 
stance of  tlie  fecula  modified  by  diastase  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one-forty-eighth  of  its  own  weight,  and 
in  which  the  density  was  l.OOG,  produced  an  endos- 
mose, which,  compared  with  that  of  sugared  water, 
{eau  ma-ie)  of  the  same  density,  it  was  found  to  bear 
to  it  the  proportion  of  7  to  9.  In  employing  a  so- 
lution of  this  same  substance  of  which  the  density 
was  1.013, 1  obtained  an  endosmose  which  compared 
with  tliat  of  the  sugared  water  of  the  same  density, 
was  found  to  bear  to  it,  the  proportion  of  5  to  6. 
Tliis  difference  in  the  two  experiments  arose  pro- 
balily  from  this,  that  in  the  two  solutions  the  action 
of  the  diastase  had  produced  more  sugar  in  the  one, 
than  in  the  other.  It  always  results  from  these  ex- 
periments, that  the  interior  substance  of  the  fecula, 
modified  by  diastase,  possesses  a  power  of  endosmose, 
little  inferior  to  that  which  the  sugared  water  pos- 


sesses. But,  I  have  shown,  in  another  work,' that 
sugar  is  of  all  vegetable  substances,  that  which  pos- 
sesses the  greatest  power  of  endosmose.  The  interior 
substance  of  fecula,  is  modified  by  diastase,  approaches 
to  it  under  this  point  of  view ;  its  power  of  endos- 
mose is  very  superior  to  that  of  gum,  which  after 
many  experiments,  I  found  to  be  nearly  one  half 
that  of  sugar.  Thus,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
the  substance  contained  in  the  grains  of  fecula, 
does  not  possess  an  energetic  endosmose  when  it  is 
modified  hj  the  action  of  diastase.  When  the  tegu- 
ments of  the  grains  of  fecula,  are  very  much  dis- 
tended by  the  introduction  of  water,  they  terminate 
by  bursting,  n'his  effect  takes  place  in  cold  water, 
as  well  as  in  hot  water  of  about  75  degrees,  of  the 
Centigrade  thermometer,  but  considerably  slower. 
We  know  that  at  a  high  temperature  the  diastase 
decomposes  it.  When  the  grains  of  the  fecula  have 
not  undergone  the  action  of  diastase,  the  substance 
which  they  contain  being  either  insoluble  or  to  a 
very  trifling  degree  soluble  in  cold  water,  there  can- 
not be  an  endosmose  of  the  product ;  these  grains, 
in  consequence,  cannot  be  forced  to  burst,  but  con- 
tinue to  preserve  their  integrity. 

We  see  also  that  the  separation  of  the  interior 
substance  of  the  fecula  from  the  teguments  under 
the  influence  of  diastase,  is  the  result  of  a  succession 
of  phenomena.  The  diastase  acts  upon  this  interior 
substance,  as  an  agent  of  the  modification  of  compo- 
sition which  disposes  it  to  liquefaction ;  in  virtue  of 
this  modification,  this  substance  acquires  a  great 
power  of  endosmose.  Tliis  last  physical  action  pro- 
duces the  entrance  of  the  water,  into  the  tegumentary 
vesicle  of  the  grain  of  the  fecula,  and  renders  it  tur- 
gid, to  such  an  excess  that  it  bursts.  This  bursting 
having  taken  place,  the  separation  of  the  interior 
substance  of  the  teguments  is  worked  upon  only  by 
the  dissolving  action  of  the  water.  Tlius,  the  dias- 
tase cannot  act  directly  by  separating  the  interior 
substance  of  the  fecula  from  its  envelopes,  as  the 
etjinology  of  its  name  indicates.  It  would  be  more 
eligible  to  give  to  this  new  chemical  agent,  a  name 
of  which  the  etymological  signification  might  indi- 
cate that  which  changes  the  chemical  nature  of  the 
insoluble  substance  upon  which  it  acts,  and  which 
renders  it  soluble.  At  length,  the  name  being  im- 
posed ought  to  be  preserved,  but  without  any  regard 
to  its  signification.  Science  presents  many  other 
examples  of  disagreement  between  objects,  and  their 
names,  in  relation  to  the  etymological  signification, 
which  however  are  still  preserved.  The  discovery  of 
diastase  will  claim  a  high  station  in  the  science  Hi 
physiology.  It  is  a  phenomena  in  organic  chemistrj^, 
well  worthy  of  serious  investigation  on  account  of 
the  rapid  change,  of  the  nature  and  augmentation  of 
solubility,  whicli  is  produced  in  an  organic  substance, 
by  the  accession  of  some  atoms  of  another  organic 
substance,  which  is  neither  an  acid  nor  an  alkali. 
ITiis  proves  to  us  that  when  organic  substances  have 


M.  MERAT  OM  BONNET  STRAW. 


93 


undergone  a  dissolution,  or  rather  a  liquifaction,  we 
ought  not  at  all  times  to  attribute  this  phenomena  to 
the  action  of  a  chemical  menstruum.  It  can  be  pro- 
duced by  an  agent,  which  we  may  term  diastasier, 
that  is  to  say  at  once  a  trausformer  and  liquifier, 
without  being  a  menstruum.  The  phenomena  of 
digestion  has  certainly  received  a  new  light,  (which 
it  did  not  previously  possess),  from  the  discovery  of 
this  new  order  of  facts  in  organic  chemistry.  It  is 
very  probable,  indeed,  that  the  gastric  juice  is  to  the 
organic  alimentary  substances,  a  sort  of  diastase, 
which  produces  the  transformation,  and  occasions  the 
solution  of  organic  alimentary  substances,  All  these 
organic  animal  and  vegetable  substances  are  com- 
posed of  agglomerated  globules,  and  these  globules 
which  are  vesicular  like  the  grains  of  fecula,  are  re- 
quired to  be  crushed  to  carry  to  alimentation  the 
substances  which  they  enclose.  There  would  thus 
be  many  gastric  species  of  diastases,  in  proportion  to 
the  kind  of  alimentation  of  animals. 

The  liquifaction  of  alimentary  substances  in  the 
act  of  digestion  offers  phenomena  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  explain,  by  the  action  of  a  chemical  men- 
struum. Thus,  for  example,  we  know  with  what 
facility  bones  either  entire,  or  in  large  pieces,  are 
liquified  in  the  stomach  of  dogs.  This  liquifaction 
results  from  the  solution  of  the  gelatine,  which  re- 


unites  the  particles  of  calcareous  phosphate.  The 
bone  is  then  converted  into  a  jelly,  better  than  it 
could  be  effected  by  Papin's  digester.  This  surprising 
effect  cannot  evidently  be  attributed  to  the  action  of 
an  acid,  so  weak  as  that  which  is  found  in  the  gas- 
tric juices. 

Let  us  admit,  instead  of  that,  the  existence  of  a 
gastric  diastase,  the  accession  of  which  modifies  the 
elementary  composition  of  the  gelatine,  and  gives  to 
it  a  great  solubility,  and  the  phenomena  of  digestion 
will  then  become  a  question  easily  explained.  The 
bone  thrust  into  the  stomach  of  the  dog  is  quickly 
liquified,  and  the  gelatine  will  transform  itself  into 
another  organic  liquid ;  that  will  be  the  act  of  the 
stomachic  digestion.  :].'■ 

After  these  considerations,  we  are  able  to  undei; 
stand  in  the  action  of  transformation  and  liquifaction 
of  the  diastase,  upon  the  fecula  during  vegetation,  a 
sort  of  vegetable  digestion,  very  analogous  to  animal 
digestion. 

I  have  been  long  persuaded,  that  in  the  study  of 
vegetable  physiology,  there  was  to  be  found  a  solu- 
tion of  many  dark  problems  in  the  physiology  of  ani- 
mals. The  discovery  of  diastase,  and  its  action  upon 
the  fecula  during  fermentation,  strengthens  more  and 
more  my  opinion  in  this  respect. 


NOTE    UPON   THE     PLANT   WHICH   PRODUCES  THE    STRAW  OF   THE  LEGHORN 

AND  TUSCAN  BONNETS. 


FROM  A  i.B,XXER  ,()?  M.,  JIiB|RA,T,|M^D!,  tIo^^'THK  EDI'TOR  Ot^THE  ARCHIVES  DE  BOTANIQUE. 


PpffMiT  me  Sir,  in  reply  to  a  note  in  the  Archives 
of  Botany,  on  the  subject  of  the  plant  which  furnishes 
the  straw  with  which  we  fabricate  in  the  environs  of 
Florence,  the  bonnets  called  Leghorn  and  Tuscan 
bonnets,  to  forward  to  you  the  following  observations, 
resulting  from  the  statements  furnished  by  M  M. 
Bonafons,  Berlese,  the  Count  de  Lasteyrie,  &c. 

This  gramineous  plant  is  a  genuine  wheat,  (Triti- 
cum)  and  not  a  rye  (Secale)  as  M.  Chaubard  terms 
it;,  it  is  a  summer  corn,  a  sort  of  spelt.  It  is  sown 
in  the  spring  in  barren  ground,  in  a  dry  soil,  and  cut 
do^yvTi  before  the  expansion  of  the  ear.  The  entire 
straw  (Sommites) ,  after  having  been  first  bleached  in 
the  dew,  and  afterwards  by  a  chemical  process,  is  em- 
ployed. There  are  lands  which  produce  superior 
straw  to  others,  and  of  which  the  middle  boles  (Centre 
tuevds)  are  longer,  a  circumstance  which  is  particu- 
larly desirable.  The  same  seed  fields  in  France  do 
not  produce  such  good  straw,  although  the  grain 
answers  well.  We  cannot  work  this  straw  so  well 
as  tiUey  do  in  Italy,  for  the, manufacturers  of  bonnets 


Jc'J-jd  Oi'Jii)  i«  nyii  *'; 


81.'  '•!  sovoTcj  exd'i' 


in  France,  although  they  may  have  the  straw  direct 
from  Florence,  cannot  produce  equally  advantageous 
results.  It  would  appear  desirable  that  this  manu- 
facture should  be  tried  on  a  new  system,  so  that  it 
might  prove  successful  in  France;  we  can  bring  over 
workmen  from  Florence  to  instruct  ours  in  the  cul- 
ture of  the  seed  and  the  working  of  the  straw  ;  this 
would  be  to  introduce  a  useful  branch  of  manufacture 
into  our  country,  and  which  it  does  not  seem  impos- 
sible to  naturalise.  The  benefit  would  be  conside- 
rable, for  the  price  of  these  bonnets  is  from  40  to  100 
francs,  and  we  have  known  them  cost  three  thousand 
francs. 

I  talce  this  opportunity,  Sit-r'ib  assert  that  the 
bonnets  of  straw  called  de  riz  are  hot  manufactured 
from  rice  straw;  we  manufacture  them  with  shavings 
made  with  the  aid  of  appropriate  instmments,  fr6m 
the  Poplar  and  from  the  Willow,  but  not  from  their 
bark.'   , /  '     .,       ,, 

■   'jAi  ic.  ■". 
•haa'lo  19'" 
■£oq  lii':- 


94 


PESCKIPTION  OV  THE  PLATES. 


EFFECTS  OF  MOUNTAIN  HEIGHTS  ON  PLANTS. 


Ma.  Gay,  in  his  recent  interesting'  tour  among  the 
Cordilleras,  discovered  many  beautiful  and  rare  spe- 
cies of  Baccharis,  Loasea,  Alstroemeria,  and  " above 
all  "  he  says  those  "  charming  Mutisia  which  exhibit 
this  singular  phenomenon,  the  tendrils  with  which 
these  plants  are  usually  furnished,  becoming  useless 
in  these  cold  regions,  unprovided  with  shrubs  or 
bushes,  change  into  real  leaves,  organs  of  such  great 
utility  to  alpine  plants,  I  have  also  remarked  that 
the  plants  which  are  herbaceous  in  the  plains,  become 
here  entirely  ligneous,  and  that  several  trees,  espe- 
cially the  Escaleonia,  instead  of  assuming  that  forked 
appearance  which  characterizes  it,  becomes  stinted, 
creeping  along  the  rocks  and  thus  offering  less  sur- 
face to  the  cold  with  which  the  wind  is  charged  in 
passing  over  these  numerous  and  immense  glaciers. 
But  another  observation  which  I  have  also  made 
among  these  cold  regions  is  still  more  interesting  ; 
it  is  the  form  of  imbricated  leaves  which  the  greater 
portion  of  the  vegetables  assume,  those  genera  even 
whose  habitual  form  seems  to  be  entirely  contrary  to 
this  disposition.    Thus  the  leaves  of  the  Triptilions, 


which  are  so  lax  and  small  in  the  lower  regions, 
become  here  extremely  hard  and  tovigh,  closely  im- 
bricating the  stalk  and  even  the  flowers  of  these 
beautiful  plants.  The  Mutisia  which  is  nearly 
devoid  of  leaves  when  at  the  side  of  the  mountains, 
produces  at  their  summit  a  considerable  number. 
The  violets  here  have  not  that  elegant  form  which 
we  observe  in  those  lower  down,  but  are  found 
under  a  form  altogether  diferent ;  they  represent  a 
rosette  which  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  Sedum, 
with  this  difference,  that  the  leaves,  instead  of  being 
almost  vertical,  are  in  these  alpine  violets  entirely 
horizontal.  These  leaves,  which  are  extremely 
hard    and    tough,    are    round,  scabrous,    strongly 

1  imbricated,  and  exhibit  at  the  footstalks  flowers 
which  are  sessile,  and  of  a  violet  colour  somewhat 

I   approaching  to  red.     Although  very  familiar  with 

I  the  genera  Triptilions,  Escaleonia,  Mutisia,  Viola, 
the  particular  aspect  of  these  alpine  species  caused 
me  to  mistake  them  entirely,  and  I  did  not  discover 
to  what  genus  they  belonged   until  I  studied  them 

I   after  my  return." 


MR.  MAIN'S  CATECHISM  OF  GARDENING. 


This  deserving  little  work,  which  we  noticed  in  a 
previous  number,  has  at  length  been  completed  in 
the  form  of  a  neat  little  school  book,  and  is  published 
at  Ridgways,  the  great  depot  for  rural  publications. 
As  Mr.  Main  has  had  long  and  extensive  practice,  and 
is  besides  a  good  observer,  and  withal  a  good  writer, 
those  who  patronize  his  book  may  recommend  it  with 


all  confidence  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  directions 
given.  We  wish  it  every  success,  and  as  we  under- 
stand but  a  very  small  number  of  copies  have  been 
printed,  those  who  are  desirous  of  seeing  it  may  be 
disappointed  if  they  delay  ordering  it  at  their  book; 
sellers,  as  we  should  think  the  demand  may  be  con- 
siderable, from  its  being  so  cheap. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


RIBES   SANGUINEUM. 


Pentandria  Monogynia,  Linn  ;  Grossulariacea,  De  Candohe. 

Calyx  superior  in  five  coloured  divisions.  Corolla  petals,  five 
inserted  in  the  top  of  the  calyx  ;  stamina  five,  inserted  oppo- 
site to  the  petals  ;  anthers  compressed,  and  inclining.  Gcr- 
men,  simple  ;  style  one  ;  stigmas  two  ;  herry  round,  umbili- 
cated,  of  one  place,  containing  many  seeds. 

Leaves  heart-shaped  of  from  three  to  five  serrated  lobes,  linearly 
veined,  rough,  above  hairy,  downy  white  beneath  ;  branches 
flexible  and  nodding ;  flowers  aggregated  ;  petals  oblong ; 
bractea  ovally  spatulate,  somewhat  longer  than  the  foot- 
stalk ;  ovarium  covered  with  glandular  hairs. 

The  species  of  Ribes  now  figured,  surpasses  every 
other  in  beauty.  It  is  a  native  of  Nortli-west  Ame- 
rica, and,  according  to  Mr.  Douglas,  Archibald 
Mcnzies,  Esq.  discovered  it  near  Nootka  Sound 
in  1787»  when  on  his  first  voyage  round  the 
world  ;  and    on  his  second  voyage  with  the  cele- 


brated Vancouver,  he  found  it  again  in  various 
parts  of  North-west  America.  From  the  time  of  its 
first  discovery  until  its  introduction  in  1826,  com- 
paratively nothing  was  known  of  it  in  this  country  ; 
but  in  that  year  it  was  cultivated  in  the  Horticul- 
tural Society's  garden.  ,   -    < 

It  is  perfectly  hardy,  and  nearly  as  easy  of  cul- 
ture as  the  common  currant  bush  of  our  kitchen 
gardens;  it  requires  to  be  planted  in  a  dry  situation 
and  a  light  soil,  when  it  produces  abundance  of 
beiutiful  purplish-red  flowers  about  the  beginning  of 
May,  and  continues  flowering  for  two  or  three 
weeks  successively.  It  is  increased  by  cuttings,after 
the  manner  of  the  common  currant,  which  should 
be  planted  in  light  sandy  soil,  either  in  Septem- 
ber (which  is  probably  the  best  time)  or  in  spring. 
The  colours  of  this,  as  well  as  many  other  plants,  are 
subject  to  considerable  variation,  some  bearing 
flowers  of  a  light  rosy  colour,  others  of  a  dark^car- 
mine,  and  others  with  deep  purple  tints.'     "  ■'"^' ' 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


95 


borOnia  pinnata. 

Octandria  Moiiogynia,  Link. 
Calyx  quadrupartitus.     Petala  4.     Antherse  infra  apicem  fila- 

mentorum    pedicellatse.    Stylus    ex    apice   germinis,    brevis- 

simus.     Stigma  capitatum.     Capsulse  4.   coalit%.      Semina 

arillata. 
Calyx  in  four  divisions.     Petals  four.  Anthers  on  footstalks, 

below  the  sxiramits  of  the  filaments.      Style  from  the    top  of 

the  germen,   very  short.     Stigma  capitate.     Capsules  four, 

united,  seeds  tunicated. 
Foliis  imparl  pinnatis  integerrimis,  pedunculis  axillaribus  dicho- 

tomis,  filamentis  apice  obtusis  glandulosis. 

IiEAVES  abruptly  pinnate,  flower  stalks  axillary, 
forked^  Summit  of  tlie  filaments  obtuse  and  glan- 
dular. 

A  smooth  shrub,  near  two  feet  high,  with  many 
wand-like,  roundish,  leafy  branches. 

Leaves  opposite,  rarely  three  together,  without 
stipulje,  composed  of  from  three  to  five  pair  of  sitting, 
lance-shaped,  pointed,  entire,  smooth,  somewhat  suc- 
culent leaflets,  with  a  terminal  one  like  the  rest, 
though  often  rather  smaller;  the  common  leaf-stalk, 
is  joined,  channeled  and  winged. 

The  elegant  flowers  arise  from  the  bosoms  of  seve- 
ral of  the  uppermost  leaves,  in  solitary  corymbose 
forked  clusters,  and  are  of  a  rose  colour,  smelling 
like  hawthorn  blossoms. 

Stalks  angular,  with  a  pair  of  small  pointed  brac- 
teae  at  each  divarication. 
Calyx  small,  reddish  and  smooth. 

Petals  four  times  as  long  as  the  caljTc,  spreading, 
darker  on  the  outside,  slightly  acid. 

Filaments  red,  fringed  with  white  hairs  to  the 
very  top,  -yvhich  tenninates  in  a  blunt  glandular  pro- 
tuberance, sometimes  slightly  hairy  also,  into  the 
base  of  which  on  the  inside  is  inserted  a  slender 
short  smooth  little  footstalk,  bearing  the  authera, 
which  is  oval,  smooth,  incumbent,  bursting  b}''  two 
longitudinal  fissures  on  the  other  side. 

Germen  small,  smooth,  four-lobed  ;  style  short, 
liairy ;  stigma  bhmt,  with  four  furrows. 

Capsules  smooth. 

Seeds  solitary,  black,  fenclos8^  in  a  white  polished 
two  valved  elastic  case.  '    ' 

This  species  flowered  fd*  th6  first  time' in  Europe, 
.It  Messrs.  Lee  and  Kennedy's,  in  the  spring  of 
1795.  If  is  tireated  as  a  rather  tender  sreen-house 
plant.  ^ 


BORONIA  SERRULATA. 

Koliis  trapeziformibus  acutis  antice  Inseqnaliter  serrulatis,  pe- 
dunculis .aggregatis  terrainalibus,  filamentis  apice  cordatis 
hispidis., 

Leaves  rhomboid,  pointed;  in  the  upper  part  mi- 
nutely and  unequally  serrated.  Flower-stalks  clus- 
tered terpainal.  Summit  of  tlie  filaments  heart- 
shaped  bristly.      ,.,,,„„...    .,  ,,..■.-,-...      ,,     , 

This  IS  a  very  beautiful  shrub,  rising  to  the 
height  of  about  four  feet ;  tlie  stem  variously 
branched  and  suTjdivided ;  round,  smooth,  with  a 


deciduous  cuticle  ;  the  younger  branches  clothed 
with  leaves,  and  terminated  by  flowers. 

Leaves  without  stipulse,  opposite,  nearly  sitting, 
but  little  spreading,  somewhat  oblique,  rhomboid, 
pointed,  entire  towards  the  base,  finely,  sharjjly,  and 
unequally  saw-toothed  towards  the  point,  without 
vein  or  rib,  punctuated  with  resinous  dots,  aromatic, 
with  a  smell  approaching  to  that  of  turpentine. 
Their  colour  is  a  fine  green,  often  with  a  purpleish 
tinge. 

Flowers  in  little  terminal  somewhat  corymbose 
clusters,  of  a  beautiful  red,  and  with  the  scent  of  a 
rose,  as  we  are  informed  by  Mr.  White,  who  men- 
tions this  shrub  as  one  of  the  most  admired  in  New 
South  Wales.  They  are  a  little  larger  than  those  of 
the  Boronia  pinnata. 

Bracteae  opposite,  lance-shaped,  concave,  pointed, 
often  downy  in  the  margin. 

Calyx  red;  its  segments  egg-oblong,  pointed, 
slightly  keeled  and  ribbed,  permanent,  the  two  oppo- 
site ones  external,  the  margin  of  all  slightly  downy. 

Petals  thrice  as  long  as  the  calyx,  spreading,  egg- 
oblong,  rose-coloured  with  darker  stripes,  acid. 

Filaments  red,  fringed  with  white  hairs  at  the 
base,  more  naked  above,  but  terminating  in  a  glo- 
bular notched  protuberance,  (less  conspicuous  in 
the  four  shorter  stamina)  which  is  thickly  covered 
with  white  projecting  hairs  or  bristles,  the  an- 
thers being  inserted  on  footstalks,  just  lelow  it,  and 
shaped  as  in  the  preceeding  species. 

Germen  small,  four-lobed ;  stigma  nearly  sitting, 
large,  conical,  blunt,  smooth,  slightly  four-lobed. 

Capsules  smooth,  sprinkled  with  resinous  dots^. 

Seeds  two  in  each  case,  of  a  shining  black. 

SPRENGELIA  INCARNATA. 

Pentandria  Monogynia,  Linn. 
Calyx  quinque-partitus,    peristens.      Petala  quinque.     Stamina 
receptaculo  inserta.     Antherae  connatee"     Capsula  quinque- 
locularis,  quinquevalvls  ;  disepimentis  e  medio  valvularum. 
Calyx  in  five  divisions,  permanent.     Petals  five.     Stamina  in- 
serted into  the  receptacle.     Anthers  united.     Capsule  •with 
five  cells,  and  five  valves  ;  partitions  from  the  middle  of  the 
valves. 
Calyx  a  part  of  the  flower,  in  five  deep  divisions, 
so  as  to  be  almost  composed  of  five  leaves,  chaflf'y, 
coloured,  permanent,  segments  equal ;  lance-shaped, 
pointed,   concave ;  after  flowering,  erect  and  closed 
together. 

Petals  five,  about  as  long  as  the  calyx,  lance- 
shaped,  pointed,  cohering  a  little  way  above  the 
base,  in  the  upper  part  spreading,  and  assuming  the 
appearance  of  a  wheel  shaped  corolla ;  after  flowering, 
erect  and  closed  together,  soon  falling  off^. 

Stamina  five,  the  length  of  the  petals  ;  filaments 
inserted  into  the  receptacle,  distinct,  line-like,  flat, 
equal,  smooth  ;  anthers  vertical,  united  into  a  tube, 
clothed  externally  with  numerous  yellow  club-shaped 
hairs.  -.iirj"  ';u'..,'.";  s  li    -P,    OkM  ;.  o 

Pistil  -,  germen    superior,    roundish,    depressed. 


96 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


with  five  furrows,  smooth ;  style  simple,  about  equal 
to  the  top  of  the  anthers ;  stigma  simple,  blunt. 

Capsule  somewhat  cylindrical,  blunt,  with  five 
furrows,  separating  in  the  uppej;  into  five  valves ;  par- 
titioTis  longitudinal,  arising  from  the  middle  of  each 
valve;  column  a  little  rugged,  shorter  than  the  valves. 

Seeds  numerous,  roundish,  minute. 

This  is  a  shrub,  about  two  feet  high,  much 
branched,  rigid,  very  smooth,  flowering  copiously. 
Wood  hard,  white.  Branches  round,  wavy,  leafy, 
brown,  cracked  when  old. 

Leaves  alternate,  sometimes  tiled  in  three  ranks, 
embracing  the  stem,  spreading  very  much,  lance- 
shaped,  entire,  concave,  a  little  glaucous,  without 
veins  rigid  and  projecting,  remaining  (though  faded) 
through  the  winter,  and  at  length  being  loosened  at 
the  base,  they  may  be  tuftied  round  in  any  position. 

Stipulae  none. 

Flowers  terminal,  clustered  on  flower-stalks,  pale 
red. 

Flower-stalks  clothed  with  tiled  bracteae  like  the 
leaves,  but  smaller,  and  with  a  membranous  and 
fringed  margin,  clustered  under  each  flower. 

Calyx  rose  coloured,  very  rarely  a  little  downy  on 
the  outside. 

Corolla,  flesh-coloured. 


WESTRINGIA  ROSMARINIFORMIS. 
Didynamia  Gymnospermia,    Linn  ;    Labiatae,  JnssiEU. 

Calyx   semiquinquefidus,    pentagonous  ;     corolla   resupinater ; 

limbo  quadrifido  ;  lobo  loogiori  erecto,  bipartite. 
Stamina  distantia  j  duo  breviora  (inferiora)  abortiva. 
Calyx  five-cleft  half  way  down,   five-sided  ;   corolla  reversed  ; 

limb  in  four  segments  ;  the  longest  erect,  cloven. 
Stamina  distant ;  the  two  shorter  or  lowermost,  abortive. 

A  SHRUB  very  much  branched  ;  the  branches  either 
opposite  or  four  together,  square,  silky,  leafy. 

Leaves  in  fours,  on  foot-stalks, spreading,  line-like 
lance-shaped,  entire,  revolute,  rather  pointed  ;  of  a 
bright  shining  green  above,  and  almost  naked  ; 
clothed  with  white  silky  down  beneath. 

Foot-stalks  very  short,  silky.     Stipulae  none. 

Flowers  from  the  upper  part  of  the  branches, 
axillary,  solitary,  on  short  flower-stalks. 

Bractese  a  pair  at  the  base  of  the  calyx,  line-like, 
short,  silky. 

Calyx  silky,  its  segments  naked,  with  revolute 
margins. 

Corolla  white,  with  purple  spots  about  the  orifice. 

We  are  not  informed  of  any  particular  qualities 
in  this  shrub.  The  leaves  are  slightly  bitter,  not 
aromatic  :  the  flowers  not  inelegant,  though  without 
smell. 


This  plant  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and  was 
introduced  into  this  country  in  1724.  It  is  in 
height  about  ten  feet,  and  flowers  from  June  to 
August  inclusive. 

It  is  a  very  beautiful  climber,  which,  like  its 
congener,  Wistaria  consequana,  formerly  Glycine 
Sinensis,  spreads  more  slowly  through  English  gar- 
dens, than  in  these  days  of  botanical  vigilance  would 
be  imagined.  Their  having  been  known  as  green 
house  plants,  seems  to  have  formed  a  bar  to  the  ex- 
tension of  their  acquaintance  as  hardy  climbing 
shrubs.  The  Wistaria  futescens  is,  however,  per 
fectly  so,  and  from  its  great  beauty  should  have  a 
place  in  every  garden.  It  is  more  hardy  than  Wis- 
taria consequana,  and  its  flowers  being  produced 
later  in  the  season,  they  are  less  liable  to  injury  from 
spring  frosts. 

Planted  in  loam  and  peat,  against  a  southerly 
wall,  it  will  grow  very  freely,  and  the  cultivator 
may  expect  to  be  highly  gratified  by  its  rich  display 
of  beautiful  flowers.  It  is  usually  propagated  by 
cuttings  of  the  young  wood,  planted  in  sand,  or 
very  sandy  compost,  on  a  hot  bed,  under  a  hand- 
glass. 


GENTIANA  CRUCIATA. 

Pcntandria,  Digynia,  Linn  ;  Gentianese,  JussiEi'. 
This  low  free-growing  herbaceous  plant,  is  well 
adapted  for  ornamenting  the  fronts  of  borders  and 
mounds;  but  it  has  not  the  advantage  of  some  others 
of  the  same  genus,  in  affording  an  evergreen  embel- 
lishment of  bright  green  leaves  to  enliven  the  little 
garden  landscape  of  winter. 

It  will  grow  in  any  common  soil,  and  seems  to 
prefer  a  rather  cool  and  moist  situation.  It  may  be 
divided  in  spring  or  autumn. 


WISTARIA  FRUTESCENS. 
Diadelphia  Decandria,  Linn  ;    Legnminos»,   JussiEU. 


GERANIUM   LANCASTRIENSE. 
Monadelphia  Decandria,   LiNN  ;   GeraniaceiE,   JussiEu. 

The  genus  Geranium,  is  now  confined  to  such  of 
the  plants,  originally  so  called,  as  possess  ten  per- 
fect stamens.  By  such  division,  all  those  beautiful 
subjects,  generally  known  by  this  name,  which  have 
been  cultivated  in  the  green-house,  or  more  inti- 
mately domesticated  in  the  dwelling-house,  form 
another  genus,  under  the  name  of  Pelargonium. 
These  have  but  seven  fertile  stamens. 

Geranium  Lancastriense  has,  by  some  authors, 
been  considered  a  variety  only  of  Geranium  san- 
guineum.  The  union  of  it  to  that  species  would  do 
no  violence  to  botanical  description,  but  its  general 
habit,  and  permanence  of  character,  under  cultiva- 
tion, incline  us  to  follow  nature  rather  than  science 
in  the  distinction.  It  is  a  very  desirable  little  plant, 
always  in  flower  during  summer. 

It  may  be  readily  increased  by  cuttings,  planted 
imder  a  hand-glass,  on  a  shady  border. 


,')  ,  Jilllil    UlLStlillJ 


(i  .Ej^iJL(iI)iuiu  Ly  nmlojia'i 


.// 


89 


MARTIN  DOYLE  ON  FLOWER  GARDENING*. 


This  popular  and  sensible  author  has  a  right  feeling 
about  him  respecting  the  language  of  gardening, 
and  uniformly  advocates  as  we  do,  plain  English  in 
preference  to  the  outlandish  words  which  have  lately- 
been  so  much  forced  into  fashion,  by  illiterate  pedan- 
try and  cockscombry.  The  Editor  of  this  Maga- 
zine has  elsewhere  remarked,  that  for  practical  gar- 
deners to  affect  hard  words,  appears  exceedingly  in- 
judicious, as  it  must  prove  extremely  injurious  to 
themselves  by  deadening,  rather  than  exciting,  in- 
terest about  the  garden.  If  you  talk  to  a  lady,  for 
example,  or  even  to  most  gentlemen,  about  Endoge- 
nous plants,  it  is  most  likely  it  would  be  placed  to 
your  ignorance  of  the  proper  pronunciation  of  the 
word  indigenous,  rather  than  obtain  you  credit  for  a 
knowledge  of  De  CandoUe's  system  ;  but,  if  you  in- 
terlard your  conversation  with  the  terms  Monocotyle- 
donous.  Dicotyledonous,  and  the  like  ;  though  you 
might  perhaps  with  a  little  management,  make  such 
useless  outlandish  terms  as  Arboriculture,  Floricul- 
ture, and  Gardenesque,  pass  muster,  and  might  be 
allowed  to  call  herbs,  herbaceous  plants,  and  flowers, 
floriferous  plants ;  yet  you  may  be  certain  you  will 
either  be  listened  to  with  impatience,  or,  most  pro- 
bably be  laughed  at  for  your  affectation  of  unjDro- 
fitable  learning,  as  we  once  saw  happen  to  a  prim 
barber  at  a  fashionable  watering  pilace,  who  deemed 
it  very  fine  to  talk  of  an  "  elegant  morning." 

Certain  peculiarities  of  language  readUy  produce 
imitation,  and  are  so  very  contagious,  that  we  doubt 
not  many  have  been  led  to  frequent  the  society  of 
gamblers  and  boxers  mainly  on  this  account;  but 
such  peculiarities  are  contagious,  because  they  are 
easily  learned.  As  prince  Henry,  in  Shakspear  says, 
"  they  call  drinking  deep  dyeing  scarlet ;  and  I  am  so 
good  a  proficient  in  half  an  hour,  that  I  can  drink 
with  any  tinker  in  his  own  language  during  my 
life."  But  so  far  from  the  terms  used  in  modern 
gardening  being  thus  easily  learned,  they  are  pecu- 
liarly difficult  and  calculated  to  disgust,  rather  than 
attract  the  interest  of  proprietors,  and  hence  their 
attention  to  their  gardens  must  be  frequently  diverted 
into  other  channels,  and  the  gardener  consequently 
deprived  of  their  hearty  support,  because  he  talks 
unintelligibly,  and  therefore  not  contagiously. 

"  The  arts,"  says  Sir  John  Herschel,  "  cannot  be 
perfected  till  their  whole  processes  are  laid  open, 
and  their  language  simplified  and  rendered  univer- 
sally intelligible.  Art  is  the  application  of  know- 
ledge to  a  practical  end.  If  the  knowledge  be  merely 
accumulated  experience,  the  art  is  empirical ;  but,  if 
it  be  experience  reasoned  upon  and  brought  under 
general  principles,  it  assumes  a  higher  character,  and 


becomes  a  scientific  art.  In  the  progress  of  mankind 
from  barbarism  to  civilised  life,  the  arts  necessarily 
precede  science.  Applications  come  later,  the  arts 
continue  slowly  progressive,  but  their  realm  remains 
separated  from  that  of  science  by  a  wide  gulf,  which 
can  only  be  passed  by  a  powerful  spring.  They  form 
their  own  language,  and  their  own  conventions, 
which  none  but  artists  can  understand.  The  whole 
tendency  of  empirical  art,  is  to  bury  itself  in  techni- 
calities, and  to  place  its  pride  in  particular  short 
cuts  and  mysteries  known  only  to  adepts  ;  to  surprise 
and  astonish  by  results,  but  conceal  processes.  '  The 
character  of  science  is  the  direct  contrary.  It  de- 
lights to  lay  itself  open  to  inquiry;  and  is  not 
satisfied  with  its  conclusions,  till  it  can  make  the 
road  to  them  broad  and  beaten  ;  and  in  its  applica- 
tions, it  preserves  the  same  character  ;  its  whole  aim 
being  to  strip  away  all  technical  mystery,  to  iUumi- 
minate  every  dark  recess,  and  to  gain  free  access  to 
all  processes,  with  a  view  to  improve  them  on  rational 
principles.  It  would  seem  that  a  union  of  two  qua- 
lities almost  opposite  to  each  other — a  going  forth 
of  the  thoughts  in  two  directions,  and  a  sudden 
transfer  of  ideas  from  a  remote  station  in  one,  to  an 
equally  distant  one  in  the  other,  are  required  to 
state  the  first  idea  of  applying  science." 

In  all  this  Mr.  Martin  Doyle  agrees  with  us  to  the 
letter,  and  even  a  Kttle  beyond  the  letter,  as  SirVicary 
Gibbs  was  wont  to  do  by  the  law,  when  he  had  things 
almost  his  own  way.  We  have  generally  observed, 
that  those  who  are  the  most  ignorant  of  facts,  are 
the  fondest  of  long  sounding  pedantic  words,  and 
those  also  who  know  least  of  the  pedantic  words, 
are  most  apt  to  thrust  them  prominently  forward, 
where  they  are  least  wanted. 

"  I  must  be  permitted,"  says  our  author,  "  to  ex- 
clude very  harsh  words — those  among  you,  who  most 
admire,  and  best  understand  the  noble  science  of 
Botany,  will,  nevertheless,  admit  that  a  minute  ap- 
plication of  it  in  a  compendious  work  of  this  nature, 
would  be  unsuitable  and  diffuse.  Extensive  cata- 
logues and  botanical  delineations  might,  indeed,  be 
introduced  ;  but  each  additional  page  adds  to  the 
cost  of  publishing,  and  of  course  to  the  price  of  the 
book — this  is  to  be  of  limited  extent  and  price,  and 
should  be  dedicated  to  practical  matters,  rather  than 
to  the  Decandrias. 

"  Few  ladies  understand  Latin  and  Greek, —  (and 
the  fewer  the  better,)  some  may  guess  at  the  Latin 
from  their  knowledge  of  Italian,  (which  I  have 
been  told  is  very  like  it,)  but  when  the  Greek  comes 
across  them,  they  are  fairlj'  baffled,  and  might  get 
into  a  similar  scrape  with  my  old  friend  Caukerosus 


*  The  Flower  Garden  ;  or  Monthly  Calendar  of  Practical  Directions  for  the  Culture  of  Flowers.     By  Martin  Doyle,  I2mo. 

Dublin.      1834. 
MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.  II.  NO.  XVI. JULT,   1834.  O 


90 


MARTIN    DOYLE    ON    GARDENING. 


in  the  preface  to  my  former  treatise.  As  for  myself, 
I  must  confess  my  deficiency  in  the  knowledge  of  any 
language  except  my  own,  and  a  smattering  of  Irish  : 
nevertheless,  I  should  be  sorry  to  make  my  fair 
readers  submit  altogether  to  my  ignorance,  and  where 
it  may  be  necessary  or  useful  to  adopt  scientific 
names,  I  shall  not  scruple,  for  their  sakes,  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  an  obliging  friend,  who  is  a  great  adept 
in  those  matters,  and  on  whose  taste  I  must  depend 
for  the  arrangement  of  the  nosegay  which  I  am  about 
to  present.  But,  my  dear  ladies,  let  us  be  practical 
and  plain,  and  leave  all  high-flown  matter,  however 
interesting  in  point  of  science." 

We  by  no  means  agree  with  him  in  the  books 
which  he  recommends ;  inasmuch  as  these  are  de- 
cidedly the  very  reverse  of  plain  and  intelligible ; 
while  one  of  them  is  only  half  published,  and  likely, 
we  hear,  to  stop  altogether.  But  leaving  this  out  of 
consideration,  let  us  see  in  what  manner  Mr.  Mar- 
tin Doyle  treats  the  subject  of  his  new  volume, — if 
the  neat  brochure  before  us  be  entitled  to  that  name. 
As  we  have  formerly  seen  in  the  case  of  the  kitchen 
garden,  our  author  here  follows  the  order  of  the 
calendar  months,  beginning  with  November  as  the 
most  natural  commencement  of  the  gardener's  year. 
We  shall  give  the  present  month,  July,  as  a  speci- 
men of  the  book  : — 

JULY. 


Work  to  he  done  in  the  Flower  Garden. 
Take  up  those  bulbous  roots  which  have  ceased 
flowering — Hyacinths,  Tulips,  Martagon  Lilies,  and 
such  bulbous  Irises  as  are  out  of  flower.  Ranunculus 
and  Anemonie  roots,  which  have  now  lost  their  foli- 
age, may  also  be  taken  up. 


Seedling  Auriculas 
Which  came  up  last  spring,  should  now  (if  not  be- 
fore done,)  be  potted,  and  placed  in   a  shady  situa- 
tion, watered  moderately,  and  kept  free  from  snails 
and  slugs. 

Carnations  and  Pinks. 

This  is  stOl  a  good  season  for  propagating  these 
charming  flowers,  by  either  of  the  modes  directed 
in  June  ;  but  this  work  should  not  be  postponed  to 
an  advanced  period  of  the  month.  As  soon  as  the 
shoots  are  strong  enough  to  layer  down,  let  them 
be  put  out. 

The  latter  end  of  this  month  and  beginning  of 
August  is  the  usual  season  for  layering  Carnations, 
which,  however,  may  be  done  earlier,  if  the  plants 
are  sufficiently  advanced  in  growth  ;  the  new  plants 


from  those  early  layers  wiU  be  more  vigorous,  and 
better  able  to  endure  the  severity  of  winter,  than 
those  of  a  later  season.  In  detaching  them,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  cut  them  close  under  the  joint  from 
which  the  roots  have  been  produced,  and  from  which 
the  tongue  had  in  the  first  instance  been  cut ;  the 
young  plants  may  now  be  potted,  and  with  the 
shelter  of  a  frame,  will  in  a  few  days  be  sufficiently 
established  to  bear  exposure  in  the  open  air.  In 
the  space  of  a  few  weeks  it  will  be  found  that  layers 
thus  treated,  wiU  have  formed  a  quantity  of  root 
from  the  other  half  of  the  joint,  where  they  had  been 
attached  to  the  parent  plant ;  and  they  will  not  only 
be  equally  sound  and  healthy,  but  much  more  luxu- 
riant than  plants  produced  by  piping. 

The  operation  of  layering  is  very  simple,  and 
is  done  by  first  stripping  the  leaves  from  the  second 
or  third  joint  of  the  intended  layer,  then  introducing 
the  blade  of  a  very  sharp  penknife  at  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  under  the  joint,  and  cutting  half 
way  through  the  layer  up  to  the  joint,  but  not  into 
it ;  the  knife  is  to  be  then  drawn  out,  and  the  tongue 
so  produced,  cut  away  neatly  under  the  joint,  but 
so  as  not  to  wound  it,  or  the  layer  will  not  root. 
The  future  fibres  or  roots  of  the  new  plant  pro- 
ceed from  the  joint  itself,  therefore  any  injury  to 
it  win  prevent  their  formation.  The  old  mode  of 
cutting  up  through  the  joint  is  not  only  useless, 
but  injurious,  causing  an  unsoundness  and  canker*, 
which,  although  the  layers  may  have  rooted,  will 
probably  destroy  them  during  the  winter ;  the  layers 
are  then  to  be  pegged  dovm  (with  care  not  to  crack 
them  at  their  junction  with  the  mother  plant)  and 
thinly  covered  with  light  rich  compost ;  for  if  they 
are  deeply  buried,  they  root  badly  and  with  diffi- 
culty, the  access  of  air  being  necessary  to  promote 
the  free  production  of  fibres  :  the  points  of  the 
leaves  of  the  layers  must  be  presen'ed  uninjured, 
and  not  cut  off  or  shortened,  as  is  the  usual  prac- 
tice, or  you  will  deprive  the  plant  of  a  necessary 
means  of  support,  the  leaves  of  plants  being  as 
essential  to  their  vitality,  as  lungs  are  to  animals. 
In  five  or  six  weeks  from  the  formation  of  your 
layers,  they  will  be  rooted,  and  may  be  removed 
from  their  parent  stems. 

The  Carnation  blossoms  are  now  advancing  fast 
to  maturity ;  those  which  are  very  double  and  in- 
clined to  burst,  should  have  the  flower  pods  either 
tied  neatly  with  bass  mat,  previously  wetted,  or  sup- 
ported by  circular  cards,  with  holes  punched  in  the  J 
centres,  to  fit  the  pods ;  and  these  should  be  cut  M 
(with  a  very  sharp  penknife)  through  each  of  their 
divisions  to  the  base,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the 
petals.  This  process  permits  the  flowers  to  expand 
evenly,  and  the  cards  not  only  preserve  the  blossoms- 


*  For  this  reason,  plants  produced  by  piping  are  preferred,  being  more  healthy  and  sound. 


MARTIN   DOYLE   ON   GARDENING. 


91 


in  their  natural  form,  but  also  aid  materially  in 
increasing  the  duration  of  the  bloom.  The  Carna- 
tions, if  in  beds  in  the  open  ground,  and  unprotected 
by  canvas  or  other  substantial  covering,  should 
have  their  blossoms  guarded  from  the  sun  and  rain, 
by  umbrella-shaped  pasteboard  shades,  which  may 
be  attached  to  the  stakes  supporting  the  blossoms ; 
but  if  this  cannot  be  conveniently  done,  they  should 
be  fixed  to  pieces  of  slit  lath,  placed  in  the  ground 
in  the  most  advantageous  positions  to  afford  shelter 
to  the  blossoms. 


Mignonette. 

If  you  desire  to  have  Mignonette  in  blow  at  the 
latter  part  of  the  floral  season,  you  ought  to  sow 
it  now. 


Roses,  Jasmines, 

The  layering  and  budding  of  Roses  and  other 
shrubs  may  now  be  performed.  Some  species  of 
the  Rose  do  not  freely  yield  suckers,  and  must 
therefore  be  propagated  by  layers. 

The  stocks  for  budding  may  be  taken  from  the 
suckers  of  the  most  common  kinds.  The  common 
dog-briar,  from  its  superior  vigour,  is  the  most 
desirable  stock.  Jasmines  are  principally  propa- 
gated by  budding,  and  the  common  white  kind  is 
the  most  usual  stock. 


Propagation  of  Chrysanthemums. 

The  suckers  which  at  this  season  have  attained 
the  height  of  twelve  or  more  inches,  may  be  now 
parted  and  planted  in  separate  pots,  in  a  compost  of 
equal  parts  of  leaf  mould,  garden  soil,  and  rotten 
dung;  they  will  make  fine  blooming  plants  for 
November  or  December ;  when  they  are  strongly 
rooted,  cut  away  the  centre  or  leading  shoot,  to  let 
the  plants  push  out  side  shoots,  and  form  a  bushy 
and  well-shaped  head,  while  they  at  the  same  time 
preserve  the  dwarf  size,  which  is  desirable,  if  the 
plants  are  grown  in  pots. 

Cuttings  rooted  early  in  the  month,  with  a  little 
bottom  heat,  will  also  make  pretty  dwarf  growing 
plants  to  flower  in  autumn. 


Treatment  of  Dahlias. 

These  are  now  coming  into  flower,  and  will  re- 
quire the  support  of  hoops,  or  of  the  triangular  sticks 
described  in  the  preceding  month. 

The  general  work  of  this  month  consists  princi- 
pally in  watering  and  tying  up  plants,  and  in 
weeding, 


Work  to  be  done  in  the  Green-house. 


Syringe  and  water  Camellias  and  Oranges  fre- 
quently, and  shade  them  from  hot  sun. 

Plants  potted  in  peat,  (as  are  most  of  our  Cape 
and  Australian  ones)  should  be  carefully  examined 
every  day,  lest  they  should  become  too  dry ;  for  peat 
is  so  little  retentive  of  moisture,  that  they  will 
require  frequent  watering. 

Take  cuttings  of  your  green-house  plants,  if  you 
have  not  taken  a  sufficient  supply  in  June,  and  plant 
them  in  a  bed,  shaded  during  the  day  by  the  hoops 
and  coverings  already  recommended. 

The  very  tender  succulent  ones  should  have  a 
mild  hot-bed,  but  all  the  Geraniums,  Myrtles,  Jaco- 
beas  and  Cape  shi-ubs,  will  freely  root  themselves  in 
a  bed  of  rich  earth  in  open  air ;  exposure  to  noctur- 
nal dews  in  either  case  is  desirable. 

Remove  insects  from  the  leaves,  which  are  now 
peculiarly  liable  to  injury  from  them. 

Give  abundant  air  to  the  green-house. 

Shift  seedlings  accordingly  as  their  growth  re- 
quires it,  from  smaller  to  larger  pots ;  water  and 
shade  them,  until  they  have  rooted. 


Exotic  Seeds. 

Gather  and  save  seeds  as  they  become  ripe,  and 
spread  them  in  dry  places  to  harden ;  afterwards 
preserve  them  in  their  pods. 


The  most  ornamental  Herbaceous  Plants  in  flower. 

Double  Rose  Campion,  Hollyhocks,  Spiderwort, 
Campanulas,  Scarlet  Chelone,  Blue  Catananche, 
Dragon  Head,  Rudbeckias,  Coreopsis,  Gentian, 
Erynga,  Spiraea  trefoliata.  Perennial  Sun- 
flower, Hemerocallis,  Iris,  Lilies  (White,  Orange, 
and  Martagon),  Lilium  Japonicum,  Verabrum, 
Phlox  (of  various  sorts),  Escholtzia,  Cardinal 
Flower,  Monkey  Flower,  iEnothera,  Monarda,  Po- 
tentilla  or  Cinque  Foil,  Penstemon,  Feather  Grass, 
Verbascum,  German  Catchfly,  Scarlet  Lychnis, 
Scarlet  Geum,  Perennial  Larkspur,  Blue  Catanan- 
che, Dahlia,  Menyanthes,  Campanula  Pyramidalis, 
Gladiolus  Cardinalis,  Nolana,  Lupinus,  Polyphyllus, 
Potentilla,  Lathyrus  grandiflorus.  Sea  Holly,  Water 
Lily,  Ixia,  Stapelia,  Gladiolus  Psittacinus. 


Ornamental  Green-house  Plants  in  flower. 

Sensitive  Plant,  Nerium  Splendens,  Escholtzia 
Californica,  many  Ericas,  Acacia,  Wax  Plant  (Hoya 
Carnosa),  Double  Red  and  Double  White  Lily, 
African  Lily,  Agapanthus,  Begonia,  Evansiana, 
Commelina,  Gardenia,  Melaleuca,  Neurumbergia 


92 


HUGO  MDHL  OK  CRYPTOGAMOUS  PLANTS. 


Phoenicia,  Double  Pomegranate,  Psidium  Catleya- 
num.  Cape  Trumpet  Flower  (Bignonia  Capensis), 
Tuoma  Capensis,  Single  Oleander,  Double  Red  and 
White  Oleander,  Verbenum,  Fuchsia,  Calceolaria, 
Double  Nasturtium,  Metrosideros,  Jasmine,  Mela- 
leuca, Chironia,  Agapanthus,  Balsams,  Ice  Plant, 
and  the  whole  tribe  of  tender  Annuals. 


Shrubs. 
Roses*,  Yellow  Broom,  Spanish  Broom,  Aristo- 
lochia  (a  beautiful   Climber),   Azilia,   Rhododen- 


dron, American  Canothus,  Virginian  Ilex,  St.  John's 
Wort,  Cytisus  Capitalis,  Double  Bramble  (Wiite 
and  red).  Lupine  tree,  Menziesia,  Buddlea,  Myrtles, 
Jasmines,  &c. 


Climbers. 

Japan  and  Chinese  Honey-Suckles,  Passion 
Flower,  Clematis,  Eccremorcarpus. 

We  cau  with  confidence  recommend  the  work  to 
all  those  who  amuse  themselves,  and  improve  their 
taste,  by  rearing  flowers. 


ON  THE  FORMATION  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SPORES  IN  CRYPTOGAMOUS 

PLANTS. 

BY    M.    HUGO    MOHL,    M.D. 


Authors  have  endeavoured  to  compare  the  spores 
of  cryptogamous  plants  to  the  seeds  of  phaneroga- 
mous plants,  attributing  merely  a  more  simple  struc- 
ture to  the  former.  One  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
numerous  errors  committed  in  this  view  of  the  sub- 
ject arises  from  the  spores  not  being  examined  at 
the  first  moment  of  their  evolution.  Recent  expe- 
riments have  taught  us,  that  we  cannot  have  a  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  this  structure,  except  by  a  minute 
investigation  of  the  nascent  seed  (Ovulum).  Now, 
M.  Mohl  has  shewn  that  it  is  also  necessary  to 
follow  this  rule  in  cryptogamous  plants ;  but  there 
is  a  great  difficulty  in  this  examination  arising  from 
the  organs  of  fructification  in  these  plants  being  so 
very  small. 

The  author  has  chosen,  in  commencing  his  ex- 
periments, a  plant  which  presents  these  organs  of  a 
large  dimension  :  it  is  the  Riccia  glauca.  Its  re- 
ceptacle {sporangium)  is  globular  formed  of  longish 
cells,  with  thin  coats  full  of  the  germs  of  chlorophyll; 
it  is  concealed  in  the  leaf  (frond) ;  when  it  begins 
to  develope  itself,  it  is  found  fullof  globular  vesicles, 
formed  of  a  thin  and  colourless  membrane.  These 
vesicles  inclose  a  thick  and  granular  liquor,  that 
separates  itself  slowly  into  four  parts,  whence  it 
covers  itself  with  a  very  thin  membrane.  By  the 
pressure  that  these  four  small  parts  exercise  mu- 
tually the  one  upon  the  other,  their  forms  become 
that  of  a  pyramid,  blunt  and  three  angled  ;  the  face 
turned  against  the  sides  of  the  vesicle  becomes  con- 
vex. The  author  imposes  upon  this  the  name  of 
the  tetrahedrous  union  (tetraedrische  vereinigung). 
As  the  granules  attain  the  size  of  the  spores  and 
come  to  maturity,  the  shells  in  which  they  are 
formed  disappear  entirely,  at  a  point  where  we  can 
discern  no  trace  of  them  ;  at  the  same  time  it  pro- 
duces upon  the  exterior  of  the  thin  and  uniform 
membrane  which  covers  the  spores,  another  mem- 


brane formed  from  the  small  cells,  which  takes  at  its 
maturity  a  dark  brownish  tint.  The  substance  en- 
closed in  the  spores  then  becomes  oilj''. 

The  same  phenomena  are  observed  in  the  spores 
of  Anthoceros.  Among  the  mother  cells  is  found  a 
net  of  saw-toothed  longish  cells.  These  form,  when 
they  become  shrivelled,  after  the  disappearance  of 
the  mother  cells,  the  bodies  to  which  Hedwig  gives 
the  name  of  Elateres  (spore-hairs).  In  the  Antho- 
ceros, however,  this  organ  does  not  present  a  point, 
as  in  the  JungermminicB  and  the  Marchantia, 
threads  spirally  twisted,  which  the  author  terms' 
mother  cells  (MiUter-Zellen).  The  examination 
of  the  large  species  of  the  genus  Jungermanniee  pre- 
sents a  structure  similar,  in  all  respects,  to  that  of 
Riccia.  As  the  spores  not  evolved  are  found  in 
the  mother  cells,  the  spore-hairs  (elateres)  are  pre- 
sented under  the  form  of  spindle-shaped  cells,  of 
which  the  interior  is  filled  with  very  small  granules 
of  starch ;  these  granules  disappear  about  maturity , 
and  the  spore-hairs  (elateres J  are  presented  under 
the  appearance  of  threads  in  a  spiral  form.  This 
observation  demonstrates  the  error  of  those  who 
have  believed  that  they  have  seen  each  spore  at- 
tached to  a  spore-hair  as  in  the  funicle.  In  the 
Jungerviannice  epiphylla,  the  spores  united  in  four, 
differ  from  the  ordinary  form  in  that  they  are  egg- 
oblong,  and  in  that  they  do  not  touch  except  in  one 
part  of  their  surface.  The  granules  enclosed  in  the 
spores,  not  yet  mature,  are  of  a  green  colour,  as  in 
the  other  species  of  the  same  genus.  The  figures 
which  M.  Corda  has  published  in  the  Flora  Ger- 
mania  of  Sturm,  the  Marcliantia,  Grimaldia  dicho- 
toma,  Consinia,  Targiona,  Blasia,  and  the  like 
prove  the  identity  of  the  structure  of  these  plants 
with  those  examined  by  Dr.  Mohl. 

The  Ferns  are  very  similar  to  those  plants  which 
we  have  just  had  under  consideration.     The  young 


Although  the  greater  part  of  the  Rose  tribe  flowers  has  passed  away  with  the  last  month,  there  are   many  varieties  of  the 
Chinese,  Bourbon,  Musk,  and  Damask  species,  still  in  bloom. 


HUGO  MOHL  ON  CRYPTOGAMOUS  PLANTS. 


93 


Capsule  is,  like  that  oi  Riccia,  entirely  filled  with 
round  mother  cells.  Towards  maturity,  these  mo- 
ther cells  disappear,  and  the  spores  occupy  the  in- 
terior of  the  capsule,  without  being  as  yet  fastened 
among  them,  and  without  presenting  much  of  an 
enveloping  membrane,  which  is  found  to  cover 
verj'  slowly  a  second.  This  new  membrane,  how- 
ever, does  not  in  all  the  species  present  the  same 
structure.  In  some,  it  is  formed  of  very  small  dis- 
tinct cells ;  in  others,  it  presents  an  organization 
entirely  homogeneous ;  behind  them  is  covered  the 
granules  in  form  of  papillpe  in  the  Pteris  crispa, 
Davallia  canariensis,  Osmunda  regalis,  Polypo- 
dium  vu/gare,  P.  aureum,  P.  calcareum,  P.  rhceti- 
cuin,  and  Cheilanthes  odora.  In  other  species,  these 
granules  are  prolonged  into  small  needle-formed 
bodies,  as  in  Aspilnium  Breynii,  P olypodium  Lon- 
chitis,  P.  aculealum,  P.  fragile.  In  others,  in  fine, 
they  are  fastened  and  extremely  small :  as  in  Stru- 
thiopteris,  Doodia  aspera,  P olypodium  fUix-fcemina, 
Pteris  atropurpurea,  Pt.  longifolia,  Pt.  serrulata, 
Pt.  cretica,  and  Aorosticlrum  alcicorne.  A  great 
number  of  Ferns  exhibit  the  spores  in  three  angled 
pyramids  rounded  at  their  base ;  in  others,  these 
present  a  different  form  somewhat  oval,  proceeding 
from  their  position  in  the  mother  cell.  It  is  evi- 
dently the  fact,  that  the  form  which  the  spores 
ordinarily  assume,  is  owing  to  the  pressure  they 
exercise  the  one  against  the  other.  In  Osmundacecs, 
the  author  has  found  the  structure  of  the  Polypo- 
diacea ;  for  example,  in  the  Osmunda  regalis,  and 
O.  speciosa  Wall ;  Mertensia  gigarUea,  Gleiohenia 
microphylla,  Lygodiiim  polymorphum,  and  Merten- 
sia pubescens.  At  the  same  time,  four  species  of 
Anemia  examined  by  M.  Mohl,  presented  a  struc- 
ture of  the  spores  a  little  different.  The  examina- 
tion of  the  LycopodiacecE  presented  entirely  similar 
results.  In  the  Lycopodium  Selago,  the  capsules 
ought  to  be  examined  two  years  before  their  ma- 
turity, while  they  are  still  imperceptible  to  the  naked 
eye.  The  mother  cells  swim  in  a  mucilaginous  and 
granulous  liquor,  and  resemble  small  vesicles.  The 
following  year,  the  mother  cells  have  filled  already 
the  whole  cavity  of  the  capsule,  and  the  surrounding 
liquor  has  disappeared.  We  can  already  perceive 
sometimes  the  four  parts  of  the  tetrahedrons  union 
separated.  The  author  notes,  also  the  differences  to 
be  observed  in  the  structure  of  the  envelopes  in  the 
different  species  of  Lycopodia. 

The  reproductive  organs  of  Marsilea  and  of 
Pilularia,  are  produced  equally  by  four  in  the 
mother  cells  which  disappear  more  slowly ;  they  are 
envelopes  of  two  membranes,  and  are  filled  with  an 
oily  and  grumous  substance.  Without  venturing  to 
decide  upon  tlieir  true  nature,  the  author  is  clearly 
of  opinion  that  they  cannot  be  considered  as  grains 
of  the  pollen,  since  at  the  perfect  maturity  of  the 
spores  they  are  still  enclosed  in  cavities,  which  are 
termed  anthers,  and  which  do  not  present  any  change 


analogous  to  those  which  occur  in  the  Phanero- 
gamia,  at  the  epoch  when  their  fecundating  func- 
tions are  terminated. 

The  same  uncertainty  continues  to  govern  the 
functions  of  the  analogous  granules  of  Isoetes. 
According  to  the  observations  of  Wahlenberg,  the 
two  species  of  granules  are  developed  by  four  in 
the  mother  cells.  The  Salvinia  presents  on  analogy 
sufficiently  far  from  the  spores  of  Marsilea  and  of 
Pilularia.  The  Equisetacece  show  a  still  further 
removal. 

The  spores  of  the  Mosses  grow  in  a  similar  man- 
ner with  the  cells  of  the  Hepalicce  and  of  the 
Ferns  ;  but  to  discover  these  we  ought  to  proceed 
to  an  examination  of  the  capsule  in  its  early  growth. 
The  Splachnum  gracile,  for  example,  examined  at 
the  period  when  the  capsule -bulge  (apophysis^ 
commences  only  to  inflate  itself,  presents  the  spores 
already  disseminated  between  the  pillar  (^columella) 
and  the  interior  membrane  of  the  capsule.  A  very 
thick  liquor  shows  the  nascent  state  of  diiferent  parts 
shut  up  in  the  capsule ;  the  manner  in  which  these 
are  composed  is  described  in  detail.  The  author 
has  been  able  to  convince  himself  with  certainty, 
that  in  this  Moss  the  number  of  spores  enclosed  in 
one  mother  cell  cannot  be  more  than  four.  He 
has  seen  distinctly  that  which  he  calls  the  tetra- 
hedrons union  in  the  Neckera  viticulosa,  Polytri- 
chum  aloides,  Orthotrichum  crispum,  and  the  like. 
The  excessive  smallness  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
spores  of  Mosses  opposes  a  serious  obstacle  to  a 
correct  acquaintance  with  their  structure.  This 
inconvenience  disappears  especially  in  the  Meesia 
uliginosa,  where  these  present  an  outer  coloured 
membrane,  translucent,  grumous,  easily  detaching 
itself ;  the  interior  membrane  being  very  thin  and 
colourless. 

The  spores  of  the  Mosses  are  developed  in  a  hol- 
low of  the  pillar  {columella').  Here  the  author  adds 
some  observations  upon  this  latter  organ.  Palisot 
de  Beauvois  has  admitted  that  the  spores  of  Mosses 
formed  in  the  interior  of  the  pillar  {columella'),  and 
that  the  granules  placed  between  the  pillar  and  the 
interior  capsular  membrane,  ought  to  be  considered 
as  the  pollen. 

M  Mohl  enters  very  minutely  into  the  interior 
structure  of  the  capsule ;  he  demonstrates  the  ho- 
mogeneity of  the  interior  capsular  membrane,  and 
of  the  pillar.  He  admits  besides  of  the  resemblance 
between  this  membrane  and  the  interior  brim, 
{peristoma)  of  certain  Mosses. 

The  author  still  continues  to  speak  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  spores  in  the  Lichens,  with  the  intention 
in  a  second  memoir  to  treat  of  the  less  perfect  cryp- 
togamous  plants.  If  in  their  organs  of  fructification 
the  Lichens  present  that  which  the  author  calls 
mother  cells,  there  however  exists  this  difference, 
that  in  the  shields  {scutella)  of  the  Lichens,  these 
cells  do  not  develope  themselves,  nor  are  they  all 


94 


HUGO  MOHI,  ON  CRTPTOGAMOUS  PLANTS. 


ripe  at  the  same  time  ;  they  are  not  effaced  at  the 
maturity  of  the  spores ;  they  exist  still  after  the 
entire  evolution  of  these,  and  replace  in  some  degree 
the  receptacle  (sporangium)  which  is  wanting  in 
the  Lichens ;  their  walls  besides  are  very  thick. 
The  mother  cells  are  in  the  beginning  full  of  a  thick 
grumous  mass,  which  undergoes  a  slow  change 
into  spores  with  a  very  thin  membrane ;  but  the 
number  four  is  no  longer  observable;  they  are 
much  more  numerous  in  each  cell,  ordinarily  they 
are  to  the  number  of  eight ;  in  the  Usnea  barbata, 
the  cells  are  simple,  they  are  composed  of  cells 
united  in  a  straight  line,  and  to  the  number  of  two 
in  the  Borrera  ciliaris,  of  four  in  the  Peltigera 
resupinata,  and  six  in  P.  ?'M/eicew^,  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  in  Arthonia  mellosa,  Eschweiler.  It  appears 
general,  that  in  this  family  the  number  of  cells 
which  constitute  one  mother  cell,  are  the  multiples 
of  four,  namely:  8,  16,32  (64?),  96,  128.  Ordi- 
narily the  spores  are  so  very  small  that  we  can 
make  no  correct  examination  of  their  structure. 
They  appear  formed  of  a  thin  interior  membrane, 
colourless,  and  of  another  external,  sometimes 
slightly  granular.  Frequently  they  enclose  a  drop 
of  oil,  which  we  find  sometimes,  (as  in  the  Borrera 
ciliaris,^  across  the  membrane  which  covers  it. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  exposition,  the  author 
traces  a  parallel  between  the  spores  of  cryptoga- 
mous  plants,  and  the  nascent  seeds  (ovula)  of 
phanerogamous  plants,  such  as  these  observations 
have  a  tendency  to  explain.  These  are  the  more 
important  results  of  this  comparative  examination ; 
if  the  nascent  seed  (^ovula)  of  phanorogamous  plants 
is  by  reason  of  its  verge  (trophosperm)  much  more 
a  scion  than  a  real  eg^,  it  is  not  the  same  case  in 
the  Cryptogamia ;  their  spores  are  developed  in- 
dependently of  the  capsular  wall,  they  swim  in  a 
liquor  with  which  the  cavity  is  found  to  be  filled  ; 
they  do  not  show  any  organic  structure,  and  they 
acquire  but  by  slow  degrees  a  distinct  individuality. 

Their  affinity  with  the  animal  egg  is  then  very 
conspicuous.     The   intimate  conformation   of   the 


spores  does  not  present  the  less  difference ;  the 
membranes  in  which  they  are  enveloped  grow  only 
after  their  contents ;  this  last,  however,  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  membranes,  lose  all  organic  struc- 
ture and  changes  itself  into  an  oily  liquor,  in  which 
there  cannot  be  discovered  the  slightest  trace 
of  future  plants.  We  see  then,  that  the  spores 
do  not  lead  by  any  means  to  the  comparison, 
either  with  the  entire  seeds  of  phanerogamous 
plants,  or  with  some  one  of  their  parts.  The  opinions 
of  Treviranus,  of  Fischer,  and  Agardh  on  this 
subject,  are  refuted  by  M.  Mohl.  He  equally  rebuts 
in  a  lengthened  detail,  the  theory  of  Turpin  and 
Raspail  on  the  development  of  vegetable  matter. 
If  we  bring  forward  an  organ  of  phanerogamous 
plants  with  which  we  can  compare  the  spores  of 
cryptogamous  plants,  we  find  that  the  development 
as  such  that  the  conformation  of  these  last  present 
a  greater  analogy  with  the  organization  of  poUinic 
granules.  The  pollen,  like  the  spores,  developes 
itself  in  the  interior  of  the  cells  which  disappear  at 
its  maturity.  We  find  the  same  numerical  relations 
in  them,  the  greater  part  of  phanerogamous  plants 
present  the  tetrahedrous  union ;  rarely  their  pollen 
is  in  a  parallel  position  ;  interior,  tender,  uniform  ; 
the  exterior  of  a  large  consistence,  sometimes  cellu- 
lar, sometimes  granular,  smooth,  or  well  covered 
with  needle-formed  bodies.  We  know  that  M.  M.  ■ 
Turpin  and  Agardh  have  considered  the  spores  as 
the  grains  of  the  pollen,  and  they  attribute  to  them 
in  a  series  of  the  vegetable  creation  of  male  func- 
tions, and  in  the  other  of  female  functions.  M.  Mohl 
combats  these  errors,  and  the  contradictions  that 
these  explications  present  as  to  the  morphological 
analogies  proposed  by  Agardh  in  his  Biology  of 
plants  ;  and  he  terminates  his  important  memoir  in 
indicating  the  differential  points  depending  in  the 
germination  of  seeds,  and  development  of  spores. 
The  two  plates  which  accompany  the  memoir  of 
M.  Mohl,  are  very  well  executed,  and  greatly  assist 
the  understanding  of  the  reader. 


SCIENTIFIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  FALLOWING. 

Fro7>i  the  Editor'' s  Hand  Book  of  Allotment  of  Agriculture.-^ Just  Published. 


Fallowing,  is  the  ploughing  or  digging  successively 
for  six  or  nine  months,  without  having  any  crop  on 
the  ground.  The  effects  of  fallowing,  are  founded 
on  the  same  principles  as  that  of  the  rotation  of 
crops.  The  slimy  excrementitious  matter,  left  in 
the  soil  by  previous  crops,  being  exposed  by  turning 
it  up  to  the  sunlight,  and  the  passing  air  becomes 
decomposed,  or  exhaled  in  the  form  of  vapour. 

This  simple  explanation,  gets  rid  at  once  of  all  the 
various  conflicting  opinions  about  the  effects  of 
fallows.  The  only  plausible  advantage  of  fallows, 
usually  stated,  is  the  getting  clear  of  weeds ;  but 


this  is  a  very  minor  matter,  compared  with  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  excrementitious  slime.  It  wiU  also, 
on  the  principles  now  I  believe  published  for  the 
first  time,  be  evident,  that  what  is  termed  a  turnip 
fallow,  is  as  absurd  in  principle,  as  it  has  been 
found  to  be  bad  in  practice  ;  for  no  sort  of  crop 
which  keeps  sunlight  from  the  ground,  can  ever 
answer  the  purpose,  though  it  may  help  to  clear 
away  weeds  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  one  week 
of  bright  summer  sunlight,  is  worth  ten  of  winter 
exposure. 


95 


NEW  RESEARCHES  UPON    THE   STRUCTURE  OF  THE  OUTER  BARK  (EPIDERMIS) 

OF  PLANTS. 

By  M.  Adolphe  Brongniart. 


The  outer  bark  which  covers  the  several  organs  of 
plants,  and  particularly  the  leaves,  has  already  been 
the  object  of  numerous  observations,  because  this 
outer  bark  presents  rather  a  complex  structure,  and 
because  all  those  who  study  vegetable  physiology 
have  felt  that  the  exact  knowledge  of  this  their 
outer  bark,  is  very  important  in  estimating  the  mode 
of  action  in  the  organs  which  it  covers. 

In  a  former  essay  upon  the  anatomy  of  leaves,  I 
quoted  the  principal  opinions  of  botanists  upon 
their  structure,  and  advanced  some  new  observa- 
tions in  support  of  that  which  considers  the  outer 
bark  (epidermis)  as  a  simple  layer  of  utricvda,  dif- 
fering by  their  form  from  those  which  compose  the 
subjacent  parenchyma,  without  any  mixture  of  ves- 
sels, and  present  from  distance  to  distance  the  co- 
verings which  form  the  stomata. 

I  have  lately  observed,  however,  that  by  macera- 
tion we  can  separate  from  the  surface  of  the  leaves 
of  the  cabbage,  a  very  fine  pellicle,  without  any 
sign  of  cellular  organization,  and  in  which  the 
stomata  do  not  appear  any  thing  more  than  as  simple 
coverings  in  form  of  a  button-hole. 

At  this  moment,  not  having  leisure  to  repeat  this 
observation  on  other  leaves,  and  after  a  maceration 
more  or  less  prolonged,  I  have  hesitated  to  admit 
this  pellicle  as  a  component  part  of  the  outer  bark 
of  all  plants ;  but  I  have  already  remarked,  as 
many  of  the  figures  which  I  have  published ,  lead  to  the 
conclusion,  that  the  utricula,  which,  disposed  in  a 
single  layer,  constitute  ordinarily  the  outer  bark, 
present  a  thicker  coat  on  the  external  surface  than 
on  the  other  sides,  such  as  may  be  conceived  by 
their  union  with  a  simple  pellicle,  that  would 
have  covered  them  externally. 

Desiring  to  elucidate  this  question,  I  renewed 
these  observations  during  the  summer  of  1832 ;  I 
examined,  by  maceration,  a  great  number  of  leaves 
of  monocotyledonous  and  dicotyledonous  plants,  and 
I  convinced  myself,  by  this  procedure,  of  the  general 
existence  of  a  very  fine  superficial  pellicle,  which 
covers  the  external  surface  of  the  cellular  layer  of 
the  outer  bark. 

It  is  sufficient  to  be  convinced  of  the  existence 
of  this  membrane  and  its  independence  of  those 
utricula,  which  constitute  the  more  internal  layer  of 
the  outer  bark,  to  macerate  leaves  in  pure  water  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  leaf  and  the  state  of  the  atmosphere. 

In  examining  from  time  to  time  the  leaves  in 
such  a  state  of  maceration,  we  can  easily  perceive 
that  the  parenchyma  alters  first,  the  outer  bark  is 


detached  and  is  raised ;  but  at  this  epoch  there  is 
sometimes  no  sensible  difference  from  that  which 
takes  place  mechanically  upon  the  fresh  leaf ;  but  in 
general  it  becomes  a  little  less  transparent.  In  fine, 
sometimes  in  five  or  six  days,  but  more  frequently 
in  ten  or  twelve  days,  we  can  easily,  with  a  needle, 
derange,  scatter,  and  completely  raise  the  vitricula, 
which,  by  their  drawing  nearer,  formed  the  very 
varied  net-work  of  the  outer  bark. 

We  know  that,  in  general,  these  utricula  form 
only  a  single  layer  ;  but  following  the  species,  they 
are  formed  very  different;  in  monocotyledonous 
plants,  with  parallel  ribs,  they  are  lengthened,  and 
have  parallel  edges ;  in  dicotyledonous  plants  they 
are  generally  angular,  and  at  the  edge  they  become 
sinuous.  When  these  utricula  are  thus  detached  by 
maceration,  they  still  perfectly  preserve  their  primi- 
tive form,  only  the  angles  are  rather  round,  and  the 
flat  surfaces  which  terminate  them  when  they  have 
become  intimately  united  among  these,  are  found 
more  or  less  convex. 

These  utricula  are  for  the  most  part  completely 
transparent  and  without  any  trace  of  organized 
matter  in  their  interior ;  in  other  cases,  we  can  dis- 
cover sometimes  small  irregular  granules. 

The  detachment  of  these  utricula  of  the  outer 
bark  is  effected  with  the  same  facility  when  this 
membrane  is  formed  of  many  layers  of  cells. 

After  having  thus  raised  these  utricula,  we  see 
that  there  remains  a  very  small  continuous  mem- 
brane which  forms  the  external  surface  of  the  outer 
bark.  This  membrane  is  sometimes  perfectly  trans- 
parent, colourless,  or  of  a  very  pale  greyish  tint,  we 
cannot  discover  any  indication  of  organization,  or 
only  light  traces  of  lines  of  junction  of  these  utri- 
cula, forming  a  net-work  scarcely  distinct,  and  ge- 
nerally very  transparent. 

These  light  traces  also  disappear  when  we  pro- 
long the  maceration  a  little  longer. 

In  other  cases,  this  membrane  puts  on  a  granular 
texture  very  conspicuous,  as  we  perceive  in  the 
outer  bark  of  the  carnation  and  of  the  Agapanthus. 
It  may  be,  that  this  granulation  results  from  the 
disjunction  of  the  granules,  of  which  we  can  sup- 
pose that  this  membrane  is  formed  ;  it  may  be,  that 
these  granules  come  before  an  interposed  particular 
matter  between  the  superficial  pellicle  and  the  sub- 
jacent cellular  layer ;  the  opinion  which  seems  to 
me  most  satisfactoiy  is,  that  all  the  membranes  of 
the  outer  bark  do  not  present  this  granular  aspect, 
as  we  observe  in  the  lily,  garlic,  iris,  day-hly,  cab- 
bage, beet,  and  the  like.     In  all  the  cases  where  I 


96 


NEW  RESEARCHES  UPON  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  OUTER  BARK  (ePIDERMIS)  OF  PLANTS. 


have  found  this  membrane  offer  thus  a  gramilar 
aspect,  these  granules  fail  in  the  points  which  cor- 
respond to  lines  of  junction  of  the  utricula  of  the 
outer  bark,  in  order  that  the  superficial  pellicle, 
detached  from  these  utricula,  may  present  still  an 
analogous  net- work  to  that  produced  by  their  lines 
of  junction,  but  formed  by  these  lines  deprived  of 
the  granules,  and  more  transparent,  absolutely  as  if 
this  granulation  had  been  the  adherence  of  these 
utricula  to  the  superficial  membrane. 

If  the  maceration  has  been  prolonged  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  the  utricula  are  detached  of  them- 
selves ;  they  are  decomposed,  or  else  float  more  or 
less  altered  in  the  liquid ;  and  the  pellicle,  in  ge- 
neral, does  not  present  any  trace  of  net-work  pro- 
duced by  the  cells,  nor  any  kind  of  structure  dis- 
coverable by  a  microscope. 

All  the  outer  barks  which  I  have  thus  treated  by 
maceration,  have  presented  me  this  organization, 
which  I  believe  to  be  general ;  but  this  pellicle  under 
the  outer  bark,  and  of  which  I  have  just  indicated 
the  existence  in  all  outer  barks  composed  of  leaves 
living  in  the  air,  appears  to  me  to  exist  also  in  sub- 
merged aquatic  leaves,  which  are  destitute  of  the 
layer  of  colourless  cells,  which  ordinarily  constitute 
the  outer  bark. 

If  we  place  in  water  the  leaves  of  Potamogeton 
lucens,  after  a  very  long  continued  maceration  (con- 
tinued for  three  months  in  my  experiments),  we 
perceived  that  there  was  separated  from  the  surface 
of  these  leaves  a  pellicle  almost  colourless,  trans- 
parent, not  granular,  presenting  reticulated  lines 
which  correspond  to  those  separations  of  the  utri- 
cula of  the  green  parenchyma,  which  are  found  im- 
mediately in  contact  with  this  pellicle.  In  the  pre- 
paration of  Potamogeton  of  which  I  have  spolien, 
these  utricula  were  full  of  green  matter,  more  or 
less_  altered,  being,  in  many  points,  still  applied 
against  the  pellicle,  but  could  easily  be  deranged  or 
raised  by  very  slight  drawing,  and  we  distinctly  dis- 
cern their  relation  with  the  superficial  net-work. 

_Mr.  Henslow,  of  Cambridge,  has  recognized  the 
existence  of  a  similar  membrane  upon  the  outer  bark 
of  the  corolla,  of  the  filaments  of  the  stamens,  and 
of  the  pistil  of  the  Digitalis.  It  was  separated 
from  these  subjacent  cells  by  maceration  in  nitric 
acid. 

I  believe,  in  fine,  that  this  is  the  same  pellicle 
which  covers  certain  stigmata,  as  I  have  indicated 
in  those  of  Nymphcea  and  Ni/ctago,  in  my  researches 
upon  the  generation  of  these  plants. 

We  find,  then,  that  the  existence  of  this  simple 
pellicle,  without  appreciable  organization,  is  a  ge- 
neral fact ;  that  it  covers  all  the  organs,  with  the 
exception  of  the  extremities  of  spongelets,  of  the 
root,  and  for  the  most  part  of  the  stigmata,  organs 
in  which  the  utricula,  almost  free  from  deep-seated 
tissue,  come  to  project  upon  the  external  surface. 


This  is,  then,  a  general  envelope,  a  continuance  of 
the  whole  part,  and  extends  almost  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  plant.  It  is  probably  owing  to  this 
that  the  outer  bark  owes,  in  a  great  measure,  its 
being  so  little  altered  by  the  action  of  external 
agents ;  fur  in  these  macerations,  it  resisted  for  a 
much  longer  time  than  the  other  parts,  and  often 
when  the  leaf  was  entirely  reduced  to  a  sort  of  un- 
formed and  fetid  pulp,  we  find  still  this  pellicle 
formed  at  the  largest  laminse  scarcely  altered. 

This  method  of  analyzing  the  outer  bark  in  thus 
separating  the  different  parts  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, may  be  also  of  some  service  in  elucidating 
the  structure  of  the  stomata ;  and  all  the  observa- 
tions I  have  made  upon  this  subject  confirm  the 
existence  of  a  real  longish  opening  in  the  middle  of 
each  of  these  organs.  The  superficial  pellicle,  se- 
parated from  the  cellular  layer,  presents  these  aper- 
tures perfectly  transparent,  well  limited,  and  which 
offer  no  trace  of  a  granular  texture  which  we  ob- 
serve in  the  pellicle  itself;  the  membrane  will  then 
completely  fail  in  this  point. 

The  two  moon-shaped  utricula  which  border  the 
interior  of  the  orifice  of  the  stomata,  are  separated 
equally  by  maceration.  We  thus,  also,  isolate  the 
different  elements  constituting  the  outer  bark,  and 
we  can  understand  that  it  is  formed  in  the  four  fol- 
lowing ways. 

1.  Of  a  simple  superficial  pellicle,  continuing  with- 
out an  appreciable  textvire,  or  having  a  granular 
appearance,  pierced  with  longish  apertures,  which 
correspond  with  the  middle  of  the  stomata. 

2.  Of  a  layer  or  of  many  layers  of  utricula,  of 
different  forms,  following  the  species  which  we 
study,  disposed  with  regvilarity  intimately  united 
among  them,  and  generally  filled  with  a  colourless 
liquid. 

3.  Of  longish  utricula,  arched  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  united  two  by  two,  between  the  concave 
sides  of  which  is  found  a  space  corresponding  to 
the  aperture  of  the  superficial  pellicle,  and  consti- 
tuting the  stomata. 

4.  In  fine,  this  superficial  pellicle  exists  only  and 
without  an  opening  at  the  surface  of  aquatic  leaves, 
in  which  it  covers  immediately  the  green  paren- 
chyma. 

We  find  that  these  observations  in  a  great  mea- 
sure confirm  the  two  opinions  which  we  have  gene- 
rally advanced  upon  the  outer  bark ;  the  one 
considering  it  as  constituted  of  a  simple  pel- 
licle; the  other  admitting  that  it  cannot  be  formed 
without  a  layer  of  utricula  of  a  special  form;  at 
length  the  ordinary  outer  bark,  on  aerial  leaves,  is 
composed  of  a  cellular  layer  and  of  a  simple  pellicle, 
which  covers  this  cellular  layer  and  is  closely  united 
with  it,  a  pellicle  which  exists  only  on  submerged 
leaves,  and  which  I  had  at  first  thought  to  be  desti- 
tute of  this  organ. 


97 
MR.  CONDUCTOR  LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENERS. 

BY  CHRISTOPHER  NORTH,  ESQ.  OF  BUCHANAN  LODGE. 


Fitte  the  Second. 


While  the  journeyman  gardener  is  thus  making  himself  ac- 
quainted, to  the  degree  that  circumstances  may  permit,  "  with 
the  whole  cycle  of  human  knowledge,"  the  indefatigable  book- 
borrower  has  not  been  neglectful  of  personal  accomplishments, 
which  !Mr.  Loudon  classes  under  the  following  grand  divisions 
— "Dancing,  fencing,  boxing,  w'restling,  the  infantry  manual 
exercise,  whist,  backgammon,  and  the  fiddle."  Of  these,  he 
considers,  "  dancing,  boxing,  and  the  fiddle,  as  the  most  essen- 
tial objects.  In  most  country  places,  these  and  all  the  other 
acquirements  may  be  learned  from  retired  valets,  old  soldiers, 
or  from  some  of  the  servants  in  a  great  family,  <d  an  easy  rate." 
They  may  be  paid  for  in  vegetables. 

Dancing,  and  the  manual  exercise,  are  particularly  useful, 
Mr.  Loudon  thinks,  as  improving  the  gait  of  a  gardener,  "  and 
habituating  him  to  good  postures,  both  in  standing  ajid  sitting." 
He  looks  like  an  old  soldier.  We  fear  that  retired  valets  are 
seldom  good  hands  at  the  boxing-gloves,  and  seldomer  with  the 
naked  mawlies  ;  and  that  a  yokel  in  a  turn-up  at  a  fair  has  a 
better  chance  of  flooring  his  man,  by  his  own  natural  way  of 
fighting,  whatever  that  may  be,  than  by  the  pseudo-science 
taught  him  by  my  Lord's  gentleman.  In  the  ring,  "  a  little 
knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing;"  and  there  is  nothing,  with 
the  uniniti.n.ted  into  the  greater  mysteries,  like  good  round  hit- 
ting, closing,  and  hugging,  with  an  occasional,  and  perhaps  acci- 
dental and  unaccountable  cress  buttock.  Let  the  gardener,  say 
w^e,  eschew  fighting  altogether ;  if  wantonly  attacked,  let  him 
use  the  blackthorn,  hitting  fearlessly  at  the  head  ;  and  if  his 
heart  be  in  the  right  place,  by  using  that  simple  recipe,  he  will 
down  half-a-dozen  gypsies.  Against  the  fiddle  we  have  nothing 
to  say — except  the  Scotch  one — and  in  lieu  of  it  we  beg  to  sub- 
stitute the  bagpipe.  We  can  say  little  or  nothing  in  favour  of 
cards.  We  hate  the  whole  pack.  Mr.  Loudon,  however,  thinks 
whist  "an  essential  accomplishment  of  every  man  who  would 
find  his  way  in  society  in  England,  where  conversation  is  not 
nearly  so  well  understood  as  on  the  Continent,  and  therefore, 
less  relied  on,  for  passing  the  time  agreeably." 

An  easy,  graceful,  and  yet  manly  action  is  to  be  attained  by 
the  young  gardener,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  practice  of  dancing 
and  the  manual  exercise  ;  but  these  are  insufficient  to  give  him 
a  good  address.  He  is  therefore  "  to  read  Lord  Chesterfield, 
guarding  against  those  slips  of  the  pen  where  he  seems  to  re- 
commend impurity  and  deception."  And  he  can  only  acquire 
"a  gracious  and  polite  manner  of  speaking  by  much  reading, 
and  by  attending  to  the  language  of  ladies  and  gentlemen,  fre- 
quenters of  polished  society."  Much  depends  upon  the  proper 
management  of  the  muscles  of  the  face.  A  gai'dener  must  not 
be  a  gawky.  Now  our  physiognomist  has  noticed,  "  that  the 
features  of  the  face  may  be  set"  to  any  emotion,  so  that  "if  the 
muscles  of  the  face  are  put  in  training  by  a  gardener  at  the 
commencement  of  his  apprenticeship,  almost  any  thing  may  be 
done  with  them,  as  in  the  case  of  comedians."  Should  he  tire 
of  his  profession,  he  may  go  upon  the  stage,  and  a  Matthews, 
a  Yates,  or  a  John  Reeve,  be  found  in  every  provincial  theatre. 
Yet  we  find  "  that  a  gardener's  object  should  be  less  the  power 
of  varying  them  than  of  giving  a  set  expression  of  animation, 
joined  to  a  degree  of  satisfaction ;  this  medium  or  central  dispo- 
sition he  can  occasionally  alter  to  that  of  pleasure  on  the  one 
hand,  or  disapprobation  on  the  other,  as  circumstances  require." 
The  art  of  conversation,  so  flourishing  on  the  Continent,  being 
little  understood  here,  "  consisting,  in  ordinary  society,  in  tire- 
some relations  as  to  the  party  or  their  affairs,  attempts  to  ob- 
tain victory  in  argument,  &c."  Mr.  Lotulon  has  devised  a  scheme 

M.\C-AZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.  II.   NO,. 


for  the  cultivation  of  conversation,  as  a  delightful  art,  which  we 
hope  will  not  be  confined  to  gardeners,  but  extended  to  all  man- 
kind. "Three  or  four  gardeners,  all  eager  for  improvement, 
might  practise  conversation  on  this  principle,  by  assembling 
occasionally,  and  either  conversing  as  equals,  or,  for  the  sake 
of  variety,  assuming  characters.  Two,  for  example,  may  take 
the  part  of  the  parents  of  a  family,  one  or  two  as  strangers  on 
a  visit  to  them,  and  the  rest  as  children,  and  so  on.  The  party 
might  first  produce  that  sort  of  family  wrangling  and  snarling, 
which  commonly  occurs  at  firesides,  as  the  conversation  to  be 
avoided ;  and  next  a  conversation  as  it  ought  to  be,  or  as  each 
gardener  would  desire  to  have  it  in  his  own  family."  In  short, 
all  having  already  put  the  muscles  of  their  face  in  training,  and 
being  excellent  comedians,  they  are  to  have  private  theatricals, 
at  one  another's  houses,  at  which  will  be  enacted  extemporary 
domestic  dramas,  such  as  the  Spoiled  Child,  the  Brawling  Bro- 
thers, the  Scolding  Wife,  Who's  Papa,  and  My  Uncle.  There 
are  few  stronger  innate  principles  in  human  nature  than  "a 
pawpensity  for  the  dwama;"  and  we  have  only  to  hope  that  uo 
beak  will  interfere  with  so  moral  and  intellectual  an  entertain- 
ment, no  money,  we  presume,  being  taken  at  the  door,  and  the 
most  delicate  female  parts  being  performed  by  stout  yormg  gar- 
deners. 

There  are,  Mr.  Loudon  tells  us,  two  things  in  conduct  which 
the  gardener  ought  most  particularly  to  avoid— familiarity  and 
cupidity.  Nothing  more  odious  than  familiarity,  nor  a  more 
certain  mark,  he  says,  of  low  birth  and  breeding.  Really,  as  to 
low  birth,  there  is  no  need  to  sneer  at  it  here,  for  few  gardeners 
are  what  is  called  gentlemen  born — though  many  of  them  are, 
in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  gentlemen.  Low  birth  and  low 
bi-eeding  generally  go  together,  such  is  the  lot  of  man.  And 
we  must  not  be  offended  by  the  familiarity  of  the  vulgar,  but 
make  allowances  for  the  manners  of  well-meaning  people,  whom 
Providence  has  made  delvers  and  ditchers.  "  A  low  ignorant 
man,"  quoth  Mr.  Loudon,  "  if  he  receive  the  slightest  civilities 
from  a  superior,  immediately  conceives  the  latter  has  a  particu- 
lar friendship  for  him,  and  even  endeavours  to  turn  this  friend- 
ship to  advantage,  by  asking  to  borrow  money  to  forward  him- 
self in  business,  or  requesting  a  place  under  government,  or  a 
pension."  And  pray,  why  not  try  to  borrow  money  as  well  as 
books?  A  place  under  government  is  a  more  serious  affair,  but 
as  for  a  pension,  if  the  man  be  an  old  soldier  or  sailor,  and  have 
a  wooden  leg,  he  enjoys  one  already  ;  and  if  he  he  sound,  wind 
and  limb,  he  is  probably  on  the  parish.  You  may,  in  most 
cases,  put  him  off'  with  half-a-crown  ;  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to 
get  rid  of  the  fair  sex.  For  Mr.  Loudon  assures  us,  that  "  if  a 
gentleman,  or  indeed  any  man,  notices  a  low  familiar  woman, 
the  latter  immediately  concludes  he  is  in  love  with  her."  Very 
likely,  if  the  notice  taken  of  her  chance  to  be  in  a  wood,  and 
consist  in  chucking  her  under  the  chin.  But  then  the  famili- 
arity is  first  committed  by  the  gentleman,  or  any  otlier  man, 
and  he  must  abide  the  result.  On  the  high-road,  or  m  the  har- 
vest-field, or  in  the  churchyard,  "on  the  skaleing  o'  the  kirk," 
or  at  the  cottage-door,  surely  you  may  "  notice  a  low  familiar 
woman,"  without  inspiring  her  with  a  sudden  belief  that  you 
are  the  victim  of  passion  for  her  charms,  and  will  never  rest 
tm  you  have  effected  her  ruin,  or  made  her  your  wife.  Few 
men  of  our  years  are  more  likely  to  kindle  a  flame  in  the  sus- 
ceptible bosom  than  Christopher  North  ;  few  men  of  any  years 
more  suave  to  the  sex.  Yet  we  have  noticed  hundreds,  aye, 
thousands,  of  maids,  wives,  and  widows,  of  low  birth  and  low 
breeding,  who  dropped  us  a  curtsy,  and  asked  us  "  to  come  ben 

XVI. — JULY,  1834.  ^ 


98 


LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENEaS. 


the  house  and  taste,"  without  seeming,  so  far  as  was  known  to 
us,  simple  souls,  to  suspect  us  of  being  over  head  and  ears  in 
love  with  them,  though  we  confess  our  crutch  has  occasionally 
heen  spirited  away  in  a  most  miraculous  manner,  found  next 
morning  by  "the  auld  wife  ayont  the  fire,"  behind  a  cabinet  in 
the  spence,  and  delivered  to  us,  without  explanation,  embroid- 
ered with  a  spider's  web,  and  in  the  web  the  spider. 

"A  well  informed  and  polite  man,"  says  our  sage,  "is  not 
familiar  with  any  one."  What  sayest  thou  to  that  doctrine, 
dear  Charles  Lamb?  Where  are  gone  "  all  the  familiar  faces  !" 
The  well-informed  and  polite  man,  Mr.  Loudon  tells  us,  is  not 
familiar  with  any  one,  "  because  he  knows  that  if  he  were  to  lay 
bare  every  thing  respecting  himself,  he  would  lessen  respect." 
There  is  no  occasior;  to  lay  bare  every  thing,  not  even  when  you 
bathe  in  loch  or  river  ;  but  why  sTich  fear  of  lessening  respect? 
We  have  some  friends — three,  or  perhaps  four — whom  we  love 
like  uterine  brothers — but,  thank  God,  we  know  them  too  well, 
and  they  know  us  too  well,  to  allow  the  possibility  of  muti'.;l 
respect.  For  half  a  century  and  upwards  we  have  been  as  fami- 
liar as  trees  composing  one  clump  on  the  hill-side — or  as  clouds 
brought  into  union  by  heaven's  own  breath  "  frae  a'  the  airts 
the  wind  can  blaw,"  and  allowed  to  settle  down  on  a  bright 
blue  spot  of  sky,  for  an  hour  of  profound  and  perfect  peace  ! 
Respect!  Away  with  it  to  hypocrites  or  self-deceivers.  Bat  ours 
be  the  bond  and  balm  of  life — the  Christian  virtue  that  is  born 
in  the  freedom  of  the  heart — fearing  nothing,  suspecting  nothing; 
but,  like  a  bird  on  the  bough,  or  a  flower  on  the  brae,  singing 
and  smiling,  for  its  own  sweet  sake,  as  if  there  were  neither  sin 
nor  son-ow  on  all  this  earth — and  that  is  Love — the  same  love 
that  was  in  the  heart  of  Cain  before  he  came  to  envy  Abel,  and 
while  yet  he  saw,  without  anger,  the  smoke  of  the  sacrifice 
ascending  from  that  iiiral  altar,  "  and  blessed  the  brotherwhom 
ere  long  he  slew  !" 

But  what  saith  Mr.  Loudon  on  cupidity?  That  is  out  of  the 
<|Uestion  with  a  well-informed  and  polite  man.  And  why?  Be- 
cause he  knows  mankind  too  well  to  suppose  they  will  give  him 
a  valuable  thing  merely  because  he  asks  it ;  but  even  if  there 
were  a  chance  of  getting  it  in  this  way,  still  he  would  not  ask, 
because  he  might  be  asked  something  more  valuable  in  return." 
Hobbism  is  heard  in  all  its  hardness  but  from  the  jaws  of  a 
thorough-going  Scotsman.  No  Englishman  of  the  selfish  school 
could  have  made  such  a  barefaced  avowal  as  this  of  the  princi- 
ple of  his  moral  creed.  His  own  pride  would  have  been  offended 
by  such  a  direct  and  explicit  confession  of  his  own  meanness  ; 
and  were  the  words  set  down  for  him,  we  can  fancy  we  see 
John  Bull  trampling  upon  and  tossing  them,  with  fire-eyed 
disdain,  like  his  namesake,  more  wrathful  than  seems  reason- 
able with  the  toggery  of  a  tailor,  who  is  taking  a  swim  with  his 
friends  the  frogs. 

Mr.  Loudon,  however,  makes  some  amends  for  his  enun- 
ciation of  such  despicable  doctrine,  by  a  good  remark  and 
pleasing  illustration  on  the  subject  of  "judicious  restraint." 
"  A  man  properly  under  its  influence,"  he  finely  says,  "  may 
be  compared  to  a  well-trained  tree  ;  and  as  this  figaire  is  fami- 
liar to  the  young  gardener,  it  may  be  well  for  him  frequently 
to  ask  himself,  whether,  supposing  he  were  a  cherry-tree,  he 
would  be  reckoned  one  finely  spread  against  a  wall,  or  an  un- 
pruncd  standard."  Fairest  and  gentlest  of  readers,  that  ever 
dropped  a  tear  on  page  of  Maga,  or  illumined  it  with  a  smile, 
what  sayest  thou  ?  Wouldst  thou,  supposing  thy  sweet  self  to 
be  a  cherry-tree,  be  one  finely  spread  against  a  wall,  or  an  un- 
pruned  standard  ?  Oh  !  not  for  all  the  suns  and  systems  in 
the  universe  would  We  see  thee  finely  spread  against  a  wall ! 
Thy  tender  trunk  trained  up  from  childhood  in  the  way  it 
should  go,  anil  from  which  no  liberty  is  left  it  to  depart  wlien 
it  is  old — thy  delicate  limbs,  spread  eaglewise,  fastened  with 
rusty  nails  and  bits  of  musty  fiannel  to  the  unfeeling  bricks  1 
All  the  rounded  proportions  of  thy  naturally  graceful  figure 
flattened  into  a  pancake — or  say,  rather,  a  fan,  unfolded  for 
ever,   yet   flirted  net   at  all !     What,   though  by   this   process 


thou  art  made  to  bear  show-cherries  like  plums  ?  Alas  !  alas  ! 
love  sickens  and  dies  at  sight  of  the  long,  lank,  productive 
espalier  !  But  love  springs  again  to  life  at  the  airy  whisper  of 
that  exquisite  unpruned  standard,  blushing  yonder  with  blos- 
soms that  look  as  if  they  were  composed  of  snow  and  fire, 
blended  in  wondrous  union  by  the  cieative  and  reconciling 
spring.  We  clasp  her  stem  that  softens  in  our  embrace,  and 
thrills  to  our  passion,  while  from  each  core  expires  a  long- 
draAvn  mutual  sigh.  We  release  her — oh  !  sweet  Helen  tree— 
from  our  imaginary  marriage,  and  retiring  a  few  steps,  that 
she  may  have  room  to  display  herself  all  abroad,  on  the  green- 
sward of  the  sunny  glade,  an  island  in  the  wood,  we  gaze  on 
the  virgin  glory  till  our  soul  assimilates  itself  to  the  sight,  that 
fills  it  through  a  thousand  eyes — and  oh  !  metamorphosis  divine, 
transfig-ured  are  we  into  a  stately  young  male  cherry-tree, 
while  all  the  birds  of  the  morning  break  out  into  a  nijptial 
song,  and  so  closely  intertwined  are  now  our  branches,  that  the 
sun  himself  knows  not  how  to  distinguish  our  blossoms,  and  is 
pleased  to  see  the  loving  confusion  every  moment  coloured 
brighter  and  brighter  with  beauty  born  of  bliss  ;  nor  can  the 
clouds  themselves,  who  come  floating  along  from  the  orient  to 
adore  and  worship,  either  abate  or  bedim  the  still  unsubdiieti 
splendctir  of  that  onc-in-two  and  two-in-one  unpruned  standaril 
Cherry-Tree. 

Supposing  a  young  gardener  to  have  obtained  a  tolerably 
good  situation  at  home,  and  to  have  proved  it  for  a  year  or 
two,  Mr.  Loudon  says  he  should  set  about  two  things;  "  the 
first  is  saving  money,  and  the  second  is  entering  into  the  mar- 
riage state."  He  treats  us  with  two  tables  of  calculations, 
showing  how  an  industrious,  suceessfnl,  and  money-loving 
gardener  may,  at  fifty,  purchase  no  trifling  annuity  for  two 
lives — his  own  and  his  wife's — and  thereby  continue  to  jog  on 
comfortably  to  the  end.  We  have  nothing  to  object  to  these 
tables,  except  that  they  leave  us  rather  in  the  dark  as  to  Mr. 
Loudon's  opinions  on  marriage.  He  is  manifestly  a  Malthu- 
sian,  and  speaks  with  fear  and  trembling,  as  well  he  may,  of 
what  he  calls  "  thoughtless  and  unmeasured  procreation."  But 
here  is  the  concluding  paragraph  of  his  treatise  on  the  educa- 
tion of  gardeners : — 

"  The  vulgar  reason  why  a  young  man  ought  to  save  money 
is,  that  he  may  get  together  as  much  as  may  enable  him  to 
collect  some  furnittire  and  get  married.  This,  however,  may 
be  called  saving  to  produce  want  and  tnisciTr.  A  young  couple , 
eager  to  get  the  use  of  each  other's  persons,  will  not  be  veiy 
nice  in  the  quantity  or  quality  of  their  furniture.  All  they 
consider  necessary  is,  accordingly,  often  got  before  either  are 
twenty.  Housekeeping  and  propagation  are  commenced  ;  and 
thus  the  foundation  laid  of  a  life  of  hard  labour,  scanty  food, 
and  their  attendants,  bad  temper,  and  often  disease.  After 
twenty-flve  years  of  bustle  aud  distraction,  nine  or  ten  children 
have  been  produced,  and  are  most  probably  growing  up  in  rags 
and  ignorance  ;  and  all  that  this  couple  can  say  is,  that  they 
have  struggled  hard  to  create  nine  times  as  much  misery  as 
that  by  which  they  arc  oppressed.  If  the  man  had  limited 
himself  for  twenty-five  years  to  making  the  hesds  of  pins,  he 
might  have  accumulated  as  much  as  would  have  made  him  iji- 
dependent  and  comfortable,  and  still  had  sufficient  time  berore 
him  to  marry,  and  enjoy  the  comfort  and  solace  of  a  wife  and 
children.  But  the  use  of  a  wife  to  a  gardener,  rndto  every 
man  who  is  not  independent,  ought  to  be  chiefly  as  the  operative 
partner  in  his  domestic  economy  ;  to  prepare  his  food,  and  keep 
in  order  his  lodging  aud  clothes.  If,  in  addition  to  these  duties, 
she  has  cultivated,  or  will  cultivate  her  mind,  so  as  to  become 
interesting  as  a  companion,  so  much  the  better  ;  and  if  the 
parties  further  think  that  they  can  attain  their  object  of  inde- 
pendence, and  rear  one  or  two  ciiildren,  let  them  do  so.  Uni- 
versal sources  of  happiness  should  never  be  rejected  when  tliey 
can  be  retained." 

Mr.  Loudon  seems  to  us  to  have  here  huddled  together  all 
the  most  loathsome  language  of  the  anti-propagationisti — and. 


LOUDON  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  GARDENERS. 


99 


therefore,  he  must  strip  aad  submit  his  back  to  the  knout. 
He  speaks  like  a  vulgar  fellow,  when  he  speaks  "  of  a  youn^ 
couple  eager  to  get  the  use  of  ea(;h  other's  persons."  Were  that 
ail  they  wore  eager  about,  they  would  not  "  wait  to  collect  some 
furniture."  But  eveu  if  it  were,  let  uot  this  elderly  man,  by  such 
coarse  and  hateful  words,  show  himself  no  better  than  a  monk. 
He  should  remember,  that  in  the  young,  even  aiiimal  passion  itself 
is  commonly  accompanied  with  feelings  and  fancies  that  are  not 
auimal — and  that  t!ie  most  ignorant,  coarse,  and  clownish  lout 
of  a  clod-hopper,  notwithstanding  all  his  grinning,  may  be  se- 
riously in  love  with  a  sweetheart  whom  it  is  hardly  possible  for 
us  to  look  at  without  laughter,  presenting,  as  she  does,  so  rare 
an  assemblage  of  all  that  is  most  ludicrous  in  nature  and  in  art. 
Yet  tUe  poor  creatures  are  Oiristiaus — they  havo  been  married 
this  very  day  in  a  church — and,  after  a  supper  provided  for  a  few 
friends,  of  beans  and  bacon,  and  a  gallon  or  two  of  cider,  they 
will  .CO  to  bed— now  husband  and  wife — and  rising  thankfully, 
long  before  Mr,  Loudon,  go  together  to  their  work.  They  con- 
trive to  continue  in  the  same  cottage,  and  have  childi-en,  some  of 
whom  die,  and  are  biiried  with  some  expense  and  some  grief — 
others  live,  sometimes  behaving  well,  and  sometimes  very  ill 
indeed — and  there  is  scolding,  squalling,  culhng,  kicking,  and 
frequent  pulling  of  ears.  Yet,  on  the  \\hole,  the  family  are 
hnppy — as  happiness  goes  in  this  \Mjrld.  And  'tis  amusing 
to  see  how  the  parenlis  have  transmitted  both  their  faces  to 
their  eldest  daughter  Dorothy,  who  is,  notwithstanding,  not 
oaly  a  good  creature,  but  a  Blue.  Yes,  she  is  the  village  poetess 
— and  here  is  a  little  poem  of  hers  on  the  Battle  of  Agincourt, 
which  she  hitely  sent  in  a  modest  letter  to  IMaga. 

How  sublime  are  Honour's  deeds. 

Displaying  rectitude  ; 

In  point  of  Glory  there  it  lies, 

Prince  Henry's  Magnitude. 
Is  not  our  slight  sketch  more  true  to  nature  than  Mr.  Loudon's 
finished  picture  ?  "Housekeeping  and  propagation  are  com- 
menced" are  ugly  words,  because  spat  in  an  ugly  spirit;  and 
the  whole  world,  we  feel  assured,  will  be  against  Mr.  Loudon 
in  the  preference  he  gives  to  the  making  of  the  heads  of  pins, 
through  the  long  space  of  twenty -five  revolving  years,  and  with 
us  in  the  preference  we  give,  through  the  same  protracted  pe- 
riod, to  the  making  of  the  heads  and  tails  of  children.  From 
his  pitiful  prating  about  pins,  it  would  appear  that  he  thinks  the 
proper  age  for  a  man  marrying  is  about  forty-five.  But  what 
young  woman  would  marry  such  a  foggy,  if  she  could  have  a 
spruce  lad  of  two  or  three-and-twenty  ?  Observe,  that  a  man 
of  five -and -forty,  who  has  been  married  twenty  years  and  up- 
wards, and  can  shew  a  comely  wife,  and  a  fine  grown-up,  or 
growing-up  family  of  sons  and  daughters,  is  viitually  a  young 
man^  and  in  the  prime  of  life  ;  but  a  barren  bachelor  of  the 
same  age  has  almost  always  such  a  suspicious  look  of  longevity 
about  him,  that  he  is  often  accused,  we  confess  unjustly,  of 
being  a  Nestor  aping  a  Neoptolemus.  Mr.  Loudon  is  as  ob- 
scure an  oracle  on  the  proper  age  of  our  friend's  wife.  ' '  If  tlie 
parties  further  think  that  they  can  attain  their  object  of  indepeud- 
ence — and  rear  one  or  (wo  children — let  tfietn  do  so.^^  A'ery 
laconic.  They  are  to  rear  only  one  or  two  children — pray,  arc 
they  not  to  beget  any  more  ?  And  if  the  answer  be, — "  No — 
not  any  more," — will  Mr.  Loudon  have  the  goodness  to  point 
out — not  for  our  sakes,  we  have  no  personal  interest  in  the 
matter — but  for  our  mari'ied  brethren  of  niankind — how  they 
are  to  prevent  it?  Better  far,  to  our  mind,  a  life  of  hard  la- 
bour, scanty  food,  and  their  attendants,  bad  temper,  and  often 
disease,  after  twenty-five  years  of  bustle  and  distraction,  nine 
or  ten  children,  growing  up  in  rags  and  ignorance,  and  the 
hardest  struggles  to  create  nine  times  as  much  misery  as 
that  by.  which  the  multiplying  pair  have  been  oppressed — better 
far,  we  say,  the  sum-total  of  tlie  misery,  with  all  its  formidable 
items  set  down  by  the  stet;l  pen  of  a  Loudon,  than  the  incon- 
ceivable and  unnatural  suffering  of  that  pair  sternly  resolved, 
at  bidding   of  a   Loudon's   "  let   them   do   so,"  to  confine  the 


amount  of  their  offspring  within  the  dual  number — conjugating 
and  declining,  after  a  dismalfashion,  the  verb  and  the  noun  love; 
so  as  to  draw  tears  down  Pluto'siron  cheeks,  and  awakenuniversal 
sympathy  for  the  infatuated  sinners,  even  among  the  damned. 

"  The  use  of  a  wife  to  a  gardener,  and  to  every  man  who  is 
not  iudependent,"  ought  to  be,  quoth  this  liberal-minded  man, 
"  to  prepare  his  food,  and  keep  in  order  his  lodging  and 
clothes."  Let  him  go  into  the  poorest  hut  and  tell  the  gude 
wife  so,  and  she  will  bundle  him  out,  not  A^dthout  a  crack  on 
the  sconce  from  the  mop-staft',  while  she  will  continue  twirling 
the  muff  thereof  with  great  animation,  as  she  washes  the 
threshold  from  the  dust  off  his  shoes ;  and  then  with  loud 
laughter,  pursuing  his  flight,  she  flings  herself  back,  on  the 
gude  man's  elbow-chair,  and  eries  to  herself — "  What  a  coof  V 

The  education  of  a  gardener,  or  any  other  man,  cannot  be 
complete,  we  should  think,  wilhout  religion  ;  and  so  thinks 
Mr.  Loudon.  We  have  seen  that  he  counsels  gardeners  to 
bring  up  their  weekly  studies,  during  all  the  twelve  hours  of  the 
Sabbath  day.  Are  they  never  to  go  to  church  ?  That  is  as  it 
may  happen — "  as  their  religion  may  permit."  The  sage 
defines  religion — '*  our  opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  things  "—  it 
being,  he  says,  the  same  as  devotion,  devoted  to,  and  in  Latin 
religio.  In  certain  periods  of  the  progress  of  society,  he  tells  ns, 
morality  and  religion  are  treated  as  depending  on  each  other — 
"the  latter  is  considered  as  the  principal  foundation  of  the  former, 
and  man  is  taught  to  be  sober  and  honest,  not  only  to  escaj  e 
the  punishment  awai-ded  by  the  laws  of  his  country,  but  to  avoid 
still  greater  punishment  in  future.  Fear  is  the  motive  to  obe- 
dience in  both  eases,  and  while  some  defend  the  principle  of 
employing  the  fear  of  hell  along  with  that  of  the  law,  others 
argue  that  the  principle  ofutUity  is  alone  a  sufficient  foundation 
for  morals.  Self-interest,  and  the  dread  of  losing  reputation, 
they  say,  is  a  foundation  more  to  be  depended  on  than  a  joint 
fear  of  the  law  and  of  hell,  because  if  thu  party  changes  his 
religion,  the  fear  of  hell  or  future  punishment  may  be  got  rid 
of,  and  what  remains  of  earthly  fear  may  not  be  sufficient  in  the 
first  instance  to  restrain  from  excess." 

Our  modern  Socrates,  *'  without  defending  either  opinion," 
begs  leave  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  both.  To  rude  and  gro?s 
minds,  he  thinks  '*  that  the  fear  of  being  hanged  and  eternally 
burned  is  more  suitable  than  the  more  simple  and  refined 
motives  of  personal  advantage  and  reputation."  It  seems  to  us, 
that  to  be  hanged  and  eternally  burnt,  must  be  a  great  personal 
disadvantage  to  "  any  gardener,  or  any  other  man  ;"  that  self- 
interest  is  not  lost  sight  of  in  seeking  to  avoid  them  ;  and  that 
men  may  desire  to  have  a  fair  reputation  who  believe  in  futiirc 
punishments. 

Our  sage  thinks,  that  as  society  improves,  "  man  begins  to 
have  less  extravagant  notions  of  his  own  importance  ;  and  from 
ranking  himself  among  the  immortal  gods,  at  last  finds  himself 
but  an  animal  among  other  animals,  and  a  mere  man.  His 
extravagant  hopes  now  vanish,  and  with  these  his  superstitious 
fears.  He  finds  nothing  left  but  to  make  the  most  of  life,  by 
the  exercise  of  his  faculties  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  up  a  lively 
consciousness  of  existence,  and  a  feeling  of  enjoyment  or  hap- 
piness." This  happens,  he  says,  as  *'  society  improves  ;"  and 
we  take  the  liberty  of  telling  him — that  he  lies. 

The  truth  is,  that  this  man  is  a  WTctched  ignoramus  on  all 
subjects  on  which  it  behoveth  a  man  humbly  to  seek  light  ;  and 
we  have  been  graciously  told,  that  whosoever  secketh  in  aright 
spirit  shall  find  it.  That  he  is  a  wretched  ignoramus,  we  sha'l 
shew  out  of  his  owtt  mouth.  "  There  are  a  great  many  diffe- 
rent species  (of  religion)  in  the  world,  and  those  of  the  more 
civilized  nations,  as  the  European,  Indian,  Chinese,  like  plants 
which  have  been  long  in  cultivation,  are  branched  out  into 
numerous  varieties." 

That  is,  apiece  of  pompous  pedantry,  but  let  it  pass.  He 
continues  thus  : — *'  It  may  well  be  asked,  wdiieh  is  the  true  reli- 
gion, or  that  which  a  man  had  best  adopt  ?"  A^Tiy,  does  not 
the  blockhead  know  that  the  Christian  religion  is  the  true 
religion,    and  that  which  a  man  had  best  adopt  ?      He  does  not 


I'OO 


NOTES    ON    I'ALLOWING. 


know  it,  and  therefore  we  call  him  agaiu  a  wretched  i^o- 
ramus.  Will  the  gardeners  of  Britain  degrade  themselves  so 
far  as  to  borrow  a  book  blundered  out  of  the  blockhead  of  such 
a  fool  as  he  wlio  spawned  the  following  filth  ? — "Trathis  either 
absolute  or  relative.  Absolute  truth  is  that  which  is  true  in 
the  nature  of  things,  or  capable  of  demonstration  ;  thus,  in 
arithmetic,  three  and  two  are  equal  to  five  in  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  have  been  so,  and  will  be  so  for  ever.  Relative 
truth  is  that  which  is  believed  to  be  true  by  any  particuUir  per- 
son, or  among  any  particular  people.  Thus,  if  a  man  believe 
that  Rome  is  paved  with  cinders,  to  him  it  is  tnie  ;  and  if  a 
whole  people  believe,  with  Pythagoras,  that  the  earth  is  an 
immense  plain,  to  them  that  system  is  as  true  as  the  Copernican 
system  is  to  us.  The  same  thing  holds  as  to  religion,  and  each 
species  or  variety  is  true  to  those  who  believe  in  it.  What 
may  be  absolutely  true  in  this  sentiment,  can  only  be  ascer- 
tained by  finding  out  what  is  common  to  all  religions.  It  would 
appear  that  all  of  them,  of  which  any  distinct  accounts  are 
obtained,  profess  two  things  ;  first,  to  give  an  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  world  and  of  man,  their  history  and  destinies  ;  and, 
secondly,  to  prescribe  some  form  of  devotion.  The  intention  of 
the  first  is  to  satisfy  curiosity,  and  of  the  second  to  procure  the 
favour  of  the  Author  of  nature.  As  no  two  religions  agree  in 
their  historical  accounts,  and^as  no  greater  blessings  are  observ- 
ed to  follow  the  devotions  of  one  people  more  than  those  of 
another,  all  that  can  be  said  to  be  universally  true  in  religion 
is,  that  it  exists,  and  that  it  attempts  to  explain  the  nature  of 
things,  and  prescribe  homage  to  the  Author  of  nature.  In  short, 
that  it  is  a  sort  of  speculation  on  the  nature  of  things, — philo- 
sophy in  a  certain  stage  of  its  progress.  According  to  this 
theory,  there  can  be  no  person  without  religion  ; — that  is,  there 
can  he  no  person  without  ideas  as  to  the  nature  of  things  ;  and 
whatever  any  person  may  think  or  determine  in  his  own  mind 
on  these  subjects,  these  thoughts,  and  the  actions  which  flow 
from  them,  constitute  his  religion ;  thus,  what  arc  called  Deists, 
Atlieists,  Sceptics,  &c.,  can  no  more  be  said  to  be  without  reli- 
gion, than  Christians,  Mahommedans,  or Cliinese.  It  is  true, 
they  are  not  of  any  particular  religion  at  present  avowed  by 
whole  nations,  but  they,  have  just  as  much  religion  as  whole 
nations  have  ;  that  is,  they  have  certain  ideas  on  the  subject, 
and  they  act  in  consequence  of  these  ideas."  So  Mr.  Loudon 
tells  the  gardeners  of  Great  Britain,  that  it  is  all  one  whether 
they  be  atheists  or  Christians.  For  saying  so  we  shall  not  call 
him  fool,  for  we  are  told  not  to  g-ive  that  name  to  a  brother. 
Yet  we  are  likewise  told,  that  "  the  fool  saith  in  his  heart,  thei-e 
is  no  God."  He  so  saith  in  his  heart,  because  his  heart  is  des- 
perately wicked,  and  hard  as  a  stone.  But  affliction  comes  like 
a  great  frost,  and  slits  the  stone  into  pieces,  and  then  the  wretch 
knows  that  there  is  a  God,  and  a  judgment. 

Mr.  Loudon   is,  like   ourselves,  an  editor.      He   has  then  a 


catapulta  and  a  battering-ram  to  bring  against  us  ;  and,  if  our 
wall  be  weak,  he  may  hope  to  breach  it,  to  rush  in  and  storm 
our  citadel,  and  put  our  garrison  to  the  sword.  But  we  pro- 
mise, if  he  be  rash  enough  to  face  such  an  encounter,  to  meet 
him,  not  in  the  breach,  but  outside  the  ramparts,  and  within 
his  own  lines,  at  the  head  of  a  victorious  sally,  and  in  our  hand 
the  Crutch.  In  hoc  siyno  vincimus — and  our  very  name  has  long 
been  atowerof  strength,  andasword  of  fire — Christopher  North. 

Gardeners  of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  1  for  we  love  the 
Emerald  of  the  Sea — ye  will  range  yourselves,  we  know,  under 
our  banner.  How  often  have  our  hearts  been  gladdened  by  the 
sight  of  that  Annual  Show,  moving  to  music  through  the  streets 
and  squares  of  high  Dunedin,  a  waving  wood  of  beautiful  green 
branches,  fruit  laden,  and  bright,  too,  with  flowers,  while  under- 
neath, with  measured  tread,  whose  firm  sound  brings  from  the 
dust  the  pleasant  sound  of  peace,  marches  a  long  line  of 
thoughtful,  biit  cheerful  faces,  of  figures,  such  as,  if  need  were, 
would  drive,  with  levelled  bayonets,  all  invaders  into  the  sea. 
Sons  of  Adam,  and  followers  of  his  trade  I  we  greet  you  well — 
one  and  all  of  you — at  this  hour  pursuing  your  work,  which  is 
your  pastime,  on  the  bosom  of  the  various  spring.  We  are 
with  you  on  Mayday.  Saunders,  give  us  a  spade. 
"  When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Who  was  then  the  gentleman  ?" 
Why,  Adam,  to  be  sure,  and  Eve  was  the  lady — and  so  is  every 
Adam  still — and  so  is  every  Eve — who  delving,  remembers  that 
he  too  is  but  a  worm  ;  who  spinning,  thinks  sometimes  of  her 
own  frail  thread  of  life  ! 

O,  gardeners  of  Mid-Lothian  !  we  saw  you — through  a  win- 
dow— we  say  not  in  what  street — with  our  own  old  eyes, 
walking  in  that  multitudinous  procession  on  the  day  celebrative 

of Reform.     What  Pan,  and  Sylvanus,  and  Vcrtumnus, 

and  Pomona,  and  Flora,  thought  and  felt,  we  know  not;  per- 
haps even  as  Christopher  North.  May  no  frost  kill  the  blos- 
soms of  your  hopes !  May  the  tree  then  planted  be  the  best  of 
bearers,  and  a  very  golden  pippin  in  the  flavour  of  its  fruit  ! 

As  for  you,  ye  Plumbers,  "  with  leaden  eyes  that  love  the 
ground  !"  we  noticed  your  banner,  emblazoned  with  "  Christo- 
pher under  the  Pump."  It  was  a  poor  caricature — and  the  in- 
scription stolen  from  Maga.  It  had  been  well  if  all  the  mem- 
bers of  your  managing  committee  had  confined  themselves  to 
such  petty  theft.  But,  on  the  very  day  before  the  procession, 
that  very  standai-d-bearer,  availing  himself  of  his  office  of 
Inspector  of  the  Gutters,  in  which  we  had  employed  and  paid 
him  for  a  good  many  years,  cut  off  some  hundred  pound  weight 
of  lead,  and  rolled  it  up  like  a  few  yards  of  carpeting,  over  his 
unseen  shoulder  with  it,  down  stairs,  out  of  the  area-door,  and, 
having  deposited  it  in  a  place  of  safety,  away  to  speak  on 
Reform — the  orator  being  at  the  same  time  a  Thief  and  a 
Robber. 


NOTES    ON    FALLOWING. 


1st.  Nature  does  not  require  any  pause  or  rest, 
and  the  eartli  was  evidentlj'  dtsigned  to  j-ield  a  re- 
gular uninterrupted  produce. 

2ndly.  As  the  productive  quality  of  the  earth 
never  ceases,  if  corn  is  not  sown,  weed  will  be  pro- 
duced ;  therefore,  it  is  our  business  to  expel  the  un- 
productive plant,  and  to  introduce  others  that  are 
beneficial. 

3rdly.  That  the  idea  of  leaving  land  at  rest,  is 
ridiculous  ;  for,  by  keeping  it  clean,  and  by  a  judici- 
ous intermixture  of  crops,  it  may  be  managed  like  a 
garden,  and  sown  from  one  generation  to  another. 

_4thly.  That  the  fallows  in  England,  exhibits  no, 
thing  but   a    conflict   betwixt    the   farmer   and    his 


weeds,  in  which  the  latter  prevail ;  for  at  best,  they 
are  only  half-stifled,  and  never  elFectuaJly  killed. 

It  is  acknowledged,  that  it  is  only  upon  wet  soils, 
or,  in  other  words,  on  land  unfit  for  the  turnip  hus- 
bandry, that  a  plain  summer  fallow  is  necessary,  and 
this,  we  suppose,  includes  three-fourths  of  the  Island. 
To  speak  of  following  nature  in  farming  is  ridicu- 
lous ;  for,  if  we  were  to  imitate  nature,  we  would 
not  cultivate  land  at  all. 

Clay-soils,  and  every  soil  incumbent  upon  a  wet 
bottom,  cannot  be  kept  clean  without  the  assistance 
of  this  radical  and  ancient  practice. 

The  process  of  drilling  cannot  be  executed  upon 
clay-soils,  with  the  slightest  prospect  of  ad^-antage. 


101 


Bayswater  libel  on  the  works  of  creation. 


In  that  miraculous  work,  the  Encyclopaedia  of 
Plants,  which  was  got  up  at  the  Bayswater  Book 
Manufactory,  as  a  p.irtial  specimen  of  the  universal 
language  of  hieroglyphics,  wliich  the  conductor 
sanguinely  prophesies  will  supersede  all  others 
throughout  the  world,  when  Egyptian  darkness,  as 
he  hopes  and  trusts  is  to  extinguish  civilization :  -we 
find  the  following  notable  attack  on  a  group  of  plants, 
though  not  created  plants  we  presume,  but  only  the 
caput  -rAortuum  of  the  blind  chemistry  by  which  all 
animals  and  plants  are  alleged  in  such  writings  to 
have  been  produced.  The  plants  of  the  genus 
Valaniia  are  certainly  not  so  showy  nor  so  useful  to 
man  as  many  others  :  but  do  they  merit  to  be  libel- 
led in  the  following  terms  ? 

"  Miserable  weeds,  of  no  beauty,  or  [nor]  use  ; 
called  by  their  present  name  by  Linneeus,  in  refer- 
ence to  Sebastian  Vaillant,  a  learned  and  excellent 
French  botanist,  who  died  in  1722.  The  author  of 
the  name  would  have  employed  his  time  better  in 
considering  the  botanical  writings  of  Vaillant,  than 
in  identifying  with  the  most  worthless  part  of  vege- 
tation an  author's  merits  he  was  not  able  to  under- 


stind.  No  man  was  more  given  to  sneers  of  this 
kind  than  Linnseus:  and  yet  his  followers  manifest 
a  most  extraordinary  degree  of  sensitiveness  when- 
ever he  is  retorted  upon  in  a  similar  way,  although 
few  ever  deserved  criticism  in  some  things  inahigher 
degree  than  himself." — P.  862. 

That  this  balderdash  is  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Pro- 
fessor Liudley,  who  is  employed  in  Loudon's  Book 
manufactory,  as  an  occasional  jobbing  hand, — we 
infer  first,  from  the  declaration  in  the  preface,  that 
this  Lindley  "  either  wrote  or  examined  the  notes,'* 
and  secondly,  from  similar  contemptible  language, 
being  used  for  other  plants  in  a  portion  of  the  same 
work,  expressly  said  to  have  been  written  by  this 
Lindley  at  page  1083,  where  we  have  the  Urlicece 
characterised  as  "  worthless  weeds  and  shabby  lialf 
herbaceous    shrubs." 

What  daring  presumption !  what  libelling  blas- 
phemy !  to  say  that  any  portion  of  the  glorious  gar- 
niture with  which  the  Creater  has  vested  the  green 
earth,  is  worthless  and  shabby  !  "  Vain  man," 
says  Solomon,  "  would  be  wise,  though  he  were  born 
like  a  wild  ass's  colt." 


ON  vegetable  absorption  of  ALIMENT. 

BY    PROFESSOR    TIEDEMANN,    OS    HEIDELBERG. 


I 


All  plants  take  their  nourishment  by  absorption. 
The  liquid  alimentary  matters  are  equally  absorbed 
by  the  organs  placed  at  the  exterior  of  the  body 
among  the  embryos  of  animals  still  enclosed  in  the 
egg ;  but  after  they  have  broken  the  envelope  of 
the  egg,  the  animals  receive  their  aliment  by  a  par- 
ticular opening,  the  moutli,  of  which  vegetables  are 
'ieprived,  and  they  pass  through  a  canil  equally 
particular,  in  form  of  a  sac, — the  intestinal  canal, — 
where  the  liquid  parts  are  already  absorbed  by 
themselves,  or  become  such  by  the  addition  of 
moisture  coming  from  the  same  body.  AVe  intend 
to  treat  here  of  absorption  in  jjlants  only. 

The  organs  by  means  of  which  vegetables  plunged 
and  implanted  in  the  aliments  themselves,  absorbs 
those  matters  which  serve  for  their  nourishment  are 
well  known.  The  roots  of  cellular  plants,  of  many 
mosses,  of  some  lichens  and  mushrooms,  are  filiform, 
prolongations  or  capillary,  at  times  branchy,  which, 
the  same  as  the  entire  plant,  are  composed  of  a  cel- 
lular, tissue  containing  often  cavities  in  form  of  a 
sac,  in  which  the  absorbed  liquid  mounts.  In  the 
roots  of  vascular  plants,  particularly  dicotyledonous 
plants,  we  can  distinguish  a  body,  with  its  ramifi- 
cations and  appendages.  Among  the  grasses,  we 
perceive  a  knot  where  the  radical  fibres  meet.    The 


body  of  the  root  is  composed  of  wood  and  bark. 
The  first,  which,  among  certain  plants,  mcloses  the 
pith,  results  from  an  assemblage  of  cellular  tissue 
and  of  vessels.  Some  anatomists,  Duhamel  (Pliy- 
siqne  des  Anbres),  Camparetti,  Bell  (Mem.  of  the 
Manchester  Society,  Tab.  11.  p  403),  Link,  and 
others  say,  that  they  have  seen  in  the  woody  part, 
real  spiral  vessels,  of  which  the  existence  is  denied 
by  others.  The  bark  contains  much  of  cellular 
tissue,  as  that  of  the  nutrient  vessels  necessary  to 
the  growth  of  the  roots.  Those  which  are  deprived 
of  the  outer  bark  {epidermis),  properly  so  called, 
are  as  much  in  the  Monocotyledons  as  in  the  Ut- 
coliiledons,  after  the  researches  of  Kieser  and  of 
L  C  Treviranus  (Ueber  die  Oberhaut  der  Ge- 
waechse:  Vernmchte  Schriften).  The  radical 
fibres  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  cylindrical  form, 
having  their  ramifications  more  dehcately  turmshei 
with  appendages  capiUary,  or  spongy,  and  which 
Treviranus  has  found  only  composed  of  cellular 
tissue  Following  the  experimental  facts  of  bene- 
bier,  Caradoni,  and  DccandoUe  {Mem.  sur  le  Deve- 
hmpement  des  Bacines;  dans  Annal.  de  Sc.  Nat. 
de  Geneve  1826,  jp.  1.)  It  is  principally  the  extre- 
mities of  these  appendages  which  accomplish  the 
act  of  absorption.     We  still  cannot  find  orifices  or 


102 


ex    VEGKTABLE    ABSORPTION    OP    ALIMENT. 


pores  by  which  the  liquid  nourishment  penetrates. 
If  they  do  exist,  they  of  necessity  are  infinitely  small, 
since  from  the  experiments  of  Sprengel  and  of  Link 
{Grundlehren,  &;c.,j).  72),  the  radical  fibres  suck 
ujj  colouring  matters  minutely  divided  and  dissolved 
in  water  without  touching  the  cells  of  larger  mole- 
cules. The  latter  are  only  absorbed  when  the  roots 
are  injured. 

It  results  from  the  experiments  of  Labaisse, 
(Diss,  sur  la  Circulation  de  la  Seve  dans  les 
Plantes,p.  33),  Hales,  Senebier,  and  others,  that 
absorption  by  the  roots  takes  place  in  a  manner 
veiy  active,  especially  in  the  spring.  Some  phy- 
siologists have  attributed  to  these  organs  the  faculty 
of  making  a  choice  in  those  liquid  substances  with 
which  they  come  in  contact,  and  to  refuse  those 
which  were  not  most  necessirv'  for  their  nutrition. 
This  is  an  error,  which  numerous  recent  experi- 
ments have  sufficiently  refuted.  Th.  de  Saussure 
has  found  that  plants  absorb  common  salt,  nitrate  of 
lime,  the  sulphate  of  potass,  sal  ammoniac,  sulphate 
ijf  copper,  sugar,  gum  arable,  and  the  like.  G.  J. 
.Tseger  (^Diss.  de  Effectis  Arsenici  in  varios  Orga- 
nismos,  Tubinuue.  1808.)  has  verified  the  delete- 
rious action  ot  arsenic  upon  plants  of  which  the 
roots  plunged  in  water  containing  only  a  small 
quantity  of  this  substance  ;  these  -withered  and  pe- 
rished. C.  J.  F.  Becker,  Schreibers,  and  Goeppert 
have  seen  that  hydrocyanic  acid  produced  a  similai 
eiFect.  We  are  indebted  to  M.  Marcet,  junior,  for 
numerous  and  interesting  experiments,  and  of  which 
the  result  wis,  that  plants  having  different  mineral 
substances  dissolved  in  water,  as  the  arsenical  acid, 
corrossive  sublimate,  salts  of  copper  and  of  lead, 
also  that  of  the  extracts  of  opium,  belladonna,  nux 
vomica  and  of  hemlock,  hydrocyanic  acid,  alcohol, 
and  the  like,  and  that  this  absorption  exercised  a 
deleterious  influence  upon  them.  Similar  experi- 
ments have  been  made  t  y  Macaire  Prinsep,  also  bv 
Schuebler  and  Zeller,  with  the  same  results. 

This  absorbing  faculty  belongs  also  to  the  leaves. 
That  which  proves  that  plants  absorb  liquids  by 
means  of  their  leaves,  of  advantage  to  their  nutri- 
tion, is  the  benign  action  which  is  exercised  upon 
the  rose  by  the  rain  and  the  sprinkling  of  the  leaves 
with  water,  circumstances  which  all  favour  their 
growth.  Many  vegetables,  of  which  the  roots  are 
reduced  almost  to  nothing,  but  of  which  the  leaves 
are  thick  and  succulent,  for  example  the  Cactus, 
])reserves  itself  principally  by  absorption,  which  ac- 
ciimplishes  tliese,  and  which  preserves  itself  even 
■fresh,  after  having  been  for  some  time  detached 
trcm  the  plant.  Many  cellular  plants,  sea-weeds, 
ConfervcE,  mushrooms,  lichens,  and  mosses  espe- 
cially, absorb  abundantly  liquids  by  their  entire  sur- 
face, and  seme  even,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  li- 
chens, which  may  be  properly  said  to  be  destitute 
of  roots,  appear  to  nourish  themselves  by  absorp- 
tion performed  at  the  surface.     Hales  proved  by 


experiments,  that  vegetables  increase  in  weight  in 
a  moist  atmosphere.  Mariotte  Duhamel,  Merret, 
and  especially  Bonnet,  have  equally  put  out  of 
doubt  the  absorption  exercised  by  the  leaves.  The 
latter  has  remarked  that  leaves  draw  from  water 
not  only  that  which  preserves  themselves,  but  also 
tends  to  keep  alive  the  branches  and  branchlets 
I  which  support  them.  Absorption  of  liquids  ap- 
pears to  take  place  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaves  in 
herbs,  and  chiefly  by  the  lower  surface  in  trees  and 
shrubs.  It  is  probably  their  Icngish  pores  which 
carrA'  on  absorption,  as  is  admitted  by  Humboldt, 
Kroker,  Sprengel  (^Biolugie,  Tab.  IV,  p.  38), 
Schrank,  G.  R.  Treviranus,  and  L.  C.  Treviranus. 
Among  cellular  plants,  however,  which  have  not 
any  pores,  it  takes  place  without  this. 

A  problem  is  here  presented  to  be  resolved, 
namely,  if  the  introduction  of  liquid  alimentary 
matter  into  the  interior  of  plants  is  a  pure  result  of 
capillary  action  of  a  porous  body,  such  ;;s  occurs 
when  a  glass  tube  of  veiy  narrow  calibre  draws  up 
the  liquid  in  which  it  is  plunged ;  or  if  absorption 
be  rather  a  peculiar  vital  phenomenon.  Many  phy- 
siologists, Malpighi,  Grew,  Bonelli,  Delahire,  Brad- 
ley, and  others,  have  admitted  the  first  hj-pothesis, 
and  considered  the  rootlets  as  so  many  capillary 
tubes,  whose  office  it  is  to  pump  up,  and  cause  to 
ascend  the  nourishing  liquids.  It  is  possible,  that 
this  force  in  part,  contributes  to  the  production  of  the 
phenomena  ;  but  it  cannot  be  the  sole  cause,  as  the 
following  considerations  clearly  prove.  Absorption 
of  nourishing  liquid  varies  according  to  the  state  of 
plants,  the  periods  of  their  development,  and  of  their 
growth,  and  the  epochs  of  the  year  during  the  period 
of  the  formation  and  the  growth  of  leaves,  absorption 
and  progression  of  the  sap  goes  on  the  more  rapidly  as 
the  leafiag  is  more  rapid.  Also  at  the  time  of  flowering 
and  formation  of  the  fruits  and  grains,  the  jilants  are 
more  nourished  from  the  soU.  We  likewise  know 
that  absci-ption  and  the  progression  of  absorb  liquid 
depends  upon  the  influence  exercised  on  plants  by 
heat  and  light ;  that  absorption  indeed  is  more  active 
in  the  spring  than  at  any  other  period,  that  it 
diminishes  in  autumn,  and  is  reduced  almost  to 
nothing,  if  it  do  not  altogether  cease  in  winter.  All 
these  phenomena  cannot  be  considered  as  the  pure 
effects  of  capillary  action,  this  cannot  be  rr.odified  by 
the  seasons,  nor  bv  the  influence  of  heat.  In  fine, 
there  is  still  this  difference  between  capillury  absorp- 
tion and  that  of  plants,  which  is  that,  a  capillary 
tube  does  not  reject  by  its  upper  orifice  the  liquids 
which  it  pumps,  while  the  liquid,  absorbed  by  vege- 
tables, flows  through  the  vessels,  as  we  make  an 
incision  into  them.  These  are  sufficient  motives  to 
oblige  us  to  follow  the  opinion  of  Senebrier,  Saussure, 
Desfontaines,  DecandoUe,  and  others,  who  regard 
the  absorption  of  vegetables  as  an  organic  or  vital 
phenomena. 


103 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


GONOLOBUS  DIADEMATUS. 

Qorgeited  Gonoluhus. 

Peatandiia  Digynia.     Lix. 

Gonolobus.  Massje  Pollinis  Isves,  10,  ti-aasversse.  Cor.  sub- 
rota.      Sem.  comosa.     Brown  in  Hort.  Kew.  ed.  2.  2.  82. 

Suffnitices  vohibilcs.  Fol.  opposita,  latiuscula.  UmbellEe  in- 
terpetiolares.     Americse  prtesertim  inter  tropicos  indigenfe. 

An  unrecorded  species,  which  we  have  ranked  in  the 
present  genus,  chiefly  from  habit  or  general  like- 
ness ;  for  it  has  not  precisely  the  transverse  anthers, 
which  constitute  a  prominent  feature  of  Gonolohus, 
as  now  defined.  Mr.  Brown,  who  has  so  advan- 
tageously remodelled  the  natural  order  to  which 
this  genus  belongs,  seems  inclined  to  think  that  the 
character  should  be  extended  to  admit  the  present 
species,  along  with  some  others  which  he  has  not 
had  an  opportunity  of  finally  determining,  rather 
than  that  a  separate  generic  group  should  be 
founded  on  them.  Besides  the  expressed  difference, 
however,  the  anthers  vary  in  form  from  those  of  all 
the  described  species  of  Gonolobus,  and  the  stami- 
neous  crown,  instead  of  gi'owing  distinctly  upon  the 
filaments,  is  grown  to  the  bottom  of  the  faux,  while 
its  connection  with  the  filaments  can  only  be  traced 
by  attentive  dissection. 

A  twining  shrub,  15  feet  high  or  higher:  stem 
corky  and  furrowed  at  the  lower  part ;  hrunclies 
round,  with  a  tawny  fur  ;  hairs  articulated.  Leaves 
distant,  membranous,  roughishly  furred,  elliptically 
oblong,  lanceolately  acuminate,  contractedly  cordate 
at  the  base,  the  lobes  meeting  together,  from  two  to 
three  inches  long,  and  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to 
two  inches  broad,  nettedly  veined  underneath:  pe- 
tioles thickish,  bent  two  or  three  times  shorter  than 
the  blade;  intci-petiolar  fringe  but  slightly  distin- 
guished from  the  general  pubescence.  Umbels  in  our 
specimen  3-5-tlowered,  capitately  contracted,  with 
an  involucre  or  ruffle  of  lanceolate  leaflets :  common 
peduncle  thick,  shorter  than  the  petioles,  pedicles 
about  the  length  of  the  calyx,  separated  by  narrow 
bractes.  Flmcers  greenish  yellow,  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Calyx  equal  to  the  faux,  campanulate, 
villous,  of  live  ovately  lanceolate  leaflets.  Corolla 
coriaceous,  urceo,  lately  rotate  with  darker  veins, 
smooth,  opaqiie  on  the  inside,  shining  without ;  limb 
flatly  extended,  five-parted  to  below  the  middle,  seg- 
ments rounded :  faux  short,  urceolately  tubular : 
stamineous  crown  light  purple,  gj-own  to  the  bottom 
of  the  faux,  of  five  squarish  scutiform  contiguous 
laminsR  which  ascend  without  adhesion  along  the 
wall  of  the  faux  to  a  Httls  above  its  orifice,  and  are 
repand  at  the  upper  margin,  with  a  very  faint  triple 
indentation.  Stamineovs  column  equ;nl  to  the  crown. 
Slirjma  depressed,  whitish. 


CROTALARIA  RETUSA. 

Weilcjcd-haved  East  India  Crotalaria. 
Diadelphia  Decandria.     Linn. 
Leguminosce.     JussiEU. 
Crotalaria.     Supra  toI.  2,  fol.  128. 

C.  retusa,  foliis  simplicibus  oblongis  cuneiformibus  retusis, 
racemo  terminali.     Willd.  sp.  pi.  3.  976. 

Crotalaria  retusa.    Linn.  sp.  pi.  2.  1004.      Mill.  diet.  ed.  8.  a. 

7.     Vahl  symb.   1.  53.      Hort.  Kew.  3.   IS.    ed.   2.  4.  272. 

Gaertn.  sem.  2.  316.  t.  148.   fig.  2. 
Tandale-cotti.     Rheede  mal.  9.  45.  t.  25. 

An  annual  species,  native  of  the  East  Indies.  Cul- 
tivated at  Chelsea  by  Miller,  in  1731;  the  seeds 
were  sent  him  from  Holland  by  Boerhaave. 

DIGITALIS  LUTEA. 

Small  yelloio  Fox-glove. 

Didynamia  Angiospermia.     Linn. 

ScrophularifT,    JussiEU, 

D.  lutea.  foliolis  calycinis  lanceolatis,  coroUis  acutiusculis  labio 
superiore  bifido ;  infcriore  intus  barbato,  foliis  glabris. 
Brown  in  Hort.  Kew.  ed.  2.  4.  29. 

Digitalis  lutea.   Linn.  sp.  pi.  2.  867.      Mill.  diet.  ed.  8.  n.  3. 

Hort.    Kew.   2.    345.     Jacq.   bort.   vindob.   2.    47.  t.    105. 

Willd.  sp.  pi.  3.  285.      Baumgartcn  en.  stirp.  transylv.   2. 

212. 
Digitalis  parvifiora.     Allion.  pedem.   I.  70.  n.  257.      Lamarck 

and  Decand.  fl.  fran^.  3.  597;   (nee  aliorum.) 
Digitalis  foliis  calycinis  lanceolatis,  galea  bifida,  floribus  imma- 

culatis.   Hall.  helv.  332. 
Digitalis  lutea,  minore  flore.      Riv.  Monop.  t.  105. 
Digitalis  lutea  parva.    Lob.  ic.  573.  f.  2. 
Digitalis  minor  lutea  sive  pallida.    Part.  par.  3S2.  7. 

A  HARDY  perennial  plant,  native  of  the  South  of 
France,  Italy,  and  Transylvania,  where  it  is  found 
on  stoney  mountainous  places,  in  the  shade.  Culti- 
vated in  this  country  by  Parkinson  before  1629.  In 
the  Flore  Francaise  above  cited,  we  find  the  name  (jf 
lutea,  by  which  the  species  has  been  generally  known 
from  the  time  of  Linnteus  till  now,  not  only  changed 
to  one  which  is  less  pertinent,  but  to  one  by  which 
another  species  of  the  same  genus  has  been  long 
since  universally  known. 

POLYGONUM  FRUTESCENS. 
Shrubby  Polygonum. 
OctanJria  Trigynia.     LiN.v. 
Polygoneic.     JussiEU. 

P.  frwtescens,  caule  frntieoso,  foliis  lanceolatis  titrinquc  atten- 
uatis,  ochren  lanccolata  internodiis  breviore,  petalis  binis 
e\terioribiis  niinoribus  refle.xis.     Willd.  sp.  pi.  2.  440. 

Polygonum  frutesccus.  Linn.  sp.  pi.  1.  516.  Hort.  Kew.  2. 
29.  ed.  2.  2.  416.     Ga;rtn.  sem.  2,  182.  t.  119.  f.  5. 

Polygonum  frutieosum,  floribus  pentapetalis,  octandris,  trigynif , 
2  extcrnis  petalis  reflexis,  ramis  in  extremo  inermibns. 
Grael.  sib.  3.  60.  t.  12.  fig.  2. 


104 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


Atraphaxis  inermis  foliis  planis.     Hort.  cliff.  138. 
Lapatlium   oiientale,  fiutex  humilis,  floie  pjilchro.     Tournef. 

cor.  38.     Amra.  in  comment,  petropol.  14,  400.  tab.  13. 
Lapathum  dauricum  montanum,  fruticans,  ramis,  lat^  sparsis. 

Amm.  rath.  227. 

The  present  is  a  hardy  shrub,  and  belongs  to  a 
.species  which  forms  one  of  a  section  of  the  genus 
that  comprises  the  common  Buckwheat.  It  is  a 
native  of  Siberia,  and,  if  Tournefort's  plant  is  really 
the  same,  of  the  Levant.  Introduced  by  Monsieur 
Richard,  in  1770  ;  but  is  not  often  met  with  in  our 
collections,  where  it  requires  to  be  cultivated  in  the 
same  soil  and  situation  as  Rhododendrons  and  Aza- 
leas. 


ERICA  AUSTBALIS. 

Spanish  Heath. 
Octandria.   Monogynia. 

Ericese.  Jussieu. 

This  plant  is  in  height  about  two  feet,  a  native  of 
Spain,  and  flowers  general^  in  April  and  May.  It 
will  always  prove  a  particularly  interresting  append- 
age to  the  peat  border,  and  should  never  be  dis- 
pensed with.  The  hardy  heaths  form  a  little  tribe 
of  shrubs  whose  beauties  we  cannot  class  with  the 
splendour  of  the  Kalmias,  the  Azaleas,  and  the  Rho- 
dodendrons, but  they  equally  interest  us  though 
through  a  different  medium.  They  introduce  them- 
selves to  our  feelings,  by  their  modesty  and  humilit)'; 
and  we  readUy  admit  the  propriety  of  Dr.  Watts's 
assertion — 

"  Humility  Is  a^jlant  of  lovely  growth." 

Still  the  humble  growth  of  some  of  the  tender  species 
of  Erica,  whose  flowers  are  occasionally  very  spe- 
cious, may  further  remind  us  of  him  who  is  humble 
only  to  embellish  his  grandeur. 

The  Erica  Australis  should  be  planted  in  sandy 
peat ;  or  in  a  mixture  of  peat  and  fresh  loam  ;  and  like 
most  other  of  the  hardy  heaths,  though  they  make 
root  but  slowly,  may  be  increased  by  layers. 

EPILOBIUM  DODONjEI. 

Dododavs^s  Epilobium. 

Octandria.    Monogynia.     Linn. 

Onagiarise.    Jussieu. 

Epilobium  is  compounded  of  three  Greek  words, 
EPi  LOBOU  ION,  a  violet  upon  a  pod ;  or,  more 
literally  upon-a-pod-a-violet ;  not  that  a  violet  re- 
sembles the  blossom,  but  is  intended  to  indicate  a 
beautiful  flower.  Dodonsei  from  Dodonseus,  an  emi- 
nent physician  and  botanist  of  Friesland,  who  lived 
in  the  sixteenth  century-,  and  published  several  bo- 
tanical works  in  Germany,  illustrated  by  wood  cuts 
similar  to  those  of  Gerard  and  Parkinson. 


It  is  the  prettiest  plant  that  we  know  of  the  tribe, 
and  is  never  troublesome,  by  spreading  at  the  root, 
as  are  some  species  of  Epilobium.  This  species  a 
perennial  plant,  and  is  a  native  of  Switzerland  ;  it  has 
been  noticed,  by  some  writers,  as  synonj'mous  with 
Epilobium  angustissimum.  Ours  is  a  plant  with  pro- 
cumbent stems,  and  otherwise  differing:  from  anarus- 
tissimum.  The  height  is  nine  inches,  and  it  flowers 
in  July  and  August. 

After  it  has  done  blossoming,  the  whole  of  the 
stems  may  be  cut  off,  or  they  will  continue  to  grow, 
and  thus,  soiretimes,  lessen  the  vigour  of  the  roots. 
It  is  easily  increased  by  separating  the  young  shoots 
in  the  spring,  which  will  succeed,  notwithstanding 
they  may  be^entirely  'dereMd  of  any  fibrous  append- 
age. 


LILIUM  TIGRINUM. 

Tiger-spoUed  Lily. 

Hexandria.    Monogynia.    Linn. 

Lilliagcae.  Jussieu. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  China,  and  in  height  about 
four  feet,  it  is  a  perennial,  and  flowers  in  July  and 
August,  and  was  introduced  into  this  country  in 
1804. 

We  know  of  very  few  plants  that  excited  more 
general  interest  than  did  the  Tiger  Lily  on  its  intro- 
duction into  this  country.  Every  one  admired,  and 
resolved  on  possessing,  this  Chinese  beauty ;  and  in 
a  very  short  time,  from  its  facility  of  propagation, 
the  cottager  and  nobleman  boasted  alike  of  its  splen- 
dour in  their  gardens. 


TAGETES  PATULA. 
French  Man/gold. 
.Syngenesia.  Polygamia  Superflua.  Linn. 
Corymbiferae.     Jdssieu. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  flowers  in  our 
gardens  in  August  to  October,  its  height  is  about 
three  feet,  and  it  is  an  annual,  and  was  cultivated 
the  first  time  in  this  country  in  1596. 

The  cultivation  of  this  plant  is  so  generally  known, 
that  nothing  need  be  said  respecting  it ;  except  to 
warn  our  readers  against  a  formidable  enemy  to  the 
young  plants.  If  they  be  much  eaten,  a  single  ex- 
amination, late  at  night,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
light,  will  show  the  depredators  to  be  young  earwigs, 
(Forficula  auriculara).  Woollen  cloth  loosely  folded ; 
hollow  bean  stalks ;  or  two  small  boards,  placed 
upon  each  other,  with  one  edge  of  the  upper  one 
raised  sufficiently  to  admit  their  creeping  between 
them,  will  form  useful  traps,  and  the  insects  may  be 
destroyed  every  morning. 


I 


Sis.' 


ri-Iiiiii  ;i    *'inl;iri;i 


i    Mrcjifaitf iit'rvi   i  tipit  .» 


I 


-A 

1^ 

la^^ 

-^>*>'^)« 


5^ 


13.  IJisL'utelUi  liispitla. 


J  IVriht-nvi  Anlileliii 


In.OiuJuis  liLiTina. 


16 .  TuJip a  s iLa\''i' oli-  as  . 


M 


105 


LADIES'  BOTANY*. 

BY  JOHN  LINDLET,  PH.  D.F.B.  S.,  &C.  &C. 


In  the  preface  to  this  work,  the  author  contends  that 
the  principles  of  the  artiticial  system  of  Linnceus,  which 
were  so  important  and  useful  at  the  time  when  they 
were  first  propounded,  are  now  generally  admitted  to 
be  altogether  unsuited  to  the  present  state  of  science, 
and  states  that  the  author  of  the  latest  work  published 
in  this  country  upon  that  system,  is  obliged  to  rest  his 
defence  for  still  following  it,  upon  "  the  facility  with 
which  it  enables  any  one,  hitherto  unpractised  in 
botany,  to  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of  the  genus  and 
species  of  a  plant."  But,  he  observes,  if  a  system  of 
botany  is  only  a  contrivance  to  help  those,  who  will  not 
master  the  elements  of  the  science,  to  determine  the 
name  of  a  plant ;  and  if  it  is  really  necessary  to  have  a 
mental  rail-road  on  which  the  student  in  botany  may  be 
iuipelled  without  any  exertion  of  his  own,  then  he 
thinks  that  the  analytical  tables  of  the  French  are  much 
better  contrivances  than  the  sexual  system  ;  because  if 
well  executed  they  meet  every  case,  and  lead  with  cer- 
tainty to  positive  results.  He  says  he  has  always  been 
at  issue  with  the  Linna'an  school  as  to  their  system  ac- 
complishing even  the  little  it  pretends ;  and  appeals  to 
his  own  personal  experience  of  the  difficulties  of  a  be- 
ginner, who  is  unassisted  by  a  tnfor,  to  prove  that  it  is 
totally  opposed  to  such  a  conclusion.  He  began  with 
the  Linna?an  system,  which  he  had  been  taught  to  be- 
lieve little  less  than  an  inspired  production.  He  had 
plenty  of  works,  compiled  according  to  tliat  system,  to 
consult ;  and  asserts  that  he  was  fairly  driven  to  seek 
refuge  in  the  natural  system  from  the  difficulties  and  in- 
consistencies of  Linnccus.  He  considers  that  there  is  a 
confusion  of  ideas  in  what  is  urged  in  favour  of  the  Lin- 
nccan  system,  and  that  its  theoretical  simplicity  is  mis- 
taken for  practical  facility  of  application.  That  the 
principles  of  this  system  are  clear,  and  simple,  and  easy 
to  be  remembered,  he  cannot  deny  ;  but  are  they,  he 
asks,  equally  easy  in  their  application  ?  When,  for 
example,  a  specimen  of  a  monopetalous  plant  has  lost 
its  corolla,  or  when  the  stamens  or  pistils  are  absent, 
either  accidentally  or  constitutionally,  as  in  Dia?cious 
plants,  what  Linna?an  botanist  can  classify  the  subject 
of  inquiry  ?  Or  where  a  genus  comprehends  species 
varying  in  the  number  of  their  stamens,  as  the  Poly- 
gonum, Salix,  Stellaria,  and  hundreds  of  others,  who  is 
to  say  which  of  the  species  is  to  determine  the  classifi- 
cation of  the  rest?  or  when  that  point  is  settled,  how  is 
a  student  to  know  what  passed  in  the  mind  of  the  botani- 
cal systematist  ?  The  latter  puts  a  genus  into  Octan- 
dria,  because  out  often  species,  one  has  constantly,  and 
two  occasionally,  eight  stamens,  and  he  includes  in  the 
same  class  and  order  all  the  other  species  of  the  genus, 
although  they  have  five,  six,  or  ten  stamens.  He  sup- 
poses a  student  to  meet  with  one  of  the  last,  and  wishes 
to  ascertain  its  name  by  the  Linna^an  system,  he  will 
look  for  it  in  Pentandria,  or  Hexandria,  or  Decandria, 
in  none  of  which  classes  will  he  find  it.     After  wasting 


his  time,  and  exhausting  his  patience  in  a  vain  pursuit, 
he  must  abandon  the  search  in  utter  hopelessness,  for 
there  is  no  other  character  he  can  make  use  of  as  a  check 
upon  the  first.  At  length  some  one  will  tell  him  that 
his  plant  is  a  Polygonum;  he  turns  to  his  book,  wonder- 
ing how  he  could  have  overlooked  it,  and  he  finds  Poly- 
gomun  in  Octandria,  not  because  it  is  Octandrous,  but 
because  it  is  so  very  like  other  Polygonums  that  it  can- 
not be  separated  from  them,  and  they  belong,  in  most 
cases,  to  Octandria.  This  he  conceives  to  be  the  una- 
voidable answer ;  and  that  it  reaUy  means,  that  it  is  not 
in  consecpience  of  its  accordance  with  the  system  that 
the  student's  Polygonum  is  to  be  discovered,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  its  natural  relation  to  other  Polygonums  ; 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  natural  system 
to  make  use  of  the  artificial  one.  He  acknowledges 
that  such  inconvenience  is  guarded  against  in  some 
books  by  special  conti'ivances ;  but  those  contrivances 
form  no 'part  of  the  system.  But  granting,  he  says,  for 
argument  sake,  that  these  and  other  objections  are  over- 
stated, and  that  the  Linuiean  system  does  really  facili- 
tate the  discovery  of  the  class  and  order  to  which  a 
plant  belongs,  he  next  considers  what  advance  towards 
the  determination  of  the  genus  or  species,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  name  of  a  plant,  a  student  has  really  made, 
and  in  order,  he  asserts,  that  every  advantage  may  be 
given  to  the  friends  of  the  Linncean  system  in  this  dis- 
cussion, he  examines  of  what  use  it  will  be  to  him  in  re- 
gard to  the  few  hundred  plants  which  grow  wild  in  Eng- 
land. For  this  purpose  he  takes  the  generic  characters 
in  Diaudria  Monogynia,  as  stated  in  Dr.  Hooker's  British 
Flora,  from  which  he  concludes  that,  to  determine  to 
what  genus  a  plant  belongs,  a  great  deal  of  inquiry  be- 
yond the  discovery  that  it  has  two  stamens  and  one  style 
is  indispensably  necessary.  The  student  must  first  be 
acquainted  with  the  meaning  of  many  techninal  terms, 
he  must  have  the  plant  in  different  slates  of  growth,  he 
must  procure  the  fruit,  must  examine  the  interior  of  that 
part,  in  short  must  go  through  a  long  and  careful  ex- 
amination, which  is  entirely  independent  of  the  sexual 
system.  In  other  and  larger  classes,  such  as  Pentan- 
dria, Hexandria,  Tetrandia,  &c.,  the  length  and  diffi- 
culty of  such  an  examination  is  greatly  increased.  He 
distinctly  asserts  that  there  is  no  greater  difficulty  in 
determining  the  natural  order  of  plants  than  in  that  of 
making  out  the  genera  in  the  Linna?an  system  ;  in  fact, 
he  says  it  is  the  very  same  thing,  only  with  a  different 
result ;  in  the  one  case  it  leads  to  the  mere  discovery  of 
a  name,  in  the  other,  to  the  knowledge  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  useful  and  interesting  facts,  independent  of  the 
name.  And  this  he  asserts  is  so  strongly  felt  by  all  bo- 
tanists of  any  experience,  that  they  never  think  of  using 
the  artificial  system  themselves,  they  only  recommend  it 
to  others. 

The  work  is  itself  written  in  the  form  of  letters,  ad- 
dressed to  a  lady  on  the  botanical  education  of  her  chil- 


*  Ladies'  Botany,  or  a  Familiar  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Natural  System  of  Botany.  By  John  Lindley,  Ph.  D.  F.  R.  S., 
&c.  &c.,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  London.  1  vol.  large  8vo.,  with  plates.  London  !  James  Ridgway  and  Sous. 
183-1. 

MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.11.  NO.  XVII. — AUGUST,  1834.  U 


106 


LADIES     BOTANY. 


dren ;  in  the  first  of  which  he  relates  the  following  fable 
from  a  French  author,  in  answer  to  a  supposed  question, 
whether  the  difficulties  which  are  said  to  accompany 
the  study  of  this  branch  of  science  carmot  by  some  little 
contrivance  be  either  entirely  removed,  or  at  least  very 
much  diminished  : — 

A  lady  one  day  observing  some  ants  travelling  across 
a  table,  dropped  a  piece  of  sugar  in  the  midst  of  them ; 
but  to  her  astonishment,  although  these  little  insects 
are  noted  sugar  eaters,  they  all  retreated  with  terror 
from  the  spot,  nor  did  they  afterwards  find  sufficient 
courage  to  return  to  examine  the  object  of  their  dread ; 
on  the  contrary,  they  carefully  avoided  that  which  would 
have  proved  a  treasure,  had  they  known  its  value. — 
Stnick  by  this  circumstance,  the  lady  placed  the  same 
piece  of  sugar  on  that  part  of  the  table  near  which  the 
ants  were  in  the  habit  of  crossing,  and  when  she  saw 
one  of  them  approaching  it,  she  gently  placed  her  fin- 
ger in  his  way,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  alarm 
him,  wliilst  it  obstructed  his  passage ;  the  ant  paused, 
looked  round  him,  and  then  took  a  new  direction,  not 
exactly  towards  the  sugar,  but  near  it ;  the  lady  again 
opposed  his  passage  gently,  and  at  last,  by  making  him 
take  a  sort  of  zigzag  direction,  tacking,  as  it  were,  at 
every  few  steps,  the  ant  was  unconsciously  brought  to 
the  sugar  without  being  frightened.  Once  there,  he  at- 
tentively examined  the  glittering  rock,  touched  it  with 
his  antenna?,  broke  off  a  morsel,  and  hastened  away 
with  it  to  the  ant-hill;  thence  he  presently  returned  at 
the  head  of  a  host  of  his  comrades,  by  whom  the 
rest  of  the  sugar  was  carried  off".  From  this  anecdote 
the  author  infers,  that,  if  young  persons  are  once  alarmed 
at  the  aspect  of  a  new  pursuit,  a  knowledge  of  which 
they  are  endeavouring  to  obtain,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  restore  their  confidence  ;  but  that  there  are  few  who, 
if  led  to  it  insensibly,  will  not  persevere  till  they  have 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  subject. 

There  is,  he  thinks,  no  mistake  into  which  the  public 
i';  apt  to  fall  greater  than  the  notion  that  botany  is  a 
science  of  easy  acquirement.  It  is,  by  far,  too  compli- 
cated in  its  phenomena,  like  all  other  branches  of  na- 
tural h'story,  and  too  diversified  in  form  to  be  attainable 
as  a  science,  without  long  and  attentive  study  ;  never- 
theless, he  thinks  that  a  certain  portion  of  it  may  be 
acquired  without  any  extraordinary  application,  and  he 
hopes  that  the  plan  of  his  work  will  sufficiently  explain 
in  what  manner  this  may  be  best  done.  The  mode  he 
recommends  to  be  adopted  is,  to  follow  the  order  he  has 
laid  down,  and  to  procure  for  examination  the  flowers 
that  are  named  in  it,  as  they  are  in  most  cases  within 
the  reach  of  those  who  live  in  the  country.  The  speci- 
mens should  be  carefully  compared  with  the  descrip- 
tions and  plates  given  of  them,  and  when  they  are  all 
remembered  and  understood,  he  thinks  that  the  student 
will  be  a  botanist ;  not  a  very  learned  one,  but  acquainted 
with  many  of  the  fundamental  facts  of  the  science,  and 


capable  of  prosecuting  his  inquiry  to  any  further  point, 
and  of  studying  other  and  more  scientific  works  with 
facility  and  advantage.  The  plan  he  lays  down  to 
be  pursued  by  those  who  desire  to  push  their  inquiries 
beyond  the  information  contained  in  the  present  work, 
is  to  read  some  inh'oduction  to  botany  (his  own  of  course), 
in  which  the  modern  views  of  structure  and  of  vital  ac- 
tion are  well  explained ;  they  should  then  make  them- 
selves familiar  with  the  technical  terms,  which  he  has 
carefully  avoided  in  the  work  before  us,  but  which  can- 
not be  dispensed  with  in  works  of  a  more  exact  and  sci- 
entific character,  and  at  the  same  time  perfect  them- 
selves in  a  knowledge  of  the  natural  orders,  by  gathering 
the  wild  plants  which  are  within  their  reach,  comparing 
them  with  one  another,  and  with  the  characters  assigned 
to  them  in  systematic  works.  Being  thus  provided  with 
a  considerable  amount  of  fundamental  knowledge,  they 
may  then  apply  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  natural 
system  in  its  great  features,  when,  and  not  till  then, 
they  will  be  aljle  to  appreciate  the  various  modifications 
of  organization  that  connect  one  tribe  of  plants  to  an- 
other, and  to  understand  the  infinite  wisdom  and  beauti- 
ful simplicity  of  design  which  is  visible  in  the  vegetable 
world,  the  just  application  of  which,  through  the  count- 
less gradations  of  form,  structure,  and  modes  of  exist- 
ence, he  considers,  shotdd  be  the  constant  aim  of  the 
botanist  to  demonstrate. 

The  most  discouraging  part  of  botany  to  a  beginner, 
he  conceives,  to  consist  either  in  the  nimierous  new  and 
strange  names,  the  meaning  of  -which  he  has  to  learn, 
or  in  the  minuteness  of  the  parts  by  which  plants  are 
distinguished  from  each  otlier,  or  in  the  great  multitude 
of  species  of  which  the  vegetable  kingdom  consists ;  and 
he  confesses  that  there  is  somethi)ig  alarming  in  the 
mass  of  preliminary  knowledge,  which,  it  would  appear, 
has  to  be  acquired  before  any  perceptible  progress  can 
be  made.  But  when  the  suijject  is  examined  more 
closely,  we  shall,  he  observes,  find  that  only  a  small 
number  of  technical  terms  employed  is  really  necessary 
in  the  beginning,  that  the  minute  parts  are  but  little 
consulted  in  practice,  however  .much  thej-  may  be  in 
theory,  and  that  the  arrangements  of  botanists  are  so 
perfect,  that  no  more  difficulty  is  expei'ienced  ft-om  the 
number  of  species  than  in  any  other  branch  of  natural 
history.  There  are  certain  terms,  the  exact  meaning 
of  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  if  the  science  is  to 
be  studied  to  any  good  purpose ;  a  certain  habit  of  ob- 
servation must  also  be  acquired,  without  which  the  dif- 
ferences between  one  plant  and  another  cannot  be  ap- 
preciated or  remembered ;  but  these  may  be  gained 
imperceptibly,  or  without  any  exh-aordinary  degree  of 
exertion  or  industry.  The  student  has  only  to  com- 
mence at  the  beginning,  and  never  to  take  one  step  till 
that  which  preceded  it  is  secured  ;  he  may  then  advance 
to  whatever  point  he  pleases  ;  and  this,  the  author  ob- 
serves, is  the  whole  secret  in  teaching  botanv. 


107 


ON  LAYING  DOWN  ARABLE  LAND  INTO  GRASS' 


r 


Agricultural  seedsmen  declare,  that  they  have  done 
more  business  in  this,  than  in  any  other  year,  for  a  con- 
siderable time  back.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  inquire 
into  the  immediate  cause  of  this  exti-a  demand  for  grass 
seeds  ;  and  also  to  examine  what  the  layers  down  of 
land  expect  to  derive  from  such  a  measure. 

Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  general  state  of 
farming  in  this  country  at  the  present  moment,  will  be 
at  no  loss  to  account  for  the  more  than  usual  demand  fur 
grass  seeds.  In  the  first  place,  corn  is  at  a  low,  by  far 
too  low,  a  price,  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  it ; 
while  the  produce  from  meadow  and  pasture  ground,  in 
other  words,  from  live  stock,  fetches  remunerating 
prices.  Another  thing,  many  farms  are  deserted  by  the 
tenants,  and,  of  course,  fallen  into  the  landlord's  hands. 
The  latter  takes  the  easiest  way  of  making  anything  of 
his  tenantless  farms,  by  laying  the  whole  down  as  a 
sheep-walk.  This  also  creates  an  additional  demand 
upon  the  seedsman,  while  it  lessens  the  charges  of 
labour,  horses,  &c.  But  there  is  a  new  idea,  and  which 
begins  to  be  extensively  entertained  respecting  old 
meadow  and  pasture  land.  From  time  immemorial 
grass  land  has  been  particulfirly  valued,  and  specially 
protected  by  specific  clauses  in  leases  and  agreements 
between  landlords  and  tenants;  because  it  was  supposed 
that  a  meadow  was  good  in  proportion  to  its  age  ;  and 
that,  if  once  broken  up,  could  not  be  renewed  or  got 
back  to  its  former  state  under  a  long  term  of  years.  The 
validity  of  this  old  opinion  and  belief  has  been,  of  late 
years,  attacked  and  overthrown  by  several  eminent  agri- 
cultiu'al  writers,  particularly  W.  Alton,  Esq.,  of  Hamil- 
ton, who  has,  by  practical  tests,  proved  that  grass  land, 
after  a  certain  number  of  years,  becomes  mossy  and 
worthless,  and  should  then  be  broken  up,  to  yield  three 
or  four  crops  of  corn,  and  laid  down  again  as  soon  as  it 
can  be  got  perfectly  cleared  from  root  weeds.  By  this 
management  heavy  crops  of  corn  are  obtained,  and  in 
such  extra  quantity  as  fully  repays  the  expense  of  seeds 
to  re-lay  it  doAvn  again.  And  such  is  the  facility  with 
which  arable  land  may  be  changed  to  pasture,  that  an 
excellent  and  productive  sward  will  be  formed  in  the 
second  year  after  sowing  a  proper  selection  of  perma- 
nent grasses,  in  due  quantity,  either  with  or  without 
corn.  The  propriety  and  practicability  of  this  new  ex- 
pedient in  the  business  of  farming  has  attracted  general 
notice  ;  and  to  it,  together  with  the  circumstances  al- 
luded to  before,  may  be  ascribed  the  increased  demand 
for  grass  seeds  at  the  present  time,  for  the  purpose  oi 
laying  down  new  meadow  and  pasture  to  serve  instead 
of  those  intended  to  be  ploughed  up. 

The  introduction  of  this  new  branch  of  "  convertible" 
husbandry  is  attended  with  the  advantages  of  keeping 
more  live  stock,  which  is  the  soul  of  fanning ;  because 
gi'eater  quantities  of  manure  will  be  made  for  the  arable 
crops,  as  well  as  for  the  grass  land ;  thus  keeping  the 
whole  in  good  heart,  and  always  in  condition,  either  for 
the  production  of  hay,  corn,  or  pasturage. 

The  objections  against  taking  meadow  and  pasture 
land  into  the  general  rotation  of  cropping  a  farm  are 
these,  viz.  they  generally  lie  close  round  the  homestead, 


forming  convenient  outlets  from  the  yards  and  cattle- 
sheds  ;  corn  crops  being  at  some  distance,  are  less 
liable  to  injury  from  poultry  and  pigs ;  every  field  is 
not  supplyed  with  water,  and  therefore  cannot  be  appro- 
priated as  cattle  pasture ;  and  as  grass  land  is  so  pe- 
remptorily protected  by  existing  leases  and  agreements, 
no  tenant,  so  bound  up,  can  avail  himself  of  such  conver- 
sion, however  advantageous  it  might  be  to  him.  B\it  all 
these  objections  may  be  met,  and  in  many  cases  nullified 
by  judicious  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  tenant,  by  tem- 
porary fencing,  well-digging,  &c.,  and  by  permissive 
measures  and  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  landlord. 
And  surely  the  present  situation  of  farmers  in  general 
should  prompt  them  to  every  means  of  improved  cul- 
ture, however  diflfering  from  the  old  or  customary  rou- 
tine ;  and  induce  every  landlord  to  take  oif  all  restric- 
tions which  cramp  the  exertions  of  the  tenant,  and  com- 
pel him  to  take  less  from  the  land  than,  by  improved 
management,  it  is  calculated  to  produce. 

Old  productive  meadow  land,  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
or  in  low  situations,  no  one  would  think  of  distiirbing 
\rith  the  plough ;  but  there  is  much  upland  pasture 
which  might  be  made  doubly  valuable  by  being  put 
under  a  course  of  arable  cultiu'e  for  a  few  years,  and  then 
returned  to  grass  again.  Many  instances  of  such  con- 
version might  be  appealed  to  as  proofs,  in  difierent  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  and  on  dilTcrent  descriptions  of  soil,  as 
executed  by  the  late  Mr.  George  Sinclair,  and  by  the 
old  firm  of  Messrs.  Thomas  Gibbs  and  Co.,  Agricultmral 
Seedsmen,  Half-moon-street,  Piccadilly,  London.  Here- 
tofore, it  was  supposed,  that  seven,  some  say  twenty 
years,  were  required  to  establish  a  good  sound  turfj  now 
by  the  attention  bestowed  on  this  branch  of  rural  eco- 
nomy, and  by  employing  a  mixture  of  the  best  perennial 
grass  seeds,  "a  good  and  sweet  bottom  may  be  obtained, 
as  before  observed,  in  two  years. 

Land  that  has  been  long,  or  for  several  years,  in 
grass,  is  found  greatly  restored,  as  to  fertility,  by  the 
accumulation  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  there- 
in, and  in  fine  condition  for  the  growth  of  white  crops, 
when  properly  treated.  Some  farmers  prefer  sowing 
peas  on  the  first  furrow,  and  which  usually  yield  abun- 
dantiy  ;  others  take  a  crop  of  some  small  kind  of  oats ; 
for  ifPoland  oats  be  sowed  they  fall  a  prey  to  the  wire- 
worm,  often  prevalent  in  old  turf  Whichever  crop  be 
chosen,  the  ground  is  in  fine  order  to  be  fallowed  in  the 
following  year,  to  get  rid  of  many  root  weeds  which  had 
flourished  in  the  turf.  If  the  fallow  be  got  perfectly 
clean  before  the  first  of  June,  a  crop  of  tankard  turnips 
or  mangold  wurtzel  may  be  put  in,  and  eaten  or  drawn 
off  time  enough  for  sowing  wheat ;  but  if  not  got  clean 
enough  for  this  intermediate  crop,  the  fallowing  must  be 
continued  to  the  wheat-sowing  season,  \\hich  brings  the 
field  into  the  regular  rotation  of  the  farm. 

There  are  two  wavs  of  laying  down  arable  land  into 
grass.  The  first  is  laying  down  witii  a  half-cast  of  barley 
or  oats,  which,  if  the  summer  be  moist,  is  the  most  eco- 
nomical ;  but  if  the  summer  prove  dry  it  is  not  the  best 
plan.  The  seedlings  of  many  of  the  best  grasses  are, 
on  their  first  appearance,  so  feeble  and  attenuated,  that 


*  From  the  British  Farmer's  Magazine. 


108 


ON    GREENHOUSE    PLANTS. 


one  (lay's  bright  sunsliine  withers  them  up ;  and  if  the 
thin  crop  of  corn  or  favouring  season  does  not  protect 
them,  they  are  lost.  A  more  certain  way  is  to  lay  down 
after  turnips,  by  giving  up  the  barley  crop,  stirring  the 
surface,  during  summer,  till  it  is  as  fine  as  possible,  by 
tlie  action  of  tlie  plough,  harrow.s,  and  roller,  and  sow- 
ing the  grass  seeds  upon  a  smooth  surface  about  the 
10th  of  August,  and  covered  in  by  a  bush-harrow  ;  fin- 
ishing with  the  roller.  At  lliis  season  the  sun's  heat  is 
less  ardent,  the  nights  are  longer,  and  the  plants,  unhurt 
by  drought,  gain  strenglh  enough  to  resist  the  frosts  of 
winter.  Whether  attempted  to  be  laid  down  with  a  sin- 
gle cast  of  corn  in  the  spring,  or  sowed  in  the  auttnnn, 
if  blanks  appear  in  the  following  spring  they  are  again 
sowed  and  raked  in  before  rolling  down. 

The  treatment  of  young  seeds,  during  the  first  year 
after  sowing,  is  of  consequence.  They  had  better  be 
skimmed  over  by  the  scythe,  about  the  end  of  June,  than 
grazed  by  cattle,  which  may  poach,  or  by  sheep,  which 
bite  too  close.  After  tlie  month  of  September,  the  new 
grass  may  receive  any  kind  of  stock  ;  being  then  out  of 
danger,  either  from  the  teetli  or  feet  of  grazing  animals, 
if  the  state  of  the  weather  or  nature  of  the  soil  will 
allow.  Every  following  year  each  individual  plant  in- 
creases in  size  and  slrengtli,  till  the  whole  surface  is 
plenished by  the  roots  and  side-shoots;  from  this  time 
the  plants  become  diminutive  and  cramped,  for  want  of 


space ;  the  hardier  and  most  worthless  kinds  extirpate 
the  best;  moss  springs  up  and  chokes  what  renuiins, 
and  then  is  the  time  for  breaking  it  up  again,  to  undergo 
the  course  of  cropping  already  described,  and  so  stren- 
ously  recommended  by  many  of  the  first  agriculturists  of 
the  kingdom. 

As  the  nature  of  soils,  as  to  their  tenaciousness  or 
friability,  are  very  diiTerent,  so  the  labour  required  in 
breaking  up  old  grass  for  the  reception  of  a  crop  of  corn 
is  more  or  less  easy.  If  the  soil  be  tough  and  untracta- 
ble  by  the  harrows,  dibbing  beans  on  tlie  first  furrow 
may  be  the  best  management ;  but  if  it  will  harrow  well 
(whether  ploughed  iit  the  autumn  or  spring)  peas  or 
oats  may  be  sowed  either  broad-i;ast  or  drilled.        .   ,,  , 

The  expense  of  the  seeds,  however,  is,  in  laying  tlowii 
new  grass,  a  serious  matter  to  the  ftirmer,  wlio  is  noijr 
puzzled  to  "make  botli  ends  meet."  That  the  suxierior 
crops  of  corn  from  the  freshly  broken-up  ground  will 
more  than  cover  the  expense  of  seeds,  may  be  relied  on; 
but  the  expense  of  buying  seeds  must  be  incurred,  before 
the  remunerating  crops  are  in  the  barn :  because  it  would 
be  very  impolitic  to  break  up  old  grass  before  the  new 
was  ready,  or  nearly  ready,  to  take  its  place.  The  ex- 
pense, per  acre,  of  the  best  selected  permanent  grass 
seeds,  would  amount  to  not  much  less  than  two  poimds  : 
and  although  common  mixtures  might  be  had  for  lesi, 
tlie  dearest,  in  such  cases,  will  be  found  the  best.       ■  ' 


ON   GREENHOUSE  PLANTS*. 


BY   MR.   TOWERS,     AUTHOR  OF  THE   DOMESTIC   GARDENER  S  MANUAL. 


I  WISH  to  combine  the  didce  witli  tlie  ii/ile,  to  lead  the  reader 
on  through  pleasurable  paths  to  tlie  attainment  of  knowledge, 
and  therefore  I  propose  to  familiarize,  to  the  utmost,  every 
beautiful  object,  to  speak  of  it  in  the  most  simple  terms  possi- 
ble, to  describe  its  habits,  native  country,  and  most  approved 
modes  of  culture;  and  then,  to  close  tlie  account  with  the  bo- 
tanical remarks  which  I  conceive  to  he  indispensably  required, 
in  order  to  put  the  reader  in  possession  of  those  facts  which  no 
cultivator  of  plants  ought  to  be  ignorant  of.  I  shall  so  far  re- 
tain my  original  jdan,  as  to  follow  the  ord.r  of  the  LiunfEan 
classes;  thus,  we  shall  ',rocced  methodically.  I  commence, 
then,  with  the  first  class.  Without  attempting  to  write  a 
botanical  treatise,  I  must  introduce  each  of  the  classes  with  a 
few  initiatory  remarks,  otherwise,  I  shall  be  doing  little  better 
than  to  speak  "in  an  unknown  tongue."  In  the  study  of 
botany  on  the  Linna'iin  system,  there  is  fortunately  no  defi- 
ciency of  elementary  works.  For  young  beginners,  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  better  work  can  be  found,  nor  one  written  in 
more  familiar  language,  than  the  Letters  upon  Botany  by  the 
late  Prisc'dla  Wakefield,  to  which  1  may  add  the  Grammar  and 
the  Inlruduclion  to  Botany,  of  that  renowned  botanist.  Sir 
James  Edward  Smith,  the  late  President  of  the  Linna'an  So- 
ciety. To  attain  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  Natural  or 
Jiissieuun  Si/stem,  now  becoming  so  fashionable,  many  more 
difficulties  must  be  encountered. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  those  individual  plants  which 
it  is  ray  intention  to  select  as  fit  objects  for  illustrative  de- 
scription. 

The  system  of  Linnxus  contains  twenty-four  classes,  ar- 
ranged in  two  grand  divisions  ;  the  first  of  which  comprises  all 


those  plants  whose  flowers  or  fructiferous  organs  are  conspicu- 
ous and  determinable.  The  second  dicisiun  comprises  all  thoie 
plants  whose  flowers  or  organs  of  fruit  are  inconspicuous,  or 
not  clearly  to  be  determined  ;  such  are  the  ferns,  mosses,  sek- 
weeds,  and  the  fungi,  or  mushroom  tribe.  The  first  fifteen  of 
these  classes  are  founded  upon  the  number  of  the  stamens  or 
male  organs  of  the  flower.  The  remaining  eight  classes  of  the 
first  division  depend  upon  the  position  or  arrangement  of  the 
fruitful  organs.  The  twenty-fourtli  class,  Crypioffamia,  con- 
tains, as  its  name  implies,  all  the  members  of  the  second  divi- 
sion ;  that  is,  the  plants  whose  reproductive  organs  are  incon- 
spicuous and  perhtp;  doubtful.  I  shall  not,  in  this  paper, 
enlarge  upon  the  structure  of  the  natural  arrangement,  which 
is  too  complex  to  admit  of  any  cursory  description,  but  shall 
merely  notice,  in  passing,  the  order  therein,  to  which  every  in- 
dividual that  I  describe  is  to  he  referred,  adding  a  slight  men- 
tion of  its  characteristics. 

The  first  class  contains  many  specimens  of  exceeding  beauty ; 
but  as  they  are,  for  the  greater  part,  natives  of  tropical  or 
warm  climates,  they  cannot  with  safety  be  generally  intro- 
duced into  the  greenhouse.  The  roots  of  many  of  the  genera 
abound  in  aromatic  qualities,  as  in  the  ginger,  turmeric,  zedoary, 
galingale,  &c. ;  others  contain  mucilage  and  nutritive  matter 
in  abundance.  The  native  or  indigenous  genera  are  unattrac- 
tive. 

This  class  is  named  Mox.\ndria,  beciuse  it  has  but  one 
stamen  or  male  organ.  It  contains  two  orders,  determinable 
by  the  number  of  the  styles.  The  titles  of  the  orders  are 
A/onogi/nia  and  Dii/t/nia,  the  former  from  the  Greek  word,  munos 
one,  and  gune  or  gi/ne  female  ;  the  latter,  from  dis  two,  and  gyne. 


From  the  Q.i»arterly  Jsursai -of  Agriculture. 


ON   GREENHOUSE  PLANTS. 


109 


From  this  class  I  select  but.  two  plants,  as  subjects  suitable 
to  ordinary  culture  in  common  greenhouses. 

The  first  plant  is  the  Common  huJian  Shot,  or  Indian  flower- 
ing reed,  an  old  and  very  favourite  tenant  of  the  stove  ;  for, 
coming  from  India,  it  had,  for  a  long  period,  been  considered 
and  treated  as  a  very  tender  stove  plant.  E.xperience  has, 
however,  determined  that  it  may,  under  propitious  circum- 
stances, and  in  favourable  situations,  be  preserved  in  the  open 
yround,  during  our  ordinary  winters,  and  almost  to  a  certainty, 
in  a  good  glazed  pit,  without  fire. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Indian  shot,  the  one  with  red 
ilowers,  and  the  other  with  red  spotted  or  striped  with  yellow  ; 
the  former,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  is  greatly  to  be  preferred. 
In  the  cataiogties  of  London's  EncyclopEedia  of  Plants  and  Hor- 
tus  Britannicns,  these  two  varieties  are  described  as  stove 
plants,  growing  to  the  height  of  two  feet,  in  flower  all  the 
year,  with  red,  and  red  and  yellow  flowers  ;  received  from  In- 
dia in  1750,  propagated  by  division  of  the  roots,  and  growing 
in  rich  mould.  Upon  these  data,  compared  with  my  own  ex- 
perience, I  shall  give  the  following  directions  for  the  treatment 
of  these  elegant  plants  : — 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  describe  this  plant  (the  flowers  of 
which  are  of  very  pectiliar  structure),  so  as  to  make  the  reader, 
who  has  not  seen  it,  understand  its  general  appearance.  The 
roots  are  of  a  fleshy  texture,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the 
common  blue  iris,  but  less  bulky.  In  young  seedling  plants, 
the  tnberous  knobby  processes  of  these  roots  send  up  but  one 
stalk,  if  that  may  be  called  such,  whose  substance  is  little  more 
tlian  a  leaf  coiled  into  a  tube,  and  enclosing  another  leaf,  which 
protrudes  from  it  in  an  opposite  direction.  One  leaf  proceeds 
from  and  within  another,  as  the  plant  advances  in  growth,  and 
these  expand  right  and  left.  They  are  of  a  lively  and  most 
beautiful  green,  spear-shaped,  smooth,  and  six  or  eight  inches 
long.  The  veins  are  numerous,  proceeding  from  a  central  mid- 
rib, in  parallel  wavy  lines,  not  forming  a  network.  The  stem 
consists  of  little  more  than  the  footstalks  of  the  leaves,  each 
wrapping  round  the  base  of  the  leaf  immediately  above  it,  for 
the  length  of  two  or  three  inches,  varying  according  to  the  na- 
ture or  strength  of  the  plant.  When  five  or  six  are  developed, 
the  flower-stem  protrudes  from  the  centre  of  the  upper  leaf. 
The  flowers  are  enclosed  in  a  sheath,  and  expand  in  succession, 
to  the  number  of  perhaps  from  three  to  five  or  six.  They  are 
■ornamental,  but  fugacious,  are  divided  into  six  segments,  irre- 
gular in  figure,  and  of  a  bright  scarlet,  or  scarlet  and  yeUow, 
spotted  also  or  veined  with  red.  The  blossom  is  succeeded  by 
a  roundish  seed-vessel,  supported  upon  a  footstalk  ;  the  ex- 
ternal covering  of  the  seed-vessel  is  rough,  and  rather  prickly  ; 
this  rough  coating,  as  the  seeds  become  mature,  detaches  itself, 
or  may  be  readily  rubbed  ofl^  from  the  inner  coat,  which  remains 
entire,  and  contains  several  globular  seeds,  somewhat  resem- 
bling sweet  peas,  but  larger,  more  polished,  and  of  exceedingly 
hard  texture,  insomuch  that  it  is  said  the  natives  of  the  countries 
where  the  plant  is  indigenous  use  them  as  shot,  whence  the 
familiar  name. 

It  is  usual  to  raise  the  plants  in  the  spring,  by  sowing  the 
seeds  in  a  pot,  placed  in  a  frame,  over  a  gentle  hot-bed.  When 
the  young  plants  have  produced  two  or  three  leaves,  they  may 
be  cautiously  lifted  by  a  smooth  stick,  with  sonie  of  the  mould 
adhering  to  the  fibrous  roots,  and  transferred  into  separate 
pots.  These  pots  may  either  be  large  sixties,  the  internal 
diameter  being  about  three  inches,  and  the  depth  four  inches  ; 
and,  in  this  case,  when  each  plant  shall  have  filled  the  pots 
with  roots,  it  is  to  be  removed,  with  its  ball  entire,  into  a  pot 
of  double  the  size  ;  or,  the  larger  pots  may  be  used  in  the  first 
instance,  to  spare  trouble.  If  the  plants  have  been  raised  in  a 
hot-bed,  they  should,  after  potting  ofi',  be  replaced  in  the  frame 
for  a  few  days,  and  gently  watered  now  and  then  with  milk- 
warm  water,  till  the  roots  have  fuUy  established  themselves. 
The  seeds  will  certainly  vegetate  most  freely  in  heat ;  but  they 
Vuill  succeed,  as  I  have  witnessed,  in  a  parlour  window,  where 
the  plant  also  will  grow  freely,  and  bring  its  fruit  to  perfection. 


As  the  summer  advances,  so  many  plants  as  are  not  wanted 
for  the  greenhouse  or  sitting-room  may  be  placed  in  the  open 
borders,  where  also  they  will  flower  freely,  and  produce  ripe 
seeds. 

Many  ofi'sets  from  the  roots  are  sent  up  ;  and  these  may  be 
taken  ofi",  and  the  plants  thus  multiplied.  The  soil  should  be 
a  rich  mellow  loam,  made  light  with  road-grit  and  decayed 
vegetable  earth.  When  I  say  rich  mould,  I  do  not  mean  eurth, 
enriched  hij  duwj,  but  that  fat  unctious  loam  which  contains  all 
the  staple  mineral  mutters,  as  siliceous  sand,  alumcn,  or  pure 
clay,  chalk,  and  a  certain  portion  of  oxide  of  iron.  The  soil  I 
made  mention  of  in  my  first  paper,  obtained  from  decayed 
couch-roots,  contains  all  these  matters  in  excellent  proportions. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  but  not  less  wonderful  than  true,  that 
decayed  vegetables  (and  manures  do  the  same  eventually),  fur- 
nish in  decay  all  the  staple  matters  of  the  finest  native  loams  ; 
and  couch-grass,  though  it  may  owe  some  of  its  earthy  particles 
to  the  soil  removed  with  its  roots,  wastes  down  to  a  perfect 
pale-brown  earth,  containing  every  requisite  for  promoting  and 
sustaining  vegetable  growtli.  This  soil,  with  some  decayed 
leaves,  with  road-sand  in  nearly  equal  parts,  will  be  suitable  to 
the  plants  in  every  stage  of  their  growth. 

Soft  pond  or  river  water  should  be  given  pretty  freely  ;  and 
some  say  that  each  plant,  when  flow'ering,  ought  to  be  kept  in 
a  pan  always  full  of  water.  Those  that  have  been  retained  in 
the  house,  in  pots,  may  be  kept  throughout  the  winter  perfectly 
safe,  in  a  turf  glazed  pit ;  but,  in  that  case,  little  water  should 
he  given.  In  the  greenhouse,  more  fluid  may  be  allowed  ;  and 
in  the  eiove,  where  the  temperature  is  maintained,  during  the 
night,  to  50  or  55  deg.,  the  plants  will  flower  freely,  and  should 
be  liberally  supplied  with  water. 

Perhaps  it  is  advisable  to  raise  fresh  plants  from  seeds  every 
spring.  I  have,  however,  had  one  in  the  stove  during  winter, 
which  has  showed  flower  occasionally  from  December  to  the 
end  of  Februai7  ;  and  I  have  just  removed  it  from  its  pot,  and 
parted  the  roots  with  a  knife.  I  think  that  these  plants  will 
furnish  all  I  shall  require  throughout  the  season. 

The  botanical  characters  of  Indian  reed  or  shot,  are — 

Canna  Indica.  Class  l.  Order  1.  Monandria  Monogy- 
nia  of  Linneeus  ;  that  is,  with  one  stamen  and  one  style.  Calyx, 
or  flower- cup,  of  three  leaves.  Corolla,  or  flower-proper,  of  one 
petal,  divided  into  six  segments.  Anther  simple,  attached  to 
the  edge  of  the  filament,  which  is  flat,  and  resembles  a  petal, 
or  segment  of  the  flower.  Seed-vessel,  a  rovmd,  slightly  angu- 
lar, germen,  with  a  flat  style,  the  upper  part  of  which  (stigma) 
is  linear  and  obtuse.  The  germen  becomes  a  roundish  capsule, 
with  three  cells,  containing  globular  seeds. 

In  the  natural  system,  Canna  constitutes  the  type  of  the 
152nd  order,  termed  Canneee,  in  the  second  great  class  of  plants 
called  the  Monocotyledones,  the  seeds  of  which  have  generally 
but  one  cotyledon  or  seed  lobe.  The  leaves  do  not  usually  ar- 
ticulate with  the  stems,  and  the  veins  run  in  parallel  lines, 
without  ramifying  into  a  net-work.  Plants  of  the  order  Can- 
nece  differ  from  those  of  their  near  neighbours  of  the  151st 
order,  in  their  roots  being  devoid  of  aromatic  properties. 
Maranta  arundinacea,  or  Indian  arrow-]-oot,  is  one  of  the 
genera  of  this  natural  order.  For  farther  and  more  minute 
particulars,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  Lindley's  "  Principles 
of  Botany, ^^ 

The  name  Canna  is  a  latinized  Greek  word  (Kayva),  and  sig- 
nifies a  reed  or  cane. 

The  only  plant  in  this  class  w-hich  remains  to  he  noticed,'  as 
likely  to  prove  of  any  interest,  or  suitable  to  greenhouse  cul- 
ture, is — 

LOPEZIA  racemosa.  Smooth  (branching)  Lnpezia.  This  is 
a  pretty  biennial,  producing  its  clusters  of  red  flowers  from  tile 
angles  (axilhc)  of  tlie  leaves.  According  to  the  Encyclopteilia 
of  Plants,  it  was  (with  the  other  species  of  the- same  genus) 
named  in  honour  of  the  licentiate  Thomas  Lopez,  a  Spanish 
botanist,  who  paid  particular  attention  to  the  natural  history 
of  the  New  World.     It  was  introduced  to  England  in   1792, 


no 


ON    GREENHOiDSE    PLANTS. 


and  is  a  native  of  Mexico.  Grows  to  the  height  of  18  inches  , 
and  flowers  from  August  to  October.  Tiie  plant  is  iigured  and 
described  in  the  Botanical  Magazine  of  the  late  Mr.  Curtis, 
No.  254.  The  stem  of  the  plant  is  four-cornered  and  smooth, 
the  leaves  ovate  or  egg-shaped,  and  widest  at  the  base.  It 
may  be  propagated  by  suckers  from  the  roots,  and  grown  in 
common  garden  soil. 

The  botanical  character  of  the  genus  Lopezia  may  be  thus 
stated  :  Class  I .  Order  1 .  Monandria  Monogynia.  Calyax 
of  four  leaves.  Corolla  of  four  petals,  irregular ;  fiowcrs  not 
contained  in  a  sheath  :  hence  termed  naked.  Filaments  2,  one 
fertile,  producing  an  anther  ;  the  other  barren,  and  resembling 
a  petal.  Germen  below  the  flower  (inferior),  becoming  a 
capsule  with  four  valves,  having  four  cells,  containing  many 
seeds. 

In  the  natural  system  it  is  placed  in  the  7Cth  order,  Onagra- 
rice,  and  is  one  of  the  members  of  the  fifth  tribe  of  that  order , 
Circece.  The  plants,  among  other  characteristic  distinctions, 
have  usually  the  seed-vessel  below  the  flower  ("  inferior" ), which 
consists  of  a  calyx  of  four  leaves,  a  corolla  of  four  petals,  and  a 
definite  number  of  stamens.  Among  the  plants  of  this  order 
are  the  lovely /iicAsi'as,  many  of  which  will  be  hereafter  de- 
scribed. 

The  second  Linnsean  class  will  furnish  several  very  beautiful 
tenants  of  the  greenhouse.  It  is  named  Diandria,  from  the 
number  {dis  two)  of  its  stamens  ;  and  it  contains  three  orders, 
Monogynia,  Digynia,  and  Trigynia,  having  respectively,  one, 
two,  and  three  styles,  or  pistilla. 

In  the  first  order,  the  interesting  family  of  the  olive  trees 
(OUaJ  contains  several  greenhouse  species,  but  most  of  them 
are  very  tall  growers,  and  attain  to  the  inconvenient  height  of 
from  10  to  20  or  more  feet.  I  therefore  select  the  fragrant 
olive  (Oka  fragransj ,  as  the  most  suitable,  and  perhaps  the 
most  pleasing  of  the  family.  Of  the  various  species  may  be 
named  the  following,  as  desirable  greejihouse  plants  for  large 
collections. 

Olea  europaa,  several  varieties.  —  Common  fruit-bearing 
olive,  which  produces  the  eatable  fruit  that  is  pickled  and  sold 
under  the  name  "  Olives." 

Oha  capensis.  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Olive,  introduced  in 
lt30.  The  former  has  been  cultivated  in  England  for  above 
200  years.     It  is  a  "  native  of  the  south  of  Europe." 

Olea  fragrans  grows  to  a  height  of  3  or  4  feet  ;  produces 
yellow  flowers  in  July  and  August,  which  are  very  odoriferous. 
The  leaves  are  lance-shaped,  approaching  to  oval,  and  are  also 
fragrant.  It  has  been  cultivated  here  for  about  63  years,  as  it 
was  brought  from  China,  its  native  country,  in  1771.  It  may 
be  considered  as  a  rather  tender  evergreen,  and  unless  it  have 
the  protection  of  a  very  good  greenhouse,  may  be  more  secure 
in  a  sitting-room,  where  there  is  a  fire,  than  in  any  common 
frame  or  glazed  pit.  Tender  plants,  kept  in  a  room,  should 
not  stand,  during  the  night,  in  the  window  ;  they  ought  to  be 
placed  on  the  mantel-shelf  or  sideboard,  where  frosty  air  can- 
not reach  them  :  in  the  day-time  they  might  be  brought  to  the 
light.  The  soil  should  be  kept  free  from  drought,  but  not  by 
any  means  wet,  in  the  dark  months.  Loam  and  peat  {heath 
mouldj ,  form  a  suitable  compost ;  and  in  it  the  plant  may  be 
raised  by  layers,  and  perhaps  by  cuttings,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  little  silver  sand. 

The  botanical  character  of  the  genus  Olea  is  the  following. 
Class  II.  Order  1.  Diandria  Monogynia.  It  has  two  stamens 
and  one  style.— Calyx,  or  flower-cup,  with  four  teeth.  Corolla 
of  one  petal,  rather  funnel-shaped,  in  four  divisions,  and  below 
the  germen  (inferior).  Fruit  a  drupe,  that  is,  a  sort  of  berry, 
with  a  fleshy  or  pulpy  substance,  enclosing  a  hard  nut.  The 
fruit  of  the  plum,  apricot,  peach,  &c.,  is  a  drupe. 

In  the  natural  system,  Olea  is  the  type  of  the  order  No.  124. 
Oleinm,  derived  from  the  Greek  words  EXaa  or  EAa;a  (Elaa, 
ElaiaJ  the  olice-tree ;  hence  Olea,  and  Oleum  oil  (of  the  olive). 
The  order  includes,  among  other  shrubs  less  known,  the 
Privets,  lilacs,  phillyreas ;    the  flowers   are   monopetalous,  with 


two  stamens  ;  and  the  seed-vessels  have  two  cells  ;  the  leaves 
are  simple,  and  opposite  to  one  another.  Some  of  the  generci 
comprise  evergreens  ;   others  deciduous  plants. 

The  Jasmine.  This  is  a  beautiful  family;  there  are  about 
ten  species  which  are  considered  greenhouse  plants,  and  most 
of  these  may  be  raised  by  cuttings,  placed  in  fine  white  sand  ; 
and,  when  rooted,  transferred  to  pots  singly,  containing  good 
rich  and  open  loam  ;  or  a  compost  of  loam,  peat-earth  or  sand, 
and  a  small  portion  of  perfectly  reduced  leaves  or  cow-dung. 

The  species,  out  of  which  a  selection  may  be  made,  accord- 
ing to  the  capacity  of  the  house,  &c.,  are  the  following,  those 
marked  thus  *,  being  superior  either  for  beauty  or  fragrance. 

Jasmine,  glaucous  or  sea-green,  from  the  Cape  in  1774- 

slender,  from  Norfolk  Island  in  1791. 

cape,  from  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1816. 

twisted,  do.  in  1818. 


-great  flowered,  from  East  Indies  in  1629. 

*  sweet  scented,  from  Madeira  in  1656. 

The  above  produce  white  flowers  ;  the  last 
named  is  a  climber,  attaining  twelve  or  more 
feet  in  height. 

*  azorean,  from  Madeira  in  1724. 

* revolute  flowered,  from  East  Indies  in  1812. 

The  last  is  also  a  tall  grower  ;  both  have  yellow  flowers. 

The  botanical  characters  of  the  genus  are,. — 

Jasminum.  Class  II.  Order  1.  Diandria  Monogynia.  Two 
stamens  ;  one  style.  Flowers  complete,  comprising  a  calyx  and 
corolla.  Calyx  of  one  leaf,  but  divided  into  five  segments. 
Corolla  inferior,  of  one  petal,  cut  into  five  or  more  segments, 
tubulous  below,  limb  or  border  spreading,  but  bent  back 
(revoluti)  in  one  or  two  species.  Germen  roundish,  which 
becomes  a  lierry  with  two  cells,  containing  as  many  seeds. 

In  the  natural  system.  The  Jasmine  is  referred  to  Jasmineee: 
an  order  which  contains  but  two  genera,  Jasminum  and  Nyc- 
ianthes.  These  are  not  far  removed  from  the  plants  of  the  or- 
der Oleina,  to  which  they  were  once  united.  It  has  been  re- 
marked, that  the  olives  will  succeed  by  grafting  upon  each 
other,  but  not  upon  the  jasmines  ;  but  surely  this  difference  is 
not  alone  to  be  decisive,  for  many  plants  which  evince  the 
nearest  relationship  will  not  unite  by  the  graft.  The  manifest 
distinction  between  the  entire  system  of  foliage  of  the  olives 
and  jasmines  would  offer,  I  conceive,  legitimate  cause  for  the 
separation  of  the  families. 

Schizanthus.  The  hlunt-petalled.  A  most  beautiful  spe- 
cies of  recent  introduction,  figured  in  the  Botanical  Register,  co- 
loured. I  extract  the  following  brief  notice  of  the  plant  from 
the  Botanical  Register.  "  Schizanthus  retusus. — Blunt-petal- 
led  Schizanthus.  A  splendid  annual.  Flowers  of  a  rich  rose 
colour,  blended  with  yellow.  Native  of  the  Andes  of  Mendosa, 
from  whence  specimens  were  received  from  Dr.  Gillies.  Culture  : 
We  are  ignorant  whether  it  is  capable  of  bearing  our  summers 
so  well  as  S.  pinnatus :  hitherto  it  has  been  cultivated  in  the 
greenhouse,  where  it  flowers  for  four  months  successively.  It 
is  easily  increased  by  cuttings."  I  may  add,  that  there  appears 
to  be  considerable  difficulty  in  rearing  this  fine  species.  I  pos- 
sessed but  one  plant,  and  wishing  to  increase  it,  took  off  the 
point  of  tbe  shoot  at  the  base  of  one  of  the  leaves,  in  October. 
The  young  plant  would  not  strike,  and  the  parent  sickened  from 
the  wound,  and  damped  off  during  the  winter.  I  lately  saw  a 
considerable  collection  at  a  celebrated  nursery,  and  observed 
that  the  young  plants  were  put  in  pots  about  three  or  four 
inches  wide,  containing  a  soil  closely  resembling  black  sandy 
heath  mould.  The  nurseryman  assured  me  that  he  could  raise 
the  plants  easily,  but  found  a  difficidty  of  preserving  them,  just 
at  the  period  when  they  showed  blossom.  Then,  a  plant  would 
become  sickly,  mouldy,  and  die  off  without  remedy  :  no  cause 
could  be  assigned,  nor  conjectured. 

There  are  five  or  six,  perhaps  more,  species  of  this  family, 
namely. 


ON    GREENHOUSE    PLANTS. 


Ill 


S.  pinnatus,  wiag>leaved  Scbizanthus, 
porrigens,  spreading  stalked  — 
Hookeri,    Hooker's  (chile)  — 

Grahami,  Graham's  (do.J  — 


hardy, 
-do. 


The  two  last  and  the  subject  of  this  article  were  introduced 
in  1828,  and  it  may  be  considered  but  semi-hardy  ;  at  least, 
tliey  appear  to  suifer  from  moisture.  The  term  Schizunihiis  is 
derived  from  two  Greek  words  which  indicate  aflmoer,  deeply 
cut  and  much  divided,  and  such  are  all  the  members  of  the 
family. 

ScHiZANTHCS  belongs  to  Diandria  Monogynia,  it  has  two 
stamina,  effective;  and  the  rudiments  of  two  others,  sterile. 
The  fiower  is  inferior.  The  cahjx  five-parted.  Corolla  of  two 
lips,  inverted,  the  upper  segment  (varying  from  the  usual 
position)  being  in  this  instance  the  lower  one.  So  sitiiated,  a 
flower  is  termed  resupinute.  A  leaf  resupinate,  has  its  faces 
reversed  by  a  twist  of  the  foot-stalk,  which  brings  the  lower 
surface  in  front ;  the  Alsfrosnomeria,  a  lovely  family,  afford  strik- 
ing examples  of  this  position  of  the  leaves.  The  upper  lip  of 
Schizanthus  is  in  five  parts  ;  the  lower  one  in  three,  narrow  and 
smaller.   Seed-vessel,  a.  capsule  of  tv.'0  cells  :  seerfs  numerous. 

Naturally,  this  genus  ranks  in  the  order  Scrophularinee,  and 
in  the  second  section,  wherein  two  only  of  the  stamens  have 
anthers.  Most  of  the  subjects  are  purely  herbaceous,  though  a 
few  are  shi-ubs.  In  this  section  are  to  be  found  the  extensive 
family  of  Speedwell  (Veronica),  the  beautiful  slipper-worts 
(Galceoluria) ,  the  hedge-hyssop  (Gratiola),  and  several  others 
less  known.     The  order  will  be  again  referred  to. 

JusTicEA.  A  family  of  plants  named  in  honour  of  J.  Jus- 
tice, a  Scotch  horticulturist  and  wi-iter  of  the  last  century,  and 
who  died  about  the  year  1761  or  1762. 

It  contains  a  great  number  of  species,  natives  chiefly  of  the 
East  and  West  Indies  ;  and  consequently  too  tender  for  green- 
house culture.  There  is  among  them,  however,  one  which  is  a 
plant  of  singular  interest,  and  which,  though  it  ranks  as  a  stove 
plant,  may,  I  think,  be  safely  preserved  in  the  dwelling  or 
greenhouse;  itisthe  "yellow-tufted"  Justicea,  and  one  of  the 
most  curious  flowerers  that  can  well  he  found  in  any  collection. 
In  the  Hortus  Britannicus,  it  is  stated  to  be  an  under  sknib  of 
the  stove,  growing  two  feet  high  with  yelloio  flowers,  imported 
from  Brazil  in  1825.  I  received  this  plant  from  a  friend  last 
July;  it  was  scarcely  three  inches  high,  but  showed  bloom. 
Owing  to  a  long  journey,  and  being  merely  wrapped  up  in  moss, 
it  had  little  vigour,  and  the  flower  failed.  Shortly  after,  how- 
ever, fresh  roots  were  formed,  and  it  soon  produced  a  flower- 
stem  that  increased  and  came  to  perfection.  I  noticed  the 
following  particulars  at  the  time,  December  7,  18.33;  they 
will  afford  evidence  of  the  nature  and  habits  of  the  plant.  Its 
flowers  are  produced  in  a  close  terminal  spike,  the  whole  of 
which  is  of  a  pale  yellowish,  slightly  green  tint.  This,  with  the 
tufty  form  of  the  spike,  gives  the  name  to  the  species.  The 
spike  is  formed  of  a  series  of  spikelets,  the  one  opposite  to  tlie 
other;  and  the  pairs  are  in  alternate  order,  at  a  right  angle 
with  those  above  and  below.  The  leaves  are  also  in  pairs,  and 
in  the  same  cross  or  rectangular  order  with  themselves,  and 
with  the  flowers  that  terminate  them.  These  leaves  (in  a  very 
small  plant  which  flowered  in  December  last)  assumed  an 
appearance  of  singular  interest.  As  the  flower-spike  advanced 
and  became  well  developed  from  being  flat,  and  extending 
horizontally,  they  gradually  curled  in  a  direction  towards  the 
stem,  some  of  them  bending  almost  spirally  downwards. 

They  are  large,  very  handsome,  ovate-cordate,  highly  glazed  ; 
and  somewhat  resemble  the  leaves  of  the  hornbeam,  with  the 
gloss  of  the  beech.  The  plant  is  a  ready  flowerer  ;  mine  was 
scarcely  six  inches  high;  I  kept  it  in  the  pine-stove,  wherein, 
throughout  October  and  November,  the  heat  during  night 
ranged  between  53  deg.  and  62  deg.  Late  in  November,  I 
perceived  that  several  unopened  flowers  fell  oflr;  I  therefore 
removed  the  plant  to  a  sitting  room,  some  blossoms  expanded 
in  the  course  of  a  day ;  and  exposed  as  it  was  to  the  vicissitudes 


of  temperature,  open  winjows  in  the  morning,  confined,  close 
ail'  in  the  evening,  &c.,  it  continued  in  health  and  bloom.  Thus 
this  stove  plant  appears  to  be  semi-hardy  ;  it  is  of  ready  cul- 
ture, and  grows  well  in  a  mixture  of  sandy  loam,  two  parts,  old 
decayed  wood  earth  and  leaf  mould,  each  one  part. 

I  must  add,  that,  on  the  21st  of  March,  1834,  the  spike  was 
still  in  a  very  ornamental  state.  In  January  all  the  first 
formed  flowers  had  developed  themselves  and  fallen  off  ;  the 
plant  was  then  removed  to  the  stove.  After  a  period  of  rest, 
the  spike  began  to  enlarge  itself,  and  other  flowers  were  formed. 
The  old  calyxes  and  tufts  remained  perfect  in  form  and  colour, 
and  early  in  the  present  month  a  complete  succession  of  blos- 
soms pushed  from  the  spaces  between  them.  The  spike  is  now 
double  its  former  size  ;  that  is,  about  five  inches  long,  and 
blossom  after  blossom  has  appeared.  In  a  word,  taking  all 
things  into  consideration,  though  the  colour  of  the  flower  is  not 
vivid,  the  plant  is  a  perfect  gem,  and  highly  deserving  of  ex- 
tended culture. 

In  the  Linnaean  system  Justicea  belongs  to  Diandria  Mo- 
nogynia. The  flowers  are  inferior,  monopetalous,  and  irregular. 
The  calyx  is  five  parted,  tubulous,  equal.  Corolla  ringent  or 
gaping,  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  :  the  upper  part  or 
lip  arched,  often  reflexed,  (bent  upwards  and  backwards)  ;  the 
lower  divided  into  two  or  three  equal  parts,  which  are  more  or 
less  reflexed.  Anthers  two-celled  ;  style  long  and  protruding. 
Capsule  oi  two  sells,  elastic,  with  two  seeds  fixed  by  little  hooks. 
One  plant  styled, 

Justicea  flavicomu,  or  perhaps  more  correctly  flavacoma. 
Justicia  with  a  yellow  lock,  or  yeUow  tufted,  presents  all  the 
above  essential  generic  characters,  with  the  specific  peculiarity 
of  having  the  divisions  of  the  flower-cup  (calyx)  terminated  by 
very  long  bristly  points. 

This  genus,  or  family,  forms  one  of  the  members  of  the 
oriei  Acanthacece,  the  145th  of  the  Hortus  Britannicus, 

Acanthus  is  the  type  of  the  order,  and  the  term  is  derived 
from  a  Greek  word  (akantha),  which  signifies  a  plant  or  shrub 
abounding  with  thorns,  A  fitter  type  for  a  tribe,  many  of 
whose  members  are  wholly  thornless,  might  surely  have  been 
chosen ;  however,  the  plants  agree  generally  in  the  peculiar 
elasticity  of  their  seed-vessels,  and  the  curiously  hooked  pro- 
cesses of  the  seeds.  Their  stems  also  are  swollen  just  above  the 
pairs  of  leaves,  and  that  swelling  gives  them  a  characteristic 
appearance  ;   cuttings  at  these  joints  strike  with  facility, 

Slipperwort — better  known  by  the  classic  term  Calceolaria,  a 
noble  family,  almost  without  exception,  of  recent  introduction. 
There  are  four  or  more  beautiful  undershrubs  in  the  genus, 
which,  though  introduced  about  the  year  1 822,  are  familiarly 
known,  and  extensively  cultivated  ;  there  are  many  others  of 
herbaceous  characters  which  are  perennial  or  biennial,  and  these 
sport  into  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  surpassing  beauty  ;  they 
are,  many  of  them  at  least,  prize  plants,  and  are  exhibited  by 
florists  and  others  at  exhibitions,  and  are  highly  admired. 

The  three  undershrubs  which  may  be  considered  sufficiently 
hardy  for  the  parterre,  are  the 

1.  Rugosa,  or  Wrinkled-leaved  Calceolaria,  with  yellow 
flowers,  produced  in  tufts  of  many  pairs  abundantly  throughout 
the  autumn.  The  leaves  are  ovate-lanceolate,  very  i-ugose  or 
wrinkled,  the  under  surface  stained  with  a  ferruginous  brown. 

2.  Integrifulia,  not  differing  materially  from  the  preceding, 
in  the  mode  and  duration  of  flowering.  The  leaves  lance- 
shaped,  less  rough. 

3.  Angustifolia,  Narrow-leaved,  perhaps  merely  a  variety  of 
the  last,  having  acute  nervous  leaves,  not  smooth  ;  also  yellow 
flowers.  Others  might  be  mentioned,  equally  adapted  to  the 
greenhouse  and  the  frame  during  winter,  and  to  the  decoration 
of  the  garden  after  midsummer.  They  are  indeed  almost  hardy 
plants,  for  cuttings  taken  in  December  last  from  plants  that 
had  stood  out  for  two  years  have  taken  root  in  a  cold  frame, 
the  cuttings  being  placed  in  sand,  laid  upon  a  substratum  of 
mould  in  a  pot. 

Bicolor,    or  diffusa — ^Two-coloured  Calceolaria,   is   certainly 


112 


0}f    GREENHOUSE    PLANTS. 


mor^  tender ;  its  leaves  are  roughish  ovate,  or  broader  at  the 
base,  of  a  delicate  pea-green,  and  downy.  The  flowers  are  pale 
sulphur-yellow ;  the  lower  and  larger  lip  tinged  with  white. 
The  greenhouse  is  rather  too  much  exposed  for  its  winter 
abode,  and  it  flourishes  in  rich  verdure  in  the  ^^nery  ;  but  it 
will  live  in  a  well-covered  pit. 

The  soil  for  these  shi-ubs  may  be  wood-earth,  or  the  siftings 
of  an  old  wood  pile  one-half,  heath  mould  one-quarter,  and 
fine  sandy  loam  one  quarter,  well  blended,  and  kept  in  aheap 
for  two  or  three  months.  This  compost  is  for  pot  culture.  In 
the  open  ground  after  May,  I  think  that  well-rooted  plants 
turned  out  of  pots  into  any  rich,  and  not  cloddy  soil,  will  not 
fail  to  thrive. 

Of  the  herbaceons  fancy  varieties,  it  would  be  endless  to 
write  ;   as  their-  tijpe,  the 

C'o-n/7nbosa,  or  corymbose  tufty-flowered,  may  suflSce  for  ge- 
neral notice.  It  is  a  beautiful  plant ;  its  flowers  are  large  and 
5  ellow  ;  the  sfaineiis  concealed  and  sensitive  when  touched.  Its 
leaves  are  large,  opposite,  in  pairs,  rough,  strongly  veined  ;  and 
it  throws  up  a  tall  branchy  fiov;er-stem,  the  leaves  upon  which 
are  rather  heart-shaped,  and  their  bases  nearly  meet  round  the 
stem.  It  requires  a  light  soil,  almost  wholly  consisting  of  the 
siftings  of  decayed  stalks,  and  leaves  of  trees  ;  the  rougher 
parts,  to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  being  placed  as  drainage  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pot.  This  species,  and  hundreds  of  varieties, 
may  be  raised  from  seeds  ;  though  perhaps  cross  impregnation 
is  very  frequently  resorted  to  by  the  florists,  The  plant  is 
tender,  during  winter. 

Calceolaria,  botanically,  is  found  in  Diundriu  Monogynia. 
Flowers  irregular  but  complete.  C'abja^  four-cleft.  Corolla, 
ringent  or  gaping,  inflated  :  the  lower  lip  generally  appearing 
like  the  fore  part  of  a  slipper.  Capsule  of  two  cells.  The 
plants  can  be  raised  from  seeds,  which  frequently  ripen  here, 
though  they  are  natives  of  Chile,  Peru,  &c. 

In  the  natural  system.  Calceolaria  is  the  first  of  the  section, 
with  tico  stamens,  of  the  order  Scroplndarinre,  an  order  which 
comprises  many  plants  with  irregular,  gaping,  and  personate 
flowers — such  as  foxglove,  toadfla.\,  and  the  like  ;  and  with  op- 
posite leaves,  of  herbaceous  habits.  The  few  shrubby  plants 
of  the  order  are  of  fragile  texture,  and  their  foliage  is  injured 
and  broken  by  the  slightest  violence  ;  this  too  is  often  seen  in 
the  shrubby  Calceolaria. 

The  Sage,  or  more  correctly  the  Salvia  family,  is  one  of 
great  interest ;  it  contains  many  plants  that  may  suit  the  green- 
house, but  they,  almost  without  exception,  appear  to  the  great- 
est advantage  in  the  flower-garden  after  midsummer.  In  co- 
lour, the  flowers  vary  from  v.hite  to  pale  pink,  scarlet,  and  the 
most  splendid  crimson  ;  blue  is  a  very  prevailing  tint,  and  this 
passes  through  a  variety  of  shades  till  it  is  lost  in  the  full  and 
deep  purple.  The  salvias  appear  to  me  to  be  the  connecting 
link  between  several  members  of  the  ringent  or  labiate  families 
of  this  second  Liunsean  class,  and  others  which  are  to  be  found 
in  the  fourteenth,  where  all  the  families  have  irregular  and  two- 
lipped  flowers. 

The  species  of  the  family  of  Salvia  are  too  numerous  to  be 
referred  to  ;  I  therefore  shall  select,  for  greenhouse  treatment, 
those  acknowledged  beauties. 

'1 .  The  Splendid,  S.  splendent,  a  native  of  Mexico,  introduced 
in  1822 — bright  scarlet. 

2.  The  Fulgent,  S.fulgeiis,  also  from  Mexico,  1829 — superb 
crimson. 

3.  The  Involucrated,  S.  involucraia,  from  Mexico,  1824  — 
pink. 

The  culture  of  these  salvias  is  very  easy :  it  may  be  effected 
by  cuttings  of  the  young  side-shoots,  or  of  the  upper  extre- 
mities of  the  shoots,  always  taken  under  a  joint,  or  at  the  juuc- 
tioa  with  a  stem.  These  cuttings,  or  even  slips,  the  lower 
leaves  being  removed,  are  to  be  placed  in  white  sand,  over  a 
rich    sandy  loam,  both  in  a  pot   or  deep  pan.     They  are  to  be 


inserted  just  so  deep  as  to  allow  the  next  joint  above  the  cuts 
to  rest  upon  the  surface  of  the  sand  ;  and  then  to  be  firmly  fixed 
by  pressing  the  sand  about  the  stems,  and  giving  them  a  gentle 
watering.  The  cuttings  may  stand  very  close  in  the  pots,  and 
fifty  may  be  struck  at  once  ;  the  pots,  however,  ought  to  have 
a  hand-glass  placed  over  them,  and  be  kept  shaded  from  the 
full  sun.  If  sand  alone  be  employed,  the  plants  ought  to  be 
potted  off  singly,  as  soon  as  they  have  produced  good  roots, 
into  small  sixty-size  pots,  of  rich  mellow  loam,  (such  as  couch 
soil,  and  decayed  vegetable  earth,  blended,  and  occasionally 
stirred  during  six  months.)  If  a  stratum  of  sand  an  inch  deep 
be  placed  over  good  soil  in  a  pot,  the  roots  will  be  excited  by 
the  sand,  and  then  will  proceed  into  the  soil  and  be  safe.  Sand 
is  not  absolutely  required,  but  it  is  an  exciting  medium  ;  hence 
tTie  nurserymen  use  much  of  it  in  propagating  plants  ;  and  it 
may  always  be  removed  and  again  employed,  provided  it  be 
kept  sepr.rate  from  the  soil.  Sandy  earth  will  be  sufficient,  if 
pure  sand  cannot  readily  he  obtained  ;  and  a  cold  frame  will 
affoi'd  warmth  and  protection  sufficient  for  the  work  after  the 
end  of  March,  when  the  stock  for  the  borders  and  patches  may 
be  prepared.  For  the  green-house  stock,  September  is  a  suit- 
able month,  and  the  young  plants  will  be  rooted  for  potting  off 
in  the  winter.  Salvia  sjjlendens  should  be  kept  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  50  degrees,  to  insure  a  handsome  foliage,  and  the  pot- 
ting should  be  repeated  as  the  roots  fill  their  pots;  the  soil  also 
ought  to  be  kept  moist.  I  have  now  by  me  seven  or  eight 
young  plants  which  were  potted  off  early  in  the  year  :  they 
have  been  in  a  stove,  and  now  show  their  fine  stalked  leaves  of 
the  richest  deep  verdure.  These  leaves,  in  a  cold  greenhouse, 
are  deficient  in  number,  become  ragged,  yellow,  and  sickly. 

The  floweis  appear  at  the  extremities  of  the  stems,  and  are 
scarlet  in  every  part.  In  winter  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
Corolla  is  not  produced ;  but  the  scarlet  calyx,  and  the  coloured 
bracteie  or  involucra,  which  partially  enclose  the  flowers,  are 
admirable  substitutes  for  the  absent  corollas.  The  graceful 
bend  of  the  flower  spike,  the  gorgeous  colour  of  the  blossom, 
and  the  verdure  of  the  broad  sub-cordate  (rather  heart-shaped) 
pointed  leaves,  standing  in  opposite  pairs,  and  each  pair  cross- 
ing the  one  immediately  below  it,  render  this  plant  one  of  the 
choicest  of  parlour  ornaments  in  the  early  spring.  In  the 
autumn,  \\hen  turned  out  of  the  pots  into  the  parterre,  the  plant 
forms  a  grand  object.  If  the  soil  be  rich  and  light,  in  great 
part  composed  of  vegetable  mould,  the  plant  sometimes  forms 
a  complete  bush,  three  feet  high,  extensively  branchy,  and 
covered  with  pendent  spikes  of  flowers  from  August  till  the 
period  of  frost,  a  hint  of  which,  however,  is  usually  fatal  to  it. 

Salvia  fulgens,  and  S.  involucraia,  on  the  contrary,  are 
hardier,  and  have  stood  in  the  open  ground  all  winter  under 
shelter  only  of  a  flower  pot  and  a  few  dry  leaves.  The  mode 
of  propagation  described  above  will  apply  to  these,  and  to  most 
other  species  of  the  family.  All  may  be  potted  and  repotted 
till  the  size  of  the  pots  becomes  inconvenient.  The  plants  may 
then  be  transferred  into  the  soil  of  the  garden,  to  which  they 
will  gradually  accommodate  themselves,  and  become  bej.utiful 
iu  the  autumn.  S.  fulgens  has  its  two-lipped  calices  of  a  dark 
purplish  green,  its  corollas  of  glowing  crimson,  covered,  espe- 
cially the  upper  finely  arched  lip,  with  gorgeous  velvet.  The 
corolla  is  neither  (as  far  as  I  have  seen)  absent  nor  defective  ; 
the  spike  is  erect,  and  the  flowers  most  abundant,  though 
more  loose  and  scattered  than  in  the  splendid  salvia.  S.  in- 
volucraia is  pink,  its  floral  leaves  large,  enclosing  the  flowers 
as  in  a  round  compact  ball.  The  spike  expands  erectly,  and 
developes  beautiful  reddish-lilac  flowers  ;  but  these  are  apt  to 
be  defective,  or  to  open  imperfectly.  Were  the  flowers  as  free 
in  expanding  as  they  are  individually  beautiful,  this  species 
would  be  unrivalled.  As  it  Is,  the  palm  must  be  yielded  to 
fulgens,  which,  under  every  consideration  of  beauty,  hardihood, 
and  certainty  of  flowering,  for  several  months,  is,  I  think,  the 
best  of  the  "whole  genus,  if  not  the  finest  autumnal  herbaceous 
plant  that  we  possess. 


NO    PKUITS    AND    FRUIT    TREES. 


113 


■   Of  blue  species  we  have 
Salvia  mexicana,         .  Mexico,  1824. 

boosiana  or  amaena,  Blue  Pemvian,  1821. 

indica,  .  .     India,  1731. 

angustifolia  .      Narrowleaved,  from  Mexico,  1806. 

Salvia  ranks  in  Dinandria  Monoyynia.     Flowers  complete,  of 

one  petal,  irre^lar,  or'  inferior,  or  below  the  fruit,  which  con- 
sists of  open  or  naked  seeds,  in  the  base  of  the  calyx — not  in  a 
seed-vessel.  Calyx,  various  in  figure,  in  some  species  inflated, 
in  some  with  three  lobes,  or  three-toothed;  and  in  others  five- 
toothed  :  thus  it  is  uncertain,  as  far  as  refers  to  the  generic 
character,  but  is  of  great  utility  in  arranging  the  species  under 
different  and  distinctive  heads. 

Corolla,  ringent  or  gaping — the  upper  lip  frequently  being 
bold,  arched,  and  prominent. 

Filaments  of  the  stamens  attached  to  the  lower  lip  about  mid- 
way by  a  slender  process,  on  which  they  are  fixed,  and  move  as 
on  a  centre  ;  from  this  centre  the  upper  half  of  each  filament 
projects  into  and  under  the  arch  of  the  upper  lip,  and  bears  one 


of  the  two  anthers  ;  while  the  lower  half  runs  down  the  tube  of 
the  flower,  becomes  somewhat  enlarged,  and  the  two  spurs 
or  heels  are  sometimes  partially  united  into  one.  The  whole 
structure  is  admirable  and  distinctive,  and  evinces  an  approach 
to  the  staminous  structure  of  the  lobiate  flowers  of  the 
14th  class. 

Seeds  frequently  ripen  and  vegetate. 

Salnia  is  found  in  the  natural  order  Liabata,  aud  in  the  5th 
tribe  Nepete<s.  This  order  is  not  far  removed  from  Cchrophu- 
larinea,  and  it  contains  many  of  the  genera  of  Diandria,  and 
all  those  of  the  first  order  of  the  14th  Linnaan  class,  which 
have  four  naked  seeds  seated  at  the  base  of  the  calyx.  More 
will  be  said  upon  the  labiate  flowers,  when  the  plants  of  that 
class  shall  come  under  consideration.  Several  greenhouse 
plants  might  be  added  to  the  list  furnished  by  Diandria  ;  but 
as  this  paper  has  become  extended,  and  the  genera  already 
noticed  will  yield  an  ample  number  of  subjects  to  those  who 
are  inclined  to  look  over  the  catalogues  published,  I  shall  here 
close  my  remarks  upon  the  Second  Class. 


ON  FRUITS  AND  FRUIT  TREES. 


BY    MR.    T.    RIVERS,    JUN.* 


I  AM  a'  great  lover  of  fruits,  and  a  persevering  cultivator ;  that 
is,  I  spare  no  pains  or  application  to  arrive  at  correct  nomen- 
clature ;  but  surely  no  one,  but  a  man  like  Mr.  Thompson  of 
the  London  Horticultural  Society,  can  form  any  idea  of  the 
extreme  difficulty  of  attaining  that  object.  Before  the  publica- 
tion of  his  catalogue  it  was  all  confusion.  Some  ten  or  fifteen 
years  since,  I  used  to  order  the  same  article  of  two  or  three 
respectable  London  nurserymen,  and,  if  they  all  proved  of 
similar  habits,  I  hoped  I  had  got  the  right ;  but  if,  as  it  often 
happened,  they  were  all  different,  I  almost  despaired  of  getting 
correctly  the  plant  I  wanted.  There  was  no  individual  blame, 
for  we  nurserymen  all  thought  we  were  right.  Thanks  to  the 
London  Horticultural  Society,  these  times  are  passed,  and  we 
now  know  what  to  recommend.  Mr.  Thompson  will,  however, 
find  the  Catahijue  even  now  to  require  revision  and  correction 
in  the  next  edition  :  his  ample  notes  taken  in  season,  and  his 
fine  opportunities  for  taking  them,  \vill  allow  him  to  do  this  in 
the  best  possible  manner. 

It  is  now  some  years  since  an  account  of  my  orchard  in 
miniature  was  published:  it  is  still  in  being,  and  annually 
exacts  my  admiration.  Planted  on  untrenched  gi'ound,  the 
substratum  strong  clay,  and  the  surface  never  dug,  though  kept 
quite  clean  with  the  hoe,  the  trees  make  short  shoots,  which 
are  made  still  shorter  by  the  knife  in  July  :  in  consequence, 
every  tree  is  a  dense  mass  of  blossom  and  fruit  in  its  respective 
seasons,  quite  delightful  to  witness.  None  of  the  trees  are 
larger  than  a  full-sized  gooseberry  bush. 

The  Flemish  and  other  jiew  Pears. — Every  person  with  a 
garden  of  ten  square  yards,  ought  to  plant  an  Easter  beurr^,  a 
Marie  Louise,  and  a  Hacon's  incomparable  pear  :  if  they  have 
a  larger  garden,  let  them  add  gloux  morceau,  beurr^  Diel, 
beurr^  ranee,  and  passe  Colmar.  These  pear  trees  are  all 
great  bearers  of  fruit  of  excellent  quality;  and  they  seem  to 
flourish  in  any  soil.  Confine  their  roots  in  a  basin  of  stones, 
and  you  may  have  a  pear  orchard  in  miniature  without  quince 
stocks.  I  have  a  pyretum,  in  a  row  on  each  side  of  a  walk,  of 
nearly  200  varieties,  in  which  is  evei-y  sort  that  I  have  ever 
heard  of  as  worth  notice  ;  besides  this,  in  difi'erent  parts  of  the 
ground,  in  detached  rows,  are  upwards  of  600  pear  trees  for 
bearing  fruit,  in  various  stages  of  growth,  from  5  years  to  50. 
Every  tree  planted  by  my  ancestors  (for  we  have  been  "  located  " 


here  nearly  a  century),  of  a  sort  not  exactly  to  my  mind,  I  have 
had  grafted  with  the  new  varieties  ;  and  the  effect  is  wonderful. 
I  hope  soon  to  be  able  to  send  all  the  valuable  sorts  to  market 
in  as  great  abundance  as  we  have  hitherto  done  those  that  are 
common  and  comparatively  worthless.  I  have  omitted  to  say 
that  all  nurserymen  may  grow  specimens  of  their  pears  even  in 
a  confined  space  :  every  alternate  year,  let  a  man  look  over  the 
trees  in  winter,  and  apply  to  the  roots  of  all  those  beginning  to 
shoot  luxuriantly,  a  sharp  spade  with  unsparing  hand  ;  reduce 
the  shoots  a  little  at  the  same  time,  and  there  will  soon  be  a 
regular  crop  of  blossom  buds. 

I  have  also  formed  a  proof  walk  of  Apples  of  250  sorts.  I  do 
not  allow  myself  to  get  beyond  this  uumber.  As  the  seasons 
roll  on,  and  defects  appear,  either  in  quality  or  growth,  I  give 
some  their  dismissal,  some  their  introduction,  and  at  last  hope 
to  be  somewhat  near  perfection.  The  spade  is  applied  to  the 
roots  of  the  apple  trees  in  the  same  manner  as  to  those  of  the 
pears,  to  check  luxuriance  ;  they  are  also  planted  ifa  untrenched 
ground,  with  a  solid  clayey  substratum. 

Plums  and  cherries  are  not  quite  so  tractable,  being  rather 
impatient  of  amputation,  though  I  do  not  despair  of  keeping 
plums  within  "rules  polite." 

An  Orchard  in  Pots.  Take  some  large  pots,  eights  or  twelves 
of  the  London  potteries,  some  strong  yellow  loam  mixed  with 
one  third  of  good  rotten  dung  in  lumps ;  well  drain  the  pots 
with  large  pieces  of  tiles  or  broken  pots,  and  in  this  compost 
plant  selected  small  dwarfs  of  Hawthornden,  courtpendu  plat, 
Kerry  pippin,  golden  Harvey,  Cole's  golden  drop,  Keswick 
codlin,  and  scarlet  nonpareil  apples ;  Passe  Colmar,  sickle, 
Beurre  de  Capiaumont,  Marie  Louise,  and  Easter  beurr^  pears ; 
also  two  or  three  dwarf  prolific  nuts.  Let  the  pots  stand  in  the 
centre,  if  a  confined  garden ;  and  by  all  means  keep  on  their 
surface,  all  summer,  lumps  of  rotten  manure.  Thus  treated,  it 
is  astonishing  how  they  will  flourish  ;  and,  if  well  supplied  with 
water  (if  manured  water,  the  better),  they  will  bear  plentifully. 
In  very  severe  winters,  a  little  straw  should  be  put  over  the 
pots,  to  prevent  the  roots  being  injured  by  the  extreme  frost. 
This  may  certainly  be  called  a  cockney  orchard ;  but  I  know 
that,  if  it  is  not  profitable,  it  is  very  pretty. 

Grapes  from  Layers  and  from  Eyes.  I  have  never  been  able, 
after  a  year  or  two,  to  observe  any  difi'erence  in  their  habits. 


*  From  the  Gardener's  Magazine. 
MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.11.  NO.  XVII. AUGUST,  1834. 


114 


ON    THE    COTTON    PLANT. 


A  prejudice  has  sometimes  arisen  against  layers,  owing  to  their 
being  planted  with  vigorous  shoots,  and  not  very  vigorous  roots  ; 
that  is,  layers  but  one  year  in  pots.  We  English  nurserymen 
are  apt  to  sell  all  our  plants  too  young  :  in  this  trading  country, 
every  one  wants  a  quick  return,  even  nurserymen  !  !  "  Heaven 
save  the  mark  !  !"  why,  we  ought  not  to  have  a  return,  but 
once  in  ten  yerrs.  Grapes  ought  to  be  layed  in  32-pots  the 
first  year ;  removed  from  the  stool,  and  put  into  larger  pots  the 
second  year ;  again  removed  into  twelves  the  third  or  fourth 
year,  and  not  sold  till  they  bear  fruit ;  and  then  the  gentleman 
who  plants  his  vinery  in  January  may  have  an  abundant  crop 
of  grapes  in  September.  Again,  our  trained  apples,  pears, 
plums,  cherries,  peaches,  nectarines,  and  apricots,  should  be 
trained  two  years  to  form  the  plants  ;  and  then,  instead  of 
allowing  them  to  get  full  of  rampant  and  luxuriant  wood,  let 
them  be  removed  cKery  season,  till  all  their  shoots  are  fully 
furnished  with  blossom  buds,  and  their  roots  are  in  a  state  to 
give  those  buds  enough  nourishment  to  bear  fruit  even  the  first 
season  of  removal. 


In  doing  all  this,  we  should,  perhaps,  like  many  other  great 
but  unremunerated  men,  live  before  our  times  :  our  trees,  that 
would  save  a  man  seven  years  of  his  life,  would  be  wanted  at 
the  same  price  as  an  unprepared  tree  ;  for;  in  writing,  A.  will 
oflfer  a  trained  tree  at  5s.,  B.  will  offer  his  at  7s.  Bd.,  and  in  a 
note  calls  his  prepared  trees  in  a  fruiting  state  ;  nevertheless, 
A.  will  have  the  order,  because  he  is  cheaper,  and  B.'s  recom- 
mendation will  be  thought  the  puff  professional.  This  will 
take  place  in  eight  cases  out  of  ten,  for  in  such  disproportion 
are  intelligent  amateurs  of  gardening  ;  so  that  poor  B.,  like  all 
clever  fellows  that  march  too  fast,  will  find  that  his  peep  in 
futuro  will  give  him  but  little  profit.  However,  as  the  plan 
has  not  yet  been  tried  to  any  extent,  let  us  hope,  in  this  ad- 
vancing age,  that  prepared  fruit  trees  may,  in  a  short  time,  be 
appreciated.  I  shall  most  certainly  try  it;  and  will,  some 
distant  day  (life  permitting),  send  you  a  trained  Easter  beurr^ 
pear,  with  a  blossom  bud  at  every  joint,  and  see  you  pluck  pears 
in  October,  from  a  tree  planted  the  same  year. 


ON  THE  COTTON   PLANT.* 


Cotton  is  by  far  the  most  important  product  of  the  plants 
of  the  order  Malvaceie  ;  it  was  known  in  very  ancient  times  ; 
its  consumption  has  increased  in  proportion  to  the  progress  of 
the  arts  and  civilization.  It  appears  to  have  been  originally 
known  only  as  a  product  of  India,  the  country  which  at  the 
present  day  is  supposed  by  many  incapable  of  producing  any 
but  the  inferior  kinds.  As  this  is  an  opinion  which  appears  to 
me  to  have  been  hastily  formed  from  the  results  of  experiments 
in  a  few  situations,  instead  of  after  an  investigation  into  the 
nature  and  variety  of  the  soils  and  climates  of  the  different 
provinces  of  this  extensive  country,  it  will  not  be  perhaps  irre- 
levant to  enter  into  a  few  details  on  the  sabject. 

That  cotton  was  originally  introduced  from  India  into  Egypt, 
seems  probable  from  Herodotus  not  mentioning  it  among  the 
products  of  the  latter  country,  which  he  would  hardly  have 
failed  doing  had  it  been  common  or  cultivated,  as  its  novel  and 
singular  appearance  must  have  struck  a  traveller  from  Europe; 
particularly  as  in  his  account  of  the  Indians,  he  mentions  that 
they  possess  a  kind  of  plant,  which,  instead  of  fruit,  produces 
wool  of  a  finer  and  better  quality  than  that  of  sheep :  of  this 
the  natives  make  their  clothes.  In  another  place,  he  mentions 
that  the  Egyptians,  as  well  as  the  priesthood,  are  so  regardful 
of  neatness,  that  they  wear  only  linen  clothing,  and  that  always 
newly  washed.  Book  2.  c.  37;  and  again  at  c.  71.  "Their 
habit  is  made  of  linen  ;  over  this  they  throw  a  kind  of  shawl 
made  of  white  avooI,  but  in  these  vests  of  wool  they  are  for- 
bidden by  their  religion  either  to  be  buried,  or  to  enter  any 
sacred  edifice."  By  some  authors  it  has  been  suggested  that 
wo  ought  in  some  places  to  read  cotton  instead  of  linen  ,■  but 
this  seems  to  be  taking  for  granted,  that  the  former  was  as 
common  in  Egypt  in  ancient  times,  as  it  is  at  present;  and  it 
appears  to  me,  that  in  other  places  we  ought  to  read  linen  instead 
.  cotton,  as  in  the  account  of  the  Egyptian  mode  of  embalming, 
the  body  is  said  to  be  wrapped  up  in  bandages  of  cotton. 
That  this  was  not  the  case,  is  proved  by  all  the  mummies  which 
have  been  opened  and  the  cloth  carefully  examined  under  the 
microscope,  having  been  found  to  be  swathed  only  in  linen 
cloth  ;  which  it  is  not  likely  would  have  been  the  case,  if  cotton 
had  been  as  common  an  article  of  clothing  in  those,  as  it  is  in 
the  present  day,  particidarly  as  some  of  that  used  for  this  pur- 
pose appears  to  have  been  previously  worn,  as  it  is  repaired  in 
some  places.      It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  cotton  fabrics 


were  introduced  into  Egypt  from  India  even  at  the  earliest  histo- 
rical periods,  with  cinnamon,  cassia,  and  frankincense.  Pliny, 
writing  about  500  years  subsecjuent  to  the  time  of  Herodotus, 
mentions,  lib.  19,  c.  1,  that  the  upper  part  of  Egypt,  verging 
towards  Arabia,  produces  a  small  shrub,  which  some  call  (jossy- 
pion,  others  xylon,  and  from  the  latter  the  cloth  made  from  it. 
xylinu,  bearing  a  fruit  like  a  nut,  from  the  interior  of  which  a 
kind  of  wOol  is  produced,  from  which  cloths  are  manufactured 
inferior  to  none  for  whiteness  and  softness,  and  therefore  much 
prized  by  the  Egyptian  priesthood.  Dr.  Harris,  in  his  Natural 
History  of  the  Bible,  quotes  several  authors  to  show  that 
cotton  was  known  to  the  Hebrews,  adding  that  the  name  liutz, 
by  which  it  is  distinguished,  is  not  fonnd  among  the  Jews  till 
the  time  of  their  royalty,  when  by  commerce  they  obtained 
articles  of  dress  from  other  nations.  The  author  of  the  Ruins 
of  Palmyra  has  shown  that  the  East-Indian  trade  by  that  city 
into  Syria  was  as  ancient  as  the  days  of  Solomon  ;  and  Heeren 
concludes,  that  cotton  fabrics  formed  an  article  of  the  ancient 
commerce  with  India,  as  Ctesias  mentions  that  the  Indians 
possess  an  insect,  which  affords  a  red  colour  more  brilliant  than 
cinnabar,  which  they  employ  in  dyeing  their  stuffs.  Theo- 
phrastus,  lib.  4,  c.  9.,  and  Pliny,  lib.  12,  c.  10,  who  follows 
him,  mentions  that  the  islands  Tylos  and  Aradus,  the  modern 
Bahrein,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  produce  abundance  of  cotton, 
which  was  manufactured  into  clothing.  Heeren,  Commerce  of 
the  Ancients,  vol.  ii.,  p.  278,  Fr.  ecL,  concludes  by  saying,  "II 
est  fort  probable  que  les  plantations  de  Tylos  furent  le  resultat 
du  commerce  avec  I'Inde,  veritable  patrie  du  coton." 

It  has  sometimes  been  considered  a  subject  of  doubt,  whether 
cotton  was  indigenous  to  America,  as  well  as  to  Asia ;  but 
without  sufficient  reason,  as  it  is  mentioned  by  very  early 
voyagers,  formed  the  only  clothing  of  the  natives  of  Mexico  ; 
and  as  stated  by  Humboldt,  is  one  of  the  plants  of  which  the 
cultivation  among  the  Aztec  tribes  was  as  ancient  as  that  of  the 
pili  (AgaveJ,  the  maize  and  the  quinoa  (Chenopoiliumj .  If 
more  evidence  be  required  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  Mr. 
Brown  has  in  his  possession  cotton  not  separated  from  the 
seeds,  as  well  as  cloth  manufactured  from  it,  brought  by  Mr. 
Gumming  from  the  Peruvian  tombs  ;  and  it  may  be  added,  that 
the  species  now  recognised  as  American,  differ  in  character 
from  all  the  known  Indian  species. 

In  a  cultivated  state,  cotton  is  now  distributed  over  a  very 


From  Royle's  Illustrations  of  Indian  Botany. 


ON    THE    COTTCN    PLANT. 


wide  expanse  of  the  globe  on  both  sides  of  the  Equator :  on 
the  north  extending  as  far  as  the  southern  shores  of  Europe, 
and  on  the  south  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  in  the  islands  of 
the  .  Pacific  Ocean,  it  if  found  both  in  the  Friendly  and  the 
Society  Islands.  Nearly  under  the  Line  is  is  cultivated  in  the 
islands  of  Celebes,  Java,  Timor,  and  the  Seychelles,  as  well  as 
in  Kutung,  where  the  best  is  said  to  be  grown,  extending 
northwards  up  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  along  the  coast  of 
Tenasserim  into  the  Burhmese  territory,  and  from  this  west- 
ward into  Siam  and  Cliina,  whence  there  is  a  peculiar  species. 
Cotton  is  common  in  every  part  of  India;  a  wild  species  was 
found  in  Ceylon,  and  another  in  Silhet  by  Dr.  Roxburgh. 
From  India  the  cotton  seems  to  have  travelled  by  the  way  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  into  Arabia,  as  well  as  into  Persia,  and  from 
thence  to  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  From  Arabia  and  from  the 
ancient  commerce  by  the  Red  Sea  with  India  it  was  probably 
introduced  into  Egypt,  whence  it  seems  to  have  spread  into  the 
interior  of  Africa,  and  to  both  its  western  and  northern  coasts. 
The  islands  and  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  long  supplied 
Europe  with  all  the  cotton  it  required  ;  during  the  reign  of 
Napoleon,  he  caused  it  to  be  introduced  into  Corsica,  Italy, 
and  the  southern  parts  of  France  ;  and  Mr.  Kirkpatrick  culti- 
vated it  in  Spain,  near  Malaga.  In  America,  cotton  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  Eng- 
lisn  settlements  ;  one  species  is  peculiar  to  Pera  ;  others  are 
cultivated  in  the  West-India  islands  ;  also  in  Mexico,  and  in 
tlie  southern  states,  as  Georgia  and  Carolina  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America. 

Knowing  the  countries  through  which  cotton  is  already  spread, 
the  next  interesting  subject  of  inquiry  is  to  ascertain  the  kind 
of  climate  it  requires,  as  well  as  that  of  the  countries  where  the 
best  kinds  are  grown,  and,  if  possible,  to  determine  whether 
this  superiority  depends  on  the  excellency  of  the  seed,  the  good- 
ness of  the  climate,  or  care  in  the  cidture  ;  and  here  the  general 
results  which  have  been  deduced  by  the  illustrious  Humboldt 
render  the  most  essential  assistance.  He  remarks  that  Gossy- 
]num  barhadense  hirsutum,  and  relU/wsuin,  have  their  favourite 
climate,  from  0  to  34  deg.  of  latitude,  where  the  annual  tempera- 
ture is  from  82  68  deg.,  but  that  G.  Herhacium  is  success- 
fully cultivated  in  the  temperate  zone,  where,  with  a  mean 
summer  heat  of  75.73  deg.,  that  of  winter  is  not  less  than 
46.48  deg.  Cotton  is,  however,  cultivated  as  high  as  37  deg. 
of  N.  latitude  in  America  ;  beyond  latitude  40  deg.  in  Europe, 
and  even  as  far  North  as  46  deg.  near  Astrakan. 

As  the  British  possessions  in  India  extend  from  8  to  31  deg. 
of  N.  latitude,  the  whole  are  included  within  the  favourite 
tract  of  the  cotton  ;  and  as  Mr.  J.  Prinsep  has  presented  us 
with  an  epitome  of  the  meteorological  phenomena  at  five  places 
from  12  to  30  deg.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  year,  along  the  whole  extent,  is  what  is  required  for  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant.  By  all  the  observations  to  which 
Mr.  Prinsep  had  access,  the  mean  temperature  of  Madras  is 
found  to  be  81.96  deg.;  of  Ava,  78.39  deg. ;  of  Calcutta, 
78.13  deg.;  of  Benares,  77.  81  deg. ;  and  of  Saharunpore, 
73.  5  deg. :  to  these  may  be  added  that  of  Nagpore,  about 
80  deg.  ;  Nusseerabad,  76 deg;  Bancoorah,  74.  5deg. ;  Delhi, 
about  75  deg.  The  mean  temperatui-e  of  the  winter  months  at 
Saharunpore,  the  most  northern  station,  is  moreover  about 
55  deg.,  and  though  we  are  without  any  precise  data  respecting 
the  nature  of  the  climate  of  the  Tinnevelly  district,  the  most 
.southern  portion,  where,  however,  the  best  cotton  is  at  pre- 
sent grown,  we  may  safely  assume  that  in  point  of  temperature, 
and,  I  believe,  in  the  course  of  the  seasons,  every  part  of  the 
Indian  territories  is  fitted  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton. 

With  respect  to  elevation,  Humbodt  mentions  that  in  the 
aequinotical  regions  of  America,  cotton  extends  to  nearly  9,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  in  Mexico,  in  1 9  deg.  22  min. 
of  N.  latitude,  it  reaches  only  to  5,500  feet.  In  the  Hima- 
layas I  have  seen  it  above  4,0o0  feet  in  the  tract  between  the 
Ganges  and  Jumma  rivers ;   Dr.  Govan  mentions  it  as  extend- 


ing with  the  sugar-cane  to  about  4,200  feet  between  the  Jumna 
and  Sutlej  rivers  ;  both  situations  are  within  28  to  31^  deg.  of 
N.  lattitude  ;  but  in  neither  is  it  cultivated  to  any  extent,  a 
few  plants  only  are  grown  about  the  villages,  of  which  the  pro- 
duce is  used  by  the  females  of  the  family.  Mr.  Trail  mentions 
that  the  cotton  of  the  Kemaon  district  is  superior  to  that  of 
the  plains  in  softness  of  texture,  gloss  of  colour,  and  length 
of  fibre. 

In  addition  to  the  information  which  has  'dcen  obtained  re- 
garding the  temperature  required  for  the  successful  growth  of 
cotton,  and  the  notices  we  have  from  cultivators  respecting  the 
soil,  it  is  desirable  also  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  atmospheric 
dryness  and  moisture  wMch  is  best  suited  to  the  formation  of 
cotton-wool.  Respecting  this  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  any 
information,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  from  the  extent  of  their 
distribution,  the  several  cultivated  species  must  be  subject  to 
very  different  degrees  of  evaporation,  and  the  production  of 
cotton,  both  as  regard  quantity  and  quality,  must,  I  conceive, 
be  influenced  by  this  as  well  as  other  causes,  particularly  as  we 
know  that  the  formation  of  flowers  and  fruit  depends  upon  the 
nature  and  quality  of  the  secretions  which  are  formed  by  the 
leaves,  and  in  the  cotton,  probably,  by  the  leaflets  of  the  in- 
volucel  or  exterior  calyx.  As  the  density  of  these  secretions 
depends  as  much  upon  the  rate  of  perspiration  as  upon  the  sup- 
ply of  moisture  by  the  roots,  it  follows  that  dilferent  states  of 
humidity  in  the  atmosphere,  checking  or  exciting  perspiration, 
will  influence  the  retention  of  the  fluids  in  the  state  of  sap,  or 
their  conversion  into  concentrated  secretions  ;  and,  as  it  is  upon 
the  latter  that  depend  the  formation  of  flowers  and  fruit,  it 
follows  that  whatever  favours  the  former  will  be  useful  to  tlic 
latter ;  or,  as  Professor  Lindley  has  well  and  briefly  expressed 
it,  Transplantation,  a  dry  and  heated  (and  it  may  be  added  a 
rarified)  atmostphere,  a  judicious  pruning  of  the  extremities  of 
young  growing  branches,  a  great  decomposition  of  carbonic 
acid  by  full  exposure  to  light,  or  whatever  interrupts  the  ra- 
pid  flow  of  sap,  favours  its  concentration  and  the  diminution  of 
excessive  vegetative  vigour,  assists  the  formation  of  flower- 
buds,  and  consequently  the  production  of  flowers.  But  a  moist 
or  richly-manured  soil,  high  temperature,  with  great  atmos- 
pheric humidity,  a  free  and  uninterrupted  circulation  of  sap,  or 
a  great  accumulation  of  oxygen,  in  consequence  of  the  imper- 
fect decomposition  of  carbonic  acid,  have  all  a  tendency  to  di- 
lute the  sap,  promote  the  excessively  rapid  growth,  the  almost 
exclusive  production  of  leaf-buds,  and  are  therefore  unfavour- 
able to  the  formation  of  flower-buds.  v.  Principles  of  Horli- 
cnltwe,  p.  85,  and  p.  54.  The  same  reasoning  will  apply  to 
the  production  of  fruit  and  the  perfection  of  seed,  as  well  as 
cotton,  and  any  other  accessaries  or  secretions. 

The  degree  of  moisture  and  dryness  which  is  best  suited  tn 
each  species,  and  for  the  production  of  its  several  parts  and 
products  varies  so  much,  that  what  is  excessive  for  one 
plant,  may  be  just  the  degree  that  is  requisite  for  another. 
What  this  is,  can  only  be  known  in  general  from  experiment 
and  observation  ;  and  in  the  present  case  we  only  know  what 
some  cultivators  have  stated  that,  according  to  the  moisture  or 
dryness  ofa  climate,  the  cotton  was  long  or  short  stapled,  fine 
or  coarse,  early  or  late  in  flowering,  as  well  as  varying  in  the 
quantity  it  bore.  There  is  no  doubt  considerable  difterenccs 
must  exist  in  this  respect  between  the  equability  of  insular  cli- 
mates within  the  tropics,  the  moist  climates  of  Bengal  anil 
Guiana,  and  the  moderation  in  temperature  and  evaporation 
of  Georgia  and  Carolina,  as  well  as  of  the  south  of  Europe. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  quality  of  cotton  improves 
in  proportion  to  its  vicinity  to  the  sea ;  but  the  Pernambuco 
cotton  is  said  to  be  injured  by  this  proximity,  and  to  improve 
in  proportion  as  its  cultivation  advances  into  the  interior  (A'os- 
ter's  Brazil).  Wtih  regard  to  latitude,  the  cotton  of  Java 
under  the  Line  is  almost  the  worst  in  the  market,  and  that 
from  Guiana  and  Brazil,  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  Line,  is 
the  second  in  quality ;  while  that  from  Jamaica,  in  20  deg.  of 


116 


ON    THE    INCREASE    OF    THE    ROOTS    &C.    IN    THE    SILVER    FIR. 


N.  latitude,  more  costly  ia  production,  is  30  per  cent,  worse 
than  that  from  Demerara,  14  deg.  more  to  the  southward; 
■while  the  cotton  of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  nearly  at  the 
most  northern  limit  of  its  extension,  is  the  best  that  is  pro- 
duced ;  and  the  cotton  of  Egypt,  of  which  the  cultivation,  with 
returning  civilization,  has  returned  to  the  country  by  which  It 
was  first  made  known  in  Europe,  is  of  excellent  quality.  In 
India,  though  some  fine  cotton  is  produceed  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Dacca,  and  some  other  places,  that  of  Bengal,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Colebrook,  is  worse  than  that  of  the  north-western 
provinces ;  and  the  natural  vegetation  of  these,  as  we  have 
seen  in  so  many  instances,  corresponds  to  that  of  the  coast  of 
Coromandel,  where  the  cotton  is  grown,  of  which  the  Madras 
long-cloths  are  made.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  not 
only  is  temperature  necessary  to  be  considered,  but  also  the 
due  balance  between  the  supply  of  moisture  to  the  roots,  and 
its  escape  by  the  perspiratory  surface  of  the  leaves,  as  well  as 
aU  the  varied  processes  of  a  judicious  culture,  in  addition  to  the 
choice  of  the  species  or  variety  to  be  •  cultivated  in  any  parti- 
cular locality. 

In  the   choice,    however,  of  seeds,  it  does  not  follow  that 
that  which  is   best  suited  to  one  climate,  is  the  kind  most 


eligible  for  introduction  into  another,  where  the  requisites  of 
soil  and  climate  may  be  neither  identical  nor  analogous.  Dr. 
Rohr  and  Bennet  mention,  that  even  in  the  same  field  some 
plants  were  ten  times  more  productive  than  others,  and  that  a 
variety  which  was  sterile  in  one  situation,  became  fertile  when 
removed  to  another,  which  did  noe  appear  more  favourable ; 
while  a  kind  that  in  one  bore  but  little  cotton,  became  most 
productive  in  a  neighbouring  farm.  Much,  therefore,  may  be 
done  in  improving  the  kinds  which  already  exist  in  India,  by 
ascertaining  with  precision  the  parts  of  the  country  where  the 
best  cotton  is  already  produced,  the  peculiarities  of  soil,  climate, 
and  culture,  selecting  the  most  prolific  plants,  and  extending 
their  cultivation,  to  the  exclusion  of  less  fertile  and  inferior 
kinds ;  exchanging  the  produce  of  one  place  with  that  of  another, 
when  others  can  be  induced  to  take  the  same  trouble  in  select- 
ing and  preserving  only  the  best  kind  of  seed.  Doing,  in  fact, 
what  is  every  where  done  by  all  who  are  interested  in  the  im- 
proved cultivation  of  grain,  vegetables,  fruit,  or  flowers  ;  though 
some  varieties  are  difficult  to  propagate  by  seed,  yet  others 
may  be  continued  sufficiently  long  to  attain  the  permanency  of 
species,  instead  of  the  liability  to  change  of  varieties. — To  he 
concluded  in  our  next. 


NEW  METHOD  OF  CULTIVATING  THE  MUSHROOM. 


The  author  informs  us  that  being  a  great  lover  of  mushrooms, 
he  was  desirous  of  obtaining  them  more  readily  than  they  were 
to  be  had  in  his  native  city  ;  and,  for  this  purpose  he  sought 
for  information  on  the  subject  of  their  culture  in  books,  by  ob- 
servation, by  travel,  and  by  conversing  with  cultivators.  He 
does  not  seem  to  have  had  recourse  to  any  English  works  ;  but 
an  Englishman  gave  him  directions  how  to  make  spawn.  By 
observation  he  found  that  too  much  humidity  and  too  much 
dryness  alike  destroyed  the  mushroom  spawn,  whether  in  pas- 
tures or  in  artificial  beds.  He  found  that,  if  much  rain  fell  in 
May  and  June,  there  were  very  few  mushrooms  to  be  found  in 
the  September  following.  He  also  found  that  watering  a 
mushroom  bed  immediately  after  it  was  made  destroyed  the 
spawn,  as  did  exposing  the  bed  to  the  full  influence  of  the  light 
and  air.  In  the  course  of  a  tour  of  Germany  he  learned  what 
he  considers  the  best  mode  of  producing  spawn ;  which  is  by  the 
use  of  short  horse  dung  with  a  little  dry  cow-dung ;  these 
being  mixed  together,  the  mass  is  peirced  with  holes,  into  each 
of  which  a  little  bran  of  wheat  and  a  pinch  of  sal  ammoniac  is 
put.  He  concludes  his  chapter  ou  making  spawn  by  obsei-ving 
that,  if  the  farmers  and  stable-keepers  of  Belgium  knew  how 
to  cultivate  mushrooms,  they  might  soon  become  so  abundant 
throughout  the  year,  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  the  poorest 
citizen.     This  is  an  excellent  idea,  and  if  acted  upon  would  be 


not  only  profitable,  but  a  means  of  occupying  the  hours  he  now 
spends  in  the  tavern. 

Perhaps  the  only  idea  in  the  tract  which  is  new  to  the  En- 
glish gardener,  is  that  of  employing  the  dried  powder  of  cow- 
dung  as  a  surface  dressing  to  mushroom  beds,  and,  after  it  is 
laid  on,  watering  it  with  water  in  which  nitre  has  been  dissol- 
ved, at  the  rate  of  two  ounces  of  nitre  to  the  water  intended 
for  four  square  feet  of  ground.  The  use  of  nitre,  the  author 
says,  is  an  invention  of  his  own  ;  and  he  thinks  that  it  not  only 
produces  a  more  abundant  crop,  but  eight  or  ten  days  earlier. 

He  grows  mushrooms  in  Ijoxes,  drawers,  and  in  all  the  cliiFe- 
rent  modes  now  in  use,  and  he  goes  even  so  far  as  to  cultivate 
them  on  the  shelves  or  presses,  in  stables  or  cow-houses, |in  cel- 
lars, in  garrets,  in  closets  under  stairs,  in  old  chests  of  drawers, 
in  bedrooms,  and  under  stages  of  flowers  even  in  drawing-rooms ; 
in  short,  wherever  he  can  find  room  for  a  drawer  or  box  7  inches 
deep. 

To  preserve  mushrooms  fresh  for  a  few  days  after  being  ga- 
thered, he  tells  us  to  put  them  in  a  flower-pot  among  dry  sand, 
and  set  the  pot  in  a  cool  place.  To  preserve  them  for  a  few- 
months,  he  orders  them  to  be  dried  a  little,  next  to  coat  them 
with  butter,  and  then  immerse  them  in  jelly  in  a  gallipot, 
covering  them  with  melted  suet,  and  tying  a  piece  of  bladder 
to  the  mouth  of  the  pot. 


ON  THE  INCREASE  OF  THE  ROOTS  AND  THE  STUMP  IN  THE  SILVER  FIR  LONG  AFTER  IT    HAS   BEEN 

FELLED. 

By  M.  Ddtrochet,  Member  ot  the  Institute,  Paris. 


When  a  tree  has  been  felled,  and  when  no  shoots  arise  from 
this  stump,  as  well  as  the  roots  which  fix  it  in  the  ground,  fail 
not  iu  a  short  time  to  die.  The  cause  of  this  phenomenon  is 
found  in  that  well-known  law  of  vegetation  by  which  the  leaves 
are  produced  from  the  efi^ect  of  the  sap,  the  latter  being  essen- 
tial to  the  life  and  gi-owth  of  the  tree,  both  in  the  branches  and 
the  root.  When  the  stump  reproduces  stems  after  the  tree  has 
been  felled,  the  roots  may  continue  to  flourish  to  an  indefinite 
period.  Thus,  in  coppice-woods,  the  roots  of  the  same  trees  live 
to  an  indefinite  number  of  centuries,  and  their  existence  may  be 
prolonged  to  an  indeterminate  period.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  coniferous  trees  never  reproduce  stems  when  the  tree  has 
been  felled  ;  and  that  the  stump  and  roots  which  fix  it  in  the 
earth  usually  die,  and  are  quickly  decomposed. 

There  is,  however,  a  very  remarkable  exception  to  this  fact 


in  the  silver  fir  (Pimis  picea,  Lin.,  Abies pectina la,  De  Cand.) 
The  stump  and  roots  of  this  tree  continue  to  live,  and  even 
grow,  during  a  great  number  of  years.  This  singular  fact  was 
pointed  out  to  me  by  my  brother,  inspector  of  forests,  one  of  the 
most  intelligent  men  connected  with  the  forest  administration  ; 
though  I  must  confess  I  doubted  the  fact  till  I  was  enabled  to 
verify  it  myself.  1  have  seen  old  stumps  of  the  sUver  fir  which 
according  to  certain  marks,  had  been  felled  forty-five  year, 
before,  still  full  of  life.  The  interior  was  entirely  decayed,  but 
the  outer  wood  and  the  bark  presented  signs  of  life.  These  ob- 
servations were  made  in  the  spring ;  the  stump  and  the  roots 
being  full  of  sap,  the  bark,  separated  from  the  wood  by  the 
effusion  of  the  pulp  (cambium)  was  easily  detached.  This  bark 
and  the  wood  adjacent,  had  all  the  appearances  which  these 
present  when  in  a  flourishing  state. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


117 


The  existence  of  the  pulp  (camhium)  indicated  that  the  stump 
was  increasing  in  diameter.  This  point  I  was  also  able  to 
prove,  which  I  did  in  the  following  manner.  I  perceived  that 
a  kind  of  enlargement  was  formed  between  the  bark  and  the 
wood  of  the  stump,  and  that  this  swelling,  consisting  of  the 
wood  and  bark  which  hal  been  produced  since  the  tree  was 
felled,  had  again  covered  a  portion  of  the  transversal  section  of 
tlie  stump,  so  that  the  section  of  the  sap  which  limited  the 
central  system  of  the  tree  at  the  time  of  its  being  felled  was 
in  perfect  preservation.  The  traces  of  the  axe  on  this  sap, 
transversely  divided,  removed  all  doubts  on  this  point.  I  have 
also  seen  on  all  these  stumps  an  increase  in  diameter  from 
the  production  of  new  pulp,  the  thickness  of  which,  in  the 
old  branches  which  I  examined,  was  about  two-fifths  of  an 
inch,  so  that  these  stumps,  during  the  space  of  forty-five  years, 
had  acquired  a  total  increase  of  four-fiths  of  an  inch,  or  eight 
lines  in  diameter. — The  phenomenon  which  the  silver  fir  pre- 
sents in  such  circumstances,  appears  at  first  sight  to  invalidate 
the  theory  which  supposes  the  sap  furnishing  the  materials  for 


growth  to  be  derived  from  the  leaves  or  the   umbrageous  parts 
of  the  vegetable. 

But  the  extreme  scantiness  of  the  increase  in  the  diameter  of 
the  stump  of  the  silver  fir,  on  the  contrary,  confirms,  this  theory 
which  continues  to  live  during  so  great  a  number  of  years,  (for 
the  stump,  increases  thus  slowly  from  the  want  of  leaves,  which 
arep  eeidiarly  the  productive  organs  of  the  nutritive  pulp.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  roots  of  this  tree  possesses  the  facultyof  producing 
a  small  quantity  of  crude  sap,  and  converting  it  into  nutritive 
pulp,  which  preserves  life  in  the  roots  and  stump,  and  contri- 
butes to  their  scanty  growth  during  a  great  number  of  years. 
This  faculty  is  wanting  in  the  Norway  spruce  and  the  Scotch 
fir,  (Pynus  silvesfris) ,  of  which  the  stumps  and  roots  die  soon 
after  the  tree  has  been  felled.  Whence  arises  this  diilerence  ? 
This  is  a  question  not  easy  decided.  However  this  may  be, 
the  fact  is  very  remarkable,  which  proves  that  the  roots  of  the 
trees,  and  the  small  portion  of  the  stem  which  is  left  when  they 
are  felled,  do,  in  certain  eases,  live  a  long  time  and  increase, 
though  not  surmounted  by  any  foliage. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


ARUM  MACULATUM. 

Polyadelphia,     Polyandria.     Linn. 

Aroidese.     Juss. 

Flowers  arranged  upon  a  spadix  :  sometimes  separated,  but 
most  frequently  naked.  Stamens  in  the  naked  flowers  aggre- 
gate :  in  the  covered  ones  opposite  to  the  lobes  of  the  perianth, 
most  frequently  equal  to  them  in  number.  Anthers  turned 
outwards.  Ovaries  in  the  separated  flowers,  aggregate  and 
occupying  the  lower  portion  of  the  spadix ;  in  the  perfect  ones 
solitary  within  the  perianth,  style  more  simple.  Stigma,  Peri- 
carp berried  or  nut-like.  Seeds  Albuminose,  radical,  obtuse, 
directed  towards  the  hilum,  or  rarely  opposite  to.  Herbaceous 
root  frequently  tuberous  or  thickened  leaves,  sheathing  simple 
or  compound,  all  of  them  radical. 

This  plant  possesses  a  highly  acrid  and  poisonous  juice, 
dissipated  however  by  heat.  Its  medical  properties  are  well 
known,  and  it  is  applied  to  many  purposes  in  our  pharmacopiae. 

PETUNIA  VIOLACEA. 

Pentandria.     Monogynia.     Linn. 

Solaneaa.     Jnss. 

Calgx,  shortly  tubular,  leafy,  leaflets  lacinated.  Corolla, 
tube  cylindrical,  bellying,  limb  plaited  and  divided  into  five 
unequal  lobes.  Stamina  five  unequal,  inserted  in  the  middle 
and  within  the  tube  of  the  corolla.  Ovarium  on  a  disk  having 
one  tooth  on  each  side.  Stigma  capitate.  Capsule  with  two 
valves.     Seeds  spherical  and  netted. 

Stems  prostrate,  clammy  and  hairy  ;  leaves  oval,  with  siiort 
footstalks.     Corolla  bellying,  lips  cut  into  short  divisions. 

There  are  few  plants  that  surpass  this  in  brilliancy  of  blos- 
soms and  general  beauty.  It  is  a  native  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
from  whence  seeds  wei'e  sent  to  this  country  in  1830,  by  Mr. 
Tweedie.  It  succeeds  extremely  well  in  the  open  ground, 
during  summer,  but  must  be  treated  as  a  hardy  green-house 
plant  in  winter ;  the  flowers  wiU  show  to  a  great  advantage  if 
a  whole  bed  be  devoted  to  them,  and  where  the  branches  are 
allowed  to  spread  and  become  entangled  with  each  other. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  flowers  will  be  produced  from 
July  until  the  end  of  October,  or,  at  least,  as  long  as  the 
weather  will  permit.  Whether  planted  in  a  bed  or  trained  on 
trellis,  it  is  necessary  that  the  situation  be  somewhat  sheltered 
from  winds,  but  fully  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun. 


Cultivated  in  a  green-house,  we  would  recommend  it  always 
to  be  trained  to  trellis  ;  where  it  will  generally  extend  from 
four  to  six  feet  square,  continuing  to  flower  until  quite  winter, 
and  commencing  again  early  in  spring. 

It  thrives  in  almost  any  sort  of  soil,  but  prefers  one  that  is 
rich  and  light.  It  produces  seeds  by  which  it  may  be  increased, 
but  also  grows  very  freely  from  cuttings,  which  may  be  taken 
oft"  at  almost  any  season  ;  its  culture  is  in  other  respects  like 
those  of  Geraniums. 

STREPTANTHEEA   CUPREA. 


Triandria.     Monogynia. 
Irideee.     Juss. 


Linn. 


Spatha  of  two  valves,  membranaceous,  somewhat  cut,  dry. 
Pcnanthemum  like  a  corolla  in  six  divisions  ;  tube  very  short  - 
limbs  regularly  wheeled.  Stamina  tliree,  inserted  in  the  tube  ; 
filaments  erect ;  anthers  twisted  round  and  including  the  style. 
Stirjmata  three,  dilated  into  two  fringed  lobes.     Seeds  round. 

Leaves  sword-shaped,  acute,  channelled  and  cut  in  the 
middle.  Flower  stem  bearing  from  two  to  four  flowers. 
Pcrianthii  cut  ovately  obtuse  ;  keel  having  two  spots  upon  the 
base. 

This  is  a  very  elegant  species,  introduced  in  1825  by  Mr. 
Synnot,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  All  the  Cape  Iridese 
require  one  general  mode  of  treatment  ;  which,  in  general 
terms,  may  be  stated  as  follows  : — 

'  Pot  the  roots,  or  plant  them  in  a  border  in  front  of  a  stove 
or  green-house,  or  other  sheltered  place,  during  the  month  of 
October.  Let  the  soil  be  composed  of  equal  parts  of  leaf- 
mould,  sandy  loam,  and  peat,  well  mixed. 

If  planted  in  pots,  set  them  in  a  cold  frame,  and  protect 
them  from  severe  weather,  till  the  pots  are  pretty  well  filled 
with  their  roots  ;  then  remove  them  to  the  green-house,  or 
room  where  they  are  intended  to  flower. 

WTien  potted  they  must  be  watered  very  sparingly,  until  they 
have  produced  leaves  and  begin  to  show  their  flower  stems. 
And  after  flowering,  when  the  leaves  are  dead,  the  roots  must 
be  kept  perfectly  dry  in  the  pots.  If  planted  in  a  border  or 
frame,  they  mnst  be  completely  preserved  from  rains,  snow,  or 
frost,  particularly  during  their  dormant  state. 

They  flower  generally  in  April,  May,  and  June,  but  some 
species  somewhat  earlier,  others  later.  The  plants  at  that  time 
require  to  stand  in  light  airy  places,  and  should  receive  a  good 
supply  of  water. 


118 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


BISCUTELLA    HISPIDA. 

Hispid  Biscutella. 

Tetradynamia.     Siliculose.     Linn. 

Cruciferse.     Juss. 

This  species  of  Biscutella  was  introduced  into  tliis  country  in 
1822  ;  it  is  an  annual,  two  feet  in  height,  and  flowers  in  July 
and  August. 

It  is  not  so  much  under  an  impression  of  the  beauty,  or  any 
other  attractive  property  of  this  plant,  that  we  are  induced  to 
present  it  to  our  readers  ;  but  rather,  as  the  seeds  of  several 
species  of  Biscutella  are  now  offered  amongst  new  annuals, 
that  they  may  be  made  acquainted  with  the  general  character  of 
the  genus.  The  greater  part  of  the  Biscutellas  are  hardy 
annuals,  natives  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  where  some  of 
them  hold  the  same  place  in  agriculture,  as  our  Sinapis  anensis 
or  Charlock,  does  in  Britain,  and  for  wMch  they  may  readily 
be  mistaken  by  the  common  observer. 

It  is  easily  propagated  by  sowing  seeds  in  a  light  soil,  in  the 
spring.  Or,  if  sown  in  autumn,  the  young  plants  will  live 
through  the  winter  and  produce  earlier  flowers. 

VERBENA  AUBLETIA. 

Rose-flowered  Fervain. 

Didynamia.     Angospetmia.     Linn, 

Verbenacese.  >.JtissCT 

This  is  a  "native  of  North  America,  and  was  introduced 
about  1774  ;  it  flowers  from  July  to  October,  and  is  in  height 
about  fifteen  inches  ;  it  is  a  perennial  plant. 

The  Verbena  Aubletia  is  a  species  which  has  occupied  a  place 
in  the  English  garden  more  than  half  a  century  ;  but  our  pre- 
sent variety  of  it  has  been  lately  introduced  from  America,  and 
to  the  herbaceous  border  is  a  great  acquisition. 

Many  plants  which  are  perennial  in  their  native  soil,  in  more 
northerly  regions  can  only  be  cultivated  as  annuals,  unless  an 
artificial  climate  be  afi'orded  them.  This  is  most  probably  the 
case  with  the  Verbena  Aubletia..  With  us  the  seeds  should  be 
sown  in  pots  of  rich  light  earth  in  March,  and  be  forwarded  in 
a  hot-bed  till  the  beginning  of  May,  when  the  plants  should  be 
turned  out  into  the  borders  to  flower  in  autumn. 

ONONIS   HIRCINA. 

Strong-scented  Rest-Harrow. 

Diadelphia.     Decandria.     Linn. 

Leguminosae.     Juss. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  Italy,  but  has  been  cultivated  in  this 
country  for  a  very  long  period  ;  it  is  in  height  about  eighteen 
inches,  is  a  perennial,  and  flowers  in  June  and  July. 

Several  species  of  the  Rest-harrow,  even  the  wild  one  of 
the  English  banks,  the  Ononis  spinosa,  are  rendered  very  orna- 
mental,  if  kept  in  poor  gravelly  soil ;  but  when  planted  in  rich 
light  earth,  both  the  roots  and  branches,  of  the  latter  one  in 
particular,  extend  themselves  unduly,  and  but  few  flowers  are 
proportionally  yielded. 

The  stems  of  this  species  are  herbaceous,  and  the  root  is 
hard  and  woody.  It  may  be  propagated  from  seeds,  sown  in 
the  spring  ;  or  the  roots  may  be  di^dded. 

TULIPA  SUAVEOLENS. 

Sweet-scented,  or   Fan   Tholl  Tulip. 

Hexandria.     Monog^'uia.     Linn. 

LUiae.     Juss. 

The  Tulip,  in  some  countries,  is  considered  an  emblem  of 
perfect  love  ;  it  is  related  by  Chardin,  in  his  Travels  into  Persia, 
that  in  that  country  when  a  lover  presents  a  tulip  to  the  mis- 


tress of  his  affections,  he  means  to  inform  her,  by  the  general 
colouring  of  the  flower,  that  he  is  on  fire  with  her  beauty  ; 
and  by  the  black  anthers  in  its  centre,  that  his  heart  is  burnt  to 
a  coal. 

When  planted  in  the  borders,  from  six  to  twelve,  or  more, 
bulbs  may  be  put  in  at  four  inches  asunder,  so  as  form  an  irre- 
gularly shaped  little  bed ;  for  complete  circles,  ovals,  or  straight 
rows,  should  always  be  avoided  in  the  mingled  parterre.  The 
soil  should  be  well  stirred,  to  the  depth  of  nine  inches,  and,  if 
stiff,  a  little  sand  may  be  mixed  with  it.  Then  take  out  the 
soil  four  inches  deep,  and  having  removed  the  hard  brown  skin 
from  the  bulbs,  plant  them ;  fill  up  with  the  soil  again,  and 
make  the  whole  level.  If  the  situation  be  damp,  or  the  soil 
too  retentive,  a  little  soil  should  be  placed  round  the  bulb  ;  but 
if  very  light,  it  may  be  stirred,  and  the  bulbs  put  in  by  making 
holes  with  a  dibble  to  receive  them. 

For  the  earliest  flowers,  plant  from  the  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber to  the  end  of  October  ;  but  for  later  floweis,  plant,  in 
February.  If,  in  autumn,  Van  ThoU  tulip  bulbs  be  planted 
singly,  in  small  pots  of  light  rich  soil,  they  will  blossom 
extremely  well  in  the  drawing  room,  and  contrast  prettily  with 
hyacinths  in  glasses  ;  but  should  be  frequently  exposed  to  fresh 
air.  They  will  flower  in  winter,  as  hyacinths,  but  with  less  cer- 
tainty, and  less  luxuriantly. 

POLYGALA  ALOPECUROIDES. 

Fox-tail.     Milk-wort. 

Diadelphia  Octandria,     Linn. 

Polygalea.     Juss. 

Polygala,  &c.  ;  floribus  imberbibus,  pedunculis  solitariis, 
axillaribus,  foliis  fasiculatis,  lanceolatis  mncronatis  villos>s- 
Thunb.  Prod.  121. 

Polygala,  &c.  ;  floribus  imberbibus  sessilibus,  foliis  conpertis 
ovaltis  acutis  carinatis  pilosis.     Linn.  Mant.  260. 

Muraltia  Alopecuroides.     De  Candolle. 

In  its  Blossoms  it  is  very  similar  to  Polygala  Heisteria,  but 
is  a  smaller  shrub,  very  pubescent,  and  partakes  very  little  of 
that  inflexible  rigidity,  which  occasioned  the  former  species  to 
be  compared  to  furze.  A  hardy  greenhouse  shrub  ;  native  of 
the  Cape ;  propegated  by  cutting  ;  flowers  through  the  whole 
of  the  summer. 

IXIA  CAPILLARIS  AULICA. 

-..--    ■    Rose-coloured  Ixia. 
Triandria  Monogynia.     Linn. 
Irideie.     Juss. 

Ixia  capiUaris,  (Aulica  Hort.  Kew).  G. 
This  is  a  mere  variety  of  the  above  species,  though  made  a 
distinct  one  in  the  Hortus  Kewensis,  under  the  name  of  Aulica. 
The  Bulb-tubers  of  the  sevei'al  varieties  differ  much  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  fibres,  of  which  their  reticulated  coverings  are  com= 
posed,  as  well  as  in  the  size  of  the  Meshes.  Our  specimen 
has  been  very  recently  imported  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Their  leaves  are  usually  much  longer  than  in  our  figure,  and 
their  cartilaginous  edge  often  very  conspicuous,  but  sometimes 
again  quite  obsolete. 

CYNODON  DACTYLON. 

Creeping  Dogs-Tooth  Grass. 

Triandria.     Digynia.     Linn. 

Gramiueae.     Juss. 

Spokes'  four,  pr  five,  crowded  together.  Corolla  smooth. 
Panicum  Dactylon.     Linn.  Sp.  PI.  85.  .      ,, 

The  roots  are  tough  and  creeping,  almost  woody,  witfi  smooth 


{ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


119 


fibres  ;  stems  also  creeping  to  a  great  extent,  matted,  round, 
jointed,  leafy,  very  smooth.  Leaves  tapering,  sharp-pointed, 
ribbed,  hairy,  and  glancous  ;  with  long,  striated,  smooth 
sheathed,  and  a  hairy  stipula.  Flowering  branches  a  span  high , 
leafy,  simple,  terminating  in  four  or  five  nearly  equal,  crowded, 
erect,  many-flowered,  linear  spikes  ;  the  common  stalk  of  each 
triangular,  roughish  ;  flat  and  slightly  bordered  on  one  side, 
along  which  the  nearly  sessile  shining,  purplish  flowers  are 
ranged  in  two  close  alternate  rows.  The  corolla  is  larger  than 
the  calyx,  very  much  compressed,  opposite,  not,  as  some  have 
thought,  alternate,  with  respect  to  the  latter. 

MYOSOTIS  PALUSTRIS. 

Great  Water  Scorpion-Grass. 
Pentandria.     Monogynia.     Linn. 
Boraginea2.     Juss. 

Seeds  smooth.  Leaves  and  calyx  roughish,  with  close 
bristles.  Clusters  leafless.  Calyx  funnel-shaped,  with  short 
broad  spreading  teeth.  Limb  of  corolla,  horizontal,  larger 
than  the  tube.     Root  creeping. 

M.  Scorpioides  Palustus.  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  188.  In  clear 
rivulets  and  ditches,  common  Perennial.     June,  August. 

Roots  very  long,  creeping,  blackish,  with  numerous  tufts  of 
strong  fibres.  Herb  bright  green,  rather  succulent,  from  six  to 
twelve  or  eighteen  inches  high.  Stems  ascending  obliquely, 
round,  branching,  leafy,  either  nearly  smooth,  or  clothed  with 
more  or  less  spreading,  bristly  hairs.  Leaves  sessile,  nearly 
imiform.  Clusters  many-flowered,  two  or  three  together,  on  a 
terminal  leafless  stalk.  Partial  stalks  at  first  crowded  into  a 
dense  revolute  spike,  whicli  unrols  gradually.  Caly.x  about 
half  the  length  of  each  partial  stalk,  after  the  flower  is  past. 
Tube  of  the  corollEe  about  as  long  as  the  calyx,  whitish.  The 
flower  buds  are  of  a  fine  pink.  Style  the  length  of  the  tube. 
Stigma  capitate,  umbUicated.  Seeds  ovate,  compressed,  obtuse, 
blackish,  highly  polished. 

This  most  elegant  plant,  the  Forget-me-not,  among  the 
Germans,  is  the  most  distinct  and  best  known  example  of  its 
genus,  though  too  long  confounded  with  other  common  species. 
LinnefBS  records  its  being  hurtful  to  sheep,  which  may  have 
arisen  like  a  similar  report  of  Hydrocolyte  vulgaris,  from 
those  animals  sufi^ering  on  frequenting  the  wet  situations  of 
these  plants. 

AZALEA  CALENDULACEA. 

Pentandria.     Monogynia.     Linn. 

Ericise.     Juss. 

A  native  of  Carolina  and  Virginia,  on  mountains  ;  also  of 
Georgia,  where  it  was  found,  in  1774,  by  William  Bertram, 
who  in  his  travels  gives  this  most  glowing  description  of  its 
beauty.  "The  clusters  of  the  blossoms  cover  the  shrubs  in 
such  incredible  profusion  on  the  hill  sides,  that  suddenly  open- 
ing to  view  from  deep  shades,  I  was  alarmed  by  the  apprehen- 
sion of  the  hill  being  set  on  fire."  He  calls  it  certainly  the 
most  gay  and  brilliant  flowering  shrub  yet  known. 

It  succeeds  very  well  if  planted  in  a  bed  of  peat,  mixed  with 
loam  ;  flowers  in  May  and  June,  and  may  be  increased  by 
layers,  which  in  two  years  become  suflicieutly  rooted.  It  is 
never  injured  by  the  cold  of  our  climate. 

POTENTILLA  SPLENDENS.   - 

Icosandria.     Polygynia.     Linn. 

Rosaceae.     Juss. 

This  is  a  native  of  Nepaul,  and  was  introduced  in  1824.  It 
is  perennial,  almost  hardy,  and  will  probably  become  quite 
naturalized  in   a  little  time  :  the  fine   silvery  leaves  are  very 


ornamental :  the  flowers,  which  are  small,  come  out  in  June, 
and  are  usually  succeeded  by  seeds,  by  which,  it  is  readily 
multiplied.      It  will  grow  in  almost  any  sod. 

POTENTILLA  ATROSANGUINEA-PEDATA. 

Hybrid  Potentilla. 

Icosandria.     Polygynia.     Linn. 

Rosaceae.     Juss. 

This  plant  is  about  eighteen  inches  in  height,  flowers  in  June 
and  July,  and  is  perennial.  On  the  introduction  of  the  dou- 
ble compound  appellation  Atrosanguinea-pedata,  we  may  be 
expected  to  offer  some  remark.  Authors  have  not  agreed  on  the 
most  convenient  mode  of  naming  hybrid  or  mule  plants.  Some 
have  thought  names  may  be  completely  arbitrary  ;  some  name 
them  after  the  person  with  whom  they  originated ;  whilst  others 
woidd  altogether  excommunicate  such  productions  from  botani- 
cal nomenclature.  Notwithstanding  the  opposite  theoretical 
position  taken  by  some  botanists,  we  believe,  doubtlessly,  that 
hybrid  plants  sometimes  become  established,  and  hold  a  perma- 
nent place  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  it  is  therefore  but  reason- 
able to  notice  them  ;  and  it  is  far  better  that  their  origin  he  re- 
gistered whilst  it  is  known,  in  lieu  of  remaining  to  become  the 
subject  of  future  conjecture  and  error.  We  have  taken  the 
trivial  names  of  the  two  parent  species  of  this  hybrid  plant,  as  a 
compound  name  for  it ;  and  although  rather  cumbrous,  this  in- 
convenience is  more  than  counterbEdanced  by  the  advantage  that 
it  is  explanatory  of  its  hybrid  origin.  The  female  parent  ought, 
we  think,  to  hold  the  first  place  in  the  compound  name. 

We  raised  this  plant  from  Potentilla  atrosanguinea,  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Potentilla  pedata,  and  we  believe  a  more  perfect 
mixture  of  two  distinct  and  dissimilar  spieces  is  not  known.  The 
dark  red  of  the  one,  and  full  yellow  of  the  other,  are  well  min- 
gled, and  produce  a  rich  deep  orange.  The  foliage  of  it  also  is 
intermediate  between  that  of  its  two  parents,  as  shewn  by  the 
engraving. 

In  the  year  1833,  we  fertillized  flowers  of  each  of  the  Poten- 
tillas,  the  atrosanguinea,  formosa,  and  pedata,  with  pollen  of  the 
other  two,  separately.  In  each  instance  their  anthers  were 
destroyed  before  they  had  burst,  the  pollen  of  one  of  the  other 
species  applied  to  the  stigma,  and  the  flower  then  secured  from 
insects,  by  a  covering  of  gauze.  Out  of  upwards  of  two  hun- 
dred plants  thus  obtained  from  Potentilla  formosa,  not  one  was 
sufficiently  altered  to  merit  notice.  Nearly  all  those  from  Po- 
tentilla atrosanguinea,  were  somewhat  improved.  From  Poten- 
tilla pedata,  we  obtained  very  few  seeds.  It  is  not  a  free  seed- 
ing species  with  its  own  farina,  and  far  less  so  under  a  privation 
of  it.  The  plants  from  it  were  remarkably  luxuriant,  and  its 
blossoms  large,  but  otherwise  they  showed  but  little  variation. 

The  novel  colour  of  this  new  hybrid  flower,  renders  it  very 
desirable.  The  plant  is  slender,  like  that  of  Potentilla  pedata, 
and  in  culture  may  be  expected  to  require  no  peculiar  attention. 

CITRUS  MEDICA. 

Monoecia  Polyandria.     Linn. 

Aurantiaceae.     Juss. 

Calyx  campanulate,  short  3-5  toothed.  Petals,  3-5  broad  at 
the  base,  distinct  or  more  or  less  combined,  stamens  equal  in 
number  to  the  petals,  anthers  distinct  terminal,  inserted  within 
the  base,  erect.  Ovary  ovate,  many-celled  ;  style  one  rounded 
stigma  somewhat  lobed  thickish  ;  fruit  many-celled,  the  cells 
filled  with  pulp  inclosed  in  little  bags,  and  surrounded  by  a 
thickish  rind  abounding  in  glands  of  volatile  oil,  seeds  fixed  to 
the  inner  angles  of  the  cells  generally  pendant  without  albumen 
sometimes  including  more  than  one  embryo. 

This  plant  is  remarkable  for  the  flagrant  bitter  essential  oil 
which  it  contains,  and  the  delicious  fruit  as  well  as  odorous 
flowers  ;  it  is  of  very  general  use  in  medicine. 


120 


ESSAY  OF  STUDIES  ON    A  HYDROPHYTE  OF  THE  FAMILY  OF  CERAMIA. 

BY    MESSRS.    CRONAN,    BROTHERS,    BOTANTSTS    AT    ROUEN    AND    BREST. 


In  the  numeroas  investigations  which  we  have  made  in 
the  vicinity  of  Brest,  to  discover  rare  or  durious  alga;, 
we  met  several  times  with  a  species  (the  conferva  grif- 
fithsiana  Engl.  Bot.  tab.  2312),  of  which  it  is  still  uncer- 
tain what  place  it  ouglit  to  occupy  in  modern  classifica- 
tions. Tlius,  without  quoting  tire  first  authors  who  have 
given  the  description  of  this  plant,  as  for  at  the  time  they 
wrote  the  classification  of  these  vegetables,  was  not 
founded  on  their  organization,  as  it  has  been  for  some 
time  past,  we  will  only  say  that  Clement  in  his  essay, 
and  Agardh  in  his  Dispositio  universalis  algarum,  have 
placed  this  species  with  the  Algee  not  articulated;  then 
afterwards  this  latter  author  in  his  systema  algarum 
made  it  a  Hutchinsia.  Bonnemaison  (essai  sur  les  Hy- 
drophytes loculees),  arranged  it  in  his  Boryna  with  the 
mark  doubtful.  M.  Duby  (botanicum  gallicum)  places 
it  among  his  ceramiam,  between  C.  boucheli  and  the  C. 
corymbosum,  and  lamoui-otix,  after  Agardh  would  have 
made  of  the  same  species  a  thjprea,  This  diversity  of 
opinions  induced  us  to  examine  it  with  peculiar  attention, 
and  to  endeavour  to  determine  exactly  if  it  were  possi- 
ble, the  characters  of  this  production;  we  were  still 
more  urged  to  do  so  by  M.  Gaillon  a  learned  botanist  of 
Boulogne,  who  says,  in  his  letter  to  us  of  the  4th  of 
Marcli,  1833,  "this  Hydrophyte  lias  not  yet  been  suffi- 
ciently studied.  It  is  with  uncertaincy  that  Bonnemai- 
son places  it  in  the  genus  Boryna,  it  has  the  form  of  a 
Gaillona,  the  organization  of  its  stalk  places  it  between 
this  genus,  and  tlie  Hutchinsia ;  its  branches  alone  would 
bring  it  near  the  Boryna." 

This  interestig  Hydrophyte  may  be  seen  from  the 
month  of  October  till  May ;  it  thrives  on  stones  and 
rocks  which  are  only  uncovered  at  spring  tides;  it 
grows  in  tufts  of  a  reddish  colour'  seen  in  the  sea.  Its 
leaf  generally  a  line,  or  12th  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
is  round,  cartilaginous,  without  any  appearance  of  par- 
tition at  the  base ;  it  divides  into  alternate  branches, 
translucid,  rambling,  long,  unequal,  of  which  the  articles 
strise ;  seen  througli  a  magnifying  glass,  are  rather 
wider  than  long.  There  branches  are  edged  with 
simple  little  branches  very  sliort,  narrow  at  the  es- 
ti'emities,  as  long  as  wide  at  the  knots.  Tlie  fructifica- 
tion \-isibIe  to  the  naked  eye,  consists  in  capsules  dis- 
persed on  the  branches,  and  inserted  on  the  articula- 
tions. By  subjecting  afterwards  to  the  microscope, 
fragments  of  this  algte  we  see  clearly  thai  its  articles 
are  multiplied.  The  very  little  branches  appear  to  be 
simple  articles,  but  this  appearance  is  only  owing  to  the 
fineness  of  the  strite  or  translucid  cells  which  we  thought 
we  perceived,  (see.  pi.  39,  fig.  I  and  2.)  The  specimens 
that  we  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to  meet  witli  fruc- 
tified, seen  through  a  microscope,  have  presented  to  us 
capsules  of  two  sorts.  Some  are  almost  visible  or 
pedicellus,  two  or  three  lobed,  and  containing  irregular 
semina,  (see  pi.  39,  fig.  3),  of  azure  blue  colour, 
collected  in  bundles  in  tlie  middle  of  each  lobe,  and  en- 
veloped with  mucilage.  Bonnemaison  had  also  re- 
marked this  particular  colour  of  the  semina.  The  fig. 
4,  represents  the  other  mode  of  fructification,  where 
the  propagating  organs  which  are  limbed  have  broken 
the  membrane  tliat  kept  them  enclosed.  Sowerby  has 
well  figured  in  the  English  Bot.  pi.  2312,)  a  capsular 
limljed  fructification ;  but  in  this  specimen  the  cap- 
sules, isolated  or  united,  are  dispersed  on  the  branches, 
and  do  not  issue  out,  one  after  the  other,  joined  by  a 


membrane,  such  as  in  the  form  we  have  given  of  it.  The 
fig.  5,  is  the  representation  of  the  horizontal  cut  of  the 
article,  or  Endochrome  of  Mr.  Gaillon,  and  the  fig.  6, 
that  of  the  articulation  or  Endophragmi.  The  reading 
of  the  learned  memoir  of  Mr.  Duby  on  the  difficult 
family  of  the  Ceramia,  determined  us  to  examine  this 
hydrophyte  still  more  closely,  and  to  make  vertical  and 
horizontal  cuts  as  small  as  possible,  so  that  we  might 
see  its  internal  organization.  After  having,  with  a  scal- 
pel, taken  of  the  epidermis,  composed  of  lengthened 
cells  wliich  form  the  striae,  the  following  cuts  have 
shown  us  a  lining  of  epidermal  texture,  resembling  a 
sort  of  net-work  to  the  ceUs,  like  those  we  have  repre- 
sented, (pi.  39,  fig.  7).  But  what  was  our  satisfaction, 
when  after  having  made  other  vertical  sections,  very 
small  in  order  to  remove  this  net  work,  we  xierceived 
spherical  uncoloured  cells,  fitting  large  locules  divisions 
forming  the  article,  which  is  then  simple !  Tliese 
locules  that  we  see  very  exactly  represented,  pi.  39, 
fig.  8,  are  susceptible  of  contraction,  and  produce  with- 
out doubt,  in  some  species,  those  coloured  lines  which 
have  given  rise  to  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  an  in- 
terior tube ;  but  it  cannot  be  admitted,  after  having 
dissected  these  plants  with  care,  or  after  having  read 
the  memoirs  of  Messrs.  Duby  and  Gaillon,  some  ob- 
servers have  brought  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  this 
interior  tube.  It  is  not  the  same  illusion  which  makes 
us  admit  these  great  internal  locules  full  of  spherical 
cells  (a  character  very  remarkable);  these  are  micro- 
scope cuts  which  we  have  executed  on  the  Endochromes 
or  articles  of  this  plant,  which  have  confirmed  us  in  the 
opinion  that  we  had  of  the  double  texture  composing 
its  leaf.  The  horizontal  cuts  have  also  shown  us  these 
spherical  uncoloured  cells,  appearing  placed  over  and 
filling  the  ideal  axe.  We  see  by  the  liorizontal  cut  the 
situation  of  tlie  cylindrical  cells  composing  the  leaf; 
some  of  the  smaller  ones,  of  an  equal  diameter,  pre- 
sent in  this  section  a  circular  form :  others  much  larger, 
present  that  of  an  iUipsis.  Their  situation  is  circular 
and  regular  to  the  middle  of  the  diameter  of  the  leaf, 
(see  pi.  39,  fig.  9,)  but  does  not  surround  a  central 
cell  as  in  the  genera  Hutchinsia,  Ag,  and  Gaillona 
Bonnemaison.  Bonnemaison  says  in  his  essay,  (p.  53,) 
that  he  has  observed  a  doubling  and  internal  oontraction 
in  the  segments  of  his  elegant  Boryna.  The  examina- 
tion we  have  just  made  of  the  internal  organization  of 
the  conferva  GriffUhsiana,  (Eng.  Bot.)  supports  his 
observation.  We  have  also  found  this  in  other  Borynas. 
After  all  these  characters,  where  shall  we  place  this 
Hydrophyte  ?  In  considering  its  form,  its  interior  or- 
ganization that  of  its  fine  little  branches  and  its  fructi- 
fication, one  would  be  disposed  to  think  it  ought  to  be  of 
the  under  genus  Gaillona,  but  when  this  plant  has  been 
dissected  and  its  organization  studied,  we  find  that  it  is 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  under  genus  Boryna ;  its  hori- 
zontal cut  resembles  much  those  species  which  compose 
it;  it  makes  the  passage,  according  to  our  opinion,  from 
\\;\t\Borynasto  the  Gaillonas  and  might  remain  at  the  end 
of  the  former,  where  Bonnemaisson  has  placed  it.  As 
these  under  genera  form  part  of  the  genus  ceramiam  of 
Mr.  Duby,  we  will  name  it,  with  this  learned  botanist 
Ceramiam  filamentosam,  but  we  will  add  to  the  generic 
characters,  that  the  internal  texture  in  several  species 
presents  a  lining  susceptible  of  contraction. 


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121 


On  the  orchards  of  Lanarkshire. 


The  orchards  in  this  couuty  have  long  been  celebrated  and 
considered  superior  to  any  in  Scotland.  Within  less  than  half 
a  century  they  have  also  been  greatly  advanced  as  respects  the 
entcrprize  and  skill  of  the  cultivators  of  them.  But  as  this 
superiority  does  not  seem  to  arise  from  any  local  and  physical 
advantages  over  many  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  hut  only 
through  the  perfection  to  which  this  branch  of  horticulture  has 
been  carried  by  human  art,  it  becomes  the  more  necessary  that 
a  knowledge  of  tlie  Lanarkshire  or  Clydesdale  orchard  hus- 
bandry should  be  extensively  disseminated.  The  following  ac- 
count will  present  the  leading  features  of  the  system  and  its 
details : — 

It  is  unknown  when  orchards  began  to  be  cultivated  in  Lanark- 
shire. It  is  at  least  very  remote,  and  probably,  like  many  other 
arts,  that  of  the  management  of  fruit  trees  was  introduced  by 
the  clergy  who  came  from  Italy,  and  crusading  warriors, 
whose  travels  gained  them  necessarily  much  varied  knowledge. 
The  art  of  engrafting,  indeed,  is  spoken  of  in  Scripture,  and 
probably  was  one  of  the  first  discoveries  made  by  man.  Gar- 
dening at  any  rate  in  all  its  branches,  independent  of  its  sacred 
connexion,  recommends  itself  naturally  to  the  domestic,  the 
secluded,  and  the  contemplative  ;  and  it  is  a  fortunate  circum- 
stance, that,  at  the  reformation  in  Scotland,  the  orchards  around 
the  abbeys  and  monasteries,  which  had  been  skilfully  reared  by 
the  monks  and  others  connected  with  their  order,  were  not  de- 
stroyed, as  the  labours  of  the  architect  were, 

ThA  Lanarkshire  orchards  stretch  along  both  sides  of  the  no- 
ble river  Clyde,  from  the  borough  of  Lanark  to  Bothwell  Cas- 
tle, which  may  be  sixteen  miles,  and  amounting,  by  imperial 
measurement,  to  1200  acres  probably.  This  includes  the  small 
domestic  gardens,  as  well  as  the  large  and  regular  orchards. 
The  general  aspect  of  these  grounds  resembles,  as  it  has  been 
aptly  compared,  an  open  book  laid  upon  a  reading  desk,  with 
the  river's  courseforming  the  jointure  of  the  leaves.  The  channel 
of  the  Clyde  at  the  higher  extremity  of  the  orchard  ground  or 
district  is  about  260  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  but  at  the 
lower,  it  is  not  more  than  fifty.  Frequently  (to  keep  by  the 
comparison  of  a  book)  the  volume  is  not  more  than  half  open, 
so  that  the  orchard  field  may  be  but  a  little  above  the  level 
of  the  stream,  and  yet  rise  to  one  or  two  hundred  feet  laterally 
higher. 

The  soil  of  this  orchard  district  is  much  diversified.  Part  of 
it  is  a  deep  and  rich  clayey  loam,  but  much  more  is  of  a  stiff 
and  sterile  nature,  resting  on  a  tLUy  subsoil,  over  sand- stone  of 
a  reddish-tinge,  which  alternates  with  the  ordinary  coal-forma- 
tion. In  some  places  the  soil  is  more  friable  and  sandy.  On 
this  last-mentioned  sort  of  land  the  trees  grow  faster  than  on 
an  adhesive  clay,  but  do  not  yield  so  much,  unless  of  the  small 
fruit  class.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  any  of  these 
various  kinds  of  soil  are  unpropitnous  to  the  growth  of  what- 
ever is  planted  upon  them ;  but  manure  in  a  great  measure  over- 
comes the  natural  defect,  and  skilful  management  is  like  second 
nature.  Mr.  Smith,  who  has  published  a  map  of  the  strata  in 
England,  says,  that  all  the  best  orchards  there  are  planted  on 
a  stratum  of  red  marl.  Though  this  precise  sub-soil  has  not 
been  found  in  Clydesdale,  it  is  fully  ascertained  that  a  dry  rocky 
sub-soil,  if  the  ground  above  it  be  good,  is  uniformly  favoura- 
ble to  orchard  fruit.  Sloping  banks,  which  abound  on  the 
Clyde,  are  also  advantageous  situations  for  fruit-trees.  It 
would  appear  that  the  roots  stretch  farther  abroad  in  such  a 
position  than  on  level  ground,  whilst  the  sun  and  air  neces- 
sarily reach  every  individual  tree,  since  none  of  the  neighbours 
can  obscure  it.  The  number  of  rills,  too,  that  course  their 
way  down  the  face  of  banks  and  braes  must  be  propitious  to  the 
fruitful  sentinels  that  stand  by  them.  Clydesdale  is  favoured 
as  respects  climate  as  well  as  locality.  That  which  prevails  in 
the  southern  counties  of  Scotland  is  usual  here  ;  whilst  the 
western  rains  are  moderated  ere  reaching  this  inland  point,   the 

MAGAZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.11.  NO.  XVIII 


eastern  hoar  frosts  are  tempered,  and  their  chilling  influence 
much  neutralized. 

Every  one  must  know  that  a  great  deal  depends  on  a  proper 
selection  of  trees  as  respects  the  soil,  exposure,  and  climate  for 
which  they  are  chosen.  The  scions  should  be  from  healthy  trees, 
and  grafted  on  true  crab-stocks.  The  plants  should  be  three 
years  old  after  graftingere  they  are  transported  into  an  orchard, 
and  from  three  to  four  feet  high,  their  roots  well  disposed,  and 
the  figure  of  the  plant  altogether  handsome.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  certainty  and  to  say  what  fruit- 
tree  will  thrive  and  be  productive  on  any  given  soil  or  situation 
from  its  prosperity  and  value  in  another,  even  although  to  the 
view  of  man  both  should  seem  exactly  alike.  This,  however,  is 
an  uncertainty  felt  in  every  department  of  agriculture,  and,  upon 
the  whole,  serves  the  best  ends  ;  one  of  which  is,  the  calling 
for  extreme  vigilance  and  exercise  of  prudence  as  well  as  skill. 
Experience  will  ever  in  all  such  matters  be  the  safest  guide, 
and  all  experienced  horticulturists  will  try  a  variety  of  kinds  of 
fruit-trees  upon  any  given  soil.  Were  there,  indeed,  no  other 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  such  experiments,  there  is  this, 
that  diflferent  kinds  of  trees  come  into  flower  at  diff'erent  times, 
and  though  some,  by  one  night's  frost  or  blighting  weather, 
may  be  destroyed  for  that  year,  others  will  have  outgrown  the 
trial,  or  not  yet  reached  the  danger.  On  Clydesdale  as  else- 
where, it  is  customary  to  plant  and  preserve  standard-trees  at 
proper  distances  from  each  other,  and  between  them  to  have  an 
early  bearer.  The  Hawthornden,  Carlisle  Codlin,  and  Nonsuch, 
are  very  frequently  appointed  to  these  intermediate  posts.  They 
yield  fruit  the  second  year  after  they  are  planted,  and  though 
they  soon  canker  and  become  unhealthy,  they  generally  will  be 
profitable  till  the  time  the  standards  begin  to  produce  fi-uit. 

The  fruit  cultivated  in  the  Clydesdale  orchard  consists  of  ap- 
ples, pears,  &c. 

The  annexed  list  may  be  considered  pretty  correct. 

EARLY  APPLES. 

Tarn  Montgomery. — A  yellow  apple,  rather  above  the  medium 
size,  with  small  protuberances  at  the  top-end,  which  the  Clydes- 
dale people  call  "cornering."  The  trees  grow  to  a  tolerable 
size,  and  are  excellent  bearers.  The  name  is  taken  from  a  man 
in  Ayreshire,  who,  for  many  years,  had  the  only  tree  of  that 
kind,  and  would  neither  tell  how  he  came  by  it,  nor  allow  any 
person  to  take  a  twig  from  it.  But  since  his  death,  his  name 
has  been  perpetuated  by  the  extension  of  this  valuable  tree. 

Eurly  Alinoml. — Is  a  large  round  apple  of  a  red  colour,  and 
of  excellent  quality.  The  tree  bears  early,  and  puts  forth  strong 
shoots,  but  is  much  hurt  by  canker. 

Milford. — A  small  red  coloured,  long-shaped  apple  of  good 
quality.    The  trees  are  strong  growers,  but  rather  shy  bearers. 

Junealing, — Is  a  small,  fine-flavoured,  solid,  hard  apple.  The 
trees  healthy  and  good  bearers. 

Dri/law  Pippin, — Is  a  small  yellow  apple,  having  an  un- 
commonly fine  flavour.  The  trees  grow  well,  and  are  good 
bearers. 

White  Marrow. — A  large  good  apple  of  a  yellow  colour,  and 
coroneted.     The  trees  are  healthy,  and  very  productive. 

Summer  Strawberry, — Is  a  large  beautiful  apple,  of  a  yellow 
colour.     The  trees  are  good  bearers,  but  much  given  to  canker. 

Haicthornden. — A  large  good  apple,  rather  long  and  coroneted, 
but  do  not  keep  long.  The  trees  grow  fast,  with  few  branches, 
but  are  greatly  hurt  by  canker. 

Nonsuch, — Is  a  large  apple  of  good  flavour  and  quality.  The 
trees  grow  well,  but  are  very  liable  to  canker. 

Marigold  or  Saffron  Pippin, — Is  an  excellent  table  apple, 
rather  above  medium  size,  yellow  and  red  streaked.  The  trees 
are  fine  growers,  healthy,  and  good  bearers. 

Early  Magdalene, — Is  an  apple  of  medium  size,  and  having  a 
good  flavour.     The  trees  are  ready  bearers. 

, — SEPTEMBER,  1834.  S 


122 


ON  THE  ORCHAADS  OF  LANARKSHIRE. 


Bowyer's  Lady  Apple, — Is  large  and  beautiful,  of  a  red  and 
yellow  colour.     The  trees  are  healthy  and  excellent  bearers. 

Thorl  Pippin, — Is  a  beautiful  apple,  much  relished  at  table, 
and  the  trees  are  good  bearers. 

White  Kesuick  Codlin, — Is  a  large  yellow  good  flavoured  ap- 
ple, much  relished  at  table,  and  coroneted.  It  is  frequently 
made  Into  jelly.  The  trees  are  good  growers,  and  very  produc- 
tive. 

Lemon  Pippin, — Is  a  large,  beautiful,  yellow,  and  russetty 
fruit.     The  trees  bear  early,  but  are  not  very  productive. 

Oslin  or  Arbroath  Pippin, — Is  a  good  early  table  apple,  and 
the  trees  grow  freely  by  cuttings. 

HARVEST  APPLES. 

White  Cluster, — Is  of  a  medium  size,  and  of  a  beautiful  red 
colour.     The  trees  healthy,  and  good  bearers. 

Harvest  Pippin,- — Is  an  apple  of  good  size,  streaked  I'ed  and 
yellow,  and  of  agreeable  taste.  The  trees  grow  well,  and  yield 
much  fruit. 

Wlieeler's  Russet. — An  apple  for  the  table,  is  of  a  moderate 
size,  and  rich  flavour.     The  trees  large  and  good  bearers. 

Dumbarton  Pippin, — Is  a  small  apple  of  a  green  colour,  and 
rich  flavour.    The  trees  healthy,  and  very  productive  of  fruit. 

Golden  Rennet, — Has  red  and  yellow  colours,  streaked,  and  is 
good  for  the  table  or  the  kitchen.     The  trees  are  ready  bearers. 

TMiistleberi-y  or  Luffness  Pippin, — Is  a  large  yellow  apple  of  a 
rich  taste.     The  trees  grow  well,  but  are  shy  bearers. 

WaUa-bona, — Is  a  large,  long,  coroneted  apple,  of  a  red 
colour.  The  trees  are  good  bearers,  but  very  liable  to  be  hurt 
by  canker. 

Bloodheart, — Is  an  apple  for  the  table,  of  medium  size,  rich 
flavour,  and  of  a  red  colour,  both  on  the  outside  and  within. 

Lady's  Lemon, — Is  a  yellow  apple,  of  medium  size,  and  good 
flavour  ;  but  the  trees  are  slow  bearers. 

Teuchet  Egg, — Is  a  small  apple  of  an  orange  colour. 

Golden  Mundi. — A  good  and  beautiful  table  or  baking  apple. 

WINTER  APPLES. 

Carse  of  Goterie. — A  large  apple  of  yellow  and  green  coloui's, 
excellent  for  baking.  The  trees  bear  well,  but  are  infected  with 
canker. 

Red  Marroiff—ls  a  fruit  of  medium  size,  of  a  red  and  green 
colour,  and  the  trees  are  good  bearers. 

Winter  Strawbn-ry,— Is  a  fruit  of  medium  size,  of  yellow  and 
green  colours.     The  trees  are  good  bearers,  but  liable  to  canker. 

Ribston  Pippin, — Is  a  large  green  table  apple,  much  cultivated 
in  the  west  of  Scotland.  They  keep  long,  but  the  trees  are  slow 
bearers. 

Kentish  Pippin, — Is  a  large  beautiful  table  fruit,  but  not  of 
the  richest  flavour.     The  trees  large  and  healthy. 

Red  Cluster, — Is  a  hard  round  apple,  small  in  size,  of  a  red 
colour  and  good  taste,  keeps  long,  and  the  trees  are  good 
bearers. 

Gogar  or  Stone  Pippin, — Resembles  the  Red  Cluster;  and  the 
trees  grow  well,  and  bear  readily. 

Norfolk  Beaufin, — Is  a  large  apple  of  green  and  red  colours, 
used  for  baking,  keeps  long,  and  has  a  rough  russet  skin.  The 
trees  are  good  bearers. 

Late  Fulwood, — Is  a  large  and  excellent  tasted  apple,  of  a 
green  colour,  used  chiefly  for  baking.  The  trees  are  large  and 
bear  readily. 

Early  Fulwood, — Is  a  baking  apple  of  a  dark  red  and  green 
colour.     The  trees  are  large  and  good  bearers. 

Yorkshire  Green, — Is  a  large  green  baking  apple,  excellent  for 
sauces,  and  keeps  long.  The  trees  gi-ow  fast,  but  are  much  in- 
jured by  canker. 

PEARS. 

Jargonelles. — On  walls  are  very  productive. 
Crawford  pears  abound  in  every  orchard. 
Greg  Honey. — A  round  early  pear ;  trees  large. 
Auchan. — A  good  pear,  and  the  trees  good  bearers.    ' 


Pear  Saugh. — Large  yellow  fruit,  and  large    trees. 

Lady's  Lemon. — A  good  early  pear  ;  trees  great  bearers. 

Green  Pinkie A  small  early  green  pear  ;  trees  productive. 

Farrow  Cow.- — A  large  pear ;  trees  large  and  good  bearers. 

Green  Chisel. — A  good  pear. 

Elshonhaft. — A  rich  pear  ;  the  trees  large  and  productive. 

Early  Carnock. — An  excellent  summer  pear. 

The  manner  of  planting  and  managing  their  fruit-trees  by 
the  orchardists  of  this  range  is  now  more  simple  and  rational 
than  was  wont  to  be  in  vogue.  They  neither  incur  the  fruitless 
expense  of  laying  rich  earth,  where  the  soil  is  sterile  beneath 
the  plants,  nor  of  paving  a  floor  to  prevent  the  roots  touching 
iingenial  substances  ;  nor  trenching  the  ground  immediately 
around  the  spot  where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted.  The  first  two 
of  these  fanciful  schemes  are  ineffectual,  the  last  is  injurious  ; 
for  unless  the  whole  orchard  field  is  trenched,  these  laboured 
spots,  particularly  if  the  sub-soil  is  retentive,  only  serve  to 
drink  and  hold  water  in  them  to  the  great  damage  of  the  trees 
unfortunately  subjected  to  such  mistaken  kindness.  The  or- 
chardists in  Lanarkshire,  now-a-days,  merely  delve,  in  an  ordi- 
nary style,  the  ground  ;  plant  the  trees  from  six  to  eight  inches 
deep,  and  raise  the  earth  for  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  round 
them,  a  little  above  the  general  level,  the  better  to  prop  them 
at  the  time  rough  weather  tries  their  fixedness. 

There  is  no  uniform  rule  observed  in  Clydesdale  as  to  the 
distance  fruit-trees  should  stand  from  each  other.  Generally, 
however,  they  are  closer  than  in  English  orchards.  In  some 
the  rows  are  twenty-two  feet  apart,  and  the  trees  in  these  rows 
eleven  feet  separated.  Others  are  thirty  feet  by  fifteen.  If 
eaidy  bearers  are  not  intermixed,  small  fruit  bushes  or  potatoes, 
&c.  are  cultivated.  In  managing  both  the  trees  and  the 
ground  a  deal  of  care  is  taken.  After  they  have  been  planted 
for  five  or  six  years,  they  ought  to  be  divested  of  such  branches 
as  seem  to  point  too  near  to  the  ground,  or  that  rub  against  one 
another.  With  due  caution,  some  of  those  that  are  too  crowded 
together  must  be  cut.  Horizontal  branches  should  be  en- 
couraged ;  they  are  much  less  liable  to  be  shaken  than  those 
that  tower  aloft.  All  sorts  of  blotches  ought  to  be  cut  ofi',  and 
the  moss  that  is  apt  to  gather  on  them  carefully  removed.  In 
taking  the  fruit,  it  should  be  pulled,  not  shaken,  and  this  when 
the  day  is  dry. 

The  orchard  grounds  are  carefnlly  drained ;  and  in  clay-lands, 
a  covered  furrow  drain  ought  to  be  formed  between  every  two 
rows  of  trees,  besides  the  necessary  open  drains.  These  are 
more  called  for  in  orchard  land  than  in  any  devoted  merely  to 
ordinary  crops,  from  the  overshadowing  of  the  trees.  Ropes  of 
straws,  or  sprigs  of  broom,  are  tied  round  young  trees  to  prevent 
them  from  being  eaten  by  hares.  The  ground  to  be  kept  in 
good  order  requires  not  only  to  be  broken  up  every  few  years, 
but  to  be  well  manured,  particularly  in  sterile  fields,  llie  un- 
der crops  raised,  far  mere  than  repay  the  labour  and  riches  thus 
conferred  on  the  land. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  precise  information  as  to  the  rents 
given  for  orchard  ground  in  Lanarkshire.  The  character  of 
the  soil,  the  age  of  the  trees,  and  various  other  particulars, 
would  require  to  be  taken  into  every  calculation  to  afford  any 
useful  and  determinate  light  on  the  point.  Neither  is  it  possi- 
ble to  say  what  relation  the  orchard  profits  bear  to  the  ordinary 
agricultural  product  of  similar  land  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood. One  thing  is  notorious,  that  the  great  falling  off  in  the 
prices  of  orchard  produce,  since  the  conclusion  of  the  last  war, 
brings  the  two  systems  of  culture  nearer  an  equality  than  before 
as  respects  pecuniary  returns.  After  aU,  however,  the  orchardists 
of  Clydesdale  draw  a  much  higher  income  from  their  lauds  than 
can  be  raised  by  any  other  course  of  agricultural  management, 
even  after  counting  every  uncertainty,  drawback,  and  failure. 
And  should  still  farther  depreciations  occur  in  the  price  of  fruit, 
the  manufacture  of  cyder  and  perry  is  open,  which  we  are  led 
to  believe  might  before  this  have  been  resorted  to  with  advan- 
tage by  the  orchardists  in  this  great  fruit  district  of  old  Cale- 
donia. G.  A. 


123 
LETTERS  TO  A  YOUNG  NATURALIST  ». 


It  is  with  ca  very  lively  satisfaction,  that  we  undertake 
to  recommend  to  the  particular  attention  of  the  public 
the  work  before  us.  We  know  of  no  other  compressed 
within  the  same  limits  which  seems  to  us  so  happily 
calculated  to  generate  in  a  young  mind,  to  sustain  in  the 
matured,  and  to  renovate  in  the  old,  an  ardent  love  of 
nature  under  all  her  forms.  The  volume  consists  of  a 
series  of  letters,  in  which  the  author  treats,  in  a  familiar 
.style,  of  the  most  interesting  objects  which  the  fields, 
the  mountains,  the  rivers,  and  the  ocean  present  to  our 
contemplation.  He  goes  into  the  history  of  each  of 
those  objects  just  far  enough  to  render  the  outlines  of 
nature  intelligible  to  the  least  cultivated  mind,  and  he 
adds  reflections  occasionally,  of  admiration,  which, 
breatliing  his  own  feelings  in  eloquent  language,  are 
sti'ongly  calculated  to  excite  kindi-ed  emotions  in  the 
hearts  of  others. 
Speaking  of  the  Ivy,  Dr.  Driunmond  observes  : — 
"  Why  is  it  that  every  one  is  pleased  with  the  com- 
mon ivy  ?  There  is  a  charm  about  that  plant  which  all 
feel,  but  none  can  tell  why.  Observe  it  hanging  from 
the  arch  of  some  old  bridge,  and  consider  the  degree  of 
interest  it  gives  to  that  object.  The  bridge  itself  may 
be  beautifully  situated ;  the  stream  passing  through  its 
arches  clear  and  copious  ;  but  still  it  is  the  ivy  which 
gives  the  finish  and  picturesque  effect.  Mouldering 
towers,  and  castles,  and  ruined  cloisters  interest  our 
feelings  in  a  degree  more  or  less  by  the  circumstance  of 
their  being  covered  or  not  by  the  ivy.  Precipices,  which 
else  would  exhibit  only  their  naked  barren  walls,  are 
clothed  by  it  in  a  rich  and  beautiful  vesture.  Old  trees, 
whose  trunks  it  surrounds,  assume  a  gi'eat  variety  of 
aspect ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  a  most  important  agent  in 
forming  the  beauty  and  variety  of  rural  landscape.  It 
is  also  as  useful  as  it  is  beautiful ;  and  among  its  uses  I 
would  include  the  very  thing  of  which  I  am  now  speak- 
ing, for  I  have  no  idea  that  the  forms  and  colours  in  na- 
ture please  the  eye  by  a  sort  of  chance.  If  I  admire  the 
ivy  clinging  to  and  surmounting  some  time-worn  tower, 
and  the  various  tints  that  diversify  the  parts  of  the  ruin 
not  hidden  by  it,  I  can  only  refer  the  pleasure  I  expe- 
rience to  the  natural  construction  of  the  human  mind, 
which  the  Almighty  has  formed  to  feel  a  pleasin-e  in 
contemplating  the  external  world  aroimd  it.  Who  is 
insensible  to  the  beauties  of  nature  at  the  rising  and  set- 
ting of  the  summer's  sun?  Who  can  behold  the  moon- 
beams reflected  from  some  silent  river,  lake,  or  sea,  and 
not  feel  happy  at  the  sight  ?  None,  I  believe,  in  early 
life.  When  hardened  in  the  ways  of  men — when  the 
chief  good  pursued  is  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  the 
acquisition  of  power,  or  the  pursuit  of  pleasure,  so  call- 
ed— then  mankind  lose  a  sense  of  the  beauties  of  na- 
ture; but  never,  perhaps,  till  then.  A  love  for  them  is 
inherent  in  the  mind,  and  almost  always  shows  itself  in 
youth ;  and  if  cherished  at  that  period,  by  education, 
would  seldom  be  destroyed  or  become  dormant  in  after 
life,  as  it  now  so  generally  is. 

"  The  ivy  is  of  vast  advantage  to  the  smaller  birds,  as 
it  affords  them  shelter  in  winter,  and  a  I'etreat  for  build- 
ing their  nests  in  spring  and  summer.     It  is  in  fructifi- 


catioii  in  October  and  November,  and  the  sweet  juice 
which  its  flowers  exude  supports  an  infinity  of  insects 
in  autumn,  while  its  berries  are  a  store  of  nutriment  for 
many  birds  in  the  early  spring." 

The  wonders  of  the  microscopic  world  have  been  in 
some  degree  examined  by  scientific  men,  but  much  re- 
mams  stdl  to  be  known  of  this  comparatively  hidden 
portion,  though  perhaps  the  most  surprising  of  the 
whole  of  the  works  of  natiu'c.  The  power  of  the  micro- 
scope exhibits  the  colours  of  flowers  in  a  manner  much 
more  perfect  than  we  can  see  with  the  naked  eye.  The 
author's  observations  upon  the  beauty  of  these  great  or- 
naments of  the  creation  are  in  his  wonted  strain  of  fine 
philosophy, 

"  Why,  for  example,  are  flowers  in  general  so  exqui- 
sitely beautiful  as  we  find  them,  if  it  be  not  to  exhibit  to 
us  the  hand  of  God,  and  to  afford  us,  even  in  the  colour- 
ing of  a  blossom,  a  manifestation  of  himself,  and  a  ration- 
al cause  for  turning  our  thoughts  towards  him  ?  Look 
with  a  magnifier  at  the  flower  of  London  Pride,  or  of 
Forget  me  not,  and  inquire  of  yourself  why  these  mi- 
nute objects  are  so  lovely,  why  scarcely  any  of  the  larger 
flowers  excel,  and  not  many  equal  them  :  extend  your 
observation  to  some  of  the  minute  insects,  and  reflect 
why  they  are  dressed  in  colours  as  brilliant  as  those  of 
the  peacock  :  magnify  a  gnat,  and  consider  the  superb 
feathered  antennce  which  grace  its  head ;  examine  its 
whole  structure,  see  the  wonderful  mechanism  which  is 
in  every  part,  the  minute  perfection,  the  elaborate  fin- 
ishing of  this  little  being :  remember  that,  in  addition  to 
the  structure,  there  are  its  appetites  and  functions,  its 
stomachs,  and  bowels,  its  organs  of  breathing,  its  mus- 
cles of  motion,  its  several  senses,  and  perhaps  its  pas- 
sions. Think  on  these,  but  not  with  the  ti-ansitory  admi- 
ration which  we  often  observe  in  persons  who  for  a  first 
or  second  time  see  objects  in  a  microscope.  Be  not 
content  with  the  cold  acknowledgment  that  it  is  one  of 
the  wonderful  works  of  nature,  and  then  let  it  slip 
from  your  memory.  I  tell  you  it  is  the  work  of  God ; 
and  I  believe  that  the  too  liberal  use  of  the  term  nature 
has  given  rise  to  much  of  the  apathy  with  which  the  ob- 
jects of  the  creation  are  regarded.  It  is  very  true,  in- 
deed, that  when  we  say  nature  produces  a  plant,  or  an 
animal,  the  true  meaning  is,  that  God  does  so,  nature 
here  being  used  as  a  synonymous  term ;  but  still  the  word 
has  so  many  applications,  and  it  is  employed  in  such  a 
variety  of  ways,  that  w^e  insensibly  get  into  the  habit  of 
using  it,  in  natural  history  and  other  sciences,  as  if  it 
were  some  inferior  power,  or  agent,  acting  by  itself;  and 
we  talk  of  the  works  of  nature  without  any  impression 
being  on  oiu-  minds  at  the  time  that  they  are  in  truth  the 
works  of  the  Deity  himself." 

The  whole  is  meetly  wound  up  with  reflections  upon 
natural  religion,  the  "power  and  goodness  of  God,  and 
the  love  of  ti-uth  ;  which,  like  those  already  noticed,  are 
marked  by  a  pleasing  tone  of  piety  without  cant,  of 
knowledge  without  pedantry,  and  of  unbounded  benevo- 
lence, without  a  particle  of  morbid  fondness,  towards  all 
the  objects  of  the  creation. 


*  0,»   the  Study   of  Nature,  and  Natural  Theology.     By  James  L.  Drummond,  M.  D.  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in 
the  Belfast  Academical  Institution,  &c.  3rd  Edit.  1834.     London  :   Longman  &  Co. 


124 


ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  COTTAGES  FOR  THE  LABOURING  CLASSES. 


The  comfort  and  respectability  of  the  working  classes  is  of  pri- 
mary importance  to  the  prosperity  of  the  state.  Next  to  a  good 
early  education,  probably  nothing  more  certainly  conduces  to 
their  moral  virtue  than  comfortable  dwellings  and  small  gardens. 
We  at  present  confine  ourselves  to  the  first  article  here  men- 
tioned. Hitherto,  the  manner  in  which  our  manufacturing 
population  have  been  crowded  together,  especially  in  large 
towns,  and  the  decayed  or  ruinous  piles  of  buildings  into  which 
they  have  been  huddled,  have  greatly  tended  to  disease,  and, 
what  is  worse,  to  encourage  profligacy.  Attention  to  this  mat- 
ter, however,  is  beginning  to  mark  the  present  generation  of 
philanthropists  ;  nor  do  we  despair  of  seeing,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years,  a  mighty  alteration  in  the  exterior  condition  of  the 
industrious  labourers  of  our  country.  Certain  it  is  that  much, 
besides  the  power  of  example,  may  actually  be  done  by  proprie- 
tors of  land  and  men  of  wealth.  Neat  cottages  may  be  erected 
in  the  neighbourhoods  of  towns,  as  well  as  upon  large  landed 
estates ;  and  we  proceed  to  give  a  short  description  of  several 
designs  (see  Plate  40)  which  we  think  admirably  adapted  to 
such  purposes  in  any  quarter  of  the  united  empire,  whether 
built  of  brick  or  the  more  hardy  material,  stone.  The  plan  and 
arrangement  of  these  neat,  convenient,  and  comfortable  dwell- 
ings are  distinguished  particularly  by  their  compactness.  They 
present,  in  short,  multiim  in  parvo. 

We  have  just  one  other  general  observation  to  submit,  which 
regards  the  requisites  of  cottages,  and  which  these  designs  dex- 
trously  exhibit.  Besides  economy  and  convenience,  each  family 
requires  a  cei"tain  extent  of  variety  of  accommodation  for  the 
sake  of  decency.  This  has  hitherto  been  seldom  considered  as 
a  matter  essentially  necessary.  If  there  was  space  found  for 
the  poor  man  and  family,  wherein  cold,  wind,  and  rain  were  ex- 
cluded, it  was  thought  enough.  It  most  probably  was  one  lank, 
bare,  and  empty  apartment,  without  fire-grate  or  loft,  the  fold- 
ing door  and  a  unndow  or  two  being  the  whole  of  the  superfiuous 
providing  to  gratify  the  eye  of  the  new  tenant,  a  sight  sufficient 
to  turn  the  tide  of  a  parent's  emotions  to  despair  and  profligacy. 
But  the  poor  parents  had  children,  and  with  boards,  box  beds, 
and  tattered  blankets,  strove  to  protect  themselves  from  inde- 
cent community,  more  than  the  landlord  did  to  screen  them 
from  wind  and  rain. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATE. 

A  few  moments'  examination  of  these  designs  are  sufficient, 
without  any  minute  description  of  them,  to  make  any  one  un- 
derstand and  appreciate  their  excellence,  They  in  short  speak 
sufficiently  well  for  themselves.  In  such  cottages  as  are  repre- 
sented in  fig.  1  and  2  of  Plate  40,  the  outer  door  usually  opens 
directly  upon  the  fire  place,  which,  besides  other  discomfort,  ge- 
nerally occasions  a  misdirection  of  the  smoke.  Here,  the  evil 
is  well  and  neatly  avoided  by  means  of  a  porch.     It  will  be  seen 


as  another  good  contrivance,  that  the  poultry-house  is  placed  so 
as  to  receive  not  merely  the  shelter  but  some  of  the  warmth  of 
the  cottager's  apartments  ;  and  that  in  a  small  and  convenient 
form  every  necessary  provision  is  made  as  regards  variety  Of 
divisions  and  cleanliness. 

The  third  figure  in  Plate  40  is  of  rather  a  picturesque  form, 
but  combines  all  the  comfort  and  convenience,  independent  of 
this,  which  is  generally  lost  sight  of  by  fanciful  designs.  In 
this  plate  there  will  be  observed  a  gradation  of  accommodation, 
rising  from  the  first  design.  They  are  all  double,  however, 
which  adds  to  their  warmth  and  their  cheapness.  Still  they 
may  be  completely  sepni-ate  and  distinct,  as  regards  every  ac- 
commodation and  right.  Fig.  2  has  a  pavilioned  roof,  which 
is  made  also  to  hang  over  the  side-walls.  Fiy.  3  has  bed-rooms 
over  the  centre,  and  lofts  over  the  kitchens  ;  thus  making  each 
cottage  belonging  to  this  design  a  house  of  three  apartments, 
with  a  closet,  &c. 

Fig.  4  combines  four  distinct  dwellings.  Tlie  design  consists 
of  a  centre  and  two  wings  ;  each  of  the  latter  forms  one  dwell- 
ing-house, fronting  a  garden,  completely  closed  in  by  itself. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  fire-places  in  all  of  these  plans  are 
placed  in  inside  walls,  and  that  the  wall  cupboards  are  also  in 
inside  walls,  otherwise  they  must  be  cold  and  damp.  The  com- 
bined cottage  shewn,  seems  an  admirable  plan.  Two  of  the 
dwellings  have  poultry-houses,  the  other  two,  pigsties  ;  and 
there  is  one  cow-house  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  back  court, 
which  will  in  general  be  found  sufficient. 

We  might  lay  down  a  number  of  rules  and  heads  of  a  specifi- 
cation for  the  construction  of  such  cottages,  whether  of  brick 
or  stone  mason  work,  but  which,  according  to  the  view  we  are 
taking  in  this  notice,  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  speak  of.  The 
depth  of  the  excavations  for  foundations,  the  style  and  kind  of 
flooring,  we  leave  to  the  wisdom  of  the  builder.  We  would 
recommend  that  the  division  walls  of  double  cottages  be  carried 
close  xip  to  the  slates  ;  that  a  dwarf  wall  be  built  across  under 
each  room  that  is  floored,  for  supporting  the  sleeper  joists  ;  that 
the  floors  be  raised  considerably,  and,  as  the  situation  of  the 
building  will  always  suggest,  duly  above  the  level  of  the  ground 
on  which  it  stands  :  that  the  whole  area  immediately  connected 
with  the  buildings  be  properly  drained,  and  that  four  openings, 
eight  inches  square,  and  grated,  be  made  below  the  wooden 
floorings  for  ventilation  and  preserving  the  floor.  Cottages 
should  not  be  thatched,  nor  any  part  of  the  work  superficially 
executed,  if  profit  as  well  as  comfort  is  looked  to. 

We  need  not  give  an  estimate  of  the  expenses  which  any  one 
of  these  designs  will  incur  when  fully  followed  out.  We  shall 
only  say,  that  the  saving  latterly,  if  every  thing  be  observed 
which  has  been  said,  will  be  as  remarkable  as  are  the  compact- 
ness and  comfort  of  these  cottages. 


ON  THE  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY  OF  AYRSHIRE. 


Every  art  that  has  been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  finds  some  one  country  or  district  of  a 
country  the  seat  of  its  reign.  This  is  frequently  attri- 
butable solely  to  physical  causes,  by  whicli  the  materials 
to  work  on  are  confined  to  particular  regions.  But 
sometimes,  and  probably  more  frequently  still,  the 
matter  is  wholly  referable  to  man's  choice,  and  the 
particular  direction  of  his  powers.  Thus  the  growth 
of  tea  or  the  propagation  of  the  silk-worm  are  never 
likely  to  distinguish  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  but  we 
do  not  see  why  the  whisky  that  is  distilled  there  might 
not  be  produced  any  where  else,  provided  the  grain 
out  of  which  it  is  made  was  found.     Still,  within  very 


narrow  limits  of  a  country  or  district,  some  arts  and 
manufactures  will  be  seen  to  preserve  themselves  en- 
tire, as  if  hemmed  around  by  impassable  ban-iers ;  for 
these  barriers  are  the  habits  and  the  prejudices  of 
mankind,  the  most  obdurate  and  insurmountable  of  any 

on  earth.  ,       ,  .,, 

It  may  in  the  next  place  be  remarked,  that  the  skill 
that  is  so  illustrious  as  to  lend  a  distinctive  fame  to  a 
whole  territory,  may  after  all,  be  alone  due  to  a  limited 
and  confined  section  of  that  territory.  Thus  it  is  with 
the  Dairi/  Husbandry  of  Ayrshire  ;  for  we  are  prepared 
to  shew,  if  called  upon,  that  this  art  as  understood 
there,  might  be  advantageously  introduced  and  prac- 


ON    THE    DAIRY    HUSBANDRY    OF   AYRSHIRE). 


125 


tised  in  many  other  parts;  and  that  though  confined 
to  a  comparatively  narrow  circle,  it  yet  lends  celebrity 
to  the  kingdom.  It  holds  with  the  Dainj  as  it  does 
with  the  Grain  Husbandry  of  Scotland.  The  latter  is 
confined,  in  its  high  perfection,  to  certain  districts  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  kingdom  especially,  whilst  the 
former  has  its  seat  on  the  west  coast.  Nevertheless, 
both  branches  are  so  zealously  and  skilfully  pursued 
in  these  opposite  directions  and  Imiited  quarters,  that 
both  the  one  and  the  other  have  conferred  upon  the 
whole  country,  a  high  and  distinctive  name.  To  be 
sure,  with  regard  to  the  eastern  branch  of  husbandry, 
it  must  be  observed,  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
climate  forbid  its  advantageous  adoption  in  the  west  ; 
but  the  dairy  of  the  west  might  and  should  be  much 
more  extensively  practised  in  the  east  than  it  has  ever 
yet  been ;  nay,  it  deserves  to  be  understood  and  intro- 
duced into  many  parts  of  the  united  empire,  as  the 
account  we  are  about  to  submit,  though  necessarily  an 
outline,  will,  we  trust,  establish. 

We  apprehend  and  feel  strongly  assured,  that  every 
extensive  proprietor  and  farmer ;  that  even  every  gar- 
dener, peasant,  and  householder,  to  whom  a  single 
milk  cow  is  an  object  of  attention,  should  take  into 
consideration  the  view  and  matter  we  have  now  entered 
upon.  Tlie  writer  speaks  from  actual  observation  and 
experience,  directed  to  rural  aflfairs  for  these  many 
years,  in  various  quarters  of  the  united  kingdom ;  but 
chiefly  in  Ayrshire :  that  county  lending  a  name  to  the 
dairy  art,  equivalent  to  that  of  Scotland.  Nay,  the 
making  of  cheese  belongs  in  its  highest  style  but  to 
one  of  the  three  divisions  of  Ayrs'hire,  viz.  that  of 
Cuningham,  although  it  has  thence  found  its  way,  over 
a  nmch  more  extensive  tract  of  country,  including  the 
greater  portion  of  the  shire,  and  also  of  that  of  Renfrew 
and  the  lower  part  of  Lanark.  The  information  atforded 
by  Mr.  William  Alton,  of  Hamilton,  wiU  also  be  taken 
advantage  of,  who  is  the  most  judicious  and  enlight- 
ened writer  on  the  Scottish  dairy  system,  that  has  ever 
appeared. 

Milk  is  probably  the  most  essential  and  wholesome 
species  of  food  used  by  the  human  race.  It  is  the 
sustenance  of  childhood,  and  often  of  old  age,  and 
the  milk  of  cattle  cannot  find  an  equal  in  importance 
except  in  bread,  "  the  staff  of  life ;"  it  must  accord- 
ingly be  a  highly  necessary  thing,  that  mankind  should 
know  how  this  great  article  of  food  is  to  be  most 
abundantly  provided,  and  also  most  profitably  used 
and  manufactured  into  the  different  forms  of  which  it 
is  capable.  The  subject  therefore  leads  us  to  consider, 
what  are  the  best  modes  of  rearing  and  cultivating 
cattle  (the  Bos  tribe  is  of  course  solely  understood 
here),  and  next  how  is  the  produce  of  cattle  to  be  most 
profitably  managed. 

It  might  be  useful  as  a  preliminary  matter,  to  con- 
sider the  nature  of  land  best  fitted  for  the  dairy,  and 
relatively  what  is  the  most  profitable  branch  of  hus- 
bandry, in  certain  given  situations  and  soils.  But  this 
would  lead  us,  at  present,  into  a  too  lengthened  dis- 
cussion. We  only  say  generally,  that  land  of  a  medium 
or  inferior  quality,  or  where  the  climate  is  wet,  will 
yield  a  much  higher  rent  if  judiciously  managed,  on  a 
dairy  system,  than  if  devoted  to  any  rotation  of  constant 
cropping.  It  may  be  most  confidently  asserted,  that  if 
the  farmers  in  the  counties  of  Ayr,  Renfrew  and 
Lanark,  were  compelled  to  change  their  dairy  system 


for  any  other,  that  of  cropping  for  example,  they  could 
not  give  above  three  fourths  of  the  rent  they  now  pay. 
The  demand  for,  and  the  prices  of  that  species  of  agri- 
cultural produce,  have  never  declined  so  much  as  that 
of  grain,  or  even  less  than  butcher's  meat. 

We  learn  from  Mr.  Aiton,  that  on  the  authority  of 
the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  quantity  of  herbage  that 
will  add  112  lbs.  to  the  weight  of  an  ox,  will,  when 
bestowed  on  a  dairy  cow,  of  an  ordinary  good  breed, 
and  in  a  fair  condition  to  yield  milk,  enable  her  to 
give  about  2,700  imperial  pints  of  milk :  and  that  ge- 
nerally in  Scotland  17  pints  of  milk  will  yield  an 
imperial  pound  of  butter ;  and  the  butter-milk  will  sell 
at  one  penny  for  three  pints.  Of  Ayrshire  or  Dunlop 
cheese,  (as  it  is  more  fi-equently  called)  it  will  take 
120  pints  of  milk,  to  yield  from  16  to  171bs.  avoirdu- 
poise  :  it  can  easily  be  ascertained,  therefore,  whether 
the  beef,  or  those  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are 
most  profitable.  Nearly  385  pounds,  or  27i  stones  im- 
perial of  full  milk  cheese  (that  is  of  milk  as  it  comes 
from  the  cow)  will  take  2,700  pints ;  and  if  so  many 
pints  be  made  into  butter,  they  will  yield  nearly  1574 
pounds,  besides  the  butter-milk,  which  may  average 
about  half  of  the  whole  that  has  been  churned.  The 
average  price  of  beef  for  seven  years  past,  has  not 
exceeded  six  shillings  per  stone;  and  the  112 lbs.  or 
eight  stones,  of  course  amount  to  2^.  ^s.,  while  1^i 
stones  of  cheese,  at  five  shillings  per  stone,  the  average 
price  paid  to  the  farmer  dm-ing  the  same  period  of 
years,  amount  to  6^.  17s.  Grf. ;  and  the  average  price  of 
157ilbs.  of  butter,  at  eight-pence  per  pound,  for  a  like 
course  of  time,  amounts  to  52.  5*.,  and  of  the  butter-milk 
to  1/.  V]s.  %d.  more,  both  being  11.  2«.  6d. 

Compare  in  the  next  place  the  rise  on  the  prices  of 
grain,  tlien  of  butter  and  cheese  within  the  last  sixty- 
five  years.  While  oatmeal,  for  instance,  has  not  ad- 
vanced more  than  50  per  cent,  on  an  average  during 
that  period,  the  price  of  cheese  has  risen  from  200  to 
sometimes  300  per  cent.,  and  butter  from  300  to  500  per 
cent,  during  the  same  time  ;  although  these  later  kinds 
of  produce  have  been  imported  into  Scotland  to  an 
immense  amount.  It  may  be  noticed,  that  though  a 
dairy  requires  an  extent  of  labour  and  outlay  conside- 
rably greater  than  the  fattening  of  cattle,  there  will 
still  remain  a  vast  balance  in  its  favour.  Neither  is 
there  much  more  expense  incurred  in  bringing  a  cow 
to  the  period  when  she  has  her  first  calve,  than  in 
making  her  fit  for  fattening  for  the  shambles.  And 
after  giving  milk  for  seven  years,  she  may  be  fattened 
to  very  considerable  advantage,  thus  turning  the  matter 
of  rearing  greatly  in  favour  of  the  dairy  cow. 

But  to  come  to  the  dairy  cattle  of  Ayrshire.  It  may 
first  of  all  be  observed,  that  the  excellence  of  the  breed 
is  not  of  very  long  standing ;  neither  is  it  clear  to  what 
it  is  owing.  The  very  limited  importation  of  kinds 
from  other  quarters,  could  not  have  produced  that 
which  is  now  so  celebrated,  and  accomplished  it  within 
the  last  fifty  years.  It  is  pretty  evident  that  the 
matter  must  be  attributed  to  the  pains  taken  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  indigenous  breed,  by  carefiil  crossing 
and  judicious  feeding,  first  of  all,  in  the  district  of 
Cuningham  in  Ayrshire.  From  that  spot  the  breed 
has  extended  to  many  of  the  Scottish  counties ;  and  it 
is  also  in  high  estimation  in  England.  And  indeed 
they  are  fully  worthy  of  such  celebrity;  for  they  are 
possessed  of  all  the  most  important  requisites  of  cattle  ; 


v^ 


0?J -J^  ^DAIRY   HUSBANDRY   OF  AYRSHIRE. 


they  give  a  more  -copious  draft  of  milk  than  any  breed 
ia  Europe  ;  they  fatten  as  fast  and  cut  up  as  well  in  the 
shambles  as  any  other.  They  are  tame,  quiet,  docile 
and  hardy,  and  particularly  exempt  from  disease. 

In  breeding,  particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  shapes 
of  the  bulls ;  those  are  preferred  that  have  the  greatest 
resemblance  to  a  fine  cow,  at  the  same  time  suiting  the 
size  of  the  bull  to  the  cow ;  taking  care  that  he  be  not 
too  large.  As  to  the  most  approved  shapes  of  the  cow ; 
her  head  should  be  fine  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle;  her 
eye  small  and  lively ;  her  horns  wide-set,  slender,  and 
turning  upwards  after  having  bent  inwards ;  her  neck 
long,  thin,  and  tapering  towards  the  head;  shoulders 
also  thin;  fore  quarters  light ;  hind  quarters  capacious ; 
back  straight;  carcase  deep;  buttock's  fleshy;  tail 
long  and  fine ;  legs  short  and  fine ;  udder  broad,  and 
stretching  well  along  the  belly,  showing  itself  in  rear 
of  the  hind  legs  also,  but  not  flabby ;  and  the  teats 
planted  widely  asunder.  The  skin  and  the  hair  should 
also  be  fine ;  indeed  all  the  parts  of  least  real  value 
must  recommend  themselves  by  handsome  features  and 
points.  S^ch  are  the  qualities  that  skilful  breeders 
look  after  and  desire.  These  cattle  vary  in  weight 
from  twenty  to  sixty  stones  English,  with  fat  sinking 
offals;  and  theh  prices  at  present  run  from  10/.  to  15?. 
sterling;  which  are  much  under  what  they  brought 
several  years  ago. 

In  rearing  calves,  of  course  those  from  parents  the 
most  highly  esteemed  will  be  preferred ;  and  the  most 
fashionable  colour  is  dark  red,  intermixed  with  white  ; 
the  red  greatly  prevailing.  The  best  period  to  choose 
them,  is  when  after  about  six  weeks'  feeding  on  milk, 
they  can  be  turned  out  to  grass  in  May,  to  have  all  the 
fine  weather  and  grass  of  the  year.  They  are  never 
allowed  to  suckle  their  dams ;  hut  are  fed  ft-om  a  dish. 
For  the  first  few  days  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
have  what  they  would  take ;  and  after  six  weeks  or  so 
pure  milk  diet,  cheaper  and  less  delicate  food  must  be 
very  gradually  introduced.  It  is  always  a  safe  rule, 
however,  to  be  kind  to  them  as  long  as  possible  when 
young ;  the  attention  will  be  amply  repaid  in  the  cow, 
not  only  as  respects  the  abundance  and  continuance  of 
their  milk  diet,  but  in  giving  them  the  best  pasture  for 
the  first  summer  of  their  lives.  It  is  good  feeding  and 
treatment  when  young  that  brings  them  early  to  be  fit 
to  give  milk,  and  that  abundantly :  and  such  a  style  of 
management  is  the  great  secret  of  bettering  the  breed. 
A  wise  dairy  farmer  is  as  indulgent  to  his  cows,  as  the 
tenderest  groom  is  to  a  race-horse  :  a  good  dairy-maid 
not  only  will  not  huiry  their  pace  in  the  field,  but  she 
liandles  them  and  talks  to  them  with  all  the  kindliness 
possible.  They  literally  know  her  voice,  and  court  the 
hand  that  cherishes  them. 

The  milk  cows  are  fed  in  summer  on  such  pasture  as 
the  farm  produces ;  care  should  always  however  be 
taken,  that  they  be  not  stinted ;  nay,  it  is  a  great  damage 
to  the  cow,  when  she  has  to  make  it  a  day's  work  to 
fill  her  belly.  It  should  be  frequently  filled;  and  she 
should  often  indulge  herself  with  an  "hour's  rest,  care 
being  taken  that  water  is  at  her  will.  The  writer  knew 
a  farmer,  who,  when  his  wife  complained  of  the  cows 
giving  hltle  milk,  would  say,  "  I'll  sell  one,  and  you'll 
have  more."  In  summer  they  are  housed  during  the 
night,  and  their  fodder  is  chiefly  oat-sti-aw.  But  of  late 
years  a  great  deal  more  pains  than  formerly  is  taken, 
to  yUtJhepn  have  some  succulent  addition.     And  as  the 


period  of  their  calving  approaches,  some  substantial 
grain  is  added,  though  in  small  quantities.  The  grain 
should  be  bruised  in  a  mill,  the  smaller  the  better; 
bean-meal  seems  now  to  be  in  highest  estimation.  Fop 
some  time  after  calving  this  good  feeding  should  be 
continued,  especially  if  the  grass  be  too  young  to  yield 
a  mouthful.  It  is  prudent  in  summer  weather  to  keep 
the  cows  out  in  the  field  all  night  This  not  merely 
makes  them  harcUer,  but  w  ithout  a  great  deal  of  care 
and  feeding  within  doors,  there  will  be  a  sad  falling  off 
in  milk  after  a  night's  imprisonment.  Let  it  be  under- 
stood that  every  judicious  farmer  allows  at  least,  in  all 
kinds  of  food  prepared  by  the  hand  for  his  cows,  a 
portion  of  salt,  which  they  relish  higMy.        ,  -    . ,  .   .  > . 

A  cow  to  give  much  and  good  milk  must  be  m  ^ 
thriving  and  good  condition,  Mr.  Alton,  who  has 
been  at  vast  pains  to  ascertain  every  point  regarding 
dairy  husbandry,  satisfactorily  sliows,  that  the  average 
retm-ns  of  the  better  sorts  of  cattle  in  Ayrshire,  when 
properly  attended  to,  will  amount  to  6,000  imperial 
pints  of  milk  every  year  each  cow ;  the  inferior  sorts, 
of  course,  yield  much  less.  And  when  speaking  of  a 
years  milk,  nine  of  tire  twelve  months  may  be  taken  as 
a  suitable  portion  for  a  cow  to  be  kept  in  a  milking 
plight. 

The  cow  houses  ought  to  be  capacious,  well  venti- 
lated, and  kept  clean ;  the  side  walls  high ;  no  loft  to 
obstruct  the  ready  escape  of  their  breath ;  and  nume- 
rous apertures  in  the  building,  to  admit  of  the  intro- 
duction of  pure  air.  Dryness  more  than  heat  is  required. 
The  paths  within  and  towards  the  house  should  be  well 
paved,  that  they  may  be  easily  kept  clean.  Thin  flags 
of  stone  about  four  feet  square,  are  usually  placed  on 
each  side  of  the  stalls,  two  cows  being  to  a  stall.  The 
best  style  of  fastening  the  cattle,  is  by  an  iron  rod, 
about  twenty  inches  long,  fixed  in  a  perpendicular 
position,  by  the  side  of  the  flag,  that  a  chain  may  be 
allowed  to  shde  up  and  down,  and  thus  give  the  animal's 
head  sufficient  freedom  for  feeding,  without  the  possi- 
bility of  goring  its  neighbour  sideways.  In  fi-ont  of 
the  row  of  cows,  there  is  usually  a  stone  trough  to  hold 
their  food;  there  should  also  be  a  parallel  passage. 
The  other  dairy  houses,  connected  immediately  with 
the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  together  with 
the  proper  utensils,  fall  to  be  considered,  after  these 
articles  of  produce  have  been  discussed. 

In  Ayrshire  and  the  neighbouring  dairy  districts, 
but  chiefly  in  Renfrewshire,  which  supplies  Paisley 
and  Glasgow,  besides  other  towns,  with  the  greatest 
proportion  of  butter  used  in  them,  the  best  article  of 
the  kind  manufactured  in  Scotland,  and  perhaps  to  a 
much  larger  extent,  is  to  be  found.  Here  the  mode  of 
proceeding  is  very  simple.  It  is  the  practice  to  chum 
the  whole  of  the  milk,  which  is  not  generally  observed 
or  known  elsewhere.  The  milk,  as  soon  as  drawn  from 
the  cow,  is  placed  in  shallow  coolers,  and  stands  for 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours ;  when  the  cream  has  risen 
to  the  surface,  the  coolers  are  emptied  into  the  churn, 
where  the  butter  is  to  be  made.  If  another  milking 
is  thus  prepared,  and  ready  to  be  poured  into  the 
churn,  (which  is  of  the  standing  kind)  before  the  for- 
mer has  begun  to  sour,  it  may  be  added  safely ;  but 
if  otherwise,  or  if  the  first  be  even  approaching  to 
acidity,  the  admixtirre  leads  to  fermentation  and  injures 
the  milk.  Great  care  is  taken  not  to  allow  the  coagulum 
of  the  milk  in  the  chum  to  be  broken,  after  it  begins 


ON    THE    DAIRY    HUSBANDRY   OF   AYRSHIRE. 


127 


to  become  sour,  till  the  operation  of  churning  is  set 
about. 

As  a  proof  that  the  process  of  butter  making  in  the 
west  of  Scotland  is  not  a  complex  one,  it  seems  enough 
to  state  that  the  farmers  who  supply  Paisley  and 
Glasgow  with  this  sort  of  produce,  not  only  churn  all 
their  milk,  but  do  so  almost  every  day  in  the  week. 
Plunge  churns  are  usually  found  to  contain  about  100 
Scotch  pints,  (a  Scotch  pint  is  two  English  quarts) 
when  worked  by  the  hand;  but  when  machinery  is 
applied,  150  or  200  pints  are  churned  at  a  time.  In 
a  few  minutes  after  the  operation  is  begun,  as  much 
warm  water  is  poured  into  the  churn  as  raises  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  from  fifty  degrees  or  so  of 
Fahrenheit,  (which  will  be  that  of  the  dairy-house) 
to  seventy  or  seventy-five.  The  water  must  be  slowly 
poured  in,  not  dashed,  and  the  churning  must  proceed 
during  the  same  time,  without  fail.  In  autimm  the 
milk  is  rich,  and  more  water  may  be  applied  than 
earlier  in  the  year,  when  the  serum  is  more  abundant ; 
and  probably  one  pint  of  water  on  an  average  may 
be  near  the  proportion,  to  be  added  to  every  five  pints 
of  milk.  But  much  will  depend  on  circumstances, 
that  cannot  all  be  detailed.  We  may  say,  however, 
that  the  character  of  the  feeding,  and  of  the  milk  of 
individual  cows,  requires  the  observance  of  all  who 
would  be  expert  and  good  hands  in  dairy  work.  Let  it 
be  particularly  attended  to,  that  the  milk  be  not  too 
much  heated,  or  churned  too  hastily.  From  two  to  three 
hours  is  a  good  allowance  of  time  for  the  operation. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  value  of  the  butter 
milk  in  the  west  of  Scotland ;  we  now  add  that  it  is 
not  only  a  palatable  but  a  delicious  liquid,  and  finds 
amongst  the  working  classes  a  rapid  sale.  "VVe  do  not 
wonder  that  in  England  the  pigs  should  monopolize  the 
beverage :  for  whatever  may  be  the  cause,  the  fact  is, 
so  far  as  we  know,  that  the  butter-milk  is  not  fit  for 
human  beings.  There  is  a  bitterness  and  nauseousness 
in  its  taste,  that  leads  us  to  suspect  that  the  butter  can- 
not be  perfect  which  has  been  extracted  out  of  it.  But 
in  the  North,  the  peasantry  very  generally,  as  well  as 
the  humble  citizens  in  the  manufacturing  towns,  prefer 
the  sour  liquid  for  their  porridge,  to  the  pure  sweet 
milk  in  the  state  it  comes  fi-om  the  cow;  and  we  ven- 
ture to  affirm  that  their  health  and  strength  is  not 
inferior  to  any  class  of  the  human  race. 

The  Ayrshire  or  Dunlop  cheese  is  thus  made : — 
When  such  a  number  of  cows  is  kept  as  to  yield  milk 
sufficient  for  a  cheese  of  tolerable  size  at  each  milking, 
the  milk  is  passed  through  a  strainer  to  clear  it  of 
every  impurity,  into  a  tub  or  vat  of  sufficient  size  for 
the  purpose.  The  rennet  is  applied  the  moment  all 
the  milk  has  been  collected ;  and  as  soon  as  the  process 
of  coagulation  is  completed,  the  dairy  maids'  hands 
are,  gently  at  first  however,  employed,  the  curdling 
being  then  very  soft,  to  draw  off  the  whey.  The  curd 
is  all  gradually  broken,  but  in  such  a  manner,  and  such 
a  time,  as  neither  to  extract  substance  that  would  go 
to  enlarge  the  curd,  nor  be  so  tardy  as  to  allow  it  to 
become  unmanageable.  Where  the  milk  at  one  milking 
is  not  sufficient  to  make  a  cheese,  it  must  be  collected 
from  two  or  more  milkings ;  and  this  is  done  in  the 
shallow  sort  of  coolers  mentioned  before,  which  are 
of  wood,  stone,  lead  or  tin.  When  the  cheese,  after 
such  a  collecting,  is  to  be  made,  the  cream  is  skimmed 
off  the  cooled  milk,  and  poured   into  the  large  vat 


through  a  strainer;  whilst  the  residue,  which  is  thin 
milk,  must  be  brought  to  a  proper  heat,  and  then  added. 
The  heat  of  the  whole  mass  should  be  about  that  of 
new  drawn  milk.  Were  the  cream,  which  is  put  into 
the  curd  vat,  heated,  its  oily  particles  would  melt,  and 
be  lost  to  the  cheese. 

The  temperatiu'e  at  which  the  milk  is  kept,  from  the 
time  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  till  it  is  fonued  into 
cheese,  ought  to  be  cai'efiilly  attended  to.  If  kept 
much  above  55  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  it  will  not  cast 
up  the  cream  properly,  and  will  soon  sour ;  and  if  below 
that  degree  of  temperature,  the  process  of  coagulation 
goes  on  slowly,  the  cheese  is  soft  that  is  made  from  it, 
and  the  whey  with  difficulty  drawn  off  and  separated. 

After  the  curd  has  been  well  broken,  and  cut  by 
means  of  a  knife,  and  as  soon  as  the  greater  part  of  the 
whey  has  been  drawTi  off,  salt  is  applied,  at  the  rate 
of  about  half  an  ounce  to  every  pound  of  cheese,  which 
the  dairy  housewives  have  a  marvellous  knack  at  hit- 
ting by  the  judgment,  that  a  glance  of  the  eye  enables 
them  to  form.  The  curd,  however,  must  still  have 
submitted  to  a  very  minute  chopping,  before  the  salt 
can  intimately  mingle  with  it.  After  this  the  whole 
is  put  into  a  cheese-vat,  surrounded  with  a  piece  of 
thin  cloth  made  into  canvass  from  coarse  lint,  and  at 
first  gently  pressed  by  a  weight  of  a  very  moderate 
amount,  lest  the  still  tender  curd  should  be  injured. 
Ere  long,  however,  three  or  four  hours  from  the  time 
the  whole  operation  was  set  about,  the  cheese-vat  is 
put  under  the  press :  it  is  afterwards  changed  a  few 
times  in  the  course  of  the  day,  not  merely  by  having 
dry  cloths  applied,  but  by  reversing  the  now  regularly 
formed  article  in  the  cheese  vat.  After  coming  from 
the  press,  the  cheese  is  exposed  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  drought,  and  is  turned  every  morning  and 
evening.  It  is  thus  treated  for  a  few  days,  and  then 
last  of  all  laid  upon  boards  in  the  store  room,  only  to 
be  turned  every  second  day  or  so.  Such  is  the  simple 
operation ; — skewers  are  never  put  into  a  cheese  to 
extract  the  whey;  it  is  never  sweated,  nor  rubbed 
with  butter.  It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  entire  ma- 
nagement of  the  cheese  dairy  is  confided  and  conducted 
by  women,  and  this  leads  us  merely  to  notice,  a 
point  far  from  imimportant,  connected  with  this  species 
of  rural  husbandry,  which  is,  that  the  females  are 
bred  and  kept  to  a  most  becoming  employment,  which 
goes  no  small  way  to  give  a  valuable  character  to  the 
entire  body  of  the  rural  population.  Dairy  farms  too, 
are,  it  may  be  said,  necessarily  limited;  they  not 
only  call  for  the  industry  of  the  husbandman's  daugh- 
ters, but  the  sons  cannot'afford  to  be  gentlemen,  but 
have  to  work  along  with  their  fathers  in  the  fields. 
Accordingly  and  therefore  it  is,  that  the  peasantry  of 
the  west  of  Scotland  are  now,  and  have  long  been, 
the  most  enlightened,  the  most  religious,  and  the  most 
industrious  of  any  even  in  that  nation. 

A  milk  house  should  be  so  large  as  to  contain  at 
least  one  day's  milk  of  all  the  cows  on  the  farm ;  and 
still  larger  if  butter  and  skim  milk  cheese  are  made. 
It  should  be  shaded  from  the  sun  as  much  as  possible ; 
and  the  best  covering  is  thatch  and  turf,  in  order  to 
exclude  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter. 
The  window  should  be  on  the  north  side,  that  the 
sun's  rays  may  not  enter,  and  it  should  also  have  two 
ventilators,  covered  ^^■ith  brass  wire  and  gauze  cloth 
to  keep  out  insects  and  mice.     The  floor  should  have 


128 


ON    ENCL0SUEE3. 


a  well  joined  pavement,  that  no  milk  or  dirt  may  lodge 
in  it,  and  it  should  uniformly  be  kept  dry  and  cool. 
Every  thing,  in  short,  about  the  milk  house,  should  be 
sweet  and  clean,  and  though  it  must  be  near  the  cow 
house,  it  must  yet  be  so  distant  as  not  to  be  polluted 
by  any  effluvia  from  the  cows.  The  dairy  house  must 
also  be  so  constructed,  that  the  steam  from  the  boiler 
may  not  reach  the  milk.  But  if  the  milk  house  and 
dairy  house  be  distant  from  the  cows,  or  from  each 
other,  a  covered  passage  should  run  between  them,  as 
the  mUk  is  soon  affected  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  by 
rain,  or  by  exposure  to  the  air.  A  storehouse  is  also 
necessary  ;  and  it  should  not  be  damp,  nor  very  dry  ; 
the  barn  floor  is  very  commoidy  used  in  Ayrshire, 
especially  in  the  height  of  the  summer  season,  or  the 
ground  story  of  a  house  where  the  current  of  the  air 
is  not  too  great,  nor  the  light  too  powerful. 

The  dairy  utensils  in  use  throughout  the  west  of 
Scotland  are  few  and  simple,  a  general  recommendation 
of  the  implements  handled  in  any  art.  The  milking 
pails  are  of  wood ;  the  churns  are  wrought,  for  the 
most  part,  with  a  staff,  the  head  of  which  is  as  broad 
and  round  as  the  circuit  of  the  upright  pump  in  which 
it  is  plunged;  and  the  cheese  presses,  now-a-days,  are 
chiefly  wrought,  or  the  pressure  obtained,  by  means 


of  a  lever  power,  by  far  the  best  sort  of  machine  hither- 
to known  for  the  purpose.  Such  a  press  can  be 
carried,  when  not  filled  or  charged  with  cheeses,  in  a 
person's  arms,  from  one  place  to  another,  and  it  occu- 
pies so  little  room,  as  to  stand  in  almost  any  bye 
corner.  Besides,  it  will  press  half  a  dozen  cheeses  as 
quickly  as  one,  provided  the  maker  has  given  height 
to  it.  Without  a  drawing,  however,  it  cannot  be  de- 
scribed intelligibly.  Wheels,  sliding  pressure  board, 
and  long  lever  spear,  for  weights  to  be  hung  on,  are 
the  leading  features  in  this  press.  The  other  dairy 
utensils  are  common  and  few  in  number,  not  requiring 
to  be  here  mentioned. 

We  have,  owing  to  the  limited  space  allowed  us, 
been  obliged  to  give  a  very  cursory  outline  of  the  weSt 
of  Scotland  butter  and  cheese  making  processes.  But 
enough  has  been  said  to  shew  the  excellence  of  thfe 
Ayrshire  breed  of  cattle,  and  the  profitable  mode  in  which 
their  milk  can  be  used.  We  conclude  with  asserting, 
that  if  the  high  rents  paid  by  the  dauy  tenantry,  and 
their  habits  and  general  comfort  be  matters  worthy  of 
consideration,  the  branch  of  husbandry  followed  out  by 
them  is  the  best  that  they  can  adopt,  and  that  it  should 
be  greatly  more  extended  over  Scotland,  not  to  speak 
at  present  of  a  much  wider  domain. 


ON  ENCLOSURES. 


The  great  purposes  served  by  enclosures  are  protection  and 
shelter.  We  are  not  sure  that  man  in  a  rude  state,  so  soon  as 
he  fixed  himself  permanently  in  one  spot,  might  not  erect  some 
sort  of  \asible  landmark,  by  which  he  individualized  to  his  own 
apprehension  a  definite  portion  of  property,  independent  alto- 
gether of  the  idea  of  protection.  But  it  is  obvious  that  wher- 
ever there  were  other  inhabitants,  whether  of  his  own  species 
or  inferior  orders  of  animals,  fences  would  become  necessary 
that  he  might  protect  what  had  accrued  to  himself,  from  in- 
jui^y  and  robbery.  In  sonxe  cases  the  line  that  divided  was 
in  a  great  measure  ideal,  and  only  preserved  by  large  stones 
erected  at  distant  intervals  of  space  ;  such  a  division  if  kept 
honestly  by,  was  sufficient  to  show  where  one  man's  possession 
joined  that  of  his  neighbour.  But  landmarks  might  be  re- 
moved, which,  we  read,  was  considered  a  heinous  oifence.  An 
expedient  was  sometimes  resorted  to,  of  an  affecting  kind,  to 
strengthen  the  evidence  as  to  precise  localities.  Children  who 
had  arrived  at  an  age  such  as  usually  enable  them  to  treasure 
up  in  their  memory  an  event  that  had  once  made  a  deep  im- 
pression, were  conducted  to  certain  places,  and  there  so  satis- 
factorily flagellated,  as  was  not  likely  ever  to  be  forgotten  by 
them.  These  places  were  of  course,  at  the  time,  admitted  by 
the  conterminous  proprietors  to  be  correct  and  precise  points  of 
separation  ;  nor  do  we  doubt,  that  the  consecrated  urchins 
frequently  visited  and  refreshed  their  memories,  with  all  the 
surrounding  s^^mbois  that  were  beheld  at  the  moment  of  their 
endurance. 

But  this  species  of  registration  was  liable  to  serious  mis- 
chances, and  other  less  frail  expedients  were  resorted  to.  The 
most  natural  and  accessible  were  stone  walls,  continuous 
mounds  of  earth,  and  rows  of  trees.  Any  of  these  were  suffi- 
cient to  form  a  permanent  landmark,  which  could  not  be  re- 
moved, and  therefore  the  best,  and  still  customary  fence  against 
the  encroachments  of  man.  Anoth.er  most  important  purpose 
is  served  by  enclosures  ;  they  protect  cultivated  crops  from  the 
depredations  of  the  inferior  animals  ;  and  such  animals  as  are 
domesticated  and  reared  by  the  care  of  man,  from  "wandering 
too  widely  to  their  own  damage  and  danger.  And  lastly,  pro- 
perly constructed  fences,  shelter  both  crops  and  animals  from 


storms  and  inclement  weatfer.  Herdsmen  and  the  best  trained 
dogs  could  not  be  of  any  service  in  this  latter  capacity ;  nor 
could  they  at  any  time  (luring  day,  much  less  in  the  night, 
completely  circumvent  or  controul  the  stock  committed  to  their 
charge.  Hence  the  value  and  the  necessity  of  sufficient 
enclosures. 

One  other  pui^pose  is  served  by  the  expedients  we  are  now 
speaking  of,  and  by  no  means  an  unimportant  one,  we  mean 
the  pleasure  confen'ed  by  the  sight  of  a  well  sheltered  and 
divided  territory.  But  this  rather  belongs  to  the  subject  of 
landscape  gardening  than  the  objects  at  present  before  us,  viz. 
the  origin,  the  economy,  and  the  proper  construction  of  land 
enclosures. 

After  the  ring  fence  which  divided  one  man's  property  from 
that  of  his  immediate  neighbour,  it  is  obvious,  that  subdivisions 
of  his  own  land  would  come  to  be  thought  of.  The  simplest 
and  most  natural  principle  was  certainly  that  which  pointed 
out  the  richest  and  best  watered  spot  for  his  dwelling  houses. 
Next  the  garden  came  to  be  hemmed  in,  then  such  bits  of  land 
most  accessible  from  his  dwelling,  had  to  be  cultivated  to  rear  the 
grain,  his  means  and  circumstances  suggested  as  necessary  and 
profitable  ;  and  thus  the  long  established  order  of  things  was 
kept  up,  which  in  the  northern  parts  of  Britain  went  under 
the  description  of  InfieJd  and  Outfield ;  the  Outfield  was  ap- 
propriated solely  to  depasturing  the  live  stock  ;  the  Infield  to 
rearing  crops  for  the  sustenance  of  the  cultivators  family ;  to- 
gether with  fodder  for  the  winter  food  of  his  cattle.  This 
half  barbarous  system  continued  through  wdiat  may  be  called, 
the  feudal  ages  of  agriculture,  and  down  to  within  these  last 
hundred  years. 

It  was  somehow  or  another  discovered  at  length,  that  the 
cereal  crops  became  more  productive,  by  the  amehoration 
effected  in  the  soil  by  grass  ;  and  that  grass  land  supported 
more  live  stock  by  being  occasionally  cropped  with  corn.  This 
new  light  destroyed  the  Outfield  and  Infield  system,  and  gradu- 
ally led  not  only  to  a  new  style  of  subdividing  and  enclosing 
farms,  but  to  all  the  great  improvements  that  distinguish  the 
present  rural  economy  of  the  island,  especially  in  the  north  of 
England,  and  the  more  fertile  counties  of  Scotland,   which  we 


ON    ENCLOSURES. 


129 


venture  to  affirm  are  unrivalled  ia  the  particular  we  are  display- 
ing, whether  in  ancient  or  modern  times.  In  the  few  practical 
observations  we  are  about  to  submit,  those  districts,  therefore, 
shall  be  taken  as  the  model  for  the  construction  of  encloSTires 
and  fences. 

There  seems  to  be  no  department  of  rural  economy  less 
understood  or  attended  to  than  the  one  we  arc  now  upon. 
Most  fences  are  comparatively  useless,  very  many  of  them  are 
also  wasteful.  It  sickens  him  who  has  a  taste  and  a  moderate 
knowledge  of  farming,  or  any  one  who  has  but  hastened 
through  the  well-managed  districts  of  the  north,  to  see  what 
is  very  prevalent  in  the  vicinity  even  of  London  ;  the  huge  and 
ugly  forest  of  thorns  and  bushes  that  ai-e  huddled  together 
upon  some  unshapely  mound  of  earth  ;  the  parallel  ditch,  more 
like  a  foul  canal  than  an  open  drain,  which  it  should  be ;  and  the 
masses  of  noxious  weeds  that  rankly  grow,  flourish,  and  yield 
seed  within  and  beyond  the  whole  extent  of  these  abomin- 
ations. One  should  suppose  that  the  waste  of  land  was  an 
item  not  unworthy  the  attention  of  him  who  has  a  high  rent  to 
pay  ;  but  even  worse  than  this  are  the  destructive  vermin  those 
■wildernesses  of  bush  and  weed  harbour  and  foster,  and  the 
quantity  of  vile  seeds  that  are  wafted  every  year  from  these 
nurseries  of  foulness. 

Where  the  white  thorn  will  grow,  the  following  is  a  prevail- 
ing mode  of  management  in  the  north.  Hedges  are  double  or 
single  ;  the  double  is  generally  found  now-a-days  where  the 
fence  is  a  boundary  between  two  farms.  But,  as  it  is  nothing 
more  than  two  single  ones  united,  the  mound  out  of  which  they 
gi'ow  being  between  them,  we  shall  at  once  describe  the  simplest 
example.  A  ditch  is  dug  about  two  feet  and  a  half  deep,  three 
feet  wide  at  the  top,  slanting  to  one  and  a  half  at  the  bottom. 
This  is  prettv  near  the  general  size,  where  cattle  are  frequently 
to  be  enclosed,  and  a  considerable  body  of  surface  water  is  at 
times  to  run.  Shallower  and  narrower  conduits  in  other  cir- 
cumstances are  suflRcient.  The  soil  dug  out  of  the  ditch  forms 
an  embankment  on  one  of  its  sides.  The  turf  is  turned  first 
upside  down  ;  some  of  the  best  soil  is  carefully  spread,  and  the 
young  thorns  laid  horizontally  upon  the  level.  Some  more  of 
the  best  soil  is  spread  above  the  plants,  and  the  remainder 
piled  up  and  well  clapped,  so  as  with  the  ditch  to  form  in  front 
almost  a  sufficient  barrier.  But  the  fence  is  completed  by  what 
is  called  a  cocking,  that  is,  a  strong  range  of  thorns,  cut  to 
about  the  length  of  three  feet,  stuck  into  the  top  of  the  wall  of 
earth.  This  range  is  allowed  to  stand  for  some  years  till  the 
thorns  be  in  themselves  a  perfect  hedge. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  young  thorns  and  the  ditch  clear  of 
rank  weeds  for  the  first  two  or  three  years.  And  this  is  ac- 
complished by  two  iceedings  in  the  year,  gently  and  most  care- 
fully conducted.  We  should  have  mentioned  that  the  slender 
tender  plants,  by  being  laid  in  a  horizontal  position,  are  sup- 
posed to  acquire  a  greater  strength,  near  the  root,  in  forming 
the  knee,  which  they  naturally  do  as  they  advance  in  age  and 
grow  upwards ;  besides,  by  this  expedient,  the  hedge  is  backed 
and  protected  so  long  as  it  exists.  It  is  advisable  to  lay  these 
thorn  plants  thickly,  but  never  in  more  than  one  row. 

The  weeding  of  tlie  hedge,  and  the  cleaning  of  the  ditch, 
whenever  it  begins  to  fill  up  with  mud,  or  to  be  choked  with 
trash  of  any  kind,  necessarily  draws  and  shakes  a  good  deal  of 
the  best  soil  from  the  roots  of  the  plants.  This  evil  is  dex- 
trously  avoided,  by  a  small  shelf  being  formed  a  little  below 
the  thorn  roots,  and  some  fine  soil  laid  thereon  anew  ;  the 
whole  is  then  clapped  and  faced  up  as  at  first,  for  these  things 
■must  all  be  attended  to  till  the  hedge  masters  every  ordi- 
nary impediment  or  obstacle. 

There  are  various  ways  of  mending  gaps  in  an  advanced 
hedge.  If  young  plants  are  inserted,  care  must  be  taken  to 
surround  them  with  new  and  rich  earth.  Frequently  a  sprightly 
branch  of  a  neighbouring  bush  is  bent  down  and  across  the 
vacancy  ;  its  points  are  introduced  into  the  soil,  that  they  may 
strike.     A  notched  stick  holds  the  elastic  branch  to  its  proper 

MAGAZINE    OF    BOTANY    AND    GARDENING,    VOL.  II.    NO.  XV 


position,  which  is  simply  assisted  by  its  having  been  cut  half 
through  at  the  bending  joint.  This  cut  must  always  be  on  the 
under  side,  and  struck  upwards,  to  protect  the  core  of  the 
branch  fi"om  wet  and  injury. 

It  is  usual  to  encourage  a  languid  hedge  by  cutting  it  close 
to  the  root,  and  cocking  it  behind,  as  at  first.  This  operation 
is  usually  performed  when  the  field  in  front  of  it  is  under  crop. 
Immediately  after  this,  the  strong  roots  send  up  a  multitude  of 
spiral  shoots,  that,  in  a  few  years,  if  properly  attended  to,  will 
almost  exclude  the  little  birds  from  entering  its  bosom  ;  or 
rather,  that  shelters  them  from  enemies  of  every  kind.  In 
forming  a  hedge  that  may  stand  for  generations,  let  the  thorns 
grow  to  a  goodly  size  and  height.  With  a  hedge-bill  the  whole 
should  be  dressed  up  into  a  wedge-like  form,  having  the  acute 
angle  at  the  top.  This  roof,  or  hogged  mane,  answers  admir- 
ably all  the  purposes  of  a  fence,  without  bringing  decay  upon 
it.  The  branches  at  the  root  may  extend  two  feet  from  the 
stem,  and,  by  the  gradual  slant  to  the  top  of  the  steep  roof, 
every  branch  has  its  due  share  of  sun,  air  and  rain,  without 
injury  to  those  below.  After  the  thorns  have  thus  been  put  into 
proper  shape,  nothing  in  after  years  is  necessary  but  to  mow 
the  yearling  twigs  to  the  established  form  and  surface  ;  thus 
lifetime  after  lifetime  enabling  and  forcing  the  fence  to  thicken 
and  strengthen  into  a  vegetating  wall. 

In  some  places  the  thorns  when  planted  are  laid  above  a  little 
wall  of  stones,  which  is  raised  about  two  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  field,  and  only  one  stone  thick  ;  the  earth  supporting  tiiC 
back  which  the  roots  of  the  plants  reach  and  enter.  MTiere 
thorns  will  not  grow,  and  stones  are  to  be  procured,  the  cheapest, 
and  indeed  the  best  fence  is,  what  goes  by  the  name  of  the 
Galloway  Dyke.  It  is  a  wall  of  dry  stones,  between  four  and 
five  feet  in  height.  The  stones  are  built  close  for  about  two 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  then  carried  to  the  top  with  others, 
so  placed  as  to  admit  of  the  light  between  every  two  of  them. 
It  is  easily  rebuilt,  and  sheep  or  other  kinds  of  farm  stock  are 
deterred  by  the  open  appearances,  from  attempting  to  climb  or 
leap  such  an  obstacle.  The  top  row  of  stones  should  be  laid 
asunder  and  across  the  fence  ;  smaller  ones  filling  up  the 
distances,  whilst  the  ends  of  the  larger  project  on  both  sides. 

Many  other  varieties  of  fences  might  be  specified  and  de- 
scribed ;  but  the  two  we  have  given  are  the  best  for  such'  dis- 
tricts as  can  produce  or  foster  them.  We  have  a  few  sentences 
to  submit  as  to  the  size,  form  and  position  of  fields  enclosed 
within  farm  fences.  And  nothing  can  be  more  obvious  than 
that,  if  a  man  was  allowed  to  pitch  his  tent  where  he  chose, 
square  or  nearly  square  enclosures  would  be  the  most  conveni- 
ent and  profitable.  In  lack  of  this  choice,  he  must  do  the  best 
he  can;  and  it  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  lay  down  any  but  very 
general  rules  for  his  guidance.  Soil,  the  natui'e  of  the  produce 
reared,  the  position  of  the  farm  bouses,  will  direct  him  in  many 
things.  There  is  one  good  general  division  to  be  observed  in 
grain  farms  ;  there  should  be  twice  as  many  enclosures  as  there 
are  breaks  in  the  course.  Thus  if  a  six  years'  rotation  be 
thought  the  most  profitable  there  should  he  twelve  enclosures, 
two  of  which  are  always  under  the  same  crop.  This  tends  to 
equalize  labour  ;  to  allow  such  fields  to  be  connected  or  dis- 
joined as  may  suit  soil,  distance  from  the  farm  houses,  and  con- 
venience of  passage  through  intervening  fields.  Again,  if 
possible,  every  field  should  consist  of  one  sort  of  soil.  Again, 
the  ridges,  if  it  can  be  managed,  should  always  run  north  and 
south,  that  both  sides  may  equally  have  the  benefit  of  the 
sun ;  and,  if  the  laud  be  steep,  they  should  not  run,  particularly 
on  light  soil,  from  top  to  bottom,  but  slanting  across  ;  this 
saves  the  soil  from  being  washed  by  heavy  rains  from  the 
higher  parts  to  the  lower.  As  to  the  length  of  ridges  :  it  is 
not  advisable  that  they  should  be  very  long,  and  chiefly  for 
this  reason,  that  too  great  a  body  of  water  thus  collects  and 
has  a  run  in  the  furrows  before  reaching  a  main  ditch  or  open 
drain.  A  cross  ridge  can  always  be  formed  where  such  a  weari- 
some length  characterizes  a  field. 

III. — SEPTEMBER  1834.  T 


130 


ON    THE    COTTON    PLANT. 


Clumps  of  trees  afford  shelter  to  cattle,  aud  ameliorate  the 
climate.  Where  the  fields  is  square  its  corners  are  very  suit- 
able parts  for  such  a  feature  and  purpose.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  add,  that  every  field,  especially  where  cattle  are  pastured, 
should  be  supplied  with  water.  And  it  is  in  Scotland  usual, 
where  a  small  stream  runs  between  two  farms,  that  part  of  it 
is  entirely  within  the  grounds  of  the  one  now,  and  of  the  other 
afterwards.  For  if  the  water  run  forms  not  a  sufficient  fence, 
it   would  otherwise  be  necessary  that   each  farmer  lined  the 


stream's  border  on  his  own  side  with  a  wall  or  hedge.  Wliere 
the  matter,  however,  is  arranged  as  we  have  stated  it  to  be, 
one  fence  serves  the  two ;  the  only  inconvenience  attending  the 
practice,  arises  from  the  circumstance  that  such  a  fence  has 
every  now  and  then  to  cross  the  stream  which  calls  for  water 
gates,  that  require  looking  after.  But  this  would  lead  us 
beyond  our  present  limits,  and  to  the  consideration  of  farm 
gates  ;  a  subject  deserving  of  a  distinct  notice. 


ON  THE  COTTON  PLANT. 

(Concluded  from  p.  116.J 


Much,  moreover,  may  he  effected  by  introducing  into  India 
the  different  species  and  varieties  which  are  already  success- 
fully cultivated  in  other  countries  ;  and  here  the  chief  thing  is 
not  to  restrict  ourselves  to  too  small  a  number  of  varieties,  be- 
cause they  happen  to  be  those  which  at  present  produce  the 
best  kinds  of  cotton.  Not  contented  in  America  with  possess- 
ing already  the  best  kinds  of  cotton,  they  have  tried  those  of 
other  countries,  to  see  if  there  were  not  among  them  some 
suited  to  the  peculiarities  of  their  country  and  climate.  Mr. 
Spalding,  in  an  interesting  letter  published  in  the  evidence  be- 
fore the  East  India  Committee,  informs  us  that  the  cultivators 
in  America  confine  their  attention  to  such  plants  as  are  of  an- 
nual growth.  1st.  The  nankeen  cotton,  introduced  at  an  early 
period  from  China ;  this  is  abundant  in  produce,  but  the  seed, 
covered  with  down,  produces  wool  of  a  dirty  yellow  colour, 
which  does  not  bring  the  price  of  the  other  short  staple  cottons. 
2d.  The  ijreen-seed  cotton,  with  white  wool,  which,  with  the 
former,  is  grown  in  the  middle  and  upland  districts,  whence  the 
latter  is  called  wp7a»d  co//on,  also  short  staple  cotton ;  and,  from 
the  mode  in  which  it  is  cleaned,  bowed  Georgia  cotton.  This,  Mr. 
S.  says,  was  cidtivated  in  Georgia  and  Carolina  previous  to  the 
revolutionary  war,  and  considers  it  impossible  to  trace  whence 
it  was  introduced,  but  supposes  it  may  have  been  from  Smyrna 
by  one  of  the  southern  states.  To  this  it  may  be  objected,  "that 
as  the  6.  herbaceum,  with  greyish  seed,  is  the  kind  generally  cul- 
tivated in  Asia  Minor,  this  green-seed  cotton  is  probably  one  of 
the  cultivated  varieties  of  G.  hirsutunu  3d.  The  sea  island,  or 
long  staple  cotton,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  black  colour  of 
its  seed,  and  the  fine,  white,  strong,  and  silky  long  staple  by 
whi-ch  it  is  surrounded.  This  is  grown  in  the  lower  counti-y 
near  the  sea,  and  on  several  small  islands,  which  are  not  very 
distant  from  the  shore.  This  was  introduced  into  Georgia  from 
the  Bahama  Islands,  where  it  had  been  brought  from  a  small 
island  in  the  West  Indies,  celebrated  for  its  cotton,  called  An- 
guilla. 

In  attempting  the  introduction  into  India  of  new  kinds  of 
cotton,  it  would  appear  advisable  to  include  in  the.  experiments 
every  kind  that  can  be  procured  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
whether  they  afford  in  their  present  site  the  best  or  only  an  in- 
different kind  of  cotton  ;  for  some  which  do  not  appear  so  good 
may  find  a  more  suitable  locality  in  some  parts  of  India.  An- 
other consideration,  not  less  important,  is  to  extend  the  experi- 
ments over  as  wide  a  field  as  circumstances  will  at  present 
admit  of ;  aud  it  will  be  extraordinary,  indeed,  if  the  extended 
coasts  and  wide-spreading  plains  of  the  Indian  empire  do  not 
afford  a  sufficient  choice  of  soil  and  climate  for  some  one,  if  not 
several,  of  the  superior  varieties  of  a  plant  which  is  already  cul- 
tivated in  every  part  of  the  country. 

With  respect  to  the  improvement  of  the  kinds  already  in  cul- 
tivation  in  India,  it  will  not  be  useless  to  call  attention  to  the 
evidence  given  before  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
on  the  Affairs  of  the  East  India  Company,  where  several  places 
are  mentioned  which  already  produce  some  fine  kinds  of  cotton 
— as  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Silhet  Hills,  which  is  said  by 
Mr.  Bracken  to  produce  a  cotton  equal  to  any  from  the  South 


Sea  Islands,  and  which  he  states  that  Mr.  Finlay,  of  the  Cal- 
cutta Cotton  Mills ,  considered  equal  to  any  cotton  he  had  ever 
seen.  There  is  also  a  fine  variety  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Dacca ;  though  the  fine  muslins  of  that  name  are  no  doubt 
more  owing  to  the  workmanship  than  to  the  raw  material.  Mr. 
Colebrooke  (Bengal  Husbandry,  p.  140)  states,  that  the  best 
cotton  imported  into  Bengal  is  brought  by  land  from  Nagpore, 
iu  the  Dukhnn,  to  Mizrapore.  Another  kind,  superior  in  the 
length  and  fineness  of  its  staple,  is  brought  by  a  land-carriage 
of  more  than  500  miles  from  Ameraweti,  a  well-known  mart  in 
the  Dukhiin,  situated  about  thirty  miles  south  of  the  city  of 
Elichpore.  The  best  cotton  on  the  eastern  side  of  India  is  now 
said  to  be  grown  in  Guzerat,  and  that  from  Cutch  is  particu- 
larly fine  in  the  staple,  and  well  cleaned  ;  but  the  finest  is  pro- 
duced at  a  village  near  Manyrole,  in  Kattywar.  The  great  im- 
provement in  the  Tinnevelly  cotton  is  well  known,  and  owing 
to  the  introduction  of  foreign  varieties,  especially  from  the  Isle 
of  Bourbon.  The  Seychelle  cotton  should  also  be  tried,  as  well 
as  the  different  kinds  which  are  produced  in  Siam  and  the  seve- 
ral islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as  well  as  of  the  Paciiic 
Ocean.  That  of  Pernambuco  appears  particularly  desirable,  as 
it  is  said  to  improve  the  further  it  is  carried  into  the  interior. 
The  Brazils  and  West  India  Islands  afford  endless  varieties  ; 
and  the  trials  with  the  seed  from  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  as 
well  as  from  Egypt,  should  be  repeated  in  every  part  of  India, 
but  especially  on  the  coast  of  Cutch,  in  Malwa,  and  in  the  north- 
western provinces  of  India.  With  respect  to  the  best  mode  of 
cultivation,  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  all  the  details,  as 
they  are  given  in  works  lately  published,  available  to  every  one, 
especially  the  Tropical  Agriculturist,  Captain  Basil  Hall's  Travels 
in  America,  Poiret's  Diet,  des  Sciences  Naturelles,  tom.  xi.  ;  but 
as  it  will  be  useful  to  contrast  the  principles  with  the  practice 
in  India,  I  have  made  the  following  abstract,  chiefly  from  the 
first-mentioned  work  : — 

"  The  soil  best  adapted  for  the  cotton  is  a  light  and  sandy 
soil,  particularly  if  held  together  by  a  little  clay  or  calcareous 
earth,  and  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  vegetable  matter ;  but 
volcanic  deposits  are  said  to  be  the  most  favourable,  and  the 
banks  of  rivers  which  are  overflowed,  and  covered  with  mud. 
A  moderate  degree  of  moisture  is  essential,  but  too  great  aridity 
is  injurious,  and  must  be  counteracted  by  irrigation  ;  and  as  an 
excess  of  moisture  induces  the  production  of  a  profusion  of 
leaves  and  flowers,  though  the  latter  fall  off,  and  the  roots  7  ot, 
it  must  be  obviated  by  drainage.  No  great  depth  of  soil  is  re- 
quired, but  it  ought  to  be  light  and  friable,  so  that  the  delicate 
fibrils  of  the  root  may  penetrate  in  every  direction.  The  tap 
root  of  the  perennial  species  should,  however,  be  able  to  descend  jX 
to  some  depth ;  the  sub-soil,  therefore,  should  not  be  bard.  '  ■ 
Two  or  three  ploughings  are  necessary  to  pulverize  the  earth, 
destroy  all  weeds,  and  expose  every  particle  of  the  soil  to  the  at- 
mosphere, and  to  light  and  heat.  In  China  the  soil  is  harrowed 
after  each  ploughing,  and  the  latter  is  made  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  deep.  If  the  soil  be  barren  or  exhausted,  manure  suited 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  added,  in  China,  after  the  last 
ploughing,  and  consists  of  mud  from  the  bottom  of  ditches, 


STEPHENS  ON  DRAINING. 


ashes  of  all  kinds,  and  oil-cakes.  Previously  to  being  sown, 
the  seed  is  generally  soaked  in  water  ;  oil  has  been  recom- 
mended for  the  purpose,  but  lime-water  would  be  preferable. 
The  sowine  takes  place  in  Georgia  from  November  to  April,  in 
lines  or  furrows  ;  the  latter  may  be  five  feet  apart.  In  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  Avhere  the  land  has  not  been  previously 
cleared,  the  practice  is  to  fell  and  set  fire  to  the  timber,  and  dig 
holes  for  sowing  the  seed.  These  may  vary  in  distance,  but 
are  often  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  about  as  deep.  From 
twelve  to  twenty  or  thirty  seeds  are  sown  in  each  hole,  as  soon 
as  possible  after  ploughing,  digging,  or  hoeing,  and  are  covered 
with  one  or  one-and-a-half  inch  of  soil.  The  most  important 
operation  is  weeding ;  this  is  repeated  every  eight  or  ten  days 
in  China,  until  the  bushes  put  forth  blossom,  and  every  month 
in  Guiana  ;  it  ought  to  be  carefully  performed,  so  as  not  to  in- 
jure the  young  fibrils  ;  it  is  useful  not  only  in  removing  weeds, 
but  also  in  turning  up  the  soil.  When  plants  are  three  or  four 
inches  high,  all,  except  three  or  four  in  each  hole,  are  pulled 
up ;  at  the  end  of  the  third  month,  all  the  plants  but  one  are 
withdrawn;  in  Georgia,  after  a  month,  si.x  or  seven  are  left  in 
each  hole  ;  at  next  hoeing,  only  one,  or  the  two  which  ai'e  most 
apart.  When  the  remaining  plant  is  eighteen  or  twenty-four 
inches  high,  only  twelve  inches  in  China,  the  top  is  pinched  off, 
that  the  lateral  branches  may  shoot  out,  which,  after  a  time, 
are  treated  in  the  same  manner  to  favour  the  formation  of 
flower  and  fruit.  This  process  is  objected  to  by  Von  Rohr. 
The  blossom  generedly  appears  about  the  end  of  July,  or  be- 
ginning of  August :  pods  open  about  six  weeks  after  the  bios- 


131 

som,  and  the  crops  begin  in  September,  both  in  Georgia  and 
Guiana  ;  but  most  of  the  cotton  is  ready  about  the  middle  of 
October,  and  the  whole  of  the  first  crop  is  not  got  in  before  the 
end  of  December  in  Guiana ;  when,  as  in  India,  Christmas  rains 
occur,  the  plant  afterwards  sprouts  out  now  shoots  and  blossoms, 
and  about  the  end  of  February  the  picking  may  be  resumed,  and 
continued  to  the  middle  of  April.  The  ground  is  carefully 
weeded  between  the  crops  :  women  and  chikh-en  are  employed 
in  picking  the  cotton  out  of  the  pods,  and,  as  moisture  is  injuri- 
ous, the  gathering  is  not  commenced  until  the  dew  is  dissipated; 
and  as  the  pods  ripen  in  succession,  it  is  repeated  at  short  in- 
tervals ;  the  cotton  is  then  sorted,  that  which  had  fallen  on  the 
ground  is  kept  separate,  the  whole  cleaned,  and  then  dried  in 
the  sun :  this  hardens  the  seeds,  and  enables  them  to  separate 
more  easily  from  the  cotton,  and  is  moreover  useful  in  prevent- 
ing the  latter  spoiling  from  heating.  If  left  too  long  on  the 
plant,  the  withered  leaves  and  calyx  become  mixed  with  the  cot- 
ton, as  is  so  frequently  the  case  in  India. 

"  In  Guiana  the  perennial  cotton  produces  afuU  crop  the  second 
year,  and  remains  productive  for  four  or  six  years.  In  China  it  is 
kept  only  three  years  ;  young  plants  are  put  in  wherever  defi- 
ciencies occur.  In  Guiana  the  pruning  of  the  perennial  cotton, 
plant  takes  place  in  the  second  year  of  its  growth,  after  the 
whole  of  the  produce  is  gathered  in.  May  is  considered  the 
most  favourable  month,  when  the  trees  are  cut  to  about  four 
feet  high,  premising  with  a  good  weeding  of  the  ground.  Dry 
weather  and  the  early  part  of  the  day  are  recommended,  that 
the  sun  may  dry  up  the  wounds." 


ON  PRACTICAL  IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINING*. 


Whem  agriculture  began  to  attract  particular  attention,  the 
inferiority  of  wet  land  would  soon  become  apparent.  This  in- 
feriority would  be  most  obvious  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
globe ;  because  the  eflFects  of  excessive  moisture  could  only 
there  be  always  perceptible  in  the  soil.  It  was  in  Europe  that 
agriculture  received  the  first  impulse  towards  improvement, 
and  agriculture  still  flourishes  in  Europe  in  greater  perfection 
than  any  other  portion  of  the  globe.  To  the  Ramans  belong  the 
honour  of  improving  the  general  culture  of  the  soil  in  Europe, 
towards  which  draining  contributed  as  much,  perhaps  more, 
than  any  other  single  operation.  The  precepts  which  they  have 
bequeathed  to  the  world  in  their  writings  on  that  subject  evince 
the  observant  faculties  of  that  extraordinary  people.  They 
were  fully  acquainted  with  the  method  of  clearing  their  fields 
of  surface  water,  and  they  also  understood  the  art  of  directing 
springs,  by  means  of  drains,  to  places  where  they  could  do  no 
mischief.  TMs  art,  however,  appears  to  have  been  lost  from  the 
overthrow  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  revival  of  learning  after 
the  dark  ages.  After  that  period  to  as  lately  as  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  it  had  been  practised  in  a  much  inferior 
manner  than  by  the  Romans.  The  small  drains,  with  a  stone  set 
on  each  side,  and  one  covering  them,  situate  between  the  soil 
and  the  subsoil,  which  modern  improvements  in  agriculture 
h.ive  discovered,  are  very  inferior  structures  to  those  described 
by  the  Romans. 

It  w^as  reserved  to  a  farmer  in  Weirwickshire,  of  the  name 
of  Elkington,  so  lately  as  i764,  to  introduce  what  may  pro- 
perly be  called  a  system  of  draining,  superior  even  to  that 
of  the  Romans,  and  which,  in  peculiar  situations,  cannot  be 
surpassed  in  efficacy.  The  leading  theory  of  his  system  is, 
that,  though  moisture  be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  at  any 
given  place,  the  spring  of  water  from  which  it  originates  lies 
deeply  seated  in  some  porous  stratum.  His  practice  conse- 
quently is,  to  discover,  first,  the  seat  of  the  spring,  and  then 
to  cut  a  drain  deep  enough  to  intercept  the  water,  and  carry  it 
away  where  it  can  do  no  mischief.     The  drain  may  not  be  able 


to  reach  the  seat  of  the  spring,  though  it  may  be  properly 
situated  in  relation  to  it :  in  that  case  he  bores  holes  with  iron 
rods,  or  sinks  wells  through  the  bottom  of  the  drain  to  the 
spring,  in  case  the  quantity  of  water  be  great.  The  water  has 
then  liberty  to  rise  through  the  bored  holes  and  wells  to  the 
bottom  of  the  drain,  on  which  it  flows  away  innoxiously. 

These  principles  of  Elkington  have  been,  and  may  be,  ap- 
plied successfully  to  the  draining  of  lakes,  bogs,  and  morasses  ; 
of  hollow  portions  of  land  containing  deep  soil,  but  much  in- 
jured with  water  from  the  adjoining  rising  grounds  ;  and  of 
undulating  ground  subject  to  bursts  of  water.  All  these  situ- 
ations  will  be  found  to  be  connected  with  alluvial  or  rocky 
strata,  of  difi^erent  structure  and  compactness ;  and  in  any 
situation  which  possesses  alternate  strata,  of  various  degrees  of 
permeability,  these  principles  may  doubtlessly  be  employed 
with  unfailing  success. 

It  is  the  object  of  Mr.  Stephens,  in  his  Practical  Drainer,  to 
enforce  and  illustrate  these  principles  in  every  variety  of  situa- 
tion to  which  they  are  applicable  ;  which  will  be  seen  by  the 
following  extracts  :  — 

"  Open  Drains. — In  draining  bogs  or  moss  where  the  drains 
do  not  reach  the  hard  bottom,  ditches  are  preferable  to  covered 
drains,  for  should  stones  be  used  when  the  bottom  is  very  soft, 
they  would  sink,  whereby  the  drains  would  become  useless  : 
indeed,  in  all  situations  where  the  ground  will  allow  it,  the 
principal  drains  should  be  open  ;  and  when  they  can  become  the 
division  of  fields,  which,  in  many  instances,  is  practicable, 
that  should  never  be  neglected.  It  would  be  unnecessary  to 
give  any  particular  directions  for  their  depth  or  wideness,  as 
that  must  depend  on  the  quantity  of  water  they  are  to  convey, 
and  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  situation  in  which  they  are 
made  :  one  rule,  however,  may  be  general,  that  the  width  at  the 
bottom  should  be  one  third  of  that  at  the  top,  which  gives  a 
sufficient  slope  to  the  sides,  and  the  fall  or  declivity  should  be 
such  as  the  water  may  run  off  without  stagnation.  In  very 
soft  soils,  a  greater  degree  of  slope  on  the  sides  may  be  neces- 


*  The  Practical  Irrigator  and  Drainer.     By  George  Stej  hens.  Land  Drainer.     3d  edit,  Svo. 


132 


STEPHENS   ON  DRAINING. 


sary ;  and  in  all  cases  where  it  is  meant  to  receive  surface 
water  only,  none  of  the  earth  thrown  out  should  remain  upon 
the  sides,  but  should  be  removed  to  the  nearest  hollows ;  for, 
when  this  is  not  done,  their  use  is  in  a  great  measure  counter- 
acted. The  earth,  when  left  on  the  sides,  prevents  the  surface 
water  from  getting  into  the  drain — its  weight  causes  the  sides 
to  fall  in — makes  it  more  difficult  to  scour  or  clean  it — and 
adds  much  to  its  disagreeable  appearance  in  the  middle  of  a 
field.  In  cases  where  the  augur  or  wells  are  obliged  to  be  re- 
sorted to  in  open  drains,  they  should  never  be  made  in  the  bot- 
tom, but  on  one  side,  with  the  outlet  eight  or  ten  inches  above, 
which  will  prevent  surface  or  flood  water  depositing  any  sand 
or  sediment  in  the  bore-holes  whereby  they  might  be  injured. 

"  Shoulder  Drains. — Any  surface  water  or  partial  spnngs  in 
moss  and  marshy  grounds,  on  which  the  large  drains  have  no 
effect,  and  where  stones  cannot  be  used  on  account  of  the  soft- 
ness of  the  soil,  is  most  effectually  removed  by  means  of  shoul- 
der drains.  The  method  of  making  them  is,  by  digging  a  trench 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  wide,  the  sides  perpendicular  to 
the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  then  by  taking  out  the  last 
spit  with  a  spade,  the  breadth  of  which  is  three  inches  at  the 
bottom,  and  four  or  five  at  the  upper  part,  a  shoulder  is  left 
on  each  side,  on  which  the  sod  that  was  first  taken  up  is  care- 
fully laid  with  the  grass  side  downwards,  or,  if  it  is  not  strong 
enough,  others  must  be  cut  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  remaining 
space  filled  with  the  loose  earth  a  few  inches  above  the  level  of 
the  surface  of  the  adjacent  ground.  Drains  of  this  description, 
when  properly  executed  and  moles  kept  out  of  them,  will  ope- 
rate for  a  great  number  of  years. 

"  Covered  Drains. — lu  every  instance  where  covered  drains 
are  used,  their  dimensions  depend  on  the  depth,  the  quantity  of 
water  they  have  to  carry,  and  the  kind  of  materials  they  are 
filled  with.  When  the  depth  does  not  exceed  five  feet,  two  feet 
wide  at  the  top  will  be  sufficient ;  but,  whenever  it  is  more,  the 
width  should  be  increased  four  inches  for  every  foot  in  depth, 
and  the  width  at  the  bottom  should  be  twenty  inches,  which 
will  give  a  sufficient  space  to  build  a  substantial  conduit.  When 
this  is  not  attended  to,  and  the  bottom  of  the  drain  is  made  so 
narrow  that  the  stones  of  which  the  sides  of  the  conduit  are 
foimed  are  obliged  to  be  set  on  their  edges  and  the  covers  laid 
on  them,  in  this  insecure  state,  they,  in  many  instances,  fall 
down  before  the  drain  is  half  finished,  causing  it  to  burst  in  a 
very  few  years,  and  often  forming  springs  in  the  driest  part  of 
the  field.  ' 

"  In  digging  drains,  there  are  several  circumstances  which,  if 
attended  to,  will  greatly  facilitate  the  execution  of  the  opera- 
tions, such  as  having  the  stones  laid  down  by  the  upper  side  of 
the  lines  of  the  drains  before  the  work  is  commenced,  to  be 
ready  in  case  tlie  sides  should  slip  or  fall  in,  which  often  hap- 
pens in  mixed  soils,  as,  when  this  precaution  is  not  attended  to, 
the  expense  is  not  only  considerably  increased,  but  the  work  is 
done  in  a  less  accurate  manner.  Particular  care  must  also  be 
taken  that  the  bottom  of  the  drains  is  made  with  a  regular 
descent,  so  that  the  water  runs  from  the  one  end  to  the  other 
without  standing  dead  ;  and  where  bore-holes  or  wells  are  ne- 
cessary, they  must  be  made  before  the  conduit  is  laid,  in  order 
that  the  sand  may  be  removed  which  the  water  may  throw  up 
from  the  stratum  below,  and  would  otherwise  be  deposited  in 
the  bottom  of  the  drain  which  would  thereby  he  rendered  use- 
less. The  dimensions  of  the  conduit  depends  upon  the  quantity 
of  water  it  has  to  carry  ;  thus,  in  an  outlet  drain,  it  requires 
to  be  larger  than  in  a  cross  drain,  which  has  only  the  water 
collected  in  itself  to  discharge.  In  general  cases,  therefore,  the 
conduit  in  an  outlet  should  be  made  from  nine  to  twelve  inches 
square,  and,  in  cross  drains,  from  four  to  six  inches  square. 
When  the  bottom  of  the  drain  is  very  soft,  it  must  be  laid  with 
flag  stones,  to  prevent  the  materials  from  sinking ;  and  the 
stones  forming  the  side  walls  of  the  conduit  must  all  be  laid  on 
their  flat  beds,  and  covered  with  strong  covers  well  joined  to- 
gether, and  packed  at  their  ends  ;  the  space  above,   in  clayey 


soils,  must  be  filled  with  stones,  broken  to  the  size  of  a  man's 
clenched  hand,  to  within  twelve  inches  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  which' remaining  space  must  be  filled  with  porous  earth. 
Before  the  earth  is  put  into  the  drains,  the  stones  must  be 
covered  with  straw,  rushes,  or  turf  with  the  green  side  down- 
wards, to  prevent  the  loose  particles  from  subsiding  into  the 
crevices  among  the  stones.  In  cases  where  all  the  water  comes 
from  bore-holes,  or  rises  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  eighteen 
inches  of  small  stones  above  the  covers  are  sufficient ;  but  when 
it  comes  from  the  sides  of  the  drain,  it  is  necessary  to  fill  the 
drain  above  the  covers  with  some  kind  of  porous  substances,  six 
inches  higher  than  where  the  water  breaks  out :  the  neglect  of 
this  precaution  is  the  reason  w^hy  so  many  drains  have  so  little 
effect  in  drying  land. 

'*  In  making  covered  drains,  particular  attention  must  be 
paid  that  they  are  not  carried  into  the  outlet  at  right  ancles,  as 
their  ends  should  be  turned  down  in  the  direction  the  water  is 
to  run  a  short  space  before  they  join  it,  to  prevent  the  water  in 
the  outlet  depositing  any  sand  or  sludge  in  their  mouths,  which 
will  be  the  case  if  this  is  not  attended  to  ;  indeed  it  often  hap- 
pens, on  almost  every  estate,  that  the  drains  are  stopped  and 
rendered  useless  from  this  precaution  being  neglected.  The 
mouths  of  the  drains  ought  also  to  be  well  built  and  secured 
with  iron  gratings,  to  prevent  vermin  from  getting  into  them  ; 
and  it  must  be  examined  from  time  to  time,  to  see  that  it  is  in 
proper  repair  and  the  outlet  kept  a  sufficient  depth,  so  that  the 
water  coming  from  the  drains  may  ran  away  freely,  otherwise 
it  will  remain  stagnant  in  them  to  the  great  injury  of  the  land. 
To  obviate  this,  it  is  advisable  that  a  person  should  be  ap- 
pointed on  every  estate,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  factor 
or  land-steward,  to  go  through  every  field  that  has  been 
drained,  at  least  once  a  year,  to  examine  the  mouths  and  outlets 
of  all  the  drains,  and  make  any  necessary  repairs  as  he  pro- 
ceeds. Such  an  arrangement,  I  am  convinced,  would  be  very 
beneficial,  and  is  highly  necessary,  as  I  have  often  found  drains 
completely  stopped  in  a  year  or  two  after  they  were  made,  and 
the  land  beginning  to  be  wet  again  from  this  cause  alone. 
Managers  of  landed  property  ought  to  be  very  particular  in  this 
department  of  rural  economy ;  indeed  a  clause  ought  to  be  in- 
serted in  every  lease,  binding  both  proprietor  and  tenant  to 
keep  the  mouths  and  outlets  of  drains  in  proper  order  at  their 
mutual  expense. 

"  Rumbling  Drains. — These  are  well  adapted  for  removing 
water  from  alternate  beds  of  clay  and  sand  ridges,  and  also 
water  confined  in  porous  soils  with  an  impervious  bottom,  as 
well  as  for  receiving  surface  water  from  clayey  soils.  Their 
depth,  in  the  two  former  cases,  is  generally  about  four  feet,  and 
in  the  latter  from  two  to  three  feet,  and  twelve  inches  wide  at 
the  bottom  ;  they  are  filled  with  stones,  broken  to  the  size  of 
coarse  road  metal,  to  within  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and,  in  clayey  soils,  the  remaining  space  with 
porous  earth.  Wood  is  sometimes  used  in  duties  of  this  de- 
scription instead  of  stones  ;  but,  as  it  is  liable  to  decay  soon, 
and  the  drains  will  consequently  be  destroyed,  it  cannot  be 
recommended  when  stones,  gravel,  smithy-danders,  or  even 
coarse  sand  can  be  procured.  Indeed,  whenever  my  opinion 
has  been  asked  with  regard  to  making  drains  with  wood,  my 
uniform  answer  has  been  against  such  a  practice,  having  had 
experience  of  so  many  instances  in  which  wood  had  been  em- 
ployed, although  stones  might  have  been  procured  in  the  same 
field,  of  the  land  having  to  be  drained  again  within  a  few 
years  ;  and,  consequently,  I  could  not  consider  myself  acting 
candidly  towards  my  employers  in  advising  it.  An  instance  of 
this  occurred  at  Wallhouse,  Linlithgowshire,  a  few  years  ago, 
in  which  I  was  called  on  to  make  a  plan  to  drain  the  ground 
immediately  around  the  mansion-house,  and,  having  examined  it, 
I  found  that  the  whole  had  been  drained  some  years  before, 
and  the  drains  filled  with  thorns  and  other  brushwood  which 
had  decayed,  and,  the  clay  having  fallen  in,  springs  were  formed 
in  many  places  in  the  lines  of  all  the  drains.     What  surprised 


ON    THE    USE    OF    KELP    COMBINED    \VlTH    PEAT-ASHES    AS    A    MANURE. 


133 


me  was  to  find  them  laid  off  io  such  a  manner  that  there  was 
no  occasion  to  allow  any  of  the  old  lines  ;  and,  having  inquired 
■who  was  the  engineer,  I  was  answered  your  late  brother. 
Being,  however,  aware  that  he  never  recommended  drains  to  be 
filled  with  wood,  if  stones  could  possibly  be  procured,  and 
more  especially  that  he  would  not  have  done  so  in  draining 
pleasure  grounds,  where,  in  most  cases,  no  expense  is  spared  to 
do  the  work  in  the  most  substantial  manner,  I  suspected  that 
the  work  had  not  been  executed  according  to  his  plan,  and, 
upon  making  further  inquii^,  I  found  that  my  suspicions 
were  correct,  his  specification  having  directed  them  not  only 
to  be  made  with  stones,  but  also  to  have  been  from  two  to  three 
feet  deeper,  which  was  exactly  what  I  caused  to  be  done,  where- 
by a  complete  drainage  was  obtained. 

"  Tile  Drains.- — These  are  best  calculated  for  removing  sur- 
face water,  and  are  made  just  wide  enough  to  let  the  tiles  be 
put  easily  into  them  ;  they  are,  in  most  cases,  about  twenty 
inches  deep,  but  tiles  may  be  used  at  any  depth,  provided  the 
drain  is  filled  with  broken  stones,  or  other  open  materials,  to 
nearly  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  tiles  should  always  be 
well  burnt,  and  laid  on  soles,  as  whenever  this  is  neglected, 
which  is  too  often  the  ease  where  tile  draining  is  now  practised, 
their  duration  will  unquestionably  be  very  short,  whereas  hard 
burnt  tiles  will  last  for  almost  any  length  of  time  without 
mouldering  dowK.     The   expediency  of  using   tiles  instead  of 


stones  depends  entirely  on  circumstances  ;  for,  if  stones  are  to 
be  found,  whether  by  collecting  on  the  surface  or  ciuarrying 
within  the  lands  that  are  to  be  improved,  or  even  if  they  can 
be  procured  within  a  mile  of  the  operations,  tiles  should  never 
be  used.  Stones  are  preferred  to  tiles  in  making  drains  in  all 
kinds  of  soils,  provided  a  sufficient  quantity  are  used ;  but 
where  only  a  few  inches  of  broken  stones  are  used  in  a  drain, 
well-burnt  tiles  laid  on  thick  soles,  and  covered  with  tnrf  of  any 
other  porous  substance,  would  answer  the  purpose  better  ;  and 
in  porous  soils,  when  the  water  is  found  at  or  near  the  bottom 
of  the  drain,  if  six  or  eight  inches  of  broken  stones  were  used 
in  packing  and  covering  them,  a  more  substantial  drain  would 
be  formed.  In  clayey  or  mixed  soils,  where  the  water  enters 
the  drain  at  different  depths,  stones,  gravel,  or  smithy-danders, 
are  the  only  materials  that  can  be  used  with  advantage  ;  in  any 
case,  however,  where  the  tiles  are  used,  the  space  above  them 
must  be  filled  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  some  porous 
material,  otherwise  the  drains  will  be  useless,  and  the  under- 
taking will  prove  a  complete  failure." 

Upon  the  whole,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  Snr 
opinion  that  Mr.  Stephens'  treatise  is  the  best  practical  manual 
in  every  respect  of  the  several  subjects  of  draining,  irrigation, 
and  the  embankment  of  rivers,  of  which  it  treats,  that  we 
have  met  with.  , 


ON  THE  USE  OF  KELP  COMBINED  WITH  PEAT-ASHES  AS  A  MANURE. 


In  1832,  a  Scotch  acre  of  dry  stony  ground,  a  great  part  of 
which  had  formerly  been  the  channel  of  a  rivulet,  was  prepared 
in  the  way  usually  followed  in  the  cultivation  of  turnips. 

A  quantity  of  sea-weed  was  collected,  dried,  and  burned  in 
the  same  manner  as  for  kelp  ;  but,  instead  of  allowing  it  to 
form  into  a  solid  mass,  it  was  removed  from  the  fire  in  a  cal- 
cined state,  in  order  to  save  the  expense  of  afterwards  grind- 
ing it. 

Of  the  ashes  thus  manufactured,  twenty  bushels  were  allowed 
to  the  acre,  and  distributed  in  the  drills  with  a  barrow  made  on 
the  principle  of  bone-dust  sowing  machines. 

When  the  turnips  which  were  sown  on  this  acre  sprouted, 
they  had  an  unhealthy  green,  or  rather  yellowish  appearance, 
but,  after  some  time,  several  patches  in  the  field  seemed  to  be 
growing  luxuriantly,  while  others  seemed  to  retain  their  sickly 
hue.  Upon  a  careful  investigation  into  the  cause  of  this  phe- 
nomenon, it  was  discovered  that  wherever  the  ground  was 
deepest,  and  the  ashes  of  the  sea-weed  had  been  most  mixed  yp 
with  the  soil,  the  turnips  were  best ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  where  the  ashes,  not  being  mixed  with  the  soil,  came  in 
contact  with  the  seed,  the  turnips  did  not  at  all  thrive.  In 
cleaning  the  ground  preparatory  to  drilling  it,  the  weeds  were 
collected  into  heaps  and  burnt  on  the  spot ;  and  it  was  observed 
that,  on  the  site  of  these  heaps,  the  turnips  were  very  nearly  as 
good  as  those  on  an  adjoining  piece  of  ground  which  had  been 
manured  solely  with  dung. 

In  order  to  find  out  if  the  kelp  ashes  would  have  any  effect 
upon  an  after-crop,  the  turnips  were  not  consumed  upon  the 
ground.  Last  spring  the  land  was  merely  harrowed  and  sown 
down  with  oats  and  grass-seeds,  and  the  oats,  which  have  been 
lately  reaped,  were  quite  as  good  as  those  which  grew  on  that 
part  of  the  field  manured  solely  with  dung,  except  that  they  came 
up  thinner.  The  young  clover  is,  however,  thicker,  and  alto- 
gether looking  better  than  any  crop  of  the  same  kind  I  have 
ever  seen  in  this  part  of  the  country. 

As  the  result  shewed  that  the  quantity  of  kelp  ashes  xised  in 
this  experiment  was  far  too  great,  at  least  for  the  first  crop,  and 
as  the  plants  which  grew  on  those  portions  of  the  field  where  the 


ashes  of  the  weeds  were  scattered  were  so  far  superior  to  the 
rest,  the  experiment  was  repeated  this  year  with  a  mixture  of 
kelp  and  peat  ashes.  A  field  of  six  acres  was  sown  with  this 
mixture,  distributed  in  the  drills  as  before,  at  the  rate  of  six 
bushels  of  the  kelp  ashes  and  twenty-four  of  the  peat  ashes  to 
the  acre  ;  and  although,  from  various  causes,  the  turnips  were 
not  sown  till  the  first  week  in  August,  they  have  grown  remark- 
ably well,  and  now,  little  more  than  two  months  from  the  date 
of  sowing,  the  average  weight  of  them  is  from  2^  lbs.  to  2  4  lbs. 

Supposing  kelp  to  be  worth  'il.  10s.  per  ton,  each  bushel  of 
the  kelp  ashes  would  cost  about  two  shillings,  and  the  peat 
ashes,  which  were  in  this  instance  collected  from  a  number  of 
poor  cottagers  in  the  neighbourhood,  who  had  been  directed  to 
keep  them  dry  and  free  of  all  sort  of  extraneous  matter,  cost 
sixpence  per  bushel,  so  that,  upon  the  whole,  the  price  ofthe 
manure  was  twenty-four  shillings  per  acre.  The  labour  of  men 
and  horses  being  exactly  the  same  as  in  sowing  bone-dust,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  offer  any  calculation  of  this  part  of  the  expense. 

If  this  experiment  be  found  to  succeed  elsewhere,  as  it  has 
done  here  (and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  after  a  little  more 
experience,  and  in  abler  hands,  it  will  succeed  much  better),  it 
may  one  day  open  up  an  important  source  of  revenue,  \i 
not  to  kelp  proprietors,  at  least  to  their  poor  tenantry,  no  indi- 
vidual of  whom  uses  any  sort  of  fuel  but  pfat.  At  first  it  was 
somewhat  ditficult  to  convince  the  poor  people  from  whom  the 
peat  ashes  were  obtained  for  the  experiment  above  detailed,  that 
they  would  be  really  purchased  from  them,  and  the  consequence 
was,  that  at  first  one-half  of  the  quantity  which  each  family 
with  a  little  attention  could  have  supplied  was  thrown  on  their 
dunghills,  where,  though  it  was  eventually  of  some  service,  they 
would  never  think  of  putting  it,  if  they  knew  that  they  could 
convert  it  into  money.  A  man,  however,  was  paid  twcnty.five 
shillings  for  his  winter's  ashes,  and  this  year  there  is  little 
doubt  that  he  will,  besides  enjoying  the  confort  of  a  better  fire 
than  he  was  accustomed  to  have,  earn  at  least  21.  for  what,  till 
now,  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of  throwing  at  the  threshold  of 
his  door,  as  an  invitation  to  cholera,  or  some  other  loathsome 
disease.  A.  M. 


134 


DESCRIPTION 
MABEKARIA  ciliaris. 

Gynandria  Monandria. — Linn. 
Orchidese, — Jc  ss. 

Herbaceous,  either  destitute  of  a  stem,  or  forming  a  kind  of 
tuber  above-gi'ouud  (pseudobulbus) ,  by  the  cohesion  of  the  bases 
of  the  leaves,  or  truly  caulescent.  Roots  in  the  herbaceous 
species  fleshy,  divided  or  undivided,  or  fasciculate  ;  in  the  cau- 
lescent species  tortuous,  green,  and  proceeding  from  the  stem. 
Leaves  simple,  quite  entire,  often  articulated  with  the  stem. 
Pubescence  rare  ;  when  present,  sometimes  glandular.  Flowers 
in  terminal  or  radical  spikes,  racemes,  or  panicles  ;  sometimes 
solitary. 

A  native  of  North  America,  in  meadows  and  drained  swamps, 
from  Canada  to  Carolina.  It  is  a  beautiful  plant,  difficult  of 
cultivation  :  frequently  imported  into  this  country,  but  it  never 
lives  long  here.  It  flowers  in  June,  from  roots  received  the 
preceding  winter ;  they  should  he  potted  in  loam  and  vegetable 
earth,  and  kept  in  a  frame,  under  glass. 

SC^VOLA  MICROCARPA. 

Pentandria  Monogynia.- — Linn. 
Goodenovise. — Brown. 

Tube  of  the  calyx  adnate  or  half-adnate,  rarely  free  ;  the  limb 
5-cleft,  or  6 — 3-partite,  sometimes  entire  or  obsolete,  generally 
equal,  persistent.  Corolla  monopetalous,  naore  or  less  irregular, 
deciduous  or  marcescent ;  the  tube  cleft  behind,  sometimes  cut 
into  5  deep  pieces,  whilst  the  calj-x  is  nearly  free  ;  the  limb 
5-parted,  2-  or  1 -lipped  ;  the  disk  of  the  segments  lanceolate, 
plane  ;  the  sides  or  wings  of  a  thinner  texture,  elevated,  with 
an  indupUcate  asstivation,  rarely  obsolete,  or  wanting.  Stamens 
5,  free,  alternate  with  the  segments  of  the  corolla;  filaments 
distinct ;  anthers  distinct  or  cohering,  linear,  vertical,  fixed  by 
the  base,  undivided,  2-celled,  the  cells  opening  longitudinally ; 
pollen  simple  or  compound.  Ovary  2-  or  1-  (rarely  4-)  celled, 
with  indefinite  or  definite  erect  ovules  ;  sometimes  with  a  gland 
between  the  two  anterior  filaments  ;  style  1,  simple  (rarely 
divided)  ;  stigma  fleshy,  obtuse,  undivided  or  2-lobed,  sur- 
rounded by  a  somewhat  membranaceous,  cup-shaped,  entire  or 
2-lobed  indmium.  Pericarp,  when  the  seeds  are  indefinite,  a 
2-  rarely  4 -celled  capsule,  or  in  consequence  of  the  abbreviated 
dissepiment  almost  1 -celled:  dissepiment  generally  parallel  to 
the  valves,  the  axis  bearing  the  seeds ;— when  the  seeds  are  defi- 
nite  (1  in  each  cell),  a  drupe  or  nut,  bearing  the  seed  at  the 
base  of  the  cell. 

This  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales  :  it  was  first  raised  by 
Mr.  Curtis,  in  1793,  as  he  informs  us  in  his  Magazine,  from 
seeds,  which  were  brought  accidentally  to  England  in  specimens 
of  earth. 

It  flowers  in  summer,  continuing  long :  the  plant  is  perennial, 
of  low  growth  :  it  must  be  kept  in  the  greenhouse  in  winter  : 
it  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  should  be  potted  ip:  sandy-lpam 
and  peat.  .   ,    ,..,. 

SEMPERVIVUM  TABUL^FORME. 

TABLE-SHAPED    HOCSE    LEEK. 

Dodecandria  Dodecagynia.  — Linn. 
CrassulaccEe. — De  Cand. 
Sepals  3—20,  more  or  less  combined.  Petals  equal  to  them 
in  number,  and  alternate  with  them,  inserted  into  the  bottom 
of  the  calyx.  Stamens  inserted  along  with  the  petals,  either 
equalling  them  in  number,  and  then  alternate  with  them,  or 
twice  as  many,  those  opposite  the  petals  the  shortest ;  filaments 
distinct,  subulate ;  anthers  oval,  2-celIed,  bursting  longitudi- 
nally. There  is  a  nectariferous  scale  at  the  base  of  each  ovary. 
Ovaries  as  many  as  there  are  petals,  and,  opposite  to  them, 
placed  in  a  circle,  distinct,  l-celled,  tapering  into  the  stigmas. 
Carpels  several,   l-celled,  opening  longitudinally  and  internally. 


OF  THE  PLATES. 

Seeds  attached  to  the  margin  of  the  suture,  variable  in  number. 
Albumen  thin,  fleshy.  Embryo  straight :  radicale  turned  to- 
wards the  hilum. 

A  native  of  Madeira,  introduced,  according  to  Mr.  Haworth, 
in  1815.  It  is  a  curious  plant :  before  flowering  it  has  scarcely 
any  stem  ;  and  the  leaves,  though  numerous,  are  so  closely 
pressed  together,  as  to  form  one  compact,  quite  flat  surface. 

When  it  shoots  into  flower  the  leaves  decay,  as  does  after- 
wards the  whole  plant :  it  can  therefore  only  be  increased  by 
seed.  It  must  be  protected  from  the  frost  in  a  dry  greenhouse, 
and  potted  in  sandy  loam. 

DIGITALIS  CANARIENSIS. 
canary  foxglove. 
Didynamia  Angiospennia.^LiNN. 
Scrophularineie. — Juss.      is 

Calyx  divided,  persistent.  Corolla  mouopetalous,  hypogj'nous, 
often  irregular,  with  an  imbricated  estivation,  deciduous.  Sta- 
mens generally  4,  didynamous,  rarely  equal,  sometimes  2. 
Ovary  many-seeded,  2-celled  :  style  1  ;  stigma  2-Iobed,  rarely 
undivided.  Capsule  (or  very  seldom  a  berry),  2-celled,  2 — 4- 
valved,  the  valves  entire  of  bifid,  with  the  dissepiment  either 
double,  from  the  inflexed  margins  of  the  valves  ;  or  simple, 
parallel  with  the  valves  and  entire  ;  or  opposite  to  them.  Pla- 
centas  central,  adnate  with  the  dissepiment  or  separable  from 
it.  Seeds  numerous,  albumiuose.  Embryo  included,  straight: 
radicle  directed  towards  the  hilum. 

This  is  a  native  of  the  Canary  Islands  :  itwas  cultivated  in 
this  country  so  long  ago  as  1698,  but  is  by  no  means  a  common 
plant. 

It  produces  its  elegant  flowers  in  June  and  July  ;  they  are 
sometimes  succeeded  by  rijie  seeds  :  it  may  also  be  increased 
sparingly  by  cuttings.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  a  green- 
house  in  winter :  it  should  be  potted  in  light  loam. 

ZIGADENUS  BRACTEATA. 

Hexandria  Trigynia, — Linn. 

Melanthacese. — Brown. 

Perianth  free,  petaloid,  6-partite,  tubular  by  the  union  of  the 
claws,  with  the  segments  in  sestivation  often  involute.  Sta- 
mens 6 :  anthers  often  turned  outwards.  Ovary  3-celled, 
many-seeded :  style  trifid  or  tripartite  :  stigmas  undivided. 
Capsule  often  separable  into  3,  sometimes  with  the  valves  bear- 
ing the  dissepiment  in  the  middle.  Seeds  with  a  membrana- 
ceous testa,  (neither  black  nor  crustaceous).  Albumen  dense, 
fleshy. 

This  is  a  native  of  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  was  introduced 
in  1802  ;  it  flowers  in  September. 

It  is  nearly  hardy,  requiring  only  the  shelter  of  a  frame  in 
winter.  It  should  be  potted  in  peat  earthy  and  may  be  increased 
sometimes  by  separating  the  roots,. 

CYPRIPEDIUM  INSIGNE. 

NOBLE    ladies'    SLIPPER. 

Gynandria  Diandria. — Linn. 
OrchidcEe. — Juss. 
Perianth  superior,  ungent,  of  six  segments  in  two  rows,  the 
three  outer  usually  coloured,  of  which  the  odd  is  uppermost  in 
consequence  of  a  twisting  of  the  ovary,  and  the  one  called  the 
lip  (labellum)  is  undermost ;  this  latter  is  frequently  lobed,  of 
a  different  form  from  the  others,  and  very  often  spurred  at  the 
base.  Stamens  three,  united  in  a  central  column,  the  two  late- 
ral usually  abortive,  and  the  central  perfect,  or  the  central  abor- 
tive  and  the  two  lateral  perfect,  rarely  all  perfect.  Anther  either 
persistent  or  deciduous,  two,  or  four,  or  eight  celled.  Pollen 
either  powdery  or  cohering  in  definite  or  indefinite  waxy  masses, 
either  constantly  adhering  to  a  gland  or  becoming  loose  in  their 
cells.     Ovary  one   celled,  with  three  parietal  placentas;   style 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATLS. 


135 


forming  part  of  the  column  of  the  stamens.  Stigma  a  viscid 
space  in  front  of  the  column,  communicating  directly  with  the 
ovary  by  a  distinct  open  canal.  Impregnation  taking  effect  by 
absorption  from  the  pollen-masses  through  the  gland  into  the 
stigmatic  canal.  Capsule  inferior,  bursting  with  three  vedves 
and  three  ribs,  very  rarely  baccate.  Seeds  parietal,  very  nu- 
merous ;  testa  loose,  reticulated,  contracted  at  each  end,  except 
in  one  or  two  genera ;  albumen,  none.  Embryo  a  solid,  un- 
divided, fleshy  mass. 

This  beautiful  plant  is  a  native  of  Nepal.  It  flowers  in  De- 
cember and  January,  ia..Ae  stove,  which  appears  to  be  neces- 
sEiry  to  preserve  it. 

It  flourishes  in  vegetable  earth,  with  a  portion  of  sand,  and 
may  be  increased  slowly  by  separating  the  roots.  There  is 
something  fascinating  about  this  plant,  as  well  in  form  as  in 
arrangement  of  its  colours  ;  delightful  to  every  eye,  but  doubly 
so  if  we  view  it  as  formed  by  the  kindness  of  God. 

EUONYMUS  AMERICANUS. 

EVERGREEN    SPINDLE    TREE. 

Pentandria  Monogynia. — Linn. 
Celastrinese. — Brown. 

Sepals  four-five,  combined  at  the  base,  distinct  from  the 
ov.iry,  with  an  imbricated  sestivafion.  Petals  four-five,  alter- 
nate with  the  sepals,  rarely  none.  Stamens  four-five,  alternate 
with  the  petals,  with  a  doubtfully  perigynous  insertion  ;  anthers 
two-celled.  Ovary  free,  surrounded  by  a  somewhat  fleshy  disk  ; 
two,  three,  four-celled ;  cells  one  or  many  seeded.  Ovules 
erect,  rarely  pendulous.  Style  one,  or  wanting  stigma,  two- 
four  cleft.  Pericarp  a  capsule,  berry,  durpe  or  samara,  various 
in  fonn,  often  deformed  by  the  suppression  of  some  of  the  cells. 
Seeds  generally,  especially  in  the  capsular  fruits,  asillate.  Al- 
bumen none  or  fleshy.     Embryo  straight. 

A  hardy,  almost  evergreen  shrub,  of  low  bushy  growth.  It 
has  been  long  cultivated  in  this  country,  and  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  where  it  grows  wild  in  hedges  and  shady  woods, 
among  rocks,  and  on  the  edge  of  swamps,  from  New  England  to 
Carolina. 

It  flowers  in  June  and  July.  The  fruit,  as  in  the  other  spe- 
cies, is  the  most  ornamental  part.  It  wiU  grow  in  any  garden 
soil,  and  is  increased  by  seeds  or  layers. 

ERICA  VARIA. 

VARIABLE    HEATH. 

Octandria  Monogynia. — Linn. 
Ericeae. — Lindley. 

Calyx  free,  in  five  divisions,  with  four  bracteas  at  the  base. 
Corolla  monadelphous,  nearly  regular,  five  parted,  marcescent. 
Stamens  definite  hypogynous,  alternate  with  segments  of  the 
corolla.  Anthers  collateral,  slightly  cohering.  Ovary  one 
celled,  with  a  single  erect  ovule.  Style  single.  Stigma  en- 
closed in  a  two  valved  cup.  Fruit  a  membraneous  utricle,  en- 
closed within  the  indurated  tube  of  the  calyx.  Seed  solitary, 
erect,  without  albumen.  Embryo  with,  plano-convex,  fleshy 
cottledons,  and  a  minute  inferior  radicle. 

This  was  introduced  about  the  year  1810,  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  of  which  it  is  a  native.  It  is  a  low,  bushy  kind, 
flowering  at  different  seasons,  but  principally  in  the  autumn. 
Like  the  other  kinds,  it  must  be  preserved  in  an  airy  green- 
house. It  will  increase  by  cuttings,  and  should  be  potted  in 
sandy  peat  soil. 

RENANTHERA  COCCINEA. 

SCARLET    FLOWERED    RENANTHERA    OR    AIR-PLANT. 

Gynandria  Monandria. — Linn. 
Orchidese. — Juss. 
Stem  often  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length,  round,  leafy,  slightly 
branched,  the  lower  part  sheathed  with  the  persistent  bases  of 


the  leaves,  pushing  forth  a  few  long,  tortuous  roots,  by  which 
it  clings  to  trees  or  stones.  Leaves  fleshy,  distichous,  vejnless, 
flat,  obliquely  emarginate  at  the  apex,  dark-green,  sublucid, 
four-five  inches  long.  Panicles  lateral,  loose,  many-flowered, 
two  feet  and  a  half  long,  with  hard  round  branches.  Bracteje 
short,  ovate,  somewhat  shrivelled.  Ovarium  continuous  with 
the  short  peduncle,  pale  red,  with  six  furrows.  Sepals  spread- 
ing, distinct  at  the  base,  not  imbricated,  fleshy,  the  three  upper 
linear,  erect,  the  middle  one  being  larger  and  spatulate,  scarlet, 
banded  with  yellow  cloudy  spots ;  the  two  Imoer  an  inch  and 
half  in  length,  longer  than  the  upper,  hanging  down,  collateral, 
unguiculate,  lanceolate,  obtuse,  abruptly  undulated  in  the  mid- 
dle, scarlet,  with  a  few  obscure  paler  bands.  Labellum  dwarf, 
only  three  inches  long,  bagged,  articulated  with  the  column, 
three-lobed,  the  lateral  lobes  erect,  truncate,  yellow,  bordered 
and  striped  with  scarlet,  the  middle  one  tongue-shaped,  reflexed, 
scarlet,  yellow  at  the  base  ;  saccus  conical,  obtuse,  yellow  and' 
smooth  inside,  scarlet  and  dotted  outside,  with  the  throat  cal- 
lous all  round.  Columna  scarlet,  half  round,  the  length  of  the 
labellum  apterous,  striped  with  yellow  in  front,  its  anterior 
margin  incurved  over  the  stigma.  Stigma  hollowed  out,  round- 
ish. Anther  terminal,  opercular,  dark  scarlet,  obtuse,  one- 
celled,  half  two-valved  at  back.  Pollen  masses  two,  reniform, 
two-lobed  at  back,  with  a  triangular  gland,  and  a  diaphanous 
scarcely  elastical  caudicule,  contracted  in  the  middle. 

The  cause  of  previous  want  of  success  in  inducing  this  plant 
to  flower  has  resided  in  its  having  been  cultivated  in  too  dry  an 
atmosphere.  Mr.  Fairbairn,  gardener  at  Claremont,  impressed 
with  this  opinion,  tried  the  effect  of  tying  moss  around  the  stems, 
and  keeping  it  constantly  damp,  exposed  as  much  as  possible  to 
the  influence  of  the  sun,  which  was  entirely  successful. 

To  botanists  it  has  been  as  little  known  as  to  the  rest  of  the 
world,  almost  every  systematist  having  omitted  it.  And  yet 
the  language  of  Laureiro  is  far  from  unsatisfactory,  allowance 
being  made  for  certain  peculiarities  of  diction. 

A  native  of  the  woods  of  Cochin  China,  where  it  climbs  over 
trees.  Propagated  without  difficulty  by  cuttings.  When  in 
flower,  the  plant  may  be  safely  removed  to  a  dwelling  apart- 
ment, where  the  blossoms,  which  are  very  durable,  will  remain 
in  blossom  many  weeks. 

CROTALARIA  VERRUCOSA. 

WARTED  CROTALARIA. 

Monadelphia  Decandria. — Linn. 

Leguminosffi. — Jess. 

Stem  erect,  succulent,  branched,  augular,  nearly  smooth, 
about  two  feet  high.  Leaves  simple,  ovate,  apiculate,  smooth, 
with  pubescent  petioles,  either  acute  or  obtuse  ;  stipules  half- 
ovate,  lunate,  reflexed.  Racemes  terminal,  many-flowered, 
with  the  rachis,  pedicels,  and  calyces  pubescent,  usually  sterile 
at  the  top.  Bracteae  very  small,  subulate.  Corolla  blue.  Pod 
oblong,  inflated,  pilose. 

A  tender  stove  annual,  native  of  many  parts  of  the  East  In- 
dies, and  varying  extremely  in  the  size  and  form  of  its  leaves, 
which  are  sometimes  acute,  as  in  the  accompanying  figure, 
sometimes  retuse  at  the  apex,  and  sometimes  even  hastate. 

PENTSTEMON  DIFFUSUM. 

SPREADING  PENTSTEMON. 

Didynamia  Angiospermia. — Linn. 
ScrophularineEe. — Juss. 

Root  perennial,  creeping.  Stems  decumbent,  rooting,  branch- 
ed, one  and  half  to  two  feet  high,  round,  smoothish,  purple. 
Leaves  evergreen,  ovate-oblong,  unequally  serrated,  smooth, 
deep  green  ;  the  upper  serrated,  the  lower  decurrent  on  the 
petiole.  Peduncles  axillary,  pubescent,  generally  shorter  than 
the  leaves,  many-flowered  at  the  apex.     Bracteae  pubescent. 


136 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


ovate-acuminate,  entire.  Calyx  turbinate,  pubescent ;  the  seg- 
ments spreading,  finely  lacerated  at  the  edge,  aristate  at  the 
point.  Corolla  purple,  an  inch  long,  smooth  ;  the  upper  lip  re- 
tuse,  the  lower  trifid,  with  rounded  segments.  Fifth  filament 
sterile,  the  length  of  the  tube  bearded.  Capsule  ovate,  slightly 
pubescent. 

A  beautiful  hardy  perennial,  with  evergreen  leaves,  and  de- 
cumbent, rooting  stems,  by  which  it  is  readily  increased.  Na- 
tive of  open  grounds  and  banks  of  streams  in  the  districts 
around  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  where  it  was  found 
abundantly  by  Mr.  Douglas. 

Grows  freely  either  in  common  light  garden  soil  or  in  the 
American  borders,  in  both  which  situations  it  flowers  in  the  ut- 
most profusion  from  June  till  its  growth  is  arrested  by  frost. 

SINNINGIA  VILLOSA. 

SHAGGY  SINNINGIA. 

Didynaraia  Angiospermia. — Linn. 

Gesnerese. — Juss. 

Stem  round,  thick,  fleshy,  simple,  two  feet  high,  pale  green, 
villous.  Leaves  on  long  petioles,  oblong-lanceolate,  crenate, 
convex,  villous,  appearing  as  if  strigose,  pale  green.  Flowers 
aggregate  in  the  axillae  of  the  leaves,  than  which  they  are  much 
shorter,  on  short  peduncles.  Calyx  obovate,  villous,  the  length 
of  the  winged  ovarium  much  shorter  than  the  corolla.  Corolla 
externally  villous,  pale  green,  not  dotted,  about  two  inches 
long. 

This  is  a  fine  stove  plant,  floAvering  abundantly  during  all  the 
summer,  and  growing  freely  in  peat  and  loam.  It  requires  a 
high  temperature,  and  much  atmospheric  moisture,  to  succeed 
perfectly. 

A  native  of  Brazil,  whence  roots  were  sent  in  1S26  to  the 
Horticultural  Society  by  Henry  Chamberlayne,  esq.  It  is  in- 
creased with  much  difficulty  by  cuttings  or  by  leaves. 

PRUNUS  CANDICANS. 

SNOWY  PL0M. 

IcosanJria  Monogynia. — Linn. 

Amygdalaceffi. — D.  C. 

Leaves  soft,  oblong,  simply  serrated  beneath,  and  on  the 
petioles,  which  are  pale,  pubescent.  Flowers  white,  very  nume- 
rous, heaped  in  many,  flowered  fascicles,  so  as  to  cover  the 
bearing  branches.  Pedicels  and  calyces  pubescent ;  tube  of  the 
calyx  short,  spreading,  segments  ovate,  downy  inside.  Petals 
oblong,  unguiculate.     Fruit  unknown. 

A  fine  hardy  shrub,  apparently  not  exceeding  five  or  six  feet 
in  height.  Its  native  country  is  unknown.  It  was  first  pub. 
lishcd  by  Mr.  Balbis,  in  his  Catalogue  of  the  Turin  Garden,  in 
1S13  ;  and  in  the  same  year  its  name  appears  in  Schlechtendal's 
Supplement  to  Willdenow's  Enumeration  of  the  Berlin  Garden. 
We  believe  that  the  date  of  its  introduction  to  this  country  is 
1825,  in  which  year  plants  were  received  from  Messrs.  Bau- 
manns,  nurserymen  at  BoUwiller,  in  Germany,  by  the  Horticul- 
tural Society. 

This  plant  is  quite  hardy,  easily  cultivated,  and  in  the  spring 
is  so  laden  with  white  blossoms  as  to  seem  a  mass  of  snow 
amidst  the  green  leaves  and  rosy  flowers  of  the  season.  From 
this  circumstance  its  name  has  undoubtedly  been  taken,  and  not 
from  any  peculiar  whiteness  of  its  leaves,  as  Mr.  Seringe  ap- 
pears to  suppose  ;  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  is  not,  indeed, 
unusually  white. 

CASTILLEJA  COCCINEA. 

VERMILION-LEAVED  CASTILLEJA. 

Didynamia  Angiospermia. — Linn. 
ScrophularineBe. — Juss. 
Stem  annual,  decumbent,  striated,  covered  with  long  hairs. 


Leaves  oblong,  trifid  at  the  end,  or  entire,  covered  with  long 
hairs,  with  three  nerves  ;  the  lowest  often  entire.  Bractese  ob- 
long, pinnatifid,  scarlet,  yellow,  or  white.  Calyx  tubular,  with 
a  dilated  limb  and  retuse  segments.  Corolla  green,  pubescent ; 
its  tube  shorter  than  the  calyx.  Capsule  roundish,  oblong. 
Seeds  cuneate,  reticulated. 

A  pretty  hardy  annual,  native  of  gravelly  soils  in  various 
parts  of  North  America.  It  is  very  abundant  in  upland  mea- 
dows about  the  river  Columbia,  where  it  was  found  by  Mr. 
Douglas.  Seeds  were  sent  by  him  to  the  Horticultural  Society 
in  1826,  and  plants  produced  by  them  flower  in  the  open  border. 

Increased  by  seeds,  which  are  produced  in  small  quantities. 
Should  be  grown  in  gravel  or  peat,  and  sand,  and  not  in  loamy 
soil. 

The  plant  as  represented  in  the  accompanying  plate  varies 
materially  from  its  wild  state,  in  having  its  lower  leaves  entire 
and  not  trifid  ;  but  in  other  respects  it  agrees  with  the  spon- 
taneous specimens.  The  vermilion  colouring  of  the  bractese  is 
very  beautiful ;  sometimes  it  varies  to  a  lively  yellow,  and  even 
to  white. 

PENTSTEMON  PULCHELLUM.       • 

PRETTY  PENTSTEMON. 

Didynamia  Angiospermia. — Linn. 
ScrophularincEe. — Juss. 

Stem  erect,  branched,  a  foot  and  half  high,  slightly  pubes- 
cent. Leaves  linear-oblong,  serrulate,  smooth,  the  uppermost 
sessile,  and  somewhat  amplexicaul.  Panicles  terminal,  simple, 
rather  one-sided,  with  two-flowered  peduncles,  longer  than  the 
bractese.  Sepals  pubescent,  somewhat  glandtdar.  Corolla 
violet  or  lilac,  pubescent,  without  glands,  ventricose,  with  white 
veins  ;  segments  nearly  equal ;  palate  spotted,  villous.  Sta- 
mens smooth,  the  uppermost  the  length  of  the  tube,  and  some- 
what exserted ;  sterile  filament  the  same  length  as  these, 
bearded  at  the  end. 

A  handsome,  half-hardy  perennial,  a  native  of  Mexico,  whence 
seeds  were  brought  in  1826  to  Mr.  Tate,  of  Chelsea.  It  thrives 
exceedingly  well  if  planted  in  a  warm  border  exposed  to  the 
south. 

This  species  is  very  near  pentstemon,  campanulatum,  from 
which  it  dilfers  principally  in  its  corolla  being  paler,  more  in- 
flated, and  destitute  of  glands,  which  abound  on  the  corolla  of 
penstemon  campanulatum.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  also 
less  finely  toothed,  not  so  acuminate,  and  of  a  more  oblong 
figure. 

LUPINUS  LAXIFLORUS. 

LOOSE-FLOWERED  LUPINE. 

Monadelphia  Decandria. — Linn. 
Leguminosse. — Juss. 

Stems  tufted,  slender,  pilose,  purplish,  I-l|^  foot  long.  Cau- 
line  leaves  densely  pilose  ;  stipulse  subulate,  very  small ;  leaflets 
7-9,  linear-lanceolate.  Racemes  lax,  stalked;  bractese  subu- 
late, the  length  of  the  pedicels,  deciduous,  very  pilose.  Calyxes 
somewhat  alternate,  densely  pilose,  without  bracteolse  ;  the  up- 
per lip  short,  ovate,  entire,  with  a  sort  of  bag  at  its  base  ;  the 
lower  ovate,  acuminate.  Vexillum  blue,  obcordate,  with  the 
keel,  which  is  beardless,  and  the  wings  pale  rose-colour. 

A  small,  slender,  perennial  species,  found  by  Mr.  Douglas  in 
dry,  open,  gravelly  plains,  about  the  great  rapids  of  the  River 
Columbia,  where  it  is  very  common,  forming  patches  of  con- 
siderable extent,  occasionally  acquiring  a  sufi'ruticose  habit. 

The  flowers  are  blue,  mixed  with  pink,  and,  although  not 
equal  in  appearance  to  some  of  the  larger  species,  extremely 
beautiful :  they  appear  in  August  and  September. 

Grows  readily  in  common  garden  soil :  it  has  not  yet  pro- 
duced seeds,  but  will  increase  by  division  of  the  root. 


I 


i 


47 


IMPORTANCE    OF    AGRICULTURE. PARMESAN    CHEESE. 


137 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Frederick  the  Great,  king  of  Prussia,  was  one  of  the  most 
enlightened  improvers  of  the  internal  state  of  a  country,  that 
ever  existed.  In  that  important  hranch  of  policy,  he  principally 
followed  the  advice  of  the  celebrated  Hertzherg,  from  whose 
Jnemoirs  the  following  particulars  are  extracted  : — 

"  The  prosperity,  the  happiness,  and  the  resources  of  a  great 
nation,  consist  indispensably  in  the  multiplicity,  the  quantity, 
and  the  good  quality  of  those  means  by  which  such  nation 
can  procure,  in  the  first  instance,  the  necessaries,  and  after- 
wards, the  conveniences  of  life. 

"  As  corn  and  all  liinds  of  grain  furnish  certain  food  and  sub- 
.  sistence  to  numerous  inhabitants  (fisheries  only  supplying  small 
districts),  AffricuUui'e  is  incontestibly  the  source  and  positive 
basis  of  subsistence  for  a  great  and  populous  country ;  since  it 
furnishes  grain  of  every  kind  for  the  support  of  man  and  beast, 
as  well  as  wine,  beer,  oil,  timber,  6cc. 

"  Agriculture  also  furnishes  flax,  hemp,  wool,  silk,  and  every 
thing  necessary  for  the  raiment  and  other  comforts  of  life  ;  and 
all  the  principal  ingredients  for  manufacture,  navigation,  and 
commerce.  By  these  means,  and  the  barter  of  its  surplus, 
it  acquires  gold  and  silver  ;  which  last,  though  without  intrinsic 
value,  have  been  received  amongst  all  civilised  nations,  as  the 
sign  and  representation  of  wealth. 

"  Agriculture  not  onlymaintains  the  labourer  and  the  husband- 
man, but  likewise  every  other  class  of  individuals,  not  engaged 
therein,  but  employed  in  any  other  calling  or  profession  whether 
civil  or  military. 

*'  Agriculture  is  then  tlie  grand  staple  and  basis  of  pros- 
perity in  all  states  ;  and  this  principle  has  prevailed  to  such  a 
degree  for  some  time  in  France,  that  a  set  of  ingenious  agricul- 
turists, to  whom  the  lofty  title  of  economists  or  physiocrates, 
has  been  given,  more  conversant,  perhaps,  in  theory  than  in 
practice,  have  made  every  effort  in  their  power  to  ol)tain  for 
agriculture,  the  chief  and  sole  favour  of  government,  p.irticu- 
larly  by  a  free  exportation  of  corn,  yet  laying  on  agriculture, 
almost  exclusively  the  burthen  of  taxes.  The  impropriety  of  this 
principle  was  soon  discovered  on  more  mature  I'eilection  ;  for  a 
wise  government,  though  it  gives  equal  attention  to  nafionul 
indiistn/,  will  not  exempt  it  generally  from  national  burthens. 
This  is  doubtless  the  second  basis  of  the  prosperity  of  states, 
since  it  gives  the  utmost  value  to  the  natural  productions  of  a 
country,  as  well  as  the  labour  and  ingenuity  of  individuals,  with 
a  considerable  greater  profit  to  those  thus  employed,  than  what 
is  got  by  labourers  who  till  the  land.  It  is  such  labour,  as 
Smith  has  admirably  proved,  which  constitutes  the  true  crite- 
rion, and  univeral  estimation,  of  all  merchandize  and  riches  ; 
and  money  is  only  the  token  ;  for  all  productions,  artificial  and 
natural,  are  the  result  of  the  labour  of  individuals,  to  support 
themselves,  and  dispose  of  their  surplus.  The  result  of  whicli 
is,  that  the  labour  of  individuals  and  national  industry,  which 
form  the  second  basis  of  national  prosperity,  may,  on  certain 
occasions,  supply  the  place  of  agriculture.  Thus,  the  French, 
with  an  inconsiderable  portion  of  agriculture,  have,  for  above  a 
century,  rendered  all  the  nations  of  Europe  tributary  to  their 
ingenuity,  invention,  and  labour,  in  mechanic  arts.  Have  not 
the  Dutch  with  a  miserable  barren  soil,  yielding  a  small  portion 
of  what  is  wanting  for  themselves,  carried  on  an  universal  trade 
and  navigation  throughout  Europe,  and  availing  themselves  of 
the  indolence  of  their  neighbours,  furnished  them  with  their 
wants,  even  such  as  the  Dutch  themselves  did  not  possess.' 
Have  not  the  Spaniards,  with  all  their  silver,  been  at  times  in 
want  of  bread  ?  Thus,  Poland,  a  fruitful  country,  abounding  in 
corn,  the  result  of  agriculture,  for  want  of  national  industry, 
is  bereft  of  many  other  conveniences  of  life.  All  these  pre- 
mises leave  not  the  least  doubt  on  the  general  principle,  that 
the  primary  basis,  and  prosperity  of  a  state,  and  its  most  cer- 
tain riches,  consist  in  a  well  directed  agriculture,  and  abun- 
dance of  natural  productions  ;  and  the  second  basis  depends 
upon  national  industry,  giving  by  labour  a  value  to  natural 
MAG.IZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.  II.  NO.  XIX. 


productions,  and,  by  ingenuity  and  application,  a  still  greater 
value  to  manual  arts  and  manufactures. 

"  Impressed  with  suet,  ideas  as  these,  the  sovereigns  of 
Prussia  granted  large  sums  for  the  cultivation  of  wastes,  drain- 
ing of  bogs,  the  embanking  of  rivers,  and  other  objects  of  in- 
ternal improvement.  Frederick  the  Great,  in  particular,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  this  way.  He  also  rendered  important 
service  to  agriculture,  by  authorizing  and  encouraging  tlie  abo- 
lition of  commons,  and  separating  arable  laud  from  pasturage, 
by  which  an  individual  proprietor  may  reap  much  greater  ad- 
vantage, than  if  he  held  such  right  in  common  with  others." 

We  propose  following  up  these  views  of  the  importance  of 
agriculture,  by  giving  in  a  series  of  papers  an  account  of  the 
various  branches  of  husbandry  pursued  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  with  such  suggestions  as  may  arise  as  to  the  capability 
of  farther  improvements  which  the  United  Kingdoms  present. 

PARMESAN  CHEESE. 


The  following  account  of  the  method  of  preparing  cheese  in 
the  Lodecan,  commonly  called  Parmesan  cheese,  is  taken  from 
the  Journal  de  Physique. 

Tlie  size  of  these  cheeses  varies  from  sixty  to  one  hundred 
and  eighty  pounds,  depending  considerably  on  the  number  of 
cows  of  each  dairy.  During  the  heat  of  summer,  cheese  is 
made  every  day,  but  in  cooler  months  mUk  will  keep  longer, 
and  cheese  is  made  every  other  day.  The  summer  cheese, which, 
is  the  best,  is  made  of  the  evening  milk,  after  having  been 
skimmed  in  the  morning  and  at  noon  ;  mixed  with  the  morning 
milk  after  having  been  skimmed  at  noon.  Both  kinds  of  milk 
are  poured  together  into  a  copper  caldron,  capable  of  holding 
about  130  gallons,  of  the  shape  of  an  inverted  bell,  and  sus- 
pended on  the  arm  of  a  lever,' so  as  to  be  moved  olf  and  on  the 
fire  at  pleasure.  In  this  caldron,  the  milk  is  gradually  heated 
to  the  temperature  of  about  120  degrees;  it  is  now  removed 
from  the  fire,  and  kept  quiet  for  five  or  six  minutes.  When  all 
internal  motion  has  ceased,  the  rennet  is  added.  This  substance 
is  composed  of  the  stomach  of  a  calf,  fermented  together  with 
wheaten  meal  and  salt ;  and  the  method  of  using  it  is,  to  tie  a 
piece  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut,  in  a  rag,  and  steep  it  in  the 
milk,  squeezing  it  from  time  to  time.  After  a  short  space,  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  rennet  passes  through  the  rag  into  the 
milk,  which  is  now  to  be  well  stirred,  and  afterwards  left  at 
rest  to  coagulate. 

In  about  an  hour  the  coagulation  is  complete  ;  and  then  the 
milli  is  again  put  over  the  fire,  and  raised  to  a  temperature  of 
about  145  degrees.  During  all  this  time  it  is  heating,  tile  mass 
is  briskly  agitated,  till  the  curd  separates  in  small  lumps  ;  part 
of  the  whey  is  then  taken  out,  and  a  few  pinches  of  saffron  are 
added  to  the  remainder,  in  order  to  colour  it.  When  the  curd  is 
thus  broken  sufficiently  small,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  whey  is 
taken  out,  and  two  pails  fall  of  cold  water  are  poured  in.  The 
temperature  is  thus  lowered  so  as  to  enable  the  dairy-man  to 
collect  the  curd,  by  passing  a  cloth  beneath  it,  and  gathering 
it  up  at  the  corners.  The  curd  is  now  pressed  into  a  frame  of 
wood,  like  a  bushel  without  a  bottom,  placed  on  a  solid  table, 
and  covered  by  a  round  piece  of  wood  with  a  great  stone  at 
the  top.  In  the  course  of  the  night  it  cools,  assumes  a  firm 
consistence,  and  parts  with  the  whey  ;  the  next  day  one  side  is 
rubbed  with  salt,  and  the  succeeding  day  the  cheese  is  turned, 
and  the  other  side  is  rubbed  in  the  same  manner.  This  alter- 
nate salting  on  each  side  is  practised  for  about  forty  days. 
After  this  period  the  outer  crust  of  the  cheese  is  pared  off ;  the 
fresh  surface  is  varnished  with  linseed  oil :  the  convex  side  is 
coloured  red,  and  the  cheese  is  fit  for  sale. 


-OCTOBER,  1834, 


138 


STACKING    HAT, HAY    TEA. EXPERIMENTS,    &C.    ON    BREAD    AND    FLOUR. 


OF  STACKING  HAY. 


The  mode  in  whicli  hay  is  stacked  in  the  vicinity  of  London 
deserves  to  be  more  generally  known  than  it  is,  and  particu- 
larly, should  the  enterprising  agriculturists  in  the  north  attend 
to  it,  where  the  hay  is  by  no  means  so  carefully  or  judiciously 
manao-ed.  In  the  neighhourhood  of  London,  the  crop  is  cut 
when  very  green,  before  the  blade  is  hardened,  or  the  sap  nearly 
exhausted  ;  thus,  in  the  first  place,  saving  the  land  from  farther 
exhaustion,  and  increasing  the  value  of  the  produce.  As  soon 
as  cut,  it  is  put  into  small  cocks,  and  stacked  with  due  speed." 
But  it  is  the  manner  in  which  the  hay  is  stacked  we  at  pre- 
sent particularly  refer  to.  Two  large  posts  are  perpendicularly 
erected  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  intended  stack  ;  a  cross  beam  is  laid,  stretching  from  one 
post  to  the  other,  upon  which  a  large  piece  of  canvass  is  hung, 
intended  as  a  covering  to  the  stack  during  the  time  of  building; 
and  the  hay  is  brought  in  small  quantities,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  weather,  or  the  degree  of  drying  it  has  received. 
By  this  means  whenever  any  portion  is  got  into  condition  for 
keeping,  it  is  instantly  secured,  whilst  the  stack  is  kept  from 
injury  by  the  sort  of  umbrella  that  covers  it.  Thus  also  is  the 
■whole  mass  allowed  to  settle  'down  gradually,  which  tends  to 
keep  it  from  over-sweating,  a  thing  highly  injurious  to  natural 
grasses.  In  such  a  variable  climate  as  that  of  this  island,  this 
method  of  preparing  and  preserving  hay  should  be  extensively 
practised. 

0 

OF  HAY  TEA. 


When  speaking  of  hay,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  give  a 
receipt  for  the  making  of  hay  tea,  which  is  a  good  and  cheap 
substitute  for  milk  to  feed  calves,  as  has  been  found  in  the 
north  of  England.  Take  a  large  handful,  or  about  one  pound 
of  red  clover  hay,  w'ell  got  in  and  preserved,  and  boil  it  in  six 
quarts  of  clear  spring  water,  until  it  is  reduced  to  four  quarts. 
Then  take  out  the  hay,  and  mix  one  pound  of  barley,  oat,  or 
bean  meal  amongst  a  little  water  ;  put  this  into  the  pot  whilst 
it  is  boiling ;  keep  the  whole  continually  stirring  until  it  is 
boiled  and  thickened.  Let  it  cool  to  be  lukewarm,  then  give 
it  to  the  calves,  adding  as  much  whey  as  will  make  a' sufficient 
meal. 

EXPERIMENTS  AND  OBSERVATIONS  ON  FLOUR 

AND    BREAD. 


The  following  judicious  experiments  and  observations  on  flour 
and  bread  were  delivered  by  Dr.  Iriving  to  the  Committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  appointed  in  1774  to  consider  of  the 
methods  practised  in  making  flour  from  wheat,  &c.,  which  we 
think  are  worthy  of  being  known  at  any  time. 

"  To  grind  wheat  into  flour  with  the  greatest  advantage,  the 
millstone  should  make  about  sixty  revolutions  in  a  minute  ;  if 
faster,  the  stones  acquire  too  mucli  heat,  and  give  a  burnt  taste 
to  the  meal ;  if  slower,  a  part  of  it  adheres  firmly  to  the  bran 
or  husk,  and  cannot  he  separated  in  the  bolting. 

"  Floui',  when  kept  some  time,  evaporates  a  part  of  its 
moisture,  becomes  less  adhesive  and  clammy,  loses  somewhat 
of  its  agreeable  taste,  and  imbibes  a  greater  portion  of  water  in 
the  making  of  it  into  dough  :  the  bread  of  it  appears  smoother 
in  the  cutting,  whiter  in  the  grain,  dries  sooner,  and  becomes 
more  crumbly,  than  the  bread  of  new  flour.  These  reasons  in- 
duce the  baker  to  prefer  old  flour  to  new  in  the  making  of 
bread. 

"  The  yeast  of  porter  does  not  raise  bread  so  perfectly  as  that 
produced  from  small  beer ;  besides,  it  is  bitter  to  the  taste  ; 
the  baker,  therefore,  in  London,  instead  of  using  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  yeast  for  the  leavening  of  his  bread,  mixes  only  a 
small  portion  of  it  with  flour  and  water,  made  to  the  consistence 


of  a  syrup,  called  spunge,  which,  when  fermented,  is  added  to 
the  flour  ;  and,  being  worked  up  together  into  dough,  the  whole 
mass  is  siiflfered  to  ferment. 

"  Tliis  method,  however,  of  leavening  the  dough,  is  by  no 
means  so  good  as  that  in  which  yeast  only  is  used  ;  as  it  gives 
the  bread  a  sour  taste,  frequently  perceptible  in  that  of  London. 
I  find  by  experiment,  three  pounds  and  a  half  of  flour,  kept  a 
year  in  a  dry  place,  requires  two  pounds  of  water  to  make  it 
into  dough,  and  loses  in  the  baking  into  bread,  ten  ounces  ; 
but  from  the  variable  age,  dryness  and  quality  of  the  flour,  with 
the  indeterminate  degrees  of  kueading  and  baking,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  ascertain  the  exact  proportion  of  water  in  all  cases; 
nor  is  any  uniform  proportion  ever  observed  by  the  bakers. 

*'  Flour  made  from  heated  or  damaged  corn  does  not  tho- 
roughly mix  with  water,  so  as  to  form  a  perfect  dongh,  unless 
a  small  portion  of  alum  be  added.  In  this  case,  the  baker  is 
induced  to  use  it ;  as  he  may  be  likewise,  when  the  water  with 
which  he  makes  the  dough  is  very  muddy  :  alum  having  the 
property  of  purifying  it.  I  find,  however,  by  the  experiment 
of  dissolving  the  salt  from  bread  by  water,  and  adding  to  the  so- 
lution an  alcali  (Avhich  would  discover  the  earth  of  alum  by  pre- 
cipitation) that  the  bakers  in  London  very  seldom  use  alum,  but 
substitute  hard  pump  water,  with  an  extraordinary  quantity  of 
common  salt ;  which,  in  some  measure,  answ^ers  their  purpose 
in  the  working  of  damaged  flour. 

"  Flour  or  bread,  freed  of  its  salt,  being  burnt  in  a  crucible, 
leaves  behind  only  a  very  small  portion  of  earth  ;  but  if  ^chalk, 
lime,  whitening,  bone  ash,  or  any  calcareous  substance,  be  mixed 
with  either,  these  foreign  ingredients  will  remain  unconsuraed  in 
the  crucible,  and  the  quantity  may  be  perfectly  ascertained. 

"  The  mixture  of  these  ingredients  with  flour  or  bread  may 
also  be  discovered,  by  adding  spirit  of  salt  well  diluted  with 
water  ;  and  their  quantity  known  by  precipitation  with  a  fixed 
alcali.  The  following  experiments  were  made  with  a  view  of 
ascertaining  these  facts. 

"  FirsL  One  pound  of  fine  flour,  burnt  in  a  crucible,  left  be- 
hind twenty-eight  grains  of  earth;  of  which  nineteen  were 
sandy  matter  ;   the  remainder  soluble  in  an  acid. 

"  Secondhj.  One  pound  of  bread  of  a  quartern  loaf,  freed  of 
its  salt  by  water,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner,  gave  forty- 
three  grains,  of  which  twenty-nine  were  sandy  matter ;  the 
rest  soluble  by  an  acid. 

"  ThirdJij.  One  pound  of  bread  added  to  spirit  of  salt,  suf- 
ficiently diluted  with  distilled  water,  gave  scarce  any  precipi- 
tation of  earth  by  adding  a  fixed  alcali. 

"  From  these  and  other  chemical  trials,  several  times  re- 
peated with  flour  and  bread  procured  in  many  parts  of  London 
and  Westminster,  the  result  was  nearly  the  same,  except  that 
coarse  flour  and  bread  contained  a  few  grains  more  of  earthy 
matter.  It  evidently  appears,  therefore,  that  no  frauds  were 
practised  in  the  above  samples. 

"  The  defects  of  the  London  bread  seem  to  be  owing  to  the 
following  causes: — 1st.  The  use  of  old  flour,  in  preference  to 
new,  which  gives  the  bread  a  less  savoury  taste.  2nd.  The  em- 
ploying s^j»»(/e,  instead  of  yeast;  which  generally  gives  a  sour, 
unpalatable  taste  to  the  bread;  and,  .'Srd.  Not  kneading  it  suf- 
ficiently, but,  in  place  of  that  labour,  using  too  great  a  quan- 
tity of  water,  which  makes  the  bread  heavy  and  unpleasant." 

THE  AGRICULTURE  OF  ABERDEENSHIRE. 


We  propose  to  give  a  series  of  papers  on  the  various  branches 
of  rural  economy ;  and  for  this  purpose  shall  fix  upon  some 
particular  county  in  the  United  Kingdoms,  as  the  text  for 
particular  subjects.  In  a  former  number  the  Dairy  Husbandry 
of  Ayrshii'e  and  the  western  counties  of  Scotland  have  been 
shortly  described;  we  now  proceed  to  the  prominent  feature 
in  the  agriculture  of  Aderdeenshiie,  availing  ourselves  of  the 


THE    AGRICULTURE    OF    ABERDEENSHIHB. 


139 


cscellent  report,  of  tliat  county,  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Skene 
Keith.  Gardeners,  cottagers,  possessing  small  allotments  of 
land,  and  farmers  of  all  descriptions,  cannot  but  be  struck 
and  benefited  by  the  reverend  gentleman's  information, 
which  we  now  abridge. 

Necessity  first  drove  the  proprietors  and  small  farmers  of 
Aberdeenshire  to  cultivate  their  lands  in  a  manner  to  afford  a 
lesson  to  many  others,  viz..  by  a  mixture  of  the  plough  and 
spade  husbandry.  From  the  peculiar  situation  of  the  cities 
of  New  and  Old  Aberdeen,  on  a  small  neck  of  land  between 
the  rivers  Dee  and  Don,  near  their  entrance  into  the  sea,  it 
became  necessary  to  cultivate  all  the  ground  in  their  neigh- 
bonihood.  Grass  for  the  cow-feeders,  garden-roots,  and  other 
articles  of  provision,  which  could  not  be  brought  from  the 
neighbouring  territory,  were  much  wanted.  As  the  popula- 
tion amounted  to  many  thousands,  and  was  rapidly  advancing, 
the  matter  became  more  urgent.  To  improve  the  old  lands, 
therefore,  and  to  trench  with  the  spade  and  mattock  a  consi- 
derable quantity  of  very  rough  soil,  extending  about  three 
miles  from  Aberdeen,  were  the  steps  taken  to  accomplish  the 
necessary  object.  In  t!ie  course  of  forty  years,  at  least  three 
thousand  acres  in  that  vicinity  were  brought  into  cultivation. 
The  ground  had  been  either  covered  with  heath  and  fi  1  led  with 
stones  almost  to  the  surface,  or  interspersed  with  patches  of 
grass  and  large  masses  of  granite  lymg  above  ground.  Tlie 
expense  of  bringing  into  a  good  state  such  land  was  immense, 
and  probably  never  incurred  in  any  other  part  of  the  island 
to  the  same  extent  and  in  similar  circumstances;  nor  could 
it  have  been  borne  if  the  first  crop  had  not  produced  from 
30/.  to  50/.  per  acre;  this  crop  was  granite  stoues,  which  was 
sold  for  paving  the  streets  of  London, 

After  all,  the  ground  thus  gained  to  the  community  would 
not  have  recompensed  the  cultivator  if  a  mixture  of  the 
spade  and  plough  husbandry  had  not  been  introduced.  It 
■would  have  yielded  too  little  if  tilled  only  by  tlie  plough, 
and  the  outlay  would  have  been  too  great  if  the  soil  had 
been  constantly  digged  by  the  spade.  A  medium  process 
therefore  w.as  adopted,  which  answered  admirably ;  and  which 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  all  large  towns  should  be  adopted, 
unless  the  nature  of  the  ground  forbid  it.  Gardeners  and 
cow -feeders,  who  pay  lugh  rents,  are  by  this  means  enabled  to 
raise  two  crops  in  one  year,  or  three  crops  in  two  years.  Tlieir 
rotations  of  cropping  are  very  quick  ;  yet  one  year  of  clover 
cut  for  soiling,  or  made  into  hay,  and  the  pasturing  of  this 
grass  next  year  till  after  midsummer,  and  their  breaking  it  up 
for  turnips,  keeps  the  thin  land  near  Aberdeen  in  good  con- 
dition, and  tends  to  give  more  tenacity  to  the  soil,  which  is 
naturally  light  and  of  a  loose  texture. 

Trenching  is  practiced  in  barren  land,  which  abounds  in 
stones  of  different  dimensions,  used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  the 
most  complete  method  of  rendering  such  land  arable.  In  tliis 
case  the  surface  is  cut  into  square  or  oblong  pieces,  and  thrown 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  excepting  when  forming  the  first 
trench,  which  of  necessity  is  thrown  on  the  barren  or  unbroken 
laud.  Tlie  labourer  cuts  off  a  breadth  generally  of  Ihi-ee  feet, 
and  throws  out  both  soil  and  subsoil  to  the  depth  of  about 
fifteen  inches,  and  as  long  as  he  finds  it  expedient.  He  throws 
all  the  stones  on  the  surface,  and  generally  requires  two 
spadiags  and  two  shovcKnijs,  to  fill  up  his  trench.  The  first 
spading  is  about  eight  inches  deep,  if  he  be  able  to  pierce  so 
far  into  the  ground — this  is  thrown  into  the  open  trench; 
then  with  a  shovel  he  throws  the  loosened  earth,  left  by  the 
sjiade,  above  the  spading;  after  which  he  digs  a  second  time, 
and  what  is  now  raised  is  laid  also  above  what  was  formerly 
dug,  using  the  shovel  to  level  the  bottom ;  and  thus,  if  the 
new  trench  be  deep  enough,  he  is  prepared  to  shape  off  ano- 
ther course,  to  be  dug  and  thrown  in  the  same  manner. 

But  it  often  happens  that  the  spade  cannot  pierce  stony 
ground.  In  this  case  a  kind  of  mattock,  provincially  termed 
a  pick,  is  applied,  and  this  till  the  requisite  depth  be  gained. 
"Where  the  mattock  is  too  weak  to  lift  the  stones  levers  are 


used  ;    and  if  these  be  insufficient,  they  are  blown  by  gun- 
powder. 

Wlien  the  ground  is  wet.  the  labourer  shews  particular 
accuracy  and  dexterity  in  laying  the  bottom  of  the  trench. 
The  grassy  surface  is  most  carefully  laid  on  its  back,  and 
every  sod  compactly  joined  together,  that  the  water  may  form 
a  new  pan  or  channel  between  the  soil  and  subsoil.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  trench  is  cleared  of  all  loose  earth  and  formed  into 
a  slope,  with  a  small  descent  if  possible  for  the  water,  Ijefore 
the  surface  is  inverted  or  compactly  laid.  It  is  the  care  used 
in  scouring  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  laying  the  inverted  sur- 
face, and  properly  joining  the  sods,  that  renders  the  trenching 
so  useful  in  wet  lands. 

If  draining  be  necessary  as  well  as  trenching,  the  drains  are 
cut  as  much  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  as  that  the 
whole  water  contained  in  the  drain  shall  be  below  the  level  of 
the  bottom  of  the  trench.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  bottom  of 
the  trench  is  made  to  slope  gently  into  the  drain,  that  no 
water  may  remain  among  the  grassy  sods. 

When  the  object  is  merely  to  deepen  the  soil,  the  ground  In 
the  subsoil  is  cliietly  loosened  by  the  mattock.  But  in  this  case 
it  is  necessary  that  the  bottom  of  the  trench  be  completely 
picked  up,  and  that  no  interstices  of  hard  subsoil  be  left  between 
the  trenches.  The  labourer  must  also  cka«  the  teeth  of  the  trench, 
so  as  to  prevent  any  space  being  left  unloosened  by  the  spade; 
otherwise  the  breaking  of  the  plough,  that  comes  in  contact 
with  the  ridge  that  was  improperly  left,  is  not  the  only  evil 
attendant  on  what  uuskilfulness  or  dishonesty  left  unloosened. 
It  often  happens  that  the  soil  and  subsoil  are  of  different 
qualities  ;  trenching  mixes  them,  and  produces  a  better  soil 
than  either.  The  surface  no  doubt  is  turned  into  the  bottom; 
but  by  using  the  shovel  twice,  the  two  are  considerably  mixed; 
whilst  in  the  course  of  two  ploughings  the  thing  desired  is 
completed.  Trenching  is  also  practised  with  great  success 
when  the  subsoil  is  tilly  and  very  tenacious.  When  the  moory 
soil  is  thrown  into  the  subsoil  of  a  trench,  and  a  mixture  of 
moor  with  the  till  in  the  bottom  is  laid  on  the  top,  the  super- 
abundant moisture  is  carried  off,  and  the  land  becomes  very 
productive. 

•  Cropped  land,  especially  when  injured  by  getting  too  much 
lime,  is  completely  renovated  by  trenching;  and  either  dung 
or  lime  can  be  applied  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Where 
additional  depth  can  be  obtained  by  the  plough,  as  in  deep 
soils,  trenching  is  not  necessary,  even  after  once  cropping. 
But  where  the  soil  is  different,  and  when  by  piercing  the  pan. 
new  soil  is  brought  up,  dung  and  lime  are  always  applied  with 
success.  Trenching,  to  mention  one  other  benefit  resulting 
from  it,  is  of  the  utmost  service  in  foul  land,  or  when  either 
stronger  or  cleaner  soil  can  be  brought  to  the  surface.  This 
can  always  be  done  with  the  spade  when  the  common  plough 
would  be  useless,  and  when  the  trench-plough  could  act  very 
imperfectly. 

Such  is  the  manner  in  which  the  effective  process  of  trench- 
ing has  been  carried  on  in  Aberdeenshire,  to  the  vast  improve- 
ment of  the  county,  within  these  last  seventy  years ;  furnish- 
ing a  highly  important  lesson  to  all  who  would  improve  or 
renovate  their  lands. 

ON  THE  FOOD,  FIRING,  CLOTHING, 

DWELLINGS,    GARDENS,    AND    COTTAGE    FARMS 
OF    THE    LABOURING    CLASSES. 

In  our  last  number  we  gave  the  plans  and  the  description  of 
several  cottages,  well  worthy  the  attention  of  all  who  would 
delight  to  see  the  condition  of  the  labouring  classes  bettered. 
The  neatness,  convenience,  comfort,  and  cheapness  of  these 
little  dwellings  must  strike  the  mind  of  every  one  who  glances 
at  them  for  the  shortest  period.  Every  thing  tending  to  the 
welfare  of  this  interesting  and  most  necessary  portion  of  the 
community  has  at  all  times  been  an  important  consideration  in 
the  eyes  of  philanthropists  ;  but  never  certainly  has  the  public 


140 


THE    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    OF    THE    LABOURING    CLASSES. 


jnind  been  so  completely  and  earnestly  engrossed  with  the  sub- 
ject as  of  late.  The  depressed  state  of  the  country,  the  scarcity 
of  employment,  or  the  inadequacy  of  wages,  are  not  the  only 
causes  for  this  extraordinary  degree  of  general  excitement. 
The  Poor's  Law  Bill  has  brought  the  most  momentous  matters 
connected  with  the  lower  orders  to  be  discussed,  whilst  the 
marvellous  revolutions  that  have  occurred,  or  are  taking  place, 
in  every  department  of  social  life  and  sentiments,  unite  to  lend 
to  whatever  concerns  their  dearest  interests  on  earth  an  im- 
mense value  and  weight. 

The   matters    named   at   the   head   of  this  paper  embrace 
every  thing,  excepting  education  or  morals,   that  is  necessary 
to  human   happiness,  so  far   as   its  blessings  are  to  he  com- 
manded in  this  world.      In  the  careful,  earnest,   and  benevolent 
discussion  which  we  now  enter  upon  concerning  the  domestic 
economy  of  the  labouring  classes,  we  shall  be  led  to  point  out 
the  various    states   and   fashions  of  those   things  particularly 
named,  as  they  are  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  sometimes  as  they  are  to  be  seen  in  other  countries.     For 
we  have  long  lamented,   that  out  of  the  thorisands  of  British 
travellers  that  have  treated  the  public  with  what  they  have  dis- 
covered in  other  regions,  not  one  of  them  ever  seems  to  have 
thought  it  worth  his  while  to   devote  his  time  and  his  talents 
to  the  observation  of  the  domestic  economy  of  the  most  useful 
orders  that  is  to  be  found  in  any  community.     What  a  field  for 
investigation  ;  and  how  plentiful  harvest  would  of  knowledge,  the 
real,  active,  practical,  and  living  knowledge,  be  !     This  discus- 
sion will  naturally  enable  us  or  others  to  suggest  further  im- 
provements from  the  lights  v.-e  fall  in  with.     The  public  at  large 
have  no  conception  how  little  one  portion  of  our  countrymen 
know  of  the  plainest  and  most  necessary  domestic  operations  of 
another.     Were  there  nothing  more  done  by  us  in  this  attempt 
than  to  shew  the  people  in  the  north  what  is  an  every  day  iJiing 
in  the  south,  or,  rather,  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  south  to  be 
told  what  is  constantly  practised  in  the  north,    we  venture  to 
predict  that  an  amount  of  real  benefit  would  instantly  result 
from  this  reciprocity  of  information  that  would  far  outweigh 
the  good  which  any  one  direct  act  of  legislation  has  for  a  long 
time  accomplished.     For  it  would  lead  the  people  themselves  to 
work  out  their  own  well-being,  in  which  vohmtary  endeavours, 
the  blessings  conveyed  in  the  thing  obtained  are  not  probably 
so  great  as  the  habits  which  accompany  the  cheerfulness   and 
alacrity  of  the  performances.  Much  railing  has  been  afloat  regard- 
ing the  English  poor  laws.    Our  taste  and  present  object  lay  not 
in  this  way  ;  for  we  are  sure,  that  were  the  lower  orders  them- 
selves earnestly  to  set  about  their  own  regeneration,   the  con- 
sequences would  bt  much  more  delightful  than  those  that  can 
possibly   arise    from    stern    legislation.     Did  they   themselves 
know  the  best  practical  modes  of  reducing  their  expenees,  with- 
out diminishing  their   comforts  ;   did  they  know   the   way  by 
■which  to  prepare  cheap  and  pleasant  substitutes  for  those  articles 
■which  in  times  of  scarcity  and  distress  exhaust  so  much  of  their 
daily  earnings,  doubtless  advantage  would  be  taken  to  a'remarka- 
ble  extent  of  such  information.  There  are  many  mechanical  con- 
trivances which  may  with  little  expence  be  applied  to  render 
the  cottager's  habitation  much  more  comfortable  than  gene- 
rally is  to  be  found. 

The  labourer  has  many  difficulties  to  struggle  against.  His 
"wages  are  often  too  small,  and  he  is  as  often  obliged  to  pur- 
chase the  articles  he  must  have  in  such  petty  portions  as  to  be 
at  a  great  disadvantage  compared  with  more  opulent  persons. 
But  above  and  beyond  all  this,  ignorance,  custom,  or  prejudice 
lead  him  to  adhere  to  improvident  systems  of  dress,  diet,  and 
other  branches  of  private  expenditure,  which  are  much  more 
generally  disastrous  than  any  other  cause  cxternid  to  himself. 
To  convince  an  employer  that  he  gives  inadequate  wages  is  not 
an  easy  task  ;  but  to  make  the  wages  received  go  a  great  deal 
farther  than  they  generally  are  allowed  to  go,  depends  on  a  few 
simple  arrangements  at  home.  Alas !  how  many  instances 
there  are  where  no  eccnomy  can  shield  the  virtuous  poor.  Still 
there  are  as  many  in  the  deepest  wretchedness  of  penury  from 


wasteful  habits;   and  did  our  earnestness  affect  only  this  por- 
tion, the  result  would  be  glorious.      It  has  been  an  assertained 
fact,  that  the  greatest  portion  of  inmates  in  the  poor  houses, 
have  been  persons  in  the  receipt  of  the  best  wages.      We  by  no 
means  wish  to  enforce  a  cold-hearted  doctrine,   however,   but 
one  tender,  beneficient,  and  encouraging.     It  is  this,  that  the 
labourer's  income  may  be  spent  in  a  far  more  advantageous 
manner  to  himself  than  it  usually  is  ;  and  with   equal  profit, 
too,  to  those  who  subsist  by  the  demand  for  consumable  com- 
modities ;  for  a  decrease  in  the  demand   for   such  would  be  a 
blow  to  the  national  good  ;  a  thirst  for  superfluities  is  even  of 
great  public  benefit.     But  we  are   anxious  that  the  labourer 
should  know  what  is  the  surest  method  of  commanding  such 
commodities,  nay,  such  superfluities,  in  health,   sickness,  and 
old  age.     The  humble  labourer,   still  more  the  pauper,  is  an 
object  of  the  deepest  concern  to  every  well-regulated  mind.  He 
who  has  been  reduced  by  unavoidable  misfortune  should  claim 
equal   observance  in  the  eye   of  a  brother  with   him  who  has 
raised  himself  by  extraordinary  efl'orts  from   humility  to  dig- 
nity, we  mean,  as  an  object  of  wonder  ;  whilst,  as  an  object  of 
sympathy,  it  argues  sorely  against  human  nature  that  the  con- 
templator  does  not  make   himself  great,   through  the  oppor- 
tunity ofl'ered  for  elevating  his  depressed  brother.     But  what 
shall  we  say  to  the  improvident  poor,  to   the  wretched  profli- 
gate ?     This  is  the  class  that  above  all  others  claims  a  nation's 
heart.     What  is  the  woful  state  even  of  him  who  has  been  re- 
duced by  misfortunes,    against  which  he  was  unable  to  stand, 
compared  to  that  one  who  has  with  a  suicidal  hand  destroyed 
his  own  earthly  welfare  ?  that  one  who  is  wretched  here,  and 
whose  prospects  hereafter  oft'er  no  alleviation  or  recompense  ? 
It  should  be  a  nation's  pride   and  labour,    it  should   be  the 
leading  object  in  every  man's  eye,  to  reclaim,  regenerate,  and 
save  this  array  of  mankind.     Pity  it  is  that  any  should  never, 
either  in  time  or  throughout  eternity,  have  tasted  pleasure  or 
comfort  1     Be  it  our  endeavour  therefore  on  this  occasion  to 
hold  up  in  a  plain  and  tangible  shape  some  good  things  within 
the  reach  of  very  many  such  of  our  most  destitute  and  degraded 
brethren.     Numbers  are  so  besotted  and  wedded  to  vice  or 
prejudices,   that  they  turn  from  the  benefits  ofl'ered.     But  let 
us  implore  for  those  the  attention  at  least  of  their  employers  ; 
the  persevering  and  generous  good  oflices  of  every  sound-think- 
ing man.     We  think  the  contents  of  the  following  pages  may 
in  some  degree  tend  to  direct  a  philanthrophic  enquirer  in  this 
matter  : — 

Diet  leads  us  at  once  to  make  a  remarkable  comparison  to 
the  habits  of  the  labouring  classes  of  these  islands.  There  is 
not  only  a  great  difference  in  the  proportion  of  earnings  appro- 
priated to  the  pru'chase  of  subsistence  by  labourers  in  the 
north  and  south  of  Great  Britain,  hut  in  the  mode  of  preparing 
it ;  the  dissimilarity  is  matter  of  wonder  to  us.  In  the  south 
of  Kngland  the  poorest  labourers  are  habituated  to  the  unvary- 
ing meal  of  dry  bread  and  cheese  from  weeks'  end  to  weeks' 
end  ;  and  in  those  families,  whose  finances  do  not  allow  them  in- 
dulgence of  malt  liquor,  the  deleterious  produce  of  China  consti- 
tute s  their  v.snal  beverage.  \  If  a  labourer  is  rich  enough  to  afford 
himself  meat  once  a  week,  he  commonly  adopts  the  simplest  of 
all  culinary  preparations,  that  of  roasting  it  ;  or,  if  he  lives 
near  a  baker's,  of  baking  it ;  and  if  he  boils  his  meat,  he  never 
thinks  of  forming  it  into  soup,  that  is  not  only  as  nutritive, 
but  certainly  more  palatable  than  a  plain  boiled  joint. 

In  the  north,  on  the  contrary,  the  poorest  labourers  regale 
themselves  v«ith  a  variety  of  dishes,  wholly  unknown  in  the 
south,  and  at  a  cheaper  and  more  wholesome  rate.  M'e  shall 
give  an  intelligible  description  of  the  processes  there  followed 
out  in  their  culinary  duties.  The  luisly  pvddmg  is  one  of  the 
simplest  articles.  This  is  what  Burns  calls  "  the  healsome 
porritch,  chief  of  Scotia's  food."  It  is  made  of  oatmeal,  water 
or  whey,  and  salt  in  the  follow-ing  manner  :  To  a  quart  of 
water,  whilst  it  is  boiling  in  an  open  pot,  a  small  quantity  of 
salt  is  added,  and  of  oat-raeal,  about  13  ounces  are  dropped  into 
it  by  little  and  little  whilst  boiling,  and  kept  stirring  by  a  stick, 


THE    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    OF    THE    LABOURING    CLASSES. 


141 


called  a  spurde.  The  wliole  is  boiled  for  several  minutes  till  it 
becomes  of  a  proper  consistence.  This  quantity  is  sufficient  for 
a  meal  for  two  labourers,  and  it  is  eaten  with  milk,  bvitter, 
beer,  or  treacle  ;  the  best  liquid,  however,  is  butter  or  churned 
milk,  which,  as  prepared  in  Scotland,  is  delicious.  See  a  paper 
in  our  last  number  on  the  Ayreshire  Dairy  System.  This  is  an 
extremely  nutritious  dish,  and  highly  relished  by  those  who 
have  become  accustomed  to  it.  A  good  meal  for  one  person, 
supposing  the  price  of  oats  to  be  twenty  shillings  per  quarter, 
w'ill  not  exceed  a  penny.  But  a  little  bread  and  cheese  gene- 
rally follows  the  mess. 

Croicdiff  or  brose  is  a  dish  the  most  easily  made  ready,  though 
not  so  common  as  the  former.  The  process  is  simply  pouring 
boiling  water  over  dry  oatmeal,  and  stirring  it  a  little  ;  milk  or 
butter  is  then  added,  and  the  matter  is  complete.  Fuf  brose  is 
a  luxury ;  this  consists  of  boiling  broth  being  poured  on  oat- 
meal, instead  of  water,  and  the  meat  from  the  broth  is  eaten 
along  with  it.  When  they  boil  corned  beef,  which  is  generally 
done  on  Sunday,  this  supplies  enviable  stores  of  savoux'y  skim- 
mings for  crowdics.  This  last  dish  is  most  in  use  in  the  north 
of  England. 

Frumenti/  or  barleij-milk,  is  barley  boiled  for  abaut  two  hours 
in  water.  Milk  is  then  added,  and  sometimes  a  little  sugar. 
But  for  hot  weather,  here  comes  the  lightest  and  most  cooling 
food  in  the  world  perhaps  ;  it  is  called  soicens,  a  kind  of  flum- 
mery. It  is  thus  made :  When  the  oats  are  ground  at  the 
mill,  the  husks  or  seeds  as  they  are  named,  gathered  in  sifting 
the  meal,  are  as  occasion  rcquix-es  put  into  water,  where  they 
remain  for  about  two  days  ;  they  are  then  wrung  or  strained 
out  again;  and  this  process  is  repeated  a  second  and  third 
time  in  different  vessels  of  water.  By  this  process  all  the 
small  mealy  particles  that  were  attached  to  the  seeds  are  ex- 
tracted. The  waters  are  then  mixed  together,  and  when  the 
whole  has  stood  about  six  hours,  the  clear  water  is  poured  oif, 
and  fresh  water  is  added.  When  the  sediment  which  is  thus 
obtained  is  to  be  used,  it  must  be  stirred  up,  and  water  put  to 
it  till  it  will  just  tiuc'e  a  wooden  dish  with  a  whitish  colour.  It 
is  then  put  into  a  pot  and  boiled  for  nearly  an  hour,  care  being 
taken  to  stir  it  all  the  time  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  mess  must 
always  be  stirred  one  way.  When  poured  into  basons,  it  soon 
acquires  a  considerable  degree  of  solidity,  and  becomes,  if  suf- 
ficiently boiled,  perfectly  smooth,  like  what  is  blanc-mange.  It 
is  eaten  with  milk  ;  it  has  a  deliciously  simple  taste,  conveying 
the  idea  of  the  utmost  purity.  But  though  cheap,  it  is  by  no 
means  a  very  nutritive  dish.  It  suits  admirably  for  supper,  for 
which  in  warm  weather  it  is  generally  used,  being,  if  allowed 
to  stand  to  cool  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  house,  as  gratifying 
as  iced  cream. 

Potatoes  every  where  now  is  an  indispensable  article  of  food. 
But  in  the  north  ihcy  are  cooked  in  several  ways  unknown  in 
the  south.  We  go  on  to  mention  one  or  two  of  these  pro- 
cesses. A  principal  dish  is  of  potatoes  peeled  or  scraped  when 
raw,  chopped  and  hoUed  along  with  a  small  quantity  of  meat 
cut  into  very  little  pieces,  or  of  bones  that  have  been  pretty 
well  bared;  pepper,  salt,  onions,  &c.  are  added.  This  is  a 
cheap  and  nutritive  article,  as  the  Johscouse  of  sailors  may  inti- 
mate to  many  persons  who  have  never  visited  the  north  of 
Great  Britain.  In  Scotland  there  is,  during  winter,  very  com- 
monly a  mess  of  nimhle-de-thump.  This  is  a  potful  of  pota- 
toes that,  after  having  been  peeled,  are  carefully  boiled.  The 
potful  is  then  beat  with  a  round  and  broad-ended  staff  to  a  per- 
fect mass  of  meal  ;  which,  as  good  dry  potatoes  are  sought 
after,  is  beautiful  and  white.  Milk  is  then  gradually  added, 
whilst  the  whole  is  kept  stirring  by  means  of  a  spurtle,  till  it 
comes  to  a  proper  degree  of  thinness.  Butter  and  pepper  are 
also  add^d  where  they  can  be  afforded  ;  and  onions  sometimes, 
which  have  been  beat  along  with  the  potatoes.  The  whole 
presents  a  dish  which  a  high  authority  has  said  is  fit  for  a 
prince. 

What  will  some  people  say,  when  it  is  told,  that  seldom  in 
London  are  plain  potatoes  to  be  found  well  or  perfectly  boiled  ? 


But  let  lis  hear  what  Count  Rumford  has  advanced  in  reference 
to  directions  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  on  this  point.  In 
London,  he  says,  the  proper  mode  of  preparing  potatoes  as 
food  is  little  attended  to  ;  whereas  in  Ireland  and  Lancashire 
it  is  brought  to  very  great  perfection  ;  where  they  are  fre- 
quently ate  as  bread.  The  potatoes  should  be  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  the  same  size,  and  the  large  and  small  ones  boiled 
separately.  Tliey  must  be  put  into  a  pot  with  cold  water,  not 
sufficient  to  cover  them,  well  washed,  but  neither  pared  nor 
scraped.  (We  would  here  add  to  the  Count's  statement,  that 
the  practice  of  salesmen  having  the  potatoes  washed,  it  may 
be  for  hours,  or  even  days,  previous  to  being  boiled,  is  highly 
injurious  to  the  flavour  of  the  root,  and  is  a  thing  we  never 
saw  in  the  north).  If  the  potatoes  ai'e  tolerably  large,  it  will 
he  necessary,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  boil,  to  throw  in  some 
cold  water,  and  occasionally  to  repeat  it  till  they  are  boiled  to 
the  heart.  They  will  otherwise  crack  on  the  outside  before 
they  are  thoroughly  cooked.  Salt  occasionally  thrown  in  is  a 
great  improvement ;  but  the  slower  they  are  boiled,  the  better. 
When  boiled,  and  the  water  is  poured  off,  evaporate  the  mois- 
ture by  replacing  the  pot  once  more  over  the  fire.  They 
should  be  brought  to  the  table  with  the  skins  on,  and  ate  with 
a  little  salt,  if  used  as  bread.  Nothing  but  exiperience  can 
satisfy  any  one  how  superior  the  potatoc  is,  thus  prepared,  if 
the  sort  is  good  and  mealy.  Boiling,  he  continues,  is  better 
than  steaming,  as  it  discharges  a  certain  substance,  which  the 
steam  alone  is  incapable  of  doing.  With  fish,  butter,  milk, 
even  sour  milk,  an  excellent  mess  is  thus  obtained.  Yes,  with 
nothing  better  than  butter-milk  (not  the  nauseous  stuff  which 
is  to  be  generally  found  in  English  dairies),  the  potatoc  is  un- 
commonly nutritious,  and  strongly  conducive  to  aid  the  prolific 
nature  of  mankind,  as  is  proved  in  the  case  of  the  peasantry  of 
Ireland,  who  subsist  almost  entirely  on  such  food.  As  Sir 
F.  M.  Eden  asks,  from  whose  work  on  the  state  of  the  poor 
we  have  largely  drawn.  Where  have  we  more  numerous  hordes 
of  ruddy,  healthy,  and  strong  children,  than  may  be  seen  daily 
issuing  from  the  cabins  of  the  Irish  poor  ?  Potatoes  are  a 
strong  instance  of  the  extension  of  the  means  of  human  enjoy- 
ment in  modern  times  over  the  ancient.  The  price  of  wheat 
no  doubt,  in  comparison  with  the  money  price  of  labour,  has 
lately  considerably  increased.  But  many  articles  of  food  and 
clothing  can  now  be  obtained  by  poor  cottagers,  which  the  rich 
in  much  earlier  years  could  not  command  ;  and  the  root  of 
which  we  ai'e  speaking  seems  the  most  remarkable.  It  is  in 
truth,  now-a-days,  "  the  poor  man's  wants,  the  rich  man's 
luxury."  Potatoes  can  be  turned  to  many  uses  which  we  can- 
not taiTy  to  notice.  We  can  here  only  farther  say  of  them, 
that  in  the  north,  mixed  with  oatmeal,  or  the  flour  of  wheat, 
barley,  or  rye,  they  are  very  frequently  turned  into  cakes, 

Scotch  broth. — It  is  not  necessary  pr.rticularly  to  describe 
this  soup,  as  the  pi-ocess  by  Avhicli  the  diih  is  made  is  generally 
well  enough  known.  The  principal  thing  regarding  it,  for  our 
present  purpose,  is  to  say,  that  since  it  is  a  wholesome  delicious 
and  cheap  mess,  particularly  where  there  are  many  children,  it 
is  to  be  lamented  that  it  should  be  comparatively  so  rare  in 
England,  Its  rarity,  however,  must  be  chiefly  owing  to  the 
extravagant  way  the  Southrons  go  to  work  in  providing  the 
ingredients.  Meat  with  them  is  the  principal  point,  whereas, 
we  should  say,  vegetables  are  the  most  important  in  the  north. 
Beef,  mutton,  bacon,  and  these  salt  as  well  as  fresh,  are  de- 
voted to  the  bi-oth-pot ;  a  small  piece  of  cither  is  sufficient  for 
a  large  quantity  of  vegetables,  scarcely  any  species  of  which, 
that  is  to  be  found  in  a  kitchen-garden,  is  thought  unsuitable. 
In  the  south,  the  Scotch  allotment  of  meat,  in  broth-making, 
is  laughed  at.  But  a  due  regard  to  the  most  wholesome  and 
enlightened  style  of  feeding  man  will  call  for  abundance  of 
vegetable  diet,  as  well  as  of  butcher's  meat.  We  think  it  would 
be  easy  to  show  on  which  side  the  grossest  error  lies.  At  any 
rate  the  broth-eaters  seem  to  be  as  brawny  and  as  long-lived 
as  the  beef-eaters.  Whilst  the  poor  north-country  labourers 
can  manage   to  rear  a  pig,  or  save  as  much  as  will  purchase 


14-2 


THE    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    OF    THE    LABOURING    CLASSES. 


now  aud  then  a  small  piece  of  meat,  he  will  have  his  hot  and 
abundant  mess  at  a  comparatively  small  expence.  Nor  is  it  to 
he  overlooked,  that  potatoes,  or  abundance  of  other  vegetables, 
made  into  broth,  always  present  an  appearance  of  abundance 
on  the  table,  which  no  moderate  expenditure  in  meat  can  ever 
accomplish  :  a  point  of  itself  of  extensive  bearings. 

Braid,  the  staff  of  life,  claims  our  consideration.  The 
great  features  connected  with  this  subject  to  be  observed  in  the 
north,  are  the  various  kinds  of  grain  used  for  the  production  of 
bread,  especially  that  of  oats  ;  and  the  making  of  it,  being  a 
domestic  occupation.  In  Cumberland,  bread  is  generally  made 
of  barley.  After  the  usual  process  of  turning  the  meal  into 
dough,  with  salt,  &c.,  it  is  baked  in  unleavened  cakes,  about 
half  an  inch  tliick  and  twelve  inches  in  diameter  ;  but  is  more 
commonly  leavened,  and  made  into  loaves  of  about  twelve 
pounds  each.  These  loaves  are  usually  baked  in  ovens  heated 
with  heath,  furze,  or  brushAvood.  A  common  oven  will  bake 
about  three  Winchester  bushels  of  barley  made  into  bread  at 
once.  This  bread  will  keep  good  for  four  or  five  weeks  in  win- 
ter, and  two  or  three  in  summw.  It  is  considered  an  ex- 
tremely nutritious  article. 

Oaten  calces  prevail  all  over  the  west  of  Scotland.  They  are 
made  generally  only  with  water  ;  the  dough,  beiu^  kneaded 
well,  and  rolled  out  into  a  thin,  broad,  and  round  form,  which 
is  then  cut  into  fardels  or  cakes,  is  placed  upon  a  girdle  or 
gridiron  to  be  hardened.  The  hardening,  however,  is  best 
completed  by  afterwards  putting  the  cake  in  front  of  a  clear 
hot  fire.  These  cakes  keep  sound  for  months  ;  but  are  for  a 
short  time.;?)'cd  again,  after  having  lain  long.  The  whole  pro- 
cess of  baking  and  hardening  them  seems  extremely  simple  ; 
still,  like  many  a  simple  process,  the  utmost  dexterity  is  neces- 
sary to  its  perfect  performance  ;  so  that  being  a  good  baker  is 
one  of  the  greatest  recommendations  a  servant  can  bring  with 
her. 

Bannocks,  which  constitute  in  other  parts  of  Scotland  the 
common  bread,  are  thick  unleavened  cakes,  made  of  water  and 
meal  only  ;  pease,  barley,  and  oatmeal  are  all  in  use;  the  last 
most  frequently.  Sometimes  milk,  butter,  or  cream,  with 
eggs  or  carraway  seeds,  are  employed  without  any  water.  Now, 
a  Scotch  labourer  will  not  allow  wheaten  bread  to  come  into 
competition  with  these  sorts  to  which  he  is  accustomed.  Habit 
is  second  only  to  nature ;  and  whoever  is  at  pains  to  measure 
his  expenditure  with  his  income,  is  not  to  be  excused,  if  he  will 
not  use,  for  the  staff  of  his  life,  the  cheapest  article,  so  long  as 
it  is  wholesome  and  invigorating. 

The  principal  advantage,  however,  which  the  labourers  in  the 
north  have  over  those  in  the  south,  in  the  matter  of  diet,  is 
the  great  variety  of  cheap  and  savoury  soups  to  which  they, 
almost  without  exception,  devote  every  sort  of  butcher's  meat. 
They  never  lose  a  drop  of  the  liquor  in  which  any  species  of 
meat  has  been  boiled  ;  for  to  roast  is  considered  by  the  common 
people  as  the  most  prodigal  manner  of  cooking  it ;  since 
thereby  they  cannot  convert  water  and  vegetables  into  a  nutri- 
tious soup.  Could  the  use  of  barley,  oatmeal,  and  soups  be 
introduced  into  the  south,  the  condition  of  the  labouring 
classes  would  be  at  once  wondrously  improved. 

The  principal  consumption  of  barley  in  the  south  is  in  malt 
liquor ;  and  wc  think  a  given  quantity  of  the  same  grain  may 
be  by  the  culinary  art  reduced  into  a  soup,  only  by  means  of 
water,  w'hich  will  contain  as  much  nourishment  as  beer.  It  is 
certain  that  a  person  might  subsist  entirely  on  barley  broth, 
when  porter  would  not  support  him.  Count  Rumford  says, 
.that  each  portion  of  barley  soup  should  consist  of  one  pint  and 
a  quarter  for  one  person,  which,  if  rich,  will  afford  a  good 
meal  to  a  grown  person  ;  and  that  such  a  portion  will  weigh 
about  one  pound  and  a  quarter,  or  twenty  ounces  averdupois. 
That  the  basis  of  each  portion  should  consist  of  one  ounce  and 
a  quarter  of  barley  meal,  boiled  with  one  pint  and  a  quarter 
of  water,  till  the  whole  be  reduced  to  the  uniform  consistency 
of  a  thick  jelly.  All  other  additions  to  the  soup  help,  of 
course,  to  make  it  more  palatable. 


In  the  north,  milk  forms  a  gi'eat  portion  of  a  labourer's 
food  :  indeed,  give  his  wife  oatmeal  and  milk,  and  she  will 
astonish  a  fastidious  appetite  with  her  dainties  ;  more  espe- 
cially, if  a  morsel  of  meat  he  now  and  then  within  her  reach ; 
for  she  is  sure  to  have  a  little  garden,  and  then  what  else  does 
she  require  ?  Certainly  beer  is  not  likely  to  be  within  her 
doors  or  mouth  for  years.  In  the  south,  however,  the  prac- 
tice of  keeping  cows  is  not  nearly  so  general  as  in  the  other 
direction.  Before  we  close  this  paper,  we  shall  have  to  speak 
of  cottage  farms,  and  therefore  can  only  here  at  present  la- 
ment that  milk  is  such  a  minor  point  in  any  part  of  the  em- 
pire. With  regard  to  milk,  broths  and  soups,  we  are  aware, 
however,  that  a  strong  aversion  prevails  in  the  south.  They 
are  condemned  as  washy  stuffs,  only  fit  for  hogs  ;  and  it  is 
said  such  liquids  will  not  "  stick  to  the  ribs." 

There  certainly  is  a  medium  between  food  that  is  entirely 
liquid,  and  what  is  entirely  solid  ;  and  when  we  consider  the 
toughness  of,  and  the  thirst  occasioned  by,  the  expensive  sus- 
tenance of  London  labourers,  for  instance,  perhaps  we  may  find 
that  the  liquid  which  they  are  inclined  to  swallow  amounts  ia 
quantity  to  as  much  as  is  usual  with  the  same  class  in  the 
north.  Beer  is  expensive,  and  if  the  labourer  cannot  afford 
this  beverage,  quantities  of  weak  tea,  with  a  little  sugar  or  milk, 
are  resorted  to.  In  the  north,  and  among  poor  labourers,  tea  is 
not  an  every  day  indulgence  ;  whilst  amongst  those  that  are  re- 
spectable, it  is  only  an  afternoon  dainty.  Beer,  again,  is  un- 
known amongst  them,  unless  when  at  market  or  when  gay. 
The  limpid  stream,  whey,  or  milk,  is  their  beverage  :  the  two 
first  are  cheap — the  last  feeds  whilst  it  allays  the  thirst. 
Drunkenness,  no  doubt,  is  prevalent  in  both  quarters  of  the 
island,  amongst  the  worthless.  But  what  we  say  is  true,  that 
no  species  of  strong  and  expensive  drink,  excepting  milk,  is  at 
all  considered  as  a  necessary  of  life  in  the  north.  If  a  la- 
bourer in  the  south,  whose  habits  are  temperate,  were  to  count 
his  yearly  expenditure  in  beer,  we  think  he  would  be  staggered : 
or,  setting  the  prejudice  aside,  were  he  to  compare  its  value 
with  the  milk  that  thereby  might  have  been  procured,  and 
turned  to  various  purposes,  would  he  not  be  ashamed  ?  and  last, 
but  not  least,  let  him  consider  the  temptations  connected  with 
beer  drinking,  compared  with  the  circumstances  of  the  sorts  of 
beverage  we  recommend.  We  are  confident,  that  so  long  as  he 
patronizes  soups,  pure  water,  cheap  whey,  or  nutritious  milk, 
he  neither  will  awake  in  the  morning  with  a  head-ache  from 
his  debauch,  nor  find  his  pocket  unfairly  managed,  nor  encoun- 
ter many  dangerous  associates.  There  are,  however,  other 
things  besides  food  and  drink,  necessary  to  man's  welfare  ; — 
Fuel  is  a  strong  instance. 

It  must  be  confessed,  that,  as  respects  firing,  the  poor  man 
in  the  south  of  England  has  obstacles  to  encounter  beyond 
those  in  the  north,  and  this  affects,  in  no  slight  degree,  his  cu- 
linary practices,  and  causes  him,  for  instance,  to  send  his  meat 
on  a  Sunday  to  the  baker's.  But  it  may  be  doubted,  whether 
the  same  fuel  which  is  required  to  boil  a  tea-kettle  twice  a  day 
is  not  sufficient,  with  proper  management,  to  dress  various 
kinds  of  soup.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  the  habi- 
tations of  the  poor,  for  the  most  port,  are  badly  adapted  for 
culinary  processes.  There  is  great  room  here  for  improve- 
ment and  ingenious  contrivances.  One  very  obvious  truth  is, 
that  the  size,  the  position,  and  the  form  of  the  fire-place,  may 
cause  a  most  wasteful,  as  well  as  uncomfortable  current  of  air. 
The  slightest  pains  may  at  any  time  narrow  the  throat  of  a 
chimney,  immediately  above  the  mantel  piece,  and  circumscribe 
the  dimensions  of  the  fire-place,  when  they  are  too  large. 
But,  of  course,  the  position  of  such  an  essential  feature  in  any 
apartmcnthelongs  to  the  builder  of  the  mansion.  We  refer  our 
readers  on  this  point,  to  the  plans  for  such  dwellings  as  we  are 
treating  of,  given  in  our  last  number.  It  is  not  to  be  ques- 
tioned, however,  but  that  many  economical  inventions  may  he 
used  to  obtain  heat  and  firing,  not  at  present  known.  It  even 
appears,  that  long  ago,  in  England,  several  artificial  means 
were  used,  as  we  have  discovered  from  certain  old  documents  in 


THK    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    OF    THE    lABOUEING    CLASSES. 


143 


the  British  Museum.  The  curious  may  wish  to  see  something 
of  what  our  ancestors  did  in  this  way.  The  scarcity  and  high 
price  of  provisions  during  the  civil  wars  turned  the  attention  of 
the  people  to  many  important  subjects  of  domestic  economy  ; 
and  the  following  "Good  news  for  the  Poor"  seem  to  have 
been  circulated  about  that  period  of  time. 

"  'Tis  certain,"  says  the  writer  of  these  good  news,  "  neces- 
sity is  at  the  most  times  the  parent  of  ingenuity.  To  pay  forty 
or  fifty  shillings  for  a  chaldron  of  coals  went  deep  into  a  trades- 
man's pocket.  Whereupon  some  plodding  industrious  heads, 
that  had  seen  fires  of  turf  or  peat  iu  the  cou'jitry,  or  been  in 
Holland,  where  (as  one  saith  pleasantly)  they  fetch  fire  out  of 
water,  burning  a  kind  of  mud  taken  out  of  their  ditches  and 
dried,  began  to  think  of  mixing  clay  with  their  coals,  which 
they  found  succeed  so  well,  that  several  eminent  victuallers  and 
coffee-houses  (particularly  near  the  Royal  Exchange)  make  it 
now  their  common  fuel,  to  their  great  advantage.  The  man- 
ner of  doing  it  is  thus  : — 

"Take  two  loads,  that  is  to  say,  a  chaldron  of  coals,  and 
cause  them  to  he  sifted  iu  a  wide-hole  sieve  ;  that  so  all  the 
dust  and  small  coals  may  go  through,  and  the  great  round  coals 
remain  behind.  Then  take  a  load  of  clay,  and  cause  it  to  be 
mixed  well  together  with  the  said  dust  or  small  coals  ;  for 
which  purpose,  if  your  clay  be  not  moist  enough  to  work  up 
well,  you  may  wet  it  a  little ;  then  make  it  up  either  in  round 
balls,  or  like  bricks,  but  let  them  not  be  above  half  so  big  every 
way  ;  and  then  letting  them  lie  for  some  time  to  dry  well,  they 
■will  be  fit  for  use:  for  having  laid  a  small  thin  bottom  of  coals, 
you  must  then  lay  on  these  pieces,  iutermixing  now  and  then 
one  of  your  round  pieces  of  coal  among  them  :  this  shall  pro- 
duce you  a  most  rare  fire,  burning  more  clear,  and  casting  a 
greater  heat  than  all  coals:  it  shall  continue  fresh  and  in  good 
order,  with  very  little  trouble,  a  whole  day,  and  is  not  offensive 
in  smoke,  smell,  or  otherwise."  Such  is  the  receipt.  The 
writer  goes  on  to  say,  that  this  will  last  longer  than  any  three 
chaldron  of  coals.  He  adds — "  Some  have  thought  it  conve- 
nient  to  put  in  a  matter  of  two  sacks  of  saw-dust  to  the  afore- 
said clay  and  coals,  and  upon  experience  find  it  does  very  well, 
drying  the  clay,  and  making  it  the  sooner  fit  for  use." 

Balls  of  small  coal,  mixed  with  clay,  are  said  to  have  been 
much  used  all  over  South  Wales,  particularly  in  the  counties  of 
Pembroke  and  Carmarthen.  They  are  formed  about  the  big- 
ness of  a  man's  feet,  great  iu  the  middle,  and  verging  smaller 
towards  the  ends.  They  are  generally  made  up  and  put  upon 
the  fire  quite  wet,  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid  ;  and,  when  tho- 
roughly lighted,  make  a  most  brilliant  appearance.  One  of 
these  fires  will  last  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Those  who  live  near 
the  sea,  instead  of  clay,  use  mud  taken  from  under  flood-mark 
at  low  water  ;  which,  from  the  quantity  of  salts  it  contains, 
makes  the  ashes  a  valuable  article  of  agriculture  to  the  hus- 
bandman, and  in  horticulture  to  the  cottager  ;  for  every  cot- 
tager in  South  Wales  has  a  little  garden,  in  which  he  grows  his 
own  leeks,  potatoes,  cabbages,  cole-worts,  pease,  &c.  The 
balls  mixed  with  mud  emit  no  disagreeable  smell  in  burning. 

But  this  is  a  subject  which  we  rather  endeavour  to  bring  be- 
fore the  eye  of  the  philanthropic  and  ingenious,  than  to  afford 
any  thing  new  of  our  owm,  not  despairing  that  great  improve- 
ments and  savings  may  be  accomplished,  to  the  apparent  bene- 
fit of  the  poor,  Che.ip,  yet  comfortable  houses  deserve  atten- 
tion here,  as  immediately  bearing,  in  an  eminent  degree,  upon 
the  condition  of  the  labouring  classes.  To  what  is  to  be  found 
on  this  point  in  our  last  number,  we  add  ;  that  the  sorts  of 
cottages  seen  in  the  different  parts  of  the  island  are  extremely 
various  :  being  of  clay,  brick,  wood,  or  stone.  Those  of  wat- 
tle and  daub,  as  they  are  called,  are  perhaps  the  warmest ; 
those  of  brick  or  wood  the  driest ;  and  those  of  stone  the  most 
durable.  The  mode  of  building  those  of  the  first  mentioned 
class,  in  the  county  of  Dumfries,  is,  according  to  the  Statisti- 
cal account  of  the  parish  of  Dornock,  as  follows  ;  which,  as  re- 
gards cheapness  and  expedition,  perhaps  is  unrivalled  in  this 
country. 


"  The  farmhouses  in  general,  and  all  the  cottages,  are  built 
of  mud  or  clay."  (Of  late  years,  however,  we  remark,  mason- 
work  has  come  much  more  into  use  than  foi'merly  in  tliat  dis- 
trict.) "These  houses,  when  plastered  and  properly  finished 
within,  as  many  of  them  be,  are  exceedingly  warm  and  comfort- 
able, Themannerof  erecting  them  is  singular.  In  the  first  place, 
tliey  dig  out  the  foundation  of  the  house,  and  lay  a  row  or  two 
of  stones  ;  then  they  procure  from  a  pit  contiguous,  as  much 
clay  or  brick-earth  as  is  sufficient  to  form  the  walls  ;.  and  having 
provided  a  quantity  of  straw  or  other  litter  to  mix  witu  the  clay, 
upon  a  day  appointed  the  whole  neighbourhood,  male  and  fe- 
male, to  the  number  of  twenty  or  thirty,  assemble,  each  with  a 
dung-fork  or  spade,  or  some  such  instrument.  Some  fall  to 
working  the  clay  or  mud,  by  mixing  it  with  straw  ;  others  carry 
the  materials  ;  and  four  or  six  of  the  most  experienced  hands 
build,  and  take  care  of  the  walls.  In  this  manner  the  walls  of 
the  house  are  finished  in  a  few  hours  ;  after  which  they  retire 
to  a  good  dinner  and  plenty  of  drink,  which  is  provided  for 
them,  where  they  have  music  and  a  dance,  with  which  and  other 
marks  of  festivity  they  conclude  the  evening.  This  they  call  a 
daubing,  and,  in  this  manner,  they  make  a  frolic  of  what  would 
otherwise  be  a  very  dirty  and  disagreeable  job. 

The  diversity  in  the  mode  of  preparing  food  is  not  greater 
in  the  north  and  south  of  Great  Britain  than  in  the  styles  and 
kinds  of  dress. 

In  the  midland  and  southern  counties,  the  laboiu-er  in  general 
purchases  bis  clothes  from  a  shop-keeper.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London,  he  usually  purchases  second-hand  articles.  In 
the  north,  almost  every  article  worn  by  the  lower  orders,  not 
many  years  ago,  was  manufactured  at  home,  excepting  shoes 
and  hats,  and  still  is  to  a  characteristic  extent ;  though  the 
midland  system  has  rapidly  gained  ground  of  late.  In  Scotland 
amongst  the  peasantry,  linen,  stockings,  and  flannels  continue 
to  be  generally  made  at  home.  We  may  say  indeed,  that  the 
labourer  is  poor,  or  worthless,  who  has  not  an  enviable  web  of 
linen,  grown,  spun,  and  bleached  by  his  wife  and  daughters. 
Such  a  web  as  will  serve  for  winding  sheets  or  wedding  shirts 
for  every  one  of  the  family  is  commonly  found  ;  and  preserved 
not  merely  to  be  shewn  a  visitor  for  its  beauty,  but  as  a  symbol 
of  affecting  anticipations.  There  are  therefore  strong  moral 
feelings  of  an  excellent  order  connected  with  this  article.  The 
labourers  week-day  shirt  is  a  strong  and  coarse  cloth,  made  of 
the  refuse  of  the  fine  lint.  Farm  servants  and  labourers  knit 
their  own  stockings,  which  is  their  usual  employment  through- 
out long  winter  niglits  ;  and  as  the  thread  is  spun  at  home,  and 
generally  of  three  plies,  about  eleven  ounces  of  wool  go  to  the 
pair.  All  these  home-made  articles  are  comparatively  expensive 
at  the  first,  but  they  greatly  more  than  cover  this,  by  their  dura- 
bility and  comfort,  over  those  which  are  purchased  in  the  mar- 
ket. In  the  Highlands  again,  every  man  is  Jack  of  all  trades ; 
and  many  a  family  appear  at  kirk  and  market,  neat,  tidy,  and 
almost  fine,  whose  dresses  have  never  been  brought  from  more 
distant  quarters  than  the  neighbouriug  hills,  where  the  wool  is 
reared  on  the  patch  of  adjacent  land  where  the  flax  is  grown. 

It  is  quite  clear,  however,  that  such  primitive  customs  never 
will  be  introduced  in  more  populous  or  enlightened  districts, 
neither  should  we  have  made  these  observations  respecting  dress, 
were  it  not  that  many  sterling  virtues  seem  to  go  hand  in  hand 
with  homely  manufactures  ;  and  that  it  is  to  be  greatly  lamented, 
labourers'  wives  and  daughters  of  the  present  day  are  inclined 
to  scorn  the  most  becoming  frugal  habits  of  domestic  eco- 
nomy. But  besides  many  fireside  practices  which  with  great 
advantage  might  be  introduced  amongst  the  lower  orders,  there 
are  some  out-door  operations  to  be  warmly  recommended  to  the 
cottagers  in  landward  parts,  to  which  we  now  proceed:  we  mean 
the  culture  of  a  patch  of  ground,  embracing  a  garden,  and  a 
small  allotment,  for  more  extensive  operations,  in  the  style  of 
farming. 

There  are  a  great  many  cottagers  who  might,  with  the  utmost 
advantage  to  themselves,  and  of  course  to  the  community,  culti- 
vate a  small  piece  of  land.     We  know  there  has  been,  and  stiU 


144 


THE    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    OF    THE    LABOURING    CLASSES. 


is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  on  this  subject ;  alUiough  of 
late  the  AUoiment  System,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  gaining  able 
advocates  ;  whilst  the  great  alteration  contemplated  by  the 
Poor's  Law  Amendment  Bill,  there  is  little  doubt,  will  give  an 
additional  weight  to  the  discussion.  To  cottage  farms,  one  of 
the  most  commonly  urged  objections  is,  that  they  make  of  coun- 
try labourers,  not  only  bad  servants,  but  also  bad  farmers.  We 
admit  that  there  is  a  good  deal  in  this,  w-hen  those  farms 
amount  to  four,  five,  or  eight  acres  or  such  like.  But  what  we 
recommend  is  more  properly  called  an  allotment  than  a  farm, 
and  should  run  in  extent  somewhere  near  one  acre  of  land  ;  but 
never  above  one  and  a  half.  At  any  rate  that  the  management 
of  these  should  never  interfere  with  the  regular  employment  of 
the  cottager  ;  and  yet  that  the  possession  of  a  cow  should  be 
an  object  of  first-rate  consideration. 

We  are  not  going  to  be  particular  in  our  rules  as  to  how  the 
cottager's  garden,  and  allotment  of  land,  are  to  be  cultivated. 
The  great  feature  which  we  would  have  to  be  introduced  is  the 
keeping  of  a  cow-,  and  therefore  the  crops  raised  should  have  a 
particular  respect  to  this  object.  Much  variety  and  enlivening 
beauty  might  be  imparted  to  many  dreary  wastes  of  the  country, 
were  this  system  generally  introduced  among  our  rural  labourers 
and  artizaus.  But  there  would  be  something  better ;  there 
would  be  a  moral  health  spread  amongst  the  lower  orders,  which 
is  ever  inseparable  from  the  natural  and  primitive  character  of 
the  operations  referred  to.  Active  and  virtuous  children  are 
reared  where  the  spade,  the  flail,  and  the  stable  afford  them  a 
regular  recreation.  But  think  of  the  degraded  class  who  seldom 
rear  a  third  or  second  child  without  parochial  aid  1  We  have 
known  such,  who,  had  they,  instead  of  sending  miles  for  a  drop 
of  milk,  been  gifted  with  or  possessed  of  this  docile,  most  use- 
ful animal,  for  the  poor-man's  household,  of  which  we  speak,  a 
totally  opposite  domestic  picture  would  have  been  presented,  not 
merely  as  respected  comfort,  but  purity  of  life. 

But  instead  of  general  assertions  and  theoretic  fancies,  it  for- 
tunately is  in  our  power  to  substitute  facts  and  the  truths 
taught  by  experiment :  to  these  we  now  call  the  attention  of  our 
readers.  Sir  John  Sinclair  tells  us  of  an  experiment  tried  on  a 
large  moor  farm  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland.  Two  acres  of 
arable  land  or  fit  to  be  made  arable  was  allotted  the  cottager, 
together  with  a  house  and  garden,  the  proprietor  becoming  bound 
to  employ  him  for  100,  200,  or  300  days  in  the  year,  as  the 
cottager  chose  :  paying  him  so  much  grain  and  so  much  money, 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  days  agreed  on..  Thus  the  la- 
bourer, in  a  manner,  received  rent  from  the  landlord,  instead  of 
paying  any.  This  measure  was  adopted  with  great  success  with 
a  number  of  cottagers  :  nor  could  any  be  better  devised  for  the 
benefit  of  a  thinly  peopled  country.  General  improvements  may 
thus  be  carried  on  by  residenters  ;  so  that  it  seems  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  extensive  proprietors  in  similar  situations.  It 
ought  to  be  added,  that,  as  Sir  John  farther  mentions,  wliilst 
the  men  were  employed  by  the  proprietor,  the  women  managed 
the  cottage  farm  at  home. 

And  this  brings  us  to  a  case,  which  we  find  quoted  by  Mr. 
Davies,  author  of  a  View  of  the  Agriculture  of  North  Wales. 
On  Pulley  common,  be  says,  in  Shropshire,  there  is  a  cottager's 
tenement,  consisting  of  somewhat  more  than  one  ninth  of  an 
acre.  The  spade  and  the  hoe  are  the  only  instruments  used, 
and  those  cliiefly  by  his  wife,  that  he  may  follow  his  daily  la- 
bour for  hire.  The  plot  of  land  is  divided  into  two  parcels, 
whereon  she  grows  wheat  and  potatoes  alternately.  In  October 
when  the  potatoes  are  ripe,  she  takes  oflr  the  stalks  of  the 
plants,  which  she  saves  to  produce  manure  by  littering  her  pig. 
She  then  goes  over  the  whole  to  collect  the  weeds  for  the  dung- 
hill. She  next  sows  the  wheat  upon  the  surface,  and  then 
takes  \ip  the  potatoes,  with  a  three  pronged  fork  ;  and  by  the 
same  operation,  the  wheat-seed  is  covered  deep.  She  leaves  it 
quite  rough,  and  the  winter  frost  mellows  the  earth,  and  by  its 
falling  down  in  the  spring,  it  adds  vigour  to  the  wheat  plants. 
She  has  pursued  this  alternate  system  of  cropping  for  several 
years.     The  potatoe  crop  only  has  manure.      In  1804,  a  year 


very  noted  for  mildew,  she  had  fifteen  Winchester  bushels  of 
wheat  from  272  square  yards  ;  being  four  times  the  general 
averaging  crop  of  the  neighbouring  farmers. 

What  has  been  the  Shropshire  cottager's  history  since  1804, 
we  have  not  learnt,  but  the  somewhat  distant  date  of  the  case 
cannot  affect  the  principles  we  seek  to  inculcate.  Neither  does 
the  remoteness  of  the  era,  to  which  the  following  minutely  de- 
tailed facts  relate,  weaken  their  force.  The  example,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  explained,  seem  so  applicable  to  our  pre- 
sent purpose,  that  we  cannot  do  better  than  make  use  of  them, 
which  we  now  enter  upon.  What  we  refer  to,  is  an  account  of 
a  parish,  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Estcourt,  Esq.  M.  P.,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1804.     He  tells. 

That  Lour/  Newnton  contained  140  poor  persons  in  1800. 
They  were  willing  to  exchange  their  claims  to  parochial  relief 
for  any  other  aid,  suitable  to  their  habits,  that  would  yield,  with 
their  labour,  a  better  prospect  of  procuring  the  common  domes- 
tic comforts  of  life.      Upon  this,  it  was  proposed, 

That  each  cottager  on  his  application  for  the  same  should  be- 
come tenant  of  a  small  quantity  of  arable  land,  under  proper  re- 
strictions, and  at  a  fair  rent ;  but  that  no  person  should  be 
allowed  to  occupy  more  than  the  family  of  such  person  could 
cultivate,  without  improperly  interfering  with  his  usual  labour  ; 
nor  more  than  he  could  procure  manure  to  keep  in  high  fertility; 
that  the  large  families  should  not  therefore  occupy  more  than 
one  acre  and  a  half,  the  smaller  families  less,  in  proportion  as 
their  numbers  were  fewer  and  not  likely  to  increase. 

That  the  rent  of  the  land  should  be  at  the  rate  of  one  pound, 
twelve  shillings  per  acre.  It  was  never  known  before  to  bear 
more  than  twenty  bushels  of  wheat  to  an  acre,  under  the  best 
cultivation,  and  would  have  let  to  a  farmer  at  about  twenty 
shillings  per  acre. 

That  one-fourth  part  of  the  land  in  each  person's  occupation, 
should  annually  be  well  manured  in  rotation,  and  planted  with 
potatoes  ;  that  the  remainder  should  be  managed  as  the  tenant 
should  think  proper,  except  that  no  person  should  have  two 
exhausting  crops  of  corn  (viz.  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye)  suc- 
cessively. 

That  the  land  should  he  forfeited  to  the  landlord  if  not  cul- 
tivated and  manured  as  above  mentioned  ;  or  if  the  tenant 
should  be  lawfully  convicted  of  a  felony,  or  any  other  offence 
against  the  law,  for  which  he  would  be  liable  to  a  fine,  or  im- 
prisonment. 

That  it  should  be  forfeited,  if  the  tenant  should  receive  any 
relief  from  the  poor  rates,  except  medical  assistance,  and  ex- 
cept such  relief  as  the  family  of  any  tenant  should  receive, 
under  the  authority  of  any  law  relating  to  the  militia,  or  any 
other  act  of  parliament  that  might  afterwards  pass,  of  a  simi- 
lar description ,  for  the  defence  of  the  country. 

That  the  land  should  be  granted,  if  required,  for  a  term  of 
fourteen  years ;  but  the  lease  or  agreement,  should  be  void, 
by  either  party  giving  the  other  three  years'  notice  of  such 
avoidance. 

This  was  the  offer  made  them.  They  entered  warmly  into 
the  idea  ;  promised  every  possible  exertion  on  their  part  to  give 
it  success;  and  all  accepted  the  offer,  except  two  widows  with 
numerous  families  of  yormg  children,  and  some  very  old  infirm 
persons  without  families,  who  had  not  the  courage  to  make 
the  experiment. 

The  high  price  of  provisions  at  that  time,  notwithstanding  they 
all  had  a  very  liberal  allowance  from  the  poor  rate,  had  run 
them  so  much  in  debt  for  the  common  necessaries  of  life  (chiefly 
for  bread),  that,  it  being  deemed  essential  to  their  success  that 
they  should  be  freed  from  these  incumbrances,  money  was  ad- 
vanced on  loan  amongst  them,  in  proportion  to  their  w-ants, 
amounting  to  the  sum  of  forty-four  pounds  sterling. 

At  Lady-day  in  1801,  each  person  entered  on  the  first  part, 
or  one-third  of  the  land  allotted  to  him;  at  Lady-day,  1802, 
they  entered  on  one-third  more;  and,  at  Lady-day,  1803  on, 
the  remainder. 

Now,  as  to  the  result  that  speedUy  followed  this  arrange- 


ON    THB    FINEST    VARIETY    OP    FKtTIT    TREES. 


145 


ment.  The  only  persons  who  had  received  any  relief  from  the  poor- 
rate  of  this  parish  after  Michaelmas,  1801,  were  the  four  old  infirm 
persons  before  mentioned  (two  of .  them  died  soon  afterwards), 
and  the  two  widows  with  large  families.  The  two  widows, 
after  a  time,  rather  than  go  with  their  families  to  a  work- 
house, were,  at  their  own  request,  put  on  a  footing  with  their 
neighbours,  and  received  no  relief  from  the  moment  their  first 
crop  came  into  use  ;  the  one  having  six,  the  other  eight  small 
children,  the  eldest  not  twelve  years  of  age.  No  person  in 
1804  had  forfeited  his  land;  but  three  single  men  had  asked 
leave  to  resign  theirs,  being  able  to  subsist  very  well  by  their 
labour. 

Mr.  Estcourt  goes  on  to  state  a  great  many  other  striking 
circumstances  concerning  this  allotment  experiment,  which  we 
must  abridge.  He  says,  one  circumstance  was  particularly 
gratifying,  viz.,  that  those  poor  persons  who  had  the  largest 
families,  and  were  the  heaviest  charge  to  the  parish,  were  those 
who  set  the  highest  value  upon  their  land,  and  the  most  anxious 
therefore  to  avoid  any  act  by  which  it  would  be  forfeited.  The 
hoe  was  actually  employed  by  the  women  and  children  to  keep 
the  crops  clean,  who  also  performed  almost  all  the  other  opera- 
tions, excepting  tilling  and  the  carriage  of  manure  and  produce. 
They  soon  discharged  every  debt  owing  by  them,  and  nothing, 
when  Mr.  Estcourt  wrote,  could  reduce  tliem  to  the 
necessity  of  again  applying  for  parish  relief  but  some  severer 
calamity  than  they  had  ever  been  visited  with.  There  is  this 
other  obvious  benefit  resulting  from  the  experiment  described  ; 
the  people  felt  themselves  obliged  to  look  forward,  and  to  pro- 
vide against  occasional  distress,  which  stimulated  them  to  in- 
creased industry  and  economy.  The  farmers  of  the  parish  too 
admitted  that  they  never  had  their  work  better  done,  nor  found 
their  servants  more  able,  willing,  civil,  and  sober. 

Mr.  Estcourt  farther  states,  that  although  the  keeping  of  a 
cow  is  justly  deemed  a  very  beneficial  practice  to  a  poor  family, 
yet,  as  it  is  attended  with  some  difficulties  in  certain  situations, 
it  was  tliought  proper  not  to  make  it  a  necessary  part  of  the 
experiment  ;  but  as  the  poor  are  frequently  discouraged  from 
economical  practices  on  account  of  not  being  able  to  employ  to 
advantage  any  small  sum  they  may  save,  it  was  proposed  that 
if  any  person  could  buy  a  cow,  it  should  be  taken  in  to  joist  at 
five  pounds  four  shillings  per  annum  ;  nor  was  it  long  ere  a  cow 
or  two  had  been  purchased,  whilst  the  other  cottagers  were 
looking  eagerly  forward  to  their  being  able  to  do  so  also.  One 
thing  deserves  to  be  observed,  that  if  charity  alone  were  the  ob- 
ject, in  such  an  experiment  as  we  have  now  detailed  from  Mr. 
Estcourt's  pamphlet,  a  better  mode  of  it  could  not  be  devised 
than  that  which  enables  the  poor  man  to  exert  with  effect  and 
with  honest  freedom  that  strength  and  those  faculties  which 
Provddence  has  blessed  him  with  for  the  benefit  of  himself  and 
the  support  of  his  family.  But  it  does  more,  for,  whilst  it  con- 
fers blessings  upon  the  poor,  it  embraces  the  interests  of  the 
rich,  and  adds  to  the  welfare  of  the  whole  frame,  moral  and  na- 
tional, of  society. 

Various  matters  might  be  suggested  as  improvements  upon 
the  experiment  made  at  Long  Newton  ;  and  we  had  proposed  to 
ourselves  to  go  at  some  length  into  their  statement.  But  what 
has  already  been  said  will  enable  any  person  who  feels  earnest 
on  the  subject  to  point  out  for  himself  such  things  in  a  manner 
more  satisfaetoi-y  than  there  is  room  for  us  at  present  to  do. 
Nor  are  we  willing  to  injure  the  effect  of  the  facts  given,  by  any 
speculation  on  such  momentous  questions  as  the  welfare  of  the 
labouring  classes  embraces.  The  introduction  of  milch  cows, 
and  a  little  dairy  business,  are  the  things  we  should  greatly  de- 
sire to  have  added  to  the  allotment — farmers'  domestic 
economy. 

THE  FINEST  VARIETIES  OF  FRUIT  TREES  FOR  THE 

SOUTHEKN  OR  MIDLAND   COUNTIES  OF  ENGLAND. 

The  following  list  of  fruit  trees,  drawn  up  from  the  experience 
of  some  of  the  most  competent  judges  in  this  country,  will  be 
MAG.iZINE  OF  BOTANY  AND  GARDENING,  VOL.11.  NO.  XIX- 


found  highly  worthy  of  the  attention  of  any  one  anxious  to 
form  a  select  collection.  The  different  kinds  contained  in 
everynurseryman's  catalogue  are  so  numerous,  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  the  greatest  difficulty  to  know  which  to  choose.  In  the  Horti- 
cultural Society's  Catalogue,  published  in  1826,  there  are  no 
fewer  than  three  thousand  varieties,  to  which  fifteen  hundred 
more  might  be  added.  Of  this  multitude,  however,  more  than 
a  half  are  unworthy  of  being  cultivated  ;  and  of  the  remainder, 
not  above  one  quarter  can  be  called  first-rate  kinds.  In  the 
collection  which  follows,  the  second-rate  and  doubtful  sorts  are 
left  out,  as  also  m!:ny  common  ones,  when  these  ought  to  be 
supplanted  by  newly-raised  varieties.  We  only  have  to  inti- 
mate further,  that  none  shall  be  named  that  may  not  be  easily 
procured. 


Adam's  Pearmain.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Hubbard's  Pearmain.     Dessert.    Winter  and  spring. 

Golden  Reinette.     Dessert.     Autumn. 

Dutch  Mignonne.     Dessert.      Spring. 

Gray  French  Reinette.  Dessert  and  kitchen.  Winter  and 
spring. 

Franklin's  Golden  Pippin.     Dessert.     Autumn. 

Golden  Harvey.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Early  Red  Margaret.      Dessert.     July. 

Juncating.     Dessert.      July. 

Boston  Russet.     Dessert.      Spring. 

Canadian  Reinette.  Dessert  and  kitchen.  Winter  and  spring. 
Excellent. 

Norfolk  Beaufin.      Kitchen.      Spring.     Cood  for  drying. 

Traver's  Pippin.      Dessert  and  kitchen.     Autumn  and  winter. 

Court  of  Urick.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Cornish  Gilliflower.  Dessert.  Winter  and  spring.  Bears 
badly,  but  is  rich. 

Ribston  Pippin.     Dessert  and  kitchen.     Winter. 

Old  Nonpareil.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Scarlet  Nonpareil.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Dumelow's  Seedling.      Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring. 

Newtown  Pippin.  Dessert  and  kitchen.  Spring  ;  tender,  re- 
quiring a  wooden  frame  or  east  wall. 

Cockle  Pippin.      Dessert.      Spring. 

Kerry  Pippin.     Dessert.     August  and  September. 

Oslin.     Dessert.     September. 

Blenheim  Pippin.     Dessert  and  kitchen.     Autumn, 

Winter  Codlin.      Kitchen.     Winter. 

Mank's  Codlin.     Kitchen.     September. 

French  Crab.  Kitchen.  Spring  and  summer ;  may  be  kept 
for  two  years. 

Gloria  Mundi.      Kitchen.     Autumn  and  winter. 

Beauty  of  Kent.      Kitchen.      Autumn  and  winter. 

Lucombe's  seedling.      Kitchen.     Winter. 

Rhode  Island  Greening.      Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring. 

MinshuU  Crab.      Kitchen.     Winter. 

Northern  Greening.     Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring. 

Duchess  of  Oldenburgb.     Dessert.     September  and  October. 

Malearle.     Dessert.      Spring.     Tender  ;  requires  a  south  wall. 

Sykehouse  Russet.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Royal  Russet.      Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring. 

Beauehamwell  Seedling.     Dessert.     Winter  and  spring. 

Court  Pender.     Dessert.      Spring. 

Wormsley  Pippin.     Dessert  and  kitchen.     Autumn. 

Hawthornden.      Kitchen.     Autumn. 

Sugarloaf  Pippin.     Dessert.     July. 

Downton  Pippin.     Dessert.     Winter. 

Brabant  Bellefleur.     Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring. 

Gravenstein.     Dessert  and  kitchen.     Autumn. 

King  of  the  Pippins.     Dessert  and  kitchen.     Autumn. 

Sam  Young.     Dessert.     Winter. 

Alfristpn.      Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring  ;  very  large. 

London  Pippin.      Kitchen.     Winter  and  spring. 

Bedfordshire  Foundling.      Kitchen.     Autumn  and  winter. 

OCTOBER,  1834.  X 


146 


ON  THE  FINEST  VARIETY  OF  FRUIT  TEEES. 


Jargonelle.     Dessert.     Wall  or  queuouiUe.     August. 

Beurr^  d'Aremberg.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     October 

and  November. 
Beurr^  Ranee.     Dessert.     Standard.     March  and  May;  the 

best  late  melting  pear  yet  known. 
Gansel's  Bergamot.     Dessert.     October;  east  and  west  wall ; 

indifferent  bearer. 
Beurr^  Diel.    Standard.    October  and  November  ;  great  bearer 

and  excellent  fruit. 
Florelle.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     November  and  De- 
cember. 
Marie  Louise.     Dessert.     Standard.     October. 
Summer  Francr^al.     Dessert.     Standard.      August  and  Sep- 
tember.    A  good  bearer. 
Winter  Neilis.     Dessert.     December;  excellent. 
Capianmont.     Dessert.     Standard.     October ;  great  bearer. 
Chaumontelle.  Dessert.  Wall,  standard,  or  quencuille.  Winter. 
Flemish  Beauty.     Dessert.     Standard.     October  and  Novem- 
ber ;  must  be  gathered  early. 
Duchess  of  AngouWme.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     Octo- 
ber and  November. 
Easter  Beurr^.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     January,  Fe- 

brnary,  and  March ;  great  bearer,  and  excellent. 
Napoleon.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     November. 
Early  Bergamot.    Dessert.    Standard.   August  and  September. 
Autumn  Bergamot.     Dessert.     October. 
Bezy  de  la  Motte.     Wall  and  standard.     October. 
White  Doyenne.    Dessert.    Wall  and  standard.    October  ;  good 

bearer. 
Passe  Colmar.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     December  and 
January  ;  great  bearer ;  trees  not  subject  to  canker  ;  excel- 
lent fruit. 
Colman.     Dessert.     Wall.     December  till  March ;  trees  sub- 
ject to  canker. 
Nutmeg.     Dessert.     Standard.     Winter;    small,  but  a  good 

bearer. 
Swan's  Egg.     Dessert.    Standard.    November  and  December. 
Crasanne.      Dessert.      Wall.     October  and  November;    shy 

bearer. 
Hacon's  Incomparable.     Dessert.     Standard.     November  and 

December  ;  tree  hardy  ;  great  bearer  ;  excellent. 
Whitfield.     Dessert.     Standard.     November ;  good  bearer. 
Thompson's.     Dessert.     Standard.     November  ;    one   of  the 

finest  Flemish  pears ;   good  bearer. 
Madeleine.    Dessert.    Standard.    End  of  July ;  a  good  bearer. 
Sockle.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.    October  ;  a  plentiful 

bearer. 
Valine  Frauche.    Dessert.    Standard.   August  and  September ; 

a  plentiful  bearer. 
Passans   de   Portugal.      Dessert.     Standai'd.     August  ;    good 

bearer. 
Bezy  d'Hery.     Stewing.     Standard.     Winter ;  good  bearer. 
Chaptal.     Stewing.     Standard.     Winter  and  spring. 
Bequesne   Musque.     Stewing.     Standard.     Winter  ;    a  great 

bearer. 
'Francr^al  d'Hiver.     Stewing.     Standard.     Winter. 
Uvedal^s  St.  Germain.     Stewing.     Wall.     Very  large. 
Rouselet  de  Rheims.    For  drying. 

Neplus  Meuris.     Dessert.     Standard.     January  till  March      a 
good  bearer. 

CHERRIES. 

Elton.     Wall  and  standard.     Beginning  of  July ;  finest  pale 

cherry  yet  known. 
Late  Duke.     Standard.     August ;  a  great  bearer. 
Black  Tartarian.     Wall.     June,  July. 
Belle  de  Choisy.     Standard.     Beginning  of  July. 
Knight's  Early  Black,     Wall.     June. 


Black  Eagle.     Wall  and  standard.     July ;  good  bearer. 

Downton.     Wall  and  standard.     July. 

Bigareau.     Standard.     Late. 

Florence.     Standard.     Late. 

Waterloo.     Wall  and  standard.     Beginning  of  July. 

Morello.     Standard  and  north  wall.     Late  ;  preserving. 

May  Duke.     Wall  and  standard.     End  of  June. 

Purple  Griotte.     Wall  and  standard.     Beginning  of  June  ;  the 

finest  early  cherry. 
Kentish  or  Flemish.     Standard.     July ;  preserving  and  kitchen 

use  ;  great  bearer. 

PLDMS. 

Purple  Gage.     Wall  and  standard.     September  and  October ; 

the  finest  dessert  plum  of  its  colour. 
Green  Gage.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.    August  and  Sep- 

tember ;  preserving. 
White    Magnum   Bonum.     Wall   and   standard.     September; 

kitchen. 
Isabella.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     September. 
Kirke's.     Dessert.     Wall.     September. 

Nectarine.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     Beginning  of  Sep- 
tember. 
Coe's  Golden  Drop.     Dessert.     Standard  and  Wall.     October; 

excellent  bearer  ;  dries,  delicious. 
Blue  Imperatrice.     Dessert.     East  or  west  wall.     October. 
White  Imperatrice.     Dessert.     Wall.     September ;  tender. 
Mimm's.     Dessert.     Kitchen.   WaU.     August  and  September. 
Washington.     Dessert.     Wall  and  standard.     September. 
Drap  d'Or.     Dessert,  and  earlier  than  the  Green  Gage.    WaU 

and  Standard.     A  good  bearer. 
Catherine.     Presei-ving    and    Dessert.     WaU    and   Standard. 

End  of  September. 
Gisborne's.     Kitchen.     August.     Standard.     Forces  weU.     A 

good  bearer. 
Orleans.     Kitchen.     Standard.     August.     Good  bearer. 
Early  Orleans.     Kitchen.     Standard.     Beginning  of  August. 

Good  bearer. 
Little  Mirabelle.     WaU  and  Standard.  September.    SmaU,  but 

excellent  for  preserving.     Good  bearer. 
White  Damson.  Preserving.  Standard.  End  of  September. 
Shropshire  Damson.     Preserving.     Standard.     September  and 

October.     Great  bearer. 
Bulloeau.   Kitchen.  Standard.   Octohet  and  November.    Great 

bearer. 
Winesour.     Preserving.     Standard.     October. 


Royal  George.     Beginning  of  September.   Freestone.     Forces 

weU. 
Madeleine  de  Courson.     Beginning  of  September.     Freestone. 
Noblesse.     September.     Freestone. 
Early  Anne.     Middle  of  August.     Freestone. 
Grosse  Mignonne.     End  of  August.  Freestone.  Forces  well. 
Bellegarde.     Middle    of  September.     Freestone.     Large   and 

excellent.     Forces  well. 
Barringtou.     Succeeds  the  Royal  George.     Freestone.     Forces 

well. 
Chancellor.     Middle  of  September.     Freestone. 
Royal.     End  of  September.     Freestone.     The  finest  late  sort. 

APRICOTS. 

Hemskirke.     Dessert.     Wall.     End  of  July. 

Royal.     Dessert.     Wall.     End  of  August. 

Large   early.      Dessert.     WaU.     Middle    of  July.     The   best 

early  Apricots. 
Breda.     Dessert  and  preserving.     Standard.     August. 
Moorpark.     Dessert  and  preserving.     WaU.     August. 
Brussels.       Preserving.       Standard.      Beginning   of    August. 

Good  bearer. 


ON   THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF   BOTANT. 


147 


Orange.     Preserving.     Wall.     A  Clingstone.     August. 
Turkey.     Dessert.     Weill.     Late  in  August. 

NECTARINES. 

White.     Beginning  of  September.     Freestone.     Tender. 
Elruge.     Beginning  ef  September.     Freestone.     Good  bearer 

and  forcer.     Rich.     The  finest  known. 
Violet.     Beginning  of  September.     Freestone. 
Pitmaston  Orange.    Beginning  of  September.     Freestone. 
Old   Newington.     Middle  of  September,     Clingstone. 


Queen. 
Enville. 
Providence. 
Black  Jamaica. 
Antigua  Queen. 


PINES. 


NUTS. 


Casford. 

Frizzled  Filbert.     A  good  bearer. 

Cob  Nut. 

Red  Filbert.     A  bad  bearer. 

Spanish  Nut. 

Pearson's  Prolific.     A  great  bearer. 

Knight's  Large.     Very  fine. 

CITBRANTS. 

Black  Naples. 
White  Dutch. 
Red  Dutch. 

eOOSEBERRlES — RED. 

Broadman's  British  Crown.     Large. 
Roaring  Lion.     Large.     Late. 
Red  Warrington.     Large.     Late. 
Red  Champagne.     Small. 
Small  Dark  Rough  Red. 
Early  Black.     Small. 


White  Crystal. 
ASTiite  Champagne.     Small. 
Cromptott's  Sheba  Queen.  Large. 
Woodward's  Whitesmith.     Large. 


Mossey's  Heart  of  Oak.     Large. 
Edward's  Jolly  Tar.     Large. 
Pitmaston  Green  Gage.     Small. 
Early  Green.     Hairy.     Small. 


Prophet's  Rockwood.     Large. 
Haywood's   Invincible.     Large. 
Yellow  Champagne.      Small. 
Rumbullion.     Small. 

RASFBERBIES. 

Barnet. 
Red  Antwerp. 
Yellow  Antwerp. 
Bromley  Hill. 
Double  Bearing. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Duke  of  Kent's  Scarlet.     Earliest  of  any. 

Elton  Seedling. 

Roseberry. 

Downton. 

Keen's  Seedling. 

Black  Roseberry. 


Grove-End  Scarlet. 

Old  Scarlet.     Valuable  for  preserving. 

Old  Pine. 

Sweet  Cone. 

Alpine  Red  and  White. 

Prolific  Hautboys. 

Large  flat  Hautboys. 

VINES. 
For  the  open  Wall. 

Black  July. 

Miller's  Burgundy.  ' 

White  Sweet  Water. 

Common  Muscadine. 

Pitmaston  White  Cluster. 

Cambridge  Botanic  Garden. 

Esperione.     Sometimes  ripens  well. 

Chaselas  Musqu^. 

For  the  Vinery. 

Black  Hamburgh. 

White  Frontignac. 

Black  Ditto. 

Muscat  of  Alexandria,  White. 

Verdelho,  White. 

West's  St.   Peter's,  Black. 

Horsforth  Seedling,  Black. 

Black,  or  Morocco. 

Poonah,  Black. 

Royal  Muscadine,  White. 

Black  Damascus. 

Grove-End  Sweet  Water,  White. 

ON  THE  NATURAL  SYSTEM  OF  BOTANY. 

The  botanical  student,  who  has  rambled  over  mountain  and 
marsh,  with  a  box  under  his  arm,  and  a  bundle  of  grass  or  a 
shrub  in  his  hands,  must  have  been  conscious  how  like  one 
demented  he  often  appeared  to  the  unlettered  rustics ;  and 
while  the  query,  so  invariably  put  to  him,  '  1Vhat  is  that  good 
for  ? '  received  no  satisfactory  reply,  how  plainly  their  looks, 
more  expressive  than  language,  told  him,  that  he  had  better 
stop  gathering  good-for-nothing  weeds,  and  take  to  some 
honest  and  profitable  employment.  This  thing  is  too  common 
to  be  wondered  at,  and  is  moreover  easily  enough  explained 
on  the  ground  of  ignorance  of  any  end  or  object  in  science, 
save  that  of  the  most  direct  practical  utility.  But  how  is  it 
to  be  accounted  for  that  men,  whose  education  and  intelligence, 
we  should  suppose,  must  have  carried  them  beyond  such  un- 
worthy views  of  the  nature  of  science,  too  often  entertain  no- 
tions respecting  botany,  as  confused  and  mean  as  those  of  the 
most  uncultivated  mind?  Why  is  it  that  they  can  look  on 
the  plants  of  the  field,  clothed  in  the  rich  garniture  of  a  sum- 
mer month, — in  spite  of  the  beauty  that  allures  their  gaze, 
and  the  admirable  arrangement  of  organs,  whereby  the  whole 
economy  of  vegetation  is  maintained, — without  receiving  any 
uncommon  ideas  of  wisdom  or  power,  and  perhaps  turn  away 
from  them  all,  as  unworthy  of  a  passing  notice  ?  Wliy  is  it 
that  they  can  hear  of  the  labours  of  botanists,  of  their  travels 
by  sea  and  land,  amid  suffering  and  privation,  with  no  other 
effect,  perhaps,  than  to  call  up  more  vividly  to  their  imagina- 
tion the  picture  or  caricatures  of  an  enthusiast  devoted  to  a 
favourite  science  p 

The  truth,  indeed,  is  too  obvious  to  be  questioned,  that 
botany  doesnot  bear  that  character  of  dignity  and  importance 
in  the  public  view,  which  has  long  since  been  obtained  by 
many  other  of  the  natural  sciences.  This  may  be  sufficiently 
explained, — at  least,  we  know  nothing  else  that  can  explain 
it, — by  the  single  fact,  that  very  little  has  been  done  by  its 
friends  towards  introducing  to  general  attention  the  more 
elevated  aud   philosophical  portions  of  the  science, — those 


148 


ON  THE  NATURAL  SYSTEM  OF  BOTANY. 


only  that  can  make  it  respectable  with  thinking  and  well  edu- 
cated minds.  When  a  person  lights  upon  a  botanical  book, 
and  finds  it,- — as  nineteen  times  out  of  twenty  he  'will  find  it, 
— a  catalogue  of  hard  names,  followed  by  still  harder  descrip- 
tions in  an  unknown  tongue,  or  it  may  be  designed  for  juvenile 
minds,  and  of  course  presenting  nothing  to  him  very  striking 
in  point  of  novelty  or  importance,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  he  should  imbibe  no  favourable  impressions  concerning  it. 
From  such  we  might  reasonably  expect  to  hear  the  complaint, 
that  botany  has  furnished  none  of  the  useful  and  astonishing 
results  of  chemistry;  that  it  gives  rise  to  none  of  those  grand 
and  overpowering  conceptions,  which  the  study  of  astronomy 
crowds  upon  the  mind ;  that  we  find  in  it  little  of  the  strong 
.  dramatic  interest  so  powerfully  awakened  by  the  changing 
scenes  of  creation  and  destruction  which  geology  displays.  In 
short,  however  well  calculated  its  study  may  be  considered  to 
arrest  the  attention  and  induce  good  habits  of  observation  in 
the  young,  or  to  afford  tliose  of  riper  age  apleasing  relaxation 
from  other  pursuits,  it  is  too  commonly  regarded  as  destitute 
of  those  general  views  and  profound  discussions  that  require 
much  thinking,  or  the  exercise  of  a  severe  and  precise  logic. 
It  may  be  said,  and  no  doubt  with  justice,  that  such  erroneous 
notions  are  the  fault  of  those  who  entertain  them,  and  that 
little  knowledge  of  any  subject  can  ever  be  expected,  if  a  man 
can  be  turned  from  its  pursuit  at  the  first  appearance  of  a 
technical  word,  or  confine  himself  to  the  pages  of  a  school- 
book. 

Had  half  the  elTorts  been  made  to  present  the  science  in  a 
light  at  all  worthy  of  its  real  merits,  that  have  been  used  in 
teaching  words,  or  disseminating  loose  and  superficial  views, 
its  pretensions  to  a  high  character  would  long  since  have  been 
seen  and  acknowledged.  We  should  not  now  be  obliged  to 
say,  at  the  risk  of  being  suspected  of  exaggeration,  that  no 
science  is  more  distinguished  than  botany  for  tire  enlargement 
and  permanence  of  its  general  views,  for  the  strictness  and 
accuracy  of  its  reasonings,  for  the  sure  and  cautious  deduc- 
tions on  which  its  great  principles  are  established,  for  the 
demonstrations  of  the  harmony  and  contrivance  with  which 
the  organic  world  is  ordered,  and  especially  for  a  spirit  of 
patient  and  profound  philosophy,  which  alone  can  confer 
upon  a  science  real  dignity'  and  value.  To  obtain  a  rank 
among  the  mostdistinguislied  botanists  of  the  present  day  de- 
mands not  only  long  and  laborious  investigation,  but  the  ex- 
ercise of  talents  that  belong  to  the  highest  order  of  mind ;  for 
the  relations  to  be  discovered,  and  tlie  principles  to  be  de- 
duced, must  be  the  result  of  profound  and  untir-ing  reflection. 
The  laws  whereby  the  vegetable  economy  is  regulated,  those 
which  govern  the  affinities  and.  differences  of  its  various  mem- 
bers, their  distrilmtion  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  their 
connexion  with  the  physical  agents  around  them,  are  just  be- 
ginning to  be  discerned,  and  their  study  will  long  present  a 
field  of  inquiry,  in  which  the  most  philosophical  genius  may 
find  ample  scope  for  the  exercise  of  its  powers.  The  whole 
end  of  botany  is  not  accomplished  when  we  have  accurately 
described  the  characters  of  plants  by  which  they  are  distin- 
guished from  one  another,  and  given  them  a  name  and  a 
place  in  the  great  register  of  nature ;  for  we  are  thereliy  fur- 
nished with  no  better  knowledge  of  the  plants  themselves,  than 
we  could  obtain  of  the  propensities  and  mental  faculties  of  a 
runaway,  fronj  the  advertisement  that  describes  his  clothes 
and  person.  Neither  does  the  branch  of  physiology  which 
teaches  us  the  functions  and  general  economy  of  plants  fur- 
nish us  with  that  particular  knowledge  of  the  plant  that  we 
wish,  any  more  than  the  most  intimate  acquaintance  with 
metaphysics  or  human  anatomy  would  enable  us  to  pronounce 
at  sight  upon  the  raeutal  or  physical  habits  of  an  individual 
man.  The  noblest  end  of  botany,  now,  is  to  ascertam  the 
points  of  resemblance  and  difference  between  plants,  which 
associate  them  with  and  remove  them  from  one  another,  to 
trace  the  progress  of  organization  through  all  its  gradations 
from  its  lowest  to  its  highest  forms,  in  short,  to  lay  open  the 
operation  of  all  the  causes  which  modify  the  conditions  of 


their  existence.  This  is  that  philosophy  of  botani/,  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  which  the  most  eminent' in  its  pursuit  are 
directing  their  utmost  efforts,  and  some  more  adequate  notions 
of  which  are  necessary  to  gain  for  it  the  general  respect  that 
it  really  deserves. 

The  great,  the  essential  preliminary  towards  the  attainment 
of  this  end, — if  indeed  it  may  not  be  more  properly  consider- 
ed as  comprising  the  end  itself, — is  to  improve  our  classifica- 
tions ;  for  these  involve  so  many  considerations,  —  have 
reference  to  so  many  points  in  the  history  of  the  plant,— that 
when  it  is  once  fixed  in  the  place  to  which  it  most  naturally 
belongs,  we  are  thus  made  acquainted  with  the  most  valuable 
knowledge  concerning  it,  always  excepting  its  practical  uses, 
which  are  determined  by  experiment.  Had  this  truth  been 
generally  recognised,  and  made  the  basis  of  improvement  in 
botanical  science,  we  should  now  be  spared  the  regret  that 
we  experience,  while  looking  back  on  its  progress,  to  see  how 
much  labour  and  zeal  have  been  expended  on  points  of  com- 
paratively small  or  secondary  importance,  to  the  neglect  of 
those  that  deserved  the  first  and  closest  attention.  We  should 
not  have  to  deplore  that  common  misapprehension  of  the  true 
nature  and  purposes  of  botanical  classification,  which  has 
given  rise  to  a  fatal  jealousy  among  men  zealously  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  same  pursuit,  and  lain  like  a  blight 
on  the  growth  of  this  beautiful  science.  While  the  number 
of  described  plants  was  small,  and  those  but  imperfectly 
known,  the  only  motive  that  led  to  their  systematic  arrange- 
ment was  the  greater  convenience  it  afforded  of  ascertaining 
their  names,  and  in  the  facilities  which  it  supplied  for  this 
object  consisted  the  sole  merit  of  the  arrangement.  The 
principle  thus  laid  down,  and  which  was  well  enough  in  the 
commencement  of  the  science,  continued,  however,  to  main- 
tain all  its  force  long  after  the  accumulated  results  of  dis- 
covery demanded  more  ample  and  accurate  information,  more 
enlarged  views,  and  a  spirit  of  philosophizing  that  should 
concern  itself  -B-ith  things  rather  than  words.  And,  what  is 
stranger  still,  after  this  kind  of  classification  had  been  carried 
to  its  highest  possible  degree  of  perfection,  and  every  thing 
been  accomplished  by  it  that  could  have  been  anticipated,  it 
was  looked  upon  as  rendering  any  other  on  different  princi- 
ples and  for  different  purposes  altogether  unnecessary,  and  all 
that  remained  for  botanists  was  to  add  to  the  existing  heap  of 
crude  and  barren  materials.  The  object  indeed  was  an  impor- 
tant, an  indispensable  one,  and  the  mind  that  best  accom- 
plished it  was  one  of  no  ordinary  capacity ;  but,  after  all,  it  is 
only  a  means,  and  not  an  end,  for  which  it  seems  to  have  been 
generally  mistaken. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  that  the  difficulty  under  which 
naturalists  laboured  for  a  long  time,  and  which  operated  as  a 
serious  check  on  the  progress  of  science,  was  the  want  of  a 
system,  whereby  the  contributions  to  the  common  fund  of  in- 
fonnation  could  be  easily  arranged  and  readily  referred  to  by 
others.  Without  this  their  researches  were  almost  vain,  and 
their  results  unprofitable.  The  same  necessity  still  continues. 
Fifty  thousand  species  of  plants  have  now  been  discovered, 
every  one  of  which  has  been  examined,  its  characters  set 
down,  its  relations  unfolded,  and  of  many  the  properties  and 
uses  have  been  ascertained.  But  how  is  this  knowledge  to  be 
referred  to  ?  With  one  of  this  immense  multitude  in  our 
hands  for  the  first  time,  how  are  we  to  ascertain  a  single  fact 
concerning  it,  without  preiaously  making  ourselves  acquaint- 
ed with  its  name  ?  What  clue  is  to  guide  us  through  the  vast 
labyrinth  of  genera  and  species,  and  bring  us  at  last  to  the 
very  plant  in  question  ?  Some  system  of  arrangement  or 
classification  of  course,  is  the  only  thing  that  will  remove 
the  difficulty,  and  those  that  have  been  constructed  in  direct 
reference  to  this  point,  viz.  for  ascertaining  the  Hawies  of  plants, 
are  called  artificial  or  arbitrary  methods,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  natural  meihoAs  founded  on  the  relations  of  plants,  and 
indicated  by  nature  itself.  Each  of  these  methods  has  distinct 
aud  peculiar  purposes  of  its  own,  and  when  these  are  under- 
stood, and  clearly  kept  in  view,  there  cannot  be  a  questiou 


ON    THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF    BOTANY. 


149 


with  (hose  in  (he  least  qualified  to  judge,  that  hoth  have  a 
utihly  tliat  is  iadispensable  to  tlie  interests  of  the  science. 
Simple  and  intelligible  as  this  appears,  yet  an  unaccountable 
delusion  seems  to  have  prevailed,  that  they  are  not  merely 
different  from,  but  opposed  to  each  other ;  that  their  ends  are 
the  same,  but  attained  by  different  routes  ;  that  their  merits 
are  conflicting,  and  are  to  be  weighed  in  the  same  scales  to- 
gether. Opposition,  jealousy,  and  party -spirit,  have  thus 
been  excited,  \\here  naturally  no  foundation  for  them  ever 
existed  in  difference  of  opinion  or  interest. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  fact  above  stated,  that  in  the  artificial 
method  the  oljject  is  merely  to  ascertain  the  names  of  plants, 
we,  of  course,  should  not  expect  to  find  them  arranged  accord- 
ing to  their  general  affinities,  for  a  single  organ  may  be  as- 
sumed, and  the  differences  which  it  presents  in  different  spe- 
cies be  made  the  basis  of  the  classification.     Thus,  if  we  class 
plants  according  to  the  form,  absence,  presence,  or  some  other 
condition  of  the  corolla,  with  Tournefort,  or  of  the  stamens, 
with  Linneeus,   we  shall  bring   species  together,   agreeing  in 
respect  to  these  organs,  while  in  evejy  other  particular  there 
may  be  the  utmost  possible  difference  between  them.     Plants, 
between  which  the  most  obvious  family  likeness  exists,  may 
be  torn   asunder,  and  placed  in  classes  far  remote  from  one 
another,  the  oljject  being  not  to  ascertain  relations,  but  names. 
Though  any  part   or  quality  of  the  plant  may  be  made  the 
basis  of  this  method,  yet  its  design  will  be  best  fulfilled  when 
this  basis  is  something  inherent  in  the  plant,  easy  to  be  ob- 
served,   found    in  the  greatest  number  of  plants,  and   pre- 
senting sufficient  variation  in   different  species  to  make  it 
easily  and  clearly  expressed.  The  artificial  methods  were  ex- 
ceedingly defective,  and  about  as  numerous  as  the  botanists 
who  used  Ihera,  till  Linnaeus,  after  devoting  all  his  energies  to 
their  improvement,   finally  succeeded  in   constructing   one 
which  superseded  every  other,  and  has  maintained  its  supe- 
riority to  the  present  day,  unrivalled  and  undisputed.     Con- 
sidering the  stamens  as  uniting  the  conditions  just  mentioned 
to  the  greatest  extent,  he  fixed  upon   these  organs  as  the 
ground  of  his  classification,  and   certainly  no  man,  starting 
from  a  single  idea,  was  ever  conducted  to  more  brilliant  and 
duralde  results.     His  first  eleven  classes  were  founded  on  the 
number  of  stamens ;  the  two  next,  on  then-  insertion ;  the  two 
next,  on  their   comparative  length ;    the  five  next,  on  their 
union;  the  three  next,  on  their  separation  from  the  pistils;  and 
the  last,  on  their  absence  or  obscurity.     The  remarkable  facility 
which  this  method  afforded  for  ascertaining  the  names  of  plants, 
and  its  admirable  flexibility  under  difficulties,  were  so  strongly 
contrasted  with  the  deficiency  and  awkwardness  of  all  previous 
contrivances,  that  we  cannotwonder  at  all  atthe  universal  ac- 
clamation that  greeted  its  announcement,  or  the  hearty  tribute 
of  homage  and  thanksgiving  bestowed  upon  its  author.  And  still 
we  ought  not  to  forget  the  numerous   other  circumstances  that 
contributed  at  the  time  to  give  popularity  to  the  new  system. 
Within  a  short  period  of  its  appearance,  the  rapid  progress  of 
discovery  had  made  the  defects  of  other  systems  more  appa- 
rent and  onerous  than  ever  ;    the  credit  of  discovering  the 
functions  of  the  stamens  had  just  been  given  to  his  author; 
science  was  incalculably  Ijenefited  by  its  introduction  of  spe- 
cific names  and  characteristic  phrases,  and  in  his  hands  botani- 
cal nomenclature  was  endowed  with  aprecision  and  force  it  had 
never  before  known.     Add  to  this,  that  he  had  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  every  other  branch  of  natural  history  ;  the 
whole  domain  of  nature  had  been  subject  to  his  researches, 
and  he  had  every  where  left  the  impressions  of  his  comprehen- 
sive mind.     We  mention  this,  not  in  disparagement   of  the 
sexual  system,  for  we  have  no  wish  to  detract  in  the  slightest 
degree  from  its  merits,  but  in  order  to  account  for  the  common 
disposition  of  its  followers  to  give  to  it  merits  that  it  neither 
does  nor  can  possess,  and  pertinaciously  to  claim  for  it  an  end 
never  thought  of  by  its  author  himself.  It  is  not  the  first  time 
that  a  man,  who  has  done  one  thing  well,  has  been  supposed  by 
his  over-fond  friends  to  have  accomplished  every  thing. 
In  the  natural  method,  plants  are  arranged  according  to 


their  natural  relations ;  those  being  associated  together,  wliich 
most  nearly  resemble  one  another  in  the  whole  of  their  struc- 
ture and  appearance.  They  are  expected  to  agree  not  in  one 
particular  only,  but  in  many ;  all  minute  and  trivial  charac- 
ters are  disregarded,  while  the  prominent  and  striking  features, 
being  indicative  of  family  resemblance,  and  connected  with 
the  general  economy  of  the  plant,  are  assumed  as  furnishing 
the  only  ground  that  should  determine  their  relations.  Every 
plant  stands  by  the  side  of  those  it  most  resembles,  and  if  our 
classes  and  orders  are  not  defined  by  well-marked  limits,  but 
gradually  blend  together  on  their  outskirts,  it  certainly  is  not 
our  fault,  for  we  do  no  more  than  preserve  those  family  re- 
semblances,— in  fact,  copy  that  arrangement  of  the  vegetable 
tribes,  which  nature  itself  has  made.  So  plain  and  numerous 
are  the  affinities  (hat  exist  between  certain  plants,  that  little 
botanical  tact  is  required  to  discern  them ;  they  are  evident  at 
sight  to  the  least  practised  observer.  Every  body  can  see 
this  strong  family  likeness  between  the  different  species  of  the 
Grasses,  and  of  the  Palms,  for  instance,  and  would  expect  tc 
find  them,  in  a  natural  classification,  arranged  by  the  side  d 
one  another.  Let  us  not  be  misunderstood ;  nature  has  in- 
stituted neither  classes,  orders,  nor  genera.  She  has  done  no- 
thing more  than  to  throw  together  the  various  meml)ers  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  in  groups  of  more  or  less  distinctness 
and  extent.  It  is  our  business  to  ascertain  and  define  the 
particular  conditions  on  which  the  affinities  depend.  They 
must  necessarily  be  less  obvious  in  some  cases  than  in  others, 
but  are  noton  that  account  the  less  real  and  strong.  Inasmuch 
as  traits  of  consanguinity  between  different  men  may  be  dis- 
cerned in  their  moral  and  intellectual  resemblance,  when 
their  features  and  complexion  would  never  betray  the  fact, 
so  to  discern  the  affinities  of  plants  and  animals,  we  must 
often  go  beneath  the  surface,  and  find,  in  more  important 
parts  of  their  structure,  marks  of  relationship  of  the  clearest 
and  strongest  kind. 

This  brief  exposition  of  the  objects  of  the  artificial  and  na- 
tural methods  of  classification  will  show    well  enough  their 
several  uses  in  the  study  of  botany,  and  enable  our  readers  to 
see  that  while  both  are  indispensable,  the  latter  cannot  be 
neglected,  without  entirely  overlooking  the  grandest  views 
and  deepest  principles  that  the  science  contains.  An  exclusive 
attachment  to  the  artificial  method  accustoms  the    mind  to 
partial  observation  and  superficial  views ;  for  as  the  attention 
is  directed  solely  to  the  sexual  organs,  and  that  only  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  the  name  of  the  plant,  it  is  perfectly  obvi- 
ous, that  much  in  its  history  must  go  unknown  and  unstudied. 
The  very  convenience  and  facility  which  it  continually  affords 
incline  the  mind  more  and  more  to  look  at  vegetables  in  a 
.single  point  of  view,  and  finally  to  regard  (his  single  object  of 
finding  their  names,  as  constituting  the  whole  science  of  bota- 
ny.    Incorrect  notions  relative  to  the  nature   of  organs,  and 
the  force  of  characters,  are  insensibly  imbibed  ;  and  while  ex- 
aggerated estimates  are  made  of  the  importance  of  some  of 
these,  most  unphilosophical  notions  are  entertained  of  the  in- 
significance of  others.     In  the  natural   method,  on  the  con- 
trary, not  one,  but  all  the  organs  pass  under  review,  and  are 
submitted  to  close  examination  before  the  plant  can  be  traced 
to  its  place  in  the  general  arrangement,  so  that  the  process  of 
finding  its  name  acquaints  one  with  the  most  valuable  points 
in  its  whole  history.     Instead  of  referring  directly  to  the  spe- 
cific description  after  a  hasty  glance  at  the  stamens  and  pistils; 
the  calyx,  corolla,  seed-vessel,  seed,   and  general  aspect,  are 
also  considered  ;   and  thereby  the  student  becomes  better  ac- 
quainted not  only  with  (he  plant,  but  with  a  variety  of  pro- 
perties which  it  possesses  in  common  with  a  great  many  others. 
The  study  of  affinities,  when  applied  to  particular  species,  neces- 
sarily throws  light  on  other  species;  a  knowledge  of  one  con- 
stantly illuslrating  and  increasingthat  of  others.  Onthe  score  of 
convenience  too,  the    artificial  has  but  little  advantage  over 
the  natural  method,  (o  one,  who  is  already  acquainted  with  a 
considerable   number   of  plants.      In  most  cases  he  would 
hardly  trouble  himself  to  count  the  exact  number  of  stamens 


150 


ON    THE    CULTURE    OF    FICS, ON    BAISING    APPLE    TREES. 


in  order  to  ascertain  its  name,  for  the  first  glance  would  show 
him  its  affinities  witli  otliers  that  lie  had  previously  examined, 
and  consequently  lead  him  at  once  to  its  place  in  the  natural 
system.  Thus  the  relations  that  one  plant  possesses  with  other 
plants,  and  which  form  the  most  valuable  part  of  its  history, 
are  already  manifest  before  he  lias  found  its  name  ;  while  he 
who  neg!ects  the  study  of  the  natural  system  is  unable  to  ad- 
vance a  single  step  in  the  knowledge  of  the  plant  till  he  is 
master  of  this  fact.  The  decided  and  emphatic  testimony  of 
Linn^us  himself  in  its  favonris  a  striking  proof  of  the  com- 
prehensiveness and  impartiality  of  his  views,  and  is  singularly 
contrasted  with  the  misplaced  jealousy  of  some  of  his  disci- 
ples. He  declares,  '  that  the  natural  method  is  the  first  and 
last  object  of  botany ;'  '  that  its  fragments  even  should  be  dili- 
gently studied  ;'  '  that  none  but  poor  botanists  think  it  of 
little  value;  '  that  it  is  the  highest  aim  of  his  own  la1)ours  and 
of  those  of  every  accomplished  naturalist;'  '  that  he  had  made 
some  discoveries,  and  that  the  man  who  would  remove  Iris  few 
remaining  doubts  should  be  his  Magnus  ApoUc.^ 

(To  be  continued.) 
ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  FIGS. 


The  fig  is  a  fruit  of  great  antiquity,  as  we  learn  from  ancient 
history  thatjt  was  the  principal  article  of  food  among  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Eastern  Countries,  before  the  use  of  wheat, 
barley,  or  any  grain  was  known.  The  fig  was  cultivated 
with  great  care  up  to  the  period  at  which  the  Spaniards  were 
suspected  of  giving  poisoned  figs  to  theii-  enemies.  No  doubt 
an  aversion  to  figs  arose  at  that  time,  and  the  best  mode  of 
their  cultivation  was  lost. 

When  I  was  gardener  to  Sir  Chas.  Monck,  Bart.  Belsay 
Castle,  we  had  a  house  built  espressly  for  figs.  They  were 
planted  out  in  the  border,  in  the  same  manner  as  vines. 
Several  were  in  pots  and  tubs,  which  were  kept  in  the  orange- 
house,  and  some  on  a  hot  wall.  Fig-trees  are  most  fruitful 
when  planted  in  a  strong  hazelly  cool  loam.  Those  planted 
in  a  light  dry  soil  generally  cast  the  first  crop  before  it  is  ripe, 
and  show  a  second  crop  on  the  wood  the  trees  make  that  sea- 
son. Trees  in  the  open  air,  that  are  subject  to  casting  off  the 
first  crop,  do  little  good,  for  if  the  second  crop  be  ever  so 
plentiful  the  season  is  too  far  advanced  to  allow  the  tree 
to  make  wood  and  ripen  the  fruit,  before  the  long  cold  nights 
set  in. 

Fig-trees  in  pots  are  most  dilBcult  to  manage,  as  they  are 
generally  kept  in  a  vinery,  or  some  forcing-house.  The  soil 
in  the  pot  being  of  the  same  temperature  as  the  house,  the 
tree  becomes  impatient,  and  if  it  sustain  the  least  check  for 
want  of  water,  the  fruit  will,  a  few  days  afterwards,  drop  off. 
1  succeeded  best  with  those  I  had  in  pots,  by  putting  them  in 
a  strong  soil  inclining  to  clay,  and  pressing  it  hard  among 
the  roots  as  I  potted,  placing  them  in  that  part  of  the  house 
where  they  had  plenty  of  air,  and  watering  them  plentifully 
when  the  fruit  was  swelling.  I  have  had  excellent  crops  of 
figs  from  trees  against  a  hot  wall.  They  were  planted  in  a 
strong  hazelly  coloured  soil.  Old  fig-trees  are  generally  most 
fruitful,  as  their  young  wood  is,  for  the  most  part,  short 
jointed  and  spur-like,  which  is  always  fruitful.  Young  trees 
generally  make  long  jointed  luxurious  wood,  which  is  not  to 


be  depended  upon  for  a  crop.  After  the  fall  of  the  leaf  itt 
autumn,  I  cover  the  fig-trees  on  the  wall  with  fern  to  protect 
the  wood  from  injury  by  the  frost.  About  the  end  of  April 
I  clear  away  the  fern,  and  nail  the  branches  regularly  to  the 
wall.  In  pruning  I  cut  out  any-long  naked  shoots  to  give 
place  for  the  lower  branches.  The  young  wood  should  never 
be  shortened,  as  the  best  fruit  is  generally  on  the  extremity. 
All  shoots  that  push  out  in  summer  from  wood  of  three  or  four 
years'  growth  I  displace  immediately,  as  they  are  glutinous 
and  unfruitful.  From  April  to  the  end  of  May,  I  cover  the 
trees  on  the  wall  at  night  with  canvass  and  bass  mats,  as  se- 
veral of  the  fruit  at  that  time  are  as  large  as  Mazagan  beans, 
and  the  slightest  frost  would  destroy  them.  During  the  sum- 
mer months,  I  give  them  plenty  of  water  over  the  leaves  with 
the  engine,  thrice  a  week.  Young  healthy  trees  are  liable  to 
make  a  great  length  of  young  wood ;  when  that  is  the  case  the 
sap  flows  too  rapidly  past  the  fruit,  which  thus  starves  and 
drops  off.  This  may  be  prevented,  if  observed  in  time.  In 
the  month  of  June  I  examine  the  trees  closely,  and  if  the 
wood  is  making  rapid  growth,  I  ring  the  part  from  which 
the  vigorous  shoots  issue.  This  immediately  humbles  the 
growth  of  the  wood,  and  the  fruit  keeps  pace  and  swells  in 
proportion  with  it. 

The  fig-house  in  the  gardens  at  Belsay  Castle  is  of  particu- 
lar construction,  being  only  four  feet  wide  inside,  the  upright 
glass  in  front  ten  feet  high.  The  border  is  prepared  on  the 
north  side  of  the  back  wall,  the  wall  being  built  on  arches  for 
the  roots  to  get  through.  Tlie  trees  are  planted  inside,  and 
trained  against  the  wall.  There  is  no  artificial  heat  to  the 
house.  The  border  was  prepared  with  a  strong  hazelly  loam, 
the  soil  which  I  use  for  melons,  taken  from  the  top  of  a  lime- 
stone quarry.  I  never  saw  finer  figs  than  were  produced  in 
that  house,  particularly  the  Dwarf  Brown  Naples,  which  got 
to  a  great  size,  and  could  not  be  exceeded  in  point  of  flavour. 

W.  G. 

-^^iSlJ^M 

ON  RAISING  APPLE  TREES  FROM  SEEDS. 

BY  J.  TRIMMER,  ESQ. 


It  may,  perhaps,  be  interesting  to  some  of  your  readers  to  know 
what  was  my  success  in  a  small  experiment  I  made  in  raising 
apples  from  seeds. 

I  collected  some  apple-pips,  all  from  good  sorts  of  eating  ap- 
ples, and  sowed  them  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1 802.  During  the 
first  few  years,  those  which  came  up  were  greatly  reduced  in 
nximber  by  several  accidents,  and  afterwards  by  being  removed 
to  another  garden  at  an  unfavourable  season  of  the  year  ;  all 
but  three  trees  were  killed,  and  those  much  retarded  for  several 
years  in  their  growth.  Of  these  three  plants,  one  produced  fruit 
the  twenty-second  year  of  its  age,  and  proved  a  particularly  juicy 
and  very  fine  flavoured  fruit,  which  keeps  to  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber ;  it  is  a  very  abundant  bearer,  but  not  a  very  strong  grow- 
ing or  very  healthy  tree.  The  second  tree  fruited  the  twenty- 
fourth  year  ;  it  is  a  sweet  fruit,  but  there  is  nothing  to  render 
it  worth  propagating ;  though  I  still  have  the  original  plant, 
and  it  is  equal  in  quality  to  many  sorts  that  are  still  found  in  old 
gardens.  The  third  tree  produced  fruit  in  the  twenty-sixth, 
and  I  consider  it  a  very  valuable  kind  ;  the  fruit  is  of  a  good 
size  and  appearance,  and  evidently  allied,  by  its  shape,  to  the 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   PLATEB. 


151 


Pearmain.  It  is  pleasant  as  an  eating  apple  ;  I  know  none  that 
exceeds  it  for  boiling  ;  and  it  keeps  particularly  well  to  the  end 
of  April  without  at  all  shrivelliug.  Out  of  a  good  many  sorts, 
it  kept  this  year  the  best  of  any  that  I  had  ;  I  used  the  last  in 
the  last  week  in  April,  and  I  do  not  doubt  that  many  of  them 
would  have  been  good  to  the  middle  of  May.  It  is  a  good 
bearer,  and  a  remarkably  healthy  tree.  I  shall  have  much  plea- 
sure in  sending  you  specimens  of  each  sort  for  yoiir  opinion  in 
the  atitumn,  and  afterwards  cuttings  for  yourself,  or  such  of 
your  friends  as  may  deem  them  worth  grafting  with. 

I  trained,  a  few  years  ago,  a  nectarine  from  seed,  which 
fruited  eitlier  the  sixth  or  seventh  year,  I  am  not  sure  which. 
The  fruit  it  produced  was  very  like  tlic  Roman  nectarine,  but  I 
think  rather  higher  flavoured.  The  flesh  parts,  when  ripe,  se- 
parate very  clearly  from  the  stone. 

I  have  stated  these  circumstances,  thinking  that,  perhaps, 
they  might  be  considered  such  as  to  induce  others  to  raise  fruits 
from  seed,  which  must  always  be  the  source  from  whence  we 
derive  new  sorts. 

ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  PEAS. 

As  the  different  varieties  of  the  garden  pea  cannot  fail  to  be 
a  subject  of  interest  to  society  in  general,  perhaps  it  would 
not  be  considered  altogether  amiss  to  offer  a  few  observations 
relative  to  their  cultivation,  &c.  It  is,  I  believe,  a  general 
practice  for  peas  to  be  sown  in  rows,  from  two  to  five  feet  apart, 
according  to  the  height  which  the  dift'ereut  varieties  grow  ;  a 
practice  of  which  I  do  not  altogether  approve,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  earliest  crops,  there  being  in  general  but  certain 
compartments  suitable  for  them.  The  method  I  have  been  in 
the  habit  of  pursuing  is,  to  sow  the  seeds  of  the  second  and 
after  crops  in  rows,  a  considerable  distance  apart,  say  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet,  according  to  the  size  of  the  kitchen  gar- 
den, or  the  quantity  required.  The  interval  between  the  rows 
is  cropped  with  other  vegetables  of  dwarf  growth,  such  as  broc- 
coli, savoys,  cabbage,  spinach,  celery,  &c.,  so  that  there  may 
"be  no  loss  of  ground.  The  tall  peas,  when  sticked,  are  an  ad- 
vantage rather  than  otherwise  to  the  intermediate  crops  when 
first  planted,  on  account  of  the  shade  which  they  produce,  and 
in  addition  to  which  the  ground  always  appears  fully  cropped. 
It  therefore  must  be  admitted,  that  it  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the 
kitchen  garden.  By  the  above  treatment  the  crop  is  increased 
fully  one-third,  and  of  superior  quality.  The  produce  of  the 
common  bean,  and  also  of  the  scarlet  i-unner,  is  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  above  mode  of  treatment.  Respecting  the  hardi- 
ness of  the  different  varieties,  I  am  not  at  present  able  to  give 
any  decided  information  ;  but  it  has  been  confidently  asserted 
to  me,  that  some  of  the  marrows,  as  well  as  other  varieties, 
are  equally  hardy  as  the  early  frame,  charlton,  S:c.  If  such  is 
the  case,  and  I  have  no  reason  to  doubt  it,  how  much  sooner 
in  the  season  might  some  of  the  finer  varieties  be  sent  to  table  ? 
However,  be  that  as  it  may,  I  propose  to  give  the  different 
varieties  a  fliir  trial,  and  hope  to  be  able  in  due  season  to  give 
you  a  detailed  account  of  the  comparative  hardiness  of  each 
variety.  The  sugar  peas  are  not  unfrequently,  when  quite 
young,  gathered,  sliced  in  the  manner  of  harriiots,  French  beans, 
and  sent  to  table  in  that  state.  It  may  be  necessary  to  add, 
that  the  soil  in  which  the  peas  grew  was  a  strong  i-ich  loam,  and 
I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  it  is  the  best  kind  of  soil  for  late 
peas,  and  for  early  peas  I  believe  a  light  dry  soil  will  be  found 
to  answer  best.  It  is  also  a  general  practice,  in  small  gardens 
particularly,  to  sow  their  peas  too  thick,  which  is  greatly  detri- 
mental to  the  crops.  As  a  criterion,  T  should  recommend,  for 
the  earliest  sorts,  about  a  pint  to  every  fifteen  yards,  and  for 
the  later  kinds  the  same  quantity  to  about  twenty-five  yards. 
The  whole  of  the  varieties  of  grey  peas  are  unfit  for  garden  cul- 
ture. T. 


Bt^criftian  of  tlje  piateS. 

CRAT^GUS  CORDATA. 

Heart-leaved  Craicegus. 

Icosandria  Di-Pentagynia. — LiNN. 

Rosaceje. — JussiEU. 

Arbor    mediocris,    ramulis    subangulatis,  verrucosis.      Folia 

cordata,    basi  subtruncata,    acuminata,  lobata,   serrata,  utrin- 

que   la;via,   suprk  lucida,    atrohiridia,  petiolis   longis,    Isevibus. 

Floris  albi,    corimbosi,    parvi,  calicibus  glabris,  petalis  rotun- 

datis,  apice  denticulatis.    Styli  5.    Fructus  sphierici,  pisiformes, 

coccioei,  carnosi,  nuculis  quinque  osseis. 

This  handsome  hardy  tree  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and 
forms  a  beautiful  bush  or  small  tree,  flowering  rather  later 
than  others  of  the  genus,  the  blossoms  beginning  to  open  in  the 
end  of  May,  or  early  in  June.  It  is  much  valued  for  the  fine 
dark  green  glossy  appearance  of  its  leaves,  and  the  vivid  colour 
of  its  scarlet  fruit,  which  will  sometimes  hang  on  the  tree  during 
the  winter. 

Young  branches  rather  angular  and  warty.  Leaves  cordate, 
somewhat  truncate  at  the  base,  acuminate,  lobed,  serrated, 
smooth  on  each  side,  above  dark  green  and  shining,  with  long 

smooth  petioles.  

TULIPA  OCULUS  SOLIS. 

Persian  SuiVs  Eye  TuUp._ 
Hexandria  Monogynia. — LlNN. 
Liliaceje. — JussiEU. 
T.  Oculus  soils  ;  integumento    bulbi  intus  lanato,  foliis  4  sub- 
ciliatis  caule   floreque  glaherrimis,  labris  conniventibus  stig- 
matum    villoso-fimbriatis.     Ker.  supric,  vol.  3.  fol.  20i,  v;itii 
the  synonyms. 
B.   Persica  ;  foliis  latioribus  magis  glaucis,  perianthio  maximo, 
integumento  bulbi  iutiis  hirsuto. 

The  Agen,  or  Sun's  Eye  Tulip,  is  singular  in  the  genus  for  a 
deep  black  eye,  or  base  to  the  perianthium  in  the  inside,  which 
is  bordered  by  a  margin  of  yellow  interposed  between  it  and  the 
vermilion  red  of  the  rest  of  the  perianthium  :  when  expanded 
beneath  the  influence  of  a  bright  sun,  the  effect  of  this  is  sur- 
prisingly beautiful ;  the  flowers  rarely  open  under  less  favour, 
able  circumstances.  Hitherto  it  has  been  only  discovered  wild 
in  the  South  of  Europe. 

The  roots  of  the  common  European  kind  are  densely  clothed 
with  wool  beneath  the  outer  integuments, — a  provision,  as  it 
would  seem,  by  which  Nature  seeks  to  guard  them  from  too 
severe  cold.  The  Persian  variety,  which,  it  is  to  be  presumed, 
has  less  need  of  protection  of  this  kind,  has,  in  lieu  of  wool,  a 
quantity  of  coarse  hairs,  forming  a  protection  much  less^  dense 
than  that  which  exists  in  the  European  kind.  May  it  not 
hence  be  suspected,  that  Persia  is  indeed  the  native  land  of  the 
Tulipa  Oculus  soils,  and  that  the  individuals  found  in  the  places 
above  mentioned  are  mere  outcasts  of  gardens  ? 

This  should  he  cultivated  at  the  foot  of  a  wall  with  a  rather 
southern  aspect.  The  earth  should  consist  of  a  light,  loamy  soil. 
It  is  remarked  by  De  Candolle  that  T.  Oculus  soils  differs 
from  T.  Sauveolens,  nnd  from  T.  sylvestris,  in  not  having  hairs 
upon  either  its  stem  or  its  flowers ;  from  T.  Gesneriana  in  its 
■  pointed  petals  ;  and  from  T.  Clusiana  in  its  much  larger  flower, 
the  claw  of  which  is  at  least  as  long  as  the  anthers,  and  in  the 

arrangement  of  itscolours.     

CLIVIA  NOBILIS. 

Scarlet  Clicia. 

Hexandria  Monogynia. — LiNN. 

Amaryllideae. — JussiEC. 

Clivia. — Perianthium   tubulosum,   sexpartitum,    deciduum, 

alciniis  imbricantibus  ;  exterioribus  paulo  brevioribus.    Slamin, 

sex,  sequalia,  periantio  basin  versiis  inserta  ;  filumenta  subulata, 

subinclusa  ;   anlherrc  Versailles.      Ovarium   3-loculare  polysper- 

mum.      Fructus  baccatus,  indehiscens,  monospermus.       Semen 

carnosum  ;  subrotundum. — Herba  (Capensis),  radicibns /asn'cM- 

latis,  foliis  distichis,  floribus  umbellatis  pendulis.     Scapo  phmo- 


152 


DESCRIPTION    OP  THE  PLATE?. 


Roots  fleshy,  fascicled.  Leaves  distichous,  coriaceous,  dark 
green,  strap-shaped,  sheathing  at  the  hase,  retuse  and  oblique 
at  the  apex,  rough  at  the  margin.  Scape  erect,  plano-coavex, 
bordered,  furrowed  towards  the  summit.  Flowers  from  48  to 
50,  on  long  stalks,  pendulous,  arranged  in  an  umbel.  Perianth 
tubular,  clavate,  deciduous ;  the  segments  yellowish  scarlet, 
greenish  at  the  apex,  obtuse,  imbricated  in  a  double  row,  co- 
hering towards  the  base,  the  outer  rather  shorter  than  the  inner, 
like  those  of  a  Lacheualia.  Stamens  six,  inserted  in  the  orifice 
of  the  tube,  equal ;  filaments  smooth  :  anthers  small,  oval, 
greenish  yellow,  versatile.  Ovarium  inferior,  greenish  yellow, 
3-celled,  many-seeded,  round,  ventricose.  Ovula  numerous,  in- 
serted towards  the  base  of  the  axis ;  style  filiform  ;  stigma 
somewhat  3-lobed.  Fruit  berried,  indehiscent,  red,  generally, 
in  consequence  of  the  abortion  of  two  cells  and  most  of  the 
ovula,  one-seeded,  marked  at  the  top  by  the  scar  of  the  fallen 
perianth.  Seed  single,  ascending,  (only  seen  unripe),  very 
smooth,  transparent,  oval ;  hilum  small,  above  the  base ;  fora- 
men in  the  base  ;  raphe  short,  raised.  Testa,  when  young, 
marked  with  very  minute  areolations  ;  albumen  abundant.  Em- 
bryo .... 

A  greenhouse  plant,  not  appearing  to  require  particular  care 
in  its  cultivation,  and  propagating  either  by  seeds  or  suckers. 

BILLBERGIA  PYRAMIDALIS  ;    var.  BICOLORED. 

Two-coloured  Pyramidal  Billbergia. 

Hexandria  Monogynia. — Linn. 

Bromeliacese. — JussiEu. 

B.  pyramidalis  ;   caule  erecto  :  bracteis  magnis  spathaceis  co- 

loratis,  spica  suhcapitata  cbracteata. 
Billbergia  pyramidalis.  Lindl.  supri,  vol.  xiii,  fol.  1068,  in  nota. 
Bromelia  nudicaulis.      Supra,  vol.  iii,  fol.  203. 
Bromelia  pyramidalis.     Bot.  Mag.  1732. 

;3.  hicolor ,  petalis  obtusus  bicoloribus,  foliis  raagis  acuminatis. 
This  is  a  native  of  some  part  of  South  America,   and  higUy 
deserving  of  cultivation  on  account  of  the  great  beauty  of  its 
flowers. 

SOPHORA  VELUTINA. 

Decandria  Monogynia. — Linn. 

LeguminosEe. — JussiEU. 

SoPHORA  Linn. — Calyx  5-dentatus,  basi  campanulata  v. 
suhattenuatu.  Petala  carinalia  ssepiiis  apice  concreta.  Legu- 
men  moniliforme,  apteriim,  polyspermum. — Arbores  fruticus  aut 
herbse,  foliis  impari-pinnafis,  seepius  exstipidatis,  racemis  fer- 
minalihus  simplicibus  paniculatisvc.     Dec.  prodr.  2.  95. 

A  fine  greenhouse  shrub,  which  well  deserves  a  trial  as  a 
hardy  plant :  it  is  a  native  of  Nipal,  and  was  first  raised  some 
years  since  from  seeds  sent  to  this  country. 

Although  we  have  referred  it  to  Sophora,  we  are  by  no  means 
satisfied  that  it  is  a  genuine  species  of  that  genus,  from  which 
it  differs  very  considerably. 

This  plant  would,  if  naturalized  in  our  shrubberies,  be  a 
very  desirable  addition  to  our  collection  of  hardy  plants. 

GAILLARDIA  ARISTATA. 

Whole-coloured  Gaillardia. 

Syngenesia  Frustranea. — LiNN. 

Corymbiferse. — Jdssieu. 

Gaillardia  Fougeroux. — Involucrum  polyphyllum,  imbrica- 
tum,  squamis  foliaceis.  Floscvli  radii  ligulati  3-dentati  neutri; 
disci  tubulosi,  persistentes,  basi  herbacei  subsolidi,  dentibus  ex- 
tiis  barbatis,  centro  masculi,  ad  ambitum  hermaphroditi.  Stiff- 
mata  subulata  barbata  basi  pedicelliformia  glabra.  Fructus  vU- 
losusturbinatus,  teres.  Pa;);)Hs  paleaceus.  Receptaculum  coaicnm 
paleaceum. 

A  nearly  evergreen  perennial,  with  fibrous  roots.  Leaves 
spatulate,  tapering  down  into  a  long  petiole,  somewhat  toothed, 
covered  on  both  sides  with  numerous  soft  hairs,  which  are  di- 
vided internally  by  several  partitions ;  stem  sessile,  oblong, 
very  entire,  acute,  very  slightly  amplexicaul  at  the  base.    The 


radical  leaves  are  occasionally  pinnatifid.  Stems  erect,  taper, 
striated,  with  close-pressed  hairs.  Heads  solitary,  on  very 
long  stalks,  erect.  Involucrum  imbricated,  many-leaved;  the 
scales  foliaceous,  finally  reflexed, ciliated,  the  innermost  being  nar- 
row. Florets  of  the  ray  15,  large,  cuneate,  3-toothed,  yellowish 
orange,  neuter  ;  of  the  disk  purple,  tubular,  campanulate,  with 
a  short,  green,  taper,  solid  base ;  the  lobes  5,  acuminate, 
bearded  ;  the  florets  are  persistent  almost  until  the  ripening  of 
the  fruit,  and  change  to  a  greenish  colour  ;  those  of  the  centre 
are  male,  those  towards  the  circumference  female  or  hermaphro- 
dite. Ovarium  turbinate,  villous  ;  pappus  paleaceous,  aristate. 
Anthers  with  a  little  appendage  at  the  apex,  and  acute  lobes  at 
the  base.  Style  filiform,  smooth.  Stigmata  purple,  subulate, 
bearded,  furrowed  along  the  middle,  with  a  smooth  stalk.  Fruit 
turbinate,  taper,  truncate,  villous  at  the  base,  smooth  at  the 
apex.     Receptacle  conical,  covered  with  subulate  palea. 

A  handsome  hardy  perennial,  found  in  N.orth  America  by  Mr. 
David  Douglas. 

It  is,  no  doubt,  the  G.  aristata  of  Pursh,  which  is  considered 
a  mere  variety  of  G.  bicolor.  It  appears  to  us,  however,  to  be 
sufficiently  distinct  as  a  species,  especially  as  it  does  not  lose  its 
wild  features  when  cultivated.  It  is  altogether  a  large  plant, 
more  hardy,  and  distinguished  by  other  important  ditferences. 

P^ONIA  HYBRIDA. 

Hybrid  Pctony. 

Polyandria  Tri-pentagynia. — JussiEU. 

Ranunculacctfi. — Linn. 

P.  hybrida ;  herbacea,  folliculis  recurvatis  pubescentibus,  foliis 

multipartitis  :  laciniis  linearibus  acuminatis  glabris,  flore  cer- 

nuo  foliis  longiore. 
P.    hybrida.     Pall,  fl.    ross.  2.  ;.).   94.  t.  86.     B'illd.  sp.  pi.   2. 

1223.     Ait.    Kew.   ed.  2.  3.  316.      Smith  in  Rees,  in  loco,   no. 

10.      Decand.syst.  1.  393;  prodr.  1.  66.    Bieb.fl.taur.  cauc. 

2.  11.  et  3.   367. 

This  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  cut-leaved  Pseonies,  from  all 
which  it  differs  strikingly  in  the  deeper  red  of  its  flowers. 

Within  a  few  years  roots  have  been  obtained  from  several 
quarters,  and  the  study  of  them  in  a  growing  state  has  now 
made  it  evident  that  it  is  a  genuine  species.  At  least  we  have 
high  authority  for  saying  that  the  characters  which  can  he  cer- 
tainly depended  upon  in  distinguishing  P.  hybrida  from  P. 
tenuifolia,  are,  firstly,  the  nodding  flower  of  the  former,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  erect  flower  of  the  latter  ;  secondly,  the  greater 
length  of  the  peduncle,  by  which  the  flower  of  P.  hybrida  is 
elevated  distinctly  above  the  leaves,  while  that  of  P.  tenuifolia  is 
always  overtopped  by  them  ;  and,  lastly,  in  the  greater  breadth 
of  the  leaves  of  P.  hybrida.  From  P.  anomala  it  is  readily 
separated  by  its  downy,  not  smooth,  fruit. 

HAMELIA  VENTRICOSA. 

Pentandria  Monogynia. — LiNN. 
RubiaccEe.— JussiEU. 

Hamelia  Linn. — Calyx  parvus,  5-fidus.  Corolla  tubulosa 
oblonga,  5-gona,  limbo  5-fido.  Stamina  5,  medio  tubi  inserta  ; 
antherfE  ohlon^ie.  S^i(/mc  obtusum,  sub-5-gonum.  Bacca  ovata, 
sulcata,  apice  retusa  et  coronata,  5-locularis,  polysperma,  semi- 

nibus    minutis. Frutices  ;     fo\ia  plerumque    3,   verticillata ; 

flores  corymboso-cymosi  terminalis. — Juss.  mem.  jnus.  3.  398. 

Branches  smooth,  somewhat  4-cornered.  Leaves  lanceolate, 
membranous,  stalked,  quite  smooth,  inserted  in  threes  or  fours  ; 
stipules  subulate.  Corymbs  terminal,  spreading,  smooth.  Calyx 
roundish,  5-toothed,  Corolla  yellow,  funnel-shaped,  ventricose, 
gibbous  at  the  base,  with  an  erect,  plaited,  5 -clef t  limb.  Anthers 
linear,  usually  projecting. 

A  handsome  hot-house  plant,  growing  vigorously,  and  flower- 
ing in  abundance  in  nearly  all  the  summer  months.  It  is  a 
native  of  Jamaica,  where  it  becomes  a  large  tree,  yielding  hand- 
some variegated  planks,  called  by  the  cabinet-makers  Spanish 
Elm  or  King-wood. 


^^fVl,^-^#yf^^ 


5,Pi-iiLnila  cortiisoide 


6  ■  PJiyi eTumT  orbic-aligi- 


ScTitelliiiia  L-o]imm?j?. 


iS.  LlirvsiijitkennuLi.  cnrniiaTiuin. 


40 


ON    THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM   OF   BOTANY. 


153 


ON  THE  NATURAL  SYSTEM  OF  BOTANY. 
Concluded  fi'om  p,  150. 

Many    attempts   have    been  made    to   arrange  the   vegetable 
kingdom  according  to  a  natural  system  of  classification  ;   but 
Jussieu  was  the  first  to  develope  its  tnie  principles  and  con- 
struct its  foundations  and  frame-work,  to  be  enlarged  and  com- 
pleted  by  the  labours   and  superior   knowledge  of  succeeding 
botanists.     Considering  the  immense  researches  that  were  re- 
quired to  bring  the  undertaking  to  any  thing  like  a   finished 
condition,  and   the   disadvantages   which   naturalists   of  those 
days  laboured  under,  we  have  more  reason  to  be  surprised  at 
its  excellence  than   its  imperfections,  and  feel  constrained  to 
look   on   it  as   one  of  the  noblest   monuments  ever  erected  by 
human  industry  and  genius  in  the  great  temple  of  nature.   Many 
and  important  as  are  the  changes  it  has  suffered  since  its  com- 
mencement, the  impress  of  its  original  author  is  visible  at  every 
step,  and  time  has   not  withered  a  single  laurel  tliat  has  been 
placed  upon  his  brows.     The  fundamental  principle  of  his  sys- 
tem is,  that  all  the  organs,  and  likewise  all  the  points  of  view 
under  which  they  may  be  considered,  have  not  an  equal  degree 
of  importance  or  permanence  ;  that  some  control  the  others  and 
necessarily  determine  their  relationa.    It  is  this  principle  of  the 
subordination  of  characters,  first  distinctly  set  forth  by  Jussieu, 
and  now  applied  in  the  classification  of  every  department  of  na- 
tural history,  which  drew  from  Cuvier  the  splendid  and  merited 
eulogium,   '  that  in  the   sciences  of  observation  it  created  an 
epoch  as  important  as  the  chemistry  of  Lavoisier  in  the  sciences 
of  experiment.'     To  the  development    of  this   great  idea  the 
labours  of  botanists  have  been  principally  directed,  in  their  en- 
deavours to  bring  the  naturiil  method  to  the  highest  possible 
degree    of   perfection ;    and   though  genius    and   devotion  have 
been  brought  to  the  work   in  no  stinted  measure,  yet  to  De- 
candoUe   we  believe  is  assigned  the  palm  of  undisputed   pre- 
eminence.    His  Theorie  EUmenfaire  de  la  Botanique,  which  con- 
tains a  masterly  exposition  of  the  principles  of  natural  classi- 
fication, is  the  noblest  contribution  ever  made  to  the  Philosophy 
of  Botany,  and  justly  entitles  its  author  to  a  place  among  the 
Newtons   and   Galileos  of  science.      It  is  the  production  of  a 
mind  that  could  dwell  with  minuteness  on  the  smallest  details, 
without  narrowing  its  range,  and  raise  itself  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  newest  and  boldest  truths,  withoiit  risk  of  yielding 
to  the  allurements  of  baseless  hypothesis.    If  we  are  sometimes 
startled  at  the  wonderful  boldness  and  originality  of  his  views, 
we  are  no  less   surprised,  as  we  follow  him  in  his  course,  to 
behold  the  caution  and  security  with  which  eveiy  step  to  their 
attainment  is  effected,  and  are  obliged  to  acknowledge  in  his 
reasonings  the  power   of  that  logic  of  facts,  iu  which  no  flaw 
nor   sophistry  can  be  detected.     Ever  treading  on  the  utmost 
verge  of  truth,  he  never  oversteps   its  confines  to  lose  himself 
in  the  bewildering  regions  of  theoretical  speculation.      His  rea- 
sonings, though  eminently  acute  and  profound,  are  characterized 
by  a  remarkable  simplicity,  and,  presenting  a  noble  specimen  of 
philosophical  induction,  they  proclaim  their  author  a  worthy 
disciple  of  the  school  of  Bacon.      Few  are  the  naturalists,  of 
whatever  age  or  experience,  to  whom   the  pages  of  this  work 
will  not  furnish,  through  life,  inexhaustible  materials  for  study 
and  reflection.     As  it  is  little  known,  however,  and  as  little 
^udied,  we   suspect,  in  England,  we  have  thought  we  might 
do  an  acceptable  service  to  such  of  our  readers  as  are  interested 
in  Natural  History,  by  presenting  them  not  exactly  an  abridg- 
ment of  its  contents,  but  an  analysis  of  its  genei'al  principles. 

The  theory  of  natural  classification  consists  essentially  of 
three  parts,  which  treat  respectively  of  the  comparative  im- 
portance of  the  organs  of  plants,  of  the  circumstances  that  may 
deceive  the  observer  as  to  their  true  nature,  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  each  point  of  view  under  which  an  organ  may  be 
considered. 

I.    Comparison  of  organs. — In  order  to  ascertain  the  relative 
importance  of  the  organs,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  them  in 
reference  to  their  functions.     We  say,  for  instance,  that  the 
MAGAZINE   OP    BOTANY   AND    GARDENING,    VOL.  II.    NO.  XX 


brain  holds  a  higher  rank  than  the  nerves,   and  the  heart  than 
the  veins,  but  this  does  not  decide  the  relative  rank  of  the  brain 
and  heart.     Or,  to  adduce  an  illustration  of  a  different  kind,  a 
general  is  higlier  than  a  captain,  and  a  governor  of  a  province 
than  the  mayor  of  a  town,  but  the  arbitrary  laws  of  etiquette 
alone  decide  whether  the  general  or  governor  be   entitled  to 
precedence.     The  first  general  principle  in  the  classification  of 
organized  beings  is,  that  the  importance  of  each  organ  can  be 
calculated  only  when  compared  with  those  organs  which  relate 
to  the  same  class  of  functions.     In  the  vegetable  organization 
there  are  two  classes  of  functions,  one  destined  to  the  preserv- 
ation of  the  individual,  the  other  to  that  of  the  species.    These 
no  doubt  are  of  equal  importance,  and  always  possessed  corre- 
sponding degrees  of  perfection.      Hence,  we  deduce  another  ge- 
neral principle  of  classification,  viz.  that  systems,  established 
upon  either  of  these  two  grand  classes  of  functions,  would  be 
equally  natural,  provided  they  were  constructed  with  the  same 
care.     The   preference,  indeed,  has  been  usually  given  to  the 
reproductive   organs,  because  differences  iu  the  vegetable  or- 
ganization are  more  perceptible  in  them  than  in  the  nutritive 
organs,   and  more  especially  too,  because  the  latter  have  been 
comparatively  but  little  studied.     Were  they  both  equally  well 
understood,   without  doubt  a  system  founded  on  one  would  be 
identical  with  one  established  on  the  other ;  for  every  thing 
leads  us  to  believe  that  any  complication,  or  other  modification 
in  one  class  of  functions,  is  attended  by  a  similar  one  in  the 
other.     Cesalpinas  had   established  certain  classes    upon    the 
structure  of  the  embryo  alone,   many  centuries  before  Desfon- 
taines  was  conducted  to  the  same  result  by  making  use  of  the 
nutritive  organs.      Hence  also  we  make  the  division  of  plants 
into  Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons  with  so  much  the  more 
confidence,  because  we  are  equally  led  to  it,  whether  we  assume 
as  the  basis  of  our  reasonings  the  reproductive  or  nutritive  or- 
gans.    In  order  to  estimate  the  importance  of  each  organ  ia  a 
given  function,  we  must  ascertain  what  is  essential  to  its  per- 
formance, when  reduced  to  its  simplest  conditions.     Thus,  the 
essential  part  of  reproduction  is  fecundation,  and  the  fecundat- 
ing organs  are  consequently  of  higher  importance  than  all  their 
envelopes.     At  first,  the  sexual  organs  are  equally  indispensa- 
ble, but  the  duty  of  the  male  part  is  of  short  continuance,  and 
they,  together  with  a  portion  of  the  female  parts,  are  destroyed 
after  fecundation.     But  as  the  female  organ,  beside  this  short- 
lived part,  includes  another  for  which  all  the   rest  are  con- 
structed, its  importance  is  obviously  greater  than  that  of  the 
male.     Again  :   in  the  part  of  the  female  organ  that  remains, 
the    integuments  or  fruit   may  be    separated    from   the    seed, 
and  exist  but  for  it.    The  seed  has  thus  a  higher  value  than  its 
envelopes ;   and  continuing  the  same  reasoning,  we  at  last  find 
the  embryo   performing  the  most  important  part  in  the  whole 
function  of  reproduction.      If,  now,  our  conclusions  be  just, 
the  organs  may  be  arranged,  in  regard  to  their  relative  import- 
ance, in  the  following  order.      1 .  The  embryo,  the  great  end  of 
all  the  rest.      2.  The  sexu.al  organs,  which  are  only  the  means. 
3.  The  envelopes  of  the  embryo,  viz.  the  integuments  of  the 
seed  and  the  pericarp.     4.  The  envelopes  of  the  sexual  organs, 
viz.   the  corolla,  calyx  and  involucre.      5.  The  nectaries  and 
other  accessory  organs. 

Another  means  of  judging  of  the  relative  importance  of  or- 
gans, is  by  the  degree  of  constancy  with  which  they  appear  in 
the  vegetable  organization.  Some,  we  know,  are  frequently 
absent,  some  not  so  often,  while  others  are  almost  always 
present.  Hence  we  infer,  that  the  stamens  and  pistils  have  a 
higher  rank  than  the  calyx  and  corolla,  and  these  latter  than 
the  nectaries ;  the  filaments  of  the  stamen  and  pistil  are 
thus  shown  to  be  of  less  consequence  than  the  anthers  and 
stigmas. 

A  third  means  of  judging  is,  to  observe  to  what  point  a 
given  organ  is  more  or  less  intimately  connected  with  the  struc- 
ture of  certain  groups,  already  acknowledged  by  naturalists. 
Thus,  we  conclude  that  stipules  are  more  important  than  spines, 
because  a  great  number  of  families  either  have  or  have  not 
, — NOVEMBER  1834.  Y 


154 


ON    THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF    BOTANY. 


stipules,   while  there   are  many  in  which  we   find  indifferently 
species  with  oi-  without  spines. 

II.  The  circumstances  that  may  deceive  the  observer  as  to  the 
true  nature  of  the  organs. — Before  we  can  decide  any  question 
as  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  organs,  we  need  some 
means  of  distinguishing  the  organs  themselves,  and  recognising 
their  true  nature,  under  all  the  modifications  they  are  liable  to 
experience.  Looking  at  a  single  organ  abstracted  from  the 
general  structure,  we  can  judge  of  its  nature  solely  by  its  ivse, 
■whatever  may  be  its  position,  form,  or  mode  of  action  ;  thus, 
the  organ  of  vision  is  called  the  eye,  and  the  part  that  bears 
the  flower  is  called  the  peduncle.  But  when  we  examine  beings 
as  a  whole,  and  judge  of  the  nature  of  the  organs  in  reference 
to  the  symmetrical  plan  on  which  they  are  constructed,  this 
method  will  lead  us  into  grievous  errors.  The  tail  of  the  kan- 
garoo serves  the  animal  as  a  leg,  yet  nobody  denies  that  it  is 
still  a  tail  :  the  nose  of  the  elephant,  prolonged  to  a  great 
length,  performs  the  office  of  a  true  hand  ;  and  the  teeth  im- 
planted in  the  incisive  bone  serve  a  purpose  entirely  foreign 
to  mastication,  yet  none  pretend  to  dispute  the  anatomical  ana- 
logy of  these  organs  with  the  nose  and  teeth  of  other  mammi- 
fers.  So  too,  we  see  the  leaves  of  plants  sometimes  prolonged 
and  changed  into  tendrils,  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the 
stem,  thoiigh  their  primitive  function  is  to  elaborate  the  nu- 
tritious juices.  The  stipules,  the  peduncles,  and  even  the  lobes 
of  the  corolla  may  be  converted  to  the  same  use,  and  every 
body  is  familiar  with  the  leafy  appearance  and  structure  of  the 
branches  of  the  Indian  Fig,  or  Prickly  Pear,  (Cactus  Opuniia). 
From  these  examples,  and  a  host  more  that  we  might  mention, 
we  deduce  the  general  conclusion,  that  it  frequently  happens,  in 
consequence  of  a  given  system  of  structui'e,  that  a  certain  func- 
tion, not  being  s'.ifficiently  performed  by  the  organ  ordinarily 
allotted  to  it,  is  discharged  wholly  or  in  part  by  another.  It 
is  this  system  of  organization,  this  symmeti-y  of  the  organs  as 
compared  with  one  another,  of  which  a  knowledge  is  essentially 
necessary  to  a  perception  of  the  general  harmony  and  natural 
classification  of  beings.  This  symmetry  of  parts,  which  should 
be  a  prominent  object  of  the  naturalist's  studies,  is,  in  one 
■word,  the  result  of  their  relative  disposition ;  and  therefore, 
whenever  this  disposition  is  the  same,  no  matter  how  various 
may  be  the  form  of  particular  organs  in  other  respects,  the  sub- 
jects present  a  kind  of  general  resemblance,  that  strikes  the 
least  practised  eye. 

Among  the  causes  of  error  that  are  liable  to  mislead  us  in 
ascertaining  the  true  nature  of  the  organs,  the  principal  is 
abortion,  more  or  less  complete,  which  alters  their  symmetry. 
Every  body  knows,  that  sometimes  certain  parts  of  organized 
heings  do  not  receive  that  increase  and  development  for  which 
they  were  evidently  destined,  owing  either  to  the  compression 
of  a  foreign  body,  or  a  loss  of  part  of  their  nourishment.  This 
effect  may  be  produced  by  internal  causes,  such  as  caries,  for 
instance,  as  well  as  external ;  but  among  those  which  prevent 
certain  organs  from  receiving  their  full  increase,  it  is  possible 
that  some  may  be  the  necessary  consequences  of  the  growth  of 
another  part,  and  will,  of  course,  constantly  occur  in  a  given 
system  of  organization.  We  may,  therefore,  admit  in  theory  the 
constant  and  predisposed  abortion  of  certain  organs,  either  wholly 
or  in  part.  This  is  a  startling  doctrine  to  those  yet  uninitiated 
into  a  knowledge  of  the  more  hidden  laws  of  organization,  but 
is,  nevertheless,  as  easy  of  proof  as  an  abundance  of  the  clearest 
facts  can  make  it.  Whoever  will  take  the  trouble  to  cut  across 
the  ovary  of  a  horse-chesnut  flower,  soon  after  the  petals  have 
fallen,  will  find  three  cells  and  two  seeds  in  each  cell ;  bxit  let 
him  look  a  few  weeks  afterwards,  when  the  fruit  has  attained 
its  perfect  growth,  and  three  seeds  or  nuts  are  the  most  that 
can  ever  be  found — sometimes  but  one.  But  to  remove  all 
doubt  as  to  the  fact  and  nature  of  this  phenomenon,  we  have 
only  to  cut  open  an  ovary  every  day  after  the  periol  of  flower- 
ing, to  see  some  of  the  seeds  gradually  increasing,  while  the 
others  are  observed  to  remain  stationary,  and  finally  to  be  com- 
pletely choked  by   the  development  of  the  first.     Now,  when 


wc  bear  in  mind  that  this  phenomenon  is  constant,  and  takes 
place  in  trees  perfectly  sound,  are  we  not  forced  to  believe  that 
it  is  owing  to  some  circumstance  in  the  very  system  of  the  or- 
ganizaton  of  this  tree?  In  the  oak,  too,  we  have  another 
familiar  instance  of  a  three-celled  and  six-seeded  ovary  finally 
resulting  in  one  perfect  seed  only.  The  disappearance  of  the 
sexual  organs  is  a  very  common  occurrence,  of  which  an  exam- 
ple may  be  witnessed  in  the  marginal  florets  of  the  snow-ball 
genus,  and  many  other  plants  whose  flowers  grow  together  in 
large  masses.  The  question  then  recurs,  how  shall  we  recognise 
the  general  symmetry  of  plants,  amid  the  confusion  produced  by 
these  partial  abortions  ?  Some  light  may  be  obtained  on  this 
point  from  observing  appearances  denominated  monstrous — an 
epithet  commonly  given  to  ail  such  as  differ  from  the  habitual 
state  of  the  organs,  though  many  of  them  ai*e  returns  of  nature 
to  the  symmetrical  order.  Thus,  to  recur  to  an  example  al- 
ready cited,  if,  by  some  accidental  cause,  the  six  little  seeds 
of  the  horse-chesnut  or  oak  should  obtain  their  full  growth, 
and  present  us  with  a  fruit  of  six  nuts  or  acorns,  we  should 
call  it  monstrous,  while,  in  truth,  it  is  the  single-seeded  fruit 
that  is  the  real  monster.  The  Antirrhinum  or  Toad-flax  has  a 
personate  corolla,  the  lower  segment  of  which  sends  out  a  long 
spur,  with  four  stamens  of  unequal  length,  and  the  rudiment  of 
a  fifth.  In  a  variety  of  this  plant  called  Peloria,  the  flower  is 
perfectly  regular,  having  an  equal  five-lobed  corolla  sending  out 
five  equidistant  spm'S,  in  which  are  five  equal  stamens.  Here 
is  a  most  singular  case  of  a  return  of  nature  to  her  favourite 
symmetry,  and  no  doubt  can  be  left  as  to  which  is  the  real 
monster.  The  rare  example  of  certain  compound  flowers,  where 
we  see  the  egret  become  leafy  and  assume  the  appearance  of  a 
true  calyx,  is  a  strong  proof  of  the  egret's  being,  in  fact,  an 
abortive  calyx.  It  is  well  known  also,  that  trees  which  have 
spinous  branches  in  a  dry  soil,  cease  to  have  them  in  a  fertile 
one — a  siifficient  proof  that  spines  are  abortive  branches. 

Another  guide,  less  sure  perhaps,  but  adapted  to  more 
general  use,  is  analogy  or  induction.  It  is  found  solely  in  a 
knowledge  of  the  respective  positions  of  organs.  In  an  Albuca, 
for  instance,  we  find  the  entire  structure  of  a  liliaceous  plant, 
excepting  that  it  has  only  three  stamens  bearing  anthers,  while 
between  them  we  observe  three  filaments  placed  precisely  where 
stamens  would  be,  and  very  similar  to  the  existing  stamens. 
Hence,  we  conclude  that  these  filaments  are  abortive  stamens. 
In  the  Ice-plant  (Mesembryanthemum),  we  find  a  great  num- 
ber of  filaments  disposed  in  several  ranks,  but  all  adhering  by 
their  bases,  and  attached  to  the  same  point  of  the  calyx,  the 
interior  bearing  fertile  anthers,  the  middle  having  the  anthers 
wholly  or  in  part  abortive,  and  the  exterior  being  true  petals. 
We  conclude,  then,  that  in  this  genus  the  petals  are  naturally 
abortive  stamens,  and  from  a  crowd  of  similar  facts  we  are  led 
by  a  very  powerful  analogy  to  the  belief  that  the  petals  of  all 
plants,  as  a  general  theorem,  are  only  filaments  of  stamens, 
whose  developement  is  in  the  relation  of  cause  or  effect  to  the 
abortion  of  the  anther.  When  too  we  see  the  calyx  of  a  Va- 
lerian or  Scabious,  evidently  assuming  the  form  of  an  egret 
or  pappus,  we  are  induced  by  analogy  to  extend  this  result 
to  the  compound  flowers,  and  conclude  that  their  pappus  is 
only  an  abortive  calyx.  Finally,  by  analogy  alone,  we  judge 
in  a  host  of  cases  of  the  natural  number  of  the  parts  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  and  are  led  to  look  carefully  for  those  whose  abor- 
tion we  suspect.  It  is  the  successful  use  of  this  principle 
which,  more  than  any  thing  else,  facilitates  the  study  of  nature, 
while  the  number  of  its  objects  are  daily  increased  by  discove- 
ries, and  constitute  in  fact  the  true  genius  for  Natural  History. 

The  proximate  cause  of  abortion  is  principally  defect  or  ex- 
cess of  nourishment,  and  it  may  be  well  to  consider  a  little 
farther  the  operation  of  these  causes  ;  and  first,  the  effect  of 
abortion  by  defect  on  the  organ  itself.  When  partial,  it  gives 
rise  to  inequalities  between  organs  naturally  similar,  and  this 
is  the  principal  if  not  the  only  cause  of  the  irregularities  pre- 
sented in  the  structure  of  vegetables.  Every  thing  which  has 
any  bearing  on  this  subject  goes  to  establish  the  conclusion, 


ON    THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF    BOTANY. 


155 


that  all  organized  beings  are  regular  in  tbeir  intimate  nature, 
and  that  ahortions,  variously  combined,  produce  all  the  irregu- 
larities that  arrest  our  observation.  In  this  point  of  view,  the 
slightest  inequalities  between  organs  of  the  same  name  in  a 
plant,  are  important,  because  they  tell  us  in  language  plainer 
than  words,  that  we  may  tind  analogous  plants  where  this  ine- 
quality is  still  greater,  and  others  where  these  organs,  thus 
subject  to  partial  abortion,  have  entirely  disappeared.  It  may 
be  received  as  a  general  principle,  that  wherever,  in  any  given 
system  of  organization,  there  is  inequality  between  organs  of 
the  same  name,  this  inequality  may  attain  its  maximum,  viz. 
the  annihilation  of  the  smallest  part.  When  the  abortion  of  an 
organ  has  proceeded  so  far  as  to  prevent  it  from  discharging 
its  functions,  it  may  be  enabled,  by  this  very  circumstance,  to 
fulfil  some  other  functions.  The  abortion  of  the  extremity  of 
the  leaf  in  vetches  renders  this  part  capable  of  performing  the 
functions  of  a  tendril,  and  abortion  of  tlie  flowers  of  the  Vine 
turns  the  peduncle  to  a  similar  use.  In  the  same  way,  branches 
are  changed  into  spines,  and  serve  as  defences  to  the  plant,  and 
the  calyx  of  compound  flowers  into  a  pappus,  which  is  useful, 
not  more  to  the  protection  of  the  sexual  organs,  than  the  dis- 
persion of  the  seed.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  an  abortive 
organ,  having  lost  the  power  of  performing  its  pioper  function, 
never  becomes  adapted  to  any  other,  and  remains  without  any 
manner  of  utility  in  the  plant.  In  a  multitude  of  vegetables, 
•we  find  abortive  stamens  and  pistils  reduced  to  simple  filaments 
or  stumps,  and  evidently  useless.  Petals  are  sometimes  found 
so  small  that  they  can  hardly  be  discovered,  and  cannot  protect 
the  sexual  organs.  What  purpose  can  those  florets  of  certain 
compound  flowers  serve,  which  are  invariably  sterile  ?  In  the 
animal  kingdom,  the  nipples  of  males,  the  rudiments  of  clavi- 
cles in  the  Cats,  and  of  digits  in  the  Ruminants,  present  us 
instances  of  a  similar  kind.  These  useless  parts  are  the  result 
of  the  primitive  symmetry  of  the  organization,  and  so  far  is 
their  existence  from  being  an  argument  against  the  general  or- 
der of  nature,  that  it  furnishes  one  of  the  most  striking  demon- 
strations in  its  favour. 

Finally,  abortion  may  be  so  complete  as  to  leave  no  trace 
■whatever  of  the  organ.  Sometimes,  it  may  be  discovered,  as 
in  the  seed  of  the  oak,  in  the  earliest  periods  of  its  existence, 
and  observed  to  he  gradually  diminishing,  while,  in  other  cases, 
the  organ  is  never  found  in  any  stage  of  growth.  Here,  abor- 
tion is  determined  by  causes  so  remote,  that  it  is  completed 
before  it  could  be  visible  to  us,  although  it  may  nevertheless 
have  once  existed.  To  illustrate  this  idea,  let  us  suppose  a 
branch  of  a  palm,  cut  open  from  top  to  bottom,  and  our  atten- 
tion directed  to  the  bunch  or  cluster  in  the  centre  of  the  section 
near  the  top,  which  is  destined  to  expand  the  following  year, 
then,  a  little  lower  down  to  the  one  that  is  to  expand  the 
second  year,  below  that  to  one  of  the  third  year,  and  so  on  till 
x\'e  arrive  at  that  which  will  expand  seven  years  hence.  Now, 
in  certain  palms,  there  is  an  entire  abortion  of  some  parts  of 
the  flower,  and  though  this  part  may  never  be  visible  when  the 
flower  is  developed,  yet  no  one  can  deny  that  it  may  have  ex- 
isted in  the  bunch  of  the  proximate  year,  or  in  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing, and  that  with  the  aid  of  proper  instruments  we  might 
have  discovered  it.  These  abortions,  like  others,  may  be  acci- 
dental or  natural :  when  the  former,  we  may  observe  the  part 
uaffected  by  abortion  in  other  individuals  of  the  same  species  ; 
■when  natural,  predisposed  as  it  were  by  the'march  of  vegetation, 
■we  recognise  the  abortion  only  by  the  analogy  of  neighbouring 
species.  The  elTects  of  abortion  on  other  organs  will  diifer  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  to  which  it  is  carried.  If  it  be  considera- 
ble, or  if  the  nourishment  he  thrown  upon  organs  of  a  more 
variable  nature  there  results,  not  only  a  change  of  size,  but 
of  function.  In  double  flowers,  which  present  a  remarkable 
example  of  this  kind,  the  abortion  of  the  anthers  permits  the 
filaments  to  be  developed  beyond  measure,  and  become  trans- 
formed into  veritable  petals.  All  that  has  been  said  of  abor- 
tions by  defect  is  equally  true  of  abortions  by  excess,  but  in  an 
inverse  sense  ;   and   thus,   while   one   necessarily  produces  the 


other,  and  both  exist  together,  it  is  impossible  in  most  cases 
to  determine  which  is  the  cause,  and  which  the  efl'ect.  Resum- 
ing now  the  immediate  consequences  of  this  theory  of  abortion, 
we  see  in  it,  first,  an  explanation  of  a  multitude  of  anomalies 
in  the  number  of  the  parts  of  plants  ;  secondly,  of  many,  per- 
haps all,  the  inequalities  of  proportion  in  similar  parts  ;  thirdly, 
of  the  changes  of  form,  and  consequently  of  use,  so  frequent  in 
organization,  and  incomprehensible  without  this  theory. 

The  next  source  of  error  to  he  considered,  is  the  adhesion  or 
enijruJ'iiiKj  of  organs.  Every  body  knows  that  a  buil  or  shoot, 
placed  upon  another  tree  under  certain  conditions,  is  united  to 
it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  part  of  it,  and  grow  as  if  it 
were  on  its  own  stem.  Every  body  knows,  too,  that  in  forests 
we  find  trees  of  the  same  or  analogous  species,  which  having 
been  accidentally  approximated,  are  united  together  so  as  to 
form  but  one  trunk  ;  and  many  have  observed  that  certain  or- 
gans of  plants,  that  have  been  brought  near  one  another,  are 
united  in  a  most  intimate  manner  ;  that  two  neighbouring 
flowers  may  be  so  united  as  to  form  hut  one,  having  a  double 
number  of  parts,  and  that  two  leaves  may  also  auhere  together, 
so  as  to  form  but  one  of  a  singular  shape.  So  long  as  these 
adhesions  take  place  rarely,  they  are  considered,  and  justly  too, 
as  simple  accidents,  and  no  importance  is  attached  to  them  in 
classification.  But  let  us  suppose  that  two  ovaries,  for  in- 
stance, stand  very  close  to  each  other  from  their  origin,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Pigeon-berry,  (Mitchella  Repens) ;  it  is  clear, 
that  by  reason  of  this  approximation,  the  opportunity  of  coa- 
lescing is  so  great,  that  union  will  always  take  place,  and  we 
shall  never  see  them  separate.  Now,  this  adhesion  is  nothing 
more  than  an  accident,  but  it  is  one  which  is  determined  by 
causes  belonging  to  organization,  and  as  constant  as  the  organ 
itself,  insomuch  that  we  have  what  may  be  called  a  constant 
accident,  and  though  these  terms  seem  contradictory,  this  kind 
of  phenomenon  is  still  very  common  in  nature. 

Not  only  may  similar  organs  be  primarily  disposed  in  such  a 
manner  as  not  to  be  able  to  grow  without  adhering  together, 
but  the  same  thing  takes  place  in  different  organs ;  and  it  is 
remarkable,  that  while  this  phenomenon  has  been  recognised 
under  certain  circumstances,  it  has,  in  analogous  cases,  been 
entirely  ovei-looked  or  denied.  Any  organ,  a  calyx  or  corolla, 
for  instance,  may  be  described  in  two  ways  ;  either  analytically, 
by  considering  it  as  an  unique  whole  divided  into  parts  more  or 
less  distinct,  or  synthetically,  as  an  aggregate  of  parts  essen- 
tially distinct,  but  more  or  less  appro.\imated  or  united.  In 
the  first  method,  we  are  bound  to  render  an  explanation  of  the 
causes  and  laws  of  the  separation  of  the  parts ;  in  the  second, 
to  give  a  similar  explanation  as  to  their  approximation  or  union. 
Both  methods  involve  some  hypothetical  considerations,  and 
yet,  we  must  follow  one  or  the  other.  If  we  are  describing  a 
Hollyhock,  we  must  either  regard  the  corolla  as  an  unique  ■nhole, 
divided  into  several  portions  called  petals,  or  the  petals  as  dis- 
tinct organs,  which  by  their  uuion  form  the  corolla.  Each  of 
these  modes  of  reasoning  may  possibly  have  some  good  founda- 
tion, but  certainly  it  cannot  be  right  to  adopt  one  in  the  case 
of  the  Hollyhock,  and  the  other  when  treating  of  a  diiferent 
flower.  We  must  be  consistent,  and  a  method  being  once  ad- 
mitted, it  must  be  adhered  to  in  all  analogous  cases.  The  phe- 
nomena of  crystallization,  to  borrow  an  illustration  from  a 
neighbouring  science,  were  explained  by  Rome  de  I'lsle,  by 
considering  crystals  as  integral  bodies,  which,  in  consequence 
of  different  truncations,  assume  all  the  secondary  forms.  The 
Abb^  Hauy,  on  the  contrary,  explained  the  same  facts  by 
supposing  primitive  molecules,  which,  aggregating  after  par- 
ticular laws,  determine  all  the  secondary  forms.  Either  theory 
may  be  adopted,  though  the  former  is  now  abandoned ;  but 
what  would  be  thought  of  a  mineralogist,  who  should  describe 
one  crystal  after  Rome  de  I'lsle's  method,  and  another,  after 
Hauy's  ?  And  yet,  such  is  the  state  of  botany,  that  this  is 
constantly  done  in  regard  to  that  science.  It  becomes,  there- 
fore, a  matter  of  serious  inquiry,  which  of  these  two  methods 
best  expresses  the  whole  of  the  facts,  and  whether  there  be 


156 


OK    THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF    BOTANY. 


cases  where  they  may  be  blended  together.  When  we  speak  of 
the  perfoliated  leaves  of  the  Honeysuckle,  the  idea  meant  to  be 
conveyed  is,  that  an  unique  or  orbicular  leaf  is  traversed  or 
enfiladed  by  the  stem  that  bears  it,  yet  no  one  at  the  present 
day  hesitates  to  consider  this  pretended  perfoliated  leaf  as  com- 
posed of  two  opposite  leaves  united  at  their  base.  In  precisely 
similar  cases  we  use  the  term  connate  leaves,  which  expresses 
nearly  enough  the  idea  of  union  ;  we  follow  all  its  degrees  from 
the  slightest  to  the  most  intimate  kind,  and  when  we  perceive 
an  interval  towards  the  point  of  junction,  we  still  consider  it  as 
two  leaves  imperfectly  united,  not  as  an  unique  leaf  deeply  gashed. 
The  reason  is,  that  at  the  base  of  the  plant  the  two  opposite 
leaves  are  separate  and  distinct,  and  that  as  we  approach  the 
summit,  they  tend  more  and  more  to  be  united  ;  that  we  find 
each  half  of  the  perfoliate  leaf  unique  in  appearance,  and  pos- 
sessing all  the  organization  of  one  of  the  inferior  leaves.  Thus, 
though  the  phenomenon  is  constant,  no  one  hesitates  to  con- 
sider it  as  a  kind  of  accident,  determined  by  the  organizntion 
itself. 

The  law  here  recognised  is  applicable  to  every  case  of  con- 
nate leaves,  and  we  must  admit  the  general  conclusion,  that  as 
leaves  may  adhere  together  accidentally,  there  are  eases  in  which 
this  phenomenon  occurs  constantly,  in  consequence  of  their  na- 
ture and  position.  All  that  has  been  said  of  leaves  must  be 
readily  admitted  of  stipules,  which  resemble  them  so  closely  ; 
so  that  when  we  see  all  the  Leguminosae  having  a  stipule  on 
each  side  of  the  petiole,  we  may  conceive  that,  if  these  two  sti- 
pules should  be  so  large  as  to  touch  on  the  side  farthest  from 
the  petiole,  they  might  be  united,  and  consequently  assume  the 
appearance  of  an  unique  stipule  opposite  the  leaf.  The  invo- 
lucres, too,  are  subject  to  the  same  law  of  adhesion,  as  might 
readily  be  supposed  from  analogy,  since  these  organs  are  now 
universally  regarded  as  only  assemblages  of  floral  leaves.  In 
the  Umbelliferae,  the  involucre  generally  consists  of  a  certain 
number  of  whorled  and  separate  leaflets,  but  in  some  species  of 
this  order,  there  is  found,  instead  of  this  whorl,  a  leafy  disk, 
presenting  as  many  teeth  and  furrows  as  there  are  leaflets  in 
the  neighbouring  species.  We  are  therefore  constrained  to  re- 
gard this  disk  as  formed  by  the  natural  union,  more  or  less 
complete,  of  many  leaflets,  and  not  as  a  single-leaved  involucre. 
If  then,  the  leaves  and  involucres  be  so  readily  regarded  as  sub- 
ject to  this  law  of  adhesion — of  the  union  of  several  distinct 
parts  into  one — why  should  not  the  fact  of  its  operation  be  ad- 
mitted in  regard  to  the  calyx  ?  This  organ  resembles  the  invo- 
lucre in  every  respect ;  the  anatomy  of  the  sepals  shows  that 
they  are  entirely  leafy  organs  ;  they  are  green  and  decompose 
carbonic  acid  like  the  leaves  ;  they  are  almost  always  furnished 
with  the  same  hairs,  glands,  and  sacks  as  the  true  leaves,  and, 
finally,  in  a  multitude  of  cases,  accidental  or  habitual,  we  see 
them  developed  into  true  leaves.  If  then  the  calyx  is  of  a  leafy 
nature,  and  so  very  analogous  to  the  involucre,  why  describe  it 
on  a  diametrically  opposite  plan  ?  Why  consider  it  as  a  unique 
organ,  more  or  less  divided,  instead  of  saying,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding cases,  that  it  is  formed  of  pieces  more  or  less  united 
together .'  Besides,  the  latter  method  involves  no  more  hypo- 
thesis than  the  former ;  since,  in  a  very  considerable  number  of 
plants  the  sepals  are  completely  distinct  from  one  another,  and 
even  attached  separately  to  the  peduncles.  It  is  best  supported 
too  by  their  anatomy,  for  all  the  nerves  of  the  calyx  are  di- 
rected from  the  base  to  the  summit,  as  in  leaves,  though  con- 
stantly described  as  if  they  proceeded  from  the  summit  to  the 
base  ;  and  since  all  modern  botanists  admit  the  union  of  the  calyx 
to  the  ovary,  it  would  be  strangely  inconsistent  to  imagine  that 
the  sepals  could  not  be  united  as  easily  to  one  another  as  to  a 
foreign  organ.  Instead  of  saying  of  a  calyx,  that  it  is  deeply 
cleft,  the  most  proper  language  obviously  is,  that  the  sepals  are 
united  only  at  the  base  ;  instead  of  describing  it  as  lohed  and 
toothed,  the  sepals  should  be  considered  as  united  half  or  more 
of  their  length  ;  instead  of  distinguishing  calices  into  poiyse- 
palous  and  monosepalous,  we  are  bound  to  use  the  distinctions 
of  polysepalous,   or  free   sepals,   and  gamasepalous,  or  sepals 


more  or  less  united,  and  reserve  the  term  monosepalous  for  the 
rare  cases,  where  there  really  exists  but  one  lateral  sepal. 

The  same  reasoning,  the  same  analogies  are  applicable,  with 
perhaps  still  greater  force,  to  the  operation  of  the  same  law 
upon  the  corolla.  This  is  not  an  unique  whole,  more  or  less 
divided,  any  more  than  the  calyx,  but  an  assemblage  or  whorl 
of  petals,  sometimes  perfectly  free,  and  sometimes  more  or  less 
united.  In  many  eases  this  union  is  in  a  manner  manifest  to 
the  eye,  while  in  others  it  is  indicated  by  the  disposition  of  the 
vessels;  where  it  is  not  thus  visible,  and  the  tubes  are  continu- 
ous, it  may  be  conjectured  by  analogy,  and  by  the  insensible 
gradations  to  be  observed  between  corollas  with  petals  entirely 
free,  and  those  with  petals  united.  The  corolla  of  the  clover  is 
formed  of  but  one  piece,  instead  of  four  separate  and  distinct 
petals,  as  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Leguminosae  ;  yet  who,  on  that 
account,  would  deny  its  analogy  to  that  order,  and  that  it  dif- 
fers only  in  the  natural  adhesion  of  its  petals  .'  Adopting  the 
ordinary  way  of  distinguishing  corollas  into  monopetalous  and 
polypetalous,  we  must  suppose  an  organization  entirely  different ; 
for  what  analogy  is  there  between  a  flat  petal  associated  with 
several  others  in  a  whorl,  each  attached  to  a  single  point,  and  a 
circular  tuhidar  petal,  with  many  points  of  attachment  and  a 
sinuated  margin  .'  Such  a  fact  can  be  considered  as  hardly  pos- 
sible, when  we  recollect  how  many  families  there'  are,  in  which 
we  see  plants  with  monopetalous  and  polypetalous  corollas,  in- 
discriminately mingled  together.  And  what  are  we  to  make  of 
those  corollas  whose  pieces,  as  in  the  vine,  are  separate  at  their 
base,  but  united  at  the  summit  ?  This  reasoning  becomes  still 
more  striking,  when  we .  consider  the  light  in  which  stamens 
have  been  viewed.  These  parts  possess  an  extraordinary  ana- 
logy to  petals ;  their  point  of  attachment  is  constantly  the 
same ;  their  number  and  position  are  generally  symmetrical  ; 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  filament  of  the  stamen  is 
perfectly  similar  to  that  of  the  claws  of  the  petals,  and  in  some 
flowers,  they  pass  into  each  other  by  such  insensible  gradations, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  say  where  one  begins  and  the  other  ends. 
This  being  the  case,  we  ought  certainly  to  expect  that  the  same 
mode  of  reasoning,  in  regard  to  the  adhesion  of  one,  should  be 
equally  applicable  to  that  of  the  other.  Now,  however  much 
the  stamens  may  be  united  together,  they  never  are  considered 
in  the  light  of  an  unique  organ,  divided  more  or  less  deeply  into 
several  parts,  but  always  as  separate  and  distinct  organs,  united 
according  to  the  law  of  adhesion.  But  is  this  union  of  the  fila- 
ments any  more  apparent  than  that  of  the  petals  ?  Are  not  the 
two  phenomena  equally  constant  in  the  same  species }  Are 
any  more  evident  traces  of  it  left  in  one  than  in  tlie  other  ? 
These  two  organs  are  of  the  same  nature,  and  we  must  either 
consider  the  whorl  of  stamens  as  an  unique  whole,  deeply  cleft, 
or  the  whorl  of  petals  as  formed  of  many  pieces  more  or  less 
united.  What  would  bethought  of  a  zoologist  who  should  de- 
scribe the  feet  of  the  web-footed  birds  as  orbicular  disks,  di- 
vided to  a  greater  or  less  extent .'  All  naturalists  regard  them 
as  distinct  digits,  united  by  a  membrane,  and  this  mauner  of 
considering  organs  as  compound  bodies,  is  the  only  one  that  re- 
presents the  natural  state  of  things, — the  only  one  that  admits 
of  clear  expressions  and  exact  comparisons. 

The  truth  of  this  theory  becomes  still  more  manifest,  when 
we  attend  to  the  manner  in  which  petals  adhere  at  their  base. 
In  a  polypetalous  flower  we  see  that  generally  each  petal  is  fixed 
at  its  base  by  a  fibre  which  carries  its  nourishment,  and  that  if 
its  base  be  very  large,  the  rest  adheres  only  by  cellular  tissue. 
Every  family  has  thus  a  certain  disposition  in  the  vessels  of  the 
petals,  and  it  is  always  the  same,  whether  they  be  united  or  not. 
This  analogy  is  equally  striking,  when  considered  in  another 
point  of  view.  Petals  are  composed  generally  of  a  claw  and 
limb,  as  stamens  are  of  filament  and  anther,  and  adhesion  or- 
dinarily takes  place  by  beginning  at  the  base  and  finishing  at 
the  upper  part,  so  that  most  petals,  when  they  unite,  adhere  by 
their  claws,  while  the  limb  is  free.  In  the  same  manner,  most 
adhering  stamens  have  the  filaments  joined  and  the  anthers  dis- 
tinct. 


ON   THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF   BOTANT. 


157 


We  come  now  to  the  pistil,  or  livliat,  in  this  relation,  is  the 
same  thing,  the  fruit.  In  the  Ranunculaceae,  we  generally  find 
the  fruit  composed  of  a  considerable  number  of  partial  carpels, 
united,  in  some  species,  only  at  their  base,  in  others  half  their 
length,  in  others,  nearly  to  their  summit.  Hence,  no  conclu- 
sion can  be  more  natural  than  that  ovaries,  apparently  unique, 
but  divided  internally  into  many  cells,  are  in  reality  formed  by 
the  constant  and  natural  adhesion  of  many  carpels.  Sometimes 
the  partitions  between  the  cells  are  formed  by  the  re-entering 
valves,  the  carpels  being  plainly  united  by  their  lateral  faces — 
a  fact  which  beautifully  illustrates  this  theory.  We  would  say 
more  on  this  point,  but  as  it  would  be  difScult  to  render  our 
language  intelligible  to  any  but  practical  botanists,  we  are  re- 
luctantly obliged  to  dismiss  thus  briefly  the  most  interesting 
among  all  the  discussions  on  this  subject. 

If  the  above  reasoning  be  correct,  it  appears  that  the  adhe- 
sion of  different  organs  takes  place  as  a  necessary  consequence 
of  primitive  contiguity,  constituting  w-hat  is  called  jvedisposed 
adhesion.  It  is  easily  conceived  that  it  may  mislead  us  in  re- 
gard to  the  number,  position  and  nature  of  the  organs,  and  that 
it  constitutes  a  subject  of  considerable  importance  in  classifica- 
tion. Every  case  of  adhesion  cannot  be  of  equal  consequence, 
and  we  are  therefore  led  to  adopt  the  following  general  rules  for 
guiding  our  inquiries  on  this  point.  First,  the  adiiesion  of  the 
dift'erent  organs  of  fructification  is  so  much  the  more  important, 
as  it  takes  place  between  parts  in  which  this  operation  is  most 
difficult.  Secondly,  the  adhesion  of  these  organs  is  so  much 
the  more  important,  as  it  is  necessarily  connected  with  the 
greatest  changes  in  the  general  symmetry.  Thus,  the  union  of 
the  petals  and  stamens,  of  the  filaments  and  styles,  of  the  an- 
thers and  stigmas,  of  the  ovary  and  calyx,  in  consequence  of  the 
great  anatomical  similarity  of  these  parts,  are  phenomena  of 
easy  and  frequent  occurrence,  and  therefore  of  no  great  impor- 
tance ;  while,  for  the  very  opposite  reason,  the  union  of  the 
corolla  and  calyx,  of  the  stamens  and  calyx,  of  the  corolla  and 
ovary,  must  be  regarded  as  instances  of  adhesion  of  the  highest 
importance. 

We  are  not  to  suppose,  however,  that  whenever  two  organs 
adhere  together,  they  necessarily  preserve  all  the  parts  of  which 
they  were  originally  composed.  When  tw'o  labiate  flowers  are 
united,  we  rarely  find  eight  stamens,  hut  seven,  six,  or  only  five, 
and  instead  of  ten  lobes,  their  corolla  may  present  indiiferently 
all  the  numbers  between  five  and  ten.  In  fact,  the  union  of 
two  regular  flowers  is  seldom  recognisable  except  by  an  aug- 
mentation of  the  number  of  their  parts,  some  of  each  being  lost 
by  abortion.  This  theoretical  consideration  may  be  applied,  in 
many  cases,  for  the  purpose  of  recognising  the  affinities  of  cer- 
tain plants.  The  Cruciferae;  for  example,  have  naturally  four 
petals  and  six  stamens,  which  inequality  in  the  number  of  parts, 
indicating  a  loss  of  the  original  symmetry  of  the  flower,  we  wish 
to  determine  whether  they  are  related  to  plants  whose  number 
of  stamens  is  double  that  of  the  petals,  or  to  those  where  these 
numbers  are  equal.  If  to  the  former,  v:e  must  suppose  them 
iu  their  primitive  state  to  have  had  eight  stamens,  two  of  which 
have  aborted  ;  if  to  the  latter,  that  each  flower  is  originally 
composed  of  four  petals  and  four  stamens,  but  that  they  grow 
in  threes,  and  that  there  is  a  union  of  the  three  flowers,  with  an 
abortion  of  the  lateral  ones,  excepting  a  single  stamen  in  each. 
This  latter  hypothesis  implies  a  more  complicated  operation 
than  the  former,  but  still  appears  to  approach  nearer  the  truth; 
for  cases  have  been  found  where  the  flowers  possessed  four 
petals  and  four  stamens,  and  where,  in  place  of  the  two  lateral 
stamens,  there  was  on  each  side  a  flower  with  the  same  number 
of  parts.  We  are  still  farther  confirmed  in  the  belief  that  this 
is  the  primitive  state  of  the  Cruciferae,  because  the  position  of 
the  two  lateral  stamens  is  always  below  that  of  the  others,  be- 
cause they  arc  very  constantly  w-anting  in  many  species,  and 
because  the  Hypecoum,  the  only  genus  with  which  the  Cruci- 
ferae have  any  marked  relation,  has  four  stamens  and  four 
petals.    This  single  case  must  suffice  to  show  the  practical  ap- 


plication of  the  theory  of  abortion  and  adhesion,  iu  unravelling 
the  natural  affinities  of  plants. 

III.  Having  now  exposed  the  principal  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  recognising  the  symmetry  of  the  organs,  we  shall  show  very 
briefly  in  what  this  symmetry  and  the  comparative  value  of  its 
elements  consist.  The  most  important  of  these  elements  is  the 
existence  or  absence  of  organs ;  and  on  this  point  we  must  he- 
ware  of  some  powerful  causes  of  error.  Two  organs  really  ex- 
isting may  be  so  united  and  assume  such  an  appearance,  that 
the  presence  of  one  becomes  problematical.  Thus,  the  union  of 
the  calyx  and  corolla  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  one  or  the 
other  of  these  organs  is  wanting  in  plants,  where  both  really 
exist,  and  the  union  of  the  pericarp  and  spermoderm  has  some- 
times induced  the  belief  that  the  seeds  had  no  proper  envelope, 
or  that  the  pericarp  was  wanting.  Certain  organs  may  fail 
also,  in  consequence  of  abortion  ;  and  it  is  only  by  means  of  an 
acquaintance  with  the  general  symmetry  of  the  plant,  that  we 
can  distinguish  between  this  phenomenon  and  that  where  the 
organ  is  naturally  wanting. 

After  the  presence  or  absence  of  organs,  the  next  most  im- 
portant element  of  their  symmetry  is  their  absolute  and  relative 
position  ;  for  here  we  expect  the  greatest  and  most  permanent 
difl^erence.  Tlie  essential  position  of  a  particular  organ  must 
be  determined  in  relation  to  that  which  serves  as  its  real  sup- 
port, that  is,  from  which  it  receives  its  origin  and  nourishment, 
and  not  organs  foreign  to  its  existence.  This  it  is  frequently 
very  difficult  to  recognise,  but  their  relative  position,  though 
less  important,  may  be  oftener  and  more  surely  employed.  In 
all  vascular  vegetables,  which  comprise  all  with  whose  symmetry 
we  are  acquainted,  we  remark  that  their  organs  are  placed  rela- 
tively to  one  another  in  a  general  order.  In  the  flower,  the  pis- 
til occupies  the  centre,  and  the  stamens,  petals,  and  sepals,  com- 
posed of  a  certain  number  of  parts,  are  disposed  around  the 
pistil  according  to  diflerent  symmetries.  They  may  be  placed 
directly  before  or  alternate  with  one  another ;  they  may  corres- 
pond with  the  parts  of  the  pericarp,  or  have  no  relation  what- 
ever with  them.  These  diff'erent  combinations  possess  consi- 
derable importance  in  classification,  provided  that  we  avoid  the 
two  sources  of  error  already  exposed,  adhesion  and  abortion, 
Avhich  by  diminishing  the  number  of  the  parts,  conceal  their 
true  symmetry.  Thus,  it  belongs  to  the  symmetry  of  the 
Leguminosae  to  have  the  petals  alternate  with  the  sepals,  hut 
if  the  two  inferior  petals  be  united,  or  if  one  of  the  petals  prove 
abortive,  the  number  is  reduced,  and  the  symmetry  is  masked 
to  the  eyes  of  the  superficial  observer. 

The  absolute  or  relative  number  of  organs  is  a  character 
whose  importance  has  been  very  differently  estimated,  but  which, 
like  many  others,  varies  under  difl^erent  circumstances.  The 
absolute  number  of  organs  is  liable  to  be  modified  by  a  variety 
of  causes,  such  as  abortion,  adhesion,  &c. ;  but  where  all  these 
sources  of  error  are  avoided,  we  cannot  deny  that  this  character 
is  one  of  considerable  importance,  though  subject  to  certain 
conditions.  We  may  say,  first,  that  the  absolute  number  of 
organs  in  every  plant  is  generally  more  fixed,  and  consequently 
so  much  the  more  important,  the  smaller  that  number  is; 
secondly,  that  unity  never  exists  naturally  iu  any  of  the  re- 
productive organs,  except  the  pistil, — whenever  they  are  found 
single,  it  is  the  consequence  of  abortion  or  adhesion, — and  in  the 
conservative  organs,  unity  of  the  leaves  exists  only  in  the  Mo- 
nocotyledons ;  thirdly,  to  ascertain  the  true  absolute  number 
of  organs  in  a  plant,  it  is  necessary  to  go  back,  by  means  of 
the  theory  of  abortion  and  adhesion,  to  the  number  that  appears 
to  be  the  primitive  type  of  the  class,  or  to  one  of  its  multiples. 
The  numbers  4,  5,  and  their  multiples,  seem  to  belong  to  the 
Dicotyledons,  and  3,  with  its  multiples,  to  the  Monocotyledons, 
while  2  and  its  multiples  are  very  permanent  among  the  Acotyle- 
dons.  Characters  drawn  from  the  relative  number  of  organs, 
that  is,  from  a  comparison  of  the  proportional  number  of  the 
parts  of  the  diff'erent  systems  of  a  compound  organ,  may  be  re- 
lied on  with  considerable  confidence.    Thus,  the  absolute  num- 


158 


ON    THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM    OF    IIOIANY. 


ber  of  stamens  in  the  Epilobium  is  8,  the  relative  number  1 
twice  that  of  the  petals.  Under  this  point  of  view,  we  are 
obliged  to  distinguish  between  muUipJe,  determinate,  and  inde- 
terminate relations.  Au  instance  of  the  first  we  have  in  the 
Epilobium,  where  the  parts  of  the  calyx  are  4,  corolla  4,  sta- 
mens S,  and  pistil  4  ;  of  the  second,  in  the  Violet,  where  the 
parts  of  the  flower  are  as  5  to  3  compared  to  those  of  the  pistil ; 
of  the  last,  in  the  Magnolias,  where  the  number  is  not  fixed  in 
the  petals,  stamens,  or  pistils.  If  now  abortion  take  place  in 
all  the  four  systems  of  a  flower  at  once,  their  relative  numbers 
may  remain  the  same,  while  their  absolute  number  -will  be 
changed  ;  but  how  are  we  to  distinguish  between  these  two 
kinds  of  numbers  ?  If  we  consider  that  when  a  single  system 
is  altered,  the  flower  becomes  necessarily  irregular,  and  that 
in  all  cases,  where  every  system  is  affected  at  the  same  time, 
it  remains  regular,  we  arrive  at  a  simple  and  exact  theorem  : 
viz. — In  all  regular  flowers,  the  relative  number  of  the  pr.rts 
of  each  system  should  be  the  first  object  of  our  research ;  iu  all 
irregular  flowers,  we  begin  by  ascertaining  the  absolute  number 
of  each  system,  and  thence  deduce  their  relative  numbers. 
When  one  or  more  parts  of  a  system  are  so  numerous  as  to 
present  many  ranks,  the  relations  of  number,  though  still  ex- 
isting, are  difficult  to  he  perceived,  though  by  care  and  dili- 
gence we  may  sometimes  find  them.  An  oriental  Poppy  has 
been  observed,  which  had  3  sepals,  6  petals,  and  564  stamens, 
that  is,   94  ranks  of  6. 

The  next  element  of  symmetry  to  be  considered,  is  the  abso- 
lute, relative,  and  proportional  size  of  the  parts  ;  and  here  we 
may  compare  together,  in  regard  to  size,  two  systems,  or  their 
parts.  The  proportional  dimensions  of  the  parts  of  a  system 
are  frequently  a  matter  of  great  interest,  for  the  whole  study 
of  irregular  plants,  and  consequently,  the  whole  art  of  referring 
them  to  the  regular  symmetries  of  which  they  form  a  part,  rests 
upon  the  examination  of  the  inequality  of  the  parts  of  a  system. 
The  fundamental  principle  of  this  examination  appears  to  be, 
that  among  vascular,  and  perhaps,  among  all  vegetables,  the 
parts  of  the  same  system  are  naturally  of  equal  size,  and  become 
otherwise  only  in  consequence  of  phenomena  more  or  less  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  general  structure  of  the  plant.  The 
causes  of  these  phenomena  we  are  not  always  able  to  specify, 
but  the  position  of  the  flower  on  the  stem  undoubtedly  deter- 
mines a  great  many  inequalities.  When  solitary,  erect,  and 
terminal,  it  is  equally  nourished,  and  will  of  course  be  regu- 
lar, insomuch  that  it  may  be  considered  as  an  unexceptionable 
general  law,  that  flowers  thus  situated  are  regular,  even  when 
they  belong  to  a  family  ordinarily  irregular.  If  other  flowers 
spring  up  aroiind  it,  forming  a  head,  their  equilibrium  is  dis- 
turbed ;  those  in  the  middle,  being  equally  pressed,  will  become 
abortive  or  change  their  form,  though  still  continuing  regular  ; 
the  lateral  ones,  being  unequally  pressed  by  their  neighbours, 
will  have  a  tendency  to  increase  on  their  external  side,  where 
the  pressure  is  least.  AU  families  with  a  peculiarly  irregular 
flower,  are  never  observed  to  have  the  flowers  terminal,  always 
having  them  axillary,  or  disposed  iu  a  spike  or  cluster.  Some- 
times, iu  the  Labiatae,  we  find  terminal  flowers,  but  then  they 
are  always  regular.  An  important  result  of  these  considerations 
is,  that  since  the  primitive  symmetry  of  each  system  may  be 
deranged  by  accidental  causes,  it  becomes  necessary,  before  we 
can  establish  a  good  classification,  to  trace  back  all  irregu- 
lar plants  to  their  primitive  and  regular  types,  though  these 
types  may  be  rarely  encountered,  and  sometimes  are  even  ideal. 
Thus,  the  Personatae  are  found  to  be  only  alterations  from  the 
type  of  Solaneae, 

We  have  thus  exposed  very  briefly  the  principles  which  de- 
termine the  comparative  importance  of  organs,  and  the  method 
•whereby  we  may  graduate  the  degree  of  importance  presented 
by  the  different  points  of  view  under  which  each  organ  may  be 
studied.  It  is  also  requisite  to  show  how  these  two  modes  of 
reasoning  maybe  combined,  or  in  other  words,  how  we  are  to 
arrive  at  a  proper  appreciation  of  characters  :  for  a  character, 
in  fact,  is  one  manner  of  considering  organs  generally,  applied 


to  one  in  particular.  As  a  general  rule,  the  value  of  characters 
is  in  a  ratio  composed  of  the  importance  of  the  organ,  and 
of  the  point  of  view  under  which  we  may  consider  it ;  so  that 
characters,  drawn  from  a  particular  organ,  will  have  a  value 
proportioned  to  that  of  the  modification,  and  when  drawn  from 
the  modification,  it  will  be  proportioned  to  the  importance  of 
the  organs.  Though  the  organs  have  difi'erent  degrees  of  re- 
lative importance,  yet  the  value  of  characters  drawn  from  them 
will  depend  on  the  importance  of  the  modification;  for  a  very 
trivial  one  in  a  very  important  organ  may  furnish  a  character 
of  less  consequence  than  a  greater  in  a  far  less  important  or- 
gan. The  results  of  the  combination  of  these  two  elements 
will  be  equal  or  unequal.  They  will  be  equal,  first,  when  the 
same  modification  is  common  to  two  organs  of  the  same  physi- 
ological rank  ;  secondly,  W'hen  two  modifications  of  the  same 
rank  exist  in  one  or  two  organs  of  the  same  rank  ;  thirdly, 
when  the  importance  of  the  organ  is  counterbalanced  by  that  of 
the  modification.  Thus,  if  we  compare  the  sensible  qualities 
of  the  embryo,  the  highest  of  all  the  organs  in  the  scale  of  im- 
portance, with  the  existence  of  the  nectary  ;  or  in  other  words, 
if  we  compare  the  least  important  modification  of  the  most  im- 
portant organ  with  the  most  important  point  of  view  under 
which  the  least  important  organ  can  be  considered,  we  shall  have 
two  analogous  results,   as  theory  and  observation  both  testify. 

Here  we  must  close  our  notice  of  the  Natural  System, 
Though  many  points  have  been  left  untouched,  and  though  we 
are  sensible  that  general  principles  must  lose  much  of  their 
force  and  clearness,  when  presented  without  the  proper  illustra- 
tions and  discussions ;  yet,  we  trust  that  a  more  correct  idea 
of  the  philosophy  of  botany  has  been  conveyed,  than  is  readily 
obtained  from  the  books  published  as  peculiarly  illustrating  it. 

HOW  TO  THICKEN  THORN-HEDGES,  AND  PRODUCE 

BRANCHES    ON    TREES. 

The  object  of  the  experiments  related  in  the  following  paper, 
(which  we  have  gathered  from  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland 
Society  of  Scotland)  was  to  procure  lateral  branches  from  the 
bare  stems  of  thorns,  and  other  ligneous  vegetables  ;  and  the 
result  being  stated  as  satisfactory,  it  is  only  necessary  to  ex- 
plain the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  effected.  The  sap,  in  cir- 
culating or  ascending,  naturally  moves  along  the  bark  of  a  bare 
stem  of  an  even  surface,  without  any  tendency  to  develope  la- 
teral shoots  ;  but  the  temporary  interruption  of  the  course  of  the 
sap  in  thorns,  as  it  is  known  to  do  in  other  plants,  seems  to 
give  an  impulse  to  inactive  germs,  by  which  lateral  branches  are 
produced ;  and  therefore,  in  point  of  beauty  and  utility,  the  dis- 
covery is  important. 

A  thorn-hedge,  when  properly  managed,  surpasses  in  appear- 
ance and  durability  any  ordinary  field  fence.  But  they  never 
succeed  in  situations  where  they  are  exposed  to  too  much  mois- 
ture or  where  the  soil  is  arid  ;  and  in  cold  exposed  situations 
their  stems  become  covered  with  grey  lichens,  indicative  of  an 
unhealthy  condition.  When  such  cold  soils  are  not  trenched 
previously  to  planting,  hedges  and  trees  make  slow  progress, 
especially  where  the  ground  is  stiff,  and  opposes  the  shooting  of 
the  roots,  ^"^ery  light  gravelly  soils  are  also  unfavourable  to  the 
growth  of  thorns.  But  the  greatest  error  usually  committed 
in  rearing  thorn-hedges,  is  the  neglect  of  keeping  them  clean 
and  properly  trimmed  when  young,  so  that  at  best  the  hedge 
becomes  as  broad  as  it  is  high,  or  looks  like  a  canopy  siipported 
by  bare  sticks,  on  account  of  being  choked  at  the  root  by  weeds. 
No  hedge  looks  so  neat  or  lasts  so  long  as  one  kept  nearly  in 
the  form  of  a  stone  wall,  the  proper  dimensions  being  from 
three  to  four  and  a  half  feet  in  height,  from  one  to  two  feet  in 
breadth  or  thickness  at  the  base,  inclining  upwards,  until  at  the 
top  its  diameter  is  only  a  few  inches. 

But  when  neglected,  as  already  said,  it  has  hitherto  been 
considered  an  irreparable  evil  attendant  on  thorn  hedges,  as  res- 
pects their  bushiness  at  the  root,  that  they  are  scanty  and  bare, 


ON   THE    NATUEAL    SYSTEM    OF    BOTANY. 


159 


and  not  to  be  remedied  but  by  cutting  the  whole  close  to  the 
ground,  and  training  it  anew,  which  though  efficient  is  a  slow 
style  of  amendment.  On  a  farm  near  Stirling  a  farmer  tried  a 
new  method  of  renovating  his  hedges,  where  many  of  the  thorn- 
stems  were  almost  entirely  destitute  of  lateral  branches  within 
two  feet  of  the  ground.  This  he  accomplished  by  making  hori- 
zontal and  semicircular  incisions  in  the  bark,  by  which  from  a 
quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  breadth  of  both  layers  of  the  bark 
was  removed  fully  half-way  round  the  stem.  In  a  few  weeks 
after,  buds  appeared  and  shot  forth,  usually  close  under,  but 
sometimes  over  the  incisions.  This  simple  operation,  performed 
by  a  hedge-hill  or  a  pocket  knife,  early  in  spring,  does  not  seem 
to  injure  in  the  least  the  thorns,  for  the  cut  being  clean  and  not 
deep,  no  canker  ensues,  and  it  soon  closes  up  again,  leaving  only 
a  slight  scar  in  the  place;  care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  no 
shred  of  the  inner  bark  remain  to  continue  the  circulation. 
The  partial  interruption  merely  causes  a  lateral  exertion  in  the 
sap-vessels  to  overcome  the  obstruction,  and  the  sap  thus  accu- 
mulated gives  rise  to  the  new  branches,  so  that  the  stem  may 
be  cut  at  two  or  more  places  if  necessary.  The  artificial 
branches  seldom  failed  to  appear  where  the  stems  were  healthy, 
and  have  sometimes  attained  a  length  of  two  feet  the  first 
season.  But  as  such  tender  twigs  are  apt  to  be  hurt  by  frost, 
if  cut  too  young,  they  were  not  touched  till  the  first  or  some- 
times the  second  spring  after,  when  such  as  required  it  were 
cut  off  a  few  inches  from  the  stem,  which  caused  ao  immediate 
subdivision  of  each  branch.  Thus,  the  ragged  ill-filled  hedges 
of  this  gentleman  have  been  continued  at  the  regular  height, 
and  at  the  same  time  trained  into  a  uniform  breadth  and  thick- 
ness, not  attainable  by  any  other  method,  in  the  same  space  of 
time. 

Having  succeeded  so  well  with  the  thorns,  he  tried  after- 
wards an  experiment  on  a  few  forest  trees,  about  six  inches  in 
diameter.  The  incisions  were  made  about  si.x  feet  from  the 
ground,  and,  iu  some  instances,  immediately  above  slight  swell- 
ings, which  indicated  a  tendency  to  shoot  forth  branches.  The 
consequence  was,  that  a  new  branch  sprang  forth  the  same 
season,  from  almost  every  one  of  the  trees.  In  the  thorns, 
however,  no  search  was  made  for  these  eyes,  and  few  or  none 
were  observed.  The  object  in  these  last  experiments  was  to 
ascertain  whether  a  tree  intended  to  be  ornamental,  but  which 
had  been  forced  up  by  close  planting  to  a  long  pole,  might  be 
made  to  assume  a  lu.xuriant  appearance,  and  so  far  as  this  gen- 
tlemen has  proceeded,  it  appears  that  his  attempt  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  desired  effect. 

ON    IMPROVING    THE  BLOOM,    AND    PRESERVING 

OF    CERTAIN    FRUITS. 

Mr.  Robert  Gauen,  gardener,  at  MiUbrook,  near  Southamp- 
ton, some  years  ago  published  a  method  of  improving  the 
bloom  of  certain  fruits,  which  is  worthy  of  the  notice  of  those 
who  have  an  interest  in  ornamenting,  preserving,  and  packing 
such  articles,  and  to  which  we  beg  to  renew  attention.  Ten 
years'  experience,  and  the  award  of  many  prizes  for  show  fruits, 
have  conferred  on  Mr.  Gauen  singular  skill  in  this  branch.  The 
delicate  bloom  of  the  cucumber,  its  length,  girth,  and  straight- 
ness,  are,  as  is  well  known,  important  considerations  among 
florists  and  growers  of  prize  fruits.  For  these  purposes  the 
cucumber  must  be  protected  from  the  drip  of  the  lights,  from 
the  pei'iod  of  its  blossoming,  and  from  the  damp  of  the  soil,  by 
two  pieces  of  glass,  about  four  inches  wide,  and  from  eight  to 
a  dozen  long  ;  the  one  placed  under  the  fruit,  and  the  other  sup- 
ported on  pegs  over  it;  both  having  a  slope  to  one  end,  to  carry 
off  any  condensed  damp. 

To  procure  the  straightness  of  a  gun-barrel,  a  slender  and 
lengthy  form  for  the  cucumber,  instead  of  supporting  the  upper 
glass  on  pegs,  lay  on  the  under  glass,  alongside  the  young  fruit, 
two  pieces  of  wood  about  the  length  you  suppose  the  cucumber 
may  grow  to,  about  two  inches  square,  and  with  the  upper 


inner  angle  of  each  piece  bevelled  off.  The  solar  heat  is  in- 
creased by  these  pieces  of  wood  throughout  the  day,  and  by 
close  confinement  during  the  night,  the  fruit  is  conducted  to 
considerably  more  than  its  natural  length.  This  mode  of  se- 
curing elongation  is  attended  with  small  prickles  placed  at 
greater  distances  than  is  desirable  in  a  handsome  specimen. 

To  ensure  shape,  size,  prickles,  and  bloom,  the  foliage  of  the 
plant  must  be  kept  moderately  thin.  Never  wet  the  fruit  in 
watering  the  plants.  Before  cutting  it,  be  careful  that  it  is 
perfectly  straight,  at  least  a  day  previously,  for  this  operation 
can  never  be  so  well  conducted  as  when  the  fruit  is  on  the 
plant.  In  straightening  warped  fruit  after  it  is  cut,  let  it  be 
kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  excluded  from  the  change  of  air. 
Mr.  Gauen  merely  kept  them  in  their  show-box,  in  a  cool,  dry 
room. 

His  straightening  process  is  thus  : — Take  a  flat  hoard,  half 
an  inch  thick,  four  inches  broad,  and  the  length  of  the  cucum- 
ber ;  bore  holes  at  intervals  of  half  an  inch  across  the  board, 
and  within  one  inch  of  each  end.  Provide  two  strips  the  length 
of  the  hoard,  one  half  inch  wide  and  one  fourth  inch  thick; 
place  one  strip  on  edge,  supported  by  a  peg  placed  in  one  of  the 
holes  outside  the  strip  that  is  on  edge,  and  put  the  board  under 
the  growing  fruit,  with  the  two  ends  of  the  arc  formed  by  the 
crooked  fruit  against  the  upright  strip ;  place  a  bit  of  cotton- 
wool or  moss  between  each  end  of  the  fruit  and  the  upright 
strip,  to  prevent  bruising.  Then  take  the  other  strip  and  bring 
it  within  a  peg  placed  at  one  end,  with  a  bit  of  wool  or  moss 
placed  against  the  outer  arc  of  the  crooked  fruit,  as  before. 
Proceed  to  straighten  the  fruit  with  one  hand,  straining  it  by 
tlie  strip  (keeping  the  whole  steady  with  the  other)  towards  the 
fixed  upright  strip,  so  as  to  bring  it  in  a  straight  direction,  and 
fix  another  peg.  In  ordinary  cases  the  cucumber  may  be  made 
perfectly  straight  at  the  first  operation  ;  but  in  some  instances 
it  requires  two  or  three.  A  fruit  may  be  straightened  at  any 
period  of  its  growth,  but  it  requires  to  be  left  one  night  under 
training,  after  the  operation,  to  prevent  its  return  to  crookedness. 
The  bloom  of  the  fruits,  which  suffers  by  tl  i^  operation,  may 
be  restored  ;  which  Mr.  Guaen  accomplishes  by  the  use  of  a 
box  with  sliding  and  false  bottoms,  a  common  powder-puff  and 
some  finely  calcined  and  perfectly  dry  magnesia.  In  packing, 
if  there  are  more  tiers  of  cucumbers  than  one,  they  mnst  be 
kept  apart  by  these  false  bottoms  being  supported  so  as  not  to 
injure  the  subjacent  fruit. 

To  preserve  bloom  on  the  grapes,  complete  the  thinning  of  the 
berries  when  they  have  gained  half  their  size,  and  do  not  dash 
water  violently  against  them  or  subject  them  to  a  current  of 
steam.  Abundance  of  sun  and  air  are  favourable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  bloom,  neither  will  a  moderate  degree  of  shade  injure 
them.  When  grapes  with  delicate  bloom  are  gathered,  they  should 
be  placed  in  a  basket  of  well  threshed  moss,  taking  care  not  to 
bruise  any  of  the  berries.  To  restore  the  bloom  to  them,  work 
the  puff  at  intervals  of  an  hour  or  two,  in  the  blooming  box. 

Grapes  require  more  care  in  packing  than  any  other  species 
of  fruit.  Mr.  Gauen  recommends  moss  and  cotton  wool,  the 
former  well  threshed  and  picked  ;  place  a  layer  of  moss  at  the 
bottom  of  the  box  ;  on  this  a  layer  of  cotton-wool ;  and  next, 
the  bunches,  side  by  side,  within  half  an  inch  of  each  other  ; 
fill  the  interstices  with  cotton-wool,  place  a  layer  of  the  same 
material  over  the  fruit,  and  finish  with  moss.  A  false  bottom, 
supported  by  the  sides  of  the  box,  may  next  be  introduced,  and 
the  operations  repeated.  When  the  bunches  are  very  large,  it 
is  necessary  to  interpose  splints  of  whalebone  through  the  hea- 
vier parts  of  the  bunches,  to  support  them  on  the  sides  of  the 
box,  or  on  the  interstices  of  cotton-wool. 

Of  grapes,  it  may  in  general  be  said,  that  the  berries  of  the 
best  flavour  and  colour  are  those  of  the  first  ripened  bunches 
(of  the  bunches  at  the  root  end  of  the  vine),  and  of  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  bunch.  Unlike  many  other  fruits,  they  do  not 
improve  ia  flavour  after  gathering,  and  unripe  bunches  do  not 
become  riper  after  they  are  removed  from  the  vine.  In  select- 
ing bunches,  avoid  those  where  any,  or  even  one  of  the  leaves 


160 


GARDEN    OPERATIONS    FOR    NOVEMBER. 


have  been  removed  near  the  bunch,  from  the  tree,  because  the 
berries  will  there  be  of  inferior  flavour. 

Phims,  peaches,  nectarines,  apricots,  and  figs — ^indeed  every 
fruit  which  has  a  bloom — may  be  treated,  in  such  a  box  as  Mr. 
Gauen  describes,  with  the  puff  and  calcined  magnesia.  ■  We 
should  have  before  mentioned,  that  the  false  bottoms  in  his  box 
consist  of  fine  wire  gauze,  and  by  a  particular  process,  which 
cannot  always  be  conveniently  followed,  he  raises  a  cloud  of  the 
powder,  which  most  delicately  covers  the  fruit.  It  seems  re- 
markable that  a  white  powder  should  give  bloom  to  fruits  of 
different  colours  ;  but  the  colour  resides  in  the  skin,  and  the 
bloom  is  merely  a  semi-transpai'ent  colourless  powder.  Mr. 
Gauen  considers  magnesia  as  merely  a  powerful  antiseptic,  and 
being  preferable  to  any  other  article,  because  it  is  neither  offen- 
sive to  the  taste  nor  deleterious  in  any  shape. 


BY     INOCULATION    TO    MAKE    OLD    CHESEE    OUT 

OF    NEW. 

The  flavour  and  appearance  of  an  old  cheese  may  be  communi- 
cated to  new  by  inserting  in  the  new  cheese  portions  of  the  old, 
containing  the  blue  mould.  The  little  scoop  which  is  used  in 
taking  samples  of  cheese  is  a  ready  instrument  for  the  opera- 
tion, by  interchanging  ten  or  a  dozen  of  the  rolls  which  it  ex- 
tracts, and  placing  them  so  as  to  disseminate  the  germ  of  the 
blue  mould  all  over  the  cheese.  A  new  Stilton  treated  in  this 
■way,  and  well  covered  up  from  the  air  for  a  few  weeks,  be- 
comes thoroughly  impregnated  with  the  mould,  and  generally 
with  a  flavour  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  old  one. 
Mr.  John  Robinson,  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh, says  he  has  sometimes  treated  half  a  Lanarkshire 
cheese  in  this  way,  and  left  the  other  half  in  its  natural  state, 
and  been  much  amused  with  the  remarks  of  his  friends  on  the 
striking  superiority  of  the  English  cheese  over  the  Scotch  one. 

CHEAP  METHOD  OF  CATCHING  MICE. 
The  following  stratagem  has  been  successfully  employed  to  de- 
stroy in  gardens  these  troublesome  little  animals.  A  quantity  of 
bell  glasses  are  placed  in  the  ground,  being  sunk  till  they  are 
level  with  the  earth.  They  are  filled  half  full  Avith  water  ;  a 
little  oatmeal  is  put  over  the  water  in  the  glass,  and  also  a  little 
over  the  earth,  about  the  outside,  to  decoy  them  to  a  watery 
grave.  The  mice  are  bred  for  the  most  part  on  the  outside  of 
gardens,  and  come  in  for  provisions.  In  winter  they  catch  best, 
but,  to  prevent  the  water  from  freezing  in  the  glasses  and 
bursting  them,  a  covering  must  be  used,  yet  so  as  to  allow  the 
little  animals  to  go  under,  and  reach  their  fate. 

GARDEN  OPERATIONS  FOR  NOVEMBER. 

1st.  Kitchen  Garden. 
Tie  up  endive  for  blanching,  continue  to  earth  up  cardoons,  and 
dress  the  plantations  of  artichokes  ;  that  is,  cut  down  their 
larger  leaves,  and  lay  some  earth  about  the  plants  to  protect 
them  during  winter.  Carrots  and  parsnips  may  be  taken  up 
and  preserved  in  sand  during  winter. 

Some  more  peas  and  beans  may  be  sown  to  succeed  those 
that  were  sown  last  month,  or  to  supply  their  place  if  they 
should  be  cut  off  by  the  severity  of  the  weather. 

2nd.  Fruit  Garden. 
The  best  time  for  pruning  vines  is  immediately  after  the  fall 
of  the  leaf,  because  the  greatest  possible  time  in  that  way  is 
allowed  for  healing  the  wounds.  Vines  that  are  cut  about  the 
time  of  the  rise  of  the  sap  in  spring,  are  apt  to  bleed  profusely. 
This  happens  sometimes  even  to  those  that  are  pruned  in  the 
course  of  the  winter.  When  praning  is  properly  performed, 
the  young  branches  should  be  left  at  the  distance  of  from  one 


foot  or  two  feet,  and,  even  upwards,  from  one  another ;  but  this 
in  a  great  measure  must  be  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  leaves. 
When  vines  are  weakly,  each  shoot  should  be  shortened  so  as  to 
have  only  three  or  four  inches ;  w  hen  they  are  moderately  vi- 
gorous, each  should  be  left  about  a  foot  long,  and  so  upwards. 
The  shoots,  however,  that  are  trained  to  the  rafters  of  a  vinery 
or  pine-stove  may  be  left  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  long.  It  has 
been  observed  that  both  the  largest  grapes  and  finest  clusters 
are  produced  on  shoots  of  a  considerable  length. 

If  the  following  directions  for  training  vines  in  a  vinery  be 
observed,  they  will  easily  be  kept  in  order,  and  plentiful  crops 
of  good  friut  may  be  expected. 

Vines  may  be  planted  on  the  back  wall  and  front  of  a  vinery : 
those  on  the  back  should  be  from  five  to  six  feet  asunder,  ac- 
cording to  the  vigour  of  growth  of  the  particular  sort,  and  in 
such  a  position  that  the  two  uppermost  buds  may  point  east 
and  west ;  those  on  the  front,  so  as  one  may  be  trained  to  each 
rafter.  When  the  vines  begin  to  grow,  all  the  buds,  except  the 
two  uppermost,  must  be  rubbed  oft'  from  those  on  the  back 
wall,  and  all  except  the  uppermost  from  those  on  the  front  wall. 
If  any  of  the  plants  shew  fruit  the  first  year,  the  clusters  should 
be  rubbed  off  as  well  as  the  tendrils  and  lateral  shoots,  and  the 
principal  shoots  should  be  trained  regularly  as  they  advance  in 
growth.  Fires  should  be  put  in  the  vinery  during  the  spring, 
to  encourage  an  early  growth  in  the  vines,  that  they  may  have 
full  time  to  ripen  their  wood.  In  the  month  of  June  the  glasses 
may  be  taken  off  altogether,  but  should  be  put  on  again  in 
September,  and  continued  till  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  when  the 
vines  should  be  pruned.  The  two  shoots  which  each  vine  on  the 
back  wall  was  permitted  to  push,  should  be  cut  down  to  their 
third  or  fourth  bud,  according  as  either  of  them  appears  fidlest 
and  strongest,  and  then  bent  down  as  near  as  possible  to  a  hori- 
zontal position,  forming  a  figure  resembling  the  letter  T.  Plants 
in  front,  that  are  trained  to  the  rafters,  should  be  cut  down  al- 
most to  the  bottom,  and  no  more  left  than  merely  sufficient 
to  train  them  to  the  rafter.  Only  two  shoots  'should  again  be 
permitted  to  grow  on  each  plant  on  the  back  wall,  and  one  on 
those  of  the  front,  and  these  may  be  allowed  to  run  the  whole 
height  of  the  house  before  they  are  stopped.  After  the  vine 
shoots  are  stopped  (which  is  done  by  pinching  off  their  tops), 
they  will  in  general  push  out  laterals  at  three  or  four  eyes,  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  shoot.  These  lateral  eyes  should  not  be 
entirely  taken  off,  as  it  would  cause  more  to  push  out  lower 
upon  the  shoots.  It  would,  therefore,  be  prudent  to  permit 
the  Erst  laterals  to  grow  twelve  or  fourteen  inches,  and  then  to 
pinch  off  their  tops.  These  laterals  in  their  turn  will  push  out 
secondary  laterals,  which  should  be  pinched  off  at  the  second  or 
third  joint,  and  in  that  way  the  sap  may  be  diverted  till  the  end 
of  the  season. 

The  shoots  of  the  plants  on  the  back  wall  must  be  brought 
down  to  a  horizontal  position,  and  cut  so  that  the  branches  of 
each  plant  may  reach  within  afoot  of  the  other.  If  all  the  vines 
on  the  rafters  have  pushed  vigorously,  it  will  be  proper  to  prune 
every  other  plant  down  to  three  or  four  eyes,  and  the  rest  to 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  eyes  each,  the  latter  being  intended 
to  produce  fruit,  and  the  former  to  make  bearing-wood  against 
another  year.  When  the  vines  begin  to  push  in  the  spring  of 
the  third  year,  the  shoots  of  those  on  the  back  wall  should  not 
be  allow'ed  to  stand  nearer  one  another  than  a  foot  or  fifteen 
inches,  all  the  intermediate  buds  being  carefully  rubbed  off. 
The  shoots  ought  to  be  trained  up  perpendicularly,  and  however 
vigorous  they  may  be,  no  more  than  one  cluster  should  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  on  any  of  them  ;  all  of  them  may  run  up  to  the 
height  of  five  or  six  feet  before  they  are  stopped.  The  shoots 
on  the  rafters  that  were  pruned  to  twenty  or  twenty-five  eyes 
each,  will  probably  push  at  all  of  them  ;  but  not  more  than  five 
or  seven  shoots  should  be  permitted  to  remain,  even  on  the 
strongest — viz.  a  leading  shoot,  and  two  or  three  on  each  side  ; 
care  being  taken  to  leave  one  shoot  as  near  the  bottom  as  pos- 
sible, as  the  whole  branch  will  require  to  be  pruned  down  to 
this  shoot  next  winter.     Only   one  shoot  should  be   left  upon 


METHOD    OF    PROTECTING    CAUHFLOWEKS. CLIMATE,    IN    KEEEKENCE    TO    HORTICULTURE. 


161 


■those  vines  that  were  pruned  down  to  three  or  four  eyes  at 
every  other  rafter  ;  and  this  must  be  trained  up  the  rafter  as  in 
the  preceding  year.  At  next  pruning  season,  all  the  shoots 
proceeding  from  the  horizontal  branches  of  the  vines  on  the 
back  wall  should  be  pruned  down  to  three  or  four  eyes.  The 
vines  on  the  front  which  produced  fruit  should  be  pruned  to 
their  lowest  shoot,  which  should  be  shortened  so  as  to  leave 
four  or  five  eyes.  Those  at  every  other  rafter  which  were 
shortened  the  preceding  year,  and  which  were  allowed  to  push 
one  shoot,  should  now  be  pruned  like  the  bearers  of  tlte  former 
year;  that  is,  twenty  or  twenty-five  eyes  should  be  left  on  each. 
In  the  following  and  all  succeeding  seasons,  those  vines  on  the 
front  will  require  a  similar  management,  with  this  difference, 
that  as  they  acquire  more  strength,  they  may  be  permitted  to 
push  more  shoots,  and  more  clusters  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
on  each  shoot ;  for  as  the  vines  advance  in  age,  they  will  cer- 
tainly be  enabled  to  produce  every  year,  for  a  certain  period,  a 
larger  crop  of  fruit.  The  spurs  of  the  vines  on  the  back  wall, 
that  is,  the  shoots  that  were  shortened  to  three  or  four  eyes, 
should  be  allowed  to  push  up  one  shoot;  these  shoots  at  next 
pruning  season  must  be  cut  so  as  to  leave  a  long  one,  viz. 
about  four  feet,  and  a  short  one  alternately.  The  long  ones 
should  be  allowed  to  push  five  shoots  (all  the  other  buds  being 
rubbedotf ),  the  four  lateral  of  which  should  be  cu  tdown  to  two 
or  three  eyes  each,  at  next  pruning  season,  and  the  terminal 
one  should  be  left  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long.  The  short 
shoots  between  the  long  ones  must  constantly  be  pruned  down 
to  two  or  three  eyes  each,  in  order  to  keep  a  proper  succession 
of  bottom  wood.  The  pruning  in  the  following  season  must  be 
the  same,  with  this  difierence,  that  the  upright  shoots,  as  they 
have  acquired  a  foot  and  a  half  additional  length,  may  be  al- 
lowed to  push  seven  shoots  instead  of  five. 

Gooseberries  and  currants  may  be  pruned  any  time  from  the 
fall  of  the  leaf,  till  their  buds  begin  to  grow  in  the  spring.  If 
these  bushes  be  not  well  pruned,  the  fruit  will  neither  be  large 
nor  well-flavoured.  The  principal  thing  to  be  attended  to  is, 
to  keep  them  open,  for  they  are  very  apt  to  become  over- 
crowded with  branches  ;  all  suckers,  therefore,  which  arise  from 
the  root,  or  shoots  which  proceed  from  the  main  stem,  should 
be  removed,  because  they  would  only  create  confusion,  by 
growing  up  into  the  heart  of  the  bush.  When  last  summer's 
shoots  stand  too  thick  on  the  main  branches,  they  should  be 
thinned,  and  few  either  of  them,  or  the  main  branches,  should 
be  shortened,  because  the  more  they  are  shortened  the  more 
liable  they  are  to  run  to  wood.  They  who  make  use  of  garden 
shears  may  save  time,  and  make  neat-looking  bushes,  but 
will  be  disappointed  with  respect  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
their  fruit. 


3rrf.  Flower  Garden,  or  Pleasure  Gi 


'oitnd. 


Fibrous-rooted  perennial  plants  may  still  be  planted;  likewise 
bulbous-rooted  plants,  such  as  tulips,  hyacinths,   &c. 

Shrubs,  and  ornamental  or  forest  'trees,  may  be  transplanted 
now,  or  any  time  during   the  winter,   when   the  weather  is 


open. 


4^'j.    The  Niirserij. 


Transplant  young  trees  and  shrubs,  and  protect  tender  seed- 
lings during  severe  weather. 

5th.    Green-house  and  Hoi-house. 

The  plants  in  the  green-house  should  have  air  during  the 
day,  whenever  the  weather  will  permit,  and  shoidd  receive  but 
little  water.  The  plants  in  the  hot- house  should  likewise  re- 
ceive air  during  the  day,  in  favourable  weather,  and  fires  must 
be  put  on  every  evening,  but  sehlom  need  to  be  continued 
during  the  day,  excepting  the  vreather  is  very  severe. 


METHOD  OF  PROTECTING  CAULIFLOWERS,  Sec, 

IN   WINTER. 

Cauliflowers  and  other  tender  plants  may  be  advantageously 
protected,  during  winter,  in  the  following  manner,  as  has  been 
practically  proved  by  some  ingenious  gardeners.  The  method 
alluded  to  is  by  earthen  pots  and  wooden  frames,  covered  per- 
manently with  straw.  The  pits  arc  most  properly  made  in  n 
south  and  east  border,  in  an  inclosure,  or  yard,  such  as  is  used 
for  hot-beds  and  composts,  the  fences  of  which  aiford  good 
shelter  from  the  cold  quarters.  The  ground  is  at  first  made  as 
level  as  possible,  and  also  as  firm,  by  trampling  in  wet  weather. 
'The  pits  are  then  cut  oi^t  ten  feet  in  length  by  about  four  in 
breadfli,  making  the  sides  and  ends  as  firm  as  can  be,  beating 
them  with  the  spades  when  wet.  The  depth  of  the  pit  is  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  plants  to  be  kept  in  it.  About 
nine  inches  is  sufticicnt  for  cauliflower  plants,  and  for  these,  care 
must  be  taken  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  proper  soil  is  left  or 
placad  in  the  bottom  of  the  pit  in  which  they  are  to  be  pricked 
out.  Each  pit  of  the  above  mentioned  size  holds  about  four 
hundred  cauliflower  plants.  For  plants  in  pots,  the  depth  of 
the  pits  must  be  proportioned  to  the  height  of  them,  the  tops 
of  which  must,  when  placed  in  the  pits,  be  below  the  level  of 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  frames  to  cover  these  pits  are  twelve  feet  in  length  by 
six  in  breadth  ;  which  is  a  proper  size  for  two  men  to  carry,  or 
to  be  opened  and  shut  by  one  person.  The  timbers  to  form 
the  sides  and  ends  of  the  frames  arc  required  to  be  about  three 
inches  square,  and  quite  straight.  These,  when  joined  together, 
arc  placed  on  a  level  floor,  and  slips  of  timber,  two  inches  in 
breadth  and  one  in  thickness,  are  nailed  lengthways  on  them, 
at  intervals  of  nine  inches.  When  the  timber  work  is  fini«:hed, 
the  straw  is  fastened  on  in  the  manner  of  thatch,  and  tied  to 
the  bars  by  rope-yarn.  The  best  sort  of  straw  is  that  which 
is  obtained  by  taking  the  wheat  in  handfulls  out  of  the  sheaf, 
and  beating  it  against  a  door  firmly  fixed  on  edge,  which  bruises 
the  straw  very  little,  excepting  at  the  tops.  The  frames  should 
be  kept  under  cover  during  summer,  that  they  may  be  properly 
dried  when  put  up.  With  proper  care,  after  this  they  will  last 
for  several  years.  When  the  plants  are  put  into  the  pits,  the 
frames  are  laid  over  them.  Air  is  admitted  by  placing  in  the 
ground,  near  the  centre  of  each  pit,  a  forked  stick,  about  four 
feet  in  length,  strong  enough  to  support  the  frames  when  raised 
like  the  lid  of  a  box,  and  they  remain  in  that  position  night 
and  day,  unless  when  actual  freezing  takes  place,  or  when  frost 
is  expected  in  the  night.  Tbese  straw  frames  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  glass,  as  respects  appearance ;  but  they  have 
other  advantages  besides  their  cheapness.  When  they  are  raised, 
the  plants  in  the  pits  have  the  full  advantage  of  air  and  sun, 
and  are  little  exposed  to  wet,  the  rain  being  mostly  thrown  off 
on  the  back  of  the  frames,  and  when  they  are  shut  down,  frost 
cannot  easily  penetrate  through  them  to  the  plants  ;  whereas 
mats  and  other  sorts  of  coverings  -arc  necessary  for  covering 
glass,  the  removing  of  which,  to  give  air  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  and  the  replacing  them  at  night,  is  very  troublesome,  com- 
pared with  the  instantaneous  opening  and  shutting  of  the  straw 
frames. 

Such  pits  and  frames  are  very  suitable  for  the  protection  of 
plants  usually  kept  under  glass  witliout  artificial  heat  ;  but  in 
cases  of  necessity  tender  green-house  plants  may  be  preserved 
through  the  winter  in  them,  when  they  would  perish  under  hot- 
bed frames. 

CLIMATE,   IN  REFERENCE  TO  HORTICULTUR.E. 

Agriculture  has  for  its  principal  objects  the  fertilization  of 
the  soil  by  manures,  and  various  processes  of  cultivation  best 
adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of  any  given  climate,  and  the  growth 
of  such  plants  as  are  either  indigenous,  or  inured  to  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  weather  incidental  to  a  particiUar  country.     But  Hor- 


162 


CLIMATE,   IN    REFERENCE    TO   HORTICULTURE. THE    COUNTY    OF   ANTRIM. 


ticTilture  contemplates  a  wider  field;  for,  besides  the  points 
above  mentioned  as  belonging  to  agriculture,  it  aspires  to  tbe 
preservation  and  propagation  of  exotics,  and,  tlicrefore  embraces 
the  consideration  of  various  climates,  whilst  it  endeavours,  by 
artificial  means,  to  neutralize  and  command  the  seemingly  un- 
tractable  elements  to  be  encountered  in  foreign  soils  and  hos- 
tile latitudes. 

Horticulture  may  be  conveniently  treated,  in  reference  to  cli- 
mate, either  as  controlling  and  invigorating  its  natural  powers 
in  the  open  air,  or  as  composing  aad  maintaining  a  confined 
atmosphere,  whose  properties  may  assimilate  with  those  of  the 
atmosphere  natural  to  the  particular  plants  to  be  cultivated. 

The  basis  of  the  atmosphere  is  known  to  consist  of  the  same 
chemical  parts  in  all  regions.  The  modifications  of  these  par^s 
of  light,  heat,  and  moisture,  and  even  as  regards  the  open  air, 
depends  much  on  artificial  powers,  as  is  amply  proven  evei'y 
day  in  every  well- managed  garden  in  the  land.  We  shall,  there- 
fore confine  ourselvts  to  the  atmospheric  character  and  varia- 
tions of  our  own  situation,  which  are  not  merely  great,  but 
often  sudden.  The  main  object  of  the  horticulturist  is  to 
stretch,  as  it  were,  his  climate  to  the  south,  where  the  extremes 
of  drought  and  cold  do  not  occur  ;  and  not  only  to  guard  against 
the  injurious  eftects  of  the  ultimate  severity  of  the  weather, 
but  to  ward  off  its  sudden  changes  in  the  different  seasons  of 
the  year.  Let  us  here  remember  how  these  changes  are  bi'ought 
about  in  the  general  course  of  nature.  The  principal  of  them 
are  wind  and  radiation. 

Evaporation  and  exhalation  depend  upon  the  saturated  state 
of  the  air  with  moisture,  and  the  velocity  of  its  motion.  When 
the  air  is  dry,  vapour  ascends  in  it  with  great  rapidity,  and  the 
energy  of  this  action  is  much  promoted  by  wind.  Over  the 
state  of  saturation  the  horticulturist  has  little  power,  but  over 
its  velocity  he  has  some  control,  by  means  of  various  sorts  of 
screens.  And  the  use  of  high  walls,  especially  upon  the  north- 
ern and  eastern  sides  of  a  garden,  cannot  therefore  be  doubt- 
ful, whilst,  in  the  case  of  tender  fruit  trees,  such  screens  should 
not  be  far  apart. 

Radiation  also  produces  sudden  and  injurious  influences  upon 
tender  plants.  Experience  has  taught  gardeners  the  advan- 
tages of  warding  off  the  effects  of  frost  by  loose  straw  or  other 
litter.  Now,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  radiation  is 
only  transferred  from  the  plant  to  the  mat,  and  therefore,  con- 
tact between  the  two  should  be  prevented,  for  thus  the  stratum 
of  air  which  is  enclosed  will,  by  its  slow  conducting  power, 
effectually  secure  the  plant. 

Little  is  in  the  power  of  the  horticulturist  to  effect,  in  the 
way  of  exalting  the  powers  of  the  climate  in  the  open  air,  ex- 
cept by  choice  of  situation  with  regard  to  the  sun,  and  the  con- 
centration of  its  rays  upon  walls  and  other  screens.  Draining 
and  drying  the  soil  iramediai-ely  subject  to  his  culture,  can  have 
nothing  like  a  perceptihle  influence  on  the  climate.  As  re- 
spects the  choice  of  situation,  however,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  not  a  little  depends  on  whether  it  lay  in  a  low,  and 
wbere  a  perfectly  still  atmosphere  dwells ;  for  the  utmost  con- 
centration of  cold  can  only  take  place  in  such  a  situation.  Ac- 
cordingly, a  heavy  mist  is  often  formed  in  meadows,  and  a  val- 
ley surrounded  by  low  hills  is  more  liable  to  the  effects  of  radia- 
tion than  the  tops  and  sides  of  the  hills  themselves.  It  is  also 
a  well  known  fact,  that  dew  and  hoar-frost  are  always  more 
abundant  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  situations.  It  is  not, 
however,  meant  to  include  in  these  observations  places  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  and  precipitous  hills,  which  obstruct  the  aspect 
of  the  sky.  Gentle  slopes,  which  break  the  undulations  of  the 
air  without  naturally  circumscribing  the  heavens,  are  most  effi- 
cient in  promoting  this  action,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
by  walls  and  other  fences  we  may  artificially  combine  circum- 
stances which  may  produce  the  same  injurious  effects.  The  ad- 
vantages of  placing  a  garden  on  a  gentle  slope  are  very  appa- 
rent, from  those  and  many  other  facts  and  principles. 

As  to  a  confined  atmosphere,  where  tbe  gardener  has  to  exert 
the  utmost   artificial  skill,  let  it  also  be  remarked,  tbat  the 


plants  themselves  are  in  the  most  artificial  state  that  it  is  pos" 
sible  to  conceive,  for  not  only  are  their  stems  and  foliage  sub- 
ject to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  air  in  which  they  are  immersed, 
but,  in  most  cases,  their  roots  also  are  so  exposed.  The  soil  in 
which  they  are  set  to  vegetate  is  generally  contained  in  porous 
pots  of  earthenware,  to  the  interior  surface  of  which  the  ten- 
der fibres  quickly  penetrate  and  spread  in  every  direction  ;  they 
are  thus  exposed  to  any  change  of  temperature  and  humidity, 
and  are  liable  to  great  chills  from  any  sudden  increase  of  eva- 
poration. 

Gardeners  are  generally  studious  of  the  temperature  of  hot- 
houses, but  there  are  connected  with  moisture  considerations 
perhaps  no  less  important.  The  climate  of  the  torrid  zone,  to 
which  the  inhabitants  of  these  houses  belong,  is  highly  vapour- 
ous,  and  hence  we  may  learn  the  necessity  of  a  strict  attention 
to  the  atmosphere  of  vapour  in  our  artificial  climates.  Here  it 
may  be  remarked,  that  tropical  plants  require  to  be  watered  at 
the  root  with  great  caiition  ;  but  it  is  impossible  that  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  vapour  can  be  kept  up  from  this  alone  :  to  over- 
come the  deficiency,  the  keeping  of  the  floor  of  the  house  wet, 
as  also  the  flues,  is  practised  by  some  enlightened  horticulturists, 
by  which  means  an  atmosphere  of  great  elasticity,  analogous 
to  the  natural  process,  may  be  maintained.  To  the  human 
feelings,  the  impression  of  an  atmosphere  so  saturated  with 
moisture  is  different  from  one  heated  to  the  same  degree  without 
this  precaution.  Persons  who  have  been  used  to  hot  climates, 
have  declared  that  the  feel  and  smell  of  the  latter  exactly  assi- 
milate to  those  of  the  tropical  regions. 

These  are  a  few  disjointed  observations  and  particulars  con- 
nected with  climate,  as  applicable  to  horticulture,  but  the  num- 
ber and  variety  of  other  necessary  attentions  is  great,  and  un- 
less kept  up,  some  of  the  things  now  recommended  would  be- 
come injurious. 


THE  COUNTY  OF  ANTRIM. 


The  particular  for  our  purpose,  suggested  as  a  leading  feature 
in  an  account  of  Antrim,  and  indeed  of  several  other  counties 
in  the  north  of  Ireland,  is  the  growth  and  manufacture  of  flax, 
for  numerous  purposes.  Of  the  mode  pursued  in  the  culti- 
vation of  this  crop,  and  its  preparation  for  being  spun,  we  shall 
now  only  speak  in  reference  to  Antrim. 

The  different  kinds  of  flax-seed  sown  in  this  county  are  the 
Dutch,  the  American,  and  tbe  Riga.  The  Dutch  seed  is  said  to 
be  the  produce  of  the  Riga  seed,  raised  in  tbe  Netherlands ;  yet 
the  character  of  the  seeds  as  imported  to  Ireland  are  very  dif- 
ferent. The  Dutch  kind  is  sold  at  a  higher  price  than  the 
others,  from  its  supposed  superior  produce.  Tlie  Riga  is  more 
esteemed  than  it  once  was;  but  the  American  is  the  most  gene- 
redly  used.  Some  years  ago  the  annual  average  importation  of 
flax-seed  into  Belfast  was  5,000  hogsheads  of  about  seven 
bushels  each.  If  flax-seed  is  well  saved  and  carefully  stored  it 
will  keep  for  several  years.  The  time  of  sowing  is  as  early  as 
tbe  spring  season  will  permit,  and  the  sooner  the  seed  is  com- 
mitted to  the  ground,  provided  it  is  in  good  order,  the  better; 
the  texture  will  also  in  that  case  be  the  stronger  and  firmer. 
April  is  the  usual  time  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  county. 

There  has  been  a  great  change  in  opinion  respecting  the  pre- 
paration necessary  for  flax.  A  potato  crop  was  thought  to  be 
the  certain  mode  of  bringing  the  ground  into  a  proper  condition 
for  it,  but  now  it  is  known  that  it  will  succeed  on  lea  ground, 
or  on  stubbles  that  have  been  carefully  tilled.  Flax  acts  some- 
what as  a  fallow  crop  itself:  it  is  tap-rooted,  and  feeds  far 
below  the  surface,  so  that  it  is  a  good  preparation  for  grain. 
When  it  is  sown  after  potatoes,  a  stroke  of  the  harrow  is  given 
before  sowing;  one  stroke  is  sufficient  to  cover  it  afterwards. 
If  it  is  sown  on  ground  that  has  been  prepared  by  ploughing  for 
it,  the  ground  is  well  harrowed  before  the  seed  is  put  on  it, 
then  covered  as  before  mentioned.  The  greatest  quantities  of 
flax,  it  is  believed,  have  been  produced  after  potatoes;  but  land 


THE    COUNTY   OF   ANTRIM. ARGTLESHIRE. 


163 


that  is  not  fit  to  be  sown  with  grain  will  yield  a  good  return 
under  the  former. 

The  quantity  of  seed  sown,  when  it  is  cultivated  on  a  large 
scale,  is  about  three  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  Irish  acre ;  where 
only  a  small  portion,  generally  thicker,  wdth  the  idea  of  having 
finer  flax.  When  three  or  four  inches  long,  it  is  most  carefully 
weeded,  if  it  requires,  aud  after  weeding  there  is  a  rapid  growth. 
The  rolling  which  it  receives  from  the  weeders  squatting  them- 
selves upon  the  ground  seems  beneficial. 

The  time  for  pulling  flax  depends  on  many  circumstances  : 
If  it  is  reqviired  for  spinning  fine  it  is  pulled  not  long  after  the 
flower  falls  ;  if  it  is  beaten  down  by  rain,  so  that  it  cnnnot  stand 
erect  again,  it  must  also  be  pulled  to  prevent  it  from  rotting; 
but  if  it  is  to  stand  for  seed,  the  stalks  must  be  fully  ripe  and 
the  heads  well  filled.  Doctor  Stephenson  says,  justly,  that  the 
different  growths  ought  to  be  pulled  and  kept  separately,  and 
appropriated  to  difi'erent  purposes,  for  the  qualities  being  very 
distinct,  they  will  not  work  to  advantage  together.  The  next 
step  in  the  management  of  a  flax  crop  is  the  watering  it.  This 
is  a  critical  process,  and  requires  great  skill  to  be  properly  ex- 
ecuted, and  to  find  the  proper  time  when,  by  taking  it  out  of 
water,  the  fermentation  must  be  stopped. 

Watersof  differentqualities  operate  differently,  and  the  warmth 
or  coldness  of  the  weather  has  a  similar  efiect.  It  has  been 
recommended  that  ponds  should  be  sunk  in  clay,  four  feet  deep, 
six  wide,  and  long  according  to  the  quantity  of  flax  to  be 
watered.  If  the  soil  is  not  clay,  to  have  the  pits  lined  with  it, 
may  be  used,  and  so  situated  that  a  stream  of  pure  water  may 
be  turned  into  them.  These  pouds  should  not  he  under  the 
shade  of  trees,  which  causes  a  variation  in  the  temperature,  nor 
where  astringent  leaves  fall,  for  they  may  discolour  the  flax. 
When  the  bark  separates  from  the  stalk,  which  is,  however,  by 
rubbing  it  between  the  fingers,  then  the  process  seems  to  be 
finished. 

It  should  have  been  stated,  when  speaking  of  proceeding  to 
■water  the  flax,  that  it  is  tied  in  bunches,  such  as  a  man  can 
grasp  with  his  hands,  each  bundle  tied  in  the  middle  and  at 
both  ends.  Stakes  with  hooks  are  driven  into  the  sides  of  the 
pond,  five  or  six  feet  asunder,  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  bundles  are  then  thrown  into  the  water  about 
twelve  inches  from  each  other;  a  pole  is  fixed  under  the  hooks 
at  each  side,  aloiig  each  bank;  the  bundles  are  pressed  down  by 
poles  across  the  pond,  each  end  of  which  is  under  the  poles, 
parallel  to  the  sides.  Poles  and  brushwood  may  be  taken  from 
any  kind  of  trees,  except  such  as  have  astringent  bark.  The 
intention  in  these  operations  is  the  production  of  fine  filaments 
without  stains.  The  flax,  therefore,  is  never  allowed  to  touch 
the  sides  or  the  bottom  of  the  pond. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  after  the  watering  is  the  grassing 
of  the  flax.  Meadows  are  generally  selected  for  this  purpose, 
for  one  reason,  perhaps,  that  they  are  free  from  cattle.  But  if 
they  are  rich  and  quick  of  growth,  and  wet  weather  comes  on, 
there  is  a  chance  of  rotting  the  flax  before  it  is  sufficiently 
grassed ;  turning  is  the  only  remedy.  When  it  has  been  grassed 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  which  is  found  by  the  manner  of 
its  breaking,  and  by  the  feel,  it  is  dried,  and  put  up  until  con- 
venience offers  to  have  it  broken,  before  being  railled.  After 
this  it  is  ready  for  the  hackle,  and  here,  unless  the  seed  is  saved, 
the  farmer's  labour  ceases,  and  it  becomes  a  matter  of  manu- 
facture and  of  commerce. 

When  the  flax  is  intended  to  stand  for  seed,  the  steps  already 
described  are  those  that  must  also  be  now  followed,  until  the 
time  of  pulling,  for  that  which  stands  for  seed  must  be  longer 
on  the  ground,  to  allow  the  heads  to  fill.  When  the  pulling  is 
accomplished  it  is  put  in  stacks,  where  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
different  periods,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  seed  is 
to  be  disposed  of.  If  it  is  to  be  saved  by  rippling,  which  is 
performed  by  drawing  the  flax  through  a  row  of  spikes  fixed  in 
a  plank,  it  is  not  required  to  stand  so  long  as  when  it  is  to  be 
put  into  a  stack,  because  part  of  the  drying  is  done  by  spreading 
it,  after  the  rippling,  on  cloths  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.    But 


when  the  stacking  of  it  is  intended,  it  must  stand  in  the  field 
long  enough  to  be  so  well  saved  that  no  danger  of  heating  may 
ensue.  It  must  next  be  put  on  a  stand,  to  protect  it  from  ver- 
min, which  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  there  it  may  remain  till  the 
seed  is  w^anted,  when  it  may  be  beaten  out  with  flails.  Those 
who  cultivate  flax  for  seed  may  be  said,  therefore,  to  sacrifice 
the  former.  Yet  if  not  watered  in  the  usual  way,  but  spread 
in  the  first  instance  on  the  grass,  where  it  is  necessary  to  allow 
it  to  remain  much  longer  than  if  it  had  undergone  that  process, 
the  produce  will  often  be  of  a  superior  strength  and  fiueness, 
and  considerable  in  quantity.  The  seed  which  is  raised  upon 
an  acre  of  land  may  be  rated  at  from  one  to  two  hogsheads. 
In  Ireland,  however,  seed  is  hardly  ever  saved. 

This  extremely  useful  article  of  farming,  when  used  for  flax, 
returns  from  the  mill  in  a  rough  state,  without  the  coarser  and 
finer  fibres  being  separated.  The  hackliug  is  the  process  by 
which  such  severing  is  accomplished,  when  one-third  of  the 
fine  may  be  the  proportion  to  the  coar.^e.  This  last  is  called 
iuir,  which  is  used  for  cheap  fabrics.  We  shall  only  further 
add,  that  flax,  when  allowed  to  ripen  ere  it  be  pulled,  is  a  scourg- 
ing crop,  though  if  pulled  when  in  the  flower  it  is  not  parti- 
cularly so  ;  a  few  days  of  its  ripening  progress  exhausting  much 
more  of  the  riches  of  the  soil  than  the  same  number  at  a  previous 
period  of  its  growth. 

ARGYLESHIRE 

Is  a  maritime  county  in  the  west  Highlands  of  Scotland,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Invernesshire;  on  the  east  by  Perthshire, 
Dumbartonshire,  and  the  Frith  of  Clyde ;  on  the  south  by  the 
Irish  Sea;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Besides  a 
mainland,  it  embraces  a  great  number  of  islands,  falling  withia 
the  general  class  of  the  Hebrides.  The  continental  part,  in  its 
greatest  length,  extends  to  about  115  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth 
to  nearly  70  miles.  On  the  two  sides,  which  border  on  the  sea, 
the  land  is  everywhere  indented  with  deep  bays  and  creeks, 
winding  in  a  variety  of  directions,  and  shooting,  as  if  most 
fantastically,  long  arms  into  the  land,  forming  the  whole  into  a 
number  of  peninsulas.  The  county  altogether  abounds  more 
in  romantic  scenes  than  in  fertile  plains ;  its  general  features 
are  striking  and  varied  in  the  highest  degree.  Towards  the 
northern  parts  it  possesses  the  wild  and  savage  gi-andeur  of  the 
true  Highlands  of  Scotland,  some  of  the  mountains  rising 
several  hundred  feet  above  3000  ;  and  these  are  piled  upon  one 
another  in  most  magnificent  disorder. 

But  scenery  is  not  what  we  arc  at  present  engaged  upon ;  we 
are  only  going  to  give  a  short  account  of  a  few-  features  belong- 
ing to  Argyleshire,  in  its  agricultural,  productive,  and  econo- 
mical history;  and  these  are  in  reference  to  cattle,  to  coppice- 
wood,  and  to  kelp. 

The  native  breed  of  cattle  in  Argyleshire,  as  it  is  now  im- 
proved, is  well  know  n  to  be  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  other 
race  in  Scotland,  for  fattening.  They  are  sent  from  the  county 
in  a  store  condition,  commonly  when  about  three  years  old,  and 
fatted  on  the  pastures  of  the  south,  the  greater  number  for  the 
consumption  of  England.  They  arc  a  small  hardy  breed,  gene- 
rally weighing,  when  fat,  from  five  to  six  stone  per  quarter. 
The  form  most  wished  for  is,  to  get  them  short  in  the  legs, 
round  in  the  body,  straight  in  the  back,  and  long  in  the  snout. 
They  are  of  various  colours — black,  dun,  brindled,  and  brown ; 
but  the  black  is  the  most  common  and  the  most  run  upon. 
Crossing  the  breed  with  any  other  than  the  true  Highland  breed 
ought  to  be  avoided,  as  it  is  found  from  experience  that  by  any 
other  management  they  degenerate  in  the  quality  of  the  beef 
and  in  feeding  true,  though  not  in  size.  They  are  not  wrought, 
nor  well  calculated  for  working,  from  the  sraallness  of  their 
size.  It  is  a  general  opinion  tliat  the  buil'should  be  changed 
every  third  year,  as,  otherwise,  the  breed  is  thought  to  degene- 
rate. Bulls  are  commonly  disposed  of  at  the  age  of  six,  though 
they   retain  their  vigour  till   they  are  ten  years  old;   and  no 


164 


ARGYLESHIRE. 


person  wishes  to  have  more  than  is  necessary  to  serve  his  field 
ofiCOv.s.  Premiums  given  to  those  who  have  the  best  bulls  has 
been  found  the  best  method  of  encouraging  particular  breeds. 

The  handsomest  cows  of  the  native  breed,  and  such  as  have 
the  strongest  bone,  do  not  give  much  milk,  but  what  they  have 
is  very  rich.  Rearing,  however,  is  more  attended  to  than  the 
dairy,  to  which,  at  present.  We  couhue  ourselves.  Cows  com- 
monly calve  in  March  and  April.  No  calves  are  reared  without 
getting  milk  ;  they  are  almost  all  allowed  to  suck  the  cows, 
■which  is  considered  preferable  to  what  is  called  rearing  by  the 
dish.  They  are  weaned  at  six  months  of  age,  and  for  the  last 
eight  d.ays  are  allowed  to  suck  their  dams  only  once  a-day,  till 
the  cows  dry  up.  They  are  then  separated,  and  put  into  hay 
or  some  other  rich  pastures.  True-bred  Highland  cows  ought 
never  to  be  kept  after  they  are  nine  years  old,  as  after  that  age 
they  do  not  feed  true.  Indeed,  the  English  buyers  do  not  wish 
them  older  than  six  at  most;  and  they  buy  heifers  of  three, 
four,  and  five  years  old,  mucli  higher  in  proportion  to  their 
■weight  than  cows  of  the  same  breed  that  are  more  advanced  in 
age.  Some  winter  their  calves  in  open  sheds,  when  they  are  fed 
■with  hay  in  racks,  and  have  the  liberty  of  going  out  and  in  at 
pleasure.  This  makes  them  hardier  and  truer  feeders  than  close 
confinement  can  do.  The  distempers  to  which  this  race  of  cat- 
tle are  most  liable  are  the  black  spall,  bloody  water,  flux,  and 
picking  calf. 

When  speaking  of  distempers  in  cattle,  we  may  remark  that 
scientific  knowledge  is  still  greatly  wanting  among  those  who 
pretend  to  be  cattle  doctors.  We  may,  therefore,  mention  a  few 
methods  of  treatment  in  particular  cases,  which  are  practised  in 
various  quarters  of  the  country,  and  often  with  success.  For 
instance,  as  regards  black  spall,  some  say  that  the  keeping  of 
one  or  two  swine  to  pasture  with  the  cattle  is  a  sure  prevent- 
ive. Perhaps  these  animals  eat  up  some  plants  that  are  in- 
jurious to  the  cows.  As  to  premature  calving,  bleeding  ■when 
they  are  from  one-third  to  half  gone  with  calf  is  earnestly  re- 
commended by  some  ;  and  ■when  the  accident  does  happen,  to 
bury  the  abortion  immediately,  and  to  keep  the  cow  as  widely 
apart  as  possible  from  the  herd;  to  be  particularly  careful  that 
she  does  not  receive  the  bull  that  may  herd  with  the  cows,  at 
least  not  till  such  a  lapse  of  time  as,  ■\vith  good  reason,  she  may 
be  thought  completely  recovered,  and  free  from  tlie  possibility 
of  communicating  the  smallest  infection. 

For  the  disease  called  the  red  water,  or  bloody  urine,  bleeding 
and  change  of  food  have  been  in  many  parts  found  effectually  to 
answer.  A  handful  of  salt,  and  a  handful  of  oatmeal,  after 
being  fried  in  the  pan,  are  given  in  a  quart  of  cold  butter-milk, 
in  some  districts,  the  beast  being  kept  from  food  some  time 
before  ;  this  once  or  twice  given  is  said  to  remove  the  complaint, 
if  not  too  long  neglected.  Should  the  cow  be  bound  after  the 
application  of  the  remedy,  stiff  oatmeal  gruel,  two  quarts  at  a 
time,  should  be  given  twice  or  thrice  a-day  till  the  complaint  is 
removed. 

For  scourinc/  in  calves,  milk  and  water  thickened  with  bean  or 
■wheat  flour  is  given  for  their  food  till  the  scouring  is  removed, 
or  one  or  two  half-pint  drenches  of  rennet.  Wlien  the  teat  of 
a  milch  cow  cracks,  and  the  bag  becomes  hard  and  inflamed, 
with  swelling  in  the  uc'der  (called  the  ijurifie  in  some  parts),  the 
co^w  should  be  blooded,  her  udder  well  washed  and  anointed 
with  hogs'-lard  or  sweet-oil,  or  other  ointment;  some  recommend 
■washing  with  butter-milk  and  salt,  or  salt  and  water.  For 
swelUng  in  doner,  some  recommend  two  ounces  of  Castile  soap, 
and  some  an  egg-shell  full  of  tar,  to  prevent  the  necessity  of 
tapping;  but  others  apply  what  is  more  effectual — a  hollow  cane 
thrvist  down,  four  or  five  feet  long,  with  a  syringe  in  it,  to  ex- 
tract the  air  and  remove  any  obstruction  at  the  mouth  of  the 
maw.  When  a  potato  or  turnip  sticks  in  the  throat,  it  may  be 
thrust  down  with  a  staff  or  any  smooth  piece  of  wood. 

A  great  part  of  Argyleshire  was  once  covered  with  wood,  of 
which  every  moss  still  shows  the  remains.  It  might  have  been 
as  desirable  to  get  rid  of  some  of  it  as  it  is  now  to  rear  it ;  but, 
as  it  often  happens,  men  run  from  one  extreme  to  the  other,  and 


the  loss  was  severely  felt  before  any  attempt  was  mads  to  repair 
it.  Even  so  late  as  the  commencement  of  the  last  century  the 
woods  iu  this  county,  though  greatly  reduced,  were  held  to  be 
of  so  little  value,  especially  in  tlie  inland  parts,  that  a  large  fir 
wood  was  sold  to  a  company  of  Irish  adventurers  at  the  rate,  it 
is  said,  of  the  third  part  of  a  penny  per  tree.  Some  time  after 
that,  however,  the  remaining  deciduous  woods  were  brought 
into  greater  estimation,  by  means  of  two  English  companies, 
who  set  up  iron  factories  in  the  county. 

But  what  characterizes  the  woods  of  many  parts  of  the  West 
Highlands  of  Scotland  now,  is  the  natural  coppices  that  are 
periodically  cut,  commonly  every  nineteen  or  twenty  years ;  and 
at  one  time  the  returns  were  at  the  rate  of  twenty  shillings  per 
acre  annually,  \mt  the  value  of  this  article  has  of  late  greatly 
diminished.  It  is  computed  that  there  are  about  40,000  acres 
of  this  wood  in  Argyleshire,  and  therefore  it  has  become  an  im- 
portant particular  in  the  history  of  produce  of  the  county. 
When  these  coppices  are  cut,  it  is  usual  to  leave  a  number  of 
oak  standards,  such  as  the  parties  agree  are  to  he  spared.  Of 
the  timber  that  is  cut,  so  much  as  is  needed  for  county  use  is 
srld;  the  rest  is  made  into  charcoal,  and  the  bark,  especially 
that  of  the  oak,  disposed  of  to  the  tanner.  The  wood  is  then 
inclosed,  commonly  for  six  or  seven  years,  during  which  time, 
however,  some  allow  it  to  be  pastured  by  horses.  Some  thin 
or  weed  tlieir  growing  woods,  by  taking  out  such  a  number  as 
it  may  spare  for  barrel  hoops ;  but  others  leave  the  matter  to 
nature,  and  allow  the  stronger  to  destroy  the  weaker.  The 
more  active  proprietors  are  at  great  pains  to  encourage  the 
growth  of  oak,  by  cutting  away  any  other  kinds  that  interfere' 
with  it. 

The  season  of  cutting  oak  is  when  the  bark  rises,  from  the 
beginning  of  May  till  Midsummer.  The  trees  should  be  cut 
close  to  the  ground,  that  the  young  shoots  may  spring  from  the 
ground,  rather  than  from  the  old  stocks.  The  stocks  should 
be  cut  clean  and  rounded,  that  no  matter  may  lodge  upon  them, 
which  would  make  them  rot.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
trees  that  are  left  for  standards  should  be  healthy  and  vigorous, 
and  such  as  have  grown  in  open  roomy  places  without  shelter, 
as  otherwise  they  will  not  bear  to  be  exposed,  and  they  should 
by  no  means  be  deprived  of  any  of  their  branches. 

From  the  immense  extent  of  sea-coast  which  borders  Argyle- 
shire, sea-weed  may  be  presumed  to  be  plentiful  on  its  shores ; 
indeed,  kelp,  which  is  made  from  this  weed,  is  manufactured 
in  the  county  to  the  amount  of  SOO  tons  annually.  The  pro- 
cess of  the  manufacture  is  thus :  the  rocks  which  arc  dry  at  low 
■water  are  the  beds  of  great  quantities  of  sea- weed,  which  is  cut, 
carried  to  the  beach,  and  dried;  a  hollow  is  dug  in  the  ground, 
three  or  four  feet  wide ;  round  its  margin  are  laid  a  row  of 
stones,  on  ■which  the  sea-weed  is  placed,  and  set  on  fire  within 
and  quantities  of  this  fuel  being  continually  heaped  upon  the 
circle,  there  is  a  perpetual  flame  in  the  centre,  from  which  a 
liquid  like  melted  metal  drops  into  the  hollow  beneath ;  when  it  is 
full,  as  it  commonly  is  ere  the  close  of  the  day,  all  heterogeneous 
matter  being  removed,  the  kelp  is  wrought  with  iron  rakes 
and  brought  to  a  uniform  consistence,  in  a  state  of  fusion. 
When  cool,  it  consoHdates  into  a  heavy  dark-coloured  alkaline 
substance,  which  is  used  in  soap  and  glass  making,  and  in 
bleaching.  Different  species  of  sea-weed,  belonging  to  the 
genus  funis  and  order  alr/ae,  are  cultivated  for  kelp.  Fuci  cut 
when  two  or  three  years  old,  yield  more  in  proportion  to  bulk 
than  when  suffered  to  stand  longer. 

The  county  of  Antrim,  of  which  we  have  in  a  former  paper 
taken  some  notice,  furnishes  in  one  quarter  excellent  kelp.  This 
is  on  the  rocky  shore  of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  and  on  the 
north  side  of  the  island  of  Rathlin.  In  those  places  the  beach 
is  free  from  sand.  In  Rathlin  the  quantity-is  so  great,  that 
the  rents  are  paid  by  kelp.  The  best  is  that  which  the  weeds, 
cut  from  the  rocks  at  a  considerable  depth,  furnishes,  which 
aflFord  a  good  crop  every  second  year.  May  is  the  best  time 
for  making  this  article. 


E.OGET  S    ANIMAL  AND    VEGETABLE    PHYSIOLOGY. 


165 


ROGBT'S  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE    PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  portion  of  this  talented  and  popular  treatise  which  falls 
within  our  department,  though  it  occupies  a  comparatively 
small  share  of  the  author's  system  of  physiology,  still  affords 
ample  materials  for  a  review.  Indeed,  the  simplest  forms  of 
organized  existence  is  a  perfect  and  marvellous  proof  of  infinite 
wisdom,  the  most  excellent  design,  of  Almighty  power.  And 
were  we  possessed  of  intelligence  of  the  highest  order,  perhaps 
we  should  make  no  distinction,  in  judging  of  the  Creator's  con- 
trivance, in  point  of  perfection,  whether  it  is  looked  at  in  the 
vegetable  or  animal  kingdoms.  For  the  truth  is,  tlrat  nothing 
short  of  creative,  divine,  infinite  Intelligence,  can  either  fathom 
the  extent  of  the  powers  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  single 
blade  of  grass,  or  have  any  notion  of  the  manner  in  which  those 
Supreme  powers  have  been  exerted.  Our  purest  and  most 
direct  language  is  at  fault  the  moment  that  it  begins  to  de- 
scribe, in  those  particulars.  Tlie  very  simplest  words  bear  no 
adequate  relation  to  the  things  spoken  of.  The  terras  ea^ient 
and  exerted^  which  we  have  used,  are  not  applicable  to  the 
Creator,  and  are  only  excusable  because  we  have  no  other 
medium,  by  which  to  communicate  our  notions,  than  such  as  is 
familiar  to  us  in  our  modes  of  procedure.  According  to  this 
view,  were  we  sufficiently  acquainted  with  wbat  is  necessary 
to  vegetable  productions  and  organization,  we  should,  perhaps, 
feel  as  much  cause  of  wonder  and  adoration,  as  in  the  con- 
templation of  the  highest  created  intelligence.  At  least,  this 
can  be  asserted  of  human  penetration  and  ability,  that  what 
appears  to  us  the  very  simplest  of  organic  products,  namely, 
Sugar,  defies  all  the  powers  of  man,  aided  by  the  most  ex- 
tensive chemical  knowledge,  to  create,  though  the  elementary 
parts  were  set  before  him.  Heat,  moisture,  and  soil,  we  know 
to  be  necessary  to  vegetable  life;  or  it  may  be  stated  thus  : — 
The  elements  of  organic  substances  are  oxygen,  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  together  with  a  few 
of  the  alkaline,  earthy,  and  metallic  bases.  Y'et,  though  pos- 
sessed of  all  these,  man  cannot  create,  or  rather  combine  them, 
so  as  to  produce  organic  .action  and  life  that  is  in  any  shape  or 
degree  like  to  what  they  are  in  the  simplest  object  in  the  vege- 
table or  animal  world. 

But  although  we  cannot  create,  we  can,  in  some  degree,  appre- 
ciate the  beauty,  tlie  skill,  and  the  wonders  of  creation.  In  this 
way  too,  we  are  entitled  and  bound  to  read  the  character  of  the 
Almighty  Artificer.  Nor  can  the  inquirer  do  better  than  peruse 
Dr.  Koget's  Treatise,  as  a  lielp  to  tliis  instructive  study.  We 
take  him  up  where  he  is  treating  of  the  vital  functiom ;  and 
let  us  just  for  a  moment  think  of  the  processes  necessary  to 
nutrition.  There  is  here,  the  reception  of  certain  materials 
from  without,  and  their  preparation  as  well  as  gradual  conver- 
sion into  proper  nutriment,  that  is,  into  the  same  chemical 
properties  with  the  substance  of  the  organs  with  which  they 
are  to  be  incorporated.  There  is  circulation  to  convey  the  nu- 
tritive fluids  thus  elaborated  to  the  organs  that  are  to  be  nou- 
rished. There  is  secretion,  excretion,  and  absorption,  with 
modifications  of  other  processes,  which  we  have  not  room  to 
describe,  because  they  are  so  minutely  perfect,  that  even  the 
minutest  description  fails  in  doing  justice  to  them.  We  rather 
go  on  now  to  present  some  passages  from  the  learned  Treatise 
we  have  taken  up;  and  this  we  shall  do  without  any  critical 
links  of  our  own  formation,  since  nothing  can  be  more  interest- 
ing than  the  author's  words  and  information.  The  nutrition  of 
vegetables  is,  according  to  human  modes  of  conception,  the 
simplest  exhibition  of  the  process  of  feeding: — 

"§  1.  Food  of  Slants. 
"  The  simplest  kind  of  nutriment  is  that  presented  to  us  by 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  where  water  may  be  considered  as  the 
general  vehicle  of  the  nutriment  received.  Before  the  discove- 
ries of  modern  chemistry,  it  was  very  generally  believed  that 
plants  could  subsist  on  water  alone  ;  and  Boyle  and  Van  Hel- 
mont,  in  particular,  endeavoured  to  establish  by  experiment  the 


truth  of  this  opinion.  The  latter  of  these  physiologists  planted 
a  willow  in  a  certain  quantity  of  earth,  the  weight  of  which  he 
had  previously  ascertained  with  great  care  ;  and  during  five 
years,  he  kept  it  watered  with  rain  water  alone,  which  he  ima- 
gined was  perfectly  pure.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  earth 
bad  scarcely  diminished  in  weight,  while  the  willow  had  grown 
into  a  tree,  and  had  acquired  an  addition  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  :  wlicnce  he  concluded  that  the  water  had  been  the 
only  source  of  its  nourishment.  But  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  at  that  time  known  that  rain  water  always  contains  atmos- 
pheric air,  and  frequently  also  other  substances,  and  that  it  can- 
not, therefore,  be  regarded  as  absolutely  pure  water :  nor  does 
it  appear  that  any  precautions  w^ere  taken  to  ascertain  that  the 
water  actually  employed  was  wholly  free  from  foreign  matter, 
which  it  is  easy  to  conceive  it  might  have  held  in  solution.  In 
an  experiment  of  Duhamel,  on  the  other  hand,  ahorse-chestnut 
tree  and  an  o.ak,  exposed  to  the  open  air,  and  watered  with  dis- 
tilled water  a'one,  the  former  for  three,  and  the  latter  for  eight 
years,  were  kept  alive,  indeed,  but  they  were  exceedingly  stinted 
in  their  growth,  and  evidently  derived  little  or  no  sustenance 
from  the  water  with  which  they  were  supplied.  Experiments 
of  a  similar  nature  were  made  by  Bonnet,  and  with  the  like  re- 
sult. When  plants  are  contained  in  closed  vessels,  and  regu- 
larly supplied  with  water,  but  denied  an  access  to  carbonic  acid 
gas,  they  are  developed  only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  determined 
by  the  store  of  nutritious  matter  which  had  been  already  col- 
lected in  each  plant  when  the  experiment  commenced,  and  which, 
by  combining  with  the  water,  may  have  afforded  a  temporary- 
supply  of  nourishment. 

"  But  the  water  which  nature  furnishes  to  the  vegetable  or- 
gans is  never  perfectly  pure ;  for,  besides  containing  air,  in  which 
there  is  constantly  a  certain  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  it 
has  always  acquired,  by  percolation  tlirough  the  soil,  various 
earthy  and  saline  properties,  together  with  materials  derived 
from  decayed  vegetable  or  animal  remains.  Most  of  these  sub- 
stances are  soluble,  in  however  minute  a  quantity,  in  water: 
and  others,  finely  pulverized,  maybe  suspended  in  that  fluid,  and 
carried  along  with  it  into  the  vegetable  system.  It  does  not 
appear,  however,  that  pure  carbon  is  ever  admitted  ;  for  Sir  H. 
Davy,  on  mixing  charcoal,  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder,  with 
the  water  into  which  the  roots  of  mint  were  immersed,  could 
not  discover  that  the  smallest  quantity  of  that  substance  had 
been,  in  any  case,  absorbed.  But  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid, 
this  element  is  received  in  great  abundance,  through  the  medium 
of  water,  which  readily  absorbs  it ;  and  a  considerable  quantity 
of  carbon  is  also  introduced  into  the  fluids  of  the  plant,  derived 
from  the  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  materials,  which  the 
water  generally  contains.  The  peculiar  fertility  of  each  kind  of 
soil  depends  principally  on  the  quantity  of  these  org.anic  products 
it  contains  in  a  state  capalde  of  being  absorbed  by  tlie  plant, 
and  of  contributing  to  its  nourishment. 

"The  soil  is  also  the  source  whence  plants  derive  their  sa- 
line, earthy,  and  metallic  ingredients.  The  silica  they  often 
contain  is,  in  like  manner,  conveyed  to  them  by  the  water,  which 
it  is  now  well  ascertained,  by  the  researches  of  Berzelius,  is 
capable  of  dissolving  a  very  minute  quantity  of  this  dense  and 
hard  substance.  It  is  evident  that,  however  small  this  quantity 
may  be,  if  it  continue  to  accumulate  in  the  plant,  it  may  in  time 
constitute  the  whole  amount  of  that  which  is  found  to  be  so 
copiously  deposited  on  the  surface,  or  collected  in  the  interior  of 
many  plants,  such  as  the  bamboo,  and  various  species  of  grasses. 
The  small  degree  of  solubility  of  many  substances  thus  required 
for  the  construction  of  the  solid  vegetable  fabric,  is,  probably, 
one  of  the  reasons  why  plants  require  so  large  a  supply  of 
water  for  their  subsistence. 

"  §  2.  Absorption  of  Nutriment  by  Plants. 

"The  greater  number  of  cellular  plants  absorb  water  with 

nearly  equal  facility  from  every  part  of  their  surface  ;  this  is  the 

case  with  the  Ahjie,  for  instance,  which  are  aquatic  plants.     In 

Lichens,  on  the  other  hand,  absorption  takes  place  more  par- 


166 


ROGET  S    ANIMAL   AND        VEGETABLE    PHYSIOLOGY. 


tially ;  but  the  particular  parts  of  the  surface  where  it  occurs 
are  not  constantly  the  same,  and  appear  to  be  determined  more 
by  mechanical  causes  than  by  auy  peculiarity  of  structure; 
some,  however,  are  found  to  be  provided  in  certain  parts  of  the 
surface  with  stomata,  which  De  CanduUe  supposes  may  act  as 
sucking  orifices.  Many  mushrooms  appear  to  be  capable  of 
absorbing  fluids  from  all  parts  of  theJr  surface  indiscrimiuately ; 
and  some  species,  again,  are  furnished  at  their  base  with  a  kind 
of  radicnl  fibrils  for  that  purpose." 

The  other  passages  are  happily  described  and  illustrated  as 
follows : — 

'*  Several  opinions  have  been  entertained  with  regard  to  the 
channels  through  which  the  sap  is  conveyed  in  its  ascent  along 
the  stem,  and  in  its  passage  to  its  ultimate  destination.  Many 
observations  tend  to  show,  that,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  it 
is  not  transmitted  through  any  of  the  distinguishable  vessels  of 
the  plant :  for  most  of  these,  in  their  natural  stale,  are  found 
to  contain  only  air.  The  sap  must,  therefore,  either  traverse 
the  cells  themselves,  or  pa«s  along  the  intercellular  spaces. 
That  the  latter  is  the  course  it  takes,  is  the  opinion  of  De  Can- 
dolle,  who  adduces  a  variety  of  arguments  in  its  support.  The 
sap,  he  observes,  is  found  to  rise  equally  well  in  plants  whose 
structure  is  wholly  cellular  ;  a  fact  which  proves  that  vessels 
are  not  in  all  cases  necessary  for  its  conveyance.  In  many  in- 
stances the  sap  is  known  to  deviate  from  its  usual  rectilinear 
path,  and  to  pursue  a  circuitous  course,  very  different  from  that 
of  any  of  the  known  vessels  of  the  plant.  The  diffusion  of  the 
sap  in  different  directions,  and  its  subsidence  in  the  lowest 
parts,  on  certain  occasions,  are  facts  irreconcileable  with  the 
supposition  that  it  is  confined  to  the  vessels. 

*•  Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  to  discover  the  ve- 
locity with  which  the  sap  rises  in  plants,  and  the  force  it  exerts 
in  its  ascent.  Those  of  Hales  are  well  known  :  by  lopping  off 
the  top  of  a  young  vine,  and  applying  to  the  truncated  extremity 
a  glass  tube,  which  closed  round  it,  he  found  that  the  fluid  in 
the  tube  rose  to  a  height,  which,  taking  into  account  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  fluid,  was  equivalent  to  a  perpendiciUar  co- 
lumn of  water  of  more  than  forty-three  feet :  and,  conseqiiently, 
exerted  a  force  of  propulsion  considerably  greater  than  the 
pressure  of  an  additional  atmosphere.  The  velocity,  as  well  as 
the  force  of  ascent,  must,  however,  be  liable  to  great  variation; 
being  much  influenced  by  evaporation,  and  other  changes,  which 
the  sap  undergoes  in  the  leaves.  Various  opinions  have  been 
entertained  as  to  the  agency  by  which  the  motion  of  the  sap  is 
effected ;  but  althongh  it  seems  likely  to  be  resolved  into  the 
vital  movements  of  the  cellular  structure  already  mentioned,  the 
question  is  still  enveloped  in  considerable  obscurity.  There  is 
certainly  no  evideuce  to  prove  that  it  has  analogy  to  a  muscular 
power  ;  aad  the  simplest  supposition  we  can  make  is,  that  these 
actions  take  place  by  means  of  a  contractile  property  belonging 
to  the  vegetable  tissue,  and  exerted,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, and  in  conformity  to  certain  laws,  which  we  have  not 
yet  succeeded  in  determining." 

**  §  4.    Aeration  of  the  Sap. 

**  A  chemical  change  much  more  considerable  and  important 
than  the  preceding  is  next  effected  on  the  sap  by  the  leaves, 
when  they  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  light.  It  consists  in 
the  decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  either 
brought  to  them  by  the  sap  itself,  or  obtained  directly  from  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  In  either  case  its  oxygen  is  separated, 
and  disengaged  in  the  form  of  gas  ;  while  its  carbon  is  retained, 
and  composes  an  essential  ingredient  of  the  altered  sap,  which, 
as  it  now  possesses  one  of  the  principal  elements  of  vegetable 
structures,  may  be  considered  as  having  made  a  near  approach 
to  its  complete  assimiluHoiiy  using  this  term  in  the  physiological 
sense  already  pointed  out. 

"  The  remarkable  discovery  that  oxygen  gas  is  exhaled  from 
the  leaves  of  plants  during  the  day  time,  was  made  by  the 
great  founder  of  pneumatic  chemistry.  Dr.  Priestley  :  to  Senne- 
bier  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  observation  that  the  presence 
of  carbonic  acid  is  required  for  the  disengagement  of  oxygen  in 


this  process,  and  that  the  oxygen  is  derived  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  carbonic  acid ;  and  these  latter  facts  have  since 
been  fully  establislied  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  Woodhouse,  of 
Pennsylvania,  M.  Theodore  de  Saussure,  and  Mr,  Palmer.  They 
are  proved  in  a  very  satisfactory  mahner  by  the  following  ex- 
periment of  De  Candolle. 

*'Two  glass  jars  were  inverted  over  the  same  water-bath, 
the  one  filled  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  other  filled  with  water, 
containing  a  sprig  of  mint;  the  jars  communicating  below  by 
means  of  the  water-bath,  on  the  surface  of  which  some  oil  was 
poured,  so  as  to  intercept  all  communication  between  the  water 
and  the  atmosphere.  The  sprig  of  mint  was  exposed  to  the 
light  of  the  sun  for  twelve  days  consecutively:  at  the  end  of 
each  day  the  carbonic  acid  was  seen  to  diminish  in  quantity,  the 
water  rising  in  the  jar  to  supply  the  place  of  what  was  lost,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  plant  exhaled  a  quantity  of  oxygen  exactly 
equal  to  that  of  the  carbonic  acid  that  had  disappeared.  A 
similar  sprig  of  mint,  placed  in  ajar  of  the  same  size,  full  of 
distilled  water,  but  without  having  access  to  carbonic  acid,  gave 
out  no  oxygen  gas,  and  so  on  perished.  When,  in  another  ex- 
periment, conducted  by  means  of  the  same  apparatus  as  was 
used  in  the  first,  oxygen  gas  was  substituted  in  the  fii-st  jar 
instead  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  no  gas  was  disengaged  in  the  other 
jar,  which  contained  a  sprig  of  mint.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  the  oxygen  gas  obtained  from  the  mint  in  the  first  experi- 
ment was  derived  from  the  decomposition,  by  the  leaves  of  the 
mint,  of  the  carbonic  acid,  which  the  plant  had  absorbed  from 
the  water." 

All  scientific  researches,  as  well  as  every  other  branch  of 
study  in  which  man  can  employ  his  mind,  ought  to  lead  to 
moral  results.  We  are  rational  beings;  nay,  more,  we  are 
responsible  beings  ;   and  religion  should  be  tauE^ht  by  science. 

*'  The  Great  Author  of  our  being,  who,  while  he  has  been 
pleased  to  confer  on  us  the  gift  of  reason,  has  prescribed  certain 
limits  to  its  powers,  permits  us  to  acquire,  by  its  exercise,  a 
knowledge  of  some  of  the  "wondrous  works  of  his  creation,  to 
interpret  the  characters  of  wisdom  and  of  goodness  with  which 
they  are  impressed,  and  to  join  our  voice  to  the  general  chorus 
which  proclaims  '  His  Might,  Majesty,  and  Dominion.*  From 
the  same  gracious  hand  we  also  derive  that  unquenchable  thirst 
for  knowledge,  which  this  fleeting  life  must  ever  leave  unsatis- 
fied; those  endowments  of  the  moral  sense,  with  which  the 
present  constitution  of  the  world  so  ill  accords  ;  and  that  innate 
desire  of  perfection  which  our  present  frail  condition  is  so  inade- 
quate to  fulfil.  But  it  is  not  given  to  man  to  penetrate  into  the 
counsels,  or  fathom  the  designs  of  Omnipotence  ;  for  in  direct- 
ing his  views  into  futurity,  the  feeble  light  of  his  reason  is  scat- 
tered and  lost  in  the  vast  abyss.  Although  we  plainly  discern 
intention  in  every  part  of  the  creation,  the  grand  object  of  the 
whole  is  placed  far  above  the  scope  of  our  comprehension.  It 
is  impossible,  however,  to  conceive  that  this  enormous  expendi- 
ture of  power,  this  vast  accumulation  of  contrivances  and  of 
machinery,  and  this  profusion  of  existence  resulting  from  them, 
can  thus,  from  age  to  age,  be  prodigally  lavished,  without  some 
ulterior  end.  Is  Man,  the  favoured  creature  of  nature's  bounty, 
'  the  paragon  of  animals,'  whose  spirit  holds  communion  with 
celestial  powers,  formed  but  to  perish  with  the  wreck  of  his 
bodily  frame?  Are  generations  after  generations  of  his  race 
doomed  to  foUow  in  endless  succession,  rolling  darkly  down  the 
stream  of  time,  and  leaving  no  track  in  its  pathless  ocean?  Are 
the  operations  of  Almighty  power  to  end  with  the  present  scene  ? 
May  we  not  discern,  in  the  spiritual  constitution  of  man»  the 
traces  of  higher  powers,  to  which  those  he  now  possesses  are 
but  preparatory  ;  some  embryo  faculties  which  raises  us  above 
this  earthly  habitation  ?  Have  we  not  in  the  imagination,  a 
power  but  little  in  harmony  with  the  fetters  of  our  bodily  or- 
gans ;  and  bringing  within  our  view  purer  conditions  of  being, 
exempt  from  the  illusions  of  our  senses  and  the  infirmities  of 
our  nature,  our  elevation  to  which  will  eventually  prove  that 
all  these  unsated  desires  of  knowledge,  and  all  these  ardent  as- 
pirations after  moral  good,  were  not  implanted  in  us  in  vain  ?" 


I 


DESeRIPTION    OF    THE    ENGRAVINGS. 


167 


( 


fflejJttf^ttfltt  at  tijE  ffiitfliabtngsi. 

CAMPANllLA  GLOJIERATA. 

CLUSTERKD   BELL-FLOWER. 

Pentandria.  Monogynia,     Linn. 
Campanulacte.     Juss. 
Gen.  Char. — Corolla  canipanulate,    closed    at    bottom  witli 
staminiferous  valves.      Stigma  3,    5 -cleft.     Capsule  infeiior, 
opening  by  lateral  pores. 

Spec.  Char. — Stem  angular,  simple,  smooth.  Leaves  sca- 
brous, oblong,  lanceolate,  cordate,  sessile.      Heads  clustered. 

Campanula,  a  little  bell.  Glonierata,  In-ought  into  a  heap, 
from  its  Lead  of  flowers,  which  is  often  more  crowded  than  is 
shown  in  our  specimen. 

This  species,  as  well  as  a  white  variety,  which  is  not  uncom- 
mon, is  desirable,  from  its  unobtrusive  growth,  its  habit  of  free 
flowering,  and  the  little  care  demanded  in  its  cultivation. 
BUPHTHALMUM  GRANDIFLORUM. 

GEEAT-FLOWERED   OX-BYE. 

Syngenesia.  Polygainia.  Siiperjlaa.  LlNN. 
Compositce.  Sub.  ord,  Helitinfhece. 
This  sbowy  herbaceous  plant  is  sometimes  raised  from  seed, 
and  its  offspring  frequently  presents  trifling  varieties  of  ap- 
pearance. The  roots  also  admit  of  division  for  increase,  and 
these  may  be  planted  in  any  common  garden  soil,  in  whatever 
aspect  is  most  convenient. 

DIANTHUS  DELTOIDES. 

MAIDEN    PINK. 

Decandrla  Bigynia.  LiNN. 
Nat.  Ord.    Caryophylleie.  D.  c. 

Gen.  Char. — Calyx  cylindrical,  1 -leaved,  with  scales  at  the 
base,     /"e^afa  5,  clawed.     Capsii/e  cylindrical,   1 -celled. 

Spec.  Char. — Stem  decumbent,  branched.  Flowers  solitary. 
Scales  ovate,  lanceolate,  acute  twin.  Upper  leaves  narrow, 
acute  ;  lower  oblong,  obtuse. 

Found  on  sandy  banks  and  heaths,  in  various  parts  of  Eng- 
land, growing  prostrate  among  grass  and  other  herbs,  for  "want 
of  the  natural  shelter  of  which  it  is  not  easily,  in  a  garden,  cul- 
tivated. There  are  two  varieties  of  this  pink,  one  of  them  of  a 
blush  colour,  and  for  this  reason,  Gerard  says,  it  is  called  the 
*' Maidenly  Pink."  The  petals  vary  much  in  colour,  being 
sometimes  of  a  very  pale  flesh  colour,  and  sometimes  deep  red  ; 
but  they  are  always  marked  with  a  ring  of  deeper  red  dots  near 
the  centre  of  the  flower.  The  other  variety,  which  is  very  com- 
mon in  gardens,  has  white  flowers,  with  a  beautiful  purple  ring, 
and  leaves  rather  more  glaucous. 

Both  varieties  are  extremely  pretty,  and  should  not  be  want- 
ing in  any  collection  of  this  admired  family.  They  flower  in 
June  and  July,  and  continue  flowering  till  late  in  the  autumn. 
May  be  increased  by  a  division  of  the  roots,  made  early  in  the 
spring,  and  planted  either  in  a  pot  or  in  a  dry  border  of  the 
garden,  carefully  observing  to  protect  them  from  too  great  a 
portion  of  moisture,  which  is  very  injurious  to  the  whole  of  the 
Dianthus  tribe. 

SPIRAEA   TRIFOLIATA. 

THKEE-LEAVED  SPIRiEA. 

Icosandria  Di-pentagynia,  Linn. 
Nat.  Ord.   Spirteceee.     D.  Don. 

Gen.  Char. — Calyx,  spreading  5-cleft;  Petals,  5;  Capsule, 
1 -celled,  2-valved,  opening  inwards,  1-3  seeded. 

Spec.  Char. — Stipules,  linear  entire ;  Calyx,  tubular  cam- 
panulate. 

Of  this  genus  both  the  flower  garden  and  shnibbery  are  in- 
debted for  some  of  their  chief  ornaments.  Of  the  hardy  her- 
baceous species  the  tri/oliata  is  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
elegant ;  when  it  grows  in  perfection  it  certainly  is  a  most  delec- 
table plant,  generally  rising  to  the  height  of  two  feet,  with  a 
profusion  of  flowers.     These  continue  from  July  to  September. 

It  is  usually  increased  by  parting  its  roots.  Miller  says  that 
the  seeds  of  it  should  be  sown  in  the  autumn,  to  ensure  their 
vegetation  in  the  spring.     The  best  situation  for  this  plant  is  a 


north  border  ;  it  loves  moisttu-e,  and  should  be  planted  in  light 
bog  or  peat  earth,  or  a  mixture  of  it  and  a  pure  hazel  loam. 

This  species,  and  the  S.  Stipulacea,  have  lately  been  separated 
from  their  original  family  to  constitute  a  new  genus,  under  the 
title  GiUcitia,  eacli  plant  still  retaining  its  former  trivial  name. 

A  native  of  N.  America,  introduced  in  1713. 
PRIMULA  CORTUSOIDES. 

CO  RTUSA-LE  AVED     PRIMROSE. 

Pentandria  Monogynia.   Linn. 
Nat.    Ord.    Primulaceie.    Brown. 

Gen.  Char. — Capsule,  1 -celled;  Corolla,  funnel-shaped,  per- 
vious at  the  orifice  ;   Stigma,  globose. 

Spec.  Char. — Leaves  cordate,  stalked,  doubly  crenate,  smooth 
beneath,  hairy  at  the  veins;  stalk  villous;  umbel  many-flow- 
ered, erect,  the  length  of  the  tube. 

In  the  wrinkled  appearance  of  its  foliage  this  species  ap- 
proaches the  Primula  Acaulis,  whilst  in  its  inflorescence,  the 
colour  of  its  flowers,  and  solitary  scape  (which  rises  to  an  un- 
usual height),  it  bears  an  affinity  to  the  faHnosa.  It  flowers 
in  June  and  July,  and  may  be  raised  from  seeds,  or  propagated 
by  parting  its  roots  ;  but  it  is  apt  to  be  lost  if  not  duly  attended 
to.  It  requires  to  be  kept  in  a  pot  filled  with  equal  parts  of 
loam  and  bog  earth,  to  be  placed  in  a  moist  shady  situation  in 
the  summer,  and  in  a  frame  in  the  winter,  when  it  loses  its 
leaves  entirely,  and  forms  a  sort  of  bulbous  hybernaculum  under 
ground.  This  circumstance  is  the  more  necessary  to  be  known, 
as  it  subjects  the  plant  to  be  thrown  away  as  dead. 

Tliis  very  rare  species  of  Primula,  called  cotusoiiles,  on  ac- 
count of  the  similitude  of  its  foliage  to  that  of  the  Cortusa  Mat- 
thioli  of  Linneus,  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  and  introduced  into 
this  country  in  17  94. 

PHYTEUMA  OBBICULARE. 

ROUND-HEADED  RAMPION. 

Pentandria.   Monogynia.     LiNN. 
Campamilaceee,     Juss. 
Phyteuma  is  a  term  used  by  the  Grecian  writers,  and  is  al- 
lowed to  have  been  derived  from  phuteuo,  to  sow.     Orbicu- 
lare,  from  the  Latin  Orbis,  an  orb  or  circle,  the  application  of 
which  is  evident. 

Each  corolla,  of  this  species  of  Phyteuma,  forms  a  little 
curved  horn  ;  and  it  is  rather  remarkable  that  the  five  cohering 
segments,  into  which  each  corolla  divides  itself,  first  separate  at 
their  lower  part,  and  form  openings,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Spanish  costume,  usually  termed  slashing. 

SCUTELLARIA  COLUMNiE. 

HEART-LEAVED  SCULL-CAP. 

Didynamia  6mynospermi<i.     LiN. 
Labiatce.    Brown 

Gen.  Char. — Calyx  entire,  after  flowering  closed  with  a  lid. 
Tube  of  the  Corolla  elongated. 

Spec.  Char. — Leaves  oblong,  cordate,  serrate,  pubescent 
spikes  elongated,  1 -sided.  Bractes  stalked,  ovate,  shorter  than 
the  Calyx. 

The  flower  of  the  Scutellaria  Columnse  will  recommend  itself 
by  its  beauty,  independently  of  any  further  attraction.  It  may 
be  planted  in  the  open  border,  in  light  soil,  where  it  will  in- 
crease, and  sometimes  produce  seeds.  It  may  afterwards  be 
divided  ;  or  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  spring,  in  pots,  or  on  an 
open  border  of  rich  earth.  It  may  also  be  struck  from  cuttings 
of  the  young  shoots,  which  should  be  planted  under  a  hand- 
glass. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM  CORONARIUM. 

GARDEN    CHRYSANTHEMUM. 

Pyngenesia.  Polygamia  Supeflua.     LiNN. 
Compositce.    Sub.  Obd.     Anthemideie.    Kth. 
This   plant  is  too  well  known   to   need  description.     Its  ex- 
tremely showy  appearance  in  autumn  secures  for  it  a  place  in 
almost  every  garden. 

Seeds  of  it  may  be  sown  at  the  latter  end  of  March  or  begin- 
ning of  April,  either  where  the  plants  are  to  flower,  or  in  pots; 
if  in  the  latter,  the  seedlings  can  be  transplanted  at  pleasure. 


168 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    ENGRAVINGS. 


CYTISUS     MULTIFLORUS. 
Diadelphia  Decandria.  Linn. 

LeguminosBe.    Jussieu. 
Lote^e.  DecandoUe. 
C.  multiflorus;  caulibus  erectis,  ramis   elongatis  teretibus  :  ju- 
nioribus  villosis,  folioUs  oblongis  basi  attenuatis  subtus  villo- 
sis    utrinque    concoloiibus,     floribus    siibternatis,     pedicellis 
petiolis  subEequalibus,  vexillo  emarginato  uudulato. 
C.  elongatus;   jS.  multiflorus.     Dec.  prodr.  2.  155. 

Dilfeit  C.  elongato,  foliis  subtus  villosis,  concoloribus,  nee 
appresse  pilosis,  argeuto  mit-antibus;  pedunculis  petiolis  longio- 
ribus  V.  Eequalibus,  nee  multu  brevioribus;  vexillo  emarginato, 
undulato,  quodammodo  lacero,  nee  obeordato,  piano,  integerri- 
mo;  deuique,  floribus  majoribus,  ternis  quaternisve,  nee  subso- 
litariis,  raro  ternis. 

This  plant  is  a  very  beautiful  hardy  border-shrub,  remark- 
able for  the  profusion  of  bright  yellow  flowers  with  which  its 
long  slender  branches  are  laden.  It  does  not  grow  above  two 
or  three  feet  high,  and  is  easily  propagated  by  layers.  Its 
native  country  is  unknown. 

The  differences  that  exist  between  this  and  C.  elongatus  are 
as  follow : — The  leaves  are  villous  and  green  beneath,  not  closely 
downy  and  silvery ;  the  peduncles  are  longer  than  the  petioles 
or  as  long,  and  not  much  shorter;  the  vexillum  is  ragged,  emar- 
ginate,  and  wavy,  not  obcordate,  flat,  and  entire  ;  and,  finally, 
the  flowers  are  much  larger,  and  always  produced  in  threes  or 
fours,  and  not  usually  solitary,  orattheutmostproduced  in  threes. 
CANAVALIA  BONARIENSIS. 

BUENOS  AYRES   CANAVALIA. 

Monadelphia.  Decandria.  Linn. 
LegurainosK  and  Jussicm  Phaseolea.  Dii  Cand. 
CANAVALIA  Dec. — Calyx  tubulosus,  bilabiatus,  labio  in- 
feriore  dentibus  tribus  (vel  unico)  acutis  parvis,  supeiiore  lobis 
2  amplis  rotundatis.  Corollse  vexillum  amplum  bicallosum ; 
callis  parallelis;  alee  stipitatae  oblonga^  auriculatse;  carina  di- 
petala.  Stamina  monadelphia,  aut  decimo  subadherente.  Legu- 
men  compressum,  tricariuatum,  nerape  infn\  ct  juxta  suturam 
superiorem  nervo  protuberante  sutuiro  parallelo  utrinque  in- 
structum,    muci'one   inflexo   terminatutn,  membranis   cellulosis 

inter  semina  donatum.      Semina  ovali-oblonga,  hilo  lineari. 

Herbse  aut  suffrutices,  ramis  volubilibus,  foliis  pinnato-trifolio- 
latis.  Racemi  axillares  multiflori  pedicellis  ternis.  Flores 
ampli  purpurascentes. 

C.  bonariensis ;  foliolis  ovatis  obtusis  cum  acumine  coriaceis 
glabris,  racemis  foliis  longioribus,  calycis  labio  inferiore  uni- 
.  dentato. 
Caulis  lignosus,  sarmentosus,  volubilis,  teres.  Folia  ternata ; 
foliola  petiolulata,  ovata,  cum  acumine  obtuso,  coriacea,  inte- 
gerrimi,  glaberrima.  Racemi  axillares,  multiflori,  penduli, 
glabri,  apice  leviter  pubescentes.  Flores  gemini,  ternive,  ^ 
gibbis  racheos,  ad  basin  sub  calyce  bracteolisduabus  minimis 
-  rotundis  sufi"ulti.  Calyx  viridis,  campanulatus,  bilabiatus, 
glaber,  labio  superiore  maximo,  foliaceo,  bilobo,  demiim  reflexo, 
inferiore  minimo,  integerrimo,  dcntiformi.  Vexillum  magnum, 
ohcordatum,  purpureum,basi  limbi  callosum,  pube  quadam  intr<L 
labia  calli,  abrupte  refractura,  et  inde  in  inigue  acuminatum ; 
alse  falcatae,  obtufEe,  vexillo  breviores,  purpurascentes;  carina 
longitudine  alarum,  cymbiformis,  obtusa,  purpurascens,  cornu- 
bus  baseosbrevibus,  iucurvis.  Stamina  monadelpha,  declinata, 
nuUo  modo  diadelpha;  antheris  oblongis,  utrinque  obtusis,  al- 
ternis  demissioribas.  Ovarium  stipite  villoso  longo  insidens, 
falcatum,  pubescens,  heptaspcrmum,  in  stylo  lineari,  ascendente, 
glabro  acuminatum;  stigma  glabram,  capitatum.  (Semen 
magnum,  Wisterite  frutescentis,  sec.  cl.  Herbertum.) 

This  is  a  native  of  Buenos  Ayres,  whence  its  seed  was  intro- 
duced into  this  country  a  few  years  since  by  the  Rev.  William 
Herbert.  We  find  that  the  stem  is  woody,  and  sends  out  fre- 
quently horizontal  or  drooping  runners,  which  cross  along  to  the 
furthest  extremities  of  the  hot-house,  rising  up  here  and  there 
to  the  top  of  the  buildiiig,  and  again  hanging  down  from  the 
wires  upon  the  rafters. 


A  tender  stove-plant,  flowering  during  most  of  the  summer 
months.      It  is  propagated  by  cuttings. 

SALVIA  INVOLUCRATA. 

Diandria  Monogynia.     LiNN. 

Labiate.    Jussieu. 

Stem  exceeding  the  human  stature,   4-cornered,    somewhat 

shrubby.     Leaves  cordate-ovate,  acuminate,  serrated,   smooth, 

with  purplish  veins.      Flowers  in  capitate  thyrses,  bright  rich 

purple   or  lake   colour,  growing  by  threes  out  of  the  axilla;  of 

large,    ovate,    deciduous,    coloured    bractse.      Calyx   coloured, 

2-lipped  ;   the  upper  lip  acute,   entire,  the  lower   shorter,  with 

two  obscure  teeth.     Corolla  inflated,  smooth,  an  inch  and  more 

long,  the  helment  downy,  the  Up  rounded,  with  3  lobes.    Anthers 

small,   white,  1 -celled,  the  connectivum  elongated  downwards 

into  a  sort  of  semisagittate  straight  process.      Style  pubescent. 

This  very  handsome  plant  is   a  native  of  Mexico.     It  is  a 

most  lovely  border  flower  during  the  autumn  months  ;  and  in  the 

conservatory  it  is  in  blossom  during  the  greater  part  of  the 

summer.     Propagated  freely  by  cuttings,  and  requires  just  the 

same  treatment  as  Salvia  splendens. 

We  entirely  agree  with  our  friend  Dr.  Hooker,  in  consider- 
ing S.  Isevigata  of  Humboldt  and  Kunth  identical  with  the  S. 
invoucrata  of  Cavanilles.  We  do  not  discover  the  slightest 
difference  between  those  two  supposed  species. 

CRATyEGUS  HETEROPHYLLA. 
Icosandria  Di-pentagynia.     Linn. 
Rosacete.  Jussieu. 
A  middle-sized  tree,  with  the  habit  of  C.  oxyacantha,  but 
more  robust.     Leaves  hicid,  quite  smooth,  falling  off  late  iu  the 
season;  near  the  inflorescence,  and  on  old  branches,  lanceolate, 
and  quite  entire,  or  oblong,  cuneate,  3-toothed  at  the  end  ;  on 
the  more  vigorous  branches  pinnatifid,  serrate,  somewhat  cu- 
neate :    stipulse   very  large,  pinnatifid,  half  cordate.     Cymes 
many  flowered,  compact,  perfectly  smooth.    Calyx  with  a  linear- 
oblong  tube,  a  short  campanulate  limb,  and  accuminate,  gland- 
less  teeth.      Petals  denticulate,   white.      Style  thick,    simple, 
Fruit   black,  oval,  or  fusiform,   crowned  with  the  persistent 
limb  of  the  calyx. 

A  beautiful  kind  of  Hawthorn,  very  littie  known  in  our 
English  gardens,  although  it  has  existed  in  collections  in  this 
country  for  many  years.  It  is  by  far  the  handsomest  of  the 
white-flowered  species,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  black  berries 
in  the  autumn. 

The  native  country  of  this  flower  is  supposed  to  be  North 
America  .  but  if  we  consider  the  litlte  affinity  that  it  has  with 
any  known  North  American  species,  and  its  close  resmblance  to 
C.  maroccana^  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  it  had  its  origin 
from  the  East,,  as  is  indeed  indicated  by  one  of  its  garden 
names. 

LiaUORICE   PLANT. 

The  Liquorice  plant  {Glycyrvhiza  glabra)  is  cultivated  in 
Bourguel,  in  France,  in  the  following  manner : — Trenches,  as 
deep  as  the  soil  will  permit,  and  about  two  feet  wide,  are  open- 
ed, three  feet  from  each  other  ;  the  bottom  of  the  trench  is 
dunged  and  dug,  and  two  rows  of  cuttings  of  the  roots  are 
planted  as  close  as  possible  to  its  sides  ;  these  are  covered  a 
few  inches,  by  sliding  down  a  little  earth  from  the  ridglet ;  as 
the  plants  grow^,  more  earth  is  slid  down,  tiU,  at  the  end  of  the 
first  summer,  the  whole  field  is  level.  In  the  second  summer, 
every  pair  of  rows  are  earthed  up  from  the  wide  interval  be- 
tween :  during  the  third  summer  nothing  is  done:  but  in  the 
October  or  November  following,  the  crop  is  dug  up  ;  and  while 
the  ground  is  being  trenched  for  that  purpose,  it  is  sometimes 
planted  as  before,  for  a  repetition  of  the  crop.  In  other  cases, 
a  crop  of  barley,  and  two  succeeding  crops  of  clover  are  taken; 
after  which,  the  ground  being  again  trenched,  is  found  to  con- 
tain a  number  of  liquorice  roots  ;  the  plant  being  difficult  to 
eradicate,  when  the  soil  and  climate  are  suitable. 


•y 


\j^%,^M 


I 


9  .  («ri:Ltin-ii.;i   I'^t'ru;.!  . 


lU  ■  Ku  s  :i    searperfloTens  . 


11.  Sdnia  pTii*]>iijt*i 


12  .  KrTthrujiJ  um  ^^im^ririijonTn  . 


I 


Pitcairnia  :iugiis1iG»liu. 


I 


ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  HYACINTHS, ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  CELERY. 


169 


ON  THE  CULTURE  OJF  HYACINTHS. 

The  Dutch  mode  of  treating  Hyacinths  was  long  ago  minutely 
detailed  in  a  work  by  St.  Simon,  in  which  every  thing  that 
could  be  said  on  the  subject  will  be  found.  By  following  out 
the  directions  therein  laid  down,  hyacinth  Howers  fully  equal 
to  those  obtained  from  Dutch  bulbs,  have  been  prottuccd  in  this 
country.  The  compost  used  for  the  purpose  at  Haarlem  is  rot- 
ten eow  dung,  rotten  leaves,  and  fine  sand.  In  making  this 
compost,  the  Dutch  gardeners  prefer  the  softer  leaves  of  elm, 
lime,  and  birch,  and  reject  those  of  oak,  chcsnut,  walnut,  beach, 
plane,  &c.,  which  do  not  rot  so  quickly.  The  cow-dung  which 
they  use  is  also  of  a  peculiar  quality,  being  collected  in  the 
winter,  when  the  cattle  are  stall-fed  upon  dry  food,  without 
any  mixture  of  straw  or  other  litter.  The  sand  is  procured  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Haarlem,  where  the  soil  is  a  deposit  of  sea- 
sand,  upon  a  compact  layer  of  undecayed  timber,  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  forest  which  lias  been  overwhelmed  by  the  sea. 

The  leaves  used  by  the  Dutch  are  laid  in  a  very  large  heap, 
in  a  situation  not  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  not  liable  to 
stagnation  of  water,  wiiieh  is  carefully  drained  from  them. 
When  they  are  decayed  and  lit  for  use,  the  compost  is  thus 
made  :  first,  they  place  a  layer  of  sand,  then  one  of  dung,  and 
then  one  of  rotten  leaves,  each  being  eight  or  ten  inches  thick. 
These  layers  are  repeated  till  the  heap  is  six  or  seven  feet  high ; 
a  layer  of  dung  being  uppermost,  sprinkled  over  with  a  little 
sand  to  prevent  the  too  powerful  action  of  the  sun  upon  it. 
After  the  heap  has  lain  thus  for  six  months  or  more,  it  is 
mixed,  and  thrown  up  afresh,  in  which  state  it  remains  some 
weeks  to  settle,  before  it  is  carried  into  the  flower  beds.  This 
compost  retains  its  qualities  about  six  or  seven  years  ;  but  the 
Dutch  avoid  setting  liyacinths  in  it  t^vo  years  successively ;  in 
the  alternate  years  they  plant  tulips,  jonquils,  narcissuses, 
crocuses,  lilies,  &c.  in  Ihe  same  beds  ;  nor  do  they  venture 
to  set  hyacinths  in  the  compost  the  first  season,  when  the  fresh 
manure  might  be  injurious  to  them.  I'he  choice  bulbs  are 
taken  np  every  year,  and  the  soil  that  lay  amongst  the  fibres 
is  then  carefully  brought  up  to  the  surface.  The  beds  should 
be  deep  enough  to  prevent  a  possibility  of  the  fibres  coming  in 
contact  with  the  natural  soil. 

The  Hon.  and  Rev.  William  Herbert  says,  that  at  his  villa 
in  Surrey,  where  he  had  the  advantage  of  the  vicinity  of  the 
fine  sand  of  Shirley  common,  his  hyacinth  flowers  were  perhaps 
superior  to  those  obtained  from  the  best  Dutch  bulbs,  and  that 
he  believes  English  sea-sand,  or  that  got  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Croydon,  will  suit  as  well  as  that  of  Haarlem.  Where  the  leaves 
of  elm,  &c.  cannot  conveniently  be  kept  distinct,  he  imagines 
that  other  leaves  will  serve  the  purpose  as  well,  if  they  are  left 
a  much  longer  time  to  rot;  and  even  old  tan,  if  thoroughly 
decayed,  and  pulverised,  may  be  used  instead  of  leaves,  since 
the  Dutch  have  tried  it  with  success.  The  difficulty  in  this 
country  is  to  obtain  cow-dung  without  straw.  .  It  may,  how^- 
evcr,  be  collected  in  the  fields;  but  then  it  is  the  produce  of 
green  food,  and  very  probably  not  possessed  of  tire  same  virtue 
as  that  used  by  the  Dutch.  However,  it  may  with  care  be 
gathered  from  the  farm-yard  ;  but  it  must  be  completely  de- 
cayed, so  that  no  portion  of  straw  remain  in  it  half  rotten.  The 
mischief  occasioned  by  the  fermentation  of  undecayed  straw, 
and  the  great  heat  of  horse-dung,  S:c,  is  a  contagious  decay  of 
the  buUjs  ;  the  cause  of  which,  Mr.  Herbert  thinks  is  fungus, 
the  spawn  of  which  is  nurtured  in  the  dung.  The  Dutch,  with 
ail  their  precautions,  are  much  troubled  by  this  disease  ;  the 
only  remedy  for  which  is  the  removal  of  the  distempered  bulb, 
and  the  compost  that  was  in  contact  with  it ;  and  the  cure  of 
the  bulb  itself,  if  the  injury  has  not  gone  too  far,  may  be  ef- 
fected by  amputation  of  the  diseased  coats. 

The  beds  should  be  made  about  three  feet  in  depth  with  the 
compost,  consisting  of  about  one-sixth  of  rotten  leaves  or  tan, 
two-sixths  of  pure  sand,  and  the  remainder  of  rotten  cow-dung. 
The  compost  should  not  be  trodden  down  hard,  but,  the  bed 
being  opened,  the   bulbs  may   be   ranged,  and  then   carefully 


MAGAZINE   01^    BOTANV    AND    GARDENING,    VOL.    U.    NO,  XXL — DECEJMBEU,    1834. 


covered  from  three  to  five  inches  deep,  but  they  should  not  be 
dibbled  or  pressed  into  the  compost.  The  later  sorts  may  be 
placed  nearer  the  surface,  to  make  them  flower  earlier.  If  the 
situation  is  wet  in  winter,  the  beds  may  be  raised  a  few  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  soil ;  but  if  too  much  elevated  they  will 
sufl'er  from  drought.  The  Dutch  cover  their  beds  with  dung  or 
tan  in  winter,  which  they  frequently  put  on  or  take  off  accord- 
ing to  the  state  of  the  weather.  They  like  the  frost  to  pene^ 
trate  to  the  distance  of  an  inch  from  the  bulb  ;  if  it  descends 
deeper,  they  consider  that  the  blossom  will  be  spoiled,  and  if 
it  reaches  the  roots,  that  they  will  be  destroyed.  Mr.  Herbert 
never  found  the  frost  injurious  in  England,  even  without  using 
a  covering,  but  the  winters  are  severer  in  Holland. 

When  the  leaves  of  the  hyacinths  begin  to  wither,  the  bulbs 
should,  if  possible,  be  pulled  out  of  the  bed  by  the  hand,  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  cutting  them  with  the  spade.  The  leaves 
should  be  cut  oft',  and  each  bulb  laid  on  its  side,  covering  it 
lightly  with  the  compost,  about  two  inches  thick.  In  this  state 
they  should  be  left  about  one  month,  and  then  taken  up  in  dry 
weather,  and  exposed  to  the  open  air  for  some  hours,  but  not  to 
a  powerful  sun,  which  \vould  be  very  injurious  to  them.  They 
should,  after  this,  be  carefully  examined,  and  all  the  decayed 
parts  removed  by  a  knife,  for  which  purpose  it  will  sometimes 
be  necessary  to  cut  deep. 

The  bulbs  should  be  jihaccd  in  an  airy  store-room  about  the 
end  of  June,  but  not  suffered  to  touch  each  other  ;  they  should 
be  frequently  examined  too,  in  order  to  remove  those  which 
may  shew  symptoms  of  decay.  Before  they  are  planteil  in 
autumn,  they  ought  to  be  carefully  examined,  not  merely  that 
all  the  decayed  parts,  but  withered  coats  may  be  removed. 

Mr.  Herbert  with  much  apparent  propriety  says,  that  though 
with  greater  loss  from  disease,  any  nursery-man  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London  may  produce  hyacinth  bulbs  equal  to 
those  imported  from  Holland.  Nor  would  he  be  surprised,  if 
watering  the  compost  before  it  is  used,  with  salt  water  or  brine, 
should  prove  of  some  use,  supposing  a  fungus  to  be  one  of  the 
causes  of  mischief ;  for  after  trying  many  other  things  in  vain, 
he  found  salt  to  be  the  only  remedy  for  the  tanner's  fungus, 
which  is  so  troublesome  in  tan-beds,  and  in  the  pots  of  eartU 
in  the  stove. 

— ^If^*'^ — 

ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  CELERY.' 

The  following  method  of  cultivating  celery  differs  in  some 
points  from  the  usual  practice.  The  seed  is  sown  about  the 
middle  of  January  in  a  warm  situation,  on  a  very  rich  piece  of 
ground,  and  is  well  protected  from  the  inclemency  of  the  wea- 
ther by  mats  at  niglit.  Wiicn  the  plants  are  from  two  to  three 
inches  high,  they  are  pricked  out  into  the  nursery-bed  ;  and,  as 
they  are  found  to  be  much  injured  in  their  future  growth,  if  the 
fibres  of  their  roots  become  at  all  dry,  let  them  be  immersed  in 
a  little  water  ])laccd  in  a  garden-pan,  when  they  arc  drawn 
from  the  seed  bed,  so  that  they  remain  quite  moist  whilst  out 
of  ground.  The  plants  remain  in  the  nursery-bed  till  they  are 
fit  for  the  final  removal,  being  kept  clear  from  weeds,  and 
watered  occasionally.  But  they  should  not  be  transplanted 
until  they  become  very  strong.  The  ground  should  be  pre- 
pared, by  being  trenched  two  spades  deep,  mixing  with  it  in 
the  operation  a  good  dressing  of  well-reduced  dung  from  the 
old  forcing-beds.  That  the  dung  may  be  the  better  incorpo- 
rated with  the  mould,  a  second  trenching  should  be  resorted  to, 
and  then  leave  it  in  as  rough  a  state  as  possible,  till  the  plants 
are  ready  to  be  put  out. 

In  the  ground  thus  prepared,  form  trenches  twenty  inches 
wide  and  six  inches  deep,  at  six  feet  distant  from  each  other, 
measuring  from  the  centre  of  each  trench.  Before  planting, 
reduce  the  depth  of  the  trenches  to  three  inches,  by  digging  in 
sufficient  dung  to  fill  them  up  so  much.  At  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, if  the  weather  be  dry,  the  trenches  must  be  well  watered 
in  the  morning,  and  the  plants  put  in,  six  inches  apart  in  the 


170 


METHOD  OF  GllOWING  EAULY  FORCED  POTATOES. MIGNONETTE  THKOUfiH  THE  TEAR. 


row,  in  the  evening,  care  being  taken,  by  the  mode  above  men- 
tioned, to  keep  the  fibres  quite  wet  whilst  out  of  ground  ;  as 
they  are  drawn  from  the  nursery-bed,  the  plants  are  to  be 
dressed  for  planting,  and  then  laid  regularly  in  the  garden-pan. 
The  trenches  in  which  the  rows  of  celery  are  planted  being  so 
very  shallow,  the  roots  of  the  plants  grow  nearly  on  a  level  with 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  which  seems  to  be  advantageous  ; 
for  as  considerable  cavities  are  necessarily  formed  on  each  side, 
■when  the  moulding  takes  place,  all  injury  from  stagnant  water, 
or  excess  of  moisture,  is  prevented.  The  trenches,  when 
planted,  are  watered  as  may  be  required. 

It  does  not  seem  advisable  to  load  the  plants  with  a  great 
deal  of  mould  at  first ;  the  two  earliest  mouldings  sliould  be 
done  very  sparingly,  and  only  with  the  common  draw  hoe, 
forming  a  ridge  on  each  side  of  the  row,  and  leaving  the  plants 
in  a  hollow,  to  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  raiu  and  waterings. 
When  the  plants  are  strong  enough  to  bear  six  inches  height  of 
moidd,  the  moulding  is  done  with  the  spade,  taking  care  to 
leave  bases  enough  to  support  the  mass  of  earth,  which  will 
ultimately  be  used  iu  the  ridge,  and  still  keeping  for  some  time 
in  a  hollow,  as  before  directed.  The  process  of  moulding  is 
continued  through  the  autumn,  gradually  diminishing  the 
breadth  of  the  top,  until  at  last  it  is  drawn  to  as  sharp  a  ridge 
as  possible,  to  stand  the  winter. 

In  the  operation  of  moulding,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  earth  from  falling  into  the  hearts  of  the  plants,  to  keep 
the  outer  leaves  as  close  together  as  possible.  For  this  pur- 
pose, before  beginning  the  moulding,  take  long  straws  of  bass 
matting,  tied  together  till  of  sufficient  length  to  answer  for  an 
entire  row  j  and  fasten  this  string  to  the  first  plant  in  the  row, 
then  pass  it  to  the  next  plant,  giving  it  one  twist  round  the 
leaves,  and  so  on  till  the  other  end  is  reached,  where  it  is  again 
fastened.  When  the  moulding  is  finished,  the  string  is  easily 
unravelled,  by  beginning  to  untwist  it  at  the  end  where  it  was 
last  fastened. 

It  is  wrong  to  put  much  of  a  crop  in  the  space  between  the 
trenches,  especially  one  that  grows  tall,  for  celery  does  best 
when  it  grows  as  open  as  possible. 

METHOD  OF  GROWING  EARLY  FORCED  POTATOES. 

Mr.  Thomas  Hogg,  of  Pine  Apple  Place,  Paddington,  several 
years  ago  raised  early  forced  potatoes  at  a  period  of  the  season 
previous  to  that  in  which  they  are  produced  by  the  usual  means 
of  a  ci  mmon  hot-bed.  The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  method 
consisted  in  using  an  old  cucumber-bed  or  melon-bed,  in  which 
the  dung  had  long  lost  all  its  heat,  instead  of  making  use  of 
fresh  hot  dung,  whereon  to  grow  the  plants.  He  cut  the  sets 
about  a  fortnight  before  they  were  planted  ;  for  if  they  are  not 
suffieicntly  dried  before  being  put  into  the  earth,  they  are  liable 
to  be  raiteh  injured  by  worms.  One  eye  only  should  be  left  iu 
each  set. 

He  prepared  the  bed  by  removing  all  the  earth  from  the  top 
of  the  dung,  and  covering  it  about  one  inch  deep  with  fresh 
mould,  on  which  the  sets  were  planted  iu  rows  six  inches 
apart,  and  the  same  distance  from  each  other  in  the  rows. 
They  were  then  covered  four  inches  deep  with  mould,  and  the 
frames  and  glasses  placed  upon  the  lied,  which  must  be  care- 
fully protected  from  frost.  I'he  covering  best  adapted  for  this 
purpose  is  the  second  crop  of  short  hay,  called  rouen  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifth  day,  the  outsides  of  the  old  dung  must 
be  cut  away  from  near  the  edge  of  the  frame  to  the  bottom  of 
ll.e  bed,  in  a  slanting  direction  inwards,  of  about  fifteen  inches 
from  the  perpendicular ;  strong  linings  of  hot  dung  must  be 
applied  to  tlie  space  so  made,  and  renewed,  if  necessary,  at  the 
end  of  three  weeks.  Air  must  be  given  to  the  plants  by 
sliding  down  the  lights  at  noon  every  day  that  the  weather  will 
permit,  and  water  in  the  mornings,  leaving  about  an  inch  of 
the  light  open,  for  the  admission  of  air  after  watering.     The 


potatoes  will  be  fit  for  use  in  about  seven  weeks  from  the  first 
planting  of  the  sets,  and  the  average  crop  to  each  light,  if  well 
managed,  will  he  about  five  pounds.  This  method  Mr.  Hogg- 
continued  to  follow,  it  is  believed,  with  the  success  above  men- 
tioned. Now,  although  the  taste  of  the  majority  will  prefer 
the  old  and  mature  root  in  February  to  those  of  such  early 
appearance,  yet,  independent  of  the  curious  nature  and  result 
of  the  experiment,  the  price  paid  in  London  for  young  potatoes 
grown  iu  that  month,  is  a  proof  that  they  are  in  sutfieieut  re- 
quest as  an  article  of  luxury,  to  induce  private  individuals,  as 
well  as  market-garUeners,  to  attend  to  their  earliest  culti- 
vation. 

To  the  above  successful  experiment  we  may  add  an  account 
of  a  mode  of  eontinu'ng  a  supply  of  young  potatoes  throughout 
the  year,  which  George  H.  Noehden,  Esq.  at  one  time  sug- 
gested to  the  Horticultural  Society.  He  says  that  tlie  potatoe, 
from  the  abundant  nourishment  which  the  flesh  of  the  tuber 
affords  to  the  embryo  plant,  has  an  extraordinary  disposition  to 
vegetate  ;  and  that  it  seems  possible  to  place  it  in  such  a  situa- 
tion that  the  vegetating  power,  being  prevented  from  exerting 
itself  upwards,  so  as  to  form  stem  and  leaves,  should  be  em- 
ployed in  throwing  out  roots  only,  with  their  appendages. 
This,  for  example,  may  be  effected,  to  a  certain  degree,  by 
laying  up  potatcies  between  strata  of  sand.  In  the  corner  of  a 
shed  or  other  sheltered  place,  or  iu  the  cellar,  spread  a  layer  of 
sand,  and  upon  this  put  some  potatoes,  then  sand  again,  and  so 
on  alternately  till  you  have  formnd  your  pile  of  the  height  and 
dimension  designed.  The  top  is  closed  with  saud.  The  strata 
of  sand  may  be  two  or  three  inches  deep.  In  such  a  pile  the 
potatoes  will  emit  roots  and  tubers,  or,  in  other  words,  will 
yield  a  young  produce  :  whilst  the  growing  process  goes  on 
equally,  near  the  top,  in  the  middle,  and  at  the  bottom.  Leaves 
and  stem  are  not  seen  any  where.  It  is  only  full  grown  and 
ripe  potatoes  that  are  fit  for  this  experiment,  and  such  in  which 
vegetation  is  not  impaired  by  premature  sprouting.  The  old 
potatoes  must  be  piled  according  to  the  times  when  the  young 
ones  are  wanted.  These  will  be  ready  in  December,  if  the  pile 
be  formed  in  August,  and  thus  one  month  will  correspond  with, 
another.  There  can  be  no  difficulty  iu  admitting  that  one  sort 
of  potatoe  may  be  bitter  suited  than  another  to  this  operation, 
which  experience  will  soon  point  out.  The  oxnohle  has  been 
reeoraraended  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  other  varieties  may  be 
equally  fit  for  this  use,  or  even  superior.  The  produce  which 
is  raised  by  this  method  is,  however,  not  spoken  of  as  very 
good  ;  the  young  potatoes  are  generally  ot  a  loose  texture, 
watery,  and  of  indifferent  flavour.  This  may  perhaps  be  ac- 
counted for  from  the  want  of  suitable  nourishment,  that  would 
give  them  proper  consistency  and  quality.  The  sand  can  contri- 
bute little  or  nothing  towards  the  matter  ;  and  the  young  roots 
and  tubers  must  be  chiefly  fed  from  the  juice  and  substance  of  the 
old.  If  art  could  throw  in  anything  to  supply  what  is  wanting, 
good  voung  potatoes  are  likely  to  be  obtained.  What  seems 
to  he  the  best  means  to  accomplish  this  end  would  be  the  ap- 
pl:ci,tion  of  a  proper  so'.l,  or  compost,  in  which  the  old  potatoes 
might  be  imbedded  before  the  layer  of  sand  is  put  upon  them. 
But  this  is  a  spcenlation  which  had  not  been  submitted  to  ex- 
periment by  Mr.  Noehden  at  the  time  he  gave  the  above  ac- 
count. Afterwards,  however,  it  came  to  his  knowledge  that 
young  potatoes  had  been  raised  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
described  and  recommended  by  him  ;  and  he  remarked  that 
those  were  the  best  which  had  been  grown  in  mould  or  some 
sort  of  compost. 

MIGNONETTE  THROUGH  THE  YEAR. 

Mr.  George  Rishon,  of  the  Bedford  nursery,  Bloomsbury, 
describes  a  method  of  raising  mignonette  in  succession  through 
the  year,  nearly  in  the  following  terms.  The  demand  for  this 
plant  in  pots  at  all  seasons  is  so  considerable,  that  particular 
attention  has  been  given  to  its  cultivation  by  many  gardeners 


METHOD    OF    OBTAINING    EABLY    CROPS    OF    PEAS,    AFTKE  SEVERE  WINTERS. 


171 


who  supply  the  London  market ;  and  as  the  same  method  may 
be  with  tase  applied  to  raising  it  in  private  gardens,  this  detail 
is  offered. 

To  olitain  fine  specimens  of  this  fragrant  annual,  strong 
and  ready  to  blow,  durini^  the  winter  months,  and  throtigh  the 
months  of  January  and  Fehruary,  the  seed  should  he  sown  in 
the  open  ground  at  the  end  of  July.  By  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, the  plants  from  this  sowing  will  he  strong  enough  to  he 
removed  into  pots  :  for  a  week  after  this  removal,  they  must 
be  shaded,  after  which  they  may  he  freely  e.vposed  to  the  sun 
and  air,  care  being  taken  to  piotect  them  by  frames  fi"om  da- 
mage by  heavy  rains,  and  from  injury  by  early  frosts,  until 
the  beginning  of  November.  Many  of  them  will  now  show 
their  flowers,  and  then  they  should  be  removed  to  a  grecnliouse 
or  conservatory,  or  to  a  warm  window  in  a  dwelling-house, 
where  they  w'ill  branch  out  and  continue  to  blow  Till  the  spring. 

The  crop  for  March,  April,  and  May,  should  be  sown  in 
small  pols,  not  later  than  the  25th  of  August ;  the  plants  from 
this  sowing  will  not  suffer  by  exposure  or  rain  whilst  they  are 
young ;  they  must,  however,  be  protected  from  early  frosts, 
like  the  winter  crop  ;  they  are  to  be  thinned  in  November, 
leaving  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  plants  in  each  pot  ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  pots  being  sunk  about  three  or  four  inches 
in  some  old  tan  or  coal  asl  es,  si  ould  be  covered  with  a  frame, 
which  it  is  best  to  place  fronting  the  west ;  for  then  the  lights 
may  be  left  open  in  the  evening,  to  catch  the  suu  whenever  it 
sets  clear. 

The  third,  or  spring  crop,  should  be  sown  in  pots,  not  later 
than  the  25th  of  February  :  these  must  be  placed  in  a  frame, 
in  a  gentle  heat,  and,  as  the'heat  declines,  the  pots  must  be  let 
down  three  or  four  inches  into  the  dung-beJ,  which  will  keep 
the  roots  moist,  and  prevent  their  leaves  turning  brown  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun  in  April  and  May.  The  plants  thus  ob- 
tained will  he  in  perfection  by  the  end  of  May,  and  be  ready  to 
succeed  those  raised  by  the  autumnal  sowing. 

METHOD  OF  OBTAINING   EARLY   CROPS  OF  PEAS, 
AFTER  SEVERE  WINTERS. 

The  following  short  account  of  a  mode  of  obtaining  an  early 
crop  of  peas,  has  been  gathered  from  a  paper  in  tlic  London 
Horticultural  Society's  Transactions,  furnished  by  Mr.  Knight. 
When  severe  winters  have  proved  fatal  to  crops  of  peas  sow-ed 
in  the  preceding  autumn,  many  gardeners  have  experienced  the 
advantages  of  raising  other  plants  in  pots,  with  artilieiai  heat, 
early  in  ihe  spring,  and  subsequently  transplanting  them  into 
the  common  soil.  But  an  improvement  in  the  mode  of  repeat- 
ing this  operation  is  here  described.  Mi'.  Knight  says,  that  in 
one  particular  spring  his  garden,  owing  to  its  soil  being  cold 
and  the  climate  rather  inhospitable,  did  not  contain  in  the  end 
of  February  a  single  living  pea-plant,  and  he  purposely  delayed 
the  experiment  to  be  explained  till  the  first  day  of  March. 
Upon  that  day  the  ground  was  prepared,  and  part  of  the  seed 
sown,  as  usual,  in  rows,  where  the  plants  were  to  remain  ;  at 
the  same  time  other  peas,  of  the  same  early  kind,  were  sown  in 
circles  within  the  circumference  of  pots  of  ten  inches  in  dia- 
meter, inside  measure.  These  pots  were  filled  with  a  compost 
of  a  peculiar  kind,  from  the  highly  nutritive  and  stimulating 
qualifies  of  which  he  anticipated  much  acceleration  in  the 
growth  of  his  plants,  with  the  advantages  of  being  able  to 
remove  them  at  the  proper  period  to  the  open  ground,  without 
having  their  roots  at  all  detached  from  their  pasture,  owing  to 
the  fil)rous  organic  texture  of  the  compost.  This  was  made  of 
equal  parts  of  thin  turf,  to  which  much  lifeless  herbage  was 
attached,  and  iinfeimented  horse-dung,  without  litter;  and 
also  of  a  quantity  of  the  ashes  of  burnt  weeds,  containing,  as 
usual,  a  good  deal  of  burnt  mould,  equivalent  in  bulk  to  about 
one-twelfth  of  the  other  materials.  Mi-.  Knight  remarks  that 
equal  parts  of  fresh  soil,  with  unfermented  horse-dung  with 
litter,  and  a  small  quantity  of  quick  lime  or  wood  ashes,  would 


probably  operate  as  powerfully  as  the  compost  previously  de- 
scribed. The  whole  of  the  compost  was  reduced  to  small  frag- 
ments and  well  intermixed,  and  the  pots  were  filled  with  it 
within  an  inch  of  their  tups.  The  peas  were  then  sown  upon 
the  surface  of  the  compost,  and  covered  with  common  mould  ; 
and  the  pots  were  placed  in  a  peach-house.  In  this  they  re- 
mained till  the  plants  were  an  inch  high,  when  they  were 
removed  into  the  open  air  ;  hut  they  were  protected  during  the 
night  for  some  time,  and  particularly  when  the  character  of  the 
evening  indicated  the  probability  of  frost. 

In  the  last  week  of  March  the  plants  were  taken  from  the 
pots  and  planted  in  rows  in  the  open  ground,  very  near  the 
whole  of  the  compost  adhering  to  their  roots,  so  that  their  sub- 
sequent growth  was  not  apparently  checked  by  their  trans- 
plantation. They  were  placed  in  rows  contiguous  to  thos'e 
which  had  been  previously  sow  n,  a  small  quantity  of  compost 
similar  to  that  put  into  the  pots  being  added ;  and  the  com- 
mon mould  was  then  closed  round  their  roots,  and  raised  upon 
each  side  of  the  rows.  Sticks  to  support  and  protect  the 
plants  were  immediately  added,  in  rather  more  than  the  ordi- 
nary number  and  quantity,  and  subsequently  no  particular 
attention  was  paid  to  them. 

On  the  morning  of  the  29th  of  April  Mr.  Knight  ascertained 
the  comparati\e  growth  of  his  plants,  which  had  been  subjected 
to  the  dift'erent  modes  of  treatment  above  described,  in  two  rows 
which  grew  contiguous  lo  each  other,  when  he  found  the  height 
of  those  which  had  been  raised  in  pots  to  be  fifteen  inches,  and 
that  of  the  others  to  be  scarcely  four  inches;  and  in  May  again 
he  remarked  that  he  much  doubted  if  ever  he  possessed,  in  the 
most  favourable  season,  as  forward  a  crop  of  peas  as  at  that 
date.  On  the  27th  of  June  the  full  result  of  the  experiment 
was  seen.  The  plants  so  treated  had  produced  a  very  abundant 
crop,  and  at  least  twelve  days  earlier  than  those  sown  at  the 
same  time  in  the  usual  manner,  and  with  a  much  more  rapid 
succession  of  produce. 

Many  causes  appear  to  have  operated  in  conjunction  to  pro- 
duce the  effects  described  by  Mr.  Xinight.  It  has  long  beeu 
known  that  snow  does  not  lie  so  long  upon  ground  which  has 
been  manured  in  the  same  season  with  fresh  unfermented  horse- 
dung,  as  upon  unmanured  ground;  and  therefore  it  maybe 
concluded  that  some  degree  of  heat  existed  in  the  compost,  and 
emanated  from  it,  though  probably  never  to  the  extent  of  being 
felt  by  any  warm-blooded  animal.  If  placed  in  a  heap,  such  a 
compost  as  the  one  described,  and  even  when  the  horse-dung  is 
much  less  in  quantity,  will  heat  violently.  If  heat,  says  Mr. 
Knight,  was  in  any  degree  generated  by  the  compost  in  which 
the  peas  grew,  the  escape  of  it  was  necessarily  retarded  by  the 
numerous  sticks  by  which  the  ground  was  partially  covered, 
whilst  little  injury  could  have  been  sustained  from  their  shade, 
because  the  quantity  of  light  comparatively  with  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  and  growth  of  the  plants  is  very  great  after  the 
vernal  equinox,  aud  it  is  every  day  increasing  in  power  and 
influence. 

Another  cause  of  the  rajud  growth  of  the  transplanted  peas 
has  probably  been  the  very  favourable  state  of  tlio  soil  in  which 
they  had  been  placed,  w  hich  bad  beeu  turned  over  with  the  spade 
immediately  before  transplantation  took  place;  for  peas  never 
thrive  well  in  strong  soils,  when  such  have  been  compressed 
and  soddened  in  early  spring  by  much  moisture.  But  the  chief 
causes  of  their  very  rapid  growth  must  have  been  the  highly 
nutritive  and  stimulating  quality  of  the  compost,  and  the  pre- 
sence of  some  degree  of  aduitional  warmth.  Mr.  Knight  men- 
tions that  he  has  frequently  derived  great  advantage  from 
placing  a  moderate  quantity  of  nearly  similar  compost  imme- 
diately under  rows  of  peas  which  have  been  sown  iu  the  usual 
way,  except  that  the  seeds  were  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the 
soil  within  which  the  compost  had  been  buried,  and  covered  by 
having  had  the  soil  collected  from  each  side,  to  form  a  ridge  over 
them.  In  all  cases  where  a  compost  of  the  kind  described  is 
employed  to  accelerate  the  growth  of  dwarfish  and  early  peas, 
it  should  be  used  in  small  quantities  only,  that  the  early  growth 


172 


THE    PHTBIOLDGY    OF   "PLANtS. 


of  tie  plants  may  be  promoted  Tcitliout  excessive  and  conse- 
quently injurious  luxuriance  being  given.  For  transplanted 
peas  Mr.  Knight  prefers  a  poor  and  light  soil,  so  that  the  roots 
may  he  led,  as  they  will  be  under  such  circumstances,  to  con- 
fine themselves  to  narrow  limits,  and  the  plants  consequently 
brought  to  an  early  maturity. 

^^^^■•» 
THE  PHYSiOLOaY,;PF, PLANTS. 


The  scientific  inquirers  into  the  phenomena  of  nature,  whicli 
have  of  late  years  figured,  are  neither  few  in  number  nor  mean 
in  accomplishments.  Still  they  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
upon  one  important  ground.  There  is  a  class  which,  till  lately, 
seemed  to  enlist  into  its  ranks  the  most  illustrious  names; 
whose  reasonings  and  conclusions,  whether  disingenuously  con- 
ducted or  not,  we  must  not  at  present  assert,  opposed,  directly 
or  indirectly,  many  statements  in  the  Bible,  from  which  the 
most  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion  in  a  great 
measure  depend.  This  class,  from  its  numbers,  the  names  it 
could  boast,  and  the  fashion  in  science  which  it  established, 
became  so  formidable,  that  he  who  confessed  himself  a  Christian, 
■was  laughed  at,  when  he  added  the  term  Philosopher.  For 
the  days  of  Newton,  Locke,  and  Boyle  had  gone  bye.  But  the 
nation  and  Europe  can  now,  we  are  happy  to  say,  point  with 
triumph  to  a  second  class,  who,  if  their  researches  have  not 
found  out  so  many  new  facts  as  the  scorners  did,  can,  with  the 
most  complete  power,  turn,  or  rather  apply  those  facts  to  the 
illustration  and  enforcement  of  sacred  truth. 

Within  a  very  late  date,  there  have  been  many  of  these  sacred 
ministers  employed  in  teaching  us  the  true  philosophy,  who 
have  not  dimmed  or  disfigured  the  most  brilliant  facts  by  a  cold 
and  heartless  infidelity,  but  who  have  made  us  to  behold  the 
power,  the  goodness,  and  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator  more 
clearly  than  ever,  and  to  perceive  our  own  imperishable  nature, 
rights,  and  ends,  in  a  manner  that,  while  he  is  exalted,  we  are 
enlightened.  The  writers  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises  have 
acted  effectually  in  this  department,  with  many  other  authors 
.  whom  we  could  name.  The  little  work  before  us,  which  has 
been  for  some  time  in  the  hands  of  the  public,  belongs  to  the 
same  able  and  benevolent  school.  We  do  not  say  that  it 
teaches  new  truths,  or  that  it  will  yield  much  information  to 
him  who  has  previously  made  a  st)idy  of  the  science  of  which 
it  treats.  But  it  is  capable  of  doing  something  no  less  im- 
portant. For  from  it,  the  unscientific  reader  will  derive  much 
of  the  riches  which  have  been  discovered,  and  these  set  in  an 
advantageous  and  attractive  light. 

The  author  is  an  enthusiast,  as  well  as  deeply  versed  in  the 
physiology  of  plants.  It  is  not  the  mere  nomenclature  of  plants 
he  cares  about,  but  the  history,  the  structure,  the  uses,  and 
phenomena  of  vegetation  in  its  endless  variety  and  beauty:  each 
and  all  engage  his  ardour  ;  an  ardour  which  has  been  unre- 
mitted, as  we  learn  from  him,  for  many  years.  And  as  we 
have  before  hinted,  he  finds  and  exhibits  the  whole  as  mani- 
festly declaring  wisdom  aad  contrivance  that  are  from  above. 
As  introductory  to  the  extracts  we  are  about  to  siibmit  to  our 
readers,  we  add,  that  as  a  graceful,  enthusiastic,  and  enlight- 
ened manual,  we  recommend  this  little  volume  to  every  general 
reader,  be  he  old,   or  be  he  young. 

The  work  is  divided  into  thirteen  chapters,  in  which  the 
structure,  attire,  and  composition  of  plants  are  first  treated  of. 
The  root — the  stem — the  blossom — seeds — phenomena  of  ger- 
mination— secretions — vegetation — light  and  electricity  in  re- 
lation to  plants — and  their  age,  are  all  separately,  clearly,  and 
engfigingly  discussed.  We  string  together  a  few  extracts  taken 
from  this  intelligible  and  agreeable  arrangement  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

"  The  bark,  wood,  and  pith,  are  general  terms,  compre- 
hending the  mechanical  structure  of  the  trunk  and  twig,  or 
branch,  the  ramification  of  the  stem.  The  epidermis  is  a  thin 
film,  -which  covers  the  bark,  and  forms  a  defence  from  exter- 


nal injury.  In  the  birch,  wiien  in  an  advanced  stage  of  growth, 
it  is  white  and  silvery,  easily  recognised  even  at  a  distance,  and 
thus  adds  a  peculiar  feature  to  the  landscape  ;  it  peels  off  rea- 
dily in  thin  laminae.  In  the  aucuba  japonica,  or  gold  plant, 
the  epidermis  is  yellow;  it  is,  however,  generally  colourless, 
and  occasionally  transparent.  In  leaves,  the  epidermis  pos- 
sesses a  reticular  or  net-like  stnicture,  and  the  meshes  of  the 
tissue  vary  in  different  plants,  but  are  fringed  at  the  edge  by 
spiral  vessels.  In  reeds  and  grasses  it  contains  much  finely 
divided  silieious  matter ;  hence,  two  portions  of  ratan  cane 
emit  sparks  by  collision  ;  and  the  equisetum  hiemale  is  used  to 
polish  wood,  and  employed  by  the  Swiss,  among  the  vallies  of 
Switzerland,  ^;c.,  as  a  substitute  for  sand-paper,  in  their  bea- 
tiful  models  of  Swiss  cottages  and  dairies.  A  stem  of  barley 
may  be  fused  into  a  transparent  globule,  and  lightning  has 
converted  the  hay-rick  into  a  vitreous  mass.  The  equisetum 
has  been  used  to  give  a  keen  edge  to  the  razor  ;  and  the  Dutch 
reed  in  polishing,  derives  its  eflficiency  from  the  same  source ; 
also  the  teazle,  dipsacus  fulonum,  employed  by  the  clothier  to 
raise  a  regular  pile  or  nap  on  the  sxu-face  of  the  cloth.  Mr. 
Knight  sharpens  razors  from  the  ashes  of  the  Ehjmus  arenunus, 
and  other  marsh  grasses  ;  also  the  ashes  of  Avheat.  Stedman 
mentions,  that  there  is  in  Surinam  a  species  of  grass,  the  edge 
of  which  cuts,  like  a  razor,  the  legs  of  those  who  pass  through 
it:  the  edges  of  the  Scleriu  grundis  are  as  sharp  as  glass.  No 
doubt,  tropical  forests  and  jungles  are  often  set  on  fire  by  the 
collision  of  the  silieious  matter  of  the  ratan  and  other  canes, 
I  when  shaken  with  the  -wind.  The  epidermis  clothes  the  most 
delicate  petals  of  the  flower,  as  the  foliage,  the  stem  and  the 
root.  It  seems  to  be  altogether  distinct  and  peculiar,  is  per- 
vious to  light,  and  is  at  the  same  time  an  absorbent  and  ex- 
halcnt  membrane,  as  well  in  its  relations  to  moisture,  as  to 
gaseous  media.  It  is  probable,  that  these  composite  functions 
are  connected  with  the  presence  and  absence  of  light,  and  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  temperature :  with  both  of  these  elec- 
tricity is  connected." 

We  pass  over  the  author's  observations  on  the  bark  and 
wood,  and  call  the  reader's  attention  to  one  of  the  uses  to 
which  the  pith  of  plants  has  been  devoted:— 

"  From  the  pilh  of  the  papyrus  antiquorum  were  formed  the 
papyri  of  Egypt,  found  in  the  sycamore  (ficus  fatua)  coffins, 
the  dormitories  of  mummies,  as  well  as  those  recovered  from 
the  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  The  '  paper  reeds  by 
the  brooks,'  are  mentioned  in  the  prophetic  records,  several 
centuries  before  our  era:  the  papyrus  still  clings  to  such  spots 
among  the  marshes  of  Egypt,  and  the  Delta  of  the  Nile;  and 
forms  a  beautiful  ornament  on  the  banks  of  the  Anapus  :  that 
fovmd  among  the  swamps,  near  the  ancient  Syracuse,  seems  to 
be  a  \ariety,  if  not  a  distinct  species;  and  M.  Lippi  states  his 
having  found  two  species  different  from  the  true  papyrus  anti- 
quorum  of  modern  botanists.  The  cyperus  papyrus  of  Linneus 
rarely  exceeds  ten  feet  in  length,  which  is  about  that  of  a  spe- 
cimen ill  my  possession,  though  Pliny  says  the  root  was  as 
thick  as  a  man's  arm,  and  that  the  plant  occasionally  exceeded 
fifteen  feet  in  height.  Its  stem  is  imbricated,  of  a  triangular 
shape,  and  tapers  towards  the  summit.  The  head  of  the  pa- 
pyrus is  composed  of  a  tuft  of  small  grassy  filaments,  about 
twelve  inches  long ;  toward  the  middle,  each  filament  sepa- 
rates into  four,  and  in  the  partition  are  four  branches  of 
flowers,  not  unlike  an  ear  of  wheat,  but  forming  a  soft  and 
silky  husk.  The  flower  of  the  papyrus  was  used  in  ancient 
limes  in  religious  ceremonies.  We  have  seen  a  very  fine  and 
tall  specimen  of  the  papyrus  antiquorum  in  the  lecture  room  of 
the  Botanic  Garden  of  Edinburgh,  growing  in  a  vessel  of  water. 
This  celebrated  plant  supplied  the  paper  or  writing  material  of 
ancient  times:  and,  in  the  natural  history  of  Pliny,  we  are 
supplied  with  a  description  of  the  process  employed  for  making 
paper:  the  papyrus  was  separated  into  thin  slices,  by  a  fine 
point;  these  were  brought  into  contact  by  their  edges,  trans- 
verse slips  were  again  supcrposited  on  them,  with  their  edges 


laS  iPHYSlOLOGY    OP    PLASWS. 


'.1^70 


in  similar  contact ;  this  done,  the  mass  was  sprinkled  with 
Nile  water,  and  submitted  to  pressure.  This  ancient  paper, 
which  became  an  important  branch  of  Egyptian  commerce, 
especiaUy  with  the  Roman  Empire,  and  in  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus, we  liave  every  reason  to  believe  was  thus  formed.  If  we 
hold  up  a  specimen  of  Egyptian  papyrus  between  the  eye  and 
the  ligbt,  the  ribs  may  be  seen  parallel,  and  crossing  each  other 
at  right  angles.  We  have  seen  two  specimens  of  modern  pa- 
pyri, manufactured  by  the  Chevalier  Landolina,  of  Syracuse,  by 
a  process  similar  to  that  described  by  Pliny,  in  which  the  me- 
dulla, or  pith,  was  employed,  not  the  external  rhind  of  the 
reed,  as  has  been  generally  supposed.  One  of  these  specimens 
I  saw  at  the  Studio  of  Naples  ;  the  other  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, with  a  description  of  the  process  in  Italian,  both  pre- 
sented by  Landolina.  I  have  compared  each  of  these  with 
Egyptian  papyri,  also  with  those  recovered  from  Herculaueum, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  process  employed  has  been 
the  same.  Dr.  S(;houw,  of  Copenhagen,  supplied  me  with  a 
detail  of  the  process  communicated  to  him  personally  by  Lando- 
lina, and  it  is  substantially  what  has  been  stated.  I  have  my- 
self tried  the  same  experiment  successfully,  on  a  small  scale. 
The  paper  formed  from  the  paper  reed  was  in  high  estimation 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  king 
of  Egypt,  when  he  commenced  his  library,  and  collected  an  im- 
mense variety  of  books,  bad  them  copied  on  this  kind  of  paper. 
In  his  reign,  considerable  quantities  of  the  paper  were  exported, 
which  was,  at  length,  however,  prohibited,  to  prevent  the  king 
of  Pergaraus  from  establishing  a  rival  library.  Paper  made 
from  the  papyrus  was  principally  manufactured  at  Alexandria, 
and  the  city  was  considerably  enriched  by  the  exportation  of 
this  paper,  Vopiscus  mentions  one  Fermies,  who  boasted  that 
he  could  maintain  an  army  from  the  value  of  his  stock  of  paper : 
when  it  began  to  be  disused  is  not  certainly  known;  as  late  as 
the  fifth  century  it  was  in  general  use  in  Europe,  and  in  Italy 
and  France,  was  continued  to  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centu- 
ries." 

On  roots,  which  serve  as  the  anchorage  of  the  plant,  and 
their  capillary  tubes,  by  which  the  plant  is  sustained,  as  also 
on  the  diversity  of  forms  which  the  roots  of  different  plants 
assume,  he  is  lucid  and  entertaining.  Mark  the  power  of  this 
portion  of  the  objects  treated  of. 

"  The  power  of  the  vegetating  root  is  sometimes  astonishing  ; 
it  will  grasp  pebbles,  and  completely  weave  a  fibrous  web  round 
them,  M.  Pniot  had  experimentally  shown,  that  the  radicles 
of  seeds,  when  germinating,  were  capable  of  penetrating  mer- 
cury, A  seed  of  the  lathyrus  odoratus,  the  cotly.lous  of  which 
do  not  unfold  themselves  during  the  act  of  germination,  was 
placed  one-fifth  of  an  inch  from  the  metallic  surface,  previously 
moistened ;  germination  took  place,  and  when  the  radicle 
reached  the  mercury,  it  pierced,  and  buried  itself  within  its 
substance.  Dr.  Butler,  of  Shrewsbury,  informed  me  that  he 
bad  suppUed  a  number  of  peach  and  nectarine  trees,  trained  to 
a  wall,  with  a  (juantity  of  bones,  byway  of  manure:  some  years 
afterwards,  he  had  occasion  to  remove  the  wall,  and  when  the 
fruit  trees  were  taken  up,  the  roots  wxre  found  completely  in- 
vesting the  bones,  and  in  numerous  instances  the  tips  of  the 
roots  adhered,  like  so  many  suckers,  to  the  surface  of  these 
bones,  the  tips  being  flattened  in  contact  with  the  bone.  The 
root  of  the  conch,  or  squitch-grass,  will  pass  through  the  solid 
tuber  of  a  potatoe ;  but  I  am  not  acquainted  with  a  more  ex- 
traordinary instance  of  the  force  of  vegetation,  in  reference  to 
the  couch-grass,  than  the  following : — In  taking  up  last  Novem- 
ber, some  bulbs  of  the  tyger  lily,  I  found  two  of  them  com- 
pletely threaded  by  the  repent  root  of  this  grass,  so  that  the 
bulbs,  were  monoliform,  or  like  beads  on  a  string.  The  roots 
of  the  laurel  will  overturn  a  wall ;  and  in  Needwood  Forest,  f 
have  seen  the  holly  luxuriant  on  the  summit  of  a  venerable  oak, 
its  roots  having  cleft  and  penetrated  the  stately  trunk — and,  in 
Alpine  regions,  the  calcareous  and  gigantic  rock  has  been  rent 
in  twain,  by  the  penetrating  root,  as  by  a  wedge.  This  tremen- 


dous force  would  no  doubt  be  partly  occasioned  by  the  infiltered 
water,  which  would  follow  the  root,  the  rent  having  been  be- 
gun, in  the  first  instance,  by  absorbed  moisture,  &c.  We  have 
been  iuformed  that  the  root  of  mint  grows  much  more  rapidly 
during  night,  than  by  day;  the  plant  for  the  experiment  was 
reared  in  a  glass  of  water." 

What  heart  is  there  which  swells  not  with  noble  sentiments 
when  he  beholds  a  stately  tree  ?  Those  here  spoken  of  mu^t 
have  been  noble /c/Zoics,  and  worthy  to  sentinel  a  mountain  for 
iiges. 

"  Lewis  and  Clarke  report  that  the  pines  on  the  Colnmbia 
river  exceed  the  height  of  300  feet.  According  to  Mr.  D,  Don, 
a  distinguished  botanist,  the  purple-eoned  fir  of  Nepal,  found 
at  an  elevation  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  is  a  magnificent  pine.  '  This,  which  may  be  regarded,' 
says  Mr.  Don,  '  as  the  silver  fir  of  Nepal,  surpasses  all  others 
of  the  fir  tribe  in  beauty:  its  lofty  and  pyramidal  form  ;  its  nu- 
merous, long,  erect,  cylindrical  purple  cones,  studded  with  drops 
of  pellucid  resin ;  and  its  flat  leaves,  silvery  underneath,  and  of 
a  bright  shining  green  above,  which  thickly  adorn  its  afh- 
coloured  brajiclies,  render  it  a  truly  picturesque  object :  the 
trunk  is  from  70  to  SO  feet  high,  perfectly  straicrht,  covered 
with  a  somewhat  smooth  grey  bark,  and  having  a  circumfer- 
ence of  seven  or  eight  cubits.' 

"  Not  to  mention  the  venerable  oaks  of  huge  diameter,  in 
this  country,  and  many  of  which  we  have  seen,  the  boaljab 
(adansonia  diijitalaj  has  been  found  77  feet  in  circumference, 
and  even  in  solitary  eases,  100  feet,  while  the  altitude  of  the 
stem  seldom  exceeds  1 5  feet.  The  chesnut,  on  the  flanks  of 
Etna,  called  custugno  (U  cento  cacalli,  measures  one  hundreU  and 
eighty  feet,  and  though  now  in  fragments,  it  is  unquestionuljle 
that  these  stems  were  once  united.  Professor  S^'houw,  of 
Copenhagen,  informed  me  that  he  had  the  question  distinctly 
ascertained,  by  having  the  earth  removed  around  it,  and  found 
the  entire  trunks  united  below  ground  into  one.  The  dragon- 
tree  at  Oratava,  in  the  island  of  Tenerifi^e,  is  48  feet  in  circum- 
ference. According  to  Labillardiere  the  largest  cedar  on  Mount 
Lebanon  is  nearly  28  feet  in  circumference.  An  oriental  plane, 
in  the  valley  of  Bajukuere,  near  Constantinople,  h.as  a  cavity  of 
80  feet  in  circumference.  The  tree  at  Huahine,  called  by  the 
natives  aoa,  described  in  Bennet  and  Tyerman's  '  Voyages  and 
Travels,'  is  probably  a  mangrove,  judging  from  the  description. 
The  girth  of  the  trunk  of  this  cloistered  tree  is  stated  to  be 
70  feet.  The  banian  of  the  Nerbuddah,  notwithstanding  the 
invasion  of  the  waters  on  its  territories,  is  still  upwards  of 
2,000  feet  in  circumference  round  its  principal  stems.  Some 
years  ago,  the  bole  of  a  large  black  walnut  tree  was  bronght 
from  Lake  Erie,  in  America,  to  this  country,  and  we  believe  is 
still  exhibited  in  London :  it  measured  36  feet  around,  and  was 
excavated  and  furnished  as  a  sitting  room." 

"  The  flower  or  corolla,"  says  the  author,  "  is  that  painted 
physiognomy  by  which  the  plant  is  recognised,  and  referred  in 
the  Linnean  arrangement  to  its  individual  station  among  the 
tribes  of  vegetation."  We  take  notice  of  this  definition  merely 
to  show  that  the  writer  is  no  friend  to  the  natural  si/sfcin,  which 
he  calls  "  the  most  unnatural  jumble  of  incongruities  that  ever 
were  collocated  together."     But  of  the  part  in  question — 

"  Pliny,  with  rare  felicity,  characterized  the  flower  as  the 
'  Joy  of  Plants,'  Flos  gaudiunt  arhorurn  ;• — the  rose,  the  ama- 
ryllis,  and  the  tulip  are  splendid  attestations  to  this  poetic 
truth.  The  corolla  is  adorned  with  all  the  coloured  imagery  of 
the  prism,  sometimes  singly,  at  other  times  mingling  its  chro- 
matic rays  together  on  one  disc,  as  if  the  rainbow  had  impressed 
its  beauteous  seal  on  the  fair  canvass  of  the  flower.  At  other 
times  we  find  the  flower  of  dazzling  whiteness,  unrivalled  even 
by  the  snow,  *  To  paint  the  lily,'  is  proverbial  for  what  cannot 
be  improved;  and  who  would  dare  to  do  it?  Besides  its  showy 
ornaments,  the  fragrance  of  the  flower,  as  in  the  rose,  is  not 
less  delightful,  though  there  he  some  that  cannot  so  well  com- 


174 


THK    PHYSIOI.OGT    OF    PLANTS. 


pele  for  the  distinction  ;  but  tlie,  incense  of  flowers  is  often 
WHtted  afar  on  the  breeze,  particuliirly  remarkable  in  the  spice 
islands,  the  approach  to  which  is  announced  at  an  immense 
distance  at  sea. 

"  These  beautiful  insignia  of  trees  consist  individually  of  a 
variety  of  parts,  all  contributing  their  share  to  the  perfection 
of  the  whole:  the  bracteea,  or  floral  leaves,  sufliciently  con- 
spicuous and  distinct  in  the  artichoke,  are  sometimes  present, 
and  at  other  times  absent ;  sometimes  they  are  green,  as  in  the 
case  referred  to,  as  well  as  hypoxis  erecta;  or  they  are  coloured, 
as  we  find  them  to  be  in  the  examples  already  cited.  In  the 
bartzia  coccinea,  the  bractea  are  a  bright  scarlet ;  in  the  tilia 
europea,  a  pale  yellow;  and  in  the  salvia  hormiura,  a  beautiful 
puple.  The  bractieas  are  more  permanent,  usually,  than  the 
calix  :  the  chalix  or  flower-cup  is  commonly  the  colour  of  the 
leaf,  as  in  the  pink  and  carnation  ;  though  it  is  also  occasionally 
coloured,  of  which  the  fuschia  coccinea  or  common  fuschia,  af- 
fords a  beautiful  example ;  the  scarlet,  or  rather  crimson  en- 
velope, being  a  true  calix,  while  the  rich  purple  fillet  it  encloses 
is  the  corolla. 

"  The  corolla  is  usually  distinguished  from  all  other  parts  of 
the  plant  by  its  rich  and  brilliant  drapery — it  is  frequently 
■white,  but  usually  painted  with  the  most  exquisite  colours,  and 
sets  all  art  at  defiance  to  imitate.  One  example  of  a  green 
flower  has  been  given ;  the  flower  of  the  daphne  laureola  is  an- 
other of  the  same  kind, 

"  The  variety  in  the  forms  of  the  corolla  of  plants  is  as 
countless  as  its  hues :  it  is  of  one  piece,  as  the  bignonia 
or  convolvolous,  and  of  an  elagant  bell  shape  in  the  lily  of  the 
valley,  convallaria  majalis — 

'  The  silver  mistress  of  the  vale ! ' 

or,  composed  of  numerous  segments  or  pieces,  as  in  the  white 
or  orange  lilies.  The  palms  exhibit  that  peculiar  form  of  co- 
rolla, called  the  spatha  or  sheathe,  of  which  the  beautiful 
white  fillet  of  the  cala  ethiopica,  forms  an  elegant  tvpe :  the 
personate  or  masked,  and  the  riogent  corollas  are  singular  and 
curious:  the  snapdragon  and  monkey  flower  will  readily  occur 
as  examples.  Among  these  are  to  be  found  the  lobelia  cardina- 
lis  and  fulgens,  as  well  as  the  salvia  splendens ;  rich  and  daz- 
zling in  the  attire  of  their  corollas.  But  in  point  of  singularity 
of  structure,  they  are  surpassed  by  several  of  the  orchidece;  in 
the  fly  orchis,  ophrys  muscifera,  the  flower  so  much  resembles 
a  fly,   that  it  might  be  readily  mistaken  for  one." 

Speaking  of  seeds,  the  following  passage  regards  a  wonderful 
contrivance  for  the  propagation  of  objects  not  endowed  with 
locomotive  power. 

"  The  dispersion  of  seeds  also  supplies  us  with  a  chain  of 
curious  contrivances,  admirably  suited  to  the  purposes  for 
■which  they  are  designed  ;  and  it  is  a  subject  of  regret,  that 
these  singularly  constructed  species  of  mechanism  have  not 
been  so  minutely  investigated,  as  the  interesting  subject  merits; 
•nell  might  Forskalsayl  '  Miro,  nee  adhuc  investigato  mecha- 
nismo  propelluutur  semina.'  The  capsule  of  the  violet  will 
project  its  contained  seeds  to  a  distance  of  several  feet ;  and 
the  elastic  ariUus  of  the  wood  sorrel  will  eject  them  over  a 
considerably  greater  space.  The  euphorbia  coccum  (Grcetner) 
is  also  remarkable  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  some  of  the  ferns, 
wliieh  possess  an  elastic  ring  for  the  purpose;  geranium,  fraxi- 
uella,  and  others.  The  crackling  of  the  capsules  of  furze  in  a 
warm  summer  day  must  be  familiar  to  many,  and  is  sometimes 
the  only  sound  which  breaks  the  stillness  of  the  landscape.  The 
scales  which  enc'ose  the  seeds  of  pines  sometimes  open  suddenly, 
and  disperse  their  contents.  The  noise  occasioned  by  this  me- 
chanical impulse  on  the  air,  may  be  often  heard  at  a  consider- 
able distance:  *  This  crackling  voice,'  says  Mr.  Keith,  'was 
observed  and  traced  to  a  fir-tree,  namely  pinus,  pinea  at  Ken- 
dlesham  parsonage,  on  July  14,  1808,  by  two  young  gentle- 
men, my  pupils,  who  thought  the  tree  was  bewitched,  till  the 
cause  of  the  noise  was   pointed  out  to  them.'     A  species   of 


wild  cress,  cardamine  impatiens,  suddenly  unfolds  its  seed  ves- 
sel, on  being  touched.  I  have,  ■when  handling  the  plant,  and 
more  minutely  examining  the  structure  and  elastic  apparatus 
of  the  seed  vessels,  been  temporarily  deprived  of  vision,  by  the 
impulsion  of  the  seeds  into  my  face.  The  balsam,  balsaniimunif 
is  not  less  curious  than  the  rest  of  these,  and  has  been  not  in- 
appositely,  from  the  elastic  force  employed  by  the  seed  pod  in 
the  dispersion  of  its  contents,  called  '  touch  me  not.'  In  these 
cases,  the  power  of  the  projectile  seems  to  reside  in  the  elasti- 
city of  the  valves  of  the  capsule." 

An  imposing  and  venerable  idea  is  suggested  hy  the  age  which 
some  sort  of  trees  reach  to,  that,  joined  with  the  stately  and  g.al- 
lant  appearance  already  spoken  of,  leads  us  to  remember,  and 
not  to  marvel,  that  they  have  been  considered  hallowed  and 
sacred  in  heathen  countries.  We  can  feel  something  like  re- 
spect for  an  aged  tree,  and  wonder  less  how  kindre<l  sentiments 
would  guide  a  benighted  pagan.  We  would  walk  many  a  mile 
to  look  on  one  of  those  described  below.  We  would  strive  to 
embrace  it,  and  address  to  it,  with  head  uncovered,  a  soliloquy 
regarding  the  olden  time. 

"There  were,  in  1776,  in  the  palace  garden  of  Grenada, 
several  cypresses,  which  formed  a  cypress  grove,  and  computed 
to  be  eight  or  nine  centuries  old, 

"  Pliny  mentions  a  plane  tree  in  Lycia,  hollowed  out  into  a 
cave,  eighty  feet  in  circumference;  there  is  an  oriental  plane  in 
the  valley  of  Bujukdere,  near  Constantinople,  which  embraces 
a  circuit  of  150  feet,  and  has  a  cavity  of  eighty  feet  circumfer- 
ence. The  oriental  plane  of  Stanchio,  an  island  in  the  archi- 
pelago, formerly  Cos,  is  remarkable  for  its  size,  and  no  doubt 
has  a  corresponding  age.  Earl  Sandwich,  in  1739,  measured 
forty-five  paces  from  the  trunk  to  the  extremity  of  the  branches; 
these  branches  are  supported  by  pillars  of  marble,  verde  antique, 
and  porphyry;  and  though  time  has  assailed  it,  it  is  still  im- 
mense. '  Some  notion,'  says  Dr.  Clarke,  '  may  he  formed  of 
the  time  those  props  have  been  so  employed,  by  the  appearance 
of  the  bark:  this  has  encased  the  extremities  of  the  columns  so 
completely,  that  the  branches  and  the  pillars  mutually  support 
each  other;  and  it  is  probable,  if  those  branches  were  raised, 
some  of  them  would  lift  the  pillars  from  the  earth.' 

"There  is  a  yew  tree  at  Peronne  in  Picardy,  which  was 
known  to  be  flourishing  in  634;  it  still  existed  in  1790,  con- 
sequently was  1156  years  old:  there  is  also  an  Italian  fig,  in 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  by  the 
Romans  in  the  first  century.  The  yew  near  Staines,  at  three 
feet  high  is  nine  feet  three  inches  diameter,  and  the  extent  of 
its  branches  embrace  a  circle  of  207  feet:  that  it  is  of  a  very 
considerable  age  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

"Eight  olive  trees  still  remain  on  Olivet,  said  to  he  800 
years  old;  and  it  is  ascertained  that  they  existed  prior  to  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks.  Mount  Lebanon,  and  the 
range  of  the  Taurus,  are  the  native  soil  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon. 
It  is  a  magnificent  and  beautiful  tree,  and  several  very  venerable 
and  noble  specimens  still  decorate  the  flanks  of  Lebanon.  Ac- 
cording to  Labillardi^re,  the  largest  of  these  patriarch  trees  is 
at  least  nine  feet  in  diameter.  The  trees  are  still  held  in  great 
esteem,  and  an  annual  festival  is  celebrated  beneath  their  shade, 
called  the  'feast of  cedars.'  " 

We  conclude  by  telling  our  readers  that  this  little  volume 
contains  learning,  research,  talent,  and  sound  philosophy,  put 
forwai-d  in  the  most  agreeable  style.  In  truth,  it  is  a  delight- 
ful book  ;  and  more  especially  so,  as  there  is  a  spirit  predomi- 
nating in  every  paragraph,  which  shows  that  the  author  is  a 
man  of  enlightened  piety  ;   and  to  whom  there  is 

"  Not  a  tree,  a  plant,  a  leaf,  a  blossom, 
But  contains  a  folio  volume," 

written  in  testimony  of  the  goodness,  -wisdom,  and  providence 
of  God. 


ROYLB  S    HIMALAYilJO'    BOTANY. 


175 


ROYLE'S  HIMALAYAN  BOTANY. 

Several  months  ago  we  took  up  the  two  first  parts  of  this 
spleadiii  work,  on  the  botauy  and  other  branches  of  natural 
history,  as  preseated  in  the  x-egions  of  the  Himalayaii  Moun- 
tains and  in  Cashmere,  which  are  amazingly  rich  in  such  pro- 
ductions; and  we  now  proceed  to  the  third  and  fourtli  parts, 
which  have  since  been  published,  that  our  readers  may  have  a 
taste  of  what  is  therein  contained.  We  shall  first  of  all  abridge 
part  of  the  introduction,  embracing  general  and  geographical 
details,  which  continues  to  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
third  part,  and  serves  to  guide  the  mind  with  greater  precision 
and  interest  to  the  scientific  points  afterwards  discussed. 

Though  extensive  tracts  of  the  Himalaya  remain  unexplored, 
the  uniform  result  of  every  observation  establishes  the  great 
elevation  of  this  chain  of  mountains.  Captain  Herbert,  speak- 
ing only  of  the  surveyed  portion  of  them,  observes  that  there 
are  no  fewer  than  twenty-eight  peaks  in  the  Himalayas  which 
overtop  Chimboi-azo  in  South  America.  But  to  form  a  true 
estimate  of  these  mountains  it  is  necessary  also  to  take  into 
consideration  their  breadth  as  well  as  length,  and  enormous 
height.  This  is  supposed  to  be  greatest  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  lofty  peaks  near  which  the  principal  rivers  have  their  rise. 
Crossing  from  the  plains  of  Hindoosthau  to  the  snowy  passes, 
the  distance  is  not  less  than  SO  or  100  miles.  In  no  part  is 
there  any  thing  like  table-land  to  be  found;  but  seen  from  the 
plains  of  Northern  India,  the  Himalayas  appear  formed  of  a 
succession  of  parallel  ranges,  though  nothing  of  this  kind  is 
apparent  when  we  eater  the  mountains  themselves,  for  in  as- 
cending any  of  the  principal  points,  a  number  of  arms  are  seen 
radiating  in  every  directiun,  separating  deep  ravines,  connecting 
the  different  mountains  together,  and  throwing  the  waters  of 
the  several  rivers  in  opposite  directions.  Notwithstanding  this 
irregularity,  the  ridges  generally  run  parallel  to  the  direction  of 
the  mountain  mass;  for  in  proceeding  transversely  across  it,  we 
have  constantly  a  series  of  ridges  to  ascend  and  descend,  and 
narrow  vallies  to  cross. 

Crossing  these  mountains,  the  descent  on  the  side  of  Tibet, 
according  to  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all  travellers,  is  gra- 
dual, and  not  of  great  extent,  though  the  ascent  up  the  southern 
face  had  been  so  considerable.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  land  on  the  northern  face  is  much  elevated.  The  different 
aspects,  climate,  heights,  and  soils  of  this  immense  region, 
must  consequently  afford  a  prodigious  variety  of  natural  pro- 
ductions. 

The  parts  now  before  us  of  the  work  we  are  considering  are 
devoted  to  botany,  and  describe  several  orders  of  great  com- 
mercial value.     Take  of  Linea;  the  following  species:  — 

'*Li/iete. — This  order,  named  from,  and  chiefly  composed  of 
tlie  genus  Liuum,  of  which  one  species  has  been  known  for  its 
important  uses  from  time  immemorial,  is  found  chiefly  in  Eu- 
rope and  the  north  of  Africa,  but  also  in  most  other  parts  of 
the  world,  though  not  very  numerous  in  species  any  where.  In 
India  one  species,  L.  Mysurense,  has  been  found  in  the  Penin- 
sula, and  by  myself  on  the  Mussooreeand  Kedarkauta  moun- 
tains. At  the  foot  of  the  hills,  and  at  moderate  elevations 
within  them,  are  found  the  different  species,  L.  Cicauoba,  tri- 
gynum,  repens,  and  tetragynum,  which  are  all  distinguished  by 
the  showiness  of  their  flowers,  are  closely  allied  among  them- 
selves, and  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  genus.  Mr.  Bentham 
suggests  that  L.  repens  is  only  a  variety  of  L.  Cicanoba.  This 
I  have  found  varying  so  much,  that  even  L.  trigyuum,  of  which 
the  older  leaves,  as  Dr.  Roxburgh  mentions,  are  serrate,  may 
he  a  variety  of  it,  as  well  as  L.  tetragynum. 

*'  In  the  plains  of  India,  Linura  usitatissimum  is  found  every 
where  in  a  cultivated  state  in  the  cold  weather  months.  This 
plant,  so  well  known  for  the  tenacity  of  the  flax  yielded  by  its 
fibrous  bark,  from  which,  in  the  present,  as  in  the  most  ancient 
times,  linen  cloth  was  manufactured,  and  which  is  subsequently 
converted  into  paper,  is  valuable  also  for  the  mucilage  yielded 
to  water,  and  the  oil  to  pressure,  the  first  by  the  covering,  and   I 


the  other  by  the  almond  of  its  seed ;  while  the  residue  forms  an 
oilcake  fit  for  the  food  of  cattle.  Flax,  extensively  cultivated 
in  Europe,  is  imported  into  England,  chiefly  from  Russia;  and 
linseed  from  both  America  and  Holland.  In  Egypt,  as  in 
ancient  times,  it  is  much  cultivated  in  the  present  day  ;  it  must 
long  have  been  introduced  into  India,  probably  from  the  north- 
ward; but  its  names  do  not  give  us  any  assistance  in  tracing  it 
to  its  source;  as  the  Sanscrit  atasee,  Hindee  atees,  Bengalee 
mushina,  have  no  resemblance  to  the  Hebrew  pishtah,  Arabic 
akshoot,  Greek  "Kivov,  or  Persian  kutan.  The  latter,  remark- 
able for  its  resemblance  to  qootn  or  kutun,  the  Arabic  name  of 
cotton,  but  this  is  written  with  the  Arabic,  and  the  former  with 
the  Persian  kaf.  In  India  the  flax  is  cultivated  only  on  ac- 
count of  its  seed,  of  which  the  mucilage  is  valued  as  a  demul- 
cent in  medicine,  and  the  oil  in  the  arts  ;  but  the  plant,  which 
in  other  countries  is  most  valued,  is  there  thrown  away;  and 
others,  such  as  Hibiscus  cannabinus  and  Crotalaria  cannabina, 
are  cultivated  almost  in  the  same  field,  for  the  very  products 
which  this  would  yield.  It  seems  worthy  of  experiment,  there- 
fore, to  ascertain  whether  a  valuable  product  might  not  be 
added  to  the  Indian  agriculturist's  profits,  without  much  addi- 
tional expense.  Flax  having  been  manufactured  into  linen 
cloth,  both  by  the  Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews,  as  we  learn 
from  the  sacred  writings,  as  well  as  from  Herodotus,  and 
know  from  the  mummies  being  exclusively,  as  far  as  hitherto 
ascertained,  wrapped  up  in  linen  clothing,  it  is  curious  that  the 
practice  of  converting  flax  into  linen  should  not  have  passed  into 
India,  This,  I  conceive,  can  easily  be  accounted  for  by  the 
latter  possessing  the  cotton  plant,  of  which  the  wcavable  portion 
is  more  obvious,  elegant,  and  well  suited  to  the  climate." 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  in  another  number  extracted 
from  this  work  on  the  cotton  plant,  it  will  not  be  unacceptable 
that  we  should  present,  on  a  subject  so  important  to  England 
as  well  as  to  India,  some  further  observations  on  the  species  or 
varieties  which  are  cultivated  in  different  countries,  with  the 
view  of  leading  to  improvements  in  its  cultivation.  But  here 
there  are  great  difficulties  to  encounter,  as  botanists  have  gene- 
rally neglected  the  subject,  and  omitted  mentioning  the  culti- 
vated species,  while  cultivators  have  used  provincial  names,  or 
applied  new  ones  of  their  o%vn,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  notice  of 
the  names  in  use  among  botanists.  The  celebrated  De  Can- 
dolle  has  admitted  thirteen  species,  observing  that  they  are  all 
uncertain,  whilst  Dr.  Roxburgh  has  added  two,  and  others 
have  described  a  great  many  more.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
observations  of  this  last-mentioned  gentleman,  who  states  that 
he  had  studied  the  subject  for  thirty  years,  and  some  other 
eminent  botanists,  the  author  hopes  that  the  following  kinds, 
cultivated  in  different  countries,  has  been  by  him  referred  to 
their  true  species. 

'*  1.  G.  obtusifolium  (Roxb.)  Shrubby,  veryramous.  Leaves 
small,  with  three,  rarely  five,  obtuse,  ovate,  entire  lobes.  Sti- 
pules falcate.  The  exterior  calyx  with  entire  divisions.  Cap- 
sules ovate,  cells  tliree-seeded.  Seeds  free,  and  clothed  with 
firmly-adhering,  short  greenish-gi-ay  down,  under  a  small  portion 
of  ash-coloured  wool. — Roxb.  Fl.  Indica.  vol.  3,  p.  183.  A 
native  of  Ceylon,  but  not  cultivated.  Flowers  during  the  rains 
and  cold  season  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Calcutta. 

"  2.  G.  acuminatum  (Roxb.)  Sub-arboreous.  Leaves  from 
three  to  five  lobed,  lobes  oblong,  tapering,  very  acute.  Exte- 
rior calyx  deeply  lacinate.  Stipules  linear-lanceolate.  Capsules 
long,  ovate,  much  pointed.  Seeds  many,  adhering  firmly  to 
each  other,  black,  and  free  of  every  pubescence,  except  the  long 
white  wool,  which  is  easily  removed. — Roxb.  FJ.  Ind.  3,  p.  186. 

**  Dr.  Roxburgh  states  that  this  species  is  easily  distinguished 
by  its  superior  size  and  large  black  seeds,  which  adhere  firmly 
to  each  other.  It  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  mountains  to  the 
north  and  westward  of  Bengal,  but  he  does  not  find  that  it  is 
ever  cultivated;  but  it  is  apparently  a  species  well  worthy  of 
trial  in  different  parts  of  India,  as  it  is  indigenous,  and  desirable 
on  account  of  the  faciUty  with  which  the  wool  separates  from 
the  naked  scedaw 


176 


ROYLE  «    HIMALAYAN    BOTANY. 


"3.  G.  herbaceum  (Lin.)  Stems  woody,  bi-tfiennial,  4-6 
feet  high  in  tropical,  lierbaceous  and  two  feet  high,  in  temperate 
climates,  the  older  parts  reddish,  the  younger,  as  well  as  the 
fiower  and  foot-stalks,  hairy,  frequently  marked  with  black 
spots.  Leaves  hairy,  palmate,  3,  generally  5-lobed,  in  herba- 
ceous varieties,  lobes  broad  and  rounded  with  a  little  point;  in 
those  which  are  woody  sub-lanceolate  and  acute,  with  or  with- 
out glands.  Stipules  falcate-lanceolate.  Flowers  axillary,  ge- 
nerally solitary  towards  the  extremities  of  the  branches,  petals 
of  a  lively  yellow  colour,  with  a  purple  spot  near  the  claw. 
Segments  of  the  exterior  calyx  or  iuvolucel,  D.C.  cordate  at  the 
base,  margin  dentate,  sometimes  entire.  Capsules  ovate, 
pointed,  :i  or  4-celled.  Seeds  free,  about  five  in  number, 
clothed  with  firmly-adhering,  grayish  down,  under  the  short- 
staple  white  wool. — Xylon  s.  Gossypium  antiquorum. — G. 
herbaceum.  Linn.  sp.  PI.  3.  p.  355.  Lamarck  Encycl.  2.  p. 
133.  Cav.  Diss.  6.  p.  310.  t.  164.  f.  2.  Wild.  3.  p.  803. 
Roxb.  Fl.  Ind.  3.  p.  184.  D.C.  Prod.  1.  p.  456.  This  and  its 
varieties  are  by  far  the  most  generally  cultivated  in  India. 
Dr.  Roxburgh  particularly  distinguishes  three  varieties: — 1st. 
Dacca  Cotton,  which  furnishes  that  fine  long  soft  cotton-wool, 
employed  in  manufacturing  the  very  delicate  beautiful  muslins 
of  that  place,  v.  Ro.xb.  Coroni.  Plants,  vol.  ill.  t.  269.  2d.  Be- 
rar  Cotton,  distinguished  by  growing  to  a  greater  size,  and 
having  smooth  and  straight  branches,  leaflets  of  the  exterior 
calyx  more  deeply  divided,  and  the  wool  of  a  finer  quality  than 
in  the  common  variety  of  this  species.  This  is  cultivated  in 
Berar  and  the  Northern  Circars,  and  with  its  cotton  the  fine 
Madras,  more  properly  Northern  Circar,  long-cloth  is  made. 
3d.  China  Cotton,  introduced  into  Bengal,  where  its  wool,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Roxburgh,  is  reckoned  25  percent,  better  than 
that  of  Surat.  Lamarck's  G,  indicum.  Encycl.  2.  p.  134. 
Capas,  Rumjib.  Amb.  4.  p.  33.  t.  1 2.  Dr.  R.  says,  is  no  doubt 
one  of  these  varieties;  Cavanilles  (Diss.  6.  p.  314.  t.  169.) 
having  seen  it  in  flower  in  Paris,  was  of  tlie  same  opinion. 
The  variety  cultivated  about  Cawupore  and  in  the  Doab,  is 
figured  tab.  23.  fig.  1.  from  a  drawing"  in  General  Hardwicke's 
collection.     There  are  also  specimens  from  Saluen  and  Tavoy." 

The  Tiliaceaj  are  closely  allied  with  the  Malvacete,  the  order 
which  embraces  the  cotton-plant,  and  like  it  includes  species 
that  are  turned  to  important  practical  purposes  ;  — 

*'  JViacecr. — The  Tiliacete,  though  named  from  an  European 
timber-tree,  are  chiefly  found  in  tropical  countries.  The  genera 
Corchorus,  Triumfetta,  and  Grewia,  of  which  numerous  species 
are  found  in  India,  are  also  abundant  in  the  warm  parts  both  of 
Africa  and  America  ;  and  as  has  been  remarked  with  the  plants 
of  some  other  families,  many  of  the  same  species  are  found  in 
the  most  widely  separated  parts  of  India.  Grewia  betula?folia, 
with  Corchorus  lin:earis  and  fascicularis,  extend  from  the  Penin- 
sula up  to  the  arid  region  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
where  a  new  species,  C.  prostratus,  is  also  found.  Corchorus 
capsularis  and  acutangulus,  as  well  as  Triumfetta  angulata, 
are  common  at  Saharunpore,  as  in  the  most  southern  provinces. 
In  the  tract  of  jungle  and  forest,  which  clothes  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya,  v.e  have  several  of  the  species  which  are  found  in 
similar  situations  in  Bengal  and  Assam,  as  Triumfetta  sestuans, 
Grewia  helicterifolia,  tiliiefolia,  and  sapida,  w^hieh  is  apparently 
the  same  as  G.  pumila,  Don,  and  G.  nana.  Wall.  Triumfetta 
oblongata  extends  as  high  as  Jureepance,  or  five  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea;  and  Corchorus  humilis  (nob)  shews  itself  fifteen 
hundred  feet  highci'  up,  but  both  only  during  the  rainy  season. 
Grewia  sclerophylla,  didyma,  oppositifolia,  and  elastica,  are 
found  in  the  Kheree  Pass,  in  the  Doon,  as  well  as  higher  up 
within  the  Himalaya,  particularly  in  the  neigbourhood  of 
villages. 

"  As  we  have  seen  with  the  Malvacea',  and  the  other  allied 
orders,  so  are  the  Tiliacea;  remarkable  for  mucilaginous  proper- 
ties, as  well  as  for  tenacity  of  fibre  ;  and  several  species  of  the 
genus  Grewia  have  pleasantly-tasted  acid  berries,  as  was  found 
among  the  Malvacea?,  in  the  fruit  of  Hibiscus  SabdariiFa.  Cor- 
chorus olitorius  is  in  India,  as  in  Egypt,  used  as  a  pot-herb, 


and  is  in  Bengal  cultivated  for  the  fibres  of  the  bark,  which  are 
called  jute  and  pat.  C.  capsularis  is  likewise  cultivated  in 
Bengal  as  in  China,  for  the  same  purpose.  Its  fibres,  as  well 
as  those  of  C.  olitorius,  are  employed  in  making  a  coarse  kind 
of  cloth,  called  tat,  of  which  gunny,  or  rice-bags,  are  made; 
also  a  coarse  kind  of  linen  worn  by  the  poorer  people  in  some 
parts  of  Bengal,  as  we  are  informed  by  Dr.  B.  Hamilton;  of  it 
also  the  cordage  employed  in  agriculture,  and  for  rigging  boats, 
is  formed,  and  it  is  the  material  from  which  paper  is  made.  The 
inner  bark  of  Grewia  oppositifolia,  as  that  ofTilia,  or  lime-tree, 
is  in  Europe,  is  employed  for  the  same  purposes,  at  lower  ele- 
vations within  the  Himalaya;  and  the  leaves  of  some  species, 
as  of  G.  didyma,  are  given  as  fodder  to  cattle,  and  are  even 
stacked  up  for  winter  use.  As  the  wood  of  the  lime-tree  is 
valued  for  its  close  grain,  lightness,  and  smoothness,  so  Berria 
Amomnilla,  or  Trincomalee  wood-tree,  affords  timber,  valued 
also  for  its  lightness  and  strength,  and  is  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  excellent  Massoola  boats  of  Madras.  Grewia 
elastica,  figured  at  PI.  22,  called  dhamnoo  by  the  natives,  and 
common  in  the  Himalayas  in  northern  latitudes,  at  moderate 
elevations,  affords  timber  which  is  highly  valued  for  its  strength 
and  elasticity,  and  therefore  much  used  for  bows,  buggy  shafts, 
and  bangy  sticks.  Some  of  the  species  of  Grewia,  as  before 
mentioned,  yield  pleasant  acid  berries,  much  used  for  making 
sherbet.  Of  these,  G.  asiatica  may  be  instanced  as  common 
in  gardens;  but  G.  sapida,  helccterifolia,  sclerophylla,  and 
others,  are  used  for  the  same  purpose." 

Of  some  of  the  plants  that  belong  to  the  order  Ternstrse- 
niiacefe  we  shall  take  occasion  to  refer  to  this  work  at  ano- 
ther time,  on  account  of  their  extensive  commeicial  interest. 
At  present,  however,  we  quote  the  scientific  notices  of  the 
author  respecting  the  family  generally  : — 

"Of  all  those  which  belong  to  this  family,  the  tea-plant  is  alone 
of  any  commercial  importance,  but  this  in  so  pre-eminent  a 
degree  as  to  render  it  a  most  desirable  acquisition  to  other 
countries.  An  inquiry. into  its  history  and  habits,  therefore, 
becomes  intei esting,  that  we  may  ascertain  whether  it  be  so 
local  and  peculiar  in  its  nature,  as  to  render  futile  any  attempt 
to  introduce  it  elsewhere.  To  do  this  satisfactorily,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  enter  into  some  detail  respecting  the  varieties  or 
species  which  afford  the  different  teas  of  commerce,  the  extent 
of  their  distribution,  the  climate,  soil,  and  culture,  which  they 
prefer,  as  well  as  the  plants  with  which  they  are  associated, 
either  in  a  wild  or  cultivated  state. 

"  The  tea-plant  has  been  supposed  to  be  indigenous  in  the 
mountains  which  separate  China  from  the  Burmese  territories  ; 
but  we  are  informed  by  Dr.  Abel  that  he  found  a  small  shrub, 
of  what  is  commonly  considered  the  green  variety,  apparently 
in  its  natural  habitat,  and  near  no  plantation,  at  .See-chou,  in 
the  province  of  Kiang-sea,  about  N.  lat.  26  deg.,  where  the 
hills  were  covered  with  pines.  Thunberg  states  that  tea  grows 
every  where  in  Japan,  both  naturally  (sponie)  and  cultivated, 
on  the  margins  of  fields.  One  species,  so  named,  is  described 
by  Loureiro,  as  found  both  cultivated  and  in  a  wild  state,  in 
the  northern  provinces  of  Cochin-china;  and  the  same  author 
describes  T.  oleosa  as  common  about  Canton,  both  wild  and 
cultivated.  To  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Reeves  I  am  indebted  for 
the  information  that  there  is  a  species  of  Thea,  growing  wild  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Macao,  which  is  much  larger  in  the  leaf 
than  either  the  black  or  green  tea  plants. 

"  But  it  has  been  made  a  question,  whether  the  varieties  of 
tea  known  in  commerce  are  due  to  difference  in  species,  or  only 
to  differences  in  soil,  climate,  culture,  and  mode  of  preparation. 
The  latter  appears  to  be  the  opinion  of  Kaempfer,  Thunberg, 
and  Siebold,  as  they  admit  of  but  one  species  of  Thea,  and  is 
that  now  generally  entertained  ;  Thunberg  notices  two  varieties 
of  Thea  bohea,  but  says  they  can  hardly  be  distinguished  into 
species.  Siebold  says  that  the  variety  viridis  of  T.  Chinensis, 
D.C,  is  a  shrub  every  where  cultivated  in  Japan  ;  but  the 
variety  bohea  he  had  only  seen  in  gardens,  introduced  from 
China.     From  this  fact  one  would  be  iaclined  to  conclude  that 


ROYI.es    HrMALAYAN    BOTAVY.  ' 


\W 


they  were  distinct ;  and  as  all  -the  observations  were  made  in 
Japan,  it  is  probable  they  ;iU  tiiree  only  siuv  one  species  culti- 
vated llxere  :  as  there  is  reason  for  believing,  that  the  opinion 
of  Linneusthat  two  species  of  Thea  yield  the  teas  of  commerce, 
is  the  mere  correct. 

"  Dr.  Abel,  when  passing  through  the  tea  country,  had 
little  doubt  of  there  being  two  species  of  tea-plant  ;  but  he 
could  not  at  the  time  define  the  character,  and  was  unfortunate 
in  losing  his  specimens  in  the  shipwreciv  of  the  Alcestc.  But 
he  mentions  that  the  plants  from  the  black  and  green  tea  dis- 
tricts differed  in  the  form,  colour,  and  texture  of  their  leaves  ; 
those  of  the  green  tea  being  larger,  thinner,  and  of  a  lighter 
colour  than  those  of  the  black,  though  growing  in  the  same 
soil  :  these  differences  he  also  observed  in  a  large  plantation 
near  Macao.  Dr.  Hooker,  in  the  Botanical  Magazine,  t.  3H8, 
has  given  the  characters  of  the  two  species.  Thea  viridis, 
which  is  the  species  figured,  he  describes  as  '  a  large,  strong- 
growing,  almost  hardy,  plant,  with  spreading  branches  ;  its 
leaves  three  to  five  inches  long,  very  broadly  lanceolate, 
pale  green,  singularly  waved,  with  Ihe  margin  reflexed  ;  the 
flowers  large,  solitary,  mostly  confined  to  the  upper  axil. 
These  appear  in  autumn,  six  weeks  or  two  months  earlier  than 
those  of  T.  bohea,  which  is  of  smaller  size,  with  remarkably 
erect  stiff  branches  ;  leaves  not  above  half  or  two-thirds  the 
size  of  the  former,  perfectly  flat,  more  coriaceous,  of  a  dark 
green,  bearing  in  the  axils  of  numerous  leaves  two  or  three 
flowers,  which  are  smaller,  and  have  a  slight  fragrance  ;  and 
are  in  perfection  during  winter.  This  plant  cannot  withstand 
the  frosts  of  an  English  climate.' 

"  Mr.  Reeves,  whose  opinions,  from  his  long  residence  in 
China,  and  attention  to  subjects  of  natural  history,  are  entitled 
to  the  greatest  weight,  is  the  most  recent  author  who  has 
referred  to  this  subject ;  and  he  expresses  his  surprise  '  that 
any  person  who  has  been  in  Cliin:i,  or,  indeed,  any  one  who 
has  seen  the  diiference  in  the  colour  of  the  infusions  of  black 
and  green  tea,  could  suppose  for  a  moment  that  they  were  the 
produce  of  the  same  plant,  dilVering  only  in  the  mode  of  curing; 
particularly  as  they  do  not  grow  in  the  neighbourhood  of  each 
other.'  {Loudon^s  Gard.  Mag.,  vol.  ix.  p.  713).  To  this  opinion, 
it  will  be  seen,  he  still  adheres,  as  in  a  letter  with  which  I  have 
been  favoured,  he  informs  me  that  he  believes  that  the  Thea 
viridis  of  the  gardens  is  the  plant  from  which  the  green  tea  of 
commerce  is  prepared,  and  that  the  plant  which  produces  the 
black  tea  of  commerce,  as  souchong,  congou,  &c.  is  not  so 
common  in  England.  Both  may  be  seen  in  great  perfection  in 
the  Messrs.  Loddige's  rich  and  extensive  nursery-grounds  at 
Hackney,  where  a  green-tea  plant  has  lived  for  many  years  in 
the  open  air.  The  first  impression  on  seeing  thera,  is  that  of 
surprise  at  their  ever  having  been  confounded  ;  as  nothing  can 
be  more  distinct  than  tlie  large,  membranous,  I'ght  green, 
wavy  leaf,  with  large  and  irregular  scrratures,  and  straggling 
habit  of  the  green-tea  plant,  from  the  smaller,  flat,  thick,  and 
coriaceous,  dark-green  leaf,  with  small  and  even  scrratures,  and 
erect  port  of  the  black  tea.  Both  plants  have  been  figured  in 
Loddige's  Bot.  Cab.  t.  226  and  227,  and  the  characters  well 
given,  as  also  in  the  above  extract  from  Dr.  Hooker.  I  would 
only  add,  that  the  flowers,  though  commonly,  are  not  always 
single  in  the  axils  of  Thea  vindis  ;  and  this,  though  earlier  in 
flowering,  is  not  so  much  so  as  described.  The  green  tea  being 
the  hardier  is  cultivated,  as  we  shall  see,  in  the  northern,  and 
the  black  tea  in  the  southern  provinces  of  China.  The  former 
is  the  only  kind  cultivated  in  Japan,  according  to  Siebold,  and 
is  that  figured  by  Kampfer,  Amcen.  Exot.,  p.  607. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  above  opinions,  and  the  distinctness  in 
the  characters  of  the  two  species,  as  above  given,  there  is  an 
unaccountable  discrepancy  in  the  statements  as  to  the  plants 
which  afford  the  green  and  black  teas  of  commerce,  especially 
as  Dr.  Abel,  after  giving  his  opinion  that  there  were  two  species 
of  tea-plant,  mentions  that  *  from  persons  perfectly  conversant 
with  the  Chinese  method  he  learnt  that  either  of  the  two  plants 
will  afford  the  black  or  green  tea  of  the   shops  ;  but  that  the 

MAGAZINE   OP    BOTANY    .-IND    GARDENING,    VOL.    11.    NO. 


broad  thin-leaved  plant  is  JrtBfevred  fdr  making  the  green  tea.' 
(Journ.  to  China,  p.  222). 

"This  is  in  conformity  with  the  information  communicated  to 
Dr.  Hooker,  and  also  with  that  originally  given  by  Mr.  Pigou 
(As.  An.  Reg.  1S02),  on  the  authority  of  a  Chinese,  who  had 
been  eight  times  in  the  bohea  country,  remaining  there  from 
four  to  six  months  each  time,  and  who  stated  that  '  bohea  may 
be  cured  as  hyson,  and  hyson  as  bohea.'  To  this  Mr.  Reeves 
replies  in  the  letter  to  which  I  have  alluded,  that  '  the  Cliinese 
manufacturers  do  not,  and  they  say  they  cannot  convert  black 
tea  into  green,  and  rice  versa,  and  this  I  believe  to  be  true  • 
indeed,  the  colour  of  the  infusions  is  alone  sufficient  evidence.' 
The  discrepancy  in  the  information  Mr.  Reeves  explains,  by 
adding  that  '  there  is  a  species  of  tea  grown  in  the  province  of 
Canton  of  a  pale-coloured  leaf  (occasionally  mixed  with  congou 
tea,  to  make  the  tea  imported  under  the  name  of  bohea),  and  this 
tea  can  be  coloured  and  made  up  to  imitate  various  qualities  of 
green  tea,  and  large  quantities  are  yearly  thus  made  :  but  still 
it  is  only  an  appearance  that  can  be  given  :  the  deception  is 
detected  as  soon  as  it  is  put  into  water.'  Owing,  no  doubt,  to 
these  mixtures  is  the  difliculty  in  detecting  the  two  kinds  of 
leaf  in  the  teas  of  commerce  ;  but  in  good  teas  they  may  be 
distinctly  recognized.  Dr.  Abel's  information  having  been 
obtained  from  hearsay  at  Canton,  most  probably  refers  to  the 
kind  described  by  Mr.  Reeves,  as  he  most  particularly  distin- 
guishes, and  lays  down  on  his  map,  the  green  and  black  tea 
districts  ;  but  arguing  upon  the  correctness  of  the  information 
he  had  obtained,  concludes  that  the  diflfcrenees  observed  may  be 
produced  by  a  due  management  of  the  heat  used  in  dryin"-  the 
plant.  Mr.  Millet's  account,  Mr.  Reeves  says,  he  himself 
knows  refers  to  some  of  this  tea. 

"A  very  important  consideration  being  to  ascertain  the  climates 
in  which  the  tea-plants  are  chiefly  cultivated,  it  is  necessary,  in 
the  first  instance,  to  determine  the  extent  over  which  they  are 
distributed,  before  we  can  form  any  idea  of  the  degree  of  heat 
and  cold  to  which  they  are  subjected.  Dr.  Abel  states,  that 
'  the  green  tea  district  in  the  province  of  Keang-nan  is  em- 
braced between  the  29th  and  3 1st  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  is 
situated  on  the  north-western  base  of  a  ridge  of  mountains, which 
divides  the  provinces  of  Che-kiangand  Keang-nan.  The  black  tea 
district,  in  the  pro\'inceof  Fokien,  is  contained  within  the  27th  and 
the  28th  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  is  situated  on  the  south- 
eastern  declivities  of  a  ridge  of  mountains,  dividing  the  province 
of  Fokien  from  that  of  Keang-sec'  p.  223.  Hence  we  perceive 
that  the  districts  have  both  a  north-western  and  a  south-eastern 
aspect,  and  that  Dr.  Hooker's  statement  that  the  Thea  viridis  is 
able  to  withstand  the  greater  degree  of  cold,  is  confirmed  by  the 
fact  of  the  green  teas  being  procured  from  the  more  northern  lati- 
tudes. This  has  reference  to  the  teas  usually  manufactured  for 
foreign  trade,  and  is  conformable  to  the  information  given  by  Mr. 
Reeves  (Bot.  Mag.l.  c),  who  statesthat  'the  black  teas  are  chiefly 
grown  in  the  N.W.  corner  of  the  province  of  Fokien,  in  about 
lat.  27  deg.  50  min.,  long.  1  deg.  30  min.  E.  of  Peking,  and  the 
green  tea  in  the  southern  part  of  Keang-nan  province,  about 
lat.  29  deg.  58  min.,  long.  2.  deg.  E.  of  Peking.'  At  Hwuy- 
ehow-Foo  in  the  latter,  the  greater  proportion  of  hyson  and 
twankay  is  manufactured,  and  the  black  teas  at  Gan-ki-hien  in 
Fokien.  By  Mr.  Reeves  I  am  further  informed,  that  in  a 
Chinese  Herbal,  in  which  the  plants  used  in  medicine  are  de- 
scribed, tea  is  said  to  be  produced  (among  other  places  to  the 
northward  of  31  deg.)  in  nine  places  in  Hoo-Qwang,  three 
places  in  Ho-Nan,  one  place  in  Shensi,  and  two  places  in  Shan- 
tung ;  one  of  these  latter,  and  the  most  northward  of  the  whole, 
is  Tang-chow-Foo,  in  36  deg.  30  min.  north  lat.  From  Ksempfer, 
Thunberg,  and  Siebold,  we  learn  that  the  tea-plant  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  islands  which  form  the  Japanese  territory  ;  and 
these  extend  from  30  to  41  deg.  of  noith  latitude.  It  is  also  culti- 
vated in  the  southern  province  of  Yunan,  whence  we  learn  from 
Dn  Halde  and  Sir  G.  Staunton,  the  tea  is  procured,  whiehlis 
made  up  into  balls  ;  and  likenise  at  Ho-ping  in  the  province  of 
Quang-tung ;  Dr.  Wallich  further  mentions,  that  it  is  also 
XXI. — DECEMBEK,    1834.  B  B 


178 


EOYLE  S    HIMALAYAN    BOTANY. 


cultivated  in  Cochin-cliina,  as  far  south  as  17  deg.  of  north 
latitude. 

"  But  as  from  the  information  obtained  hy  Sir  G.  Staunton, 
■we  learn  that  the  tea-plant  thrives  best  between  23i  deg.  and 
30  deg.,  and  as  the  principal  cultivation  of  the  best  teas  for  the 
foreign  trade  is  between  27  deg.  and  31  deg.  of  north  latitude 
the  space  included  between  these  forms  a  belt,  which  will  serve 
as  a  criterion  of  the  soil  and  climate  best  suited  to  this  plant. 
"With  respect  to  the  former,  Dr.  Abel  gives  the  only  precise 
information  I  have  been  able  to  obtain,  and  he  states  that  from 
every  account  given  of  the  tea-plant,  it  succeeds  best  on  the 
sides  of  mountains,  where  there  can  be  but  little  accumulation 
of  vegetable  mould.  The  plantations  which  he  saw  were  always 
at  some  elevation  above  the  plains,  in  a  kind  of  gravelly  soil, 
formed  in  some  places  by  disintegrated  sandstone,  and  in  others 
■fay  the  debris  of  primitive  rocks.  A  large  and  flourishing  plan- 
tation of  all  the  varieties  of  the  plant  brought  together  by  Mr. 
Ball,  the  principal  tea-inspector  at  Canton,  is  situated  on  an 
island  close  to  jlacao,  in  a  loose  gravelly  soil,  formed  by  the 
disintegration  of  large  grained  granite.  '  Judging  from  spe- 
cimens,' Dr.  Abel  continues,  '  collected  in  our  route  through 
the  province  of  Keang-nan,  whence  the  green  tea  is  procured, 
its  rocks  consist  chiefly  of  sandstone,  schistus,  and  granite. 
As  to  what  may  be  the  exact  nature  of  the  rocks  of  the  black 
tea  country  in  the  province  of  Fokien,  I  have  no  precise  infor- 
mation. But  as  the  great  ridge  separating  that  province  from 
Keang-si  is  a  continuation  of  the  one  dividing  the  latter  from 
Canton,  it  is  perhaps  legitimate  to  conclude,  that  their  con- 
stituent rocks  are  the  same  ;  and  that  the  hills  and  soU  on  the 
eastern  are  the  same  as  we  found  them  on  the  western  side  of 
the  ridge,  or  that  they  are  covered  by  a  soil  like  that  in  which 
tUe  Camellia  flourishes.'  (Abel,  p.  224).  This  is  most  likely 
to  be  the  case,  as  Sir  G.  Staunton  states  that  a  chain  of  granite 
mountains  begins  at  Haugchoo-foo,  with  a  direction  to  the 
southward,  and  that  vast  tracts  of  hilly  land  are  planted  with 
tea  in  tlie  province  of  Fokien.  Mr.  Reeves,  from  the  views  he 
has  of  Soo-Ei-Shan,  where  the  best  black  teas  are  grown,  sus- 
pects that  the  hills  are  schistose. 

"  With  regard  to  the  climate  of  this  tract  of  country,  or  that 
best  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  the  tea-plants,  we  are  without 
precise  information,  as  no  one  competent  to  make  observations 
has  resided  throughout  the  year  in  the  principal  tea  districts  ; 
but'  the  approximative  results  we  are  able  to  obtain  will,  per- 
haps, be  sufficient  for  practical  purposes,  particularly  if  con- 
nected with  a  view  of  the  vegetation.  In  the  first  place,  if  we  look 
at  the  tables  which  have  been  calculated,  and  those  of  Mr.  Harvey 
are  the  latest,  we  shall  find  the  probable  mean  temperatures  of 
Canton,  of  the  parallels  of  latitude  of  29  deg.  and  of  31  deg., 
as  well  as  of  Pckin,  to  be  74.73  deg.;  72.62  deg.;  69.S6 
deg.;  and  62.43  deg.  respectively.  But  it  is  desirable  to  have 
these  theoretical  results  confirmed  by  practical  observations, 
especially  as  temperature  is  not  invariably  found  to  go  along 
"with  latitude,  particularly  w'ith  regard  to  the  eastern  and  western 
sides  of  continents.  Tliis  the  illustrious  Humboldt  has  long 
ago  shewn  in  his  paper  on  Isothermal  lines :  where  he  has  re- 
marked that  '  the  whole  of  Europe,  compared  with  the  eastern 
and  western  parts  of  America  and  Asia,  has  an  insular  climate, 
and  upon  the  same  isothermal  line,  the  summer  becomes  warmer, 
and  tlie  winters  colder,  in  proportion  as  we  advance  from  the 
meridian  of  Mont  Blanc  towards  the  east  or  the  west;  the 
western  parts  of  all  continents  are  not  only  warmer  at  equal 
latitudes  than  the  eastern,  but  even  in  the  zones  of  equal  annual 
temperature,  the  winters  are  more  rigorous,  and  the  summers 
hotter  on  the  eastern,  than  upon  the  western  coasts  of  tlie  two 
continents.  The  northern  part  of  China,  lilce  the  Atlantic 
region  of  the  United  States,  exhibits  excessive  climates  (as 
Buffon  indicated)  and  seasons  strongly  contrasted,  while  the 
coast!  of  New  California  and  the  embouchure  of  the  Columbia, 
have  winters  and  summers  almost  equally  temperate.  Thus  we 
find  at  New  York,  the  summer  of  Rome  and  the  winter  of  Co- 
penhagen; at  (ixiebec,  the  summer  of  Paris  and  the  winter  of 
Petersburgh,.    la  China,  at  Pekin,  for  example,  where  the 


mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  that  of  the  coasts  of  Brittany, 
the  scorching  heats  of  summer  are  greater  than  in  Cairo,  and 
the  winters  as  rigorous  as  at  Upsal.'  These  results  have  been 
deduced  by  tlieir  illustrious  author  from  the  observations  of 
Amyot,  which  were  carried  on  for  a  period  of  six  years :  by 
these  it  appears  that  Pekin,  in  N.  lat.  39  deg.  54  min.  and  E. 
long.  116  (leg.  27  min.,  and  at  the  level  of  the  ocean,  has  an 
annual  mean  temperature  of  54  deg.  9  min.,  that  of  the  warmest 
month  being  84  deg.  38  min.,  and  of  the  coldest  24  deg.  62  min.; 
while  the  mean  temperature  of  the  three  winter  months  is 
26  deg.  42  min.  The  severity  of  tho  cold  may  be  judged  of  by 
this,  and  by  the  thermometer  sometimes  falling,  it  is  said,  as 
low  as  63  deg.  below  zero,  as  well  as  by  the  great  thickness  of 
the  ice  with  which  the  rivers  are  frozen  over.  The  summer  is 
as  warm  as  that  at  Naples,  with  amean  temperature  of  82  deg. 
5  8  min.,  and  the  greatest  heat  as  high,  it  is  said,  as  121  deg. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  three  spring  months  is  56.30  deg., 
and  of  those  of  autumn  54.32  deg.,  but  it  frequently  freezes  in 
both  Marcli  and  November ;  the  mean  temperature,  however, 
of  seven  months  is  above  51.8  deg.,  or  that  of  the  months  Lu 
which  trees  vegetate  that  lose  tlieir  foliage.  The  temperature 
of  the  spring  months  being  of  March  41.4  deg.,  of  April  57.0 
deg.,  of  May  70.3  deg.,  and  of  June  84. 2  deg. :  the  increase  of 
the  vernal  temperature  and  the  dift'erences  between  these  four 
months  are  seen  to  be  very  great,  and  very  equal  (15.7  deg,, 
13.3  deg.,  and  13.9  deg.)  as  characteristic  of  climates  where 
the  division  of  the  annual  heat  between  the  seasons  is  very  un- 
equal. (Humboldt  on  Isothermal  lines.  Brewst.  Journal,  vol. 
iii.  iv.) 

"  In  some  works  it  is  stated  that  there  are  properly  only  two 
seasons  at  Pekin,  summer  and  winter,  or  the  seasons  of  snow 
and  rain.  The  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  are  stated 
to  be  very  rainy,  and  the  average  of  rainy  days  to  be  fifty-eight. 
The  climate  of  the  northern  provinces  must,  however,  be  con- 
sidered a  dry  one,  as  w^e  learn,  from  both  Sir  G.  Staunton  and 
Dr.  Abel,  that  large  stacks  of  salt  are  left  in  the  open  air,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Pei-ho,  covered  only  by  bamboo  matting  under 
a  coating  of  clay.  The  showers  are  described  as  being  light; 
no  indications  of  a  damp  atmosphere  are  mentioned,  but  heavy 
dews  occur  in  the  evening.  The  season  in  which  China  was 
visited  by  Lord  Macartney's  embassy  was  peculiarly  dry,  as  it 
is  mentioned  that  from  July  to  November  scarcely  a  shower 
had  fallen,  and  the  country  had  been  traversed  from  Zhehol  to 
30  deg.  of  N.  latitude.  Lord  Amhert's  embassy  also,  which 
arrived  on  the  Pei-ho  on  the  12th  of  August,  had  hardly  any 
rain  until  the  beginning  of  November,  when  they  had  got  into 
the  tea  country.  Le  Compte  also  mentions  a  drought  which 
had  continued  for  five  months  in  the  year  he  arrived  in  China. 
The  foregoing  view  of  the  climate  of  Pckin,  though  more  severe 
than  what  the  tea-plant  is  subjected  to,  will  serve  as  an  ap- 
proach to  a  true  estimate  of  the  extremes  of  temperature  which 
it  is  capable  of  bearing,  as  it  is  cultivated  in  36j  deg.  north, 
and  also  in  Japan. 

"  As  an  indication  of  a  southern  climate  where  the  tea-plant 
is  cultivated,  and  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  any  account,  it 
will  be  useful  to  refer  to  the  following  view-  of  the  climate  of 
Canton  furnished   by  Mr.  Reeves  to  Dr.  Lindley.     I  have  de- 
duced the  mean  temperatures  from  the  maxima  and  minima;  the 
residts,  therefore,  though  somewhat  too  low,  cannot  be  very  far 
from  the  truth.     The  range  of  the  thermometer,  and  its  means 
in  the  several  months  at  Canton,  are:  in 
Jan.    Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June. 
Maxima  74       78       82       86       88       90 
Minima   29       38       44       55       64       74 


Means      51. S   58       63       70.5   76       82 
July.  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dee. 
Maxima  94       DO       88       85       80       70 
Minima   79       75       70       57       40       45 


Means      86.5   82.5   79       71       60 


57.5  . ,  69.7  Mean  annual 
temperature. 


KOVLB's    HIMALAYAN    BOTANY. 


179 


"  The  cold  weatlier  months,  or  from  Noveml)er  to  February, 
are  fine,  dry,  and  bracing,  with  a  range  of  the  thermometer 
from  noon  to  night  of  10  deg.  and  20  deg.,  the  prevailing 
winds  being  N,  and  N.E.  February  is  cold  and  rainy,  Mnrch 
warm  and  foggy.  In  April  and  May  the  weathnr  is  warm,  but 
pleasant,  with  variable  winds,  chiefly  from  the  S.  and  S.E.  In 
June  and  July  there  are  often  heavy  showers  with  thunder, 
lightning,  and  occasionally  typhous.  Daring  these  two  months 
and  in  August,  the  thermometer  attains  its  highest  elevation, 
but  seldom  exceeds  90  deg.  The  heat,  however,  is  very  op- 
pressive to  many;  for  at  the  latter  part  of  this  period,  wiien  the 
wind  is  westerly,  there  is  little  variation  of  the  thermometer 
night  or  day,  a  sufficient  indication  of  the  moisture  of  the  cli- 
mate during  this  season. 

"  It  would  be  desirable  to  know  the  quantity  of  rain  which 
falls,  but  the  only  register  that  I  have  met  with  is  one  kept  at 
Macao,  and  appended  to  the  above  thermometrical  register  of 
Canton.  The  climate  is  much  the  same  in  the  two  places,  with 
the  exception  of  a  much  smaller  range  of  the  thermometer  at 
Macao,  as  might  be  expected  in  an  insular  climate  ;  for  though 
the  heats  are  nearly  as  great  in  the  warm  months,  the  fall  of 
the  thermometer  at  night  and  in  winter  is  much  less.  The 
quantity  of  rain  which  falls  at  Macao,  on  an  average  of  eighteen 
years,  is  about  69i  inches  annually — 107  inches  is  the  largest, 
and  49  the  smallest  quantity  which  fell  in  any  year.  Some  rain 
generally  falls  in  almost  every  month,  though  comparatively 
little  from  November  to  March ;  about  five  inches  in  both  April 
and  October,  and  about  teu  inches  in  each  of  the  months  from 
May  to  September,  both  included.  If  we  compare  the  climate 
of  Canton  with  that  of  Calcutta,  which  is  not  a  degree  to  the 
southward,  we  shall  find  that  with  a  maximum  temperature  of 
93.6  deg.,  3.6  deg.  above  that  recorded  at  Canton,  the  minimum 
is  only  56.8  deg.,  being  27.8  deg.  above  that  at  Canton;  and 
while  the  mean  temperature  of  the  latter  is  69.7  deg.  (74  deg. 
according  to  some),  that  at  Calcutta  is  above  78  deg. 

*'  But  as  a  great  part  of  China,  w^th  a  portion  of  the  tea  dis- 
tricts, has  been  traversed  by  the  two  British  embassies,  it  will 
be  useful  to  refer  to  the  thermometrical  observations  which 
were  made,  though  only  for  a  short  period  of  the  year.  The 
only  meteorological  register  saved  from  the  shipwreck  of  the 
Alceste,  was  tliat  kept  by  Dr.  Lynn  during  Dr.  Abel's  illness, 
from  the  Sth  September  to  the  24th  November,  that  is,  from 
Tiensing,  near  lat.  39  deg.,  to  Nanchang-foo,  about  lat.  2Sdeg. 
40  min.,  which  is  about  the  northern  extentof  the  black  tea,  and 
the  southern  linut  of  the  green-tea  district.  Previous  to  this, 
and  while  at  Tung-chow,  nearly  in  N.  lat.  40  deg.,  Dr.  Abel 
observes,  that  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  from  20th  August  to 
the  2d  of  September,  frequently  stood  in  the  shade  during  the 
day  at  88  deg.,  rose  once  to  93  deg.,  and  never  fell  below  S3 
deg.  In  the  night  it  generally  fell  to  7  "2  deg.  and  70  deg.,  and 
the  weather  felt  chilly.  From  the  above  register,  it  appears 
that  the  range  of  the  thermometer  was :  in  the 


>54 


f 


Province  of  Peclielee, 
from  Sth  to  15  th 
September    

Province  of  Shantung, 
from  16th  Sept.  to 
2d  Oct 3 

Province  of  Keangnan,  ^ 
from  3d  to  1  Sth  Oct.  ( 

Province  of  Keangnan,  I 
from  1  Sth  to  end  Oct.  J 

Province  of  Keangnan,  ^ 
Tea-plant  first   met 
with,  from  2d  Nov. 
to  13th 3 

Province  of  Kiangsee,  1 
from    13th  Nov.  to  V44 
24th j 


Morning.         Noon. 


Evening. 


to  70". .  77°  to  32". .  76°  to  80° 


64   ..72 


65   ..65 


.66 


76 


77 


70 


62   ..60  —  72 


>52 


63 


.54 


76 


62    ,.50  —  58 


"  If  we  compare  the  range  of  tlie  thermometer  in  the  two 
latter  periods,  or  during  the  month  of  November,  when  the  em- 
bassy passed  from  31  deg.  to  28  deg.  40  deg.  of  N.  latitude,  eis 
before,  with  some  place  in  India,  we  shall  find  that  Saharun- 
pore,  in  lat.  30  deg.,  and  elevated  1,000  feet,  approximates  in 
climate  during  this  month,  as  the  thermometer  ranges  from 
45  deg.  to  55  deg.  in  the  mornings,  and  from  60  deg.  to  84  deg. 
at  the  hottest  time  of  the  day,  which  is  always,  at  least,  two 
houi's  after  noon.  If  we  suppose  the  decrease  of  temperature 
to  be  only  equal  to  what  takes  place  at  Saharuapore,  w^e  shall 
have  a  mean  temperature  of  52  deg.  in  the  coldest  month, 
January ;  with  the  thermometer  sometimes  down  to  the  freez- 
ing point,  and  ranging  up  to  65  deg.  in  the  warmest  part  of  the 
day:  hut  the  extremes  w-e  know  must  be  greater  from  what 
takes  place  both  at  Canton  and  Pekia,  on  account  of  the  eastera 
exposure  of  China.  This  is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Reeves,  who  in- 
forms me  that  'snow  has  been  on  the  ground  for  days  together 
upon  the  green  teas,  and  the  manufacturers  of  the  black  tea 
complain  of  the  coldness  of  their  country  at  times.'  With  re- 
spect to  moisture,  we  have  seen  tliat  the  largest  proportion  of 
rain  falls  at  and  near  Canton,  while  the  sun  is  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  tropic  of  Cancer;  so  that  there  may  be  said  to 
be  a  rainy  season  there,  though  not  so  decidedly  as  in  Bengal; 
and  Mr.  Reeves  has  known  the  black-tea  manufacturers  com- 
plain 'that  their  first  picking  (in  May  and  June)  often  suffers 
from  rain  and  cold  easterly  winds.' 

"These  few  indications  of  the  climate  being  premised,  it 
would  be  interesting  to  connect  with  them  a  precise  idea  of  the 
vegetation ;  but  this  is  hardly  attainable,  as  so  little  is  knowa 
of  the  interior  of  China,  from  the  want  of  competent  observers 
of  the  localities  of  plants ;  hut  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  vege- 
tation must  differ  in  the  northern  and  southern  provinces,  and 
also  where  these  consist  of  elevated  lands  or  of  plain  country. 
From  Du  Halde,  and  the  progress  of  tlic  British  embassies 
through  the  provinces  of  Pe-che-lee,  Shan-tung,  and  the  north- 
ern portion  of  Kiang-nan,  we  learn  that  from  Tien-sing  nearly 
to  Nankin,  or  from  N.  lat.  39  deg.  to  about  N.  lat.  32  deg., 
and  in  a  S.E.  direction  to  the  termination  of  the  grand  canal  at 
Hang-cheu-foo,  the  country  consists  of  level  and  extensive 
alluvial  plains,  rich  and  highly  cultivated;  intersected  by  nu- 
merous rivers  and  canals,  and  covered  in  some  places  with  ex- 
tensive swamps  and  broad  lakes.  In  the  most  northern  parts 
of  this  tract,  with  many  genera  found  in  temperate  and  Eu- 
ropean climates,  we  find  some  plants  which  we  should  expect 
to  find  only  in  more  southern  latitudes,  as  Lagerstreemia  indica, 
Ipomiea  Quamoclit,  Celosia  cristata,  Gomphrena  globosa, 
species  of  Gynandropsis,  Tribulus,  Clerodendron,  &c. ;  the  lakes 
abounding  with  Nelumhium  speeiosum,  Trapa  bicornis,  Ponte- 
deria  vaginata,  and  others;  while  tbe  fields  are  cultivated  with, 
rice,  millet,  cotton,  sesasnm  and  castor-oil  plant.  Sida  tiliiE- 
folia,  referred  by  Dr.  Roxburgh  to  S.  abutilon,  affords  fibres  for 
rope-making;  and  the  gardens  capsicums,  gourds,  melons,  and 
water-melons,  the  egg-plant,  yams,  and  sweet  potatoes,  with 
species  of  Soja,  Dolichos,  and  Lablab,  all  of  which  are  also  cul- 
tivated in  every  part  of  the  plains  of  India. 

'^As  the  two  embassies  separated  at  the  great  river  Yang- 
tse-kiang,  and  both  shortly  afterwards  met  with  hilly  country, 
as  well  as  with  the  tea-plant,  it  is  necessary  to  notice  both,  and 
more  in  detail  tlian  we  have  done  above.  Lord  Macartney's 
embassy  found  a  chain  of  granite  mountains  extending  south- 
wards from  Hang-cheu-foo,  about  lat.  30  deg.  20  min.,  on  each 
side  of  the  river  Che-tang-chaung,  along  which  they  proceeded 
after  issuing  from  the  grand  canal.  Here  they  found  the  large- 
leafed  ehesnnt,  and  the  towering  larch ;  the  purple-leafed  tallow- 
tree  growing  near,  and  the  shining-leafed  camphor-tree  further 
from  the  water,  with  Thuya  orientalis  in  the  valleys.  About 
lat.  29  deg.  40  min.  the  banks  receded  from  the  river,  and  were 
chiefly  cultivated  with  sugar-cane  in  tlie  neighbourhood  of  groves 
of  orange-trees.  About  this  part  of  the  route  they  were. sup- 
plied with  grapes,  oranges,  apples,  pears,  chesnnts,  walnuts, 
pomegranates,  melons,  and  a  kind  of  date,  as  well  as  the  Chinese 


180 


ROTLE  S    HIMALAYAN    BOTAJfT. 


fruits  see-cliec  (Diospyros)  and  lee-chee  (Euphoria).  On  the 
sifles  of  the  hills,  pines  were  met  -with,  and  on  the  sides  and 
tops  of  earthen  embankments,  dividing  the  gardens  and  groves 
of  oranges,  tlie  tea-plant  was  first  seen  growing  like  a  common 
shrub,  and  along  with  it  the  oil-plant  or  Camellia  oleifera. 

"Lord  Amherst's  embassy  having  taken  the  direct  route  to 
Canton,  proceeded  up  the  Yang-tse-kiang  first  to  Nankin,  and 
then  along  the  sides  of  the  Poyang  lake,  to  Nan-chang-foo, 
where  the  two  routes  united.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Nankin 
tliey  found  the  country  become  hilly,  fir-trees  were  first  seen, 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  and  tallow-trees  with  that 
of  rice  and  cotton.  Near  that  town  Dr.  Abel  found  Rosa  Bank- 
siana.  Cotyledon  spinosa,  Hamamelis  chinensis,  andFicus  repens 
abundant,  as  well  as  Pinus  chinensis  (Pinus  Massoniana,  Abel), 
with  Salisburia  adiautifolia.  Near  Tatung,  about  lat.  .31  dep., 
which  they  reached  on  the  2d  of  November,  where  the  country 
was  hilly  and  picturesque,  the  chief  interest  was  owing  to  the 
plants.  The  tallow-tree  was  abundant,  and  the  tea-plant  was 
first  seen;  the  barometer  on  the  river  stood  about  30.13  deg. ; 
but  on  the  hills  close  to  it  five  species  of  oak  were  found,  among 
them  Quercus  densifolia  and  chinensis,  dwarf  chesnuts,  and 
among  the  many  ferns  Pteris  piloscUoides.  Much  ginger  was 
also  grown  here.  A  few  days'  further  progress  brought  them 
to  the  confines  of  the  province  of  Keang-see ;  near  this  they 
found  the  tea-plant  cultivated  on  the  hills,  which  also  abounded 
with  oaks  and  fir-trees;  and  near  the  banks  of  the  river  there 
was  extensive  cultivation  of  rice,  cotton,  and  bamboos. 

The  province  of  Keang-see,  which  in  its  northern  parts  is  flat, 
full  of  rivers  and  marshes,  and  in  winter  has  a  mean  temperature 
of  60  deg.  (Enc.  Metrop.  Art.  China)  the  embassy  traversed 
along  the  borders  of  the  Poyang  lake,  of  which  the  neighbour- 
hood is  hilly,  and  covered  with  plantations  of  oaks  and  fii-s,  to 
■which  were  now  added  Cunninghamia  sinensis  (Pinus  lanceolate) 
and  Abelia  chinensis.  There  were  considerable  quantities  of 
the  tallow,  varnish,  and  camphor-trees.  At  Nau-kang-foo, 
situated  about  lat.  29§  deg.,  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  mountain,  of 
which  the  top  was  covered  with  snow,  which  melted  next  day, 
pines  were  seen  at  the  greatest  elevation.  The  barometer  on 
the  river  stood  at  about  thirty  inches,  so  that  the  neighbouriug 
country  must  be  about  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  banks  were 
covered  with  rice,  cotton,  and  bamboo,  and  with  them  were  cul- 
tivated Arum  esculentum  and  Arachis  hypogcea.  On  the  hills 
many  ferns  were  found,  as  species  of  Adiantum,  Asplenium, 
Aspidium,  Blechmim,  Davallia,  Polypodiiim,  Pteris,  and  Wood- 
wardia;  an  Ilex  allied  to  I.  aquifolium,  Pinus  chinensis,  several 
species  of  oak  and  the  tallow  and  camphor  trees. 

"At  Nan-chang-foo,  the  route  of  the  two  embassies  becomes 
again  united.  From  the  24th  November  to  the  18th  December 
Lord  Amherst's  embassy  proceeded  up  the  river  Kankiang, 
■which  Hows  into  the  Poyang  lake  ;  the  hanks  were  chiefly  com- 
posed of  red  sandstone,  resting  on  granite ;  when  low,  cul- 
tivated with  rice,  sugar-cane,  bamboo,  camphor-tree,  and  a 
Picus,  much  resembling  the  banyan  tree;  and  when  high,  with 
the  oil-hearing  Camellia,  or  C.  oleifera,  which  was  first  met 
with  by  Dr.  Abel  shortly  after  leaving  Nang-chang-foo,  bear- 
ing abundance  of  flowers  in  November,  varying  in  height  from 
six  and  eight  feet  to  that  of  a  moderate-sized  cherry-tree,  and 
flourishing  best  in  a  red  sandy  soil ;  deer,  pheasants,  and  par- 
tridges were  seen ;  and  a  woodcock  at  Ciuachow.  The  sugar- 
cane was  observed  ready  to  be  cut  down,  and  great  fields  of 
■wheat  were  springing  up.  On  the  6  th  December,  Pinus  chi- 
nensis and  Cuninghamia  sinensis  were  again  met  with ;  and  on 
the  Sth  at  Sceehou,  about  lat.  26  deg.,  the  tea-plant  was  found 
apparently  wild  ;  in  the  neighbourhood  of  EIecococcus  verrucosus 
(Dryandra  cordata)  and  Eugenia  mierophylla.  Beyond  this, 
were  extensive  plantations  Camellia  oleifera,  where  Eurya  ja- 
lionica  was  abundant. 

"  On  the  20th  December,  they  crossed  the  Meiling  Mountain, 
which  divides  Keangsee  from  Quantung,  where  groves  of  fir- 
trees  skirted  their  way  ;  and  a  species  of  Prunus  was  seen  in 
full  flower  at  the  top.     On  descending  from  this,  they  entered 


the  province  of  Canton,  which  at  first  they  found  mountainous 
and  barren,  but  shortly  met  with  groves  of  Pinus  chinensis,  in- 
termixed with  Cunninghamia  sinensis.  The  vegetation  on  the 
surface  of  the  hiils  least  decomposed,  consisted  of  the  species 
of  Lyeopodium,  which  resembles  a  tree  in  miniature.  A  few 
days  after  passing  Cbau-chou-fou,  which  is  situated  uear  the 
25th  parallel  of  latitude,  they  found  the  neighbourhood  of  their 
anchorage  hilly,  and  very  abundant  in  wild  plants.  Myrtus 
tomentosa  was  of  great  size,  and  very  abundant,  Smilax  China, 
famed  for  its  sudorific  properties,  scarcely  less  in  quantity;  with 
another  species,  like  S.  lanceolata.  A  Begonia,  resembling 
B.  grandis,  was  also  found  growing  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet ; 
and  a  wild  species  of  Camellia,  which  Dr.  Abel  considered  to 
be  probably  a  variety  of  C.  oleifera  ;  while  the  rocky  banks 
of  some  small  streams  were  covered  with  species  of  Mar- 
chantia  and  Jungcrmannia.  Two  Rhexias  of  doubtful  species 
grew  in  the  rocks,  with  several  plants  of  questionable  genera. 
(Abel,  p.  199).  Plantations  of  sugar-cane  were  frequent  in 
this  part  of  their  route,  as  well  as  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  province  of  Kiang-see.  As  they  approached  Canton,  groves 
of  orange-trees,  of  bananas,  and  of  the  rose-apple,  relieved 
extensive  fields  of  rice.  A  great  extent  of  this  province  towards 
the  coasts  consists  of  level  plains,  and  though  so  near  the 
tropic,  the  winters  we  have  seen  are  severe;  ice  is  sometimes 
formed,  but  snow  does  not  fall:  owing,  however,  to  the  ge- 
neral mildness  of  the  climate,  and  the  alternations  of  hot  and 
cold  months,  two  crops,  as  in  India,  are  annually  obtained  ; 
and  sugar,  rice,  and  cotton,  cultivated,  as  well  as  an  inferior 
kind  of  tea.  The  fruits  consist  of  oranges  and  shaddocks, 
bananas,  pine-apples,  and  jack-fruit;  with  those  which  are  pecu- 
liar to  China,  as  thelee-chce,  longan,  wampee,  &e. :  grapes,  pears, 
prunes,  chesnuts,  and  peaches,  [are  alsofoundjbut  do  not  ripen  well. 
In  a  garden  near  Canton,  Dr.  Abel  found  the  Moutan  Paeony, 
Camellias,  Azaleas,  and  roses,  with  the  black  and  green-tea 
plants,  which  he  also  saw  in  a  plantation  at  Macao ;  as  well  as 
Vaccinium  formosum,  the  tree  like  Lyeopodium,  and  the  dwarf 
elm.  The  province  of  Fokien,  which  is  celebrated  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  best  black  tea,  lies  to  the  northward  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Canton,  between  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  2S  deg.  of 
north  latitude.  It  is  mountainous,  but  warm  and  healthy. 
The  mountains  are  terraced,  and  covered  with  firs:  the  cul- 
tivation consists  of  rice  and  sugar,  and  in  the  cold  season  of 
wheat;   oranges,  Ice-chees,   and  longaus  are  abundant. 

"  From  the  above  few  notices  of  the  temperature  and  vegeta- 
tion, though  during  only  a  portion  of  the  year,  in  some  of  the 
provinces  of  China,  we  may  perceive  a  considerable  resemblance 
to  what  we  have  seen  to  be  the  characteristics  of  the  Flora  of 
India  and  its  mountains  :  that  is,  considerable  uniformity  in 
these  respects  over  an  immense  extent  of  plain  country,  and  a 
rapid  change  from  a  tropical  to  a  European  vegetation,  when- 
ever we  begin  to  ascend  the  mountains.  But  this  is  a  more 
remarkable  occurrence  in  China  than  in  India,  as  its  plains 
stretch  into  more  northern  latitudes,  and  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature between  winter  and  summer,  as  well  as  the  differences  in 
this  respect  between  the  northern  and  southern  provinces,  is  much 
greater  than  in  India.  But  if  n-e  enter  more  particularly  into 
details,  we  shall  find  that  this  resemblance  in  the  vegetation 
and  cultivation  of  different  provinces  with  one  another,  and  of 
all  with  India,  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  annuals.  Such 
plants,  cultivated  in  summer,  are  subjected  everywhere  to  nearly 
similar  degrees  of  heat;  while  those  which  constitute  the  win- 
ter crops,  meet  only  with  congenial  cold.  But  the  perennials 
of  mountainous  situations,  as  well  as  those  of  the  northern  pro- 
vinces, being  exposed  alike  to  the  severityof  a  Chinese  winter  and 
the  heats  of  summer,  which,  though  great,  are  excessive  only  for 
a  short  time,  resemble  the  plants  of  northern  latitudes,  and  such 
as  are  found  on  the  slope  of  the  Himalaya:  belonging  to  such 
genera  as  Pinxis,  Taxus,  Juniperus,  Cupressus,  Quereus,  Be- 
tula,  Populus,  Salix,  Celtis,  Ulmus,  /Esculus,  Castanea,  Morus, 
Fraxinus,  Syringa,  Tilia,  Acer,  Rhododendrum,  Andromeda, 
Azalea,  Rhus,    Juglans,  Pyrus,  Prunus,  Crataegus,    Cydonia, 


nOYLE'S    HIMALAYAN    BOTANY. 


181 


together  with  Berberis,  Sarabncns,  Viburnum,  Lonicera,  Evo- 
nyraus,  Kharnnus,  Ilex,  and  Stajihylea  ;  and  among  lici'baccous 
plants,  mimy  RannnculaceK,  Fuinariaccic,  Crucitera;,  Caryo- 
pbyleie,  Rosacea:,  Sctnpervivse,  Umbcllifer<e,  and  Pi-imulaccje; 
as  well  as  species  belor.ging  to  the  genera  Viola,  Erodiuni,  Ge- 
ranium, Hypericum,  Kuta,  Lytlirnm,  Saxifraga,  Chrysosplc- 
nium,  Uubia,  Galinm,  Linaria,  Hyoscyamus,  Statiee,  Tlantago, 
Iris,  Lilium,  Allium,  Convallaria,  and  Paris.  With  these 
genera  are  associated  others,  of  which  the  species  are  most 
prevalent  about  the  centre  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  to  which 
great  extremes  of  temperature  may  be  supposed  to  be  obnoxious, 
as  Pistncia,  Olea,  Punica,  Cereis,  Nerium,  Oleander,  Papaver 
Somnifcnira  and  Rhocas  ;  and  others,  of  which  the  species  are 
chiefly  diffused  through  tropical  countries,  as  Melia,  Diospyrus, 
Sterculia,  Grewia,  Zanthoxyium,  Acacia,  Tamarix,  Indigofera, 
Lespedcza,  Iledysarura;  but  of  these  only  single  species  have 
in  general  been  enumerated  in  the  northern  provinces  of  China, 
in  the  same  way  that  we  have  seen  species  of  the  same  genera, 
extending  to  the  most  northern  parts  of  India,  and  ascending 
up  the  sides  of  the  Himalaya  within  tlie  thick  covering  of  jungle 
and  forest,  when  they  could  not  exist  in  the  moderate  cold  even 
of  the  open  places  of  Northern  India. 

"  But  the  great  resemblance  of  the  Flora  of  the  mountains, 
and  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China  and  Japan,  is  to  that  of 
Europe,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  existence  in  each  of  the 
above  genera  and  a  number  of  the  same  species;  as  Hamulus 
Lupulus,  Chelidonium  majus,  Hyoscyamus  niger,  Hedera  Helix, 
Lithospermum  arvense.  Thlaspi  arvcnse,  and  Capsella  Bursa 
Pastoris  ;  with  several  others,  which  are  likewise  found  in  the 
mountains  and  north  of  India.  But  as  the  north  of  Cliina  forms 
the  soutlieru  boundary  of  Tatary,  which  indeed  terminates  only 
at  the  range  of  mount:'.ins,  over  the  vallies  and  across  the  ridges 
of  which  the  great  wall  is  built,  we  may  expect  to  find  in  the 
province  of  Pe-ehee-lee,  many  of  the  plants  of  the  Tatarian  and 
Siberian  Regions,  which  are  themselves  nearly  identical  in  ge- 
nera, but  distinct  in  species,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  dry- 
ness of  the  former :  but  all  these  have  a  considerable  resemblance 
in  being  subjected  to  great  dryness  and  great  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  Hence  we  meet  with  many  of  the  plants  of  Pallas, 
Ledebour,  and  others,  as  included  by  Bunge  in  his  enumeration 
of  the  plants  of  China.  (Mem.  De  I'Acad.  Imp.  des  Sciences 
de  St.  Petersbourg).  As  for  instance.  Clematis  angustifolia. 
Delphinium  granditlorum,  Menispermum  dauricum,  Papaver 
nudleaule,  Viola  varicgata,  Amygdalus  pcdunculata,  Potentilla 
supina,  bifurea,  soongorica,  and  fragarioides ;  with  Astragalus 
adsurgeos  and  melilotoides,  and  species  of  Cnragana,  Oxytro- 
pis,  and  Pattiuia,  which  are  characteristic  of  these  regions; 
with  many  others,  as  Serratula  centauroides.  Aster  tataricus, 
Scor.:onera  radiata,  .\pocyaum,  aud  Cynauchum  sibiricum,  Gen- 
tiana  squarrosa.  Convolvulus  subvolubilis,  Iris  dicbotoma, 
Lilium  tenuifolium,  and  Asparagus  maritimus.  As  Kunawur 
forms  the  western  limit  of  tiie  Tatarian  region,  we  have  some 
of  the  plants  which  extended  into  it  from  more  northera  lati- 
tudes, found  also  in  this  part  of  China,  as  Ranunculus  salsu- 
ginosus,  and  Sysimbrium  Sophia.  And  as  some  resemblance 
was  shown  to  exist,  in  appearance  at  least,  between  the  plants 
of  Kunawur  and  those  of  Delhi,  we  have  some  of  the  genera 
of  the  latter  in  the  province  of  Pe-cbc-lee,  as  Ailanthus, 
Lyrium,  and  Salsola.  Thunberg  has  long  ago  remarked,  that 
in  Japan  the  cold  is  great  in  winter,  and  the  heat  considerable 
in  summer  ;  and  that  its  botany  resembles  that  of  the  north  of 
China :  this  is  fully  confirmed  by  a  comparison  of  his  Flora  with 
IJungti's  list.  He  at  the  same  time  alluded  to  the  affinity  with 
the  Flora  oi  Northern  America;  this  may  be  seen  in  the  preva- 
lence of  the  genera  Magnolia  lllieium,  and  Gleditschia.  Panax 
pseudo-ginseng,  found  by  Dr.  Wallich  on  Shcopore  in  Nepal, 
differs  but  little  from  the  American  P.  quinquefoliura,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  plant  yielding  the  Chinese  gin- 
seng ;  some  species  are  identical,  as  Veronica  virginiea,  Ribes 
( 'jnosbati,  and  Datura  Stramonium  ;  of  which  the  last,  as  well 
as  the  genera  Chaptaiia  and  Ampelopsis,  has   been  found  in 


America,  China,  and  the  Himalayas.  Between  the  two  latter, 
however,  the  analogy  in  genera  is  the  greatest ;  and  even  some 
species  which  were  first  discovered  in  the  Himalayas  are  now 
enumerated  in  the  Flora  of  China  ;  as  Evonymus  micranthns, 
Fraxinus  floribunda,  Rhamous  globosus  (R.  virgatus.'  Roxb.), 
and  Convallai'ia  cirrhifolia ;  while  others,  which  were  only 
known  as  Chinese  and  Japan  plants,  are  found  in  abundance 
within  the  Himalayas,  ns  Houttnynia  cordata,  Hovenia  dulcis, 
Ophiopogon  spicatus  and  japonieus,  Kadsura  japonica,Hastingia 
cocciuea,  Murraya  exotica,  Hypericum  patulum,  Spirteacallosa, 
Viola  prionantba  Bge,  Lonicera  japonica  and  chiuensis,  with 
Daphne  canuabina,  and  many  others. 

"  In  conjunction  with  such  genera  as  were  first  enumerated,  it 
may  excite  surprise  to  see  so  many  annuals  and  such  cultivation 
as  we  ex])ect  to  meet  with  only  in  tropical  countries ;  but  this 
is  far  from  surprising,  when  we  consider  that  the  temperature 
of  the  summer  months  diminishes  but  little,  and  in  some  places 
rather  increases  with  the  latitude  ;  as  Bruce,  in  Abyssinia, 
found  the  climate  on  account  of  the  rain  12deg.  cooler  when 
the  sun  was  over-head,  than  when  36  deg.  distant  to  the  south- 
ward. Thus,  at  Calcutta,  the  temperature  of  the  three  warmest 
months,  April,  May,  aud  June,  is  85.05  deg.,  and  of  the  rainy 
months,  July,  August,  aud  September,  82.83  deg.  ;  at  Be- 
nares, in  N.  lat.  25.18  deg.,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  first 
period  is  90.99  deg.,  and  of  the  second  83.01  deg.;  and  at 
Saharunpore  84.3  deg.  and  82.3  ;  while  at  Canton,  in  the  three 
warmest  months,  it  is  83.6  deg.,  and  at  Pckin  82.58  deg. ; 
while  at  the  last,  the  temperature  of  no  less  than  seven  months, 
is  above  51.8  deg.  Hence  we  find  the  lakes  in  the  northera 
as  in  the  southern  provinces,  abounding  with  Nelumbium 
speeiosum  and  Trapa  bicornis,  and  like  those  of  India  with 
Euryale  fcrox,  aud  species  of  Nymphsea,  Pontederia,  Sagittaria, 
Utricularia,  Myriophyllum  and  Leersia.  Saururus  supplies 
the  place  of  Aponogetcn  ;  Plirynium  capitatum  employed  iu 
making  the  excellent  Calcutta  mats,  is  found  in  both  countries. 
Species  of  Scirpus,  as  in  India,  yield  tuberous  roots,  which 
are  used  as  food ;  and  species  of  Typha,  Acorns,  Lemna,  Cer- 
atophyllum,  and  Menyanthes,  and  are  found  as  in  more  northern 
latitudes  ;  while  in  the  plains  of  the  northern  provinces,  as  we 
have  seen,  many  tropical  plants  occur.  In  the  central  pro- 
vinces, as  we  learn  from  the  list  given  by  Sir  G.  Staunton  of  the 
plants  found  in  Shan-tung  aud  Kiang-nan  ;  we  have  such  tro- 
pical plants  as  Grislea  tomentosa,  Vitex  negundo  and  trifolia, 
Biophytura  sensitivum,  Boerhaavia  repanda ;  species  of  Jas- 
minum,  Clerodendrum,  Justieia,  Basella,  Rottboellia,  Anthis- 
tiria,  Andropogon,  and  Cenchrus,  with  many  of  those  before- 
mentioned  ,  as  occurring  in  the  most  northern  provinces.  With 
these  there  is  a  mixture  of  European  genera,  such  as  exist  also 
in  the  soutlieru  province  of  Canton,  where  species  of  Galium, 
Seabiosa,  Lycium,  Chelidonium,  Saxifraga,  Sedum,  and  Reseda, 
are  stated  as  occurring  by  Loureiro.  It  may  also  be  mentioned, 
that  many  of  the  same  flowers  are  common  to  Indian  and 
Chinese  gardens,  some  of  which  may  also  be  seen  in  the  summer 
in  gardens  in  Europe  ;  while  others  which  have  been  introduced 
from  China,  are  now  common  in  every  part  of  India,  as  Chi- 
nese Aster,  Dianthus,  Iris,  Pardanthus,  and  Justieia  ;  with 
Lagcrstrremia  idica,  Dracfena  ferrea,  Hypericum  monogynum, 
Kerria  Japonica,  Hiptage  obtusifolia,  Olea  tragrans.  Thuya 
orientalis,   bcc. 

"  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  cidtivation  of  every 
part  io  tbc  warm  weather  months,  is,  as  wx  have  seen  it  to 
be  the  ease  even  in  the  most  northern  province,  like  that  of 
India ;  to  the  list  there  given  we  have  only  to  add  sugar, 
and  the  mulberry  for  the  silk- worm,  to  have  a  cultivation 
identical  with  that  of  India  during  the  warm  weather  and  rainy 
season.  Irrigation  supplies  in  China  the  want  of  a  regular 
rainy  season  in  the  most  northern  provinces.  The  analogy  is 
still  greater,  for  at  the  termination  of  the  rice  and  millet  crop 
we  find  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  peas,  beans,  lueern,  and 
tobacco  arc  grown.  For  we  learn  from  Staunton  and  Abel, 
that  as  the  Sorghum  vulgare,  the  Jooar  of  India,  and  Kow- 


182 


CULTIVATION    OF    ASPARAGUS    IN    FRANCE. 


leang,  or  tall  corn  of  the  Chinese,  was  cutting  down  in  the 
northern,  ami  sugar-cane  in  the  southern  provinces,  wheat  was 
seen  springing  up,  and  about  two  inches  high,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  October  and  November.  Thuuberg  states,  that  it  flowers 
in  March;  so  that  the  crop  must  be  gathered  in,  about  the 
same  time  as  in  India,  that  is,  about  the  end  of  iVlarch  or 
beginning  of  April.  Mr..  Gutzlaff  more  specifically  mentions 
the  two  crops,  one  of  rice,  and  the  other  of  wheat,  in  the  cold 
season.  That  the  accession  of  the  cold  weather  is  sudden  we 
may  infer  from  being  informed  by  Mr.  Bell,  that  on  their 
arrival  in  China,  near  the  great  wall,  they  were  supplied  with 
water  and  musk-melons,  and  on  the  6th  of  November,  only  a 
few  days  afterwards,  they  encountered  a  '  great  fall  of  snow,  and 
a  cold  frosty  wind.'  Mr.  Gutzlafif  also  states,  that  the 
9th  of  November,  when  in  40  deg.  of  lat.,  was  a  very  pleasant 
day,  but  during  the  n:glit  the  wind  changed,  and  a  strong 
northerly  breeze  began,  to  blow,  the  cold  was  piercing,  and 
in  a  few  hours  the  rivers  and  creeks  were  frozen  over.  (Voy. 
to  China,  p.  147) . 

"That  the  perennials  and  the  botany  in  general  of  the 
southern  provinces  is  very  distinct  from  what  we  have  seen  to 
characterise  the  central  and  northern  provinces,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  annual  species  of  European  genera,  allowed  to 
exist  during  the  coolness  of  the  winter  months,  we  may  learn 
from  the  writings  of  Loureiro  and  Roxburgh,  the  relations  of 
travellers,  and  the  plants  which  have  been  introduced  into 
Europe.  From  these  sources  we  learn  the  existence  of  a  species 
of  Nepenthes,  near  Macao,  with  numerous  Scitamincce,  and 
tropical  Epiphytal  Orchideoe,  several  Palms,  as  the  Cocoa, 
Areca,  and  Cane  palms,  together  with  species  of  Caryota, 
Rhapis,  Cliamserops  and  Tacca,  in  the  most  southern  provinces  ; 
•with  Pandanus  odoratissimus,  and  Cycas  inermis.  Aloexylon 
Agallochnm,  the  Eagle  wood  of  the  ancients,  and  Aloes  wood 
of  the  moderns,  Baryxylum  rufum,  iron  wood,  with  species  of 
Canarium,  Phyllanthus  Emhlica,  and  Guilandina  Bonduc,  are 
specimens  of  some  of  the  trees.  Laurus  Cinnamomum,  Cam- 
phora  and  Culilaban,  affording  camphor  and  cinnamon.  Augia 
sinensis,  El<eococus  verrucosus,  and  Stillingie  sebifera,  yield- 
ing varnish,  wood-oil,  and  vegetable  tallow,  are  some  of  those 
affording  useful  products ;  while  the  fruits  consist  of  pine- 
apples, papayas,  guavas,  custard-apples,  and  such  as  are 
mentioned  at  p.  1 1 8. 

"The  principal  families  to  which  the  rest  of  the  known 
plants  of  the  southern  provinces  of  China  may  .be  referred  are, 
DilleniaceK,  Anonacece,  Malvaceae,  Aurantiaceie,  Sapindacese  ; 
tropical  Leguminosac,  as  Anagyris,  Poinciana,  Erythrina; 
MelastomaceEe,  many  tropical  Rubiacere  and  Synantherese, 
Scrophularincffi,  Verbenacea3  and  Acanthacea;,  Lauriiire,  Eu- 
phorbiaeere,  UrticctC,  CommelineEe,  and  tropical  Graminete. 
Species  of  the  genera  Cocculus,  Capparis,  Helicteres,  Hiptage, 
AgUaia,  Cissus,  Combreturo,  Quisqualis  Marlea,  Lawsonia, 
Nyrtus,  Eugenia,  Passiflora,  Callicarpa,  Cordia,  Convolvulus, 
Argyreia  (Lettsomia.  Roxb.)  Bignomia,  Jasminnm,  Hoya, 
Ardisia,  Sideroxylon,  Tropis,  Antidesma,  Boehmeria,  Basella, 
Begonia,  Musa,  Crinum,  Philydrum,  Aloe,  Amaryllis,  Aspho- 
delus,  Melanthium  and  Eriocaulon. 

"  If  we  compare  this  with  the  Flora  of  Southern  India,  we 
shall  find  that  the  same  great  features  are  eommon  to  both  ; 
and  though  the  northern  provinces  of  China  are  more  European 
in  their  Flora  than  we  any  where  meet  with  in  the  plains  of 
India,  yet  do  their  lakes  abound  with  the  same  plants,  and 
their  plains  are  covered  with  similar  crops.  But  the  Flora  of 
the  mountain,  including  that  of  the  most  northern  parts  of 
China,  has  an  almost  universal  identity  of  genera  with  that 
found  covering  the  elevated  belt  of  the  Himalaya.  If  we  com- 
mence with  the  bases  of  these  mountains,  and  pass  succes- 
sively through  the  several  belts,  and  analogous  to  what  takes 
place  between  the  parallels  of  latitude  of  40  and  45  deg.,  ex- 
perience the  rapid  decrease  of  mean  temperatures,  and  the 
quick  succession  of  vegetable  productions,,  we  shall  first  find 
a  vegetation  similar  to  that  of  the  southera  provinces  ;  with  the 


agriculture  of  the  banks  of  the  canal,  consisting  of  rice,  millet, 
amaranth,  and  an  esculent  arum,  with  ginger,  turmeric,  a 
little  cotton  and  sugar,  at  one  season,  succeeded  by  wheat, 
barley,  and  buckwheat,  in  the  cold  weather  months,  (v.  p.  IS)  , 
even  the  mountain  rice,  lauded  by  Loureiro,  meets  here  with 
a  congenial  climate.  Along  with  plaintains,  oleander,  and 
some  of  the  orange  tribe,  and  the  various  plants  enumerated 
at  p.  13,  we  meet  with  some  which  were  long  considered  pecu- 
liar to  China  ;  as  Marlea  begonifolia,  and  Houttuynia  cordata, 
with  species  of  Chloranthus,  Incarvillea,  and  Hiptage.  At  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  of  Silhet  we  meet  even  "with  the  Chinese 
fruit  Longan  and  other  species  of  Euphoria.  In  ascending  we 
pass  through  different  gradations  of  vegetation,  until  reaching 
the  regions  of  the  oaks,  and  rhododendrons,  which  is  immedi- 
ately succeeded  by  that  of  the  pines,  we  meet  in  the  mid  region 
with  a  Flora  which  must  approximate  to  that  of  the  mountains 
of  the  central  provinces  of  China;  for  here  we  find  the  Chinese 
genera  Abelia  and  Eurya,  together  with  Stauntonia,  Cadsura, 
Hovenia,  Ophiopogon,  and  Pardanthus,  as  well  as  Deutzia, 
first  found  in  Japan,  to  which  new  species  have  been  added  by 
Benge  from  the  north  of  China,  and  by  Dr.  Wallich  from  the 
Himalayas.  In  Nepal  the  latter  has  also  discovered  Hovenia 
duleis,  Taxus  nucifera,  and  species  of  the  equally  Chinese  genera 
Camellia,  Cleyera,  Podocarpus,  Raphiolepis,  Photinia,  and 
Eriobotrya.  But  it  is  in  the  midst  of  similar  vegetation  that 
the  tea-plant  is  everywhere  found  ;  and  as  we  have  some  of  the 
very  genera  and  species,  which  were  first  found  in  the  tea- 
regions,  they  point  out,  that  here  it  may  most  fitly  be  intro- 
duced. It  cannot  he  a  difficult  task  to  transfer  from  one 
country  to  another  a  plant,  which  grows  naturally  and  is  culti- 
vated extensively,  in  one  which  possesses  so  many  of  the  plants 
which  are  common  to  the  two,  and  not  found  elsewhere.  Par- 
ticularly when  we  consider  that  a  tea-plant  introduced  from 
China  by  one  of  the  triennial  embassies,  has  lived  for  many 
years  in  the  open  air  in  Nepal,  and  was  there  seen  ten  feet 
high  by  Dr.  WaUich." 

The  AurantiaccEc  is  also  a  family  presenting  great  popular 
interest,  and  possessing  no  small  commercial  importance. 

We  observe  that  the  author  still  clings  to  what  is  called  the 
natural  st/stcm,  and  defends  it  on  several  grounds,  in  the  fourth 
part  now  before  us.  In  the  first  notice  which  our  Journal  took 
of  his  work,  to  be  seen  in  the  number  for  May  last,  the  merits 
of  such  a  system  were  discussed  at  some  length ;  but  as  he 
pertinaciously  attaches  himself  to  it  still,  we  have  no  desire  to 
renew  the  dispute,  unseemly  in  science  as  controversy  must 
ever  be,  and  we  conclude  our  present  notice,  highly  gratified 
with  the  information  contributed  by  Mr.  Roj'le  regarding  the 
botany  of  the  East  Indies. 

CULTIVATION  OF  ASPARAGUS  IN  FRANCE. 

The  part  of  the  garden  chosen  for  Asparagus,  is  that  which  is 
longest  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  least  shaded.  A 
pit  is  there  dug  five  feet  deep  or  so,  and  the  mould  taken  from 
it  is  sifted,  throwing  out  all  stones  even  of  the  size  of  a  filbert 
nut.  The  best  parts  of  this  mould  is  then  laid  aside  for  mak. 
ing  up  the  beds.     The  materials  of  a  bed  are  thus  placed  : — 

6  inches  of  common  dung-hill  manure. 

8  inches  of  turf. 

6  inches  of  dung  as  before. 

C  inches  of  sifted  earth. 

8  inches  of  turf. 

6  inches  of  very  rotten  dung. 

8  inches  of  the  best  earth. 
The  last  layer  of  earth  is  then  well  mixed  with  the  last  of 
dung. 

The  part  is  now   divided  into  beds  five  feet  wide,  by  paths 
constructed  of  turf,  two  feet  in  breadth  and  one  foot  in  thick-  . 
nes.     The  Asparagus   is   planted    about   the   end   of  March, 
eighteen  inches  asunder.     In  planting,  the   bud  or  top  of  the 


ON    DAHLIAS. 


1S3 


shoot  is  placed  at  the  depth  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  ground, 
■while  the  roots  are  spread  out  as  wide  as  possible  in  the  form 
of  an  umbrella.  A  small  cut  of  stick  is  placed  as  a  mark  at 
each  plant,  as  it  is  laid  in  the  ground.  As  soon  as  the  earth 
is  settled  and  dry,  a  spadeful  of  fine  sand  is  thrown  on  each 
plant,  in  the  form  of  a  mole  hill.  If  the  asparagus  plants  have 
begun  to  shoot  before  their  transplantation,  the  young  shoots 
are  cut  oif,  and  the  planting  will,  with  these  precautions,  be 
equally  successful,  though  it  should  be  performed  even  as  late 
as  July.  Should  any  of  the  plants  originally  inserted  die,  they 
may  be  also  replaced  at  this  season.  They  ought  to  be  two 
years  old  when  they  are  transplanted  :  they  will  even  take  at 
three,  but  at  four  they  are  apt  to  fail. 

If  it  be  necessary  to  buy  asparagus  plants  for  these  beds,  it 
is  necessary  to  procure  twice  as  many  as  are  re<|uired.  The 
best  of  course  will  be  selected  frojn  these  for  planting,  and  the 
remainder  should  be  placed  in  some  remote  situation)  of  the 
prepared  bed  ;  but  without  separating  the  plants.  Here  they 
must  first  be  covered  with  four  inches  of  sand  during  summer, 
and  as  soon  as  the  frost  sets  in,  with  six  inches  of  dung  after 
that. 

The  stems  of  the  planted  asparagus  are  cut  down  as  soon  as 
the  frost  commences,  and  close  to  the  ground.  The  beds  are 
then  covered  with  six  inches  of  dung,  and  four  of  sand.  In 
March  again  the  beds  must  be  stirred  with  a  fork,  taking  care 
not  to  approach  so  near  to  the  plants  as  to  derange  them. 
Towards  the  end  of  April  the  plants  which  have  died,  may  be 
replaced  with  the  reserved  ones  above  described. 

In  three  years  the  largest  plants  will  be  fit  for  use.  If  the 
beds  be  sufficiently  large  to  furnish  a  supply  in  this  manner, 
the  asparagus  shoots  should  be  cut  as  fast  as  they  appear, 
otherwise  they  must  be  left  till  the  quantity  required  has  pushed 
forth,  in  which  case,  the  variety  in  colour  and  size  is  not  so 
taking  in  appearance.  A  kj\ife  is  used  in  cutting  them,  by 
slipping  it  along  the  stem,  till  it  reaches  the  bottom  of  the 
shoot  where  the  cut  is  conveniently  made,  the  knife  being  much 
in  the  form  of  a  long  bladed  chisel.  At  the  end  of  four  years 
the  great  and  small  ones  may  be  taken  indiscriminately.  The 
cutting  should  cease  about  the  end  of  June. 

At  the  beginning  of  winter,  the  stems  are  all  cut  away  and 
the  beds  covered  with  dung  and  sand  in  the  manner  above  de- 
scribed. If  muddy  sand  from  the  sea  shore  can  be  procured  for 
the  several  purposes  already  named,  so  much  the  better ;  but 
if  it  cannot,  river  sand  may  be  used,  and  if  that  is  not  to  be 
obtained,  fine  earth  may  be  substituted.  Such  an  asparagus 
bed  as  has  been  described  will  generally  last  thirty  years  :  but 
if  planted  in  such  abiiudance  as  to  require  cutting  only  once 
in  two  years,  half  the  bed  being  always  in  a  state  of  reservation, 
it  will  last  for  a  century.  The  turf  used  in  niaking  the  beds 
should  be  very  free  from  stones. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  tread  on  the  beds,  and  to  pre- 
vent any  such  accident  a  plank  should  be  used  to.  step  upon. 
The  divisions  which  are  formed  of  the  beds  by  thick  turf  is 
intended  to  prevent  the  condensation  of  tlie  earth  below,  in 
consequence  of  the  necessary  walking  that  is  there.  The  turf 
ought  to  be  renewed  every  three  years,  that  the  ground  below 
may  be  stirred  ;  and  in  applying  the  winter  coat  of  manure, 
even  these  walks  must  be  covered,  otherwise  the  plants  which 
grow  near  the  walks  will  be  much  inferior  to  those  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  beds. 


ON     DAHLIAS. 

The  following  observations  on  these  plants  are  abridged  from 
a  long  account  by  Joseph  Sabine,  Esq.,  to  be  found  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London.  Dahlias, 
when  introduced  into  this  country,  excited  great  and  singular 
interest.  Independently  of  the  superior  beauty  and  diversity  of 
the  flowers,  they  have  added  a  particular  ornament  to  our  gar- 
dens  at  a  season  of  the   year  when  formerly  they  ^Yere  very 


naked  and  tame.  The  merit,  however,  of  first  carefully  attend- 
ing to  their  cultivation  belongs  e;;clusively  to  the  continental 
gardeners  ;  so  that  persons  visiting  the  continent  from  this 
country  on  the  return  of  peace  in  181-t  were  surprised  with  the 
splendour  and  the  varieties  of  this  genus. 

Dahlias  were  named  in  honour  of  Dahl,  a  Swedish  botanist, 
but  they  are  natives  of  Mexico,  where  Baron  Humboldt  found 
them  growing  in  sandy  meadows  many  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Much  confusion  has  been  occasioned  in  the 
names  of  the  various  species  by  different  botanists  having  di- 
vided the  plants  differently.  But  the  names  svperjfua  and  frits- 
irunm,  by  which  tiie  species  are  now  distinguished,  are  terms 
that  designate  that  part  of  the  character  of  the  plants  which 
depends  on  the  fertility  or  barrenness  of  the  rays  of  the  flowers. 
There  can  be  little  difficulty  in  distinguisliing  the  two  species  by 
considering  duly  all  the  characters  of  each.  The  stiper/lua  or 
jnirplekimX  is  more  coarse  anddiffuse  in  its  growth  and  habit ;  and 
the  other  more  delicate  and  compact  as  well  as  more  upright ;  the 
stems  of  the  f nisi ranea  or  scarlet  are  perfectly  round,  and  though 
in  most  cases  quite  as  tall  as  those  of  the  other,  are  generally 
slighter,  and  are  always  much  covered  with  a  glaucous  dew, 
resembling  the  bloom  on  a  plum,  and  are  never  hairy  or  downy. 
The  leaves  of  the  fi-usiranea  are  smaller,  of  a  brighter  green, 
and  of  a  slighter  texture  than  is  observable  in  the  superjlua  ; 
and  the  portions  of  the  leaves  of  this  last  are  generally  broader 
than  those  of  the  other  species.  The  flowers  also  of  the  frus- 
traneu  in  plants  of  equal  vigour  and  healtli  are  uniformly  less 
than  those  of  the  superflua,  and  the  florets  of  its  disc,  are  more 
elevated  above  the  level  of  the  ray.  Mons.  de  CandoUe  has 
also  noted  a  difference  in  the  roots  of  the  two  species,  which 
will  be  very  serviceable  to  distinguish  them  in  winter.  The 
txibers  of  the  superflua  are  ahvays  closely  united  to  the  main 
stem,  whilst  those  of  the  friistranea  are  more  or  less  appended 
to  it  by  short  strings  and  fibres. 

The  progress  of  the  increase  of  the  varieties  at  present  ex- 
isting is  curious.  In  the  royal  garden  at  Madrid  they  were  a 
long  time  without  any  indications  of  change  :  and  some  years 
elapsed  after  they  were  spread  through  Europe  before  any  ex- 
tensive increase  or  variation  took  place.  But  in  1  SOS  Count 
Lelieur  began  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  dahlias.  Amongst 
the  plants  raised  at  St.  Cloud  he  mentions  three  with  double 
flowers — the  purple,  rose,  and  buff,  as  well  as  several  striped 
and  shaded  single  ones.  It  was  to  his  liberality  that  the  Hor- 
ticultural Society  was  first  indebted  for  their  fine  assemblage  of 
dahlias.  Other  enlightened  cultivators  succeeded  on  the  contir 
nent  in  producing  improved  kinds  by  cross  impregnations  of  the 
stigmata  of  the  florets.  In  our  own  country  there  was  an 
early  promise  of  great  success,  had  a  right  plan  of  management 
in  keeping  the  plants  been  bit  upon. 

The  plants  of  the  superflua  species,  Mr.  Sabine  observes, 
which  are  raised  from  seeds,  vary  extremely  in  the  form  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  appearances  of  the  stems  ;  but  as  these  diff'cr- 
enees  do  not  at  all  affect  their  beauty,  it  is  unnecessary  to  notice 
them  faither  than  that  such  variations  led  the  early  writers  on 
the  genus  to  separate  this  species  into  two.  The. varieties  of 
the  superflua  with  single  and  semi-double  flowers  are  most  nu- 
merous, for  the  collections  in  the  principal  nurseries  round 
London  consist  of  nearly  150  perhaps,  with  names,  exclusive  of 
unnamed  ones,  all  of  them  being  so  diiferent,  yet  possessed  of 
such  qualities  as  to  be  much  sought  after.  The  colour  of  the 
florets  of  the  ray  of  the  flower  pass  from  the  darkest  purples 
through  lighter  shades,  into  various  deep  and  lighter  reds 
approaching  to  scarlet ;  and  through  pale  purples  and  lilace 
into  what  may  be  called  bulls,  becoming  paler,  until  they  arrive 
at  different  shades  of  yellow.  It  seems,  with  the  exception  of 
the  white  varieties,  as  if  purple  and  pale  yellow  were  at  the 
extremities  of  the  scale,  though  there  may  be  exceptions  even 
here.  Mons.  De  Candolle,  in,  his  essay  on  the  genus,  says, 
probably  we  shall  never  see  a  blue  one,  since  the  variation  is 
from  purple  to  yellow.  Blue  and  yellow  he  considers  are  the 
fundamental  types  of  the  colours  of  flowers,  and  that  they  mu- 


184 


ANGLESEY. 


tually  exclude  each  other.  But  so  numerous  are  the  varieties 
of  the  siiperjlua,  that  all  speculation  is  vain  on  what  new 
changes  may  be  effected  by  cultivation. 

The  frustranea  or  scarlet  species  have  not  exhibited  so  many 
distinct  varieties  ;  but  it  may  be  remarked  that  this  and  the 
former  species  have  been  continually  approaching  to  each  other, 
ahd  as  some  pains  have  been  taken  to  disperse  the  pollen  of  the 
various  flowers,  it  has  been  supposed  that  hybrid  plants  have 
been  produced,  though  Mr.  Sabine  thinks  they  exhibit  not  more 
diversity  of  character  than  may  be  fairly  supposed  to  have 
arisen  from  pure  seeds  of  the  superJJiia,  which  has  run  into  such 
extraordinary  varieties.  He  says  there  are  nnquestionably  va- 
riations sufficient  to  destroy  the  accuracy  of  the  specific  cha- 
racters of  the  two  species  ;  the  branches  of  some  of  the  varieties 
of  the  superjiua  are  smooth,  and  covered  with  a  glaucous  bloom, 
and  in  some  instances  the  florets  of  the.  ray  are  entirely  desti- 
tute of  stigmata. 

The  varieties  are  to  be  obtained  from  seeds,  which  should  be 
gathered  from  those  plants  whose  colour  and  character  are  most 
likely  to  please,  always  taking  from  the  dwarf  ones,  where 
no  preference  exists  on  other  accounts.  Many  of  the  seedlings 
will  follow  their  parents,  and  therefore  all  will  not  be  new 
varieties.  The  seeds  are  to  be  sown  in  March,  or  cin-lier,  on 
heat ;  the  young  plants,  if  necessary,  to  be  pricked  out  into 
pots  or  boxes,  and  kept  under  cover  in  warmth  until  the  end  of 
April,  when  they  may  be  planted  out  where  they  are  to  remain, 
covering  each  plant  for  a  time  with  an  empty  pot  at  night,  to 
avoid  the  eff'ects  of  spring  frosts.  The  seedlings  should  be 
planted  in  rows,  say  three  feet  apart  and  two  feet  distant  from 
each  other,  to  allow  room  for  an  examination  of  the  difi'crent 
varieties.  They  thrive  best  in  rich  loam,  and  shordd  have  a 
clear  open  space  to  grow  in.  They  seem  to  suffer  if  planted 
often  in  the  same  place.  The  addition  of  some  fresh  soil  may 
overcome  this  evil,  if  there  be  not  space  for  the  gardener  to 
move  their  qiiartcrs.  Wind  damages  them ;  therefore  they 
should  be  carefully  tied  to  stakes  as  they  grow.  The  seedling 
plants  thus  managed  will  blow  in  July,  and  continue  in  perfec- 
tion till  autumn. 

Until  a  seedling  plant  shows  its  flowers,  there  are  no  means 
of  ascertaining  its  value.  The  proper  time  to  judge  of  the 
flowers  is  in  the  morning,  for  the  sun  injures  them.  Those 
produced  in  summer  are  much  more  brilliant  than  such  as  ap- 
pear later  in  the  season  ;  though  from  the  quantity  of  flowers 
in  September  or  October  the  show  may  be  greater.  In  the 
selection  of  the  vaneties,  fancy  must  be  the  guide  as  to  colours  ; 
the  disposition  to  blow  freely,  and  the  having  short  pedicles,  on 
■which  the  flower  stands  boldly  and  well  expanded,  must  also  be 
attended  to.  These  qualities  may  be  looked  for  particularly 
from  compact  plants.  Where  any  particular  variety  is  ap- 
proved, an  increase  may  be  made  by  cuttings  of  the  young- 
shoots  of  the  branches,  as  soon  as  the  value  of  the  variety  has 
been  discovered.  These  will  readily  strike  in  a  moderate  heat, 
under  a  hand-glass,  and  in  ii  favourable  season  they  will  grow 
in  plain  earth  under  a  glass  ;  if  well  managed  they  will  in  either 
case  form  roots  and  tubers  before  autumn. 

Soon  after  the  leaves  and  young  branches  of  the  plants  have 
been  destroyed  by  the  frost,  they  should  be  cut  down :  those 
left  in  the  ground  must  be  protected  by  heaps  of  dead 
leaves  or  tan.  But  it  is  advisable  to  raise  them  with  their 
x'oots  and  tubers  entire,  retaining  a  small  part  of  the  stem. 
The  chief  point  to  be  attended  to  in  their  preservation  during 
winter,  is  to  have  them  kept  plump,  yet  not  so  as  to  be  rotted 
by  damp,  or  touched  by  frost.  Any  situation,  therefore,  where 
this  can  be  effected  will  answer  as  well  as  potting  eacii  root ; 
snch  as  a  cool  floor  in  a  fruit-room,  covering  them  with  sand 
or  coal  ashes.  When  thus  covered,  however,  tlieir  crowns 
should  be  placed  erect  and  exposed  to  the  air.  In  spring  the 
roots,  if  large,  may  be  divided  ;  each  tuber  having  a  bud  will 
form  a  plant. 

The  roots  thus  preserved  .^ire  to  be  put  out  when  all  danger 
■     'rost  is  over ;    but  previously  they  must  be  potted  in  the 


green-house,  the  object  being  to  bring  them  as  forward  as 
possible.  When  put  out,  they  look  best  in  a  lai-ge  mass,  and 
some  nicety  is  required  to  distribute  them  in  the  manner  that 
will  be  most  striking  in  the  particular  situation  when  in  flower. 
The  earliest  flowers  of  such  treated  plants  will  appear  in  June. 
In  the  spring,  another  opportunity  occurs  of  increasing,  by 
cuttings,  the  known  varieties  which  are  there  to  be  planted.  It 
is  proper  to  leaVe  only  a  single  stem  to  each  plant,  and  these 
will  blow  in  the  same  season,  but  a  little  later  than  their  pa- 
rents. 

In  general  an  abundant  supply  of  water  to  the  roots  is  not 
advisable,  as  it  drives  the  plants  into  leaf  and  height,  thus 
diminishing  the  flowering.  Great  heat  is  also  unfavourable  ; 
and  until  the  weather  becomes  somwhat  more  temperate  than 
midsummers  are  frequently  found  to  be  in  this  country,  the 
flower-buds  do  not  open  well,  but  go  ofi^.  There  has  been  a 
speculation  on  the  utility  of  roots  as  food.  ?,Ir.  Sabine  has 
tasted  them,  and  found  the  old  tubers  very  hard,  and  the  young 
ones  more  tender  when  boiled  ;  but  he  does  not  believe  that  the 
addition  of  a  good  sauce  will  even  make  them  palatable  to  be 
used,  except  as  an  object  of  curiosity.  Their  flavour  was.that 
of  a  weak  aromatic  character,  resembling  ginger,  which  was 
stronger  in  the  coat  than  in  the  substance  of  the  root,  and 
without  which  they  seemed  to  be  perfectly  insipid. 

ANGLESEY. 
The  short  papers  which  we  have  begun  to  give  of  the  rural 
economy  of  the  various  corinties  in  the  imited  empire  cannot  all 
be  possessed  of  equal  value.  The  leading  characteristics  of  each, 
are  not  of  the  same  nature,  nor,  as  respects  agriculture  and 
gardening,  or  in  any  one  of  these  departments,  is  every  county 
capable  of  furnishing  lessons  w^orthy  of  general  observance. 
Anglesey  for  instance,  if  we  leave  out  of  view  its  mines,  which 
cannot  well  be  considered  in  this  periodical,  is  greatly  behind, 
in  every  riu'al  respect,  to  many  other  portions  of  Britain.  Indeed 
the  climate  and  the  unsheltered  state  of  the  land  interpose  diffi- 
culties not  to  be  surmounted,  as  compared  with  many  districts  ; 
whilst  the  state  of  the  inhabitants,  their  establishedi customs' 
and  modes  of  thinking,  with  various  other  circumstances,  throw 
such  obstacles  in  the  way  of  rural  improvement,  as  to  make  it 
appear  probable  that  Anglesea  will  long  remain  in  the  back 
ground. 

If  however  we  can  find  little  that  will  directly  instract  us, 
as  regards  our  Journal,  in  this  ancient  seat  of  Dniidical  fame, 
it  seems  not  beyond  the  scope  of  cur  province,  or  of  these  short 
county  notices,  that  we  endeavour  to  call  public  attention  to 
certain  deficiencies  in  rural  policy  and  manngemeot ;  thus 
indirectly  doing  our  best  to  be  useful.  Accordingly  we  proceed 
to  name  some  of  the  obstacles  to  improvement,  and  to  point  out 
a  few  glaring  errors  in  the  general  condition  as  well  as  some  of 
the  capabilities  that  distinguish  this  county. 

As  to  these  obstacles  we  follow  the  information  which  has 
been  afforded  by  writers  on  the  rural  state  of  North  Wales. 
Bleakness  of  exposure,  owing  to  the  yantof  fences  and  planta- 
tions, and  the  coal  tax,  are  evils  greatly  to  be  deplored  as  re- 
spects Anglesey.  Now  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  island  was 
once  called  the  dark  or  the  shady,  in  allusion  to  its  thick  groves 
of  wood.  Yet  it  certainly  is  true,  that  trees  will  not  thrive  ex- 
cept they  be  planted,  and  here  on  a  large  scale.  They  must 
also  be  protected  from  the  depredations  of  sheep  and  cattle. 
Quickset  fences,  which  are  so  rare,  would  flourish  under  the 
protection  of  such  plantations,  and  thus  mutual  aid  would  be 
propagated,  that  would  extend  to  the  fields  of  corn  and  p;;sture. 
For  were  it  not  the  bleakness  of  the  exposure,  the  soil  of 
Anglesey  is  fertile. 

The  non-residence  of  proprietors,  the  want  of  mutual  confi- 
dence between  them  and  tenants,  the  overvaluing  of  land  by 
strangers,  who  do  it  at  something  like  a  percentage  upon  the 
advance,  have  all  been  complained  of  as  reneral  evils  in  the 
island.     It  is  no  wonder   that   the  want  of  capital  should  cha- 


GARDEN    OPERATIONS    FOR    DECEMBER. 


185 


racterise  the  farmers  under  such  circumstances,  and  that  leases 
are  in  disrepute.  It  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  state  of 
things  that  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  should  still  adhere  to 
many  superstitious  customs.  We  do  not  say  that  many  farmers 
are  not  to  be  found  in  Anglesey,  particularly  of  late  years,  who 
follow  pretty  close  in  the  march  of  agricultural  improvement ; 
but  the  majority  are  and  must  be  still,  from  the  general  influ- 
ences and  evils  mentioned,  little  alive  to  advancement,  or  capable 
of  finding  their  way  in  its  course,  though  perceiving  its  necessity. 

Is  it  niatter  of  surprise,  from  what  we  have  said,  that  a  great 
part  of  Anglesey  is  disgr.iced  by  cottages  that  are  truly  the 
habitations  of  wretchedness  ?  Now  the  farmers,  although  their 
intelligence  and  condition  indicate  clearly  a  county's  advance- 
ment, only  do  so  in  conjunction  with  the  cottagers;  and 
although  these  may  be  of  an  inferior  grade,  when  compare  dwith 
the  former,  yet  they  ever  bear  a  close  and  intelligible  relation 
to  their  superiors  :  so  that  a  better  index  cannot  be  found  of 
rural  prosperity  and  eminence,  than  is  presented  by  this  inferior 
but  most  useful  class.  Too  many  of  these  poor  people  have  not 
a  garden,  nor  so  much  as  a  leek,  except  it  be  bought  or  begged  ; 
so  that  they  cannot  illustrate  the  moral  of  the  adage,  "  Famine 
never  enters  the  house  through  the  garden  door." 

The  natural  capabilities  of  Anglesey  are  not  small.  Its  soil 
is  moderatley  fertile  :  were  it  sheltered  and  inclosed  properly,  it 
would  produce  fine  crops,  even  of  wheat.  As  it  is  it  grows 
more  oats  and  barley  than  the  consumption  requires  :  and  a 
number  of  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  are  annually  sent 
over  the  Menai.  The  most  valuable  product  of  the  island 
however,  arises  from  the  mines.  The  Parigs  mine,  for  example, 
is  the  most  abundant  in  copper  ore  of  any  in  the  known  world. 
And  the  magnificent  suspension  bridge  recently  completed, 
thrown  across  the  straits  of  Menai,  together  with  a  great  road 
affording  a  facility  of  intercourse  between  London  and  Dublin, 
running  in  connection  with  this  unrivalled  bridge,  must  eventu- 
ally lead  to  important  changes  in  the  wealth  and  economy  of 
the  county,  so  that  again  it  may  hold  true,  "that  Anglesey  is 
the  mother  of  Wales,  because,  when  other  counties  fail,  she 
plentifully  feedeth  them  with  provision." 

The  extent  of  the  county  is  about  271  square  miles,  or 
174,000  acres.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  1821  were 
46,000.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear  that  the  general 
aspect  of  Anglesey  must  be  naked  and  uninviting.  There  are  no 
considerable  hills  and  valleys  to  diversify  the  scenery.  The 
climate  is  unhealthy  in  autumn  by"prevailing  fogs,  which  subject 
the  inhabitants  to  agues. 

GARDEN  OPERATIONS  FOR  DECEMBER. 
This  month  is  sometimes  so  mild,  that  one  is  apt  to  call  the' 
weather  unnatural  and  ominous  ;  sometimes  floods  deluge  the 
earth  for  weeks  together ;  or  again,  it  is  not  unfrequently  bound 
by  intense  frost,  and  covered  with  deep  snows.  It  is  therefore 
clear,  that  no  universal  directions  can  within  our  limits  be  per- 
emptorily given.  The  following,  however,  are  applicable  to 
the  circumstances  which  are  at  the  same  time  supposed. 

THE    FLOWER    GARDEN. 

If  the  weather  be  not  very  frosty,  let  the  gardener  turn  all 
his  heaps  of  compost,  digging  every  parcel,  carefully  breaking 
all  clods,  and  throwing  it  up  with  a  new  surface.  Then  if  the 
weather  be  dry,  he  may  give  every  heap  a  sprinkling  of  water. 
In  his  gravel  walks  few  weeds  rise  to  trouble  him  ;  but  it  is 
fit  to  roll  the  walks  firmly.  The  beds  of  ranunculuses,  ane- 
monies,  and  other  choice  flowers,  require  care.  If  snow 
should  fall  it  will  do  them  uo  harm  ;  but  frost  and  rain  are 
equally  destructive ;  they  must  therefore  be  defended  by  cover- 
ings, on  either  occasion.  The  consequence  of  severe  frost,  if 
tbey  be  left  exposed  to  it,  is  evident,  and  that  of  rains,  if 
violent,  is  perhaps,  worse  ;  for  they  not  only  by  their  immediate 
coldness  and  damp  rot  the  roots,  but  if  this  evil  should  be 
escaped,  the  wetness  of  the  ground  will  give  the  next  frosts 
double  power. 

MIGAZINE   OF   BOTANY   -AND    GARDENING,    VOL.    II.    NO.  X 


The  careful  gardener,  who  sees  his  present  leisure  and  recol- 
lects the  hurry  of  his  business  in  the  succeeding  spring,  will 
mark  out  all  places  where  he  can  plant  flowering  shrubs,  dig 
them  up  two  spades  deep,  laying  the  earth  in  a  ridge,  and  once 
in  every  week  or  so  during  winter,  stirring  and  turning  it 
afresh. 

THE    GREENHeUSE. 

The  severity  of  the  season  will  not  generally  allow  the  green- 
house plants  to  have  much  air  now  ;  but  let  there  be  no  oppor- 
tunity lost  of  giving  them  that  advantage,  when  it  can  be  done 
safely.  Every  evening  the  shutters  on  the  outside  of  the 
window  and  doors  should  be  closed  in  the  worst  weather,  but 
when  it  is  anything  milder,  the  plants  must  be  refreshed  with 
air  whenever  the  sun  shines  well  upon  the  place.  The  difference 
between  noon-ilay  and  night  is  very  great  in  point  of  cold, 
even  in  the  severest  seasons ;  and  the  air  of  the  hardest 
time  of  the  day  is  very  different  when  the  sun  shines,  and  when 
his  influence  is  obscured.  If  the  gardener  should  keep  his 
greenhouse  shut  up  for  a  considerable  time  together,  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  is  necessary  to  do  in  the  severest  nights,  he 
would  see  the  destruction  of  the  whole  collection  come  on  era- 
dually  ;  but  even  the  first  notice  he  received  this  way,  would 
be  so  late,  that  a  great  deal  of  mischief  would  be  past  remedy. 
The  leaves  toward  the  extremities  of  the  branches  in  several 
kinds  would  drop  off ;  and  by  that  time  many  more  would  have 
lost  their  hold,  doomed  to  follow.  The  next  stage  of  decay  would 
be  seen  in  these  branches  themselves.  In  time  the  contagion 
of  these  decayed  leaves  would  extend  itself  through  the  wholi 
place  ;  so  that  even  those  plants  whose  principle  of  vegetation 
had  been  so  strong  as  to  resist  the  mischief  at  first,  would  perish 
at  last.  At  the  same  time,  if  the  extent  of  the  building  were 
perverted,  by  leaving  the  glasses  too  much  open,  a  great  part 
of  the  plants  would  be  lost  through  the  absolute  cold  ;  close 
attention  therefore  is  necessary  to  guard  against  the  two 
extremes. 

A  difference  between  a  pure  and  foggy  air  is  also  very  great. 
A  thick  fog  is  in  winter  almost  as  much  to  be  feared  as  frost. 
Such  an  air,  if  let  in  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  shut  up  in  the 
greenhouse,  may  do  more  mischief  in  one  night  than  any  other 
accident.  The  plants  now  require  less  water  of  course  than  at 
other  seasons,  and  nothing  will  more  contribute  to  the  damage 
they  may  receive  from  being  kept  too  close,  than  the  addition 
of  that  damp  which  the  warmth  of  the  air  will  raise  from  the 
wetted  earth.  Nothing  will  promote  the  decay  of  the  extreme 
parts  of  branches,   so  much  as  heat,  closeness,  and  moisture. 

The  stove  is  a  thing  that  must  be  particularly  guided  :  and 
the  gardener  must  judge  from  the  aspect  of  his  plants  how  the 
air  is  to  be  heated.  If  they  shoot  too  freely,  let  the  fire  be 
slackened;  if  they  appear  faint,  let  it  be  increased.  It  must 
also  be  closely  watched,  whether  they  require  more  or  less 
water,  and  let  none  be  used  that  has  not  stood  a  day  and  night 
in  the  stove,  and  give  this  but  sparingly  to  those  that  most 
require  it — such  as  the  shrubs  and  plants  of  a  firm  structure  ; 
and  scarcely  any  to  the  Cereus  kinds.  These  have  no  leaves  to 
lose,  therefore  there  is  less  danger  of  their  wanting  moisture  : 
but  with  regard  to  the  others,  as  the  heat  of  the  air  keeps  them 
perspiring,  tliey  must  be  supplied  proportionally  at  the  root, 
otherwise  they  will  be  stripped  one  by  one  of  their  leaves.  The 
woody  kinds  will  require  water  most  frequently,  the  herbaceous 
in  a  middling  degree,  and  the  succulent  least.  Those  that  re- 
quire most  should  have  it  allowed  them,  not  by  an  Increase  of 
the  quantity,  but  by  repeating  it  the  oftener  ;  and  it  will  be  for 
the  advantage  of  the  plants  in  general  not  to  water  too  many 
at  a  time. 

NURSERY. 

The  earth  above  directed  to  be  thrown  np  in  ridges,  that  is 
intended  for  planting  in  February,  should  be  broke  and  turned 
in  a  mild  day,  that  the  frost  and  winds  may  be  received  on  a 
fresh  surface.  There  is  no  season  when  a  gap  or  breach  in  the 
fences  of  a  nursery  can  be  so  injurious  as  at  present,  both  as 
respects  the  cutting  winds  and  vermin.  Let  all  be  kept  secure, 
.\I. — DECEMBER,    1834.  CC 


186 


ALDERNEY    CATTLE. 


and  the  young  trees  well  supported  by  stakes,  whilst  their  roots 
are  preserved  by  covering  tlie  earth  immediately  around  them. 
If  the  rains  lodge  in  any  part,  cut  drains  to  let  them  off.  In 
winter  a  wet  ground  gives  the  frost  too  much  power  upon  the 
roots,  and  in  spri^ng  it  makes  the  shrubs  shoot  too  fast.  The 
business  in  a  nursery  is  to  make  the  plants  grow  firm  and 
sound,  which  will  never  be  insured  when  the  ground  is  not  duly 
drained.  The  beds  of  seedlings,  whether  of  the  flower  or  tree 
kind,  must  be  sheltered  a  little  by  some  sort  of  covering,  ac- 
cording to  their  nature,  if  the  frost  be  severe. 

FRUIT     GARDEN. 

If  the  weather  be  open,  there  is  no  time  when  the  spade  can 
be  tiscd  to  more  advantage,  as  respects  fruit  trees.  The  season 
is  approaching  for  roots  drawing  nourishment,  and  those  of  trees 
dp-il  sooner  than  many  imagine  ;  therefore  let  the  earth,  if  pos- 
sible, be  now  prepared  to  give  way  to  their  young  fibres,  and  to 
supply  them  with  proper  juices.  It  is  proper  to  dig  up  all  the 
ground  between  the  trees  in  an  orchard  a  full  spade  deep,  picking 
out  the  roots  of  weeds,  breaking  the  clods,  and  afterwards  a 
little  soot  may  be  sifted  over  the  earth,  and  next  a  little  pigeon 
dung,:  United  to  such  operations,  a  free  but  judicious  use  of  a 
bill  and  a  saw  among  the  branches  will  tend  greatly  to  insure  a 
good  crop, 

KITCHEN    GARDEN. 

Look  to  the  artichoke  beds,  lately  covered  with  mould  ;  if  the 
frost  threaten,  let  a  little  dry  pease-haulm  be  scattered  over 
them,  and  if  wet  lodges  let  it  be  caiTied  oif.  In  a  mild  day  dig 
up  some  spot  for  a  crop  of  peas  and  beans.  Probably  the  best 
beau  for  this  plantation  is  the  Sandwich,  and  the  hotspur  pea  is 
also  a  very  proper  sort  for  this  early  sowing.  The  mushroom 
beds  require  good  care  now,  and  will  repay  it.  Heat  and 
moisture  principally  promote  the  growth  of  the  spawn  -,  but  if 
either  of  these  be  in  too  great  a  degree,  they  will  fail  in  their 
operations.  IVIuch  wet  will  drown  the  whole,  but  a  good  cover- 
ing of  long  straw  will  keep  the  seed  from  frost  and  rain  ;  this 
must  be  dry  when  laid  on,  and  removed  when  it  grows  damp  and 
falls,  to  be  anew  supplied.  The  cauliflower  plants  under  glasses 
are  in  all  respects  in  the  condition  of  green-house  plants,  so  that 
the  glasses  must  be  let  down  in  the  evening  to  cover  them  close 
from  the  night  frosts,  but  towards  noon  in  a  severe  day  they 
should  always  be  opened.  If  any  dead  leaf  appear*upon  them 
it  must  be  taken  off ;  the  mould  must  be  drawn  up  about  their 
stems ;  and  it  will  be  of  service  to  stir  the  surface  a  little  within 
the  glass  frequently,  and  to  dig  it  up  round  about  it.  Give  air 
to  the  young  salleting,  for  it  will  no  more  thrive  on  a  hotbed 
kept  close,  than  it  will  shoot  now  in  the  exposed  ground.  If  the 
weather  he  tolerably  mild,  the  several  cabbage  kinds  may  be 
planted  for  seed,  selecting  such  as  have  the  firmest  and  shortest 
stems. 

Such  are  some  of  the  garden  operations  which  may  properly 
fall  within  the  month  of  December,  though  of  course  there  are 
many  other  points  anti  plants  than  we  have  enumerated  'that 
may  call  for  attention.  But  a  prudent  application  of  the  above 
rules  may  be  very  widely  ajsplied. 

METHOD  OP  DESTROYING  ONE  SORT    OP  THE 
GOOSEBERRY  CATERPILLAR. 

A  GAttDEiJER  requ'ii'es,  to  know  how  to  subdue  the  devouring 
hordes  of  insects  which  infest  the  sphere  of  his  occupations. 
There  is  not  a  seed  thrown,  nor  a  plant  put  into  the  ground, 
but  is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  some  kind  of  insect,  reptile,  or 
vermin.  Many  insects  not  only  feed  upon  plants,  but  con- 
stantly lodge  about  them  in  one  shape  or  another,  producing 
distempers  and  failures  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  often  imputed 
to  other  causes.  Gooseberry  caterpillars  have  long  been  a 
theme  of  complaint ;  nximberlcss  are  the  methods  that  have 
been  adopted  to  overcome  them  ;  among  which,  we  think,  the 
following  is  one  of  the  most  sensible  :  and  as  it  claims  to  he  put 
into  practice  in  winter,  we  insert  an  account  of  it  at  this  season. 


Of  caterpillars  there  is  one  kind  which  goes  into  winter 
quarters  precisely  under  the  bushes  whereon  they  were  fed  ;  and 
if  any  old  dung  or  rotten  leaves  lay  under  the  branches  or  about 
the  roots,  they  resort  thither.  This  fact,  we  are  told,  may  be 
proved  by  watching  particularly  the  progress  of  such  creatures 
on  some  selected  bushes.  The  inclemency  of  winter  does  not 
destroy  them  in  the  situation  to  which  they  naturally  resort. 
In  the  course,  therefore,  of  the  winter  months,  pare  all  the  earth 
from  imder  the  bushes,  to  the  depth  of  about  three  inches, 
turning  it  into  a  flat  ridge  betwixt  the  rows.  On  the  first  dry 
day  afterw-ards,  tread,  beat,  or  roll  the  ridges,  and  trench  the 
whole  down  one  and  a  half  or  tv.o  spades  deep,  observing  to 
tread  the  foul  earth  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench. 

From  what  has  been  asserted  of  the  winter  habitations  of 
these  insects,  gooseberry  bushes  should  not  be  planted  beside 
box-edged  walks,  flower-borders,  or  rows  of  strawberries. 
The  season  of  the  caterpillar's  destructive  reign  is  from  the 
end  of  March  to  the  month  of  June,  when  cold  easterly  winds 
prevail,  which  seems  to  cause  the  fly  to  take  sl.elter  under  the 
young  foliage.  Hence  arose  the  ancient  notion  that  they  wore 
brought  by  the  east  wind. 

MODE  OF  PROTECTITSfG  PRUIT  TREES  FROM 
HARES  AND  RABBITS. 

Take  hog's  lard  and  as  much  whale-oil  as  will  work  it  up  to  a 
thin  paste  or  paint.  With  this  gently  rub  the  stems  of  the 
trees  upwards,  at  the  fall  of  the  leaf.  This  has  been  found 
eifectually  to  prevent  these  aniccals  from  touching  such  trees 
for  a  longer  term  even  than  the  ensuing  winter.  The  nature 
of  the  ingredients  are  perfectly  innocent,  in  so  far  as  the  trees 
are  concerned  :  and  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  procured 
speaks  for  itself. 

ALDERNEY  CATTLE. 

The  island  of  Alderney  is  famous  for  its  excellent  breed  of 
Cows.  But  they  are  in  England  only  to  be  met  with  about, 
the  seats  of  the  nobility  and  gentry,  on  account  of  their  giving 
exceedingly  rich  milk,  though  small  in  quantity.  The  race, 
however,  is  so  delicate  and  tender  ever  to  be  much  attended 
to  by  our  British  farmers,  for  they  are  not  able  to  bear  the  cold 
of  England,  particularly  of  its  northern  parts.  They  are  very, 
fine  boned  in  general,  but  at  the  same  time  are  ill  shaped. 
Their  horns  are  crumpled,  and  their  size  diminutive.  Their 
colour  is  light  red  or  yellow,  and  their  beef  generally  yellow  or 
very  high-coloured,  fine  in  grain  and  wdl-flavoured.  They  make 
themselves  very  fat,  and  Mr.  CuUey  says,  he  uever  remembers 
seeing  one  of  them  in  the  least  subject  to  Iyer  or  black  fleshed. 
He  adds,  that  he  has  seen  some  very  useful  cattle  bred  from  a 
cross  between  an  Alderney  cow  and  a  short-horned  bull. 

We  may  advantageously  follow  up  this  short  description  of 
Alderney  cows,  with  a  remark  on  the  breeding  of  cattle,  which 
is  confirmed,  we  believe,  by  the  experience  of  every  one  ac- 
quainted with  the  subject.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  eadeavour  to 
unite  great  milkers  with  quick  feedei  s.  The  consequence  of  sueh 
an  attempt  is  to  get  neither  sort,  as  an  offspring,  in  any  perfec- 
tion. If  the  dairy-man  w^ants  milk,  let  him  seek  after  the  milk- 
ing tribe,  both  bull  and  cows,  of  the  best  family.  The  qtuckest 
feeders,  and  those  that  have  the  finest  flesh,  must  alone  be  pro- 
cured by  those  who  seek  after  the  other  class.  It  has  been  owing 
greatly  to  carelessness  in  the  union  of  distinct  kinds,  that  so 
much  diflficulty  frequently  occurs  in  distinguishing  the  most  va- 
luable of  either  class.  The  general  rule  is,  that  a  cow  which 
runs  too  much  to  flesh  is  not  a  good  milker,  for  the  great  milk- 
ers are  uniformly  thin.  There  may  be  a  middUng  kind  of  cows 
that  give  a  tolerable  quantity  of  milk,  and  also  keep  in  pretty 
good  order,  but  still  such  nevw- possess  tbc  highest  phafacter. 
for  either  quality.  '■■■  esllicasiJxj  ss^ulf/  .-ijig^i  tic  ,J  jlduoi; 


PESCRIPTIOV   OF  THE   PLATES. 


187 


DAPHNE  CNEORUM. 

TRAILING  DAPHNE. 

Class — Octandiia.     Older— Digynia. 
Nat.  Ord. — Thymelffiie. 

Gen.  Char. — Corolla  four  cleft ;  drupe  one  seeded. 

Spec.  Char. — Flowers  fascicled,  terminal,  sessile  ;  leaves 
lanceolate,  naked,  mucronate. 

This  charming  little  shrub  is  a  native  of  Switzerland  and 
Austria  ;  growing  in  such  ahundance  on  many  of  the  mountains 
near  Vienna  that  women  gather  it  when  in  flower  and  sell  it  in 
the  markets.  Its  beautiful  and  fragrant  blossoms  come  forth 
in  April  and  May,  the  principal  season  for  its  flowering,  but  it 
frequently  blows  duringmost  of  the  summer,  and  even  in  autumn. 

It  is  extremely  hardy,  and  should  be  planted  wholly  or  in 
part  in  vegetable  moulds,  and  should  never  be  unnecessarily 
removed,  or  any  attempts  made  to  thwart  its  natural  iiabit  of 
creeping,  by  supporting  the  branches  oflf  the  earth.  Thus 
treated,  the  dapbne-cneorum  will  luxuriate  and  spread  in  every 
direction,  and  in  spring  will  exhibit  its  beauty,  emblazoning  the 
earth,  and  surpassing  every  shrub  of  similar  habit  or  magnitude 
that  may  rival  its  claim  to  admiration. 

ALYSSUM  SAXATILE. 

ROCK    MADWORT    OR    VELLOW    ALYSSUM. 

Class. — Tetradynamia. Order. — ^Siliculosa. 

Natural  Order. — Crucifera;. 
Gen.  Char. — Silicle  orbicular  or  elliptical,  with   valves  flat  or 

convex    in  centre  ;   Seeds  2-4    in   each  cell  ;  Calix  equal   at 

,  base  ;   Petals  entire  ;  some  of  the  stamens  toothed. 
Spec.  Char. — Stem  lialf  shrubby  at  base,  subcorymbose  ;  leaves 

lanceolate   entire  downy  ;   Pods  obovate,  orbicular,  2  seeded  ; 

.Seeds  edged. 
>  As  this  plant  has  very  generally  obtained  in  gardens  and 
nurseries  the  name  of  yellow  Alyssum,  we  have  retained  it ; 
forthough  it  is  not  the  only  one  of  the  genus  which  produces 
yellow  flowers,  it  may  still  be  called  yellow  by  way  of  eminence, 
such  is  the  extreme  brilliancy  and  profusion  of  its  blossoms. 

Although  not  generally  more  than  a  foot  in  height,  its 
branches  spread,  and  generally  nrncb  exceed  that  length,  on 
account  of  the  trailing  position  that  they  assume  near  the  root. 

It  begins  to  flower  about  the  latter  end  of  April,  and  conti- 
nues to  blossom  through  great  part  of  ])'Iay  ;  and  it  is  not  un- 
usual for  it  again  to  assume  its  vernal  beauty  in  Autumn. 

If  it  has  a  pure  air  and  a  dry  situation,  it  will  grow  in  almost 
any  soil.  The  usual  way  of  propagating  it  is  by  slips,  oi' 
cuttifigs.    •    '         _■ 

As  it  S'a! -Siiisill  shewy,  hardy  plant,  and  not  disposed  td 
oveiTun  others,'  it  "is 'very  suitable  to  embellish  rock  work.  Is 
.1  naiive  of  Crete,  and  was  first  introduced  to  this  country 
in  1731. 

LITHOSPERMUM    PURPURE5    C^ftbiEUM. 

PURPLE    AND    BLUE    GHOMWELL. 

Class. — Pentandria. Order. — Monogynia. 

Natural  Order. — Boragiucse. 
GsQ.  Char.^-Calyx  5  parted  persistent;  Corolla  funnel  shaped, 

v.'ith  a  half  5  cleft  obtuse  limb,  and  an  open  orifice  ;  Anthers 

included;  Stigma  obtuse,    bifid ;    Seeds,  4,    hard,    smooth, 

closed  at  the  base. 
Spec.    Char.  —Leaves   lanceolate,    acute   at  each  end ;  Stem 

herbaceous  ;   Corolla  much  longer  than  Calyx  ;  seeds  smooth. 

This  is  one  amongst  the  prettiest  native  plants  of  which 
England  can  boast.  Its  changeable  hue,  and  the  brightness  of 
its"  fine  blue  tints,  when  fully  ex-panded,  render  it  particularly 
atti'active.  The  long  woody  perennial  root  produces  many 
round,  hairy,  leufy  stems,  most  of  which  are  prqcumhent,  and 
tiu'ow  out  roots  :  the  flowering  ones  only  are  perfectly  erect, 
and  about  1 2  or  1 S  inches  high.  The  leaves  are  numerous, 
and  clothed  with  short  close  pressed-  bristles.  The  beautiful 
flovfers  appear  in  April  or  May,  standing  erect  in  a  sort  of 
double  leafy  spike,  whose  extremities  are  a  little  curved  down- 


wards before  flowering.  It  rarely  produces  many  seeds,  like 
most  plants  that  increase  much  by  the  roots  they  are  frequently 
abortive.  The  seeds  are  singularly  hard,  glossy  and  grey,  like 
polished  marble. 

It  grows  freely  in  a  light  soil,  mixed  with  old  mortar,  and 
may  be  increased  by  its  trailing  stems  being  turned  back,  and 
hooked  down  as  layers. 

GAZANIA  RIGENS. 

RIGID    GAZANIA. 

Class. — Syngenesia. Order. — Frustranea. 

Natural  Order. — Composite. 
Gen.  Char. — Receptacle    naked  or    alveolote ;   Pericarps   very 
villous  ;   Pappus  hairy  paleaceous  ;  Involuerum  1  leaved,  the 
tube  naked  or  covered  with  imbricated  leaflets. 
Spec.   Char. — Leaves     lanceolate,     spatulate,    and   pinnatifld 
entire,  white  with  down  beneath  ;  Peduncle    1  headed,  ter- 
minal. 

The  greenhouse  to  which  this  splendid  little  plant  properly 
belongs,  can  scarcely  boast  a  more  shewy  plant ;  its  blossoms, 
when  expanded  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  (and  it  is  only  when  the 
sun  shines  on  them  that  they  are  fully  expanded,)  exhibit  an 
unrivalled  brilliance  of  appearance. 

It  flowers  in  June,  but  rarely  brings  its  seeds  to  perfection 
in  this  country,  which  is  of  the  less  consequence,  as  the  plant 
is  readily  increased  by  cuttings,  which  require  to  be  placed 
under  a  hand-glass  in  a  cool  border,  and  when  rooted,  to  put 
them  in  a  sandy  compost,  and  to  bo  protected  by  a  cold  frame 
during  winter.  I'hese  may  be  Iransfdanteil  into  the  borders 
of  the  flower  garden  in  May.  Native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  introduced  here  in  1755. 

NIEREMBERGIA  PHCENICEA. 

PURPLE  NIEREMBERGIA. 

Pentandria  Monogynia. 
Nat.  Ord. — Solauea;. 

Gen,  Char, — Corolla  infundibuliform,  flve-lobed.  Style  di- 
lated upwards.  Stigma  orbicular,  marked  with  a  transverse 
line.  Capsule  two-celled.  Dissepiment  parallel  with  the 
valves.  Seeds  studded  with  numerous  raised  points  arranged 
in  lines. 

Spec.  Char. — Leaves  ovate,  lanceolate,  alternate,  rarely 
opposite  ;  flowers  axillar,  solitary  ;  Calyx  deeply  five-partite  ; 
corolla  broadly  infundibuliform  ;  lobes  entire. 

Wheu  trained  against  a  wall,  this  species  so  extends  itself  as 
soon  to  cover  a  space  of  more  than  forty  square  feet,  exhibiting 
at  one  time  above  three  hundred  beautiful  and  richly-coloured 
puiple  flowers  ;  few  plants,  therefore,  aft'ord  a  more  numerous 
display  than  the  Nierembergia  phenicia. 

It  may  be  increased  by  seeds  sown  early  in  spring  on  a  hot- 
bed, 

TETRAGONOBULUS  SILiaUOSUS. 

SaUARE-PODDED  WINGED  PEA, 

Class — Diadelphia.     Order — Deeahdria, 
Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosee. 

Gen.  Char. — Alse  of  the  corolla  covering  by  their  upper  edge  ; 
filaments  dilated  upwards  ;  legume  square  with  four  wings. 

Spec.  Char. — Pods  solitary  ;  stems  procumbent  ;  leaves 
downy  beneath. 

In  this  species  the  stems  spread  from  the  root,  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  they  are  about  a  foot  in  length,  clothed  with  a  white 
pubescence.  The  extreme  ends  of  the  shoots  and  lateral 
branches  are  raised  from  four  to  six  inches  high,  producing 
tlieir  large  pale  yellow  flowers  through  several  successive  weeks. 
The  pods  are  coriaceous  and  four-angled.  It  is  peculiarly  well 
calculated  for  reclining  on  stones  or  spar,  where  it  is  shown  to 
the  greatest  advantage. 

It  flowers  in  July  and  August,  and  may  be  increased  by 
seeds,  which  should  be  sown  early  in  April,  upon  an  open  bed 
or  border  exposed  to  the  sun,  where  the  plants  are  to  remain:, 
when  they  come  up  they  must  be  thinned,  leaving  thenj  ne^ir. 


188 

two  feet  asunder,  and  afterwards  they  must  be  kept  clean  from 
weeds,  which  is  all  the  culture  they  require. 

Native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  was  first  introduced  to 
our  gardens  in  1683. 

POLYGONATUM  MULTIFLORUM. 

MANY-FLOWJERED      SOLOMON'S      SEALS. 

Class. — Hexandria. Order, — Monogynia. 

Gen.    Char. — Flower    6   cleft,  cylindrical ;   Filaments   inserted 

into  the  top  of  the  tube ;  Berry  globose,  3-celled  with  2-seeded 

cells  ;   Flowers  axillary. 
Spec.  Char. — Leaves    alternate  stem   clasping  ;   Stem  round  ; 

Peduncles  axillary  many  flowered. 

A  native  of  woods  and  thickets  in  various  parts  of  England, 
though  not  very  common.  It  is  often  met  with  in  country 
gardens,  and  will  even  bear  the  smoke  of  London.  It  Is  peren- 
nial, flowering  in  May  or  early  in  June,  and  is  admirably 
adapted  to  the  filling  up  a  damp  and  shady  corner,  where  but 
few  others  will  thrive. 

The  roots  are  fleshy,  creeping  horizontally,  and  are  said  by 
Linnaeus  to  be  often  made  into  bread  by  the  hardy  inhabitants 
of  Sweden.  The  stems  are  annual,  a  foot  or  more  in  height. 
The  leaves  are  elliptical,  each  of  these  towards  the  middle  part 
of  the  stem,  bearing  from  their  bosoms  a  branched  flower,  of  a 
whitish  colour  tipped  with  green,  very  slightly  downy  at  the 
summit,  with  a  faint  smell  of  bitter  almonds.'  The  berries 
are  red  ;  they  are  rarely  produced,  the  plant  increasing  so 
much  by  the  root.  The  unripe  germen  has  a  sweetish  taste, 
like  green  peas. 

In  speaking  of  its  virtues,  Gerard  writes,  not  very  gallantly, 
"that  the  bruised  roots  takes  away  "  blacke  or  blew  spots  gotten 
by  falls,  womens'  wilfulness  in  stumbling  ^'pon  their  hastie 
husband's  fists  or  such  like." 

It  may  be  increased  by  dividing  the  roots  in  spring  or  autumn, 
and  planting  them  in  a  shady  situation. 

DIANTHUS  PLUMARIUS. 

FEATHERED   PINK. 

Class — Decandria  Digynia. 
Nat.  Ord. — Caryophylleas. 

Spec.  Char. — Glaucous  ;  stem  2-3  flowered  ;  teeth  blunt ; 
bracte  ovate  ;  very  short  pointed  ;  leaves  linear,  rough  at  edge. 

This  species  is  perennial,  with  the  stem  ascending,  a  foot  or 
eighteen  inches  in  height,  and  branched.  The  leaves  are  of 
a  glaucous  hue,  very  sharp  at  the  end.  Flowers  1-2,  seldom 
3,  at  the  end  of  the  branches;  they  possess  a  sweet  scent. 
Calyx  glaucous,  green,  longer  than  in  the  other  species  ;  petals 
large,  light  red  or  bright  purple,  sometimes  white,  with  a  circle 
of  red  ;  deeply  jagged,  having  a  red  down  at  the  base  of  the 
lamina  or  border.  Anthers  red.  Capsule  shorter  in  proportion 
than  iu  the  other  species. 

It  flowers  from  June  to  August,  and  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  North  America :  on  rocks,  mountain  pastures,  and  dry 
woody  places.     Introduced  in  1629. 

Pinks  are  sometimes  increased  by  layers,  but  the  facility  of 
propagation  by  pipings  has  nearly  superseded  the  practice  of 
laying  them. 

The  best  time  for  this  is  about  the  end  of  June,  but  will  vary 
with  the  seiison.  It  should  always  be  done  immediately  before 
or  during  bloom  ;  or  indeed  so  soon  as  the  young  shoots  are  of 
a  sufiicient  length  for  the  purpose  ;  that  is,  to  form  pipings 
from  two  to  three  inches  in  length.  Pipings  are  made  by 
taking  a  branch  of  the  pink,  and  immediately  below  the 
second  or  third  joint  from  the  top  cut  it  off,  and  the  piping  will 
be  readily  disengaged  from  the  bottom  of  the  two  leaves  which 
form  a  sheath  round  it,  leaving  it  clear.  The  leaves  may  be 
shortened,  but  it  is  unimportant.  They  should  be  planted  in  a 
shady  situation,  and  the  soil  should  be  a  rich  light  compost, 
three  or  four  inches  deep;  if  no  rain  falls  it  should  be  well 
soaked  with  water  a  few  hours  before  they  are  planted.  The 
pipings  need  not  he  planted  at  a  greater  distance  than  three 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 


;i',n-iC-'}.i-?Tyr., 

inches  square  and  about  half  an  incJi^eep.^  The  ground  should 
then  be  closed  very  hard  upon  them,  aud  they  must  be  well 
watered,  and  a  hand-  glass  placed  over  them  :  the  waterings 
must  be  repeated  as  often  as  is  found  necessary,  till  they  have 
taken  root ;  after  which  they  will  require  no  other  care  than 
to  keep  them  clear  from  weeds  till  autumn,  when  they  should  be 
transplanted  to  the  borders  of  the  flower  garden,  where  they  are 
to  remain.  During  the  growth  of  the  pipings,  remove  the  hand- 
glass for  the  space  of  ten  minutes,  daily,  to  give  the  pipings  air, 
shading  them  during  the  removal,  if  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the 
sun  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  turning  the  hand-glass  bottom  up- 
wards that  its  interior  may  be  dried.  When  the  pipings  b.egin 
to  grow,  air  should  be  admitted  under  one  side  of^the  glasfj..,to 
inure  them  gradually  to  the  atmosphere.        .  ^      -,i,'3<;   ■■•»•* 

^.:j.ioqa  woiiay  aai>b  ai 
GENTIANA  VERNA-,  ^ ,  „        'I'"* 

SPRING   GENTIAN.     .' V/£ 

Tet — Pentandria  Digynia. 

Nat.  Ord.-Gentianee^:-'^- -"'""^^"^^^ 
r^:<    .Kano/7    of.  (( 

G.  corolla  quinquefida  infundibuliform^,  foliis  ovatis'acutiusculis : 

radicalibus  patentibus  ;  caulinis  majoribus.    Willd.  sp.  pi.  ) . 

p.  134  2. 
This  very  elegant  plant  is  a  native  of  this  country,  particularly 
of  the  forest  of  Teesdale,  Durham,  where  it  is  known  to  the 
inhabitants  by  the  name  of  Spring  Violet,  as  it  copiously  ena- 
mela  that  country  at  a  time  when  no  other  flower  enlivens  the 
dreary  scene.  -,-,    -^,    . 

The  root  is  perennial,  thread-shaped  and  creeping.  Stems 
about  an  inch  high,  simple,  single  flowered,  thickly  clothed 
with  leaves,  which  are  more  especially  clustered  in  the  lower 
part,  and  are  of  an  ovate  form,  entire,  generally  pointed. 

The  flower  is  terminal,  solitary  erect,  large,  of  a  most  vivid 
blue  colour.  The  whole  herb  is  smooth,  less  bitter  than  most 
gentians,  and  from  its  beautiful  appearance)  deserving  ^  place 
in  every  collection.  hi. 

ROSA  SEMPERFLORENS. 

EVER  BLOWING  ROSE,  OR  DARK  CHINESE  ROSZ. 

Icoysandria  Polygyny,;,,,  ^^^yr  aavl   t. 
Nat.   Ord. — Rosaceae. 
Rosa  semperflorens,   fructibus  oblongis  pedunculisque  hispidis 

caule  petiolisque  aculeato  hispidis;  foliis  subternatis  acule- 

atis.  Willd.  sp.  pi.  2.  p.  107S. 
We  are  induced  to  consider  this  Rose,  as  one  of  the  most  de- 
sirable plants  in  point  of  ornament,  ever  introduced  to  this 
country,  its  flowers  large  in  proportion  to  the  plant,  are  semi- 
double,  and  with  great  richness  of  colour,  unite  a  most  delight- 
ful fragrance;  they  blossom  during  the  whole  of  the  year;  more 
sparingly  indeed  in  the  winter  months  ;  the  shrub  itself  is  more 
hardy  than  most  green-house  plants,  and  will  grow  in  so  small 
a  compass  of  earth,  that  it  may  be  reared  almost  in  a  cup  ;  is 
kept  with  the  least  possible  trouble,  and  propagated  without 
difliculty  by  cuttings  or  suckers. 

STEVIA    PURPUREA. 

purple    STEVIA. 

Syngenesia  polygamia   aequalis. 

Nat.  Ord. Composite. 

Gen.   Char. — Recept.  nudum :    Pappaus  paleaceus.   cal  'cylin- 

draceus,    ex    simplici  foliorum   seri.      Spec.    Char.    Foliis. 

lanceolatis.  trinervis,  Canaliculatis  corymob  fastigiato. 
A  hardy  perennial  herb,  native  of  Mexico.  Flowering  from 
July  to  September,  but  of  no  striking  appearance.  The  stem 
is  two  feet  high,  inclined  or  spreading,  round,  leafy,  its 
branches  terminating  in  numerous  small  corymbose  flowers,  of 
a  reddish  hue.  The  leaves  are  rather  more  than  an  inch  long, 
shining,  dotted,  and  occasionally  serrated  towards  the  top. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PLATES. 

■    A.n   3HT'  -i'!      i:aii-i.    'nJ 
ERYTHRONIUM   AMEllICANUM. 
hUioie  tiBfEtiiow  FiibwERD  dogs-toothed  viousTpf.  ■;'--: 
thvr  9rf  iium  r.>i'-   ::-Hexandria  Monogynia.  '  I'osofc  -J 
-j^.ih'-f.;"  .i!;       -    .     Kfat.  Ord. — Tulipaceffi.     ■■    >  :'•■ 
•'  'Ei'ythronium  Americaaum  ;  foliis  lanceolato — ellipticis,  mucrono 

condriplicato ;  stylo  clavato,  suIcato-trigoDO,  one  stigmatoso 

''•^  "triangulosas  subhiante  intus  glandulose  pubesceate  terininato ; 
^'^  'aijtheris  luteis.     Erythronium  deiio   Caais ;   foliis  lanceolato 

''"''dbongis,  flore   flavescente,    Miohaux  Elor.    Bor. — Amer.  1. 


189 


198.  Nee  Linnei. 
'fT'is  a  hardy  perennial,  native  of  the  coldet  parts  of  North 
America.  The  bulb  is  solid,  about  the  size  of  a  filbert,  covered 
with  membranous  dark  brown  coats.  The  leaves  are  coriaceous, 
elegantly  stained -with  liver-coloured  blotches,  and  have  a  hooded 
termination,  from  the  revolute  edges  of  the  point.  The  flower 
is  deep  yellow  spotted  with  red.  Anthers  and  pollen  yellow. 
CALOPHYLLUM  INOPHYLLUM. 

SWEET-SOENTED  CALOPHYLLUM. 

■    Polyandria  Monogynia. 
Calophyllura   Inophyllum  ;  foliis  ovalibus.     Willd.  sp.  pi,  2,  p. 

1159,  Ponna.    Rheed.  Mai.  4  p.  79.  t.  38.  Rai.  Hist.  15i5. 

Bintangor  maritima,  Rumph.  amb.  2,  t.    71.     Arbor  indica, 

medicae    amplioribus    foliis.    Plunk,   aim,    41.     Inophyllum 

Burm.  130. 
•  Tt  grows  to  a  large  tree,  with  the  trunk  thick,  covered  with 
a  blackish,  cracked,  almost  scaly  bark,  and  supporting  a  vast 
umbrageons  head.  The  leaves  are  four  or  five  iuches  long,  and 
nearly  three  iuches  broad,  shining,  smooth  on  both  sides,  and 
remarkable  for  the  numerous  extremely  fine  parallel  nerves, 
which  Burman  fancied  to  resemble  the  fibres  of  a  muscle  dis- 
sected longitudinally,  and  thence  called  it  inophyllum. 

The  flowers  are  white  and  fragrant,    the  fruit  very  resinous 
or  oily  ;  kernel  at  first  sweet,  afterwards  bitter. 

When  the  bark  is  wounded,  there  exudes  a  viscous,  yellowish 
fluid,  which  thickens  and  hardens  in  the  air.     It  is  called  green 
balsam,  or  balsam  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  is'ttsedas  a  vul- 
nerary. ''■  '-•■■':  ■  '-    ■ 
ANISOMELES  OVATA. 

BROAD-LEAVED    ANISOMELES. 

KEC't  i!'.--      Didynamia gymnospermia. 
Nat.  Ord. — Labiatae. 
A.  foliis  ovatls  subeordatis  creaatis,  verticillis  multifloris,  brac- 

,S13:'fiF.rtS{. — ,fr)0    .}£ 
sihiqsiil  iUpi:iii.'i>ouIi3(J  sijaoldo  ej/dr)3ai>   ,h)i  >ny_    . 

-iims  eHcaisJdi'a  eiiJol  jaifaiqsiil  oJaali/ois  oi.'i  ^       I 

.8>0I  .q  .S  .(q  .jj,; i 

■  i&  iioat  srfJ  Ic  300  Bfl   ,92oH  airf}  7:ibieao3  oJ  f>3Dj)linrr  oxt 
-;dj  oj  bMabottai  isvs  .JtiDmsnio  \o  Inioq  ai  sjoiilq  aUt. 
iOT3a  31U  ,}a«Iq  arfj  oJ  noiJioqoiq  oi  sgiBl  iiawoh  Hil  .yiJnxios   i 
Idgilab  Jeom  a  aJiou  .looloalo  easndaii  Jssig  Aim  bae  ,oliBSio\o^f.^!^ 
'001  ;iB»?  aril  to  alorf'^-adJ  giiiinb  moaaoW  ^3rf}  ;30flBi5|j8iHj."t   I  ' 

•-.001  ei  tl»e)i  duida  9i[}  ,•  edJaora  i3jniw  sriJ  ui  basbni  tl-^n'nmii:   !    .,-.«•..,  a 
~- '--;'"■.  'fiw  bus  ,8JajBtq  aeuorf-uaaig  jaom  1/  ' 

if  Jwiaoi  3d  •{am  Ji  Jiirij  ,iHi«9  >o  . 

bin-:     ii'Saiot)  sidiaeoq  Jsaal  aJ;    ,  ...  .:.,:,„ 
•BtaaCoB-a  lo  egaajiio  ■jd  YJIirainifi 

.Aivaxa  sjiaufi 
ciiaopss   flims^^roq  fliesnsga^S 

■  .-JiisoqcaoO .biO  .)aVi 

fitlp'  laa   .suaosslaq  etiaqfitSl   ;  mtibua  .)qo->sSl- 

jiilol    .iBrfO    ..MqJi      .1198  amoiloi  ioHqraiaJtXffl  embbrSPN, 

.QjjiigiJsiit  dora^xoo  aiiaiitoiUanO  ,eivi9U(it  .eijaloaoaal 
.iioii'V  goiiswoM  .ooixaM  1o  aviJaii  .diarf  lainnsiaq  \tnBd  A 
H9J8  oilT  .SDnsiaaqqa  gaijliijs  on  lo  )uiS  (lodnoiqgg  oi  '(ial 
^ti  ,vla9(  ,bn«oi  .gnib^jjjqs  io  I)9ijibai  (Jgid  J39l  ow3  ai 
»:.  ,ai9wo8  aaodniYioa  tljima  euoi9im(n  ai  gnMcnimisJ  earfaaaid 
i^not  risai  as  oeiSi  3iom  viASai  sta  e9va9l  sriT  .surf  riaifabai  a 
.oJ  9(fJ  ebisvof  bsjanaa  Yllano(eii990  boa  ,b9Mob  i^gaioiils 


-.^3(lt>  inoO 


teis  linearibus,  calycibus  pilosis  ;  glandulis'inconspicuis.  Ait. 

Hort.  Kew,  Ed:  2,  v.  3,   p.  364.     Marrubium   odoratissi- 

raum  betonicse  folio.  Burm.  z^ghs.  153  t.  71.  f .  1 . 
The  whole  herb  has  a  velvet-like  softness,  owing  to  its  fine, 
short,  soft,  depressed  hairs.  The  leaves  sometimes  vary  much,  in 
size,  shape,  and  serretures,  but  are  oftener  crenate  than  ser- 
rated ;  whorls  for  the  most  part  crowded  into  thick,  portly, 
leafy  spikes.  The  calyx  is  very  curiously  reticulated  with  co- 
pious transverse  veins  ;  its  teeth  large,  broad,  and  pungent. 
The  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  short.  The  seeds  are  beautifully 
polished,  elliptical,  and  of  a  shining  black. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  is  hardly  ever 
preserved  in  the  stoves,   being  an  annual  of  Aa-grisat,ib^^ty, 
however  interesting  to  the  curious  botanist.iiDi/j;  s'.ljnubal 
PLATJE   55.  '' -.'•■- U.  aviWn  A 

PITCAIRNIABROMELi^FOLUj,^°';/„*^^''g' 

PINE-APPLE-LEAVED      PITCAIBNIAa/13V«lft    ,(8i.-> 

Hexandria  Monogynia.        ■.  r',!  oi  haiqehf 
Nat.  Ord. — Bromeliacea:.    •  i...     ,  .(jm  w:.; 
Pitcairnia  bromelisefolia.     P.  floribus    lexe  raceffiosisV'^edi- 

celis    calycem    Eequantibus,   foliis    inferne    ciliato — spinosis. 

Pitcairnia bromcl'iEBfolia.    L'Herit,  sert.   angle,  p.  7,  t.  II. 

Swartz.   Fl.    Ind.    Occid.    1.  p.    580.  bane,    illustr.  t.  224. 

Pitcairnia  brorailisefolia.    P.   foliis   ciliato    spiniosis,  pedun- 

culis     germinitusque     glaberrimiso     Ait.    kew.    1,    p.    401. 

Schnev.  ie.  fasc.  4.  t.  11.  Wild.    Spec.   2,  p.  10.  Poir.  Diet. 

Enc.  5,  p.  534.    Hepetis  Angustifolia,  Swartz.  prod.   56. 
An   inhabitant  of  Jamaica,    where  it  is  said  to  grow  on  the 
shady  sides  of  mountains,  flowering  in  April  and  May. 

The  rachis  of  the  raceme  as  well  as  the  peduncles  and 
corrolla  are  of  a  fine  scarlet  colour ;  the  latter  is  persistant 
changing  to  a  greenish,  and  lastly  to  a  brownish  hue.  The 
transparent  scale  at  the  inner  base  of  each  segment  is  of  an 
ovate  fomv,  truncate  at  the  top,  crenate,  attached  by  its  back, 
while  the  edge  and  summit  are  free.  Radical  leaves  from  three 
to  four  feet  long,  scarcely  an  inch  broud  when  flattened.  Scape 
terminal,    a  foot  high,  many  flowered. 

Is  is  a  very  ornamental  plant ;  requires  lo  be  kept  in  the 
tan  pit;   often  seeil^J  b,i\t,is  genefajly  proiiagatcd  by  offsets. 

■  oa  t-P.   ixi'Jit    ;  i.j.'.Oi'-'ilO  — .i'.fi,}   .rjoqc. 

.;3VB3!  ;  baJnioq  S10A3  ytw  ;  9)avo  9l9aic 

3*8  3d}  dJiv/  .lainosisq  siegbsqa  sidT 

'■■>  .-aibnaid  fana  ,lr!si9ii  ni  eorioni  oj  1  ' , 

■^0'  'bno  i}iii  in  qia(l<j  i[i9V  ,ojud  enorj;;.  ;■. 

.0  odi  lo  ban  odl  in  ,; 
,«99ig  .siToaualg  x^laO 

■ •■  •     ,  ••     -  -.  ■  ..j.'i.iij^  .,T(.ii.!i|  jilylid  10  bs'i  Jrigil  .i-yxni 

s/ii  ?o  jB,id  .liU  Jfi  Bwob  bat  a  gnivad  .bag^Bi  /(q99b  ;  !>;■ 

ti'ai  jsnodis  alusqaO     .bai'siariiuA    .nfiinod  10  auim;.; 
.asbaqa  i9rf)o  9nj  ui  aedt 
.,-.„-!fj!    \c  r-t!En  is  bI  bolt  ,*eiisoA  oJ  oauh  «ioi1  ei»v?oB  JI 

■  jijouom  ,5^901  ao  :a9li9aiA  dJioM  has 
.eC9I  ai  baoulio-iinl     .asoalq  {boow 
,s  isvsl  ^tf  baeagiani  a9mHoaioa   9i«  eilnW 
uabaeiaqua  (Iiaaa  a«d  bgniqiq  ^d  noijiigaqoiq 

.raarf*  ■^ulvAi 
■  "f: '  '-..  J;icr  ,3ttul  'iobai  gdJJuoda  si  aid)  lo't  araiJ  Jsod  adT- 
filfilic  ^I'jtHibsmmi  anqb  3(!  e^awla  bluoda  *I  .noense  ariJ  Aiiv 
lo  aia  eioodi  gnaof  orij  aa  aoos  oa  baabn!  lo  ;  moold  gfliiifb  lo 
agiiiqiq  flj-io'l.  ot  ,ai  .Jari)  ;  saoqiuq  9ril  -lol  iHsnal  Jnabiftua  it 
■(d  alxm  !)TO  egnlqi'I  .rilijiisl  lii  asdool  aaidJ  0*  owl  moil 
aiD'  ■nolnJ  ■fhiiiiinmmi  bau  .jl.'iiq  9dt  lo  ihnaiii  it  gnUiW 
P9ff»T^Rq,ll'SlfWS\^»Ji  J«3  qoi  9,11  (QOll  )n:  :,uO-j;-< 

doUiir  ioveal  a//)  adi  lo  aJoMocf  9d.t  moil  lia^i'  .;•:•;  si) 

ad  rif    ■ "■ -'  "■'■''     — ' -.■ '    *r  bajjc.r  ,,<  --  ■ 

an'  .na  ei  Ji  in' 

■J8»'!'  ,.,  --.-•:    .-.   -!\t  baa  .aolL,, .-.:'. 

ilsw  ad  bliioiia  )i  ailat  aim  oa  li  :  qasb  fid^ifl  tuiil  io  9911(1 
ariX  hflnn^i  aia  ^sriJ  siolsitt  eiwod  wsl  a  wiaur  diiir  b9;iso? 
ssidi  I'db  itiaivs  a  tebsiaalqaii  too  bna  igaiqiq 


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