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PACIFIC AND EAST INDIES
-40
C H AT H A M 15.
Marine Biological Laboratory
P...;„.^ -August, 1945
Accession No
The Llacmillan Co.
Liiven by
n, ^-p"' York Citv
Place. !:_
MAMMALS of the
PACIFIC WORLD
m
THE PACIFIC WORLD SERIES
Under the Auspices of
The American Committee for International Wild Life Protection
PUBLICATION committee:
Fairfield Osborn, Chairman Robert Cushman Murphy
Harold E. Anthony Edward M. Weyer, Jr.
William Beebe Childs Frick {ex officio)
MAMMALS of the PACIFIC WORLD
by T. D. Carter, J. E. Hill and G. H. H. Tate
INSECTS of the PACIFIC WORLD by C. H. Curran
NATIVE PEOPLES of the PACIFIC WORLD
by Felix M. Keesing
REPTILES of the PACIFIC WORLD
by Arthur Loveridge
PLANT LIFE of the PACIFIC WORLD by E. D. Merrill
FISHES and SHELLS of the PACIFIC WORLD
by John T. Nichols and Paul Bartsch
THE PACIFIC WORLD
edited by Fairfield Osborn (W. W. Norton and Co., Inc.)
MAMMALS of the
PACIFIC WORLD
T. D. CARTER - J. E. HILL - G. H. H. TATE
AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
1945
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - NEW YORK
Copyright, 1944, by
T. DONALD CARTER, JOHN ERIC HILL, and G. H. H. TATE
All rights reserved — no part of this book may
be reproduced in any form without permission
in writing from the publisher, except by a re-
viewer who wishes to quote brief passages in
connection with a review written for inclusion
in magazine or newspaper.
First Printing
A paper bound edition of this book for limited distri-
bution was published by The Infantry Journal under
the title of "Animals of the Pacific World."
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Foreword "^^
When "Pearl Harbor" made Americans conscious that the
Pacific Ocean was about to become a vast theatre of military
operations, it was apparent that many of the critical areas were
only places on the map to most people. Few persons knew any-
thing about the appearance of the war areas, their geograph-
ical significance, or their wildlife and its environment. Most of
the fighting was developing among islands, and there are thou-
sands of these in the Pacific. Also there are great differences
existing between various island masses, as for example the Aleu-
tians and the Solomons.
Some of the islands are the home of unique animal life, to be
seen nowhere else in the world. If military personnel were con-
centrated on certain of these islands it might mean that need-
less destruction of irreplaceable wildlife would result unless the
military and others were told something about the natural his-
tory of the Pacific.
The American Committee for International Wild Life Pro-
tection resolved, in the winter of 1942, that something should
be published to inform our armed forces about the wildlife they
would encounter in the far reaches of the world's greatest ocean.
Of course it was realized that when men are at war nothing in
the natural environment would weigh against human life. But
where conservation of the fauna and flora placed no obstacle
before military expediency, it would be easier to arouse support
for conservation if the public had available some simple account
of the wildlife of the Pacific. The initial idea of the Committee
expanded, and nine cooperating institutions eventually em-
barked upon the larger concept of an over-all picture of the
Pacific World which will depict for the enlisted man and his
VI FOREWORD
relatives a great variety of data. This is to be done in a series
of handbooks.
So little has been written about the mammals on many of the
Pacific islands that it is difficult for the layman to find infor-
mation. By a fortunate coincidence the American Museum of
Natural History has had a long and continuous interest in the
south Pacific. Through the Archbold Expeditions it has done
extensive field work in New Guinea and has acquired specimens
from other islands. Because of this background, the authors of
"Mammals of the Pacific World" — all of them in the Depart-
ment of Mammals of the American Museum — are well qualified
for their present undertaking. Dr. Tate has the special dis-
tinction of having observed and collected mammals in New
Guinea.
Within the scope of the "Pacific World" the mammals of
three continents are encountered. North America has contrib-
uted to the fauna of the Aleutians ; from continental Asia come
the mammals of Japan, Formosa, Sumatra, and other islands
situated on the continental shelf ; and finally Australia has sup-
plied with characteristic representatives such islands as New
Guinea and the Solomons. To complicate matters, some of the
islands received their mammals as waifs on natural rafts or as
passengers in the primitive craft of the aboriginal peoples. The
whole topic of the distribution of the mammal life of the Pacific
is intensely interesting and challenging to the imagination.
When one learns that a creature has established itself on an
island only after the operation of the laws of chance over a
period of hundreds of thousands of years, he can appreciate the
significance of conservation for that animal.
All of the mammals of the area are interesting. Some are
obviously useful as food ; some are dangerous and not to be pro-
voked without hazard. Many of these animals such as bear,
tiger, and kangaroo are already familiar to Americans, but a
number of others peculiar to the area need to be described for
an American audience. This book attempts to provide an intro-
FOREWORD VU
ductory account of the most salient facts of origin, life history,
and distribution. The field is so extensive, however, that no one
island or no single species can receive very exhaustive treatment.
A synoptic list with a greater number of species, but with less
descriptive matter and discussion, has been prepared by Dr.
Tate and published by the American Museum under the title "A
List of the Mammals of the Japanese War Area." It is divided
into four parts :
Part 1. New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck
Archipelago, New Hebrides, and other remote
south Pacific groups.
Part 2. The Greater Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Java,
Bali), with Nicobar and Andaman Islands.
Part 3. The Lesser Sunda Islands (Lombok to Timor),
the Moluccas, Celebes.
Part 4j. Borneo and the islands of the South China Sea.
These are short booklets and were planned primarily for the
Medical Services as an aid in knowing the mammals of an island
and something of the possibilities of mammals as disease car-
riers.
Never before, to my knowledge, have data on the mammals of
so great a section of the Pacific been brought within the covers
of a single book. It is hoped that a wide circle of readers will
find "Mammals of the Pacific World" instructive, entertaining,
and useful. Certainly the authors have labored mightily to
bring the facts before the public, and if a better understanding
will help to promote conservation of wildlife in these remote
places, a great deal will have been accomplished.
Harold E. Anthony, Chairman and Curator
Department of Mammals
American Museum of Natural History
New York City 7
Table of Contents
PAGE
Foreword ^
Introduction ^"^
I. Characteristics and Classifications of Mammals 1
Distinctive Characters of Mammals 1
Teeth 2
Limbs 5
Classification and Scientific Names 7
II. Species of Mammals of the Pacific Area 11
Egg-laying Mammals: Duckbills, Spiny Ant-
eaters. Order Monotremata 11
Pouched Mammals or Marsupials. Order Mar-
supialia 15
Insectivores. Order Insectivora 37
Flying Lemurs. Order Dermopter 44
Bats. Order Chiroptera 45
Apes, Monkeys, Lemurs. Order Primates 63
Flesh-eaters. Order Carnivora 79
Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses. Order Pinnipedia 100
Scaly Anteaters. Order Pholidota 107
Gnawing Mammals or Rodents. Order Rodentia 108
Rabbits and their Allies. Order Lagomorpha 123
Whales and Porpoises. Order Cetacea 126
Dugongs, Sea Cows. Order Sirenia 136
Elephants. Order Proboscidea 137
Even-toed Ungulates. Order Artiodactyla 139
Odd-toed Ungulates. Order Perissodactyla 151
ix
58455
X CONTENTS
FAGS
III. Distribution of Mammals in the Pacific Area 155
Origin and Evolution of Mammals 155
Evolution of Environments 156
Continental and Oceanic Islands 157
Range and Dispersal of Mammals 160
The Passage of Natural Barriers 161
Establishment of Species on Islands 163
Archaic Mammals Preserved on Islands 163
Biological Regions 164
Faunas of the Pacific Islands 166
IV. Conservation of Mammals 181
Need for Preservation 181
Collecting and Study of Specimens 182
Glossary 185
Alphabetical Index-Checklist of the Islands 189
Illustrations
^
Fig.
1.
Mammalian teeth, exemplified by
the Marsupial Cat
the teeth of
3
Fig.
2.
Examples of mammalian feet
6
Fig.
3.
Generalized diagram of the mammalian "family
tree"
9
Fig.
4.
Straight-beaked Spiny Anteater
15
Fig.
5.
Marsupial "Wolf"
17
Fig.
6.
Tasmanian Devil
18
Fig.
7.
Marsupial "Cat"
19
Fig.
8.
Rabbit Bandicoot
22
Fig.
9.
Australian Possum
23
Fig.
10.
Striped Possum
24
Fig.
11.
Spotted Cuscus (male)
26
Fig.
12.
Lesser Flying Phalanger
28
Fig.
13.
Koala
29
Fig.
14.
Wombat
31
Fig.
15.
Tree Kangaroo
35
Fig.
16.
Common Gymnure or Moonrat
39
Fig.
17.
Large Musk Shrew
41
Fig.
18.
Common Tree Shrew
43
Fig.
19.
Flying Lemur
44
Fig.
20.
Typical Bat, showing parts of flying mecha-
nism
46
Fig.
21.
Flying Fox
47
Fig.
22.
Tube-nosed Fruit Bat
49
XU ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. 23. Head of Long-tongued Bat, showing protrusile
tongue 49
Fig. 24. A. Tail of Sheath-tailed Bat ; top view
B. Head of Slit-faced Bat
C. Head of False Vampire Bat
D. Head of Horseshoe Bat
E. Head of Leaf-nosed Bat 52
Fig. 25. A. Wing of Bent-winged Bat
B. Head of Tube-nosed Insectivorous Bat
C. Head of Australian Long-eared Bat
D. Ear of Trumpet-eared Bat
E. Head of Mastiff Bat 60
Fig. 26. Orang-utan 64
Fig. 27. White-handed Gibbon ! 65
Fig. 28. Celebes Ape 69
Fig. 29. Thomas's Leaf Monkey 70
Fig. 30. Proboscis Monkey 76
Fig. 31. Slow Loris 77
Fig. 32. Tarsier 78
Fig. 33. Malay Bear 80
Fig. 34. Yellow-throated Marten 81
Fig. 35. Teledu 83
Fig. 36. Malay Civet 87
Fig. 37. Little Civet 88
Fig. 38. Linsang 89
Fig. 39. Palm Civet 90
Fig. 40. Masked Palm Civet 91
Fig. 41. Small-toothed Palm Civet 92
Fig. 42. Short-tailed Mongoose 94
Fig. 43. Clouded Leopard 96
Fig. 44. Marbled Cat 97
Fig. 46. Leopard Cat 99
ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll
Fig. 46. Steller's Sea Lion 101
Fig. 47. Hawaiian Seal 106
Fig. 48. Pangolin 107
Fig. 49. Upper Right Cheek-teeth of Rice Rat, Black
Rat, and Vole 108
Fig. 50. Asiatic Porcupine 122
Fig. 51. Brush-tailed Porcupine 123
Fig. 52. Hump-backed Whale 129
Fig. 53. Sperm Whale 130
Fig. 54. Common Dolphin 135
Fig. 55. Dugong 136
Fig. 56. Asiatic Elephant 138
Fig. 57. Asiatic Water Buffalo 140
Fig. 58. Tamarau 141
Fig. 59. Anoa 142
Fig. 60. Serow 143
Fig. 61. Sambar Deer 145
Fig. 62. Sika Deer 147
Fig. 63. Barking Deer 148
Fig. 64. Mouse Deer 150
Fig. 65. Babirusa 151
Fig. 66. Javan Rhinoceros 152
Fig. 67. Sumatran Rhinoceros 152
Fig. 68. Malay Tapir 153
Fig. 69. Faunal Regions of the World, showing probable
greatest extent of land during the Ice Age 165
Front end paper: The Pacific Ocean and the
East Indies
Jacket photograph, Courtesy of The Zoologi-
cal Society of Philadelphia
.:<^
Introduction ^^
Since the beginning of the Japanese war relatively enormous
numbers of men and some women who never before dreamed of
visiting the islands of the Pacific and the East Indies have
found themselves transported thither. Everything about them
there is new and strange. Not only do the various natives look
and behave differently, but even the locally commonplace gar-
den plants, useful woods, birds, animals, and insects look, sound,
and act differently from the familiar kinds at home. This book,
designed to introduce the mammals of this vast area to the new-
comer, has been written as one of the parts of a series of hand-
books on the Pacific, in course of preparation.
The animals are described as concisely as possible under their
respective classes. Technical words have been generally avoided ;
in some cases the use of such words serves to prevent frequent
repetition of explanatory clauses. The meanings of those words
are defined in a short glossary placed before the geographical
index.
So many geographical names have been given when indicat-
ing the places where animals are found that a map has been in-
cluded to assist the reader to locate such names.
A discussion of the ancient history of the region from the
standpoint of animal development and movement — how animals
reached islands from their continental homes, how they survived
after arrival, and the character of the evidence for such his-
tories— is provided with the hope that interest in the subject
may be aroused.
A few words are offered on each of the seemingly but not
really contradictory subjects of conserving native animals and
collecting specimens of them for scientific study.
XV
XVI INTRODUCTION
The last part of this book is devoted to a geographical index
arranged alphabetically. By turning to a certain group of
islands, the reader can see at a glance what species of animals
inhabit that group.
The illustrations of the various mammals were drawn by
George F. Mason of the American Museum of Natural History.
Several of the figures showing teeth and limbs are the work of
Miss Janet Roemhild ; the map was done by Miss D. F. Levett
Bradley. It was based, with the exception of the insert of the
Aleutian Islands, upon a projection prepared by the American
Geographical Society, New York, 1942.
The authors wish to express their deep sense of gratitude to
two members of the staff of the American Museum of Natural
History — Dr. H. E. Anthony, Chairman of the Department of
Mammals, and Mr. Childs Frick — for their unfailing interest
and valued advice during the preparation of this book.
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Characteristics and Classification
of Mammals
Mammals are distinguished from other back-boned animals
by having hair, which in a few kinds may be scanty, and by
the fact that their females give milk and suckle the young. Also,
in all but the egg-laying platypus and echidnas, the young are
born alive. The term "mammal" is an attempt in one word to
put into common language the idea that all of the thousands of
different forms sharing the attributes just mentioned make up
a single great class, distinct from the reptiles, birds, amphib-
ians, and fishes. The Class Mammalia thus includes the beasts of
field and forest, the aquatic whales, seals, and sirenians, the bats,
and mankind. This idea is a relatively new one, dating from
the Swedish biologist Linnagus in the second half of the eight-
eenth century. It has been accepted by most educated people
but is still foreign to a large proportion of humanity.
DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF MAMMALS
Mammals are grouped into Orders on the evidence of similar-
ity of structure, reinforced by what has been discovered about
the fossil history of the different groups. The members of or-
ders are in most cases obviously more closely allied to each other
than to other mammals. Thus, the flesh-eaters belong for the
most part to the Order Carnivora (literally, flesh-eaters) ; the
monkeys, the gnawing animals, the hoofed animals, the flying
animals (bats) likewise are members of distinct orders. But
exceptions occur; the pouched animals, including pouchless
1
Z MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
ones whose ancestors had pouches, comprise meat-eaters, gnaw-
ers, monkey-like creatures, and forms with hoof-like toes like
the kangaroos.
For prompt and easy recognition it is best to dwell chiefly
upon those differences of shape or behavior which can be ob-
served easily. In the field most mammals are unfortunately
killed almost as soon as discovered, so it is best to emphasize
differences of shape, size, and color. The structure of certain
of the parts of mammals is frequently more distinctive and
easy to see than that of other parts ; the teeth and limbs no-
tably provide definite indications of species, and usually agree
with the evidence of other parts and with fossil evidence.
Teeth. Although the toothed whales may have as many as
fifty teeth on each side of each jaw, other mammals never have
more than that number all together. The Australian meat-
eating pouched animals or marsupials may have a total of
forty-six teeth (our opossum has four more) ; most other mam-
mals have far fewer — at the most forty-four. The spiny and
scaly anteaters have none, but lap up their insect prey with a
long, sticky tongue; and the whalebone whales have replaced
teeth with a horny set of sieves that retain engulfed small fish
and shrimp-like animals for swallowing.
The teeth of mammals, except the simple, peg-like teeth of
the toothed whales, consist of several sorts. They comprise
front cutting-teeth, or incisors ; pointed, often fang-like eye-
teeth, or canines; narrowed cheek-teeth in the side of the jaw
near the front, or premolars ; and broader crushing-teeth near
the back, or molars. In some kinds of animals the teeth of one
class may assume the shape and function of another class. In
many mammals all but the molars develop in two successive
series, a milk or juvenal series, and a permanent or adult series
which replaces the former. In pouched animals one tooth only
in each jaw is so replaced. The toothed whales have only
permanent teeth. Squirrels and porcupines among the gnawing
mammals replace one or two cheek-teeth at about the time they
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS 3
become adult, but the rat family and most remaining gnawers
have no milk teeth.
The incisors, or cutting-teeth, may number three, two, or
one on each side; some marsupials even have four upper in-
cisors. They may be chisel-like or ever-growing, as in rodents
Incisors
Fig. I— Mammalian teeth, exemplified hij the teeth of the
Marsupial Cat
and rabbits; pincer-like, as in some insect-eaters; broad and
spade-like, as in cattle and some monkeys ; or small and almost
useless, as in some bats. They are often about equal in size
and shape, as in meat-eaters and monkeys; or the middle m-
cisor may be much larger than the other, as in the rabbit, or
lost completely, as in the upper jaw of some bats. Upper in-
4 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
cisors are absent in cattle and deer, while in the elephant the
lower ones are missing and the two upper incisors are modified
to form the tusks.
The canines, or eye-teeth, are usually longer and more
rounded in cross section than the other teeth. While the upper
incisors are set into the front upper jaw bone, the upper canine
is the first tooth in the maxillary or side bone of the upper jaw.
The lower canine fits in front of the upper one. Bats, meat-
eaters, the seal group, and most monkeys, especially males,
have large canine teeth. These teeth are tusk-like in pigs and
dagger-like in the mouse-deer. They are the killing teeth of
beasts of prey, the fighting teeth of these and animals such as
pigs and monkeys which tear and hurt rivals. Rabbits, rodents,
and most kinds of kangaroos have no canines ; cattle and most
true deer have only lower ones, similar in shape to the incisors.
In each toothrow the cheek-teeth, from few to as many as
seven in number, stand behind the canine, or the gap (diastema)
which is present when this tooth is undeveloped. In elephants
only one enormous grinder with parts of others is used at a
time. The tooth, as it wears away, travels forward in the jaw
and the next behind it moves upward and forward gradually
to take its place. These teeth are very large. Their grinding
surfaces may have fifteen or twenty cross-ridges of hard enamel
which make the teeth efficient mills to grind leaves and twigs.
The grinders of other plant-eaters such as rhinoceros and tapir,
cattle and deer, have different patterns ; but the ridges, whether
they are shaped like the Greek letter tt or are crescent-like,
serve similar purposes.
The cheek-teeth of many meat-eaters are reduced in number,
and a pair of very large ones on each side works together like
shears to cut up meat. The cheek-teeth of bears, otters, and
many of the civet family have mound-shaped cusps, better suited
for crushing than shearing. Insect-eaters and the insect-eating
bats have sharp-cusped teeth for crushing and cutting up hard-
bodied insects.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS 5
In mammals that eat almost everything — plant food, small
mammals, insects, and eggs — the cheek-teeth also have rounded,
mound-like cusps. Such are present in the pigs, some rats,
bears, and most primates. The leaf monkeys have sharp-cusped
teeth which chop up leaves. In many rats the cusps form cross-
ridges or zig-zag patterns.
Limbs. The limbs, next to the teeth, provide the best external
guides for recognizing and classifying mammals. The several
different kinds of limbs are all modifications of single basic pat-
terns of the fore and hind limbs. By reduction or enlargement
of various parts, involving changes in proportions, hands, flip-
pers, wings, paws, and hooves have evolved. Only whales and
sirenians, which have lost all but internal traces of the hind
pair, lack four limbs. The front limbs of these animals have
become steering paddles, while the tail has become flattened
and enlarged to provide propulsion. The seals and their allies
likewise have converted their front limbs into paddles. Their
broadened hind feet are used somewhat like the whale's tail,
moving up and down in the water.
The hoofs of hoofed mammals, both those with odd and those
with even numbers of toes, are nothing but enlarged fingernails
and toenails. In most of them the central toe, or pair of toes,
is enlarged in order to bear most of the weight. Moreover, the
bones of the hand and foot are lengthened, a condition which
is an advantage in running.
The slow-moving, massive elephant, which has hoof-like nails,
walks partly on the tips of the toes and partly on a pad of
fatty tissue. The foot-bones are short, the limb-bones long and
massive.
Meat-eaters, rabbits, rodents, insect-eaters, flying lemurs,
scaly and spiny anteaters, and pouched mammals have claws.
Some meat-eaters, rabbits, and rodents walk on their toes ; in
these, pads are developed under the joint between the free finger
or toe and the hand or foot, and other pads are formed at the
tip of each toe. The other clawed mammals, including the bear
Fig. 2 — Examples of mammalian feet
A. Marsupial cat: Clawed, five-toed foot, the entire sole is used
in walking; B. Kangaroo: Lengthened foot; the first toe is
absent, the second and third united, while the fourth toe is the
greatest; C. Monkey: Opposable first toe; friction ridges on the
sole which is used in walking; D. Dingo: Lengthened foot in
which walking is done on the clawed four toes. Foot pads well
developed; E. Deer: Even-toed, hoofed and lengthened foot.
The weight is borne by the third and fourth toes, while the second
and fifth toes, dew-claws, are much smaller and set higher in the
foot; F. Tapir: Odd-toed hoofed mammal. The chief toe is the
middle one, while the third and fourth are less developed or even
absent.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS 7
and weasel families among the meat-eaters, walk on their flat
feet and hands.
Monkeys and their allies usually walk on their palms and
soles, and most have nails rather than claws. The lemurs and
tarsiers have claws on some toes and nails on others. The gib-
bons and orang-utan swing from branch to branch suspended by
their long arms ; they seldom come to the ground.
Bats have hook-like claws on their hind feet and thumbs.
The rest of the fore limb is greatly modified. The bones of the
arm and hand are lengthened; the third finger alone may be
longer than the bat's body, and the forearm (the part between
wrist and elbow) is almost as long. This bony framework is
covered with nearly naked, elastic skin extending between the
hand and ankle, and frequently also between the legs and tail.
The skin between the hind legs and tail is called the interfemoral
membrane. It is used as a brake and rudder. The hind limbs
are so constructed that the knee bends backward.
CLASSIFICATION AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES
It is a part of human nature to group things in orderly ar-
rangements and to abstract general ideas. The animal world
is so complex that unless it is arranged and thought about sys-
tematically, it cannot be well understood. Men have been classi-
fying mammals in various ways for thousands of years. They
divided them into those that were good or bad to eat, or those
that were harmless or dangerous. In the Bible a different clas-
sification was made: animals with divided hoofs which chewed
the cud were considered fit to eat ; the rest were "unclean."
Modern classification is based instead on fundamental similarity
of structure and what we know about the evolution and descent
of animals from common ancestors.
Since man is a mammal, he may be chosen to illustrate differ-
ent stages in a simplified classification. The Class Mammalia
is divided into two Subclasses ; man is placed in the Subclass
8 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Theria (often called Eutheria) with all modern mammals;
the egg-laying duckbill and spiny anteaters are placed in the
other Subclass, Prototheria. Man is next classified as a mem-
ber of the Order Primates. Dogs and cats, on the other hand,
go in the Order Carnivora ; and pigs, deer, and cattle are con-
sidered members of the Order Artiodactyla. Nineteen such Or-
ders of living mammals are recognized ; sixteen of them are dealt
with in this handbook. The Orders Hyracoidea (Hyraxes or
conies of Africa and Palestine), Tubulidentata (African aard-
varks), and Edentata (armadillos, sloths, and anteaters —
South American for the most part) are not represented in the
Pacific region.
The basic system of classification of living mammals is in-
dicated by the accompanying diagram or phylogenetic tree
(p. 9).
Many of the orders of mammals have no inclusive common
name. Especially is this true when they contain mammals that
appear quite different from one another ; even dogs and cats are
different enough to make the idea of the Order Carnivora a
difficult one. The less obvious relationships among mammals
have been recognized only during the last two centuries, which
is too short a time for the names given these groups to mean
much to the average person. However, it is useful to have com-
mon names for groups, even if they are not familiar and if they
are merely anglicized forms of scientific names. Whenever
such names are introduced in this handbook an attempt at ex-
planation will be made.
Each order of mammals is subdivided into families. Man
belongs to a family group of his own, the Family Hominidse.
Other families of the primates comprise the apes (Pongidae),
gibbons (Hylobatidse), Old World monkeys (Cercopithecidas
and Colobidae), the tarsier (Tarsiidag), the slow loris and some
other lemurs (Lorisidas). There are still other families of South
American and Mascarene primates, as well as extinct families
known only from fossils.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS
9
Some families contain only one living genus, the next lower
step in classification. Man belongs to the Genus Homo. With
the exception of the larger and more striking mammals, treat-
ments in this book are confined to the genus. Most genera are
easily recognizable. Many species, on the contrary, can be dis-
Porcupines
Rats
Squirrels
Monkeys
(Primates)
Flying Lemur
Insect Eaters
(Insectivores)
Hoofed Mammals
Elephant
Pouched Mammals
(Marsupials)
Rabbits
Scaly Anteater
Flesheaters
(Carnivores)
Seals
Whales and
Porpoises
Egg-laying
Mammals
Primitive Extinct Mammals
Fig. 3 — Generalized diagram of the mammalian ''Family tree^*
tinguished only with difficulty. This handbook would be un-
wieldy were it to attempt to give descriptions of every species
in each genus. The species to which man belongs is Homo
sapiens. Homo, the generic name, in Latin means "man";
sapiens, the specific name, means "wise." Linnaeus, the founder
10 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
of scientific classification and nomenclature, gave man this
name.
The scientific name of a species always consists of two words :
the first or generic name, analogous to a surname, begins with
a capital letter; the second or specific name, equivalent to a
Christian name, in Zoology begins with a small letter. Scientific
names should be printed in italics.
In technical work races or geographic varieties, called sub-
species, are often recognized. A third Latin name is added to
the specific name of a new variety, and the second name of the
variety originally described is repeated. Man is divided into
several races; the white race bears the scientific name Homo
sapiens sapiens. In this handbook little attention except in the
monkeys is paid to such races because of limitations of time
and size. But the idea underlies much of the discussion.
Finally we come to that indivisible element, the individual.
Just as no two people are entirely alike, and as a human race
contains many diverse individuals, so wild mammals vary indi-
vidually; no two are precisely alike. This individual variation
has been appreciated only recently, and its study is a difiicult
and lengthy task. Only by accumulating large numbers of
specimens can it be solved, which is one reason why many of the
mammals described here are of doubtful status — why we do
not always yet know whether they are actual species, races, or
merely individual variants.
Measurements of mammals in scientific and foreign books and
articles are usually given in units of the metric system, com-
monly in millimeters. In this book, for the convenience of those
who do not readily estimate size in this more efficient system,
inches, feet, and yards are used. To find the metric equivalents,
inches are multiplied by 25 to give millimeters.
Species of Mammals of the Pacific Area
Egg-laying Mammals: Duckbills, Spiny
Anteaters. Order IMonotremata
Only in Australia and New Guinea are there mammals that
lay eggs and suckle their young. They are of two main types:
the velvet-coated Duckbill or Platypus, and the Spiny Ant-
eaters or Echidnas.
The Duckbill. Family Ornithorhynchid^
The Duckbill or Platypus (Ornithorhynchus) , though hu-
morously described as half bird and half animal, is nevertheless
a true mammal. The jaws and front of the face project as a
rubbery or horny duck-like "bill" and are covered with hairless,
tough skin. The bill is made to appear more duck-like by the
lack of teeth. However, in unborn duckbills teeth are present.
These are lost during development.
The fur of the duckbill is close and velvety, and colored dark
grayish brown. It shows the sheen commonly observed on other
aquatic animals such as otters and Australian water rats. The
tail is relatively short and stumpy. The feet are webbed for
swimming and the hind foot of the male bears a horny spur, at
the base of which is a gland containing a poisonous secretion.
Very young females also have spurs which, however, become
atrophied soon after the body length exceeds nine inches. Males
are much larger than females. The total length of males is
twenty-four inches, and of females eighteen inches, the tail of
each being about one-fourth of the total length.
The food consists of snails, aquatic larvae, worms and cray-
11
12 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
fish mixed with mud. Long burrows are made in the banks of
rivers, usually with two entrances — one of them below water. The
nest, made of grass, leaves, rootlets, and reeds, is placed in an
enlarged chamber at the inner end of the burrow. Usually two
or three eggs are laid, which are about seven-tenths of an inch
in length and only slightly less in diameter. The eggs have
horny white shells and become stuck together by means of a
sticky substance with which they are coated. It is estimated
that they hatch through the warmth of the mother's body in
about two weeks. The newly hatched young have not developed
the "duckbill" but have a hard, sharp process or "caruncle" on
the muzzle. They are said not to nurse for nearly a week. After
that the mother secretes milk through two milk patches (not
nipples), wetting the hairs thereon, which the young suck.
Scratching with their caruncles by the young is thought to start
the mother's milk flowing.
Recently important new facts concerning the life habits of
the platypus have come to hand.^ These relate to a mother and
a young one bred at Badger Creek Sanctuary, Healesville,
Victoria, Australia. In the non-breeding season the platypus
spends a very large part of the twenty-four-hour day seeking
food at the bottom of its swimming tank. It eats enormous
amounts of animal food, the quantity of which probably rises
to a peak when it is nursing its young. At that time, in the
Sanctuary, a single night's food (which incidentally cost about
five dollars per day) comprised four hundred large earthworms,
three hundred and thirty-eight beetle grubs, and thirty-eight
small crayfish. The total weight of that food was one and three-
fourths pounds. Since the maximum live weight of the animal
was only two pounds, digestion must have taken place almost
concurrently with feeding. Maintenance of extreme activity —
swimming, digging, and giving of milk to the young platypus —
requires relatively very large amounts of that easily assimilable
vital fuel.
^ Fleay, D., 1944, Animal Kingdom, New York, 47, pp. 61-69.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 13
When not seeking food the animals are active making or alter-
ing the long earthen burrows which they mine in the banks of
streams. The building of the nest which will contain the eggs
and young takes place about twelve days after mating, in Oc-
tober. To prevent shrinkage the eggs must be kept in a satu-
rated atmosphere. Quantities of leaves and grass, soaked in the
water, are gathered together, then wadded into tight packets
beneath the tail, and so are carried to an enlarged nest cham-
ber at the end of one of the tunnels. A series of earthen plugs
is maintained between the nest chamber and the several outlets.
They are believed to keep the atmosphere of the chamber moist
by checking air movements. Nest building is a strictly "busi-
ness" affair. When working at it the mother practically stops
feeding; she completes nest construction with the water-soaked
leaves in some eighteen hours. The first egg is apparently laid
within a day or two, the developmental period of the egg within
the mother's body having lasted about fifteen days.
Incubation of the eggs requires some nine to ten days more.
During that time the mother platypus remains in her burrow
for periods of several days at a time. She eats little or nothing
and emerges merely to defecate. After the hatching of the eggs
the mother reverses her time-table; she again spends many
hours in the water feeding ravenously, and between times retires
to the burrow to feed the babies. For the first few days after
the eggs have hatched the mother seems to secrete no milk.
During that time she scratches the mammary area of her body
a great deal, which activity possibly helps to induce her milk
to flow. She does not wean her young until they are about four
months old and nearly as large as herself. At approximately
that time the mother develops a fine new coat of glossy fur.
The baby platypus is a singularly helpless creature, quite as
helpless as a human baby. It remains unable to crawl until it
has grown almost as large as its parent, the only movements of
its limbs being feeble scratching efforts. It is nursed by the
mother until it is almost fully grown and has attained the weight
14 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
of one pound. Until it is more than two months old it seems un-
able to maintain its body heat ; the skin becomes cold when the
mother is away from it. At two months the body length is only
nine inches, the eyes are still unopened, the beak is short, the
fur barely developing. At three months, the body length is thir-
teen inches, the eyes are fully open and alert, the bill straight
but still short, and the fur well developed except on the tail.
The animal can utter a shrill growl. Movement is still uncer-
tain and slow. At three and one-half months the body length is
thirteen and one-half inches, and the young animal can crawl
better. And at four months, although the body has grown no
longer, the baby can crawl actively and come out from the bur-
row to the water for its first swim and first food not provided by
its mother. In the wild state where conditions are less favorable
for the mother, the babies may be forced to leave the nest some-
what earlier, when they are smaller and less able to fend for
themselves.
Spiny Anteaters. Family Tachyglossid^
These are heavy-bodied animals with the skins covered with
short, sharp spines mixed with hairs. They are almost tailless,
and with a snout so much elongated that they look like large,
beaked hedgehogs. Teeth are absent at all stages of develop-
ment. The eggs are carried and hatched in the pouch, not
placed in a nest as is done by the platypus.
The Straight-beaked Spiny Anteater {Tachyglossus) has a
nearly bare snout, which is used for rooting and digging in soft
soil. The legs are powerful; the feet are furnished with long
digging claws, with which the animals can bury themselves in
the ground with astonishing speed. But it is stated that they
do not make tunnel-like burrows. Their color is brownish gray
with basal parts of the spines whitish. Their length is from
fifteen to twenty inches.
The food consists mostly of termites but doubtless beetle
grubs and other soft-bodied insects are also eaten. They are
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
15
found in most of eastern Australia, Tasmania (where the hair
in the coat of the local race is much more developed), and south-
ern New Guinea.
The Curved-beaked Spiny Anteater (Zaglossus) is a much
larger and heavier animal than Tachyglossus. The bill is not
only downwardly curved but proportionally much longer, while
Fig. 4 — Straight-beaked Spiny Anteater
the first and fifth toes are reduced in size. A quite dense hair
covering partly hides the spines, much as in the Tasmanian
spiny anteater. The color varies from brownish black to much
paler, depending upon the amount of white in the spines. The
total length is about thirty inches.
This spiny anteater is reported to live in burrows in rocky
places and to feed on ants. It is found in New Guinea and Sala-
wati, where it seems mainly confined to mountainous areas.
Pouched Mammals or Marsupials.
Order Marsupialia
The marsupials are the descendants of an ancient and primi-
tive group of mammals. They are customarily divided into two
16 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
groups, those with only one pair of incisors or front teeth in
each side of the lower jaw (Diprotodontia) and those with
several lower incisors (Polyprotodontia). Kangaroos, phalan-
gers, honey possum, and wombats are diprotodonts ; bandicoots,
"native cats," "pouched mice," and banded anteaters are poly-
protodonts. But bandicoots are almost as closely related to
diprotodonts.
In all animals of the diprotodont division and in the bandi-
coots of the polyprotodonts, the second and third toes of the
hind foot are very small and united. This strange condition,
which may serve as a combing device, gives the appearance of
a toe equipped with two claws.
Not all marsupials are characterized by a pouch in the female
(the male never has a pouch), but most of them have this nurs-
ery bag in which to carry the young. In some types the pouch
opens backward. In males the scrotum is situated in front of
the penis. All marsupials and monotremes of both sexes have
a pair of bones projecting forward from the pelvis in the wall
of the abdomen.
Newborn marsupials are tiny, hairless creatures with well-
developed hands. They find their way hand over hand through
the mother's fur into the pouch or to the region of the teats.
Each becomes attached by its mouth to a teat and the mother
pumps milk into it by contractions of the muscles covering the
milk glands, for it is too small to suck.
Apart from a few American marsupials, common opossums
and their relatives, these animals are found today only in the
New Guinean-Australian region, with representatives on the is-
lands from Celebes and Timor to the Solomons. Ages ago,
during the days of dinosaurs, they were also widely distributed
in Europe. Many pouched animals in southern New Guinea are
so closely related to those on the Australian mainland that they
are considered only racially distinct.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
17
Meat- and Insect-eating Marsupials.
Family Dasyurid^
Wolf-like, weasel-like, and rat-like marsupials have all of the
toes independent. Four incisor teeth are seen on each side of
the upper jaw, three in the lower one; the cheek-teeth have
sharp cusps and the upper ones are usually triangular in shape.
The Marsupial "Wolf," "Tiger," or Thylacine (Thylacinus) ,
now confined to Tasmania and possibly approaching extinction
Fig. 5— Marsupial ''Wolf
there, is the counterpart among marsupials of the true wolf.
The snout is rather long, the ears shorter and lower than those
of northern dogs and wolves, and the tail is thick at the base,
long and tapered. Its color is brown, with a series of blackish
brown stripes parallel to the ribs, which begin near the shoul-
ders, reach their maximum length in the rump and thighs, and
cease a short way beyond the base of the tail. The pouch, open-
ing backward, contains four nipples. Two to four young are
born.
The marsupial wolf is about the size of a collie dog ; its over-
all length is sixty-five inches, including the twenty-inch tail.
18
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
In the natural state these animals probably ate wallabies and
other Tasmanian mammals, but as they took to killing sheep
in numbers after their introduction, they were nearly extermi-
nated. The animals are nocturnal, spending the day concealed
in dens in hilly country. They are reported to be shy, but if
cornered to turn savagely on dogs employed to hunt them. The
voice consists of a series of "husky or guttural coughing barks."
Fig. 6 — Tasmanian Devil
Fossil evidence proves that these marsupials were widely dis-
tributed in Australia before the advent there of man.
The Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus) is a somewhat ungainly
animal, colored blackish, with a few white spots on chest, sides,
and rump. The hind quarters are weak and the tail is consider-
ably shorter than the body, but the jaws are exceedingly pow-
erful. The pouch, which contains two pairs of teats, opens
backward. The total length is forty inches, including the
twelve-inch tail.
Tasmanian devils are markedly carnivorous, raiding chicken
roosts and possibly killing young sheep. Their natural food
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
19
consists of small wallabies, rats, ground birds, and lizards. The
animals are cunning, intractable, and savage but if caught
very young make docile and amusing pets. They are found
now only in Tasmania, but formerly inhabited the Australian
mainland.
The Marsupial "Cats" or "Tiger Cats" or Dasyures (Dasy-
urus), which comprise several species, look more weasel-like than
*- ^.-iJT
Fig. 7— Marsupial ''Cat''
cat-like. They are the size of a small cat or the American little
spotted skunk — about nineteen inches in total length, including
the tail which is about nine inches. They are reddish brown
or olive-brown in color, marked with white spots on the head
and body. A well-developed pouch is present in females, which
may contain four to six young. The dasyures feed largely on
rats, birds, and insects. Around settlements they are disliked
because of their fondness for poultry. The marsupial "cats"
or dasyures are widely distributed in Australia. One species
occurs on New Guinea but does not extend to the adjacent
islands.
20 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Marsupial "Mice" (Phascogale, Dasyuroides, and allies)
live chiefly on insects, but they may also eat flesh and some veg-
etable matter. They are the size of rats and mice, nine to six-
teen and one-half inches in total length. The tail is three and
three-fourths to eight inches long, usually less than the length
of head and body, but in some species it is equal to this or
slightly longer. The snout is long and pointed, and the tail in
some species is densely haired, as in tree shrews. The females
of some species have pouches. Those of others have poorly
marked folds of skin around the area of the mammse. In certain
species of Sminthopsis, one of which is found in New Guinea and
the Aru Islands, the thickened tail serves for storage of fat.
One genus (Antechinomys), which has developed long legs, hops
like a jumping mouse. The New Guinea marsupial mice are less
varied and specialized than those of Australia.
Banded Anteaters. Family Myemecobiid^
The banded anteater {Myrmecohius) is a specialized rela-
tive of the marsupial "cats." Externally it resembles a long-
snouted ground squirrel. Its rather harsh coat is colored bright
rufous brown above and whitish beneath. On the back, parallel
to the ribs, is a series of six or seven white stripes. It has long
claws but does not make burrows. The tongue can be extended
far out of the mouth. Myrmecohius is peculiar in possessing
more than the usual number of teeth; an extra molar can be
seen in each jaw. No pouch remains; the nipples are four in
number. The food consists principally of termites which are
swallowed whole.
This beautiful little animal is now found only in southwest-
em Australia and appears there to be threatened with extinc-
tion. A second species which occurred in Victoria and New
South Wales has not been seen for many years.
Bandicoots. Family Peramelid^
The bandicoots have in general long, narrow feet with long
claws, tapered, pointed snouts, and rather short tails. The
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 21
pouch opens backward. The less specialized bandicoots occur
in New Guinea and nearby islands ; more specialized types — the
rabbit bandicoot and the pig-footed bandicoot — are found in
Australia only.
The Australian Bandicoot (Perameles), which includes also
the banded bandicoots of southern Australia, has rather coarse
gray-brown pelage and moderately large ears. These animals
are nocturnal insect-eaters, and generally inoffensive. Their
total length is about twenty inches.
The Spiny Bandicoot of New Guinea (Echymipera), also
gray-brown, occurs all over that island below three thousand
feet and also on the Bismarcks, Japan, Waigeu, Aru, and Kei.
The size is variable — from ten to twenty inches.
The Long-legged Bandicoot {Peroryctes raff ray ana) oc-
curs only in New Guinea. The adult size is about thirty inches
from nose to tip of tail, of which the tail accounts for about
eight inches. The mountain bandicoot, a smaller relation (P.
dorsalis), has finer fur and a black stripe along the middle of
the back.
The Ceram Bandicoot (Rhynchomeles) is much like Pero-
ryctes.
The Short-faced Bandicoots (Isoodon) are light gray-brown
in color. The hair is wiry and not at all spiny. The tail is pro-
portionally long. The total length is eighteen inches, of which
the tail measures seven inches. Widely dispersed in northern
Australia, with representation in the savannas of southern New
Guinea and Port Moresby, these bandicoots are characteristic
of grassy regions.
The Shrew Bandicoot (Microperoryctes), found only in the
mountains of Dutch New Guinea, is black. It is exceptionally
small, measuring about nine inches from nose to tip of tail.
The Rabbit Bandicoot or Bilby (Macrotis) is one of the
oddities of nature. It is a soft-haired, pale gray-brown bandi-
coot with white underparts, with a well-haired, moderately
long tail and very large, rabbit-like ears. Two kinds are
known, both from the southern half of Australia. The total
22 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
Fig. 8 — Rabbit Bandicoot
length is twenty-seven inches, with the tail measuring nine
inches.
The Pig-footed Bandicoot (Chosropus) has feet with claws
less pointed and more hoof-like than have others of the family.
The ears are quite large, although not so large as those of the
rabbit bandicoot. Unlike its insect-eating relatives, this bandi-
coot feeds wholly on leaves, bulbs, and fruits. The total length
is fourteen inches, including the four-inch tail. It was found
formerly through the greater part of Australia, except the
north, but now is in danger of extinction.
Marsupial Mole. Family Notoryctid^
The Marsupial Mole (Notoryctes) is highly peculiar and
primitive, possibly an offshoot of the bandicoot family. The
eyes and external ears are obsolete. The hands, provided with
heavy claws, are adapted for excavating soil, and the feet are
used to drive loosened earth backward in the burrow. The snout
and tail have tough skin coverings. The pouch opens back-
ward. The fur is fine and silky, its color yellowish white, vary-
ing to tawny. The total length is six to six and one-half inches ;
tail, one inch.
Like true moles, the marsupial mole lives at high pressure,
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 23
consuming huge amounts of food, mainly worms and insects, and
spends much of its time digging.
Possums, Cuscuses, Flying Phalangers.
Family Phalangerid^
This large family includes the following general types of
marsupials : possums, striped possums, mouse possums, cuscuses,
ring-tails, flying possums or gliders, and honey possum. Some
are squirrel-like, others lemur-like, others mouse-like, and yet
others resemble flying squirrels.
The Australian Possum (Trichosurus) is one of the best-
known members of the family. Its coat has been used exten-
Fig. 9 — Aicstralian Possum
sively in the fur business. Although somewhat squirrel-like,
these animals differ by their prehensile or grasping tails and
by their large, cat-like ears and pointed noses. The head re-
sembles that of our ring-tailed cat of the southwestern United
States. The color is highly variable — gray in some races, black-
ish brown in others. The fur of the body and tail is dense except
24 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
on the prehensile surface. The size is approximately thirty
inches from nose to tip of tail ; tail, eleven inches. It is found
in most of Australia.
The Striped Possum (Dactylopsila) is distinctly marked
lengthwise with three broad black stripes on a whitish gray
ground color — a very conspicuous pattern. The tail is whitish.
Fig. 10 — Striped Possum
The head and ears are formed much like those of the common
possum but the tail has even less tactile surface; the fourth
finger of the hand is the longest. The total length is about
twenty inches, of which nearly one-half is tail. The animal is
nocturnal ; its food is made up of fruit and insects. New Guinea
is the headquarters of this species, a single race being found
in northern Queensland.
A related striped possum {Dactylonax)^ found only in New
Guinea, has the fourth finger of the hand drawn out into a
slender probe-like structure nearly twice as long as the cor-
responding finger of Dactylopsila. This finger may perhaps
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AEEA 25
be used to insert into worm-holes or bees' nests in trees to dis-
lodge insect food.
Mouse Possums, Pygmy Possums, Dormouse Phalangers
(Eudromicia and allies) are tiny, mouse-like possums with
long, nearly bare, prehensile tails. The color is some shade of
brown, with underparts white. The over-all length is eight to
ten inches ; tail about five inches. These little animals are noc-
turnal, feeding on insects and fruit. Several species are known
in Australia but only one in New Guinea.
The Feather-tailed Mouse Possum (Distoechurus), found
only in New Guinea, is a rare animal, nearly equal in size but
not closely related to Eudromicia. The tail is fringed with a
row of long hairs on each side which give it a feather-like ap-
pearance.
The Cuscuses (Phalanger) are slow-moving, tree-living,
prehensile-tailed, monkey-like marsupials, with small ears al-
most buried in the dense fur. Several main types occur: the
gray or striped cuscuses, which have black, reddish, and brown
varieties, the ursine or blackish cuscus of Celebes, and the
spotted cuscus, in which the male only is spotted. The pouch
opens forward. One or two young occupy it at a time.
The cuscuses are all vegetarians. They are chiefly nocturnal
and spend the day concealed in masses of vines or foliage or
in hollow trees.
The Gray Cuscuses (Phalanger orient alis) are represented
all over New Guinea and the adjoining islands including the
Solomons. Representatives are known on the Moluccas and on
Celebes, as well as on Wetar and Timor. In the mountains of
New Guinea a species (P. vestitus) with long silky fur is known.
The length is generally thirty to thirty-six inches, of which
fourteen to sixteen inches are tail.
The Bear Cuscus {Phalanger ur sinus) is a large brownish
black species, the hairs plentifully grizzled with white, which is
found on Celebes, Salayer, and Talaut Islands. Its actions are
sluggish.
26
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Spotted Cuscus (Phalanger maculatus) is one of those
rare kinds of animals in which the color pattern of the male is
sharply different from that of the female. In New Guinea,
north of the mountains, the general colors are brown and white,
the males having the brown back strongly spotted with white,
the females with the back unspotted. South of the mountains
Fig. 11 — Spotted Cuscus (male)
males have in addition blackish brown spots on the rump ; the
females have a blackish rump, more or less silvered with white.
In Queensland the males of the local race are predominantly
white with gray spots. The females are gray above and white
beneath. The total length is three and one-half feet, of which
almost half is tail. The spotted cuscuses are present also in
New Britain and on the Admiralty Islands.
The Ring-tails {Pseudocheirus, Petropseudes) are a large
group of cuscus-like marsupials found in both Australia and
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 27
New Guinea but not on the islands. They have dense, rather
soft hair, strongly prehensile tails (hence the common name),
and the thumb and forefinger together are opposable against
the other three digits. Characters of their teeth separate them
sharply from the true cuscuses and indicate distant relation-
ship to the koala or native bear. All have vegetarian diets and
all but Petropseudes live in rain forest, where they are strictly
arboreal. Five or six very distinct species occur in New Guinea,
and nearly as many more in eastern Australia. The size, de-
pendent upon the species, varies from that of a red squirrel to
that of a cat.
The Rock-haunting Ring-tail {Petropseudes dahli) of the
Northern Territory of Australia is characterized by its short
tail, which barely equals half the length of head and body which
is eighteen inches.
The Flying Phalangers {Petaurus, Acrobates, Schoino-
hates), locally called flying squirrels, are among the most in-
teresting and delightful of the Australian pouched animals.
All are built on the plan of the American flying squirrel, with
broad membranes attached to front and hind limbs by means
of which they glide downward from tree to tree. It is interest-
ing to note that this type of locomotion has developed twice
independently in the marsupials, since Petaurus and Acrohates
are relatives of possums and cuscuses, while Schoinohates, the
largest of the flying phalangers, nearly a yard in length, is
allied to the ring-tails and koala. All have forward-opening
pouches, are nocturnal, and eat fruit and insects.
The Lesser Flying Phalanger {Petaurus hreviceps and al-
lies) is a brownish gray, soft-furred animal with white or buffy
underparts. The size is about fifteen inches, including the eight-
inch tail. It is found throughout New Guinea and on New
Britain, Aru, and the Gilolo group of islands. In Australia
it is represented by very similar forms.
The Yellow-bellied Flying Phalanger {Petaurus australis)
is considerably larger. The color is dark brownish gray above,
28
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Fig. 12 — Lesser Flying Ph danger
yellowish white beneath. The length is almost thirty inches, of
which seventeen inches are tail. It is found in eastern Australia
from southern Queensland to Victoria.
The Pygmy Flying Phalanger (Acrobat es) is a tiny species,
grayish above, white beneath. The length is about six inches,
nearly half of which is tail. It is distributed from Queensland
to Victoria.
The Greater Flying Phalanger (Schoinohates) has very
long, soft fur. The ears are large and naked, and the tip of
the tail prehensile. In the present species the flying membrane
is attached to the elbow, not to the wrist, as in those described
before. In color it is dark ashy gray above, varying from black-
ish to quite pale gray; underparts are whitish. The length is
thirty-six inches, including the twenty-inch tail. Its range is
Queensland to Victoria.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 29
The Koala or "Native Bear" (Phascolarctos), one of the fa-
vorite Australian mammals in zoological gardens or in pic-
tures, appears bear-like only because of its chunky build and
tailless condition. The fur is dense, woolly, and gray in color.
Fig. IS— Koala
The ears are short, limp, heavily furred, and the hands agree
with those of the ring-tails in having the index finger together
with the thumb opposable against the other fingers. The head
and body are thirty to thirty-two inches long.
These rather lumbering tree-climbers have the ability to
spring from one nearly upright branch to another vertical
30 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
branch several feet away. The food is restricted to certain
types of eucalyptus leaves, notably those of gray and blue
gum trees in Queensland and New South Wales and the manna
gum in Victoria. A single young one is born at a time which,
after developing in the backward-opening pouch, commonly
rides on the mother's back. The koala is distributed from
Queensland to Victoria, in parts now very scarce or extinct.
The Honey Possum (Tarsipes), a tiny creature distantly
related to the mouse possums, has a long muzzle, a greatly
extensible tongue, and a long tail with prehensile tip. The gen-
eral color is chestnut-brown on the sides, and on the back there
are three blackish longitudinal stripes separated from each
other by buffy whitish stripes. The well-developed pouch con-
tains four nipples ; the number of young carried therein is from
one to four. The total length is about seven inches ; tail, about
four inches. The honey possum, which has weak teeth, feeds
on the nectar and pollen of flowers and small insects. The
animals are nocturnal climbers ; they may be gregarious, a
number living together in one hole. They are found only in
southwestern Australia.
The Wombats. Family Vombatid^
In this small family are contained the marsupial counterpart
of our woodchucks. Although descended probably from tree-
dwelling ancestors they have acquired many characters that fit
them for burrowing. The bodies are thick and heavily muscular,
the limbs powerful, the claws heavy and strong, but the tail is
a mere rudiment. The length of head and body is about forty
inches. The pouch contains only two nipples ; usually only one
young one is born. These nocturnal animals feed upon vegeta-
tion—grasses, roots, bulbs, and fungi. Although wombat bur-
rows up to one hundred feet long have been measured, most are
much shorter.
Four species of rather similar appearance are known, be-
longing to three genera (Vombatus, Lasiorhinus, Wombatula).
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 31
Fig. 14 — Wombat
Their range includes only Australia and Tasmania; in many
parts of the former, wombats are now extinct.
Kangaroos and Wallabies. Family Macropodid^
The kangaroo family is marked by the long hind feet adapted
for two-legged hopping and leaping, the long stout tail gen-
erally used as a prop, single lower incisor tooth separated by a
considerable space from the cheek-teeth. Pouches open for-
ward, and a single young one or "joey" is as a rule nursed at a
time. Almost all are plant-eaters.
The largest kangaroos belong to the genus Macropus. Many
of the species are becoming rare. The visitor to Australia will
probably see only some of the many kinds of medium-sized or
small species, collectively termed wallabies.
The Red and Gray Kangaroos. (Macropus rufa and M.
major) are the two best known of the large kangaroos. The
red kangaroos commonly show a grayish or "blue" phase, thus
somewhat resembling the true gray kangaroo, but may be dis-
tinguished by the strongly defined black whisker-mark on each
side of the nostrils, which is edged beneath with white. The red
32 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
kangaroos are restricted to the inland plains of New South
Wales but they had formerly a far wider range.
The gray kangaroo or forester inhabits open forests and
brush from northern Queensland to South Australia, and dis-
tinct races appear in southwestern Australia and in Tasmania.
A third type of large kangaroo, the Wallaroos or Antilopine
Kangaroos (Osphranter) which haunt rocky places, have rela-
tively shorter, stockier limbs than have Macropus. The tip of
the muzzle between the nostrils is hairless (in Macropus it is
more or less hairy). A good many kinds of wallaroos have been
distinguished, and both red and gray kinds exist among them.
The total length may reach eight feet, of which three feet make
up the length of the tail. The typical wallaroo ranged orig-
inally from Queensland to Victoria; the antilope wallaroo, its
close relative, lives in the Northern Territory of Australia.
Still another race of wallaroo occurs in the southwest of Aus-
tralia.
The wallabies include a far wider assortment of animals than
do the large kangaroos. They include four general groups of
animals of typical kangaroo appearance: sand wallabies,
pademelons, rock wallabies, and hare wallabies.
Sand or Agile Wallabies (Wallabia) and allies include some
seven species, among which may be mentioned the pretty-face,
black-tailed, red-necked, black-gloved, and agile wallabies.
These names relate to their distinctive characters and serve
fairly well to distinguish them. A white hip-stripe is seen in
several. One, the agile wallaby, is known beyond Australia ; in
southern New Guinea and on the savannas about Port Moresby
a race of this wallaby is common. The size is variable, but gen-
erally the over-all length is about five feet, of which the tail
measures two and one-half feet.
The Pademelons or Scrub Wallabies (Thylogale, Setonix)
are generally smaller than the wallabies of the "agile" group.
Many of the Australian forms are reddish brown or chestnut
on the nape and hind legs, while distinct offshoots found in
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 33
New Guinea (T. browni and others) are colored dark choco-
late-brown. Examples are red-necked, red-legged, red-bellied,
dama, and white-throated pademelons, of which the dama alone
is relatively uniform in color. The red-legged pademelon has
recently been found in the extreme south of New Guinea.
A distinctive species, the Short-tailed pademelon or Quokka
(Setonicv), occurs in Western Australia. It is a little smaller
than most ; the size from nose to tip of tail is thirty-three inches,
of which the tail includes ten inches.
The Gazelle-faced Wallabies (Dorcopsis), a group found
only in New Guinea, are superficially like the dark brown
pademelons. They can be distinguished by their nearly naked
ears and particularly by the hairs of the back of the neck which
are arranged so that they lie forward from a hair-whorl just
behind the shoulders, whereas in Thylogale browni the hairs
begin at the back of the head and lie smoothl}^ and continuously
down the neck and back. Dorcopsis is also distinguished by the
greatly lengthened premolar teeth. D. brunii, the commonest
of these wallabies, is a lowland species inhabiting forested areas
of southern New Guinea. A second species (Z). hageni), with a
thin white line down the back, is found on the northern side of
New Guinea, and a tiny third species {D. macleayi) with long
lax hair is known only from the high mountains of that island
above ten thousand feet.
The Rock Wallabies (Petrogale and Per adore as) are small
animals about the size of the pademelons. The tail is long and
of more uniform thickness than in the wallabies thus far de-
scribed. It is less seldom used as a third hind leg to prop
up the animals' bodies. At least five types of rock wallabies
are known, most with white shoulder and hip-stripes, and one
with the tail distinctly ringed with dark brown {Petrogale
xanthopus) .
The Nail- tailed Wallaby (Onychogale) is a distinct group
of three species, all of which have a horny projection at the
tip of the tail.
34 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Hare Wallabies {Lagostrophus, Lagorchestes), the
smallest of the wallabies, are so named for their hare-like speed
and their habits of crouching close and solitary on "forms,"
like hares. The banded hare wallaby (Lagostrophus), known
only in Western Australia, is conspicuously patterned with
transverse blackish marks across the back on a ground of
brownish gray. The remaining species of hare wallabies (La-
gorchestes) have dark backs and a wash of red on the outside
of the thighs (whitish in L. conspicillatus, which has also a
reddish patch around each eye).
The Tree Kangaroos (Dendrolagus) are a specialized oif-
shoot of the kangaroos and wallabies, whose legs, still of leap-
ing type, have nevertheless become shorter and more massive.
The foot pads are granular ; they assist in climbing. Six quite
distinct species with several geographical races are known, four
from New Guinea and two from Australia.
Tree kangaroos reach a total length of four feet approxi-
mately, of which the tail equals about half. All are agile climb-
ers and some can make downward leaps of thirty feet with re-
markable sureness.
Matschie's Tree Kangaroo (D. matschiei), with bright
golden chestnut upperparts and golden yellow tail, appears
restricted to northern New Guinea. A close relative (D. good-
fellowi) with dark bands on the tail, inhabits the slopes of the
central ranges of New Guinea.
Doria's Tree Kangaroo (D. dorianus) is grayish brown, with
a yellow-brown patch on the rump, at the base of the tail. It
lives in the central ranges of New Guinea.
The "Bear-like" Tree Kangaroo (D. ursinus) is a brownish
black species, with the hair tips occasionally frosted with white.
It is found only in western New Guinea.
The Grizzled Tree Kangaroo (D. inustus) is brownish gray
with the hair tips heavily grizzled ; the tail is sometimes nearly
all white. It is found only in the western half of New Guinea.
The Australian species, Bennett's and Lumholtz's Tree
Fig. 15 — Tree Kangaroo
35
36 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Kangaroos {D. bennetti and D. lumholtzi), are dark gray-
brown, the former without strong markings. Lumholtz's tree
kangaroo has the legs, cheeks, and forehead clear buff color.
Both live in the mountains of northern Queensland.
The Rat Kangaroos (Subfamily Potoroin.e) are consider-
ably less kangaroo-like than are the wallabies and true kanga-
roos. Their ears are small and rounded and the claws of the
hands are large, to suit their scratching and digging habits.
The hind legs are nevertheless elongate and well adapted for
leaping. Three main groups occur:
The Short-nosed Rat Kangaroos (Bettongia) include four
species, all of which are brownish gray with whitish under-
parts. The distribution of the group is limited to southeastern
Australia, Tasmania, and southwestern Australia.
The Rufous Rat Kangaroo {Aeyyprymnus) is the largest of
the rat kangaroos. Its total length is a little less than three
feet, of which the tail measures fifteen inches. It is reddish
gray with underparts white.
The Long-nosed and Broad-faced Rat Kangaroos {Poto-
rous) are all dark reddish gray, with pale underparts, and
look even more rat-like than those just described. The hind
foot is considerably shorter than the head, and locomotion is
more nearly on all fours.
The ranges of two of the long-nosed rat kangaroos are
respectively southeastern Australia (P. tridactylus) and the
extreme southwest of Western Australia (P. gilberti) ; that of
the broad-faced rat kangaroo (P. platyops) is southwest
Western Australia.
The Musk Kangaroo {Hypsiprymnodon) is regarded as the
most primitive animal of the kangaroo family. It is also the
smallest. The teeth are least specialized for eating grass and
leaves, and the hind foot has five toes. The first toe, absent
in other kangaroos, is movable and clawless. The tail is hair-
less, covered with scaly skin. The musk kangaroo is dark red-
dish brown, slightly paler beneath. The total length is eighteen
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 37
inches ; tail, six to seven inches. A strong musky odor is given
off. The diet is more generalized than that of most kangaroos ;
besides roots and fruits, insects and worms are eaten. It is
restricted to Queensland.
Insectivores. Order Insectivora
In the islands with which we are concerned, the insect-eaters
are represented by hedgehogs, gymnures (rat-like insectivores),
shrews, moles, and tree shrews. Most of these feed on insects
and have sharp-cusped cheek-teeth; the cusps looked at from
above are arranged in the shape of the letter W. The incisor
teeth are pincer-like in most cases. The muzzles are long and
pointed, projecting well beyond the mouth opening. Insec-
tivores usually have five toes on both fore and hind feet, and
they walk on the whole sole and palm rather than on the toes
as dogs and cats do. The first or inner pair of incisors is
usually the largest and the canine is either like the incisors or
like the first cheek-teeth.
Although the small shrews are often mistaken for mice, the
gymnures for rats, and the tree shrews for squirrels, the in-
cisor teeth of these insectivores are not chisel-like, there is no
large gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, nor are the
cheek-teeth modified for grinding. These differences, together
with the characters given above, should be sufficient to distin-
guish the insectivores from any of the rodents.
This order is a very ancient group and contains the most
primitive of the placental mammals. It is thought that most
of the higher orders have been derived from early insectivores.
The flying lemurs or colugos of the Order Dermoptera (p. 44)
are probably closely related, and the bats may have developed
from the same stock as these gliders. The tree shrews are
thought by many to be ancestral to the primates (monkeys,
etc.), and some authors place them in that order. They are
included here because, although no doubt related to the pri-
mates, they have more in common with the insectivores.
38 mammals of the pacific world
Hedgehogs and Gymnures. Family Erinaceid^
The Hedgehogs (Erinaceus), although widespread in Eu-
rope, Africa, and Asia, are not known from the Malay Sub-
region but they are found in Formosa. They are stout-bodied
mammals, about ten inches long, with short legs and tail; the
back and sides are covered with a dense coat of sharp spines.
When alarmed a hedgehog puts its head and feet underneath
its body and curls up into a ball, the spines all erected and pro-
jecting in every direction. Most hunting mammals leave hedge-
hogs alone. These spiny insectivores feed on worms, slugs,
snakes, and small mammals, in addition to insects. The four
or five young are nearly naked when born and are protected
from enemies and the weather in a nest constructed of leaves
and grass.
American porcupines are sometimes wrongly called "hedge-
hogs," but the only things the two kinds of mammals have in
common to confuse people are their spines. Those of the hedge-
hog are firmly anchored to the skin and are not left in a wound
like the barbed quills of the American porcupine. True hedge-
hogs are not found in America.
The gymnures are hairy, rat-like relatives of the hedgehogs.
They lack spines. Instead of these they have long, coarse hair
overlying woolly fur, and their tails are naked and rat-like.
Their skulls and teeth are very similar to those of the hedge-
hog, and this is true of their other internal structures.
The Common Gymnure or Moom-at {Echinosorex) is
twenty to twenty-four inches in total length, the tail being
about one-third of this. The head and body are often parti-
colored, blackish and white, or entirely white. This insec-
tivore is found in the Malay region from Burma and Siam to
Sumatra and Borneo.
The Lesser Gymnure {Hylomys) is brown and has a short
tail, only about an inch long; its over-all length is about six
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AEEA 39
inches. The lesser gymnure shares the range of its larger rela-
tive and also reaches Java.
The Mindanao Gymnure (Podogymnura) is known only
from Mount Apo in the Philippines. It is a gray species with
long reddish brown guard hairs. Its total length is about eight
Fig. 16 — Common Gymnure or Moonrat
and one-fourth inches, with the tail a little less than two and
one-half inches.
Gymnures feed largely on termites and cockroaches, com-
mon in their habitat, but other insects are not refused. They
have a rather disagreeable garlic-like odor, and are not appre-
ciated as food by many carnivorous mammals.
Shrews. Family Soeicid^
These sharp-nosed little mammals are often confused with
rats and mice. They are true insectivores, however, and form
a rather uniform group. They are found almost everywhere
except in Australia, Oceania, and the greater part of South
America. The ears are round and usually hairy, the snout
long and flexible, the eyes small, and the two-cusped front up-
40 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
per incisors project forward as well as downward. In the skull
the cheek arch is incomplete.
Red-toothed Shrews (Sorex) are the commonest insectivores
of the northern parts of the world. Species are found in Japan,
the Kuriles, and the Aleutians. The Aleutian shrew, its toes
fringed with long hair, is partly aquatic in habit. Only one
specimen has been collected and that many years ago on Un-
alaska Island. These shrews feed largely on insects, grubs, and
snails, but often eat vegetable matter also. In Alaska they
may get into flour and cereals in storage and do great damage,
much as house mice do.
Two Long-tailed Shrews {Soriculusy Chodsigoa) are found
in Formosa. They are close relatives of the common red-
toothed shrews but have fewer teeth; their teeth also have red
tips.
White-toothed Shrews (Crocidura, Suncus) are often called
musk shrews, because of their disagreeable odor. In addition
to having white teeth, they have scattered long bristles on the
short tail, mixed with short inconspicuous hairs. Various species
occur in Europe, Asia, and Africa, on the Malaysian islands
east as far as Timor, and on the Philippines, Formosa, and
Japan. Most of the shrews of the islands are about the size
of mice. One of the smallest mammals known belongs to this
group.
The Large Musk Shrew or House Shrew {Suncus murinus)
is about ten inches long, of which the tail comprises four inches.
It is carried about on native boats like the house mouse, and
in consequence is widespread. In India people say that if one
of these shrews walks over a bottle of wine it ruins the flavor,
even through the glass. This may be exaggeration, but the
scent is very powerful, offensive, and lasting.
The house shrew makes a peculiar chatter as it runs about,
a noise somewhat like the jingle of coins. For this reason the
natives of some regions call it the "money mouse." Besides
living in houses, it often inhabits swamps and the margins of
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
41
ponds. It feeds largely on cockroaches and other insects that
frequent houses, but it also eats some of the food intended for
human consumption. When cornered it bites fiercely. Cats
frequently kill musk shrews although they do not eat them.
Fig. 17 — Large Mush Shrew
The Asiatic Water Shrews (Chimarrogale) occur in the
mountains of Japan, Borneo, and Sumatra. Their teeth are
white, unlike those of the American water shrews. The toes
of their large hind feet are fringed with stiff hairs and their
fur is like long-piled velvet, coarser but more silky than that of
land shrews. They are grayish or brownish black above and
white below, and are among the largest shrews — about eight
inches in total length, the tail about three inches. The body is
heavier than that of the house shrew, which has similar dimen-
sions. Water shrews usually live in swift streams ; they are said
to walk along the bottom feeding on the water insects and
probably also on fish and amphibians. The entrances of their
burrows are usually under water.
Moles and Their Allies. Family Talpid^
Most members of this family make burrows and live under
ground. The fur is short and velvet-like, the front feet broad,
42 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
and the snout long. The first upper incisor is not much larger
than the others and is simple in contrast to that of shrews.
In the skull the cheek arch, although slender, is complete.
The Hairy-tailed Shrew Moles (Urotrichus, Dymecodon)
occur in Japan but in none of the other islands included in
this discussion; related moles are found in western United
States. They are small; the body is a little larger than that
of a mouse, with the tail slightly shorter than the body. Their
front feet are not broadened noticeably, but the claws are long.
They emerge from the ground more frequently than other
moles and dig by scratching out the soil from holes more like
rodents or dogs.
True Moles (Mogera) of Japan and Formosa are closely al-
lied to those found in China and southern Asia. They resemble
the common moles of the United States and Europe in their
general torpedo-like shape and short tail, hardly longer than
the hind foot. The front feet are broad and almost round
in shape; there are no external ears, and the minute eyes are
hidden by the fur. These moles are blackish in color, like most
species, and are a little less than six inches in total length, with
the tail about one inch, excluding the hairs. Other kinds of moles
are found in the Malay Peninsula, but they do not reach the
islands.
Moles may be said to swim through the ground, using a
breast stroke, in their search for earthworms, snails, and
grubs, and they constantly use the tough-skinned, elongate
snout to pry the soil apart. For this method of burrowing they
require damp, fairly soft earth and thus are absent from areas
where the soil is rocky, dry, or barren. They are very active,
especially after a rain, and have been reported to make a run
almost a hundred yards long in a single night. Considering
the size of the mole, a man would have to dig a tunnel several
miles long in the same length of time in order to equal the work
of this mammal. Ridges mark the course of the superficial
runs, the earth having been pushed up and to each side, but
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 43
earth from the deeper burrows is pushed up in symmetrical,
rounded mole-hills.
Tree Shrews. Family Tupaiid^
The Common Tree Shrews (Tupaia) resemble squirrels in
habits, color, bushy tail, and the shape of the hind feet. They
are distinguished from squirrels by their long, pointed noses.
They have five toes on the front feet. Their upper teeth con-
Fig. 18 — Common Tree Shrew
sist of two incisors on each side, a small peg-like canine, and
six check-teeth; the fourth and fifth cheek-teeth (first two
molars) have the cusps arranged in a W-pattern and are much
broader than the other teeth. The orbit (eye-socket) is com-
pletely surrounded by a bony ringj and the cheek arch is com-
plete. Tree shrews feed on insects, leaves, and fruit, and occa-
sionally the eggs and young of birds. They are often active
during the day-time. Tree shrews are found from India,
Burma, and southern China to Borneo, Bali, and the Philip-
44 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
pines. The common tree shrew is known in the Philippines only
from Palawan Island.
The Pen-tailed Tree Shrew (Ptilocercus) is found in Bor-
neo, Sumatra, and the Malay States. It is dark brownish above,
with yellowish cheeks and white underparts. A black mask runs
from the eye to the nose; the tail is chiefly blackish but the
feather-like tuft at its end is mixed with white. It is not at all
common.
Slender-tailed Tree Shrews {Dendrogale^ Urogale), their
tails without the bushiness of the common kind or the feather-
like tuft of Ptilocercus^ occur in Indo-China and Borneo. Uro-
gale is restricted to Mindanao, the Philippines.
Fig. 19 — Flying Lemur
Flying Lemurs. Order Dermoptera.
Family Cynocephalid^
The Flying Lemurs (Cynocephalus), sometimes called co-
begos, colugos, or caguans, are about the size of a large squir-
rel. The face is somewhat dog-like, the limbs and tail long.
A broad, thin membrane of furry skin stretches from the neck
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 45
to the thumb, between the fingers, from wrist to ankle, between
the toes, and from the end of the long outer toes to the tip of
the tail. This animal shows the highest development of the
gliding adaptation ; the membrane is much more extensive than
that found in the flying squirrels. Although it provides no mo-
tive power, the colugo can control its direction. It can glide
about seventy yards, and even in the still air of the forest loses
little altitude. The fur is very soft and fine. The color varies
from grayish to dark brown or chestnut mottled or blotched
with silvery white. Flying lemurs are nocturnal animals, living
chiefly on leaves and fruits. They are found from the Malay
Peninsula and Siam to the Philippines, Borneo, and Java.
Bats. Order Chiroptera
The bats are an old and very distinct order of mammals.
No other furred animals have wings or can actually fly. Those
other mammals which make use of air resistance, such as flying
lemurs, flying squirrels, and flying phalangers, glide by wide
"planes" of skin stretched between the front and hind limbs,
but none of these provides its own flying power. Different as
bat wings are structurally from those of birds, they are almost
as efficient.
The wing of a bat consists of the framework, like the ribs
of an umbrella, formed by the greatly elongated bones of the
hand, fingers, and arm, and the thin, elastic, generally naked
skin which covers the frame and extends between the front and
hind limbs. An additional membrane, the interfemoral mem-
brane, often connects the tail with the hind legs but this may
be reduced or absent. The thumb is free, its claw hook-like.
The hind feet are provided with, sharp, hook-like claws, by
which bats attach themselves to branches or walls of caves or
buildings and hang head downwards. This is the common po-
sition. Measurements in bats are especially important. They
are usually measured as to head and body length, tail length,
and length of the forearm, from wrist to the elbow.
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
Interfemoral
Membrane
Tail
Digit III
Fig. 20 — Typical Bat, showing parts of flying mechanism
There are two major divisions of the Bat Order — the usually
large fruit bats and the insectivorous bats, almost all of small
size.
Fruit Bats. Suborder Megachiroptera.
Family Pteropodid^
Although some members of this family are small, with a body
about the size of a mouse and the wing-spread less than a foot,
most fruit bats are large, the largest having the head and body
about a foot in length and the wing-spread as much as five feet.
The face is usually fox-like, but in a few species has a short,
rounded profile. The tail is often absent, and when present is
usually short. The cheek-teeth are generally blunt-crowned;
even when the cusps are sharp they do not form the W-pattern
of insectivorous bats. Fruit bats are an Old World tropical
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
47
group, found also in Africa and southern Asia ; they occur
north to Japan and the Bonin Islands and east to the Caroline
Islands and Samoa. They are unknown on the Marshall, Gil-
Fig. 21 — Flying Fox
bert, or Ellice groups, and in New Zealand, but they are found
in northern and eastern Australia. Fruit bats are rather closely
related, and in spite of small differences, are included in a sin-
gle family, the Pteropodidag.
48 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Flying Foxes (Pteropus and a number of allied genera)
are the most widespread of the fruit bats in the western Pa-
cific islands, extending north to southern Japan and as far east
as Samoa. In Australia five species are recognized, at least one
of which is found as far south as the Victorian border. These
tailless bats have a fox-like face with a long slender muzzle.
Most bats of this group spend the day hanging in trees, often
in great numbers. They fly long distances at dusk to find fruit
or flowers over apparently well-established flying-ways. The
flesh of most is palatable, if the animals have been skinned
carefully to prevent the fur from touching it.
Short-nosed Fruit Bats {Cynopterus and several closely re-
lated genera) are restricted to the Oriental region, from In-
dia and the Philippine Islands east to Celebes. These bats
usually have a short tail. One or two tailless forms are re-
stricted to Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula.
Dog-faced or Rousette Bats (Rousettus), occurring through-
out Africa and the Indo-Australian region, extend east as far as
the Solomons but are not known from Australia. The muzzle
of these bats is a little shorter and heavier than that of the
flying foxes. The tail is short.
Spinal-winged Fruit Bats (Dohsonia) are much like dog-
faced bats, but the membranes of their naked wings are at-
tached to the body along the midline of the back rather than
along the sides. The posterior half of the back is naked, and
the index finger of the wing lacks a claw. The tail is as long
as the hind foot. Spinal-winged bats are found from Celebes,
Bali, and Sumba to the Solomons and Queensland.
Tube-nosed Fruit Bats {Nyctimene, Paranyctimene) have
their nostrils drawn out into tubes projecting beyond the rest
of the muzzle, which is shorter than in other fruit bats. The
well-marked tail is almost as long as the lower leg. No lower
incisors are developed, the lower canine teeth being in contact.
The color is brownish gray, with the wings and ears usually
spotted with yellowish; in most species a dark brown stripe
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
49
.^=^#51^
Fig. 22 — Tube-nosed Fruit Bat
extends down the back. Tube-nosed fruit bats are found from
Celebes and Timor to Queensland and Guadalcanal Island in
the Solomons.
The Harpy Fruit Bat
(Harpionycteris) resembles
the flying fox externally. It
is chocolate-brown and has
cusped cheek-teeth. It is small,
the forearm about three and
one-fourth inches, the head
and body about five and one-
half inches. It is found only
in the Philippines and Celebes.
Long-tongued Bats (Mac-
roglossus and related forms)
have a long, highly protrusi-
ble tongue and narrow cheek-
teeth that hardly show above
the gums. They are small, the
head and body length four and
one-half inches or less, the forearm not more than about two
and three-fourths inches. Eonycteris, superficially much like
RousettuSi has no claw on the index finger. It reaches from
Fig. 23 — Head of Long-tongued
Bat, showing protrusile tongue
50 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Sumatra eastward to Celebes and the Philippines. Melonycteris
of the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomons has very dark —
almost blackish — underparts ; and Nesonycteris from the same
group of islands is cinnamon-colored above and gray be-
neath.
The Long-tailed Fruit Bat (Notopteris) of the eastern
Melanesian Islands, resembles the spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia)
both in having no index claw and, as its technical name implies,
in having the wing membranes attached along the spine. The
tail is about as long as the forearm, which is two to three
inches. The small fruit bats (Macroglossus and allies) of this
long-tongued group feed on the juices of soft fruits and on
the nectar of flowers.
Insectivorous Bats. Suborder Microchiroptera
The insect-eating bats are usually of small size, although
in a few kinds the length of the head and body reaches five and
one-fourth inches and the wing-spread may be about thirty
inches. With the exception of the false vampire of Australia,
the insectivorous bats of the Pacific islands are small. The
cheek-teeth have sharp cusps, arranged in W-patterns when
viewed from above, and these teeth are squarish rather than
oblong. The index finger has never more than two joints and
has no claw; in all except the first family (Rhino pomidce) the
index finger is composed of the metacarpal bone only (see
fig. 20). The tail is usually about as long as the head and
body.
Nine families and more than thirty genera of these bats
occur in the region included in this discussion. Many of the
genera have so many species that lack of space prevents com-
plete description. The families and well-marked subfamily
groups are described beyond. Genera are listed in the index.
species of mammals of the pacific area 51
Mouse-tailed Bats. Family Rhinopomid^
A single species of these long-tailed bats (Rhinopoma) oc-
curs on Sumatra. Relatives live in Egypt and India. They
spend the days often in colonies, in caves, old ruins, or large
houses. The head and body are about three inches, the tail
about two and one-half inches, and the forearm about two and
five-eighths inches long. The interfemoral membrane is very
short in contrast to the long mouse-like tail, which extends
far beyond the membrane. The muzzle has a fleshy nose-leaf
and the rather large ears, which reach almost to the nose-leaf
when laid forward, are united across the forehead. The index
finger has two bony joints in addition to the metacarpal, a
unique condition among insectivorous bats.
Sheath-tailed Bats. Family EMBALLONURiDiE
In this family {Emhallonura, TaphozouSy and Saccolaimus)
the tail projects through the upperside of the interfemoral
membrane and ends free. The wing folds in a peculiar manner :
the first joint of the third finger folds back on the upperside
of the metacarpal (most insectivorous bats have the first joint
of the third finger extended in line with the metacarpal when
the wing is folded). The nostrils project in front of the mouth,
giving the face a sharp angular profile. No member of this
group has a nose-leaf. A pouch is frequently present beneath
the throat in Saccolaimus.
Most sheath-tailed bats are cave or crevice dwellers, often
found in old buildings, but some species in the Indies spend the
day in hollow trees. They sometinies feed on fruit in addition
to the usual insect diet. Bats of this family vary in size from
small to medium; head and body are from one and one-half
to three and one-half inches, tail from one-half to one and three-
eighths inches, and forearm from one and one-fourth to three
and one-fourth inches. They are found in the tropical parts
52
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
B
Fig. 24 — A. Tail of Sheath-tailed hat; top view; B. Head of
Slit-faced Bat; C. Head of False Vampire Bat; D. Head of Horse-
shoe Bat; E. Head of Leaf -nosed Bat
of both hemispheres ; they extend east to Samoa and Australia,
but are not found in New Zealand.
Slit- or Hollow-faced Bats. Family !N'ycterid;e
A species of the sole genus (Nycteris) occurs on Borneo,
Java, and east to Celebes and Timor; the other species are
African. They are characterized by a long tail, included in
the interfemoral membrane to the tip ; large ears, longer than
the head ; the slit down the front of the face, the edges of which
are swollen and into which the nostrils open ; and wings which
are large for the size of the body. The length of the head and
body is about two and one-half inches ; the tail is slightly
longer than this, while the forearm measures approximately
one and three-fourths inches.
species of mammals of the pacific area 53
False Vampire Bat. Family Megadermidje
One genus (Megaderma) extends from the Malay Peninsula
to Java and Borneo, while another {Macroderma) is Aus-
tralian. Related bats occur in eastern Africa. These bats have
no external tail. The ears are much longer than the head and
are united by a fold over the forehead. A large nose-leaf is
developed. The false vampires feed chiefly on smaller bats, ro-
dents, frogs, fish, and insects. In the Malaysian species the
head and body are about three and one-half inches long and
the forearm two and one-half inches. Macroderma, the very
large Australian false vampire, is colored pale gray, almost
whitish. The head and body length reaches five and one-half
inches, and the forearm four and three-eighths. It is the larg-
est insectivorous bat of the Pacific region.
Horseshoe Bats. Family Rhinolophid^
The many kinds of horseshoe bats are members of a single
genus (Rhinolophus). They are found throughout most of the
Old World, north to Japan and east to Australia and New
Guinea. The species range in size from small to medium. The
head and body are from one and one-half to three and one-
half inches long, the tail three-fourths to two and one-fourth
inches, shorter than the extended hind leg, the forearm one and
one-half to two and seven-eighths inches. All have a complex
nose-leaf, broad and horseshoe-shaped below but ending above
in a point. The ears are large, pointed, and somewhat con-
cave on the outer border below the tip. The wings fold only
slightly when the bat is resting; they cover most of the body
like a cloak.
Leaf-nosed Bats. Family Hipposiderid^
The Leaf -nosed Bats (Hipposideros, AnthopSy Ccelops) are
closely related to the horseshoe bats. They differ by the shape
54 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
of the nose-leaf and by the fact that their toes have only two
joints beyond the metatarsal — the claw-bearing joint and a sin-
gle intermediate one. Other Old World bats have three joints
in all toes except the first. The nose-leaf is squarish, rounded,
or ends above in three points. Few members of this family
reach large size : the head and body measure from one and three-
fourths to three and one-half inches, the tail from three-fourths
to two and three-eighths inches, the forearm from one and three-
eighths to three and one-half inches. The family ranges
throughout the warmer regions of the Old World, east to
Australia and the Solomons, and north to the Luchu Islands.
Anthops of the Solomons has a nose-leaf like a rosette, covering
the face from eye to eye, at the top of which are three dome-
like structures, their apexes directed forward. It is a rare
species.
Typical Bats. Family Vespertilionid^
This large family, containing about half of the species of
insectivorous bats in the Pacific region, is difficult to define.
The muzzle is simple except in the Murininse which have the
nostrils produced into tubes and in the Nyctophilinae which
have a small nose-leaf (see below, pp. 59, 60). The ears,
arising from the sides of the head, are separate in all species
except in the Nyctophilinae. The third finger has only two
bony joints beyond the metacarpal and the tail either ends at
the posterior edge of the interfemoral membrane or has one
vertebral joint projecting beyond it. The one or two incisors
on each side of the upper jaw, are widely separated by a gap,
the distance between the medial incisors being usually greater
than the distance from these teeth to the canines. The Vespertil-
ionidae is the most widely distributed family as well as the larg-
est, being found throughout the world, except for a few mid-
Pacific islands and beyond the limits of tree-growth. Five sub-
family groups are present in the Pacific and Malayan islands
and are distinguished below.
species of mammals of the pacific area 55
Common Bats. Subfamily Vespertilionin^
Fifteen genera and groups of common bats are present in this
area. This extremely large and varied group is almost world-
wide in distribution; in the Pacific region these bats are found
from the Malay Peninsula north to the Kuriles, east to the
Samoan Islands, and south to Tasmania and New Zealand.
Representatives of an American offshoot of this group occur on
the Hawaiian and Galapagos Islands. The wings are normal,
the third finger with the proximal joint more than half the
length of the end joints. The muzzle has no nose-leaf, nor are
the nostrils produced into tubes. The ears arise from the sides
of the head and are neither funnel-shaped nor united across the
forehead. There are three lower incisors.
The Mouse-eared Bats {Myotis) are the most widespread of
the insectivorous group, being found on all continents and ad-
jacent islands as far as the limits of tree-growth, and on the
Malaysian and Pacific islands east to Samoa. All of the many
species have six cheek-teeth above and below. Most are about
the size of the American little brown bats, with head and body
about two and one-fourth inches long, the tail a little shorter
than this, and the forearm from one and one-eighth to one and
one-half inches. Several larger species (forearm about two
inches) occur in Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the Philippines, For-
mosa, and the Luchus. Some of the larger species of Myotis
are brightly colored, with reddish or orange and black wings,
like the butterfly-like Kerivoula-hats (p. 61).
The Long-eared Bat (Plecotus), found in Japan as well as
in continental Asia and Europe, is closely related to the long-
eared, jackass, or lump-nosed bats (^Corynorhinus) of southern
and western United States. The long ears may be folded up
when the bats are resting. Four cheek-teeth are found above
and six below. The head and body of the Japanese form meas-
ures about two inches long, the forearm one and one-half inches,
the wing-spread about ten inches.
56 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Pipistrelles (Pipistrellus) occurring in Eurasia, Africa,
and North America are almost as widely dispersed as the mouse-
eared bats. In the Malay and Pacific areas they are found
from the Asiatic continent east to the Solomons and south to
Tasmania. They are about the size of Myotis or even smaller,
the length of the head and body varying from one and three-
eighths to two and three-eighths inches, and the forearm from
one to two inches. Several closely related bats, found from
Sumatra to Borneo and the Moluccas, have enlarged sucker-
like pads at the base of the thumb. These are often considered
to belong to a distinct genus (Glischropus), but actually dif-
fer little from the small pipistrelles.
The Noctule (Nyctalus), a yellowish brown bat with short,
broad ears, is found in the Malaysian islands and also in Japan.
It is much like a large pipistrelle, with cheek-teeth five in num-
ber above and below. The length of head and body is about
three inches, and the forearm measures two inches or a little
more. Another Japanese species of this genus, otherwise very
similar, is about a fifth larger.
The AustraHan Little Brown Bats (Eptesicus) are relatives
of the American big brown bat and the European serotine.
They are as small as the smaller pipistrelles : the head and body
about one and five-eighths inches and the forearm one and one-
eighth to one and one-half inches. The cheek-teeth number
four above and five below on each side. This genus is repre-
sented by a species on the Malay Peninsula, as well as in A.us-
tralia, but it is not known from the islands.
The Particolored Bat (Vespertilio), which occurs in Japan
and Eurasia, is reddish brown above; the whitish tips of the
hairs produce a marbled appearance. Below it is cream-colored.
It is about the size of the American big brown bat: head and
body about three inches, forearm about one and five-eighths
inches.
The New Guinea Brown Bat (Philetor) is dark chestnut-
brown both above and below, and has black wing membranes.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 57
Its muzzle is broad and swollen. The cheek-teeth, four above
and five below, are the same in number as in Eptesicus and
Vespertilio, and the canine has a small cusp near its posterior
base. This bat is found among the mountains of New Guinea.
It is intermediate in size between the last two kinds of bats,
the head and body about two and one-fourth inches, the tail
one and one-half inches, and the forearm about one and three-
eighths inches.
The Sarawak Brown Bat (Hesperoptenus), light brown in
color, is hardly to be distinguished from Eptesicus except that
its inner incisor is two-pointed and the outer one is minute,
hardly visible above the gum. Only one specimen has ever been
found. It was collected many years ago in northwestern Bor-
neo. The head and body are two inches long, the tail about one
and one-half inches, and the forearm one and three-eighths
inches.
The Club-footed or Flat-headed Bat {Tylonycteris) is
found in the Indian and Malay subregions from the mainland
to the Philippines, Celebes, and Timor. It has short wings and
a flattened head. The wrist and foot bear thickened pads, ap-
parently adhesive in function. Bats of this genus usually rest
during the day in bamboo stems, crawling into them through
narrow cracks. These bats include the smallest of the order.
The head and body varies from one and three-eighths to one
and seven-eighths inches, the tail from one to one and one-
half inches, and the forearm seven-eighths of an inch to one
and one-eighth inches.
Broad-nosed Bats {Scot emus) are found in Africa, con-
tinental Asia, Australia, and New Guinea, but apparently this
genus does not occur on the Malaysian islands. The different
species are usually colored a uniform brown; some have pale
undersides. They have a single conical upper incisor on each
side. The cheek-teeth are four above, five below. The skull is
broad, more nearly square in outline, viewed from above, than
in related bats. The head and body lengths of the different
58 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
species vary from one and three-fourths inches to two and
three-fourths inches; the tail is about two-thirds as long as
the head and body, while the forearm measures one and one-
eighth to two and one-fourth inches.
Malay Brown Bats (Scotophilus) are found in the islands
from the Malay Peninsula and Formosa to Celebes. Closely
related forms are found in Africa and on the Asiatic conti-
nent. These bats have a short face, a single conical upper
incisor on each side, and massive, crowded cheek-teeth. The
color is usually yellowish brown, duller below, with black mem-
branes, but reddish individuals are known from Java. These
brown bats are medium to large: the head and body two and
one-half to three and one-half inches, the tail two to two and
one-half inches, and the forearm from two to two and three-
fourths inches.
The Barbastelle (Barhastella) is dark, almost black, griz-
zled with yellowish. The large ears are united above the eyes
and their lower margins extend on the upper lip, so that the
eyes are almost surrounded by the ear shell. The number of
cheek-teeth is five above and below. Barbastelle bats are found
in the northern Old World region and reach as far east as
Japan. They come out early in the evening to feed, often
when it is still quite light, and fly slowly and erratically, fre-
quently almost brushing the face of an observer. They are
solitary in habit, hiding during the day under the thatch of
cottages, in rock crevices, or in holes in trees. The head and
body length is about two inches and the tail about the same,
while the forearm is from one and three-eighths to one and one-
half inches.
Lobe-lipped or Wattled Bats (Chalinolobus) are found in
Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, and
New Zealand. There are several species, some of which are
brown, others gray-brown, others nearly black. The under-
parts are paler. They are small or medium-sized bats, with
the head and body one and three-fourths to two and one-half
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 59
inches long, the tail one and one-fourth to two and one-fourth
inches, and the forearm one and one-fourth to one and three-
fourths inches.
The Galapagos Red Bat and the Hawaiian Hoary Bat be-
long to the same genus (Lasiurus), elsewhere restricted to
North and South America. They are characterized by a hairy
interfemoral membrane and short broad ears. The mainland
species migrate long distances, often across considerable bodies
of water. Thus they are bats that may readily be carried by
storms far from their usual ranges. Even so, the ancestors
of the Hawaiian hoary bat must have traveled twenty-four hun-
dred miles from the North American coast, without chance to
rest or secure food on the way — a remarkable record of en-
durance.
Bent-winged or Long-fingered Bats.
Subfamily Miniopterin^
Bent-winged Bats (Miniopterus), confined to a single genus,
are found in Africa, southern Europe, and Asia, extending
north to Japan and east to Australia and the Loyalty Islands.
The first joint of the third finger is only about one-third as
long as the distal joint, and this last joint is bent under and
back against the undersurface of the metacarpal in repose.
The crown of the head is high and dome-like. There are five
cheek-teeth in each upper jaw, counting from behind the canine,
and six in the lower jaw. Most species, though small, have large
wings : the head and body measure from one and three-fourths
to two and one-half inches. The tail is about equal to the head
and body length, and the forearm varies from one and three-
eighths to two and one-eighth inches.
TuBE-NOSED Insectivorous Bats.
Subfamily Murinin^
Tube-nosed Insectivorous Bats (Murina, Harpiocephalus)
have the nostrils drawn out into tubes, much as in certain fruit
60
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Metacarpals
Third Finger
First Joint"
Terminal
Joint
wmmm^
D
Fig. 25 — A. Wing of Bent-winged Bat; B. Head of Tube-nosed
Insectivorous Bat; C. Head of Australian Long-eared Bat; D. Ear
of Trumpet-eared Bat; E. Head of Mastiff Bat
bats {Nyctimene, see p. 49). The proportions of the third
finger are normal, but the thumb is relatively long and the
wings are broad. Bats of this group are found from southern
Asia east as far as Ceram and north to Japan. Most species
are medium-sized : head and body from two to two and one-half
inches, tail from one and three-eighths to two inches, forearm
from one and one-fourth to two inches.
Australian Long-eared Bats.
Subfamily Nyctophilin^
The Australian Big-eared Bats (Nyctophilus, Pharotis) are
the only members of the family Vespertilionidas which combine
long ears, approximately an inch in length in most species,
united by a fold above the forehead, with a low, horseshoe-
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 61
shaped nose-leaf above the truncate muzzle. The head and
body length measures from one and three-fourths to three
inches, the tail from one and three-eighths to one and three-
fourths inches, and the forearm from one and three-eighths
to one and seven-eighths inches. Both genera are found in
New Guinea. Nyctophilus occurs also in Timor and Australia.
Trumpet-eared or Forest Bats.
Subfamily Kerivoulin^
The Trumpet-eai'ed Bats (Kerivoula, PhoniscuSy Anamyg-
don) are present in Africa, southern Asia, and throughout
the Pacific region west of the Solomons. Anamygdon is known
only from the Solomon Islands. The long ears are funnel-
shaped; the outer margin arises from the side of the head
slightly in front of the inner margin and the lower part of
the ear is wide. The muzzle is simple. The crown of the head
rises high, as in Miniopterus, Each jaw, above and below,
contains six cheek-teeth. Most trumpet-eared bats are small,
the head and body measuring from one and one-fourth to two
and one-fourth inches, the tail about the same length as head
and body, and the forearm from one to one and three-fourths
inches. Most kinds are brown. Some with the body cinnamon-
colored and the wings black, handsomely marked with brownish
yellow, look like big butterflies.
The New Zealand Bat. Family MYSTACOPiDiE
The New Zealand Bat (Mystacops) is the only representa-
tive of its family. The third joint of the third finger is bony
rather than cartilaginous, as in other insectivorous bats. The
tail perforates the interfemoral membrane, much as in the
Emballonuridse (see p. 51). The claws of the thumb and toes
are long; each has a small talon at the base. The first joint
of the third finger folds inward and forward when the bat is
resting. The length of head and body is about two and one-
62 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
half inches, of the tail about three-fourths of an inch, and of
the forearm one and three-fourths inches.
Free-tailed Bats. Family Molossid^e
The Free-tailed, Wrinkled-lipped or Mastiff Bats (Cheiro-
meles, Tadarida, and allies) are partly described by their com-
mon names. The upper lip which projects over the lower lip
is large and wrinkled while the muzzle is obliquely truncate,
all of which gives these bats the look of a mastiff. The tail
projects far beyond the interfemoral membrane, which can be
moved back and forth on the tail bones, somewhat like an awn-
ing, to increase or decrease its extent. The wing is narrow;
the entire fifth finger is little longer than the metacarpal of
the third. The lower leg is short, the hind foot stout, its toes
fringed with long hairs. The family occurs in the warmer parts
of both hemispheres.
The Naked Bat (Cheiromeles) is one of the ugliest and
strangest-appearing mammals in existence. Its snout is long
and pig-like, and it has small, widely separated ears. The skin
of its neck falls in sparsely haired folds. The rest of the body
is covered with hair so short that it looks naked. A glandular
pouch is situated on the throat, and under each wing is a large
pocket which perhaps serves to carry the young. The hind
foot is hand-like, with the first toe large and opposable. This
bat is larger or at least heavier than other East Indian in-
sectivorous bats. The head and body reach five inches or more,
the tail about two inches, and the forearm two and three-fourths
to three and three-eighths inches. It is restricted to the Malayan
region: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Palawan.
The Big-eared Mastiff Bat (Otomops) occurs in Java. It is
nearly as large as the naked bat, and is brown. The ears are
long, united over the forehead. Another species of this bat is
found in Africa.
Other mastiff bats also, with the ears united across the head,
are found north to Formosa and east to Norfolk Island, which
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 63
lies halfway between Australia and New Zealand. In these the
head and body varies from two to three and one-half inches,
the tail from one to one and three-fourths inches, the forearm
from one and one-fourth to two and one-fourth inches.
Apes, Monkeys, Lemurs. Order Primates
The primates, to which order man belongs, include the apes,
monkeys, and lemurs. Their freely rotating forearm and op-
posable thumb and first toe adapt them for life in trees. The
fingers and toes usually have flattened nails. All East Indian
primates are ape-like or monkey-like, except two lemurs, the
slow loris, and the tarsier. Their illustrations will aid in
identification.
The Orang-utan. Family Pongid^
The Orang-utan (Pongo pygmceus) is unmistakable because
of its large size and long brick-red hair. It is found only on
Borneo and Sumatra. Orangs are heavily built animals with
long arms, thick neck, and a melancholy expression on their
faces. Their movements are slow and deliberate, and they spend
most of their time among the branches of the trees. As they
grow older, the males, which are larger than, the females, de-
velop large skin-covered callouses on the sides of their faces,
which give the face a rounded, dish-like appearance. These
callouses are wanting in females. The ears are small, the lips
broad, and the chin receding. A male orang-utan may reach
four and one-half feet in height and weigh one hundred and
fifty pounds. The Sumatran orang-utan is generally more
purplish red and not so rusty red as the Bornean. Sumatran
males sometimes develop a large mustache. They may represent
distinct forms.
Orang-utans construct nests of branches and leaves in which
they spend the night. Their food consists of fruit, leaves, and
shoots. They are frequently found in the forest-covered swamp-
64
MAMMALS OF TlIK PACIFIC AVOULD
,,v.'-^^
Fig. !2G — Orang-utan
lands and aloii^ rivers.
Tlu\v are calloti "iiiias"
by tlio Dyaks of Borneo
and '"niawas" by the
Malays.
The Gibbons.
Family
IIylobatid^
The gibbons arc the
smallest of the anthro-
poid apes. Like all the
primates of this group
they are tailless. They
have extremely long
arms by which they
travel, swinging tliem-
selves from limb to limb
through the forest.
They are noted for their
powerful voices, char-
acteristic sounds in the
country which they in-
habit.
The Siamang {Hylo-
haics si/inhicti/Ius), the
largest of the gibbons,
is found in the ^lalay
States and Sumatra.
An adult standing up-
right measures over
three feet in height.
The hair is long and
black. The hair on the
siamang's forearm dif-
SPECIES OE MAMMALS OE THE PACIEIC AREA 05
fcrs from that of otficr ^ilihons in bciri^ rlircctcd upward toward
the elbow. Other peculiarities of the siainang include the web
of skin between the second and middle toe, extending to the
Fig. 27 — White-handed GMon
first joint, and a large pouch of skin on the neck and throat
which can be inflated.
The Dwarf Gibbon (Ilylobates Jclossi), the smallest of the
gibbons, is black. The head and body length of an adult
specimen measures about eighteen inches. This small gibbon
66 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
is found only on the islands of North and South Pagi, Sipora,
and Siberut, West Sumatra.
The White-handed Gibbon {Hylohates lar), found from
lower Burma and Cambodia to Sumatra, has a black and a pale
color phase, irrespective of sex. It differs from the other gib-
bons in the fact that the hands and feet are of a lighter color
than the arms and legs. The black phase is sometimes griz-
zled behind the shoulders and its black face is framed with a
ring of white hairs which varies considerably in width. Al-
though the light phase may range in color from dark brown
to very light buff, the white hairs about the face and the con-
trastingly lighter hands and feet are always noticeable.
The Agile or Dark-handed Gibbon {Hylohates agilis), al-
though the same size as the white-handed gibbon, differs from
that animal in having the hands and feet the same color as the
arms and legs. Color phases exist in this gibbon also. In the
black phase the back is apt to be brown. The white line encir-
cling the face is more variable in this gibbon, in some specimens
spreading to the throat and cheeks and in others reduced to a
white band on the brow. The pale phase of the agile gibbon
resembles that of the white-handed gibbon in all but the hands
and feet, which are dark. The agile gibbon is found in the
Malay States and Sumatra.
The Gray Gibbon (Hylohates moloch) of Java and Borneo
is distinguished from both of the preceding by the fact that
the color of all individuals is uniformly gray, and there are
no color phases. The color is usually ashy gray — in some
specimens brownish gray — paler on the back and rump, with
a dark patch on the top of the head. The gray gibbon of
Borneo has been divided into a number of local races. These
are browner than the Javan form and their underparts are
darker than the back. Some specimens may have the underparts
blackish.
species of mammals of the pacific area 67
Macaques, Baboons, Guenons. Family
Cercopithecid^
This family includes, besides the macaques, the African
baboons and guenons. The macaques are generally rather
heavy-bodied monkeys with short, stout limbs, and tail gen-
erally shorter than the length of head and body. They have
cheek pouches in which food is temporarily stored. The eye-
brow ridges are heavy and the canine teeth in the male are long
and sharp.
The Japanese Macaque (Macaca fuscata) is a short-tailed,
long-haired monkey about two feet in length. Its color is dark
brown or yellowish brown, darkest along the middle of the
back, the hairs annulated with yellow and brown or black and
brown. The sides of body and the underparts are grayer. The
face in life is bright red. This monkey is found only in Japan.
The Pig-tailed Macaque {Macaca nemestrina) ranges from
upper Burma to Sumatra and Borneo. The males, with head
and body measurement up to two feet, become much larger than
the females. The face is flesh-colored. The fur is olive-brown,
the hairs being ringed with black and yellow bars. The crown
of the head is brownish black, this color often extending along
the middle of the back to the base of the tail. The underparts
are grayish white. The short tail, about eight inches long, is
thinly haired and is carried in an arch.
These monkeys go about in troops and generally live in
forested areas. They are often kept as pets and are some-
times trained to climb coconut trees and drop the ripe nuts
to their masters waiting below. Old males are inclined to be-
come savage in captivity. The pig-tailed macaque is found
on Sumatra, Borneo, Banka, and the Pagi Islands.
The Long-tailed or Crab-eating Macaque {Macaca irus)
has a very wide distribution, from lower Burma and the Philip-
pines south to Sumatra and east to Timor. It is the only kind
of monkey found on many of the islands, and it has been in-
68 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
troduced on other islands. On account of its extensive range
and isolation on many of these islands, numerous forms have
developed and been described. These differ from one another
chiefly in size and color. The crab-eating macaque has the
longest tail of those discussed — almost as long as the length
of the head and body. This monkey, like all macaques, has
cheek pouches into which it stuffs food to be eaten later at
leisure. The color is variable, generally grayish brown to
golden brown, with underparts lighter, the hair being dark at
the roots. Individual hairs are ringed with yellow, brown, or
black. The face is generally brown, the eyelids bluish white,
the hands, feet, and ears black. The hair of the crown is di-
rected backward ; it occasionally forms a slight crest or whorl,
less prominent than in the macaques of southern India. The
measurement of head and body of large males may reach two
feet, of the tail about eighteen inches. Females are smaller.
The crab-eating macaques are commonly found among man-
groves near the shore and seek their food along the tidal flats
at ebb-tide. As the name implies, they are fond of crustaceans.
They swim well and of ten, visit small islands offshore.
The Formosan Rock Macaque (Macaca cyclopsis) is the
only monkey found on Formosa. It is related to the rhesus
macaque of southern China, Burma, and India, although it
lacks the reddish tone of that animal. Its color is olive-gray
or slaty, the hairs finely flecked with yellow, with darker legs
and a black line along the top of the tail. The head and body
length is about eighteen inches ; the tail about ten. These mon-
keys live among the rocks along the coast ; they appear to be
rarer in the inland forest.
The Celebes or Moor Macaque (Macaca maura) is a large
heavy-set macaque with a very short tail. The color is brown-
ish black but some specimens are lighter. The face is black, and
the lower parts, rump, and lower legs gray. The total length
is about twenty-two inches, and the tail about one inch. On the
Eastern Peninsula near Tonkean, a form has been described
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 69
which has the legs as dark as the upperparts. The Celebes
Macaque from the southern part of the island differs from the
one from the north in that the feet are grsij instead of black.
The Black or Celebes Ape {Cynopithecus niger) may be
recognized easily by its elongated face, protruding eyebrows,
black color, long hair on the crown of the head, and rudimen-
tary tail. In young specimens the hair is brown. The black ape
is found in northern Celebes and on some of the nearby is-
Fig. ^S— Celebes Ape
lands. It is a woodland animal, spending much of its time in the
trees, but it often seeks its food on the open grassy land adja-
cent to the forest.
Leaf Monkeys or Langurs. Family Colobidje
This family includes the leaf monkeys or langurs, the pro-
boscis monkey and the stub-nosed monkeys of Asia, and the
colobus monkeys of Africa. They feed chiefly on foliage and
fruits. Their stomachs are adapted for such a diet, for they
are large and sacculated.
70 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Leaf Monkeys {Preshytis) are characterized by their
long, narrow hands and feet, with short thumb and first toe,
by absence of cheek pouches, and by long tail and limbs. They
spend most of their time in the high forest trees where they feed
on foliage, flowers, fruit, and seeds. Occasionally they eat in-
sects, birds, and eggs. Although they are able to run with a
considerable speed on the ground, they are more at home
Fig. 29 — Thomas's Leaf Monkey
among the branches. In the trees they travel with great speed,
making great leaps, their long tails maintaining their balance
and their long hands and feet giving them remarkable grasping
powers. Leaf monkeys are found from China? India, and Burma
to Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali.
The leaf monkeys vary greatly in color. Some are very
handsome animals. The colors of the East Indian forms range
through black, brown, red, gray, and white. More than thirty
of the many species and subspecies occur. These numerous
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 71
forms have been divided into nine groups which differ from one
another chiefly in skull characters. Externally they are also
characterized by the direction of the hair on the crown and
sides of the head. The nine groups are : femoralis, chrysomelas,
melalopha, thomasiy aygula, hosel, rubicunda, frontata, and
pyrrhus.
In the femoralis group, the hair on the crown rises to a high
thick crest. A whorl of hair appears about an inch behind the
brows and a fringe of hairs above the brows. There are only
three races of this leaf monkey found within our limits, two of
which occur on the Rhio Archipelago and one in the Natuna
Islands. These monkeys are all light brown above, with the
outersides of the thighs grayish and the entire underparts white.
A white patch shows on the temple behind the eye. In the race
found on Bintang Island (rhionis) the bases of the hairs on the
forehead and crown are brown, while in the animal inhabiting
Kundur Island (canus) the same hairs have gray bases. The
race on the Natuna Islands (natunce) is darker brown above,
with blacker limbs and a smaller white patch on the temple, sur-
rounded by black.
In Borneo, the chrysomelas group occurs. It is distinguished
by a pair of whorls on the forehead with crest similar to the
femoralis group, and by the lack of the fringe over the eyes. In
typical chrysomelas of Sarawak the color is similar to that of
femoralis but blacker, and the lower side of the tail is white for
the greater part of its length. From the vicinity of the Miri
River yet a second form (crucifer) is known. This animal is
black and red: the crown, flanks, and outer surfaces of the legs
are red, while a black band extends from the nape along the back
and down the arms. This may be a color variety of chrysomelas.
The third group of the leaf monkeys, melalopha, is charac-
terized by the absence of a fringe over the eyes and by the pres-
ence of a definite whorl of hairs on the forehead. The hairs grow
mainly backward from the brow to form a crest on the crown.
The melalopha group is restricted to Sumatra and the Batu
72 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Islands, and includes a number of forms, several of which are
probably only color phases. The group may be divided into two
subgroups, monkeys with blackish backs and monkeys with red-
dish backs.
Typical melalopha is one of the reddish forms. The back is
red, slightly tinged with brown. The cheeks and forehead are
white, and there is a reddish fuscus band from the side of the
brow to the crest. The arms and legs are yellowish red, the
hands and feet whitish yellow. The underparts, the inside of
the limbs, and the basal half of the tail are white. This monkey
is found in the Sumatran mountains opposite Bencoolen south
to Mt. Dempo. In the mountains north of the range of melalo-
pha, another form of this red monkey is found (flavimana).
It differs from the preceding by having the forehead red instead
of white and the back red, mixed with black. About Indrapura
there is found a monkey (nohilis) with a deep red back and
with cheeks, underside, and inside of the limbs tinted pale red.
At Mt. Ophir a race (sumatrana) is found with dark gray-
brown on the back and the upperside of the tail. The external
parts of the limbs are darker than those of typical melalopha,
and the hands and feet are black. The lower chest is dusky
gray; the chin, throat, belly, and the innersides of arms and
legs and basal three-fourths of the tail are white. On the Batu
Islands a smaller form (batuana) is very similar in color to
sumatrana. In the Siak district on the eastern side of Sumatra,
the leaf monkeys (percura) of this group have tails grizzled in-
stead of pure white.
In the southern part of Sumatra a variable monkey of the
melalopha group (fusco-murina) is distinguished by the absence
of any red on the back, on the outerside of the limbs, or upper-
side of the tail. The back and outsides of the forelegs are brown-
ish gray and there is a dark stripe on the brow and sides of the
head. The top of the head is whitish. The naked skin on the
face, hands, and feet is white. A white animal with brownish
gray back, yet unnamed, is thought by some to be a color variety
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 73
of the foregoing. It is found in the highlands of Palembang.
The Mentawi Leaf Monkey (Preshytis potenziani) is black
with some white on the head. It is restricted to the Mentawi
Islands off western Sumatra.
The fourth group contains only the species thomasi from
northeastern Sumatra. It is dark smoky gray on the back. The
upperside of tail, the outersides of limbs, feet, and hands are
black; the forehead is white with median and lateral black
stripes ; the innersides of the limbs and underparts are white.
This animal differs from the members of the melalopha group
in having the short hairs of the cheeks growing forward to form
a curved crest between the eye and the ear. There is also a
pointed medial crest. It lacks the frontal whorl and the definite
brow fringe.
On the island of Java, the gray leaf monkey, Freshytis
aygula, is found. This animal is dark ashy gray, darker on the
loins, with the head, cheeks, and upper basal part of the tail
black. The outsides of the limbs are similar in color to the back
but there is generally some white on the hands and feet, and the
underparts are white. On Mt. Slamat, Java, a closely related
form (fredericce) occurs. With the exception of some white on
the throat and underparts it is entirely black.
Hose's Leaf Monkey (Freshytis hosei) of north central Bor-
neo lacks the frontal whorl, the hairs sweeping backward to
form a crest less pronounced than that of thomasi of Sumatra.
The back and sides, tail and outsides of the limbs are ashy
gray. The hands and feet are black. The underparts are
white. The underside of the tail is little darker than the upper-
side. This monkey differs from all of the preceding by the fact
that the head markings of the sexes differ. In the male the fore-
head is wholly covered with a white band which joins the white
of the temples and cheeks and then passes over the ear to the
sides of the neck, thus leaving but a narrow band of blackish
gray along the nape to connect the colored crown and shoulders.
The female, in most cases, has the white on the head, cheeks,
74 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
and sides of neck less extensive or on the crown and forehead
even wanting. On Mt. Kina Balu there is a monkey (canicrus)
in which both sexes resemble the female of hosei, except that the
crown and nape are brownish, there is no white spot on the fore-
head, and the forearm and lower legs are never blackish but
gray, strongly contrasting with the black hands and feet. In
the flat forest land between Paitan Bay and Sandakan Bay,
northeast Borneo,, another race (sahana) occurs. It is similar
to hoseiy except that the chin, cheek, and temples are black and
there is no white on the head, which is grayish black.
The seventh group of leaf monkeys (Preshytis ruhicunda) of
Borneo is distinguished by its golden red or brown color and
pale reddish underparts. There is no sharp contrast in color
between the inside and outside of the legs as in the case of most
leaf monkeys. In typical ruhicunda from near Bettotan, North
Borneo, the feet and hands are black, while in the subspecies
ignita from Sarawak, the hands and feet are similar to or very
little darker than the arms and legs. On Karimata Island south-
west of Borneo a supposedly paler monkey (carimatce) is found.
The eighth group {Preshytis frontata) of Borneo may be
identified by a naked or nearly naked patch on the forehead.
Typical frontata is dark brown or grayish brown on the back,
with black limbs, hands, and feet. The temples, brow fringe,
and cheeks in front of the ears are also black. The color of the
base of the tail, similar to the back, gradually becomes dark
ashy gray at the tip. The underparts are paler than the back.
This form is found in southeast Borneo. A subspecies (nudi-
frons) from Baj along, Sarawak, is said to be grayish brown
above and grayer below ; there are some white hairs on the sides
of the jaw.
The Silvered Leaf Monkey {Preshytis pyrrhus) inhabits
the mainland, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali, and the Natuna
Islands. P. pyrrhus pyrrhus, found in eastern Java, is usually
black with a varying amount of gray- or buff-tipped hairs. It
also has a red phase. The newborn young of this group are
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 75
uniform golden red; those of all preceding leaf monkeys are
white, generally with a black dorsal band and sometimes with
hands, feet, legs, and shoulders black. The western Javan form
(sondaicus) is a blacker animal, with a few gray-tipped hairs
restricted to the back of the thighs. One subspecies (kohlbrug-
gei) is confined to the island of Bali. It is similar in color to the
Javan form of pyrrhus, but it is slightly smaller. In Sumatra,
Borneo, and some of the neighboring small islands another
form (cristata) is distinguished by grayer hair tips and paler
ground color. P. p. ultima of Sumatra and Borneo is a still
paler form. On the South Natuna Islands vigilans occurs. Al-
though similar to cristata in outward appearance, it is charac-
terized by skull differences.
The Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) is confined to
Borneo. Its color is reddish or yellowish brown above, with
yellowish gray on rump, tail, and limbs. The undersurface is
yellowish white. In old males the tail is often white. The most
striking characteristic of this large monkey is its nose, which
in old males is much enlarged and movable. Proboscis monkeys,
traveling in small troops, prefer branches over water and are
frequently seen in Nipa palm swamps near riverbanks. Those
animals from northeast Borneo {orient alis) are paler than the
typical ones from west Borneo.
The Pig-tailed Langur (Simias concolor), a large langur
with a short tail, occurs on the Mentawi Islands, off the south-
western coast of Sumatra. This monkey appears blackish
brown, although the individual hairs, especially about the shoul-
ders, are ringed with buff. It can be recognized by its short
(less than six-inch), nearly naked tail and its short, upturned
nose. The typical race was first discovered on South Pagi
Island. On Siberut Island a darker race (siberu) has been dis-
tinguished, of which a creamy buff phase has been recorded.
76
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Fig. 30 — Proboscis Monkey
LoRiSES. Family Lorisid^e
This family contains the Asiatic lorises and the African
pottos. The slow loris is the only member found in the Malay
region.
The Slow Loris {Nycticehus coucang) occurs from Assam
and Indo-China south through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra,
Borneo, and Java. It is found too on Banka Island, the islands
of the Rhio Archipelago, northern Natuna Island, and the
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 77
Fig. 31 — Slow Loris
southern Philippines. It has a short, rounded head, with large
eyes set close together, short ears scarcely visible above the
fur, short neck and very short tail concealed by body hair. The
limbs are short, the fur close and woolly, and the hands and feet
designed for grasping. The color is usually silver-gray with a
bufFy wash, but it varies somewhat in different forms. Dark
brown markings generally encircle the eyes. They are seen also
on the crown of the head, and often connect with a stripe of
78
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Fig. 32—Tarsier
varying length down the back.
The total length of the slow
loris is from twelve to sixteen
inches. This animal is ar-
boreal and nocturnal in hab-
its, seldom descending to the
ground. It is very slow and
deliberate in its motions. It
feeds on insects, fruit, and
vegetation.
Tarsiers. Family
Tarsiid^e
The Tarsier (Tarsius) is
distinguished by its rounded
head, very short, pointed
muzzle, large ears, and large
eyes which form the most
arresting feature of the face.
The hind limbs are long, es-
pecially the feet. The fingers
and toes end in flattened pads
which may be slightly adhe-
sive. The tail is long, nearly
naked, ending with a tuft of
hair. The thick, woolly fur is
brownish yellow, the bases of
its hairs slate-gray; under-
parts are paler. The length
of head and body is about six
inches, of the tail about ten
inches.
Tarsiers are island animals
found on Sumatra, Banka,
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 79
Billiton, Borneo, the southern Philippines, and Celebes.
Throughout this territory their appearance is sufficiently dif-
ferent to lead to the description of a number of species and
subspecies. The tarsier is nocturnal, as its large eyes indicate.
It lives among brush, trees, and bamboos, and moves by a series
of leaps ; it can jump long distances.
Flesh-eaters. Order Carnivora
The teeth of carnivores or flesh-eating mammals are generally
modified for a flesh diet; the strong prominent canines and
cheek-teeth are adapted for rending and cutting rather than
grinding food. In certain members of the order which feed
chiefly on vegetable matter the molars are broader and are
used for crushing. The toes have claws. This order includes
the bears, martens, weasels, badgers, otters, dogs, wolves, foxes,
civets, mongooses, and cats.
Bears. Family Ursid^
The bears are large, heavily built carnivores with molar teeth
broad, flattened, and suitable for crushing rather than cutting
— in contrast to the case of the cat. They have short tails and
plantigrade feet ; that is to say, they walk on the soles. They
are among the least carnivorous of the flesh-eating mammals,
for much of their food consists of roots, fruits, and other vege-
table matter.
The Eurasian Brown Bear (JJrsus arctos), which had a very
extensive range, is still found in suitable localities in Europe
and Asia. On account of this wide distribution the color and
size varies to such an extent that this bear has been divided
into numerous subspecies. Its color may range from light brown
to black. One of the darker forms (lasiotus) is found on Hok-
kaido Island, Japan, the Kurile Islands, and Sakhalin,
The Peninsula Giant Bear (JJrsus gyas) belongs to the
group known as the Alaskan brown bears, closely related to the
80
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
grizzly and Eurasian brown bear. The range of these bears
includes the islands and mainland of the western coast of Alaska
from Unimak Island to British Columbia. The group contains
the largest existing carnivorous mammals, rarely attaining a
weight of three-fourths of a ton.
The Asiatic Black Bear {Selenarctos thihetanus) is distrib-
uted from northern China and Manchuria south into the Hima-
Fig. SS— Malay Bear
layas, Burma, southern Japan, and Formosa. It corresponds
in size to the American black bear but has larger ears, broader
body, and is marked on its chest with a large white or creamy
inverted chevron. The race found in Japan (japonicus) is the
smallest of the Asiatic black bears, attaining a length of about
four feet. The Formosan subspecies (formosanus) is slightly
larger — about four and one-half feet long.
The Malay Bear (Helarctos malayanus) is the smallest of
the bears. It occurs in wooded areas from Assam, Burma, and
Indo-China south through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra and
Borneo. This bear is commonly black, but the pelage when worn
may have a brownish tinge. The breast patch is generall}' buff
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 81
or dirty white and the muzzle gray. The front legs are notice-
ably bowed, the front paws inturned. A specimen as long as
four feet is a large animal. Little has been published about its
habits but it is known to be a good climber.
Weasel-like Mammals. Family Mustelid^
The Yellow- throated Marten (Martes flamgula) ranges
from China and Amurland southward to Formosa, Sumatra,
Banka, Java, and Borneo. Its color is brown, gradually dark-
Fig. 34 — Yellow-throated Marten
ening from light brown on the shoulders to very dark brown or
even black on the lower back and tail. As its name signifies, the
throat is orange-yellow. This marten has short legs, long body,
long tail, and pointed nose, and is about the size of a small cat.
The Japanese Marten (Martes melampus) differs in color
on the several Japanese islands. On Kuishui Island it is a rich
golden brown, while on Hondo and Tsushima the back is much
browner. All specimens have a bright orange throat.
The Sable (Martes zihellina), also one of the martens, is
well known for its valuable fur, which is generally blackish
above with gray on the nose and^ face. Often there is a yellow
patch on the throat. It is found in the forests of northern Asia,
especially in eastern Siberia and Kamchatka. It has been re-
ported on Sakhalin.
The Ermine or Stoat (Mustela erminea) is the large weasel
present throughout northern Europe and Asia. In summer this
82 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
animal's fur is brown with white underparts, but in winter the
coat changes to white. The tip of the tail is always black. The
ermine is found in northern Japan and Sakhalin.
The Pygmy Weasel {Mustela rixosa) is the smallest of the
carnivores. The head and body length is about six inches,
the tail about one and one-half inches. Like the ermine, this
weasel turns white in winter ; the tip of the tail is never black.
Pygmy weasels or closely related forms occur in parts of North
America, Asia, and Europe. They are found too in the Aleu-
tians, Kurile Islands, and Japan.
The Java Weasel {Mustela lutreolina) could be mistaken in
size and color for our American mink. Its shorter hair, usual
in tropical animals, distinguishes it. Though it is believed to be
confined to Java, it may be found in Sumatra as well.
The Bare-footed Weasel (Mustela nudipes) of Sumatra and
Borneo is about the size of the mink. Its color is pale orange-
brown, paler on the head. The tail is rather bushy.
The Oriental Weasel (Mustela siberica) is similar to the
bare-footed weasel but the soles between the foot pads are hairy.
It is found throughout eastern Asia from Siberia to southern
China and in Japan and Formosa. The pelts of this weasel,
dyed a dark color, are known in the fur trade as Japanese
mink and kolinsky.
The wolverine (Gulo gulo) is found in the northern districts
of North America, Europe, and Asia, including the forests of
Sakhalin. Its dark brown fur is marked with two paler stripes
which begin at the shoulders and pass along the sides of the
body to meet again at the tail. The wolverine is about three and
one-half feet long and weighs nearly thirty pounds.
The Eurasian Badger (Meles meles) is represented in Japan
by a race somewhat darker than the typical European form.
Its coat is dark gray. The nose, a stripe down the forehead,
the lower face, the ears, throat, and chest are whitish. The
badger is about three feet in length, including the tail which
is about eight inches long.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 83
The Ferret Badger (Helictis orientalis) is about the size of
the American skunk. The somewhat bushy tail is about nine
inches long. The body hair is brown, with a stripe extending
from the top of the head between the shoulders halfway down
the back. Markings on the face and cheek are white; the tail
also is white. The throat and chin are white with a strong
orange tinge. The ferret badgers occur from China and For-
mosa south to Java and Borneo.
Fig. S5—Teledu
The Hog-nosed or Sand Badger {Arctonyx collaris) occurs
from the eastern Himalayas and China south to Sumatra. Its
appearance reminds one of the American badger. However, its
body is higher, and its tail and bare snout are longer. The color
is dirty gray. The soft underfur contrasts with the long, stiff
guard hairs. The lower part of the body is dark, the legs often
black. The length of the head and body is about thirty inches
and the tail about ten.
The Teledu or Malay Badger {Mydaus javanensis) is con-
fined to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bunguran Island. It is
comparatively small; the head and body are about fifteen
inches long and the short tail scarcely one inch. The long thick
fur is dark brown above, lighter below, with a white stripe ex-
84 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
tending from the crown along the center of the back. This ani-
mal is noted for its skunk-like ability to eject an evil-smelling
fluid for a considerable distance.
The Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra) is represented by forms
in Japan, Formosa, Sumatra, and Java. The smooth otter
(Lutra perspicillata) of India, recognized by its shorter,
smoother coat, is found also in Sumatra. The hairy-nosed ot-
ter (Lutra sumatrana) of the Malay States, Sumatra, Banka,
and Borneo is distinguished from others by its completely hairy
muzzle. The small-clawed otter (Lutra cinerea), a much smaller
species, ranges from northern India and China to Sumatra,
Java, and Borneo.
The Sea Otter (Enhydra lutrls) is found on the shores of
the Pacific Ocean from Southern California north to Alaska
and the Aleutians, west to Kamchatka and the northern Kurile
Islands. The animal is about four feet long, one foot of which
is the tail. The fur is brownish black, many of the guard hairs
being tipped with white. The pelt of the sea otter is considered
one of the most valuable of furs ; a single skin has been sold for
as high as twenty-five hundred dollars. On this account, the
animal was formerly so much hunted that it was threatened
with extinction, but due to enforcement of strict laws protect-
ing it, is again increasing in numbers.
Dogs, Wolves, Foxes. Family Canid^
The members of the dog family are generally medium-sized
animals with long muzzles, non-retractile claws, long legs well
adapted for running, strong canines, and molars of shearing-
crushing type. Their pelage is usually long and thick. Their
habits are terrestrial, and their sense of smell highly developed.
True Wolves occur throughout the unsettled parts of the
northern hemisphere. Wolves are ancestral to many of the
breeds of domestic dogs.
The Northern Wolf (Canis lupus) occurs throughout north-
ern and temperate Europe, Asia, and North America. Various
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 85
forms are found in Japan, Sakhalin, the Kurile Islands, and
the big Arctic wolf of the Alaskan Peninsula may stray to
Unimak Island.
The Dingo or Warrigal {Cams dingo), the only wild carni-
vore found in Australia, is believed to have been brought there
by ancestors of the Australian blacks. That the dingo inhab-
ited the country as far back as late Pleistocene (Ice Ages) is
proved by the presence of its fossil remains associated with
bones of marsupials of that period. The dingo is about the
size of a setter dog. Its color is generally tawny, darker on
the head and back and lighter beneath. The feet and the tip
of the tail are often white. Other color varieties such as black
and white animals occur. Dingos have been domesticated and
used by the natives in hunting. They cross so readily with other
dogs that pure dingos are rare in settled districts.
Wild dingos inhabit both open plains and forests. They hunt
singly, in family parties, or occasionally in large packs. Their
food consists of the smaller kinds of kangaroos and any other
game that they can catch. They are much disliked by sheep
herders because they kill sheep. Pure dingos do not bark but
emit a series of yapping notes and mournful howls. From five
to eight pups generally constitute a litter ; they are born in bur-
rows, in crevices among rocks, or in hollow logs.
The Asiatic Wild Dog (Cuon javanicus) is reddish, some-
what like an Irish terrier, and is about the size of a small collie.
It generally hunts in packs, and may kill animals of considerable
size. In Java and Sumatra deer appear to be most often
hunted. In India wild dogs have been known to kill buffalo and
even are reported to have driven tigers from their dead prey.
The Asiatic wild dog ranges from Siberia south through eastern
and central Asia to the Malay Peninsula and to the islands of
Sumatra and Java.
The Raccoon Dog {Nyctereutes procyonoides), a small fox-
like animal with short legs and tail, is colored much like the
raccoon, even to the dark mask across the eyes. It is found
86 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
from Amurland south throughout much of eastern China, and
occurs in Japan.
The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) has much the same range as
the wolf. It is better able to withstand civilization, so that it oc-
curs in many places where the wolf has been exterminated. The
red fox needs no description, for wherever found it is much the
same. Its coat may vary from reddish yellow to a darker red-
dish and some forms are more grayish. Its black ears and white-
tipped tail invariably distinguish it throughout its northern
range. In various localities color phases occur, such as the
black, silver, and cross varieties. All of these show the white tail
tip. Forms of the Old World red fox are found in Japan,
Sakhalin, and the Kurile Islands.
The Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus) is circumpolar in distribu-
tion. No other land mammals range farther north. Its summer
coat is dark brownish slate with whitish underparts, in winter
pure white. In certain sections the color of some individuals is
bluish drab instead of white. This bluish drab color phase pro-
duces the blue fox of the fur industry. The Arctic fox is small ;
its total length is about thirty inches, and the tail ten inches.
It is found on the Aleutian and Kurile Islands.
Civets and Mongooses. Family Vivereid^
The small carnivores composing this family vary in size from
foxes to rats. They have long slender bodies, short legs, long
pointed heads, and sharp, more or less retractile claws. Most
of the civets have musk glands situated under the tail.
The Malay Civet {Viverra tangalunga) is about the size of
a domestic cat. Its head is long and fox-like. The general
color of the fur is dark gray, frequently tinged with yellowish or
brownish. The sides and lower surfaces of the neck are banded
with distinct black stripes with white or pale interspaces. The
bands on the remaining parts of the body are broken up, pro-
ducing a spotted effect. A mane of long black hairs extends
along the top of the back from the shoulders to the basal part
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 87
Fig. 36 — Malay Civet
of the tail. The tail is ringed with black and white or gray, the
dark rings connected by a black line along the greater part
of the upperside. In some specimens the interspaced light rings
are indistinct. The Malay civet, including the foot-long tail, is
about three feet long. This small species occurs from the Malay
peninsula and the Philippines to Ceram and the Moluccas.
The Asiatic Civet {Viverra zibetha) is found from China
south throughout southeastern Asia. The civet scent of com-
merce is obtained from the musk glands of these animals, which
are believed in some cases to have been introduced on islands
for the sake of the perfume. The civets are terrestrial, fre-
quently making their homes in burrows. They are reputed to
be poultry thieves.
The Little Civet {Viverricula malaccensis) is about the same
size as the Malay civet. Its name is thus misleading in the
East Indies, though true in India and Burma. The length of
head and body is about twenty-two inches, of the tail fourteen
inches. It appears to be a shorter-legged, longer-bodied, longer-
tailed, more weasel-like animal thafl the Malay civet. The color
is gray, with brown markings. It lacks the dorsal mane of the
Malay civet. Five brown stripes generally extend along the back
from behind the shoulders to the base of the tail. Black stripes
extend on the throat and along the sides of the body, and along
88
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
^mmm
\::^
Fig. ^1— Little Civet
the sides of the neck are several series of brown spots. The tail,
ringed with white, generally has a white tip. The animal is re-
ported to be a good climber. On the continent the range of the
little civet is very similar to that of the Asiatic civet, but on the
islands it is found only on Sumatra, Java, Kangean Islands,
Bali, and Formosa.
The Linsang {Prionodon linsang) is characterized by its
very long, slender body, its short limbs, elongated neck and
head, and the long tail which equals or surpasses the head and
body in length. The ground color, although variable, is gen-
erally buffy white. The crown and muzzle are brownish and
the forehead brownish buff. Five broad transverse bands of
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 89
black or dark brown extend across the back successively from
behind the shoulders to the tail. The long tail is ringed with this
color throughout its entire length. Two dark stripes extend
from the forehead along the upper neck to the shoulders, and
lesser striping is found on the lower neck. Other streaks and
spots appear on the flanks and legs. The head and body are
Fig. 38 — Linsang
about fifteen inches long, the tail about the same. The linsang
is found from upper Burma, through the Malay Peninsula to
Sumatra, Banka, Java, and Borneo. The linsang found in
Borneo and Java {gracilis) is smaller than that of the Malay
Peninsula and Sumatra. This animal is equally at home on the
ground and in the trees and is said to make an interesting pet.
The Palm Civet (Paradoxurus) has well-developed scent
glands. Its feet are adapted for climbing. The general shape
of the body is long, the legs are short, the tail long and un-
90 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
banded except in the Celebes form. The body is marked with
a definite pattern of dorsal stripes and lateral spots. The palm
civets have a very extensive range, from southern China through-
out the forested areas of southeastern Asia to Sumatra, the
Philippines, and Ceram. A record from the Aru Islands is
doubtful. In this great expanse of territory many forms have
been distinguished ; some islands have their own subspecies. Palm
civets of the East Indies, which are considered subspecies of
the Indian palm civet {Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) , differ
Fig. S9— Palm Civet
slightly in color, in the amount of white about the head and
cheeks, and in size. They are the size of a cat, but the legs are
shorter and the tail longer. The ground color of most of the
body is grayish buff, and a narrow black stripe extends down
the center of the back with two lines on each side. The black
tips of the longer hairs are sometimes so extensive that the pat-
tern is obscured. The lateral lines are often broken up into
spots, and the flanks and sides also are more or less spotted.
The feet and legs are black, as is the terminal half of the tail.
The Brown Palm Civet (Macrogalidia musschenbroeki) of
Celebes is quite different from other members of the group. Be-
cause of its peculiar skull characters it has been placed in a
separate genus. Its color is rufous brown with numerous white
hairs intermixed. The white face markings of other palm civets
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 91
are absent. The tail has alternate rings of dark and light brown.
The palm civets are chiefly vegetarian. They feed on fruit
but also eat small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. They
are frequently found about villages and spend much of their
time in trees.
The Masked Palm Civet (Paguma larvata) is distinguished
from the true palm civet by the absence of body pattern and
r
Fig. 40 — Masked Palm Civet
by skull characters. It is found from Tibet, China, and For-
mosa south through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra and Bor-
neo. It is about the size and build of a palm civet. The Su-
matran and Bornean subspecies of masked palm civet is brown-
ish buif, the neck and shoulders much darker, even black, the
hind back and rump paler. The lower legs and feet are black
and the tail darker toward the tip. Buffy white cheek patches
extend from behind the ears to the forehead. The habits of
this animal are similar to those of the palm civets.
The Binturong or Bear Cat (Arctictis hinturong) is larger
than the palm civets. The head and body attain about fifty-four
inches in length, the tail a little less than half that amount. Its
color is black or blackish brown but many of the hairs are tipped
with a buffy or whitish color, which gives the coat a speckled
92
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
appearance. The amount of speckling differs widely; some
specimens are almost black, others straw-colored. The head is
always more heavily speckled than the body, and the ears are
conspicuously tufted. The binturong is chiefly arboreal, and
uses its prehensile tail in climbing. It ranges through south-
eastern Asia and from Sumatra to Borneo, Java, and Pa-
lawan.
The Small-toothed Palm Civet {Arctogalidia trivirgata) is
tawny-colored and has a softer coat than any of the preceding.
Fig. M— Small-toothed Palm Civet
The head is usually darker and the underparts lighter than the
back. A narrow white streak extends from the forehead to
the nose. An indistinct dark line runs along the back from the
crown to the tail, and in some of the forms two other lines par-
allel the median line; in some specimens these last lines may be
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 93
broken up into spots. This animal is about forty-five inches
long, the tail being a little more than half this length. It has
arboreal habits, and being chiefly nocturnal, it is seldom seen.
The range of the small-toothed palm civet extends from Assam
and Burma to Java and Borneo.
The Banded Palm Civet (Hemigalus derby anus) has a char-
acteristic color pattern. The dorsal ground color is dark buff.
From the crown to the shoulders are two longitudinal dark
bands, replaced on the shoulders by transverse bands. Across
the back between the root of the tail and the shoulders are
five additional broad transverse bands. The underparts are
paler and unhanded. The head and body length is about twenty
inches and the tail fifteen inches. The banded palm civet is found
from Tenasserim to Sumatra, South Pagi Island, Sipora Island,
and Borneo. It appears nowhere to be a common animal, and
very little is known of its habits.
Hose's Palm Civet {Hemigalus hosei) is a relative of the
banded palm civet with which it compares in size. It lacks the
dark striping. This animal is uniform dark smoky brown with
white spots on each side of the muzzle, over each eye, and on
the ears and chin. It is found only in Borneo.
The Otter Civet {Cynogale hennettii) externally suggests a
short-tailed otter. The thick coat is dark brown, with the tips
of many of the hairs gray. The total length is about thirty
inches, the tail being about six inches. This rare animal is
adapted for aquatic life and is an expert fisherman. It is found
in the Malay States, Sumatra, and Borneo.
The mongooses may be distinguished from the civets by their
longer, straighter claws, which cannot be retracted, and by lack
of scent glands. They are long-bodied, weasel-like animals with
bushy tails. They are chiefly terrestrial.
The Short-tailed Mongoose (Herpestes hrachyurus), which
lives in the Malay States, Sumatra, and Borneo, is the largest
and darkest of the East Indian mongooses. Its color is dark
94
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOULD
Fig. 42 — Short-tailed Mongoose
brown or black. Many of the hairs are tipped with buff, espe-
cially on the head and tail. The legs are black. The head and
body are about twenty inches long and the tail ten inches.
Hose's Mongoose (Herpestes hosei) is a smaller and browner
animal than the short-tailed mongoose. It is confined to Borneo.
The Collared Mongoose (Herpestes semitorquatus) like-
wise is found only in Borneo. It is a richly colored animal, dark
brown with huffy grizzling, and the sides and underparts rufous.
A buff-colored stripe extends from the jaw below the ear along
the side of the neck. The tail is much lighter in color than the
rest of the body. The length of the head and body is about six-
teen inches, of the tail about nine inches.
The Javan Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) is the only
mongoose on Java. Related forms occur from southern China
throughout much of southeastern Asia. The color varies ; in
some it is dark brown with huffy specklings, in others rich ma-
hogany. The head and body are about seventeen inches long
and the tail about twelve inches.
The Crab-eating Mongoose (Herpestes urva) is about
twenty inches in head and body length, its tail about nine inches.
It is black grizzled with huffy and has a white stripe running
from the corner of the mouth to the shoulder. The crab-eating
mongoose is found from southern China and Formosa to Burma
and Tenasserim.
species of mammals of the pacific aeea 95
Cats. Family Felid^
The cats have supple and muscular bodies, rounded heads,
and sharp claws which can be retracted into protecting sheaths.
The large cheek-teeth are of the shearing type, the canines long.
The Tiger (Felis tigris), which with the lion shares the dis-
tinction of being the largest of the cats, occurs from Siberia and
China through much of southern Asia as far as the islands of
Sumatra, Java, and Bali. Various subspecies have been named,
and the tigers from Sumatra, Java, and Bali have each been
described as different. The Sumatran race (sumatrce) is sup-
posed to be smaller than the Bengal tiger, more fully striped,
and to have less white on the underparts. The Javan tiger
(sondaica) differs chiefly in skull characters. The Bali race
(balica) is still smaller. The markings, colors, and sexes of
tigers from the same locality differ so greatly that it is doubt-
ful whether these subspecies are valid. The tiger lives in thick
jungle and feeds on deer, pigs, and often the cattle of the na-
tives.
The Leopard or Panther (Felis pardus) occurs throughout
southern and eastern Asia. South of the Malay Peninsula it is
found only in Java and the Kangean Islands. Reports of its
occurrence on Sumatra have never been substantiated. After
the tiger, the leopard is the largest of the Asiatic cats. It is
easily recognized by its large size — head and body from three
and one-half to four feet long, tail from two and one-half to
three feet in length — and by the character of its spots. Clusters
of spots, or rosettes appear on the back and sides, and solid
spots on its head, limbs, and belly. The leopard of Java and the
Kangean Islands (melas) is distinguished by its small size, its
short, dark, richly colored coat, and small, close-set rosettes.
The black or melanistic form of the leopard is only a color
phase of the regular leopard and does not represent a different
species, as many believe. Even in the blackest individual the
spots are visible in certain lights. The black phase is common
96
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
in the Malay Peninsula, where in certain sections it is more
abundant than the spotted one. A single litter of cubs may
contain both black and spotted individuals.
The Clouded Leopard (Felis nehulosa) inhabits the forested
areas of southeastern Asia, Formosa, Sumatra, Java, and Bor-
neo. It ranks next in size to the leopard. The head and body
of a large male may measure three feet. Its tail is longer than
Fig. 43 — Clouded Leopard
that of the common leopard, reaching about thirty inches. The
color of the hair is grayish brown. The sides are ornamented
with large darker grayish patches, often partially edged with
black. The patches may be so large and numerous that the
lighter background is reduced to a series of narrow bands. The
long, well-furred tail and the exceptionally long upper canine
teeth are outstanding characters of this animal. The clouded
leopard prefers the forests and is more arboreal than most cats.
The Marbled Cat {Felis marmorata) has the general mark-
ings of a clouded leopard but is little larger than a house cat.
Its ears are rounded and its tail somewhat shorter than its
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
97
head and body. The coat color is brownish gray. Black stripes
show on the head, neck, and back, black-edged blotches on the
sides and flanks, and solid black dots on the limbs and under-
parts. The marbled cat is found from northern India and
Burma south to Sumatra and Borneo. It is rare everywhere.
For this reason and because of its nocturnal habits it is seldom
seen.
Fig. 4i4i— Marbled Cat
The Golden Cat (Felis temmincJcii) , about the size of a small
collie dog, has longer legs than the marbled cat. The color of
the pelage varies in different individuals from dark brown to
red or grayish brown, the area along the back being darker. In
the northern subspecies of this cat the body is often covered
with spots and rosettes; these are rarely faintly discernible in
southern subspecies. A form occurs in which the coat is black
or nearly so. The face markings are alike in all color types of
this cat except in the melanistic form. A pair of grayish bands
98 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
bordered with black passes from above the eyes over the fore-
head, and a conspicuous white band edged with black appears
on the cheeks. The tail, which is from half to two-thirds the
length of the head and body, is conspicuously lighter under-
neath than above. This cat ranges from China south through
the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.
The Fishing Cat (Felis vwerrina) is somewhat larger than
the domestic cat; the head and body are about thirty inches
long, the tail about ten inches. It has short legs, a short tail,
and a rather heavy body. The coat is harsher and its color is
ashy gray with dark striping and spotting. The fishing cat is
rather a drab-looking animal, for its fur lacks the luster seen
in most cats. It is found from Burma and Formosa south to
Java and Sumatra.
The Leopard Cat {Felis bengalensis), the common wild cat
of southern Asia, is found from China and Formosa southward
to Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo, and some of the islands of the
Philippines. It is about the size of a domestic cat. This heavily
spotted cat has the appearance of a small leopard; the color
and spotting are very variable. The leopard cat of Sumatra
(sumatrana) has fewer and smaller markings than the typical
cat of the mainland; that of Borneo (borneoensis) is brighter
and more rufous, while that of Java and Bali (javanensis) is
duller. The smaller form (minuta) is found on Palawan, Panay,
Calamianes, Negros, and Cebu in the Philippines.
The Bay Cat (Felis hadia), restricted to Borneo, is uni-
formly colored ; some obscure spots on its breast and occasional
faint stripes on its face and cheeks provide the only trace of pat-
tern. Two color phases of this cat appear — one mahogany-red,
the other blackish gray. Both are black behind the ears and
lack any trace of a white spot there. The length of the head
and body is about two feet, of the tail sixteen inches. Very little
is known of the habits of this rare cat.
The Flat-headed Cat (Felis planiceps), also with uniformly
colored coat, is dark brown, darker on the back. Many of the
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA
99
Fig. 45 — Leopard Cat
hairs are tipped with white, which gives a silver-gray appear-
ance. The white underparts generally have reddish spots, and
the head is often distinctly striped. The reddish brown tail is
quite short. The animal is rather short-legged in comparison
with East Indian cats and is the smallest one — about the size
of a small house cat. It is found from Malaya south into Su-
matra and Borneo.
The Domestic Cat (Felis domestica) has been introduced on
many of the islands and has reverted to the wild state. The cat
on Timor, once named Felis megalotis, is now believed to be a
feral domestic cat.
The Eurasian Lynx {Felis lynx) occurs on Sakhalin. It re-
sembles the American lynx. All lynxes may be distinguished
from other cats by their soft fur, bobbed tail, and tufted ears.
100 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses
Order Pinnipedia
The Pinnipedia are carnivorous mammals adapted to life in
the water. Their limbs are modified into flippers and their
bodies streamlined; both of these factors aid their aquatic life.
The order is divided into three families. The fur seals and sea
lions (Otariidse) are characterized by small external ears, hind
limbs capable of rotation forward to support the body, and
long fore flippers. The structure of the limbs allows them to
move on land with less difficulty than the remaining pinnipeds.
The hair seals (Phocidse) have no external ear, hind limbs in-
capable of forward rotation, and short fore flippers of little
use on land. The walruses (Odobenidse) are large, almost hair-
less, seal-like mammals with long tusks in the upper jaw, and
thick, wrinkled skin.
Sea Lions and Fur Seals. Family Otariid^
The Japanese Sea Lion (Zalophus japonicus) was wrongly
described by Temminck in 1850 under the impression that it
was Steller's sea lion. This very complete description includes
a colored print of the animal and drawings of skulls and skele-
tons. It shows distinctly that the animal was smaller than the
real Steller's sea lion. The skull characters depicted agree
closely with those of the genus Zalophus, to which the Califor-
nia sea lion belongs. By some scientists it was thought to be
the same animal as the California sea lion but Temminck's de-
scription of the external appearance as "straw colored with a
darker throat and chest in the female" does not appear to be a
good description of a California sea lion. The male was darker.
The only known specimens are the series of skulls and skeletons
which were described by Temminck and are in the Leiden Mu-
seum in Holland, and a single skull now in the British Museum.
Additional material is greatly needed before the status of this
animal can be assured.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 101
The Steller's or Northern Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubata) is
the largest of the sea lions. An old male reaches the length of
thirteen feet and weighs more than fifteen hundred pounds. As
with most sea lions, the females are much smaller than the males.
The color varies from yellowish brown to dark brown. Steller's
sea lion ranges from northern California north along the Pacific
Fig. 46 — Steller's Sea Lion
coast through the Aleutians and south on the Asiatic coast to
northern Japan.
In the Australian Sea Lion (Neophoca cinerea) the males
are easily recognized by their large size and yellow crown and
back of neck. The color of the rest of the body is dark brown,
growing darker posteriorly. The females and immature males
are light brown. The females are about five feet in length but
there are records of old males being twice as long. The Aus-
tralian sea lion inhabits rocky islands off the coasts of southern
and southwestern Australia.
The Southern Sea Lion (Otaria flavescens) inhabits the
Galapagos and the Juan Fernandez Islands. It is found also on
the coasts of South America, from near the Galapagos Islands,
south around Cape Horn, on the Falkland Islands, and north
102 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
up the Atlantic coast to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. Seen
at a distance, the sea lions seem to be colored uniform brown.
The prominent manes are lighter in hue. Males, which have
short faces and pug noses, may reach a length of nine feet;
females are smaller.
The fur seals or sea bears differ from the sea lions chiefly
because of their thick underfur and longer and luxuriant outer
hair. The coat of a sea lion is short and lacks the underfur.
The Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus alascanus), the animal
from which seal-skin coats are made, is the best known of the
fur seals. This animal's breeding ground is the Pribilof Islands
in the Bering Sea, but in winter it migrates south as far as
California and Japan. On account of the value of its fur the
northern fur seal was rapidly becoming extinct, but following
the purchase of Alaska, the United States government, after
extensive research, protected the breeding colonies and con-
trolled the killing of these animals. At the present time special
government agents supervise the killing, and allow only young
male seals three and fours years old to be killed. The number
of fur seals is again increasing.
An adult male or bull is very dark brown, with grayish hairs
on the shoulders. It is about six feet long and may weigh as
much as five hundred pounds. The paler females are grayish
brown and weigh only about one hundred pounds. The breeding
of the northern fur seal is of special interest. Old males arrive
on the breeding grounds on the Pribilof Islands in early May.
They are in fat, healthy condition, and are at least six years
of age. They fight among themselves, as each bull seeks to es-
tablish a small section or "station" on the coast as its own.
About the middle of June the females or cows come ashore at
the stations lorded over by the bulls. The number of females
in each harem varies greatly ; from twelve to fifteen, or as many
as a hundred have been recorded. Soon after the females ar-
rive the pups of the previous season's mating are born, gen-
erally one to each female. The main rutting season is in July.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 103
By August the harems are scattered and the bulls, which all
this time have ruled the harems, now leave for the water. They
have become greatly emaciated, having eaten no food since their
arrival in May.
During the summer, the non-breeding fur seals, chiefly made
up of young males under six years of age, seek other sections
of the shore, as the old males will not tolerate them. They con-
gregate in great numbers at places called "hauling grounds."
The fur seals to be killed for their skins are picked out and
driven inland from these groups by the government agents.
The Southern Fur Seal (Arctocephalus australis) has nearly
the same range as the southern sea lion. It occurs in the Gala-
pagos Islands and differs from the northern fur seal by its
longer muzzle and shorter, less dense hair. The underfur char-
acteristic of the fur seal group is present. This animal has been
killed in great numbers for its skin, for which reason it is now
rare where once it was common.
The Australian Fur Seal (Arctocephalus doriferus) inhabits
the shores of southern Australia. An old male may reach a
length of six feet while the female is about a foot less. The
color of both males and females is grayish brown above, buff-
brown beneath ; it appears blackish when wet. The habits of the
animals are very similar to those of other fur seals. They have
been similarly persecuted for their skins.
The Tasmanian Fur Seal (Arctocephalus tasmanicus) is
similar in color to the Australian fur seal. The most noticeable
differences are more robust bodies and larger heads of the males.
There is also greater contrast between the sizes of the sexes, the
females of this form being about the same length as females of
doriferus. This fur seal is found along the coast of Tasmania
and the southeastern coast of Australia.
The New Zealand Fur Seal (Arctocephalus fosteri), of the
seas of southern New Zealand and southern Australia, has a
long muzzle like the southern fur seal. It is colored grizzled
gray, with chestnut-brown underparts, and there is generally a
104 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
gray spot below the eye. The males reach a length of six or
seven feet, the females about one foot less. These animals have
also been killed in large numbers for their skins.
Hair Seals, Earless Seals. Family Phocid^
The Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina) is found along the shores
of both the north Atlantic and north Pacific Oceans. In the
north Pacific, it ranges from Oregon northward to the Aleutians
and Pribilof Islands, and thence southward on the Asiatic side
of the Pacific to Japan. Its color varies from yellowish gray
with dark brown spots to blackish with yellow spots. It is about
five feet long; the sexes differ little in size. A number of sub-
species have been distinguished, chiefly by skull characters.
The Ribbon Seal {Phoca fasciata), although about the size
and build of the harbor seal, is very differently colored. It is
dark brown, decorated with strongly contrasting yellowish
bands about the neck, shoulders, and rump. This rare seal is
found along the coasts of Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and
thence as far southwest as the Kurile Islands.
The Ringed Seal (Phoca hispida) has also the general shape
and size of the harbor seal. The upperparts are blackish brown,
covered with rings or blotches of yellowish ; the underparts are
yellowish. The distribution of this seal is circumpolar; it is
found as far south as Kamchatka and Sakhalin.
The Bearded Seal (Erignathus barbatus), much larger than
the harbor seal, attains a length of ten or twelve feet. It is
usually plainly colored, grayish or yellowish, and darker along
the back. The occasional individuals which show great varia-
tion in color can always be recognized by the tuft of flattened
bristles on each side of the muzzle. The bearded seal is circum-
polar and' has been found on the Alaskan coast, the Aleutian,
and on the northern Asiatic coast as far south as Sakhalin.
The Leopard Seal {Hydrurga leptonyx) is the best known of
the seals of the southern seas. The color is ashy gray above,
more or less spotted with black, sometimes with lighter blotches
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 105
on the back. The underparts are creamy white with black spots,
especially about the tail and head. The male is ten feet or more
in length, the female about seven feet. This animal resembles
its namesake, the leopard, not only in its spotting but in its
disposition. It is the fiercest of the seals and, preferring warm-
blooded prey, feeds chiefly on penguins and other seals. The
leopard seal is found throughout much of the Antarctic and
during the winter as far north as the waters of southern Aus-
tralia and New Zealand.
The Crab-eating Seal (Lohodon carcinophagus) is a slender
animal reaching a length of nine feet. During the southern
summer it is brownish gray, with some spotting along the sides
but in winter the coat becomes creamy white. The teeth chiefly
distinguish it; unlike those of other seals, they have several
lobes which, when the jaws are closed, form a sieve. Water
passes through but small crustaceans and other small sea ani-
mals, the chief food of this seal, are retained and swallowed.
During the winter the crab-eaters come as far north as southern
Australia.
WeddelFs Seal {Leptonychotes weddelli) is common in Ant-
arctica, and on rare occasions strays as far north as New Zea-
land. A specimen was once taken along the coast of southern
Australia. It is a large seal reaching a length of nine feet, and
is dark gray marked with blotches and spots of yellowish white.
Its teeth are simple and peg-like.
The Southern Elephant Seal (Macrorhinus leonina) was
formerly found on many of the islands of the south Atlantic,
Pacific, Indian, and Antarctic Oceans and at one time as far
north as Juan Fernandez. It has been slaughtered so persist-
ently for its oil that only a pitiful remnant of the great herds
of other years remains. Males may reach a length of twenty
feet. Elephant seals get their name not only from their great
size but also from the long inflatable probosces of the males.
The Hawaiian Seal (Monachus schaunslandi) is one of the
monk seals; its relatives are found only in the Mediterranean
106
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
and Caribbean Seas. The Hawaiian seal appears to be confined
to the leeward chain of islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago
and may occasionally be seen on Layson Island, Pearl and
Hermes reef, and Midway Islands. It is an exceedingly rare
animal, having been massacred in times past for its hide and
oil. Rigid protection is required if the species is to survive.
Fortunately, it is found on some of the islands which are bird
Fig. 47 — Hawaiian Seal
sanctuaries. The Hawaiian seal is dark brown, tinged with gray
above. The sides are lighter and the underparts are yellowish
white. The newly born young are black, with long soft hairs.
The Walruses. Family Odobenidje
The Pacific Walrus {Odohenus diver gens) is found sparingly
as far south as the drift ice of the Bering Sea and in small
numbers in Bristol Bay. It becomes common north of the Bering
Strait, and there are records of its occasional occurrence on
the Aleutians.
The large size, the yellowish brown upperparts and reddish
brown underparts, and the large ivory tusks found in both sexes
will serve to identify this animal.
species of mammals of the pacific area 107
Scaly Anteaters. Order Pholidota
Family Manid^
The family Manidae contains the scaly anteaters or pangolins
of Asia and Africa. One genus (^Manis) alone occurs in the
East Indies.
The Pangolin or Scaly Anteater (Manis javanica) is found
throughout much of southern Asia and on many of the coastal
Fig. 48 — Pangolin
islands from Sumatra to Palawan and Bali. It is light brown
in color, with a narrow head, long nose and tongue. The upper-
part of the body is protected by hard, overlapping scales, which
give the animal the appearance of a large animated spruce cone ;
the underparts are without scales. When danger threatens, the
pangolin rolls itself up to protect its belly. The scales at the
side of the tail have sharp edges with which the animal, striking
with the tail, can inflict deep cuts. The forefeet are armed with
strong claws with which it digs holes in the ground for its home.
The pangolin uses them to dig into the nests of ants and ter-
mites upon which it relies for food.
108
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Gnawing Mammals or Rodents
Order Rodentia
The rodents or gnawing mammals of the Pacific and Malayan
Islands comprise squirrels, rats and mice, and porcupines. (For
rabbits, often included in the rodents, see Order Lagomorpha ;
for squirrel-like and rat-like mammals with more than two upper
front teeth, see Order Insectivora, p. 37, or Order Marsupi-
Fig. 49 — Upper Right Cheek-teeth of Rice Rat, Black Rat,
and Vole
alia, p. 15.) All rodents have a single upper and a single
lower incisor on each side, and not more than five upper and
four lower cheek-teeth, often fewer. The squirrels look much
like those of other lands and have similar habits, but some may
be large and strikingly colored or have very long muzzles. By
far the greater number of rats look much like the pests known
to all, and especially in the villages, many are the identical kinds
of black or brown rats common in the southern United States.
In some seaports the Norway rat may occur. There are native
rats on most of the islands east of the Solomons, which probably
came as "hitch-hikers" on the boats of natives. West of the
Solomons they were perhaps carried on natural rafts and drift-
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 109
wood as well. The Old World porcupines are either spiny or
covered with very long quills ; they are not found east of the
Lesser Sundas or beyond Palawan Island, north of Borneo.
Squirrels and Flying Squirrels. Family Sciurid^
The members of this family have bushy tails and their cheek-
teeth number either five or four above and four below. The eyes
are large ; the muzzle in most species is broad and short. The
size varies from that of a large mouse to giant squirrels and
flying squirrels, which may reach the size of a house cat.
Flying Squirrels
Flying squirrels are found almost throughout the forested
parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. The majority of
the species occur in the Indian and Malaysian regions. Flying
squirrels live on the Japanese Islands, Formosa, the Philippines
(Palawan and Basilan Islands only), Sumatra, Borneo, and
Java ; they are also found on many of the small islands of this
area, but are not known to reach Bali.
In contrast to most other squirrels, the flying squirrels are
nocturnal in habit, sleeping through the day in holes or nests
in trees or curled up in a fork. A thin, furry membrane
stretches between the fore and hind limbs and in some species
extends onto the neck and tail.
Giant Flying Squirrels (Petaurista) are variously colored ;
they may be foxy red, or red spotted with white or black. They
occur from India to Japan, Palawan, and Java. The larger
species are more than a yard in total length, the tail being about
half of this. Their gliding membranes are the most extensive
of the group and partly include the rounded tail. The large size
of the "parachute" hinders movement in the trees so that these
animals are less agile than other squirrels. Individuals have
been known to glide distances of sixty to eighty yards. They
control their direction and landing very well.
The Smaller Flying Squirrels (lomys, PteromyscuSy Petau-
110 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
rillus, Petinomys, Hylopetes, Belomys, Pteromys) are diversely
colored. Their sizes vary from that of a mouse (five and one-
half inches in total length, of which the tail is half) to that of
a rat (about twenty inches, total length). The several genera,
many of which are poorly known, are distinguished by dental
and skull characters.
Tree Squirrels
The tree squirrels are distinguished from the closely related
burrowing ground squirrels (see beyond) chiefly for the reader's
convenience. They extend east only as far as Celebes. Tree
squirrels are typically diurnal forest dwellers.
Squirrels are sometimes confused with phalangers and tree
shrews. Phalangers have very different skulls and teeth and a
thumb-like first toe on the hind foot (see phalangers of the
Order Marsupialia, p. 23). Tree shrews of China, India, the
Philippines, Borneo, and Bali may be distinguished by the num-
ber of their incisor teeth — three on each side above and below
(see Order Insectivora, Tupaiidas, p. 43).
The Giant Squirrels (Ratufa) are black, reddish, dirty yel-
lowish, with white or yellowish undersides. They reach a size
almost as great as the giant flying squirrels, namely, from two
to three feet in total length. They are found from the Asiatic
mainland to Bali and Borneo.
Common Oriental Squirrels (Callosciurus) are both abun-
dant and very varied. Some are striped above, some striped
below, some are variegated black, red and cream, while others
are olive-gray above and grayish below. The size of most equals
or slightly exceeds that of the North American red squirrel —
twelve to fourteen inches in total length, the tail a little less
than half. They occur throughout the Malay region as far
north as Formosa and east to Celebes.
Pygmy Squirrels (N annosciurus) are little larger than mice.
An exception (N. murinus), found in Celebes, thought to be re-
lated to pygmy squirrels, is as large as the common Oriental
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 111
squirrels. The pygmy squirrels proper are found from the Phil-
ippines and Borneo to Java and Sumatra. They are rarely
collected and may occur unrecorded on other islands.
Ground Squirrels
The ground squirrels commonly live in burrows or among
rocks. Some may be found in open country while others occur
in the forest.
The Arctic Ground Squirrel (Citellus parryi), found on the
more landward of the Aleutians as far west as Unalaska Island,
is relatively large, its total length being about seventeen inches,
of which the tail is about four and one-half inches. The upper-
parts are brownish, with irregular grayish spots, indistinct in
worn pelage. The head is richer brown, the underparts rusty
overlying grayish.
The Asiatic Chipmunk (Eutamias sibericus) resembles the
common western chipmunks of the United States. Its dark back
bears four whitish stripes and the sides are rust-colored. In
length it is about nine inches, of which the tail is some four
inches. Besides ranging widely in Siberia and northern China,
the Asiatic chipmunk is present on the Kurile and the northern
Japanese Islands.
The Red-cheeked Ground Squirrel {Dremomys everetti)
has reddish cheeks and a relatively long muzzle. It is known
only from a very limited area in Sarawak, Borneo. A closely
related species occurs in Formosa and others in the mountains
of China, India, and Malaya.
The Striped Ground Squirrel (Lariscus) is characterized
by three or four black stripes on the back. It is found from
the Malay Peninsula through Sumatra to Java and Borneo, as
well as on some of the adjacent islands.
The Pygmy Ground Squirrel {Glyphotes) is a small squirrel
with flank stripes of white and black and broad front teeth. It
is known only from a very few specimens collected on Mount
Kina Balu, British North Borneo.
112 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Tufted-eared Ground Squirrel (Rheithrosciurus) of
Borneo has many grooves on the front of the upper incisors.
The incisors are thick from front to rear, narrow from side to
side. The body is reddish brown, with a white flank stripe run-
ning lengthwise. It is the largest of the ground squirrels ; the
total length is more than two feet, including the twelve-inch
tail.
The Long-nosed Ground Squirrels (Rhinosciurus) of the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and several nearby islands,
are chiefly insectivorous. The small, weak, upper incisors act
with the lower ones like tweezers, while the tongue is said to be
long and protrusible. The tail is short and bushy.
Another Long-nosed Squirrel {Hyosciurus) is found in Cele-
bes. In contrast with Rhinosciurus it has very long claws, espe-
cially on the fore feet. Its incisors are normal. The dorsal color
is dark brown, flecked with tawny ; that of the underparts white.
Bamboo Rats. Family Rhizomyid^
The Bamboo Rats {Rhizomys) of Sumatra and southern
Asia are large and heavy-bodied, with small eyes and ears, short
tail, and thick, silky, dark gray fur. Superficially they resemble
American pocket gophers. Their lives are spent mostly under-
ground amid the roots of dense stands of bamboo. They come
out to cut bamboo and other plants, somewhat as wood-
chucks do.
Dormice. Family Glirid^
Dormice resemble small squirrels in appearance and habits,
but internally are more like rats. The fur is soft and velvety ;
the tail is well furred and the eyes large. Dormice hibernate
during cold weather.
The Japanese Dormouse (Glirulus) is yellowish brown, with
a slight ashy color showing through from the bases of the hairs.
A broad, dark brown stripe runs from the back of the head to
the base of the tail. Although this dormouse is little larger than
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 113
the house mouse, the body is considerably heavier; its total
length is about five and one-fourth inches, of which the tail is
about two inches. It is known from Hondo and Shikoku Islands,
Japan.
Old World Rats and Mice. Family Murid^
Although the rats and mice of this family belong to the Old
World, some of them have spread wherever men are found. Rats
and mice of American origin, some of which occur in the Gala-
pagos Islands near the coast of South America, together with
the northern voles and lemmings of both hemispheres, belong to
a different family, the Cricetidae (see p. 119). The only rodents
that occur in the South Pacific area between Celebes and the
one-hundredth degree west latitude are Old World rats and
mice. This is a complex and varied group, basic differences of
which reside chiefly in the structure of the skull and teeth.
Many of them look like common house rats. Two subfamilies
occur on the islands between the Malay Peninsula and Aus-
tralia ; only one of these subfamilies, the typical rats, is found
east of the Solomons.
Typical Rats and Mice. Subfamily Murine
The cheek-teeth of most of these rats are simple, their cusps
forming parallel transverse ridges, three ridges on the first
molar, two on the other two. Before it becomes worn each ridge
consists of three cusps, the central one slightly larger than the
outer and inner ones. Although this seems a rather small fea-
ture, it has been characteristic of the family for a long period
of time.
The House Mouse (Mus) is so well known that it may be
thought unnecessary to describe it. Most specimens found be-
tween the Malay Peninsula and the Marquesas Islands are
slightly more reddish than the house mice of the United States
and western Europe; east of this region and north of it the
mice are the same as at home. Adult house mice vary from
114 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
about seven and one-half to eight and one-fourth inches in total
length, of which slightly more than half is tail.
Two small mice are about the same size as the house mouse
and are not very unlike it.
The Wood Mouse (Apodemus) of Formosa, Japan, and the
Kuriles, is a Eurasian type found from the British Isles to east-
ern Asia. The tail is long and nearly naked. Wood mice are
yellowish brown above, white below, and have white feet.
The Pygmy Tree Rat {Hceromys), found in North Borneo
and Celebes, has the tail longer than the house mouse, and the
first toes on front and hind feet are thumb-like and opposable.
The Common Rats (Rattus) are world-wide in distribution.
Three kinds of rats have been carried involuntarily by man dur-
ing the last three hundred years to the ports of the Pacific,
whence they have spread widely. The Norway or brown rat
(Rattus norvegicus), which is the common house rat through-
out the northern United States and Europe, is the largest of
the three, measuring fifteen or sixteen inches long with the tail
a little less than half of this ; the females are smaller. The
brownish gray fur is coarse, and the ears small. The scales of
the tail number about twenty-five to the inch. In the tropics
this rat is usually confined to seaports. The black rat and Alex-
andrine or roof rat, color varieties of a single species (Rattus
rattus), are even more widespread in the warmer countries.
They are relatively large animals, sixteen or seventeen inches
long, with the tail a little more than half this length. The tail
scales are finer than in the Norway rat, and the ears are large,
reaching to the middle of the eye when laid forward. The black
rat is recognized by its color, but the roof rat is colored much
like the Norway rat and many native ones. Wild races of Rattus
rattus are known in the islands between the Malay Peninsula
and Celebes ; east of this they are replaced by other species.
The small rats commonly living in native houses on the islands
are all members of the Rattus concolor group, which occur from
the mainland of Asia to Hawaii and the Marquesas Islands. The
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 115
size of these rats varies from nine to twelve inches in total length,
the tail usually a little longer than the head and body. They
were almost certainly carried to the various islands in native
boats when men first settled Oceania. A number of related wild
species are also to be found on the Greater Sunda Islands and
the Philippines.
The Bandicoot Rats (Bandicota) are partly adapted for life
underground, but to a far less degree than the bamboo rats,
described earlier. The front claws are large, the muzzle short
and broad. The incisor teeth are broad and the cusps of the
molars soon wear down to form almost straight cross-ridges.
The adults reach a large size — total length, eighteen or twenty
inches, of which the tail is almost half. Bandicoot rats are
found on the islands of Formosa, Sumatra, and Java, as well as
on the mainland.
The Red Tree Rat (Pithecheir) of Java and Sumatra has
long soft reddish fur, which extends for almost an inch on the
base of the tail. The teeth have high cusps which remain dis-
tinct until old age. The size of this rat equals that of common
house rats. The first toe of the hind foot is thumb-like and
opposable, whence its scientific name meaning "ape hand."
Shrew rats, with long wedge-shaped head and often velvety
fur, are found on Java, Sumatra, Celebes, and the Philippines.
The Shrew Rat {Mycteromys) of Java and Sumatra has
teeth much like those of the house mouse, but the first molar is
about one-third larger than the other two combined, and the
lower incisor is longer than usual.
The Celebes Shrew Rats (Echiothrix and Melasmothrix)
have unusual incisors, the upper ones short and weak, the lower
ones long. The first species, larger than a house rat, has spiny
pelage; the upper incisors are whitish rather than the yellow
usual in rodents, and each has a distinct groove down the face.
The cheek-teeth are very small. The second kind on Celebes is
about eight and one-half inches in total length, with the tail less
116 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
than half of this ; the fur is velvety, blackish bay in color. Both
are quite rare.
The Philippine Shrew Rat {Rhynchomys) is known only
from the mountains of northern Luzon. Its total length is about
fourteen inches, including the five-and-three-fourths-inch tail.
The velvety fur is dull olive-gray. The upper incisors are white,
short and weak ; the cheek-teeth minute and only two in number
on each side. Its teeth suggest that it may feed only on soft-
bodied insects and worms, but nothing is known of its habits
and only a very few specimens have been taken.
Giant Rats (Hyomys, Anisomys, Uromys), heavy -bodied and
about two and one-half feet in length, occur in New Guinea.
They are not closely related to one another but look much alike.
The New Guinea mosaic-tailed rat (Uromys) also reaches north-
ern Australia and the Solomon Islands. The smaller mosaic-
tailed rats (Melomys), closely related to Uromys, are only
eight to fourteen inches in total length. Like Uromys, they have
nearly naked tails, the scales of which do not overlap but are
set edge to edge. These rats (Melomys) are found from the
Talaut Islands and the Moluccas to the Solomon Islands and
Australia.
Many other rare and little-known rats with cheek-teeth of
simple, Rattus-like pattern occur on the islands between the
Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and the Solomons.
Certain Indo-Australian rats which look much like house rats
have complex teeth, the patterns of the cross-ridges in the upper
cheek-teeth trefoil-like rather than simple crescents or straight
lines. Lenomys, which represents this group in Celebes, is about
twenty or twenty-two inches in total length, with the tail about
half of this. Mallomys of New Guinea is much larger, two to
two and one-half feet in total length, with the tail about fifteen
inches.
The Complex-toothed Tree Mouse (Chiropodomys) of Su-
matra, Java, and Borneo is small, the different forms varying
from about six inches to a foot in total length, with the tail
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 117
usually longer than head and body. The first toe on its hind
foot is opposable as in several other tree rats. The tree rats of
this group {Pogonomys) found on New Guinea and adjacent
islands have a prehensile tail, the tip of which curls upward.
Two large Bushy-tailed Rats {Phlceomys and Crateromys)
are found in the northern Philippine Islands : Luzon, Mindoro,
and Marinduque. They are two feet or more in total length,
with the tail about three-fourths of the head and body length.
Their molars, especially those of Phlceomys, have cross-ridges
of more simple pattern, not very different from those of the
bandicoot rats.
The indigenous Australian rats are far more diversified than
is generally realized. In addition to a number of distinct species
of Rattus (allied to house rats), Australia contains a number
of distinct genera fully as striking as are those characteristic
of New Guinea.
Australian Native Mice (Pseudomys, Thetomys, Leggadina,
Gyomys) are about the size of house mice — some even smaller.
The color, depending on whether they live in forest or desert,
varies from dark to very pale gray, with underparts whitish.
They are distributed all over Australia.
The Broad-toothed Rat {Mastacomys) is a large, dark-col-
ored, short-tailed species remotely related to other Australian
rats. It is found only in Victoria and Tasmania.
The Thick-tailed Rats (Laomys) are characterized by the
pronounced swelling of their tails just beyond a very slender
constriction at the base. They occur in central and northwest
Australia.
The White-tailed Rat (Zyzomys) is about eight inches long,
the tail four or four and one-half inches of this. The tail is
white, more thickly haired than usual among rats and has a
small tuft of hair at its end.
The Rabbit Rats (Mesembriomys) are very large rats with
rather large ears and elongated feet. Several races occur. The
over-all size is twenty to twenty-three inches, with the tail twelve
118 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
to thirteen inches long. They are found only in the north of
Australia. The only other large rats of northern Australia are
the mosaic-tailed rats (Uromys), already mentioned as having
headquarters in New Guinea.
Lesser Rabbit Rats (Conilurus) are easily separated from
the preceding. The color above is blackish brown or dark gray
instead of reddish brown with touches of creamy buff. The
underparts are white. In total length they are about fifteen
inches, with a tail about eight inches. They are found in north-
ern Australia ; one race has been recorded in the extreme south
of New Guinea.
Nest-building Rabbit Rats (Leporillus) are soft-haired, gray
rats with large ears and white feet, marked with darker gray
in one species. They are noted for making large nests, which
may reach a height of three feet and a diameter of four, by
weaving twigs together, using a growing bush for the frame-
work. Several entrances are provided. In the center is the
brood chamber, lined with soft materials. These rats are lim-
ited to the southern parts of Australia.
Australian Kangaroo Rats {Notomys) superficially resemble
the kangaroo rats of the western United States, although they
belong to a wholly different family of rodents. The hind legs
are similarly elongated and kangaroo-like, and the long tail
bears a tuft of hair at the end. In one species a throat pouch
is present. The size is small: the total length is from eleven to
fourteen inches, with the tail occupying from six to nine inches.
The distribution includes most of Australia.
Water Rats. Subfamily Hydromyin^
The Australo-New Guinean Water Rats {Hydromys, Lep-
tomys, Pseudohydromys, and others) have basined cheek-teeth,
with few cross-ridges, and the infraorbital canal of the skull is
wide, not slit-like as in the other rats. With the exception of
Leptomys and the newly discovered Baiyankamys of New
Guinea, these rats have only two molars in each jaw. As the
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 119
name water rats implies, most of the members of this subfamily
are aquatic. Exceptions are a small species {Xeromys myoides)
from Queensland, Leptomys and Paraleptoinys, and probably
Baiyankamys from New Guinea. True water rats are found
also on the adjoining islands, New Guinea, New Britain and
Kei, Aru and D'Entrecasteaux Islands, in addition to Australia.
Celcenomys, Chrotomys, and Crunomys of Luzon — the last
also in Mindanao, the Philippine Islands — are thought also to
belong with the water rats. The molar teeth of Chrotomys are
basined like Hydromys but they are three in number instead of
two. Chrotomys is strikingly marked with a bright buff stripe
from head to rump, bordered by black. Crunomys agrees with
the common rats in tooth pattern, but the flattened shape of
its skull suggests modification for life in water. Celoenomys is
slaty gray ; it agrees with Hydromys in having only two cheek-
teeth on each side above and below and in the basined character
of the teeth. These Philippine rats may be distantly related to
the Australian forms or the resemblances may indicate con-
vergence.
Voles, American Rats and Mice
Family Cricetid^
The voles of the northern hemisphere and the rats native to
the western hemisphere differ from true rats by having only
two rows of cusps on the upper molars, instead of three. When
the teeth wear down, these cusps form a more or less distinct
zig-zag pattern, instead of cross-ridges. Although this differ-
ence seems small, it has characterized the two groups for millions
of years.
The Red Lemming (Lemmus), which is probably to be found
on the landward islands of the Aleutians, is a small, thick-set
rodent with short hairy tail, small ears, and long, soft fur. The
body color is rusty, grizzled on the head and shoulders. Locally
this lemming may become abundant, but over much of its range
it is scarce, at least during certain years. It is a close relative
120 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
of the famous Norwegian lemming which during its years of
abundance makes great migrations, often ending in what looks
like mass suicide, plunging into the sea and swimming out until
drowned. The migrations of our lemmings are less well known
and less extreme, but they have a similar cycle of alternating
abundance and scarcity. The total length of this vole is about
five inches, of which the tail is about one-half inch, excluding
the hairs.
The Collared Lemming {Dicrostonyx) may also occur on
the Aleutians nearest the mainland. It is colored gray, darker
or black down the middle of the back, and has a reddish collar.
In winter it turns white and develops very large claws. It is
about six inches in total length.
The Lemming Mouse (St/naptomys) may also be found on
the Aleutians. It is dark gray. Its total length is a little less
than five inches, and the tail, which lacks long hairs, measures
about three-fourths of an inch. The upper incisors are grooved.
The Meadovs^ Mouse (Microtus), often called vole, is found
in Japan and the Kuriles. The tail is longer than those of its
relatives described above, but measures less than two inches ; the
total length of the animal is about five inches.
The Red-backed Mouse (Clethrionomys) , found in the Ku-
riles and Japan, is about the size of the meadow mouse, but is
usually characterized by a rusty band down the back, contrast-
ing with the grayish sides. Its teeth are slightly different from
those of the meadow mouse. As in the rest of the group de-
scribed above the cheek-teeth have a strongly marked zig-zag
pattern, but they are rooted.
On the Galapagos Islands, off Ecuador, there are several
species of rats belonging to the genus Oryzomys, abundant in
Central and South America, and closely related to our rice rats.
They must have reached those islands by drifting on natural
rafts, for they were there before men came to the Galapagos
and had developed into distinct species. Since the distance in-
volved is more than five hundred miles, their presence on these
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 121
islands is even more remarkable than that of the bat (^Lasiurus)
found there.
Jumping Mice and Their Allies. Family Zapodid^
The Striped Tree Mouse or Birch Mouse (Sicista), rang-
ing from Norway and Hungary to eastern Siberia, is found on
Sakhalin Island. It looks more like the true mice than its rela-
tives the North American jumping mice. As in the latter, the
cheek-teeth are four above, three below, and the forward open-
ing from the bony eye-socket is large and rounded, rather than
constricted and slit-like. The striped tree mouse is yellowish
brown above, yellowish white below; a black stripe runs down
the middle of the back from the crown to the tail. The total
length is five and one-fourth to six inches, of which the tail is
three to three and one-half inches. The striped mouse lives in
open birch woods as a rule, and feeds on seeds. It sleeps through
the winter in cold climates in a nest built in a hollow tree or
protected place.
Old World Porcupines. Family Hystricid^
Although they are thought to be related to the American
"quill-pigs," the porcupines of southern Europe, Africa, and
Asia differ much from them. They do not climb trees, and they
have hollow quills on the tail which are long and firmly attached
to the skin and which rattle when they are alarmed. Porcupines
are represented in the Greater Sunda Islands by three genera.
The meat of all is good to eat and tastes somewhat like pork.
Old World Porcupines {Hystrix) occur on the larger is-
lands from Sumatra to Sumbawa (and possibly Flores). They
are about twenty-seven inches in total length ; the tail occupies
about five inches of this, excluding the quills. The animals
weigh about eighteen pounds. The head and shoulders are cov-
ered with short spines but from the back and rump arise larger
stouter quills, six or eight inches long, banded with black and
white. Even longer, but thin flexible quills project beyond this
122
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Fig. 50 — Asiatic Porcupine
armor. A porcupine tries always to keep its rear directed at
an enemy ; the quills are erected by strong skin muscles and the
animal is said to run backward. For the most part porcupines
are nocturnal and feed largely on roots and succulent vege-
tation.
Brush-tailed porcupines (Atherurus) have almost as wide a
range as the common porcupine, but they are not found east
of Sumatra. They look like large, blunt-nosed, spiny rats, with
the relativity short tail ending in a tuft of hollow quills, each
of which somewhat resembles a string of flat beads. The spiny
quills that cover the body are grooved ; most of the stiff spines
are about two inches in length, although some of the thin ones
are three times as long. The brush-tailed porcupine is about
thirty-two inches in total length, of which the tail is about one-
third.
The Long-tailed Porcupine (Trichys) resembles its brush-
tailed relative, but its spines are shorter and the hairs of the
long tail are parallel-sided. This rare porcupine is found only
in Borneo and Sumatra.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 123
Fig. 51 — Brush-Tailed Porcupine
Rabbits and Their Allies. Order Lagomorpha
The rabbit family and the related group which contains the
mouse-hares or pikas, resemble the rodents by having a large
space between the incisors and the cheek-teeth and by having a
single pair of lower and one functional pair of upper incisors.
A second small pair of incisors is present behind the functional
upper pair. The enamel is not confined to the front of the in-
cisors, as in the rodents. The lower jaw moves from side to side
in chewing, rather than back and forth, and there are also many
internal differences between the rabbits and the true rodents.
The members of the rabbit family are much alike ; they differ
chiefly in size, length of ear, and precise pattern of the teeth.
The tail varies in size and conspicuousness, but it is always
visible. The pikas or mouse-hares have ears that project only
slightly above the top of the head, and their hind feet and legs
are not more elongated than those of squirrels ; the tail is not
visible externally.
124 mammals of the pacific world
Rabbits and Hares. Family Leporid^
The Arctic Hare (Lepus poadromus) is likely to be present
on the landward Aleutians. This is a large hare, about two feet
in total length, and heavily built. In winter the animals become
white, excepting only the black-tipped ears, while in summer
they are dull grayish brown, with white hind feet. The short
ears measure about three and one-fourth inches from the notch.
Arctic hares are larger as a rule than our snowshoe rabbits and
the Eurasian varying hare. They differ little from those
animals.
They form one of the principal foods of foxes, wolves, and
great snowy owls in the regions where they are found. The sea-
sonal change in color aids them to escape from their enemies ;
their summer coat blends with the vegetation and their winter
coat makes them almost invisible on the snow, so long as they
stay still.
Eurasian Varying Hares (Lepus timidus) resemble American
snowshoe rabbits. Their color is dull grayish brown in summer
and white in winter excepting the tips of the ears. The head
and body length is about twenty inches ; the ears measure about
three and one-half inches from the crown of the head. This
species ranges from Scotland and the Scandinavian Peninsula
through Siberia to the northern Japanese Islands and the
Kuriles.
The Japanese Hare (Lepus hrachyurus) occurs on the south-
ern Japanese Islands. It has short ears — ^less than three inches
long — and is a little smaller than our varying hare. Its color is
dull brown, with the head, neck, belly, and limbs russet. The tail
is scarcely longer than the hair of the rump ; it is brownish above
and dull whitish below.
The Black-naped Hare {Lepus nigricollis) was introduced
into Java from Ceylon or India. This species is dull brown,
mixed with blackish on the sides and back, becoming paler on
the feet. A band of blackish brown forms a collar around the
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 125
neck, whence its name is derived. In size and proportions it is
not very different from the American snowshoe rabbit.
The Formosan Hare {Caprolagus formosus) is closely re-
lated to the harsh-furred hare of southern China. Its color is
grayish drab, mixed with black, the tips of the hairs mostly
buffy. Its dimensions nearly equal those of our cottontails, the
tail being shorter but the other proportions similar.
The Luchu Islands Rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi) has only
five upper cheek-teeth, instead of the usual six in this family. Its
color is very dark brownish black, with an admixture of buffy,
becoming mahogany-colored on the rump ; the feet and tail are
yellowish brown. The back has a jet-black stripe extending
from the neck to the beginning of the mahogany color on the
rump. The ears are proportionately short (less than two inches
in length), but the body is about the size of the American snow-
shoe rabbit ; the hind feet are smaller. This rabbit, known only
from a few specimens, is one of the rarest mammals in museum
collections.
The Sumatran Hare (Nesolagus netscheri), of peculiarly
striped appearance, is grayish yellow on the front parts, gradu-
ally becoming rich mahogany-brown on the haunches. A black
stripe begins at the nose and runs the whole length of the ani-
mal ; it broadens between the ears, and on each side a black band
runs forward from the back of the neck onto the cheeks. A
black stripe extends back from the shoulders to join the dorsal
stripe near the haunches and yet another black band comes up
from the groins a little behind this. The outersides of the thighs
are black, as is also a band around each hind foot. The fur is
short and woolly and the ears are short — about one and one-
half inches in length. This rabbit is a little larger than the
cottontails of the United States.
The European Rabbit {Oryctolagus)^ introduced into Aus-
tralia in 1788, has since assumed the proportions of a first-class
pest, having destroyed enormous acreages of grazing lands.
Certain values have eventually emerged : rabbit fur is made into
126 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
felt hats or imitations of popular skins, and during World Wars
millions of frozen carcasses are eaten as meat.
PiKAS. Family Ochotonid^
The Pikas, Conies, or Mouse-hares are only half as large as
cottontails. They have mouse-like ears but no visible tail. A
single species (Ochotona hyperhorea) occurring on the large
island of Hondo or Honshu, Japan, is found in rocky places,
probably above the timber-line. Pikas have a peculiar call — a
long ventriloquistic whistle or bleat. Piles of "hay" which they
gather under the shelter of large stones are often the only signs
of their presence.
Whales and Porpoises. Order Cetacea
Whales and their smaller relatives are mammals that have
become greatly modified for life in the water. Their forms are
fish-like, rounded and tapering, without a constriction at the
neck. The tail, broadened and flattened, is shaped into a pro-
pelling organ much like a fish's tail, but is horizontal instead
of vertical. The front limbs are paddle-like, but no external
trace of the hind limbs remains. The skin is hairless, smooth,
and shining ; immediately under the surface lies a thick layer of
fatty tissue or blubber. There is usually a median fin on the
back. The eyes are small for the size of the head. There is no
external ear, and in some cases the middle ear is completely
separated by thick tissue from the exterior. The opening of the
nostrils, through a paired or single "blowhole," is almost as far
back as the eye or even behind it. These mammals will rarely be
seen close enough to assure their identification. Some may be
seen washed up on the beaches, and a few species live in the
mouths of rivers or in harbors. Great gaps exist in our knowl-
edge of these sea mammals, as they are too large for us to keep
under observation in aquariums or for us to attach recording
machines to them. The distribution of small species of little
commercial value is still poorly known. Records of such whales
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AKEA 127
and porpoises, especially if accompanied by photographs and
skulls, are very desirable.
Whalebone Whales. Suborder Mysticeti
Whalebone whales have no teeth, although there are rudi-
ments formed in the embryo. In the place of teeth the upper
jaw has developed rows of horny, fringe-like whalebone which
function as a sieve. The mouth opens wide and a great quantity
of water is taken in. The mouth is then closed and the water
forced out through the whalebone by the tongue, leaving the
small fish and shrimp-like animals caught by the sieve to be
swallowed.
The Pacific Right Whale {Euhalcena), both southern and
northern species, has the body tapered gradually to the base
of the tail. The head occupies about one-fourth of the total
length, which is about fifty feet in adults. These whales have
no throat grooves nor do they have a dorsal fin (compare with
the finback whales).
The northern right whale is almost restricted to the waters
north of the fortieth parallel, and although usually found far
from shore, is taken off the coasts of Japan, Kamchatka, and
the coast of Alaska.
The southern right whale is found largely between thirty and
fifty degrees south latitude ; in the Pacific it has been taken in
numbers off southern Australia, near New Zealand, and off the
coast of Chile. Other records are rare.
The Bowhead or Greenland Right Whale {Balcena) is more
massive than the other right whales. The head occupies about
one-third of the total length, which in adults is from fifty to
sixty feet. The head is thicker and more arched in dorsal pro-
file than the northern and southern right whales, and the body
tapers less regularly to the base of the tail. The bowhead is
found in the Arctic Ocean and in the Bering and Okhotsk Seas,
but it may range south of these last two regions in the winter.
This species is now rare.
128 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Pygmy Right Whale {Neohalcena) is about twenty feet
long, the head being about one-fourth of the total length. The
color of the whalebone is pale yellow margined with black, while
that of other right whales is usually black. The pygmy right
whale is found in New Zealand and Australian waters and off
South America.
The Gray Whale (Rhachianectes) , like the several foregoing
species, lacks the dorsal fin, but the back shows a number of
wave-like bumps, especially toward the tail. The head is small —
less than one-fourth of the total length. The throat has two
longitudinal folds, about six feet in extent, and the body is more
slender than that of the right whales. The whalebone plates are
only about fifteen inches in length. Adults are thirty-five to
forty feet long. The gray whale, found chiefly near the coast,
was once common along the Pacific coast of North America and
in the Sea of Japan, but whaling has almost exterminated the
species.
The Humpback Whale (Megaptera) frequents the coasts
and bays of all the great oceans. Adults generally reach a
length of about fifty feet. The body is thickset and clumsy in
build. The fins are very long, about fourteen feet from base
to tip in adults, and the front margin is irregularly wavy. The
throat has a number of longitudinal folds, like those of the re-
lated finbacks. The humpback's blow or spout (the mixture of
air and water spouted from the blowholes) is short and broad,
rising almost vertically. The humpback is one of the few good-
sized whales that can jump clear out of the water. Like most
whalebone whales it feeds on small shrimps but eats a few fish
as well.
Finback Whales or Rorquals (Balcenoptera, Sibbaldus) in-
clude the largest of all known animals, the blue whale or sulphur-
bottom. This species {Sibbaldus musculus) reaches a length of
slightly over one hundred feet and a weight of more than one
hundred tons. Its spout is more than fifteen feet high, and like
that of most whalebone whales is almost vertical. Other kinds
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 129
Fig. 52 — Hump-hacked Whale
of finback whales are smaller, from twenty-five to sixty-five feet
in length.
Finbacks are slender of body, with a dorsal fin ; the head is
one-fourth or less of the total length, and the "muzzle" is broad
rather than deep. The throat and breast have numerous longi-
tudinal folds, and the whalebone is short and coarse. Finbacks
are found in almost all seas, but they are commoner in the cooler
waters than in the tropics. These whales are the species now
hunted commercially, most of the others being too rare to be
profitable.
Toothed Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises
Suborder Odontoceti
Adult toothed whales always have teeth, but in some cases
these are not functional. The teeth are usually numerous and
peg-like, and the nostrils open by a single blowhole. The small
toothed whales with long, pointed "beaks" are usually called
dolphins; those without "beaks" or with small, rounded ones,
and with bulging "foreheads" are called porpoises.
The Sperm Whale (Physeter) reaches a large size ; the males
are as long as eighty-five feet, but the females are much smaller.
The head occupies almost one-third of the total length. The
upper jaw and muzzle are barrel-shaped ; the lower jaw, bearing
the teeth, is slender and pointed. The spout is directed diago-
nally forward and is "slow." Sperm whales are often found in
130 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
schools of fifteen or more (once schools of a hundred were not
uncommon), and they feed on squid, octopus, and some kinds of
fish. Although these whales are commonest near the equator all
across the Pacific, they are found also between fifty degrees
south latitude and forty degrees north, with concentrations off
New Zealand and Australia, and between Hawaii and Japan.
Fig. 53 — Sperm Whale
Ambergris, a substance used as a base for perfumes, is a
product of the sperm whale, formed in the digestive tract. It is
usually grayish in color, with a sweet, slightly musty odor. It
is so valuable that for months after some has been found, bits
of waste fat or soap, mistaken for it, are hopefully brought to
museums for identification.
The Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia) is much smaller than the
sperm whale. It attains a length of about twelve feet. The
head is short and rounded and a dorsal fin is present. It is
found in all seas, but seems to be rather rare.
The Bottle-nosed Whale {Hyperoodon) is about twenty-five
to thirty feet in length when fully grown. Its body is rather
heavy; the "forehead" bulges, and there is a well-developed
"beak." In color this whale varies from dark gray to black
above and lighter on the underside. There are only two small
teeth, situated one each side at the tip of the lower jaw and
hidden in the gums. The bottle-nosed whale is known to occur
off the west coast of Australia; records in the islands to the
north are lacking.
The Baird Whale (Berardius) is rare. It is found from the
Bering Sea to California and may occur off Japan. A second
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 131
species is reported from near New Zealand, but not elsewhere
in the southern Pacific. Both species have two large teeth,
roughly triangular in shape, one on each side of the lower jaw.
Dorsally they are black with the underside whitish, gray, or
flecked with black. They have a well-developed forehead and
a long and heavy beak. The northern species reaches about
thirty feet, the southern about forty.
Cuvier's or Goose-beaked Whale {Ziphius) is about eight-
een feet in length. It varies above from black to gray or even
white, at least on the foreparts. A single pair of teeth is pres-
ent, situated near the tip of the lower jaw. It is recorded from
off Australia, New Zealand, and Java.
Typical Beaked Whales (Mesoplodon) of several species oc-
cur in Australian and New Zealand waters ; another is found
from the Bering Sea to California and may be expected in Jap-
anese waters. All species have a single pair of teeth in the lower
jaw; in some species these teeth are sometimes large and sit-
uated about the middle of the jaw, and in other species they
are poorly developed and placed near the tip. Beaked whales
are from ten to twenty feet long, depending on the species ; the
beak is long and the forehead poorly developed.
The Killer Whale (Orcinus) is black in color, with distinc-
tive white markings on the underparts and sides. The dorsal
fin is large, situated near the middle of the body, and the flip-
pers are broad and paddle-like. Killers are twenty to thirty
feet long and have from ten to twelve large conical teeth on
each side of the upper and lower jaws. They are found in all
seas. They feed normally on large fish, smaller dolphins, and
seals. Occasionally they form packs like wolves to attack larger
whales and may be dangerous to a ^person in the water.
The Gray Porpoise or Risso's Dolphin (Grampus) has a
high, sickle-shaped dorsal fin, much like that of the killer whale.
It is only about ten feet long, however, and grayish in color,
with a pale head. It has hardly any beak ; the front of the head
rises almost vertically from the tip of the upper jaw and the
forehead bulges. The flippers are long and narrow. Risso's
132 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
dolphin is found near the coasts of New Zealand and eastern
Australia and in the northern Pacific, from California and Ja-
pan to the Aleutians.
The False Killer Whale (Pseudorca) is completely black and
more slender in shape than the killer. The long and tapering
flippers comprise about one-tenth of the body length. The short
dorsal fin is directed backward. Eight to eleven pairs of large
teeth much like those of the killer in appearance are found in
both jaws. Cuttlefish or squids are the chief prey of this por-
poise. The false killer is twelve to fourteen feet in length. It lives
in all seas.
The Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcella) is about seven feet long.
The short head has a bulging forehead and narrow, shelf-like
beak. The color is slaty blue. The teeth number twelve to nine-
teen on each side of the upper and lower jaws. This dolphin
feeds on fishes. It is found in the Straits of Malacca and Ma-
cassar and near the shores of the South China Seas.
The Blackfish or Pilot Whale (Globiocephala) is almost
world-wide in distribution. The head is greatly swollen in
front, the forehead bulging out above the upper jaw. These
whales are about fifteen to eighteen feet in length. The teeth,
ten on each side, are located at the front of the jaws. Black-
fish live for the most part on squid. Large schools of black-
fish occasionally beach themselves without obvious reason.
Ball's Porpoise {Phoccenoides) has no beak. The body is
black, with a large white area on the underside extending to the
sides of the hinder half. The teeth are small ; twenty-three are
found in the upper jaw and twenty-seven in the lower on either
side. This porpoise is found in Alaskan waters south to Cali-
fornia, and True's porpoise, a closely related species with the
white marking covering most of the sides, is found off Japan.
The Harbor Porpoise (Phoccena) slate gray and less than
six feet long, occurs along the North Pacific shores.
The Finless Black Porpoise (Neomeris) is found from the
coasts of southern Japan and Formosa to the Cape of Good
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 133
Hope and is fairly common in the Malay region. It is about
four and one-half feet long, with a bulging forehead, and has
from fifteen to nineteen pairs of teeth in each jaw.
Right Whale Dolphins (Lissodelphis) were given this name
because they have no dorsal fin and thus resemble the right
whales. They are small — six or eight feet long — slender, and
have a distinct beak. The southern species, found near New Zea-
land and southern Australia, has a black back and white lower
parts, the white including the beak. The northern species, found
in the Pacific from California northward, is black, excepting a
white area on the breast and a stripe of white extending from
this region to the tail. The right whale dolphins have many
small teeth : forty-three on each side of the upper and lower jaws
in the southern species ; forty-four pairs in the upper and forty-
seven pairs in the lower jaw of the North Pacific form.
The White-headed Dolphin (Cephalorhynchus) is one of
the common New Zealand species. Its body is light gray, with
the nose and forehead pure white, gradually passing into the
color of the body. It is about four feet long and has thirty-one
or thirty-two teeth on each side of the upper and lower jaws.
Another species, Hector's dolphin, from the same region, has
the beak more developed. Its upperparts are blackish, its under-
side white, and a narrow band of white extends back on the sides
toward the tail. It is about six feet long and has about thirty
pairs of teeth above and below. Related species are found in
the waters off the Cape of Good Hope and the southern tip of
South America.
Several species of the genus Lagenorhynchus are found in
the Pacific. They have high, sickle-shaped dorsal fins, not un-
like those of the killer whale and Grampus, and the beak is usu-
ally poorly marked. The white-sided dolphin of the North
Pacific Ocean is black above, with an irregular white area on
the side, which comes up about to the level of the eye. The flip-
pers are black. This dolphin is about seven feet long, and has
twenty-seven teeth on each side of upper and lower jaws. The
134 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
hour-glass dolphin is five or six feet in length and has a dis-
tinct, though short, beak. The white markings on the sides
consist of two torpedo-shaped areas, one from above the eye
tapering back to the level of the dorsal fin and the other from
the base of the tail tapering forward to join or almost join the
first. The flippers are black and so is an irregular band from
the eye to the tail separating the white of the sides from that
of the underparts. The white areas of the sides are connected
in front of the eye. This species is found in the southern Pacific.
The dusky dolphin of New Zealand and the Falklands has a
longer beak than its relatives. The white of the underside ex-
tends up on the side to about the level of the eye, and there is a
whitish marking on the rear part of the dorsal fin. The back is
dark brown. This species is common in the seas around New
Zealand. Another species, very poorly known, is reported from
the tropical Pacific, but it is known only from the skull.
Bottle-nosed Dolphins (Tursiops) have high, sickle-shaped
dorsal fins, a rather heavy body, swelling forehead above a short
beak, and the lower jaw longer than the upper. The upperparts
are gray or blackish, the underside white. One species in Aus-
tralian waters has the sides, lower surface, and flippers covered
with dark blotches. Other species lack these blotches and are
found in all temperate and tropical seas.
The Common Dolphin (Delphinus) has a narrow, relatively
long beak (five to six inches) that is sharply marked off from
the forehead by a V-shaped groove. The body is black or dark
gray, and on each side are undulating bands of whitish, yellow-
ish, or gray ; the eye is circled by a ring of blackish and a line
connects this with the snout. The upper and lower jaws bear
forty to fifty pairs of fine teeth. The common dolphin is about
seven and one-half feet long. It is found almost throughout the
world. A small, closely related species is the red-bellied dol-
phin ( D. roseiventris) found in the Banda Sea and Torres
Strait. It is stouter in build, and about three feet ten inches in
length.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AEEA 135
Fig. 54 — Common Dolphin
The Long-beaked Dolphin (Steno) has a beak even longer
than the common dolphin and distinctly marked off from the
forehead. The teeth, twenty to twenty-seven in number, are
heavier than in the common dolphin and are roughened or fur-
rowed. The upperparts are blackish or deep gray, while the
underside is white. This slender species measures about eight
feet in length. The long-beaked dolphin is recorded from the
Malay Archipelago, but not elsewhere in the East Indies.
The Slender Dolphins (Prodelphinus) are shaped like the
long-beaked dolphin but the teeth, which number thirty-nine
pairs in each jaw, are smooth. They differ from the common
dolphin (Delphinus) in having the palate flat, without the
deep grooves inside the toothrows found in that species. The
slender dolphin of the waters of the East Indies is ashy gray.
It is about six feet long. It may reach Japanese waters, but
the limits of its range are not known.
The White Dolphins {Sot alia) of the Malay waters and
Chinese coast have long beaks ; the flippers are broad at the
base and have the posterior margin concave. The Malay species
is glossy white with gray dappling and has about thirty-seven
teeth in each row. The Chinese species may occur off Formosa.
It is milky white, with pinkish fins, and has thirty-two teeth on
each side above and below. A slaty-colored species, sometimes
called the lead-colored or plumbeous dolphin (S. plumbea), is
distinguished by its very long snout ; from the tip of the snout
136 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
to the eye is about one-sixth of the body length, which is about
eight feet. The number of teeth is about thirty-five on either
side above and below. It is found from India to the Straits of
Malacca.
DuGONGS, Sea Cows. Order Sirenia
The sea cows, manatees, and dugongs are mammals which
have undergone almost as much change to fit them for an
aquatic life as have the whales. Their hind limbs have disap-
peared, their fore limbs are now flippers, their tails have ex-
panded into flukes. In some of their features they resemble the
elephants. The upper incisors when present have developed into
tusks. The cheek-teeth come into place from the back of the
toothrow, pushing the others forward as they wear.
DuGONG. Family Dugongid^
The Dugong (Dugong dugong) is the only representative of
this family. This animal has a crescent-shaped tail. The up-
per incisors of the males are enlarged to form small tusks ; in
the female these are yet smaller and do not pierce the gum.
Fig. 55 — Dugong
In color, the dugong is uniform bluish gray, sometimes lighter
on the underside. It may be as much as nine feet in length al-
though it is generally smaller. The dugong feeds on seaweeds
and other aquatic vegetation and lives in shallow bays and
estuaries from the Red Sea through the Indian Ocean and east
as far as the Solomon and Marshall Islands. It extends south
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 137
to northern Australia and north to the island of Amami Oshima,
Luchu Islands.
Sea Cows. Family Hydrodamalid^
The family Hydrodamalidag contains but one animal, the ex-
tinct Northern or Steller's Sea Cow {Hydrodamalis stelleri).
It was the largest of any of the Sirenia, reaching a length of
twenty-five to thirty feet. The sea cow was found only on
Copper and Bering Islands, off Kamchatka in the Bering Sea.
It was discovered by the explorer Behring in 1741 when he was
shipwrecked on the island which now bears his name. At that
time, the animal was abundant in the bays, but being large and
stupid, was so easily killed that in about twenty-five years after
its discovery the species had been exterminated. Occasional
bones are still found on these islands.
Elephants. Order Proboscidea.
Family Elephantid^
The elephants of the present day are found only in Asia and
Africa. The African elephant is now put in a separate genus.
The Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus) inhabits the for-
ested areas of India, Ceylon, Burma, Indo-China, Thailand,
Malaya, Sumatra, and a small section of northern Borneo. It
is believed that the elephant was brought to Borneo by man
and has again reverted to the wild state. The Indian elephant
has been domesticated for centuries. The bulls carry tusks of
appreciable size ; the females have very short ones that do not
protrude beyond the lips. The molar teeth of most mammals,
erupted successively, stand one behind the other in the jaw.
The enormous molars of elephants behave instead much as
though they were attached to the rim of a wheel. Each tooth,
as it moves fully into place, is subjected to great wear by the
tooth opposing it. It continues to move forward in the jaw.
When its successor is fully in place, the former one, worn down
to the roots, is shed. It is common to see in an elephant's jaw
138 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
one complete functioning molar, with a worn-out portion of its
predecessor in front of it and a portion of the crown of the
molar behind it just beginning to show wear.
The male Indian elephant seldom exceeds the height of nine
feet; the female is about a foot less. The age to which an ele-
phant may live is often greatly exaggerated. The oldest authen-
Fig. 56 — Asiatic Elephant
tic record is about eighty years ; an elephant of fifty may be
regarded as old. It is now reasonably well proved that the
greatest span of an elephant's life is less than that of a man.
The female elephants carry their young from eighteen to
twenty-two months before birth. The newborn calf is about
three feet high and weighs about two hundred pounds. At this
time the trunk is short, not very flexible, and is not used in
suckling.
Elephants feed entirely on vegetable matter and consume
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 139
great quantities of it — above a quarter-ton of hay in captivity
daily. They live in herds composed of thirty or forty or more
individuals of various sizes and of both sexes. Adult individuals
occasionally become dangerous. Such elephants, generally males
living alone, are known as "rogues."
The elephant of Sumatra has been considered a subspecies
of the Indian elephant on account of its slimmer build and the
smaller size or even absence of tusks in the male.
Eyen-toed Ungulates. Order Artiodactyla
This order contains the cattle, sheep, goats, goat-antelopes,
deer, and pigs.
Hollow-horned Ungulates. Family Bovid^
The Bovidse (cattle, sheep, goats, and relatives) are charac-
terized by true horns growing upon bony cores arising from the
frontal bones of the skulls. These horns are never shed during
life, and in the majority of species both sexes carry them.
After death the horn is easily removed from the core. The old-
fashioned powder horn is a good example of this horn sheath.
The Banting or Wild Ox (Bibos sondaicus) is found in
Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Borneo, Java, and Bali.
The form found in Java and Borneo differs from the Burmese
banting in that the bulls, as they grow older, become blackish
brown or almost black. Young bulls, depending on their age,
vary from bright red-brown like the cows to dark chocolate.
The bull banting of Burma, on the contrary, seldom gets darker
than chestnut color. All specimens have a large white rump-
patch and white legs. Bantings generally go about in small
parties, although solitary bulls — old animals driven from the
herds — are also frequently met. Even when wounded, bantings
are seldom dangerous. The record spread of the horns of the
Burmese banting is thirty-four and one-half inches ; that of the
Javan form is twenty-six and one-half. Only domesticated
bantings are known in Bali.
140 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The Asiatic Water Buffalo or Indian Buffalo (Bubalus
buhalus) is easily recognized by its great size — five feet or more
at the shoulder — and by its large horns, which rise from the side
of the head and sweep backward in a circular manner. In some
specimens these horns are long and massive, the record length
being seventy-seven and three-eighths inches. The wUd Asiatic
water buffalo is now restricted to northeastern India, Ceylon,
Fig. 57 — Asiatic Water Buffalo
southern Indo-China, and the Malay Peninsula. This buffalo
has been domesticated for centuries and has been introduced into
southern Europe, northern Africa, China, and the Philippines
(where it is known as the carabao), and many of the islands of
the far east, including Australia. In many parts of this terri-
tory herds have reverted to a semiwild condition, so that in sec-
tions where the wild animal is still found, it is difficult to tell
which are the typical wild animals and which are feral. In north-
western Borneo, buffaloes (Bubalus b, hosei) inhabiting certain
river valleys are small and have shorter horns ; they are be-
lieved to be indigenous. In the wild state, the Asiatic buffaloes
inhabit dense reed beds and high grass and are never found far
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 141
from water. They generally go about in herds of considerable
size. Buffalo are considered dangerous game to hunt, not only on
account of the thick cover which they inhabit but because they
are more inclined to charge than any of the other wild cattle.
Some have been known to watch their back trail when they sense
that they are being followed, and from a concealed place to
charge the tracker without warning.
Fig. 58 — Tamarau
The Tamarau (Buhalus mindorensis) , a distinct small buf-
falo, is found on the island of Mindoro, in the southern Philip-
pines. This buffalo is less than four feet at the shoulder and has
short stout horns. A horn twenty inches long is a good size.
Tamarau are dark brown or grayish black, and have more
hair on their bodies than water buffaloes. They frequent thick
marshes along the rivers and it is said that they also inhabit
the mountain forests to an altitude of over six thousand feet
where they live in thick bamboo jungle.
The Anoa or Pygmy BuflEalo (Anoa depressicornis) is a na-
tive of Celebes. It is the smallest of the wild cattle, being
142
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Fig. 59 — Anoa
about three feet four inches high. It has shorter, straighter
horns than its relatives, the record length of one horn being
fifteen and three-eighths inches. Young animals have a coat of
light brown hair which darkens as they reach maturity. In the
adult the hair may be very dark brown or black. Very little
appears to be known about the habits of this animal. It is
said to live in pairs rather than in herds, as is the case with
other buffalo, and to frequent wooded districts on mountain-
sides. Like other buffalo, it is partial to water.
The Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) is a member of the
group of animals known as the goat-antelopes. It shows a
marked resemblance to its ally the Rocky Mountain goat of
North America, except that its color, instead of being white
like the mountain goat, is black or blackish gray, with a griz-
zled appearance. The long coarse hair is lengthened along the
back. The legs are brown. The black horns, generally sharp-
pointed, grow nine or ten inches long. The two sexes are very
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 143
similar. The serow stands about three feet high. It prefers to
live on the steep forested areas along the mountain-sides and
is found in the mountainous sections of southeastern Asia from
China south to Sumatra. A much smaller, grayer species, with
Fig. 60 — Serow
longer hair (Capricornis crispus) is found in Japan, and Swin-
hoe's serow (Capricornis swinhoei), a close relative of the Jap-
anese serow, occurs in Formosa.
The Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) has been introduced
from Austria on Mount Wakefield in New Zealand. It is another
member of the goat-antelope group but it differs by the fact
that its horn tips curve backward and down.
144 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
The Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlaicus) is a native of
North India and has been introduced into the Mount Cook dis-
trict of New Zealand. The tahr is a short-horned goat noted
for its luxuriant coat of long brown hair.
The Bharal or Blue Sheep (Pseudois nahura), a native of
Tibet and west China, has also been introduced into the Mount
Cook district of New Zealand. The horns of the bharal ram are
distinctive; they first curve outward and then down and back-
ward from the sides of the head. The color is bluish gray, the
underparts and legs handsomely marked with black and white.
Deer. Family Cervid^
The deer are characterized by solid bony antlers, sometimes
miscalled horns, which are generally worn by the male. A few
kinds of deer lack antlers ; in one group, the caribou and rein-
deer (Rangifer), the female also grows antlers. The antlers
are shed and regrown periodically.
Many authors restrict use of the name Cervus to the red
deer of Europe and Asia and to the wapiti of Asia and North
America. Others include in Cervus all the deer of this general
type. The latter system is followed here for the sake of sim-
plicity. Deer of the Sambar group (subgenus Rusa) are found
from China and Formosa, India and Ceylon, throughout the
Malayan region to the Moluccas and Timor. Sambar have
been introduced on New Caledonia, New Guinea, and other is-
lands. These deer are medium to large and their antlers have
two tines growing from the main beam, making three points on
each antler. Sambar (Cervus unicolor) has been divided into
numerous subspecies. On Sumatra and the islands along the east
coast the Malayan sambar (equinus) occurs. This is a large
dark deer about four and one-half feet high and is the form
found on the nearby mainland. In Borneo, Billiton, Banka, and
some of the islands of the Bornean coast sambars (hrookei) are
smaller and darker. The sambar from Java, east throughout
the Lesser Sundas to Timor, Celebes, and the Moluccas (C
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 145
hippelaphus) is a smaller, lighter-colored animal with more
slender horns, smaller ears, and thinner tail instead of the bushy
tail of the typical sambar. These deer generally rank as a full
species.
4%^^
Fig. 61 — Sambar Deer
On Bawean Island in the Java Sea, there is found a small deer
only about twenty-seven inches high and of a uniform brown
color. The Bawean Deer {Cervus kuhlii) is found only on this
island and is very rare in museum collections.
In the Philippine Islands are also a number of small deer of
146 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
the sambar group. The most colorful of these is the Philippine
Spotted Deer (Cervus alfredi). Its general color is rich dark
brown, distinctly marked at all seasons of the year with yel-
lowish white spots. It is about twenty-eight inches at the
shoulders. It is found on Cebu, Guimaras, Leyte, Masbate,
Negros, Panay, and Samos. The Philippine deer (philippinus),
found on the island of Luzon, is slightly larger than alfredi
and is dark brown, darker on the back and lighter on the neck.
Dark streaks from above each eye meet to form a band run-
ning down the center of the face. Other forms of the sambar
group are found in the Philippines : Mindoro, Mindanao, Basi-
lan, and Culion.
The Sika Deer {Cervus nippon) stands only about three feet
in height. The antlers generally have four tines. In summer
the reddish brown coat is covered with white spots, but in the
darker brown winter coat these spots disappear or become very
indistinct. The sika is found in northern China, Manchuria,
Japan, Formosa, and the Luchu Islands (possibly introduced).
The sika deer of Formosa retains the spots to some extent
throughout the year.
Numerous deer have been introduced into various sections of
New Zealand, namely: the European red deer {Cervus elephus),
the axis deer {Cervus axis), the fallow deer {Dama dama), the
sambar {Cervus unicolor), the sika deer {Cervus nippon), all
from Europe and Asia; and the Virginia deer {Odocoileus vir-
ginianus), the mule deer {Odocoileus hemionus), the wapiti
{Cervus canadensis), and the moose {Alces americanus) from
North America. The axis deer has also been imported to some
of the islands of Hawaii.
The Grant Caribou {Rangifer granti) inhabits the western
end of the Alaskan Peninsula and Unimak Island of the Aleu-
tians ; the reindeer {Rangifer tarandus). Old World representa-
tive of this group, is found on Sakhalin. Caribou are large deer
standing about fifty inches at the shoulder. The antlers are
slightly palmated and are borne by both male and female.
SPECIES OF MAMMAES OF THE PACIFIC ABEA 147
Fig. 6^—Sika Deer
The Barking Deer or Muntjae (Muntiacus muntjaJc) is a
small red deer found chiefly in wooded areas or thick under-
growth. The males have small antlers which have but one short
tine; these antlers grow at the tips of long skin-covered ped-
icles rising well above the skull. The males have large canine
teeth protruding from the upper jaw. The voice shows a marked
similarity to the sharp bark of a dog. The muntjae has an
extensive range, from China and Formosa to Sumatra, Java,
Bali, Borneo, and smaller islands. Throughout this range many
different forms have been described.
The Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus), is a small animal
measuring about two feet at the shoulder. It is characterized
148
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
Fig. 63 — Barking Deer
by the absence of antlers, by long upper canine teeth in the
males, and by the abdominal gland which yields the musk of
commerce. This musk gland, found only in males, is especially
well developed during the mating season. The musk is colored
dark brown and when fresh is soft and moist. After the death
of the deer this secretion soon dries. The gland is cut out by
the hunter and is tied up in a portion of the skin covering it.
This is known as the "musk pod." A "pod" contains about one
ounce of musk, which is of high commercial value.
The musk deer has heavy legs. The coarse, brittle hair is
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 149
dark brown, often mottled with gray or light brown spots. This
deer is constantly being hunted and is slowly disappearing from
many of the places where it was at one time common. It pre-
fers mountain forests and is found in the Himalayas, Tibet,
western China, Siberia, Manchuria, Korea, and Sakhalin.
Cheveotains or Mouse-deer. Family Tragulid^e
This family contains the chevrotains or mouse-deer of
southern Asia and the water chevrotains of West Africa. They
look like small antlerless deer. The males possess canine teeth.
In some structures of their skulls and teeth they resemble the
camels.
The Mouse-deer or Chevrotain (Tragulus), standing less
than a foot high at the shoulders, is the smallest of the Asiatic
hoofed animals. When seen running through the brush it re-
minds one of a rabbit. In fact, its external appearance and
shape are much like those of a long-legged rodent, such as an
agouti of South America. The name mouse-deer is misleading,
for this animal is not closely related to the deer. The range ex-
tends throughout southeastern Asia to adjoining islands. Nu-
merous forms have been described, all of which fall into two
species, the larger mouse-deer (Tragulus javanicus) found on
almost all of the Greater Sunda group of islands, and the smaller
mouse-deer (Tragulus kanchil) found on Sumatra and some of
its associated islands.
Pigs. Family Suid^
Even the less familiar members of this family may be rec-
ognized by the elongated head and snout and the tusks which
grow from both the upper and lower jaws. These tusks grow
throughout life, those from the upper jaw curving upward.
The hair is coarse and bristly, the tail generally fairly long and
tufted on the end.
The Wild Pigs (Sus) have the greatest range of any of the
larger mammals of the islands. Domestic pigs, taken from is-
150
MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Fig. 64 — Mouse Deer
land to island by man, have often reverted to the wild, which
accounts for their presence on most of the inhabited Pacific
islands. The common wild pig {Sus cristatus), found on the
mainland of Asia, also occurs on Sumatra, Java, and many of
the associated islands. In Japan, the Luchu Islands, and For-
mosa, the Japanese boar (Sus leucomystax) occurs. This ani-
mal has a white streak on its muzzle. The Javan pig {Sus ver-
rucosus) is distinguished by the presence of three small warts
on each side of its face. The bearded pig {Sus harbatus) is
recognized by the long fringe of hair on the cheeks. It is found
in Borneo, Sumatra, some of the smaller islands, and also on
the Malay Peninsula. The giant pig (Sus gargantua) is known
only from a skull from southeast Borneo. The Celebes pig
{Sus celehensis) has warts on the face. It is related to the Javan
pig {Sus verrucosus).
The Babirusa (Babirussa babyrussa) is a remarkable pig of
Celebes and Burn. The males have very long tusks in the upper
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 151
and lower jaws that turn upward and backward in sweeping
curves. The legs are long in comparison with other pigs. The
babirusa of Burn has a well-developed grayish coat, while the
Celebes form is very scantily haired.
Fig. 65 — Babirusa
Odd-toed Ungulates. Order Perissodactyla
This order contains those hoofed animals which have an odd
number of toes, namely, horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs. Only
the rhinoceroses and tapirs are found within the East Indies.
Rhinoceroses. Family Rhinocerotid^
The rhinoceroses are now found only in Africa and southern
Asia. In Africa there are two kinds and in Asia three, two of
which are found in our region.
The Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) carries a
single horn and looks very much like a small edition of the
large Indian rhinoceros. It has deep folds in its thick, dusky
gray skin. At one time this animal had a very extensive range,
from eastern India, Burma, and Indo-China through Thailand
and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra and Java. It is now very
rare everywhere and has become extinct in many parts of its
152 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
former habitat. It is still hunted bv natives, cliicfly because of
the high prices paid for its carcass by the Chinese who use not
Fig. 66 — Javan Rhinoceros
only the horn but the bones, blood, and other parts for medi-
cine. This animal can bo saved from extinction only by rigid
Fig. 67 — Sumatraji Rhinoceros
protection. The Javan rhinoceros lives in the forest. It stays
near places where it can wallow and is found both in the swampy
lowlands and as high as seven thousand feet in the mountains.
SPECIES OF MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC AREA 153
The Sumatran Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros HumatranuH) is the
smallest of the family and also tlif- most hairy, especially when
youn^. This rhinoceros carries two horns, and the folds of the
brownish black skin are much less marked. On the mainland it
has much the same range as the Javan rhinoceros; on tijf; is-
lands it occurs in Sumatra and Borneo but not in Java. Its
habits are very similar to those of the Javan rhinoceros but
it prefers the thickest of forest jungle on rough mountain-
sides. Mud wallows are necessary for the health of this ani-
mal, and when found they are a sure indication that rhinoceros
are in the vicinity. Like the Javan rhinoceros it has been per-
sistently hunted for its horns and blood, used as medicine by the
Chinese, and consequently it is no longer found over much of
the country where it once existed. It also is doomed to ex-
tinction unless adequate protection is given it.
Fig. 68 — Malay Tapir
Tapies. Family Tapieid^
This family includes the Old World and New World tapirs.
The New World tapirs are found in Central and South Amer-
ica while in the Old World the single species is found from
154 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Tenasserim south through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.
The Malay Tapir (Tapirus indicus) is easily recognized by
its heavy build, short tail, oval ears, and long snout or pro-
boscis. The head, fore parts, and hind legs are black; the
remainder of the rump and the upperpart of the thighs is gray-
ish white. The young at birth are brownish black with spots
and streaks of brownish yellow on the back and sides, but they
change to the adult color during their first year. An adult
may reach the height of three and one-half feet. Tapirs fre-
quent forests ; they live chiefly in swamps and along rivers and
are very partial to water. In their native home they are shy
and difficult to approach, but in captivity they become very
tame.
3
Distribution of Mammals in the
Pacific Area
The reason for the presence of certain kinds of mammals
on one island group, for their absence from another, or the
substitution of still other kinds of animals on a third island,
must be sought in the interweaving histories of the evolution
of the mammals themselves and in the evolution of the topogra-
phy, climate, vegetation, and other components of their en-
vironments.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS
The earliest, most primitive mammals are lineal descendants
of peculiar reptile-like creatures whose fossil remains have been
found in South Africa and elsewhere. Those first mammals im-
perceptibly and during the course of very many generations
developed away from being actual reptiles. Gradually those
basic distinctions by which every mammal today is distinguished
from every reptile took form: heat-conserving and regulating
mechanisms including hair, sweat glands, special automatic
nervous control of the oxidizing processes were progressively
developed; milk glands, together with the change from egg-
laying to bearing of young, were evolved ; alterations took place
in the forms and functions of certain bones and muscles ad-
joining the head and the hinged part of the jaw. During an im-
mensely long period of time these alterations of body parts into
different shapes and for new purposes took place ; the descen-
dants of reptiles became mammals.
Those dawn mammals were unlike any living mammals today.
155
156 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
The few fragmentary fossils known indicate that some, at least,
were rat-sized creatures, with pointed teeth suitable for eating
insects. Yet from those animals or others somewhat like them
began not only the genealogical lines leading to the principal
modern Orders, but a host of other lines which, figuratively
speaking, experimented with themselves for longer or shorter
periods of time, and, finding themselves inadequate, died out.
The few successful ones became the ancestors of our earliest
carnivores, insectivores, bats, hoofed animals, rodents, mar-
supials, and monotremes. Such relatively modern groups alone
concern us here.
That process, involving change of shape and size combined
with change of use of parts, has remained continuously opera-
tive. The primitive five-toed horse progressively lost its outer
toes and became one-toed. Thus during millions of years or even
millions of generations a little five-toed mammal gave rise to
a large, one-toed horse. At the same time the remaining toes
increased in size and strength in order to sustain the weight
of the body, for horses were growing bigger. Innumerable other
changes in the many parts of all animals, which fitted them
for the performance of diverse functions, took place continu-
ously everywhere. This process is generally termed evolution.
EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTS
Throughout this length of time, when the characteristics of
mammals were changing, alterations were taking place also in
the earth itself. Slow movements of the earth's crust raised or
lowered parts of the surface. Near the sea, uplifts pushed
back the ocean and caused islands long separate from the
mainland to become joined to it ; or downwarping permitted the
waters to flood the land and to convert high ground near the
coast into islands. On the continents long-continued earth move-
ments elevated mountain ranges, diverted rivers, or established
new rain-collecting areas.
The slowly changing shapes of the land and oceans simulta-
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 157
neously brought about slowly changing climates. The draining
of shallow seas had modifying effects on the temperature and
moisture of the air above and around them. The elevation of
large mountain ranges, particularly if directed north and south,
not only produced colder climates on their own slopes and
crests but by altering prevailing winds modified profoundly
the rainfall and temperature of the lowlands on either side.
The reverse of these processes also took place: The heights of
other mountain ranges already elevated were gradually reduced
by weathering and erosion, again with the effect of modifying
local climates. Such changes take place on islands as well as on
continents.
From time to time during the earth's history periods of lower
temperatures have, by cumulative effect, resulted in "ice ages,"
when vast amounts of water from the oceans slowly accumulated
as snow or ice at or near the earth's poles. Those huge polar
ice-caps — smaller ones exist today on Greenland and Antarctica
— ^had, at their greatest development, pronounced climatic ef-
fects on the regions near them. The grinding movement of the
ice also caused important local changes in the rocks and soils
which it overspread.
The climate affects mammals largely indirectly, through its
effect on vegetation. Damp climates favor forests, relatively
dry climates lead to spread of grasslands, while desert climates
result in the development of leafless water-storing plants which
often produce great quantities of seeds after the occasional
rains. Few mammals live with equal advantage in these various
climates ; in all environments there are species suited to the
special conditions of food and shelter. The presence of these is
an important factor in keeping out the less well adapted
species.
CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC ISLANDS
Two classes of islands are commonly recognized. Continental
islands are those which stand on the continental shelf, sepa-
158 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
rated by relatively shallow seas or straits from the mainland
and connected with it at various times in the history of the
earth. Oceanic islands have never been connected with a con-
tinent but are separated from it by water of great depth —
more than six hundred feet. They have arisen from the floor
of the ocean. In a few cases it is uncertain whether certain is-
lands are continental or oceanic, whether the former connec-
tions with the mainland have foundered or whether the island
has been pushed up from the bottom of the sea.
Examples of continental islands are the Greater Sundas —
Sumatra, Java and Borneo — Japan and Formosa, formerly
connected with confinental Asia. Similarly, New Guinea was
once joined to Australia. The shallow seas now separating such
islands from their mainlands were probably dry land during the
last ice age. Many mammals which occurred in neighboring
areas of the continents were able to spread to the islands with-
out difficulty. At the end of the ice age the gradually rising seas
again isolated the islands with the animals which had invaded
them. The mammals inhabiting continental islands differ only
slightly or not at all from those of the nearby continents ; an-
cient types of animals, known as "living fossils," are usually
absent.
The Luchu and Kurile Islands seem to represent parts of
former continental areas that sank. The higher peaks of for-
mer coastal ranges were left as islands, cut off from each other
and Japan, Formosa, and Kamchatka by deep straits. Move-
ments of the earth's crust have also thrown up great interior
mountain ranges on land; in some cases these ridges continue
out onto the floor of the ocean. Such plunging mountain ranges
as the Aleutians occur, the landward members of which are con-
tinental, but the distant peaks have always been separated by
deep straits from the mainland.
Celebes, the Moluccas, the Philippines, and Australia may
have been parts of an ancient southeastern extension of the
Asiatic continent. If this be true, this area must have been
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 159
broken up in the Age of Reptiles or not later than very early
in the Age of Mammals, a hundred million years ago. No indi-
cation of such a continental origin of these islands is to be found
in the mammals of this area. Similarly, New Zealand has been
supposed by some to have been separated from Australia by
the sinking of the great area now covered by the Tasman Sea.
Oceanic islands, built up from the bottom of the ocean, are
of several kinds. Just as on land, the crust of the earth cov-
ered by the oceans may be wrinkled and folded. Great under-
water ranges of mountains are known, the highest points of
which project above the water. In the case of New Caledonia
and probably New Zealand, the projecting mountain-tops form
large islands and reach high above the ocean level. Other is-
lands are volcanoes, built up by great eruption from the depths.
Combinations of mountain range and volcano may explain the
arc-like chains of islands, such as that formed by the Palaus,
Marianas, and Bonin Islands. Another such arc includes the
Solomons and New Hebrides, while the Marshalls, Gilberts, and
Ellice Islands suggest a third. If Celebes, the Moluccas, and
the Philippines are not remains of an ancient continental mass,
they may well be ridges pushed up from the ocean floor. The
first two seem to have been revolved like a vast eddy between
the masses of southeastern Asia and Australia. Great dis-
turbances of the earth's crust must have occurred in this region ;
certain parts have been heaved up, others have sunk.
Coral barrier reefs and coral atolls are built on and around
volcanic bases throughout the tropical Pacific. In some cases
their peculiar shapes are explained by the gradual sinking of
the heavy volcanic islands around which they formed. In other
cases the change of sea level during the ice age may have been
important.
Oceanic islands, even if situated near the continent, harbor
relatively few mammals ; but then, their nearness to the main-
land is important if winds and water currents are likely to
bring them drifting organisms. Often ancient types, "living
160 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
fossils" today, reached favorably situated islands in the dis-
tant past. A few bats and hardy, raft-riding mammals often
are found on such islands. The remote Pacific islands had no
mammals at all until the first men landed.
RANGE AND DISPERSAL OF MAMMALS
At all times during the history of the evolution of a species of
mammals its environmental conditions have necessarily been
generally favorable. For although the environment best suited
to a species probably can never exist, neither can markedly
unfavorable conditions be long sustained. Similar or even more
favorable locations elsewhere may remain unoccupied by that
species only because of intervening environmental barriers.
Favorable conjunction of animal needs with suitable sur-
roundings may be temporary only. The animal is continu-
ously evolving; the physiography, climate, and vegetation of
its habitat are constantly changing. Let us assume a possible
case, under which the surface of the land becomes lower, the
climate hotter and drier, the character of the vegetation more
and more desert-like. Simultaneously with this environmental
change, involuntary evolutionary experiments are being con-
ducted by the animal. Some of the products of variation are
more suited to the drying habitat, others to a region even
more humid than the original one. The former persist and re-
produce their kind ; the latter die. Thus an animal species has
changed, and, through the selective action of a changing habitat,
the changed species survives as a race distinct from the orig-
inal one.
In a second situation, the environmental conditions at the
margin of the range of a particular species of mammal gradu-
ally become favorably modified; what before was desert be-
comes grassland or forest, favorable to the species. Then, the
species as a whole can advance, generation by generation, into
the now favorable area until stopped by some new barrier. Ad-
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 161
vances of such nature are likely to be shared by all the animals
of a region.
The ways in which mammal species and mammal faunas move
from their favorable original environment into some newly avail-
able but just as favorable one, seem almost analogous to the
creeping expansion of pools of water here or there on a dry,
nearly level floor. This analogy is useful, provided that one re-
members that the water (a fauna) is a solution of many liquids
(species) which are slowly changing into other liquids, some-
times meeting and dissolving or obliterating still others, and
that the floor itself and the local climate above it are also grad-
ually changing.
Geographical movements of species depend fundamentally
upon random movements of individuals through successive gen-
erations. Several deer, for example, born at locality "A," move
fifty miles to the northeast and produce offspring at "B." If
this takes place within the established range of the species it has
little significance, but if it represents penetration into new
territory for that species, perhaps repeated a thousand times
along the perimeter of the range, it may well have significance.
Such movements, generation by generation, represent the way
by which land animals spread into favorable environments. This
procedure continues until stopped by contact with unfavorable
conditions. But random movement into and accidental trans-
portation into the unfavorable environment persists. Rarely
accident permits passage through a barrier into favorable con-
ditions.
THE PASSAGE OF NATURAL BARRIERS
Barriers to the spread of animals on the continents are some-
times incomplete because not sufficiently extensive, or are com-
pletely efficacious against one species while scarcely hindering
another. The functioning of a barrier may vary with the season
of the year, or perhaps with sun-spot cycles. In the course of
162 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
geological time, as has been indicated, some barriers develop,
and others disappear. Barriers have been spoken of as chiefly
climatic or physiographical but others based upon disease, com-
petition with other species, and physiology also occur. All are
likely to be by-passed or penetrated sooner or later through
temporarily favorable circumstances or because of permanent
modification of the affected organisms.
Even when barriers seem to be complete, as at the edges of
wide oceans, accident or the laws of chance eventually permit
occasional species to cross to other land masses or to islands.
Wherever land and sea meet, animals have repeatedly — not once
or twice, but thousands of times during the passage of time —
fallen into or been forced into the waters. Trees with climbing
mammals clinging to their branches or living in hollows in their
trunks fall into rivers and are carried out to sea. Ground-living
creatures are sometimes accidentally taken for rides when banks
cave in. The debris from such undermined banks and tangled
masses of tree-trunks and water weeds sometimes forms ex-
tensive rafts. Bats, especially those that migrate, may be blown
out to sea by storms. If the distance across a water barrier is
short, some of the larger mammals may even swim across ; deer
and pigs possibly do this. Natural swimmers, such as otters,
can be carried by flooded rivers into the ocean but are likely
to swim back to the nearby shore.
The natural rafts mentioned above have been one of the com-
monest means of transportation across seas. Trees and masses
of vegetation become undermined by rivers during the rainy
season and are carried out to sea. In the East Indies, where
the currents between the innumerable islands are changeable,
such rafts have good chances to be stranded quickly, but in the
open ocean the arrival of one at a remote island must indeed be
a rare occurrence. The mammals so transported are likely to be
small, tree-living species, and the raft must be large enough and
carry sufficient food to preserve life until the accidental landfall
is made.
DISTKIBUTION OF MAMMALS 163
ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIES ON ISLANDS
Few of those surviving species are able to establish them-
selves permanently. The reason for this is that the new environ-
ment must not only be favorable and provide approximately
the kind of climate and the kind of food the animal needs, but
the newcomer must either arrive at the same time as one of its
opposite sex or be a pregnant female in order that the process
of colonization of the island may begin. It is not surprising
then that the species of animals on all islands except those
near mainlands are few and assorted. A few mammals have
traveled as accidental "hitch-hikers" on native canoes and on the
ships of explorers, traders, and whalers. Several species of
rats have by this means spread to almost all parts of the world,
including even the most isolated islands. Domestic animals that
escape and go wild also add island species. The game animals
of various lands have been introduced, especially into New Zea-
land where they flourish.
More species are found on large islands than small ones.
This is not merely because of the larger size of those islands but
especially because, offering a far wider choice of habitat, they
are likely to meet the requirements of specialized kinds of mam-
mals. Almost continuous invasion by random drift may be
imagined on islands which are favorably situated. However,
very small populations anywhere are liable to extermination,
and island populations are usually small. Large mammals are
especially liable to this risk. On a small island their numbers
are so limited that disease, an unfavorable year, or hunting by
human inhabitants may kill them all. The fauna of an island
may thus have formerly included species that were unable to
persist.
ARCHAIC MAMMALS PRESERVED ON ISLANDS
Some of the ancient types of animals found upon deep-sea
islands are the altered descendants of colonizers which must
164 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
have succeeded in establishing themselves when the world of
mammals was comparatively young. The classical example of
these is the pouch-bearing mammals of Australia. This land,
even though called a "continent" because of its large size, is in
reality a big, deep-sea island. Marsupials were present in
America, Europe, and probably Asia at the time when they are
believed to have reached Australia. Upon arrival they found a
fertile and varied territory probably devoid of mammalian
competitors. In their evolutionary experiments they produced
pouched replicas of flying squirrels and tree squirrels, mice,
lemurs, woodchucks, weasels, wolves, and moles. They failed
to develop either a marsupial bat or a marsupial swimmer.
During the late prehuman and possibly early human period
of Australia, many giant marsupials, which apparently died
out rather recently, still existed. Huge hippopotamus-like ani-
mals, a marsupial "lion" (which probably ate vegetation), and
enormous kangaroos have left their bones in caves and in the
mud of dried-up lakes in Australia. New Guinea, representing
the tropical phase of the Australian fauna, has much the same
type of animals.
Archaic animals of other islands are by contrast less arrest-
ing. It is unlikely that any other islands contain mammals
whose time of arrival dates as far back as the marsupial move-
ment. Random colonization of islands has been a continuous
process, and many animals that are not "recent" in terms of
existing continental forms can still be found on islands. Such
are the peculiar small cattle of the Philippines and Celebes, the
pig-like babirusa and the black ape of Celebes. Similarly, many
kinds of rat-like animals on those islands and also on New
Guinea and Australia no longer possess close relatives in Asia.
BIOLOGICAL REGIONS
The land surface of the globe is divided into five major zoo-
geographical regions, which include a number of subregions.
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS
165
The northern region, comprising Europe, northern Asia, and
North America, is called the Holarctic Region. The several
land masses which project from it are respectively named the
Neotropical or South American Region, the Ethiopian or Afri-
can Region, and the Oriental or South Asiatic Region. The
Fig. 69 — Fanned Regions of the World, showing probable greatest
extent of land during the Ice Age (unshaded areas beyond coast lines)
isolated Australian continent together with New Guinea forms
the fifth, the Australian Region. This relationship of the faunal
regions is indicated by a map (Fig. 69).
Some of these regions are divided into two or more subre-
gions; for example, the Holarctic consists of the Nearctic or
North American, and the Palearctic or Eurasian Subregions.
The boundaries of these regions and subregions, unlike those of
political areas, are not definite, for animals go wherever they
166 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
are not stopped by impassable barriers or prevented by other
species.
The zoological regions or subregions which are related to
the Pacific and East Indian area comprise parts of the cold
Palearctic or Eurasian (northeastern Asia) and Nearctic
(Alaska), a part of the warm Oriental (southeastern Asia), the
Australian (Australia, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands),
and the Neotropical (limited to a few strays from Central and
South America).
An important if anomalous area containing faunas of mixed
archaic and "modern" mammals lies between the tropical Ori-
ental and Australian Regions. This area, because its fauna
is chiefly Asiatic in origin and contains few animals derived
from Australia, can well be regarded as a subregion of the
Oriental region. It includes four principal island groups, each
of which is to some extent f aunistically distinct : the Philippines,
Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has
been variously named the Indo-Australian Subregion, the
Australo-Oriental Subregion, and Wallacea, named for one of
its early explorers, Alfred Russell Wallace. New Guinea, with
the Solomon Islands, is held to be a subregion of the Australian
Region.
The "subregions" of the open Pacific, the Polynesian, Micro-
nesian, and Melanesian Subregions, are ethnological rather than
biological conceptions. Their limited faunas are derived from
one or other of the biotic regions of the adjoining continents.
FAUNAS OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
Numerous different kinds of animals, as shown beyond in the
geographical index, inhabit the various groups of islands of the
Pacific. It has been pointed out that the ancestors of animals
living on islands came originally from the continents during the
course of an almost unimaginably long period of time. Those
continental sources, which have contributed very unequally to
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 167
the population of the islands, are three: Asia, America, and
Australia. The last, though technically an island, is so large
and has been occupied by its specialized marsupial fauna for so
long a period that it is conveniently treated as a third continent.
Asia, particularly the East Indies, has greatly out-distanced
Australia and the Americas in providing fauna! elements for the
population of the islands. The Americas, on the contrary, have
provided but a handful of land-dwelling species, most of these
reaching islands rather near the American coast and only one
of them going as far as Hawaii. A few representatives of the
great evolutionary outburst of marsupials in Australia and
New Guinea have reached Talaut, Celebes, the easternmost
Lesser Sundas, and the Solomons.
The Aleutian Islands, included in the Holarctic Region, have
a mammal fauna that decreases from the Alaskan end of the
chain westward. The first island, Unimak, separated from the
Alaska Peninsula by a shallow, narrow strait, has almost all of
the mammals that occur on the treeless part of the peninsula.
Some species have not yet been recorded, but this is probably
because of inadequate collecting. The islands west of Umnak,
which is itself one hundred and forty miles west of Unimak, may
have no native land mammals. Caribou, bear, Arctic fox, wolf,
wolverine, mink, weasel, the Arctic hare, marmot, ground squir-
rel, lemming mouse and lemmings, and a water shrew (Sorex)
may occur on the landward islands ; these are all North Ameri-
can forms, but they have close relatives in northern Asia.
The Kurile Islands similarly have a limited mammal fauna,
chiefly species common to both Old and New Worlds. The arctic
fox, red fox, brown bear, pygmy weasel, red-toothed shrew,
varying hare, and a mouse-eared bat are such forms, but the
wood mouse and the long-eared bat (Plecotus) occur only in
the Old World Palearctic Subregion.
Japan, too, has a fauna consisting chiefly of local forms of
northern continental groups — various bats, bears, the red fox,
wolf, varying hare, pika, chipmunk, meadow mouse or vole, and
168 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
red-backed mouse. Some are related to the Eurasian types : cer-
tain insectivorous bats, badger, otter, pigs, moles, dormouse,
wood mouse, and tree squirrel. Still other mammals have their
affinities with the South Asiatic animals ; some of the bats, in-
cluding a species of flying fox, the Asiatic black bear, the rac-
coon dog, sika deer, the serow (a goat-antelope), the water
shrew, the Japanese monkey, and the flying squirrels are among
these.
The Oriental Region is usually understood to include India,
Burma, southern China, Indo-China, Siam, and the Malay
Peninsula. It extends to the Luchus and Formosa, and from
Sumatra east to the Moluccas. The islands between Lombok
and Ceram form a debatable area — ^Wallacea or the Australo-
Oriental Subregion — where palm civet, deer, and wild pigs of
southern Asiatic types overlap with mammals of Australian re-
lationships, like the phalangers. Only a single genus of the
phalangers, however, extends west beyond the Moluccas ; no
marsupials are known from any of the Lesser Sunda Islands
other than Timor and nearby Wetar. The origins of the poor
faunas of this debatable area are chiefly the Oriental Region,
at least as far as mammals are concerned.
The Luchus are inhabited by few kinds of mammals. The
indigenous Oriental mammals comprise flying fox bats, a species
of leaf-nosed bat, and one of the horseshoe bats (other bats are
Eurasian species). The dugong, a sea cow, reaches this far
north. Pigs and the house shrew probably came in with man.
The Luchu hare, found only in these islands, seems to be a relict
form related to extinct rabbits.
Formosa is better populated with mammals than the Luchus.
Almost all are South Asiatic forms. A few with northern affini-
ties, such as the wood mouse, which occur on the island, are also
found in the Chinese fauna. Not all of the species of mammals
living on the nearby mainland are found in Formosa. In some
cases these mainland species may have reached their present
home only after the island was cut off ; in other cases the island
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 169
does not offer proper environmental conditions to attract or
preserve these mammals.
The Formosa macaque monkey, although usually given spe-
cific rank, is closely related to the common rhesus of southern
China. The Formosan hare, described as a species of LepuSy
may be related to the coarse-haired rabbit of the Chinese coast
(Caprolagus). The moles, shrews, ferret badger, yellow-throated
marten, mink, otter, Asiatic black bear, civets, palm civets, mon-
goose, clouded leopard, fishing cat, leopard cat, scaly anteater,
hedgehog, squirrels and flying squirrels, and rats are either local
races of Chinese species or identical to the mammals on the
mainland. Formosa may have been formerly connected with
China ; the depth of the strait is now about fifty fathoms.
The Philippine Islands, excluding Palawan, the Calamianes,
and Balabac which belong to the Malayan Subregion, are often
separated as a distinct subregion. Their mammal fauna seems
to have been derived chiefly from Malayan sources. It becomes
progressively poorer as one proceeds northward, while the forms
peculiar to the islands are concentrated in Luzon and Mindanao.
Rodents and bats are widespread and diversified. Shrews occur
on all the islands. The long-tailed or crab-eating macaque
monkey, the civet, palm civet, pigs, and a small sambar deer are
also almost everywhere. Squirrels, tarsiers, and flying lemurs
or caguans are found only on several of the more southern is-
lands. The tamarau or Philippine native representative of the
water buffalo, is found only on Mindoro; however, introduced
domesticated buffaloes have in some instances gone wild on vari-
ous islands of the group. The slow loris, tree shrew, and one of
the gymnure insectivores reach Mindanao.
Palawan, although it does not have all the Malay mammals,
has so many of them that it is placed with the Greater Sunda
Islands in the Malay Subregion. It was part of the mainland
and connected with Borneo in all probability during the Pleisto-
cene, while the other Philippine Islands have always been either
separated from the continent or were connected so long ago that
170 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
there is little evidence of this connection so far as the mammals
are concerned.
The Malayan Subregion is characterized by two gymnures
(rat-like insectivores), tree shrews, flying lemurs or caguans,
a number of fruit bats (the short-nosed and certain of the long-
tongued fruit bats), a false vampire, the slit-faced bat {Nyc-
teris), naked free-tail bat (Cheiromeles) , slow loris, crab-eating
and pig-tailed macaques, a variety of leaf monkeys and gibbons
(except the hoolock), small-clawed otter, linsang, binturong,
marbled cat, several small flying squirrels, striped and long-
nosed ground squirrels, pygmy squirrels, and the mouse-deer
or chevrotain.
Virtually all of the mammals of the Malay Peninsula are
found in Sumatra; only a few are lacking from Borneo and
Java. Fossil evidence indicates that the fauna may have once
been more uniform ; remains of elephants and tapirs have been
found in Java where they are now absent. Extinction may ac-
count for some cases of discontinuous distribution, such as those
of the tiger and of the leopard. The tiger is absent from Borneo
and the leopard is known only from Java and the Kangean
Islands, but both are present on the Malay Peninsula. Sumatra,
Java, Bali, Borneo, and Palawan are all on the Asiatic conti-
nental shelf, and were part of the mainland in the not very dis-
tant past.
The islands to the east and north (Celebes and Philippines)
have been separated for a very long time, since early in the Age
of Mammals at least. Islands, especially the smaller ones, offer
little variety of habitats, so that even if they were connected
with the mainland as a cape or peninsula, they would not have a
large mammal fauna. On the other hand, isolation of small
populations on islands may result sometimes in more rapid evo-
lutionary change than would be possible in large areas in the
case of a widespread population. Inbreeding of small popula-
tions may fix characters that otherwise would be swamped.
The Malayan fauna is closely allied to those of the Indian
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 171
and Chinese Subregions, but it lacks some of the northern ele-
ments present in each. On the Malay Peninsula there are like-
wise several forms that do not occur on any of the nearby
islands ; those elements are chiefly Indian or Chinese forms,
such as the gaur, a large species of bamboo rat, several squirrels,
the large Indian and Burma civets, and the stump-tailed ma-
caque monkey.
Sumatra is populated by mammals closely related to those of
the Malay Peninsula ; a few Malay forms absent from the other
islands are tapir, serow, brush-tailed porcupine, and the siamang
gibbon. Faunal relationships between Sumatra and Borneo are
close; the tana tree shrew, the tarsier, the orang, the thick-
spined porcupine, and the whitish species of the Oriental squir-
rel are elements present on both islands but absent from the
Malay Peninsula and Java. On the other hand, several mam-
mals are common only to Java and Sumatra: the Java tree
shrew, the mink-like Java weasel, and one of the shrew rats. A
native rabbit or hare, short-eared and striped with black, is
thought to be allied to the coarse-haired rabbits of the Himala-
yan foothills and southern China.
The Mentawi Islands, off western Sumatra, have some well-
marked local forms such as the dwarf gibbon, a distinctive leaf
monkey and the peculiar pig-tailed langur. The relationships
of the other mammals are Sumatran.
Borneo, the largest of the islands, has more varied climatic
and environmental conditions than other Greater Sunda Islands,
or even than the Malay Peninsula. The mountains of the in-
terior are a barrier dividing the lowlands of the northwestern
part of the island from those of the southeastern. They provide
conditions suitable for mountain-living species. Some of the
large rivers also form barriers and restrict the ranges of cer-
tain species and races. A few high peaks, such as Kina Balu in
the north and isolated Poi and Penrissen in the western corner
of the island, have races, species, or even genera restricted to
them.
172 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
Some of the mammals of Borneo appear to be related to
present Chinese or Indo-Chinese forms: a red-cheeked ground
squirrel, one of the slender-tailed tree shrews, and the proboscis
monkey which is probably allied to the golden monkeys and the
pied langurs. The ferret badger and banting may have reached
Borneo from Indo-China but they also occur in Java. Several
mammals known only from Borneo may have originated there,
although derived from continental ancestral types. They are
well-marked local species or genera such as several kinds of
bats, the maroon and white-fronted leaf monkeys, the proboscis
monkey, a form of banded palm civet, the Bornean mongoose,
the bay cat, several squirrels, and the pygmy tree rat.
In addition to these mammals shared by Borneo only with
Sumatra, several mammals unknown in Java occur on Borneo
and Sumatra and also on the mainland. The pen-tailed tree
shrew, the large gymnure or "moonrat," the water shrew, several
kinds of bats, the pig-tailed macaque, banded leaf monkey,
Malay bear, a weasel, the hairy-nosed otter, the masked and
banded palm civets, otter civet, short-tailed mongoose, clouded
leopard, marbled cat, several sorts of flying squirrels, the long-
nosed ground squirrel, and the two-horned rhinoceros are such
mammals.
Palawan and the nearby Caliamanes are related to Borneo
faunally much as Bali is to Java. Their fauna is much poorer ;
it includes none of the species found only in Borneo. The com-
mon tree shrew, scaly anteater, Malay badger, binturong, small-
clawed otter, mouse-deer, porcupine, and the Palawan flying
squirrel are mammals typical of the Malay Subregion.
Java with Bali and Madura, which have less varied faunas, is
the home of fewer mammals than Sumatra and Borneo. Most
of the mammals are local races of species common to the Greater
Sunda Islands, but a few, like the Javan wild pig, are restricted
to the island. The banting and ferret badger, absent from
Sumatra and the lower Malay Peninsula, are common to Java
and Borneo.
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 173
Java is the only island in the group in which mammalian
fossils have been found. Even those are relatively recent fossils
of the Ice Age or Pleistocene. The most interesting discoveries
in those deposits have been the remains of fossil man (Pithecan-
thropus), a man with many ape-like features, famed as the
"missing link" between man and the ape. Actually this creature
was much more human than is commonly supposed. Other rela-
tively enormous forms closely related to Pithecanthropus, found
in the Javan deposits, had teeth and jaws much larger than the
gorillas.
There, too, were found remains of hyenas and bones of an
extinct species of hippopotamus ; hyenas are no longer found
in the Malay Subregion and the hippo today occurs only in
Africa. A distinct species of wild ox, related to the banting, a
saber-toothed tiger, a mastodon, and primitive kinds of ele-
phants called stegodonts, as well as several animals long thought
to be giraffes but actually related to cattle, formerly lived in
Java. The Eld deer or thamin, now found no nearer than
Burma and Indo-China, lived in Java until a few thousand
years ago.
The Australo-Oriental Subregion or Wallacea is here con-
sidered to include Celebes, the Lesser Sunda Islands from Lom-
bok to Timor, and the Moluccas. This is the zone of overlap
of Oriental and Australian mammals, in which the former greatly
predominate.
Celebes, much the largest land mass in the Australo-Oriental
Subregion, has a fauna largely Oriental in origin. This includes
the anoa or pygmy buffalo, wild pigs, the babirusa, sambar deer,
shrews, two distinctive macaques, the tarsier, several extraor-
dinary rats, a long-nosed ground squirrel, civets and palm civets.
The civets and sambar may have reached Celebes by human
agency, and one of the shrews, the house musk shrew, was per-
haps transported in canoes like house mice and rats. Deer and
pigs are good swimmers ; they may sometimes have advanced
naturally through the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands. The
174 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
anoa may have reached Celebes by the same route or from the
Philippines. The presence on Mindoro of a dwarf buffalo, simi-
lar to the anoa, is not conclusive on this point, even if that
similarity is considered evidence of close relationship rather
than accidental convergence. The depths of the straits sepa-
rating Celebes from Borneo, the Lesser Sundas, and Philippines
are such that, considering also the faunal evidence, Celebes can-
not have been connected with any of these during the later
Tertiary. These straits were probably narrower than at pres-
ent during part of the Ice Age; lowering of the sea level six
hundred feet would reduce the width of the strait between south
Celebes and Borneo to twenty-five miles. Smaller mammals were
probably carried to Celebes from Borneo and other islands on
drifting masses of trees and vegetation, such as are frequently
torn loose by swollen rivers. The chances of survival under such
conditions are especially poor for larger mammals, but shrews,
rats, squirrels, several of which are closely related to Bornean
species, palm civets, and monkeys may have arrived in Celebes
in this way. The various degrees of differentiation shown by
the rats and squirrels, some of which are generically distinct,
some specifically, and some only racially, suggest that arrivals
took place through a great length of time.
The only Australian element in Celebes consists of two species
of cuscus (Phalanger) , distinct from the several species of that
genus present in New Guinea. The spinal-winged fruit bat
(Dohsonia), although sometimes found as far west as Bali, is
characteristic of the Papuan Subregion, as is the tube-nosed
fruit bat (Nyctimene) and one of the long-tongued bats {Syco-
nycteris). Two genera of fruit bats are known only from Cele-
bes and its small associated islands. The lesser mosaic-tailed
rat (Melomys) is a member of a large genus of rats with head-
quarters in New Guinea. This genus is represented also on the
Talaut Islands between Celebes and the Philippines.
Saleyer, Sanghir, and Talaut Islands have many of the mam-
mals found in Celebes. On the Sanghir group and Talaut are
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 175
phalangers, on the Sanghirs alone a tarsier. The spotted cuscus
of New Guinea is represented on Saleyer. The presence of the
tarsier on the Sanghir group may indicate that it came to
Celebes from the Philippines by way of the Sanghirs; but it
might have come from Borneo more easily.
The Molucca Islands are a scattered group, not uniform
faunally. A flying phalanger (Petaurus) is found on Obi and
Batjan; on these and on Halmahera (Gilolo) cuscuses and a
bandicoot occur. The babirusa of Celebes occurs also in Buru.
Other pigs, and sambar deer which reach east as far as Buru
and the Gilolo group are found in Ceram. Pigs and deer are
especially likely to be carried about by natives and to go wild.
This fact explains their presence in New Guinea.
The Lesser Sundas, with the exception of the gray cuscus on
Timor and Wetar, have no Australian land mammals. The
Australian long-eared bat (Ni/ctophilus), reported from Timor,
has not been certainly found there but the tube-nosed fruit bat
{Nyctimene) reaches this island. Spinal-winged bats, wide-
spread in the Australo-Oriental Subregion, are found through-
out the Lesser Sunda chain. Bats are more limited by water
barriers than may be thought but nevertheless may be carried
about by storms. Consequently the distribution of these mam-
mals is frequently erratic.
Relatively few Oriental mammals extend as far east as Timor.
They include the long-tailed macaque monkey (not recorded
from the other islands, however), sambar deer, pigs, shrews, the
palm civet, and the slit-faced bat {Nycteris). This bat, as yet
unrecorded from the other Lesser Sundas, may be found later
on some of the larger ones. Porcupines reach east as far as
Sumbawa and possibly Flores, while a single unsatisfactory
record in 1867 of palm civet is known from the Aru Islands,
off western New Guinea.
The Australian Faunal Region, including the Australian con-
tinent, Tasmania, New Guinea, the Bismarck and Solomon
groups, has a mammal fauna characterized by many varieties
176 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
of marsupials, a few egg-laying mammals, and a number of
peculiar bats and rats, especially the water rats and giant rats.
Native mammals of other orders — insectivores, carnivores, un-
gulates, and primates (except man himself) — are absent, except
in the cases of the wild descendants of animals brought by man.
The Australian and Papuan Subregions based upon geography
are not wholly satisfactory. The savannas of the extreme south
of New Guinea are f aunistically Australian ; the rain forests of
North Queensland are inhabited in part by species belonging to
genera characteristic of New Guinea.
The Australian Subregion is populated mainly by primitive
and ancient mammalian types, including a wide variety of kanga-
roos and wallabies, possums and flying phalangers, the koala,
the wombat, bandicoots, the marsupial mole, the marsupial ant^
eater, the Tasmanian devil, marsupial or "tiger" cats, mar-
supial mice, and finally the egg-laying monotremes which include
the duckbill and spiny anteater. This fauna has probably been
in Australia for millions of years, but there is little doubt that
the first marsupials reached Australia from the northwest. At
that time the present chain of East Indian islands may have
connected with Asia. The pioneer marsupials which were prob-
ably small arboreal mammals, some perhaps a little like the
American opossums and others like the modern Australian pha-
langers, can have reached the Australian Region on natural
rafts almost as easily as across such a land bridge. From those
pioneer forms the various families of Australian marsupials
have branched out adaptively to take the places filled in other
parts of the world by true carnivores, insectivores, squirrels,
and hoofed mammals. During Pleistocene time — the ice ages —
the Australian marsupials were even more varied than they are
today ; they included kangaroos as large as donkeys, a ground-
living phalanger as large as a lion and with great shearing
teeth, giant wombats bigger than tapirs, and a massive clumsy
beast that must have compared in size with the hippopotamus.
The many peculiar rats of Australia came long after the
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 177
marsupials, as did some of the bats. The dingo was brought
there by the early men who came near the end of the Pleisto-
cene period. The dingo, very much like the earliest known
domestic dogs, has no other near relatives in southeastern Asia.
The Papuan Subregion lacks a number of the distinctively
Australian mammals. Of the archaic Australian fauna only
wallabies, tree kangaroos, phalangers or possums, flying pha-
langers, bandicoots, marsupial cats, marsupial mice, and the
spiny anteater are found there — a much less varied assemblage
than on the continent. Of these the cuscus phalangers alone
extend much beyond New Guinea. Of the bats, many are species
characteristic of this subregion, but more frequently they are
local forms of widely ranging bats, found in tropical Australia
as well as in the islands east and west. The rats are, with a
number of exceptions, closely related to Malaysian types, but
even the most peculiar are rat-like and belong in the same family.
The mammals which extend westward have been discussed under
the Australo-Oriental Subregion. Cuscus phalangers reach the
Solomon Islands, as do the giant and mosaic-tailed rats. Tube-
nosed fruit bats {Nyctimene) and spinal-winged bats {Dob-
sonia) are other Papuan forms that reach these islands. Several
genera of bats and rats, found only on the Solomons, are either
relicts of ancient types or local developments.
Bandicoots and a spotted cuscus are found on the Admiral-
ties ; these with wallabies are the chief land mammals of the
Bismarck group. Water rats extend northeast to New Britain ;
they are also found on the Aru and Kei Islands to the west.
The other mammals of these last islands are much like those of
southern New Guinea, but less varied.
New Guinea, the only large land mass of the Papuan Sub-
region, contains many more native species of mammals than the
outlying islands. The bandicoots include four genera, two of
them restricted to New Guinea and one chiefly Australian but
found in southern and southeastern Papua. Marsupial mice are
represented by several primitive forms, marsupial cats by a
178 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
single species. Phalangers or possums are both common and
varied, while the characteristic tree kangaroos are found else-
where only on Great Kei Island and Cape York, Australia. The
New Guinea gazelle-faced wallabies (Dorcopsis) are a distinc-
tive group ; the island has also several distinct species of walla-
bies related closely to those of the continent. The feather-tailed
phalanger, the striped phalangers (also on Aru) and several
species of ring-tailed phalangers are typical of the Papuan
fauna.
Close ties between southeastern New Guinea and northern
Australia are shown by the presence on the island of the sand
wallaby (Wallahia agilis), one of the short-nosed bandicoots
(Jsoodon), and dormouse phalangers. The common flying or
gliding possums (Petaurus) belong to distinct species in the
two subregions. Spinal-winged and tube-nosed bats, tree kanga-
roos, cuscuses, and mosaic-tailed rats represent New Guinea
types that have reached the continent.
The Pacific islands north and east of the Australian Region,
as restricted here, are extremely poor in mammals. Pigs, house
rats, and mice have been carried to virtually all these islands
from the East Indies by various human migrants, in many cases
hundreds or thousands of years ago. Black rats, roof rats, and
Norway rats have been taken to the more important islands by
the vessels of white traders and explorers. These more aggres-
sive forms often have driven from the villages the Polynesian
rat, taken there much earlier by native travelers, and on some
islands may have caused its extinction. Bats have been carried
by storm, or have wandered, to many of the islands.
The Micronesian Islands have one or two species of flying
foxes and a sheath-tailed insectivorous bat (Emballonura) in
addition to rats and mice. In the Carolines there is also a long-
tailed fruit bat (Notopteris), a primitive type known elsewhere
only from the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and Fiji. No bats
are recorded from the Gilbert group, and only the sheath-tailed
DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS 179
bat is reported from the Marshall Islands. Absence of records
may indicate either incomplete collecting or actual absence;
such small islands offer few of the necessities of life, even for
bats.
The Melanesia!! Islands (leaving out the Solomons and the
Bismarck Archipelago, which have been discussed with New
Guinea) harbor flying foxes, long-tailed fruit bats, and sheath-
tailed bats. New Caledonia, the largest of these islands, has in
addition one of the bent-winged bats and an insectivorous bat
(Chalinolohus) related to Australian forms. The New Hebri-
des and Santa Cruz Islands have Chalinolohus and a leaf-nosed
bat (Hipposideros),
New Zealand has a very interesting invertebrate and bird
fauna, but its land mammals are restricted to two kinds of bats
and introduced species of deer, elk, and various others. One of
the two bats (Mystacops), placed in a family by itself, is per-
haps a relict of the primitive group which gave rise to the free-
tailed bats of the tropics and warmer zones of both hemispheres.
The other is a common bat {Chalinolohus) related to those
found in Australia and New Caledonia.
The Polynesian Islands, roughly definable as those east of the
International Date Line, are inhabited for the most part only
by introduced rats and mice. Samoa and the Tonga Islands,
however, mark the eastward limits of the Australo-Oriental bats ;
and Hawaii is the home of a species of hoary bat (Lasiurus)
derived from an American stock. Samoa, perhaps because its
fauna has been better studied, is known to have two species of
flying fox bats, a common bat {Myotis) of a genus almost
world-wide in distribution, and a sheath-tailed bat (Emballo-
nura). From the Tongas, several hundred miles farther east,
only the flying fox is known.
The Juan Fernandez Islands were originally without native
land mammals. Their aquatic mammals include sea lions, fur
seals, and some true seals. Rats and mice have been introduced
by whalers and sealers, and goats were turned loose and in-
180 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
creased enormously. For a while dogs lived on the island but
they have disappeared.
The Galapagos Islands, situated more than five hundred
miles from the coast of Ecuador and separated from it by water
more than a thousand fathoms deep, have probably never been
in contact with the continent. Yet they are inhabited by several
rats of a tropical American group related to our rice rats
{Oryzomys). Although these rats have been isolated from one
another on the various islands for a long enough period of time
to allow a number of races and species to develop, they have
not diverged enough from the mainland forms to be considered
a separate genus. A bat (Lasiurus) closely related to the red
bats of the Americas and the Hawaiian bat, is also found on
the islands. Some species of this genus normally make long
migratory flights ; of all the American bats they are the most
likely ones to be carried far out of their usual range. The ships
of whalers and sealers used to put in at the Galapagos and for
many years a penal colony was located there. As a result house
rats and mice have invaded the islands. Liberated pigs, cattle,
and goats have gone wild, doing much injury to the native
vegetation.
The Pacific islands from the Solomons and the Northern
Micronesian group to Hawaii, the Galapagos, and Juan Fer-
nandez are all truly oceanic. On a basis of their mammals they
cannot be related closely to the faunal regions used here. The
Galapagos and Juan Fernandez Islands may be considered Neo-
tropical or South American.
Conservation of Mammals
The animals that live on these Pacific islands and others
should be allowed to persist almost indefinitely in order to pro-
vide interest, information, sport, and even a means of livelihood
for the present and future generations, but they may be de-
stroyed in a few years by thoughtless and wasteful hunting,
NEED FOR PRESERVATION
Island mammals are in a difficult situation for survival, even
when no human beings are present. The number of individuals
of any species is limited by the area of the island; a limited
number can find food or shelter necessary to life. Related or
similar species may be present to compete for minimal require-
ments, a condition which still further limits the number of indi-
viduals of the first mammal. If natives are present, the land
they cultivate reduces the area available for the animals, and
the natives eke out their food supply by hunting and trapping.
A few species are actually benefited by the presence of man;
several rodents make their homes with him and feed parasitically
on the food he grows and stores. The natives are usually neither
numerous enough nor well enough supplied with modern guns to
effect great changes in the anima^ population, but they may
exterminate large, slow-breeding mammals if the wild island
population of a species is small enough to be at a critical point.
For example, although the only banting now found in Bali are
domesticated, wild banting may very well have occurred there
formerly. This may also explain why the elephant, which was
181
182 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WORLD
in Java during the Pleistocene, is not found there today. Hunt-
ers with modern rifles and shotguns can all too easily extermi-
nate most of the game animals in a short time on the smaller
islands and can seriously reduce those on the larger islands.
Many mammals found on islands are different from those that
occur elsewhere; sometimes this difference is only slight, but in
other cases it is obvious and important. To a biologist or one
interested in nature it is one of the greatest crimes against
science to destroy any form of wild life completely. A species
is a unique thing — the product of natural forces and circum-
stances through the ages — and if once exterminated it cannot
be replaced. Some of the island mammals are remnants of
ancient groups that have survived until the present, thanks to
their isolation and protection from competition with more mod-
ern mammals by the barriers of sea straits. These living fossils
are often less adaptable to changing conditions than more up-
to-date mammals ; often clearing the jungle for plantations is
enough to destroy them. The Luchu and Sumatran rabbits, the
long-tailed fruit bats of the Melanesian Islands, the New Zea-
land bat, the babirusa, anoa, macaque, and black ape of Celebes,
a small deer on the Bawean Islands near Java, the tapir of
Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, the two Malaysian rhinoc-
eroses, many of the marsupials, and a number of inconspicuous
mammals of other groups are in need of sanctuary. Every effort
should be made to protect these rare and scientifically invalu-
able animals.
COLLECTING AND STUDY OF SPECIMENS
Those persons who have free time on their hands and find
themselves in areas poorly known zoologically, and those who
find mammals they cannot identify from the descriptions in this
handbook or mammals out of their known range, can do a great
deal for natural science by preserving specimens. Skins with
skulls, and complete specimens properly preserved and accom-
CONSERVATION OF MAMMALS 183
panied by notes on the exact locality or origin would add much
to our knowledge and would be of the greatest interest to scien-
tists and institutions. A field catalogue with this information
and numbers corresponding to the data attached to the speci-
mens would serve to keep this important material for future
reference. Collecting can be both interesting and worthwhile,
but of course should not be done if a species is so near extinc-
tion that this will increase the jeopardy.
In the tropics the heat and humidity cause the hair to "slip"
or come off with the epidermis of the skin unless the mammal
is skinned shortly after death. Larger mammals should be slit
from the breast to the end of the tail ; other cuts are made from
the sole of the feet or just above the hoofs to meet the median
cut. Horned mammals require an additional cut from the neck
to between the horns and then a cut from this line, on each side,
to the horns and around them. For best results the ear carti-
lage must be skinned out and the toe-bones as far as the claw
or hoof, and the flesh that is closely attached to the skin should
be cut away. Salt should then be thoroughly rubbed into the
skin on the flesh side and the skin rolled up overnight. It should
then be spread out in the shade to dry. In very wet weather
and climates the salt will keep taking up water from the air and
the skin will not dry ; in this case, after a second thorough rub-
bing with salt and leaving over a second night, wash the skin
in fresh water and dry under shelter. A fire may help, but
scorching the skin must be avoided.
The skull should be carefully disjointed from the neck, the
flesh roughly trimmed off and the brain removed through the
hole at the rear end (J or amen magnum). The skull should be
dried as thoroughly as possible. Smoking, salting, or covering
it with pepper may help keep maggots out ; they injure the bone,
especially of small skulls. Skins and skulls of the same indi-
vidual should have identical numbers.
Smaller mammals may be cased, that is, cut from heel to heel
across the underside and the skin turned inside out like a glove,
184 MAMMALS OF THE PACIFIC WOELD
leaving the feet attached, as most commercial furs are fixed in
the United States. Or a cut may be made from the breast to be-
tween the hind legs, and the legs cut off the body at the knee, the
skin worked off the rump and then off the rest of the body. The
tail can usually be pulled out by holding the tail loosely in a
V-shaped stick and pulling on the vertebrae. A little crumpled
paper, tow or straw put inside the hairy pocket formed by the
inside-out skin, to keep the fur surfaces apart and a straw
splinter of bamboo pushed to the end of the tail will permit the
skin to dry safely in all except the worst weather. Arsenical
soap or a mixture of arsenic powder and alum, half and half,
will preserve the skin.
Bats and some other small mammals are easily preserved in a
formalin solution: one part commercial formalin to ten parts
water, or one part to forty parts saturated salt solution. The
abdomen should be opened to let the solution penetrate the in-
testines, which may otherwise spoil.
Skulls can be saved when the skin is spoiled or when a dead
carcass is found in the wilds. The teeth and measurements of
such skulls are very interesting scientifically if the locality from
which they come is known. Various museums will identify such
skulls for any curious finder.
A booklet giving the details of collecting and preparing
specimens may be obtained from the American Museum of
Natural History, New York 24, New York.
Glossary
amphibious. Able to live on land and in the water.
anthropoid. The group of monkeys most resembling man ;
man-like.
antilopine. Like an antelope.
aquatic. Living in the water.
arboreal. Living in trees.
archaic. Of an earlier or primitive age ; antiquated.
basined With basin-shaped hollows on crowns of teeth.
teeth.
bipedal. Walking or running on the hind legs and feet.
canine Eye teeth or dog teeth, usually longer than
teeth. other teeth and sharp-pointed.
circumpolar. Surrounding the pole, that is, found in north-
ern parts of both hemispheres.
cusps. Points on the crowns of teeth.
diastema. A gap between teeth.
distal. Farthest away from the body. The hand is
attached to the distal part of the forearm.
diurnal. Active during daylight hours.
embryonic. Pertaining to an embyro or unborn young.
enamel. A hard substance which forms a thin layer
capping or partly covering the teeth of
most mammals.
environment. The sum total of the surroundings affecting
the life of an organism.
extinct. No longer living. Applied to species, etc., not
extinction. to individuals.
feral. Having escaped from domestication and be-
come wild.
forearm. The part of the arm between the elbow and
wrist.
185
186
GLOSSABY
genus (plural, A classification ranking between family and
genera). species.
gregarious. Habitually living with numbers of its kind.
habitat. The natural abode of an animal or plant, or
the particular location where it normally
lives.
hibernate. To pass the winter in a more or less torpid
state.
incisor The front teeth.
teeth.
indigenous. Native to a country.
interfemoral Membrane situated between the hind legs.
membrane. Present in bats.
lemur. Primitive relatives of monkeys found in Mada-
gascar, Africa, and the Orient.
locomotion. Act or power of moving from place to place.
longitudinal. Extending lengthwise.
marsupial. Pouched. In mammals, members of an order
the females of which usually have pouches,
or are pouchless descendants of pouched
ancestors.
melanistic. Having a high degree of blackish pigmenta-
tion which produces a very dark or black
color.
metacarpal. Long bones of the hand or forefoot between
wrist and fingers.
metatarsal. Long bones of hind foot between ankle and
toes.
molar One, two, or three teeth in the rear of the jaw
teeth. used for chewing and not preceded by de-
ciduous teeth.
mosaic-tailed. A type of scale arrangement in certain rats in
which the scales, instead of overlapping,
touch edge to edge like a mosaic.
mutant. An individual differing from the usual mem-
bers of the same species ; for instance, a
white animal of a species that is usually
gray or brown.
GLOSSARY
187
obsolete,
opposable.
palearctic.
palmate (of
antlers).
pedicel,
pelage,
physiography.
physiology,
plantigrade.
Pleistocene.
prehensile.
premolar
teeth.
primitive.
proboscis.
protrusible.
relicts.
sacculated.
No longer used ; no longer present.
Of the thumb, first toe, or other fingers and
toes. The ability to act like a man's thumb
in grasping.
Pertaining to a region of the world including
Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas,
northern Arabia, and Africa north of the
Sahara.
Broad, resembling the spread-out hand of a
man, the points extending like fingers.
A supporting part, as a stem or stalk.
The coat of hair or fur covering a mammal.
Description of the form and physical features
of the surface of the earth.
The life processes of an animal.
Walking on the sole with the heel touching the
ground; in opposition to digitigrade, walk-
ing on the toes like dogs and cats.
The most recent past geological period, dur-
ing which large ice-caps were developed in
Europe and North America ; between the
Pliocene and present, roughly from ten
thousand to a million years ago.
Adapted for grasping. Applied to hands, feet,
and tails of mammals.
Chewing teeth between canines and molars,
usually less broad than the latter ; preceded
by deciduous teeth.
Pertaining to the beginning or origin, like
mammals whose structure approximates
that of ancestral mammals.
A long, flexible nose or trunk.
Capable of being protruded or thrust out.
Survivors. In zoology, often used for species
which have persisted for long periods after
their allies have become extinct.
Having a series of sac-like expansions.
188 GLOSSARY
specialized. Designed, fitted, or adapted for use in one spe-
cial manner.
Spout (of The column of vapor; the exhaled breath sent
whales). out through the nostril (blowhole) of a
whale when it comes up for breath.
tactile. Touching. In some mammals, special tactile
surfaces of toes, fingers, and the tips of
tails ; also tactile hairs, as cats' whiskers.
talon. In bats, a subsidiary claw-like process at the
base of the real claw.
termites. White ants ; pale-colored, soft-bodied insects
of the family Termitidae. They are not true
ants.
terrestrial Those that live on the ground in contrast to
animals. those that live in the water or in trees.
Tertiary. The last great period of geologic time follow-
ing the Mesozoic or Age of Dinosaurs. Most
modern orders of mammals developed dur-
ing the Tertiary period.
trefoil. Shaped like a three-leafed clover.
trmicate. Cut off ; chopped off.
W-pattern. In describing teeth, crowns with cusp pattern,
when seen from above, arranged like the
letter W.
Alphabetical Index-Checklist
^ of the Islands
The islands and island groups, each followed by the mammals
found there, are listed in alphabetical order. Page references
indicate the places in the text where the various mammals are
described. In the descriptions of the mammals, their distribu-
tion was frequently given in a general manner, many islands
and island groups being included by implication without actual
mention. The index-checklist is meant to be inclusive. For ex-
ample, in this index under Java, giant squirrels (Ratufa), are
Ksted ; the text discussion says only "They are found from the
mainland to Bali and Borneo." Java is, of course, included in
the area thus bounded. Some of the islands thus included by
implication lack the giant squirrel — for example, Nias Island,
a small island off western Sumatra.
Inclusion of a species indicates that it has been reported or
is very probable on an island, but its omission from certain
islands may be due to our lack of knowledge or of collecting. If
a reader should find a mammal on an island where it is not
listed, it is very desirable that he send this record, with a photo-
graph or specimen, to some museum for checking and confirma-
tion.
Admiralty Islands, North of New Guinea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposide-
ros), 53; spinal-winged bat (^Dobsonia), 48; tube-nosed
fruit bat (Nyctimene), 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25; spiny bandicoot
(Echymipera), 21.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus)^ 114; house mouse {Mus),
113.
Aleutian Islands, West from Alaska
CARNIVORES. Alaskan brown bear (Ursus), 79; Arctic fox
{Alopex), 86; mink {Mustela vison), 82; pygmy weasel
189
190 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
(Mustela rixosa), 82; red fox (Vulpes), 86; sea otter
(Enhydra), 84; wolf (Canis), 84; wolverine (Gulo), 82
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, caribou (Rangifer), 146.
INSECTIVORES. red-toothed shrew {S or ex), 4<0.
RABBITS. Arctic hare (Lepus poadromus), 124.
RODENTS. Arctic ground squirrel (Citellus), 111; collared
lemming {Dicrostonyx), 120; common rat (Rattus), 114;
house mouse (Mus), 113; lemming mouse (Synaptomys),
120; meadow mouse (Microtus), 120; red lemming (Lem-
mus), 119.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, bearded seal (EHgnathus), 104 ; harbor
seal (Phoca), 104; northern fur seal (Callorhinus), 102;
ribbon seal (Histriophoca) , 104; Steller's sea lion (Eume-
topias), 101; walrus (Odobenus), 106.
* Alor Island (Ombay), near Timor, East Indies
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus, Acerodon), 48; rousette or dog
bat (Rousettus), 48; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Amboina, see Ceram
Anamba Islands, South China Sea
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; flying fox (Ptero-
pus), 48 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus) , 53 ; leaf-nosed bat
(Hipposideros), 53 ; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51 ;
short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
pig (Sus), 149.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrews (Tupaia), 43; white-toothed
shrew (Suncus), 40.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus),
67; slow loris (Nycticebus), 76.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; giant squirrel (Ra-
tufa), 110; house mouse (Mus), 113; long-nosed ground
squirrel (Rhino sciurus), 112; Oriental squirrel (Callosciu-
rus), 110; striped ground squirrel (Lariscus), 111.
V,
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 191
Arafura Sea, North of Australia
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132;
common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), 134; false killer
(Pseudorca), 132; finless black porpoise (Neorneris), 132;
humpback (Megaptera), 128; killer (Orcinus), 131; red-
bellied dolphin {Delphinus roseiventris), 134; slender
dolphin {Prodelphinus), 135; sperm whale (JPhyseter),
129.
Arends Island, Java Sea
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Aru Islands, Arafura Sea
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55; flying fox (Pteropus), 48;
horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53 ; leaf-nosed bat {Hipposi-
deros), 53; long-tongued bats (Macroglossus, Syconycte-
ris), 49; sheath-tailed bats (Emballonura), 51; spinal-
winged bat (Dobsonia), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet {Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig {Sus), 149.
MARSUPIALS, flying phalanger or possum (Petaurus), 27;
spiny bandicoot (Echymipera) , 21 ; striped possum (Dac-
tylopsila), 24 ; wallaby (Thylogale), 32 ; marsupial mouse
(Sminthopsis), 20.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; giant rat (Uromys),
116; house mouse (Mus), 113; water rat (Hydromys),
118.
Australia
BATS. Australian long-eared hat (N yet ophilus), 60; bent-
winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats (Myotis,
Pipistrellus, Eptesicus, Scoteinus, Chalinolobus) , 55; false
vampire (Macroderma), 53; flying foxes (Pteropus), 48;
free-tailed or mastiff bat (Tadarida), 62; horseshoe bat
(Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (HipposideroSy Rhino-
192 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
nycteris), 53; long-tongued fruit bats (Macroglossus — on
Sunday Island and Murray Island only; Syconycteris),
49; slicath-tailcd bats (TajjhozouSy Saccolaimus), 51;
spinal-winged fruit bat (Dobsonia), 48; trumpet-eared
bat (Phoniscus), 61; tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene),
48.
CAUNIVOllKS. dingo (Canis), 85.
EGG-LAYING MAMMALS, duckbill or platypus (Orni-
thorhynchus), 11; spiny antcatcr or echidna (Tachyglos-
suh), 14.
MARSUPIALS, banded anteater (Myrmecobius), 20; bandi-
coots (IsoodoTiy PerameleSy Macrotis, Ch(£ropus), 21;
cuscus (Phalanger), 25 ; flying possum (Acrobates, Petau-
rus, Schoinobates), 27; iiare wallabies {Lagostrophus,
Lagorchestes), 34; honey possum (Tarsipes), 30; kanga-
roos (Macropus), 31; koala (Phascolarctos), 29; mar-
supial mole (Notoryctes), 22; marsupial rats and mice
{Pkascogale, Sminthopsis, Antechinomys), 20; mouse pos-
sum {Eudromicia) , 25; marsupial wolf, extinct (Thyla-
cinus), 17; musk kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon), 36; nail-
tailed walhil)y (Onychogale), 33; native cats (Dasyurus),
19; y)ademeh)ns {Thylogale, Setonioc), 32; possum {Tri-
chosurus), 23; rat kangaroos (Bettongia, Aepyprymnus,
Potorous), 36; ring-tailed possums {PseudocheiruSy Pe-
tropseudes), 26; rock walhibies (Pctrogale, Peradorcas),
33; strif)ed ]:)ossum (Dactylopsila), 24; Tasmanian devil
(Sarcophilus), 18; tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus), 34;
wallabies (Wallabia, ThylogalCy Setonix), 32; wallaroo
(Osphranter), 32; wombats {VombatuSy LasiorhinuSy
Vonibatula), 30.
RODENTS, broad-toothed rat (Mastacomys), 117; common
rat (Uattus), 114; false water rat {Xeromys), 118; giant
naked-tailed rat (Uromys), 116; native mice (Thetomys,
Leggadinay Gyomys), 117; pouched hopping mice (Noto-
viys\ A scopharynx ) , 118; pseudo- rat ( Pseudomys ) , 117;
rabbit rat (Mesembriomys), 117; stick-nest rat (Lepo-
rillus'), 118; thick-tailed rat {Laomys), 117; water rat
(Ifydromys), 118; white-tailed rat {7jyzomys), 117.
SEALS, SEA'lIONS. fur seals (Arctoccphalu's), 102; seals
(Hydrurga, Leptonychotes, Lobodon), 104; sea lions
(Neophoca), 100.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 193
Babi Island, sec Simalur Island
Balabac Island, see Palawan Island
Bali
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
(Mentis, Pipistrellus, Tylonycteris, Scofophilus), 55;
flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus),
53; leaf-nosed bat (Ilipposidcros), 53; long-tongued bats
(Macroglossus, Eonyctcris), 49; rousette or dog bat
(Rotisettus), 48; short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus), 48;
spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; trumpet-eared bat
(Keriv(mla), 61.
CARNIVORES, civet (Viverricula) , 87; leopard cat (Felis
bengalensis), 98; palm civet {Paradoxurus), 89; tiger
{Felis tigris), 95.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, muntjac or barking deer
(Muntiacus), 147; sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43; white-toothed
shrew (SunciLs), 40.
MONKEYS, leaf monkey (Presbytis), 70; long-tailed macaque
(Macaca irus)^ 67.
RODP^NTS. common rats (Rattiis), 114; giant squirrel (Ra-
t?ifa), 110; house mouse (Mus), 113; Oriental squirrel
(Callosciiirus), 110; porcu[)ine (Hystrix), 121.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Banda Sea
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephahis), 132;
common dol})hin (Delphimis), 134; false killer whale
(Pseudorca), 132; finless black porpoise (Ncoineriff), 132;
killer whale (Orcinus), 131 ; red-bellied dolphin (Delphimis
roseiventris), 134; slender dol^[)liin (Prodelphinus), 135;
sperm whale (Physetcr), 129.
Banjak Islands, West Sumatra
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
pig (Sus), 149.
194 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Ci/nocephalus), 4i4i.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque monkey (Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; giant squirrel (Ra-
tufa), 110; house mouse (Mus), 113; long-nosed ground
squirrel (Rhino sciur us ) , 112; Oriental squirrel (Callosciu-
rus), 110.
Banka Island, East Sumatra
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus) , 56; flying fox (Pteropus),
48 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53 ; leaf-nosed bat (Hip-
posideros), 53; naked free-tailed bat (Cheiromeles) , 62;
sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura, Saccolaimus), 51; short-
nosed fruit bat (Ct/nopterus), 48.
CARNIVORES, binturong (Arctictis), 91; civet (Viverra),
86; hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana), 84; linsang
(Prionodon), 88; palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89; small-
toothed palm civet (Arctogalidia), 92; yellow-throated
marten (Martes), 81.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacus), 147; pig (Sus),
149; sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan {Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrews (Tupaia, Ptilocercus), 43;
white-toothed shrew (Crocidura), 40.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, leaf monkey {Preshytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque monkey (Macaca irus), 67; pig-tailed ma-
caque (M. nemestrina), 67; slow loris (Nycticehus), 76;
tarsier (Tarsius), 78.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114 ; flying squirrel (Hylo-
petes), 109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110; house mouse
(Mus)^ 113 ; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus) , 110 ; pygmy
squirrel {N anno sciur us) , 110.
SCALY ANTEATER {Manis), 107.
Batjan (Batchian) Island, see Molucca Islands
Batu Islands, West Sumatra
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposide-
ros), 53; short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus), 48.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 195
CARNIVORES, small-toothed palm civet {Arctogalidia), 92.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrews {Tupaia, Ptilocercus), 43.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, leaf monkey (Presbytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque monkey {Macaca irus), 67; slow loris
(Nycticehus), 76.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; flying squirrel {Pe-
taurista), 109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110; house mouse
(Mus), 113 ; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110 ; striped
ground squirrel (Lariscus), 111.
Bawean Island, Java Sea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pigs (Sus), 149; sambar deer
(Cervus), 144.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque monkey (Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Bering Sea
WHALES. Baird whale (Berardius), 130; beaked whale (Me-
soplodon), 131 ; blackfish or pilot whale (Glohiocephalus),
132; bowhead or Greenland right whale (Balcena), 127;
Dall's porpoise (Phocosnoides), 132; gray or Risso's dol-
phin (Grampus), 131; finback or rorqual (Balcenoptera),
128; killer whale (Orcinus), 131; Pacific right whale
(Eubalcena), 127 ; right whale dolphin (Lissodelphis), 133 ;
striped or white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus), 133.
Billiton Island, Java Sea
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus) , 56; flying fox (Pteropus),
48 ; sheath-tailed bat (Emhallonura), 51 ; short-nosed fruit
bat (Cynopterus), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89; small-toothed
palm civet (Arctogalidia), 92.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacus), 147; sambar deer
(Cervus), 144.
196 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
INSECTIVORES. tree shrews (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, leaf monkey (Presbytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque {Macaca irus), 67; tarsier (Tarsius), 78.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; flying squirrel (Peti-
nomys), 109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110; house mouse
(Mus), 113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Boeroe Island, see Bum.
Bonin Islands, northern Micronesia (Volcano Islands, Perry
Group, Ogasawara Shoto)
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus), 56; flying fox (Pteropus)^
48.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Borneo
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
{My Otis, Pipistrellus, Glischropus, Tylonycteris, Hespe-
roptenuSy Scotophilus), 55; false vampire (Megaderma),
53; flying foxes (Pteropus), 48; free-tailed bats
{Tadarida, Cheiromeles), 62; horseshoe bat (Rhinolo-
phus), 53; leaf -nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53; long-
tongued bats (Macroglossus, Eonycteris), 49; rousette
bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat {Emhallonura,
Saccolaimus, Taphozous), 51; slit-faced bat (Nycteris),
52; short-nosed fruit bats (Cynopterus, DyacopteruSy
Megaerops, Balionycteris, Aethalops, Penthetor), 48;
trumpet-eared bat (Kerivoula), 61; tube-nosed bat (Mu-
rina), 59.
CARNIVORES, banded palm civet {Hemigalus), 93; bare-
footed weasel {Mustela)^ 82; bay cat {Felis hadia), 98;
binturong (Arctictis), 91; civet (Viverra), 86; clouded
leopard (Felis nebulosa), 96 ; ferret badger (Helictis), 83 ;
flat-headed cat (Felis planiceps), 98; hairy -nosed otter
(Lutra sumatrana), 84; leopard cat (Felis bengalensis),
98; linsang (Prionodon), 88; Malay badger (Mydaus),
83; Malay bear (Helarctos), 80; marbled cat (Felis
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 197
marmorata), 96; masked palm civet (Paguma), 91 ; mon-
goose (Herpestes), 93; otter civet {Cynogale)^ 93; palm
civet {Paradoccurus), 89; small-clawed otter (^Lutra ci-
nerea), 84; small-toothed palm civet (Arctogalidia), 92;
yellow-throated marten (Martes), 81.
ELEPHANT (Elephas), 136.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, banting (Bibos), 139; buffalo
(Bubalus), 140; mouse deer (Tragulus), 149; muntjac or
barking deer (Muntiacus), 147; pig (Sus), 149; sambar
deer (Cervus), 144.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. gymnures (E chinos ore x, Hylomys), 38;
tree shrews (Tupaia, Dendrogale, Ptilocercus), 43; water
shrew (Chimarrogale), 41; white-toothed shrews (Croci-
duray S uncus), 40.
MONKEYS, APES, LEMURS, gray gibbon {Hylohates mo-
loch), 66; leaf monkeys (Presbytis), 70; long-tailed ma-
caque (Macaca irus), 67; orang-utan (Pongo), 63; pig-
tailed macaque (M. nemestrina), 67; proboscis monkey
(Nasalis), 75; slow loris (Nycticebus), 76; tarsier
(Tarsius), 78.
ODD-TOED UNGULATES. Sumatran two-horned rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus) , 153.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed
mouse (Chiropodomys), 116; flying squirrels {Petaurista,
Hylopetes, Petinomys, lomys, Pteromyscus, Petaurillus),
109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110; long-nosed squirrel
(Rhino s ciurus) , 112; house mouse (Mus), 113; long-
tailed porcupine (Trichys), 122; Oriental squirrels (Cal-
losciurus), 110; pygmy ground squirrel (Glyphotes), 111 ;
pygmy squirrel (N anno s ciurus), 110; pygmy tree mouse
(Hceromys), 114; porcupines {Hystrix), 121; red-
cheeked ground squirrel (Dremomys), 111 ; striped ground
squirrel (Lariscus), 111; tufted-eared ground squirrel
(Rheithrosciurus) , 112.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 1(07.
Bum Island, Moluccas
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59 ; common bat (Myo-
tis), 55 ; flying fox (Pteropus), 48 ; horseshoe bat (Rhino-
198 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
lophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53; long-
tongued bat (Macroglossus), 49; rousette or dog bat
(Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51;
spinal-winged bat (Dohsonia), 48; Tomb bats (Tapho-
zous), 51; tube-nosed fruit bat (Nt/ctimene), 48; tube-
nosed insectivorous bat (Murina), 59.
CARNIVORES. ciYet (Viverr a), 86,
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, babirusa (Bahirussa), 150;
sambar deer (CeTVus), 144.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Cagayan Sulu, Sulu Sea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; free-tailed bat (Tada-
rida), 62; long-tongued bat (Macroglossus), 49.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse
(Mus), 113.
Calamianes Islands, see Palawan Island
Caroline Islands, Micronesia
BATS, flying fox {Pteropus), 48; long-tailed bat {Notopte-
ris), 50; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Celebes
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
{MzfotiSf Tylonycteris, ScotophiluSy Pipistrellus) , 55;
false vampire (Megaderma), 53; flying foxes (PteropuSy
Acerodon, Boneia, Harpionycteris, Styloctenium), 48;
free-tailed bats (Tadarida, Cheiromeles), 62; horseshoe
bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros),
53; long-tongued bats {Macroglossus, Eonycteris), 49;
rousette or dog bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat
(Emballonura) , 51; short-nosed fruit bats {Cynopterus,
Thoopterus), 48; slit-faced bat (Nycteris), 52; spinal-
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 199
winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; trumpet-eared bats (Keri-
voula, Phoniscus), 61; tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene),
48; tube-nosed insectivorous bat (Murina), 59.
CARNIVORES, civets {Viverra, Viverricula) , 86; palm civets
(Paradoxurus, Macrogalidia), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, babirusa (Bahirussa), 150;
pig (Sus), 149; pygmy buffalo (Anoa), 141 ; sambar deer
(Cervus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. white-toothed shrews {Crocidura, Suncus),
40.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, black ape (Cynopithecus), 69;
Celebes macaque (Macaca maura), 68; tarsier {Tar-
sius), 78.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed
rats (Lenomys), 116; house mouse (Mus), 113; long-
nosed ground squirrel (Hyosciurus), 112; Oriental squir-
rels (Callosciurus), 110; pygmy squirrel (Nannosciurus),
110; pygmy tree rat (Hceromys), 114; porcupine
(Hystrix), 121; shrew rats {Echiothrix, Melasmothrix),
115.
Celebes Sea
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES. None recorded, see Java Sea and Strait of Malacca
for probable ones.
Ceram and Amboina Islands, Moluccas
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bat (Myo-
tis), 55; flying fox (Pteropus), 48; free-tailed bat {Tada-
rida), 62; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed
bat (Hipposideros), 53; long-tongued bats (Macroglos-
suSy Syconycteris), 49; rousette or dog bat (Rousettus),
48; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51; spinal-winged
bat (Dobsonia), 48 ; tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene), 48 ;
tube-nosed insectivorous bat (Murina), 59.
CARNIVORES, civet (Viverra), 86; palm civet (Paradoxu-
rus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; sambar deer
{Cervus)y 144.
200 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
MARSUPIALS, bandicoot (Rhynchomeles), 21; cuscus (Pha-
langer), 26.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; mosaic-tailed rat {Melomys), 116.
Chatham Islands, South Pacific
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, crab-eating seal (Lobodon), 105; New
Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus), 103; Weddell seal
(Leptonychotes), 105.
Christmas Island, Indian Ocean
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus), 56; flying fox (Pteropus),
48.
INSECTIVORES. white-toothed shrew (Crocidura), 40.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Christmas Island, Polynesia, and group (Palmyra, Washing-
ton, Fanning, Walker, Jarvis)
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Cook Islands (Hervey), Polynesia
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Coral Sea, southwest Pacific
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, beaked whale (Mesoplodon), 131 ; blackfish or pilot
whale (Globiocephalus), 132; bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursi-
ops), 134; common dolphin (Delphinus), 134; Cuvier's
or goosebeak whale (Ziphius), 131; false killer whale
(Pseudorca), 132; gray or Risso's dolphin (Grampus),
131; killer whale (Orcinus), 131; pygmy right whale
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 201
(Neobalcena), 128; pygmy sperm whale (Kogia), 130;
red-bellied dolphin (Delphinus), 134; sperm whale (Phy-
seter), 129.
D'Entrecasteaux, Louisiade and Trobriand Islands, Coral Sea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe bat (Rhino-
lophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53; long-
tongued bat {Syconycteris), 49; sheath-tailed bat {Em-
ballonura), 51; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; trum-
pet-eared bat (Phoniscus), 61; tube-nosed fruit bat
(Nyctimene), 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger) , 25; flying possum (^Pe-
taurus), 27; spiny bandicoot (Echymipera), 21.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed rat
(Pogonomys), 116; giant rat (Uromys), 116; house mouse
(Mus), 113; water rat (Hydromys), 118.
East China Sea
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132;
bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin
(Delphinus), 134; false killer whale (Pseudorca), 132;
finback or sei whale (Balcenoptera) , 128 ; finless black por-
poise (Neomeris), 132; gray or Risso's dolphin (Gram-
pus), 131; humpback whale (Megaptera), 128; killer
whale (Orcinus), 131; slender dolphin (Prodelphinus),
135; sperm whale (Physeter), 129; white dolphin (So-
talia), 135.
Ellice Islands, Micronesia
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Engano Island, South Sumatra
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus) , 56; flying fox (Pteropus),
48 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus) , 53 ; leaf-nosed bat (Hip-
posideros), 53; rousette bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-
tailed bat (Emballonura, Saccolaimus), 51; trumpet-
eared bat (Kerivoula), 61.
202 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Fiji Islands, Melanesia
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; long-tailed bat {Notopte-
ris), 50; sheath-tailed bat (Emhallonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Flores Island, Lesser Sundas
BATS, common bat (Scotophilus), 58; flying foxes (Ptero-
pus), 48; rousette bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat
(Taphozous), 51; spinal-winged bat (Dohsonia), 48;
trumpet-eared bat (Kerivoula), 61; tube-nosed bat (Mu-
rina), 59.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; sambar deer
(Cermis), 144.
PRIMATES, long-tailed or crab-eating macaque (Macaca
irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed
rats (Mallomys), 116; house mouse (Mus), 113; porcu-
pine {Hystrix)^ 121.
Flores Sea
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
W^HALES. See Java Sea.
Formosa
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
(Myotis, Pipistrellus, Scotophilus), 55; flying fox {Ptero-
pus), 48; free-tailed bat {Tadarida), 62; horseshoe bat
(Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53.
CARNIVORES. Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos), 80; civet
(Viverricula) , 87; clouded leopard (Felis nebulosa), 96;
crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes), 94; Eurasian otter
(Lutra Intra), 84; ferret badger (Helictis), 83; fishing
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 203
cat {Felis viverrina), 98; leopard cat (Felis bengalensis),
98; masked palm civet (Paguma), 91; Oriental weasel
(Mustela siberica), 82; yellow-throated marten (Maries),
81.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES. Muntjac (Muntiacus), 147;
pig (Sus), 149 ; sambar deer (Cerzms), 144 ; serow (Capri-
cornis), 142; sika deer {Cervus), 146.
INSECTIVORES. hedgehog {Erinaceus), 38; long-tailed
shrews (Soriculus, Chodsigoa), 40; mole (Mogera), 42;
white-toothed shrew (Suncus), 40.
MONKEYS. Formosa macaque (Macaca cyclopsis), 68.
RABBITS. Formosa hare (Caprolagus), 125.
RODENTS, bandicoot rat (Bandicota), 115; common rat
(Rattus), 114; flying squirrels (Petaurista, Belomys),
109; house mouse {Mus), 113; Oriental squirrel (Callo-
sciurus), 110; red-cheeked ground squirrel (Dremomz/s),
111 ; wood mouse (Apodemus), 114.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Friendly Islands, see Tonga
Galapagos Islands, East Pacific Ocean
BATS, red bat (Lasiurus), 59.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; South American rats (Oryzomys), 120.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, southern sea lion (Otaria), 101 ; south-
ern fur seal (Arctocephalus) , 103.
Gilbert Islands, Micronesia
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Halmahera, see Molucca Islands
Hawaiian Islands
BATS, hoary hat (Lasiurus), 59.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
SEALS. Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus), 105.
204 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
Hervey Islands, see Cook Islands
Indian Ocean, eastern part
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132;
blue whale (Sibbaldus), 128; bottle-nosed porpoise {Tursi-
ops), 134; common dolphin (Delphinus), 134; Cuvier's or
goose-beaked whale (Ziphius), 131; finback whale {BalcB-
noptera), 128; humpback (Megaptera), 128; Irrawaddi
dolphin (Orcella), 132; killer whale (Orcinus), 131; lead-
colored dolphin (Sotalia plumhea), 135; long-beaked dol-
phin (Steno), 135; slender dolphin (Prodelphinus), 135;
sperm whale (Physeter), 129.
Japanese Islands
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
(MyotiSy Plecotus, Barhastella^ NyctaluSy Pipistrellus,
Vespertilio), 55; flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe bat
(Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53;
tube-nosed bat (Murina), 59.
CARNIVORES. Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos), 80; badger
(Meles), 82 ; ermine or stoat (Mustela erminea), 81 ; Eura-
sian bear (Ursus), 79; Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), 84;
Japanese marten (Mart es), 81; Oriental weasel (Mustela
siberica), 82 ; pygmy weasel (Mustela ria^osa), 82 ; raccoon
dog (Nyctereutes), 85; red fox (Vulpes), 86; wolf
(Canis), 84.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; serow (Capri-
cornis), 142; sika deer (Cervus sika), 146.
INSECTIVORES. mole (Mogera), 41; red-toothed shrew
(Sorex)^ 40; shrew-moles (Urotrichus, Dymecodon), 42;
water shrew (Chimarrogale), 41; white-toothed shrew
(Suncus), 40.
MONKEYS. Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), 67.
RABBITS. Japanese hare (Lepus brachyurus), 124; pika or
mouse-hare (Ochotona), 126; varying hare (Lepus timi-
dus), 124.
RODENTS, chipmunk (Eutamias), 111; common rats (Rat-
tus), 114; Eurasian squirrel (Sciurus), 110; flying squir-
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 205
rels (Petaurista, Pteromys), 109; house mouse {Miis),
113 ; Japanese dormouse (Glirulus), 112 ; Japanese vole or
meadow mouse (Microtus), 120; red-backed mouse (Cle-
thrionomys), 120; wood mouse (Apodemus), 114.
SEALS, SEA LIONS. Japanese sea lion (Zalophus), 100;
northern fur seal (Callorhinus), 102; Pacific harbor seal
(Phoca), 104.
Japan Sea
WHALES. Baird whale (Berardius), 130; blackfish or pilot
whale (Glohiocephalus) , 132 ; blue whale (Sihbaldus), 128 ;
bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin
(Delphinus), 134; finback or sei whale (Balcenoptera),
128; finless black porpoise (Neomeris), 132; gray or
Risso's dolphin (Grampus), 131; gray whale (Rhachia-
nectes), 128; humpback whale (Megaptera), 128; killer
whale (Orcinus), 131; slender dolphin (Prodelphinus),
135; sperm whale (Physeter), 129; True's porpoise (Pho-
ccenoides), 132; white-sided porpoise (Lagenorhynchus) ,
133.
Java
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bat
{MyotiSf Pipistrellus, Glischropus, Tylonycteris, Scoto-
philus), 55; free-tailed bats (Tadarida, Cheiromeles) , 62;
false vampire (Megaderma), 53; flying foxes (Pteropus),
48; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bats
(Hipposideros, Coelops), 53; long-tongued bats {Macro-
glossus, Eonycteris), 49; rousette bat (Rousettus), 48;
sheath-tailed bats (Emhallonura, SaccolaimuSy Tapho-
zous), 51 ; short-nosed fruit bats {Cynopterus, Chironax),
48; slit-faced bat (Nycteris), 52; trumpet eared bats
(Kerivoula, Phoniscus), 61; tube-nosed bats {Murina,
Harpiocephalus), 59.
CARNIVORES. Asiatic wild dog (Guon), 85 ; binturong (Arc-
tictis), 91 ; civet (Viverricula), 87 ; Eurasian otter (Lutra
lutra), 84; ferret badger (Helictis), 83; fishing cat (Felis
viverrina), 98; Java weasel (Mustela), 82; leopard (Felis
pardus), 95; leopard cat (Felis bengalensis), 98; linsang
(Prionodon) , S8 ; Malay badger (Mydaus), 83 ; mongooses
206 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
(Herpestes), 94; palm civet (Paradoccurus), 89; small-
clawed otter (Lutra cinerea), 84; small-toothed palm
civet (Arctogalidia), 92; tiger {Felis tigris), 95; yellow-
throated marten (Maries), 81.
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, banting (Bihos), 139; mouse
deer (Tragulus), 149; muntjac (Muntiacus), 147; pig
(Sus), 149; sambar deer (Certms), 144.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan {Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. Gymnure or rat-like insectivore (Hylomys),
38; tree shrew (Tupaia), 43; white-toothed shrews (Cro-
cidura, Suncus), 40.
ODD-TOED UNGULATES. Javan one-horned rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros), 151.
MONKEYS, APES, LEMURS, gray gibbon (Hylohates mo-
loch), 66; leaf monkeys (Presbytis), 70; long-tailed ma-
caque (Macaca irus), 67; slow loris (Nycticebus), 76.
RABBITS, black-naped hare (Lepus), 124^,
RODENTS, bandicoot rat (Bandicota), 115; common rats
(Rattus), 114; complex-toothed tree mouse (Chiropo-
domys), 116; flying squirrels (Petaurista, lomys, Hylo-
petes, Petinomys) , 109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110;
house mouse (Mus), 113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus),
110; pygmy squirrel (Nannosciurus), 110; porcupine
(Hystrix), 121; red tree rat (Pithecheir) , 115; shrew-
rat (Mycteromys), 115; striped ground squirrel (Laris-
cus). 111.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132;
bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin
(Delphinus), 134; Cuvier's or goose-beaked whale (Ziph-
ius), 131; finback (Balcenoptera), 128; finless black por-
poise (Neomeris), 132; Irrawaddi dolphin (Orcella), 132;
killer (Orcinus), 131 ; lead-colored dolphin (Sotalia), 135 ;
long-beaked dolphin (Steno), 135; slender dolphin (Pro-
delphinus), 135; sperm whale (Physeter), 129.
Juan Fernandez Island, Southeast Pacific
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 207
SEALS, SEA LIONS, elephant seal (Mirounga), 105; south-
ern fur seal (Arctocephalus), 103; southern sea lion
(Otaria), 101.
Kangean Islands, Java Sea
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus), 56; false vampire (Mega-
derma), 53; flying fox (Pteropus), 48; long-tongued bat
(Macroglossus), 49; short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus),
48; trumpet-eared bat (Kerivoula), 61.
CARNIVORES, civet (Viverricula) , 87; leopard {Felis par-
dus), 95; palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, muntjac or barking deer
(Muntiacus), 147.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Karimata Island, West Borneo
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55; false vampire (Mega-
derma), 53; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed
bat (Hippo sideros), 53; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura),
51.
CARNIVORES, civet (Viverra), 86.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, leaf monkey (Presbytia), 70 ; long-tailed macaque
(Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Kei Islands, Banda Sea
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55 ; flying fox (Pteropus), 48;
horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hippo-
sideros), 53 ; long-tongued bats (Macroglossus^ Syconycte-
ris), 49; rousette bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat
(Emballonura), 51; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia)^ 48;
tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene), 48.
208 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger) , 25; spiny bandicoot
(Echymipera) , 21; tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus), 34;
wallaby (Thylogale), 32.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; giant rat (Uromys),
116; house mouse (Mus), 113; water rat (Hydromys),
118.
Komodo Island, Lesser Sundas
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; Sambar deer
(Cervus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. white-toothed shrew (Crocidura), 40.
Kurile Islands, North Japan
BATS, common bats {Myotis, Plecotus), 55.
CARNIVORES. Arctic fox (Alopex), 86; Eurasian bear
(Ursus), 79; pygmy weasel (Mustela rixosa), 82; red fox
(Vulpes), 86; sea otter (Enhydra), 84.
INSECTIVORES. red-toothed shrew (Sorew), 40.
RABBITS, varying hare (L^pw^s), 124.
RODENTS, chipmunk (Eutamias), 111; common rat (Rat-
tus), 114; house mouse (Mus), 113; meadow mouse (Mi-
crotus), 120; red-backed mouse (Clethrionomys), 120;
wood mouse (Apodemus), 114.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), 104;
northern fur seal (Callorhinus), 102; ribbon seal (Phoca
fasciata), 104; Steller's sea lion (Eumetopias), 101; wal-
rus (Odobenus), 106
Lingga Archipelago, see Rhio-Lingga Archipelago
Liu Kiu Islands, see Luchu Islands
Lombok, Lesser Sundas
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe bat (Rhinolo-
phus), 53; short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet {Paradoxurus), 89.
RODENTS, common rats (Ratttis), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; porcupine (Hystrix), 121.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 209
Louisiade Islands, see D'Entrecasteaux Islands
Loyalty Islands, see New Caledonia
Luchu Islands (Liu Kiu or Riu Kiu Islands), South of Japan
BATS, bent-winged bats (Miniopterus), 59;^ymgiox (Ptero-
pus), 48; horseshoe bats {Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed
bat (Hipposideros) , 53.
CARNIVORES. Oriental weasel (Mustela siberica), 82.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; Sika deer
(Cerrms), 146.
INSECTIVORES. red-toothed shrew (Sorea:), 40; white-
toothed shrew (Suncus), 40.
RABBITS. Luchu hare (Pentalagus), 125.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; wood mouse (Apodemus), 114.
Macassar Strait, Borneo — Celebes
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, finback whale (Balcenoptera), 128; Irrawaddi dol-
phin {Orcella), 132; sperm whale (Physeter), 129.
Madura Island, East Java
BATS, horseshoehsit (Rhinolophus), 53. (Most Javan species
are to be expected.)
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Manihiki Islands, Polynesia
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Mariana Islands, Micronesia
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
210 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
Marquesas Islands, Polynesia
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Marshall Islands, Micronesia
BATS, sheath-tailed bat (Emhalloiiura) , 51.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114 ; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Mata Siri Island, Java Sea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; short-nosed fruit bat (Cy-
nopterus), 48.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse {Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Melanesian Area, Pacific Ocean
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Glohiocephalus), 132;
bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin
(Delphinus), 134; false killer (Pseudorca), 132; finback
(Balcenoptera), 128; humpback (Megaptera), 128; killer
whale (Orcinus), 131 ; sperm whale (Physeter), 129.
Mendanau Island, Java Sea
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Mentawi Islands (including Pagi Islands), West Sumatra
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55; false vampire (Mega-
derma), 53; flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe bat
(Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53;
long-tongued bats (Macroglossus, Eonycteris), 49;
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 211
sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51; short-nosed fruit
bat (CT/nopterus), 48; trumpet-eared bat (Kerivoula), 61.
CARNIVORES, banded palm civet (Hemigalus), 93; palm
civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, APES, LEMURS, dwarf gibbon (Hylobates
klossi), 65; Mentawi leaf monkey {Preshytis potenziani),
73; pig-tailed langur (Simias), 75; pig-tailed macaque
(Macaca nemestrina), 67; slow loris (Nycticebus), 76.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; flying squirrels
{lomys, Hylopetes, Petinomys), 109; house mouse {Mus),
113 ; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110 ; striped ground
squirrel (Lariscus), 111.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Micronesian Area, Pacific Ocean
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132;
bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin
(Delphinus), 134; false killer (Pseudorca), 132; finback
(Balcenoptera), 128; humpback (Megaptera), 128; killer
(Orcinus), 131; sperm whale (Physeter), 129.
Molucca Islands (Gilolo group, Ceram and Buru are listed
separately)
BATS, common bats (Myotis, Glischropus), 55; flying foxes
(Pteropus), 48; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-
nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53; sheath-tailed bat (Embal-
lonura), 51; short-nosed fruit bat (Thoopterus), 48;
spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; trumpet-eared bat
(Kerivoula), 61 ; tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene), 48.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES. Sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. white-toothed shrew (Crocidura), 40.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus phalanger (Phalanger) , 25; flying
phalanger (Petaurus), 27.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; mosaic-tailed rats (Melomys), 116.
212 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
Navigator Islands, see Samoa Islands
New Britain, Bismarck Group
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus), 56; flying foxes (Ptero-
pus), 48 ; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros) , 53 ; long-tongued
bats (Macroglossus, Syconycteris^ Melonycteris), 49;
rousette bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat (Emhal-
lonura), 51; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; tube-
nosed bat (Nyctimene), 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25; flying phalanger or
possum (Petaurus), 27; spiny bandicoot (Echymipera),
21 ; wallaby (Thylogale), 33.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; giant rats (Uro-
mys), 116; house mouse (Mus), 113; mosaic-tailed rats
(Melomys), 116; water rat (Hydromys), 118.
New Caledonia (including the Loyalty Islands)
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bat
(Chalinolobus) , 58; flying foxes (Pteropus), 48; long-
tailed bat (Notopteris), 50; sheath-tailed bat (Emhal-
lonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
New Guinea (including adjacent islands)
BATS. Australian long-eared bats (Nyctophilus, Pharotis),
60; bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
(Myotisy Pipistrellus, Philetor, Scoteinus, Chalinolobus) ,
55; flying foxes (Pteropus), 48; free-tailed bat (Tada-
rida), 62 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus) , 53 ; leaf-nosed bat
(Hipposideros), 53; long-tongued bats (Macroglossus,
Syconycteris, Melonycteris), 49; rousette bat (Rouset-
tus), 48; sheath-tailed bats (Emballonura, Saccolaimus,
Taphozous), 51; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48;
trumpet-eared bats {Kerivoida, Phoniscus), 61 ; tube-nosed
fruit bats (Nyctimene, Paranyctimene) , 48.
EGG-LAYING MAMMALS, spiny anteaters (Tachyglossus,
Zaglossus), 14.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 213
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, sambar deer (Cervus), 14)4;
pig (Sus), 149.
MARSUPIALS, bandicoots {Isoodon, Peroryctes, Micro-
'peroryctes, Echymipera), 21; cuscus phalangers (Pha-
langer), 25; dormouse possum or phalanger {Eudro-
micia), 25; feather-tailed possum or phalanger (Disto-
echurus), 25 ; flying possum (Petaurus), 27 ; marsupial cat
(Dasyurus), 19; marsupial mice (Sminthopsis, Phasco-
gale), 20 ; ring-tailed possum (Pseudocheirus), 26 ; striped
possums (Dactylopsila, Dactylonax), 24; tree kangaroo
(Dendrolagus), 34; wallabies (Wallahia, Thylogale,
Dorcopsis), 32.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed
rats (Mallomys, Pogonomys), 116; giant rats {Hyomys,
Anisomys, Uromys), 116; house mouse (Mus), 113; mo-
saic-tailed rat (Melomys), 116; water rats {Hydromys,
Leptomys, Pseudohydromys) , 118.
New Hebrides, Melanesia
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus), 48; leaf-nosed bat {Hippo-
sideros), 53; long-tailed bat (Notopteris), 50; sheath-
tailed bat (Emhallonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
118.
New Ireland, Bismarck Group
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus), 56; flying foxes (Ptero-
pus), 48 ; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53 ; long-tongued
bats (Macroglossus, Syconycteris, Melonycteris), 49;
rousette bat (Rousettus), 48; sheath-tailed bat (Embal-
lonura), 51 ; spinal-winged bat (Dohsonia), 48 ; tube-nosed
fruit bat (Nyctimene), 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25; spiny bandicoot
(Echymipera), 21; wallaby (Thylogale), 33.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
New Zealand
BATS, common bat (Chalinolobus) , 56; New Zealand bat
(Mystacops), 61,
214 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, axis deer, 146; chamois, 143;
blue sheep, 144 ; European red deer, 146 ; fallow deer, 146 ;
Himalayan tahr, 144 ; moose, 146 ; mule deer, 146 ; sambar,
144; sika deer, 146; Virginia deer, 146; wapiti, 146.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, crab-eating seal (Lobodon), 105; New
Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus), 103; sea leopard (Hi/-
drurga), 104; Weddel seal {Leptonychotes), 105.
Nias Island, West Sumatra
BATS, common bats (Myotis, Pipistrellus) , 55; false vampire
(Megaderma), 53; flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe
bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros),
53; long-tongued bat (Macroglossus), 49; sheath-tailed
bat (Emballonura), 51; short-nosed fruit bats (Cynopte-
ruSy Chironax), 48; tube-nosed bat (Murina), 59.
CARNIVORES, binturong (Arctictis), 91 ; leopard cat (Felis
bengalensis), 98.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacus), 147; pig (Sus),
149; sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque {Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed tree
rat (Chiropodomys), 116; house mouse (Mus), 113.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Norfolk Island, Northwest of New Zealand
BATS, common bat (Chalinolobus) , 56; free-tailed bat (Tada-
rida), 62.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
North Natuna Islands, South China Sea
BATS, false vampire (Megaderma), 53 ; flying fox (Pteropus),
48 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus), 53 ; leaf -nosed bat (Hip-
posideros), 53; long-tongued bat (Macroglossus), 49;
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 215
sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51; short-nosed fruit
bat (Ci/nopterus), 48.
CARNIVORES. Malay badger {Mydaus), 83; small-toothed
palm civet (Arctogalidia), 92.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES. Mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
pig (Sus), 149.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, leaf-monkey (Presbytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67; slow loris (Nyctice-
bus), 76.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114 ; complex-toothed tree
rat (Chiropodomys), 116; flying squirrels (Petaurista,
Hylopetes), 109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110; house
mouse (Mus), 113; long-nosed ground squirrel (Rhino-
sciurus), 112; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
North Pacific Ocean
VS^HALES. Baird whale (Berardius), 130; beaked whales
(Mesoplodon), 131; blackfish or pilot whale (Globioce-
phalus), 132; blue whale (Sibbaldus), 128; bottle-nosed
dolphin (Tursiops), 134; bowhead (Balcena), 127; com-
mon dolphin (Delphinus), 134; Dall's porpoise (Phocce-
noides dalli), 132; false killer (Pseudorca), 132; finback
(Balcenoptera), 128; gray or Risso's dolphin (Grampus),
131; gray whale (Rhachianectes), 128; humpback (Me-
gaptera), 128; killer (Orcinus), 131 ; northern right whale
(Eubalcena), 127; northern right whale dolphin (Lisso-
delphis), 133; pygmy sperm whale (Kogia), 130; sperm
whale (Physeter), 129; True's porpoise (Phocasnoides
truei), 132; white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus) , 133.
Obi Island, see Molucca Islands
Ogasawara Shoto, see Bonin Islands
Okhotsk Sea
V^HALES. blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132;
bowhead (Balcena), 127; common dolphin (Delphinus),
216 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
134<; finback (Balcenoptera) , 128; gray or Risso's dolphin
(Grampus), 131 ; gray whale (Rhachianectes) , 128; killer
(Orcinus), 131; northern right whale (Eubalcena), 127;
sperm whale (Physeter), 129; True's porpoise (Phocoe-
noides truei), 132.
Ombay Island, see Alor
Pagi Islands, see Mentawi Islands
Palau Islands (Pelews), Micronesia
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus), 48; sheath-tailed bat (Emhal-
lonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse {Mus),
113.
Palawan Island (including the Calamianes and Balabac), the
Philippines
BATS, common bats (Myotis, PipistrelluSy Glischropus, Tylo-
nycteriSy Scotophilus), 55; flying foxes (Pteropus, Acero-
don), 48 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus) , 53 ; leaf-nosed bat
(Hipposideros), 53; long-tongued bat (Macroglossus),
49; rousette bat (Ro2isettus), 48; sheath-tailed bats (Em-
ballonuray Taphozous), 51 ; short-faced fruit bat (Cynop-
terus), 48; trumpet-eared bat (Kerivoula), 61.
CARNIVORES, binturong (Arctictis), 91 ; leopard cat (Felis
bengalensis), 98; Malay badger (Mydaus), 83; mongoose
(Herpestes), 94; palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89; small-
clawed otter {Lutra cinerea), 84.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
pig (Sus), 149; sambar deer (Cewus), 144.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia), 43; white-toothed
shrews (Crocidura, Suncus), 40.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed
tree rat (Chiropodomys), 116; flying squirrel (Hylo-
petes), 109; house mouse (Mus), 113; Oriental squirrel
(Callosciurus), 110; porcupine (Hystrix), 121.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 217
Pelew Islands, see Palau Islands
Perry Group, see Bonin Islands
Philippine Islands (excluding Palawan)
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats (Mi/-
otisy Pipistrellus, Glischropus, Nyctalus, Tylonycteris,
Scotophilus), 55; false vampire (Megaderma), 53; flying
foxes (Pteropus, Acerodon), 48; free-tailed bats (Tada-
rida, Cheiroineles), 62; harpy fruit bat (Harpionycteris),
49 ; horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus) , 53 ; leaf-nosed bat {Hip-
posideros), 53; long-tongued bats (MacroglossuSy Eonyc-
teris), 49 ; rousette bat (Rousettus), 48 ; sheath-tailed bats
(Emballonura, Taphozous, T aphony cteris), 51; short-
faced fruit bats (Cynopterus, Megaerops, Ptenochirus),
48; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; trumpet-eared bat
(Kerivoula), 61; tube-nosed bat (Murina), 59.
CARNIVORES, civet (Viverra), 86; leopard cat (Felis hen-
galensis), 98; palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; sambar deer
(Certms), 144; tamarau (Bubalus mindorensis) , 141.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. gymnure or rat-like insectivore {Podo-
gymnura), 39; tree shrew (Urogale), 44; white-toothed
shrews (Crocidura, Suncus), 40.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus),
67; slow loris (Nycticebus), 76; tarsier (Tarsius), 78.
RODENTS, bushy-tailed rats {Phloeomys, Crateromys), 117;
common rats (Rattus, ApomySy Tryphomys^ Tarsomys^
Carpomys, Batomys), 114; flying squirrel (Petinomys),
109; house mouse (Mus), 113; Oriental squirrel (Callo-
sciurus), 110; pygmy squirrel (Nannosciurus) , 110; shrew
rat (Rhynchomys) , 116; water rats (Chrotomys, Celoe-
nomysy Crunomys), 118.
Phoenix Islands, Polynesia
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
218 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
Pitcairn and associated islands, Polynesia
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Rhio-Lingga Archipelago, East Sumatra
BATS, common bats (Myotis, Nyctalus, Scotophilus), 55;
false vampire (Megaderma), 53; flying fox (Pteropus),
48 ; naked free-tailed bat (Cheiromeles), 62 ; horseshoe bat
(Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53;
sheath-tailed bat {Emhallonura), 51; short-nosed fruit
bats {Cynopterus, Balionycteris, Penthetor), 48.
CARNIVORES, binturong (Arctictis), 91; civet (Viverra),
86; palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89; small-clawed otter
(Lutra cinerea), 84; small-toothed palm civet (Arctoga-
lidia), 92.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
muntjac (Muntiacus), 147; pig (Sus), 149.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia, Ptilocercus), 43;
white-toothed shrew (Crocidura), 40.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, leaf monkeys (Preshytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque {Macaca irus), 67; slow loris (Nyctice-
bus), 76.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; flying squirrels (Pe-
taurista, Hylopetes, Petinomys), 109; giant squirrel (Ra-
tufa), 110; house mouse (Mus), 113; long-nosed ground
squirrel {Rhino sciurus), 112; Oriental squirrel {Callo-
sciurus), 110; pygmy squirrel (Nannosciurus), 110;
striped ground squirrel (Lariscus), 111.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Riu Kiu Islands, see Luchu Islands
Saint Esprit Island, see Tambelan Islands
Sakhalin Island, Sea of Okhotsk
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55.
CARNIVORES, ermine or stoat (Mustda erminea), 81 ; Eura-
sian bear (Ursus), 79; lynx (Lynx), 99; sable (Maries
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 219
zibellina), 81 ; tiger (Felis tigris), 95 ; wolf (Canis lupus),
84; wolverine (Gulo), 82.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, musk deer (Moschus), 147;
reindeer (Rangifer), 146.
INSECTIVORES. red-toothed shrew (Sorex),4iO.
RABBITS, varying hare {Lepus timidus), 124; pika
(Ochotona), 126.
RODENTS, chipmunk {Eutamias)^ 111; common rat (Rat-
tus), 114; Eurasian squirrel (Sciurus), 110; flying squir-
rel (Pteromys), 109; house mouse (Mus), 113; red-backed
mouse or vole (Clethrionomys), 120; striped tree mouse
(Sicista), 121; wood mouse (Apodemus), 114.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, harbor seal {Phoca vitulina), 104;
ringed seal (Phoca hispida), 104.
Saleyer (Salajar) Island, South of Celebes
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus, Acerodon), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus phalanger (Phalanger), 26.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Samoa (Navigator) Islands, Polynesia
BATS, common bat (Myotis), 55; flying foxes (Pteropus),
48; sheath-tailed bat (Emhallonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Sanghir (Sangihe) Islands, North of Celebes
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus, Acerodon), 48; long-tongued
bat (Macroglossus), 49; rousette or dog bat (Rousettus),
48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, tarsier (Tarsius), 78.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
220 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
Santa Cruz Islands, Melanesia
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposide-
ros), 53; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
118.
Ste. Barbe Island, South China Sea
BATS, leaf-nosed bat {Hipposideros) , 53.
RODENTS, common rat {Rattus), 114; house mouse {Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Savu (Savoe) Island, Lesser Sundas
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48 ; rousette or dog bat (Rouset-
tus), 48; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura), 51.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Simalu (Simeuloee or Babi) Island, West Sumatra
BATS, false vampire (Megaderma), 53 ; flying fox (Pteropus),
48; naked free-tailed bat (Cheiromeles) , 62; sheath-tailed
bat (Emballonura), 51; short-faced fruit bat (Cynopte-
rus), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus)^
113.
Society Islands, Polynesia
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Soela Islands, included in Molucca Islands
Solombo Island, Java Sea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 221
Solomon Islands, Melanesia
BATS, common bat (Pipistrellus), 56; flying foxes (Pteropus,
Pteralopex), 48 ; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53 ; long-
tongued bats (Macroglossus, Nesonycteris), 49; rousette
bat (Rousettus), 48 ; sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura) , 51 ;
spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48; tube-nosed bat (Nycti-
mene)^ 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger),25.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; giant rats (Uro-
mys), 116; house mouse (Mus)^ 113; mosaic-tailed rats
(Melomys)y 116.
South China Sea
DUGONG (Dugong), 136.
WHALES, bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; Chinese
white dolphin (Sotalia sinensis), 135; common dolphin
(Delphinus), 134; finback (Balcenoptera), 128; finless
black porpoise (Neomeris), 132; gray or Risso's dolphin
(Grampus), 131 ; humpback (Megaptera), 128 ; Irrawaddi
dolphin (Orcella), 132; Malay white dolphin (Sotalia
horneensis), 135; pygmy sperm whale (Kogia), 130; slen-
der dolphin (Prodelphinus) , 135 ; sperm whale (Physeter),
129.
South Natuna Islands, South China Sea
BATS, common bats (Myotis, Pipistrellus), 55; false vampire
(Megaderma), 53; flying fox (Pteropus), 48; horseshoe
bat (Rhinolophus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros),
53; short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus), 48.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus), 44.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrew (Tupaia, Ptilocercus), 43;
white-toothed shrew (Crocidura), 40.
MONKEYS, LEMURS, leaf moilkey (Presbytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67; tarsier (Tarsius), 78.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; giant squirrel (Ra-
tufa), 110; house mouse (Mus), 113; long-nosed ground
squirrel (Rhino sciur us), 112; Oriental squirrel (Callo-
sciurus), 110.
222 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
South Pacific Ocean (30° to 50° South Latitude)
WHALES, beaked whales (Mesoplodon, Berardius), 131;
blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132; bottle-
nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin (Del-
phinus), 134; Cuvier's or goose-beaked whale (Ziphius),
131; dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), 134;
false killer (Pseudorca), 132 ; finback (Balcenoptera) , 128 ;
gray or Risso's dolphin (Grampus), 131; Hector's dol-
phin {Cephalorhynchus hectori), 133; hour-glass dolphin
(Lagenorhynchus cruciger), 133; humpback (Megap-
tera), 128 ; killer whale (Orcinus) , 131 ; pygmy right whale
(Neobalcena), 128; pygmy sperm whale (Kogia), 130;
right whale dolphin (Lissodelphis), 133; southern right
whale {Eubalcena), 127; sperm whale (Physeter), 129;
white-headed dolphin (Cephalorhynchus albifrons), 133.
Sula (Soela, Xulla) Islands, see Molucca Islands
Sumatra
BATS, bent-winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bats
(Myotis, Pipistrellus, GUschropus, Tylonycteris, Nycta-
lus, Scotophilus), 55; false vampire (Megaderma), 53;
flying foxes (Pteropus), 48; free-tailed bats (Tadarida,
Mormopterus, Cheiromeles) , 62; horseshoe bat (Rhinolo-
phus), 53; leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros), 53; long-
tongued bats (Macroglossus, Eonycteris), 49; mouse-
tailed bat (Rhino poma), 51; rousette bat (Rousettus),
48 ; sheath-tailed bats (Emballonura, Saccolaimus, Tapho-
zous), 51 ; short-faced fruit bats (Cynopterus, Dyacopte-
ruSy MegaeropSy Aethalops, Chironax), 48; trumpet-eared
bats (Kerivoula, Phoniscus), 61 ; tube-nosed bats (Murina,
Harpiocephalus) , 59.
CARNIVORES. Asiatic wild dog (Cuon), 85; banded palm
civet (Hemigalus), 93; bare-footed weasel (Mustela), 82;
binturong (Arctictis), 91; civets (Viverra, Viverricula) ,
86; clouded leopard (Fells nebulosa), 96; Eurasian otter
(Lutra lutra), 84; fishing cat (Felis viverrina), 98; flat-
headed cat (Felis planiceps), 98; golden cat (Felis tern-
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 223
mincJcii), 97; hairj-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana) , 84;
hog-nosed badger {Arctonyx), 83 ; Java weasel (Mustela),
82; leopard cat (Felis hengalensis)^ 98; linsang (Priono-
don), 88; Malay badger {Mydaus), 83; Malay bear {He-
larctos), 80; marbled cat (Felis marmorata), 96; masked
palm civet (Paguma), 91; mongooses (Herpestes), 94;
otter civet (Cynogale), 93 ; palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89 ;
small-clawed otter (Lutra cinerca), 84 ; small-toothed palm
civet (Arctogalidia), 92; smooth otter (Lutra perspicil-
lata), 84; tiger (Felis tigris), 95; yellow-throated marten
(Martes), 81.
ELEPHANT (Elephas), 136.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, mouse deer (Tragulus), 149;
muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacus), 147; pig (Sus),
149; sambar deer (Cervus), 144; serow (Capricornis),
142.
FLYING LEMUR, colugo, caguan (Cynocephalus) , 144.
INSECTIVORES. gymnures or rat-like insectivores (Echino-
sorex, Hylomys), 38; tree shrews (Tupaia, Ptilocercus),
43 ; water shrew (Chimarrogale) , 41 ; white-toothed shrews
(Crocidura, Suncus), 40.
ODD-TOED UNGULATES. Javan one-horned rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros), 151; Sumatran two-horned rhinoceros (Di-
cerorhinus), 153; tapir (Tapirus), 154.
MONKEYS, APES, LEMURS, dark-handed gibbon (Hylo-
bates agilis), 66; leaf monkeys (Preshytis), 70; long-
tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67; orang-utan (Pongo),
63 ; pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina), 67 ; siamang
gibbon (Hylobates syndactylus), 64; slow loris (Nyctice-
bus), 76; tarsier (Tarsius), 78; white-handed gibbon
(Hylobates lar), 66.
RABBITS, striped rabbit or Sumatran hare (Nesolagus),
125.
RODENTS. Bamboo rats (Rhizomys), 112; bandicoot rats
(Bandicota), 115; brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus),
122; common rats (Rattus), 114; complex-toothed tree
rat (Chiropodomys), 116; flying squirrels (Petaurista,
lomysy Pteromyscus, Hylo petes, Petinomys, Aeromys),
109; giant squirrel (Ratufa), 110; house mouse (Mus),
113; long-nosed ground squirrel (Rhino sciurus), 112;
long-tailed porcupine (Trichys), 122; Oriental squirrel
224 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
(Callosciurus), 110 ; pygmy squirrel (Nannosciurus), 110 ;
porcupine {Hystrix), 121 ; red tree rat (Pithecheir) , 115;
shrew rat {Mycteromys), 115; striped ground squirrel
(Lariscus), 111.
SCALY ANTEATER (Manis), 107.
Sumba (Soemba) Island, Lesser Sundas
BATS, flying foxes {Pteropus, Acerodon), 48; spinal-winged
bat (Dobsonia), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (P ar ado xurus), S9.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Sumbawa (Soembawa) Island, Lesser Sundas
BATS, flying foxes (PteropuSy Acerodon), 48.
CARNIVORES, civet (Viverricula), 87 ; palm civet (Paradoxu-
rus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, sambar deer (Cervus), 144.
RODENTS, common rat (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; porcupine (Hystrix), 121.
Talaut Island, North of the Moluccas
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus, Acerodon), 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus phalanger (Phalanger), 25.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; mosaic-tailed rats (Melomys), 116.
Tambelan Islands, V^est Borneo, including Saint Esprit Island
BATS, false vampire (Megaderma), 53; flying fox (Ptero-
pus), 48.
INSECTIVORES. tree shrews (Tupaia), 43.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113; Oriental squirrel (Callosciurus), 110.
Tanimber Island (Timor Laut), Arafura Sea
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48 ; tube-nosed fruit bat (Nycti-
mene), 48.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 225
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse {Mus),
113.
Tasman Sea, Southwest Pacific
WHALES, beaked whales (Mesoplodon, Berardius), 131;
blackfish or pilot whale (Globiocephalus), 132; bottle-
nosed dolphin (Tursiops), 134; common dolphin (Del-
phinus), 134; Cuvier's or goose-beaked whale (Ziphius),
131; dusky dolphin {Lagenorhynchus obscurus), 134;
false killer (Pseudorca), 132 ; finback (Balcenoptera), 128;
gray or Risso's dolphin (Grampus), 131 ; Hector's dolphin
(Cephcdorhynchus hectori), 133; hour-glass dolphin (La-
genorhynchus cruciger), 133; humpback (Megaptera),
128; killer (Orcinus), 131; pygmy right whale (Neoba-
Icena), 128 ; pygmy sperm whale (Kogia), 130 ; right whale
dolphin (Lissodelphis), 133; southern right whale (Euba-
Icena), 127; sperm whale (Physeter), 129; white-headed
dolphin (Cephalorhynchus albifrons), 133.
Tasmania
BATS. Australian long-eared bat (Nyctophilus), 60; common
bats (Pipistrellus, Eptesicus, Chalinolobus) , 56.
EGG-LAYING MAMMALS, duckbill or platypus (Orni-
thorhynchus) , 11; spiny anteater or echidna (Tachyglos-
sus), 14.
MARSUPIALS, bandicoots (Isoodon, Perameles), 21; dor-
mouse possum (Dromicia), 25; flying possum (Petaurus),
27; large kangaroo (Macropus), 31 ; marsupial mice and
rats {Antechinus, Sminthopsis) , 20; native cat (Dasyu-
rus), 19; possum (Trichosurus), 23; rat kangaroos (Bet-
tongia, Potorous), 36; ring-tailed possum (Pseudochei-
rus), 26; Tasmanian devil (SajTophilus), 18; Tasmanian
wolf (Thylacinus) , 17.
SEALS, SEA LIONS, fur seal (Arctocephalus), 103; seals
(Hydrurga, Lobodon, Leptonychotes), 104 ; sea lion (Neo-
phoca), 101.
RODENTS, broad-toothed rat (Mastocomys), 117; common
rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus), 113; native mice
(Pseudomys), 117; water rat (Hydromys), 118.
226 ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST
Timor, Lesser Sundas
BATS. Australian long-eared bat (Ni/ctophilus), 60; bent-
winged bat (Miniopterus), 59; common bat {Tylonycte-
ris), 57 ; flying foxes (PteropuSy Acerodon), 48 ; leaf-nosed
bat (Hipposideros), 53; rousette or dog bat (Rousettus),
48; slit-faced bat (Nycteris), 52; spinal-winged bat (Dob-
sonia), 48; tube-nosed fruit bat {Nyctimene), 48.
CARNIVORES, palm civet (Paradoxurus), 89.
EVEN-TOED UNGULATES, pig (Sus), 149; sambar deer
(Cermts), 144.
INSECTIVORES. white-toothed shrews (Crocidura, Suncus)^
40.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25.
MONKEYS, long-tailed macaque {Macaca irus), 67.
RODENTS, common rats (Jiattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Timor Laut, see Tanimber Island
Tonga (Friendly) Islands, Polynesia
BATS, flying fox (Pteropus), 48.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus)^
113.
Torres Strait, see Arafura Sea
Trobriand Islands, see D'Entrecasteaux Islands
Union Islands, Polynesia
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
Vulcano Islands, see Bonin Islands
Wake Island, Micronesia
SEALS. Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus), 105.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114; house mouse (Mus),
113.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX-CHECKLIST 227
West Pacific Ocean, see Micronesian Area, Pacific Ocean
Wetar (Wetter) Island, North of Timor
BATS, flying foxes (Pteropus, Acerodon), 48; rousette or dog
bat (Rousettus), 48; spinal-winged bat (Dobsonia), 48;
tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene), 48.
MARSUPIALS, cuscus (Phalanger), 25.
RODENTS, common rats (Rattus), 114 ; house mouse (Mus),
113.
XuUa Islands, see Molucca Islands
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