Man and his migrations

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4

o

MAN AND HIS MIGRATIONS.

Br
R. G. LATHAM, M. D., F. R. S.,

OOBBBSPOMDINa XEKBKB TO THB ETEINOLOaiOAL SOGXETT, 27ZW TOBX,

SOT* BTO*

NEW YORK:

CHARLES B. NORTON, 71 CHAMBERS STREET,

IRYINa B0U8K.

1852.

■y .-

/hiir,

/_

. n

^/^/

■NEW YORK :

BAKER, GODWIN & CO., PRINTERS,
TRXBUN^ BUILDIMOB.

-•'•

PREFACE.

The following pages represent a Course of
Six Lectures delivered at the Mechanics' Insti-
tution, Liverpool, in the month of March of the
past year; the matter being now laid before
the public in a somewhat fuller and more sys-
tematic form than was compatible with the
original delivery.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEK I.

Page

The Natural or Physical HiBtory of Man-4h6 avil— their
differenoe — diyiaions of the Natural or Physical Bib-
tory— Anthropology — ^Ethnology — ^how fer pursued by
the ancients — ^Herodotus — ^how &r by the modems —
Buffon — linnsus — Daubenton — Camper—- Blumen-
bach— ^e term OaueoHan — Cuvier— Philology as an
instrument of ethnological investigation— -Pigafetti^—
Hervas — ^Leibnitz— Seland — ^Adelung — Elaproth — ^the
union of Philology and of Anatomy— Pnohard— its
Palsontological character—influence of Lyell's Geology
—of Whewell^s History of the Inductive Sdences . 9-H

CHAPTEB n.

Ethncdogy— its objects— the chief problems connected
with it — ^prospective questions — ^transfer of populations
— extract from Knox-— correlation of certain parts of
the body to certun external influences— parts leas sub<
ject to such influences — ^retrospective questions — ^the
unity or non-unity of our species — opinions— plurality
of spedes— multiplicity of protoplasts — doctrine of de-
'vdopment— DoUcos— ^Bxtract—aatiquity <^our ipedea
—its geogr^bical ozigin— ^hftlenn niM • . . 45-75

vi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER m.

Page

Methods^-the Boience one of observation and deduction
rather than experiment — classification — on mineralogi-
cal, on zoological principles — ^the first for Anthropology,
the second for Ethnology — value of Language as a test
— ^instances of its loss — of its retention — ^when it proves
original relation, when interoourse — ^the grammatical
and glossarial tests — classifications must be r^^the
distribution of Man — size of areas — ethnological con-
trasts in close geographical contact — discontinuity and
isolation of areas — oceanic migrations .... 76-108

CHAPTER IV.

Details of distribution— their conventional character —
convergence firom the circumference to the centre —
Fuegians, Patagonian, Pampa, and.Chaco Indians —
Peruvians — D'Orbigny's characters — other South
American Indians — of the Missions— of Guiana — of
Venezuela — Guarani — Caribs — Central America— Mex-
ican dvilization no isolated phsenomenon — North
American Indians — ^Eskimo — apparent objections to
their connection with the Americans and Asiatics —
Tasmanians — Australians— Papuis— Polynesians— Mi-
cronesians — Malagasi— Hottentots— Bjiflfres — ^Negroes
— ^Berbers — ^Abyssinians — Copts — ^the Semitic family —
Primary and secondary migrations .... 109-166

CHAPTER V.

The TJgrians of Lapland, Unland, Permia, tiie Ural
Mountains and the Volga^-area of the light-haired
families — ^Turanians— the Kelts of Ireland, Scotland,
Wales, Gaul — the Goths — ^the Sarmatians— the Greeks
and Latins— difficulties of European ethnology — dis-
placement — intermixture — identification of ancient
fSuniliea— extinction of andent ftanilies— the Etmscans

CONTENTS. vii

Page

-—the Pelasgi — ^isolation — ^the Basks — ^the Albanians —
classificationB and hypotheses — term Indo-European —
the Finnic hypothesis 167-194

CHAPTEK VI.

The Monosyllabic arear— the T'hay— the M6n and Kho—
Tables — ^the B'hot — the Chinese — ^Burmese — Persia —
Indifr— Tamnlian family— the Brahiii— the Bioscnrians
— the Georgians — ^Irdn— Miageji — ^Lesgians — Armeni-
ans — ^Asia Minor — ^Lycians — Carianfr— Paropamisans —
Conclusion 195-261

'»">»

MAN AND HIS MIGRATIONS.

CHAPTER I.

The Natural or Physical History of Man — ^the Civil — their dif-
ference — diyisions of the Natural or Physical history — An-
thropology — Ethnology — how far pursued by the ancients —
Herodotus — ^how far by the modems — Buffon — ^LinnsBus^
Daubenton — Camper — Blumenbach — the term Caucasian —
Cnvier — ^Philology as an instrument of ethnological investi-
gation — Pigafetta — Hervas — Leibnitz — Reland — Adelung —
Klaproth — ^the union of Philology and of Anatomy — ^Prichard
. — its PalsBontoIogical character — influence of Lyell's Greology
— of Whewell^s History of the Inductive Sciences.

Let us contrast the Owil with the NaimroU
History of Man.

The influence of individual heroes, the effect
of material events, the operations of ideas, the
action and reaction of the different elements of
society upon each other, come within the domain
of the former. An empire is consolidated, a
contest concluded, a principle asserted, and the
civil historian records them. He does more. K
he be true to his calling, he investigates the

2

10 DIFFEBENOE BETWEEN THE

springs of action in individual actors, measures
the calibre of their moral and intellectual power,
and pronounces a verdict of praise or blame
upon the motives which determine their mani-
festation. This makes him a great moral teacher,
and gives a value to his department of know-
ledge, which places it on a high and peculiar
level.

Dealing with actions and motives, he deals
nearly exclusively with those of individuals ; so
much so, that even where he records the move-
ments of mighty masses of men, he generally
finds that there is one presiding will which reg-
ulates and directs them ; and even when this is
not the case, when the movement of combined
multitudes is spontaneous, the spring of action
is generally of a moral nature — ^a dogma if re-
ligious, a theory if political;

Such a history as this could not be written of
the brute animals, neither could it be written
for them. No animal but Man supplies' either
its elements or its objects ; nor yet the record
which transmits the memory of past actions,
even when they are of the most material kind.
The civil historian, therefore, of our species, or,
to speak with a conciseness which common par-
lance allows, the historia/n^ living and breathing
in the peculiar atmosphere of humanity, and
exhibiting man in the wide circle of moral and

KMBTRJkL AND CIVIL HISTOBY OF MAN. 11

intellectual action,: — a circle in which none but
he moves, — stakes up his study where that of the
lower animals ends. Whatever is common to
them and man, belongs to the naturalist. Let
each take his view of the Arab or the Jew. The
one investigates the influence of the Bible and
the Koran ; whilst the other may ask how far the
Moorish blood has mixed with that of the Span-
iard, or remark the permanence of the Israelite
features under climates so different as Poland,
Morocco, or Hindostan. The one will think of
instincts, the other of ideas.

In what part of the wqra did this originate ?
How was it diffused over the surface of the
earth ? At what period in the world's history
was it evolved? Where does it thrive best?
Where does it cease to thrive at all ? What
forms does it take if it degenerate? What con-
ditions of soil or climate determine such degen-
erations ? What favor its improvement ? Can
it exist in Nova Zembla ? In Africa ? In either
region or both ? Do the long nights of the Pole
blanch, does the bright glare of the Equator
deepen its color ? &c. Instead of multiplying
questions of this kind, I will ask to what they
apply. They apply to every being that multi-
plies its kind upon earth ; to every animal of
the land or sea ; to every vegetable as well ; to
every organized being. They apply to the ape,

12 NATURAL HISTOET, ETC.

the horse, the dog, the fowl, the fish, the insect,
the fruit, the flower. They apply to these — and
they apply to man as well. They — and the like
of them — Legion byname — common alike to the
lords and the lower orders of the creation, con-
stitute the nai/ural history of genus Homo / and
I use the language of the Zoologist for the sake of
exhibiting in a prominent and palpable manner,
the truly zoological charfifeter of this department
of science. Man as an animal is the motto
here ; whilst Ma/n as a moral heing is the motto
with the Historian.

It is not very important whether we call
this Natural or Physical History. There are
good authorities on both sides. It is only im-
portant to see how it differs from the History of
the Historian.

Man's Civil history has its divisions. Man's
Natural history has them also.

The first of these takes its name from the
Greek words for man {anthr6poi)^ and doctrine
{logos)^ and is known as Anthropology,

When the first pair of human beings stood
alone on the face of the earth, there were then
the materials for Anthropology ; and so there
would be if our species were reduced to the last
man. There would be an Anthropology if the
world had no inhabitants but Englishmen, or
none but Chinese ; none but red men of Amer-
ica, or none but blacks of Africa. Were the

ITS DIVISIONS ^ANTHROPOLOGY. 13

uniformity of feature, the identity of color, the
equality of stature, the rivalry of mental capaci-
ty ever so great, there would still be an An-
thropology. This is because Anthropology deals
v)ith Man as compa/red with the lower animals.

We consider the structure of the human ex-
tremities, and enlarge upon the flatness of the
foot, and the flexibility of the hand. The one is
subservient to the erect posture, the other to
the innumerable manipulations which human
industry demands. We compare them with
the fins of fishes, the wings of birds ; in doing
which, we take the most extreme contrasts we
can find. But we may also take nearer approx-
imations, e, g. the hands of the higher apes.
Here we find likeness as well as difference;
difference as well as likeness. We investigate
both ; and record the result either in detail or
by some general expression. Perhaps we pro-
nounce that the one side gives the conditions of
an arboreal life, the other those of a social state ;
the ape being the denizen of the woods, the man
of towns and cities ; the one a climber, the other
a walker.

Or we compare the skull of the man and the
chimpanzee; noticing that the ridges and promi-
nences of the external surface, which in the
former are merely rudimentary, become strongly
marked crests in the latter. We then remem-

14 ANTHROPOLOGY.

ber that the one is the framework for the mus-
cles of the face ; the other is the case for the
brain.

All that is done in this way is Anthropology.

Every class of organized beings has, mutatis
mutcmdis^ its anthropological aspect ; so that
the dog may be contemplated in respect to the
fox which equals, the ape which excels, or the
kangaroo which falls short of it in its approach
to a certain standard of organization ; in other
words, as species and genera have their relative
places in the ladder of creation, the investigation
of such relations is co-extensive with the exis-
tence of the classes and groups on which it
rests.

Anthropology deals too much with such
matters as these to be popular. Unless the sub-
ject be handled with excessive delicacy, there
is something revolting to fastidious minds in the
cool contemplation of the differentim of the
Zoologist,

" Who shows a Newton as he shows an ape.

Yet, provided there be no morbid gloating over
the more dishonorable points of similarity, no
pleasurable excitement derived from the low-
ering view of our nature, the study is not ig-
noble. At any rate, it is part of human know-
ledge, and a step in the direction of self-know-
ledge.

ETHNOLOGY. 15

Besides this, the relationship is merely one
of degree. We may not be either improperly
or unpleasantly like the orang-utan or the chim-
panzee. We may even be angelomorphic.
Nevertheless, we are more like orang-utans and
chimpanzees than aught else upon earth.

The other branch of Man's Natural History
is called Ethnology — ^from the Greek word sig-
nifying nation {ethnos).

It by no means follows, tha tbecause there is
an anthropology there is an ethnology also. There
is no ethnology where there is but a single pair
to the species. There would be no ethnology
if all the world were negroes ; none if every
man was a Chinese ; none if there were naught
but Englishmen. The absolute catholicity of a
religion without sects, the centralized imiformi-
ty of a universal empire, are types and parallels
to an anthropology without an ethnology. This
is because Ethnology deals with Man in respect
to his Va/rieties.

There would be an anthropology if but one
single variety of mankind existed.

But if one variety of mankind — and no more
— existed, there would be no ethnology. It
would be as impossible a science as a polity on
Robinson Crusoe's island.

But let there be but a single sample of dif-
ferent though similar bodily conformation. Let

16 EANGE OF

there be a white as well as a black, or a black
as well as a white man. In that case ethnology
begins ; even as a polity began on Crusoe's island
when his servant Friday became a denizen of it.
The other classes of organized beings, al-
though, mutatis mutandis^ they have, of neces-
sity, their equivalent to an anthi'opology, may
or may not have an ethnology. The dog has
one; the chimpanzee has either none or an in-
significant one ; difierences equivalent to those
which separate the cur fi'om the greyhound, or
the shepherd's-dog from the pointer, being want-
ing. Again, a treatise which showed how the
chimpanzee differed from the orang-utan on one
side, and man on the other, would be longer
than a dissertation upon the extent to which the
chimpanzees differed from each other; yet a
dissertation on the varieties of dogs would be
bulkier than one on their relations to the fox.
This shows how the proportions of the two studies
may vary with the species under consideration.
In the Nat/ural History of Mam,^ the ethnologi-
cal aspect is the most varied. It is also the one
which has been most studied. With the horse,
or the sheep, with many of the domestic fowls,
with the more widely-cultivated plants, the study
of the variety outweighs that of the species. With
the dog it does so in an unparalleled degree. But
what if the dog-tribe had the use of language ?

ETHNOLOGY. 17

What if the language differed with each variety ?
In such a case the study of canine ethnology
would be doubly and trebly complex, though at
the same time the data for conducting it would
be both increased and improved. A distant —
a "oety distant approach — ^to this exists. The
wild dog howls y the companion of man alone
ha/rks. This is a difference of language as far
as it goes. This is written to foreshadow the
importance of the study of language as an in-
strument of ethnological investigation.

Again — ^what if the dog-tribe were possessed
of the practice of certain human arts, and if
these varied with the variety ? If they buried
their dead? and their tombs varied with the
variety? if those of one generation lasted for
years, decenniums, or centuries ? The ethnol-
ogy would again increase in complexity, and the
data would again be increased. The graves of
an earlier generation would serve as unwritten
records of the habits of sepulture with an earlier
one. This is written to foreshadow the impor-
tance of the study of antiquities as an instru-
ment of the same kind with philology.

With dogs there are impossibilities. True ;
but they serve as illustrations. With man they
are realities — ^realities which make philology
and archaeology important adjuncts to his natu-
ral history.

1 8 BTHNOLOG Y,

We have now ascertained the character of
the study in question ; and seen how far it dif-
fers from history properly so-called — at least we
have done so sufficiently for the purpose of de-
finition. A little reflection will show its rela-
tions to certain branches of science, e. g. to phy-
siology, and mental science — a relation upon
which there is no time to enlarge. It is enough
to understand the existence of such a separate
substantive branch of knowledge and inquiry.

What is the amoTmt of this knowledge?
This is proportionate to that of the inquiry.
What has this been ? Less than we are prepar-
ed to expect.

" The proper stady of mankind is Man."

This is a stock quotation on the subject.

'* Homo sum ; hnmani nihil a me aliennm pnto."

This is another. Like many apophthegms of
the same kind, they have more currency than
influence, and are better known than acted on.
We know the zoology of nine species out of ten
amongst the lower animals better than that of
our own genus. So little have the importance
and the investigation of a reaj^y interesting sub-
ject been commensurate.

It is a new science — so new as scarcely to
have reached the period of adolescence. Let us
ask what the ancients cared about it.

We do not look for systematic science in the

A NEGLECTED BRANCH OP KNOWLEDaS. 19

Scriptures ; and the ethnology which we derive
from them consists wholly of incidental notices.
These, though numerous, are brief. They apply,
too, to but a small portion of the earth's surface.
That, however, is one of pre-eminent interest —
the cradle of civilization, and the point where the
Asiatic, African, and Em'opean families come
in contact.

Greece helps us more : yet Greece but little.
The genius of Thucydides gave so definite a
character to history, brought it so exclusively in
contact with moral and political, in opposition to
physical, phsenomena, and so thoroughly made
it the study of the statesman rather than of the
zoologist, that what may be called the natv/raUst
element, excluded at the present time, was ex-
cluded more than 2000 years ago. How widely
diflFerent this from the slightly earlier Herodo-
tean record — the form and spirit of which lived
and died with the great father of historic narra-
tive ! The history of the Peloponnesian war
set this kind of writing aside for ever, and the
loss of what the earlier prototype might have
been developed into is a great item in the price
which posterity has to pay for the xT^/tia b\q ^b\
of the Athenian. As it is, however, the nine
books of Herodotus form the most ethnological
work not written by a professed and conscious
ethnologist Herodotus was an unconscious and

20 GB££K OBSEBYEBS

instinctive one; and his ethnology was of a
sufficiently comprehensive character. Manners
he noted, and physical appearance he noted, and
language he noted ; his Scythian, Median,
Egyptian, and other glosses having the same
value in the eyes of the closet philologist of the
present century, as the rarer fossils of some old
formation have with the geologist, or venerable
coins with the numismatic archaeologist. Let his
name be always mentioned with reverence ; for
the disrespectful manner in which his testimony
has been treated by some recent writers impugns
nothing but the scholarship of the cavillers.

I do not say that there are no ethnological
facts — ^it may be that we occasionally find ethno-
logical theories — in the Greek writers subse-
quent; I only state that they by no means
answer the expectations raised by the names
of the authors and the opportunities aflford-
ed by the nature of their subjects. Some-
thing is found in Hippocrates in the way of
theory as to the effect of external condition,
something in Aristotle, something in Plato —
nothing, however, by which we find the study
of Man as an animal recognized as a separate
substantive branch of study. More than this
— ^in works where the description of new popu-
lations was especially called for, and where the
evidence of the writer would have been of the

OF THE VARIETIES OF MAN. 21

most unexceptionable kind, we find infinitely less
than there ought to be. How little we leam of
Persia from the Cyropsedia, or of Armenia from
the Anabasis — ^yet how easily might Xenophon
have told us much !

Amongst the successors of Aristotle, we find
none who writes a treatise ifeqi pag^dQtav — ^yet
hpw natural the subject, and how great the op-
portunities ! — ^great, because of the commerce of
the Euxine, and the institution of domestic
slavery: the one conducting the merchant to
the extreme Tanais, the other filling Athens with
Thracians, and Asia Minor with Africans. The
advantages which the Greeks of the age of
Pericles neglected, are the advantages which the
Brazilian Portuguese neglect at present, and
which, until lately, both the English and the
States-men of America neglected also. And the
loss has been great. Like time and tide, eth-
nology waits for no man ; and, even as the In-
dian of America disappears before the Em'opean,
so did certain populations of antiquity. The
process of extinction and amalgamation is as
old as history; and whole families have ma-
terially altered in character since the beginning
of the historical period. The present popula-
tion of Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia is of
recent introduction. What was the ancient?
"Thracians and Getse," is the answer. But what

22 BOMAK WBTTBRS.

were they? "Germans," says one writer;
"Slavonians," another; "an extinct race,"
another. So that there is doubt and difference
of opinion. Yet we know some little about them
in other respects. We know their political re-
lations ; a little of their creed, and manners ;
the names of some of their tribes. Their place
in the classification of the varieties of our species
we do not know ; and this is because, though
the Grreeks wrote the civil^ they neglected the
physical history of Man.

Thrace, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus — ^these
are the areas for which the ancients might easily
have left descriptions, and for which they neglect-
ed to do so ; the omission being irreparable.

The opportunities of the Koman were greater
than those of the Greek ; and they were better
used. Dissertations, distantly approaching the
character of physical history, occur in even the
pure historical writers of Greece. I allude more
especially to the sketch of the manners and mi-
grations of the ancient Greeks in the first, and
the history of the Greek colonization of Sicily
in the sixth book of Thucydides. Parallels to
these re-appear in the Roman writers ; and, in
some cases, their proportion to the rest of the
work is considerable. Sallust's sketch of
Northern Africa, Tacitus' of Jewish history are
of this sort — and, far superior to either, Csesar's
account of Gaul and Britain.

TAorrus — ^ms gebmania. 23

The Oermania* of Tacitus is the nearest ap-
proach to proper ethnology that antiquity has
supplied. It is far, however, from either giv-
ing us the facts which are of the most impor-
tance, or exhibiting the method of investigation
by which ethnology is most especially contrast-
ed with history.

But the true measure of the carelessness of
the Romans upon these points is to be taken
by the same rule which applied to that of the
Greeks ; i, e. the contrast between their oppor-
tunities and their inquiry. Iforthem Italy, the
Tyrol, Dalmatia, Pannonia, have all stood un-
described in respect to the ancient populations ;
yet they were all in a favorable position for
description.

If the Jewish, Greek, and Roman writers
give but little, the literatures derived from them
give less ; though, of course, there is a numer-
ous selection of important passages to be made
from the authors of the Middle Ages, as well as
from the Byzantine historians. Besides which,
there is the additional advantage of Greece and
Rome having ceased to be the only countries

* The valne of Tacitus as an authority is minutely investi-
gated io an ethDological edition of the Gtrmania by the present
writer, now in course of publication. The object of the present
chapter is merely to show the extent to which the science in
question is of recent, rather than ancient, origin.

24 MIDDLE AGES.

thought worthy of being written abont. A
Gothic, a Slavonic, a Moorish history now make
their appearance. Still they are but cwil — not
natural — ^histories. However, our sphere of ob-
servation increases, the members of the human
family increase, and our records increase.
Nevertheless, the facts for the naturalist occur
but incidentally.

Of the Oriental literature I can only give
my inipression / and, as far as that goes, it is in
favor of the Chinese statements having the most,
and the Indian the least ethnological value ; in-
deed, the former nation appears to have con-
nected the notice of the occupant population
with the notice of the area occupied, with laud-
able and sufficient closeness. I believe, too,
that several differences of language are also
carefiiUy noted. Still, such ethnology as this
supplies is an educt from the works in question,
rather than their subject.

"We now come to times nearer our own. For
a sketch like the present. Science begins when
the elassijication of the Human Varieties is first
attempted. Meanwhile, we must remember
that America has been discovered, and that our
opportunities now differ from those of the
ancients not merely in degree but in kind. The
field has been infinitely enlarged ; and the world
has become known in its extremities as well as

BUFFON. 25

in its middle parts. The human naturalists
anterior to the times of Buffon and Linnaeus are
like the great men before Agamemnon. A mi-
nute literary history would doubtless put for-
ward some names for this period ; indeed for
some departments of the study there are a few
great ones. Still it begins with the times of
Linnaeus and Bufifon — Buffon first in merit.
That writer held that a General HisU/ry of
Ma/n^ as well as A Theory of the Ea/rth^ was a
necessary part of his great work ; and, as far as
the former subject is concerned, he thought
rightly. It is this, too, in which he has succeed-
ed best. Thoroughly appreciating its importr
ance, he saw its divisions clearly ; and after
eight chapters on the Growth of Man, his De-
cay, and his Senses, he devotes a ninth, as
long as the others put together, to the considerar
tion of the Varieties of the Hvmfian Species,
" Every thing," he now writes, " which we have
hitherto advanced, relates to Man as an individ-
ual. The history of the species requires a
separate detail, of which thd* principal facts can^
only be derived from the varieties that are found
in the inhabitants of different regions. Of these
varieties, the first and most remarkable is the col-
or, the second the form and size, and the third
the disposition. Considered in its full extent,
each of these objects might afford materials for a

26 LINN-fiUS.

volume*." No man need draw a clearer line
between anthropology and ethnology than this.
Of the systematic classification, which philology
has so especially promoted, no signs occur in his
treatise ; on the other hand, his appreciation of
the effects of difference in physical conditions is
well-founded in substance, and definitely ex-
pressed. To this he attributes the contrast be-
tween the Negro, the American, and the Afri-
can, and, as a natural result, he commits him-
self unequivocally to the doctrine of the unity
of the species.

Linnaeus took less cognizance of the species
to which he belonged ; the notice in the first
edition of the Systema NaturcB being as fol-
lows : —

QUADRUPEDALIA.

Corpus hi/rsutum^ pedes qxmtuor^ feminm vivi-

pmw^ lactiferw,

Antheopomokpha.
Denies primores i/v. ui/rinque vel nuUL

fEuropseus albescens.
Amerioanusrubescene.
Asiaticus fascus.
Africanus niger.

Anteriores. Posteriores.

Sjmia Digiti 5. Digiti 5. Simia, cauda carens.

Papio. Satyrus.

Posteriores anterioribus > Cercopithecus.
similes. ^ Cynocephalus.

Bradypus . . Digiti 3. vel 2. Digiti 3. Ai~-ignavu8.

Tardigradus.

» Barr's Translation, vol. iv. p. 191.

DAUBENTON. 27

Now both Buffon and Linnseus limit their
consideration of the bodily structure of man to
the phsenomena of color, skin, and hair ; in other
words, to the so-called soft parts.

From the Greek word osteon^ione^ we have
the anatomical term osteology =^t7ie study of the
hony skeleton.

This begins with the researches of the con-
temporary and helpmate of BuflFon. Daubenton
first drew attention to the hose of the shall^ and,
amongst the parts thereof, to the foramen ovale
most especially. Through the foramen ovale
the spinal chord is continued into the brain, or
— changing the expression — the brain prolonged
into the spinal chord ; whilst by its attachments
the skull is connected with the vertebral column.
The more this point of junction — the pivot on
which the head turns — is in the centre of the
base of the skull, the more are the conditions of
the erect posture of man fulfilled ; the contrary
being the case if the fora/men lie backward, as
is the case with the ape as compared with the
Negro, and, in some instances, with the Negro
as compared with the European. I say in some
instances^ because the backward position of the
foramen ovale in the Negro is by no means
either definite or constant. Now the notice of
the variations of the position of the foramen
ovale — one of the first specimens of ethnological

28 CAMPEK — ^BLUMENBAGH,

criticism applied to the Jiardpa/rta of the human
body — is connected with the name of Dauben-
ton.

The study of the skull — for the skeleton is
now dividing the attention of investigators with
the skin and hair — in profile is connected with
that of Camper. This brings us to his well-
known facial a/ngle. It means the extent to
which the forehead retreated; sloping back-
wards from the root of the nose in some cases,
and in others, rising perpendicularly above the
face.

Now the osteology of Daubenton and Cam-
per was the osteology that Blumenbach found
when he took up the subject. It was something ;
but not much.

In 1790, Blumenbach published his anatom-
ical description of ten skulls — ^his first decade —
drawn up with the special object of showing
how certain varieties of mankind differed from
each other in the conformation of so important
an organ as the skuU of a reasonable being —
a being thereby distinguished and character-
ized.

He continued his researches ; publishing at
intervals similar decades, to the number of six.
In 1820, he added to the last a pentad, so that
the whole list amounted to sixtv-five.

It was in the third decade, published a. d.

ma GEOBGIAN SETTLL. 29

1795, that an unfortunate skull of a Georgian
female made its appearance. The history of
this should be given. Its owner was taken by
the Kussians, and having been removed to Mos-
cow died suddenly. The body was examined
by Professor Hiltenbrandt, and the skull pre-
sented to De Asch of St. Petersburg. Thence it
reached the collection of Blumenbach, of which
it seems to have been the gem — ^^vm/o^sus hvjus
crcmii TwhiinJba tarn elegans et venustus^ ut et ta/nr
ium non semper vel mdoctorum^ si qui coUectio-
nem meam contemplentur^ ooulos exi/mia sua
jproportionis formositate feriaV^ This enco-
mium is followed by the description. Nor is
this all. A plaster cast of one of the most
beautiful busts of the Townley Museum was in
possession of the anatomist. He compared the
two ; " and so closely did they agree that you
might take your oath of one having belonged
to the other" — '^adeo istud huio respondere vides^
ut iUud hvjus prototypo quondanb inhcesisse
pejerwresP Lastly, he closes with an extract
from Chardin, enthusiastically laudatory of the
beauty of the women of Georgia, and adds that
his skull verifies the panegyric — ^^ Respondet
ceteroquinformosum istud cranium^ quod sane
pro ca/none ideali habere licet^ iis quae de summa
Oeorgianm genUs pulcritudine vel in vulgv^
nota sfwntP

30 THE TERM OAUOASIAN.

At the end of the decade in question, he need
the epithets Mongolian, Ethiopian, and Cau-
casian (CaiuiaMa va/rietas).

In the next (a.d. 1808), he speaks of the ex-
cessive beauty — ^the ideal — ^the normal character
of his Gegrgian skull ; and speaks of his osteo-
logical researches having established a quinary-
division of the Human Species ; naming them
— ^1. The CcmcoMcm; 2. The Mongolian; 3.
The ^thiopic ; 4. The American ; 6. The Ma-
lay.

Such is the origin of the term Caitcasicm / a
term which has done much harm in Ethnology •
a term to which Blumenbach himself gave an
undue value, and his followers a wholly false
import. This will be seen within a few pages.
Blumenbach's Caucasian class contained —

1. Most of the Europeans.

2. The Georgians, Circassians, and other fa-
milies of Caucasus.

3. The Jews, Arabs, and Syrians.

In the same year with the fourth decade of
Blumenbach, John Hunter gave testimony of
the value of the study of Man to Man, by a dis-
sertation with a quotation from Akenside on the
title-page —

** the spacious West

And all the teeming regions of the Souths
Hold not a quarry, to the curious flight
Of knowledge half so tempting or so fair.
As Man to Man."

CXTYIEB. 31

His tract was an Inaugural Dissertation, and
I merely mention it because it was written by
Hunter, and dedicated to Robertson.

Ouvier, in liis Megne Animal^ gives at con-
siderable length the anthropological character-
istics of Man, and places him as the only species
of the genus Homo^ the only genus of the order
£imcma=iinJD(hhanded ; the apes being Qicad-
rtmimia==fbur-h(mded. This was the great prac-
tical recognition of Man in his zoological rela-
tions.

In respect to the Ethnology, the classification
of Blumenbach was modified — and that by in-
creasing its generality. The absolute primary
divisions were reduced to three — the Malay and
the American being — ^not without hesitation —
subordinated to the Mongolian. Meanwhile, an
additional prominence was given to the group
which contained the Australians of Australia,
and the Papuans of New Guinea. Instead, how-
ever, of being definitely placed, it was left for
further investigation.

The abuse of the term Caucasian, was encou-
raged. Blumenbach had merely meant that his
favorite specimen had exhibited the best points
in the greatest degree. Cuvier speaks of tra-
ditions that ascribe the origin of mankind to
the mountain-range so-called — traditions of no
general diffusion, and of less ethnological value.

32 PHYSIOLOGY.

The time is now convenient for taking a retro-
spective view of the subject in certain other of
its branches. Color, hair, skin, bone, stature —
all these are points of physical conformation
or structure; material and anatomical; points
which the callipers or the scalpel investigates;
But color, hair, skin bone, and stature, are not
the only characteristics of man; nor yet the
only points wherein the members of his species
differ from each other. There is the fimction
as well as the organ ; and the parts of our body
must be considered in regard to what they do as
well as with reference to what they are. This
brings in the questions of the phsenomena of
growth and decay, — the average duration of
life, — reproduction, and other allied functions.
This, the physiological rather than the purely
anatomical part of the subject, requires a short
notice of its own. A priori^ we are inclined to
say that it would be closely united, in the prac-
tice of investigation, with what it is so closely
allied as a branch of science. Yet such has not
been exactly the case. The anatomists were
physiologists as well; and when Blumenbach
described a skull, he certainly thought about
the power, or the want of power, of the brain
which it contained. But the speculators in phy-
siology were not also anatomists. Such specu-
lators, however, there were. An historian as-

MONTESQUIEn — ^HEBDEB. 33

pires to philosophy. There are some facts which
he would account for ; others on which he would
build a system. Hot climates favor precocity of
the sexual functions. They also precipitate the
decay of the attractions of youth. Hence, a
woman who is a mother at twelve, has outgrown
her beauty at twenty. From this it follows that
mental power and personal attractions become,
necessarily, disunited. Hence the tendency on
the part of males to take wives in succession ;
whereby polygamy is shown to have originated
in a law of nature.

I do not ask whether this is true or false. I
merely remind the reader that the moment such
remarks occur, the natv/ral history of Man has
become recognized as an ingredient in the ciml.

The chief early writers who expanded the
real and supposed facts of the natmral history of
Mcm^ without being professed ethnologists, were
Montesquieu and Herder. By advertising the
subject, they promoted it. It is doubtful whether
they did more.

"We are still within the pale of physical
phsenomena ; and the purely intellectual, men-
tal, or moral characteristics of Man have yet to
be considered. What divisions were founded
upon the difference between the arts of the Negro
and the arts of the Parisian ? "What upon the
contrasts between the despotisms of Asia and

84 VALUE OF LAKGUAGK.

the constitntious of Europe ? What between the
cannibalism of !N^ew Zealand and the comparer
tively graminivorous diet of the Hindu ? There
were not wanting naturalists who, even in natu-
ral history^ insisted upon the high value of such
characters, immaterial and supra-sensual as they
were. The dog and fox, the hare and rabbit
were alike in form ; different in habits and tem-
per — yet the latter fact had to be recognized.
Nay, more, it helped to verify the specific dis-
tinctions which the mere differences of form
might leave doubtful.

All that can be said upon this matter is, that
no branch of the subject was earlier studied than
that which dealt with the manners and customs
of strange nations ; whilst no branch of it both
was and is half so defective as that which teach-
es us their value as characteristics. With ten
writers familiar with the same facts, there shall
be ten different ways of appreciating them : —

*' ManseruDt hodieque manent vestigia ruris."

In the year 1851, this is the weakest part of the
science.

"With one exception, however — indefinite and
inappreciable as may be the ethnological value
of such differences as those which exist between
the superstitions, moral feelings, natural affec-
tions, or industrial habits of different families,
there is on© great intellectual phsenomenon which

VALUE OF LANGUAGE. 85

in definitude yields to no characteristic what-
ever — I mean Language. Whatever may be
said against certain over-statements as to con-
stancy, it is an undoubted fact that identity of
language hprimd fa^ evidence of identity of
origin.

No reasonable man has denied this. It is
not conclv^e^ but prvmA fade it undoubtedly
is. More cannot be said of color, skin, hair,
and skeleton. Possibly, not so much.

Again: language,without being identical,may
be similar ; just as individuals, without being
brothers or sisters, may be first or second cousins.
Similarity, then, i^primd facie evidence of rela-
tionship.

Lastly, this similarity may be weighed, mea-
sured, and expressed numerically ; an important
item in its value. Out of 100 words in two allied
languages, a per-centage of any amount between
1 and 99 may coincide. Language, then, is a ^
jmite test, if it be nothing else. It has another
recommendation ; or, perhaps I should say con-
venience. It can be studied in the closet : so
that for one traveller who describes what he sees
in some far-distant country, there may be twenty
scholars at work in the libraries of Europe.
This is only partially the case with the oste-
ologist.

Philological ethnology began betimes ; long

36 VALUB OF LANGTJAGB.

before ethnology, or even anthropology — ^which
arose earlier — had either a conscious separate
existence or a name. It began even before the
physical researches of Buffon.

" There is more in language than in any of
its productions." Many who by no means under-
value the great productions of literature, join in
this ; indeed, it is only saying that the Greek
language is a more wonderfiil fact than the Ho-
meric poems, or the -^schylean drama. This,
however, is only an expression of admiration at
the construction of so marvellous an instrument
as human speech.

"When history is silent, language is evi-
dence." This is an explicit avowal of its value
as an instrument of investigation.

I cannot affiliate either of these sayings
though I hold strongly with both. They must
prepare us for a new term — the philological
school of ethnology^ the philological princvple of
classification^ the philological test. The worst
that can be said of this is, that it was isolated.
The philologists began work independently of
the anatomists, and the anatomists independenL
ly of the philologists. And so, with one great
exception, they have kept on.

Pigafetta, one of the circumnavigators with
Magalhaens, was the first who collected speci-
mens of the unlettered dialects of the countries
that afforded opportunities.

HEBVAS ^LEIBNITZ EELAND. 37

The Ahb6 Hervas, in tlie lYth century, pub-
lished his Catalogue of Tongues, and Arithmetic
of Nations, parts of a large and remarkable
work, the Sdggio del Unwerso, His data he
collected by means of an almost unlimited cor-
respondence with the Jesuit missionaries of the
Propaganda.

The all-embracing mind of Leibnitz had not
only applied itself to philology, but had clearly
seen its bearing upon history. A paper on the
Basque language is a sample of the ethnology of
the inventor of Fluxions.

Reland wrote on the wide distribution ot the
Malay tongue; criticised certain vocabularies
from the South-Sea Islands of Hoorn, Egmont,
Ticopia (then called Cocos Island), and Solo-
mon's Archipelago, and gave publicity to a fact
which even now is mysterious — the existence of
Malay words in the language of Madagascar.

In 1801, Adelung's Mithridates appeared,
containing specimens of all the known lan-
guages of the world; a work as classical to the
comparative philologist as Blackstone's Com-
mentaries are to the English lawyer. Yater's
Supplement (1821) is a supplement to Adelung ;
Jiilg's (1845) to Vater's.

Klaproth's is the other great classic in this
department. His Asia Polyglotta and Spron
chaUas gives us the classification of all the fami-

38 RELATION OF ETIINOLOGT

lies of Asia, according to the vocabularies repre-
senting their languages. Whether a compari-
son between their different grammara would do
the same is doubtful ; since it by no means fol-
lows that the evidence of the two coincides.

Klaproth and Adelung have the same pro-
minence m philological^ that Buffon and Blumen-
bach have in zoological ethnology.

Blumenbach appreciated the philological
method, but the first who comhined the two
was Dr. Prichard. His profession gave him the
necessary physiology ; and that he was a philo-
logist amongst philologists, is shown not only by
numerous details scattered throughout his writ-
ings, but by his " Eastern Origin of the Celtic
Nations " — the most definite and desiderated ad-
dition that has been made to ethnographical
philology. I say nothing about the details of
Dr. Prichard's great work. Let those who doubt
its value, try to do without it.

But there is still something wanting. The
relation of the sciences to the other branches of
knowledge requires fixing. With anthropology
the case is pretty clear. It comes into partial
contact with the naturalist sciences (or those
based on the principle of classification) and the
biological (or those based on the idea of organi-
zation and life).

Ethnology, however, is more undecided in

TO THE OTHER SCIENCES. 39

respect to position. If it be but a form of his-
tory, its place amongst the inductive sciences is
equivocal ; since neither the laws which it de-
velops nor the method of pursuing it give it a
place here. These put it in the same category
with a series of records taken from the testi-
mony of witnesses, or with a book of travels —
literary, but not scientific. And so it really is to
a certain extent. Two remarkable productions^
however, have determined its relations to be
otherwise.

In Sir 0. LyelPs "Principles of Geology," we
have an elaborate specimen of reasoning from
the known to the unknown, and of the wfer-
ence of causes from effects. It would have been
discreditable to our philosophy if such a sample
of logic put in practice had been disregarded.

Soon after, came forth the pre-eminently sug-
gestive works, pa/r nohile^ of the present Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Here we are
taught that in the sciences of geology, ethnol-
ogy, and archaeology, the metJiod determines the
character of the study ; and that in all these we
argue backwards. Present effects we know ;
we also know their ca/uses as far as the histori-
cal period goes back. When we get beyond
this, we can still reason — reason from the ex-
perience that the historical period has supplied.
Climate, for instance, and certain other con-

40 BKLATION OF ETHNOLOGY

ditions have some effect; within the limits oi
generation a small, within that of a millennium a
larger one. Hence, before we dismiss a differ-
ence as inexplicable, we must investigate the
changes that may have produced it, the con-
ditions which may have determined those
changes, and the time required from the exhi-
bition of their influence.

In Dr. Prichard's "Anniversary Address,"
delivered before the Ethnological Society of Lon-
don in 1847 — a work published after the
death of its illustrious author — this relationship
to Geology is emphatically recognized : — " Geol-
ogy, as every one knows, is not an account of
what nature produces in the present day, but of
what it has long ago produced. It is an inves-
tigation of the changes which the surface of our
planet has undergone in ages long since past.
The facts on which the inferences of geology are
founded, are collected from various parts of
Natural History. The student of geology in-
quires into the processes of nature which are at
present going on, but this is for the purpose of
applying the knowledge so acquired to an in-
vestigation of what happened in past times, and
of tracing, in the different layers of the earth's
crust— displaying, as they do, relics of various
forms of organic life — the series of the repeated
creations which have taken place. This investi-
gation evidently belongs to History or Archceol-

TO THE OTHER SCIENCES. 41

ogy^ rather than to what is termed Natural Sis-
tory. By a learned writer, whose name will ever
be connected with the annals of the British As-
sociation, the term Palaeontology has been aptly
applied to sciences of this department, for which
Physical Archaeology may be used as a sy-
nonym. Palaeontology includes both Geology
and Ethnology. Geology is the archaeology of the
globe — ethnology that of its human inhabitants."

When ethnology loses its palaeontological
character, it loses half its scientific elements;
and the practical and decided recognition of this
should be the characteristic of the English school
of ethnologists.

This chapter will conclude with the notice of
the bearings of the palaeontological method upon
one of the most difficult parts of ethnology, viz. :
the identification of ancient populations, or the
distribution of the netions mentioned by the
classical, scriptural and older oriental writers
amongst the existing or extinct stocks and fami-
lies of mankind.

There are the Etruscans — who were they?
The Pelasgians — who were they ? The Huns that
overrun Europe in the fifth century ; the Cimme
rii that devastated Asia, 900 years earlier ? Arch-
aeology answers some of these questions, and the
testimony of ancient writers helps us in others*

Yet both mislead, perhaps, almost as often as

8*

42 cBmcisM

they direct us rightly. If it were not so, there
would be less discrepancy of opinion.

Nevertheless, up to the present time the pri-
mary fact concerning any such populations has
always been the testimony of some ancient his-
torian or geographer, and the first question that
has been put is, What say Tadtvs — Strabo —
Herodotus — Ptolemy^ &Q.^&Q.'i In critical hands
the inquiries go further, and statements are
compared, testimonies weighed in a balance
against each other, the opportunities of knowing,
and the honesty in recording of the respective
authors investigated. In this way a sketch of an-
cient Greece, by Thucydides, has a value which
the authority of a lesser writer would fail to
give it, and so on with others. Nevertheless,
what Thucydides wrote, he wrote from report
and inferences — ^report, most probably, carefully
weighed, and inference legitimately drawn.
Yet sources of error, for which he is not to be
held responsible, are innumerable. He went
upon hearsay evidence — ^he sifted it, perhaps ;
but still he went upon hearsay evidence only.
How do we value such evidence ? By the natu-
ral probabilities of the account it constitutes.
By what means do we ascertain these ?

I submit there is but one measure here — the
existing state of things as either known to our-
selves, or known to contemporaries capable of
learning them at the period nearest the time

OF ANCIENT WKITERS. 43

under consideration. This we examine as the
effect of some antecedent cause — or series of
causes. Hov am j says the scholar. On the dic-
tum of such or such an author. Iiov ai© ; says
the Archimedean ethnologist. On the last test-
ified fact.

Of the unsatisfactory character of anything
short of contemporary testimony in the identifi-
cation of ancient nations, the pages and pages
that nine-tenths of the historians bestow upon
the mysterious Peldsgi is a specimen. Add
Niebuhr to Miiller, and Thirlwall to Niebuhr —
Pelion to Ossa, and Olympus to Pelion — and
vrhsii facts do we arrive at — ^facts that we may
rely on as such, facts supported by contempo-
rary evidence, and recorded under opportunities
of being ascertained ? Just the three recognized
by Mr. Grote ; viz. that their language was spo-
ken at Khreston — that it was spoken at Plakesa
— that it differed in some unascertained degree,
from the Greek.

This is all that the ethnologist recognizes ;
and from this he argues as he best can. Every
fact, less properly supported by either first-hand
or traceable evidence, he treats with indifference.
It may be good in history ; but it is not good
for Jmn. He has too much use to put it to,
too much to build upon it, too much argument
to work out of it, to allow it to be other than
unimpeachable.

44 TAorrus.

Again — ^Tacitus carries his Oermcmia as far
as the Wiemen, so as to include the present
countries of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Branden-
burg, West and East Prussia, and Oourland.
Is this improbable in itself? No. The area
is by no means immoderately large. Is it
improbable when we take the present state of
those countries in question? No. They are
German at present. Is it improbable in any
case ? and if so, in what ? Yes. It becomes
improbable when we remember that the present
Germans have been as unequivocally and un-
doubtedly recent immigrants for the parts in
question, as are the English of the valley of the
Mississippi, and that at the beginning of the
historical period the whole of them were Sla-
vonic, with nothing but the phraseology of Taci-
tus to prevent us from believing that they
always had been so. But it is also improbable
that so respectable a writer as Tacitus should be
mistaken. Granted. And here begins the con-
flict of diflSculties. Nevertheless, the primary
ethnological fact is the state of things as it
existed when the countries under consideration
were first accurately known, taken along with
the probability or improbability of its having
80 existed for a certain period previous, as com-
pared with the probability or improbability of
the migrations and other assumptions necessary
for its recent introductiou.

ETHNOLOGT. 46

CHAPTER n.

Ethnology — its objcts — the chief problems connected with it—
prospective questions — transfer of populations — Extract from
Knox — correlation of certain parts of the body to certain ex-
ternal infinences — parts less subject to such influences — retro-
spective questions — the unity or non-unity of our species —
opinions — plurality of species — multiplicity of protoplasts-
doctrine of development — Dokkos— Extract — antiquity of
our species — ^its geographical origin — the term race.

In Cuvier — as far as he goes — we find the
anthropological view of the subject predominant ;
and this is what we expect from the nature of
the work in which it occurs : the degree in
which one genus or species differs from the
species or genus next to it being the peculiar
consideration of the systematic naturalist. To
exhibit our varieties would have required a
special monograph.

In Prichard, on the contary, ethnology pre-
ponderates ; of anthropology, in the strict sense
of the word, there being but little ; and the eth-
nology is of a broad and comprehensive kind.
Description there is, and classification there is ;
but, besides this, there is a great portion of the
work devoted to what may be called Mhnologi-
cal Dyna/m,ic8^ i. e. the appreciation of the effect

46 WHEWELL — ^PBIOHAED— LAWBANOE.

of the external conditions of climate, latitude,
relative sea-level and the like upon the human
body.

Prichard is the great repertory of facts ; and
read with Whewell's commentary it gives us the
Science in a form suflSciently full for the purposes
of det«,il, and suJBSciently systematic for the
basis of further generalization. Still, it must be
read with the commentery already mentioned.
K not, it fails in its most intellectual element,
and becomes a system of simple records, rather
than a scries of subtle and peculiar inferences.
So read, however, it gives us our facts and clas-
sifications in a working form. In other words,
the Science has now taken its true place and
character.

K more than this be needed — and for the
anthropology, it may be thought by some that
Cuvier is too brief, and Prichard too exclusively
ethnological — the work of Lawrance forms the
complement. These, along with Adelung and
Klaproth, form the Thesaurus Ethnologicus.
But the facts which they supply are like the
sword of the Mahometan warrior. Its value
depended on the arm that wielded it; and such
is the case here. No book has yet been written
which can implicitly be taken for much more
than its facts. Its inferences and classification
must be criticised. Be this, however, as it may,

HILL. 47

in A. D. 1846 Mr. Mill writes, that " concerning
the physical nature of man, as an organized
being, there has been much controversy, which
can only be terminated by the general acknow-
ledgment and employment of stricter rules of
induction than are commonly recognized ; there
is, however, a considerable body of truth which
all who have attended to the subject consider to
be fully established, nor is there now any radi-
cal imperfection in the method observed in this
department of science by its most distinguished
modem teachers."

This could not have been written thirty years
ago. The depa/rtment of science would, then,
have been indefinite ; and the teachers would not
have been distmffuished.

It may now be as well to say what Ethnology
and Anthropology are not. Their relations to
history have been considered. Archceology il-
lustrates each ; yet the moment that it is con-
founded with either, mischief follows. Psy-
chology^ or the Science of the laws of Mind,
has the same relation to them as Physiology —
mutoMs mutcmdis j L e. putting Mind in the
place of Body.

But nearer than either are its two subordi-
nate studies of Ethology,* or the Science of
Character, by which we determine the kind of

• From the Greek word (i?0oj) ethos — character.

48 ETHNOLOGY.

character produced in conformity with the laws
of Mind, by any set of circumstances, pKy^ioaL
as well as moral ; and the Science of Society
which investigates the action and reaction of as-
sociated masses* on each other.

Such, then, is our Science; which the princi-
ple of Division of Labor requires to be marked
off clearly in order to be worked advantageous-
ly. And now we ask the nature of its objects.
It has not much to do with the establishment of
any laws of remarkable generality ; a circum-
stance which, in the eyes of some, may subtract
from its value as a science ; the nearest approach
to anything of this kind being the general state-
ment implied in the classifications themselves.
Its real object is the solution of certain ^oJZeww
— problems which it inveistigates by its own
peculiar method — and problems of sufficient
height and depth and length and breadth to
satisfy the most ambitious. All these are refer-
able to two heads, and connect themselves with
either the j?<3W^ or the future history of our spe-
cies ; its origin or destination.

We see between the Negro and the Ameri-
can a certain amount of difference. Has this
always existed? If not, how was it brought

* Called by Comte Sociology, a name half Latin and half
Greek, and oonsequently too barbarous to be nsed, if its use can
be avoided.

KNOX. 49

about? By what influences? In what time?
Quickly or slowly ? These questions point
backwards, and force upon us the consideration
of what hds heen.

But the next takes us forwards. Great ex-
periments in the transfer of populations from
one climate to another have gone on ever since
the discovery of America, and are going on
now ; sometimes westwards as to the New
World ; sometimes eastwards as to Australia
and New Zealand ; now from Celtic populations
like Ireland ; now from Gothic countries like
England and Germany ; now from Spain and
Portugal ; — to say nothing of the equally great
phaenomenon of Negro slavery being the real or
supposed condition of American prosperity.
Will this succeed ? Ask this at Philadelphia, or
Lima, Sydney, or Auckland, and the answer is
pretty sure to be in the affirmative. Ask it of
one of our English anatomists. His answer is
as follows : — " Let us attend now to the greatest
of all experiments ever made in respect of the
transfer of a population indigenous to one con-
tinent, and attempting by emigration to take
possession of another ; to cultivate it with their
own hands; to colonize it; to persuade the
world, in time, that they are the natives of the
newly occupied land. Northern America and
Australia furnished the fields of this, the greatest

60 KNOX.

of experiments. Already has the horse, the
sheep, the ox, become as it were indigenous to
these lands. Nature did not place them there
at first, yet they seem to thrive and flourish, and
multiply exceedingly. Yet, even as regards
these domestic animals, we cannot be quite cer-
tain. Will they eventually be self-supporting ?
"Will they supplant the llama, the kangaroo, the
buffalo, the deer ? or in order to effect this, will
they require to be constantly renovated from
Europe ? If this be the contingency, then the
acclimatation is not perfect. How is it with
man himself ? The man planted there by na-
ture, the Red-Indian, differs from all others on
the face of the earth ; he gives way before the
European races, the Saxon and the Celtic ; the
Celt, Iberian, and the Lusitanian in the south ;
the Celt and the Saxon in the north.

" Of the tropical regions of the New "World,
I need not speak ; every one knows that none
but those whom nature placed there can live
there ; that no Europeans can colonize a tropi-
cal country. But may there not be some doubts of
their self-support in milder regions ? Take the
Northern States themselves. There the Saxon
and the Celt seem to thrive beyond all that is
recorded in history. But are we quite sure
that this is fated to be permanent ? Annualy from
Europe is poured a hundred thousand men and

KNOX. 61

women of the best blood of the Scandinavian,
and twice the number of the pure Celt ; and so
long as this continues, he is sure to thrive. But
check it, arrest it suddenly, as in the case of
Mexico and Peru ; throw the onus of reproduc-
tion upon the population, no longer European,
but a struggle between the European alien and
his adopted father-land . The climate ; the for-
ests ; the remains of the aborigines not yet ex-
tinct ; last, not least, that unknown and mysteri-
ous degradation of life and energy, which in an-
cient times seems to have decided the fate of all
the Phoenician,' Grecian, and Coptic colonies.
Cut off from their original stock, they gradually
withered and faded, and finally died away.
The Phoenician never became acclimatized in
Africa, nor in Cornwall, nor in Wales ; vestiges
of his race, it is true, still remain, but they are
mere vestiges. Peru and Mexico are fast retro-
grading to their primitive condition ; may not
the Northern States, under similar circumstan-
ces, do the same ?

" Already the United States man differs in
appearance from the European : the ladies early
lose their teeth ; in both sexes the adipose cel-
lular cushion interposed between the skin and
the aponem'oses and muscles disappears, or, at
least, loses its adipose portion; the muscles be-
come stringy, and show themselves ; the tendons

62 KNOX.

appear on the surface ; symptoms of premature
decay manifest themselves. Now what do these
signs, added to the uncertainty of infant life in
the Southern States, and the smallness of their
families in the Northern, indicate? Not the
conversion of the Anglo-Saxon into the Ked-
Indian, but warnings that the climate has not
been made for him, nor he for the climate.

" See what even a small amount of insulation
has done for the French Celt in Lower Canada.
Look at the race there! Small men, small
horses, small cattle, still smaller carts, ideas
smallest of all ; he is not even the Celt of modem
France ! He is the French Celt of the Regen-
cy, the thing of Louis XIII. Stationary — abso-
lutely stationary — ^his numbers, I believe, de-
pend on the occasional admixture of fresh blood
from Europe. He has increased to a million
since his first settlement in Canada ; but much
of this has come from Britain, and not from
France. Give us the statistics of the original
families who keep themselves apart from the
fresh blood imported into the province. Let us
have the real and solid increase of the original
Jiahitcms^ as they are pleased to call themselves,
and then we may calculate on the result.

" Had the colony been left to itself, cut off
from Europe, for a century or two, it is my be-
lief that the forest and the buffalo, and the Red-

ADAPTATION. 53

Indian, would have pushed him into the St.
Lawrence."*

I give no opinion as to the truth of the ex-
tract ; remarking that, whether right or wrong,
it is forcibly and confidently expressed. All that
the passage has to do is to illustrate the charac-
ter of the question. It directs our consideration
to what will he.

To work out questions in either of these
classes, there must, of course, be some reference
to the general operations of climate, food, and
other influences; — operations which imply a
correlative susceptibility of modification on the
part of the human organism.

In a well-constructed machine, the different
parts have a definite relation to each. The
greater the resistance, the thicker the ropes and
chains; and the thicker the ropes and chains,
the stronger the pulleys ; the stronger the pul-
leys, the greater the force, and so on throughout.
Delicate pulleys with heavy ropes, or light
lines with bulky pidleys, would be so much pow-
er wasted. The same applies to the skeleton.
If the muscle be massive, the bone to which it is
attached must be firm ; otherwise there is a dis-
proportion of parts. In this respect the organ-
ized and animated body agrees with a common
machine, the work of human hands. It agrees
with, but it also surpasses it. It has an internal

• Knox, Races of Men, pp. 73, 74.

64 ADAPTATION.

power of Belf-adjustment. No amonnt of work
would convert a thin line into a strong rope, or
a light framework into a strong one. K bulk
be wanted, it must be given in the first instance.
But what is it with the skeleton, the framework
to the muscles ? It has the power of adapting it-
self to the stress laid upon it. The food that we
]ive upon is of different degrees of hardness and
toughness ; and the harder and tougher it is, the
more work is there for the muscles of the lower
jaw. But, as these work, they grow ; for — other
things being equal — size is power ; and as they
grow, other parts must grow also. There are
the bones. How they grow is a complex ques-
tion. Sometimes a smooth surface becomes
rough, a fine bone coarse ; sometimes a short
process becomes lengthened, or a narrow one
broadens; sometimes the increase is simple or ab-
solute, and the bone in question changes its char-
acter without affecting that of the parts in con-
tact with it. But frequently there is a compli-
cation of changes, and the development of one
bone takes place at the expense of another ; the
relations of the different portions of parts of a
skeleton being thus altered.

A skeleton, then, may be modified by the
action of its own muscles ; in other words, wher-
ever there are muscles that are liable to an in-
crease of mass, there are bones similarly bus-

THB IDEA. 55

ceptible — ^bones upon which asperities, ridges,
or processes may be developed — ^bones from
which asperities, ridges, or processes may disap-
pear, and bones of which the relative propor-
tions may be varied. In order, however, that
this must take place, there must be the muscu-
lar action which determines it.

Now this applies to the lia/rd pa/rts^ or the
skeleton ; and as it is generally admitted, that
if the bony framework of the body can be thus
modified by the action of its own muscles, the
extreme conditions of heat, light, aliment, mois-
ture, (fee, will, a fortiori^ affect the soft parts,
such as the skin and adipose tissue. Keither
have any great difficulties been raised in respect
to the varieties of color in the iris, and of color
and texture, both, in the hair.

But what if we have in certain Jiard parts a
difference without its corresponding tangible
modifying cause? What if parts which no
muscle acts upon vary? In such a case we
have a new class of facts, and a new import
given to it. We no longer draw our illustrations
from the ropes and pulleys of machines. Adap-
tation there may be, but it is no longer an adap-
tation of the simple straightforward kind that
we have exhibited. It is an adaptation on the
principle which determines the figure-head of
a vessel, not one on the principle which decides

56 THE IDEA.

the riggiBg. Still there is a principle on both
sides ; on one, however, there is an evident con-
nection of cause and effect ; on the other, the
notions of choice, or spontaneity of an idea^ is
suggested.

In this way, the consideration of a tooth dif-
fers from that of the jaw in which it is implant-
ed. No muscles act directly upon it ; and aU
that pressure at its base can do is to affect the
direction of its growth. The form of its crown it
leaves untouched. How — ^I am using almost
the words of Prof. Owen — can we conceive the
development of the great canine of the chimpan-
zee to be a result of external stimuli, or to have
been influenced by muscular actions, when it is
calcified before it cuts the gum, or displaces its
deciduous predecessor — a structure preordained,
a weapon prepared prior to the development of
the forces by which it is to be wielded ?*

This illustrates the difference between the
parts manifestly obnoxious to the influence of
external conditions and the parts which either
do not vary at all, or vary according to unascer-
taind laws.

"With the former we look to the conditions of
sun, air, habits, or latitude ; the latter we inter-
pret, as we best can, by references to other

* On the Osteology of the Great Chimpanzee. By Professor
Owen, in the Philosophical Transactions.

PBOBLEMS. 67

species, or to the same in its earlier stages of
development.

Thus, the so-called supra-orbital ridge, or the
prominence of the lower portion of forehead
over the nose and eyes, is more marked in some
individuals than in others ; and more marked
in the African and Australian varieties than our
own. This is an ethnological fact.

Again — and this is an anthropological fact
— ^it is but moderately developed in man at all :
whilst in the orang-utan it is moderate ; and in
the chimpanzee enormously and characteristi-
cally developed.

Hence it is one of the nine points whereby
the Pitheous Wv/rmbii approaches mai^ more
closely than the Trolodytea Gorilla^* in opposi-
tion to the twenty-four whereby the Troglodytes
GoriUa comes nearer to us tiian the Pithecua
Wv/rmbiL

Had this ridge given attachment to muscles,
we should have asked what work these muscles
did, and how far it varied in different regions,
instead of thinking much about either the Pi-
thecus Wv/rrnhii or the Troglodytes GoriUa.

However, it is certain problems which con-
stitute the higher branches of ethnology ; and it
is to the investigation of these, that the depart-
ment of ethnological dynamics is subservient.

• Owen, Fhilosophical Traiuaotioxui, Feb. 23, 1848.

4

68 QUESTION OF SFBOIEB.

Looking hachjoa/rds we find, first amongst the
foremost, the grand questions as to —

1. The unity or non-unity of the species.

2. Its antiquity.

3. Its geographical origin.

The unity or non-unity of the human species
has been contemplated under a great multipli-
city of aspects ; some involving the fact itself,
some the meaning of the term ypedes,

1. Certain points of structure are constant.
This is one reason for making man the only spe-
cies of genus, and the only genus of his order,

2. All mixed breeds are prolifiic. This is
another.

3. The evidence of language indicates a com-
mon origin ; and the simplest form of this is a
single pair. This is a third.

4. We can predicate a certain number of
general propositions concerning the class of
beings called Human. This merely separates
them from all other classes. It does not deter-
mine the nature of the class itself in respect to
its members. It may fall in divisions and sub-
divisions.

5. The species may be one ; but the number

of jm*8t pavrs may be numerous. This is the
doctrine of the Tavltiplicity of protoplastsJ'^

6. The species may have had no protoplast

• From protos'^firaty and plaatoS'^formed*,

QUESTION OP SPECIES. 69

at all ; but may have been developed out of
some species anterior to it, and lower in the
scale of Nature, this previous species itself hav-
ing been so evolved. In this case, the proto-
plast is thrown indefinitely backwards ; in other
words, the protoplast of one species is the pro-
toplast of many.

7. The genus Homo may fall into several
species ; so that what some call the va/rieties of
a single species are really different species of a
single genus.

8. The varieties of mankind may be too
great to be included in even a genus. There
may be two or even more genera to an order.

9. Many of the present varieties may repre-
sent the intermixtures of species no longer ex-
tant in a pure state.

10. All hfwvm varieties may be referable to
a single species ; but there may be new species
undescribed.

11. All existing varieties may be referable
to a single species ; but certain species may have
ceased to exist.

Such are the chief views which are current
amongst learned men on this point ; though they
have not been exhibited in a strictly logical
form, inasmuch as differences of opinion as to
the meaning of the term species have been given
in the same list with differences of opinion as
to the fiEWJt of our unity or non-xmity.

60 MULTiPLiorrY of

These differences of opinion are not limited
to mere matters of inference. The fcusU on
which such inferences rest, are by no means
unanimously admitted. Some deny the con-
stancy of certain points of structure, and more
deny \\iq pefrmoment fecundity of mixed breeds.
Again, the evidence of language applies only to
known tongues ; whilst the fourth view is based
upon a logical rather than a zoological view of

The doctrine of a mvltipUcity of protoplaMs
is common. Many zoologists hold it, and they
of course have zoological reasons for doing so.
Others hold it upon grounds of a very different
description — ^grounds which rest upon the as-
sumption of a final cause. Man is a social
animal. Let the import of this be ever so exag-
gerated. The term is a corrda/ti/oe one. The
wife is not enough to the husband ; ih^painr re-
quires its jpa^r for society's sake. Hence, if
man be not formed to live alone now, he was
not formed alone at first. To be bom a mem-
ber of society, there must be associates. This
is the teleological* — ^perhaps it may be called
the theological — reason for the multiplicity of
protoplasts.

Its non-mAuoiivQ character subtracts some-
thing from its value.

* From the Greek teloBmman end*

PE0T0PLA8TS. 61

The diflSculty of drawing a line as to the
magnitude of the original society subtracts more.
If we admit a second pair, why not grant a vil-
lage, a town, a city and its corporation ? &c.

Again, this is either a primitive civilization
or something very like it. Where are its traces ?
Nevertheless, if we grant certain assumptions
in respect to the history of human civilization,
the teleological doctrine of the multiplicity of
protoplasts is difficult to refute.

And so is the zoological, provided that we
make concessions in the way of language. Let
certain pairs have been created with the capa-
city, but not with the gift of speech, so that
they shall have learned their language of others.
Or let aU^ at first, have been in this predicament,
and some have evolved speech earlier than
others — a speech eventually extended to all.
It is not easy to answer such an argument as
this.

The multiplicity of protoplasts is common
ground to the zoologist and the human natural-
ist, although the phsenomena of speech and so-
ciety give the latter the larger share. The same
applies to the doctrine of development. The
fundamental affinity which connects all the forms
of human speech is valid against the transcen-
dentalist only when he assumea that each orig-
inal of a species of Man appeared, as such, with

62 NONDESOBIFT SPECIES.

his own proper language. Let him allow this
to hiive been originally dumb, and with only
the capacity of learning speech from others, and
all arguments in favor of the unity of species,
drawn from the similarity of language, fall to
the ground.

The eighth doctrine is little more than an
exaggeration of the seventh. The seventh will
not be noticed now, simply because the facts
which it asserts and denies pervade the whole
study of ethnology, and appear and re-appear
at every point of our investigations.

All known varieties may he referable to a
single species j hit there may he other species
undescribed. What are the reasons for believ-
ing this ? Premising that Dilbo was a slave
from whom Dr. Beke collected certain informa-
tion respecting the countries to the south-west
of Abyssinia, I subjoin the following extract :

" The countries on the west and south-west
of Kaffa, are, according to Dilbo, Damboro, Bon-
ga, KooUoo, Kootcha, Soofa, Tooffte, and Doko ;
on the east and south-east are the plains of
Woratto, Walamo, and Talda.

" The country of Doko is a month's journey
distant from Kafta ; and it seems that only those
merchants who are dealers in slaves go farther
than Kaffa. The most common route passes
Kaffa in a south-westerly direction, leading to

THE DOKOS. 63

Damboro, afterwards to Kootcha, Koolloo, and
then passing the river Erow to Tooffie, where
they begin to hnnt the slaves in Doko, of which
chase I shall give a description as it has been
stated to me, and the reader may use his own
judgment respecting it.

" Dilbo begins with stating that the people
of Doko, both men and women, are said to be
no taller than boys nine or ten years old. They
never exceed that height, even in the most ad-
vanced age. They go quite naked ; their prin-
cipal food are ants, snakes, mice, and other
things which commonly are not used as food.
They are said to be so skillful in finding out the
ants and snakes, that Dilbo could not refrain
from praising them greatly on that account.
They are so fond of this food, that even when
they have become acquainted with better ali-
ment in Enarea and Kaffa, they are neverthe-
less frequently punished for following their in-
clination of digging in search of ants and snakes,
as soon as they are out of sight of their mas-
ters. The skins of snakes are worn by them
about their necks as ornaments. They also climb
trees with great skill to fetch down the fruits ;
and in doing this they stretch their hands down-
wards and their legs upwards. They live in ex-
tensive forests of bamboo and other woods, which
are so thick that the slave-hunter finds it very

CA NONDESCBIPT SPECIES.

difficult to follow them in these retreats. These
hunters sometimes discover a great nnmber of
the Dokos sitting on the trees, and then they nse
the artifice of showing them shining things, by
which they are enticed to descend, when they
are captured without difficulty. As soon as a
Doko begins to cry he is killed, from the ap-
prehension that this, as a sign of danger, will
cause the others to take to their heels. Even
the women climb on the trees, where in a few
minutes a great number of them may be cap-
tured and sold into slavery.

" The Dokos live mixed together ; men and
women unite and separate as they please ; and
this Dilbo considers as the reason why the tribe
has not been exterminated, though frequently a
single slave-dealer returns home with a thou-
sand of them reduced to slavery. The mother
suckles the child only as long as she is unable
to find ants and snakes for its food : she aban-
dons it as soon as it can get its food by itself.
No rank or order exists among the Dokos. No-
body orders, nobody obeys, nobody defends the
country, nobody cares for the welfare of the na-
tion. They make no attempts to secure them-
selves but by running away. They are as quick
as monkeys ; and they are very sensible of the
misery prepared for them by the slave-hunters,
who so frequently encircle their forests and drive

THE DOKOS. 65

them from thence into the open plains like
beasts. They put their heads on the gronnd,
and stretch their legs upwards, and cry, in a
pitiful manner, ' Ter I yer 1' Thus they call on
the Supreme Being, of whom they have some
notion, and are said to exclaim, ' If you do ex-
ist, why do you suffer us to die, who do not ask
for food or clothes, and who live on snakes, ants,
and mice V Dilbo stated that it was no rare
thing to find five or six Dokos in such a posi-
tion and state of mind. Sometimes these peo-
ple quarrel among themselves, when they eat
the fruit of the trees; then the stronger one
throws the weaker to the ground, and the latter
is thus frequently killed in a miserable way.

" In their country it rains incessantly ; at
least from May to January, and even later the
rain does not cease entirely. The climate is not
cold, but very wet. The traveller, in going from
Eaffa to Doko, must pass over a high country,
and cross several rivers, which fall into the
Gochob.

"The language of the Dokos is a kind of
murmuring, which is understood by no one but
themselves and their hunters. The Dokos evince
much sense and skill in managing the affairs of
their masters, to whom they are soon much at-
tached; and they render themselves valuable
to such a degree, that no native of Kaffa ever

4*

66 N0NDE80EIPT SPECIES.

sells one of them to be sent out of the country.
As Captain Clapperton says of the slaves of
Nyffie : — ' The very slaves of this people are in
great request, and when once obtained are never
again sold out of the country.' The inhabitants
of Enarea and Kaffa sell only those slaves which
they have taken in their border-wars with the
tribes living near them, but never a Doko. The
Doko is also averse to being sold ; he prefers
death to separating from his master, to whom he
has attached himself.

" The access to the country of Doko is very
diflScult, as the inhabitants of Damboro, KooUoo,
and TooflEte are enemies to the traders from
Kaffa, though these tribes are dependent on
Xaffa, and pay tribute to its sovereigns ; for
these tribes are intent on preserving for them-
selves alone the exclusive privilege of hunting
the Dokos, and of trading with the slaves thus
obtained.

" Dilbo did not know whether the tribes re-
siding south and west of the Dokos persecute
this unhappy nation in the same cruel way.

" This is Dilbo's account of the Dokos, a
nation of pigmies, who are found in so de-
graded a condition of human nature that it is
difficult to give implicit credit to his account.
The notion of a nation of pigmies in the interior
of Africa is very ancient, as Herodotus speaks
of them in 11. 32."

EXTmOT SPECIES. 67

Now those who believe in the Dokos at all,
may fairly believe them to constitute . a new
species.

Other imperfectly known populations may
be put forward in a similar point of view.

AU existing vaHeties may he referable to a
single species,* hut certam species may have
ceased to exist. There is a considerable amount
of belief in this respect. We see, in certain
countries, which are at present barbarous ves-
tiges of a prior civilization, works, like those of
Mexico and Peru, for instance, which the exist-
ing inhabitants confess to be beyond their pow-
ers. Be it so. Is the assumption of a different
species with architectural propensities more
highly developed, legitimate ? The reader will
answer this question in his own way. I can
only say that such assumptions have been made.

Again: ancient tombs exhibit skeletons
which differ from the living individuals of the
country. Is a similar assumption here justifi-
able? It has been made.

The most remarkable phsenomena of the kind
in question are to be found in the history of the
Peruvians.

The parts about the Lake Titicaca form the
present country of the Aymaras, whose heads
are much like those of the other Americans,
whose taste for architecture is but slight, and

68 ANTiQurrr.

whose knowledge of having descended from a
people more architectural than themselves is

none.

Nevertheless, there are vast ruins in their
district ; whilst the heads of those whose re-
mains are therein preserved have skulls with
the sutures obliterated, and with remarkable
frontal, lateral, and occipital depressions.

Does this denote an extinct species ? Indi-
vidually, I think it does not ; because, individu-
ally, with matiy others, I know that certain
habits decline, and I also believe that the flat-
tenings of the head are a/rtificial. Neverthe-
less, if I, ever so little, exaggerated the perma-
nency of habits, or if I identified a habit with
an instinct, or if I considered the skulls na4/wrcbl^
the chances are that I should recognise the re-
mains of ancient 8tocJc — ^possibly an ancient
species — ^without congeners and without descend-
ants.

The cmtiquity of the htcman species. — Our
views on this point depend upon our views as
to its unity or non-unity ; so much so, that un-
less we assume either one or the other, the ques-*
tion of antiquity is impracticable. And it must
also be added that, unless the inquiry is to be
excessively complicated, the unity-doctrine must
take the form of descent from a single pair.

Assuming this, we take the most extreme

GEOGRAPHIOAL OBIGIN OF SPECIES. 69

specimens of difference, whether it be in the
way of physical conformation or mental phseno-
mena— of these last, language being the most
convenient. After this, we ask the time neces-
sary for bringing about the changes effected;
the answer to this resting upon the induction
supplied within the historical period; an an-
swer requiring the application of what haa al-
ready been called Ethnological Dynam/ica.

On the other hand, we may assume a cer-
tain amount of original difference, and investi-
gate the time requisite for effecting the existing
amount of similarity.

The first of these methods requires a long,
the second a short period; indeed, descent from
a single pair implies a geological rather than a
Tmtorical date.

Furthermore: that uniformity in the aver-
age rate of change which the geologist requires,
ethnology requires also.

The geographical origvn of Man, — Suppos-
ing all the varieties of Man to have originated
jfrom a single protoplast pair, in what part of the
world was that single protoplast pair placed ?
Or supposing such protoplast pairs to have been
numerous, what were the respective original lo-
cations of each ? I ask these questions without
either giving any answer to them, or exhibiting
any method for discovering one. Of the three

70 BAOE.

great problems it is the one which has received
least consideration, and the one concerning
which there is the smallest amount of decided
opinion. The conventional, provisional, or hypo-
thetical cradle of the human species is, of course,
the most central point of the inhabited world ;
inasmuch as this gives us the greatest amount of
distribution with the least amount of migration ;
bat, of course, such a centre is wholly unhis-
torical.

Hace. — ^What is the meaning of this word i

Does it mean va/riety f If so, why not say
va/riety at once ?

Does it mean species? If it do, one of the
two phrases is superfluous.

In the simple truth it means either or neith-
er, as the case may be ; and is convenient or
superfluous according to the views of the writer
who uses it.

If he believe that groups and classes like the
Negro, the Hottentot, the American, the Austra-
lian, or the Mongolian, differ from each other as
the dog differs from the fox, he talks of species.
He has made up his mind.

But, perhaps, he does no such thing. Hjs
mind is made up the other way. Members of
such classes may be to Europeans, and to each
other, just what the cur is to the pug, the point-
er to the beagle, &c. They may be varieties.

SIZE OF CRANIA. 71

He uses, then, the tenns accordingly ; but in
order to do so, he must have made up his mind ;
and certain classes must represent either one or
the other.

But what if he have not done this ? If, in-
stead of teaching undoubted facts, he is merely
investigating doubtful ones? In this case the
term rcbce is convenient. It is convenient for
him during his pursuit of an opinion, and during
the consequent suspension of his opinion.

HacCj then, is the term denoting a species or
varieti/^ as the case may be — -pendente lite. It
is a term which, if it conceals our ignorance, pro-
claims our openness to conviction.

Of the prospective views of humanity, one
has been considered. But there are others of at
least equal importance. Two, out of many, may
serve as samples.

1. The first is suggested by the following
Table, taken from a fuller one in Mr. D. Wil-
son's valuable Archaeology and Prehistoric
Annals of Scotland. It shows the relative pro-
portions of a series of skulls of very great^ with
those of a series of modern antiquity.

The study of this — and it requires to be
studied carefdlly — ogives grounds for believing
that the capacity of a skull may increase as the
social condition improves ; from which it follows
that the physical organization of the less-favored

72 CASES.

stocks may develop itself progressively, — and,
poHjpdssu^ the mental power that coincides with
it. This illustrates the nature of a certain eth-
nological question. But what if the two classes
of sculls belong to different stocks ; so that the
owners of one were not the progenitors of the
proprietors of the other ? Such a view (and it
is not imreasonable), illustrates the extent to
which it is complicated.

UB. WILSON'S TABLE.

BeliUvs

Isiili^ -sii^siisi "ii ■

p.rt^Sry.

iiSimmuUiUm

"Sb^'™'

S|?2iS|l2li||Mis1S

■??

^g5iiS"S";bS2S53S :SSS

|iS

SE'S^SrooStpo-vn^ :gg : ig;?^

f^ is :5K :f §ii§S3 : :Sf :

lold arch

^=^l==is=i=22sl2 ==22

lold trcta.

??■ :=pejmm . 9 o) cp f> ^ ^J °= P : ■* T :

VerUcBl

SSSSSSS -tSSSttSS iSS i

FrooUil
diuiDcwr.

;?S3iSSSfiS3lj3SS?SS

dlameler.

sssiisssssssffsSiSSS

lisxr;-

^^i°s"S?^?s^3^i^?e^?f^^

r"-'«»>--"i.E2SgsSSS3SSS

TI°''"A .,|.i,„u.|x,„

74 CASES — THEOBY.

2. The second, like the first, shall be ex-
plained by extracts :

a. Mrs. , a neighbor of Mr. M'Combic, was twice mar-

rieH, and had issae by both hasbands. T!ie children of the first

marriage were five in number ; by the second, three. One

of these three, a daughter, bears an unmistakable resemblance

to her mother's first husband. What makes the likeness the

more discernible is, that there was the most marked difference,

in their features and general appearance, between the two

husbands.

4e * * * * *

b. A young woman, residing in Edinburgh, and born of
white (Scottish) parents, but whose mother some time previous
to her marriage had a natural (Mulatto) child, by a negro-ser-
vant, in Edinburgh, exhibits distinct traces of the negro. Dr,
Simpson, whose patient the young woman at one time was, has
had no recent opportunities of satisfying himself as to the pre-
cise extent to which the negro character prevails in her fea-
tures ; but he recollects being struck with the resemblance, and
uoticed particularly that the hair had the qualities characterbtic

i the negro.

^ ^h T* ^F T* ^n

c. Mrs. , apparently perfectly free from scrofula, married

a man who died of phthisis ; she had one child by him, which
also died of phthisis. She next married a person who was to all
appearance equally healthy as herself, and had two children by
him, one of which died of phthisis, the other of tubercular me-
senteric disease — having, at the same time, scrofulous ulceration
of the under extremity.

There are the elements of a theory here ;
especially if they be taken along with certain
phsenomeha, well-known to the breeders of race-

METHODS. 76

horses — the theory being, that the mixture of
the distinctwe characters of different divisions
of mankind may be greater than the intermix-
ture itself. I give no opinion on the data. I
merely illustrate an ethnological question — one
out of many.

76 EXPEBiMEirr and obsebtation.

CHAPTER m.

Methods — the scienoe one of observation and dednction rather
than experiment — classifioation — on mineralogioal, on zoolo-
gical principles — ^the first for Anthropology, the second for
Ethnology — value of Language as a test — ^instances of its
loss — of its retention — when it proves original relation, when
intercourse — the grammatical and glossarial tests— classifica-
tions must be real — the distribution of Man — size of area-
ethnological contrasts in close geographical contact — discon-
tinuity and isolation of areas — oceanic migrations.

In the Natural History of Man we mnst keep
almost exclusively to the methods of deduction
and observation ; and in observation we are li-
mited to one sort only, i. e.j that simple and
spontaneous kind where the object can be found
if sougtht for, but cannot be artificially produced.
In other words, there is no great room for eoope-
riment. The corjms is not vile enough for the
purpose. Besides which, " even if we suppose
unlimited power of varying the experiment,
(which is abstractedly possible,) though no one
but an oriental despot either has the power, or
if he had, would be disposed to exercise it, a
still more essential condition is wanting — ^the
power of performing any of the experiments
with scientific accuracy."^ Experiment is near

* Mill (vol. ii.), speaking of the allied subject of the Moral
History of Man.

EXPERIMENT AND OBSERVATION. 77

ly as much out of place in Ethnology and An-
thropology as it is in Astronomy.

Psammetichus, to be sure, according to He-
rodotus, did as follows. He took children of a
poor man, put them in the charge of a shepherd
who was forbidden to speak in their presence,
suckled them in a lone hut through a she-goat,
waited for the age at which boys begin to talk,
and then took down the first word they uttered.
This was iekos^ which when it was shown to
mean in the Phrygian language hread^ the Egyp-
tians yielded the palm of antiquity to that
rival.

Kow this was an ethnological experiment ;
but then Psammetichus wa>8 an oriental despot,
and the instance itself is, probably, the only one
of its class — ^the only one, or nearly so — ^the only
one which is a true experiment ; since in order
to be suchr there must be a definite and specific
end or object in view.

We know the tradition about Newton and
the apple. This, if true, was no experiment,
but an observation. To have been the former,
the tree should have been shaken for the pur-
pose of seeing the fruit descend. There would
then have been an end and aim — ^malice pre-
pense, so to say.

Hence the phenomena of the African slave-
trade, of English emigration, and of other simi-

78 PBINOIPLB OF 0LA88IFI0ATIOK.

lar elements for obfiervation are no experimentB;
since it has not been Science that either the sla-
ver or the settler ever thought about. Sugar
or cotton, land or money, was what ran in their
heads.

The revolting operation by which the jealous
Oriental labors to secure the integrity of his
harem, is in its end a scientific fact. It tells
how much the whole system sympathises with
the mutilation of one of its parts. But it is
nothing for Science to either applaud or imitate.
It is repeated by the sensual Italian for the sake
of ensuring fine voices in the music-market ; and
Science is disgusted at its repetition. Even if
done in her own name, and for her own objects,
it would still be but an inhuman and intolerable
torm of zootomy.

Still the trade in Africans, and the emigra-
tion of Englishmen are said to partake of the
nature of a scientific experiment, even without
being one. They are said to serve as such. So
they do ; yet not in the way in which they
are often interpreted. A European regiment is
decimated by being placed on the Gambia, or
in Sierra Leone. The American Anglo-Saxon is
said to have lost the freshness of the European
— ^to have become brown in color, and wiry in
muscle. Perhaps he has. Yet what does this
prove ? Merely the effect of sudden changes ;

PEINOIPLE OF CULSSIFIOATION. 79

the results of dAstcmt transplantation ; the im-
perfect character of those forms of acclimatiza-
tion which are not grachxal. It was not in this
way that the world was originally peopled. New
climates were approached by degrees, step by
step, by enlargement and extension of the cir-
cumference of a previously acclimated family.
Hence the experience of the kind in question,
valuable as it is in the way of Medical Police,
is comparatively worthless in a theory as to
the Migrations of Mankind. Take a man from
Caucasus to the Gold Coast, and he either dies or
takes a fever But would he do so if his previous
sojourn had been on the Gambia, his grandfa-
ther's on the Senegal, his ancestors in the tenth de-
gree on the Nile, and that ancestor's ancestor's on
the Jordan — ^thus going back till we reached the
first remote patriarch of the migration on the
Phasis ? This is an experiment which no single
generation can either make or observe ; yet less
than this is no experiment at all, no imitation
of that particular operation of Nature which we
are so curious to investigate.

What follows applies to Ethnology. The
first result we get from our observations is a
clas&ijlcation^ i, e.^ groups of individuals, fami-
lies, tribes, nations, sub-varieties, varieties, and
(according to some), of species connected by
some common link, and united on some com-

80 PEINOIPLB OF CLA88IFI0ATTON,

mon principle. There is no want of groups of
this kind ; and manj of them are so natural, as
to be unsusceptible of improvement. Yet the
nomenclature for their different divisions is unde-
termined, the values of manj of them uncertain,
and above all, the principle upon which they are
formed is by no means uniform. Whilst some
investigators classify mankind on Zoological^
others do so on what may be called Mmercdogi-
caly principles. This difference will be some-
what fully illustrated.

In Africa, as is well known, a great portion of
the population is black-skinned ; and with this
black skin other physical characteristics are
generally found in conjunction. Thus the hair
is either crisp or woolly, the nose depressed, and
the lips thick. As we approach Asia these
criteria decrease ; the Arab being fairer, better-
featured and straighter-haired than the Nubian,
and the Persian more so than the Arab. In
Hindostan, however, the color deepens ; and by
looking amongst the most moist and alluvial
parts of the southern peninsula, we find skins as
dark as those of Africa, and hair crisp rather than
straight. Besides this, the fine oval contour and
regular features of the high-cast Hindus of the
North become scarce, whilst the lips get thick,
the skin harsh, and the features coarse.

Further on — ^we come to the great Peninsula

PBmOIPLE OF CLASSIFICATTON. 81

wliicli contains the kingdoms of Ava and Siam
— ^the Indo-Chinese or Transgangetic Peninsula.
In many parts of this the population blackens
again ; and in the long narrow peninsula of Ma-
lacca, a large proportion of the older population
has been described as llacka. In the islands
we find them again ; so much so that the Span-
ish authorities call them Negritos^ or Little Ne-
groes. In New Guinea all is black ; and in Aus-
tralia and Yan Diemen's Land it is blacker
still. In Australia the hair is generally straight ;
but in the first and last-named countries it is
frizzy, crisped, or curling. This connects them
with the Negroes of Africa ; and their color does
so still more. At any rate, we talk of the Aus-
tralian Blacks^ just as the Spaniards do of the
Philippine Negritos. Moral characteristics
connect the Australian and the Negro, much in
the same manner as the physical ones. Both,
as compared with the European, are either reaL
ly deficient in intellectual capacity, or (at least)
have played an unimportant part in the history
of the world. Thus, several populations have ,
come under the class of Blacks. Is this classi- "^
fication natural %

It shall be illustrated further. On the ex-
tremities of each of the quarters of the world,
we find populations that in many respects re-
semble each other. In Northern Asia and Eu-

6

82 PEmCIPLE OF CLASSIFIOATIOK.

rope, the Eskimo, Samoeid, and Laplander, tol-
erant of the cold of the Arctic Circle, are all
characterized by a flatness of face, a lowness of
stature, nnd a breadth of head. In some cases
the contrast between them and their nearest
neighbors to the south, in these respects, is re-
markable. The Norwegian, who comes in con-
tact with the Lap, is strong and well-made ; bo
are many of the Red Indians who fix)nt the
Eskimo.

At the Cape of Good Hope something of
the same sort appears. The Hottentot of the
southern extremity of Africa is undersized,
small-limbed, and broad-faced ; so much so, that
most writers, in describing him, have said that,
in his confirmation, the Mongolian type — ^to
which the Eskimo belongs — ^Asiatic itself — re-
appears in Africa. And then his neighbor, the
Kaffre, differs from him as the Finlander does
from the Lap.

Mutatis mutandis^ all this re-appears at
Cape Horn, where the Patagonian changes
suddenly to the Fuegian.

But we in Europe are favored ; our limbs are
weU-formed and our skin fair. Be it so: yet
there are writers who, seeing the extent to
which the Islanders of the Pacific are favored
also, and noting the degree to which European
points of color, size, and capacity for improve-

PRmOIPLE OF CLA8SIFI0ATI0N. 83

ment, real or supposed, re-appear at the Anti-
podes, have thrown the Polynesian and the
Englishman in one and the same class.

And so, perhaps, he is, if we are to judge by
certain characteristics ; if agreement in certain
matters, wherein the intermediate populations
differ, form the grounds upon which we make
our groups, the Fuegians, Eskimo, and Hotten-
tots form one class, and the Negroes and Aus-
tralians another. But are these classes natural?
That depends upon the questions to which the
classification is subservient. If we wish to
know how far moisture and coolness freshen the
complexion ; how far moisture and heat darken
it; how far mountain altitudes affect the human
frame ; in other words, how far common exter-
nal conditions develop common habits and
common points of structure, nothing can be bet-
ter than the groups in question.

But alter the problem : let us wish to know
how certain areas were peopled ; what popula-
tion gave origin to some other ; how the Ameri-
cans reached America; whence the Britons
came into England, or any questions connected
with the migrations, affiliations, and origin of
the varieties of our species, and . groups of this
kind are valueless. They tell us something-^
but not what we want to know ; inasmuch as
our question now concerns blood, descent, pedi-

84 PBINCIPLE OF CLASSIFIOATION.

gree, relationship. To tell an inqnirer who
wishes to deduce one population from another
that certain distant tribes agree with the one
under discussion in certiain points of resem-
blance, is as irrelevant as to tell a lawyer in
search of the next of kin to a client deceased,
that though you know of no relations, you can
find a man who is the very picture of him in
pereon — a fact good enough in itself, but not to
the purpose; except (of course) so far as the
likeness itself suggests a relationship — ^which it
may or may not do.

Classes formed irrespective of descent are
classes on the Mmeralogical^ whilst classes
formed with a view to the same are classes on
the Zoological^ principle. Which is wanted in
the Natural History of Man ? The first for
Anthropology ; the second for Ethnology.

But why the antagonism ? Perhaps the two
methods may coincide. The possibility of this
has been foreshadowed. The family likeness
may, perhaps, prove a family connection. True :
at the same time each case must be tested on its
own grounds. Hence, whether the African is
to be grouped with the Australian, or whether
the two classes are to be as far asunder in Eth-
nology as in Geography, depends upon the re-
sults of the special investigation of that particu-
lar connection — real or supposed. It is sufficient

PBINCIPLE OF CLASSinOATIOK. "86

to say that none of the instances quoted exhibit
any such relationship ; though many a theory —
as erroneous as bold — has been started to ac-
count for it.

It is for Ethnology, then, that classification
is most wanted — ^more than for Anthropology ;
even as it is for Zoology that we require orders
and genera rather than for Physiology. This is
based upon certain distinctive characters ; some
of which are of a physical, others of a moral
sort. Each falls into divisions. There are
moral and intellectual phaenomena which prove
nothing in the way of relationship, simply be-
cause they are the effects of a common grade of
civilizational development. "What would be
easier than to group all the hunting, all the
piscatory, or all the pastoral tribes together; and
to exclude from these all who built cities, milked
cows, sowed com, or ploughed land ? Common
conditions determine common habits.

Again, much that seems at first glance de-
finite, specific, and characteristic, loses its value
as a test of ethnological affinity, when we ex-
amine the families in which it occurs. In dis-
tant countries, and in tribes far separated, su-
perstition takes a common form, and creeds that
arise independently of each other look as if
they were deduced from a common origin. All
this makes the facts in what may be called the

86 VALUE OP language:

Natural History of the Arts or of Religion easy
to collect, but difficult to appreciate ; in many
cases, indeed, we are taken up into the rare and
elevated atmosphere of metaphysics. "What if
different modes of architecture, or sculpture, or
varieties in the practice of such useful arts as
weaving and ship-building, be attributed to the
same principle that makes a sparrow's nest dif-
ferent from a hawk's, or a honey-bee's from a
hornet's ? "What if there be different instincts
in human art, as there is in the nidification ot
birds ? Whatever may be the fact, it is clear
that such a doctrine must modify the interpreta-
tion of it. The clue to these complications —
and they form a Gordian knot which must be
unravelled, and not cut — ^lies in the cautious in-
duction from what we know to what we do not;
from the undoubted differences admitted to
exist within undoubtedly related populations, to
the greater ones which distinguish more distant-
ly connected groups.

This has been sufficient to indicate the ex-
istence of certain moral characters which are
really no characters at all — at least in the way
of proving descent or affiliation; and that
physical ones of the same kind are equally nu-
merous may be inferred from what has already
been written.

It is these elements of uncertainty so profuse-

ITS PERMANENCE AND ITS EXTINCTION. 87

ly mixed up with almost all the other classes of
ethnological facts, that give such a high value,
as an instrument of investigation, to Language /
inasmuch as, although two different families of
mankind may agree in having skins of the same
color, or hair of the same texture, without,
thereby, being connected in the way of relation-
ship, it is hard to conceive how they could agree
in calling the same objects by the same
name, without a community of origin, or else
either direct or indirect intercourse. Affiliation
or intercourse — one of the two — this communi-
ty of language exhibits. One to the exclusion
of the other it does not exhibit. If it did so, it
would be of greater value than it is. Still it
indicates one of the two ; and either fact is
worth looking for.

The value of language has been overrated ;
chiejly, of course, by the philologists. And it
has been undervalued. The anatomists and
archaeologists, and, above all, the zoologists,
have done this. The historian, too, has not
known exactly how to appreciate it, when its
phsenomena come in collision with the direct
testimony of authorities ; the chief instrument
in his own line of criticism.

It is overrated when we make the affinities
of speech between two populations absolute evi-
dence of connection in the way of relationship.

f^

88 VALUE OF LANGUAGE.

It is overrated when we talk of tonffties being
immutable^ and of Icmgudges never dymff. On
the other hand, it is nndnly disparaged when an
inch or two of difference in statnre, a difference
in the taste in the fine arts, a modification in
the religious belief, or a disproportion in the in-
fluence upon the affairs of the world, is set up
as a mark of distinction between two trib^
speaking one and the same tongue, and alike in
other matters. Now, errors of each kind are
common.

The permanence of language as a sign of
origin must be determined, like every thing
else of the same kind, by induction ; and this
tells us that both the loss and retention of a na-
tive tongue is illustrated by remarkable exam-
ples. It tells both ways. In St. Domingo we
have Negroes speaking French ; and this is a
notable instance of the adoption of a foreign
tongue. But the circumstances were peculiar.
One tongue was not changed for another ; since
no Negro language predominated. The real fact
was that of a mixture oflanguagea — and this is
next to no language at all. Hence, when French
became the language of the Haytians, the usual
obstacle of a previously existing common native
tongue, pertinaciously and patriotically retained,
was wanting. It superseded an indefinite and
conflicting mass of Negro dialects, rather than
any particular Negro language.

tANGUAGE — rrS PEEMANENOK. 89

In the southern parts of Central America the
ethnology is obscure, especially for the Eepub-
lics of San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Bica.
Yet if we turn to Colonel Galindo's account of
them, we find the specific statement that abori-
gines still exist, and that their language is the
Spcmish ; not any native Indian dialect. As
similar assertions respecting the extinction and
replacement of original languages have frequent-
ly proved incorrect, let us assume this to be
an over-statement — though I have no definite
grounds for considering it one. Over-statement
though it may be, it still shows the direction in
which things are going ; and that is towards the
supremacy of a European tongue.

On the confines of Asia and Europe there is
the nation, tribe or family of the Bashkirs.
Their present tongue is the Turkish. It is be-
lieved, however, that originally it was the mo-
ther-tongue of the Majiars of Hungary.

Again, the present Bulgarian is akin to the
Russian. Originally it was a Turk dialect.

Lastly — for I am illustrating, not exhausting,
the subject — ^there died, in the year lYYO, at
Karczag in Hungary, an old man named Varro ;
the last man, in Europe, that knew even a few
words of the language of his nation. Yet this
nation was and is a great one ; no less a one
than that of the ancient Komanian Turks, some

5*

00 OBAMB£ABS AKD

of whom invaded Europe in the eleventh cen-
tury, penetrated as far as Hungary, settled there
as conquerors, and retained their language till
the death of this same Varro. The rest of the
nation remained in Asia ; and the present occu-
pants of the parts between the Caspian and the
Aral are their descendants. Languages, then,
may be lost; and one may be superseded by
another.

The ancient Etruscans, as a separate substan-
tive nation, are extinct : so is their language,
which we know to have been peculiar. Yet the
Etruscan blood still runs in the veins of the Flo-
rentine and other Italians.

On the other hand, the pertinacity with which
language resists the attempts to supersede it is
of no common kind. Without going to Siberia,
or America, the great hoMtats of the broken
and fragmentary families, we may find instances
much nearer home ! In the Isle of Man the na-
tive Manks still remains ; though dominant
Norsemen and dominant Anglo-Saxons have
brought their great absorbent languages in colli-
sion with it. In Malta, the laborers speak
Arabic — with Italian, with English, and with a
Lingua Franca around them.

In the western extremities of the Pyrenees,
a language neither French or Spanish is spoken,
and has been spoken for centuries — ^possibly

VOOABITLAEIES. 91

millenniums. It was once the speech of the
southern half of France, and of all Spain. This
is the Basque of Biscay.

In contact with the Turk on one side, and
the Greek and the Slavonic on the other, the
Albanian of Albania stiU speaks his native
Skipetar.

A reasonable philologist makes similarity of
language strong — very strong — -primdfacie evi-
dence in favor of community of descent.

When does it imply this, and when does it
merely denote commercial or social intercourse ?
"We can measure the phaenomena of languages
and exhibit the results numerically. Thus the
j[>er centage of words common to two languages
may be 1, 2, 3, 4 — 98, 99, or any intermediate
number. But now comes the application of a
miaxim. Pondercmda non mmieranda. We
ask what sort of words coincide, as well as how
mamy ? When the names of such objects as f/re^
water ^ sun^ moon^ star^ hand^tooth^ tongue^ foot^
&c., agree, we draw an inference very different
from the one which arises out of the presence of
such words as ennui^ fashion^ quadrille^ violin^
&c. Common sense distinguishes the words
which are likely to be borrowed from one lan-
guage into another, from those which were ori-
ginally common to the two.

There are a certain amount of French words

•^

92 GRAMMARS AND

in English, «. e. of words borrowed from the
French. I do not know the per centage, nor
yet the time required for their introduction ; and
as I am illustrating the subject, rather than seek-
ing specific results, this is unimportant. Pro-
long the time, and multiply the words ; remem-
bering that the former can be done indefinitely.
Or, instead of doing this, increase the points of
contact between the languages. What follows ?
We soon begin to think of a familiar set of illus-
trations ; some classical and some vulgar — of the
Delphic ship so often mended as to retain but
an equivocal identity ; of the Highlander's knife,
with its two new blades and three new handles ;
of Sir John Cutler's silk-stockings degenerated
into worsted by darnings. We are brought to
the edge of a new question. We must tread
slowly, accordingly.

In the English words call-^^, OBH-eth (call-«),
and call-^t?, we have two parts ; the first being the
root itself, the second a sign of person^ or tense*
The same is the case with the word father-*, son-«,
&c. ; except that the s denotes case ; and that it is
attached to a substantive, instead of a verb-
Again, in wis-^ we have the sign of a compara"
tive; in wis-^5^ that of a superlative degree. All
these are inflexions. If we choose, we may call
them inflexional elements ; and it is convenient
to do so ; since we qan then analyse words and

VOCABULARIES. 93

contrast the different parts of them : e.g. in call-a
the caU- is radical, the -s inflexional.

Having become familiarized with this dis-
tinction, we may now take a word of French or
German origin — ^2uj fashion or waltz. Each, of
course, is foreign. Nevertheless, when intro-
duced into English, it takes an English inflexion.
Hence we ^2ij^if I dress dbswrdly itisfashi(yn?&
fa/uU; also,/am waltz-mg^ IwaUz^d^ he waltz-QS
— ^and so on. In these particular words, then,
the inflexional part has been English; even
when the radical was foreign. This is no isolated
fact. On the contrary, it is sufficiently common
to be generalized so that the gra/mmatical part
of language has been accredited with a perma-
nence which has been denied to the glossa/rial or
vocabvlar. The one changes, the other is con-
stant ; the one is immortal, the other fleeting ;
the one form, the other matter.

Now it is imaginable that the glossarial and
grammatical tests may be at varianpe. They
would be so if all our English verbs came to be
French, yet still retained their English inflexions
in -^e?, -«, -m^, &c. They would be so if all the
verbs were ^Ssb fashion^ and all the substantives
like quadrille. This is an extrepae case ; still,
it illustrates the question. Certain Hindu lan-
guages are said to have nine-tenths of the vocables
common with a language called the Sanskrit — >

94 PBINCIPLES OF

but none of their inflexions ; the latter being
chiefly Tamul. What, then, is the language
itself ? This is a question which divides philo-
logists. It illustrates, however, the difference
between the two tests — the grcMnma^ical and the
glossarial. Of these, it is safe to say that the
former is the more constant.

Yet the philological method of investigation
requires caution. Over and above the terms
which one language borrows from another, and
which denote intercourse rather than affinity,
there are two other classes of little or no ethno-
logical value.

1. Coincidences may he merely accidental.
The likelihood of their being so is a part of the
Doctrine of Chances. The mathematician may
investigate this : the philologist merely finds the
data. Neither has been done satisfactorily,
though it was attempted by Dr. T. Young.

2. Coincidences may have an organic conneo-
tion. No one would say that because two na-
tions called the same bird by the name ciccJsoo^
the term had been borrowed by either one from
the other, or by both from a common source.
The true reason would be plain enough. Two
populations gave a name on imitative principles,
and imitated the same object. Son and irotker^
sister and datcghter — ^if these terms agree, the
chances are that a philological affinity is at the

PHILOLOGICAL OLAfiSIFIOATION. 96

bottom of the agreement. But does the same
apply to papa and ma/ma^ identical in English,
Carib, and perhaps twenty other languages?
No. They merely show that the infants of dif-
ferent countries begin with the same sounds.

Such — and each class is capable of great ex-
pansion — are the cases where philology requires
caution. Another matter now suggests itself.

To be valid, a classification must be real ; not
nominal or verbal — ^not a mere book-maker's ar-
rangement. Families must be in definite de-
grees of relationship. This, too, will bear illus-
tration. A man wantis a relation to leave his
money to ; he is an Englishman, and by relation
means nothing more distant than a third cousin.^
It is nothing to him if, in Scotland, 2^ fifth cousin-
ship is recognised. He has not found the relation
he wants ; he has merely found a greater amount
of latitude given to the term. Few oversights have
done more harm than the neglect of this distinc-
tion. Twenty years ago the Sanskrit, Sclavonic,
Greek-and-Latin, and Gothic languages formed a
class. This class was called Indo-Germanic. Its
western limits were in Germany ; its eastern in
Hindostan. The Celtic of Wales, Cornwall, Brit-
tany, Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man was
not included in it. Neither was it included in
any other group. It was anywhere or nowhere—
in any degree of isolation. Dr. Prichard under-

96 THE 80-CALLBD

took to fix it. He did so-— well and successfully.
He showed that, so far from being isolated, it
was connected with the Greek, German, and
Sclavonic by a connection with the Sanskrit, or
(changing the expression) with the Sanskrit
through the Sclavonic, German, and Greek — ^any
or all. The mother-tongue from which all these
broke was supposed to be in Asia. Dr. Prich-
ard's work was entitled the " Eastern Origin of
the Celtic Nations." Did this make the Celtic
Indo-Germanic ? It was supposed to do so. Nayi
more — it altered the name of the class ; which
was now called, as it has been since, Indo-Euro-
pean — inconveniently. A relationship was mis-
taken for the relationship. The previous tongues
were (say) second cousins. The Celtic was a
fourth or fifth. What was the result ? Not that
a new second cousin was found, but that the fa-
mily circle was enlarged.

What follows ? Dr. Prichard's fixation of the
Celtic as a member of even the same clan with
the German, &c. was an addition to ethnogra-
phical philology that many inferior investigators
strove to rival ; and it came to be current belief
— acted on if not avowed — that tongues as like
the Celtic as the Celtic was to the German were
Indo-European also. This bid fair to inundate
the class — to make it prove too much — to render
it no class at all. The Albanian, Basque, Etrua-

INDO-EUBOPEAN CLASS. 97

can. Lap, and others followed. The outlier of the
group once created served as a nucleus for fresh
accumulations. A strange language of Caucasus
— ^the Ir6n or Ossetic— »was placed by Klaproth
as Indo-Germanic ; and that upon reasonable
grounds, considering the unsettled state of criti-
cism. Meanwhile, the Georgian, another tongue
of those same mysterious mountains, wants
placing. It has undoubted Ossetic — or Ir6n —
affinities. But the Ossetic — or L*6n — ^is Indo-
European. So, therefore, is the Georgian. This
is a great feat ; since the Caucasian tongues and
the Caucasian skulls now agree, both having
their affinities with Europe — as they ought to
have. But what if both the Iron and Georgian
are half Chinese, or Tibetan, i. e. are all but mo-
nosyllabic languages both in grammar and voca-
bles ? If such be the case, the term " Indo-
European" wants revising ; and not only that —
the principles on which terms are fixed and
classes created want revising also. At the same
time, the " Eastern Origin of Celtic Nations"
contains the most definite addition to philology
that the present century has produced ; and the
proper compliment to it is Mr. Gamett's review
of it in the " Quarterly ; " the first of a series of
masterly and unsurpassed specimens of induc-
tive philology applied to the investigation of the
true nature of the infiexions of the Verb. But
this is episodical.

98 UNIVEESALITT

The next instrument of ethnological criti-
cism is to be found in the phsenomena them-
selves of the disperson and distribution of our
species.

First, as to its universality. In this respect
we must look minutely before we shall find
places where Man is not These, if we find them
at all, will come imder one of two conditions ;
the climate will be extreme, or the isolation ex-
cessive. For instances of the first, we take the
Poles ; and, as far as the Antarctic Circle is
concerned, we find no inhabitants in the ice-
bound regions — few and far between — of its
neighborhood ; none south of 55^ S. lat., or
the extremity of the Tierra del Fuego. This,
however, is peopled. We must remember,
however, that in the Southern Ocean suqJi re-
gions as l!^^ew South Shetland and Yictoria
Land, are isolated as well as cold and frozen.

The North Pole, however, must be ap-
proached witliin 25^ before we lose sight of
Man, or find him excluded from even a perma-
nent habitation. Spitzbergen is beyond the
limits of human occupancy. Nova Zembla,
when first discovered, was also uninhabited.
So was Iceland. Here, however, it was the iso-
lation of the island that made it so. A hardy
stock of men, nearly related to ourselves, have
occupied it since the ninth century ; and coTkr

OF THE DISTRIBtmON OF MAN. 99

tinental Greenland is peopled as far as the Y6th
degree — though, perhaps, only as a summer re-
sidence.

Far to the east of Nova Zembla and oppo-
site to the country of the Yukahiri — a hardy
people on the rivers Kolyma and Indijirka, and
•within the Arctic Circle — ^lies the island of l!^^ew
Siberia. I find from Wrangell's Travels in Si-
beria, that certain expatriated Yukahiri are be-
lieved to have fled thither. Have they lived or
died ? Have they reached the island ? In case
they have done so, and kept body and soul to-
gether, New Siberia is probably the most north-
ern spot of the inhabited world.

How cold a country must be in order to re-
main empty of men, we have seen. Such local-
ities are but few. None are too hot — unless,
indeed, we believe the centre of Equatorial Af-
rica to be a solitude.

In South America there is a great blank in
the Maps. For many degrees on each side of
the Upper Amazons lies a vast tract — ^said to
be a jungle — and marked Sirionos^ the name of
a frontier population. Yet the Sirionos are not,
for one moment, supposed to fill up the vast
hiatus. At the same time, there are few, or
none, besides. Is this tract a drear unhuman-
ized waste? It is said to be so — ^to be wet,
woody, and oppressively malarious. Yet, this

100 LARGE AND SMALL

merely means that there is a forest and a swamp
of a certain magnitude, and of a certain de*
gree of impenetrability.

Other such areas are unexplored — ^yet we
presume them to be occupied ; though ever so
thinly : e. g. the interiors of New Guniea and
Australia.

That Greenland was known to the early Ice-
landers is well known. And that it was occu-
pied when so first known is also certain. One
of the geographical localities mentioned in an
old Saga, has an Eskimo word for one of its
elements — UtibuTca-Jinrth^^ihe f/rth of the isthr
Tnvs / Utibuk in Eskimo meaning isthmus.

Of the islands originally uninhabited, those
which are, at one and the same time, large and
near continents, are Madeira and Iceland — the
former being a lonely wood. The Canaries,
though smaller and more isolated, have been
occupied by the remarkable family of the
Guanches. Add to these. Ascension, St. He-
lena, the Galapagos, Kerguelen's Island, and a
few others.

Easter Island, a speck in the vast Pacific,
and more than half way between Asia and
America, exhibited both inhabitants and ruins
to its first discoverers.

Such is the horizontal distribution of Man ;
i, e. his distribution according to the degrees of

BTHNOLOGIOAL ABEAS; 101

latitude. What other animal has such a range ?
What species ? What genus or order ? Con-
trast with this the localized habitats of the
Orang-utan, and the Chimpaijizee as species ; of
the Apes as genera; of the Marsupialia as
orders.

The vert/ical distribution is as wide. By ver-
tical 1 mean elevation above the level of the
sea. On the high table-land of Pamer, we
have the Kerghiz; summer visitants at least,
where the Yiak alone, among domesticated ani-
mals, lives and breathes in the rarefied atmos-
phere. The town of Quito is more than 10,000
feet above the sea ; Walcheren is, perphaps,
below the level of it.

Who expects uniformity of physiognomy
or frame with such a distribution?

The 8126 of etJmologioal areas, — Compara-
tively speaking, Europe is pretty equally divid-
ed amongst the European fiamilies. The Slavo-
nic populations of Bohemia, Silesia, Poland,
Servia, and Bussia may, perhaps, have more
than their due — still the French, Italians, Span-
iards, Portuguese, and Wallachians, all speak-
ing languages of classical origin, have their
share ; and so has our own Germanic or Grothic
family of English, Dutch, Frisians, Bavarians,
and Scandinavians. Nevertheless, there are a
few families as limited in geographical area as

102 LABGB AND SMALL

subordinate in political importance. There are
the Escaldunac, or Basques, — originally the oc-
cupants of all Spain and half France, now pent
up in a comer of the Pyrenees — ^the Welsh of
the Iberic Peninsula. There are, also, the
Skipetar, or Albanians, wedged in between
Greece, Turkey and Dalmatia. Nevertheless,
the respective areas of the European families
are pretty equally distributed ; and the land of
Europe is like a lottery, wherein all the prizes
are of an appreciable value.

The comparison with Asia verifies this. In
immediate contact with the vast Turkish popu-
lation centered in Independent Tartary, but
spread over an area reaching, more or less con-
tinuously, from Africa to the Icy Sea, (an area
larger than the whole of Europe), come the
tribes of Caucasus — Georgians, Circassians, Les-
gians, Mizjeji, and Iron ; five well-defined groups,
each falling into subordinate divisions, and some
of them into subdivisions. The language of
Constantinople is understood at the Lena. In
the mountain range between the Caspian and
the Black Sea, the mutually unintelligible lan-
guages are at least fifteen — perhaps more, cer-
tainly not fewer. Now, the extent of land cov-
ered by the Turk family, shows the size to which
an ethnological area may attain ; whilst the
multiplicity of mutually unintelligible tongues

ETHNOLOGICAL ABEA8. 103

of Caucasus, shows how closely families may be
packed. Their geographical juxtaposition gives
prominence to the contrast.

At the first view, this contrast seems remark-
able. So far from being so, it is of continual
occurrence. In China, the language is one and
indivisible; on its south-western frontier the
tongues are counted by the dozen — just as if in
Yorkshire, there were but one provincial dialect
throughout ; two in Lincolnshire ; and twenty
in Rutland.

The same contrast re-appears in North
America. In Canada and the Northern States,
the Algonkin area is measured by the degrees
of latitude and longitude ; in Louisiana and
Alabama by the mile.

The same in South America. One tongue —
the Guarani — covers half the continent. Else-
where, a tenth part of it contains a score.

The same in Southern Africa. From the Line
to the neighborhood of the Cape, all is Kaffre.
Between the Gambia and the Gaboon there are
more than twenty different divisions.

The same in the North. The Berbers reach
from the Valley of the Nile to the Canaries,
and from the Mediterranean to the parts about
Borneo. In Borneo, there are said to be thirty
different languages.

Such are areas in size, and in relation to

104 CX)NTBAST BETWEEK

each other ; like the bishopries and curacies of
our church, large and small, with a difficulty
in ascertaining the average. However, the
simple epithets, grea/t and amaU^ are suggestive ;
since the former implies an encroachmg^ the
latter recedmg population.

A distribution over continents is one thing ;
a distribution over islands another. The first is
easiest made when the world is young, and
when the previous occupants create no obstacles.
The second implies maritime skill and enter-
prise, and maritime skill improves with the ex-
perience of mankind. One of the greatest
facts of ethnological distribution and dispersion
belongs to this class. All the islands of the
Pacific are peopled by the members of one
stock, or family — ^the Polynesian. These we
find as far north as the Sandwich Islands, as &r
south as Kew Zealand, and in Easter Island,
half-way between Asia and America. So much
for the dispersion. But this is not all ; the dis-
trihution is as remarkable. Madagascar is an
African rather than an Asiatic island, within
easy sail of Africa ; the exact island for an
African population. Yet, ethnologically, it is
Asiatic — the same family which we find in Su-
matra, Borneo, the Moluccas, the Mariannes, the
Carolines, and Polynesia being Malagasi also.

Contrast between contiguous poptdations. —

CONTINUOUS POPULATIONS. 105

Ethnological resemblance by no means coin-
cides with geographical contiguity. The gen-
eral character of the circumpolar families of
. the Arctic Circle is that of the Laplander, the
Samoeid, and the Eskimo. Tet the zone of popu-
lation that encircles the inhospitable shores of
the Polar sea is not exclusively either Lap or
Samoeid — nor yet Eskimo. In Europe, the
Laplander finds a contrast on each side. There
is the Norwegian on the west ; the Finlander
on the east. We can explain this. The former
is but a recent occupant ;«not a natural, but an
intruder. This we infer from the southern dis-
tribution of the other members of his family,
who are Danish, German, Dutch, English, and
An^rican. For the same reason the Icelander
differs from the Greenlander. The Finlander,
though more closely allied to the Lap than the
Norwegian — ^belonging to the same great Ugri-
an family of mankind — is still a southern mem-
ber of his family ; a family whose continuation
extends to the Lower Yolga, and prolongations
of which are found in Hungary. East of the
Finlander, the Russian displaces the typically
circumpolar Samoeid ; whilst at the mouth of
the Lena we have the Yakuts — ^Turk in blood
and tongue, and, to a certain extent, in form
also.

In America the circumpolar population is
6

106 ooKTonrmr

generallj Eskimo. Yet, at one point, we find
even the verge of the Arctic shore occupied by
a population of tall, fine-looking athletes, six feet
high, well-made, and handsome in countenance.
These are the Digothi Indians, called also Laa-
cheux. Their locality is the month of the
McKenzie Biver ; bnt their language shows that
their origin is further south, .i. ^., that they are
£oluches within the Eskimo area.

In Southern Africa we have the Hottentot in
geographical proximity to the E[a£&e, yet the
contrast between the two is considerable. Sim-
ilar examples are numerous. What do they de-
note ? Generally, but not always, they denote
encroachment and displacement ; encroachment
which tells us which of the two families has J[)een
the stronger, and displacement which has the
following effect. It obliterates those interme-
diate and transitional forms which connect vari-
eties, and so brings tiie more extreme cases of
difference in geographical contact, and in ethno-
logical contrast ; hence encroachment^ dUplaee-
mentj and the obliteration qftransUianal/ormt
are terms required for the faO. application of the
phsenomena of distribution as an instrument of
ethnological criticism.

Continuity and isolation. — ^In Siberia there
are two isolated populations, the Yakuts on the
Lower Lena, and the Soiot on the Upper Yene-

AND ISOLATION. 107

Bey. The former, as aforesaid, are Turk ; but
they are surroundud by nations other than Turk.
They are cut off from the rest of the stock.

The Soiot in like manner are surrounded by
strange populations. Their true relations are
the Samoeids of the Icy Sea ; but between these
two branches of the stock there is a heterogeneous
population of Turks and Yeneseians — so-called.

The great Iroquois family of America is
separated into two parts — one northern and one
southern. Between these lie certain members
of the Algonkin class. Like the Soiot, and the
Northern Samoeids, the two branches of the Iro-
quois are separated.

The Majiars of Hungary are wholly inclosed
by non-Himgarian populations ; and their near-
est kinsmen are the Yoguls of the Uralian Moim-
tains, far to the north-east of Moscow.

This shows that ethnological areas may be
either uninterrupted or interrupted ; continuous
or discontinuous ; unkroken or with isolated fitig-
ments ; and a little consideration will show, that
Wiherever there is isolation tJiere has heen dis-
jpiaoement Whether the land has risen, or the sea
encroached, is another question. We know why
the Majiars stand separate from the other Ugrian
nations. They intruded themselves into Europe
within the historical period, cutting their way
with the sword ; and the parts between them

108 coNTiNurrr and isolation'.

and their next of kin were never more Majiar
than they are at the present moment.

But we know no snch thing concerning the
Iroquois ; and we infer something quite the con-
trary. We believe that they once held all the
country that now separates their two branches,
and a great deal more beside. But the Algon-
kins encroached ; partially dispossessing, and
partially leaving them in occupation.

In either case, however, there has been dii-
placement ; and the displacement is the infer-
ence from the discontinuity.

But we must remember that true disconti-
nuity can exist in continents only. The popula-
tions of two islands may agree, whilst that of a
whole archipelago lying between them may differ.
Tet this is discontinuity ; since the sea is an
unbroken chain, and the intervening obstacle can
be sailed round, instead of crossed. The nearest
way from the continent of Asia to the Tahitian
archipelago — the nearest part of Polynesia — ^is
via New Guinea, New Ireland, and the New
Hebrides. All these islands, however, are in-
habited by a different division of the Oceanic
population. Does this indicate displacement?
No ! it merely suggests the Philippines, the Pe-
lews, the Carolines, the Ralik and Eadak groups,
and the Navigators' Isles, as the route ; and such
it almost certainly was.

OONVEirnONAL OEHTEE. 109.

CHAPTER lY.

i>etail8 of distribution — their conventional character — conver-
gence from the circuniference to the centre — Fnegians, Pata-
gonian, Pampa, and Chaco Indians— Peravians — D'Orbig-
ny*8 characters — other South American Indians — of the Mis-
sions—of Guiana — of Venezuela — Guarani— Caribs — Central
America — Mexican civilization no isolated phsenomenon —
North American Indians — Eskimo — apparent objections to
their connection with the Americans and Asiatics — Tasmani-
ans— Australians — Papu^ — Polynesians — Micronesians — Ma-
lagasi — Hottentots — ^Kaffres — Negroes — Berbers — Abyssin*
ians — Copts — the Semitic family — Primary and secondary
migration.

If the inhabited world were one large cir-
cular island ; if its population were admitted to
have been diffused over its surface from some
single point ; and if that single point were at
one and the same time unascertained, and re-
quiring investigation, what would be the method
of our inquiries ? I suppose that both history
and tradition are silent, and that the absence of
other data of the same kind, force us upon the
general probabilities of the case, and a large
amount of a priori argument.

We should ask what point would give us the
existing phsenomena with the least amount of

110 OONVSNTIONAL OEMTRB.

migration; and we should ask this upon the
simple principle of not multiplying causes mi-
necessarily. The answer would he— the centre.
From the centre we can people the parts about
the circumference, without making any line of
migration longer than half a diameter; and
without supposing any one out of such numeroos
lines to be longer than the other. This last is
the chief point — the point which more especially
fixes us to the centre as a hypothetical birth-
place ; since, the moment we say that any part
of the circumference was reached by a shorter
or longer line than any other, we make a specific
assertion, requiring specific arguments to sup-
port it. These may, or may not exist. Until,
however, they have been brought forward, we
apply the rule de non wpparentiJme^ &c., and
keep to our conventional and provisional point
in the centre — ^remembering, of course, its pro-
visional and conventional character, and recog-
nising its existence only as long as the search
for something more real and definite continues.
In the earth as it is, we can do something of
the same kind ; taking six extreme points as our
starting-places, and investigating the extent to
which they converge. These six points are the
following :

1. Tierra del Fuego.

2. Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land.)

TIEBBA DEL FUEOO. HI

3. Easter Island — ^the furthest extremity of
Polynesia.

4. The Cape of Good Hope, or the country
of the Saabs (Hottentots).

5. Lapland.

6. Ireland.

From these we work through America, Austra-
lia, Polynesia, Africa, and Europe, to Asia —
some part of which gives us our cowventional^
jprovisioTud^ wad hypothetical centre.

I. From Tierra dd Fuego to the northreast"
empa/rt8 of Asia. — ^The Fuegians of the island
have so rarely been separated from the Patago-
nians ot the continent that there are no recog-
nised elements of uncertainty in this quarter,
distant as it is. Maritime habits connect them
with their northern neighbors on the west ; and
that long labyrinth of archipelagoes which runs
tip to the southern border of Chili is equally
Fuegian and Patagonian. Here we are remind-
ed of the habits of some of the Malay tribes,
under a very different sky, and amongst the
islets about Sincapore — of the Bajows, or sea-
gipsies, boatmen whose home is on the water,
and as imfixed as that element ; wanderers from
one group to another; fishermen rather than
traders ; not strong-handed enough to be pirates
and not industrious enough to be cultivators.
Such skill as the Fuegian shows at aU, he shows

113 TIERBA DEL FUEQO.

in his canoe, his paddles, his spears, his bow, his
slings, and his domestic architecture. All are
rude — the bow-strings are made exclnsively of
the sinews of animals, his arrows headed with
stone. Of wood there is little, and of metal less ;
and, low as is the latitude, the dress, or undress,
is said to make a nearer approach to absolute
nakedness than is to be found in many of the in"
tertropical countries.

In size they fall short of the continental Pata-
gonians ; in color and physical conformation
they approach them very closely. The same
broad and flattened face occurs in both, remind-
ing some writers of the Eskimo, others uf the
Chinuk. Their language is certainly referable
to the Patagonian clasp, though, probably, unin-
telligible to a Patagonian.

Within the island itself there are differences ;
degrees of discomfort ; and degrees in its effects
upon the bodily frame. At the eastern extremi-
ty* the population wore the skins of land-animals,
and looked like hunters rather than fishers and
sealers. Otherwise, as a genei-al rule, the Fu-
egians are hoatmen.

Not so their nearest kinsmen. They are all
horsemen; and in their more northern localities
the most formidable ones in the world — Patago-
nians of considerable but exaggerated stature,

• Pickering, Races of Men, p. 19.

PATAGONIA. — ^THB PAMPAS. 113

Pampa Indians between Buenos Ayres and the
southern Andes, and, higher up, the Chaco In-
dians of the water-system of the river Plata. To
these must be added two other families — one on
the Pacific and one on the Atlantic — the Arau*
canians ot Chili, and the Charruas of the lower
La Plata.

Except in the impracticable heights of the
Andes of Chili, and, as suggested above, in the
island of Tierra del Fuego, the same equestrian
habits characterize all these populations; and^
one and all, the same indomitable and savage
independence. Of the Chaco Indians, the Tono-
cote are partially settled, and imperfectly Chris-
tianized ; but the Abiponians— very Centaurs
in their passionate equestrianism — ^the Mboco*
bis, the Mataguayos, and others, are the dread
of the Spaniards at the present moment. The
resistance of the Araucanians of Chili, has
given an epic* to the country of their con-
querors.

Of the Charnias, every man was a wan-ior,;

self-relying, strong and cruel ; with his hand
against the Spaniard, and with his hand against
the other aborigines. Many of these they ex-
terminated, and too proud to enter into confed-
eration, always fought single-handed. In 1831,
the President of Uraguay ordered their total

* The Araucana of Ercilk.

6*

114 D^OBBiomr's oharaotsbs.

destruction, and thej were cnt down, root and
branch ; a few survivors only remaining.

Minus the Fuegians, this division is preemi-
nently natural ; yet the Fuegians cannot be dis-
connected from it. As a proof of the physical
differences being small, I vrill add the descrip
tion of a naturalist — D'Orbigny — ^who separates
them. They evidently lie within a very small
compass.

a. Arauccmicm branch of the Ando-Peru
vians. — Color light olive, form massive, trunk
somewhat disproportionately long, face nearly
circular, nose short and flat, lips thin, physiog-
nomy sombre, cold.

h. Pampa branch of the Pampa Indians. —
Color deep olive brown or maroonj form Her-
culean, forehead vaulted, face large, flat, ob-
long, nose short, nostrils large, mouth wide, lips
large, eyes horizontal, physiognomy cold, often
savage.

D'Orbigny is a writer by no means inclined
to undervalue differences. Nevertheless he pla-
ces the Peruvians and the Araucanians in the
same primary division. This shows that, if
other characters connect them, there is nothing
very conclusive in the way of physiognomy
against their relationship. I think that certain
other characters do connect them — language
most especially. At the same time, there is no

PKKTJVIAKB. 115

denying ipaportant contrast*. The civilization
of Peru has no analogue beyond the TVopics ;
and if we are to consider this as a phenomenon
jp€T 86^ as the result of an instinct as different
from those of the Charrua as the architectual
impulses of the bee and the hornet, broad and
trenchant must be our lines of demarcation.
Yet no such lines can be drawn. Undoubted
members of the Quichua stock of the Inca Peru-
vians (architects and conquerors, as that parti-
cular branch was) are but ordinary Indians —
like the Aymaras. Nay, the modern Peruvians,
when contrasted with their ancestors, are in the
same category. The present occupants of the
parts about Titicaca and Tiaguanaca wonder at
the ruins around them, and confess their inabil-
ity to rival them, just as a modem Greek thinks
of the Phidian Jupiter and despairs. Again,
the gap is accounted for — ^since most of those
intervening populations which may have exhi-
bited transitional characters have become either
extinct, or denationalized. Between the Peru-
vians and Araucanians, the Atacamas and Chan-
gos are the only remaining populations — ^under
10,000 in number, and but little known.

Nevertheless, an unequivocally allied popu-
lation of the Peruvian stock takes us from 28**
S. lat. to the Equator. Its unity within itself is
undoubted ; and its contrast with the next near-

116 ANGLE OF MIGBATIOK.

est families is no greater than the displace-
ments "which have taken place around, and our
own ignorance in respect to parts in contact
with it.

Of all the populations of the world, the Pe-
ruvian is the most vertical in its direction. Its
line is due north and south ; its breadth but nar-
row. The Pacific is at one side, and the Andes
at the other. One is well-nigh as definite a limit
as the other. When we cross the Cordilleras,
the Peruvian type has changed.

The Peruvians lie between the Tropics. They
cross the Equator. One of their Eepublics —
Ecuador — even takes its name from the merid-
ian. But they are also mountaineers ; and,
though their sun is that of Africa, their soil is
that of the Himalaya. Hence, their locality pre-
sents a conflict, balance, or antogonism of cli-
matologic influences ; and the degrees of alti-
tude are opposed to those of latitude.

Again, thei/r line of migration is at a right
a/ngle with their Equatorial parallel — that is,
if we assume them to have come from North
America. The bearing of this is as follows :^—
The town of Quito is about as far from Mexico
due north, as it is from French Guiana due west.
Now if we suppose the line of migration to have
reached Peru from the latter country, the great-
great-ancestors of the Peruvians would be peo-

ANGLE OF MIGRATION. lit

pie as inter-tropical as themselves, and the in-
fluences of climate would coincide with the in-
fluences of descent ; whereas if it were North
America from which they originated, their an-
cestors of a corresponding generation would re-
present the effect of a climate twenty-five de-
grees further north — these, in their turn, being
descended from, the occupants of the temperate,
and they from those of the frigid zone. The
full import of the relation of the lines of migra-
tion — real or hypothetical — to the degrees of
latitude has yet to be duly appreciated. To say
that the latter go for nothing because the inter-
tropical Indian of South America is not as
black as the negro, is to compare things that re-
semble each other in one particular only.

It is Peru where the ancient sepulchral re-
mains have complicated ethnology. The skulls
from ancient burial-places are pretematurally
flattened. Consider this natural ; and you have
a fairreason for the recognition of a fresh species
of the genus Homo. But is it legitimate to do so ?
I think not. That the practice of flattening the
head of infants was a custom once as rife and
common in Peril as it is in many other parts of
both North and South America at the present
day, is well known. Then why not account for
the ancient flattening thus? I hold that the
writers who hesitate to do this should undertake

118 PSRUVUSS.

the difficult task of proving a negative : other-
wise they multiply causes unnecessarily.

Two stocks of vast magnitude take . up so
large a proportion of South America, that though
they are not in immediate geographical contact
with the Peruvians, they require to be mentioned
next in order here. They are mentioned now in
order to enable us to treat of ofher and smaUer
families. These two great stocks are the Guarani
and the Carib ; whilst the classes immediately
under notice are —

The remcdning South Americans who are
neither Carib nor Chux/ra/ni. — ^This division is ar-
tificial, being based upon a negative character ;
and it is geographical rather than ethnological.
The first branch of it is that which D'Orbigny
calls Antisian^ and which he connects at once
with the Peruvians Proper ; both being mem-
bers of that primary division to which -he refer-
red the Araucanians — ^the Araucanians being
the third branch of the -^nefo-Peruvians ; the
two others being the —

a. Perw)ia/n, hram^h, — Color deep olive-
brown; form massive; trunk long in proportion
to the limbs ; forehead retreating ; nose aquiline ;
mouth large ; physiognomy sombre : — Aymara
and Quichua Peruvians.

h, Antieian hranch. — Color varying from a
deep olive to nearly white ; form not massive ;

ANTISUKS, ETC. 119

forehead not retreating; physiognomy lively,
mild : — Ynracards, Moc^t^nds, Tacanae, Maro-
pas, and Apolistas.

The Ynracar^s, Moc^tends, Tacanas, Maro-
pas, and Apolistas, are Antisimi ; and their
locality is the eastern slopes of the Andes,* be-
tween 16® and 18** S. lat. Here they dwell in a
thickly wooded coimtry, ftill of mountain streams,
and their corresponding valleys. One portion
of them at least is so much lighter-skinned than
the Peruvians, as to have taken its name from
its color — Yv/rah-Tcare^^white mem.

To the west of the Antisians lie the Indians
of the Missions of Chiquito and Moxos, so called
because they have been settled and Christian*
ized. The phyisical characters of these also are
D'Orbigny's. The division, however, he places
in the same group with the Fatagonians.

a. Chiqmto Immch. — Color light olive ;
form moderately robust ; mouth moderate ; lips
tEin ; features delicate ; physiognomy lively : —
Indians of the Mission of Chiquitos.

h. Moxos iraTUih. — ^Form robust ; lips thick-
ish ; eyes not hrides ; physiognomy mild : — ^In-
dians of the Mission of Moxos.

And now we are on the great water-system
of the Amazons ; with the united effects of heat
and moisture. They are not the same as in
Africa. There are no negroes here. The skin

• D'OrUfDy, Hoiiiin« AmiriMiii.

120 INDIANS OF THE AHiiZONS.

is in some cases yellow rather than brown ; in
some it has a red tinge. The stature, too, is low;
not like that of the negro, tail and bulky. It is
evident that heat is not everything ; and that it
may have an inter-tropical amount of intensity
without necessarily affecting the color beyond a
certain degree. As to differences between the
physical conditions of Brazil and Guiana on one
side, and those of the countries we have been con*
sidering on the other, they are important. The
condition of both the soil and climate deter-
mines to agriculture. Tliis gives us a contrast
to the Pampa Indians ; whilst, in respect to the
Peruvians, there is no longer the Andes with its
concomitants ; no longer the variety of climate
within the same latitude, the abundance of build-
ing materials, and the absence of rivers. Boat-
men, cultivators, and foresters — i, e, hunters of
the wood rather than of the open praire — such
are the families in question. Into groups of
small classificational value they divide and sub-
divide indefinitely more than the few investiga-
tors have suggested ; indeed, D'Orbigny throws
them all into one class.

The tribes of the Orinoco form the last sec-
tion of Indians, which are neither Guarani nor
Caribs ; and this brief notice of their existence
clears the ground for the somewhat fuller account
of the next two families.

The Ov^x/rcmi alone cover more land than

OF THE ORINOCO. 121

all the other tribes between the Amazons, the
Andes, and the La Plata put together ; but it is
not certain that their area is continuous. In the
Bolivian province of Santa Cruz de la Sien*a,
and in contact with the Indians of the Missions
and the Chaco, we find the Chiriguanos and
Guarayos — and these are Guarani. Then as far
north as the equator, and as far as the river
Napo on the Peruvian frontier, we find the flat-
head Omaguas, the fluviatile mariners (so to say)
of the Amazons ; and these are Guarani as well.

The bulk, however, of the stock is Brazilian ;
indeed, Brazilian and Guarani have been some-
times used as synonyms. There are, however,
other Guarani in Buenos Ayres ; there are Gua-
rani on the boundaries of Guiana ; and there are
Guarani at the foot of the Andes. But aiiiidst
the great sea of the Guarani populations, frag-
ments of other families stand out like islands;
and this makes it likely that the family in ques-
tion has been aggi'essive and intrusive, has ef-
fected displacements, and has superseded a
number of transitional varieties.

The Caribs approach, without equalling, the
Guarani, in the magnitude of their area. This
lies mostl V in Guiana and Venezuela. The chief
population of Trinidad is^ that of the Antilles waSj
Carib. The Caribs, the Inca Peruvians, the Pam-
pa horsemen, and the Fuegian boatmen repre>

122 INDIANS OP

sent the four extremes of the South American
populations.

In some of the Brazilian tribes, the oblique
eye of the Chinese and Mongolians occurs.

In order to show the extent to which a mul-
tiplicity of small families may not only exist, but
exist in the neighborhood of great ethnolo-
gical areas, I will enumerate those tribes of the
Missions, Brazil, Ouiana, and Yenezuela, for
which vocabularies have been examined, and
whereof the languages are believed, either from
the comparison of specimens, or on the strength
of direct evidence, to be mutually unintelligible ;
premising that differences are more likely to be
exaggerated than undervalued, and that the
number of tribes not known in respect to their
languages is probably as great again as that of
the known ones.

A. Between the Andes, the Missions, and
the 16' and IT S. L. come the Yurakares ; whose
language is said to differ from that of the Mo-
cdt^nes, Tacana, and Apolistas, as much as these
differ amongst themselves. /

B. In the Missions come — 1. The Moxos.
2. Movima. 3. The Cayuvava. 4. The
Sapiboconi — these belonging to Moxos. In Chi-
quitos are — 1. The Covareca. 2. The Curu-
minaca. 3. The Curavi. 4. The Cumcaneca.
6. The Corabeca. 6. The Samucu.

SOUTH AHEBIOA. 123

C. In Brazil, the tribes, other than Gnarani,
of which I have seen vocabnlaries representing
mntnally unintelligible tongues, are —

1. Tlie Botocudo, fiercest of cannibals.

2. The Goitaca, known to the Portuguese as
Coroadoa or Tonsured.

3. The Camacan with several dialects.

4. The Kiriri and Sabuja.

5. The Timbira.

6. The Pareci, the predominant population
of the Mata Grosso.

7. The Mundrucu, on the southern bank of
the Amazons, between the rivers Mauh6 and
Tabajos.

8. The Mum.

9, 10,11. The Yameo,Maina, andChimano,
between the Madera and the Ucayale.

12. The Coretu, the only one out of forty
tribes known to us by a vocabulary, for the
parts between the left bank of the Amazons and
the right of the Kio Kegro.

D. Of French, Spanish, and Dutch Guiana
I know but little. Upon British Guiana a
bright light has been thrown by the researches
of Sir R. Schomburgk. Here, besides numer-
ous well-marked divisions of the Carib group,
we have —

1. The Warows, aboreal boatmen — ^boatmen
because they occupy the Delta of the Orinoco,

124 INDIANS OV

and the low coast of Northern Gaiana — and
arboreal because the floods drive them up into
the trees for a lodging. In physical form the
"Warows are like their neighbors ; but their lan-
guage has been reduced to no class, and their
peculiar habits place them in strong contrast
with most other South Americans. They are
the Marshmen of a country which is at once a
delta and a forest.

2. The Taruma.

3. The Wapisiana, with the Aturai, Dauri,
and Amaripas as extinct, or nearly extinct, sec-
tions of them — ^themselves only a population of
four hundred.

E. Venezuela means the water-system of
Orinoco, and here we have the mutually unin-
telligible tongues of —

1, TTie Salivi^ of which the Aturi are a di-
vision — the Aturi known from Humboldt's de-
scription of their great sepulchral cavern on the
cataracts of the Orinoco ; where more than six
hundred bodies were preserved in woven bags
or baskets — some mummies, some skeletons,
some varnished with odoriferous resins, some
painted with arnotto, some bleached white,
some naked. This custom re-appears in parts
of Guiana. The Salivi have undergone great
displacement; since there is good reason for
believing that their language was once spoken
in Trinidad.

THE ORINOCO. 126

2. The Maypurea.

3. The Achagua.

4. Th^ Ya/rura^ to whicli the £etoiiB allied ;
and possbly —

The Ottomaka, — ^These are the dirt-eaters.
They fill their stomachs with an iinctuous clay,
found in their country ; and that, whether food
of a better sort be abundant or deficient.

There is plenty of difierence here; still
where there is difference in some points, there is
so often agreement in others, that no very deci-
ded difficulties are currently recognized as lying
against Ae doctiine of the South Americans
being specifically connected. When such oc-
cur, they are generally inferences from either
the superior civilization of the ancient Peruvi-
ans, or from the peculiarity of theif skulls.
The latter has been considered. The former
seems to be nothing different in kind from that
of several other American families — the Muysca
of NiBW Grenada, the Mexican, and the Maya
further northwards. But this may prove too
much; since it may merely be a reason for
isolating the Mexicans, &c. Be it so. The
question can stand over for the present.

Something has now been seen of two classes
of phaenomena which will appear and re-appear
in the sequel — ^viz. the great difference in the
physical conditions of such areas as the Fue-

196 OERTRAL AJOOStOA.

gian, the Pampa, the Peravian, and the Wa^
0W8, and the contrast between the geographical
extension of such vast groups as the Guaram,
and small families like the Wapisiana, the Tu-
rakares, and more than twenty others.

There is a great gap between South and
Central America ; nor is it safe to say that the
line of the Andes (or the Isthmus of Darien)
gives the only line of migration. The islands
that connect Florida and the Oaraccas must be
remembered also.

The natives of iN'ew Grenada are but imper-
fectly known. In Yeragua a few small tribes
have been described. In Costa Bica there are
still Indians — ^but they speak, either wholly or
generally, Spanish. The same is, probably, the
case iif ]^icaragua. The Moskito Indians are
dashed with both negro and white blood, and are
Anglicized in respect to their civilization — such
as it is. Of the West Indian Islanders none
remain but the dark-colored Caribs of St. "Vin-
cents. In Guatimala, Feruvianism re-appears ;
and architectural remains testify an industrial
development — agriculture, and life in towns.
The intertropical Andes have an Art of their
own; essentially the same in Mexico and Peru;
seen to the best advantage in those two coun-
tries, yet by no means wanting in the interme-
diate districts; remarkable in many respects.

OENTBAL AHEBICA. 137

but not more remarkable than the existence of
three climates under one degree of latitude.

Mexico, like Peru, has been isolated — and
that on the same principle. Yet the ^Egyptians
of the New World cannot be shown to have
exclusively l>elonged to any one branch of its
popalation. In Guatimala and Yucatan —
where the ruins are not inferior to those of the
Astek* country — ^the language is the Maya, and
it is as unreasonable to'^suppose that the Asteks
built these, as to attribute the Astek ruins to
Mayas. It is an illegitimate assumption to
argue that, because certain buildings were con-
tained within the empire of Montezuma, they
were therefore Astek in origin or design. More
than twenty other nations occupied that vast
kingdom ; and in most parts of it, whefre etone
is dbimdcmt^ we find architectui*al remains.

Architecture, cities, and the consolidation of
empire which they determine, keep along the
line of the Andes. They also stand in an evi-
dent roMo to the agricultural conditions of the
soil and climate. The Chaco and Pampa hab-
its which stood so much in contrast with the
industrial civilization of Peru, and so coincided

* Astek means the Mexicans of the Valley of Mexico who
■poke the Astek langaage. Mexican^ as applied to the kingdom
oonqaered by Cortex, is a political rather than an eUmologioal
term.

128 TH£ KATOHEZ.

with the open prairie character of the country,
re-appear in Texas. They increase in the great
valley of the Mississippi. Nevertheless the In-
dians of Florida, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Ken-
tucky, Virginia, and the old forests were par-
tially agricultural. They were also capable of
political consolidation. Powhattan, in Virginia,
ruled over kings and sub-kings even as Monte-
zuma did. Picture-writing — ^so-called — of which
much has been said as • Mexican characteristic,
is being found every day to be commoner and
commoner amongst the Indians of the United
States and Canada.

In an alluvial soil the barrow replaces the
pyramid. The vast sepulchral mounds of the
Valley of the Mississippi are the subjects of
one of the valuable works* of the present
time.

The Natchez, known to the novelist from the
romance of Chateaubriand, are known to the
ethnologist as preeminent amongst the Indians
of the Mississippi for their Mexican character-
istics. They flattened the head, worshipped
the sun, kept up an undying fire, recognized a
system of caste, and sacrificed human victims.
Yet to identify them with the Astek8,to assume
even any extraordinary intercourse, would be
imsafe. Their traditions, indeed, suggest the

* Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. i.

THE NATCHEZ. 129

idea of a migration ; but their language con-
tradicts their traditions. They are simply what
the other natives of Florida were. I see in the
accounts of the early Appalachians little but
Mexicans and Peruvians minus their metals,
and gems, and mountains.

The other generalities of North America are
those of Brazil, Peru, and Patagonia repeated.
The Algonkins have an era like the Guarani,
their coast-line only extending from Labrador to
Cape Hatteras. The Iroquois of New York and
the Carolinas— a broken and discontinuous pop-
ulation — indicate encroachment and displace-
ment ; they once, however, covered perhaps as
much space as the Caribs. The Sioux represent
the Chaco and Pampa tribes. Their country is
a hunting-ground, with its relations to the nor-
thern Tropic and the Arctic Circle, precisely
those of the Chaco and Pampas to the Southern
and Antarctic.

The western side of the Kocky Mountains is
more Mexican than the eastern ; just as Chili is
more Peruvian than Brazil.

I believe that if the Pacific CQ^st of America
had been the one first discovered and fullest de-
scribed, so that Kussian America, New Cale-
donia, Queen Charlotte's Archipelago, and Nut-
ka Sound, had been as well known as we know
Canada and New Brunswick, there would never

r

180 TRAKSmOK FROM THE INDIAN

have been any doubts or diffictilties as to the
origin of the so-called Bed Indians of the ISTew
World ; and no one would ever have speculated
about Africans finding their way to Brazil, or
Polynesians to CaUfomia. The common^ense
primdfacie view would have been, admitted at
once, instead of being partially refined on and
partially abandoned. iN^orth-eastem Asia would
have passed for the fatherland to ISTorth-western
America ; and instead of Chinese and Japanese
characteristics creating wonder when discovered
in Mexico and Peru, the only wonder would
have been in the rarity of the occurrence. But
geographical discovery came from another quar-
ter, and as it was the Indians of the Atlantic
whose history first served as food for speculation,
the most natural view of the origin of the Ame^
ican population was the last to be adopted—
perhaps it has still to be recognized.

The reason for all this lies in the following
fact. The Eskimo, who form the only family
common to the Old and the New World, stand
in a remarkable contrast to the unequivocal and
admitted American aborigines of Labrador,
Newfoundland, Canada, the New England States,
New York, and the other well-known Indians in
general. Size, manners, physical conformation,
and language, all help to separate the two stocks.
But this contrast extends only to the parts eaxi

TO THB ESKIMO. 131

of the Socky Mountains. On the west of them
there is no such abruptness, no such definitude,
no such trenchant lines of demarcation. The
Athabascan dialects of !N^ew Caledonia and Eus-
sian America are notably interspersed with Eski-
mo words, and vice versad. So is the Koluch
tongue of the parts about New Archangel. As
for a remarkable dialect called the ITgalents (or
Ugyalyackhmutsi) spoken by a few families
about Mount St. Elias, it is truly transitional in
character. Besides this, what applies to the
language applies to the other characteristics as
well.

The lines of separation between the Eskimo
and the non-Eskimo Americans are as faint on
the Pacific, as they are strong on the Atlantic
side of the continent.

What accounts for this ? The Phsenomenon
is by no means rare. The Laplander^ strongly
contrasted with the Norwegian on the west, gra-
duates into the Finlanderon the east. The rela-
tion of the Hottentot to the Kafire has been
already noticed. So has the hypothesis thateiL
plains it. One stock has encroached upon
another, and the transitional forms have been
displaced. In the particular case before us, the
encroaching tribes of the Algonkin class have
pressed upon the Eskimo from the south ; and
jugt as the present Norwegians and Swedes

132 THE N0BTH-WE8TESN IKDIAI78.

now occupy the country of a family which was
originally akin to the Laps of Lapland (but wifih
more southern characters), the Micmacs and
other Red Men have superseded the southerly
and transitional Eskimo. Meanwhile, in Norih-
westem America no such displacement has taken
place. The families still stand in situ y and the
phsenomena of transition have escaped oblitera-
tion.

Just as the Eskimo graduate in the Ameri-
can Indian, so do they pass into the populations
of North-eastern Asia — ^language being the in-
strument which the present writer has more
especially employed in their affiliation. From
the Peninsula of Aliaska to the Aleutian chain
of islands, and from the Aleutian chain to Eam-
skatka is the probable course of the migration
from Asia to America — ^traced backwards, L e,
from the goal to the starting-point, from the ci^
cumference to the centre.

Then come two conflicting lines. The Aleu-
tians may have been either Kamskadales or
Curile Islanders. In either language there is a
sufficiency of vocables to justify either notion.
But this is a mere point of minute ethnology
when compared with the broader one which has
just preceded it. The Japanese and Corean
populations are so truly of the same class with
the Curile islanders, and the J^oriaks to the

THB TASMANIA17S. 133

north of the 8ea of the Okhotsk are so truly Kam-
skadale, that we may now consider ourselves as
having approached our conventional centre so
closely as to be at liberty to leave the parts in
question for the consideration of another portion
of the circumference — another extreme point of
divergence.

n. From Van Diemen^sLand to the South-
Eastern parts of Asia, — ^The aborigines of Van
Diemen's Land, conveniently called Tasmanians,
have a fair claim, when considered by them-
selves, to be looked upon as members of a sep-
arate species. The Australians are on a level
low enough to satisfy the most exaggerated
painters of a state of natu/re ; but the Tasman-
ians are, apparently, lower still. Of this family
but a few families remain — occupants of Flin-
ders' Island, whither they have been removed
by the Van Diemen's Land Government. And
here they decrease ; but whether from want of
room or from intermarriage is doubtful. The
effects of neither have been fairly investigated.
From the Australians they differ in the texture
of their hair — ^the leading diagnostic character.
The Tasmanian is shock-headed, with curled,
frizzy, matted and greased locks. None of their
dialects are intelligible to any Australian, and
the commercial intercouree between the two
islands seems to have been little or none. Short

134 TASMANIAire

specimens of four mutually unintelligible dia-
lects are all that I have had the opportunity of
comparing. They belong to the same class wifli
those of Australia, New Guinea, and the Papua
islands ; and this is all that can safely be said
about them.

It is an open question whether the Tasman-
ians reached Van Diemen's Land from South
Australia, from Timor, or from New Caledonia
— the line of migration having, in this latter
case, wound rovmd Austi-alia, instead of stretch-
ing across it. Certain points of resemblance
between the New Caledonian and Tasmanian
dialects suggest this refinement upon ibeprimi
facie doctrine of an Australian origin ; and the
texture of the hair, as far as it proves anything,
goes the same way.

Australia is radically and fundamentally the
occupancy of a single stock : the greatest sign of
difference between its numerous tribes being that
of language. Now this is but a repetition of the
philological phsenomena of America. The black-
er and ruder population of Timpr represents the
great-great ancestors of the Australians ; and it
was from Timor that Australia was, apparently,
peopled. I feel but little doubt on the subject.
Timor itself is connected with the Malayan pe-
ninsula by a line of dark-colored, rude, and frag-
mentary populations, to be found in Ombey and

AND ATJSTBALIAK8. 185

Floris at the present moment, and inferred to
have existed in Java and Sumatra before the
development of the peculiar and encroaching
civilization of the Mahometan Malays.

It is in the Mialayan peninsula that another
line of migration terminates. From New Cale-
donia to New Guinea, a long line of islands —
Tanna, MallicoUo, Solomon's Isles, &e. — ^is occu-
pied by a dark-skinned population of rude Pa-
puas, with Tasmanian rather than Australian
hair ; i. ^.with hair which is frizzy, crisp, curled,
or mop-headed, rather than straight, lank, or
only wavy. This comes from New Guinea;
New Guinea itself comes from the Eastern Mo-
luccas ; i, e. from their darker populations.
These are of the same origin with those of Timor ;
though the lines of migration are remarkably
distinct. One is from the Moluccas to New Ca-
ledonia via New Guinea ; the other is via Timor
to Australia.

Both these migrations were early, earlier
than the occupancy of Polynesia. The previous
occupancy of Australia and New Guinea proves
this ; and the greater diiferences between the
different sections of the two populations do the
same.^

rH. JF'rom Easter Island to the SouthrEast-
empoHa of Asia, — ^The northern, southern, and
eastern extremities of Polynesia are the Sand.

136 POLYNESIAK OBOUP.

wich Islands, !N'ew Zealand, and Easter Island,
respectively. These took their occupants from
diflferent islands of the great gronp to which
they belong ; of which the Navigators' Islands
were, probably, the first to be peopled. The
Kadack, Ralik, Caroline, and Pelew groups con-
nect this group with either the Philippines or
the Moluccas ; and when we reach these, we ar-
rive at the point where the Papuan and Polyne-
sian lines diverge. Just as the Papuan line
overlapped or wound round Australia, so do the
Micronesians and Polynesians form a circuit
round the whole Papuan area.

As the languages, both of Polynesia and
Micronesia, differ from each other far less than
those of New Guinea, the Papuan Islands, and
Australia, the separation from the parent stock
is later. It is, most probably, through the Phil-
ippines that this third line converges towards
the original and continental source of all three.
This is the south-eastern portion of the Asiatic
Continent, or the Indo-Chinese Peninsula.

The Malay of the Malayan Peninsula is an
mflected tongue, as opposed to the Siamese of
Biam, which belongs to the same class as the
Chinese, and is monosyllabic. This gives us a
convenient point to stop at.

In like manner the Corean and Japanese
tongues, with which we broke off the American

THE MALAGA8I. 187

lino of migration, were polysyllabic ; though the
Chinese, with which they came in geographical
contact, was monosyllabic.

The most remarkable fact connected with the
Oceanic stogk is the presence of a certain num-
ber of Malay and Polynesian words in the lan-
guage of an island so distant as Madagascar; an
island not only distant from the Malayan Pe-
ninsula, but near to the Mozambique coast of
Afi'ica, an ethnological area widely different
from the Malay.

Whatever may be the inference from this
fact — and it is one upon which many very con-
flicting opinions have been founded — its reality
is undoubted. It is admitted by Mr. Crawfurd,
the writer above all others who is indisposed to
admit the Oceanic origin of the Malagasi, and
and it is accounted for as follows : " A naviga-
tion of 3000 miles of open sea lies between
them,* and a strong trade-wind prevails in the
greater part of it. A voyage from the Indian Is-
lands to Madagascar is possible, even in the rude
state of Malayan navigation ; but return would
be wholly impossible. Commerce, conquests, or
colonization, are, consequently, utterly out of
the question, as means of conveying any portion
of the Malayan language to Madagascar. There
remains, then, but one way in which this could

* The Indian Islauds and Madagascar.

188 THE MALAGAS! Mia&ATIOir.

have taken place — ^the fortuitous arrival on the
shores of Madagascar of tempest-driven Ma-
layan j!?rat^*. The south-east monsoon, which is
but a continuation of the south-east trade-wind,
prevails from the tenth degree of south latitude
to the equator, its greatest force being left in the
Java Sea, and its influence embracing the west-
em half of the island of Sumatra. This wind
blows from April to October, and an easterly
gale during this period might drive a vessel off
the shores of Sumatra or Java, so as to make it
impossible to regain them. In such a situation
she would have no resource but putting before
the wind, and making for the first land that
chance might direct her to; and that first land
would be Madagascar. With a fair wind and a
stiff breeze, which she would be sure of, she
might reach that island, without difficulty, in
a month. * * * The occasional arrival
in Madagascar of a shipwrecked jp/'at*, might
not, indeed, be suflicient to account for even the
small portion of Malayan found in the Mala-
gasi ; but it was offering no violence to the man-
ners or history of the Malay people, to imagine
the probability of a piratical fleet, or a fleet
carrying one of those migrations, of which there
are examples on record, being tempest-driven,
like a single ^at^. Such a fleet, well equipped,
well stocked, and well manned, would not only

THE MALAGASI MIGBATIOK. 139

be fitted for the long and perilous voyage, but
reach Madagascar in a better condition than a
fishing or trading boat. It may seem, then,
not an improbable supposition, that it was
through one or more fortuitous adventures of
this description, that the language of Madagas-
car received its influx of Malayan."

As a supplement to the remarks of Mr. Craw-
furd, I add the following account from Mr. M*
Martin : " Many .instances have occurred of
the slaves in Mauritius seizing on a canoe, or
boat, at night-time, and with a calabash of water
and a few manioc, or Cassada roots, pushing out
to sea, and endeavoring to reach across to Mada-
gascar or Africa, through the pathless and
stormy ocean. Of course they generally perish,
but some succeed. We picked up a frail canoe
within about a hundred miles of the coast of Af-
rica ; it contained five runaway slaves, one dy-
ing in the bottom of the canoe, and the others
nearly exhausted. They had fled from a harsh
French master at the Seychelles, committed
themselves to the deep without compass or
guide, with a small quantity of water and rice,
and trusting to their fishing-lines for support.
Steering by the stars, they had nearly reached
the coast from which they had been kidnapped,
when nature sank exhausted, and we were just
in time to save four of their lives. So long as

140 TUB MALAGABI MIGRATION.

the wanderers in search of home were able to do
so, the days were numbered by notches on the
side of the canoe, and twenty-one were thus
marked when met with by our vessel."

These extracts have been given for the sake
of throwing light upon the most remarkable
Oceanic migration known — ^for migration there
must have been, even if it were so partial as Mr.
Crawfurd makes it ; migration which may make
the present Malagasi Oceanic or not, according
to the state in which they found the island at
their amval. If it were already peopled, the
passage across the great Indian Ocean is jiist as
remarkable as if it were, till then, untrodden by
a human foot. The only additional wonder in
this latter case would be the contrast between
the Africans, who missed an island so near, and
the Malays who discovered one so distant.

Individually, I differ from Mr Crawfurd in
respect to the actual differences between the
Malay and the Malagasi, with the hesitation and
respect due to his known acquirements in the
former of these languages ; but I differ more and
more unhesitatingly from liim in the valuation
of them as signs of ethnological separation ;
believing, not only that the two languages are
essentially of the same family, but that the de-
scent, blood, or pedigree of the Malagasi is as
Oceanic as their language.

lY. From the Cofpe of Good Hope to the

THE HOTTENTOTS. 141

Southrwestern parts of Asia, — ^The Hottentots of
the Cape have a better claim than, any other
members of the human kind to be considered .as
a separate species. Characteristics apparently
differential occur on all sides. Motally, the
Hottentots are rude ; physically, they are under-
sized and Veak. In all the points wherein the
Eskimo differs from the Algonkin, or the Lap
from the Fin, the Hottentot recedes from the
Kaffre. Yet the Kaffre is his nearest neighbor.
To the ordinary distinctions, steatomata on the
nates and peculiarities in the reproductive organs
have been superadded.

Nevertheless, a very scanty collation gives
the following philological similarities ; the Hot-
tentot dialects* being taken on the one side, and
the other African languagesf on the other. 1
leave it to the reader to pronounce upon the im-
port of the table ; adding only the decided ex-
pression of ray own belief that the coincidences
in question are too numerous to be accidental,
too little onomatopoeic to be organic, and too
widely as well as too irregularly distributed, to
be explained by the assumption of intercourse
or intermixture.

* Viz. : the Korana, Saab, Hottentot, and Bushman.

t The Agow, Somauli, and the rest ; some being spoken very
fiir north, as the Agow and Seracol^. This list has already been
published by the author in his Report on Ethnological Philology,
(Transactions of the Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, 1847).

143

THB HOTTENTOTS.

EngUih

■un.

English

sleep.

Saab

Vkoara,

Corana

fkchem.

Hottentot

sorre.

Vkoing.

Corana

soroh.

Susu

kima.

Agbw

quorah.

Howssa

kuana.

Soman]!

ghurrah.

lO'n

guiro.

English

fire.

Kanga

jiro.

Corana

taib.

Wawn

jtrrt.

Congo

tubim.

Somauli

• dub.

English

tongue.

Bushman

Vjih.

Corana

tamma.

Fot

diu.

Basbman

Vinn,

Ashantee

ojia.

Fertit

timi.

English

neck.

English

neck.

Bushman

Vkau.

Bushman

Vkau.

Makua

tchico.

Darfoi*

kiu.

English

die.

English

hand.

Corana

Vkoe.

Corana

fkoam.

Bushman

tkukL

Shilluck

kiam.

Makua

ocoa^dead.

English

tree.

English

good.

Corana

peikoa.

Corana

Vkain.

Bushman

Vhauki,

Bushman

teteini.

Shilluck

yuke.

Makua

oni'touny.

English

mountain. '

English

foot

Corana

teub.

Corana

Vnah.

Falasha

duha.

Hottentot

Vnoah.

Makua

nyahai.

English

ear.

Corana

fnaum.

English

drink.

Bullom

naimu.

Corana

Vkchaa,

Howssa

sha.

English

star.

Corana

kamhrokon.

English

star.

Kossa

rumbereki.

Bushman

tkoaati.

Bagnon

hoquuoud.

English

bird.

Fulah

kode.

Bushman
Mandingo

Vkanni.
kuno.

English
Corana

child.
rkob.

SOUTH AFBIOAKd. 143

Biifiliman Vkatkoang»

BagDon colden,

Timmani kalent,

Bollom tshant*

Enfflish tree.

Bashman fhuk.

Seracol^, dco. He,

English foot

Corana Vheib.

Busbman fkoah.
Sereres akiaf,

Waag Agau. ttab.

Unless we suppose Southern Africa to have
been the cradle of the human species, the popu-
lation of the Cape must have been an extension
of that of the Southern Tropic, and the Tropical
family itself have been originally Equatorial.
What does this imply ? Even this — ^that those
streams of population upon which the soil, cli-
mate, and other physical influences of South
Africa acted, had themselves been acted on bv
the inter-tropical and equatorial influences of the
Negro countries. Hence the human stock upon
which the physical conditions had to act, was as
peculiar as those conditions themselves. It was
not in the same predicament with the inter-trop-
ical South Americans. Between these and the
hypothetical centre, in Asia, there was the Arc-
tic Circle and the Polar latitudes — ^influences
that in some portion of the line of migration
must have acted on their ancestors' ancestors.

It was nearer the condition of the Austra-
lians. Yet the equatorial portion of the line of
migration of these latter have been very differ-
ent from that of the Kaffres and the Hottentots.
It was narrow in extent, and lay in fertile jslands,

Hi THE XAFFSB8.

cooled by the breezes and eyaporation of the
ocean, rather than across the arid table-land of
Central Africa — ^the parts between the Gulf of
Guinea and the mouth of the river Juba.

Between the Hottentots and their next
neighbors to the north, there are many points of
difference. Admitting these to a certain extent,
I explain them by the assumption of encroach-
ment, displacement, and the abolition of those
intermediate and transitional tribes which con-
nected the northern Hottentots with the south-
em Kaffres.

And here I must remark, that the displace-
ment itself is lio assumption at all, but an his-
torical fact ; since within the last few centm*ies
the Amakosa Kaffres alone have extended them-
selves, at the expense of different Hottentot
tribes, from the parts about Port Katal to the
head-waters of the Orange River.

It is only the transitional character of the an-
nihilated populations that is an assumption. I
believe it, of course, to be a legitimate one ;
otherwise it would not have been made.

On the other hand, I consider it illegitimate
to assume, without inquiry, so broad and funda-
mental a distinction between the two stocks, as
to attribute all points of similarity to intercourse
only — ^none to original affinity. Yet this is done
largely. The Hottentot language contains a

THE KAFFEES. 146

sound which I believe to be an m-aspirated h / -i.
«., a sound of A formed by dra/wing m the
breath, rather than hj forcing it out, as is done
by the rest of the world. This is called the click.
It is a truly inarticulate sound ; and as the com-
mon h is found in the language as well, the
Hottentot speech presents the remarkable phe-
nomenon of two inarticulate sounds, or two
sounds common to man and the lower animals.
As a point of anthropology, tliis may be of
value ; in ethnology it has probably been mis-
interpreted.

It is found in one Kaffre dialect. "What are
the inferences ? That it has bee» adopted from
the Hottentot by the Kaffre ; just as a Kaflro
gun has been adopted from the Europeans.
This is one of them.

The other is that the sound in question is less
unique, less characteristic, and less exclusively
Hottentot than was previously believed.

Now this is certainly not one whit less legiti-
mate than the former; yet the former is the
commoner notion. Perhaps it is beciause it
flatters us with a fresh fact, instead of chastening
us by the correction of an over-hasty generali-
zation.

Again : the root t-k (as in tixo^ tixme^ utiko)
is at once Hottentot and Kaffre. It means either
a Deity, or an epithet appropriate to a Deity.

146 THB KAFFBE8.

Stirely the doctrine that the Kafires have simplj
borrowed parts of their theological vocabulary
from the Hottentots, is neither the only nor the
most logical inference here.

The Kaffre area is so large that it extends on
both sides of Africa to the equator ; and the
contrast which it supplies when compared with
the small one of the Hottentots, is a repetition
of the contrasts already noticed in America.

The peculiarities of the Kaffre stock are fully
sufficient to justify care and consideration,
before we place them in the same class either
with the true Negroes, or with the Gallas, Nu-
bians, Agows, and other Africans of the water-
system of the Nile. Yet they are by no means
of that broad and trenchant kind which many
have fancied them. The undoubted Kaffi^e char-
acter of the languages of Angola, Loango, the
Gaboon, the Mozambique, and Zanzibar coasts,
is a fact which must run through all our criti-
cism. If so, it condemns all those extreme in-
ferences which are drawn from the equally un-
doubted peculiarities of the Kaffi'es of the Cape.
And why? Because these last are extreme
forms ; extreme, rather than either typical or —
what is more important — transitional.

Let us, however, look to them. "What find
we then? Until the philological evidence in
favor of the community of origin of the inter-

KAFTBE — ^NEaSOS. l47

tropical Africans of Congo on the west, and of
Inhambame, Sofala, the Mozambique, &c., on
the east, was known, no one spoke of the natives
in any of those countries as being any thing else
bnt Negro, or thought of enlarging npon such
differences as are now found between them and
tho typical Black.

Even in respect to the languages, there are
transitional dialects in abundance. In Mrs. Xil-
ham's tables of 31 African languages, the last is
A Kongo vocabulary, all the rest being Negro.
Now this Kongo vocabulary, which is truly
Kaffre, differs from the rest so little more than
the rest do from each other, that when I first saw
the list, being then strongly prepossessed by the
opinion that the Kaffre stock of tongues was, to
a great extent, a stock per se^ I could scarcely
believe that the true Kongo and Kaffre language
was represented ; so I satisfied myself that it
was so, by a collation with other undoubted vo-
cabularies, before I admitted the inference.
And this is only one fact out of many.*

Again — ^the Negroes themselves are referable
to an extreme rather than a normal type ; and
so far are they from being co-extensive with the
Africans^ that it is almost exclusively along the
valleys of rivers that they are to be found. There

* A table showiug this is to be found in the Transaotions of
the Brituh A88o<»ation for 1847, <feo., p. 224-^28.

148 THE KEGR06.

are none in the extra-tropical parte of Northern,
none in the corresponding parts of Southern
Africa ; and but few on the table-lands of even
the two sides of the equator. Their areas, in-
deed, are scanty and small ; one lies on the Up-
per Nile, one on the Lower Gambia and Sene-
gal, one on the Lower Niger, and the last along
the western coast, where the smaller rivers that
originate in the Kong Mountains form hot and
moist alluvial tracts.

From whatever other A&icans the Negros
are to be separated, they are not to be discon-
nected from the Kaffres, the chief points of con-
tact and transition being the parts about the
Gaboon.

Neither are the Kaffres to be too ti'enchantly
cut off from the remarkable families of the Sa-
hara, the range of Atlas, and the coasts of the
Mediterranean — ^families which it is convenient
to take next in order ; not because this is the
sequence which most -closely suits either their
geography or their ethnology, but because the
criticism which has lately been applied to them
best helps us in the criticism of the present affi-
liations.

On the confines of Egypt, in the oasis of Si-
wah, we find the most eastern members of the
great Berber, Amazirgh, or Kabyle family ; and
we find them as far west as the Canary Isles, of

THE BBBBEBS. 149

which they were the occupants as long as a na-
tive population occupied them at all. Members
of the same stock were the ancient subjects of
Jugurtha, Syphax, and Masinissa. Mr. Francis
Newman, who has paid more attention to the
speech of the Berber tribes than any English-
man (perhaps than any European), has shown
that it deserves the new and convenient name
of /Sw5-Semitic — a term to be enlarged on.

Let us first take a language in its first state
of inflexion, when passing from the monosylla-
bic form of the Chinese and its allied tongues,
it just begins to incorporate with its hitherto
unmodified nouns and verbs, certain proposi-
tions denoting relation^ certain adverbs denot-
ing time^ and cei*tain pronouns of person or
possession ; by means of all which it gets equi-
valents to the cases, tenses, and persons of the
more advanced forms of speech.

This is the germ of Conjugation and De-
clension ; of the Accidents of Grammar. Let
us, however, go farther. Over and above the
simple juxtaposition and incipient incorpora-
tion of these previously separable and indepen-
dent particles, let there be certain internal ones ;
those, for instance, which convert the English
Present Tenses faU and »peaJc into the Prete-
rites fell and apohe — or something of the same
sort

160 BEBirno lahouagxs.

Farther still. Let such changes of (iceefU as
occur when we form an adjective like tyrdnmo-
(dy from a substantive like tyr<mt^ be super-
added.

The union of such processes as these will
imdoubtedly stamp a remarkable character up-
on the language in which they appear.

But what if they go farther? or what if,
without actually going farther, the tongues
which they characterize find expositors who de-
light in giving them prominence, and also ex-
aggerate their import ? This is no hypothetical
case.

A large proportion of roots almost necesssr
rily contain three consonants ; e. g., hread^ stone^
&c., pronounced hred^ 8t6n^ &c. This is one
&ct.

In many languages there is an inability to
pronounce two consonants belonging to the same
syllable, in immediate succession ; an inability
which is met by the insertion of an intervening
vowel. The Finlander, instead of JKrist^ must
say either EhrUto or Keristo. This principle in
English, would convert hred into hered or ebred^
and stdn into esion or seton. This is another
fact.

These two and the preceding ones should
now be combined. A large proportion of roots
containing three consonants may induce a gram-

BEMino LAKaiTAGES. 151

marian to coin such a term as triUterdlism^ and
to say that this triUteraliam characterizes a cer-
tain language.

Then, as not only these consonants are sepa-
rated from one another by intervening vowels,
but as the vowels themselves are subject to
change, (these changes acting upon the accenta-
tion,) the triliteralism becomes more important
still. The consonants look like the framework
or skeleton of the words, the vowels being the
modifying influences. The one are the ccm-
atards^ the other the va/riants ; and triliteral
roots with internal modifications becomes a phi-
lological byword which is supposed to represent
a unique phenomenon in the way of speech,
rather than the simple result of two or three
common processes united in one and the same
language.

But the force of system does not stop here.
Suppose we wished to establish the paradox
that the English was a language of the sort in
question. A little ingenuity would put us up
to some clever legerdemain. The convenient
aspirate h — ^like the bats in the fable of the
birds and beasts at war — ^might be a consonant
when it was wanted to make up the complement
of three, and a vowel when it was de trop.
"Words like pity might be made triliteral {pHr
eanaanofUal) by doubling the tt; words like

152 THE BEMrnO FAMILIES.

pitted^ by ejecting it. Lastly, if it were denied
that two consonants mnst necessarily be sepaiv
ated by a vowel, it would be an easy matter to
say that between such sounds as the n and r in
Henry ^ the h and r in hread^ the r and h in cwrb^
there was really a very short vowel ; and that
Heneryj bered, curvh^ were the true sounds ; (x
that, if they were not so in the nineteenth cen-
tury, they were two thousand years ago.

Kow let all this be taught and believed, and
who will not isolate the language in which such
remarkable phenomena occur?

All this is taught and believed, and conse-
quently there is a language, or rather a group
of languages, thus isolated.

But the isolation does not stop with the phi-
lologist. The anatomist and the historian sup-
port it as well. The nations who speak the
language in question are in the neighborhood of
Blacks, but "v^thout being Blacks themselves ;
and they are in contact with rude Pagans;
themselves being eminently monotheistic. Their
history also has been an influential one, morally
and materially as well ; whilst the skulls are as
symmetrical as the skull of the famous Geor-
gian female of our first chapter, their complex-
ions fair or ruddy, and their noses so little Afri-
can as- to emulate the eagle's beak in prominent
convexity. All this exaggerates the elements
of isolation.

THE SEMinO FAMILIES. 153

The class or family thus isolated, which — as
stated above — ^has a real existence, has been
conveniently called Semitic ; sl term compris-
ing the twelve tribes of Israel and the modem
Jews so far as they are descended from them,
the Syrians of ancient, and, partially, of modem
Syria, the Mesopotamians, the Phoenicians, the
Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Arabs, and cer-
tain populations of ^Ethiopia or Abyssinia.

Further facts, real or supposed, have con-
tributed to isolate this remarkable and impor-
tant family. The Africans who were nearest to
them, both in locality and civilization — the
.^Egyptians of the Pharaohnic empire, builders
of tiie pyramids, and writers in hieroglyphics-
have ceased to exist as a separate substantive
nation. Their Asiatic frontagers, on the other
hand, were either Persians or Armenians.

Everything favored isolation here. The
Jew and ./Egyptian were in strong contrast, from
the beginning, and all our earliest impressions
are in favor of an over-valuation of their differ-
ences. As for the Persian, he was so early
placed in a different class — a class which, from
the fact of its being supposed to contain the
Germans, Greeks, Latins, Slavonians, and Hin-
dus as well, has been called Indo-European —
that he had a proper and peculiar position of
his own ; and something almost as stringent iu

8

154 THB SEHinO FAMILIBS.

the way of demarcation applied to the Anne>
nian. Where, then, were the approaches to the
Semitic family to be found ?

Attempts were made to connect them with
the Indo-Eoropeans ; Ithinkimsuccessfiilly. Of
course there was a certain amount of relation-
ship of some kind ; but it by no means followed
that this established the real affiliations. There
was a connection; but not the connection.
The reasons for this yiew lay partly in certaia
undoubted affinities with the Persians, and
partly in the fact of the Jew, Syrian and Arab
skulls, and the Jew, Syrian and Arab civiliza-
tions coming under the category of Ccmcasian.
Consciously or unconsciously, most writers
have gone on this hypothesis — ^naturally, but
inconsiderately. Hence the rough current opin-
ion has been, that if the Semitic tribes were in
any traceable degree of relationship with the
other families of the earth, that relationship
must be sought for amongst the Indo-Euro-
peans.

The next step was to raise the Semitic class
to the rank of a standard or measm*e for the
affinities of unplaced families ; and writers who
investigated particular languages more readily
inquired whether such languages were Semitic,
than what the Semitic tongues were themselves.
Unless I mistake the spirit in which many ad

THB SEBCmO FAMILIES. 155

mirable inyestigations have been condncted,
this led to the term xS^Semitic. Men asked
about the amount of SemiUmi in certain fami-
lies as if it were a substantive and inherent
property, rather than what Semitism itself con-
sisted in.

And now /S^^J-Semitic tongues multiplied;
since Sub-Semitism was a respectable thing to
predicate of the object of one's attention.

The ancient ^Egyptian was stated to be Siib-
Semitic — ^Benfey and others having done good
work in making it so.

Mr. Newman did the same with the Berber.
Meanwhile the anatomist acted much like the
philologist, and brought the skulls of the old
.^gptians in the same class with those of the
Jews and Arabs, so as to be Caucasian.

But the Caucasians had been put in a sort of
antithesis to the Negros ; and hence came mis-
chief. Whatever may be the views of those
able writers who have investigated the Sub-Se-
mitic Africans, when pressed for definitions, it
is not too much to say that, in practice, they
have all acted as if the moment a class became
Semitic, it ceased to be African. They have all
looked one way ; that being the way in which
good Jews and Mahometans look — towards
Mecca and Jerusalem. They have forgotten
the pheenomena of correlation. If Caesar is like

156 THB SEMinO FAlHTTiTTW.

Pompey, Pompey must be like Ctesar. If Af-
rican languages approach the Hebrew, the He-
brew mast approach them. The attraction is
mutual ; and it is by no means a case of Ma-
homet and the mountain.

I believe that the Semitic element of the
Berber, the Coptic and the Galla are clear and
imequiyocal ; in other words, that these langua-
ges are truly Sub-Semitic.

In the languages of Abyssinia, the Gheez
and Tigr^, admitted, as long as they have been
known at all, to be Semitic^ graduate through
the Amharic, the Falasha, the Harargi, the
Gafat, and other languages which may be well
studied in Dr. Beke's valuable comparative
tables,* into the Agow tongue, nnequivocally
indigenous to Abyssinia ; and through this into
the true Negro classes.

' But unequivocal as may be the Semitic ele-
ments of the Berber, Coptic and Galla, their
affinities with the tongues of Western and*
Southern Africa are more so. I weigh my
words when I say, not equdUy^ but rruyre.
Changing the expression for every foot in ad-
vance which can be made towards the Semitic
tongues in one direction, the African philologist

♦ Transactions of the Philological Society, No. 33.

THE BEMinO FAMILIES. 157

can go ^ JSLrd towards the Negro ones in the
other.f

Of course, the proofs of all this in full detail
would fill a large volume; indeed, the exhaus-
tion of the subject, and the annihilation of all
possible and contingent objections would fill
many. The position, however, of the present
writer is not so much that of the engineer who
has to force his water up to a higher uphill by
means of pxmips, as it is that of the digger and
delver who merely clears away artificial em-
bankments which have hitherto prevented it
finding its own level according to the common
laws of nature. He has little fear from the re-
sults of separate and independent investigation,
when a certain amount of preconceived notions
have been unsettled.

To proceed with the subject — ^the conver-
gence of the lines of migration in Africa is
broken or unbroken, clear or indistinct, continu-
ous or irregular, to much the same extent, and

t A short table of the Berber and Coptic, as compared with
the other African tongues, may be seen in the Classical Museum,
and in the Transactions of the British Association, for 1846.
In the Transactions of the Philological Society is a grammatical
sketch of the Tnmali language, by Dr. L. Tutshek of Munich.
Now the Tumali is a truly Negro language of Kordofon; whilst
in respect to the extent to which its inflections are formed by
internal changes of vowels and accents, it is fully equal to the
Semitic tongues of Palestine and Arabia. ,

158 THB TEKIC HBOBO*

mnch in a Bimiliu* mannear, with those of Ame^
ica. The moral contrasts which were afforded
by the Mexicans and Peravians reappear in the
case of the ^Egyptians and the Semitidse. As
to the Hottentots, they, perhaps^ are more
widely separated from their next of kin than
any Americans, the Eskimo not being excepted ;
BO much so, that if the phenomena of their Ian-
gnage be either denied or explarned away, they
may pass for a new species.

ISTow if the reader have attended to the dif-
ferences between the Ethaological and the Ainr
thropologiGal principles of classification, he
must have inferred the necessity of certain dif-
ferences of nomenclature, since it is hardly
likely that the terms which suit the one study
will exactly fit the other. And such is really
the case. If the word Negro mean the combi-
nation of woolly hair, with a jetty skin, de-
pressed nose, thick lips, narrow forehead, acute
facial angle, and prominent jaw, it applies to
Africans as widely different from each other as
the Laplander is from the Samoeid and Eskimo,
or the Englishman from the Finlander. It ap
plies to the inhabitants of certain portions of
different river-systems, independent of relaitionr
ship — and vice versd. The Negros of Kordofan
are nearer in descent to the Copts and Arabs
than are the lighter-colored and more civilized

TBANSmOKAL TEIBES. 159

Fnlahs. They are also nearer to the same than
they are to the Blacks of Senegambia. If this
be the case, the term has no place in Ethnology,
except so far as its extensive use makes it hard
to abandon. Its real application is to Anthro-
pology, wherein it means the effects of certain
inflaences upon certain intertropical Africans,
irrespective of descent, but not irrespective of
physical condition. As truly as a short stature
and light skin coincide with the occupancy of
mountain ranges, the Negro physiognomy coin-
cides with that of the alluvia of rivers. Few
writers are less disposed to account for ethno-
logical differences by reference to a change of
physical conditions rather than original distinc-
tion of species than Dr. Daniell ; nevertheless,
he expressly states that when you leave the low
swamps of the Delta of the Niger for the sand-
stone country of the interior, the skin becomes
fairer, and black becomes brown, and brown
yellow.

Of the African populations mostimmediately
in contact with the typical Negro of the west-
em coast, the fairest are the Nufi, (conterminous
with the Ibos of the Lower Niger), and the Pu-
lahs who are spread over the highlands of Sene-
gambia, as far in the interior as Sakatu, and as
far south as the Nufi frontier.

On 'the other hand, the darkest of the fairer

160 TRAKBinONAL TJKIBE8.

fiunilies are the Tuaricks of Wadreag, who
belong to the Berber family, and the Shejga
Arabs of Nubia.

The Nubians themselves, or the natives of
the Middle Nile, between ^gjpt and Sennaar,
are truly transitional in features between the
JElgyptians and the Blacks of Eordofan. So
they are in language, and apparently in civiliza-
tional development.

The best measure of capacity, in this respect,
on the part of those Africans who have been
less favored by external circumstances and geo-
graphical position than the ancient Egyptians,
is to be found amongst the Mandingos and Fn-
lahs, each of which nations has adopted the
Mahometan religion, and some portion of the
Arabic literature along with it. Of large towns
there are more in Negro Africa than there has
ever been in Mongolia and Tartary. Tet the
Tartars are neither more nor less than Turks,
like those of Constantinople, and the Mongoli-
ans are closely connected with the industrial
Chinese.

That the uniformity of languages throughout
Africa is greater than it is either in Asia or
Europe, is a statement to which I have not the
least hesitation in committing myself.

And now, having brought the African mi-
gration — to which I allot the Semitic populations

PBIMABT MIGBATIONS. 161

of Arabia, Syiia, and Babylonia — ^from its ex-
tremity at the Cape to a point so near the hy-
pothetical centre as the frontiers of Persia and
Armenia, I leave it for the present.

* * * * * * *

The English of England are not the earliest
occupants of the island. Before them were the
ancient Britons. Were these the earliest occu-
pants? Who were the men by whose foot Britain,
till then the home of the lower animals alone,
was first trodden? This is uncertain. Why
may not the Kelts have stood in the same rela-
tion to some rude Britons still more primitive,
that the Anglo-Saxons did to the Kelts ? Per-
haps th9y reaUy did so. Perhaps, even the rude
and primitive tribes thus assumed had aborigi-
nes who looked upon them as intruders, them-
selves having in their turn been interlopers.
The chief objection against thus multiplying
aboriginal aboriginies is the rule de non a/ppor
rerMvs^ &c.

But Britain is an idcmd. Everything rela-
ting to the natural history of the iiseful arts is so
wholly uninvestigated, that no one has proposed
even to approximate the date of the first launch
of the first boat ; in other words, of the first oc-
cupancy of a piece of land surrounded by water.
The whole of that particular continent in which
the first protoplasts saw light, may have re-

8*

162 FBDCABT USaRA.rSOWL

mamed full to overflowing, before a single frail
raft had effected the first human migration.

Britain may have remained a solitude for
centuries and millenniums after Gkiul had been
full. I do not suppose this to have been the
case ; but, unless we imagine the first canoe to
have been built simultaneously with the demand
for water-transport, it is as easy to allow tiiat a
long period intervened between that time and
the first effort of seamanship as a short one.
Hence, the date of the original populations of
islcmds is not in the same category with that
of the dispersion of men and women over (xmr
tinents.

On continents, we must assume the extension
from one point to another to have been contin*
uou8-7-and not only this, but we may assume
something like an equable rate of diffusion also.
I have heard that the American population
moves bodily, from east to west, at the rate of
about eleven miles a year.

As I use the statement solely for the sake of
illustrating my subject, its accuracy is not very
important. To simplify the calculation, let us
say ten. At this rate, a circle of migration of
which the centre was (say) in the Altai range,
would enlarge its diameter at the rate of twenty
miles a year ; i. «., ten miles at one end of the
radius and ten at the other.

FBQCABT HiaBATIOKS. 168

Hence, a point a thousand miles from the
birth-place of the patriarchs of our species would
receive its first occupants exactly one hundred
years after the original locality had been found
too limited. At this rate a very few centuries
would people the Cape of Good Hope, and fewer
still Lapland, the parts about Cape Comorin, the
Malayan Peninsula, and Kamskatka — all parts
more or less in the condition of extreme points.*

lEfow, as long as any C(mtmevvUA extremities
of the earth's surface remain unoccupied — ^the
stream (or rather the enlarging circle of migra-
tion) not having yet reached them — ^the^wwwwy */"
migration is going on ; and when all have got
their complement, the jprvma/ry migration is
over. During this primary migration, the rd*-
tions of man, thus placed in movement, and in

* Nothing is said about Cape Horn \ as America in relation
to Ana is an island. It is also, perhaps, unnecessary to repeat
that both the rate and the centre are hypothetical— either or both
may or may not be correct. That which is not hypothetical is
the approximation to an ttiuahiliiy of rate in the ease of coiUt-
nenta. It is difficult to conceive any snch conditions as those
which deferred the occapancy of islands like Madagascar and
Iceland, by enigrants from Africa or Greenland, for an indeiinite
period, keeping one part of Africa or Greenland empty whilst
another was full. Hence, the equality in q[uestion is a mere re-
sult of the absence, on continents^ of any conditions capable of
arresting it for an indefinite period. The extent to which it may
be interfered with by other causes is no part <^ the present ques-
tion.

./

164 SBOONDABT MIGBATIONS.

the full, early and guiltless exercise of his high
fanction of subduing the earth, are in conflict
with physical obstacles, and with the resistance
of the lower animals only. Unless — ^like Lot's
wife — ^he turn back upon the peopled parts be-
hind him, he has no relations with his fellow-
men — ^at least none arising out of the claim of
previous occupancy. In other words— during
the primary migration — ^the world that lay be-
fore our progenitors was either brute or inani-
mate.

But before many generations have passed
away, all becomes full to overflowing ; so that
men must enlarge their boundaries at the ex-
pense of their fellows. The migrations that now
take place are secondary. They differ from the
primary in many respects. They are slower
because the resistance is that of Humanity to
Humanity ; and they are violent, because dis-
possession is the object. They are partial, abor-
tive, foUowed by the fusion of different popula-
tions ; or followed by their extermination, as the
case may be. All, however, that we have now
to say about them, is the fact of their difference
from Hn^prima/ry one.

Concerning the seconda/ry migrations, we
have a considerable amount of knowledge. His-
tory tells us of some; ethnological induction
suggests others. The prima/ry one, however, is

S£G01!rDABT MXGRATIONS. 165

a great mystery. Yet it is one which is contin-
ually talked about.

I mention it now (having previously enlarged
upon it), for the sake of suggesting a question
of some importance in practical Ethnology. It
is the one suggested by the remarks upon the
aborigines of Britain. When are we sure that
the population of any part of a continent isjpri-
ma/ry^ i. «., descended from, or representative of
the first occupants ? Never. There are plenty
of cases where, from history, from phsenomena
of contrast, and from other ethnological argu-
ments, we are quite satisfied that it is not so ;
but none where the evidence is conclusive the
other way. At the same time, the doctrine de
non appa/rent^ibm cautions us against assuming
displacements unnecessarily.

However, where we have, in addition to the
abscence of the signs of previous occupancy, an
extreme locallity, (t. «., a locality at the farthest
distance, in a given direction, from the hypo-
thetical centre,) we havQprimd facie evidence
in favor of the population representing 2l pri-
mary migration. Thus :

1, 2. The Hottentots and Laplanders, amongst
the families of the Continent, are probably
primary.

8. The Irish Gaels are the same amongst
islanders.

166 SBOOKDABT MXaBATIONS*

4, 5. America and the Oceanic area appear
to be prmia/ry in respect to the populations
of the Continent of Asia ; though within their
own areas the displacements haye been consid-
erable.

TBS traBiANS. 167

CHAPTER V.

The XJgrians of Lapland, Fmland, Fermia, the XJral MounUuna
and the Volgfr— *area of the light-haired &milies— Taraniana —
the Kelta of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Gaul — ^the Goths — ^the
Sannatians — ^the Greeks and Latina-— diffionlties of European
ethnology— displacement — intermixture— identification of an-
cient fiunilies— extinction of ancient finmilies — ^the Etmaoana
— the Pelasgi — isolation — ^the Basks — ^the Albanians— classi-
fications and hypotheses — the term Indo-European — the Fm-
nic hypotheses.

V. From La^plomd to North^eatem Asia. —
That the Norwegian of Norway stands in re-
markable contrast to the Lap of Finmark, has
already been stated. There is nothing wonder-
ful in this. The Norwegian is the German from
the south, and, consequently, a member of an
intrusive population.

The extent to which a similar contrast exists
between the Lap and the Finlander, is more re-
markable, since both belong to the same family.
Of this family, the Laps are an extreme branch,
both in respect to physical conformation and
geographical position. The term most conveni-
ently used to designate the stock in question is
Ugrian. Li Asia the Voguls, Ostiaks, Votiaks,
Tsheremis, Mordunis, and other tribes are
Uffrian.

168 THB FAm FAMILIES.

The Laps are, generally speaking, swarthy
in complexion, black-haired and black-eyed;
and so are the Majiars of Hungary. The other
TJgrians, however, are remarkable for being, tea
great extent, a Monde population. The Tshuvatsh
have a light complexion with black and some-
what curly hair, and grey eyes. The M orduinB
fall into two divisions, theErsad.and Mokshad;
of which the former are more frequently reSr
haired than the latter. The Tsheremis are light-
haired, the Voguls and Ostiaks often red-haied,
the Votiaks the most red-haired people in the
world. Of course, with this we have blue or

grey eyes and fair skins.

Few writers seem ever to have considered the

exceptional character of this physiognomy; in-
deed, it is unfortunate that no term like Wmoo
(or hranco)^ denoting men lighter colored thaa
the Spaniards and Portuguese, in the same way
that Negro denotes those who are darker, has
been evolved. It is, probably, too late for it
being done now. At any rate, complexionB
like those of the fcmr portion of the people of
England, are quite as exceptionable as faces of
the hue of the Gulf-of-Guinea Blacks.

Like the Negro, the White-skin is chiefly
found within limits ; and like Negro^ the term
White is anthropological rather than ethnologi-
cal ; L «., the physiognomy in question is spread

THE TUBANIANS. 169

over different divisions of our species, and by no
means coincides with ethnological relationship.

Nine-tenths of the fair-skinned populations
of the world are to be found between 30® and
65® N. lat., and west of the Oby. Nine-tenths
of them also are to be found amongst the follow-
ing four families : 1. The Ugrian. 2. The
Sarmatian. 3. The Gothic. 4. The Keltic.

The physical conditions which most closely
coincide with the geographical area of the hlonde
branches of the hlonde families require more
study than they have found. From the parts to
north and south, it is distinguished by the pal-
pably intelligible differences of latitude. The
parts to the east of it differ less evidently ;
nevertheless, they are steppes and table-lands,
rather than tracts of comparatively low forests.
The hlonde area is certainly amongst the moister
parts of the world.*

That the Ugrians graduate into the Turks of
Tartary and Siberia — themselves a division of a
class containing the great Mongolian and Tungu-
sian branches — ^has been admitted by most wri-
ters ; Schott having done the best work with the
philological part of the question.

* When ethnological medicine shall have become more ez-
tensiyely studied than it is, it will probably be seen that the
populations of the area in question are those which are most
afflicted by scrofula.

170 THE TURANIANS.

Gabelentz has, I am informed, lately shown
that the Scmioeid tongues come within the same
class ; a statement which, without having seen
his reasons, I am fully prepared to admit.

Now what applies to the Samoeids* applies
to two other classes as well :

1. The Teniseians* on the Upper Tenisey;
and

2. The Yukahiri* on the Kolyma and Indi-
jirka.

This gives us one great stock, conveniently
called Tv/romicm^ whereof —

1. The Mongolians.

2. The Tungusians — of which the Mantshua
are the best known representatives —

3. The Ugrians, tailing into the Lap, Fin-
landic, Majiar and other branches ; — ^along with

4. The Hyperboreans, or Samoeids, Teni-
seians, and Yukahiri — are branches.

And this stock takes us from the North Cape
to the Wall of China.

YI. From Irelcmd to the Western jparts of
Asia. — ^The rule already referred to, viz., that
an island must always be considered to have
been peopled from the nearest part of the near-
est land of a more continental character than
itself, unless reason can be shown to the contra-

* A table showing this is printed in the aathor*8 " Varieties
of Man/» pp. 270-272.

THB KELTS. 171

ry, applies to the population of Ireland; sub*
ject to which view, the point of emigration from
Great Britain must have been the parts about
the Mull of Cantyre; and the point of immi-
gration into Ireland must have been the prov-
ince of Ulster, and the parts that are nearest to
{Scotland.

Upon this doctrine I see no reason whatever
to refine, since the unequivocal fact of the Scotch
and Irish GaeUc being the same language con-
firms it. Here, however, as in so many other
cases, the ophiions and facts by no means go to-
gether ; and the notion of Scotland having been
peopled from Ireland, and Ireland from some
other country, is a common one. The introduc-
tion of the Scots of Scotland from the west, when
examined, will be found to rest almost wholly
on the following extract from Beda : " proce-
dente tempore, tertiam Scottorum nationem in
parte Pictorum recepit, qui duce Reuda de Hi-
bemia progressi, amicitia velferro sibimet inter
eos has sedes quas hactenus habent vindic&runt ;
4 quo videlicet duce, usque hodie Dalreudini
vocantur : nam eorum lingua Dcud partem sig-
nificat."

Now, as this was written about the middle of
the eighth century, there are only two statements
in it that can be passed for contemporary evidence ;
viz., the assertion that at the time of Beda a por-

172 THE KBLTB.

tion of Scotland was called the conntrj of the DiA-
reudmi ; and that in their language dacA meant
paH. The Irish origin, then, is gronnded np(m
either an inference or a tradition; an inferenee
or a tradition which, if true, would prove notic-
ing as to the origmal population of either coun-
try ; since, the reasoning which applies to the
relation between the peninsula of Malacca and
the island of Sumatra applies here. There^ the
population first passed from the peninsula to the
island, and then back again — ^reflected so to say
— trouk the island to the peninsula. Mutatii
mutcmdis this was the case with Scotland and
Jreland, provided that there was any migration
at all.

Upon this point the evidence of Beda may
or may not be sufficient for the historian. It is
certainly imsatisfactory to the ethnologist.

In saying this, I by no means make the dis-
paragmg insinuation that the historian is un-
duly credulous, or that the ethnologist is a
model of caution. Neither assertion would be
true. The ethnologist, however, like a small
capitalist, cannot afford so much credit as his
fellow-laborer in the field of Man. He is like
a traveller, who, leaving home at the twilight
of the evening, must be doubly cautious when
he comes to a place where two roads meet. If
lie take the wrong one, he has nothing but the

THB GOTHS. 173

long night before him; and his error grows
£rom bad to worse. But the historian starts
with the twilight of the dawn ; so that the fur-
ther he goes tiie clearer he finds his way, and
the easier he rectifies any previous feUe turn-
ings. To argae from cause to effect is to jour-
ney in the dim light of the early mom till we
reach the blazing noon. To argue from effect to
canse is to change the shades of evening for the
gloom of night.

As Scotland is to Ireland, so is Qaul to Eng-
land. From the Shannon to the Loire and
Bhine, the stock is one ; one, but not indivisi-
ble — ^tibe British branch [containing the Welsh]
and the Gaelic [containing the Scotch] forming
its two primary sections.

"Next to the Kelts came the Goths ; the term
Gothic being a general designation taken from
a particular people. Germany is the native
land of these ; just as Gaul was of the Kelts.
Hence, they lie to the north of that family, as
well as to the west of it. Intrusive above all
the other populations of the earth, the branches
of the Gothic tribes have brought themselves in
contact and collision with half the families of
the world. First, they encroached upon the
Kelts, and, for a time, the tide of conquest fluc-
tuated. It was the Ehine which was the dis-
puted frontier — disputed as much in Caesar's

174 THB SABMATIAira.

time as our own. Kext they revenged them-
Belves on the aggressions of Borne ; so that the
Ostro-^A^ conquered Italy, and the Yiairgatht
Spain. Then came the Franks of France, and
the Anglo-Saxons of England. In the nin&
and tenth centuries the edges of the XS-erman
swords turned another way, and Mecklenbmg,
Fomerania, Prussia, and part of Oourland, 1^
lesia, Lusatia, and Saxony weire wrested &om
the Sa/rmaticms^ lying to the west and south-
west

It is not imusual to raise the two diyisions
of the great Sarmatian stock to the rank of
separate substantive groups— independent of
each other, though intimately allied. In this
case Lithuania, Livonia, and Gourland contain
the smaller divisions, which is conveniently and
generally calledthe lAihuamo ; the population
being agricultural, scanty, limited to the oonn-
try in opposition to the towns, and unimportant
in the way of history ; a population, which in
the tenth and eleventh centuries was cruelly
conquered under the plea of Christianity by the
German Knights of the Sword — ^rivals in ra-
pacity and bloodshed to their equivalents of the
Temple and St. John — a population which, at
the present moment, lies like iron between the
hammer and the anvil, between Bussia and
Frussia ; tind which, for one brief period only,

^
(

THE UTHUANIAKS. 17&

under the Jagellons, exercised the equivocal
rights of a dominant and encroaching family —
for one brief period only within the true histor-
ical sera. How far it may have done more at
an earlier epoch remains to be considered.

The other branch is the SUwomc; compris-
ing the Bussians, the Servians, the Illyrians^
the Slovenians of Styria and Carinthia, the Slo-
vaks of Hungary, the Tsheks of Bohemia, and
the Lekhs (or Poles) of Poland, Mazovia, and
Gallicia. A great deal is said about the future
prospects of Hiis stock ; the doctrine of certain
able historians being, that as they are the
youngest of nations — a term somewhat diflScult
to define — and have played but a small part in
the world's history hitherto, they have a grand
career before them ; a prospect more glorious
than that of the Komano-Keltic French, or the
Germanic English of the Old and New World.
I doubt the inference, and I. doubt the fact
on which it rests. But of this more anon.
The Sai^matian Slavono-Lithuanians are the
fourth great family of Europe. They certainly
lie in the line of migration which peopled Ire-
land from Asia.

South of these lie two branches of fresh
stock, divided from each other, and presenting
the difficult phsenomenon of geographical dis-
continuity conjoined with ethnological affinity.

176 BlTfiOPBAV BTfiNOLOOT.

Separated from the most soathem Slavonians by
the two intrusive populations of the WaHachi-
ans and the Majiars, and by the primitive fam-
ily of the Albanians, come —

a. The Greeks — and separated from the Sla-
vonians of Garinthia and Bohemia by intrusive
Germans at the present moment, and by the
mysterious Etruscans in ancient times, come^

J. The ItaUcms. — ^We may call these two
families Latin or Hellenic instead of G-reek and
Italian, if we choose ; and as the distributioB
of nations is best studied during the earliest
periods of their history, the former terms are
the better.

Before we can consider the classification of
these four families — ^TJgrian, Kelt, Gothic, and
Greeco-Latin — some fresh observations and ce>
tain new facts are requisite.

The ethnology of Europe is undoubtedly
more difficult than that of any of the three other
quarters of the globe — ^perhaps more so than that
of all the world besides. It has not the charac-
ter of being so — ^but so it is. The more we
know the more we may know. Illustrated as
is Europe by the historian and the antiquarian,
it has its dark holes and corners made all the
more visible from the illumination.

In the first place, the very fact of its being
the home of the great historical nations has

MAJIAB OOKQUESTS. 177

made it the scene of unparalleled displace
ments ; for conquest is the great staple of his-
tory, and conqicest and displacemerU are correl-
ative terms. A greater portion of Europe can
be shown to be held by either mixed or conquer-
ing nations than is to be found elsewhere — not
that this absolutely proves the encroachments
to have been greater; but that gives promi-
nence to the greater degree in which they have
been recorded. Hence, where in other parts of
the world we shut up our papers and say de non
ctppa/rentitms^ &c., in Europe we are forced
upon the obscurest investigations, and the sub-
tlest trains of reasoning.

How great is this displacement? The his-
tory of only a few out of many of the conquer-
ing nations tells us a pregnant story in this re-
spect. It shows us what has taken place within
the comparatively brief span of the historical
period. What lies beyond this it only sug-
gests.

The IJgrians, with one exception, have ever
suffered from the encroachments of others rath-
er than been encroachers themselves. But the
exception is a remarkable one.

It is that of the Majiars of Hungary, who,
whatever claims they may set up for an extrac.
tion more illustrious than the one which they
share with the Laplanders and Ostiaks, are

9

178 ESLTIO 00NQ.UE8TB.

unequivocally Ugrians — no OircassJAns, as has
been vainly fancied, and no descendants from
the Huns of Attila, as has been more reason-
ably supposed. This latter, however, is a sup-
position invalidated by the high probability
of the warriors of the Scourge of God having
been Turk.

Be this, however, as it may, their advent
into Eurc^e is no earlier than the tenth century,
the country which they left having been the
present domain of the Bashkirs.

The amount of displacement effected by the
Kelts is difficult to determine. We hear of them
in so many places that the family seems to be
ubiquitous. Utterly disbelieving the Cimmerii
of the Cimmerian Bosphorus to have been Kel-
tic, and doubtful about both the Scordisci of
the ancient Noricum, and the Celtiberians of
ancient Spain, I am inclined to limit the Keltic
area at its maadm/um extension, to Venice west-
wards, and to the neighborhood of Rome south-
wards. But this is not enough. They may have
been aboriginal in parts which they seem to have
invaded as immigrants. This complicates the
question and makes it as hard to ascertain the ex-
tent of their encroachments on others, as the ex-
tent to which others have encroached on them
— a point for farther notice.

The Goths have ever extended their frontier

INTBRMIXnrBE. 179

frontier which I believe to have once reached
no ftirther than the Elbe.* From thence to the
Niemen they have encroached at the expense of
the Sarmatians — Slavonic or Lithuanic as the
case may be.

In the time of Tacitus* it is highly probable
that there were no Goths north of the Eyder.
Since then, however, Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway have been wrested from earlier occu-
pants and become Scandinavian.

The Ugrian family originally extended as
far south as the Yaldai Mountains. This part
of their area is now Russian.

The conquests of Eome have given languages
derived from the Latin to Northern Italy, the
Grisons, France, Spain and Portugal, Wallachia
and Moldavia.

This brings us to another question, that of —

Intermixtv/re, — ^It is certain that the lan-
guage of England is of Anglo-Saxon origin, and
that the remains of the original Keltic are unim-
portant. It is by no means so certain that the
blood of Englishmen is equally Germanic. A
vast amount of Kelticism, not||ound in our
tongue, very probably exists in our pedigrees.

The ethnology of France is still more compli-
cated. Many writers make the Parisian a Eo-

* Both these points are worked out in detail in the Author's
Taciti Germania^ with ethnological notes.

180 INTEBMIZTUBE.

man on the strength of his language ; whikt
others make him a Kelt on the strength of ce^
tain moral characteristics combined with the
previous Kelticism of the original Gauls.

Spanish and Portuguese, as languages, are
derivatives from the Latin. Spain and Portugal,
as countries, are Iberic, Latin, Gothic, and Arab,
in different proportions.

Italian is modern Latin all the world over :
yet surely there must be much Keltic blood in
Lombardy, and much Etruscan intermixture in
Tuscany.

In the ninth century every man between the
Elbe and the Niemen spoke some Slavonic dia-
lect. They now nearly all speak German. Surely
the blood is less exclusively Gothic than the
speech.

I have not fallen in with any evidence which
induces me to consider the great Majiar invasion
of Hungary as anything other than a simple mil-
itary conquest. If so — and the reasoning ap-
plies to nine conquests out of ten — the . female
half of the ancestry of the present speakers of
the Majiar l^|guage must have been the women
of the country. These were Turk, Slavonic,
Turko-SlavoniCj Eomano-Slavonic, and many
other things besides — anything, in short, but
Majiar.

The Grisons language is of Roman origin.

NAMES OF ANCIENT NATIONS, ETC. 181

So is the Wallachian of Wallachia and Mol-
davia.

Nevertheless, in each country, the original
population must be, more or less, represented
in blood by the present.

This is enough to show what is meant by in-
termixture of blood, the extent to which it de-
mands a special investigation of its own, and
the number of such investigations required in
the ethnology of Europe. Indeed, it is the sub-
ject of a specia^ department of the science, con-
veniently called minute ethnology.

Identification of ancient nations^ tribes and
fa/railies, — If there were no such thing as migra-
tion and displacement, the study of the ancient
writers would be an easy matter. As - it is,
it is a very difficult one. Nine-tenths of the
names of Herodotus, Strabo, Caesar, Pliny,
Tacitus, and similar writers on ethnology and
geography, are not to be found in the modern
maps ; or, if found, occur in new localities.
Such is the case with the name of our own na-
tion, the Angli^ who are now known as the peo-
ple oi Englrla/ad\ whereas, in the eyes of Taci-
tus they were Germans. Others have not only
changed place, but have become absolutely ex-
tinct. This is, of course, common enough.
Again, the na/me itself may have changed,
though the population to which it applies may

182 NAMES OF

liave remained the same, or name and place
may have each changed.

All this creates difficulties^ though not such
as should deter us from their investigation. At
the same time, the criticism that must be ap-
plied is of a special and peculiar sort. One of
the more complex questions with which it has
to deal is the necessary but neglected prelimina-
ry of determmmg the la/nguage in, which this or
that geographical or ethnological namie occv/rs;
which is by no means an off-hand process. When
Tacitus talks of Germa/ns^ or Herodotus of Scy-
thianSy the terms Scythian and OeftTrujm may or
may not belong to the language of the people
thus designated ; in other words, they may or
may riot be native names — names known to the
tribes to which the geographer applies them.

Generally such names are rwt native — a
statement which, at first, seems hazardous ; since
^^ prvmSb fade view is in favor of the name by
which a particular nation is known to its neigh-
bors, being the name by which it characterizes
itself. Do not our neighbors call themselves
Frangaise^ whilst we say French^ and are not
the names identical ? In this particular case
they are ; but the case is an exceptional one.
Contrast with it that of the word Welsh, Welsh
and Wales are the English names of the Cymyr
— English, but by no means native ; English,

ANCIENT NATIONS, ETC* 183

but as little Welsh (strictly speaking) as the word
Indian^ when applied to the Red Men of Ame-
rica, is Americcm.

Welsh is the name by which the Englishman
denotes his fellow-citizens of the Principality.
The German of Germany calls the ItaUcms by
the same designation; the same by which h6
knows the WaZldchians also — since Wcdlachia
and Wales and Welshla/nd are all from the same
root. What an error would it be to consider all
these three countries as identical, simply because
they were so in name ! Yet if that name were
natvvej such would be the inference. As it is,
however, the chief link which connects them is
their common relation to Germany (or Germanic
England) ; a link which would have been wholly
misinterpreted had we overlookeo'^the German
origin of the term, and erroneously referred it
to the languages of the countries whereto it had
its application.

An extract from Klaproth's *^ Asia Polyglot-
ta" shall further illustrate this important differ-
ence between the name by which a nation is
known to itself, and the name by which it is
known to its geographer. A certain population
of Siberia calls itself ^yeneoh or Khasovo. But
none of its neighbors so call it. On the con-
trary, each give it a different appellation.

184 NAMES OF AKOIENT NATIONS, ETC.

The Obi-Oittakscall it Jergan-Yakh
** Tnngitoiaiui *' Dyandal.
'< Syraniaos ^' Yarang,
•* Wognk " Yarran'Kum.

*' Roanans " 8am6eid,

"What if some ancient tribe were thus poly-
onymous ? What if five diflTerent writers of an-
tiquity had derived their information from the
five different nations of its neighbors ? In such
a case there would have been five terms to one
object ; none of them belonging to the language
for which they were used.

The name, then, itself of each ancient popu-
lation requires a preliminary investigation. And
these names are numerous — more so in Europe
than elsewhere.

The imp#tance of the populations to which
such names apply is greater in Europe than else-
where. It is safe to say this ; because there is
a reason for it. From its excessive amount of
displacement, Europe is that part of the world
where there are the best grounds for believing
in the previous existence of absolutely extinct
families, or rather in the absolute extinction of fa-
milies, previously existing. There are no names
in Asia that raise so many problems as those of
the European Pdaagi and Etrusicms.

The changes and complications involved in
the foregoing observations (and they are but few
out of many) are the results of comparatively

PHILOLOGICAL ISOLATION. 185

recent movements ; of conquests accomplished
within the last twenty-five centuries ; of migra-
tions within (or nearly within) the historical
period. Those truly ethnological phsenomena
which belong to the distribution itsdf of the ex-
isting families of Europe are, at least, of equal
importance.

The most marked in^ances oi philological
isoloMon are European ; the two chief speci-
mens being the Basque and AJCbamjiam, lan-
guages.

The Basque language of the Pyrenees has
the same relation to the. ancient language of the
Spanish Peninsula that the present "Welsh has
to the old speech of Britain. It represents it in
its fragments ; fragments, whereof the preserva-
tion is due to the existence of a mountain strong-
hold for the aborigines to retire to. Now so
isolated is this same Basque that there is no
language in the world which is placed in the
same class with it — no matter what the magni-
tude and import of that class may be.

The Alba/rhian is just as isolated. As different
from the Greek, Turkish, and Slavonic tongues
of the countries in its neighborhood, as the
Basque is from the French, Spanish, and Breton,
it is equally destitute of relations at a distance.
It is unclassed — at least its position as Indo-Eu-
ropean is doubtful.
9*

186 IKDO-GBBMANIO.

What the Pelasgian and old Etruscan tongues
were, is uncertain. They were probably suffi-
ciently different from the languages of their
neighborhood, for the speakers of them to be
mutually unintelligible. Beyond this, however,
they may h&ve been anything or nothing in the
way of isolation. They mnay have been as pe-
culiar as the Basque and Albanian., They may
on the other hand, have been just so unlike the
Greek and Latin, as to have belonged to another
class — ^the value of that class being unascertain-
ed. Again, that class may oj; may not have
existing representativesi amongst the tongues at
present existing. I give no opinion on this
point. I only give prominence to the isolation
of the Basque and Albanian. "We hnow these
last to be so different from each other, and from
all other tongues, as to come under none of the
recognized divisions in the way of ethnographi-
cal philology and its classifications.

Indo-Germanic, This brings us to the term
Indo-Germanic ; and i\iQ iQTxa Indo-Oerrnanic
brings us to the retrospect of the European pop-
ulations — all of which, now in existence, have
been enumerated, but all of which have not
been classified.

I. The XJgrians are a branch of the Tura-
nians.

The Turanians form either a whole class or

INDO-GEKMANIO; 187

the part of one, according to the light in which
we view them ; in other words, the group has
one value in philology, and another in anatomy.
This is nothing extraordinary. It merely means
that their speech has more prominent characters
than their physical conformation.

I proceed, however to our specification : —

a. The Turanians in respect to their ^Ay^^^
conformation are a branch of the MongoUcma ;
the Chinese, Eskimo, and others, being members
of similar and equivalent divisions.

J. In respect to their Icmgudge^ they are the
highest group recognized, a group subordinate
to none other.

To change the expression of this difference,
the anatomical naturalist of the Human Spe-
cies has in the word Mongolicm a term of gen-
, erality to which the philologist has not ar-
rived.

n. The Greeks and Latins — the Sarmatians
— and the Geimans are referable to a higher
group ; a group of much the same value as the

Turanian.

The characteristics of this group are philo-
logical.

a. The numerals of the three great divisions
are alike.

J. A large per-centage of the names of the
commoner objects are alike.

188 IBDO-EUBOPSAK.

0. The signs of case in nouns, and o{ person
in verbs, are alike.

So wide has been the geographical extent of
the populations spealdng languages thus con-
nected (languages which separated firom the
common mother-tongue subsequent to the evolu-
tion of both the cases of nouns, and the persons
of verbs), that the literary language of India
belongs to the class in question. Hence, when
this fSact became known, and when India passed
for the eastern and Germany for the western
extremity of the great area of this great tongue,
the term Indo-Gemumic became current.

But its currency was of no long duration.
Dr. Prichard showed that the Keltic tongues
had Indo-G^rmanic numerals, a certain per-cent-
age of Indo-G^rmanic names for the commoner
objects, and Indo-Ghermanic personal termina-
tions of verbs. Since then, the Keltic has been
considered as a fixed language, with a definite
place in the classification of the philologist ; and
the term Indo-Europeam,^ expressive of the class
to which, along with the Sarmatian, the Gk>thic,
and the Classical tongues of Greece and Italy,
it belongs, has superseded the original com-
pound Indo-Germanie.

We now know what is meant by Indo-Ev/ro-

* For a oriticism on this term see pp. 86-89.

mDo-EtjROPEAiir. 189

pean; a term of, at least, equal generality with
the term Twrcmicm.

a. In physical conformaUon the Indo-Euro-
peans are a branch of the higher division so im-
properly and inconveniently called Caucasicm.

h. In language they are the highest gronp
hitherto recognized, a gronp subordinate to
none other.

And we have also improved our measure of
the isolation of the —

ni. Basques. — Anatomically these are Cavr
casian so-called. Philologically, they are the
only membera of the group to which they belong,
and that group is the highest recognized. They
are like a species in natural history, which is
the only one of its genus, the genus being the
only one of its order, and the order being so in-
determinate as to have no higher class to which
it is subordinate.

IV. The AJhamMms are in the same predi-
cament.

This is the state of classification which pre-
eminently inspires us with the ambition of mak-
ing higher groups ; higher groups in philology^
since in a/nMorm/ we have them ready-made ;
i, e.y expressed by the terms Mongolian and Cau-
casian, The school which has made the most
notable efforts in this way is the Scandinavian.
In England it is, perhaps, better appreciated

190 THE FINKiO HYPOTHESIS.

than in Germany, and in Germany better than

in France.

I think it had great truth in fragments. It

will first be considered on its philological side.
Bask — the greatest genius for comparative phi-
lology that the world has seen — exhibited the
germs of it in his work on the Zendavesta.
Herein his hypothesis was as follows. The
geologist will follow him with ease. Just as the
later formations, isolated and unconnected of
themselves, lie on an earlier, and comparatively
continuous, substratum of secondary, palaeozoic,
or primary antiquity, so do the populations,
speaking Celtic, Gothic, Slavonic, and Classi-
cal languages. Conquerors and encroachers,
wherever they came in contact with stocks alien
to their own, they made, at an early period of
history, nine-tenths of Europe and part of Asia
their own. But before them lay an aboriginal pop-
ulation — before them in the way of l/rnie. This
consisted of tribes, more or less related to each
other, which filled Em'ope from the North Cape
to Cape Comorin and Gibraltar — progenitors
of the Laplanders on the north, and the pro-
genitors of the Basques of the Pyrenees on
the south — all at one time continuous. This
time was the period anterior to the invasion of
the oldest of the above-mentioned families.
More than this, Hindostan was similarly peo-

THE KNNIO HYPOTHESIS. 191

pled; and, by assumption, the parts between
Northern Hindostan and Europe.

Such the theory. Now let us look to the
present distribution. Almost all Europe is what
is called Indo-European ; i. «., Celtic, Gtothic,
Slavonic, or Classical. But it is not wholly so.
In Scandinavia we have the Laps ; in Northern
Bussia the Finns ; on the junction of Spain and
France the Basques. These are fragments of
the once continuous Aborigines, separated from
each other by Celts, Goths, and Slavonians.
Then, as to India. In the Dekhan we have a
family of languages called the Tamul, isolated
also. Between each of these points the popula-
tion is homogeneous as compared with itself;
heterogeneous as compared with the tribes just
enumerated. But there was once a continuity,
even as the older rocks in geology are connected,
whilst the newer ones are dissociated.

Such was the hypothesis of Rask ; an hy-
pothesis to which he applied the epithet Fi/nnic^
since the Finn of Finland was the type and
sample of these early, aboriginal, hypotheti-
cally continuous, and hypothetically connected
tongues. The invasion, however, of the stronger
Indo-Europeans broke them up. Be it so. It
was a grand guess ; even if wrong, a grand and
a suggestive one. Still it was but a guess. I will
not say that no details were worked out. Some
few were indicated.

192 THB FINKIG HTP0THB81B.

Points which connected tongues so distant
as the Tamnl and the Finn were noticed, but
more than this was not done. Still, it was a
doctrine which, if it were proved fidse, was bet-
ter than a large. per-centage of the true ones.
It taught inquirers where to seek the affinities
of apparently isolated languages ; and it bade
them pass over those in the neighborhood, and
look to the quarters where other tongues equally
isolated presented themselves.

I have mentioned Bask as the apostle of it.
Amdt, I am told, was the originator. The
countrymen, however, of Bask have been those
who have most acted on it.

But they took up the weapon at the other
end. It is the anatomista and arehceologists of
Scandinavia who have worked it most. The
Celts have a skull of their own just as they have
a language. So have the Danes, Swedes, Nor-
wegians, Germans, Dutch, and Englishmen.
Never mind the characteristics. • Suffice, that it
was — or was supposed to be — different from
that of the Finns and Basques. So had the
Hindus, different from that of the Tamuls. Now
the burial-places of the present countries of the
different Gothic populations contain skulls of the
Gothic character only up to a certain point.
The very oldest stand in contrast with the oldest
forms but one. The very oldest stand in contrast

THE FDmiO HTP0THESI8 193

with the oldest form but one. The "oefry oldest

are Lap, Basque, and Tamul. Surely this — ^if

true — confirms the philological theory. But is

it true? I am not inclined to change the terms

already used. It is a grand and a suggestive
guess.

More than this is not necessary to say at pre-
sent ; since any further speculation in respect to
the migration {pr migrations) which peopled
Europe from the hypothetical centre in Asia is
premature. The ethnology of Asia is necessary
as a preliminary.

194 AHEBIOA.

CHAPTER VI.

TTie Monoeyllablio Area— the TTiay— the M6n and Kh6— Tables
— ^the B'hot — the Chinese — Barmese — Persia — India— Ta-

, mulian family — the Brahdi — the Dioscurians — ^the Geor^-
ans — Iron — Mizjeji — Lesgians — Armeniens — Asia Minor—
Lycians — Carians — Paropamisans — Conclusion.

OuB plan is now to ta keup the different lines
of migration at the points where they were re-
spectively broken off. This was at their differ-
ent points of contact with Asia. The first line
was —

I. The Amefriccm, — In affiliating the Amer-
ican with the Asiatic, the ethnologist is in the
position of an irrigator, who supplies some wide
tract of thirsty land with water derived from a
higher level, but kept from the parts below by
artificial embankments. These he removes ; his
process being simple but effectual, and wholly
independent of the clever machinery of pumps,
water-wheels, and similar branches of hydrau-
lics. The obstacle being taken away, gravita-
tion does the rest.

The over-valuation of the Eskimo peculiari-
ties is the great obstacle to American ethnology.

AMESICA. 195

When these are cut down to their due level, the
connection between America and Asia is neither
more nor less than one of the clearest we have.
It is certainly clearer than the junction of Africa
and north-western Asia; not more obscure than
that between Oceanica and the Transgangetic
Peninsula ; and incalculably less mysterious
than that which joins Asia to Europe.

Indeed, there is no very great bre^k, either
philologically or anatomically, until we reach
the confines of China. Here, the physical con-
formation keeps much the same ; the language,
however, becomes nwnosyllcMc.

Now many able writers lay so much stress
upon this monosyllabic character, as to believe
that the separation between the tongues so con-
stituted, and those wherein we have an increase of
syllables with a due amount of inflexion besides,
is too broad to be got over. If speech were a
mineral, this might, perhaps, be true. But
speech grows^ and if one philological fact be
more capable of proof than another, it is that of
a monsyllabic and uninfljected tongue being a
polysyllabic and inflected one in its first stage
of development, or rather in itsnwi-devdopment.

The Kamskadale, the Koriak, the Aino- Japa-
nese, and the Korean are the Asiatic languages
most like those of America. Unhesitatingly as
I make this assertion — an assertion for which I

196 AMEBIOA.

have numerous tabulated vocabularies as proof
— ^I am by no means prepared to say that one-
tenth paii; of the necessary work has been done
for the parts in question ; indeed, it is my im-
pression that it is easier to connect America
with the Kurile Isles and Japan, &c., than it is
to make Japan and the Kurile Isles, &c., Asiatic.
The group which they form belongs to an area
where tlje displacements have been very great.
The Kamskadale family is nearly extinct. The
Koreans, who probably occupied a great paftof
Mantshuria, have been encroached on by both
the Chinese and the Mantshtis. The same has
been the case with the Ainos of the lower Amur.
Lastly, the whole of the northern half of China
was originally in the occupancy of tribes who
were probably intermediate to their Chinese con-
querors, the Mantshus and the Koreans.

That the philological affinities necessary for
making out tfie Asiatic origin of the Americans
lie anywhere but on the surface of the language,
I confess. Of the way whereby they should be
looked for, the following is an instance.

The YuJcahwi is an Asiatic language of the
Kolyma and Indijirka. Compare its numerals
with those of the other tribes in the direction of
America. They differ. They are not Koriak,
not Kamskadale, by no means Eskimo ; nor yet
Koluch. Before we find the name of a single

YUKAHIRI WOED FOR TWO. 197

Yukahiri unit reappearing in other languages,
we must go as far south along the western coast
of America as the parts about Vancouver's Isl-
and. There we find the Hailtsa tongue — ^where
moMh = tvoo. Now the Yukahiri term for tnjoo
is not mcHuk. It is a word which I do not re-
member. Nevertheless, rndLuk^^two does ex-
ist in the Yukahiri. The word for eight is
maluk X the term for four (2 x 4.)

This phsenomenon would be repeated in Eng-
lish if our numerals ran thus : 1. one / 2. pair;
^.f(ywr; 8. Iwofov/rs ; in which case all argu-
ments based upon the correspondence or non-
correspondence of the English numerals with
those of Germany and Scandinavia would be as
valid as if the word two were the actual name of
the second unit. Indeed, in one respect they
would be more so. The peculiar way in which
the Hailtsa nmluk reappears in the Yukahiri is
conclusive against the name being horrowed.
Whether it is accidental is quite another ques-
tion. This depends upon the extent to which it
is a single coincidence, or one out of many. All
that is attempted, at present, is to illustrate the
extent to which resemblances may be disguised,
and the consequent care requisite for detecting
them.*

n. The connection between Oceanica and

* Since this chapter was written, the news of the premature

198 TEE MOKOSYLLABIO ABEA.

South-eastem Ada. — The physical confimialion
of the Malays is so truly that of the Indo-Chi-
nese, that no difficulties lie in this department.
The philological ones are a shade graver. They
involve the doubt abeady suggested in respect
to the relations between a monosyllabic tongue
like the Siamese, and a tongue other than mo-
nosyllabic like the Malay.

This brings us to the great area of the mono-
syllabic tongues itself. Geographically^ it means
China, Tibet, the Transgangetic Peninsula, and
the Sub-Himalayan parts of northern India, such

death of tlie most influential supporter of the double doctrine of
(a.) the unity of the American familiea amongst each other, and
(b.) the difference of the American race from all others — Dr.
Morton, of Philadelphia — has reached me. It is unnecessary to
say, that the second of these positions is, in the mind of the pre-
sent writer, as exceptionable as the first is correct. Nor is it
likely to be otherwise as long as the eastern side of the Rooky
Mountains is so exclusiyely studied as it is by both the American
and the English school. I have little fear of the Russians felling
into this error. With this remark the objections against the very
valuable labors of Dr. Morton begin and end. His Crania
Americana is by far the most valuable book of its kind. Hii
Crania JEgyptiaca and other minor works, especially his re-
searches on Hybridism^ are all d^nite additions to ethnological
science. The impulse which he, personally, gave to the very
active study of the Human Species, which so honorably charac-
terises his countrymen, is more than an Englishman can exactly
value. Perhaps, it is second only to that given by Gallatin;
perhaps, it is scarcely second.

THS H0K06TLLABI0 ASEA. 199

as Kepal, Sikkiin, Assam, the Garo conntry, and
other similar localities.

PoUticalh/^ it means the Chinese, Nepalese,
Burmese, and Siamese empires, along with se-
veral British-Indian and independent tribes.

The chief religion is Buddhism ; the physi-
cal conformation imequivocally MongoUcm.

The transition from 7/icw(?-syllabic to jpohf-
syllabic has never created much difficulty with
myself; nor do I think it will do so with any
writer who considers the great difficulties in-
volved in the denial of it. What these are will
become apparent when we look at the map of
Asia, and observe the tongues which come in
contact with those of the class in question.
Then it will become clear that v/rdess we aUow
it to form a connecting linh^ it not only stamda
(done itself^ lut isolates other fcmdlies. Thus,
it is only through the Transgangetic Peninsula
that the Oceanic family can be connected with
the Indian; a connection which rests on grounds
sufficiently good to have induced careful writers*
to believe the affiiliation to be direct and imme-
diate. It is only through this same Transgan-
getic Peninsula jplics Tibet and China that the

* Mr. Norris, for instance, of the Asiatio Society ,lias given
reasons for connecting the Australian tongues with those of the
Dekhan.

200 MOKOSYLLABIO LANGUAOBS

great Siberian families — Taranian and Japanese
— can be similarly connected with the Oceanic.
Yet such a connection really exists, though, {foqi
its indirect character, it is but partially recog-
nised. iN^evertheless, it is recognised (often,
perhaps, unconsciously) by every inquirer who
hesitates about separating the Malay from the
Mongol.

A difficulty of far greater magnitude arises
from the following considerations : There are
two principles upon which languages may be
classified. According to the first, we take two
or more languages as we find them, ascertain
certain of their characteristics, and then inquire
how far these characteristics coincide. Two or
more languages, thus taken, may agree in hav-
ing a large per-centage of grammatical inflex-
ions, in which case they would agree in certain
podtme charactei's. On the other hand, two or
more languages may agree in the nega/ime fact
of having a small and scanty vocabulary, and
an inflexional system equally limited.

The complication here suggested lies in a
fact of which a little reflection will show the
truth, viz. that negative pomts of sirndla/rity
prove nothing in the way of ethnological connec-
t/ion; whence, as far as the simplicity of their
respective grammars is concerned, the Siamese,
Burmese, Chinese, and Tibetan may be aa little

MONOSYLLABIO XAKGUAGE8. 201

related to each other, or to a common mother-
tongue, as the most unlike languages of the
whole world of Speech.

Again — ^it by no means follows that because
all the tongues of the family in question are
comparatively destitute of inflexion, they are
all in the same class. A characteristic of the
kind may arise from two reasons ; n{?n-develop-
ment, or loss. There is a stage cmterior to the
evolution of inflexions, when each word has but
one form, and when relation is expressed by
mere juxtaposition, with or without the super-
addition of a change of accent. The tendencies
of this stage are to combine words in the way
of composition, but not to go fmlher. Every
word retains, throughout, its separate substan-
tive character, and has a meaning independent
of its juxtaposition with the words with which
it combines.

But there is also a stage evbsequent to such
an evolution, when inflexions have become ob-
literated, and when case-endings, like the i m
patr-i^ are replaced by prepositions (in some
cases by post-positions) like the to in to father ;
and when personal endings, like the o in 'Cogo^
are replaced by pronouns, like the jTin IcaU.
Oii)i% first of these stages, the Chinese is the
language which affords the most typical speci-
men that can be found in the present late date
10

202 MONOSYLLABIC LAKGTTAGES.

of languages — late^ considering that we are look-
ing for a sample of its earliest forme. Of the
l(i8t of these stages the English of the year 1851
affords the most typical specimen that can be
found in the present early date of language-^
early, considering that we are looking for a
sample of its latest forms.

Hence —

a. How far the different monosyllabic tongues
are aU in the same stage — ^is one question.

h. Whether this stage be the ea/rlieT or the
loiter one — ^is another ; and —

c. "Whether they are connected by relaiim-
ship as well as in external form — ^is a third.

In answer to this, it is safe to say («.) that
they are all uninflected, because inflexions have
yet to be evolved ; not because they have been
evolved and lost — as is the case with the En-
glish, a language which stands at one end of
the scale, just as the Chinese does at the other.

(J.) They are, also, all connected by a hoM
fide ethnological relationship ; as can be shown
by numerous tables ; the Chinese and Tibetans
being, apparently, the two extremes, in the way
of difference.

As for their geographical distribution, it is
a blank-and-prize lottery, with large and small
areas in juxtaposition and contrast, just as has
been the case in America and in Africa ; the

THE T*HAY. 203

Sub-Himalayan parts of British India, Sikkim
and Nepal, and the Indo-Burmese frontier (or
the country about Assam and Munipiir) being
the tracts where the multiplicity of mutually
unintelligible tongues within a limited district
is greatest.

Again — ^whenever the latter distribution oc-
curs, we have either a mountain-fastness, politi-
cal independence, or the primitive pagan creed
— generally all three.

The population speaking a monosyllabic lan-
guage which is in the most immediate contact
with the continental tribes of the Oceanic stock,
is the Southern Siamese. This reaches as far as
the northern frontier of Eedah (Qnedah), about
8® N. L. Everything north of this is monosyl-
labic, with the exception of a Malay settlement
(probably, though not certainly, of recent origin)
on the coast of Kambogia.

Now the great stock to which the Siamese
belong is called T'hay. Its direction is from
north to south, coinciding with the course of the
great river Menam ; beyond the head-waters of
which the T'hay tribes reach as far as Assam.
Of these northern T'hay, the Khamti are the
most numerous; and it is important to know
that as many as 92 words out of 100 are com-
mon to this dialect and to the classical Siamese
of Bankok.

204 THB M6V AND Kh6.

Again, the intermediate tribes of the Upper
and Middle Menam — the Lau—nspeak a lan-
guage as unequivocally Siamese as the.Khamti.
K so, the T'hay tongue, widely extended as it
is in the particular direction from north to
south, is a tongue falling into but few dialects ;
the inference from which is, that it has
spread within a comparatively recent period.
Consequently, it has encroached upon certain
other populations and effected certain displacor
ments.

I think that even in the minuter details that
now suggest themselves we can see our way ; bo
far, at least, as to determine in which direction
the movement took place — ^whether it were from
north to south or from south to north.

Few classes of tongues can be better studied
for ethnological purposes than the monosyllabic
A paper of Buchanan's, and another of Ley den's,
are amongst the most valuable articles of the
Asiatic Researches. One of Mr. Brown's,' in
the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
gives us numerous tabulated vocabularies for
the Burmese, Assamese and Indian frontiers.
Mr. Hodgson and Dr. Robertson have done still
more for the same parts. Lastly, the chief
southern dialects, which have been less studied,
are tabulated in the second volume of "Craw-
furd's Embassy to Siam."

THE m6n Am> KHd. 205

Upon looking over these, we find specimens
of the two tongues which lie east and west of
the southern Siamese ; the first being Ithe £h6
language of Kambogia, and the second the
Mdn of Pegu. Each of these is spoken over a
small area ; indeed the Mon, which is, at pre-
sent, nearly limited to the Delta of the Ira-
waddi, is fast giving way before the encroach-
ing dialects of the Burmese class, whilst the
Kho of Kambogia is similarly limited to the
lower part of the Mekhong, and is hemmed in
by the Siamese, the Lau, and the Anamitic of
Cochin China.

Now, separated as they are, the Mon and
Kho are liker to each other than either is to the
interjacent Siamese; the inference from this
being that at one time they were connected by
transitional and intermediate dialects, aborigi-
nal to the lower Menam, but now displaced by
the Siamese of Bankok introduced from the
J)arts to the northwards.

If this be the case, the monosyllabic tongue
most closely allied to those of the Malayan
Peninsula (which are not monosyllabic) is not
the present Siamese, but the language which the
present Siamese displaced.

How far this view is confirmed by any spe-
cial affinities between the Malay dialects with
the Mon and Kho is more than I can say. The
examination, however, should be made.

206 TABIJ».

The southern T^hay dialects are not only
lees like the Mon and Kh6 than is expected
from their locality, but the northern ones are
less like those of the Indo-Bormese frontier and
Assam than the geographical contiguity pre-
pares us to surmise; since the per-centage of
words common to the Khamti and the other
dialects of Munipur and Assam is only as fol-
lows.*

Siamese. Khamti.

1 per cent, with the Aka.

1 " •* Abor.

3 5 •* '< Mishimt

6 8 •* " Burmeao.

8 8 " ** Karien.

3 3 •* " Singpho.

10 10 <« " Jill.

1 3 *' *« Garo.

3 3 " *• Munipiiri.

1 1 *< *< Songphu.

.... ; " " Kapwi.

1 1 ** •* Koreng.

** " Maram.

*« " Kamphung.

*• " Luhuppa.

" " North Tankhul.

** " Central Tankhul.

" •* South Tankhul.

" " Khoibu.

** " Maring.

* Taken, with much besides, from Mr. Brown's Tables, in
the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

TABLES!

20Y

This shows that their original locality is to
be sought in an eastern as well as in a northern
direction.

If the T'hay dialects are less like the Bur-
mese than most other members of their class,
they are more like the B'hot of Tibet.

English

boat.

Ahom

ru.

Khamti

hu.

Lau

heic.

Siamese

reng.

W. Tibetan*

gru.

S. Tibetan*

kua.

English

bone.

Khamti

nuk.

Lau

duk.

Siamese

ka-duk.

S. Tibetan

ruko.

English

crow.

Ahom

ka.

Khamti

ka.

Lau

ka.

Siamese

ka.

W. Tibetan

kha-ta.

English

ear.

Khamti (3)

n^.

W. Tibetan

sd.

S. Tibetan

atneho.

English

khrat.

Ahom

Khamti

khai.

T^au

khai.

Siamese

khai.

English
Ahom (3)
W. Tibelan
S. Tibetan

English
Ahom (3)
W. Tibetan
S. Tibetan

English,

Ahom

Khamti

Lau

Siamese

W. Tibetan

8. Tibetan

English
Ahom
W. Tibetan
S. Tibetan

English

Ahom

Khamti

Lau

Siamese

W. Tibetan

S. Tibetan

father.
po.
phd.
paid,

fire.

M

md,
mi,

flower.

hlok,

mok.

dok.

dokmai,

me- tog.

tnen-tok,

foot.
tin.

rkang'p^
kango,

hair.

phrum,

phom,

phom,

phom,

skra,

spu.

ta.

kra.

* S. means the spoken, W. the written Tibetan. The collation
has been made from a table of Mr. Hodgson's in the Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The Ahom Is a T'hay dialect

308

TABLBi.

English

bead

Ahom

ru.

Khamti

ho.

Lan

ho.

Siamese

hoa.

W. Tibetan

mgo.

S. Tibetaa

go-

English moon.

Siamese tawan,

W. Tibetan ^lava.

8. Tibetan dawa.

English
Ahom (4)
Tibetan

English
Khamti (3)
W. Tibetan
S. Tibetan

English

Ahom

Khamti

Lan (2)

S. Tibetan

English
Ahom (2)
Siamese
W. Tibetan
S. Tibetan

English
Ahom
Khamti
Lau

Siamese

English
Ahom
W. Tibetan
S. Tibetan

mother.

me.

ama.

nierht.
hhun.

mtshanmo.
chen-mo,

oil.

man gra.

nam,

man.

nam.

man.

num.

road.

tang.

thdng.

lami.

lani.

salt

klu,

ku.

keu.

keou.

kleua.

skin.
plek,
pagspa.
pag-pa.

English
Ahom

khiu.

Khamti.

khiu.

Lau.

khiau

Siamese

khiau.

Tibetan

s&

English
Ahora

tree.
tun.

Khamd

tun.

Lau

t6n.

Siamese

ion.

W. Tibetan

I. jon-shipg

S. Tibetan

shin dong.

English
Ahom (3)

three.
sam.

W. 'I'ibetan

q-sum.

S. Tibetan

sum.

English
Ahom (3)

four.
si.

W. Tibetan

bzhi.

S. Tibetan

zhyi.

English
Ahom (3)

five.
ha.

W. Tibetaa

hna.

S. Tibetan

gna.

English
Ahom

six.
ruk.

Siamese (3)

hok.

W. Tibetan

druk.

S. Tibetan

thu.

English
Ahom (3)

nine.
kau.

W. Tibetan

d-gu.

S. Tibetan

guh.

English
Ahom

in, on.
nu.

Khamti

nau.

Lau

veu.

Tibetan

la^na.

THE B*HOT.

Evglish

now.

English

sleep.

A horn

tinai.

Ahom (2)

non.

Kbamti

Uang.

W. Tibetan

nyan.

Lau

leng.

S. Tibetan

nye.

W. Tibetan

deng tee.

8. Tibetan

thanda.

English

langh.

English

to-morrow.

Ahom

khru.

Abom

tang^manai.

Khamti

kh6.

Tibetan

sang.

Lau

khoa.

Siamese

hoaro.

English

drink.

W. Tibetan

hgad,
fid.

Siamese

deum.

S. Tibetan

W. Tibetan

Pthung,

^7

S. Tibetan

^hung.

909

The B'hot itself is spoken over a large area,
with but little variation. We anticipate the In-
ference. It is an intrusive tongue, of comparar
tively recent diffusion. What has been its di-
rection ? From east to west rather than from
west to east ; at least such is the deduction from
its similarity to the T'hay, and from the multi-
plicity of dialects— -representatives of a receding
population — in the Himalayas of Nepal and
Sikkim. This, however, is a point on which I
speak with hesitation.

Dialects of the B^hot class are spoken as far
westward as the parts about Cashmir and the
watershed of the Ijidus and Oxus. This gives
ns the greatest extent eastwards of any unequi-
vocally monosyllabic tongue.

The Chinese seem to have effected displace*
ments as remarkable for both breadth and leno:th
as the T'hay were for length. We get at their

SIO THB cnnsrsBS.

original locality by the exhaufltive process. On
the northern and western frontier they keep eo-
croaching at the present moment — ^at the ex-
pense of the Mantshus and Mongolians* For
the provinces of Chansi, Pe-tche-li, Chantmig,
Honan, &c., indeed, for fonr-fifths of the whole
empire, the uniformity of speech indicates a
recent diffusion. In Setshuen and Yunnan the
type changes, probably from that of the true
Chinese to the Tibetan, 'Fhay and Burmese. In
Tonkin and Cochin the language isjike but dif-
ferent — ^like enough to be the only monosyllabic
language which is placed by any one in the
same section with the Chinese, but different
enough to make this position of it a matter of
doubt with many. Putting all this together,
the south and south-eastern provinces of China
appear to be the oldest portions of the present
area.

In fixing upon these bs the parent provinces,
the evidence of ethnology on the one side, and
that of the mass of tradition and inference which
passes under the honorable title of Chinese his-
tory on the other, disagree. This latter is as
follows :

At some period anterior to 550 b.c, the first
monarch with whom the improvement of China
began, and whose name was Yao, ruled over a
small portion of the present empire, viz. its

THE CHINESE. 211

northrwest district ; and the first nations that he
fought against, were the Yen and Tsi, in Pe-tche-
li and Shantong respectively.

Later still, Honan was conquered.

B. G. 550. All to the south of the Ta-keang
was barbarous ; and the title of King of Chi-
nese was only Vang' or prince^ not Hoang-te or
Emperor.

At this time Confucius lived. Amongst other
things he wroto the Tschanrtseii^ or Annals of
his own time.

B. c. 213. Shi-hoang-ti, the first emperor of
all China, built the great wall, colonized Japan,
conquered the parts about Nankin, and pur-
posely destroyed all thepremousl/y eooisUng doour
fnents upon which he cotUd lay hand.

B. o. 94. Sse-mats-sian lived. What Shi-
hoang-ti missed in the way of records, Sse-mats-
sian preserved, and, as such, passes for the He-
rodotus China.

A destruction of the earlier records, with a
subsequent reconstruction of the history which
they are supposed to have embodied, is always
suspicious ; and when once the principle of re-
construction is admitted, no value can be attach-
ed to the intrinsic probability of a narration.
It may be probable. It may be true. It cannot,
however, be historical unless supported by his-
torical testimony ; since if true, it is a gttess ;

SIS TSB OHINEnB.

and if probaUe, a specimen of the tact of the
inventor. At best, it can but be tradition or an
inference^ the basis of which may be a certaia
amount of fact — ^little or great^ according to the
temperament of the investigator.

Now, in the previous notice of the history of
Chinese civilization, we have plac^ its claims
to a high antiquity under as favorable a point of
view as is allowable. They bear the appearance
of trulh — so much so, that if we had Teascm to
believe that there were any means of recording
them at so early an epoch as 600 years b. c^ and
of preserving them to so late a one as the yesr
'51, skepticism would be impertinent. Bat this
is not the case. An historical &ct must be taken
upon evidence, not upon probabilities ; and to
argue the antiquity of a civilization like the Chi-
nesej^om the antiquity of its history, and afters
wards to claim an historical value for remote
traditions on the strength of an early civilization^
is to argue in a circle.

Without saying that aU argument upon the
antiquity of the Chinese Empire is of this sort)
it mayi.fairly be said that much of it has been
so — so much as to make Confucius as mytholo-
gical a character as Minos, and to bring the ear-
liest reasonable rcords to an epoch subsequent to
the introduction of Buddhism from India. Even
this antiquity is only probable.

THE BUBHESB* 218

A square block of land between the Ganges
and Upper Irawaddi, is occupied by one domi-
nant, and upwards of thirty subordinate sections
of one and the same population — ^the Burmese.
Some of these are mountaineers, and have re-
treated before the Indians from the south and
west — encroachers upon the originally Burmese
countries of Assam, Chittagong, and Sylhet.
Others are themselves intruders, or (what is
much the same,^ consolidators of conquered
countries. Such are the Avans of the Burmese
Empire, properly so called, who seem to have
followed die course of the Irawaddi, disfdadng
not only small tribes akin to themselves, but the
M6n of Pegu as well. Lastly, the Kariens emu-
late the l>hay in the length of their area and in
its north and south direction, being found in the
southern part of the Tenaserim Provinces (in
Jl'* N. L.) and on the very borders of China (in
23^ N- L.)

No great family has its distribution so close-
ly coincident with a water-system as the one in
question. The plateau of Mongolia and the
Himalayas are its boundaries. It occupies the
whole * of all the rivers which rise within these
limits, and fall into either the Bay of Bengal or

* CoDsidering the Bnrampiiter and Ganges as ceparat*
rivers.

214 THE MGlfTOSTLLABIO FAMILT.

the Chinese Sea ; whereas (with the exception of
the Himalayan portions of the Indus and &.t
Oanges) it occupies none of the others. The
lines of migration with the Indo-Chinese }>opa-
lations • have generally followed the water-
courses of the Indo-Chinese rivers ; and civili-
zation has chiefly flourished along their valleys.
Yefc, as these lead to an ocean interrupted by
no fresh continent, the effect of their direction
has been to isolate the nations who possess
them. I imagine that this has much nnyre to
do with peculiarities of the Chinese civilization
than aught else. Had the Hoang-ho fallen into a
sea like the Mediterranean, the Celestial Empire
would, probably, have given and taken in the
way of social and political influence, have acted
on the manners of the world at large, and have
itself been reacted on. Differences should only
be attributed to so indefinite and so impalpable
a force as race when all other things are equal

Upon the principle of taking the questions
in the order of complexity, so as to dispose of
the simplest first, I pass over, for the present,
the connection between Africa and South- West-
ern Asia, and take the easier of the two Euro-
pean ones.

The Turanians, — ^The line which, beginning
at Lapland, and, after exhibiting the great Tu-
ranian aflSliations, ends at the wall of China,

ASIA — ^EUBOPE — ^AFEIOA. 216

comprising the Ugrians, Samoeids,* Tenisei-
ans,* Tukahiri,* Turks, Mongols, and Tungu-
Bians,f is connected with the area of the mono-
syllabic languages in different degrees of clear-
ness according to the criterion employed. The
physical confirmation is nearly identical. The
languages differ — the Turanian, like the Ocean-
ic and the American, being inflected and poly-
syllabic.:!: With this difference, the complexi-
ties of the affiliation begin and end. Their
amount has been already su^ested.

A great part of Northern Europe, Indepen-
dent Tartary, Siberia, Mongolia, Tibet, China,
and the Transgangetic Peninsula, has now been
disposed of. Nevertheless, India, Persia, Asia
Minor, and Caucasus remain ; in size inconsid-
erable, in diffieulty great — ^greatly difficult be-
cause the points of contact between Europe and
Asia, and Africa and Asia, fall within this area ;
greatly difficult because the displacements have
been enormous; greatly difficult because, be-
sides displacement, there has been intermixture
as well. Lest any one undervalue the displace-

* Conveniently thrown into a single class, and called Hyper'
boreans,

t The great family of which the Mantshtis are the best
known members.

t Not necessarily with many syllables, but wiih mere than
one — kyper-monO'Myllabic,

216 ASIA — BUBOPS— AFRIOA^

ment, let him look at Asia Minora which is noyi
Turk, which has beeu Boman, Persian and
Oreek, and which has no single unequivocal
remnant of its original population throughout
its whole length and breadth. Yet, great as
this is, it is no more than what we expect a
prwri. What families are and have been moh
encroaching than the populations hereabouts-^
Tnrks from the north, Ajabs from the soutl^
and Persians £rom the east ? The ddest exs^
pires lie here — and old empires imply early
consolidation; early consolidation, premature
displacement. Then com^ the phsenomena of ii>
termixture. In India there is a literary JangUage
of considerable age, and jfuU of inflexions. Of
these inflexions not one in ten can be traced iii
any modern tongue throughout the whole of
Asia. Yet they are rife and common in many
European ones. Again, the words of this same
language, rnmua its inflexions, are rife and
common in the very tongues where the inflex-
ions are wanting ; in some cases amounting to
nine-tenths of the language. What is the in-
ference from this ? Not a very clear one at any
rate.

Africa has but one point of contact with
Asia, i. «., Arabia. It is safe to say this, be-
cause, whether we carry the migration over the
Isthmus of Suez or the Straits of Babel-Man^

PERSIA. 2i7

deb, the results are similar. The Asiatic stockj
in either case, is the same — Semitic. But Eu-
rope, in addition to its other mysteries, has two ;
perhaps three. One of these is simple enough
— that of the Lap line and the Turanian stock.
But the others are not so. It is easy to make
the Ugrians Asiatic ; but by no means easy to
connect the other Europeans with the Ugrians.
The Sarmatians, nearest in geography, have
never been very successfully affiliated with
them. Indeed, so unwilling have writers beeti
to admit this relationship, that the Finnic hy-
pothesis, with all its boldness, has appeared the
better alternative. Yet the Finnic hypothesis
is but a guess. Even if it be not so, it only
embraces the Basks and the Albanians ; so
that the so-called Indo-Europeans still stand
over.

For reasons like these, the parts forthcom*
ing will be treated with far greater detail than
those which have preceded ; with nothing like
the detail of min/ute ethnology, but still slowly
and carefully.

All that thus stands over for investigation is
separated from the area already disposed of by
that line of mountains which is traced from the
Garo Hills in the north-east of Bengal to the
mouth of the Kuban in the Black Sea. First
come the Eastern Himalayas, which^ roughly

S18 P£B6I^.

speaking, may be said to divide the Indian
kingdoms and dependencies from the Chinese
Empire. They do not do so exactly, but they
do so closely enough for the present purpose.

They may also be said in the same way, to
divide the nations of the Hindu from those of
more typically Mongolian conformation.

They may also be said, in the same way, to
divide the Indian tongues from the monosyllabic.

On the north side of this range, languages
undoubtedly monosyllabic are spoken as far
westwards as Little Tibet. On the south there
are Hindu characteristics both numerous and
undoubted as far in the same direction as Cash-
mir.

Then comes a change. To the north and
west of Cashmir is a Kohistcm^ or mountavnr
country^ which will soon require being describ-
ed in detail. The line, however, which we are
at present engaged upon is that of the northern
boundary of the Valley of the Kabtil River, the
mountains between Cabul and Herat, and the
continuation of the same ridge from Herat to
the south-eastern comer of the Caspian. N<yrih
of this we have — roughly speaking — the Uzbek
and Turcoman Turks ; south of it, the Afghans
and Persians Proper. Bokhara, however, is
Persian, and the Kohistan in question is not
Turk — whatever else it may be.

KHOBASAN. 219

To proceed — this line runs nearly parallel to
the southern shore of the Caspian. Of the pro-
vinces to the north of it, Asterabad is partly
Turk and partly Persian ; Mazenderan and Ghi-
lan, Persian. From Ghilan northwards and
"westwards, the vaUeys of the Cyrus and Araxes
form the chief exception ; but, saving these, all
is mountain and mountaineership. Indeed, it
is Ararat and Armenia which lie on our left, and
flie vast and vague Caucasus which rears itself
in front.

The simplest ethnology of the pai-ts between
this range, the Semitic area, and the sea, is that
of the Persian province of Khorasan. With
Persia we are so much in the habit of connect-
ing ideas of Eastern pomp and luxury, that we
are scarcely able to give it its true geographical
conditions of general sterility. Yet it is really
a desert with oases— a desert with oases for the
&r greater part of its area. And of all its pror
vinces few are more truly so than Khorasan.
Here we have a great elevated central table-
land; preeminently destitute of rivers, and
with but few towns. Of these Yezd is the chief
in interest ; the head-quarters of remains of the
old fire-worship; Yezd the city of the Parsees,
more numerous there than in all the others in
Persia besides. Perhaps, too, it is the ethnolo-
gical centre of the Persian stock ; since in a.

9S0 PERSIA — ^PABS — IRAK.

westerly direction they extend to Knrdistan, and
in a northeastern one as fiu* as Badnkshan and
Dnrwaz on the sonrce of the Oxns.

The northern frontier is Turcoman, where
the pastoral robbers of the parts between Bob
hara and the Caspian encroach, and have ea-
croached.

As &r south as Shnrakhs they are to be
found ; and east of Shnrakhs they are succeeded
by the Hazarehs — ^probably wlidlly^ certainly
pwrtidUy^ of Mongolian blood.

Abbasabadon the northrWest. is a Georgian
colony. On the line between Meshed and Herat
are several Kurd colonies. In Seistan we have
Persians ; but fiirther south there are Biluch
and Brahdi. Due east the Afghans come in.

Kerman is also Persian; and that to a
greater degree than Khorasan. Fars is the
same ; yet west of Fai-s the population changes,
and Arabian elements occur. They increase in
Khuzistan ; and in Irak Arabi we, at one and
the same time, reach the rich alluvia of the Ti-
gris and Euphrates and a doubtful frontier.
Whether this was originally Arab or Persian is
a matter of doubt.

From Irak we must subtract Laristan, and
the Baktyari Mountains, as well as the whole
north-western half. Hamadan is the ancient
Ecbatana ; the ancient Ecbatana was Median —

THE BILT70H. 22X

bnt that the Medes and Persians were as closely
allied in blood as we suppose them to have been
in their tinalterable laws, is hj no means a safe
assamption. The existence of a third language
in the arrow-headed inscriptions jet awaits a
satis&ctbrj explanation.

On, the other hand, Mazenderan is wholly
Persian ; and so is Ghilan Proper. The Talish,
however^ to the. north of tiiat province, are, pos-
sibl J, of another stock. Asterabad, as stated
above, is a frontier province.

I think that there is good reason for believ-
ing Ajerbijan to have been, originally, other
than Persian.

In Balkh and Bokhara, the older — ^but not
necessarily the oldest — ^population appears to be
Persian under recently immigrant Uzbek mas-
ters. Beyond these countries, the Persians re-
appear as the chief population ; i. ^., in Baduk&-
han and Durwaz.

Here the proper Persian population ends —
but not either wholly or abruptly.

Three modifications of it occur —

1. In Biluchistan to the south-east.

2. In Kurdistan to the west.

3. In Afghanistan to the east.

Besides which, there are Persians encroach-
ing upon the Armenian and Caucasian area in
Shijrvan, Erivan, and Xarabagh — ^in all of which

233 THE BILirCH — THE KTJBDS.

countries, as well as in Ajerbijan, I believe it to
have been intrusive.

The Biluch. — ^East and south-east of the
proper Persians of Kerman come the Biluch, of
Biluchistan. There is certainly a change of
type here. Physically, the country is much
like the table-land of Kerman. India, however,
is approached ; so that the Biluch are frontier
tribes. To a certain extent they are encroacb-
ers. We find them in Sind, in MiUtan, and in
the parts between the Indus and the Sulimani
Mountains, and in the middle part of the Suli-
mani Mountains themselves. They style them-
selves Usvl or TJie Pure^ a term which implies
either displacement or intermixture in the parts
around. Their language is a modified (many
call it a had) Persian. Philologically, however,
it may be the older and more instructive dia-
lect — though I have no particular reasons for
thinking it so. Hindu features of physiognomy
now appear. So do Semitic elements of polity
and social constitution. We have tribes, clans,
and families, with divisions and sub-divisions.
We have a criminal law which puts us in mind
of the Levites. We have classes which scorn to
intermarry ; and this suggests the idea of caste.
Then we have pastoral habits as in Mongolia.
The religion, however, is Mahometan, so that if
any remains of the primitive Paganism, availa-

THE KUBDS. . 228

ble for the purposes of ethnological classifica-
tion, still exist, they lie too far below flie surface
to have been observed.

Captain Postans distinguishes the Biluch
from the Mekrani of Mekran ; bnt of this lat-
ter people I know no good description. They
are, probably, Kerman Persians. The hill-range
between Jhalawan and Sind is occupied by a
family which has commanded but little notice ;
yet is it one of the most important in the world,
the Bra]idi.

The Kv/rda, — A line drawn obliquely across
Persia from Biluchistan towards the north-west
brings us to another frontier population ; a pop-
ulation conterminous with the Semitic Arabs
of Mesopotamia, and the unplaced Armenians.
These are mountaineers — ^the Kurds of Kurdis-
tan. Name foi^ name, they are Ca/rduchi of
the Anabasis. Name for name, they are the
Oordym. Name for name, they are, probably,
the ChoMod and Khasdrim — a fact which en-
genders a difficult complication, since the Chal-
dsei, in the eyes of nine writers out of ten —
though not in those of so good an authority as
Gesenius — are Semitic. The Kurd area is pre-
eminently irregular in outline. It is equally
remarkable for its physical conditions. It is a
range of mountains — just the place wherein we
expect to find old and aboriginal populations

224 THS AFOHANa

rather than new and intrusive ones. On tlie
other hand, however, the Kurd form of the
Persian tongue is not remarkable for the multL
plicity and difference of its dialects — a fact
which suggests the opposite inference. £urds
extend as far south as the northern frontier of
Fars, as far north as Armenia, and as far west
as the head-waters of the Hilys. Have they
encroached ? This is a difSicult question. The
Armenians are a people who have generally
given way before intruders ; but the Arabs are
rather intruders than the contrary. The Kurd
direction is vertical ; i. e., narrow rather than
broad, and from north to south (or vice versd)
rather than from east to west (or vice versd)^ a
direction common enough where it coincides
with the valley of a river, but rare along a
mountain chain. !N^evertheless it reappears in
South America, where the Peruvian area coin-
cides with that of the Andes.

The Afghans. — ^The Afghan area is very
nearly the water-system of the river Helmund.
The direction in which it has become extended
is east and north-east ; in the former it has en-
croached upon Hindostan, in the latter upon
the southern members of a class that may con-
veniently be called the Paropamisan. In this
way (I think) the Valley of the Cabul Eiver
has become Afghan. Its relations to the Haza-

BOKHARA. 225

reh country are tindetermined. Most of the
Hazarehs are Mongolian in physiognomy.
Some of them are Mongolian in both physiog-
nomy and language. This indicates intrusion
and intermixture — intrusion an intermixture
which history tells us are subsequent to the time
of Tamerlane. Phaenomena suggestive of intru-
sion and intermixture are rife and common
throughout Afghanistan. In some cases — as in
that of Hazarehs — it is recent, or subsequent to
the Afghan occupation ; in others, it is ancient
and prior to it.

Bokhara, — I have not placed the division
containing the Tajiks of Balkh, Kunduz, Dur-
waz, Badukshan, and Bokhara, on a level with
that containing the Afghans, Kurds and Biluch,
because I am not sure of its value. Probably,
however, it is in reality as much a separate sub
stantive class as any of the preceding. Here
the intrusion has been so great, the political
relations have been so separate, and the inter-
mixed population is so heterogeneous as for it
to have been, for a long time, doubtful whether
the people of Bokhara were Persian or Turk.
Klaproth, however, has shown that they belong
*to the former division, though subject to the
Uzbek Turks. If so, the present Tajiks represent
the ancient Bactrians and Sogdiana — the Per-
sians of the valley and water system of the Oxus.
But what if these were intruders ? I have little
11

226 TAJIKS AJSCD ILirATS.

doubt about tbe word Oixms {Oh-avs) represent-
ing the same root as the Yah in YaxsaHea
{Ydk-saHes)^ and the Yaih^ the name of the
river flowing into the northern part of the Cas-
pian. Now this is the Turania/n, name for
TvoeTj a name found equally in the Tm-k, Ugua-
ri, and Hyperborean languages. At any rate,
Bokhara is on an ethnological frontier.

But Bactria and Sogdiana were Persian at
the time of Alexander's successors ; they were
Persian at the very beginnig of the historical
period. Be it so. The historical period is but
a short one, and there is no reason why a popu
lation should not encroach at one time, and ba
encroached upon at another.

All the parts enumerated, and all the divi-
sions, are so undoubtedly Persian, that few com-
petent authorities deny the fact. The most that
has ever been done is to separate the Afghans.
Sir W. Jones did this. He laid great stress
upon certain Jewish characteristics, had his
head full of the Ten Tribes, and was deceived
in a vocabulary of their languages, Mr. Nor-
riss also is inclined to separate them, but on
different grounds. He can neither consider the
Afghan language to be Indo-European, nor the
Persian to be otherwise. His inference is true,
if his facts are. But what if the Persian be
other than Indo-European ? In that case they
are both free to fall into the same category.

PEBSIAN LANGUAGE. 227

Bat the complexities of the Persian popula-
tion are not complete. There is the division be-
tween the Tajiks and the Iliyats ; the former
being the settled occupants of towns and villages
speaking Persian, the others pastoral or wan-
dering tribes speaking the Arab, Kurd, and
Turk languages. That Tajik is the same word
as the root Tuoc^ in Taoc-ene^ a part of the an-
cient country of Persis (now Fct/ri)^ and, conse-
quently, in a preeminent Persian locality, is a
safe conjecture. The inference, however, that
such was the original locality of the Persian
family, is traversed by numerous — ^but by no
means insuperable — difficulties. In respect to
their chronological relations, the general state-
ment may be made, that wherever we have Ta-
jiks and Diyats together, tlie former are the
older, and the latter the newer population.
Hence it is not in any Hiyat tribe that we are
to look for any nearer approach to the aborigi-
nes, than what we find in the normal population.
They are the analogues of the Jews and gipsies
of Great Britain, rather than of the Welsh —
recent grafts rather than parts of the old stock.
In Afghanistan this was not so clearly the case.
Indeed the inference was the other way.

The antiquities and history of Persia are too
well known to need more than a passing allusion.
The creed was that of Zoroaster ; still existent,

228 INDIA.

In a modified (perhaps a corrupted, perhaps an
improved) form, in the religion of the modem
Parsis. The language of the Zoroastrian Scrip-
tures was called Zend. Now the Zend is Indo-
European — Indo-European and highly inflected.
The inflections^ however, in the modem Persian
are next to none; and of those few it is by no
means certain that they are Zend in origin. Ne-
vertheless, the great majority of modem Persian
words are Zend. What does this mean? It
means that the philologist is in a difficulty ; that
the grammatical structure points one way, and
the vocabulary another. This difficulty will
meet us again.

India, — In the time of Herodotus, and even
earlier, India was part of the Persian empire.
Yet India was not Persia. It was no more Per-
sia in the days of Darius than it is English now.
The original Indian stock was and is peculiar —
peculiar in its essential fimdamentals, but not
pure and unmodified. The vast extent to which
this modification implies encroachment and in-
teraiixture, is the great key to nine-tenths of the
complexities of the difficult ethnology of Hin-
dostan. Whether we look to the juxtaposition
of the difierent forms of Indian speech, the
multiform degrees of fusion between them, the
sections and sub-sections of their creeds — ^lesrion
by name — the fragments of ancient paganism,

INDIA. 229

the diflferences of skin and feature, or the insti-
tutiou of caste, intrusion followed by intermix-
ture, and intermixture in every degree and under
every mode of manifestation, is the suggestion.

And now we have our duality; viz., the
primitive element and the foreign one — the
Btock and the graft. Nothing is more certain
than that the graft came from the north-west.
Does this necessarily mean from Persia ? Such
is the current opinion ; or, if not from Persia,
from some of those portions of India itself near-
est the Persian frontier. There are reasons, how-
ever, for refining on this view. Certain influ-
ences, foreign to India, may have come through
Persia, without being Persian. The proof that
a particular characteristic was introduced into
India via Persia is one thing ; the proof that it
originated in Persia is another. They have often,
however, been confounded.

In the south of India the foreign element is
manifested less than in the north ; so that it is
the south of India which exhibits the original
stock in its fullest form. Its chief characteristics
are referable to three heads, physical form, creed,
and language. In respect to the first, the south-
em Indian is darker than the northern — costeria
jparilyus^ i. e. under similar external conditions ;
but not to the extent that a moimtaineer of the
Dekhan is blacker than a Bengali from the delta

230 TAMULIAN FAMILY.

of the Ganges. Descent, too, or caste influen-
ces color, and the purer the blood the lighter
the skin. Then the lips are thicker, the nose
less frequently aquiline, the cheek-bones more
prominent, and the eyebrows less regular in the
southrons. The most perfect form of the Indian
face gives us regular and delicate features, arch-
ed eyebrows, an aquiline nose, an oval contour,
and a clear brunette complexion. All this is
Persian.

Depart from it and comparisons suggest
themselves. K the lips thicken and the skin
blackens, we think of the Negro ; if the cheek-
bones stand out, and if the eye — as it sometimes
does — become oblique, the Mongol comes into
our thoughts.

The original Indian creeds are best charac-
terized by negatives. They are neither Brah-
minic nor Bhuddhist.

The language, for the present, is best brought
under the same description. No man living
considers it to be Indo-European,

In proportion as any particular Indian pop-
ulation is characterized by these three marks,
its origin, purity, and indigenous nature become
clearer — and mce versd. Hence, they may be
taken in the order of their outward and visible
signs of aboriginal ity.

First come — as already stated — the South-

' TAMULIAN FAMILT. 231

rons of the Continent ;* and first amongst these
the mountaineers. In the Eastern Ghauts we
Lave the Chenchwars, between the Kistqa and
the Pennar ; in the Western the Cohatars, Tu-
das, Curumbars, Erulars, and numerous other
hill-tribes ; all agreeing in being either imperfect
Brahminists or Pagans, and in speaking and
languages akin to the Tamul of the coast of
Coromandel ; a language which gives its name
to the class, and introduces the important phi-
lological term Tamvlian. The physical appear-
ance of these is by no means so characteristic
as their speech and creed. The mountain habir
taU iavor a lightness of complexion. On the
other, it favors the Mongol prominence of the
cheek-bones. Many, however, of the Tudas
have all the regularity of the Persian counte-
nance — ^yet they are the pure amongst the pure
of the native Tamulian Indians.

In the plmna the language is Tamulian, but
the creed Brahminic ; a state of evidence which
reaches as far north as the parts about Chicacole
east, and Goa west.

In the South^ then, are the chief samples of
the true Tamulian aborigines of Indian; the
characteristics of whom have been preserved
by the simple effect of distance from ''the point

* Observe — not of the island of Ceylon.

232 HINDU LANGUAGE.

of disturbance. Distance, however, alone has
been but a weak preservative. The combina-
tion o^ a mountain-stronghold has added to its
efficiency.

In Central India one of these safeguards is
impaired. We are nearer to Persia ; and it is
only in the mountains tliat the foreign elements
are sufficiently inconsiderable to make the Ta-
mulian character of the population undoubted
and undeniable. In the Mahratta country and
in Gondwana, the Ghonds, in Orissa the Kols,
Khonds, and Sui-s, and in Bengal the Rajma-
hali mountaineei'S are Tamulian in tongue and
Pagan in creed — or, if not Pagan, but imper-
fectly Brahminic. But, then, they are all moun-
taineers. In the more level country around
them the language is Mahratta, Udiya, or Ben-
gali-

Now the Mahratta, \Jdija* and Bengali are
not unequivocally and undeniably Tamulian-
They are so far from it, that they explain what
was meant by the negative statement as to the
Tamulian tongues not being considered Indo-
European. This is just what the tongues in
question have been considered. Whether right-
ly or wrongly is not very important at present.
If rightly, we have a difference of language as

» Of Orissa.

HILL-TBEBES OF INDIA. 238

j)riind facie — ^but not as conclusive — evidence
of a difference of stock. If wrongly, we have,
in the very existence of an opifiion which com-
mon courtesy should induce us to consider rea-
sonable, a practical exponent of some consider^
able difference of some sort or other — of a change
from the proper Tamulian characteristics to
something else so great in its degree as to look
like a difference in Tcind. With the Bengali —
and to a certain extent with the other two popu
lations — the foreign element approaches its maj3^
imum^ or (changing the expression) the evidence
of Tamulianism is at \t^ minimum. Yet it is
not annihilated. The physical appearance of
the Mahratta, at least, is that of the true South
Indian. Even if the language be other than
Tamulian, the Hindus of northern India may
still be of the same stock with those of Mysore
and Malabar, in the same way that a Cornish-
man is a Welshman ; L <?., a Briton who has
changed his mother-tongue for the English.

Intermediate to the Khonds and the Bengali,
in respect to the evidence of their Tamulian af-
finities, are the mountaineers of north-western
India. Here, the preservative effects of dis-
tance are next to nothing. Those, however, of
the mountain-fastnesses supply the following
populations — ^Berdars, Eamusi,Wurali, Paurias,

234 THE BBAHUI.

Kulis, Bhils, Mewars, Moghis, Minas, &c. &c.,
speaking languages of the same class witli the
Mahratta, Udiya, and Bengali, but all imper-
fectly Brahminic in creed.

The other important languages of India in
the same class with those last-mentioned, are
the Quzerathi of Guzerat, the Hindu of Oude,
the Punjabi of the Punjab, and several others
not enumerated — partly because it is not quite
certain how we are to place them,* partly be-
cause they may be sub-dialects rather than se-
parate substantive forms of speech. They take
us up to the Afghan, Biluch, and Tibetan fron-
tier.

These have been dealt with. But there is
one population, belonging to these self-same
areas, with which we have further dealings.
Biluchistan has been described ; but not in de-
tail. The Biluch, that give their name to the
country, have been noticed as Persian. But
the Biluch are as little the only and exclusive
inhabitants of it, as the English are of Great
Britain. "We have our Welsh, and the Biluch
have their Brahui.

Again — the range of mountains that forms
the western watershed of the Indus is not

* The Caslimirian of Cashmfr is in this predicatneut. It is
not safe to say that it is Hindu rather than Persian, or Paro-
pamisan, a term which will soon find its explanation.

THE BBAHTTT. 235

wholly Afghan. It is Biliich as well. But it
is not wholly Biluch. The Biltich reach to only
a certain point southwards. The range between
the promontory of Cape Montze and the upper
boundary of Kutch Gundava is Brahui. There
is no such word as Brahuiatcm ; but it would
be well if there were.

Ifow the language of the Brahui helongs to
the TamuUan family, Tlie aflSnity by no
means lies on the surface^ — nor is it likely that
it should. The nearest unequivocally Tamulian
dialect on the same side of India is as far south
as Goa — ^such as exist further to the north being
either central or eastern. Supposing, then, the
original continuity, how great must have been
the displacement; and if the displacement have
been great, how easy may the transitional forms
have disappeared, or, rather, how truly must
they once have been met with !

However, the Brahui aflSinities by no means
lie on the surface. The language is known
from one of the many valuable vocabularies of
Leach. Upon this, no less a scholar than Las-
sen commented. "Without jSxing it, he re-
marked that the numerals were like those of
Southern India. They are so, indeed ; and so
is a great deal more ; indeed, the collation of
the whole of the Brahui vocabularies with the

2Sd THB GEOR6IAKS.

Tamul aiid Khond tongues en masse makes the
Braliui Tamulian.

Is it original or intrusive ? All opinion —
valeat quantum — goes against it being the for-
mer. The mountain-fastness in which it occurs
goes the other way.

Our sequence is logical rather than geo-
graphical ; i. e,^ it takes localities and languages,
in the order in which they are subservient to
ethnological argument rather than according
to their contiguity. This justifies us in mak-
ing a bold stride, in passing over all Persia,
and in taking next in order — Caucasus, with
all its conventional reminiscences and sugges-
tions.

The languages of Caucasus fall into a group,
which, for reasons already given, would be in-
conveniently called Caucasian^ but which may
conveniently be termed I>iosGurian.^ This falls
into the following five divisions : 1. The Geor-
gians ; 2. the Iron; 3. theMizjeji; 4. the Les-
gians ; and 5. the Circassians.

1. The GeorgiamjS. — It is the opinion of
Eosen that the central province of Kartulinia,
of which Tiflis is the capital, is the original seat

• From the town of DioscuriaSy in which Pliiiy says business
was carried on through 130 interpreters — so numerous were tho
languages and dialects.

THB GEORGIAlirS. 237

of the Georgian family ; the chief reasons lying
in the fact of that part of the area being the
most important. Thus the language is called
JSjartulinia/n / whilst the provinces round about
Kartulinia are considered as additions or acces-
sions to the Georgian domain, rather than as
integral and original portions of it — a fact which
makes the province in question a sort of nucleus.
Lastly, the Persian and Russian names, Ourg-
istcm and Gr-usia^ by which the country is
most widely known, point to the valley of the
Kur.

To all this I demur. The utmost that is
proved thereby is the greater political promi-
nence of the occupants of the more favored
parts of the country ; as the middle course of
the Kur really is.

Of the two sides of the watershed that sep-
arates the rivers of the Black Sea * from those
of the Caspian,f it is the western which has the
best claim to be considered the original habitat
of the Georgians. Here it is that the country
is most mountainous, and the mountains most
abrupt. Hence it is, too, that a population
would have both the wish and power to migrate
towards the plains rather than vice versd.

More weighty still is the evidence derived
from the dialects. The Kartulinian is spoken

• The Phaiis, Tshorok, ito, f The Kur and Area.

288 THE OE0B6IAKS.

over more than half the whole of Georgia:
whereas, for the parts not Sartulinian, we hear
of the following dialects : —

1. The Suanic^ on the head- waters of the
small rivers between Mingrelia, and the south-
ern parts of the Circassian area — ^the Ingur, the
Okonmiskqnal, &c. This is the most northern
section of the Georgian family.

2, 3. The Mingrdian and the Imiritian,

4, 6. The Ouriel and ATcalzike in Turkish
Georgia.

6. The Lazic, — ^This is the tongue of the
most western dialects. Tlie hills which form
the northern boundary of the valley of the
Tsorokh are the Lazic locality ; and here the
diversity has attained its mojximuTa. Small as
is the Lazic population, every valley has its sep-
arate variety of speech.

I believe, then, that in Central Caucasus the
Kartulinian Georgians have been intrusive;
and this is rendered probable by the character
of the populations to the north and east of
them. Between Georgia and Daghestan we
have, in the preeminently inaccessible parts of
the eastern half of Caucasus,* two fresh fam-
ilies, different from each other, different from
the Lesgians, and different from the Circassians.

* The Irtn and Mizjeji,

THE Ir6n — ^MIZJEJI — LESGIANS. 239

With Buch reasons for believing the original
direction of the Georgian area to have been
westernly, we may continue the investigation.
That they were the occupants of a considerable
portion of the eastern half of the ancient Pon-
tus, is probable from the historical importance
of the Lazi in the time of Justinian, when a
Lazic war disturbed the degenerate Romans of
Constantinople. It is safe to carry them as far
west as Trebizond. It is safe, too, to carry them
farther. One of the commonest of the Geor-
gian terminations is the syllable -pe or -M^ the
sign of the plural number; a circumstance
which gives the town of Sino^e a Georgian
look — Smope near the promontory of Calli^pi.

2. The Iron.— To the north-west of Tiflis we
have the towns of Duchet and Gori, one on the
Kur itself, and one on a left hand feeder of
it. The mountains above are in the occupation
of the Ir6n or Osetes. In Russian Georgia they
amount to about 28,000. The name Irfin is the
one they give themselves ; Oseti is what they
are called by the Georgians. Their language
contains so great a per-centage of Persian words
or vioi versd^ that it is safe to put them both in
the same class. This has, accordingly, been
done — and a great deal more which is neither
safe nor sound has been done besides.

3. The Mizjeji. — Due east of the mountain-

2iO THE LE6GIANS — THE CIBCASSIAKS.

eer Iron come the equally mountaineer Mizjeji,
a family numerically small, but falling into di-
visions and sub-divisions. Hence, it has a pre-
eminent claim to be considered aboriginal to
the fastnesses in which it is found. The parts
north of Telav, to. the north-east of Tiflis, form
the Mizjeji area. It is a small one — the Cir-
cassians bound it on the north, and on the east.

4. The Lesgians of Eastern Caucasus or Da-
ghestan, next to the Circassians the most inde-
pendent family of Caucasus. None falls into
more divisions and subdivisions ; e. g.

a. The Marulan or Mountaineers (from. Ma-
rul'=^m<nintain) speak a language called the
Avar, of which the Anzukh, Tshari, Audi, Ka-
butsh, Dido and Unsoh are dialects.

5. The Kasi'humulc.

c. The AJcush.

d. The Kura of South Daghestan.

The displacements of the Iron and Mizgeji —
and from the limited area of their occupancies,
displacement is a legitimate inference — must
have been chiefly effected by the Georgians
alone ; that of the Lesgians seems referable to
a triple influence. That the Talish to the north
of Ghilan are Lesgians who have changed their
native tongue for the Persian, is a probable sug-
gestion of Frazer's. If correct, it makes the
province of Shir van a likely part of the original

TUE ARMENIANS. 2il

Lesgian area — encroachment having been effect-
ed by the Armenians, Persians, and Georgians.

5- The Circassia/ns occupy the northern
Caucasus from Daghestan to the Kuban ; coming
in contact with the Slavonians and Tartars, for
the p&rts between the Sea of Azov and the Cas-
pian. As both these are preeminent for en-
croachment, the earlier contact was, probably,
that of the most northern members of the Cir-
cassian family, and the southern Ugrians. The
divisions and subdivisions of the Circassian
family are both numerous and strongly marked.

The Armenians, — Except amongst the moun-
ta.ineer Iron and Mizjeji, there are Armenians
over the whole of Russian Caucasus — mixed, for
the most part, with Georgians. They are so-
journers rather than natives. In Shirvan, Kar-
abagh, and Ivaradagh they are similarly mixed
with Persians and Turks. In this case, however,
the Armenian population is probably the older ;
80 that we are approaching the original nucleus
of the family. In Erivan there are more Ar-
menians than aught else ; and in Kars and
Erzeriim they attain their mciximum. In Diar-
bekr the frontier changes, and the tribes which
now indent the Armenian area are the Semitic
Arabs and Chaldani of Mesopotamia, and the
Persian Kurds of Kurdistan.

A great deal has been said about the extent

242 ASIA MINOS.

to which the Armenian language differs from
the Georgian, considering the geographical con-
tact between the two. True it is that the
tongues are in contact now^ and so they probably
were 2000 years ago. Yet it by no means fol-
lows that they were always so. The Gedlrgian
has encroached, the Iron retreated ; a fact which
makes it likely that, at a time when there was
no Georgian east of Imiritia, the Osetic of Tshil-
dir and the Armenian of Kars met on the Up-
per Kur. The inference drawn from the rela-
tions between the Mon, Kho, ond T'hay tongues
is repeated here, inasmuch as the Iron and Ar-
menian are more alike than the Armenian and
Georgian. As a rough measure of the likeness
I may state the existence of the belief that both
are Indo-European.

Asia Minor, — From Armenia the transition
is to Asia Minor. One of the circumstances
which give a preeminent interest and impor-
tance to the ethnology of Asia Minor is the cer-
tainty of the original stock being, at the present
moment, either wholly extinct, or so modified
and changed as to have become 2i problem, rather
than 2ifact There is neither doubt nor shadow
of doubt as to this — since it is within the histo-
rical period that this transformation has taken
place. It is within the historical period that the
Osmanli Turks, spreading, more immediately

ASIA MINOB. 243

from the present country of Turkestan, but re-
motely from the chain of the Altaic Mountains,
founded the kingdom of Koura under the Selju-
kian kings, and as a preliminary to the invasion
and partial occupation of Europe, made them-
selves masters of the whole country limited by
Georgia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Syria on
the east and south, and by the Euxine, the Bos-
porus, the Propontis, the Hellespont, and the
jjEgean Sea westwards. Since then, whatever
may be the hlood^ the language has been Turk.
This is, of course, primd facie evidence of the
stock being Turk also. Nor are there any very
cogent reasons on the other side. The physiog-
nomy is generally described as Turk, and the
habits and customs as well.

Such is what we get from the general travel-
ler — and a more minute ethnology than this has
not yet been applied. What will be the result,
when a severer test is applied, is another ques-
tion. It is most probable that points of physi-
ognomy, fragmentary traditions and supersti-
tions, old customs, and peculiar idiotisms in the
way of dialect, will point to a remnant of the
older stock immediately preceding it. In such
a case, the ethnological question becomes com-
plicated — since the present Turks will be then
supposed to have mixed with the older natives,
rather than to have replaced them in toto ; so

244 ASIA HINpB.

that the phsenomena will rather be those exhib-
ited in England (where the proportion of the
older Celtic and the newer Anglo-Saxon is an
open question) than those of the United States
of America, where the blood is purely European,
and where the intermixture of the aboriginal
Indian — if any — ^goes for nothing.

Of the occupants of Asia Minor previous to
the Osmanli Turks we can ascertain the elementsi
but not the proportions which they bore to each
other.

1. Ihere was an element supplied by the
Byzantine Greek population — itself preemi-
nently mixed and heterogeneous.

2. There was an element supplied by the
purer Greek population of Greece Proper and
the Islands.

3. There were, perhaps, traces of the old
Greek populations of JEolia, Doris, and Ionia.

4. There was an extension of the Armenian
population from the east.

5. Of the Georgian from the north-east.

6. Of the Semitic from the south-east.

Y. There was also Arab a,nd Syriac inter-
mixture consequent on the propagation of Ma-
hometanism.

8. There were also remnants of a Proper
Eoman population introduced during the time
of the Republic and Western Empire; e. ^., of

ASIA MIKOB. 245

the sort that the Consulate of Cicero would in-
troduce into Cilicia.

9. There were also remnants of the Persian
supremacy ; e. g,^ of a sort which would be intro-
duced when it was a Satrapy of Tissaphernes or
Phamabazus.

10. Lastly, there would be traces of the Mor
cedonicm Greeks ; whose impress would bQ»
stamped upon it during the period which elapsed
between the fall of Darius and that of Antio-
chus.

All this suggests numerous questions — ^but
they are questions of minute rather than general
ethnology. The latter takes us to the considera-
tion of the populations of the frontier. Here
we find —

1. Georgians.

2. Armenians.

3. Semites of Mesopotamia and Syria.

4. Greeks of the JEgean Islands.

' 5. Bulgarians, and Turks of Thrace.

Of these, the last are recent intruders ; so
that the real ethnology to be considered is that
of ancient Thrace. Unfortunately this is as ob-
scure as that of Asia Minor itself.

The Greeks of the JEgean are ^oSaJZy intru-
sive ; the other three are ancient occupants of
their present areas.

Now, in arguing upon the conditions aflTord-

246 LYOIA — ^EXTBAOTS.

ed by this frontier, it is legitimate to suppose
that each of the populations belonging to it had
some extension beyond their present limits, in
which case the d priori probabilities would be
that—

1. On the north-west there was an extension
of the Thracian population.

2. On the north-east, of the Georgian.

3. On the east, of the Armenian.

4. On the south, of the Syrian and Mesopo-
tamian.

Now, the population of Asia Minor T/ioy have

been a mere extension of the populations of the

frontiers — one or all.

But it also may have been separate and dis-
tinct from any of them.

In this case, we are again supplied with an

alternative.

1. The population may have been one — just
as that of Germany is one.

2. The population may have fallen in seve-
ral — nay, numerous divisions — so that the so-
called races may have been one^ two^ three^fawr^
or even more.

Dealing with these questions, we first ask
what are the reasons for supposing the popula-
tion — whether single or sub-divided — of Asia to
have been peculiar ; i. e,^ different from that of
the frontier areas — Georgia, Thrace, Armenia,
Mesopotamia and Syria ?

LYCIA — ^EXTRACTS. 247

This 18 answered at once by the evidence of
the Lycian Inscriptions, which prove the I/yda/n,^
at least, to have been distinct from all or any of
the tongues enumerated.

The following extracts, however, from Hero-
dotus carry us farther :

" The Lycians were originally out of Crete ;
since, in the old times, it was the Barbarians who
held the whole of Crete. When, however, there
was a difference in Crete, in respect to the king-
dom, between the sons of Europa, Minos and
Sarpedon, and when Minos got the best in the
disturbance he (Minos) expelled both Sarpedon
himself and his faction ; and these, on their ex-
pulsion, went to that part of Asia which is the.
Milyadic land. For that country which the
Lycians now inhabit, was, in the old times,
MiVyoB ; and the MiVyoB were then called Solymi,
For a time Sarpedon ruled over them. They
called themselves by the name which they
brought with them ; and even now, the Lycians
are called by the nations that dwell around them,
TermiloB. But when Lycus, the son of Pandion,
driven away from Athens, and like Sarpedon,
by his brother (^geus), came to the Termilse
under Sarpedon, they, thence, in the course of
time, were called, after the name of Lycus, Ly-
cians. The usages are partly Cretan, partly
Carian. One point, however, they have pecu-

248 LYCIA — ^EXTRACTS.

liar to themselves, and one in which they agree
with no other men. They name themselves
after their mothers, and not from their fathers :
so that if any one be asked by another who he is^
he will designate himself as the son of his mo-
ther, and number up mother's mothers. Again,
if a free woman marry a slave, the children are
deemed free ; whereas, if a man be even in the
first rank of citizens, and ta^e either a strange
wife or a concubine, the children are disho-
nored."

Whilst Asia Minor was being conquered for
Persia, under the reign of Cyrus, by Harpagus,
the Caricms made no great display of valor;
with the exception of the citizens of Pedasus.
These gave Harpagus considerable trouble ; but,
in time, were vanquished. Not so the Lycians.
" The Lycians, as Harpagus marched his army
towards the Xanthian plain, retreated before
him by degrees, and, fighting few against many,
showed noble deeds ; but being worsted and
driven back upon the town, they collected within
th^ citadel their wives, and children, and goods,
and servants. They then set light to the citadel
to bum it down. This being done, they took a
solemn oath, and, making a sally, died to a man,
sword in hand. But of those Lycians who now
called themselves Xanthians, the majority are,
except eighty hearths, strangers {^ic^lvdeg). These

THE CAUNIANS — ^THB GARIANS. 249

eighty hearths (families) were then away from
the country. And so they escaped. Thus it was
that Harpagus took Xanthus. In like manner
he took Caunus. For the Caunians Tesemhle
the Lycians in moat things^

And now we have a second fact, the follow-
ing, viz., that what the Lyciana were the Cau-
nians were also,

1. The Caunians, — According to the special
evidence of Herodotus, the Caunians had two
peculiar customs — one, to make no distinction
between age and sex at feasts, but to drink and
junket promiscuously— the other, to show their
contempt of all strange foreign gods, by march-
ing in armor to the Calyndian mountains, and
beating the air with spears, in order to expel
them from the boundaries of the Caunian land.
Still the Caunians were Lycian.

Were any other nations thus Lycian ? Cau-
nian ? LycO'Caunian ? or Cauno-Lycian ? since
the particular designation is unimportant.

The Ca/rians, — The language of the Cainans
and the Caunians was the same ; since Herodo-
tus writes: The Caunian nation has either
adapted itself to the Carian tongue^ or the Carian
to Caunian-

2. On the other hand, the worship of the na-
tional Eponymus was different. The Lydians
and Myslans share in the worship of the Carian

12

250 TBB OABIAKS.

J(yoe. These do so. As many^ however^ ofcHf-
f event nations (Wvoj) as Jiave become identical in
language with the Carians do not do so.

And here comes a difficulty ; one part of the
fact connects, the other disconnects the Carians
from the Lycians. The language goes one way,
the customs another.

But this is not the only complication intro-
duced by the Carian family. The whole ques-
tion of their origin is difficult, and that of their
affinities is equally so. It was from the islands
to the continent, rather than from the continent
to the islands, that the Carians spread them-
selves ; and they did this as subjects of Minoe,
and under the name of Leleges. As long as the
system of Minos lasted, these Carian Leleges
paid no tribute, but furnished, when occasion
required, ships and sailors instead. And this
they did effectually, inasmuch • as the Carian
was one of the most powerful nations of its day,
and, besides that, ingenious in warlike contri-
vances. Of such contrivances three were adopted
by the Greeks, and recognized as the original
invention of the Carians. The first of these was
the crest for the helmet ; the second, the device
for the shield ; the third, the handle for the
shield. Before the Carians introduced this last
improvement, the fighting-man hung his buck-
ler by a leathern thong, either on his neck or

THE CABIANS. 251

his left shoulder. Snch was the first stage in
the history of Carian Leleges, who were insular
rather than continental, andLelegian rather than
Carian. It lasted for many years after the death
of Minos ; but ended in their being wholly
ejected from the islands, and exclusively limited
to the continent, by the Dorians and lonians of
Greece.

This would connect the

1. Carians with the aboriginal islanders of
the ^gean — these being Leleges.

2. Also with the Caunians.

3. Also with the Lycians. Unfortunately,
the evidence is not unqualified. It is complica-
ted by

The native tradition. — ^The Carian race is
not insular, but aboriginal to the continent;
bearing from the earliest times the name it
bears at the present time. As a proof of this,
the worship of the Carian Jupiter is common
to two other, unequivocally contiuental nations,
the Lydians and the Myaians. All three have
a share in a temple at Mylasa, and each of the
three is descended from one of three brothere —
Car, Lydus, or Myrus — the respective eponymi
of Caria, Lydia, and Mysia.

All this is not written for the sake of any
inference ; but to illustrate the difficulties of the
subject. A new series of facts must now be
added — or rather two new ones.

252 ASIA HINOB.

1. There are special statements in the class-
ics that the Phrygian, Armenian, and Thracian
languages were the same.

2. One of the three languages of the arrow-
headed inscriptions has yet to be identified with
any existing tongue.

The reader is in possession of a fair amount
of complications. They can easily be increased.

Instead of enlarging on them, I suggest the
following doctrine :

1. That, notwithstanding certain conflict-
ing statements, the populations of Mysia, Lydia,
Caria, and part of Lycia, were closely allied.

2. That a language akin to the Armenian
was spoken as far westwards as eastern Phry-
gia.

3. That some third population, either sub-
ject to Persia or in alliance with it, spoke the
language of the Lycian inscriptions — ^properly
distinguished by Mr. Forbes and others from
the ancient Lycian of the Milyans — whichiast
mmf have been Semitic.

4. That the third language of arrow-headed
inscriptions, supposing its locality to have been
Media, may have indented the north-eastern
frontier.

5. That, besides the Greek, two intrusive
languages may have been spoken in the north-
west and south-western parts respectively,
viz:

ASIA MINOB.

253

a. The Thracian of the opposite coast of the
Bosporus.

J. The Lelegian of the islands.

Of these the former was, perhaps, Sarmatian,
whilst the latter may have borne the same rela-
tion to the Carian as the Malay of Sumatra
does to that of the Orang Biniia ol the Malayan
Peninsula.

It may be added, that the similarity of the
name TheJches^ the mountain from which the
10,000 Greeks saw the sea, to the Turk Tagh^
suggests the likelihood of Turk encroachments
having existed as eai'ly as the time of Arta-
xerxes.

Lastly. — ^The termination-cfo^', in Seaman-
der (a bilingual appellation) and Mcean-der^ in-
dicates Persian intrusion of an equally early date,

Of the glosses collected by Jablonsky, none
are illustrated by any modem language, except
the following :

English

axe.

Lydiau

labr-ys.

Armenian

dabar.

Persian

iatoar.

Kurd

teper.

English

fire.

Phrygian

pyr.

Armenian

pur.

Afghan

wury or.

Kurd

<ir.

Greek, &o.

inp, firSt ^.

English

do^.

Phrygian

kyn.

Armenian

Sanskrit

Lettish

English
Phrygian
Armenian
Akush

English
Phrygian
Armenian
Greek, &c.

shun,
fihune. .
suns,

bread.
bekos,
hhax
kaz

water.

hydor,

tshur,

vdtopf water f ^o«

264 THE PASOPAMIBANS.

There is no denying that these affinities are
Indo-European rather than aught else, and that
they are Armenian as well ; an objection to
several of the views laid down in the preceding
pages which I have no wish to conceal. How-
ever, all questions of this kind are a balance of
conflicting difficulties. As a set-off to this,
take the following table, where the Armenian
affinites are Turk, Dioscurian, and Siberian
also.

English

roan.

Tobolsk

tr.

Scythian

oior.

Yeneaeian

eri.

trigup

er.

Teleut

eri.

Kfl«an

tr.

Kasach

eriu.

Baskir

ir.

Casikumuk

ioori

Nogay

ir.

Armenian

air.

The watershed of the Oancs and Indies, —
We are in the north-eastern corner of Persia.
The Piish-ta-Khur mountain, like many other
hills of less magnitude, contains the sources of
two rivers, different in their directions — of the
Oxus that falls into the Sea of Aral ; and of the
right branch of the Kuner, a feeder of the Ca-
bul river — itself a member of the great water-
system of the Indus. Its south-western pro-
longation gives us the corresponding watershed.
This is a convenient point for the study of a
difficult but interesting class of mountaineers,
who may conveniently be called Paropa/misoAM
from the ancient name of the Hindu-kush.

TfiS DABDOH. 256

Their northern limits iare the heights in qnes-
tion. Southwards they reach the Afghan fron-
tier in the Kohistan of Cabtil. Eastward they
come in contact with India. There is no better
way of taking them in detail than that of fol-
lowing the water-courses, and remembering the
watersheds of the rivers.

I. The Oxu8, — ^At the very head-waters of
the Oxus, and in contact with the Kii^hiz Turks
of Pamer, comes the small population of Wok-
han, speaking a language neither Turk nor Per-
sian — at least not exactly Persian ; and, next to
Wokhan, Shughnan, where the dialect (possibly
the language) seems to change. Roshan, next
(along the Oxus) to Shughnan, seems to be in
the same category. Durwaz, however, is sim-
ply Tajik. All are independent, and all Ma-
hometan.

II. The Indus.— 1. The Indus.— The Gil-
ghit * river feeds the Indus ; two other feeders
that join it from the east being called the Hunz
and the Burshala, Nil, or Nagar. The popula-
tion of each of these rivers is agricultural, and
is, accordingly, called Dvm^ghar^ a Hindu, but
no native term. Their Eajah is independent ;
their religion a very indifferent Mahometanism.

* From Moororoft'fl Travels in the Himalayan FroTinces
and Vigne'fl Caihmlr.

256 tHE CHITBAU Ain> KAFFBES.

On the Gilghit and the parts below its jnnction
with the Hunz and Nagar rivers, the dialect
(perhaps the language) seems to change, and
the people are known as Da/rdoh (or Dards) and
ChUass Dardoh — ^the Daradse of the Greek and
the Daradas of the Sanskrit writers. These, too,
are imperfect Mahometans. The Dards and
Dunghers cany us as far as Little Tibet (Bultis-
tan) and the Cashmirian frontiers.

2. The Jhdum. — ^This is the river of the

famous valley of Oashmir ^the population

whereof (with some hesitation) I consider Paro-

pamisan.

3. The Gahul River.— \. The JStiner.—The

eastern watershed of the Upper Kuner is com-
mon to the Gilghit river. The population is
closely akin to the Dardoh and Dungher; its
area being Upper and Lower Chitral, its lan-
guage the Chitrali, its religion Shia Mahomet-
anism. .

South of the Chitral, on the middle Kuner,
the creed changes, and we have the best known
of the Paropamisans, the Kaffres of Kafteristan,
reaching as far westwards and northwards as
Kunduz and Badukshan — the Kaffres, or Infi-
dels, so called by their Mahometan neighbors,
because they still retain their primitive pagan-
ism.

Now when we approach the Cabul river it-

THE SWATSlS. 267

self, the direction of which, from west to east,
is nearly at right angles with the KAner, the
characteristics of the Dardoh, Chitrali, and
Kaflfre populations decrease; in other words,
the area is irregular, and the populations them-
selves either partially isolated or intermixed.
Thus, along the foot of the mountains north of
the Cabul river and west of the Kuner, comes
Lughmani country ; the language being by no
means identical with the Kafir, and the Kafir
paganism being reduced to an imperfect Maho-
metan — nemchu Mttssul/man^ or Jialf MuBmil-
Tnan^ being the term applied to the speakers of
the Lughmani tongue of the valley of the Nijrow
and the parts about it.

The Der, Tirhye, and Pashai vocabularies of
Leach all represent Paropamisan forms of speech
spoken by small and, more or less, fragmentary
populations.

The valley of the Lundye has, almost cer-
tainly, been within a recent period, Paropami-
san. Thus is it that Elphinstone writes of its
chief occupants: "The Swatis, who are also
called Deggauns, appear to be of Indian origin.
They formerly possessed a kingdom extending
from the western branch of the Hydaspes to near
Jellabahad. They were gradually confined to
narrower limits by the Afghan tribes ; and Swaut
and Bdndr, their last seats, were reduced by the

258 ooNoittJsioK.

Eusofisyis in the end of the fifteenth century.
They are still very numerous in those countries.'
By India/n, I believe a population akin to that
of Cashmeer is denoted — ^I do not say intended.
Another extract carries us further still : " The
Shulmauni formerly inhabited Shulmaun, on the
banks of the Korrum. They afterwards moved
to Tora, and in the end of the fifteenth centuiy
they were m Hustnugger, from which they were
expelled by the Eusofeyes. The old Afghan
writers reckon them Deggauns, but they appear
to have used the word loosely. There are still
a few Shulmauni in the Eusofiye country who
have some remains of a peculiar language."

Hence, the Paropamisans may safely be
considered as a population of a receding fron-
tier, the encroachment upon their area having
been Afghan. With these the Asiatic popula-
tions end.

If we now look back upon the ground that
has been gone over, we shall find that the evi-
dence of the human family have originated in
one particular spot, and having diffused itself
from thence to the very extremities of the earth,
is by no means absolute and conclusive. Still
less is it certain that that particular spot has
been ascertained. The present writer ielieves

00N0I.XJ8I0N. 259

that it was somewhere in intratropical Asia, and
that it was the single locaUty of a single paw —
without, however, professing to have proved it.
Even this centre is only hypothetical — ^near, in-
deed, to the point which he looks upon as the
starting-place of the human migration, but by
no means identical with it. The Basks and Al-
banians he does not pretend to have affiliated ;
but heMoes not, for this reason, absolutely iso-
late them. They have too many miscellaneotis
affinities to allow them to stand wholly alone.

In the way of physical conformation, the
Hottentot presents the maoDimtmi of peculiari-
ties. The speech, however, of the latter is sim-
ply African; whilst, in form and color, the
Basks and Albanians are European. A fly is a
fly even when we wonder how it came into the
amber ; and men belong ta humanity even when
their origin is a mystery. This gives us a com-
position of difficulties, and it is by taking this
and similar phaenomena into account, that the
higter problems in ethnology must be worked.
Nothing short of a clear and comprehensive
view of the extent to which points of difference
in one department are compensated by points
of likeness in another, will give us a philosophi-
cal hypothesis ; all partial argument from par-
tial points of disagreement beeing as unscien-

260 cx)ircLusiON.

tific as a similar overvalaation of resem-
blances.

As for the detail of the chief difficulties, the
writer believe^ that he, unwillingly and with
great deference, differs from the best authorities,
in making so little of the transition from Ame-
rica to Asia, and so much of that between Eu-
rope and Asia. The conviction that the Semitic
tongues are simply African, and that all the
heories suggested by the term Indo-Europecm
must be either abandoned or modified, is the
chief element of his reasoning upon this point —
reasoning far too elaborate for a small work like
the present. He also believes that the languages
of Kafferistan, the Dardoh country, and north-
eastern Afghanistan, are transitional to the mo-
nosyllabic tongues and those of Persia — -in other
words, that the modem Persian is much more
monosyllabic than is generally supposod. Yet
even this leaves a break. How far the most
western tongue of this class can be connected
with those of Europe, and how far the most
«(?w^A-westem one has Semitic affinities, are
questions yet to examine— questions beset with
difficulties. However, as the skeleton of system
he believes the present work to be true, as far
as it goes, and at the same time convenient for
the investigator. That there is much in all classi-
fications which requires to be unlearnt, is certain.

CONCLUSION. 261

Lest any one think this a presumptuous saying,
let him consider the new and unsettled state of
the science, and the small number of the labor-
ers as compared with the extent of the field.

THE END.

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