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Manual of American Steel
& Wire Company's Process
of Water Purification With
Sulphate of Iron
Sales Offices
CHICAGO 208 S. LaSalle Street
NEW YORK 30 Church Street
WORCESTER 94 Grove Street
BOSTON ] 20 Franklin Street
CLEVELAND Western Reserve Building
PITTSBURGH Frick Building
BUFFALO 337 Washington Street
DETROIT Foot of First Street
CINCINNATI Union Trust Building
OKLAHOMA CITY State National Bank Building
ST. LOUIS Third National Bank Building
ST. PAUL-MINNEAPOLIS .... Pioneer Building, St. Paul
DENVER . First National Bank Building
SALT LAKE CITY Walker Bank Building
PHILADELPHIA Widener Building
BALTIMORE 32 South Charles Street
WILKES-BARRE, PA Miners Bank Building
BIRMINGHAM, ALA Brown-Marx Building
United States Steel Products Company
EXPORT DEPARTMENT: New York . . . 30 Church Street
PACIFIC COAST DEP'T: San Francisco . . Rialto Building
Portland, Sixth and Alder Streets
Seattle, 4th Ave. So. and Conn. St.
Los Angeles, Jackson and Cent. Aves.
Copyright 1916 by American Steel & Wire Company
WE PRESENT this Manual of
the American Steel & Wire
Company's Process of Water
Purification in briefest form consistent
with a fair treatment of the essential
features, and because of the emergency
which has suddenly arisen in the chemical
world on account of prevailing foreign
conditio*ns.
These conditions seriously affect the
operation of water purification plants
employing other chemicals, while those
using Sulphate of Iron are not affected.
We endeavor to set forth the formula
of the Sulphate of Iron Process in ad-
vance of further data which may develop,
and solicit inquiries on the subject with
statement of water conditions upon which
we will give the expert advice of our
Engineering Bureau of Water Purification.
*
American Steel & Wire Company
January, 1916
459585
m 3 i 1938
C tr^(^ s^ p
Water Purification
Index
\ -
Page
^cid Waters, Defined 87
kcid Waters, Test for 88
Kcre Eqtiivalents 153
|^.ga^ Agar, Use of 105
Lgar Agar, Criticism of 105
dr Manifold, in Filters 66
ir Wash, in Filters 64-68
|Mr Wash Troubles 68
ftLlkaline Waters, Defined ..... 87
IMkaline Waters, Test for 88
A^lkalinities, Six Cases of 92
Alkalinities, Incompatibility of . 92-147
A-lkalinity, Defined 151
Alkalinity by Analysis, Defined . . 151
Alkalinity by Titration, Defined . . 151
Alkalinity, Caustic, Silver Nitrate -
Test for 89
iMkalinity, Caustic, by Titration 92
iMkalinity, Caustic and Monocar-
bonate 90
^Ikalinity, Caustic and Monocar-
bonate, Test for 94
klkalinity. Caustic, to Treat ... 96
klkalinity, Bicarbonate, Test for 90-93-95
Ikalinity, Bicarbonate, to Sulphate
Hardness 90
Ikalinity, Bicarbonate, to Treat 96
alkalinity. Bicarbonate and Mono-
carbonate, Test for 94
Alkalinity, Bicarbonate and Free
Carbonic Add, Test for . . . 95
Alkalinity, Monocarbonate, Test for 93
Alkalinity, Monocarbonate, to Treat 96
Alkalinity, Monocarbonate, to Bi-
carbonate Alkalinity .... 90
Alkalinity, Monocarbonate, to Sul-
phate Hardness 90
Alkalinity, Monocarboxiate and Bi-
carbonate, Test for 94
Alkalinity, Unit of Measurement 128
Alkalinity Equivalents, of Calcium
L Oxide 129
alinity Equivalents, of Calcium
Hydrate 129
ycalinity Equivalents, of Calcium
Monocarbonate 129
Mkalinity Equivalents, of Calcium
Bicarbonate 120
Page
Alkalinity Equivalents of Magne-
sium Oxide 129
Alkalinity Equivalents of Magne-
sium Hydrate 129
Alkalinity Equivalents of Magne-
sium Monocarbonate .... 130
Alkalinity Equivalents, of Magne-
sium Bicarbonate 130
Alkalinity Equivalents, of Sodium
Oxide 130
Alkalinity Equivalents, of Sodium
Hydrate 130
Alkalinity Equivalents, of Sodium
Monocarbonate 130
Alkalinity Equivalents, on Analysis
Form . ^ 150
Alum Increases Hardness .... 143
Aluminum Compounds, Factors for 123
Alimiinum Hydrate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Aluminimi Hydrate, Chemical
Weight 113
Aluminum Sulphate, Equivalents of 131
Aluminum Sulphate, Incompatibles
of 136
Aluminum Sulphate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Aluminum Sulphate, Chemical
Weight 113
Alimiimmi Oxide, Chemical Formula 113
Aluminum Oxide, Chemical Weight 113
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Assistance Given .... 6
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Experts Furnished 6
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Engineers 6
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Consulting Engineers ... 6
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Principles of 12
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Removal of Chemicals . . 12
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, How to Use 99
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Limitations 100
II
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
American Steel & Wire Co/s Proc-
ess, Methods of Using .... 99
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Safeguards 140
American Steel & Wire Co.'s Proc-
ess, Prevents Red Water Plague 142
Analysis Report, Form of American
Steel & Wire Co 145 to 151
Arithmetical Equations vs. Chemical
Equations 120
Atomic Substances, Names, Sym-
bols and Weights 112
Atomic Weights, Table of 112
Bacterial Inefficiency of Filters vs.
Faulty Controllers 71
Bacteriology of Water Purification . 104
Bacterial Removal, How Effected . . 13
Bacterial Removal, in Softening
Process 103
Bacterial Samples, Taking and
Handling 108
Bacterial Samples, Precautions for . 108
Barium Carbonate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Barium Carbonate, Chemical Weight 113
Barium Chloride, Chemical Formula 113
Bariimi Chloride, Chemical Weight . 113
Bariimi Compounds, Factors for . 124
Barium Hydrate, Chemical Formula 113
Barium Hydrate, Chemical Weight 113
Barium Oxide, Chemical Formula . 113
Barium Oxide, Chemical Weight . . 113
Barium Oxide, Incompatibles of . . 135
Bariimi Sulphate, Chemical Formula 113
Barium Sulphate, Chemical Weight 113
Bed Inversion, in Filters 68
Bicarbonate Alkalinity 75
Bicarbonate Alkalinity, and Free
Carbonic Acid 95
Bicarbonate Alkalinity, to Sulphate
Hardness 90
Bicarbonate Alkalinity, Determining 93
Bicarbonate Alkalinity, Defined . . 151
Bicarbonate Alkalinity, to Treat . 96
Bicarbonate Hardness, Defined . . 151
Breaking Beds, caused by Filter Con-
trollers 71
Breaking Coagulation, leaving Set-
tling Basins 60
Page
Breaking Coagulation, entering Set-
tling Basins 5(:
Breaking Coagulation, in Filters . . 6
Burettes for Titrations 8^
Calcium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Formula 112
Calcium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Weight 11^
Calcium Bicarbonate, Equivalents of
129-132
Calcium Bicarbonate, Incompatibles
of 136-147
Calciimi Chloride, Chemical Formula 113
Calcium Chloride, Chemical Weight 113
Calcium Chloride, Equivalents of . 132
Calcium Chloride, Incompatibles of
136-148
Calcium Compounds, Factors for . 124
Calcium Fluoride, Chemical Formula 113
Calcium Fluoride, Chemical Weight 113
Calciimi Hydrate, Chemical Formula 113
Calcium Hydrate, Chemical Weight 113
Calcium Hydrate, Equivalents of
129-131
Calciimi Hydrate, Incompatibles of
136-147
Calcium Hypochlorite, Chemical
Formula 113
Calcium Hypochlorite, Chemical
Weight 113
Calcium Monocarbonate, Chemical
Formula 113
Calcium Monocarbonate, Chemical
Weight 113
Calcium Monocarbonate, Equiva-
lents of 129-131
Calcium Monocarbonate, Incom-
patibles of . .136-147
Calcium Nitrate, Chemical Formula 113
Calcium Nitrate, Chemical Weight 113
Calcium Oxide, Chemical Formula . 113|
Calcium Oxide, Chemical Weight . 113
Calcium Oxide, Equivalents of . 129-131
Calcium Oxide, Incompatibles of 135
Calcium (Tri-caldc) Phosphate,
Chemical Formula IK
Calcium (Tri-calcic) Phosphate,
Chemical Weight 11^
Calcium Silicate, Chemical Formula IK
Water Purification
III
Page
Calcium Silicate, Chemical Weight 113
Calcium Sulphate, Chemical Formula 1 13
Calcium Sulphate, Chemical Weight 113
Calcium Sulphate, Equivalents of . 132
Calcium Sulphate, Incompatibles of
136-148
Carbonic Add, Chemical Formula . 113
Carbonic Acid, Chemical Weight . 113
Carbonic Add, Equivalents of . . 132
Carbonic Add, Free 75
Carbonic Add, Free, to Determine 84-85
Carbonic Add, Compounds, Factors
for 124
Carbonic Add, Incompatibles of 136-148
Caustic Alkalinity, Silver Nitrate
Test for 89
Caustic Alkalinity, by Titration . . 92
Caustic Alkalinity, and Monocar-
bonate Alkalinity 90
Caustic Alkalinity, to Determine . 92
Caustic Alkalinity, and Monocar-
bonate Alkalinity, to Determine 94
Caustic Alkalinity, Defined . . , . 151
Caustic Alkalinity, to Treat .... 96
Caustic Hardness, Defined .... 151
Caustic Lime, Agitating Milk of . . 49
Caustic Lime, Incrustation due to . 47
Caustic Lime, or Quick Lime ... 47
Caustic Lime, or Hydrated Lime . . 47
Caustic Lime, Core of 47
Caustic Lime, Requirements for . . 47
Caustic Lime, Slaking 48
Caustic Lime, Loss of 48
Caustic Lime, Solubility of ... . 48
Caustic Lime, Milk of 47
Caustic Lime, Milk of, Metals used
to handle 49
Centiliter Equivalents 153
Centimeter Equivalents 153
Centistere Equivalents 153
Centrifugal Pumps for Low Service
Lift 13
Changes in Plant to use A. S. &
W. Co/s Process 102
Chemical Indicators 86
Chemicals, Use of, for Water Puri-
fication 12
Chemicals, Prindples of Use ... 12
Chemicals, Handling 14
Chemical Controllers, see Head
Tanks 46
Pagb
Chemical Controllers, for Fixed
Rate, see Head Tanks ..... 46
Chemical Controllers, for Constant
Head, see Head Tanks .... 46
Chemical Controllers, Variable Rate 46
Chemical Controllers, Variable Head 46
Chemical Controllers, Variable Ori-
fice 46
Chemical Difficulties of Treatment 98
Chemical Equations vs. Arithmetical
Equations 120
See also Chemical Reactions 120
Chemical Factors, Use of 122
Chemical Factors, for Aluminum
Compoimds 123
Chemical Factors, for Barium Com-
pounds 124
Chemical Factors, for Caldum Com-
pounds 124
Chemical Factors, for Carbonic Add
Compounds 124
Chemical Factors, for Copper Com-
poimds 124
Chemical Factors, for Chlorine Com-
pounds 125
Chemical Factors, for Iron Com-
pounds 125
Chemical Factors, for Magnesium
Compounds 126
Chemical Factors, for Sodium Com-
pounds 126
Chemical Factors, for Sulphuric Add
Compounds 127
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Caldum Oxide . 129
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Caldiun Hydrate 129
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Caldimi Mono-
carbonate 129
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Caldimi Bicar-
bonate 129
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Magnesium Oxide 1 29
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Magnesium
Hydrate 129
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Magnesium
Monocarbonate 130
IV
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Magnesium Bi-
carbonate 130
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Sodium Oxide . 130
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Sodium Hydrate 130
Chemical Factors, for Alkalinity
Equivalents of Sodium Mono-
carbonate 130
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Altmiinum Sul-
phate 131
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Calcium Oxide 131
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Calcium Hydrate 131
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Calcium Mono-
carbonate 131
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Calcium Bicar-
bonate 132
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Calcium Chloride 132
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Calcium Sul-
phate 132
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Carbonic Add . 132
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Copper Sulphate 133
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Iron Sulphate . 133
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Magnesium
Oxide 133
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Magnesium Hy-
drate 133
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Magnesium
Monocaibonate 134
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Magnesium Bi-
carbonate 134
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Magnesium
Chloride 134
Page
Chemical Factors, for Hardness
Equivalents of Magnesium Sul-
phate 134
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Aluminum Sul-
phate 135
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Calcium Oxide . 135
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Caldimi Hydrate 136
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Caldiun Mono-
carbonate . 136
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Calcium Bicar-
bonate 136
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Barium Oxide . 135
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Iron Sulphate . 136
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Magnesium
Oxide . 136
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Magnesium Hy-
drate 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Magnesium
Monocarbonate 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Magnesium
Bicarbonate 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Magnesitun
Chloride 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Magnesitun
Sulphate 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Sodium Oxide . 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Sodium Hydrate 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Sodium Mono-
carbonate 137
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Sulphuric Anhy-
dride 138
Chemical Factors, for Incompatible
Equivalents of Sulphuric Acid 138
Water Purification
Page
Chemical Formulas, see Table No. 5.
Chemical Impurities in Treatment 98
Chemical Substances, Names, For-
mulas and Weights 113
Chemical Treatment, Where Applied 14
Chemical Treatment, How Applied 14
Chemical Treatment, Difficulties
Involved in 14
Chemical Treatment, Success of . . 14
Chemical Treatment, Demands for 14
Chemical Treatment for Turbidity 96
Chemical Treatment for Color . . 96
Chemical Treatment for Bacteria . 96
Chemical Treatment, Point of Ap-
plication 47
Chemical Treatment, Sulphate of
Iron 47
Chemical Treatment, Caustic Lime 47
Chemical Treatment, Errors in . . 46
Chemical Treatment, Wastefulness
in Fixed Rate 46
Chemical Treatment, Inaccuracy of
Fixed Rate 46
Chemical Treatment, Formulas for 43
Chemical Treatment, to Determine 43
Chemical Treatment, Pounds Re-
quired 43
Chemical Treatment, Grains per
Gallon Required 44
Chemical Treatment, Rule for Use
of Iron Sulphate 99-102
Chemical Treatment, Rule for Use
of Caustic Lime 99-102
Chemical Treatment, Size of Orifice
Required 44
Chemical Treatment, with Calcium
Oxide 96
Chemical Treatment, with Calcium
Hydrate 96
Chemical Treatment, with Sodium
Carbonate 96
Chemical Treatment, with Sodium
Hydrate 96
Chemical Treatment, with Sodium
Oxide 96
Chemical Treatment, Influenced by
Plant Construction 99
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Aluminum Sulphate 135
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Barium Oxide 135
Page
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Calcium Hydrate 136
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Calcium Oxide 135
Chemical Trdktment, Factors for
Calcium Monocarbonate . . . 136
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Calcium Bicarbonate .... 136
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Iron Sulphate 136
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Oxide 136
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Hydrate 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Monocarbonate . 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Bicarbonate . . . 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Chloride 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Sulphate .... 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sodium Oxide 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sodium Hydrate 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sodium Monocarbonate . . . 137
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Substances Remaining in So-
lution 138
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sulphuric Anhydride 138
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sulphuric Acid 138
Chemical Reactions, Use of ... . 120
Chemical Reactions of Aluminum
Compounds 114
Chemical Reactions of Barium Com-
pounds 115
Chemical Reactions of Calcium
Compounds 115
Chemical Reactions of Carbonic Acid 116
Chemical Reactions. of Copper Com-
pounds 117
Chemical Reactions of Iron Sulphate 117
Chemical Reactions of Magnesium
Compounds 117
Chemical Reactions of Sodium Com-
pounds 118
VI
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Chemical Reactions of Sulphuric
Add 120
Chemical Wastage in Treatment . . 98
Chemical Weight Table* 113
Chloride Hardness, Defined .... 151
Chlorine Compounds, Factors for . 125
Circular Orifices, Discharge .... 25
Circular Orifices, Diameters .... 25
Circular Orifices, Areas 25
Circular Orifices, Factors .... 24-33
Clarification and Purification ... 99
Clarification and Purification, Rule
for Chemical Treatment . 99-102
Clarification and Purification, Rule
for Use of Iron Sulphate . . 99-102
Clarification and Purification, Rule
for Use of Caustic Lime . . 99-102
Coagulation, by Sulphate of Iron,
Rule for 99-102
Coagulation, by Caustic Lime, Rule
for 99-102
Coagulation, by Soda Ash .... 102
Coagulation, by Sodiimi Carbonate 102
Coagulation, Forming 56
Coagulation, Size of 56
Coagulation, Quality of 56
Coagulation, Test for 56
Coagulation, Breaking up ... . 60
Color of Water 75-84
Color of Water, to Determine . . 75-83
Color of Water, Standard . ... 81-82
Computing Chemical Equations . . 120
Constant Head Device for Lime . . 51
Constant Rate Filter Controller . . 70
Constant Rate Filter Controller,
Function of 70
Control for End Point in Chemical
Work 91
Controllers, Filter Constant Rate . 70
Controllers, Fimction of 70
Controllers, Imperfections of Early
Types 71
Controllers, Over- running .... 71
Controllers, Breaking Beds .... 71
Controllers, Bacterial Inefficiency
due to 71
Controllers, Newer Types .... 72
Controllers, Functions of 72
Controllers, Objections to ... . 72
Controllers, Variable Rate .... 72
Pagi
Controllers, Functions of 73
Controllers, Advantages over Fixed
Rate Type 73
Controllers, Economy of Variable
Rate Type 72
Controllers, Filter, Increased Ca-
pacity of Filter due to . . . 73-74
Controllers, Filter, Increased Ca-
pacity of Clear Well due to . 73
Controllers, Filter and Chemical,
Meter Type 74
Controllers, Filter and Chemical,
Meter Type, Advantages ... 74
Controllers, Filter and Chemical,
Meter Type, Economy .... 74
Co-operation to Prevent Disease . . 8
Copper Chloride, Chemical Formula 113
Copper Chloride, Chemical Weight 113
Copper Compoimds, Factors for . . 124
Copper Hydrate, Chemical Formula 113
Copper Hydrate, Chemical Weight 113
Copper Oxide, Chemical Formula . 113
Copper Oxide, Chemical Weight . 113
Copper Sulphate, Chemical Formula 113
Copper Sulphate, Chemical Weight 113
Copper Sulphate, Equivalents of . 133
Core, Lump Lime, Containing ... 47
Cubic Centimeter, Equivalents of . 153
Cubic Inch, Equivalents of ... . 153
Cubic Foot, Equivalents of ... . 153
Cubic Yard, Equivalents 153
Cubic Millimeter, Equivalents 153
Cubic Meter, Equivalents .... 153
Cupric Sulphate, Equivalents ... 133
Decagram Equivalents 153
Decaliter Equivalents 153
Deciliter Equivalents 153
Decameter Equivalents 153
Decatonne Equivalents 153
Decastere Equivalents ....:. 153
Decimeter Equivalents 153
Decistere Equivalents 153
Determinations of Discharge ... 24
Determinations of Velocity of Flow 32
Determinations of Velocity of Flow,
Factor 32
Determinations of Gallons Dis-
charged 32
Water Pnrifioadon
VII
Page
Determinations of Diameters of
Pipes or Orifices ........ 32
Determination of Chemical Dis-
charge 43
Determination of Pumpage .... 43
Determination of Grains per Gallon
of Chemicals 44
Determination of Size of Orifice . . 44
Determination of Coefficient of Dis-
charge 45
Determination of Depth of Sludge . 62
Determination of Proper Coagula-
tion 56
Determination of Turbidity . . . 75-81
Determination of Color .... 81-84
Determination of Free Carbonic
Acid 84
Determination of Alkalinity, Caustic
8^92
Determination of Alkalinity, Mono-
carbonate 93
Determination of Alkalinity, Bi-
carbonate 93
Determination of Alkalinity, Caus-
tic and Monocarbonate ... 94
Determination of Alkalinity, Mono
and Bicarbonate 94
Determination of Alkalinity, Bi-
carbonate and Free Carbonic
Acid 95
Determination of Alkalinity, Total 94-95
Determination of Alkalinity, Treat-
ments 96
Determination of Bacterial Count 105-108
Determination of Chemical Quan-
tities 120
Disease, Responsibility for ... . 7
Disease, Water Borne 7
Disease, Kills Civilization .... 7
Disease, Early History, Epidemics,
and Pestilences 7
Disease, Cause of, and Co-operation
to Prevent 8
Disease, Ignorance Causes,' Knowl-
edge Prevents 8
Disease, Effects on Progeny ... 8
Disease, Cost of 9
Disease, Breeds Ignorance .... 10
Displacement Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Page
Displacement Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Displacement Factors for Calcium
Oxide 135
Displacement Factors for Calcium
Hydrate 136
Displacement Factors for Calcium
Monocarbonate 136
Displacement Factors for Caldimi
Bicarbonate 136
Displacement Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Oxide 136
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Hydrate 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Monocarbonate . . . 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Bicarbonate 137
Displacement Factors fo?: Mag-
nesium Chloride 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Sulphate 137
Displacement Factors for Sodium
Oxide 137
Displacement Factors for Sodium
Hydrate 137
Displacement Factors for Sodiimi
Monocarbonate 137
Displacement Factors for Sulphuric
Anhydride . •. 138
Displacement Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Distributing Weir in Settling Basins 60
Earl Type Variable Rate Filter
Controller 73
Earl Type Variable Rate Chemical
Controller 46
Effective Size of Sand 75
Effective Size of Sand 65-66
Effective Size of Sand 95
End Point of Indicators 89
End Point of Methyl Orange ... 91
End Point of Methyl Orange De- ^
tecting 91
End Point, Use of Control .... 91
Engineering Bureau Services 5-6-102
VIII
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Engineering Bureau, Function of 5
Epidemics, Ancient 7
Equivalents, Tables of Factors 123-128
Equivalents, Tables of Alkalinities
129-130
Equivalents, Tables of Hardness 131-134
Equivalents, Tables of Incom-
patibles 135-138
Eqtiivalents, Tables of Treatments
96-135-138
Equivalents, Tables of Heads and
Pressures 34r-40
Equivalents, on Analysis Form 150
Equivalent Pressures under Varying
Heads 34r-«)
Example of Chemical Computation 120
Exceptions to Rule for Use .... 102
Explanations of Terms on Analysis
Form 151
Factors for Aluminum Compounds 123
Factors for Barium Compoimds . . 124
Factors for Calcium Compounds . 124
Factors for Carbonic Acid Com-
poimds 124
Factors for Copper Compounds . . 124
Factors for Chlorine Compoimds . 125
Factors for Iron Compounds . . . 125
Factors for Magnesium Compounds 126
Factors for Sodium Compounds . . 126
Factors for Sulphuric. Acid Com-
pounds 127
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Oxide 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Hydrate 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Monocarbonate . . 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Bicarbonate . . . 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesium Oxide 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magncvsium Hydrate . . . 129
Factors for- Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesium Monocarbonate 130
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesiimi Bicarbonate . . 130
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Sodium Oxide 130
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Sodium Hydrate
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Sodium Monocarbonate . .
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Aluminum Sulphate
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Barium Oxide
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Oxide
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Hydrate
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Monocarbonate . . .
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Bicarbonate
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Iron Sulphate
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Oxide
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Hydrate
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Monocarbonate . .
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Bicarbonate . . .
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Chloride
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Sulphate ....
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sodium Oxide
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sodium Hydrate
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sodium Monocarbonate . . .
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sulphuric Anhydride ....
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sulphuric Acid
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Aluminum Sulphate
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Oxide
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Hydrate
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Monocarbonate . . .
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Bicarbonate ....
Page
130
130
135
135
135
136
136
136
136
136
137
137
137
137
137
137
137
137
138
138
131
131
131
131
132
Water Pnrificatiim
IX
Page
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Chloride 132
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Sulphate 132
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Carbonic Add 132
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Copper Sulphate .;.... 133
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Iron Sulphate 133
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Oxide 133
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Hydrate 133
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesitun Monocarbonate . 134
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Bicarbonate . . . 134
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Chloride 134
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Sulphate .... 134
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Aluminum Sulphate . . 135
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Barium Oxide .... 135
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Calciimi Oxide .... 135
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Calcium Hydrate ... 136
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Calciimi Monocarbonate 136
Factors of Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Calcium Bicarbonate . 136
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Iron Sulphate .... 136
Factors for Incompatible Eqtiiva-
lents of Magnesiimi Oxide . . 136
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Hydrate . 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Mono-
carbonate 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Bicarbonate 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Chloride . 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Sulphate . 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sodium Oxide .... 137
Page
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sodium Hydrate . . . 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sodium Monocarbonate 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sulphuric Anhydride . 138
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sulphuric Acid .... 138
Fargo Mixing Chamber, Require-
ments 53
Filters, Sand Beds of ...... 66
Filters, Bottoms 66
Filters, Neccessity for Good Filters 64
Filters, Design of 64
Filters, Cleaning 64
Filters, Experimental 64
Filters, Suspended Matter .... 65
Filters, Size of Sand 65
Filters, Rate of Filtration .... 65
Filters, Air Wash 64
Filters, Length of Run 66
Filters, Wash Troughs 66
Filter Controllers, Variable Rate 72
Filter Controllers, Function of . . 73
Filter Controllers, Advantages over
Fixed Rate Controllers .... 73
Filter Controllers, Economy of . . 72
Filter Controllers, Increased Capac-
ity of Filters due to 73
Filter Controllers, Increased Capac-
ity of Clear Well due to ... 74
Filter Controllers, Meter Controller 74
Filter Controllers, Meter Controller,
Advantages of 74
Filter Controllers, Meter Controller,
Economy of 74
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate ... 70
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Function of 70
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Im-
perfections of Early Type ... 71
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Over-
running 71
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Breaking Beds 71
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Bac-
terial Inefficiency due to . . . 71
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Newer
Type 72
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Newer Type, Function of . . . 72
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Newer Type, Objections to . . 72
Filter Manifold for Water .... 68
Filtration without Softening ... 99
Filtration, Rule for Chemical Treat-
ment 99-102
Fixed Alkali Bicarbonates, Defined 151
Fixed Alkali Carbonates, Defined . 151
Fixed Alkali Caustics, Defined . . 151
Fixed Alkali Monocarbonates, De-
fined 151
Fixed Rate Filter Controllers ... 70
Fixed Rate Filter Controllers, Func-
tion of 70
Fixed Rate Head Tank for Lime . . 51
Foot Equivalents 153
Formula for Chemical Charges . . 43
Formula for Pumpage 43
Formula for Grains per Gallon
Treatment 44
Formula for Calibrating Orifices . . 45
Free Acid Hardness, Defined ... 151
Free Carbonic Acid Incompatibles 136-148
Free Carbonic Acid, to Treat ... 96
Free Carbonic Acid, to Determine . 84
Free Mineral Acid, to Treat ... 95
Free Sulphuric Acid Incompatibles
138-147
Furlong Equivalents ....... 153
Gallon Equivalents 153
Gelatine Count, Importance of . . 105
General Chemistry of Water . . . 104
Gill Equivalents . 153
Grain Equivalents 153
Grains per Gallon, Explained . . . 122
Grains per Gallon, Conversion to
Parts per Million .... 122-145
Grains per Gallon, Conversion to
Pounds per Million 145
Gram Equivalents 153
Gravel in Filters 66
Hardness, Defined 151
Hardening Compounds in Water . . 110
Hardness Equivalents of Aluminum
Sulphate 131
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Oxide 131
Hardness Equivalents of Calciimi
Hydrate
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Monocarbonate
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Bicarbonate
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Chloride
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Sulphate
Hardness Equivalents of Carbonic
Acid
Hardness Equivalents of Cupric
Sulphate
Hardness Equivalents of Iron Sul-
phate
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Oxide
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Hydrate
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Monocarbonate
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Bicarbonate
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Chloride
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesiimi
Sulphate
Hardness Equivalents on Analysis
Form
Hard Spots in Filters
Hard Water Defined
Head Tanks for Lime
Head Tanks for Constant Rate
Chemical Feed Device ....
Hectare Equivalents
Hectogram Equivalents
Hectoliter Equivalents
Hectometer Equivalents
Hogshead Equivalents
Hook Gauge for Drop in Level . .
How to Use American Steel & Wire
Co.'s Process
Hydrated Lime, Commercial Prod-
uct
Hydrated Lime, Magnesia in . . .
Hydrated Lime, Requirements . .
Hydrated Lime, Loss of
Hydrated Lime, Solubility ....
Hydrated Lime, Milk of
Page
131
131
132
132
132
132
133
133
133
133
134
134
134
134
150
68
110
61
51
153
153
153
153
153
45
99
47
47
47
47
48
49
Water Purification
XI
Page
Hydrated Lime, Metals Used to
Handle 49
Hydrated Lime, Suspension of . . . 49
Hydrated Lime, Agitating Suspen-
sions of "49
Hydrochloric Add, Chemical For-
mula 113
Hydrochloric Add, Chemical Wdgh t 113
Importance of Gelatine Count 105-106
96
144
144
10
10
10
10
Impractical Treatment Table . .
Improved Odor by Iron Sulphate
Improved Taste by Iron Sulphate
Impure Water, Danger of ...
Impure Water, Responsibility for
Impure Water, No Necessity for
Impure Water can be Purified ,
Impure Water should not! be] Tol-
erated 11
Inch Equivalents 153
Incompatibles on Analysis Form 147-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Alumi-
num Sulphate 135
Incompatible Equivalents of Bari-
um Oxide 135
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
dum Oxide 135
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
dum Hydrate 136-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
dum Monocarbonate . . 136-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
dum Bicarbonate .... 136-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
dum Chloride 136-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal- -
dum Sulphate 136-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Free
Carbonic Add 136-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Iron
Sulphate 136
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesiimi Oxide 136
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Hydrate 137
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Monocarbonate .... 137
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Bicarbonate 137
Page
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Chloride 137-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Sulphate .... 137-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Soditrai
Oxide 137
Incompatible Equivalents of Sodium
Hydrate 137-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Sodium
Monocarbonate 137-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Soditrai
Bicarbonate 148
Incompatible Equivalents of Sul-
phuric Anhydride 138
Incompatible Equivalents of Sul-
phuric Add 138-147
Incrustation Due to Lime . . .
Incrustation in Softening . . .
Indicators, Chemical
Iron Carbonate, Chemical Formula
Iron Carbonate, Chemical Wdght
Iron Chloride, Chemical Formula
Iron Chloride, Chemical Wdght
Iron Compounds, Factors for . .
Iron Hydrate, Chemical Formula
Iron Hydrate, Chemical Wdght .
Iron Oxide, Chemical Formula .
Iron Oxide, Chemical Weight . .
Iron Sulphate, Chemical Formula
Iron Sulphate, Chemical Weight .
Iron Sulphate Equivalents . . .
Iron Sulphate, How to Use . . .
Iron Sulphate Incompatibles . .
47
100
86
113
113
113
113
125
113
113
113
113
113
113
133
99
136
Kilogram Equivalents 153
Kiloliter Equivalents 153
Kilometer Equivalents 153
League Equivalents 153
Length of Run of Filters .... 65-66
Lime, Use of, in Treating Water . . 99
Lime, Rule for Use 99
Lime, Testing for Proper Usage . . 99
Lime, Loss of 48
Lime, Strength 48
Lime, Solubility 48
Lime, Milk of 49
Lime, Agitating 49
Lime, Metals to Handle 49
XII
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Lime Head Tank or Constant Head
Device 51
Linear Equivalents 153
Liter Eqtiivalents 153
Litmus for Testing 87
Lump Lime, Commercial Product . 47
Lump Lime, Core 47
Lump Lime, Requirements .... 47
Lump Lime, Slaking 48
Lump Lime, Loss of 48
Lump Lime, Solubility 48^
Lump Lime, Milk of 49
Lump Lime, Metal to Handle ... 49
]M[agnesitrai Bicarbonate, Chemical
Formula 113
Magnesium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Bicarbonate Equiva-
lents 130-134
Magnesium Bicarbonate Incom-
patibles 137
Magnesiimi Chloride, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesiimi Chloride, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesitun Chloride Equivalents . 134
Magnesium Chloride Incompatibles
137-147
Magnesium Compounds, Factors for 126
Magnesium Hydrate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesium Hydrate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Hydrate Equivalents 129-133
Magnesium Hydrate Incompatibles 136
Magnesitun Monocarbonate, Chemi-
cal Formula 113
Magnesium Monocarbonate, Chemi-
cal Weight 113
Magnesium Monocarbonate Equiv-
alents 130-134
Magnesium Monocarbonate Incom-
patibles 136
Magnesium Nitrate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesium Nitrate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesiimi Ojdde, Chemical For-
mula 113
Page
Magnesium Oxide, Chemical Weight 113
Magnesium Oxide Equivalents . 129-133
Magnesium Oxide Incompatibles 136
Magnesium (Tri-Magnesic) Phos-
phate, Chemical Formula . . 113
Magnesium (Tri-Magnesic) Phos-
phate, Chemical Weight ... 113
Magnesium Pyrophosphate, Chem-
ical Formula 113
Magnesium Pyrophosphate, Chem-
ical Weight 113
Magnesium Sulphate, Chemical For-
mula . . . .' 113
Magnesium Sulphate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Sulphate Equivalents . 134
Magnesium Sulphate Incompatibles
137-14S
Mass Equivalents 153
Mechanical Filtration, Early Results 11
Mechanical Filtration, Progress . . 11
Mechanical Filtration, Chemical
Methods 11
Meter Equivalents 1 ')3
Meter Filter Controllers 74
Meter Filter Controllers Savu Wash
Water 1\
Meter Filter Controllers Indicate
Filter Troubles 74
Meter Filter Controllers Indicate
Filter Inefficiencies 74
Metering Flow of Chemicals by
Chemical Controller 74
Meter Flow of Water by Filter
Controller 74
Methods of Using American Steel
and Wire Co.'s Process .... 99
Methyl Orange Indicator ^
Mile Equivalents 15]
Milk of Lime, Preparation . * . . 49
Milk of Lime, Strength 49
Milk of Lime, Agitating - 4P
Milk of Lime, Metals to Handle . . 49
Millier Equivalents ir)3
Milligram Equivalents 153
Milliliter Equivalents L'S
Millimeter Equivalents lo3
Miniature U. S. Gallon, Defined . . 122
Mineral Matter in Relation to Health 1 li^
Mixing Chambers, Types 53
Mixing Chambers, Function ... 53
Water Pniiiication
XIII
Page
Mixing Chambers, Requirements . 53
Mixing Chambers, Efficiencies . . 59
Mixing Chambers, Economy of
Chemicals 59
Mixing Chambers, Capacity ... 53
Monocarbonate Alkalinity Defined 151
Monocarbonate Alkalinity, to Treat 96
Monocarbonate Alkalinity, Conver-
sion to Bicarbonate 90
Monocarbonate Alkalinity, Conver-
sion to Sulphate Hardness . . 90
Monocarbonate Alkalinity Deter-
mination 93
Monocarbonate Aklalinity Limita-
tions 86
Monocarbonate and Bicarbonate
Alkalinity Determination ... 94
Monocarbonate Hardness Defined . 151
Moral Tone Lowered by Disease . 8
Mortality in United States .... 8
Myriameter Equivalents 153
Myriogram Equivalents 153
Myrioliter Equivalents 153
Neutral Water Defined 87
Neutral Water Test 87
Neutralization Factors for Alumi-
num Sulphate 135
Neutralization Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Oxide 135
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Hydrate 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Monocarbonate 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Bicarbonate 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Chloride 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Sulphate 136
Neutralization Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Oxide 136
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Hydrate . 137
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Monocarbonate .... 137
Page
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Bicarbonate 137
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Chloride 137
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
situn Sulphate 137
Neutralization Factors for Sodium
Oxide 137
Neutralization Factors for Sodium
Hydrate 137
Neutralization Factors for Sodium
Monocarbonate 137
Neutralization Factors for Sulphuric
Anhydride 138
Neutralization Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Neutralization Values on Analysis
Form 149
New Orleans Mixing Chamber . . 53
Normal Carbonate Alkalinity ... 75
Normal Carbonate Alkalinity Limi-
tations 86
Normal Twenty-Secondth Sodium
Carbonate Solution 85
Normal Fiftieth Sulphuric Acid
Solution 89
Normal Fiftieth Sulphuric Acid
Solution, Equivalent 90
Odor Improved by Use of Sulphate
of Iron 144
Oil Barrel Equivalents 153
Operating Guide, Gelatin Count . . 106
Organic Matters in Water .... 104
Orifices, Diameters, Areas, and Dis-
charges 25 to 31
Orifices, Factors for 24-33
Otmce Equivalents 153
Overrunning of Filter Controllers . 71
Parts per Million Explained . . . 121
Parts per Million Converted ... 121
Parts per Million, Conversion
96-121-122-145
Phosphorus Pentoxide, Chemical
Formula 113
Phosphorus Pentoxide, Chemical
Weight 113
Pint Equivalents 153
XIV
American Steel and Wire Company
• Page
Phenolphthaleine Test Solution or
Indicator Solution 85
Phenolphthaleine Test Solution,
Misuse of 89
Pipes, Velocity of Flow Through . 31
Pipes, Diameter of 32
Pipes, Discharge Through .... 32
Pipes, Factor for Formula .... 32
Plant Construction Influences Chem-
ical Treatment 99
Planting Bacterial Samples .... 108
Planting Bacterial Samples, Pre-
cautions 109
Planting Bacterial Samples, Control 110
Plant Operation, Data for ... . 75
Pound Equivalents 153
Precautions in Taking and Handling
Bacterial Samples 108
Precipitation Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Precipitation Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Precipitation Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Prevention of Disease, 9
Prevention of Disease, Effects of . 9
Prostitution Caused by Disease . . 8
Pumps, Low Service 13
Quart Equivalents 153
Quick Lime, Commercial Product . 47
Quick Lime, Requirements .... 47
Quick Lime, Slaking 48
Quick Lime, Loss of 48
Quick Lime, Solubility ...... 48
Quick Lime, Milk of 49
Quick Lime, Metals to Handle . . 49
Quick Lime, Homogeneous Suspen-
sion of 49
Quintal Equivalents 153
Reactions of Aluminum Compounds 1 14
Reactions of Barium Compounds . 115
Reactions of Calcium Compoimds . 115
Reactions of Carbonic Acid Com-
pounds 116
Reactions of Copper Compounds . 117
Reactions of Iron Sulphate .... 117
Page
Reactions of Magnesium Com-
pounds 117
Reactions of Sodium Compoimds . 118
Reactions of Sulphuric Acid Com-
pounds 120
Rate of Filtration 73 to 75
Rate of Filtration, Past and Present 65
Raw Water, Recording Flow of . . 46
Red Water Defined 140
Red Water, Effects on Linen, and
Fixtures 140
Red Water, Destruction of Mains
and Services ........ 141
Red Water Causes Water to be
Wasted 141
Red Water, Cause of 141
Red Water, Cure for 142
Red Water, Reactions Explaining . . 142
Removing Odor 144
Removing Taste 144
Replacement Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Replacement Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Replacement Factors for Calciimi
Oxide 135
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Hydrate 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Monocarbonate 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Bicarbonate 136
Replacement Factors for Calciimi
Chloride 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Sulphate 136
Replacement Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Oxide 136
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Hydrate 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Monocarbonate 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Bicarbonate 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Chloride 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Sulphate 137
Water Pmification
XV
Page
Replacement Factors for Sodium
Oxide . 137
Replacement Factors for Sodium
Hydrate 137
Replacement Factors for Sodium
Monocarbonate 137
Replacement Factors for Sulphuric
Anhydride 138
Replacement Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Responsibility for Disease .... 8
Responsibility of Public Officials . 7
Responsibility for Human Life . . 8
Responsibility, Purpose of ... . 9
Rod Equivalents 153
Rood Equivalents 153
Rules for Chemical Treatment with
Lime 09-102
Rules for Chemical Treatment with
Iron 99-102
or
Sand Beds in Filters ....
Sand Catchers
Sand, Effective Size
Scale Forming Substances . .
Settling Basins, Capacity in Hours
Settling Basins, Cleaning . . .
Settling Basins, Cross Section Flow
Through
Settling Basins, Collecting Weir,
Skimming Weir
Settling Basins, Distributing Weir
Settling Basins, Diverted Flow
wSettling Basins, Efficiency of . .
Settling Basins, Efficiency of, In
creased by Mixing Chamber
Settling Basins, Experimental . .
Settling Basins, Function of . .
Settling Basins, Observation of
Settling Basins, Requirements
Settling Basins Saves Wash Water
Settling Basins, Sludge Zone . .
Settling Basins, Straight Flow
Settling Basins, Successful . . .
Settling Basins, Surface Flow . .
SettUng Basins, Testing Sludge Zone
Settling Basins, Water Enters . .
wSettling Basins, Water Leaves
Silicon Dioxide, Chemical Formula
Silicon Dioxide, Chemical Weight
66
66
66
110
95
60
60
60
60
60
59
56
62
59
62
60
59
60
60
60
60
62
56
60
114
114
Page
Silver Nitrate Test for Caustic Al-
kalinity 89
Skimming Weir in Settling Basin . 60
Slaking Lump Lime 48
Slaking Loss 48
Sludge Zone Test in Settling Basins 62
Soditun Bicarbonate, Chemical For-
mula
Sodium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Weight
Sodium Bicarbonate Incompatibles .
Sodium Carbonate Volumetric Solu-
tion, N/22
Sodium Chloride, Chemical Formula
Sodiimi Chloride, Chemical Weight
Sodiiun Compoimds, Factors for . .
Sodiimi Fluoride, Chemical Formula
Sodium Fluoride, Chemical Weight
Sodiimi Hydrate, Chemical Formula
Sodium Hydrate, Chemical Weight
Sodiiun Hydrate Equivalents . . .
Soditmi Hydrate Incompatibles 137-
Sodium Monocarbonate, Chemical
Formula
Sodium Monocarbonate, Chemical
Weight
Sodium Monocarbonate Equivalents
Sodium Monocarbonate Incom-
patibles 137-
Sodium Nitrate, Chemical Formula
Sodivun Nitrate, Chemical Weight
Sodium Nitrite, Chemical Formula
Sodium Nitrite, Chemical Weight
Sodium Oxide, Chemical Formula
Sodium Oxide, Chemical Weight
Sodiimi Oxide Equivalents . . .
Sodium Oxide Incompatibles . .
Sodium (Di-Sodic) Phosphate
Chemical Formula
Sodium (Di-Sodic)
Chemical Weight
Sodium (Tri-Sodic)
Chemical Formula
Sodium (Tri-Sodic)
Chemical Weight
Sodium Sulphate, Chemical Formula
Sodium Sulphate, Chemical Weight
Softening Process, Abuse of ... .
Softening Process, Advantages . .
Softening Process, Bacterial Effi-
ciencies 103
Phosphate
Phosphate,
Phosphate
114
14
48
85
14
14
26
14
14
14
14
30
47
14
14
30
48
14
14
14
14
14
14
30
37
14
14
14
14
14
14
03
03
XVJ.
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Softening Process, Cost 103
Softening Process, Drawbacks . . . 100
Softening Process, When not De-
sirable 104
Softening Process, Objections to . . 102
Softening Process, Rule for Using . 102.
Softening Process, Substances Re-
maining in Solution 138
Standard Methods of Analysis,
Criticism of Last Edition ... 105
Standard Orifices 23
Standard Orifices, Coefficient of
Discharge 24
Standard Orifices, Discharge Table
for 25
Standard Orifices, Factor for . . . 24
Standard Orifices, Formula of Dis-
charge 24
Stere Equivalents 153
Strainers in Filters 66-68
Substances Producing Alkalinity 150
Substances Producing Hardness . . 150
Substances Producing Alkalinity and
Hardness 150
Substances Producing Neither Al-
kalinity or Hardness 150
Substances Remaining in Solution
as Result of Chemical Treat-
ment 138
Sulphate Hardness Defined .... 151
Sulphate of Iron, Acid Resisting
Metals 19
Sulphate of Iron, Applying .... 22
Sulphate of Iron, Chemical Orifices
for 23
Sulphate of Iron, Chemical Formula
15-113
Sulphate of Iron, Chemical Weight 15-113
Sulphate of Iron, Crystals .... 15
Sulphate of Iron, Deterioration of . 16
Sulphate of Iron, Dissolving ... 17
Sulphate of Iron, Economy in Piu*-
chasing 16
Sulphate of Iron, Fixed Rate Ap-
plication 22
Sulphate of Iron, Handling .... 15
Sulphate of Iron, Head Tank ... 22
Sulphate of Iron, How Shipped . . 16
Sulphate of Iron, Metals Affected . 19
Sulphate of Iron, Pumping Solutions 19
Page
Sulphate of Iron, Size of Packages . 16
Sulphate of Iron, Solubility .... 17
Sulphate of Iron, Standard Orifice for 23
Sulphate of Iron, Stirring Devices for 19
Sulphate of Iron, Stirring Solutions 17
Sulphate of Iron, Strength .... 15
Sulphate of Iron, Sugar 15
Sulphate of Iron, Unloading ... 16
Sulphate of Iron, Variable Head
over Orifice 23
Sulphate of Iron, Water of Crystal-
lization 15
Sulpho-Cloride Hardness Defined 151
Sulphuric Acid, Chemical Formula . 114
Sulphuric Acid, Chemical Weight . 114
Sulphuric Add Compounds, Fac-
tors for 127
Sulphuric Acid Incompatibles . 138-147
Sulphuric Acid, Normal Fiftieth So-
lution Equivalent 90
Sulphuric Anhydride, Chemical For-
mula 114
Sulphuric Anhydride, Chemical
Weight 114
Sulphuric Anhydride Incompatibles. 138
Superficial Equivalents 153
Suspended Matter in Water to
Filters 65
Synthesis, Chemical 122
Tables, No. 1 25
Tables, No. 2 34
Tables, No. 3 41
Tables, No. 4 112
Tables, No. 5 113
Tables of Alkalinity 129-130
Tables of Atomic Weights .... 112
Tables of Areas of Orifices . . 25 to 31
Tables of Chemical Weights . 113-1 14
Tables of Cubic Feet 41-42
Tables of Cubic Feet per Second
Flow 41-42
Tables of Cubic Feet per Minute
Flow 41-42
Tables of Diameters of Orifices 25 to 31
Tables of Discharge Under One
Foot Head 25 to 31
Tables of Equivalent Heads, Pres-
sures and Discharges ... 34 to 40
Tables of Factors 123 to 128
Water Purilicatioii
XVII
Page
Tables of Gallons per Day Flow 25 to 32
Tables of Gallons per Day Flow 34 to 40
Tables of Gallons per Minute FIqw 25 to 32
Tables of Gallons per Minute Flow 34 to 40
Tables of Gallons per Second Flow 34 to 40
Tables of Gallons per Second Flow 41-42
Tables of Hardness .... 131 to 134
Tables of Heads and Pressures . 34-40
Tables of Incompatibles . . . 135 to 138
Tables of Limitations of Chemical
Treatment 95
Tables of Million Gallons and
Equivalents in Flow .... 41-42
Tables of Substances Remaining in
Solution 138
Tables of Variable Heads and Dis-
charges through Fixed Orifice 34 to 40
Tables of Velocities of Flow Under
Varying Heads 34 to 40
Tables of Water Heads, Pressures,
Velocities and Flows ... 34 to 40
Taste Improved by Iron Sulphate . 144
To Compute Chemical Quantities . 120
Tonne Equivalents 153
Total Alkalinity 92
Total Carbonate Hardness .... 151
Total Hardness 151
Treatment Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Treatment Factors for Barium Oxide 135
Treatment Factors for Calcium
Oxide 135
Treatment Factors for Calcium Hy-
drate 136
Treatment Factors for Calcitmi Mon-
ocarbonate 136
Treatment Factors for Calcium Bi-
carbonate 136
Treatment Factors for Calcitmi
Chloride 136
Treatment Factors for Calcium
Sulphate 136
Treatment Factors for Iron Sulphate 136
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Oxide 136
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Hydrate 137
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Monocarbonate 137
Page
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Bicarbonate 137
Treatment Factors for Magnesitmi
Chloride 137
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
. Sulphate . 137
Treatment Factors for Soditmi Oxide 137
Treatment Factors for Sodium Hy-
drate 137
Treatment Factors of Sodium Mono-
carbonate 137
Treatment Factors for Substances
Remaining in Solution .... 138
Treatment Factors for Sulphuric An-
hydride 138
Treatment Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Turbidity of Water 75
Turbidity, Character of .... 75-84
Turbidity, To Determine ... 75 to 80
Turbidity, Standard 78
Turbidity Rod, Graduations ... 78
Turbidity Rod, May be Purchased . 84
Typhoid Fever, Caused by ... . 9
Typhoid Fever, Cost of 9
Typhoid Fever, Lives Lost by . . 9
Typhoid Fever, and Other Water
Borne Diseases 9
Use of Chemical Factors .... 122
Use of Chemical Reactions .... 120
Use of Hydraulic Tables ... 43 to 45
Unnecessary Loss of Life 10
United States Miniature Gallon . . 122
Value of Human Life 9
Value of Lives Lost 9
Variable Rate Chemical Controllers 46
Variable Rate Chemical Controllers,
Function of 46
Variable Rate Filter Controllers . . 72
Variable Rate Filter Controllers,
Function of 73
Vegetable Matter 104
Velocities, under Varying Heads and
Pressures 34 to 40
Volumetric Solutions and Their Use 88
XVIII
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
^MTater, Chemical Formula and
Chemical Weight 114
Water, Free from Chemicals Used . 12-13
Water, Low Lift of 13
Water, Hard, Defined 110
Water, Bacteriology 104
Water Borne Diseases 7
Water Heads, Table of Heads, Pres-
sures, Velocities and Discharge 34 to 40
Water, Manifold of Filter 70
Water Purification Prevents Disease 8
Water Purification Lowers Death
Rate 8
Water Ways Between Mixing Cham-
ber and Settling Basins .... 56
Page
Water Ways Between Settling Basins
and Filters 60
Wash Troughs of Filters, and Re-
quirements . . . • 66
Wash Water Saved by Properly De-
signed Chemical and Filter Con-
trollers 74
Wash Water Saved by Settling
Basins 59
Wine Barren Equivalents 153
Yard Equivalents 153
Yellow Light to Assist in Reading
End Point 91
Preface
THIS volume is issued by
the Engineering Bureau
Water Purification, Ameri-
can Steel & Wire Company. It
may be well to go briefly into the
policies which led to its preparation,
publication and circulation.
The ftmction of the Bureau is
to assist, as far as practicable, in
helping either municipally or pri-
vately owned water purification
plants to obtain the best and most
economical results possible.
The ntmiber of these plants in
the country is already large and is
increasing each year. Many of
these have been admirably planned
and built. Others have not been
so fortunate. In few branches of
engineering work have such ad-
vances been made as along the
lines of water purification. Some
plants, built years ago, and num-
bered among the best at the time
of construction, are now more or
less obsolete, either on account
of their deterioration or because of
progress in the art.
Some of these older plants have
been or are being remodeled, en-
larged or replaced with more
modem plants. Some remain as
originally constructed. With all
these styles and types of plants,
either building or working, there
has arisen many problems of de-
sign and operation.
The Engineering Bureau Water
Purification of the American Steel &
Wire Company was organized to
exploit the use of Sulphate of Iron
in these plants. It was realized
from the beginning that we could
only be successful in this work
insofar as we made the interests of
oiir clients our supreme care. In
order to do this it was necessary
to have men who could and would
give our clients and possible clients
such assistance as would enable
them to get the best results at the
lowest possible cost. It was soon
found that these restilts could not
always be secured unless certain
conditions, both as to water supply
and arrangement of plant, could
be made effective.
At many plants these conditions
were not obtainable. At some
points the arrangement of the
plant positively prohibited the
attainment of satisfactory results
even when the water supply was
all that could be asked.
Where the plant arrangement
was the only thing preventing the
successful employment of our proc-
ess and where it was apparent
that the saving to be effected would
warrant the expense of the neces-
sary alterations it became neces-
sary to make such recommenda-
tions as to permit of the process
being used. It was also found
that where these things could be
done at the time the plant was
being constructed the results were
more satisfactory and econom-
ical. Such installation could be
more economically made and the
general efficiency of the plant im-
proved thereby.
For these and other reasons
which will be obvious it was soon
found to be necessary to furnish
a certain amount of engineering
6
Amenoan Steel and Wire Company
advice to the city, corporation or
engineer desirous of availing them-
selves of the services of this
Bureau.
This Bureau therefore stands
ready to assist in any practicable
manner those cities, corporations
or engineers who desire assistance
in working out any of the problems
connected with the design, con-
struction or operation of Water
Purification Plants.
The process known as the Ameri-
can Steel & Wire Company's Process
employs Sulphate of Iron and caus-
tic lime to either partially soften
and purify municipal water sup-
plies or merely purify them. Dur-
ing the last twelve years our engi-
neers have encountered many diffi-
cult problems in this line of work
and have obtained a large fund of
information on the subject. Where
this process is employed we stand
ready to furnish experts to assist
local operators in securing the best
obtainable results ^ and to instruct
them in proper methods of opera-
tion. The services of these experts
are free to those requiring or de-
siring them. Where trouble is found
in obtaining the desired results
owing to unforseen difficulties
these services may be of value in
overcoming the difficulty and show-
ing how it may be avoided in
the future.
Where cities are contemplating
building new plants or remodelling
old ones the advice of these men
may be of material assistance,
either in helpful criticism of plans
already drawn or the working out
of plans for properly carrying on
the work. Where a city is in doubt
as to the best course to pursue in
order to attain a certain result we
are ready to do all we can to assist
in finding the proper solution and
for such services we make no
charge. Where engineers desire
such assistance the same holds true.
It must be understood that where
our services are asked for in either
of the above cases we act only in
an advisory capacity and do not
prepare plans or specifications for
the work to be done. We earnestly
recommend on all work of this kind
a thoroughly competent and re-
liable engineer be employed to pre-
pare such plans and specifications.
In order to assist in this work we
have prepared this volume.
Water Pnrifioation
Xhe American Steel & Wire Company's
Process of Water Purification
Responaibility ol Public Offioiala
Every public official is more or less
personally responsible for every death
front water borne diseases which
occurs within his city. The para-
graphs immediately follounng are,
thereJorCy oj direct application to
each and every public official in
every city where water borne diseases
and deaths are to be found,
Diaeaae Kills Civilization
There is no doubt that disease
has materially helped to oyerthrow
civilization in the pact. History
abounds in tales of pestilence and
from the writings of the ancients it
is observed that the Egyptians of
the Pharaohs were hygienic, drained
the land, reared temples and cities,
maintained law and order and de-
veloped the elements of literature
and science. With the later de-
cline in learning and wisdom,
Egypt was visited and desolated
by pestilence. Still later, , Gibbon
the historian denounced Egypt
as the original source and breeding
place of the plague.
Greece, progenitor of the most
magnificent civilization of antiq-
uity, felt the enervating influ-
ence of the lack of scientific sanita-
tion, and under the depressing
effects of disease the culture of this
great people slowly but surely de-
cayed.
The ancient Roman Empire,
wonderfully promising in world
wide influence, gave but little to
science, and the history of her de-
cline indicates disease as an im-
portant factor leading to her down-
fall. From the year 251 to 265
(fifteen years) pestilence carried off
half the inhabitants of the empire.
In 1343 an epidemic reduced the
population of the Eternal City to
20,000. In Florence, during the
scourge, upwards of a hundred
thousand persons perished.
In Justinian's time the plague
mortality was extraordinary, the
historical record stating that with-
in three months four to ten thou-
sand persons died daily at Con-
stantinople, while other cities were
stripped entirely of human beings.
This epidemic traversed all Eu-
rope, and a century later it reaped
a harvest in England. We are told
that between the years 88 and 92
A. D. the deaths in Scotland from
the plague aggregated 150,000,
possibly one-half the population
at that time. In 80 A. D., Rome,
with a population of a million,
lost her citizens ait the rate of 10,000
a day. In 114 A. D., 45,000 died
of plague in Wales. In 173 A. D.,
the Roman army was nearly deci-
mated. Five , great epidemics
swept England between the years
1485 and 1665 and it was shown
that the strong bodied were the
most susceptible.
After the last epidemic in Lon-
don, in 1665, the death rate fell
to between 70 and 80 per 1,000.
American Steel and Wire Company
During the next century it fell as
low as 50. In the nineteenth century-
it decreased to 14 per 1,000.
Here in the United States the
first year of mortality statistics
(1879-80) showed a death rate of
19.8 per 1,000 and in 1912 it was
13.9, which marked a decrease of
30 per cent. The mortality from
typhoid in the same time decreased
50 per cent., showing that the effec-
tiveness of the work of sanitation
and medicine has not been merely
theoretical. The modern sani-
tarian is quite competent to re-
build the home in which the cradle
of civilization was rocked.
Our present civilization, of which
we are somewhat inclined to boast,
is truly an improvement; but the
boasting is justified only within
limits. While science more nearly
dominates the world than at any
other time within the past, in this
country of a hundred million people
there are thousands who impede
progress because of greed and
ignorance.
Co-operation to Prevent Disease
An intelligent people must co-
operate in the great work of erad-
ication of disease, for the right to
enjoy health is quite as sacred as
that to possess property. As a general
proposition, our sanitary laws are
very good but their administration
still leaves much to be desired.
To ignorance and carelessness
must be attributed much of the
causation of disease in the centu-
ries gone by. Out of the throes of
suffering and death of the myriads
who have preceded us we have ob-
tained a certain enlightenment,
which while not perfect still makes
it absurd to plead ignorance and
lack of knowledge.
The day is not far distant when
it will be considered a crime for a
city to continue to murder its
citizens by furnishing them an im-
pure water supply. Diseases which
consign thousands to the grave
leave even worse results in their
wake by passing on to the children
a hopeless poverty, opening the
gate to crime, prostitution and
mendicancy. All the authorities
agree that contagions react on the
moral fibre of a community or
people, and contrariwise, where they
live under healthful conditions great
advancement in government, liter-
ature and science has been made.
There is a moral obligation to
be intelligent. Ignorance is a vice
and when it results in injury to any-
one it becomes a crime, moral, if
not statutory. There is no excuse
in this day for ignorance of any
one in relation to the necessity for
the purification of all water sup-
plies in cities where the death rate
from water borne diseases is higher
than that in cities having perfectly
satisfactory water.
Responsibility lor and Value of
Human Life
Responsibility is a word of tre-
mendous import. Its significance
is akin to trust, and those men who
are responsible for and serious
minded in the conduct of human
affairs realize their liability to be
Water Purification
9
called to account when honored
with leadership.
There are men, however, upon
whom responsibility rests lightly,
perhaps not wilfully but because
of circumstances beyond their con-
trol and in the management of their
trusts they become indifferent to
the only too common signs of
inefficiency, which ultimately re-
sult in retrogression, if not disaster.
The purpose of government is to
protect its citizens, and a govern-
ment which fails to shield the peo-
ple from infection cannot be truth-
fully called either responsible, in-
telligent or moral.
The greatest asset of any city
or town is the health of the citizens,
and the officials who secure this
in the highest degree are those
who appreciate the responsibility
placed upon them in this very im-
portant matter.
Preventive measures in conserv-
ing the health of the community
records success in direct ratio to
the number of lives saved, and it
is pleasing to note that the statis-
tics of the last century show an
increase of fifteen years in the
average human life. There is rea-
son to hope that, in the future, this
increase may be duplicated in a
considerably shorter time, if earnest
use is made of present day science.
The Value of Human Life
The value of human life is some-
thing not to be trifled with. It is
measurable, in cold finance as well
as in ethics. Students who have
made a digest of the former view-
point stand upon the assertion that
the monetary value of a human
life ranges between $1,000.00 and
$7,500.00, from the ages of 70 down
to 5 years, the highest value be-
ing attained at the age of 30; the
lower value given is at 5 years,
while the average value comes very
close to $6,000.00.
In the year 1900, according to
the United States Census Reports,
there were 35,379 reported deaths
from typhoid fever in this country.
If we accept $6,000.00 as the aver-
age value of a human life, the
grand monetary loss as represented
in the lives lost from this one dis-
ease amounts to $212,274,000.00
in one year. It is to be noted
that only a portion of the lives
lost because of typhoid fever were
reported and that the actual loss
of life must have been considerably
in excess of that reported.
It is generally assumed that the
larger portion of the deaths result-
ing from typhoid fever are either
directly or indirectly attributable
to impure water. It is also gen-
erally assumed that for each case
of typhoid caused by impure water
there are at least ten other cases of
disease other than typhoid result-
ing from the same cause.
Prof. Irving Fisher, of Yale
University, has estimated that over
600,000 deaths occur each year in
the United States which could be
postponed by systematic applica-
tion of scientific knowledge already
available. In dollars and cents
this estimate places the national loss
per annum at an appalling figure.
10
American Steel and Wire Company
Ignorance Breeds Disease
The plain fact is that not only
does ignorance breed disease but the
converse is almost as true and that
disease breeds ignorance, immo-
rality and strife. In the light of
the scientific work at the present
time, disease in its horrible whole-
sale form is controllable if it cannot
be entirely eliminated. This con-
trol or elimination is possible only
when there is an awakening of the
sense of responsibility on the part of
those who have been elevated to
the high places in government.
Short sighted humanity fails to
appreciate nature's gifts until
threatened with their loss. This
is true even of the greatest of them
all, life itself. It is significant of
our failure to value health.
Now, Mr. Public Official, do you,
as a city official, realize that you,
personally, are responsible for every
death from a water borne disease,
which occurs in your city unless you
are consistently and persistently do-
ing everything possible to prevent
such death^
Impure Water Dangerous
The most imperative need of
mankind is pure water, pure air and
pure food. Few water supplies in
this country are pure enough to be
used in their natural state. Impure
water has killed more men, women
and children than all the wars the
world has seen. Not only may a
conservative statement of this kind
be made, but it may be said with
equal truth that impure water is
now killing, and will continue for
many years to come, to kill more
people than any or all probable
wars. This condition is due wevy
largely to a lack of knowledge of
this truth. If every one knew and
really appreciated this one fact, it
would soon cease to be a fact. The
reason is that if every one knew and
appreciated the results of the con-
tinued use of impure water, public
opinion would compel the author-
ities to provide a remedy.
Impure Water Unneoessary
There is scarcely any one thing
more unquestionably established
than the practicability of furnishing
a pure, safe and satisfactory water,
irrespective of the condition or de-
gree of pollution of the available
natural supplies.
An authority on this subject has
emphasized this by saying: **When
any one dies of typhoid fever, it is a
crime, and some one should be pun-
ished; by hanging, if necessary.'
This may appear to be a rather
harsh statement, but it is a thor-
oughly well established fact that
typhoid is an almost wholly unnec-
essary and preventable disease.
Causes Disease
Many seem to believe that this
well known disease is the only one
caused by impure water, and this,
in general with much other knowl-
edge of the layman along sanitary
lines, has little real foundation. Ifl
fact, it is estimated that impure
water, while causing typhoid, really
causes probably ten times as many
complaints other than typhoid,
Water Pnrilication
11
hence the danger from an impure
water cannot be safely gauged by
the amount of typhoid which it
causes. An allowance should be
made for the other and more nu-
merous ills arising from the same
source.
The main- thing to be borne in
mind is that impure water should
not be tolerated. While good
streets, lights, parks, sewers and
other public utiUties are important,
the first and foremost essential to
public health is pure water, and the
only reason cities do not always
have this is because the citizens do
not consistently and persistently
demand it. Politicians never dis-
regard any such demand on the
part of the public as a whole.
Mechanical Filtration
Various methods have been used
at different times to purify public
water supplies, but no real and prac-
tical solution of the problem for
American cities was ever reached
until American engineering genius
took the matter in hand and pro-
ceeded to give the world the Amer-
ican or Mechanical System of Fil-
tration.
Early Work
Some very good work was done
in the early days by the Massachu-
setts State Board of Health. These
experiments were followed on a
larger scale by the famous Louisville
Experimental Work in the years
1896-1897. One of the first me-
chanical filters for municipal use
was built at Lorain, Ohio, in 1896-
1897 and subjected to test in 1897.
This plant was the first in practical
municipal use to demonstrate* the
feasibility of purifying the city sup-
ply and removing 98 per cent.' of
the bacterial pollution under work-
ing conditions, and thus rendering
the water safe and wholesome. This
was proven by a long and exhaust-
ive test lasting six months, during
which time the water was subjected
to at least four bacterial analyses
every day except Sunday. The
State Board of Health of Ohio par-
ticipated in the test and accepted
and recognized the results as accu-
rate and reliable.
Since this time the art has pro-
gressed so rapidly that engineers,
unless devoting their entire time
and attention to the work, have
been unable to keep pace with the
advances made and making.
Chemical Methods
•
From 1897 to 1903 the method
of coagulating water most gen-
erally employed required the use of
alum. In the latter year, the
American Steel & Wire Company's
process was first employed at
Quincy, Illinois. A little later it
was used at Vicksburg, Mississippi,
and Lorain, Ohio, at almost the
same time. St. Louis followed,
and since then the use of this proc-
ess has extended, until nearly one
hundred cities now employ it to
purify their water supplies.
Principles
All chemical methods for water
purification by mechanical filtra-
^2
Ameiicaii Steel and Wire Company
tion are based upon a relatively
simple principle. Every housewife
knows that if she mixes the white
of an egg with her coffee and heats
it, the egg albumen will coagulate
and in so doing will gather the
grounds together and leave the
coffee clear and brilliant. One
thing not so generally known is that
when this is done all of the egg is
removed in the process, none of it
remaining in the clear resultant
coffee. It is on this simple principle
that all chemical methods of water
purification by mechanical filtra-
tion are based.
While this principle is employed,
none of the methods used in me-
chanical filtration requires the water
to be heated, although all of them
would be expedited if it were prac-
tical to do so.
The reason for our ability to
secure results without heat is found
in -the fact that water contains
enough chemical compounds in so-
lution in the natural state to unite
with the chemicals which we em-
ploy, and when the chemical com-
pounds present in the water do so
unite with those added, a new
chemical compound is formed and
this new compound is insoluble in
water just as the white of egg be-
comes insoluble by heating the
coffee, and all of the chemicals
added in the water are removed in
the process just as the egg is re-
moved from the coffee. Likewise,
as the egg clears the grounds from
the coffee by coagulation, so also
does the chemical coagulation clear
the water from mud and bacteria
and by so doing the water is purified
and clarified and rendered suitable
for further treatment by mechan-
ical filtration.
Action of Chemioala
The action of coagtilants is briefly
described in City Document No. 15,
Providence, R. I., as follows:
** If the diameter of matter floating
in water is much less than that of the
interstices between the grains of sand
composing the filter bed, such matter,
except so much as is caught upon the
sharp edges of the quartz, will go
right through the filter with the
water. Now, if a substance could be
introduced, drop by drop, in the
water before it comes to the filter,
which would have the effect of
curdling this matter together, so that
every hundred or so of the smaller
particles were made to join together
and become one large particle, much
as vapor or steam is condensed in
drops, it would follow that they
would be caught and held from going
through the filter."
The American Steel & Wire Com-
pany's PrcMsess— Ho^v- It Worki
In the American Steel & Wire
Company's process, this is accom-
plished by adding very small quan-
tities of sulphate of iron and caustic
lime to the water as it passes from
the pumps to the filters. The ac-
tion is the same as when coffee is
cleared by means of the white of an
egg. No white of egg goes to the
drinker of the coffee. It is all
turned out with the grounds, and
likewise no sulphate of iron or
caustic lime goes to the drinker of
the water. They unite with the ini'
purities in the water and settle out
Water Purifioadon
13
) I feathery flocks in the settling
oasin or on top of the filter, and are
washed out together with the im-
purities when the filter is washed.
No Chemicals Lielt
Analysis of the filtered water
shows no trace of either sulphate
of iron or. caustic lime. The
feathery floculent hydroxide of iron
or magnesia; monocarbonate of
lime or magnesia produced in the
process forms an excellent material
of insoluble mineral matter whicU
catches and retains all small par-
ticles in the water.
Bacteria, like fine clay particles
so small as to pass through the sand
filter bed, are caught and retained
by the filtering layer of mineral
matter and the pure water passes
through bright, clear and sparkling.
Stages
In a modern mechanical filter
plant, there are several well-defined
stages of the process of purification.
These may be noted in the order of
their occurrence as follows:
First, bringing the raw water
into the plant.
Second, chemical treatment of
the raw water.
Third, fprmation of the coagula-
tion.
Fourth, sedimentation of the sus-
pended matter.
Fifth, filtration.
Sixth, high service distribution.
Water Supplied
In general, there are two different
methods in use to bring the natural
water into the plant. Where the
conditions are such as to permit,
it is customary to locate the plant
at a lower level or lesser elevation
than the minimum level obtaining
in the raw water supply, and to
conduct the water into and through
the purification system by gravity.
Lilt
In few cases, however, are the
conditions such as to allow of this.
Usually the plant must be placed
above the level of the natural sup-
ply, and hence it becomes necessary
to pump the water from the lower
level up to that required to allow it
to pass through the purification
works by gravity.
The distance through which the
water is lifted in order to do this
varies largely in different plants.
In some it is only a few feet, in
others it may be from forty to
seventy feet, while in others it may
be even greater than this.
Pumps
Where the lift is low, it is the
usual practice to employ a single
stage centrifugal pump. This may
be driven by belt from a steam en-
gine or motor, or, in a few places,
ivam. gas engines. In some in-
stances the pump is coupled direct
to a steam engine of either the
turbine or reciprocating type, to
gas engine or to motor, while in iso-
lated cases, the high service pumps
may be used to drive a water wheel
directly connected to the centrif-
ugal pumps. In such instances,
the discharge from the water motor
14
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
returns to the clear water reservoir.
In some cases, water wheels or
water turbines driven by water
power are used to drive the pumps
to lift the water into the plant. In
others the low service pumps or
even high service pumps may be
employed to lift the water to a
reservoir from which it flows by
gravity to the purification plant, or
the water may pass by gravity into
a reservoir from which it passes,
also by gravity, into the plant.
Point of Treatment
There are a few plants where the
water is treated with chemicals as
it enters these reservoirs and is then
lifted to the filter, but no engineer
with even a fair knowledge of the
art would think of advising this
with our present knowledge.
The method of introducing the
water into the plant is of no mo-
ment in the process of ptirification,
save in the last named instance.
The main object is to make the lift
to the plant as economically and
certainly as possible.
Chemical Treatment
With the water flowing into the
plant, the next step is its proper
treatment with chemicals. The
difficulties here are many and
varied, and seldom the same in
any two plants. Too much stress
cannot be placed upon the im-
portance attaching to this matter.
Most of the plants which fail either
partially or wholly, fail because of
faults in applying or handling the
chemicals.
Preparation of Chemicals
Before the iron sulphate can be
applied it is necessary to prepare a
solution of known definite strength
or to arrange to add a known and
predetermined weight of the ma-
terial to a known volume of water.
The same statement holds true as to
the lime.
Engineering Diitioaltiea
Several different ways of doing
this obtain. All are possessed of
advantages and disadvantages and
much engineering ability has been
and is being directed towards the
problems involved. . Much of the
difficulty in overcoming the troubles
arises from the lack of comprehen-
sion on the part of engineers of the
real troubles and demands. This
occurs because designing engineers
as a rule are not operating engineers
and are thus unable to obtain a cor-
rect knowledge of the facts, for the
reason that what knowledge they
obtain is second hand and some of
it unreliable.
The operator may have a strong
disinclination to inform the design-
ing engineer that trouble exists, for
fear of being considered incom-
petent or through fear of angering
the designer by criticism. Further-
more, the operator may be really
incompetent to formulate a proper
criticism. If every designing en-
gineer had to operate every plant
he designs for six months, he might
design fewer plants, but it is hardly
conceivable that he would not
design better ones. For this reason
the opinions of competent operating
Water Pnrificatfoii
15
men should receive much more
careful consideration than they
have in the past.
In order to commence at the
proper point, we shall begin with
a description and the handling of
the chemicals from the railroad
station adjacent the plant.
Sulphate of Iron
Sulphate of iron is a pale green
salt. In the old process of manu-
facture the size and quality varied
within rather large limits. It
usually varied quite as much in
the water content, both of crystal-
lization and mechanical moisture.
The chemical formula of this
substance is FeS04, TH^O. This
means that one part of iron with an
atomic weight of 56.0, one part of
sulphur with an atomic weight of
32.0, and four parts of oxygen, each
with an atomic weight of 16.0, or a
combined one of 64.0, are united
with seven parts of water each
having a molecular weight of 18.0
or a combined one ot 126.0, to form
one part of sulphate of iron with
a molecular weight of 278.0, of
which 45.32 per cent, is water of
crystallization.
Strength
When of exactly this composition
and free from all impurities, the
material is 100 per cent, pure or, as
the chemist puts it, chemically
pure. The water of crystallization
amounts to 45.32 per cent, and if
part of the water be driven off, it
will be evident that each pound of
the material will contain less water
and more iron sulphate, and that
the strength of the material, as far
as the percentage of iron content is
concerned, will be increased, thus
the strength may go to 102 per
cent., 104 per cent., or even 106 per
cent, by driving off part of the
water of crystallization.
In the process of manufacture
this is actually done, and the new
product, called sugar sulphate of
iron, usually averages about 102
per cent, strength.
Larger Crystals
The older material in larger
crystals contained all the water of
crystallization and in addition some
moisture mechanically held, and
seldom ran above 94 to 96 per
cent, strength, the balance being
water.
There were two grades, known as
prime green, selects or stick crys-
tals, and seconds or bottoms. The
prime green or stick crystals were
large crystals from half inch to four
inches in size, and formed the best
quality. Bottoms or seconds were
small, large and medium size crys-
tals, containing more dirt, water
and impurities, and were of second
quality.
Sugar Sulphate
These two grades have been
largely restricted in manufacture
and replaced by the sugar sulphate
of iron. This is finely granular and
derives its name from its appear-
ance, which is very much like granu-
lated sugar except for its pale green
16
American Steel and Wire Company
color. It does not deteriorate with
age if kept in a dry, cool place. If
kept in a very warm room for
several months, it may set into a
mass more or less difficult to break
up, but this does not affect its
strength injuriously or render it
less suited for any commercial
purpose except to slightly increase
the time required to dissolve it.
Packages
Sulphate of iron is shipped in
five different forms of packages: in
25-lb. paper cartons; 100-lb. bags;
200-lb. bags; 350 to 400-lb. barrels,
and in bulk. Where it can be
properly handled it is cheaper in
bulk than in 200-lb. bags. The
100-lb. bag or barrel is the next
cheapest, and the 25-lb. carton costs
a little more than an equivalent
quantity in barrels or 100-lb. bags.
Purchasing
Most of the material for water
purification is sold either in bulk,
200-lb. bags, 100-lb. bags or in
barrels. That packed in cartons
should never be purchased for this
use. It is usually better to buy in
bulk if proper provisions are made
to handle it. If this cannot be done,
the 100-lb. bag or barrels is the next
best proposition. The 200-lb. bag
is cheaper than the barreled product
or the 100-lb. bag, but harder
to handle and usually less satis-
factory. Ordinarily it is not feas-
ible to buy in bulk if the material
is to be hauled to the plant by
wagon.
Handling
If the car can be switched up to
the chemical room on railroad siding
and if proper unloading and storage
facilities are available, then pur-
chase in bulk becomes advisable
and profitable. Some form of me-
chanical unloader and conveyor to
storage is desirable. Men cannot
unload cars with a shovel, unless
provided with aspirators, as the
dust from the material, while not
so objectionable as some other
chemicals used for water purifica-
tion work, is not pleasant to breathe
and does a workman no real good.
If purchased in 100-lb. bags, it
can be unloaded from a car or
hauled by wagon with great facil-
ity, and it is easily and economically
handled and stored. The bags are
of good quality cotton duck and
free from lint, hence they do not
shed fibres, such as always come
from jute bags, to stop up orifices
and pipes and cause trouble around
the plant in many ways. Usually a
ready sale of empty bags at a good
price may be found. This size pack-
age can be stored very conven-
iently in almost any dry storage
place, to excellent advantage, and
are so accurately weighed and
packed and contain so nearly the
exact amount of 100 pounds, that
unless the bag is torn, it is never
necessary to weigh it.
This is a considerable conven-
ience, saving time and labor. For
plants desiring to buy bulk sulphate
of iron, the provisions to handle
it satisfactorily vary with local
conditions, and information can
Water Purification
17
be secnired from the manufac-
turer regarding this by asking for
it. It is not a subject which
can be gone into in a book of
this size.
When the material has been un-
loaded and stored in the chemical
stock room of the plant, it is ready
for use.
Solubility
Every one knows that sugar is
very soluble in water, and yet a tea-
spoonful of sugar can be placed in a
cup of water, tea, or coffee, and un-
less stirred, it dissolves very slowly.
So also sulphate of iron, while very
soluble, if placed in water and un-
disturbed, will not go into solution
very rapidly; therefore, some ar-
rangement should be provided to
expedite bringing it into solution.
It is only slowly affected by running
water passing over it, and has a
tendency to fall through a screen ;
but if a flow of water can be forced
up through it, a very strong solu-
tion can be easily and quickly pre-
pared. We show a sketch of a
device which has proven very effec-
tive and satisfactory for this pur-
pose.
Sulphate of iron is placed in the
cylinder having a conical shaped
bottom and the valve 1 is opened
on the water main 2. The pressure
forces the water upward through
the iron sulphate and valve A or B
IS opened to carry the dissolved
iron sulphate to the solution tank
to be charged. The sulphate is
^mckly dissolved and carried away
to the storage or chemical solution
tank, which, when filled with water
to the proper mark, gives us our
chemical solution.
Stirring Solation
It is not enough to run this into
the chemical solution tank and then
fill the tank to the mark and pro-
ceed to use the solution without
further ado, as is done in some
places; it is essential that the
strength of the solution should be
homogeneous throughout the tank,
and this can be obtained only by
thoroughly agitating the contents
of the tank after it has been filled.
If this is not done, the bottom
layers of the solution will be stronger
and heavier than the top layers,
and if used without stirring, that
first drawn from the tank may be
very much stronger than that
drawn from the nearly empty tank.
Drawing off always occurs from the
bottom and thus the stronger solu-
tion is first used, the top being the
last to be drawn off. In fact, prac-
tically all of the iron sulphate may
be drawn off before the tank has
been half emptied, and the last half
tank may, under these conditions,
be of absolutely no value as a chem-
ical solution to treat water. The
contents of the tank should there-
fore be thoroughly agitated after the
tank has been filled. With some
chemicals, it does not matter ma-
terially how the solutions are
stirred or agitated. Any method
which will result in making and
maintaining solutions of homogen-
eous strength is all that is required
in such cases.
18
Americau Steel aud Wire Company
1" Cast Ikon
>" PiriNc Blaok Inon
Dissolving Tank For Sulphate Of Iron
/>/^/7
CH£M/CAL STORAGE TANH
To /fead T&nk^
UMEAGITA T/Ua DEVICE
Water Purification
19
Air for Stirring
With sulphate of iron, however,
this does not hold true. Air agita-
tion should never be used for this
work. The air passing through the
solution tends to oxidize the iron
solution, and thus cause it to lose
strength as well as to bring about
other undesirable results. A me-
chanical method or even the use of a
plasterer's hoe, is preferable to the
use of air agitation.
Mechanical Stirring
In most of the modem plants,
some form of stirring device, power
driven, is employed. Some forms of
these devices are less desirable than
others, although most of them are
sufficient to accomplish the desired
results, viz: that of making and
maintaining a homogeneous strength .
of solution from the time the tank
is filled until it is empty, and keep-
ing the tank free from mud com-
posed largely of iron oxide or hy-
drate. The power required to drive
the stirring device is small in the
case of this solution. Practically
all that is required is to cause a
small circulation from the bottom
of the tank to the top and from the
top to the bottom. An impeller
may be placed in the bottom of the
tank and driven by any type of
motor. If the blades of the im-
peller sweep the larger part of the
area of the tank bottom, the speed
of drive may be quite slow. In
some cases it does not exceed four
revolutions per minute. If the
blades of the impeller are shorter
than this, the number of revolu-
tions per minute should be increased
proportionally.
Pumping
In some plants, instead of using
impellers or stirring devices of this
type, a small pump is used to create
a circulation in the tank. This
pump may be a bronze lined cen-
trifugal or reciprocating type, as
preferred. In either case, it is
necessary to use a bronze lined
pump, as other materials are too
quickly affected by the solution.
Acid Resisting Metals
A solution of sulphate of iron, like
alum, acts similarly to a weak acid
solution, and while not so destruc-
tive as alum solutions, it is good
practice to use acid resisting metals
for all pipe lines, pumps, orifices,
impeller blades, and other metal
parts which are used to handle it.
Chemical tanks may be made of
wood or concrete, while the dissolv-
ing funnel, page 18, may be of either
concrete, heavy sheet steel, or cast
iron, as preferred. The pumps may
be placed above, below, or on a
level with the top of the tank.
The suction should extend to the
bottom of the tank and the dis-
charge may occur above the maxi-
mum level in the tank or at any
point below. We prefer to see both
suction and discharge reach the
bottom of the tank, the discharge
being made to occur in a horizontal
plane and on a tangent to the curve
of the tank, with the end of the dis-
charge resting on the tank bottom.
If a head tank is placed at a higher
AmeriGBii Sle«l and Wire Company
Genenl View
Faifo Filter Plant
Filter Opentlafl FlfMT
Waler Purification
Views In Fargo FUter Plant
22
American Steel and Wire Company
level than the top of the tank, and
a pump is required to lift the chem-
ical solution to the head tank, as is
done at some stations, the ptimp
should be of ample capacity and lift
considerably more solution to the
tank than will be required for use.
Head Tank
The head tank should be pro-
vided with an overflow in this case,
and this overflow going back to the
solution tank through a discharge
line similar to that previously
described, forms a very satisfactory-
form of agitation apparatus. One
of the most satisfactory forms of
these devices will be described un-
der the section relating to the han-
dling of lime.
Quantity Used
With the solution thus made up
and ready to apply, the next point
to receive attention is that of ascer-
taining how much to apply and how
to do so. Each plant has its own
limitations iii this respect and some
of them are remarkable chieflv for
the strictness of these limitations.
The ideal to be sought is, first, to
ascertain just how much should be
applied to obtain the best results,
and to do so with the greatest econ-
omy, and then to apply the exact
amount required. It is much easier
to state this than to accomplish it,
even in the best plants yet built,
and in most of the others it is prac-
tically impossible to even approach
the ideal in either way.
>► If it were possible in these plants
to apply the exact amount required,
or sought, it would then become a
relatively easy matter to determine
after a certain number of trials just
how much should be used to reach
the acme of perfect restdts and
greatest economy, but inasmuch as
this is usually impractical, we are
therefore always left in doubt as to
the exact amount required to ob-
tain the best results, and can only
reach a conclusion approximately
correct in this respect. These diffi-
culties are common to all chemical
purification methods.
DitfiGoltiea
The reasons for our inability to
do better are twofold. Unless we
are able to actually apply a known
quantity to a supply and see what
it accomplishes, we can hardly pred-
icate what can be accomplished by
using another quantity. If we can-
not tell just how much should be
used, we can only approximate the
desired result, even if we knew and
were able to apply exactly the de-
sired or predetermined quantity.
While, by adding a known and defi-
nite quantity, by weight, of chem-
ical, to a known definite quantity of
water by voltmie, we can prepare a
chemical solution containing just so
many grains or pounds of chemical
per gallon of solution, and while we
can arrange devices to automatic-
ally apply this solution at a rate
which is sufficiently constant to be
considered a fixed rate, and thus in
a given period of time we can be
certain that we have added just so
many grains or pounds of chemicals
to the water during each minute of
Water Porltleadon
American Steel and Wire Company
Water Purification
23
this time period", this does not per-
mit us to know how many grains of
chemicals we have added to each
gallon of water passing into the
plant, unless we know that the
quantity or volume of water has not
varied at any period of this time
interval, and unless we are able to
know just how many gallons have
passed during each minute of the
period in question.
In but very few plants is it pos-
sible to obtain conditions which
warrant us in assuming that the
same quantity of water enters the
plant from minute to minute during
any considerable period of time,
and even if this can be known, the
number of plants where we can
know even approximately how much
is thus constantly flowing are still
fewer.
Hence, we have to do the best we
can to ascertain about how much
water is entering during the times
of maximum and minimum use and
try to adjust our flow of chemicals
to meet these flows as accurately as
conditions will permit.
Head Tank
One can usually ascertain with a
fair degree of certainty about what
volume of water is pumped during
twenty-four hours and can also de-
termine about how many grains per
gallon of chemicals it is desirable
to apply. In most instances, some
form of 4iead tank is employed to
apply the chemical solution, and
some size or even many differing
sizes of orifices may be utilized in
this head box to vary the rate of
flow through the box. In most of
these the head or level of solution
over the orifice is fixed and remains
constant. In a few, the head
varies. Even in the latter case it is
the usual practice to provide a num-
ber of different sized orifices and
thus in an equipment of this kind
we have two ways of changing the
rate of chemical feed. First, by
varying the head over the orifice,
or, second, by varying the size of
the orifice. If the head over the
orifice is fixed, it is usual to fix it at
one foot, and if this is the case, it is
relatively simple to calibrate the
different sized orifices and ascertain
just how many gallons of chemical
solution per minute each orifice will
discharge, and also to obtain a co-
efficient of discharge for each
orifice.
Chemical Orifices
The method generally employed
to do this is to first accurately de-
termine the size of the orifice to be
used and the area in square inches.
A standard orifice is one which is
made in a plane surface, with sharp
inner edges, as shown in the sketch
below.
B is a plane surface through
which the orifice. A, is made. The
water rests on B and flows past the
thin knife edges of the orifice,falling
free into air. The plane surface
around the periphery of A must
extend in a plane in all directions
for at least twice the diameter of
the orifice, A.
Under a one-foot head the veloc-
ity of flow of water through the
24
Ameriean Steel and Wire Company
orifice will be 8.02 feet per second.
Such an orifice, while passing a
velocity of 8.02 feet per second, will
not discharge a stream of the full
size of the orifice at this speed. If
it did, the factor for discharge
would be unity; whereas, the ac-
tual coefficient of discharge for such
an orifice is usually estimated at
.62. In an orifice which differs
from this the coefficient of dis-
charge will or may vary quite a
degree from .62, and hence the
coefficient must be obtained by
calibration.
The following table, devised by
Mr. Joseph Rowell, Erecting Filtra-
tion Engineer, Pittsburgh, Pa., gives
the discharges for standard circular
orifices under a one-foot head, with
coefficients of unity 1.00, and .62
for different sized orifices. The
discharges are in gallons per minute
and also gallons per day of twenty-
four hours.
Diameters of orifices advance
from zero to two inches by hun-
dredths and fractions of inches.
Discharge in gallons is given for one
minute and for day of twenty-four
hours. One column is calculated
for a coefficient of 0.62 and one col-
umn for unity. To calculate actual
discharge in gallons per minute or
per diem for any other coefficient
than 0.62, multiply the tabular
values in the unity column by the
desired coefficient.
This table was computed by the
. - (8.02 X 12 X 60) ,, .
formulae: ^^ ^ X A =
unity discharge in gallons per
minute.
(8.02X12X6 0X.62)
231
XA =
discharge in gallons per minute for
coefficient 0.62. Where (A) = area
of orifice in square inches, first
formula gives Factor A a value of
25, second formula gives Factor A
a value of 15.5.
The area in square inches mul-
tiplied by factor gives tabular value
for discharge in gallons per minute.
Some errors of 1 in the last sig-
nificant figure.
Standard Orifice
Water Parilicatioii
25
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Thronfth
Constant Head One Foot
Oriiices —
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEPPICIENT = 1.00
COEPPICIENT-0.62
T^ta.mA^orQ
AreA.
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
f •" IttI 11*^
«# v^^A m^
^mA w«b
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
.00
.000000
.000000
0.000
.0000000
0.00000
.01
.000079
.001975
2.844
.0012245
1.76328
1-64
.0156
.00019
.00475
6.84
.0029450
4.2408
.02
.00031
.00775
11.16
.004805
6.1912
.03
.00071
.01775
25.56
.011005
15.8472
1-32
.0312
.00077
.01925
27.72
.011935
17.1864
.04
.00126
.03150
45.36
.019530
28.1232
3-64
.0468
.00173
.04325
62.28
.026815
38.6136
.05
.00196
.04900
70.56
.030380
43.7472
.06
.00283
.07075
101.88
.043865
63.1656
1-16
.0625
.00307
.07675
110.52
.047585
68.5224
.07
.00385
.09625
138.60
.059675
85.9320
5^-64
.0781
.0048
.1200
172.80
.07440
107.1360
.08
.0050
.1250
180.00
.07750
111.6000
.09
.0063
.1575
226.80
.09765
140.6160
3-32
.0937
.0069
.1725
248.40
.10695
154.0080
.10
.0078
.1950
280.80
.12090
174.0960
7-64
.1093
.0094
.2350
338.40
.14570
209.8080
.11
.0095
.2375
342.00
.14725
212.0400
.12
.0113
.2825
406.80
.17515
252.2160
1-8
.1250
.0123
.3075
442.80
.19065
274.5360
.13
.0133
.3325
478.80
.20615
296.8560
.14
.0154
.3850
554.40
.23870
343.7280
9-64
.1406
.0155
.3875
558.00
.24025
345.9600
.15
.0177
.4425
637.20
.27435
395.0640
5-32
.1562
.0192
.4800
691.20
.29760
428.5440
.16
.0201
.5025
723.60
.31155
448.6320
.17
.0227
.5675
817.20
.35185
506.6640
11-64
.1718
.0232
.5800
835.20
.35960
517.8240
.18
.0254
.6350
914.40
.39370
566.9280
3-16
.1875
.0276
.6900
933.60
.42780
616.0320
.19
.0284
.7100
1022.40
.44020
633.8880
.20
.0314
.7850
1130.40
.48670
700.8480
13-64
.2031
.0324
.8100
1166.40
.50220
723.1680
.21
.0346
' .8650
1245.60
.53630
772.2720
7-32
.2187
.0376
.9400
1353.60
.58280
839.2320
.22
.0380
.9500
1368.00
.58900
848.1600
•
.23
.0415
1.0375
1494.00
.64325
926.2800
15-64
.2343
.0431
1.0775
1551.60
.66805
961.9920
.24
.0452
1.1300
1627.20
.70060
1008.8640
1-4
.2500
.0491
1.2275
1767.60
.76105
1095.9120
.26
.0531
1.3275
1911.60
.82305
1185.1920
17-64
.2656
.0554
1.3850
1994.40
.85870
1236.5280
.27
.0573
1.4325
2062.80
.88815
1278.9360
.28
.0616
1.5400
2217.60
.95480
1374.9120
9-32
.2812
.0621
1.5525
2235.60
.96255
1386.0720
.29
.0661
1.6525
2379.60
1.02455
1475.3520
1^-64
.2968
.0692
1.7300
2491.20
1.07260
1544.5440
26
American Steel and Wire Company
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Thronfth Circular Oriiices—
Constant Head One Foot — Continued
DIMENSIONS IN
r INCHES
COEFFICIENT = 1.00
COEFFICIENT =0.62
Diajp**^'**^
Area
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
.30
.0707
1.7675
2545.20
1.09585
1578.0240
.31
.0755
1.8875
2718.00
1.17025
1685.1600
6-16
.3125
.0767
1.9175
2761.20
1.18885
1711.9440
.32
.0804
2.0100
2894.40
1.24620
1794.5280
21-64
.3281
.0846
2.1150
3045.60
1.31130
1888.2720
.33
.0855
2.1375
3078.00
1.32525
1908.3600
.34
.0908
2.2700
3268.80
1.40740
2026.6560
ll-«2
.3437
.0928
2.3200
3340.80
1.43840
2071.2960
.35
.0962
2.4050
3463.20
1.49110
2147.1840
23-64
.3593
.1014
2.5350
3650.40
1.57170
2263.2480
.36
.1018
2.5450
3664.80
1.57790
2272.1760
.37
.1075
2.6875
3870.00
1.66625
2399.4000
3-8
.3750
.1104
2.7600
3974.40
1.71120
2464.1280
.38
.1134
2.8350
4082.40
1.75770
2531.0880
.39
.1195
2.9875
4302.00
1.85225
2667.2400
25-^4
.3906
.1198
2.9950
4312.80
1.85690
2673.9360
.40
.1257
3.1425
4525.20
1.94835
2805.6240
13-32
.4062
.1296
3.2400
4665.60
2.00880
2892.6720
.41
.1320
3.3000
4752.00
2.04600
2946.2400
.42
.1385
3.4625
4986.00
2.14675
3091.3200
27-64
.4218
.1398
3.4950
5032.80
2.16690
3120.3360
.43
.1452
3.6300
5227.20
2.25060
3240.8640
7-16
.4375
.1503
3.7575
5410.80
2.32965
3354.6960
.44
.1521
3.8025
5475.60
2.35755
3394.8720
.45
.1590
3.9750
5724.00
2.46450
3548.8800
29-64
.4531
.1613
4.0325
5806.80
2.50015
3600.2160
.46
.1662
4.1550
5983.20
2.57610
3709.5840
15-32
.4687
.1726
4.3150
6213.60
2.67530
3852.4320
.47
.1735
4.3375
6246.00
2.68925
3872.5200
.48
.1810
4.5250
6516.00
2.80550
4039.9200
31-64
.4843
.1843
4.6075
6634.80
2.85665
4113.5760
.49
.1886
4.7150
6789.60
2.92330
4209.5520
.-2
.5000
.1963
4.9075
7066.80
3.04265
4381.4160
.51
.2043
5.1075
7354.80
3.16665
4559.9760
33-64
.5156
.2088
5.2200
7516.80
3.23640
4660.4160
.52
.2124
5.3100
7646.40
3.29220
4740.7680
.53
.2206
5.5150
7941.60
3.41930
4923.7920
17-32
.5312
.2217
5.5425
7981.20
3.43635
4948r.3440
.54
.2290
5.7250
8244.00
3.54950
5111.2800
35-64
.5468
.2349
5.8725
8456.40
3.64095
5242.9680
.55
.2376
5.9400
8553.60
3.6^280
5303.2320
.56
.2463
6.1575
8866.60
3.81765
5497.4160
9-16
.5625
.2485
6.2125
8946.00
3.85175
5546.5200
.57
.2552
6.3800
9187.20
3.95560
5696.0640
37-64
.5781
.2625
6.5625
9450.00
4.06875
5859.0000
.58
.2642
6.6050
9511.20
4.09510
5896.9440
.59
.2734
6.8350
9842.40
4.23770
6102.2880
19-32
.5937
.2769
6.9225
9968.40
4.29195
6180.4080
Water Parilication
27
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Through Circular Oriiices
Constant Head One Foot — Continaed
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
COEPPICIENT=1.00
COEFPICIENT":0.C2
Diaippt*»rs
Area
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
A • A X*^*
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
1
.60
.2827
7 0675
10177.20
4.38185
6309.8640
39-64
.6093
.2916
7 2900
10497.60
4.51980
6508.5120
.61
.2922
7 3050
10519.20
4.52910
6521.9040
.62
.3019
7 5475
10868 . 40
4.67945
6738.4080
6-8
.6250
.3068
7.6700
11044.80
4 75540
6847.7760
.63
.3117
7.7925
11221 20
4 83135
6957 . 1440
64
.3217
8.0425
11581.20
4.98635
7180.3440
41-64
.6406
.3223
8.0575
11602.80
4.99565
7193.7360
.65
.3318
8.2950
11944 80
5 . 14290
7405.7760
21-^2
.6562
.3382
8.4550
12175.20
5.24210
7548.6240
.66
. 3421
8 5525
12315 60
5.30255
7635.6720
.67
.3626
8.8150
12693 60
5.46530
7870.0320
43-64
.6718
.3645
8.8625.
12762.00
5.49475
7912.4400
.6.8
.3632
9.0800
13075.20
5.62960
8106.6240
11-16
.6875
.3712
9.2800
13363.20
5.75360
8285 . 1840
.69
.3739
9.3475
13460.40
5.79545
8345.4480
.70
.3848
9.6200
13852.80
5.96440
8588.7360
45-^
.7031
.3883
9.7075
13978.80
6.01865
8666.8660
.71
.3959
9.8975
14252.40
6 . 13645
8836.4880
23-32
.7187
.4057
10 . 1425
14605.20
6.28835
9055.2240
.72
.4072
10 . 1800
14659.20
6.31160
9088.7040
.73
.4185
10.4625
15066.00
6.48675
9340.9200
47-64
.7343
.4236
10.5900
15249.60
6.56580
9454.7520
.74
.4301
10.7525
15483.60
6.66655
9599.8320
3-4
.7500
.4418
11.0450
15904.80
6.84790
9860.9760
.76
.4536
11.3400
16329.60
7.03080
10124.3520
49-64
.7656
.4596
11.4900
16545.60
7.12380
10258.2720
.77
.4657
11.6425
16765.20
7.21835
10394.4240
.78
.4778
11.9450
17200.80
7.40590
10664.4960
25-32
.7812
.4793
11.9825
17254.80
7.42915
10697.9760
.79
. .4902
12.2550
17647.20
7.59810
10941.2640
51-64
.7968
.4988
12.4700
17956.80
7.73140
11133.2160
.80
.5027
12.5675
18097.20
7.79185
11220.2640
.81
.5153
12.8825
18550.80
7.98715
11501.4960
13-16
.8125
.5185
12.9625
18666.00
8.03675
11572.9200
.82
.5281
13.2025
19011.60
8 . 18555
11787.1920
53-64
.8281
.5384
13.4600
19382.40
8.34520
12017.0880
.83
.5411
13.5275
19479.60
8.38705
12077.3520
.84
.5542
13.8550
19951.20
8.59010
12369.7440
27-32
.8437
.5591
13.9775
20127.60
8.66605
12479.1120
.85
.5675
14 . 1875
20430.00
8.79625
12666.6000
55-64
.8593
.5795
14.4875
20862.00
8.98225
12934.4400
.86
.5809
14.5225
20912.40
9.00395
12965.6880
.87
.5945
14.8625
21402.00
9.21475
13269.2400
7-8
.8750
.6013
15.0325
21646.80
9.32015
13421 .0160
.88
.6082
15.2050
21895.20
9.42710
13575.0240
.89
.6221
15.5525
22395.60
9.64255
13885.2720
57-64
.8906
.6229
15.5725
22424.40
9.65495
13903 . 1280
28
American Steel and Wire Company
Discharge in
U. S. Gallons Through Circular Oriiices
Constant Head One Foot— Continued
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEFFICIENT=1.00
COEFFICIENT=0.62
T^iomA4-^4»0
ArAo
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
aimt.^
XXiOCi
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
.90
.6362
15.9050
22903.20
9.86110
14199.9840
29-32
.9062
.6450
16.1250
23220.00
9.99750
14396.4000
.91
.6504
16.2600
23414.40
10.08120
14516.9280
.92
.6648
16.6200
23932.80
10.30440
14838.3360
59-64
.9218
.6676
16.6900
24033.60
10.34780
14900.8320
.93
.6793
16.9825
24454.80
10.52915
15161.9760
15-16
.9375
.6903
17.2575
24850.80
10.69965
15407.4960
.94
.6940
17.3500
24984.00
10.75700
15490.0800
.95
.7088
17.7200
25516.80
10.98640
15820.4160
61-64
.9531
.7133
17.8325
25678.80
11.05615
15920.8560
.96
.7238
18.0950
' 26056.80
11.21890
16155.2160
31-32
.9687
.7271
18.4275
26535.60
11.42505
16452.0720
.97
.7390
18.4750
26604.00
11.45450
16494.4800
.98
.7543
18.8575
27154.80
11.69165
16835.9760
63-64
.9843
.7605
19.0125
27378.00
11.78775
16974.3600
.99
.7698
19.2450
27712.80
11.93190
17181.9360
1
1.000
.7854
19.6350
28274.40
12.17370
17630.1280
1.01
.8012
20.0300
28843.20
12.41860
17882.7840
1-64
1.0156
.8101
20.2525
29163.60
12.55650
18081.4320
1.02
.8171
.8332
20.4275
29415.60
12.66500
18237.6720
1.03
20.8300
29995.20
12.91460
18597.0240
1-32
1.0312
.8352
20.8800
30067.20
12.94560
18641 .6640
1.04
.8495
21.2375
30582.00
13.16720
18960.8400
3-64
1.0468
.8606
21.5150
30981.60
13.33930
19208.5920
1.05
.8659
21.6475
31172.40
13.42140
19326.8880
1.06
.8825
22.0625
31770.00
13.67870
19697.4000
1-16
1.0625
.8866
22.1650
31917.60
13.74230
19788.9120
1.07
.8992
22.4800
32371.20
13.93760
20070.1440
5-64
1.0781
.9128
22.8200
32860.80
14.14840
20373.6960
1.08
.9161
22.9025
32979.60
14.19955
20447.3520
1.09
.9331
23.3275
33591.60
14.46405
20826.7920
3-32
1.0937
.9394
23.4850
33818.40
14.56070
20967.4080
1.10
.9503
23.7575
34210.80
14.72965
21210.6960
7-64
1.1093
.96&4
24.1600
34790.40
14.97920
21570.0480
1.11
.9677
24.1925
34837.20
14.99935
21599.0640
1.12
.9852
24.6300
35467.20
15.27060
21989.6640
1-8
1.1250
.9940
24.8500
35784.00
15.40700
22186.0800
1.13
1.0029
25.0725
36104.40
15.54495
22384.7280
1.14
1.0207
25.5175
36745.20
15.82085
22782.0240
9-64
1.1406
1.0217
25.5425
36781.20
15.83635
22804.3440
1.15
1.0387
25.9675
37393.20
16.09985
23183.7840
5-32
1.1562
1.0499
26.2475
37796.40
16.27345
23433.7680
1.16
1.0568
26.4200
38044.80
16.38040
23587.7760
1.17
1.0751
26.8775
38703.60
16.66405
23996.2320
1.1718
1.0784
26.9600
38822.40
16.71520
24069.8880
1.18
1.0936
27.3400
39369.60
16.95080
24409.1520
3-16
1.1875
1.1075
27.6875
39870.00
17.16625
24719.4000
1.19
1.1122
27.8050
40039.20
17.23910
24824.3040
Water Purification
29
Discharge in U. S« Gallons Through Circular Orifices —
Constant Head One Foot — Continued
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEFFICIENT -1.00
COEFFICIENT =0.62
niaTTi*»f.*»r<B
Arfta.
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
*XA^Ck
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
1.20
1.1310
28.2750
40716.00
17.5305
25243.9200
13-64
1.2031
1.1368
28.4200
40924.80
17.6204
25373.3760
1.21
1.1499
28.7475
41396.40
17.82345
25665.9780
7-32
1.2187
1.1651
29.1275
41943.60
18.05905
26005.0320
1.22
1.1690
29.2250
42084.00
18.1195
26092.080
1.23
1.1882
29.7050
42775.20
18.4171
26520.624
15-64
1.2343
1.1967
29.9175
43081.20
18.54885
26710.344
1.24
1.2076
30.1900
43473.60
18.7178
26953.632
1-4
1.2500
1.2272
30.6800
i4179.20
19.0216
27391.104
1.26
1.2469
31.1725
44888.40
19.3269
27830.808
17-64
1.2656
1.2580
31.450
45288.00
19.4990
28078.560
1.27
1.2668
31.670
45604.80
19.6354
28274.976
1.28
1.287
32.175
46332.00
19.9485
28725.840
9-32
1.2812
1.289
32.225
46404.00
19.9795
28770.048
1.29
1.307
32.675
47052.00
20.2585
29172.240
19-64
1.2968
1.321
33.025
47556.00
20.4755
29484.72
1.30
1.327
33.175
47772.00
20.5685
29618.64
1.31
1.348
33.700
48528.00
20.8940
30087.36
5-16
1.3125
1.353
33.825
48708.00
20.9715
30198.96
1.32
1.368
34.200
49248.00
21.2040
30533.76
21-64
1.3281
1.384
34.600
49824.00
21.4520
30890.88
1.33
1.389
34.725
50004.00
21.5295
31002.48
1.34
1.410
35.250
50760.00
21.8550
31471.20
11-32
1.3475
1.426
35.650
51336.00
22.1030
31828.32
1.35
1.431
35.775
51516.00
22.1805
31939.92
23-64
1.3593
1.451
36.275
52236.00
22.4905
32386.32
1.36
1.453
36.325
52308.00
22.5215
32430.96
1.37
1.474
36.850
53064.00
22.8470
32899.68
3-8
1.375
1.485
37.125
53460.00
23.0175
33145.20
1.38
1.496
37.400
53856.00
23.1880
33390.72
1.39
1.517
37.925
54612.00
23.5135
33859.44
25-64
1.3906
1.519
37.975
54684.00
23.5445
33904.08
1.40
1.539
38.475
55404.00
23.8545
34350.48
13-32
1.4062
1.554
38.850
55944.00
24.0870
34685.28
1.41
1.561
39.025
56196.00
24.1955
34841.52
1.42
1.584
39.600
57024.00
24.5520
35354.88
27-64
1.4218
1.587
39.675
57132.00
24.5985
35421.84
1.43
1.606
40.150
57816.00
24.8930
35845.92
7-16
1.4375
1.623
40.575
58428.00
25.1565
36225.36
1.44
1.629
40.725
58644.00
25.2495
36359.28
1.45
1.651
41.275
59436.00
25.5905
36850.32
29-64
1.4531
1.658
41.450
59688.00
25.6990
37006.56
1.46
1.674
41.850
60264.00
25.9470
37363.68
16-32
1.4687
1.694
42.350
60984.00
26.2570
37810.08
1.47
1.697
42.425
61092.00
26.3035
37877.04
0km
1.48
1.720
43.000
61920.00
26.6600
38390.40
31-64
1.4843
1.730
43.250
62280.00
26.8150
38613.60
1.49
1.744
43.600
62784.00
27.0320
38926.08
30
American Steel and Wire Company
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Through Circular Orifices
Constant Head One Foot — Continned
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEFFICIENT = 1.00
COEFFICIENT =0.62
D lA^TT) #>f -pr .C
Area
Gallons
Gallons
1 Gallons
Gallons
JL^ACbiAA/
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
1-2
1.5000
1.767
44.175
63612.00
27.3885
39439.44
1.51
1.791
44.775
64476.00
27.7605
39975.12
33-64
1.5156
1.804
45.100
64944.00
27.9620
40265.28
1.52
1.815
45.375
65340.00
28.1325
40510.80
1.53
1.839
45.975
66204.00
28.5045
41046.48
17-32
1.5312
1.841
46.025
66276.00
28.5355
41091.12
1.54
1.863
46.575
67068.00
28.8765
41582.16
35-64
1.5468
1.879
46.975
67644.00
29.1245
41939.28
1.55
1.887
47.175
67932.00
29.2485
42117.84
1.56
1.911
47.775
68796.00
29.6205
42653.52
9-16
1.5625
1.917
47.925
69012.00
29.7135
42787.44
1.57
1.936
48.400
69696.00
30.0080
43211.52
37-64
1.5781
1.957
48.925
70452.00
30.3335
43680.24
1.58
1.961
49.025
70596.00
30.3955
43769.52
1.59
1.986
49.650
71496.00
30.7830
44327.52
19-32
1.5937
1.995
49.875
71820.00
30.9225
44528.40
1.60
2.011
50.275
72396.00
31.1705
44885.52
39-64
1.6093
2.034
50.850
73224.00
31.5270
45398.88
1.61
2.036
50.900
73296.00
31.5580
45^3.52
1.62
2.061
51.525
74196.00
31.9455
46001.52
5-8
1.6250
2.074
51.950
74808.00
32.2090
46380.96
1.63
2.087
52.175
75132.00
32.3485
46581.84
1.64
2.112
52.800
76032.00
32.7360
47139.84
41-64
1.6406
2.114
52.850
76104.00
32.7670
47184.48
1.65
2.138
53.450
76968.00
33.1390
47720.16
21-32
1.6562
2.154
53.850
77544.00
33.3870
48077.28
1.66
2.164
54.100
77904.00
33.5420
48300.48
1.67
2.190
54.750
78840.00
33.9450
48880.80
43-64
1.6718
2.195
54.875
79020.00
34.0225
48992.40
1.68
2.217
55.425
79812.00
34.3635
49483.44
11-16
1.6875
2.236
55.900
80496.00
34.6580
49907.52
1.69
2.243
56.075
80748.00
34.7665
50063.76
1.70
2.270
56.750
81720.00
35.1850
50666.40
45-64
1.7031
2.278
56.950
82008.00
35.3090
50844.96
1.71
2.297
57.425
82692.00
35.6035
51269.04
23-32
1.7187
2.320
58.000
83520.00
35.9600
51782.40
1.72
2.324
58.100
83664.00
36.0220
51871.68
1.73
2.351
58.775
84636.00
36.4405
52474.32
47-64
1.7343
2.362
59.050
85032.00
36.6110
52719.84
1.74
2.378
59.450
85608.00
36.8590
53076.96
a-4
1.75
2.405
60.125
86580.00
37.2775
53679.60
1.76
2.433
60.825
87588.00
37.7115
54304.56
49-64
1.7656
2.448
61.180
88099.00
37.9316
54621.50
1.77
2.461
61.525
88596.00
38.1455
54929.52
1.78
2.488
62.200
89568.00
38.5640
55532.16
25-32
1.7812
2.492
62.300
89712.00
38.6260
55621.44
1.79
2.516
62.900
90576.00
38.9980
56157.12
51-64
1 .7968
2.536
63.400
91296.00
39.3080
56603.52
Water Pnrifioatioii
81
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Through Circular Orifices-
Constant Head One Foot — Concluded
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEFFICIENT -1.00
COEFFICIENT =0.62
Diair*»t«»r<o
Arpa
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
1.80
2.545
63.625
91620.00
39.4475
56804.40
1.81
2.573
64.325
92628.00
39.8815
57429.36
13-16
1.8125
2.580
64.500
92880.00
39.9900
57585.60
1.82
2.602
65.050
93672.00
40.3310
58076.64
53-64
1.8281
2.625
65.625
94500.00
40.6875
58590.00
1.83
2.630
65.750
94680.00
40.7650
58701.60
1.84
2.659
66.475
95724.00
41.2145
59348.88
27-32
1.8437
2.670
66.750
96120.00
41.3850
59594.40
1.85
2.688
67.200
96768.00
41.6640
59996.16
5.5-64
1.8593
2.716
67,900
97776.00
42.0980
60621.12
1.86
2.717
67.925
97812.00
42.1135
60643.44
1.87
2.746
68.650
98856.00
42.5630
61290.72
7-8
1.8750
2.761
69.025
99396.00
42.7955
61625.52
1.88
2.776
69.400
99936.00
43.0280
61960.32
1.89
2.806
70.150
101016.00
43.4930
62629.92
57-64
1.8906
2.807
70.175
101052.00
43.5085
62652.24
1.90
2.835
70.875
102060.00
43.9425
63277.20
2^32
1.9062
2.854
71.350
102744.00
44.2370
63701.28
1.91
2.865
71.625
103140.00
44.4075
63946.80
1.92
2.895
72.375
104220.00
44.8725
64616.40
59-64
1.9218
2.901
72.525
104436.00
44.9655
64750.32
1.93
2.926
73.150
105336.00
45.3530
65308.32
15-16
1.9375
2.948
73.700
106128.00
45.6940
65799.36
1.94
2.956
73.900
106416.00
45.8180
65977.92
1.95
2.986
74.650
107496.00
46.2830
66647.52
61-64
1.9531
2.996
74.900
107856.00
46.4380
66870.72
1.96
3.017
75.425
108612.00
46.7635
67339.44
31-32
1.9687
3.043
76.075
109548.00
47.1665
67919.76
1.97
3.048
76.200
109728.00
47.2440
68031.36
1.98
3.079
76.975
110844.00
47.7245
68723.28
63-64
1.9843
3.092
77.300
111312.00
47.9260
69013.44
1.99
3.110
77.750
111960.00
48.2050
69415.20
2
2.0000
3.142
78.550
113112.00
48.7010
70129.44
Mr. Wm. G. Clark, Consulting
Engineer, Toledo, 0., has devised
a formtila for determining the ve-
locity of flow in feet per second
through pipes when the diameter
of the pipe in inches and the volume
of discharge in million gallons per
diem are known. By transposing
this formula we have arranged two
other formulas to determine the
diameter of the pipe in inches when
the discharge in million gallons per
diem and the velocity of flow in
feet per second are known, and to
find the discharge in million gallons
per diem when the diameter of the
pipe in inches and the velocity in
feet per second are known. By
altering the factor ifl the formulas
thus found, we have been able to
use them for determining the size
of orifice required to discharge a
32
Ameiioan Steel and Wire Company
given volume of water in twenty-
four hours, to find the volume of
water discharged in twenty-four
hours, or to determine the velocity
of discharge in feet per second if
the other two factors are known.
Mr. Clark's formula is as follows :
Let F = 283.678.
M = Million gallons dis-
charged per 24 hours.
D = Diameter of pipe in
inches.
V = Velocity of flow in
feet per second.
FxM
ThenV =
D^
Example: A pipe, 16" in diame-
ter, discharges 4,000,000 gallons of
water per diem, what is the ve-
locity of flow in feet per second ?
Solution : In this case the diam-
eter of the pipe is 16" and D'=
256. M=4, and inserting, the
283.678X4
formula becomes V=
256.
Reducing, we have V=4.43 feet
per second.
The factor F=283.678 is derived
in the following manner:
With a 10" pipe and a
F=
M.
velocity of 10 feet per second flow
through it, the number of gallons
discharged in 24 hours is seen to be
3,525,120 and therefore
F =
VD^
F =
3.525120
1000
=F =
lOx(lOxlO)
3.52512
= F = 283.678.
3.52512
From the .preceding we have
arranged the second formula as
follows:
D^'x V
M-
Example: The velocity of flow
through a pipe line, 16" in diam-
eter, is 4 feet per second, how
many million gallons will be dis-
charged in twenty-four hours?
Solution: D^«256. V=4. In-
serting, the formula reads M=
2g3 ^yg Reduced, we have M=
3.609 million gallons per diem or
3,609,000 gallons per diem.
The third formula, derived from
the original, is as follows:
D-V
F XM
V.
Example: What is the size of
pipe required to carry four million
gallons per twenty-four hotirs with
a velocity of two feet per second ?
Solution : Substituting, the f orm-
, . ^ ;283.678X4
ula reads D = -y —
2.
Re.
F.
ducing, it becomes D = "/567.35 or
reduced still further, D =23.82.
The nearest size of standard pipe
is 24", and therefore we wotild use
a 24" pipe.
In adapting these formulas to
determine either the diameter of
an orifice to discharge a given
flow, to find the velocity of flow
through an orifice, or to ascertain
the volume of discharge through
an orifice, it is necessary to intro-
duce another factor, and for this
purpose we have the following:
LetF=283.678.
M = Million gallons dis-
charged in 24 hours.
D= Diameter of orifice in
inches.
V = Velocity of flow in feet
per second.
Wal«r PnrUicatioii
c™Coefficient of dis-
charge.
The three forms of the fonnula
then become:
(F X c) X M
D".
D'xy
'(FXc).
M-
p_^(Fx^
Where a standard orifice, with
a coefficient of 0.62 is employed,
Fxc becomes 283.678x0.62-175.98
and therefore the value of 175,98
may be substituted for (Fxc) if
desired. In the use of the formulas
for orifices it is necessary to re-
member that M-« Million gallons
daily, and for small orifices, such
as are generally dealt with by the
operator, this is more than will be
discharged. Therefore, for small
orifices the volume of water to be
found must be reduced to a fraction
of M. Thus, if the volume re-
qiaired is only 3,456 gallons per
day, this must be reduced to a
fraction of a million gallons, and
therefore M =0.003456.
The following table, prepared by
Mr. C. Arthur Brown, gives heads,
pressures, velocities, and discharges
through an orifice having an area of
one square inch under coefficient of
1.00 or unity.
FtirAo. N. D.
Chemical Controllers
Earl Type
34
American Steel and Wire Company
Table No. 2
Table of Water Heads* Oqui-valent Pretstsnrets, Theoretical Velocities,
Theoretical Discharges through 1 Square Inch Orifice
Head
in
Feet
Equivalent
0w\m «
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Pressure
Pounds per
Sq. Inch
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Second
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Minute
Discharge
Gals, per
Second
Discharge
Gals, per
Minute
Discharge
Gals, per
Diem
.005
.00216
.57
34.20
.029
1.77
2.558
.010
.00433
.80
48.00
.041
2.49
3,590
.015
.00650
.98
58.80
.050
3.05
4,398
.020
.00867
1.13
67.80
.058
3.52
5,071
.025
.01083
1.27
76.20
.065
3.95
5,700
.030
.01300
1.39
83.40
.072
4.33
6,238
.035
.01517
1.50
90.00 i
.077
4.67
6,732
.040
.01734
1.60
96.00
.083
4.98
7,181
.045
.01950
1.70
102.00
.088
5.29
7,629
.050
.02167
1.79
107.40
.092
5.57
8,034
.055
.02384
1.88
112.80
.097
5.85
8,437
.060
.02601
1.97
118.20
.102
6.14
8,841
.065
.02817
2.04
122.40
.105
6.35
9,156
.070
.03034
2.12
127.20
.110
6.60
9,515
.075
.03251
2.20
132.00
.114
6.85
9,874
.080
.03468
2.27
136.20
.118
7.07
10,188
.0833
.03612
2.32
139.20
.120
7.23
10,412
.085
.03685
2.34
140.40
.121
7.29
10,502
.090
.03901
2.41
144.60
.125
7.51
10,816
.095
.04118
2.47
148.20
.128
7.69
11,086
.100
.04335
2.54
152.40
.132
7.91
11,400
.105
.04552
2.60
156.00
.135
8.10
11,669
.110
.04768
2.66
159.60
.138
8.29
11,938
.115
.04985
2.72
163.20
.141
8.47
12,208
.120
.05202
2.78
166.80
.144
8.66
12,477
.125
.05419
2.84
170.40
.147
8.85
12,746
.130
.05635
2.89
173.40
.150
9.00
12,970
.135
.05852
2.95
177.00
.153
9.19
13,240
.140
.06069
3.00
180.00
.155
9.35
13,464
.145
.06286
3.05
183.00
.158
9.50
13,689
.150
.06502
3.11
186.60
.161
9.69
13,958
.155
.06719
3.16
189.60
.164
9.84
14,182
.160
.06936
3.21
192.60
.166
10.00
14,407
.165
.07153
3.26
195.60
.169
10.16
14,631
.166
.07196
3.27
196.20
.170
10.19
14,676
.170
.07370
3.31
198.60
.171
10.31
14,856
.175
.07586
3.36
201.60
.174
10.47
15,080
.180
.07803
3.40
204.00
.176
10.59
15,260
.185
.08020
3.45
207.00
.179
10.75
15,485
.190
.08237
3.50
210.00
.181
10.90
15,708
.195
.08453
3.55
213.00
.184
11.06
15,933
.200
.08670
3.59
215.40
.186
11.18
16,112
.210
.09104
3.68
220.80
.191
11.47
16,516
.220
.09537
3.76
225.60
.195
11.71
16,875
.230
.09971
3.85
231.00
.199
11.99
17,279
.250
.10404
3.93
235.80
.204
12.24
17,638
.240
.10838
4.01
240.60
.208
12.49
17,997
.260
.11271
4.09
245.40
.212
12.74
18,357
.270
.11705
4.17
250.20
.216
12.99
18,716
.280
.12138
4.25
255.00
.220
13.24
19,075
.290
.12572
4.32
259.20
.224
13.46
19,389
.300
.13005
4.39
263.40
.228
13.68
19,703
Water Parificatioii
35
Table No. 3 — Continned
Table of Water Heads. Bqui-valent Presaares* Theoretical Velocitiea,
Theoretical Diachar^t^s throngh 1 Square Inch Orifice
Head
in
Feet
.310
.320
.330
.340
.350
.360
.370
.380
.390
.400
.410
.420
.430
.440
.450
.460
.470
.480
.490
.500
.510
.520
.530
.540
.550
.560
.570
.580
.590
.600
.610
.620
.630
.640
.650
.660
.670
.680
.690
.700
.710
.720
.730
.740
.750
.760
.770
.780
.790
.800
.810
.820
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds
Sq. Inc!
r
.13439
.13872
.14306
.14740
.15173
.15607
.16040
.16474
.16907
.17341
.17774
.18208
.18641
.19075
.19508
.19942
.20375
.20809
.21242
.21676
.22110
.22543
.22977
.23410
.23844
.24277
.24711
.25144
.25578
.26011
.26445
.26878
.27312
.27745
.28179
.28612
.29046
.29480
.29913
.30347
.30780
.31214
.31647
.32081
.32514
.32948
.33381
.33815
.34248
.34682
.35115
.35549
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Second
4.47
4.54
4.61
4.68
4.75
4.81
4.87
4.94
6.01
5.07
5.14
5.20
5.26
5.32
5.38
5.44
5.50
5.56
5.62
5.67
5.73
5.79
5.85
5.90
5.95
6.00
6.06
6.11
6.17
6.22
6.28
6.32
6.37
6.42
6.47
6.52
6.57
6.61
6.66
6.71
6.76
6.81
6.86
6.91
6.95
6.99
7.04
7.09
7.13
7.18
7.22
7.26
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Minute
268.20
273.40
276.60
280.80
285.00
288.60
292.20
296.40
300.60
304.20
308.40
312.00
315.60
319.20
322.80
326.40
330.00
333.60
337.20
340.20
343.80
347.40
351.00
354.00
357.00
360.00
363.60
366.60
370.20
373.20
376.80
379.20
382.20
385.20
388.20
391.20
394.20
396.60
399.60
402.60
405.60
408.60
411.60
414.60
417.00
419.40
422.40
425.40
427.80
430.80
433.20
435.60
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Second
.232
.236
.239
.243
.246
.249
.252
.256
.260
.263
.267
.270
.273
.276
.279
.282
.285
.288
.291
.294
.297
.300
.303
.306
.309
.311
.314
.317
.320
.323
.326
.328
.330
.333
.336
.338
.341
.343
.345
.348
.351
.353
.356
.358
.361
.363
.365
.368
.370
.372
.375
.377
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals. i)er
Minute
13.93
14.20
14.36
14.58
14.80
14.92
15.17
15.38
15.61
15.80
16.02
16.20
16.39
16.58
16.76
16.95
17.14
17.32
17.51
17.67
17.85
18.04
18.23
18.38
18.54
18.70
18.88
19.04
19.23
19.38
19.57
19.69
19.85
20.01
20.16
20.32
20.47
20.60
20.75
20.91
21.07
21.22
21.38
21.53
21.66
21.78
21.94
22.09
22.22
22.37
22.50
22.62
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Diem
20,062
20,451
20,691
21,005
21,319
21,588
21,858
22,157
22,486
22,755
23,069
23,339
23,608
23,877
24,147
24,416
24,685
24,954
25,224
25,437
25,718
25,987
26,256
26,481
26,705
26,929
27,199
27,423
27,692
27,917
28,186
28,366
28,590
28,814
29,039
29,263
29,488
29,667
29,892
30,116
30,340
30,565
30,799
31,014
31,193
31,373
31,597
31,822
32,001
32,226
32,405
32,585
36
American Steel and Wire Company
Table No« 12— Continued
Table of Water Heads, Eqai-valent Preatsure8» Theoretical Velocities*
Theoretical Discharges through 1 Square Inch Orifice
▼ ▼ 4
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Head
in
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Discharge
Gals, per
Discharge
Gals, per
Discharge
Gals, per
Feet
Sq. Inch
per Second
per Muiute
Second
Minute
Diem
.830
.35982
7.31
438.60
.379
22.78
32,809
.840
.36416
7.35
441.00
.381
22.90
32,989
.860
.36850
7.40
444.00
.384
23.06
33,213
.860
.37283
7.44
446.40
.386
23.18
33,393
.870
.37717
7.48
448.80
.388
23.31
33,572
.880
.38150
7.53
451.80
.391
23.47
33,796
.890
.38584
7.57
454.20
.393
23.59
33,976
.900
.39017
7.61
456.60
.395
23.71
34,156
.910
.39451
7.65
459.00
.397
23.84
34,335
.920
.39884
7.70
462.00
.399
23.99
34,559
.930
.40318
7.74
464.40
.402
24.12
34,739
.940
.40751
7.78
466.80
.404
24.24
34,919
.950
.41185
7.82
469.20
.406
24.37
35,098
.960
.41618
7.86
471.60
.408
24.49
35,278
.970
.42052
7.90
474.00
.410
24.62
35,457
.980
.42485
7.94
476.40
.412
24.74
35,637
.990
.42919
7.98
478.80
.414
24.87
35,816
1.00
.43353
8.02
481.20
.417
25.02
36,041
1.02
.44220
8.10
486.00
.420
25.24
36,357
1.04
.45087
8.18
490.80
.424
25.49
36,714
1.06
.45954
8.26
495.60
.429
25.74
37,073
1.08
.46821
8.34
500.40
.433
25.99
37,431
1.10
.47688
8.41
504.60
.436
26.21
37,746
1.12
.48555
8.49
509.40
.441
26.46
38,105
1.14
.49422
8.57
514.20
.445
26.71
38,465
1.16
.50289
8.64
518.40
.448
26.93
38,779
1.18
.51156
8.72
523.20
.452
27.17
39,138
1.20
.52023
8.79
527.40
.456
27.39
39,452
1.22
.52890
8.87
532.20
.460
27.64
39,811
1.24
.53757
8.94
536.40
.464
27.86
40,125
1.26
.54624
9.01
540.60
.468
28.08
40,439
1.28
.55491
9.08
544.80
.471
28.30
40,753
1.30
.56358
9.15
549.00
.475
28.51
41,068
1.32
.57225
9.21
552.60
.478
28.70
41,337
1.34
.58092
9.29
557.40
.483
28.95
41,696
1.36
.58959
9.36
561.60
.486
29.17
42,010
1.38
.59826
9.43
565.80
.489
29.39
42,324
1.40
.60693
9.49
569.40
.492
29.57
42,594
1.42
.61560
9.57
574.20
.497
29.82
42,953
1.44
.62427
9.63
577.80
.500
30.01
43,222
1.46
.63294
9.70
582.00
.503
30.23
43,536
1.48
.64161
9.77
586.20
.507
30.45
43,850
1.50
.65028
9.83
589.80
.510
30.63
44,120
1.52
.65895
9.90
594.00
.514
30.85
44,434
1.54
.66762
9.96
597.60
.517
31.04
44,703
1.56
.67629
10.00
600.00
.519
31.16
44,883
1.58
.68496
10.10
606.00
.524
31.48
45,331
1.60
.69363
10.20
612.00
.529
31.79
45,780
1.65
.71530
10.30
618.00
.535
32.10
46,229
1.70
.73698
10.50
630.00
.545
32.72
47,127
1.75
.75865
10.60
636.00
.550
33.03
47,576
1.80
.78033
10.80
648.00
.561
33.66
48,473
Water Purilicatioii
37
Table No« 2 — Continned
Table of Water Heads, Eqtdvalent Prea8area» Theoretical Velocities*
Theoretical Dischar^t^s through 1 Square Inch Orifice.
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Head
in
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Discharge
Gals, per
Discharge
Gals, per
Dischai^e
Gals, per
Feet
Sq. Inch
per Second
per Minute
Second
Minute
Diem
1.85
.80201
10.90
654.00
.566
33.97
48,922
1.90
.82368
11.10
666.00
.576
34.59
49,820
1.95
.84536
11.20
672.00
.681
34.90
50,269
2.00
.86706
11.40
684.00
.592
35.53
51,166
2.10
.91041
11.70
702.00
.607
36.46
52,513
2.20
.95376
11.90
714.00
.618
37.09
53,410
2.30
.99711
12.20
732.00
.633
38.02
54,767
2.40
1.04047
12.40
744.00
.644
38.64
56,665
2.50
1.08382
12.60
756.00
.654
39.27
56,652
2.60
1.12717
12.90
774.00
.670
40.20
67,899
2.70
1.17053
13.20
792.00
.685
41.14
59,246
2.80
1.21388
13.40
804.00
.696
41.76
60,143
2.90
1.25723
13.70
822.00
.711
42.70
61,489
3.00
1.30059
13.90
834.00
' .722
43.32
62,387
3.10
1.34394
14.10
846.00
.732
43.94
63,286
3.20
1.38729
14.30
858.00
.742
44.57
64,182
3.30
1.43064
14.50
870.00
.753
45.19
66,080
3.40
1.47400
14.80
888.00
.768
46.12
66,426
3.50
1.51735
15.00 ,
900.00
.779
46.75
67,324
3.60
1.56070
. i&.2d
912.00
.789
47.37
68,222
3.70
1.60406
15.40
924.00
.799
47.99
69,119
3.80
1.64741
15.60
936.00
.810
48.62
70,017
3.90
1.69076
15.80
948.00
.820
49.24
70,916
4.00
1.73412
16.00
960.00
.831
49.87
71,812
4.20
1.82082
16.40
984.00
.851
51.11
73,608
4.40
1.90753
16.80
1,008.00
.872
52.36
75,403
4.60
1.99423
17.20
1,032.00
.893
53.61
77,198
4.80
2.08094
17.60
1,056.00
.914
54.85
78,994
5.00
2.16765
17.90
1,074.00
.929
55.79
80,340
5.20
2.25435
18.30
1,098.00
.950
57.03
82,136
5.40
2.34106
18.70
1,122.00
.971
58.28
83,931
5.60
2.42776
19.00
1,140.00
.987
59.22
85,277
5.80
2.51447
19.30
1,158.00
1.022
60.15
86,624
6.00
2.60118
19.70
1,182.00
1.023
61.40
88,419
6.20
2.68788
20.00
1,200.00
1.038
62.33
89,766
6.40
2.77459
20.30
1,218.00
1.054
63.27
91,112
6.60
2.86129
20.60
1,236.00
1.070
64.20
92,469
6.80
2.94800
20.90
1,254.00
1.085
65.14
93,806
7.00
3.03471
21.20
1,272.00
1.101
66.07
95,152
7.20
3.12141
21.50
1,290.00
1.116
67.01
96,498
7.40
3.20812
21.80
1,308.00
1.132
67.94
97,845
7.60
3.29482
22.10
1,326.00
1.148
68.88
99,191
7.80
3.38153
22.40
1,344.00
1.163
69.81
100,538
8.00
3.46824
22.70
1,362.00
1.179
70.75
101,884
8.20
3.55494
23.00
1,380.00
1.194
71.68
103,231
8.40
3.64165
23.30
1,398.00
1.210
72.62
104,677
8.60
3.72835
23.50
1,410.00
1.220
73.24
105,475
8.80
3.81506
23.80
1,428.00
1.236
74.18
106,821
9.00
3.90177
24.10
1,446.00
1.251
75.11
108,168
9.20
3.98847
24.30
1,458.00
1.262
75.74
109,066
9.40
4.07518
24.60
1,476.00
1.277
76.67
110,412
9.60
4.16188
24.80
1,488.00
1.288
77.29
111,310
38
American Steel and Wire Company
Table No. 2 — Continaed
Table of Water Heads, Equivalent Pressures* Theoretical Velocities*
Theoretical Dischar|t®8 through 1 Square Inch Orifice
Head
in
Feet
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Sq. Inch
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Second
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Minute
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Second
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Minute
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Diem
9.80
4.24859
25.10
1,506.00
1.303
78.23
112,656
10.00
4.33530
25.40
1,524.00
1.319
79.16
114,003
10.50
4.55206
26.00
1,560.00
1.350
81.03
116,695
11.00
4.76883
26.60
1,596.00
1.381
82.90
119,388
11.50
4.98559
27.20
1,632.00
1.412
84.77
122,081
12.00
5.20236
27.80
1,668.00
1.444
86.64
124,774
12.50
5.41912
28.40
1,704.00
1.475
88.51
127,467
13.00
5.63589
28.90
1,734.00
1.501
90.07
129,712
13.50
5.85265
29.50
1,770.00
1.532
91.94
132,405
14.00
6.06942 •
30.00
1,800.00
1.558
93.50
134,649
14.50
6.28618
30.50
1,830.00
1.584
95.06
136,893
15.00
6.50295
31.10
1,866.00
1.615
96.93
139,586
15.50
6.71971
31.60
1,896.00
1.641
98.49
141,830
16.00
6.9364
32.10
1,926.00
1.667
100.05
144,074
16.50
7.1532
32.60
1,956.00
1.693
101.61
146,318
17.00
7.3700
33.10
1,986.00
1.719
103.16
148,562
17.50
7.5867
33.60
2,016.00
1.745
104.72
150,807
18.00
7.8035
34.00
2,040.00
1.766
105.97
152,602
18.50
8.0203
34.50
2,070.00
1.792
107.53
154,846
19.00
8.2370
35.00
2,100.00
1.818
109.09
157,090
19.50
8.4538
35.40
2,124.00
1.838
110.33
158,886
20.00
8.6706
35.90
2,154.00
1.864
111.89
161,130
20.50
8.8873
36.30
2,178.00
1.885
113.14
162,925
21.00
9.1041
36.80
2,208.00
1.911
114.70
165, 169
21.50
9.3208
37.20
2,232.00
1.932
115.94
166,965
22.00
9.5376
37.60
2,256.00
1.953
117.19
168,760
22.50
9.7544
38.10
2,286.00
1.979
118.75
171,004
23.00
9.9711
38.50
2,310.00
1.999
119.99
172,799
23.50
10.1879
38.90
2,334.00
2.020
121.24
174,595
24.00
10.4047
39.30
2,358.00
2.041
122.49
176,390
24.50
10.6214
39.70
2,382.00
2.062
123.74
178,185
25.00
10.8382
40.10
2,406.00
2.083
124.98
179,981
26.00
11.2717
40.90
2,454.00
2.124
127.48
183,571
27.00
11.7053
41.70
2,502.00
2.166
129.97
187,162
28.00
12.1388
42.50
2,550.00
2.207
132.46
190,753
29.00
12.5723
43.20
2,592.00
2.244
134.64
193.894
30.00
13.0059
43.90
2,634.00
2.280
136.83
197,036
31.00
13.4394
44.70
2,682.00
2.322
139.32
200,627
32.00
13.8729
45.40
2,724.00
2.358
141.50
203,769
33.00
14.3064
46.10
2,766.00
2.394
143.68
206,910
34.00
14.7400
46.70
2,802.00
2.425
145.55
209,603
35.00
15.1735
47.40
2,844.00
2.462
147.74
212,745
36.00
15.6070
48.10
2,886.00
2.498
149.92
215,887
37.00
16.0406
48.80
2,928.00
2.535
152.10
219,029
38.00
16.4741
49.50
2,970.00
2.571
154.28
222,171
39.00
16.9076
50.10
3,006.00
2.602
156.15
224,864
40.00
17.3412
50.70
3,042.00
2.633
158.02
227,557
41.00
17.7747
51.30
3,078.00
2.664
159.89
230,250
42.00
18.2082
52.00
3,120.00
2.701
162.07
233,391
43.00
18.6417
52.60
3,156.00
2.732
163.94
236,084
44.00
19.0753
53.20
3,192.00
2.763
165.81
238,777
45.00
19.5088
53.80
3,228.00
2.794
167.68
241,470
Water Pnrifieation
39
Table No. 2 — Continued
Table of Water Heads* Equivalent Preaaurea* Theoretical Velocities*
Theoretical Diachar^ea throngh 1 Sqnare Inch Orifice.
Head
in
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Pect
Sq. Inch
per Second
per Mmute
Second
Minute
Diem
46.00
19.9423
54.40
3,264.00
2.825
169.55
244,163
47.00
20.3759
55.00
3,300.00
2.857
171.42
246,856
48.00
20.8094
55.60
3,336.00
2.889
173.29
249,549
49.00
21.2429
56.20
3.372.00
2.919
175.16
252,242
50.00
21.6765
56.70
3,402.00
2.945
176.72
254,487
51.00
22.1100
57.30
3,438.00
2.976
178.59
257,180
52.00
22.5435
57.80
3,468.00
3.002
180.15
259,424
53.00
22.9770
58.40
3,504.00
3.033
182.02
262.117
54.00
23.4106
59.00
3,540.00
3.064
183.89
264,810
55.00
23.8441
59.50
3,570.00
3.090
185.45
267,054
56.00
24.2776
60.00
3,600.00
3.116
187.01
269,298
57.00
24.7112
60.60
3,636.00
3.148
188.88
271,991
58.00
25.1447
61.10
3,666.00
3.174
190.44
274,235
59.00
25.5782
61.60
3,696.00
3.199
191.99
276,479
60.00
26.0118
62.10
3,726.00
3.225
193.55
278,723
61.00
26.4453
62.70
3,762.00
3.257
195.42
281,416
62.00
26.8788
63.20
3,792.00
3.283
196.98
283,661
63.00
27.3123
63.70
3,822.00
3.309
198.54
285,905
64.00
27.7459
64.20
3,852.00
3.335
200.10
288,149
65.00
28.1794
64.70
3,882.00
3.361
201.66
290,393
66.00
28.6129
65.20
3,912.00
3.387
203.22
292,637
67.00
29.0465
65.70
3,942.00
3.412
204.77
294,881
68.00
29.4800
66.20
3,972.00
3.438
206.33
297,125
69.00
29,9135
66.70
4,002.00
3.464
207.89
299,370
70.00
30.3471
67.10
4,026.00
3.485
209.14
301,165
71.00
30.7806
67.60
4,056.00
3.511
210.70
303,409
72.00
31.2141
68.10
4,086.00
3.537
212.25
305,653
73.00
31.6476
68.50
4,110.00
3.558
213.50
307,449
74.00
32.0812
69.00
4,140.00
3.584
215.06
309,693
. 75.00
32.5147
69.50
4,170.00
3.610
216.62
311,937
76.00
32.9482
69.90
4,194.00
3.631
217.86
313,732
77.00
33.3818
70.40
4,224.00
3.657
219.42
.315,976
78.00
33.8153
70.90
4,254.00
3.683
220.98
318,220
79.00
34.2488
71.30
4,278.00
3.703
222.23
320,016
80.00
34.6824
71.80
4,308.00
3.729
223.79
322,260
81.00
35.1159
72.20
4,332.00
3.750
225.03
324,055
82.00
35.5494
72.60
4,356.00
3.771
226.28
325,851
83.00
35.9829
73.10
4,386.00
3.797
227.84
328,095
84.00
36.4165
73.50
4,410.00
3.818
229.09
329,890
85.00
36.8500
74.00
4,440.00
3.844
230.64
332,134
86.00
37.2835
74.40
4,464.00
3.864
231.89
333,930
87.00
37.7171
74.80
4,488.00
3.885
233.14
335,725
88.00
38.1506
75.30
4,518.00
3.911
234.70
337,969
89.00
38.5841
75.70
4,542.00
3.932
235.94
339,764
90.00
39.0177
76.10
4,566.00
3.953
237.19
341,560
91.00
39.4512
76.50
4,590.00
3.974
238.44
343,355
92.00
39.8847
76.90
4,614.00
3.994
239.68
345,150
93.00
40.3182
77.40
4,644.00
4.020
241.24
347,394
94.00
40.7518
77.80
4,668.00
4.041
242.49
349,190
95.00
41.1853
78.20
4,692.00
4.062
243.74
350,985
96.00
41.6188
78.60
4,716.00
4.083
244.98
352,780
97.00
42.0524
79.00
4,740.00
4.103
246.23
354,576
40
American Steel and Wire Company
Table No. 2— Condnded
Table of Water Heads, Equivalent Preaanrea, Theoretical Velocities.
Theoretical Discharges, through 1 Square Inch Orifice
Equivalent
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Head
in
Pressure
Pounds per
Sq. Inch
Tneoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Discharge
Gals, per
Discharge
Gals, per
Dischai^^e
Gals, per
Feet
per Second
per Minute
Second
Minute
Diem
98.00
42.4859
79.40
4,764.00
4.124
247.48
356,371
99.00
42.9194
79.80
4,788.00
4.145
248.72
358,166
100.00
43.3530
80.30
4,818.00
4.171
250.28
360,411
125.00
54.1912
89.70
5,382.00
4.659
279.58
402,601
150.00
65.0295
98.30
5,898.00
5.106
306.38
441,200
175.00
75.8677
106.00
6,360.00
5.506
330.38
475,760
200.00
86.7060
114.00
6,840.00
5.922
355.32
511,667
225.00
97.5442
120.00
7,200.00
6.233
374.02
538,596
250.00
108.382
126.00
7,560.00
6.545
392.72
565,526
275.00
119.220
133.00
7,980.00
6.909
414.54
596,944
300.00
130.059
139.00
8,340.00
7.220
433.24
623,874
350.00
151.735
150.00
9,000.00
7.792
467.53
673,246
400.00
173.412
160.00
9,600.00
8.311
498.70
718,129
450.00
195.088
170.00
10,200.00
8.831
529.86
763,012
500.00
216.765
179.00
10,740.00
9.298
557.92
803,406
550.00
238.441
188.00
11,280.00
9.766
585.97
843,801
600.00
260.118
197.00
11,820.00
10.233
614.02
884,196
700.00
303.471
212.00
12,720.00
11.012
660.77
951,521
800.00
346.824
227.00
13,620.00
11.758
707.53
1,018,845
900.00
390.177
241.00
14,460.00
12.519
751.16
1,081,682
1.000.00
433.5.30
254.00
15,240.00
13.194
791.68
1,140,030
Water Paxifieation
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American Steel and Wire Company
Water Purilication
41
The following table gives the equivalents of million gallons in cubic
feet; also the flows per minute and second in cubic feet and gallons
when the flow is distributed evenly over 24 hours.
Table No. 3
PER 24 HOURS
FLOW EQUIVALENTS
Million
Cubic Feet
Cubic Feet
Cubic Feet
U. S. Gallons
U. S. Gallons
Gallons
Equivalent
per Minute
per Second
per Minute
per Second
1
133,680.55
92.88
1.5481
694.44
11.57
2
267,361.11
185.77
3.09
1,388.88
23.14
3
401,041.67
278.66
4.64
2,083.33
34.72
4
534,722.22
371.55
6.19
2,777.77
4e.29
5
668,402.78
464.44
7.74
3,472.22
57.87
6
802,083.34
557.33
9.28
4,166.66
69.44
7
935,763.89
650.22
10.83
4,861.11*
81.01
8
1,069,444.45
743.11
12.38
5,555.55
92.59
9
1,203,125.01
836.00
13.93
6,249.99
104.16
10
1,336,805.56
928.89
15.48
6,944.44
115.74
11
1,470,486.12
1,021.78
17.02
7,638.88
127.31
12
1,604,166.68
1,114.67
18.57
8,333.33
138.88
13
1,737,847.24
1,207.56
20.12
9,027.77
150.46
14
1,871,527.79
1,300.44
21.67
9,722.22
162.03
15
2,005,208.35
1,393.33
23.22
10,416.66
173.61
16
2,138,888.91
1,486.22
24.77
11,111.11
185.18
17
2,272,569.46
1,579.11
26.31
11,805.55
196.75
18
2,406,250.02
1,672.00
27.86
12,499.99
208.33
19
2,539,930.58
1,764.89
29.41
13,194.44
219.90
20
2,673,611.13
1,857.78
30.96
13,888.88
231.48
21
2,807,291.69
1,950.67
32.51
14,583.33
243.05
22
2,940,972.25
2,043.56
34.05
15,277.77
254.62
23
3,074,652.81
2,136.45
35.60
15,972.22
266.20
24
3,208,333.36
2,229.34
37.15
16,666.66
277.77
25
3,342,013.92
2,322.23
38.70
17,361.11
289.35
26
3,475,694.48
2,415.12
40.25
18,055.55
300.92
27
3,609,375.03
2,508.01
41.80
18,749.99
312.49
28
3,743,055.59
2,600.89
43.34
19,444.44
324.07
29
3,876,736.15
2,693.78
44.89
20,138.88
335.64
30
4,010,416.70
2,786.66
46.44
20,833.33
347.22
31
4,144,097.26
2,879.56
47.99
21,527.77
358.79
32
4,277,777.82
2,972.45
49.54
22,222.22
370.37
33
4,411,458.38
3,065.34
51.08
22,916.66
381.94
34
4,545,138.93
3,158.23
52.63
23,611.11
393.51
35
4,678,819.49
3,251.12
54.18
24,305.55
405.09
36
4,812,500.05
3,344.01
55.73
24,999.99
416.66
37
4,946,180.60
3,436.90
57.28
25,694.44
428.24
38
5,079,861.16
3,429.79
58.82
26,388.88
439.81
39
5,213,541.72
3,622.68
60.37
27,083.33
451.38
40
5,347,222.27
3,715.57
61.92
27,777.77
462.96
41
5,480,902.83
3,808.46
63.47
28,472.22
474.53
42
5,614,583.39
3,901.49
65.02
29,166.66
486.11
43
5,748,263.95
3,994.23
66.57
29,861.11
497.68
!!
5,881,944.50
4,087.12
68.11
30,555.55
509.25
45
6,015,625.06
4,180.01
69.66
31,249.99
520.83
46
6,149,305.62
4,272.90
71.21
31,944.44
632.40
47
6,282,986.17
4,365.79
72.76
32,638.88
543.98
Ameiiean Steel and Wire Company
PER 24 HOURS
FLOW EQUIVALENTS
Million
Cubi- P«t
Cubic Feet
Cubic Feet
U. S. Gallons
U. S. Gallons
GalloD.
pa Minut.
pet Second
per Second
4S
4,458.68
74.31
33,333.33
555.65
49
4,551.57
75.85
34,027.77
567.12
50
4,644.46
77.40
34,722.22
578.70
SI
4,737.35
78.95
35,416.66
590.27
62
4,830.24
80.50
36,111.11
601.85
63
4,923.13
82.05
36,805.55
613.42
S4
5,016.02
83.60
37,499.99
624.99
55
5,108.91
85.14
38,194.44
636.57
5a
5,201.79
86.69
38,888.88
648.14
67
7,619.791.74
5,294.68
88.24
39,583.33
659.72
58
7,753,472.30
5,387.57
89.79
40,277.77
671,29
59
7,887,152.86
5,480.46
91.34
40,972.22
682.87
60
8.020,833.41
5,573.35
92.88
41,666.66
694.44
61
5,666.24
94.43
42.361.11
706.01
62
5,759.13
95.98
43,055.65
717.59
63
5,852.02
97.53
43,749.99
729.16
64
6,944.91
99.08
44,444.44
740.74
66
6,037.80
100.63
46,138.88
752.31
66
6,130.69
102.17
45,833.33
763.88
67
6,223.68
103.72
46,527.77
775.46
68
6,316.47
105.27
47.222.22
787.03
69
6,409,36
106.82
47,916.66
798.61
70
6,502.24
108.37
48.611.11
810.18
71
6,596.13
109.91
49.305.55
821.75
72
9:625;o6o!i6
6,688.02
111.46
49.999.99
833.33
73
6,780.91
113.01
60,694.44
844.90
74
6.873.80
114.56
51.388.88
866.48
75
6,966.69
116.11
52.083.33
868.05
76
7,059.58
117.65
52,777.77
879.62
77
7.152.47
119.20
63,472.22
891.20
78
7.245.36
120.75
51,166.66
902.77
79
7,338.26
122.30
54,861.11
914.35
80
7,431.14
123.85
55.555.55
925.92
81
7,624.03
125.40
56,249.99
937.49
82
7,616.92
126.94
56,944.44
949.07
83
ii.'695'486'23
7,709.80
128.49
57,638.88
960,64
84
11,229,166.78
7.802.69
.130.04
58.333.33
972.22
85
11,362,847.34
7,895,58
131.59
59,027.77
983.79
86
11,496,527.90
7.988.47
133.14
69,722.22
995.37
87
11,630,208.45
8,081.36
134.68
60,416.66
1,006.94
88
11,763.889.01
8.174.25
136.23
61,111.11
1,018.51
89
11,897,569.57
8,267.14
137.78
61,805.55
1,030.09
90
12,031,250.12
8,360.03
139.33
62,499.99
1,041.66
91
12.164,930.68
8.462.92
140.88
63,194.44
1,053.24
92
12,298,611.24
8,645.81
142.43
63,888.88
1,064.81
93
12,432,291.80
8,636.70
143.97
64,583.33
1,076.38
94
12,565,972.35
8,731.59
145.52
65,277.77
1,087.96
95
12.699,662.91
8,824.48
147.07
65.972.22
1,099.53
96
12,833,333.47
8,917.37
148.62
66,666.66
1.111.11
97
12,967,014.02
9,010.25
150.17
67,361.11
1,122.68
98
13,100.694.58
9,103.14
151.71
68,055.55
1,134.25
99
13,234,375.14
9,196.03
153.26
68,750.00
1,145.83
100
13,368,055.69
9,288.92
154.81
69,444.44
1,167.40
Water Pniification
4.3
Table No. 2 is based on a co-
efficient of discharge of unity. Any
given discharge will therefore have
to be multiplied by .62 to obtain the
real discharge through -a standard
orifice having an area of one square
inch. In order to ascertain the dis-
charge for any standard orifice of a
different area, the area in square
inches must first be found and
noted. This may be obtained from
the Table No. 1, or if not found
there it may be calculated. The
discharge for the given head, found
in Table No. 2,. must first be mul-
tiplied by .62, and the result mul-
tiplied by the area of the desired
orifice in square inches. In this
way the discharge for any size
standard orifice under any head
may be readily ascertained either
for the minute or for the day, and
this information enables an oper-
ator to tell, with a fair degree of
accuracy, how long it will take to
empty a solution tank of known
capacity with any given size of
orifice working under any given
head.
Pormnlaa
In order to arrive at a solution
of any phase of this matter we give
herewith three simple formulas
which will enable the operator to
work out any necessary solution.
Let A = the average number of gal-
lons, pumped in 24 hours,
and recorded as million
gallons or fraction there-
of.
Let G = the grains per gallon of
chemical required.
Let C = the charge of chemicals re-
required for 24 hours, in
pounds.
Let P = 143 (One grain per gallon,
g. p. g., equals 143
pounds per one million
gallons.)
Then, ^
(1) C = AGP.
(3)G=^.
(2)A =
GP
Examples.
(1)
A plant pumps an average of
4,280,000 gallons per 24 hours and
it is desired to apply 1.54 g. p. g.
of chemical treatment to the raw
wafer, how large a charge of chemi-
cals will be required to run the
plant for twenty four hours?
Solution. In this case A =4.28,
G = 1.54 and P = 143, while the
formula which applies is seen to
be (1) or C = AGP. Hence we
have, by substitution, the following,
C = 4.28X 1.54 X 143 = C = 942.54
pounds. Therefore if 942.54
pounds of chemicals be applied to
4,280,000 gallons of water each
gallon will receive 1.54 grains.
(2}
A plant uses 942.54 pounds of
chemicals per twenty-four hours
and applies 1.54 g. p. g. of chemical
treatment. It is desired to know
what the pumpage amounts to.
Solution . In this case C = 942 . 54 ,
G = 1.54 and P = 143, while the
formula which applies is seen to be
(2) or A = C/GP. Hence, by sub-
stitution, we have the following,
A = 942.54-^(1.54 X 143)= A =4.28
44
American Steel and Wire Company
million gallons or 4,280,000 gallons.
Therefore, if a plant uses a chemi-
cal charge of 942.54 pounds of
chemicals at the rate of 1.54 grains
per gallon, the quantity of water
pimiped is 4,280,000 gallons.
(3)
A plant purifies 4,280,000 gallons
of water per 24 hours and uses a
chemical charge of 942.54 pounds.
It is desired to know how many-
grains per gallon of chemical treat-
ment has been applied.
Solution. -In this case C = 942.54,
A = 4.28 and P = 143, while the
formula which applies is seen to
be G = C/AP. Hence, by substi-
tution, we have the following,
G = 942.54 -i- (4.28 X 143) = G =
1.54 g. p. g. Therefore, if a plant
purifies 4,280,000 gallons per day
and uses 942.54 pounds of chemi-
cals, the chemical treatment has
been at the rate of 1.54 grains per
gallon.
In order to determine what size
of standard orifice will be required
to empty a tank having a known
capacity in gallons, under a given
head and with a coefficient of dis-
charge of .62 in twenty-four hours,
refer to the Table No: 2, and under
the given head find the discharge in
gallons per twenty-four hours with
a one square inch orifice. Multiply
this by .62 and divide the capacity
of the tank in gallons by the result.
The quotient will be the area of the
required orifice in square inches.
Table No. 1 of areas will give the
nearest diameter of the reqtiired
orifice in inches.
Example
Example, What size of standard
circular orifice, having a coefficient
of discharge of .62, will be required
to iempty a tank holding 1100 gal-
lons, under a constant head of one
foot over the orifice, in a time
period of twenty-four hours ?
Solution. From Table No. 2, we
obtain 36,041 gallons as the dis-
charge for an orifice having an area
of 1 sq. in. for 24 hours, under a one-
foot head and a coefficient of dis-
charge of 1.00. With a coefficient
of .62 we have 36,041 X .62 = 22,345
gallons per diem and 2004 g ~ -0492
or the area of the required orifice.
From the Table No. 1, we find a
J4-inch orifice has an area of .0491
square inch and delivers 1095.9
gallons per day under one foot
head. Therefore it would be the
orifice selected. The result calcu-
lated from Table No. 2 is shown as
checking the result given by Table
No. 1.
In order to calibrate an orifice of
given size, under constant head of
one foot, discharging from a reser-
voir or tank.
Let D = the drop in inches per
minute.
Let A = area of tank in inches.
Let G = gallons per twenty-four
hours.
231 = cu. in. in U. S. gallon and
1440 minutes in a day.
Then^XDX1440 = G.
Elxample
Example. A tank having an area
of 6252.33 square inches has a drop
Wafer Fnrificalion
American Steel and Wire Coam«ny
Water Pnrificatioii
45
of .11 inch per minute with a dis-
charge occtirring through an orifice,
having a diameter of ]^ inch, with a
constant head of one foot over the
orifice, what is the coefficient of dis-
charge for the orifice?
The orifice has an area of .1963
square inch, and
6252.33
231
X.l IX 1440 = 4287.3
or gallons per twenty-four hours
discharged through orifice. Up to
this point the procedure is merely
that of calculating the discharge in
gallons from a tank of known area
with a known drop of level per
minute. From Table No. 2 we find*
the discharge through an orifice
having an area of one square inch
to be 36,041 gallons per diem under
a one-foot head and coefficient of
1.00, and under the sarn^s conditions
an orifice having an area of .1963
would discharge 36,041 X. 1963 =
7074.84 gallons per diem. In order
to obtain the coefficient of discharge
we divide the amount actually
discharged through the orifice by
theoretical discharge under a coeffi-
cient of 1.00 or 4287.3-^7074.84 =
.6059 or coefficient of discharge.
Hook Gan^e
The method of obtaining the
drop in level in the tank is to use a
point gauge. This consists of two
or more points accurately placed a
known distance apart. All points
are immersed, and when the first
point touches the surface the time
is taken very accurately. When
he next point shows the time is
again taken and the drop in inches
per minute can be calculated.
In the preceding pages we have
dealt rather fully with liquid flows
and given the subject more space
than it apparently demands. The
reason for this is to be found in
the number of questions which are
asked by operators as to how they
may figure these problems and be
sure they are correct in the results.
The niunber of inquiries and the
variety of their forms in relation
to this subject justifies us in be-
lieving this information to be of
sufficient importance to warrant
the space.
Working Conditions
Now, let us consider a case where
the foregoing calculations have been
worked out and take working con-
ditions as they really occur in prac-
tice. A plant filtering 4,280,000
gallons per diem has a high rate of
pumpage during the hours from
8.00 A.M. to 10.00 A.M. and from
6.00 P.M. to 8.00 P.M., amounting
to an aver.age peak load during
these hours of what would corre-
spond to a rate of 6,017,000 gal-
lons per twenty-four hours, and a
minimum rate during the hours
from 12.30 A.M. to 4.30 A.M. of
only 1 ,020,000 gallons. This corre-
sponds to 4,180 gallons per minute
for maximum rate, 2,970 gallons
for average rate, and 847 gallons for
a minimum rate.
Errors
During the four hours of the two
peak- load periods the head tank
46
American Steel and Wire Company
continues to apply enough chem-
icals to treat 2,970 gallons per
minute with 1.54 grains per gallon,
but as the plant is handling 4,180
gallons during the four hours
referred to, the rate per gallon
of chemical treatment applied
really falls to 1.09 grains per
gallon.
Similarly, the same amount of
chemicals applied during the hours
of minimum pumpage means that
each gallon, instead of receiving
1.54 grains, is really being treated
at the rate of 5.40 grains per gallon
for four hours.
Wastelulnesa
Thus the calculations to apply
1.54 grains per gallon fail. Unless
the operator can know at what rate
the plant is working, and unless he
be conscientious enough to change
the rate of chemical application
with each change of flow into the
plant, this must continue to occur.
It is very obvious that if 1.09
grains per gallon produces the de-
sired results, it is a very great
waste to apply 1.54 grains or
still worse, to apply 5.40 grains per
gallon.
Most of the smaller plants, like
the one referred to, have no device
to show the operator the rate at
which water is entering, and hence
he cannot change the rate of chem-
ical application with any degree of
assurance. Even if he could dp so,
it is doubtful if many of them
would, and it is a certainty that
most of them would not.
Flo-w Recorders
However, every plant should be
provided with a rate recorder which
will record, indicate and integrate
the flow into the plant during every
minute of the day and night, and
each chemical tank should be
equipped with a similar device to
show that the rate of chemical
application has been changed to
meet the changing conditions of
raw water flow into the plant. If
the equipment is provided, the
operator can be checked and made
to pay closer attention to this very
important matter. The difficulty
may be, and should be, overcome by
devices which will not only record
the variations of raw water and
chemical flows, but in addition they
should be such as to automatically
vary the application of chemicals in
strict accord with the variations of
raw water flow.
Chemical Controllers
Two types of these devices may
be had. One is a type that main-
tains a constant head over an orifice
but varies the size of the chemical
orifice automatically and propor-
tionally as the rate of flow of raw
water into the plant increases or de-
creases. The other has a fixed ori-
fice, but varies the head over the
orifice automatically and propor-
tionally, and therefore varies the
rate of applying the chemicals func-
tionally and proportionally to chang-
ing rates of flow of the raw water.
These devices are a great advance
over the older ones using a fixed
Water PariKcalian
Water Parification
47
rate of chemical flow, and should be
much more generally used.
The control of the chemical treat-
ment is one of the most difficult
problems encountered and these
two very satisfactory solutions will
probably come into general use as
soon as their value is appreciated
more thoroughly by the designing
engineers.
Chemicala— Where Applied
The next step is the introduction
of the sulphate of iron into the
water. The first question arising is,
Where shall it be applied? Shall it
go into the water at the same time
as the lime, or should it precede or
follow the application of the lime?
The real answer lies in the fact
that different waters and plants re-
quire different methods of treat-
ment. In some plants it is the part
of wisdom to apply the iron before
the lime, in others after the lime.
In waters containing much organic
matter or color, it is advantageous
to apply the lime first. Where there
is little color or organic matter, the
iron should be introduced before the
lime. Under some Conditions this
general rtile may be rendered im-
practical, due to the design of the
plant. In places where the iron is
to be introduced before the lime, it
is advisable to do so at as early a
stage as possible, and to follow with
the lime some distance apart.
Incrustation
Lime should never be added to
water paissing through a pump or a
closed conduit. If an open conduit
is available, it will do no harm to
add the lime to the water therein, if
it does not pass through a pump or
closed conduit later on and preced-
ing filtration. The reason for this
is that a mixture of water and
caustic lime cannot be passed
through a closed conduit without
causing incrustation. This incrusta-
tion may become so thick as to
materially reduce the open cross
section of the pipe and increase the
friction beyond practical limits.
Caustic Lime
Caustic lime reaches the market
in two conditions. Quick lime or
lump lime comes in various sized
Itimps from a kiln in which it is
burnt, and when cold usually dif-
fers but little if any in appearance
from the rock from which it was
burnt. If the stone was coarse or
fine grained, the lime will be coarse
or fine grained. Fat limes, in the
parlance of the lime burner, are
limes rich in lime and poor in mag-
nesia, while a lean lime is higher in
magnesia and lower in lime. A fat
lime should contain 98 per cent, of
calcium oxide with 2 per cent, of
other impurities, and this is the
grade desired for water works.
Limes containing more than 3 or
4 per cent, of magnesium oxide
should be avoided if possible. Some
cities pay a bonus for absence of
magnesia, and penalize for more
than a given per cent, of this ob-
jectionable material. No core or
unburned lime should be present.
48
Americaii Steel and Wire Company
Slaking
When qtiick lime is treated with
water, heat is given off and the lime
is reduced to paste or mud of lime.
If core is present, lumps of it will
be found unslaked. Not more than
four pounds of water should be
added to one of lime to slake it.
If convenient, hot water gives bet-
ter and quicker results than very
cold water. In fact, very cold
water should be used very carefully
in slaking lime. If too much be
used at one time, the lime will not
slake properly. On the contrary,
care must also be used in slaking
lime with warm water, lest the lime
get too hot and bum. When it gets
too hot, more water should be
added and the lime stirred with a
mortarman*s hoe. In case mechan-
ical stirring devices are provided,
the lime can be stirred mechanically
and this is much better than using
manual labor. Any soft, mushy
Itunps must be broken up to allow
the water to get to the center of
them. When the lime has ceased
to bubble and absorb water, it has
passed the danger stage and may be
left till required. It will continue
to undergo more perfect slaking if
left to lie as a thick mud for a ntun-
ber of hours.
Hydrated Lime
When it has been slaked it has
then become a hydrated lime, and
is in much the same condition that
a dry hydrated lime would be if
mixed into a thick mud with warm
water. There is this exception: a
quick lime slaked as above does not
wholly lose its granular character.
Some of the grains still retain the
same granular state as the original
stone or the grain of the quick lime.
If these particles could be well
ground up in water, more satisfac-
tory use could be made of the lime
and a more efficient one as well.
These granular particles do not
readily go into solution and more
or less of the lime is lost when it is
put into the water. This renders an
equal weight of lime, slaked as
above, less efficient than the same
weight slaked and sold as hydrated
lime. If both the quick lime and
hydrated lime be chemically pure,
56 pounds of the former will be
equal in strength to 74 pounds of
the latter. In other words, 74
pounds of hydrated lime contain 56
pounds of quick lime and 18 pounds
of water. Hydrated lime of com-
merce commands a larger price by
the pound than does the quick lime.
It is, however, much less suscep-
tible to deterioration and is easier
to handle in storage. Quick lime
rapidly undergoes air slaking in
moist weather, and is difficult to
keep for even a reasonable period of
time without being subject to large
deterioration. It is almost as ex-
pensive under all the conditions
obtaining as the hydrated lime.
SolnbUity
In using lime we are handicapped
somewhat by the low degree of solu-
bility. Most chemicals are more
soluble in hot than in cold water,
but lime forms an exception to this
rule.
Water Pnrifioadon
49
In water of ordinary temperature
we can dissolve only about sixty
grains of lime in one gallon of water.
The ratio of solution thus becomes
60 to 58,411 or 1 to 9735. For
this reason we are compelled to
resort to devices capable of manu-
facturing large volumes of lime
water or else use this material in
suspension in lime water and this
latter procedure is the one most
generally followed in handling this
material.
This involves difficulties in main-
taining the lime in suspension. In
order to obtain the knowledge of
how much lime to use to a tank,
we resort to the method described
on pages 42-43, but instead of
preparing a charge to last twenty-
four hours, it is the usual practice
to arrange the charge so as to last
only about eight hours, unless the
lime tanks be larger than are
ordinarily provided.
The charge, after being weighed
out, is added to the lime tank and
water run in until the tank is full.
By this time practically all of the
mud has dropped out of suspension,
and only the clear supernatant lime
water shows above.
This, as previously stated, con-
tams only about sixty grains per
gallon of calcium oxide in the form
of calcium hydrate in solution.
Sixty grains of calcium oxide are
equal to 79.28 grains of calcitun
hydrate.
Suspension
The heavy lime mud in the bot-
tom of the tank must be made to
remain in a state of homogeneous
suspension if we are to use it as
desired, and for this reason some
form of mechanical agitation must
be employed from the time the tank
goes into use until it is exhausted.
Each lime tank must be equipped
with this form of mechanical
agitation.
Metals Affected
m
Lime will quickly attack lead
and dissolve it. Brass offers a
better resistance, but is rather
quickly destroyed, so it is not ad-
visable to use any lead or brass in
considering devices where they will
come in contact with the lime
solution. Wood offers an excellent
resistance, and cast iron a still
better one to the action of this re-
agent, and therefore these two ma-
terials afford us the best possibil-
ities for construction of the stirring
devices. Some engineers have used
wooden propeller blades covering
nearly the entire area of the tank
bottom in their sweep and placed
within two or three inches of the
bottom. These are driven by
power at a very slow speed, not
over ten revolutions per minute.
This type of design is not the best.
To date, the device shown in the
plan and elevation, , page 18, has
proven the most satisfactory. It is
driven at high speed by any desir-
able type of motor at not less chan
450 nor more than 750 revolutions
per minute.
It is important that the motor
speed shall be kept within these
speeds. A speed slower than 450
AntcricBii Steel and Wire Company
Tmwio Laboratorr
W«t«r Pnxifieatioii
61
R. P. M. will not produce satis-
factory results.
Circnlation
The circulation of liquid is shown
bv the arrows. The flow up the
sides and down the center is so
swift as to maintain a perfectly
homogeneous suspension from the
time we begin to draw from the
tank until the level reaches the top
of the cylinder casing around the
propeller blade, when the tank is
put out of service and another one
put in.
The pipe line connecting the lime
tank to the head box should be
plain black iron or steel pipe. It
should be of ample size to accom-
modate the largest flow ever re-
quired and it must not be trapped.
It should have a good drop through-
out its entire length so no mud of
lime will collect at any point in its
length.
lime Head Tank
The head box should differ from
those in general use and should
offer no chance for the heavy mate-
rials to find a resting place therein.
The sketch, page 50, shows a
fairly good arrangement for a fixed
rate flow.
The discharge lines R and S from
the two lime tanks are equipped
with valves P, Q, which are placed
as close to the lime tanks as pos-
sible. These lines unite at O and
fomx A, on which a throttling valve
B is placed. ■ A float C maintains a
constant level shown as a dotted
line above K, the chemical orifice.
If level falls, B is partially opened;
if it rises, B is partially closed,
thus maintaining a practically con-
stant level. No lime mud can lie
in the bottom of F, as the flowing
liquid carries it to G and thence to
K and into the funnel L. The line
M carries it on to the point of appli-
cation. Some overflow from P
occurs into E, but this is out of the
main flow which follows the general
directions of the arrows and there-
fore this flow from F carries little
suspended matter, being almost
clear lime water. That which is
carried over, however, falls mostly
to the bottom of E or D, thus keep-
ing a clear lime water in D in which
the float C can rest without being
interfered with by lime mud col-
lecting under it. Any mud which
does collect in D, E or F can be
turned off into the manifold T and
discharged into M, which should
have a good and practically uniform
drop from the funnel to the point
where the lime enters the water.
An arrangement of this kind
allows the application of a milk of
lime with no practical difficulties
and with sufficient accuracy to
meet the practical requirements for
a fixed rate device.
Mixing Chamber
After both chemicals have been
applied to the water and particu-
larly at and after the point where
the lime has been introduced, the
water should not be allowed to rest
or assume a slow fiow until all of
the available lime has gone into
solution. In other words, the water
American Steel and Wire Company
Water Parificaticm
53
should be compelled to maintain a
velocity of flow sufficient to carry
the lime with it until the former
has gone into solution. From this
point on the velocity of flow may be
decreased slightly, but it should still
have sufficient velocity to form and
carry the coagultun. Up to very
recent times this essential of me-
chanical filtration has not been
sufficiently emphasized by design-
ing engineers. The necessity for a
mixing chamber to perform this
very important part of the work is
now generally recognized by the
foremost exponents of the art, and
most of the plants recently devised
show this advance. Some of the
older plants are installing mixing
chambers and are thus demon-
strating their value.
Types
There are two types of mixing
chambers in use. The plant at New
Orleans is equipped with one type,
Columbus has a modification of the
other, but Fargo forms a far better
illustration of the second type of
mixing chamber.
In the New Orleans type the
water makes a long horizontal flow
at rather high velocity, then de-
scends and travels back under the
first apartment, crosses over and
goes back at the same level, then
rises and returns at the higher level.
A series of these apartments compels
the water to travel through the
maze for about one hour before it is
permitted to enter the settling
reservoir.
The objections to this type may
be summarized as follows : It costs
more to build, it costs more to
house in and keep from freezing,
it requires more land and is less
flexible and more difficult to alter
to meet changing conditions of
purification demands. The veloci-
ties of flow through the upper
passages vary rather more than is
desirable over those in the lower
passages. There is a tendency to
form larger deposits of sludge in
the lower passages than is desirable
and on accelerated velocities these
deposits are lifted and carried
on less completely than in the up
and down type.
At Fargo the water flows down
and then up, over and under
baffles of wooden construction,
the long flow being vertical in-
stead of horizontal as at New
Orleans. The Fargo type takes
less ground, enables the chamber
to be housed, and in general is the
preferable construction, particu-
larly for cold climates. Both types
consume some head and this must
be allowed for in design. The
velocity of flow required to form
the coagtdation should be not less
than .5 foot per second. The maxi-
mum velocity should not exceed
3 or 33^ feet per second or too much
head will be absorbed.
Capacity
The size of a mixing chamber
should be such as to insure at least
one hour's travel through it at
rated capacity of the plant. The
coagulum caused by some chem-
Amvrlcan Steel and Wire Compomy
Water PDriUoatian
66
American Steel and Wire Company
icals is rather slow in forming, re-
quiring twenty minutes in very
cold water, and this should be borne
in mind. Such slow reactions are
materially hastened and helped by
the action of the mixing chamber,
but provision should be made to
give ample time for these slow-
acting chemicals to form their co-
agulation, even in the coldest
water.
Forming Coagulation
Forming a coagulation means to
cause it to gather in large feathery
flocks. Coagulation first forms in
very fine, perhaps submicroscopic
flocks; at least, the eye cannot see
the individual flock. Later, these
flocks become large enough to be
seen as separate and distinct by a
very keen eye, but still remain quite
small and not sharply differentiated
from the water in which they float.
The action of the mixing chamber
causes them to grow in size by
gathering several or many smaller
into one larger flock, and they may
continue to accrete until they are
very large comparatively, and in
this condition the water, between
the flocks, appears clear and bril-
liant, even sparkling, and the flock
is sharply differentiated from the
water in which it is suspended.
One simple method of testing for a
proper coagulation is to take a
glass of water to a bright light and
hold the fingers well separated on
the side of the glass away from the
eye. If the coagulation is in a per-
fect state, the outline of the fingers
and even the markings thereon may
be clearly and sharply seen, and the
water appears to sparkle between
the flocks. Where the outline is
blurred or the markings indistinct,
or the water does not appear bril-
liant and clear, the coagulation is
not so good.
When the coagulation reaches
this stage of formation, it is in the
very best possible condition. In a
properly designed mixing chamber
this will occur before the water
reaches the end of the chamber. In
this state the coagulation is ready
to fall out of suspension the mo-
ment opportunity is afforded or the
flow becomes slow enough to permit.
The water shotdd leave the mix-
ing chamber through an opening
of such size as to not materially
increase the speed or velocity
above that obtaining when passing
through the chamber. On entering
the settling basins, the velocity is
quickly decreased, owing to the in-
creased cross section of flow, and
the coagulated matter rapidly set-
tles out. Because of this, the effi-
ciency of a settling basin is largely
augmented by the action of the
mixing chamber and more efficient
results from sedimentation can be
secured. Just how much better
these results are than where no
mixing chamber is employed, it is
difficult to estimate, but it is certain
that a smaller settling basin with
mixing chamber will give better
results than a larger one without
the mixing chamber.
Water must not enter settling
basins at or near bottom, but at
or near the top of the same.
Baltimore, Hd.
American Steel and Wire Company
View AcrOBs Setllint Basioa
Ballimore, Hd.
Ticw Aeroaa Seltlini Baaln*
Water Purification
59
In addition with a mixing cham-
ber, it is possible to use a much
smaller amount of chemical treat-
ment and get practically as good
results from sedimentation and fil-
tration as though a larger quantity
were to be employed without such
a chamber. The plant at Fargo,
North Dakota, has shown some re-
sults which have never previously
been obtained, and these are appar-
ently traceable to the splendid
action of the mixing chamber.
After leaving the mixing cham-
ber, the water passes to the set-
tling basins.
The Settling Basins
A great deal of the success of
any plant will depend on the set-
tling basins, their arrangement and
efficiency of operation. Many
plants have failed more or less
materially to fulfill their function
because of errors or lack of atten-
tion to this very important part
of the plant.
The function of the settling
basins is to cause the larger portion
of the suspended matter to fall
out of and be removed from the
water in which it is suspended.
The more completely this is ac-
complished the greater the effi-
ciency of the settling basins. While
this holds true it is possible to re-
move too much of the suspended
matter unless the filters differ from
those in general use or unless
secondary chemical treatment can
be given the water going on the
filters.
Suspended Matter
The suspended matter consists
not only of that originally present
in the natural water but also that
artificially created by chemical
treatment as well as a major por-
tion of the bacterial content of
the natural water, which is caught
and enmeshed by the action of the
coagulant.
A mixing chamber which func-
tions properly will produce or
create a type of suspended matter
which is in the best possible con-
dition to be removed by the action
of the settling basins and if these
perform their function properly
the larger part of the suspended
matter will be removed in passing
through the settling basins. Some
of these basins have shown effi-
ciencies as high as 95 per cent, in
removing .suspended matter and
bacterial content and where such
efficiencies can be maintained the
filters are relieved of the larger
portion of the work which they
would otherwise have to perform
and they are only called upon to
put what some operators call the
final * 'polish" on the water.
Wash Water
Where the filters are only called
upon to do this they can be made
to operate for longer periods of
time between washings than where
the efficiency of the settling basins
is lower. This means a consider-
able saving in wash water and ex-
pense of purification. It is much
cheaper to wash a ton of mud out
of a properly designed settling
62
American Steel and Wire Company
than is yet known. A more careful
study of the problem might lead to
considerable improvement of this
feature of the plant. A judicious
amount of experimental work along
this line might give remarkable re-
ttuTis and enable a much better
and more intelligent design to be
eventfuUy arrived at. The prac-
tice of designing any shape or size
of settling basin as seems best
adapted to the site should be dis-
couraged and more thought given
to this feature.
Observation
Operators should carefully ob-
serve the action of the settling
basins. Much can be learned in
this way which will enable the op-
erator to secure better results
under some conditions than if he
does not know what any given set
of conditions is liable to produce in
results. Too little attention is
usually paid to the sludge zone and
its effects upon the action of the
settling basins. A careful study
of the sludge may be very useful
to the operator. If the sludge is
allowed to accumulate for too long
a period of time it may affect the
results of purification very ma-
terially. If removed too frequently
a loss of treated water and wash
water occurs and a larger expense^
than necessary incurred.
Testing
A rod, which is long enough to
reach the bottom of the settling
basins conveniently, can be made
into a sludge zone tester. To do
this a number of wide or salt mouth
bottles of about four ounces capac-
ity should be affixed to the rod
with their mouths looking upward.
These should be spaced at equal
intervals apart, say six or eight
inches apart. A rod of this kind,
if carefully and slowly lowered into
the settling basin until tl^l^]0ttom
is reached and then carefully and
slowly withdrawn will shoW^'the
depth of sludge and the approxi-
mate density of the same at various
depths.
A study of the sludge zone, care-
fully conducted, and checked
against bacteriaktest.s .of the effi-
ciencies of the basins, will; m time,
give the operator a line on the
action of the basins which may be
quite useful. Every settling basin
will show certain peculiarities in
the formation of the sludge zone,
the quantity of sludge which can
be permitted to accumulate with-
out detriment to the bacterial re-
sults or economical washing of the
filters and in various other ways
the information obtained by watch-
ing the settling basins may be
made useful in the operation of
the plant.
Filters
The filters form the most inter-
-esting part of the plant. It is here
also that the greatest skill of the
engineer and contractor finds oppor-
tunity for display. Upon the abil-
ity of both depends the success or
partial failure of the plant as a
whole. Unless the filters perform
their part, the plant must always
Filler Balldlnd
64
American Steel and Wire Company
be considered a partial or complete
failure. It makes little difference
how perfectly the rest of the plant
is designed or built or operated, if
the filters fail to perform their func-
tion the plant cannot be deemed
wholly successful.
Some engineers give considerable
attention, as far as their knowledge
permits, to this part of the design,
but it is here particularly that the
knowledge obtained from practical
operation should be manifest. Un-
fortunately, both design and con-
struction too often show a lack of
this. Some engineers pay abso-
lutely no attention to this phase of
the subject, seeming to think that
any size or shape of tank, however
equipped, can be made to perform
all the functions of a properly de-
signed filter. This, however, is
very far from the truth, and the
sooner it is realized the better it
will be. In no other part of the
design or construction is greater
skill or knowledge required.
While noticeable advancement in
the extent and efficiency of filter
equipment has been made in recent
years, it is equally noticeable that
little advancement has been made
in the filter itself. In fact, it is
doubtful if some of the modem
examples of the art compare in
some respects with those of earlier
construction. With all due con-
sideration for the engineering talent
employed, it is questionable if the
present-day design equals that of
the past when the design was care-
fully worked out in and from the
light of actual operating knowledge
by operating engineers. The results
obtained in the nineties with the
old standard type of Jewel filter,
equipped with mechanical agitators,
have never been duplicated in some
respects by the more modem and at
least equally costly designs.
Cleaning
More trouble is experienced to-
day with the filter beds and the
cleansing of the same than ever
occurred with those of the older
design. While some advancement
is manifest in this direction, many
modem plants have much more
trouble in this respect than is gen-
erally known and much greater
difficulty than was ever experienced
with the older types with mechan-
ical agitators. The air wash em-
ployed in place of mechanical agita-
tion seems only to accentuate the
trouble at some plants under some
conditions, and while part of the
trouble at these plants may be
attributable to imperfect results
from chemical treatment, mixing
and sedimentation, it is inconceiv-
able that all the difficulty is caused
by these faults.
Experimental
Thus otu" modem filter still offers
some problems which have not yet
been completely solved, and the
real occasion for comment on this
condition is that so little attempt
is being made on the part of engi-
neers to solve them. While design
and construction have changed and
are changing, it is rather remark-
able that no practical experimental
Water Pnrification
65
work is being carried on by anyone
at the present time to ascertain
how troubles arise or how they can
be corrected. The experimental
plant played a very important part
in the eariy days of the art, and
must again if we are to ntiake
further progress in design and con-
struction. A few dollars spent
experimentally may save hundreds
or thousands in design, construc-
tion and operation, and in addition,
result in producing vastly better
and more satisfactory purification.
Breaking Coa^nlatioii
One of the difficulties already
referred to is that of conducting
the water from the settling basins
to the filters without breaking up
the coagtdation. Large waterways
without bends or sudden interrup-
tions in the direction of flow mate-
rially assist in this particular. If
the velocity of flow from the basins
to the filters remains low, there is
not so great an opportunity to
break up the remaining coagula-
tion. If the direction of flow is not
interfered with by causing the
water to violently change its direc-
tion, there will be a reduced tend-
ency to break up the coagulation.
If the coagulation or flock is broken
up, the filter will certainly have less
chance of successfully performing
its function.
Another source of trouble lies in
the difference between the relative
difference of sizes of sand beds,
rated capacities, and amount of
suspended matter in the water from
the settling basins as exemplified in
the modem plant and that of fifteen
years ago.
Other things being equal, the
conditions which produced efficient
results fifteen years ago should do
so now, but if one condition or one
set of conditions be changed, it
follows that further changes should
take place if the same results are
to be attained.
Changing Conditiona
In some of the old plants which
produced really wonderful results,
the amount of suspended matter in
the water from the settling basins
ran up to one thousand or even two
thousand parts per million. The
effective size of the sand was as
coarse as .37 m.m., the rate of
filtration as low as ninety million
gallons per acre of sand per day at
rated capacity, while the length of
run between washings was as short
as three or four hours. The bac-
terial results in some of these
plants averaged as high as 98 per
cent, or better and were secured
without the use of sterilizing re-
agents.
Under present conditions, the
amount of suspended matter and
the size of the flock has greatly
decreased. In some plants the
water leaving the settling basins
does not carry over six to eight
parts per million of suspended mat-
ter. This reduction in quantity
and also in size is due to the larger
size and more efficient action of the
settling basins.
The normal rate of filtration has
increased until it is now about 125
66
American Steel and Wire Company
million gallons per acre of sand per
diem. The length of run between
washings has increased until some
plants have had runs of over four
hundred hours between washings;
while the effective size of the sand
has not been changed sufficiently to
compensate for these other changes.
A decrease in the effective size of
the sand would have a tendency to
decrease the length of run, and
enable the filter to handle the
smaller size and volume of coagula-
tion and more nearly restore the
balance between present and past
conditions of work. To state the
thing differently, a finer sand bed
with the upper layer of sand of
from four to six inches having an
effective size of .20 m.m. or there-
abouts, would probably render the
results from some plants more
satisfactory.
Wash Troughs
The water entering the filters
usually does so by means of the
wash trough. These troughs are of
various shapes and sizes in differ-
ent plants. They are usually of
peculiar form, depending on the
engineer designing the plant. The
main function of these troughs is
to carry off the wash water. They
should be of ample size to do this
and still have some capacity to
spare. The top edges should be as
nearly absolutely level and in the
same horizontal plane as is prac-
tical. They should be as shallow as
practical and the top edges as close
to the sand as possible. They
should be spaced not more than six
feet apart on centers so that the
travel of the wash water will be
short and its removal promptly
effected. They should be provided
with sand catchers or deflectors so
the wash water, while canying the
largest possible amount of sus-
pended matter, will not carry sand
away. When the filter is in service,
the sand should clear the bottom
of the troughs by at least one inch.
If the bottom of the trough is im-
mersed in the sand, that much of
the sand bed becomes ineffective
and of no value. When washing,
the bottom of the troughs should be
immersed in the lifted sand bed to
at least four inches. They should
be tight and free from cracks or
crevices throughout their length.
They should discharge their wash
water freely and never flow quite
full under full wash load. Any
trough meeting these requirements
will prove entirely satisfactory.
Sand Bed
The sand bed consists of from
two to three feet of sand and from
twelve to six inches of gravel. The
gravel is usually graded from fine
to coarse and the sand should be.
In some of the filters employing
sand and gravel as a filter bed, con-
siderable difficulty is experienced in
maintaining the gravel at the bot-
tom and the sand on top. The
strainer system for water is usually
placed below the coarsest gravel,
on top of which the finer gravel is
laid in graded layers, and on the
gravel the sand. In cases where air
is used in washing, the air manifold
Waler Parilication
Baltimore. Md.
68
American Stc^el and Wire Company
is ordinarily placed on top of the
gravel and below the sand. In
some of the larger plants a bronze
screen of wire mesh is placed on top
of the gravel and anchored in place.
The purpose is to hold the gravel
down.
The life of this bronze mesh is
rather brief in some plants and the
cost of renewal high. Unless prop-
erly anchored, it is liable to be
lifted or torn from its anchorage,
necessitating rather costly repairs.
When properly placed, this solves
the question of holding the gravel
on the bottom of the filter bed.
Air Wash Troubles
Where the gravel is not tied down
and particularly where air is used
for washing, trouble has been ex-
perienced at many points by a bed
inversion in spots. When this
occtirs, the gravel is partially or
wholly lifted from the bottom in
spots and the sand takes its place,
or the sand and gravel are mixed
and a **hard spot" forms which
does not wash effectively, and im-
perfect filtration results. In some
plants the operators have to be
continually on the lookout for the
formation of these **hard spots,"
and their elimination is both trouble-
some and costly.
A considerable amount of ex-
perience led us several years ago to
advise that these difficulties could
be overcome by making the gravel
layer thicker and coarser, h6avy
gravel being employed for the bot-
tom layer. Experience has con-
firmed this. A gravel layer eighteen
inches thick, with the bottom layer
composed of pieces two inches in
diameter and graded to 1-16 inch
at the top, will not be lifted or the
bed inverted at any practical rate
of washing, if air is not used in
washing. The results are appar-
ently as good or better than where
the gravel is tied down with bronze
screen and the wash is more even
and economical even when air is
used. As far as results are obtain-
able, this type of construction ap-
pears to be somewhat better than
those formerly employed.
Strainers
The strainers, used at the bottom
of the filter bed, have been the sub-
ject of much thought and effort on
the part of filter builders. They
are used to carry off the filtered
water; to hold back the sand and
gravel and to apply the wash water.
Many forms have been patented
and much money and effort ex-
pended to devise a satisfactory
type. The last word has evidently
not yet been written on this feature.
Where the gravel is coarse and
heavy and remains in place, and
does not allow the sand to reach the
bottom, it probably makes little
difference what tj^e of strainer is
employed as long as the manifold
is properly designed and the capac-
ity of the strainer approximately
correct, except in so far as the ex-
pense and durability are con-
cerned.
Manifolds
The proper design of the mani-
fold is one of the essentials to a
Water Faiifioatisi
70
American Steel and Wire Company
free and perfect washing filter. The
requisite is that each square foot
of the filter bottom shall always
have the same volume and pressure
of wash water applied to it that
every other square foot has. In
order to do this the cross sectional
area of the manifold usually de-
creases asitslengthincreases. Where
the filter bottom is large, as in the
case of a four-million-gallon unit,
the filter bed is generally divided
into sections and each section is
supplied by a branch of the main
manifold, and these in turn reduce
as the length increases.
The object is to maintain an
equal velocity of flow in the mani-
fold through any and all cross sec-
tions of the same, both when wash-
ing and when filtering. This can
only be approximated in practice,
but the best results are attained
the nearer the attainment is to the
ideal.
Filter Controllers
In the old style filters no eflluent
controllers were employed. The
plant at Lorain, built in 1896-97,
had none, and some plants built
recently have not been provided
with these devices. If the operator
possesses sufficient skill and uses
care in handling the valves, equally
as good bacterial results may be
obtained without controllers as
have been obtained with the ordi-
nary old style fixed rate controllers.
In the hands of unskilled and care-
less operators the hand regulated
filter is liable to give very erratic
results, and in these cases the fixed
rate type first introduced tends to
render the results less erratic.
Constant Rate Controllers
The object of this type of con-
troller was to maintain a constant
and uniform rate of flow through
the filter to the clear well or high
service pumps. When a filter had
just been washed and thrown into
service it tended to pass too much
water. If the effluent valve was
fully opened at such a time and left
open, the rate of filtration was ex-
cessive, in some cases as high as
250 million gallons of water per
acre per diem. Under such condi-
»tions, the sand bed rapidly clogged
and the rate decreased proportion-
ally, although excellent bacterial
results could be obtained if the co-
agulation was adapted for the rate.
This was fully proven by the Louis-
ville experiments previously re-
ferred to. The length of run was
usually very short and the percent-
age of wash water very high. By
only partially opening the effluent
valve at the beginning of the run
and gradually opening it at long
time intervals at the start and at
shorter intervals as the length of
run increased, the time period be-
tween washings was increased, and
while the rate of filtration never
rose as high, the amount of water
passed between washings was in-
creased and the percentage of wash
water decreased.
This caused the introduction of
the fixed rate type of controller.
When a filter is clean and has an
available loss of head of twelve feet,
Water Pnrificadon
71
if the entire available head is em-
ployed at the commencement of the
run, the rate of filtration thus es-
tablished can never be increased,
but will decrease very gradually at
first, but much more rapidly as the
length of the run increases. If part
of this head be held back the rate
at the start will be lower. As the
friction in the bed increases, due
to a gradually accumulating load
of coagulant and impurities caught
and retained by the sand, more and
more of the reserve head can be
brought into play to overcome the
bed resistance until the entire avail-
able twelve-foot head shall have
been utilized and the rate can be
maintained constant and uniform
up to this time.
The controller sought to accom-
plish this function by throttling the
effluent at the start and gradually
opening the throttle as the head
was consumed and the friction in-
creased, thus establishing a fixed
rate of discharge from the filter.
Those first introduced sought to
accomplish this by utilizing the
flow from the filter to actuate the
throttling device automatically and
govern the flow in this manner.
These devices are still made and
sold, but their use is becoming less
common and they will probably
continue to lose popularity until
entirely replaced by the newer and
more satisfactory type. The reason
forthis lies in the difficulty of design-
ing and manufacturing a controller
of this tjrpe which will give a good
control. The power available from
the flow from the filter is not suffi-
cient to overcome a sticking throttle
and it is practically impossible to
devise a throttle which will always
act as a throttle and never stick, or
which will always move as required
under very slight increases or de-
creases of head.
Ovemmniii^
If it does not do so, the power
has to accumulate until it becomes
sufficient to overcome the resist-
ance, and when this happens the
throttle moves abruptly and con-
sequently overruns, and this sudden
opening or closing of the throttle
causes an hydraulic blow to be
delivered to the filter bed, and
may cause the filter to break,
either partially or wholly.
Breaking Beds
In other words, it causes the layer
of mineral matter on the bed to be
disturbed either to a very slight
extent which may not be easily
detected, or to such an extent as
to cause the water passing the filter
to become noticeably turbid. In
such cases the bacterial results are
adversely affected. In case of a bad
break the bacterial efficiency may
be almost wholly or even com-
pletely destroyed. An operator
can manipulate a controller of this
type so as to cause a filter to break
very badly, and where this can be
done by manipulation, it may rea-
sonably be expected to occur acci-
dentally, due to sand particles
passing the strainer system and
lodging in the working parts of the
controller, thus causing it to stick
72
American Steel and Wire Company
and to refuse to move on slight
changes of pressure.
Ne-wer Type
The newer type overcomes this
difficulty by introducing an outside
power capable of operating the
throttling device, irrespective of
the opposition offered by sand
particles or other similar influences,
and if this power is properly applied
such a controller becomes a very
useful and satisfactory device.
While a fixed rate controller of
this type fulfills the desires of some
engineers, it fails entirely to satisfy
the demands of others. In the
early days of the work, it was as-
sumed that the fixed rate con-
troller was the best solution of
control, and because this idea was
the one earliest advanced and most
widely advertised, it has become a
matter of course, and many do not
really think there can be an3rthing
different and still satisfactory.
Variable Rate Controllers
However fixed this idea may have
become, it is not possible to dispute
the fact that a fixed rate type of
controller fails in some respects to
meet conditions as they exist in the
average filter plant. The reason for
this is that few plants, if any, have
fixed rate conditions. Consump-
tion varies, and usually this varia-
tion is relatively large during differ-
ent hours of the day and night. In
such a plant the volume of water
discharged from the filters must
vary accordingly or else the plant
must be equipped with a clear well
which is sufficiently large to take
care of these variations in demand.
Very few filter plants are provided
with clear wells of this size, and
therefore conditions necessitate
changing the rate of filtration in all
filters to meet the demand, or the
cutting in and cutting out of filters,
as occasion may require, in order
to maintain the necessary storage
of filtered water. Where the filters
are cut in and out of service to
meet the consumption demand,
some of the filters are out of service
nearly all the time and others part
of the time. Some years ago some
engineers began to see this was
poor practice. Allowing a filter to
remain out of service for a day or
week does it no good and is liable
to do it a great deal of harm. Bed
growths may start and become very
annoying. It is not good business
to allow a large and costly equip-
ment to lie idle and unproductive,
if it can be avoided. Lying idle in
this case means more rapid deter-
ioration than would occur in con-
tinuous use.
Economy
The most important objection to
this method of operation is found
in the fact that it is cheaper to
operate a plant at low speed than
at high, and better results from
every viewpoint can be obtained at
a low rate than at a higher.
It is essential, however, that the
demand for water shall always be
promptly and completely met, and
therefore means must be provided
to meet any demand within the
Water Pnrification
73
capacity of the plant. The real
problem is, therefore, how to pro-
vide a type of controller which will
adjust itself to the consumption
demand and control the rate of fil-
tration below any given maximum
down to zero in synchronism with
the high service pumping rate, and
to do so without the possibility of
breaking filter beds. It is essential
that the maximum rate at which the
filters can be made to operate shall
never exceed a predetermined rate,
and this rate should never exceed
the limit of safety, and it is also
desirable that this type of controller
shall be capable of being set at any
fixed rate from zero to the maxi-
mum without rriuch effort or ex-
penditure of time on the part of
the operator.
Earl Variable Rate Controller
This problem was finally solved
by the General Superintendent of
the Sewerage & Water Board, New
Orleans, La., and is known as the
Earl Variable and Fixed Rate Con-
troller. The maximum rate was
fixed at 175,000,000 gallons per
acre per diem for the New Orleans
plant, and this has proven very
satisfactory for their conditions
and plant.
In this device, the height of
water in the clear well controls the
filters. As the clear well rises above
a given level, all the filters are auto-
matically and equally reduced in
rate of filtration, and as the level
falls below a given point all the fil-
ters are automatically and equally
increased in rate of filtration. With
such 'an equipment all the filters
can be maintained in operation all
the time. The level of water in the
clear well can be held within any
two predetermined or desired lev-
els, one minimum, below which the
clear well level will not fall, and one
maximum, above which the level
will not rise, and these two points
can be established at will within
any limit which may be called for.
In other words, the tendency of
the device is to maintain a constant
level, which in turn means a con-
stant reserve supply of water in
the clear well, irrespective of the
amount taken from the clear well
by the high service or wash pumps
within the limits of the filtration
capacity of the plant.
Ad'V'anta^es
The most important and bene-
ficial result is that of being able to
maintain all the filters in service at
all times at equal rates of filtration
and at a rate which is only high
enough to maintain the supply of
filtered water. Any sudden in-
crease in the service consumption,
such as would be caused by a large
fire or a break in the high service
distribution system, does not sud-
denly affect the rate of filtration,
as the clear well acts to prevent
sudden changes of rate.
Another very desirable feature
of this type of filter controller is
the additional available overload
capacity which may automatically
be called for at any time.
With older types the operator
is compelled to take some time
74
American Steel and Wire Company
and labor if the rate of filtration
is increased beyond the normal
125,000,000-gallon rate. In some
types this rate cannot be exceeded
and in others only with consider-
able labor and time.
With the Earl type the controllers
automatically respond to any de-
mand by the high service pumps
up to an overload capacity of 40
per cent. , which is as high a rate as
should ever be used.
As the high service pumps drop
the load, the controllers automat-
ically reduce the rate accordingly,
and this feature practically means
about 40 per cent, additional filter
capacity for emergency use and is
therefore of real value.
The device is simple and positive
in operation and not easily put out
of order. In fact, it has proven
remarkably reliable and fool-proof,
and of value both at New Orleans
and other points where it has been
installed.
Meter Controller
The older type of Earl Controller
seems likely to be supplanted by
the newer type of Earl Meter Con-
troller. This later developement
has all the desirable features of the
earlier design and in addition the
flow of the water from the filter is
indicated by an indicating device,
recorded on a chart by a recording
device and integrated by a counter
similar to an ordinary water meter
clock counter.
The desirability of doing this has
long been apparent to all practical
filter operators. Under present
practice no one can tell even ap-
proximately how much water is
passing a filter at any moment or
for any period of time.
The operator knows some filters
filter more water than others be-
tween washings, but no one can tell
how much or how little. A device
of this kind will enable the operator
to gain an accurate knowledge of
what each filter is doing every day
and the added economy and cer-
tainty of results will be increased
correspondingly.
This new type will not only en-
able the operator to gain an in-
telligent knowledge of what each
filter is doing every moment of the
day and night, but it will also
serve as a check on careless or in-
efficient operation or waste of
wash water.
The difficulty of locating filtra-
tion troubles and inefficiencies
should be practically eliminated by
this device, and its adoption both
for the purposes of filter control
and chemical control seems very
probable.
Wash Water
This unquestionably marks an
advance in this particular point of
equipment and enables the operator
to do some things not previously
possible. The saving effected in
wash water, due to a larger quan-
tity of water passed between wash-
ings, is remarkable and tends to
decrease the cost of operation.
The ability to govern the supply
of filtered water and maintain a
given level in the clear well enables
Water Pnrificatioii
75
the plant to do just as good and
apparently as safe work with a
smaller clear well, thus materially
reducing the first cost of the plant.
Operation
Assuming the mechanical troubles
of the plant to have been overcome
and the plant in running order, the
first thing the operator desires to
know is how to start the purifica-
tion process. The first step is to
determine the amount of iron sul-
phate and caustic lime to be ap-
plied. Before this can be done to
best advantage, certain information
should be available:
First, turbidity of the raw water.
Second, character of the turbid-
ity.
Third, color of the raw water.
Fourth, amount of free carbonic
acid, CO2, if any.
Fifth, amount of normal or
monocarbonate alkalinity, if any.
Sixth, amount of bicarbonate
alkalinity.
Seventh, total alkalinity.
Eighth, rate of filtration.
Ninth, effective size of sand.
Tenth, time period required for
water to pass through the settling
basin. •
In order to obtain this data, the
operator will have to resort to some
simple chemical work to get part
of it and to measurements and cal-
culations for the remainder.
(1) Tnrbidity
One of the simplest and most
workable methods for determining
turbidity is that given by the
United States Geological Survey.
While this method may not be as
exact as some others, it is accurate
enough to serve all practical pur-
poses. The method is given in full
herewith as per Circular No. 8,
Division of Hydrography, United
States Geological Survey:
Diirision of HFdro^raphjr. Cirenlar No* 8
Quality of River Water
Department ol the Interior
United States Geological
Survey
Measurement ol Tnrbidity and Color
Water in its ideal condition is
perfectly clear and limpid, and has
a slightly blue color. Filtered
water, distilled water, and many
spring waters approach closely to
the ideal water. Most river waters
are, however, either colored by con-
tact with peat, muck, or decaying
vegetation, or turbid by reason of
mud or silt carried in suspension.
Muddy waters are often spoken of
as colored waters, and in a sense
this is correct where the mud con-
sists of clays or other materials
having distinct colors, but for con-
venience of classification it is better
to refer to such waters as turbid
waters and to limit the tejm **col-
ored waters" to those containing in
solution vegetable matters which
color them.
It has been observed that highly
colored waters are usually free from
turbidity, and vice versa, this being
due to the fact that colored waters
usually flow from drainage areas
underlain by hard rocks not easily
disintegrated, or from regions where
76
American Steel and Wire Company
the soils are firm or sandy, and
especially from swamps. On such
areas there is but little material
that would be washed from the
river banks and held in suspension,
while the coloring material is pres-
ent in the greatest abundance. In
many parts of the United States
shales or other soft materials are
the underlying'beds. These readily
disintegrate and form clay soils
that are readily washed by hard
rains. Waters from such areas are
usually turbid and very highly
colored.
Turbidity and color are prin-
cipally important in their effect
upon the appearance of water,
whereas the impurities discussed in
Circular No. 9 have absolutely no
effect upon its appearance, and can
be found only by their chemical
action.
Turbidity
The turbidity of water is a sub-
ject of great importance to the sani-
tary engineer. In questions of
water supply, turbidity is often the
important feature in the selection
of a source of town supply; the
number of days upon which the
turbidity is above certain fixed
standard is also important in that
it may determine the size of reser-
voir required to store clear water
sufficient to tide over the time of
greatest turbidity, or for the sedi-
mentation of matter suspended in
the reservoir water. The impor-
tance of this subject varies with the
part of the country studied, the
waters in the New England States
and New York being comparatively
clear, while in the Southern At-
lantic States and in the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys high turbidities
are the rule.
In the Northeast the terms "very
slight," "distinct," and "decided''
have been used by analysts to
express the amount of suspended
matter present. These degrees of
turbidity have been estimated by
the appearance of the -sample to
the eye when viewed toward the
light. As the importance of these
analyses has been more appre-
ciated, particularly in connection
with the purification of waters and
the extended studies upon waters
of high turbidity, it has been fo\ind
that a more definite scale was neces-
sary in order that proper compar-
isons of waters from various sources
might be made.
In the filtration of water the engi-
neer desires to know the amount of
coagiilant necessary to properly
clarify the water, and it has been
found that the turbidity gives a
reliable index of the quantity of
coagiilant required. The object of
the more recent studies has been,
therefore, to express turbidity nu-
merically on some scale, referred
to some standard, which can be
easily reproduced and will be per-
manent. There has been consider-
able difference of opinion as to the
proper standard for turbidity com-
parisons, and some confusion has
resulted. It is important that any
standard selected should be ap-
plicable to both field and laborator}'
practice, and that observations
Wmtrr Parificarfion
Ganaral Vl*w
AkroD, O.
New York Con
78
American Steel and Wire Company
made by different methods should
be readUy comparable.
The United States Geological
Survey has had occasion, from time
to time, to make observations of
turbidity of rivers of which discharge
measurements were made. Realiz-
ing the importance of a uniform
standard for turbidity, the Survey
has cooperated with Mr. Allen
Hazen and Mr. George C. Whipple
in order that such a standard might
be adopted. Mr. Hazen and Mr.
Whipple have made joint investiga-
tions and studies, and have recom-
mended the standard given below.
This will be used in the future by
the Survey, and it is hoped may be
generally adopted throughout the
United States.
Proposed Turbidity Standard
The standard of turbidity shall
be a water which contains 100 parts
of silica per. million in such a state
of fineness that a bright platinum
wire 1 millimeter in diameter can
just be seen when the center of the
wire is 100 millimeters below the
surface of the water and the eye of
the observer is 1.2 meters above the
wire, the observation being made in-
the middle of the day, in the open
air, but not in sunlight, and in a
vessel so large that the sides do not
shut out the light so as to influence
the results. The turbidity of such
water shall be 100.
The turbidity of water more tur-
bid than the standard shall be
computed as follows: The ratio of
the turbidity of the water to 100
shall be as the extended volume is
to the original volume, when the
water is diluted with a clear water
until the mixture is of standard
turbidity.
The turbidities of waters lower
than the standard shall be com-
puted as follows: The ratio of the
turbidity of the water to 100 shall
be as the ratio of the original vol-
ume of water of standard turbidity
is to the extended volume when
such water is diluted with clear
water until its turbidity is equal to
that of the water under examina-
tion.
This standard can be used in both
field and laboratory. In the field
the wire method will be employed
as at present, except for a new
graduation, while in the laboratory
the methods of dilution and com-
parison now in use for the silica
standard will be employed.
Method of Application to the Plat-
inmn-Wire Process
A rod with a platinum wire in-
serted in it at a fixed point and pro-
jecting from it at a right angle will
be used as at present. The gradua-
tion shall be as follows: The grad-
uation mark of 100 shall be placed
on the head of the rod at a distance
of 100 millimeters from the center
of the wire. Other graduations will
be made, based on the best obtain-
able data, in such a way that when
a water is diluted the readings will
decrease in the same proportion as
the percentage of the original water
in the mixture. Such a rod, having
the graduation shown in the table
below, shall be known as the
United States Geological Survey
turbidity rod of 1902. When this
rod is immersed in water the visibil-
ity of the projecting platinum wire
at the depth from the surface
shown in the second column will
determine the degree of turbidity,
as indicated in the first column.
Water PHrifieatio]
Graduation of Turbidity Rod of 1902
Turbidity
Depth of Wire
Mm
Value on Recip-
rocal Sca^e
Turbidity
Depth of Wire
Mm.
Corresponding
Val-oe on Recsp-
rvxAlScjue
7
1095
0.023
70
138
0.1S4
8
971 .
0.026
75
130
0.196
9 i
873
0.029
80
122
0.208
10
794
0.032
85
116
0.219
11
729
0.035
90
110
0.230
12
674
0.038
95
105
0.242
13
627
0.041
100
100
0,254
14
587 .
0.013
110
93
0.273
15
551
0.016
120
86
0.-295
16
520
0.O49
130
81
0.314
17
493
0.052
140
76
.0.334
18 1
468
O.OM
150
72
0.35
19
446
0.057
160 ;
68.7
0.37
20
426
0.060
180
62.4
0.41
22 i
391
0.065
200 '
57.4
0.44
24 1
361
0.070
250
49.1
0.52
26
336
0.076
300
43.2
0.59
28
314
0.081
350
38.8
0.65
30
296
0.086
400
35.4
0,72
35
257
0.099
500
30.9
0.82
40
228
0.111
600
27.7
0.92
45
205
0.124
800
23.4
1.09
50
187
0.136
1000
20.9
1.21
55
171
0.148
1500
17.1
1.49
60
158
0.160
2000
14.8
1.72
65
147
0.172
3000
12.1
2.10
This table is compiled from ob-
servations made at Cincimiati, St.
Louis, New Orleans, Pittsburgh,
Brooklyn, Philadelphia, and Bos-
ton, for records of which we are
indebted to several observers. The
values of the turbidities by the
reciprocal scale are included in the
table for convenience, but they do
not form a part of the standard.
This graduation is subject to
revision whenever additional data
shall make it necessary, and revised
rods shall be designated by the
same name, but with the year of
revision substituted for 1902. The
revisions shall have as their basis
the one hundred mark, 100 milli-
meters from the wire.
Near the end of the rod, at a dis-
tance of 1.2 meters from the plat-
intnn wire, a wire ring shall be
placed directly above the wire,
through which the observer will
look, the object of the ring being
to control the distance from the
wire to the eye.
When the turbidity is greater
than 500 the water should be di-
luted before the observation is
made. When the turbidity is below
7 this method can not be used, and
comparison should be made with
the silica standard properly diluted
in bottles or tubes, as described by
Whipple and Jackson in Technol-
ogy Quarterly, Vol. XII, No. 4,
December, 1899.
80
American Steel and Wire Company
The number obtained by dividing
the weight of suspended matter in
parts per million by the turbidity
as obtained above shall be called
the coefficient of fineness. If
greater than unity it indicates that
the matter in suspension in the
water is coarser than the standard;
if less than unity, that it is finer
than the standard.
This standard is proposed with
the idea of combining the best fea-
tures of the platinum-wire and
silica methods of measuring turbid-
ities as commonly used, and of
avoiding, as far as possible, the ob-
jections to each.
The wire method is most conven-
ient as a field method. With the
reciprocal scale, which until now
has been used, it is open to the
serious objection that the readings
are not proportional to the amount
of turbidity-producing matter in
the water.
The silica standard is free from
this objection and is more con-
venient as a laboratory method,
but is not well adapted to field use,
and is open to the objection that
it is possible that the value may be
changed by variations in the fine-
ness of the silica particles compos-
ing the standard.
The standard now proposed is in-
tended to overcome the above-
mentioned defect in the platinum-
wire method with the reciprocal
scale, and at the same time to con-
trol the value of the silica standard.
Applying it in one way or the
other, it is adapted to both field
and laboratory use, and the results
obtained should check substan-
tially.
Method ol Making Observations
The method of making the ob-
servations by means of the plat-
inum wire is as follows: Take a
stick of wood about 6 feet long and
five-eighths of an inch square, more
or less, and insert a platinum wire
at a point about 1 inch from the
end, so that the wire will be at
right angles to the stick and project
at least 1 inch. The wire should be
0.04 inch or 1 millimeter in diam-
eter; the stick is then graduated,
the lines for the various turbidities
being at distances from the wire
shown in the table on page 2.
Observations of turbidity are
taken by putting the stick into the
water under examination as far as
the wire can be seen; the turbidity
is then read from the scale. This is
most conveniently accomplished by
having a second or smaller stick
placed in front of the first, the end
of which is brought to the water line
when the wire can just be seen.
Upon removing the two together
the position of the smaller stick on
the scale gives the turbidity.
Observations are to be taken in
all cases in open air, as too high re-
sults are obtained under a roof,
even with very good light ; and they
should preferably be taken in the
middle of the day and not in direct
sunlight. In case the sun is shining
the observer can stand so that his
shadow covers the water immedi-
ately about the stick and wire. The
observations are taken with the eye
n
of the observer at the ring bef ere
mentioned, 1.2 meters fnxr: the
wire, although some variation in
this does not materiallr inrnerxx
the result. The wire should be ke^t
bright and dean- In case it is I^n.
a clean bright pin can be used until
another wire can be obtar-red. If
the surface of the water in the
stream is agitated by currents,
waves, etc., or if the decth is nvt
sufficient to give the required in>
mersion, or if for anv leasoc ob-
servations can not be well taken
from the bank, a pail or tnb tnaj be
filled with water and the turhtiftv
observations taken in it. In manr
cases this procedure is y:^^^z^'£:
to measurement in a stream, hnt
the observation must be tak^m in>
mediately upon ^Xr. z iz tlie vessrh
The diameter of the vesserl £?-'>::li
be equal to at least twice the i-rstr.
at which the wire is in:mer=»ei, an
otherwise the results ^A the rea.-ffni'
will be affected-
When the turi>idity -x t?.*: "K-at-ir
is above 500, that is, if the t. fr^ -j^r.
be seen through less than 1 fr.,?- ,:
water, the results octafr.^ff '- v i:-
rect measurement ar*: ni.t a.7'-ri V:
Such water should be ifh-t'ri '- " 1
2, or 4 voltmies of C£:isr Tri:,-::r fr. t?.-r
pail or tub, and thor^'-^zhly rr.:?:-; 1
The turbiditv is tak^n a-, c.V,-'^
described, and tntiltichvd '.^' t?-^
ratio that the total v/.—'-r v: th^r
water bears to the wat^^ in th '; r.-ir-
ture. Clear water can r^ ^'.*.i:r_^ri
from a well or from an- r'r.^ v. jir,.*:
of water obviouslv clear, '.r n'^rlv
so. The statenent of turV.t-tv in
such cases should cntarn zr.^c/^^
Thzi^ tr,at the observations were
takfT. in this way. and sbocld give
of cfh:ti:>n-
If watiers have a ttirb-idit^r less
'*ing can not be
t meth>is miist be
The wire tneth>l has been de-
s~**>rf frr: in the circtnar, as it is
♦ *. .^ ♦■ *" <^ •^"^ ^ V- ^» ■•»-• £*»' ^« i-rf* ♦ •" ^» » ■ *•*■- ^ ■'etc
stan:::arn5 ot crjcnziarts^-n; seconi
the dianhani-.tneter. These are
V.th lahcrrav^r-/ methods, and hare
beien de=.irivrf hv l^r. Georze G.
VThr^C'.e an-t I>ant.e. ^- Jacicson-in
. 'xr.n „r. vi~/ vuarteny, - % oa-
•^*'
X:i. ::>. 4 Iz-cesr-ber, IsCrt*.
^ r.t: "^ -^tintrrr.-*C''^v^t met.nKi.
>• -^ »«•-.-—- .;|r- .-*-»• " _^rj^ S.
* • ^ -
1 >4>,
* ^^ ^ «*
-^ • rf--
-7t^
IC
«
'- --—
— -^
. a
— -
^* " ^
«
en
*"•
^ - ^;.
--- :
-f:
-"»!
«f^. ._ ^ -■-
• I - •
an:: «v-
V > * — —
'i^ ''^'' 25 ->'
i?" ^~ ^*~
82
American Steel and Wire Company
shall be kept in 100 cubic centi-
meter Nessler jars of such diameter
that the liquid shall have a depth
between 20 and 25 centimeters and
shall be protected from the dust.
The color of a sample shall be ob-
served by filling a similar tube
with water and comparing it with
the standards. The observation
shall be made by looking vertically
downward through the tubes upon
a white surface placed at such an
angle that light is reflected upward
through the column of liquid. The
reading shall be recorded to the
nearest unit. Waters that have a
color darker than 70 shall be diluted
before making the comparison, in
order that no difficulties may be en-
countered in matching the hues.
Water containing matter in suspen-
sion shall be filtered until no visible
turbidity remains. If the sus-
pended matter is coarse, filter paper
may be used for this purpose ; if the
suspended matter is fine, the use of
the Berkfeld filter is recommended.
The use of a Pasteur filter is to be
avoided as it exerts a decolorizing
action.
It is impracticable to carry the
standard tubes above described into
the field for observations, and yet
field observations are of great con-
venience and value to the sanitary
engineer, and in general to the in-
vestigations of the United States
Geological Survey.
Color Standards. — Disks of col-
ored glass have been prepared by
Mr. Allen Hazen, in cooperation
with the Survey, as standards for
measuring color of water in the
field. These disks have been rated
by Mr. George C. Whipple to corre-
spond with the platinum-cobalt
standard. The color is measured
by balancing the color of the water
in a metallic tube with glass ends
against the colors of glass disks of
known value. The nimiber on each
disk represents the corresponding
color of a water. This is not a new
standard, but a new aj)plication of
an old standard. The glass disks
are rated to correspond with the
platinum-cobalt color standard.
The process bears the same relation
to the usual laboratory process that
an aneroid barometer bears to a
mercurial barometer. The metallic
tubes and glass standards are more
portable and better adapted to
field use than the Nessler tubes and
color solutions heretofore used. The
standards are disks of amber-col-
ored glass, mounted with alumi-
num. Each disk carries two num-
bers. One number is over 100, and
is a serial number for the purpose
of identification. The other num-
ber is less than 100, and shows the
color value of the disk ; that is to
say, the color of each disk is equal
to the color of a solution of the
designated number of parts per
million of platinum with the re-
quired amount of cobalt to match
the hue when seen in a depth of 2O0
millimeters. When a water comes
between two disks, its value can be
estimated between them by judg-
ment. Two or more disks can be
used, one behind the other, in
which case their combined value is
the sum of the individual values.
Aiu«rioaii St«el and Wire Company
Akron, O., Filter Bottom
Water Purilioation
83
By combining the disks of a series
in different ways a considerable
number of values can be produced,
allowing the closer matching of
many waters.
Filling the Tubes, — The tube,
having an aluminum stopper, is to
be filled with water, the color of
which is to be determined. Rinse
the tubie once or twice by filling and
emptying it. The second tube, hav-
ing the clips to hold the glass disks,
is made much like the one holding
the water, to facilitate comparison.
Theoretically, this tube should be
filled with distilled water. Prac-
tically, it makes very little diflfer-
ence whether it is filled with dis-
tilled water or empty. Use distilled
water when it is convenient to do so,
and when distilled water of tmques-
tionable quality is at hand; other-
wise wipe the inside of the tube dry
to prevent fogging of the glass ends,
and proceed with the tube empty.
Holding the Tubes. — Hold the
tubes at such distance from the eye
that the sides of the tubes just can-
not be seen. This occurs when the
near end of the tube is 6 or 8 inches
from the eye. Hold the tubes at
such an angle that both can be seen
at once with one eye. Good results
cannot be obtained in any other
way. Let the tubes change places
once or twice, as sometimes the
light on the right and left is not
quite equal.
Background. — There should be a
clear white background with a
strong illimiination. The best re-
sults cannot be obtained with
either too little or too much light.
In a gray day look at the sky near
the horizon and away from the sun.
In a bright day look at a piece of
white paper or a tile upon which a
strong light falls. The white sur-
face may be vertical and the tubes
held horizontally, or the tubes may
be held at an angle directed down-
ward toward a horizontal surface,
as may be most convenient. Good
restxlts cannot be obtained by arti-
ficial light.
Turbid Water. — The colors of
very turbid waters cannot be
measured in this way. Slight tur-
bidities do not interfere seriously
with the results. Waters too turbid
for direct observations should be
filtered through thick filter paper
before being tested ; and in case the
suspended matter causing the tur-
bidity is fine in grain and large in
amount, even this method may fail.
The turbidity of water should be
taken as far as possible in connec-
tion with color observation, except
in cases where it is obvious from
inspection that there is practically
no turbidity.
Highly Colored Waters. — Some
waters will be found having a higher
color than can be matched by the
standards. In general, waters with
colors above 100 should not be
matched in 200-millimeter tubes,
and the results with waters having
colors below 80 will be considerably
more accurate than with more
highly colored ones. Two proced-
ures are possible with waters having
higher colors: namely, to dilute
with distilled water before measur-
ing the color, or to use shorter
American Ste«l and Wire Company
Akron, O., Filter Bottom
M
Water Purification
83
By combining the disks of a series
in different ways a considerable
number of values can be produced,
allowing the closer matching of
many waters.
Filling the Tubes. — The tube,
having an aluminum stopper, is to
be filled with water, the color of
which is to be determined. Rinse
the tube once or twice by filling and
emptying it. The second tube, hav-
ing the clips to hold the glass disks,
is made much like the one holding
the water, to facilitate comparison.
Theoretically, this tube should be
filled with distilled water. Prac-
tically, it makes very little differ-
ence whether it is filled with dis-
tilled water or empty. Use distilled
water when it is convenient to do so,
and when distilled water of tmques-
tionable quality is at hand; other-
wise wipe the inside of the tube dry
to prevent fogging of the glass ends,
and proceed with the tube empty.
Holding the Tubes. — Hold the
tubes at such distance from the eye
that the sides of the tubes just can-
not be seen. This occurs when the
near end of the tube is 6 or 8 inches
from the eye. Hold the tubes at
such an angle that both can be seen
at once with one eye. Good results
cannot be obtained in any other
way. Let the tubes change places
once or twice, as sometimes the
light on the right and left is not
quite equal.
Background. — There should be a
clear white background with a
strong illumination. The best re-
sults carniot be obtained with
either too little or too much light.
In a gray day look at the sky near
the horizon and away from the sun.
In a bright day look at a piece of
white paper or a tile upon which a
strong light falls. The white sur-
face may be vertical and the tubes
held horizontally, or the tubes may
be held at an angle directed down-
ward toward a horizontal surface,
as may be most convenient. Good
results cannot be obtained by arti-
ficial light.
Turbid Water. — The colors of
very turbid waters cannot be
measured in this way. Slight tur-
bidities do not interfere seriously
with the results. Waters too turbid
for direct observations should be
filtered through thick filter paper
before being tested; and in case the
suspended matter causing the tur-
bidity is fine in grain and large in
amount, even this method may fail.
The turbidity of water should be
taken as far as possible in connec-
tion with color observation, except
in cases where it is obvious from
inspection that there is practically
no turbidity.
Highly Colored Waters. — Some
waters will be found having a higher
color than can be matched by the
standards. In general, waters with
colors above 100 should not be
matched in 200-millimeter tubes,
and the results with waters having
colors below 80 will be considerably
more accurate than with more
highly colored ones. Two proced-
ures are possible with waters having
higher colors: namely, to dilute
with distilled water before measur-
ing the color, or to use shorter
86
American Steel and Wire Company
tion employed multiplied by 20
gives the number of parts per
million of free carbonic acid.
0.7X20=14, or the nimiber of
parts per million of free carbonic
acid present in the sample of water
examined. The results of these
titrations are usually stated in
parts per million.
Normal or Monooarbonate
Alkalinity
There are three kinds of alkalin-
ity which may be present at some
time or other in water where the
American Steel & Wire Company's
process is employed, or any other
process employing lime for chem-
ical treatment. These are caustic
or hydrate alkalinity, normal or
monooarbonate alkalinity, and bi-
carbonate alkalinity. The sum of
all the alkaliriities is called the total
alkalinity. A' water in the natural
state may have two different kinds
of alkalinity at the same time, and
this also holds true of a water
which has been treated with a
caustic or hydrate. Not more than
two kinds of alkalinity can ever
be present in one sample of water,
so if we find two we need not expect
to find the third in any sample.
If a water be possessed of an
alkaline reaction we are always
assured that there will be present
some calcium carbonate. In case
the water is not of an alkaline
reaction, but, on the contrary, of
an acid reaction due to the pres-
ence of mineral acid, it is equally
certain that there will be no car-
bonates of any kind present.
Indicators
In order to ascertain whether a
water has an acid or alkaline reac-
tion the chemist resorts to the use
of certain indicators or test solu-
tions. There are a large number
of these indicators or test solutions,
each one having its peculiar proper-
ties and uses. In addition to the
test solutions used as indicators
there are other indicators which are
employed in the dry state. Some
of these are in very common use,
such for example as litmus paper,
tumeric paper, and others of a
similar nature.
Most of the indicators which are
used in the dry state or in the form
of papers are of little real value
in water work, due to the fact that
they are not possessed of sufficient
delicacy or positiveness to be
adapted for these purposes.
It will be necessary for the oper-
ator to have a working knowledge
of the use of these indicators before
he can use them intelligently. The
reasons for their employment should
be thoroughly understood, and in
order that he may obtain this
information we shall incorporate
here a brief discussion of the sub-
stances used as indicators in this
process and their peculiarities.
The meaning of the word ** indi-
cator '* is almost too obvious to
require explanation. A chemical
indicator is one which is used to
indicate the completion or begin-
ning of a chemical reaction.
All water supplies fall in one of
two classes. Thus a water may
have either an acid or an alkaline
Water Parilication
87
reaction. Theoretically it might
have neither an alkaline nor acid
(reaction, but be neutral. How-
ever, no natural water supplies are
ever found in the neutral state,
although some of them closely
approach this.
Practically all water supplies
contain both acid and alkaline
matters, but an acid and an alkali
cannot exist in one solution at the
same time. When an acid and an
alkali are brought together a chem-
ical combination occurs and salts
or neutral substances are usually
produced. If the quantity of al-
kali or base be exactly sufficient to
unite with the quantity of acid
present, the occurring chemical
reaction is completed and neither
alkali nor acid is left in excess,
and the solution is therefore neutral,
but if there be a slight excess of
acid over that required to neu-
tralize the alkali, the resulting solu-
tion will be possessed of an acid
reaction. In case the quantity of
acid is insufficient to neutralize
the alkali present, there will be an
excess of alkali remaining in solu-
tion and the solution will therefore
be possessed of an alkaline reaction.
Only in cases where the quantity
of alkali and acid is exactly suffi-
cient to neutralize each other will
the result be a neutral solution,
and in natural water supplies this
state of affairs never occurs.
A distilled water may be pro-
duced which contains neither acid
nor alkali and which is therefore
neutral, and all distilled water
used for chemical purposes in
connection with water work should
answer this requirement. Neu-
tral substances may be dissolved
in a distilled water without chang-
ing its neutrality, but if an acid or
alkali be dissolved in distilled
water it immediately becomes acid
or alkaline in character.
In order to determine whether a
given water is possessed of an acid
or alkaline reaction the chemist
resorts to the use of indicators as
previously stated. The usefulness
of these indicators depends upon
their property of changing color in
an acid or alkaline solution. Thus
an indicator is of one color in an
acid solution and of another in an
alkaline solution.
Litmas
Litmus paper when touched with
a drop of acid turns red, while
when touched with a drop of
alkali turns blue. Some indicators
are colorless in the presence of
an acid and assume a color when
brought in contact with an alkaline
solution.
All chemical indicators have cer-
tain pectiliarities which render them
more sensitive to certain acids or
alkalies than other indicators of
different chemical formation, and
this is the reason why chemists use
various kinds of chemical indicators.
For instance, one indicator may be
very sensitive to carbonic acid in
solution while another may be
relatively much less sensitive to
this partictilar acid. The chemist
in testing for carbonic acid would
naturally use the indicator which
88
American Steel and Wire Company
is best adapted to the purpose
desired and most sensitive to the
action of this acid. While litmus
paper is one of the most commonly
used indicators it is not sufficiently
sensitive for water work and is
therefore seldom or never used by
the expert water analyst.
The large number of chemical
substances found in solution in
water supplies renders it necessary
for the chemist to use the indicators
best adapted to determine the
presence of these substances.
Methyl Orange
Perhaps the indicator most gen-
erally employed in water purifica-
tion methods is methyl orange.
It is only within recent years that
the value of this substance has
become generally known. Some
operators still find difficulty in
using this indicator. The diffi-
ctdty in its use is twofold. First,
a great deal of methyl orange pre-
pared and sold for indicator pur-
poses is not suited for this work.
An indicator to be of any value
must have what is known as a
definite end point; in other words,
it must be very sensitive and must
give its characteristic reaction,
or change of color, sharply and
decisively the instant the end
point has been reached.
Volometrio Solations
Very dilute volumetric chemical
solutions are employed for tritra-
tion purposes, and it is necessary
to measure very accurately the
quantity of such chemical test
solutions in order to gain the de-
sired information. If an indicator
does not react sharply when the
end point has been obtained the
operator may add more of the
volumetric solution than is actually
required and thus obtain a false
reading.
Volumetric solutions are solu-
tions of known strength, i. e., a
definite voltune of the solution con- j
tains a known definite volume by
weight of the chemical reagent.
The operator in order to ascer-
tain the exact degree of acidity or
alkalinity of any given water takes
a known measured volume of the
water and places it in a proper
receptacle and adds the required
amount of indicator solution. If
methyl orange be used as an indi-
cator the mixture will have one
of two colors, either an orange
yellow shade, indicating an alkaline
water, or a reddish purple shade,
indicating an acid water.
In order to ascertain the amount
of acid or alkali present, the
operator adds an acid volumetric
solution to the mixture if the water
be shown to be alkaline, or an
alkaline volumetric solution if the
water be shown to be acid. This
is applied by means of a burette.
A burette is a long cylindrical
glass tube of uniform diameter
throughout its length. It is gradu-
ated from zero to the maximum ca-
pacity of the instrument, which
is usually 50 cubic centimeters.
The graduation is in units and
tenths. The instrument is ad-
justed to the zero mark by filling
Water Paiifioation
89
and drawing down to zero, being
careftd to remove all air from the
tip below the glass cock. The
volumetric solution is run into the
measured voltime of water drop
by drop until the indicator shows
a change of color, when the read-
ing of the burette is taken, in order
to determine the amount of vol-
umetric solution employed to bring
about the change of color. If the
proper indicator has been used,
one drop of an N/50 acid or alkali
should be sufficient to cause a
distinct change in the color of
the indicator. The exact point
at which this change of color begins
to occur is known as the end
point and it is essential that every
indicator shall be capable of pro-
ducing a sharp and decisive end
point. If the change in the color
of the indicator is not brought
about by one drop of an N/50
volumetric solution, the end point
cannot be said to be sharp. In
case the indicator does not give
the desired end point it is advisable
to make up a fresh solution of
indicator or to use a new source of
supply.
Phenolphthaleine
Care will have to be taken in
determining whether the indicator
is adapted to perform the work for
which it is being used, and this
cannot be done unless the operator
has a clear understanding of the
limitation of his indicators. We
are very frequently informed by
those who are not well posted in
this matter that certain waters
are possessed of a caustic alkalinity.
When asked what indicator was
used to determine the causticity,
the reply is almost always •* phe-
nolphthaleine." When asked how
the test was made the answer is
usually "by testing with phenol-
phthaleine."
As a matter of fact no one can
tell by the use of phenolphthaleine
only whether a given alkalinity is
of a caustic or monocarbonate
type, for the reason that the
phenolphthaleine indicator solu-
tion is just as sensitive to a. mono-
carbonate alkalinity as it is to a
caustic alkalinity. In other words,
if any of the monocarbonates of
lime, magnesia or soda be present,
the water will turn as pink under
the test with phenolphthaleine as
though the caustics of these bases
were present. Therefore it is im-
possible to use this indicator for
this particular purpose unless we
use something else in conjunction
with it.
Silver Nitrate
The only indicator in ordinary
use for determining directly the
presence of a caustic is that of
silver nitrate solution. If a few
drops of a 5 per cent, silver
nitrate test solution be added to 5
cubic centimeters of the water to
be tested, the formation of a
yellowish or brownish yellow color
indicates the presence of caustic
alkalinity. If the mixture remains
clear or milky white with no tinge
of yellow, caustics are not present
to any considerable extent. This
9()
American Steel and Wire Company
test with nitrate of silver, however,
is not very sensitive and it does
not give any information regard-
ing the quantity of caustics present.
Caastio Alkalinity
In most instances it is desirable
to know not only that caustics are
present, but also to know the
quantity present in any water
supply, and this information cannot
be obtained by the use of nitrate
of silver solution. To do this we
are compelled to utilize the rather
significant property of phenol-
phthaleine. This indicator turns a
purplish red if monocarbonates or
caustics be present in solution, but
if there be no caustics or monocar-
bonates and only bicarbonates, the
solution remains white or milky.
Monocarbonate Alkalinity
It has also been stated that if a
water containing monocarbonates
be treated with carbonic acid, any
monocarbonates which are present
can readily be converted into
bicarbonates. It ha.s also been
shown that monocarbonates of
lime or magnesia when treated
with sulphuric acid are converted
into stilphates and carbonic acid
is liberated in the reaction.
Now if we assume a solution con-
taining ten milligrams of calcium
monocarbonate alkalinity with no
caustic or bicarbonate alkalinity
present, it will be obvious that if
we run in 5 cubic centimeters of an
N/50 sulphtuic acid solution which
contains just exactly sufficient sul-
phtuic acid to neutralize 5 milli-
grams of calcium monocarbonate,
CaCOs, we will have converted
5 milligrams of monocarbonate of
lime into an equivalent quantity of
calcium sulphate and will have
liberated an equivalent quantity
of carbonic acid. The carbon
dioxide so liberated will imite with
the other 5 milligrams of calcium
monocarbonate, forming an equiv-
alent quantity of calcium bicar-
bonate and there will be left in
solution an alkalinity neither mono-
carbonate nor caustic; the entire
remaining alkalinity being of the
bicarbonate type.
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
With the last drop of the 5 cubic
centimeters of N/50 acid so applied
the color of the indicator will change
and the pink color imparted by the
phenolphthaleine test solution com-
pletely disappear. If we now add
one drop of a saturated solution of
methyl orange the solution will
turn a lemon yellow, thus indicat-
ing an additional alkalinity in
excess of that shown by phenol-
phthaleine, and the use of an addi-
tional 5 cubic centimeters of the
N/50 acid will be required to
neutralize the bicarbonate alka-
linity created by the addition of the
acid employed to discharge the
color imparted in the first place \)y
phenolphthaleine, and convert the
lime contained therein into sulphate
of lime. When this has been done,
then the addition of another drop of
the acid solution will cause the
lemon yellow color imparted by
the methyl orange to change to a
darker shade.
Water Purilication
91
End Point
A certain difficulty is experienced
by some operators in detecting
this change of shade. Those oper-
ators who are partially or com-
pletely color blind in respect to
the yellows and reds will probably
find it impracticable to use this
indicator with any degree of satis-
faction. Those who have a keen
sense of discrimination between
yellow and reds will find that the
ability to discover this change
. becomes very acute with a little
practice.
Much of the methyl orange sold
for use as indicator is not suitable
for this purpose and will not give
a sharp end reaction, but we have
never experienced any difficulty
in obtaining methyl orange which
gave entirely satisfactory results
when we purchased Gruebler*s
Methyl Orange, sold as a staining
agent and used for microscopical
work. Although this dye is pre-
pared for other purposes, it is
eminently satisfactory for indi-
cator purposes and is very much
superior to that ordinarily pre-
pared for use as an indicator.
Control
In all cases where an operator is
attempting to use an indicator it is
well to resort to the use of a *' con-
trol." This *' control" consists of
taking the same quantity of water
and placing it in another vessel
identical with that in use for the
test and treating it with exactly
the same quantity of indicator
solution. The two samples are
then placed side by side, one of the
two being titrated and the other
being used merely for comparison
in order to determine the exact
point at which the color change
takes place. Where there is a little
difficulty in determining the end
point, the ability to compare the
color which is changing, or about
to change, with a standard which
does not change, will often enable
the operator to catch the end point
more accurately than if no ** con-
trol" were to be used.
The change of color from lemon
yellow to purplish red which is un-
dergone in titrating against methyl
orange can be more readily dis-
cerned if performed in a yellow
light. A white or blue light on the
contrary renders the change less
easy to detect. The change in
color of methyl orange which occurs
when the exact end point is reached
is not a complete change of color.
Its first manifestation is a darken-
ing of the shade. No perceptible
change of color occurs at this point,
but the peculiar darkening effect,
which indicates the end point, is
easily distinguishable after a little
practice, and if properly performed
the work is equally as satisfactory
with this indicator as when lacmoid
or erythrosine is employed, and
the use of the latter indicators
involves considerable more diffi-
culty than that of methyl orange,
inasmuch as it becomes necessary
to boil the "water undergoing titra-
tion when lacmoid is used and to
shake it repeatedly when ery-
throsine is employed. It will there-
92
American Steel and Wire Company
fore repay the operator to spend
a little time and care in learning
to distinguish the exact end point
which is indicated by the methyl
orange test solution.
(5) (6) (7) Alkalinities
From the preceding it will be
seen that alkalinity may be of
three kinds, either caustic, mono-
carbonate or bicarbonate; that a
caustic alkalinity will give a pink
color to a phenolphthaleine . test
solution, and that the same color
will be developed by a monocar-
bonate alkalinity, and that there-
fore the fact that a water turns
pink when phenolphthaleine is
added does not necessarily mean
that caustics are present. Thus a
water may have only a caustic
alkalinity or the alkalinity may be
wholly monocarbonate in type or
it may be a mixture of the two.
Or it may be wholly of a bicar-
bonate type or a mixture of bi-
carbonate and monocarbonate al-
kalinity. A caustic alkalinity and a
bicarbonate alkalinity cannot, how-
ever, exist in the same water, and
where free carbon dioxide is found
neither caustic nor monocarbonate
alkalinity will be present.
From the preceding it follows
that six possible conditions of
alkalinity might arise. The oper-
ator must be able to determine
which one of these actually exists
in any given water. He must also
be able to tell just how much of any
type of alkalinity is present in any
water as well as the total com-
bined alkalinity of all types
present.
These six possible conditions
are as follows:
I. When caustic alkalinity only
is present.
II. When monocarbonate alka-
linity only is present.
III. When bicarbonate alka-
linity only is present.
IV. When a mixture of caustic
and monocarbonate alkalinity
exists.
V. When a mixture of mono-
carbonate and bicarbonate alkalin-
ity exists.
VI. When a mixture of bicar-
bonate alkalinity and free carbonic
acid exists.
(I) Caustic Alkalinity
When Caustic Alkalinity
ONLY IS Present. Samples react
alkaline to both phenolphthaleine
and methyl orange. One 50 c. c.
sample requires just as much N/50
acid to discharge color imparted
by phenolphthaleine as does an-
other 50 c. c. sample to bring about
characteristic color change im-
parted by methyl orange.
The volume of acid reqtdred to
discharge the color due to phenol-
phthaleine may be called the phenol-
phthaleine alkalinity or indicated
by the letter A, while that required
to bring about the color change due
to methyl orange may be called
the methyl orange alkalinity or
total alkalinity and designated by
the letter B.
The chemical reactions are shown
by the following equations, using
Water Pnrilicatioii
93
calcium hydrate as the caustic and
sulphuric acid as the volumetric
solution: 2Ca(0H), + USO* =
Ca(OH), + CaSO* + 2H,0.
2Ca(0H), + 2H,S04 = 2CaS04
-h 4H2O. No carbonic acid is
given off either by partial or com-
plete neutralization of the alkalin-
ity by acid. The volume of acid
required in both samples is the
same and is a measure of the
caustic alkalinity present.
(II) Monooarbonate Alkalinity
When Monocarbonate
Alkalinity only is Present.
Samples react alkaline to both
phenolphthaleine and methyl or-
ange. One 50 c. c. sample re-
quires just one-half as much N/50
acid to discharge color imparted
by phenolphthaleine as does an-
other 50 c. c. sample to bring about
characteristic color change im-
parted by methyl orange. The
chemical reactions are shown by
the following equations, using cal-
cium monocarbonate as the car-
bonate and sulphuric acid -as the
volumetric solution:' 2CaC08 +
H,S04 = C^LU^{C0,)2 + CaS04.
2CaC0, + 2H.SO4 = 2CaS04 +
2C0, + 2H2O. Carbonic acid is
given off in this reaction. When
just one-half of the amount of acid
required to completely neutralize
the alkalinity has been added one-
half of the original quantity of
calcium monocarbonate has been
converted into calcium sulphate
and the other half into calcium bi-
carbonate and no calcium mono-
carbonate is left in solution. Cal-
cium monocarbonate reacts alka-
line to phenolphthaleine, but cal-
cium bicarbonate reacts acid to this
indicator. Hence, when all the
monocarbonate has * been elimi-
nated, the color imparted by phenol-
phthaleine disappears. On the con-
trary, the monocarbonate and bi-
carbonate both react alkaline to
methyl orange even in the presence
of free carbonic acid and hence the
color change of this indicator will
not occty until all the monocarbon-
ate and bicarbonate alkalinities
have been converted into stdphates.
Methyl orange is, however, very
sensitive to free sulphuric acid and
a very minute quantity of acid
added after all of the carbonates
have been converted into sulphates
is sufficient to bring about a dark-
ening effect of this indicator. The
volume of acid required for the test
by phenolphthaleine is just one-half
that for methyl orange and the
volume of acid necessitated by the
methyl orange indicator is a meas-
ure of the monocarbonate alkalin-
ity present.
(Ill) Bicarbonate Alkalinity
When Bicarbonate Alkalin-
ity ONLY IS Present. Samples
react acid to phenolphthaleine but
alkaline to methyl orange. Free
carbonic acid does not react acid
to methyl orange but free mineral
acid does. As soon, therefore, as
sufficient acid has been added to
neutralize all the bicarbonate and
convert it into stdphate the further
addition of acid leaves a free
mineral acid to effect the color
94
American Steel and Wire Company
change. The following equations
show the chemical reactions, using
calcium bicarbonate as the bicar-
bonate and sulphuric acid as the
volumetric solution :
2CaH, (CO,)t + H.SO4 = CaSO*
+ CaHjCCOs)^ + 2C0, + 2H,0.
2CaH2 (003)2 + 2H2SO4 = 2CaS04
+ 4C0, + 4H,0.
Here the carbonic acid begins to
be given off as soon as any N/50
stdphuric acid is added and con-
tinues to increase in volume until
all the bicarbonate alkalinity is
destroyed. The volume of acid
required is a measure of the
bicarbonate alkalinity present.
(IV) Caustic and Monocarbonate
Alkalinity
When a Mixture of Caus-
tic AND Monocarbonate Alka-
linity Exists. Samples react al-
kaline to both phenolphthaleine
and methyl orange. A 50 c. c.
sample will require enough N/50
acid to neutralize all the caustic
alkalinity before any free carbonic
acid will be liberated. It will react
alkaline to phenolphthaleine to
this point and in addition it will
continue to react alkaline until
enough additional acid has been
employed to convert one-half of
the monocarbonates into sulphates,
and the other half into bicarbonates,
when the color of the phenolphtha-
leine will disappear. Another 50
c. c. sample will react alkaline to
methyl orange until all the caustics
and monocarbonates present in
the original sample have been con-
verted into sulphates, when the
color change will occur. The fol-
lowing chemical equations show the
reactions involved, using calcium
hydrate and monocarbonate as the
alkaline compounds and sulphuric
acid as the volumetric solution:
Ca(OH), + 2CaC0, + USO, =
CaSO* + 2CaC0, + HtO.
Ca(OH), + 2CaC0, + 2H,S04 =
2CaS04 + CaH^CCOa), + 2H,0.
Ca(OH)t + 2CaC0, + SH^SO^ =
3CaS04 + 2C0t + 4H,0.
When AX2 exceeds B, the alka-
linity is part caustic and part
monocarbonate, and (B — A) X2 =
monocarbonate alkalinity, which
we may designate by the letter C.
Then B — C = caustic alkalinity.
(V) Monocarbonate and Bioarbonate
Alkalinity
When a Mixture of Mono-
carbonate AND Bicarbonate Al-
kalinity Exists. The procedure
in this case is identical with that
in the preceding section as far as
obtaining readings is concerned
and likewise in the designations
of the readings.
In this case A X 2 is less than B.
A X 2 = monocarbonate alka-
linity.
B — (A X 2) = bicarbonate
alkalinity.
B = total alkalinity.
(VI) Bicarbonate and Free Carbonic
Acid Alkalinity
When a Mixture of Bicar-
bonate Alkalinity and Free
Carbonic Acid Exists. The pro-
cedure is the same as in 4 or 5, but
Water Pnrilioation
95
in this case A = 0; B = total
alkalinity, which is wholly bicar-
bonate.
The sample to which phenol-
phthaleine has been added f emains
colorless even upon the addition of
a drop or two of N/22 sodium
carbonate volumetric solution. (See
also page 85.)
When A is zero, it becomes neces-
sary to test for the presence of free
carbonic acid, as in this case; while
all the alkalinity will be of the
bicarbonate type, it may also be
found that some free carbonic
acid is also present, and if present
it is highly desirable to know this
and also to know exactly how
large an amount is present. A
method for determining this will
be found on page 84.
It must be remembered that
these alkalinities have been deter-
mined by using 50 c. c. samples.
50 c. c. of water weigh 50,000 mill-
igrams. Each c. c. of acid used
was equivalent to one milligram of
alkalinity. Therefore, the results
obtained are parts per 50,000. We
desire these results to be stated as
parts per million. Hence, we have
to multiply each one of our results
by 20 in order to convert them into
parts per million. The reason for
this is explained more fully on
page 85.
(8j Rate of Filtration
It is necessary to know the rate
at which the plant is working in
order to be able to properly charge
the chemical solution tanks. This
has been previously explained. (vSee
i-)a-:es 43-44.)
(9) Effective Size of Sand
It is desirable to have this infor-
mation in order to be able to antici-
pate what results may be looked for
with any given character of coagu-
lation going on the beds, when
taken in conjunction with the rate
of filtration which is employed.
The effective size of the sand can
usually be obtained from the filter
contractor, from the record, or from
the contractor furnishing the sand.
(10) Time period required for the
Water to pass throngh the Set-
tling Basins.
The cubic contents of the basins
in cubic feet multiplied by 7.5 gives
contents in gallons. This, divided
by number of gallons handled daily
and result multiplied by 24, gives
the capacity in hours or the period
of time for the water to pass
through the settling basins.
With this data the operator can
proceed to start the plant with fair
intelligence and success. By means
of the tables given herewith he
can see what the limitation on the
possible use of the chemicals may
be. From the data given he can
obtain a general idea of about the
chemical dosage he wishes to apply,
and can prepare his chemical solu-
tion accordingly and arrive at the
size of the orifice he wishes to use.
Tables of Limitations
One part of free mineral acid in a
water as reported in parts per
N
million by titration against -^ so-
dium carbonate will be neutralized
96
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
by the following quantities of
alkalies:
CaO . 561
Ca(OH), .741
CaCOs 1.001
CaH^CCO,), 1.621
NaaO .621
NaOH .800
Na^CO, 1 . 059
NaHCO, 1.679
One part of free carbonic acid
will be neutralized by the following
quantities of alkalies:
CaO 1 . 275
Ca(OH), 1.684
CaCO, 2.275
NaaO 1.411
NaOH 1 . 820
Na2C0, 2.409
One part of bi-carbonate alka-
linity will be neutralized or precipi-
tated by the following:
CaO . 560
Ca(OH)t .740
Na20 .620
NaOH .800
One part of monocarbonate al-
kalinity will be neutralized by the
following :
AU(S04)„ 18H,0 2.219
CO2 .439
FeSO*, 7H2O 2.776
One part of caustic alkalinity
will be neutralized by the following :
AUCSOO,, 18HtO 2.219
CO2 .879
FeSO*, 7H2O 2.776
One part of calcium oxide will be
neutralized by the following :
AUCSOOa, I8H2O 3.959
CO2 1.568
FeSO*, 7H,0 4.954
One part of Calcitun Hydrate
will be neutralized by the following :
Ah(SO0«, I8H2O 2.997
CO, 1 . 187
FeS04, 7H,0 3.751
One part of soditim oxide will be
neutralized by the following:
AUCSOOa, I8H2O 3.576
CO2 1.417
FeSO*, 7H,0 4.476
One part of sodium hydrate will
be neutralized by the following:
AUCSOOa, I8H2O 2.773
CO2 1.098
FeSO*, 7H2O 3.470
One part of sodium carbonate
will be neutralized by the following:
AUCSOOs, I8H2O 2.093
CO2 .414
FeSO*, 7H2O 2.619
In order to convert parts per
million to grains per gallon or
pounds per million gallons. (See
pages 121, 122 and 144.)
Much nonsense has been written
on the desirability of providing a
table whereby the operator can de-
termine at a glance the amount of
the chemical treatment which he
can employ under different condi-
tions of turbidity, color and bacte-
rial content of the raw water, in
order to produce a given degree of
purification. The removal of the
turbidity may require one treat-
ment. The removal of the bacteria
may take another, while the color
removal processes may require still
another. The end sought in the
three cases is different. One kind
of turbidity may require an entirely
different treatment from what an-
other will. Apart from this, there J
are a dozen different factors which
WaleT FiirifiMHan
Sbowiafl ComUnod Air Hud Wash Wall
WilkiDabDr«, Fa.
98
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company-
are introduced by the difference in
the construction of plants at differ-
ent points, all of which must be
taken into consideration in arriving
at a proper conclusion. A table of
this kind cannot be prepared which
can be relied upon to give the de-
sired information, and even if it
could, there remain serious doubts
as to the desirability of having such
a table. An operator should Tdc
possessed of at least an average
degree of intelligence. If he is not,
he has mistaken his calling and
shotdd seek employment where it is
not required.
If he has a fair degree of intelli-
gence, he requires no such table,
and can always use a simpler and
better method to arrive at the same
result in daily work, and do so
much mere intelligently and accu-
rately and with a far better under-
standing of what he is doing than
if he were to be blindly guided by
any table or set of fixed and im-
mutable rules or regtilations. An
operator worthy of the name is an
artist in a way. He creates his
results and does so as occasions
warrant and conditions permit. He
may produce the same result and
must be able to do so under varying
conditions in several different ways,
and can no more be bound by rules
than an artist could in producing
an exquisite piece of sculpture or
painting. Some initiative and imag-
ination are required, and thought
and skill must be given to the work.
He must know what he wants to do,
and if there is no way to do it, he
must create a way. Requests of
this kind seldom come from operat-
ing engineers or men who have a
practical knowledge of the subject.
For the beginner a better method is
available and should be employed.
Chemical Difficalties
From the preceding tables, certam
results from a given treatment can
be approximately foretold in some
respects, but there are so many fac-
tors entering into a question of this
kind in practical work that any
theoretical assumption must be
taken very carefully and tested out
to see how closely practice under
the local conditions may approach
the theoretical. The chemicals em-
ployed in water purification plants
are not chemically pure, as the
tables contemplate. Any departure
from chemical purity must there-
fore affect the values given in the
table. Worse than this, no two
lots of chemicals will be of exactly
the same composition, nor can one
lot of chemicals be relied upon to
remain of exactly the same strength
if maintained in storage tuider aver-
age conditions for any considerable
period of time. The moisture con-
tent may vary within relatively
large limits, thus changing the
strength. Lime in the form of
quick lime is constantly losing
strength and undergoing slakingand
may lose a notable amount of its
efficiency in thirty days' storage
during hot arid humid weather.
Chemical Wastage
Furthermore, some plants do not
utilize all the strength of the chem-
Water Parification
99
icals employed. Some is unavoid-
ably wasted in every plant, and the
amount varies with each one of
many possible different conditions.
Plants with mixing chambers show
a better and larger utilization of
lime and les? lime lost as unavail-
able than those without such cham-
bers. A dozen or more other con-
siderations enter into a problem of
this kind, any one of which may
upset any theoretical set of rules
or values and render them unre-
liable.
What an operator wants to know
is not how much chemical treatment
may be required to meet certain
hypothetical conditions which may
never arise, but how to be able to
meet any conditions or any set of
conditions which may arise, and by
the use of an average degree of in-
telligence, apply a treatment which
will be safe, certain and economical.
In order to do this, a simple rule
which can be varied as conditions
demand to meet the needs of the
hour and the idiosyncracies of the
plant, will be all that the ordinary
operator requires to meet the ordi-
nary conditions arising in work of
this kind.
Methods
In general, two plans or methods
of applying the American Steel &
Wire Company's process obtain.
The first has for its aim the clarifi-
cation of the water and a satisfac-
tory bacterial removal . The second
aims to accomplish the results of the
first and in addition to soften the
water either partially or wholly.
Clarifioation and Purilioation
The first plan involves less ex-
pense and trouble than the second
and is the one most frequently used
and advised. The broad general
rule, subject to many variations as
to details, necessary to handle the
conditions arising under the first
plan may be stated thus: Use
enough lime to absorb all of the free
and a small portion of the semi-com-
bined carbonic acid and enough iron
to produce a satisfactory coagula-
tion. This one rule properly applied
contains the secret of successful
operation and will meet any and all
possible conditions which may arise
with any supply to which the proc-
ess can be successfully applied.
Lime
In order to know whether enough
lime has or has not been applied, it
is only necessary to take a few
cubic centimeters of the water after
the iron and lime have been ap-
plied, let the sample stand for five
minutes, and add a drop or two of
phenolphthaleine test solution to it.
If a pink color develops immedi-
ately, enough lime has been used.
If no color develops, the quantity
of lime applied is too small and the
lime treatment must be increased.
This docs not, however, inform the
operator as to whether too much
lime has or has not been used. This
can readily be ascertained by the
following procedure:
Determine the alkalinities of the
raw and the filtered water. If the
total alkalinity of the raw water be
50 p. p.m. or more, and if there be
100
American Steel and Wire Company
any moncx^arbonate alkalinity pres-
ent, the amount of lime required
will be very small, usually not more
than 34 a-P-g- I^ such cases the
total alkalinity of the filtered water
will not be materially different from
that of the raw. If the total of the
raw water be less than 50 p.p.m.,
the total alkalinity of the filtered
water may exceed that of the raw
by a few p.p.m. If the total of the
raw water exceeds 50 p.p.m., the
total of the filtered water should
usually be from 2 to 6 p.p.m. less
than that of the raw. If the total
of the filtered water is 8, 10 or more
p.p.m. less than that of the raw
water, or if the monocarbonate
alkalinity of the filtered water in
such a case is more than 6 p.p.m.,
too much lime has been used and a
partial softening action is occurring,
and whenever softefling occurs,
some incrustation of the sand of the
filter beds must be expected. If no
softening is produced, and if the
lime used contains only a very
small amount of magnesia, not to
exceed one per cent., the amount of
such incrustation will be so small
as to be negligible.
Softening
Where partial or complete soften-
ing is produced, incrustation to
some extent must be looked for,
but softening and filtration are two
entirely different propositions ; and
while softening, even with its ac-
companying ills, usually pays many
times its cost, including incrusting
troubles, it should not be charged to
filtration cost but to its own proper
accotmt. To use an ordinary filter
plant as a softening plant is an
abuse and necessarily involves more
expense than would be the case if
the plant had been properly de-
signed to use a softening process.
Even though this abuse be resorted
to, the savings to the community
at large may be double or triple the
cost, but it is very difficult to ex-
plain and demonstrate this, and
hence softening, either partial or
complete, must be deemed a misuse
of this method of water purifica-
tion. Hence, the monocarbonate
alkalinity should be kept as near
3 or 4 p.p.m. in the filtered water
as is practical, and if the amount
should exceed 6 p.p.m. the lime
charge should be reduced. The
rule is to use only sufficient lime to
produce a monocarbonate alkalin-
ity of from 3 to 6 p.p.m. in the
filtered water and to use a lime
which contains only a negligible
quantity of magnesia. By follow-
ing the preceding simple rules the
process can be made available for
any water for which it is adapted.
Limitations
While this is true a great many
differing local conditions may affect
the practical working out of the
process for any one plant. Unfor-
tunately no process yet devised will
or can meet the requirements of all
water supplies and all the local con-
ditions of plant construction. There
are some plants which fail to func-
tion properly, due to peculiarities in
design or construction. In some
"^ cases it is a comparatively simple
Water Parification
I >
£ I
! i
I I
:!
Courtesy of Pittsburgh Filter Mfe. Co.
102
Amerioan. Steel and Wire Company
and inexpensive matter to change
them over into very successful
plants. • In others this does not hold
true. Where the arrangement of a
plant is such as to render it unsuited
for the application of the American
Steel & Wire Company's process,
while the conditions of the raw
water are such as to insure a suc-
cessful use of the process, it will
usually pay large dividends -to so
change the plant as to enable it to
employ the process. The advice of
competent engineers should be ob-
tained before such changes are
made. The services of our Engi-
neering Bureau- Water Purification
for consultation are free to those
wishing to avail themselves of the
Bureau. We are glad to co-operate
with engineers or cities and no ex-
pense is incurred for calling for
advice from this Bureau.
Exceptions
Certain peculiarities of plans
sometimes render it advisable to
depart from the rules previously
given in order to meet temporary
conditions caused by changes in the
natural water. Thus a certain type
of turbidity may prove to be much
more difficult to handle than the
normal, due to inefficient mixing
chamber action or entire lack of
mixing chamber. In some in-
stances where this has occurred a
freer use of lime during the abnor-
mal turbidity has been found ad-
vantageous. Where this obtains
enough lime can be employed for
a few days at a time to effect a par-
tial softening if the total alkalinity
will permit of this without bringing
about a caustic alkalinity. The
operator shotdd take care to never
use enough lime to show any caus-
tic alkalinity in the filtered water,
A water which contains a few parts
of caustic alkalinity will not be
seriously objectionable for domestic
use unless lead services are used,
but it is very much better to re-
strict the use of the lime to a point
where there is no danger of this
occurring. Where partial or com-
plete softening is desired the rule
previously given is changed and
becomes ** Use enough lime to effect
the required degree of softening or
use enough lime and soda ash to
attain this result, and supplement
the coagtdation thus produced by
employing only enough sulphate of
iron to correct the alkalinity to the
desired point.**
If nothing more than clarification
and bacterial removal are required,
in other words, straight mechanical
filtration, the coagulation is pro-
duced largely by the iron sulphate
employed, but where softening is
desired, most of the coagulation is
produced by the use of lime or lime
and soda ash, and only enough sul-
phate of iron is employed to supple-
ment the coagulation obtained from
the use of the lime and to correct
the alkalinity to the required de-
gree. This process is not ven-
generally used. The chemicals re-
quired necessitate a considerable
expense. Unless the plant is very
carefully designed and operated
trouble from" incrustation must
occur.
Water Parilioatloii
103
Cost
The first cost of a properly de-
signed softening plant is very much
larger than where straight mechan-
ical filtration only is desired. The
operating cost is necessarily higher.
The upkeep cost is also large, and
these reasons have prevented many
cities from building such plants.
To use an ordinary mechanical
filter plant as a softening plant can
hardly be classed as a crime, but it
brings to mind the lines "I blamed
him, if I blamed him at all, not for
the sin but the silliness of it.*'
Some things are harder to forgive
than sin, and the abuse of a me-
chanical filter plant comes very
close to the line of criminal silliness
unless it be clearly and thoroughly
understood that such abuse must
be paid for in upkeep and operating
cost. If the price to be paid is
known to be less than the benefits
derived and if it is willingly and
cheerfully paid, no one can have
cause for complaint. Some plants
have tried to accomplish this and
those responsible have afterward
complained of the cost and indulged
in unjustifiable criticism of the
plant, and the process. Even in
most of these instances the benefits
. have many times overbalanced all
the costs.
Efficienoies
A softening process must neces-
sarily be more efficient in removing
bacterial impurities than a straight
mechanical filtration, and some
very impure waters can be handled
by this process in plants that would
fail to produce equally as safe re-
sults from the use of a mechanical
process only. Too often this is lost
sight of even if it be known. The
use of a softened water by the citi-
zens results in a large saving to each
family on laundry supplies, wear
and tear on linen and other fabrics,
insures a better and more nutri-
tious value to food products cooked
therein, and in general is much to
be preferred for drinking purposes
aside from any degree of bacterial
purification which may result.
A soft water is better for drinking
purposes than a hard one even
where the bacterial purities of the
two waters are equal. The diffi-
culty lies in our inability to demon-
strate and prove this in every in-
stance, and to convince the public
at large of the truth of the forego-
ing. It costs less to filter a supply
than it does to both soften and filter
it. The cost of this work has to be
borne by the city or the company
furnishing the water. The cost to
the citizens is usually not increased
by the process of purification.
Hence the money returns direct to
the purveyor show no financial re-
turns sufficient to pay for the in-
creased cost of softening the water.
Even though the case is different
from the viewpoint of the citizen,
he is usually unwilling to pay a
larger price for a softened water, and
therefore water softening has been
badly handicapped in this country.
If it were not for the difficulty of
obtaining a larger price for the
softened water, it is probable that
a larger number of softening plants
104
American Steel and Wire Company
would be built and operated. The
problems involved in softening are
so many that it would require more
space than can be given in a volume
of this kind if we were to attempt to
discuss the subject at all fully. The
advice of our Engineering Bureau-
Water Purification Engineers may
be obtained upon request for any
questions arising from a demand for
softening methods. We deem it
best to reiterate our previous state-
ment that except under unusual
conditions it is not wise to soften
water supplies with an ordinary me-
chanical filter plant using either the
American Steel & Wire Company's
process or any other process. The
difficulties involved in the com-
pany's process will be less than with
others, but we still advise that it
should not be attempted.
The Bacteriology and Chemistry
of the Process
In considering the chemistry of
this subject we are obliged, on ac-
count of space, to be brief. Strictly
speaking, water is water, and any-
thing other than water found
therein must be considered an im-
purity. Water dissolves many sub-
stances; therefore many impurities
may be expected. They are divided
into three general classes, gaseous,
organic and mineral impurities. We
shall not concern ourselves with the
gaseous matters other than carbon
dioxide, or as it is commonly called,
carbonic acid. This gas is always
present to a greater or lesser extent
in some form or other in every
water supply. Usually it is derived
from organic matters. Organic
matters are more numerous and im-
portant than those previously re-
ferred to. By organic matter we
mean organized matter or sub-
stances which form or have formed
a part of an organism which is or
has been endowed with life. This
class includes all forms of vegetable
and animal matters. It necessarily
includes all sewage derived from
animal life and some of that
from trade and manufacturing
wastes.
From the viewpoint of the sani-
tary engineer the most important of
these is that derived from animal
life, containing, as it does, all of the
pathogenic bacteria which are dan-
gerous to human life. Being of
microscopic size or even sub-micro-
scopic size, bacteria cannot be seen.
The clearest and most brilliant
water may teem with them, but the
keenest eye or sense of man cannot,
unaided, gain knowledge of their
presence. In order to demonstrate |
the fact that they are present in
any given water we have to resort
to various tests and procedures.
The science which enables us to do
this is called ** Bacteriology," and
the special branch of the science
which deals with the species which
may be expected to be found in
water supplies is termed '* Water
Bacteriology.** In this we find
specialized procedures and methods
which aim to give a knowledge of
what any given sample of water
contains, and to inform us whether
such a water is safe or unsafe for
human consumption.
Water ParifiGation
105
It is impossible to deal with this
subject satisfactorily in a volume of
this size. Operators should be thor-
oughly posted on this subject and
the necessary knowledge derived
from the simpler text books such as
" Standard Methods of Water Anal-
ysis," published by the American
Public Health Association, and
from ** Elements of Water Bacteri-
ology," Prescott & Winslow. These
two books can be secured from any
dealer in scientific literature. From
the viewpoint of the practical filter
operator some criticism of the last
edition of ''Standard Methods" is
permissible. The methods given
therein enable an operator to deter-
mine the quality of the water and
the number of potentially patho-
genic bacteria therein, but they do
not permit the operator to gain all
the knowledge which he requires for
operating a plant.
Agar Agar
To merely determine the number
of bacteria growing on agar agar at
373^^ degrees centigrade, can never
do this. The bacteria growing on
agar agar at 373^ degrees form only
a very small proportion of the total
number of bacteria present in any
; given sample of water. Therefore,
the method recommended does not
enable the operator to obtain the
same results which he would if he
^ere to grow on ten or eleven per
cent, gelatine at twenty degrees
centigrade for forty-eight or sev-
enty-two hours. It is admitted that
the use of a ten or eleven per cent.
gelatine at twenty degrees centi-
grade involves more difficulty than
that of growing on agar at 37J^
degrees, because of the special pre-
cautions which have to be taken to
maintain the lower degree of tem-
perature required for gelatine, than
to produce the higher degree re-
quired for agar. In order to main-
tain the gelatine at twenty degrees
during warm weather it is necessary
to refrigerate the incubator and use
regulators to keep the temperature
at the desired point. This is more
troublesome than the method rec-
ommended, although it is the
standard method of the first edition
of ' ' Standard Methods. ' * The new
standard, while less troublesome,
and while giving data to be desired
from a sanitary standpoint, fails
utterly in some respects to give the
knowledge which the operator
should and must have if he is to
properly operate and control his
plant.
The use of 373^ degrees of tem-
perature in growing the bacteria in-
hibits the growth of common water
bacteria and effectually prevents
the operator from learning how
many of these organisms are pres-
ent. Those responsible for the
change in method wished to elim-
inate the common water bacteria
as far as possible, and to show only
those of a potentially pathogenic
nature. While it is highly desirable
to obtain account of these bacteria,
from the operator's standpoint it is
equally as important to know the
number of common water bacteria
also present.
106
American Steel and Wire Company
Operating Guide
Perhaps the sanitarian can gain a
more accurate idea of the real qual-
ity of the water from the new stand-
ard than he cotdd from the old, but
he could gain a still better idea from
the data obtained by using both
methods. The real diflBculty lies
as usual, in the different require-
ments of sanitarian and operator,
although the needs of either have a
bearing on that of the other. The
operator must produce a water
meeting the requirements of the
bacteriologist. The latter usually
does not care particularly how the
result is obtained; all he is con-
cerned with is the result. The oper-
ator, on the contrary, must produce
the result and must do so with the
least possible chance of failure. To
do this he must keep his plant in the
very best possible condition. He
must know as soon as possible when
anything begins to go wrong. If he
is relying on the bacteriologist to
give him results, and the bacteriol-
ogist reports only on bacterial
growths on agar at 373^ degrees C,
the operator cannot know from
these results when his plant begins
to go wrong. The first thing he
knows is that it has gone wrong.
By the time he learns this the plant
may have gone so far astray that
the operator may find it difficult to
bring it back. Usually the first in-
dication of a falling off in efficiency
in the plant is obtained from a rise
in the count of the common water
bacteria in the filtered water. This
may occur a day, a week, or a
month before the trouble develops
sufficiently to manifest its results in d
a falling off in the pathogenic efl&- |
ciency. If the operator has a gela-
tine count at twenty degrees to
guide him, the falling off in effi-
ciency may be ascertained days or
weeks earlier and the moment that
this decrease in efficiency is
manifest, he can take steps to
ascertain the trouble and stop it
long before the trouble becomes
sufficiently pronoimced to show
itself by a lowering of the patho-
genic efficiency.
Gelatine Count
The gelatine count is really of
much greater importance to the
operator than the method recom-
mended in the last edition of
'* Standard Methods," and he is
justified in demanding it. If he
cannot get it in any other way, he
should insist on being supplied witl
the requisite apparatus and learn
do the work himself. It is not
cult, and full instructions may
found in the first edition of * * Stand!
ard Methods of Water Analysis''
in ** Elements of Water Bacterioli
ogy,** Prescott & Winslow, of the
edition of 1904. Most, if not all,
the danger from a water supply h
inherent in its bacterial content
and without a knowledge of tl
subject we must remain largely
doubt as to the degree of dange
attending the use of any give
water. Therefore, the organic mai
ter present in any supply becomes;
matter of the greatest moment an<
importance.
Water PDrmoatlon
1]
L_.
Courtesy of P. P. Mfg, Co.
108
American Steel and Wire Company
Samples
It may be well to insert a word
of caution in regard to the taking
of samples for bacterial analysis
and the handling of the same up
to the time of plating out. Too
little care in the technique of this
very important matter is often
displayed by bacterial workers or
operators who are permitted to
do the sampling. Carelessness in
collecting or handling bacterial
samples is often responsible for
results which are neither antici-
pated or correct. Sometimes this
carelessness is only due to lack of
knowledge and in these cases a
more thorough knowledge of the
necessities will correct the care-
lessness.
It has been proven that one fly
may carry thousands of bacteria
on its feet. About thirty billion
of the smaller species might be
crowded into a drop of water one
sixteenth of an inch in diameter.
A speck of dirt too small to be seen
may be crowded with thousands
of them. A careless touch of a
finger to the stopper of a bottle
may convey thousands and the sam-
ple be so contaminated from the
stopper of the bottle that it is
worthless. Hence too great care
cannot be taken in collecting
the water sample for bacterial
analysis.
Sample bottles should be care-
fully cleaned and washed. After
this they should be well dried.
They should be no larger than is
necessary. In our laboratory we
use the best quality of Bohemian
glass, salt or wide mouthed bottle,
with glass stopper, and of four-
ounce capacity. The stoppers are
placed very loosely in the bottle
and the bottle and stopper placed
inside a well made copper can,
which is tin lined and almost her-
metically tight. Both the can
and the cover of the can are made
of one piece of copper, without a
seam or joint. The cover is one-
half inch deep so the can when
sterilized with the bottle inside
and the cover of the can in place
can be maintained in an upright
position in a case for months if
necessary and still remain sterile
and fit for use.
When required for use the cover
of the can should be carefully re-j
moved and the bottle withdrawn,
taking care not to permit the
fingers to touch the stopper ex-
cept on top, or the bottle near the
lip of the same. The bottle isi
held upside down and the stopper
carefully removed, the sample
taken, stopper replaced and thej
bottle returned to the can and thej
cover put on the can. The entire
operation shotild be conducted
with the greatest care and speedj
which can be safely employed, so
as to minimize the danger of con-
taminating the sample accidentally.
If there is any doubt mark the caa
as lost and take another sample.
Never plate out a sample about
which there is the least doubt.
Plating
In plating, get everything u
readiness before opening the cai
Water Purification
109
containing the sample, withdraw
the bottle with same care as was
used in taking the sample, remove
the stopper and lift the required
amount of water from the open
bottle immediately with a sterilized
pipette. Draw down to the zero
mark and lift the cover of the Petri
dish on one side high enough to
permit the end of the pipette to
be introduced between the cover
and the dish, allow the desired
amount of water to run out of the
pipette into the dish, withdraw
the pipette and lower the cover
of the same.
Always follow the same routine
and plate the sample for bacterial
count before planting another sam-
ple for gas formers or other use.
After the water has been placed in
the Petri dish, the gelatin or agar
media in which the growth is to be
made should be poured into the
dish and the mixture of media and
water quickly and completely made
by rapidly moving the dish with
a rotary motion until the water
and media have perfectly mixed
and appears to be homogeneous,
when the plate or dish should be
placed on the cooling slab and
allowed to solidify.
In pouring the media into the
dish certain precautions must be
observed. The gelatin or agar
media must be melted before the
water sample has been run from
the pipette into the dish. This
media is contained in test tubes
which are plugged with cotton.
Before pouring, the tube should
be taken in one hand, and the cot-
ton plug and the end of the tube be
burned off in the heat of a gas
flame from a bunsen burner. The
cotton fires quickly and care must
be taken to stop the fire before the
plug is consumed or burned to a
point where it cannot be easily
removed from the tube without
touching the lip of the tube. After
the plug is removed it is well to
pass the open end of the tube
through the flame of the bunsen
burner once or twice to make sure
the lip of the tube is sterile and will
not contaminate the media when it
is poured from the tube to the dish.
When this has been done, again
lift one side of the cover of the
Petri dish, introduce the open end
of the test tube between the cover
and the dish, pour the contents of
the tube into the dish and lower the
cover. It is not necessary or ad-
visable to try to pour all the
media from the tube into the dish.
A small portion left in the tube
will do no harm and it is well to
expedite the whole operation as
much as possible so as to minimize
the danger of contaminating the
sample. Planting should always
be done in a room where there are
no air currents and where there is
as little dust as possible. All ap-
paratus used must be carefully
sterilized before using and after
sterilization must be kept from
any possible chance of contami-
nation until ready for use. Never
permit a piece of apparatus which
has been sterilized to come in con-
tact with the atmosphere if possi-
ble and when it is necessary to so
110
American Steel and Wire Company
expose it be sure to shorten the
time of such exposure as much as
possible.
Control
When plating out one or more
bacterial samples it is always well
to plate a control at the same time.
The use of the control is to check
the accuracy of the technique
of the work. Our method of do-
ing this is to take a Petri dish and
place it with the others which are
to be used in plating out. When
this dish is reached, a pipette
which has been sterilized is intro-
duced into the dish exactly as
though a water sample was being
placed therein instead of only
the empty pipette. The pipette
is held in the dish about the same
length of time as in the other
dishes. A tube of media is burned
and poured into the dish exactly
as though a water sample had been
placed in the dish. In fact exactly
the same procedure is used as
though a regular sample was to be
planted except the pipette is han-
dled without any water being
taken into the pipette.
More than one control may be
used if the work is being done
under new or unusual conditions.
The number of colonies found on
the control plate, which is incu-
bated exactly as the regular plates,
will give a line on the accuracy of
the work and gives the worker
a feeling of security in the re-
sults. The control, should show
no colonies if the work is properly
done.
Mineral Matters
Mineral matters, on the contrary,
do not ordinarily cause acute illness.
How far they may be responsible
for some chronic complaints we are
unable to positively affirm, but the
weight of public opinion lies very
largely against the domestic use
of hard waters, and while public
opinion is not always a safe guide,
it seems probable that in this par-
tictdar instance it is well founded,
and the use of hard waters mav
therefore be deemed objectionable.
Hard Water
By a hard water is meant a water
containing enough mineral or acid
matter to render it difficult to pro-
duce a lather with soap. Not all
mineral matters have this property,
but some of them do, and it is these
hardening compounds which render
a water hard. Thus, a water con-
taining calcium or magnesium com-
pounds or acids in a free state will
be rendered hard to the extent of
the hardening compounds con-
tained therein. These hardening
substances may be neutralized or
removed by suitable chemical treat-
ment
Scale
When hard water is evaporated
in a vessel of any kind a scale or
deposit is left in the vessel. This
scale is the mineral matter carried
by the water either in solution in
suspension, or in solution and sus-
pension. Boiler scale comes fron;
the same source. A chemical anal-
ysis of a water informs us regarding
the amount of scale forming sub-
Water Pmifioatfon
Oenoml View
Waco. Texas
PilM Gallwr
112
American Steel and Wire Company
stances present, and may be of
great interest in the problem of
properly purifying any given sup-
ply. A rather brief survey of this
interesting phase of the subject fol-
lows. From an unpublished work
on the. subject we abstract some of
the following material. The table
given below gives the name of the
atomic substances, their symbols
and weights. By an atomic sub-
stance we mean a substance which
up to the present time, cannot, wit!
the knowledge at hand, be con
verted into simpler substances. Thii
table is used in calculating the fol
lowing tables. The atomic weight!
have, in some instances, beei
slightly changed since the calcula-
tions for the following tables wen
made, but not sufl&ciently to vitiat(
results given.
Table No. 4
International Atomic Weights
Substances
Aluminum
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Barium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Caesium
Calcium
Carbon
Cerium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Columbium . . . .
Copper
Erbium
Europiiun
Fluorine
Gadolinium . . . .
Gallium
Germanium . . . .
Glucinum
Gold
Helium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridiimi
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum . . . .
Lead
Magnesium . . . .
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum . . . .
Atomic
Symbol
Al.
Sb.
A.
As.
Ba.
Bi.
B.
Br.
Cd,
Cs.
Ca.
C.
Ce.
CI.
Cr.
Co.
Cb.
Cu.
Er.
Eu.
F.
Gd.
Ga.
Ge.
Gl.
Au.
He.
H.
In.
I.
Ir.
Fe.
Kr.
La.
Pb.
Mg.
Mn.
Hg.
Mo.
Atomic
Weight
27.1
120.2
39.9
75.0
137.4
208.0
11.0
79.96
112.4
132.9
40.1
12.0
140.25
35.45
52.1
59.0
94.0
63.6
166.0
152.0
19.0
156.0
70.0
72.5
9.1
197.2
4.0
1.008
115.0
126.97
193.0
55.9
81.8
138.9
206.9
24.36
55.0
200.0
96.0
Substances
Neodymium . .
Neon
Nickel . . . .
Nitrogen . . .
Osmium . . .
Oxygen . . . .
Palladium . . .
Phosphorus . .
Platinum . . .
Potassium . .
Praseodymium
Radium . . .
Rhodiimi . .
Rubidiiun . . .
Lithium . . .
Ruthenium . .
Samarium . . .
Scandium . . .
Selenium . . .
Silicon . . . .
Silver . . . .
Sodium . . . .
Strontium .
Sulphur. . . ,
Tantalum . . ,
Tellurium . . ,
Terbium . .
Thalliimi . . ,
Thoriimi . . ,
Thulium . .
Tin
Tungsten . .
Uranium . .
Vanadium
Xenon . . .
Ytterbium
Yttrium . .
Zinc ....
Zirconium . .
Atomic
Symbol
Nd.
Ne.
Ni.
N.
Os.
O.
Pd.
P.
Pt.
K.
Pr.
Rd.
Rh.
Rb.
Li.
Ru.
Sa.
Sc.
Se.
Si.
Ag.
Na.
Sr.
S.
Ta.
Te.
Tb.
Tl.
Th.
Tm.
Sn.
Atomic
Weight
143.6
20.0
58.7
14.01
191.0
16.0
106.5
31.0
194.8
39.15
140.50
225.0
103.0
85.5
7.03
101.7
150.3
44.1
79.2
28.4
107.93
23.05
87.6
32.06
181.00
127.6
159.2
204.1
232.2
171.0
48.1
w.
184.0
u.
238.5
V.
51.2
Xe.
128.0
Yb.
173.0
Yt.
89.0
Zn.
65.4
Zr.
90.6
Wnter Parllieation 113
The following table gives the name of the substances, the chemical
formula and the chemical weight of the chemical compounds found in
water or used to treat it for purification purposes:
Chemical Wd^ht
Alumina Oxide
Alumina Hydrate
Alumina Sulphate, Anhydrous. .
Alumina Sulphate
Barium Oxide
Barium Hydrate
Barium Carbonate
Barium Chloride, Anhydrous , .
Barium Chloride
Barium Sulphate
Caldura Oxide
Caldum Hydrate
Calcium Monocarbonate . . . .
Caldum Bicarbonate
Calcium Chloride, Anhydrous . .
Caldum Fluoride
Caldum Hypochlorite
Caldum Nitrate
Tri Calcium Phosphate
Calcium Silicate
Calcium Sulphate
Carbonic Acid
Copper Oxide, Cupric
Copper Hydrate, Cupric . . . .
Ci^per Chloride, Cupric . . , .
Copper Sulphate, Cupric, Anhydr
Copper Sulphate, Cupric , . . .
Ferric Oxide
Ferric Hydrate
Ferrous Oxide
Ferrous Hydrate
Ferrous Carbonate
Ferric Chloride, Anhydrous . , .
Ferric Chloride
Ferrous Chloride, Anhydrous . .
Ferrous Chloride
Ferric Sulphate
Ferrous Sulphate, Anhydrous . .
Ferrous Sulphate
Hydrochlonc Acid
Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium Hydrate ......
Magnesium Monocarbonate . . .
Magnesium Bicarbonate . . . .
Magnesium Chloride
Magnesium Nitrate
Magnesium Phosphate, Tri . . .
M^nesium Pyrophosphate , . .
Magnesium Sulphate
"hosphorus Pentoxide
A1,0.
Al,(OH), . . , .
A1,(S0.). . . . .
A1,(S0.)., 18H.0
BaO
Ba(OH), . . . .
BaCO,
BaCl,
BaCl>,2H.O . .
BaSO.
CaO
Ca(OH)i . . . .
CaCO.
CaH.(CO.). , .
Caa,
CaF,
Ca(aO,)+CaCl,
2H.0
Ca(NO,)i ....
Ca.(PO0,. . . .
CaSiO,
CaSO.
CO.
CuO
Cu(OH)i . . . .
CuCl,,2H^ . ,
CuSO,
CuSO^, 5 H,0 . .
Ferf).
Pe(OH). . . . .
FcO
Pe(OH), . . . .
PeCO.
PeCl.
FeCl.. 6 Hfl , .
FeCl,
FeQ,,4H.O . .
Pe,(SO.). ....
FeSO.
FeSO*, 7 H,0 . .
HCl
102.20
156.20
342.3S
666.38
163.40
171.40
197.40
KI8.30
244.30
233.46
56.10
74.10
100.10
162.10
111.00
78.10
290.00
164.12
310.30
116.60
136.16
44.00
79.60
97.60
170.50
159.66
249.66
159.80
106.90
71.90
89.90
116.90
162.26
270.25
166.80
36.45
40.36
58.36
84.36
146.36
95.26
148.38
263.08
222.72
120.42
142,00
114
American Steel and Wire Company
Table No. 5—Continaed
Substances
Chemical PozTntila
Chemical Weight
Silicon Dioxide
SiO,
NajO
NaOH
NajCOi. . . . , .
Na^CO.. 10 H*0 . .
NaHCO,
NaCl
NaP
NaNOi
NaN02
NaJIPOi
Na«HPO«, 12 H,0 .
NaaPO*
Na,P04, 12 HiO . .
NasSO*
Na,SO«, 10 H,0 . .
HsSOi ......
'SOs
H2O
60.40
Soditun Oxide
62.10
Sodium Hydrate
40.05
Sodium Monocarbonate, Anhydrous . . .
Sodium Monocarbonate
Sodium Bicarbonate
„ 106,10 .
286.10
84.05
Sodium Chloride
58.50
Sodium Fluoride
42.05
Sodiimi Nitrate
85.06
Sodium Nitrite
69.06
Sodium Phosphate (Di Sodiimi Hydrogen),
Anhydrous
142.10
Sodium Phosphate (Di Sodium Hydrogen)
Sodium Phosphate (Tri Sodium) Anhydrous
Sodium Phosphate (Tri Sodium)
Sodium Sulphate, Anhydrous
Sodium Sulphate
358.10
164.15
380.15
142.16
322.16
Sulphuric Acid
Sulphuric Add, Anhydrous
Water
98.06
80.06
18.00
Reactions
The chemical reactions occurring
in water purification work are
shown in the foUowing:
Reactions of Alnminom Sulphate
A1.(SOO.. 18 H.0 + 3BaO = Al.
(OH). + 3 BaSO. + 15 H.O.
A1,(S0.)„ 18 H.0 + 3Ba (OH).
= Al.(OH). + 3 BaSO. + 18 H,0.
A1.(S0.)., 18 H.0 + 3Ca0 = Al.
(OH). + 3 CaSO. + 15 H.0.
A1.(SOO., 18 H.0 + 3Ca(0H).
= Al.(OH). + 3CaS04 + 18 H.0.
A1.(SOO., 18 fe[,0 + 3CaC0. =
A1.(0H). + 3CaS0. + 15 H,0 +
300..
A1.(SOO., 18 H.0 + 3CaH.
(CO,), = A1.(0H), + 3CaS0. +
18 H.0 + 600..
A1.(S0.)., 18 H.0 + 3Mg(0H),
= A1,(0H). + 3MgS04 + 18 H,0.
A1.(S0.)„ 18 H.0 + 3MgC0, =
AI,(OH). + 3MgS0. + 15 H.0 +
3C0..
A1.(S0.)., 18 H.0 + 3MgH.
(CO.). = A1,(0H). + SMgSO. +
18 H.0 + 600,.
A1.(S0.)., 18 H.0 + 3Na.O =
Al.(OH). + 3Na.S04d- 15 H,0
A1.(S0.)., 18H.0 + 3(NaOH). =
A1,(0H). + 3Na,S0. + 18H.0.
A1.(S0.),. 18H.0 + 3Na.C0. =
Al.(OH). + 3Na.S04 + 15H,0 +
3C0,.
A1.(S04)., 18H.0 + 3Na,C0..
10H.O = AI.(OH). + 3Na,S04 +
25H.O + 300..
A1.(S04)., 18H.0 + 3(NaHC0.).
= Al.(OH). + 3Na,S04 + 18H.0
+ 600..
A1.(S0,),, 18H.0 + 3(NaF). =
A12F. + 3Na.S04 + 18H.0.
A1,(S0.)„ 18H.0 + 2NaJ>0.,
12H,0 = A1.(P0)4 + 3Na,S04 +
30H,O.
Water Purification
116
Reactions of the Barimn
Componnda
3BaO + A1(SOO., 18H.0 =
3BaS04 + Al.(OH). + 16H.0.
BaO + CaH.(CO.)t = BaCO. +
CaCO. + H,0.
BaO + CaSO. + H.0 = BaSO,
+ Ca(OH)..
BaO + CO. = BaCO..
BaO + FeSO., 7H.0. = BaSO,
+ Fe(OH). + 6H.0.
BaO + MgCO. + H,0 = BaCO.
+ Mg(OH),.
BaO + MgH.(CO.). = BaCO.
= MgCO. + H.O.
BaO + MgSO. + H.0 «= BaSO*
+ Mg(OH),.
BaO + Na.CO. + H.0 = BaCO.
+ 2NaOH.
BaO + 2NaHC0. = BaCO. +
Na.CO. + H.O.
BaO + Na.SO^ + H.0 = BaSO.
+ 2NaOH.
BaO + SO, = BaSO..
BaO + H.SO4 = BaSO. + H.O.
3Ba(0H). + A1.(S0.)., 18H.0 =
3BaS04 + Al.(OH). + 18H.0.
Ba(OH). + CaH.(CO.). =
BaCO. + CaCO. + 2H.0.
Ba(OH). + CaSO. = BaSO. +
Ca(OH)..
Ba(OH). + CO, = BaCO. +
H.0.
Ba(OH). + FeSO., 7H.0 =
BaS04 + 7H,0.
Ba(OH). + MgCO. = BaCO. +
Mg(OH)..
Ba(OH), + MgH.(CO.), =
BaCO. + MgCO. + 2H,0.
Ba(OH). + MgSO. = BaSO.
+ Mg(OH),.
Ba(OH). + Na.CO. = BaCO. +
2NaOH.
Ba(OH). + 2NaHC0. = BaCO.
+ Na.CO. + 2H.0.
3Ba(0H). + 2Na.P0., 12H.0 =
Ba.(P0.). + 6Na0H + 24H.O.
Ba(OH). + Na.SO. = BaSO. +
2NaOH.
Ba(OH). + SO. = BaSO. +H.0.
Ba(OH). + H.SO. = BaSO. +
2H.0.
3BaCl.. 2H*0 + A1.(S0.). =
3BaS0. + A1.C1, + 2H.0.
BaCI., 2H.0 + CaSO. = BaSO.
+ CaCl. + 2H.0.
BaCl., 2H.0 + FeSO., 7H.0 =
BaSO. + FeCl. + 9H.0.
BaCl., 2H.0 + MgSO. = BaSO.
+ MgCl. + 2H.0.
3BaCl., 2H.0 + 2Na,PO.,12H.O
= Ba.(PO.). + 6NaCl + 24H.O.
BaCI., 2H.0 + Na.SO. = BaSO.
+ 2NaCl + 2H,0.
BaCl., 2H.0 + SO. = BaSO, +
2HC1 + H,0.
BaCI,, 2H.0 + H.SO. = BaSO.
+ 2HC1 + 2H.0.
Reactions of the Calcium
Compounds
3Ca(0H), + AI.(S0.)., 18H.0 =
3CaS0. + A1,(0H). + 18H,0.
Ca(OH), + CO. = CaCO. +
H.0.
Ca(OH). + 2C0 = CaH,(CO.)..
Ca(OH). + CaH,(CO.), =
2CaC0. + 2H.0.
Ca(OH). + CuSO., 5H.0 =
CaSO, + Cu(OH). + 6H.0.
Ca(OH). + FeSO., 7H.0 =
CaSO, + Fe(OH). + 7H.0.
Ca(OH), + 2H.CI = CaCl, +
2H.0.
Ca(OH). + MgCO. = CaCO. +
Mg(OH)..
116
American Steel an*d Wire Company
Ca(OH). + MgH.(CO.). =
CaCO, + MgCO,.
Ca(OH), + Na.CO. = CaCO, +
2NaOH.
Ca(OH). + aNaHCO, = CaCO.
+ Na,CO. + 2H.0.
Ca(OH), + 21SraF = CaF. +
2NaOH.
3Ca(0H). + 2Na.P0,, 12H.0 =
C£.(P0.), + 6NaOH + 24H,0.
Ca(OH). + H.SO. = CaSO. +
2H.0.
3CaC0. + A1.(S0.)., 18H.0 =
3CaS04 + Al.(OH). + SCO. +
15H.0.
CaCO. + Ba(OH). = Ca(OH).
+ BaCO..
CaCO, + BaCU, 2H,0 = CaCl.
+ BaCO. + 2H,0.
CaCO, + CO, + H.0 = CaH.
(CO.)..
CaCO. + CuSO., 5H.0 = CaSO.
+ CuCO. + 5H.0.
CaCO. + FeSO., 7H,0 = CaSO.
+ FeCO. + 7H,0.
CaCO. + 2HC1 = CaCl. + CO.
+ H.0.
CaCO. + 2NaF = CaF. +
Na.CO..
3CaC0. + 2Na.P0., 12H.0 =
Ca.(PO.). + 3Na.C0. + 24H.O.
CaCO. + H,SO. = CaSO. +
CO. + H.O.
3CaH.(C0.). + Al,(SO.).,18H.O
= 3CaS0. + Al.(OH). + SCO, +
21H.0.
CaH,(CO.). + Ba(OH). =
CaCO. + BaCO. + 2H.0.
CaH.(CO.). + BaCl.. 2H,0 =
CaCl, + BaCO. + CO. + 4H,0.
CaH,(CO.), + Ca(OH). = 2Ca
CO. + 2H.0.
CaH.(CO.). + CuSO., 5H.0 =
CaSO, + CuCO. + Co. + 6H.0.
CaH,(CO.). + FeSO., 7H.0 -
CaSO, + 2C0. + 8H.0.
CaH,(CO.). + 2HC1 = CaCl. +
2C0, + 2H,0.
CaH,(CO.), + 2NaOH = CaCO.
+ Na.CO. + 2H,0.
CaH.(CO.). + Na.CO, = CaCO,
+ 2NaHC0..
CaH.(CO.), + 2NaF = CaF. +
Na.CO, + 2H.0.
3CaH,(C0.). + 2Na.P0., 2H,0
= Ca.(PO.). + 6NaHC0. +
24H.O.
CaH.(CO.). + H.SO. = CaSO.
+ 2C0. + 2H.0.
CaCl, + Na,CO, = CaCO. +
2NaCl.
CaCl, + 2NaF = CaF. +2NaCl.
SCaCl, + 2Na.P0., 12H,0 =
Ca.(PO.), + 6NaCl + 24H.0.
CaSO. + Na,CO, = CaCO. +
Na.SO..
CaSO. + 2NaF = CaF. +
Na.SO..
SCaSO. + 2Na.P0., 12H.0 =
Ca.(PO.). + 3Na.S0. + 24H,0.
Reactions of Carbonic Acid or Car-
bon Dioxide
CO, + Ca(OH), = CaCO. +
H.O.
2C0, + Ca(OH), = CaH. (CO.)..
CO. + H.0 + CaCO. = CaH,
(CO.)..
CO. + 2NaOH = Na,CO. +
H.0.
2C0. + 2NaOH = 2NaHC0..
CO. + H,0 + Na,CO, = 2NaH
CO,.
CO, + 2Na.P0., 12H.0 =
2Na.HP0. + Na.CO. + 23H.O.
11'
Reactioit of Copper (Ci
CuSC 5H/) + Ba(OH). =
BaSO* + Cu(OH). + SHJO.
CuSO.. 5H/) + Ca(OH) =
Cu(OH). + CaSO. + 5H/).
CuSO., 5H/) + CaCO. =
CuCO, + CaSO. + 5H/).
CuSO,. 5H/) + CaH,(CO.). =
CuCO. + CaSO. + CO. + 6H/).
CuSO., 5H/) + Mg(OH). =
Cu(OH). + MgSO. + 5H/).
CuSO., 5H/) + MgCO. =
CuCO. + MgSO. + 5H/).
CuSo., 5H/) + MgH.(CO.), =
CuCO. + MgSO. + CO. + 6H.0.
CuSO., 5H.0 + 2NaOH =
Cu(OH). + Na£0. + 5H.0.
CuSO., 5H/) + Na.C0. =
CuCO. + Na.SO. + 5HX).
CuSO., 5H,0 + 2NaHC0. =
CuCO. + NaiSO. + CO. + 6H/).
Reactions of Iron Sulphate
FeSO., 7H,0 + Ba(OH). =
Fe(OH). + BaSO. + 7H.0.
FeSO., 7H.0 + BaCl., 2H*0 =
FeCl. + BaSO. + 9H,0.
FeSO., 7H.0 + Ca(OH), =
Fe(OH). + CaSO. + 7H.0.
FeSO., 7H.0 + CaCO. = FeCO.
+ CaSO. + 7H.0.
FeSo., 7H.0 + CaH.(C0.), =
FeH.(C0.). + CaSO. + 8H.0.
FeSO., 7H.0 + Mg(OH). =
Pe(OH). + MgSO. + 7H,0.
FeSO., 7H.0 + MgCO. = FeCO.
+ MgSO. + 7H.0.
FeSO., 7H.0 + MgH,(CO.). =
PeH,(CO.). + 8H.0.
FeSO., 7H,0 + 2NaOH =
Fe(OH). + Na£0. + 7H.0.
FeSO., 7H/) + KaXX). =
FeCO. + Ka.SO. + 7H/).
FeSO.. 7H/) + 2KaHCO. =
FeH,(CO.^, + Na50. + 7HX).
FeSO., 7HX) + 2NaF = FeF. +
Na50. + 7H/).
3FeS0.. 7H.0 + 2NaJ»0..
12H/) = Fe.i.PO.). + 3Na,S0. +
45H.O.
Reactiona of the Ma||n<
3Mg(0H), + A1.(S0.).. 18H.O
= 3MgS0. + A1.(0H). + 18H.0.
Mg(0H). + CO. = MgCO, +
Mg(0H), + CaH.(C0.). =
MgCO. + CaCO. + H.0.
Mg(OH), + 2C0. = M-H.
(CO.)..
Mg(OH). + FeSO., 7H.0 -
MgSO. + Fe(OH). + 7H.0.
Mg(OH). + MgH.(CO.). -
2MgC0. + H.O.
Mg(OH). + 2NaHC0. -
MgCO, + Na,CO. + H.O.
Mg(OH), + 2NaF = MgF, -*•
2NaOH.
3Mg(0H), + 2Na.P0., 12H,0 =
Mg.(PO.). + 6Na0H + 24H.O.
Mg(OH). + H£0. = MgSO. +
2H,0.
3MgC0. + A1.(S0.)., 18H.0 =
3MgS0. + Al.(OH). + 3C0. +
15H,0.
MgCO. + Ca(OH). = Mg(OH).
+ CaCO,.
MgCO. + CO. + H.0 = MgH.
(CO,)..
MgCO. + CuSO., 5UJ0 =
MgSO. + CuCO. + 5H.0.
MgCO, + FeSO., 7H.0 =
MgSO, + Fe(OH). + 7H.0.
-■i
118
American Steel and Wire Company
MgCO. + 2HC1 = MgCl. +
CO. + BJO.
. MgCO. + 2NaP = MgP. +
Na.CO..
3MgC0. + 2NaJ>0., 12H.0 =
Mg.(PO.). + 3Na.C0. + 24H,0.
MgCO. + H.SO. = MgSO. +
CO. + H.O.
3MgH.(CO.),+Al.(S04)., 18H.0
= 3MgS04 + A1,(0H). + 6C0. +
18H,0.
MgH,(CO.). + Ca(OH), =
MgCO, + CaCO. + 2H,0.
MgH.(C0.). + 2Ca(0H), =
Mg(OH). + 2CaC0, + 2H.0.
MgH,(CO.). + CuSO., 6H.0 =
MgS04 + CuCO, + 6H.0.
MgH.(CO.), + FeSO., 7H.0 =
MgSO* + FeCO. + 8H.0.
MgH.(C0,). + 2HC1 = MgCl.
+ 2C0. + 2H.0.
MgH.(CO.). + Mg(OH). =
2MgC0. + H,0.
MgH.(CO.). + 2NaOH =
MgCO. + Na,CO. + H,0.
MgH,(CO.). + 4Na0H =
Mg(OH.). + 2Na.C0, + H.O.
MgH.(CO.), + 2NaF = MgF,
+ 2C0. + H.O.
3MgH.(C0.), + 2Na.P0., 12H.0
= Mg.(PO0. + 6NaHC0. +
15H.0.
MgH.(CO.). + H.SO, = MgSO.
+ 2C0. + 2H,0.
MgCl. + Ca(OH). = Mg(OH).
+ CaCl..
MgCl. + 2NaOH = Mg(OH").
+ 2NaCl.
MgCl. + Na,CO. = MgCO. +
2NaCl.
MgCl. + 2NaF = MgF +
2NaCl.
MgCl, + 2Na.P0., 12H.0 =
Mg.(PO.). + 6NaCl + 24H.0.
MgSO. + Ca(OH). = Mg(OH).
+ CaSO..
MgSO. + 2NaOH = Mg(OH),
+ Na.SO..
MgSO. + Na.CO. = MgCO. +
Na.SO..
MgSO. + 2NaF = MgF. +
Na.SO,.
3MgS0. + 2Na,P0., 12H.0 =
Mg,(PO.). + 3Na.S0. + 24H.0.
Reactions of the S<Mlinm
Compounds
6NaOH + A1.(S0.)., 18H.0 =
3NaS0. + Al.(OH). + H.O.
2NaOH + CaH.(CO.). = Na.-
CO. + CaCO, + 2H.0.
2NaOH + CaCl. = 2NaCl +
Ca(OH)..
2NaOH + CaSO. = Na,SO. +
Ca(OH)..
2NaOH + CO. = Na.CO. +
H.O.
2NaOH + CuSO., 5H.0 =
Na.SO. + Cu(OH). + 6H.0.
2NaOH + FeSO., 7H.0 =
Na£0. + Fe(OH). + 7H.0.
2NaOH + 2HC1 = 2NaCl +
2H.0.
2NaOH + MgCO. = Na.C0. +
Mg(OH),.
4NaOH + MgH.(CO.). =
2Na.C0. + Mg(OH). + 2H.0.
4NaOH + MgCl. = 2NaCl +
Mg(OH),.
4NaOH + MgSO. = Na.SO. +
Mg(OH)..
4NaOH + 2NaHC0. =
2Na.C0. + HX).
4NaOH + H,SO. = Na.SO, +
H.O.
Water ParlHoatlon
IW
3Na.C0. + A1.(SOO., 18H,0 =
3Na^0, + A1.(0H). + SCO, +
15H.0.
Na,CO. + Ca(OH). = 2NaOH
+ CaCO..
Na.CO. + CaCI. = 2NaCl +
CaCO..
Na.CO. + CaSO. = Na.SO. +
CaCO,.
Na.CO. + CO. + H.0 =
2NaHC0..
Na.CO. + CuSO., 5H.0 =
N'a50. + CuCO. + 5H,0.
Na.C0. + FeSO.. 7H.0 =
Na:SO. + FeCO. + 7H.0.
Na.CO. + 2HC1 = 2NaCl +
CO, + H.O.
Na.CO. + MgCl. = 2NaCl +
MgCO..
Na.CO, + MgSO, = Na.SO. +
MgCO..
Na,CO. + H.SO". = Na,SO. +
CO. + H.O.
6NaHC0. + A1.(S0.)., 18H.0 =
3Na.S0. + 6C0. + 21H.0.
NaHCO. + Ca(OH), = NaOH
+ CaCO. + H,0.
2NaHC0. + Ca(OH). = Na.CO.
+ CaCO. + 2H,0.
NaHCO. + HCl = NaCl + CO.
+ H,0.
2NaHC0, + H.SO. = Na.SO. +
2C0. + 2H,0.
6NaF + A1.(S0.)„ 18H,0 =
3Na.S0. + 2A1F. + 18H.0.
2NaF + Ca(OH). = 2NaOH +
CaF,.
2NaF + CaCO. = Na.CO. +
CaF..
2NaF + CaH.(CO.), = 2NaH-
CO. + CaF. + H,0.
2NaF + CaCl. = 2NaCl +
CaF..
2NaF + CaSO. = Na.SO. +
CaF..
2NaF + CuSO., 5H.0 = Na£0.
+ CuF. + 5H.0.
2NaF + FeSO., 7H.0 = Na.SO.
+ FeF. + 7H,0.
2NaF + Mg(OH). = 2NaOH +
MgF..
2NaF + MgCO. = NatCO. +
MgF..
2NaF + MgH.(CO.). = 2NaH-
CO, + MgF..
2NaF + MgCI. = 2NaCl +
MgF..
.2NaF + MgSO. = Na.SO. +
MgF..
2Na.P04, 12H.0 + A1,(S0.).,
18H,0 = 3Na.S0, + 2A1P0. +
42H.O.
2Na.P0., 12H,0 + 3Ca(0H). =
6NaOH + Ca.(PO.). + 24H.O.
2Na.P0., 12H.0 + 2CaC0. =
3Na.C0. + Ca.(PO.). + 24H.0.
2Na.P0., 12H.0 + 3CaH.(C0.).
= 6NaHC0. + Ca.(PO.). + 24-
H.O.
2Na,P0., 12H.0 + 3CaCl. =
GNaCl + Ca.(PO.). + 24H,0.
2Na.P0., 12H.0 + 3CaS0. =
3Na.S0. + Ca.(PO.). + 24H.O.
2Na,P0., 12H.0 + CO. =
2Na.HP0. + Na.CO. + 23H.O.
2Na.P0,, 12H.0 + 3CuS0.,
5H.0 = 3Na.S04 + Cu,(PO.). +
39H.O.
2Na,P0„ 12H.0 + 3FeS0,,
7H,0 = 3Na.S0. + Fe.CPO.). +
45H.O.
2Na.P0., 12H.0 + 3Mg(0H). =
6NaOH + Mg.(PO.). + 27H.O.
2Na.P0., 12H.0 + 3MgC0. =
3Na.C0, + Mg.(PO.). + 24H.O.
120
American Steel and Wire Company
2Na.P0., 12H.0 + 3MgH.(C0.).
= 6NaHC0. + Mg.(PO.) +
24H.O.
2Na,P04, 12H.0 + 3MgCl. -
6NaCl + Mg,(PO0. + 24H.O.
2Na.P0., 12H,0 + 3MgS0. =
3Na£0, + Mg.(PO0. + 24H.O.
Reactions of Snlphnric Acid
H.SO. + Ba(OH). = BaSO, +
2H,0.
H.SO4 + BaCl,, 2H,0 = BaSO.
+ 2HC1 + 2H.0.
H.SO. + Ca(OH). = CaSO* +
2H,0.
H,SO. + CaCO. = CaSO, +
CO. + H,0.
H.SO. + CaH.(CO.). = CaSO.
+ 2C0. + 2H.0.
H.SO. + Mg(OH), = MgSO. +
2H.0.
H.SO1 + MgCO, = MgSO, +
CO, + H,0.
H,S0. + MgH,C0. = MgSO. +
2C0. + 2H.0.
H,S0. + 2NaOH = NatSO, +
2H,0.
H,SO. + Na.CO. = Na,SO. +
CO. + H.O.
H.SO. + 2NaHC0. = Na,SO. +
2C0. + 2H.0.
Use of Reactions
All of the preceding reactions
may occur in the chemistry of water
purification. In occasional in-
stances other reactions will be
found, but the preceding equations
are those most generally used, and
those occurring less frequently are
too numerous to be included in this
volume. Most of the questions
commonly arising in water purifica-
tion work may be answered by
some one or more of the equations
given, and a careful study of these
reactions will shed much light on
the rationale of various methods of
water purification.
By taking any equation and sub-
stituting the chemical weights for
the chemical formulas we obtain an
arithmetical equation which can be
proven to be correct arithmetically,
and which is of value in enabling
the operator to figure exactly how
much weight of any two substances
will be required to form a known
weight of another substance.
For example, a water may have
an alkalinity of 73 p.p.m. and the
operator may desire to know how
much hydrated lime will be re-
quired to reduce the alkalinity to
60 p.p.m., or, in other words, to
eliminate 13 p.p.m. of alkalinity.
The water is found by test to con-
tain no free carbonic acid and like-
wise no monocarbonate alkalinity.
It is not possible to learn from the
alkalinity test only, how much of
the alkalinity is composed of mag-
nesium carbonate or sodium car-
bonate, but if the hardness is known
to be in excess of the alkalinity, no
sodium carbonate can be present.
The operator therefore can safely
assume that he can use enough lime
to eliminate 13 p.p.m. of alkalinity,
all of which may be considered as
calcium alkalinity.
Under the reactions of the cal-
cium compounds he finds CaHi
(CO3), + Ca(OH)« = 2CaC0. +
2H2O. Substituting the molecular
or chemical weights for the formula,
Water Purilioation
121
he finds 162.1 + 74.1 = 2(100.1) +
2(18.0) or 162.1 + 74.1 = 200.2 +
36.0, or reduced still further, 236.2
= 236.2. The equation is thus
proven mathematically and chem-
ically correct. One part of alkalin-
ity, however, does not represent
l.OO part of calcium bicarbonate,
but 1 part of calcium monocarbon-
ate in the form of calcium bicarbon-
ate does equal one part of alkalin-
ity, and under the calcium reac-
tions he finds CaCO, + CO. + H,0
= CaH»(C03)s; and conversely,
CaH.(CO,), must equal CaCOa +
COj + H»0, and he can therefore
make his equation read CaCOj +
CO, + H,0 + Ca(OH), = 2CaC0,
+ 2H2O, and substituting the mo-
lecular weights he has 100.1 + 44.0
+ 18.0 + 74.1 = 2(100.1) +
2(18.0) or 100.1 + 44.0 + 18.0 +
74.1 = 200.2 + 36.0, or 236.2 =
236.2.
Now, as each part of alkalinity
does represent one part of calcium
monocarbonate, and as the preced-
ing equation employs a formula
wherein the calcium bicarbonate is
reduced to its monocarbonate form,
it is readily seen that 100.1 parts of
alkalinity will require 74.1 parts of
lime or calcium hydrate to reduce
162.1 parts of bicarbonate to the
monocarbonate or insoluble state.
Therefore, one part of alkalinity
will require as much lime hydrate
as 100.1 : 74.1 = 1.00 : X or 100.1 :
74.1 = 1.00 : .7402. Now, if 1 part
of alkalinity requires .7402 part of
calcium hydrate to eliminate, 13
parts will require .7402 X 13 = 9.62
parts of Ca(OH)« required. This is
((
the result in p.p.m., while the oper-
ator usually wants to know how
many grains per gallon will be re-
quired. To convert parts per
million to grains per gallon one rule
is to divide the parts per million by
17.1, and another rule is to mtd-
tiply the parts per million by .0584.
9.62 -^ 17.1 = .56 g.p.g. of calcitim
hydrate reqtiired.
9.62 X .0584 = .56 g.p.g. of cal-
cium hydrate required. The oper-
ator would therefore use .56 g.p.g.
of chemically pure hydrated lime to
effect the removal of 13 p.p.m. of
alkalinity in the above case.
Parts per Million
In order to understand the terms
p.p.m.'* and *'g.p.g.," it may be
necessary to explain that p.p.m.
refers to the number of parts per
million of one substance as com-
pared with another. For instance,
if a water is said to contain 73
p.p.m. of alkalinity we mean that
one million parts of water by weight
will contain 73 parts by weight of
substances which are equivalent to
73 parts of calcium monocarbonate
in their ability to produce alkalin-
ity. Calcium monocarbonate forms
the unit of measurement for alka-
linity and is used as the base. Other
alkaline compounds do not impart
the same amount of alkalinity,
weight for weight, that calcium
monocarbonate does. The com-
parisons between the substances
found in water or used in water
purification processes will be found
on pages 128-130, inclusive.
122
American Steel and Wire Company
per Gallon
A U. S. gallon contains 58,415
grains of water by weight. 73
p.p.m. = 4.26 g.p.g., and when we
state that a water contains 4.26
g.p.g. of alkalinity we mean that
each 58,415 parts of water by weight
will contain 4.26 parts by weight of
calcium monocarbonate or its equiv-
alent in alkalinity producing sub-
stances. It will be obvious that if
we take 58,415 milligrams of water
and find 4.26 milligrams of alkalin-
ity therein, we have 4.26 grains
per gallon of alkalinity. 58,415
milligrams = 58.415 grams or
58.4 cubic centimeters of water
N
approximately. An ^ sulphuric
acid voltunetric solution is of such
strength that each cubic centimeter
of the acid solution neutralizes
exactly 1 milligram of calcium
monocarbonate. 58.4 c.c. of water
is called the miniature U. S. gallon.
Pipettes may be secured from any
chemical supply house by special
order which will discharge 58.4 c.c.
of water, or a miniature U. S. gal-
lon. If this quantity of water is
titrated with ^77 sulphuric acid solu-
tion, each cubic centimeter of the
acid solution required will indicate
an alkalinity of one grain per gal-
lon ; and hence if the alkalinities be
obtained from a miniature gallon
the operator does not have to use
the figures to convert p.p.m. into
g.p.g. Any other chemical results
which may be desired in grains per
gallon can be obtained by employ-
ing a miniattu'e U. S. gallon or a
multiple of a U. S. gallon.
In our laboratory we have volu-
metric flasks which hold 584.1 c.c.
of water. If this quantity of water
is taken for analysis, each milligram
of chemical separated therefrom
corresponds to .1 g.p.g. We find
this saves some calculations where
the results are desired in g.p.g. The
parts per million basis is more con-
venient in some ways than the
grains per gallon, but as will be seen
from the foregoing, it is a choice
between two evils as to which
standard shall be employed. We
have found it advantageous to use
both standards and to report results
in both standards so as to meet the
demands for either.
Chemical Factors
In order to save a large number
of calculations we have prepared
the following tables of chemical fac-
tors. These factors may be used in
various ways. They aU are based
upon the formulas, weights and re-
actions given in the preceding
pages. In order to use these tables
understanding^ a word or two of
explanation is advisable. Chemical
compounds may be decomposed
into simpler substances. All chem-
ical compounds are built up from
simple or atomic substances. Thus,
if we have a chemical compound we
know that it is composed of certain
simpler atomic substances or of
combinations of these atomic sub-
stances. Thus, calcium monocar-
bonate is composed of CaO and
carbonic acid, COa. We can prove
Water Purification
123
this in two ways. First, by taking
calcitun monocarbonate, limestone
or marble, which are three different
names for the same substance, and
by heating the limestone or marble
to a red heat for a sufficient period
of time, we can drive off carbonic
acid and have nothing left but cal-
cium oxide, or CaO. We can weigh
the quantity of limestone originally
present, the quantity of carbonic
acid given off, or the amount of cal-
cium oxide left after burning. If
the limestone be chemically pure
we find that each pound or unit of
the limestone will give off .4395 of
carbonic acid, and there will be left
.5604 of calcium oxide. Similarly,
if we take .5604 of CaO and .4395
of COj and unite them, we will have
exactly one part of calcium mono-
carbonate. From the preceding we
can readily calculate that one part
of calcium oxide will form 1.7843
parts of calcium monocarbonate,
while one part of carbon dioxide
will form 2.275 parts of calcium
monocarbonate, if we supply the
carbonic acid or the calcium oxide,
as the case may be.
Hence, if we have a given weight
of calcium oxide or carbonic acid,
we can calculate how much calcium
monocarbonate may be formed
from these known quantities ; or if
we have a given weight of calcium
monocarbonate we can calculate
with equal ease how much calcium
oxide or carbonic acid it contains.
All other chemical compounds fol-
low this same rule. As the weight
of the atomic substances varies, it
will be readily seen that different
substances must enter into com-
bination in various relationships by
weight. Also, in order to convert
one substance into another, if we
know the weight of one we may re-
quire to know the weight of the
other to produce a given weight of a
third, or a third and fourth. Some
substances may be used to replace
others, and it is desirable to know
what weight will be required of one
to equal a known weight of an-
other. These tables are arranged
upon the known substances being
considered as unity, and the sub-
stances sought as a fraction of
unity.
Factor Table
Alniuinaiii Compounds
Known
Sought
Factor
Al
A1,0, .
1.8856
Al
A1,(0H),
2.8819
Al
Al,(S04)s
6.3169
Al
Al,(S04)s,
18H,0
12.2933
Al^O,
Al . .
.5303
AltOz
O . . .
.4696
AIjOs
Al,(OH)e
1.5283
Al^O.
A1,(S0)4
3.3501
AliOi
Alt(S04)»,
I8H2O
6.5203
A1,(0H), ....
Al . . .
.3469
Alj(OH). ....
. . .
.6146
Al5(0H)« ....
H . . .
.0384
A1,(0H). ....
AI2O, .
.6542
A1,(0H), ....
HtO . .
.3457
A1,(0H), ....
A1,(S04),
2.1919
A1,(0H). ....
A1,(S04).,
18H,0
4.2662
Als(S04)s ....
Al . . .
.1583
Al2(S04). ....
AI2O, .
.2985
AlsCSOO, ....
SOs . .
.7014
A1,(S04)« ....
Alj(S04)3,
18H,0
1.9463
A1,(S04)3,18H50 .
Al . . .
.0813
Al,(S04),,18HeO .
AI2O, .
.1533
AU(S04)3,18H20 .
SO3 . .
.3604
Al2(S04),,18H20 .
H,0 . .
.4862
Ah(S04)3.18H,0 .
A1,(0H).
.2344
A1,(S04)8,18H»0 .
A1,(S04),
.5138
124
American Steel and Wire Company
Barium Compounds
Calcium Compounds — Continued
Known
Sought
Factor
BaO
Ba . .
.8956
BaO
. . .
.1043
BaO ......
Ba (0H)2
1.1173
BaO
BaCOi .
1.2868
BaO
BaCls, 2
H2O .
1 . 5925
BaO
BaSOi .
1 . 5218
Ba(OH)a ....
BaO . .
.8949
Ba(OH), ....
H2O . .
.1050
Ba(OH),, 8H2O .
BaO . .
.4863
Ba(OH),, 8H,0 .
H2O . .
.5136
BaCOs
BaO . .
.7771
BaCOs
CO2 . .
.2228
BaCh
CI . . .
.3403
BaCh
Ba . .
.6596
BaCU
BaCh, 2
.
H2O .
1 . 1728
BaClj
BaO . .
.7364
BaCh, 2H,0 . .
Ba . .
.5624
BaCl2,2H,0 . .
CI . . .
.2902
BaCh,2H,0 . .
BaCl2 .
.8526
BaCl2,2H20 . .
H2O . .
.1473
BaCh, 2H2O . .
BaO . .
.6279
BaCh, 2H20 . .
CI . . .
.2902
BaCh, 2H2O . .
HCl . .
.2984
BaCh, 2H2O . .
H2O . .
.1473
BaSO*
BaO . .
.6570
BaS04
SO, . .
.3429
Known
Sought
Factor
CaQj ......
Ca,(P04)2
Ca,(P04)2
CaS04
CaS04
CaO
(equiv.)
CaO . .
P2O5 . .
CaO . .
SOi. . .
.5054
.3877
.6123
.4120
.5880
Carbonic Acid Compounds
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
COt
CO2
CO2
CO2
CaO . .
1.2750
Ca(0H)2
1.6840
CaCOs .
2.2750
CaH,
(C0,)2.
3.6840
BaO . .
3.4863
Ba(0H)2
3.8954
BaCOa .
4.4863
MgO .
.9172
Mg(0H)2
1.3263
MgCOs .
1.7172
MgH,
(C0,)2.
3.3263
NajO .
1.4113
NaOH .
1.8204
Na2C0»
2.4093
NaH CO,
3.8204
Calcium Compounds
Copper Compounds
Ca. . . .
O ...
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
CaO . . .
Ca(0H)2 .
Ca(0H)2 .
CaCOs . .
CaCO, . .
CaCO, . .
CaCO, . .
CaH2(COs)2
CaH2(C03)2
CaH2(C08)2
CaH,(C03)2
CaCU . .
CaCU . .
CaO
CaO
Ca
O
Ca(0H)2
CaCOa .
CaH2
(C0,)2
CaCh . .
Ca,(P04)2
CaS04
CaO
H2O.
CaO
CO2.
CaH2
CO3)
CaCU
(equiv.)
CaO .
CO2. .
H2O. .
CaCO,
CI . .
Ca . .
1.3390
3.5062
.7149
.2852
1.3208
1.7843
2.8894
1.9786
1.8556
2.4271
.7571
.2429
.5604
.4395
1 . 6194
1.1088
.3461
.5428
.1110
.6175
.6387
.3612
Cu .
CuO
CuO
CuO
CuO
CuO
Cu(0H)2
Cu(0H)2
Cu(0H)2
CuCO,
CuCO, .
CuCO, .
CuCl2, 2H2O
CuCU, 2H2O
CuCh, 2H2O
CuClj, 2H2O
CuSO* . . .
CUSO4 . . .
CUSO4 . . .
CUSO4 . . .
CUSO4, 5H2O
CUSO4, 5H2O
CUSO4, 5H2O
CUSO4, 5H2O
CuO .
Cu . .
O. . .
Cu(OH)
CuCO,
CUSO4
Cu .
CuO
H2O
Cu .
CuO
COj.
CI .
Cu .
CuO
H2O.
Cu .
CuO
SO,.
CUSO4,
5H2O
Cu . .
CuO .
CUSO4.
H2O. .
1.2515
.7990
.2010
1.2261
1.5527
2.0057
.6516
.8155
.1844
.5145
.6440
.3559
.4158
.3730
.4668
.2111
.3983
.4985
.5014
1.5637
.2547
.3188
.6395
.3604
Wkter Pnrifioation
125
Chlorine Componiids
Iron Componnds— Continued
Known
CI
a
a
ci
ci
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Iron Compounds
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
Fe .
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FeO
FejOa
Fe,0,
FesO,
FejO,
FeaO,
Fe,0,
FeiOa
FeO . .
Fe20s .
Fe(0H)2
Fe(OH),
FeCO,
FeCh
FeCh,
H2O
FeCh
FeCla,
H2O
FeS04
FeS04,
H2O
Fe2(S04)
Fe
O . .
FejOs
Fe(0H)2
Fe(0H)8
FeCOs .
FeCh .
FeCl2, 4
H2O .
FeCl, .
FeCls, 6
H2O. .
FeS04 .
FeS04, 7
H2O .
Fe2(S04)3
Fe . .
O . . .
FeO . .
Fe(0H)2
Fe(OH),
FeCls .
FeCls, 6
H2O .
Factor
1.5655
2.9379
3.4456
2.4047
1.0282
2.2115
3.2270
1.5256
2.5411
2.6871
1.6502
1.2862
2.8483
1.6082
1.9123
2.0733
2.8050
4.0930
2.9025
4.8345
2.7184
4.9724
7.1565
.7775
.2225
2.2225
1.2503
1.4867
1.6119
2.1808
3.1821
2.2566
3.7586
2.1134
3.8659
5.5630
.7021
.2979
.8998
1.1251
1.3379
2.0106
3.3823
Known
Sought
Factor
Fe20s
Fe2(S04),
2.5030
Fe(0H)2 ....
Fe . .
.6218
Fe(0H)2 ....
FeO . .
.7997
Fe(OH), ....
H2O . .
.2002
Fe(0H)2 ....
Fe(OH),.
1.1890
Fe(0H)2 ....
FeCO, .
1.2892
Fe(0H)2 ....
FeS04 .
1.6903
Fe(0H)2 ....
FeS04, 7
H2O .
3.0918
Fe(OH), ....
Fe . .
.5129
Fe(OH), ....
FeO . .
.6725
Fe(OH), ....
H2O . .
.2526
Fe(OH), ....
Fe(0H)2
.8409
Fe(OH)a ....
FejO, .
.7474
Fe(OH). ....
Fe2(S04),
1.8708
FeCO»
Fe . .
.4823
FeCOa
FeO . .
.6203
FeCOs
CO2 . .
.3796
FeCO,
Fe(0H)2
.7756
FeCh
Fe . .
.3565
FeCh
FeO . .
.4585
FeCh
Cl . . .
.6434
FeCh
FeCU, 4
H2O .
1.4591
FeCl2,4H20 . . .
Fe . . .
.2443
FeCl2,4H20 . . .
FeO . .
.3142
FeCl2,4H20 . . .
Cl . . .
.4410
FeCl2,4H20 . . .
H2O . .
.3146
FeCl2,4H20 . . .
Fe(OH),
.3929
FeCl2,4H20 .' . .
Fe(OH),
.4672
FeCl2,4H20 . . .
FeCh .
.6853
FeCl,
Fe . . .
.3445
FeCl,
Cl . . .
.6554
FeCl,
FeO . .
.4431
FeCl,
FejO, .
.4924
FeCl,
Fe(0H)2
.5540
FeCl,
Fe(OH),
.6588
FeCl,
FeCl,, 6
H2O
1.6656
FeCl,, 6H2O . . .
Fe . . .
.2068
FeCl,, 6H2O . . .
Cl . . .
.3935
FeCl,, 6H2O . . .
H2O . .
.3996
FeCl,,6H20 . . .
FeO . .
.2660
FeCl,, 6H2O . . .
Fe20, .
.2956
FeCl,,6H20 . . .
Fe(0H)2
.3326
FeCl,,6H20 . . .
Fe(OH),
.3955
FeCl3,6H20 . . .
FeCl, .
.6003
FeS04
Fe . . .
.3678
FeSO*
SO, . .
.5268
FeS04
FeO . .
.4731
FeS04
FeaO, .
.5257
FeS04
Fe(0H)2
.5916
FeS04
Fe(0H)3
.7034
FeS04
FeS04, 7
H2O .
1.8291
FeS04
Fe2(S04)3
1.3165
FeS04
SO, . .
.5268
FeS04,7H20 . .
Fe . . .
.2011
(
126
American Steel and Wirft Qompany
Iron Componnda — Continued
Known
Sought
Factor
FeS04,7H,0 . .
FeO . .
.2586
FeS04, THjO
FeaOj .
.2874
FeS04, 7H,0 .
Fe(OH),
.3234
FeSOi, 7H,0 .
Fe(OH),
.3845
FeS04, 7H2O .
FeS04 .
.5566
FeS04, 7H50 .
S0» . .
.2880
FeS04, 7H2O .
H2O . .
.4533
FeS04, 7HtO .
FeCOs .
.4169
FeS04, 7H2O .
Fe2(S04)3
.7194
Fe2(S04)« . .
Fe . . .
.2795
Fe,(S04)8
FeO . .
.3595
Fe,(S04).
FetOa .
.3995
Fe2(S04).
Fe(OH),
.4495
Fe,(S04)« .
Fe(0H)8
.5345
Fe,(S04)«
FeS04 .
.7598
Fe,(S04)»
FeS04, 7
H»0 .
1.3898
Fes(S04)8 ....
S0» . .
.6004
Ma^esinm Compounds
Mg
MgO . .
1.6568
Mg . . .
Mg(OH),
2.3960
Mg . .
MgCO. .
3.4630
Mg . . .
MgH2(CC
h), 6.0082
Mg . . .
MgCl,
. . 3.9105
Mg . .
Mg,(P04)
1 . 3.5998
Mg . . .
MgtPiOi '
4.5714
Mg . . .
MgSO* .
4.9433
MgO . .
Mg . . .
.6035
MgO . .
. . . .
.3964
MgO
Mg(0H)2
1.4459
MgO
MgCO. .
2.0901
MgO
MgH2(CC
13)2 3.6263
MgO .
MgCU .
2.3602
MgO
Mg.(P04)
2 . 2.1727
MgO . .
Mg2P207
2.7591
MgO
MgS04
. . 2.9836
Mg(OH)j . .
Mg . . .
.4174
Mg(OH), . .
MgO . ,
.6915
Mg(OH), . .
H2O . .
.3084
Mg(OH), . .
Mg(CO),
1.4455
Mg(0H)2 . .
MgH2(CC
>,)2 2.5078
Mg(0H)2 . .
MgCl. .
1.6322
Mg(0H)2 . .
Mg,(P04)
2 . 1.5026
Mg(0H)2 . .
Mg2(P207
» . 1.9081
Mg(0H)2 . .
MgSO*
. . 2.0633
MgCO, . . .
Mg. .
. . .2887
MgCOa . . .
MgO .
.4784
MgCO. . . .
CO2 .
.5215
MgH2(C03)2 .
Mg . .
. . .1664
MgH2(CO,)2 .
MgO .
. . .2757
MgH2(CO,)2 .
MgCO,
.5763
MgH2(COs)2 .
H2O . .
.1230
MgH2(CO,)2 .
COsCOs
.6012
MgCh ....
Mg . .
.2557
Ma^eainm Componnda — <
Continued
Known
Sought
Factor
MgCh
CI . .
.7442
MgCU. .
» • •
MgO .
.4236
Mg.(P04)2
• •
Mg . .
2.7778
Mg.(P04).
MgO .
.4602
Mg.(P04).
• •
P2O. .
.5397
Mg2P207 . .
> • •
Mg . .
.2187
Mg2P207 . .
» • •
MgO .
.3624
Mg2P20T . .
» • •
P2OS .
.6375
MgS04 . .
• •
Mg . .
.2022
MgSO* . .
> ■ •
MgO .
.3351
MgS04
SO. . .
.6648
Sodium Compounds
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
Na . .
NajO
NasO
NasO
NaaO
NajO
Na20
NatO
NSL2O
NajO
Na20
NajO
NaaO
Na20
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaaO .
NaOH .
Na2C0, .
Na2C0.,
IOH2O
NaHCO.
NaCl .
NaF .
Na2HP04
Na2HP04,
I2H2O
Na,P04 .
Na,P04.
12HsO
Na2S04 .
Na2S04,
IOH2O
Na . .
NaOH .
Na2C08.
NaaCO.,
IOH2O
NaHCO.
NaCl. .
NaF . .
Na2HP04
NajHPO*,
I2H2O
Na,P04 .
Na.P04,
I2H2O
Na2S04 .
Na2S04,
IOH2O
Na . ..
Na20. .
H2O . .
Na2C03.
NaaCO.
IOH2O
NaHCO,
NaCl .
1.3470
1.7375
2.3015
6.2060
3.6464
2.5379
1.8242
3.0824
7.7678
2.3738
5.4974
3.0837
6.9882
.7423
1.2898
1.7085
4.6C70
2.7069
1.8840
1.3542
2.2882
5.7665
1.7622
4.0799
2.2892
5.1877
.5755
.7752
.2247
1.3245
3.5717
2.0986
1.4606
Water Piirification
127
Sodimn Componndfl — Coiitiit««4
Known
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
Na,CO,
NajCOs
NajCOs
NajCOa
Na»CO,
NajCOa
NajCOs
NasCO.
NajCO.
NajCOs
Na,CO,
NajCOt
NaaCOs
NajCO*
NaaCOs,
NasCOs,
Na2C03,
NajCOs,
NajCOa,
NajCOs,
NaaCOs,
Na»CO»,
Na2C03,
NasCO,,
lOHtO
lOHjQ
IOH2O
IOH2O
10H,O
lOHjO
IOH2O
IOH2O
IOH2O
IOH2O
NaiCO,, IOH2O
NajCOa, IOH2O
Na2C08, IOH2O
NaaCOs. IOH2O
NaHCOa
NaHCOa
NaHCO.
NaHCOa
NaHCOa
NaHCOa
NaHCOa
NaHCOa
NaHCOa
NaCl .
NaCl
NaF . .
Na,HP04
NasHPO*,
I2H2O
NaaPOi .
NaaPOi,
I2H2O
NaaSOi .
NaaSO*,
IOH2O
Na . .
NatO .
C0« . .
NaOH .
Na2C0a,
IOH2O
NaHCOa
NaCl .
NaF . .
NatHPO*
NajHPO*,
I2H2O
NaaPO* .
NaaPO*,
I2H2O
Na2S04 .
Na2S04,
IOH2O
Na .
Na20
CO2 .
H2O .
NaOH
Na2C03
NaHCOa
NaF . .
Na2HP04
NasHPO*
I2H2O .
Na8P04 .
Na,P04,
I2H2O
Na2S04 .
Na2S04,
IOH2O
Na .
NajO
CO2 .
NaOH
Na2C08
Na2C08,
IOH2O
H2O . ,
Na2S04 .
Na2S04,
IOH2O
Na . ,
CI . . ,
Factor
1.0499
1.7740
4.4706
1.3662
3.1639
1.7747
4.0219
.4344
.5862
.4147
.7549
2.6965
1.5843
1.1027
7.9264
1.3393
3.3751
1.0314
2.2500
1.3398
3.0363
.1611
.2170
.1538
.6291
.2799
.3708
.5875
.2939
.4966
1.2516
.3825
.8858
.4968
1.1260
.2472
.3694
.5234
.4765
.6311
1.7019
.1071
1.6913
3.8329
.3940
.6059
Sodimn Compoiutdfl — Coii«in««4
Known
Sought
Factor
NaCl ....
. Na,0 .
.5307
NaCl . .
. NaOH .
.6846
NaF . . .
. Na . .
.5481
NaF . .
. . F . . .
.4518
NaF . .
. . Na«0 .
.7384
NaF . .
. . NaOH .
.9524
NajHPO*
. . Na . .
.3244
NajHPO*
. . NaaO .
.4370
NatHPO*
. . HPOi .
.5629
NaiHPOi
. . P2O8 . .
.4996
NatHP04
. . NaaHPO*,
I2H2O
2.5200
NajHPO*, 12H2(
0. Na . .
.1287
NajHPO*. 12H2(
3 . NatO .
.1734
Na,HP04. 12H2(
3 . HPO, .
.2234
NaJIPO*. 12H,(
0. P2O8 . .
.1982
Na2HP04. 12H2(
. NatHP04
.3968
Na2HP04, 12H2(
0. H2O . .
.6031
NaaP04 . . .
. . Na . .
.4212
NaaP04 . . .
. . Na,0 .
.5674
NaaP04 . . .
. . PaOa . .
.4325
NaaP04 . . .
. . NaaP04,
I2H2O
2.3168
Na.P04, I2H2O
. Na . .
.1819
Na2P04, I2H2O
NajO
.2450
Na2P04, I2H2O
P2O6 . .
.1867
Na2P04, I2H2O
. NaaP04 .
.4318
Na.P04, I2H2O
. H2O . .
.5681
NatS04 . . .
Na . .
.3242
Na2S04 . . .
. . Na20
.4368
NaiSO* . . .
. . NaOH .
.5634
NatS04 .' . .
. . Na2C0a.
.7463
NajSO* . . .
. . Na2C0a,
IOH2O
2.0125
Na2S04 . . .
. . Na2S04,
IOH2O
2.2661
Na2S04 . . .
. . SOi . .
.5631
Na2S04, IOH2O
. Na . .
.1430
Na2S04, IOH2O
. NaiO .
.1927
NsiSOi, IOH2O
. NaOH .
.2486
Na2S04, IOH2O
NajCOi .
.3293
Na2S04, IOH2O
Na2C0a,
IOH2O
.8880
Na2S04, 10H,O
Na2S04 .
.4412
Na2S04, IOH2O
. H2O . .
.5587
NaaSO*, IOH2O
SOa . .
.2485
Sulphnric Acid Compounda
SOa
SOa
SOa
SOa
SOa
SOs
AI2 (S04)3
Al2(S04)8,
I8H2O
BaS04 .
CaS04 .
CUSO4 .
CUSO4, 5
H2O .
1.4255
2.7745
2.9160
1.7007
1.9940
3.1184
128
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
Snlphurio Acid Compounds
Continued
Known
Sought
Factor
SO,
SO,
so,
so,
so,
so,
HjSO*
H2S04
FeS04 .
FeS04, 7
HjO .
MgS04 .
Na,S04 .
Na2S04,
IOH2O
H,S04 .
SO, . .
H2O . .
1.8980
3.4718
1.5041
1.7756
4.0239
1.2248
.8164
.1835
Alkalinity Eqnivalenta
The diflEerent substances which
produce alkalinity in water are of
different values, weight for weight,
in their power to produce alkalinity.
Thus the same quantity by weight
of calcium monocarbonate, magne-
sium monocarbonate and sodium
monocarbonate will not impart the
same amount of alkalinity to the
same quantity of water. In order
to measure the amount of alkalinity
in any given sample of water, it
became necessary to have some
standard unit of measurement.
The unit of measurement which
was chosen was calcium monocar-
bonate, CaCO«. The reason for
choosing this substance as the
unit was found in its molecular
weight, which at the time was
supposed to be 100.00. At the
time these tables were prepared,
the molecular weight of calcium
monocarbonate had been slightly
changed and was considered to be
100.1 and the tables are computed
on this value.
Under this assumption, if a given
sample of water contained 1.001
milligrams of calcium monocarbon-
ate in 1,000,000 parts of water, it
would require exactly one cubic
N
centimeter of ^ Stdphuric Acid
Solution to effect its neutralization,
and it would be said to have an
alkalinity of one part per million.
If the same quantity of calcium
monocarbonate were found present
in 58,415 milligrams of water, it
would require one cubic centimeter
N
of v^ Sulphuric Acid Solution to
effect its neutralization and the
sample would be said to possess an
alkalinity of one grain per gallon.
If the alkalinity in both samples
was composed of magnesium mono-
carbonate and required the same
N
volume of -^ Sulphuric Acid Solu-
oU
tion to neutralize, the alkalinity of
the samples would be the same as
in the preceding case, but instead
of there being 1.001 milligrams of
MgCO« present, there would only
be .8427 milligram of MgCCinthe
samples. In other words, .8427
milligram of MgCO« is equal to
1.001 milligrams of CaCO« in its
power to produce alkalinity. It
requires 1.06 milligrams of sodium
monocarbonate to produce the
same alkalinity as .8427 milligram
of MgCO, or 1.001 milligrams of
CaCO,.
The following tables show the
values of the various chemical com
pounds which may be found in
water or used in water purification
processes, in producing alkalinity,
as compared against the unity
value of the substance represented
Water Parification
129
by the formula at the head of each
table. Thus one part of the sub-
stance heading these tables will
have the same alkalinity value as
is indicated in weight of the other
chemical compotmds forming the
body of the tables.
Alkalinity Equivalents
CaO
CaIl2(C03)2
Substance
Factor
Alj(OH)e
BaO
Ba(OH),
Ca(OH),
CaCO,
CaH2(CO,)i ....
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgCOa
MgH,(C0,)2. . . .
NajO
NaOH
NaaCO,
NaHCOa
.6072
2.7344
3.0552
1.3208
1.7843
2.8894
.7194
1.0402
1.5037
2.6089
1.1069
1.4278
1.8912
2.9864
Ca(OH)2
Al2(0H),
BaO
Ba(OH),
CaO
CaCO,
CaHaCCOa)! ....
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgCO,
MgH,(CO,). . . .
NaaO
NaOH
Na,CO,
NaHCO,
.7026
2.0701
2.3130
.7571
1.3508
2.1875
.5446
.7875
1.1384
1.9751
.8380
1.0809
1.4318
2.2685
(Standard) CaCOs
A1,(0H),
BaO
Ba(OH),
CaO
Ca(OH),
CaHt(CO,), . . . .
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgCO.
MgH,(CO,), . . .
NatO
NaOH
NajCO,
NaHCO,
.5201
1.5324
1.7122
.5604
.7402
1.6193
.4031
.5830
.8427
1.4621
.6203
8001
1.0599
1.6793
Substance
Factor
A1,(0H),
BaO
Ba(OH),
CaO
Ca(OH),
CaCO,
MgO
Mg(OH), ....
MgCO,
MgH2(C0,), . . .
NajO
NaOH
NaiCO,
NaHCO,
.3212
.9463
1.0573
.3460
.4571
.6175
.2489
.3600
.5204
.9028
.3830
.4941
.6539
• 1.0370
MgO
AU(OH).
BaO . .
Ba(OH),
CaO . .
Ca(OH),
CaCO, .
CaH,(CO,)
Mg(OH),
MgCO,
MgH,(CO,),
NatO .
NaOH .
NaaCO,
NaHCO,
1.2900
3.8007
4.2466
1.3899
1.8359
2.4801
4.0163
1.4459
2.0901
3.6263
1.5386
1.9846
2.6288
4.1650
Mg(OH)2
A1,(0H). .
BaO . . .
Ba(OH), . ,
CaO . . .
Ca(OH)a . ,
CaCO, . . ,
CaH2(CO,)2
MgO . . .
MgCO, . .
MgH2(C0,)i
NatO . . .
NaOH . . .
Na2C0, . .
NaHCO, . .
.8921
2.6285
2.9369
.9612
1.2697
1.7152
2.7775
.6915
1.4455
2.5078
1.0640
1.3725
1.8180
2.8803
130
American Steel and Wire Company
Alkalinity Equivalents — Continoed
MgCOa NaOH
Substance
Factor
Al2(OH)6
BaO
Ba(OH),
CaO
Ca(OH),
CaCO,
CaH,(C0,)2. . . .
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgHa(C08)2. . . .
Na^O
NaOH
NatCO. . . . • .
NaHCO,
.6171
1.8183
2.0317
.6650
.8783
1.1865
1.9215
.4784
.6917
1.7349
.7361
.9495
1.2577
1.9926
M«H2(C03)2
AU(OH),
BaO . .
Ba(OH),
CaO . .
Ca(OH),
CaCOa .
CaH,(C03
MgO .
Mg(OH),
MgCOt
Na,0 .
NaOH .
Na2C08.
NaHCO.
.3557
1.0481
1.1710
.3833
.5062
.6839
1.1075
.2757
.3987
.5763
.4242
.5472
.7249
1.1485
Na20
BaO
Ba(0H)2 . . .
CaO
Ca(OH)a . . .
CaCOa ....
CaH2(C03)a. .
MgO ....
Mg(OH),. . .
MgCO, . . .
MgH2(CO,)2. .
NaOH ....
Na2C0, . . .
NaaCOs. IOH2O
NaHCOs . . .
2.4702
2.7600
.9033
1.1932
1.6119
2.6103
.6499
.9397
1.3584
2.3568
.6449
1.7085
4.6070
1.3534
Substance
Factor
BaO
Ba(OH),
CaO
Ca(OH),
CaCOs
CaH2(C03)i. . . .
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgCO,
MgH2(CO02. . . .
Na20
Na2C0,
Na2COa,10HtO . .
NaHCO,
1.9151
2.1398
.7003
.9250
1.2496
2.0237
.5038
.7285
1.0351
1.8272
.7752
1.3245
3.5717
2.0986
Na2C03
BaO
Ba(OH)a . . .
CaO
Ca(OH), . . .
CaCO» ....
CaH2(C03)2. .
MgO ....
Mg(OH), . . .
MgCOa . . .
MgH2(CO,)2. .
NsLxO
NaOH ....
NaaCOs, lOHtO
NaHCOs . . .
1.4458
1.6154
.5287
.6983
.9434
1.5278
.3803
.5500
.7950
1.3794
.5852
.7549
2.6965
1.5843
Hardness Equivalents
As in the Alkalinity Equivalent
tables, the hardness imparted by
the various hardening compounds
is not the same. In the following
tables the hardening values are
compared exactly as in the Alka-
linity Equivalent tables. Thus
one part of the compound heading
each table will produce as much
hardness as is indicated by the
factors given opposite the sub-
stances forming the body of the
table. The unit of measurement
is the same as the alkalinity,
viz: CaCOs.
Water Purilioatioii
131
Hardness
Al2(S04)3.18H20
Substance
Ali(OH). . .
A1,(S04), . .
BaO . . .
Ba(OH)j
CaO . . .
Ca(OH),
CaCOa . .
CaH,(C0,)2
CaCh . . .
CaS04 . .
CO, . . .
CUSO4 . .
CuSO*. 5H2O
PeS04 . . .
FeSO*. 7H2O
HCl . . . .
MgO . . .
Mg(OH),
MgCO, . .
MgH,(C0,)2
MgCh . . .
MgS04 .
SO3 . . . .
H,S04 . . .
Factor
.2344
.5137
.6905
.7716
.2525
.3335
.4506
.7297
.4997
.6129
.1980
.7187
1 . 1239
.6841
1.2513
.1640
.1816
.2627
.3797
.6589
.4288
.5421
.3604
.4415
Ca(OH)2
Substance
AU(OH). . .
A1,(S04)» . .
AU(S04)», I8H2
BaO
Ba(OH)a . .
CaO
CaCOs . . .
CaH,(C03)j .
CaCh . . .
CaSO* . . .
C0« ....
CUSO4 . . .
CUSO4, 5HjO
FeS04 . . .
FeS04, 7H20
HCl ... .
MgO . . .
Mg(OH)t . .
MgCOs . .
MgH,(C03)2
MgCh . . .
MgS04 . . .
SOi ....
H2S04 . . .
Factor
.7026
1.5401
2.9976
2.0701
2.3130
.7571
1.3508
2.1875
1.4979
1.8375
.5938
2.1546
3.3692
2.0507
3.7511
.9838
.5446
.7875
1.1384
1.9751
1.2855
1.6251
1.0804
1.3233
CaO
CaCOa
Al,(OH)a ...
AU(S04)3 . . .
Al,(S04)s, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(OH)2 . . .
Ca(0H)2 . . .
CaCO ....
CaHj(C0,)2 . .
CaCh ....
CaSO* ....
CO2
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
PeSO* ....
FeS04, 7H2O .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(0H)3 . . .
MgCO, . . .
MgH2(C0,). .
MgCl, ....
MgSOi ....
SO,
H,S04 ....
.6072
2.0343
3.9594
2.7344
3.0552
1.3208
1.7843
2.8894
1.9786
2.427
.7843
2.8456
4.4502
2.7087
4.9547
1.2994
.7194
1.0402
1.5037
2.6089
1.6980
2.1465
1.4270
1.7479
Al2(0H), . . .
Al2(S04)8 . . .
Al2(S04),, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(0H)2 . . .
CaO
Ca(0H)2 ...
CaH2(CO,)2 . .
CaCU ....
CaS04 ....
CO2
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
FeS04 ....
FeS04, 7H2O .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(0H)2 . . .
MgCOa . . .
MgH2(C03)2 .
MgCh ....
MgSO* ....
SO3
H2VSO4 ....
.5201
1.1401
2.2190
1.5324
1.7122
.5604
.7402
1.6193
1.1088
1.3602
.4395
1.5950
2.4941
1.5180
2.7768
.7282
.4031
.5830
.8427
1.4621
.9516
1.2029
.7998
.9796
132
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
Hardness Equivalents — Continued
CaH2(C03)2 CaS04
Substance
Al2(0H)e ....
Al2(S04), ....
Al2(S04)«, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(OH)i . . . .
CaO
Ca(OH), . . . .
CaCOs
CaCU
CaSO*
COa
CUSO4 . . . . >
CuS04,6H20 . .
FeSOi
FeS04,7H20 . .
HCl
MgO
Mg(0H)2. . . .
MgCOa . . . .
MgH2(CO,)2 . .
MgCh
MgSO* ......
SO,
H2SO4
Factor
.3212
.7040
1.3703
.9463
1.0573
.3460
.4571
.6175
.6847
.8399
.2714
.9849
1.5401
.9374
1.7147
.4497
.2489
.3600
.5204
.9028
.5876
.7428
.4938
.6048
Substance
Factor
Al2(0H),
A]2(S04)S
A12(S04)S, I8H2O .
BaO .......
Ba(OH),
CaO .......
Ca(OH),
CaCOs
CaH2(C0i)i ....
CaCl,
CO.
CuSOi ......
CuS04,5H20 . . .
FeS04
FeS04,7H20 . . .
HCl
MgO
Mg(0H)2
MgCO.
MgH2(C0a). . . .
MgCl,
MgS04
SO.
H2SO4
.3823
.8381
1.6311
1.1266
1.2588
.4120
.5442
.7351
1.1905
.8152
.3231
1.1725
1.8335
1.1160
2.0414
.5354
.2964
.4286
.6195
1.0749
.6996
.8844
.5879
.7201
CaCl2
CO2
Al2(OH)6 . . .
Al2(S04)8 . . .
Al2(S04)3, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(0H)2 . . .
CaO
Ca(OH). . . .
CaCOs ....
CaH2(C08)2 . .
CaS04 ....
CO2
CUSO4 ....
CuS04,5H20 .
FeS04 ....
FeS04,7H20 .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(0H)2. . .
MgCO. . . .
MgH2(C08)2 .
MgCl, ....
MgS04 ....
SO.
H2SO4 ....
.4690
1.0281
2.0011
1.3819
1.5441
.5054
.6675
.9018
1.4603
1.2266
.3963
1.4383
2.2491
1.3690
2.5041
.6567
.3636
.5257
.7600
1.3185
.8581
1.0848
.7212
.8834
Al2(0H). . . .
Al2(S04)3 . . .
A12(S04)S, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(0H)2 . . .
CaO
Ca(0H)2 . . .
CaCO. ....
CaH2(COs)2 . .
CaCl. ....
CaS04 ....
CUSO4 ....
CuS04,5H20 .
FeSO* ....
FeS04, 7H2O .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(0H)2. . .
MgCO, . . .
MgH2(C08)2 .
MgCl. ....
MgB04 . . .
SO2
H3SO4 ....
1.1833
2.5937
5.0483
3.4863
3.8954
1.2750
1.6840
2.2750
3.6840
2.5227
3.0945
3.6286
5.6740
3.4536
6.3172
1.6568
.9172
1.3263
1.9172
3.3263
2.1650
2.7368
1.8195
2.2286
Water Porification
133
Hardness Equivalents — Continued
CaS04» 5H2O MgO
Substance
Al2(0H)« . . .
Al2(S04)8 . . .
Al2(S04)8, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(OH), . . .
CaO
Ca(OH), . . .
CaCOs ....
CaH2(CO,), . .
CaCh ....
CaS04 ....
COa
CUSO4 ....
FeSO ....
FeS04.7H20 .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(0H)2 . . .
MgCO, . . .
MgH2(CO,)2. .
MgClt ....
MgS04 ....
SOs
H2SO4
Factor
.2085
.4571
.8897
.6144
.6865
.2247
.2968
.4009
.6492
.4446
.5453
.1762
.6395
.6086
1.1133
.2919
.1616
.2337
.3379
.5862
.3815
.4823
.3206
.3927
Substance
Factor
•
Al2(0H)e
Al2(S04).
A12(S04)S. I8H2O .
BaO
Ba(0H)2
CaO
Ca(0H)2
CaCOt
CaH2(CO,)2 ....
CaCli
CaS04
CO2
CuSO*
CuS04,5H20 . . .
FeSO*
FeS04,7H20 . . .
HCl
Mg(0H)2
MgCO,
MgH2(C03)2. . . .
MgCl.
MgS04
SOt
H2SO4
1.2900
2.8277
5.5036
3.8007
4.2466
1.3899
1.8359
2.4801
4.0163
2.7502
3.3736
1.0901
-3.9558
6.1858
3.7651
6.8870
1.8062
1.4459
2.0901
3.6263
2.3602
2.9836
1.9838
2.4296
FeS04. 7H2O
Mi(OH)2
Al8(0H)e . . .
Ala (804)3 . . .
Al8(S04)8,18HaO
BaO
Ba(OH)a ....
CaO
Ca(0H)8 ....
CaCOg
CaHaCCOa)^ . .
CaClg
CaSO^ ....
COg
CUSO4
CUSO4, SHgO . .
FeS04
HCl
MgO
Mg(0H)8 . . .
MgCOs • . . .
MgH«(C03)« . .
MgClj
MgS04
SO3
H8SO4
.1873
.4105
.7991
.5518
.6166
.2018
.2665
.3601
.5831
.3993
.4898
.1582
.5743
.8981
.5466
.2622
.1452
.2099
.3034
.5252
.3427
.4332
.2880
.3527
Al2(OH)6 . . .
Al2(S04)l . . .
Al2(S04)8, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(0H)2 . . .
CaO
Ca(0H)2 . . .
CaCOa ....
CaH2(C03)2 . .
CaCh ....
CaS04 ....
CO2
CuSO* ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
FeS04 ....
FeS04,7H20 .
HCl
MgO ....
MgCOa . . .
MgH2(CO,)2. .
MgCh ....
MgS04 ....
SO,
H2SO4 ....
.8921
1.9555
3.8061
2.6285
2.9369
.9612
1.2697
1.7152
2.7775
1.9019
2.3331
.7539
2.7357
4.2779
2.6038
4.7628
1.2491
6915
1.4455
2.5078
1.6322
2.0633
1.3718
1.6802
l?A
American Steel and Wire Company
Hardness Equivalents — Concluded
MgCOs MgCl2
Substance
Factor
Ah(OH),
AhCSOOs
AhCSOOs, I8H2O .
BaO
Ba(0H)2
CaO
Ca(0H)2
CaCO,
CaH,(C03)2 . . . «
CaCh ......
CaSOi
C0»
CuSO*
CUSO4, 6HsO . . .
FeSO*
FeS04, 7H2O . . .
HCl
MgO
Mg(OH),
MgHj(C0,)2. . . .
MgCli
MgS04
SOt
H,S04
.6171
1.3528
2.6330
1.8183
2.0317
.6650
.8783
1.1865
1.9215
1.3157
1.6140
.5215
1.8926
2.9594
1.8013
3.2949
.8641
.4784
.6917
1.7349
1.1292
1.4274
.9490
1.1623
Substance
Al2(0H)« . . .
A1,(S04)3 . . .
AltCSOO,. 18H,0
BaO
Ba(OH),.. . .
CaO
Ca(OH), . . .
CaCO» ....
CaH2(C03)». .
CaCU ....
CaSO* ....
CO,
CuSO« ....
CuS04,6H20 .
FeSO* ....
FeS04,7H»0 .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(OH)i. . .
MgCO, . . .
MgH5(CO,)2. .
MgSO* ....
SO3
H,S04 ....
Factor
.5465
1.1980
2.3317
1.6103
1.7992
.5889
.7778
1.0508
1.7016
1.1652
1.4293
.4618
1.6760
2.6208
1.5952
2.9179
.7652
.4236
.6126
.8855
1.5364
1.2641
.8404
1.0293
MgH2(C03)2
MgS04
Al2(0H)e . . .
Ah(S04)s . . .
Ah(S04),, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(OH), . . .
CaO
Ca(OH), . . .
CaCOa ....
CaH2(C03)a . .
CaCh ....
CaSO* ....
CO,
CUSO4 ....
CuS04,6H20 .
FeSO* ....
FeS04,7H30 .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(OH),. . .
MgCOt . . .
MgCla ....
MgS04. . . .
SO.
H,S04 ....
.3557
.7797
1.5176
1.0481
1.1710
.3833
.5062
.6839
1.1075
.7584
.9303
.3006
1.0908
1.7057
1.0382
1.8991
.4980
.2757
.3987
.5763
.6508
.8227
.5470
.6699
Al,(OH)e . . .
A1,(S04)3 . . .
A1,(S04)3, I8H2O
BaO
Ba(OH), . . .
CaO
Ca(0H)2 . . .
CaC03 ....
CaH2(C0,)a. .
CaCh ....
CaS04 ....
CO2
CUSO4 ....
CuS04,5H20 .
FeS04 ....
FeS04.7H20 .
HCl
MgO ....
Mg(0H)2. . .
MgCO, . . .
MgH2(C0a)2. .
MgCh ....
S0»
H2SO4 ....
.4323
.9477
1.8445
1.2738
1.4233
.4658
.6153
.8312
1.3461
.9217
1.1307
.365a
1.3258
2.0732
1.2619
2.3082
6053
.3351
.4846
.7005
1.2154
.7910
.6648
.8143
Water Purifioation
135
Incompatible Equivalents
Two substances which axe chem-
i
jically incompatible cannot remain
in the same solution. In the f oUow-
|ing tables the substance heading
I the table is chemically incompatible
to each substance in the table.
I These tables nfiay, therefore, be
I used as Chemical Treatment Tables.
, One part of the substance heading
j each table will either remove, dis-
j place, decompose, neutralize or pre-
i
! cipitate any one of the substances
i in the table in the ratio of the
i factors given. Commercial chem-
icals are neither chemically pure
or wholly utilizable and this should
be allowed for, as the tables are
based on chemical purity and
complete availability. It must also
be evident that if exact equivalents
be used, all of the incompatibles
will be eliminated, and thus the
substance treated, as well as that
used to treat, will be removed and
neither will remain in solution. In
the table headed Iron Sulphate we
find one part of this will remove or
neutralize 0.2018 of Calciimi Oxide,
0.2665 of Calcium Hydrate, or
0.3817 of Sodium Monocarbonate,
and, vice versa, these amounts of
alkali will remove or precipitate
one part of Iron Sulphate. The
other tables are used in the same
way.
Al2(S04)3» I8H2O
Substance
Factor
BaO
Ba(OH),
CaO
Ca(OH),
CaCOi
CaH,(C0a)2 . . .
Mg(0H)2 ....
MgCOa
MgHaCCO,), . . .
Na,0
NaOH
NajCO.
NaHCO,
Na,CO,, 10 HjO
NaF
.6907
.7716
.2526
.3335
.4504
.7297
.2627
.3797
.6589
.2795
.3606
.4776
.7567
1.2880
.3786
BaO
• •
AlaCSOO,, 18HjO
CaCOa ....
CaH2<C03)2 . .
CaSO* ....
C0»
PeS04, 7H50
MgCOs .
MgHaCCO,),
MgSO* . . .
NajCO. . ,
NaHCOs . .
Na»S04 . . .
SO, ... .
H2SO4 . . .
• •
CaO
A1,(S04),, . . .
Al2(S04),, I8H2O
CaH2(CO,)2 . .
CO2
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
HCl
FeS04 ....
FeS04, 7H2O
MgCO, .
MgH2(CO,)2
MgCh . . .
MgS04 . . .
SO, . . .
H2SO4 . .
• •
• • •
1.4480
.6525
1.0567
.8876
.2868
1.8116
.5499
.9541
.7850
.6916
1.0958
.9267
.5219
.6392
2.0343
3.9594
2.8894
.7843
2.8456
4.4502
1.2994
2.7087
4.9547
.665
.7666
1.698
2.1465
1.427
1.7479
136
American Steel and Wire Company
Incompatible Equivalents — Continued
Ca(OH)2 CaS04
Substance
Factor
A1,(S04),
A1«(S04)3. 18H,0 .
CaH,(CO,), ....
COt
CUSO4
CUSO4, SHjO . . .
HCl
FeSOi
FeS04, 7H20 . . .
MgCO,
MgH2(C0,)i . . .
MgCl,
MgS04
SO.
H,S04
1.5401
2.9976
2.1876
.5938
2.1546
3.3692
.9838
2.0507
3.7511
1.1384
.9875
1.2855
1.6251
1.0804
1.3233
CaC03
Alt{S04)s . . .
Ala{S04)s, I8H2O
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4. SHaO .
HQ
FeS04 ....
FeS04,7H20 .
SO.
H2SO4 ....
1.1401
2.2190
1.5950
2.4941
.7282
1.5180
2.7768
.7998
.9796
CaH2(C03)2
Al2(S04)8 . . .
Al2(S04)i, 18H,0
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
HCl
S0»
H2SO4 ....
.7040
1.3703
.9849
1.5401
.4497
.4938
.6048
CaCl2
BaO . .
Ba(0H)2
NajO . .
NaOH .
NaaCOs .
1.3819
1.5441
.5594
.7216
.9558
Substance
Factor
BaO
Ba(0H)2
Na20
NaOH
NaaCOa
1.1266
1.2588
.4560
.5882
.7792
Free CO2
BaO . .
Ba(0H)2
CaO . .
Ca(0H)2
CaCOs .
MgO . .
Mg(OH)i
MgCOa .
NaaO . .
NaOH .
NajCOs .
3.4863
3.8954
1.2750
1.6840
2.2750
.9172
1.3263
1.9172
1.4113
1.8204
2.4113
FeS04, 7H2O
BaO
Ba(0H)2 . . .
BaCl2, 2H2O. .
CaO
Ca(0H)2 . . .
CaCO, . . . .
CaH2(CO,)2 . .
MgO
Mg(0H)2 . . .
MgCOs . . . .
MgHjCCOOa. .
NajO
NaOH . . . .
Na2C0». . . .
NaHCOa . . .
NaF
Na.P04, I2H2O
.5518
.6166
.8789
.2018
.2665
.3601
.5831
.1452
.2099
.3034
.5252
.2234
.2881
.3817
.6047
.3025
.9117
M«0
Al2(S04)l
Ala(S04)3, I8H2O .
COa (as monocar-
bonate) . . . .
CUSO4
CuS04,5H20 . . .
FeSO*
FeS04,7H20 . . .
HCl
SOi
H2SO4
2.8277
5.5036
1.0901
3.9558
6.1858
3.7651
6.8870
1.8062
1.9838
2.4296
Water Porilication
137
Incompatible Equivalents — Continued
Mg(OH)2 Na20
Substance
Factor
A1j(S04)s
A1,(S04)3, I8H2O .
CUS04
CuS04,5H20 . . .
FeiS04
FeS04.7H,0 . . .
COj (as monocar-
bonate) ....
HCl
SO,
H,S04
1.9555
3.8061
2.7357
4.2779
2.6038
4.7628
.7539
1.2491
1.3718
1.6802
MgC03
AU(S04),
AliCSO*),, 18H20 .
COj (as Bicarbonate)
CUSO4
CUSO4, SHjO . . .
FeS04
FeS04,7H20 . . .
HCl
SO,
HjS04
1.3528
2.6330
.5215
1.8926
2.9594
1.8013
3.2949
.8641
.9490
1.1623
MgH2(C03)2
Al2(S04), . . .
A1,(S04),, I8H2O
CUSO4 ....
CuS04,6H20 .
HCl
PeS04 ....
PeS04,7H20 .
SO,
H2SO4 ....
.7797
1.5176
1.0908
1.7057
.4980
1.0382
1.8991
.5470
.6699
MgCl2
BaO . .
Ba(OH),
CaO . .
Ca(0H)2
Na,0 .
NaOH .
NajCO,
1.6103
1.7992
.5839
.7778
.6519
.8408
1.1137
MgS04
BaO . .
Ba(OH),
CaO . .
Ca(OH),
NatO .
NaOH .
NajCO,
1.2738
1.4233
.4658
.6153
.5156
.6651
.8807
Substance
Factor
Al2(S04),
A1,(S04)2, 18H,0 .
BaCl,
BaCl,,2H20. . . .
CO,
CaH2(CO,)2 ....
CUSO4
CUSO4, 5H2O . . .
HCl
FeS04
FeS04.7H20 . . .
MgCO,
MgH2(CO,)2. . . .
MgCl,
MgS04
SO,
H2SO4
1.8377
3.5769
3.3542
3.9339
.7088
2.6103
2.5710
4.0202
1.1739
2.4470
4.4760
1.3584
1.1784
1.5339
1.9391
1.2892
1.5790
NaOH
Al2(S04)a . . .
Al2(S04)2, I8H2O
BaCl, ....
BaCl2,2H,0. .
CO,
CaH,(C03)2 . .
CUSO4 ....
CuS04,5H,0 .
Ha
FeSO* ....
FeS04,7H20 .
MgCO, . . .
MgH2(CO,)2. .
MgCl, ....
MgS04 ....
SO,
H,S04 ....
1.4246
2.7731
2.6004
3.0499
.5493
2.0237
1.9932
3.1168
.9101
1.8971
3.4701
1.0531
.9138
1.1892
1.5033
.9995
1.2242
Na2C03
Al2(S04)a . . .
Al2(S04),, 18H,0
BaO
Ba(OH), . . .
BaCl, ....
BaCl2,2H20. .
CO,
CaCl, ....
CaS04 ....
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
HCl
FeS04 ....
PeS04, 7H2O .
SO,
H,S04 ....
1.0756
2.0935
1.4458
1.6154
1.9632
2.3025
.4147
1.0461
1.2833
1.5048
2.3530
.6870
1.4322
2.6197
.7545
.9242
138
American Steel and Wire Company
Incompatible Equivalents — Concluded
SO3 H2SO4
Substance
BaO . .
Ba(OH),
BaCl, .
BaCh, 2H2O
CaO . .
Ca(OH),
CaCOs .
CaH^CCOa)
MgO
Mg(0H)2
MgCOs
MgH,(C03):
NaiO .
NaOH .
NaiCOa
NaHCOs
Factor
1.9160
2.1408
2.6017
3.0514
.7007
.9255
1.2503
2.0247
.5041
.7289
1.0537
1.8281
.7756
1.0004
1.3252
2.0976
Substance
BaO ....
Ba(OH), . .
BaCl, . . .
BaCh, 2H2O .
CaO ....
Ca(OH), . .
CaCOs . . .
CaH^CCOs)* .
MgO . . .
Mg(0H)2 . .
MgCO, . .
MgH2(CO,)2 .
Na20 . . .
NaOH . . .
Na2C0» . .
NaHCOt . .
Factor
1.5643
1.7479
2.1242
2.4913
.5720
.7556
1.0208
1.6530
.4115
.5951
.8602
1.4925
.6332
.8168
1.0809
1.7142
Amount of substances required to treat
One Part of
Al2(S04)3 . . .
Al2(S04)3, I8H2O
BaCh ....
BaClj, 2H2O . .
CaH2(CO,)2 . .
CaCh
CaSOi ....
CUSO4 ....
CUSO4, 5H2O .
CO2
FeSO*
FeSO*, 7H2O .
HCl
MgCOa ....
MgH2(S03)» . .
MgCh ....
MgSO* ....
SO.
H2SO4
Na,0
.5441
.2795
.2981
.2541
.3830
.5594
.4560
.3889
.2487
1.4113
.4086
.2234
.8518
.7361
.8485
.6519
.5156
.7756
.6332
NaOH
.7018
.3606
.3845
.3278
.4941
.7216
.5882
.5016
.3208
1.8204
.5271
.2881
1.0987
.9495
1.0945
.8408
.6651
1.0004
.8168
Na.COs
.9296
.4776
.5093
.4343
.9558
.7792
.6645
.4289
2.4113
.6982
.3817
1.4554
1.3252
1.0809
Na.COa.
10H,0
2.5068
1.2880
1.3735
1.1711
1.7919
1.1459
6.5022
1.8827
1.0292
3.9245
3.5735
2.9176
Forming substances
v^hich remain in
solution
Substance
Na2S04
Na2S04
NaCl.
NaCl .
NaaCOt
NaCl .
Na2S04
Na2S04
Na2S04
Na2C0t
Na2S04
Na2S04
NaCl .
Na2C0.
Na2C0i
NaCl .
Na2S04
Na2S04
Na2S04
Amount
■i
1.2456
.6399
.5616
.4789
.6545
1.0539
1.0438
.8903
.5694
2.4113
.9385
.5114
1.60^
1.2577
1.4498
1.2282
1.1805
1.7756
1.4497
The Red Water Plague
Filtration has proven a boon to
mankind. Its value is large and un-
questionable. However, some ills
have followed its use at many dif-
ferent points. One of the most
annoying and aggravating of these
has been * ' The Red Water Plague. ' '
Some authorities have tried to ig-
nore or belittle this very annoying
evil, but we believe this to be a
wrong policy. **To know the dis-
Water Purification
Cbemiua Prapantian R
Waco, Texas
140
American Steel and Wire Company
ease is half the cure." So with the
plague of Red Water. In order to
overcome it, we must know what it
is, how it is produced, and what
means may be employed to mini-
mize or prevent it. By Red Water
is meant a water carrying enough of
the iron compounds to impart a red
color. Where Red Water is found
it is usually not a transient affair.
If an unusual flow is created in a
main by opening a street hydrant
to flush a dead end, or where several
hydrants are opened as in the case
of a fire, this results usually in stir-
ring up more or less sediment in the
main and water drawn therefrom
may be turbid or discolored, even
with a red color, for a number of
hours or even for a day or two.
This is not what is known as Red
Water.
Where the latter is found the
water is not quite clear, or it may
be quite turbid. This turbidity is
of a red color and may be composed
of very small particles which are
readily carried by the water and
which settle out rather slowly. If
the case is an aggravated one, a
certain amount of the turbidity will
settle more quickly. The color is
imparted by hydrated ferric oxide.
An ideal water must, among other
things, be clear, sparkling and free
from turbidity or notable color. It
must not stain linen or spot it. It
must not stain laundry, bath or
toilet fixtures. Red Water fails to
meet these specifications. It fre-
quently carries considerable turbid-
ity or may become turbid on stand-
ing. It stains or spots linen. It
stains or colors porcelain, enamel oi
marble fixtures, and the red coloi
imparted proves difficult or evei
impossible to remove. If a watej
is treated with an excess of iroi
sulphate and an insufficiency ol
caustic lime, iron is left in solution
' I
If sufficient oxygen be present tc
oxidize the iron compounds, th^
iron oxide so formed will manifesi
its presence by the color given the
water, the depth of color depending
on the amount of iron oxide present;
As most waters contain enough
oxygen to oxidize the iron sulphatel
it follows that it is impractical tcj
I
use an excess of iron sulphate foi
water purification purposes, be^
cause such practice would immedi-
ately attract the attention of the
user and create complaint. This
forms one of the safeguards to the
public in the use of this process. It
is impossible to use an excess o|
iron sulphate without every usei]
knowing it is being done. It is not
necessary to employ a chemist to
find the excess. It unmistakably re-
veals its presence to every observer.
Some other coagulants may be
used to such an excess as to cause
the filtered water to carry appre-
ciable quantities in solution with-
out the public becoming aware of
the fact or able to learn of it except
by employing a chemist to analyze
the water. With the American
Steel & Wire Company's process
any excess of coagulant reveals it-
self to every user.
In plants where the coagulant
contains no iron it is evident that if
Water Purifioation
141
the filtered water, when it reaches
the consumer, is red with iron oxide,
the coagulant cannot be the direct
cause of the Red Water, and to the
layman it is not obvious that the
process may be even indirectly
responsible. This, however, may
be conclusively proven and demon-
strated. If the coagulant does not
supply the iron which the water
carries, it is apparent that the iron
must be obtained from some other
source, and no expert is required to
point out that the mains and serv-
ices of the distribution system must
furnish the source of supply.
DestmctiT'e EUecsts
In various places where this Red
Water has been prevalent, the life
of house services and fixtures, par-
ticularly the hot water systems,
bear eloquent testimony of this
fact ; the life of the services in these
instances proving remarkably short.
Hot water boilers have had to be
removed every year in some local-
ities. Hot water pipes have lasted
but little longer, and the cold water
services have not endured as they
should. It is not necessary to argue
that the larger mains of the city
must also have suffered. These
evils prevail to a greater or lesser
extent where Red Water is found.
This causes the householder undue
and unnecessary expense and must
eventually shorten the life of the
mains, thus causing the city a large
and unnecessary expense.
Water Wasted
Where this evil prevails it causes
a larger use of water than would
otherwise be found. The user will
ordinarily waste enough water to
flush the house pipes in an effort to
procure a water which is somewhat
freer from color than is the case
where the supply in the house pipes
is drawn directly after it has stood
several hours. Where meters are
installed, such waste increases the
size of the consumer's bill, and
where they are not, the expense of
the waste has to be borne by the
water department.
Where a large and continuous
flow occurs through a main, the
results of this evil are not so plainly
seen, due to the fact that the large
volume of water passing tends to
lessen the amotint of iron oxide in a
given volume of water passing.
Where the water passes very slowly
or not at all, the opporttmity for
the formation of the Red Water is
most marked.
Cause
The cause of this Red Water
Plague is well known. Its chief
cause may be named in three words,
viz.. Free Carbonic Acid. Iron,
when immersed in water containing
alkaline compounds of lime or mag-
nesia, and very small quantities of
salt or oxygen, and void of free
carbonic acid, rusts very slowly. A
water of this type carrying free
carbonic acid will, on the contrary,
attack iron readily and cause it to
rust quickly. Some iron will be
rendered soluble and some will be
carried in suspension as red oxide of
iron. The soluble iron, when ex-
posed to atmospheric pressure, will
142
American Steel and Wire Company
precipitate out of solution as red
oxide of iron. The depth of color
of this Red Water will depend
largely upon the amount of iron
which it contains, and this, in turn,
upon the amount of free carbonic
acid in the water, and the oppor-
tunity afforded the water for be-
coming saturated with iron by a
slow passage through the distribu-
tion system. If the water be
heated, its corrosive action will be
intensified. This is the reason why
the hot water services deteriorate
more rapidly than the cold services.
The Cure
A water containing from 3 to 6
p.p.m. of monocarbonate alkalinity
will have no free carbonic acid and
will not therefore cause rapid cor-
rosion of iron pipes, nor produce a
Red Water even in hot water sys-
tems. This is the normal quality of
water produced by the American
Steel & Wire Company's system,
and Red Water is not therefore
found where this method of purifica-
tion is employed, if the method is
properly handled. Where alum is
employed as a coagulant the condi-
tions are different. Most of our
water supplies carry bicarbonate of
lime and magnesia in notable quan-
tities, and occasionally some free
carbonic acid. If the water carries
free carbonic acid it already pos-
sesses the power to cause rapid
corrosion of iron piping, and to
produce a Red Water, without any
chemical treatment whatever. If
such a water be treated with alum
the quantity of free carbonic acid
is increased. The water is rendered
hard because of this increase of
carbonic acid and the tendency to
produce Red Water is augmented.
Reactions
If we refer to pages 115, 117 and
118, under ** Reactions of the Cal-
cium, Magnesium and Sodium
Compounds,'* the following reac-
tions will be found:
3CaC0. + Al.CSOO., 18H,0 =
SCaSO* + Al.(OH). + 3CO. +
15H.0.
3CaH.(C0.). + A1.(SOO.,18H,0
= 3CaS0* + Al.(OH). + 6C0. +
18H,0.
3MgC0, + A1.(S0*)., 18H.0 =
3MgS0* -f- A1,(0H). + SCO. +
15H,0.
3MgH.(C0.)t + AU(SO.).,18H.O
= 3MgS0. + Al.(OH). + 6C0. +
18H.0.
3NaC0, + A1.(SOO., 18H.0 =
SNaSO* + A1,(0H). + 3C0. +
15H,0.
6NaHC0, + A1.(S0*),, 18H,0 =
3Na,S0. + A1,(0H). -f- 6C0, +
18H.0.
From the preceding it is seen that
whenever alum is used to decom-
pose a carbonate of lime, magnesia
or soda, carbonic acid is given off
and will be retained in solution by
the water as free carbonic acid.
This will intensify the tendency to
produce Red Water. If, however,
this free carbonic acid is neutralized
or a little better than neutralized,
by the use of lime or soda, the tend-
ency toward Red Water will be
reduced, and if there be from 3 to 6
p.p.m. of monocarbonate alkalin-
ity. Red Water will not result.
Water Purification
143
Hardness
We frequently hear the state-
ment made that when water is
treated with alum there is no in-
crease in the total hardness, that
the carbonates of lime or magnesia,
or soda, are merely converted into
sulphates and the hardness in toto
is not affected by the treatment.
This is an error. It is true that a
part of the carbonate hardness is
converted into 'sulphate hardness
and the total of the sulphate and
carbonate hardness remains unal-
tered, but the acid hardness is in-
creased to the extent of the increase
in the free carbonic acid, and this in
turn is increased proportionally to
the amount of alum used. It is not
wise, therefore, to ridictde the wash-
woman who affirms that the water
is harder when alum is used. One
part of alum having a chemical
formula of ALCSO*),, I8H2O will re-
lease .198 times as much carbonic
acid from a monocarbonate alkalin-
ity. It makes no difference whether
the alkalinity is composed of the
carbonates of lime, magnesia, or
soda.
Very few natural waters carry
more than one or two p.p.m. mono-
carbonate alkalinity, except for a
few days each year. Some never
have any monocarbonate alkalin-
ity. Most of the alkalinity of
iiatural supplies is bicarbonate, and
from a bicarbonate alkalinity 1 part
of alum will release .3961 times as
^uch carbonic acid. Stating it dif-
ferently, one grain of alum when
applied to a gallon of water possess-
ing a bicarbonate alkalinity re-
leases .3961 grain per gallon or 6.77
p.p.m. of free carbonic acid.
Natnral ▼s. Filtered Water
Even though the natural water
will not produce a Red Water the
filtered water under these condi-
tions may do so. As each grain per
gallon or part per million of car-
bonic acid present increases the
hardness to 2.275 times, it follows
that for each grain per gallon of
alum employed the hardness will be
increased .9 g.p.g. or 15.4 p.p.m. if
all the carbonic acid so liberated is
held in solution in the filtered water.
Where all of the carbonic acid lib-
erated is absorbed with caustic lime
and a small amount of monocar-
bonate is left in the filtered water.
Red Water is not found. If sul-
phate of iron were to be employed
without using caustic lime to pro-
duce this monocarbonate alkalinity
in the filtered water, it is probable
that Red Water would result from
its use, as it does from that of alum.
While this may be so. Red Water
is not found in cities employing this
process.
When the Lorain, Ohio, filtration
plant was put in service in 1897,
Red Water began to be manifest in
the outlying districts of the city
several months after the filter
started. This continued up to the
time of the introduction of the iron
sulphite process invented by Mr.
W. H. Jewell. No Red Water was
144
American Steel and Wire Company
found while this process was em-
ployed. Later on the American
Steel & Wire Company's process
was introduced and the city still
remained free from complaint re-
garding Red Water. Stijl later,
owing to mechanical difficulties
which made it impossible to use the
American Steel & Wire Company's
process in the new plant without
making some changes in the con-
struction, the American Steel &
Wire Company's process was re-
placed by the alum process, and
within a few months Red Water
began to be noticeable, and is still
found whenever the alum process is
used. If the arrangement of this
plant permitted the use of lime to
neutralize the free carbonic acid it
is logical to assume the Red Water
would again disappear and the
hardness and odor would become
less noticeable.
Odor and Taste
In some instances the odor and
taste of the filtered water are notim-
proved by filtration, and in others
the filtered water is worse in these
respects than the natural water.
Aeration has been used in order to
overcome the odor and improve the
taste. By these means rather satis-
factory results have been obtained
at some points; at others it has
been found impractical to use this
method. The hydrated oxide of
iron formed in the American Steel
& Wire Company's process is a
strong deodorant and water purified
by the process is always improved
in odor and taste. At some points
the improvement is very noticeable.
At times when such odors or tastes
in the natural water obtain, a freer
use of iron sulphate will still further
tend to eliminate these objection-
able properties.
Water Purification
145
Analysis Report Form, American Steel & Wire Co.
ENGINEERING BUREAU— WATER PURIFICATION
American Steel & Wire Company
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND REPORT ON WATER
Sample No
Sent in by Source of Sample
Taken at Date of Sampling
Sample Received 191
Description of Container
191
G. P. G. =Grains per Gallon. 1 G. P. G. = 17.1 P. P. M. P. P. M. =Parts per Million.
1 P. P.M. = .0584 G. P. G.
1 P. P. M.=8.34 lbs. per Million Gallons of Water.
1 G. P. G.=143 lbs. per Million Gallons of Water.
Probable Combination
Calcium Hydrate, Ca(0H)2, by titration
And corresponding in Alkalinity and Hardness in terms of
Calcium Mono-carbonate to
Calcium Mono-carbonate, CaCOs, by titration, Standard for
Alkalinity and Hardness
Calcium Bi-carbonate, CaH2(Co8)2, reported in weight as
Calciimi Mono-carbonate, CaCOs
Magnesium Hydrate, Mg(0H)2, by titration
And corresponding in Alkalinity and Hardness in terms of
Calciiun Mono-carbonate to
Magnesium Mono-carbonate, MgCOs
And corresponding in Alkalinity and Hardness in terms of
Calcium Mono-carbonate to
Magnesium Bi-carbonate, MgH2(C03)2, reported in weight as
Magnesium Mono-carbonate
And corresponding in Alkalinity and Hardness in terms of
Calcium Mono-carbonate to
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH, by titration
And corresponding in Alkalinity, but not in Hardness, in terms
of Calcitun Mono-carbonate to
Sodium Mono-carbonate, NajCOs, by titration
And corresponding in Alkalinity, but not in Hardness, in terms
of Calcitun Mono-carbonate to
Sodium Bi-carbonate, NaHCOs, reported in weight as Sodium
Mono-carbonate
And corresponding in Alkalinity, but not in Hardness, in terms
of Calcium Mono-carbonate to
Total Caustic Hardness, in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate
Total Fixed Alkali Caustics, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Total Caustic Alkalinity, in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate
Total Mono-carbonate Hardness, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
G.P.G.
P.P.M.
146
American Steel and Wire Company
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND REPORT ON WATER—Continued
Probable Combination
Total Fixed Alkali Mono-carbonates, in terms of Calciun:
Mono-carbonate
Total Mono-carbonate Alkalinity, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Total Fixed Alkali Carbonates, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Total Fixed Alkali Bi-carbonates, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Total Carbonate Hardness, in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate
Total Bi-carbonate Hardness, in terms of Calcium-Mono-
carbonate
Total Bi-carbonate Alkalinity, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Total Alkalinity by Analysis, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Total Alkalinity by Titration, in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate
Calcium Chloride, CaCU
And corresponding in Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate to
Calcium Sulphate, CaS04,
And corresponding in Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate to
Magnesium Chloride, MgCh,
And corresponding in Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate to
Magnesium Sulphate, MgSOi,
And corresponding in Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate to
Free Carbonic Acid, CO2, by titration
And corresponding in Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate to
Free Sulphuric Acid, HaS04, by titration
And corresponding in Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-
carbonate to
Total Chloride Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate
Total Sulphate Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate
Total Sulpho-chloride Hardness in terms of Calcitmi Mono-
carbonate
Total Free Acid Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate
Total Hardness in terms of Calcium Mono-carbonate, by
analysis
Total Hardness in terms of Calcitmi Mono-carbonate, by
titration
Sodium Chloride, NaCl,
Sodium Sulphate, Na2S04,
Iron Oxide, FejOs, and Aluminum Oxide, Ah.Os, reported
together
Silica, or Silicon Dioxide, SiOi
Organic and Volatile Matter
Total Solids by Analysis
Undetermined
Total Solids by Evaporation
G.P.G.
P.P.M.
Water Purifioation
147
INCOMPATIBLES
Where certain chemical substances exist in solution as they do in water, certain
other chemical compounds are incompatible and cannot exist in the same solution. The
following tables will give the substances which are incompatible in a water analysis.
In other words, if any one of the substances given at the head of the tables is found in a
water analysis, the items in this analysis form, mentioned below, will not be found to
be present:
Calcium Hydrate, Ca(OH)i, incompati-
ble to
Calcium Bi-carbonate, CaHs(COt)s,
Magnesium Bi-carbonate, MgHiCCOOi,
Sodium Bi-carbonate, NaHCOi,
Total Fixed Alkali Bi-carbonates,
Total Bi-carbonate Hardness,
Total Bi-carbonate Alkalinity,
Magnesitun Sulphate, MgS04,
Free Carbonate Acid, C0»,
Free Sulphuric Acid, HjS04,
Total Free Acid Hardness.
If calcium hydrate is present the hy-
drates of magnesium and sodium may
likewise be present. If either of these be
present none of the above named sub-
stances will be.
Calcium Bi-carbonate, CaH2(COt)i, in-
compatible to
Calcium Hydrate, Ca(OH)t,
Magnesium Hydrate, Mg(OH)j,
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH,
Total Caustic Hardness,
Total Fixed Alkali Caustics,
Total Caustic Alkalinity,
Free Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4,
Total Free Acid Hardness.
If the bi-carbonates of magnesium or
sodium be present the remarks under cal-
cium bi-carbonate apply with equal force.
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH, incompatible to
Calcium Bi-carbonate, CaHsCCOs)^,
Magnesium Bi-carbonate, MgH2(COi)2,
Sodium Bi-carbonate, NaHCOt,
Total Fixed Alkali Bi-carbonates,
Total Bi-carbonate Hardness,
Total Bi-carbonate Alkalinity,
Calcium Chloride, CaCU,
Calcium Sulphate, CaSOi,
Magnesium Chloride, MgCli,
Magnesium Sulphate, MgS04,
Free Carbonic Acid, CO2,
Free Sulphuric Acid, HtSOi,
Total Chloride Hardness,
Total Sulphate Hardness,
Total Sulpho-chloride Hardness,
Total Free Acid Hardness.
Free Sulphuric Acid, Ha SO4, incompatible
to
Calcium Hydrate, Ca(OH)i,
Calcium Mono-carbonate, CaCOi,
Calcium Bi-carbonate, CaHj(C0t)8,
Magnesium Hydrate, Mg(OH)2,
Magnesium Mono-carbonate, MgCOi,
Magnesium Bi-carbonate, MgH2(CO$)2,
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH,
Soditun Mono-carbonate, Na2C0t,
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH,
Sodium Mono-carbonate, NaaCOi,
Sodium Bi-carbonate, NaHCOi,
Total Caustic Hardness,
Total Fixed Alkali Caustics,
Total Caustic Alkalinity,
Total Mono-carbonate Hardness,
Total Fixed Alkali Mono-carbonates,
Total Mono-carbonate Alkalinity,
Total Fixed Alkali Bi-carbonates,
Total Bi-carbonate Hardness,
Total Bi-carbonate Alkalinity,
Total Alkalinity by Analysis,
Total Alkalinity by Titration,
Calciimi Mono-carbonate, CaCOs,
compatible to
Free Carbonic Acid COa,
Free Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4,
Total Free Acid Hardness.
m-
148
American Steel and Wire Company
INCOMPATIBLES— Continued
If calcium mono-carbonate be present,
either the hydrates of calcium, magnesium
or sodium may be present in small quan-
tity, but if either of these hydrates be
present, bi-carbonates of these same sub-
stances cannot be present. If caldtun
mono-carbonate be present, the bi-car-
bonates of calcium, magnesium or sodium
may be present, but if the bi-carbonate of
either of these be present, no hydrates of
either of these three substances can be
present. If the mono-carbonates of
magnesium or soditun are present, the
remarks under calcium mono-carbonate
apply with equal force.
Sodium Mono-carbonate, Na2C03, in-
compatible to
Calcimn Bi-carbonate, CaH2(C03)2,
Magnesitun Bi-carbonate, MgH2(C08)2,
Total Caustic Hardness,
Total Bi-carbonate Hardness,
Calcium Chloride, CaCla,
Calcitun Sidphate, CaS04,
Magnesium Chloride, MgCh, -
Magnesitun Sulphate, MgS04,
Free Carbonic Add, CO2,
Free Sulphuric Add, H2SO4,
Total Chloride Hardness,
Total Sulphate Hardness,
Total Sulpho-chloride Hardness,
Total Free Acid Hardness.
Sodiiun Bi-carbonate, NaHCOs, incom-
patible to
Calcium Hydrate, Ca(0H)2,
Magnesium Hydrate, Mg(0H)2,
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH,
Total Caustic Hardness,
Total Fixed Alkali Caustics,
Total Caustic Alkalinity,
Caldum Chloride, CaCli,
Caldum Sulphate, CaSOi,
Magnesitun Chloride. MgClj,
Magnesium Sulphate, MgS04,
Free Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4,
Total Chloride Hardness,
Total Sulphate Hardness,
Total Sulpho-chloride Hardness,
Total Free Add Hardness.
Calciimi Chloride, CaCh, Caldum Sul-
phate, CaSOiy Magnesium Chloride,
MgCh, and Magnesium Sulphate,
MgS04, incompatible to
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH,
Sodium Mono-carbonate, NajCOa,
Sodium Bi-carbonate, NaHCOs,
Free Carbonic Add, CO2, incompatible to
Caldtun Hydrate, Ca(0H)2,
Caldum Mono-carbonate, CaCOi
Magnesium Hydrate, Mg (0H)2,
Magnesium Mono-carbonate, MgCOj,
Sodium Hydrate, NaOH,
Sodium Mono-carbonate, Na2C0«,
Total Caustic Hardness,
Total Fixed Alkali Caustics,
Total Caustic Alkalinity,
Total Mono-carbonate Hardness,
Total Fixed Alkali Mono-carbonates,
Total Mono-carbonate Alkalinity.
Water Purification 149
Addenda:
GENERAL STATEMENT
The sample when received had a Turbidity of P. P. M., the Color of the
Turbidity being of a shade. The dissolved Color after being filtered through
a Berkfeld Filter was P. P. M. The Odor cold was and
when hot
Additional Remarks
ALUM PROCESS
The sample required grains per gallon of Alumina Sulphate AlsCSOOt,
18 H2O to effect a proper coagulation. When treated with this quantity of Alum the
Color removal by filtration was per cent., the Color being reduced to
P. P. M
In order to reduce the Color below P. P. M. it was necessary to use
grains per gallon of Alum. When so treated the Color was reduced
from P. P. M. to P. P. M.
AMERICAN STEEL & WIRE CO.'S PROCESS
In order to effect a satisfactory coagulation with the American Steel & Wire Co.'s
Process, the sample required grains per gallon of Ferrous Sulphate,
FeS04, 7 HxO and grains per gallon of Caustic Lime, CaO. When so
treated the coagulation was entirely satisfactory and the Color removal by filtration
was per cent., the Color being reduced to P. P. M
In order to reduce the Color below P. P. M. it was necessary to use
grains per gallon of Ferrous Sulphate and grains per gallon
of Caustic Lime.
When so treated the Color was reduced trom P. P. M. to
P. P. M.
LIME AND SODA ASH PROCESS
By the use of Caustic Lime alone at the rate of grain per gallon the
Hardness of this water was reduced from G. P. G. or
P. P. M. to G. P. G. or P. P. M. This is the maximum
softening action which can be brought about by the use of Caustic Lime unassisted.
When treated with this quantity of Caustic Lime and grains per gallon
of Soda Ash, Na?C03, 58 per cent. Sodium Oxide, Na20, the Hardness was reduced
to G. P. G. or P. P. M. With the above treatment
the Color was reduced from P. P. M. to P. P. M. and
the Odor was by filtration.
This water can be purified by either of the following processes, viz :
If the water is to be purified by straight mechanical filtration the
process is preferable. If softening is to be resorted to, in addition, the water should
occupy at least minutes* time to pass through the mixing chamber
after Soda Ash has been added and hours to pass through the sedimenta-
tion basins. After having passed through the sedimentation basins it will probably
be advisable to use grains per gallon of in
order to re-coagulate the water and assist in preventing after deposits on the sand beds
of the filter and the mains and services of the distribution system.
Respectfully submitted,
AMERICAN STEEL & WIRE COMPANY,
ENGINEERING BUREAU— WATER PURIFICATION.
Chief Engineer.
150
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
TABLES
One part of
is considered as equivalent
both in Alkalinity and Hard-
ness to the following quanti-
ties of CaCOs.
Ca(OH),....
CaH2(C03)2.
Mg(0H)2. . . .
MgCO,
MgH,(COa),
1.350
.617
1.715
1.186
.683
One part of CaCOs is considered as
equivalent both in Hardness and Alkalinity
to the following quantities of
Ca(0H)2...
CaH2(COs)2.
Mg(0H)2. . .
MgCO. ....
MgH2(C0,)j
.740
1.619
.583
.842
1.462
is considered as equivalent in
Hardness to the following
quantities of CaCOs.
One part of
CaCls. .
CaS04.
MgClt.
MgSO*.
COs...
HjSOs.
.901
.735
1.050
.831
2.275
1.020
But none of these produces an Alkalinity
in water.
One part of CaCOs is considered a
equivalent in Hardness to the following
quantities of
CaCls 1.108
CaS04 1.360
MgCls 951
MgSO* 1.203
COs 439
HaSOi 979
But none of these produces an Alkalinity
in water.
is considered as equivalent in
Alkalinity to the following
quantities of CaCOs but as
producing no Hardness in
water.
One part of
NaOH
1.249
NaaCOs
.943
NaHCOs
.595
One part of CaCOs is considered as
equivalent in Alkalinity to the following
quantities of
NaOH
.800
NajCOs
1.059
NaHCOs
1.697
But none of these produces Hardness in j
water.
Some of the following substances may, if
present in large quantities, impart an ap-
preciable Hardness but no Alkalinity.
Owing to the relatively small quantities
usually present in potable waters they are
not considered as producing either Alkalin-
ity or Hardness in water.
NaCl.
NasSOi.
FesOs.
AlsOs.
SiOs.
Organic and Volatile Matters.
One part of Calcium Mono-carbonate, CaCOs, will neutralize 2.219 parts of Alumina
Sulphate Al2(S04)3, 18 H2O.
One part of Alumina Sulphate, Al2(S04)3, 18 H2O will neutralize .4506 part of Caldum
Mono-carbonate, CaCOs.
One part of Calcium Mono-carbonate, CaCOs, will neutralize 2.7768 parts of Fer-
rous Sulphate, FeS04, 7 H2O.
One part of Ferrous Sulphate will neutralize .3601 part of Calcium Mono-carbooate,
CaCOs.
Water Purification 151
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
Caustic Hardness. The Hardness due to hydrates of Calcium and Magnesium.
Fixed Alkali Caustics. The Alkalinity due to hydrates of Sodium and Potassium.
Caustic Alkalinity. The Alkalinity due to hydrates of Caldiun, Magnesium, Sodium
and Potassium.
Mono-carbonate Hardness. The Hardness due to Mono-carbonates of Calcium and
Magnesium.
Fixed Alkali Mono-carbonates. The Alkalinity due to Mono-carbonates of Sodium
and Potassium.
Mono-carbonate Alkalinity. The Alkalinity due to the Mono-carbonates of Calcium,
Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium.
Fixed Alkali Carbonates. The Alkalinity due to the Mono-carbonates and Bi-car-
bonates of Sodium and Potassium.
Fixed Alkali Bi-carbonates. The Alkalinity due to the Bi-carbonates of Sodium and
Potassium.
Total Carbonate Hardness. The Hardness due to the Mono-carbonates and Bi-
carbonates of Calcium and Magnesium.
Bi-Carbonate Hardness. The Hardness due to the Bi-Carbonates of Calcium and
Magnesium.
Bi-Carbonate Alkalinity. The Alkalinity due to the Bi-Carbonates of Calcium,
Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium.
Alkalinity. The Alkalinity due to the Hydrates, Mono-carbonates and Bi-Carbonates
of Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium.
Alkalinity by Titration. The Alkalinity just referred to and obtained by titration
with an acid solution of known strength, using an indicator to determine the end reaction.
Alkalinity by Analysis. The Alkalinity above referred to, but determined by Analysis
rather than by Titration.
Chloride Hardness. The Hardness due to Chlorides of Calcium and Magnesium and
also to Free Hydrochloric Acid.
Sulphate Hardness. The Hardness due to Free Sulphuric Acid and the Sulphates of
Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and Alumina.
Sulpho-Chloride Hardness. The Hardness due to Free Hydrochloric and Sulphuric
Acids and the Sulphates and Chlorides of Calcium, Magnesiiun, Iron and Alumina.
Free Acid Hardness. The Hardness due to Free Hydrochloric, Sulphuric and Car-
bonic Acids.
Hardness or Total Hardness. The Hardness due to all Free Acids, Hydrates, Mono-
carbonates, Bi-Carbonates, Chlorides, and Sulphates of Calcium, Magnesium, Iron
and Alumina.
Ameiioan Slee] and Wire Company
Isometric of Tnb Filters
Heskaiiteia AdltaUan Water Wask Air and Watar Waah
Courtesy isfP.P.MIg.C*,.'
HlnnaapaUa CbeialTal Contr
Earl T»i«
f
1
ri
f d 1 Decimeter
Myriameter
0.254
0.00000264
3.04797;
0.0000304
9.143911
0.00009143
60.292091
0.00050292
2,011.68390
0.02011683
16,093.4716
0.16093471
48,280.4150
0.48280416
0.01
O.00OOO01
O.IO
0.000001
1.0
0,00001
10.0
0.0001
100.0
0.001
1,000.0
0.01
10,000.0
0.10
100,000.0
1,0
Sq. Decimeter
Sq. Myriameter
0.064!
0.00000000000645
9!2963
0.000000OOO92
83.6131
0.0000000083
2,529.2971
0.0000002529
101.171.75
0.0000101171
404,687.2104
0.0000404687
;9,000,800.0
0.02590
0.0001
1 Sq 03953 iqq'q
0.0000000001
0.00000001
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