Manual of classical literature : from the German of J.J. Eschenburg ... With additions ...

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kF ?io(t>i

HARVARD
COLLEGE
LIBRARY

MANUAL

OF

CLASSICAL LITEEATURE.

FROM THE GERMAN OF

J. JKESCHENBURG,

PEOFESSOR in THE CAROLINUM AT BBUFSWICK.

/

tottl) aiibUiona.

RXBRACIHO-TRSATIttt OX THR POLLOWWO SUBJECTS:

L CLASSICAL GEOCRAFHT AND TOPOORA-
FBT.

II. CLASSICAL CRSONOLOOT.
ni. GREEK AND ROXAIT M7TBOL0OT#
IT. 6R£BK AKTIQX7ITIBS.

T. BOXA!f ANTIQUITIES.

VI. ARCniEOLOOT OF GREEK LITERATURI

Til. ABCHJBOLOGT OF ROMAN LITBRA-
TUKS.

Tin. ARCHJBOLOGT OF ART.

IZ. HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURS.

Z. BISTORT OF ROMAN LITERATUBB.

BY

N. W. FISKE.

TBOFESSOB IN AMHBBST COLLBOB.

FOURTH EDITION-TENTH THOUSAND.

PHILADELPHIA :

E. C. A J. BIDDLE, No. 6 SOUTH FIFTH STREET.

LONDON— WILEY & PUTNAM.

1849.

* HAHVABO COLLtGE LibRAKr

'llL*

1

Entered according to act of Congreafi, in the year 1843, by Edward C. Biddle,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of PennsylTania.

Printed by T. K. ft P. O. Ck>llins.

-N

TREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR.

It will be natural to ask, why this hook is offered to the puhlic.
The translator knows not how to introduce the reasons, in a better
way, than by first allowing the author himself to explain the design
and character of the original work. For this purpose, the reader
is requested to peruse the following extracts. from the /*rc/acc« o/*

ESCHENBURG.

From the Preface to the Fifth Edition, — Twenty-eevcn yean ago, I was indaced
to eommence a reTiuion and enlargement of that portion of Hbdbbick'b Introduction
to the Historical Sciences which treats of Classical Literature, Mythology, and Ro-
man Antiquities. In doing this I expected to aid an esteemed friend, who had been
requested by the booksellers to prepare an improved edition of the whole work. But
what determined me to the attempt, was a conviction that it was undertaking a work
of very useful tendency, and a hope that by it a want, long felt in elementary instruc-
tion, might be supplied. Other duties hindered the seafK>nable accomplishment of
this purpose, and I was led to enlarge the original plan, so as to include the Grecian
Antiquities, and what is embraced under the head of Archeology of Literature and
Art. Thus it formed a complete Manwdy furnishing the most essential aids in read-
ing the classical authors, and with sufficient fullness for all elementary purposes
My work so designed has, thereforo, now scarcely a trace in it of the treatise of
Hederick.

My aim, in this work, was to furnish both Learners and Teachers with a book
which might at the same time serve as a general introduction to the reading of classi-
cal authors, and likewise afford further and constant help in understanding and ex-
plaining them. It surely is un necessary to prove that a knowledge of Greek and
Roman Mythology and Antiquities, and some acquaintance with the Archieology
of Literature and Art, and also with the general History and Criticism of the An
dent Authors, are not only useful, but absolutely indispensable, in the pursuit of
classieal study. And it appears to me, that it must greatly facilitate the acquisition
of this knowledge to have the whole range of it brought into one collected system,
as it is in this work, and all digested with one common end in view, and reduced as
fer as possible to one uniform method, with a careful selection of what is most essen-
tial, and omission of what is comparatively unimportant, and a constant reference
to its appropriate use. The Teacher will find presented to him throughout the work
occasions and hints for further illustrations and additions ; while the Learner has in
the book itself what u of indispensable importance, and in such a form that he may
easily re-peruse and review it.

The Archaeohgy of Literature and Art had never, previously to the attempt in
tfaifl work, been exhibited in a form adapted for general instruction. Yet some such
acquaintance with the subject as this work may furnish is of the highest importance
to the scholar. It may be expected that the glance which he will here obtain of the
rich monuments of antiquity, will lead Iiim to seek the pleasure of a more complete
and fall knowledge, especially of Grecian art And certainly the classical teacher
needs to be in some degree fiuniliar with the objects presented in this field of study,
in order to do justice to his pupils. — The View of the Classieal Authors was neces-
sarily confined within brief limits. I preferred to arrange them in Departments, in-
ttead of following purely chronological order, because I could thereby more conve-

Tl PRCFACE*

niently introduce the brief remarks I wished to ofier respecting the form which each
department of writing assumed among the Greeks and Romans. In giving the edi-
tions of the classics, and the works helping to illustrate them, I confined myself
chiefly to such as are most suitable for scholars, and best calculated in my view for
their advancement. In describing the authors, only a short and condensed summary
could be given, not including a complete enumeration of their works, hut merely
naming the most important — The sketch of Greek and Roman Mythology is that
which I first drew up for use in my own lectures, and which has been separately
printed. Here I have endeavored to separate the circumstances most important
for the scholar's notice from those of minor consequence ; introducing the historical
or traditional part of the fables, without saying much of the theories and speculations
employed in solving them ; yet presenting hints at explanations worthy of the scho-
lar's notice. The references to the Metamorphoses of Ovid are added, because \
deem it highly useful to connect a reading of these with the study of Mythology.-—
A new system of Greek and Roman Antiquities might seem, at first view, leas
needed than the other parts of this work, since there are other systems and compends
easily accessilile, especially of Roman Antiquities. But it was necessary to the com-
pleteness of the Manual to include these branches. Nor was this all. I hoped
here, as in the rest of my work, to furnish something especially valuable on account
of its embracing all that is most essential to the subject, with the exclusion of ex-
traneous and unimportant matter.

Since the last edition of this Manual, there have appeared some performances of a
similar kind, in which I thankfully find evidence of the utility of my own work, and
am ready to acknowledge their excellence in some particulars. These works might
render a new impression of mine superfluous ; but the very frequent call for the
Manual, the urgent request of the booksellers, and the apprehension of a second
counterfeit emission of the work, have persuaded me to prepare this fiflh edition. In
the emendations and improvements, I have been guided by the same considerations
which controlled me in the preceding editions. In the additions in the part treating
of the classic authors, I have received very friendly assistance from Professor Schei-
VLRR, of this place.

From the Prefau to the Sixth Edition. — In a former preface, the occasion, de-
sign, and plan of this Manual have been stated. In each successive edition I hsTe
endeavored to make useful improvements; but have throughout adhered to the
original design, and confined myself, of course, to substantially the same limits. Al-
though much progress has been made in classical studies in Germany during the last
thirty years, and there are now several books of great merit which may serve as
guides and introductions to such studies, yet the demand for another impression of
this Manual has compelled me again to take it in hand, and to perform the renewed
labor of revision. In this labor I must again gratefully mention the assistance kindly
rendered me by Proftaso? Scheftleh.

The sixth edition was the last published during the life of the author. But the
work has been printed once or twice since his death. The following is taken from
the Remarks prefixed to the seventh edition (Berlin, Nov. 1, 1824).— The con-
tinued acknowledgment of the great excellence of this Manual of Classical Litera-
ture, which is proved by the constant demand for the book, renders it unnecessary to
say much by way of preface to a new edition. After the death »>f Eschenburg, the
society of booksellers employed a well qualified editor, who has revised the work, and
superintended it with great care and fidelity. An examination will show that, in
doing this, advantage has been taken of the important results of modern classical
researches. It is, therefore, confidently believed that this work will still be found one
of the most useful of the kind ; perhaps the very best manual, both for the Gymnaaia
and other Seminaries, and also for private use.

In view of this account of the character, design, and reputation of
the original work, it is easy to see the reasons why it should be pre-
sented to the scholars of our country. Many instructors have felt
the want of a Comprehensive Text-book in the department of Clas-
ncal Literature and Antiquities. After much inquires the trans-

PRE7ACB. Tli

lator has been able to find no work, which, on the whole, seemed so
well adapted for the object as Eschenburg^s Manual.

It will be seen, by a mere glance, that the general design and
plan of the work, in its present form, is to exhibit in a condensed
but comprehensive summary, what is most essential on all promi-
nent topics belonging to the department of Classical Literature and
Ajitiquities, and at the same time give references to various sources
of information, to which the scholar may go when he wishes to pur-
sue any of the subjects by further investigations. I cannot doubt
that a Manual on this plan, thoroughly executed, would prove one
of the greatest aids to the classical student which it is possible to put
into his hands ; and I cherish the hope that, in the entire want of a
book of this sort, not only in our country, but also in the English
language hitherto, the present attempt to introduce one from abroad
will meet with a candid reception ; especially as it is one whose
value has been so fully attested in the land most of all celebrated
for classical attainments.

Here it may be proper to mention, that some years since this work was translated
into the French. The translator, after some preliminary remarks, says, " from such
eoQsiderations, I sapposed I should render the public a service, by mailing known in
France a series of elementary works univeraaUy esteemed and circukUed in Ger^
numy. I begin with the Manual of Classical Literature, hy Escbehbvro. This
author is Councillor in the Court of the Duke of Brunswick, and Professor in the
public seminary called the Carolinum, As estimable for his moral character as for
the variety of his attainments, known as editor of the posthumous writings of Le»-
ang, and dear to all the celebrated men of the country ; living also in the vicinity
of one of the richest libraries ; he united, along with these advantages, all the light
and experience derived from a long series of years devoted to instruction, and that
good judgment, admirable but rare, which knows how to avoid the superfluous with-
out omitting the necessary and the useful. I shall not attempt an encomium on the
book, of which I here offer a translation ; it is sufficient to refer to the public suffrage
and decision, by which this Manual has been adopted as the basis of public and pri-
vate inatroction in a major part of the universities and colleges in Germany." — Sub-
sequently U> the time of this translation, in a report made to the French Institute
icspecting the literary labors of the Germans, by Charles Villers, the distinguished
antbor of the Essay on the Reformation of Luther, the Manual of Eschenburg was
noticed as a valuable gift to the world.

I fiwi at liberty also to state, as evincing the value of this work in the estimation
of competent judges, that the present translation was commenced with the warm ap
probation and encouragement of Prof Stxtaiit, of Andover, and Prof RoBiirsoir,
now of Boston. In fact, under the advice of these eminent scholars, Mr. Isaac Stu
art. Professor of Languages in the University of S. Carolina, had made prepara-
tions for translating the same work, and wholly without my knowledge, but had been
compelled to renounce the design just before I consulted their views of the utility and
expediency of my attempt It is likewise worthy of notice here, that, from a con-
viction of the great value of €le Manual, and of its fitness to be useful in our country,
it bad actually been translated, before I entered upon the work, by Mr. Crusi, whose
translation of the part pertaining to Roman Authors is introduced into the present
paUicalion.*

No more needs to be said respecting the desifn and merits of the

origina] work, and its claims to be introduced to the knowledge of

• blteSnladllini{ m ito oote oo pi^ a.

▼19 PREFACE.

American scholars. But something more may be desired respecting
the author himself. This desire I am able to gratify, through the
friendship of Prof . Robinson, whose repeated advice and assistance
in the present work I here gratefully acknowledge, and who has fur-
nished the following brief notice of Eschenburg.

<* The name of Eachenburg stands high in Germany, as one of their best writera
on taste and the theory of the fine arts, including fine writing. The article [below]
is condensed in the Encyclopaedia Americana ; but I have preferred to translate the
original [from the CanveraatiotU'Lexicon] as being more full.

** John Joachim Eschenburg, Professor in the Carolinum at Brunswick, was bom
1743 at Hamburg, and died at Brunswick, 1820. This distinguished scholar and
writer received his earliest education in the Johanneum at Hamburg ; afterwards in
Leipzig, where Emesti, Gellert^ Moms, and Clodius were bis instructors; then under
Heyne and Michulis in Gottingen. He then came, through the agency of Jerusalem,
as a private tutor, to Brunswick ; where he afterwards received the Professorship in
the Carolinum, vacated by the death of the poet Zacharia. This post he held during
his life. To him Germany is indebted for a nearer acquaintance with many good
English writers in the department of Esthetics ; e. g. Brown, Webb, Burney, and
Kurd, whom he translated and in part accompanied with notes and additions. He
published, moreover, at diifierent times, in journals and magazines, accounts of the
most remarkable appearances in English Literature, by means of which a love and
taste for the literary treasures of that island and people were greatly promoted among
the Germans. His greatest desert, however, lies in his translation of Bhakspeare.
(Zurich, 1775-87, 14 vols.; 1799-1806, 12 vols.) Although not the first in this
great undertaking, since Wieland had already begun a similar, yet be has long had
the merit of being the most complete ; even though so many excellent translations
of the great tragic writer have been since begun. Indeed his version of the collected
works of this poet is to this moment sought afler, although not possessing the charm
of meter nor the literal fidelity which others exhibit In making his translation,
moreover, by means of his literary and social connections, he enjoyed many advan-
tages which another would with difficulty possess in an equal degree ; and his own
private library contained, so long ago as 1807, more than 400 volumes in reference
to Shakspeare, exclusive of engravings, &c Another g^at benefit conferred on the
public by Eschenburg, was the publication of his Lectures in the Carolinum, his
Theorie und Literalur der achOnen Wissenschafien, his Lehrbuch der WiaaenachafU'
kundCf and his Handbuch der Claasiachen Literatur; of the last work a seventh
edition was published in 1825. In social intercourse, Eschenburg was exceedingly
amiable, and, notwithstanding his occasional satirical remarks, generally beloved.
Three years before his death he celebrated his oflficial jubilee, or 50th anniversary.
He was also Senior of the Cyriacuft-foundation, and a knight of the Guelphic order.
—In the sixth Supplementary Volume of Jordkh's Lexicon deutscher Diehter und
Prosautten, there is a minute catalogue of his works, both original and translated,
and also of his editions of other authors of former or recent times."

It remains for the translator to speak briefly of the principles and

method by which he has attempted to execute his task, in preparing

the work in its present form ; and the following remarks contain all

that it seems important for him to say on this point. For the rest,

those who use the book must judge.

As to the translation itself, my aim has been throughout to express the author's
meaning with strict fidelity ; but in doing this I have endeavored to avoid the long
periods and involved arrangement of words and clauses, for which the German Ian*
guage is of known celebrity ; I have almost uniformly employed shorter sentences,
and have sometimes departed very much from the phraseology of the original. The
alterations are not many; in some instances I have omitted a clause or sentence,
and in a few a whole section or paiagraph, without any notice to the reader; in a

PREFACE. IX

few eases, also, I haTe altered the arrangement of the sections. Otherwise, wherever
I haTB not presented the author entire and nnaltered, a distinct intimation of some
change by the translator is given to the reader, by one of the marks which will be
explained below. — The additions are very considerable ; and, whatever may be their
pertinency or their value, they certainly have cost some labor. In making them, I
have endeavored to keep constantly in mind the grand design of the work, and to
lender it more complete in the respects which, as has been before remarked, consti-
tate its peculiarity, distinguishing it from every other work on these subjects in our
Janguage. The additions may generally be distinguished from the original, either
by the size of the type or by particular marks, as will be described under the Explor-
nations on page x. It will be seen that large additions have been made in the portion
relating to the Greek Literature and Authors f it was my intention to make similar
additions to the View of the Roman Authors^ but the design yvas renounced for the
reasons stated in the Advertisement on page 290.* I regretted, on receiving Mr. ,
Crusts Translation, to find that it did not include the notices of editions and illu^
trative works mentioned by Eschenburg ; and should the present effort meet with
approbtttion, it is my purpose to prepare for separate publication something more
complete on the Roman Literature. I flatter myself that the condensed view of the
aacrcd writings and the writings of the early Christians, as found in the Greek lan-
guage, will be considered a useful addition. — The whole of the part treating of Clas
steal Geography and Chronology is also added by the translator, as explained on
page 572 rf" only it ought to be further remarked, that a few paragraphs pertaining
to the remains of Athens and Rome, placed under Antiquities by Eschenburg, and
omitted in the translation, are introduced, with alteratbns, in this part under the
Topography of those cities.

The work is now ofiered as an humble contribution to the service
of the public, and commended to the candid examination of the
scholar ; in the hope that, under the blessing of Him in whom is the
fountain of all wisdom and knowledge, it may prove an auxiliary
of some value in the cause of liberal and good education.

Amherst College, April 12, 1836.

* TUb refen to puge S90 of tiM inl oditlon. Tlw idnrfiiBiiMnt then ^?ea wat, la wtibiHaam, that the pment tnialalor, whan
b wotfe «« hr adnaeed in iba priotiog, flDtand inlo an amaKraMot wirh Rar. C T. Orvai^ to oooMqaaac* of a aodco tbao
neamt rnn lb* blt«r, that ho iiad alrewly traariated Um wbela of EadwDbarf, with the praviooalj anooaDcad daaign oT pnblid*-
kif ft. Bf thkanufsaMDt it waa ea«i«ad that Mr. Cmaft tnnalation riioald be oaad to ttao put of the work which trcala of tha
knaa Aiikhan ; wftb rbe oadentaodiag ihat, if a aaw editioa tlioald be deounded, the preieat tnadater niKht omit or Ktala iV
aeaavdioB to Ua ova cboieeu Mr. C.V tramlation Is bow oolirely dropped ; lea the Prtfoat to the Third EditUm^ oa pega zl.

t Tie cspbaaika (here rafiBrred to aa oa page 673 of the tint editioa) waa alaiply aa adtaowledgBieBt that the EfOeim if
Ctarieal aeograpk^ eoatained la Part Pint of thii Mannal, ia chiefly drawn from aa EagUih traetiae, bearli« the aasM title, a*
W C. Ibfbr; with ^ouiderable ehaafe h the diviaiaBB and arraaceBwitf, aad with moie (Ul daacriptfaaa at aadant Boaaj

(2)

EXPLANATIONS.

The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from
the author and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section
always indicates that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always
denotes that the section or paragraph to whose number it may be annexed is altered
so as to differ more or less from the original. All the matter in the largest of the
four sizes of type is translated directly from Eschenburg, excepting such sections as
may have one or the other of those marks. All the matter in the smaller tyjpe is added
by the translator, with the following exceptions: (1) sections or paragraphs having
the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated from Gschen-
burg; (2) the Jirst paragraphs of the several sections on the individual Roman
authors, which are also translated from Eschenburg, unless their number is accom-
panied by a star or the letter t, as above described ; and (3) part of the mere re-
ferences to books and authors, a majority perhaps of which are taken from him. As
to these references, it did not seem of much consequence to discriminate carefully
between those given by the author and those introduced by the translator; if any one
should find some of them irrelevant or unimportant, he may safely charge such upon
the translator rather than Eschenburg; if any inquire why the numerous references
to Grerman works are retained, a sufficient reason is furnished by the fact, that it is
becoming more and more common to import such works into this country, and more
and more important for our scholars to be acquainted with the German language ;
and if any deem it superfluous to have given so many references, let such consider,
that the same books are not accessible to all students, and an increased number of re-
ferences must increase the probability of presenting some to books within the reach
of eveiy reader; and it should be home in mind, also, that some references are given
chiefly as bibliographical statistics, which is the case especially with respect to some
of the editions of Greek and Roman classics : moreover, some of the references, it was
supposed, might be of special service in studies pursued aAer the completion of the
academic and collegiate course; since the work is designed to be useful to the student
not only during that course, but also in his subsequent life.*

In using this book, the student will find that he is frequently referred from one
place to another ; and the division into Pahts, sections, and sub-sections, all sepft-
rately numbered, makes the reference very easy; thus, e. g. the abbreviations cf, P. II],
§ 182. 4. direct the reader to the paragraph numbered 4, under section 182, in Part
III. Instead of the word see, or the abbreviation v. (for the Latin vide), the abbre-
viation ef, (for the Latin confer) is commonly used. In order to facilitate the turn-
ing to any passage, the number of the Part is continued as a sort of running title
on the top of the even or right-hand page ; in following the reference above given,
e. g. the reader will first turn to Part III., denoted by P. Ill/ seen at the top of the
right-hand page-; then, under that Part, will look for § 182 ; then, under that sec-
tion, look for the paragraph numbered 4. Whenever the section to which a reference
is made belongs to the same Part with the section in which the reference is made,
the abbreviation for the Part is omitted ; thus, e. g. the abbreviation ef, ^ 3, occurs
on p. 40 in § 136 of Part I., and it directs the student to § 3 of the same Part I. In
some instances, a subsection is itself divided ; thus, cf P. V, § 297. f. (c), directs to
the paragraph marked (c), under the subsection 4. in § 297, of P. V. The references
made to the Plates need no explanation, except the remark that the abbreviation Sup,
always indicates one of the Supplemental Plates, contained in a separate volume,
which the purchaser of the Manual may obtain if he chooses.

A copious Index was essential to accomplish the design of this book ; and in order
to secure greater copiousness, and at the same time give the student the advantage
of a very obvious and useful classification, four distinct Indexes are furnished at the
close of the work: an Index of Greek Words,- an Index of Latin Words,- a Ga>-
graphieal Index; and a General Index; besides which the Contents (in a systema-
tic view prefixed to the body of the work) are exhibited so fully, that the inquirer
may easily ascertain in what section any topic is noticed. When one seeks informa-
tion on a particular point fi^m this volume, he is requested not to conclude that it
contains nothing on the subject, until he has carefiilly examined the Indexes, the
Statement of Contents, and the Description of Plates.

• ••WlMDnwitli|MTdiMadbyaitadwt,hedMMildrtfiiin{lafOM(tf<teteofaqfJUt^^ Thnm(bUtetemsy

■MfeaitsnoitVMraleoBiiaaiaBorhiiUmfylailfaalreemUank" (FrMi a BodM flTiht w«»k b ik« iVbrtt ^teir. Jbaino.)

X

PREFACE

TO THE THIRD EDITION.

When the second edition of this Manual was issued, it was ex-
pected that a more full view of Roman Literature than the work
then contained would be prepared for separate publication by the
author. Circumstances, which it is unnecessary here to specify,
delayed the execution of the plan until the last summer, when the
publisher of the Manual requested an immediate preparation of a
third edition. The design of a separate publication was then re-
nounced, from a conviction that the convenience and advantage of
the student would be better served by incorporating the whole into
one work. The present edition, accordingly, contains a new trans-
lation of that part of Eschenburg which relates to the Roman Au-
thors, with large additions.

Besides this essential improvement, a considerable quantity of new
matter is also introduced in other portions. The value of the work
is, moreover, augmented by the insertion of numerous illustrations.
These are carefully combined in Plates to avoid the loss of room
occasioned by scattering single cuts separately over the pages ; and
the whole printing is executed in a very compact style ; so that,
notwithstanding all the additions and the accession of several hun-
dred cuts, the sensible bulk of the volume is scarcely increased.

The author would here make a general acknowledgment to those
friends who have favored him with remarks and notes. With spe-
cial gratitude he mentions the very valuable assistance received
from Prof, Sbars, of the Newton Theological Seminary, who freely
furnished critical remarks, corrections, and additions, for the whole
of the part on the Archxology of Literature and Art^ and also the
History of Greek Literature $ to his generous attentions much of the
improvement in these portions of the work is entirely due.

The work of Eschenburg still enjoys high estimation in Germany,
as is evinced by the fact that a new edition has very recently been
published at Berlin. It is believed that the American Translation
is not rendered less truly valuable by the large amount of various
matter which it now contains in addition to the original.

Ajohent College, September, 1889.

PREFACE

TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

StKCE the publication of the third edition, the American Translation
of Eschenbnrg's Manual of Classical Literature has been introduced
into some of our most distinguished colleges and literary institutions ;
this circumstance, while it has ajQTorded encouragement under the
toil of revising the sheets for a new edition, has added much to the
author's regret that paramount engagements and duties would not
allow him to accomplish more towards perfecting the work. Some
important improvements, however, have been made; respecting
which it IB unnecessary here to speak. Among the valuable recent
publications, from which help has been derived, the Dictionary of
Antiquities^ by W, Smithy ought to be specified. In the order of
the Five Parts, of which the Manual consists, there is a considerable
change ; for this a sufficient reason will be seen at once in the obvious
propriety of the present arrangement.

The additional illustrations by cuts, and especially by the engrav-
ings on copper, and the several tabular constructions, now first
inserted, will be found to enhance greatly the value of the work.
References are given also to engravings contained in a volume of
Supplemental Plates, which, it is believed, the purchaser will never
regret having taken with the Manual.

The author must not omit to acknowledge his increased obligations
to friends who have kindly furnished corrections and hints respecting
improvements ; especially to Prof. B. Sears and Prof. B. B. Ed-
wards: from whose eminent scholarship and earnest labors in
classical and sacred literature, the public, already enjoying much,
may expect to realize still more and richer fruit. Perhaps the author
will be pardoned for taking this occasion also to make a respectful
request for suggestions from any who may think the book worthy
of their least contribution to its utility.

The work is now again offered for the service of scholars, and
committed to the blessing of Him to whom belong the treasures of
science and the fullness of the earth ; may it hold some humble
place among the means of advancing classical learning, and of pro
moting thereby the knowledge of God and of Jesus Christ, " whom
to know is eternal lifeJ*^

Amherst College, July, 1843.
xii

CONTENTS.

PART I.

CLASSICAL 6E06EAFHY AND CHB0N0L06T.

KprroME or olassical oioobapht.
Inirodueiwn, p. 3, 4.

%^ 1-5. =s ^ 1-3 Portion of earth known
to ancieDta. ^ 4, 5 Ancient divisiona.
I. Of Europe, p. 4-43.

H 6-148. «s^ 6. 7 Extent and bounda-
liea. ^ 8 General Bubdiviaions. $ 9-15
Nmikem amnlries of Europe ; Scandina-
via, Cimbrica, Sarmatia, Germania, &c.
i 16-26 Middle countries of Europe : Gal-
lia, Rbstia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyri-
com, Mcesia, Dacia. ^ 27-129 StnUkem
emintries of Europe. ^ 29-31 Hiapania.
♦ 32-50 Italia. * 51-71 Topograpkif of
Rome. % 5\, 52 Gates and roads. % 53
Bridges and hills. % 54 Districts. Re-
ferences to writers on the topography of
the city. ^55Campi. ^56 Streets. ^57
Fora. ^ 58-60 Temples and groves.
^61-63 Curiae, basilics, circuses ; theatres,
&c. $ 64 Baihs. % 65-67 Schools, por-
ticos, oolumns, trophies, ^c. % 68 Aque-
ducts. Sewers. \ 69 Monuments to the
dead. ^ 70 Dwellings. ^ 71 Villas. Sub-
urbs. ^ 72-75 Thracia. ^ 76 Four na-
tural divisions of Gnecia. ^ 77-81 Mace-
donia. ^ 82-65 Thessalia. $ 86-88 Epirus.
% 89-103 Hellas. % 104-116 Topography
^Athens. ^ 104, 105 Its situation. ^ 106
The Acropolis. ^ 107 Parthenon and
other buildings of the citadel. ^ 108-110
The lower city and its temples. ^111
Porches. Odea, Ceramicus. ^ 112, 113
Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. ^ 114
Aieopagas. Pnyt ^ 115 Theatres. Cho-
lagic monuments. ^116 Harbors. Re-
ferencea to writers on the topography of
Athens. ^ 117-125 Peloponnesus. ^ 126-
129 Topography of Sparta, % 126 Form
and situation. ^ 127 Forum. % 128 Co-
lumns and statues. % 129 Hippodrome.
Harbor. References to writers. ^130-148
European hlands. ^ 130-136 Britannia
and adjoining islands. ^137 Balearicfe.
Conica and Sardinia. ^ 138-140 Sicilia.
♦ 141, 142 loman islands. ^ 143-148
iEgean islands.

II. Of Asu, p. 43-53.

W 149-172. = ^ 149, 150 Extent and
general division of Asia. ^ 151-155 Coun-
tries of the Eantem dimsion. Scythia,
S'mse. India, Persia, Media, Parthia.
% 156-171 Countries of the Western dm-
nmu % 156 Sannatia, Colchis, Albania,

Iberia. ^ 157 Armenia. ^ 158-165 Asia
Minor. ^ 166 Syria. Phoenicia. ^ 167-169
PalsBstina. i 168 b. Topography of Jeru-
salem. ^ 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia
and Assvria. ^ 171 Arabia. ^ 172 Asia-
tic islands. .

in. Of Africa, p. 53-57.
^^ 173-183. Bs ^ 173 Extent and divisions
of Africa. ^ 174-176 Egypt. $ 177 An-
cient ruins and remains of E^ypt. Works
on the subject. ^ 178 Ethiopia. $ 179
Libya. ^ 180 Africa Propria. ^ 181 Nu-
midia. ^ 182 Mauritania. ^ 183 Africa
Interior. Atlantis.

INTBODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHROKO-
L007.

Treltminary Remarks^ p. 59.
^ 184. Importance of the subject. De-
sign of present sketch. Two paru.

I. Of measuring time and adjusting its
divisions^ p. 59-63.

^^ 185-196. »^ 185 The three natural
divisions of time ; day, month, and year.
^ 186, 187 Ancient customs as to be-
ginning and dividing the day. ^ 188 De-
vices for marking and making known the
parts of the day. Dial, Clepsydra. ^ 189,
190 The month. The Grecian system.
^ 191 a, 191 b. Roman method of reckoning
the months, and the days of the month.
The week. Names of the days. ^ 192
The year. The Grecian ; Roman ; Ju-
lian. The Gregorian Calendar. Old and
new style. ^ 193 Cycles. ^ 194 The
lunar cycle. ^ 195 The solar. $ 196 The
cycle of indiction. Julian Period.

II. Of facing the dates of historieal
events and arranging them in order,
p. 63-79.

^^ 197-215. = ^ 197 Topics noticed in
this part. ^ 198-201 Methods ofasceHain-
ing dates. 1. Successive generations ; and
successive reigns of kin^. 2. Celestial
appearances. 3. Coins, mscriptions, ^c.
4. Historical testimony. ^ 202, 203 Epocht
and eras. Era of Olympiads ; of Rome ;
the Christian; the Manometan; of the
French Republic. ^ 204-207 Sysfems and
fables, $ 204 Claims of the Egyptians and
Babylonians. ^ 205 The Hebrew and
the Septuseint chronology. Newton's.
Usher's, f 206, 207 Various plana for
xiii

XIT

OONTBNT8.

charts. The best. $ 206H215 Acttud dates
€f moti jpreminent events. % 208 Common
complaint of students. Remedy. ^ 209
Brief outline of General Chronology. % 210
Systems of artificial memory. ^211 Chro-
nology of ancient states ; eight principal

states of Asia ; references to works on their
history; Assyrian; Jewish; Trojan; hj
dian ; Persian ; Syrian ; Parthian. ^ 212
Of the two principal in Africa ; Egyptian ;
'^ ' • " $ 213 Of Greece. % 214

Cartl
215 O

Rome.

PART II.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.

Introdudion, p. 83-90.
$$ 1-12. B» ^ 1 Circumstances calculated
to giye« fabulous character to early tradi*
tions. ^ 2 Mythology in the Greek, and
in the modern sense of the term. $ 3 Dif-
ferent points of view in contemplating my-
thological fables. $ 4 Changes and addi-
tions m mythological stories. ^ 5 Different
sources of mythological fabrications. ^ 6
Advantages of an acquaintance with my-
tholoffyr. ^ 7 Eastern origin of the Gre-
cian deities. ^ 8 The Roman gods bor-
rowed from the Greeks. ^ 9 The Greek
and Roman system of classifying their gods.
^ 10 The four cUisset under which they
are arranged in this work. $ 11 The no-
lions of deity entertained by the Greeks
and Romans. Abode of the gods. ^12
References to works treating on the subject.

I. Mythological History of the Superior
gods, p. 91-113.

^^ 13-67. = ^ 13 Gods mcluded in this
class. ^ 14-17 Saturn. ^ 18 Janus.
% 19-21 Cybele or Rhea. ^ 22-25 Jupiter.
^26-28 Juno. $ 29-31 Neptune. ^32-34
Pluto. ^ 35-37 Apollo, i 38-40 Diana.
^ 41-43 Minerva. ^ 44-46 Mars. ^47-50
Venus. Cupid. $ 51-54 Vulcan. ^55-56
Mercury. $ 57-60 Bacchus. Silenus.
* 61-64 Ceres. ^ 65-67 Vesta.

II. Mythological History of the Inferior
gods, p. 113-124.

$$ 68-96. =s$ 68 Gods included in this
class. ^69,70Ccb1us. ^ 71, 72 Sol or He-
lius. ^ 73 Luna. $ 74, 75 Aurora. ^ 76 Nox.
^ 77 Iris. ^ 78 iEolus. ^ 79, 80 Pan.
^ 81, 82 Latona. ^ 83 Themis. Astnea.
Kemesis. $ 84 ^sculapius. ^ 85 Plutus.
$ 86 Fortune. ^ 87 Fame. $ 88 Deities

peculiar to the Greeks. ^ 89-95 Deities
peculiar to the Romans. ^ 90 Tiber.
Roma. $ 91. Terminus. Priapus. Ver-
tumnus. Flora. Feronia. Pales. ^ 92
Gods presiding over various conditions or
pursuits of men. Bellona, Juturna, &,c
^ 93 Victoria. ^ 94 Deified Roman em-

g»rors. ^ 95 Virtues and Vices. ^ %
gyptian deities worshiped among the
Romans.

III. Mythical beings, whose history is
intimately connected with that of the gods,
p. 124-132.

^$ 97-1 17. = 5 97 Titans. ^ 98 Giants.
Pygmiea ^ 99 Tritons. ^ 100 Sirens.
^ 101 Nymphs. ^ 102, 103 Muses. ^ 104
Graces. ^ 105 Hours. ^ 106 Fates. ^ 107
Furies. H08 a. Harpies. ^ 108 b. Venii
or Winds. ^ 109 Demons. ^110 Manes.
^111 Lares. ^ 112 Penates. $ 113 Sleep,
Dreams, and Death. ^114 Satyrs and
Fauns. ^ 1 15 Grorgons. ^116 Amazons.
$117 Minotaur, Chimera, and various
other monsters.

IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p.
132-137.

$$ 1 18-133. »$ 118 Three periods of
Grecian story. $119 General cause of the
deification of heroes. $ 120 Two classes
of venerated heroes. $ 121 Inachus, Ox-
gyges, Cecrops, and several others, ho-
nored specially among their own people.
$ 122 Perseus. Atlas. $ 123, 124 Her-
cules. $ 125, 126 Theseus. $ 127. 128
Jason and the Argonauts. $ 129 Castor
and Pollux. $ 130 Heroes of the Theban
war. $ 131 Pelops and his descendants*
$ 132 Heroes of the Trojan war. $ 133
Deified Romaii emperors.

PART III.

GREEK AND BOMAN ANTIQUITIES.

ORECIAN ANTIQUITIES.
Introduetwn, p. 140-145.
W 1-14. = ^ 1 Origin of the name
GriBcia. ^ 2 Countries included under it.
^ 3 Most important Grecian cities. ^ 4 Po
litical changes. ^ 5 First inhabitants. ^ 9
Their early intercourse. ( 7 Early fonns

of government. $ 8 The Spartan system.
^ 9 Athens. ^ 10 Causes of Grecian im-
l>rovement. ^11 Utility of studvof An-
tiquities, and of Grecian m particiuar. ^ 12
Original sources of knowledge on the sub-
ject. $13 References to authors. ^ 14
Defects in the common treatises on Greek
antiquities. Early and later ages distiDCt.

CONTENTS.

L Of a« Emrlier end Uat euUivaUd
Age$, p. 145-160.

$ 15 The period included. Subject di-
vided into four branches.

I. RsuGjous Affairs.
^% 16-32. = ^ 16 First traces of the reli-
gion of the Greeks. ^ 17 Form and mode
of religions instruction. ^ 18 Influence of
the poets. ^ 19 Number and character of
the gods. ^ 20 Temples and sacred places.
% 21 Images and statues. ^ 22 Priests
and Priestesses. ^ 23 Rites; ablutions.
.^24 Prayers. $25 Sacrifices; the ma-
terials; the origin. $ 26 Altars. $ 27
Sacrifices; the ceremonies. $28 Gifts and
ofierings. $ 29 Worship rendered to he-
roes. $ 30 Funeral solemnities. $ 31
Burning of corpse; monuments. $ 32
Oracles and divmation.

n. CiTiL Affairs.
$ 33-41. = $ 33 Early rudeness. $ 34
Power of the kings. $ 35 Their retinue
and ooundliors. $ 36 Couru of justice.
$ 37 Laws and punishment. $ 38 The
Creun laws. $ 39 Successive forms of
fiovemroent at Athens. $ 40 At Sparta.
% 41 Commerce and Navigation.

III. MiLriART Affairs.

H 42-51. »$ 42 Early Greeks warlike.
% 43 Their armies, how composed. $ 44
Weapons; Defensive. $ 45 Offensive.
$ 46 The materials of which made. $ 47
War-galleys. $ 48 Camps. $ 49 Order
of Battle. $ 50 Division of Spoils. Bar-
barous strippins of the slain. Combat of
duels. $ 51 Treaties.

IV. Domestic Affairs.

W 52-63 ==s $ 52 Common food. Daily
meals. $ 53 Social repasts. $ 54 Dress.
% 55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of
the Hair. $ 56 Houses. $ 57 Hospitality.
$58 Employments; agriculture; hunting.
$ 59 Employments of women. $ 60 Amuse-
ments. $ 61 Marriage. $ 62 Education
of chiMren. $ 63 Slaves.

n. Of the Later and more JUmrithing
Aget, p. 160-223.

I. Relioious Affairs.
$$ 64-90. = $ 64 Number of gods in-
creased. $ 65 a. Temples more splendid.
i 65 b. Altars. $ 66 Sacred groves. Asyla.
i 67 Classes of priests. Purification. $ 68
Sacrifices and attendant ceremonies. $ 69
Oaths. Leagues. $ 70 Oracles. Im-
posture at Argos. $ 71 Oracles of Jupi-
ter; at Dodona; in Crete ; African desert.
$ 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi $ 74 Of
Trophonitts; of ^scolapius, and oihers.
$ 75 Arts and methods of divinstion. $ 76,
77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; of
Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva.
$ 78 Games. $ 79 The race. $ 80 Leap-
mg. $ 81 Wrestling. $ 82 The discus.
% 83 Boiing. i 84 Four sacred games.

Olympic. $ 85 Pythian. $ 86 Nemean.
$ 87 Isthmian. $ 68 System of athletics.
$ 89 Theatres, and dramatic representa-
tions. Masks. Chorus. $ 90 Theoric
money at Athens.

II. Civil Affairs.

$$ 91-134. = $91 Athens snd Sparta
distinguished by peculiarities. $ 92 Draco
and Solon at Athens. $ 93 The tribes and
classes at Athens. $ 94 Pisistraius, and
his sons. $ 95 The thirty tyrants. Form
of government after them until death of
Alexander. $ 96 Buildings of Athens.
$ 97 The free citizens of Athens. $ 98
The foreign residents. $ 99 The slaves.
$ 100 Magistrates. $ 101 The Archons.
$ 102 The Eleven ; Orators; Ambassa-
dors; Notaries, &c. $ 103 Athenian re-
venues. $ 104 Oflficers of the revenue and
treasury. Expenditures. $ 105 Amphic-
tyonic council. $ 106 Assemblies of the
people. $107 Athenian senate. $108 Areo-
pagus. $ 109 Athenian courts of justice.
The Ephets. $ 110 The Helisa. $111
The Forty. The DieBletiB. $ 112 Dif-
ferent kinds of actions. $ 1 1 3 Punishments.
$ 1 14 The Ostracism. $ 1 15 Modes of m-
Aiding death. $ 116 Public rewards and
honors. $ 1 17 Attic laws. $ 1 18 Natural
situation of Sparta. $ 119 Spartan tribes.
$120 Treatment of children at Sparta.
$ 121 Spartan slaves. $ 122 The kings of
Sparta. $ 123 The Senate. Ephori. $ 124
Nomophulakes and other magistrates.
$ 125 Assemblies of the people. $ 126 Pub-
lic repasts. $ 127 Judicial affairs. $ 128
Punishments. $ 129 Laws of Sparta.
$ 130 Cretan constitution. $ 131 Cretan
laws; public meals; slaves. $ 132 Con-
stitution of Thebes. $ 133 Constitutions
of Corinth and Syracuse. $ 134 Of Argos,
of .£tolia, and Achaia.

III. Military Affairs.

$ 135-160. =a $ 135 The warlike character
ret ained ; especially by t he Spartans. $ 136
Persons liable to military duty. Their
support. $ 137 Classes of troops. The
infantry. $138 Cavalry. Use of Elephants.
$ 139 Armor. $ 140 Various officers.
$ 141 The divisions of the army. $ 142
Forms of Battle-array. Manoeuvres. $143
Declaration of war. Treaties. $ 144
Camps. $ 145 Standards and ensi^s.
Signals for battle. $ 146 Art of besieging.
$ 147 Militaryengines. $ 148 Defence of
cities. $ 149 Treatment of captured places.
$ 150 Division of spoils. $ 151 Military
rewards and punishments. $ 152 Means
of conveying intelligence. $ 153 Crossing
of rivers. $ 154, 155 Ships; Names of
their principal parts ; Vessels of war. $ 156
Rowers, sailors and marines ; Manner of
placing the seats of rowers. $ 157 Instru-
ments employed in naval battle. $ 158
Naval officers. $ 159 Manner of naval
battle. $ 160 Naval victories and monu-
ments. NavAl punishments.

xn

COHTBMTS*

IV. Afpaiks or Pmtatb Litb.
$$ 161-187. = $ 161 Food. Use of wines.
§ 162 The different meals. Manner of
spending the day at Athens. ^163 Enter-
tainments or feasts. ^ 164 Customs at
table. ^165 Substances eaten at the prin-
cipal meal. $ 166 Officers and attendants
at an entertainment ^ 167 Drinking ves-
sels. Customs in drinking. Amusements
accompanying a feast. ^ 168 Customs of
hospitality. Officers called ProzenL Inns.
^ 169 Dress, for the body, bead, and feet.
Use of silk. Adorning oi the person. $170
Batbine and anointing. ^ ITl Houses.
^ 172 Commerce and Agriculture. ^ 173,
174 Grecian money and coins. Ratio of
Gold and silver, i 175 Greek system of
notation. ^ 176 Grecian weights. $ 177
Measures. $ 178 Social amusements.
^ 179, 180 Music and musical instruments.
i 181 Condition of females. $ 182 Laws
and customs respecting marriage. $$ 183
-186 Funeral rites. Anniversaries held in
honor of the dead, with orations and games.
$ 187 Sepulchral monuments.

BOMAir ARTIQUTnSfl.

IntroductioHt p. 225-229.
^^ 188-198. »$ 188 Oriffin of Rome.
^ 189 Principal events^ whitm affected the
appearance of the dty. Comparative
splendor of ancient ami modern Rome.
^ 190 Population of Rome. ^ 191 Extent
of the Roman empire. ^ 192 Proportion
of soldiers and other citizens. $ 193 The
time of the regal government. ^ 194 Most
brilliant era otRoman history. ^195 Con-
dition under the emperors. $196 Utility
of studying Roman antiquities. Original
sources of mformation on the subject. $ 1 97
References to modem works and authors.
$ 198 Division of the subject.

I. Religious Affairs, p. 229-248.

^^ 199-239. *= ^ 199 Use of the term re-
gpo. ^ 200 Orifin of the religion of the
Iu>mans. $ 201 Its connection with poli-
tics. $ 202 Design of Romulus and Numa.
Gods of the Romans. ^ 203 Temples.
$ 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. $205
Altars. ^ 206 Vessels employed in sacri-
fices. ^207 Several orders of priests. ^208
Pontifices. % 209 Augurs. Various me-
thods of augury. $ 210 Haruspices. $211
Epulones. $ 212 Feciales. $ 213 Rex
sacrorum. $ 214 Flamines. $ 215 Salii.
^216 Luperci. $ 217 Galli and others.
$ 218 Vestal virgins. $ 219 Fratres Arva-
les, Curiones, and others. $ 220 Customs
in offering prayers. $ 221 Sacrifices and
attendant rites. $ 222 Vows. $ 223 De-
dication of sacred buildings. $ 224 Expia-
tions. The lustrum. $225 Oaths. $226
Oracles. $ 227 Lots. $ 228 Divisions of
time. $ 229, 230 Festivals. $ 231 Public
games. $ 232, 2:1^ Ludi Circensos. Nau-
macbia. $ 234 Ludi Seculares. $ 235
Ludi Gladiatorii. $ 236 Ludi Florales.
$ 237 Ludi MegaienseSi Cereiles» and^

others. $ 238 Theatres, Moka, &,•
$ 239 Amphitheatres.

II. Civil Affaihs, p. 246-270.
$$ 240-274. ea $ 240 Regnal government.
$ 24 1 Consuls. $ 242 Imperial government.
$243Pr8Btor8. $244£diles. $245Tri.
bunes. $ 246 Qusestors. $ 247 Censors.
$ 248, 249 Extraordinary magistrates;
Dictator; Decemviri; Mihtary Tribunes ;
Pnefecu. Interrex, &c. $ 250 Procon-
suls, and other provincial magistrates. $ 251
Tribes. $252 Six classes of citizens. Cen-
turies. $ 253 Patricians and plebeians.
$ 254 The populace. Patrons and clients.
$ 255 Roman nobility. Right of images.
Curule office. $ 256 The Equites or
Knights. $ 257 The Senate. $ 258, 259
The Cpmitia. $ 260 Right of citizenship.
Government of conquered cities and na-
tions. $ 261 Judicial proceedings. Public
actions and trials. $ 262 Private actions.
$ 263 Penal offences. $ 264 Punishments.
$ 265 System of laws. Body of Roman
civil law. $ 266 Regulations respecting
min. $267 Revenue. Saltworks. Mines.
$ 268 Various Pursuits. Commerce. Me-
chanic arts. $ 269 Agriculture. Carriages.
$ 270 Money. Coins. ^ 271 System of
reckoning and notation. $ 272 Modes of
acquiring property. $ 273 Auctions. Con-
fiscations. $ 274 Measures of extent, &c.
Modes of determining the Roman /oof.

III. Affairs of Wab, p. 270-285.

$$ 275-309. «= $ 275 Anthoriiies on the
subject. $ 276 Military establishment of
the kings. $ 277 Persons liable to duty.
Time of service. $ 278 Consular army.
Exempts. $ 279 System of levy. $ 280
Classes of troops. $ 281 Subdivision into
maniples, dec. $ 282 Standards. Music.
$ 283 Weapons. $ 284 Wages. Rewards.
$ 285 Punishments. $ 286 Order of battle.
$ 287 Modes of attack. $ 288 Light troops.
$ 289, 290 Cavalry. $ 291 Cohorts. $293
Auxiliaries. $ 293 Attendants upon the
army. $294 Order of march. $295 Forms
of array. $ 296, 297 The Camp. $ 298
Watches. Exercises of soldiers. $ 299-
Sieges. Engines. Mounds and towers.
Battering ram and other engines. $ 300
Modes of defence in a siege. $ 301 The
fleets. $ 302 Method of naval battle. $303
Construction and parts of Roman ships.
$ 304 Different kinds of vessels. $ 305
Rewards of generals. $ 306 Laws on the
subject. $ 307 The triumph. $ 308 The
ovation. $ 309 Military system under the
emperors.

IV. Affaxbs of Privatb Life, p. 285-304.
$$ 310-343. cs$ 310 The free-ham and
tbe/ree-maJe discriminated. $ 31 1 System
of applying proper names. $ 312 Regula-
tions respecting marriage. $ 313, 314
Marriage contracts. $ 315 Nnptial cere-
monies. $ 316 Divorces. $317 The right
and power of the father over his children.
$ 318 Emancipation of sons. $ 31 9 Adop*

CONTENTS.

xvu

tkm. % 320 LegitiinatioD. ^ 321 Educa-
tion of youth. ^322 Slaves. ^ 323 Slave
trade. ^ 324 Emancipation of slaves.
% 325 Dwellings. Parts and ornaments of
a Roman house. ^ 326 Country seats or
villas. ^ 327 Manner of life. Morals.
% 328 Daily routine of employment. Bath-
'mg. $ 329 Food and meals. Furniture
for eating. ^ 330 Different courses at
supper. Roman hospitality. ^ 331 a.
Drinking and games at banquets. Dice.
^ 331 6. Winea. ^ 332 Dress. The toga.

$ 333 The tunic. Badges. ^ 334 The
stola and other garments of women.
$ 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk.
i 336 Coverings for the head and feet.
$ 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personal
ornaments. ^ 339 Funeral customs. Ex-
posure of the corpse. ^ 340 Funeral pro-
cessions. Eulogy. $341 Burning. Place
of burial. Tombs. Phials of tears. ^ 342
Mourning for the deceased. Games and
sacrifices. ^ 343 Consecration, or deifica-
tion of deceased emperors.

PART IV.

ARCILS:OLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART.

Introduction, p. 307-321.

W 1-32. = ^ 1 The original capacity
and knowledge of men. f 2 Develope-
ment of the same. ^ 3 Aided by language.
% 4 Origin of arts and sciences. ^ 5 First
character of the same. ^ 6 Attainments
made before the Deluge. ^ 7 Etfects of
the dispersion of the human family, by the
confusion of tongues at Babel. ^ 8 Earliest
employments; food. $9 Ef!ect of climate
ana other causes ; influence of agriculture
on arts. ^ 10 Rise of architecture and
use of metals. Tools of stone. ^ 11 Imi-
tative arts. ^ 12 Origin of Language.
^ 13 Origin of Writing. ^ 14 Previous
methods of communicating thought. ^ 15
Picture-writing; by Mexicans; N. Am.
Indians. ^16 Hieroglyphics. ^ 17 Ab-
breviated pictures. ^ 18 Syllable -writing.
Chinese; Cherokee; Persian, &c. ^19
Alphabetic writing. ^ 20 Materials and
nnplements. ^ 21 Contents of earliest
writings ; writings of Mosea and Job the
Tiost ancient; claims of the oriental re-
cords. ^ 22 llie earliest sciences. ^ 23
Origin of Medicine. ^ 24 Of Arithmetic.
^ 25 Of Astronomy. ^ 26 Of Geometry,
i 27 Of Geography. ^ 28 Egypt and Asia
the cradle of the sciences. ^29 High cul-
ture of the Greeks and Romans. Import-
ance of classical studies. ^ 30 Object of
the present treatise. $ 31 Utility of the
same. ^ 32 References to works illustrat-
ing the subjects included.

aschjBoloot or oreek literature.

1. Of the origin and Jirsl steps of Grc
dan culture, p. 323-328.

W 33-44- = ^ 33 First population of
Greece. The Pelasgi. % 34 Early state
of society. Colonies from the east. ^35
Origin of Greek language. Various theo-
ries on the subject. % 36 Language of
Noah ; nature of the Confusion of tongues.
Languages of western Asia. Semitic and
Sanscrit families. ^ 37 Japheth and de-
scendants. ^ 38 The probable foundation
of the Greek. ^ 39 Causes of the great
perfection of the Greek. % 40 First im-
piUae to Grecian civilization. ^ 41 In-
(3)

fluence of eastern nations on the religion
of the early Greeks. ^ 42 On their arts.
% 43 Influence of the Greek bards. % 44
Of the Greek games.

II. Of the Alphabet, Method of Writing,
and Books, p. 328-334.

^^ 45-60. = ^ 45 Letters introduced by
Cadmus. Resemblance of Grecian and
Phoenician alphabets. ^ 46 Number of
letters in the alphabet of Cadmus. ^ 47
Changes in form of Greek letters. M8
Direction of letters and lines in writing.
$ 49 Uncial and Cursive characters. Ab-
breviations. ^ 50 Breathings. ^ 51 Ac-
cents. ^ 52 Punctuation. ^ 53 Materials
used in Greece for writing. ^ 54 Instru-
ments. ^ 55 Material used for ink. ^ 56,
57 Form of books. ^ 58 Copyists. ^ 59
Infrequent use of writing in early times.
Whether Homer committed his poems to
writing. ^ 60 Instruction given orally.

III. Of the most flourishing period of
Greek Literature, p. 334-340.

^^ 61-77. = $ 61 Circumstances favor-
able to progress in letters. Different cha-
racters of oifferent Hellenic tribes. Actual
studies and attainments. ^ 62 Design of
the author under the present head of the
subject. ^ 63, 64 The Grecian system of
education ; Gymnasia ; Music. ^ 65, 66
The Musical and Dramatical contests.
^ 67 Rehearsals public and private. ^ 68
Professed Readers. $ 69 The Symposia
or literary feasts. % 70 No learned pro-
fessions among the Greeks. % 71 Gram-
mar as a part of education. ^ 72 Philo-
sophy ; Esoteric and Exoteric. ^ 73 Me-
thods of teaching; Socratic ^ 74 The
ereat public schools ; Academy, Lyceum,
Porch, Cynosarges, Garden. $.75 Regu-
lations and discipline of the Gymnasia and
schools. % 76 Greek libraries, % Tl Trar
vels of learned men.

IV. Of the decline of Greek Literature,
p. 340-343.

^^ 78-85. =$ 78 Causes of its decline.
^ 79 Greek language siill extensively used,
i 80 Greek letters cultivated at some
places; Rhodes, Pergamus, Alexan-

xTin

CONTENTS.

dria, i&c. ^ 81 Greek letters patronized
by some of the Emperors. $ 82 Schools
of Athens suppressed. ^ 83 Opposition
between Christianity and pagan literature ;
influence of Christianity. ^ 84 Loss of
Classical manuscripts, in various ways.
^ 85 Political condition of the Greeks after
the Christian era.

V. Of the Remains and Monuments of
Grecian Literature, p. 339-357.

^^ 86-108. =^ 86 Division of these into
three classes. — I. Inscriptions. ^87
References to works on Greek inscriptions.
^ 88 General design and character of in-
ecriptions. ^ 89 Qualifications requisite
for interpreting inscriptions. \ 90 Notice
of some of the most important inscriptions
of a date prior to Alexander. ^ 91 Of those
of a date between Alexander and the
Christian Era. ^ 92 Of a period subsc-
quent to the Christian Era. — 11. Coins.
^ 93 Utility of an acquaintance with coins.
^ 94 Uncoined metal first used. ^ 95 Ear-
liest Greek coins. Chronological classifi-
cation of Greek coins. ^ 96 The coins in
most common use among the Greeks.
Number of ancient coins preserved. ^ 97,
98 Forms of letters on Greek coins. ^ 99
References to works on Numismatics. —
III. Manuscripts. MOO Utility of
them. ^ 101 Their antiquity. How made
and preserved. Palimpsesii. ^ 102, 103,
104 Marks by which the age of a MS. is
known ; or criteria of Palffiography. ^ 105,
106 Importance and advantages of collating
manuscripts. ^ 107 Notice of some of the
oldest and most curious manuscripts ex-
tant ; Greek Scriptures ; Herculanean
Rolls; Egyptian Papyri ; Hebrew Penta-
teuch. ^ 108 Libraries containing Greek
manuscripts.

ARCnJEOLOOT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

I. Of the sources of Soman culture,
p. 359-362.

^^ 109-114. = ^ 109 Origin of the Ro-
mans. Two different theories respecting
the inhabitants of Italy. Early tribes.
Uncertainly of the early history of Rome.
^110 Origin of Latin written characters.
^111 Intercourse of the Romans with the
Greeks. ^ 112, 113 State of culture be-
fore the Punic wars. ^114 Origin and
progress of the Latin Language. Monu-
ments of its early character.

II. Of the Alphabet, Writing, and Books,
p. 362-365.

^^ 115-118. = ^ 115 Number of original
letters. ^116 The early and later ortho-
graphy. ^ 117 Forms of letters. Abbre-
viations ; NotoB Tironiana, ^118 Form
of books. Materials and instruments for
writing. Iiist of names and terms used in
relation to writing, &c.

III. Of the most flourishing period of
Roman Literature, p. 365-368.

^^ 119-127.=^ 119 Influence of the
Greek colonies in Magna Grsecia. ^ 120
Introduction of the Greek philosophy.
^ 121 Most brilliant age in Roman letters.
Causes. ^ 122 Branches cultivated. ^ 123
Change in the system of education. ^ 124
Instructions of the Grammarians and Rhe-
toricians. ^ 125 Public schools. Athe-
neum. Literary exercises specially prac-
ticed by the youth in the course of educa-
tion, Slc. ^ 126 Libraries at Rome. ^ 127
Custom of finishing study abroad. Places
visited for the purpose.

IV. Of the decline of Roman Literature,
p. 368-370.

^ 128 Causes of the decline. Com-
mencement of it. Exertions and influence
of some of the Emperors. Eflfect of inter-
course with provincials ; of the removal of
the seat of government to Constantinople.
Schools of learning in the empire ; Byzan-
tium, Berytus, MassiUa, Augustodunum.

V. Remains and Monuments of Roman
Literature, p. 370-377.

U 129-143. = ^ 129, 130 Roman In-
script ions; References to works on
the subject, i 131 Abbreviations and ini-
tial letters on Roman coins. ^ 132 Pecu-
liar advantages of study of Roman inscrip-
tions. $ 133 Notice of some of the most
important inscriptions that are preserved.
^ 134 Roman Coins; when first struck.
Connection between poetry and medals.
^ 135 Division into Consular and Imperial,
i 136 Legend on coins. Peculiar forms of
writing on early coins. ^ 137 False coins.
^ 138 References to works on Roman coins.
^ 139 The most valuable collections of an-
cient coins. Symbols on coins and medals.
^ 140 Roman Manuscripts; few exist-
ing of a very early date. ^141 Successive
changes in the manner of writing. $ 142
Zealous search for manuscripts on the
revival of letters. Petrarch, Poggio, and
others interested in it. Depositories of La-
tin manuscripts. ^ 143 Some of the most
ancient Latin manuscripts known.

ARCHiEOLOOY OF ART.
Preliminary Remarks, p. 379-381.

%% 144-153. = % 144 Meanings of the
word Art, ^ 145 Divisions of the arts into
the Mechanical and the Fine. % 146 The
plastic arts. % 147 Objects represented by
them. Allegorical images. ^ 148, 149
Requisites in the artist, connoisseur, and
amateur, severally. ^ 150 Uiilitv of some
knowledge of the history of art. % 151 Aii-
tiques and the study of them. % 152 Ori-
ginal design of the monuments of ancient
art. Science of ^Esthetics; references on
the same. ^ 153 Object of the present
treatise. Four branches of art particularly
included.

CONTENTS.

SIX

I. Srulplurer p. 381-398.
^^ 154-191. = $ 154 Comprehensive
m*,aning of the term. ^ 155, 156 Origin
of Sculpture. C haracier of the first speci-
mens. Image of Cybele. ^ 157 The ma-
terials used. $158 First soft ; clay, &c.
\ 159 Various kinds of wood. $ 160 Ivory,
i 161 Marble and sione of different kinds.
i 162 Bronze. ^ 163 Classes of Statues;
costume; attitudes. ^ 164 Busts. The
kind of figure called Hermes. ^ 165, 166
Bas-reliefs. ^ 167 Mosaic. $ 168 In-
scriptions on statues. ^ 169, 170 Egyptian
Bculpture. ^ 171 Sculpture among the
Asiatics. ^ 172, 173 Character and remains
of Etruscan Sculpture. ^ 174 Rise of
sculpture in Greece; circumstances favor-
able to its advancement. Daedalus. ^ 175
The four periods of Grecian sculpture.
% 176 Its character in the first period. ^ 177
Different schools. ^ 178 Frequent demand
for statues in Greece. ^ 179 Grecian
sculpture in the second period. Works of
Phidias. ^ ISO In the third period. Sco-
pus. Praxiteles. Lyeippus, ^ 181 In the
fooiih period. ^ 182-1 84 Sculpture among
the Romans. ^ 185 The most celelirated
remains of ancient sculpture. ^ 186 Of
Statues. ^ 187 Of Busts. ^ 188 Of Bas-
relief. ^ 189 Of Mosaic. ^ 190 The most
famous collections of such remains. ^ 191
References to works on this subject.

11. Lythoglyphy or Gem- Engraving,
p. 398-409.

%% 192-21 3. =$ 192 Explanation of the
term. % 193 Gems early known. ^ 194
Respecting the nature and classification of
gems. % 195 Notice of some of the prin-
cipal gems employed in this art. Murra.
Alabaster. Pearls. % 196 Manner of
forming the figures on Gems; intaglios;
enmeos. ^ 197, 198 Various objects repre-
sented. ^ 199 Origin and earliest instances
of the art. ^ 200, 201 Gem -engraving of
the Egyptians. ScaralxBt ; Abraxas. ^ 202
This art among other nations, especially
the Etrurians. ^ 203, 204 Among the
Greeks. ^ 205 Among the Romans. $206
Uses made of sculptured gems. $ 207
Mechanical operations in engraving. $ 208
Fictitious gems. $ 209 Advantages of
some knowledge of ancient gems. $ 210
Thia study £Kalitated by the use of paste

imitations. The impressions of Lippert ;
of Wedgewood ; of Tassie. $211 Some
of the most remarkable ancient gemd.
$ 212 The most celebrated collections.
$213 References to works illustrating the
subject.

III. Painting, p. 409-416.

$$ 214-226. = $ 214 Explanation of this
art. $ 215 Date of its origin. $ 216 Its
early existence in Chaldaea and Egypt.
$ 217 Earliest pictures among the Greeks.
$ 218 The colors employed by Greek
painters. $ 219 Methods of painting. In-
struments for painting. Fresco painting.
$ 220 Encaustic painting. Painting on
Glass. Mosaic. $ 221 Merit of ancient
painting. Perspective. $ 222 Schools in
painting among the Greeks. Celebrated
masters. Four periods. — Comparative
number of paintings and statues. Portraits.
$ 223 Etruscan paintings. $ 224, 225
Painting at Rome. $ 226 Monuments of
ancient painting. References to works on
the subject.

IV. Architecture, p. 416-431.

$$ 227-244.=$ 227 Both a mechanic
and a fine art. Its origin. $ 228 Leading
principles, or causes affecting its character.
$ 229 Materials in early times. Tools and
instruments. Influence of materials on
the style. $ 230 The grand branches
of Architecture, Civil, lililitary. Naval.
$ 231 Escyptian Architecture. Tultecan,
in America. Cyclopean. $ 232 Archi-
tecture as exhibited in Homer. $ 233 Most
flourishing period of this art in Greece.
$234 Description of ancient temples. $ 235
Of Theatres and Odea. $ 236 Of Gym-
nasia. The Stadium. $ 237 Of Porticos.
$ 238 Of pillars and columns; and the
several orders of Architecture. $ 239 Or-
naments of ancient Architecture. Cartfa-
tides, Atlanfides, &c. $ 240 Most cele-
brated Greek architects. $ 241 Tuscan
and Roman Architecture. Antefixa.
$ 241a. Merits of the Romans in Archi-
tecture. $ 241 b. Description of ancient
Baths. $ 242 Remains of ancient Achi-
tecture. $ 243 Works illustrating the sub-
ject. $ 244 Notice of a style of Archi-
tecture, more modem ; the Romanesque.
$ 245 Other styles ; the Saracenic, Chi-
nese, Gothic.

PART V.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE, GREEK AND ROMAN.

OREEK L1TSRAT17RE.
Introduction, p. 435-447.
$^ 1-10. = $ 1 Circumstances favorable
to literature amoni^ the Greeks. $ 2 Ex-
cellence of Greek classics ; importance
of acquaintance with them. $ 3 Beauty
and perfection of the Greek language. $ 4
Its ialecln, $ 5 Pronunciation of Greek.

$ 6 Principles and methods in studying.
Analytical and Synthetical methods. In-
terlinear translations. Grannmatical and
logical analysis. Other exercises. Use of
Reading- books. $ 6 6. Svstem in the Lon-
don University. $ 6 c. Hints of a method
of logical Analysis. $ 7 List of various
helps in the study of Greek. $ 8 Plan to
be pursued in the present view of Greek

CONTENTS.

literature. ^ 9 Six periods in Grecian po-
litical history, very conveniently applied
to the history of literature. ^ 10 The se-
veral depnrtments or classes of writers to
be noticed.

I. Poets, p. 448-482.
W 11-81. = $ 11 Subjects of earliest
Greek poetry. ^ 12 Poetry first cultivated
in the northern provinces of Greece. § 13
Poetry origitialiy connected with music
ainong the Greeks. References on the
origin and progress of Greek poetry. ^ 14
Kinds or varieties of Grecian poetry. ^ 15
:Sacred, ^ 16 The Sibyls. ^ 17-20 Epic.
•J 21 The Cyclic poets. The Homerid®.
Iliac Table. $ 22-26 Lyric poetry. ^ 27
The Scolion. $ 28, 29 EUpiac. ^ 30
Bucolic or Pastoral ^ 31, 32 Didactic.
^ 33 Erotic. $ 34 The Epigram. ^ 35
Anthologies. ^ 36 Dramatic poetry.
^ 37-40 Tragedy. § 41-43 Comedy. ^ 44
Satyre. ^ 45 Different forms of Sa-
tyre. ^ 46 Farces and Mimes. ^ il Pomp
and expense of representation. Instructing
of the actors. $ 47 1. References to works
treating of the Greek poets generally. ^ 48
Orpheus. ^ 49 Musobus. ^ 50 Homer.
^ 51 Hesiod. ^ 52 Archilochus. $ 53
Tyrtaeus. ^ 54 Sappho. $ 55 Solon.
^ 56 Theognis. ^ 57 Phocylides. $ 58
Pythagoras. $59Anacreon. $60 Pindar.
$ 61 ^.schylus. $ 62 Sophocles. $ 63
Euripides. $ 64 Empcdocles. $ 65 Aris-
tophanes. $ 66 Menander. $ 67 Lyco-
Dhron. $ 68 Theocritus. $ €9 Bion ;
Moschus. $ 70 Callimachus. $ 71 Ara-
tns. $ 72 Cleanthes. $ 73 Apollonius
Rhodius. $ 74 Nicander. $ 75 Oppian.
^ 76 Nonnus. $ 77 Coluthus. $ 78 Quin-
tus SmyrntBus or Calaber. % 79 Trypliio-
dorua. $ 80 Theodorua Prodromus. $ 81
TzetzcB.

II. Orators, p. 482-489.
$$ 82-107. = $ 82 Oraiorv as an art not
known in the heroic ages. $ 83 Eloquence
much practiced after time of Solon. $ 84
History of Grecian eloquence short. $ 85
Chiefly confined to Athens. $ 86 Three
aspects in three different eras. $ 87, 88
Era of Themistocles. $ 89-91 Era of
Pericles. $ 92-94 Era of Demosthenes.
% 95-97 Subsequent decline. School of
Rhodes. $ 98 Three branches of ancient
oratory. $ 99 References to works illus-
trating the Greek orators collectively.
$ 100 Antiphon. $ 101 Andocides. $ 102
Lysias. $ 103 Isocrates. $ 104 Isaeus.
% 105 Lycurgus. $ 106 Demosthenes.
$ 107 .ffischines. Hyperides. Dinarchus.

III. Sophists and Rhetoricians, p. 490-496.

$$ 108-128. = $ 108 Description of the
Sophists. $ 109 Their performances.
y 110 Names of some of the more eminent
m different periods. $ 111 Distinction be-
tween Sophists and Rhetoricians. $ 112
Rhetoricians in different periods. $ 113
General references. $ 114 Gorgiaa. $ 115 !

Aristotle. $ 116 Demetrius Phalerens
$ 117 Dionysius Halicarnasscus. $ 118
Dion Chrysostomus. $ 119 Herodes At
licus. $ 120 iElius Aristides. $ 121 Lu-
cian. $ 122 Hermogenes. $ 123 Athe-
naeus. $ 124 Longinus. $ 125 Themisiius.
$ 126 Himerius. $ 127 Julian the Apostate.
$ 128 Libanius.

IV. Grammarians, p. 496-500.

$$ 129-147. =$ 129 Time when writers
of this class first flourished ; place. $ 130
Their various performances. $ 131 Some
of the roost distinguished before the time
of Constantine. $ 132 Grammarians at
Constantinople. $ 133 General references.
% 134 Hephmsiion, $ 135 Apollonius Dys-
colus. $ 136 iElius Herodianus. $ 137
Julius Pollux. $ 138 jElius. Moeris.
% 139 Harpocration. % 140 Hesychius.
% 141 Ammonius. $ 142 Photius. % 143
Suidas. $ 144 The Eiymologium Mngnum.
$ 145 EustBihius. $ 146 Gregorits Pardus,
or Corinthius. $ 147 Thomas Magister.

V. Writers of Epistles and Romances,
p. 500-504.

141-165.=$ 148 Extant letters as-
cribed to ancients, in part spurious. % 149
Romances unknown in best periods of
Greek literature ; reason. $ 150 Erotic
and Milesian tales. Imaginary voyages.
$ 151 Some of the authors of Romances.
$ 152 References on the writers of this di-
vision. $ 153 Anacharsis. $ 154 Phalaria.
$ 155 Themistocles. $ 156 Socrates.
$ 157 Chion. $ 158 AristSBnctus. $ 159
Alciphron. $ 160 Heiiodorus. $ 161
Achilles Tatius. $ 162 Longus. $ 163
Xenophon of EphesuB. $ 164 Chariton.
$ 165 Euraathius.

VI. Philosophers, p. 504-517.
$$ 166-201 . = $ 166 The poets of Greece
her first philosophers. $ 167 The next,
her priests and legislators. Subjects of
speculation in the early religious philoso-
phy. Political philosophy. Seven Sages.
$ 168 Origin of schools in philosophy. The
earliest of celebrity. $ 169 The Ionic.
$ 170 The Italic. $ 171 The Socraiic.
$ 172 Sects derived from the Socratic.
Three Minor. Cyrenaic. Megaric. Eliac.
$ 173 Four Major, Cynic. $ 174 Stoic.
$ 175 Academic. $ 176 Peripatetic.
$ 177 Sects derived from the Italic. Elca-
tic. Heraclitean. $ 178 Epicurean. $ 179
Skentic. $ 180 Periods of Greek literature
jn which the several sects arose. Grecian
philosophy after the Roman supremacy.
$ 181 The New Platonists. Eclectics.
$ 182 Christian philosophy. Peripatetic
philosophy after time of Constantine. Its
propagation in western Europe. $ 183
References to sources of information on
the Greek philosophy. $ 184 jEsop. $185
Ocellus Lucanus. $ 186 Xenophon the
Athenean. $ 187 -^schines, the philoso-
pher. $ 188 Cebes. $ 189 Plato, $ 190
Timaeufl of Locri. $ 191 Aristotle. $ 192

CONTENTS.

ZZl

Theophnstus. $193 Epictetus. ^ 194
Arrian. 9 195 Plutarch. ^ 196 Marcus
Antooiniu. $197 Sextos Empiricus. $198
PlotiDus. $ 199 Porphyry. ^ 200 Jamb-
tichus. $200b. ProcluB. Olympiodorus.
$ 201 Stobaeus.

VTI. Maihewiatidafu and Geograpkert,
p. 517-523.

$$ 202-^1. = $ 202 Mathematics re-
doced to scientific form by Greeks, but de-
rived from other nations. $ 203 The foun-
dation for philosophy. Views of Plato.
$ 204, 205 State of Greek mathematics in
different periods. $ 206, 207 Degree of
knowledge among the Greeks respecting
Geography. $ 208 Treatises on Tactics.
$ 206 £. General references. $ 2p9 Euclid.
$ 210 Archimedes. $ 21 1 Apollonius Per-
neos. $212 Pappus. $213 Diophantus.
$ 214 Hanno. $ 215 Eratosthenes. $ 216
Strabo. $ 217 Dionysius Periegetes. $218
Claudius Ptolemy. $ 219 Pausanias.
$ 220 V. Stephanus of Byzantium. $220
Cosmas Indico-pleustes. $ 221 Onesan-
der. Polyaenus.

VIII. Mythographert, p. 523-525.
$$ 221 tf-231. a=3 $ 221 tt. Principal sour-
ces whence the traditionary fiibles of the
Greeks may be learned. $ 222 Palepha-
tuB. Euhemerus. $ 223 Heraclitus. $224
ApoUodoros. $225Conon. $226 Par-
thenius. $227 Phumutus or Comutus.
$ 228 Hephfestion. $ 229 Antoninus Li-
beralis. i 230 Sallustius, the Platonist.

IX. HittorianM, p. 525-536.
$$ 231-260. =a$ 231 Earliest history in
a poetical form . Earliest writ ers of history
in prose. $ 232 The compositions styled
logographies. $ 233 The distinguished
historians in the brilliant period of Greek
literature. $ 234 Writers on Attic history.
$ 235, 236 Chief historians between Alex-
ander and the Roman supremacy. $ 237,
238 Principal writers during the next pe-
riod nmil time of Constantino. $ 239 a.
Historical authors after time of Constan-
troe. The Byzantine Historians. $ 239 b.
Grecian biography. $ 240 General refer-
ences. $241 Herodotus. $242 Thucy-
dides. $ 243 Xenophon. $ 244 Ctesias.
$ 245 Polybius. $ 246 Diodorus Siculus.
$ 247 Dionysius Halicamasseus. $ 248
FknoB Josephus. $ 249 Plutarch. $ 250
Arrian. $ 251 Appian. $ 252 Dion Cas-
sias. $ 253 ^lian. $ 254 Herodian.
$ 255 a. Dioeenes Laertius. $ 255 b. Phi-
tostratos. $255c. Eunapius. $ 256 Zo-
simns. $ 257 Procopius. $ 258 Agathias.
$259 Zonaras. $ 260 Dares Phrygius.
Dictys Cretenais.

X. Wrilera an Medicine and Natural
HisUty, p. 536-541.

$$ 261-^77. = $ 261 Greeks less emi-
nent in these sciences. .Ssculapius and
his descendants. Hippocrates the first
amhor. $ 262 The Dogmatic school.

$ 263 Dissections. Empiric school. Me-
dicine first practised at Rome by Greek
slaves. $ 264 The Methodic school. The
Eclectic school. Character and influence
o( Galen. $ 265 State of medicine after
time of Constantine. $ 265 b. Branches or
divisions of the science. $ 266 Physics in-
cluded under studies of the philosophers.
$ 267 Aristotle founder of Zoology : Theo-
phrastns, of Mineralogy and Botany. Ca-
binets of the Ptolemies at Alexandria.
Chief writers before the time of Constan-
tine. $ 268 State of natural science under
the emperors of Constantinople. $ 269
Collections of Greek writers on medicine
and physics. $ 270 Hippocrates. $ 271
Dioscorides. $ 272 Aretaeus. $ 273 Ga-
len. $ 274 Aristotle. $ 275 Theo-
pbrastus. $ 276 Antigonus of Carystus.
$ 277 .£lian. Apollonius. Dyscolus.

Notice of the Hebrew. Grecun and

Chbjstian wrilingSj p. 541-547.

$$ 278-293. « $ 278 The Septuagint.
$ 279 The A pocrypha. $ 280 Works from
Christian authors. $ 281, 282 Books of
the New Testament. Their moral author-
ity. Their literary influence. $ 283
Works of the Apostolical Fathers. $ 284
Spurious or Apocryphal writings. $ 285
Opinions of early Christians respecting
human learning. Christian seminaries.
P hilosophy adopted by the Fathers. $ 286
Biblical writings. Versions of Bible ;
Origen's Hexapla. Harmonies. Com-
mentaries. $ 287 Controversial writings.
Irensus, Justin Martyr, Tatian, Athena-
goras. $ 288 Historical writings. Euse-
bius. $ 289 Doctrinal. Origen. Atha-
nasius. $ 290 Homiletical. Character of
the ancient homily. Few remains of early
sacred oratory. $ 291 Homilies of Orif^n.
$ 292 Distinguished Christian orators just
after the time of Constantine. Basil, Gre-
gory, and Chrysostom. $ 293 References
to works giving information respecting the
Fathers.

ROMAN LITERATURE.

Introduction, p. 549-554.

$$294-302. = $294 Rank of the Ro-
mans in literature. $ 295 Utility of stu-
dying their language. $ 296 The four
ages commonlv assigned to it. Works on
its origin and nistory. $ 297 Pronuncia-
tion ofLatin. $ 298 Methods and exer-
cises in studying. $ 299 Various works
useful as helps. $ 300 Plan followed in
this treatise. $ 301 Five periods of the
history of Roman literature. $ 302 C lasses
of autnors.

I. Poetw, p. 554-586.

$$303-389. = $303 Earliest poetry uf
the Romans. $ 304 H]rmns of the Fratres
Arvales and Salic Priests. ^ Fescennine
verses. $ 305 Tuscan Histriones. Atel-
lane Fables. $ 306 Early national ballada.

xxu

CONTENTfl.

^ 307, 308 Introduction of regular dramatic
forms. ^ 309-312 Tragedy. ^ 313-317
Comedy. ^ 318 Atellane Fable*. ^ 319
Mimex. ^319b. Paniomime. ^320Ori.
gin of modern dramatic exhibitions. Plays
at fairs. Holy farces. Mysteries and Mo-
ralities. ^ 321-325 Epic Poetry. ^ 326-
329 Lyric. ^ 330, 331 Bucolic. $332,
333 Elegiac. ^ 334-336 Didactic. ^ 337
The Table. ^ 338-341 The Epieram.
^ 342 Anthologies. ^ 343-347 Satire,
i 348 General references. Collections of
Roman Poets. ^ 349 Livius Andronicus.
^ 350 Naevius. ^ 351 Ennius. ^ 352
Plautus. ^ 353 Pacuvius. ^ 354 Accius
or Atiius. ^ 355 Terence. ^ 356 Luci-
liua. ^ 357 Lucretius. ^ 358 Catullus.
^ 359 Cornelius Gallus. ^ 360 Tibullus.
^ 361 Propenius. $ 362 Virgil. ^ 363
Horace. ^ 364 Ovid. ^ 365 Cornelius
Sevcrus. i 366 Pedo Albinovanus. ^ 367
Grntius Faliscus. ^ 368 Publius Syrus.
^ 369 Marcus Manilius. ^ 370 Cesar
Germanicus. $371 jEmiliusMaccr. $372
Phaedrus. $373 Persius. $374 L. An-
ncBus Seneca. $ 375 Lucan. $ 376 Va-
lerius Flaccus. $ 377 Silius Italicus. $ 378
Statius. $ 379 Martial. $ 380 Juvenal.
$ 381 Flavins Avianus. Fcstus Avienus.
$ 382 Dionysius Cato. $ 383 Nemepian.
$384Calpurniu8. $ 385 Ausonius. Proba
Falconia. $ 386 Claudian. $ 387 Pru-
dcntius. $ 388 Sedulius. $ 389 Rutilius
Numatianus.

n. Orators, p. 586-592.
$$ 390-406. t= $ 390 Eloquence in the
earliest ages. $ 391 Influence of Greek
teachers. $ 392 Civil honors acquired by
oratory. $ 393 Eloquence of the Gracchi.
$ 394 Increase of speakers. Eminence
of Crassus and Antony the Orator. $ 395
Study of the art of speaking. Schools.
$ 396 Two eminent orators. Sulpiiius and
Cotta. $ 397 The two great rivals, Hor-
tensius and Cicero. $ 398 The kinds of
oratory. $ 399 Decline of Roman elo-
auence. $ 400, 401 Principal orators in
tne later ages. $ 402 Panegyrical oratory
of the Romans. $ 403 General references.
$ 404 Cicero. $ 405 PHny the younger
(Caius Caecilius Secundus). $ 406 The
Panegyrists; Claudius Mamertinus, Eu-
menius. Nazarius, Pacatus, Symmachus.

III. Rhetoricians, p. 592-595.

$$ 407-415. =$407 Distinction between
Rhetoricians and Grammarians. $ 408
First rhetoricians at Rome. Opposition to
the Grecian teachers. $ 409 Schools of
Roman frcedmen. $410, 411 Principal
authors in this department. $ 412 General
references. $ 413 Cicero. $ 414 Marcus
Annaeus Seneca. Rutilius Lupus. $ 415
Quintilian.

IV. Grammarians, p. 595-600.

$$ 416-434. s=$ 416 Studies and influ-
ence of the Grammarian. $ 417 The an-
'Hent grammarian and modem philologist.

$ 418 Principal grammarians down to the
death of Augustus. $ 419 Chief gram-
marians of the next period. $420 High
rank enjoyed by grammarians in later
limes. $ 421 Names of the more eminent.
$ 422 General references. $ 423 Varro.
$ 424 Asconius Pedianus. $ 425 Aulua
Gellius. $ 426 Censorinus. $ 427 No-
nius Marcellus. $ 428 Pomponius Festus.
$ 429 -iElius Donatus. $ 430 Macrobius.
$ 431 Charisius. $ 432 Diomedes. $ 433
Priscianus. $ 434 Isidore.

V. Epistolixers and Somancers, p. 600-
604.

^$ 435-445. = $ 435 Number and value
of Roman epistles extant. 1'he earliest
specimens. $ 436-438 The principal au-
thors. $ 439 Romance scarcely found in
Roman literature. $ 440 Cicero. $ 441
Pliny the younger (C. CsBcihus Secun-
dus). $ 442 Lucius Annsus Seneca.
$ 4 13 Fronto. $ 444 Symmachus. $ 445
Sidooius ApoUinaria.

VI. Philosophers, p. 604-614.
$$ 446-474. = $ 446 Origin of Roman
philosophy. $ 447 Numa a philosopher.
$448 Philosophers introduced by Paulua
iCmilius and Scipio Africanus. $ 449 Date
of the rise of philosophy at Rome. $ 450
Difierence between Greeks and Romans
in respect to philosophical studies. $ 451
Comparative number of Roman philoso-
phers. $ 452 Patronage of Lucullus.
$453 Philosophy in the time of the em-
perors. Introduction of oriental views.
$ 454 Example of Marcus Aurelius. In-
fluence of Christianity. $ 455 Sects of
philosophy at Rome. $ 456 Academic
$ 4.57 Stoic. $ 458 Peripatetic. $ 459
Cynic. $ 460 Epicurean. $ 461 Skeptic.
$ 462 Pythagorean. $ 463 New Pytha-
gorean. $ 464 New Platonists. $ 465
Eclectics. $ 466 Philosophy of Christian
Fathers. $ 467 General references. $ 468
Cicero. $ 469 Lucius Anncens Seneca.
$ 470 Pliny the elder (Caius Secundus).
$ 471 Apuleius. $ 472 Petronius Arbiter.
$ 473 Capella. $ 474 Boci hiua.

VII. Mathematicians, Geographers, and
CEconomists, p. 614-622.

$$ 475-501. = $ 475, 476 Merit of the
Romans in mathematical science. $ 477-
479 Principal writers in this department.
$ 460 Knowledge of geography among the
Romans. Survey of the Empire. $481,
482 Principal writers and works. $ 483
Class of writers termed (Economists.
Greek and Roman agriculture. $ 484, 485
Roman writers on husbandry. $ 486 The
Culinary art. $ 487 Surveying of land.
$ 488 I'reatises on the art of^the agrimen-
sores or land-surveyors. $ 489 General
references. $ 490 Vitruvius. $491 Fron-
tinus. $ 492 Vegetius. $ 493 Julius Fir-
micus. $ 494 Pomponius Mela. $ 495
Solinus. $ 496 Vibms Sequester. $ 497
I The Roman Itineraries. $ 498 Marcus

CONTENTS.

XX HI

Porcios Cato. ^ 499 Vanro. 500 a. Colu-
mella. ^ 500 b. Pal ladius. Manialis Gar-
gilius. ^601 Cceliua Apicius.

VIII. Mythographers, p. 622-624.
W 502-509 =« ^ 502 The tales of Roman
mythology similar to those of the Grecian.
^ 503 The writers few. Collections. ^ 504
Hyginus. ^ 505 Fulgentius. Albricus.
% 5& Lactaniius Placid us.

IX. Historians and Biographers, p. 624-
638.

H 507-542 = ^ 507 Metrical annals.
$508 The Pontifical Commentaries and
other early records. $ 509 Legal docu-
ments. Family memoirs. Funeral eulo-
gies. ^ 510 Loss of early historical re-
cords. Dispute respecting the authenti-
city of the common history of Rome.
$511-513 The Annalists. $514, 515 Prin-
cipal writers in the third period of Roman
Literature. $ 516 Official documents in
this period. $ 517-522 Historical writers
after the time of Augustas. $523-526
Roman biography. Several classes of bio-

faphicai works. $ 527 General references.
528 Julius Cesar. $ 529 Sallust. $ 530
Cornelius Nepos. $ 531 Titus Livius.
$532Velleiu8 Paterculus. $533 Vale-
rius Maxim as. $ 534 Tacitus. $ 535
Quint us Curtius. $ 536 Florus. $ 537
Suetonius. $ 538 Justin. $ 539 Sextus
Aorelius Victor. $ 5*10 Eutropius. $ 541
Ammianus Marcellinos. $ 542 Authors
of the Augustan History.

X. Writers on Medicine and Natural
Science, p. 638-642.

$$ 543-557 =» $ 543 Science of Medicine
in low estimation at Rome. $ 544 Early
notions respecting the nature of diseases.
$ 545 Greek slaves the first physicians.
$546 Regard paid to the Greek physicians.
$ 547 a. Cato*8 book of medicine. $ 547 b.
Roman medical authors, from the time of
Aucastus to that of the Antonines. $ 548
M^cai writers in later times. $ 549
Rank of physicians under the emperors.
$ 550 Opportunities for advancing natural
science enjoyed b^ (he Romans. $ 551
Principal authors m physics. $ 552 Ge-
neral references. $ 553 Aulus Cornelius
Celsos. $ 554 Scribonius Largos. $ 555

Serenus Sammonicus. $ 556 Theodorus
PriscianuB. $ 557 Marcellus Empiricus.

XI. Writers on Law and Jurisprudence,
p. 643-647.

$$ 558-771. = $ 558 Number of works
in this department lost. Reason for it.
$ 559 Various classes of works. $, 560
Dei?ign of the notice here to be taken.
$561 Earliest collections. The Jus Pa-
pirianum ; Twelve Tables ; Jus Flavia-
nam ; Jus jElianum. $ 562 Writers in
the second period of Roman literature ;
Manilius, Mucins Scaevola. $ 563 Emi-
nent writers of the next period ; Sulpicius
Rufus; Cicero; Alfenus Varus; Cascel-
lius; iElius Tubero, &c. $ 564, 565
Chief civilians and authors in the period
between Augustus and the Antonines;
Masurius Sabinus. and Sempronius Pro-
culus ; Cocceius Nerva, Juventius Celsus;
Neraiius Priscus ; Salvius Julianus ;
Gaius, &c. $ 566 Rank of (he legal pro-
fession in the time between the Antonines
and Constantino. Encouragement under
the system of Constantine. Law- School
of Berytus. $ 567 Papinian; Ulpian;
Julius Paulus. $ 568 Coaex Hermo^enia-
nus. Codex Theodosianus. Code of
Theodoric. Breviary of Alaric. $ 569
Arrangements of Theodosius for reducinjg;
to order the Roman law. Labors of Tn-
bouian. Constituent parts of the Body cf
Boman Law. $ 570 Influence of the
system of Justinian. Revival and sway
of Roman Jurisprudence. $ 571 General
references.

Christian Writings in the Latin Lan^
guage, p. 647.

$ 572 Names of some of the authors.
References on the subject.

Af?exdtx to the History of Greek and
Roman Literature, p. 649-h652.

$$ 573-575. = $ 573 Editions of the
Classics in regular sots. $ 574 Collections
of Translations. $ 575 History of classi-
cal studies. $ 576, 577 Biography of the
most eminent classical scholars. $ 578
Progress of classical learning in the United
States.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

I. Pbomtispiccs. View of Delphi and the
BHfku 0j Parmassvt^ as given by Bocagt in
Bartkeitmn*9 Anacbarsi*. See the Tolume of
Plates, p. 71, as cited P. V. $ 153. S.— cf. P. I.

1 Rbvkhsb of Titlb. (Facing Page v.)
Reprtsentalion of tJu Oracle of JipoUo. Gf. P.
III. MTU, 73.

3. M4P OF AifciBiTT WoBLD. (Page 2.) 7>e
World according' to Ptolemy, aa given in .Wvr-
r^jr Bncyclopiedia of Geography. Cf P. I. ^ 3.

4. P1.ATEI. (Page 14.) Plans of Atheno and
Rome. See P. I. $(51-71, 104-116.

5. Plate II. (Page 16.) The Tiber, and the
City of Rowe^ tymboliud. Cf. P. II. $ 90; P. IV.

6. PlatbIII. (Page 18.) The Pantheon. Cf.
P. I. » 59.

7. FlatbIV. (Page 23.) Plain and Aero^-
lie of Pkiiipjri. Cf. P. I. } 80.

6. Flats IV a. (Page 30.) Ruins at At hens
of ibe Temple of Nepliine and that of Minerva
Pandroaoa. Cf P. I. $ 107 ; P. III. ( 96.

9. Flats IV ^ (Page 35.) Ruins at Corinth.
Cf. P. I. ( 120.

10. Plate I Ve. (Page 37.) VUlaeeofMis-
tra : near the ancient Sparta. Cf. P. 1. ( 126-
129.

II. Platb V. (Page 39.) Cabirian TtrnvU
si -ness^Unka. Cf P. I. $ 80; P. II. ( 129. 1

12. Platk VI. (Page 42.) Colossal Statne
of tko Snn. Cf. P. I. $ 147 ; P. II. } 72; P. IV.
9 160. I.

13. Platb Via. (Page 45.) Valley cf the
am-itut Thebarma. Cf. F.l.^l54b.

14. Platb VI *. (Page 49.) Viev> of Broosa^
the aneimt Brusa. Cf. P. I. $ 160.

15. Plate VII. (Page 50.) Temple of Janus
at Rome^ and that of the Sun at Heliopolis. Cf.
P. I. i 160 60 ; P. IV. ( 234. 3.

la Plate VIII. (Page 55.) The Egyptian
Sphinx, tc. Cf. P. I. 9 177 ; P. II. J 117, } 96.

17. Platb Villa. (Page 58.) A Portion of the
Pntiwgerian Table. Cf. P. V. $ 497. It is pre-
tented here as given in H. Murray's Encyclo-
pedia of Geography (Phil. 1838, 3 vol8. 4), from
which ta taken the following explanation of the
^urea and lettera on the Plate; with nn change
except that of adding in parentheses the cooi-
moD Latin form of some of the names.
Nobth Pabt.
Oika. CUia.

I. fiMeia. 92. BonoDia.

SHl Clinio (CIvtiiini).
S4. Vobiai (Vulsioij).
as. Aqou-PUari*.
ad, lUrenna.
9t. ArimiottOi.
n. Onoisc*.
aSL Cenluai CcUjb.
40l Aqaa»-Tnri.
41. AaooM (Aaeona).

45. Ca«tro-Novo(CMtniiDlfO'
Tom).

43l Aaaaa-Apollhivik

46l PoUenlii.

46. Rate.

47. Ca«tdloFiniiauu(Cjatram
Firaanom).

4& AdiieB.FMnuB.

4S.RAIM.

fia HMtM (Oi«ia).

61. CbATlacfM (Cvtlnco).

S2. Uiica CoIodU.

Sa. Aquk.

S. Aqaiara (Aqaineara).
4. Bn«u»o (BrcsoUo).
& Men.
ft. RifKfci— (Higopdo).

& Canmaito (Cmoatoni).
SLCKteu.

lariiBiahm.

IL Tanaiica.

APota.

14. Silio OiWnB).

B. Ruolio (Fkfetffan).

M. FaaM>Taial».

17. AqailciA.

l8.0viUa.

It. AlrtM (Alliam).

tl. Tndarc(lRSeatiun).

a. A4|W hpdoBitt.

•«. FleraitiaTMeoraB.
X.amxJtaia.
M B^vita.
fr. Vtnuk.

54. Ipponte Dnritow
56.C*pakC6i
56 Ad Medm.

aCoioaia.

. A«nU»(An«lia»)b

60. Sicca-Vcria.

SO. AdXqfaoCmmtk.

(4)

a. Daanbiua.

b. Drioon.

c. Sakom.

d. Ar»ia.

e. Frigido.
(. Lioruaa.
c. Afoia.
L CleuHa.
L Un.aiia.
j. Fa«iut.
k. Paala.

I. Aoioia
■n. lanx.

Sooth

CUia.

1. Ad Prrtorom (PneloriiUD

in Fmnob'ta).

2. 8«r«i*ium.

3. Ad Pre'nrum (Pnetorium

in Datiialia}.

4. Mana .Major,
ft. Indeitra.
& Tillnburso.
7. tU<urio.
8L S*elM.
fl. halom.

la Epelin (Epelium).

II. Maroba.

12. Sirmium.

13. N:trDi!a.

14. Taurnno (TuraaaB).

15. Ad Matric«m.

16. SiiM^iduDa (SiB|(iduii«m).

17. Epitauro (EpidaoniB).
IH. - '

19. Lii

20. Vimiaalio.
ill. Dyrraiio (DTrrachimi).

22. Aubnia (Apdloaia).

23. On Col.

24. SabraU.

25. Rcfio(Rh^iamerBcgiain).

26. Caoloa.

27. Laceoium.

28. Caatra Mioamk

29. Vibctn Vjtieotia.

30. Temia (Tcoipai).

31. TarrDlo (Tarralun).
92. Brinditi (Bruaduaium).

33. Giaiie.

34. Nenilof (Nemloai).

35. Salprno CSaisnuiu).

36. Nuerria.

37. Oplna'if.

SB. Beneveoto (BeiieT«Btiiin).

39. Veoona.

4(1. Neapr>li (Neapolia).

41. Capoa.

42. Cninaa (C«Me).
43.!»rila.

44. Acna.

45. PrBiaalnm LaueriaaQn.

46. Sipoato (SIpoolooi).

Rivtrt.
a. (}inbnh
ow Pallia.
p. Annaiiita.
q. Marta.
r. Tibernk
a. RubieoB.
t. Nelnnuu.
It. Mai ana.
T. Mi*o.
w. Floaia.

X. THBtt.

jr. Nflroiauoi.
I. Aaio.

Part.

Ciliea.

64. Fcbraterio.
66. Ittonuin.

56. Corfiiiio (Corfiaiam)

57. Mamibio (Marnifaiuif ,
6". Tret Tabenue.

59. Canolif (Caneolt?).

60. Osiia Atetni.

61. KDDa.

62 Ca«lro.NoTo(Caatranlf»
Tom, oa tbe Hadriaticf).
63. PnpDcate.
61. Roma.

65. Hoaiia (Odia).

66. Chanacioc (CailhifD).

67. Maxuia.

68. AdAqiia!«.
W. Minia Clipeia.

70. Gaira.

71. AdHorrta.

72. Leptf!miDai(LcptalfiKif).
73b Tliiibro Col.

74. Ad Aquas.

75. Tapamra (Ta|rfanDa).

76. T.icape.

77. Drei.ania (Drrpaanm).
n. Lilvbeo (Lilybenia).

79. Agriftnlo (Acri«aataa)k

80. Siracuaifl (SyracwM)
» fftnaMoaa.

fB. McMaaa.
Rivm.
a. Oaaubiuk
h. Drinnin.
e. Sarnn.
d. Mar|nai.

f. fl*pHai(A|«a).

tTasoo.
Craler.
I. Silanioi.
j. Cotor.
k. AveMiom.
L AufiHenoa.
m. Larinani.
B. Cloconi.

4& TeaooSccdieiiio(TBUi«m

Sididniun).
4a SiDuoa.

601 Minmrnia (Mintunm).
51. Fsadii (Fundi). w. Niraaaa.

50. T«rraeiiift. s. AuMre.

53. Faaatinook j. Geria.

18. Platb TX. (Page 02.) Symholie Rspre-
sentations of the Seasons. Cf. P. I. ) 191 a; P.
IV. $188-2; P. II. H 05.

19. Platb IX a. (Page 80.) View of Athens,
from the foot of Mt. Ancbesmui ; reduced from
Hobhouse'e Albania. Cf. P. I. } 105.

20. Plate X. (Page 82.) Mythological lUus
trations.— Fig. I. Saturn; cf. P. II. $ 14-17.-
Fig. 2. Cybele; cf. P. II. $ 1^21.— Fig. 3. Pluto;
cf. P. II. 9 3^34.— Fig. 4. Vulcan ; cf. P. II.
$ 51-54.— Fig. 5. Neptune : cf. P. II. ) 2»-31.~
Fig. 0. Venu0, with attendanti ; cf. P. II. $ 47>
49.— Fig. 7. Diana ; cf. P. II. $ 38-40.— Fig. 8.
Bacchus; cf. P. II. } 57-60.

21. Platb XI. (Page 92.) Mythological R.
lustrations.— F\g. I. Juno; cf. P. II. $ 26-28.—
Fig. 2. Mercury; cf. P. II. $ 55, 56.-Fig. 3. Ju-
pIter ; cf. P. II. ) 2»-25.-Fig. 4. Apollo ; cf. P,

XXV

XXVI

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES,

!1. ^ 85-37.— Fiff. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. II. ^ 81-64 —
Fig fl MinervH; cf. P. II. $ 41-43.-Fle. 7. Mnrs:
cf. P. II. $ 44-46— Fij{. 8. Janus ; cf. P. II. b 18.
—Fig. 9. Cupid ; cf. P. II. ( 50.— Fig. 10. Vebia ;
cf. P. II. ) 65-67.

23. Plate XII. (Page 97.) The Hindoo
TViad. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4.

23. Plate XHI. (Page 103.) The Avaiart
^f Vishnu. Cf. P. 11. ^ 25. 4 ; $ 37. 2.

24. Plate XII! a. (Page HI.) Festival of
Juffgemaut. Cf. P. II. ^ 59. 4.

25. Plate XIV. (Page 121.) Mythological
Illustrations.— Fig. 1. Sol, as reprcseiiled on a
coin of the Rhodians ; cf. P. II. ^ 71-72.— Fig. 2.
Nox, as n'presenied on a gem; cf. P. II. $ 76.
—Fig. 3. JLuTia ; cf. P. II. ^ 73 —Fig. 4. ll«-bc ;
P. II. $ 27.— Fig. 5. Flora J cf. P. II. $ 90. 4«.—
Pig. 6. .fijiculapiui : cf. P. II. $ 84.— Fig. 7.
Pun ; cf. P. II. $ 79.— Fig. 8. Spes, or Hope ;
cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 9. Foriuna; cf. P. II.
^ 86.-Flg. 10. Victoria ; cf. P. II. $ 93— Fig. 11.
Concordia; cf. P. II, $ 95.— Fig. 12. Pax, or
Peace ; cf. P. II. } 95.

28. Plate XV. (Page 124.) Hfpretentations
from the hiac Table. Cf. P. II. $ 96.

27. Plate XV o. (Page 138.) TabU of Greek
and Rom^n Deities classified Cf. P. II. d 9, 10.

28. Plate XVI. (Page 140.) Crotens, Oar-
Unds, ^c— Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Roman crowns or
wreaths, bestowed as military rewards. Fig.

6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. III. $284. 1.— Figs.

7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands received by vic-
lors in the games ; cf. P. III. $ 84-87, $ 233.—
Fig. A. Plan of a Gymnasium or Paisstra aftar
Vltruvius, as given in Barthelemy^s Anachar-
tfis : cf. P. IV. $ 236.— Fig. B. Victorious cha-
rioteer; cf. P. III. $ 233.- Fig C. A golden
crown found in Ireland ; cf. P. III. $ 34.

29. Plate XVII. (Page 155.) Milifarv Wea-
pons, Sj^c. For particulars, see P. III. ($ 45, 137,

30. Plats XVIII. (Page 161.) Tombs and
8epulehr<U Remains. —Fig*. 1, 2, 3. Tomb of Cy-
rus, Absalom's pillar, and Pyramid of Cestius ;
cf. P. III. $ 187. 5.— Fig. 4. Gates of a tomb; cf.
P. III. a 167. 5.— Figs, a and dd. Lachrymatory
and nngiientary vases ; cf. P. III. ( 341. 7. —
Fig. B. Egyptian Psychostasy, or weighing of
the soul; cf. P. II. $ 34 b. 4.— Fig. e. Funeral
couch; cf. P. III. $ 340. 1.— Fig. hh. Coffin and
urns, &c. ; cf. P. 111. $ 341. 6.

31. Plate XIX. (Page 166.) Oracle of Tro-
phonius. Cf. P. III. $ 74.

32. Plate XX. (Page 168.) Rspresenta-
tionjt of Priests and Priestesses presenting Liba-
tions and Sacrifices. Cf. P. III. $ 24, ^ 221.

33. Plate XXI. (Page 179.) Temples.—
Fig. 1. Parthenon; cf. P. 111. $ 96, P. IV.
i 234. 3, P. I. } 107.— Fig. 2. Temple of the
Winds; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. 1. } 110.— Fig. 3.
Temple of Theaeus ; cf. P. III. $ 06, P. 1. $ 109.
— Figs, a, fr, c, d, 0./.^t A, Ground-plaps of the
different kinds of temples ; cf. P. IV. ) 234. 2.

34. Plate XXII. (Page 195.) Vanous Jirti-
eles of .drmor.—Figa. a, ft, c, &.c. Helmets; cf.
P. 111. ^ 45.— Figs, r, s. Mall and breastplate;
ef. P. III. $ 45, 139.— Fig. «. Greaves; cf. P.
III. i 44, 45.— Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian warriors;
cf. P. III. ^ 45.— Fig. 3. Persian warrior; cf.
P. III. $ 45.— Fig. 4. Trophy; cf. P. III. $ 150.-
Fig. 5. Warrior in mail, with an armor-bearer;
cf. P. III. $ 283.— Fig. 6. Egvptian archer; cf.
P III. ^ 45, $ 288. 1.— Fig. 8. Soldier in com-
plete mail; cf. P. III. J 283.

35. Platb XXIII. (Page 201.) M'aval JUus-
trations.—Fig. 1. Pinnace or light boat for rapid
moving; cf. P. III. J 304.--Fig. 2. Vessel froni a
painting at PomP«"; cC.^vL"-.^2!f "I ** !'
Liburnian galtey; cf. P. III. J »M-K^' i'
Merchant vessel; cf. P. III. J 155 -Fig. 6.
^ar-calley: cf. P. III. J 155.— Fig. A. Hexi-
fcine C explained by Hoi well ; cf. P. III. $ 155
156 —Fig. B. Views of the relative position of
ttie rowcra, according to the explanations of

some ; cf. P. III. $ 156.— Figs, a, (, e. Different
forms of prows : cf. P. Ill $ 155 3, 4.

36. Plate XXIV. (Page 205.) Pertaining
to Household .Affairs. —tig. 1. Plan of a Grecian
house; cf. P. III. H71. I.— Fig. 2. A Grecian
key ; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 3. Young man
wearing ttie peiasus; cf. P. III. 169. 3.— FiE. 4.
A bride sitting with a mirror hHd before her;
cf. P. 111. $ 169. 6. $ 171. 2.-Fig9. 5 and ID.
Grecian sofas; cf. P. 111. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 6. Pe-
culiar head-ornament, worn in oricnial coun-
tries; cf. P. III. $ 34.-Fii;. 7. Crpcian ladv,
from Boyd's Potter; cf. P. III. J lt.9. 5 ; H"!. 2.
-Figs. 8, 9. Chairs; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2. $ 52.—
Figs, a, 6, c, Ate. Various forms nf coverings fur
the feel; cf. P. III. J 169. 2; ( r6.

37. Plate XXV. (Pace 211.) Costume.—
Figs, a, b, c, d, Modern Egyptian and oriental
dregses; «,/, Greek Uacchanies, ^, an Egyp-
tian spinner; A, t, Grecian femnip fluiers ; jk,
Grecian Indy in the more anrieiti coKtuute; m,
peculiar head-dress; a, o, Egyptian princfFS
and priestess in transparent gunnents ; y, tc,
veils and head-dresses. Bee P. III. } 169. 5 —
Fig. 1. A box worn on the neck; cf. P. 111.
$ 337.— Fig. 2. A lady's purse, from Eryptian
monuments ; figs. 3, 4, toilet-table and mirror ;
cf. P. III. $ 338.

38. Plate XXV «. (Page 215.) Tablfs of
Grecian Monnts, ice. Cf. P. III. ^$ 1^3-177.

39. Plate XXVI. (Page 219.) Musical In-
struments. For particulars see P. 111. $ 160.

40. Plate XXVI o. (Page 224.) Tabular
vieu) of Civil Institutions of Athens. Cf. P. III.
J$ 97-1 16.

41. Plate XXVII. (page 231.) Altars end
Sacrificial Apparatus.-Figa. a, b, e, &c. Varinus
articles as given in Monifaucon; fig. A. including
1, 2, &c., articles drawn from sculpture at Pom-
peii; fig. B, representation of a sacriflce, frooi
the same source ; cf. P. III. $ 206.— Fig. C. Sa-
crifice to Bacchus; cf. P. III. $ 205. 1 ; ^ 67.—
Fig. D. Sacred utensils ft-om Egvptian re-
mains ; cf. P. III. $ 206. 2.-Figs. E, H, Aiiara ;
cf. P. 111.^205. 1.

42. Plate XXVIII. (Page 236.) PHests and
Priestesses. Cf. P. III. $ Sl9; P. II. ^ 67 u;
P. V.J 16.

43. Plate XXIX. (Page 240.) Tht Suove-
tavrilia, from an ancient bas-relief. Cf. P. III.
$ 224. 2.

44. Plate XXX. (Page 245.) Gladiatorial
Contests.— Fig. 1, two andabata or horsenneii ;
fig 2, a horseman and footman (cf. P. 111.
J 283); figs. 3, 4, two gladiators on foot ; fig. 5,
wounded bull; fig. 6, two secntores and two
retiarii: see P. 111. $ 235. 2, 3.— Fig. 7. Plan of an
amphitheatre at Pompeii ; cf. P. 111. $ 239. —
Fig. n. A Dacian horseman in scale-armor ; cf.
P. III. $ 2b3.

45. Plate XXXI. (Page 255.) Psrtainin/t
to topics notued under the head of Roman Ciril
Affairs.— FlgB. 1 and 3. Roman fasceSy and
Egyptian scepters; cf. P. III. $ 240. 1.— Figs 3
and 9. Roman official chairs; cf. P. HI. h 255
2.— Figs. 4, 5, 6, Chariots ; cf. P. 111. \ 369. 3 —
Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard and weight : cf. P III
$270. l.-Fig. 10. Sedan; cf. P. 111. $ 255 «--
Fig. A, a kind of stocks; fig. B, tlie Maiuertine
prison at Rome ; cf. P. III. $ 264. I.

46^ Pt,ATE XXXII. (Page 265.) Pertaining
to Household and Agricultural Affairs.— Pig. f
plan of a Roman house ; figs, a and b, a kev
and bolt from Pompeii; cf. P. 111. J 825 6 -

£J."so" p"!fiTm'l; ■'""•• p"'»"'«-'»»ft

DBSCRIFTION OV PLATES.

xxvu

toldiers with shield and sword, baggage, ice. '
ef. P. ni, ( 583.— Pig. 3. A Medo-Persian, from I
acolptureiat Persepnliii; bearing a sort of ham- ,
nier, or baitle-ax, probably a token of some j
military rank, perhaps however of some civil
oifice; the two hands of another are seen bear- I
\n% the same token ; fig. 4, anotiier from the
Kiilplur^s at Persepolis, with a sword and
ntbersccouternienis. Cf. P. IV. $ 171— Figs. A,
B, C, Jic. A v.irieiy of stand irds and flags;
ef. r. 111. J fc'2. 1— Fig. E. Part of the tri-
umphal prnce-ision represented ou the Arch of
TTtuf J ef. P. IV. $ 188. 2.

«. Plate XXXIV. (Page 270.) rTar-en-
^>M, R»matt Camp, <$'^.— Fig. I, testudo; fi^. 2,
tine*; 3, moi'nble tower; 4, 5, 10, baiiering-
rtm; 6,icorfio; 7, balinta; B, pluteuM; 9. fatx
nunlis; see P. III. ^ 299.— Figs, a, b. Archer
and slinger ; cf. P. III. ^ 2S8. 1.— Fig. P, plan
of a coniular camp; R, sectional view of the
•fFirand/M<a,' see P. III. $ 297 C.

50. PL4Tt! XXXV. (Page 301.) Pertaining
ioFutta and tht use of irins.— Fig. I. Plan and
view of a trieliniuM fuund at Pompeii; cf
P. III. ) 329. 2.— Fig. 2, carriage and vessel for
transporting wine ; fig. 3, a patera^ used in
libattons; cf. P. III. $ 331 b.— Fig. 4. Two per-
roiM interchanging the pledge of hospitality ;
cf. P. HI. $ 330. 3.— Fig. 5, a Bacchanal revel-
ing alone, taken from remains at Pompeii ; fig.
fi, a wine press, from Egyptian monuments ;
flg. 7, two glass cups elegantly cut or cast; figs,
a, b, c d, e, f, &c., various cupa and vessels ;
cf. P. III. 9 331 b.

51. Platr XXXVI. (Page 302.) Monwntn-
tdl Strvcture, dedicated (• the Dii Manes ; Re-
frtsentaiiinu of Dtath, Sre. Cf. P. II. ki 7G, 83,
110.113.

52. Platk XXXVII. (Page 306.) Aneisni
S«ok», and ImpUmsnts used in Writtng and in
tktArU.—V\g. 1. A painting on the wall of a
chamber, found at Herculaneum; it shows a
ba( of money, tied, Iving on a table between
two heaps of coins, with an inkstand and reed,
a parchment or papyrus manuscript with its
title appended, a style, and tablets.— Fig. 2.
Tablets connected by a ring, pugiUares ; cf.
P. IV. ( 57. 2; ^ 118. 3.— Figs. 3 and 4. Styles ;
ef. P. IV. ^ 54.— Pig. 9. A reed.— Fig. 5. A roll
ihoving the manner of writing.— Fig. 6. Two
Ublets, and the empsa^ or bookcase ; c:'. P. IV.
\ 118. 3.— Figs. 7 and 8. Tools employed in ar-
cfahectnre,&c. ; cf. P. IV. $ 229. 2.

53. Plats XXXVIII. (Page 322.) Ancient
Writisg^ JUaHuseriptSy and Inscriptiojts.—F'tg. a.
Fine specimen or the ancient MS. roll ; cf.
P. IV. I 118. 2.- Figs, d, «,/, are from remains

foand at Pompeii; cf. P. IV. $ 118. 2. Figs.

i. ii. iii. specimens of writing in Greek MSS. ;

cf. P. IV. $ 104. 2. Fig. D. Inscription copied

from a Babylonian orick lately deposited in the
Boston Athtaeum ; the brick is about II inches
square and 3 inches thick; It is here (merely
for the sake of convenience in forming the
Plate) exhibited so that the lines are perpen-
dicular, but their actual direction is horizon-
tal; they are to be read from left to right, the
bottom of the figure being the left, and the top
tlie right. Cf. P. IV. } 18. 4.— Fig. Q. Several
specimens of writing in the arrow-head charac-
ter: No. 1, part of an inscription found on a
pillar near Murghab or Mourgaub, supposed
by Morier to be the site of the ancient Fasar-

tada; it is the name of Cyrus, Kusruesh, in
lehrew Koruh, in Greek Kuros: No. 2, part
of an inscription on a monument at Persepolis ;
the name of Darius, Darheuscii, in Ilebrew
Darisrish, in Greek Dartioi: No. 3, part of an-
other inscription, containing a title often as-
•nmed by Persian monarchs, KuscniEiiiOH
Khsghkuiohtch, i. e. King of Kings (cf. £zra,
vil. IS); No. 4, the name of Xerxes, In the al-
phabet of tbe Zend language, Khscrhersche:
no. 7, the same name in the alphabet consi-

dered thai of the Pehlvi language : No. 8, the
same, in a character supposed to be more mo-
dern : No. 5, Hieroflyphie inscription noticed
by Chfmpollion, on an Egyptian alabaster
vuse, as being the name of Acrxes, and read
by him Khschkarsciia; No. 6, the same name
in the Persepolitan character, as found on that

vase. See P. IV. $ 18. 4. Fig. II. Specimen

of phonetic hieroglyphical writing; two car-
touches of hieroglyphics, from one of the co-
lonnades adorning the first court of the palace
of Karnac, a part of Egyptian Thebes; the
name of an Egyptian king, supposed to be the
one called in the Bible Shishak (1 JTin^c,
xiv. 5); tbe left cartouch expresses. It is sup-
posed, the surname, interpreted as signifying
** approved of the sun;** the other on the right
(in which the corresponding Roman letters
are, in the cut, attached to the hieroglyphics by
wav of explanation, la read Amhmai Shsh.'ik,
and interpreted ^^Dsar toAmwon^ Sheshonk**;
this name is thought by some to be the same aa
the Sesonchis (£/j<Toyx»0 "f Maneiho. Cf P. IV.

n^- 1; $ ^•'l. 7. 8. Fig. B. Anrlent British

writing on movable sticks; cf. P. IV. $ 53.

Fig. C. The papyrus, growing on the banks of
the Nile; cf. P. IV. $ 118. 1. Fig. E. Com-
parative view of several corresponding letters
in eight different alphabets (cf. P. lY. k 45. 2);
forming as nearly as the alphabets will allow,
the words of the Hebreto inscription^ IIoLiNBas
TO THE LosD, which was engraved on tbe
golden plate attached to the miter of Aaron
(Ezud. xxviil. 36, 37);— the line a is in Hebrew
old coin letters; A, in the Hebrew common let-
ters, as in the modern printed Hebrew Bible:

c, in the Egyptian hieratic or priest's letters ;

d, in the Samaritan ; «, in the Egyptian phone-
tic hieroglyphics; /, in the Coptic; the next
line gives the corresponding Roman letters, aa
formed in modern printing, being the same as
ours; gt the common Greek, as nearly as the
alphabet seems to allow; the last line, A, is tlia
Septutigint version of the inscription. This cut
may serve also to Illustrate the ancient custom
of engraving an inscription in different lan-
guages on the same monument ; as, e. g. the
Rosetta stone (cf. P. IV. ( 91. 7); the Egypto-
Persian Vase noticed above in explaining fig.
G; and the memorable threefold inscription
placed by Pilate over the head of the Saviour
on the cross {Luke, xxiii. 38; John, xix. 19).

54. Plate XXXIX. (Page 335.) Muses as
representtd in the statues of Christina. Cf.
P. II. $ 103.

55. Plate XL. (Page 350.) Grecian Coins —
For particulars, see P. IV. ) 93. 2; $ 95. 1:
P. III. $ 173. 3.

56. Plate XLI. (Page 354.) Spedmsn of
Ornaments in ancient MSS. : a painting of the
Goddess of JfighL Cf. P. iV. } 104. 3; P. II.
$ 76.

57. Plate XLII. (Page 358.) Roman Coins.
—For the details, see P. IV. ) 134. 1; $ 139. 2.
P. III. $ 270.

58. Plate XLIIl. (Page 375.) Renresenta-
tions of Jfeptune, ^c., on Coins. Cf. P. IV.

K 2.

$139.

59. Plate XLIV. (Page 376.) Spreimsns of
Ancient Sculpture.— Fig. I. Dying Gladiator;
cf. P. IV. i 186. 9.-Fin. 2. Head of Anlinous;
cf P. IV. ^ lh6. 10.— Fig. 3. Apollo Belvidere;
cf. P. IV. $ 186. 4.— Fig. 4. Gladiator Borghese ;
cf. P. IV. $ 156. 8.— Fig. 5. Laocoon; cf. P. IV.
$ 186. 1.— Fig. 6. Hercules Farnese; cf. P. IV.
$ 186. 6.

60. Plate XLV. (Page 384.) Specimen ef
Sculpture in Bus-relief. Cf. P. 11. $ 91. 2.

61. Plate XLVI. (Page 395.) The Tri-
umphal Sacrifice of Aurelius ; a marble ana-
glyph. Cf. P. IV. $ 188. 3.

62. Plate XLVI I. (Page 399.) JevseU and
Sculptured Gems. Figs. 1 and 2. Specimens of
the Abraxas; cf. P. IV. ( 200. 2; ) 193; P. U.

xxvm

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

9 96. 0.— Fig. 3. A Roman leal; cf. P. IV.
^ 906.— Fig. 4, and figi. /, A, t, o, and r. Jewels
for the ear and breast; cf P. III. ( S3B. 2.—
Fi|E. 5. Cupid, as on an ancient gem ; cf P. IV.
( 196.— Fig. 6. Dsdalus, as on an ancient gem ;
cf P. IV. $ 196.— Figs. 7 and 8. Gems bearing a
Htrmes and Hermenulet ; cf P. IV. ( 164. 3.—
Figs, a, ft, e, d, «,/. Finger-rings, wiib gems in-
serted; cf P.lV.$S06.

63. PLATB XLVIII. (Page 406.) Sfecimen of
Engraving on Oema: Bacchus, Satyrs, ice. Bee
p.iv. r^ii.5; P. II. ^60.

64. Plate XLIX. (Page 411.) IIluMlrations
pertaininf to the Theatre.— Fig. I. Plan of the
Greeic theatre; cf P. IV. ) M5.— Fig. «. Plan
of the Roman theatre; cf P. III. ^ 236.— Fig. A.
Edifice called Choragic Monument of Thrasyl-
lus; cf P. IV. ) 66. 3; P. I. ) I15.-Flg. C.
Cboragtc Monument of Lyslcrates, called also
Lantern of Demoetheneo.^Fig. B B. A repre-
sentation in MooaiCf found at Pompeii; cf
P. IV. $ 189. 1.

65. Plate L. (Page 417.) ArthUutural IUu»-

(ra<joiw.— Figs, a, ft, e, dy «. Columns, Egyptian,
&c. ; cf P. IV. $ 238. 3.-Figs. /, g. A, <, j, jk, I.
Grecian and Roman columns, exhibiting the
different order; ttc, ; cf P. IV. ^ 238. 1 —Figs. m.
and n. Arches upon pillars ; cf P. I V. ) S44.—
Figs. j>, f, «, u. Grecian capitals ; cf. P. IV.
^ 238. 1.— Figs, a, r, t, v. Pillars; r and v.
Gothic ; ,0, Saracenic ; e, Chinese ; cf P. IV.
$245.

66. Plate LI. (Page 422.) The TempU of
Diana at Ephesua. Cf P. IV. \ 234. 3.

67. Plate LII. (Page 425.) Comparative
View of telebrated Edifices and other Stmcturu.
See bottom of the Plate. Cf P. IV. $ 234. 3.

68. Plate LII a. (Page 432.) The Ruins of
tht Parthenon; from Hobhonse. Cf P. I. H07 :
P. III. ) 96.

69. Plate LIII. (Page 434.) Oreeian BusU,
with names annexed ; taken from the Historie
Oallsry, cited T. IV. $ 187.

70. Plate LIV. (Page 548.) Roman BusU,
with names annexed ; taken from the Historie
OalUrf and Landan, ai cited P. IV. ( 187.

PART I.

CLASSICAl GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY.

EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

INTRODUCTION.

i L The earlier Greeks must haye been very ignorant of the neighboring coun-
tries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of the Odyssey were within a few
boon sail of Greece. The account of the Arffonautic expedition furnishes a still
stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are described as having departed by the
Hellespont and Euzine sea, and as having returned through the straits of Hercules ;
whence it manifestly appears, that at that time the Greeks believed that thexe was a
connection between the Palus Meeotis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. In those early
affes the earth was supposed to be a great plain, and the ocean an immense stream,
which flowed around it and thus returned back into itself (di^^/^ooO-

la later timea, however, the commercial enterprise oft the Athenian! eorrected theae errora.
Their shlpa aailed through the seas to the eastof Burope and broiisht home such accurate infor-
mation, that we find the description of these seas and the neithbonng coasts nearly as perfect in
ancient as In modern writers.— The expedition of Clearchns into Asia, related in the Jinabatif
ofXenophon (cf. P.V. ^943),and stitl more that of Alexander, gave the Greeks opportunities of
becoming acquainied with the distant regions of the east.— The west of Burope was visited and
devcribed by the Phoenicians, who had penetrated even to the British Islands. «

$ 2. All the astronomical and gfco^raphical knowledge of the ancients was embodied,
in the second century after Chnst, m two principal works by Claudius Ptolemy ; one
styled TAtyaXii Svrrafis, and the other Tcwypa^ic^ 'T<^fiyicis. From the latter we de-
riTe our chief information respecting the limits of the ancient world, and the attain-
ments of the Greeks and Romans m geography. (Cf. P. V. ^^ 206, 207, 216, 216,
480—483.)

% 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name ; an imperfect
sketch of India limits their eastward progress ; the dry and parched deserts of Africa
preTcnted their advance to the south; and the Atlantic ocean limited the known
world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the countries within these limits
wen perfectly known; we find, that even within these narrow boundaries, there
were several nations, of whom the ancient geographers knew nothing but the name.

Let OS attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth
that was known In the time of Piolemy. We will begin at Fgrro^ one of the Ijuulm Fortunattt
(Canary blanda), which, because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by Ptolemy
for his fixed meridian. Our line extending hence northerly would include the British Isles and
the Shetland Isles; the latter are probably designated by the TTmle of the ancients, according
to d*Anville, although some have supposed it Mras applied to Iceland. Prom the Shetland Isles
the line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably : perhaps around the North Cape, as
h has been thought that this must be the Rubeat Promontorium of Ptolemy. The line would, in
ehher ease, be continued to the White Sea at the mouth of the river Dwina, which seems to be
deMnb<>d by Ptolemy under the name Caram.hiui$. Thence it would extend to the Ural Moun-
tains, which were partially known by the name of Hfperkorei; near which the poets located a
people of the same name (Fir^. Georg. 1. 940), said to live in all possible felicity. From these
moantains the line would pass along through Scythia to the northern part of the Belnr Tag
nuHiaUins, the ancient Imaus. Crossing these, it enters the region of Jfuhfar (in Chinese Tar-
tniy), caHed by Ptolemy Casio R*rio; a region of which, however, he evidently knew little.
Oar line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Stra; which is most pro-
bably the modern Kan or Am-feAeoK, near the north-west corner of China and the termination
of the Immense wall separating China and Tnrtary. From Sera or JTaii, it must be carried over
a region, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thynm in the country of
the 8in«f this place was on the Cotiaria^ a river uniting with the Senus, which is supposed to
be the modern Gamboge. On the eoast, which we now approach with our line, the most easterly
point (that is particularly mentioned) is thought tn be Point Condor^ the southern extremity
of Cambodia ; this was called the PromontoriuM Satyrorvm. and some small Isles adjacent /h-
»nlm Satfrorum, because monkeys were fnnnd here, whnse appearance resembled the fnbled
Satyrs. The generaHgnorance respfcting this region is obvious from the fact, that It was Ima-
gined, that beyond the Prowutntorf of SoJtfrt tt<e coast turned first lo the south, and then com-
plelely in the west, and thus proceedt^d until it Joined Africa. From the point or cape Just
named, the boundary we are traclnff wnuld run around the Aurta Cktraonexu$^ or peninsula of
Malaya or Malacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jt^affii fnmla, and pass to
Tkfnkmma or Saika, the nuHlero Ceylon. Thence sweeping around the Maldives, called by Pte

4 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHT.

lemy fnsula ante nfrobanam^ and crossing the equator, It would strike Africa at Cape Delgrado,
supposed to correspond to ibe Pnuum Promontoriumt beinf about 10 degrees 8. latitude. The
boundary would exclude Madagascar, as the ancient Menuikiat designates, not Madagascar as
has been conjectured, but most probably tbe modern Zanzibar. It may be impossible to trace
the line across Africa ; of the interior of which the ancients knew more than one would suppose,

iudging from the Ignorance of the moderns on the subject. The line would pass south of the
lountains of the Moon, Luna Monten^ which are mentioned by Ptolemy; and also, in part, of
the river Niger, which, as d^^nvUU remarks, was known even in the time of Herodotus. On
the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape St. Ann's, about
10 degrees N. latitude : this point answering to the ancient Jfoti Comu, Southern Horn, off
against which lay the Islands called Jnmlm Htsptridum, From this cape our line passes up tbe
shore of the Atlantic to the huulm Fortunata.

From this it Is obvious, that tbe portion of tbe earth known to the ancients was small In pro-
portion to the whole. It has been said, with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one-third
of the land^ now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles : and of
tbe 155 millions of square miles of teotsr, covering tbe rest of the globe, they knew almost no-
thing.

Od tba kBowlcdfa of tha ladcsli nqMetioc Ow euth, Otm. Joum. ?. lOS. U. 13S. — For the prioeipal hdpi in ihidriBC Cba-
■ieal Geocnpfay, oomoU Om nlamom giftti in P. V. $ 7. 7 (fr) ; m abo F. V. K 006-108. 9TI n.~OD fba hUoiy of Gwgnpbr,
tL P. IV. § tt.

^ 4. The division of the earth into the large portiona, Europe, Asia, and Africa, is
of very ancient date ; but although the names have been preserved, the boundaries
in several particulars differed. Egypt was formerly reckoned among the Asiatic
kingdoms : at present it is esteemed part of Africa: Sarmatia was esteemed part of
Europe : a great part of it now forms one of the divisions of Asia.

^ 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the ancients
believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the extreme heat
of the Torrid and the extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destructive of animal life.

Another division. Introduced by Hipparchus, was that of climates. A climate Is a space in-
cluded between two parallels of latitude, so that the longest days of the Inhabitants at one
eitremity exceeds that of the inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were
known. The parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Bienne, Alexandria in
Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria in the Troas, tbe middle of the Euxine Sea, Mount Caucasus, and
the British Islands.

NOTE— lo alodrilig Out Epltona, It b indMpeMtblc to meoan ttal loaM AOm ■taooM h» mtd. That of Butkr b very toibbla
Cor tba poipaK. Tb« alitor of Om Masul bai it in coBtempUliOB to prepti* u AtlM tdapted to the EpitooM of Geqfraphf fasra
prwBtwL— The •tndeat oeod sot eonmit to memory io tbe »iul ynj. Let bbn fint leem tbe (eoenl divitiaiie end namn of tbe
eonntriet or pnTiaoee bidnded ia tbe lee«m, end next arefVillf reed over tbe irbola lanoD, traeing nay things ■• hr u poaiMe,
on Ail mopt. For leeitation, let tbe THcber qsertiOB him on tbe mepi of tbe Atlae, or oo lu|e nape Id mere oatline^ prepared for
ttw purpoH^ wbidiwill be Dtf better.

I. OF EUROPE.

^ 6. EunoFB, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most import-
ant division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and
sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants nave long possessed
over degraded Asia and barbarous Alrica. — It derives its name from Europa, the
daughter of Agenor, a Phsnician king, who being carried away, according to the
mythological tales (P. II. ^ 23), by Jupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her
name to this quarter of the globe.

^ 7. The boundaries of ancient Europe were nearly the same as those of modern
Europe ; but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of
Europe. The northern ocean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saturnian, bounds it
on the north ; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is
traced by ancient writers; the remainder of its eastern boundaries are the Palus
MsBotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus, Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, Propontis, Helles-
pont, and .^gean sea ; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and the Atlantic ocean
the western boundary.

^ 8. The countries of the mainland of Europe may be arranged, for convenience,
in the present geographical sketch, in thret^ divisions; the nortkem, middle, and
southern. The ISLANDS inay be considered m a separate division. —^ The north of
Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the ancients until the unwearied
ambition of the Romans stimulated them to seek for new conquests in lands previously
tmnotlced. From these coimtries, in after times, came the barbarian hordes who
eiverran Riirope, and punished severely the excrssps of Roman ambition. — The'
southern division contains the countries, which, in ancient times, were the most dis-
tincuiahed in Europe for their civilization and refinftment.

The Northern countries, with their ancient and modem names, were the follow-
ing* Scandinavia, JVartray and Stoeden; Chersonesus Cimbbica, Jutland, or Dch-

?• X. EUROPE. NORTHERN COUNTRIES.

, Sarmatia, Bus9ia; Geemania, Germany.— The Middle countries were
the following: Gallia, France and Switzerland; Vindeucia, Suabia ; Rh£TIA,
country of the Grigons : Noricum, Austria; Pannonia, Hungary; Illyricum,
Croatia and Dalmatia ; M^ssiAf Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria; Dacia, Transylvania
and IFoZocAaa. -— In the Southern division we include Hisfaxia, Spain and Fortw
gal ; Italia, Italy ; Thhacia., Macedonia, and Gr^cia, all lately comprehended
under tke Turldth Empire.

I. THB NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE.

^ 9. ScAKDiNATTA, or ScandiR, by the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely supposed
to be a large island. The inhabitants were remarkable for their number and ferocity ;
they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this country came the Goths,
the Hemli, the Vandab, and at a later period, the Normans, who subjugated the
south of Europe.

^ 10. The Chersonesus Cijibrica, a large peninsula at the entrance of the Baltic,
was the natiTe country of the Cimbri and the Teutones, who after devastating Gaul
invaded the northern' part of Italy, and made the Romans tremble for the safety of
their capital. They defeated the consuls Manlius and Servihus with dreadful slaugh-
ter, but were eventually destroyed by Marius.

^11. Sarhatia included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is frequently
confounded wiih Scythia. This immense territory was possessed by several inde-
3)endent tribes^ who led a wandering life like the savages of North America. The
names of the principal tribes were the Sauromatie, near the mouth of the Tanais,
and the Geloui and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and the Borysthenes. The latter
were called Hamaxobii from their Uving in wagons. Virgil gives them the epithet
piait because they, Uke the savages of America, painted tneir bodies to give them-
selves a formidable appearance.—- From these districts came the Huns, the Alans and
Rozolanians, who aided the barbarians formerly mentioned ($ 8} in overthrowing the
Roman empire.

The pemnsula, now known by the name of the Crimea, or Crim Tartary, was
anciently called the Chersonesus . Taurica. Its inhabitants, called Tauri, were
remarkable for their cruelty to strangers, whom they sacrificed on the altar of Diana.
From their cruelty the Euzine sea received its name ; it was called Euxine (favorable
to strangers) by antiphrasis, or euphemism. — The principal towns of the Tauric
Chersonese were Fantieapoium (Kerche), where Mithndates the Great died ; Saphra
(Procop), and Theodosia (Kaffa). — At the south of this peninsula, was a large pro-
montory, called from its shape Criu-Metopouy or the Ram s Forehead.

% 12. Ancient Germany, Germania, is, in many respects, the most singular and
interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early language, and the
accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down to us, the origin of the
English language and constitution may be distinctly traced. The inhabitants called
themselves Wer-men^ which in their language signifies fFor-men, and from this
boasting designation the Romans named them, with a slight change, Gcr-men.—
The boundaries of ancient Germany were not accurately asccrtainea, but the name is
generally applied to the territories lying between the Rhine and the Vistula, the
Baltic Sea and the Danube.

% 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia, possessed by several tribes, of whom
the principal were the Hermiones and Suevij who possessed the middle of Germany.

The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known to the Romans. The

chief of these were the^ jprtsn, through whose country a canal was cut by Drusus,
which being increased in the course of time formed the present Zuyder Z.ee ; the
CkeruMci, who under the command of Arminius destroyed the legions of Quintilius
Varus; the Sieambri^ who were driven across the Rhine by the Catti, in the time of
Angastns ; the Catti, the most warlike of the German nanons, and most irreconcila-
ble to Rome ; the Marcomannu who were driven afterwards into Bohemia by the
AUemanni, from which latter people Germany is, by the French, called Allcmagne.

Near the Elbe were the Aneli and Saxones, progenitors of the English, and the

Longobardi, who founded the kingdom of Lombardy, in the north of Italy. The
nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii, steadfast allies of the Romans ; the Mar-
comanni, who retired hither after their expulsion from the Rhine; the Narisci
and Quadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans during the reign of Marcus
AureKus.

^ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed a continuity of houses was
forbidden by their laws. The only places of note were, consequently, forts built by

tfawe Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives A great part of Germany

was occupied by the Hercynian forest, which extended, as was said, nine days' jour-
ney from south to north, and more than sixty from west to east. A portion of the
Syfva Hercynia is now called the Black Forest, which still has its fabled terrors.

4 15. The largest river in the northern division of Europe was the iSia, now Wolgn.
It was called Aid or Elel by the Byzantine writers (P. V. ^ 239a) and others in thu

a2

6 CLASSICAL GKOORAPHY.

middle ases. It had' 70 moaths discharging, and with more water formerly than now,
mto the Mare Catpium. It wbs in part the eastern boundary of Europe, aeparating
Sarmatia Irom Scyihia.— '1 he river next in ^ize was ihe Boryatktnes^ calh^d in the
middle ages Danapris^ whence its modern name Dnieper. Just at iis entrance into
the Ponius EuxintUt it was joined by the Hypanit, called in the middle ages Bogus, and
now the Bog. l^he long narrow beach at the mouih of the Borysihenea was called
Dromu* AchiUei. — Between the Bor^sihenes and the Rha was the Tanoif, Uie
present Don, which separated Sarmatia Europea from Sarmatia Asiaiica, and flowed
mto the Palus Maods or modern sea of Azof ; near its mouth was a city of extensive
commerce, called Tanai» Emporium. The strait connecting the Palus Meoiis with
the Euxine was called Botpkonu Cimwteriug. — Another nver discharging into the
Pontus Euxinue, was the Tynu^ the modem Dniester : it flowed between S«rmatia
and Dacia, and formed in part the southern boimdary of what is included in our
northern division of Europe. — ^Two rivers, from sources near those of the Tyros,
flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus Codanus ; they were the
ViMtuhif still so called, and the Viader or Oder. The principal streams dischargiiiff
into the Oceanus Germanicutt were the AUnt^ Elbe, and the iZAetiiM, Rhine, which
formed the western boundary of the diviaioa of Eurooe now under notice, dividing
Germania and Gallia.

II. THK COUlfTRIBS OF THK MIDDLE OF BUROPK.

% 16. We will begin with Gallia, which is at the western extremity of the divisioik
The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Trmualvina, to distinguish it from
the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. Tne Greeks gave it the name
of Golatia, and subseauentfy western Galatia, to distinguish it from Galatia in Asia
Minor, where the Gauls had planted a colony.

Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the terrhories of Flanders, Hol-
land, Switzerland, and port of the south-west of Germany. Its boundaries were the
Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the
Pyrenees.— The country, in the time of Julius Caesar, was possessed by three great
nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes. Of these the Celia were the
most numerous and powerful ; their territory reached from the Sequana, Seine, to the
Garumnat Garonne ; the Belga lay between the Sequana and lower Rhine, where
they united with the German tribes ; the AquUani poeseased the country between
the Garumna and the Pyrenees.

^17. Atigustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces; Gallia iViirboiiefMis, Aqui
tania, Gallia CeUica^ and Belgica.

Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the sea
coast from the Pyrenees to the Alps ; including the territory of the modem provinces,
Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. It contained several nations, the prin-
cipal of which were the AlUhroge$^ Salyes, and Volcae. The principal cities were
ifaHM MartiuMr the capital, (Narbonne) ; Mattilim (Marseilles), founded by an Ionian
colony, from Phocaea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Julii (Frejus) ; Aqua Sextia (Aix) ; and
Nernautus (Nismes), whose importance is manifest in the grandeur of its still existing
remains.

AoMog ite hiterMHiif auiNnMBli It NlniMi ura, fbe Sgnara ITomm, and ChaAwfUi; Hm ktterbaiac n ■mphithibt^ t ehf,
of Hm Oori« ordor, vrith wnlU conpoMd of CBormon mom of ■Hum mlrad with mwdarfal ikin, MO InI Id eh«nmfer«nv capaM*
of hoMia^ it baid, 16,000 or nfiOOftmwB; Ihe Ihrawr, a teapl^ 76 fcol lna<, St broad, a^ 41 Ugfa ; adernad with M baaMllf al
CwwIhiaB cotaniMu (Cf. Aynaraad Mmardy eilad P. [V. f MS. S^MUm, Vofi^adn lat Diparteaia^ d« Midi.)

A q u i t a n i a extended from the Pyrenees to the Liger (Loire). The principal
nations were the Tarbelli, south of the Garumna, and the Sontones, Pictones, and
Lemovioes, north of that river. The chief towns were Mediolatuan (Suntes);
Partus Santoftum (Rochelle) ; and UxeUodunum.

Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana. — The
country along the coast was called Armonca^ the inhabitants of which were very fierce
end warlike.— The principal nations were the Segusioni, ^dui, Mandubii, Pansii, and
Rhedonea. The principal cities were Lugdunum (Lyons), founded by Munatius
Plancus after the death of Julius Caesar; Bihraete, called afterwards Aupustodumim
(Autun) ; Ahssia (Alise), the last city of Gaul that resisted the. arms of Caesar; and
Partus Brivates (Brest), near the Promonlorium Gobmum (Cape St. Malo).

JEirlMteParUlorVK (l'lnfa)irashantbrthaPluUikaaaawaaap7Uaad,baforathalina«rChrM,lnM WMofMlBpgriaa^
ntil A. a 840, wfen tba Bai|wrer Jaliaa weal lato wint* qnartm thoc, and araolad a pakua for himaU:

The remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica. This contained
a great number of powerful states ; the HelvHii occupying that part of modern Swit-
zerland included between Locus Lemanus (the lake of Geneva) and Loots Bri^anli'
r^us (the lake of Constance) ; the Seifuani. possessing the present province of Franche
Tomte ; and the Bafaviy who inhabited Holland.-— Iliat part of Belgic Gaul adjoining
the Rhhie below Helvetia was called Germania, from the number of German tribes

p. I. EUROPE. ^MIDDLE COUNTRIES. 7

who had settled there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, the part nearer the
Bources of the Rhine, and Inferior or Lower, the part nearer ita mouth. The principal
of these tribes were rhe Treveri, Ubii, Menapii, and Nervii. In ihe country of the
Treveri waa the extensive forest Arduenna (Ardennes), traces of which still remain.

♦ 18. The principal mountains of Gaul were Cebenna (the Cevennes), in Langue-
doc; Voge9us (the Vauge), in Lorraine; and Alpt* (the Alps). — The Alps were
subdivided into Aipea Maritinutt joining the Etruac^an sea ; CotluB^ over which Han-
nibal is supposed to have passed ; Graces, so called from the passage of Hercules ;
Pennina, so called from the appearance of their tops (from pennay a wing) ; RhcBtiea,
joining Rhstia; Noriev, bordering Noricum; Pannonicm ; and Juliae, the eastern
extremity, terminating in the Sinus Flanatiau (Bay of Carncro), in Liburnia.

The chief rivers of Gaul were Hhenut (the Rhine); this river, near its mouth, at
present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the New Issel ; the
last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; the ancient mouth of
the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been choked up by some concussion of
natore not mentioned in history ; Ehodanua (the Rhone), joined by the Arar (Soone) ;
Gannmna (Garonne), which umted Mrith the Duraniun (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire),
joined by the Elaver (Allier) ; and Seonana (the Seine).

The principal islands on the coast of Gaul were UxantoB (Ushant) ; Vliarus (Oleron) ;
• Cawrfa (Jersey) ; Samia (Guernsey) ; and Riduna (Alderney) ; on the south coast
were the SloBthadn or Liguttides (nsula (isles of Hieras).

1 19. Th« foT^rnniKnt of ancfent Gaul, previous to the Roman InTaslon, was artotocratieal,
and vo ^reat wan ibeir haired of royalty, that those who were even tuapeeted of aiming at sove-
rciffn power, were Inaiantly pui to death. The prieeta and noblei, wbom they called Druids
aad knights, poeseMed the whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed as slaves ;
in most of the states an annual magistrate was elected with powers similar to those of tlic Ro-
■mn consul, but It was ordamed that both the magistrate and the electors should be of noble birth.--
la person, the Qfinls are said to have been generally falr-complexloned, with long and ruddy
hair, whence their country is sometimes can«'d Gallia C*imK«, or Hairv Gaul. In disposition
tbey are described as irascible, and of ungovernable fury when provoked ; their first onset waa
very impetuous, but if vicorously resisted they did not sustain the fight with equal steadineis.

^ 90. The history of Gallia before the invasion of the Romans is involved in oliscuriiy ; we
only know that it most have been very populous fi'om the numerous hordes who at different times
am^rated from Gaul in search of new settlements. They seised on the north of Italy, which
was from them called Cisalpine Oau I; they colonized part of Germany; tbey invaded Greece i
and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where, mingling with the Greeks, tliey 8e4z«d on a pro-
Vinee, from th«*nce called Galatin or Gallo>Grccia.— Another body of Gauls, under th« command
of Brennns, seised and burned Rome itself: and though they were subsequently routed by Camil-
las, tlw Roanana ever looked on the Gaula as their most formidable opponents, and designated a
Gallic war by the word TVaiailitf, implying that it was as dangerous as a civil war.

^ II. The alliance between the people of HassilisR (MaraeiUea) and the Romans furnished the
latter people with a pretext for Intermeddling in the affbirs of Gaul, which they eagerly embraced.
Tbe first nation whom tbey attacked was the Salyea, who had refused them a passage into Spain;
the Salyea were subdued bv Cains Bextius, who planted a colony called after his name. Aqua
Beztise; aliout four veara after, the greater part of Gallia Narbonensis was subdued by Quintua
Martitts R«!X, who founded the colony Narbo Martius, and made it the capital of the Roman
province — After the suhingation of OalliM Narbonensis, the Gauls remained unmoiesied until
the time nf Cvsar, who after innumerable difflcnlties conquered the entire country, and aanezad
k to the Roman dominions.

TtevRb ptnoa^f oppre— d bj the BMima govmnft, tlie Oatil* snder fli* awperow nada npM mJyntem h drIHaitiaa } Ibsf
at* pMticalariy soiicad Iv tiMir unci ie <|»q— dm and law. A curum ctretimataoeo of iIm Moda la wlitcli thaM atodioi wara
psnaed ia new Jail bf mauf hktuHum ; aa aoBBa] ceall la aloqoaaca took placa at LugdaaaB, aad llw vaoqaiahed «rara eiaa>
pillall»Uo(aB(tiMirowaeainpaaftion,aBdwritaaawontfaiMiBpnMaof tlWYkloniarataabawfa^lwd aad |>lai«ad iota dM
Atw. awTaim>^HhtBiwa»naelaii. Fur. llca. S vota. Il

^ 72, The country called V i n d e 1 i c i a was situated hetween the sources of the
Bhenmf (Rhine), and the Danubiuif or Jtter (Danube). Its chief town was Augusta
Vindelieorum (Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, pre-
sented by Melancthon to the Diet assembled there at the comroencement ol the
Reformation).— 'Between Vindelicia and the Alps was Rhjbtia, containing rather
more than the present territory of the Grisona. Its chief towns were Curia (Coire),
and Tridentum (Trent), where the last general council was assembled. — ^VindeUcia
and Rhsetia were originally colonized by the Tuscans, and for a long time bravely
maintained their independence. They were eventtAlly subdued during the reign ot
Augustus CfBsar, by Drusus the brother of Tiberius.

^ 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, irom which it is separated by the rrve
JEntu (Inn). Ita savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon the Roman terri
tories, and were, after a aevere strtiggle, reduced by Tiberius Caesar. The iron of
Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that country were highly valued.
—East of Noricum was Panxonia, also subdued by Tiberius. It wab divided into
Sujferior, the chief town of which was Vvuleihona (Vienna) ; and Inferior, whose
capital was Sirmiutn^ a town of great importance in the later ages of the empire.—
Norieimi is now called Austria, and Pimnonia. Hungary.

^ 24. Tbe boundaries of Illtbicum have not heen precisely ascertained ; it occu-

8 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHT.

pied the north-eastem shores of the Adriatic^ and was subdivided into the three
provinces of Japfdii^ Libumia, and Dalmatia. h included the modern piovinces,
Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — '1 he chief lowns were Salona, near Spftlatro, where
the emperor Dioclesian retired afier Jiis resignation oi the imperial power ; Epidaurut
or Dioclea (Ragusi Vecchio), and Raguta.

The Illyriana wnre inflimous for their pirary and th€ rnielty with which they treated their
captive* ; th<>y pnMened great nkill in •hip-building, and the light jfralleysofthe Liburniiinf con-
trlbnied not a little to Aug Ufnus'f victory ai Aciitim.— The Koroans drclarpd war H|rain«t the
Illyriana, in conccqiienceof the murder of their anibHttiRdort, wiio hwd been basely mnMacred by
1'euia, queen nfthnt country. The Illyrians were obligi'd to beg a peace on the moat humiliatinf
conditions, but having again attempted to recover their forin«*r ptiwer, they wern finally nubducd
by the prctor Anictua, who glew their kingGentius, and made the country a Roman provinca.

^ 25. MossiA lay between Mount Httmut (the Balkan) and the Danube, which after its
junction with the Savut was usually called Ister. It was divided into Superior^ the
present province of Servia, and Inferior, now cal'ed Bulgaria. Part of Mce.sia Supe-
rior was possessed by the Scordisei, a Thraciun tribe ; next to wluch was a district
called Dardania; that part of Mcesia Inferior near the mouth of the Danube was
called Ponlus, which is frequently confounded with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor.
— The principal cities in Mvenia Superior were Singidunum (Belgrade), at the conflu-
ence of the Save and Danube ; Niconolis, built by Trajan to commemorate his victory
over the Dacians; and Naisfutt (Nissa), the birthplace of Constantine the Great. — *
In Mfcfia Inferior Yfere Marcianopolig, the capital ; Tomij the place of Ovid's banish-
ment ; Odessus, south of Tomi, and JE^itsuty near which was the bridge built by
Darius in his expedition against the Scythians.

^ 86. Dacia lay between the Danube and the Carpates, or AJpet Basfanfir^ (Carpa-
thian or Krapack mountains); including the territory of the modern provinces. Tran-
sylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachm. The celebrated Hercynian Forest, Sylva Htrcynia
(cf. ^14) , stretched over the north and west part of it. Dacia was inhabited by two
Scythian tribes, the Daei and Gettr., who for a \<vng lime resisted every effort to deprive
them of their freedom ; they were at length subdued by Trajan.

After hafiig cooqvCTtd Ihc eoa; try, Tnjaa JoiiMd it to Maaia by a viMnlAceBt bridge Atcr (be Damih*. tnen oT wbid) alin
cxmL Hh Ncemor, Adriu, infloneed eitbsr hf Jcalooqr of hit pndec«nor'a Rlory, or Micvin^ i( niot* rxy edicnl to ceoinct Una
to MMcod Ihc boiradt of tbc anpire, broke down th* brtdcci aod IcA Dm« to id ht«.^Thi« cooDtry wat of eoDaidenble tmporl&oea
to tbe Roaaoa on acooant of iia fold and rilTor ninaa. la 1807, ao lataraalinc bobobm^ of Booaa wnUog waa foaad in mo of
tboaailMB. (Cf. P. IV. 1 1 18. a.)

A peopitt baa been fbond aiaoai ibe WallaebiaaB, that aovr ipMk a laaxvaf* f«ry tiaiilar to tbe Latia, and are tharelbre rappoaed
lo be deaeeoded fron Ibe Ronaa eoioaiala.— Mr. Brewer my be buad ao many woida eotaaaoo to tbe Lai ia aad Ibe Waihcbiaa,
tbat by aMaaa of (be Lalia be eovM eooYone on coinmoB mbjeda with a Wallachlaa Dterebaai al CoaalaaUaopla.— J. A'atAcr, Beai*
danee at CoartaaliaopU ia IS7, te. New Haven, 188a IC-Cfl WiOMt Joimay Ikw C^netaaHaople.

III. THE COUNTRIES UTCLUDED IN THE SOUTHERN DITISION OF EUROPE.

% 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with tbe most western
coimtry, which was Hispania. This name included the modern kingdoms of Spain
and Portugal. l*he country was also called Iberia, Hesperia. and ('o distinguish it
from Italy, sometimes termed Hesperia, from its western situation,) Hesperia Ultima.
The Romans at first divided it into Higpania Citerior, or Spain at the eastern t^ide of
the Ibenis, and Hispania Ulterior, at the western side; but by Augustus CaDsar, the
country was divided mto three provinces; Tarraconcfit, Bcsfiha, and Lusitania. Like
the provinces of Gaul, these were inhabited by several distinct tribes.

$ 28. Tarraconensis exceeded the othettwo provinces together, both in size and
importance. It extended from the Py/enees to the mouth of the Durius, on the Atlantic,
ana to the Orottpeda Mon» separating it from Bstica, on the Mediterranean ; and re-
ceived its name from its capital, Tarraco (Tarragona), in the district of the Cosetani.

The other principal towns were Saguntum, on the Mediterranean, whoso siege by
Hannibal caused tne second Punic war; some remains of this city still exist, attd are
called Murviedro, a corruption of Muri veleres (old wnllf) ; Carthago Nova (Carthagena),
built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also on the Mediterranean : in the interior,
north-east of the capital, Ilerda (Lerida) , the capital of the Ilergetes, where Caesar
defeated Pomney*» lieutenants, ^franius and Peireius ; Numantia, near the sources of
the Durius, whose inhabitants made a desperate resistance to the Roman invadens. and,
when unable to hold out longer, burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to
the conquerors; BilhUigf the birthplace of Martial, among the Cehiberi; Catarra
Augusta (Saragossa) , capital of the Edetani; Toletum (Toledo); Complutum (.Alcala).,
vndiKibora (Talavera) , in the same district ; Calagurris, in the territory of the Vasrones,
whose inhabitants sufiered dreadfully from famine in the Sertorian war, being reduced
to such straits, that the inhabitants (as Juvenal says) actutilly devoured each other.
Near the modem town of Segovia, retaining the name and site of Srgnvia among tbe
Arevaci, are the remains of a splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle (Oporto) , at
the mouth of the Durius, was also called Port us Gallorum, from some Gauls who
settled there, and hence the name of the present kingdom of Portugal. The north

p. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COTTNTRIBS. ITALIA. 9

of Tairaronensis waa pomeaeed by the CaiUahri^ a 6erce tribe, who for a lon^ time
resisted the utmost efTurta of the Romans ; tlieir territory is the modern provmce of
Biscay.

^ 29. The soathern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, was called
Belie a, from the river Bietis. Its chief towns were Cordufni (Cordova), at tirst
called Colonia Patricia, the birthplace ot the two Senecas, and the poet Lucan ; in
this town are the remains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Aimanzor ;
it is more than 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; tlie roof is richly ornamented, and supported
by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble: Hixpalis (Seville); Ilalica, the
native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet 8ilius Italicus ; Custulo, called also Paraasaiu,
betianse it was founded by a Phocian colony; all on the liaeiis.— The south-weaierii
extremity of Bcetica was possessed by a Phoenician colony, called the Basiuli Pceni, to
dL<iinguish them from the Libyan roeni, or Carlhaginians ; their cauiial was Gadcs
(Cadiz) , on an island at the mouth of the Bceiis: near it were the little island TarttS'
SU8, now part of the continent, and Jutumis Promontorium (Cape Trafalgar). — At
the entrance of the straits of Hercules or Gades, stood Carteiaj on mount Calpe, which
ia DOW called Gibraltar, a corruption of Gebel I'arik, i. e. the mountain of 'i'arik, the
first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla (on the opposite coast
of Africa) were named the pillars of Hercules^ and supposed to have been the bouiida-
Ties of thai heroes western conquests. North of this was Munda^ where Caesar fought
his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of Pompey.

Lusitania, which occupied the greatest part of tiie present kingdom of Portugal,
contained but few places of note ; the most remarkable were Augusta EmeriUi (Menda)
and Olisippo (Lisbon), said to have been founded by Ulvsses.

^ 30. '1 ne principal Spanish rivers were, Ibenis (fcbro) ; Tagua (Tajo) ; Durius
(Douro); Bcetis (Guadalquiver) ; A?ias (Guadiana). — The promontory at the north-
western extremity of the peninsula was named Artahmm or Celticum (Finisterre); that
at the south-western. Sacrum, because the chariot of the sun was supposed to rest there ;
it is now called Cape St. Vincent.

) 31. SpAJn was first made known m the ancients by the cnnqueutt of Hercules. In latrr times
lh«» Cirthaginianii became masters of the greater part of the country ; they were in ihfir turn
exielled by the Romani, who kept po^.^eHaion of the peninmila for several ct>ntnrios.— Diir-
ins the civil wars of Rome, Spain was frequently devastated by the conlendini; parties. Ilure
S«noriu4, after the death of Marias, assembled the fuptives of the popular pnriy, nnd for a long
lim<* resisted the arms of Svlla : here, Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey, made
a gallant stand against Julius Caesar ; and here, after the death of Pompey, his sons made a
fV-iiitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and avenge their father's misfortunes.— Upon'the
overthrow of thfl Roman empire, Spain was conquered by the Vandals, who gave to one of the
provinces the name Vandalusia, now corrupted into Andalusia.

ITALIA.

^ 32. Italy, Italia, has justly been denominated the garden of Europe both by
ancient and modern writers, from the beautv of its climate and the fertihty of its soil.
I'he Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unaltered ; on the north are
the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on the South the Sicilian strait, and
on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By the poets the country was called Saturnia,
Aiisonia, and (Enotria ; by the Greeks it was named Hesperia, because it lay to the
west of their country.

Italy baa always been subdivided Into a number of petty states, more or less independent of
each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two parts, denominated the northern and
»9utkem ; and as the chief city and capital of the country is of such celebrity, shall enter into a
more particular description of Rome ; adopting the following arrangement; I. The Geography
of the northern portion of Italy ; 3. The Geography of the southern portion; 3. The Topography
of the city of Rome.

4 33. (I) Geography of the NoHhem portion of Itma A. The principal ancient divi
sons of this part, were Gallia Cisalpina, Etniria, Uinbria, Picenum, and Latium.

Gallia Cisalpina, called also Togata, from the inhabitants adopting, after the
Social war, the toga, or distinctive dress of the Romans, kiy between the Alps and the
river Rubicon. It waa divided by the river Eridanus, or Padus, into Trnnspadana, at
the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the south ; these were subdivided inio
several smaller districts.

North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief town,
Auirrtsla Taurinorum, is now called Turin ; next to these were the Insubres, wh(jse
principnl towns were Mediolanum (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), on the river Ticiniis,
where Hannibal first defeated the Romans, after his passage over the Alps; the Ccno.
inauni. possessing the towns of Brixia (Brescia); Cremona; and Mantua, the birth-
place ot Virgfil; and the Euganei, whose chief towns were Tridentum (Trent); and
Vfrona, the binbplace of Catullus. — Next to these were the Vetieii and Carni ; ilu-ir
cliief towns viere Pa'amum (Padua), the birthplace of Livy, built by the Trojan Anio
nor, after the destruction of Troy; and AquiUiOf retaining its fonucr name but not

10 OLA9SIOAL GEOGRAPHY.

fonner ooiwequence ; it is celebrated for its desperate resistance to Attila king of the
Huns. Next to these was the province Hisiria, or Istria; chief town, Tergette
(Trieste).

South of the Po where the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua. (Genoa) ,
on the Sinus Ligustums (Gulf of Genoa) ; Forms HerculU Monad (Monaco), and
Nicaa (Nice); the territory of the Boii, containing Btmonia (Bologna); JStutina
(Modena), where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma^ and Placentia; and the
country of the Lingones, whose chief town was Ravenna, where the emperors of the west
held their court, when Rome was possessed by the barbarians.

% 34. Cisalpine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanitt (Mageiore) ; Benacus
(Di Gardi), and Lariiu, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from
the village Comum, near Pliny's villa.

The nvers of this province were the Eridanus or Padus (Po), called by Virgil the
king of rivers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several tributary streams,
especially the Ticinus (Tesino) and Mincitfs (Mincio), falls into the Adriatic; the
Alhegis (Adiffe), rising in the Rhstian Alps ; and the Rubicon (Rugone), deriving its
source from tne Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic.

) 35. Tbe InbabiUnta of Ctealpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the most hoitile to the
power of Rome; they Joined Hannibal with alacrity when he invaded Italy, and in the Social
war they were the moat inveterate of the allied tiaiet in their hoar 11 ity.— When the empire of
the weat fell before the northern tribea, this province was raized by the LonirobardI, from whom
the greater part of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into a number
of independent republics, which preserved some sparlcs of liberty, when freedom was banished
from the rest of Europe.

% 36. E tr uria extended alongthe coast of the lower or Tuscan sea, from the small
river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber.

The most remarkable towns and places in Etruria were : the town and port o{ Luna,
at the mouth of the river Macra ; .rt«s (Pisa); Florentia (Florence) : Porius Herculis
Lebumi (Leghorn); Pistoria, near which Catiline was defeated; Perusia, near the
hike Thrasymene, where Hannibal obtained his third victory over the Romans; Clusium^
the city of^Porsenna; VoUinii (Bolsena), where Sejanus, the in&mous minister of
Tiberius, was bom ; Falerii (Palari), near mount Soracte, the capital of the Fatisci,
memorable for the generous conduct of Camillus while besieging it; Veii, the ancient
rival of Rome, captured by Camillus after a sieee of ten years ; C<zre, or Agvlla (Cer
Veteri), whose inhabitants hospitably received the Vestal virgins, when they ned from
the Gauls, in reward for which they were made Roman citissens, but not allowed the
privilege of voting, whence, any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was
said to be enrolled among the Carites; Centum CeZte(Civita Vecchia), at the mouth of
the Tiber, the port of modem Rome.

^ 37. The principal rivers of Etraria were the Amus (Amo) , risine in the Apennines
and falling into the sea near Pisa ; and the Tiber , which issuing from the Umbrian
Apennines, and joined by the Nar (Nera) and Anio (Teverone) , running in a south-
westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome.

The Etrurians were called by the Greeks, 7)frrk«ni ; they are said to have come originally
fhim Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces of their eastern origin, to a very late
period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensiens of regal dignity, and many of theii
superstitious observances, for this peo|ile were reniarkaUy addicted to auguries and soothsaying.
They attained distinguished excellence in art (cf. P. I v. $ 100, 110>; inleresling monuments of
which still exist (cf. P. FV. ( 173).

^ 38. Umbria was situated east of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which
it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurus
(Metro) , where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero while advancing
to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief towns ; ./In'mzntim (Rimini) , the first
town taken by CoBsar, at the commencement of the civil war; Pesaurum (Pesaro);
Senna GalUca (Senieaelia), built by the Galli Senones ; Camerinum; SpoUlium (Spo-
letto), where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory at I'hrasymene.

The mcawry of thh rtpain it tflU prewffad la an iaaeriptioa orar one of tha gatca, tbanee called Porta di Fuga. ** Han alaa ■
a bcaatihl aqaedoet carried wenm a vallej, three huodred feet bi(h.» fT. FMt, p. 84S, •• cited P. IV. f 19a &

$39. P i ce num lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic. Its principal
towns were, Asculum vAscoH), the capital of the province, which must not be confound-
ed with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated ; Corfiniutn (San Ferino),
the chief town of the Peligni ; Sulmo, the birthplace of Ovid ; and Ancona, retaining its
ancient name, founded by a Grecian colony.

Clow to the haitor of Aaeooa h a beautind triumphal arch erected ia honor of lYijan ; the plllan ire oT Parian marUe, and lUII
retain their pure whttenca and ezqaiaile polish, aa if freth fixm tha workmen^ handi. The celebnted chapel of Loratte it near

South of Picenum and Umbria, were the territories of the Marsi and Sabini. The for
mer were a rude and warlike people ; their capital was Marnibium, on the Locus Fueinus.
This lake Julius Caesar vainly attempted to drain. It was afterwards partially effected
by Claudius Ctesar, who employed thirty thousand men for eleven years, in cutting a
passage for the waters through the mountains, from the lake to the river Liris ; when

P«I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 11

ereiy thing was prepared for letting ofi* the waters, he exhibited seTeral splendid naTal
games, showsp &c.; bat the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, being
neglected, was soon choked up, and the lake recovered ita ancient dimensions. — The
Sz^ine towns were Cures, whence the name Quiriies is by some derived (cf. ^ 53) ;
Reeite, near which Vespasian was bom ; Amitertiumt the birthplace of Sallusi ; Crus-
tuwterium^ and FidcTUB. Mona Sacer, whither (he plebeians ol Rome retired in then:
contest with the patricians, was in the territory of the Sabines. In these couniries were
the first enemies of the Romans, but about the time of Camilkis the several small states
in this part of Italy were subjugated.

^40. Latium, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of the Tuscan
sea, between the river Tiber and Liris ; it was called Latium, from lateo, to lie hid,
because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, when dethroned by Jupiter.

The chief town was Romb (see ^ 51 ss). Above ^ome on the 'liber, stood Tibur
(Tivoti), built b^ an Ai^ve colony, a favorite summer residence of the Roman
nobility, near which was Horace's favorite country seat (F. III. ^ 326) : south of Rome,
Tuseulum (Frescati), remarkable both in ancient and modem times, for the salubrity
of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it is said to have been built by Tele-
Konus. the son of Ulysses; near it was Cicero's celebrated Tusculan villa: east of
Tuscolum, Praneste (Palesirina), a place of great strength both by nature and art,
where the younger Marius perished in a subftrranean passage, while attempting to
escape, when the town was besieged by Sylla; south of^ Tusculum, Longa AVba^ the
parent of Rome, and near it the small towns Algidum, Poedum, and Gabii, betrayed to
the Romans by the well-known artifice of the younger Tarquin. — On the coast, at the
momb of the Tiber, stood 0$tia, the port of ancient Rome, baih by Ancus Martins;
south of this were Laurentum, Lavinium (built by ^neas and called after his wife La-
Tinia), and Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, where Camillus resided during his exile.
Soath of these were the territories of the Volsci, early opponents of the Romans ; their
chief cities were Antium, where there was a celebratea temple of Fortune ; Sucssa
Pometia, the capital of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Romans ; and Corioliy from
the capture of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus.

South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fisibled residence
of Circe ; Anxur (Terradna), on the Appian Way ; the town and promontory Caieta,
deriving its name from the nurse of ^neas, who was there interred ; FormuB, near
which Cicero was assassinated bv command of Antony ; and, at the mouth of the
Liris, Mintuma, near which are the Pontine or Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder
Marius endeavored to conceal himself when pursued by his enemies. The Pontine
Martke9 extended through a great part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have
been made to drain them. The exhalations from the stagnant water have always made
the surrounding countiy yery unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpmum,
the birthplace of Manus and Cicero, the rude soldier and the polished statesman ;
A^inum^ the birthplace of Juvenal ; and Sinuetsa, celebrated for its mineral waters,
oiupnally called Sinope.

7 41. The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio (Teverone); the AUiuy on the
banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaughter ; and the
Cremera, where the family of the Pabii, to the number of three hundred, were de-
stroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their own expense against the
Veientes ; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Liria (Garigliano), which divided
Latinm from Campania, frJIs into the Tuscan sea. — The prind]^ kkes were named
Lacos ABmlu9 (Solfatara), remarkable for its sulphurous exhalations, and the adjoin-
ing grove and oracle of Faunns ; Lacus Regillusi near which Posthumius defeated
the Latins, by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed ; and La-
coa AlbanMM, near which was Mount Aibanus where the solemn sacrifices called
Feris Latinae were celebrated.

The capital of Latiom, In the rei|^ of King Latinos, was Laarentam ; In the reign of JBneas,
Lavinium ; in the reifn of Ascanius, Longa Alba ; bat all these were eclipsed by the superior
graadenr of Boose. The several independent states were sabdaed by the Romans in the earlier
ages of the republic.

♦ 42. (2) Geogrofjfm of the Southern portion of Italia. The southern part of Italy
WBS named Magna Gr<Bcia, from the number ot Greek colonies that at different periods
sealed there. It was divided mto Campania,. Samnmm, Apulia, Calabria, Lucaiiia,
and Brattiom.

Campania, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extended along
the shores of the Tuscan sea, frt>m the river liris to the river Silarus, which diTided
it fitim Lncama.

The chief dty was Capua, so named from its founder Capys, celebrated for its nches
and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were enervated and corrupted.
North of it were Teanum, celebrated for the mineral waters in its vicinity, and VenO"
/ms», fiunous for olives. — South of Capua was CostZmam, where a garrison of Pre-
nestines, after having made a most galUnt reststanoe, and protracted the siege till
they had endured the utmost extremity of frmune, were at last compelled to surrender ;

12 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

next to this was Litemum, at the mouth of the little river Clanius, where Scipio Afiri-
canus for a long time lived in voluntary exile. — Farther south was Cuintc, touuded by
a colony from Chalcis in Eubcea, the residence of the celebrated Cumean fcihyi, and
near it the town and promontory il7/>fn«in, so named from Misenus, the trumpeter of
iEneas, who was buried thore. — iJelow ihe cape were BaicB^ laraous for its mineral
waters ; Puleoli (Puzzoli) , near which were the Phlugnei-campi, where Jupiter is said
to have vanquished the giants ; Cimtnerium, whose early inhabitants are said, by Ho-
mer, to have lived in cslvhs. After these we come to ParLheiutpe or Neapolis (Naples).
This beautiful ciiy was founded b^ a colony from Cums, and for a long time retaiined
the traces of a Grecian original ; it was called Farlhenope from one oi the ^Sirens said
to have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain Fansilypus (Pausilippo),
through which a subterranean passage has been cut, half a miie^in length and twenry-
two feet wide*; neither the time of making nor the maker is known ; a tomb, said lo
be (hat of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo ; here also are ruins called the vilia
of LucuUus. — At the southern extremity of the Siniitt Puteolanus (bay of Naples),
were Stahue, remarkable for its mmerad waters, and Surrentumt celebrated for its
wines; near the latter was the Promontorium Surrenfinum or Athenoium {Cnoo deWa
Minerva) ; east of Naples was Nolo, where Hannibal was first defeated, and where
Augustus died. In the south of Campania was Salemum (Sale^'no), the capital of the
Piccntini. — Between Naples and Moaut Vesuvius were Hereulafyum ana Pompeii,
destroyed by a tremendous eruption of thi|t volcano, A. D. 79.

Th« remaim of then town ware ■eeidentallf AueomnA in the b«gtBaiii« of tht I»al eealury, and the mmermu and vmluabla
mnaiM of aniiquity (its a a greater tight into the deoeatle habtb of the HomaM than eoald pref ioQtIy be obtained. **AboTC thiri j
•treeta of Pmniieii are now (ISliO) reitond to iifht The walla which fomed iu wuaaA aBchMraa have been tecogniKd ; a mat^
niftcent ain4>hilhMtre, atheaire, a fcium, ttie tanptc of Iila, that of Veooa, and a number of other buildinga, have brco deared."
Ilouaa, ahopa, ce1la>a, with all their variooa romitiuv, arc ft>und Jnat aa they wva when buried oader the volonic oiaa.— 4iee Iha
n and Foinpeil cited P. IV. ( 843. L-Cf. P. IU. } Sa.

^ 43. The principal Campanian rivers were the Vultumva (Vultumo) ; Sthethus
(Sebeto), now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the eruptions of
Mount Vesuvius ; and the Samva (Samo). — The principal lakes were the Lvcrinus,
which b^ a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with
a volcamc mountain, Monte Nuovo de Cinere, in the centre ; and the Avemus, near
which is a cave represented by Virgil as the entrance of the infernal regions. It was
said that no birds <M)uld pass over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations ;
whence its name, from a (not) and Spvti (a bird).

Upon the Invafion of the northern nations, Campania becnme the alternate prey of difTcrent
barharouf tribei ; at length it wne leized by the Saracens in the tenth century. Theae were ex>
pelled by the Normani, under Taacred, who founded the kingdom of the Two flicltiei.

$ 44. East of Latium and Campania was S a m n i u m, including the country of the
Hirpini. — The chief towns were SamniSf the capital ; Beneventum (Benevento), at
first called Maleventum, from the severity of the winds, but when the Romans sent
a colony here they changed the name, from motives of superstition ; near this town
Fyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come to the aBsistance of the Samnites, was totally
defeated by the Roman army, commanded by Curius Dentatus ; Caudium^ near which
are the CaudintB Furcula (Forchia d' Arpaia), a narrow and dangerous defile, in which
the Roman army, beine blocked up by the Samnite general, Pontius, were obliged to
surrender on disgraceful conditions; and Alfenia, remarkable for its manufactory
of earthenware. — Amoiig the Hirpini, were Eguotutieum, whose onpoeiical name is
celebrated by Horace ; Trixicum and Herdonia (Ordonia), on the borders of ApuHa. —
Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of Amsanctus, surrounded by hills, and re-
markable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs ; on a neighboring hill
stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, whence
the valley is now called Moffeta.

^ 45. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sabattut (Sabato), and Color (Ga-
lore), both tributary to the VulturnuB.

The Samnitei were descended from the same parent stock as the Bablnes, and for many years
eontrnded with the Romans for the empire of Italy ; at length, after a war of more than seventy
vears, during which the Romans were frequently reduced to great extremities, the fortune of
ilome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. S7S.

$46. Apulia, called also Daunia and Japygia, but now la Puglia, occupied the
greater part of the east of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Ta>
rentam.

Its chief towns : Tean»m, named Apulum to distinguish it fit>m a town of the same
name in Campania; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after his return fh)ra
the Trojan war ; north of Arpi is Mount Garganus (Saint Angelo) , in the spur of the
boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; east of Arpi were Uria^ which gave the
ancient name to the Sinut Urius, and Siptmtum (Manfreaonia, which gave to the Sinus
UriuB its modem name. Gulf of Manfi-edonia) ; on the borders of Samnium stood
Lveeriiy celebrated for its wool; Salapia (Salpe); and Asculuniy called Apulum, to
distinguish it from a town of the same name in Picenum.— Near the river Aufidua

p. !• SUROPK. BOVTHBRN C0VNTRIK8. ITALIA. 13

sfood the village of Cann^, where Hannibal almost annihilated the power of Rome ;
t^ugh the fields of Canne runs the small stream Vergellus, which is said to have
been so choked with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a
bridTO to Hannibal and his soldiers; Canusium, a Greek colony, where the remains of
the Roman army were received after their defeat. — Venusia (Venoea), near Mount
Vultur, the birthplace of Horace ; Bartum (Bari), where excellent fish were caught in
great abundance ; and Egnatiot on the Matinian shore, famous for bad water and good
honey.

The principtil Apulian rivers were Cerbdlus (Cerbaro), and Aufidut (O&nto), remark-
able for the rapidity of its waters ; both falling into the Adriatic.

^47. Calabria, called also Messapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming what is

called the heel of the boot. ^Its chief towns on the eastern or Adriatic side, were

Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for he excellent harbor, which was destroyed
m the fifteenth century; from ibis* the Italians who wished to pass into Greece gene-
rally sailed ; Hydrunium (Otranto), where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece :
Costrum Minerva (Castro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called
Cm Santa Maria de Luca. On the west aide of Calabria were Tarenium Crarento),
buut by the Spartan Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rvdia, the
birthplace of the poet Ennius ; and Callipolis (Callipoh), built on an island and joined
to the continent by a splendid causeway. *

The principal river of Calabria was the GaUsus (Galeso), which falls into the bay of
Tarentum.

^48. Lucaniala^ south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to the bay of
Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basilicata, from the empe-
ror Baml ; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra bv the Greek emperors, to
penpetoate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost.

The principal towns on the Mare Tyrrhenum (Tuscan sea), were, ZaiM, on the
nver of the same name fldwing into the Sinus Lau» (Gulf of Policastro) ; Byixentwn^
called by ihe Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; Velia or Elea^ the birthplace of Zeno,
the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, that built Marseilles
(c£. % 17) : in the vicinity of Elea, near Mount AUmmtu (Posti^lione, or Albumo),
Psstum^ called by the Greeks Poeidonia, celebrated in ancient tune for its roses, in
modem for its beautiful ruins.

Oa Iht iw»af ilwr^iii. cC EutUut, m dM P. IV.f 180. L-IFinelaiiiuMN, HkMra, ftc, vol. OL tt dtod P. IV. } 91. 4.-2>»>
EitfwMi, Lh Bntan de FMam, died P. IV. } S4S. 1.

In the interior of Lncania, were Atinunif on the Tenagrus ; Atemunit on the Silams ;
Grumgntuw^, on the Aciris ; and Lagaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the
framer of the Trojan horee."^On the shore of the Sinus Tarentinus (Tarentine bay),
were Metaponlum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and
the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heradea^ where the congress of
the Italo- Grecian states used to assemble ; Svbarist on a small peninsula, infiimous for
its luxury ; and Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their own
city was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The plains where these once flourishing
cities stood are now desolate : the rivera constantly overflow their banks, and leave
behind thexn muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few architectural re-
mains contribute to the melancholy of the scene, by recalhng to memory the days of
Ibrmer greatness.

The principal riven of Lucania were the Tanagrus (Negri), which, after sinking
in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and uniting with
the SHarus fiills into the Sinus Pitstanus (Gulf of Salerno) ; Melpus (Melfa), which
empties itself into the Laus Sinus (Gulf of Policastro, so called irom the number of
ruins on its shores) ; the Bradanusj dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into
the Tarentine bay ; the Aciris (Agri), and the Sybaris (Coscile), small streams on the
Tarentine coast.

% 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttia-tellus or
B rut tin m, but is now called Cahibria-ultra.— The principal cities of the Bruttvi, on
the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia^ where Alexander, kin^ of Epirus, who waged war in
Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died ; Consentia (Cosenza),
the capital of the Bruttii ; Terina^ on the Sinus TerintBus (Gulf of St. Euphemia) ;
and Vibo, or HippOy called by the Romans Valentia (Monte Leone). — On the Sicilian
htimt, were the town and promontory ScylhBum (Scylla), whose dangerous rocks gave
rise to the fable of the sea-monster ScyUa (cf. P. II. ^117); opposite to the celebrated
whirlpool Charybdis on the coast of Sicily : Ehegium (Reggio), so named by the Greeks,
because they behoved that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, and
broken olT here by some violent natural concussion ; it was founded by a colony firom
Chalcis, in the island of Euboea, and the surrounding country was celebrated for its
iertihtv ; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Leucopetrot so named from
the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dell* Amai.

On the Tarentine bay were PetUiay the city of Philoctetes * Crotona^ founded by
Achasans on their return from the Tr^an war, where Pythagoras established his

PLATE I.

t MWMilB.

PLAN OF ANCIENT ATHENS.
(AccordiDg to that givoD in Barthelemy'a Anachanit.)

atSvjiHwrC*

Af niftjik.

Tjt}4Di

PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME.
CAa publiflhed by the Society for the Diflusion of Deeful Knowledge.)

"14

p. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 15

cdebraled school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for their skill in athletic
ezerdsew, iliat it was commonly said *'the last of the Crotoniates is the first of the
Greeks"; south of this was the FromorUorium Lacinium, where a very celebrated
temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called the Lacinian goddess ; from the
remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Calonne ; Scylacaum
(Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon
(Costel Vetere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus ; soutli
of it, Neryx (Gerace), near the PronunUorium Zephyrium (Burzano), the capital of the
Locrtans, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy.— The cape at the
southern extremity of Italy was named Fromontorium Herculis, now Spartivento.

The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes (Crati), and Necstkes <Neti), which
receivea its name from the Achaean women having burned their husbands' ships to
prevent thdr proceeding further in search of a settlement.

$ SO. A great proportion of tbe Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, were generals, who,
on their reiarn from tbe Trojan wars, found ihat they had been forgotten by their subjects,
and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost continually
devastated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at differ<fnt tiroes, and under various
leaders, sought to obtain, in a foreign country, that tranquillity and liberty that had been denied
them at home.—Tbese different sutes were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an
annual congress similar to the Arophlctyonic council of Greece, assembled at Ueraclca, and
united the several communities in one great confederacy.

Sybaria seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war. It was destroyed
by the Jealousy of the people of Crotona ; the Sybarites did not yield to despair ; five times they
rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabitants, forced
to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thurium.— The Crotoniates did not long
preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their city, and
they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians.— To secure their superiority, the Locrians
entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means obtained considerable
influence In tbe south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder DIonyaius to secure to himself a part
of tbe country by building a wall from the Terincan gulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the in-
gratitude of the younger DIonystus, gave them a distaste for the connection.— After breaking
o^ their alliance with tbe Sicilians, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans; during the
war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity ;
but afterwards becoming Justly alarmed at the restless ambition lif their allies, they readily Joined
Hannibal.— It is remarkable, that in all the other Italo-Greclan states the people embraced the
Carthaginian side, while tbe nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians tbe division
of parties was directly the contrary.

The Tarentlnes ruled the shores of the Tarentlne bay, but being enervated by riches and
luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to
secure iheir city from the Romans. After the disgraceful tprmination of Pyrrhus's Italian
campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command
of Milo, who betrayed the city to the Romans.

After tbe termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the su-
periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private Jurisdiction, even to the latest periods
of the Roman empire.

^51. (3) The Topagravhy of Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in
the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one nu'le. In the time of
Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles m circuit. The wall built by
Betisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. — ^The
Gaies {Porta) of Rome were originally four ; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were
thirty-seven ; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most
noted; Porta Carmentaiis^ CoUina, Ttburtina, CalinunUanaf Zatina, Capena, Fla-
maiiat Ottiensis.

Fte a pte or iMicBl Bobs, n* ow nato I, tram which Ito raite Biy tan fh» podlfcn of inoy of the inpcK^

WPVt tSMBOHCBlL

^ 52. Thirty-one great Soadt centered in Rome. Some of the principal were Via
Sacra, Appia, JEmUia, Valeria, FUumnia, These public roads ''issumg from tbe
Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the fron-
tiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called
Mittucrium aureum(,Tae. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were
reckoned. '* This curious monument was discovered in 1823." ButWM Geogr. Class,
p. 39.)

** They nsDalty were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded
fai as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all
the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials ; the lowest,
stones, muted with cement, tUUumtn ; the middle, gravel or small stones, ruder^ to prepare a
level and anylelding surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consisted
of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially In the neighborhood of
dtles, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, margine$, protected by curb-stones, which defined
tbe extent of the central part, •zftr, for carriages. The latter was barrelled, that no water
might lie upon it."~**The public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones. They united
tbe subjftcis of tbe most disunt provinces by an easy intereoarse ; but their primary object had
been to ikeilitate the march of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence,
and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their
ext«a«ive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses were every where erected only
at tbe distance of five or six miles; each of them was eonstanily provided with forty horses,
and by the help of these relays, It was easy to travel a handled mUes in a day along the Roman

16 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHY.

roadi. The um of the pofltt was allowed to thote who claimed it by an imperial mandate ; bat
though originally intended for ibe public service, it was aometlmee ipdulg ed to the butinesa oi
conveniency of private citiseni."— Dr. Robinson noticed three Roman mile-stones on Ikis route
(in 1838} from Tyre lo Beirut in Syria; one of them, ** a large column with a Latin inscription
containing the names of 8eptimius Severus and Pertlnax." Traces still exist of a Roman
road leading firom Damascus to Petra, and thence even to Ailah. The most ancient and cele-
brated of all the Roman Vie was the Appian way, called tUgina Vharwrn, the Queen of Roads.
It was constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended
from Rome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium, 360 miles. At Sinuessa it
threw off a branch called the Domitian way, which ran along the coast to Baic, Neapolis, Her-
culaneuro, and Pompeii.

JV. Arficr, H'Mt <Sm gnwb eiwaiin d« BobmIim. Flu>. IT9S. S vAtai t.-'iTuffwaiC, oa Ow ortmt of taciaat RmM ud tbe gnad
ruds iMdiBf fraiB it, is tte Mtm. Jkiad. Aucr. nd. zn. p. IMl~& AtMrnon, BM. Bm. voL iiL p. 41S^ 432 ; vol. iL p. 56, v

dicdHn.

% 53. There were eight principal hridjgea over the Tiber, which flowed throagh the
city from the north ; Pons Milviut ; J^iust still standing ; Fahriciut ; CesUttt ; Pa-
latinus or SeruUoriut, some arches of it still remaining ; SuUkiua or ^milius ; Jani-
cularis, still existing ; TriumphaliM or Vatieanut.

Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or bills.
These were Mons PalatimUg CapUolinuMf EBquUinus, CcUiua, Aventinut, Quirinalia,
Viminalis.

The foundation or commencement of the city was made, according to the common aceoants,
on the Mow PaUtinM» or PaUuium. Here Romulua had his residence. Here the emperors
usually abode, and hence the term Palatinm, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely
dwelling. The hill first added was probably the QnirinaUtt on which it has been supposed was
a Sabine aettlement called Qnirium: tbii addition being made when the union was formed be-
tween the Remans and Sabinea, before the death of Romulus, and the Romans took the name
of fivirUet, The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this union.
Next was added the hill dtUus, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been planted.
The «(Afr four hills were successively added, at least before the close of the reign of Servius
Tulllus, sixth iKing of Rome. Two hills on the north of the Tiber were also connected with the
city. The Jankulum was fortified l>y Ancus Martins, fourth king of Rome, as a sort of out-post,
and Joined to the city by a bridge. The other, the Vaticanus, so called oerhaps from the predic-
tions uttered there by soothsayers, vatss, was added at a later period ; it was rather disliked by
the ancients, but is now the principal piece in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's palace, St.
Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican, library. A tsntk bill, ColUs kortulonm, called also
iHneiust was taken Into the city by Aurelian.

Oa the tidfl of tlMCafMWiiu bill lowanlatht Tiber waaOMTtoyttanJlMi. MamMmjt,(\nhi»PhMo».ofTruod.tAMf.rr •
4 180), *« of all Hat tnaMadoM praeipics, psiaMd in neh Ifvrifie colan tj Ssota, imimnm aUituduiit mapttha, only thirty too
of HttninaiitDowoverkxiklbeoaanUdatod dartof ucient tnnpln and lb* Menaalatwl fllttaof nodara bovda.*^— Tbe i^ wa
vitiM In If 0 by two Anafkaa lantlamen, eminent acbolan, one of wbcnn wrilea, H«n«r very caotkna aatimalei ire botb jodfei
Ibe orisiMl baigfat to bara taan aboat 80 fM, of wblcb Sboat twenty nny be fined op, Waving abool 60 br Ila preiMtf a](it^^

$ 54. Rome was originaUy divided into four districts. From the time of Augustus
there were fourteen. The last division is followed by roost topographers, and words
the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy ot notice in the citv. The
names of the districts were tt follows; 1. Porta Capena; 2. CtBlimotUium ; 3. fats and
Serafig or Moneta ; 4. Templum Pacts or Via Sacra ; 5. Esquilina cum turri f< coll*
Viminali; 6. AUa Semita ; 7. Via Lata ; 8. Forum Romanian ; 9. Circua Flaminius ;
10. Palatium; 11. Circus Maximus ; 12. Piscina PvJbHica; 13. AvenJtinus; 14. Trans
Tiberim. To describe only the most remarkable objects in each region or district would
trespass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some of,
them.

▲ tabnlar atataoMHl of tba o^aea todnded la (be fbotlaM r^gtoBi b giTCB te XtoHUlft lotkioUiei^ eh. U. a^

Sea Q. C. Mbt^ anAriieha Beeebmbonc der Stadt Bom. Altona, ITBI. 4. witb afravingk Tbe baaie, mainly, m ttM

•mncamant of Saxtoi Bafba and PnbUoi Victor witb tbe addiHoni of Naidtal and otbm. {OIL OrmoU Tbamonn, vola. S ami 4.V
Nardini^ Italian original waa pnblUMd aaair by JL Nibb^, Boma, 1820, 4 vola. & wllb pialaL-DeeeriiioQe dl RoaBS Aatiea fcrma
DOTaaento eon la Antoritn di Bart, MarUani, Onof. Amntnio^ ft& irilb plalae. Rom. lflB7. 8 vola. 4.~C. Ao, N nova dmcriBona
di Rflcna astica e modem. Bo^ ISBOl S vela. & witb plaleh— C. Anfon, blaaaawnlaand Corioiitica of Roma. OA 1821. Trand-
Into German by SidUv, Welm. I8BS. a^FonufC, Oeeerisione topografiadeUa utiabita di Roma. ed. by rboanM, 1808, witb JHalCi
Motm. Rom. 1884. 8 votaw 4.-AvfCii^ Tepognpby and Aatiqailiaa oT Roma. Load. I8SI. S vola. 8.-neortmf, Verti«ia 41 Roma
^PiaXmr, Bumm, Qtrkard, and AMaB, BeMbreibnag der Stadt Ron. Tabii«. and Sluttg. 1888-^. a vola. witb a BOdmil^ (or
Itambn- of platm)— #*. Ainm, Itar Italievm. Halle, 1886. 4 vob. a— -^ tbe feaDainiag moanmeola of aadeBt Bome^ cC P. IV.
(4 186, 188, 191, aJ6, 843. JIpiim in fbc MnatamUk CWKury. N. Tk. 18B7. S vola. 18.

$ 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of the peo-
ple, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi, Of the nineteen
which are mentioned, the Campus Martins was the largest and most famous. It was
near the Tiber ; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually Martitu^ as conse-
crated to Mars.^ It was orieinally the property of Tarqnin the Proud, and confiscated
after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded by several magnificent struc-
tures ; and porticos were erecteoT imder which the citizens could exercise in rainy
weather. It was also adorned with statues and arches. Comitia were held here ;
and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. III. ^ 259), constructed for the purpose.

^ 56. The main streets of the citv were termed viis. On each side were connected
blocks o^ houses and buildings ; these being separated by intervening streets and by

F. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 17

lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occu-
pied by bniloinffs and thus separated were called Vici; of these there were, it is said,
424. They had particular names; e. g. VicvsalbuStjugarius, lanarius, T&ertintu,
JuHonUt MinervcBf &c.

^ 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the
transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was probably trans-
acted in the same place, vet with the increase of wealth, it became convenient to
make a separation ; and the Fora v/ere divided into two sorts, Civilia and Venalia.
The Roman Fora were not like the ayophi of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong ;
the breadth not more than two- thirds of the length ; the difference between the length
and breadth of the chief Forum discovered at JPompeii is greater.

Until the time of Julius Caesar there was but one Forum of the first mentioned
class; that generally called Forum S^nnanuntf or Forum simply, by way of eminence.
This g;ave name to the 8th region (^ 54), and was between the CapitoUne and Palatine
hills ; it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by Tarquinius
Priscus, with porticos, shops, and other buildings. On the public buildings around
the Forum great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments, so that it
presented a very splendid and miposing spectacle : here were the BasiliaBf CuritB,
and Tahularia ; temples, prisons, and pubhc granaries : here too were placed nume-
rous statues (cf P. IV. % 182. 2), with other monimients. In the centre of the Forum
was the place caljed the Curtian Lake, where Curlius is said to have plunged into a
mysterious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side
were the elevated seats (or suggettux, a sort of pulpits), from which magistrates and
orators addressed the people ; usually called the Soatra, becatise adorned with the
beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the
part of the Forum called the Comitiom, where some of the legislative assemblies were
held, particularly the Comitia Curiata. In or near the Comitium was the Puieal
Attn ; 9l puieal was a little space surrounded by a wall in the form of a square, and
roofed over : such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck
with lightning. Not far from the Puteal Attii was the rrsetor's Tribunal^ for hold-
ing courts, ^liere was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, ' another structure
marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal LiboniSf near which usurers and
bankers were accustomed to meet {lior. Sat. ii. vi. 35). The miUianvm in the Forum
has already been mentioned (^ 52).

BetMea this anetent Foram, there were four others built by different eraperon, and designed
fikr civil pniposea ; the Forum Jviiva, built by Julius Cesar, with spoils taken in the Gallic war;
the Arum J9u£usH^ by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the Icings of Latinm on one side and
the kings of Rome on tlie other ; the Forum ^ervta, begun by Domitian and finished by Nerva,
having statues of ali the emperors; and the Forum TVajant, by Trajan, the most splendid of all.

The Fora Venalia were fourteen in number ; among them the Forctm Boarium, ox
and cow market, adorned with a brazen bull; Puean'ttia, fish market; OlUorium^
▼eeetable market ; Suarium^ swine market, &c.

% 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belones to the Capitolium,
The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifices in the city. It
was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards fix)m time to time enlarged
and embellished. Its gates were brass, and it was adorned with costly gilding %
hence the epithets aurea and fulsen»y applied to it. It was on the Capitoline hill, m
the highest part of the city, ana was sometimes called arx. The ascent from the
forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square, extending about 200
feet on each side. Its front was decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides
with two.— Three temples were included in this structure ; that of Jupiter Capitolinua
in the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The
Capitol also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or
cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the Capitol was also
the astflum, or place of refuge.

This celebrated nmcture was destroyed, or nearly so, by fire, three times; first, in the Mariaa
war, B. C. 83. hot rebuilt by Sylla ; secondly, in the Vitellian war, A. B. 70, and rebuilt by Ves-
pasian; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Domitian
with greater magnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain ; respecting which there
kas been much dtseussion.

a« Antt^ Diet of Aaaqaitia, ait CspMtum, and werin Ibm diML

% 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in-
law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor, or, as its name imports, to all th§
god$ ivarrtotf Bcuv). It is circular in form, and said to be 150 feet high, and of about
the same breadth vtrithin the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside
are either solid marble or incrusted. ^ The front on the outside vras covered with
brazen plates gilt, and the top with silver plates ; but now it is covered with lead.
The gate was of brass, of extraordinarjr size and work. It has no windows, but only
an opening in the top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof is
curiously vauhed, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strengths
3 b3

18 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

** The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circum-
ference, and thirty-nine feet in neight, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental
gramte, having bases and capitals of white marble. The Pantheon is one of the
most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Rotunda^
having been consecraied by Pope Boniface 4th, A. D. G07, to the Virgin Mary and
aU the SaifUs,

Dr. jfdaim in his account of the Pantheon, sayf, "they used to ascend to it by IS stpps, bnt
now they fo down as many." Oo this point the gentleman mentioned in ( 53, writes, **th«
statement that it was oriffioally entered by $even steps is doubtless correct. At present one
aseend$ tvo steps to enter ft. The statement of twelvt atef§ of descent can only have been true
four centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleaused. This look place
under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in 1431."— For a view of the Pantheon, see Plate III.

^ 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. III. ^ 203), which
cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly as serving
for the public treatury; perhaps thus used because one of the strongest places in the
city ; although some ascribed U to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn,
fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records,
among them the Libri Elephanlini, or ivory tablets containing lists of the tribes.

The temple of Janua was built, or finished at least, by Numa; a square edifice,
with two gates of brass, one on each aide ; which were to be kept open in time ox
war, and shut in time of peace.

Bo continuallv was the city engaged In wars, that the r"tes of Janns were seldom shut ; flrst,
in the reign of Nunia; secondly, at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 341 ; three times in the
reign of Augustus; the last time near the epoch or Christ's birth ; and three times afterwards,
once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350. The
gates were opened with formal ceremony (^ior. JEu. vil. 707).— For a view of the temple of Ja-
nus, see Plate VII.

SnnCa Grote, 8ar b dAton da tMDpl* d* JuiH, in ttw Mmn. dead. hmr. fol. lUx. p.S8i.

The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library,
(P. IV. ^ 126). — The temple of Vefla yet exists in a small circular church, on the side
of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber.— Besides these, we may name the temple of
Concord ; of the goddess of Feace {Pad atema) ; of Castor and PoUux; of Valor ,
built by Marcellus.

The Romans were accustomed, Hke othor ancient nations, to consecrate groves
and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves {ludi are enumerated, chiefly
within the city of Rome.

^61. The CuruB were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appropriated,
some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of
the priests and religious orders for the regulation of relin;ious rites. To the former
class the Senacvla seem to have belonged. The following were among the Curiae ;
viz. Curia RomanOt Vetu», HottUia^ vaUentis^ Pompeii, &>c.

Tha tonn Curia, u dedfVitiiKC an adiOee or apariiiMiit, wmm to Ium Imb ericiimilf applied to flta kalh or plaen wfwr* ttm
eiUaoMor tha iwpwti** Cwim (cL P. IIL ( 219 •. f 231) aaMmbted for nli(toai aad oltav purpona; Mcb oTtba tbifty had ila earn-
moD haU or plaea of Baating.

The BasilirtB were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate,
and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers
also had rooms for transacting their business. I'here* were fourteen (according to
some, twenty or twenty-one) of these buildings; among them. Basilica vefut, Con^
staniiniana, Siciniana, Julia, dtc. — ^Both the Basiiics and the Curias were chiefly
around the Forum.

It ahoald be leinarfcad that the larm BtuWta wm applied to mnof ot tha aneiaat CbrwHan eha re hea, bccwm ther w much
rawmblcd (ha JfoiOkn Joat deicribad. The aartlaat churehw bearioc thh name wen eractad aiidar CoaalaatiM. He gava hia owa
piUaee on the Coelian hlU to eonrtniet on ila aitt a ebureh, whida ia recoguhad aa Oia moat aodeot Chrbtiaa Baailica. Next was
that of 8t roier an tha Valieaa hill, arertad A. D. S24, oo the tile and with tha mina of tha tomplaa of Apolle and Man { Itatood
aboot twelve caotariea, and ma Uwn polled down bj Pope Joliaa 2d, aad on ita aito baa ariam tha modem cfauRb of ttw oudo mmb.
.-Ou the otnKtnn of Urn early CbriatiaB ehorahea, an L. CotemoM, Ajitiquitiei of the Chrntiaa Chorch. And. 1841. 6. cbap^ iv.

^ 62. The Circi were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to
fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right
angles with the sides, and the other curved, ana so forming nearly the shape of an
ox-bow. A wall e.xtended quite round, with ranges of seats for the spectators. There
were eight of these buildings, besides the Circus Maximus, described in another place»
situateain the vicinity of the Forum. For an account of these, see P. III. $ 232.

The Stadia were structures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, but
less in size and cost (cf. P. IV. ^ 23(i.)^Hippodromi were of the same character, and
seem to have been sometimes built for private use.

^ 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the purpose
of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the former use were
termed theatra (cf. P. III. ^ 238). The first, permanent, was that erected by Pom-
pey, of hewn stone, capable of accomodating 40,000 persons ; near this, in tne vid-
niiy of the river, were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbus ; hence the

211

F« I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOORAFHT OF ROUE. 10

phrase applied to them, trh theatra.^'The etnictures designed for the gladiatorial shows
were termed Amphitkeatra (P. HI. ^ 239), of which the most remarkable was the
Coliseumy atiil remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — The Odea were buildings circular
in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars, and statues, wh^re trials of
musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary composiiions were exhibited,
after the manner of the Greeks (P. IV. ^ 65). Those established by Domitian* and
Trajan were the most celebrated. ,

^ 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing {balnea) were very
numerous ; such as were of a more public character were called Ikemue. In the time
of the republic, the baths were usually cold. Mscetias is said to have been the first
to erect warm and hot ones for public use. I'hey were then called tAemtiS, and
placed under the direction of the eediles, Agrippa, while he was aedile, increased the
number of thermas to 170, and in the course of two centuries there were no less than
800 in imperial Home. The ikemuB Diocletiani were especially distinguished for their
extent and magnificence (cf. P. IV. $ 241. h). Those of Nero, Titus, Domitian, and
especially Caracalla, were also of celebrated splendor.

^ 65. The name of Ludi or schools was given to those structures in which the
various athletic exercises were taught and practiced ; those most frequently mentioned
are the Ludiut Magnutt SatutinuSf Daciaut and jEmiliu». There were also several
structures tor exhioiting naval engagements, called iVaumocAuB ; ob Naumachia Au-
g«j»/i, Domitiani. (Cf. P. III. ^ 233.)

Finally, there were large edifices sacred to the nymphs, and called Nymphaa; one
particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains and water-falls, and was adorned
with numerous statues of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. II. ^ 101.

^ 66. The Porticos or Piazzas (jwrticMa) were very numerous. These were covered
colonnades, adorned with statues, and designed as places for meeting and walking for

Eleasure. They were sometimes separate structures ; sometimes connected with other
irge buildings, such as basilicae, theatres, and the like. The most splendid was that
of Apollo's temple, on Mount Palatine ; and the largest, the one called MUliaria or
Milliarensis (i. e. of the 1000 columns). Courts were sometimes held in porticos ;
and goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. Cf. P. I V. $ 237.

The city was adorned with Triumphal arches {arcus triumphales), to the number of
36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (P. IV. ^ 188). Some of them
were very magnificent ; as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, Septimius Severus,
and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and of*^ a square figure, with a
lai^e arched gate in the middle, and a small one at the sides.

?C7. There were single pillars or columns, columius, aUo erected to commemorate
particular victories, e. g. those of Dtiillius, Trajnn, and Antoninus. Ruins of the
first, as has been supposed, were discovered in 15fi0 (cf. P. IV. ^ 133. 1). The last
two are still standing, and are reckoned among the most precious remains of anti
quiiy (cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2).— With great labor, obelisks were removed from Egypt,
of which those still existing, having been conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula, and
Constantius the second, are the most remarkable.

Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the temples,' but
al5o in many public places, in and upon large edifices. More than eighty of a colossal
size are mcntiAied.

There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, trmaa. These were trunks
of marble, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoib taken from the enemy,
especially the weapons of war. There are two trunks of^ marble decorated like tro-
plues still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have been erected by Marius for his
victories over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri.

% 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, gquaductuB, should
be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant supply of water,
and great expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. There were H of
the lar^rsort, besides others of less importance; the -Aqua Appia, Marcia, Vtrgf*,
Claudia, Seplimia, and Ahietina, are the most known. The smaller reservoirs (Jacus)
were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work.

Some of the aqueducts bron^ht water more than 60 mile*, throagh rocks and monntains,
and over valleys, •upported on archej, •ometlmes above 100 feet high. The care of theie origi-
nally belonfted to the Kdiles ; under the emperors, particular officers were appointed for it, called
curaUrts aquarum.

JL Ainfft'.ne Iquedncfibai TCterk Home IUhd. 1690. 4.-%r. Rmd^tU French TranrfatioB of Froatinn on tlw Aqoedoeto e(
•oM. CL P. V. 1 4a\^F. B. Unotr, The Cioiob Aquedoct ; wifh an Aeeoont oT ifanlUur Warin Aaelort ud Modem. If. T. IB4S.

The Cleettm were aleo works of threat coet and of very durable stmeture. They were a tort of
•ewert or drains, some of them very large, passing under the whole city, and discharging its
various Impurllies into the IMber. Many private houses stood directly upon the cloac». These
were under the charge of officers styled curators* doaearwai. The principal was the Cloauk
Maxima, buili by Tarqnintns Priscus, cleansed and repaired by M. Agrippa | it was 10 feet broad
and 30 feet big b, formed of blocks of bewn stone. The Pantheon ($ 50) was over it.

8m »ii0ff nict.or AfdiilKtaT^cHttl P. IV. ^ C38. S^mdiuht't HbL QfRome, Ei^ TftvL FhiL ISSSw ?ol. L p. 29BL

^ 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected (cf. P. III.

<»V CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

J 341). We may name here particularly the Matuoleum of Auffuatua, of a pyramiilical
form, 385 fieei high, with two obelisks standing near it; the Moles Hadriani; and th6
Tonib or Pyramid of Cestius (cf. P. IV. ^ 226, P. III. ^ 187. 4).

^ 70. Th^ number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodosiua, to
48,382, including the domus and the intulm ; the former of whicn classes comprised,
according to Gibbon, the ** great houses," and the latter the ** plebeian habitations" (cf.
P. III. ^ 325). Among, these buildings were some of great splendor, partly of marble,
and adorned with statues and colonnades.

I. ThamoreedebnM ww« thepAkeMof JuHoiCntr.&UiBiim, Jaiil«yerw,CieBro,aiid Aqpiitm, tbe Rdden booKoriVara,
th* imlMc of Lidniw Cimmm, Iqaiiln, Cctala, iBiDfliin SeianH, Tnjftn, Hadriu, fee— ^« Tto Im^trtal pahec (TUoKum) ww
llMiiMatdiKlinfaMwd. It wu IwiU by Aogittw apen IIm PkUtiiw hUl, aad gaw bmm l» Ih* teath rafioB of tbe city. Tb» fraat
wuoDtbeVbSMim.aadbdbriiti'eraptaalcdMlHk Wittio ttw iwlaca lay lb* tenpi* of Vote, «■<! alae Itetof Apollo, whkk
▲ofiNtuiciidetTendtonakatUchwrieinploiBRoino. Tbo Kweeodlag empflron ntaBdod ud boutiiM ibii polic*. Norelwal
ft. but nboilt it of vuh exteat Ifaot It not only enbnood ill the Palatiso bill, but aJto tha plaio brtweca tbat awl the Coliaa and
EaqQiliae, and eren a part of thew biUs, In ib limits. He omameated it m ricbly with preeioitt itoiMft, gold, Mlver, HatuM, paiot-
iBga, and ti«Hiifa of every deecriptloB, that it raeciTed tbe eame of donna aurta. The following amperon itripped it of ita ona.
menfe ; Veipaiian and Tltw earned MMue paili of It to fa« palled down, nomitiaa afterwards deilroyed (he main bnlHiog. In the
reifn of CooioodDa, a fraal part of it was bnmt ; bat it was rastored by him and bii luceeesoii. Id the time of Tboodorie it oeeded
■till farther vepaira ; bat this hagc cdJflee aubsaqoeatly became a rntn, and oo its site now stand tbolteaeaa palaca and ipivdma, aad
tbe Villa Spada.*

Si Belbn the conflagratioa of llin city onder N«o^ the atreaiB were narrow and in«snlar, and fha ivtvaio booses wore iaeaB^
Bodioua, and aoma even daogenoa from their imporfeet arehitaetora and the baight of three lofty sloriaa In the time of NetOi
Boio than two4fairds of the city was burnt Of the ibarteon dhtrieis, only Ibor reaainsd entire. The city wa* reboilt with moro
Rgalarity, with streets broader and less crooked (ct 21k. Ann. sv. 43} ; the areas lor hooaae were mesMund oat, and tlta height
restricted to setenty feet.

^ 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome w(*re so extennive that itn neighborhood was ■Imost one
immense villaire; but at prefpnt, the vicinity of Rome called Campa^gita di Roma, Is a complete
desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the ancient CainpuB Martius. The accumulation of ruins
has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from what has been said respecting the
entrance of the Pantheon ($90), and the height of the Tarpeian rock ($53).

For notices of Modem Borne, see Pintiuti, Veduta di Roma, 9 toIs. foL (Of. F. IV. ( 243. t y—Rotn* in Ms mtutKnih Catttrf.
^W. FiO, as cited P. IV. { 188. t.—Bnej/dop. Jinmioana, uoJer Hod. Sonu, and under TVsosto m /(oly ; and Ow toorb thus
«iled.

THRACIA.

^ 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Europe (cf.
$ 27) ; and we mi^ht include the whole under the term Grcscia, taken in a ver/ com-
prehensive sense, m which it has sometimes been used. For it has been made to cover
not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but also Epirus, Thessalia, Macedonia,
and even Thracia. The victories of Philip having procured him a vote in the Amphic-
tyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked
amono; the Greciaii states. The valor and policy of the Epirote kings procured the
same honor for Epirus not lon^ after; and finally, Thrace was raised to the same dig-
nity» when it became the habitation of -the Roman emperors. But Greecia is rarely
used in so large a sense : and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and
include the other countries under Gracia.

Thracia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which separated
it fi'om Mcesia; on the east by the Euzine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, and Hellespont,
which divided it from Asia ; on the south by the .^ean sea ; and on the west by the
river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In consequence of the conquests of Philip,
the river Nessus became the mutual boundary of Tnrace and Macedon, the interme-
diate district being annexed to the latter coimtry.— The peninsula contained between
the Bay of Melas and the Hellespont was called ThracuB Cher9one$u$ ; celebrated in
the wars between Philip and the Athenians.

^ 73. The capital of Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was Bytantivm,
or Constantinopolis, built on the north-eastern extremity of the Chersonese, called from
its beauty Chrysoccras, or the golden horn. By whom this city was founded is a mat-
ter of dispute ; but it was greatly enlai^fed ana beautified by Constantine the Great,
who, in tne fouirh century of the Chnstian era, transferred the seat of government
hither from Rome. On the division of the Roman empire, this city became the capital
of the Greek or eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from
the vices of the inhabitants, and the imbecility of their rulers, it was captured by the
Turks on the 29th of May, A. D. 1453.

On the tapopaphy of Bynflmn and tbe chaa|es made by Coasbmtine, see Duemgt, Hiator. Bysatina. Fv. 1(M0. fbl— O. Co>
flNNm, De Aatlqatetthns Conslanttnop. Fhr. I8S5.— y|m. Amdurt, Imper. Orient, sen AntiqaitatesComftaatinofpoliianaBu Par. 171 1.
fl vols. fcl.->Tbese works are included in the Cerput ofSfmntim BUlorv, noticed P V. ( 888 a — Cf. OAton, eh. zrii.-Janua
IWfcmraif. CoHlaatinDpIe, aadent aad aaddam.— Load. 17BT. 4. Noith Amnr. Xm. 18Bi tol. or 7th of New Seriea, p. 4S&

The Other principal towns were, Salmydcssug (Midiieh), celebrated for shipwrecks ;
T^vftta, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni, who colonized Bithynia in
Aaui Minor; ApoUonia, called alterwards iStiMpoZia (SizeboU), and Metembr^a, built by

r. I. EUROPE. 8017THERN GOVNTRilJfl. ORJECIA. 21

aeolony ofMegBrenffians; all on the Eiixine sea. — Selwnibria (Selibria), and Pertnthu$,
or HeraeUa (Erekli), on the Propontitf. — Callipolis (Gallipoli), at the junction of the
Propontis and Hellespont ; the smatl towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the bttlo
nrer JEgoB Foiamos joins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in wrkich Lysander de-
stroyed the nayai power of the Athenians; and Seatos (Zennnie), where Aerxes built
hb bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos on the Asiatic side are
also celebrated for the loves of Hero and Leander.

Ttepoiribaityaf flwiBDligf MroM ibe HdlMpont wu for a long Una doabtad, brt tt wm porfomcd bjr fta* tete Lord BynM.—
09 Iha dooiila ben allofad to, M Ik la JVbuu, ud JToAudtf, H cited P. V. 4 49. 4.

On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melatj that empties itself into it, were
Cttrdioj destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants for a new town ; Lyaimachia,
that he had built a fittie ferther south ; and Ewti, which was burned by its governor,
Boges. — ^In the interior were TrajanopolU, built by Trajan ; and Adrianopolu, its suc-
cessful rival, built by Adrian, ana now the second city of the Turkish empire. — At the
east mouth of the Hebrus, stood JEnos^ said to have been founded by .£neas, near the
teiritory of the Cicones; on the west side, Doriscust where Xerxes reviewed his im-
mense armament after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu-

erofls as completely to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At th§ mouth of the Nes-
BUS was Ahdera, the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the
stables of Dioraede, who is said to have fed his horses on human fiesh.

1 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (M aritza), celebrated for the
clearness and rapidity of its waters; Nessus (Nissar), and Strytnon (Jamboli.)— The
piiocipal mountams were Mount H<Bmu»y extending from the Euxine sea in a western
direcuon between Mcesia and Thrace ; Bhodope, extending from the Euxine sea to the
fioorces of the Nessua ; and Fangaust extending thence to the north of Macedon. It
was on the Pang<Eua that the wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have
been performed (P. V. \ 46). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas,
ap(»tMich to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages,
which were defended by walls. — The principal seas and bays adjoining this extensive
maritime coufltry were, jPonttu Euxitnu^ Bosphorus Thraciua^ Propontis, Hellesponttu,
Melanis Sinus (Gulf of Saros), and StryTnonicus Sinus (Gulf of Contessa).

9 75. Thrace was anciently posBeased by several Independent tribes ; one of these, the DoUnei^
being hard preseed by the MsyntkU their neighbors, sent to Delphi* to consult the oracle about
the event or the war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the person who should
first invite tbem lo his bouse. While passing through Athens they were hospiubly entertained
1^ MUtlades, the son of Cypselns; they ironaediately requested him to accompany tbem to the
ClKrsoBesas, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, accepted the invitation.— On
bis arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians were soon after defeated. He
fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous
rviga bequeathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras.— Stesagoras dying after a short reign,
hto brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratide as his successor. He had not
reigned long, when Darius, king of Persia, sent a fleet of PhcBniclans against the Chersonese,
and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to Athens.— The Chersonese, aAer
the defeat of the Persians, was principally possessed by the Athenians, who colonised all the
coast. The interior of Thrace remained subject to the native princes, until the whole eoantry
was anited to Maeedon by Philip and Alexander.

ORJECIA.

76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already remarked
($72), imder GsjBCiA,uBdng this name in what is commonly considered its most
comprehensive sense (cf. P. III. ( 2). The extensive region thus included in Graecia
presents four general divisions, which are obviotisly suggested by the natural face of
the country. The Ist is that part which lies north of the chain of mountains called
Cambunii^ which are connected by the Stymphiei Monies with the Aero Ceraunii . the
2d is the part between the Cambunii on the north, and another Ime of highlands and
mountains on the south, which may be traced from the Sinus MalUicus on the east, to
the Sinus Ambracins on the west ; in its eastern extremity it forms the pass of Ther-
mopyhs, and the cham is in this portion of it called CEta ; as it stretches back in a
northerly and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus; this sends down a spur from
the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Ambradus, where it forms another pass
corresponding to that of Thermopyle on the east : the 3d is the part between the
mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, Sinus Co-
rinikiaeus and Sinus Saronicus : and the 4th is the peninsula connected to the main
by that isthmus. The first is Macedonia ; the second^ Epirus and Thessaiia ; the
third, Hellas; the fourth, Peloponnesus.

% 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural divisions above
described, was bounded W. iydie Mare Hadriaticum; N. by lUyricum and Mce-
»ia; E. by Thracia, from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nes-
tus flowing from Rhodope ; S. by the MeiBMm Mare, the Cambunii Monies and the
other mountams forming the chain aireaoy meniic'ed, which terminates in the Aero
Ceraunii on the western extremity.

92 CLASSICAL. OEOORAPHT.

In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. Hmm
and M t. Rkodope^ meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its north in a ain^ie
chain; this was called Orbelua Menu ; a spur from Orbelus will be noticed ninnuig
down south through Macedonia, and forming a connection with the Stymohai, or Mons
Stymjpha, already named, between the CanZunii and Aero CerauniL The waters east
of this spur flow to the iBgean ; those west of it, to the Hadriatic.

^ 78. The principal river of the west was the Drilo (Drino), which runs through
Lake Lyehnidust and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called
Nymphaum Fromonlorium. — One of the most important places in this western por«
tion was ApoUonia, on the hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Roman age of Greek
literature (P. V. ^ 9) for its cultivation, and said to be the place where Aug[ustua ac-
quired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. Another place is worthy
of notice, Emdamnu$^ further north, called Dyrrachium by the Romans, the place
where travelers from Italy to Greece ^cneraUy landed. This portion, west ot the
spur, was taken from lUyncum by Philip {RoUin^ B. 14. ^ 1).

% 79. The country east of the spur is principaU]r champaign. We notice three most
considerable rivers; the Haliacnum (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to
the SinuB Themunttus (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Salonichi) ; the Axiut (Vardan), rising
in the heights between Macedonia and Mcesia, and running S. to the head of the same
gulf, receiving on its way many tributarfes, and uniting with the Eri^on on the west
Before its discharge ; the Strynum, rising in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinug
StiynumicMM (Gulf of Contessa}.— Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the
pemnsula sometimes called ChaUidice^ and presenting pecuuar features, having a
cluster of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two
bays, the Toronaiau (G. of Cassandra), and the Singeticus (G. of Monte Sancto). The
western of these smaller peninsulas was FaUene or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the
battle between Jupiter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151); the eastern was marked by Mt.
AthM, extending several leagues upon and projecting into the sea, and was celebrated
for a canal said to be cut across its neck by Aerxes to avoid the passage around Mt.
Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius. *

^ 80. This pornon of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which are
not important, even if thev could be accurately traced. Paonia was m the nonhem
part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called EcUmis. The southern
part on the west of the Sinus Thermaicus was Pieria, Emathia was north of Pieria,
and of the same gulf.

Emathia was the most important province. In this was situated Edesta, the ori-
ginal capital of the country, on the Erigon ; also PeZZa, on the Lydias, subsequently
made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on the Sinus Ther-
maicus, was ThemuB, afterwards called Theggalonieai the place of Cicero's banishment,
and the capital of the country as a Roman province.

At TlMMlonkB tiMra itai nmin ao aneiait ftnwiure which ta mppoMd by mm to tav* bMB t CkUriaii tampto (eC P. 0.
( 1». I) ; 1 Tie* or it u fivan in oar PbiB V.

On the peninsula which has been described (^ 79) were Potidaaj or Cassandria, on the
neck of Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under kingCassander; OlynUiuSt memorable
for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery ; CkaJeisy which
gave name to the region; Stagira (Stagros), on the eastern coast, the birthplace of Aris-
totle.—In Pieria, one of the most memorable places was Pydna (Kitra), where Olym-
pias was murdered by Cassander, and where the Roman general Paulus iBmilius made
a prisoner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B.C. 168. North of this, on the
coast, was MeUwnet at the seige of which Philip lost his riffht eye.— In Edonis were
two important towns ; AmpkvpoliBt originally on an islana in the river Strymon, an
Athenian colony; PhUipptt further east, near Mons Pangsus, a branch from Rho-
dope.

The latter was built by Philip, fbr the same purpose for whkh the Athenians built AniDhipolle ;
to secure the valuable gold and silver mines found In this region. It is celebrated for the battle
Ift which Brutus and Cassias were defeated by Auftistus and Antony, B. C. 4S; and nieniorable
as the place where Paul and Silas, having been *Mhrust Into the inner pflson, with their feet
fast In the stocks, {.AeU xvl. SS) at midnight sang praises unto God."

The lita of Philtppi is aliH muted by rain (AfiM. BenU, Sept. 1838, p. S34).-Uke moet ei th« Qredaa dti«, it «m at A* Cast
of a hill or mcMiBt OB which WMiti Acropolis. AviewertbeAcropoliiaLDdortheplunbalmr iipwInoitrPUlenr. AtmTd«r
on honebMk it idvajKtBf od the roitd fraoi Netpolia to Pbilippi ; he is Joet pMsing • modem Tnrkieh harrlag-(reaDd oa fab ri(M
hand under a near hill ; (he AeropoUe, vith ito mini, appear* on the cmtnaBce beyood el the rlfbt | at ttie haaeoT thiiembHoeek ««
the lower city, oa the aoalh and soodk^weat j futher to the aouth la an open plaia; the moaalain oa the left ii theaoulben extnaillp
ofPonfaHf.

) 81. Tlie kingdom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caranns, a descendant of Her-
cules, B. C. 814 ; but it did not acquire consequence until the reign of Philip, who ascended tba
throne B. C. 360. It has been sUted, that 150 different nations or Ulbes were finally iBctoAad
Within its limits.

^ 82. (2) Epibus and Tressalia, embraced hi the second natural division pdnted
out (^ 76), are next to be noticed.
Thsssalia is described by Herodotus as a very eztensive plam, embosomed in

PLATE IV.

24 CXA88ICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mountains. The Cambunii and Olympus were on the north ; Pdian and Ot$a on the
east ; Pindut on the west ; and (Eta on the south : so that only the small portion of
coast between the Sinun Pelangkun and the Sinus Maliaeus is without the guard of
mountains ; and eten this has a guard a little in the interior, by Ml, Othrys, which
strikes across from Pindus to Peiion.

The extensive plains of Thei>BaIy were peculiarly fiiTonible to the breeding of horses ; and tha
Thessalians were the first who introduced the use of cavalry, horses having been, at first, only
used for draught. Hence, perhaps, arose the fable of the Centaurs, a people of Thessaiy, who
were supposed to have been half man and half horse. The Thessalian cavalry maintained
their superiority to a very lale period, and lo them Philip was indebted for many of bis victories.

% 83. The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pelasgi, an
Asiatic wandering tribe, who are supposed to have been the first inhabitants of Greece
(P. IV. % 33). The principal cities in P e lasgiotis were Larissa, the capital of the
province ; Gompki, destroyed by Caesar ; Gonnus and Gyrtona^ near the entrance of
the vale of Tcmpe^ so celebrated for its natural beauties ; Scolussa, near which are
some hills, called, from thnir shape, Cynos CephfUe^ where Philip was defeated by
Quintus B'laminltis ; and Pharsalus, near which, in a plain called Pharsalia, Pompey

was overthrown bv Cesar. 7'he eastern part of Thessaly was named Magnesia;

the most remarkaolo places were Sepias ^ a small village on a promontory of the same
name, where the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being
shattered in a storm ; Demeirias (Vloo), buill by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and which,
from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring
towns ; MeHbaea^ the city of rhiloctetes ; loleos^ the residence of Jason and Medea ;
Pagasm, where the ship Argo was built, from which the Sinus Pelasgieus is some-
times called Pagascsus: Aphela (Fetio), whence the Argonautic expedition sailed ;
Phercst the residence of the tyrant Alexander ; and ThelxBf near the river Amphrysus,
where Apollo fed the herds of kins Admetus.— In the southern parts of 'i'hessaly
were Malia, which gives name to the Maliac bay ; Larissaj called Cremasle from its
sloping situation, the capital of the kingdom of Achilles; AloSj at the foot of mount
Othrys, near which the combat between the Centaurs and Lapithae took place ; Phy-
lace on the sea coast, the residence of Protesilaus ; Doriofit where the musical con-
test between Thamyris and the Muses took place ; Hypata^ famous for the magical
arts of its women (Hor, Ep. 5) ; Lamia, where Antipater was Iruitlessly besieged by
the Athenians: and Trachis (Zeiton), celebrated for its desperate resistance when be-
seiffed by the Romans.

f 84. The mountains have been mentioned above (^ 82). The most remarkable
river was the Peneus, which flows through the vale of Tempe into the .£gean sea. Thia
river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules opened a passage for the waters
between mounts Olympus and Ossa. The principal inlets 'of the ^gean sea, on the
Thessalian coast, were Sinus Pelasgieus or Pagasaus (Gulf of Volo), and Si9ius Ma-
liaeus (Gulf of Zeiton).

$ 85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the re)gn of Deucalion, is one of the first events
recorded in profane history; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion, and his wife Pyrrba,are said
to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by what means the human race might be re-
stored they consulted the oracle of Themis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them ;
those thrown by Deucalion became men and those by Pyrrha women. In this f^ble the history
of some partial Inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge.

The next remarkable occurrence was the Argonautic expedition under Jason, aided by the
bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. II. If 137).— Achiiif^ was the most remarkable
Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an oracle
bad foretold that he would perish if he accompanied the Greeks to Troy ; to prevent thi«, his
mother concealed him at the court of Lycom^des, king of Scyros, by one of whose daughters he
begat Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last discovered by
Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of the sons of Priam.

During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta, Thessaly seems to have been of little importance.
The greater part of It was annexed to Macedon by Philip and his successors. It was cruelly
devastated in the wars between the Romans and the Macedonian aad Syrian kings ; it also suf-
fered very severely in the civil wars between Cesar and Pompey.

$ 86. Under Epirus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often included.
We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north toe mountains Cambunii an4
Aero Ceraunii, and on the south, the Sinus Ambracitis ; but the region called Oresti*
between the Aero Ceraunii and the river 'Adus is commonly termed a province of Epi-
rus ; and Acarnania, within the proper limits of Hellas, is also often considered as
■•not her province. In all descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus:
while the Mare Ionium bounds it on the west. Within the compass here given, it included
the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis.

^87. Chaonia was the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to be
named from Chaon, the brother of Helenus son of Priam. These mountains were so
called from their summits (2«pa) being often struck with lightning («repavvtf$); they were
remarkable for attracting storms, and were dreaded by marmers ; the rocks at the west-
em extremity of their southern branch, Aero-Ceraunia, were called infamous (m/ameir).
—The principaWowns were Oricum in the extreme north, on the coast between the

P.I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GR2BCIA. 25

bnndies of the moontainB just mentioned ; tnd Andke$mus also on the coaet and in the
extreme south of the province.

Thesprotia extended on the coaet from Chaoma to the Sinus Ambraeius (Gulf
of Ana). Its principal places weretBuOtrottim on the river Xanthus, near which ^neas
is said to have landed on his flight from Troy to Italy ; and Epkyra^j on the river Acoe-
ron, flowing to the harbor called GlyeysLimen (/Xvc«( Ai^^v). The river Acheron is
joined at its month by the Cocytus. — These two streams were ranked in the ancient
mytbology among thejlumina inferorum, or infernal rivers; three others had the same
rank ; i& Styxy in Arcadia ; the ZetAe, in Bosotia probably ; and the Pklegelkon, the
location of wiuch, as an actual rivep> is unknown, although it is represented sometimes
as uniting with the Acheron.

tgptyraw MliMqtiaiityirilrfClelymi IhtwiMcf ihwdh »w«>M lobd<linTiMbk.--£riy*«^Ti«wb toOreeca and
Aikttb. Load. ISM. C foh. 4.

Mo !e 8 8 i 8 was east of Thesprotia, and north of the Sinus Ambraeius. The Mo-
loesian dogs were highly esteemed by the ancients. Among the principal towns were
Amiraeia, the residence of the Epirote kings, on the river AraethuM or Arethon ; and
Pttstarot where the kin^ of Epirus took the coronation oath.

Dodona, f&mou9 for its oracle and temple of Jupiter (cf. P. III. ^ 71), at the foot of
Mount Tomarus^ is placed by some in Molossis ; by others in Thesprotia; it was in the
HeUapiaf not far from the river Thyamis, which rises in Mt. Stymfike and flows through
Thesprotia to the Mare Ionium.

He Fmch tfmvdcr Ibaqacvillc foond in Hallopb, In On modara dMriet of Jininn, new dm vQIkge Oudlki, wMtcriy ftom
fbc hk« o( Jaaina, Maw ratal of Cyclopean dtander, whkli be Jodfed to ba Ibe raint of Dodooa ; ineioding raniina of the ttmpla
oflbeDwlowwJupiicrand tbcacf«deaclaMnortbaSeUi.--Cf.AM<4taasa^Voym|adaIa f)ar. IBM. 6 voh. a «oL L

^ BS.ir.-iriir^ above cited, VOL i. pw 611.

\ 88. We meet but casunl mention of the Epirotes In history until the Macedonian Empire
wiR divided after Alexander*! death. It was then that this people, who had hitherto been
inoiced on as barbarians, and held in subjection by the Macedonians, began to take a lead in the
tSiIrs of Greece.— The folly of Pyrrhus, who hoped by his victories in the west, to rival the
coaqoesta of Alexander in tlie east, weakened their forces and diminished their authority.^—
Oq the invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian liberty with a
desperate fidelity, worthy of better success. When the conquest of their country had been
achieved by Paulus fmillus, enraged at their resistance, he ordered seventy of their cities to
be destroyed, and 150,000 of the inhabitants to be sold as slaves ; an iustaace of atrocious re-
vcBfe scarcely to be parallelled in history.

Wha Iba enpiia of CaiwtuUaopte Ml befara the vktoriooi anM of tbe Mabonetana, tha ramnanli of tba CbrMan fbroM
itfliBliiiHothefHiiBiaaf ttw nooataiaa af Soli and Iba town of Fmre in Ibia tarritofyd— Tba Soliolea, aflar perfonnias feala of
nlv mkf to beparalMlad in tba bri(fatar diya of Otadan Aaadoat, ware doped bjr AH Fnefan and treacbaioaly nnnaciad ; and
f^pVahar aany vidwtedai, Ml nndar fba power of Tnifcar.— For an aeooont of hrp, ct Land. Quart. Jtek xxiiL p. 111.

$ 89. (3) Our third division of Greece includes the portion between Mt. (Eta and
the large gulls. Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicos. It is what is properly termed
Hellas, and is also called G&^cia Propria.

This division is washed on every side but the north bv the sea. On the east are first
the waters of the Sinus Maliaeusy then of the Sinus Ojmntius and those between the
mainland and Eubcsa, which are called in the narrowest place Eurimts, Leaving these
and drawing near the southern point of the country, you enter the myrtoum Marcj and
bavins passed that point, Sunium Promontorium^ with the splendid temple of Minerva
in fight, you proceed up the Sinus Saronicus (Gulf of Egina) ; at the end of which you
must take a land carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus of CoritUh (Hexa-Mili),
when vou reach the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of Lepanto).— This opens into Hellas
icverai bays, one at its eastern extremity called Halcyonium Mare^ ana another central
and opening to the north called Sinus Crisseeus (Bay of Salona). — Continuing the sur-
vey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus Corinthiacus through the strait
called Dardanelles ojf Lepanto between Bhium on the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb
of Hesiod, and Antirrhium on the opposite side. Issuing from this strait you enter and
continue in the Mare Ionium^ till having gone through tne artificial channel separating
l^neas firom the mainland, you turn round the Prtmontorium Aetium and enter tbe
Sinus Awhraeiuit which ends the tour, and the eastern extremity of which is not more
than 70 miles distant, across the mountains, firom the Sinus Maliaeus, where the ima-
ginary tour began.

^90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence look down
open Hellas, his eve would rest upon an almost countless number of hills and moun-
tains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its summits might seem to rise
np over the country in disorder and confusion, but soon he would trace some obvious
fines of connection. He woidd perceive one line of summits stretching horn Mt. (Eta
at ThermapyliB down parallel to the eastern coast and to the ishmd Eubcea as fiir as
to the strait JSuripMj.— He would observe another of more lofty and attractive summits
proceeding fiom Pindus (in about the centre between the Sinus Maliaeus and Sinus
Ambraeius) running quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off on its right a
tine of minor summits down to the western extremity of the Sinus Corinthiacus ^ but
itself bendmg to the south-east, and at length verging along the shore of that gulf to

26 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Its cafrtcrn eitrcmily, and there connecting wiih the Geranii Monies and Mona Onciu»
on the isthmus, and with Mons Citharon, which proceeds directly east to the sea south
of the straits of Euripua.— The part of this Une joining Pindut includes probably the
mountains in which the ancient Dryopes dwell. The first part of the brunch which
it sends off to the west, is the Coras chain, and the lerniinanon of this branch at the
gtflf is in thesiimmiis called Taphiassus and Chalets.— In the main line bending to the
south-east occur firpt Famassus, which although of barren soil was celebrated for its
green valleys and shady groves suited for meditation; then i/t/ictm, with its fountain
Hippocrene, which started into existence (according to fable) irorn the stamping of Fe-
gasua (cf. P. II. ^ 117./). — ^Aflerthis, as you turn eastward, appears Citha:r&H, which
has a summit in the eastern part, called rames.— -In the territory south of these, were
several summits, particularly PcnftZicwa, famous for its marble, north-east from Athens ;
Hymettus, celebrated for its honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius, coniaining
the silver mines, in the southern extreme of Attica. — Aracyuthus was a phain iu
iEtolia.

^ 91. Hellas contained eight small, but independent provinces or districts. These
were, beginning on the west, Acarnaniat Mtolia, Doris^ Locris, Fhocia, Bveolia, Me-
gariSf Attica.

The two western districts Acarnania and JEfolia were very inferior to the rest in
iime, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer aspect than in some
other districts.

^92. Acarnania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabitants were
noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded (^ 76) to the natural
boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz., the Sinus Ambracius and the spur of
mountains running from Pindus down to that bay. This Une of highlands is now
called MakrinoroSj which name is also given to the narrow pass under their abrupt and
steep termination near the bay, a pass similar to that of Thermopylaj. The boundary
between Acarnania and the next district of Hellas, ^Etolia, is the river Achelousj rising
among the valleys of Mt. Piiidus and flowing to the Mare Ionium.

Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Amphilochius, on the river Inachus
empt]nng at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius; Awictortunif on a peninsula
forming the north-western corner of the district ; Aetiunit a little further to the east, on
the Promontory of the same name. At this place Augustus gained his great naval
victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and to commemorate it, built a town called Nieo-
polist and institutedf games celebrated every third year, called .^Icfta. — Leueas was on
the northern point ofthe island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Pelopon-
nesian war, but after that separated bv an artificial channel. On the south part was a
temple of Apollo on the Promontory T^eucate, from which the despnirine^ Sappho is said
to have thrown herself (cf. P. V. ^ 54). — Stratus, ouce its metropolis, was on the
Achelous which is now called Aspro-potamo.

$93. i^ t o 1 i a was east of Acarnania, separated by the river Achelous ; it is now
called Vlakia, from a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors gave this pro-
vince. Its other chief river was the Evenus (Fideri), falling into the Corinthian bay ,
this and the Achelous are the largest rivere of Hellas.

The following are the chief places ; Calydon on the Evenus, under Mt. Ckolcis ,
associated with the story of the Caledonian hotir (destroyed by the son of the king of
jGtolia), whose tusks were said to have been pref-orved in Greece until Augustus carried
them to Rome as curiosities; Thermus, the ancient capital, in the interior, or between
the Evenus and Lake Trichotiis. — Naupaetus^ on the Sinus Corinthiacus, under Mt.
Taphiassus, was not included in the proper hmits of ^tolia, but was given to this pro-
vince by Philip of Macedon ; it was said to have its name from yai^ and vljyvvni, be-
cause the Heraciidffi built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus.

$94. D oris, a very small district, lay under Mt. Pindus, between (Eta on the east
and the mountains of the Dryopcs on the west, having Parnassus on the south-west and
being separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the south-east ; thus wholly sur-
rounded by mountains. It was called Doris from Dorus, son of Deucalion, ancient
monarch of Thessaly. It was a rocky, mountainous region. Its towns were situated
on the river Pindus, a branch of the Cephissue, which also rises in the hillfl of Doris.
From its four towns Pindus, Erineitm, Boium, and Cytinium, it was called Tetrapolis;
and sometimes Hexapolis, the two places Lilaum andf Carphia being added.

$ 95. Locris consisted of two parts separated from each other.— The larger part
was on the Sinus Corinthiacus, having ^IStolia on the west, and Phocis on the east
(partly separated from it by the Sinus Crissa:ns). The inhabitants of this part were
callea Western Locri, or Loeri Hesperii and Loeri Ozolts. Of the origin of the latter
name, different accounts are given ; the people are said to have disliked the name
exceedingly.— -One of their principal places was Amphissa, in the interior, whero
was a temple to Minerva. — Naupactu* ($ 93) originally belonged to them.

% 96. The other and smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coa««t of Hellas, on
the waters separating it from Euboea. It was north-east of rhocis and BcBOtia, divided
from them by a chain of mountains, and extending from Mount (Eta on the north to

P.I* EUROPE. 8017THBIIN COtTNTRIES. BELLAS. 27

the Plaianxua, a small river flowing to the chanoel of Euboeaf and separating Locris

from BoBotia, on the south. This part was inhabited by two tribes. — The Opuutii

were in the southern region, so called from their principal city Opusi which gave
name also to the bay adjacent, Sinus OpurUiuSj containing a small island, Atalanta,
The port of Opus, called Cynos^ was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or
people were the Bpienemidii, so named from Mount Cnemis. On this there was a
email town of the same name : other places of note were Naryx^ the city of Ajax,
son of Oileus ; Thronium ; and Anthela, where the Amphictyonic council assembled
annually in a temple of Ceres or Thesmophora {the lawgiver) as she was here called,
in allusion to the council.

Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of ThermopyUBf deriving their
name from some hot springs and fortified j^tes that were there. This celebrated
pass, usually reckoned the Icey of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated
between the ridge of Mount (£ta and the Malian gulf, at the iunction of the three
conntries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, witn a handful of men,
bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather than violate the
Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king
of Syria, was defeated by the consul Acilius.

Dviat ttieilncilaoriheBiodflraGfMkreTotatkni(ctP.IV. §8S.2),twDttgii«l (riumpbi were oMainad bf the Oreeki over
Ibeir Tdrkah oppfOMn a Uh nme implriBK spot— A plan of the paa, illiatntiiic the oonteet between LeonidM aod tbe Pttniuo,
B liTM ia AvlAcfamy^ ABuhuBU, ettad P. V. § 16S. S.

^97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corinthian
gulf to the borders of Thessaly.

The capital was Elatea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by Philip first
awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition of the Macedonian
monarch. West of Elatea was Delphi^ on mount rarnassus, celebrated for the oracle
of Apollo (P. III. % 72), and for the annual meetings of the Amphictyonic council
(P. III. ^ 105) held in the temple. It is now a mean village called Ccutri. PamaS'
MM9 (Haliocoro) had two summits, one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus ; the
town stood at the foot of the mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring
eminences, close to the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were
celebrated, in memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python. — Cirrha^ on the
small river Plistusr falling into the Corintnian gulf, was esteemed the port of Delphi ;
near this was Crisfa^ from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf, and sometimes the
whole gulf, was called Crissaeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated tor the production of hel-
lebore.— The principal river of Phocis was the CephisauSf which is sometimes con-
founded with a river of the same name in Attica.

> A view of ndpU and the baixfats of Hnmm b preaenled in tbe Frontispieoe of tbb Huual, as given bj Boeagt, in Burfte*
bmy'B Ancbaniik— A plna of Ddphi, wilb ezphaation, b fboal in ZXnei't Pbdar, voL li. p. 628, aa cited P. V. § «). 4.

) 98. At the lime of the Persian Invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for the
common liberties of Greece ; in revenfre, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the
country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of tbe men were destroyed by
earthquakes and lightning; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances or a divine assist-
ance, rose e» otoms, and completely destroyed the remainder. About 380 B. C, a large body

of Oaala, under the command of Drennus, invaded their country, and were defeated under cir-
camstaoces similar to tbe defeat of Xerxes.

^d9. BoBotia occupied the north-east of Grsecia Propria, on the shores of the
EuripuSf a narrow strait between the island of Eubcsa and the continent.

The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phcenician, who first introduced let-
ters into Greece (cf. P. IV. ^ 45). The city stood on the river Ismenus^ and was
emamcnted with seven gates, whence it is called Heptapylos. It was the birthplace
of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious
warriois and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citaidel was, from its founder,
called Cadmea.— South, of this was Platcsa^ where the Persian army were totally
destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, and Plateaus : it was after-
wards destroyed by* the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuc-
tra, near lake Copais, where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas ; Coronea,
near mount Helicon ; CJuBroftea, where Philip, having defeated the Athenians and
Thebans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lebadea, remarkable for the temple
of Trophonius ; and Orckomenus, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sacred to
Venns. — Near the Corinthian gulf was ThespitSy sacred to the Muses, having a port
named Creosa ; and Ascray the birthplace of the poet Hesiod. — On the Euripus were
Anlisj the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of
Iphigenia's sacrifice ; Tanagra, where the celebrated poetess Corinna was born ; and
Velium, a village which derived its name from the temple of Apollo, built in imitation
of that at Delos, and was the place where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved
the life of his pupil Alcibiades.

^ 100. The chief mountains of Bceotia were Helicon^ with the fountains Aganippe
and Hippocrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla^ on the borders of Phocis, dedicated

38 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHT.

to th0 aame divinitiet ; JHree, near Thebes ; and Citharo*, on the borders of Mega*
ris, sacred to Bacchus.

The people of BoboiUi w^re aeually deflcritwd as nnturally stupid, but with apperently little
juiilee ; for It gave birth to many men of superior talents, and the barbarous custom of ez-
posing chiidreo, common in the rest of Greece, was here toully prohibited. They have beea
accused of nourishing a deadly hatred for irifline causes. "^ In the heroic nret, Thebes seems to
have been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, thsi the
discovery of the truth is very difficult. It certainly declined In after times ; probably the misfor-
tunes and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus liad weakened the power and destroyed the
spirit of the people.

$ 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than ei^ht miles square,
south of mount Citheeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its chief city was Megara,
situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on two cliffs not far from the
Sinui Saronicus; its port was NtMoa^ token and destroyed by Pericles. The only
other place of note was Crcmmyon^ near the Scironian rocks : these were said to be
very dAngerouSi and to have derived their name from SciroUf a notorious pirate and
robber.

^102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Mcgoris, and south
of Cithaeron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 30 miles wide at
its base on the north, and tapering until it terminates in the point called Suniumt pro-
jecting into the Myrtoum Mare^ east of the Sinus Saronicus (gulf of Engia). It was
also called Acte <d«rjt) from its maritime situation. The capital was Athens^ a more
tuU description of which we shall give below.

^ 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Persian in-
vaders, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, were completely routed by
the Athenians, commanded by Miltiades. Norm of this was the village Ehamnust
where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had brought to raise a trophy
of their anticipated victory, was erected to the eoddess Nemesis : a httle to the eaat
was Phyle, a strong fort, which was occupied by Thrasybulus, in his expedition
against the thirty tyrants. On the Euripus was Delphinum, and Oropus^ where there
was a celebrated temple of Amphiaraus. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, was
AeharruB^ where the Lacedemonians encamped when they invaded Attica ; and De-
celia, which they fortified by the advice of Alcibiades.^-East of Athens was Brauron^
where the statue of Diana, brought from Taurus by Orestes, was preserved until
taken away by Xerxes ; and Suntunif a town and promontory at the south-eastern
extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva (from the niins of
which h IS now called Cane Colonna), and is in modern times remarkable as the scene
of the shipwreck beautifully described by Falconer. — West of Athens was Eleusis,
where the Eleusinian niysteries in honor of Ceres were celebrated. There are two
remarkable temples at Eleusis ; that of Ceres and that of Triptolemus.

^ 104. Tomgraphy of Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Cecrops, an
Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first it was called
Cecropia, from the name of its founder ; and afterwards 'A5j}vot, Athens, in honor
of the goddess Minerva (whom the Greeks called 'a3^i'v), because she was the pro-
tectress of the city. In its most flourishing state, it was one of the largest and most
beautiful cities ot Greece, and is said by Aristides to have been a day's journey in
goinff around it ; according to other and more exact computations, it was about one
hunf-ed and seventy-eight stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles ; and
Dion Chrysostpm reckons it to have been two hundred stadia, about twenty -five Ro-
man miles in ciieumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have been much
larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not less than 19 miles at
least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. — The number of gates is not
known ; thirteen are named by Robinson ; the largest was called ^(kv\ov, and was near
the Ceramicus ; the 'Upi was that leading to Eleusis.

ForaplaBor AtlMBi,MioarPlat«l.,b]rwhieli tbarMdwaiaylMni lbs ■itualioB of the priacipii ptiti aal toildiapi— Tha
4«criptiM hm ^v«d, b dnws ehicfljr ttxm Bebinmm'a Arelunkf a OnBOu

^ 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentdiets on the east to the
iStnu« Saronicus on the west, l>ietween mount Fames on the north, and Hymettus on
the south. In the plain of this beautifiil valley tlfiis surrounded by natural ramparts, we
behold the very singular geological feature of six insular mountain rocks standing in rra^u-
lar succession, and gradually diminishing as you descend fix>m PenteUcuswestwanlto
the sea. The one nearest the sea is called the hiU of Mus€bus. On the next is the Aero'
polis of Athens. The one next to this on the east is Mt. Anchestnus, on the summit
of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter i from this eminence an observer
could survey the wnole of Athens and its environs.-— Two streams fiimished their
waters to the city. One was the llissus, which flowed to the east and south of the
city, and which is supposed, from the appearance of its channel and fix>m the allusions
of the poets, to have been anciently much larger than it has been seen in modem
times. The other, CejAissus, was still smaller and ran on the other side.-^— Athens
may be described in two parts ; the Cecropia, built by Ceciops on the summit of the

P.I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 29

hill teimed Acropolis (dxptfavXi^). and called the upper city, fi ha it6\ts ; and the part
built afterward, 4 kStv vAi; , or the lower city.

HmMU or Aerapolii,M dbtncnUiad frn On Itmtr part, ta dlttiocfly mm h Ibe nMo<!f JOcmglMa In imr FUta Ho, m
life §0i wbkh k takca boai /. C aabkmaet Jonrwy thraoffa Albuia and oUwr provlBcea of Tnrliey, *e. Loml. iSia
I wh. 4^TteOneiu Mtliodonhw eoBDMti^ni AenpoUt with their towM, b alio illuBtnlsl bjr our FUlc IT. ct § M

^ ,106. The citadel, or upper city, was sixty stadia in circumference, and was fenced
with wooden pales, or, as aome say, was surrounded with olive-trees. It was fortified
on the south side by a strong wall, which was built by Cimon, the son of Miltiadee,
fitom the spoils taken in the rersian war, and which was called Ki/cwviov rtixoi. The
DOTth wall was built many ages before by Agrolas, or according to some, by Euryalus
and Hyperbius, two brothers, who first taught the Athenians the art of building houses.
This wall was denominated OcXao-yixdv or IIcAapxtxdv, from the Pelas^, the name of
its fi>ander8. I'his wall was beautified with nine gates, from which it is sometimes
called 'EyycarvXov; but though there were several lesser ^tes, there was one grand en-
trance into the citadel, the n/>o«i)Aafa, to which the Athenians ascended by steps covered
with white marble, and which was built by Pencles at great expense. Over this en-
trance is one of those enormous slabs of marble called '* marble beams" by Wheeler,
and to which Pausanias particularly alluded when, in describing the Propylsa, he
says that, even in bis time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship or the
magnitude of the stones used in the building had ever been seen.

The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, statues, and
monuments, on which the ancient stories were fully described. I'he noble statues of
Pencles, Phormio, Iphicrates, Timotheus, and qther Athenian generals, were here
intermingled with those of the gods.

Here was the temple of Minerva, called NtVij 6^, Victory, constructed of white mar-
ble, and placed on the risht of the entrance into the citadel.

% 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stateljr temple of Minerva, called
FartkenoHj because that goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or because it was
dedicated by the daughters of Erechthcus, who were particularly called irap^tvoi, vir-

f:ins. It was also denominated 'Exard/ivci^oy, because it was one hundred feet square,
t was burnt by the Persians, but restored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on
each side. It was of the Doric order, and built of that beautiful wnire marble found
in the quarries of Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this temple was the statue
of Minerva, so celebrated for Us size, the richness of its materials, and the exquisite
beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits
high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in
^pgih, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height.

AT««ariheFkfltieMiiiKiTeniaearFUteXXLfic.l.ef. P.ni.(96L On the tM»felier takm fron ft by Lard Elgin, et P. IV.
i t«L Oa te voffcaof Fbidiaa, et P. IV. § ITS.

Here also was the temple of Neptune, sumamed Erechtheus. This was a double
building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the s&It spring called 'Epix^eU, which
was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when
he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple
was consecrated to Neptune. The other part belonged to Minerva, sumamed IloXcaj,
the protectress of the aty, and Tlawipoaos, from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that
name. Here, so late as the second century of the Christian sera, was the sacred olive-
tree, which was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as
the foundation of the citadel. (lere also was the image of the goddess, which was said
10 have fellen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by
dragons, cftUed iiKovpol'i^tSf and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl be-
fore it. The whole structure was called 'Epix^eio¥. Both these buildings still remain.
The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in length, and 21 feet
3 inches in breadth. The larger is 63^ feet in length, and 36 feet in breadth. Thct roof
is snp])orted by channeled Ionic pillars. See Plate IV a.

Behind the temple of Minerva stood the public treasury, which from its situation was
called 'Oxic96ioitos, and in which, besides other public money, a thousand talents were
deposited for any very mat exigency of the state.

In the citadel were luso several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter Slon-^p, and of
Minerva Sc^rcipa; the temple of Affrauloe, the daughter of^ Cecrops, or rather of Mi-
nerva, who was worshiped under that name, in the front and steep side of the rock ;
and the temple of Venus, 'InKoX^rtta, consecrated by Phtedra, when in love with Uyp-
polytus.

^ 108. The lower city, which contained all the buildings that surrounded the citadel,
with Munyclua, Phalemm, and Piraeus, was encompassed with walls of unequal
strength, built at different times and by different persons. The principal parts of the
walls were the Moxpa relxm which joined the harbor of Piraeus to the city, and which
being about five miles in length, were sometimes called M(urp& vkIXti, long legs, and
hntiia longa, long arms. They consisted of two sides. The wall on the north sido
was built by Pericles at great expense, and continued forty stadia. That on tLc south

c3

IV a.

P.I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOORAPHT OF ATHENS. 31

ode was celled Ntfr«or rtixos* or ^^fii i^ivov rtlxn* to distinguish it from the south wall
of the citadel, and sometimes rtXxoi <^«XnpiK6¥y because it included the port of Phalerum.
It was built by Themistocles, of huge square stones, not cemented together with mor-
tBT, but fastened on the outside by iron and leaden cramps. The height of it was forty
cubits, but Themistocles wished to raise it to eighty cubits. Its length was thirty-five
stadia. Upon both of the walls was erected a great number of turrets, which, after
the Athenians became so numerous that the city could not contain them, were con-
verted into dwelling-bouses. The VLovv^iov, or wall that encompassed the Munychia,
and joined it to the Piraeus, contained sixty stadia; and the exterior wall on the other
■ide was forty-three stadia in length; and hence it appears, as has been before ob-
served, that the whole chrcumference of Athens was 178 stadia, or rather more than 22
Roman miles.

^ 109. Of the buildings of the lower city, the principal and most remarkable were
the following. — TloiixtXo¥ was a stately edince, in which were kept the sacred utensils
used at feaiivais, and in which were prepared all things necessary for solemn proces-
sions.— The temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan and Minerva, situated not far from the
Ceramicus within the city, was a public prison. — Near to this building was the temple
of the Htavenly Venvs ; for the Athenians had two deities of the name of Venus, of
which one was designated Ovpavia, and the other nivSniioti the former presided over
clmste and pure love ; the latter was the patroness of lu«t and debauchery. — ^Avaxetow
was a temple of Castor and FoUuXt who were called £yaM(. Jn this place slaves were
exposed to sale.

The temple of Theseus was erected by Cimon in the middle of the city, near the
place where t^e youths emploved themselves in WTestling and other bodily exercises.
This temple was a sanctuary for slaves, and for all persons of low condition that f!ed
from the persecution of men in power, in commemoration of Theseus, who, when
alive, was the guardian and protector of the distressed.

Speaking of the temple of Theseiii, Dr. Clarke observes, thai this beautiful Doric temple more
reacmbiing, in ihe style of its architecture, the temples of Ptesium than of Minerva in the Aero-
poiis. and the moat entire of any of the remaioing atructurea of ancient Greece, were it not for
llie damafe which the aculpturea have sustained, may be considered aa atlll perfect. The entire
edifke is of Pentelican marble ; it sunda eaaCand west, the principal front facing the east; and
ft has a portico of six codinins th each firont, and on each side a range of eleven columns, ex-
clusive of the colttroos on the angles.
A VMv of fkk tenpto it ^na in Plate XXI. fls. 8.

^ 110. 'OX»|i«ioy, or 'OXtj^wrpv, was a temple of Ionic architecture, erected in honor of
Jvpiter the Olympian^ and was the most magnificent structure in Athens. The area, or
peribolus, -within which it stood, was four stadia in circumference. It was con-
structed with double rows of columns, 10 feet in front, and 21 in flank, amouniiiig in
all to 124 ; the extent of the front being 171 feet, and the length of the flank more
than 400. These nillars are the majestic ruin of this sumptuous and stately temple.
The foundation of tnis edifice was laid by Pisiatratus, whose sons continued the work ;
but it was not completely finished till the time of Adrian, 700 years after the structure
had been commenced.

The temple of Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the citadel,
in a cave or grotto, which was called Ma«paf irf rperi, or KtKpoKiai virpai. — The temple
of Diana, surnamed Awi^ta^os, because in it women, after the birth of their first child,
dedicated their girdles to that goddess.

niv^cop was a temple consecrated to all the gods, who, as they were united in one
edifice, were honorea with one common festival, which was called Qtoltvia. This was
also a very magnificent structure, and was supported by 120 pillars of marble. On
the outside were curiously engraved the deeds and story of all the gods ; and on one
great gtite two horses w^ere carved by Praxiteles.

The temple of the Eight Winds was a tower of eight squares, of marble, on every
side of which was carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter whence it
blew.

Tbsaadclor lViilnitdiBC«u forablMil by koAtatimt CyrrhMtea, who ptaod vpoii tbt topof the lower a ■mil pyramhl of
SMithi, wftmo ibe wniDit oT vbkb be erecM ■ bnsen inCoo, holdief Id ba ri^hl taaod b •wtieta or wend. The tritoa was m placed

•■thetened mad wift fbe wini, sod polatod with the waad to tbewiwi wbieb tJew. A view of tUi ilnfetara b gina ia oar

nalrXXLC(.L

^111. troaiy ponicos. Were very numerous at Athens; but the most remarkable
was that called Tlti9ta»aKrtoi^ and afterwards not«fX», trom its containing a variety
of curious pictures, drawn by those great masters, Polygnotus, Mycon, and Pansenus,
the brother of Phidias. At the gate of the noi«fA»? was the statue of Solon. — To the
north of the AcropoUs, not far from the temple of Theseus, are the ruins of a struc-
ture once evidently very splendid, supposed by Stuart to be the ruins of this celebrated
Stoa or Porch. Some travelers have mistaken them for the remains of the temple of
Jupiter Olympius already described, w^hich was in the southern part of the city, near
the fountain Calirrhoe.

Uovauw v.*a£ a fort near the citadel, which received its name firom the poet Musaeus,

32 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the scholar of Orpheus, who used to repeat his verses in this place, where he was also
buried. — 'SLSsTov was a music theatre, built by Pericles. The inside of this building
was 6lled with seats and ranges of pillars ; and the outside roof or covering was gra-
dually bent downwards. The roof, which was constructed of the masts and yards of
the vessels taken from the Persians, and in its form resembled the tent of Xerxes,
was supported by columns of stone or marble. It was burnt by Sylla at the siege of
Athens, but afterwards rebuilt. This Odeum was situated on the souTh-east an^le
of the citadel. The Odeum of Herodcs Atticus has sontetimes been confounded with
that of Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes was situated ai the south-west angle of
the citadel. This last was built by Herodes in memory of his wife, and was con-
sidered as far surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness of its materials, every
other edifice of the kind in all Greece. The roof of this building was of cedar.

The Ceramicus (Kspa^iciAdf) received its denomination from Ceramus, the son of
Bacchus and Ariadne ; or more properly <*»< rifs wpa^eFiciyy rfx»"7fi from the potter's
art, which was invented here by Conebus. This extensive spacc.was divided into
two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contained a great number
of temples, theatres, porticos, 6lc. : the other was in the suburbs, was apublic bury-
ing place, and contained the Acaaemy, and several other buildings.^-The Lyceum
and the Cynosarges were also in the suburbs on the north-east.

BaqMcHDg tte Acidmy aad otbor OyiiUMtlM at Athcoi, Me P. IV. §) 64, 74.

^ 112. 'Xyof^ttU forums, were very numerous; but the most remarkable were the
old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 'Eptrpla, which it is
probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum was situated in the Cera-
micus within the city, and was called 'Apxafo dyopk. It Mras exiremel]^ spacious, and
was decorated with buildings dedicated to the worship of the gods, or to the sen'ice
of the state ; with others which sometimes sffordcd an asylum to the wretched, but
which were oflen a shelter for the wicked ; and with statues decreed to kings and in-
dividuals, who had merited well of the republic. In it were held the public assem-
blies of the people ; but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and
the forum was divided into different parts, according to tiie wores exposed for sale.
Thus KiitXoi denotes the place where slaves were solcT; 'A\0ir6rtD\ti dyopii the bakers'
market; lx^tf»wAif dyopit the fish-monger's market; rvvrnxcCa dyophf the market for wo-
men's apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale was called vXff^ovaa dyopht full
market, nrom the great number of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day
seem to have been appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the
inhabitants resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to main-
tain order, were encamped in the middle of the forum. Collectors also attended to
receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to superin-
tend what passed,

BovXsvT^pia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, and deli-
berated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very much encou-
raged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citizen, with Uving by the
profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of slander.

^ 113. Aqueducts were not common at Athens before the time of the Romans; al-
though one is said to have been built by Pisistratus. The want of them was supplied
by wells (^piara), some of which were dug by private persons, and others at the pub-
Uc expense ; but as good water at Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels
arose among the citizens. Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aqueduct, which
was finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars.

The stadium was an oblong area, semicircular at one end. designed originally for
the foot-race, but used for other ^ames and exercises ; and for the accommodation ot
spectators, who resorted thither m great numbers, it was built with steps above each
other, in order that the higher ranks might look over the heads of those placed below
them. The most remarkable at Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium
CSrd6iov UavadiivaiKdv)i erected near the river Ilissiis by Lyrurgus, and afterwards en-
larged by Herodes Atticus, one of the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pen
telic marble, with such magnificence that Pausanias did not expect to be credited,
even in his brief description of this work, and savs that it was a wonder to be taken
for a mountain of white marble upon the banks o^the llissus. It was about 125 geo-
metrical paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium,
a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Roman mile.

^ 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of the Acro-
polis. On this, the court or senate of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf.
P. III. ^ 108). A space was leveled for the purpose on the summit of the rock ; and
the steps which conducted to it, were cut out of the natural sohd stone. There was
originally neither enclosure nor roof; but merely an altar to Minerva, and two stone
seats for the accuser and defendant. The court was occasionally protected by
temporary erection.— The Pnyx, IlWIf, was another eminence, opposite the Areo-
pagus, not f&r from the citadel, celebrated as the place where the Athenians
held their assemblies. Almost the whole of the structure, as appears from a

p. X. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOFOORAFHY OF ATHENS. 33

reeeat removal of the earth in this place, was an excavation of the rock. The fi^itOf
om which the orators stood to address the peoplef was carved from the stone, and yet
remains. Before this was a semicircular area, of which the part most distant from
the orator* s stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surface of the rock,
£scing this area, are niches for votive tablets. North-east from the Acropolis, on the
street of the tripods (cf. $ 115), Vas the UpvTavilov^ where was a public hall, and where
the laws of Solon were deposited. Near it was the BovXcXov or senate-house.

^ 115. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One of the most celebrated
was the theaire of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spectators. (Cf. P. IV.
^ 235.) This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic writers, and was the
place where the dramatic contests were decided : it was near the Acropolis, at its
south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen except the circular sweep scooped in
the rock for the seats. Above it, in the rock of the Acropolis, still appears a cavern
or grotto, formerly termed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted mto a sort of
chapel. — Close by this cavern stands a building, called the Choragic monument of
Thrasyllus ; having on its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained
in the theatre. Over this building, and higher up the rock, are the two Columns of
the tripods, or Choragic pillars. There were several other edifices in Athens, erected
for the same purpose ; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acro-
polis, commonly called the Lantern of Demosthjenes, but proved by its inscription to
pe a choragic monument erected by Lysicratea. This edince stood in the street of the
tripodst 80 called from the circumstance that in it were erected (on chorale monu-
ments or pillars, or otherwise located) numerous tripods, which had been ootained as
prizes in tne musical or theatrical contests.

W^iiimiwi tte dnmic ud Bivried eooiegii above aUaded to^ w F. IV. $ 68.— A vbw of On MamnBoat of TbmTUoi b givta
iBFial*XLIX.fis.C;aadortlatof Ly>ieraln,iatlMattMnktc^iiS.Ai tb»&9m^»aamUnkrnofLenuiUmmkmiitnhMM»
Imm afiplkibj tin iBad«nGraak>,aiiderlbefraaiidlcH opposition that it wutbcrt^ illiwtrioai onlor.

^ 116. Athens had three harbors for ships: — 1. Heipairdf, PirmuSt which belonged
to the tribe of Hippothoontis, and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from the city,
before the builfng of the naKpi, rt(xn or long wallsv After that time, the Athenians,
by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal harbor. It contained
three Spitot or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, winch being joined together
formed a very large one, called on that account Mcurpa aroh. The rirsus also con-
tained two forums. Here the productions of all countries were accumulated ; and
this was the market not of Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hun-
dred gallies have sometimes been collected at once : and it was sufficiently capacious
to contain four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by I'he-
mistocles when he devised the plan of givine a navv to Athens. Markets and maga-
zines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every thing neces-
sary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Movvvx^i, Munychia, which
was a promontory not far distant from Pireeus, and extended not unUke a peninsula,
and was well fortmed both by nature and art. It received its name from a person
called Munvchus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed VLovvvxi^-
— ^3. ^akiipiv, Phalerunii which belon?ea to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from
the city 35 stadia, or as some say, only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the
three Ifiarbors ; and from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus
for Troy.

War larifaer detaili ropadtav tta MenOng ob}ecti in Oifa iwiwiMd dty, wc ralbr to fhe woritt cited P. IV. ;2«S. I.; P. V
f T (b).-.We maj add IVSiritfnctonnr VMt to QiMee.-lhirAe*, Tnvata in Qntct, fte. Load. 18Ba 8 rolt. A—Knot, Bdlaa, odo<>
Dmdlii« dai altcn Griaekalaadeai kc. Leipb IMS. Sveb. & la thk work m»j bo C9iiad an accmut of Loid Elgia^ pro
emtm^iA P. IV.f 110.4); aboof Iko variooi ■odarn woito iltortnttiag Iho loiaaiM of Grocian art in fenoral.— Cf. Stuarfi
IM. of ARhiieei. mdcr Mmtian JbdiUutum e£. alK> Chattaiittriaiut$ Tiavoia. in hUnduOitm—E. D. Ciarkt^ Tknvcb la
TiiioM flBootrics, te. Fkrt n. aaet. S.^jBanikifamy'f AaadMraiis ch. zli^ a beautiful dcacription.— ff. Jlfl Ltmkt, Topopapfay of
Alhoa. Liwd. ini. with u Atl. faL CC TmnmOlau cf tk$ Aiyai SoeUty tflMtniun ^ (Ac Vi6ini Kingdom, vol. iiL ^ IM.
•IRnlnoartA, Attana and Altlca.— JNaaae*a',*t^DpoKnpfaie nm Alhan (a Gorman tran^ation of Ltake). Hallo, 1189; wiiti
Bote of MAllor and Moior.— C. a IftUIcr, Do Manimentia AtbenaninH Ac. Oott. 1837. 4. witb plaloa.— £. ArgnMim, Di«
ilTiMUiin *oa AllMB, nad Shmi oad amtU, Ac. Wefanar, 1838. 80 plaMa..-i7M'» Plan dca A\bat.-£nteh ^ Ondmr, Eucj-
doftdla, imdtrJttOa (vritln by Mmp-X-TlMie if a gbMO at 10010 of tho BMMt lBl«nitii« ol^oeti, in FF. CcUon, Vnit to Cob-
rtntiHfileaBdAIbMMb N. Torfc, tflSt 12. cb. IS, 19l

% 117. (4.) The Pblopohitbsus, the fourth division of Gnecia (^ 76), remains to be
ponced. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive in the
interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an included tract of country
which was called Arcadia. From this circle of elevated summits, various branches
are sent off towards the sea ; and we find a line running out to each of the principal
promomories ; to Shium Prom, at the entrance of the Sinus Corinthiacus ; to Cheloni-
t€s Prom, on the western ade of the peninsula ; to Acritas Prom. West of the Sinus
Messeniacus ; to Tcsnarumi to Mtdea, and to ScylUBum, the other points, which occur
in passing round the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were
fruitful valleys, watered by numerous streams descending from the mountains in
every direction.
5

84 CLASSICAL OEOQRAPHY.

^ 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the con-
quests of Pelops was called the i»land of Pelopt, nfXoiros vifvos ; it was also called
Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its resemblance to a mul-
berry-leaf in shape, or from the number of mulberry trees that it produces. — It may
be considered in six divisions : Achaia, Argolis, Ehs, Arcadia, Messenia, and Lacu-
nia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes aidded to these ; but they may be included
under Achaia.

^119. Achaia, in the extent we have just pven to it, includes the whole north
coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Connth, by which it is joined to Hellas.
Exclusive of Sicvonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each independent,
and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very early time united
in a sort of confederacy called the Achaean league ; they were Dyme, Olenus, Fhane,
Tritsa, Fatr<B (now PcUra»y, Rhvpe, JEgium the place where the deputies of the
league met, Heiice, Burn, ^ge, JEgina^ and Pellene. In the resistance to the Ro-
mans made by the Achaean league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially
Corijith took part.

It was from the oppotition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Hummins reduced Greece
to a flttbject proTince by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia to the whole
coontry. Cf. (SIS. L6.

^ 120. Sicyon was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded
B. C. 2069. — But Corimh has obtained greater notoriety : it was on the isthmus, at
nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. It was once called
Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hiil called Acro-Corinthus. It had two ports ; LeoKB-
um, on the Sinus Corinthiaeutf and Cenchrecs^ on the Sinus Saronicui. Although
destroyed by Mummius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Juhus
Caesar, and became more famous than before for its luxury and licentiousness.

The Isthmua of Corinth was an Important pasa. Several attempts have been made, at differ-
ent periods, to Join these two seas by a canal, and from the failure of them all, ** to cut ibrouf h
the Corinthian Isthmus" has become a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here
the Isthmian games, in honor of Neptune, were tnennially celebrated : and here a stand has
frequently been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting
of regurar fortification.

^121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of the Peloponnesus. Its
chief town was Argosi on the river Inachiis, more celebrated in the heroic than the
historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidentally slain his grandfather Acri-
sius, he transferred the seat of government to Mvcents ; this latter city retained its
power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the death of Agamemnon, the Argives,
through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. —
North of Argos was Nemea, where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the
Nemean games in memory of his victory ; and Tirynthus, a favorite residence of
Hercules, whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Siniu Argo-
licut (Gulf di Napoli) were, Nauplia (Napoli di Romania), in ancient and modern
times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated
temple of jEsculapius (P. II. ^ 84) ; and Trtszenct whither the aged inhabitants of
Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes.

$ 192. El is was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Ionian sea.

Its chief town was Elia, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have pro-
voked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and lightning ; it
was OQ the Peneus (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river of the province. Pita^ de-
stroyed at a very remote period, was on the Alpheu$ (Rouphia or Rufeas), a larger river
flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olympian the place near which the Olym-
pic games were celebrated.

Olfmpia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per-
formed. Here was the grove Mtia, with splendid monun\ents scattered In it ; the temple of
Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated sutue (cf. P. II. ( 34); the Crvniwm. or Hill of Saturn ;
also a famous hippodrome and stadium.

SorMcbmy, eh. xxxviii. m dted P. V. \ 183. 2.— CAoiMU^O0UJ0!lr, Sor I'BippodraDU d'OljmpB, la the Mtm, JieaA. Inaor. vol.
sfiz. p. 182.— ZTUam^ Piodar, vol. li. p. 630, where ia a plan vrith ezptaoatioM.— /'oufuevtUi, Voyag* de la Ortoe, roL r. p. 40i.
--J. & Sta»thopt, Oijaipia, fte. m cited P. IV. S 243. 1.

$123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus; and being entirely de-
voted to agriculture was said to be sacred to Pan. — ^Iis principal towns were Teg<Ba, the
capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Stymphalus, where Hercules destroyed the narpies,
on the river Ladon, which flows through Arcadia and joins the Alpheus in the eastern
part of the province ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell, near the ruins of which is
Tripolitza, the metropolis of the Morea ; Megalopolis, near the Helissus, a tributary to
the Alpheus, built by Epaminondas to repress the incursions of the Lacedaemonians. —
From the ruins of Pkigalia (Paulitza), in the territory of the Parrhasiii were taken the
bas-reliefs called the Fhigalian Marbles (cf. P. IV. $ 179, ^ 183. 4).

The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the poets ; the principal were
CyUene, the birthplace of Mercury ; ErynuinthuSf where Hercules slew an enonnous

IV A,

36 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

boar; Manalutf sacred to the Muses: Parikeniuty where Atalanta resided; Parrks'
tins and LyoBus, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From the hill Nonacris flowed the cek"
brated river Stt/jc ; its waters were said to be poisonous.

^ 124. The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, of which
Me$seney a strongly fortified town, was the capital ; the citadel was called Ithome^ and
was supposed to be impregnable ; these were in the interior, west from the Pamisus,
which 18 the principal river of the province, and flows from the mountains b«4ween
Messenia and Arcadia into the Sinus Messeniacui. — The other principal towns were
PijloSf the city of Nestor, now called Navarin; Melhmie, where Philip defeated the
Athenians ; and CEdudia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules.

The Messenlanc, nfier a desp«rate reslsi&nce, were subdued by the LacedeiDonians, and the
greater part coaipelled to leave the country. Subeequently their city lay long In ruini : but
when Epaminondns bad destmyed the supremacy of Sparta, be recalled the descendants of the
exiles and rebuilt Messene. After his death, the Spartans a^alo became masters of the eoaatry,
but dM not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions.

% 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus was
L a c o n i a. Its capital was Sjnirtat which we shall describe in the following sections.

The other towns of note were, AmyclcBf on the Eurotas, the residence of Leda;
Therapne, on the same river, the birthplace of Castor and Pollux ; Gytheutn, the prin-
cipal port of Laconia ; HeloSi whose inhabitants were enslaved by the Spartans ; and
SeUatiay where the Achseans, by the defeat of Cleomenes, Uberated the Peloponne-
sus from the power of Lacedaemon.

The Sinus Laeonicus (Gulf of Colochina) was bounded by the capes Malta (St,
Angelo) and Tamarum (Matapan). Near Taenarum was a cave represented by the
poets as the entrance into- the infernal regions ; through this Hercules is said to have
dragged up Cerberus.

The Peloponneslan sutes were first aubjeaed by Pelops ; bat about eighty years after the
Trojan war, the Heraclids, or descendants of Hercules, returned to the Peloponnesus, and
became masters of the different kingdoms. This event, which forms a remarkable epoch in
Grecian history, took place 1L04 B. C. ^

$ 126. Tojfography of Sparta. Th6 city of Lacedaemon, which was anciently called
Sparta, is said to nave been built by king Lacedaemon, who gave it the latter denomi-
nation from his wife Sparta, though he designated the country and the inhabitants
from his own name ; but some think that this city received the appellation of Sparta
from the Sparti, who come with Cadmus into Laconia. It was situated at the foot
of mount Taygetutf on the west side of the river EurotaSt which runs into the Laconic
gulf. It was of a circular form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference,
and was surrounded to a great extent with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens,
and summer-houses. •

Anciently the city was not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence was the
valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reien of Agesilaus, and for the space of eight
hundred years, this city was vnthout any Tortiiications ; but after it fell into the haaids
of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were rendered very stron?. It had,
however, some eminences upon which soldiers might be posted in case of an attack.
The highest of these eminences served as a citadel; its summit was a spacious plain,
on which were erected several sacred edifices. Around this hill were ranged five
towns, which were separated from each other by intervals of difierent extent, ond
each of which was occupied byoneofthe tribes of Sparta.

^ 127. The great square or forum, 'Ayopi, in which several streets termmated, was
embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the edifices in which the
senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assembled. Of these public edi-
fices the most remarkable was the Portico of the Persians^ which the Laceasmonians
erected after the battle of Plataea, at the expense of the vanquished, whose spoils
they shared. The roof of this building was supported by colossal statues of the prin-
cipal officers in the army of Xerxes, who had been taken or killed in that battle, and
wno were habited in flowing robes. — The Scias was a building not far from the ibrum,
in which assemblies of the people were commonly held. Jne Chonis was a part of
the forum, where dances were performed ifi honor of Apollo in the Gymnopa&dian
^ames.

Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva^ which had the privi-
lei^e of asylum, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small house apper-
taining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hunger. The temple
was built >vith brass (XaAxiocffoc)' Within the buildingwere engraven, in bas-relief,
the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the rignt of this edifice was
a statue of Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient statue of brass in existence ; of
the same date Mrith the re-establishment of the Olympic games.

The most ornamented place in Sparta, however, was the PcseUe, which, instead of
being confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a very considerable
extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paintings in fresco which had
oeen employed to decorate the walk. — Fonher advanced in the city appeared differ-

IV e.

88 CLASSICAL OBOOftAPHY.

ent ranges of Porticoa, intended only for the display of diflerent kinds of merchan-
dize.

^128. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned at
the Olympic games $ but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their country.
Statues miffht be decreed to wrestlers ; but the esteem of the people was the only
reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the battle of Thermopylfle, that
the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta and deposited in a tomb near the
theatre ; and at the same time also the names of the three hundred Spartans who had
fallen with him were first inscribed on a column. — The theatre was'm the vicinity of
the forum, and was constructed of beautiful white marble. Not far from the tomb
of Leonidas were those of Brasidas and Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were
annually given near these monuments.

Of the edifices and roonomentf of Sparta It may be remarked In general, that they were not
dif tinguished for architectural beauty ; and the city had nothing imposing or splendid in its ap-
pearance.

^ 129. On the south side of the city was the 'Ir^Mpoit^f, or course for footvnd horse
races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and a little distance from it was the
PlatanuttaSf or place of exercise for youth, shaded bv beautiful plane-trees, and en-
closed by the Eurotas on one side, by a small river which fell into it on the other, and
by a canal which opened a communication with both on the third. The Plaianistas
was entered by two bridges, on one of which was the statue of Hercules, or aU-sub-
duing force, and on the other that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law.

The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor, was Gytheium, tiOttt/^^ situated
west from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 stadia, according to
Strabo, and 30 [300?] according to Pol^bius. It was early surrounded by strong
walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets of Sparta rode in security, and
where they found every requisite for their maintenance and security.

The mina of Sparta are found, nnder the name Paheoekori or old town, about two mile* distant
troTU the modern town Mi$itra^ near a spot called Magonla. "The' whole site," nays Ckateau'
Vrivnd^ *'is nncultivated ; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a bird,
not an insect, not a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled without
noise up and down the sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half-wild horses were feeding
here and there upon the withered grass ; a shepherd was cultivating a few water-melons in a
corner of the theatre ; and at Magoula, which gives ita dismal name to Lacedemon, I observed
a small grove of cypresses."

On the lopognplij tad rntm of Spute, wt CkiUtaubritmd'i Tnnli (p. M, ed. N. T. 18I4)^£< Roi, Monanooi d« la 0tc<»~
SirfP. OdI,iaa««i70f theMom.—IcaU'fTnTcbui tbtMoro. Load. ISM. 3 vols, a— CVaimr, norfwcO; te. aa dtsd P. V.

IV. ISLANDS BXLOXOiyO TO EUROPE.

^ 130. Ic was mentioned (^ 8), that having considered the mainland of Europe under
three divisions, northern, middle, and soutnern, we might notice the islands together
under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were in the Atlantic or
Mediterranean ; of those in the Baltic they knew but little. We will speak first of
those in the Atlantic.

^ 131. Of these, B ritannia was the most important. ,It was scarcely known to
exist before the days of Julius Caesar. Being peopled by successive migrations from
Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country when invaded, and thus pro-
voked the vengeance of Rome. The south-western shores are said to have been
visited by the rhcenicians at a much earlier period ; and that enterprising people have
been described as carrying on an extensive trade for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly
isles, which, from their abounding in that metal, were called the Cassiterides Insula
or Tin islands.

^ 133. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter rather of curiosity
than utility, wo shall only notice a few of the more remarkable.— The Cantii occupied the soath
of the island ; in their territory were RutHvim (Richborough), celebrated for its oysters by Juve.
nal ; and Portiu Lenmnis (Lymne), where Ciesar landed, B. C. 55.— The Trin^banus possessed the
country north of the Cantii ; their chief town was Londinum (London), the most flourishing Ro-
man colony in Britain.— The Silurtg possessed South Wales, and appear to have been a very
flourishing and warlike tribe. Caractacus. one of their kings, is celebrated for having bravely
defended the liberties of his country ; and for a long time hntlled the utmost efforts of the Ro-
mans: he was at length subdued by Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in chains to Rome. —
On the eastern coast were the Tetmij whose queen Boadicea, having been cmelly abused by the
Roman deputies, took up arms to avenge her own and her country's wrongs ; at first she ob-
tained several victories over her oppressors, but was finally defeated by Suetonius Paullnus,
A. D. 61.— The north of En^^and was possessed by the Briganu*^ the most powerful and ancient
of the British nattons ; their principal towns were ISMraeum (York), and J$urhim. (supposed to
be JSUboroufh)^ the capiul of their tribe.

^ 133. Scotland was still less known than EngUnd; five nations on the borders,
known b^ the general name of Meat<B, were subdued by Agricola, and became nomi-
nally subject to the dominion of Rome.

When Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five following

PLATE V.

l|vrs|

1. The Botvnda of ^alonlca, \hp ancicnl ThwsaJnnfCi. It ia fliippoBtd to
have bven a Cubiriuti Tempi?. By thi Christiaii^ ]t ftas fEiuii-erieil iiUo a
ehrirch c( Paul arnl PcT-er Til*- Turlts lis.V(* liirnfd ii I mo a rnwque ; ftni'l
erecM ihff wwmjte/, w luch apptvtM Himcliti^il U? it, ftofl in ilie (t:a]]f r^ i?r
wbkti ia Bircn a Mueixin, who8« o0ice m \o aniiounce (mm ilie gallery ti^a
hour of prayer.

2, A fotmlaln Tor the Musaulman ablulion befbre pmycnb

39

40 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHY.

provinces: Britannia primal comprising the eastern and eonthem divimon of the
country; Flavia Casarientitj containing the western tribes; Britannia neeunda,
which included all Wales; Maxima Caaariensiat which contained the country
between the former divisions and the river Tweed ; and VaUntia^ occupied by the
Meats.

9 134. To repel the Ineurtfons of tlie Pfctt and Scots, who fVequenlly laid wastii the RAmaa
settlements, several valU were buUt across the island. The first was erected by the celebrated
Afilcola, who completed the conquest of Britain. Hut this being found insufficient to resiratn
the incursions of the barbarians, the emperor Adrian erected a ranipart of great strengih and
din^ensions. — The wall of Adrian extended from •Ss/narism hunm (Solway Frith), on the western
coa»l, to Seirtduntm (Cousin's House), a Tillage north of Po-m JSBiii (Newcastle-npon-Tyiie), on
the ^stern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a denble rampart and ditch, and was
streagihened by forts erected at short Intervals.— Twenty years after thW, the emperor Anionl*
nus rebuilt the wall of Agricola, which was nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and bad been neg-
lected after that was built, whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus.

$ 135. But the last and greatest of ttiese strnetures was the wall erected by the emperor Seve-
rus, A. D. 900.— It was situated a fewyards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the
strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built
of stone and cement ; It was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles,
and three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole bodv of forces employed to garrison this
immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred marlnen, appointed
to guard the points where the ramparts communicated with the shore.

$ 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Heltrides (Western
Isles), Mona Taeiti (Anglesea) , Mona Cataris (Man), Vectit (Isle of Wight), and Ca$'
siteridet (Scilly Isles).— -Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, and was
called leme Juvema, or H i b e r n i a.

The IrUh mj IfatI they u« dcMtadcd tnat a Seylblao Mlien, lad tint at m wrir ptriod, part of llw eoanlrf wu eolon'taBd bj •l>s
Ptaaiciui; in pnaf of tbo httar, il Im bean ani«' tbat the •pedmcM of tba Punic bmgwfa pi«urTed bf Plaahw, m iJnioat pnra
Iriab { awS that antiqon awerda, fcnnd in Iba bogs of Iralaad, bava on aaaljriifl been pforad to oomtat of matariala praeiNl7 liailar
to Iboaeof tba Punic awonlidm np bf Sir W. UanUtoo in Iba flald af CanMa.-Ct P. V. ) SSS. 2.

An island called Thule is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as the most
distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we caimot be
certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the Shetland isles, and
Greenland, have been named by different modern writers (cf. ^ 3).

^ 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we beein in the wcatnn part.
The BdUarvMB^ deriving their name from the skill of the inhabitants in slinking and
archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were BdUarxB major (Minorca) ;
Baleans minor (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica).

Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by tlie Frehtm Fonm
(Strait of Bonefacio). Corsica, called b^ the Greeks Cymos, was of little note in
ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Napoleon Bonaparte. It con-
tained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylia. North
of Mariana was Malinorum Oppidum (Bastia), the present capital of the island.-—
Sardinia derived its name from Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Her-
cules, who at a very early period led a colony hither \ it was called by the Greeks
Idtnu$a, from its resemblance to the human foot. Neither serpents nor wolves were
found in this island, and (as we are told) only one poisonous herb, which caused those
who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, anid hence the expression, a Sardonic grin.
The chief town was Calarii (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary to the
Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic war.

There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of Italy ; the
chief were Una (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Napoleon's temporary
banishment ; Prochyta ; and Caprta (Capri), infamous as the scene of the unnatural
debaucheries of Tiberius.

$138. Sicilia, the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies to the
south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina). —
It was called Triquetra, or Trinacria, from its triangular shape, terminating in three
promontories ; Ptlorus (Faro), on the north ; Paek^iu9 (Passaro), on the south ; and
LilyhBum (Boco), on the west.

&yracu9(B (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sidlv, and one of the most remarka-
ble cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corintnian colony led by Archias, and
arrived at such a pitcn of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded twenty miles.— «
It was divided into five parts, which were so larse as to be esteemed Mparate towns ;
viz. Ortyma, a small island, on which the Greeks originally settled ; Acradina facing
the sea ; Fycha, between that and the following division ; Neapolis, which stood on
the great port ; and Epipole. — Syracuse had two portsr the lesser formed by the island
Ortygiat and the greater at the mouth of the river Anapus, which here flows into a
large Day, having the island at its northern, and the fort ofPlemmyrium at its southern
extremity. The celebrated prison called Latomia was cut out of the rock by the tyrant
Dionysius ; in this was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit
all soimds from below to a small apartment where the tyrant used to conceal hunaelf

P«I. E 17 ROPE. ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 41

in order to overhear the oonverBatioa of his victims ; it is now a very handsome sub-
terraneous garden.

This cftj b ramarkaMe for the defeat of the Athenian!, in their fktal Sicilian expedition, and
Ike formidable resietauce oiade by the inhabitants when the town was beiieged by Marcellui.
TlUa aiege wae protracted principally by the mechanical contrivances of Archunedes.

1 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Mcssanaj Leotttium;
AgrigetUum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided ; Lilj/baum, Vrepanum, ranormos (Pa-
lermo), Himera; Naulockus^ where the oxen of the sun were supposed to be kept:
Trieola, where Trypho and Athenis established the head quarters of a republic of
slaves, and held out against the Roman power for several years ; Selinus, known for
. its vigorous but unavailing resistance to the Catthaginians.

lilHirtt Gfcck niiBB la« Imb bmid at SaliDiu,il^ig«iliia9, ae.>-OB (hcM nijiM, Me S. Heart, Ciuiial Tour, voL U. p. 78 ml
><X. r. IV. ) in. a.—/. Ob-ewr, AickiteeU Moura. of SieUj, n eiMd P. IV. \ 84S. l.-Se« Abo the eitatioM, P. IV. § 8S4. S.

The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simatlhus (Giaretta), celebrated for the produc-
tion of amber ; Asinariua, where the Aibenian generals Nicias and Demosthenes were
taken prisoners by the Syracnsans, and Helorus on the eastern coast ; on the south
side were Camicus and CrimisuBf with some smaller streams ; and on the north, the
liver Himera.—- Mount JEtnat so celebrated for its volcano, occupies a great part of
Sicilv ; the poets feigned that the giants, when defeated by Jupiter, were buned under
thii neap, and that the eruptions were caused by their eflforts to reheve themselves.

The 0rat inhabitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and LsstrlgonB, a Imrbarous race of people,
aimost extirpated by the diflferent Greeic colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's
sitnatkm taduced to settle in this island.

i 140. Near the western angle or corner of Sicily are three small islands called
Mgates, opposite one of which, JEffusa^ Lutatius Catulus defiaated the Carthaginians
in a great naval engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of
Sicilv were the Insula Mdia (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan ; the largest is Lipara,
whiui was once a place of great consequence ; the next in size is StrongyU (Stromboli),
where .£o!as is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated
volcano. — Sonth-east of Sicily is MdUe (Malta), remarkable in ancient times for its
cotton manufiictories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem
to Rome. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient
station for commerce on account of its excellent harbor. — Near Malta is the small island
of G^ti2M (Gozo).

i 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. Corctra
(Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, from which it was
separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is called by Homer Scheria, or
Fidsada, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent.—
The principal town was Corcyra^ near which were the celebrated wardens of Alcinous
and Cassiope. Near the promontory of Phalacrum was a remarkable rock, said to
have been tne ship which Ulysses received from AL nous, to convey him to his native
ooontry, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phteaciana
for aiding Ulysses.

Leutadia (Santa Manra) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through
by the Carthaginians to &cihtate navigation. The chief town was Leucaa, in earlier
a^ called Nericvm, and the neighboring country Nerids ; it was founded by a Co-
imtfaian colony, and was joined to the continent by a bridge, as the strait was here very
narrow.-— At the south-western extremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named
Ltueoie, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Z^euicopelra, from which unfortu-
nate lovers precipitated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple
of Apollo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fetal leap.

The Edtinades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river
Achelotts, of which the most celebrated was Dulichiumy part of the empire of Ulysses.
—Near Dolichium was lihaea (Thaki), the birthplace of Ulysses; the capital was also
called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Neritus.

II 42. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the loman blands. — ^Its chief
town was Same, fi'om whence the island was frequently called by that nflme ; there
were three other towns of Uttle consequence in the island ; from which circumstance
it is called TeirttpaiUs. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure.

South of this was Zaq^ntkug (Zante), with a capital of the same name, celebrated for
its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance
of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues from the
oily matter that floated on its surface.

West of the Pebponnesus were the Strophade* (Strivoli), at first calls i Plata, the
rsttdence of the Haipies ; and south of them, the island of Sphacteria (Sphamse), taken
by Cieon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of the Peloponnesus
vras Cjfffteitt, or Porpkyra (Cerigo), sacred to Venus. It contained two excellent towns
aad harbors, Cythera and Scanda, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with great care ;
bvi the Athenians destroyed both in the first Peloponneoan war.
C d9

42 CLA6STCAL GEOGRAPHY.

^ 143. We may include among the JEgran UlafnU all thdt remain to be noticed.

The Thracian islands occupy the northern part ot the i?£gean, and were nam^d
Thasus, Samoihrace, and Imbrua. — Thasut ('la&se). opposite the mouth of the Nessus,
was in the earher agen of Grecian history named ^Ethria. It produced wine and mar-
ble, and the inhabitants were at one lime so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the
sea with the Athenians, but after a severe contest of two years they were compelled
to surrender at diBCTe\ion.—Samt>(hrace (Samandrachi) derived its name from i>amo8,
by a colony from which it was first peopled. From this place Dardanus brought the
worship of Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Enibro) lies to the south of Samoihrace.

^ 144. Tetiedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, oppot^ite the Troad. It
contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apolio, here called Smintheus, be-
cause he delivered the inhabitants Irom a plague of mice, called Sminthse in the Phry-
gian language.

South-west of this was Lemnos (Sta1imene)» dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown
out of heaven bv Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities,
HephiBsiia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the Thessalian coast, was
Halonuesus (Dromo), which is said to have been at one time defended by the valor of
the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Sciathue (Sci-
atia) ; Scopelos (Scopela) ; and Sq/ros (Skiro), where Achilles was concealed by his
mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war.

South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birthplace of
the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcieus, and the poetess Sappho; its
chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and MityUne, from whence the island
has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine.
The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island by the Turks, in 1822, excited great
public sympathy.

^ 145. Tne largest island of the .^gean was Eubcea (Negropont), opposite the coast
of Bceotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait called the Eurimu. Into
this strait Aristotle (P. V. ^ 115), according to the accounts of some, threw himself, in
8 fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing.
The chief towns were Chalets, joined to Aulis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Eun-
pus; Eretriaj an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war; Oreus, on the
Euripus ; the town and promontory of Aricminiumt in the northern part of the island,
where the Greeks gained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carygtut, in
the south} between the promontories Gcrffisius and Caphareus, remarkable for the
quarries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of Eubcea is not
very important, as the greaterpart was subjected to other Greek states.

In the Saronic gulf were ^gina (Engia), anciently ^none, strongly fortified by
nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea; here were discovered the monu-
ments called the JEgineton sculptures or marbles (cf. P. IV. ^ 190. 3). The ^gine-
tans were the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and
obtained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salamis (Elimi), the island of Telemon,
father of Ajax and Teurer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia-
des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy
of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria (Foro), where Demos-
thenes poi.«toned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the suc-
cessor of Alexander the Great.

^ 146. South-east of Eubcea was the large cluster of islands called the Oyclades,
from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Vclos. This island, also called
Oriygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana ; on which,
near Mount Cynthut, stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which pil-
grimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Paralus
Jfi iropaXoj). %va8 annually sent from Athens to Dclos with a solemn sacrifice, and dur-
ing its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. I'I.e other
remarkable islands in this group were Myctmuit, Gyarus, and Seriphun^ small islands
whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals ; AnAros and Tenos, south-east
of Eubcea; Ceos (Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cythus, Siphnus, and
Melos (Milo), south of Ceos ; Paros, celebrated for its white marble, the bunhplace of
the statuaries Phidias and Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was
ungratefully deserted by Theseus ; /os, where Homer was said to have been buried ;
Thera, and Arunphe.

^ 147. The islands in the eastern part of the ^.gean were colled the Sporades. and
more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed
by the Greeks. The chief of these were Snmos, sacred to Juno, the birthplace of Pv-
thagoras ; Icaria, which gave name to the Icarian pea ; Patmoa (Palmossa), where tne
Apostle John wrote the Revelations ; Cos, the native country of Harpocrates ; Car^
vathts (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian serf; and Ehodus (Rhodes).-^
This latter island contained three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus.

At tbe harbor of RhoduB stood the CoIomup, an enormnus utRtue, dedicated to the tun (P. 11
> 79). It held in one hand a light House. This splendid statue (cf.P.IV.^ ]80. 1) was thrown

MF^m^^o i^w i^-^M'Lm^u

p. I. ASIA. EASTERN DIVISION. INDIA. PERSIA. 43

down by an eanhqnake about B. C. 325, and having long lain prontrate was broken np by tba
Baracena when tbey becatite masters of ibe island, in the seventh century.

^ 148. Creta {Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the ^Egean, was the most cele-
brated island of ancient times : ii is said to have contained a hundred cities, the princi-
pal of which were Gnosfus, near Mount Jdoj on the north side oi the island ; Gortynia^
on the opposite side, where stood the celebrated Labyrinth, built by Daedalus ; and
Cydoniaj by some esteemed the capital.

The first Inhabitants of Crete were the Idiei 1>acty1i, who lived near Mount Ida, anil exercised
Biecbanieal arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Cnretes. who directed iheir attention
ID acrkulture.— Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was the lefrislator of Crete, nnd from his laws
the i'nstitotioDS of Lycurfus are said to have been principally borrowed. The fabulous legends
respecting this monarch, his wife Pasipbae,and his daughter Ariadne, are mentioned in another
place (cf. P. II. $ 117. (a),and $ 135).

Th« Cnttta LAfcjriatli w ftaenWj reprawoted to bare been neu- OnoMat ; ba! lonie nppow it to have b«en found in (b* rontrk*
•bl« tzamtiiaM or eavernt nenr Gortyub, coosistinc of ttntnl chambcn luid g%ller!a. It m not improbable that Mne mcb catflrs
was Gooan garv riw tr> lb* Uory o( an artificial UbTriath.-iSee HCtWt Crcta.— CoctarcU, on tba Crstan Labf rinib, is ITaJfoVf
IfcaaUB^ amiUi, DicL of AatiquiL art. LabyrtTithui.

II. OF ASIA.

$ 149. Asia, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, Is cele-
brated as the birthplace of the human race ; the quarter where the true God was wor-
shiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious barbarism ; the scene of
our Savior's lile and suffering*' ; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Baby-
lonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive 8%vav (cf. ^ 211) before the commence-
ment of authentic European history. — From Asia the first principles of the arts and
sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilisation nad attained a high degree
of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism.

9 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered iii two divisions, the
Eastern and Western ; the boundary between them being the river Rha or Wolga,
the M&re Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus.

The Eastern divittion includes Scythia, Sinabum Reoio, India, Persia, Media,
and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Faropamistts. — The
Western includes Sarmatia, with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pon-
tus Eaxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, with the
cotmiries in the valley of the Tigris.

1. THB COUNTRIES OP THB EASTERN DIVISION OF ASIA.

% 151. ScYTHiA was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of
Asia. Very htile was known respecting it. It was divided into Sq^thia intra Imaum,
and Seythia extra Jmautn, separated by the mountains called ImauSf now Belur Tag,
which unite with the modem Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. — Sey-
thia extra Imanm included the Regio Casta (Kashgar in Tartary), and the Regio Se-
rica (the north-west part of China) ; in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare
of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia.

Tben las been mndi diaeoHloB mpoetinf the real ntoation of tba aacient Striea^-^CL OJhnaUy tsA OomHn, nir la Seriqoa
dn AtJataa, ia lb« Man. Jbad. JttMo: vol. xaM. p. 573, and z)br. p. 713.— CiB«. Jounwif vol. vi. p. 204. viL a2^-wfMAon'«
huMftiat, aitida Sens.

The Siif js occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients ; sup-
posed to be the couutrv now named Cochin China. Their capital wai ThyruBj on the
Cctiarisf a branch of tne Senus.

$ 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in their
northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus ^ to the river Serus or Menan,
which empties into Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Siam). It was divided by the ancients
into India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the boundary between them be-
ing the GangeSf which discharged into the Sinus Gangeticus (Bay of Bengal). This
countnr was but Httle known before the expedition of Alexander. The eouihern part
of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was called Pr&montorium Comaria (cape Como-
rin). Several places on the coast were known. North of the river Chaberis (Cavery),
was the Regio Arcati, the modem Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Aurea
Chersonesus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum Pro-
monforium (now cape Romania).

% 153. Persia, in its more Hmtted meanincr, was the country lying east of the river
Tigris, between Media on the north and the Tcrsian gulf on the south. But the name

44 CLASSICAL OBOORAPBY.

ifl Bometimee, and ib here, employed to comprehend the whole territory south of the
ParopamisuM chain of roountaine, from the Zagros chain and the river TigriM on the
west, to the Parueti and Ar^i JMontet separating it from India on the east. Thus it
includes several provinces.

Susiana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais and
Su*a; the latter, called in the Bible Shuskoftt was the winter residence of the Per-
sian kings ; it was situated upon the river ChoMpet, which flowed from the OiwUet
mountaii^ into the Tigris. — r ersis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the
Sinus Persiau, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. Its capi-
tal was Persepolisi represented as a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was set
on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his
mistress Thais.

The ruiM of PerMpolls Mill excite admiration. It wat ■itaated on a beautlAil plain ilz miles
wide and 100 lonf fVom N. W. to 8. E. wliicb ii now crowded with nuroerouw villairps.— Tbrougti
thit flowed the Jtrmst*^ now Bendemfr or Bend Emir dl«charf Ing into Lake Baktegian. The
principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Ckekul'Mimar^ ChU-Minar, ur ShcJul-JIftMrt or
palace of fortff eolumtu.

See a d«eri|MkM^ with plalH, to Jtok JE«> i^Hn^ Tl«Td«.-a Xiv!^
Loud. 1«7. 4.-V. B. JlmiHitf.TraTela rrrai bdk to EnsUad, thitM«h flmis Atia Minor, ac Id ISM. Loud. 1187. <!.-€£
ffavrfer, The Unm. Bula^ te. died ) til. VL

Previoasty to the founding of Persepolis, the royal residence was at PtMrgada^ which was In
CcBle-Persia, on the river Cfru*^ flowing southerly into a small lake; here king Cyrus is said to
have erected a tomb for himself, in a high narrow tower.

A BMNiaBent ttiU exieti, which hai beeo •oppoied to be Ihe toabof Cyf«: ttienprawried la oar PUtoXVIIL flf^ lr-4X

P. m. i in. i.

The othei; provinces were Carmania (Kerman), south-east of Persia, also border-
uig on the Sinus Persicus ; G e d r oe i a (now Mekran), lyiogon the Erythr<Bum Marg
and extending from Carmania to India ; Arachosia and JD r a n g i a n a, which in-
clude the whole remaining territory on the north and east between Gedrosia on the
south and the Paropamiaus on the north. — I'his latter territory was watered by the
Elywtander, which, with tributaries from the mountains on the north, east, and south,
flowed into the Aria Palu9t a lake or sea on its western limits ; the whole territory wat
oAen included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country nc^rth of
the Paropamisus.

^ 154 a. Media was situated south of the Mare Catpium; its northern limit was the rivet
Arwees flowing to that sea from Armenia ; on the south were Susiana and Persia, hi
principal river was the Mardut or Amardu$r rising in the south-western part, where tlie
Orontes chain of mountains is connected with the Zagros chain, and flowing by a cir-
cuitous course into the Caspium Mare in the country of the Mardii. Media was ^^pj.
rated from Armenia on the west by Mons Imbarus, a chain extending from Mt. AiUfal
on the north to the Zagros on the south. The capital was Ecbatana (now Hamadan),
in the region south of the mountains termed Orontes,

Ecbatana was made the anmner residence of the Persian nonarchs, and afterwards of the
Parthian Two tombs, with Inscriptions In the Hebrew character, are still shown to travelers
as being those of Mordecai and Esther.~Av'«i or Rages, mentioned in the apocryphal book
of Tohit, was a place of some importance, north-east from Ecbatana.

See jMiidl, Geoc. of Bored. MdU ▼. |^ u dtod P. V. 1 841. S.--Alh*, Vet. Mid. ft r^n. MoBOineati^
flolM,isdtod(nLVL

% 154 h. The northern portion of Media, lyins on the river Araxes, was formed, after
the death of Alexander, into an independent Kingdom, by the satrap Atropates, and
thence called Atropatene; having as its capital Gata (now Tebris or Tabrees),
and next perhaps in importance Atropatene or Atropaiia on a stream flowing into the
Mardus. In the western pert of this province was the Locus Spauta or Marcianus
(lake of Oroopfiiah), near which on its western aide was Tkebarma (Oroomiah), said
to be the native place of Zoroaster or Zerdueht.

Thh nflon. HW • piger Adeibyas, ud beleQgiiiK to Ponle, fattboooM iatooidy latanrti^ oa eeoM^
•ion ertiMidied eMoff tMNeilorieD Chrirtiu>% who itHde ta the plaim of OraooiU

esirtaoe wio flnl Bade ioowB to the weitn worfd aboot the yeer l8Mb.-eee SmM and iXfl^M, BeBMidwi, Ac. •• died P. IV.
ftS. I.— JCi^JBivirid,«nLuLp.n. uxk. ^ na-«f . (^wil, The Neatorieai, or the Loot Tribik N.Tofk,IML \t^-J, Ftr»
U«i%Aeooulor»BaBldMoeiareiiia,ac Bod. IMS. & wHh oolond pletak (9ee Mili Vf *,)

$ 155. Under Parthia we include the region lyin^ at the south-eastern comer of the
Caspian sea; between Media on the south and the nver Oxus (Gihon), which flows to
the north into the sea of Aral, although it was once supposed to flow into the Caspian,
and is so deUneated on some miKpa, It was originally but a part of Hyrcania, a pro-
vince belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsacea, after the time of Alexander, it wae
made the seat of a new state, which under his suooessora, c^led Arsacid^B, grew into
a considerable empire, and opposed efieciual resistance to the Romans ($211. viti.).
Ore of its principal places was Nisaa (Nesa), on a northern branch of the nver Ochth
( Margab), which empties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was a considerable place,
on the small river Socaiida.-*But the royal residence of the AraacidiB wasICMXitompy^M,

PLATE VI tf.

46 CLASSICAL OZOORAPHY.

in the sonth- western part ; although the later Partban monarchs aomedmes resided at
CUsipkan. oo the Tigris.

The remainiiig couatries, between Parthia and Scythia, were Aria, Bactriana, and
Soj^diana. — ^Aria was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, al-
though the name was often extend^, so as to include (^ 153) a huse region south of
that chain of mountains. The principal place was Artacoana (now Herat). — B a c t r i-
ana was east of Aria and south of the rirer Ozus ; its capital was Zariaspa or Badra
(Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — S o g d i a n a includes the territory between the
Oxus and the Jaxartet or Sir ; corresponding nearly to (he modem country Al-Sogd.
Its chief place was ^laracanda (Samarcand), on the FolytimetuSt a branch of the Oxus.
CyropoltB was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jazartes. Various tribes occupied this
region; in the north-easiern part were the Saae,

II. THI C0UHTR1B8 OF THK WE8TKRN DIYISIOIT OF ASIA.

^156. Beinnning on the northern limits we notice first Sa r m at i a, called Asiatica*
to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from which it was sepa-
rated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the Caucasus. It was inhabited
by roving and uncirilized tribes; particularly the ^^nt, and the Cimmerii: from the
latter, the strait connecting the Palus Mceotis with the Euzine received its name of
Boipkorus Cimmerieug. — JiH^uth of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the
west, and the Mare Caspium or Hvrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Col-
chis, Iberia, and Albania. C o 1 c n i s was on the Euzine ; one of its chief places was
JEa^ on the river Pfuuis (Faz-Reone).— A 1 b a n i a was on the Caspian, extending south
as far as the river Cynu (or Kur). An important place was one of the two celebrated
passes of the Caucasus, called Pyla AJbauia or CatDtasin, between a northern spur of
the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards the strong city
of Derbend. — I b e r i a was between Colchis and Albania, a high valley, watered by
the Cyrus and its numerous tributaries. The other celebrated pass oi the Caucasus
led from this valley over into the declivity of the Euxine; it was the defile through
which the nver Aragut (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus; it is now called JDarie/. —
These passes, and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed
JPyl4B CatploB ; but the pass properly so termed, is supposed to be the modem pass
of Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran.

OaUMNpuiea,cr. »

% 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to mount
MoBtuM and the Cardurhi Monies on the south, and from Media on the east to the
northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Minor. It presents
three sreat valleys, extending nearly east and west; first, that on the north-east,
watered bv the Araxe»t also c^led Pfuuis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second,
the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which is the summit
called Araratt and watered by the* southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in
its eastern part and flows westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Pabis ;
third, the south-western, smaller, separated from the central by the Niphatex Monies,
and watered by the Tigris^ which rises in its western part and flows tnrough it in an
easterly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the an-
cient capital : Ana (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern branch of the Eu-
phrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigranocerta, taken by LucuUua
m the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches.

Tb* iiiaiBiit cAltad Annt h oommooly mppoMd to be that od which Ncnfa>a trk nrted ; (kk u aid to ImTe bew ucendod, Ibr tb»
flnt tiote, hf Prof. Avrol, hi 183S. S« BiU. Sqnt. No. uii. p. 99a

^ 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in the
middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to the countries
bordering on the Propontis and iEgean, and divided it into Asia intra Taurum and
Asia extra Taurum, The large peninsula which is known by the name of Asia Mi-
nor, included a great number of^ petty states, whose boundaries varied at diflerent
Asriods. — The northern provinces of Asia Minor, "beginning at the JE^ean sea, were
rhrygia Minor, M^rsia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Fontus. — The middle provinces
were Xydia. Phryeia Major, Galatia, Lycjwnia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia
Minor. — The soutEern provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia.

lMAinMB,G«ifiapbrof WMtenAda. Load. 1831. S toU. S.

$ 159. Phrvgia Minor, or Troas, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the en-
trance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modem
travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, called also Ilium.

Ilium WM built at lome diitance from the sea, above the Junction of the Seamander^ or Xan*
thus, and Simou^ two ■mall streams, rising from mount fda, and fatlfni; into the Hellespont ; the
citadel was caJWd Psrgumutt and was erected on a little hill hidaded within the walls. The

P.I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 47

plftin between tbe eity and tbe sea wai intersected by tbe riven Bcamander and Sloiob, and
there tbe betile* mentioned In the Iliad were fought. At the eaetern extremity of the plain waa
tbe mosnt Ida, ibe summit of which was called Oargants; tbe west was bounded by tbe Helles-
pont, which here forms an extensive bay, between the promontory of RkteUum on tbe north, and
3^si on tbe south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on tbe shore was the
ranpu Ajax was buried on the Rhctean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory.
Sh P. n. i 192, a^ p. V. § fiO^&mMU, aod otiim, OD dM Toposnphy of Troy, M cited p. V. § 6a 7.

Mysia, divided into Minor and Major ^ extended from the Hellespont to Bithynia,
The principal towns of the former were, Ahydos (^ 73); and Lamjysacug, dedicated to
Priaptis, celebrated for its wealth and luxury. — The principal city in Mysia Major
was Cyzicas, situated on an island of the same name ifi the Profpontis, and joined by
two bridges to the continent ; celebrated for the gallant resistance it made when be-
sieged by Mithridaies ; near this is the river &raniciiSf where Alexander defeated
the army of Darius, and where LucuUus obtained an equally important victory over
Mithridates.

H60. Bithynia, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bosphonis
and tbe river Parthenias. Its chief towns were. Apamea, at the mouth of the river
Skyndaeut; Nieomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon (Kadi Keui, or Cadi'0
village}, called the City of the Blind, because its founders neglected the more eligible
site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus; Chrysopolis (Scutari, directly
opposite to Constantinople), where the Athenians stationed a fleet imposing tribute on
all vessels from the Euxine ; Libyssa, where Hannibal was buried ; Calpaa and Hera'
c2ea, on the Euxine ; Nicata (Nice), where the first general council was assembled :
and PrutOj at the foot of Mount Olympus t where Hannibal for a short time found
refuge with king Prusias.

Ttma. tfiai^ti pmt impoituea ooder fba vtma of Amo, wteo 0(hin«B, iDoader of the OttoDum cmpin, made 11 bb apitel. II
coatiHtd toktlhecfakr rcaMMW of the Sultaua vntil U10 aptara of Comtaotinople ia i4S3L It stiU Rtain, la the uoderaBraoM,
a iBvartaamakasMBf tbe dtia of Asiatic Tttikejr. 0ec Plate, VI &)

Paphlagonia, lay between the rivers PaHhenias and Halys. The chief townf
were Sinope (Sinube), the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital of the kingdom 0^
Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the same name, opposite*
the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese.

Pon t us, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river Halys
to Colchis. The pnncipal towns were Amisus^ near the Halys ; Eupatoria, on the
confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Megalopohs ; Amasia^ the birth-
place of the geographer Strabo; Themiscyra, on the river Thermodon, where the
Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Cerasus, whence LucuUus brought the first
cberry-trees that were seen in Europe ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of
Colchis, greatly celebrated by the romance- writers of the middle ages. Near the river
Halyi the Leleges and Chalybcs, famous for their skill in iron-works, resided.

Tte Cbxyt'oa acbaiar vOI feel ■ peculiar inferetl reipecUnff Rmtn and BiQifaia, from the cimniMtaBce that bara occoned tbow
^bpoHRteaa of the earl^ eoBTeiti to ChrWiaiutjr which are nolieed id tbe letten of Piiay tbe jouoffer, pnmor of (base pn>>
vwnwhrtbaCBiperDrTnjaa. See P. V. ; 441. 1.

^ 161. L y d i a, called also Mseonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and Mysia, and
*o the east of the ^gean sea. The northern part of the coast was called ^olia, and the
soathem Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which settled there. — ^olia was
coloniied by the Cohans, soon after the termination of the Trojan war ; its chief
towns were Adramytlium, founded by an Athenian colony; Fergamus (Bergamo), the
apital of a small territory, greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithri-
dates, and bequeathed to them by Attains its last king; its port was called Elea; be-
tween Elea and Adramvttium was Lymessus ; souln-west from Pergamus, Thya-
tira: and Cajia, a town \)uilt on a promontory of the same name, near which are the
■£ginasan islanids, where Conon, the Athenian admiral, completely defeated the
j'partans.— Ionia contained several remarkable cities, of which the principal were
Snyma, on tbe river Meles, near which Homer is said to have been born ; a cave
here used to be shown to travelers as his birthplace, and another as the spot where
he wrote his poems (cf. P. V. ^ 50) ; north and east of Smj^rna was Mt. Sipylus, the
rcridence of Niobe (cf. P. II. ^ 131); Clazomencs, on a peninsula of the same name,
celebrated for Its wealth ; Erythras. near mount Mimas, the residence of one of tho
Sjrbils ; Corycus, near which the fleet of Antiochus was defeated by the Romans ;
3W, the birthplace of Anacreon. — South of the peninsula of ClazomentB, were Colo
^ofi, on the rivex Hul^sus, celebrated for the ^ve of Claros, sacred to Apollo »
Ephfttts, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degene-
rated^into a paltry viUai»e, remarkable for the splendid temple of Diana; Myeale,
oppottte Samos, where the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks ; P'riene,
on the Maandet, a river noted for its winding course ; ana Miletus, the birthplace o^
Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of inouni
Tmaius, on the river Partolusi a branch of the Hermus. Not far east from Sardis
vai Tkjnbrat celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over Croesus. Oa

48 CXA88ICAL OEOOBAPHT.

the HemuB was MMgne$U, where Antiochna, king of Syria, was overthrown by the
Romans.

<N» im wMch lb« aurt* Jotp httodaew Ifcii g|*itwi, toyna, IVfiw, Thyrtiim, auik, nd WiiMriphw ; theattii^ U».
««M,i>MiBrhinnMi4ar.-«HirilM-.HHlarraftlMSnwCb«Rtefc Lo«L lOI. 8L-«*«mMI, VUt l» ttw Sma ChuckM
•fiM. Lallan. t.-Oft Ik* niiM«rs»niii)eL MiiiLAraM, far laS8^^•PI.

'^ 162. East of Lydia was P hry eia Major, extending from the river Lycus on the
south to the Samgarius on the north. Its chief towns were Festinusy near the d/ox
of jnoont DiMdymus, sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, who^ image wa&
conveyed thence to Rome at the end of the second Punic war (P. II. ^ 21) ; Gordiu/tif
celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through by Alexander; Apamea, on the river
Marswut where ApoUo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas ; Laodiccaj cele-
brated in sacred history, on the river Lycus; and Coloiga. -Galatia, or Gallo-

Grecia, lay north of Phryeia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns
were ^iteyra (Angoiira), wnere Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner bv Tamer>
lane ; Gangra, the reeidence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; ana Tiivium,

the capital of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were I s a u r i a and L y c a o n i a.

The prindpal towns of the former were haur^t tiie capital ; Lyttra and Derhe, men-
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The principal town of the latter was
Icomium, Both of these provinces were intersected bv the chsin of Mount Taurtu,

% 163. Cappadocial&y between the Halys and the Euphrates. Its most remark-
able towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony;
Tyaua, the birthplace of the impostor Apollonius (cf. P. V. ^ 255 5); and Mnxaca^
named by Tiberius, Ctnarea ad Argceum^ to denote its situation at the foot of Mount
ArgcBU9t from whose summit, as ancient writers assert, the Euxino and the Mediter*
ranean might both be seen.— 'The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the
name of lesser Armenia, and contained Cahira or Sdxute, a well fortified city captured
by Pompey ; the strong fortress Nowu, where Mithridates kept his treasure ; and JVc-
eopidia, budt by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithridates.

The Oreeki deicrlbed the Gappadociara as the worvt of the three had Kkppat^ or oations whose
■amee begaa wftb thai letter ; the other two were the Creune and CUtciaDs.

^ 164. The sooth- western province of Asia Minor was C a r i a. Its chief towns were
JTniicamMatu, the capital, celebrated for having ffiven birth to the historians Dionysius
Add Herodotus, and for the Mausoleuroi a splendid monument, one of the seven won-
dfvj of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to the memory of her hus-
band Mausolus; Cnidtu,'m the peninsula of Doris, sacred to Venus; Alabanda, on
the Meander; and StrtUimieea, on the southern coast

L y c i a lay to the east of Caria. Its chief towns were TelmeatvSf on a gulf of the
same name, called also Sinut GiaueuB, from the river Glaucus flowing into it ; Xanthus,
celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed them-
selves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Patara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf of
Telmessns ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana ; in this chain was the
volcano CAtsksra, fabled by the poets to nave been a monster subdued by Bellerophon
(cf. P. II. % 117). Some hills at the FromofUorium Sacrum were usually esteemed the
commencement of Mount 7\xur»«, and a little beyond it is a part of the same rid^e
adjoining the sea, round which Alexander's army were compelled to march up to their
middle in water.

Bm AttowM, iMout flf D'MOfwlai la L7ci».-Cr. Jmm-. Sdatte, Jan. 1841.

% 165. Next to Lyda were P i s i d i a and P a m p h y I i a, two mountainous districts,
whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia were AntimAia;
Termegtus, the caoital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer ; and Crtmna^ a
Roman colony. The principal towns in ramphylia were Perga, the capital ; Atpendug
on the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coraeesiumj
where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas.

C i 1 i c i a Isy to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided into
two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or
level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinu$, where the emperor Trajan died ;
jM/nuriumj opposite Cyprus; and Seleucia. (Seletkeb), on the river Calycadnus. — ^In
Ciiicia Campestris were Solij a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus* said to nave received
its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there { the birth-
place of tho Apostle Paul ; /mm, where Alexander obtained his second tnumph over
the Persians: and Alexandria (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to peipetuate
the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the monntain AmanuSt be-
tween which and the sea were Pyte Syria, a celebrated pass. — The river Cvdnus is
''emarkable for the coldness of its waters, bv which Alexander was almost killed, and
iiir the splendid festivities celebrated on its banks when Antony visited Cleopatra,

^ 166. Stria was bounded on the north by Mount Amanus ; on the east by the
Euphrates ; on the south by Arabia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean. It wav

PLATE VI h.

50 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHY.

divided into five provincesi Comagenet Seleucis, Coelo-Syria, PhoBnicia, and Judea,
or Palestine.

The principal city of C omag ene was Samotata^ on the Euphrates, the birthplace
of Lucion. — In Seleucis, or Syria Propria, were HierapolWf the city of the Syrian
goddess Astarte (cf. P. II. ^ 48), on the Euphrates ; Beraot previously Chalybon (now
Aleppo), on the Chalcis, flowing into a small lake ; Anliochia^ where Christians first
received their name, on the river Orontes; near it Daphne^ with its delightful grove
sacred to Apollo ; Apamea (Famieh), higher up the Orontes, which rising in the ele-
vated regions on the eastern side of Libanus, flows by a north-west course to the
Mediterranean ; still further up, Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, the worst of the
Roman emperors; and "on the opposite side of the Orontes," near the limits of this
province, Hdiopolit (Balbec), sacred to the Sun, whose magnificent ruins still attract
admiration.

From tbe map of Sjrria neeonptnyiog RMnnfAHmtardam, Bilbee appwn Id be od the Leonta.— " ADumf tlw dtki whicb
are eoaiiiented bj Oraek and orieotal budcs in tbe fMiivphy of Sfrie, we ■BjrdMtiBfvtib Emeai or Beaw, aad BeUopoUi or Bel-
bee. Uoder tbe test of tbe Cmatn, Ibej were ittxtag aad popolon ; tbe torrett |Uttered fitm »Ur ; an ajD|lB ipace wee eoversd
wilb pablie and privale buildioKB ; and tbe eftiuDi were illoatrious bj Ibeir qifartt, or at leaet bj their pride ; by Ibeir ricbct, or at
leaat by Ibeir Inxory. In tbe dap of pagaaiam, botb Emcn and HeliopolU were addicted to tbe wonbip of Baal, or tbe ena ; bat
tbe decline of tbeir rapentilioo and qileodor bat been marked by a aingolar fariety of fortune. Kot a veitife reaeine of (be tem|ile
of Bmeea, whicb wae eqoallod in poetic etyle to tbe lammltB of mount Libanui; while tbe ruins of Balbee, InTidble to tbe writon
of aotiqutty, excite tbe curiotity and wonder of tbe Eoropean traveler. Tbe Beeaure of tbe temple ie two haadred feet in leqg^b,
and one hundi«d in breadth : tbe front ia adorned with a doable porlieo of eifbt eolumaa ; foDrteen may be oonnted on dtber elde ;
and each colamn, forty-five feet in bdffbt, is oompoatd of three maasy blocks of marblo. Tbe proporlione and omamoBis of tbe
Corinthian order etpreas the arebilecture of tbe areeki.'*--See tbe view given in Plate VIL— A. VTaod, Roiaa of Balbee. Load.
1767. CdL-C. B, EUialt, Travela ia Aostria, Ruaaia, and Tuikey. Land. 1838. i vole. &

C OB lo -Syria was bo named because it lay between the two parallel chains of
mountains, Libanus and Anti-Libanus : and the name is sometimes applied so as to
include the valley of the Orontes, and also the whole valley of the Leontes, which
rises near the western sources of the Orontes, and flows by a south-western course
to the Mediterranean. But it is limited, in our division, to the upper part of the latter
valley, north of mount Hemum, the principal peak of ArUi-Libanuf ; including also
another valley on the east (now called Gouieh Demesk, or Orchard of Damascus),
watered by tne rivers Chrytorrhous (Pharphar) and Ahatui, flowing into a large lake
below Damascus, which was the chief town of the province. — The territory east and
north-east of these valleys as far as the Euphrates, is mentioned in connection both
with Seleucis and with CoBlo-Syria; but more commonly under the general name of
Syria; some places in it, on the Euphrates, should be mentioned; as Thapsacug
^El-Der), the celebrated ford, passed by Cyrus In his expedition against Anaxerxes,
by Darius after his defeat by Alexander at Issus, and by Alexander in pursuit of Da-
rius ; and Orouros (Gorur), fixed by Pompey as the boundarjr of the Roman empire
when he reduced Syria to a province ; but the chief place in this extensive region wzt
Palmyra^ or " Tadmor in the desert," said to have been built by Solomon, the resi-
dence of Longinus (cf. P. V. ^ 124), and of Zenobia, who so bravely defied the em*
peror Aurelian ; it is yet marked by celebrated architectural ruins.

On the rains of Palmyra, aaa S. Wood, aa dted P. IV. f 813. a.-Tbe Modam TravOar.^lrb^ and MmgUi, Travela la ECypt,
Qyria, ke. Load. 1822. 8.

P hcenici a contained the cities of TvruB (Tyre) and Sidon^ famous for their exten-
sive commerce. The siege of Tvre oy Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate
defence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the besiegers.
Berytus (Beirut), north of Sidon, was the seat of a distmguished school for the study
of law in the age of Jastinian.

Beirat has been ibr several years a very (ntemiSi^ missienary station. In its vldn'rty, on mount Lsbenon, dwell the Maitmilea
•Bd tbe Drans.— See J<nMtC$ Bceearebes.— Kiifionary JSTcraU, from tbe year 1888, passim.— JotuTs Mmnoir of i^tny /Vafe.

^167. J u d le a, or P a 1 se 8 1 i n a, is called in Scripture the land of Canaan, of Israel,
and of Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes ; it was afterwards
separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally the Romans divided it
into four regions ^ Galiuea, Samaria, Judaea fl|ppria, and Persea or Transfluviana, the
countrjr beyond Jordan. -^K

Galilee a was again subdivided into Infe^, chiefly inhabited by Jews; and Su-
perior, which, from its proximity to Coelo-Syria, was called Galilee of the Gentiles. —
The chief towns of Upper Galilee were CcBsarea Philippic so called to distinguish it
from another town of the same name in this province ; its original name was Laish,
afterwards changed to Paneas, and finally called Ceesarea Philippi, bv Herod's son
Philip ; Gabara and Jotonatat bravely defended by the historian Josephus, when be-
sieged by Vespasian. The principal cities in Lower Galilee were Ace^ or Ptolemais
(Acre), memorable for its siege by Richard CoBur de Lion in the time of the Crusades;
CatuB ; SepphoriSf afterwards called Dio Cassarca ; Nazareth and Jezreel. — A large
lake in Galilee was called the Sea of Tiberias or Gennesareth ; at its northern ex-
tremity was Chorazin; at the western side were Capernaum, Tiberiast and Bethsaida;
on the opposite side was Gadara. — ^The chief mountains of Galilee were Carmd and

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p. I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. JT7DJEA. 51

Itmbyrws or Tabor, the scene of our Lord*8 transfiguration. — Between Galilee and
Samaria stood Bethgan, the chief of the ten confederate cities called Deeapolut, which,
dreading the power of the Jews, entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean
princes, who then governed J wlea.

^ 168 a. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the capital,
destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Herod, who called it Sebaste, in
honor of Augustus; CtBsarca, first called Turris Stratonices, a celebrated seaport, the
residence ot the Roman governors ; Joppa^ a seaport south of CiBsarea, where An-
dromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by Perseus (P. II. % 122) ; Sichcm, in the
interior, the ancient capital, between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim; it was in later
times called Neajtolis; Lydda, called by the Greeks Dioapolis; and Arimathea.

Judsea was situated south of Samaria, between the Lake Asphaltites, or Dead
Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Hierosolyma (Jerusalem), which we
shall notice particularly in the next section. North-west from Jerusalem was Em-
matta or Nicopolis, where the Jews were defeated by Vespasian ; directly north was
Bethel; north-east was Jericho; south from Jerusalem was Belfilehenif the birthplace
of Christ ; further south, Hefiron, where Abraham was buried ; still ftirther, some-
what to the west, Beersheha, often mentioned as the southern limit of the country of
Israel ; south-west, Eleutheropolis, a very flourishing city in the time of Eusebius.

) 108 b. NUrosalymoj or JeruMlein, originally belonffed to the Jebusites, from whom it was
taken by David, who made ii his residence. The Arabians now call it El-Kud*, the Holy.— It is
situated on a broad elevation, having higher hills all around it ; the Mount of Olioos on the east ;
on the north a ridee extending from the Mt. of Olives and bending around to the west, at the
distance of more than a mile : on the west, hills at a greater distance sloping gently, beyond a
ain ; on the south, the Hill of Evil Counsel rising directly on the further side of the Valley of
SIbsoid.

b is sonroanded by walls presenting a stately appearance, of hewn stone, with towers and
battleaieats, of a height varying according to the Inequalities in the ^und, f^om twenty to fifty
feet; in circumference abont two and a half geographical miles. The aii«MiU waUt formed a
larger circuit ofabout three and a half geographical miles according to Josephus ; and Jerusalem
is said to have been anciently fortified by thru walls ; but this statement must not be understood to
mean that there were three walls around the whole city, one within another ; since the two
inner walls were merely walla intersecting the city and joining the outer wall ; the hill of ZioD
was first of all enclosed within a wall : then Moriah, with Ophel, was added, and afterwards
Akra« and a second wall was extended from the old one so as to include these ; subsequently
Beaeiba was annexed, and to protect this a third wall was constructed Joining the o^ers.

Of the eight former gates, only the four larger are now open : the OaU of iht Pillar, or Da-
mascos G\'e, on the north ; the Oatt of the Pilgrims, or Bethlehem Gate, on the west ; the OaU
•f Daxvi, or Zion Gate, on the south; and the Oato of tkt Triboo, or St. Stephen's Gate, on ilie
east. The principal streets now run nearly at rixht angles to each other.

The sarfkce of the rround is diversified by five* hills : the largest is Zion, in the sonthern part,
rising abruptly from the Valley of Hinnom ; north of this and in the western part of the city is
Mtrm, separated from Zion by the valley of the TyropoBon ; north-east from Jikra and east of llie
Daasaacus Gate is Beietka, in the north-western rart of the city ; south-east from this and in the
eastern part of the city is Moriah, which, with Bezetha, rises from the Valley of Jehoshaphat ;
sAQth of Moriah, and at the south-eastern corner of the city, is Opkel : Bezetha, Moriah, and
Ophel may be considered as parts of one ridge which extends to the south beyond the walls.

These hills are closely encompassed on three shies by narrow valleys ; on the east the ralUf of
Johtmhaphat ,* on the west, the FalUy of Oihon, which is continued into the ValUf of Hinitom on
the south : at some distance from the south-eastern corner of the city, the Valley of^Jehoshaphat
and that of Hinnom are connected. The Brooh Kidron is hut the bed of a torrent which during
the rains of winter flows through the Valley of Jehoehsphat to the south. The valley in which
was the bed af the ancient TffrajMBon commences in the depression between Zion and Alcra (near
tiM western or Hnbron or Bethlehem gate), and descending easterly bends to the south tietween
Zion and Ophel^and meets with the other two valleys at their common point of Junction.

The hill Zion was the part first occupied by David, and hence called ** the city of David."
Only the northern part of it is now within the walls ; much of the rest is literally '*a ploughed
ffeld;'* on the north-western part is the pres*'nt citsdel, the lower portions of the walls of whicia
are probably the remains of the ancient Tower of Ifippieuo.— On the summit of A kra is the chnrcti
of the Holy Sepulchre, on the spot designated by doubtful tradition as being the Oolgotha and
the (Mtrarf of the Scriptures.— Bezetha is mostly covered with low buildings or hovels, with no
obvioos traces of ancient ruins.— On Moriah, which at the first was apparently a monad uf solid
rock, the TtmpU of Solomon was built ; the surface of the rock being leveled for the purpose ;
and then immense walls were erected from the base of the rock on the four sides, and the
Interval between filled in with earth or built up with vaults so as to make on the top a large
area, which formed the Court of tk* Temple. To this the present area of the grand Musque of
Omar, or enclosure called *■* El-Haram-esh-Bherlf,*' nearly if not wholly corresponds; being a
plateau or terrace nearly in the form of a parallelogram, supported by and within massive walls
ballt up from the lower ground on all sides; the lower portions of the walls are probably the
very walls on which the ancient Temple rested ; as seems to be shown by some remains of an
iounense arch which supported the Bridre that formerly extended from the Temple across the
TyropoBon to a celebrated Xyttut or portico on Mount Zion.— In the northern part of the present
area of the Mosque of Omar was the fortress called the Tovor of^ntonia, rendered memorablo
In the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, who captured the city, A. D. 70; afwhich time the Temple
was utterly destroyed by fire. The Mosque now on iu site was built by Omar in the seventh
cemory.

The ancient inhabitants depended for water, as do the modern, chiefly on OMtemo ; almosi
every boose having now one or more excavated in the limestone rock on which the city stands.
I eislcrits also stUl exist witliia the space tinder tl^ area of the Temple. Large opsa

52 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHY.

reMTToira or tanks, or poolt, were likewise con«trnct«d In and around the city. The Ujtptr Po9»
and tlie Loirtr Pool still exist; the former west of the city, in the Valley of Gihnn ; the latter,
OD the south-west, in the Valley of Ilinnnm. The Pool of Batkakeba, the Pool of Heiekiah, and
the PoH of Betkuda^ are names given to three reservoirs within the present walls : the latter Is
at the north-east corner of the Haram-esh-^herif; but there is no evidence that it is the pool
mentioned in the New Testament by the same name (Bifdco^a), having live porcb<>s.— The only
FounUtin* of living water now accessible are three; that now called the fVell of ^Tekemiak^ pro-
bably the En-Rortl uf the Old Testament (Jo.'ih. xv. 7, 8; xviii. IG), a deep well just below the
Jnnction of the Valley of Hinnoni with that of Jehoshaphat; the Fonntain and Fool of Sitoam,
which is in the valley of the Tyropceon, Just above its Junction with the Valleys of Iliimoni and
Jehoehaphat; and the Fountain ojf the yir/rin^ which is some distance from that point of Junc-
tion, up the Valley of Jehoshaphat : the water of the latter is accessible only by descending
sixteen steps down an excavation in the solid rock; and an artificiHl subterranean pausage
extends from it through Mount Ophel to the Fountain of Siloam, winding so as to make the
distance 1750 feet, by which the waters of Biloam proceed from t)ie Fountain of Mary the Vir-
gin.—A fountain is said to exist at the depth of seventy or eighty feet below the area of the
grand mosque, flowing by some artificial passage.

An Jlqutdut^ supposed to be ancient, carries water across the Valley of Ilinnom, around the
sides of^ Mount Zloo, and conveys it, as is supposed, to the ilarani-esh-8berif, or area of the
mosque.

East of Morlah, on the rocky elevation Just beyond the Brook Kfdron, are the sepulchral
monumenU called the TVsi* »/ Jtbtalom or Jih»alom*» Pillar (cf. P. III. H 187. 5), and Tumh of
ZocAartas.— South-east of these, on the south-western declivity of the Mount of Olives, are the
excavated sepulchres called the Tombt of ike PrvpkeU.—Thdae called the Tombs of tke Judges,
are further up the Valley of Jehoshaphat, rather west of north from the city.— The remarkable
excavations commonly called the Tombt eftkeKingt^ are about north firom the city, on ih«! nearer
side of the Valley : they are probably the celebrated sepulcher of the mother of Constantiuf , the
Empress Helena, who, having embraced Christianity, spent the latter part of her life at Jera-
aalem, and died there at the age of eighty, about A. D. 335.

Tbe aboT* oaUlnci of IIm Topography of J«ru«l«Bi will be of Mrrleo to (be iladcat Id mdiag th« Seriptareit mad the ialenviy
faalmitliif Korr of the liege end deMraelloo of the citjr by the RoaBut.~aec Jtmfhut {tS. P. V. | SiS)— Milmsn, ae eiicd \ II I. li

For fuller deUiU u to the Topecnphy, eee F. O. Cromt, Jeranien, in Ertck uttd Oruh^t AieyefqpOtfw.— £. Aoliiieon,

Biblical IleMarcbea,u died \ 171. In vol. iii. is a faU liat of worka on Falertine. For deUlla rapeetii« Uie Tannple, with Plaae,

a», Me a. PridtaiUKy ComezioBa, Ac N. York, 184a 2 fols. B. with cnpaTiaci.— OaZmcT, Diet of Uie Bible, Fraginanb lU"
i40LvoLiiLp.SM. CfaaricaL I81S. dvola. 4.— ForPUnof UieCbttfchof tbeHol7Se|Hi)du«,lu.,ieealMCUmcl, voLiii. p. 164.

^ 169 a. The southern district of Judsa was called Idutnea, or the land of Edom ;
the chief towns were Geni, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot of Mount Seir. But this dis-
trict, or the principal part of it, is included, perhaps more properly, under Arabia Pe-
traa ($ 171). — The sea-coast was called FhiliMlcM, or the land of the Philistines, from
whom the whole country is now called Palestine ; its chief towns were Gath, Ekion,
Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza.

^ 169 b. PersDa is separated from the other provinces by the river Jordan. The
cUief towns were Ramoth-Gilead, in the land of the Gileadites; Gadara, on the tor-
rent Hieromas, where the Christians were severely defeated bv the Saracens; Gaulon^
a fortress of remarkable strength ^ Gamala, near the Sea of Tiberias ; and Rabboth-
Ammon, in the district Ammomtis, afterwards called Philadelphia. — The Jordan
rises in Mount Hermon, and passing through the Sea of Tiberioif falls into the lake
A$phaUitc9i whence there is no exit for its waters.

This lalce la supposed to occupy the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. It baa
been said that, from its extreme sallness or other properties, it is destructive of animal and
vegetable life, and that neither fish nor weeds are found in its waters. Dr. E. Robinson, who
visited the region in 1838, states that the water is intensely salt and bitter : but that trees and
bushes grow by it ; no pestiferous vapor was perceived, and many birds were singing amonff
the trees, and some flying over the waters. Bibl. Rcpos. Apr. 1839, p. 410.

§ 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and £ii-
phratest whence it derives its name. lis chief towns were Nisibis, on a oranch of the
Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romans against the Parthiaiis ; Edessa, near Syria ;
Seleucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence ot the Tigris with a branch of the Bunhra-
tes; and Carrtut^ called in Scripture Charran, for a time the residence of Abranam,
and the scene of the miserable overthrow of Crassus. On the borders of Chaldea
were the plains of Cunaxa, where Cyrus was slain by his brother Artazerxes, and
where the ten thousand Greeks commenced that retreat so memorable in historv.

Babyloxia and Chaldasa were districts separate from Mesopotamia, Iving below it
to the south-cast. Their chief town was Babylon, the most ancient and remarkable
city of antiquity.

Beius, its founder, commenced his building near the tower of Babel, which by profVioe writers
is called after his name ; but to Semlramia, the widow of his descendant Ninus, the grandeur
of Babylon is attributable. She enclosed the city with a wall of briclc cemented by bitumen, of
almost incredible dimensions, and ornamented it with one hundred brazen gates. The circuit
of the city was said to have been more than sixty miles ; and so great was its length, that when
Cyrus bad captured one extremity of the city, the inhabitants of the other were ignorant of the
event until the following morning. — ^The river Euphrates flowed through the city, and Cyni|i
having diverted the river into another channel, led his troops through the vacant bed, and sur-
prised the Babylonians, who, with their monarch Belshaszar, were at that moment celebrating
a ftpat in honor of their gods, and consequently made but a feeble resisunce.— The Chaldeans

P.I* AFRICA. iBOYPTUS. 63

wmre celebrated aitronomera, but they debased the science by the admixture of Jadfcial aatro-
logy, for which perversion of intellect they were greatly celebrated.

da fbm tapofnpby sad rnim of Baby loo lad Nionwh, tra /. X. Ktmnekr^ Geognpbical McnMHr on ftrtta.— Aomat^ Rcnirki
« te Tbpv^pky of bbjloo. Lowl. ISId.— fiicA, Mamoir oa Babykn, te. Lo^l8l8^£iU. Ripai, No. zziL 9es ; No. zxjii.

East of the Tigris lay Assyria, now called Kurdistan from the Carduchi, a tribe
that inhabited the northern part of the coontry; they are mentioned by Xenophon as
having opposed the retreat of the ten thousand ; they are supposed still to exist in the
modem Koords, various tribes of whom occupy the mountains of this country, and
who are generally of a savage character.— Its chief towns, Ninus or Nineveh, fre-
auently mentionea in Scripture ; the ruins of this celebrated city lie opposite the mo-
aem Mosul; and Arhela^ near which is the village Gaugamela, where Alexander
overturned the Persian empire, by the defeat of Danus.

^ 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which was the
large peninsula between the Sinus Persicus (Persian Gulf), and the Sinus Arabiata
(Red Sea). It was divided into three parts ; Deserta (desert), Petraa (stony), and
Fdix (happy).

Arabia Deserta \&y between Syria and Chaldsea, and extended along the Sinus
Persicus. — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, was in the southern part border-
ing on the Sinus Arabicus and the ocean. The most remarkable among its inhabitants
were the Safk^ij who cultivated frankincense. Maeoraha was the name by which the
Greeks knew Mecca, which is illustrious in the Mohammedan history ; here is the
famous building called Kaha or Kaaba, with the fabulous hUuk ttone of Gabriel. —
Arabia Pet rs a was a smaller portion lying south of Judea and at the head of the
Sinns Arabicus or Red Sea, which is here divided into two bays, the eastern called
JElaniies Sinus, and the western Heroopolites Sinus, Between these bays or arms
were the mountains Horeb and Sinai. On the eastern was the seaport Berenice or
Asongaber, the Ezion-Gebcr of Scripture. The most remarkable place was Petra
(callea >Se2a by the Hebrews), embosomed in rocky mountains just south of Judea, in
the district called Idumea.

The mint of Petra have been discovered recently, and have excited great Interest from their
•triidng peculiarities (being entirely excavations from the solid rock), and f^om the evidence
they furnish of the fkilfilment of prophecy.

9t»Lmtard^ Jannej to Arabia PMne^ Load. 1836. S vob. & wHh 66 platM—Cf. Land. Quart. Rt9. No. anM^North Jmar,
am. far Jka. I8S7w-3iU. Rtptiitcry, vol. is. p. 4Si^— SdrAou^ Inddanti Ot Tnrcli, te.— £. RUmton, BiUial RcmiclMi in
Ma«iD^ Mv SfaMi, aad Ajabia FMnu, Boil. 1841. S f ols. S.

Tbe ulmii »itMiin too inqairiw of BoblmoB wan to bare nttled tba qnctiioB u to the memitaio OB which Iba Ten Comanad.
BHtowvn^vrabyGod loMoMi ihowing nttaCwIorily (bat It wu not tha nmrnU poialad oat by tradiikni under the nane of
SfMi V Jrtd-Mte, faol BDolbar aaaimit a IKtto aortb-wart fhaa it, bokdikc to what la ealkd frorck-Sea tba wj iaterartliig
aBaiHt.«oLLp.B7-ClflL

Tk» edcbntcd Simmitic buaiptiam^ wblcfa faave attradad tba attastiao of tnvelcn, in an nnkoown and peenliar alphabet, faava
terif baandedphmd br Sv, of Leipiie.-Sea AiNiiMn, vol. L p. 188, 653.~Ony^ in tba TVoruocf. oftkt JSoyoi Soe. ofLUtra-
ivi^wLiU. LoBi-ini.

^ 172. The Asiatic IsLAin>s were not yer^ important, except those in the Mare
JEgseiun already named (^ 147). The principal other in the Mediterranean was C y-
pras. sacred to Venus; the chief towns of which were Pa^os, where stood the
celebrated temple of Venus, infamous for the debauchery and prostitution it sanc-
tioned ^ Citiuvi, the birthplace of Zeno, the Stoic, on the west coast ; Salamis (Fama-
gusta), built by Teucerf on the east ; Lapethusi Artinoi, and Solij in the north ; and
Tamassus, celebrated for its copper-mines, in the interior. — The other islands were
Proamnesus (Marmora), in the rropontis; Taprobane (Ceylon), and Jabadi (Sumatra),
in the Indian ocean.

IIL OP AFRICA.

^ 173. The name Africa was applied strictly and properly by ancient eeographers,
at least until the time of Ptolemy, to a small part of that vast peninsula oT the eastern
continent which it now designates ; and by them Egypt was reckoned among the
Asiatic kingdoms. But we here use the term as including all that Was known to the
ancients of that whole country. We shall consider it under the following divisions ;
jEgyitus, or Egypt, .Ethiopia, Libya, Africa Propria, Numidia, Mauritania,
and Africa Ikterior. v ».

^ 174. The general boundaries of JEqyttvs were the Mediterranean on the north,
Syria and the Sinus Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and Lybia on the
wcit The Umit between it and Syria was the Torrens JEaypti, or river of Egypt as
csUed m the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea called Pains SiHwnis. The

e3

54 CLASSICAL OEOORAPHY.

limit between Egypt and Lybia on the west waa the great declivity and narrow pass
termed Catabathnos (KarafioByidi). Jts southern limit was the smaller cataract of the
NUe.

One of the most striking features of Egypt was its river, Ndiu. This has two prin-
cipal sources ; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now called Aoys-
sinia, and the western in the Lutkb Monies, or Mountairu of the Moon. Having passed
through the ancient Ethiopia, it flows through the whole length of E^ypt to the Medi-
terranean ; not receiving a single tributary tor the last 1000 miles of its course, and at
last dividing into two great arms and forming the triangular island called Delta from
its shape. It had seven mouths; the most western was the Ostium Canopicum ; the
others in their order proceeding towards the east, were the Balbytinum, Scbenniti-
cum, Phatnicum, Mendesium, Taniticum, and Pelusiacum. — Its annual inundations
were the great cause of fertility, and reservoirs and canals were formed in great num-
bers to convey the water over the whole country ; where the land waa too high to
allow canals to convey it, pumps were used for raising the water ; almost every vil-
lage, it is said, had its canal, although there were in the narrow valley of Egypt many
thousand cities and villages.

^ ilb. There were three principal divisions of Egypt j the northern part on the Me-
diterranean was called JEgyptuM inferior; the southern port on th« confines of Ethio-
pia waa JEsjfptui Superior or T*hebai»; and the portion between the.«»e, Heptanomis. —
The capittd of Lower Egypt was Alexattdria, the great mart of Indian merchandize ;
during the middle ages, caravans continually passed from thence to Arsinoe (Suez),
on the Red Sea, whence goods were conveyed by sea to India. In front of the har-
bor was an island named Pharos, on which a celebrated lighthouse was built ; south
of the city was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of which the best Egypti-ui wine was
made, in Alexandria was the celebrated library, said to have been buined by the
Saracens. (Cf. P. IV. $ 76). — In the interior of the Delta was Sais, the anc»enl capi-
tal, remarkable for its numerous temples. Between the Delta and Sinus Arabicus
were Heroopolis, the city of the shepherd kings ; and Onion, founded by a colony of
Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus,
and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple.

Ib Lower Ettypt. msI oTtb* Ddta, wm th« Inut 0/ Gotten, «eeardin« lo the Tiefr* of the twt Bodani Hlton.-Ct M. FUtMom,
tm ihtBnim at rbB hmiitatt he, JhbLlUpoi.y^ 0.7**. Aito, RoewcbM, toL U

^ 176. In the middle portion or Heptatumis, one of the chief places was Memphis,
near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands; it was the ancient metropolis of all
Egypt ; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsinoi south-west of Memphis
WHS an important place ; near this was the famous lake Maris, said to have been exci-
vated by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain the waters of the Nile
conveyed into it by a great canal, now the lake Birket-el-Kuntn, and believed to have
been wholly or chieflv the work of nature ; at the southern end of this lake was tbe
still more celebrated Labyrinth. — Oxyrynchus wm a considerable place, said to hav«
derived its name from a sharp-nosed nsn («Jf*f v<'yxoi) worshiped by the inhabiianis.—
In Upper Egypt, the most important place was Thebes, which gave the name of Thehais to
this division ; called also by the Greeks Diospolis, and Hecatompylos ;^ although de-
stroyed by Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins still excite admiration, occupying
a space of 27 miles in circumference, including the modem Kamak, Luxor, and other
villages; near it was the famous statue of Memnon. — Tentyi^ (Donderah), was nortk
of Thebes, and also presents interesting ruins; especially 'the large temple of lais,
from the ceiling of which was taken the famous Zodiac transported to France and
made the subject of much speculation (cf. Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. iv). — Between
Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the eastern side of the Nile, was Cop^
tos; from this place a road was constructed by Ptolemy Philadelphus across the desert
10 Berenice on the Sinus Arahicui. Considerably to tne south of Thebes was Ombi
made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the wor
ship of the crocodile. Syene was the extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the
place of Juvenal's exile ; where also was the well sunk to mark the summer solstice, its
bottom being then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over
it. Not far from Syene was the island on which Ehphantine stood, of which interest-
ing ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Mmis Basaniies, mountains of touch-
stone, from which the Egyptians used to make ornamental vases. — South of Syene
were the Cataracts of the r»file ; mighty terraces of red eranite {Syenite) cross the' bed
of the river, and throw its waters into an impetuous and foaming torrent. In this region
were the miarries whence the vast obelisks and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyp-
tian temples were taken. There were three places on the Sinus Arabicus, ^ft'hich
should be mentioned ; Berenice, in the southern extremity of Egypt ; Arxinoi (now
Suez), at the head of the Sinus Hcroopolites, the western arm of the Red Sea ; and
Myoshomvus, called also Portus Veneris, midway between them ; they were commercial
places, goods being transported from them to the Nile. A canal, called Fossa Trajanif
fxumected Arsinoe with that river.

'zm

--- '. ^■•T-?T7.«r"ry:*

tim^^i

p. I. AFRICA. j£THIOPIA« 59

In the vast deserts on the western or Lybian side of Egypt were the cultivated and
inhabited spots called Oasis Magna, and Oasis Parva^ the Great and the Little Oasis.
The latter was in the division termed Hcptanomis, south of lake Moeris. The Great
Oasis is in the part that was called Thebais. It was a place of banishment in the lime
of the later Roman empire ; yet said to have been a delightful residence, and some-
times called by the Greeks, the isle of the blessed.

% 177. 'I'he ruins and antiquities ol Egypt have ever awakened the deepest interest
in ibe troiveler and the schotar. Besides the various temples and other edifices, of which
splendid remains are found in various places, the foftowing rank high among the objects
of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Fillars; several of these were removed to Rome ; of
the remaining, the most noted are the Pillar of On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks ,
called Cleopatra^ s Needles at Alexandria, and Pompejfs Pillar, also at Alexandria. An *
obelisk, nearly 70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be erected
in thai city, by Louis Philippe. — 2. The PyramidSi ranked by the Greeks among the
seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the ancient
Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. Those at Gize are the most cele-
brated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of whicli we have account.
Several others have been openedjn recent times. They all contain chambers evidently
used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. IV. ^ 231. P. 11. ^ 96. 3.)— 3. Catacombs. These
are subterranean burying places. They are found in several places ; but the most re-
markable are near Thebes, at a place now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot
of the mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks, and extend,
it is said, over the space of two miles. From these, many mummies have been taken. —
The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonderful than the pyramids, included
numerous subterranean chambers designed as reposhories for the deaa ; over these wa»
an immense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Mceris
(} 176) have been discovered.— 4. Colossal images and statues. One of the most re-
markable of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. II. ^117) is near the great pyra-
mids. A very celebrated colossus is that commonly called the statue of Alemnon (cf.
P. IL ^ 74. P. IV. ^ 169. 2. ^231. 1).— The Egyptian monuments are covered v^th
inscriptions in Hieroglifphit» {cf. P. IV. ^ 16).

Uadk raardi has beea era ployed in nodem timei opon Efvptian Aatiqaitia and RennlDi. A new dcgrae of latircrt wia
tvakcaed Id Hh whole robjeel by the celebrated eocpeditioD of Bonaperte Id 1798. In thif invuion of t^ffpt, be took with him •
deSM^acnl of do Ine then one bnadred men who bad cnlliveled the arta and leieiica (sacaiu) lelected for the parpoea. **Thii
hDd7,te fint of the kind which ever accenpuied an iondiag anny, waa llbeially lupplied with booka, phtloaophieal inatnimand^
and afl tiM BCnaa of pnMeeoling (he leTenJ departmceto of knowledfe."— The tplemJid work, publialMd under Uie eapera^
frtnaage^ nod ^\ai DmaiptUm «k PJS^ypfe, waa the rcnlt of their labon (cf. P. I V. ^ 169).

Maajr ofhcr valnUe worka illosKnitng the hii?ai7 and monwnents of E^ypt hare been pabliahcd durtnff Ibe prceent ceniory,
•oae tnm muobtn of ttie company of aeanfw above oimed. That of Dnion holda a hii^h rank ; entitled Trmodt in Upper and
lamw Bgyff imring Urn Campaignt of BanoparU ; with Colio platea.— The following works relate to tbi» rahjact. Lt^Vi T^vete
Jnl^TpfL— JSe.'zont'jTrBTCti.— /omar^aDeecription de rC^yple.— MsmiUon'f Agrpiiaca.— £«rrmm, Reebercfaea anr I'EgyptflL
— AuNiri View of AacicBt and Modern Egypt, io Sarptr't Fun. Library, Na xxxVn.—J. Miot, Menoim de I'Eipeditioa ea
EgTTtewte. Per. 1SI4.-J. O. fFOHmnn, Topopaphjr of Thebo, and general View of Egypt. Load. 1836. S.-J. O, Wiattfuan^
Maanen and Cwtoma of Uie Ancient Egypliana. Lond. 1637. 3 vola. 8w—We may add, the T r a r e 1 a of ClarkM, Nordm, Staw^
Itedta. Ct SappUimnttoEi»eydop. Britmm. article Egypt.— LoniL Quari. Bn. vol. ziii. I. zvi. 1. zvil. 181. ziz. 178. sziv.
Pk U8l— .AII0-. Qi«p«. Am. Na vii.— Ar. Quart. Bm. Noa. zzziL and xxxW.—Am. BihL Rtptm. No. Kxiii.— See alao refeieneea
fim P. rV. J 216. 1. § Zaa 1. ; SIS. 31 § S4S. a-A hialory of i\mfity*t JHUor is given in /. )rAaf>* Egypti^^

4 178. ^Ethiopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the coun«
try lying south of E^ypt; the modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia particularly
were included. — Vanous uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient
times ; on the coast were the Troglodyte, said to inhabit caves of the earth. It seems
also to have' contained inhabitants equally advanced in refinement with the Egyptians.

The most important places were Napata, Meroe, Auxume, and Adulis.' — Auxume
(Axom) was on one of the sources of the AsiaJboras (Taca2ze), the eastern branch of
the Nile. Its ruins still exist. " In one square, Bruce found 40 obelisks, each formed
of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and inscriotions, but no hieroglyphics. One
of the obeliisks was 60 feet high.'* — Here was found tne monument usually called the
Itucrrption of Asmm (cf. P. IV. % 92. 5.). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus
Arabicus; liaving some celebrity firom two inscriptions there found (cf. P. IV. % 92.
5).— ^feroe was on or near the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras ; near the
modem Shertdy, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract between these
livers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, beine the grand
emportuni of the caravan trade between Ethiopia and Egypt and the north of Africa.
The remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone stUl mark its site. — Napata was
&rther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe.

Theae ragieaa have aho been eiplored in modem timca, and iplendid mine bafe been foond acattered aloi« the valley or \f Kile.
The fUlowing an eooM of the aoorcea of information on the nbject. Bntaft Trarela in Abyminia, cited P. rv. § 1 ]& I.— Tnveli
of SaS aDd Lmd Falmtia; ot Bunkbantt: fVone. Gau (P. IV. (249. S),aBd eapeeially of Cteillt(RKi.-€f. Xund. Quart. A*,
eri. xfL UL xis. 174 —BaMnf Trarela in Ethiopia, Lond. ISSS, 8.

% 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from JEgyptus on the cast to tho
Syrtis Minor (Gulf of Cabes), together with an indefinite poruon en the south. The

56 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

term waa used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. In its strict and most
limited sense, it mcluded only the region between Egypt and the Syrtis Major (Gulf
of Sidra).— In the latter sense, ii comprifed on the coast only the two districts Mar-
tnarica and Cyrcnaica. We include under Libya also the portion farther west called
Heevp Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the coast already named.

Mar marie a was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said to
possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents; some of them, named
JPsylliy made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by sucking the venom
out of the wound. In an Oasis, itow El Wah, pouih of Marnianca, stood the cele-
brated temple of Jupiter Ammon (P. III. ^ 71), and near it \he fountain cf the nun,
whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening,
and scalding at midnight. Alexander, after having encountered great difficuhies, suc-
ceeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by the priest as eon of Jupiier.

"Belroni, previously to bi« leavinf Egypt, mnde a tour to El Wall (the bushes), the northern
Oaiiff. He found, ai Hornemann had, the topa of the hills of the dRicrt encniFtcd with salt, and
wellfof sweet water rising out of a surftice overspread with ninsiips orf>aU,oa Heroiloiiis related
two-and-twenty centuries ^go. He found also the remains of what hati t>f>rn considered as the
temple of Jtipiter Amnion ; but the natives were as Jpalons and ns unwilling lo it*t him see this
'work of the infidels,' as Horneinann had found them to be. The fine rivulet^f iiweet water,
whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of dale treoji. and which Brown was loid
by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was nltto vitiited by Belzoni ; who says
he proved the truth of what is staled by Herodotus, that this spring is warm in the mornings and
evenings, much more so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had Mr. Belzoni pos-
sessed a thermometer, he would have found that it was the temperature of the air which had
changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the sBnie."->LoN<i. ^uart. Jiev. xxiii. 95.

Cyrenaica, or PentanoliB (Barca), lay between Marmarica and the Syrtis Major,
or altars of the Philaeni. It contained five cities ; Cyrenc^ founded by a Greek colony,
the birthplace of the philosopher Carneades ; Apolumia, a celebrated seaport ; Ftole-
maiSf at farst called Barce; Artinog, and Bennice or Ifefperis^ near which were the
gardens of the Hesperides, famous for their golden apples, and the residence of the
Gordons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf P. II. ^ 115. Efl. Rev. No. 95, p. 22?).— West
of this was Regio S y r t i c a, also called, from its three cities, T r i p o I i t a n a ( Tripoli) ;
its cities were Lfvtis^ called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name
near Carthage ; cEa, the present chy of Tripoli ; and Scbrata, a Roman colony; and
TysdruSf now Elgem. A people called by Homer the Zjotophagi dwell on this coast ;
he says that they fed on the lotos, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it imme-
diately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dangerous quick-
sands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners ; here, also, was the lake
Tritonity sacred to Mmerva.

** There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Ltpti» and Cyrens.— The
situation of Gyrene is described as exceedin{;ly benutifiil.— **It is built on the edge of a range
of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, fhrmlnf* the summit of a
lower chain, to which it dnscends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower chain may
be estimated at 1000 feet; so that Cyrene stands about 1600 feet above the level of the sea, of
which it commands an extensive view over the table land, which, extending east and west as
far aa the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to ihe northward, and then descends abrnptly
to the coast. Advantage has been taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads
leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some Instances by narrow flights
of steps cut in the roclc. These roads, which may be supposed to liave been the favorite drives
of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep fur-
rowing the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these
Slleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural
:ades. The outer aides of the roads, where they descended from one range to another, were
ornamented with sarcophagi and monumental tombs ; and the whole sloping space between the
galleries was filled up with similar structures. These, as well as the excavated tombs, exhibit
very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple sarcophagus of white marble,
ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquisite workmanship, was found in a large
excavation. In several of the excavated tombs were discovered remains of paintings, repre-
senting historical, allegorical, and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those of Hercu-
laneum and Pompeii. (Cf. P. IV. ^ 936).— In the region of Cyrenaica are several caverns con-
taining stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It baa been supposed that
this fact, together with the existence of the ruins and excavations in the vicinity of Cyrene. may
have given rise to the story of the petrified city, of which, under the name of Has Sem, marvelous
accounts have been related to travelers in Africa.*'

8m Jfofam IVRWbr.- J. IT. f A BMcAy, ExpsdUioa lo Noflhcn CoMt of Af risL Ldod. 1828. 4.

* At T)fsint* are still found ruins of Roman structures ; particularly of a apaelous amphitheatre,
'* eonshting formerly of four rows of columns In tiers one above another, and sixty-four arcades.**
The inner area is said to be 900 feet in length and 200 In breadth ; and the whole circumference
1570 feet ; the height is estimated to have been at least 105 feet. The upper tier of columns is
nearly fallen ; the three lower are preserved.!

SMlUv.C/'.l^eaWli Diary. A diawisf b gina h Tte itmny Mifnini, Jan. IS, 1838.

^ 180. Next to Tripolitana was the province of Africa Propkia, of which the capi-
tal was Carthago. This city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by queen Dido, and
h/ its extensive commerce became one of the most opulent cities ot antiquity. Its
citadel was called Byna, because it waa said that Dido, on coming here, purchased

P.I. AFRICA. NUMIDIA. MAURITANIA. 57

as mncli ^ound as she conld encompass with a Pvpva, or hide, and then, having cut
the hide into strips, took in the epace originally covered by the city.

Canhage is immortalized by poets and liiBtorians on accoifnt of the three wars which it sus-
tained afmlnat the Romans. The last of these wars resulted in the total destruction of the city
by Scipio Africanus the younger, B. C. 146. The city is said to have been above twenty miles
in circainfereDce ; ft being set on fire by the Romans, the conflagration lasted seventeen days.
Anew city was bailt by the emperor Augustus at a small distance from the site of the ancient.
The new Carthage was taken from the Romans by Genseric, A. D. 439, and for more than a cen-
tury afterwards was the capital of the Vandal empire in Africa. It was finally destroyed by the
Saracens towards the end of the seventh century. A single aqueduct is said to be the chief trace
of it found In modern limes.

The other remarkable towns in this district were Tunes or Tuneta (Tunis), where
Regulus was defeated and taken prisoner ; Clupea^ near the Promontorium Mercurii
(Cape Bona); Adrumetum; Tkapsusy 'where Ceesar defeated Scipio and Juba; and
Uticaj where Cato the younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas,
where Regius slew an enormous 6er[)ent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers.

$ 181. NuxiDiA was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Mossyii, ruled by
Massioissa, and that of the Massffisyli, tmder the government of Syphax ; but after
the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom under Massinissa. The capi-
tal was Certa, The principal towns on the sea-coast were Tabraca, remarkable lor
its groves ; Hippo Regius^ near the small river Ruhricatutt the episcopal seat of Saint
AufQstine; ona Rusicade. In the interior were Vaga; Sicca; and Zarnaf where Han-
nibal was defeated by Scipio. On the confines of the desert were Thala and Capsa.

% 182. MAUKriANiA was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas. — Its
chief towns were Ctzsarea, whence the eastern part was called Caesar iensis; and
TiMgis (Tangiers), from which the western received the name Tingitana. This
country extended from the river Ampsagat, separating it from Numidia. to some dis-
tance on Uie Atlantic coast. The Romans, ajfter their conquest over these regions,
planted in them numerous colonies, and constructed fortresses and roads, of which
some traces yet remain. The most southern Roman settlement was that called Ex-
fiamlio ad Mercurium, on the coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this terri-
tory were named OceanuB Atlanticus^ from the chain of moimtains called Atlas,
which bounded Mauritania on the south, and terminated at two different points on
the coast, the northern ridge being termed Allot Minor, and the southern Athu
3tajor.-^Mon» Abyla was the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Medi-
terranean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the fabled
pillars of Hercules {Herculis Columna).

% 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Africa In-
taRioB, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries. — The Gsetuli, and
Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dwelling within it. The Nigritm
were placed about the river Niger. The Great Desert was called Deserta Libym /»-

terioris. On the coast west of this were the IiisuUb FortunaUD; called also Cana-

na, from the number of large dogs, as some suppose, found upon them, and thence
their modem name Canaries. — South of these were the Ifuulce Hesperidumj the mo-
dem Cape Verd islands, on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides
(cf. % 179). — West of this coast the ancients also placed the island Atlantis, said to
have existed once, and to have been afterwards submerged in the ocean. It was re-
presented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as very fertile and powerfuL

Borne have considered the whole account of Atlantis as a mere fable ; others have conjectnred
tkat the Canaries, Madeira Isles, and Azores, once formed parts of a vast island thus described;
and otbecs have maintained that the land referred to must have been the continent of America.

na klter «piaian iiiauotuiwd in aa Emaj eotitlad h Calkm: An JUttmpt to ikow thai Atmriea rmut U ktunwn lo tkt
Aiu^tla, #c by a Imniten Bnfiithmm, FMlor at a Cbwch io BmIoo. Eockn, Mew Ei^ltiHl, MDCCLXXIII.— Some b»««

hailif fl ilMt llili liimi ttw ■HiiTr' 'r "- ~-" f— ; '^-^'y. ' ■*' " ' "-■n"-'- -»- "-tn. ■r Pws, ITTS. 8.

to Ibttc-i^wft Oat^nphf'— A^* St. FhtatU, EmI wr l^otiuM AibBilde. Ptf. 1804 4.~TlM wdHit itoiy b glvao ia
JOanHeutot Fkiok

8

VIII a.

•XaVJ[ HXHO^

XHYJ Hxnog

INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY.

Preliminary Bemarks.

% 184. Chuokologt treats of the computation of time and of the dates of events. It
is comparatively a modern science. Among the ancients there was scarcely any sys-
tematic attention to the suhject. Yet it is a lii^hly important science. Accurate chro-
nology is essential to all reasoning Anm historical ^cts ; the mutual dependence and
lelsuons of events cannot be traced without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been
called one of the e^es of history, while geography with equal propriet]^ has been said
to be the other. Chronology is also an important aid to the memory, if properly con-
sidered, in studying history and biography.

In ireatlnc ibis subject, altbougb oar detiffn requires a special reference to ClaaMieal Chronolegf,
jet from the nature of the sabject we must introduce some f binge which belong rather to the
Bdence in general. We shall explain the Greek and Roman divisions of time and modes of com-
puting it ; and endeavor to present all that the student will need as preparatory to a full study
of the classical historians and of ancient history.

Cbboxologt may be considered as consisting of tiro parts; the first, measuring
time and adjusting its various divisions; the second fixing the dates of nistorical events
and arranging them in order.

I.— (y measuring Time and adjusting its divisions.

i 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested to all
men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three ; days, months, and
years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis, or the apparent revolution
of the son around her ; the month from the periodical changes in the moon ; the year
from the annual motion of the earth in her orbit round the sun. — These three divisions
are not commensurate, and this has caused the chief embarrassment in the science of
Chronology; it has, in point of fact, been difficult so to adjust them with each other in
a system of measuring time as to have the computed time and the actual time perfectly
in agreement or coincidence.

% 186. The day. This was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally was dis-
tinguished, it is likely, from the night ; extending from sunrise to sunset only. It was
afterwards considered as including also the night, or time between sunset and sunrise.
But the beginning of the day has been reckoned differently by different nations, for
civQ purposes ; at sunrise, by the Babylonians, Persians, Syrians and inhabitants of
India; at sunset, by the Jews, Athenians, ancient Gauls, and Chinese; at midnight,
by the Egyptians, Romans, and modems generally. — Astronomers in their calculations
consider the day as beginning at noon, after the manner of the Arabians according to
Priestley.— There have auo been various modes of subdividing the day. — *' The di-
vision of time into hours is very ancient : as is shown by Kircher (OCdip. .£gypt. t. ii.
pan 2). The most ancient hour is that of the twelfth part of a day. Herodotus ob-
serves that the Greeks learnt irom the Egyi^tians [Babylonians, 1. ii. c. 1091 , among
other things, the method of dividing the day into twelve parts ; and the astronomers
of Cathaya still retain this method. The division of the day into twenty-four hours
was not known to the Romans before the Punic war." {Tegg.)

^ 187. The Greeks, in the time of Homer, seem not to have used the division into
hoars ; his poems present us with the more obvious parts of the day, morning (4b>0f
noon (jiivop tiftap)^ and evening (ittXri). But before the time of Herodotus, they were
accustomed to the division of the day, and of the night also probably, into 12 parts.
They were acquainted also with the division of the day and night into four parts each,
according to the Jewish and Roman custom.

The JRomans subdivided the day and night each into four parts, which were called
Tigila {vigUio') or watches. They also considered the day and the night as each di-
vided into 12 hours; three hours of course were included in a vigil. — The day vigils

59

62 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOOr.

begfnnfng of the third century after Christ. The dsjt were named after the planets or pagan

?oaB'i Dies Solu, Sunday; J^unie, Monday; AtartiSf Tuesday; Mereurii^ Wednesday; JovU,
'hursdny ; FenerU^ Friday ; Saturni, Saturday. It is worihy of nntica. that our names for the
days had a similar origin, as is seen by observing their Saxon derivation ; Sunnadtpg, 6un*s day ;
Monandtef^ Moon's day ; Ttutdagy day of I'liisco (i. e. MaT$) ; tVvdenedo'fr^ day of Wodin or
Odin, a nortkern deity ; Tkortdag^ day of Thor, a deity answering to Jupiter ; Frigdrng^ day of
Frigga, the Venns of ilie north ; S<turdag^ day of Sater or Seater (i. e. Saturn, cf. P. 11. ^ 16. 2.)

% 192. The y^ar. This division was probably not formed uRtil some considerable
advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was Long after its iirst adop-
tion before it attained to any thin^ like an accurate form. — I'he most ancient year oi
which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to coniain 30 days each,
thus amouniino; to 3G0 days. It has been conjectured that this ^ave rise to the divi-
sion of the ecliptic into 360 eoual parts or degrees, which is siiil preserved. But it
was soon found that this fell snort of the actual year, or the time of a involution of the
earth ; and an addition of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days ;
This is ascribed to the Thebans. The Grecian year, however, as established by So-
lon and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and a
quarter.

Tba mftuier io irhidi the Owifci mds ttidr eoDpatatioD bj Iba Ivotr tnonthi to icrce witt tbe nlar yew, bH iliwdj bMa
ezpU.ned ($ 18fi).— Cf. OiAvC, I^uofe Gracqaa, in th* Han. Jtead. Tmer. voL niv. p. 183.

The Eoman year seems t6 have consisted of 365 days until the time of Julius
Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous a^es to adjust their com-
putation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned (^ 191), and hk^-
wise the confusion which resulted from it. This Caesar attempted to remedy (cf. P.
V. ^ 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80
days, which computed time had gained of actual time, he* ordered one year of 445
days (365 plus 80), which was called the Year of confution. And to secure a proper
allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4
years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be intercalated in the reckon-
ing of every 4rh year; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — This
is called the Julian year. In the Roman calendar the intercalated day was placed after
the 6th (s&rrux) of tne Calends of March, and therefore called bistextus; hence the
phrase bissextile year still in use.

But in thU plan thare ww gtill tn error. The i»j wu Intercililed too woon ; I. a. bafar* a toAolc dsy ted bom guinti ; beca—
cooipoted time, imtead of piniof 9 boun a year, gainod ooly S Awn 48 m. 57 mc, and in four yoan would gain only 23 A. IS m.
48 MS. ; n tti« iatercalalad day was inerlad too noB by 44 minutu and 12 ««c«fub ; of ooone, conputod time, by tbia plan, loot
44 m. 12 IK. erery foor yean, or II m. 3 Me. every year. In 131 yean Ibii makei a leai of eompuled time, of one day ; i. e. eon^
pUiad time would be one day bebind adual time. In A«4D. 1662 Ibit loa bad anMmotcd to ten daya, and Pope Gragmy ISlll
attempted to remedy tbe evil by a new expedient Thh waa, to drop the Intercalary day or ibe bitmrtUe^ every lOOth year exeepl.
Ing eaeb 400lh year. By tbe Jalian year, oonpaled time loaea 1 1 tn. 8«k. a year, which mkes about 19 honn in 100 yenn ; drop*
ping tlie intercalary day on tbe lOOlh year makei np tbit low of 19 hoan, and giv« alio a gala of abent 6 hours ; dropfiii^ it on (ho
next lOOlb year givea another gain of 6 boan to computed time; ao of tbe third lOOih year ; and In this way computed tiaae gua
of actual lime, in 800 year^ 15 boon; if on the next lOOlh year, !.& the (burth, the intercalary day be inserted, computed time
loMa for that ceolary 19 hoan ; but to meet this losa, it bed In the three preeedisf centuries gaiited 5 houn b each, and in all M
boun, ao that the lorn is only (19—16) 4 boon at the end of 400 yeaia. By tbIa method tbe difiervnce between oompufad mad aelnal
time cannot aroouni to a day in 9SO0 yean. In this system, called the Ongorian Calendar, tbe yean 1800, 8000, 8400 are blar*
ealary ; and Ibe yean 1700, 1800, 1900, 8100, 8200, 8300, kc, not.— The GtegoriaB year was immediataly adopted in Spain, Fbrtif
gal, and Italy ; and durhig the ma» year io France ; in Caihelic Germany, in 1583 ; in Protestant Germany and Denmark, in 1700 ;
b Sweden, 1758. In Eaglaad it wm adopted In 1750, by ad of Farliamnil directing tba 3d oT September to be styled tbe 14lfa, as
compatad time had loat II days. Tkia waa cnlled the cteage from Old toNmo Sfyla.— In 1838, Rnsiia was mid to be tbe only eottdbfy
where Uie Julian year or the OM Style was used. It ia, however, retained in tbe Giaek and Armenian ^uretaea. {Mim. AraU, fta
Dec 1835, p. 4S4.>-Oil Uia Oraforian Calcwiar, see Ck. Cfanius, Bomani Calandaiii a Grsgorio XIII. P. M. raslftnU Expiicatb.

DifTerent nations have beirun the year at different seasons or months. Th^ Roroans at one time
considered it as be^nning 1« March, but afterwards in Jannary. The Greeks placed its coni<-
niencenient in Hecatomboeon, at tbe summer solstice. The Christian clergy used to begin it at
the 35ih of March. The same was practiced in England and tlM American colonies until A. JO. 17S9;
on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of Janaa>y was adopted.

^ 193. Cycles. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division
of time into days, months, and years, great advantage is derived from tbe inven-
tion of Cycles. These are periods of time so detiominated from the Greek k€kXos^ s
circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under the term
cycle we may properly incluae the Grecian Olympiad^ a period of 4 years ; the Octae-
tens, or period of 8 years ; and the Roman Lustrum, a period of d years ; and also th(»
Julian year, or period of 4 years as just described. The period of 400 years, compre-
hended in the system of Gregory already explained, may justly be termed the cycle cf
irregory. — Besides these, it seems important to mention the Lwtar CycUt the Solar
CytSe, the Cycle of Indicfum^ and the Julian Period.

See F. Ndan, as cited $ 203.—^. DoMbeU, de veleribm Graconm Romaaommqaa Cydis, ka. DisieH. decam. Load. 1101. 4.—
iVieMb-, on the Seenbr Cyda, b bis HiU. ofBamt, vol. i. p. Sue. ed. PhiL I83S.

% 194. The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years. Its object is to accommodate the
computation of time by the moon to the computation by the sun, or adjust the solar
and lunar years. The nearest divimon of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve

xs.

p. I. MEANS OF ASCBRTAININQ DATES. 63

lanatkiDs (which make the lunaj year) fall short of the solar year by about 11 days.
Of course, every change in the moon in any year will occur eleven days earlier than it
did OQ the preceding year ; e. g. if in September of the present year full moon occurs
on the 16th, the correspondine full moon of the next year will occur on the 5th of Sep-
tember.— Hence every year the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by
the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the
same time.

Tliifl Cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian aBtronomer, who flourltfaed aboat B. C. 430.
Uany attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar years (^ 189), and this im-
provement was at the time received with universal approbation ; but not being perfectly accu-
rate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of
Ueton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it was
discontinued when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. '*Tbe Council of Nice, however,
wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and fhll moons to the course of the sun,
with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted It as the best adapted for the purpose ;
and ftt>m its great utility they caused the nrtmbers of it to be written on the calendar In goUcn
Utltrtt which bas obtained for It the name of the Golden Number.'* The name of Golden JVuni-
kmr is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the Almanac.

% 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the days of the
week to the davs of the month and the year. As the year consists of 52 weeks and
one day, it is plain that it must bemn and end on the eame day. Let the seven letters
A, B, C, D, £, F, G, represent the seven days of the week, A being always applied
to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Monday. Of course A will stand
for Monday, and Sunday coming on the 7th day will be represented by G, the 7th let-
ter. The year will end with Monday, as it began with it; and A, the next year, will
stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6th day of the year, and be represented
bjr F. Thus the year will commence one day later every common vear, and Sunday
will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retrograde order, G, F, £,
&C., and if 52 weeks and one day were the exact year, or there were no leap year, the
year wouldi after seven veara, again begin on Monday, the same day with the first
year supposed. But the leap year, consisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the
regular succession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is
not effected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years.

Tbis Cycle Is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Finnday, or to ascertain the
Dominical I<etter. Chronolngers employ the first seven letters of the alphal>et to designate the
seven days of the week ; and the Dominical Letter for any vear is the letter which represents
Svnday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of nnding it in chronological and astro-
nomical books.

% 196. The Cycle of Indicium is a period of 15 years. The origin and primary use
of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. It seems to have
been established by Coostantine the Great, in the fourth century, as a period at the end
of which a certain tribute should be paid by the different provinces of the empire. Pub-
lic acts of the emperors were afterwards dated by the years of this cycle.

The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the
Julian Period^ and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a com-
mon language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of which
ahoald be fixed, and to which the various modes of reckoning years might be easily
applied. To accomplish this, he combined the three cycles ofthe moon, sun, and in-
diction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into one another, which produces 7980, after which
all the three cycles will return in the same order, every year taking again the same
number of each cycle as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin
diurch, and tracing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together
was the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year oi the Chris-
tian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period.

This Invention would be of great importance if we bad no acknowledged epoch, or flied
year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch, it seems to be unnecessary.
Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixed
•UDdard.

n. — effacing the Dates of hiMtorical events and arranging them in order.

% 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and assign
the proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consideration of this part
we enall notice the following topics ; {A) The methods employed to ascertain the dates
of events, or the time when they occurred ; (J5) The epochs and eras which have been
employed or are still in use ; (C) The systems of arrangement, and chronological tables
ana charts ; (D) The actual dates of the most prominent events in classical Chronology.

% 198. (^) Methods em^yed to ascertain the dates of eventi, — ^Here we observe,

6i CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY.

that the principal helps or sources are f<mr. First, we will notice that furnished bj
observations on generations of men or successions of Rings. — ^It has been supposed
that the average Ien|:th of a king's reign, or of a generation of men, may be estimated
by comparing a sufhcient number of tacts. — When this average is taken, and we are
told by a writer how many generations lived, or how many kings reigned, between two
events, we can at once find the time between them ; and if the date of either event is
known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest
writers, and is used in the Bible. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used it. Gene-
rally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length; three of ibem
equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Newton employed this means of nscfriaining dates, and
maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 20 yoars ; and for generations,
29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 33. if reckoned by oihcrs. On these
principles he attempted to rectify ancient chronology, giving to many events a date
more recent than other authors.

It may be desirable to give a further explanation of tbft method hy two Vluairations. (a) The
date of the return of the Heraclidc to Peloponnesus ie disputed ; hut thii date of the Battle of
Thermopylae is settled, B. C. 450. Now between these two events there reigned at ft|iarta a sac-
cession of 17 kings; 17 muUtplled by 30 gives 340 years between the events, mnlcinK the return
of the IleraclidoB B. C. (480 plus 340) 830 ; a date SbO years iaicr than as given by other cbrono-
logera.— (6) The date of the Argonamic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Pelo-
ponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hippocrates, living at the beginning of
the Peloponnesian War, was descended the I8ih from .l^sculapiiis by father's side, and 19th from
Hercules by mother's side, and that JSsculnpius and Hercules we're both Argonauts ; that Is,
there were 17 generations in one line and 16 in another, between the two events. Taking the
medium 17^ and multiplying by 20 gives 567 ; making the date of the Argonautic Expedition,
B. C. (431 plus 567) 998 ; 326 Inter than by other chronologers.

But there are two grand objections to this method of ascertnining dates. Firsts the inaccuracy
and uncertainty of ihe av&ragt ; it cannot be very satiitfaciorily or exactly determined. Secondly,
the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kinjrs or giving a genealogy, often omit
several of the series. This is done in MattMew^ ch. 1., for the sake of reducing the number of
generations between the great epochs mentioned in the 17tb verse, to exactly /eurtcm.

$ 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and changes. This method ia
in general more safe and certain, as it depenas on strict astronomical principles perfectly
settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the precession of the equinoxes.

(a) Eclipses. The ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many are re-
corded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important events in history,
aiid described so that they may be recognized by the astronomer, who can calculate
with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened.

We will give illustrations. Thneydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the Syra-
cusans, says that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, determined
to sail out of the harbor of Syracuse; but when everything was ready for sailing, the moon was
eclipsed, for It was then full moon ; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers were filled with
alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost to a man perished.
This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it is found by calculation,
that the moon vom fbll at Syracuse the S7th day of August, B. C. 413, and that there must have
been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely to produce on the soldiers

the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of Nabonassar, B. C. 747, is also

determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's Almagest (cf. P. V. (218).

In « timilar wtf, FnYvwn, io hit jkrinaony, propotca to Ax tha time of lbs birlh of Clwiil. It U ev ideal frooi Matibew ii. 13.
16, 20^21, (h&l Chiist was bora only nme nwDlha before Ihe deaib of Herod ; aad from Jiwepbtu (B. zvii. cb. 8) we leara that then
waa aa ecliine of the moon at the lime of Hcrad'a laat tickncai } aalronomlcal ealcula'ioo fk<aw% that the ecltpae occurred l^Iarcb 19^
in the fnt 4710 of Ibe Julian Period ; bcoce the birth of Christ could not bare been later than about the clcee of the 4709«h at th*
Julian Period.— The lame aothor refen to the mention made by Fhlegon (cf. P. V. \ 239) of a moat extraordiiary eclipae of Ihe iim
u oocurring in the 4lh year of the a02d Olympiad, and would employ it at a help in deiermining Ihe dale of Chrirt^ death ; BiM« do
nalnral eclipM could occur the year apeeiiMd, which oorraqiooda, aeeordins to Ferguioo, le the 474«lh of the Julian I^ried, he thi«ki

the event mentioned by Phiepin waa the nipOToatural darknm that marked the SaT)or>a cmcifizioo. la Pia^Jaa*t Syileai of

Cbioook)«y, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c), b a liat of eclipaca that were obwrved before ibe Cbriatian era, also, in nrgtuon't Axnmuaj.

Mere LHtiaraprasmiMct may be employed in Ihe mme way. By comparing Mark xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John ZTtti. 2S,
it woaU aecm evident that the eraeiiixieii waa on Friday, and at the time of the FUaover ; it is known from other anurca (cf. Jtee*
pkuM, Jlnt. B. iii. eh. 10) that the PuMver waa kept on the day of tbe Ant full moon after the vernal equioot. Ferguaoo mya tm
found by cnlealalion that ** tlie only Faiaover full moon that fell on Friday, for serenl jear* before cr' after tbe diapvted year of th*
crodAxioB, waa on April 3d, in the 4746Th year of the Julian Period.'^-CC Arpiion, aa cited § 203^

(h) Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the equator
crosseB the ecliptic, are not precisely the aiine from year to year ; but they move back-
ward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree in 72 years. If, then, the
place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event is stated, we may determine
the date of the event, by noticing how far the equinox has now receded from the place
it then held, and allowing 72 years for a degree. The only objection to this method is
the difficulty, perhaps impossibility of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did
occupy at the time of particular events in ancient history.

Bir I. Newton applied this principle also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — A
ephere, representing the heavens with the constellations, is said bv ancient writers to have been
formed for the Argonauts, by Chiron ; on this sphere, it is also eiaid, the equinox was placed In
tbe middle point in the sign Aries. In tbe year 1669, tbe equinox bad gone back l^om that point

r. I. . VP0CH8 AND ERAS. 65

36 degrees 44 miimtee : this, allowlDg 73 years for a degree, gives a period of SM5 years between
the year 1669 and the Bxpediiion ; making it B. C. 055; nearly the same as by the calculation

from generations by tlie same author. If it be stated how a star rises or sets in relation to the

SOB, the piace of the equinox may be found, and dates ascertained, in the wafy Just mentioned. —
Sir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to ascertain the time when Uesiod lived. In
a passage in the f9^ark» and Daf4 [vs. S64], Hesiod says, that JlrcturuM rose at sunset, 60 days
after the son entered the winter solstice, a point 90 degrees distant from the equinox.— But the
place of the equinox cannot be settled with certainty in this way ; because it cannot be cer-
tainly known whether the ancient writer means his own time and residence or not, whether he
means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or star be means exactly. Cf. Costard,
ia the PkiUaopkuMl TraiuaetionSt vol. xlviii. p. SL

$ 200. A third help in the fijdng of dates is found in the annst medals, monuments^ and
vucriptions, which are preserved for the benefit of succeeding ages. I'hese often throw
great light upon historicai events, and afford important aid in ascertaining the lirue of
toeir occurrence. Interesting facts are sometimes first made known, and the period
when the^ took place is oiien indicated, by the face of a medal, or the representations
on a public monument. — Inscriptions are of still greater service. As one of the most
valuable of these we must mention the chronicle of Paros, which fixes the date of the
chief events in Grecian history from Cecrops down to the time of Alexander. (See
P. IV. ^91. 4.)

^201. The fourth source is furnished by the tettimony of historiafUj who state the
distance between events, or between events and an epoch. I'he early historians paid
verjr little attention to the subject of chronology ; it was not until a comparatively late
period, that they began to think of dates and distances of time. The principal frag-
ments of the earlier writers, Eratosthenes, Apollodorus, and Thrasyllus, are still to be
found in the Chronicon o( Eicsebiuit, and the Stromata of Clemens Alexandrinus. The
vntings of the Bytantine Chroniclers are also of service ; particularly the chronologi-
cal work (•E«X<»y^Xpoi'oypo0ta$) of SynccUus. It is chiefly from this and the above-
mentioned work of Eusebius, that the details of the eoTnmotUy received Chronology have
been gathered. (Cf. ^ 205 ; and P. V. ^ 236, 239, 288.)

^ 202. (B) Epochs and Eras emvloyed in Chrofiology. — It is essential to correct and
exact chronology that there shoula be some fixed epoch, to which all events may be
referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it is of comparatively little
consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and acknowledged, as it is perfectly
easy to compute in a retrograde manner the time before it, as well as in a direct man-
■er the time after it. An epoch is distinguished from an era. Ejpoch is the point of
time which is taken as a starting-place from which to reckon, and taken usually be-
caose signalized by some important event. Era is the space of time, that follows the
epoch ; the series of years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as
nearly synonymous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era.

9 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in Chronology,
•—(a) Era of Olympiads- The Greeks for a long time had no fixed epoch ; but after-
wards reckoned by Olympiads, periods of 4 years. They began 776 B. C. A new
Olympiad era, however, came into use under the Roman emperors, beginning A. D.
131. — (6) Era of Rome. The Romans often reckoned by lustrums, often by the year
of the consul or the emperor. The building of the city was their grand epoch. This
vos 752 B. C. (It is placed by some 753 or 754.)— (c) Era of Nahonassar (or Belesir).
Used by some historians ; the commencement of Nabonassar^s reign at Babylon, 747
B. C. — (d) Era of the Seleucidm. From the rei^ of Seleucus and nis descendants in
Syria. The Jews chiefly used this. The Nestonans still compute from it. (Researches
of Smih and Dwight, ^1. ii. p. 257.) It is usually dated 312 B. C. when Seleucus
recovered Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement of the kingdom of Syria.
— (e) Era of Diocletian, This was founded on the persecution of Christians in the
leign of Diocletian. It was used by Christians until the Christian era was adopted.
It began 284 A. D.— </) The Mahometan Era or Hegira ; founded on the flight of
Mahomet ftom Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. — ig) The Persian Era, or Era of Yezde-
jerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632.— -(A) The
Chsistiak Era; Annus Domini; the year of our Lord. This era is founded on
the birth of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some
placing it ssven years before the received epoch, others four years. This, however, is
of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, because all, who
idopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the same numerical date ; all
meanmg (e. g.) identically the same year by A. D. 1836. The era began to be used
about A. D. 360, according to some writers ; but others state that it was invented by
Dionysus, a monk, A. D. 527.

Oa At CMtfaa En, lae J. PrimOtif, Leetatw oo HMory, L. xiv.— /. OuO. /oni, Biaterii Xnt DioDTrntOB— O. Ramhtrgtr, l)e
Ipwto Cfari«iaMe ortu cc avekm— Mnm. Diiwrbitioa on tbe Birth of Christ.— CC lonbMr, CndibUity of ttw Gotpel, Ac. Fkrt L
WL fl. p^ WL-#krsiMnV AKrawny, bj D, BmMUr^ PhH. 1817. 8 vob. S. i. 46(M».

fMtpi «■ ibnild BMiitiaii hem the A« 0/ (Ac PrmA lUpubUCy which the raralotioniiii attempted to edabllsh. This wm intro-
'■od n vnSt vHh a braal fejeetiea ot tfat Soiltetb and of the b«bdomiiMl week, and 1 novd arraogemeot and pedantic Bomei»*
(ten of (ho moBlho. Tbo twcnlr^eeoiid of Sepiembor wa« fixed u the beginninf of the jrear. The jtax eooahted of twelT*
■MhefOtiftrdqftMcb; wIMi ware divide^ bo( bj weeki, birt into thiw d«eadb% or peiioda of tan dayi. la this would coa*

9 f3

66 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY.

prin bat 180 ih7i,>lM w«r«ailil«d it Hk doMoTtht bat inoatk of Itie yttr, aned eompltmmtarf day$ f and «t ttoAm of emt
fomMk or biiMxtito ymr, m fiXfA, eiUad Iha day of th€ Jttpuiiie. The epcle of the fiior 7«ar» wu lennad the Franau^ Tte
three monllw of ▲ u T a m a w«n nuned Viandanioiirtf Brumavt, Frinuiirti thow of W i n I e r, A'terM, Plveiou, yimtom ; thaw
of S pr in R, Oerminal, Ftoriai, Pnurial ; Ibote of Sumner, Mmtdor^ Tkgrmidory Fntelidar. Tbb in&lcl calendar mu and
about twhm jtu*. The Greforiaa was rotored Jaarnrj t, 1806.

^^204. (C) Systems of Arrangcmint and Chronological Tahles. — There is a great
discrepancy between the various systems of ciironology which have been advocated in
different nations and at different times. Among the oriental nations there was a strong
desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each carried back its chronolo-

S'oal dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egvptinns,
ftbylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or
thousands of years before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed
here. (Cf. P. IV. ^ 21.)

$ 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and the
other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the student's atten-
tion. They differ from each other considerably: that drawn from the Septuagint
assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which follows the Hebrew ;
e. g. the former places the flood some hundred years further from the Christian era,
and the Creation at least 600 years further from the Flood, than the Utter. There has
been much discussion among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two
systems. We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted.

The system of Archbishop Usher is the basis of the principal systems for chronolo-
gical tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of Usher is in general
accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bible, the Arundelian Marbles,
and the Chronicon of Eusebius.

The syntem of Sir Tsam JWtoton has alrfitdy been mentioned, and fome of the methods em-
ployed by him for fizint; dates. This system assigns many important events, particularlv of
Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other systems. His chronoioffy was at first
received with some favor, but is not usually regarded, although Mufvrd adopts it.

On (hit, lee MHfonPt Rkt Gracce, eh. III. Appaiid.~Cr. SkuAfonti Prof, and Sac. Hitt. CoDn. bk. vi. Pnt—For the tiflea of
•ome of (he moM iaaportant helpa on (he tabjed of ChroDoloffy, tee P. V. ; 7. 7 (r) ; > 299. 6.— For othen, we refer to Bam^
Intro, to Crit Sludjr of Hoij Script, vol. ii. p. 730.— jl labored defence of the Sepducint Chronologj U made by Her. /. /. Jaekton,
io bis Chronological Jintiquitiet.—Set alio Frtd. Ifotan, on (he antiquity and connec(ion of (he eertf eyclei, and (heir otiliif la
KtdiDK the diflereneea of cbreoolafiati, in Traru. of Boffol Soc of Littntvrt, rol. iii. Lond 1837.— XotmL Quart, Sn. voL t. p. 4.
-yf. B. Ctapm, Agreement of the trae Biblical, E^Tpttao, and Chaldean Cbroaologiea. K«ir Uavao, 1830. pp. IS.— Cf. ChniL
Sptti. Jane, 1837, and Dee. I8SS.— Aftntem, ae dtod P. V. ) OS. •

^ 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of history and
chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presented but gra-
dually ana slowly by description ; the locality of events and dates on the paper also
helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himself
of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either by purchase or (which is bet-
ter) by actually forming one himself. •

) 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or ]r.M degrees
of utility .—(a) One of the most simple and obvious plans Is to form two perpendicular columns;
one for evenu of every kind ranyed promiscuously in order of occurrence ; the other for their cor-
responding dates. Sometimes a third column is added to this* plan, for Biography. — (ft) Another
planof similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular coiumnn'; one for dates,
and each of the otiiers for a class of events: e. g. sovereigns in one, remarlcabie events in an-
other, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of Worcester's Charts. Both the plans men-
tioned may be marked for centuries by horizontal lines.— (e) A third plan Is the contrivance olT a
sort of tree, whose branches represent nations ; and events are ranged in them according to
their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of hVdy*» Chiw>nology delineated. Con-
quests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one branch receiving others into
itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting; out from others.— <<<) A fourth plan is
marked by the peculiarity of being divided into periods, limited on each side by prominent events.
Such is Goodrich's Chart.— (r) K fifth plan, worthy of notice, is thai devised by J^mtna tVilUrd,
called *' Perspective sketch of the course of Empire." It is essentially the Chronological Tree
inverted ; the earliest events being placed at the top of the chart, and diverging lines being sub-
stituted instead of the trunk and branches. Light and shade are employed to Indicate the com-
parative rank and culture of diflerent nations. (fViUard's Atlas. Hartford, 183fi.)

But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults; 1. equal length
of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart; 3. duration is represented by perpendi-
cular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most natural and most satisfactory repre-
sentation.— (/) A sixth plan adopts these two important improvements, with the division into
periods, and the several columns for different classes of events, allowing, where the scale is
large enough, each event to be located in Its exact place in the line of time. The chief objection
to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to include all the important
t'vents of some periods without Increasing too much the size of the chart, and rendering it in-
convenient for portable UBe.^(£r) A seventh plan unites geography with the history and chrono-
logy. This method is exhibited in Priesllet/s ** Specimen of a New Chart of History," given in
his Lectures on History.- (A) The device of a combination of streams or rivers is employed in a
recent chart by /. /. Hitchcock, called History made visible, Phil. 1839, 54 inches by 37.

^ 208. (D) Actiml Dates of the most prominent events. Nothing occasions more per
plexity and discouragement to the student in classical history, than the difficulty of^ re-
membering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to give over in despair.

P.I. BRIEF OI7TLINE OF CHRONOLOGY. 67

Bnt, S8 has been repeatedly remarked, accurate chronology is essential to the ntility,
ti)^ it is no less so to the pleasure, of reading history. And the difficulty coDiplained
of IS by no means insuperable.

Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented (}210); bnt on the whole,
tiw writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole field of past time,
select a few grand events which stand out as landmarks, associate these events with
their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect exactness, making them as
familiar as the letters of the alphabet. Any person of common atpacily can do this ;
aod the student who wishes to \uy any foundation at ail for historical knowledge must
do at least as much as this. This being done, he i^iil find it comparatively easy to
locate the various events, which he may read about or learn from time to time, in their
proper'place between these sjand events whose dates are thus fixed in the memory.

S 209. VViih these views tne following outline, in which it seemed desirable to include
modem chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory.

Tbe learaer n advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared for the purpose ; usinf a boH-
votal line tu represent the flowing or progress of time. Let thio line fre divided into equal spaeetf
each representinf an equal length of time; let the datee of the events be disiinctly written
enctlyat the points in the line vAere they belong according to ibis equal division; and let the
SKtU also be written direetly above or under the dates.

BiiEF OuTLiNB. Chronology is Ancient or Modem. Ancient includes the whole time hefort
Ciriff^ comprehending 40M years. Modem includes tbe whole time since Christ.

I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood; Antediluvian ages, the
portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion after the flood.— The Antediluvian
ages may be considered as containing only one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing e^Jkl
perioda. Tbe grand events and periods are the following,
or tbe Antediluvian ages,

ne one period is from Creation B. C. 4001,

to Deluob B. C. 2348.

Of the PottdUuvian ages, the

In ycriorf, is from Deluge .... to Calliko of Absaham . . B. C. 19S1;

U fmK/, from Calling of Abraham . . to Escapb of Israelites . . . B.C. 1499;

U pmod, from Escape of Israelites . . to BoiLDiifoofTEMPLB . . B.C. 1004;

i ftiperii)^ from Building of Temple . . to Foijmdiiio of Rone . . .B.C. 759;

! SfA^eiio^ from Founding of Rome . . to Battle of Marathox • . B.C. 490;

I biperw^fVom Battle of Marathon . to Reign of ALBXARDini . . . B. C. 330;

I Taperio^ from Reign of Alexander . . to CAPTDBBofCAETHAaB . . B.C. 140;

I Sdpem^ from Capture of Carthage . . to Comino of Christ.

11. Mod ex n Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the Fall of Rome and the
AB«/ CenetantknofU: Early JigeM^ the portion before the Fall of Rome ; Middle Jiget^ the por-
tion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Recent JSget^ tbe portion since
the Fall of Constantinople.— The early ages may be considered as containing tvo periods; the
niddle ages, JEve periods ; and the recent ages Jive periods. The grand events and periods are
tbe following.

Of the Early ages, tbe
l«tp«ri0rf,lsfromCHBtsT . to tbe Rbiok of Cokstabtibb . . A. D. 306;

Upffiffd, from Reign of Constantino to Fall of Romb « . . . A. D. 476.

Of the Middle ages, the

Iitpen«if,isfromFailofRome • . . to Flight of Mahomet . A. D. 693;

• UffrieJ, from Flight of Mahomet . to CRowBiNoof Charlbmaonb . A. D. 800;

» Upcriod, from Crowning of Charlemagne . to Labdirg of William . A. D. 1066;

4(A ^erwrf, from JLanding of William. . to Overthrow of Sabacbhs . . A. D. 1998;

** feriody from Overthrow of Saracens , . to Fall of CoNSTAXTuropLi . A. D. 1453.

Of the Recent ages, the
^ periei h from Fall of Constantinople . to ABniCATiOB of Chablbs Fiith . A. D. 1556 ;
U ptriod, from Abdication of Charles 9th . to Rbstobatiob of Chablbs Second A. D. 1660 ;
i U feried, from Restoration of Charles Sd . to Isdepbndehcb of Ubitev States A. D. 1776;

Sa^«n0d,from Independence ofCnited States to Downfall of BoBAPABTE A. D. 1819;

M^«i, from Downfkil of Bonaparte to the Present Time.

I J^ 110. Bat it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, above

anaded to (| 908), which have been devised to assist in the recollection of dates. We wiH
fenelly notice three diffMrent systems of artificial memory.

L Tbe first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Teehniea has generally met with the most
nvorable reception. "As this method,*' says Priestley. *'is so easily learned and may be of
Hch nse in recollecting dates, I think all persons of a liberal education inexcusable, who will

68 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGir.

not take the small degree of paint that Is necessary tn make themselves maf*ter of it.** The ex-
pedient is to substitute letters for flofures, and form of these letters a syllMblt* or word, and asso-
ciate It with the name of the persons, the date of whose tiirth, reign, death, or the like, ynu
wish to remeuilier, or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remem-
bered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet^ in which «ach of the ten numerical
characters has its eitnsonant and its vnwtl or dipk'honff; 1, a fr; 2, « tf; 3, t i; 4,/o; 5, Z «; 6, « sm ;
7, p oi ; 8, le ri ; 9, n ok ; 0, z y. To remember the date of the founding of Uonie by this system,
subsiiiute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752; e. g. p« d,
and join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome, or a part of the word, thus Rom-;Tii<{. I'he
very oddness and uncouthness of this coinbtnation will sometimes impress it on the memory. To
remember the date of the Deluge, '2348, we may form the word D^X-etvk-, uf the battle of Mara-
thon, 490, Marutb-ony, or Mara-/(Ut(t. Where a series of dales of successive events are to be
fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in
Hexameter verses ; which, however, the student must understand, are to be emuitiiited to ms-
mory ; these are called memorial lines.

See R. O r ey^i Memoria Ttcknieoj or Method of artifielel Memoty. (With Lowtft Mnemonia.) Loud. 1811 & CL Land,
quart. Jem. ix. I2S.

9. The second method is a system of topUai memory, including also the snhstitntion of letters
for dgures. The principle of the topical method Is to conceive a certain nnuiher of places in a
room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects: and conceive these pines as ar-
ranged in a certain fixed order ; and then whatever successive events or obj^'cis one wishes to
remember, throw, in imagination, some jrietures of or eoneeminfr them. In their proper order, into
these conceived places. Such is the principle of F e I n a 1 g I e's JSrt of Memory. By this a fowr-
lided room is divided into ///y ideal squares; these who wish a more rapacious memory may
take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred ; nnd one may go
on so ascending through as many stories as he chooses. J>rine squares are to be placed on the
floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making forty-five; the other fire on
the ceiling above : the sqtiares on the floor number from 1 to 9; the square numbered 10 is put
on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the next nine squares from II
to 19 are on the left hand wall under it ; the square 90 la on the ceiling over the wall opposite In
front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 20 on that waH under it ; the square 30, and the next
nine f^om 31 to .^ are put in like manner on the right hand ; and the square 40, and the next
nine firom 41 to 49 b<>hind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed In the centre of the ceiling. In
each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located ; e. g. in 1, a puwpi in 2, a swau ;
in 3^ a man using a spade. This scheme of sqnsres, numbers, and pictures Is first to be camwiued
to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of Eng-
land, he would create In his mind a picture in connection with each one of ihem, throw the«ie
pictures in Imagination into the squares in the exact order of the regal succession, and associate
the picture pertaining to the king with the picture fixed in the square to which he falls ; in form-
ing the new picture two things are important ; It should be so conceived as to have some ca«ual
or slight association suggesting the name of the king, and suggesting at the same time a word or
phrase I which is devised by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the
date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of
Henry 7th, it is said the Ideal picture of 7 kens is a good one for the purpose; the square to
which he Is assigned is 29; the picture fixed in this square (in the engraved illustration of the
system) is a woman spinning- on a small wheel ; these two pictures then are to be aomehow bvund
together, and It may he thus, the woman spinning s e e s 7 hens; the next thing Is to form a word
or phrase indicative of the date; and by the alphabet adopted in this system, ** The oaAraiT*
is such a phrase ; the remaining step in this process of storage in the memory. Is to hind the
phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the wostan spinning sees 7 hens
on The oak rail.— The following is the substitution alphabet ; 1, fr c ; 2, d/; 3, ^ A ; 4, j A x ; 5, { ;
tf, mk; 7, yv; 8, r«; 9, to; 0, i0z; and 100, St; 1,000, Tk; 100,000, Y.

See77taAVto.Mo/JibiKiry,roaiidedeathepriiieiplciof Feinaifte, illiwtnled byeognvin^ Load. 1813. 8. 2d ed. CL
ZMub^Qurjrt. En. u ebove cited.

It Is worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman orators, made use of a
system of topical memory. Quintilian gives an account of a system, in which the variotis parts
of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of Feinaigle.
The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and these being
arranged in order were assigned to the diflTerent parts of the bouse; "they assign,*' says he.
"the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the hall ; then they go round
the inner courts; nor do they only commit these associations to the bedrooms and anterooms,
but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these associations, they recur mentall/
to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every sensible type, which they had en-
trusted to each particular spot, and this type at once suggests the idea connected with it.**

. 3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. HaUworth. In this plan a substitution of
letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that Instead of forming mere bar-
barous and unmeaning words, like th&t of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image
or picture, like that of Feinaigle. a significant sentence is formed, which states the event to be
remembered, and concludes with a word or phrase that expresses something characteristic of
the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet^ denotes
the date. The alphabet of Hail worth is the following ; 1, fr c ; 2, dfi 3,g,h,gh; 4, & Z; 5, m « ;
6, p, r ; 7, « sA ; 8, e, cA ; 9, « w j, used as consonants ; 0, th ph wh. and also q zy t. In forming
words the vowels are used just as may be convenient, without having any siffnificancy ; the con-
sonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thus eh u reh [cA r cA] signifies 868 ; rr oo p
itrp"]^ 860. To recollect by this method the date e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is
Drmed ; 7*As deluge comes and men die guilty: the phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the
consonants dgj t represent 2348.— For greater convenience and scope in forming the character-
istic phrases, the plan admits artudes^ prepositions^ and conjunctions to be used, like the vowels,
without significancy ; e- g. Jibel fell a saerifics to Cain*s hate and sin: A t s n, 3875.— Mr. Hall-
worth has taught his system by lectures in different parts of the country, and has published
several little books in which its principles are explained and applied.

See T. BaOwortlft EfficMlooi lielhod of eoqoirii^ retaiaiof , ud eommuaicatiiiK liiatorioJ sad ChroBolof icel KDowledsok

P.I. BIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 69

1i«il, VtL-Ma»MKVt Mflmd appliad to OnaniZ Jndmi RMor7.~AI«) to Satni Hhtoir, fcc.-HWof7 of (he VntUd

auim

%2U. We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dates of events in
ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the principal states
of andent times. — We will mention first those whose capitals were in Asia. 'I'he prin-
cipal Asiatic states or kingdoms were ei^ht ; the Assi/nan; the Jewish; the Trcjan ;
mLydian; the Phanician; the Ferstan; the Syrian; and the Farthian,

I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the bailding
of BahvloH by Nimrod, B. C. 2217. The Ist period of its history may be that from
Nimrod to Ninias, B. C. 1945.

Id thb period reigned the celebrated qneen StmiramUt mother of Nintas. Under her the em-
pln sained iti freateei extent ; reaching on the eaat to the sources of the Oxus and the Indus,
iDclading Persia, Media, and Bactriana : comprising on the west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria, and
Alia Hfaior to ilie Mediterranean ; and limited on the north only by Mount Caucasus, and on tlie
•oath by tbe deseru of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the
tbrec countries in tbe valley of tbe Euphrates and Tigris, via. Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Baby-
toola. '

The 2d period may be that from Ntnias to Sardanapaltjs, who died B. C. 747.

This long period, of about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity. During it 33 kings are
nid to bare reigned. — On the death of Sardanapalus three kingdoms were formed out of the em-
pire; the jfMynom, with Mtneveh as its capital ; tbe Babylonian^ with Babflon for its capital ;
tod tbe Jferfian, with Eebatana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider tbe
Anyrian monarchy aa still continuing ; and

Tbe 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 681.

Doring Ibis period of 66 years, 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Eaarkadiim waa the last;
nd 10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this time the Asuyrlan history was intimately con-
iect«d whb that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united togelbei two of the
ihne kfaigdoma, viz. the Assyrian and Babylonian.

The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to Cybus the Greats B.C. 536.

At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia.— At the same time, also, Cyrus
imiied to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued ita aeparate existence Arom tbe
death of Sardanapalus.

F«ft|CMnl Tinr of tlM Aajrbn bWory ; RaOMt Andnit BMorr, bk. u\.—MmaP» Etasnto of Hhtoiy, wl. I. p. tS. (Ed.
UA. !8a S fob. ah- Tbe AifiM Unimrmd HiMttry. Load. 1770.S8. 60 tola. 8. OS vola. AteietU.} vol. YA-^PHdrnm,
Cmattmet ths a aad N. TcituMet (for Uw tine from SndaMpJtii to Cyrni.)— Baratdi, te. in Cory, dt«d P. V. f 2SS.->
Bmmt, Biitricd Rtumbw inio ih> Palilja «al Cam— ree of ih> OrthaginJMM^ EthfcipMM, Epptfaat, Ac OxtlS90.9*ok a

Imd. inm bk /Am, died P. IV. ) ITl.—SainU Cnix, U ruine de Btbjlon, io tbe Man. Jead. huer. vol. ilviti. p. I. For

Imr^uA Kkewne Air tb« wvtnl ilBlm and onpifH to be mealioMd, we alao refer to Bmwf$ Stetw of Antiqnily, died ) 2IS.CL
-^ ain JttMi; died P. v. 4 MO.

IL The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abbaham, 6. C. 1921.
It may be divided into eight periods. The Ist period extends from Abraham to the
emiaooe into Canaan under Joshua, B. C. 1451.

Durfttg this period they remained a nomadic nation.

The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B.C. 1060.

Dariaf this period the nation was under the irovemroent of the Judges and priests. Samud
vai the last of the Judges. Saul, the first kin^, was anointed as such some time before Samaers
death.

The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two kingdoms
of Jodah and Israel by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975.

Tbii was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by tbe reigns of David
lad Solomon, and by the building of tbe Temple at Jeruaalem, the capital.— Respecting these
reigns, tee Christ. Spectator, iv. 131 ; v. 538.

The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the Restokation from
the BebyUmian Captivity^ B. G. 536.

The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten
tribci of i:«rae<, whose capiul was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Shalmanazar, B. C. 721;
the two tribes ntJndak, by Nebuchadneazar, B. C.006. During this time nineteen kings reigned
OTvr Jodah at Jerusalem. The soventy years of toe captivity are dated from the conquest of
Jodah by Nebuchadnezzar.

The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the Submission of the
Jews to Alexander, B.C. 332.

Daring this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the
tbroae of Persia.

The 6th period is from Alexander to the Re-establishment of an independent
monarchy under the Maccabees, B. C. 166.

After tbe death of Alexander and the division of bis empire, made D. C. 901, the Jews wera
t^aimed by Syria and by Egypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both.— The perse*

70 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY.

ration of Antioehu Eplpbane* provoked the general revolt wtaicb ted to the re-ettabliihmeiit cf
independence.

The 7th period is from the Maeeabeet until the time of the Raman interference under
POMPET, B. C. 63.

During thle period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy distentions.

The 8th and la«t period is from the first oonqueets oiPompey to the final Destruo
TioN ofJerttsalem by Titus, A. D. 70.

ror the Jewtah bbtary i The huiorinl book* oHhtO. TtOMmmL-JoMphut (cf. P. ▼. $ S4S.).— f cmfycr, Hktoira da pOTpl* d«
Dien, *e. Pw. 1741. 10 vdi. 8.-5iUfuifc, Hiitnire d«t Jaih, Ac. Hay*, 1716. 16 vob. IL— PnVbaux, CooiiMt. of the a and
N. Tertuieiit. Tlw FreBCb tiaoiUtioD, uid to bo bettor tbao thr £n(ifah oriKina], b ontMed Urirtoin de* Juib ot doi peapiM
tcMw depaia la dooduoe dca Bofwamm d>biMl ot do Jsda, ke. Amat. 1785. 6 «ola. 9.-J. L. Bautr, Handbach der Gowdiidbl*
dor Hobr. Nation, Ac. NOn*. 1800. 1 vola. a faloable.— A B Milnuut, Htatoty oftbe Jowa, (Am. od.) N. T. I830i 3 foia. li^
Ct«iprajfncr.Aw.Tal.zzULp.854.-.Mkfsiiebi«wCauBonw«alth. TnaA tnmOmumn, by C,£.Stmm. Aad. IflUl ■.

III. The Trojan. Its origin is involved in darkness and Deibles, but is placed as
early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say that the state was
destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184.

The history of TVoy contlsts of traditions preserved by the poeto. Cf. P. 11. $ ISi.—Mitford'e
Greece, ch. C

TV. The L y d i an. This commenced about 6. C. 1400. Three dynasties of kings
are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the reign of Cbcesus ;
and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Ctrus, B. C. 536.

The capita] was Sardis. The kingdom was in the lime of Crtetut very rich and powerful ; its
fkte was decided by the battU of Tkjfmbra.

Tor tbe Lydiaa history ; Tho SnglM Univmal BiMtory, trol. It. aaabpvo dtod.— /mf, on Qm battle of Tbymbn, with a plat^
UUw Jfan. dir.«caii.<ktMKr. voL vi. p. 62ft

v. The Phoenician. This was in existence in the time of David, under a king
named Abikal, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture of Tyre by Alex-
ander, B. C. 332.

PhcBnicia^seemsnottohave formed properly one state, but to have oontained several citie*
with petty kings or princes, of which Tifre stood at tbe head.

On tho Pbcnieian hiatorjr ; SonoomaMon, Ac. eC P. V. f 2S9.— Aa, Cyctopnlia, andor Phantcu-Mignol, Sor laa PbaaietoM
(aeranl diMortalkM), la tbe Jftm. Jtad. Inter. voU. zzziv-xIlL— Tho SngUik Ohio, AiA— Alao, llth «oL of BitrmU Wovta.
Gott in4.

VI The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant until the time
of Ctrus the elders B. C. 536. We may include the whole history after this date in
two periods.

The Ist period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, who invaded Greece, and was de-
feated in the fiimous Battle of Salamisy B. C. 480.

In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the fhther of Xerxes, the Persian empire attained tta
greatest extent; reaching to the Indus on tbe east, to the Jaxartes and Mount Caucasus on the
north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Libya. The capitals were Babylon, Siisa,
Ecbatana, and Perse polls (cf. $$ 153, 154, 170), tlie royal court being held sometimes in one and
sometimes another of these places.

The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire by Alex-
ander, in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331.

About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the yonnftr CprvSj described in the
JttiabatiM of Xenophon ; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401.— Alexander completed the
subjugation of Persia by the victory at JSrbelai B. C. 331.

For the Pmian hiaiorf ; R<iUn*i Ane. Hiit bk. Iv. and taOawiag—Mittort Elementa, vol. i. p. B8, ed. bofora ciifld.>-Tbo LTim^
vtraal Butary, befei* cited, vol. It. and iz.— JBKiMfritu, do repw Penantm. 1691. S.—ffyd*, Rhadi, tc. cited P. V. f 183. 3L—
Bvrda*t Peraepolii, in hu fTorte.— flbrai, aa above died.— Oro(e/cnd; Ac cited P. IV. § 18. 4.—/. B. fraxir, Hiat. of Penia, m
Haiiwr^ Fan. Libnrf, No. ljUE.--Sir/.ir0faalm,HiiL of Fknia from the earllfot period, Ac. Lood. I829i Svola. & Zd ed.

VIT. The Syrian; or the Kingdom tf the Seleucida. This was one of the four
monarchies formed out of the empire ot Alexander. It was commenced after the
battle of Ipsus, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may include its history in two
periods.

The Ist period is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of the collision with the Romans
in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190.

The capital of this kingdom was Antioch. The territory under its sway included the northern
part of Syria ; all Asia Minor, except Bitbynia ; Armenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, India, Per-
sia, and Che valley of the Euphrates.— Antiochus was brought into a war with tbe Romans espe-
ciailv by protecting Hannibal. His defeat, in the battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, deprived him of
pari of his territories and greatly weakened the kingdom.

P.I. TWO STATES OF AFRICA. EGYPT AND CARTHAGE. 71

The 2d period extends firom AiUiodkus the Great to the complete ccmqnest of Syria
by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiaticus, B. C. 69.

Ib tbe fint ptrt of this period occurred the reTolt of tbe Jews UDder the Haccebeee, B. C. 108,
ia oomcquence of the persecution of Aniiochut Eplpbanea.— The throne of this kingdom, on ht
overthrow by the Romans, had been held by twenty-three tucceulve kings, most of them lawfol
kein of the house of the Seleucidn.

rWteainiuldi**?; Faai«c,lBperiam9deoeMviB,ctladP.IT.$S8.1.-jyM«,i^^ ri«iB.]75l^

Ite OMwMl tfiit atofv citod, «oL Kb of tbt AbcmI.

Vni. The Parthian; or Kingdom <f the ArModda. The Parthians occupying
the CQontry on the south-east comer of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when con-
quered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share of Seleucui
Ifieator. But under the third kins of Syria they revolted and established an independ-
ent kingdom under Ajisacss, B. C. 256.

The Parthians were constantly at war with tbe Syrians, and afterwards with tbe Romans ;
tat eoald not be conquered. They obtained dominion fVom Armenia to the Indian Ocean, and
IhmiSfria to the river Indus; including Baetriaaa, Persia, the cooatrles in tbe valley of the
Eiphrates, and Armenia. Their capital waa SteaiompjflM,

The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who dethroned the
Ansdds, and established the Amg<iom of Modern Persia, A. D. 223.

hr fla Ftettiaa Umam VaOmMl^m dtodF. IV. § SS^-a F. JUeftler, HirtoriKb'krMMdMr VvBBch Sbw dl» AmcMsa loii.

% 212. We vriU notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of these we
lisve bat two of im|)ortance ; the Egwtian and the Carthaginian.

I. The Egyptian. The first kbg named in the Egyptian dynasty is Meites,
senerally supposed to be the same as Mizraim, son of Ham and grandson of Noah ;
£e settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the real chronology of Egypt

A high antiquity, in part anrely fkbulous, was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian
works now loot ; one was tbe Old CkmueU, cited by Syncellus (cf. ( 901); the other, tbe work
of JtfaMtAe, cbed by Eusebius (ef. P. V. ( S38).

The Ist period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menet to the
Escape of fAe Israeutes, B. C. 1492.

Of this period profkne history gives us no connected or satisfhctory account. Most that can
be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologers
M>ce the cclebiated Setottrit at the doee of this period ; some consider him to be tbe Pharaoh
tkst was drowned in tbe Red Sea.

The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammeticus, B. C.
670, when the history begins to be authentic.

No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted
for whet we know, to tbe accounti in the Scriptures.— Twelve different governments under
twelTe different chieft, are said to have been united under (sammeticus.

Tbe 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of E^pt by
the Pekstan king Cambyses, son and successor of Cyrus, B.C. 525.*

The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is tbe principal authority.
The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common.

The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambysei to the conquest of Egypt
by Alexander, B. C. 332.

After the time of Cambyses, Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception
of a few instances of revolt. In one of which the throne was partially re-established, had con-
ttaiued subject to Persia until it now changed masters.

The 5fh period is frt)m Alexander to the subjection of the country to the Romans,
Rsulting from the victory of Augustxts in the battle of Actium, B. C. 31.

Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of bis generals, governor of Egypt ; and Ptolemy, after the
death of Alexander, )>ecame king of the country, B. C. 3S3, and commenced the dynasty of the
Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, lost
it b^ the incceas of her lover's rival.— Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the previous
penods. In this, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, was made tbe seat of the new coun. —
EgTpc remained a part of tbe Rooian empire until it was wrested away by tbe Saracens,
A.I>.6I0.

For tta EiTpiMB hMory; JMHiA Aoc RiiL bk. U-JTaralam, at eitad P. V. \ 296.— CkanqNOion It Jtmt, VEgyptt tarn
lmrhincm,kc Fkr. 1»I4. 2 vote, a (far pariod bdbi* CaaibjMb)-ror tiM pnied BnwAlniBda-, yaOmt, Bbtoria Ptoto

■nrw, dtod P IV. |9a l^-CkamptlUtn Figtae, Anaalea d« Ufidci, kc Fv. 1819 9 nUt. a Of. M»9ci*i VaiMml

fi*»7.««lL<«d.N.T. IS04.tS«ota. ia)--Al«>»tlwVfirwMlflMoryt«fa«dl«!, voL Lttdviii.— if. AMMl,Vinr of EfTpt
-at ITT, ate P. IV. I It; i»l. 8j )BL

IL The C arthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally divided
iaie iA«%e periods.

72 . CLASSICAL CHRONOLOOT.

The Ist period is from its Foundation hy Dido, B. C. 860, to the beginniiig of the
wart €f Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king Gelon, B. C. 480.

In this period ibe foUowiDC poists are worthy of notiee : (a) the crtfi* a/fJki eiff Csrdbi^ by
a Tyrian colony under Dido, in wlioae story much fable is mingled : (b) the pmrsuitg qf ike jtMpte;
commercial, like tboee of tbe PbCDolciane ; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guinea,
by caravans with tbe interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world ; (c) their
conqiU0i$; their commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the
Mediterranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, tbe Baleares, also tbe Canary Isles and
Madeira In the Atlantic, and many places in Spain, and the northern coast of Africa ; tbe chief
conquests were effected by Ma^o, and his sons and grandsons; (d) the form of fovtmmnu; it
was a republic, but of a surongly aristocratic character; the executive consisting of two chief
magistrates called Suffetea^ and tbe legislative consisting of a SenAte of select grandees, and an
Aooombly of tbe people ; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popular and an
aristocratic party; (e)the rovomuo; its sources were, 1. tributes ft-om the subject citiee and
sutes or uibes ; 3. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the poru ; 3. proceeds of tbe nines
In Spain.

The 3d period extends from the beginning of the wars with GeUm of Syracuse to the
beginning of the contests with Rome in tbe First Puiric War, B. C. 264.

Tbe principal thing whieh marks the history of this period. Is the long continued struggle to
obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Byracusans were involved In
almost constant wars.

The 3d period is from the Jirst war with the Romans to the final DESTRUcnon of
GasTHA0B, fi. C. 146.

Tbe contests between Rome and Cartbage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which bech
desired to own, furnished the occasion.— There were three wars called Punie ; each disastrons
to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. Tbe second was marked by the bold invasion and
splendid victories of Hannibal ; ended by tbe battle of Zama, B. C. 232. Tbe third lasted only
about three years, aitd terminated in tbe entire destruction of the state and city. Carthage had
existed about 700 years.

Pot the Cartta^nlaD htalenr ; AoD^i ADe.Hial.bk. M-^Btitdrklk, De RipoUiai OnltaisinieBiiaD. 1684.— Aotr, m dlel
■bove.^Tt« Unbmml Airtory, tol. xv. ofite AadMt-AKlvB^i BitL of CsrtkH*. LbmL 107. viik a nap.

^ 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be mentioned.
Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will be ac-
complished by a gUnce at the Chronology of Greece ana Borne.

I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 15 or 1600 years,
from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province.
This whole space may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into
six successive jKrimis, each liinited by distinguished events, and characterized by pro-
minent circumstances.

1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Jkmm cf citnlixalion to
the Tkojait War, 1184 fi. C, and from its pecuhar characteristic may be denomi-
nated fabulous, ,

Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction ;
yet a few importont events mav be selected and authenticated. — Civilization had its
first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoanicia, who laid the founda-
tions of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicvon about 1800 years B. C. Lit-
tle advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries,
other colonies were planted, at Athens by Cecrops ana at Thebes by Cadmus, about
the time of Moses (P. IV. ^ 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable
progress must have been made in cultivation.

We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period ;
particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleusb, and the four
sacred games^ the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic
CounciK — The arts and sciences hkewise received considerable attention. Letters bad
been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to
furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The ac-
counts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in
the various arts pertaining to war. — ^But the whole history of the period exhibits that
singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chivalrous
adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age.

2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Tn^an
war to the time when the regal form of government was abolished, about 1050
B. C. From the most important and characteristic circumstances it may be called the
period of colonization.

The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such
without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this
we find the country mvolved in frital civil wars, in which the people, under a number

p. !• 8TATE8 OF KimOPB. GREECE. 73

•f pettychieftsiiis hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and oppras*
lion. These evils seem to have led to the change in the form of Government, and the
sabsdtQtion of the jMpviar instead of the regal system. The same evils also probably
eoDiribated to the spirit of emigration, wmch so strikingly marks the period. The
emigrants who sooght foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes.
The eariiest were the JEolians, who removed from the Peloponnesas to the north-
weitem shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smjnma was the
Biindpal The second were the lonians, who went from Attica (originally called
Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the Cohans, where Ephesos
was one of their chief cities. The third were the Dorians, who migrated to Italy and
Sdly, and founded numerous flourishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the
most important. — In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four princi-
pal diaieeU in the Greek language. (Cf. P. V. ^ 4.)

3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the
tUUiom of monarchy to the Bfiaiiriruio cftke Persian Wak, about 500 B. C.

Id this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta ;
and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with a suitable
political constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as
the period of Iowb,

Sparta found in Lycnrgns her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to
her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — Many years
later, Athena received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the
task unsuccesdully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. V. $ 167; P. III. %% 8, 9.y-The
other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta
vith her neighbors the Meesenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fiate of
his sons at Athena. — ^In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, hut suf-
fered much from the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian
general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame
poetof Athens, Tyrtsus. (Cf. P. V. ^ 53.)

In the verv time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal
authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to pro-
mote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the soits one was assassinated at a public
festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge
by mstigating the Persians to invade his native country.

4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persiait War,
160 B. C, a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever af^er looked
back with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite
examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest
energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It may
properly be called the period of military glory.

The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian
ting, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occa-
sion for the attempt in a revolt of his Ureek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis,
the capital of Lvdia, was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three suc-
cessive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them aid it confer
any glorjr; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopylce, Salamis, Mycale, and Platsa,
secured immortal honor to the Greeks.— A succession of splendid names adorns the
historv of Athens during this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and
Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried
in the self-sacrifice ofLieonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period
of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of tho
Greeks. Before it, theio existed little union comparatively between the different
ataies, and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of
Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against the
common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the nommal head,
but the talents, which actually controlled the public affairs, were found in the states-
men of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred,
and before the close of the war she stood, as it were, the mistress of Greece.

5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian war to the
SuTREMACT of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affaire
of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth
and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — ^But a spirit of luxurious refine-

t soon took the place of the disinteres'ed patriotism of the preceding age, and thi>
10 G

74 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY.

manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and licentiousness. This
may be designated as the period of luxury.

The history of the period presents several subiects of prominent interest. — One of
these is the protracted war between Athens ana Sparta, termed the Feloponnesian.
Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon fell a victim to tne terrible
plagae which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades suc-
cessively gained the predominant influence. The war was continued Mdth slight in-
termissions and various successes for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle
of ^eos Potamos, B. C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained
a final victory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in
Greece, and was deprived even of her own liberties. Her walls were thrown down,
and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. To this, however, the
Athenians submhted but a few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were expelled.

The same year was remarkable for two other events. The nrst was the accusation
of Socrates f one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial
for some reason was delayed several years, but the result was utterly disgraceful to
the city and to all concerned (cf. P. V . ^ 171). The other memorable event wna the
expedition of Cyrus ike younger^ the satrap oi Lydia, against his brother, the kiiig of
Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompamed him in this enterprise. The march tirom
Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaza, and the labors and dangers of the
10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded b^ Xenophon with beautmil nmpli-
city. — The assistance which the Greeks jgave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them
in another war with Persia. Sparta hod, by the result of the Peloponnesian war,
gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes,
ArgoB, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even
united in a lea^e against her, and Athens furnished the commander to whom the
Persians were mdebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This
war was terminated by a treatv, B. C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta,
and was alike dishonorable to all the Greeks.

The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta,
were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third to seek the as-
cendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two
distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — ^But a war with Sparta shortly
consummated her glory and exhausted ner strength ; she gained a brilliant victory In
the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C, but was in the same instant ruined by the
death of her general Epaminondas. — The successive downfall of three principal states,
Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith,
reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness,
already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian
states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B. C. 357. (Cf. P. III. ^ 72.) Thia
commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans
and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly
after this contest was terminated, a new Sacred war arose, called the Amphissian ; in
which the council of Amphictyons appointed PhiTip, king of Macedon, as general and
leader of their confederacy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized
a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of
Demosthenes was lifted to warn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse
them to united resistance. A feeble alliance with Thebes was efiected, but in vain.
The battle of Cheronea, B. C. 337, made Phihp the master of Greece.

6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of PAtZtp, gained by the battle of
ChaPTonea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chs-
ronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent his-
tory exhibits Uttle else than the steps by which the country was reduced toa dependent
province. We may therefore denominate this the period of decline and fdU.

Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as kin^ of Macedon, and autocrat of
Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first yeara of this period by his extensive conquests.
Those, who love to trace the course of conquerora, will follow with interest his march
from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of
Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus ; but every reader will regret his follies at Per-
sepolis and be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon.— For twenty years
sifter Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels
among his generals. Bjr the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B*. C. 301, these contests were
terminated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising Ma-
cedonia and Greece ; a second Thrace and Bithynia ; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia,
Palestine, and Coilosyria ; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, including all the
rest of Asia, even to the Indus.

To the firat of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to

p. L STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 75

! their countiymen to cut off the Macedonian yoke ; bat jealoiuy between the
states and the univeiaai corruption of morals rendered their ejLertions fruitless. All
that is really honorable and memorable in the proper afiairs of the Greeks at this
period, is found in the history of the Achaean league. — The Achaean league was origi-
nally a confederacy between twelve small cities of Achaia, established very early,
when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took
scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral
even in the Peloponnesian war.

The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B.C. Subse-
ooently it was enlargeiT and Corinth became the head and capital. Under the presi-
oencv of Philopcemen, B.C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that
its aioance was sought by some of the governments oi Asia. Had the other states at
this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece
might probably haye been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by
one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced
the opportunity, and shortly alter this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his
tiinniph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C.

Nothing but the Achaean league now preserved southern Greece from falling an in*
ttant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this
destiny for twenty years; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult
uponKoman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth waa
taken, and with all its wealth and splcpdor committed to the flames and consumed to
ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a
pfWiMCB oj xfoffie.

Itepnidpil bd|«utbectad7ori]MOracbalililonr»raiiiai(ioiMd,F.V.|7.T.(d).-Agoed ri«^
tapnnd«rfitii)aa(OoldiBitlAI7Moryo/OrMet,ae. FliikML lfia& ISL-A mliMbU tatl4Mak ud guide to da^er NMrafe ;
X AI.M»M,Sialn(if AaftqaJty, tnariatad ftvn Omna by Q. Baner^t, NovtfaunpL in& &^Forth«kter poiodao/ Oi»
■■M»o»y;/.Oa»<, Hilt. ofOwCT from icciwiriBctAtonadgtiU the aialwliita^ IjmL VISL A.—BnOm-

lH^G0dikM»der.AchUrawiihniBaBiin. L|S. 1782.

% 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200
yean; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into nx periods.

1. The 1st period mcludes the time from the Buildino of the Cmr, B. C. 752, to
the Expulsion of Tarquin, B. C. 509. It may be called the Period of the Kingn, or
9t Begal Power.

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, begimung with
the very founders of the dtv, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced from
£neas the hero of Virgil. But manv have doubted whether this portion of the Roman
history is entitled to much credit, ana some have even contended that it is altogether
frbulous. (P. V. ^ 510.) — Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. III. i^ 193, 240).
One of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution
eifccted by the sixth king, Servius TuUius, introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He
divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a
much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. III. i 252.)
—The reign of the second kinjgr, Numa, is remembered, on account of his influence on
the aflairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several
classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was
of very hmited extent, and the people were onen involved in war with the several
atates m their immediate ▼icinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in
the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed
the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to thd banishment of the &mi]y and
the overthrow of the regal government.

2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion ef the Kings to the time when the Pu-
BEiAKS were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B. C. At the beginning of
thb period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had be-
eome a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as th«
period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife.

Two consnb, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised almost
predsely the same power. All ofBces of state were forbidden to the Plebeians or com-
moo people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or descendants from the Senators or
Patree.— The firat step in the undermining of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law,
which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgraceful punishment to appeal from the
magiatrate to the people. Under the protection of this law, the people, discontented
with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in the levies,
which the wars with the neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patri*
Qtns to invent a new office ; that of Dictator (P. III. ^ 248). But the dissatisfaction

76 CLAB8ICAL CHRONOLOOT*

of the Plebeimiis was not to be thua removed. They united with the army and with*
drew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. Reconciliation was effected by creating tiie office of
TrUmnei, who were to be choeen annually from the Plebeians, and to poasees the power
of a negative upon the decrees of the Consuls and even the Senate. (P. II [. $ 345.}—
This arrangement only led to new dissensions, the Tribunes generally making it their
object to oppose the Consuls and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually en-
croaching upon the Patrician. — ^In a few years another fimdamental change was eflected.
The important business of state had, from the time of king Servius Tullius, beea
transacted at the Comitia Centnriataj or assemblies voting by eenturie$> It was now,
B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacteid in the Comiiia TrUmta, or
assemblies voting by TribeSf in which the Plebeians held the control.

The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy between
the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians ftivoring it. This was the
Deoemvirate, B. C. 451, which superwded both consuls and tribunes, but continued
only three years, and then the two other offices were restored. — ^In a few years the
people made another advance, the Senate conceding, that sis military tribunes, three
ratrician and three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of the two consuls. — ^Another
office was created during this period, the censorship ; two Censors being appointed to
take the census of the people every five years, andf to watch over the pubUc morals.—
But this office does not appear to have originated in party animosity ; nor had it
any influence in heaUng tlie disBensiona between the higher and lower orders (cil
P. III. ^247).

One ^rand obiect with the Plebeians yet remained unaccomplished. They were
not eligible to tne more important offices of the state, and to remove this disabihty
they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for many years, and occa-
sioned much unhappy disturbance, bat termmated in their complete success ; as they
Sined admission to the consulship, the censorship, and finally to the priesthood, and
us obtained a virtual equality with the Patricians about B. C. 300.

During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in fre-
quent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The firat was with the Etrurians
under king Porsenna, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, " a war fertile in exploit,
of romanuc heroism." — ^The second was with the city Veii, a proud rival of Rome. I
was at last taken by Camillus, B. C. 390, after a siege of ten yeare.— The last wa.
with the Gauls, who invaded Italv under Brennus, and are said to have taken Rom.
and burned it to the ground, B. C. 385. Camillus, who had been forced by the cla
mors of the populace to go into returement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy
flight the barbarian conquerors.

3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends firom the final InusipA tf the PU>
hetMu to the Caftttbe of Carthage, B. C. 146.

Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, and ha<
extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The admission of Pie '
beians to all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted the consolidatbn am
strength of the republic, and the career of conquest was soon commenced. This ma)
be remembered as the period of the Funic Wars, or of Foreign Conquests.

The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which resulted
from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by Grecian coloniea
(^ 50), and contained at this time several cities, flourishing, wealthjr, and refined by'
letters and the arts. On their invitation Pyrrhus, the kin^ of Epirus, passed over
from Greece with a large army and a train oi elephants to aid them a«unst the Ro-
mans, and wss for a time successful, but finally, being totally defeated at the battle
of Beneventum, B. C. 274, fled precipitately to nis own dominions. The allied etatea
and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who thus became mistress of Italy.

She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily became an
object of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into contact with Carthage,
which was now flourishing and powerful. The Carthaginians had settlements in
Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the dominion of the whole island. Hence
sprang the first of the three Punic Wars. Sicily was chieflv settled bv Greek colo-
nies. These colonies preferred independence, but, situateci between tlome on one
side and Carthage on the other, were in no condition to resist both, and had only the
alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans in
the first Punic war, which began B. C. 264, and was ended B. C. 241, by a treaty
exceedingly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was made a Roman province, yet Syra-
cuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain an independent government. — ^The
tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first Punic war.

After a peace of twenty-three years, the second Punic war began in the siege of
Saguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this city, Hannibal
crosBcd the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched down upon Italy with a victorious

F.I. STATES OF BUROPE. ROME. 77

ttmT. The Romans were defeated in three engagementa before the memorable

battle of Caonc, in which they were completely conquered, and 40,000 of their troops

kft dead oo the field. But after the battle of Camue the Cartha^rimans gained no ad-

TULtiges. A king of Macedon came to their aid in vain. — ^Scipio, a Roman general,

having conquered Spain, passed over to Africa and carried the war to the very walls

of Carthage. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to defend the city, but was utterly

defeated by Sdpio m the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second Punic war

ended even more disastrously than the first. In this war Syracuse in Sicily took part

viih the Carthaginians, and was on that account besieged by the Romans. It was

ably defended by the scientific genius of Archimedes, but at length taken by Marcel-

Ids, and made a part of the province of Sicily, B.C. 212.

The result of the second Pimic war may be considered as the occasion which ear-
ned the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama, fled to the pro-
tection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war which compelled the king to
cede to the Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C. 190. — The interference
of the king of Macedon in the second Punic war also furnished the ground for a war
with him, which was the first step towards the conquest of Greece. A few vears
after,the Romansy on the pretence of aiding the ^tollans, subjected Macedonia, B. C.
167. The Achiean league preserved the southern portions of the country a little
longer; but in twenty years these likewise fell under the dominion of Rome by the
capture of Coiinth, B. C. 146.

Carthage fell the same year vfiih Corinth. The Romans had waged a third Punic
war, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate struggle with
the Numidian& The third Punic war continued but about three years, ana termi-
nated m the entire destruction of Carthage, under circumstances of aggravated cruelty
and faithlessness on the part of the Romans.

4. The fourth period extends from the Capture of Carthage and Corinth to the
catabfiflhment of the Imperial Govbbniisnt by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31.
Boring this whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domestic disturb-
ances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period of the CivU Wan.

The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances which erew
out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored to check the
powin? corruption of the Senate, and to relieve the circumstances of the people ; but
hothfeU victims to their own zeal and the hatred of their enemies, Tibenus 133, and
Caittfl 121 B. C. Some have ascribed their efforts to ardent patriotism ; others to
Jnere ambition. (Cf. Niebuhr's Rome, cited P. V. ^ 299. 7.) Not lone after the fall of
Grecehu9 arose the Social war, by which the states of Italy demanaed and obtained
oTRome the rights of citizenship, 6. C. 90.^-Scarcely was this ended, when the Ro-
nttis beean again to inabrue their hands m each otner's blood in the fierce war of
SvUa ana Menus, rival leaders in the republic. Two horrible massacres signalized
this contention. Sylla finally triumphed, and was made perpetual dictator, yet re-
Bgned his power at the end of four Vears, B. C. 78. The death of Sylla is soon fol-
hwed bv the fiamous conspiracy of Cataline, detected and subdued by the vigilance of
CJeero, B. C. 62.

Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men. — The first trium-
rirate, a temporary coalition between Pompey, Grassus, and CsBsar, repressed the
flames of discord for a few years. Ponipey had already added Syria to the Roman
poiMSsions; Caesar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his life in an attempt to conquer
Partlna, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke the bond which held Caesar and
Pompey together, and they hastened to determine in the field of battle who should be
BBster of Rome. The contest was decided in the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly,
by the entire defeat of Pompey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was beheaded
the instant he landed on the snore. For five years Caesar held the supreme power at
Home, but was assassinated in the senate, by a company of conspirators headed by
Bnitus and Cassius, B. C. 43.

A second triumvirate was now formed, on the pretext of avenging; this murder, be-
tween Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspinng to the power of Cssar. A horrid
proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the party of the conspirators
necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B. C. 42, put an end to the hopes of
Bmtos and Cassius, at the head of this party. Octavius, who was the nephew of
Cesar, easily effected the removal of one member of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of
feeble talents and insignificant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by
Vwe for Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and the
fiite of battle again decided who should be the master of Rome. The armament of
Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeased by Octavius at Actium, B. C. 31. This
battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her possessions, to the power
of Octavius, by whom the imperial government was finally established.

g2

78 CLAS8ICAX. CHRONOLOOT.

The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actiam, presents but
a melancholy pictuie, a blood-stained record ot sedition, conspiracy, and civil war.

5. We may include in a 5th period the time from the establishment of the Imperial
GevemmetU to the reign of Cojcstahtine, A. D. 306. As Christianity was introduced
into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end of it by the Roman govern-
ment, we may designate it as the period of the Pagan Emperon,

The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has become
proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, Uterature, and the arts. It is distinguished,
also, for the birth of our Savior; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his cruci-
fixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. those of Tiberius, Califfula, Clau-
dius, and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny of the emperors, ana the profli-
gacy of their families and favorites.

On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a year of dissension and bloodshed, in which
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, successively gained the empire and lost their lives. — ^The
Flavian fiimily, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, next in order receive
the supreme power. Titus is celebrate as the final conqueror of the Jews, whose
obstinacy provoked him to rase their city to the ground, an event exactly fulfilling the
predictions of Christ. His reign is memorable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which
buried the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor of the
family, provokes his own assassination, A. D. 96.

Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful Adrian,
we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of the Antonines, extending
from A. D. 13S to 180, a space of about forty years. Their reigns appear in the midst
of the general sterility ana desolation of the imperial history like the verdant oasis in
the desert. Literature and the arts of peace revived under their benign influence.

After the death of Marcus, A. D. 180, there follows a whole century of disorder,
profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The army assumes the absolute disposal of
the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. Within
the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty emperors are successively proclaimed, and
deposed or murdered. — ^In the year 284, Diocletian commenced his reign, and attempted
a new system of administration. The empire was divided into four departments or
provinces, and three princes were associated with him, in the government. This sys-
tem only laid the foundation for rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a kw
years Maxentius and Constantine, sons of two of the princes associated with Diocletian,
appealed to the sword to decide upon their respective claims to the imperial purple.
The former fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the throne.

This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagan Emperors,
those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to persecution and euflering.
Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the first under Nero, A. D. 64,
and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. D. 303, and continuing ten years, unto
A. D. 313. But, notwithstanding these repeated eflbrts to hinder the progress of the
gospel, it was spread during this period throughout the whole Roman Empire.

6. The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending from the
reign of Constantine to the Fall of Some, when captured by the Heruli, A. D. 476.
The reign of Constantine the Great imparts splendor to the commencement of thia
period. He embraced the Christian iaith himself, and patronized it in the empire, as
did also titost of his successors ; on which account this may be called the period of the
Christian Emperors.

One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great influence
on the subsequent afiau-s of Rome, was the removal of the Government to a new seat.
He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither removed with his court, giving it the
name of Constantinople, which it still bears. He left his empire to five princes, three
sons and two nephews : the youngest son, Constaniius, soon grasps the whole, A. D.
360. By the death of^ Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he
was already on his march firom Gaul to seize by force. l*he reign of Julian, styled the
Apostate, is memorable for his artful and persevering attempts to destroy the Christian
religion, and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, with the ex-
press purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of ther Bible.

From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. D.
379, the history presents little that is important to be noticed, except the jealousies
between the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew out of the re-
moval of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who ruled
over both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius and Honorius separately the
east and the west. — From this time the Eastern portion remained distinct, and its his-
tory no longer belongs to that of Rome.

P.I. STATES OF ET7R0FE. ROME. 79

The Western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who ore scarcely
able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian invaders. At length,
under Au^tulus, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is taken by Odoacer, leader of
the Henh, and the history of ancient Rome is terminated, A. D. 476.

The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the continued
inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east But the greatest annoyance
was suffered in the latter part of the time, from three tribes, under three celebrated
leadeis; the Goths, under Alaric; the Vandals, under Genseric; and the Huns,
Qoder Attila ; the two former of which actually carried their victorious arms to Rome
itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid prostrate at their feet the haughty mistress of the
worid; and the latter was persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by igno-
ble concessions and immense gifts.

^ 215. It may be proper to add here, that the Eastern Empire, called also the Greek
Empire, was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of almost 1000 years after the
OYcnhrow of the Western. After the fi^l of Rome nearly sixty difierent emperors had
oocopiedthe throne at Constantinople, when, A. D. 1202, that city was taken by the
oufiiiden from France and Venice. By this event the Greek emperors were forced to
establish their court at Nicaea in Asia Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their
fonner capital was recovered : and, subsequently to this, eight different emperors held
the sceptre there ; although the empire was gradually reduced in strength and extent,
nmil it consisted of but a little corner of Europe. Its existence was probnged to A. D.
1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who have retained it to
the ptesent day.

IWAepriKipd warfeiMtlNRoaMB bMM7,m p. V. f 190. 7.— We Motira bars m Tillable, JTcb fV«Mr TyJM IMwml
IBtmf, lM.HHLSTO)fc&— TtenwlMtf iiiuickBtbMM7wiUderheadnaliseaboft«m Bi(laBAI«<lvf on tttSliid^

PART 11.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.

II

PLATE r.

GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

TfUroduciion,

$ 1. Among the early nations of antiquity, before the art of writing had come
mto general use, tradition was the only mode of preserving and spreading the
koowledffe of remarkable events. Many circumstances contributed to give to
earlv traditions a fabulous character. The love of the marrellous, a natural
teadeucy of the mind to employ symbolical and allegorical images to express
ideas for which no definite words have been appropriated, and a disposition to
euloffize and exaggerate the exploits of ancestors, all conspired to load history
and fact with a mass of fiction, so that it became impossible for later inquirers
to distingnish accurately between the true and false.

i 3. Traditions of this sort the Greeks distinguished from authentic history
by the name oimythi (fiv^ft^ and they termed their contents or the matter of
them, as well as the knowledge or study of them, mythology (j^v^oxoyux).
Mythology, however, was not with them, as in modem times, a distinct branch
of study. The term is now used appropriately for that branch of knowledge
which considers the notions and stories, particularly among the Greeks and
Romans, respecting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their actions,
names, attributes, worship, images, and symbolical representations. It is often
employed also in a wider sense, including the religions fables of all ages and
nations, and thus is made synonymous with the history of fable,

y 3. It is important to distinguish the point of view in which these m3rtholo«
logical narratives were contemplated by the ancients, from that in which we are
to regard them. To the former they were closely connected with their national
history and their religious faith, were indeed parts of them ; to us they are only
moDoments and evidences of the state of culture of the human mind, if we view
them philosophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon nature and deity, of
men guided by sense and imagination, afifected much by external appearances,
and mistaking physical effects for independent or voluntary powers. But they
afibid much valuable and even necessary aid in understanding the Greek and
Roman authors, especially the poets, and in judging of ancient opinions, usages,
and art.

$ 4. The traditions of mythology, in passing down through many centuries,
were multiplied and augmented, and experienced various changes in respect to
their general dress, aim, and application. Originally they consisted in part of
actnal occurrences, in part of arbitrary fiction, springing from fear, reverence,
gratitude, patriotism, credulity and love of the marvelous, or duplicity, cun-
ning, and ambition. They were, it is probable, sometimes of native origin, but
niore frequently were introduced from foreign sources, by settlers and other-
wise. By the poets they were woven into epic song ; hy early philosophers
they were clothed in mystery and allegory ; and by the later interpreted in
diveiB conflicting ways ; while artists found in them an ample range of subjects
for the chisel and the pencil.

{5. Some of the modern writers on Greek and Roman mythology have
inerely stated the fables as reported among the ancients. Others' have, in addi-
tion, sought to trace them to their origin, either by making conjectures of alle-
gorical, historical, and physical meanings in the stories, or deducing them from
the events of early ages recorded in the Bible. But as these traoitions arose
in various ways, and often accidentally, there will of course be error in every
Byitem which attempts to refer them all to one common source and purpose.

84 GREEK AXD ROMAN MTTHOLOOT.

^ 5 «. The foundation of very mtmy of th« fictions of mythology u hiid in the idest
which arose from the simplicity and inezjierience of the first ecesj conversant only
-with objects of sense ; viz. that every thing in nature was endued with an appropriate
activity and spontaneity Uke that in man. In connequenoe of this idea, wherever an
unusual appearance or Rsency was observed, it was ascribed to a distinct being or
existence operating directly or immediately. This creation of personal existences out

M«ii7 of lb* pocMB itoriM an iufnteoljiolvad bjr nfcnlBr tb«r orlgta to •yabolicdl or allOBorinl dMcripUan of pbyncil prii»*
ciptfltaBdehuifM. CL P. IV. f 4I.-0B lbs viM oTIdolAtnr, w« nCer to fUv. Origia of ftgu Idobliy. I^nmL 1816. 3 voli. 4.
Cf. alio Stad^sni; 8m. ■>< PraC HM. bk. V. j-3aH<r, dtod S 12. 1. (a).-8oo nfei^^

The followinn remarks, on the sonrcei or/abU^ are from the TVaiti iu Etudes ofRM*. Tbey
were translated by Mr. fVeUhiiton N, TVIsr, who has eonsented lo their insertion here.

1. '' One source of Fable is the pervenion or alteration of facts in Sacred History i
and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. The family of Noah, perfectly
instructed bv him in religious matters, preserved for considerable time the worship of
the true Goa in all its purity. But when, after the fruitless attempt to build the tower
of Babel, the members of this family were separated and scattered over difierent
countries, diversity of lanj^nage and abode was soon followed by a change of worship.
Truth, which had been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication,
subject to a thousand variations, and which had not yet become fixed by the use of
'writing, that sure guardian of facts, became obscured bv an infinite number of fables,
the latter of which greatly increased the darkness in which the more ancient had en-
veloped it. — The tradition of great principles and great events has been preserved
among all nations ; not, indeed, without some mixture of fiction, but yet with traces
of truth, marked and easy to be recoernized ; a certain proof that these nations had a
common origin. Hence the notion, difiused among all people, of a sovereign God, all-
powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of
external worship by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Hence the uniform and
general assent to certain great facts ; the creation of man by an immediate exertion of
Divine power ; his state of felicity and innocence, distinguished as the golden age, in
which the earth, without being moistened by the sweat of his brow or cultivated by
painful labor, yielded him all ner fruit in rich abundance ; the fall of the same man,
the source of all his woe, followed by a deluge of crim6, which brought on one of
water ; the human race saved by an ark, which rested upon a mountain ; and after-
wards the propagation of the human race from one man and his three sons. — But the
detail of particuhr actions, being less important, and for that reason less known, was
soon altered bv the introduction of fables and fictions, as may be clearly seen in the
family of Noan itself. The historical fact that he was the father of three sons, and
that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts of the
earth, has given rise to the fiible of Satum» whose three sons, if we may believe the
poets, shared between them the empire of the world."

Oo Nf«nl of the poiati abore nRMlad bj UtAVm, tba pvfMi mrtbolofr tihtbili Mrikiaf eolBrldf aeti wiib fkcte In $uni hUtaif.
ThcM an pointed oat by anonl writan; we mentioa pftrtienlirlj OnliuB, Do ToriUto Ral. CLr'.at (L. L e. 17.)— JQi lanatp-. Bit
toira de U Ftblo ODnfarfa avoc I'Hatoiie Saintai Imt ITSI.— Aite', Hone Moaaioa.— CoByar, /aetuna on Seriptaro FWth Bd ad.
Load. lBn.-Stmingflmr$ Orif laea a»am.^Ct. ATouriM, Biatory of Biadoataa. Load. 182a 8 Tola. 4. (bk. i.)

2. "A eeamd source of Fable was furnished b]r the minietru of aneeU in human
affairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature, nis inteUigence and his
immortality ; and he was farther (^Bsirous of associating them with his providence in
the' government of the world, as well in the departments of nature and the elements,
as in reference to the conduct of men. The Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed
with their glittering swords, ravage all Egvpt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an
innuorierable multitude of people, and entirely extirpate the army of an impious prince.
Mention is made of an an^el, the prince and protector of the Persian empire : of
another, nrince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, prince of the
people of God (J)an. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration ofangels is as ancient as the
world, as we learn from the Cbenibim stationed at the gate of the terrestrial paradise
10 guard its entrance. — Noah and the other patriarchs were perfectly instructed in this
truth, which to them had an intense interest: and thev took pains, no doubt, to instruct
their families on a subject of such importance; but these by degrees losing the more
pure and spiritual notions of a divinity concealed and invisible, attended only to the
agents through whom they received their blessings and punishments. Hence it is
that men formed the idea of gods, some of whom preside over the fruits of the earth,
others over rivers, some over war and others over peace, and so of all the rest ; of
gods whose power and agency were confined to certain countries and nations, and who
were themselves under the dominion of the supreme God.

3. ^* A third source of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in the minds
of all people ; this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, cha'. Prctid^gnce pre

p. U INTRODUCTION. 85

nie$ over oIZ kuman events great and email, and that each, without exception, expe-
liences his attention and care. But men, frightened by the immense detail to which the
Divine Beinf must condescend, have felt bound to relieve him, by giving to each of a
namb4t of Cities some panicuhir,* appropriate, personal duty ; Singulis rebus propria
ditpertientes offida numinum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve too
many concerns upon a singly deity; the soil was intrusted to one, the mountains to
another, the hiJls to a third, and ihe valleys to another still. St. Augustin ids Civitate
2>n\ iv. 8) recounts a dozen different deities, all occupied upon a stalk of grain, of which
each, according to his office, takes a special care at di6erent times, from the first mo-
ment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the erain is perfectly ripened .-;-Beside8
the crowd of deities destined to penorm the inconsicwrable duties of such affairs, there
were others which were regarded as of a hieher grade, because supposed to take a
mote noble part in the government of the world."
The Domber of god« admitted in the Greek mytholofy was immense. If we may take Hesiod'a

iMttmony for authority. Re sayi tker$ art 30,000 god» on earth, fuar^Uans of men.

Warbarton (in ihe work cited P. IV. ( IS. 3) contends that the tables respecting mi
whkh are recorded by ancient authors, bad their origin in the common belief or the doctrine of

. , sis; and the latter be affirms to have been a " method of explaining the ways of
Prarklance, which, as they were seen to be unequal here, were supposed to be rectified here-
after;" thus, be saya, mstsmpsyekosis naturally suggested vutamorphosis ; "as the way of pa-
Blshing in another state was by a transmigration of the eoul ; so in this, it was by a transforma-
tion of the bodp.''

4. "A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human hearty which ever
strives to authorize its crimes and passions. The more important and renowned of
these gods are the very ones whom Fable has most disparaged and defamed by attri-
batiiig to them crimes the most shameful and debauchery the most detestable, murders,
adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human heart has been ready to multiply,
distort, and pervert the fictions of mythology, for the purpose of palliating and excusmg
practices the most vicious and frightful by tfie example of the gods themselves. There
18 no conduct so disgraceful, that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by
the worship which was rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the mother
of the gods, for instance, songs were sung at which the mother of a comedian would
have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as the most virtuous
man in the republic, to go and receive her statue, would have been much grieved that
his own motner shoula have been made a goddess to take the place and honors of
Cybele."

5. " I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from which Fable takes its
rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as a fifth source,
we may refer to a natural sentiment of admiration or gratitude, which leads men to
associate the idea o^ something like divinity with all that which particularly attracts
their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which seems to procure for them
some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon,,and the stars; such are parents in view
of their children, and children in that of their parents ; persons who have either in-
vented or improved arts useful to the human family ; heroes who have distinsuished
themselves in war by an exhibition of extraordinary courage, or have cleared the land
of robbers, enemies to public repose ; in short such are all who, by some virtue or
b^ some illustrious action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It
will be readily perceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred,
has given rise to all those demigods and heroes whom Fable nas located in the heavens,
by associating, with the person and under the name of a sinele individual, actions
widely separated in respect to time, place, and person."— Cf. P. v. ^ 222. 4.

% 6. The advantages of an ac(|uaintance with mythology are many. One of
the most important, aside from its aid in reference to ancient philosophy, re-
ligion, and history, is the better understanding it enables one to obtain of the
Greek and Roman writers and of the works of their artists. It is obviously ne-
oeseary to the cultivation of classical learning, which is of such acknowledged
importance in modem education. — Cf. P. IV. $ 29.

^ On the benefits of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract from Eollin, as
died under the last section.

1. '* It apprizes us how much we are indebted to Jesus Christ the Savior, who has
lescoed us nom the power of darkness and introduced us into the wonderful light of
the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character of men ? Even the wisest
and most npiieht men, those celebrated philosophers, those great politicians, those
Tsaowned legislators of Greece, those grave senators of Rome? In a word, what
were all the nations of the world, the most polished and the most enlightened ? Fable
informs us. They were the blind worshipers of some demon, and nowed the knee
before gods of gold, silver, and marble. They offered incense and prayers to statues.
deaf and mute. They recognized, as ^ods, animals, reptiles, and even plants. They
did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an mcestuous Juno, a

H

00 GREEK AND ROKAN HYTHOL06T.

Jupiter blackened by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason to hold the first
rank among the gods. — See what our fathers were, and what we ourselves should
have been, bad not the li^ht of the Gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in
Fable, every circumstance m the life of the gods, ought at once to fill us with cohfiision;
admiration, and gratitude.

2. *' Another advantage from the study of Fable is«that, by discovering to us the
absurd ceremonies and impious majcims of Paganism, it may inspire us with new
respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanctity of its morals.
Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishops, in order to render idolajtry
odious in the minds of the faithful, brought forth to the light and exposed before the
eyes of the public, all which was found in the interior of a temple that had been
demohshed ; bones of men, limbs of infants immolated to demons, and many other ves-
tiges of the sacrilegious worship, which pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the
etiect which the stud^ of Fable must produce on the mind of everv sensible person ; and
this is the use to which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the defenders of
the Christian religion. The great work of St. Augusiin, entitled *The City of God,
which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same time a proof of what

1 now advance, and a perfect model of the manner in which profane studies ought to
be sanctified."

• ThiibbbepwM7:i«opka»oflIaaiilra; mpedliv vIioib, m JAviioBlli TraMkUoa of Modiein, L SOS.

We would here refer to a very able and Intereitiag treatise by THoluek^ on T%e nature and morui
infivence of Heaihtnism among the Greeks and Romane. — "Whosoever," says Tholuck, "stands on
a loAy mountain thould look not merely st the gold which the morning suit pours on the grsM
and flowers at hit feet, but be should sometimes also look behind him into the deep valley where
the shadows still rest, that he may the more sensibly feel that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it
is also salutary for the dlHciples of Christ, at limes, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a
glance over the dark stage, where men play their part in lonely gloom, without a Bavior, with-
out a God !"

8m a tniuUtioa of Tbblndi't TraatiM by ?n>t. Anavon, ta BibL RtpeiiUry^ vol. ii.

3. '' Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the imder-
standing of authors, either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in reading which a per-
son is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not of poets merely,
whose natural language is Fable ; it is often employed also by orators, and it fur-
nishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations, and with strains the most
sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among manv others, is that drawn from
tne story of Medea, in the speech of Cicero {Pro Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the sub-
ject of Af ithridates, king of Pontus.

4. *' There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illustrated by
a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. These are so
many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key to their
interpretation." It should be added, that mythology, at the same tmie, itself re-
ceives new light from the study of such remains or iinitations of ancient art, so that
these two branches of classical pursuits reciprocally aid each other.

§ 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern countries,
and having derived her religious notions particularly from Egyptians and PhoB-
nicians, the orig\p of inost of the Greek deities is to be sought in the religious
history of those countries and nations. But many changes took place, and
this original derivation was greatly obscured through the vanity of the Greeks,
who wished to claim for themselves and ancestors the merit of their whole re-
ligious system. This motive led them to confound the history and alter the
names of the primitive gods.

Some traditions may have come from India. There are certainly many points of
resemblance between the mythology of Greece and that of India.

Am Kart Ritta; Die VorlMlle Enropiiseter VoUwrfnehlchteB mr H«rodolw mm den KankMW and u dfn GcBtadan dct Paehii.
Bariio, ISSa 8. Ct. JDmnerfy, u cited § 12. S. (f). Alio Moan ind Mauriet, u then cited. Aho the Worka of So- Wm. Jorm,

cited § <& 4. On the influ»nca ot the FhCBoidana, kc. on the enriy caltare of tbe Oreeki, cf. P. IV. § 40-42 ; P. V. § 12. Ob

the cfaADga enccoiiTclj wroufht In tbe njtlialocy of tbe Oreeki, Maiffo, voL 111. p. 1-9, at cited $ 12. S. (a).

§ 8. The religious system of the Romans ^ves clearer evidence of its Gre-
cian descent, being in scarcely any part of it a native growth, but borrowed
chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet the Romans likewise changed,
not only in many cases the names of the gods, but also the fictions of ueir
story, and the rites of their worship. They also derived some notions and
usages from the Etrurians. (Cf. P. IV. J 109.) All the religious conceptions
and institutions of the Romans were closely interwoven with their civil policy,
and on this account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their system
of auspices, auguries, and various omens. We fina therefore in Roman my tho-

p. n. iMTRODVcnoN. 87

logy nnQch which ihe Greek had not, and much which was borrowed from it,
bat altered and as it were molded anew.

. $ 9. Thus the general division or classification of the ^ods was not the same
with both nations. The Greeks made a three-fold division into Superior godt^
lienor god$^ and Demigod» or heroes ; the Romans a twofold^ into gods Supe^
rwr and Inferior {Dit majorum et minorutn gentium). Their first class the
Romans distinguished as Contentea and Seleeti j their second class, which in-
cluded demigods or heroes, they also distinguished as Jndigetes and Semones.

1. In the Roman classification the CoiuerUe^, so called because they were supposed
to form the great council (oon*etUiefUe$) of heaven, consisted of twdve, 6 males and 6
females; Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan; Juno, Minerva, Ceres,
Diana, Venus, Vesta. These were the great celestial gods. — The Sdecti were nearly
equal to them in rank, and consisted of eight, Saturn, Pluto or Orcus, Bacchus, Ja-
nus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. These (the ContentcM and the Seleeti) were called
DH majorum gentium, and all the rest Dii tninorum gentium, in Allusion to the division
of the senators ipatres).

2. The Indi^eta, called also Adtcrivtitiij were heroes ranked among the gods on
account of their merits, and included particularly Hercules, Castor or Pollux, and
Qttirinus or Romulus. — Th^ Semones included those deities that presided over parti-
cular objects ; as Pan, god of shepherds, Flora, goddess of flowers, dtc. — Besides
these there were among the Dii minorum gentium a numerous class of misceUanei,
iocloding the virtues and vices, and other objects, personified ; and also a number
called dii peregrini, foreign gods introduced at Rome from abroad, or at least tole-
rated, although perhaps worsmped chiefly by foreigners residing in the city.

3 (. The gods were likewise classed according to their supposed residence. When
thus classed, four divisions were made of them ; the ceUslial gods (cf. ^ 11) $ the ter-
restrial ; the marine ; the infernal.

The Consentes in the Roman division corresponded to the class which the Greeks,
when denominating the gods by their residence, termed the Celestial and Olympian,
hMpcMOi, 6Xi,twtoi ; whicn were also called hi ittydXoi ^sdt, and hi i<MiKa. 3sdt. The
Athenians had an altar consecrated to these collectively, fiaitis r»» StoSstca.

4t. The gods are sometimes arranged according to their descent in the fabulous
genealogies. But the genealogy of several of the gods is given variously by different
poets ami fabulists.

The earliest Greek tbeogony was that of Orpheus (cf. P. V. $ 48). Tn Homer (cf. P. V. $ 50)
an traces of a secood theorooy, wbirb has been ascribed to Pronapides, said to have been the
yrecepior of Homer. Next is the regular scheme of Healod (cf. P. V. ^ 51) in bis poem entitled
Tk»9g99M. P«na of a fourth system are wrniiitbt by Aristophanes (cf. P. V. } 05) Into his comedy
of the CUfud*. A partlA theogony is mingled by Ovid (P. V. (304) with his Cosmogony. Cicero
(cf. P. V. ( 468) in his treatise on the nature of the gods gives the genealogy of some.— See ( 13. 1.
A gaMlopGiI isbk, sceotdinc to JSKvuxT* TAccfony, ii appcDded to Coote't Hniod (cL P. V. { 51. 4}.— A feoealof ieal Chart of
Mj/iUtgt m fiffca in oar FUte, phbSO.

$10. Bot the differences in the systems of the two nations need not essen-
tially affect a scientific treatment of the subject of their mythology. For the
principal deities of each were common to both, and it will contribute to brevity
aitd comprehensiveness to include them all in one system of classification,
pointing oat what may be peculiar in each case as it occnrs. It is therefore
proposed to consider the gods of the Greek and Roman mythology in four
classes; vix. (1) Superior Gods^ (S) Inferior Gods, (3) J^ihieal Beings^ whose
history is intimately connected with that of the gods, and (4) Heroes,

In the first class will be noticed the twelve Consentes, or great celestial gods, and
also, Janus, Saturn, Rhea, Pluto, and Bacchus. — In the second will be mentioned
Uranos or Ccelus, Sol, Luim, Aurora, Noz, Iris, .£olus, Pan, Latona, Themis, iEs-
ctdapius, Plutus, and Fama. Here belong also numerous deities of the Romans
which were not common to them and the Greeks. — The third class comprehends the
Titans and Giants, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, Muses, Graces, Fates, r uries, Genii,
Lares, Satyrs, and the like. — Under the fouHh and last fall the names of Perseus,
Hercules, Theseus, and various others, whose achievements led to their deification.

$ 11. It may he proper to remark here, that ihe ideas entertained by the
Greeks and Romans respecting the nature of Divinity, were exceedingly im-
perfect. A being possessing powers of body and mind superior to those of
man, especially superior might, mainly answered to their notions of a god.
The saperiority which they ascribed to their deities consisted chiefly in freedom
from bodily decay, a sort of immortal youth, ability to move with wonderful
cslenty, to appear and disappear at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form.

GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

and to exert an immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. In thead
respects, however, their power was limited, according to the general opinion,
being controlled by an eternal and immutable relation of things, termed fate or
destiny, •

'* The ancient Greeks believed their godi to l>e of the same shftpe and form as theniselves, but
•f far greater beautv, strength, and dignity. They also regarded them as being of much larger
size than men ; for in those times great size was esteemed a perfection both in man and woman,
and consequently was supposed to be an attribute of their divinities, to whom they ascribed ail
perfections. A fluid named Ichor supplied the place of blood in tlie veins of the gods They were
not capable of death, but they might be wounded or otherwise Injured. They could malie them-
selves visible or invisible to men as they pleased, and assume the forms of men or of animals as
it suited their fancy. Like men, they stood in daily need of food and sleep. The meat of the
gods was called Ambrosia (dii^povta), their drink NecUr (clxrap). The gods, when they c&mo
among men, often partook or their food and hospitality.

**Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They
married and had children, Just like mortals. Often a god became enamored ofa mortal woman,
or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth ; and these love-tales form a
large portion of Grecian mythology.

" To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their
deities all human passions, both good and evil. They were capable of love, friendship, grati->
tude, and all the benevolent affections ; on the other hand, they were frequently envious. Jealous,
and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from man-
kind, whom they reouired to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid pro-
cessions, and rich sifts; and they severely punished Insult or iftglect.

" The abode of the gods, as described by the more ancient Grecian poets, such ss Homer and
Hesiod, was on the summit of the snow-clad mountains of Olympus in Thessaly. A gate of
clouds, kept by the goddesses named the Seasons, unfolded its valves to permit the passage of
the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on their return. The city of the gods, as we may term
it, was regulated on the same principles as a Grecian city of the heroic aees. The inhabitants,
who were all the kindred or the wives and children of the king of the gods, had their separate
dwellings; but all, when summoned, repaired to the palace of Jupiter, whither also came, when
called, those deities whose usual abode was the earth, the waters, or the under wnrld. It was
also in the great hall of the palace of the Olympian king that the gods feasted each day on am-
brosia and nectar ; which last precious beverage was handed round by the lovely goddess Hel»e
( KoiUA), — maid-servants being the usual attendants at meals in the houses of the Grecian princes
in early times. Here they conversed of the affairs of heaven and earth ; and as they quaffed
their nectar, Apollo, the god of music, delighted them with the tones of his lyre, to which the
Muses sang in responsive strains. When the sun was set, the gods retired to sleep in their
respective dwellings.

" The Dawn, the Sun, and the Moon, who drove each day In their chariots drawn by celestial
Bteeda through the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." iKeigktUy^ p. 14-17.)

^ 12 1. Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes specified, we will,
in accordance with our general plan in other parts of this work, present some references
to the sources of information on the subject ; alluding first to ancient authorities, and
then giving the titles to more modern worlis.

1 «. Almost all the Greek and Roman potts make use of, or at least touch upon, mythological
subjects ; although these are not by aiiv means treated in the same manner in the different kinds
of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic. We have properly mythic poetry in the Theogony
of Hesiod and the Cassandra of Lycophron (P. V. ( 67), the Metamorphoses of Ovid, and in two
poems of Claudlan, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. V. ( 366).— Many histtt-
riant have introduced into their narratives faiythnlogical traditions, without presenting them,
however, as fully entitled to credence, while Jhey have also recorded much that appertained to
the worship of the gods and to works of art connected with mythology. Herodotus, Diodorus,
Strabo, Pausanias, and the elder Pliny, may be mentioned patiicularly.— There were also ancient
writers who made mythology their theme, or treated the subject more at length ; as, among the
Greeks, JipoUodorut, Conon, Nephtuticn^ Partkenius^ AnUninnSj Xi^sroiis, Palapktutt Hermcli-
dM, Phumutut (P. V. $ 281 ss) ; among the Romans, Hyginu* and FtUfftntiut (P. V. $ d02 ss).
Notices on this subject are found also In the works of some of the early writers of the church,
and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts.

3 m. Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject more at large, others
more compendiously ; some present the subject In an alphabetical order; there are also works
accompanied with plates and drawings for illustration.

(a) The folloiriiic art hom of tb* worki which go into mora
foil details on the wbola labjeet, or oa particular parla.

LU. Ong. GyraUi, Uietorla Dm. Geatil. SyBtafmala zvii.
Baa. 1M8L fd. Alao in hia Opjk Omu. (ad. /. /amiut). LagL
Bat 1606. IbL

Fine, Cartvri, te hnacinl dcfli del de«li asttcU. Lioo. 1681. 4.
Alao in Latin, Lugd. 1561. 4. oA. rapr.

Haialit ComitiM MyOulogia a. Ezplicatknia Fabnlanmi Ubri
X Oen. 16SI. 8.

Gtrh. I romha, Da tbeologia Gcntill et phjaMogia chrktlaaa,
a. da originB et pnpeaao idolatria libri CC Inal. 1668. foL

Jnt Auito', U mrtbokigie et lea bUca eipliqnto par Phb-
tan. Ffer. 1798-10. 8 ?oia. 12. In Gennan, witti additioH by
J..d.SdUccelaiMi/.jr.&ftr0eUL LPB.17S6-66. Svola. 8. In
EasIiab,Jtanicr,M]rtbolouonto ADcimta. Lood. 1730. 4tq1b. &

JL Mttfo, STBtea of Mytbelogy. Fhilad. I8I& 4 vola. 8.

F. QrauBu'i Synbolik und Mjrtbol<«ie der Allen Volker, beaoB*
dcra der Gricebeo. Lps. 18I9-2I. 4 Bde. 8. Sd unpmved ad.
oomiBeoced 1836b— Saaic (abridged) by G. B.MoHr. Lpt. 1822. a

Ch. A. LobiA, AflaofdiaaMia, tive de Theologia myiticaOnf
oorum caoaia. Beciaiontii (Konlngabeiig), 18S9. 2 fois 8. op>
poaing aome of Uw viewa of Creazer: it haa been highly eia»

/. H. Few, Antbymbolik. Stntlg. 1824. 8.

Q. Hermamn^ De Mytbologla GnMorum uliquSaibiia. 1817.

Q. ilcmumn and F. Cnumr^ Briaia abar Homer nnd Heripdaa.
Hcidelb. 1818. &

a. Sarmami, Briefe Obw dai Womn und die BebaBdhns dar
MyOwingie. Lpi. ISIS. 8.

/.^UTomi^f MythokciedflrGncdND. Lps. 1166. S-Obr

OBXEK AND ROMAN MTTHOLOOT.

89

cMyfliolo-

pa Bia«lk,liOe.SBdek8.,-llyiMm,I*UittaeoadarallMla
ltalB|ikiloia|iU«allcrVolfcw. Tttb. 1811. B.

X L, BH4f VttumKlbu^m •htt d. MjrtbM d. bOTOhDlmi
1Ukw4.altWcit,«onaclicbd.arMch. Frayb. IBIL «.

£ a JIUtar, nwiiff—"* n OMT wiwiwehiftliehBB If f>

JWtaHm. HTlfaolaciH. Beri. 1820. 8 foh. &

& X £. libUfr, Ftoatattca dm AltetbiuM, oder Snnml.
Bif(kS«EadcriielleiMB,Ba(B«r,*e. Lpz. ITOB-BO. 6 Bde. 8.

W« uy add /. AryoMl't Mew SyMB of Mytbolosy. Loud.
Un.8««li.8.

i)lVM«,OiigiBedelovl«CaltetL Fkr. 18B2. 7 veb. &

JL P. £iii^,lM|air7 iiilB Ow ^Bbolieal Lu«aa«e of Anctet
iitud Mytbokvr, ia diOarent No*, of the OurimZ /onmal.

CbtaK 4i Gdriin, Le Monde FruDitif. Far. 1774-87. 9 fOb. 4.
■^ielH fabio, mditiocie, lymbob, and laagofe.

Otdgmma, Reliipoea da rAaltqaite. Far. IS6-8a 4 vda. 8

GMtanf, Dela RalicioB. Far. IBM-Sl. S tdIb. &
(t) Mora coaqMsdioM treatata, or MaBaala.

C T. Amur, MylboVvie dcr GriadMB uad ROner (ed. Icoe-
MO. BerL IMO. 8. wiih platiiL

Jt a ArmMn, HaMlbQdi der Mytfaalofie ana Homer and
VmtL tmi. 1787-9S. Smb. &->By iafiic» Mytholofie der
6rii*Ba,f&rdie«beni KlaeHD, te. BerL 1801. 8 rait. 8L

£AMv«8, Odttoricheee, oder nyfhol. Dtehtaogn der Alten.
lad. 199. 8. wiifa plaMi. Abo tnod. by C. T. JAg^, N. York,
m IL with pbtea. Snm wwk in Eocliak, Mythological
rHtofofGfeekeaadBomam. 12ido.

tt. ihmtec^ Abrbe eiaer MyOnlosie fftr Kflmtler. Bert.

imtw)ii.8L

CABNfi(ar^6raDdrtaeenTerleiaB«ai aber die Mylbolo-
|ia> DraaL I808L S^By eemc, Anullbea oder Moeum d.
Kwtaiylhalepe aied MML AlterthafnAaode. I^eipa. 1821.

r. FMer, Mylbolosie dcr Gnecben uad Italbeben Tolker.

Bd.m.

Ai*ei0 Teele, Tte FkadnoB; eotfUiai^ Ibe MytboIograJ
ifttwaf thtOmkiaad Boonoh Mhed. Lood. 1831. & with

M^EIcMBhofMythdlecy. Load. I83S. 18. verybrief.

C C Mtoway, RoeMB AatiqBitiaa awl AnciBBt Mytbokgy.
BDtf.18ULU.

r.I24Aa|i,Myth.ofGTCeM*Ikl7. Sd. cd. Loud. 189& 8.
(4 Dtdioaaneeer Mytholagy.

JL Bdwidk,MythalectacbcB Lcsiooa (ed. /./. ftAwoAc). L|».
1T«L8L

K F.X AOaAiNeaee aiythoL WOrterbocfa (ed. f. Q. Kbvfh).
Ifa.ni, 8 eoh. 8.

JC Ph. Jfbrib, Mytbol. Werterbneb fttr ScbOler. Bert. 1817. 8.

LQ.Ondmr,Wmabueh in allUa«iflehaD Mytholcsie and
Iriigiaa. Weiaa. 1810. S eota. &

*. C Cknpe, UctiocMalre abn(e de la hhl». Fkr. 1818. 12.

jy. JM; Dktienalre de h lUUe, oa Mytholo|ie Omqoe,
iJfiae, EcjftieBaik Cdl^iM, PerMaiw^ lUieoDe, Cblooiiei fte.
hr.WLlTCla. .

Wtai. Oiiedl, A Mythotofical Dietionary, ta. (Extnetad
fesX »jmPt Haw Syetam or Aaalysb of AaeieDl Mytbolo*
irJ Lead. 1788. 8.

M^MewFaalbeDa. Load. ITW. S vola. 4.

flfifajiAtti MHierfigMt, flie part eattUed Aatiqait^ Vytho-
e|ia^CtooMlD|l^*e,wMchpartcaaateof6nda.4. Fkr.
1188, «

Bfy^Mi UnlBMdk, pallia jU^OelorftMb FU-. t89L

(d) The fallowiac werk< oontaia plalea illaatratiDC Ihe iiib>
jeeta of mytboloiy, aeeoBDpaaied with explaaationi.

Bernard <k Jfeuf/bucon, L'Aotlqaiid expliquja et npfeaSBlfe
•a fifuiek Far. 1719. 10 v(4«. ia », foL Stipplea. Far. 1784.
6 Tob. bl. Tranbled into Eniciiih by JDaotcf Humphnytk
Load. 1731. 6 vola. fol. with Sapplemeot, 2 voSa. fol.
JoaA «0fi AwidrvC, looootof b deoruia. Narnb. 1890i fbL
Sptna'* Polymetia, or aa inquiry ooooeroiDC the agreeaaeat
between the woika of the Boman poela and the naaaiiia of the
ancient artbta. Lond. 1747. foL 1756. loL
La 7bm/ib da Maaa^ a aaperb folio.
D. Bbrdbn, The Uagea, raiigieaa, civil, kc, of the AMiailto.
Lend. 4 rOa. a

JL Biftj BiUertmch Rlr Mytbolosie^ Aichielogie uad KuMb
BerL 1H»-I8. 2 vob. 4.

A, L. MitUtit Galerie myiboleglqae, ou Retueil dea maim-
meoa poor aerviT a l*e(ode de la aaytholegie, de l*hbtoire de
VMtty fcc. Fu-. 1811. 2 veb. 8. ooatainiac oorreet pictnrca of
aboal 800 aacieat BMnnaienb.— 'ftaaab Geroi. by Julian.

jL bl i^rttMaia, Der Olymp, oder Mythologie der fgyptor,
Griechen and ROnwr. Beri. 1837. 8. 6lh ed.

(«) The impreaaioaa on ancient genaa are of mnch aarviee in
ili«atntii« mylbobigy, lo wbJeh part of the aobjcet betong the
follewing war*a:

JL C. Kinumg, Vemch ebier myfbologbeheB Daklyliofhek
tl» Sdidler. Lpc. 1781. 8. (with 190 aeat hnpreMiooa of ea
giaved genu.)

r. r. Soth'M mytbolociacbe Daktyliolbek. NOrab. 1806 (wUh
90 inpreaaed modeb of engraTed alooea).

AIM Upperft Daktyliotheli (F. IV. ( 210)b One (hooaaad oi
hb inprtaatooi bekng to nytboloKy.

The genia of which Wtdpnaood andBnMey have given imita •
tioDS, pertain, many of theoi, to mythology ; aa aiao thoea ol
TuMtu (P. IT. § 210).

(/) Here we may name Ukewbe aoiae wwfca on Ihe Mylfaa-
logy of other nationa beaidea the Oreeka aad Booiaaa.
Mooret Hindoo Pantheon.

JMorir, Ueber die raligiAae Bildung der Hindoa. Lpi. I8R.
2vob.8^

Anncdy, Bcanrehea into Ihe Natan and AflSnity of Aacknt
and Hindoo Mythology. QU AMiatie lUHordm,
Mauriei, Indian Antiqaitiea Load. 1806. 7 volt. BL
mviFfl Viewof the Hbtory, Utentaie, and Raligioa of the
Hiadooa.

JTonig. MarOn, Htat and Antiqoitlea of Eaatem ladb. Lond.
1838. 3 vob. BL with MNaa good pbtea Uluatratiag Hindoo my
tbology.

C. CoUmm; Mylhoiagy of the Hbidaa. Load. 1988. 4.
with pltfea.

JSOgv, Fantheoa Chinob (or Paxallel between tbe religioai
wonhip of the Groeka and the Cbiam}. Fkr. 18ia 4. Ct Chut
/ewn.L178L

/. C. Fridiard, Aaalyeb of Egyptba Mythology ; in whkk
the eaperatitioH of tbe aneia..* Egypliana era compared with
thoee of the Indiana and other natiooaot antiquity. Load. 1819. 8L
abo 1889, with prelimiaary eaaay by ran SeUegtlf aad plalea.
^ymViWOrterimchderSeaadmaviaBMythoiogie. Copenb.
ISIflL 12.

£Dwto,My(hblo|yaadBilcaoriheBritbhDTiuda. Load.

1809. &

/. M. AnOb, Skzoo Mythology. Cf. BOL Jbpot. xl. 847.

Tor aome lemaiti on the reaemblanee of tbe mytboiogy of tbe

Bliddie Agea to die Claaaleal, cf. AfiTor^ Frtface to fVafUmS

I HbL Eng. Foetryy voL L p. 25mL ed. Lood. 1884.

13

h3

P.IL 8XTPERI0R GODS. SATTRir. 91

l.^-Mythologieal History of the Superior Gods,

i 13.* The Divinities which we include in the class denominated Superior
Gmb, are the following : Saturn, Kpovo(, Xpovo;, Salumus; Janus; Rhea or
Ctbele, *P£o, *P«'tt, Yiv^i\fi\ Jupiter, Ziv%\ Juno, "Hpa; Neptune, IIo«c5wv
Ne^unuit Pldto, nxovf «v ; Apollo, 'Aytox^xw; Diana, "Apfs^tj; Minerva,
HoMii^; Mars, *A^i\ Venus, *A4>po5iV«7; Vulcan, "Htatotoj, Fulcanusf
Mebcort, *EpfMJi, Mcrcurius ; Bacchus, Atovvoo; ; Ceres, £iTifiritr,p ; Vesta,

$ 14. (I) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the gods, called
Ckronos by the Greeks and ScUurnus by the Romans. He was said to be the
son of Uranot and Titasa^ i. e. the heavens and ike earth, and to have possessed
the first government of the universe. His wife was Mhea, who was bis sister.
Satom and his five brethren were called Titans, probably from their motlier;
Rhea and her five sisters likewise Titanides. Saturn seized upon the govern-
ment of the universe by his superiority over his father and brothers; yet
pledged himself to rear no male children ; accordingly he is represented as de-
vounng his sons as soon as bom.

$ 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, escaped,
throaghthe artifice of Rhea their mother, who g|ave him stones to devour in*
stead of the children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn in recovering bis
throne, after he had been driven from it by his brothers the Titans and bound iti
Tartarus. Bat soon he made war himself upon Saturn, and seized the govern-
ment. According to Roman fiction, Saturn now fied to Italy (thence called
Salumia\ and acquired great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people.
Under him was the so-called golden age, which the Greek poets assigned to
the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably an idea of
the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly created, is the basis
of this story.

At. Opi. ct Di. n. tse —9^. £«. vlii. 319.— Od. Metun. i. 8S-112.

$ 16. From the Greek name of this god, which is the word signifying time
(zpo»o$), he has been considered as designed to personify time, and the first
cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, as well as the story of his
devouring his children, seems to have some reference to the idea of time, as
satiated only by the destruction of what it has produced.

1 u. This name, however, may have been given from the idea of fertilitv or produc-
tiveness, as he is said to have taught agriculture and the use of seeds. The word Sa-

t%Twu is derived firom Satur, signifying fullt natiated, and also fertile. Saturn is

termed Salor^ Vitixaior, Faleifer (bearing a sickle or scythe), Sterculinus or Stercuiius
(baring taught the fertilizing uses of manure), Canus and Leucanthes (XsvKavBiit),

3. &iine have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. See
Tooke's Pantheon, Pt. ii. ch. L ^ 5. — " Saturn was not unknown to the ancient Ger-
mans, among whom he was worshiped by the name of Seatur ; who is described as
standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the other a vessel of water filled
with fruits and flowers.'* HolwelVt Diet, cited $ 12. 2 (c).

$ 17. It was once customary to offer to Saturn human sacrifices, particularly
among the Carthaginians, the Gauls, and the Pelasgic inhabitants of Italy.—*
His principal temples among the Greek were at Olympia, and at Drepanum in
Sicily. The temple of Saturn in Rome served also the purpose of a treasury,
in memorial, perhaps, of the general security and the community of goods in

the Satnmian or golden age. The chief festival of this deity was the Saiur'

fiaUa of the Romans, which was, like the Peloria (Il£>Aopui>) of the Thessalians,
devoted to freedom, mirth, and indiscriminate hospitality.

I. The custom of sacrificing children to Saturn seems to identify him whb Jlf0<oeA, the I^ceni-
ciaa idol, to whom tbe apostate Israelites sacrificed tiieir offspring.

Sm JUbi, BiU. litk. 1 211.— iKocL Kc, u. 14— Ubrtn, uid /rcrci. Dm vicUoiea banaJjiei, JAm. Aai. buv. Toh. L ud
>i&-OHpaof haBuaacrifico. Cbuf. Joum. ziv. MS. zviL IOC

2«. Saturn was represented by the figure of an old man having a scythe or sickle
m one hand, and often in the other a serpent with m tail in its mouth in the form of a
circle, both emblems of time. There are, however, but few ancient monuments of
this deity.

PLATE XI.

P.n. BUPXRIOR GODS. JANTTS. RHEA OR CTBELE. 93

3. lo oar Plate X. fig. 1, he appears in a sitting posture, with a sort of sickle in one
hand. In the Sup. Plate 3, he appears with the scythe, a long beard, and wings. —
Bt is also thus described : *' a decrepit old man, with a lon^ beard and hoary head ;
his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and tnin, his cheeks sunk $ his
nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right hand holds
a nisty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour."

i 18. (3) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Romans. They
reDiesent him as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning over the earliest and so-
called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time of Saturn. It was to Janus
that Saturn fled, and under them was the goldtn age, a period of uninterrupted
peaet. To Janus, therefore, Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which
was always open in time of war, and was closed with much solemnity, when-
ever there was general peace in the Roi!ban empire ; a thing which happened
bat diiee times during 724 years from the building of the city (cf. P. I. $ 60).
From this deity the month of January was named, and the nrst day of the
Dionth was sacred to him.

1. He was considered as the inventor of locks, doors, and gates, which are thence
called jamta. His name was applied to structures which were sometimes erected on
the Roman roads where four roads divided ; a sort of gateway with an arch opening
in each of the directions, and called a Janus. He was termed Fathety and sometimes
God ^ rait. In sacri^ces, prayers were first offered to Janus, and oblations were
made tooim, as being the door of access to the gods. — His original name was Vjanus
oiDuanis, which some have derived from die»j day. He is called the Sun, and was
the Sun-god or God of the Year, of the original inliabitants of Italy. The story of his
friendly receotion of Saturn is by some explained as referring to the agreement be-
tween the ola inhabitants of Latium and the unmigrating Pelasgi to worship the two
gods in common. — Janus was not received among the gods of the Greeks.

2 b. He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple face ; hence
the epithets Bicepa, Bifrons, Quadrifront. He is also called Fatulciut, Clusiug, Con^
smw, CuMtoBy and CUniger.

3. The representation with two faces in Plate XI. fie. 8, and in Sup. Plate 3, gives
taa appearance on a number of consular coins. In Pmte VII., on his temple, he ap-
Dears with four ^es. It is worthy of notice that the Brahma of the Hindoos is repre-
sented with four heads. See Plate XII.^— >/antM is also represented with a key in
sne hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet, supposed by some to
refer to the 12 months of the vear. His statue erected by Numa is said to have had
its fingers so composed as to eognify 365, the number of days in a year.

$19. (3) Rhba or Ctbele. The common name of the wife and sister of
Sataxn, was JSAeo or Opi. Yet the history and worship of Cybele were afler-
vards so entirely interwoven with those of'^Rhea, that both were considered the
same person, and although Rhea was said to be the daughter of Earth, were
each taken for Croia or 7W/tM, and often called Fesia, and the great mother of
godi. The origin of Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story,
and hence the confusion in the accounts which are given of her.

Ctbele, properly speaking, lived later; and was, according to tradition, a
daoghter of Meon a king of Phrygia and Lydia ; or according to others, in an
allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. Her invention of various musical
iostniments, and her love for Mt/i, a Phrygian youth, whose death rendered
her frantic, are the most prominent circmnstances of her history.

(htf, FM. 4. S2S.-CMiaii«, dc At. «t Bar.

Besides the names above mentioned, she was called Mater Dyndymena, Bere-
cynthia, and Idsea, Fessinuntia, and Bona Dea,

i 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as inhabited and
fioitfal, is snpposea from the manner in which she was represented.

In. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced in pregnancy, with a
tarreted mural crown on her head. Often she was borne in a chariot drawn by Uons ;
aometimes she rested upon a lion.

2. On gems, she is seen in a car drawn by lions, holding in her hand a tambourine.
Such b her appearance, Plate X. fijz. 2, taken from Monifaucon. In the Sup. Plate
3, she sits in a chair, with keys in her right hand, attended by lions. — She was also
6>nDed with many breasts, with a key or Keys in her hand, sometimes a sceptre, and
freqaeuily with two lions under her arms. In Sup. Plate 5, is a remarkable repre-
sentation, given by Monifaucon (Ant. Ex. 1. p. 18). Cf. P. lY. % 156. 2.

94 ORXEK AND ROMAN MTTHOLOOT.

A fffure In uWvet with some parm plated with fntd, and the whole elepnntly flniahed, repr«-
MOting CybtU, was found at Macun (aiicieui Matiseo) on the Saone, in 17<M.

Thb mt imUUlMd by Camd Cm^tt$i, voL viL pi. 7l.->JnU«i « Umpnm.— Jtanicr, rar Im •taton de CyWa, fa tte Mm.
Jead. Mnr. voL v. |iu 241.

$ 21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygria, bnt spread thenoe
throagh Asia. The celebration of her f^^stivals was exceedingly tomultuoos,
as her priests (called Corybanies or Gallic and the chief one Jrcht'gallus) went
about with clamorous music and singing, acting like madmen and filling the
air with the mingled noise of shrieks, bowlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and
spears.

1 «. The removal of her image from Pessinus to Rome, and the establishment of
her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. The festival called Megalesia
(from it€yaXii, the grent mother) was maintained in her honor.

Im. HbL & 10, II, kA^ydL Ma*. 8. 16.

2. The place called Pettinus was said to have derived its name from UcotTv, to fall.
because it was the spot upon which the ima^e of this goddess fell, being like the fabled
AncUe and Palladium sent down from Jupiter.

At her festival, the MegaUsia, Roman matrons danced before her altar ; the ma-
gistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a ereat concourse of people and strangers usually
assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the goddess through the streets of
the city. The festival called HUaria was celebrated in a similar manner, and attended
with many indecencies.

3. There appears to be a itrong resemblance between Cybcle and Proerirt, the goddets of
nature ainonf the Hindoos. The latter la represented as drawn by lions, and her festival is
attended with the beating of drums.

Sn Moorf$ Hindoo Flutbeoii.— Cotemont Mylholoffr el (he RiuloM.

$ 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful amonfif the gods was
called by the Greeks Zev$, by the Romans Jupiter, It would seem, that by
this god was originally represented nature in general ; afterwards, the superior
atmosphere f and finally the supreme existence. Many tales of the early history
of Crete were incorporated among the traditions respecting him. He was a son
of Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed his Father of his kin?doiny
and shared it with his two brethren, so that Neptune received the seaj Pluto
the infernal world, and himself the earth and heavens. The giants, sons of
the earth, disputed the possession of his kingdom with him, and attempted to
scale Olympus, but he aefeated them with thunderbolts forged by the Cyclops.

Enraged by the corruption and wickedness of men, he destroyed the whole

-nee by a vast delage, from whic> Deucalion and Pyrrha alone escaped. The
supposed date of this flood is not far from 1500 years B. C.

OpM, M«(&m. i. 151, WL^OaudianU Qlgu^tammeO^ CT. P. V. f SML

$ 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a mountain of
Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant serenity of its summit,
represented as a suitable place for the abode of the gods. (Cf. § 11.)— His
first wife was MbUs^ whom he destroyed, because it was foretold him, that she
would bear a child that would deprive him of the kingdom. Afterwards the
goddess Minerva was produced from his head. By his second wife, UtemiM^
be begat the Horse and the ParetB, — ^The third and most celebrated was Juno^
by whom he had his sons Mars and Vulcan.—- Tradition, particularly the tales
respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous amors of Jupiter ; e. g. with Eu-
ropa', Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele*, and Io\ Apollo, Mer^
cury, Hercules, Pereeus, Diana, Proserpina, and many other gods and demigods
were called the children of Jupiter. The name of son or daughter of Jupiter,
however, was often employed merely to designate superior dignity and rank,
and not intended to imply literal relationship.

i Ovid, M«UiB. ii. «86. ^t n. Ui. B». • Ik i. flSS.

$ 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numerous temples
were erected to his honor. The largest and the most celebrated in Greece was
that in Olympia in Elis, remarkable for its own magnificence, and for its colossal
statue of Jupiter wrought by Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in its
vicinity every fifth year. His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was
renowned (cf. P. HI. $ 71), and considered the most ancient in Greece. — ^In
fioroe the Capitol was specially dedicated to him, and he had in that city many
temples.

p. n. SUPERIOR 60D8. J17FITE11. JUNO. 05

I». Japiter is generally repreflented as sitting upon a throne^ with a thanderbolt in
bis right hand, and in his left a long scepter resembling a spear ; and the eaele, sacred
to him, standing near, or, as in some monuments, resting at his feet with extended
wings. , . . n,f

2. The representation in the Sup. Plate 2 correroonds to the aboTe description.— The
Mgle sometimes is perched upon his scepter. Jupiter is also spoken of as wearing
"^Iden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various flowers and figures of
animals.'* — In the Sup. Plate 1 we have his appearance in a noble statue^from Spence's
Poly me tis -In thestatue at Elis (see PI. XI. fig. 3) he is presented as *' sitting oi)on
his throne, bis left hand holding a scepter, his rignt extending victory to the Olympian
conqoerors, his head crowned with oUve, and his pallium decorated with birds, beasts,
tod flowers. The four corners of the throne were dancing victories, each supported by
a sphinx tearing in pieces a Theban youth."

Oi IteOTiqma iiatiii, M nnnm't Lact |k Sr, M dtad p. IV. { in.~QMfr. * gH<iK^

3. As Jupiter Ammon, he was represented as having the horns of a ram. Such
vasthe statue at his temple in Libya (cf. P. III. ^ 71). Thus he appears in the Sup.
Pbte 29. On ceremonial occasions, and when the oracle was consulted, this statue,
sparkling with precious stones, was borne in a gilded barge on the shoulders of twenty-
WBT priests moving (it was pretended) just where the god impelled them, followed by a
troop of women smging hymns.

But the most singular representation is that given in the Sup. Plate 10, exhibiting
Jupiter Pluvialis, as found in a bas-relief at Rome, designed to commemorate his in-
lerpodtioQ in sending rain on a certain occasion.

$25. This god receiyed a multitude of names and titles derired from circum-
stanees of his history, or the places of his worship.

1 s. The Greeks termed him Zct)(, and applied to him various epithets, as the Idaan
(i'Uar«f), Olympie C^Xvit9tK6i)^ Dodonaan {^ui<'>i'oros)^ thunderer {fepavinos\ deliverer
(ik»e/pi»{), hmiiabU ((^"'^O* jn^nisher of the perjured (S/wriof), &c. The Romans
styled hhn O^tmus Maximv», CavitolinuB, Stator, Diespiter^ Feretriut, &c. As the
aveoger of crime, he was called also Vtjovis or Vedius ; yet some consider these as
Dvnes of another distinct divinity : and others take them for names of Pluto.

2. Among the epithets appliea by the Greeks were also the following ; from his
seoding rain^ ipiSpiost vinos, M^eXi^ycplrifs, dp9iys09is; from his darting thunder, dart-
p«nr%i, ^porrai0f, TetnriKipav¥ot ; from his protection of suppliants, Waioj, iKtrfvtot. The
Romans also called him sometimes Inventor, Elicius, Latialis, Sponsor, Victor, Plu-
swKi.— His Latin name Jupiter is from Z<« Uartp, Z beine changed into J. From Z«»«
(ia Doric ^IHs and JEolic ^^t) came also probably the Latin Veu9. The word is by
some supposed to be of eastern origin ; others say it is applied to this deity as the source
of life from ^^«.

3. Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning of the
various fiables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn fi^m many different
personages and probably eastern deities were associated with his name, in the descent
of mythological traditions from one generation to another. When the different tales
are united, they form a very incongruous mixture, combining historic narrative, poetic
omamem, and philosophical allegory.

1 ^ Ififftam /mm, with much fngenuAy and leamfnf , has attempted to show that the Greeks
•Ml RoBMiu emboiHad in their Jupiter the special atirlbutes which the Hindoos aserlbe dlttlne-
iNely 10 the three divinliioe oflheir famoue triad, named Bvkmio^ VUknut and Siva. In eeeen-
tial atlribntes, Brahma is aald to be the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer
and re-prodoeer. Eiieh of these olBcea la ascribed to Jupiter in the classical Abies, according to
Sir William.-'The Hindoo deities are given in our Plate All. as usually seen in Bengal : Brahma
viih four faces and four hands, holding a spoon, a rosary, a portion of a Veda or Hindoo sacred
book, and a vessel of the water of ablution ; Vishnu with four hands, in one of which is a sort
of ring or diacQS, which to said to send out flames of fire when twirled on his finger, nnd in the
ethers a shell ased for a trumpet, a sort of club, and a lotus ; Siva, having a trident in one hand
asd B rope in another for binding offenders, with serpenu for his ear-rings, and a string of humaia
heads for bis necklace. He has a third e.ve in his forehead.

h is worthy of notice, that the Hindoo fables represent Vuhnu as assuming difiTerent forms oy
ncccsslve incarnations, in the exercise of his attributes as preserver. Ten incarnations, ot
Jtmian, are specially designated. These are represented by the ten engravings in our Plate
IIIL ** All the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coronets ; with rays
cBcirding their beads ; Jeweto In their ears ; two necklaces, one straight and one pendant on
their bosoms with dropping gems ; garlands of many-colored flowers, or collars of pearls, hang-
tagdown below their watots; loose mantles of golden ttosue or dyed silk, embroidered on their
hoM with flowers, elegantly thrown over one shoulder ; with bracelets on one arm and on each
irrisi : they are naked to the watots, and uniformly with dark azure flesh ; but their skirts are
bright yellow, the color of the curious periearpium in the centre of the water-lily ; tbev are
iemettoses drawn with that flower in one hand ; a radiated elliptical ring, used as a missile
veapnn, in a second ; the sacred shell, or left-handed buccinum, in a third ; and a mace or bat*
tls-aze, in a fourth." Nine of these Incarnations the Hindoo tales describe as having Blread>
eccorred. The ttnik Is to take place at some future period, when Vishnu will descend f^oui
beavsD on a whUe winged horse, and will introdoce on earth a golden ace of virtue and peace.—
hiliould be rensarked In thto eonnection, that CrukiM to celebrated in Hindoo mythology as am

06 GREEK AND ROHAN MYTHOLOGY.

Incarnate deity. Accordini to Sir Wm. Jonee, be fe contidered dietinct from all the Jtvatcrg •
these bad only a portion of the divinity ; ** while Criskna was the person of FUkvu kiwu$tf in
hnman form." In the Hindoo pictures, CrUkna sometimes appears among the Avatars ; he it
** more splendidtv decorated than any of them, and wears a rich garland of sylvan flowers as low
as hip ankles, which are adorned with strings of pearls."

Bee Sir K^/mM^ on the fodi or Gfwec,ll»i7,a«klladu,ia hit IKHt and Z^f« by iMdT^^ Load 1107. IBtoIil 8.

(vol. 01. p. 8ia>--CC JiMiliy^i^fwt c/fto J. ACtonmbfar Flor. Mek, Noh IL and rU. »^^

$ 36. (5) Juno. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of Saturn and
Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of gods and men, was called by the
Greeks "Hpa, and by the Romans Juno» Her birthplace was assigned by the
Greeks to Arsos, or the island Samoa, and to other spots in Greece, although
her story and her worship were rather of Phcenician origin. The chief pecu-
liarities of her character were love of power, and jealousy ; the latter passion
was constantly inflamed and fed by Jupiter^s infidelity.— In consequence of this
jealousy she wrought seyeral metamorphoses, as in the case or Calisto* and
Galanthis'. Hence also her wrath a^inst lo* and Seme]e^ and her ill-will
towards the Trojans because Paris denied her the prize of beauty in the contest
with Pallas and Venus. By her jealousy she often aroused the anger of Ja-
piter, who once, according to Homer*s representation^ suspended her in the air
oy a golden chain. Ixion*s love for her was punished by Jupiter with ever-
lasting torture, he being bound to a wheel constantly revolving.

> (hii, Metem. IL 474. ^ lb. ix. a08L > A. i. BU, « Ih. UL 180 ■ Ili^, zv. IS, la

$ 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of her temples
and festivals was very great. Her- worship was especially cultivated in Ar^oe,
Samoa, Sparta, Mycente, and Carthage, cities wnich committed themselvea
particularly to her protection. In Elis were games, every fifth year, sacred te
tier, called *Hpcua. This was the name also of her great festival celebrated al
Argos and other places, which was likewise called ixa^ofifiota, because it was
customary on the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of the
goddess. There was a similar festival at Rome, called Junonia and Junono'
lia, •— .^ From her, tutelary angels or guardians of females were called among
the Romans Jutumea, The Roman women took their oaths in her name, as
the men did in the name of Jiipiter. Both Greeks and Romans honored her as
the protectress of marria^. — ^The Romans dedicated to her the month of Jtme^
named' after her.^She is often described by the poets as the Qtieen of goda
andmeru

I OM, Tut vL IL

1. Juno had a great varietv of names; as Argiva^ Cingula, Egeria, Juga (Lvyta)^
Ludnia or Lucitutt Moneta, Nuptialia (Va^iikta)^ OjpigenarPifpulonia, SotpUaf Unxia,

2 «. Her daughters were H^^ goddess of youth ; and Ililhviay who presided OTer
births. Her messenger and servant was Irig, the goddesa of the rainbow.

1. Hebe was employed to hand round the nectar at the feaata of the godi. Ber office of cup-
bearer aAerwards f^ll to Ganymedea. When Hereulea wai admitted to Olympui, Hebe became
hia 8poase.^lD fig. 4, Pi. XIV. ahe la represented aa pouriuc out the nectar, with the bird of Jove
by her elde.— In the beautiful deaign presented in the Sup. Plate?, she la also aeen pouring oui
the drink of the goda.

$ 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness and jealousy
of Juno in their representations of ber. Among the symbols of her attributee,
the most remarkable was the peacock, held as sacred to her; and found by her
side in many figures. Sometimes her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She
was frequently represented by Roman artists upon their coins, which, howoTer,
often contain the Empresses exhibited as Junos.

1. She is usually represented as a grave, majestic matron ; usually with a sceptre in
her hand, and a veil on her head and a crown decked with flowers; sometimes she
has a spear ii) her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices. The peacock is some-
times at her feet. Thus she appears in our Plate XI. fig. 1. In the Sup. Plate 2, ?ire
seen two peacocks and the chariot, with Iris flying above. — ^Homer exhibits her in a
chariot adorned with gems, having wheels with brazen spokes and naves of silver, and
horses with reins of gold. But generally she is represented as driawn by peacoc&a in
a golden chariot.

2. The fables respecting Juno are interpreted difl*erently according to the meaiiing^
attached to those respectmg Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered as typifying, or

PLATE Xn.

08 GREEK AKD ROMAN mTTHOLOOT.

alle^orically represonting, the active productive power in nature, Juno is the passive.
Their quarrels are then explained as physical allegories.

$ 39. (6^ Nbptunb. The goTemment of the waters of the earth was, in the
divisioQ of authority already mentioBed ($ 23), assigned to the brother of Ju-
piter, called IIo0ei5wir, or Nspiune. The idea of a god ruling the waters arose
from the surprise of the first obsenrers of the power of that element ; even be-
fore Neptune, Oeeantu, son of the heayens and the earth, and husband of Thetis,
was honored as god of the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the
Titans, and was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encompassing the
earth, while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to Neptune.

1. ▲ Btatu« dug up at Rome about the siiteenlh century, repreaenia Oceanus aa an old man
sitting on the wavei of the sea, with a sceptre in bis band, and a sea-monster by bin. On aa
ancient gem he is represented in a similar manner. In our Plate XLIII. be appears in a recuai-
bent posture.

2 tt. The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daug;hter of Nereus or Oceanus ana
Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin, and in return honored the fish
with a place among the constellations. The prinapal sons of Neptune were Triton,
Phorcus, Proteus, and Glaucua. The chief characteristics <i$ these minor deities of
the sea were the power of divination and ability to change their forms at pleasure. The
daughters of Nereus and Doris were the so-called N'ereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in
number. They belonged to the train of Neptune and were subservient to his will.

$30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are, the assist-
ance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans ; the building of the
walls and ramparts of Troy ; the creation and taming of the horse ; the rais-
ing of the island Delos out of the sea ; and the destruction of Hippol vtus by
a monster from the deep. He was feared also as the author of earthquakes and
deluges, which he caused or checked at pleasure by his trident. The fol-
lowing are some of his many names and epithets ; 'Ao^MtXtof, upholding the
earth ; X(Kslx^<^i earth-shaker ; "iHrcnoi^ Petrsew, Qmtus,

1. Various etymologies have been given of the name IIoireiASr and Neptune. The
latter is by some derived from JVm&o, because the water covers or conceals the earth ;
the former from 'o9$ and Sita, as Neptune binds the feet, that ia, man cannot walk on
the water. But such speculatione cannot be relied on.^— -The government and pro-
tection of ships was committed to him. He also presided over the horse, which was
sacred to him, and over horse-races; at the festival of the ConstuUia ail horses were
allowed to rest from labor.

2 «. The Greeks seemed to have derived the worship of this god not from E^ypt,
but Iiib3ra. He was honored particularly in cities situated near the coasts, as presiamg
over their navigation. Thus at Nisyrus, on the isthmus of Corinth, he had a cele-
brated temple, and aUo on the promontory of TsBnarus. Of his temples at Rome, the
most noted was that in the ninth district (cf. P. I. $ 54), containing a suite of pictures
representing the Argonautic voyage. The victims usually sacrificed to Neptune were
horses and bulls. In honor of him the Greeks maintained the Isthmian Games, and the
Romans the Neptunalia and the Constudiai which were afterwards, from the place of
celebration, called Ludi Cireenses.

$ 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with the dignity
ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front calm and serene even
in anger. In his hand he commonly holds the trident, or a long antique sceptre,
with three tines, \|rith which he makes the earth tremble and throws the waters
into commotion. He is often described as moving upon the waters, drawn in
a ehariot by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a retinue of attendants.

The representations of Neptune are various. Sometimes he stands upright in a
large sea-shell, holding his trident, and arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green ; as in
our Plate X. fis^. 5. Sometimes he appears treading on the beak of a ship. Often he
is sitting in a coariot, or a shell with wheels, drawn by sea-horses ; sometimes accom-
panied by his wife Amphitrite as in Plate XLIII. His image is very frequent on coins
and medals. He is described as having black hair and blue eyes.

Ct rirg. 2En. I lU. J7om. 11. xUi. 80. Virg. Sn. i. IBS. Slat lehii. i. 6a-4M JbnteRV, U Cnlte to diviailM dci cuu^
b the Mem. Jead. ln$ar. xxl p. 27.

$ 32 a. (7) Pluto. He was a second brother df Jupiter, and receiyed, as
his portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions, or the world of shades*
Under this idea the ancients imagined the existence of regions situated down
f^ below Uie ear^, and they represented certain distant and desert lands as

p. n. BVPSRIOR OODf. PLUTO. 99

lerring for a path and entrance to the under world. Henee the fictions reipect-
ing Acheron, Styi, Cocytos, and Phlegethon, as bein^ rivers of Hell. These
i^oDS below the earth were considered as the residence of departed souls,
where aAer death they received rewards or punishments according to their con-
dact upon earth. The place of reward was called Elyaiwn ,- that of punish-
ment, Thrtarus.

1. The residence of departed souls was termed by the Greeks S^ii) Hadts. It is im-
portant to bear in mind tnis fact in reading the passages of the New I'estament, where
this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered grave, and sometimes htUj
properly signifies the wwldof departed spirittf and includes both the place of happiness
and the place of misery. Cf. Luke zvL 23.

It was a part of the office of Mercury to conduct the sbadet of the dead In the region called
Badu. Hence be is eoinetimee represented as In the act of opening or abutting the doors or
Btsiofaioiab; aaon the roonunient given in Plate XVIII. fig. 4. and In the Sap. Plate 14.
TUi figure la given in Taylor's Calmet to illaitrate the eapreasion **Oates pf Had—^* in JHstt.
XfL 18.

Olft»iHuli«ar ftotaimAiieibMM:SlM0<,EnfBticidEMgr%*c. Anio. MSa IS. JjpirS*/ >At WgrhM^ T«i. w
^ ■tw.-.fWimfiff, TSm. la to TivmA rf tim Ootpdi.

1 Departed ntoruls were adjudged to Elf Hum or to Ttrtarut by the sentence of Minos and
Vk fellow judges (cf. ) S4), in the fWi of TVuth.—Klfrium is described as adorned with beaaii-
fai prdena, smiling meadows, and enchanting groTes; where birds ever warble; where the
river Bridanas winds between banks fringed with laurel, and "divine Lethe'* glides in a quiet
vaOev i where the air is always pure, and the day serene ; where the blessed liave their de-
Ught/ul abode.^T^rfuntf is represented as a *' hideous prison of immense depth, surrounded by
the niry bog;s of Cocytos, and the river Phlegethon which roils with torrents of flames," and
gsardcd by ** three rows of wslls with braaen gates ;" here the Furies torment their wretched
Tiettass, and aU the wicked suffer according to their crimes.— Virgil spesks of seven portions in

the regions of the departed ; Tartarus and Elysium being the sixth and seventh. Although

ElyBhim waa considared by sll ss the residence of the blessed, its situstion Is vsriously stated ;
now placed it in the center of the earth, adjoining Tartarus; others placed It in the middle re-
fioos of the air ; others, in the moon ; others, in the nun ; more commonly, however, the man-
fioM of the blessed were said to be in the Fortunate Islands, Insula Fitrtunatm (cf P. 1. ^ 183).—
T^urtsms Is also variously located; Homer places It In the country of the CimoMrians, supposed
liyiome to have been around Tarteasus In Spain, and by others to have been near Bals in Italy;
Virgil places the entrance to It, or rather the entrance to Hades, in a cave near lake Avernua in
Iisly; others place the entrance at the promontory of Tcnarus; others, in Thesprotia.— In the
San. Plate IS, is s composition designed to repressnt the Tartarus of ancient roythologv. Charon
la Bis boat, Pluto with his sceptre, and the three Judges appear in the fore-ground, with several

I awaiting their sentence. The Furies are lashing two criminals Just given over to their
power; and various offenders are suffering their peculiar punishments as narrated by the posts;
for which see the history of Prometheus and others, especially Izion and the other offenders
■eationsd under ^ 34 b.

Qfe ft» iwmt of the aackoto iwpecdnc Om abito of Ow Hid after imXh, cf. Bomcr, Od. xl-Xttt^i, htoriowiiQiiiM andl

ftiw WMub to Mi rtmi^—Cian, B» gBrtwwfa ■wt^ and Hm— liim St l|iiiMlfc~yirta. Mu. ?L ct TSbtdL EL 1. 1 m STw.

-0«gR,(M ViisiPb Xa. vL, la tmMimiiaanMa )rorte.-aym, EzcnnuM ia bii tdiUoai of Virgil aad BooMr (cL P. V. $ sa &

f ML 4)^-a r. mgditadk, DU BomriKb* Theolosia b ilirem ZanminealHUite. M&nbb 184a a—A JWimon^ LTate

j 7b«iqii^teOKMm.J(»i.M«T.«oLUi.&-ClaM./oHm.ULt76.zL3ia

(32 «. The chief incident in the history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction of
lUpn^p^, or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, and the queen of the lower
world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The circumstances of this event
are related fully and poetically by Claudian* and Ovid^, and furnished the ancient artists
with frequent subjects for their sitill in device and representation^.

I tknpta PtaHffiBcL. ia. — • Metun. v. S4I • Sm Mmtfrnton, Aoi. Bxpl. T. I. pi. S7-4I.~8m Abo oar FlaUZ. &

ail fttSofi. Plate 14; iabolh wUeh Ow Mtton aad abdoctiaa ara repraMolad.

Tbs name of Proserpine was sometimes applied to Diana, when considered as a goddess of the
lowsr world. Cf. ^ 30.

( 33 ». Pluto is represented both by poets and artists whh an air%ienBC!ng, terrible,

•ad inexorable. The hitter usualljr exhibit him upon a throne, with a bifurcated seep

trs, or a key, in his hand. A rod le sometimes put into his hand instead of his sceptre

I The device which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring- vessel, instead

j of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed from the images of Serapis.

1. He appears crowned with ebony; sometimes with cypress leaves; sometimeit
' with flowers of narcissus. He is also sometimes represented in the act of bearing off

Proserpine in a chariot drawn by winged drains; such is the appearance in our Plate
X. 6^. 3.— In the Sup. Plate II he appears with a long beard, in a sitting posture, rest-
ing his head on one hand, holding in the other a long sceptre, with Cerberus at his feet.

l He Is said to have possessed a helmet which rendered its wearer invisible; like the magic
ring of the Lydian Gyges (cf. Cie. de Off. iU. 0. Merod. i. 8).

§ 34 a. His worship was universal ; but it was attended with 8j>ecia1 soleiu
I nities in Bcedtia, particnlarly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in Messenia

I waa also oelebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated themselves to Pluto.

1(M) GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

The Tictims offered to him were usually of a black color. Some of his prin-
cipal names were Ztv^ stvyioi^ SttramUf Summamuy I^bruiu.

The Greeks named him UXoirtov as some suppose irom uXoBtos, ufealthy which comes
from the bowels of (he earth. The Romans gave him (he name Dia, having the same
sense. He is also called 'Xirfs^ Orctu^ Jupiter infernus, &c. — His chief festival was
in February, when the Romans offered to him the sacrifices called Februat whence thci
name of the month. His rites were performed by night or in the dark. The cypress
was sacred to him, branches of which were carried at funerals.

§ 34 b. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the lower
world, JIfinos, BhadamanthuSy and JSSacuM, These decided the condition
of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. Minos held th
first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They appear in Grecian history as rea
persons.

1 u. At the entrance to the world of shades, m Pluto*s vestibule, lev the dog Cerhe
rusj a three- headed monster, that hindered the spirits firom returning to the upper
world. The most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus were Ixion,
Sisyphus, Tityus, Phiegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and the Aloides.

2. Charon is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office w(|8 to con-
duct the souls of the dead in a boat over the rivers Siyz and Acheron to the realms of
Pluto. As all were obliged to pay to him an obohm, a small piece of money, it was
customary to place a coin for that purpose under the tongue of the deceased before the
funeral rites. Such as had not been honored with a funeral were compelled to wander
on the shore a hundred years before they could be transported.

In the Sup. Plate 14, ChBron !■ teen littinc In his boat, in the act of receiving the obolus from
a mortal introduced by Mercury.

3. The fkble respecting Chanin is borrowed firom the Egyptians, who had the custom of a trial
and sentence upon their deceased, before allowing them the honors of burial. For this trial all
were carried across a lalce in a boat, whose helmsman was called Charon.

Jtolltn, Abc Hfalt. bk. L cIl 8. Md. 8.-^f Oom. Joum. toL xxiii. p. l^—ButkUn du Scieneu HiMtariqua, vo\. iv- p. 352.

4. There are nnmerous representations on the monuments of Egyptian art which seem to refer
to this trial or judgment of the soul. It appears to be often symbolized by the figure of a pair of
scales or balances, as if it were a weiehing uf the soul (xl/vxtiffraaitt); to which there may be an
allusion Jn the prophet's interpreutlon of the mysteriVms writing on the wall of Belshnitxar'a
dining-room (Dan. v. 87). In fig. B. of our Plate XVIII. is a representation of this Icind ; in
which we aee the Egyptian balances, and a number of priesu and allegorical or mythical per-
sonages.

This dramng a ndnead from om giw in rb* gnat Fmeb work itjifld Daariflion A PEgyfU, kc ef. T. IV. $ SS:.-Sae Mttn
d* rinUUutt Claae d'BaMn tf LU, Jtnc vol. t. p. 84. Mir la PaycboitHta, oa pnte dn amct, wilb puilc

$ 35. (8) Apollo. The earliest and most natural forw of idolatry was the wor-
ship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splendor, lisht, heat, and salutary
influence upon all nature, were taken as the supernatural and independent powers
of a deity. Hence the ancient fiction ascribing personality to this luminary,
which was worshiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Per^
sians under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of
Phosbua (*ot)3of ) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, considered their
"Hxiof and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the history of Apollo
many circumstances not connected with his original character as the god of
light.

The worship of the Persian Mithras ("JtRthras Pertidieua*^)^ Is said to have been introduced at
Rome in the time of Pompey ; alurs being erected with the inscription, Deo Soli invieto MitArm —
Some of the antique representations of this god are very remarkable. On the engraved stones
called JSbraxst (cf. P. IV. $ 900), he often appears under the figure of a lion, or of a man with a
lion's head. In the Sup. Plate 9, are two representations. The first is from a bas-relief found
at Rome, about lAOO; the image is a man draped below the loins, having two wings on each
shoulder, with a head partly that of a lion, and a lighted flambeau in each hand; a serpent
twines around his shoulders and wings, and from his mouth issues a sort of fillet or ribin,
which in the original monument floats over a blazlnir altar.— The other is fi'om a marble bas-
relief, found at Rome in a house near the theatre of Pompey; in this Miihras appears a vigorous
young man, with a turban on his head, his knee resting on a prostrate bull { with one band he
holds the nostrils, and with the other plunges a dagger (acinaces) Into the neck of the animal ; a
dog leaps up to catch the falling blood, while another lies near by, apparently barking ; a scor-
pion adheres to the lower side of the bull, and a slain or sleeping serpent is stretched at bis feel.
The monument has several accompanying images, some of which are given in the engraving,
although not in their original place ; two youths appear with flambeaux, that of one being in-
verted; a man with a radiated head occupies a chariot with four horses leaping in apparent
fright ; in another chariot is a woman with horns or crescents attached to her head, almost
thrown out by the stumbling of her horses; denoting doubtless the sun and moon.

See Mmr/auoon, Anii^. Expl. vol. i. p. 367-9H.— CVomr, SjrmboUk nod MyUiologie, ftc vol. i. p. 3tf «.— Ct SmOh, Ktt

p. n. BVPBRIOR O0D8. APOLLO. DIANA. 101

{ 36. According^ to both Greeks and Romans, Apollo was the son of Jupiter
sod Latona, bom on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god or the
sciences and the arts, especially poetry, masic, and medicine. They ascribed
to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and arrow, which he proved in
ktUiDg the serpent Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and the Cyclops. The last
achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was banished from Olympus. During
his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd* with Admetus kin^ of Thessaly. He
also assisted Neptune in raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the
laborers with his lyre and songs. His musical contest^ with Pan and Marsyas
is referred to the same period of his history. — Other memorable circumstances
in his history are his love for Daphne and her transformation' into a laurel-tree;
that of Clytie for him and her metamorphosis^ into a sun-flower; hie friendship
for Hyacinthus^, who was killed by Apollo^s inattention, but changed into the
flower of that name ; and for Cyparissua, also accidentally slain and changed
into a tree'; the indiscreet request of his son Phaeton'', to guide his father's
chariot for one day, and the fatal consequences of the attempt.

1 0^ Met iL em » Ti. SSL xi. 146 » Met. 1. 458. « i*. 206, 2S6. » x. 168. • x. 106. f 1. 76a

i 37 a. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among both Greeks and
Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy, he gave oracles at Didyma,
Patara, Claros, and other places. His temple ^i Delphi, and the oracle con-
nected with it, was the most celebrated ; next in fame was that in Argos, and
the one at Rome on the Palatine hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a
famous library. The Greeks celebrated in honor of Apollo the Pythian games,
and the Romans those called ludi dpollinarea and the ludi seculares. The
laurel and olive, the wolf and hawk, the swan and grasshopper, the raven,
crow, and cock, were sacred to Apollo.

1 tt. The following names were applied to Apollo: Ci,nlkius, Delius, Nomiusj Pa^
tareut^ Pytkius {UvBioi), Smintheutf Thymbntus,

2. He had also the following names: Ad^ta;, natay,'Eiri7^Ao(,To{o0tfpos, AXeffreucof ;
VnUurius, EpiddiuSf Lyciug, Delphinius, DelphicuSy Actiiis.

i 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, was the

highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an immortal

?oath and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant monuments with long

fcair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand a bow and lyre, and a quiver on

his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad. The most celebrated monument is the

marble statue, called the Jpollo Behidere,

A view of this monument is given In our Plate XLIV. fig. 3, drawn from Wiockelmann. See
P. IV. ^186. 4. Cf. TibuU.L. \\l Ele. 4. ▼. 37.

1. "Sometimes he is painted with a crow end a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a
laorel-tree on one side and a swan and a cock on the other, and under his feet crass-
hoppers creeping." Sometimes he is exhibited in the midst of the Muses: cf % 103.
He also appears, with a radiant head, in a chariot drawn by four horses ; thus he is
seen in our Plate XI. 4. In the Sup. Plate 2 his figure is given as represented on many
monuments ; here is seen also an altar with a lyre sculptured on it. — A statue of Apollo
stcwd upon the promontory of Actium, as a mark to mariners, and was seen at a great
distance at sea.

l The ttories respecting Apollo reeemble those in the Hindoo mythology respecting Cri»h%a
who is sometimes painted in company with iifii« damsels, who are whimsically grouped into the
fcrm of an elephant, on which he sits and plays upon bis flute. Crishna is also frequently repre-
sented as the destroyer of the great serpent ; in some views he is held in the folds of the serpent
which Is biting his foot ; in others, her holds the serpent triumphantly in the grasp of his hands*
and crushes its head beneath his foot. *

Of. Sir Wm. Jmu^ m dtad § 2S. A^-AtuUit Rman^y vol. tIH.— CaJmcCt Diet kc toL iii. p. SB9 pT ad! CiMriealowB, 1819.

S 38. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, and was bom of Latona
on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As fn Apollo the sun was
ieified and adored ; so was the moon {luna, asXrpnfji) in Diana, who was called
6y the Greeks 'Apf^fttf. She was also recoj^ised as the goddess of hunting
or the chase, of which she was passionately fond in her youth. She was like-
wise viewed sometimes as a goddess of the infernal regions, under the uanie of
Eecate, As presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with
arrows, and a train of sixty nymphs. — She also obtained from him the grant of
her petition to live a virgin, and was therefore the goddess of chastity. Hence

i3

102 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

her displeasure at the transgrression of one of her nymphs, CalistoS and her
transformation of Actaeon' into a stag. The only .one, towards whom she was
not indifferent, was the shepherd or hunter, Endymion. She slew the nymph
Chione* from jealousy of her beauty, and the daughters of Niobe* because
Latona was slighted tfy their mother.

t 0», M*l. ii. 464 • iii. 194. * Ix. 821. « vi. MS-StS.— Cf. Bom. II. nix.'-Hyg. bb. 9.

The Btory ofNIobe and her children (cf. $ 81, $ 131), afforded lo pnets and artists a rich subject
for the einbellishments of fancy. The number of the children is variously slated ; Ilumer fivea
her six sons and as many daughters; while others say seven, and tmme. even ten. lu the splen-
did group of statuary called JVtofra and her Children (cf. P. IV. d lb6. 'i), seven sons and seven
daughters are represented. Mnntfuucon gives an engraving rrom a most beautiful antitque.

found nt Rome, in which Apollo and Diana appear In the air discharging their arrows upon the
unhappy fumily; the youngest daughter clings to her mother; a horse Is leaping in f»ry upon
anothf>r daughter; one son lies dead on the plain ; the other children are in attitudeft uf distress.

In our Sup. Plate 17, this subject is represented in a eomposiiton, in which Amphlon ts Intro-
duced, and a concourse of the cltixens of Tbebes.—A person dying by plague or pestilence was
•aid to be slain, if a mate, by the arrows of Apollo; if a female, by the arrows of Diana.

Sm Montf. Ant. Exp. ?ol. i. p. lOf .oJHoyo, Mjihaogj, vol. iii. p. 109 m.

$ 39. Nowhere was the worship of Diana so much regarded, nowhere had
she a temple so splendid, as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3.) With this
exception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most celebrated, especially
through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her principal temple at Rome
was that erected by Servius TuUius on Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festi-
val of the liidi secularea were sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she
was particularly honored under the name of Luctfia, as presiding over births.
In this view she was also called by the Greeks and Romans Ilithyia (<\?i«J^ia),
although this was the name (cf. § 27) of a distinct divinity.

1. The poppy was sacred to Diana. The Athenians eacrificed to her goats, or a
white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. The inliabitants of Taurica offered on her altar
strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast.

2 u. Amon^ her names were Fkcebe, Cynthia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, AgroUra
(dyporipa)- 2Vrt)ta (Tptoiiris), from her Statues being placed in crossways as she pre-
sided over streets; Chitone ix^rtUvti); and Triformis {rpiitopipos), from her threefold
character as goddess of the moon or month, the chase, and the lower world.

"Diana is ^lled 7V<formu and Ter/femina: first, because though she is but one goddess, vet
she has three different names as well as three different offices: In the heavens she Is called
Luna ; on the earth she is named Diana ; and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina : in th«
heavens she enlightens everything by her rayn ; on the earth she keeps under all wild beasts by
her bow and her dart ; and in hell she keeps all the ghosts and spirits in subjection tn her by hel
power and authority : secondly, because she has, as the poets say, three heads ; the head of a
horse on the right side, of a dog on the led, and a hnman head in the midst; wheifce come call
her three-headed or three-fared: thirdly, according to some, because the moon has thr**e phases
or shapes ; the new moon appears arched with a semi-circle of light; the half-uionn fills a semi-
circle with light ; and the full moon fills a whole circle or orb with splendor."

3. Other names or epithets were applied to her: Xox<«'o. tvviiydij iptviKoitof, ioxUipa
and rofo^^pof.

§ 40. As goddess of the chase, she is represented in monuments of art, tall
and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing costume, her legs bare, her
feet covered with busKins, with bow and arrows, either alone, or accompanied
by her nymphs; often with a hound near her: often riding in a chariot drawn
by two white stag*.

fn our Plate X. fig. 7, she Is seen in her chariot drawn by stags.— In the Sup. Plate 15, she is
given as represented in a beautiful statue, supposed to have come from the same hands as the
Apollo Belvidere.

1. " Sometimes she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a panther in
the other, with a chariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of different colors."

2 tf. As the f^oddcss of night, or the moon, she is represented in long robes, with a
large starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a crescent on her head.

:3ee Plate XLI.-Cf. Plate XIV. fig. «.— See $ 76,

3 u. We have figures of the Ephenan Diana, in the Egyptian style, and in Greek
imitation of it, in which she is exhibited with numerous breasts, and very similar to
Jsi-g, whereby the fruitfulness of nature seems to have been represented.

Monifaucon gives several of these figures. One of the roost remarknble is presented in onr
f^up. Plate 16 ; on the head of the statue is a dmilile mural crown ; a large fesioon is suspended
from the neck, and within it are two images of Virtnry ; on each arm are two lions; the body
lapers to the feet like a Hermes, but is divided into four portions, the first of which is occupied
by numerous breasts, the second by heads of stags, and the third and fourth by heads of oxen.

i. In the Sup. Plate 13, are tbree views of a statue of Diana Trlfbrmia, from Montfaucon •.

PLATE XIll.

104 ORBBK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

preflenting the three fluee* sucoesfllvely; the first face on the right with a torch in eaeh hand;
the next face, with a knife {eultrum) in the right hand, and a whip {JtagMuvi) in the left; the
third, with a key in the right hand and a lerirant in the left.

§ 41 a. (lOJ Minerva. Under the name of Afinerva amonjr the Romans and
of IlaTJiaf and *A^va among the Greeks, ancient fiction personiiied and deified
the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. She was a daughter of Jupiter,
sprung from his head. She is said first to have revealed herself near the lake
Tritonis in Libya, from which circumstance she was called Tritonia,

I. Some derive this epithet, and the Greek Tpiroy<»«a, from the word rpirw etgni-
fjring head.

2. Minerva ia by wome suppoied to have been origini^lly the Egyptian deity worshiped partico^
larly at Sals under the naniR of Neith or Netha. Varimis etymologies of the Greek name 'AU^vl
have been given ; among them is the conjecture wliich derives it fVotn the name of the figypiian
deity, by inverting the order of the letters ; Netha {vniia).^ being thus changed, would form o&n*.

$ 41 b. The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts and
sciences^ which had a great influence on their civilization. She was regarded
as tnventress of the flute, of embroidery and spinnin^r, the use of the olive, and
various instruments of war; in short, of most works indicating superior intelli-
gence or skill. Arachne^s contest with her in working with the needle, and
consequent despair and transformation are beautifully described bjr Ovid.'

1 Op. Fattor. iii. 815. a 0». Mettm. vi. 6.

$ 42. The city of A&ens was consecrated to Minerva, and boasted of receiv-
insf its name from her. The splendid temple at that place dedicated to her w^as
called Parthenon,^ in reference to her virgin purity (fcap^'vo;). She had other
temples, at Ery thrae, Tegea, and Sunium," and several at Rome. Her principal
festivals among the Greeks were the Panaihenaa^ the greater and the less, and
among the Romans, Quinqualria, on each of which, games and contests were
held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is ol\en found on her images and
on the Athenian coins.'

t Rapsrf ing llw Parthtnm, aae?.l.\ 107. CL P. IV. f 1S4. S. ) U9. ( 84S. I • Ob Om isnaim of tbe toapi* of Snaiam,

cf. Jm. Quorl. Am. Tol. vi. p. 234. * Sae tba Attic ooia (1v«d In Fliile XL. fif. 6.

The following is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens:— When Cecrops built
a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name ; and it was resolved in the assem-
bly of the gods, that whichsoever of the two deities found out tbe most useful creature to man,
should give the name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse
issued from the earth. Minerva caused an olive lo spring up. The latter was pronounced tbe
Bore useful thing, and Minerva therefore gave the city her own name, 'AOnvS. Dr. Clarke
imagines that this story had its origin from the fact, that the plains of Greece were once covered
or nearly so with water, which was afterwards removed by evaporation and other causes, and
thus a cultivable soil was presented to the inhabitants.

Clarkit Tnveh in nrioui oouotrio, fce. Put IL Met ii. eb. It.

$ 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a helmet^ and
the .^^8, or her peculiar cuirass bearing on it Medusa's head, and with a spear
and of\en a shield or buckler in her hand. Her helmet is generally ornamented
with the figure of the owl, but presents various forms.

1. In our Plate XI. fig. 6, she appears holding in her left hand an image of Victory,
with her right restingon a round stueld bearing on it a Medusa ; her spear leans on her
right shoulder ; the iEgis is seen on her breast. In the Sup. Plate 6, she is in a sitting
posture, with her spear and buckler; the owl appearing at her feet. In the Sup. Plate
20, the owl appears on one side and a cock on the other ; the .^gis on her breast is
here very distinct.

The term «ffi» {ity^i) signifies literallv a roal-§ki%. Homer represents the mgia as a part Af
the armor of Jupiter, whom he distinguishes by the epithet dcvfoxor ; yet he speaks of Minerva
as using it (cf. 12. li. 447-449. xviil.t04. xxi.400).

2 tf . The colossal statue of Minerva, wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium were
much celebrated; the former on account of the perfection of its workmanship (cf. P. I.
% 107. P. IV. ^% 160, 161, 179); the latter on account of the superstitious confidence
placed in it by the Trojans, Greeks, and Romans.

The PaUadium was a statue of Pallas, with a spear in one hand and a dlstaflT in the other,
about three cubits high. It was said to have fhllen from heaven into the citadel of Troy or
Ilium before it was completely built, and that the oracle of Apollo being consulted upon this oc-
currence, answered, that "the city should be safe so long as thatiuiage remained within it.'*
"When tbe Greeks besieged Troy, it was therefore thought of the first consequence to obtain thia
image. Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in getting it by stealth (Fir. Mn. ii. 169). It was said
to have been afterwards recovered from Diomedes by ^neas, carried to Italy, and finally lodgec
ia the temple of Vesta.

p. n* SUPERIOR 00D8. MARS. VENUS* 105

3ii. Beade* the names Minerva, Pallaa, and Athena, this goddess was often called
n«^«f, 'Epyaris, and 'Epy^^^i TloXthi ; ahe is also termed Mtuicaf Fylotia, and very
often TKawciiwts or Cassia.

{44. (11) Mars. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupiter and
Jddo, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding over rude and
fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, while Minerva had the
credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. -—^-Notwithstanding the
high idea which Homer gives of the strength and heroism of Mars, he repre-
aentB him as taken prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes, and wounded by Diome-
des; it was, however, by the help of Minerva^ Besides these occurrences, his
amors with Venus and his dispute with Neptune' respecting the son of the
latter, HaJlirrhotius, who was put to death by Mars, constitute all that is re-
markable in his history.

t Jbtt. a. T Sn, M6. • JpMod. liL 14.-i>«uMn. i. 21.

$4^ a. He was most worshiped in Thrace, where probably the whole con-
ception of such a js:od originated. He had however temples and priests in most
of the Grecian cities.

" Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece, and his worship

was oomparatively neglected It is not easy to discover the origin of this deity ;

be seems to have been derived from the Pelasgi, or some other warlike and barbarous

tribe, rather than Egypt. He bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and

probably was the same deity under another name." Tooke's Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831.

i 45 b. The Romans regarded him as the father of Romulus, and the founder

i and protector of their nation.' They erected to him many temples, consecrated

to him a large public place, the Campus Martina, and a peculiar order of priests,
the Saiii, who celebrated his festival with music and dancing in solemn pro-

I cessions.

' 1. It was a special business of these priests to guard the anrt'Zta, or sacred shields ;

I respecting which see, P. III. ^ 215.— A very ancient hymn sung in honor of Mars by

the Horoans is still preserved ; see P. IV. $114. 4. — To Mars was offered the sacrifice
called SMot€taurilia ; a representation of which, as found in an ancient bas-relief, is
gire^ io our Plate XXIX.

2. Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the horse, for his vigor; the wolf, for
his fierceness : the do^, for his vigilance. Magpies and vultureaf were aJso offered to
him on account of their greediness.

i 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full manly vigor, with a
atrong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, rather than vehement or
passionate. He commonly appears equipped in armor; sometimes naked;
I tometimes in the attitude of marching, as Aidra Gradivua,

1. He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn b^ furious horses, covered with
armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand ; thus he is seen in our Plate XI. fig. 7.
Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, bearing in her hand a flaming torch, drives the
diariot over prosJraie warriors ; such is the representation given in the Sup. Plate 10.
Someimes he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue ; Clamor, Anger, Dis-
cord, Fear. '\ error, and Fame. In the Sup. Plate 6, he appears as ready for marching ;
with his plumed helmet, coat of mail, spear, and shield.

2. BeB0»€t called by the Greek* 'Ewo), fe eometimea said to be the wifb, aometlroea the lister,
aid ■ooietiiiies the daughter of Mara. She had a temple at Rome, and before it was a pillar
called Bellin, over which the herald threw a spear when war was proclaimed.

3 V. Mars was called *Aftri; by the Greeks ; other names given to him are Odryaiua^
Sirpmmma, Enyaliua, ThuriuBj QuirintUf UUor.

\ { 47. (13) Vbnus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, and the

love awakened by it, was in eastern fiction expressed and personified in an
I imaginary goddess ; she was called by the Romans Venua, and by the Greeks

j 'A^^itij. According to the common story, she was bom from the foam (o^poO

of the sea; in Homer she is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione.

After her birth she came first to Cy therea, and thence to Cyprus. Many of the

gods sought her ; but Vulcan obtained her as his spouse.

1 ». She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis especially, although with un-
requited passion ; the early death of the latter she bitterly lamented.

I OMrf. Metaft. s. iOT, 717 s.^Jion, Myi oa Uw dMlh of AdoBk-SM aln Tkuaiim, Idyl xt. which b a boratirnl UtU* eooMdy

CM^W^teMry of .AdoMi j t^OM ■ tald a Alondfte, It fh* tiiae or* CBitival in hM boMT.

106 OREBK AND ftOHAN MTTHOLOOT.

Thfl itorjr reipeetlng Adonis, the joaiif ftrorlte of Vemn, is, that being engeged fn hnniing,
of which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal wound from a wild boar. At this Venus
was immoderately grieved, and Proserpina restored him to life on condition of his spending six
months with Venus and six with herself. It has been explained thus : Adonu^ or MdonaU was
an oriental title of the sun, signifying Lord; the boar, supposed to have killed him, was tlie em-
blem of winter, during which the productive powers of nature being snsiiended, Venus was said
to lament the loss of Adonis until he was restored again to life ; whence both the Syrian and
Argive women annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation.' '—Adonis is supposed
to be the same deity with the Syrian Tammuz ccf Kitkitl viii. 14).— Lucian (JDc Syria Z>ia) gives
an account of the festival jfdoRia, held in honor of him at Byblus. Cf. P. III. ^ 77. S.

2 «. In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris awarded to Vemu the priie of
beauty. Hence her memorable zeal for the interests of the Trojans.

$ 48. The most celebrated places of her worship were Golgri, Paphos, and
Amathus, upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly consecrated to her;
Cy thera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily ; all situated near the sea, and in delight-
ful regions. In Rome she was honored as the pretended mother of ^neas, the
ancestor of the nation, althouj^h her worship was first formally introduced from
Sicily, in the sixth century after the building of the city.

1. At Uierapolis, in Syria, was a splendid temple in honor of Venus, under the name of 41s-
taru or Jitergaii»t the Jitktaroth of the Holy Scriptures.
Sm iHciois D* Bjria nM.-CC JToyo, Myttaolacy, mI. iL-GiiiMf, tcL HL p. SH. ad. Clttricrt. Mlt.-.CtaML /doniai; Vo, UH.

2 V. The pigeon or dove, the mjrrtle, and the rose, were especially sacred to the
goddess of love.

3. The swan and the sparrow were also sacred to Venus. Her sacrifices were goats
and swine, with libations of wine, milk, and honey.

Some have considered the worship of Venus as derived ftrom corrnptlons of the tradiUons re-
specting the universal dtlugt ; her rising from the sea being a type of the world emerging flposi
the waves of the flood.— i^ryaac's Mythology.— ^v/weii** Myth. Diet.

$ 49. The poets and artists of antiouity endeavored in the description and
representation of Venus to embody the fullest and purest idea of female beauty.
The most distinguished antique statue of her is the famous Medicean Venus at
Flofeni^e.

Ba^teerii^ Ihit iMm, «eP. IV. § 116. &

1. She is represented on coins and gems, and in the descriptions of the poets, in
various ways ; sometimes she is clothed with a purple mantle glittering with diamonds,
her head crowned ^th myrtle and roses, nding in a chariot made of ivory, fmely
carved, painted and snlded, and drawn by swans, doves, or sparrows. Sometimes she
is attended with the Graces and several Cupids. At one time she appears like a young
virgin, rising from the sea and riding in a shell ; at another, she holds the shell m her
hand. In our Plate X. fig. 6, she stands on a wave of the sea, supported by two l*ri-
tons, with two attendant Cupids. In the Sup. Plate 6, she stands in a shell, with lone
tresses, drawing a mantle around her. In the celebrated picture by Apelles (of. P. I V.
i 222). she appears rising from the boeom of the waves and wringing her tresses on her
BhouJders. In some monumenie she holds one hand before her bosom and with the
other presses her mantle close about her limbs ; Monifaucon gives a figure very similar
to this, from a statue formerly in the gallery of Versailles. In the Sup. Plate 7. she is
seen in a reclining posture, with Cupid resting his elbow on her lap. while the Graces
are adorning her person, and two doves conduct her car on a cloud. In an ancient paint-
ing, given m the Sup. Plate 8, she supports in her arms the dying Adonis. In some
representations she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant
mirror. The Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the
other. In Elis she was painted as sitting on a ffoat and treading on a tortoise. — ^She
usuallv had a belt or gmile called Cettutt in which all kuids of pleasures are said to
be folded.

Jfayn^ Qber di* VonMlaafartaa dw VmH^ la hk JntffiMT. Ji^iSte.— Mnuo^ Ikteadl. Bbw die Vmwi, !■ bb VtrmtOm lltap
wyttoiofi'w*" Q«fgM«anAL

2 u. Various attributes were given to her, under the difierent characters of Venus
Urania^ Marina^ Victrix, &.C. She was likewise known under the names Erycina,
Anadyamene {dvaSvoftcvri)^ Paphirit Idalia.

3. fler names and epithets were exceedingly numerous ; as, Cmria, n&vitiu^, Cyfke-
reOt ^tXoiitidfift T^Xwvlyafl^, Verticordia, Erafpa, Acidalia, LiheHina^ Saligenita,
QaXaatnaf &.C.

$ 50. The son of this goddess, *Epu;, .imor, or Cupid^ was her common
companion, and the god of love, which he was supposed to influence by his
arrows. He is represented with a bow and arrows", often with a burning torch
jn his hand. He was very frequently exhibited on ancient works of art, and
10 a great variety of form8^ Often several C upids appear in company . — ^'Avtspuf,

P.D. SUPERIOR GODS. TUXdCAH. 107

J who ifl usually considered the god of matoal love, was orig[inslly thu
god that sTenges despised love. He is sometimes represented as wrestling
with Cupid.

•SHovllMeZLff.*. »CtJtoM(HMeHBd§4B.l.-.8eePUteX%.e»aBd9ap.I1«teTaBd9i

Ik. The attachment of Cupid to Psyche is the chief incident in his history and forms
one of the moet beautiful allegories oi*^ antiquity.

The aDefory ia fbund in JtjmlMus (cf. P. V. $ 471. 2). For expoiitions, cf. KHghiUft P- 148, M
eked }l%% (5) .—Psyche is usually represented with the wings of a butterfly; as in the statue
{P9fek$ m Urrvr •/ FemM) given in our Sup. Plate 8.— See also Plate XLVII. fig. 5; cf. P. IV. $ 198.

2. Hymeoeua waa also one of the iroaffinary companions of Venus. He presided
erer marriage. He was represented as of »ir complexion, crowned with the amaraau
or iwea matjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the other a veil of flame color,
JDcficatiog tHe blushes oi a virgin.

In the Sup. Plate 9, Hymenous is seen leading by a chain Cupid and Psyche ; turn an antique
icalpinre representing their nuptifJs.

{ 51 . (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agencies of the
ehnnents, as well as the appearances of the heavenly luminaries, excited as-
tmishment and were deified. Traces of the worship of fire are found in the
earliest times. The Egyptians had their god of fire, from whom the Greeks
derived the worship of H^cofo;, called by the Romans Fuieanut or Fuiean.
Fable styles him the son of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity
his mother thmst him' from Olympus; or, according to another story, Jupiter
buried him out, because he attempted to help Juno when fastened by the golden
chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, afterwards his chief residence, and
was, according to the later fictions', lamed by his fall.

ian.azTui.aSS. L«a ^a rol. /Im. Irtoo. U. 87.

{ 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts that are coi>-
nected with the smelting and working of metals by means of fire, which ele-
ment was considered as subject to him. His helpers and servants in such
works were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and Gaia, whose residence also was
ia Lemnos, and of wnom there are commonly mentioned three, Brontes^ Sit"

7es, and Pyrakmon. Th^se are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops
a later period.

I. The epithet Cyclopean is applied to certain structures of stone, chiefly walls, in
vtidi large masses of rough stone are nicely adjusted and fitted together.

aP.IV.)23l.a, /Vwd,yHiNDir«AMC]Fda|M,Jemi..lcad.iiucr.nUi.97.

2a. Mount ^tna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Lipara, one
of the .£olian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. — Works requiring peculiar art and
eitiaordinary strength, especially when metals were employed as materials, were
called by the poets Vulcan's masterpieces. Among these were the palaces of Pho9bns^
of Ifan', and Venus' ; the golden chain of Juno*, the thunderbolts of Jupitei^, the
crows of Ariadne^, the arms of Achilles'', and of Eneas', &c.

*<kilhb& fi. k •Stdl.Tbeh. Tii.S8. • CftnidL EpiltaL BoDdr. K Ihr. v.58. « i>lBiiMii. Att. c 90. Lmqb.& 17.

■ Oh. liiAMb i. SML • Ou. VHt iiL SIS. •* Bam, n. sviO. 46a ■ Firf . £■. viU. 407.

9. Ynlean is said to have formed, by request of Jupiter, the first woman ; sbe was called Pea-
iM«, because each of the fods gave her some present or accomplishment.

hifeiSip, ftm 4, k ■ eo^KHthm dnisMd to ohibit Om smIs MBnUed to bMtow tlwir filbon Om ifiMnB.-8M Oriod;
«bdBMiDi|«,«i.S4.

$ 53. According to the earlier fictions, Vulcan had for his wife Charis, of
Adnata; and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva had rejected him.
Harmonia was his daughter, or the daughter of Mars and Venus. The Giants
Caeos and Csecolus were called his sons.— He was worshiped particularly in
Lemnos, and Ibe Vulcanian isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon .£tna.
At Rome the VukanaUa were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the

1. A calf and a male pig were the principal victims ofiered in sacrifice to him. — Those
who ibilowed arts and employments requiring the use of fire, especially rendered honor
and wordiip to Vulcan. '* I'he lion, who in his roaring seems to dart fire firom his
■loath, was consecrated to Vulcan ; and dogs were set apart to keep his temple."

2iK. Some of his names are the following: Lemniu9y Muidber, CyUapodcB (n»XXo.
**i^\ Ampkig}feiM {A^^ty^mts).

% Some writcn derive the same and story of Yaleaii from Tobal-Caln, mentiooed by Mosea

]08 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOOT.

(Gen. iv. 93). Gf. HetwM^ Myth. Dtct. The ancfents gave varioai etymotof i«t of the naoie ,

ServiuB lays it was derived from volUanSf because the sparl» of fire fly in the air; the account
given by Varro is aimilar (see ( S4. 2).

$ 54. Vulcan was usually represented as engfaged in his work, with hammer
and pincers in his hands ; sitting more frequently than standing. His lameness
is not indicated in any existing monuments, although it was in some ancient
statues.

1. Cicero, Rpeaking of one of these statues, says (De Nat. Dcor. i. 30), "We ad-
mire that Vulcan of Athens, made by Alcamenes; he is standing, cloihed.and appears
lame without any deformity." — Some of the common representations of this god are
seen in our Plate X. fig. 4, and Sup. Plate 6.

2. "That by Vulcan la under»tood^r0, the name itielf discovert, if we believe Vsrro, who says
that the word Vuleanu* is derived irom the force and violence of Are (Ktticantits, quasi Volica'
naw, quod igrtU p^ attm volitaiy vel a vi ac vioUntia ipnia)', and therefore he is painted with a

bine hat, a symbol of the celestial or elementary fire." (Tovkc) »* Vulcan was represented

covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his forges. His breast waa
hairy, and his forehead blackened with smoke. 8oroe represented him lame and deformed,
holding a hammer in the air ready to strike; while with the other hand he turns with pincers a
thunderbolt on his anvil (ax^Kur). He appears on some monuments with a long beard, disheveled
hair, half naked, and a small round cap on his bead, with hammer and pincers in his hand."
(/.^isp.)— The medals of Lemnos usually bear a representation of Vulcan, with the legend Df
Videhno.

S. The KprMentfttioM of Vuleu tbow tint the unl\ of laeleDt tfan« wu tamti like (he modern. It wu placed m a lufs Uack
of wood {jiKn69tT9v) I cf. Horn. Od. viii. ZTi. yirg. JRa. vii. 829.~Ib early tiiMa, it waa nude of bnoie, aa were alio the
hammer and pincen; cf. Horn. Od. iii. 4Si.—SmUtf$ DicL Ant p. 612.

§ 56. (14) Mrrcury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of this god from the
Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismegiiiua is so celebrated in their early history.
According to the Greek and Roman fables, 'Ep/i^$, M ercurius or Mercury^ was
the son of Jupiter and Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter
in the cave Cyllene in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters nlaced by
him among the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their
mother Pleione.

The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dexterity, which
he exhibited even in his childhood, apd not always in the most praiseworthy
manner. This appears from the tricks related of him, and from the circum-
stance, that he was considered as the god not only of mercature, but also of
theft ; although the latter, in early times was not viewed so much as a crime,
as an evidence of power and adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus
guarded by Apollo, Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vul-
can, &c.

1 tt. By his flute the guardian of lo, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was lulled to
sleep. (Ov. Metam. i. 668.) — The principal means of his success in his feats was bis
eloquence ; this art was ascribed to him in a high degree. He invented also the lyre,
attaching strings to the shell of the tortoisef and presented it to Apollo. In return
Apollo gave him the celebrated wand {caduceus), the origin of which is variously stated ;
its efficacy was potent in calming the passions and stilhng contention. Mercurv carried
this rod as the messenger of the gods, and employed it to awaken dreams, and to con-
duct the shades of the dead to the lower world ; tor he was called to offices and labors
in that world, as well as on earth and in Olympus.

S The eadueeiu was a rod with wings at on€ end, and entwined by two serpents in the form
of equal semicircles. Originally it was nothing more than a rod adorned with green leaves, and
wiilta skillfully tied knot as the symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations were changed
by the poets into serpents and wings. Vnrinus interpretations of the meaning of it have been
.given. Prudence is generally supposed to be represented by the two serpents, and the wings are
the symbol of diligence : both necessary in the pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer-
cury patronlzeil."
Ob ibe nylbolngiat chancier of Mereuiy, Clan. Jaurwd, ivi. S!4.— JSMIifV* Amalllm, i. iOL-SBtHgar^ Vaa«i«n, IL S7.

§ 56 a. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding his wand,
almost always in motion, either flying or rapidly marching, wearing a winged
hat (^petasus)^ and winged sandals {lalaria). Sometimes he holds a purse in
his hand, as the god of commerce ; sometimes a tortoise appears by him in
reference to his invention of the lyre. The cock was sacred to bim, and appears
sometimes as an attribute in the images of Mercury.

1. In our Plate XI. fig. 2, we have a common representation of Mercury flying ; and
another similar, in the Sup. Plate 2. — In the Sup. Plate 7, he is seen attending on
Jupiter and Juno.^In our Plate XVIII. flg. 4, and in the Sup. Plate 14 (illustrations

?. n. SUPBRIORGODS. MERCURY. BACCHUS. 109

nmed Door of Hell and Charon), he appears in his office of conductor of the shades
of the dead. Cf. ^32a. 1.

2 u. The monuments called Hemus (see P. IV. ^ 164) were originally statues of
Mercury, They had their origin when art was in a very imperfect slate, but were
afterwards retained, and were used to represent other gods and memorable men.

$ 56 b. The worship of Mercury was very common among Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. At Rome there was
a particular festival {faium Msrcaiorum) held for the expiation of merchants,
io honor of Mercury.

1. At thb festival, held in the middle of the da^, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow
or a calf, and offered especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with
water, prayed to him to forgive all their artful measures or falsehoods m pursuit of gain.

2 «. The more common epithets apptied to Mercury are CyUeniut, Atlantiddeg, Alu,
Aeoritus (dyopato^), Cadueifer.

'3. Other common epithets are 'ApytttpArnK^ it&crtapf and hitryds; he is also termed
i^,crafiy; Kspctao^, as presiding over weahh; rpur^Xos, because his statues were placed
wheire three ways met.

S 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans worshiped the inventor
and god of wine, ander the name of Bacchus, Bax;tof ; the former also called
him ^iwvaof. In the fictions of both, he was the son of .Tupiter and Semt le,
a daaghter of Cadmos. In answer to her request, Jupiter appeared to her in
his full majesty and divinity, the fiery splendor of which caused her death.*
Jopiter saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet bom, and carried him in his own
thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to some etymolo-
gists, the poets called him dc^pa/u/3o(, as having been twice bom ; a name
which was afterwards given to the irregular hymns' snng at his festivals.

1 08. Ifat. m. MO. « Of. p. V. § 22. p. iii. ) 77. 8.

$ 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and related a multi-
tude of achievements as performed by him. Especially was he celebrated for
his advancement of morals, legislation, and commerce; for the culture of the
nne and the rearing of bees ; and for his military expeditions and success^
particularly in India. He was universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle-
worker, except in Scythia.

1 «. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respecting Midas, king of
Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse and preceptor Silenus, and received as a
compensation the fatal attribute of turning into gold ' every thing he touched. — Some
of the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian sailors into doU
phins^; his residence upon the island Naxos, where he found Ariadne, forsaken by
Tfaeseos, and espoused her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed her
crown among the stars?; his descent to Hades in order to convey his mother Semele
back to Olympus, where she was deified under the name of Thyone.

i Omdy Sbna. zk tSb ' Met UL esO. a rnt Ui. 45a

1 Bicebot ta alao imid to have traveled into India with an army composed of men and women,
The achievements of diflTerent peraonagee are douMIeas ascribed to him. Diodorus Sicalua aaya
tbat tttere were three who bore tbia name. Cicero aaya there were five.

3 ». He is called by various names ; LyasuSp Thyoneus, Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus,
Tkriambus, Thyrsiger (cf. Ov. Met. iv. 11), Liber, Bimater, &.c.

J 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early in tne East, probably
in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced in the Grecian or
Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who refused to participate in it,
were punished with death ; and the daughters of Minyas and Orchomenos, for
the same reason, were changed into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Cithseron.
Naxoe, and Alea in Arcadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of

Baeehas ^Fhe vine and ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him.

Goats were usoally offered in sacrifice to him, because they are particularly
injurious to the vine.

I. The (hcopkoria, EpQaniaf Apaturia, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named as
festivals of this god.

2 B. The most eminfent of his festivals were the Trieterica and the Dionysia (see P.
ni. ^ 77. 3), in which his military enterprises were commemorated. These celebra-
tioas at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were finally on that account
abolished (cf. Liv. zxxix. 8, as.) in Rome by the senate, in the year of the city 568.

Ob «• «nnh9 of BMcbna, Ma fVmt^ L» Onllt da BMbm^ Man. .teiA rtM«r. vpL zxHI. p. M2.-a. #. Ctnom-, DiOByni^iu

110 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

im If Awd. fc BOTrn aMiMc oriiMwm cwh. BMUb. I8O81 4.-Alk» takmte mt te Colt* d« BMdM. hilL

3. In MvenI poinu the story and worship of Bacr hui rMemble those of the Erv|Ktian Osf ris.
There is also iboughi to be a ttriklnK resemblance between Bacchus and the Sehiva of India (cf.

Rhode^ as cited $ 13). Sir H'm. J»nes (as cited i S». 4), considers Bacchus and the Hindoo lUma

to be the same. **The first poft of the llindooe," says he, ''was the great Valmie, and his Rm-
■MMs is an epic poem on the same subject, which in unity of action, magnificence of imagery,
and elegance of stvie, far surpasses the learned and elaborate work of ^Nonnus entitled ZHauf'
s%at4t (cf. P. V. ) 76), half of which, or twenty-four books, 1 pt'rusfd with great eagerness when
I was very young, and shouUI have traveled to the conclusion of it. If other pursuits had not
engaged me. 1 shall never have leisure to compare the Dionynadc* with the itdsiaysm bat am
confident that an accurate comparison of the two poems would prove DwnysM and AoMa to have
been the same person."

4. It b wortlijr of ranrfc, tint the afeomiaatkai of ibe Dioapiae ftttiTsb an to thk dty i>raclk^ at lb* tanple of Ja|
BiMkMlaB. This fod has two aMMalfndvak^ Atttwomcalted ll«flv>ib«al.biaian«B, ^'abiockoT wood, litviaicafrigbtM
*!■(• painted Mack, wllb a dMiaodad nMWtb of a Moody color,* ia bRMgbt oat of tbe lemplo in f ofipoaB array and placfrf on a ats-
pMdooi or riuDf bigfa like a tower, wUeh rarii 00 low wheeU and li drawn by tbo crowd oT votariet, atiovlod wilb flafi aad
bunen, amid Ow MMod of nnMical inalnnMnii and ttie aboMi oT an \mmgm» nMltitadoof pUfrinM aMoblcd bam vnrlovi n^
Aalaat ngioos. la onr Bale XIII a. ii a reprtaoototion of tbii oataMony ; tbe borM^wbicb appear allached to ibe ear, aMwootaL
Tbo car k eovtrad witb iodocent tgan* painted all orer IL At iatamla tbe car is atoppad, and tbe priaato aad boyi coanortod with
the Icnpte randcr wonbip byoNeeaeaenia aad Ufdvioa acttowto pleaaa tbe |od,aa tbcy Bay,aad eaoaa bim toao**.— Sot Iffcr^
Viow eflbn Bcligion, *b of tbe Bwdeoa.

$ 60. The ancient representations of Bacchus are much more dignified than
those with which the later artists were accustomed to degrade him. By the
poets and artists of antiquity he was exhibited as a handsome agreeable boy,
just on the border of youth, with a form more resembling a female, than that
of Mercury or Apollo, and with a joyful look. Of no other eod have we a greater
number or variety of representations, in statues, bas-reliefs, and ^ms, than of
Bacchus with his train, Silenus, the Fauns and Satyrs, and Bacchanals.

1. Among the various representations of this god, we sometimes find him with
swollen cheeks, and a bloated body. He is crowned with ivj^ and vine leaves, having
in his hand a (Ayr«tM, tm iron-heaoed javelin, encircled with ivy or vine leaves ; as in
our Plate H. fig. 8, where he appears also as a handsome youth, holding a wine-ctip in
one hand, and attended by a panther. In the Sup. Plate 15, he is a youth holding the
thyrsus and leaning upon a column, with a tiger at bis feet. Sometimes he appears an
infant, holding a tnyrsus and cluster of grapes with a horn. Sometimes he is on the
shoulders of Fan, or in the arms of Silenus. On the celebrated gem (cf. P. IV. ^ 21 1)
which is given in our Plate XL VIII. , he appears a bloated young man, borne by Satyrs
and also attended by Cupids and Bacchanals. Sometimes he is in a chariot, drawn
by tigers, leopai^s, or panthers, surrounded by his retinue of Satyrs and Bacchae, and
followed by old Silenus on an ass.

Ibr varioa otber raprMatalioo^ aeo Jf«nf/miCDn, Aatiq. Ezpl. ?oL 1. Plain 141-167.

t. In our Plate XLVIII. we bave also a representation of SUeimt, as given from an anliqae by
Montfaucon ; recumbent on tbe hide of a panther, with one band resting on a skin AiU of wine,
and tbe other on an inverted goblet.— An image of Bilenus is mentioned by Pliny (fiigt. JfkL
xzzvi. 5), as existing in the marble quarry of Paros, said to be tbe work of nature. There is
now in the same quarry a curious bns-relicf, of which tbe image of Silenus forms a part. Dr.
Clarke supposes this image to have been a 2u««« nature^ and the other pieces now in the baa-
relief to have been added to it by sculpture. " It represents a festival of Silfinus. Tbe demigod
Is figured in tbe upper part of it as a corpulent drunkaril, with ass's eari, accompanied by laugh-
ing satyrs and dancing girls. A female figure is represented sitting with a fox sleeping in lier
lap. A warrior Is also introduced, wearing a Phrygian bonnet [see Plate XXII. fig. n and el.
There are twenty-nine figures ; and below is this inscription: AAAMA£ O^PTZlIi: NTM4>A]2:/'

$ 61. (16) Ceres. However useful the planting '£ the vine might be, agri-
culture in genera] was much more so, and formed one of the earliest and most
common pursuits of men. The observation of its importance and of the pro-
ductiveness of nature occasioned the conception of a particular divinity, to
whom its discovery and improvement were ascribed. The usual name for this
divinity was ^r^tlr^'tvlp among the Greeks, and Certt with the Romans. She
was considered as one of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a
daughter of Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situated
in a fertile region of Sicily.

In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate grain, and to
instruct them in all the labors pertaining to it. To her is ascribed also the
establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil society. Afterwards she im-
parted her favors to other lands, and the people of Aitica particularly boasted
* of her protection, and her instruction in agriculture and the use of the plough.
8he associated Triptolemus with her as a companion in her travels, and sent

PLATE XIII «

112 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

him over the earth, to teach husbandry, and thereby raised him to the rank of
a god.

8m Hoifiir, Rtbb to Cerai.-'CMtf, FuL iv. 607-ML Metam. ▼. ett-ON.

§ 62, The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by Pluto has
been already mentioned ($ 33 u). Ceres sought for her with a burning torch
everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge of agriculture and good
morals. She at length discovered that Pluto had borne her to his realms, sup-
plicated Jupiter for Tier deliverance, and received a favorable answer, on con-
dition that Proserpine had tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she
had just tasted oi the pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and
liberty to return to this world only for half the year.

OoM, Mttam. iv. ia^-Oaudian, De Rapta PKMcrpiUB. CC P. V. § 386.

1 u. To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circumstances; her
changing herself into a horse and into one of the Furies, to escape the pursuit of Nep-
tune ,- her transformation of Lyncus into a lynx on account oi his perfidy* ; and her
punishment of Erysichthon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him
with insatiable hunger^, so that he devoured at last his own limbs.

1 Oe. Mat. V. 649. • lb. vUL TaSw-CoAtm. Bjnn. la Cw. *. 29.— Sw Enmti^t Ezeunu, io hit ad. of Caninadrai (dtod

P. V. ( 7a 2). vol. 1. p. 962.

2 u. Ceres bore several names and epithets, as Ai^cu, earito^Spof^ Ztnii ; and Eleu$inta,
Erinnyttt &c.

3. I'he name ^iirrrnp is by some derived from Hi for y»l and /«»?T?»p, signifying mother-
tank,

8«e KnighCi Enqalry ioto tha tynbcH. Laag . kc CtoM. Joun^

$ 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the Qtsfio^pia,
which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especially in Athens, in honor
of her as having taught the use of laws. Still more celebrated, however, were
the Eleusinian Mysteries^ which were likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were
of two sorts, the greater and the less, the latter held annually, the former only
every fifth year. Besides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with
several festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the Upor^poaiOi and the *AXua,
the Ctrealia and the Amharvalia,

On tba Beuiinian Mysteriea, aaa P. III. S Tf. 4. P. IV. \ AX.—WMimUm, in hit Dintu Legation of Mota.-J. Jfnxmt, Elan-
ainia. Lnipl. Bat. 1619. 4.-Ak7i|« Croix, Becherehaa hialor. at erit. rar let Mytiarai {Silo, it Saey ed.) Pir. I9t7. S fola. 6.—
OinMn#, Eoai war let myttana d'Elanaia. SL Manb. 1815. $,^Baufam9iU», in tba Htm. Acad. buer. xiL 8S.-Claa». Jowm.
till. S8S. ziv. 16S. sv. 117.

On tha Ttumopharia, tea DuthtO^ at died F. V. § 65. 9. On tba JimbarvaXiOf ct P. HI. § 819.

1. Among the ceremonies in her worship were the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, and
the burning of a fox {vulpium combugtio). ** A fox was burnt to death at her sacred
rites, with torches tied round it ; because a fox wrapt round with stubble and hay set on
fire, being let go by a boy, once burnt the growing corn of the people of CarseoH, a
town of tlio ^qui, as the foxes of Samson did the standing com of the Philistines."

or. Ovid, FatL iv. 68l.-Jti(ffM n. 4.-aa»toal Journal, vL iOS.

9. The rufnt of the flimous temple of Ceres at Eleuelfl, where the Mytteries were celebrated,
were conapicuous when Dr. Clarke vlaiied the spot. He found alto a friigmeni of a colosRar
statue of the goddess ' among the muldering vestiges of her once splendid sanctuary. With
great exertion that traveler procured the removal or the statue, in order to its being transported
to England.

See aarke-i Tnvela, Put ii. tact. 8. cb. \9.^Land. Quart. JUv. zvii. 202.

$ 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are ears of
com, and the poppy, her usual ornament. She is often exhibited with a torch
in her hand, to signify her search after Proserpine.

In some representations she appears a tall and maiestic lady with a garland on her
Itead composed of ears of com. a lighted torch in one nand, and a cluster of poppies and
ears of corn in the other. Thus she appears in our Plate XI. fig. 5, and m the Sup.
Plate 15. She also appears as a country woman mounted upon the back of an ox,
carrying a basket and a hoe. Sometimes she was represented as in a chariot drawn
by winged dragons. Her associate I'riptolemus also appears occupying her chariot
iOv. Met. V. 646).

$ 65. (17) Vesta. The ideas conceived in the Greek and Roman fables respect-
ing the earth as a person and goddess were exceedingly numerous and various.
Besides Gaia, Titsea or Tellus, who represented the earth taken in a general
tense, they inragined Cybele to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivate^ :

p. n. INFERIOR O0D8. C(SLUS. 113

Ceres more particular] j signified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of
Vala or 'Esrux was employed to represent the earth as warmed by internal
beat. The latter goddess also represented civil union and domestic happiness,
being sopposed to preside over the household hearth. She was called the
dao^ter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught men the use of fire.

1». Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy {Ov. Fast. iv. 249), and
fiuted to her the first oblations in all sacrifices.

2. She is sometimes termed Vesta the younger, to distinguish her from Cybele (^19),
who is also called Vesta the elder. Vesia the younger is the same with Ignis or fire.

{ 66. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to Vesta, and for
this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or front of all houses.
The same was done in the buildings termed npvt'aycta, which were usually
found in the Greek cities near (heir center; that at Athens (P. I. § 115) was
the most famous. More rarely were temples raised for her. in her temple at
Some the celebrated Palladium was supposed to be kept.

The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any image
of the goddess. It still exists. Cf. P. I. ^ 60.

{67 a. She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, bearing in her
hud a lamp, or sacrifical vase. It is, however, more frequently a priesteta of
Veaia that is thus represented.

' In Plate XI. fig. 10, firom a medal given by Motiifaucon, we bave incb a repreBentatlon. In
Uie Sap. Plate 3, Vesta is seen at reiifesentnd In a beautiful statue mentioned by Montfancon
(Vol. L p. 64}.— Vesta is sometimes exhibited holding in one band a Javelin or a Palladium ;
■oaetiases also with a drum in one band and an image of Victory in the other.

( 67 «. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But those among the Ro-
mans under the name of VestaUs, the vestal virgins, were much more celebrated ; the
mother of Romulus having belonged to the order, although their first regular institution
IB Bscrib&l to Numa. (Cf P. IIlT ^ 218.) Their principal duty was to watch and keep
thve the toeredjire of Vesta, and guard the Palladium (cf. % 43). Their rigid seclusion was
rewarded by various privileges, and a peculiar sacredness was attached to their persons.

1. Tbe extinction of the fire of Vesta was supposed to forbode sadden and terrible disasters,
aid if it ever bappnned, alf business was at once interrupted until expiation bad been made witli
great ceremony. Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely punished. The fire waa
every jear renewed or replaced, on tbe Calends of March, by fire produced from the rays of tbe
mi.

1 !o oar Plate XXVIII. is a representation of a priestess of Vesta, holding a pan of fire. In
tkenne Plate is seen a Vestal holding the cribrum or sieve ; f^om a staiue in honor of the Ves-
ui Tttoeia, who is said to have vindicated her innocence by bringing water in a sieve from tbe
TilKr. Cf. VaL Max. viii. S.

te VfHa aad ibfl Vcsteb ; £wy, L Vy—PhtUarch, Life of Ndiim.— CZom. Joum. zv. 12S, 257. zrl. n^Nadal, RMoira dai
V"t^ ia Oie Man. it VAead. da hua. vol. iv. p. 161, 237.— L^ut, de Vwta, in hit frorto.->Diqmy, La naniere doot In
■dnnlbHnient le/m iMTC, fee. in the Jfon. A^ /n«r. xxzv. p. 885^

H.-^Myihobgical HUlory cf the Inferior Gods,

% 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated Inferior god»,
are CobIob or 'Ovpardf ; Sol or "HXioj ; Luna or "LtKipnt ; Aurora or IK)? ; Nox or Wf ;
InB.'W; ^oius or A&Xsf; Pan, U.a»\ Latona or A^nS; Themis ore^i?; ^scula-
pios or ' AnrXjpridf ; Plutus or nXotfroy; Fortuua orT6x»?» and Fama ox^fifui; which
were all common to the Greeks and Romans. But to this class are also to be referred
aeveral divinities, which were peculiar to the Greeks as distinguished from the Romans ;
aod also several, which were peculiar to the Romans as distinguished from the Greeks

$69. (n CtBlus, Although this god was considered as one of the most
ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance was attached to his
worshineither among the Greeks or Romans. His wife was the goddess of the
earth, 'ntsea or Gaia ; their offspring were the Titans, the Cyelopa, and the Gm-
timam. Through fear that these sons would deprive him of his kingdom, he
precipitated them all to Tartarus, whence they were liberated, however, by the
aid of Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Furies
were called daughters of Uranus, or Coelus.

^76 a. Tbe fictions respecting this god perhaps had some foundation in the history
IS k2

114 GREEK AND ROMAN XTTHOLOOT.

of early nations. According to the account of Dlodonis', Uraniw would seem to hartt
been a king of the Atlantides^ the founder of their civilization, and the author of manj
useful inventions. Among other things he wan a diligent observer of the heavenly
bodies, and became able to announce beforehand many of their changes. Admiration
of such knowledge mi^ht lead lo his dci6ra:ion. Perhaps it might orcasion the use of hia
name (O^payds) to signify the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap-
pears to have been very ancient.

t Sw Diod. Sie. iii. 6«. v. 44. « Tbs AlteiiUdM wm m pMpI* of Atria, liviaf mw Ml. Itba.

$ 71. (3) Sol, Although the Greeks and RomaBS worshiped Apollo as the
god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute named him Phcebus,
yet they conceived another distinct divinity, distinguished from Apollo espe-
cially in the tarlier fables^ under the literal name applied to designate the sun,
▼iz. Sol or "Hvto^. These words, therefore, were employed to express not only
the actual body in the heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate
and personal existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is
called the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called his
sisters. Many circumstances, which are mentioned as pertaining to him, are
also related of Phoebus or Apollo, when considered as the god of the sun.

See Otid, MaUnarph. ii.

§ 72 a. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of the first and
most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that the worship of this ^nd
was early introduced into Greece. Many temples were consecrated to Helms.
The island Rhodes in particular was sacred to him, where was erected his
celebrated colossal statue. Among the Romans his worship was organized
with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who had been a priest of the same
god in Syria, and afterwards erected a temple to his honor at Rome.

Of his splendid temple at Heliopnlis or Baalbec in Pvria, said to bave been erected by Aaloal-
nas Phis, interesting rentains still exist. Cf. P. 1. $ 166.

$ 72 h, Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile form, entirely
clothed, and having his head surrounded w^ith rays, and attended by the Horae,
and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by four horses,
which bear distinct names.

1. Melius is represented on coins of the Rhodians by the head of a young man
crowned with rays ; a specimen is seen in our Plate XIV. tig. 1- — A view of the colossal
statue of Helius erected at Rhodes is given in Plate VI. I'his was reckoned among
the seven wonders.

3 The seven wonders of the world were, 1. The statue of the 8nn at Rhodes, 70 cnbhs hi^h, placed
across the harbor so that a large vessel could sail between iis legs; 3. The Mausoleum, nr sepulchre
of Mauftolus, king of Carta, built of marble, above 400 feet in compass, snrroundrd with 36 beautiftti
columns(P.III. $ 187.);3. The statue of Jupiter in Olynipia by Phidias (cf. P. I V. ( 170); 4. The tem-
ple of Diana at Ephesns, with 127 pillars, 60 feet in heii;ht, with a splendid imaee of the goddi*ss ;
5. The walls of Babylon built by Bemiramia, 50 or 80 l>et wide, and 60 miles in circuit {,RoUin*M
Anc. llist. bk. iii. cb. 1); 6. The pyramids of Egypt; 7. The palace of Cyrus.

$ 73. (3^ lAtna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and was
called Xcxri^ by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent, and story from
Diana or Aptf/tc(, who was, however, taken as goddess of the moon. To
Luna was ascribed great influence in relation to the birth of men. Patidia was
said to be a daughter of Luna and Jupiter or Saturn*. In common with her
brother Helias, Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the Atlan*
tides.

« Of. Bomer^ B jmn to Luna.

1 ». Both the Greeks and Ronnans consecrated sppropriate temples to her, although
the worship of Diana as the goddess of the moon was much more prevalent among
them. She was represented like Diana in this character, as a goddess riding in a chariot
through the skies, wiih the stars as her attendants.

2. She is represented on coins by the bust of a fiiir young woman with a crescent on
her head ; as seen in Plate XiV. fig. 3.

$ 74, (4) ^Aurora, A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was the goddess
of the morning or day-dawn; styled by the Greeks 'EcSj or *H/tcpa; by the
Romans, Aurora, By others she is said to have been the daughter of the giant
Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. Orion and Tithonus were her prin-
cipal lovers, and Lucifer and Memnon her most distinguished sons. The latter

p. n. INFERIOR GODS. AURORA. IRIS. 115

is memorable for the honors paid to him in Egypt, and for his famous vocal

statue at Thebes.

1. The itatue of Memnnn is utipposed to be one of those existing nt the present day Amonf the
rnins ofanckent Thebea, neiir the place now called Medinel Abnu. A part of the body of it in said
to be now in the British Musenni. It is called by the Arabians Salamat^ the statue which bids
fnod morning, a name evidently originating in a belief of ihe ancient and common tradition ;
whkb was, thai this statae uit<^red sounds at the rising of the sun, when it shmie upon it. The
mtoe is corered with inscriptions by persons declaring that th^* had heard its voice at the
risinf of the sun.— Mr. fVUkinson Btatf>s, from experiment actually made by himself, that if a per-
son in the lap of this colossus, whirh is in a silting postnre, give it a blow with a hammer, it will
caui« a sound to a person standing at its foot as if from an instrument of brass.

Sh /. & WOkiiuan, oa the centrivame by wbieh ihe ■lataae of Memnon wu Buide vocal ; in lb« TraruatUmu of tlu Jloyai
badf ef jUeroitffe, vol. ii. Lood. |{04.— If. Lttroimt, Imcriptiom Grecqim et JUtioa da Colown de MeraaoB, fte , in MnM
Ttmtaetkmt, vol. iii. IakL IbS7.— Jmar. Quart. Rmtto, No. ix.

2u, Ccphaliis was insensible to the love of Aurora towards him, although she seized
Mid bore him away from his beloved Procris, whom, after his return to her, he had the
misfortuiie to kill through an accident occasioned by her jealousy.— The early death
of a youth was frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or Ihtft by Aurora

Gk dKMfy of CqtfeAlsa, tM Otid; MMub. viL 91,768.

{ 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun and of the
day, and was sometimes called by the literal name of the latter among the
Greeks, *Hftcpa. By the poets she is represented as a beautiful young woman,
whose chariot was drawn by white or light red horses, and wno opened the

Cls of the Sua with rosy fingers. Homer designates her by the epithet

She is deBcribed as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe (rpowwArXoy), in a roee-
cok)red chariot, and scattenng the dew upon the flowers. She was called the mother
of the stars and of the winds.

In the Sup. Plate 10, she is beautifully represented as driving in her chariot, accom-
puued by the Hours, and a flying Cupid whh a torch in his hand.

i 76. (5) Nox. The night was personified in ancient fable and placed among
the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of this early origin she is
called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of gods and men. Generally, how-
ever, she is an allegorical rather than a mythological personage; and in such a
sense, sUep, deaik^ areams, ihe furies^ &c. are called her children.

1 U A black cock was the offering commonly presented to her. A black sheep was
slw ofiered to her as mother of the Furies.

2 v. According to the descriptions of poets, and in some representations by art, she
it exhibited as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil spangled
with mars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a chariot by two horses with
t retiDue of stars.

3. Paasanias describes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and
a black child in her left, representing sleep and death ; thus she appears in our Plate
XXXVI. She has also been described as a woman with her face veiled in black,
oowDed with poppies, and in a chariot drawn by owls and bats. In fig. 2 of Plate
aIV., drawn from an ancient engraved gem, she holds a veil over her head, and three
>tsn appear above it. In plate aLI. she makes a more splendid appearance with a
ailge spangled veil, and a torch inverted ; thus she is painted in an ancient illuminated
naimscript.

1 77. (6) /rt>. By the name of ^Ipt; was designated among the Greeks the
niobbw, as personified and imaginea a goddess. Her father was said to be
Thaomas, and her mother Electra, one of the daughters of Oceanus. Her
residence was near the throne of Juno, whose commands she bore as messenger
^ the rest of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, bat rarely, she was Jupiter's
OKssenger, and was employed even by other deities.

1. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequently sent on errands of strife
and disced ; whence some have thought her name derived from fp«f , strife. Others
deriTe n from hpta, to tpcak or declare.

2v. She had also sometimes in reference to dying females an office, which was
tBoally assi^ed to Proserpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby eflect their dissolution.
Vvg. ^n. IV. 693. 704. The rainbow was the path by which she descended from
Olynupus and returned thither.

3. She is represented with wings having the various colors of the rainbow, and often
appears sitting behind Jimo as waiting to execute her commands. In the Sup. Plate

116 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

20, she appears descending on a cloud. In the Sup. Plats 7, she is seen with Mercury
and Hebe, attending on Jupiter and Juno.

$ 78. (7) JEolus. Under the name of uEolus both Greeks and Romans
worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was called the son of
Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of Hippotes, an ancient lord of
the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he received his authority over the winds, which
had previously been formed into mythical persons, and were known by the
names Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered
the servants of Molus,

I u. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island in the Mediterranean sea, and
let them loose only to further his own designs or those of others, in awakening storms,
tiurricanes and lluods. (CI. Horn. Odvss. x. 1. — Virfr. Mn. i. 5*2 j He is ubually de-
scribed by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendly to strangers.

2. The name JEolus is thought to have come from aiSXas, changeable. — The island
where jEolus is said to have reigned was Strongyie (Irpo/yvX)}), so caile<l on account of
its round figure, the modern Slrambclu

Sm ffcym, Excura. ad JSn. L 5I.-Cr. Pliny, N. H. Hi. 8.

3. In the (*up. Pkte 19, are two engravinira marked as reprenpntatione of JSolne. In one, a
vtgnrouii man lupporiiiic bimaeirin the air by wingii ia blowing into a aliell trunipist like aTruon,
while hia ahort mantle ia waving in the wind ; Ihia is from a baa-relief on an altar, fntmd nenr
Nettuno in Italy, with the inarripiion Jtra Fentarum ; and it prnbabty ia merely the repreaenta-
tion of one of the winds, perhapi Kurua ; cf. ^ 108 b — In the other, we have a frasrmeni of a
square atone, which origin.illy contained in baa-relief a representation of the circle of the Zodiac
with its twelve aigna, which were actilptiired within the circle ; on the outer edjte of the circle
appear the buata of Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, and Venus; in the corner ia the bualof a man with
winga on the forehead, blowing with inflated cheeka, wliich probably representa one of the four
principal wlnd«, the other cornera of the piece having bad each a wind repreaented In it.

8m JfoHlJiniom, Anliq. Ezpl. vol. I. plale ecniv.

J 79. (8) Pan, One of the most singular of the inferior ^ods, was Pur,
whose worship was universally regrarded. He was the god of shepherds and
herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever pertained to rural aflfairs. His
worship was probably derived from the Egyptians. He was said to be the son
of Mercury and Dryope; but his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite
residence was in the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to
Syrinx, who was changed into a reed^ he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven
reeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this invention led him into his
unlucky contest with Apollo'. He also invented a war-trumpet, whose sound
was terrific to the foe ; a circumstance* which gave rise to the phrase, panic
fear or terror {ytavixw ^Hfia).

t Oo. Motam. i. S62. « Jb. z. 146. > PauMon. Fboe. e. 28.

$ 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the form of a
goat, and under the name of Mendes^ In Greece, Arcadia was especially
sacred to him, and here he is said to have given oracles on Mount Lycaeus.
His festivals, called Avxata by the Greeks, were introduced by Evander among
the Romans, and by them called Lupercalia*. Goats, honey, and milk were
the usual offerings to Pan.

> Htnd. U. 4a ^ 0«. FuL ik St, 867.

1 ». His Greek name n&v, signifying the whole or all, had reference to the circum-
stance that he was considered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others,
it was derived from a-uw {to ft'eil), and referred to his patronage of shepherds and their
flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, Lupercus, Mtsnalius, and Lyccus.

S. **The flgtire of Pan (cf. Sil Iial. xiii. $36) it a rude aymbol of the univeree, and be appears
to have been originally a peranniflcatloa of the Jlnima Mundi, or terrestrial soul, by which some
ancient nations beli«?ed that the entire uaiverse was directed.**--Tbis god does not appear in
the poems of Homer or Hesiod.

3 tt. His imago was generally human only in part, having commonly the form of a
satyr, with ears sharp-pointed and standing erect, with short horns, a flat nose, a body
covered with hair or spotted, and the feet and legs of a goat.

4. Such is his image in Plate XIV . fig. 4, and in Sup. Plate 15 ; in both of which he has
in one hand a crooked staff and in the other a pipe of reeds, and an amphora lies beside
him. In some representations, his head was crowned with pine, which was sacred
to him.

$ 81. (9) Latona, She was called Am-w by the Greeks, and held a distin-
guished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this account was oflen
ranked among the superior deities. She was daughter of Coeus or Polus and

p. n. INFERIOR OODS. THEMIS. JBSCITLAPirS. 117

Phoebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter^s love. The iealoasy and anger of
Jono was excited against her, and she adjared the goddess of earth to allow
Latona no place to bring forth her offspring. Neptune, however, granted the
island Delos for the purpose. Bat here she found no sure asylum, and fled to
Ljcia, where^ she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by some
peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. — StiU more
severe was her vengeance in the case of Niobe", a daughter of Tantalus and
wife of Amphion kin? of Thebes. Niobe slighted the <nvinity of Latona, and
the latter engaged both her children, Apollo and Diana, to avenge her; they, by
their arrows, slew the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief
was changed into stone.

i 8*3. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the island Delos,
at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete a festival was sacred
to her, called *Ex5v(ita.

1 H. Latona is sometimes spoken of as the goddess of night ; and il is possible that
her name originated in this idea, derived from X^^u, to be concealed^ as nature was
buried in profound darkness before the birth of the Sun and Moon or Apollo and Diana.

2. She is usually represented as a large and comely woman with a black veil, so
psintedf or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone.

$ 83. (10) Th^mu. The goddess of justice (Oi/ic^) was one of the most
eelebrated of the TitanitUs, or daughters of Uranus and Tka?a. To her is
ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first introduction of sacrifices
ioto Greece. She had by Jupiter three daughters, Aix);, *EvH>/ua, and *£tp^,
which were commonly called the Haras ("Qmu), who are represented by the
poets in various lights, but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division
and distribution of time ($ 105). Astraea also was by some called a daughter
of Themis.

1 u. Attraa was likewise a goddess of justice, or rather of property ; and, according
to Ovid's account (Met. i. 149), was the last of the divinities to quit the earth. She
was placed among the constellations of the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently
called Erigone.

1 Aftm, wtio accordini; to some wni tbe daughter of Titan and Aurora, was represented
(tf. AuL 0«IL Noet. Alt. xiv. 4) aa a Tirgln with a atern countenance, holding in one hand a pair
of baiancea, and in tbe other a sword or aeepier or a long rod or spear ; thua aha appears in Uie
Sop. Plate 18, drawn from an engraved gem.

3 u. There was still another goddess, Nemesis^ Ni/ovK, who was supposed to judge
respectiiig moral actions, and to exer^ae vengeance towards unrighteousness. She was
called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance that Adrastus first erected a temple
to her, and also Rhamnnsia fi-om having a temple at Rhamnus in the territory of Attica.

4 At her temple in Bhamnaa wae a large and beautiful atiitue, ranked among the best works
of Pbidiaa— In Plate XXX VI. are two repreaentations of Nemeaia, from ancient gems; in each
the wheel appears at her feet ; in one ahe baa wings, and holds in one band a branch with a
ribia aitached ; in the other representation aba holds a rod or acepter.

L p. 21S.

$84. (11) Mtcuhpiut, In proportion as men in the early ages were igno-
rant of the efficacy and use oi remedies for disease, there was the greater ad-
miration of those who were distinguished in the art of healin?, and the greater
readiness to deify them. Hence the deification of iEscuTapius, who was
viewed as the god of Medicine, and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph
Coconis^ Hygeia, the goddess of health, was called bis daughter, and two
celebrated physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon and
Podalirius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their death. iEs-
colapios was killed with a thunderbolt by Jupiter, at the request of Pluto. His
most celebrated grove and temple was at Epidaurus*, where he was worshiped
Qoder the form of a serpent.

<<^MiteB.iL0O1. >0*.llet.n 822.

1. The raina of the temple at Epidanrus are still visible at the place now called Jcro, pro>
venneed 7«r», a corruption perhaps of 'Updv {taera mdts). There weie at this ancient aeat of
the god of health medical springs and welU^ which may yet be traced.

CUn^i Tntd^ put ii. Met. 2. eh. ZT.—fravl, Colic nsda a fMatiapiiu, in the Mem. dead. huer. xil. 28.

2 v. The serpent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this god, either
free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, or prudence and foresight.

118 OREBK AND ROMAN MTTH0L007.

8. In Plate XIV. fig. 0, JEseuUpiuw boldi in one hand a round vaie or patera, from which a
■erpent ie eating. In the Bup. Plate SI, he ii seen aR presented in an ancient statue delineated
in Montfaucon i on his led is the trunic of a tree, aronnd which the serpent winds ; on his right
■lands TeUMpkoms^ who was said to be a son uf iiSsculapius, and was considered as the god of
convalescents; Telesphorus appears here, as in all representations of bim, in a robe covering
his arms and whole body, with a hood upon bis head. JSsculapius and Telesphorus appear to-
gether thus on a coin of Caracalla.

4. Hygeia may be considered as the same with the Roman goddesi of healthy Silus.
The Romans honored Salus with a temple and festivals. One of the city-gates, being
Dear her temple, was called Porta Salutarut. She was represented with a bowl in
her right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining round it and
lifting his head upon it.

In Bup. Plate SI, we have a representation of Hyftia from a beantiAiI statue ; she sits on a
rock, with one hand raised aud holding a scepter, and the other holding a bowl, towards which
a large serpent Ui advancing his head over her lap.

$ 85. (12) Plulun. The god of riches, IIXovro(, was probably of allegrorical
rather t^ian mythical origin, since his name io Greek is but the common term
for wealth. ' His father, according to the fable, was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by
Electra, and his mother was Ceres, who gave him birth in a beautiful region in
Crete. Jupiter, as it was alleprorically represented, deprived him of sight, and
his usual residence was low beneath the earth.-* By some Plutus is considered
as the same personage as Pluto^ ruler of the world of spirits, and this may
have been the case.

1 u. It is not known by what figure he was visibly represented. Pausanias barely
remarks, that in the temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form ot an infant
in the arms of that goddess, and at Athens the goddess of Peace held him as an infant
in her arms.

2. " Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, be-
cause large estates come slowly. He is fearful and timorous, because rich men watch
their treasures with a great deal of fear and care."

§ 86. (13) Fortune, Of a like allegorical character was the goddess of /br-
tune^ Tvxri% Fortuna, to whom was ascribed the distribution and the superin-
tendence of prosperity and adversity in general. Among the Greeks she had
temples at Elis, Connth, and Smyrna; and in Italy, before the building of
Rome, she was honored at Antium, and especially at Prteneste. The Romans
made her worship in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets ori-
ffinatinff from different occasions; as Fortuua Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blanda,
Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris, &c.

1 tt. In the temple at Antium were two statues of Fortune, which were consulted as
oracles, and g[ave answer bj^ winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot.
Similar divinations were practiced also at Prsneste, where her temple was one of the
richest and most celebrated.

Sm AbroM, Odw, 1. 1, od. SS. (Ad FortonUBJ—Cf. P. IIL 1 282.

2. •' The goddess of Fortune is represented on ancient monuments with a horn of
plenty and sometimes two in her hands. She is blindfolded, and generally holds a
wheel in her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy. Sometimes she appears with
wings, and treads upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder in her hands."

Her Image in Plate XIV. fig. 9, is taken from an Imperial coin ; in her left hand is a born of
plenty ; her right rests upon « rudder : a wheel Is behind her. In the Sup. Plate 18, she appears
without the wheel, with the images or the sun and moon on her head.

§ 87. (14) Fame, The goddess styled ^r/^j?, or Fama^ was also of allego-
rical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of Earth, who gave birth
to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of her sons, the Giants; in order
that she might divulge universally the scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the
other gods. She had a place in the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a
temple at Athens. She was viewed as the author and spreader of reports both
good and bad.

1 u. The poets represented her as having wings, alwavs awake, always flying about,
accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, falsehood and credulity.

or. Virg. JBd. ir. 173.— O0. Met. zil. m.-Stat. Thelk Hi. 426.

%. In the Sup. Plate 18, is a representation of Fame with her wings extended as Just ready to
fly, with her finger pointing upwards.

% 88. (15) V^fieM peculiar to the Greeks. Athough generally the same deities wer«
common to the Greeks and Romans, each nation had some peculiar to itself. These
must be included in the class of Inferior Gods, Those peculiar to the Greeks were

f IL INFERIOR aODS. DBITISS PBCULUR TO ROKANB. 110

\m nomeroQs and important than those pecuh'ar to the Romans ; and nearly all of them
may be reduced under one or other of the four fbllowine divisions.

L Places, rivers, mountainSt &c., personified. Almost every important city was
converted into a goddess, whose iroase was placed on its coins. Almost every river and
Mream also was made into a god, of whom some fabulous tale was related; thus Al-
^heuslasaid to have pursued the nymph Arethusa from Greece to Sicily.

2. Eminent personages deified. The most important of the deities belonging to this
division would come under the class denominated Heroes ; ahhough many of them are
seidom if ever thus classed, as Orpheus, Homer, Trophonius, &c. ; besides many of
later times.

3. Virraes and vices perponified. The Greeks did not carry such personifications so
fiff as the Romans ; yet ima^nary deities were thus formed, and altars were erected to
them in Athens and other cities. Some deified among the Greeks are not distinctly
Darned among the Romans ; e. g. Chance^ 'Avnuaria ; Voracity ^ *Ai&nipayia ; LiuU
ooder the name <^ Kfrm-ru, Cotytto^ a notorious prostitute.

4. Particular pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to some guardian spirit. Thus,
'E^y«j^ designated a goddess of weaving, disiinct from Minerva, to whom this term is
uplied. 'I<v«b), the goddess of wor, nearly corresponded to the Roman BelUma ; and
Km^, the god of feasting, and Mufiof, the god of jesting, are recognized in the Latin
ComuM and Momus.

^ 89. (16) Deities^pecttliar to the Remans. These may be arranged under the fol-
knrinff divisions :

1. Places, rivers, &c., personified. — 2. Pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to
goaidian spirits. — 3. Eminent persons, especially emperors, deified.— 4. Virtues and
▼ices personified. — 5. Foreign dieiiies introduced.

% 90. Of the first division, Roma and T i b e r are the principal. Roma was honored
by the Romans with temples, sacrifices, and annual festivals, and is one of the most
common figures on their medals.

la Plate II. is a aplendid repreientatlon of the foddeas Roma, from a painting formerly belong-
Inf tothe Barberfni family. — In the anme Plate ia given also a repreientatlon of the Tiber aa a
|mL— For eimilar representationa of Italif, Judea, the Danvbe, &.C., aee PI. XLII.; cf. P. lY. j 139 3.

^ 51. In the second, various rural deities are particulariv to be noticed.

la. Terminus. In order to express and render still more sacred the rights of
property and the obligations of fixed boundaries in landed possessions, the Romans in-
vented a eod^who hM it for his peculiar province to guard and protect them, oalled Ter-
wthms. His statue, in the form of those called Herma^, was employed usually to mark
the Hmits of fields. Numa first introduced this usage, and ordained a particular festi-
nl, the Terminalia, which was celebrated in the month of February by the occupants
and proprietors of contiguous lands^. Upon these occasions ofierings were presented to
the god on the boundaries or separating lines. He had a temple on the 'I'arpeian rock.
"-Oftentimes the statues of other eods, particularly the rural, were placed in the form
of Herme, to mark the limits of landed property, and Jupiter himself was sometimes
represented under the name of Terminus, or received the epithet Terminalis.

>faifi6.p.nr.§ia4.8: — ^« or. ovm, fm. u. ass.

2 a. Priapus. The Romans ranked Priapus among the deities whose province
was the protection of fields and cultivated grounds. His image was usually placed in
gardens (Hor. 1. i. sat. 8), which were considered as more particularly his care.

iBMgcs of Priapaa were aometlmaa worn aa a sort of amulet (ftueinum) to guard agalnat evil
tbarms, and hung upon the doora of housea and gardena. The god whoae ppecial province it
was to protect from the charm of the evil eye waa named Faseinui.—PUn. Hiat. Nat. zix. 4.
xxiv. 4.— See P. 111. ( 927. 3.

Prlapua la iitoally repreaented with a human fkce and the eara of a goat ; he haa a alckle or
aeyibe to prune the treea and eat down the corn, and a chih to keep offthlevea ; hia body tejrmi-
aatee ia a atiapeleaa trunk.— An aaa waa generally aacrlflced to him.

Repreeeniationa of Priapna are given in Plate XLV. and In the Sup. Plate 93. In the latter,
with an eitended arm he holds a bell in hia hand, la the former, which ia from a large anaglyph
or baa-relief given by Montfaucon afler Boiaaard, we may observe the rites practiced at the fea-
tfval of this god. Il la celebrated by women ; two priestesses are close by the statue, one of
whom is pouring water or some other liquid upon the image from a bottle ; four othera are
•agMad In sacrificing an aaa ; behind the animal stand two oihera in peculiar costume, one
knUiag apparently a siMtrnm, the other a bowl or round vase ; on the left of the statue are two
wom«n playlne on the double ttbia, and othera hearing hnaketa of fruit and flowera and vessels
of wine ; on the right are two playing on the tympanum, one dreased like a bacchanal with a
cbild on her neck, and others with their otTeringa of fruit, flowers, and wine.

3«. Vertumnus. Under this name an old Italian prince, who probably intro-
duced the art of gardening, was honored after death as a god. The Romans considered
him as specially presiding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Pomona, one of the
Bimadryads (cf. i 101), a goddess of gardens and fruits, whose love he gained at last
after changing himself into many forms, from which circumstance his name (Ov. Met.
xiv. 623) was derived. This goddess is represented on some monuments of ancient
art, and is designated by a basket of fruit placed near or borne by her.

** Venamnaa ia generally repreaented aa a young man, crowned with flowers, covered up to

120 GREEK AND ROHAN MYTHOLOGT.

the WBist, and holding in bis right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left."— In the Supi
Plate 93, the horn !• In his tefl band, and the fruit in his right; he is fully draped, with the head
and leg of a swine hanging from his shoulder. This may be supposed to correspond to his statue
mentioned by ricero (.Ferr. i.) and by Horace {Epis. 90) as standing in a street of Rome.

In ttie same Plate is a representailon of Pomona^ from an ancient monument; she is without
drapery, holding a flower In one hand and a melon In the otiier, resting against the trunk of a
tree, from which a bastcei of fruit Is suspended.

4 u. Flora. The RomanB had also a particular goddeea of blossoms and iIow\.T8,
whom they worshiped under the name of Flora. She is said lo have been the same as
the Grecian nympti Cldoris; although others maintain, that she was originally but a
Roman courtezan. But this goddess seems not to have been wholly unknown to the
Greeks, since Pliny (N. H. xxxvi. 5) spooks of a siatue of her made by Praxiteles.
8he was represented as very youthful, and richly adorned with flowers. She had a
festival and games at Rome, celebrated {Ov. Fast. v. 283) in the month of April, called
Floralia; they presented scenes of unbounded licentiousness.

The indecency of this festival was checked on one occasion by the presence of Oato, who choae
however to retire rather than witness It {Valtr. Max. ii. 10). By some the festival la said to
have been instituted in honor of an infamous woman by the name of Flora.

In our Plate XIV. tig. 5, Flora is represented with a garland of flowers on her bead, and a
horn of plenty on her left arm; aa she appears in several antiques. In 8up. Plate 23, she la
given from a beautiful statue, once' at Rome, and copied by Le Brun ; not however ideuiioal
with the celebrated Flon Famest (cf. P. IV. $ 186. 11). ^

5 tf . F e r o n i a. Another goddess of fruits, nurseries, and groves, among the Ro-
mans, was Feronia. She had a very rich temple on Mount Soracte, where also was a
grove specially sacred to her. She was honored as the patroness of enfranchised slaves
(r. III. ^ 324), who ordinarily received their Uberty in ner temple. It was pretended
that the real votaries of this goddess could walk unhurt on burning coals. Her name
was derived according to some from a town, called Feronia, near Mt. Soracte : accord-
ing to others, from the idea of her bringing relief (Jero) to the slave ; or from that of
her producing trees, or causing them to bear fruit.

6ii. Pales. Another goddess of the same class, was Pales (from pahvlum)^ to
whom was assigned the care of pasturage and the feeding of flocks. In her honor a
rural festival {Ov. Fast. iv. 721) was held in the month of April, called Pa/ilia or
Farilia.

On the festival of Pales the shepherds placed little beapa of straw in a particular order and at
a certain distance; then they danced and leaped over them; then they purified the sheep and
the rest of, the cattle with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sulphur, and the like. The design was
to appease the goddess, that she might drive away the wolves, and to prevent the diseases Inci-
dent to cattle. Milk, and wafers made of millet, were offered to her, that she might render the
pastures fruiiftil. Pales la represented aa an old lady, surrounded by shepherds.

7. Numerous other rurai god* and goddeueg of inferior character were recognized
by the Romans. Among the minor rural goddesses, we find Bubana, having the care
of oxen; Seia or Segelia, having the care of seed planted hi the earth ; Hippona^yre"
siding over horses; OoUina^ goddess of hills; VaUotiia, empress of the valleys; itun-
cina, the goddess of weeding ; Volusia, with several other goddesses, who watch over
the corn in its successive steps to maturity (cf. ^ 5. 3) ; Mellonui the goddess who in-
vented the art of making honey. Among the male deities of the same class, we frod
Oeeator^ the god of harrowing ; Stereutiu$t the inventor of manuring ; and FUumnus,
the inventor of the art of kneading and baking bread.

^ 92 u. In the latter period of the Republic and during the first ages of the Empire,
the Roman system of divinities was greatly augmented. Almost every profession and
employment and condition in life had its tutelar god or gods, whose names tnus became
innumerable, but who never obtamed a universal worsnip. For a knowledge of these,
we are mainly indebted to the writings of the Christian Fathers, especially Augustinus
('ie Civitale Dei, 1. iv.), against polytheism. To this class belong, for example, BeUona,
the goddess of war, corresponding in some degree to 'Erou among the Greeks (^ 46) ;
JutumOf the goddess of succor ; Anculi and AnculcB, deities presiding over servants ;
Vacuna, goddess of leisure; Strenua, goddess of diligence; Lavema, goddess of
theft; Cunina, goddess of cradles, &,c,

Diteast* were exalted Into deities. Fekria (fever), e. g. had her altars and temple, and was
worshiped that she might not hurt; and %o of others of this 8pecies.-~Jlfe;»Ai<4« was goddess of
noxious exhalations. Tae. Hist. 111. S3.

^ 93. Here we should mention Victoria, a deity of much consideration at Rome.
The hall of the senate was adorned by her altar, and a statue in which she appears as
"a majestic female, standing on a globe, with flowing garments, expanded wmgs, and
a crown of laurel in her out-stretched hand.** The senators were sworn on the altar
of this goddess to observe the laws of the empire. A contest arose between the pagans
and the Christians on this subject, the latter finally effecting the removal of this altar
of Victory.

8m Pmdmliui, Idven. SymnMrluiiB, ell P. V. ( 387.

Tn our Plate XIV. fig. 10, and in the Sup. PUte 18, Victory is saen as represented in the statue
mentioned above.

PLATE XIV.

122 GREEK AND ROMAN MTTHOLOOT.

94 «. D 6 i f i e d Emperors. To the gods already mentioned, we may add thoae
which were constituted by the apotheosis of the emperors and their fayontes. Thus
a Cesar, an Augustus, a Claudius, an Antinous, and others, were elevated to the
rank of gods. Sometimes this was done in their lifetime by the vilest adulation, bat
more frequently after death, in order to flatter their descendants.

It wouM probably be as proper Co rank the deified emperors (cf. $ 1S3) In the fourth class of
oar divlilon. They ihould be mentioiied in tbia plaee, howevefi as l>eloDging etricUy to the
number of the Roman divinities. In distinction from Greek.

^ 96 ». Virtues andVices. The poets were accustomed to give a personal re-
presentation to abstract ideas, especially to moral qualities, to virtues ana vices : and
m this way originated a multitude of divinities purely alkgoncal, which were, how-
ever, sometimes mingled with the mythological, and were honored with temples,
rites, and significant images and symbols. Such were Virtual Honor^ Pietoa, /«-
viditty FrauBt and the like.

Virhu was worshiped in the habit of an elderly woman sitting on a sqnare stone.— The ten-

ge of J79«or stood close by that of Virtus, and was approached by it. The priests sacrificed to
onor with bare heads.

The temple of Fidet (good foitb) stood near the Capitol. The priests la sacrificing to ber
covered their hands and heads with a white cloth. Her symbol was a white dog, or two bands
Joined, and sometimes two virgins shaking hands.

The temple of Sjms (hope) was in the herb-market. Her Image is on some of the coins. She
Is in the form of a woman standing, with ber left band holding lighily the skins of ber garments,
and in her right a plate, with a sort of cup on it (kshioned to the likeness of a flower ; with this
laacription, Spss P. E. Similar to this is ber appearance in Plate XIV. fig. 8, drawn from a
medal of Titus.

A temple to PiHat was dedicated in the place where that woman lived who ftd with the milk
of ber own breasts ber mother in prison. Cf. PUn. N. H. vii. c. SO.

Coi»e0rdU bad many altars. Her image held a bowl in the right hand, and a horn of plenty In
the left. Huch is her appearance, sitting on a chair of suie, in Plate XIV. fig. 11, taken from a
consular coin. Her symliol was two hands joined together and a pomegranate.

In the later periods of Rome, Pax had a very magnificent temple in the Forum, finished by
Vespasian. The goddess nf peace or security is often represented on Imperial coins. In Plate
XlV. fig. 19, from a coin of Titus, she appears as a woman resting on a coluun, with a spike of
wheat in the left hand, and a scepter like the wand of Mercury in the right, held over a tripod.

Frmu* was represented with a human face and a serpent's body ; in the end of her tail was a
scorpion's sting.

Inftidia is described as a meager skeleton, dwelling In a dark and gloomy cave, and feeding on
snakes. Oe. Meum. 11. 7t)l.

^ 96. Foreign Gods. It is proper to notice here some Egyptian deities, whose
worship was partially introduced at Kome.

1. Osiris. He is said to have been the son of Jupiter by Niobe, and to have ruled
first over the Argives, and afterwards, leaving them, to have become an illusiriotia
king of the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many said to be the same with
thelo, daughter of Inachus, who was according to the febles changed by Jupiter into
a cow. Osiris was at length slain by Typhon, and his corpse concealed in a chest and
thrown into the Nile. Isis, after much search, by the aid of keen-scented dogs found
the body, and placed it in a monument on an island near Memphis. The Egyptians
paid divine honor to his memory, and chose the ox to represent nim, because as some
say a large ox appeared to them after the body of Osiris was interred, or according to
otners, tocause Osiris had instructed them in agriculture.

Osiris was generally Represented with a cap on his bead like a mitre, with two horns ; be held
a stick in his left hand, and in bis right a whip with three thonga. Sometimes be appears with
the head of a hawk.

In the Sup. Plate 80, are two engravings marked as representations of Osiris. The first Is ac-
cording to a colossal statue, dug up at Rome, and taken by some for an Isis. The second is from
another sculpture, and shows the hawk's head. In Plate XV. he is seen in a sitting posture.—
Cf. Monffawumy Ant. Exp. vol. S. p. 376, S90.— The image of a Aawik with a Teseel on iu head, and
that of the Uu with a serpent In its bill, have been taken by sooie as eroUema of Osiris; see
Plate VIII.

2. Isis. She was the wife of Osiris. lo after her metamorphosis is said, after
wandering over the earth, to have come to the banks of the Nile, and there she wae
restored to the form of a woman. She reigned after her husband's murder, and was
deified by the Egyptians. The cow was employed as her symbol, but more commonly
the siatrum.

Isis is often represented as holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full of ears of com. Her
body sometimes appears enveloped in a sort of net. On some monuments she holds in her lap a
child, her son Honu. who Is also ranked among the deities of Egypt.

In tjie Sup. Plate 90, she is seen holding her son, on whose head is a cap surmounted by a
globe ; her own head Is formed into that of a cow, with a hawk on the forehead, surmounted by
a singular cap. In Plate XV. she is seen aa represented on the igiac Tli^is. In the same Plate
Horus is given as found on that Table.

8oM]mT«eeiNidtrHlOrir<taDdM*Mtc|iramliaK ttemaailtbeBooa. TlMir •Iwy b ty olhm vtnrt4 h eorT«|Mdi^
to ttatf of Vaim and Adoak. (Of. KuStWt Eoqaiiy, ao-SoM rcHnbhnen baw bM psintad oat ImIwc«> bit and te, a daily
if tha Bindooa, and INm, a foddM wonblpad aoMiv ttN Borf bani tnlm of Eurapa (cL 2^

The Egyptians had numerous festivals which were connected with the fiibles xe-

P.n INFERIOR GODS. FOREIGN GODS. 123

waecdng leaa and Onris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was termed the
Ina ; which lasted nine days, and was attended with such licentiousness as to be at
length proliibited by the senate.

The Iriae Table is a curioui monument, which receives its name from its being supposed to
represent the mysteries of Isis. The original was obtained at Rome, A. D 1525, and came after
•DOM time into the cabinet of the duke of Mantua, where it remained untii the pillage of that
dty, A. D. 1630; it is said to be now (1839) in the royal gallery at Turin. It is described as a
tablet of rnpper or bronze, '* almost four feet long, and of-pretty near the same breadth ;" and
** covered with silver mosaic, skilfully inlaid;'* "the ground-work being a black enamel." It
Is divided into three equal compartments by two horizontal lines of hieroglyphics ; the middle
compartment being subdivided by two perpendicular lines of hieroglyphics into three comiiart-
nenls, a larger one in the center, and a smaller one at each side of it. The five compartments
thus formed are crowded with figures, with hieroglyphics interspersed. The whole is surrounded
by a border, also crowded with figures and hieroglyphics. The engravings in our Plate XV. are
all drawn from this Table. In that Plate Isis is given as seen in the center of the Table, sitting
la a splendid gate-way.

A Cm capavmg of flw whol* Titble with Moe expUuiaUos, it civ«B bf Mmtfauton, AnL Expl. wL iL p. 340, m dted § 12. 8 (d).
-II H fiKD »J«o i* Cnylut, BMaeil d« Antiqult^s vol. Tii. p. 34, eitad P. m. § IS. 2.— CL Skudtforri, Saer. and Praf. Hist. Con
NL TuL— £iu9d. Jnuri. w>1. viL 89L^ JCsyo, MjtbdOQr, toL iL 82.

Among the most remarkable ruins discovered at Pompeii, is a Tltmple of Ms, The columns
which surrounded it are almost entirely preserved. The temple itself was entirely built of brick,
and on the outside covered with a very solid stucco. It had the form of a square, and was not
covered, but was surrounded by a covered gallery, which was supported by columns, and served
for a shelter In had weather. **In this temple have been found all the instruments which apper-
tain to the religious ceremonies, and even the skeletons of the priests, who had been surprised
and burled by the shower of cinders in the middle of the occupations of their ministry. Their
vestments, the cinders and coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases which
contained the lustral water, paters employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preferve the
hitestines of the victims, cushions on which thev placed the statue of the goddess Isis when they
olTered sacrifices to her, the attributes of the divinity with which the temple was adorned, ^.,
are still shown. Many of these vases have the figure of an ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus ;
and what renders them still more important, they were found exactly in the situation In which
they were used, so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The walla
of the temple were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess ; there were
figures of priests in the costume of their order : their vestments were of white linen, the heads
of the ofllciating priests were shaved, their feet covered with a fine thin lace, through which the
nnscles might be distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeiu

3. Arts. This is the name of the ox in which Osiris was supposed to reside, rather
than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored was known by certain marks ; his body
was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his forehead, and a white crescent
or sort of half-moon on nis nght sicfe ; on his back was the figare of an eagle ; under
his tongue a s<m of knot resembling a beetle {cantharus) ; and two sorts of hair upon
his tall. This ox was permitted to live twenty -five years. His body was then em-
balmed, placed in a chest, or yjopi^^ and buried with many solemnities. A season of
moumine then followed, until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to
B^L— it is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance into the
second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the comer of a large and high cham-
ber in the interior of the pyramid a ^opis, which, on being carefully opened, presented
the bones of an ox.

MirETTS is the name of the sacred ox consecrated to the Sun, and worshiped espe-
cially at Heliopolis. He is described as being white.

In Plate XT. are two representations, from the Isiac Table, supposed to be .^pU and Mvnis;
each is attended by two priests ; under the head of each is a standard supporting something,
perhaps tfae eating-trough of the sacred animal.

Ot Land. Quart. Am. xix. 201.— Ainier. LX>rig. d« evlte que 1m Egyptleai rendoient am uionaz, ia Ibe Ifem. Jkad. huer,
& Ur-Aim Aoneteni, Oct uumu mpretea a Eg^pte^ in (be Mem. ^ Ix. 20.— /Vieftord, u dted ) 12. 2 ( f).

4. Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some to be the
lame wit h Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapeaj were erected to him
at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. I'aciius relates a marvelous tale of the re-
moval of an effiffy of this god from Sinope, on the southern shore of the Pontus Euxi-
ntLs. to Alexandria. The worship of the god existed, however, in Egypt at a much
earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis were introduced at Rome under the em-
perors, but soon abolished on account of their Ucentiousness. — Some derive the name
Irom Ypoii and 'An;, as having signified at first merely the cheat or box in which the
body of Api» was deposited.

In the Sup. Plate 34, we have a very remarkable statue of Serapis; resembling as to the form
of the body that of Cybele in 8up. Plate 5, and that of Dfana Ephesla in Sup. Plato 16; around
the body twines a huge serpent, witose tail is grasped in the hand of Serapis, while the head
appears'at his feet ; on the portions between the folds of the serpent are various figures of per-
sons and animals.— In the Snp. Plate 25, we have another, more in the Roman style; Serapis
sits. In foil drapery, with sandals on his feet ; one arm raised in earnest action ; given by Mont-
<k«con as belnneine to the ehbinet of Pauvel. In the same Plate is another representation from
an .ahrmxas (ef. P. IV. ^ 200. 2) ; he holds a spear In his right hand, and points upward with the

other; a Cerberus stands at his side. In all these Images we notice the thee and t>eard of a

Japiter, and also the caUUkus or basket on the head which is the mark of Serapis.

124 GREEK AND ROHAN XYTHOLOOT.

It bu bHB npiiOMd by naw, tad tta* DoHoB b adoptad by Dr. B. D. OsrkC) (M
flnttbe wiooi Icfoida oonaeeted with Uw wonbip of fth god ffmr oot of tb« Uatoryer Ibat paMareb.— Cf. rowtiu^deThadoetB
GMliU. iBMt. ISO.-CiOTftt, Tksvaiik r. iL McL & cb. fi.

5. Akctbis. This was another dehy connected in- fable with Osiris. He was said
to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis in her search after her husband.
He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called Hermanubi* ; or, as
others say, the latter is the nanae of another deity of a similar character.

He appeara to be represented in the monument exhibited in our Plate XVIII. 6g. B. Ct
^ 34. S..— In tlie Sup. Plate 37, we have Images of Anubis. The flrst ia from a piece of marble
Bculpture f iven by Montf&ucon f^om Boimard ; he standi with one foot on a crocodile, bolding
In his left band a eaduetu$t and in the right a abort rod attached to a globe ; by his head on on(
side is a palmteaf, on tbe other a laurel -branch ; on his right is seen also the head of Serapia,
and on his left that of Apis, from which circumstance the inscription on the original monument,
6EOf AAEA^OI, is supposed to designate Serapis, Apis, and Anubis. Tbe other image in tbia
Plate is drawn from an engraved gem ; presenting Anubis with tbe Roman coat of mail and a
bow and arrow.

CYRocEPnALiTs Is bf Bome considered to be the aama as Anabla; but this name In Egyptian
mythology merely designatea the dog as converted into a divinity. Tbe term Cynoeepkali is ap*
plied by Greek writers to a race of beings aaid to exist in Asia {Diod. Sie. 111. 34). The image in
Sup. Plate V7, ia given by Montfattcon, under tbe name of CnxopUkeeutt as being tbe monkey-
god of Egypt.

iELVBUs designates the cat, aa deified by the Egyptians, and especially honored at Bubaatis ;
whence the name Diama Bubastis, applied to the aame animal. Their imagea are given in
Sup. Plate 97.

6. Harfocrates. He is supposed to be the same as Horns, son of Isis, and was
worshiped as the god o( Silence. He was much honored among the Romans, who
placed his statues at the entrance of their temples. He was usually represented in
the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, wliich ended at the points as it
were in two buds ; in his left hand he hela a horn of plenty, while a finger of his right
hand was fixed upon his lips to command silence and secrecy.

CC PotpHvy, Cavo of Nynpbl {cL P. V. S iMk 2}.— CZow. /oum. Ui. 142.«-ifons«s^ RcciMil 6m Antiqiiitfa. Fkr. IH>«. 4.

In Plate XLVII. fig. 1, from an wfffrraxoj, we have Harpocratea sitting on the loius flower; cf. P.
IV. $ 108. In tbe Sup. Plate 25, tbe first Image of Harpocratea preaenta him with a aingular
head-covering, from which a large horn descends below tbe shoulder. Tbe second is remark-
able, because be has the wing of Mercury, the panther-akin of Bacchus, the owl of Minerva, ibe
bound of Diana, tbe serpent of JSaculapius, together with tbe horn of plenty.

7. Canopus. He is said to have been the pilot or admiral of the fleet of Osiris in
his expedition to India. In the Egyptian mythology he seems to be the god of the
waters of the Nile.

Nearly all the representations of him are formed by tbe bead of a person or Aiiroal appearing
at the top of one of those vaaes in which the Egyptians kept the waters of that river; tbe body
of the vaae ia frequently covered with bleroglypbica. Two such repreaentations are given in
our Plate VIII.

III. — Mythical Beings^ ivhoae history is intimately connected with thai of the

gods.

$ 97. (1) Titans and Giants. The enterprises of the Titans are celebrated in
the ancient fables of the Greeks. They have already been mentioned in the
account of Saturn ($ 14), to whom they were brothers, being generally con-
sidered as sons of Uranus or Coelus and Titaea. The oldest was called Titan,
and from him, or their mother, they derived their common name. The preva-
lent tradition assigned to Uranus five sons besides Saturn, viz. Hyperion, Cceus^
Japelus, CriuSf and Oeeanusj and likewise five daughters besides Rhea, wife
of^ Saturn, viz. lYiemis, Mnemosyne, Thya, PhoBbe, and Tethys, c^WeA ^Filanides*
On account of their rebellion against Uranus, in which however Saturn and
Oceanus took no part, the Titans Were hurled by their father down to Tartarus,
whence they were set free by the aid of Saturn. With Saturn also they after-
wards contested the throne, but unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned in
speaking of Vulcan ($ 52), may be considered as belonging to the Titans.

The number of the Tirans is given variously ; Apollodorus mentions 13, Hy^inus 6,
The number of 45 is stated by some. The name of one of them, Japeivs, is strik-
ingly similar to Japhct, mentioned in the Bible, whose descendants peopled Europe c
and it is remarkably that in the Greek traditions Japetus is called the father of man
land. Some have considered the I'itans as the descendants of Gomer, the son of

li^r

t|^-_ jKsrisvr!:-^

P.n. MYTHICAL BBINOS. GIANTS. TRITONS. SIRENS. 125

Japbei^ — They have also been supposed to be the Cushites, or descendants of Cush',
ind the builders of the tower of Babel. — Others think them merely personiiications
of the elements' ; and suppose their fabled war with their father Ccelus, or against
Saturn, an allegorical representation of a war of the elements.

Hesiod's Battle of the Titans is often named as a remarkable specimen of subhmitv.
It will be interesting to compare* it with Homer's Battle of the Gods, and Milton^s
MtU of the AftgeU.

I a Farm, Aattqalt. dw Cdta. ^ AysnC. AiMlfh of Ancieikt Mytholoor. s CL Armam, Bri«fe QbCT dm Wtam dor

Mjtbologie. * Camftn Bom. IL a. 6im. At. Tbeof. 674 » if iS. Fuad. Lert, W.

5 98. The GianU were a distinct class, although their name (ybyof, from ytj
aod yitci) desi^ates them as sons of Earth, or Gaia, who gare them birth, after
the defeat of the Titans by Jupiter, and out of vengeance against him. The
most famous of them were Enceladua^ Hakyoneus^ Typhoriy JEgeon, Ephialles^
and Otus, According to the common description, they had bodies of extra-
ordinary size and strength, some of them with a hundred hands, and with
dragon^s feet, or serpents instead of legs. Their most celebrated undertaking
was the storming of Olympus^ the residence of Jupiter and the other gods.
Id order to scale this summit, they heaped mountain upon mountain, as (Eta,
Pelion, Ossa, and others. But Jupiter smote them with his thunderbolts,
precipitated some of them to Tartarus, and buried others beneath the moun-
tains. Typhon or Typhoeus, for instance, he pressed down with the weight of
^tna', under which, according to the fable, the giant constantly strives to lift
himself up, and pours from his mouth torrents of flame.

> 09. M«C». i. 161. ^ Ob. Met. v. S4&— ClatMi Oigutoaiacb.-PttH{. Fyth. 1 91.— Man. dt rTnttHut, Cfauw i>HitL « UL

Jm. voL vfi. ML flwbintiirealto|oriqMdcionitiBaDM,*e.— JBaiiio>,iu>Tjrpboi^InUie JAm-<faid. toL iiL p. 1I&

1. JEgeon or Briareus was another ^ant, eminent in the contest, with fifty heads
and a hundred hands. He hurled against Jupiter a hundred huge rocks at a single
throw; but Jupiter bound him also under ^tna, with a hundred chains. — This storj
of Uie war between the Giants and Jupiter is also explained by some as an allegon-
cal representation of some great struggle in nature which took place in early times.
This contest is to be distinguished from that of the Titans, who, although often con-
founded with the Giants, were a distinct class.

2. Orion is by some also placed amon^ the giants as a son of Gaia or Terra ; yet
the more common fable ascribes his orimn to the joint agency of Jupiter, Mercury,
and Neptune j according to which some derive his name from the Greek word dvpov
iurina). He was ranked among the attendants of Diana, and after his death his name
was given to a constellation.

Sttf^menp-, ncHwl 1 117 (f).— ikfbitftminl, Lahb. d*Orioo, ia Am Jftm. .louL /natr. ziv. 1& attanptinf to ibew & oop>
BMf ioB of (lie fabl* vith the ■tory of baae lb* ton of Abratem.

3. The Fy/iuM of the anclentt were fabulous beinfrs, of very dlminotive size, supposed by
•one to dwell in Egypt and Ethiopia ; by others, in Thrace and S'cythia ; and by others, in India.

a On M«L vi. KL— /Vn. Hirt. NaL viL 2.— fisyiM, on Bom. n. iii. 9^Hitren, Iden, wl. i. as dtmi P. IV. § IT1 -Jfattt-
Jhm,ia Qw JmaiMdte ^oy^fw, vol. i. p. »&.— Aoiiiff-, Lea Pygnte, in the Man. Jtmd. Inter. voL ▼. |k 101.— Colmet, aa dtaJ
P.LHttk ««LUi.p.liau-^H^.ZtiMrcJiM,D«PrginaBia.Ctli«pia. KIL 1724. 4.

$ 99. Tritons and Sirent, TViton has already been mentioned (§ 29) as a
son of Neptune and Amphitrite. From him, as most famous, the other various
deities of the sea derived the name of Tritons. They were represented, like
him, as half man and half fish, with the whole body covered with scales.
They osaally formed the retinue of Neptune, whose approach Triton himself
annoonced by blowing his horn, which was a large conch or sea shell.

A Triton is osaally represented with the form of a roan in the upper part, and the form of a
flih In the lower. Bometlmes the head of the fish Is also retained ; as in the Sup. Plate 19, fVom
a Kiilpture given by Hontfaucon ; where Triton is seen beiarlni? perhaps a Nereid, or more pro-
iaMy Kemu Marina^ since the fifure at the right appears to be a Cupid. In Plate XLIII. Triton
ii aoBoancing with his born the approach of Neptune.— Cf. Ov. Met. 1. 233,—Virg. JEn. x. 900.

There were other minor divinities of the sea under Neptune ; but Triton seems to
have had the pre-eminence, and under Neptune a sort of control among them. Phor-
cus, Proteus, and Glaucus have been already mentioned (^ 29). Nereus was ranked
among them as a son of Oceanus, and the father of the Nereides. Ino and her son
Palaemon or Melicertes, are also said to have been admitted by Neptune as gods of
his retinue. Pakemon is thought to be the same with PortumnuSf whom the Romans
worshiped as the guardian of harbors.

i 100. The Sirem were a sort of sea-goddesses, sai^ by some to be two in
number, by others, three, and even four. Homer mentions but two', and de*
flcribes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, and detaining with them every

l3

126 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

Toyager, who was allured thither by their captivatincr music. They would
have decoyed even Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca, but were not permitted. —
By others they were described as daughters of the river-pod Achelous, and
companions of Proserpine, after whose seizure they were changfpd into birds',
that they might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest with the Muses
in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment of their emulation. Others
make them sea-nymphs, with a form similar to that of the Tritons, with the
laces of women and the bodies of flying fish. The artists generally represent
them as virgins, either not at all disfigured, or appearing partly as birds.

1 Horn. Od. xii. 30. lOl ^ Ov. MeL v. 860.

Their fabled residence was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily:
by others, on the islands or rocks called Sirennusae, not far from the promontory of
Surrentum on the coast of Iialy. — Various explanations of the fable of the Sirens have
been given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in
pleasure.

J 101. (3) Nymphs, The Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed as holding
a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to the duration of life;
not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast length of time. Oceanus was
considered as their common father, although the descent of difl*erent nymphs is
given differently. Their usual residence was in grottoes or water-caves, from
which circumstance they received their name, Nv/i^ku. Their particular ofiSces
were different, and they were distinguished by various names according to the
several objects of their patronage, or the regions in which they chiefly resided.

1 u. Thus there were the 0 reader, or nymphs of the mountains ; Naiadeg, Nereides
(cf. ^ 29), and Potamidef, nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers ; Dryadet and
Hamadryades, nymphs of the woods ; Najxra, nymphs of the vales, &c. The Dryads
were distinguished from the Hamadryads ('"ifta (V«>ff) in this, that the latter were 'sup-
posed to be attached to some particular tree, along with which they came into being,
lived and died ; while the former had the care of the woods and trees in general.

2. Places consecrated to these imaginary beings were called No/i^aia. Such was
the celebrated spot in the vicinity of Apollonia, famous for its oracle and the fire which
was Been to issue constantly from the ground (jPZm. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7). Such was
the place and building at Rome which was called Nym-pha:nm, adorned with statues
of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains and waterfalls. Festivals
were held in honor of the nymphs, whose number has been stated as above 3000.

Sm Fofitoiii, Lb Calto d« divlnitti da oral, in Mtm. Aoad. Inter, xii. 27.— CC Lend. Qmat. Jtv. zvil. 1*2.

They were generally represented ai yonnir and beautifiit virgini, partially covered with a Teil
or thin cloth, ttenring in their hanris vaees of water, or ■hellii, leaves, ar prass, or havinp some-
thinff as a symbol of their appropriate offices. The several gods are represented, more nr less
frequently, as attended by nymphs of some class or other; especially Neptunp, Diana, and Bac-
chus. Under the term of nymphs, were anmetimes included the imaginary spirits that guided
the heavenly sphi>res and constellations, and dispensed the influences of the stars ; ihp nyropha

being distrihutpd by some mythnlogists into three classes, those of the sky, the laitd, and the sea.
In Plate XLIII. Nymphs are seen accompanying Neptune and Atnphitrite —In the Sup. Plate
19, we have a Nereid upon a sea-monster which seems to consist of the lower pan of a fish united

with the heads of two horses, whirh she guides by reins ; one horse has two flns nr wings instead
of the two fore feet ; from a gem of Maffi;!. In some representations, the Nereid appears a woman
with the lower part of the body in the form of a fish, thus exhibiting the tneriMattf.

§ 102. (4) MiLses. The ancients were not content with having in their fic-
tions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in general ; but assigned to
particular branches of knowledge and art their appropriate tutelary spirits or
guardian divinities, whom they called Muses^ Movoat, and considered as the
daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. They were nine in number, according
to the common account, with Greek names, as follows : Kxciw {I2iuftrioua\
KoXXtoTti; {Fair-voice), Mil-fiofiivri {Sinpifig), e>uUta {(ray), *Epatu» {Lfn-ing),
'Evtipftrj (Wisll-pleasing), Tify^i%Qpfi {Dance-loving), IloXv/ivta {Songful), znA
'Ovpovca {Celestial).

The Romans termed them Camttnm. They were frequently called by common names, derived
from places sacred to them, or from other circumstances, as Pieridss, from Pieria, ^vnidcs. Belt'
coniadest Parnassidest Hippoerenidest Castalideji, Slc.

^ 103 M. In order to represent the Muses ns excelling in their several arts, espe-
cially in music and song, the poets imagined various contests held by them ; as, for
example, with the Sirens, ana the daughters of Pierua', in which the Muses always
gainer the prize. I'hey were dcBcribcd as remaining virgins, and as bein^ imder the
mstruction and protection of Apollo. Their usual residence was Mt. Uehcon, where

p. n. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GRACES. HORJE. FATES. 127

waa the fountain Hippocrene, and Mt. ParnassuSf where was the fountain Castalia;
the former in Bceotia; the latter near Delphi* in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pier«i8
in Thessaly were also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also consecrated
to ihem among the Greeks and the Romans. Festivals in their honor were instituted
in several parts of Greece^, esoecially among the Thespians. The Macedonians
obser\'ed a lestiYal for Jupiter ana the ]VIuses, which was continued nine days.

1 09 MfC T. SGOl 4 Sn View of Delphi and Parmsrat forming the FnstkpiMt to tbii Muii»l. * Sea Meyru, d« Mmr.

idvwm, ejoiq. orig. «l eanii \m Commmt. Sec ng. OoUing. toL vUL

The Maaea are osaally represented as virgins wUb ornamented dresses, and crowned with
palms or laurels. " According to the best authorities, Clio, History, holds In her band a half-
opened scroll ; Melpomene, Tragfdy, is veiled, and leans upon a pillar, holding in her left hand
a tragic mask ; Thalia, Comedy^ holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a staff resembling
a litttus or atigur's wand ; EuTftape, Mtuie, holds two flutes or pipes ; TEarsiCMuaa, the Dane*,
is represented in a dancing attitude, and plays upon a seven-sirinped lyre ; Eeato, Jimatary
Pttry, holds a nine-siringed instrument; Calliope, Rpie Poetry, has a roll of parchment in her
band, and sometimes a straisht trumpet or tuba ; Urahia, Aurorumy, holds in her left band a
gtobe; in her riKht a rod, with which she appears lo point out some object to the beholder:
Polyhtm^iia, FAoquenet and Imitation, places the fore-fini^er of the right hand upon her mouth,
or else bears a scroll in her band.*' {Jtntkon** Lemp.) — Generally accnrdnnt with this descrip-
tioQ, yet in some respects different, are the figures in our Plate XXXIX. ; where the Muses are
represented as seen In the statues belonging to the collection of Christina queen of Sweden, and
described by Maffei. — A valuable monument, to guide the critic and artist in distinguishing the
Mases, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capiioline gallery at Rome, ia which the nine are
reprMsenled.

"The Musea are often painted with their hands Joined dancing in a ring; in the middle of
Ihem sits Apollo, their commander and prince. The pencil of nature described them in that
manner upon the agate which Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans, wore in a ring; for in
it was a representation of the nine mases, and Apollo holding a harp ; and these figures were
not delineated by art iPlin. L. xzxvii. c. 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of nature."
{TMte's Paoth.)

r« nnoa rrpfneo^tiam of lbs Mimi^ Me Jfon//«ieon, Ant Exp. vol. i. platce 66-62.— JIfiuaim Pio-C3anmtmumy voL L
plita 17-aa vol. iv. pUlei 14. I&

$ 104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retinue of Venus belonared
the Graces, Xapfr-rc$, Graiias^ servants and companions of the goddess, diffusing
charms and gladness. They were said to be daughters of Jupiter and Enry-
nome, or accordiojr to others of Bacchus and Venus herself, and were three m
namber, 'Ay?uxta {Sjplendor), e>axtta {Pleasure), and 'Ev^poavvr^ (Av)* They
were honored especially in Greece, and had temples in the principal cities.
Altars were often erected to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mer-
cury, Venus, and the Muses.

I «. They are frequently represented on ancient monuments as beautiful young virgins, com-
noaly in a'group, holding each other by the band, and without drapery.

1 Thus they appear in the Sup. Plate 8, a representation wMch yflry nearly resembles what
is seen on two beautiful antique engraved gems, given by Ogle, Ani.T:\p. Plates 47, 48. In the
Bap. Plate 7, the Graces are employed in adorning Venus. An antique painting found, with
other pieces, at Rome, in a vault near the Colissum, in 1G68, exhibits tbem dancing, with slight
drapery.

Cl Find. (Hjmp. xn.—Marua, Abb. Qbv dis HoraB nod OnsieD, in bit U^thoL Vwrniekuu—Mamieut war la Gneo, In tbs
ikn. dbrJoiA da Inaer. iii. a

i 105. The florae, ^Clpai, were the goddesses of Time, presiding especially
over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were considered as the daughters
and Servants of Jupiter. They came at length to be viewed as tutelary patrons
of beauty, order, and regularity, in reference to which Themis was said to be
their mother. They were named Mvofua, Atxi;, Etp^.

The Graces, Hours, and Muses, are all supposed by some wrifers to have had
originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have afterwards lost their astro-
nomical attributes, when moral ideas and qualities became more prominent in the
Greek system of fictions.

The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and garlands of palm-
leaf. and all of tbe same age. In some monuments of later periods, /our Hours appear, corre-
sponding to the four seasons.— In tbe 8up. Plate 10, tbe Hours are represented by four virginn
attending Aumra.

In representing the seasons, the Romans used the masculine gender; thos in onr Plate IX.
which exhibits them as sculptured on the Arch of Severus, we see four lads or young men, each
with winffs, and appropriate symbols of Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. The Romans
also personified the Months, usually representing them by male figures.

C£ Wimduimmm, HM. da I'Art, I. if. cfa. S. f a.-Mont/nteon, Ant Exp. Soppl. vol. i. p. 22 a. Hera he <ivc« alto, Ptarw
f>M, frem LuBfaaciM, MKravtnffi of ttm rqireaeoWioiM of Ibe month* ai baatirully depicted in & muncript bdooiinf io the Imps'
rid tabarj ttViema i Febnary alou k rrpreaentod by a feaiaJe.

f 106. ((>) The Fates, The very common poetic representation of human
life uader the figurative idea of spinning a thread, gave rise to the notion of th

128 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

Faies^ called MoTpot by the Greeks ; by the Romans, Parts* They were three
sisters, daughters of Night, whom Jupiter permitted to decide the fortune and
especially the duration of mortal life. ' One of them Clotho (KxtoJ^w), attached
the thread; the second, Lachesta {Adxf'Jif), spun it; and the third, jltropot
CAtpoftof), cut it off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as in-
exorable, and ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their
worship was not very general.

Tbe Parcc were generally represented ai three old women, with chaplets made of wool and
interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus, wearing long robes, and einpioy*-d in their worka :
Clotho with a distaff; Lachesis having near her sometimes several spindles : and Atropos hold-
ing a pair of scissors. Such is their appearance in the Sup. Plate 14, which is uot copied from
any ancient monument, but designed after the description of the poets.

8m CmlnO. EpitlMi. I'd at Tlwt v. 90b.^Ma!imh Atthaadl. f. Pknca. u hk MyUuL rermidmu-Buiimt ter ks FUqao, ta
tha Hem. Jtad. tuer. vol. iv. 64&

$ 107. (7) The FurieB and Harpies, Among the divinities of the lower
world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and Proserpine,
whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, and often to inflict ven-
geance upon the living. The Greeks called them ^EpCvwii, Furies i and also
by a sort of euphemism, or from design to propitiate them, KififvCSti, signify-
ing kindly disposed i the Romans styled them Furise, Their names were
Tisiphone (from W<rif and ^o$), whose particular work was to originate fatal
epidemics and contagion ; J9IeetOj (from aXT^xf os), to whom was ascribed the
devastations and cruelties of war; and Megsera (from /tcyaipw), the author of
insanity and murders. Temples were consecratt^d to them among both the
Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a festival also, if we may con-
sider the Furinalia as appropriated to them and not to a separate goddess Fu-
rina, as some suppose.

1«. They were represented with vipers twining among their hair, usnally with frightful coun-
tenances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord or vengeance.

S. Bee the Sup. Plate 14, where they are seen In drapery, with the serpent locks and scorpioa

. _ 1 " '^ ■ ■ '"•«"

irpenti
their whip*.

whips with which the artists represented them. On two vases in tbe Hamiiion collection tbev
have serpenU in their hair. In the Sup. Plate 13, they are introduced as lashing a criminal with

Ct Firg. Owg. iii. 6St. Xo. vii. S4I, 416. sll MS.-O0. Met iv. 474.->Cr. C JL BSttigtr, FariraoHuiaa im TkaMnpicI nd
aqf d. Hldtrerkca d. tXi. Qriwhen ; mw vthmA, Uiit«nttGbai«. Waiin. 1801. 8.— Jtaita', nr la Fuitai, ia tbe Mm. Mtd. hua
Tol. T. p. S4.

$ 108 a. The fable of the Harpies, "ApTtvuu, seems to have had reference
originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, which suddenly seizes
and beare off whatever it strikes. Their names were Jello (from atXAa, siorm\
Celseno (fiom aceXao^^, dark), and Ocyptta (from Ctxvnitviu flying rapidly), ail
indicative of the source of the fiction.

They appear to have been conesdered, sometimes, at least, as the goddesses of storms, and so
were called 66cXXai {Horn. Od. xz. 66). They were said to be daughters of Neptune and Terra,
and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the borders of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the
Furiea, to whom they sometimes bore off the victims they seized.

They are represented as having the faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and
bands armed with claws, and sometimes as with the tails of serpents. Bee the Sup. Plate 14.

nrg. Ma. iiLSia-8M Feu, Myttioloc. Bricfeu Shiltf. I8S7. 3 vols. 12.~L* Oere (in tlw Bibliolhtqu* Vnieindk, vol. i. p. )4D
■nppoMi thB Harpiei to b« BMraijr keuM$ ; a cmjactpra which OiUon Mcm lo approw (Hnm. Emp. vol. ii. p. 71. ed. N. T. 102).

$ 108 b. (8) The Venti or Winds. It has been already remarked (^ 78) that the
four principal winds were at an early period converted into mythical personases.
Among both Greeks and Romans they gained the rank of deities. The Venli, 'A>^
fiMt were eight ; Evpo;, Eurus, South-east ; 'AirqXi&mif, SubsolanuSf East ; Kaixtof, CtBcias,
AquUoj North-east ; Bop/of , Boreas^ North ; 2>i>v, Cotias, North-west ; Ze^po; , Zephy-
ruSf Occiiens, West ; NtfTCf, Notus^ Auster, South ; At»//, Libs, Africus, South-west.

Little is handed down to ua respecting the worship paid to the winds. An altar dedicated to
them was found near Netiuno (ciT. $ 78. 3). Pausanias speaks of one erected at the foot of a
mountain near Asopus, where annual sacrifices were offered to them at night. Tbe most re-
markable monument peruining to these gods is the Temple nr Tower of the eight Winds at
Athens, still existing; said to have been erected about B. C. IdO; a view of it is given in Plate
XXI. fig. 9; see also P. I. \ 110.

On each of the eight sides of this tower is represented one of the winds; £«nr«, as a young man
ilying freely and vigorously ; StLbaolamLB^ a young man holding fruit in tbe fold of his mantle ;
jff^uo, a venerable man with a beard, holding a dish of olives ; Borftu, with boots* on his legs,
mufSing his face in a cloak, and flying eagerly ; Corvs^ also with boots and cloak, and holding in
his hands an inverted vase of water; ZepAvriM, a youth with naked breast, and carrying flowers;
JVetiw, an old man with gloomy faca ; 4frtcus, also with melancholy looks and heavy winga

p. n. MYTHICAL BBINO 8. DJSM0N8. HANE8. LARES. PENATES. 120

la onr Sap. Plau SO, Zepkfrua m leen aapported in the air. In compftny with Flora or Chloria,
to whom he is said to have been married.

Sm IbofiM Ln. Tot L«L M editad by Autoy, toL IL p. lUS.-Uakft TopegfWft^ «t AXbum.-3toatfuiean, AaL Etp.
iDLLpk4ISb

i 109. (9) Th« Ikemons or Gmii, and Manes. In the earliest mythologies
we find traces of a sort ofjprotecting deities, or spiritual guardians of men,
called c^iiLoviu or Genii. They were supposed to be always present with the
persons under their care, and to direct their conduct, and control in great mea-
sure their destiny, having received this power as a gift from Jupiter. Bad dee-
moos, however, as well as good, were imagined to exist, and some maintained,
that every person had one of each class attendant upon him.

From the notion of an attending genius arose the proverbial expressions, indulgere
geuio and defraudare genio, signii ying simply to gratify or deny one's 9elf.

The damons of classical mylbologv must not be confounded with the fallen spirits
revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and represented as possessing men in the time of
Christ.

Sm FanMT, Emjr oo DrgwaiacL— Ltttan to Cfaaimi^ on lUlen Splii^ bjr Camonteua. BoilOD, 1S&— CL Brcwtiim, LIf hk
MJ>iilD»irfCbnrtlin Lift. p. 37ft. N. York, 1897. 12. «

$110. The Manes were a similar class of beings. Although often spoken
of 88 the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more commonly to have
been considered as guardians of the deceased, whose office was to watch over
their graves, and hinder any disturbance of their tranquillity. They were sub-
ordinate to the authority of Pluto, on which account he is styled Summanus,
Some describe a goddess, named Mania^ as their mother.

1 ». The Romans designated by the name oi Lemur es, or Larva^ such spirits of the
dead as wandered about m restlessness, disturbing the peace of men, issuing from the
graves as apparitions to terrify the beholders.

1 In Plate XXXVI. we have oae (kce of a square sepulchral monament found at Brlzia, on
wbkb two Jiane* are represented, each with winga and an Inverted torch ; a representation not
naconnon on such structures.

iHJfinK'k Aba. Oberd. GwioidCT Utn. VaVm MfOL Vkn.Sinuin, Diii^ nr 1« LMnam, Mmi.JUad.Imr. voL L-Olk
Am. t. tfL—Sum, EiaWluc ia SonH alls 0«ehicblfl. BwL 1888. IS.

$ 111. (10) The Lares and Penates. The system of tutelary spirits was
canried further by the Romans than by the Greeks. The former assigned to
each dwelling and family its ^ardian deities, which were called Lares and
Pennies. The Lares were said to be sons of Mercury and Lara, or Larunda«
dangfater of Almon. They received a variety of epithets or by-names, accord-
ing to the particular object, over which they were in different cases supposed to
preside, as/omi/toret, eompitaks^ viales^ pateUarti, jmbHei, privaii.

1 V. They were especially considered, however, as presiding over houses, and had
m every house their proper sanctuary (lararium) and altar. T^ey seem to have been
viewed as the spirits of the departed ancestors, the fathers and forefathers of the
family, who sought the welfare of their descendants.

1 Public festivals were held in their honor, called CMtpiteUa, which were made very Joyfbl
eceaflkins; the slaves of the family shared liberty and equality with their masters, as on the
Saivroalm.

The dAf was bacred to the Lares, and an ima^e of this animal was placed by their stataesw
These itaiues were sometimes clothed in the skins, and even formed in the shape, of doga.

r. BtmrU, Di«L 4to Laritatt. U cat Zirieav. 1816. &— JfUOfr, m cited $ 112.

$113. The Pennies were also domestic or household gods, but they were not
properly speaking a distinct class by themselves, because the master of the
dwelling was allowed to select any deity according to his pleasure, to watch
over his family affairs, or preside over particular parts of them. Accordingly
Jupiter and others of the superior gods were not unfrequently invoked in this
capacity. The gods who presided over particular families, were sometimes
styled parvi Penates. While those that presided over cities or provinces were
styled pairtt or ;w5/tW Penates. Adulation sometimes elevated to the rank of
Penates even living persons; especially emperors.

The Lares and the^ Penates are often confounded, but were not the same. "The Penates
were oricinalty gods, the powers of nature personified; the mysterious action of which pro-
duces and upholds whatever is necessary to life, to the common good, to the prosperity of fkml
lies; whatever, in fine, the human species cannot bestow on itself. The Lares were orlfinally
Ihemselves human beinfs, who, beeomlnff pure spirits after death, loyed still to hover round the
dwelliae tbey once inhabited ; to watch over lu safety, and to guard it as the Ikitbfiil dog does
17

130 ORBEK AND ROHAN MYTHOLOOT.

the poaMmioDs of hta maiter. They keep off danger (torn without, while the Penatea, reaidiag
In the Interior of the dwellinf, pour bleaainga upon ita inmates.** (Jintk. Lemp.)

A number of smalt bronze statuea, representing Roman Penatett were found the last century
at Exeter, in England.

Cf. Pvg. Ma. li. 717. iiu I48.-I&yn<, Eicon, ix. «d Vlif. Xa. M.—T. HmpO, Dim. d« dlb Ltillm, m eltad \ 111.— Jtfttlkr,
de dih Rom. Lwifau et PfenktibiH. Hafnia, 1811. B. — For a notice^ wi(b pUlai, of the lUlaei feood at Exctar, mb ttnJrdm^'
toffii^ (cited P. nr. i & S), toL vL puUidied 1786.

$ 113. (11) Sleep^ Dreamsy znd Death, Among the imaginary beings sup-
posed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, "TTtvoi, *Ovcipo^ and
edva/toi, gained a personification, being called brothers, sons of Nox or night,
and ranked among the deities of the lower world.

1 V. The residence of Sleep, Tmwr, Somnus^ was said to be in Cimmeria, on account
of the perpetual darkness which tradition ascribed to that region ; and the poppv, on
account of its soporific quatities, was his common symbol. He is represented as hold-
ing in his hand a lisht inverted and about to be extingiiished.

The last symbol was also employed in representing i^avarof^ or Death, who was
often placed beside his brother Sleep on sepulchral monuments, and appeared in a
similar bodily form, and not a mere jiaked skeleton, as in modern art. When death
was the result of violence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks ex-

Sressed it by the word tdfp, and they fancied a sort of beings called KHpef, who caused
eath and sucked the blood. The Romans made a similar distinction between mor$
and lethum,

9. In the representation of Som«««, given in our Plate XXXVI., he ts a young man tying on the
ground asleep, with one arm on the neckc of a lion, and holding the capsnie of a poppy. 'ITUMm-
Co«, or Death, stands by him with a scythe and wings, in a rube bespangled whb stars, as he la
seen In some paintings.

The Romans Imagined death as a goddess, Murt. The poets described her as roving about
with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with lilacic robes and darlc wings. 8he is not often
found represented on existing monuments of art ; in one supposed to represent her, a small
figure In brass, she appears as a skeleton, silting on the ground with one hand on an urn.

Ct Ob. Met xi. 502, 634, Mk^Lmhti*! Untenoebnuf, wic die Allen d. Tod gebildeL Berl. 1709. 4.— Se^d^V Abb. la hk
Zentmrteo BUUtern. Tb. 8. 273.— ^Mno, Polymelia, cited P. IV. § 151.

3. The god ofdreamg was *Ov€ipot {Horn. II. ii. 56), more commonly called Mop^f^,
from the various imaees or forms (jtofx^fi) presented in dreaming. Morj>heu» is some-
times considered as Uie ^od of sleep, but was more properly his minister; Phobeior
{po0rfnap), sometimes considered as the god of dreams, was another minister of Som-
dus, and Phantatus (^avruso)) another.

CC ThBory ttfDmuntt ftc, illnrtntad by the hmmI nuufcable drauH vMoidcd lo Rntory. Land. 1808. 12.

5 114. (12) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the forests and
woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, took its rise in the ear-
liest ages either from the custom of wearing skins of animals for clothing, or
in a design to represent symbolically the condition of roan in the semi-barbaroos
or half-savage state. The Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fnut}S of the Romans,
in their representation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a
buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Panes, which
had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance of the brute.

1 u. The Fauns were represented as older than the Satyrs, who, when they became
old, were called Sileni. Yet the Romans rojprescnted the Satyrs more like beasts,
and as having the goat's feet. The Satyrs, Fauns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to
the retinue of Bacchus (^ 60).

2 tf. The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived from a national god Faunus,
who was son of Picus (kinj^ of the Latins) and the nymph Canens (Oo. Mel. ziv.
320, 336), and whose wife Fauna was also honored as a goddess.

See Hiyn^t Abb. von Uatenebied. swiichen Fun. Set. Silea. nod Fitncn, In bit Samm;. Jint. JufMxt. Fonnd alio in IVtneft.

Anoim, Hieloln de I'Art (cited P. IV. ( S2) vol. L p. 880. Ueter Fknn. StL Pkn. sod Silaen. Bert. 1180-91. 8.--reM, Mjth.

Brkb.

$ 115. (13) The Gorgons. Three imaginarv sisters, daughters of Phorcys and
Cete, were termed Topyrfvep, from their frightful aspect. Their heads were said to be
covered with vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the tusks of a boar, and so
terrific a look as to turn every beholder into stone. They are described as having the
head, neck, and breasts of women, while the rest of the body was in ihe form of a
serpent. According to some they had but one eye and one tooth, common to them
all, which they were obliged to use in turn. Their names were Stheno, Euryale, and
Mediiga. Medusa is saia to have been slain by Perseus, who cut off her head, while
they were in the act of exchanging the eye.

They are sometimes ranked, with the Furies, among the infernal deities. But their
residence is variously assigned ; some placing them m a distant part of the western

p. n. MYTHICAL BBINOS. AMAZONS, ETC. ^ 131

oeean, others in Lybia (cf. P. I. ^ 179), and others in Scythia. Some have ex-
plained the §ab\e as referring to a warlike race of women, like the Amazons. Others
nippose it to have had some reference to the moon as a dark body, which is said also
to hare been called Fopy^yioy, from the face believed to be seen in it.

^ 116. (14) The Amazont. The Amazons were no doubt mythical beings, al-
tboagh said to be a race of warlike women, who hved near the river Thermcxion in
Cap^ocia. A nation of them was also located in Africa. They are said to have
borat off their right breast, that they might use the bow and javehn with more skill
and force ; and hence theijr name, 'A/ia>;dver, from a and /<a^. They are mentioned in
the Iliad (iii. 189. vL 186) and called cbmdveipai.

Various explanations of the fable are given. Some consider it as having a connec-
tioD ori^aliy with the worship of the moon. Several statues of Amazons were
placed m the temple of Diana at Ephesus (Plin. N. Hist, xxxiv. 8) , and may have
represented some of her imaginary attendants, or some of her own attributes.

A tgw niiiiitirin «o Ammbh. bet hniag inr ara^ h tBan in flw arariM of Blephtata.— In oar Sup. Plato 82, an AaHfloo b

lifWMliiil wiib Imt bow and qaivar of Known. TlndltioiM mpeetiag a i»oa of AmaTona ai« aaid to bo lUU earaBt in tbo

i^oBorCaiiaHB. CC.Aiin&A«LNaULp.3M. On tbe Amaxu^ mo Owuni'* STiaboUk.

^ 117. This seems to be the place for noticing more particularly several Mofuierg,
winch are exhibited in the tales of ancient mythology.

(a) The Muutaur was said to be half man and half bull. The story is, that Minos,
Idog of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautiful white bull, which was de-
minded by the god. The angry ^^od showed his displeasure bv causing Pasiphae, the
wife of Mmos, to defile herseOf with this bull, throug^h ^e aid of Dseaalus, and give
birth to the monster. Minos confined the Minotaur m the famous labyrinth. Here
the monster devoured the seven young men and the seven maidens annually required
from the Athenians by Minos.

Thoeofl, by tbe aid of tbe king'a daaghter, Ariadne, aiew the Minotaur and escaped tbe laby-
riath (cf. $ 1»).

(6) The ChwuBra was said to be composed of a dragon, goat, and lion united : the
Bwidle of the body was that of a goat, the hinder parts those of a dragon, the fore
parts those of a lion ; and it had the heads of all three, and was continually vomiting
forth flames. This monster lived in Lycia, in the reisn of Jobates, king of that
country. This king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in order to gratify his son-in-law
Pfstus, sends him against the Chimsera ; but Bellerophon, by the aid of Minerva,
and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of perishing himself, destroyed the monster.

TbM aUo a bf aoow aoppoHd to nferto avoteaak nomtain en tbe Lycian eoMk-4co OorfaV Travda, pt i'u laet iL ch. 8.
t«Qi. iiL p. 81L od. N. Tork, lSl6).~i*iin. N. Hiat ▼. n^Bmia-f anl Frmtt on Bdleropbon, in ttw Mem. Aead. tuv. vli.

turn.

if) The Centauri were said to be half men and half horses. Some make them the
offspring of Ixion and the cloud ; others refer their origin to the bestiality of Centau-
n», the son of Apollo. Thejr were said to dwell in Thessaly. The principal inci-
dents related of them are their rude attempts upon the women at the marriage of
Piriihous and Hippodamia, and the consequent battle with the Lapithss, who drove
them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwards chiefly destroyed by Hercules. (Ov.
Met. jJL 530.) — Some have imagined this fable to allude to the draining of the low
parts of Thessaly, as the horse is in general symbolical of water.

lia^M Inqafar, ftb in tto Ouk /0MnM2.-Ci: Mif/ar^ elk L aecb ai--^Aii^^

an.

(d) Creryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirhoe, and
to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of Gades,
where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and guarded by
a two-headed dog called Orthos.

Tbe destruction of tlite montter formed one of the twelve labora of Hercnlea (^ 123).

(«) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous heads,
nine according to the common account. When one of these heads was cut o^, an-
other or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood of the wound was
stopped by fire.

The deetrnction of the Hydra wae another lalior amffned to Hercalee, which he accompliibea
by tbe aid of lolant, who applied lighted brands or a heated iron as each head was removed,
liw arrows at Uercales, being dipped In the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds.

(/) Pegasus was not so much a monster as a prodigy, being a winged horse said to
have sprung from the blood, which fell on the ground when Perseus cut off the head
of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Helicon, where he opened the fountain
called Hippoerene (tnmt and tpriM?). He was a favorite of the muses, and is called " the
muses* horse." The horse, having come into the possession of Bellerophon, enablea
him to overcome the Chimsra. Afterwards Pegasus, under an impulse from Jupiter,

132 GREEK Ain> ROMAN XTTBOLOGT.

»hrew off Bellerophon to wander on the earth, and himself ascended to a place among
the stars.

^ M(nvli« li gi««a bjr WlackridMimor • bawMifnl ta^fdiaf in whits miU«, repnMnUi« BdlaoplMB ud hfam; th*
orifinl, prcMT* Hi in liw pnlMe of Spadn it Bone, ii oT Iba Minnl linL— Sm trmAdnmnn, UkL dc I'Att. vol. U. ^ 02. iit. 281.
— CC Frantma; Unaosimplne ou Tnita ElanntKire d^Artianoml* Fw. 1818. a eooUinins Ui« nadcot fabki rapedii^ Um

(f) CerheruM was the fabled do^ of Pluto (^ 34), stationed as centinel at the entrance
of Hades. He is generally descnbed as having three heads, sometimes as having fifty.
Snakes covered his bodjr instead of hair. None from tlie world of the Uving could past
him but by appeasing him with a certain cake, composed of medicated and soporific
ingredients. ( Virg. JEn. vi. 420.)

To seize and bring up this monster was assifned to Hercules as cue of fais labors.

{h) SofUa and CkartfbdtM are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian shore, in
the strait between SicUy and the main land, and the latter of a whirlpool or strong eddv
over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected a fabulous storjr with eaco
name. — Scylla was originally a beautiful woman, but was changed by Circe into a
monster, the parts below her waist becoming a number of dogs incessantly barking,
while she had twelve feet and hands, and six heads with three rows of teeth. Tenified
at this metamorphosis, she threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks
which bear her name.— ^harybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Her-
cules, and for that ofience was turned into tne gulf or whirlpool above mentioned.

. a. rb-gO, £n. UL tnm-Orid, IMnn. li? . 9L-fnpat. liL I t.^Byginmj hh. Itt.

(t) The Sphinx was the ofispring of Orthos and Chimaera, or of Typhon and Echidna ;
a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, the tail of a
serpent, the wing;s of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human voice. This monster
infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas and devouring the inhabitants
who could not explain them. At lensth one of the enigmas, in which she demanded
what animal it was which walked on ^ur legs in the morning, two at noon, ai»d three
at night, was solved by CEdipus : he said that the animal was man, who in the morning
of li» creeps upon his hanas and feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening
of his days uses a staff. On hearing this solution, the Sphinx instantly destroyed
herself.

Id Plate Vin. are given two image* of the Sphinx. One it without wings ; having a pecaliar
Egyptian head-dreee ; from a scnlptured monument given by Boiward. The other la ft-on an
engraved gem, given by Haffel ; having the caUthnt on her head, and the tUtrum in her paw.

BapraHntatioM of Iba Spbinx are vary eomnMn ■nteai Egyptian wminBaata. A fcry eelebntled cdoMd sMua of a Spbioz jd
nmaiM near tba pjrnfliidi. II ia eat in tba lolld loek, and ii 195 tat u langtli.— Clarke'* TAfcIa, pL U. Met. 2. ch. *.-DatonH
Tnnb (vol. L p. 60. Lmd. l8(M)^l4Md. QiMrt. Aeo. xiz. IBS, 408 »

(k) Tlie Oriffon iVp^tf/) waa an imaginary animal, said to be produced from a lion and an
eagle, and auppoaed to watch over roinea of gold and whatever waa hidden. Its image Is aome-
timea found on ancient medals ; the upper part resembling an eagle, the lower part a lion.

Ct F<rTa,EeI.vlii. tl^B^vdatUit iii. 116.— Aiity, Hiii. NaL z. 49i-^ F. Onfm von rtUtam, Von den Oreifn der Altea.
. 1796. a

(0 In the Greek mythology Tifpkon is ranked among the Giants ; by some considered to be the
same as Tgflutug (cf. ^ 06); by others diatlngulshed from him; said to have been produced trota
the earth by Juno's, striking it ; described as having a hundred heads like those of a dragon.—
In Egyptian mythology the monster called T^pkou holds an Important place, being considered aa
the cause of all evil, *uhe Egyptian devil.'* (Fbtbrokt.) He la described and repreaented in va-
rioua ways ; aometlmaa as with a hundred dragon heads ; sometimes as a wolf; someiimea as a
crocodile, and as uniting the tail of a erocodUe with the head and fore-legs of the hippopotamus,
as seen in our Plate Vlil.

IV. -^Mythical EUtory af the fferoe$,

$ 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinguished even b j the'ancients :
the unknown, odi^xov, of which no historical monuments remained to make known
the state of society ; the fabuioiu, uv^ttxov, of which the accounts left are mingled
with manifold fictions ; and the hUioricaly latoptieov, of which a genuine and
trustworthy history is recorded. The first extends to the deluge of Deacalion,
the second to the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third
through the subsequent times. To the second of these periods belonged the
Heroes, as they are called, and it is on that account often styled the heroic age.
These personages are supposed to have possessed extraordinary powers of b(3y
and mind, and distinguished merit is ascribed to them as having founded cities

ML HEROES. PERSEUS. 133

or eoQiitries, improYed their manners and morals, or otherwise exalted or de-
lended them.

$ 119. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progenitors was a
most common cause of the sort of deification with which these heroes were
publicly honored after death ; and the disposition towards this grateful remem-
brapce was quickened and sustained by oral traditions respecting their deeds,
which were much adorned and exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came^ that
most of the heroes were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter
himself. The veneration for the heroes was however less sacred and less uni-
versal than the worship of the ^ods. To the latter, important festivals were
established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and public
solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hand, received only an
annual commemoration at their tombs, or in the vicinity, when offerings and
libations were presented to them. Sometimes, ho'vever, the respect paid them
exceeded these limits, and they were exalted to the rank and honors of the
gods. The introd action of solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to
Cadmus.

Ct Vkf. Oa. iu. 901.-Sallter, In tb« BUL de VJead. lu buer. vol. It. ^ 899L

$ 190. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some were viewed
as a sort of household deities, such as ailer their mortal existence watched over
their families and friends and were honored and worshiped only by them.
Others, whose services while they lived were of a more extended character,
were worshiped by whole states and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had
their appropriate festivals and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To
such was ascribed a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is the
latter class that we are here to notice particularly, as they were the most illus-
trious, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, out was adopted also
among the Romans. Of these only the principal can be mentioned, in doing
which the order of time will be followed.

$ 121. The GianU and Titans ($ 97) might correctly be ranked among the
Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same class, too, belong
/nocAus, founder of the kingdom of Argos ; his son Phoroneta^ to whom various
merits were ascribed ; aud Ogyges^ a kins of Boeotia, memorable from the flood
which occurred in his reign. This rank also was enjoyed, especially among
their respective people and tribes, by Cecrnpa, founder of the Attic state ; Detp^
tttHon^ a Fhessalian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha escaped the general flood
that happened in his times ; Ampkidyon^ author of the celebrated council or
confederation of the early Grecian states ; Cadmus^ who came from Phcenicia
to Greece, and contributed so much to enlighten and improve the people (cf. P.
IV. $34; />aiiafw, to whom the kingdom of Argos was indebted for its advance-
ment; BcUerophon^ who was said to have destroyed the monster Chimera, and
to have performed other exploits; Jfe/ops, kin^ in Elis, from whom Pelopon-
nesus took its name, as his descendants occupied that peninsula ; and the two
princes of Crete by the name of Mfios, one celebrated as a lawgiver, the other
as a warrior.

antwritmafswicaii^lteexidtteearhroiainfidiabbyttenmaoriCiaoi.'-^ GOttioff. ISO^ 9 vob. 8L

$ 133. PcRSBUs was one of the most distinguished of the early heroes. He
was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Polydectus on the island Se-
riphus. His chiet exploit was the destruction of the gorgon Medusa, whose
head he struck off with a sword given to him by Vulcan. From the blood
that fell, sprang the winged horse regasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed
OTer many lands.

1 «. Of his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing king
Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's head, and his deliverance
of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to be devoured by the sea-monster. In con-
nection with the latter adventure he also changed into stone Phineus, who contended
with him for the possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon
Polydectea for ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascribed the invention of
the discos or quoit, with which he inadvertently occasioned the death of his grandfother
Aoiaija. Finally he founded the kingdom of Mycene. After kis aasasamation by

M

Id4 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOOT.

Megapenthes, he wag placed anions me constellations, and several temples wefe
erected to hinii besides a monument oet ween Argos and Mycenae. (Cf. Ov. Meu ir.
603. V. 1-350.)

% The fables respecting Peraeua are by some considered as a modification of the story of the
Persian Mithras (cf ( 33), and a piece of ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel
of Myc«ii« has been thought to confirm the analogy .—CmiMr, Synibolik.^G«<i, Itinerary of
Oreece.

3. Atlas, whom on account of his refusing hospitality to Perseus, the latter is said
to have changed into a mountain, is described as the son of Japeius and the king of
Maurcianio. He owned numerous flocks of sheep and beautiful gardens abounding
with citrons and oranges. His seven daughters, renowned for beauty and wisdom,
were called Atlantides from their father, and Hesperides from their mother Hesperia.
The gardens called the gardens of the Hesperides were said to be guarded by a dread-
ful dragon that never slept. The name of Atlas was given to the chain of mountains
in that part of Africa, and to the ocean on the west. Whether from reference to the
height of those mountains or to the astronomical researches of the king, Atlas is said
to nave supported the heavens ; and accordingly artists have represented him as bear-
ing an immense sphere on his shoulders.

TbmlMNiMDiiitlwSap.PlatoS2. OBmiMnoBaiiMatibB«CBl«ilii«p>«|aotidlaaiimtIar irajr; tocfttiM,MbMid,h*aMiA
AUm of hw banleo.-C& OgUf AnL Ezpl. plats >&.

$ 123. Of all the Grecian heroes, no one obtained such celebrity as Her-
cules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful strength was ascribed to him
even in his infantile j^ears. Earystheas king of Mjcenas imposed upon him
many difficult enterprises, which be carried through with success; particularly
those, which are called the iwehe labon of Hercules. These were : to kill the
Nemaean lion ; to destroy the LemoBan hydra ; to catch alire the Stag with
golden boms ; to catch the Eryroanthean boar ; to cleanse the stables of An-
gias ; to exterminate the birds of lake Stymphaiis ; to bring alive the wild ball
of Crete ; to seize the horses of Diomedes ; to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta,
queen of the Amazons ; to destroy the monster Geryon ; to plunder the garden
of He8peri4es, guarded by a sleepless dragon ; and to bring from the infernal
world the three-headed dog Cerberus.

Th«se various exploits were often made the theme of description and allusion In the poets.
The first is deuiled in the S5th Idyl of Theocritus. The twelve labors are described in IS versen
In the 3d Chiliad of Ttet%*» (cf. P. V. \ 81).— The story of Hercules strangling the serpents while
an infknt is given in the S4th Idyl of Theocritus.

% 124 ti. Many other exploits were ascribed to him, by which he gave proof of his ex-
traordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an avenger and deliverer ot the oppressed.
Such were, his slaying the robber Cacos, so much dreaded in Italy ; the deliverance of
Prometheus, bound to a rock ; the kilhng of Busiris and Anteus ; the contest with
Achelous ; and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less honorable was his
love of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he sank into the most unworthy effemi-
nacy. His last achievement was the destruction of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dyinff
gave his poisoned tunic to Dejanira ; flercules afterwards receiving it from her, and
putting it on, became so diseased that he cast himself in' despair upon a fiineral pile on
mount (Eta.

The worship of Hercules soon became uniTersal, and temples were erected to his
honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great many surnames and epitheta
from his exploits and firom the places of his worship. Hercules and his labors anbrdad
the artists of ancient times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and
they very often employed them.

Two of ths nKMt edcbntod aaliqM ilatiMi npreMOt HareolM ; tbe SnarM^ or BtranleM Mvidere, and tba ArcMto Aomm : eL
F. IV. f 186.6,7. TlwbMcrMpnHBtotaiBlMBiivapMbisdah,uitwMoartarhitlaben. AviowoT llliKifmiBPIatoZLIT.
fif . A, eopied from WlKkflloMOB. As «t|niTinf of (ba Mine it Bites in tta 8ap. FklB tt Tho oUiar nproHBliUoa is Ikii FtaM
•liowt the iDbnt HercolM arnsgliiig tbo Mfpoiit ; fnm an MtiqM •eulptara.

For other prlodpol npraMnletfon of Hntulaa, mo IfoiW/teMsn, lab Eipl. T. i. pi. 10. 141, and 0{rM Aat Eipl. 5a Sl>40.—
Soe aho Laur. Bqctri, Horealea Etbaiooram, ai. var aitfiq. nliqaiii driiaeatai. Col. March. 1TO8. iol.— ibyna Not. ad ApolMor.
p. 325 -7. OwrlUft FnpmDt. d. arduBol. Abbaadl. Qh. Rmalok Mafd. ISOa A.— Ph. Atfrmoim, Qbar d. Myfboi d« Hanklak
Bari. 1810. %.^Dwpui$, Oric. do loM 1« coll. *ol. Il.-Rcaprcfii« tho anciaat wrilon oa (he Mjrthol. of BorcalM,wo JfllOof^ Bkt.
and Antiq. of Dor. Raea. Ozf. 188& toL i. p. 683.

Anoog the variooa lolotloM of tha lUny of Horcalai, fhara b aao whkli yttj iogaaieoriy appliai iho aceoaat of hii twdvo kboca
to the pa«a«e of the na through the twelTC Mgae of the Zodiac. A view of thia b sitcb ia JbUhonU Lenprieie.

$ 125. Theseus, a son of ^gens and ifithra, or according to others a son of
Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to engage in enterprises the
most hazardous, and he successfully accomplished them. Among these was
the extermination of a multitude of robbers and assa^ms that infested Greece,
and especially the destruction of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, tc

p. n. HEROS8. JA80N. CAiTOR ▲ND POLLUX. 135

irltieh the Athenians had preTiously been compelled to send seven male yonth
tod as many young Timns annually, to be devoured by him. By the help of
Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the winding or the
labyrinth, in which the monster had his abode, and put him to death. Ariadne
accompanied him on his return to Athens, bat he ungratefully deserted her on
the island of Nazos.

f 126 tt. The other principal exploits of Theseus were his descent to the lower world
with his friend Pirithous, his victory over the Amazons (^ 116), whose queen Hippolvta
>hecame li^ vrife, and the assistance he gave Adrastus, kin^ of Argos, asainst the The-
baa prince Creon. Great praise was awarded to him for improving the legislation and
the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he was for some time an exile. The
manner of his death is variously related, but it seems by all accounts to have been
caused by violence.

'llie honor paid to him was accompanied with unusual solemnities ; a superb temple

was coDsecrated to him at Athens, and a festival was established called Omua, held on

the eighth day of every month, with games, and a regular sacrifice termed OyMiiw.

I Provifiton was made at the public expense to enable the poor to share in the festivities

I of this occasion.

I Ct Ad. a FtC. Tkn^Dkd. Sic L. It. c 61.-0i>. Mettm. vH. 404 ; tIU. ISB ; zU. SIO^Jfir/orA Greeoa^ eb. L ifet S^rot

t fiiv of the tnpte of TfacMu, we Pbte XXL fi( a.

i 127. Jason and the ArgonauU. One of the most celebrated enterprises of
die heroic ages, one which forms a memorable epoch in the Grecian history, a
sort of separation-point between the fabulous and the authentic, was the Argo-
Bsatic expedition. This was a voyage from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain
the golden fleece, conducted by Jason, the son of £son, king of Thessaly.
The ondertaking was imposed upon him by his nnde Pelias. He invited the
most illustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and among those
who Joined him were Hereule$, Castor and Pollux^ Peleus, Pirithous, and 7V-
ttiit. The vessel built for the purpose was named Argo, which after various
adverse events arrived at ^a, the capital of Colchis, .^etes was then king of
Colchis, and promised to Jason the golden fleece only on certain most difficult
eonditions.

i 128. Althoogh Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet ^i^etes was unwilling
to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay Jason and his com-
panions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, the king^s daughter, by whose
assistance and magical art Jason slew the dragon that guarded the fleece, and
aaized the treasure. He immediately fled, accompanied by Medea, but was pur-
saed By her father. Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse
into pieces and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her flaither's pursuit.
Jason was aderwards faithless to her, and married Creusa, or, as others name
her, Glauce, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took vengeance by
caoaing the death of Creusa and also of the children she had herself bom to
Jason. After death Jason received the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a
temple at Abdera.

Btoli* poena m lh« AffM. Ewpmk by Orpkim, JtpcOoidmMadiiu, and FaUrka Flmm. (C£ P. V. H^S. n,tn.}-auil^,
« ■« ArvM. BapmL ra JAm. A VJkud. du btaar. vol iv. p. 64; xii. 183; xfv. AL—Btgmi Not ad Apdlodor. fi IH.-^ F,
rmttui,wKUtLtitmrdmAitomm,lna»Mmi.4trhtHiiut,C\^f9 d. fttouw Jfer. « M. vol. if.

Varioos expUnationi have been put upon the itory of the Argonauts. One writer thinks the
foUen ile«ce wai the raw tUk nf the East. S*ger, FanlheoD Chinola.— Another thinks the phrase
aroM CroB the babii of collecting gold, washed down from the mountaina, by putting sheepekina
ia the channel of the icreams. Mitford^ ch. 1. eect. 3. — JBryaat (Anal. Anc Myth.) coneidera the
whole ftory as a tradition of the flood.

{ 129. Castor and Pollux, who were among the Argonauts, were twin sons
of Jupiter and Leda, and brothers to Helena. On account of their descent,
they were called Dioaeuri (^coirxovpoc), although, according to some. Castor
was the son of Tyndarus, the husband of Leda. Castor distinguished himself
in the management of horses, and Pollux in boxing and wrestling. The last
exploit of the Dioscuri was their contest with Lynceus and his brother Idas.
Castor was slain by Lynceus, and Lynceus by Pollux : and as Idas was about
to avsDse the death of his brother, Ju|)iter smote him with lightning. — Pollux
obtained from Jupiter the honors of deification and immortality in conjunction
with bis brother Castor. Both were placed among the constellations and re-
pieaented by the Gremini or twins in the zodiac. Both the Greeks and the

136 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOOT.

Romans coDsecrated temples to them, and they were especially inToked and
worshiped by mariners.

1. They were said to be placed among the marine gods, from haying cleared the
Hellespont and the neighbohns; seas from pirates. I'hey were invoked as 'Av6r|moc,
avertert of evil : and while lambs were aacrinced to them.—Tbe Romans honored ihem
especially for services supposed to be received from them in pressing dangers, as in the
battle with the Latins near lake Regillus. 1'hev constantly swore by their names ; the
oath used by the women was JEcaalar^ or by the temple of Castor ; that of the men
was JEdepoU or by the temple of Pollux.

H<priwfcrtBM of CMtor tmi Wto m fcyrf pmkafcriy tm 9am»m iiidii— iH A §m n|ii— «Hin>,<imwii titm » hijff
gm |i«« by MdM, ii MB In mv Bap. rUM 81.

2. The festival called Dioscurin (dum(o6pia) was in honor of these brothers, celebrated
especially by the Spartans. On this occasion the gifts of Bacchus were very freelv
shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor of Castor and Pollux, which
Alexander held in Bactra, that he madly slew his devoied friend Clitus.— This festival
is supposed by some to have had the same origin as the famous mysteries of the Cabirt,
which were celebrated particularly at Samothrace, and were thought to have great effi-
cacy in protecting from shipwreck and storms.

Aa •Dcieat itmehm aow nirii A Sklooici, wMeh m appoMd to bait tan a Cabirlan T»pl« : tm Plata V.--CC O. 8. Htw^
Mjratariai of tta Cabiri. Ort 1801 8 votai a-Awtt, Uf Cabini, b tbc Mtm. Acad. Jmtv. vol. iz*u. p. B

♦ 130 u. Heroet of the Thbban War. In the early history of Greece, the war of
Thebes, which is dated upwards of 1200 years before Christ, is much celebrated.
Without relating its incidents we shall here only name some of the principal heroes of
the time. Among these were Etiocles and Polynices, the two sons of (Edipus, king
of Thebes, whose own private story was so tmgical. The war arose from the dissen-
sion of these brothers, who slew each other in a single combat, and were afterwards
honored as demigods. Several famous chiefs, as Capanetu, Tydeut^ Hippomedon,
ParthefwjHBUt, united with Adnistus, king of Argos and father-in-law of Polynices, to
take part in the war. The events connected with it funiished the poets with matter
for numerous tragedies. — The second enterprise aeainst Thebes, ten years later, was
more fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the sons and
descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore termed the war of the
'Fjniyovot. The most illustrious of these were Alcmeeon, Thersander, Polydorus, and
Thesimenes.

The Tbebftn war wai one of the favorite themes of ancient poeti. JImHmaeknM of Colophon,
a Greek poet, and contemporary with ChoerlluB, wrote a poem In twenty-fdiir books on the sub-
ject ; the fragments have been collected. Cf. P. V. $ 10.— The poem of the Latin poet Scottiw is
still extant. Cf. P. V. ( 378.

Ct Paitt. is. 86.-.«tpoUod. L Z.-Dv)d. \t.-Oaim, Hhfi. Grwcc, ch. i^XU^MIflyt Mjrtbokto-

) 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Arg ives were Involved in contention and calamity, TattU^
Iiu, and his descendants the TantulidtBt were equally afflicted by various misfortunes, ticcasioned
by the impietr of this prince, who was said to be a son of Jupiter, and reigned in Lydia. Being
of immortal descent, be was honored with a visit from the gods durinK an excursion they made
upon earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his guests, he served up among other
meats the limbs of his son Pat^ups, whom he had cruelly murdered. The gods perceived bis

Serfldious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish ; but Ceres, whom the recent loss of ber
aughter had rendered inattentive and melancholy, ate one of the shoulders. In compassion to
the fkte of the young prince, Jupiter restored him to life ; and instertd of the shoulder which
Ceres had devoured, substituted one of ivory, which possessed the property of healing by its
touch all kinds of diseases.

As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalns was condemned In hell Ot M) vvith an insatiable
hunser and thirst in the midst of abundance.— lie had a daughter Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to
her intolerable vanity. She was married to Ampbion, a prince of Thebes in fioBotia ; and having
a great number of children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, who had only two, with over-
bearing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to Apollo and Diana, who (^ 38)
destroyed all her boasted ofTspring except Chlnris (cf ^ 38). Niobe, after the death of her
children, returned to Lydta, and ended her days near Mt. Sipyius ; according to the fables, she
was so shocked at hnr misfortune, that she was changed Into a rock. *' On Mt. Sipyius, accord-
ing to Pausanias, was to be seen a rock which from a distance resembled a woman in deep me-
lancholy, though near at hand it had not the most remote resemblance to one.**

Pblom quitted Phrygia and repaired to Eiis, where he became enamored of Hippodamia, the
daughter of king OSnoinaus; but this monarch, having been informed that he should perish by the
band of his son-in-law, determined to marry his daughter to him only who could outrun him in
the chariot-race ; and those who entered the li«t were to f .rfell their lives if conquered. Un-
daunted at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, he
previously bribed Myrliles, the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed tlie axle-tree of the cha-
riot in such a manner as to break it on tlie course ; and the unfortunate king, being thrown to
the ground, killed himself QSnomaus thus left his kingdom and his daughter to Pelops, who
acquired great celebrity, and gave his name to the peninsula in the southern part of Greece.
Pelops, after death, received divine honors. He had an altar in the grove Allis at Olympia, and
was much revered, even above other heroes (Find. Oiymp. i. 146. Pautan. v. 13). His descend-
ants were called Pelopids. His two sons, Alreus and Thyestes, were celebrated for their mutual
hatred and crimes. But his two grandsons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Jitrid^t acquired a
more honorable renown.

]. U. HER0B8 OF THE TROJAN WAR. 137

% I3S «. Heroes of the TsoJAzr Wae. Of all the ware of Grecian stonr, nono is
more iamoiis than that of Troy, which waa the first military campaign of the Greeks
oat of the limits of their own country. The immediate occasion of it was the seizure
of Heleo, wife of Menelaus, king of Lacedsmon, by Paris, son of Priam, king of
Tnf. The siege continued, according to the common account, including the prepara-
tioD and marches, ten years, with vanous successes and disasters, until at last the Greeks
became masters of the city by strataf^m. The chiefs who were engaged in this enter-
priie acquired the highest renown m Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured
tlieir eyerlasting remembrance. The chief commander was A^amemnon^ and the more
illastrioaa of the heroes with him were AekitteSt Ulyetes, Dumedee, Menelaue, Ajax
ion of Telamont and Ajax son of OUeuej Jdomeneue, and Nestor, On the side of the
Trmns, Hector^ JSneas, and Antenor were among the most celebrated.

The war of Troy was not more memorable in itself than for its consequences. It
paTc a new spring to Grecian culture (cf P. IV. ^ 40). The arts of war were greatly
unproved. Numerous and important civil revolutions took place in most of the states.
But all this pertains to authentic history rather than to mythic tales.

%»m(fmd, ch. L MSL C-OOUar, di. L flL-Ooi. Joum, v. 14, I& tL IK. ix. 606, 6M. svW. UI^-OkoiMilir, BJitofT oT
Tnj. S«f«facDMigiraBiBP.V.f«l7.~,Brywa (in » ni— tHUBB <m Ow wir of lyoy. Load. ITWl 4) im imiitBiMwl thit
ai «fe>b ly* • a Mm fclA^ ■»! Hat tbm anw w« uqr nek waft

% 133. Although the personages specially called Heroes in Grecian story belonged to
the period termed the keroie age (cf. ^ 118) ; yet linder our fourth division of the subject
of Mythology (cf. ^ 10) will properly foil the names of a multitude of personages of
later periods, including Romans as well as Greeks, who after their death were deified
JD the country where they lived, or had become renowned (cf. ^ 88. 2, and 89. 3) for
memorable attainments or achievements. Merely to have been a king or ruler was
enffioent to secure deification among a people fond of the pageantry of superatition.
This servile and impious adulation was particularly practiced by the Asiauc Greeks
towards the successors of Alexander. Mere governors of provinces were sometimes thus
honored. After the Roman imperial power was established, it became a regular cus-
tom (cf. ^ 94) to deify the emperors.

The Ronan aenate made it their baatneos by ■olemn decree to place every deceased emperor
in tbe nonber of ibe gods, and tbe ceremoniefl of bis Apoiheoaia were united with ibose of bis
AmeraL But aa tb« actiona of each one were now foithAilly recorded by history, it was impos-
sible to eonnact with the deified name sacb fabulona and mvsterions tales as to give the divini-
ties, tbaa established by law, much hold upon tbe popular melinia. The list of imperial demi-
Cods, therefore, is of comparatively little Importance in a view of the ancient mythology.
nhdaSeMkn or Ik* OTiivwa, it k my liMy, fan riw to lb« tetf(^iw<<en ^nMi^ piMtlead br tte
fceWIMMnii'g Unw fw Bo-a, *o<rlK tbe ewdbfity betwea Pbpwy and Ffnkm. Load. 17». 4. OthMLIttLa.-
ilasbhJnaltaiMOMirapte. Lo^ 116&. » folh a-Ct OiUoit, DkL aad Fkll, a& eh. liL
■ attaadiiv (ta ApotbMMii, or OphmovI^ Ma P. lU. f ML

18 m9

PLATE XV«.

Gods of the Greeks and Romans, as classed in the preceding Sketch.

L Superior aods.

2, Inforlor Ooda.

3. Mythical Beincs.

Jupiter

Juno

Coelua

8««»l Ood.

Tiuni

Manes

Neptune

Minerra

Sol

pcraliar lo
lb* GfMka
(cC(88)j

Giants

Lares

Apollo

Diana

JBoIui

Pygmiea

Penates

Mkrt

Venua

Plutua

Enyo
> Ergane

Tritons

Satyrs

Mercury

Veata

Afculapitti

Sirens

Fauna

Vulcaa

Cerea

Pan

Coiyilo,&c.
8n«nl Godi

Nymphs

Gorgons

Janus

Rhea

Luna

Muses

Amazons

Saturn

Aurora

Graces

Centaurs

Pinto

Noz

Hours

Minotaur

BacchoM

Iria

(ct58»)j

Seasona

Ctiimcra

Latona

Priapua

Falea

Geryon
Hydra

Themia

Terminua

Furies

Nemesii

Vertumoua

Harpies

Pegasus

Fortuna

Pomona

Winds

Scylla

Fama

Flora

Genii

Ctiarybdli

Feronia

Somnua

Sphinx

Palei, ice.

Mors

Typhon

4. Deified Heroes.

Tnachus

Hercules

Phoroneus

Theseus

Ogyges

Jason

Cecrops

Castor

Deucalion

Pollux

Ampbictyon

■ad

Cadmus

Henn

Danaus

of the

Pelops

TbrtM

and the

Minos

Trcdan

Perseus

mnite.

The Gods as dossed hy the Greeks.

Superior Oods^ eeUtd

MeydXot OtoL
Jupiter Juno
Neptune Ceres
Apollo Diana

Mercury Minerva
Mars Veata

Vulcan Venus

Inferior Ooit, taOod oimpl^ 6co2, siul

oometimea Aal/tovts.
Saturn Aurora T*«^ytblr»i B..

Bacchus Themis
iEolus Luna

JEsculapiua Nox
Helius or Iris
Sol Hebe

above; Tiuu,
Oiaiiti,ae.

TteOodspeenliar
to tb« Onalu

Pluto Tyche mhufBll into

Pan Latona tb« ciui of Do-

Plutus Nemesis

Fama

Demigods, eaUed 'BpitBtou

Ban Ml laa* Tba TtMbaa Haraaa
cbaa, FmciM. aiw—
and all named Capaoens

tJSSL'™"' Tydeus
Heitw. Poiynices

HnvaboKMM. Thersander, fce.

timei Sabim,

Baecbm, So- Tba lVq}aD Eonm

ItM, and ofber are—

lodi are pot. A gamemnon
Achilles
tJlysaes
Dioroedes
AJax, 4kc.

The Gods as classed by the Somans.

Dii Majomm (Jentinin.
I. ConMnUs. X StUetL

Jupiter Saturn

Neptune Pluto

Apollo Sol

Mercury Janus

Mars Bacchus

Vulcan Genius

Juno Rhea

Ceres Luna
Diana
Minerva
Venus
Vesta

Dii Mlnorvm Oentlam.

1. Sentones,

OuardiameTer
imcuiar ob-

JSiT

Pan
Plutus
JSolus, &c.

Henabo

Vertumnas
Terminus,
andiiMMioftha
Ooda mealiar
to ibe RoBBBa
(ef.i8B).
Hera alao tba
Mythical B»
lap(eCf88).

S. Miseaianrij
I or

Virtus

Fides

Honor

Spes

Pietaa

Bellona

Febris

Mephitis

Victoria, &c

8. Peregrini.
Goda froiB Mbar

miioHi u
Mithras
Osiris
Isis

Apis&Mnerls
Sera pis
Anubis
Harpocratea
Canopus, Jcc.

4. Iniigeteo,

orAdKriptitli;

Hercules
Castor
Pollux
JSneas
Romulus or
Quirinus, iae,

Alao deified Enp^

Gods of the Greeks and Romans , as classed according to supposed Residence.

Oelestial.
Jupiter Venns
Apollo Vesta
Mercury Aurora
Mars Iris

Vulcan Hebe
Cupid Psyche

Hymenens Horn
Juno Seasons

Minerva Graces
Diana Muses

Hie Mima aooMliaiai rank-
ed with Om Tenertiial.

TerrestriaL
Terra Pomona

Cybele Pales
Cerest Feronia
Saturnt Pan
Janusi Bileni|S
Bacchus^ Satyrs
Terminus Fauns
Vertumnus Lares
Priapus Nymphs
Flora Penates,&e.

> Buied aometlnea with ttia
CdeMiaL

Marine.
Oceanus Tethys
Neptune Amphitrlte
£oius Matuta

Proteus
Pborcys

Ino or
I^ucothoe

Porlumnus Sirens
Nereus Nereids
Triton Scylla
Glaucus Charybdis
Palemon
Tritons

InfemaL
Pluto Proser-
Charon pine
Minos Nemesis
Rhada- Mors
manthus Manes
^acus Nenlai
Cerberus Parca
Nox Furies

IST

PART III.

GREEK AND SOMAN ANTIQUITIES.

PLATE XVI.

^ ^ •.,! « 1 »»,.-.-- I. • I'

140

GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

Introductiofu

$ 1. GusGiA is by some supposed to have derived its name from Graieus, a
Mm of Thessalus, his descenaants being called Graiei, rpatxoi. The Graici^
howeyer, were ooly a single tribe of the inhabitants, some of whom planted
themselves in Italy. The country originally seems to have had no common
name, comprehendinff properly all its tribes. Grtecia was a name used by the
Konans, not by the mhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas,
from Hellen, a son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pel as^a, Ionia; and the
people were called by the ancient writers Achseans, Argivi, Danai, Hellenes,
Pdasgians, and lonians. These names of the country and the oecnpante,
however, were not employed always in a uniform sense, but seem to have re-
ferred in their general application chiefly to the more important colonies or com-
munities, which originally occupied and peopled the land.

$2/. Greece, in Uie most comprehensive sense of the term, was bounded on
three sides by ^e Mediterranean sea, parts of which were distinguished by the
names of ^gean, Cretan, Ionian, and Adriatic ; and on the nonh extended to
the chain of mountains called Orbelus (cf. P. I. $ 77) separating it from Maesia.
Taken in this extent, it is naturally divided into four parts ; Macedonia; Thes-
salia and Epims ; Hellas; and Peloponnesus (cf. P. 1. $ 76). Taken in a more
limited sense, excluding Macedonia, it was sometimes divided into two parts ;
Gnecia Propria (includmg Thessalia and Epirus, and Hellas^ ; and the Pelo-
ponnesus. In the most limited sense, however, it inclodea merely Hellas,
which is perhaps usually meant by the restrictive phrase Grecia Propria. The
name of Greeks was also applied to the inhabitants of Grecian colonies in
Ana, in Italy, and in Africa.

% 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities which were distinguished
for their power and cultiyation. These were Athens, in Attica; Sparta or La-
cedcmon, in Laconia ; Argos, Myceme, and Corinth, in the territory of Argolis;
Thebes, in Bceotia ; Megalopolis, in Arcadia. The more eminent foreign or
colonial cities of the Greeks were the following ; Miletus and Ephesus in
Ionia; Mitylene, Chios, Samoa, and Rhodus, in the islands near Asia Minor;
Byzantium on the Thracian coast ; Corcyra on the island of that name ; Ta-
rentam, Sybaris, and Locri in Sonthem Italy ; Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela,
and Leontium in Sicily ; Sy rene in Africa. In later times Alexandria in Egypt,
Antioeh in Syria, and Seleucis in Chaldea on the Tigris, were considered as
Grecian cities.

$ 4. The form of govenmient in Greece underwent, in the course of its his-
tory, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic ages, the several tribes
or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their own choice. Subse-
qvently fiuman^tes properly so called were established in Sicyon, Argos, Attica,
Tbeb^ Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, Lacedemon, Elis, iEtolia, ^gialea, or
Achaia. But the Greeks were in the most flourishing condition during the
time of the two republics of Athens and Sparta. — ^The Achaean and Etolian
league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political constitution of ttie Greeks in
Asb Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history.

S 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probably came from Thrace and
who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. IV. $ 33, 34) and the Hellenes,
lived in a very rude state, without any commercial relations or even common
laws. They practiced upon each other constant robbery and violence, and

141

142 ORECIAN ANTiairmEs.

were exposed to frequent attacks from the occupants of the neighboring islands.
Colonies from Egypt, Phcenicia, and Asia Minor, gave the first impulse to their
culture, which was aided by the com mencement of the navigation. The famous
Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the naviga*
tion of this early period, occurring about eighty years before the Trojan war.
About fifty years before the same, the first formal state constitution was adopted,
in Crete, under the direction of Minos; not with the perfection, however,
which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him
Theseus. The people of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet,
and frugal mode of life ; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other
regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory excursions.

$ 6. Hereby was occasioned a more free intercourse between the difierent
people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of common interest,
particularly in reference to murders and depredations. A proof of this was
given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge the injuries of Menelans
(committed against him by Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on
to«rether the war agsunst Troy. This war became a means of the further
advanoement of Grecian culture (ef. P. IV. $ 40), although it was also the
occasion of many troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus
led to the migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi-
nally they became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, law, and
social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and
maintaining social and civil order.

$ 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chieJy of a military charac-
ter; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil head of his people; but
now a more monarchical form was assumed. Soon however the kings abused
their power, and by their tyranny forced their subjects to throw oflf the yoke.
Love of liberty then became the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very
name of king was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a state of
things in which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations.
Throuffh the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence,
the jealottsies and discords which had previously reij^ned were in ^reat measure
allayed. Amphictyon, third king of Athens, had united several of the states in
a sort of confederacy (cf. $ 105), and this compact afterwards became much
more close and strong. An excess of population in this period of tranquillity
and prosperity was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia,
and Africa.

§ 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedseraon enjoyed first the advantages
of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, which however in
some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C.
about 820, the authdrof this code, had previously made himself acquainted with
the manners and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without intro-
ducing any violent changes, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold
regal office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a new
and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very
severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant, and
warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His design
was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in these respects a high pre-eminence
over the other states.

Sae/.jr.F.MnMDvS|am,«i«VerMdisnBrklBni« d. Godiiehf e aad VerftMoaff dieta Stoulb Lripi. I800-ia)& S TIl SL
_Cr. rcfercaoa giTW P. V. f 7. 7(il).

$ 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being advanced in
culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and subsequently acquir-
ing glory and power from the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, she became
more and more jealous of the superiority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mu-
tual animosities and finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was
carried on for eight-and-twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens
and Sparta, and in which almost all the other states of Greece took part on one
side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory did not endure
}ong after this. Athens rose far higher in political and literary character, and

p. m. XNTBODUcnoN. 148

became the rendence of refined mamiMrs, useful knowledge, and culliTated taste
in the arts.

Wm. Tmni^ FoUHai Hiitorj •! Attmm.'-'Tmm. hilo Oanpu. Ldpii ITH. 8L— JOkmten LtUtn, or Ibe cphtohir eonts*
|o«hM»ef aaiffMlor fhckii«flf Penia,nsi4fa« atAOMm dariiif tiM FMopooBMiM ww. hmL 1?Ml tvota. |.-»TnM iato
GoK. bf F. Ante, Ldpc IflOa-AiIIMr, Rke ud hit oT AliMi»^--Cf. P. V. § 7. 7 (d).

$ 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece we are to notice more
particularly in the Archeology of Literature (P. IV. $ 33s8. 6188.), and here
It is only necessary to allude to the causes, which conspired to render Greece
60 eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, besides the highly pro-
pitious climate of the land, its numerous population, whose very necessities as
well as mutual emulation excited and fostered a spiritof activity and invention;
its enjoyment of an encouraging and ennobling liberty ; its commercial inter-
coaxse, and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable
circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to the present day
one of the most remarkable in history, and whose works in literature and art
are still valued as our best models.

$11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the antiquities of
the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their religious, civil, military,
sad domestic institutions and customs. The general utility of such knowledge,
especiallv as an aid in the investigation of history, language, criticism, mytho-
loey, and art, commends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at
alTu classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities,
that, among all the vafious objects of knowledge, the language, literature, re-
ligion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point
of relative importance* Some acquaintance with what is denominated their
Jhiiquitia is essential to enable us to enter much into these subjects, to com-
prehend well their spirit and character, or to contemplate the various mona-
ments of their literature and art in a definite and correct view.

On the utility of the study of classical antiquities, we introduce the following re*
BMrka, abridged, from BoUin (as cited P. II. $ 5u.)~"To a certain extent, this study
ii indispensable for all who make pretensions to education. Without it, there are
anmltiiude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which they cannot understand;
without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in reading history, without
being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily
solve. Like all other studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers.
There is sometimes connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly con-
ducted, which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on
eveiv subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be compre-
henoed. Seneca (de firev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated
uiste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over lo the Romans. Juvenal
also (L. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who reouired that
a preceptor should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand abeurd and ridi-
coloos questions. It is to know very little of tne worth of time, and grossly to mis-
■poly one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of things obscure and
ffifficnlt and at the same time, as Cicero says (Off. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and some-
tines even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the studisnt carefully to shun this
danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is a foolish
and pitiable vanity, which pridee itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior
writers have said ; that such an occupation consumes unprofitably the time and strength
which ought to be reserved for better things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications
of a good teacher, that of knowing how to oe ignorant of certain things is by no means
the least.

After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of antiquities
either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very comprehensive branch
of learning ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pursue important
studies himsell, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of t lie work
sboold dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the read-
i^ of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, little by little, which will
afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only
necessary to make the commencement, to employ tmie profitably, and to note down
<^6ervauons in order and with accuracy.

Most of the topics connected with antiquities mi^ht be embraced under seven or eight
heads : religion ; political government ; war ; navigation ; monuments and public cdi-
nees ; games, combats, shows ; arts and sciences ; the customs of common life, such
u pertaiB to repasts, dress, dtc. Under each of these divisions are included many

144

ORBCIAN ANTIdUrriBS.

•abdiviBionfl. For example, under the head of religion are comprised the gods, priestif
temples, vases, fiimiture, instruments employed in different religious ceremonies, sacri*
fioes, feasts, vows and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other beads.**

amE.K. MSUmmtr, Udmt Fhilolaci^ AltBrOMmwkMMdwfV ud AttarHnnMiwliam. Far Stndireada. J^a. lOT. & pp. 88.
■jcath«atodyof Atkpiitiw. OiL ITOL a— /'Uttnir, wdtad( !•<• S«— SMtboP. IV. !»{ aad woiki dMra

$ 13. The soarees of Greek anti^nitiea are io part the claaaical writers, and
especially the hiatorianB, more particularly such of them as give details of the
whole constitution of Grecian societj, the manners, customs, and modes of
thinking and feeling. Among the classical writers, the poets also must be
considered as sources of information on this subject, especially the epic poets,
whose narrations, notwithstanding their fictitious ornaments, have somd truth
for a basis, and whose representations give much insight into the character and
views of the people of the times. But another important source is found in
the remaining monuments of art; inscriptions, coins, statues, bas-reliefs, gems,
and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible objects, give us a more
distinct and complete conception of many points than could possibly be gained
from mere verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations
of beauty and taste.

^ 13 V. Various modem writers have collected from these sources scattered items of
information, and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gain
a knowledge of antiquities, and apply it to tne study of Greek literature. Other wniera
have investigated particular topics m a more full and extended manner.

L FbruaeeoBBtofwwrfca of both kinds, MS
/. X IhMettBiUbcnphia utiqawk. (Stad. atop. P. tAafff
hmam.) Bimb. 1780. 4. ctp. iL
MMft BcKhnibuoc te, fee. wbkk k cHad bibir (T^ L

JD«H BfeDdboeh dvphitoW. BodMfeaada (Bd. tl. p. SU).
CC Aflw*t lllf. TbHtH JUm.

MmtriPi BiblkilbMa Hbtorica, id. Sd, m dtMl P. V. { 84a
•BOBMntn tlw mrltan M JnitfttOiM.

8. Tte moit importknt eoll«etioo of puticulw trMttan on
OfMk AatiquitiM h Jae. Omumii ThMona Anttqaitiliia
Omeuwb Log. lUL I80T-ITCB. IS voh. fel. Vm. ITH. As
aeoMal of the ooBtfBli it gfran in Iht work of /UKetiM,JiHt
dlid.— A BWM of taluM* miter rtlatiiic to rarioM bruclMi oT
Oiwk AatiqaitiAi, with iltwmiiom taka froni uetMt noan-
■WB(% ii ftMud in MM/nuMsA Aotiq. Bipliq. dted P. IL
§ lS.B(d). An abridcaMBl of Ibii in Qtmn, faf /. /. AKA,
wM poltliriied Nanku 1107. til. with 100 pl*lM.-W« nMy nwo.
Son hm «lM CniliM, Reeoail d« Aati9«itifc Fkr. I7V7. 7 fok 4.
cooliininc Egyptian and ottwr aatiqaltfai, with aaftaTintk—
AkBk J*. .«. nnid, Antiqriidi BtMqnai^ Oracqnaii, •( BomJn.
ftr. 1787. (tola. 4.

a AUMMK tba hart Uanoali and CoBpcnda on tba ad>Jeel
•rathaMtowinf:

Amt*. nokH Aali4iuitat«ni Bowiknram LM It. (od. EL
ante) Afgnt. I74S. 9.

fy.Awt,AtHckAn11qaItiM. Sfbod. Load. 1885i 4.

/a AH. i)E<^, Libri It. Aniiq. GfMana. Lpn. 1708. 4.

LmnA 3ct, Antiq. OnaeaniM, pnedpM AlUoanm, DoKrip*
Ito bmrn (with oba. ot Ltumr and Zmmku). I41& 1787. 9.
(Eng. txtm. by Sloekdala) Lond. 1772. &

aSf. Baoeraunp, Antiq. OfManoi, piadpua Altieanin, Do*
•Oiplle tmrh. Log. BaL 174a 9.

P.RJLNaich, B.«eknib«^dai blaaaclHn,|at«ndimiidMn,
•itdieban, potitiKbeo, kricgwiiban nnd wiMHehafllichaa Tit-
alandMd.OTiedMn,fte. (foftgCMlEt fon /nff^tacO Er£ i7Oi-l80a
S tola, a with a 4th ToL by JHU^ Erl 1806. Ct C/oia.
/mm. T. 10.

P. r. A. ffUadk (WM), Entwnrf dv Orioeb. AlteithOflMr.
Altanb. 1791. 8.

L. Sdiaaf, AntiqnHUn and ArcUokgio dar Griachaa and
RBoMr. (Mn In hii Eneyd. dar Ck» AlttflhnnakV Mafdab.

tasaa

/. HMnmmt Aralwokgk GtMa, or tha Aatlqaitki of
Load. 1887. a

/. Px4Ur, Arehaologk Gneca, or tba Antiqolttaa of OrnaeaL
Oxf. 168B. 8 Tola. 8 —Sana woit, ad. O. Dunter. Ediirik 1880.
~w|ihaddttiawand«melkaibydfi«ttoii. N. Tatk, 1888^ 81
-wHh nolai, nnpip *& by /. Ba^d. OU«g. 1887. It. vainnbk^
itaaa wtnk in Gaman, with addllkoa by J. /. JtenOHlk. Halla.
17T7-7a 8 rak. a

A CMapandina of Gnckn Anriqnltka by C ft nwrtwin.
Beat. 1881. IS.

Abriai dar Ofkeh. nnd RBm. AHarthOmar, von Ckr, FiU£,
BamOm. Skndal, 1881. 18. (ymf briaf).

4. Tte fcUowii« at* not daaignad hr mmmH kit eaMah
highly iniaratii« pktnrM of Otaeian aniiqaHy.

/. Joe. JterfMwny, Voyaga da JCQsa Aaaehank an Gnen. ad
SimaC Fkr. 18Sa 7 Tok 12 -Ei^l. iraad. by IT. MmummU
Land. ISOa CM. P. V. \ l6aL-U Gam. with noka by /. &
JkMr. Barl. 1788. 7 mk a

/. A HoftmrnmH VcrMch ainar KnItaifaKhkhk im
TanMhoHten Vdkanctenan Oriachnknda. LnBfD,»96aBl
i800.8Bdau&

/. D. LtdJtmrt, Inqniiy Into tha CivH, Moral, and Bdigkv
laalltatiaw oT Alhon, te. with tha Topogfapby, and Changr»
phyofAltka— dAthi TnariatedframthaOMnaor^a
JdUOr. Lond. 1848. a

Tha JrJknion Ii(l«*, eitad I a

a Tha kOowi^ work* abo nay btt flonHritod with ad«a»-

Tiana. into E^ (BlMoriaa AnSqaitwa of Greaea) OiC 1887.
4folt.a

NOrt Eaiyi on (ha Inrtitnttoao of tba Oradca.

OiBtci' DiwMifaa on tha Mannan of tba Graaka.

W. JWkcr, Charidai ; Blldar altgriccbiKbar Sitlcn. £p& I94&
8 Tok a with pktah A work illaatfariag tba private Iii> of fhn
andantOraoki.

C. fivmaim, Antiqoiktnn Laonricanm libaiU It. ISnk^
1841. 4.

/. MaUM, BadMrdm rar ki Mcean, l«a Ufagaa, rriigkos,
drile, at mililairai, dca Aaeiem Peupka. Par. 1808. S vola. ^

H. Bam, The PuUk and PHvala lib of tha andcnt TTiiiia
Lond. 188a a

byaj

CO. JfUlfar'rHidary and Antiqaitka of tha Doric Raea 1h>.
byiir.7V«/iidandO.C.Ln0i«. OsL ISSa 8 vak. 8;
inn. JhMe, aiato of 8od«y in tba ifa of BoMT.

p.m.

RELIGIOUS AFFAIIUI IN THE EARLY AGES.

H5

X amk, ^Mhhiwiillw^ to AHNoer. (Ttrariatod lato
tiCli*)PaUieEaaan7arAthnu Land. 1828. S rals. H

Lmtta^ Cabioat Eaerefep. So. striL ■»! lu. <0b Alts
MuMfiKfwn, fee ofGnektiMl Bonua.)

IdViir, I/Apicaltaie Aadaatt te GraOL I^r. 1830. 8.

D. a. fTaH, Jcwnh, Omatil, ud Ckaicd ABtiquitifli ; eoD-
Iniiv aalnlka of flie Scrtptara ■ad Clanieai Reeonte, fram
OrlMii Mrat*. Cub. 180. 8. (eC Bame, bL to Stud. 8.
9Btiptg.iiw1S7).

AbOM Ik. HkL bk. z. Bat tdltioB, New Toik, 18K.

c/.

kWL L(!i.l8n.8.

McltodP.n.)l9Lt(e).

A Dami, Dktiomrf of Omk and BonaD JtaMiqaitiM. Lob&
1700.4.

A Prntif, B«al-EiM7do|*lia to diahdiw lltettliinairto>
•fOMlnflaa. Btnllf. 1888L ooamianead.

FoOroU, Eacyclopadia of Aotiqailka, ClMtical aad Madia*
nl. Load. 189& 3 fda. ^ wiUi plaia.— Abo Load. 184a
1 Toi. luge 8.

IFISniMtOieUoMfyarGnakaadltaMBAiiliiiDltba. UuL
1842. lar|«8l my viUnbl*.

& Additloiial rafbvncaa on partlcalar lopia iriU ba gtranv
wtbc topwi occur in tlw bllowinf actkoa.

i 14. The sabject of antiqaitiee cannot be treated in so strict accordance with
chronological order as the events of history, because the sources of information
aie not sufficiently minute. But still in describing the antiquities of a people*
one should not lose sight of the influence which political revolutions, the pro-
gress and decline of refinement, and other circumstances, have exerted at suc-
cessive times upon the constitution, manners, and whole national character and
social state. Most writers have not been sufficiently mindful of this, and have
also confined themselves chiefly to the most flourishing of the Grecian states,
lit. Athens, and so have described Mie, rather than Grecian antiquities. In
order to avoid this double fault in the present sketch, the antiquities of the ear-
Hn and less cultivated times will be distinguished from those of a later and
more enlightened period ; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was
tben the most important and most eminent, we shall also notice the constitution
nid pecaliarities of the other principal states.

I. — Of the earKer and len euUtvai^d Jge».

$ 15. It has been already snggested ($ 5, $10), that Greece advanced with
▼ery rapid step from a state of extreme rudeness m manners and morals to the
highest dc^pree of refinement The history of this process ihay be divided
into three distinct periods. The^a^ extends from the onginal state of barba-
nam to the time of the Trojan war ; this was the period of the peopling of
Greece : the second extends from the capture of Troy to the time of Solon, the
period of the rise and formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs : the
third extends from the age of Solon, to the time when the Greeks lost their
liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (cf. P. Y. $ 9), the period of their
greatest perfection and glory.

Under the present head it is proposed to notice what pertains more partieu-
larlv to the first and second of the above-mentioned periods ; and the subject
will be considered in four general branches, viz. religioust civile military ^ and
domtilic aflfairs.

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS.

i 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the Greeks, their
nli^ion had no fixed or steady form : yet a great part of the popular belief
originated in these times, which on this account have been called the mythical
ages or fabulous period. The formation of this early popular faith was aided
by the general ignorance, the predominance of sensual ideas, and the natural
tendencies of the mind in an uncultivated state of society (P. II. $ 5u). With
the progress of social and moral culture, the traditions and fables grew into a
sort of system, which was retained as a religion of the people, and augmented
and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mythology.

According to common accounts, Greece received new and belter religious
Dotions from Thrace, by Orpheus, B. C. about 1250 (cf. P. V. § 12, $ 48^
19 N

146 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

They were, however, chiefly of Egyptian origin. The worship of animals the
Greeks never adopted; but they embruced in common with most of the ancient
nations, the worship of the stars, that early form of idolatry. They also prac-
ticed the custom of deifying and worshiping men (P. II. § 118), who were
styled heroes, having distinguished themselves by making new discoveries,
establishing useful laws, or performing renowned exploits.

Ob IIm reiif low aflkin of OrMoa, w 0*7 ivAnr to /. O. Lakemachtr, Antiqaitata Oneeorain ncnk Hdintt. 1744. >.— CAr.
BrUntngii^ ConpendittiD Aaliq. Giac • prehai* ncnram. Fnacof. 1718. ^.—Mitford, Hm. Gnec cfa. U. MCt I.— FjueVr, air
U relifioa des Graci, in lb* Mem. Aeai. hutr. ? oit. xulv. xur. juxvi. zsxTiii. kad uxiz.— tJnl. Fan Jtaic, Dia. ile OripBC
•e Prostma IdoUirla et Sapcnliliooaa. AnnL lOM. 4.

^ 17 tt. Religious study and instruction among the early Greeks was the business of
their wise men, lawgivers, and poets, who were mostly at the same time priests. I'be
matter of these was confined cntefly to the dogmas and narratives of Theogony and
Cosmogony, which were of a mixed character, hibulous and allegorical, but based upon
some real appearances in nature and man. The various operations of the powers of
nature and the movements of human passions, were the principal foundation of the
tales and doctrines of the mythology. The origin of things, their vicissitudes and trans >
formations, their nature, tendency and effects, were the subjects ; and those were, by
a lively fancy, changed into supposed or imaginary persons^ to whom words, acrions,
and appropnate attributes were ascribed. The regular combination or assemblage of
these in order was called the Theogony, or account of the origin and descent of ih<t
gods. This constituted the whole theory of religion, which one of the most ancient of
the Greek poets, Hesiod, reduced to a sort of regular form in his poem styled the 1*lie-
ogony, and all the principal elements of which Homer interwove in his two epic poemft,
the Illiad and Odvssey. (Cf P. V. ^ 50, ^ 51.)

^ 18 u. In the first ages the wise men, and especially the poets, made great exertions
to imbue the minds of the people with reverence for the gods and respect for their wor*
ship. On public solemnities, and in great assemblies of the people, thcv were ac-
customed to adapt their songs to this object. Even when the subject of these songs
was not the history of the gcxis, nor any point of direct reli^ous instruction, they were
opened by a prayer to Jupiter, Apollo, or some in.spiring deity. In this way theV fixed
and strengthened a prevailing faith in the power and providence of the gods, and
formed the first ideas of right, virtue, and morality, and of future rewards and punish-
ments. The songs of these poets constituted at first the chief means and subject of
the instruction of the young. Hence arose on the one hand the great influence of i heir
poetrjr on the moral culture of the Greeks, and on the other hand the great admiration
m which the early poets were generalljr held.

^ 19 M. For an account of the principal Grecian deities, their na^es, rank, history,
attributes, and mode of worship, we refer to the portion of this work which treats of
Mythology (P. II). Here we only remark, that the number of the Grecian gods con-
stantly increased with the progress of time, yet the highest and most distinguished of
them were introduced and honored in the early ages, and it was chiefly in the class of
heroes or demigods that this augmentation took place, after the lapse of ihe heroic
ages, and by means of oral traditions. I'he more extensive the services of these heroes
were while living, the more general was the reverence for them after death, while
those, whose beneficial influence had been confined chiefly to a particular city or tribe,
were deified chiefly by the same, and received a less general homage and worship.

$ 20. The sacred places, which were specially dedicated to the gods in these
early ages, were in part, fields and grounds, whose produce was devoted to
uses connected with religious worship ; partly groves and particular trees, the
former being commonly planted in a circular form; and partly, at length, iem"
pks^ which were viewed as the seats and habitations of their respective gods.
The temples were usually in the cities near the market or place of public busi-
ness, although they were sometimes erected in the country, and in the conse-
crated groves. The ground, on which they stood, was usually elevated either
by nature or art, and their entrance or front was commonly towards the east.
Some of them were dedicated to a single deity, others to several. It was not
uncommon to place the name of the god, to whom the temple was sacred, in a
brief inscription over the entrance.

§ 21. Originally the interior of the temple was entirely vacant, after the
Egfyptian manner, even without the imag^ or statue of its god. And in the
earliest times the image of a god (cf. P. IV. § 156. 2) was nothing but a mere
stone, which served to represent the deity, and to which ofTerings were brought.
This was the primary origin of altars. By degrees, these stones came to be
formed into a human shape, after which it was more common to place statues

p.m. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 147

(nyoi/iara) of the ^s in their temples. The posture was sometimes stand-
ing, sometimes sitting. The material, at first employed, was of no great value,
bemg stone, wood, or clay. There were, however, in the heroic ages, images
of the gods of a more costly substance, such as ivory, brass, silver or gold,
although Homer never exactly describes the material.

$22. The care of the temples and holy things was intrusted to the priesis
and prteslesses. The number of these varied in different cases, and depended
generally upon the rank of the deity, on whose temple and worship they
attended. The marriage state was not forbidden them, although it became
afterwards customary to take priestesses mostly from persons unmarried, who
either were obliged to perpetual celibacy, or remained priestesses only until
marriage. In some instances the priesthood was hereditary ; but in others it
was adopted in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests was usu-
ally near the temple, or the consecrated grove, often within the limits of the
latter. They derived their subsistence from what was offered to the gods, and
were often in easy circumstances. Generally the office was highly honored in
the early ages of Greece, and was held, in part at least, by the noblest and
most distinguished personages, sometimes even by kings.

$ 23. Some of the principal rifes and sokmniiiet pertaining to the religious
worship must here be mentioned. Among these were hulraliona (xo^of/toi,
dvrttf/(ot\ which consisted in the ablution of the body, and a certain purification
or the clothes, and of sacred utensils. For this purpose salt water was used,
which was taken from the sea, or prepared by a solution of salt in common
water. Sulphur and fire were also used on these occasions. These purifica-
tioQS were considered as especially necessary for those who were defiled by
murder and blood, and even for the places where such crimes had happened.
They were oflen ordered for the propitiation of offended deities.

$24. But prayers and sacrifices were the most essential parts of Grecian
worship. The former were put up, especially, when some important enterprise
or undertaking was commenced ; the object of the prayer being to secure a
happy issue, in case of which very rich gifts were promised to the gods by the
sappiicant. Both prayers and vows were termed ivx^^* In making them, the
eyes and hands were raised towards the heavens, or in the temples directed
towards the images. The posture was sometimes standing, sometimes kneel-
ing (ywvQ^io^h ywvftsfHv) ; the latter was used especially in case of earnest
desire or peculiar distress, and often by the whole assembly in common.

1. Supplicants usually had garlands on their heads and necks, and green boughs of
olife or laurel (^oXXoi or xXaiot ucriipun) in their hands. In the boughs wool was placed
vithout tying, and ihey were hence called sometimes arifiuaTa. With these boughs the
sapplicanta touched the knees, sometimes the cheek, of the statue of the god addressed
in their pravers.

2 u. With the prayers were usually joined the libations, or drink offerings, <m>v6&t,
called also XoijSot, xoai. These consiBied generally of wine, part of which was poured
out in honor of the gods, and part of it chunk by the worshiper. The wine must be
pare (axparov), and ofiered in a full cup. Sometimes there were libations of water
(i^|p6esoK'a). of boney {^wvovieC), of milk {yaKaKT6anoif6a), and of oil {^tKai6txvovia),

la Plate XX. we have the representation of a prieaten in the act of pouring out the libation ;
ia thti instance the liquid is poured upon the flame kincped on the altar; also in Plate XX VH.
fig. C. which is taken from Moaet, Antique Vases.

S 25. The sacrifices, ^fftot, originally consisted merely of incense, ^oj, or
some sort of fragrant fumigation, by cedar, citron wood, or the like. In very
eariy times, the fruits of the earth, in a crude, unprepared state, were offered ;
and subsequently, cakes, oi/kcu, baked of coarse barley, or meal mixrd with
salt. It was not until a somewhat later period, that the slaughter of living
victims was introduced. These victims were selected with great care. At
first, bullocks, sheep, goats, and swine, were chiefly taken for the purpose.
Afterwards certain animals became specially sacred as victims appropriate to
particnlar gods. Sometimes a single victim was sacrificed, sometimes several
at once, which were often of the same kind of animal, and often also of differ-
ent kinds. The hecatomb Qxa/tofi^) properly consisted of a hundred bullocks

148 GRECIAN ANTldUITIES.

or oxen ; yet neither tlie number nor kind of animals was very precisely le*

garded.

The origin of saerifiut if an intereflting and Important theme. Borne flippant and laperflelal
wriiera aicribe tbeni wholly to m«re superstition and priestcraft. Others attempt In a more
•erious manner to explain their existence by human origin. Several theories have been pro*
posed ; one Is, that they were at first ff^flMy a natural expedient for procuring the favor of the
gods; another, that they were federal ritett drawn f^om men*s eating and drinking together in
token of friendship, and hence the sacrificial banquet (cf. (97); a third, advanced by Warburton
(in his Divine Legation of Moses), Is that they were gfmbolietU a«et#M, expressive of gratitude
in some olTerlngB, and in others, of the acknowledgment of sin and contrition through the death
of an animal representing the death deserved by the worshiper. But a fourth account, which
refers them to a divine iascfttceun, is more satisfactory. The Bible represents the Hebrew sacri-
fices as typical of the death of Christ as the great atoning sacrifice for sinners. (Cf. Ep. to heb.
ix. and X.) On supposition that God, when he promised a Redeemer to Adam, Instituted some
menwrial and type, in an animal taerifieey It Is easy to see how by tradition the practice of offering
■acrifices should be univereal.— The subject is well diacusaed by fV. Magea^ Dissertations on tha
8criptural Doctrine of Atonement and Sacrifice. N. York, 1813. 8.— Cf. Ji. A, Sykea, Essay on the
Sacrifices. Lond. 1748. 8.

$ 26. The altars (fitafwC), on which the sacrifices were presenteilf were erected
not only in the temples, but often in open places, as on the banks of rivers,
on mountains, in groYes, and the like.

The altar seems to have preceded the temple ; and, in the opinion of some, gave rise
to the temple, as suggested in the following passage.

'Throughout the whole of the Iliad no mention ocenrs of a temple in Greece, except In the
second book, evident! v incidental, and the interpolation of some vainlv patriotic Athenian rhap-
sodlst. The passage indeed might be condemned on the grounds of philological discussion, bai
it contradicts both the history of art and of religion in that country. In Troy, the temple of
Minerva appears to have been a mere shrine, in which a statue was Inclosed, and probably. In
Tenedos, a temple of Apollo is merely alluded to. During the age of Homer, then, the primeval
altar, common to both Europe and Asia, was the only sacred edifice known. This differed little
from a common hearth ; the sacrifice being in fact a social rite, the victim, at once an offering to
heaven, and the food of man, was prepared by roasting ; the first improvement on their simple
construction appears to have been the addition of a pavement, an obvious means of cleanliness
and comfort. Yet even this appears to have constituted a distinction not common, since. In par-
ticular instances, the pavement is mentioned as a peculiar ornament. Subsequently, in order
to mark In a more conspicuous manner, and with more dignity, the sacred spot, while the ritea
should be equally exposed to the spectators, an open colonnade was added, inclosing the altar
and pavement. Thus the roofless temple might be said to be finished ; but whether this prime-
val structure existed In his native country during the age of Homer does not appear. We
remark here a very striking resemblance between the ancient places of devotion in Ureece and
the Druldical temple of the more northern regions. In Act, the aitonishing remains at Stone-
henge present the best known, and perhaps one of the most stupendous examples ever erected
of the open temple. This species of religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with
the spread of the human race, and not, as generally supposed, limited to the northern portion
of the globe."— ^emeir, Hist, of Sculpture, &c. p. 333, as cited P. IV. $ 160.

$ 27. Among the eeremoniea connected with offering a sacrifice, was the pre-
vious washing of the hands ($ 67. 2) and the sprinkling, by the priests, of those
who were present, with sacred water {zh^^)* 1*h®n was placed upon the
back and head of ihe victim, in early times, unground barlev, in later times, a
number of small cakes (^o^tava, 6ta6;tvf a)* oflen meal mixed With honey, wine,
or oil ; a little hair torn from the forehead of the victim was then thrown upon
the fire ; next followed the prayer and libation ($ 34. 2) ; then the priest, or the
»^pv$, smote tlie animal on the head with an ax or club, and cut its throat with
a sacrificial knife ((t^a/yii)* The blood was received in an appropriate vessel
(tf^Kftyctov). The victim was then flayed and cut in pieces. The next thing
was to cover the haunches or thighs (/is^poJ) with caul or fat {xvCaerj)^ and to
take small pieces from other parts of the animal and place upon them {tifi^ftilv).
Upon the portions thus prepared, wine was commonly poured, and they were
then placed on the altar and burned. The rest of the victim was usually
roasted on spits, and eaten at the sacrificial banquet. Banquets of this kind
were made especially on the sacred festivals.

$ 28. Besides the sacrifices properly so called, it was common to bring to
the gods other gifts and offerings (dJIpa, nva^ftata)* Amon? these, were
crowns or garlands {(Sti^vo^, ati^os)^ ^i^h which the temples, altars, and sta-
tues were often adorned, and which were formed of the leaf sacred to the par-
'acular god to whom they were offered : e. |. of try, for Bacchus ; of ooft, for
Jupiter. Curtains and vestments iHipirCtxacfiatth ftspovfj/M^a) wrought with
rich embroidery were brought and placed upon the statues or hung in the tern

p. m. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 149

pies. Vessels of gold, siWer, and brass were also offered, and tripods (t-ptrtoS* j)
especially to Apollo. The spoils of war were often thus consecrated, dxpo^tVio,
with shields and arms. Frequently the articles dedicated to the gods were
marked by inscriptions stating the occasion and circumstances of their dedica-
tion. From the custom here described, arose the great riches of some of the
Grecian temples.

The temple of Apollo at Delphi, particularly, became in the course of years pos-
seseed of immense wealth.

to JfU/«A HIA Greto^ dk nxTii. Hd. 1 ; du zzxrllL icet I ; ch. uxiz. Met. S.—Bmtenjei Htntu, p. 201, u cited P. V.
} 7. 8.— Ai FateiMf Lc« richf h du leapl* d« Delplm, in tbe Jfcm. Jead. truer. iiU.78.

$ 29. In addition to the worship rendered the gods, there was a worship of
the heroes as demigods (§ 16), which however was neither so general nor
attended with so much ceremony. These had no festivals, properly speaking,
bat an annual funeral solemnity (ivaytcj^a), and were viewed as tutelary guar-
dians of their country, tribe, or family. On these solemnities, the drink offer-
ings (x^) were in common practice; not only wine was used for the purpose,
but o&n milk, and even blood. Sometimes victims were slain, and various
offerings presented, and from these a trophy (t'pOTtacoy) or a funeral pile, was
constrocted. In some cases, the iBrst fruits of the season were offered. The
usual place of such solemnities was the tomb of the hero, in whose memory
they were held, near which it was customary to erect an altar; often also to
make a pit or hole (^^o$, xaxxo^), which had reference to their dwelling in
the under world. rCf. P. II. § 32.)

S 30. Funeral solemnitiea were generally a part of the religions usages of the
more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediately on the death of an indi-
vidual, in the formal closing of his eyes {pvyx'Knnv f ovj 64>^X/aoi;j), a ceremony
usually performed by the nearest kinsman. The corpse was then washed and
anointed, clothed in a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier ^xixfpoi/,
^'pcrpov). Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the
faneral lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed for
the occasion, and accompanied by mournful notes of the flute. The mourners
also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair* and casting it upon the
corpse. These ceremonies were continued, not always the same length of
time, sometimes three, sometimes seven days, and joften a greater number.

$ 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the Greeks, as
the £^ptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. In the earliest times
intemng was practiced by the Greeks, although Homer Speaks only of
burning.

1 «. After the completion of the bewailings just described, the corpse was borne on
a bed or bier lo the appointed place, where a funeral pile (it€>^) was erected. Near
this, faneral sacrifices were slam. Upon the pile were placed various objects, which
had been particularly valued by the deceased, even animals, and sometimes human
beings previously put to death. During the burning, the attendants uttered their wail,
ings and funeral chants. The flame was finally extinguished by pouring on some
liquid, and the ashes or remaining bones were collected by the nearest relative, and
deposited in an urn, which was buried in the earth. The place of interment was
marked by stones and a mound 0(]t^a), on which was commonly raised a pillar (ornXj?),
or other monument, with an inscnption. The ceremonies were ended with a funeral
repast {ytxpaUatvov, vtpiUtino*). Sometimes games were celebrated in honor of the
deceased.

2. It is stated, that among the Thracians wives were burned on the funeral piles of
their husbands ; a custom which is still prevalent in India, although the influence of
Christianity is breaking it up in the portions of the country subject to England.

$ 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we should notice
their regard to oracks and to divinations. The most ancient of the oracles was
that of Dodona ; that of Delphi was still more celebrated, and also of early
origin. The practice of divination and the interpreting of signs was a business
of the priests in particular. It was done partly by observing accidental
occurrences, as the flight of birds, or the breaking of thunder, in both of which
the right side indicated good fortune, the observer having his face directed to the
north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of victims. Sneezing was re«

150 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

garded as a favorable prognostic. We may mention also the prophetic inter-
pretation of dreams, and the belief of the multitude in magic, and in bodily
metamorphoses, which they supposed to afford various means of aid and pro-
tection.

The religioxisfesiwals were numerous and attended with various ceremonies.
— But on each of the topics mentioned in this section, we shall speak more
particularly again. (Cf. §§ 70-77.)

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS.

$ 33. It has been already remarked ($ 5), that the first inhabitants of Greece
lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any social compact. The
family relations, the authority of the parent over the child, of the husband over
the wife, exhibited the only traces of government. Phoroneus, a son of Inachus,
is mentioned as the first author of association for civil purposes. Gradually
the Greek tribes began to select leaders, who were called kings Q3owjcX«4f)»
however limited might be the extent of their dominion or authority. Ihe choice
most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe or country some
distinguished and meritorious service ; and then the dignity became hereditary,
a thing rather rare, however, in the earlier ages. Sometimes the choice was
determined by consulting an oracle, and in such case the authority was viewed
as the more rightful, and as sanctioned by the gods.

Ob tba luigcct oT the civil allaira of (be earfy Greeks, we my refer to F. fV. TtltmoMn'i DuetelliiBg der srieehiKh. SUaliverfi^
tmgn. LwpB. I8SL ^—MUford, ch. ii. mcL S ; eb. iv. lecL 4.— See § 9S.

$ 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being despotic, or
unlimited ; the leaders and princes being bound by certain laws and usages.
The principal duties of these chiefs were to command in war, to settle disputes
between the people, and to take care of the worship of the gods. Valor, love
of justice, and zeal for religion, were therefore rocKoned among their moat im-
portant excellences. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands was
assigned, the cultivation of which they superintended themselves. Certain
taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were increased in time of war.
The signs of their office were the scepter and diadem. The former ((jx^rtf pov)
was usually of wood, and in length not unlike the lance ; the latter {6idbrifia)
was a sort of bandeau or head-band, rather than a proper crown. The general
costume of these kings was distinguished by its richness, and was commonly of
a purple color.

In ancient times, one of the tokens of office and rank always was something attached
to the head ; a wreath, cap, crown, or the like. A metallic crown was common.
David is said to have had a crown of gold with precious stones, of the weight (meaning
probably of the value) of a talent (1 Sam. xii. 30). Athenaeus mentions a crown, made
of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on the throne of king Ptolemy.

In oiir Plate XVI. fi^. C, we have a curioui golden crown, which Is mid to have been found
in lome part of Ireland, in 1G93, about ten feet under ground. Near it in the Plate, fis. a, is an an-
cient Abyssinian crown ; on the other side, fig. A, is the covering seen on the bead or a conquered
prince or general upon Egyptian monumenis.— In Plate XXIV. fig. 6, we have ihe JUtel and korm
worn by governors of provinces in Abyssinia. " A large broad fillet,*' says Bruce, ** was bound
upon their forehead and tied behind their head. In the middle of this was a conical piece of silver
about four inches long. It Is called kirn or born, and is worn especially in parades after victo*
Tie:*'— Bnue, Travels, &c. as cited P. IV. $ 118. I.

$ 35. The court and retinue of the first kings was very simple and unimpos-
ing. In war, they usually had by tlieir side a friend, who served as a kind of
armor-bearer. Both in war and peace, they employed heralds (xijpvxc;) in the
publication and execution of their orders. The heralds also imposed silence,
when the chiefs wished to come forward and speak in an assembly. The same
officers assisted in religious ceremonies, and were present in the forming of
treaties. — ^The kings also selected councillors, of the most distinguished, ex-
perienced, and brave of the people ; and in cases of doubt or difficulty, held
with them consultations and formal assemblies, in which the speaker was
accustomed to stand and the rest to sit. Both public and private affairs were
discussed in these assemblies.

$ 3G. The courts of Justice were in public places; and the whole assembly

p. III. CIYIL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AOE8. 151

usually presented the form of a circle. The judges sat upon seats or benches
of stone ; the men selected for the office were such as were much respected on
account of age and experience. They bore in their hand a scepter or staff.
The cause was stated orally by the contending parties themselves, and by them
the wimesses were brought forward. The kings or chiefs presided in th^8e
jadicial assemblies, sitting on an elevated seat or throne. For a period, equity
and precedent or usage formed the basis of all decisions ; but afterwards, the
coarts had for their guide particular laws and statutes, which were first intro-
doced by Phoroneus, and more extensively by Cecrops.

$ 37. As the laws in the more ancient times were few and simple, so were ,
the punishments. But few crimes were made capital. Murder was commonly
punished by banishment, either voluntarily sought by the murderer, or expressly
decreed by public sentence; its duration, however, was but a year, and even
this could sometimes be commuted for a fine. The privileges of asylum be-
longed only to the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was
punished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very fre-
quent in the early times of Greece, and originally were not considered as cri-
minal, while the right of the stronger was admitted, especially if shrewdness
and cunning were united with the meft. Nothing therefore was aimed at but
to recover what had been taken, or to inflict vengeance by a corresponding in-
jarj. Afterwards, however, particular punishments were imposed for these
offences.

$ 38. In as much as the inhabitants of Ci'ete were connected with the Greeks
by their having a common language, it is important to mention the Cretan laws,
which were introduced by Minos. They are said to have been the most ancient
written code, and were afterwards taken by Lycurgus as models. Military
valor and union among the people seems to have been their great aim ; every
ordinance of Minos was directed to promote strength of body, and to cultivate
social attachment between the members of the state. In order to impart greater
dignity and authority to his laws, he brought them forward as having been re-
vealed to him by Jupiter. But the moral culture was not greatly advanced by
institntions having their primary and chief reference to a state of war.

1 39. In the progress of time, the form of government among the Greeks
underwent many changes, and at length became wholly democratic. The most
celebrated of the states were Athens and Sparta. Of these in particular a few
important circumstances respecting their government in the more early ages are
here to be mentioned.

Athens was ori^nally governed by kings. The power of these kings was
more unrestrained in war than in peace. After the death of Codrus (1068 B.C.),
it becanae a free state. The chief authority was given to officers styled
*1rchom, who ruled for life. Thirteen archons of this description succeeded
each other, all descended from the family of Codrus. After tne time of these
(753 B. C), the office of Archon ceased to be for life, and was limited to ten
years, and was held by a single person at a time. After a succession of seven
Archons of this kind, the office was made annual (684 B. C), and nine Archons
were appointed to rule jointly, not all, however, of the same rank. — ^The civil
government experienced changes under Draco, and others still greater under
the distinguished legislator Solon, and in after times.

{ 40. Sparta was also originally governed by kings. Enristhenes and Pro-
eles, the two sons of Aristodemus (one of the Heraclidse that invaded Pelo-

Eonnesus), reigned jointly, but not harmoniously. Under their descendants the
ingly office lost much of its authority. Lycurgus, the famous Spartan la\^
giver, changed greatly the form of government ; it did not become democratical,
neither was it, properly speaking, aristocratical. Two kings remained at the
head, and a senate was established consisting of twenty-eight men, who were
above sixty years of age. There was also the body of five Ephori, appointed
annually. The people themselves likewise had some share in the administra-
tion of the state. Notwithstanding many internal divisions and disturbances,
this Jtate enjoyed a long period of comparative rest and liberty. This it owed

152 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

very much to the wise regulations of Lyruraus, th«* salutary influence of which
was aided by the limited territory and mockirntB population uf Lacedaemon.

§ 41. One of the most effectual means of advancinor ihe Greeks was their
commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the earliest times, com-
merce consisted chiefly m barter and reciprocal exchanges of native products,
the use of gold not being introduced. Afterwards pieces of metal of different
values were employed. (Cf. P. IV. $ 94.) Navi^tion became more common
after the Trojan war, and jEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce.
Corinth and Rhodes became most distinguished in this respect. The commerce
. of Athens finally became something considerable; that of Laced«mon on the
other hand always remained comparatively unimportant. — On the whole, it is
worthy of remark, that the extension of commerce and maritime intercourse
had an important influence upon the civil and moral culture of the Grecian
states. (Cf. P. IV. $ 40.)

jt. Andtrion, Historical an! Chmoologkal IMoetioB of 111* Origin of CoaioierM^ rraai ttia aulifat Mcoualt ; with Appcadix bf
CoemU Dubl. 1790. 6 nh. 8.

** Commerce, in the Homeric ago, appears to have been principnlly in the hands of
the Phenicians. The carrying>trade of the Mediterranean was early theirs, and Sidon
was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not without trnilic carried on
by sea among themselves ; but the profession of merchant had evidently not in Homer's
time that honorable estimation which yet, according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early
period in Greece. While it was thought not unbecoming a prince to be a carpenter to
supply his own wants or luxuries, to be a merchant for gain was held but as a mean
employment ; a pirate was a more respected character.

Navigation had been much practiced, long before Homer, in small open vessels,
nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean ; and the poet gives no him of
any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which nearly surrounded Greece,
are singularly adverse to improvements upon that vast scale whi(*h oceans require, and
which modern limes have produced. Broken by innumerable heridlands and islands,
with coasts mostly mountainous,' and in some parts of exiraordlnary height, the Gre-
cian seas are beyond others subject to sudden and violent storms. These united cir-
cumstances, which have made the Greeks of all a<re8 excellent boatmen, have contri>
bated much to prevent them from becoming seamen. The skill and experience of the
pilot, in the modern sense of the term, are constantly wanted ; the science of the
navigator is of little avail ; even the compass is comparatively useless in the JEgetin.
The Mediterranean vessels now, not excepting the French, which are mostlv navigated
bv Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. The English
alone, accustomed in all their surrounding waters to a bolder navigation, commonly
venture in the Archipelago to work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in
Homer's time ; but the art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's de-
pendence was Ilia oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so land-locked, yet
so tempestuous, the greatest danger was to the stoutest ship. Light vessels, which
inrilh their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make way in calms,
uid, on any threatening appearance, find shelter in shoal water or upon an open beach,
were what Grecian navigation peculiarly reouired. The Phenicians, for their com-
merce, used deeper ships, accommodated to their more open seas and longer voyages."
Mitford.

III. MILITARY AFFAIRS.

§ 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the earljr Greeks as of the greatest
merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. The first inhabitants
were distinguished for their warlike inclinations and habits of life, although
their wars were conducted without much method or discipline. They were
constantly in arms, not only to defend themselves and their property, but to
attack and plunder others. Thus they perpetrated violence, murder, and de-
ifestation in the extreme. It needed but a trifling occasion to excite a general,
long, and bloody war; the siege of Troy furnishes a striking exam])le. In
such cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant provinces,
dnited as in a common cause.

Od Oraeian military ■ffiiii*, «• / 7. J7. AM, Einleitimf ia i'n gTi«chitcbM Kriegnlterthamer. Sluttg. ITKX !L a valaaUa
work OB th« geoeral ratjccL^Aln^ 0. 0. 8. Xttplu, Qber daa KriofiireiMm der Oriecten im faeniKlken ZeltaHw, kc. Bert. 1807. 8.
d. Clam. /<wm. be 1 1.— C Oubomd^ M&meArm mtlitalrai nr l«i Gract «t rar \m Rooiaioa. I^ Ha7f>, 1758. 4. It eontain ■
liaBriatioBof OnoMiicfar(d:F. V. |S1}, aal plaa of mnim ueiat l«ttlM,*e. Ct { 37&>-GanMr, m dl«d ( M^ATiVorA
likt ch. IL iKL a, 4.

p. m. MILITART AFFAIRS OF THB EARLIER AGES. 153

i 43. The Grecian armies consisted partly of foot-soldiers and in later times
of horsemen, partly of such as were borne in chariots. The foot-soldiers were
distinguished as light armed (4tx6&) and heavy armed (o^OtVcu). The Thessa-
lians were early and especially celebrated for their cavalry {Ittrtsli). Still more
ancient was the use of war-chariots, which were employeid by the heroes of
Homer. Two horses, sometimes three, were attached to these chariots ; each
cootained two warriors, one of whom miided the horses {'^ioxos), while the
other pointed out the direction {Ttapat^afrji), discharged arrows, hurled missiles
from a sling, or fought with short arms, and when the action was close sprang
from the chariot (j^po^). Notwithstanding the inconyenience of these vehicles
in battle, they were in use for a long time, before cavalry came to be generally
substitated in their place.

Iv the 8«p. Plate 10 to seen a war eharlot with three borses and two penona; BeUona acting
u charioteer, white Jfers to hurling the Javelin.

i 44. The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, defensive and
offennvt. Among the former (obt^liyfrpto, rt^^fjwta) was the helmet {xxfviij,
xpotvf, 7ccpixcta9uua, xofwi) made of hide or leather and adorned with a crest
of hair or tufts of feathers (^xo;, Xo<^o$), and attached to the neck b^ a strap
Ihtvi); the breastplate (^uipal), commonly made of brass, sometimes of
leather or linen; the girdle (^Jivrf), mostly of brass and encircling the lower
part of the body ; the greaves (xv^/udcO? of brass or some more precious metal ;
and the shield {acittii)^ usually round, made of buliock^s hide, and used for the
protection of the whole body (cf. $ 139).

I ». The shield was often adorned with figures, but not as much so as Hesiod repre-
sents the shield of Hercules to have been, and Homer that of Achilles.

1 Homer's deecriptlon of the shield of Achilles (II. xviil. 478) la considered aa one oflhe finest
psssages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of the shield was formed by the celebrated artist
Kaxman, and several casts were made in silver gilt, bronze, and plaster. He brought the whole
work within a circle of three feet in diameter. It contains upwards of a hundred human figures
eihibiied in relief.

a. Aam^ nad. Note*.— Sw QMfr. de Qufauy, Snr h (taeriplioo du faoacljer d* Achilla, fte. fa Iba JAm. rhuL dt rncm»
CUiu d'lBit (f ULJtnt. voL Iv. p. 102, with a colorBd plato.— Ik Coyliif, Boodian d'Aehilla, d'HercuIa, at d'Enaa^ fee. fa
fte Mhl JUd. /nw. zxvii. 21— don. Jwm. vi. 8; viii. 408.

% 45. The (^enaive weapons were, the spear (dopv), commonly made of the
ash-tree {fiz%i^\ and of different lengths and forme according as it was designed
for combat more or less close; the sword (^i^i)^ the belt of which hung from
the shoolders ; the how (r oSov), usually of wood, with a string (ycvpoy) of
twisted horse-hair or of hide ; the arrows (|3tXi7, 6Mrf a), of light-wood, pointed
with iron, and winged frtfepwij to$) with feathers ; i\\e javelin (dxow, axovf mw),
of Tarious lengths and forms ; and the sline (tf^cvSoi^), of an oval shape, with
two leathern strings attached to its ends, oy means of which anows, stones,
sod leaden balls (fuyxv/SdvMu) were hurled against the foe.

The spear used for close combat was called iipn iperrdv ; that for a distance, vaXrdp ;
the point, termed docjifi and dxtaidi, was always of metal. Aoupo^tfn} was the name given to
the box or case, in which the spears were deposited when not in use. — The term itx^i also
deaignates the spear ; the epithet brazen {xa^jno») is usually applied to it. Cf. Ham. II.

in. 380. The arrows were kept in a quiver (^opfrpo), which, with the bow, was usually

carried on the back of the shoulders (or' upimv). The quiver had a lid or cover {^mim).
Cf. Han. L. iv. 116-120.

Various artietee of ancient armor are seen in onr Plates XVII. and XXII. The bow and quiver
are fiven in fig. T, and L, of Plate XVII. In this Plate also, fig. Y, Y, we have forms of the
Grecianjaoetiii ; in O, O, spear-beads ; in the figs, a, a, the long spear; in H, a form of the eluba
(cf. } 13^ which in various forms were used in early periods ; in fig. A, A, are given forms of
iht tinh or bBttU-maUet used by the Egyptians, which sometimes had leaden heads with bandies
four or five feet long ; in fig. 1, 1, we have the Grecian hattle-ax ; in fig. 8, and in the several
fip. marked C, and those marked D, are forms of the Grecian and Roman $ward; in E, a Daclan
sword; in tboee marked B, Persian swords.— In Plate XXII. fig. a, ft, e, d, and e, are varieties
ofhelmeu found in Egyptian remains: /, ^, A, and >, are Persian and Syrian helmets; the
kings are sometimes represented with crowns of a similar appearance: «, and o, are given as
Phrygian : I, m, are Grecian, and may represent also the Roman : p, and o, are Dacian : ft, is a
form quite similar to the latter, said to l>e used also by the Syrians. In fig. r, and on the Gre-
ciaa warriors, fig. 1, and fig. 7, the tkorax is seen, and the girdle: s, represents a figure found
{cf.?une*8 Life of Brant, vol. il. p. 55, Appendix) buried in a sitting posture, near the celebrated
Difhtnn Rnek, in Massachnsetts, with a concave breastplate thirteen inches long, supposed to
be of cast brass, and a belt of the same material four and a half inches wide, having a reed -like
appearance ; a brazen arrow-head, t, was found with it. In fig. «, and on the warrior, fig. 7» we
20

154 GRECIAN ANTiarrriES.

■ee the grgaves ; the Bhuld, In flg. 1, 3, 7 ; the tpear in the hands of the Grecian warriora, in Ag.
1, 2; and of ibtf Peraian, fig. 3: the frov, &c. in (ig. 6, which represents an Egyptian archer.

§ 46. Most of the weapons of the ancient Greeks were made of brass or
copper, which seems to have been used earlier than iron (cf. P. IV. § 10), and
was often nsed after the introduction of iron. For defensive armor, iron was
afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass or breastplate, the greaves and
the shield, tin or lead was sometimes used. To adorn the weapons with gold
was considered as too extravagant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to
give their armor the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of
Beauty, but to inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield they had a sort of
field-badge, or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some god,
or animal, especially the lion. The horses also were ornamented with much
care.

Respecting the military anparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus directed the I«acedse-
monians to clothe their solaiers in scarlet. — The Greek soldiers usually carried their
own provisiotis, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, oUves, onions, &c. For this
purpose each one had a vestel made of wicker with a long neck, called yvXiov, Rdin-
am, p. 349.

$ 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is proper to notice the use of
ships or vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed partly in piracy,
partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual combat. In later times the
naval battles of the Greeks were frequent and celebrated. Their first ships
were long (/iaxpat), and moved by oars. The number of rowers was various,
oflen very considerable. Originally there was but a single rank on each side ;
afterwards, as the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added ;
vessels of the latter Kind were called dixpora, those of the former /xoyoxpot'oh
also fiovripm, xiT^tif, At a later period they were built with three tiers or ranks,
rpt^pjtf, which continued to be the most common form, although there were
vessels with four, five, and six tiers, and sometimes even more.

It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and signs, from
which they were named. The ship commonly bore the image or statue of some
god, to whose protection it was especially intrusted. In the capture of a vessel,
the first object of a victor was to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy
in his own ship.

$ 48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forming of regular camps.
Their compass and extent were such as not only to include the whole army,
bat also the ships, which after the landing of the troops were drawn upon the
dry land. It was customary to surround the camp with a wall or ramparts with
towers and breast-wocks. Before the wall was a fosse or ditch, guarded with
pointed stakes. For the principal officers separate tents were erected, of
wooden frames, covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed
on ffuard, and beacon-fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out from
Doth parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other.

" Tents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The ancients, on
desultory expeditions, and in marching through a country, slept with no shelter but
their cloaks, as our light troops often carry none but a blanket ; when they remained
long on a spot they nutted. Achilles' tent or hut was built of fir, and thatched with
reeds { and it seems to have had several apartments. (U. xxiv. 488. ix. 639).'*
Mitford.

§ 49. The order of battle was either to place the war-chariots in front, and
the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and support them by the
chariots from behind. The whole army was drawn into close array, although
arranged in distinct divisions. On the commencement of battle they implored
the aid of the gods, and made vows of grateful returns. Then the generals
exhorted the soldiers to valor, and proceeded to set an example. The onset
was usually accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other
and intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having nursing
and medicine ; but the slain of the enemy were left unburied, or their corpses
even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed upon in some express
stipulation.

^ 50. llie spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which the captoi

PLATE XVll.

156 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, and partly in other
utensils ana precious articles, which, together with their owners, became the
property of the victor. By means of a ransom, however, the spoils, as well as
the prisoners, could be redeemed. AAer battle, the remaining booty was often
divided among the soldiers by lot; the general, however, always received his
portion first and without lot. Those who had distinguished themselves by valor,
also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the generals often
stimulated their troops before the action.

** We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved considerably
upon that tumultuary warfare alone known to many barbarous nations, who yet hav^
prided themselves in the practice of war for successive centuries. Several terms used
by the poet, together with his description of marches, indicate that orders of battle
were in his time regularly formed in ranks and files. Steadiness in the soldier, that
foundation of all those powers which distinguish an army from a mob, and which to
this day forms the highest praise of the best troops, we find in great perfection in the
Iliad. * The Grecian phalanges,* says the poet (iv. 427), * marched in close order, the
leaders directing each his own band. The rest were mute : insomuch that you would say,
in so great a multitude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they
reepeciivel]^ watched for the word of command from their officers.'

Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been very well
armed, both for offence ana defence. Their defensive srmor consisted of a helmet, a
breastplate, and sreaves, all of brass ; and a shield, commonly of bull's hide, but often
strengthened with brass. The breastplate appears to have met the belt, which was a
considerable defence to the belly and groin ; and with an appendant skirt guarded also
the thighs. All together covered the forepart of the soldier from the throat to the ancle ;
and the shield was a superadded protection for everv part. The bulk of the Grecian
troops were infantry, thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep.
Any body, formed m ranks and files, close and deep, without regard to a specific num-
ber of either ranks or files, were generally termed a phalanx (IL iv. 332. vi. 83). Bat
the Locrians, under Oilean Ajax, were all light-armed ; bows were their principal
weapons, and they never engaged in close fight {dyxtnaxot).

Riding on horseback was yet little practiced, though it appean to have been not un-
known (II. xiii, 722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was generally applied
in Greece to military purposes ; the mountainous ruggedness of the country prevented
any extensive use of cavalry, except amon^ the Toessalians, whose terntory was a
large plain. [Cf. SalUerj cited ^138.] But in the Homeric armies no chief was with-
out his chariot, drawn generally by two, sometimes by three horses; and these chariots
of war make a principal figure in Homer's battles. Nestor, forming the army for action,
composes the first line of^chariots only. In the second he places that part of the in-
fantry in which he has least confidence ; and then forms a third line, or reserve, of the
most approved troops.

The combat of tne chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to engage
singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern reader with an appesr-
ance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Before the use of fire-arms that
practice was not uncommon, when the art of war was at the greatest perfection. Cesar
himself gives (De Bell. Gall. v. 43), w^ith evident satisfaction, a very particular account
of a remarkable advanced combat, in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions
of his army engaged. The Grecian chiefs of the heroic ago, like the knights of the times
of chivalry, had armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers ; and this,
with the additional advantage of superior skill, acquired by assiduous practice amid
unbounded leisure, would make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on first
consideration it may appear."— 3/i7/orrf, ch. ii. sect. 3.

" Another practice common in Homer's time is by no means equally defensible, but
on the contrary marks great barbarism ; that of stopping in the heat of action to strip
the slain. Often this paltry passion for possessing the spoil of the enemy superseded
all other, even the most important and most deeply interesting objects of battle. The
poet himself (II. v. 48, vi. 67) was not unaware of the danger and inconvenience of the
practice, and seems even to have aimed at a reformation of it. We find, indeed, in
Homer's war&re, a remarkable mixture of barbarism with regularity. Though the
art of forming an army in phalanx was known and commonly practiced, yet the busi-
ness of a general, in directing its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call it
fashion, of the great men to signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill
in arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106, 252), excel only
in the character of fighting soldiers : as generals and directors of the war they are
inferior to many. Indeed, while the fate of the battles depended so much on the skir-
mishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the prejudice should obtain which set the
able arm, in vulgar estimation, above the able head. But the poet obviously means to
expose the absurdity and mischievous consequences of that prejudice, where he makes

p.m. BOMBSnC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 157

Hector (IL xzii. 99), in a late repentance, acknowledge the superior abilities of Polyda*
mas. Yet Homer's own idea of the duties of an officer, though he possessed very
eztensiTe and Terv accurate knowledge both of the theory and practice of war of his
own age, was still very imperfect." — lb.

$ 51. At the end of war the conquered party either snbmitted wholly to the
dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was made upon certain con-
ditions. This was effected through legates, fully commissioned for the purpose.
In forming a treaty of peace, Tarious ceremonies were observed, partly of a
religious character. A victim was slain, of which however no meal was made,
bat its flesh was cast aside; libations were poured out; the parties joined
hands in pledge of good faith, and called upon the gods as witnesses of their
covenant, and as avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, whose
thunderbolts were an object of terror to the perjured. The restoration of plun-
der was generally a preliminary requisition ; and the conquered party was often
compelled to pay a sum of money as a fine or indemnification.— -Sometimes the
whole war was terminated by a single combat, the parties agreeing to abide by
its issue.

IV. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.

i 53. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it is not to be
expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refinement in what pertains
to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages their mode of living was nearly as
mde as iheir moral s. Their principal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine,
goats, and deer, which they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and
fish was more seldom used. The most common food was milk, fruit, and vege-
tables. The first and most common drink was water ; wine, however, was in
frequent use; but, generally, mingled with water. Large drinking-vessels
were employed at their repasts* Ordinarily they had two meals a day, at mid-
day and evening, and in the earlier times it was the Greek custom to sit at
table, not to recUne. The number of persons at one table was seldom greater
than ten.

It was a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (cf. P. V. ^ 31), that the persons at a social
repast sboald not be less in number than the Graces, nor more than the Muses.— The
Roman Varro is said to have enjoined this rule, respecting the proper number at a
repast {Gell. xiii. 11). Adam.

** Homer mentions three different sorts of seats: (1) ^f^po;, which contained two
persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank ; (2) ^t«f , on which they sat up-
light, having under their feet a foorstool termed Bpiitrvs ; (3) KKwiidi, on which they sat
leaniog a little backwards." Eobinton. — Cf. Horn. Odys. i. 130, 131.

f 53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned by public

Unities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages, and the like. Some-
times they were made at the common expense of the guests (epoyo;, cf. Odvu,
i. S36) ; such entertainments, however, were viewed as of inferior rank. The
feasts npon victims offered in sacrifice have been mentioned ($ 27).

At table the guests sat according to a definite order. The beginning was
made by washing the hands. In early times a separate board was placed for
each guest, and his portion of food thus divided to him. Wine was brought
by youthful attendants, and the guests often drank to each other, and recipro-
cally ezchan^d cups. Thev endeavored to heighten the joys* of the banquet
by oonTersation and wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. Cf. P.
IV. $ 68.

$ 54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and more ample, and more
eompletely covered the body, than that of later times. Next to the body they
wore a long robe or frock (;t^'s'iov), which was kept in place by a girdle, and
over this a cloak (^^^Katva) of thicker materials, to protect against the cold.
Instead of the latter they sometimes had a mantle (^o(). The women wore
also long cloaks or over-^rments, called Ttirckot, often richly embroidered and
ornamented. They likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not to
have done it in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war. Shoes
or socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war the men
wore a sort of boot or greaves ($ 44).

O

19b GRECIAN ANTiariTIEB.

$ 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strength, the early Greeks
practiced frequent bathing* and with it united the custom of anointing. In
bathing they made much use of the sea-water, on account of its purifying and
strengthening properties. They also had warm baths in their houses. After
taking the bath they anointed the body with oil ; costly ointments, expressly
prepared for the purpose, were of later invention. They cultivated in every
way the growth of the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal
beauty and dignity. The color most esteemed was yellowish or light brown.
They were also pleased with frizzled or curled locks, and employ^ artificial
means to secure such forms to their hair.

$ 56. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses in the earlier
periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descriptions of Homer, which,
aside from their poetical character, relate only to the palaces or dwellings of
distinguished personages. (Of. P. IV. $ 232.) Respecting these we may
remark, that they were ordinarily surrounded by some kind of a wall, not very
high; between the wall and the house itself was the forecourt, in which an
altar usually stood. Then followed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main
building or house, often highly ornamented without and within ; although the
art of building at this time had not reached by far the perfection which Greek
architecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of the house was the dining-
hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's apartment The roofs were flat, as
in oriental countries, and often served as places of resort both by day and by
night.

$ 57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, and the
needy ; and the rites of hospitality were held sacred among them. Jupiter
himself was considered as the ?od and rewarder of hospitality, and the avenger
of all violations of its laws, and on that account was styled Hif ^o; (P. II. $ S5).
They had no public inns (cf. $ 168), but travelers found reception with those
who stood related to them by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not
only between particular persons, but also between whole cities and communi-
ties. Kings and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each
other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome
reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with a kiss. Sometimes
this was accompanied with offering the bath and unction. On separating, it
was common to unite in a friendly repast, and renew their pledge of mutual
friendship over the wine. Valued gilts were sometimes bestow^ on the de-
parting gfuest

$ 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture may be firsi
mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and means of living. Thp
boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, which served to guard fli^
cultivators against mutual encroachments. The culture of the vine and of
trees was also an object of attention. The raising of cattle was a common
employment, and a principal source of wealth. These employments were not
considered in any way degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of
eminence and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be
mentioned here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields from
depredation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as the bow and
arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling and fishing were
likewise a frequent employment

The nets {6iKTva) employed in fowling, hunting, and fishing were made of flax (Xfya) ;
the meshes ifift^xoi) being of various sizes acoordins to the use intended. In hunting, the
nets were supported by stakes {ariXuai) and extended in a curve so as partly to surrouiid
a space into which the animals were driven. Several kinds of fishing nets are men-
tioned, of which the most common were the d^ff^ninfov {retiaculum) or casting-net,
and the aayrfini (tragum) seine or sean.

CUaie dt Lit. a Bmux JtrUy TtA. ▼. p.8Sa

§ 59. The employments of women consisted partly in the care of the house-
hold, partly in spinning, weaving, and needle-work, not only for their own
clothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, cooking and wash-
ing, were performed by the women. In generd, the female sex among the

p.m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 159

C^reeks was in a state of ffreat, although not slavish sahjection to the male.
Hiere was comparatively little intercouise between the sexes. The women
lived chiefly by themselves in the apartment assigned to them, the Vwtuxiav or
fvMxfcoir, which was in the interior or upper part of the house ($ 56). Seldom
were they allowed to go abroad. In later times this close discipline and con-
finement remained in force, and women shared even less than previously in the
bttsiness and pleasures of men.

(h te«cicBlaMfhod ergfiadhig, cf. JfiHifB, Sor 1m bmuIm de monliD mplofMi jmr \mMadtm, la tte Mmn. dt PlmlUut,
Clait* fOM. tt UL Jne. voL KL |>. 441.
tefte itaii of femalM. R O. Leiu» GflMbiebt* dtr Weiber in heroiwhen Zeitelter. duo?. I79a 8.— JbicAe/flr<, tn oxBan dei
I, 3tan.Aad. Inter, vol. xuti. p. 996 — CL \ 181.

$ 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were music and
dancing. The former consisted of vocal and instrumental, which were always
onited ; and it was designed for instruction as well as gratification. Hence
mosic, although in a more extended sense of the term, was an essential object
in edocation. (Cf. § L79, and P. IV. $ 63.) The lyre was the stringed in-
strament the roost in use, and of wind instruments the flute was the most
common. The former enjoyed the preferencet because it was more easily ac-
commodated to song, and also left the performer at liberty to use his voice. —
The snbjects of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music was most
generally used at banquets and religious festivals, which were also the most
common occasions of dancing. With dancing it was customary to join various
tports aod exercises of the body, as leaping, running, riding, wrestling, and
the like.

$ 61. Marriaere and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in connection with
the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the daughter was usually
given by the father. It consisted of female ornaments, a portion of the flocks
and herds, and the like. There were no degrees of consanguinity forbidden
in marriage, except that between parents and children; yet it was considered
as highly censurable for brother and sister to unite. Previously to marriage
the consent of the parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, the
bride was with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who had previously,
according to the common practice, built and made ready a new house. In this
procession to the house, nuptial torches were borne before the newly married,
and bridal hymns were sung by a retinue of youths and virgins. Dancin?
nsoally accompanied the music ; and the whole was followed by a nuptial
feast A widow seldom contracted a second marriage, although it was not ex-
pressly forbidden. At leasts it did not take place until five years or more after
hex widowhood.

$ 69. Parents of the better class took special care of the edocation of their
children, both physical aiid moral. The mother was accustomed to nurae her
own children, and considered herself freed from this duty by no rank or con-
dition. The aid of others in this respect was sought only in cases of absolute
necMsity. In subsequent years the children had particular teachers and over-
seers, who instructed them in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the
art of war. Cf. P. IV. $ 64, § 71.

On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, reverence, and
obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benediction, and considered his
corse an the greatest of evils. They endeavored to repay to parents in old
age the care experienced by themselves in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly
reqaiied by law. They looked upon it as their highest honor, to inflict ven-
geance on snch as had injured their fathers.

Oa rapccs paid to oU agB unooK fha aoeianta, cf. Clam. Jctan. iiu I4S, 980; iv. STA On flit uuiMn and monta of tbe

■riMr^n.ci: Adte/M,»eHed |M.— C.i>.£OT0gtie,8Qri«MiBand«OrMi da tampt d*HOMra, in the Jfon. A r/tuWitf.
Cl&ifl* imaeimeuMae. «C M. voL IL

i 63. The slaves {6oiaMi) of the Greeks, male and female, were persons that
had been taken prisoners in war (aLxt^ikuygoi, aydpa/fodoi/), or were purchased
of others. Slaves of the latter class were not common in early times. The in-
trodaetion of commerce or trade in slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the
island of Chios, at a later period. The master had an almost unlimited power

160 GRECIAN ANTiamTIES.

oyer his slaye, extending even to the right of life and death. SometimeB the
gift of liberty was bestowed.

Besides the actual slaves there was a class of day laborers, who were accus-
tomed to let their services for hire (^fes, Ttsxdtfu), especially in the agricul-
tural and pastoral employments, which were originally so common in Greece.
A retinue of servants for mere display or luxury was not indulged in during
the period of which we have thus far been speaking. Cf. § 99.

11.— Qf the later and morejlounahing j9ge$,

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS.

$ 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the advancement
of civilization; although the mythology of the Greeks, in its elements, was
chiefly of early origin, engendered and fostered by the ignorance, superstition,
and sensuality of the first ages. The mythical fictions were enlarged, the
modes of representing the gods were varied, the temples, festivals, and sacri-
fices, and all the solemnities and rites of worship were greatly multiplied.
The pomp and splendor of their religion became very imposing, especially at
the period distinguished for the flourishing state of all their aifairs. At that
time the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the representation and
illustration of religious story, and the ornamenting of relicrious edifices. (Cf.
P. IV. $ 178, 197, 198, 234.) This circumstance gives additional interest and
importance to the study of this branch of antiquities.

§ 65 a. The temples {vaoC^ Upd) were still built in a simple taste, yet in greater
number and splendor. The interior had commonly two parts, of which the
innermost was the sanctuary (a^vfov), into which the priest only entered. The
place where stood the statue or image of the god to whom the temple belonged
was in the middle of the temple, commonly surrounded by a guard of lattice
work or the like, and therefore termed ar^xb^.

Originally the Greeks, like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of mountaina
or hills, where the v afterwards first erected their temples. When in the common creed
the gods were multiplied and assigned to valleys, rivers, &c., as their appropriate pro-
vinces, temples were built in such spots as were supposed agreeable to the several gods-
More than one deiiy, however, were sometimes worshiped in the same temple; ibey
were then called a6waoi or (rwouctrai ; and when they had a common altar, avjt^to^i.
Different stvlea of architecture were used for different deities; Doric pillars, e. g. lor
Jupiter or Mars; Ionic, for Bacchus, Apollo, Diana; Corinthian, for Vesia the virgin.

The temple usually stood in a space inclosed by a fence or wall (Z/nco;, vtpiM^)^ which
contained, besides ihe temple, often other sacred buildings and a grove ; the whole space
was called rr^i^p , a term sometimes restricted to the space set apart in the temple for
the image of the god.

In the temple, some say at the door, others near the o^vrvf, was placed a vessel of
stone or brass {-npi^vrnptov) filled with holy water for the purpose of sprinkling those
admitted to the sacrifices. The part of the temple before the anKo^ was called it^/ir; ;
that behind it AmtMhitoi. The outer porch was termed irp6im\a or vfovriXata, — There
also belonged to the temple a treasury (dpxc^w) for preserving its own property, or that
of others intrusted to it. — The statues and offerings to the gt»ds found in the temples
have been spoken of ($ 21, 28). Statues called CmnreiH, fallen from Jvpiler, were kept
in the most sacred part of the temple, and concealed from the sight of all but the
priests.

For other pwHcalui rapectinc Um itnidttre of the templet, mt P. IV. ^ 834.

§ 65 b. The altars ()3<u/i6t) were placed towards the east, and had various
fonns, round, square, or oblong. They were ornamented with horns, partly
that the sacrificial victims might be bound to them, and partly that supplicants
might lay hold of them, when they fled to the altars for refuge. Perhaps also
they were considered as a symbol of dignity and power. The names of the
deities, to whom the altars were sacred, were usually inscribed upon them.
Altars, as well as temples, were consecrated to their proper use with solemn
ceremonies, particularly by anointing.

PLATE XVlll.

162 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIB8.

Different gods had aUarr also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter Olympins
is said to have been twenty-two feet high. The altars of the terrestrial ^ods were
lower than those of the celestial. To tlie infernal, sacrifices were made in pita or
trenches (^ 29) ■ used instead of altars. The nymphs were worshiped in caves (^(i'TpA).
Altars were formed of various materials; often of earth, or of ashes, as thai at Thebea
to Apollo Tx66tai\ sometimes of horn, as that at Delos; sometimes of brick; often of
stone ; some were overlaid with gold (cf J 26). I'hey were either square or rouod ;
and were often highly ornamentea by sculpture.

Different forms of altar* are fflven In the 6up. Plate 90, where are teen an altar of Jupiter,
one of Nepiune, and one of Bacchus. Cf. ) 205.

§ 66. The practice of appropriating sacred grovet for the honor and service
of the godfl was also retained in later times. Their agreeable shade, as well
as the stillness reigning in them, was favorable to pious mediiation. Although
the use of groves was diminished by the multiplication of cities and villages,
yet a grove once dedicated to the gods remained forever sacred and inviolable.
As well as temples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, althongh
this privilege was conferred upon them only by a special consrcntion for the
purpose, and did not belong to all the places of religious worship as a matter
of course. The privilege of being such asylums or places of refuse was some-
times awarded to the statues and tombs of heroes. — Certain portions of land
and cultivated ground were also assigned to the gods, which were likewise
called tifuvfj, the fruit of which was employed in offerings, or fell to the share
of the priests.

A particular tract of land, situated between Athens and Megarn, was consecrated
to Ceres and Proserpine, and called 'Op>iV. — Trees were also set apart and with cere-
mony consecrated to some god {Theoc. Id. xviii. 43).

The privileges of the sacred temples, as asylaj continued until tht> 'ei^n of Tibe-
rius Cssar, by whom they were chiefly abolished, or greatly abridged {lac. Ann. iiL
60-63), on accouiu of the abuse of them by worthless villains.

Sinum^ Lm ujriat, Mttn. JauL Inter, iii. 35.— A. Mdi/itf MTibology, vol. i. p. 156.~-& /Vfft, Hwtory of the Jiyfum. Jtc in the
Jtrdmohgia (u cited P. IV. § 243. S), vol. viii. p. I.

§ 67. The three principal duties of the pries/s (cEp^i;, called also i«povpyot,
^foupyot, ^rat) were sacrifice, prayer, and instruction. With these were united
sometimes the declaration and interpretation of oracles. The requisite qualifi-
cations for the priesthood were a body free from all defects and blemishes
(ixoxXwpoj x(u d<|>«xr^), lawful birth (yvrjfftoj), and an irreproachable course of
life. Upon the rank of the god depended the number of the priests, who were
employed to attend upon him, and who shared each his part of the variouis
functions of the service. In every place there was one superior priest, if not
more (dp;^ifpft(, UfioSi^doxaXoi^ ifpo^OFtac), charged with the oversight of the
religious worship in general {afixispoi<Jvvrj).^^The ofHce of the parasites (;to^>a-
oitoi) was to collect the grain and fruits designed for sacrifices (ytpooodia
/icyaXa) into the storehouse appropriated therefor (TtapaaCtMv), — The heralds
(xTi^xfi) were ranked among the sacred orders, and also the superintendents
Iviuxopoi) whose business was to cleanse and adorn the temples.

The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple robe, and their
head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a fillet and a crown of the
leaf sacred to their particular god.

In our Plate XXVII. fig. C, is a view of a Grecian priest and priestess, in their robes ; each h:i9
a thyrsus in one hand, indicating that they are servants of BAcchus, and a vessel in the other.
The priestess Is pouring a liquid upon the flame of an altar. It is a monumeat fiven in .Vo^m,
Antique Vases, Altars, &;c.

1. Priests holding their office by inheritance ($22) were called hi iKykvo^i; those
who received it by lot, KhtpotmH ; those by election, Aiperol or tpnp^aiiuoi. Some of the
Atheiiian families, in which the priesthood descended by inheritance were the \l>'ito\.
rt^at, intrusted with the oversight of the Elusinian mvsteries; Knpwcf?, descendants
of Ceryx ; the eanXMffjJai, descendants of Thaulon. There was a sacred family at
Argos also, called 'AwffrwpiiJai. Priestesses {Upaai, dptrmpai, dpxiipetai, \ef>o(^avTi^£i) were
taken from noble families. Those of Ceres were termed ^ItXunrai ; those of Bacchus,
BoKxai, Guafef, MamiSes. — Sometimes services connected with the worship of the gods
were performed by persons not properly belonging to the priesthood (wxwpter^a'oc Hfs
Ispaa^i'tK) ; as e. g. sacrificers (Icpewwiol), of whom ten are said to have been appointed
annually at Athens, and who conducted all the usual sacrifices ; keepers of the tem-
ole and utensils (roo^Xoxcf) ; stewards or treaBurers irofuai ruir Upuy xpi|^T«>y).-*Prie6t8

p.m. RELIOIOI78 AFFAIRS. &ACRIFICES. 0ATH8. 163

who were coiwtantly in attendance on the gods to offer the prayers of the people at
ncrifices, were called npAroAoi d«5i'. — ^AU who served the ffods were maintained out
of the sacrifices and offerings. — ^At Athens, those intrusted with the care of religion
were required to render an account of tbeir doings to certain civil officers appointed
for the purpose. The 'hpofty^maf seems to have been charged with keeping the sacred
leoorda. l*he priests had attendants called lep^AntXot.

Ob •m priMdMof or tha GivdB, «• /. JTrvKw, Der Heltoon Prmlenlut mlt TenDflidi RaeWcbt ant die HiwodaleB. Maiai.
-aam.Jtmm. zuiz. 35a-.3(iii(aawiJk, Da nakbrn 4m DicQX ft AllMMt. is (be Mtnu Aead. bucr. sriiL 60; szili. 61.—
r» iwi, ^ It famOkm <■ HiitimniiiPBi, Jtc ip the JOtm. d* Flmlitut, Clm e 4'iitK. M LA. Jtnu fol. f L 811.

2. Purification has already been mentioned iS 23) as a rite of great importance
smong the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priestesses were
obliged \o take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person attending the
solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or sprinkled with the water in
the nptf^ryifiiov (cf. ^ 65 a). This water was consecrated by putting into it a burning
torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel ii^tpfn) or olive. Purification was also some-
times made by drawing round the person a sea-onion or squill (virtXXa), or a young
dog {niXa^ ; sometimes eggs were used for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a
pig. Some of the terms employed to designate purifying are mptp^vuv, mptitamoBat^
m^'pev, ayrueiv, [XAr/idf , iyvia/df , reXcrhj &.C. — Sometimes m purifications not only the
haods, but the teet and other parts of the body were washed.

i 68. The sacrifices had different names according to the occasions of them.
The tkank-njj'tring {x^^trfi*^) was in recogpnition of some favor received,
often in fulfilment of some vow made; the sin-offering (txaati^xd) was in order
to propitiate an offended deity ; the invocation-offering [oAtfitixd) was presented
in case of seeking some particular favor. There were other particular sacri-
fices, which were offered in consequence of the specific command of some god.

The beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the libation
[gkov^^ $ 24. 2) ; then followed the ineense, the burning of something fragrant
I'^fuofta) ; and at length the tacrifiee itself, properly speaking, or the slaying
of the victim (Ifptlw), The principal ceremonies have already been mentioned
($ 87). — Persona who had the right of beinff present at a sacrifice were termed
i^i^rpMi and those who had not, j^i^rjxoi. The latter were called upon by the
heralds to retire before the ceremonies commenced.

Different animals were offered in sacrifice to different gods, as has been mentioned
m treating of the ancient mythology. One of the principal victims, however, was the
ox (fi9^) ; hence the term potfdnnTv, to sacrifice oxen : those assistants who slew the
vinims were called povO&rai. Bulls (ravpoi), sheep {dtus), and goats (atyti) were often
offered. The bringing of the victims to the altar was expressed by such phrases as
spvayttif Tti»/7(j^, or napamiUrai ^vaiap roFj fiuftoti ; they Were often brought adorned with
garlands {(rrifijurra), and were alwajrs required to be free from blemishes (rcXrwO- After
Die victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of the entrails {(mXaYXPoaiamia)
was made by the soothsayer ((RrXay:o^«offO(), to ascertain the presages of the future.

Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, wno were allowed to offer
cakes of coane flour (wdroya, n-eXavoi, Wftfiara) ; these were sometimes made in the shape
of animals.

It do«« not appear to have been ever an approved custom among the Greeks to offer ho roan
tacrificee, alibough It wag repeatedly done; cr. P. II. $ 17. Themisioclee is eaid to have sacri-
ficed to the gods several Persian captives. (PluUireh, Them.) Human victims were sacrificed
panicolarly to the maaes aad infernal gods.— Cf. LoetantiKs, De Falsa Religions, c. %l.—Eusebiiu^
Ftmp. Bvang. iv. 10.

( 69. It is pertinent tQ notice here the solemn oaths of the Greeks, in which
they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge falsehood or injury.
Tbej distinguished between the solemn or great oath (6 fuyoi ooxoi) and affir-
mations in ordinary cases. Jupiter was considered as especially the god and
guardian of oaths, and avenger of perjury, although oaths were taken in the
name of other gods also. It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great
superior gods (jm ^wdcxa ^fov$). Sometimes they swore by the gods, iodefi-
niielj and generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, weapons, or
any article of which they made use. Not unfrequently the oath was in the
name of living or deceased men, such esnecially as had been highly esteemed
and loved. The oath was usually joinea with a distinct imprecation of ven-
fseance on the swearer himself in case of falsehood ; and was sometimes con-
firmed by a sacrifice, the flesh of which, however, could not be eaten. Severe
panisbments were decreed against perjury {inu>pxla). Yet the Greeks, espe-

164 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

cially the Thessalians, were reproached for this crime by the ancients. At
least mutual distrust was characteristic of the conupt Greeks of later times,
and among the Romans the phrase Grsscafida was synonymous with perfidy.

Leagues and covenants were confinned by making oaths and slaying sacrifices ;
hence opKia W/tyeiv signifies to erUer into covenanl. Notwithstanding the great perfi-
diousness of the Greeks, they considered one who kept his oath {twpKos) as of course
a pious person {ewtfifK). 'ArrtKii maris signifies honest faith.

Mamm^ Sur to S«awato dn Aadn, in the Hiit. d* VAcad. 4u Iruer. %6Llp. 191 ; voL It. |>. h— Smith, Diet, of Aalif.

$ 70. The opinion was rery early entertained, that the ffods honored certain
men, especially the priests, with a particular intimacy. '1 here were supposed
to be two modes of revelation ; one immediate, by direct inspiration ; and the
other mediate or artificial, which was considered as the fruit of prreat knowledge,
experience, and observation. Oracles {x9''l^'^'h?^o^ fiavtBLo) were of the first
kind ; and the second kind was divination (/uovnxjj). — From oraeltSj the Greeks
were accustomed to seek, in important circumstances and undertakings, predic-
tions of the result (x9*!^f^oi, Xoyta, fjtairttvfMi/ra), It is obvious that they could
be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, to whose artifice their exist-
ence and support are in great measure to be ascribed. The omcular answers
were not given in any one uniform manner, but sometimes immediately, as was
pretended, from the gods {x9V^f^^ avf o<j>«vot), sometimes through an interpreter,
{x^iSfioi vrto^t]tix6i)y or by a pretended dream, or by lot.

Persons who consulted the oracles were termed ^forptf:n)i, ^etMMi^ xpn^f^ixp^t ; the in-
terpreters, xptoftoXdyoi. Presents and sacrifices were always requisite belbre consulting
an oracle, which could be done only on appointed days.

The question has been nghated, whether the responses uttered fmm the ancient nraelea were
the mere imposture of priests, or proceeded from the agency of rtatan ma Icing use of their delu-
sions, yan Dale in a learned treatise urged the former view. Ft/vtttteUe advocated the same
side. Baltua with much learning maintained the latter view, in agreement with some of the
Christian Fathers.

Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. ii. sect. S. ch. xvi.) describes a contrivance, which he supposes was
designed by the artiflce of the priests in sustain the system of oracles. " We found at the fnot
of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious uWaU remains yet discovered among tbti
vestiges of pagan priestcraft ; it was nothing less than on^ nf the eraeuUr ahrinet of Argoi^
alluded to by PauintniaM^ laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has brnKen in order thnt he
may see the contrivance whereby it was made to upeak. A more interesting sight for modf rn
curiosity can hardly be conceived to exist among the ruins of any Grecian city, in Us original
state, it'had been a UmjtU; the farliier part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an
excavation of the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baktd tHea. The altar yet rt* mains,
and part of the >fc't/« superstructure ; but the most reniHrknltle part of the whole is a vecret sub-
terraneous passage, terniinaiini; behind the nitar ; its entrance being at a consider tble distance
toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly contrived as to have a small
aperture, easily concealed and level with the surface of the rock. This was barely large enough
to admit the entrance of a single person; who, having descended into the narrow passnge, might
creep along until he arrived immediately behind the center of the altar; where, being hid by
xoine colossal statue or other screen, the sound of hid voice would produce a most imposing
effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneat)*, who were listeniiig in silence ttp<in the
floor of the sanctuary. We amused ourselves for a few minutes by endeavoring to mimic th«
solemn farce acted upon these occasions ; and as we delivered a mock oracle, or« rotunda^ from
the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by the sides o( the rock, aflurded a
tolerable specimen of the *toUl of th* foda,* as it was formerly mado known to the crodiiloue
votaries of this now forgotten shrine. There were not fewer than ttotntg-fiva of these Juggling
places in Prloponneava^ and as many In the single province of B^otia • and surely it will never
again hecom«> a question among learned men, whether the answers In them were given by the
inspiration of evil spirits, or whether they proceeded from the imposture of priests ; neither can
it be urged that they ceased at the death of Christ: because Panaapiaa <CorintL c. 24, p. 165, ed
Kuhnii) bears testimony to tbelr existence at Jlrffoa in the second century."

See Fan DaU, T)* Onculi* veterum Bihniconim. Aimt. 1700. 4.— A fonlouVe^ tliitnire in Orades. La Hafe, 1*38. 12.-
/. F. BaUut^ Anwer lo FoDlenUrl Hiiilorj of Onclei; tratnl. frani Uie frfucli. Load. I7ia 2 rolt. 8.— CL SoUm, bk. x. cb.
(|k 991. vol. I ed. ci'ed ^ li).—BlaekwoodP$ Mifu. fol. ziv. p> 277.

§ 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished of the
ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the
Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. Before this time, however, this
oracle, of Pelasaic orig[in (cf. P. IV. § 41), seems to have existed in that place.
There was a grove of oaks, sacred to Jupiter, and superstition ascribed the
actual exercise of the grift of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves,
which were thence called fiavrixai 6pv*j. The priests, called arto^rjtai and
XtTXoin concealed themselves upon and in the trees, when tliey announced the
pretended declaration of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, placed near
the temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A foiintain in the place was

p. in* RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ORACLES. 165

likewise celebrated as possessing the wonderful power, not only of extinguish-
iog a torch, bat of kinoling it again.

I. The oracles in the grove of Dodona were also said to be delivered by doves,
which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes announced
them, were called in the Thessalian language irfXc<ai, and mXeidtk;. There were also
priests called r4/«(<poi, whose business was to interpret the sounds of the vessel on cer-
tain occasbns. Two columns stood by the temple ; to one of which the vessel was
attached ; on the other was a boy with a scourge in his hand ; the ends of the scourge
consisted of little bones, which being moved by the wind knocked against the metalBc
▼easel attached to the other column. — From the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase
Aafdedpafav ^cc-Wror, applied to talkative persons, — I'he temple is said to have stood ui>on
an eminence near a fountain.-— In the Sup. plate 28 is a view of Dodona, in which
many of the allusions to the oracle are represented.

SWUp, tad Dt »omt, L^Onde da DodoiM, in tb* JMbnk Jkud. huar. toL v. p. 3& xszt. p. 80.— Conki, De oncvlo Dodona*.
Ortaifef. ISfM. S-Jl Jin»mk, Uebw dn T^obMHinkd tob Dodon. Wim, 1840. 8L-lMa»lz, Dn fiiu^»ti» Onkd dM Zmb
n DodoHu WQrtxb. 1840. 8.

Ob lb* tte eC tte inipio, eC PIsiqiMvaii, M dtad P. L § 8T.

2 tt. Less celebrated was the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in a desert and almost inac-
cessible region of Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the
Great.

3. The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon was discovered hy the Eniilish traveler
Browne in 1793, in the Owi» of Siwa. (Cf. RtnnelVs Qeog. Sytt. of Herod, sect. 31.) Near it
was the famons fountakm of the sun. The spot was visited by Belzonl in 1818. (Cf. P. I. ^ 179.)
The roins of the temple indicate an Egyptian origin.— When ibis oracle was consulted, a splen-
did sutoe of the god was carried in procession by numerous priesu (cf. P. II. \ 84). A view of
It is given in ibe Sup. Plate 29.

4. Several other oracles of Jupher are mentioned. Herodotus speaks of four: at Egyptian
Thebes ; ai Libyan Ammon ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe tn Ethiopia ; and says the one at Thebes
was the original. Besides these, there was an oracle of Jupiter in Bmotia ; also In Ells at Olym-
pia ; and one ia Crete, in a cave of Mount Ida.

$ 73. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were considered to
belong properly, had numerous oracles. The most renowned was that at
Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a temple illustrious beyond all
others on account of its treasures, the abundance and costliness of the ^ifls
bestowed there. The spot where the answer was given, was called Pythium
(Ilv^tor), and the priestess, who uttered it, Pythia (Ilv^'a), from the surname
which Apollo received in consequence of killing the serpent Python (llv^of).
This spot, or the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhabited
earth (o^c^kiXo; 7^$). According to common tradition this oracle was first dis-
closed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an orifice on Mt, Parnassus,
were seized with singular paroxysms of shivering and jumping. l*he same
happened to men, who approached this opening. This oracle was very ancient,
being celebrated more than a hundred years before the Trojan war.

1. Some derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the word
Wf^iaOatf to inquire, or leam; but Uvdu) appears to have been originally the name of the
city of Delphi. — The temple was adorned with statues and oiner splendid works of
art. Its walls were inscnbed with salutary moral precepts ; among them the cele-
biaied one r*^i ocavn-A (P. V. ^ 169.) Costly tripods were among the gifts conse-
crated to Apollo here. One of the most famous was the golden one presented by the
Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. This was removed by Constantine and placed in
the Hippodrome of Constantinople, upon the *' triple heads" of the three braxen ser-
pents twisted into one pillar.

Tlie fiilhr ••ill ic«b1m {Gibbon, eb. IT. p 80. vol. ii. V. Torfc, ISB).— Tbe time hndt art aid to bav* beea In good jnwtm-
doa wteo Cflwtiui^iaoflc wn» taka by Ibe Turk* ; Mibomct II. then nde into tbe HippndroiM and tballerad one of Ibem witb bit
biSk u ; l«ro were icaaiaiss Id 1700; bat they were Molen about that tina by lome nakiioini da|>redator. (Cf« iMtd. Quart.
Mm. VL ICl)— Ob tbe origia of tb« Ddphie oracio, d. Mitfvr^i Oraeee, cb. 8. MCt 8.

2. The great wealth accumulated at Delphi (cf. ^ 28), and the celebrity of the ora-
cle, and consequent influence possessed by the state which had the chief authority
over it, occasioned much jealousy among tne Grecian states ; in two instances par-
ticularly they were involved thereby in actual hostihties, in the wars commonly called
Sacred.

MMfm^t RmT. itf OrMc*^ ch. xnTfUz1U.>-ni FoJoii, Guarra Saema, In Uie Utm. dead. tnm. vii. SOI. ix. 97. -sii. in.

$ 73. The tripod (t'piTtovf x^^'t^i9^^^% upon which the priestess sat in utter-
ing the answers, must he mentioned among the remarkable things pertaining to
the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the seven wise men of Greece, and
has been viewed as having a threefold reference, to the past, the present, and

166 OSSCIAN ANTKlVmKS.

the future. The ITv^ herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar digfuity
and waa obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many ceremonies.
In delivering the oracles, she appeared to be in the most violent ^stasy and
convulsion. In early times, the oracular response was commonly clothed in
the form of hexameter verse; often by a poet employed for the purpose. Ori-
ginally the oracle was consulted but on « single day in the year, in a month of
the spring, called Bvau>$ or Uvavoi ; afterwards inquiry could be made on a
certain day of every month. Whoever wished to consult the oracle was re-
quired to make large presents and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, and
to propose his questions mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified
for receiving the answer by many mystic rites. The answer was commonly
80 enigmatical and ambiguous (puioi, hence Aolta^V that it would apply to any
result that might happen; and whenever it was clear and definite, the priests
had informed themselves of all the preliminary circumstances and the proba-
bilities respecting the issue. — ^The Delphic oracle was suspended at various
times, and oecame finally silent soon after the death of the emperor Julian.

Originally, there waa one Pythia (or trp^ns) only at Delphi ; but after the oracle
became more frequented, the number was increased to Ihrttj chosen from among the
uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance and chafitity.
They officiated by turns, and sometimes lost their lives in the paroxysms of the in-
spiration. Those, who pretended to form into sentences their incoherent exclama:ion:«,
three in number, were called ^po^ai ; who always took care to ascertain previously
much about the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. The propftftt
were aided in the sacriilfices and ceremonies, which preceded the placing of the Pythia
on the tripod, by fve prieats called feioc, wno were under a chief called wiuH^. — ^'Ihe
KtpufYnrml were guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly in point-
ing out to them its curiosities. A great number of persons were required for the va-
rious services of the temple and oracie.— See the Plate fiicing pagev.j

On Ihit and* of Apollo, tw HarHon, Ond* de Dripbe% in tba Mtm. Acad. /mar. vol. iiU p. IS9.— C F. Wauv, Ot R«iif i(»
e( Oneuio Apolllnb Delphiei. Hafb. 18Z7.— £1 D. HUItrnmn, WOrdif «>( da Ddphlietea QnM*. Boom 1897.- IT. G-6ff«,
nat Delphiaebfl (Jnkd, in Minem poritwchm, ralitiflKn, and! Mttliebm EiofluHi Leips. lUa— & H. Kkaum^ in Bnth und
Gruter, BjiejrclopUin, ondo- OraM.

$ 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. The more
important of them were the following: the oracle of Apollo at Didyma, which
was called also the oracle of the Branchidae ; those of Delos, Abae, Claros,
Larissa, Tegyne and other minor cities ; where answers were also given from
Apollo ; the oracle of Trophonius at Lebadea in Bosotia, in a subterranpan
cave, said to have been the residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers des-
cended, after performing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of
the future by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphiaraus in the vicinity
of Oropus m Attica, where the answers were imparted to the initiated by
dreams.— The number of the ancient oracles amounted to two hundred and
sixty.

1. The oracle ofTV^pA^iUiu Is deecribed chiefly by Paiitanlac (Ix. 37), who sayi he entered
the cave. The oracle was upon a mouniain, where was a vrnve, temple, and iiatue ofTropbo-
nine. Within an incloture made of while einnee, upon which were erected obelitks of braM,
was an artiflcial opening like an oven ; here by a ladder the per«on contuliing the oracle
descended, carrying in his hands a certain composition of hnncy. On returning, the person was
required to write down what had been seen or beard. — In Plate XIX. is a representation of this
oracle —As there was a story that a visitor to the cave never smiled after his return, it became
common to describe a gloomy person bv saying he had been to the cave of Trophonius ; see an
amusing application of this, in AddUon't Spectator, No. 550.

Tha c«n b tiill poiatod o«t to tnvdMi } bIm Ite two fautaia lAwmoiync and ZKAc— Sm CUrke, Twth, kc—PougtuvOU,
Voyage, fee. voL it. p. 171.

9. There were numerous oracles of Aselepins or JEsculapfos ; of which the most celebrated
was at Bpldaurus. Uere the sick sought responses and the recovery of their health by sleeping
{ineuhmtio) in ibe temple. It was Imagined by F. A. Wolf, that what Is now called a»tiRdi wtae-
nedrm or Me»m«ri»m was known to the priests t>f those temples where the sick spent one or orare
nights for the purpose of recovering their bealtb.

CLF.A. HU/,B«ytnc>ivQ«ciLdMSoBMiiilNdiawa«MdmAltart]mn)tehl»rvmJ^

$ 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediately (cf. J 70), or by means
of some system or art of divination (^lovtcxi}), was effected in various ways.
The most important was by theomancy (^cofUM/t^eio.), an art possessed by a
class of persons who were called ^co^vf «i$f and claimed to be under divine
inspiration. This class comprised ^ru varieties; some were considered as

>rcA:

p. m. BELIOIOirS AFFAIRS. DIVINATIOIT. 167

inteipreters of the demons by whom they were possessed, and called iaifiovo^
igpttm or fiv^iovss ; others were called iv^oyctaatai or Iv^eaus't ixol^ and enjoyed
only the intimations of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed
ixara^ixoC, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during a wholly superna-
tural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by the pretext of a
long trance, insensibility, or sleep.

Besides what was termed in general theomancy, there were seTeral methods of
diyination, of which the foilowinff were the principal. — 1. By dreams,' iv^ipinoXia. The
Greeks ascribed ver^ much to dreams as supernatural, and viewed them either as
revelations and warnings from the sods or from demons, or as pictures and images of
future events. The expounders ofdreams were called dvctfOK^rat^ 6mpoaK6t[M, or <Jwt-
/•s^Xm. Three varieties of the dream are named ; "XfitifuiTwi^, when a god or spirit
conversed with one in his sleep ; Spafia. when one saw a vUion of future occurrences ;
Svci^, in which the future was set forth by types and figures (dXXiryopcffur). Two other
▼aiieiies are also mentioned, Msywv and ^ivrar^a, but are not considered as affording
much help in divination ; i^iXnTr, tMoidiw, night-mare, was supposed sometimes to
indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to be sent firom the jgod of sleep (P. 11.
^113); and from Jupiter (Ham. II. i. 63). A goddess called Bnzo (fipt^tv^ to tleep)
was tbou£^t to preside over the interpretation of dreams, and was worshiped particu-
larly in Delos. Dreams which occurred in the morning were most regarded in
divmation.

Sk Jrtemtfviu, I* dtod P. V. \ »I.-Avigiiy, Soncec, Ac in fbe Man.d9pjUad.dnfiuer. nL xxztIU. p. lA^Thaory of
^etodF.IL§ll8.

2. By sacrifices. This waa called Hieromancy (Uponavnla) or Hieroscopy (Upoomvta),
It comprehended the observations of many particulars connected with the offering of
a victim, as portending good or ill. One of the principal things was the inspection of
the entrails, especially the liver (inranNnRnria), and the heart. The fire of sacrifice was
also noticed {wpofuu^rtta) ; likewise the smoke (troin/o/iavTcta), the wine (dtift^amta), and
the water {vipoitiumia, miyofuamfa). There were, in short, various kinds or forms of this
divination according to the different victims or materials of the sacrifices and the dif
ferent rites ; e. g. toere was dXtvpoftaimiaf by the flower or meal used; Ixfirjoftaimiaf by
the entrails of ^hes ; dMKKtla, by eggs.

3. By birds, diuyurruri). Those, who observed and interpreted omens by birds, were
called ipMaoK&ntf dpviOoitdtmts. Some birds were observed with respect to their flight
(rwar^wys;) ; others in respect to their sin^ng (aitKoi). Unlucky birds, or those of ill
omen, were called IfbAatfiM, pernicious t and mtiAtm/ra), hindering from designed under-
takings, and by similar epithets; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and,
except at Athens, the owl ; the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered
as lucky birds ; and the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of
the flight of birds waa watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appear-
ances in the east, which was on his right, were considered as fovorable ; hence the
use of it^idt, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from insects and
reptiles, and various anunalis. Toads, serpents, and boars were of ill omen. Bees
aiid ants were often thought to foretoken good.

4. By signs in the heavens {SuxrnutTa) and other physical phenomena. Comets,
eclipses, and earthquakes were all unlucky signs. Thunder and lightning were lucky
if observed on the right hand ; bmlhilucKy if on the left. To be stnick with thun-
der [fifovrnr^) was unlucky ; in place«,thus struck, altars were erected and oblations
made to appease the gods, after which none dared to approach them.

5. By lots. The two principal modes were those termed onooiiiaimia and xhtpofMimia ;
in the former little pieces of paper, having fatidical lines (flttxpi) written upon them,
were drawn from an urn, and were supposed to indicate the prospects of the person
by or for whom they were drawn out ; m the other, various small articles, as beans
brack and white, pebbles, dice, and the like, which were all called irXifpoc, and were
oonsidered as being of different significancy, were drawn from an urn or other vessel.

-Other modes were fm^i^uamia^ by rods, and ^d^ncamlay by arrows, in which the
lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posture or from the
quiver. Another was by the use of the vivat dyi^utSg, on which certain prophetic
verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the verse on which the di<;i fell.

6. By magical arts. These were said to have originated in Persia among the Mag:,
^iyot. The degree of attention given among the Greeks to these arts (jnpit^a) is
evinced by a striking fact recorded in the Bible (Acts, zix. 19), which seems to imply
that a great number of books were composed on the subject. A few only of the
▼Biious modes need be named ; Mxjpo^avrsfa, mcm^avrtia, and ^nfxpuavnia, in which the
dead were supposed to appear or speak ; yaarpo^ayrtia, in which demons were ima-
gined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from the appearances
ef water in the middle part iyiar^) of certain glass vessels surrounded with lighted
torches : jcnmiaynia, in wnich the performers observed the forms assumed by drops

168 GRECIAN ANTKIVITIE8.

of melted wax ; there were numerous other modes. — The dXMttrfnonamta was a sort of
divination by lot, yet classed among the magical arts ; the letters of the alphabet were
written in a circle ; a grain of wheat or barley wss laid upon each letter ; a cock was
placed in the center ; and the desired information was obtained by putting together
the letters from which the cock picked the grains. — It is proper to mention here some
of the magical arts, by which mysterious effects were supposed to be wrought ; as,
o* g'l lnvnoKtiaf in which medicated herbs, minerals, and pe like i<pdpiiaKa) were used i
and poffxayia, which was a sort of fiiscination or malign influence which certain per-
sons were supposed to exert.

Sea Bonamg and Lt Shnd^ ke. m cited § 227.— On dlviaitioa by fta cuy, ef. CIM. lottrn. z. 282.

7. Finally, divination was also made from various things included under the general
name of ometu {avtt^Xa). One class of these consisted of such as were drawn irom
the person himself, as iraX/«t, palpitations of some part of the system : &^vt$oi^ a ringing
of the ears; rrapfiei, sneezings, &,c. Another class consisted of those drawn from
objects external to the person; as the meeting of certain objects or animals on the
road {U6iim ovu/ioXa), or certain occurrences at home (rd dmcKorucdv), Certain words
were also ominous { such were called irmt^ irXjjJdycf, Muai. The Greeks, especially the
Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, caretully substituting others, as, e. g.
'Eofuevldei instead of 'EfMvy^, and ^fXarhs Instead of KXherns,

On lb* weiMit art of dlTiMtka, m Cieira, 0« DlviattioM^a ITadkMiwU, HirtarfcHl AatSqnltfeii *> citad | l9>^PMtr,
AitbMt. Gnec Mt. ii. «h. 12-18.

i 76. The fegiivals formed an important part of the religious worship of the
Greeks. Their establishment and support was partly for the sake of honoring
and supplicating the gods, and commemorating persons of merit, and pa^rtly
for the sake of rest, recreation, union, and harmony of social feeling. Their
number greatly increased with the multiplication of the gods and the progress
of luxury and wealth ; the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremo-
nies increased in the same proportion. Especially was this the case at Athens.
They were mostly held at the public expense, the means being drawn from
various sources.

See M. a. ffirmomi, Die PMto ton Hellu biiteriKb^pUIonpluKh tewbeilet and warn entMOiel m± ibnm Sim oad Zweek
CfUatert. Berlio, IHB. 2 Tb. a

$ 77 U Some of the most important festivals have been mentioned (P. II.)
in the history of particular gods, under the head of Mythology. A slight
notice of them here must suffice. The principal out of an almost countless
multitude, will be named in alphabetical order, and then some particulars added
respecting a few of these.

1 u. 'Ayptuyia, a nocturnal festival instituted in honor of Bacchus. 'Aitovta,

dedicated to Venus and the memory of Adonis.— 'AX w a, to Bacchus and Ceres.— ^

'Ar0c9r/?pia, observed at Athens three days, also in honor of Bacchus. 'Ax-a-

r»6pia, tit Athens, in commemoration of a victory obtained by Melanthus, through
stratagem, over the BoBOtian king Xanthus, likewise in honor of Bacchus, and other

?od8. 'A^p96(9ia, a festival of Aphrodite or Venus, particularly on the island of
)ypru8.-^— Bpaepuvia, sacred to Diana, in Atiica, celebrated every fifth year.—
Aa^yn^6pia, to Apollo in Boaotia, only every niflth year. AUXia, also to Apollo,
on the island of Delos, every fifth year.— A miifjpia, sacred to Demeter or Ceres.^^
A (Va-o Xc< a, an Athenian lestival, instituted in Honor of Jupiter, as tutelary god of the
city (rioXid);). — ^A ( » y ^ <r f a, to Dionysus or Bacchus \ a greater and more solemn festi-
val in the cities ; and a lesser one in the country ; the same that was called by the Ro-
mans Batxhanalia. There were innumerable forms of this festival. 'E Kardupaia,

dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to whom they sacrificed a hecatomb on the nrst day

of this festival. »*b\Bva(yta^ the most celebrated festival of Ceres, a greater and

smaller, connected with the well known mysteries.— *Epfi a i a, a festival of Mercury,

in Elis, Arcadia, and Crete.— — 'E^iata, a festival of Diana atEphesus. IJpaiti, a

festival of Juno at Argos.— 'H ^ a t a t « i a, sacred to Vulcan at Athens, accompanied
by races with torches. Ocg/t o ^dp i a, the festival of legislation in honor of Ceres, at

Atheu and other Greek cities. yiapw€taf sacred to Jupiter and Apollo, almost

throughout all Greece, for nine days, A»if «ia, an Arcadian festival in honor of

Jupiter, instituted by Lycaon. [Bat this term usually designates a festival of Pan

corresponding to the Roman Lupercal. Cf. P. II. ^ 80.] 'OvKo^Spia, a festival

of the Athenians instituted by Theseus, and so called from the custom of carrying
branches about on the occasion.— —nay a 0^vai a, one of the most solemn festivals
at Athens, dedicated to Minerva. The lesser was celebrated annually ; the greater
every fifth year. Both were connected with various contests and games.— -ncXcu.
9 1 a, a Thessalian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having some resemblance to the Sa^
iumalin of the Romans.— ^'H pa (a, a general name applied to solemn sacrifices.

:££

p.m. RlLiaiOUS AFTAIB8. FESTITALS. 169

which were bioaght to the gode & the different fieaeons, with a view to Becnre good
weather.

te«aoRCDnptato«ni»m1ionn4 daKriptk»,er.FaMcr, Aithwri.Gr«^ eh. ta-^f. £crtik0>, on cntein GrMk

ttfhili, is tkc JAr. dftnA imcr. voL jUv. p. 412 ; and jUtIU. p. 2SB.

2. "The festival called *A6tovia was celebrated in most of the cities of Greece.
The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or pictures of Adonis
and Venus were brought (orih with all the pomp and ceremonies used at funerals ; the
women tore their hair, beat their breasts, ana counterfeited other actions usual in
lamenting the dead. This lamentation was called AttaviaauAi or aitavia^ and hence d&iM^fav
ifa sigmfias the same as "^Aioww irXaieiv, to weep for Adonis ; and the songs on this
occasion were denominated Jk^v(<Sia. With the images were also carried shells filled
with earth, in which grew several sorts of herbs, particularly lettuces; in memory
that Adonis was laid out on a bed of lettuces. These were called KT}iro(, wardens ; and
hence 'AAA'i^ wrfirw were proverbiallv applied to things unfruitful and fading, because
those herbs were sown only so long before the festival as to be green at that time, and
were presently cast out into the water. The flutes used on this day were called
Tiyyp'tt from yiyYpnst the Phcenician name of Adonis ; the music, yf/ypaaitiH ; and the
songs were called ytyypovr^. The sacrifice was denominated KcSiipa^ because the days
of mourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible
demonstrations of joy and merriment ; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine,
Venus obtained that Adonis should return to life, and dwell with her one-half of every
year. This fable is appUed to the sun which produced the vicissitudes of summer and
winter."

a p. IL § 47.~Jteri(r, ColtB d'^ionk, ia On JKm. A rjeoA flhr AiMT. T»L iiU p. 98.

3. "The ^lov^ffta were sometimes called by the general name of *<Vy<«t which ,
though sometimes applied to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly belonged
to those of Bacchus. They were also sometimes denominated BacxtTa. They were
observed at Athens with ffreater splendor, and with more ceremonious superstition,
than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered b^ them ; the chief
archon had a share m their management ; and the priests who officiated were honored
with the first seats at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without
splendor, being days set apart for public mirth, and observed only with the following
ceremonies : — a vessel of wine adorned with a vine branch, was broueht forth ; next
followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs ; and after all, the phalU. — At some
of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated the poetical fictions
oonceming Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and miters ; carried thyrsi,
dnuns, pipes, flutes, and rattles ; crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir,
and other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and
exhibited themselves in comic dresses and antic motions ; some rode upon asses ; and
others drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about
the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men deranged in their intel-
lects, and crying aloud, £^7 Za^oi, Efoi Bduoc'i ^ Taxxic, 'I^/?a<^, or '16 Bauexje.

The great festival, Awi^ia /KyaXa, was sometimes called doruro, or rA war* Saro, be-
cause celebrated within the city of Athens, in the beginning of spring, in the month
"B^nfioXuaw. It was sometimes by way of eminence called Aioviwrfa, because it was
the most celebrated of all festivals of Bacchus at Athens, and was probably the same

as Aitfmoiti flp^i^ioTCpci.

The less, Atoifiaia imcp^i was sometimes called rck kot dYpo^i because it was observed
in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the former and greater festival, and
was celebrated in autumn, in the month Uoatiiabv or ToftpXibiv. Some are of opinion,
that it was the same as ^m/^ia Xjjyaxa, which received its name from Xirva; , a wine-
press."

There appear to have been four Attic festivals in honor of Bacchus ; the Atov^ia
nr dyp^t tne A^ata, the 'ApOtarinua, and the ^tovwrta xar &rv. Other festivals in his
honor are also named.

la oor Plate XXV. fif .«».we have a Baecbaate dancing with a thyraai in one hand and a wine
eap In ibe other ; in fig. /, anotlier Bacchante with Bonie musical inttrument in each hand, per-
haps the enuU. A male reveler is seen on the altar of Bacchus, given in the Sup. Plate SO.

Ct SrASn, BM. LiltGneqiM, VOL iL p.S,Meitad P. V. §7. a-On faliMkorBMelnis,wet]M P. H. §ft9; P. IV. ^es. i-Sc*
apaUmg, In ibc AMaoiIL dw BerL Acad. 1811 ; tad A. JSeU, Vom UnlenehMe im AttiMhm LartM, AsUiMlaria, kc. in lb*
AMuiL dcr B«L Ac I8l9.

4. "The *EX «« a f via was a solemnity observed by the Celeans and Phhasians
every fourth year; by the Pheneatse, the Lacediemonians, Parrhasians, and Cretans,
but more etpeeially by the Athenians ^ every fifth year, at Eleutu^ a borough town of
Attica. It was the most celebrated solemmty in Greece, and was, therefore, by way of
eminence, called r6 frarrqfMa, the mysteries, and rtXcrii. It is said by some to have been
instituted by Ceres herself, when she had supplied the Athenians with com in a time
of famine. Some say that it was instituted by king Erectheus ; and others, b?
Enmolpas.

32 P

170 ORECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

It was diyided into the fiiKfA and luySXa fitMr^ta, lesser and greater mysteries ; and
then the latter were in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her daughter Proserpine.
Mutp^ fMrrfj^a, the iesser mysteries, were observed in the month 'Avdumipiiav at Agrs,
a place near the river Ilissus ; and the fuyaka ^'xmrpia, greater mysteries, were cele-
brated in the month BoifV/ttoty, at Elcusis, a borough-town of Attica, from which Ceres
was called Eleusinia. In later ages the lesser lestival was used as a prei)aration to
the greater, in which they could not be initiated till they had been puritied at the
former.

About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and
were admitted to the greater mysteries, the secret rites of which (with th« exception
of a few known only to the priests) were openly revealed to them, and hence they
were called ffopoi and hrSimu, inspectors. Persons of both sexes and of all ages were
initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiation into these mysteries was consi-
dered a crime of a very neinous nature, and formed a part of the accusation for which
Socrates was condemned to death.—^AU the Greeks might claim initiation into the
mysteries ; but the people of every other nation were excluded by an ancient law ;
and persons convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they
had committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred from these
mysteries.

The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned with
myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called (twruOi mfxd;, the mystical temple,
or fixT7966Kos ioftdf, which was an edifice very capacious (P. II. ^ 63). At their entrance
they washed their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to
present themselves with minds pure and undcfiled, without which the external clean-
ness of the body would not be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to
them out of a book called ircrpa>/ia, from vtrpa, a stone, because the book was only two
stones cemented together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was called
Upoipdv-nK, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned answers. Soon
ajfter, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they
were, appeared bright and resplenderit with light and radiant fire, and instantly was
covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hollow sound was heard, and the earth
seemed to groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called
awir^iOj intuition. They were then dismissed in these words, Ktfyf , 'O/iR-af. The gar-
ments in which they were initiated were deemed sacred, and emcacious in averting
evils and incantations.

The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called Mo^xp^^ torch-bearer, to
whom it was permitted to msft-ry; the second, «n)pyf, the crier; and the third, 6 trl
0<afif5, from his ministering at the ahar. 'Itpo^rtK is said to have been a type of the
Great Creator of all things ; iaiovxpSf of the sun ; *fqp»f , of Mercury ; and o ad /^oi^rj,
of the moon.

There were also certain public officers whose business consisted in seeing that all
things were performed according to custom. Of these was ^acriXedf, the kmg, who
was one of the archons, and who was obliged to ofier prayers and sacrifices at this
solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregularity was committed during the
festival ; four c«r(^i7rat, curators, who were elected by the people, and ten persons who
assisted at this and some other solemnities, and who were called Icpoirotoi, from their
offering sacrifices.

This festival continued nine days, and from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of
the month BotfipofuCw. During this time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or to pre-
sent any petition ; and they who were found guilty of such practices were fined one
thousand drachms, or, as others say, put to death.

On the fourth day of the festival, they made a solemn procession, in which the
xaXaOiop, holy basket of Ceres, was earned in a consecratea cart, crowds of persona
shouting as they went, XaFpe, Ai?/i>}rcp (Hail, Ceres). After these, followed certain
women called irnrro^^i, who carried baskets in which were contained carded wool,
grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy boughs, a sort of cakes called
^^aif , poppies, &.C. — The fifth was called 'H twi* Xatardiav itftepa, the torch-day; because,
the night following, the men and women ran about with torches in their hands. It
was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who could present
the largest ; and this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Pro-
serpine with a torch lighted at the flames of -^tna. — The sixth day was called laicoof,
from lacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompa-
nied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle,
and bearing a torch, was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, in a solemn proces-
aon called loocof.— On the seventh day were sports, in which the victors were re-
warded with a measure of barley, which was the first grain sown in Eleusis."

Xabnuom, ArdMBoL OrMa.-OD the Etmainlu MjrrtwiM, Me tbe refamcei Kivaa P. IL ) A— A full aceooat of the GfMk D]r»>
tmim H ici*«n in limbiaj-Brouwa; Huloira de U CiTiliation, Mor. et Rslif . dn Qnta.

5. The es9ito<p6pia was a festival in honor of Ceres, sumamed ^nr/io^^poc (Ugifera
or lawfciver), because she was said to have fiirst taught mankind the use of Uws. It

p. m. RELIOIOirS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 171

was celebrated in many Grecian cities ; by the Spartans, the Thebans in Bceotia, the
Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — *' But the Athenians observed this festival with the
ersatest show of devotion ; the worshipers were freeborn women (it being unlawful
tor any of servile condition to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the
charges ; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three talents.
These women were assisted by a priest called Ynfftatnr^dpog, because his head was
adorned with a crown ; and by certain virgins, who were kept under severe discipline,
being maintained at the public charge in a place called Beaitotpopciov. The women were
clad m white apparel. — Three days at least were spent in making preparations. Upon
the eleventh ot Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein
the laws were contained, went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept ; whence
this day was called 'Avo^, the ascent. Upon the fourteenth the festival began, and
lasted until the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a /a«f , sitting upon the
ground in token of humiliation ; whence the day was called Ni^onta, a fasi"

Ct Mto'.Bnrd^ ed. p.STB^maaufl', De ThoBwphorik. WntSil. 1820. %. On the Aits of Um aockali, ice Jtfbrin, I/tJnf*

JBJtaBH,cliRic*AiicieM,ae.iathelfem.dbr.«aitf.dlwAuer.ToLiY.p.Sa '

6. ** The Ilaraffirraia was an Athenian festival in honor of Minerva, the protec-
tress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius, who called it *ABnvaia ; and it
was afterwards revived by Theseus, when be had united into one city all the Athe-
nian people, and by him was denominated UavtiBfivaia. Some are of opinion that it
was the same as the Roman Quiruniatria. At first it continued only one day ; but it
was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebrated with great magnificence.

There were two solemnities of this name, one of which was called M«y«A« IJova^^yaia,
the Great Panathensa, and was celebrated once in five years, beginning on the twenty-
second of Hecatombaeon ; the other was denominated Mtxpd nacad^yam, the Less Pana-
thensa, and was observed every third year, or, as some think, everv year, beginning
on the twemieth or twenty-first of Thargelion. In the latter were three games, ma-
naged by ten presidents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who con-
tinued in office four years. On the first day was a race with torches, in which first
footmen and afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the
grnter festival. The second contention was ti>a»ipiai dywv, a gymnastic exercise in
which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these
games was near the river, and was called from the festival UavaBnvaXKdv. The third
was a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the subject proposed was the culogium
of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and also of Thresybulus, who had rescued the repub-
lic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oopressed. The poets also contended
in four plays, which from their number were called nrpoXoyta. Besides these there was
a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viil. 55. — Pausan. i. 27.
% 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with
a crown of the olives which grew in the Academy, and which were called fi^piat from
fi^, death, or from /ccpof, a part. There was Ukewise a dance called Pyrrhicbia, per-
formed b^ bovs in armor, who represented to the sound of the flute the battle of Mi-
nerva with tne Titans. No man was permitted to be present at these games in
dyed garments, under a penahy to be imposed by the'dyuyo^frf^, president of the games.
Lastly a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, to which every Athenian borough contributed
an oz ; of the flesh that remauied, a public entertainment was made for the whole
assembly ; and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed.

In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were observed, but
with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other matters. In
particular, at this solemnity was a procession, m which was carried the sacred n-orXop,
garment of Minerva. This KhrXas was woven by a select number of virdns, who were
called ifyaanKoi, from ifiyoVf a work, and who were superintended by two of the
iffii^4p»t, and commenced their employment at the festival XaXxtTaf which was on the
tlunieth of Pyanepsion. The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered
with gold : upon it were described the achievements of Minerva against the giants, of
Japiter, of the hAt>es, and of men renowned for valor and great exploits; and hence
men of courage and bravery were said to be flfioi vnrXov, worthy of being portrayed on
the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the procession with the vhXoi
were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine buih for the pur-
pose in the form of a ship, upon which the irhrXos was hung in the manner of a sail,
which was put in motion by concealed machinery. The vhrXot was thus conveyed to
the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to toe citadel, where it was placed upon
Minerva*s statue, which was laid on a bed strewed with flowere, and called nXaxti.
This procession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, and of all
ages ajid conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, by old women, car-
rying oUve branches in their hands ; and hence they were called ^oXXo^^i^ot, bearere of
green boughs. After these came middle-aeed men, who, armed with lances and
Docklen, seemed only to respire war, and who were accompanied b; the uentmi, so-
jonmen, carrying little boats as emblems of their being foreignera, and therefore
calied moi^in^dpoi, Mat-bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojournen'

172 ORBCIAN ANTKHTITIVS.

wivea, who were called ^>^cup6potf from carrying water-pota in token of aemtade. These
*vere followed by young men, who sane hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were
crowned with millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose features,
shape, and deportment, attracied every eye, and who were called iroior^pot, from their
carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the
sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one who, becaose be was chief ma<
nager of the public processions, was called dfoct9bapo(. The virgins were attended by
the sojourners' daughters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were
thence denominated eKiain^6poi^ umbrella-carriers, and 6i^po^6poif seat-carriers. It is
probable that the rear was brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at proces-
sions, and were called itavia^uaH, The necessaries for this and other processions were
prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose between the Pmean gate and the
temple of Ceres ; and the management of the whole business belonged to the 99fto^
>AKti^ who were appointed to see that the ancient customs were observed.

Tbe PiiMtluaik pioceHkw b rapraMtad on tha fricn of ibe P»Tt!wM».-9M AuoH, Antiq. of AOmm, dtad P. IV. f MS. I—
riHonli,SeiilptoradaPhi1haioa,citariP. IV.$190. 4.~A mall bat badniM view of tb* Acnpolb aad the rkattbMMk pfoe»>
■ion w (iven ia SoyA Fottar.

On tb« faiival, ef. MabiMom, Inh. OffBe.-Mto'.-Iflid. Quart, am. xlv. 617.-S A. mukr, ItealhaMiea.

AiDong the monaroents of ancient art still In preservation are ceitain vaees called Panaikatak
P'attSf as they are supposed from inscriptions on them to have been aoiually emidoyed to eoBtaio
the sacred oil bestowed upon victors in these games as a part of their prize.

Seei'.O.ibT>n«tai,oatbePua!beiwicVas«t; io tba TnnMct. of tba Roy. Soe. of Lilmtore, nA. iL p. lOi. Load. l»L--lk
Cmyhu, Vaaet daot Im aadeM hiaoint wafs daot lai fMi«c% in dia Mem. Atad. Inaer. sxOi. SO.

§ 78. The great publifi eamei of the Greeks were also a part of their reli^ioas
customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were originally established
in honor of the gods. They were always begun and ended with sacrifices. It
also entered into their design, and was their effect, to render religion more
attractive by associatioit with sensible objects, to bring into nearer contact the
several portions of Greece, and to stimulate and pubHoly reward superior
talents. — The exercises of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore
the common name lUvta^Xov, They were running, leaping, wrestling, throW'
ing the ditetu, and hurling the jaxelin, or boxings which some put in the place
of the contest with the javelin.

Sea Jttrtfft, eo then eiefciMa, (la Lnlta dn aiieiew-.Pa«{lat, Orana, niaqua, fte.) is tba JAm. da VJUad. dai /iwer. voL B.
p. 822 n.-0. P. PkOipp, Oe Pralatblo tim Qainquaitio. Bcri. Itt7. &

§ 79. The race (fioofioi) was beitween fixed boundaries, the starting-plaoe
(a^£0i{, i3ax|3b$), ana the goal or end (oxotco;, Wp/ia), on a piece of groond
measured off for the purpose (avXo$, atddwv), 125 paces in extent The racexs
were sometimes dad in full armor (oTfXtrodpo/itot). — There were also chariot-
races and horse-races.

Those who only ran once over the stadium were called <rraiu>ip6iiin ; those who ran
over the space doubled (MaoSos), that is, both to the goal and back, were called ^aoXa-
ip6ltoi ; those who ran over the space twelve times in going and returning, i. e. twenty-
tour stadia, or according to others only seven stadia (<{6Xccpff), were termed (^Xcqb^/m.
The goal was sometimes called Kaivrrlip; because, in the jiavAof and the 66)^o(ps, the
racers turned round it. — The prize (50Xoy, 0pa0tlov) was commonly merely a crown of
olive, pine, or parsley.-— —The term idXiiTts was appHed to horses which performed in
the horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon one of which the per-
former idyA^mrrK) rode to the goal, and then leaped upon the other. In the chariot-
race, two, three, four, or more horses were employed to draw the chariot (^a) ; hence
the terms ^cdpei, ridpcnoi^ mpioipoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the
course twelve times (6v(aiaea6p6not). It was an object of emulation among the weal^y
to send chariots for the race to the public games of Greece.

Oadoyit, Lea Coanet da Cbetau ct dc Chan dan lea Jeax Olympiquea, in tbe Mem. Acad. buer. viil. S14, 990,* ix. S80L~
iiu^trim. da Qutney, Sur la Coune annea at lea oplitodrenea, in Iha Mtm. dt fAuldhrt, CUsaa ^BULttLH. Ane. v6L iv.
p. 185. with fleam. On the OlfBipie Slorfnim, cC Land. Quart Jto. teL t. p. in.

$ 80. For the leap (oXjcta) also boundaries were marked, tbe place from which
(jSfliT'^p), and the place to which {(fxafipia) it was made. This exercise was
performed sometimes with the hands emp^, but oflener with metallic wei^^ts
m them, usually of an oval shape (jaxttjpfi), sometimes with weights attached
to the head or the shoulders.

The distance leaped over was called itavi». The point to which the performers vreie
to leap was marked by dig^ng the earth ; hence its name from m^rru. The phnse
wniiap ^ rft Inafiftbntf applied to signify excess or eittravaganeei was taken from this
exercise.

p.m. SXLI0I017S AFFAIRS. PUBLIC OAMEf. 173

5 81. Wrestling {Ttakij^ xfyta^f^tix^) was commonly performed in a covered
portico (tvorof), Uie combatants being naked, and makin? the most violent
exertions to throw each other to the ground. When one had done this with his
adversary three times (o f pi.'a$a$)» he received the prize. There were two modes
of this exercise, one in the erect posture (6p^Tid7<jrj), the other in the lying pos-
toiB in which the parties contended rolling on the sronnd {aifax%tvoHdXf^ and
o^M^ffc; or aevxtexif). — When wrestling was united with boxing, it was called
HoTxpaffcoy or Ilafi/idxioi''

After the names of the candidates had been announced hy a herald, they were
matched by lou For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as many balls as
there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two balls, and those who
drew the same letter were antagonists in the contest. In case of an odd number, he
who drew the odd lot was called i<t>cif»s, and required to contend with those who con-
quered. A competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or by holdingxup his linger;
hence upe SamXw became nroverbial to signify confess that you are conquered.

In the stiict wrestling, blows were not allowedf, nor in boxing was it proper for the
competitor to throw his antagonist ; but in the Pancralium^ both modes were prac-
ticea by the combatants (irayxpanaoTfiu or nay^axpi).

$ 83. The quoit or discos (St'ffxo;, 00X0$) was made of stone, brass, or iron,
of a circular form, and was thrown by means of a thong (xoA^dtov) passing
through a hole in the centre. He who threw the farthest took the prize.

1. The discus was about three inches thick and ten or twelve in diameter. Some
state that the iUncos was of stone, and the oSKt^ of iron ; others that the former was
careiollv made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron ; the difference may have
been wnolly in their form or shape. — The exercise is said to have originated with the
Lacedaemonians;

2«. The hurling the javelin (^f<^ff, cUrdKruris) was practiced ehher with the hand
alone, or by means of a thong attached to the shaft.

In Plate XVII. fig. T, is M«a a Javelin with the thong (anMiUim) attached to it.

$ 83. Boxing {itvytirj) was performed with clenched fists, around which they
sometimes bound the cestus (^fta;), i. e. a thong or piece of hide loaded with
iion or l«id. The chief art in this game was to parry the blows of the antago-
nist, which were usually aimed at the face.

The combatant was called n^«nK, from ir6f , a fist. The cestus, originally reaching
00 hudier than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbow and sometimes to the
shoolaer, and at last came to be used both for defence and attack. I'he Ifiavng
were oif several kinds ; those termed fiecXtxai gave the softest blows ; and the i/tCpfUfices

Sve the most severe. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often
!t thdr lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows
were caUed irJina.

Betides tbeee ezercleee of bodily strength and agility, there were at the public gnmes of the
Gneefca conteets in mueie, poetry, and rhetoric, of which menlion ie made in the Archeology of
Literature <cf. F. IV. ) 116, ( 66).

§ 84. The four most mnd and solemn games of the Greeks were the Olympic,
Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, which were called by way of eminence Sacred
game* {arfCtvi^ tcpo^).

The fifst and most distinguished were the Olympic^ named from the place
Olympia in £lis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. By some, Jupiter
was considered as their founder; by others, an earlier Hercules belonging to
the Idcan Dactyl i; by others, Pelops; by most, Hercules the hero, who was
the first victor in all the exercises, except in wrestling. They were renewed
by Ipbitus, a contemporary of Lycurffus, about B. C. 888, and afWrwards by
Chorcebus, B. C. 776. Afterwards they were an object of special care to the
people of Elis. Several inspectors (dxvf at, /^dov;^ot) had charge of the ex-
terwd anangements, under the direction of a chief inspector (d».vtap;t^f).

1 u. Those who wished to appear as combatants were obliged to spend ten months
at the Gymnasium in Elts, practicing the games and various preparatory exercises unde*
the Bistruction of the judfges, who were in the Olympic games especially termed
*£X>tf««&'ir«j. The order in which they successively engaged in the contests was decided
by krt. The prize was a crown or wreath of olive (fftfriwj).— Among the Olympic
victors, Alcibiades was one of the most celebrated ; the names of thirteen others Pm
dar has preserved to posterity by his Olvmpic odes. Statues were often erected to the
ocmqaerorB in the grove of Jupiter. Tneir fame was spread the more widely on ao-

p9

g

174 GRECIAN ANTIQU1TIB8.

count of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the games from evenr p«f
of Greece, and from Asia, Africa, and Sicily. Originally females were not allowed to

attend. The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month 'E^aroft^auMf, an-

swering partly to July, and continued five days. They gave rise to the custom of
reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. Each Olympiad consisted of four
years. The first Olympiad is generally considered in chronology as correspondiiig
with the year 776 B. C.

2. One judge at first presided over the games; afterwards two; subsequently there
wore twelve ; then eight, one bom each tnbe of the Eleaoe. The place, where these
assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (Trpoyvfiir&r/iara) of the combatants*
was called 'EXXrivoSucaTov. They took the most solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes im-

lanially. Although women were strictiv excluded from witnessing these games at
irst, they were afterwards allowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them.
Originally the contests all took place in one day ; but at length several days were de-
voted to them, and sometimes a day to processions and sacnfices and to the banquets
given to the victors. The Olympic games were celebrated under the Roman empe-
rors ; but were abolished A. D. 394, in the reign of Theodosius.

3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games
exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between the
different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who
thus constituted the great assembly (Ilav^yi^O of Greece. Olympia was in fact called
vayKoivos x^^a, the common country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery
are also mentioned as natural eflfects of the various athletic exercises performed at them.
They could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, historians,
and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions.

SanerofVi B9tnm, p. 19.-0. WatCt Dh*. oa An Oljmpie giBM, In hk TiuhI. of Piodar, dtod P. V. ) Sa S^-Cl Aibtf^ Allf.

Ttoorlc, daw of artida Pfntfar.-nirluMirf Hbt. flf Oraaoa. Tm mra partkalar aceonti of tba gaaaa, Oiam, Uvhar «•

AmrdBuat dar OlTspbdMa Splda ; la Ma KUm SdkH/(cn.~£r«iat, Olynpia ote Dantellvi dar groMa OlyBipiifikaa SfMc
Wian. 183S. 8.

§ 85. The Pythian games (nv^a) were celebrated upon the Crisssan plains,
in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from the surname of
Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and were a commemoration of
his victory over the Pythian serpent. They were instituted either by himself,
or by Amphictyon or Diomedes. Originally they were held at the beginning
of every ninth year {iwattijfiii)^ af^rwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning
of every fifth year (^fyfouti^piO. The Pythiad was sometimes nsed as an em
in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from the
3d }rear of the 49th Olympiad, B. O. 583. As a reward or prize the victors
received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown of laurel.

1 u. The contests appear to have been at first only in musk, and to have been re-
warded with silver, gold, or somethinpf of value. The song called ntA«^ v^, which
was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it
consisted of five or six distinct portions, which represented so many separate parts and
steps in the undertaking and achievement. Of the same import was the customary
solemn dance, composed of five parts.

2 II. All the exercises in use at the Olympic games were gradually introduced into
the Pythian. The Amfhietyont had the oversight of them ; to these the candidates
were required to present themselves. Nine conquerors are especially celebrated in the
Pythian odes of Pindar. The si>ot where these games were held was a plain between
Delphi and Cirrha, sacred to Apollo.

3. The Pythian games were somelimes called KfL^tKtvowiKh iB\a, because tbey were under
tbe care of the Amphictyons. Tbe particular pereoni appointed to take the overaiirht ortbo
gamea were called 'EirtucXijr^i ; who also acted as Judgea. Thev were aasiated. In keeplpg
order, by the itacriyo<p6pot. Tbe Oreek statea aeat, to attend these gaoiea, peraona teraned
Qs(ap6i and TlvBaierdt.

§ 86. The yemean games (Nc/tna or NtfUMo.) derived their name from Ne-
mea, a city in ArgoUs between Cleone and Phlius, in tbe vicinity of which
they were celebrated. They were held every third year (fpicrt^pfrxm) so as to
fall on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to oom-
pute time by Nemeads. The sapenntendents and judges were selected from
the neighboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonae, and were persons distin-
guished particularly for their love of justice. Their dress was black, because
the games were first instituted as a funeral solemnity (dywy iitfedftoi^ in honor
of Ophelte8,orAnohemoras; although others state, that they were instituted and
dedicated to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lioa. The prize of

p.m. RELIOIO08 AFFAIRS. PUBUG GAMES. 175

the yietor was a crown of parsley (duyoy). Ten conquerors in tbe Nemean
games are celebrated by Pindar.

Sm FilfjfiBH, Lm Jeoz Neecftw, in the Man. Mad. Inter, vol. Dorfii. p. 29l

$ 87. The Isthmian games (*Io^^(a) were so called from the place of their
celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Peloponnesus
with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, a son of Ino
and Athamas, who under the name of Palssmon was received by Neptune into
the number of sea gods. Others represent Theseus as the founder of the
ffames, and Neptune as the god to whom they were consecrated. With the
CofiDthiana, all the other states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were ex-
cluded by some dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. They
were held at the beginning of every third year (fptsf^/pcxot), and were attended
with the musical contests as well as those m all the athletic exercises. The
prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of pine ; for a
period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The judges were at first
selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his
Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancra-
tiasts, who gained the prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time.

Ib our Plale XVI. are teen various forms of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8 represents
tke Istbrnian crown; fig. 9, ihe crown of myrile ; fig. 10, the laurel.

Solon eetablif bed by a law that every Athenian, who gained a victory at the Isthmian games,
should also receive firom the public treasury {PltA. Sol.^) a reward of one hundred drachms. —
The triumphal odes, in which the praises of tbe victors were celebrated, were termed E-pinikia.

■m Wmrim, ia Om Mm. Jkad. hua-. toL v. ih », SI4.— ZXhwi, io hii edilion of PimUr j d P. V. ( eOl— JErauN^ Die Pyllun,
MMMta,«BdIMkniaB. CLf88L&

$ 88. On account of the great estimation in which Athletics were held among
the Greeks, and their intimate connection with religion and the interests of the
state, the subject deserves a few additional remarks.

1 H. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as bodily ex-
erases, pursued with earnestness and zeal ; but it was commonly used to si^ify those
more frequent and violent bodilv exercises, which were so much practiced m Greece,
especially at the eames already aescrihed, and which were viewed as an essential pert
of education, and constituted a great object of tbe Gymnastic system. Many of those
who bad enjoyed full instruction therein, made these exercises the mam business of
their life. Such were called oShput and dytovunSn. I'he teacher of the system or art
was called yrfvaoHK and fwrdpxw, superintendent of a f«vr^, which was a covered gal-
lery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from the -noor
being made smooth and level. Although the Athletce were not strictly in the service
of the state, yet they received great honor. I'heir whole mode of life was conducted
whh reference to augmenting their bodily strength, and they submitted to many rigid
precepts. In most of the exercises they were naked ; in casting the quoit and the jave-
fin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, they ren-
dered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered
themselves with dust or sand, in order that they might take better hokl of each other,
and avcxd too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally tbe groimd, or surface of
the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery.

2 u. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an examination
and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges ((i^XoO^ai, dytavoOkrai, 'EXXoiD^urai)
Trexe appointed, whose number was not always the same, who decided concerning the
I»ize, and excited the combatants by animated exhortations. The rewards of the con-
ouerors were the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of
ineir names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, statues, solemn pro-
ceaaions, banquets, and other privileges and advantages.

Fw tUmnmiA icmaiti oo fhii •abj«ct, ms P. IV. ( (B, § 64.-0. F. A. Hcdiheinur^ Vsrnch efam Sntcsns der Erxiebnag d«r
GriacbaD, Dea. 178&. 2 roh. 8. a work very iiolnidi-f* oo thh topic and oa Gnekn •dacation geDenlty.— Cf. JaUn't TttM'm on
GrsMpuka. Norlbaaipt IttS. i.^-Jnur. (fuart. Bn. toL iii. p. I2&— Airctte, Hiatoiic dc« Alhlaia, ia tha Bat. de PJkad. dtf
Awr. ««L L p. ni.— P. /U«, Da Ba AttalcCka, Ac Li«d. liSS. 4. ; aho ia Oroncvku, *oL viii.-A MbnuriaUt, Da Aria Oyai-
aatfka. AimL 1872. 4.— F. M, Pudauditu, Da AtblaUiani cv^r^nt la Pulotn OrMoran. Rom. 1756. 4.->f. H, KrwH,
Thnfemmi odcr wJMcaMb. Dmldlaag der Gynaaalik, AgoakUk, and Folspida der Bdlenen. Haila, 1636. 8. with piatae.

^ 89. Dramatic representations or theatrical performances, among the Greeks, be-
Icmged appropriately to religious festivals; and had their origin, in fiict, in religious cere<
monies, particularly in the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus at Athens ; thiti
circumstance is more fully noticed in the Archaeology and the History of Greek litera-
ture : see P. IV . ^ 66. P. V. ^ 36, ^ 37, and 47. Some account of the structure of the
Gieek theatres is given under the head of Architecture ; see P. IV. ^ 235. Besides

176 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

what is said in the sections referred to, a few rcmftrks may be added properly in this
place, respecting the machinery and the performers.

1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical eotUricances,
Among these were the following: the QeoXoyitov, a platform concealed by clouds and
supporting the gods in conversation ; the "Mrixavrj and the Tcpavof, iiisiruments employed
to bring a ^od or other personage suddenly upon the stage, or wiihdraw him or lift him
into the skies ; the Aiupat, ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air; BfovTttov
and the KepavvovKomToir, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning.

2. The number of actors (wnwcfjirai) in the whole of a play was of course various ; but
no more than three at once appeared on the stage (<rKn>'h) in the pan appropriated to
speakers (Xovnoy). Although the author of the piece represented was sometimes obUered
to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by profession were, as a class, of fow
character and loose morals. — In order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and
the sound spread over the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed ; among
these were the brazen vessels (*C"«) resembling bells, which were placed in different
parts of the structure. — ^In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were con-
cealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise,
.^schylus (cf. P. V. ^ 39, 61) introduced the regular mask {irpovoxirtTov, pcrsotia) ; which,
ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or at least had a mouth so
prepared as to increase the sound of the voice, 'i'here was a vast variety in the form,
color, and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and
condition ; no less inan twenty-five classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius
Pollux ; six for tdd men ; seven for youn^ men ; three for maU flaws ; five for female
slaves; and four (or free women. I'he tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head
and hair (called SyKos) to heighten the stature of the actor; and for the same purpose, the
traj^c actor wore a very thick-soled boot {KAdapi-os, cft^of). Of comic masks forty*three
varieties are specified ; nine for old men; ten for tfoung men; seven for nuUe slaves; three
for old vxfmen ; fourteen for youtig vpomen. The rx>inic mask for the oldest roan waa
called irajnroy upwroy. Besides all these there were masks appropriate to the satyric drama.

RflpraMBUtiOM of wvarti aDCinl maikt nny be Mm In our Plato XLIX. cf. P. IV. \ 169. I. See SeMegd, od the Dfwna. Lcct.

HL— JUbnfO. fliir lea rnuqna dea Anctaiw, io the Mtm. rfe i'Ai«riltil, C 1 1 ■ ■ e ^Biat. tt Lit. 4>ic rol. I VS, vii. S5.— Montr;,
(OB tue of mMki br loereeiiac Um power of the voice), in fbe Jiitm. dt r/iw(.,CUtta daZiLalAttiix Jrci,Tal. v. fhlB.— See
Atao(2S&S.

3. The Choir (x»p^) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the actors ;
yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. The Chorus was maintained at
vast expense ; one source of which was in the dresses and decorations, which were of
the most splendid kind. See P. V. ^ 37, and the references there given.

^ 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the spec-
tators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were
built at the public expense, were at first free for every person. In consequence of the
contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Athens, under which a
fee for admission was demanded. This was fixed, for a time at Inast. at two oholi. But
under the influence of Pericles, another law was also enacted requiring the proper ma-
gistrate to furnish from the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one who
applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was
termed Qsoipuca xp^itara, and the magistrate, Ta/ita; rw BuapuctSv. The number of specta-
tors was often very great (cf. P. IV. ^ 235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description
of their crowding to the theatre.

Trwoda efA*Mdiani$ (u cited P. V. § IBS. », eh. xi. Cf. ilw «*ii. Ixx.— Itarttricmy, Nonbro dei picoM qa'on reprawptoieni ea
■D joor a Atbeoea, in the iitm. Jkad. Inter, xxxlx. l72.-Oii Greek ihealrlcal oerfcrnttiicns «'• P- V- H 8S-«7.r-LenA Quarl
Jb». xU. Iia-/. Pmidfit, in the Bibl. Rtpotitory, vol. L of 2d Seriea, p. 448.— JBII^, u died P. V. ^ 86.

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS.

•

$ 91. Afler what has been already said (§§ 33, ss.) of the original circtim-
stances and constitution of the Greek states, we may confine ourselves now to
their characteristics and peculiarities in later times. The account of the various
changes of their constitution and the consequences thereof belongs to history
rather than antiquities. The latter, properly considered, will treat chiefly of the
civil regulations of the most flourishing republic, Athens, without overlooking
those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were dis-
tinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, although they had also
many points of resemblance.

$ 92. The early political changes at Athens have been mentioned (§ 39),
Afier the kings, whose power was greatly circumscribed by the chiefs of noble
families, and of whom Codrus was the seventeenth and last (1068 B. C), the
(*<hief magistrates were the Aichons. When these became despotic, Draco

T. m. CIVIL AFFAIB8 IK THE LATER A0B8. 1T7

f684 B. C.) introdoced a code of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by
uieir seyerity. Recourse was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished
all the laws of Draco, except the one respecting marder. Solon changed the
form of soTemment in many points, diminished very much the authority and
power or the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judicial inquiries,
and thus transformed the aristocracy previously existing into a mixed and mo-
derate democracy.

OfeteCI«fliaUnarfheAUMBiam,eCO.iHMfeltMi,DeB«poUk>Atbai]«sllvBa. l^. BU. lOS. 4.—C.P.Ltmqui,m]ii
CHritoHaa d^AlbAiM, io Jfem. ^ rJMiliil, C I a • ■ « to 5efciM« Jfor. <c iU vd. iT.~Z: r J^^

iiika StatahvOaaMr. la Ei«IUi tnnri. iBlifled, FtoUtkaJ Aatiqnitla oT OraeM. Qir. ISMw & Aa iaipiofad edltkm of te
miifmi F^L i> l9m^WkdtmmMth,mdMil^^K, Ik JfBBmawii, StMlwichtd. AHwUiqBW. Cola. IMO. a

$ 93. Originally the people had been divided into four iribe$ (4»vXcU), and
also divided, according to their places of residence, into a number of boroughs
or wards {^/loi). Each tribe likewise was subdivided into three curia (^por-
pUu, t^) accoidingto their consanguinity, and each of the curisB into families
(yfM^, f peaxo^e;)* But Solon divided the citizens according to their wealth
into four classes ; i. Ugvtaxo6t.ofuSifwoi, those who gathered from their fields
in moist and dry crops, at least 500 fiiiifivoi, ; 3. ^IrtHtis^ those whose grounds
yielded 300 fUitfivoi, and who were able to maintain a war-horse (trcrco^ ftoXt-
futff^o^); 3. Ztvyita*^ those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) fU6itwoif
and who owned the space of one acre or ^cvyo; ; 4. 0^e;, those who haa any
less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly of the people
($ 106), but only the first three of the aboVe classes shared in the burdens and
expenses of the state, and therefore they alone coald receive offices, and from
them alone the senate (/SovXi;, $ 107) was chosen, which at that time consisted
of 400. Solon also advanced the authority of the Areopagus ($ 108), as he
gave it jurisdiction of the most important criminal cases.

$ 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about thirty-four years.
Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus became sole master of the
state, and notwithstanding all opposition, continued such until his death, 528
B. C. His two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded him. These were
soon stripped of their power; Hipparchus being slain by Harmodias, who was
offended on account of his sister {Thuc, vi. 544) and was aided by his friend
Aristogiton ; and Hippias being driven into banishment by the people. After
this, the constitution received a new form under the influence of CUsthenes.

The number of the tribes (4»v9uu) was now increased to ten. From each of
these, fifty senators (fiox/Ksvtai) were yearly elected, so that the Senate consisted
of 500. After this the power of the people was still more increased. Aristides
effected the abolition of the law of Solon, which excluded from offices the low-
est of the four classes of citizens. Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes,
deprived the Areopagus of a great portion of its power ; he also occasioned many
important changes m the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower
classes, and by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained, and
the w^ay was opened for the ochlocracy that soon followed.

$ 95. After various changes in the government, Athens was taken by Ly-
sander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the thirty tyrants,
who were, however, deprived of their authoritjr after three years, by Thrasy-
bulus, and banished. In their stead, decemviri (d<xadov;to*) were instituted,
who likewise abused their power, and were exiled, after the former democracy
was restored. This form was retained until the death of Alexander the Great,
when it was overturned by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain
narober of nobles or chiefs. After the death of Antipater, Cassander committed
the republic to a lieutenant; and under Demetrius Poliorcetes, it enjoyed again
freedom and popular power. With some changes, this state of things con-
tinned until the time of Sylla, who in the Mitbridatic war conquered Athens
and subjected her to the Romans. The final destruction of the city happened
towards the end of the fourth century by the hands of Alaric, king of the
Westgoths.

^ 96 (. Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. Its circuit was
•boat one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. Its topography is given more particular!?
23

178 ORECIA.N ANTIQUITIES.

in the Epitome of Claaaical Geography (cf. P. I. H 104-116) ; here we shall only name
some of the principal buildings and works. One part of it was the citadel, which lay
upon a steep rock ; this at first constituted the whole city under the name of Cecropia,
and was afterwards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the Acropo-
lis were the ilporiXata, PrmvyhBa^ the UapBevov^ or temple of Minerva with the famous
statue of this goddess by Phidias, and the joint temple of Neptune Ereciheus and Mi-
nerva Polias. In the other portion (which was called the lower city), the temples of
Vulcan, Venus Urania, Theseus, Jupiter Olympius.andihe Pantheon sacred lo all the
gods, were among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered porticos, ihe Pa-
cile (cf. P. IV. % 74) was the most renowned, and adorned with the most magnificent
paintings and ornaments. The Odeum, built by Pericles, was devoted to musical and
literary exercises (cf. P. IV. ^ 235. 3). The name of Ceramicus was given to two
exicnsive spaces, one within and the other without the city, the former enriched with
beautiful edifices, the latter used as a burial ground. 1 here were several market
places (dyopai), with different names according lo their specific uses. The Gymnasia
also, and the Baths, the S»adium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the Cyno-
sarges, the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the remarkable and interesting
works which adorned the city of Athens. The three harbors, Piraeus, Munychia,
and Phalerum, should likewise be mentioned.

For a view of the Parthenon, see Plate XXI. flg. 1 ; In the same Plate, fiff. S, It the temple of
the Winds ; fig. 3, the temple ofTheveus.— Aviewof the Parthenon tn its ruine as given by Hob-
hous«, ii seen In the Plate on page433.— For ruin* of the temple of Minerva connected with that
of Neptune Erectheiis, see the Plate on page 30.— For a plan of Athens, see Plate I.

§ 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were either
fcouttu, free citizens ; /i*«f otxot, free commoners, resident aliens or sojourners ,•
or $ot)9u)t, sloDca. The first class was the most respectable; the last, the most
numerous. The number of resident foreigners, however, was not insigoificant.
The right of citizenship was, in the flourishing times of the republic, a high
privilege, which was conferred only upon men of honorable descent and dis-
tinguished merit, and upon such not without difficulty, since the agreement of
six thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were those whose
parents were horn at Athens, or at least one of whose parents was bom there ;
and those of the latter class held a lower rank» and privileges in some respects
less than the former.

1 u. By Cecrops the Athenians were divided into four tribes (cf. $ 93) as foIk>ws ;
1. Kticpmrls, from his own name ; 2. 'Avr^duy; 3. 'Ajrrata; 4. IXapaAia. To each of these
tribes belonged several districts, boroughs, or wards (<^7/<oi), of which there were at
length 174 in Attica, and which difiered from each other in various points of manners
ana customs. The names of the tribes were afterwards changed, and the niunber in
creased to ten (cf. ^ 94), finally to twelve.

Ob the AIJ^m of Attica, «• tV. M. Ualie, in the TnntaaUmi 0/ UW Jloyal Jbeirfy qf LOawtun; a fUl MenuBt, with • pol
uuip.— A compile liit ofibem is givea in WaehuMuWi HiMorkal ABliqnitMb

2 u. The number of citizens. mXtrat, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040 ;
and in the time of Demetrius Phalereos, according to a census taken by his directioD,
B. C. 309, the number was 21,000.

3. From the census of Demetrius, the whole population of Attica, including aliens
(cf. ^ 99), women, children, and slaves (cf. ^ 99), has been estimated at 5(X),000.

On the popnlillon of Atliet, we .0OcU'« Public Ceonoaiy of Atbnw.— CUnlm't Fuli, AppaDdiz.-.«fMcr. Quart Jiigiiiar, mk
Fvaloouioi or Aocicat NitioiH, voL ix. p. l4S.-^tUmU Cnix, 8«r U popnlalim de I'Attiqns, ia th« item. Jhad. Inter. voL idviS.
p. 147.— Ajid Utronnt, in tba Mm. itPbtttUut, CUitt ttHUt. ct IM. Jne. tol. tL lOS.

$ 98. The fii'toixot were those foreigners, or persons not natives of Attica,
who became residents in the city or territory. They took no part in the govern-
ment, being admitted neither to the assemblies of the people nor to public
offices, but were subject to all the laws and usages of the land. They were
obliged to select from the free citizens a patron or guardian {rCftoatdtiji)^ in
whose name they could manage business and maintain actions in the civil
courts, and to whom they must tender certain services. Certain services to the
state were also required of them, besides which an annual tribute (/uci'obxuNr)
was exacted ; ten or twelve drachms for each man ; and six for each woman
without sons; mothers with sons that paid being free from the tax. Some-
times exemption from taxation (dfcxcta) was conferred upon individuals as a
leward for meritorious services. Demetrius found, by his census, 10,000 of the
class of foreign residents.

The term Ih/oi was applied to foreigners remaining in the city or countr7[ for a short
time only, as distinguished from the foreign residents, although it was sometimes applied

PLATE XXI.

180 GRECIAN AMTKIUITIES.

to the latter ; it. was alao applied reciprocally to persona who were mataally pledged,
by forixier acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with hospitality.

If a metic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was liable to be sold for a slave.
Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because he had not the means of paying k; but
was redeemed by Demetrius.

Among the services required of the residents was the carrying of a vessel with water,
Upiat^la, which the married alien women were obliged to perform to the married
females of Athens in the ^and Panathenaic procession ; the daughters of aliens were
obliged on the same occasion to render to the Athenian maidens the service of carrying
parasols (attairi^pCa). See ^ 77. 6.

Ct £Mnl<Ch)ix,Sur kiMeloeqiiM,ac ialba Jlfan. 4» VJkaLimbtm, lA zWUi. p. in.

$ 99. The slaves (dotOot) were of different sorts, those belonging to the pub-
lic {iotffuM Bijftoatoi), and those belonging to private citizens (6txitai). The
latter were completely in the power of the master, and were often treated with
great severity. Yet they sometimes purchased freedom by their own earnings,
or received it by gift as a reward for merit. Public slaves also were oflen set at
liberty, when they had rendered the state some valuable service. Freedmen
▼ery seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed
ifnUMi, In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and miserable
as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, than in other states
of Greece, especially in Laced semon. The slaves of Attica amounted to
400,000 in ^e time of Demetrius.

The term ductnK signifies one liting in the fame house tpith any one ; 6utov6fttt^ signi-
fies one who overeeea one'e affairs, and is sometimes applied to designate a particular
slave, since slaves were sometimes intrusted with the omce of stetoanl ; vnrpcnK, sasrd'
fying primarily a rower, and secondarily an attendant, is also sometimes appliea to
slaves. Xen. ^em. ii. 10.

At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their dress
or the cut of their hair; their coats must be with one sleeve only (Inponaoxc^) and the
hair cut in the servile form (^pil d^dpamicjini). They could not properly bear the names
of Athenian citizens, but must be called by some foreign or low name. They were
allowed to bear arms only in extreme cases. The punishments inflicted were severe ;
for common offences they were whipped (/larrtyiaw) ; for theft or running away they
were bound to a wheel and beaten (Art rpo\ov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to
grind in the mills OcfiAciivcr) ; sometimes they received, upon their forehead or some
other part, the brand with hot iron (<n-£yfca). In givins testimony in court they were
also subject to torture 09a<ravof).— >Yet at Athens tne slaves could bring civil actions
against their masters and others for violation of chastity and for unlawful severity
(iV?pc(tv tixtj and ducias SiKrf). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple

of Theseus, from which it was held as sacrilege to force them. Slaves carried on

the whole business of the Athenians ; even the poorer citizens depended on them.
There was a sale of slaves on the flrst day of every month by merchants {dpipmrodsKA'
virXoi) ; usually announced by a crier standing on what was called the vender's stone
{rtpoHip \iAs), The price vaned according to their abilities. Many were skillful in the
elegant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were only qualified to toil in the mines.

8m JMtcmrar, Gwebkhta sad Zwtuid dar SeUvere^, ftc (Biatory of Slavery ind Vi!lam(« (a Orewe.) Beri. 1788.-01
jUhaueui, ▼>. (cf. P. V. \ 123).- JtoTiAanfy, GraodriM d«r Oriech. lit p. IM.— JMU. Ayo*. and QuarL Obmrver, No. xvit. p. ISS.

§ 100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to the mode of
their appointment to ofllce, into three classes, the ^{^eipot'oi^fot, the xTLT^purot',
and the dtpcroc. The first named were chosen by the whole people raising the
hand ; the second were appointed by lot by the Thesmothetss in the temple of
Theseus ; and the last were chosen by particular portions of the people, by the
tribes and the districts, from among their own number. — ^Tbe magistrates were
reqtiired, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of their admi-
nistration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten accountants (xoytertat) and
ten directors or judges (iv^ot, called also liBtaatoi).

In choosing the Archons and other msgistrates by lot, the ordinary method was to
put the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets {ynvAKia\ into an urn with
black and white beans («<>a^i); and those whose tablets were drawn out with white
beans were elected.

On the AUtcaian nacMntai, cf. Btemkard, la the Htm. dt VJhad. da Inter, vii. 61.— Of. Jvihu PtOuXj OaoaiMtieni.

$ 101. The most important magistrates were the Jrehons (ap;t<»^e$). There
were usually nine Aichons, chosen by lot (x3ii;p(of o»), but subjected to an exa-

F. m* CIVIL AF9AIR8. KAGI8TRATB8. RETSNVBS. 181

niintioii as to their qualifications, before they were admitted to take the oath
and enter their office.

1. The examinations of the Archons waa two fold ; one in the senate called 'Avd-
<pv«, the other in the forum, called AoKiitoffia, before the Heliaatm {riXtamut ^110^
Among the points of eumination were the following: whether their ancestors for three
generations had been Athenian citizens ; whether they had a competent estate ; and
whether they were free from bodilv defects (d^is).

2 «. The^ first of the nine in rank was styled Ardum by way of eminence, h *AfX!^ ;
sometimes ^Apx^u' ^i'tytf; , because the year was named from him. He attended to the
domestic affairs of citizens, decided differences which arose between relatives, had the
care of widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festivals and
solemnities, and aLso of theatres. — The second was called Kingt or archon king,
ip»t^ ^onXe^. To him were assigned certain duties pertaining tO religious worship,
which were originally performed by kings exclusively ; he was, m-general, overseer of
religious affairs. — The third, named JPoUmarch^ noX^op;^, attended to the domestic af-
fiuxB of strangers and soioumers, ]>erforming the same duties in reference to them,
which the first archon did for the citizens. In the time of the Persian war, he had an
important share in managing military affairs. — The six remaining archons were called
Thamoiihetm (desyioWnii), and were chiefly occupied with legislative affairs ^ they also
todc cognizance of such judicial matters as did not fall under other jurisdiction.

3. The three principal archons usually selected each two assistants, called ir^^t,
aneuoTtj who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been subjected to the same
examinations with other magistrates, and being required to render in the same way an
acoonnt {JtiMni) of their office.

$ 103. Another magistracy at Athens was that of the Ekven^ 6t "EvScxa, ten
of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, and the other was their
secretary (ypoft/M^rcv;)- They were properly overseers of the prisons, and di-
rected in the execution of capital punishments. In later times they were also
called vo/Ao^vXaxe;. — ^These were different from the Phylarehi (4>vXap^ot), who
were originally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards command-
ers in war. The Demarchi (firiuapx^^) performed similar duties in relation to
the districts {Brjaoc). — ^The Af^ii^ixpz^^ ^^^ ^^^ <^^^^ o^ ^^^ public register (»^v-
xtA/ui), and made scrutiny in the assemblies, and collected fines of those not
present. They were six in number ; but were aided by the To^ot'ot, who were
a son of bailiffs or deputy sheriffs, to the amount of 1000. — The No^o^fiVat
were also 1000 in number, and were charged with the examination of past
laws to see if any were injurious or useless, and with some minor matters of
police.

Besides the magistrates above named, there were many others connected with the
treasory, the senate and assembly of the people, and the courts of justice ; the most
iniwrtant of them will be noticed in connection vrith those topics. There were also
varioQs other public functionaries, who were not, strictly speaking, magistrates, but
ought perhaps some of them to be named here.— 'The T^rvpc;, oratorsy were ten in
nnmber, appointed by lot to plead public causes in the senate and assembly ; they were
sometimes called 9vyi?yopoi, and were a different body from the aivducoi^ who were ap-
pomted bjr the people.— The UporPctSj ambassadors^ were chosen usually by the peo-
ple, sometimes by the senate, to treat with foreign states. When sent with full power,
they were called npu0sU ah-oKparopts ; generally their power was limited (cf % 143).
They were usually attended by heralds (.Kfipmsss) ; this name however was sometimes
given to the persons sent on an embassy.— We may also mention the notariest ypafifta-
-nlf ; besides the great number employed by the various magistrates, there were three pub-
licly chosen ; one by the assembly of the people, to recite before them ; and two by
the senate, one to keep the lawsj and the other the records in creneral. The office was
not at Athens very honorable, and was sometimes held by well educated slaves, called
' i(cf. ^gs).

$ 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts : 1. Ti}^, rents from public
domains and other public property, and duties paid on articles of commerce and
on certain pursuits and pereons ; 2. ^opot, iributes^ or annual payments exacted
from allied or subjected cities and states ; 3. Ti^^Eiaf a, fines, which all went to
the public treasury, except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and
one fifteenth xppropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were patrons
of the city ; 4. Aftfovpyuu iyxvxXtoi, periodical liturgies, or services, in which in*
dividuals were required, for a time, to perform certain duties or maintain certain
public establishments at their own expense. — Besides tho ordinary, the neces-

188 ORB€IAN ANTIQUITIES.

sities of the state sometinies required an extraordinary leveniie; and than
special taxes {ito^opai) laid upon citizens and residents formed an important
resource.

Under the rAiy, or rents, we may include the income from the mines ; the most im-
portant of which were the silver mines of Laurion ; the ore from these was termed
ipY^irtf ; they were regarded as a grand source of wealth to Athens.

atBUekh^oa ifafl MIm oT Lauin, ia hto PobUe Ecowaiy.

Under the 96ftot or tributes, we may include the duty of ten per centum (dwanr, San*
mrijfHow) imposed on vessels passing from or into the Euxine ; which was exacted at
Chrysopolis (cf. P. I. ^ 160), which the Athenians fortified for the purpose.

Under Tiftnuara or fines, must be included the fees or deposits (rpvraveta)^ which were
demanded of both parties before beginning a suit in court ; these deposits were large
in proportion to the sum brought into question by the trial. To the same head must be
referred also the proceeds of confiscated property (ArfiiArparo).

Under the laturffies {XurovpYiat) were included chiefly three, X^pnyia, yvp.v<ifftapx.la^ and
hniaaii. Those, who rendered the first named service, (xop»?yf^) were required to pay
the expenses of the whole chorus employed at the public festivals and theatrical exhi*
bitions (cf. % 89. 3). Those to whom the second was assigned were obliged to furnish
the oil and the various necessaries for the wrestlers and other combatants in the public
games. In the third service mentioned, certain persons {Juma-mpei rwv ^cXwy) provided
entertainment or banquets, on the public festivals, for a whole tribe. — These services
were alwavs assigned to the most wealthy citizens. In the time of Demosthenes there
was the following system : each of the ten tribes pointed out 120 of the wealthiest dti-
sens belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected were divided imo two portions accordinjr
to their wealth, the w&in» vMom and the ifnoir v>ff6am ; these two parts were esch formed
into ten classes or companies, called eviAiiopiji; from the ten uvft^at of the more
wealthy, 300 of the wealthiest men were selected, who were required to furnish the
republic with the necessary supplies of money and with the rest of the 1200 to perform all
extraordinary duties in rotation. If any one of the 300 could name a person more wealthy
than himself, he was excused. The residents (/i^moi) sometimes performed these
services. — Besides the ordinary Xttr«i^(ai above mentioned, there were some extraordi-
nary ; particularly two in a time of war, rpuipafocta and lio^opa. The rptHpapx^i were
obliged to provide necessaries for the fleet and building of ships. The ito^efiomts were
required to contribute money according to their ability for different purposes.— The
manner in which they performed such of these services as were assigned to them, and
the degree of expense and splendor to which the^ went, became sometimes a subject
of emulation among the rich and ambitious Athenians.

On tlM wiiela iBbjeet of tha Athniu mMHiM aad tspMidltn*, we Jhtg. BBdJf$ StatldiaaaMllug dv AllNwr. Mtt II fa
tebriftm. Bcri. IftlT. B mliw 9. Kvf. Tn^. PuMk Eoonony of Atbm. Lend. 1»L-^C BanvofP$ Utam, ch. fUi.~JC«
fird, ch. xxi. Met l.^Xmiapham, On tli« R«ftDuei of Alliea (d P. V. f I86L i).

0BtlwTrimrdi]r,SBcU^UrfcaBdaBQlMrdu8MwmnteAtUMbnSluta. BwL IStfl

$ 104. The legislative control of the financial concerns belonged to the peo-
ple, and their administration and management to the senate. But a particular
ofiicer was at the head of the trea8ury« called tajuuH t^( »om>^( ^po0o5ov, be-
cause he had charge of the public leTenue, and also tofuof t^i Stota^^cu;, as
haying charge likewise of the public expenditures. He was chosen by the
people (x^tfototfia) for four yean.

1 u. There were many subordinate oflicers in the department of finance. One class
consisted of such as attended to the collecting of the revenue, and to the previous ar-
rangements. I'o thu class belonged the mtkHrat, ten in number, one from each tribe,
hsving the care of whatever the state sold or leased ; the vp6icropes, who received all
fines imposed ; the hnypoi^is, who assessed the imposts and tributes ; the itayptt^Tg^
who enrolled the names of fiimilies and individuals, and assessed to them their part in
raising an extraordinary revenue ; the iirX«yE7f , who collected the taxes, duties, rents,
&c. T<Xb}ya( were, properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public
lands or other public property, and paid the rent to the officers.— A second class con-
sisted of such officers as kept the moneys collected, and distributed them for
public uses. Of this class were the An6hcnu, ten in number, chosen by lot ; and the
rafiicu niv apuv xfint^riaif, who had the care of the treasures in the temples (^ 28).— Such
officers as were empiojed in keeping or examinmg the multifarious accounts of the de-
partment may be considered as a tnird class, including the y^fiarcff, derktt and 4«^
ypaftfiaretSf under-derka, and the dimYpa/peU^ckecking-elerks or attditort. Among the latter
may be named particularly the dyriypo^c^ riis dtouefintK, controller of the expenditure.

2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here.
The public edifieet and other works were built only at a very great expense, and could be
preserved in order only at a great annual cost. Pericles expended many thousands of
talents upon works of architecture ia Athens.— ^The fettwalt were another soaroe

p. nZ. CITIL AFFAIRS. AXPHKriTONS. 183

tf expenee; wlwii we oomider their number, and think of the cost of the eecrificial
nctiiDs and offering, the banquets, the processions {nofural), the theatrical, musical, and
gymnastic entertainments, and the rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that
unmenae sums must have been expended in maintaining them.-^Much was expended
also in distributions or donations to tie populace (maM/uu, 6ia66(nis) ; the most important
expenditure in this way was by the itbi0oMa, or distribution of the oboli to each poor
citizen as tkeoric money (^ewptirrf, cf. ^ 90). — Means of support for poor and disabled
citixens ('w^#«to<), and also for children whose feiihers had foUen in battle, were likewise
fomiabed from the public treasury, and formed another item of expense.^In addition
to these, we must mention the expenses of the gonertunenty including the salaries of all
the various magistrates and officers of dinerent grades, and the wages of the senators
, ouff^ 099Stvmai), and of .those who attended the assembly (/iwrfidy UKXnauumiOi). — The
•opport of the army and navy required also large sums of money even in time of peace.
In time of %var, the expenses, not only of this class, but of many others also, must

have been greatly increased It mav be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate

of the amount of these various expenditures. The comparative value of the precious
metals in ancient and modern limes must not be overlooked here, as they were, at least,
three times as valuable then as now.

$ 105. Among the public assembHes of the Greeks, which took into consi-
deration the affairs of the whole state, the council cf the Amphictyons (ffvvodo^
A/i^xrvovcdv, A/i^exrvovi,a) is especially worthy of notice. According to com-
mon opinion, it was first instituted by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion ; accord-
ing[ to some, by Acrisius, king of Argos. The twelve people or states united in
this council (ro tCtv *ExxiJywv cwih^wv) used to meet by their delegates, two
from each city ordinarily, at Thermopylc; from this circumstance the dele-
gates were called rTi^oTopoH and the council itself JlDXata. Sometimes they
met at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in spring and autumn,
imless on some extraordinary occasion. The design of the council was to
adjust and settle public national disputes or difficulties, and the dele^tes had
fill! power to malce salutary changes and regulations. Some very important
disputes, as e. ^. between the Plataeans and Lacedaemonians, and between the
Thebans and Thessalians, were terminated by this diet, which was continued
to some time in the first century after Christ.

Some writers have taken a different view of the ori^n and design of this council*
They ae»rt that the Amphictyons were only an association of persons residing about
or near Delphi, or some other place ; d^urrvoyct being nearly equivalent to c^urrtove; ;
and that the assembly was originally held simply for the purpose of mutual gratifica-
tion and religious festivity, having no precisely definite common object, and being dif-
ferent from a confederation for mutual defence, or a congress for mutual deliberations.

1k» bifee view of Amwnfi, la bb Lehrtadit died S 8e.-«niUr ■ that of Snnlt CMc, Dm Aackm GoaTtrMrana IWen*
Sa. hr. ITMl— The political dnnder ud dMign of the oooadl it maiatained \ff F. W. TiUman% Vtbn den Band der Ampbic
•yoMB. B«ti ISia B -Cf. ain Ma/ord, Hirt. of Gmce, eb. iii. leet. X-ThMwall, UkL of Greece, c. z. xliii.— Da Faloia, flur
'rtiA»iiliie«r<«,ia QmMtm.itPJkad.4mhuer.kc Toi.l& p^ 191 • aod ▼. p. 40&— T. leloni, Dbeoane pnC. to hie £</■ </

$ 106. Assemhlta of the people (^ixxXijaCai) were very freqaent at Athens, and
had an important influence. In these the acts of the senate were canvassed,
laws were proposed and approved or rejected, magistrates appointed, war de-
clared, and the like. The place where they met was either the market-place
(ayopo), or a broad space near the mountain called the Fnyx (Ilin)!), or the
tbeatfe of Bacchns. The ordinary assemblies {ixxXfjauu xvptoc) were held
monthly on established days; the extraordinary {ix^tj&iat avyx^^t^toi) were
called on pressing and important emergencies.

1 «. These meetinga were managed and conducted by the nfo/rifeK, the IX/xy^i, and
the 'EAwmnK. Before entering upon business, a sacrifice, usually of a young pig, was
oflered. Then the herald ordered silence, ofiered a prayer to the gods, and stated, on
the direction of the IV^c^i, the subject to be discussed by the assembly, and tiioae
above fifty years of age were first invited to speak ; after which any one above thirty,
of 6ir character had the Uberty. Whatever came before the assembly had already been
diKVBsed in ihe senate, whose decision upon it iwpo0o6\tvitat ^hi^fui riif 0ovXfis) received
its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called emphatically a
decree, ifi^ur/u. Often, however, a decision of^the senate without the connrmation of
the assembly was in force for a year ; at least it was so in those cases m which, in
order to avoid too frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity.

2. The people voted by stretching forth their hands (xet/wrvyfa), and sometimes by a
* > of bslkiting in which beans («m^i) and stones (i/^O were cast into vessels pm«

184 GRECIAN ANTK11TITIE8.

pared for the purpoie (k&Soi), — ^When the business was completed, the UfwrAntf dismissed
the assembly.

Sm O. r. SokBmMfi, D» Oonittk ▲flwntaaMDai, lib. IIL Ofypttfnr. 1819. &— JL fTUitoi, Oo lb« Atb«iaB AmeaUJm, is
amUk't Diet of Aaliq. p. m.-yiritloplian*t, m hit EKisknndintnt,

$ 107. The senate or higher council (j; ava jSotOiij) consisted, according to the
arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500 ; and was therefore styled the senate or
council of the 500 (« /SovXi; tdv ttivtaxoaUaw). In earlier times it consisted of
400, and in later of 600 members.

1 u. The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished a ready
division of the senate into ten egual parts. Each of these divisions, containing 50
members, took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, in an order of rotation
decided by lot : and the members of the division having this charee at any one period
was called npuravei; for the time, and the period itselt was called Hfivraifda, The 50
Upvrdvcts were subdivided into 5 portions of 10 members. These portions attended to
their business in rotation, each for a pejriod of 7 days, and the members were called
Up6efpoi for that time, the name being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding
officers. From the npsdpoi was elected the 'EirwranTc, who was at their head, and oi
course at the head of the senate, but held the place only for a single day .^— it was the
business of the Tlpvr^if to assemble the senate, and propose the subjects of delibera-
tion. They also conducted the meetings of the people, in which however they only
presided in connection with nine np6eipot, who were chosen out of the other divisions
of the senate and had an 'EnurrdrtK at their head. The Upvrdvtti had a common hall,
where they passed most of their time daily, called the Prytaneum (nporayetoi-'), near the
senate-house (BovKcTov, and BovXevHiptov).

2u. The members of the senate expressed their opinions standing, after which the
votes were taken. They received a arachma ((Jjp^oc^) per day for every day^s attend-
ance. The power of the senate was very great.

3. The senate commonly assembled every day, excepting festivals and days consi-
dered as unlucky. The senators were all required to take what was called the sena-
torial oath (t<Jv 0ovkiOTiK6i> Spicev) to do nothing contrary to the laws. In voting, they
cast each a black or white bean into the box or urn (r(JA»f, Kaitam^) prepared "for fhe
purpose ; if the number of white exceeded that of the black, the decree or resolution
was affirmed ; otherwise rejected.

$ 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than the JJreopo'
gu8 at Athens. Its name, 'ApetoTtoyof, signifies Hill ff Mars, and was derived
from the circumstance, that the court was held on a hill so called, near the cita-
del. Others derive the name from the tradition, that the god Mars was the tirst
criminal tried before this tribunal. The time of its establishment is uncertain,
but was very early, before the age of Solon, who did not institute it, but en-
larged its jurisdiction and power. The members of this body {'Apti07ta/y%ta*)
were originally the most upright and judicious citizens of every condition, but
after the modifications made by Solon, only such as had been elected Archons.
Their office was held for life. All high crimes, as theft, robbery, assassination,
poisoning, arson, and offences against religion, came before this court, which
inflicted in such cases death or fines. At first its sittings were only on the last
three days of each month : but afterwards they were more frequent, and at last
daily ; they were always in the open air, and at night.

1 u. The sitting was opened with a sacrifice, upon which both the accuser and the
accused took an oath witn direful imprecations. Then, either personally or by attor-
neys, they urged their cause ; but no ornaments of rhetoric, no attempts to move the
passions, were ever allowed. After this the judges gave their decision by means of
white or black stones. As the court always sat m the dark, the white pebbles were
distin^ished by holes bored in them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive
the White stones, which were votes to acquit the defendant, and one of brass to re-
ceive the black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. The sen-
tence was immediately put in execution. In early times the dignity and purity of this
tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards its character fell in the general corruption
of morals.

2. In their oath (iuoffieta) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the Furies (ox/ivoZ 9m2).
In tne trial they were placed upon what were called the silver stones {ipyvpovi), the
plantiff on that of Injury i^pti), and the defendant on that of Impudence {ivaikta), or
of Innocence {Avairia). — The brazen urn stood in front of the other, and was called S
IfitrpooBsi/ ; also & K^ptos, because votes cast into it declared the accusation t>alid ; and
h ^ov^Tov, as it decreed death. The wooden was termed h fcr&tii, h ikvpo^^ or i Aiw>. .

BMpMtii«t]Mpcbb]««iBduidwkiav,cr.JnMm'fNofctorMt*r,p.71. ODtteAiwpKvud the otter cMrtoeTAtkeB^

p.m. CIVIL AFFAUbB. ATHENIAN COURTS. 185

wmJ.W. mghr. Die AAMlacte Oericblmrfwaac. (Ma. IBS. &-ie B. A MUir, Der AMkIw PMnm. Vtar BOdMr.
&Ili|i !««. a.-wlUrf Omay«^ VAnof»t», ia the JAm. .frodl /mer. vii. 174.

$ 109. The 'E^Yiu were also persons of distinguished merit, who constituted
the court called 'E^ci IIoMuiJ^ from the statue of Minerva Tsaid by some to
hxwe been brooght from Troy) in the temple, where it was held. Its origin is
ascribed to Demophoon, a son of Theseus, and by others to Draco, who, if he
did IMA first institnte it, certainly modified it anew. The judges were fiflyone^
selected from noble families, five from each tribe, and one appointed by lot, all
over fifty years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court ; but referred
to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leaving to the "E^itoM juris-
dietioD only over homicide, injuries followed by death, and the like.

There were three other less important courts belonginsto the class which had
cognizance of aetioru concerning blood {irtl tCtv ^i/bxi^).— The court *ErCb
^gk^vu^ was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius, and took cognizance of
eases where the defendants confessed the fact but pleaded some justification. — '
The court *£» npvfeu'eHp was held at the Prytaneum (cf. $ 107) and investi-
gated cases of deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had
escaped.— The court '£y ^pta^toi was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus,
and heard the causes of such criminals as haa fled out of their own country. —
Id all these courts the *E^tac presided and pronounced the sentence.

Tke mm^trates called ^XoSmtiXcU are said to have bad toine duty In the court Iv npvrantta ;
especially in the caaes termed &i rw di^x"**' SUai, in whicti tbe instruoienta of homicide were
rabJeetHi to trial. In the earliest times there were four of these magistrates ; one perhaps from
each of tbe foar tribes.

$ 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another class having
jurisdiction only in civil cases (iiti tuv Sfifju>ttxiav)^ of which there were six.
The most important was the *H?icaca. Its name was either from oXm^, mulii"
tudcj on account of the throng attending it, or from 97'xco;, sun, on account of its
being held in the open air. The number of its judges {Tjktaatai, dtxodf ac) was
not uways the same ; the whole number amounted to 6000, who were chosen for
one year by lot; out of these were taken the number requisite in each particular
trial or action. The least number that sat was 50 ; sometimes the whole 6000
were assembled ; the more usual nnmber was 200 or 500. It was the province
of the ^ctfuo^VoM ($101) to introduce the action into court {haaytw dCxtpr hi
to ^xaatripiw), and full power was giyen by them to the judges to investigate
and decide the case.

1 u. When the accused did not deny the jarisdiction (iropsypa^j^) or rec^uest a delay
(•ssfM^ia), boih he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the parties deposited
a sam of money as security (xpin-oyeFa), and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In
doing this they were limited to a definite time, measured by a water- clock (icXapiifa),
The decision was given in the same way as in the Areopaeus (^ 108) ; and the de-
faadant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to tne ^Eviaca (^ 102), and in
CMC of fine, to the UpijcTopes or 'EkXoysU (^ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was
cast into prison ; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish-
ment also, fell upon his soti.

2. The baiMor deputy employed to summon {fepemaXtXe$ai)tYie defendant before the
Tkesmothets, or witnesses before the court, was termed xXiTTtop ; sometimes one or
two of the witnesses whose names were indorsed upon the declaration (X^^f , iyKhiita),
toffeiher with the plaintiff, were the summoners {Khiriipcs). The oath of the plaintiff
befofre the opening of the trial was called rrpoojiioaia ; that of the defendant, dvTuimrla ;
a name Im' both was ittaiaaata. Door-keepers (iriyKXt^) were appointed by a magistrate
to guard the court from a crowd. The amount of the security money was, as has been
fainted (i 103), m proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it
was a drachm, and called vapturr6ats ; the deposit made by one who sued for goods
confiscated by the state, or for inheritances of^ a certain kind, was termed vapaxaraPo)^,
If tbe plaintin {ituutuw) failed of proving the indictment (dtrfa) against the defendant
(^cvyw), he paid a fine called anpcKia, w hile the action (dta^ti) was proceeding or was
in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was hung up (JbrnXoOat) in one
of the moet public places of the city. The witnesses Qtafripss) were all put under a
solemn oath, which they took together at the altar erected in the court- room. Their
testimony was called for by the advocates iavvijyopot) as they wanted it in proceeding
with tbeirpleas.^

The office of the judges, Sucaarai, resembled that of our jurymen j* they were
usually paid three obou a day. They sat upon wooden benches, which were covered
34 <i3

186 GRECIAN ANTiaVITIES.

with rugs (iJ/iaBia). In addressing them the advocates stood upon eleTations called
Sfjitara. The number of prosecutions and trials was very great. There were many
in Athens who seem to have made it their business to discover grounds of accusauon
against the wealthy. These men gained the name of avKw^avTou, a term which was
first applied to such as prosecuted persons that exported figs {dtrd n>v evKa ^afwty), a law
prohibiting such exportation having been enacted at a time when there was a great
scarcity of that fruit.'

1 Sm Sir IT. Jm^t Tntue to Ihw (cL P. V. ( 104. S). • 8m /. ftMnfol, Eaqubytale tte PneUM udDH ef Jiirkiam«

OMGreckaawlRaauuih Load. tTSBk 4 >Cf. JliUArd;Hi«.flfOi«M«,clL jauU.NCt I.

3. The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — ^The
five other civil courts besides the Heliaa were those called Ilapd^wnw, Tpiybuw, T4
Kaivdv, Td M AvKOo, and T6 Mirtxoo.

• eoai^ iM JAte-.Mdtodf l0a8.--AMiiMRR, Aat Jv. PaU. Onas.— flodiMr, Fmem ud Khge^

$ 111. In addition to the ten pablic couTts, there was also a judicial body,
called U ttaefofoixwfa, conaistinff of forty persons chosen by lot, who held their
courts successively in the several districts of Attica having cognizance of cases
iBvhere the sum or value at stake did not exceed ten drachmas.

There was likewise a body of Jirbitraion, /lifwtijrai, consisting of 440 aged
men, forty-four from each tribe, holding office for a year, and authorized to
settle minor controversies within their respective tribes, but subject to appeal.
These were called xxi/pcdfoc, being chosen by lot. — Disputing parties were
allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called Sia^xaastr^M
or xo/r* iTtitpojtfiv HiaAtfjtai. Minor causes could not be entered in the superior
courts, until they had been heard before some court of arbitrators.

The number of public arbitratora or Siatrrirhi /cXqpejrof stated abore » drawn Arom a pavsa^e
In Ulplan upon Demoeihenes ; some wriiera have proposed a different reading of the passage so
as to make the whole number but forty,/our from each tribe.— The private arbitrators were
sometimes termed SiarrirSii iipe-rdi.

Chut. Joum. mil. 88a>J£ O. HudwiUktr, Uebv dn 8diiid«iclitar DilMaa in AUmd, aad den PracHi tor dsniMllMB.
Jmi, 1812.

$ 113. jSeUons or ntits were divided into two classes; public (Sixot ^i^juocruu,
xaffjyopCtu)^ such as concerned the whole state ; and private {hixoA td^u, and
dbxat, simply), which concerned only individuals. Of the former class were the
following : rpaf^^,an action for the highest crimes, as e. g. murder (4n)m>$), poison
(tapjMMov), arson (/tvpxata), sacrilege (L(po<s%fkia\ and many others esteemed
less heinous; ^acyt;, an action for the crime ot embezzling or in someway
squandering public property; *£i^eb£&$, an action against persons usurping
prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusing trial although confessing ^uilt;
Arcaywvri, an action against a criminal taken in the act ; E^ijmi, against a
criminal found in concealment and there visited by a magistrate ; *Av5poX]^^
against such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the mur-
dered person to seize three persons connected with the concealing party and
retain them until further satisfaction; 'Etaayytxia^ &n action for a public
offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or against, the ^tat/tfitai when
one was dissatisfied with their decisions. — Actions belonging to the class called
private were far more numerous, and were named according to their various
occasions.

Some of the public actions included under the general denomination of ypa^q, and
not named above, were the following : rpa^itaUnpoMtiaif a wound given by design ; /Sov-
Xcwri{, conspiracy ; iai^tta^ impiety ; Tcpoioaia^ treachery ; desertion, whether from the
army, XeunxyTpdnoi', or the fleet, Aforw^awrtoy, or from a particular station, Xw^ordfior; fri-
volous prosecution, avKo^<urria\ bribery both against the giver, tkrcv/ia;, and against the
receiver, i(opo&>Kia.

Some of the private actions or suits were the following : Mtniyopias iiKti^ an action of
slander ; Tcphvg iiteri, an action for usury ; dtKias Hfcti, an action of battery ; 0>^k, of
trespass ; xXsiri}; , of theft ; ifxoioitaprvpiovf for perjury.

$ 113. The kinds of punishment were various, according to the nature and
decree of the offeiice for which they were inflicted. Of uiose not capital^ the
following were the principal : (1) Te/ifj/Mtfa, pecuniary ^ne, called also ZfjfUai
this was sometimes aggravated by corporeal punishment : (3^ *Atvfua^ disgrace^
which was of three kinds ; first, the loss of some privilege but not of poeses-
•ions; second, the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property;

p.m. CIVIL AFFAIBS. PUNISHMENTS. REWARDS. 187

third, the loss of all privileges civil and sacred, both by the criminal himself
and his whole posterity for ever : (3) Aov3t*ta, slavery ; this, however, by So-
lon's laws, could be inflicted only on freed men, sojourners, and such as had
been disgraced (attfioi): (4) SfJ-yftara, brand^marks, by a hot iron on the
forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on runaway slaves or freedmen : (5) S'f^}^,
in which the name of the offender and his crime were inscribed on a pillar^
exposed to public view : (6) Acer/to;, bonds / 6f which there were several kinds ;
as the xv^iov (also xxoco^), a wooden collar^ which bent down the head and
neck ; the x^ini^ a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast ;
the mrt;, a piece of wood to which the offender was bound as to a pillory ; and
the 'rpo;c6$, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves who were bound to it and tortured :
(7) ^V7^9 ac(4>vytGh bani^ment^ with confiscation of goods.

t ft said to have b«6n preferred by the Greek courts to Impritonment. on account
of the expenae occailoned by the latter. The prison at Athens was termed dtantor^piov, and by
euphemism, iixtma. Prisons in different reslons were called by different names : in BcBotia,
there was the 'kvayitalovi at Sparta, the Kcoias: at Cyprus, the Klpafio; ; at Ckirintb, the K(i5( ;
at Bamos, the Topyvptu

§ 114. The Ostracism^ dctpaxusfihs^ was not, properly speaking, a judicial
punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such persons as were thought
to be dangerous to the state. The votes were given by shells, oafpaxa ; each
man marked upon his.ocr'fpaxoy the name of the person he would banish; if
the same name was upon tne majority of 6000 shells, the person was sentenced
to banishment. The most upright and most distinguished citizens fell under
this sentence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracusans did a
similar custom among them. The Syracusan punisho^ent was called llef a9Utf-
/iboij because the name was written on leaves, ^itaxo.

The ostracism is said by some to have been instituted by Hippias, son of Hlpparchiis ; others
aay by Clisthenes, B. C. about 510, who was first banished by it. It continued about one hun-
dred yearn; it was abolished B.C. about 41S, and because it was then degraded by being em-
ployed on a Tery contemptible person by the name of Hyperlwlus. Among the illustrious Athe-
aiana who were driven Uom the city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thucydides,
Cimon, and Aristides.

GriiMC L'DMncin, In the Ifm. * rjead. iu huar. ««L ziL p. II&

$ 115. The punishment of dealh, 0avafo$, was inflicted in several modes; as
by the sword, H^i^ beheading ; by the rope, Bp6%os, strangling or hanging; by
poison^ ^dpftaxov, drinking nemlock {x6vtiov) usually; by the precipice,
Kff7/i»6$, casting from a rock or height ; by the Katartovti^afibi, drowning.

Other modes of infliciing death were, by the Iravpds, crutifyine, a mode used by
the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels j To/a-ava, or beating,
in which the malefactor was hun^ on a pole ; by throwing into a pit, Bapa$fȴ, which
was a noisome hole wnth sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called also 'Opvy/m) ; by

stoning, Xido^Xla ; and by burning, Hvp. The punishment of death could not be

bwfaily inflicted upon any citizen of Athens during the absence of the sacred galley
^ sapoXsp TjNqpw) which was aonaally sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacnflce.

$ 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious persons.
Among these, were the following; (I) Ilpoedpia, the front or Jirst seat, in tho
theatres, at the festivals and on all public occasions; (2) 'Eixmv, a statue,
erected in a public place; (3) "Ztt^wvoi, crowns, conferred by the senate, or the
people, or by particular tribes and boroughs upon their own members ; theso
were most frequently a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) *Atiuub, eX'
empHonfrom taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the
contributions required for war and for the navy ; (5) S^V 9^0i$ Iv npi*ravetcd,
enUriainmeni in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally limited to a
single day ; but afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some (aUtacroc) ;
it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy men, sometimes upon whole
families, and was viewed as a high distinction. After the death of such as
had received special honors, their children and descendants enjoyed in some
measure the benefit of the same. These honors were obtained with difliculty
in the better times of the republic, but became quite common af^rwards, and
lofit their salutary influence in a stale of corrupted manners.

$ 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the wisdom of their
laws as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece is ascribed to Ceres and

188 ORECIAK ANTIQUITIES*

Triptoleraus (P. II. $ 61). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Olisthenes, and
Demetrius Phalereus, were the most disiingruished authors of the laws adopted
by the Athenians. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased with
the changing- circumstances of the state. It was commonly the province of the
npvfctvfif to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assembly was called
either a decree^ -^r^Lijfith w-hen it had only some specific application, or law^
vofioi, when its obligation was universal and unchanging. An ordinance of
Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or
additions might be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood
(cf. P. IV. § 63).

1. The term y^^desi^ates what mny be called a constitutional law, or established
orinciple, as distinguished from a particular enactment ; thus it would be applied e. g.
to the laws or Draco and Solon, althoush those of Draco were commonly called
Bfoftii, in distinction from those of Solon called viftoi. The term yiftoi is also sometimes
used in the sense of Olfiii^ a natural right or social usage or fixed custom.

2. If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to ihe flpravctt, who brought it
before the senate (/?«vX^); if the senate approved, it was called a npo/kfv\tnfta ; it was
written by the npvravu^ upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at the statues of the
'EmJyv/Mi, some days before the meeting of the assembly (ixxXv^ia); from this circum-
stance, it was also called irptf ypa/i^a.

It will not eonport with lfa« limit* nf this (kelch to detail pirticuUr AlhcviMi hwi.-Th«w n»y be faond la Sam. Mtt, Lefii
Ittiec (cf. P. V. \ U. 3), and in the work •ntii)«d JuriipnuUutia Romana U JUiea, T. iii.— Comp. Jo. MevnH Tbemia Atticm

L. B. 1624. 4.-Sec aln Pvtta't Arcliw>li«ia Grcca, bk. i. cb. uvi. The moat maarkable lawa of the Oiwks fnanlly ara

•ihibiled by npki in NiitthU BewhicibiiBf , ftc. cited \ ISL

§ 118. Next to Athens, Lacedapmon was the most flourishing of the Grecian
states, and its most remarkable antiquities should be briefly noticed (cf. § 40).
The province in which this city lay bore the same name, but was called also
Lelegia, (Ebalia, Laconia or Laconica, and was the largest part of the Pelo-
ponnesus. The city of Lacedemon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken
plain, on the river Eurotas, and was in early times, according to the direction
of Lycurgus, without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and its
edifices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a just idea of the
power and resources of the state.

On tfae dvil oonitiiatioD of tbia aiale, we naj refar to /. K. F. Jfanto, Spaila, ein Vereveb tar letkUraic der Oeaehieble end
Verfiuaung dicaea SUiala. Leips. 1800-5. S vola. &— ^tfrek, BeMibraibuDg, Ike. aa ettad ) IS— JfUllr, Htatory and Antiquitiea of
the Doric Race. TtanaL by Tttfndl and LtwU, Oxf. t830. 8 vah. B.—fV. Drummmd, Re? iew oT the GovaniBieiiti of Sparia
aul Albena.— C. P. Lmtqm, Sur la Cooalitgllon da Spaila. in tbe Meni. di Plndilut^ CI a • • e dca Scieoeea Mnr. et Pari. voL iii.

Ob the topofraphj and niiua of Sparta, aee P. L $$ IIS-I89.>-A view of Ibe nodeni tillage JfijCni, ocar ita ute, n fiveu ia tba
flate OQ page ST.

$ 119. In Lacedsraon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had received
the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, and such as had
acquired them personally. They were together divided into six tribes, of which
that of the Heraclidae was the first. Each of these was again subdivided into
five classes, called tojStu, making thirty in all. The presidents or leaders of
these were called Fipoaxf (u.

1. The first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied with
all the Spartan discipline, were called the a>oioi, or equaU; while the other cla^s were
termed woiuioveq^ inferion, including freed men and sons of freedmen, and all such
as had not fully conformed to the Spartan discipline.

C. F. Htrmann, De conditioBe atqoe orifiae oomm qui HooMBi ap. Laced, appdlati not Marii. IStt. A.'Saim ayOmr, D*
eauia lorbabB apod Lae«dsinoiiioB agrerom a^ualitalia. Marb. I S34.

2. The division into six tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some
state five as the number, not considering the Heraelida as a separate tribe. The
others were the Ai^vdrat, so called from their residing near the marsh or morass (X(>- v»)
on the north side of the city; the Kvyooo-pcU, so called from their vicinity to a branch
of mount Taygeius tenned Kvv6eo\>pa {dog' it tail) on account of its figure ; the HiToya-
rai ; the Mioooarat ; and the Alyt^Sai, who received this name because they resided near

the tomb of ^geus, Aiyc<5f. Mailer a9serts^ that in every Doric state there were

three tribes, 'YAXcr?, Ilafi^vXoc, and ^vnav&rai or Ai>f(£ve$; or the HylUan, Dymanatan,
and Pamphylian; and says, we cannot suppose the existence in Sparta of^any other
than these eenoine Doric tribes. He represents each of these as divided into ten ut^ai^
and adds, that two and probably more, yet not all, of the oi0ai of the HyUmn tribe
must have been Heraclid<B. Each of the a)/?a( is said to have contained ten rptaxnh^^
which were communities comprising thirty families. — There was another division of
vhe Spartans, into six ^Aoai consisting only of such' as were of a proper age for mili*

p.m. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN MAGISTRATES. 180

tinr lemee^-^A mibdmaion of tribes into ^p^rptoi, or yonr, or rpimttSi is also mentioned
•8 DBving prevailed^ in various places.

itmMWo'.BkLaMAaHui. u dtod f 118. vA U. pb7««L • CC ANnms ArCkwiL Gme. ■ mKktmuth, Hlitor.

AaLofGfMc*.

$ 120. It is known that the Spartans were obliged, on the birth of their
diOdren, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vi?or and soundness of
eoostitation, and to submit it to the decision of the presidents of the cu^w, or
dam, whether they were suitable to be preserved and raised ; a regulatioo
designed to prevent a population of weak and sickly citizens. The education
of the children was treated with the ^atest care. All the citizens not only
had equal rights, but also a community of goods and privileges. The lands
were, by the laws of Lycurgus, equally apportioned among them.

As soon as a child was bom, it was carried to a place called Lesche {Aiaxn) to be
examined by the elders of the &niily or clan. If disapproved as having an imperfect

frame or weak constitution, it was cast into a s^lf, called, *AjnOirait near mount Tay-
fetDs. If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to it, and it was taken
back to the father's house and laid on a shield with a spear placed near it. The

whole educadon was intrusted to the parent until the child reached the age of teven ;
then the rcjgular public education (jiytayh) commenced. The boys at this age were in-
rolled in the classes termed Agehs (dyiXat or /Sovoi, herds) ; such as refused this lost
the rights of citizenship ; none but the immediate heir to the throne was excepted ;
the ouier sons of the kings were obliged to submit to the correction of the master
(OoAnKdytf;). The discipline was more strict after the age of twelve. At about sixteen
they were called nidvat. At eighteen they entered the ^classes termed ifrfffot, and
about two years after received the appellation of ltp€tfes or ipavs, and were admitted to
the public banquets. At thirty they were ranked as men, t^fi^tf and were allowed to
imdertake public offices.

a MOir, M abem dtcd, ToL iL p. tia.

$ 121. The slaves among the LacedsBmonians were treated with great craelty
(cf. $ 99). There appears to have been but one class, viz. the JffehU ^"E^xcoiff f),
who according to the common account were derived from the maritime town
Helos C^hoi) captured by the Spartans. Others consider the name as derived
from the verb hxa, and signifying pruoners. The unhappy Messenians taken
in the second Messenian war were incorporated among the Helots.

I u. The Helots were required to cultivate the land, and perform the most laborious
and dangerous services in war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even
to (he murderous attack of the youne Spartans, especially in the custom termed
KJptrma, which was an annual legalized hunt against these degraded subjects. Yet
some among them, as a reward of distinguished merit, obtained liberty and citizen-
ship, on occasion of receiving which they were crowned with garlands and led about
the temples. They then were called hnivtun^t, or d^trat^ or vwan^is. The last epi-
thet seems to have designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights than the common
freedmen, whose rank was far below that of the free-bom. The number of slaves m
this state was very large.

2. The diperai were a class released probably from all service ; the IpwcTHpts were
slaves employed only in war ; the iunfoviovadTai served on board the fleet ; the /liOwts,
ware domestic slaves brought up with the young Spartans and then emancipated.

3. There was another class of inhabitants in the province of Lacediemon, who al-
though not slaves«were yet held in a state of subjection by the Spartans. They were
the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and dependent state ; they
were called Periaei (IkpfoMoi). They were engaged in the navy and in the army
along with Spartan citizens, and sometimes were intrusted with offices : at the battle
of Platarn there were 10.000 men of this class.

■■ipKfaiC tha IMcBd Md te Hdok, M JWHOv, vol. IL ^ l7,S0.--€^Pp»m•ias Bar l^Hd^
hm. am, S7I.

$ 132. At the head of government were two kings or leaders (op^^oycf at)*
who must be certainly descended from the Heraclidie, and must possess an
onezceptionable exterior. They did not possess the full regal authority {Hofin
^otfcXKa), but a power limited by the laws, to which they were accustomed
every month to swear obedience. In war their power was ^eatest. They had
also the oversight of the worship of the gods, and sometimes performed the
office of priests.

In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate and propose the
nbjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any question. In war thft

190 QXRCIAV AKTKlVmZS*

Spartan kings had BnUmited command (trparvyit dvmcp&mfy^ and oould even put to
death without trial (iv ^npd; vSjim). They are said alao to have had in time of war eape*
cially a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths iUmTf) $
from this number five were annually selected and employed for one year, under the
name of dyaBotpYOi^ in missions to other states. Many dissensions n-ew out of the
double monarchy {iiapxffi. The royal revenue was very great. Cl. MlUler, vol. ji.
p. 106.

$ 123. Lycurgus established a senate of 88 men, of blameless character, and
upwards of 60 years old, which was called ^Fpovtr^a, or yip<avla. The members
had an equal right of voting with the two kings, and rendered no account of the
manner of discharging their office. — ^There were also five Ephori (l4>opoi), who had
an oversight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the
rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from amon^ the
people, without reference to condition. — The Bet^tcuM were a class of offi*
cers, who were placed over the l^]3o», between the ages of 18 and 20.

The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called totnipawosf and were not required to
give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appointed only for one year.
Their tribunal (^perw) was in the forum. — The Bei^iaioi were five in number, with a

sixth as their Tf^$vi, They had the inspection of the gymnastic exercises, called
rXardyumi, because performed in a spot surrounded with plane trees ; it was their pro-
vince to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place of
council also in the forum. The common name for the council-halls of these and other
magistrates was cl^ta.

f 124. The Spartans had other magistrates; as the Nofto^vXaxc;, who saw
that the laws were maintained and executed ; the Apftodwot, to whom was en-
trusted the oversight of the women, to observe their lives and manners and direct
their exercises; the '£/i^9ti7Udpofr, who preserved order and decorum in assemblies
of the people, and attended in general to the police of the forum or market ; the
Ilv^ot, four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult oracles ;
the Ilpoteyot, who were also appointed by the kings, and had charge of the re*
ception of strangers ; the npo^txot, who had the care of the young kings as
tutors ; the lI(udovo/iot, whose office was to oversee and manage the boys pu|
under their care at the age of 7 ; the *Apfto<rt'<u, who were a sort of sherififs in
the city and province; the IloXf^capj^oc, who under the kin^ superintended the
afiOairs of war, and also attended to some matters of police in the city ; the
^Iftfta^petoA, three officers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen.

$ 125. The assemblies (ixadKrjtstait,) of the people were similar to those at
Athens. In some of them only native citizens or Sparta met; in others there
were also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia;
in assemblies of the latter class were discussed all affairs ot common interest
and importance to the whole stete. Originally the kings and senate had the
power of convening the assemblies ; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori,
who also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice {^off
xai o^ 4^9) 1 and the majority decided by the loudest acclamation, or by a
subsequent division and counting of the two parties.

The assembly composed only of the citizens of Sparta was called nurph baeXnvUi, and
usuallv met once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing arms might attend,
and, if above the age of thirty, mierht speak. '1 ne meetings were originally in th«
open air, but at a later period were held m an edifice, called <r«»^, erected for the pur-
pose.— The other assembly was called simply, or by way of eminence, iKK^niria, It
consisted of the kings, the senators, the magistrates, and the deputies of Laconia.

$ 126. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and common
meals and termed avaai/fla^ ^ci^tVca, and ^odtio, was designed for the purpose
of speaking upon matters of public importance.

In this assembly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in certain
halls, where a number of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new member
could be admitted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging to the
same. Every member contributed to the provisions from his own stores ; a specified
quantity of barley meal or cakes (/li^ai), wine, cheese, and figs, and a small sum of
money for meat, was expected from each. A close union was formed between those
of the same table. The Tegular meal was termed atK>av ; after this was a dessert called
br&ucXoi/. The men only were admitted ; small children were allowed to sit on stools
near their Others and receive a half-share without vegetables {dfia/tfiaKervTa) ; the youtU

p.m. CIVIL AFFAIIUS. LAWS OF CRETB. 191

and boys ate in other companies. At table they sat or reclined on couches of hard
oak. The chief dish was tne Uack broth {ji£\ag ^ufidf).^ The Spartans had also another
kiod of solemn feast, called mrii^ to which foreigners and boys were admitted along
iriih the citizens.*

kt««adriakcBll«i tiiiiy*», nada of a Urrj m Mf h a hhII b«a,drM io a tovMa uri but to powdar, of • aoely color, is
tato a tide bifloMb, ItaBi ibcy Mite and dnok, ban a* nay b« oadBrad ; it b good a( all Ingra of tbo day. bot a^aeiaDf aorBiaf aad
miibib «ftn to (bat patpoM tbof ntortaia Iboaodvn two or tbroe boon ia caapbt-booHO, wbkfa io Turkey abooad More tbao
iwa^akbauawniao. S k ikmfid fkalkieU hImA tfctk wmt to nmek bf Oa r«'i^iiiiiii<MH It dfMb Ul bnwwt i*
til «BKk. ootafcrtofb lb* bniok BMW caaMlb droakeiiDM^ Mir aaj otbv Hittl^ aad b a IwmloM oolntiiMB^
Mf." — • MMnmm*a AnhmA. Onoc. p. i».-Ct JtfUhr, 11. B».

$ 127. Judicial actions were very sammary among the Spartans. Eloouence
found no place in them ; no advocates were employed ; every one was obliged
to plead his own cause. There were three distinct jurisdictions, that of the
kings, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the deci-
sion of a certain class of questions. The most important (questions, and particu-
larly all of a capital nature, belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par-
ties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves.

CtjD*iiiMw,bfc. tt. cb. S3di.-€B Iba aulbnitrof Iba E|»borl, JCiiOr, bk.UL eb. vlLj aad bk. 10. ch. tt. (1^ oa AM Spajte
Coarti.

$ 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those at Athens.
The most common mode of inflicting death was by strangling or suffocation. —
Stealing was pnnished not so much for the theft committed, as for the want of
shrewdness and dexterity betrayed by the offender in allowing himself to be
detected.

I. Strangling was effected bv means of a rope i0p6xK, ffphXPs) ; it was always done
in the night and in a room> in the public prison called Aorap. Death was also mflicted
by casting the malefactor into the pit' called Kai^^ ; this was always done likewise
by night. Aristomenes the Messenian was cast into this, but survived the fall and
efected ao escape, which was considered as very wonderful. Besides the punish-
ments Zitfufl, 'Art/da, and K6^ or KX»tdf, mentioned amone Athenian penalties (cf.
$ 113), the Spartans? had Moffrfyowcf, tohijmingi which the offender received as he was
driven through the city, and Kbrrnati^ goading ^ which was a similar punishment. Ba-
ilment, ^vy^, seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence ;
but vras voluntary, and chosen in order to escape death or infamy (drtftla).

' lb*iiinn. liiTi Tit -\ H rli ITI ^aCf. TlkMu i. IS4.— i'taM-ir. iai4^^8fraALTiiL~JI^/!Drtf,BM.orOiiaM^ A.i«^

ML 4. aC£.Mai^,BM.aaiArt.Dar.«QLii.^nB^

2 m. Among the Spartans also various revfards and distinctions were bestowed on
persons of merit, both while living and after death.

3. Among the distinctions conferred on the meritorious, the Dpo^, jirti ttat in a
public assembly, was highly honorable. Much value was attached to the oZtve-enwn,
t>jum ari^voi^ as a reward for bravery, and to the thongs, BctiXmrc^, with wliich victors
in the contests were bound. But it was one of the highest honors of the city to be
elected into the number of the three hundred constitutm& the three chosen bands of
horsemen (^ 124), termed Affytfi^.— -To commemorate the dead, sutues, cenotaphs
(asoTB^), and other monuments were erected.

i 139. The legislation of Sparta had Lycorgus chiefly for its author, and was
marked by some strong peculiarities. The form of government was distin-
guished from that of all the oilier states hy its union of monarchical with aristo-
entka] and democratieal traits. There were in Sparta no written laws ; they
were transmitted orally from one generation to another; on this account Lycor-
gns styled them {r^fpa*. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed
to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and voluptuousness.
Although they underwent many alterations in minor points, they retained their
authority through a period of above 800 years.

Ctiiliily,Mbaftw»dtod,w»Lltp.W,gM. XMy»flw,oatb»Fiimyoflhaf ■wriwiwiiM(ct P.V.ilW)—'Il» wwtodtoJ

fin.

$ 130. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, the island of CreU presents a
constitution the most remarkable. It is here, as has been stated ($ 38), that
we find the origin of the institutions of Lycurgus. During the republican go-
vernment which succeeded the monarchical, it was customary to elect ten offi-
eeis annually as chief magistrates. These were called Cbsmt, x6(ffu», and were
taken only from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which was con-
salted only on important questions; it consisted of 38 memhers, who for the

192 GRECIAN ANTIQVITIKS.

most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an order of
knighis, who were required to keep horses at their own expense for the public
use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popular assemblies was not
great ; they usually did nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities.

CL JUUUar, fol. U. p. 08, OL-Htek, EraU. QfOaiaf. lOS. S fob. t.

$ 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from some traces
of them found indifferent writers. — Like the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had
public meals, which they called drdpcra.— Slaves were treated with comparative
mildness.

1. " Curiosity \b excited," obaerves Mitford, **by that system of laws which, in an
age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, in-
forced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was not
only the particular model of the wonderful polity, so well known to us through the
fame of Lacedsmon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Grecian legis-
lation and jurisprudence ; and which continued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest
sages and politicians, in the brightest periods of literature and philosophy."

S06tetfU< CMS, Dm laden foaT«rMaMnlBMM»ilb,etl4(UMkBd«Crita. ffu-. I77«.

2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bondmen
called by the Cretans ju^ia ; the slaves of individual citizens, d^aarat ; and the tribu-
taries, ifriinoi. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which tne dependent classes
were so little oppressed as in Crete. In general, every employment and profession^
with the exception of the gymnasia and the military service, were permitted (o them.
— JtfflZier, as cited ^ 118, vol. iL 5.

3. The name dvipcXa is supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, as
at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, however, had the care
of the public tables at Crete. I'he Cretans were distinguished by their great hospi-
tality; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. — MnUer,
ii.225.

The term Ay&ai was used to designate an assembly of young men, who lived toge-
ther from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. These young men,
called dysXiffTVi, were under the care of a person termed liycXanr;, who superintended
their military and gymnastic exercises.— 5ini£A, Diet, of Antiq.

§ 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Bceoiia^ a monarchical government
existed until the death of Aanthus, and afterwards a republican. Yet this state
did not rise to any great celebrity, at least for a long time; the cause 'was per-
haps the whole national character of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate,
there were in Thebes Boeotarchs, Boiotdpxw^i and Polemarchs TloaJfia^x^ ; the
former had the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military.— Bceotia
was divided into four ffrand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided all the
other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as citizens, but
never raised to any magistracy. The exposure of infants was not permitted,
but if their parents were unable to maintain them, it was done by the state.
Pausanias has recorded in his description of Bceotia many remarkable featuiee
of the later condition of the Theban state.

The BoBotlani bad a great national festival, Uanfitt^riaf in honor of Atliena Itonla, who bad
a temple near Coronea, near which the festivRl wai held.

Cf. MUfard, ch. *. net. X.^Raiml-RoduiU, Adniaktntjaa d« PElat Fedentir dci IkBotlm, la Ika Jftnt. 4t PAuMuf, C I &■■•
4*mM, i( Lit. Jfic VOL Tlii. p. 814.

§ 133. Of the internal constitution of Chrinih but little is known. It was
at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphids and Baechiads were the
most distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristocratical form was introduced,
one chief magistrate mas chosen yearly called iTovfcm;. He was supported by
a senate, r«pov0u». The assembly of the people never had equal authority ;
their power was often very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and en-
joyed a favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two
harbours so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was de-
stroyed by the Romans, B. C. 146, but was afterwards rebuilt by Cesar, and
became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Corcyra were colonies of Corinth.
The last city is specially remarkable, from the fact, that a dispute between itself
and Corinth was the occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for a
long time governed by 600 of the oldest men, called yf(djtiopo» ; but afterwards
became entirely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans.

rt Jflilfar, M ImAmcM, foL 0. p. U&

p. m. xiLrrART affairs in the later ages. 193

$ 134. Jrgoi^ like the other Grecian states, had in early times its kings.
In later times it was governed by the people divided into four tribes. It had
its senate, and another body of magistrates consisting of eighty members, and
a class of public officers called a^twob,

Ct JfUhr, VOL iL |k 144, 147.

In the histoTy of JEtoHut we may mention as chiefly remarkable the league or
confederacy between the cities of that district. This confederacy was called
the Panaetolium. It had at Thermus an annual assembly or meeting, in which
the magistrates were elected, and also a president of the confederacy, who was
called 0f pafiTyo;, and was at the same time chief military commander. This
officer was subject to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (oTtoxXrjfoc)
was a different body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer-
gencies.

8aeX. m TtUmamy DuMdlooff dar Griacb. StetamtenBga^ JAift. 18B. 8.

The cities of Jehaia also united themselves in a league, and held their com-
mon assemblies twice a year at ^dum. In these originally presided one
rpof^Mtfvii with two X^pa/triyoii and at a later period, one Sffxitf^^ besides
whom there were ten ^ri/uovpyU to attend to the public affairs of the con-
federacy.

III. MILITARY ArrAUS.

$ 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed ($ 43), was a main
trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was also conspicuous in
their descendants of a later period. This is true of the Athenians, and more
emphatically so of the Spartans, who were inured to hardship by their educa-
tion, bound by their laws and their honor to conquer or die, and inspired by
their whole national system with a love of war. These republics were ac-
cordingly the refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties.
The lliebans, likewise, for a certain period, maintained the reputation of dis-
tinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the rivals in this
respect; and although in the war with Xerxes they agreed that Athens should
command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land forces, yet they soon again fell
into dissension, and the Spartans stripped the Athenians, for a time, of that
naval superiority, for which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest
advantages.

QkGnda BUitny aAin^ SM AM, inpli, ftc. eitad 1 48.

$ 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, who were
early trained to arms, and, afler reaching a certain ag^, at Athens the twentieth
year, were subject to actual service in war. From this duty, they were released
only by the approaching weakness of age. At Athens the citizens were ex-
empted from military service at the age of forty, except in cases of extreme
danger. Some were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employ-
ment. Of those who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made
oat, from which circumstance the levying was termed xa/taypa^t or xof axo^o^
The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citizen considered it a
disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of victory were, in some degree,
a sabstitute. Pericles, however, introduced the payment of a stipend, which
was raised, when necessary, by means of a tax on the commonwealth.

At first foot-eoldiers received two oboli a day ; afterwards four ; whence rtTpa$Skt9
01^ signified a eoldier's life, and rtrfna0o\eiuv, to serve in war. The pay of a soldier in
the cavalry, termed rarotrrao-v, was a drachm a day ; a seaman received the same, with
an allowance for a servant.

Oa ft* ■*bBili of niiiDC mamy at Albam for atnordhary opeiiM, we ^ 103, 104. — On Am Bilitiry nfolalloiM, c£ Om^'
mv, Svkiloix Bilitatm da Graca, la tlw JUm. Jbad. Irua. vol. xlv. ^ 838.-CiL f 48.

% 137. It has already been remarked (§ 43), that the Grecian soldiers were

of three classes ; footsoldiers or infantry, to xs^ixov ; the cavalry, to i^' tttHtM^;

and such as were borne in chariots, to i4»' dxf!/*^*^* I^he infantry comprised

three kinds ; the u7<kixai^ heavy armed, who carried a complete and full armor.

35 R •

IM GRECIAN ANTKiUITIKS.

and were distinguished particularly by a large shield (oTaw); the ftiXtwreaty
targeteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield (^ixf •;) ; and^ the
^xm, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons.— The
war chariots were not much used after the introduction of cavalry.

The charioii, termed iptirayri<p6poit were ■ometlmei terribly deitrnetive, being armed with
■ylbei, with which whole ranks of soldiers were ftoinetimet cut down.— In Plate XVII. fij;. K,
one of these rhnriois is presented, drawn by two horses which are protected by a covorlng or

mail. It may he worthy of remnrli here, that such chariots were used by ibe ancient Briions

and Belgians, and are designated in the Roman writers by the terms covini and etneda^. iLuean,
Phars. i. 425.— rac. Agric. xxxvi.—Caa. Bell. Gall. iv. ^3.— Mela, iii. 6.) *'The covinvg wa« a
terrible instrument of destruction, being armt^d with sharp sythes and hooks for cutting and
tearing all who were so unhappy as to come within its reacb." R. Htnry^ Uiaiory of Great
Britain, (first ed.) Loud. 1771-93. ^ vols. 4.

$ 138. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consisted only of
citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were able (cf. § 93) to maintain
their horses. The iTtTfn;, therefore, at Athens as well as Sparta, held a high
jank.' Those who wished to attain this rank were first examined in respect
to their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch
or Phularch {irirtapxrii, ^^pxv^) appointed for the purpose. They were called
by various names according to the weapons of armor they used ; as, e. g.,
dxpoj3o3U0fat, who threw missiles; Joparo^wpM, who carried spears or lances;
tTt^ofo^ot'at, Ivafo^pot, xoyfo^pM, ^pco4>opot, etc. The following articles
constituted their principal armor : a helmet, broad plated girdle, breastplate, a
large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword.

The horsemen, as well aa the infantry, were distinguished into the heatjy-armed, m-
Td^paifToi, and light-annedf nn xard^tpoKnu. The ibrmer not only were defended by armor
themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates of brass or other metal, which
were named, from the pans of the horse covered by them, ffpo/icrwrt'^o, irpocrrepvicia, vofM.
fifrptJia, irapaK\cvpi6ta^ vapaKunftiiia, etc. The trappings of the horses were termed ^apa ;
various and costly ornaments, including collars, bells, and embroidered cloihs were
often used. — The ^i/i<ixai were a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, designed to
serve either on horseback or on foot. — The 'Apupamot were such as had two horses ;
called also isiroywyBt, because they led one of their horses. — After the time of Alexan-
der, elephants were introduced from the east ; but they were after a short period laid
aside, as they were found too unmanageable to be relied upon with much conBdcnce.
When used, ihey corried into battle Targe towers, containing from ten to thirty sol-
diers, who could greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, whue they were thcmsclvea
in comparative safety.

SoUcr ud Frtnt, Orig. de l^iUlioB dm b Greet, in the Mon. Jhad. huer. vii. SS, 28S.-ik Mmflnoy, La Cmderie Ofe«|aa^
to tbe nme Mem. he xll. 842.>I«rGto', Uordn equotra cbes les Greet, in lb* nmo Mtm. fte. slviii. SS.

$ 139. The chief articles of armor used by the Greeks have been already
described ($ 44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, that in later times
there were many changes, as to the forms of the articles, and the manner of
using them.

1. Tlie breastplate (9c>ap consisted of two parts, one for a defence for the back,
the other for the breast, united at the sides by a sort of buttons. When made of two
continued pieces of metal, and on that account inflexible, it was called ^apa( arcitf ;
when made of hide and guarded with hooks or rings, connected as in a chain, it waa
called ^wpaX aKwi6wT^ ; it guarded with plates like the scales of a fish, it was called
Swpaf X«rtAjrtf . The hpiBiapoKiov protected only the front part oi the body ; Alexander
allowed only this to his soldiers. — Within the ^wpaf, and next to the skin the Greeks
also wore often a defensive armor of brass lined with wool, which was termed fttrpn.
Cf. Horn, II. iv. 137, 187.

Hit tAoroxititm infis. r, of PUleXXIL ; alto oo On wwrior, tg.1. b Hr. 6^ Ibt Ihorax ntnt to ba {sajtel witb plate lik*
tiM Ktlc* of a &h ; alto in Plata XXXtV. fl«. bw

2. The shield (lunrtO when of wood was made of the lightest kind, as willow, beach,
poplar, &,c. When made of hide (lunrl^ 06tiai)^ there were usually several thicknesses
covered with a plate or plates of metal. Its chief parts were the outer edge or cir-
cuhiference, hrvi^ Tni(, «rv/rXof, mpuplpsta I the boss or prominent part in the middle,
dfuftaXdif pxaop^akiov ; the thong of leather by which it was attached to the shoulders,
TsXa/iuiv ; the rings by which it was held in the hands, nvSpran;, for which the handle^
^bcovov, consisting of two small bars placed crosswise, was afterwards substituted. Lit-
tle bells were sometimes hung upon the shields to increase the terror occaMoned by
shaking them. "Laypia was the name of a covering, designed to protect the shield from
injury when not in actual use , the word also designates a packsaddle. Various epi-
tlicts are applied to shields ; a^ifip6ns, dySpofuiKtiSf minvriKfis, indicative of size ; eirnucXoc,

PLATE XXII.

196 GRECIAN ANTIQVITIE8.

vStn^n l!raf , of shape. The Tiffov was in the shape of a rhombus, vad first used by
the Persians ; the Qvpedi was oblong and bent inward ; the Aoen^coir was composed of
hides with the hair on, and was very light; the niXni was small and light, and, ac-
cording to some, shaped like a half-moon.

lBFU!0ZZILaraMm«lfbnnor*idda;aMflc.9kfi(.4,fig.7. Sec ilio Plate XXZ. fig. I, fig. 4 ; ud Plato XXXU flg. 1,

3. B«fllde8 the oflTftnsive weaponi which have already been named (aee 9 45, and Plate XVII.),
we may mention the ;»oiitar^, called vapa^c^fjioi/, iy^ciptdiov, and itaxatpa] it answered the
purpose of a knife. In later ages, the dKivAtcru was borrowed from the Persiani. This baa gene-
rally been considered as carved, and has usually been translated eimiter: In SmieA's Dictionary
it Is contended, that it was straight like the dagger; the writer qnotes Josephos {Ant.Jud. xz.
7-10) as saying of the assassins who infested Judea before the destruction of Jerusalem, that
**they used daggers In size resembling the Persian odsoess, but curved, and like those
which the Romans called dc«, and from which robbers and murderers are called «icarti;** the
odMKcs seems to have been worn on the right side. The KOJtU or falchion {ensu fulcatitt) was
also used in battle ; as was likewise the iettle-ux^ df fvij, and the viXcuvf. The Macedonians
had a pecniiar kind of long- »p«»r, called cdpivaa. The dub of wood or iron, Kopvvri, was a wea-
pon of early times. — We may mention amoag the offlanslve weapons the inpo06)^oi Xi9o(, Jlrs-
balls: one kind ((rrvraXia)were made of wood and armed with spikes of iron, under which were
fixed hemp, pitch, and other combustibles ; these, being set on tire, were burled into the raDka
of the enemy.

Id Plate XVIL fiff. C, b the fi^XWfS ; is Plate XXXm. Af. 4, we we IWBciDK at (ha rifbt tbi|h (he wc^md which the writar
Bientioiied abore conriden aa the A$aviKifSi Uw ■«»• «mcd in the basd of Miibiaa, in Uie Sup. Plate9; cL abeftf. B, iaPlals
XVII.

On the Tirioqa artidai ct amor, aeo PMnU^ Encj-elopMdla.— & R. JUmfriA, CrMoal Imiany Into Ancient Aimor, kt. wHh a
Glnnary of Nanea of the Araa of the Middle Afea. Load. 1814. S vela. 4 ; a work which nuy be reenmmcaded to ibe aladnt
toireva at full infiaiDalioB on thla wliiieet.

$ 140. The commanders of the armies were in early times the kings them-
selves, aJthough at the same time certain men, eminently brave, were appointed
to be polemareh* or generals. Subsequently each tribe chose its own com-
mander, who was called ofpofsryo;. At Athens it became customary to appoint
ten, who had equal power, ana who held the chief command one day each in
regular rotation, when they took the field together. Over these was a pole-
march, whose opinion was decisive in the war-council, when there was an
equal division among them; at a later period, however, this officer (no%i/tap;^o$)
had no share in military affairs ($ 101). — ^There were also ten taxiarchs*
tailapxoi'i subordinate to the atpatr^oi ; their duty was to put the army in array
for battle, mark out the camp, regulate the order of march, and in general
attend to the preservation of discipline. Subordinate also to the Stralegi were
the two generals of the horse, iWniap;^^^, who had under them ten ^yXap;t<», one
nominat^ by each tribe. There were also inferior officers, as 3io;^avoi, ^xiap-
xw>^ txwt6vrapxof>t dsxadap;toe, 7ts/u.7tadaf;^oc, the names being derived from Uie
number of men commanded by them.

§ 141. The whole army was called ctpatta; the fronts usfu^oy or /cpCttof
^vyo; ; the wings, xcpara; the rear, ovpa orlaxo-'toi ^176$. The smallest divi-
sion, consisting of five men, was called a Ttffiytdi ; a %DZQi contained from ten
to a hundred men, according to different circumstances ; and a f a$($, a hundred,
or a hundred and twenty-eight.

The Ttt((f wan also called lffaroKra«x'a. Each division of this sort had five attendants,
who {^KroKToi) did not serve in the ranks ; viz. the vrpaTOKHpnl^ who reported the officer's
commands to the soldiers; the onfuw^6pos, who conveyed the ensigns, signals, or
watchwords; the onAmyirrJi;, a trumpeter ; the inupcriKt who supplied the members of
the division with necessaries ; and the iopayds, whose business vras to see that none
of the number were left behind.

Some of the larger divisions ; eivrayita^ consisting of two ra(ei(, or 256 men ; irtmu
Mffiopccia, two <rf*Toy^ara, or 512 men ; xi^'«f^f«i two of the last, or 1024 men ; Mcpa/octa,
or TiXoff, twice the preceding, or 2048 men ; <froXoyyo(>xro, or Zrpflrjjyi'a sometimes,
twice the TcXo;, or 4C% men ; the commander of the latter was called vrpaTrrYd^.
The term ^uKay^ signifies sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers; some-
times a body of 4000, as just mentioned; and sometimes any number of troops in
general. Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx contained four times the niun-
ber included in the tpa^ayya^ia^ above named, i. e. 16,384 men.

$ 142. While the term ^a9uw| is often used in a general sense for any num-
ber of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order of arrangement
in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength to resist a great shock ;
the Macedonians were especially celebrated for using it to advantage.— The
lu\\oiMv was the same with the Roman euneus^ an arrangement in the form of a

p.m. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE PHALANX. HERALDS. CAMPS. 197

wedge, in order to force a way more easily and further into the midst ol aii
enemy. — Wheeling, toming, or facing, was called xJuVtj; to the right, itti 3opv,
Ae spear being in the right hand ; to the left, ijt 007(160^ the shield being
held in the left. Tarnin? completely about was termed fifta^oxrj, — l*he Greeks
possessed great skill and readiness in manceuvres, and had teachers of the art^
toxtucot^ who instructed the youth in the practice.

1. VaiiouB forms were giyen to the (^^^ay^, some of which were not rectangular ; as
the irtKo/isits ^o^oy^f which presented the form of a half-moon, and was also called
*6fni and »tXi| ; poft^ou^ ^<<^r(. which was in the figure of a diamond. In the pha-
liQX, S?yti( signified the ranks, taken according to its length, /t^xo; ; viixoi (also X^m)
the files taken according to its depth, 0aOoi. — Another order of array for battle was the
«Xi»ai»», hrick, a rectangular presenting its length to the enemy. — The wpyof, tmaer,
was the same form, with its width or the end of the rectangle towards the enemy. —
The vXauriop seems to hsYC been an exact square or nearly so.*^The miX^oXoi^ was a
figure like the letter V, with the open part toward the enemy. — The XXri was in the
ibrm of an egg, acoordine; to which the Thessalians usually arranged their cavalry.—-
Of the various terms applied to manoeuvring of evolutions we add only the following ;
t^ffOi, a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching after another, changed
the front for the rear, or one flank for another ; iatXaaiturfOiy an enlarging of the boay,
either by adding men or by extending the same number over a great space.

% Tbe term fXi|. lometlmes applied at above mentioned, to deiignate a certain order of array,
wu fenerally used to lignify a bodv of cavalry ; a troop lomeiiinefl consisting of 64 horsemen.
Two sucb troops constitiiCed the eriXapx^a* containing 128 men ; eight of them formed the
(rrepxto, containing 513 men ; four of the last named Ibrmed tbe TIXo; of the cavalry, including
SMS men ; and two riXti made the 'EWrayM'i* comprising 4096 men.

3. It may be remarked that among tbe Lacedemonians, tbe whole army was divided into n6pai.
vMcb contained originally only 400 men each, but afterwards a larger number, and variable.
Sub i^6pa consisted of four y6xoi. The irtvTnKoorvi was one-half of the \6xoi ; and one-half
of tbe wivTHKoarii was termed ivtoitorlay including 25 men; the latter body is said by some to
have eonuined thirty -iwt or Ihirty-giz men.

ne flBilint aacJcBl worlu which tmt aprsMly of Gndtn tadics era thaw of Arrkn ud iEliu { ef. P. V. i SBO^ { 253.

$ 143. The declaration of war usually began with a demand made by the
injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or satisfaction. Un-
expected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous warfare; it was justified
only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men were selected
for the ambassadors and heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred
and inviolable.

1 u. The heralds (ff^pwef) carried a stafiT wound with two serpents {nipSntov), and
were usually charged only with messages of peace, while the ambassadors or deputies
(vpirfittf) were accustomed also to threaten ana to announce war. The power of ambas-

ladors was limited in different de^ees at different times (cf ^ 102). The leagues or

agreements entered into were either (1) omi^i?, a treaty of peace or mutual cessation
Rom injuries, called also croi^jri;, eipfjim ; (2) hrtfiaxia^ a treaty of mutual defence ; or
(3) eisf^Mxta* an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to
aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when they themselves commenced
tbe war. . Such treaties were confirmed by the most solemn oaths, written upon
tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties exchanged certain tokens
or evidences (o^^Xa) of the compact.

2 «. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war
was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention was also paid by tlie
Greeks to omens and seasons.

3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not march before
the seventh day, ^1^ ^/Mdpjf, nor the Lacedaemonians until full moon.

$ 144. In addition to what has already been said ($ 48) on the construction
of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of them was often changed
according to circumstances. The Lacedemonians, however, always adhered
to the circular form in their camps, as well as their cities. The bravest troops
were usually placed on the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre
or interior. A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship
of the pids, ana for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards
were divided into the day-watches, ^v9mxm ^fitpwMt and the night-watches,
pOMXM wxttoM^ The advanced posts, or outer guards, were called
Kpo^iAoMw. The nightly round of visiting the watch was called i^5c'Ja, and
those who performed it, fttpiitcOMt,^ and the guard-house, 7t«pt/co9ictov.

i 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usually refreshed by eating and
drinkiBg, immediately after which the commanders ordered them to action. —

b3

108 GBEGIAN ANTIQUITIES.

When very near the point of engaging, the generah addressed the army io
animating speeches, which often produced great eflfecis. Then followed the
sacrifice, the vow, and the war-sonff {ytaiav i/x|3afrpio$), a hymn to Mars.— >
The signs used in the field were either atjfitlth regular ensigns and standards,
or 0v/i/3oxa, particular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon
for the occasion.

1 u. The special signals, a^ftffoka, were either audible (^ur&), such as watchwords
(nvBfiftaTa) ; or msible (&par&), such as nodding the head, waving the band, shaking the
armor, and the like (inipcwy9»}^ara). The inijttia or standards were of various kmds :
some being mereljr a red or purple coat upon the top of a spear ; others having an
image of a bird, animal, or other object. 7'be raising of the standard was a signal to
commence battle, and the lowering of it to desist. Anciently the signal for battb
was given by lighted torches being hurled by the persons appointed (irvp^Apai). Af-
terwards it was done by blasts of sound, for which shells {k^o^jh) were first used, and
then brazen trumpets (^iXmyyef) of several different kinds.

2 «. The Laceaiemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the flute ; yef
we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks was as regular and as conform-
able to music, as the modern. Most of them were rather in the habit of rushing to
battle with impetuosity and clamor (dXaXoy/idr, diV^).

$ 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, becanse
the citieff were not previously fortified with walls. Nor were the later Greeks,
especially the Lacedemonians, very much in the habit of laying regular
sieges. The two principal points of proceeding in tlie siege of a city, were
the construction or the entrenchment around it, and the gathering and use of
military engines about it. Connected with these were efforts to scale the walls
of the city by ladders (i^tfc^o^pat, acxJfiaxcs) and to undermine their founda-
tions.— An entrenchment around the city was called 9tt^vtiix^l*^u or aftotiir
X^^fju>i9 and consisted usually of a double wall of stone or turf. In the space
between the walls were shelters for the ^rrison and the sentinels. Above the
walls were turrets or pinnacles (irtaain^i)^ and after every tenth pinnacle a
large tower was constructed, extending across from one wall to the other. The
parapet of the wall was termed ^pat or ^pdxiw,

$ 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks (jiayavth fifizo-vf^) were
of a comparatively late invention, and seem to have been introduced first about
the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of the principal was the ;tcXu«^» the
testndo or tortoise ; so called because the soldiers were covered by it as a tor-
toise by its shell.

1 u. The testudo was of several kinds. The ?crXtfwr vrpartuiw was formed by the
soldiers, pressed close together and holding their shields over their heads in such a
manner as to form a compact covering, ft was also formed of boards, united and
covered wiih metals; this was either of a square fcrm, as the x^'***^ X«>»T]p2f, which
served to protect the soldiers, while they were preparing the ground in order to bring
up their military eneineB, or of a triangular form, as the xk^<^>^ ^^ for the protection
or such as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was
called the yip/iov^ made of twigs of willow like the Roman vinea, and held by the sol-
diers over the head.

2 tf. The x^a was a mound composed of various materials and raised very high,
often above the besieged walls. — There were also moveable towers (inpyot), made of
wood and usually placed upon the Xf^na \ they were rolled on wheels and had often
several stories, containing soldiers and engines.— The battering-ram («p<dr) was a strong
beam with an iron head ilii0o\ii) in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers
thrust against the enemy's walls; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that
it could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered
with a :c^biP9. The rarcnrXrac were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like
upon the enemy ; those which discharged arrows, bemg termed 6ivpeKeTs, and those
which cast stones, \i0o06\i>i or rsrpapSXot,

DIonyaiuB Sicnlat (zx. 48, 88) gpenka of the latter engrfnei as tometlmes capable of tfarowliif
alonea of one hundred weight (X(0o/9Ao{ roXavriaioOi and even of three handred weight (nrpo*
06Xos rpiraXavriaiOf).

3. The 'EXhohi was a machine, not unlike the batteriof-ram, but of greater aixe
and force, driven with ropes and wheels. This name (iXfsroAt;, city-taker) was first ap.
plied by Demetrius Poliorcetes to a machine invented by him, in the form of a square
tower ; each side being ninety cubits high and forty-five wide ; resting on four wheels ;
divided into nine stories, which each contained engines for throwing spears, stonea,
and various missiles ; manned by 200 soldiers. Cf. Diod, Sics xx. 48.— The *!>«<»«

p.m. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 8IE0BS. PUNISHMENTS* 199

were long irons with sharp ends, and were the instruments chiefly used in earlier
periods for demolishing the walls of a city.

§ 148. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the things most
worthy of remark. Soldiers, armra with various means of defending them-
selves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on the walls of the city. The
greater military engines were planted within the walls, and hurled arrows,
stones, and pieces of timber upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers
were opposed by counter-mines, and their entrenchments and mounds were
imdermined. Their various engines were broken, set on fire, or embarrassed
io operation by different corftrivances on the part of the besieged.

$ 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always treat the citizens
and the property in the same way. Sometimes the buildings were demolished,
and all the inhabitants put to death, or at least those in arms, while the rest
{6iXf*o9iJtytot^ iopvtiKuytot,) were reduced to slavery. But sometimes favor was .
shown, and nothing but the payment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new
settlers were planted in the conquered city. Whenever the city was demo-
lished, it was customary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even
coltivate the soil.

$ 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, consisted
partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, which were the pro-
perty of the conquered party. These, when taken from the slain, were termed
ittvxa; if from the living, xat^pa. The whole (}va^) was brought to the
commander-in-chief, who first took a large portion for himself, then assigned
rewards to such as had distinguished themselves in the action, and afterwards
distributed the remainder eaually among the soldiers. First of all, however,
aportion was set apart for the service of the gods, which was called d«po9&Vea.
Tne armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the gods, and hung up
in their temples ; this was the case sometimes even with the weapons of the
victors, when they designed to terminate their military career. Thank-offer-
ings were also presented, and trophies (tpo^cota) erected, which were likewise '
dfMicated to the gods; statues also and other monuments were raised to com-
memorate victories.

An Intcriptlon {Mypitnitti) wnt often attached to the trophy, or ofTerinf preiented to the fod,
or other monument, containing the names of the conquerori and the conqaered, an account of
Ibe Bpoifi, and aometimee of the occurrences of the war. The trunk of a tree, especially an
olive, was often used for the purpose of a trophy, the emblems of victory being hung upon it. —
Alexander the Great, abiding by a law of the Macedonians, never raised a trophy ; yet be erected
other nonumenu of hiv successes ; among them were altars to the gods, very broad and lofty.
-—A lepreaentation of the trofmtm is given in Plate XXII. fig. 4.

• $ 151. There was a careful regard to order and discipline in the Greek
armiee, and various rewards and punishments were established. Among the
idwaids were promotion to higher rank, conferring of garlands or other distinc-
tions, and also the funeral honors and the encomiums, which were bestowed
on the brave warrior. At Athens public provision was made for the widows
and children of those slain in battle, and also for those who were injured by
wounds (ddvKafoc). The children of such as valiantly died were also honored
sometimea with the first seats {itpo&Bpltu) at the theatres. — ^The severest of the
punishments, death, was always inflicted on deserters, a/utofuiKot. Such as
refiised to serve, astpdttveot, such as quitted their ranks, Xct/toroxtcu, and such
as threw away their shields, pc^fd^ti, were subject to civil degradation. At
Athens they were not permitted to enter the temples or public assemblies, and
were also fined in the court Heliea. In Sparta they were exposed to still
deeper disgrace, which extended even to their whole family ; it was so great
that their mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting afVerwards.

^ 152". The Greeks employed various means for conveying intelligence. They
liad a class of messengers or runners^ called i}fupoip6iMiy who carried newa and official
commands; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much celebrated was the La-
cedemonian eKVToXfi- 1'hiB was a roll of white parchment or leather ((^/la, t/«i(), wrap-
ped round a black stick, about four cubits in length. The general always received a
stick of this sort, of the same size with another kept by the magistrates or govern
menu When any command or intelligence was to be conveyed, a strip of parchment
was rolled on the staff, and on this was written what the person wished to communi-

20O GRECIAN ANTIQTTIT1E8

cate : the strip was then sent to the general, who applied it to his own stick, and thus
coula read what, otherwise, would be wholly unintelligible.

$ 153. Before proceeding now to notice the naval affairs of the Greeks, we
may allude to their method of passing rivers with their armies. It was usually
bj means of boats (axei^) or small vessels joined together so as to form a sort
of bridge (yi^vpa), like that which the Persians under the command of Xerxes
threw over the Hellespont. In order to bold these vessels fast, large baskets
or boxes, filled with stone, were sunk in the stream, which thus answered the
purpose of anchors. Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the
greatest emergencies that they carried forward wit)) them these boats, having
taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by means of large
casks and leathern bottles.

Darliit ii said to have thrown a bridge across the Thracian Bosphorus {Herod, iv. 83, 86). That
of Xerxes over the Hellespont was built between Abydos on the one side and destos on the
other {Htrod. vli. 36).

J 164. The use of ships in the wars of the Greeks has been already mention-
ed (5 47). Vessels of war (f yttxwrtot, xujftyifnj) differed in their structure from
the other kinds, especially from ships of burden (uXxadc;. ^optijyoi) u hich were
of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually such as had three
benches of rowers, called fpiiTpM^ (triremea, cf. $ 304), and hence this term is
often used to signify merely vessels of war. Before the vessel was launched,
it was purified and consecrated by the priests. Commonly, each vessel singly,
sometimes a whole fleet, was committed to the protection of a particular eod.
The ensign or standard (ytofOdT^/tov), by which one ship «fus discinguished from
another, was placed in the forepart. Each vessel had. its own name, which
was usually taken from its ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow.

^ 155. We will introduce here some of the names applied by the Greeks to the dif-
ferent parts of a ship and the tackling. The Arabic numerals attnched to some of the
terms m the following description are intended to correspond to those in fig. A, of our
Plate XXIII., indicating the place of the parts named, according to HolwelVt plan of
ahexireme.

1. The principal parts of a ship were three, the prow or fronts ^P'^, iihanow; the
middle^ or body, /uvrfiwiXof, ywnpa ; and the stem^ Tpo/u^a', 6vpi. — The prow was more
or less adorned, not only by the figures and images placed on it, but by the colore
painted on it, from which were derived such epithets as /iiXrorupr^c, Kvafiiifio\oi^ &c. The
sides of it were termed mtpa and itapttal. The ardXoi was a long plank at the head of
the prow, at the extremity of which some of the principal orriaments, dicfi6na, dKpoaT6^
\ufi^ were fixed. The im»x«V'° was a round piece of wood also attached to the prow,
on which the name of the ship was inscribed ; it was sometimes called d^aXfit. The
X'fi'finor was the figure of a goose upon the prow ; near the water, according to the
opinion of some, but by others assigned to a higher part. The ift^oXai^ was the lower
portion of the prow, which projected forward, and in war Rallies was fitted to strike
mto the ships of the enemy. Behind this, and just below ttie trr^Xof, was the itafmni.
^v or ensign, some image carved or painted. To the middle belonged the follow-
ing parts; the rpArcci or trrcipi?, keel at the bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut
the vraves, with the "x^ksiaiMT^^ wedges or bilgeways, attached to it, for guarding the
ship's bottom: ^aWf, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveved out by the pump,
avrkia ; the mtXii, hold (called also irvro; , and r^rpa), surrounded by ribs or planks
rising from the keel, vo^uX^ or iywtyia\ the ^owri)^, or imo<,i:>nara, rafters, or ropes, on
the sides (frXcnpat'S) of the ship from prow to stern ; the roixot and Vn^t^ seats for the
rowers situated on the sides one above another; the rprifuiro. or d^X/ioiS openings
through which the oars were put out ; the ^mi^a, a skin or the like, which lined the
openings: sometimes there was one coniinuea opening for the oars, called ^po^nf, a

term applied also to the bulwark or upper part oi it. The stern had ornamental

images, called dxpovta, in common with those on the prow, but termed distinctively,
HAXoffTtfl. To the stern was also attached the hnrpnii^^, the tutela or safeguard of the
snip. Its bow was termed hrurciuu, and the planks composing it, mptroyeia. The mid-
dle of the stem was named, diraif6io¥. The decks, h^ta, were covered parts at the
prow and stern ; the ^^d were the rowers* seats in the middle and open parts.

2. Some of the principal instruments (vksCh) in navigating vessels may be mentioned
here ; they are included under two divisions, the vntoden {cn^n fiiXiva) and the hnmiing
{maOri Kjpenarrd). The ir^Xioi''', rudder, fixed not directly in the stern, but on the side oT
the ship, and near the stem. In the later periods, two rudders were used, one being
placed, it is supposed, near the prow (hence vncs dfuplnpwj/oi) ; sometimes there were
four, one on each side of prow and stern. The parts ot the mdder were *iaf , ^>,
^npOym, dtoc^, ra/iaf. — The h>vh, SyrTYMi, anchor; nrst a stone bored in the middle, or

FLATS XXIII.

9M ORBCIAN ANTIQUITIES.

a basket filled with stones ; afterwards made of iron with teeth, dddtms, fasteninff it to
tlie earth ; the largest of a ship's anchors was called UfAj and hence fii^Xuv SyKv^a^
\tpav obtained its proverbial sense, to report to the last refuge. The cables attached to
the anchors, were veir^aTa^ or jriiuirXot; ropes for towing were termed ^i»ara, b\ia>i;
those for binding a vessel to the snore, vpn^fiaia. — The «3irot and Iptruoi^ oars, having a
broad part covered with metal (irXan;), and buns upon pieces of wooa called oxoVot, by
leathern thongs, Tp^%. — The lordfi^, mast, fixed in a hole (^£ix66^)^ in the middle of the
ship ; capable of being taken down and put in a case (an9i6iai) ; having several parts,
as vripv^f Tpax^Xtf, Ki^ncnaiov, dcupoiriov, Uph^j ^Xojrarn* The KtpaXiUy or trfpara^, were the
crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast ; the dKpoKrpata were the extremities of the yards.
The tffriayj^ sails (called also i96¥at, apfuva), including particular ones distinctively named,
as iir(ip9fB»s, mizen-sail ; axariov, main-sail {dxirtov also signifies a small vessel, like a pi-
rate's); (Jpri/i«c,top-sail ; HXtav, sprit-sail. — TheSpma, dtftiXms, ballast.^The 0o\ig, the lead
for sounding. — 1 he nvni, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The dtfo0aBpiu^
bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called also
itrtfiaOpat and dvaffSBpat). — The term &rXa was applied to the rigging generally. — The
terms oxp<Wa, iraXoi, and rovcta are commonly considered as synonymous, and as signi*
fying the ettrdage ; including kHimvi^ irAkpW, upArM^, ftuovpiai, vpSunni^^ made at first
of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax, hemp, and the like. But B5ckh considers the
axptvta as designating the stronger and heavier ropes, to which the anchor was attached
and by which the snip was fastened to the land ; and the rmnTa as designating the
lighter ropes, including Ka\(oiia or caX«<, Ifiitrns^ Kspovxfn, wipat^ the rope called ayi^fa,

the v^"^, mruKoi, &c. The term vm^tonara has generally been interpreted as signi-

fying board$ or planks covering the outside of a ship ; but it is shown by the inscrip-
tions found in the Pineus and published by Bdckh, that the hn^':>naTa were ropes which
tan in a horizontal direction around the vessel from the stem to the prow, and were
intended to keep the fabric together ; and it would seem that such ropes were taken on
board when a vessel sailed, to be used if necessary ; the expression in Acts xxviL 17,
iiio^(a¥v6intf ri irXatoy, probably refers to the act of putting these ropes about the vessel.

8m r. D. m«tay,oa ActiuTiL 17, in (be 3<M. Jt^pw. Sec Scrits voL viii. p, 40S.

3 V. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the front part,
was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaksj ift0o\a^, were long and
high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the
enemy below the water. From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood,
Arci)H&f , jutting out, to protect the ship from the beaks of the enemy. The war- ves-
sels usually had wooden decks or coverings (KaTafpaynara^*) on which the soldiers
stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or the like, which were extended on both
sides (iKpi^y/iarti, irapap^/iara), to protect them from (he waves and from the enemy^s
missiles. The usual sign of a war- vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the
maat.

4. Tbe heak$ are seen In Plate XXIII. fig. A, IS ; and al«o in fig. &, which la a prow taken firom
a baa-relief at Rome, and which ahowa the ensifn behind them, and tbe aeroMtolia above it. la
fijT. a, from an ancient coin, we have another ivrotP, which has a trophy erected upon it. In fig. e,
which la from the acnlpturea on the column of Antonine (cf. P. IV. ) 188. 2), is a prow of another
form. In fig. 4, we see a merehant-vi^MeU managed by oara or saila; in fig. 5, a war-veaael with
oars alone, and in the early form of one bank only. ^

TlM MBDa oT tiw TuioM parts of K ihlp may be fooo'l, with expUmtioni of 9ntrj thiaf rrtating to tlik nljadl, io /. Sthtffer,
Dia dc V&rieUte Mvium, Up«]« 1664 ; eontaioed ilao in T. Oronuvij TbcMurm, kt. Ml. xi. u dtad f !&— Sea alao, ty tkt wmc,
CommaoL da militia mvall vetanim. Upa. t6M. 4.— £anoy, Ln roarina dea aneiena Oicei, in Um Mmn. Jhad. huer. veL xxcviU.
p. 643.— Patter^ Areb- Gme bk. U eh. l4^JlaMn«an*t bk. I*, cb. 14.-^4. Jal, Ardidolof ie Navala. Fkr. l840.-AlaB HoiwtU^

«ad U Aoy, aa died $ ISC On Um inie aavy eqiedally, J. JMdkA, (Jifcunden Qber du Scawaaaa daa AtliachcB SlaaiM. B«rL

1M&

§ 156. Originally tbe employments of the rowers and the combatants were
not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions of both. In later
times there was a division into three classes ; (1) the rowers or oarsmen, ipirat^
TuaiifpjxtoA^ who were alao distinguished by specific names, according to the
rank of their bench, and their work and pay ; (3) the sati!ors, tuvfiu, who attend-
ed to all the other proper duties of the ship ; (3) the mariner^ i^ti^afoi, who
were armed like infantry, only their armor was more heavy and durable.

tCowers in the upper tier of benches, or the portion of benches highest above the
water (fl|r>(<vac) were called ^pavirai ; those in the middle, $«yrrai (from ^vya) ; those in
the lower tier or portion, ^aXa/iirai. The rowers were also distinguished, as those
near the prow, irpiinairoi ; and those near the stem, iirttrcMot.— Of the sailors, sonne
{dptttvurrai) had the care of the sails ; others {frxpivoffaTai) went aloft on the ropes to look
out ; others (/leoovadrat) were to supply the seamen with whatever was neeoed.

There have been varioua theories to explain the manner in which tbe banka of rowers in the
ancient galleya were arranged. In the difiemnt claaaea of ahipa termed rptitptiii rtrpfjocti^ irevr^-
pcif, itc. trirem«y qitadrimut qutn^uirtme, &c.—The most common idea formerly waa, that the
•eocbea were placed one above another. But there were galleys of seven, twelve, fifteen, and

p.m. XILITARY AFFAIRS. NAVAL OFFICERS. 203

•izteeR tanks ofoara ; Ptolemy Pbilopater built one of forty banlri. If tbe benches were placed
directly above eacb oiber, tbe oan in tbe upper benches most bare been so long as to be wholly
■«elr«s.— Another solntion is, that the banks were ranged in one continuous line along tbe side
of the galley ; In a trireme, the fiist bank being in ber bows, tbe second in her middle or waist,
the third in her stern. But such an arrangement would require a huge length in the vessel of
fiirty hanks, or even twelve ; besides which, it is stated that the oars of a galley were not all of
tbe same lenfftb. — It has been proposed to solve the difficulty by the suggestion that tbe galley
received its denomination from the number of men pulling at the tame oar : the trireme would
have three at one oar; the quinquireme, five, Jfcc— Another suggestion is, that the banks ros«
oae over another to tbe number of five or seven, tbe rowers in tbe higher banks beinff checkered
in quincunx with those in the lower; and that if a galley was said to be (if any greater number,
the rating was only by tbe nnmber of men employed at an oar; e. g. in tbe galley of forty banks
there would be jive tiers with twelve men at each oar of the highest bank, ten at the next, and
so on until tbe lowest, which would have four men, to make forty in ail. The engravings of
fig. B, in our Plate XXIII. are two views, exhibiting sueb an arrangement ; tbe upper one is a
front view, and the lower a sectional view. — Other schemes have been proposed which need not
be mentioned. Tbe latest is that of Mr. Holwell^ of Edinburgh, which is thought by many to have
set tbe matter at rest. He supposes a vessel in the original form having one bank of ten oars
arranged horizontally ; let these be divided Into two banks of five oars each, and ranged ob-
liquely, and tbey will require but about half as much length ; this construction, according to
his conjecture. Is the hh-eme ; a trtresis would have tAres of these oblique ascents or banks, each
laak having five oars; and thus a vessel miEht be built with any number of banks bv only
iDcreasing its length, while no oar would be raised higher above the water, necessarily, than In
a bireme. In Plate XXIII. fig. A, we have a view of a Aexirms, or galley of m banks of oars,
on his scheme ; the Arabic numbers, 21, SS, 33, designate the portion of the banks occupied
n^ectively by the three classes of rowers above mentioned.

te/. agfcBrfCEiajrMtt* WvGftlkyveftbaABclenli. Load. I89& &— Oi £« Xpy, nr Im B>vim emphTCi p*r Im ■adaiv
ae. a ife Mbob A r/fuMirt, C I •■ ■ • d« £<L « Aaux Jri% niL L 419 J ii. Ui, I2&.a Jeyri*# ad. of iHSfcr, p. GB6i M

»

$ 157. Among the principal instruments employed for naval battle were the
following; &>para Mu;/ta;tA9 ^^^ long spears ; dpcrccu^v, a piece of iron formed
like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole in order to cat the sail-ropes of
the hostile ship ; x^^f tftd>7pa the grappling iron ; a^rtorfiu l^fg® iron hooks at-
tached to the mast ot a vessel in such a manner that being thrown into the ene-
my's ships they seized and raised them up into the air. An instrument, called
from its form the dolphin (Jcx^V), was often used ; it was made of iron or lead,
and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violence into an
adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink it.< — Tbe means of defence against these
instruments was to guard the ship by a strong covering of hides.

% 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care of what pertained
to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained
to warlike action. (1) The chief officer, or admiral, was called yavop;^,
sometimes tffoXap;^, or crtpobTiTyos ; often there were several in equal com-
mand, often there was but a single one. The duration of his authority
was decided by the people, who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure.
Next to him were the commanders of individual ships, tovr^pojpx^ ; the Lace*
demonians, however, had a sort of vice-admiral in thei^officer called itti^
5ToX(v$. ^2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the
ships and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow-
ing; the &f^txv^tfvj^Tiii who had the care of the whole fleet; the xv^fpr^n^^^
who had the care ot a single ship, and who himself kept the helm ; and the
^tpuptvs^ or Ttpupafs;;, the next in command, having the care of every thing be-
longing to the iforepait of the ship.

There were also, in the second class, the following : rpiqpa^ii;, the musician, whose
Qoies cheered the rowers and regulated the strokes of their oars j KtXnang^ who gave
the word of command to them ; rolxafXPi, who governed the rowers on one side ; vav.
f*X«n^, employed in guardmg the ship from rocks and other dangers ; ro/ifof , who
superiniended the food ; w^flfieiJf , who attended to the fires ; XoywriK, who kept the
ship's accounts.

f 159. In the beginning of a sea-fight they sought first to lighten the ship of
all superfluous and unnecessary burdens ; and to render sails, mast, and every
thing which was exposed to the violence of wind, as fast and safe as possible.
Then the most favorable position and order of battle was selected, according
to time, place, and circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gods, and
tbe commanders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to animate their
men. The signal for the onset was now given ; usually done by han^ng a
shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bearing the Kivap;^^^ ; while this sig-
nal was hanging, the battle went on. The mode of attack was similar to that

GRECIAN ANTiamTIES.

of a sieffe; the ships beings drawn up in the form of a circle or semicircle cr
letter V.

§ 160. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured veMels.
All the cities which were in alliance with the victorious party, honored the suc-
cessful general with crowns and garlands. With these it was also customary
to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for
that purpose. These, as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards
consecrated to the gods; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the
battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was sometimes
adorned with the wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (dxpona* axf>i.>n^a),
of the captured ships. — ^The most common punishments in the naval service
were whipping with cords, and submersion, the offender being dragged in the
water by a rope even till drowned. Such as refused to serve at sea, (Wv/ua;^,
were, at Athens, punished with disgrace (atifua) together with their posterity.
Deserters, utttovoAttM, were scourged, or had their hands cut off.

IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE.

§ 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same
order as in speaking of the earlier period ($ 51-^60), and begin with the subject
o(food. In later times, when riches more abounded, the food was less simple
than before; the Lacedemonians maintained longest their strictness and fru-
gality, no professed cook being suffered among them. Among the other nations,
and especially the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more culti-
vated and practiced. The Athenians, however, lived to a great extent moderate-
ly, owing, perhaps, to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic territory. Wa-
ter was the common drink, with which they were accustomed to mingle wine.
The wine sometimes received an addition of myrrh {6Cvoi fivpltwCtrjij) or of barley
meal (jSlkvoi aytfjlKpitt^fiivof),

The term employed to designate a drinking cup, Kpariip, is commonly derived from
Ktpairao9ai, to minglcy indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water with wine. Pof-
ter states, that no certain proportion was observed in forming this mixture. A very
common division of wines was into the iroXv^^i or strong wines, bearing a large addi-
tion of water, and dXtyo^^i, weak wines. To drink unmixed wine, oKpaTorruTv, was
described as synonymous with 'Zvdt<n'inuiv,to dritik like a Scythian. — A common Ho-
meric epithet for wine, is &ft>;^ ; sometimes ytpioatof. (Cf. Horn. II. i. 462, iv. 259.)^
The sweet, unfermented juice of the grape imustum) was termed yXd>xos. That
which flowed from the clusters by merely their own pressure was called irp6)c>iM. Un-
fermented wine, insDissated by boiling, bore the name of hprifta, — There were various
sorts of wine, mad^from other substances besides the grape. Among the Greek
wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have any disunct account, is the Ma-
ronean, probably produced on the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine (Horn. Od. iz.
249). The Pramnian was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have ita
name from a hill in the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the
Lesbian, Ckian, and Tkaeian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence.
The wines of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The
Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. The Greeks also
used wines imported from different places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent kind waa
brought from Btfblos in Phoenicia ; the Alexandrian, from the vicinity of Alexandria
in Egypt, was Highly valued.

Compare ) SSI b.-See Bendenon't Hiitory of AncieDt and Moiiani Wium. Load. IIM. 4.— Tbii woik b adonod with iBfm]
beastifal i) lnttritioH tilten frain sntiqiiM, ud rdatiiK lo tto hm of wina.

§ 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. : a breakfast, axpdtt4jf»a,
apiatov, the time of which was not fixed, and a main meal, ^tiitvov, which was
regularly towards evening. But they also partook of an evening meal, Bnuvbrn
or l(T7t£ptarjua, and an afler-dish or supper, iopttof,

Robineon remarks that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do not
consider the 6ci\tv6y as a separate meal from the iSpnos ; while others think that the
Greeks had but two meals a day, the Spumv and iAJmof, It seems certain, that Sptmp
was finally used to denote the dinner (that is, the meal taken not far from the middle
of the day), and dcFirvoy the sujpper, the latter being the principal meal.

'* There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them rose at
daybreak, and spent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after six in the

PLATE XXIV.

S06 oRsciAN AirnavitzEs.

morning, the judges {dicasU) took their seats on the tribanal, and those employed in
ag[riculture, tnaniifactures, or commerce, engaged in theil' different occupations. At
mid-day, the more weahhy citizens, who by that timQ hi^l commonly nnished their
serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few
hoars in bunting, or in the exercise of the palestra, or in walking throueh ibe delight-
ful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus and Cephisus t or more frequently in discussing
with each other in the forum (agora) the interests of the state, the conduct <^ the
magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the
Athenians sometimes played Kt^eia and mmia ; two games, the first of which resem-
bled hazard, and the other either backgammon or chess." — "During the day, the
Athenians either took no food or only a slight repast in private. At sun-set they sat
down to supper, and considering the business of the day as over, devoted the evening
to society and amusement, and often continued to a late hour in the night."

$ 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of the gods on
festival days; afterwards they became very common. The^ were of two sorts :
the iiUiatCvrjt given by a single person, and the cpavo;, provided at the expense
of the party present Entertainments of the latter kind were generally the most
frugal, orderly, and conducive to friendly feeling ; such as were invited free of
expense, as poets, singers, &c., were called d<Tvft^XM; the eontribution of each
other guest was termed (xvftjdoxi?, aearo^SoX}}. — ^The marriage feasts yofu>(, is some-
times considered as a third sort. — ^There were also public entertainments for a
whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called ovmrux, 7ta,v6<UrfsUu^ ScJ^tva dvjfiWfM, ^por
t'pixa, &c. furnished by contribution, by the liberality of rich persons, or by the
state.

$ 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always washed and
anointed. The hands were also again washed [w^'^aoSfu) between the successive
courses, and at the close of the feast {a7tovC'^aa9aA). In the early times the
guests sat at table (cf. $ 53); in later times they reclined, but not always. The
couches, prepared for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to -each
one's taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a
single couch. The guests took their places according to their proper rank,
although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks attached a certain
idea of sanctity to the table and the rites of the table.

Three couches, «X^oe, were usuallv placed round the table, rpdv^a^ one on each
side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence originated the word rpicXf-
vtotff triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, ffTyjca/iara, and had pillows, itfomcs^^
Xata, for the guests; they were often very costly, being highlv ornamented with ivory
and precious metals. Several .persons usually reclining on tne same couch, the first
lav on the uppermost part, with his leg? extended behind the back oif the second,
whose head was near tne bosom of the first. See % 329. 2. — The tables were made
of wood, highly polished ({nrri^, e^^)\ in the later periods, exceedingly coetly,
adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images.

$ 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the hnTtvw)^ the first course, y(po-
^o/ia, dstftfOD Ttpooiiuw^ consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives, eggs,
oysters, a mixture of honey and wine (otra/ieu), and the like. Then came
the chief dish, more substantial and costly, xs^ioXfJ df Jyti^ov. Afterwards the
desert, ^fvrcpa rpaTtei'a, consisting of various sweetmeats, furnished with great
splendor in times of luxury, and called iTti^n^iivat^fjatajbo^Hut^ &c.

1. The most common food among the Greeks is said to have been the fiaCa, a kind
of soft cake prepared in various ways, of the flour of barley or wheat. Among the
vegetables that were eaten, were mallows (juak&x/i), lettuce (V'(^0> cabbages (^i^voi),
beans («r6a^(), and lentils (^cwai). The sausage (^xn?) was a favorite artide. Fisii
(A/«y) also became a favorite dish. *

2 u. In all entertainments it was customary first to offer some of the provisions to
the gods, especially to make an oblation from the liquor. — On cheerful occasions, the
guests were clothed in white, and crowned with garlands.

3. At entertainments connected with the festivals of the gods, the garlands worn
were formed of the leaf or flower saCred to the particular god honoreoT on the occa-
sion. At other entertainments they were composed of various sorts, according to the
season of the year, and the taste and circumstances of the parties. The rose, bein^
an emblem ot silence, was often placed above the table, to signify that what waa
there said or done should be kept private ; hence the phrase wn) ^y, tub ro»a.

$ 166. The officers and attendants at an entertainment were as follows: the
'Zvfinoalapxf^y chief manager, who was either the maker of the feast (6 cdriar<opl.

p.m. DOHXsnc afvairs. convitial entertainments. 207

•m one ap|>oiiited to that place, called also ^poKf^o^oco;, ^;^cf pcxsuvo;; the Baab-
Uvsi whose busineea was to see that the laws and rules of such entertainments
were preserred, and who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned ; the
AoKpo;, who divided and distributed the food, of which the best and largest
portions were ^ven to tbe most honored guest; and the *0&iip;koo^, who dis-
tributed the drmk, and were heralds (»^f>vxc(), youths (xovpot) often of noble
birth, or servants (dotiXM).

In the later aces, it became an object of lozury to have young and beautiful slaves,
to perform the List mentioned office ; for such ones eztravaffant prices were paid ; and
a (fistinction was made between the i^po^i, who served toe water, and the dipox^h
who poured the wme, and were younger. When waiting at table, they were ridily
adorned in person and dress.

S 167. The drmking vessels were generally large, often very rich and costly;
they were frequently crowned with garlands.

1. The Kpariip was the vessel in which the wine was mixed with the water and fi*om
iriuch the cups were filled. Among the various cups used were tbe irfXif or KvXUnai,
the ^mXi)^ the pwtfv, the mvx^im, the xdiSapof, the iarat, &,c. The «^aA»( are described
as a sort of ladles used for conveying the wine from the crater to the cup.

2. It was customary for the master of the feast to drink to his guests, in the order
of thdr rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the remainder to the person
named, which was termed xpmrtnw ; while the act of the person, who received the cop
and drank the rest of its contents, was termed dyrivprnrtVccy. It was also customary to
drink to the honor of the gods, and to the memory of absent friends, calling them by
name. Three craters were usually drank to the gods, each one to a particular god ;
as Kparip'Epiiov; Kparhp Aid( Somfpo;. — Sometimes the guests contended who should
drink the most ; and pri2es were awarded to the conquerors. Some melancholy ez-
eeases are recorded; as, for instance, the case of Alexander, who in this way lost, his
life. Singing (/toM), instrumental music, and dancing (dp^qord;), were accompani
meots of almost every feast. The songs were in early times chiefly hymns to gods or
heroes; sabeequently songs and dances of a ¥ainton character were introduced. The
most remarkable of the various songs used were those termed aitSkta,

Aammu,L.iLt.%W. CC..BUsn,Vtf.HM.L.U.c.41^aa|ieetii«thevietfAM,MeP.V.f 87.

3. After the music and dandns, the guests often were invited to participate in various
sports. In earlier times, the athletic eames were practiced ; but in the later ages, less
violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among which playing at the K&trafios
seems to have been a favorite amusement. There were various forms of this game, in
all of which the chief object was to throw wine from a goblet into another vessel in the
most skillful manner.

fc airi0yl^ Pb Wn dc la talU* dia ki Oim ; IB (ba JTcm. 4(»d. Mar. vol. L p^ M.~Ct Z^^
.^-^te dcciili raqieeaDC the aOabuM In pvtieolar. SoMiuon, Areb. Onac. bk. ? . eb. 21. p. 684.— OraUadk, abw dea koOiboi
teOifMbM. ia ba JhMq^ariaOm FarodU, Lpi. 1800.—/'. /ocota. Ober d« kottabiM, b mdand'f AlttebM Miinnm.

Ok fba wfaol* nb^ of OrMisD BiMlr»Dd •otartafnwii, Me SoMiwM, Arch. OrM. bk. T. eb. IT-^I.^^
•iniiiGnMBmH ia Onmodlm, voL 'u.-^thmmiM, OcipooMpbHii (cC P. V. § 189).

OBlkeaAInorpri«alaliCBtaaendly, FT. Acbr. Cbarld«; cr.§ IS.

* 4. Frequently there were entertainments called ov/nrtforca (drinking-parties), at which
eonversanon and discourses were expected to form the principal amusement ; although
the various games common at other entertainments were not excluded. The propound-
ing of riddles («Vty/fMira or ypt^O was much practiced.

toP.IV.fC

$168. The hospitality practiced by the early Greeks (cf. $ 57) remained
enstomary also in later times. The Cretans especially had the reputation of
bebg hospitable; the Athenians were termed pcXo^svoL; but the Spartans were
less cocrteoos to strangers. Hospitality was viewed as a religious duty, and
several gods were supposed to take strangers under special protection, and to
avenge ul injuries done to them.

1 s. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt (dcinf SX^ before
the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent friendship. The alliance contracted by
mntual hospitality (jrpo^cifta, to hiioTfntirl^>) was as sacred as that of consanguinity. The
parties often exchanged tokens of it ia€u0oXa) in friendly gifts (T^yia, diSpa, (mff&), which
ware carefully preserved and handed down to postenty. Officers were publicly ap-
pointed, called 7ptff«>«(, whose duty it was to receive all foreigners, coming on any publio
enand, to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them to the publio
spectacles and festivals.

2US GRECIAN JLXriQUITIES.

2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. Cic, De
Divin. ii. 68. — The term ray^occctov (eaupona) designated an inn.

Simon, OB the iMNpitallly of tte udcal^ in tbt Mm, dt VAead. im laser, f ol. uL p. 41.— 7. IT. CTIMdk, Db Fmak. B«l.
KU^ZtU, Dm WirtlHfaftyMr d. Altaa.—Slaekmmmy Db Pbpiak.

§ 169. The dress of the Greeks did not undergfo any very important changes ;
at least the names used in the first period were still applied to the principal gar-
ments in later times. Their clothing was more commonly made of uncolored
white wool, sometimes of linen and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to
dress, pnrpje was the most esteemed.

1 It. Coverings for the feet (hniffftuTa, itcit\a) were used very early, but not universally :
they were of various forms. Hats (iriXvi, ncXia, inXi6ia) were first introduced at a later
penod, designed chiefly as a protection against the weather.

2. The shoes were tied under the soles of the feet by thongs, Ifiamf ; hence the terms
inoieiy and IfnoXveTv, for putting on and taking ofi* the shoes. The following were soma
of the varieties ; dp0iiKaij large and easy shoes, which came up to the ankle ; (the term
d^vXii ia also applied to an appendaj^e of the Greek chariot, a sort of shoe into which
the driver thrust his foot to assist him in driving) ; pXavrm, shoes worn chiefly in the
house ; 6ia0aBpa, shoes common to men and women ; Ifi^arai^ shoes used by comedians;
Kddofvoif shoes used by tragedians, buskins ; Kap^arivatf coarse shoes worn by peasants ;
Kpntrlies^ a kind of slipper ; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly ; hut»-
vurot, dfivKXaiies, Spartan shoes of a rea color ; m^urcu, shoes of a white color, generally
worn by courtezans ; «Kpi/7apidcf , shoes worn by women of rank ; o&i'daXa^ shoes anciently
peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole of the foot.

In oar Plate XXIV. are lUuetratlone of vartoue forme of ancient coverings for the feet and
len. Beveral, marked by the letter a, are from Mtxican roonumenu ; thoee marked ft and e, are
Mid to be Phrygian ; d, «, and C, are from Effptiau remains ; c, g, >, k, I, «, s, end q, are Ortdt
and Soman •andala ; k and i having very rich ornamenta for the inaiep anached to them ; y having
abarp iron naila underneath (uaed by warriors, it ia aoppoeed, ao that an army marching witli
them mutt make a eonfuaad ii«u«; cf. RowtrnmUlUr, Bchol. in Vet. Teat. laaL Ix. 5); /, n, o, are
Dacian ; A, j, e, are P9rtian; r ia the T\irkisk alipper made of morocco.

3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (cf. ^ 44). The rtXa; seems to
have been a sort of skull-cap of felt, being of a conical form ; varying, however, in
elevation ; but always without a brim. A broad-brimmed hat, term^ irireMr, was
used by young men : it is seen in Plate XXIV. fig. 3. " Travellers among the Greeks
wore the chlamys, sword, and petasus or flat hat ; this hat is sometimes thrown back
on the shoulders and retained by thongs fastened under the chin ; travellers carried their
money in their girdlea." The Kavaia was similar to the xtraooi, with a brim turned
upwards. Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of
them were the following; V>n>(, n, fillet, with which the hair was tied, forming on the
forehead a frontal, which was often made of gold, and ornamented sometimes with
precious stones ; KSXvtrrpa, a veil; KptHtfuw, a covering which came down from the head
to the shoulders ; icttp60a>0r, a net inclosing the hair ; ^it^w, a sort of cap or turban. The
term utrpa is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the dbwof. A
form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed trmftdvii iipriXii. 7'he 8^yi«p
was a sort of necklace, an ornament much worn, and often very costly (cf ^ 338). The
women frequently had also ear-rin^s, f/ifiara, Ikutts, pyuria, eXX6/?(a.— -Among the Athe-
nians, some of the men wore in their hair golden ornaments called rhriytf.

The term Kd^n dealgnated the hair of the bead generally } the word 9p^(, the general term fbr
hair, ia uaed In the aame aenae ; but there were drstlnciive terma deaignating peculiar properties
of the hair, or peculiar modea of arranging it : aa fOccpa, a head of hair carefully dreaeed ; xa^rii,
long flowins hair, like the mane of a norae : irocdf, the hair when combed and dreeeed ; ^0n^
the hair in disorder, aa when a person ia in rear; Kdpan, the hair on the top of the head ; xSpvi^
fiosj the hair of women when drawn up all round the head and flistened In a bow on the top ;
Kp<o0vXos, the hair of men In the same fashion ; the Athenians uaed the rim^ in fkstening the
bow ; fia\\6s, curly hair like wool ; r^pa;, hair combed up from the templea ao aa to appear like
boma ; xUi^voSt hair in ringleta, called also vA^cafco;.

4 u. Next to the body, both men and women wore a tunic, an under-garment of wool,
Xiruv, which extended to the knee, and when worn alone, was trus^ up by a rich
girdle (Co^yq) ; in some cases it was fastened from the shoulders by costly buckles or
clasps (vr^vai, itiptnu). Over this garment the men wore a mantle or robe, wl^ch was
long (<pSf»f, iftdrioif) as worn by the more respectable ; while the lower classes used a
shorter kind (x^aiKa). There was also another sort of short mantle, x^a/ii);, worn chiefly
by soldiers. The women generally wore over the tunic a robe (luanoy), rather short,
and over this a broad veil or outer robe, nhrhs, with which they could cover alfo the head.

9. The xirc5y ia repreaented aa being of two kinda, the Doric and the Ionic. The Doric eor-
rraponded to the deecription above given, being of woolen atuff, abort, and without aleevee. Th«
Ionic ia deacribed aa long, aometlmea reaching the feet (iroiripns)* made of linen, with wide
aleevee (jcdpnc).— The l^driov or 0«fpof waa alwaya a rectangular piece of cloth.ezactlvor nearly
square ; made of wool moat commonly, but alao of cotton, and of flax s naually all of one soui
((^idX'^c 'I v), aometimes variegated (ffou(Xoy) and embroidered; aometlmea oraameated with a

p. m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. COSTUME. BATHIN<>. 209

friBfe. It was often a«ed to spread over beds and couches ; to cover the body in sleep ; to form
• sort of carpet ; to serve for an awning or curtain.

Of coverinf s for the body« called in general loBhSt iadijiia, and Una, there were many varieties
and forms, besides those named above; as, 0alTi], 6t<pdcpa^ a shepherd's garmenif of skins;
lyxSptSoiio^ a cloak used by shepherds and servants; ivcapiis, a short garment for females, which
was thrown over the shoulders; i^oifiist a slave's garment, having only one sleeve (,cf. ^ 90)|
l^ffrpU,a kind of great coat, made of skins of goats ; ^olorpoi', a girdle appropriate for women ;
^icrpiov, a thin garnieni for snnioier ; KaroiPOKri, a slave's robe, bordered at the bottom with
sheepskin ; A^^;, a garment common to both sexes, suitable for warm weather ; aroXfi, a long
robe reacblng to the heels ; aTp6^tov^ a kind of kerchief worn by women over the bosom {<rrriB6'
i^ft9s)i Tp0u>v, rptfitavioy^ a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by philosophers and poor pt^rsons;
roivco. a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast; used also to signify an orna-
meat for the head; <hatv6\tfs^ a cloak without sleeves for cold or rainy weather; x^ftvU, a fine
thin robe. The tidXMov was an ornament worn, by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands ;
akrmeelet or armlet (xAf^<tfVi dfi^iiea). The ntpttTKeXti was probnbly an anklet^ an ornamental
ring worn to decorate the let ; frpquently reprfsented in the painting* of Greek fiirurea found at
Pompeii ; yet the word is sometimeR translated drawers, feminalia. The dva^vpiSes were a sort
of pantaloons (braeew) worn by the Oauls, Sarmatianti, and others, both in Europe and in Asia,
bat not by th4» Greeks. Robinson's Arch. Gr. p. Ml-54d.

Our Plate XXV contains several engravings illustrating ancient and Oriental female costume.
In fir. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the vail; similar to it is the vail in fig. ^, which is
taken from the French work L'E^ypte, &c.,and repreHPnts an Egyptian spinning; another form
appears in fig. if, an Arabian hood ; in y, which is Syrian, is another kind, a sort of muffler; in
V, which is Egyptian, is one which floats in the wind like a modern vail, but was attached to a
ribin or chain passing round the forehead and Joined by a clasp above the eyes. In fig. «*, is a
Grecian lady with a peculiar kead-Hress^ somewhat resembling the spiral curl of the mursx shell
from which the Tyrian pnrple was said to be obtained. Other head-ornaments appear in fig. A, a
Grecian female, with the double flute, dressed for a festal occasion, and in fig. i, another Grecian
Ib a fbneral dress. The net above mentioned Is seen in fig. 4, of Plate XXIV ; in fig. 7, of the
same Plate is a form of the turban, like the crescent-shaped tiara or diadem sometimes seen on
lepreaentatlona of Jnno. In these figures we also see the tunic fastened to the shoulders by
clasps ; in fig. 4, it is without sleeves, as in fig. A, Plate XXV. This figure, A, shows also the robe
called peplos, which is seen also in fig. A, said to represent a Grecian lady in full costume of the
dden style ; an outer garment like the peplos of the Greeks is seen likewise in fig. b, which
repieaents a Cairo dancer, and in fig. e, which shows an oriental silk robe thrown over the head
and arms. In fig. s and/, we have two female Bacchantes; their costume, like that of the musi-
cian, fig. A, appears to be highly ornamented ; one holds the thyrsus and a wine cup, probably
the culix (cf. 9 167. 1); the other appears to be playing with a sort of castanets. In fig. «, is a
representation of an Egyptian princess from the palace at Karnac ; it exhibits a slight under dress
and a close robe in slanting folds open in front, the whole scarcely concealing the form ; it may
illustrate the Coan vestments, or woven wind, of the ancients. A nearly transparent robe is also
seen in fig. 0, which is an Egyptian priestess holding in her right hand a sistrum, and in her left
some mythological image probably pertaining to the worship of Isis.

The lollowiaf ii u 'meidcalal mmrk of CktUettu^riand ropeding tbe nuUeriatt of ueient clothing. ** My bnt laoghH at the
heta Ifcil I mde at tbe irioe and hooey of Attica ; hot, aa loiiw companaatkm Cor tb« diiappointineBt, be dettred me to take noTica
«f ihe inu of ihe fcotalo who waited on aa. It was Iha very drapery of tba ancicDt Greeks, eapeelaliy in tbe borisootal and oodo*
htiac iMt thai were fanned beiow the bcann, and Joined tbe perpeodienlar fbldi which marked tbe akirt of Uie tunic The coarM
tfaff of vhkh diia woonoH drea wae oorapoied, heightened the reaemblance ; far, to Judge from Mulptwe^ the atuA of tbe andeota
vou B«eh thicker than oon. It woald be impoanble to Ibnn the larfe aweepa obierrable ia aaliqae dnperiea with the moilina
ad hUh of nodem fsaale atliro; tbe fauaa of Gea, and tbe other atufi which the latiriata deaoninated ioomh vriiid, were iia?er
taHatod I9 the chiRL" TVtwnb in Oruca, «c. p. 137, (N. T. ed. 1814).

nwpectiiig tbe DMtertal of Ihe TCatmeott of Coa, mo f 8SS.— On tbe qocetion eoncerBlBg tbe uae of allk anong tbe Greeks, eL

JtMatkH Leoipriore, UDdcr the wwd Arm. Oo the nse of cotton, E. Sahta^ Hiitoiy of Otlon Manalactiire. Load. 1896. 8.

(<ka^iL)

HaapwtJMg the eoatone genenlly, see a brief aecnont lo North Jhnr. Rte. for July, 1838. p. 148.— Ifongcz, Bar habillemens del
■eiaw. <Gr. aad Rom.) ta the tfcm. it Phutitut, C 1 a t ■ e dWirt. at Lit. Arte. vol. ir. p. ta,^rotbr6luft Bncyclop. p. 610, 918,
glviaf eome nioaintlau drawa from the Ramilton vaaea.^. Rubennu, De Re Teetiaria Veteron. Aat. 1666. 4 ; alto in GrmehOf
wLTi^-AJWivia,OelCartanielBHcoollbdeniedltattiiFopoU. Milan, 1828. 18 fola. fol. exhibiting la Tola. v. and fi. ttie
saaamearihe QiMfei.— Ardtan, Hope, kc. dted § 197. t.

S. The Athenian women fleem to have paid much attention to the adorning of their
persons. " They painted their e^e-brows black, and apphed to their faces a layer of
oeroee or white lead, with deep tints of rouge. Thev sprinkled over their hair, which
was crowned with flowers, a yellow- colorea powder. At the toilet thev used mirrors
{KaTOTTpa\ commonly made of polished metals ; sometimes of the lengtn of a person's
body.

TheMde^ In PMeXXT7. 6«. 4, holda a ndrrer ia bar right haDd.-See JUknonl. Snr leanhtrira dca aneicna, In tbe ATmk. il
rjkmL 4a buer. uiii. I4(1-CC. Clan. Jeum. zvi. Itt.— C^ha, Bacneil d'Aatiqnilii, voL iiL p^ 831 ; voL v. p. 178.— AMItgar,
uiiL46b

$ 170. The custom of frequent bathing and anointin$r continued to the latest
period, and both were practiced for pleasure as well as for cleanliness and vigror
of body. Public baths became at length very common, even in the cities
which had not previously admitted them. They were furnished with several
distinct rooms for undressing, for bathing, for anointing, &c., which were
named from their appropriate uses.

1. The public baths were furnished with various accomodations for convenience and
pleasure. Among the separate rooms were the following : the dsro^w^K, in which
27 82

Sl'O OABCIAN ANTIdVITIES.

those who bathed put off their clothes ; the *iiAfowi«i', the ** sweating mom," or room
for taking vapor baths ; the (immarriputy, for the hot bath ; the Xovr^pdy, for the cold bath ;
the ikuKThptov^ the anointing room.

This account of the roomt ia according to XoMmm, Arch. Grac. p. 508.— For a more Aill
accoaiit of ancient batba, lee P. IV. ^241 b.

2 II. The various ointments used had difierent names according to the modes and
materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go in this respect,
that It was sometimes necessary to check it by laws. At Spana the selling of perfumed
ointments was wholly prohibited, and in Athens men were not allowed to engage in it.

S. " Every part of the body had Its appropriate nngnent. To tbe fret and lega the Greeks
applied JEfyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm waa thought best adapted to the
cheeka and breaate ; the arma were refreshed with balaam-mint ; sweet marjoraon had the honor
of supplying an oil for the eyebrows and hair, as wild thyme had for the knee and neck.— A nice
distinction divided perfumes into two kinds : the first were a thicker sort, and applied more as
salves or wax (xpf^ora); tbe others were liquid, and poured over tbe limbs (dXcf/i/iara). To
Indulge in the liquid ointment was thought to evince a feminine and volupiuoos dlsposiiion ; but
tbe sober and virtuous. It was allowed, might use the thicker sort wit hoot any impeachment of
their good qualities." Lond. Quart. Rtv.xxxW. S03.— Persons called dXcfrrai were employed to
anoint the body after tbe washing and the rubbing or scraping with the instrument termed '
erXcyyff or (irvrpa.

4 It. Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were performed by women ;
In particular they washed and anointed the feet. It was the custom to kiss the feet of such as
were highly esteemed.

la ttlwintlaaor ihb euton of kiidi« Om feat, d. JKilqpkaiiM^ £^«>(, Qk 4SD. •! Uc. Bit 1694), ud to New TaU LkM
TU.SS;/(ita>La.

$ 171. The general construction of Greek houses has already been stated
($ 5G). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly at Athens, it was
applied to public buildings rather than private dwellings, which were mostly
of an ordinary character. This was true also at Thebes, otherwise greatly
celebrated for her superb architecture. Much more care was bestowed in orna-
menting the interior apartments, especially the hall for eating, with rich furni-
ture and utensihs, and with elegant works of art (cf. P. IV. § 178). Besides,
the custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or opening
with colonnades, hindered a free view of the private houses, and rendered their
beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also found it to their honor and
profit to construct the public edifices in a style of superior magnificence.

1 . The common term for the whole house was oimc ; the eating hall was called
T]p(jrXtvfov and ^lor^ioy ; the sleeping room, «»<Ttui/.«—Po«er gives the following account
of Grecian houses. " The men and women had distinct apartments. The part in
which the men lodged was towards the gate, and called dvi^ or dvftpavirtt ; that assigned
to the women, was termed ywauaw, yvyoiMavfrtf, and was the most remote part of the
house, and behind the avXi>, before which were other apartments denominated «pA$»^
and *po<KIXfoy. The women's chambers were called r^ysM ^oXo^i , as bein^ placed at the
top of the house (cf. % 56), for the lodeings of the women were usually m the highest
rooms (&)(a, impHa), Penelope lodged in such a place, to which she ascended by a
Kkifut^{Ody$t. i. 330)."— The terms dydM/idr, difo&oB^U, d»6fioBf^, and dvifid^v, are all
used to designate a ntaircaMe^ a flight of atepir, or Uair$. — Portions of the upper stoiy
sometimes prcjected beyond the walls of the lower part, forming balconies or verandahs
(ffjpo^oXa2, ycio'inv^fr/iara). The roofs were usually flat ; sometimes pointed, with a ridse
and gable. The windows or openings for light and air {^iss) were commonly in the
roofs of the perittyUg, The chimney (irmrvM^oi] is suppoaJMl to have been merely an
opening in the root— -Although in general the private dwellings were of an ordinary
character, yet in the time of JDemosthenes there were some, which were very costiV
and splendid. The houses of Sparta axe said to have been more lofty and built witn
greater solidity than those at Athens.

In our Plate XXIV. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian honse as given by Stnart (Dictionary of Archl-
toctare). His account Is as follows: "Tbe Greek house had no a<rtit«s but instead of it the
jMriatyls waa approached by a passage called thfrvreHm. On the side of the peristyle opposite
the entrance was a kind of vestibule called ptuta9 ; the apartmenU on the right and left of which
were termed severally tkalamos and ampki-tkalamost and beyond them were the ad or halls. la
the firBt jwrist^U were the trielimia in daily us«, and the apartments of the domesticfl ; thia divi-
sion of the house was csiied nnmeonitis. In the south portico of the^reotM* peruryfc, which waa
styled amdronitUt were the ptiMcotJkcM and Cftkent aeeais ,* in the eastern, the bibUoUuta ; in the
western, the exidra ; and in the northern, the £rMt oeiw, or banquetingiroom. The kotfitmlia
consisted of triclinia and sleeping- rooms for strangers, and were on the right and left of the. great
«BCus. There were courts or passages to these apartments called meMLitl*. In tbe plan [riven in
Plate XXIV.] a is the tkfromtm { *, peristyle of tbe nnawnitis ; c, the pMlu ; d, the gvrt mems ;
s, stables; /,/, courts; ^, ^, ^, porter's e*lUe; Jk, A, common trieiinia; t, the tkaUms$; j, tbe
•mpki-tkaUmoi ; k, Jk, act or halls ; {, {, the megauU f m, «. the ko$piUlu ; n, the vestibale ; a,
tbe ^rrsot ptriti§U ; p, tbe Hbliotktea ; q, f , the pinMOtkeem ; r, the Cyztesns cctw ,* «, tbe extdm.**

3 A door (S^, ai^Xif) was fastened by means of lock and key («Xcu) ; the key de-

PLATE XXV.

212 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

scribed by Homer seems to have been merely a bolt which was moved by a thong
<^df) attached to it (Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were in use.
"—Various articles of furniture are named. Althoueh the house usually had a fixed fire-

flace(&rna), portable stoves (^<oc«p«0 or chafing-dishes («Wpuiria) were frequently used,
n the sleeping room was the bed, coin) or Xc\o( ; this was often in the form of the sofa,
about six feet long and three broad ; called also KXuii. The chair {^povos), ewer iirp6xpos)
and basin for washing (Kovrfipioy), mirror (tanwrTpoj/) and its case or stand (Ao^r©*'), clothes-
chest («i«T*7), &,c. are mentioned.

In Plate XXXII. fig. 6, is a •on of key formed by a bolt and etring ; It was found at Pompefi;
In Plate XXIV. fig. % we have a Grecinn metallic key, selected from a number given in JVmU-
fatMfn. — Pig. S, of this Plate, siiows a Grecian sofH-6ed, with a mnn In one corner and bis wife
reclining behind him. Fig. 10, of the same Pl.ite, is another form of ihe Greek 8ofa; it is covered
with a cushion, fVom which an ornamental appendage hangs over one end of the frnme. Fig. d,
of Plate XXXII. is a curious form, taken from an Egyptian nionument.— CAatr« (Egyptian) are
seen in fig. 8, and fig. 9, of Plate XXIV. ; others (Grecian) in fig. 7, and fig. 4.— The latter, fig. 4,
shows also a mirror^ held by the female before her face.

RcqMCtiBg tlw Greek houM, ke. m Jkelm*i CbuMm.-HvV$ Gfaebiefate dcr BaskuHt, cited P. rv. ) ttfL 4.

$ 172. The arts of industry, especially navi^tion and commerce, weie
highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history.

1 tt. The business of navigation was originally in the hands of the Phcenicians
solely; but afterwards was shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several of the
Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then chiefly monopolized by
the Greeks. Athens was forced to engage in this pursuit by the unproductiveness of
her soil ; and although Lycurgus prohibited commerce at Sparia, vet afterwards even
there it gradually and constantly mcreased. By the union with Lgypt at a later pe-
riod, Grecian commerce rose to still higher success. Besides the states just named,
Corinth and the islands .£gina and Rhodes were the principal places of commerce ;
and their industry and enterprise contributed very much to the wealth and power of
the Grecian states.

2. Attica was favorably situated for commerce, being washed on three sides by the
sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the com, wines, and metals, which
came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also timber, salted
fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia ; woolen and other stufls from Asia Mi-
nor and Syria; and honey, wax, tar, and hides from the cities on the Black sea.
They likewise exported, not only different commodities brought from foreign coun-
tries for the purpose, but the products of Attica, which were chiefly olives and oil,
and vanous articles of manufacture, particularly arms and domestic utensils.

Bmrthdtmft AowlHiiiii, cli. Ivl.— IX H. HifnguAU Keoprnph. ood bMlor. Nsdiriehteo die CobniaB d«r GrMckea MnOhnd.
Utona, ISOa •,>-JtoBin*« HMOfy at the Artt end Sciencei of the AadmH^Bmtiid, OeidiicMs der Schiflhhit and da HumMs

der Altao. For an aceoant of Ihe rmrtca bj which the prodnetion of the eaat «rara eoevejrtd throiinh BahTleo Id the ommtriei «r

fha MeditemMKo, lee Burm od the Comnwra tfAndml S»V^ >• traoelaled bj F. M. StMar^ in Ibe BiU. Rifot. tcL «U.
li.SM»

3. It is evident from the poems of Hesiod (cf. P. V. ^ 51), that asricuUure was at
an early period a subject of practical interest among the Greeks. Yet the art does
not appear to have been carried to very great perfection in any of the states. (Cf. ^58.)

The plow {iporpov) of the Greeks is said to have been ot two kinds (tWo Itirj) ; the
one kind, composite (miKTdv); the other, simple (dwdyvov). (Cf. Hes. Works and
Days, V. 432, 436.) The principal parts of the composite were the following ; the
lrropoc6s or ^vuos, beam; the former term is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong
connecting the yoke with the beam ; the wvif or ^yvfi, plowthare, whose extreme
point was called i/v/1^7 ; it was attached to a piece of wood called IXvfui, and cotmected
with a piece termed y»i7s ; the ixjtrhi, handle.

A specimen of the simple may be seen In oar Plate XXXII. fig. 6, which represents a Syrian
plow, with a small metallic blade or share, f^imlsbing an illustration of the metaphor of the prn-

Shet (JIfteaA It. S): other forms are seen in fig. ill. ; one of the engravings shows a single bnllock
rawing the plow, which is held in one hand of the laborer, while with the other he guides the
animal by a rein.

See Mmftt, Sar leg iiMfrvinem d^a|Tfen1tare dei andnia, lo the JMrm. d§ PAwfOul, CI aiie dWiK. tt LU. Jm. vol iL p. SIS ;
VOL lU. (pvblkhed ISI8), p. I. with en«n«it«k-CC Awfier, at eital \ IS. 6.

4. The soil of Attica was more fkvorable to the production of the grape 06rpvt\ olive (fXa<o(),
and fig (<r^iroir), than of grain {aXro^); and it was necessary to import the laiter; It has been
estimated that one-third of the quantity annually consumed was imported. The exportation of
corn was prohibited. The sale of it was under the supervision of oflicers called <riro0vAaircc.
If corndealers (acroTcSXaf) combined to raise the price, they were liable to capital punishment.
In order to avoid a scarcity of corn (triro^fa), public granaries (o-trojtficai) were kept, under the
direction of purveyors {atrdvai) and receivers (avo^lcrai).

00 thb aohjeet we BidAU Public %taocmj of AtbeM -BtrgmU, Birt. de Plfrie. dee Giece. Ftf. ISSOl 2 vote. &

% 173. Here it may be proper to give a brief account of the moneys, weights,
and measures of the Greeks. In early times, traffic was ejected only by ex-
c].ange of goods, or barter, the inconvenience of which must soon be felt. Rude

p.m. DOHESTIC AFFAIRS. HONEY. COINS. 213

metals were next employed, in order to render an eqniTalent for what was par-
chased, and were weighed for the purposes Afterwards their weight and valoe
were indicated by si?ns, marked or impressed upon them. At length, regular
coins were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance cannot be decided
(cf. P. IV. § 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time of Solon, B. C,
about 600, they were in common use in Greece. The metals used in making
money-coins were gold, silver, brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were
impressed only on one side. The impressions were various, both as to the
objects represented and as to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic
coins were stamped with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her sacred bird.

1 ». The general terms used to designate metals bb a circulating medium were
these : »^if<nr/ia, any legitimate coin ; xp^fia, money in the loose sense ; and xipfta, small
coin or change. Besides these there were numberless specific names, derived from
the weiffht of the coins, the place where they were struck, or the image upon their
face. There were also terms, which expressed large sums or amounts, but were not
names of actual coins; as e. g. the ftvd or uvia, and the raXaimv. The former (ftv^ de-
signated at Athens the sum of 100 drachms; at ^gina, the sum of 160; the term
was however also used to sisnify merely the eolden ararnp. The latter (raXayrvv) was
usually the sum of 6000 drachms, but had dinerent values in difierent places ; a talent
of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver.

2 ». Of the actual and circulating coins the \arr6v was the smallest. Seven of this
name were equal to the xoXxov; , and eight of the latter to the d0o\6i. This last varied,
however, in value, according to the place where it was coined. Six i^o\&i were equi-
valent to the Spaxfuii which had its name from the weight, but was of difierent values
in different places. The names of the coins nfuaffdXtotf, 6ta)06\tov or SidpoXov^ Tpi60o\oy,
&.C., and h^iipoK^v, iiipa\^¥, &c., are easily understood, jpour ipcoQiai were equal to
the vror^ in silver, a coin, which was also called rcrpdi^ccgjov, and seems to have been
the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The tnarfip in gold was equal in
value to 20 ^pCQiai, in weight to 2, and was sometimes called iiipajQiPi^ but was most
generally termed "Xjmaxtvi, It received likewise other names from the places w^here,
or the kmgs under whom, it was struck; as e. g. Slater J)aricuSt Stater Crasit &c.

8. Amonr the coins, named from tbe Imaf^e upon them, were the 0o^s* bearing the figure of an
ok; tbe «opi}, having a repteeentation of Pallae, the maid; yXa^t with an owl for itt device,
another name for the tetradrachma.

In Plate XL. are several ipeciinent of Greek coini, talcen from Montfauean*9 Antiquity Ex-
plained, and from C*lm*t*$ Dictionary. Fig. I ia a coin of Thebes ; fig. 9, of Argo« ; 3, of .£gina ;
4, and also a, d, and «, are Macedonian coins ; 5, and also 9, c, /, and «, arc Athenian ; 6 is a coin
of Tbespiie ; 7 is an Atolian. Fig. 9 is an Attic tetradruekm, with Minerva's head on the obverse,
and on tbe reverse an owl standing on a prostrate vase, the dn^opeii (awpkonO or ituirri idioUi),
with tbe inscription A6E , the whole encompassed with an olive crown. Fig. « is the reverse
of a didrackm, showing an augur*s wand and a sacrificial vase. Fig. / Is the drodksi, bearing a
sort of tripod ; fig. e is another, which has the head of a Vulcan, and on the reverse are two
lighted torches ; on b, Apollo appears in company with the owl.— Cf. P. iV. ( 93.— For a ubtiUr
9Um of tbe chief coins and their relative value, see our Plate XXV a.

^ 174 u. Various changes successively took place in the denomination of Greek
coins. There were changes also in the worth of these coins, both as to their actual
contents and their relative value. Sometimes it was necessary to coin tin and iron for
money. The Spartans were required by the laws of Lvcurgus to use tin and iron,
and did not depart from the custom until a late period. The common ratio between
eold and silver was as one to ten, but it was sometimes above ; as one to twelve and a
half. There are many difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian money with mo-
dem, and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the former. The 6paxitii equal-
ied about 9d sterling.

1. The mint at Athens, or place wbere money was coined, was called doyvpoKowtXop i here
veie kept tbe standard welghu for the various coins.— Many specimens of the silver arar^p or
nrpdipaxpt^^ are still preserved in collections. Lttronne^ having accurately examined five hundred
if them, and arranged them according to tbe centuries in which they were struck, deriured the
Bean weight of the old Attic Jpoy^^, coined B. C. two centuries and more ; and tbe valoe, as
Mmt derived, la suted at 17 cemu 5M millM of our curreacy. Tbe later Spaxftfl is stated at 16 cent*

i. Sw C'mfv'f Emb7 OB ttw Meuora, Wdgto, aad MoiNys of Ibt Omb and Bonui, b JnlAoM*! ad. aT
Jtetfii). TiTclB Ober dte tit Mmh, a& Bam «ad Griccbmiudi. C^ A. a Maatntr ) Bnuma. 1718. &~F. C*. MattkiA, Ueber-
akfct dn len. aad (riwh. Mm- Gtwichl*. ind MOas-WiHah Fnakt I80a 4.-^. F. fVurm, Dt poodenim, etc. ntiooibw apad
BonwM a Grccos. Lipa. ISl. 8.-llkHiy, AiMicat Moimj, Waigbti, fte. dtod ^ 874. S.-JBcM, Uabar MOom, Mim, umI
Gavtehia dci .Sltartbana. Lps. 18Sa. S^ielil, aa dt«l P. IV. \ 9a 1 On ttia whoto aubjaet oT Otwk Coioa aad MedaU, aaa

r.iv.Has-9B.

% 175. In connection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak of
their systems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient method was
onite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for <me, I, perhaps from la
£m> M/a; tor Jive, n, from nbm; for (en, A, from AUa; for a hundred, H, from Hoca-

^14 GRECIAN ANTidumsa;. : ' .• ^

rdr (batmfy; ibr a ihou$andt X, from XCkia ; and for ten thouaand^ M, fronL Mfpic. AH
number^ were expresaed by combiDationa of these letters { each combination signify*
ing the gum of the numbers designated by the letters separately ; e. g. nill repre-
sented eight ; A HI, g'ixteen ; A A, twenty ^ Slc. Sometimes they were combined so as
to express the product ^ instead of the »um, of the separate letters ; in such case, one
-of the letters was made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ;
for example, "R (representing a n with a A in its bosom) signified 10X5, i e. 50: so a
n with an H placed within it signified 100X5, or 500; and a A having M within it,
signified 10,000 X 10, op 100,000 : this form of combination was chiefly confined to
numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such numbers were expressed by using a large n and
writing the letter Tor the other factor in its bosom. This was the old Attic system,
and is found on inscriptiohaT;' it is seen in the Chronicon Parjaio (cf. P. IV. ^ 91. 4).

But this method was superseded by another; in which aimie letters of the alpha-
bet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bad, Ktfrra, and £«^r, meo-
tioned in P. IV. ^ 46. 2. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha to Tketa,
expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bai beinff inserted after Epsilon, to sig-
nify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, expressing tne tens; the last (11) signifying
80, and Ktfnra being used foe 90 ; the next eight, mm Rko to Omega, expressed the
hundreds ; a standing fb^ 800, and lo^t being used for 900. The letters, when thus
used to designate numbers, were usually marked with a atroke above ; thus, i', 10;
c, 20 : «# 22. In order to express thoueandt, the eight first letters with Bad were
again used, but with a "Stroke beneath ; thus, i, 4,000 ; /*, 6,000 ; jnkF, 20,432.

Ct JbWMonV Battau, f a.-nSw»«», Diet. Cla«. (TTiMmw, te. N. 84.)

$ 176. The use of tedghtt was of early origin among the Greeks, as else-
where. Grecian weights bad the same names with their coins of money, a
circumstance which seems clearly to point back to the custom of weighing
hncoined gold and silver for purposes of exchange. The proportions of the
weights were different hi diffejrent applications of them ; as, e. g. those of com-
mon merchandise did not in all respects correspond with those of the apothecaiy.
The bj^ctk&i is said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries
or physicians, who used a weight, termed xfpaftov, about one-fourth of the
d0€Ou&i, and another, ovtapwv, only one-fourth of that.

CL £. AKmi^ De IfMwrit •! Ftaodwibu Kom. tt Gracii. Vawl. IS7S. fcL-mrm, iTyMiy, kc. m otad f 174.S.-8M Ite
fateter «in0 (iv« ia Plate XXV a.

$ 177. In speaking of the Greek meatures^ we may notice them as divided
into measures of length, of surface, and of capacity.

1 ». The names of the measures of length were taken, as was the case in most of
the ancient nations, from members of the human body ; e. g. iwrvXos, a finger's
breadth ; mnBaafj, a span, hand's width, the distance from the extremity of the thumb
to that of the little finger; «>d(, a foot. The Herculean or Olympic foot was longer.
The t9x'v, a cubit, was the distance fix>m the elbow to the extremity of the middle
finger. 'OpyviA, a fathom, was the distance across the breast, between the extremities
of the hahds, the arms being extended (dptyf^) in a horizontal line.

2. Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of surface, the principal
were the noiV, the fyovpa, and the wXiBpov, The'in>6r was a souare with each side one
foot ; the ^tpa, a square with each side 50 ir6its ; and the irX«9p»y, a square with a side
of 108 n66ts ; so that 2,500 v^ made ah apovpa and 4 Spnpai a wXtOpo^. — The term evafrimf
seems to have been used to designate a measuring line.

3 u. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether applied to liquids or
to things dry. The largest liquid measure was fttrpirHis, equal to about 8 gallons, and
called also sometimes kmo^, Kepajnov, and AfupofOi. The smallest measure was tne xoxXid^NOf,
containing less than a hundredth parr of a pint, and so called from KfoO^ or ««%XCBy, a
snail-shclI. I'he IhmK contained about a pint, and was equal to twice the measure
termed mrvhi. Between the KotiiXn (half pint) and the «ox^l^plOK, six intervening measures
are named. The measure next larger than the lirrm (pint) was the >O0(y, containing
upwards of two quarts.

4. Thfl KoriXn Is said to have been applied by anelent phyiictam to the i
fTOdant«>d Kl>»e* of apotheeariea, betftg made of born, and divided on the oauide by lines, ao
that certain parts of the measure corresponded to certain denominations of weight. The largeat

roeaanre npplied to things drv was the |<li)ifirsf4 which contained somewhat more than a bnahel
and a fourth, and received dfffc ' "**" ' *"" " *" .-•-•-. .^

a qnarti forty<«ight of which
4ficcrrov cnnMlned foor xofyt'cs- Most of the other meaaorea were of the same aamea as

and a fourth, and received duferent names In different regions. The x«i*'(iws" & kittle less than
qnarti forty-eight of which were. contained in the iditpivs. The ftMif, eqaivalent to the

the liquid i

Sm O B*vptr, loqaiiy into the iiat* of AaeUt Mcmoim, Altlc,'BoBiB^ Mid Jkwfah. JmL VtlL S^JOekfe, Wmm, tc alii
I YIA. 2,-~Ct llM tabtdw vino, civn in Plate XXVa.

( 178. The social p.leasuies .apd amusements of the Greeks were very nv-

PLATE XXVs,

GRECIAN

lORETS^HEASUIlES, AND WEIGHT&

The estimated valae in our denominationB
It gtven accordinf to the Tablet or A. B.
Ooiiger« which are bated on the Treatlte of
IFariH Jb ib^ T«blee of Bvmmtt.

MoBey§»
1. Btiit ik» DnOm*

T]X9>*»»S • - •
14 I 2 i Af y*CT» -
» I 4 I 2 1 'Hpt»06>to9
« I • I 4 I 8 I 'o#»My
ml Ml t I 4 I a 1

<|« I 16 I 8 I 4 I i iTiTfOjMXw .
>| 48 I at I I« I 6 I S I I J) Af XJi<

iMIf.cte.ni.
. 0 00 OS

• • • 3.6

• • T J

. • 1 4.6

• 8 SJ

• • 6 8.6

• II 7J

• 17 6.9

tk§Drttekm.

^xp4 • • • •

4 I a {TtTftapaXf**

I 10 1

m\ » I 8S I S I Mi>i

aooiwn ifiooisoo 60

. 0 17 &9

. • as 1.8

• • 70 S.7
S 61 8J

. 17 » 8J
1066 66 6.8

MlO^^^j^VU

I® I ofSilfflr. 5

Measures of Capacity.

1. F&rUqwdt.

Koy»«<4W» • . . . • -.
a I Xi>M

g.5|l.25| M6rffOi» ...

* I 2.S I 8 I IWy«f - ■
10 I 6 I 4 I 8 I K6a6oy • - • . •
l> |7J| 6. 1 6 |l.5| 'Ojtfia^ - -
ao I IS I 12 I 6 I S I 8 I TirafTov - .
60iaO|24|lg|6|4|ai KoT^Xy .
iao|66 I4-' 184 118] 8| 4 ]i\W^nS
IJS60 I 288jU4| 72^|_48 | 84J18| 8 | X«0$

OtLfC.
0 0

4aBoigl60{T7g8iWli43aia88i 1441721861 6 JAi^Tiy 4

The Aubrn doubled fonucd tba ant lad Itraat
M4Tp,T^g a 8

0007

> 0.018

> 0.018

> a08»
» 0.079
» A118
• 0.867
) 0.476

> 0.960
t 1.704
1 a8S9

S. F«r Tkhtgg Dry,

IC«xXuEfM«
"To"| K<a6>y
ISJKSl

60 I 6 I 4 I KoT<X^ . . • •
180 1 18 I 8 I 8 I n^nfS • •
840 1 84 I 16 I 4 1 al Xalwi • •
960l96 |64|l6|8|4l 'BfUtKTW

naoi i92iigs|ag|i6|8|a|'E«T>s •

0 0 0 fl

• • 8

• • 7

• 1 7

8840|a84|8S6|6*|aa|l6|4|8|TfiT<t
IISao|llS«|7e8|iai|96|4»|l2|6l3lM<g>;n>ggl 1 6

» aii8

I 0476

» ao60

> 1.801

1.818
0488
1.279

Measures of Iiength*

I. SfMoU M§atur$$,

8 |lU«6«x*s

4 I 2 I n«X«gT4, or AApov

/I. Jk.

0 ai»

• • 1.SI
• 8.06

8 I 4 I 2 { A*x'Si or^H/Mn^MV

fi 1 2.5 j 1 JS I Aiy<t ; •
11 I &.S J2.75|l.a7S|l.0l l'0ff6rftf..pw

B| 6 { 8 I 1^ h^ll.&i£»i6aM

• 7^

• 8.34

• 9.10
1 0113
1 1.65

Uvy^ - 1-6.17
84 I ra i 6 I 8 |8.4|8.l5i 2 [ 1.5 |l.3|l.2[n^yt>t 1 6.90

16 I 8 I 4 f 2'JljBil.4S| lilnafg

86 I IC i 6" I 8J I 8 I 1.81 \ \i 1 l.aS |l.l | Tlvy*

S. Grtat JUMnru,

mfs 0 floo

24

6 I 8J I *Orrmd #8

10 i 4 I U I AM<w»y. KrfXA^f ... • 8

I 24 I 10 I 6 t*M^ «

tw| 40|ia<| w\a\nxi9pQv

eaa 1 240] 100 1 eo i 10 I 6 i Lr^iuv

taoo] 4« 1 800 ] lao 1 ao 1 12 1 8 I A/g»x»g . • 404

|2IOB|96P|400|240| 40|24i 4| 2 \ 'Iwwuiw

iiaODlTaol iao|78| 18] 6] 8 1 A<guyoy 1667

Measures of Surfaee.

n*^ - - -

86 l'E{»y<JTt

Ptdm.tq.fl.
' 0 OOIJB

100 I 8.7 I ^AKtuv . . • 108.80

833i |a3.'l4i] 8.i 1 '»]UtKros . . 8 a&78

46.3 I I6.fe I 2 1 "EiCTot ■ - 6 7148

26.13 |lj|'AfM»p« . 9 107.37

16664

60 4]

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315

216 GRECIAN ANTIQfTmES.

merous, and in the better portion of their history, various, refined, and tattefol.
Masic and dancing were among the most prominent, and were almost a neces-
sary accompaniment of public and private festivals, entertainments, and social
meetings. In this custom there was a regard not merely to immediate gratifi-
cation, but also to the promotion of the general culture. Song and musical
accompaniment were almost inseparable; at least instrumental music was
scarcely ever practiced without vocal. There were several kinds of exercise,
which It was common to connect with the entertainments of the banquet, and
various social games or plays (cf. $ 167).

There was an amusement in which dancing and playing with a ball (o^Tpa) were
connected together^ The game at ball was a iavonte amusement, and was ranked
amonff the gjrmnastic exercises; five dififereot modes are named: o^paviaj brwcvpos,
^yiviaf hfttmrHv^ iK6^lis. There was a sort of dancina in which the dancers or tumblers^
(in0urnrrflpe() flung themselves on their heads and alighted again on their feet, and made
somersets over knives and awords.—^A favorite dance is still preserved* in Greece, called
JRomaiea.

« Bitfvm, SphtrMiqiM 6m laeiflBi, In «• aitLd$PJhad. dm Jitter. ?oi. L p. IBS. • Stt PUetmaUm, m citod f 8B.t.~

Btdm, Cterido, kc • Lend. QiurL Jin. nili. tfa

ilM Surafti, DahdaoM dMliKtem, in fh* Biit, d* PAead. dm huar. i. B8.-7. JAunfvt, Ui UtittaBibai Vataram, oonlaUwd
ia vol. Till, at Ounevii*, m cited § }M.-Jul. Cm. Buimt^i de lodii prirfttb te doniMtieia Ttlmiin Uber umeoa. Ludg. I6S7. S
Thii iagim sbo in tb* CloM. Jatm. voL t.— On wiow Doric daixea, cf. JtflUta', HitL and Aoiiq. of Done Raea^ bk. i. da. vi.

^ 179. Under the Archaeology of Greek literature notice is taken (cf. P. IV. ^ 63, ^ 65;
of the ^eat importance and compreheneive meaning of music (jufwucfi) in the system of
educaUon amoru; «be Greeks. Here we introduce some remarks on musical $ound9 Bnd
instrumentf. To denote what is now called the Science of Music the Greeks used the
term 'Apfunmcfi. The subject was divided into several parts ; stated by some as follows :
1. of eouhds (nsfH ^d6yyb)v) ; 2. of intervals (twpi itamntartov) ; 3. of systems («|pi rvcrtffiirtap) ;
4. of genera (ncpl yhav) ; 5. of modes (ynpl r6vtAv or i^/iuv) ; 6. of transition or mutation
(wpi fitrs0o\Hi)\ 7. of composition {mpl fuXnrottas),-^'* The notes or sounds of the voice were
seven, each or which was attributed to some particular planet: 1. itrdrn, to the Moon ;
2 mpm&Tii, to Jupiter ; 3. Xfxo»«f , to Mercury ; 4. /linj, to the Sun ; 5. napaitiirTif to Mars ;
6. Tptnj, to Venus ; and 7. vnm^ to Saturn. Some, however, take them m a contrary
order, and ascribe ^&rfi to Saturn, and yfirri to the Moon. — The tone or mode, which
the musicians used in raising or depressing the sound was called vdfios; and they were
called ytf/iot, as being laws or models by which they sane or played. There were four
principal v6fwt or modes; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these
some add a fifth, which they call the ^olic, but which is not mentioned by ancient
authors. The Phrygian mode was religious ; the Lydian, plaintive ; the Doric, martbl ;
the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the .£olic, simple. I'he mode used in exciting soldiera

to battle was called "OpBws. Afterwards, the term v6im»i began to be applied to the

hymns which were sung in those modes."

Bobifum, Arch. Ome. M. t. ch. xxili.~For a fuUflr aecoant of tbt Klenee, m SmUk, Diet, of Aot p. Oi^Driih^^g, Utmi-
kkliKbeWiamndmneB dCTOrieclMB.-AiM, BwtUt, Chaianon, ke. m dtcd P.IV. § Si.-.Mtibomiutt CoUeetiaa of aadnt writm
ao Music, cited P. Vi MS. 1.

^ 180. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The music of
those who only played on instruments was called fuwucfi \pt\9i ; that of those who also
Bang to the instrument, ftovaixii ncri. fuXbiiias. I'he musical instruments were divided into
ifmvcvrrh, wind instruments, and im-ara or yevpsiera, stringed instruments. The Ivre, the
flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instruments ; but there were several others.
—Of the instruments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous wag-
the lyre, which was called in Greek KiB&pa and ^^p/uyf, though some affect a distinction
between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strinss were made of linen thread, and
afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or strings were three in
number, whence such lyre was called rpixofAts ; and the lyre with three string is said
by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes dc-
nominated drtas. Afterwards, it was rendered more perfect b^ having seven strings,
and hence was called hrretxppioi, fmS^Ooyyo; , and fwr^yXciwoo*-. 'I hey struck the strings
sometimes with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru-
ment WOS called in Greek ictdapC^tiy, xpoCeuf irXij/crpw, or ii'iKtiv, AunrXfotf Kpo^tat^ and t//oXAni^.
To learn to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of three years was necessary. This
instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, of the shell of
which the lyre was made. — The flute, ai)^, was a celebrated instrument. It was used
in the sacriuces of the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva
is said to have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (jrXayrawXiv). Flutes were
made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called vrppeioi aiXot^ and the inven-
tion of making them of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They were also
made of the bones of asses, and of elephants ; and likewise of reed, box, and lotus.
The Bffioiiana excelled all tlie other Greeks in playing on this instrument. — The pipe

T m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217

w«8 caUed o^p(>f, and differed in sound from the Ante. The tone of the pipe was sharp
and shrill, and hence its sounds were called XarraXiat. On the contrary, the sound oi
the flate was gnve, iiill, and mellow ; and hence the flute was denominated /9a^/?pof«v.*'
BasMea tba lastrDOMiits already named, we may meation the fbllowing, arranged under the
heads of striiigtd hutrumaUs, mind hutrumtnU, and Hutrumentt qf ptreiusiM.

1. Stringed instruments: vcfflka, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve strings
(iu&ia ^B&yy99i) ; in}«rcf , another variety of the lyre, used by the Lydians ; /iay<S^i;, a lute
with twenty stiinffs ; ikKopov, said to he of a square form and similar to the \l/i06pa ;
Koya^ an Asiatic lute often said to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps without foun-
dation ; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and
in playing were struck with a plectrum {xMiicrfav), like a modem violin ; va^^iai, sambuca
(CL Pemus, Sat. v. 25), »ackbut (cf. Dan. iiL 5), a harp of a triangular form, with four
strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; Tptyautoy, a triangle with several strings
of unequal length ; i^oXrqpioy, said to be like the itay^ivt and also used for any variety
of the lyre ; \pa6pa, a Libyan instrument of a square form.

In Plate XXVI. are given varlotu forms of stringed inatrumenta. Fig. 1. la a trianjalar form
of the harp or Ijre, by aome conaidered aa the ««Mfriica, by otbera aa the trifonon. Fig. G pre-
■eats a almilar form ; this ia taken from a representation of a rellgloue featival found at Hercu-
laoeum (cf. L0ni. QimtC. Rev. xviii. 97) ; it shows a Cupid dancing and playing. Fig. 10 ia by
■one called the tambnea ; having four atrin|8 apparently over a sounding board. Fig. w is an
old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 ia another, given in CtUnut aa *' Timotheua's
harp with nine strings." Fig. 4 ia the oacaron as given by Montfaveon. Fig. S ia a form of the
lyre found on Egyptian monuments ; fig. a showa the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thee-

Jian lyre, see Plate XL. fig. 6.)— In fig. 6, we have the kinurm or violin, from MonifaMcon. In (ia. 7
\ a similar instrument from JVIefrvJkr, in a side view ; a front view of it is given in fig. 8, having
Aea seringa of metal wire. Fig. 3 and fig. 5, also from AlcAnikr, are given in Csimat, as other
nnna of the kinvn or Hnnor, which have been noticed by travelers in the east. A harp con-
sisting of seventy-two strlnga or wires is said to be used In Kurdistan (cf. ^. Orant, p. 57, as
eked P. I. ^ 1Mb). Fig. 0 is uken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, and seems to be the
saaw instrument with three strings; it has been supposed to represent the Hebrew shuU»hhii
played on by females in David's time (1 Ssm. xvill. 6). In fig. / la seen a Persian violin and

2. Wind io8tmments:2XvyfO(, a kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usually made of
boxwood ; y^YYP^ or yirypwa, a FboBnician pipe (cf. ^ 77. 2), short, of a plaintive note ;
fiimv>i»Sf a flute used especially at nuptial festivals ; Bmcav}^, a sort of bagpipe. It may
be remarked, that there was a ereat variety of these instruments belonging to the class
of pipes or flutes. The ^/xyf, vrhich is called also the pipe of Pan, is ofgreat antiquity *
some suppose it to be the instrument mentioned b}[ moiea (Gen. iv. 21, cf. Compre'
ienatee Cmnmentary) by the name of ugabh. It is still found in the east, in Turkey and
Syria; with the number of its reeds varying, it is said, from lEve to twenty-five. A
daMe flute is often mentioned, called also the right and left (cf. $ 238) ; the right one, or
that held in the right hand, is represented as shorter and having a higher tone than the
left ; and both aa blown by the performer at the same time. The male flute-plajrer
was termed oiXjp^ ; the female, adhp-pia, or aSknrfks. — ^There were several varieties
fikewiae of the aaXxty^^ or trumpet ; as, xipas, a Phrygian trumpet, or flute crooked like
a bom ; «cparu>Jy, a trumpet of similar form, probably less crooked. — There seems also
to have been, in the later times at least, a variety of musical instruments of the kind
termed UpavktSf or water-organ ; the shape of an ancient orsan is exhibited partly at
least in a poem, by Optatianus (cf. P. V. ^ 341), describing the instrument in verses so
constructed as to resemble its form.

In Plaie XXVI. we have also ri*preaented a number of wind instruments. Fig. s is the pipe
with seven reeds. Fig. y is the single flute as given by J^eiffer^ from ^Tiebuhr. In fig. a we see
a muaician blowing the donbU flute ; it is taken from a repreaentation found at Pompeii (cf. Pom-
peii, p. WO, aa cited P. IV. $296. 1). Fig. ii. presenta also, aa haa been auppoaed, the double
flate ; It is from a repreaentation found at Herculaneum ; the two parte aeem to be of equal
length. (The aame appaara to be the case in the views given Plate XXV. fig. k and i.)— Fig. » is
tlie k*nu or horn, a form of the trumpet. Fig. t is another form, straight; by some supposed to
represent the silver trumpets used for assembling the Israelitea in the wllderneas (cf. JVVm. x. S>.
Fl|. B shows a form of the Roman eomu. Fig. t repreaenta a performer upon a aort otfiute; it
b from an Egyptian monument. Pig. A is taken from an ancient altar on which ia aculptured
Uie funeral pomp of Hector; the figure here given leads the procession ; it is a woman blowing
a long flute with ita extreme end fashioned like that of the trumpet ; a funeral pipe, used as an
aecompaninent to the tkrnu or funeral song (cf. MaU. xl. 17). See Oalandj as cited ) 283. S.~
A description of the kpdraulis is given in a treatiae of tbe mathematician Heron (cf. Thevenot^ Vet.
Math- Op., cited P. V. ( 908 c. 1); a drawing, deaigned after thia deacrlption, ia found In Ferkel*e
Cleaebichte (icited P. IV. ^ 63). Cf. Jfev. Conm. See. Reg. Gduing. vol. ii.

3. Instruments of pervustton; some instruments of this class were also used ; riimuev,
a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the other, formed of wood vrith
leather drawn over it ; sometimes flat on both sides, consisting of a short hollow cylinder
with leather or skin drawn over both ends ; beaten with the hand, or with a stick : much
used at the festivals of Cybele and of Bacchus ; xd/^^aXa, cymbals which were ot metal
Oi^QUtt) ; in the shape of two half siobes ; usually larse and broad ; sometimes smaller,
so that two (perhaps those termed Kpe^ftara) were held in each hand of the player, and
sach as are used by oriental dancing- women. The vUiav was merely a little bell ; the

28 T

218 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

forms and uses of bells were various. The Kp&raKw is described by some as a sort of
bell made of brass ; bv others, as ** made of a reed split in two and so fitted as to emit
a sound from the touch." The nXarpov^ tUtrum, was properly an Egyptian instrument,
used in the worship of Isis ; it consisted of an oval frame, with several bars of metal,
which passed through it transversely, and being loose gave sounds when the instrument
was shaken in the hand. A peculiar instrument was formed by placing metallic rings
so as to move freely upon a metallic rod, which was sometimes in the form of a circU^
sometimes of a triangle.

Several inatriimeDU of percuMion are exhibited in Plate XXVI. Ftf . iii. ia the Cyat^nvm or
drum ; in fig. A are the larfe cTfrnbaU^ and in fig. t, the smaller, called etutanett. Fig. o, differeor
forma of the ■imple bell. Fig. iv. shows the irinngU vitk ringi; by ii is a sticlt with a Icnob at
the end, used perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the hands
of Ihn drummer. Fig. e is a Turkish female playing on a d%Uxmer (cf. Dan. iii. 10).— In Plate XLV.
representing a sacrifice to Priapns, we see two women playing on the tympanum. In Plate XXV.
fig./, the Bacchante Is playing with either the erotala or the small cymbals. The sirtrum b seen
In dig. 0, of the same plate; also lo the paw of the Bpbinx, Plate Vlll.

OstbemtiMealiHtniiiMaliofllwaMi«ii.cr. Jfoiil/aimR,MeitadP.II.|lfi B. (4), «ol. Iii. p. t4S^ and 8iin)i«aB. vol. iii. ^ IflL
-CahiMt, Dietionrjr. *«. vol. iii. p. 997. od. Chariot ISIS— A«te«te'f Koerelo^ died k ia> P- 704 -J*. Jt Umf$, D» CjnlMUi
VtHanm. TnJ. ad RhM. I70S. 18. ; alto in DgoUma, ettad f I9T. l.^F/eifftr, on Ibe Mwie of Um Habn-trt, iimHiatod by a J.
Taylor, Id the 3tbL StpariL mtd QucvC. Obmu, vol. vi. p. »7. (with a pkia)-«iilw, Allf. Thaoria, Artklo /fi»Cmim»itaf>
Murik.—J. Hawkimt Hiaterj of Male. Land. 1776. 5 vote. 4.

$ 181. The restraint imposed upon the female sex among the Greeks has
already been mentioned (cf. § 59^. This state of subjection and degradatioa
continued even in the most flourishing times. Unmarried females were very
narrowly watched. Their apartment in the house (^cop^cyMy) was commonly
kept closed and fastened. The married women were at liberty only to go as
far as the door of the court or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more fre^om.
In general, women were allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not
without wearing a veil {xdxvTttpw).

1 u. In Sparta, however, only married women were required to wear veils ; the un-
married might appear without them. The eex enjoyed generally far more hberty at
Sparta than at Athens. Lycurgus hoped by removing restraints to promote an innocent
familiarity of intercourse. But this freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at
lengtli degenerated into licentiousness.

Ob the ilata of famala loeialy is Oraace, aaa Land. Quatt. Jim vd. sxli. m.—dOL Bipci. vol. ii. p. 47B.-^SM«ri CmdUUm af
Uu aneknt Gmki. Oif. ISSi.-^. (fUter, Wonan ptajaiolecieally eonidarad a* lo Mind, hforala, fee. tond. 1839. K—W.Mmt.
andbr, Hiaiory of Woatias. Load. I7U: S vola. 8.<.£«u, aa aiM § 90.-0. Mtrnlmrdf, Omodriw dar Oriadi. Lit. p. Ml

2. The employments of the women continued generally the same as in the eariier
agesCcf. ^ 59). They practiced weaving, with the loom(i<rr^) and shuttle (trcpr/O ; the
loom was upright ; two perpendicular beams OtmiMes or KckeSmts) supporting a cross-
beam, from which the threads constituting the loarp (9r^ft<>»') were hung; the looof was
termed Kpotcrj i also ^o^^ and fioidvri. Tl^y also employed the needle {dxarpa^ ^apU) in
making garments, and various furniture for household use. Embroidery (tpyoi^ 4^iow
or ^vy(OMk»v, cpus Phrygium) was an art much cultivated, being perhaps the most im*
portent part of the general art of variegating in colors (irsurtXfa), whicE was eflected also
by painting and dvemg, and by weaving. Curtains (mpoir^uara^ a term applied to a gar-
ment or any article of cloth fastened by a mp6ini or broocn), and other articles, richly
embroidered (inX€«ivra), were wrought for private dwellings and for the temples (cf. ^ 28).

Aaplendid work ea Jntimt npairywm eomaiaMad at ftria in 1897, lo ba complalad in 4 vote. M. wllb cola and ci«nviap.-<
SaeOounfoaflif fPiSon, Tba Ait of Maadla-worit fRNn tha aarliaat Afaa ; with Motioaa of tha Anciant Hitforical t^partriaa. Sdad.
Load. 1841. It.— a. M at LambmU Band-book of Naadlo>«oifc { with UlwtntioM N. Toik, ISO.

§ 182. The marriage ataie was much respected among the Greeks, and was
promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, certain penalties
were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried aner a certain age. At Athens
also, al! who wished to be commanders or orators, or to bold any public office,
were required to have a family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other
hand was not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases.
The age at which maniage (ya/coO should be allowed was also prescribed, a
younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter, at Athens, were
forbidden to marry until they were thirty-five. At Sparta the usual age for
men to marry was thirty, and for women twenty. Marriage between parties
of near consanguinity was not allowed, or at least was generally viewed as im*
proper and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters
ny the same father (oftoyco^ptov;), although not those by the same mother (ofio-
fAiijtplovi). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a
citizen ; yet there was sometimes an exception.

PLATS XXVI.

220 ORBOIAN AlfTldVITlES.

1. Adultery was panished, and in some cases with severity. Although polygamy
was not generally allowedi concubinage was permitted without restraint. Concubines
(vaXXwciist) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceedingly
common, and favored even by the whole system of religious worship. In Athens the
most distinguished statesmen and philosophers openly associated with females of dissolute
morals (haipat). The city of Corinth was still more famous for licentiousness. One
of the most odious forms of licentiousness among the Greeks was the mtitpaaria ; bow-
ever free from impurity might have been originally the relation and the habits of inter-
course in Sparta and in Crete between the boys loved (cXcivoZ or Urai) and their lovers
(^iX^TtMKf), and whatever excellent quaUties might have belonged to the Theban tacred
band (lepa tpiXayO said to have been a body of 300 composed of lovers and their behved,
it is nevertheless true that the hateful debauchery commonly designated by this term
was extensively practiced.

Rapeeliaf (be prevtlaow of Monality iinoi« tfa* Graeki, tf. MM. Rtpot. toI. ti. p. 441.— (te VtBmtttf^ d. Berkarifj GnwiriH
(1« Griech. Lit. p. 43.- JfiUtar, Hirt. and InL of Doriaai, bk. i?. tb. &-.5«yd'f FMter, p. eoa

2 1. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to consult the
parents, and if thej^ were not Uving, the brother or guardian {arir^uroi). The betrothing
was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other
mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed
on the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called m^, d^^<M>, pa^irrfov. The giving
of a dowry (a]pol(, ^tfn^) wiin the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens
it was a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta,
however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the dowry, and
the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called in, and the husband delivered
an acknowledgment or receipt (irpounua), when he took the stipulated gifts. At Athens
it was customary before the actual marriage, to present the bride before Diana with
offerings and prayers ; this ceremony was called dprreia, and was designed to appease
the goddess, who was supposed to be averse to marriage. There were other divinities,
male and female, who were imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore
called yo/i^Xioi ^cof, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering into the
marriage contract.

3 u. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of the festivity, were
adorned with garlands and flowers. Towards the evening the bride was conducted to
the house of the brideffroom {oIkov &y&rBai) either on foot or in a carriage (%ia). The
bridesman, who attended her on this occasion, was called vapoxo; or rap&wf^. A pro-
cession went before her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied with music and
dancing. When the newlv married couple entered the house, it was customary to place
or pour upon their heads ngs and other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to
a banquet, which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed yajioiy and
was attended with music and dancing. The songs were called iftham^ or ^ft&'Cf. After
the dancing, the pair were conducted with torches to the bridal chamber {^oKA^), which,
as well as the nuptial bed (X^o;, Xorrpov), was usually highly decorated (irturr^) for the
occasion. The younff men and maids remained without, dancing and singing the
hndaX&ntop mi/urnKdv^ while a friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of 3ie door
{^vpbtpd^). This company returned to the door in the mornins, and sung what was
called the brtBaX&utov iYtpTiK6v. The nuptial solemnities occupiea several days ; one of
the days was called txAvKia ; another dir^uXia.

Sm • ll?el7 dwcripCioB of an AflMiian nafriafs In Jfarttefamy^ Anachanh, eb. InTlt.—- On Iba nairtaga eortoaoi of Spattn
cr.lR<Uw,bk.iv.dkiv.

4. Children were discriminated as yy^ioc, lawfully begotten ; v6Bm, bom of harlots or
concubines ; 3cto2, adopted. The paternal authority over the son ceased, at Athens,
when the son had completed his nineteenth year. It was an ancient custom for legi-
timate sons to divide their father's estate by lot, all having equal share, without respect
to priority of binh ; allowing a small pittance to such as were unlawfully begotten. The
father could dissolve the legal connection between himself and his son, and thus dis-
inherit him by a form of proceeding termed dnoKiipvfis. If there were no legitimate sons,
the estate of the father fell to the daughters, who in such a case were termed brucXnpot •
but their nearest relatives mi^ht claim them in marriage. When there were no lineal
descendants (iVryawO to inherit the property, it fell by law to the collateral relations
(nryyeveis) ; first to descendants of the same father with the deceased, to brothers and
the children of brothers ; next to descendants of the same grandfather with the deceased,
to cousins and children of cousins, the issue of males in every case taking precedence
of the issue of females ; a first cousin was termed dvcptdg ; a first cousin's son, dveii/taloifi.
The heir («Xijpo»^/i90 was said to receive his inheritance {KXfipoi) either by right of descent
{dyycHrrtta) or by right of consanguinity (jrtryyfwio). A male heir by right of descent might
take possession immediately ; or, if any one hindered him, might bring against that one
an action of ejectment (Ififiania). Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to
adopt whom they pleased ; but at Athens foreigners although adopted by citizens could
not take an inheritance, unless they had received the freedom of the city. — ^Free citizens

p. m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERAL RITES. 221

-were permitted to dispose of their property by will {itaOim^ after the time of Solon ;
bat there were certain conditions to be regarded. Wills were signed and sealed before
witnesses, and put into the hands of trustees {hn^tkirra!) who were to execute them.

AKkr, Aick GnM. bk. if. ck. n^B^nOmi, On U«i raq>Mli^ Adoption, fte. in tbe Mm. Jkad. huer. zit. 68. On tha

■AiMor inlKriluMi,aaBSir fF.y«MS in bwTnnl. of Imbm (cf. P. V. 1 104. &>— JkoMPi, Da Jnra iMved. AthHkSdUhnan,
Aal l«r. PdiL OfM.

$ 183. Somethioff should be said of the Greek customs in later times in
reference to funerals and burials. Funeral obsequies were considered as a
sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore termed ^xauh vofiifia, oauu
They were denied only to notorious criminals, traitors, and suicides, especially
such as destroyed themselyes to escape punishment, spendthrifts, and the like,
whose remains, if they happened to obtain burial, were etren disinterred.

$ 184 t. Some of the customs connected with the burial of the dead have already
^ 30, 31) been mentioned. In later times it was common to wrap the corpse in a costly
robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it with ereen boughs and gar-
lands of flowers. The body was then laid out to view {irforiOeaBai) in the entrance of
the house, on the ground, or on a bed {KX(vti) or a bier (^pcrpov), where it remained at
least one day, with the feet towards the gate. It was while here constantly watched.
A vase of lustral water (<ipdavi«i') stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. Shortly
before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, usually an d/?oXdc, was placed in the
mouth, as the fare (davwn?, nofdfiiovj due to Charon for ferrying the departed over the
Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (fuKKtrrovra) was also put in the mouth, to ap-
pease the dog Cerberus, supposed to guard the entrance into Hades TAdirO.

Oa Am BMttias of Am term Ate, tnd dM opiaioni of the anei«nli mp«ting Iho itale of (be wal a

At a burial toon after ileath was sappoted to be plftsting to the deceased (cf. Horn. II. zziii. 71)
the Greeks usually kept the corpse only until the third day. It does not appear that they ever
adopted the Egyptian custom of embalming the dead.

■opwlins tte'CMton of oAnlminib aao Dt Cayku^ in the MmuJead. Tnter. niiL II9.-J: C iTamn, Dcwriptlon ofaaEcrp*
Stt Manny. Bart. ISM. 8.— OronvOia, On Egyptian MDnnm; in Um />Mloi^ TVanMciiont of ttw Boyvl Soe. br Um year IttS.
f.tm.—T. J. Attifrtn, HSrtory of Egyptian MonmiM. Load. 18S4. 4.

^ 185 1. The funeral itself was termed imo^t^, or ^pft, the carrying forth of the
corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time.
In Greece, generally, young persons were buried at break of dav or early morning
twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased haa been a warrior, on
a large shield, and the bearers {vacpoOSm-m) carried it on their shoulders iSpfinv ^^tO? fol-
lowed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The procession was commonly on
horseback, or in carriages; it was a token of higher respect when all went on foot. —
Sorrow for the deceased was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by
wearing black and sordid garments, by covering the head with ashes, and plucking oft
the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were performed by
musiciaos employed for the purpose {^pnvaw i^ap(fli) ; one dirge {^pil»os) was sung as the
corpse was borne forward ; another, at the funeral pile ; and a third, at the grave ; they
were called dXo^ppl ; also 2aXe^f, rakEfm.

rwandclHuMai«altllaonaMahOfeaoe,l«BttltnyrWefii».-SMMn.£riiiwni^GTCdtPvB^ Boat.

uRi tcl i. p. isol

$ 186. The costom of burning the corpse became uniyersal amongr the later
Greeks ; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly mentioned before ($31).

1 f. The ashes and bones were gathered (doroXtfyiov) in an urn, and buried commonly
without the city, amid many blessmgs and prayers for their repose. The urns used for
this purpose (/raXflroi, XSp^ojos, dfn&iKcu, imdcocfia^ Mpo2, &c.) were made of different ma-
terials, wood, stone, or precious metal, accordiuff to the rank and circumstances of the
deceased. These urns were sometimes inclosed in a sort of chest, which was formed
of stone or other materials ; and to this chest, as well as to the urn, the term aapieo^yos
I to have been applied.

The body of Alexander was conveyed fVom Babylon to Alexandria In a splendid carriage, and
Us funeral there conducted with great pomp bv Ptolemy. The Sareopkofrna in which the golden
oolBa or um containing bis remains was inclosed, is said to be now in the Britiah Mutewm^

having been discovered at Alexandria by the French la the ezpediiion of Bonaparte, and by
them surrendered to the English.

M. D. Ctartc, Tbo Tootb of Alenndar. Camlt. inS. S. Ct alw Clork't TnToia, wl. Hi. ^ 164. od. N. York. IMS.— g«Mfr.
* Quater. Sor 1« diar riineraira qai tnatporia da Babyloao en Egyple l« eorpa (PAlexaadra, in tlw Mtm. da Mtad. dm Imtet.
CI aaao €BiA. af LU. Anc vol. iv. p. SIS, with a platai Of. C d» Oayhu, ia tlw Mtm. ia VJkad. Hm huar. mu 8a

Along with the corpse when buried, and with the urns containing the ashes when the corpse
was burned, it was customary to deposit cups, phials (^laXf^cs), vases (X/i«rv9oc), of different
kinds, and other articles ; many of which have been found in modern limes by searching ancient
sepulcbers. These vessels are sometimes of t«mi eeitt^ sometimes of aiatese«r, not unfrequently
9igla§a. Some made of the latter material have been gathered from the caucombs In the island

Ta

25S2 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.

Milo, the ancient Melos, on« of tbe Cycladei (ef. P. V. ( 146). ** Amoni the decayed bonet bm
found coins, ornamenta of irold and precious atones for the ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases (cf.
9 341. 7), with larce quantUlea of glass, earthen, and copper vessels, probably for oils and per-
fumes. . . . Many earthen cups are of the ff>rm we call Etruscan ; the larger are painted
with a light pencil ; often only the outlines are given, but generally with much spirit. The ques-
tion whether the ancients knew the use of glass, was settled by the discoveries In Pompeii; tbia
is the first I have heard of among the Greeks. The vessels are generally ilat at the bottom, and
four inches over ; they rise one inch, of this diameter, and then suddenly narrowing to the dia-
meter of an inch and a half, pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches ; their shape Is much
like that of a candlestick : but 1 have several other forms, running through a considerable
Tariety.»*

Tb» above qqobktkn li tnm Jaimft Skaleh of Naval Lifo. If. Havoh IflSa 8 vob. IS.— CfL SiOmum^ Jooraal, vol. xvi. p. 399^
Ibr avravingi of aomc of thoo vatci.— SpaeimoH of lb« vafca Iband at Milo an in tbe cabinet of AmbanI Collafi.— For rortbv
Bodcai of tbe miM and vtiai foand is ■epalcban, ne ) Ml, aed P. IV. S ITS.

2 1, The solemnities of the funeral were concluded with an oration or eulogy, with
games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations ; which, in many cases, were repealed on
Bucceesiye anniversaries; tbe sacrifices and ofierings in honor of the dead were various;
rfira^ those ofiered on the second day after the funeral; iwara^ on the ninth; Tpcoir^,
on the thirtieth, when the time of mourning expired, which at Sparta, however, was
limited it is said to eleven days : Yp<ii and b^ayiV/iara, libations and offerings of flowers
and fruits at various times ; yev^ia, offerings on the birth-day of the deceased ; Kerfno,
ofiferings on the anniversary of the death. — In the case of such as had died in war, the
oration at their funerals and at subsequent anniversaries of their decease, was viewed as
so important that the speaker for the occasion was appointed by the public magistrates.
Thus Pericles was appointed, when the Athenians solemnised a public funeral Tor those
fint killed in the Peloponnesian war (7%»cyi. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same
honor was rendered to those who fell in the fatal battle of Chieronea (cf. Afti/anf*
Greece, ch. zlvii. sect. 6).

For a very interesting view of the games and eiercises performed In honor of the dead, the
student is referred to the tioeiity*(Mrd hook qf (k« /tiatf, where Homer gives an account of tlM

funeral of Patroclus. Bolemn games with rich prizes were instituted by Alexander in honor

of his IVlend Hephrstlon at Ecbatana; the whole ceremonies of the fbneral were conducted
with great magnificence, according to Jirna% (lib. vii). Diodorus Slculus apeaks also partlca-
larly of Hepheailon's flineral pile.

or. Cbmteile CloylM, LebOeber d>Rcphnlk>B, ia the JAm. JeiAMaer. tni. 78.-.QiM(lr. ik QoAiei^ m the mim, la fbo Jftm.
iA Phutityi, CI a ate d'IM. af LU. dne. iv. p, S9B, witb a plate.

The cuatom of honoring by festivals the anniversary of the death of fk'lends and eminent per-
sons was followed by some Christians of the earlv ages, in tbe celebrations termed fiapHpuv
yeiflBXta. ** These festivals were preceded by vlails, and celebrated around the graves of the
martyrs, where their lives were read, and eulogies pronounced, the sacrament adminlaiered,
and pabllc entertainments given grataliously by the rich."

See L. CoUuumt ArtJq. of Chrirtkn Cbiiith. f. 441.^/. P. arknatm, De Viieewlloai mpk, Maitym h prioa. EecUaia. Upb

174a 4.

§ 187. The sepalchfal monuments of distingaished men were built often
with ^eat expense and splendor. Monuments were also frequentfy erected to
them in other spots, where their ashes were not deposited.

1. In early times, the Greeks wera accustomed to place then* dead in repositories,
made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also wera sometimes made repo-
sitories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered eminent public services. But
in later ages it became the general custom to bury the dead without the cities and
chiefly by tbe highways. At Athens the most common place of burial was near the
road leading to the Peineus, outside of the Itonian gate, which on that account was
styled the burial gate (i)p(ai n^ai) ; those who had Allien in battle, however, were buried
in the outer Cerameicus, at the public expense. Graves at first were mere openings
dug in the earth, ^yaca. Soon there was a custom of paving and arehing them with
stone. The place of interment was originally marked simply by a barrow or mound
of earth O&^a) ; which sometimes had a circular basis of masonry (KpnrU). On this a
rude stone (ailna) was placed afterwards ; then, a stone more carefully prepared, a dppus
or truncated column ; at length, larger and more im{>08ing monuments were built.

2. The terms fivflua and yatni^iov were applied to designate the whole structure, includ-
ing the receptacle for the remains and the monumental erections. Two parts are dis-
criminated ; (1) the grave strictly, called ^no?, <nr^Xa(oy, r^it^oi^ rv^, i)prev, which last means
specially the portion under ground ; (2) the spoce around U, usually fenced with poles or
a sort of balustrade, called Vy*^> mcbrn^inptotKoioitfi, Ipnt, anids; within this space the
monumental piIlare(ffrJfXai) and ornaments were erected.— -The variotis monuments haye
been discriminated under four heads ; 1. cmiXaf, designating upright tablets terminating
in an oval heading called ^(ft?^a, but applied to any form of sepulchral pillara ; 2. Ktonf^
columns ; 3. TpanZat, flat horizontal tablets ; 4. l)p(Sa or vaf&a, small buildings in the
form of temples. — On the pillara, or other structures forming the tomb, were placed
inscriptions {bnypafat) ; and often images of the deceased (dy^ara), and also other oma
ments, with devices denoting their character and pomnts or partknilar achieve-

p. ni. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. X0NT7MENTS FOR THE DEAD. 223

ments. Thus on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a dog ; on that
of Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram ; on that of Archimedes, a sphere and cylin-
der. Tombs adorned with sculptured bas-reliefs have been discovered at Athens and
other places. Some of the meet remarkable Greek tombs were recently discovered
mLycia.

8h At AMh DaKripL d^B TBMbwa, te. IB fbe Jftm. A I'JMdL At AiKT. It. SlS^-wCretoolofte, (m elted P. IV. § 843. S),
fol. ziii. p. 280, OD a Oraek lepvldinl MaounKBt ; with • phi*.— Abo, •pectellf , Btckm's Cbtnela ; and StadutUrf. Die Gi«bcr

te HeBcBC% Bcri. 1887. Oo Om knba of Lyeia, C. AMour, Aoooul of Diaeotnlaa in Lyda, a Journal kept dsriof a monxi

Saramiaiia Alia Minor. Load. IM1. 8. wHb IliblTNriglil plaici. Ct C. ABOWi^ Journal darii« an Eieunkn in Asia Minor
Lo^ 18M. a with twuly-tiiro pintak

3. Cenotaphs (ittpor&^ta^ tsiHipia) were moouments erected for the dead, which were not the
repoeitoriee for their remnlns. They were niiaed both for persons who had never obtained a
proper funeral, and also for sach as had received funeral honors in another place. It was a
aotion of the ancients, that the ghosts of unbaried persons could not be admitted into the regions
of the Irieseed without first wandering a hundred years in misery ; and if one perished al sea or
where hto body could not be found, the only way lo procure repose for him was to build an
M«ty Umbt and by certain rites and invocations call bis spirit to the babHution prepared for it.

4. A common place of sepulture for many individuals was called noXv&i^ipiov.—The term
Koifiifrii.oiay, eewuterj/^ appears to have been introduced by Christians, in accordance With their
(klib, that the grave Is out a temporary sUeping-vlaet. The early Christians protested against
the practice of burning the bodies of the dead, ana followed the Jewish custom of burying them.
Ib the fourth century, an open space near the church was appropriated for the burial of princes
and cbe clergy, which was afterwards made common to all the members of the church. In
earlier periods, the Christians buried their dead cblefiy in subterranean eicavations, which were
often of vast extent, and which in those days of persecution served at once as the home of the
living and the repository of the dead. See k 341. 6.

5. The custom of raisine splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length led to
such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints. The splendor
of the monument erected to Mausolus (cf. P. II. ^ 72) occasioned the word Mausoleum
to be applied as a common name to such structures. It is said to have been more than
400 feet in compass, surrounded by 36 beautiful columns.

See Dt GnylUa, Tonbtra da Maonle, in Ow Jftm. .load. Into', uvt . 821 ^Saintt Crotx, Tomb, do Masa. in tbo Btm. ia Pbf
tfiM, Clatae d'lTiM. Sc iL S08L

In our Plate XVITT. are some specimens of monnmental structures. Fig. 1 repreeents a tomb
of white marble at Mourghab in Persia, corresponding to the ancient Pasargada ; it has com-
monly been supposed to be the ToitA of Cynts, which was erected by himself, and visited by
Alexander (cf. jfrrtan, vl. S9) ; some, however, declare it to be a more modern structure. Cf.

Jgorier, cited P. IV. ( 34S. S. Pig. 3 represents a structure called Jbflom^s Pillar, which

stands near Jerusalem (cf. P. I. ( 168 b). In the time of Josephns there was a marble structure
by this name, said to have been reared by Absalom (cf. % Sent, xviit. 18). The one here given is,
however, no doubt, comparatively recfnt. **The lower portion is qnadrangular, standing
detached from the living rock, ft-om which it was hewn. Upon the four fheadee are cut Ionic
pillars, above which is a Meze with Doric metopes and triglyphs. Over this baelf riees a square
piece of masonry, smaller; and the whole is crowned by a tall conical tower ;" and the **<iome
or cupola runs up into a low spire, which spreads a little at the top like an opening flower." Cf.

lUhinson, as cited P. 1. 1 171. vol. ii. p. 519. Fig. S gives a view of the Tomb of Cestui* at

Rome; cf. P. IV. $ 920. 1 : it is taken fVom ProtUU cited P. IV. \ 343. 3. Fig. 4 presents the

fsfcs «/a tomb ; over them is a Greek inscription, Glyeon and ffemora to the inftmal god§ ; Mer-
cury, with his wand, is represented as In the act of closing or openitig them, it being a part of bis
ofice to introduce departed spirits Into Hadti. See P. U. ) S3. 1. $ 50. Cf. Ca<sw(, Dictionary,
fcc vol. lil. p. 379. Chariest. 1818.

PLATE XXVU.

ATTIC CIVIL INSTITUTIONS.

ClMsea of the Population.

mamm, A*«X« ; udStnngm, tUvM-
noMrM, di*id«d bf Ctenpt into 4 TWte, MXm ;

EMb •«X* Into S Auat, *paT(rf«, "Eflv^ ;

EMta tpsrf<« into >0 Xindrtdi, Ttfyf, TptaKtfdif ;

Hia 3Vito, KMp«r)s, A*rtfjK««v, »AKraU, nofoA/s.
THta, by CIMhMes <«*; aflvwudt, hocZw.
SoioaH 4 CkMMi, UtvraMamo^tfkVM, 'Imrilf,

ZtvyTTOt, e^Tis ; aonoidiBC to wMlth.
A divWoa ate into 174 A^^w. «r Waidb

2. For til* Xi«clalatiirt.
ThtPmidmt *E««rrtfrfS

The ^nridtia 'EnvT«rivs

tfAuemit^, T^s 'EncX^nas.
Tbe Phwirj, IlftfadpM.
TbaPryloiMi, IIf«r««r«rs.
The MmMMata, No^oMrM.

Tba Ooter*, 'P^rafis, «m» m

Tba ^lAyrftr, *E^«*f , bavtaf am

oTtbaClqiifdia.
Tba Synfnvte, Zvvypo^f ; ».

Tba Cfarftf, rpa^jM^^ S>
JRraU^ K^pvnf.
JmtMMdoPt, npwfiat.
Tba iVarar<, n«>aytfp«, dakptai
totfaa'A^^Tvavta.

3, Oozineoted with the

Ooarts.
Tba Jtwpafim, 'IpMffoyCrai.
Iba IMtaita, 'HXiMTaL

Tba TKMUhft, ffvXaAMiXtf «.
Tba Panirt, ILf^pai, wbo alia
OawtabaldbrArcbaaa.

I JketmUanU, Aaywral.
Dfraefori, 'E««vveL
Amimoiun^ KAtfro^f.
CU0«, KtyicM^is.

4. For Fnhlio Woita and
Lands.

ofAtOiiiift,

T«v'E«yMV.
Ea-Mmfrat

ftMwyortf Wbfii 'Odwaiel,

qf t iTalto, Ttopovaiat.
^Mynami, *lrr«vdftas bafiof cwa
of

S94

VarlouE Pobllc Officers.

1. For the Execntive.

Tba Bmn, 'Ot *£vdaca ; a aort

or Bbariflb tba Na/M^Xanf

ptriMpa tbaauaa.
Tba Lax4«reH A^tt^fX^l •>*

eUar^aOaobordiBftlab
Tba Tbeota^ Taitfrai ; IttXk

laada in cobajai; appliad abo to
tbaKttlanb

6. For the Treaennr.

OlWaf nnntea, Ta/i/as rl^s Aim*
c4««»$: fbr47aan,ar8i.
iift*2>«aiHi«n, Tc^uaOxM ;
Tc^af tAv arparMruaAv,
TafUas tAv lawpuAw, kc.

OoOMforff of fVMa, nptfcTopcs.

Ibar-fafAava, 'EKXoycTs.
'tUtnalmnim, 'EXA^wora^(a«, for
tba Tribola bom Gtaak ailiaa.

AiM% IIiiA^rai, laa ofanean of
nlea.

ThtoH, etufott dapMio «^lli P^

jMMorf of lana, 'Emypa^f .
JUgiikn at aficoinl^ Aiaypa^f .
JhidUan, 'Avrtypa^s.
Anitas 'Airadterat.
CUaeraliB, K«A««^tral, for moMf
doa to tba taniriaa.

on ZUrt, Z^nyral,
Cb»\^lMatfoiu, lAd9Tiif€S'

6. Oonneoted with Trade.

TV aUopAyiaflM, Etre^tfAattSi
Tbaaifoii% EtrAvat.
Tba BUvmttim, EirofUTfat.
OMnavt qffertt *Ewtf*k^rnl
'E|urapta«, or rAv ivnpfMV.

m^Mi^ MfffoW/iaif
'Ayafavd^,
fM, *OVwvdfiM.
iNMi, Na«^«Xattf .

7. For lAannera and

Morala.

tEnoptm^ 'Oivdrrac, to noUoa wiaa-

r{

r«yaue«cdo';i«», to
MoTiraaMB.
rvvoucaad/Mh to
goaid Qia oonrfnet of wpotan.
/bnrtfim, •pdra^as, to aea to tba

imhtoi' 01 birttaia
aophnnUttf Ea^Wrrat, ovar
jobHi in Oynaaiia.

'Op^<nrra, to taka

The I/egialatuie*

BlatX^oU, of all tba IhMrmi.
amaU, B««A4. o( 400 at fini ; iban M
flnally euO i 60 (roan aacb triba; by lot

The EiXecutlye*

JMunu, 'Oi ^ApxAvr'S : Nina, by W} fbc
'EirAw^of , tba B«nXf«s, tba IIoX^fM^
yos, BMl iba az Gw^irat ; temlag tba

The Judiciary.

Apodirayas; at ftnl, fflyrMUk
J^idripAurium, '£irl AcA^Ww. "^ in

IIJp(pryCaiMiim,'E»in(>vravt<fi, | of

Enphnatttwin, 'Ev •^carreC, J Blood.
a<Umt, 'HXcata. tba Hiehart ; •«

FiM glAm ; Ha^dfiwrw, I fat Oioll

AAcov, and T6 M^rlxom, )
Tba Dimutm, Aioirf t«I ; two fcindi ; puhlicj
cXi^r«( ; jgrtaafi^ 4t(i<ra( ; AiUtnton or

Tba /orfy, Taavaprfsavra, a CiraH Ooort

for tba £i^^e^.
Tba N^utcdkm, Navradtaat, in aa««l lAiia ;

urimoa.
Tba fimaKa^ 'EEiraarat, of 10 Aaywral

and 10 'Evdwol ; on tecoonlaor oOeara.
Tba TtamotActe. Otr/MdirM, oe aabjjadi

not tkllinc tootbar Coarli.

'EswMrait ovanaafw of
alUod dliaa and ootoniea; oceuioaBl

Actlona In. Iiuw.

AiMte, Alaai df/idnai t wbich iadndad
Tfa^, adwj, "Ewdnjij, 'Aiayio'*,
•E^4y9ai$i »A«efaA94^, 'EifayytXte;
nndar tba rpa^ caaa Iba bigbtat oriaiaa i

Atoai Id^at ; indndhc
BAA/IVC ; th^ *c

Punishments.

FiSM, Zf^a; Ditgnt*, 'Arifite; Anwy,
AavXafa ; Brmdint, ErfyfM ; i*oMiiVt
Er^Xf: Jonrff, Aw-^fll; JBiiMinml,
•vyi^ : DaalA, B4vT»f ; •OvrfaJCM'fids

Clylc Honors.

rtnt flBof, Opacdpfa ; Aafwai, 'Euafats ;
OoMiH, Er^va* ; fiBMipftOfS ' ArAaia ;
Pmnen, by Hr^ns iv Xlforavaf «».

RcTenues.

TAi| ; OmtribiMont, 'Bis<^a<>al ;
AMr««py<at ; Iba loltar indndiag Xaff-
y(a, rv^vanapxto, 'E«Wa««s^ aad

Elzpendltures.

PuhUe WoHa, 'Efyu dfpifnc )
Fmtai dboior, Da^ral, a. r. X.
JXmatAMi, AiavofMl ;
nMf»ieAa,AMi^X<n;
Pay^9mat$^ Mi^fl^ B«*Xavrned( ;
Pay qf JfwmUy, MccMs EncXfoiatfrictf ;
Aiy vfJbm^, Mi4r«d( ErfarMruBfis ;
Pay tfNm^y MioMs Navria^ ; *&

ROMAN ANTiaUITIES.

IrUroduciion*

^ i 188. It belongs to the topics of history and geography rather than antiqui-
ties to describe the origin and progress of the Romans, and the extent of
their empire. Yet a glance at these subjects, and a few remarks upon them,
will aid in getting a better 7iew of the Roman antiquities, and enable one to
undeistand and appreciate more correctly the people and their more important
peculiarities. Some notices of Rome and its empire will be gi^en first, and
then something respecting the Romans themselves.

$ 189. According to the common accounts of history, the city of Rome was
founded 752 B. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand-children of th^ Alban king
Nomitor. It was situated not far from the mouth of the Tiber, in Latium, a
Drotrince in iniddle Italy. In the beginning it was of small extent, confined to
Mount Palatine, on which it was built The number of inhabitants did not
amount to 4,000. This more ancient part of the city was afterwards called op-
oidumy while the better part, later built, was called urbs^ which became at
length a general name for Rome. It was first peopled by some families from
AOm Lor^, and afterwards by various accessions (cf. P. IV. § 109, 110);
partly of me vagabond and worthless from the neighboring people of Italy.

1 u. The Capitoline Hill was occupied next after the Palatine, and at last five other
mountains or hills were included in the city, and thence was derived the epithet tepti-
coUtM, The first walls around the city were low and weak ; Tarqoinius rriscus and
Servios TuUius improved them.

2». Among the principal events which greatly changed the appearance of the city
were the aipture and burning of it by the Gauls, 385 B. C, and the erection of nu-
merous buildings in the reign of Augustus, and after the conflagration under Nero.
In the two last- mentioned periods, Rome was very rapidly enlarged and adorned, and
continued to be further improved under succeeding emperors down to the time of Ho-
norins. In his reign occurred the capture and sack of Rome by the Goths under
Alaric, A. D. 410. The city was in a great measure rebuilt by Theodoric. But by
that disaster, and the still greater devastations of the Gothic kmg I'otila, A. D. 547,
it lost much of its ancient splendor. It continued to wane during the ages following.

3 ». After all the exertions of the later popes to restore its former beauty, there is
avast difference between modern and ancient Rome. Of the latter we find only
certain traces and monuments, and these are in part mere ruins and fragments.

p. Matqukr, BoBfacha JUirtOcbar, odcr diroooL AbriM dm- GcMb. Rom; wm dm Frus. mR Aamuk. vob C. AStak
AaoRpulicnluBotiMar tlM te|iefnpb]r of Room h |(taa io P. L » 51-71.

S 190. In the most flonrishing period of Rome, at the close of the republie
and beginning of the imperial monarchy, the population was very great. The
number of citizens may be estimated at three nundred thousand, and the whole
ttninber of residents at two millions and upwards.

" Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancient Rome, we can only forni conjec>
tures. Lhalttt computes them, in its most flourishing state, at four millions." (Adam.)
Tacitus (Annals, L. xi. c. 25) states, that by a census in the reign of Claudius the
nixmber of Roman citizens amounted to nearly seven millions ; it is supposed that
tfaie number must have included the citizens in other places besides the city of Rome
itself.— Gibbon has the following remarks on the population of the Roman empire :
"The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, of pro-
vincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree of accuracy as the
importance of the object would deserve. We are informed that when the emperor
Claudius exercised the office of Censor, he took an account of six millions nine, hun-
dred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, who with the proportion of women and
children must have amounted to about twenty millions of sonls. The multitude of
subjects, of an inferior rank, was uncertain and fluctuating. But after weighing witk
29 225

KOKAN ANTIQUITIES.

attention eTery circumstance which could influence the balance, it seems probable
that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there
were citixens, of either sex and of every age ; and that the slaves were at least equal
in number to the free inhabitants of the Roman world. The total amount of this im-
perfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons ; a
degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the
most numerous society that nas ever been united under the same system of govern-
ment."

Dt Ul JIAJh, 8v h popqiatloo inH«,ae. de It RqrabL Ron. in the Mem, it rtnttttnt, C !«••• d« ffM. af JUL Aift *ol. s. 4fl.
«>A. nUlMc, DtHHitlkm OB tto HmAen oT Blukind ia Aaekal uA Hodva Tlan. Edinb. 1189. a— Amu, Etmj fla te
l^opokMiCMi or AMtaal Natiom.-JnMr. QHori. a«W<r. fol. U. 14fll

§ 191. Originally the authority of Romulus extended scarcely six thousand
paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings considerably enlarged
the dominion of Rome. During the time of the republic her empire was rapidly
and widely spread, and at length, by numerous and important conquests, a
great part of the known world was subjected to her sway.

1 u. In the reign of Augustus the limits of the Roman empire were the Euphrates
on the east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts, ana Mt. Atlas on the south,
the ocean on the west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north. Under some
of the succeeding emperors, even these hmits were transcended.

The following countries were subject to Rome : in Asia ; Colchis, Iberia, Alba-
nia, Pontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Palesiina, the Bosphorus, Cappadocia, Galatia,
Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole of Asia Minor : in Africa ;
Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gcetulia, Africa Propria, Numidia, and Mauretania:
and m Europe; Italia, Hispania, Gallia, the Alps, Rhoetia, Noricum, Illyricuni, Ma-
cedonia, Epirus, Grsecia, Thracia, Mcesia, Dacia, and Pannonia. In addition to
these were a number of islands, from the Pillars of Hercules to the Black sea, to
which Britain may be added.

2 u. Augustus made a division of the whole empire into twelve parts. — The empe-
ror Hadrian afterwards ^ave a new form to this division, and separated Italy, Spain,
Gaul, Aquitania and Bntannia, Illyricum, Thracia and Africa into provinces. — One
of the last changes of this kind was made by Constantine the Great, who divided the
empire into four Pnefect urates, containing various dioceses and distinct provinces, for
the government of which he appointed a number of new magistrates (cf. ^ 309. 3).

Th« mort eoapkta doerlptkn of the Rodiu Empire, and of iit varkm chufn, b foand in OmtpHrii AnwMt Raaiuian Ib-
pwiuoi, in tlM Thenum Aatiq. Ron. oT Orwritu^ vol. L— Cr. OUton, Ded. ftnd Fall, fte. cb. 1.

$ 19*2. In a few centuries the Romans acauired a greatness and power, which
is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all history.

1 ». What in the highest degree contributed to this was their warlike character, for
which they were from their first origin distinguished. Bodily strength and superior
prowess constituted the grand object of their wishes and efforts, and war and agricul-
ture were their only pursuits. A great part of the people were directly occupied in
their constant wars ; the proportion of soldiers comparea with the rest of the citizens
is estimated to have been as one to eight. All the early Romans felt an equal interest
in defending their country, because the conquered territory was divided equally amone
them. In addition to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the manner of
maintaining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in arranging the g^ovem-
ment of the provinces, and to the respect towards them awakened in other nations.

S «. To treat of these topkf belong! to history ; yet a brief view of the principal revolutions
in Roman afTalrs teeme to be necessary for our object.

$ 193 tf. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first king. Accord-
ing to the common accounts (not altogeiiier certain, however,} six other kings suc-
ceeded him ; Numa Ponunliut^ Tullut HoftiliuMt Ancvt MartiuSf Tartjuiniut Pris*
eus, Servius TuUiuSf and Tarquiniu* Superbut ; men of active enterprise, who con-
tributed to the growth and stability of the nation. The most remarkable circum-

stances or events, durins the regal form of government, were the division of the peo-

Ele into Tribes, CurisB, Classes, and Centuries ; the separation of Patricians and Ple-
eians ; the establishment of the senate, and of the religious worehip; the settlement
of the mode of computing time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxa-
tion ; and the introduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that
the principles of the ffovemment under this first form were not strictly monarchical,
but rather of a mixed character, and really laid the foundation of the subsequent ad-
vantageous system of the republic. During^ this whole period, the Romans were in-
volved in wars ; but this uninterrupted continuity of war contributed to their success,
for they never would make peace until they had conquered. The re^l government
continued 244 years, and was abolished B. C. 509, because the last king, Tarquinius
Superbus, had provoked the nobility by arrogant haughtiness { and the people by
heavy impositions.

p. in. INTRODUCTION. 227

TIm immediate oceaBion of Tarqoin's expalalon and tbe abolhion of the monarchy, ie eald to
have been tbe vile abuse committed upon Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, by Sextua Tarquinius,
the king's eon.— Cf. O^Utmitk's Rome, by Pinnock ; p. 65. ed. Pbila. 1835.

^ 194 «. Rome was now & free state, at first aristocratical, and then for a period
governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustained by their
tribunes, constantly increased. Daring this time the dominion of the Romans, as
well as the vigor of their constitution was augmented ; their legislation was judicious ;
and their morals comparatively ri^d. For a considerable period they maintained an
elevated national character, in which simplicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit
of enterprise, a strong sense of justice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest
patriotism, were prominent traits.— 'The most brilliant era in the Roman republic was
the £u:st half of tne sixth century from the buildine of the city, and especially during
the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was in posses-
lion of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corruption of morals ad-
vanced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the
victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the legions and officers amidst the
luxaries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth and Carthage ; each of these
things contributed to the unhappy result. Through debauchery, luxury, and eflemi-
nacy, the Romans now suHered a universal deeeneracv of manners and morals,
altbough they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations
an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste.

A «ywU« werk on tbk Mli}ect '» Um bllowiiig : Ckr. Mtumtt G«chidi*« d« VerblU dar SitMo and dtr 9
ftiMr. Utft-nti. 8 ~AlMst7««llC,GcwbkfatidMVer6lbd«raitt«^WiMBKtaflealllld9pndMd«r Roaming
lAifaarfwkM DKb Cli. Gcboft Win nnd Laipiic, 1791. 8.~Mon mionlB, bat aqMelally iartruetiTC, m JtdL nrgtiaan'a Rin aad
Ftas^of Boa.Bepib)ie,eitadP.V.ftnL7. On tlwiiit0oraMnbiBaBctatGme0aodBoBe,£jp«rilc{f ClWi*i%rimr,««i.iv.

^ 195 V. Selfishness, avarice, and lust of power were immediate consequences of
thib degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy disordere in the
state, and of those civil ware, the leadera in which contended for the supreme authority.
Octavius at last gained the point, and under the name of Augustus was the firat ^•
sessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign throughout was a flourish-
ing period of Roman history. Some of his successors were worthy rulere. But
mucD more effectual and more fatal was the influence of those emperora, who dis-
graced the throne by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these,
tne alreadjr prevailing corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession
the most violent and fatal internal commotions ; the right of the strongest triumi)hed
over every thing, and although particular emperora endeavored to prop up the sink-
ing dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final ruin.

GtaUMtOMBam, ud (NHon^ DBdina aad FUl of Iha Bonaa Enpira. CL P. V. § Oa l^BrUpfi BomaD Eapbe ndtf
ithaGmt

S 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, that their
history most be crowded with interesting and instructiye incidents : and that a
fiiroiliar acquaintance with their constitution and customs mast be highly useful.
The utility of studying the Roman antiquities needs, therefore, no further re-
commendation.

1 11. Bat besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiquities in
order to undentand properly the history of the Romans, there are other advantages,
which render it wortny the attention of every lover of Hterature, and of every one, in
fret, who is not wholly indiflerent to intellectual refinement and taste. It is essential
88 a help in reading the distinguished Roman authors, whose writings are preserved,
and in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art.

2 V. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be drawn,
are doubtless the Roman wriiera themselves, particularly the historians. There are
also several Greek writere valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans,
and being strangera, many things must strike tnem as more important and remarkable
than they might seem to the native citizens. Among the hitter class of writers are
PolybioB, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appian nod Dion Cassius, and even some
later writere, as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, &.c. 8ome aid may be derived also from
the writings of tbe Christian Fathers.

3 u. In modem times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of science.
llie materials drawn from the sources iust named, and various others, have been di-
gested mto regular systems on the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches
of the subject have been examined in more full detail. Yet this has perhaps never
been done with sufficient knowledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimi-
nation ; the essential has not been sufficiently distmeuished from the less important,
nor the general and universal from the particular and local ; nor has there been suita-
ble care to note the periods in which the customs and principles were introduced,
made prevalent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice rather than

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

avoid in the brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot be folly i^
moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to the subject. '

£. /VottMT, UelMT WkMaKtefilicha BcramliiQg nod BdMudlbiif d«r AatiqoBilMi, ialMMadOT dw Bta. Ifutb IBli. a—
W. A. Waf, Verl«Niitn Oter AHarthOM WMnoMkaA, fte. m dtod P. V. { 7. a

$197. We mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities.

1. TlMkiiairtCaUMMomorMiMimtBtmtkaianthBtwo llMtthvoLer fPo^'VoriMUfMHueitidP. V.i7.8,tiHti
Mlowingt

/« Owrf . Ormtim, Thmmarm ADiiqaitatam aonuHraai ;
e. iff. Tnj. ad Blua. ieM-08. 18 tola. M. (Tor ao aeonaot
of the coDtanti of tbia, aea AppMdix to KmmU, died bdow.)

y. jr. ^uitiMw, SupploMt to GmriiH aod OroDOTtai. Van.
■73T. 6 voia. fU.

JBb. Htm', de aatUngrtf Now Ttaaaurai utiq. Ran. Ba§.
Com. ITI«-ia 9 voh. M.

Vary waftil oa aBeooDl of ili fla|rfoanaM Mid III food roiw
■oMca. laflMN. MiK< Lnleao AMiq. BoMa. Rif. Com. vm.
Sfoh.bL

iM aayatom fai»rilf«mmad, moy ho mealioaad, /a Jto»*t<
Aotiq. Romoo. Corpw abaolataUDnm, o. b. Tte. Dtm^dmi.
TnJ. ad Km. 1710. 4. (Ed. /. F. MmUmu.) Amat 174a 4.

ftmie partJaaat tratHam ara cooiaiaod in B. Ugdhmi, Thmn-
na ADtiqoitatvm Bacnnim, eomploeieaaaeloctiiaimo darimimo-

ram viranan Ofmaeoh ; in qaibia Vat Hdvaanm BforH, aUna
Saeri,fcc. illoatnotar: 0|MiaadFhUoU«i«Baaenm otrkoCaoaa
wtiUiaimuB. Vaool. I144-4B. M voU. foL

Mmid, aa dtod f 240, foL ai OKlUMta tbo wrilrn oo Boman
AaHqnitiaa, ftc

a Dnil«rtlNda«orjr«iUMltai«tlMWlowing:

n«f.OoAoyN,BomoBlati«ialtiaB,19diOd. Load. I«a 4.

JL a fltHHriiM, JkntiqdtalMi lontaoram «wHa|mo Ian.
1701. 4.

fr.ABiv,0>0MriamAirtlq.|4NiiaaanuB. Load. 173a a

Bat. Kimmtl, tbomm AnMqnm Notilia, or tha Aotiqaidn of
Bomo, la two Paim. Load. 17S1. a Tbora ha^ boon manj
hiaroditloaii irat Imorioaa, PbU. isa a

O. B. Ifiatpari, Ritwim, qiti olim apod RooMBoa obOnaaranl,
ooedBda ospiieatio. 14th od. BarL 17S4. a

C. a. Aeoriz, Ohmrfationn ad NimpaiU Compendivm an-
tlqailatam Bomaoaram (ad. J. M. Nagtl). Altd. 17S7. a

C J. H. Bm/mmrn^ Anmoitanffen 0
^ariflalMkaaAltartbamor. Draad. ITM. a

CkrUL CtUarhu, Compowliam Aotiq. Book cam adoot. /.
fi. An. JfaJdkii. ai od. Hal. 1774. a

a C. Jfetenwa «dn COomo, AnaAhrileho Ahhandloac dor
ffOmbdMa AlterthOmor, baiaoOT"'** «« GL C. .tdkr.
I77S.W. 4 wa 4.

a a. mpM A^oIIm romaaa, IniiriBfili Joria

<ifltLi77aa

p. r. JL NiUk, Baarhraiba« dm UnallcfaoD, wimaHehaftn.

wdiiadaBaB Zdlallara dor Na.

iiim,\if J. B. M. SnmtL Efftrt, 18ia 8 tela, a— 8avio work
•faridfad (hjr Enoati). Erfl 18ia a

E. n.Morit*, ANeOTEA, odor Bom^ AltarikQamr. Itt part
lofthomcred riim of tho Romam). Bori. 1781-87. a 8d part
(ortbodvilaodprifatoaiblnl.ad.fayf'.Ramteelk. Borl. 178a

.dlansulr Adam, Bomaa AatJqddaa, Ae. Ediaa 1781. a
Ohon reprintad. An improvod od. by Aama* Boyd. Edioa 1834.
ISmow Another ad. bjr/.B. Ma/or. 0x£ 1837. a— Tnari. into
Oarmaa, with Improvamcnla, by /. X. Mtyo- (8d ad.) Erianf.
I8ia 8 aob^ a

/. r. Omfir, Sntaa and GabrtMibo dm- Bflmar. WioB. 1808-8.
• fob. a with plataa.

Q.O.jnpkttAxAkfAt»!tmBen»nm,laxll.tab.itaer. Bari.

i8oa

L. BehMi^, AaliqaHttaa a
Bflmar. (Ib bit Aicydop. a

ia8a a

/.OrMlBBr, Abrim dor rtmladiaa AaliqaiflUa warn Oobnooho
id Voriaannicn. Ldpo. Itt4. a
/.XXFitfa,

«Mis«aa

Lam oitaadvo. bat oaaTal'aBd iaatradiaa, k Iha Mlowi^:
/. B. L. itutntto, Dabor Sitton and Lobaaout dor BiOmar, in
Toraehtodooon Zdton dor BopaUik. Boriia» 1814. a (Ed. J>a
BuMmann),

Worthy of mentSoB aim ia, mkoeVt Roman Om? anatloaB^or
DaacriptioMOftboABtiqaitimorBMM. Load. 1187. 8 rola. a

Tbo MIowiBf ara ahrldgmaan I

Abrimdorcriacaondrtmitdi. AltorlhaaMr, aoa dr. #yML
Kendal, 1881.

AfltiqolUoa, and Aadaat Mflbdofy, fcr Clmrical
Bdioda; by Cfai. C INIIaMwy. Boaton, 1881 ; 2d od. 188a

noi.S.Oirr,MaBmdorBom.ABliqa}Uaa. Load. 188a la

a We Bmy ako raCar bare to JUMrf/oifeonPf Antiqnitf Zm-
pliqnda, m nioatiatim by ito platmaod doacriptiom Eoaim* aa
w«U m OtmI Anliqaitlm (ef. H»<

Tbo fioUowiflf work ooataim auay aaedloot ddliwaffcrni i
Baeedta Tavolo rappramnt. 1 emtami rdipoai, d#m o mlUlprI
dctU aatidii Ecinaai, Etroidii, Grade Roaiani,tntti dagli «ati-
chi moanmeatif-dlaairate^ ad ladm Ib nma^ da Xorerue Mao-
ehttgionL 8 foh. 4 oontalainf ono haadrai platm each.

As parlalBiiv oq^adally to the aafajoct of oodomo^ we add,
BarrfoNyCoataaMdmAadoaaPoaplaa. Par. 1786. 8 roia. a

A. Irnia, La Oiatamo, oo Eemi ear lea hablllamonta el loo
naafm do plaa. poupl. do PAntiqaiid, proard par Im Bmoamcato.
Lii«o,177aa

r*M.J7cfie^ThBCoalamoortbeABdeBli. Land. I8ia 9 veh.
a with Bamonma o^nviap <■ oattino. Heir oa Loaa ISCt.
8vo)a.a

Futieolariy, MaiUat and JMvtfn, RoebordMO ear Im eoo-
tttOMit Im BKMua, Ac. dm aadaaa paapka, Ac— orad do 888
plaadMa,aalraiL Pkr. 1804-a 8 rota, a ** Tbo ird wdom*
coBiaiBa, la ittat dataU, tbo ooatomo, waanrni, Ac. of ftp Ro-
mana, tram Romolm to tho lad ompowna of ComtoBtiBa|do.
The oagmriiv ara takaa from awdala and BKnnmaaa of oadi
opodL"

a R ia proper aim to robr hero to woria Dlodnting Ibo
lomaiaa of Romaa Anllqaily.

8m P. IV. ti 180^ 181^ 187, IM, 191, 98a Ua

F. A. DmM, AatiqaUfe d'HorcolaBaaa, Par. tnO-Mia
18n>li^a

IT. SftiMay, Itinofariam Corioiam, Ac Loaa 1780L 8 aola.
ia 000, foL with two bOBdradeoppor-platm; c
of Romoa ■uomaoate la B^aaa

Hw PaUiealioaa of the Jnatitalo di C
togict, a aodoty fcr aidimdo(ical cwioyMlaam, fraadad ia
Rome by eeraral dialincnidied idtolan aad antiqanrioa. Tka
AdUOno ddf hutiluto, oommenc«l 188a eoolahM brtef Bdiem
of now diMSforim aid new worka, with dbar artidm of apooml
totond. By tho title efJfowaiaafJ/mdlti, the aaamladamo
of platm ia deMfMled. Tha ^mmJi ddp Mdifiiie^ tho ayar
puMiealion, giTCt aaaa^ raviowa, and oxlaodod daacripttoaa.
Gerhard, Xedaer, Raoul-Bochetlo, BOdt, Fkaofka, Hirt, MftUor,
Millincan, Ac. have beaa eontribulon.

a On mfoufl poinia it wfll bo amfd m eoooiitt'lmdaar,
ftaly, VUcr, JFMrokt, Ae. udled f la a

Aleo, F. aaUathitr, Imtlhitiooa, Maanan, aad Cmtoma of tbo
Andoat Natwoa. Tmmtoted from Bw fyaadi by P. Bf niMala.

IV. SmUk, Didjonaiy of Graak and Bomaa Aatiqaitiom

6 Olbarrcferenemtow
oadcr the iodioM trmHac of tbom topic*.

LotUmret Valertoa, Admor'r Ftompdi, aad Wkr^ LoMam
fhan Fldmyra, are flctloai protodnr to asbihit tbo dale of mo*,
nm la the fint coatarim after Chrid.

p. m. RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 229

$ 198. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as we did the Greek, under
four distinct branches ; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of religion^ dvil
gooemmentf war^ and private life.

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS.

$ 199. As the word religion is of Roman origin, it may be well to notice the
ideas attached to this term in the Latin language. Originally, religio seems to
have signified every sort of serious and earnest exertion, to which one was im-
pelled by external or internal motives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to ex-
press the included idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures;
and the theory of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion.
In the plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and practices
pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, in as much as
the knoi^edge and practice of duty towards men and the Divine Being will
lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility and conscientiousness of deport-
ment, the word religio was also naturally employed as comprehending in its
meaning this correctness of morals.

$ 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, we must
revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed ($ 169). There doubtless
existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome various religious customs
and tKe worship of various divinities ; and it is not easy to trace out their
gradual rise and establishment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis,
and Arcadia, this native religion received many additions and modifications ;
hence the ^reat similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of mythology
«nd worship (cf. P. II. $ 8). In some particulars the Roman traditions differ
from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are the
same. The Romans also adopted several religious usa^s not practiced by the
Greeks, as e. g. in relation to auguries and auspices^ which were borrowed from
the Etrurians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great prevalence
of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history.

$ 201. The religion of the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, intimately
connected with their politics. It was often employed as a means of promoting
secret designs of state, which the projectors knew how to render agreeable and
desirable, by the help of superstition. Thus the inclinations of the mass of the
people were determined by pretended oracles and siffns. Many military enter-
prises derived their most effective stimulus from this source ; and not seldom
It furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country
was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities and
festivals served to foster and to deepen sentiments of awe and fear towards the
gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The purpose and influence of the
gods were considered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this
belief was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart
dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the intervention and agency
of the gods therein.

$ 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romulus made it a prominent
object to render the national religion a means of union between the various and
discordant materials of which the first inhabitants were composed. Still more
earefoUy was this object pursued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the
chief author of many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part,
as has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His pretend-
ed interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, secured greater
respect and success in nis efforts. The fundamental principles of Numa's
Bjstem, being retained, were afterwards carried out more fully and variously.-
As knowledge and sound philosophy advanced among the Romans, the religious
notions of the more intelligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ;
but this was confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common
faith, even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cumbrous by
the deification of the emperors.

Oa Nwa, ef. p. V. i 447v--Ior a pwtiealtf sceoaat of tU leik wofdiipcd t7 the Bonuii, w« r«fcr to tlM pwt aM
*Mchlr«al»«rtti«MbjMtaf Myibfoiotf. Tba Boibu divuion nr clMuAatioA of tbdr fodi ii aolkad la (P. U.) ; ^

230 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

§ 203. The great nnmber of the Roman deities occasioned a large number of
temples, of which, as some assert, there were in Rome above four hundred [four
hundred and twenty]. The name of temples, lernpla^ however, properly belong-
ed only to such religious buildings as were solemnly consecrated by the augurs;
by this circumstance, and also by a less simple style of architecture, they were
distinguished from the xdes sacrae^ although the names are often used inter-
changeably. Their form was aimost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangu-
lar oftener than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere-
ntonies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the building, and
also after a remodeling or repairing of it. — The principal parts of a temple were
commonly the sanctuary (eelia sanetior, adytum), the interior, appropriated for
the ceremonies of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various pur-
poses. The temples, however, were often used, not only for religious solemni-
ties, but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They
usually stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at least
ornamented with them on the front.

On the lirnctura of ancient tenpin, ef. P. IV. § 234, Bod nlmtaem thcra iitcb.—- •On the laniplM tX Bobw, dl F. I. |§ 58-€0.-«
6«e Simcny Templa dc IIocIabm Boine, Id tha Mem. Acad. buar. L 189.

$ 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the Greeks,
with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and painting, and with
consecrated offerings of various kinds, called donaria. Every thing connected
with a temple was held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was devoted.—
A general name for such places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings
were there erected, was fanum. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a
more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple where
stood the images of the gods, one or more; but it is often used in a more gene-
ral sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for worship without roofs and
only guarded by a wall, were termed aacella. Among the groves {lud) conse-
crated to the gods, of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta,
JSgeria, Furina^ and Juno Lucina were the most noted.

§ 2D5. Jliars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and were then
inscribed merely with the name of the god to whom they were dedicated; usu-
ally, however, they were placed in temples. A distinction was made between
aUaria and arse; the former were raised higher {alia ara), and were used for
offering the sacrificial victim ; the latter were lower, and were used in offering
the prayer and libation. The former were more usually consecrated to the
celestial gods ; the latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and
were so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them*

1 u. There was also a third kind of altar, anclabris or enclabrist a sort of table, on
which the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims were laid by the
Haruspices. The menta 9acra was something still different, a table on which incense
was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed to be burned, as variotis arti-
cles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold or some
metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly of a white
color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of
victims. The form of altars was various, quadrangular ofiener than round. Not un-
frequently they were adorned with sculpture and image-work.

OlflTcrent formfl of iiltara are seen in our Plate XXVII. fig. B, C, m. Fif . t is the tmcloiria.
Fig. II is a representation of Solomon's altar ef humt offerinf (cf. SChron. \v. 1); given by Pru
deauj^ as drawn according to accounts of tiie Kabbins ; copied and described in Calmet^ Dici.
Sec. vol. iii. p. 144, 357, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E. is an altar erected as a sepulchral monanient,
in honor of a Roman enipernr; it is highly ornamenied with sculptures, and bears an inscrip-
tion ; the letters D M stand for Dits Manitus. The elevations at the corners in this and in fig.
II, show what is desienated by the phrase ** koms of the altar."— In Plate XX. are other furuis
of the alKir. In the Sup. Plate 30, are four others ; on the altar of Jupiter is seen the bust of
the god, and below it an eagle itolding a thunderbolt in his claws ; beneath this, in the original
monument, is the inscription, I. O. M. IVSSA OCTAVIA 8VCC£S8A P.; i. e. Jii«i Optima
Maximo^ ju$»a Oetavia Suce»$$a po$uiL On the altar of Bacekua^ a Bacchanal is dancing over a
prostrate wine-cup, holding another cup in one hand and the thyrsus in the otbf>r. Tne altar
ofJftftunB is one of the four discovered at Antium (Nettuno); on it is sculptured Neptune with
the trident In his left hand and a dolphin in bis right; above this is inscribed, in the original,
ARA NEPTVNI. The tripod was oAen used as the form of an altar to Ap«tllo; the ytry re-
inarlcable one given in this Plate corresponds to a representation on a silver coin of Consul M.
>Ein. LppiduB.— See Monifaveon (as cited P. II. $ 13), ii. 242. 132. Sup. ii. 5C.— For various altara
as sepulchral erections, see Montfanean^ vol. v. and Buppl. vol. v.^Romau altars have repeat-
edly been found io England. MrektDvhgia, as cited P. IV. { 32. 5. vol. iii. p 118, 321

PLATE XXVII.

'«o2 ROMAN ANTiaUITIES.

2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribms, and garlands of herbs and
flowers. AIi^s and temples aiTorded a place of refuge among the Romans as well as
Greeks (of. ^ 66), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, for insolvent debtors
and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be
employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be
confined there until they perished.

$ 306. A great variety of instramentsand yessels, vom sacra, were employed
in the sacrifices offered to the gods.

1 u. The most important were the following : the ax (htpenni»t geeurig, d, d), or
•club {malleu», c), wiih which the victim was first struck } knives for stabbing ieultri,
e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails (setespitai) ; the
censer {thuribtUumt 1), and the box containing the substance burnt for incense (aeerrm
or arcula thuraria^ 5) ; a vessel used in droppmg the wine upon the sacrifices (guttuB) ;
a flat vessel in which the priests and others oflering sacrifices tasted the wine'(«im^-
Itinit b) ; broad dishes or bowls (patera, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims ;
an oblong vase with one or two handles {capedo, eapedunrula, canig, o, o) ; vessels to
hold the entrails (olla extarea) ; plates on which the entrails and nesh were brought to
the altar (Lancet, dixcit n); baskets, particularly (o contain the fruit ofiered (eanistra);
small tables with three legs (Iripodeg) ; an instrument, having a tuft of hair, or the
like, for sprinklinjg the sacred water (aspergillum, f); pans for the sacrificial fire (pr«-
fericula) ; metallic candlesticks ieandelabrat h) to which the lamps were attached.

S. Ths niiroeralt and letters included in tbe parenthmen with the I«ntin terms in the shore
•peciflcation, refer to the figures thus marlced in nur Plate XXVII Thf fisrures marlied by tbe
letters are drawn from Montfauenn^ vol. ii. p. 150. Those marked by the numerals are from

Pompeii, p. 130* as cited P. IV. $!2M. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrifioini apparatus ;

fif. g shows the sacred fillet (rj(/a), which was sometimes hnng from the neck; fix 4 is a ladle
(lif'HiA); fli;. S, a pitcher (urctfiw, cu/ii/^tM) used for the libations; these fie u res are taken from
sculptured representations on an altar standinir in the court of a temple found at Pompeii ; Hg.
B exhibits a scene from the same altar; a mafistrate in his robe is otfertnff sacrifice; he holds
in his hands paUra; the victim is led forward hy the iM>;Morcii/frarii(«,who is naked to bis
waist with a wreath on his head ; beliind the mai^istrate is a bny holding a vase or pitcher, and
an older servant bearing a platter (^ffWus); by his side is a moslrlan Mowing the flute, followed
hy lictors with their fatties ; in the back ground appear the pillars of the temple decorated with
garlands.— Fig. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Montfaucon from an ancient coin ; the
augur's wand (/iCNaur) is seen in the hand of the principal person. The group of articles in-
cluded in fig. D la drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to illustraie also Hebrew
and likewide Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will notice among them the sho-
vel, the fork of several tinen, knives, a vessel like the modern teapot, a fire-pan, jars, bowlg,
dishes, dtc. cf Exod. xxv. 29.— Fig. a, is the sarred trumpet {tuba) sounded at hecammh* and
other sacrifices. Tbe straight trumpet was also uaed at sacrifices, as is seen in Plate XXIX, and
likewise the fluie or clarionet, as is seen in Plate XXIX, and Plate XLV.— In Plate XLV. is seen,
hanging from the girdle of a priest (the one that holds the head of the victim) the case (vofina)
for the knives; the same article is given in the Sup. Plate 31. fig. 18. In this Plate also are
various Instruments of sacrifice ; 1, 9. the aetrra and /AtiraHiiiii ; 3. enclahrie; 4, tkuribu!mm^ as
given by Montfaucon, differing from the form given in Plate XXVII., fig. I ; 5, enpie ; 6, 7. 10,
forms of the nrnpnlum ; 8. patera or patella; 9. the vessel given by Montfaucon as the pra^feri-
eulum, which he describes not as a pan for holding; the fire, but as- a vessel for holding the wina
of the libation ; 11, 17, eultri ,* 13, tuba ; 13, wailev* ; 14, Dolabra ; 15, eeruris ; l(t. ^ts, or seees'
pita; 19, </Meair, a hroad shallow platter ; 20, o//a; 21, lituue; ^ candelabra ; 23, oiperj^um^
aspersorium, or luetriea.

$ 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into certain com-
mon orders, or collegfes. These were ^mostly established by the first kings ;
Romulus established the Luperei^ Curitmes, Httnupi$e8f Numa, the F/amines,
Featales, Safii, Jugurea, and Feciales. Daring the repablic the Rtx saert/rum
and the Epulones were introduced ; and under the emperors some others. — The
Roman priests may be ranged ill two general eiasaa; those common to all the
gods {omnium deorum gacrdotes) ; and those appropriated to a particular dtity
(uni numini addicti). Of the/orm«r were the Pontifices, Augtires, Quindecem-
vin sacris faciundis, Haruspices, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales^
Sodales Titienses, and Rex Sacronim. Of the latter class were the Flamines,
Salii, Luperci, Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales.

$ 208. The first rank was held by the Pontijices^ instituted by Numa, origi-
nally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally more even to fifteen.
The chief of these was styled Poniifex Maximus, who held the highest priestly
office, dignity, and power. He was appointed at first by the Kings, subse-
quently by the college {Collegium) or whole body of Pontifices, but after 104
b, C. by the people. Sylla restored the right to the college, but it was again
taken from them. All the other priests and the vestals were subject to the
Pootifex Maximus.

1 tt. He had the oversight of all religious afiairs, the reguUtion of the festivals and

p.m. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AUGURS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 2SS

• the solemnities connected therewith, and the keeping of the records of public transac-
tions (jannales). He was also judge in many questions of right.~His dress was a
toga vrafcxlOt and his hend-ornament a sort of cap made of the skin of a victim and

callea ^o/rru*. Augustus assumed this office himself as emperor, which was done

likewise by his successors down to Gratian, who abolished it.

2. Tho?e who held the office of Pontifex Muximutj are said to have resided in a
public house called Eegia (cf. % 213). — '1 he hierarchy of the church of Rome is thought
to have been estabhshed on the model of the Pontifex Maximus and the college of
Pomifices.

L. Bimard, Le Poolificat det Empr. Romaini, in tb« Uea^ Jtead. hutr. zii. 356 ; zt. S8. Cf. be. 115.— Od lb* Roiun !><»•
Ufi, ke. cf. MayWs Worti, ral. t.—Btaufort, Republique Rotnaim.

$ 209. The Jvgurs, in ancient times called avsptces, derived their name from
consulting the flight of birds, angtiriumf avigerium. They were introduced
from Eiruria by Romulus, and established as a regular order by Numa. Their
number was originally three, then four, after^\ards nine, and finally increased
by Sylla to fifteen. At first they were taken only from the Patricians, but after
B. C. 300, i* part from the Plebeians. Their chief was called Magisfer Qtl/egri\
and Jugur Maximits, Their badges of office were a robe striped with purple
(frabea), a crooked staff (/i/iiw*), and a conical cap (sometimes called apex).
Their principal business was to observe the flight and cry of birds {auspictum),
from which they predicted future events. They also explained other omens and
signs, derived from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain
animals, particularly of young fowls and the like.

1 «. In the camp auspices were taken ex acuminiltysj i. e. prognostics were drawn
from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the adhesion of the
lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were planted. The
places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were to be erected, were con-
secrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued until the time of Theodo-
flias the Great. 1 he public Augurs of the Roman people should be distinguished
firom the private Augurs of the emperors.

2. The omens, si^na, portenia, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjectured or
pretended to foretell the future, nave been classed in five divisions. (1) From
birds; chiefly the flight of some (aUfes)^ such as eagles, vultures, and buzzards; but
also the chattering and singing of others ioscines)^ such as the owl (6«6o), crow (corws,
comix,) or cock igalluf). (2) From appearances in the heavens; as thunder, light-
ning, meteors, and the like. — For taking omens of either of these two kinds the augur
stood on some elevated point (arx, templum), which was frequently called auguratorium,
with his head covered with the lirna, a gown peculiar to the office; after sacrificirg
and offering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four
quarters (called thnpla) with his litvvs, and waited for the omen. A single omen was
not considered significant ; it must be confirmed by another of the same sort. In
whatever position the augur stood, omens on the left were by the Romans reckoned
lucky, contrary to the notions of the Greeks (cf. ^ 75); the explanation given of this
disagreement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ;
but the Greek augur faced the north, and the lucky omens would be on his right,
while the Roman augiir usually faced the south, and therefore had the luckv omens
on bis left. It is certain, however, that omens on the left were sometimes called un-
lucky among the Romans, and the term $inister came to signify unpropUiout^ and
dexter to mean propitiouM. (3) From chickens (pulli) kept in a coop for the purpose,
by the pullariuM. The omen was taken early in the morning from tneir actions when
the augur threw crumbs of corn before them ; if they turned away from it, or ate re-
luctantly, it was an unlucky omen ; if they devoured greedily, very lucky. Taking
this augury was called Tnpudivm, perhaps from the bounding of the corn when
thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadrupeds, chiefly by observing whether they appear
ed in a strange place, or how they crossed the way, whether to the right or the left,
and the like. (5) From various circumstances and events, which may be included
under the term accidents ; among these were sneezing, falling, hearing sounds, see
ing images, spilling salt upon the table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like.
Omens of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Virie.

Knaun, M cited $ Iff7. 8, ch. Iv.-Cf. Marln^ let logon ; and Si'nwn, Let Prcngn, in Uic JUrm. dc PJhad. dm Ituer. L 64 ud
nt—Mafo, MjlholosT, L 2SS.

$ 210. The Haruspiees were the priests who inspected the entrails of animals
offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occurrences ; they were called
exfifpices. They appeared under Romulus and were established by him; it is
doubtful of what number their college consisted. For some time Etrurians only,
and not Romans, discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed from the
30 u3

234 ROMAN ANTZaUITIES.

Etrurians directly, bat seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin ; the dis-
covery of the art (Haruspieina) was ascribed by fable to Tages, a son of Jupi-
ter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was increased up even to sixty.
Their overseer was styled Magister Fublicus or Summus llarttspex* From the
different modes and objects of their divination, they were divided into three
classes, extispiea^ fuleuratores, and prodigtatorea. For, besides observing the
entrails of victims ana the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the name,
smoke, &c., they fllso were consulted in relation to lightning and places or
buildings stricken by it, and they likewise explained prodigies and dreams.

1 tt. In examining the entmils, they observed chiefly their color, their motion, and
the condition of the heart, and when they could deierniine nothing from the appear-
ances, they called them exta muia. On the other band, the term lUare was used to
signify an auspicious sacrifice.

9. The college of Haranpicea had their particulnr regittera and records, bm al«o the other rell-
leinua orders had ; these seeio to have been accounts or their observations, memorials of thun-
der and lightning, and ominous occurrences. Their art was at one lime considered so impor-
tant that the senate decreed that a number of youth should be regularly instructed in it ; at a later
period it fell into disrepute ; the emperor Claudius attempted to revive it. Cf. Ciuro^ De Div.
i. 41, 43. li. S4, 29, 35. 7)iei(tf«, Ann. xi. 15.— Most of the ominous circumstances connected with
sacrifices are alluded to by FirgU (Georg. iii. 486).

§211. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts (epuiac) of
the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197; by Sylla the number
was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epuionet, and by Caesar at l^st to ten.
They had the care of what were called the Lectisternia, when couches w^ere
spread for the gods as if about to feast, and their images were taken down, and
placed on the couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes; the most
important of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the Capitol. They
were reqtiired to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order.
Very young persons, even those under sixteen, were often taken for this office;
yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed
its duties. Like the Pontifices, they wore a toga prmtexta. The vtW epulara
must not be confounded with the epulonesf the former were not the priests, but
the guests at the repasts spoken of.

§ 212. The Fedaies were a class of priests or officers existing long before the
building of Rome, among the Rutulians and other Italian states. The order
was introduced at Rome by Numa. It continued to the beginning of the impe-
rial authority, and consisted of twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They
may be considered as a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties
and agreements pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called
Faier patraiu8. ' It devolved upon him, or the Fecialcs under him, to give the
enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to make the
declaration by uttering a solemn form (clarigcUio), and hurling a spear {hasta
sanguinea), into the enemy^s limits. These priests were also the customary
agents in effecting an armistice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and
aid was still more indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices there-
with connected. They were charged also with the enforting of treaties, and
the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security
of foreign ambassadors at Rome.

$ 213. The Bex Mcrorum^ or Rex saerifieuha^ held an office, which was insti-
tuted first after the expulsion of the kings, and probably derived its name from
the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were offered by the kings
themselves or under their immediate oversighL Perhaps, as Livy suggests,
the office and name both aroso from a desire that the royal dignity might not
be wholly forgotten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts oc-
cupied the first place, although the duties were not numerous, and consisted
chiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. He was
also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacrifice jointly with the
Pontifex Maximus, to convoke the people (populum calare), and make known
the distance of the Nones from the Calends of the month then commencing.
At the Comiiia he offered the great public sacrifice, aAer which, however, he
musi withdraw from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called i7e-

p. ni. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 225

gina aatrorum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. Wu^
residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Begia, The office con-
tinaed until the time of Theodosius the Great.

' Sm Imtnteh, Stadin and Awimtai««B, p 41.-Cf. L. MlntOs, in SmiChH Did. of AaU^ p. 883.

$ 314. The name of Flaminea was given in general to all such priests as
were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The most eminent of them
was the Flarnen DtaHs, or chief priest of Jupiter. At the first institution of the
order, there were but two besides this, viz. : the Flarnen Martialis and the Fh"
men Qutrinalis, Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They
were divided into majores, who must be Patricians, and minorea, who were
taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe with a purple
border {/mna), and a cap of conical form {apex) adorned with a twig of olive.
The Flarnen Dialis had a lictor, and also a sella curults and the tffga prssfexia ,-
his wife was called Flaminica^ and aided him in some parts of the worship on
the festivals of Jupiter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and en-
joyed several other privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many
duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flarnen
Dialis. l*hey were distinguished by names derived from the god to whose ser-
vice they were devoted, as Flamen Neptuhalin^ Fioralis, Fomonalisg so of those
belonging to a deified Cssar, as Flymen Juguitalia, FlavialU^ &c.

§ 315. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according to the common
opinion had their name from dancing faa/tre), because on certain festival days
they passed about the city dancing, ana singing songs in honor of Mars. They
were first instituted by Numa. The immediate occasion of their institution, ac-
cording to the tradition, was the famous shield, Jncile, said to have been sent
from heaven ; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order to
hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vestals, were carried
by the twelve ISalii Palatini^ when they made their circuit around the city.

1 u. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Prasul, whose leaping was
expressed by the verb amtruare, and the leaping of the others after him by redamtruare.
They had their appropriate residence icuria Saliorum) upon the Palatine Hill. Besides
the music which accompanied their dancing, they struck their shields together, and
in that way noted the measure of their songs, which celebrated the praises of the
god of war (cf. P. IV. $ 114. 4.) and of Veiurius Mamariiia^ the artist who made the
eleven shields.

2 u. The order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so hy the acces-
sion of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the emperors, especially M. Au-
relius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, but only for a certain period.
— 1'he Salii Collini or Quirinalet were distinct from this body', and established by
Tullius HoBiilius.

Sn Lip. i. an.— Ok F^ iii. 290. Oa tlw Sklii, and other eltHCi of priesti. eC. CmUng, Oocbicbto der RAm. StaateverfaA-

See a]ip np«cUlly Hartung^ Die ReliftM der Rfloier.— r. OutbedUKi de Seliis Uartia Mcerdotibw apod Ronanw liber MDgularit.
FiUMiueTe, 1704. &— Cf. ScuicI, De SaltaU net. veL Rom. fieri. 1828.— wf. ^r^ Melrik, Tb. 8. p. 6«7.

§ 216. The lAipereif priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and established
by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designation, which Pan re-
ceived from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, Lupereua {ah arcendo lupoa).
His temple was from the same circumstance called lAipereaU and his most cele-
brated festival at Rome, Liipercalia. This festival began about the middle of
February, and was regarded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The
Luperci^ on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle
of goat's skin about the waist; they carried in their hands thongs of the same
material, with which they struck those whom they met; the word to express
the action was eatomidiare, A peculiar efficacy was ascribed to these blows
particularly in rendering married women prolific.

1 u. There were three distinct companies (todalUates) of these priests; the Fahiani^
Quiniilianit and Julii. The last were of later origin and took their name from Julius
Cesar ; the others were named after individuals, who had been their chief or head
priests./ ^ ^ .

2 M. The Politix and Pifmrii were not companies or sodalitiea of Luperci, but priests
of Hercules; they were not held in important estimation, although their pretended
origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. The tradition was, thai Hercules.

236 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. ^

during his remdence in Italy with Evander, instructed in the rites of his worship the
tribes or families bearing this name, which was afterwards retained by the priests.

§ 217. The GalU were priests of Cybele the great mother of the gods, so
called from the ri^er Gallas in Phrygia, whose water was regarded as possess-
ing singular virtues, rendering frantic those whG drank it. The circumstance
of their being castrated is referred to the fable respecting Atys. At the festival
of their goddess, celebrated in March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. II. § 21), these
priests imitated the phrensy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and
self-scourging and cutting. Their chief priest was termed jSrchigallus. The
order was not highly respected.

§ 218. The Vestals, Virgines Vestalen, were an order of Priestesses, of very
early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The constant preservation of the
holyfirt and the guarding of the Palladium (P. II. § 43, § 67) were the princi-
pal duties of the Vestals. ' They were first instituted by Numa, four in number;
two were added by Tarauinius rriscus or vServius TuUius, and the number ever
after remained six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Veaialia or Virgo
Maxima. They were selected (capere) between the age of six and ten, particu-
lar regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigor and perfection.
They were obliged to continue in the office thirty years unmarried. The first
ten years were employed in learning the rites, the second ten in performing
them, and the rest in instructing others. Negligence in any of their duties was
severely punished. If any one violated her vow of chvistily, she was buried
alive in a place called Campus scelcratus^ near the Porta Col Una. Besides the
two principal duties of these priestesses, they were accustomed to offer certain
sacrifices, whose precise object is unknown. They also had the care of some
preparations and services connected with other sacrifices. They enjoyed great
respect, and many privileges ; e. g. entire freedom from parental control; au-
thority to deliver from punishment a criminal, who accidentally met them ; cer-
tain revenues of lands devoted to them; the attendance of a lictor, whenever
they went out; a public maintenance, and release from the obligation to take
an oath. Their oflfice was abolished under Theodosius, on account of its ex-
pense.

For repmetiMions of Vatth, im Plato XXVUI. and explanatiom given P. II. § 67.— Of. Nadal^ Dufwy* tc. u there cited.

5 219 a. A few words must be added respecting the other classes of priests
before named (cf. § 207). The Quindecemviri sacrisfaciundis had the care of the
Sibylline books (cf. § 226). The Fratres Jrvales served especially at the festi-
val called Amharvalia (cf. P. II. § 63), when the fields were dedicated and
blessed, these priests passing over them in processicm (cf. P. IV. § 114), with
a crowd of attendants. The Sodalea Titii or Tatii had their name from the
Sabine king Titus Tatius : each tribe had seven of them. There were also
Sodale% Jluguataies, or priests in honor of Augustus. The Curiones were thirty
priests, who performed the sacred rites common to the several Curie.

1. Each of the Curia had a president or priest called Curio ; these thirty priests
formed a college under a chief president termed Curio maximus. Cf. ^ 251 ; also
P. I. ^ 61. ,

2 u. The priests of all the various classes had their assistants and servants (miniittri).
Among these were the waiting boys and maids, camilli and camiUis ; the assistants of
the priests who offered sacrifices, faminii and fiamin<B ; the keepers of the temples,
tedUui or (Bditumni ; thoM who brought the victims to the altars and slew them, popcBf
victimarii, cultrarii. The tibicines, tuhicines, fdicines^ dtc, who accompanied the
sacrificial rites with music, formed likewise another fraternity.

3. The mystagroffi were those who initiatetl others Into mysteries ; the nsme (s also given to

those who showed to visiters the curiosities of the temples. By some late writers the priests

were divided into three classes i antistitett chief priests; socerrfotM, ordinary priests; and nth
nistriy meanest priests.

^ 219 b. Respecting the emoluments of the Roman priests little is known. When
Romulus first dividea the Roman territory, he set apart what was sufiicient for the
performance of sacred rites, and for the support of temples. Numa is said to have
provided a fund for defraying the expenses of religion, and to have appointed a stipend
i»Hpendium) for the Vestals ; the Augurs also and the Curiones are said to have re-
ceived an annual stipend ; but there is na evidence that the priests received any regu-
lar salary, except as it may seem probable from the instances specified. Yet there

:Kx^rsii

p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRATERS. SACRIFICES. 237

can be no doubt that, in some way or other, saflicient provimon was made for their
support. — Two priests, the Pontifex Maximus and the Flamen Dialis, were by virtue
of their office members of the senate. All the priests held their offices without respon-
sibility to the civil magistrate ; and with few exceptions were allowed to hold other
offices both civil and military.

a. Oib Oe Ug. ik 8.-LJV. snvili. 47 : mix. AL-Ditmyt. BaL iv. &-Abo, £i«. L SO—Dionyi. tt. C, 7.-7te. Abb. It. 1«
^9mB. JMnliiM, D«9M«doliMBaik ta fiillai|n^ foi. Ui^jMripiy, Lm bouMWi acMrta wu pntm, kc la the JMu .AwL
lMtr.nii.lO&

ReprMentKtiom of prieiti, flron ancient inonumenti, may be eeen in Platet XIX., XX.,
XXVII., XXVIII., XXIX., XLV., XLVI.; also in the Sup. Platen S8, 29, 3%— In Plate XXVIII.,
the two figurea marked PrU$ta are taken from a bae-relief found at Autun (./f«^v«(«i{iin«M, cf.
P. I. ( 17) ; they represent two Drmidm, or priests of the religion of the ancient Gauls and Bri-
tons ; both liave ample robes, and long beards; one, who is perhaps the Jhrk-Druii, wears a
crown of oak leaves and holds a scepter, the other holds a crescent or balf-nioon.

Bopectinc the Drakb, Me FaOnkz, EDCjelop. of Anliq. y. 19L—0. Biggiiu, The Celtic Dniidt. Load. 1827. 4.— The work
entided "/dMify ef th* SiUgiotu toBai Dniidkal and ^rrlfftto."— JTonl/auom, ni. tt. p. 494.— Jfoyo, Mythdesj, voi. iL p. 2C •
-Sdinb Ene^dop.

$ 220. Of the vast mnltitude of religious customs among the Romans, we
will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayert to the sods. They
prayed with the head covered or vailed {eapitevelato), Tbey bowed themselves
down to the ground, in this posture movea around completely from right to left,
placed their right hand on the mouth (adoratio), and directed their face towards
the east, where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a higher
degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or prostrated the
whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to lay hold of the altar
and to make offerings of meal and wine with their prayers. The prayer was
not always offered with an audible voice. Public prayers (preeationts) were
made by a priest or a magistrate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was
that before the Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings {tuppUtaiiona)
were also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing, and
praising the gods; in which view the people made a solemn procession to the
temples. Public occasions of this sort were called tupplicationea adpulvinarta
deorum ; these pulvinaria were a sort of couches or stools with cushions or
pillows {pulvtni)l on which were placed the statues of the gods. They were
also termed mpfUtia^ and were appointed in honor of particular deities, or of
all the gods united. The prayers offered on these occasions were called obu*
eraiionet, which term usually has reference to the averting of danger.

As^fny, Lei prierae dee I^ienMi^ in the Man. Jbad. baer. wL xlU. p. n.-Martu^ Bekenaiu, *c (oAiralie), ia the mm
Jim. ToL UL p. n.

ThenleaeevWIeMe thet poUie idlfioM iBetrvctloa fonned uy pert of the dvty of prierte, or wie ever craacded with pnbl(e
wonhip, which eooiiatad wholly io perferndiv each rilce ae are ebove qiecificd, ud ia ofliuijip end nenUgm. Nothing like preedi-
iaf or arrtd oratory wee known.

$ 221. The saertfieeB of the Romans (sacrificia) were very various. They
were offered either at stated times {stata, soiennta\ or on particular occasions
(ex acddenie naid). Animal sacrifices were termed nostise or viciimm { the original
difference between these words, viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered
on Roing out against a foe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning victorious, is as
little regarded by the writers, as another distinction, which makes the former
a smaller and the latter a greater sacrifice.

1 «. The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previotisly selected.
They were brought to the altar, ornamented, like the person offering them, with cnr-
lands of flowers; the horns of bullocks and rams were decked with gilt, and while
fillets were hung over their necks. The willing approach of the victim was considered
as a favorable omen; reluctance and resistance on the other hand as unfavorable ; the
act of bringing the victim forward was called admovere. I'he priests then commanded
all the profane to depart, and anot^r priest ordered silence (lin^it favete). Then
followed the prayer to the gods, ana after it the offering of the victim, 'i'he knife and
the altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling thei^i with a mixture of salt
and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (mola gaUa). The head of the victim wa.^

Srinkled with the same, and this is what is properly expressed by the word immolari ,
though it is often sjmonymous with mactare.

2 ». Thectf2<rartu«, whose business was to kill the victim, having asked, Agone '
and the consul, prastor or priest having answered, Hocage^ then struck the animal in
the forehead with his ax or mallet ; another, next cut or stabbed him in the throat ;
and a third caught the blood in a sacrificial vase. The entrails were then examined
bv the karuspeai, and if they were found favorable^ were, after being cleansed, laid on

S38 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

the altar and burned. Sometimes the whole animal was bnmed (holoeautCum) ; but
usually only a part, the rest being assigned to the sacrificial feast, or to the priests.
Upon the burnmf flesh incense was scattered, and wine was poured out; the latter
constituted the ubation, and w^as accompanied with a formal address to the deity,
accipe libens. In earl^ times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After all
came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the sacrifice partook in
common, and which was usually accompanied with music and dancing, ana often foi-
lowed with games.

3. Music alflo iisaally arcompanied the oflTerinfr of the sacrifice, as is shown by the monuments
represented in nurVlates. Compare Plate XXVII. fig. B, where are seen two long strnighi
trumpets; Plate XXIX. where, besides the trumpets, the double flute is played by a bny, wh<» is
adorned with a wreath on his head, as are also most of the officiating priests; Plate XLV.,
where the flute and the tympanum are introduced (cf. P. II. $ 91. 2).

4. There were sacrifices without blood ; made by libations usually of wine, but also
of other fluids; by burning incentie or fragrant wood, such as cedar, fig, and myrtle;
and by offering /'rutV as a tribute or (ithe from the harvest iprimUicB) and also sometimes
cakes {liba) made of flour and honey or of wax.

5. Illustrations of the pouring out of libations are given in Plate XXVII. fig. C, and in Plate
XX. ; in the latter is also seen the offKring of fruit or cakes, together with a libation ; it is from
a sculpture in ivory, representing a SMcriflce without blood to Mercury ; a female is taking some-
thing from a cylindrical vase, while a servant (eamilla) holds a discus of fruit or cakes and a
ve8!«el containing the libation.— In the same plate is the representation of a blondieiis sacrifice
to Diana, from a bas-relief on the Arch of Constantine (cf. P. IV. ^ 188. 2). The image of the
goddess, with a crescent on her hftnd and a spear in her right hand, stHnding on a pedesi.-il, is
seen between two trees; on one of which is fixed the head of a wild boar laper) ; the niiar is in
firont of the image ; three militrit hasfati are in attendance, while the emperor Trajan, lioMine In

one hand a vohune, with the other hand empties a patera upon the flaipe. In PiNte XI. VI. is

a representation of the sacrifice of a bull to Jupiter Capitolinus by the emperor Marcus Aurtilius,
drawn from a remnrkable anaglyph at Rome. Cf. P. IV. $ 188. .1.— In the Sup. Plate 3*2 is a
benutifnl representation of the animal sacrifice performed by priests, and of the sacrifice with
out blood conducted by priestesses, one of whom is pouring a libation from a vessel which is
perhaps the capedo (cf. ^ 200).

§ 22*2. It was very common among the Romans to make vowt {vota), which
generally consisted in promises to render certain actual acknowledgments or
returns, provided the gods should grant the requests of those making the vows.
A person doing this was said vota facere^ eoncipere^ suscipere, nuncupare^ and
was called voti retuj to fulfil the promise was voia solvere, reddere i he who
^ined his wish was said to be voti damnaius, voti compos. Sometimes the
thing desired was itself termed votum. Often public vows were made for the
?>enefit of the whole people; these were considered as the most binding. The
TOW was usually written upon a wax-tablet, which was preserved in the temple
€f the god to whom it was made.

1 u. Those who had survived shipwreck, especially, were accustomed to hang up in
The temple of some god (Neptune ofien) pictures representing ihe circumstances of their
danger and deliverance ilabulee votiwt). Similar pictures were sometimes carried about
by I hem in order to obtain charitable relief.

2 u. Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a nerson made to Juno
Ijucina or Genius, on a birth-day (vo/a natalitia); those made when boys, on passing
from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo (vota capillitia); the vows
o( the sick in case of recovery; the vows of those in shipwreck for escape ; of those
on journeys by land. It also became a custom for subjects to make vows for the wel-
l:ire of their emperors, which were renewed af^er the fifth, tenth, or twentieth year of
tiieir reiirn, and therefore called quinquennia, decennalia or vicennalia.

H Dittftotll, de diebm Tctenun nstaliliis. in hi* Fntiect. Jknd. Ox. 1682. 8. p. 153.

§323. The dedicaiion of ihe temples, sanctuaries and altars ((/r'ca/to), was
one of the religious solemnities of the Romans. This was originally performed
by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and often also by two magistrates ap-.
pointed for the purpose and called duumviri dedicandis templis. The senate
must first decree the service; the Pontifex Maximus must be present at the so*
lemnity and pronounce the form of dedicatiA, which was accompanied witli
acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts then followed.

Oa Ihe eereaMraici mt Ibe dedication of a lenplc, lee Tatihu, Itiil. it. 63.— Of. HtitMt Bom. Hwt toI. x. p. 2U, u died P. V
^299 7

1 u. Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration {f^onteeralio) ; only, the latter
expression was applied to a great variety of particular objects, e. g. statues, sacred
utensils, fields, animals, &c. Resecration^ on the other hand, was a private trans-
action, in which the people or individuals were freed from their vows; this was also
called religione solvere.

2. The term inauguratio was sometimes used as synonymous with dedicatio and

p. III. RELIOIOnS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES.

239

corueeraiio; but it was in general the ceremony by which the Augurs sought the plea-
mire or sanction of the gods in respect to any thing decreed or contemplated by men;
it was a ceremony theretoro used not only in dedication, but in introducing a priest or a
magistrate into ofBce, and in entering upon any important engagement. Cf. ^ 209.

3 u. Execralion was imprecating evil on an enemy. — Evocation of the gods was a
solemn rite by which {cerio carmine) they called upon the gods of a besieged city {evocare)
to take the side of the Romans. It was attended with sacrifices and consuliaiion of the
entrails.

§ 224. Expiation was a solemnity designed to appease offended gods, and
the sacrifice or propitiatory offering was called piacuium. Much more frequent
and various were the iuatfcUiom or purifications {iiutratitmea), both public and
private.^

1 u. Public lustrations were occasionally connected with certain festivals; the private
were annually repeated in the month of February. — It was customary before the march
of an army or the sailing of a fleet to appoint a lustration, not lor reviewing the forces,
but to purify them by sacrifices.

2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five years, a
purifying hacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which were
carried round the whole assembly and then slain. The sacriBce was called snovetaurUia,
and he who performed it was said condere lustrum. The name lustrum is said to have
been applied to it, because at that time all the taxes were paid by the farmers-general
to the censors (from luere to pay) ; the term is also used to signify a space of five years,
because the ceremony was performed always at the end of tnat period. The verb
lusirare expressed the act of purifying, and as in doing this the victims were carried
round, the word naturally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around, to survey. The
lustrum was always made in the Campus Martius.

In Plate XXIX. Is a line repreientntion of the Suovetaurilia, or sacrifice to Man, drawn from
ancient inarblns sculptured in bas-relief: the priest, probably Trajan the emperor, with a veil
upon his he:id, approaches a double altar crowned with laurel ; a servant (eamilltus) stands by,
boldinir the o^erra; another plays upon the double tifria ,* two soldiers blow the tuba; behind
the emperor is a priest or servant beiiring the vessel considered hy Montfaucon as the prtrferi-
eulum; others are leadins forward the three victims ; in attendance are several soldiers and
standard-bearers ; h rich fillet lies upon the hack of the bull ; all the priests are crowned with
laurel. Cf. Montfaucvn, ii. 180, and Bup. ii. 73.

S. The expiation made on the appearance of some prodifry, was oHen very solemn and impos.
inf. ** The snn.it^, after having ordered the tSibyllinu h.ioks to be consulted by those who had
the keeping of them, to see what was lo be done on those (Kcasions, ordinarily appointed days
of fasting; as n\*n festivals, especially liie Lt4^tisternia ; public prayers; and sacrifices. Then
you might have seen the whole cit^ of Rome, and in imitation of her the other cities of the em-
pire. In mourning and consternation; the temples adorned; the Ijectisterniu prepared in the
public places; expiatory sacrifices repeated over and over again. The senators and patricians,
their wives and their children, with garlands on their heads, every tribe, every order, preceded
by the high Priest and the Duumviri, marched gravely through the streets; and this procession
was acronipanied by the youth singing hymns, or repeating prayers, while the Priests were
offering sacrifices in the temples and invoking the gods to avert the calamities with which they
Imagined themselves to be threatened."

§ 225. The oaths {jus^urandum^ juramentum) of the Romans, which were
regarded as holy and inviolable, naay be divided into public and private. The
first were taken by the magistrates before the Tribunal (of. § 213. 1) often also
by the whole senate, the generals, the whole army, all the citizens at the census,
and every single soldier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such
as pertained to marriage. They were usually taken before the altars of the
gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses; not unfrequently sacrifices were at
the same time offered. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said
eonceptia verbis jurare.

]. Wiinevses in rivit proceeding sometimes confirmed their testimony hy an oath ; and in all
public iriaU (cf. ^ Sbl) were required to do it. Perjury was punished, yet, so far as appears, not
niorn severely than f»lse tesiiniony (/aisKm) without oath.— Swearing seems to have been in-
dulged freely in common life and ordmary conversation ; such expressions as the following
\C*itv. frequent; Htrcle, or MehereU; Pol, JEdepol, Perpol ; per Joveni; per superoa ; medius
Jidius ; da me perdant, or interfieeant, itc,

BrummiuM, D* Fonuul. Jtc— L. C yatekuiatr, D* Bilibm in Jarudo t Trtcriboi, ia /. OdriAH Oollaet Opoacnloram. Bmn.
I7<«. 4.

S V. What was called devotio consisted In a voluntary surrender of one's self (dsvovere) to
capiinl danger or to violent death, in order to rescue bis country or the life of a person particu-
larly dear. Sometimes the term was applied, when a conqueror assigned {devoeebat) a captured
city or army to destruction, or when an individual was punished.

$ 226. The Romans had no oracles themselves; hut in cases of importance,
they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. Roman supersti-
tion, however, found nearer sources of information respecting the will and decla

^^40 ROMAN ANTI^niTIES.

rations of the gods. Besides the use of their av^urium and txHrpiaeium, they
had recourse to the Stbylfint Booki^ or the pretended prophecies or the Sibyl of
Cume.

1 u. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinias Superbus (see P. V.
^ 16). They were kept with great care in a stone vault under ^ound in the Capitol,
in the custody of the Quindecemviri sacrisfaciundit (cf. ^ 219). In important eniergenciea,
in general duasters, when omens were inauspicious, or drcurostances were perplexing,
they consulted the Sibylline predictions, and endeavored thence to ascertain how the
offended deities couid be appeased.

2 ». The burning of the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of these books;
there were attempts to restore some parts of them from fragments and quotations. The
pieces now extant under this name, however, are in all prooability not genuine, but of
later origin, •

§ 227. The use of lots («or/ei), in order to ascertain the result of an affair or
undertaking, was very common with the Romans. They were small tablets or
blocks (to/t) of wood or metal, on which certsin words or marks Were inscribed,
which were kept in an apartment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous
were those in the temple of this goddess at Preneste, which in early times were
very frequently employed.

1 u. Those at Antium were also renowned ; those at CoBre and Falerium disappeared,
as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lota of this sort were provided and kept
for domestic use. Those who foretold the future by means of lots were called SortUegi,

CtCie.de Divfaat. IL il^Ut. ssl. CL uiL t.-J9M Jtanri, Bflflhanta Hirtar. wir in Sorii apfMUM fu !« PkytM, Soum
ViifUUan, kc la Mm. Jend. Ai«r. vol. xiE.

2. Besides the use of lots snd the practice of augury (cf ^ 209), other artifices were
employed aroon^ the Romans by those who pretended to foretell the future. Some
professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called A§lrologi^Mathematici, or
GeneUdiacit and sometimes Ckaldai or Babylonii, as the art was first practiced in Chal-
doea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjectoreg; others to have an internal
afflatus or inspiration, Harioli^ Vatinnatore$. Insane persons were supposed to fore-
know the future; in which class were the Ceriti^ those rendered insane by Cera; the
Z/ymphcii, rendered BO by the water-nynnphs ; Lunatici, by the moon; Fanatidthy
the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane {Janum). In short many
of the Grecian arts of divination (cf. ^ 75) were practiced among the Romans.

3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among the Ro-
mans; perhaps, however, chiefi^r bv Greeks and other foreigners. Some passages in
Horace clearly indicate that macicai pretensions were openly avowed at Rome. Pliny
speaks of magic as a moRt fraudulent art, that has had sway in all the world. — The
Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power of fascinatinff
others (/a«ctfuif to), by darting an evil look upon them; which the (Greeks termed
BamMvlaifiL ^ 75. 6). To avert such malignant influences, sn amulet of some kind was
sometimes worn on the neck, culled feucinum (cf. P. II. $ 91. 2).

Sw jtrdhMiori* (m tited P. IV. t m. S.) »ol. »ik. |>. 70, oo — aaliqiw Bw^ltf loppawd to MpniH fh» twcinrtmii by th> wfl
mf.—F. Attatnaf Da lovidia •! Vncino Vctcma, la Ontmua, voL xiL-ClM. Joum. tcL nxvi. p. ISS, oa the BMcie of tb*
Giwki and tLoaum—U Aond; wr Maf**! (» the Mm. da P/niftlatf , Claiia de LU. tt Bmux JMa, i. 81— SofMntf and Stan.
cAord, La Magie, *e In fbo Mmn. Jhad. htter. rli. fS. sli. 49. a. Bor. Efiod. 8. aad IT.— Ate. Hiat Nat nx. i.-SolMrf*, Daa
SckaeoiOceultea^wiEaMlaMirlaMagia. Par. 1829. > vote, a

$ 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the priests, and
therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. Without noticing the various
changes in this, we may remark that Romulus, Numa, and Julius Cesar were
the authors of the principal methods of dividing and computing the year. The
month was divided into three parts by the Calends, Nones, and Ides, and in
computing the days of the month, the Romans reckoned backwards from these
three fixed points.

1 n. The day was reckoned fi-om sunrise to sunset. This space was divided into
twelve hours (Aorce) which of course were of diflferent length at the diflferent seasons of
the year ; hence the phrase hrra Aibemio, equivalent to hnu brevitsima, 1'he ni^ht
was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. 1. ^ 187), and also into four watches (vigUta),

The use of sun-dials {$olaria), and of water-glasses {cleptydra), seems to have been in-
troduced at a comparatively late period.

% The dUl is taid to have been invented at Laeedvmon in the time of Cyrus the Great. The
flrat one at Rome was set up 6. C. about SSO.^Tbe eUpfdra (cXct^^pa) wa* invented at Alex-
andria, and carried thence to Athene and afterwaidi, B. C. about 160, introduced st Rome. '* It
was formed by a vetiel of water, havinx a minute perforation in the bottom, through which the
water iesued (stealing out, xXlipis viojp) drop by drop, and fell into another venel, in which a

i^t body floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. Aa the water Increased

\xxrx

p.m. RELIGIOUS AFFAIKS. FESTIVALS. ^^i

in the reeeivinff veMel, the floating body rose, and by Us regularly Increasinf height Aimlshed
an approxliuatioD to a correct indication of lime." \Bigtlow*» Technology, p. 365.>— It was so
constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accommodated to the varying
length of the Roman hours. A servant was employed, whose business it was from time to time
to examine the water-clock, and report the hour to his master.

SMlbtMOMiBtortliBdiTwiowerHBteaBMMig the Rohmbi, the dajr, booOk aad year, (it «i QDd«> ChroMlogr ; eCP.LfflST,
n% 191-I9S.— To Ua referwcM thoc giffla we tdd DoMff, De Parlibia Nodis e( Di«i, *& is his JKlrim SekHfUn.

$ 229. The Roiaans had a multitade of festival ^ajs, set apart for the service
of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, banquets, and games ; these were
called dies fetti. The days called dies f(uli were those on which no assembly
of the people or senate was held, but the praetor administered justice ; days, on
which he could not do this, were termed nefiuti. Days, of ^hich only a part
of each could be appropriated to business, were called intercisi ,* those wholly
resigned to business, profeali. Such as were considered inauspicious were
called dies religion i among these they reckoned especially the first days after
the Calends, Nones, and Ides; which they named posiriaiani. The festival
days were termed also ferim^ diet feriati^ from tne cessation of common
business.

]. The Roman festivals were either public, observed by the whole nation iferim pwUte«),or
private, observed by families and individuals {ftritB private). Private festivals were held or.
days determined by the parlies interested ; bein^ designed to commemorate births, marriages,
deaths, or other important events in domestic history. The public included the /ert« Btaliva^
those of regular occurrence on certain fixed days; the /eria eoitc»ptvom, those held on days annu-
ally appointed by civil magistrates or by the priesthood (Jua pimtificium); and the /rrt« twfsra-
(ivtf, those held on special emergencies by command ofthe consul, the prsiors, or a dictator.
As above mentioned all common busihess was suspended on the public ferim, the sancity of
which was violated If the rtx awarorMm, or any of the fiamijUM^ saw any person at work. The
great number of the ferice and the length of their continuance sometimes interfered with the
proper discharge of the public affairs of the state. Marcus Aurelius ordained that two hundred
and tbirtv days of the year should be open for business, and the remniningdays might be ferim.
The festivals commonly had psrticular nnmes, but some were designated by a distinctive epi-
thet applied to the common name ; as, e. g. Ftria Latiiuft comroemoraiin? the alliance botween
the Romans and Latins ; Feria Stuteniivaf In seed-time, to pray for a good crop. — The ^Tundituf
were sometimes reclioned among the Feria; they were regular days on which the people from
the country assembled to expose their various commodities for sale, morket days ; called ^andivm,
because they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). — Ii was the business of the Pontificea
to prepare annually a register called Xalendttrium, or FmU EaUndartt^ or J%sri Socrt, in which
the days were marked in each month and distinguished according as they belonged to the differ-
ent classes above named ; and the various festivals were mentioned as they were to take place
through the year. The Ftuti Kalendares are to be distinguished from the Fasti Jinnales; the latter
were registers of the magistrates; of which the moat important were those termed FattiCoiuulares.

Hvtvi£, Ota RflligfoB der Rotuer.— A Hmpinian^ De Feetit Dietwe JwbeoniiB, GnBeoruin, RoBttoram, et Turannn. Tifar.
ISOa M.— Cmlim, Let FM^ai, id the JTcm. jtmd. huar. L 90.— Dt la Nmim, CaJendrier Romein, In the eeme Mm.te. vol. »vL
p. 8ia— C£ Farl Sayal Lot. OramnuBr.— .Serenl f recmcDto of Celendan ere given Id OrmriuM, vol. viiL^A CeleiMbir trom Fuilfli
Bal-Eoc^cloiiadM b g ivea in 9mft*'« Diet, of Aatiq— ReqwetlBf tbe Cokiuiarium PnmoHmgm, tee P. IV. § 1«1 C-lleqwet-
taf tbe FwUi JniMto or HiaUfriti, eee P. V. § SOS.

$ 230 /. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some of the
principal, in order of the months.

jAiffU4RY, 1st day. The festival /of Janus, on
the first day of tlie year, on which, in later
times, (he Consuls entered upon their office.
The presents customary on this dn^ were called
strenm; they were sent from clients to their
patrons, from citizens to the masistrates, and

from friends to one another. 9ih. The Jfgo-

aalfo, also in honor of Janus. — .-llih and 15th.
The Carmtntalia, to the goddess Carmenta,
an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander.
— ^95th. The 8e«wit(tius, or festival of seed,
accompanied with the JSmharvaliOy which dif-
fered i'rom the festival of the same name in
May ; on which they passed over the fields with

tbe animals to be slain in sacrifice. 30th.

The festiral of Peace (Pax), first established by

Augustus. Slst. The festival in honor of the

Penates, or household gods.

Pbbbuabv. 1st. The Luearia, in memory of
the asylum formed by Romulus, or of the re-

falia, to the Manes, accompanied with a solemn
expiation or purification of the city, called /s-
frruatie, whence the name of the month itself.
It continued fVnm the 1 8th to the end of the
month, during which time presents were car-
ried to the graves of deceased friends and rfla-
lives, and the living held feasts of love and re-

conciliation. Slst. TVnniaaita, to Terminus,

the god of boundaries.

March. On the first day, with which in
early times the year began, a festival to Mars^
on which the procession or war-dance of tb«
Salii was made (cf. $ 915) ; called also the fes-
tival of the shields ; it lasted three days.--—
6tb. FestoiM, diffierent from that held in June.
— -I7lh. Liberalia, to Bacchus, but different

fVom the Bacchanalia. I9th. QMaonatrta, to

Minerva, named from its duration of five days :
the last day called TubUustritm, because tha
trumpets used in sacred riles were then purl

fuge (lueus) of tbe Romans after the sack of ,iied. 23d. Hilaria, to Cybele. whose sacred

their city by Brennus.— This day was also dedi- j image was during it sprinkled and purified .

cated to Juno Sospita. tSth. Faunalia, in j called also Levatte Jlfsfm Oe6m.

honor of Faunus and the Sylvan gods, repeated , April. On the 1st day, P'eneralia, the festival

5th December. 15th. Lvperenlia^ to Lyraean of Venus., tn whom the whole month was dedl-

Pan(cr)316). 17th. Qatrtao/ia, to Romu- 1 cated. (Cf Sekm, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. ill.

las, deified by the name Quiriutts. 18th. Fs- p. 84). 5th. MegaUsha, to Cybelo, whoa*

31 X

242

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

prieitf, th« Gain (cf. 4 917), on this made their

procenion. ISib. Ctrealia, to Ores, attended

with games.^— 15. Fvntteidta^ to the goddess
Tell lis, for the purpose of averting a dearth or
scarcity, on occasion of which Nuiiia instituted
the festival ; each Curia furnbhed a pregnant

cuw ijorda) to be sacriflcfd to Tellus. Slst.

PaUlia, a rural, country festival to Paies, god-
dess of cattle. - SSd. Fimalia, repeated in Au-
gust, to consecrate to Jupiter the growth of the

vine in Italy. S3. Rohigalia^ to tha god Ro-

bicus, that he might protect the grain l^oni
blighting (a rubigint) S8th. FUralia^ to Flo-
ra or Chloris, attended with games (cf. ) S36).
30th. The festival of the PaUtime VatM, In-
stituted by Augustus.

May. On the first day, the Ftativul to the
Laru PrwttUeti and the ceremonies by night to
Btnta />««, performed by the vestals and wo-
men alone. Sd. CoaijMfalJa, to the Lares in

tlie public ways. 0th. £.€iRa(rta,totheLemu-

res, or wandering spirits of deceased ancestors
and relatives on the fiither's side (cf. P. II. ^^
110, 111). 15th. Futum MerealoHvM^to Mer-

garoes In honor of Man. IStb. To Diana.

17th. PortumnaUaj to Portumnns, the god

of harbors. IHih. Uonsualiat to Consus, the

sod of counsel or rather to Equestrian Neptune.
The seixure of the tSabine women was con»-

memorated the same day. SIst. *^inaU» (the

second), or festival of the vintage to Jupiter

and Venus. 23d. Vulcanalia,^ to Vulcan aa

the god of fire, for security sfainst conflngra-

tions. SSth. Opuoiuivui to Rhea, or Ops, or

fruit-bearing Earth.

Sbptbmbeb. On the 1st day, to Jupiter Mai*
m«el«s.^— 4tb. Lmdi Magui^ or Rumania in the
Circus, to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva; they

lasted from the 4th day to the ISth. 13th. The

ceremony of fixing a nail {clawit Jigendus) in
the temple of Jupiter, by a dictator appointed for

the purpose, to avert contagious pestilence.

S5lh. To Venus Otnetrix. 30th. JUeditrinalm,

for tasting new wine before the vintage ; that
this fesiivHi was sacred to a goddess of health,
named Meditrina, Is as doubtful as the existence
of the goddess herself.

OcTOBBB. lath. JIuffuHalia^ properly •games

cury, for merchants (cf. P. II. ( SO).' S3d. in honor of Augustus, instituted after the cloae

Kir/eano/io, to Vulcan, called also Tmbiluttria • nf his campaigns, particularly the Armenian,

from the purifying of the sacred trumpets.

JuRB. On the first day were several ffstl-
vals, to Dea Carna, Juno .Afoaefa, Mars Extra-

mKraMM, and Tempestas. 3d. Ihe festival

toBellona. llh. To Hercules. Oth. f^etta-

ba, to Vesta, in memory of the gift of bread to
men. Food was sent to the Vestals to be of-
fered to the gods ; and the asses, which turned
the mills, were decked with garlands and led

B. C. 19 or 90. 13th. Foa/tiiaiia, in which the

puhlic fountains were crowned with garlands.

15th. To Mars, chiefly a horse-race on the

Campus Martins, at the end of which a horse

was offered in sacrifice. I9th. The Jtrmilma'

trium, or rev lew -muster, celebrated only by
soldiers, and in full armor.

NovEMDBR. 13th. A feast dedicated to Jupf-
ter, Epulvm Jorit. 15th. Ludi PUbeii, in the

In procession. lOih. Matralia^ to Matuta, I theatre, or the circus; they were also frequent

celebrated by Roman matrons ; also a festival, ' ly held at other times not defined.

on the same da^, to Fortuna Firiba^ by women ; | Dkcbmbbb. 5ih. Faumalia^ liepl by the peo-

and to Coneordia. IStb. QuMfsatria ( par la), pie of the country, as the same in February

designed for the improvement and pleasure of I was by the inhabitants of the citv. 17th.

those, who had the care of the music In the ' Saturnalia^ one of the most famous Kstivals of

worship of the gods. lOth. Purifying of the Rome, originally limited to a single day, after*

temple of Vesta.*^19th. To SummanuMs 1. e. I wards extended over three, four, and more. It

probably to Pluto. S4th. Fortuna Fortis, for was a festival of leisure and general Joy, in

people of the lower classes. 30th. To Her- memory of the golden period in Italy under the

cules and the Muses. i government of Saturn. During it slaves were

July. On the first day the occupants of placed on a footing of equality with their mas-
hired houses changed their residence. 5th. ters. Many of the peculiar customs aud sports

Xiuii JlpoUiwarea^ with sacrifices. Oth. To i were similar to those of the Carnival, or Christ-
Female Fortune, in memory of Corioianus with- | mas Festival, of modern Rome. See CoUmuni*a
drawing his army from the city (Lie. il. 40). i Chr. Antiq. p. 435.— The work entitled Rama in

7th. To Juno Caprotlna, for young women. < tk* Jfinatsanth Centurj, vol. ill. p. 940. 19th.

15. To Castor aud Pollux. 93d. JWpta- i OpaJta, to the goddeas of Ops. ^Tbe Camfi-

naUa. ^35tb. AirMaiia, to the goddess Furlna. ' taiio, to the Lares of the crossways, were often

August. On the 1st dav a festival to the held shortly after the 8ati
goddess of Hope ; and gladiatorial sports and ; other months.

i Saturnalia, as well as in

$ 231. The public games {ludi) among the Romans, as well as amon(|r the
Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, were viewed as festival
occasions in honor of the gods. These games were usually at the expense of
the state, sometimes at the expense of individuals, particularly the emperors.
They were different in their character, as well as in the time and place of their
celebration. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a
time fixed or variable; many also arose from particular occasions; hence the
variety in distinctive appellations; e. g., ludi atalu imperativi, ifulauraliviy
voiivi, guifiquennala^ decennaleii, teculares, hutralea, &c. Names were given
also in reference to their character, and the place where they were celebrated ;
e. g., ludi ctreerues, eapiiolini, «eentW, piseaiorii^ iriumphaHif funebret. Only
the most famous of these games can here be noticed.

$ 332. The first to be mentioned are the Ludi dreefuei^ or by way of emi-
nence Ludi Magni, They received their name from the Circus Maximus, which
was not merely a laige free place, but, taken in its whole, formed a superb edi-
lice ; it was a kind of theatre, commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged
and adorned bv Julius Cesar as dictator.

1 u. Its breadth was more than a stadium, and its length was three and a half stadia
(9A8'^ f^et). All around it were seats (Jort) for spectators, so as to accommodate at
least ifO,000 iiersona. In the middle, extending lengthwisei was a wallj cidled fpttui

p.m. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 243

drcit 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 Btadium in length. At each end of the wall were
three pyramids on a single base, which were the goals (me/c), around which the horaea
and charioia turned. The wall had many other ornaments. I'he whole editice also
was highly ornamented ; it was altogether the largest of the kind, although there were
in Rome eight other places for races and eames, called CireL At one end were 12
openings or parts separated by walls, called earctres^ where the horses and chariots
stood waiting for the signal to start. [Not far froni the carcereg^ a whitened rope {jalba
linea) was drawn across the circus; one half of it marking the commencement, and
the other half the end, of the race.] Those who governed the chariots, were divicled
into certain classes {factiones or grefrea)y disiingusehed by dresses of difiereat colors.
The whole circus was dedicated to the god of the sun.

9. Pliny (Tliat. N. xxxv\. S4) •late« the number of perenni which the CIrcua Maximns was
capatile nf cniitafnifijr Hfi20O,fKIO; and the authority of Aiireliua Victor has been cited for the
number of 385.000.— Of the other mructiires of thi!« class the fnllowlne were the prIiicipHi : ihe
Cireat FUminins; the Ci cu3 JIlexAtadrinug ; the Cireua SalluBticus ; the CircMg Ftorialis^ or Va-
tieanus, finished hy Norn in a splendid style, and siKtialized as the scene where numbers of the
e»rly Christians suffered martyrdom under that empenir; the obelisk in the centre of the peris-
tyle of Rx. Peter wms taken from the spina of this circus ; the Cireua Caraeallip; the Cireiu Do-
siitM.—On the Via Appia there atill remains the ground plan, with part of the superstructure,
of a small circua, conunonly called the Cireiu of Caracalla.

GrmtiuB, »a ci!ed $ 197. I. vol. is. ; anJ PuUma, m there dtrd, vol. v.— O. L. BianeonU DiMrfikme dci Cirdil pirtioolinDeni*
di i|«bUo di CanoaU, *& Con sole C ^co. Rata. 17S0. foL— Aoitn, llie Circua on tlw Appiu Waj.— Smifik, Diet, of ADti:

3 K. The Ludi Circetucs were commonly held hut once a year ; sometimes they
were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in boih cases they were maintained at public
coat. The solemn procession which preceded them, pompa eirctn»u, moved from the
Capitol. The images of the eods were borne in splendid carriages or frames {in thetuts
etferculi9)t or on nipn's shoulders {in humeris), followed by a great train, on horseback
or on foot, with the combatants, musicians, &c. Sacred rites were then performed,
and the games opened. >

$ 233 tt. The gatnes or shows (fpeetaculn) in the Circu§ were of four kinds; chariot-
races, with two or four horses ; contests of agility and strength, snch as wrestling {lucta),
boxing {pufTxlatus)^ throwing the discus {tlisci jaetu$), leaping («a7< us), and running
{cur9U9)\ representations of sieges and of hattles on foot and on horseback, including
the LudM Troja ( Virff. J£n. v. 545) ; fighting of wild beasts ivenatio), — To describe
these particularly would exceed our limits. Many of the exercises, however, cor-
responded to those of the Greeks (cf. ^^ 78 — 83). The victors were rewarded with crowns
arc sometimes with rich gifts in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a
palm-braneht which he bore in his hand.

I. Wstov*liiac.&ornktoXVI.ftvietarioiiiiioMneliariolBer,wtlbihoptfmlnbisri|chlhBiid,udlbcrriMiak^
■ elonljr gtrd«l about lb* ehflrt and bodj.

Sf« anttkr, l» JeuK du Cirque, In tlw Man. di fJkad rf« Aucr. vol. xlv. y. 4m.—Monta, Bar !« saiflMm prososoM on hM
tea la Ciiquct, la lbs Uem. dt Vhutitut^ CI sua A'HM. H Lit. Jite. voL x. p. aeOl

2 ». At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibited, not in the
Circus; particularly the Naumachitrt or representations of naval battles. These ori-

S'nally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins or excavations made for
e purpose and filled with water, which were also called NaumachioB. The vessels
were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, slaves, or conquered foes, and many
lost their lives or were severcljr wounded. This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in
the Circus Maximus, water being introduced into it for the purpose.

3L Claudia* h nid (Tae. Ana n. M.-Ai^. Cbod. SI) le have exhibited a ni(aifte«it Ma-itibt oo lake PuciBw, la which thcrs
mru ilfly ibipi oa each ilda^ vrilb 19,000 eranUUnto (navmacMont).— RepreeeDtaiionaof naval battlca wm coaunoa ondsr tba
csperora, and are ooBmemoratad on tone of the inperial eoUrn.— See Sehrfftr^ De MlUtla MavalL

$ 334. The Ludi Saeculares, or centnrial gfames, were solemnized with much
ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly af\er the lapse of a century, but
sometimes a little earlier or a little later ; usually in Ihe month of April. For this
occasion loniir preparations were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted,
and a sort of {general parification or expiation of the whole city was previously
made. Sacrifices were offered to all the gods, those of the infernal world as well
as those of Olympos, and while the men attended banquets of the gods in their
temples, the women assembled for prayer in the temple of Juno. Thank-offer*
ings were also presented to the Genii.

1 u. After the sacrifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a large theatre on
the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor of Apollo and
Diana. On the second day the Roman matrons were collected to offer sacrifice in the
Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Diano
%va8 Mng in the temple of Palatine Apollo, by a select band of young men and virgins

24A ROMAN ANTIdVITIES.

of Patrician rank. The eannen gaculare of Horace was prepared to be thus sung, at
the command of Augustus, in whose reign the games were celebrated.

The fin( celebntioo look plMe in tbe reiga at Augwlut, B. C. 17 (Tke. Ann. xi. 11 ] ; tbc Mcond in tbn f«i«n of Cltadiot, A. D. 4T
(Ami. Claud 2l) ; ihe Ibird in the reign of Domitiu, A. D. IB ; nnd lb* lut lo tbc r«i«B of FhUippn^ A. D. 248, Just one tboiHtad
j'cui afler the buildinf of Borne.— €C Hartung^ Die Belig. d. BOin.— On Ibe chnnolofy of Uwte fuaet^ Oom. Jammd^ xviL Kl.

2 u. To the religious solemnities, which were held for the purpose of securing the
safety of the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered
this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were pantomimes, histrionic
plays, and the feats of jugglers (pr(0«/f^tore«), persons who seemed to ily in the air
Ipetauristcp), rope-dancers ifunambuli)^ and the liite.

Tbe rope-dancer (raXe/Mrif;, 0-;|f«v0/Mr9S) ■eene unuillf to Imve been ■ Greek (/u« ill. 80). Sone of tbe petalinp Ibnod at
Harcnlaneum rahibit funamtuU (riacins Ibrmselvn in a (rent vnrietjr of altitude^ in the character of baccbaiwk, Mlyn, aad tbe
like.— See the woik etfled Antieki ^^colano (cited P. IV. ) 243. 2), vol. Ui.-A few of Ibe tgana are given In SmUA, DicL of
Antiq. p. 434.

$ 235. The gladiatorial shows, Ludi GladicUortt, were greatly admired in
Rome. They were usually called Munera^ as they would impart pleasure to
the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of regard to whom they were
held ; in the latter view they were appointed, e. g. at the funerals, or in com-
memoration, of tbe deceased.

1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out o£ the ancient
custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemniiies in honor of the departed. At
Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals; afterwards ihey were given by
the ^diles, Pretors, Qusstors, and Consuls, in the amphitheatres, especially on (he
festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinqiiatria.

The gl&d'mionigladiatorfa, ^ovo/iaxo.) were supported at public expense. Their resi-
dence or place of instruction was called ludus^ a name often given to any arena or
building, where such exercises were learned or practiced; their overseer was termed
proairator, and their instructor, Innista. In the public Fpeclacles, the combat was often
carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged his life of
ihe crowd of spectators. The number of combatants was originally indeterminate, and
until fixed by CoBsar. The gladiators bore various names according to their armor and
their mode of fighting.

2. The gladiators termed secutoret were armed with helmet, shield, and sword.
They were usually matched with the reliarii, who were dressed in a short tunic with
nothing on the head, bearing in the left band a three-pointed lance (Jridens or fuBcimt),
and in the right a net (rc/e)in order to throw it over the head of their adversary. Tbe
mirmillones were armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their
helmet, and were usually matched with those termed thraees. The essedarii fought
from chariots, and the fquites on horseback ; the undahalm wore helmets which covered
their eyes, and according to some writers, fougbt on horseback. Several other classes
are named.-— It is to be ob8er\'ed that the term gladiatoreg inclucied those who fought
with beasts as well as those who fought with men ; although the former were termed
distinctively hestiarii.

3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves; but afterwards*
firee citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena.— An advertisement
or public notice {libellvs) was put up by the person (editor) who intended to exhibit a
gladiatorial show, with an account of the combatants and sometimes a delineation or
picture annexed. On the dav of exhibition the gladiators were led along the arena in
procession, and then matchea for the contest. \Vhen a gladiator lowered his arms, it
was a sign of being vanquished ; his fate depended on the spectators ; if ibev wished
him to be saved, they pressed down their thumbs ; if to be slain, they turned up their
thumbs ipcllicem premebant or ver(ehant). If a vanquished gladiator was spared, he
was said to receive his discharge, which was termed miitsio. hence an exhibition in which
the lives of the vanouished were not to be saved was said to be xine minfione. — Vast
numbers of men ana of brute animals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the
triumph of Trajan over the Daoians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000
animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully sup-
pressed until the time of Honorius.

In Plate XXX. are Mvpral fifrnres fllntitrating thfs lubjeet, which are taken from sculptures
on the tomb of 8catiru8 found at Pompeii. Fisr. 1 represpiits an eqiieittrian combai ; the anda-
hat<n^re clothed in the short cloak (ifiducv1a\ and artncd with the lance, round buckler {par7Ra\
Itelinet with a visor coverinf the face, and a sort of mnil on the riirht arm.— Two gladiators on
foot appenrin fifTures Snnd 4. Each has the helmet and lite ynfr/i^arv/Mw, a short apron fixed
above the hips by a frirdle. Fig. 3 has armor on the rifrhi arm. and holits the smtvm, or tonf
shield ; on his rieht leg is a kind of buckin, and on his lt>ft the ocr€a or irreave ; the rest of the
body is naked ; he has lowered his shield as helns vanquished, and raided his hand to implore
mercy of tbe spectators. F«g. 4 is behind him, waiting for the signal from them, whether to
»pare bis antagonist or strike the denth-biow ; he carries a smaller i>hield, hits armor upon his
thicK* and the high greaves upon his legs.— Fii; 6 presents a gronp of four gladiators; two artf
/e2i#i0cr» («eeatorM), and two met-vun iretiarii). One of tbe aeenUrts is wounded in the !•(•

PLATE XXX,

X*^

246 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. *

thifh, and arm, and, having In vain implored mercy nf the apectalnrp, he bends hla knee appa-
rently to receive from the sword of his comrade a more speedy death than would be likely from
the trident of bis aninKonisi retUriuat who pushes him and seems thus to insult his conquered
rival. The other reiiarius is waiting to fight in his turn with the Btr.utor who ix hastening to
end the suflferings of his wounded companion. The letter* against two of the figures are the
sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by them oq
the arena. The Fig. 8, with a lance in each liand, is from a group on the same tomb representing
a young heMiariuf preparing himself to contend in Ihe arena. — Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on
this tomb, representing a bull frantic with rnge, with a lance driven through hia breast, and
rushing towards the man by whom he is wounded.

Sm ATasoifl, as cited P. IV. \ 843. 2.— PBmjMii. p V)\, u cited P. IV. IH. I. Por ninal* dvluU rapeerioc (ladiaton, ef. /.

i.4|MJw, Satamlia, ia his WttrttM AaL 1637. 6 vola. fbl.

J 236. The TAtdi Florales were unitpd with the festival of the gfoddess Flora,
held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were insiittited at Rome, B. C. 24 ;
afterwards they were discontinued for a period, but were renewed a^in in con-
sequence of a sterility of fruit, which was viewed as the punishment for their
omission. They lasted from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d
of May; no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged in the celebration wore
garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often descended
to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing were also formed ;
and the adilea curules, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities
of peas and beans among the populace in the Circus.

$ 237 /. There were other games or sports (/adt), which we may just men-
tion here.

The Ludi Megalensea, in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with
shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments imutitare) between persons of the
higher ranks. — The Ludi CereaUs in the Circus, in the memory of the rape of Pro-
serpine, and the consequent sorrow of her mother Ceres. — The Mariiale^, dedicated
to Mars Ultor, or the avenger. — The ApjUinareSj in honor of Apollo, and generally
scenical.— The Capitolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his preserving the Capitol from
the Gauls. — The Plebeii, in commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the re-
covery of freedom. — The Consualvt^ in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the
seizure of the Sabine women.— The Litdi Augustales {Yxfiturrn^ and 'Aw}* tmiXw), in
honor of Augustus. — The Lwii Piscatoriit held on the^ixth of June, near the Tiber,
in behalf of tne lishermen. — Among the games occasioned by vows and called ludt
votivi, the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in war ;
among which may be ranked those already mentioned (i 231), the guinquennalrs, de-
cennedeB, 6lc given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class
called extraordinarily belonged such as were held at funerals, called Ludi Fundtra ;
and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age called
Ludi Juvenales.

$ 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dramatic {ludi
scemct) and gladiatorial, thetUrtB and ampitheaireswere used. — In the first ages,
theatres were constructed merely of wood, and were taken down after bein? used.
Afterwards they were built of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor.
Their constroction was similar to that of Greek theatres ; one side or end had
. the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was rec-
tangular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was that built
B. C. 59 by the edile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, partly of marble, and so
capacious that eighty thonsand spectators could sit m it. The theatres of
Pompey and Marcel 1 us were also very large and celebrated ; the latter in part
still remains.

1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf. P. IV. ^ 235), consisted of three parts;
the 8cena, orchentra^ and covm; but the two latter are sometimes included under one
(the cavea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage
(or fcena) ; and the rows of seats in the orchestra were occupied by the senators,
foreign ambassadors, and especially distinguished personages. The next fourteen
rows of the cavea were assigned to the equites, and the rest of the people. Women
occupied the portico surrounding the whole, by an arrangement of Augusins. — The
stage, or portion allotted to the performers, had several parts distinguished by name t
one part was that to which the term tcena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a
whole) more appropriately^ belongs, the scene or scenery ; the part sometimes concealed
by a curtain {aulmum), which was fastened not at the top but at the bottom, and, when
it waf necessary to hido the scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called
exostra) ; columns, statues, pictures, and various ornaments of the most magnificent
character were exhibited, according to the nature of the plays. Th^ vostscenium was
% place behind the scene, where the actors changed their dresses, and: the proscenium

p. in. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AMPHITHEATRES. 247

was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when
speaking was termed pulpitum (Xoyeiw, cf. % 89).

A pinn of the Roman theatre b given in our Plate XL1X. flg. 9. The upper half of the circle
BHBIf \9 the orchestra; the circle i» prenented complete with the four equilatrial triangiea in-
■cribed, in order to show the manner of determining the places for the scena^ the posUceniynu
and the ettnei ; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall severally on the enda of
the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits required ; the diameter
(HH) of the orchestra was usually one-third (or more) of the whole diameter of the theatre.
The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of the orchestra.

2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans are mentioned
particularly in another part of this work ; see P. V. ^^ 308-320. — Among the musical
instruments employed were the flute, and the lyre or harp, and in later times the hy-
draulic or^an, sometimes called cortina. '1 he common accompaniments of comedy
were the flutes termed tibics dextra or Lydla:, and tibia sinistra or Serrana or Tynat;
the terms pares and impares are also applied to them. There has been some disa^ree-
ihent as to what these terms mean. It is most commonly supposed that the musician
used two flutes at once or a double ilute ; that the sinvttra had but few holes and
sounded a sort of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when
these two were united they were termed impares^ and took the other names because
one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dextra or two
nnistra were unhed and played upon by the musician, they were called pares.

A paiotlnK bond at PMapcii Ycprcsenl* i flote-ptover Mewing opon th« dovUc flat* ; mb our Pble XXYI. fl(. a, auid ef. $ 180. 8.
—The w of the double flofe u Men also in Halt XLIX. fig. B, and in Plate XXIX.— Aitfifv, Die ErllDduns der Flote, in vol. iL
ef mtland't Atlbcbee MiHeaai.^4. Mmutms. De Tibib Vetemm, Id UgoUma^ vol. nuii. aa cited f 197.

3. Masks in great variety were used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian ;
and were probably similar to those of the Greeks. Cf. ^89. 2.

Serenl naaka are repnatnted ra Iba boanlifvl moiaic given in Plate XLIX. fl(. fi B.— On tbeatrei, playi, nanka, fte. cf. Jhrnanff,
Lm Jeax acenlqiiH ehes lea Ramnina, In the Man. de Phutitut, C I aiie d'AM. tt Lit Jne. vol. viii. p. 850.— Duniep, aa cited
P. V. ; SM. a— Work rtrlcd PamptiU cited P. IV. § 28a-/. L. Falnem*, De Ladii Scenicia, in Onnavim, voL viii.— AMtgw,
Plmlai. de Penonia Mcnicta, vulfD Larvia. Vinaric, ITM. 4.-^Franciteo d* FtBoroni, Diaaartatio de larvis acenicii, ftr. Rom. (th»
itried Maaqaca of tbe Booiaoa). Bom. 178& 4. with platea.— HmnAn, Snr lea Maaqiiei, kc in Use Mem. dt Pjtead. an butr.
*aL iv. p. 132.

$ 239. The fiTaiampkiihealre'wss built B. C. 45 by Julius Caesar, but merely
of wood. The emperor Titus erected the first of stone, the ruins of which,
under the name of the Colosseum or Coliseum (from a colossal statue of Nero, which
stood near it), constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome.
The form of ampitheatres was oval or elliptical. They were generally used for
gladiatorial shows and the fl^htinff of wild beasts. 6oth theatres and amphi-
theatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods.

1. The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined; thus Curio
actually formed one, perhaps the first ; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions of this
sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, in which dra-
matic plays were performed in the morninc ; then by machinery for the purpose he
suddenly wheeled them round so as to look at each other, thus constituting an amphi-
theatre, and presented a show of gladiators in the afternoon. The term arena is some-
times put for the amphitheatre, but means properly the place in the centre where the
gladiators fought, and was so called from its beine covered with sand. The arena was
surrounded With a wall, guarded with round wooaen rollers turning in sockets, to pre-
vent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was completely surrounded
with a ditch filled with water (euripus). Next around the arena was the podium, raised
12 or 15 feel above it, projecting over the wall and protected- by a sort of parapet. On
this gallery or terrace, which was wide enough for two or three rows of moveable
seats, senators, ambassadors, and persons of special distinction were seated ; here also
the emperor had his seat (suggestus, or cubiculum). Above the podium were the fixed
tieata(gradus)t divided into stories or sloping portions called maniana. The first, next
to the podium, included fourteen rows of marble seats appropriated to the Equites. In
the second and third maniana^ were seats occupied by tne people and called popularia.
The maniana were separated by passages iprachictiones) runnmg in the direction of the
seats ; there were also passages (scala) running transversely ; thus were formed several
compartments in the shape of wedges {cnnei). The women, after they were allowed
to attend the amphitheatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to the whole of
these, and servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction of the
amphitheatre was committed to an officer styleaFi/Zirw* amphitheatrij and persons,

called designaloret, were employed to superintend the seating of the spectators. By

a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in secret tubes around these
structures, and scattered over the audience, sometimes from the statues which adorned
the interior. — ^The Romans had also a remarkable contrivance for covering the vast
area embraced in such a building; an awning was suspended, by means of ropes
stretched across the building and attached to masts or spars, which rose above the sum-

248 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

xxiit of the walla. Near the top of the outer wall of the Coliseum there are above 200
projecting blocks of stone, wiih holes cut to receive ihe ends of the spare, which ran up
through holes cut in the cornice.

i. In oiir Plate XXX. fiff. 7, ia a plan of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. Iti extreme lengthy
from oiitoidH to outside of the exterior arcade, ia 430 feet ; lis frreatevt breadth la 335 feet. It
con^istf chiefly of the rough maaonry called opus ineertumy with quoini of aqiiared iione, and
aome trifling restorarione of rubble. This rude irmpa waa probably once covered wlih a facing
of hewn alone.— At each end of the ellipae are entrancei into the arena for the combatanta;
through these alao the dead bodiea w«re dragged out into ihe spoliarium. On the podium were
found several iimcriptiona containing the namei of the dunmvira who had presided j there were
aUo fresco-pHintings, which aoon disappeared on being exposed to the atinnsphere. There are
twenty -four row* of aeais ; and the building, aa has been estimated, would accommodate above
10,000 persons sitting, besides such as might stand.

CwiUc d* Caybu, ThMtn ttt Cnrio, in lb* Mtm. Atad. lutar xxiil. 969.— C£ Pomptii, u cilad P. IV. \ 296. 1. Ob nrieoi

rtisliof niint of auipbitheatrw, StnarC't DkL of Arehltwtura. LmuL 1SS2. 3 tola. 8.-4. Gdr«ipn, Uitlorj of Uw AactMtl AapU
thntrw, truaiatcd fniu tbs Ilaiiu of Maffti. Lood. 173(V 8.

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS.

$ 240. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of Rome it is
necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of its history ; particularly
to notice the three different forms of government which were successively es-
tablished, the regal, consular, and imperial. The first continued 244 years to
B. C. 510; the second 479 years, lo B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the
overthrow of the western empire, A. D. 476, and afterwards in the eastern.—
Under the Kings the government was of a mixed character, and we should esti-
mate the powers of the kings by a n»ference to the early kings and princes
among the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), rather than according
to more modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogatives of
the Roman kings were the control of the religious worship, the superintendence
of the legislation and of judicial decisions, and the assembling of the senate and
the people; yet even in the exercise of these prerogatives, they were in most
cases much restrained by the part which the senate and the pebple had in the
public concerns.

1 u. I'he enpigns of re^al dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, and consisted
of a golden crown, a chair («c/ia) of ivory, or highly ornamented with ivory, a scepter
iif the same material, with an eagle on its exiremiiy, a while robe (foija) with purple
embroidery or borderings, &c. . a body of twelve attendants {licloretn), who went before
the king, carrying each a bundle of rods {fasces) with an ax (securis) in the middle.

In Our Plate XXXI. fig. I, is a cut representing the aecuris bound up in the fasces. The fiiticea
ire often represented on the consular coins.— Fig. 3, is a group of royal scepter«, drawn fmm
Kgyptian ninniiments ; showing various fornis and ornaments at the extremity. Cf. Plate XI.
ti^. 1, and fig. 3, where scepters are seen in the hands of Jupiter and Juno.

2 u. The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too long for
the probable reigns of only seven kings, which is ilie number specified in the traditions
ie.'»peciing this period. But it riiust be remarked that iho whole of the early Roman
history is at least uncertain, and is by some considered as purely fabulous. Cf. P. V. a 510.

§ 241. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution became aristocratical.
Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the authority and influence which
the kings had possessed, and 'called Consuls (consules). No particular age was
originally requisite for this office, but a law (texannalis) was enacted 180 B. C,
that it should be held by no person under forty-three. Those, who sought
the office, were called candidati^ from their peculiarly white shining robe {tosa
Candida). The election took place, in the assembly of the people, voting by
Centuries, usually towards the end of July or the beginning of August. From
that time until January of the following year, the person chosen was called con"
xul d€si gruUus, ^nd then he entered upon his office under many soleinuities.
The two consuls had equal power. At first, both were chosen from the patri
cians ; afterwards, however, one was often taken, and sometimes both, from the
plebeians.

1 u. Their badges of office were the same as those of the kings, excepting the golden
rrown, and the robe with purple ornaments; the latter was allowed them on certain
public snleinniiies, as e. g. a triumph.

2 tt. The duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices, assembling the senate,
declaring the voles, among which they first gave their own, in proposing business to

p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PRJETORS. ADILES. 249

the lenate and the people, fijdne the comitia, appointing the judges, and preparing de-
clarations of war. They were also usually commanders of the army, and were required
to attend to all its wants, and inform the senate of all important occurrences. After
completing the year of their office they wer^ usually proconsuls or governors of pro-
vinces. The power of the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution
of the office of dictator and tribunes, and partly by the law which authorized appeals
from the decisions of the consuls to the people. Under the emperors nothing more
than the mere name remained ; they were merely the agents to execute the imperial
will, to whom a few privilegres were secured. In the later ages also, their number was
increased, and the term ot continuance very short. The office was preserved until
A. D. 541 (after the overthrow of the western empire, cf. P. I. ^ 214. 6), when it was
conferred upon the reigning emperor for hfe.

^ 242. The issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C 48, between Pompey and Cesar,
prepared the way for introducing the imperial government ; which was established in
the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. The government
now became in fact, a military monarchy ; although the first emperors adhered, in form,
to the old usages and customs in a great degree. But under Tiberius, the immediate
successor of Augustus, the real nature of the change began plainly to appear, and under
succeeding emperors became more and more obvious. As the emperors concentrated
in their own persons many of the offices of the state, and various new offices were
created for adherents and partizans, the whole system of government was at length
turned into a grand scheme for individual aggrandizement and luxury.

DtlaBUUarie, oa the BanaB GoftrBOital mtdw lb* Enperon, hi the Mem. And. hutr. vol six. 9S7,ftBd xxL B9, pewwof
Empcftm ; «oL uiv. Ml, power of Coonilt} foL xv. S98, ot Tnbiw«i xxvii. 498, of SeoM.>OiMlJMif, 0«Kbkht« dw Hom.
Halle, IS40.

§ 343. Prmtor was in early times the name for any magistrate, signifying
merely an OTerseer, superintendant, or leader (from prmire). But, in the year
B. C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer appointed to attend to the
administration of justice. The Praetor was at first chosen from patricians,
when the consulship was communicated to the plebeians. Two Pretors were
chosen after the year B. C. 243, one to attend to the business of the citizens
{Prmtor urbanus)^ the other the business of strangers (Pratur peregrinwl).
Afterward there were four Pretors, and six, th.en ten, fourteen, sixteen, and eyen
eighteen, until Augustus, it seems, limited the number to twelve.

1 u. The dignity of the city-Pnetor was next to that of Consul, and his principal
business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal (in or pro tnbunali), a building
appropriated to the purpose in the Forum (^ 261). I'he Proetor on entering upon his
office, always publishea a statement of the rules and principles by which he should be
guided in his trials and decisions ; this was called his edict {edictum Pratoris). The
usual form in giving his decisions was do, dieo, addtco.-^ln the absence of the Consul,
the city-Prsptor took his place : he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Co-
mitia ; he had the care also of some of the great public games. — The insignia of the
PriBtor were the toga prat ext a, a sword and a Bpe&r (glad i us el hasta), and an atten-
dance of six lictors. In the provinces the PropraBtors had similar rank and authority,
in the same manner as the Proconsuls took the place of Consuls.

2. Besides the general edict above mentioned, the Prict or published particular
edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predecessors were
termed tralatitia; those framed by himself, nota. An edict published at Rome,
edictum urbanum; in a province, provinciale; sometimes named from the province, as
edictum Sicilienae. Other magistrates (honorati) published edicts also. The law de-
rived from all the various edicts was termed jus konorqrinm; this term or phrase, in
later times, was applied to a collection of Prstor's edicts regularly arranged by order
of the emperor Haorian ; the same was also called edictum perpetuum,

BuuiMrd, Sar lee C^lits dei iMfklralB Romeio*, JWnn. Aead. Inter, vol. xxxix. 979, edicts of Cownis ; toI. zli p. !• of Prwton;
xlii. 149, of MA\\t%\ xlv. 489^ of Prcfecti.— A E. Sthradm, Die PrOloriMbeo Edicte. Wein. 1816.— Jbin, Dm Aonncbe PruaW
reebl, kc Leipi. 183&

$ 244. JSEdiles were the magistrates, whose principal duty was the care of the
buildings {adea). They were of two classes, plebeii and curulea, two of each.
The former were created first, B. C. 493; the latter, B. C. 266. At a later
period, Julius Caraar added two others, called Cereaks who had the oversight
of the stores of grain and provision. In the Roman provinces, also, there were
iBdilps whose office was usually but for a year. — The office seems to have con-
tinued until the time of Constantine the Great.

1 u. The Mdilcs Pleheii had originally the care of the public and private iuildings :
and were required to moke arrangements for the public games, see to the prrsrp'stv^a
32

250 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

of the public roodst regulate the markets, prove the justness of weights and measures,
and in short attend to the police of the city.

2 u. The MdiUs Curules were distinguished from them by the toga prestextOf and
the sella airulis. Thev were at first taken solely from the patricians, but afterwards
also from the people. Their chief care was of the great public games. They had also
the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, which always belonged to the

Elebeian ^diles, with whom the Curules probably shared, without disiinctioo, the
usiness of the police.

For lb« hnlorr, dutin, Ac of Um XdUm, M SeAtitof , D« BaoMmniiB JBdilibw. Bcgloa. 1828. &

§ 245. Of the TVibunes there were different kinds. The Tribunes of the
people {tribuni pkbis) were the most remarkable. The office originated from
the general disanection and secession of the plebeians, B. C. 493. The number
was first two, then five, finally ten. One ot them always presided at the Cora-
itia for electing tribunes. Their proper object was the protection of the peoj^le
against the encroachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain this
office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian families. In
the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Senate, but had their seats
before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard all the deliberations, and
could hinder the passage of any decree by the single word vefo. By the Atinian
law, B. C. 131, it was decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Sena-
tors. Their power and influence constantly increased, although it was confined
to the city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which they could not be
absent over night.

1 u. The Tribunes had no lictors, nor any insignia of office, except a kind of beadles
called viatoreSt who went before them. Their persons were regarded as inviolable.
Sylla abridged their power ; he took from thorn the right, which they had exercised, of
assembling the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments iplebitcila) bit^ding
upon the whole nation, and left them only the power of their negative or interceseion
iintercedere). Their authority, however, was afterwards elevated again, but under
Julius Caesar it was small ; it became still more insignificant under the emperors (cf.
^ 242), who appropriated to themselves the tribuniiial power, so that the tribunes an-
nually elected nad but merely the name and shadow of it. The office was abolished
in the time of Constantine the Great.

9. The office of the Military TVihunu waj highly imporunt, but It not ranked aroonf the
permanent otficei. Cf. $ 5M8.

$ 246. The Quastors were among the earliest magistrates of Rome, first ap-
pointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by the people. They
were charged with receiving and managing the revenues, and with the scrutiny
of certain kinds of bloodshed. Those for the city were called QusMiorea urhani;
those for the provinces, Qutetiores provinctales ,• and those for the examination of
capital offences, Quaoiiores rerum capitaiium, or parricidit. Originally there
were but two, afterwards four, and then eight; Sylla raised the number to
twenty, and Julius Caesar to forty.

1 ». The Qua&stors had also the over&ight of the archives, the care of foreign sm-
Dassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of respect publicly
authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. They were at first
taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from the Plebeians.

Under the emperors there was a kind of quasstors, called qvattores eandidtai^ who
were, properly speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or secretaries, and
were afterwards called juri$ interpretei, precum arbilri, &c., from their employment.
Still later there was another kind, of considerable importance, styled QtUBttores palatii,
or Maeistri oficiorum.

Z. The age reouisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by An-
//usms to 22. The office was one of the first steps to preferment in the commonwealth,
although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls.

DodwO, de QuMtune oteenda teaipan l^timo, in hit /Vabtt Acai. p. Sfli, u eitad P. V. ( 643. t,-^WUttr, GcMhichte dm
Pon. Rachtti

$ 247. The office of the Ceruora (Cenaores) was established at an early period,
B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their office originally for five
years, but afterwards only a year and a half. Their duties were various ; the
following were some of the principal ; to take the census of the people, an ac-
curate amount of the age, property, and descent of each head of a family, to
divide the people into their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution,

p. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. 251

to decide the taxes of each person, to enroll those who were obligated to military
seryice, to make account ot the revenues in the provinces, to inspect the morals
of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, to attend to contracts
respecting public works, such as streets, bridges, aqueducu and the like.

1 u. The censors were authorized to inflict marks of disgrace (nota eensoria^ ignominid),
from any evtJence and for any cause, which appeared to them suiiable. The luxury
of the Romans, which in laier times became so excessive, was considerably restrainecl
by the censors. In order to escape the censorial rebukes or punishments, the office
seems to have been left vacant for some time.

'Z. I'he censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the title of
Pr<pfeetu9 moruniy afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Augustus also assumed
the power, although be declined the title. The same was done by several of his suc«
cessors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, when the corruption of morals was
ux> great to allow any magistracy or power of the kind.

Ot Fakn, Ob the Rooua Cmmon, In tto Mtm-Jload. Inaer. toL i. p. n.-Niibulti't HU. of Bone, vol. U. p. 890^ ad.FbU. ISSSb

^ 248. The Roman magistrates were variously divided. A common division was
into 0R0I17ARY and extraordinary {Magittratus Ordinarii and Exlraordhtarii). The
diief of the former have been noticed : Consuls, Praetors, ^diles, Tribunes of the
people, Quaestors, and Cen8or8.-^The chief of the extraordinary magistrates (whose
office was not permanent, but occasional, being necessary only m particular circum-
stances) were the following; Dictator, Decemvirs, Military Tribunes, Praefecl of the
City, and Interrex.

1 u. The first Dictator was created on occasion of the same sedition or insurrection
which occasioned the appointment of tribunes of the people ($ 245) ; and similar dis-
turbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies occasioned the appointment
of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they were appointed for less important reasons,
e. g. for regulating the public games and sports in the sickness of the Praetor, not by
the people, but bv one oi the Cfonsuis. The Dictator was indeed always appointed by
the consul by order of the people or senate, and must be a man of consular rank. The

Sower of the Dictator was very great, in some respects supreme. War and peace, and the
ecision of the most important affairs, depended on him. Citizens, who were condenmed
to death by him, could appeal to the people (cf. Liv. viii. 33). The power and office of
the Dictator was limited to six months. He could not appropriate without consent of
the senate or people any of the public money. As commander of the army, he was
confined to the limits of Italy. No one ever abused the power of this office so much
as Cornelius Sylla. Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, and after
his death the dictatorship was abolished. It was, however, ofiTered to Augustus, who
refused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power.

9. Plutarch and Polybfua state that the Dictator was nttended by twenty-four lictnrs ; but in
Ihn epitome of the 80ih hook of Llvy, Sylla is said to have unwarrantably assumed this number
{KennUU P> 1^). The Dictator appointed (usually trom among those of consular or pnetorian
dignity) an ufBcer, styled MagisUr MKitum, whose business was to command the cavalry, and
execute the orders of the Dictator; out this officer was sometimes appointed by the senate, or
the people; be was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the order
of the people.— Sometimes a Consul, or other existing magistrate, was invested with the power
of Dictator, by decree of the senate (as quid dHrimnUi capiat respubliea),

3 u. The discontent of the people under the use, which the Consuls made of their
power, led to the creation of a new office in the year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri^
with consular authority ideeemviri corisulari potestatet s. legibus fcrendis). They were
appointed for the special purpose of forming a code of laws. This gave rise to the laws
of the twelve tables (cf. i 265). As they soon began to abuse their great power, the
office was abolished, B. C. 449, and that of Consul restored.

4 u. From the same cause (the popular discontent) originated the office of Military
TribMnes itribunimilUumconsulan potesfo/e), who, in the year B. C. 445, were ap-
pointed in the place of Consuls; but were dismissed after three months. Originally
thejr were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians ; afterwards the number
varied, sometimes three, sometimes four, six, or eight ; sometimes military tribunes and
sometimes comj^uIs were elected, as the plebeian or the patrician interests prevailed,
until the year R. C. 366, when the plebeians were quieted by the choice of a consul
from among themselves.

5 tt. The Froefect of the city (Prafectun urbt) was the officer to whom the Consuls in
their absence, especially in war, intrusted the charge of the police. Under tbe emperors
this became a regular and permanent office of great influence.

6. The Interrex was an officer created to hold elections when there M'as no consul oi
magistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn from the thle of the
temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there was a vacancy in the
throne under the regal government.

^ 249. Less important occasional maffistrates were the following ; the Pratfecitu
anwmm, cltarged with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases of scarcity : tbe

252 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

Quinqueviri mefuariit whose chief busmesa was to reduce public ezpenaes (minuendig
publicit sumtibus); the Quinoueviri muris turributique reficiendis, to see to repair* in
the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri (sdibus sacris reficiendit, to repair the sacred
buildings; Triumviri wumetales, having charge of the mint; Triumviri noctvmit to
superintend the nightly watch ; Duummri navales (cUutis omandtB reficiendteque causa),
for equipping and repairine the fleet, &c. — Some of these, however, were not magistrates
in the proper sense, but tney were chosen fi'om among the most respectable men.

The servants or attendants of ma^trates were called in general apparitore*; under
which were included scribse, notani, actuarii, accensi, coactores, praecones, interpre-
tetes, lictores, viatores, &c. — The Camifex was the executioner or hangman,

$ 250. Besides the magistrates vhich have been nained, permanent or
occasional, there were yarious others whose authority pertained to the provinces
of Rome, provinciaij magistrates. These were in part such as have been
named. Among them were the proconsuls, propretors, proqusstors, the legates,
conquisitors, £&.

ProcoTuuls were ehber (1) such as being consuls had their office prolonged beyond
the lime fixed by law ; or (2) such as were raised from a private station to govern some
province or to command in war; or (3) such as having been consuls went, immediately
on the legal expiration of their consulship, into provinces assigned to their charge under
the commonwealth ; or (4) such as were appointed governors of the provinces under
the empire ; as all these were called proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly
belonged to the third of these classes. — The senate decided from year to year what
provinces should be consular ; and then the consuls, while only designali (cf. ^ 24 1), agreed
oy lot which of them each should take on the expiration of hie consulship. A vote of
the people afterwards conferred on them the military command in their provinces. Their
departure to their provinces and rettirn to the city was often attended with great pomp.
They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military, but it was limited to a
year, and they were liable to a rigid trial on their return ; the offences most commonly
charged were (1) crimen peeulaius, ill U9e of the public money, (2) majestatis, treachery
or assumption of powers belonging to the senate or people, and (3) repetundarum^ ex-
tortion or oppression towards the inhabitants.

The Proprators were such as, after their prastorship, received provinces, in which
for a year tney had supreme command, usually both civil and miHtary. Their creation,
administration, and responsibility were similar to those of the Proconsuls ; only they
had but six Kctors instead of twelve, and the pnetorian provinces were usually smaller
than the consular ; cf. ^ 260. 3. (4). The Legati were the chief assistants of the Pro-
consuls and Propraetors. The number depended on the rank of the chief officer, and
the circumstances of the provinces. They at length obtained important authority as

military commanders. One (fuastor or more attended each Proconsul or Pr<n)nfi-

tor. His business ^"as to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the
army. Proquaestors were such as the chief officer appointed femporarily, on the ab-
sence or death of the provincial Quaestor (cf. ^ 246). The duties of the Quaestor were
assigned under the emperors to the officer sty led Procumlor C<e«arur.— The con^ui'
Bitores were inferior officers not properly civil, who were employed to raise soldiers,
and by force if necessary.

§ 251. We may notice here the division or elastifieation of ike people, which
had throughout an important influence on the government. — ^At the beginning,
Romulus divided the city itself and the whole people into three tribes, and each
of these into ten Curia. The tribes were the Rhamnentis, consisting of native
Romans, the Taiiensis, of Sabines, and the iribua Lueerum, of all other foreigners.
— Servius Tullius altered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 of the city
Qribus urbanae)^ and 26 for the territories {tribus rusiicss). The latter at length
gained the precedency of the former, and were considered as more honorable.
Five tribes were added at a later period ; and also others, which were not
permanent.

The fntir city tr^e$ were fluburana or Buccnmna, Eaqtilllna, CoIUna, Pnlstina ; the rustic
trtfrw, Rninllla, Lemonln, Pupina, Galeria, Pnllia, VoUinla, Clandla, Emilia, Cornelia, Fnbia,
linrntia, Menenla, Papiria, Sergla, Veturfa, Cruaiumina ; these belonged to the proper Romaa
territory ; In addition there were the Etrurian triheg^ Vejentina, Steiialina, Trnmentina, Baba-
tina, Arniensia, Pompiina, Publilla or Papilla, MoBcIa, Bcaptia, Ufeniina, Faierina; and the
Sabitu tribes^ Anlenaia, Terentina, Veiina, Quirina; making thirty-one.

BoiMn, On the Rom. Tribo, is the Mem. Mad. Inter, vol. L 72.-0. C. T. FmnOu, D« Tribaum Carianm, atqna C«Btwlw«a
Stlioue. Schlctw. lflB4. Rnpsdinc Um buildings Mmed Curim, eC. P. L § 61.

$ 353. Servius Tullius also divided the Roman citizens, for the sake of an
equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six classes according to pro-
perty These classes were subdivided into cerUuries amounting in all to 193 In

p. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICUN8. PLEBEIANS. 253

order to preserre this distribution, an ordinance was established requiring the
oensns and yaluation to be taken eyery five years (ef. § 247).

" The first class consisted of those whose .estates in lands and effects were worth at
least 100,000 asses, or pounds of brass; or 10,000 drachnuB according to the Greek
way of computing ; which sum is commonly reckoned equal to JC?322, 18b. 4d. sterling ;
but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 as9es, as wSs the case afterwards,
it will amount to JC7750. This first class was subdivided into eighty centuries or com-
panies of foot, forty of young menhuniorum), from seventeen to forty-six years of agei
who were obliged to take the field («£/brM htUa gereretU), and forty of old men (se-
niorum), who should guard the city (ad urbis cuttodiam ut pratsto essent). To these
were added eighteen centuries of Equites-, who fought on horseback ; in all ninety-
eight centuries.— The second class consisted of twenty centuries^ ten of young men,
and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 oases. To these were added
two centuries of artificers (Jabrum), carpenters, smiths, &-c. to manage the engines of
war. — The third class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 50,000
asses. — Tho fourth class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 25,000
asses. To these Dionysius adds two centuries of trumpeters (vii. 59). — The fifth class
was divided into thirty centuries; their estate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dio-
nysius 12,500. — The sixth class comprehended all those who either had no estates, or
were not worth so much as thoeo of the fifth class. The number of them was so great
as to exceed that of any of the other classes s yet they were reckoned as but one century,
-—Thus the' number of centuries in all the classes was, according to Dionysius, 193.

Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army according to
the valuation of their fortunes.— Those of the first class were called Classiei; all the
rest were said to be Infra Classem; hence classiei auetores, for the most approved
authors (A. Gell. vii. 13. xix. 8).

By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who com*
posed tho first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more centuries
than all the rest put together ; but they likewise bore the charges of peace and war {munia
pacts et belli) in proportion. For as the votes of the Comitia, so hkcwise the quota of
soldiers and taxes, depended on the number of centuries. Accordingly the firat class,
which consisted of ninety-eight, or, according to Livy, of one hundred centuries,
furnished more men and money to the public service than all the rest of the state
besides. But they had likewise the chief influence in the assemblies of the people by
centuries. For the Equites and the centuries of this class were called first to nve
their votes, and if they were unanimous the matter was determined ; but if not, then
the centuries of the next class were called, and so on, till a majority of centuries had
voted the same thing. And it hardly ever happened that they came to the lowest
(Liv. i. 43. Dionys. vii. 59)." (Adam.)

Ai«cAte,Di*VeHuiUBK<«csSerriiaTulUiik Lcipc 1838.— Ziimpf, Detwr d]« AbitfmMiac dM Baai.VolkM la C«Htwiat CoiBlUa^
-•C^nkrholtncr, De MutaU Crnturi itorom Comit. a Scrr. Tult. Beg. imtitutorum RUioM. BrHl. ItOS.

$ 253. Another division of the Romans, existing from the earliest tiroes, was
into Patricians and Plebeians^ according to family descent. The Patricians
were the descendants of the Senators appointed by Romulus, the Fathers, Patres,
of whom he selected three from each tribe, and three from each curia, making
ninety-nine; to these he added a man of distinguished merit, so that the Senate
originally consisted of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabinl were admitted
into it, and the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus increased this num-
ber by a third hundred from the Plebeians, who were termed Patres minorum
gentium^ to distinguish them from the original Senators, and their descendants
were called Patricii minorum gentium.

I u. The word populus had among the Romans a more general meaning than plebs;
tne former signified the whole body of the Roman people ; the latter, a particular por-
tion distinct nom the senators and the knights, ana called also, ordo pUbeius. In early
times, this order consisted of such as were proprietors of land, but in the times of the
republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, which we denominate the populace.

2. There is some disa^eement as to the time when the formal distinction between
Patricians and the Plebeians really commenced. The existence of Plebeians in the
ume of Romulus is implied in some passages of ancient authors (cf. Liv. i. 8. Dionyn.
i. 8. ii. 9). But Niebuhr and others have maintained that the Plebeian commonahty
arose out of the removing to Rome of the citizens of Alba, after its destruction in the
reiffn of Tullus Hostilius ; that before that time the Patricians included the whole body
of tne populus Romanus; that in the time^ of Servius the Plebeians were established
in their distinctive character as free hereditary proprietors ; and that from this time the
Roman nation consisted of two estates, the populus or body of burghera, and the pMm
or commonality.

iMA'MbHAr, HiitorRoaw,vet.l.p.>H*Oa«d PblL 183S.-.JMn, b Ak* sad OKlAcr, BacrdopUkj nd SdkmQr, la
tallh'i DicL ef Ao*k|. p. TM, TI&

254 ROHAN ANTiaUITIES.

§ 254. The patricians and plebeians were from the beginning greatly at
variance. The former at first held all the public offices exclusively. The
plebeians gained a share in them B. C. 493, as has been already mentioned
(cf. $ 245). After this the patricians often allowed themselves to be adopted
into plebeian families, in order the more easily to secure offices, which were
common to both ran^ks, or confined to plebeians, as was the office of tribunes.
The power of the people rose to a great height during the time of the republic,
and often was perverted to the greatest abuses.

1 «. Intermarriage between the two classes took place first B. C. 445. Previously
to intermarriages the only mutual relation was that of patron and dient ; in which the
plebeian made free choice of some patrician as his guardian and patron, and this pa-
trician in turn was obligated by certain duties to the plebeian as nis client. At last
this relation existed chiefly between masters and freedmen. .

2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many clients, both
hereditary and acquired bv his own merit. The duties of this relation (dieniela) were
considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil (jEn. vi. 605) joins the crime of injuring a
client with that of abusing a parent ; the client on the other hand was expected to serve
his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dissensions which mark
the Roman histor^f, there seems to have been a mutual and faithful observance of these
duties. In fater times cities and nations chose as patrons distinguished families or
individuals at Rome.

$ 255. It is necessary to distingraish between the Patrician rank, and what
was called Roman nobility (nobiliUu Romano). The latter was a dignity results
ing from merit, either personal or derived from ancestors, and acquired espe-
cially by holding a curuk office. Patrician descent was not necessary for this,
although when united with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired
this nobility themselves, were styled novi homines^

\u. One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility (nofitZM) was
the juj( imaginum, which allowed them }p form images or busts in painted wax of
their ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls iatria), and carrying them in funeral
processions (cf. ^ 340. 3), and at other solemnities. The right was sometimes conferred
OS a reward, by an assembly of the people, and received with public thanks, 'i'he Roman
history is filled with contests between the old and the new nobility.

2. A curule office was one which entitled the person holding it to use the sella rurultM
or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, censor, and curule aedile.

The chair was composed of Ivory, or at least highly adorned with It, commonly being a sort
of ** stool without a back, with four crooked feet, fixed to the extremities of cross-pieces, joined
by a common axis, somewhat Id the form of the letter X, and covered with leather ; so that It
mifthi be folded together,*' and thus easily carried by the magistrate In his chariot; hence the
epithet eurulu. {Aul. Oell. Hi. 18.) In our Plate XXXI. fig. 0 Is a representation of one an-
swering the above description. . But the sella appears to have been sometimes of a less portable
form and size, as seen In fig. 2 of this plate. These two figures are fVom monumenis found, the

one at Pompeii, the other at Hercuianeuni. ^The chair above described must be distinguished

from the sella portaioriot or eatksdra ; this was a sedan In which a person sat and was carried
by slaves, in the manner still common in the east. They were used by private persons as well
as rulers and officers. They were very frequent In the time of Cesar. (Suet. Coe. 43. Claud, tt.)
—Fig. 10, in Plate XXXI. la from an Egyptian monument, and serves well to illnatrate the ssl-
la portaioria. There are four bearers ; a fifth attendant bears a staff in his right hand, perhaps
the badge of his office as conductor of the palanquin. A sort of parasol richly embroidered fa
stretched behind tbe occupant of the chair, on a firame for the purpose. The sedan Itself Is of
elegant carved work, adorned with lotuses and other devlcea.—- The magistrates in the colonies
and municipal towns sat on public occasions in a l.irge chnir called Instlliitn ; two of these
have been found at Pompeii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of extraordinary work-
nianship.

Sm th0 AfuHp Artanloo, eitod P. IV. § SIS. vol. ». tav. SI. ▼!. ta. 2b-Amva<S p. 885, h dlod P. HT. § 22«.

§ 256. The Equites formed a distinct body of high rank in Rome {ordo tquealer).
They were originally composed of 100 young men taken from each of the three
tribes, thus making three centuries (300). Their number was greatly increased
by the kings, so that there were eighteen centuries under Servius Tullius. They
became at length a distinct order, not including all who served on horseback,
but only such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C, the order
received some important prerogatives, being chosen to act as judges, and to^
farm the revenues. The property requisite to qualify one for election as a knight,
at this period, was 400 thousand sesterces (cermu equesttr); the age about
eighteen ; nobility of descent was not sufficient to secure it. The Censors
were intrusted with the scrutiny, and they presented to thoee found worthy, a

PLATE XXXT.

256 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

horse at the public expense ; hence the phrase, equo publico merert The order
was under the constant supervision of the Censors.

1. Plebeians as well as Patficians were eli^ble to this order. The term iUwttret
was applied to those descended from ancient families. The number of equites ^eatly
increased under the early emperors. Persons were admitted into the order, if they
possessed the requisite property, without inquiry into their character, or the free
birth of their finther and grandfather.

2 tt. The knights were distinguished by a golden ring (annulus aureus) or rings, and
by the tunica angusticlama^ a white tunic with its purple stripe, or border, narrower
than that of the senators. At the spectacles, their seat was next to the senators, who
were frequently chosen from the equestrians. They made annuall]^, on the 15th of
July, a splendid procession (jtrangvectio) through the city to the Capitol.

MarquisrM, Hiaioria Equitsm Romuanim. Beri. lMO.~Zum|tf, Uebv die ROmiMbeD RHter und ilm Bittentend in Roo. Bflri.
l84a>-£Vfaiitia, Oe Onl. equcttri Vet Bomaapnan, in SUIenffT, vol. i,—P. Airmann, as cited § 938. 9.

$ 257. The Senate^ as has been already stated (§ 253), originally consisted
of 100 members, afterwards of 200, and finally, before the re^l office was
abolished, of 300. Sylia added 300 Equites, raising the whole number to 600.
Towards the end of the republic, the number was as great as 1000. Augustus
reduced it to 600. Under his successors the number was not uniformly the
same.-^The Senators, when assembled in council, were called Patrcs ConscriptL
Their election was at first made by the kings, next by the consuls, afterwards
by the censors, and in one instance, after the battle of Canns, by a Dictator.
Under the emperors, a Triumvirate was sometimes formed to attend to the
election. In the choice of senators, regard was had to character, property, and
age, which must not be less than twenty-five.

1 u. The Senators were distinguished in their dress particularly by two things ; the
tunica laticlavia^ a tunic or waistcoat with a broad stripe of purple {Jatus clavut) at-
tached to it, and high black buskins (mZm or ocrea nigri co/oru), which had the letter
C marked on them. At public spectacles the Senators also sat in the foremost part
of the Orchestra.

2 u. The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, PraBtora, or
Tribunes of the neople, by public summons (edictum), or by means of a herald. In
the former case tne object of assembling was specified. There were, besides, certain
days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every
month. On festivals and in time of the Comitia when the whole people were as-
sembled, the senate could not meet. Ant^ustus restricted the regular meetings to the
Calends and Ides. The place of assembling was not exclusively fixed, but it must be
set apart and consecrated for the purpose by the Augars. The temples, and the Ca-
pitol amongst them, were usually selected, excepting always the Temple of Vesta.—
The number of members necessary (nnmenis htrittmus) to ijass a decree {Seiiatun
amsultum) was 100; and, from the year B. C. 67, 200. The meetings were opened
early in the morning and continued until near or after midday ; before and after the
light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices were always ofiered
and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to hold the senate, before entering
the place ot meeting. The magistrate, then. Consul, Prietor, or whoever assembled
the senate, proposed the business, and the members gave their opinions usually in an
established order. In important or interesting coses, questions were decided by the
Senators separating into two parts {itio in varteg). The emperors had the right ot pro-
posing questions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by special permission. —
A distinction was made between a decree of the Senate, Sefiatus coTuuUum, and a
judgment or opinion, Senatut auctoritas; the latter term was applied, when the sen-
tence was less decisive, or was not passed without some person's intercession or veto,
or was atteridcd with some informality; decrees were ratified by being engrossed or
written out, and lodged in the treasury (m JErarium condebantur) in the place of public
records itabularium), in the temple of Saturn.

3. ** Although the supreme power at Rome belonged tO the people, yet thev seldom
enacted, any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty affairs, the
method usually observed was, that the Senate should first deliberate and dewee, and
then the people order. But there were many things of great importance which the
Senate always determined itself, unless when they were brought before the people
by the intercessions of the Tribunes. This right the Senate seems to have had, not
from any express law, but by the custom of their ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed
to themselves guardianship of the public religion ; so that no new god could be intro-
duced, nor altar erected, nor the Sibylline books consulted, without their order.—
2. The Senate had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at
pleasure. They appointed stipends to their generals and officers, and provisions and
clotliing for their armies. — ^3. They settled the provinces, wliich were annually assigned

p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SENATE. ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOPLE. 257

to the Consuls and Fnators ; and, when it seemed fit, they prolonged their command.
—They nominated out of their own body all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave
to foreigTi ambassadors what answers they thought proper. — ^5. I'ljey decreed all public
thanksgivings for victories obtained ; and conterred the hoi\or of an ovation or triumph,
with the title o( Imperalor^ on victorious generals. — 6. They could decree the title of
King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an enemy by a vole.—
7. 'i hey inquired into public crimes or treasons, either in Rome or other parts of
Italy, and heard and determined all the disputes among the allied and dependent cities.
— 8. 'J hey exercised a power, not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men
from the obligation of them, and even of abrogating them. — 9. l'he)r could postpone the
assemblies ot the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases of any
imminent danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly •conspicuous
in civil dissensions or dangerous tumults wiihin the city, in which that solemn decree,
UVtmnm or Exlremum, used to be passed (cf. ^ 248. 2), That the consuls should lake
care that the republic should receive no harm.'* {Adam.)

C, Middhlon, Trciliw on Rniit. Senate. Lnnd. 1747. 8 Alao in bb Jf.tctt. IVwU Load. 1796. 5 vol* 8.-7. Chapman,
E«Mjr on llw Rooi. Scrui*. Cnmbr. 1750. 9.—N. Hooka, OtwcrTationt nn tiie Roniao Senate, u Imfert by Mtddleton, Chapm^a, kt.
Land. I7as eL-.S^Hwn, DmrrlatioB, ke. in bb Tnm. of Diunyt. HaL cit«d P. V. § 247. 4.-/rMl0ic, u cited § 242.— WWcr,
Gochiehte da Rom. Rncht* — Jte*, ZimmcriA, «c& cited P. V. ) 571.

$ 256. Assemblies of the whole Roman people were termed Comitia. The
word eomitium originally signified the place of assembling, which was an
•open space in the Roman foram, in front of the court-house of Hostilius; it was
afterwards applied to the assembly itself, consisting of three ranks or orders of
the Roman people, and held at that place, or the Campus Martias, or the
Capitol. Assemblies of one or two orders were called Concilia ; and less formal
ones, where merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing
was decided, were termed Qmeiones. The Comitia were appointed only by the
higher ma^strates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's absence, a Praetor.
The most important subjects were considered in these assemblies, some of which
have been already mentioned incidentally.

§ 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be held, 184 in
number, were called dies eomitiales. Romulus established the Comitia Curiata^
in which the votes were given by Ciirix ($ 251); Servius Tullius the Comitia
Centuriaia^ in which the people voted by centuries, and which were the most
important; and the Tribunes, B. C. 491, instituted the Comitia TVibuta, in
which the votes were given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last mentioned
were termed Pkbiscita^ and at first were binding only on the plebeians. — ^The
election of officers, which became the principal business of the Comitia, was
chiefly made at the Comitia C-tniuriata. These were held in the Campus
Martius, where more than 50,000 persons might assemble.

1 u. The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries occupied an
elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips or narrow
passages [pontes, pofitieult) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend upon as they went to
vote. Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by a balustrade, forming what
was called the Sepia or OviU. Outside of this the people stood until they were called
in {iniro voeatai) to vote century by century through the six successive classes. The
order, in which the centuries voted, was determined by lot {soriiiio), the names being
thrown into a box {sitetta) and drawn out by the presiding magistrate. The votes
were by means of ballots (to&fUa), which were given to eacn citizen by persons (<ftrt-
hitores) standing at the entrances of the passages just named, and were cast by the
citizens into a box or chest {cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting
was the same in the case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing decrees or
judicial sentences. Only persons' between 17 and 60 years of age were allowed
to vote.

2. "By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking out the
tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or point ipunctum) m another
tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being decided by most points
gave occasion to tne pnrase, Omne iulit punctum, and the like." (Kennett.) — It is ob-
vious, that in the Comitia CetUuriata the mode of voting must give, the higher classes
an entire preponderance over the others.

RetpwHag ite Conilia, m BmMt, Zumpl, lu. dtod f 8V - Wattet, QflKhidrtc d. Ran. RccMk Beapeetinf Ibi CuBpw

Marf iM, et P. I. f 6S.-a PinnaH, Campoa IfartiaB uli«|nB Urt>b. Bom. 176L fbl.

$ 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several important privileges,
especially during the freedom of the state. The life and property of a citizen
were in the power of no one but of the whole people appealed to thereon; no
33 f2

S}58 ROHAN ANTICIVITIES.

fnagistrate could punish him by stripes ; he had a full right oyer his property,
his children, and his dependents ; he had a voice in the assemblies of the people
and in the election of madstrates ; his last will and testament had full authority
ufter his death. Th& right of voting was the most valued ; full citizenship in-
cluding this could be bestowed only by the people; citizenship embracing the
other rights could be conferred by the senate also. All freedmen and their
children were excluded from this right, which is what was properly meant by
the Jus Quiritium.

1 u. Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, even
by banishment; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a foreign alle-
giance. TKe Jus Quiritium privatum^ conferred on the colonies and municipal towns,
comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges ; in the case of the Latm colonies
it was called Jut Latiiox Latinitatit; of the Italian, Jus Italicum. Still more limited
were the privileges included in the Jura provinciarum and Jura prafecfurarum.

2. The riffhts of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public; both
are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes under that
of Jus civiiatis; and someiimes these phrases seem to be limited respectively to the
rights termed private or public. — To the private, belonged the following; 1. Jus
IBertatis, which secured to each the control of his person ; 2. Jus gentis ei familim,
which secured the peculiar privileges of his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, the entire coutrol
over his children ; 4. Jus dominii legitimit the possession of legal property ; 5. Ju9
testamenti and karediiatist the right to inherit or bequeath property by will; 6. Jus
tutel<Bt the right to appoint by will guardians for his wife and chilaron. To the public,
belonged the following; 1. Jus censusy the right cf being enrolled by the censor;
2. Jus militia t none but chizens being enlisted at first, a restriction which was after-
wards abolished ; 3. Jus tributorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned
to his wealth ; 4. Jus suffragii, the ri^ht of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jushonorum,
eligibility to public offices, a right originally confined to patncians, but finally extended
to plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, which included certain rights in relation to religious
worship. — I'hose who did not possess the rights of citizens {cites) were generally
termed foreigners {peregrini) wherever they resided.

3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights ana privileges, which were
allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The forms of
government established in such cases may be divided into four.

(I.) Ths Colonic or colonifs were citiei or tracts of country, which peraons from Rome were
gent to inhabit. Theie persons, allhoui^h iningllnY with the conquered natives and occupants,
gained the whole power fn the administration of affairs. In the iaier periods of the repultlic
and under the emperors, many colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served oiii their
legal time (twenty years, in ihv. fool, or ten in the horse, cf. ^ 277), and who after thus labiuing
for their country were periniticd to receive possessions in a colony, and spend their ave in ease
and plenty.— The colonies were scattered over the empire, and governed by laws prescribed to
them by the Romans.

Nitbuhr*! Romt (ad. Pbil. IS3S), wl. it p. S2 — Fronlintui, D« Colooiui— Emy la MtadvidgU OpuacttU (Uaaoijo, 1S34), Di
7>ire 0( CoodllioiM Coionianiin IV>p. Roniui.— 5mAA, Die', of Aatiq. pi. 256.

(2.) The Municipia were cities, which enjoyed the right of governing themselves by their own
laws; retaining, if they cho«n it, such as were in use before their suhjeciion to the Uouiaiis.
They were in some respects like the corporate cities of our country, and their inhabitants had
tiie name nnd some of the riifhts of Roman citizens. Originally confined to Italy, they were
subsequently formed even in the provinces. The colonic and municipia had similar uingis-
irates; the Duutnviri were the chief officers ; the senators were called Veeuriones.

Ssvifny. GflKhichta dm R-im. R«chia.-Sa0t(ny, Uebw das Jia Itolicum, io UM ZtiUekrift, Ice. foL w.-Smith, Diet of Anlk|.
p. iSS.—Niebtthr, m itxirc citad, tnl. li. p. 87.

(3.) The Prmfeetura were certain towns in Italy, whose privileges were curtailed for offences
ajrainst the Roman government. They were not suffered lo frame their own laws as did the
municipia, nor to choose their own magistrates, as did both the municipia and the cnlonie.

They were governed by a prefect sent annually from Rome. AH the other cities of Italy,

which were not either e^Zonitf, vtunieipia, or pro'fertura, wer« called cirilitra ftederala, enjoying
their own rights and customs, and joined to the RomaniTonly by confederacy or alliance.

Zumptj VAer Jrn t^D'enrhieJ ier BeasOBunKen Muaicipium, Coloala, Pnefedun. B«rl . 1S40. 9.

(4.) The Provineim were foreign countries of larger extent, which, when conquered, were
rcniodpled as to thoir governments, at the pleasure of the Romans. They were compelled to
pay such taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually sent
nut from Rome. The provinces were termed Praetorian or Proconsular according as Prniors or
Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to tlie emperors were governed by proprietors *
those belonging to the senate, by proconsuls (cf $ 250). These governors were nilen tyrraunl-
ral and always oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious features
in the Roman administration.

For i!lot'n(iooi of lli'u proviacUl tjrruny, cf. Cieard'M OniliniH tnimt yemu—SiiddUtonU liTt of Cicent, vol. i. p. M, u dice

P. v. f 4(U. I. Oo the Roman proTineei, et C. Sigoniut, De uitk]>io Jure ProtiMitroon. Vrn. 1568. 4. eootained in Grmoita,

^ol. u.—Bwign^. OD Gov. of Rom. Prnviocei, in Ihe Mem. Jead. Irutr. xxvh. 64. On the Keoenl robjeet of Bomtn rifht%

trutcr, G«Khicbte des RdmlMltea Kachla.— Zfomum, citad P. V. k S71.— C. Sifonttifl, Ue Aaliquo Jun Ptopoli Rouaci fioa
Ii74. foL 41io in ha Cpara Omnia. MedioL 1737. 6 Tolt. M.

p. UI. CIVIL ▲FFAIKS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 259

$ 261. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of public and
private cases, criminal and civil. The former involved the general peace and
security; the latter, the claims and rights of individuals. The public or crhni-
nal trials {judieia publico) were either ordinary or extraordinary. — The latter
were such as belonged not to any reeular jurisdiction, or fixed time or nlace,
but had a special day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap-
pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, tis a sort of
commissioners in cases of this kina ; such were the Duumviri perduellionis or
QtMSK7ortf«.— The ordinary public trials were also called gusealiones perpetua^
and were first established in the year B. C. 149, for the most common state
offences. In these the Prsetor presided (cf. $ 243), by whom assistant judges
{judiccM OMieasores) were chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from
the knights, and at last from all conditionsk The judges were divided into
several deeurim^ from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot
for each trial. Under the emperors, the judges were appointed by them.

1 V. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of established usages
were observed. The plaintiff (a<;<or, aeeutator) commonly spoke against the defendant
{reus) ; the witnesses were then heaird ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or
in writing, and judgment ^ts pronounced. I'he person acquitted could, when he nad
ground for it, bring his accuser to trial for slander {ctdumma) ; the person condemned,
On the other hand, was punished according to the law.

2. Public trials o(acajntal kind were held before the ComUia Centuriaia; such as
involved only the question of some minor punishment, before the Comitia Tributa,
In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. Having called an assembly, he
announced that on a certain day he should accuse the person of a certain crime ; doing
this was expressed by the phrase dieere diem; the person named must procure bonds-
men {wtdcM, prades) or be kept in custody to the day named ; on that day the ma-
gistrate made his accusation, which was repeated three times, each^ after one day in-
tervening ; then a bill {rogatio), including the charge and the punishment proposed,
was posted up for three market-days ; on the third market-day, the accuser again
repeated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate (fldvocatnn, patronvs) made a
defence ; after which the Comitia was sumihoned, for a certain day, to decide the trial
then by suffrages.

Qi tb* jydkiml offainttt Ibi Hemum, Ibt feUctt tnflmrilf b C. Sigenhu, dt Jodicih, in hb Optra Omnt^ dtad $ 900. vol. III. |
■ko fa H «oL «r OnuitiM, dlad \ 19T.-Cr. Bmuftrt^ RqwUiqiM RonMiiw. td vol.— Atfilop, Rom Lit vol. ii. p. 141, u cHad P. V.
I SBH a.— H. r. SriHMH, De JodiefM at Fttsb BaaunonuD, la SaUenpt, vol. iii.-ITalM-, OcMbiehto dct tum. Bcefatk-OKtHiif,
Oighifhlii dnr Sflu. S^aJbmrtmaagr-Tigtntrim, Db Jodidbn apud Booaina. BarL liSl «< Vkluibl* oa\j for fht eoltoetloB
orikearigladuilioriti«.»

$ 262. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called peiiiio; the
plaintiff pe/t/or, and the defendant, ts unde petilur. The plaintiff could compel
the other party to appear at court, not usually, however, without calling in some
one as witness to the step {anteatatio). If the defendant chose not to go, he
must giv'e security or bail {aatiadare),- The plaintiff himself stated the matter
or object of his complaint {causa); if the defendant denied the thing charged, it
led to a formal trial (ac/fo\-— There were two principal kinds of actions ; viz. :
adianes in personam^ whicn related to the fulfilment of obligations ; and atUones
in rem^ which related to the recovery of property in possession of another. The
proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was termed vindicatio ; of the former
kind, condietio. All private trials belonged to the jurisdiction of the Praetor.

1 «. The Pnetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was about the restitution
of property, were called recupemtorea. Often for this purpose a hundxied or a hundred
and five were appointed from the different tribes, called centumvirtUe judicium. The
judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, were put under oath. Then the action
was carried rorward orally, and after examination, judgment was jpronounced, and
provision made for its execution.^— ^It may be important to distinguish judges pro-
perly so called from arbitrators {abUri causarum)^ who made awards in cases which
were not to be decided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommo-
dation, or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed cauaa jidei bona et ariti-
traria.

2 u. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Campua
Martina; and in private actions, other free places, or more frequently the Baauica
(cf.P.I.^6I).

$ 263. Among the principal penal qffenrea^ which demanded public trials,
were the following : Crimen majeaiaiia, or an offence agauist the dignity and

260 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

security of the state and its magfistrates ; perduelli&ntM^ high treasofi against the
freedom of the people ; pdeulaixts, embezzling in any way the public property,
sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or falsifying records; ambittu^ bribery or cor-
ruption of the people to procure votes in an election ; repetundarum, extortion,
when a Prvtor, Quaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions,
for which compensation was demanded ; ots /n«Zl/ica?, public violence, including
conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. — ^There were vari-
ous more private offences of which cognizance was taken in public trials; e. g.
crimen inter aiearios, assassination; crimen veneficii^ poison; parricidii^ pani-
cide; faiai, forgery; adulterii unAplagiiy adultery and man-stealing.

$ 264. The punishments (jMsne) inflicted on those found guilty were various.
The following were the principal ; damnum^ mulcia^ fines, which at first never
exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards were
increased; vincula, imprisonment with bonds, which were cords or chains u|A>n
the hands and feet; verbera^ blows inflicted on the freebom with the rods of
•the Lictors {ffirgis), upon slaves with whips (JlageUis) ; talio, satisfaction in
kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye;infamia
or ignomima, disgrace or infamy, which generally rendered the person incapa-
ble of enjoying public offices; exilium, banishment, which was either voluntary
or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation of ail honors. When the.
person was banished to no particular place, he was said to be inferdietua ; wh^
banished to a certain place, reUgatus. The form termed departatio was the
roost severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and
desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed ; i^m/ua,
slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold ; and mors, death, in-
flicted for heinous crimes.

1. Under the term vincula were included several varieties; as ealeruB, chains; hoitB,
cords or thongs ; manictBt manicles for the hands ; pedicaj fetters for the feet ; nervunt
iron shacklea for the neck ; eolumbar^ a sort of stocks, a wooden frame with holes in
which the feet were fastened and sometimes the hands.-— —The confinement of cnmi-
nals was either in prison, or in private custody under a soldier or officers (cf. Acts
xxviii. 16) ; the right wrist of the prisoner beinff fastened by a chain to the left wrist
of the keeper; the prisoner was sometimes chained to two soldiers.— The ancient
state-prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamertine Prison, is still pointed out to
travelers.

Tn our Plate XXXI., fig. A, 1b a cut thnwlng a kind of stocks now used In the East, In which
the criminal prostrate on his back la conflned by his feet and hands; it may serve to, illustrate
Che Roman stocks above named.— Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut representing one of the
stories of the Msmertims Priton. The structure is onder a small edifice called the Church of St.
Joseph ; It consists of two stories ; the lower one is called TuUianum^ after Qervius Tullius, who
Is said to have built It ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without cement, and
defying the assaults of time ; here Jmeurtka was stoned to death ; and here, according to tra-
41tion, Paul and Pttsr were imprisoned ; the dungeon presents a most appalling appearance.

CL Euttof, Tour, ke. cited P. IV. § t9a h-nik, Tnvclt. te. p 800, w dtcd P. IV. § IN 8.

2. The JlageUum (ft^brif) was made of leathern thongs {lora) or twisted cords (Jwua)
fastened to the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. The
scvlioi was a simple thong or strap, and the ferula a mere rod or stick. Cf. Hor. i.
iii. 1 19. — The punishing of Roman citizens oy the virga i^afiios) was prohibited by
the Lex Portia^ many years before the time of Christ (d. Aei$ xvi. 22).

3. The modes of infGcting death were various. Slaves were usually crucified {crucx
affigere) ; others it was customary at first to hang (arbori §uspendere\ afterwards to
behead {securi peretitere), or to strangle in prison ($trangulareh or to throw from the
Tarpeian rock {de saso Tarpeio dejicere)^ or cast into the sea or a river iprojicere in
projluentem). The latter mode was used in the case of parricide, or the murder of
any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, then sewed up in a leather sack
(culeuB, cf. Dionft. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a do>
and a cock, and then thrown into the water .-^The bodies of executed criminals we
not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their fiiends purchased \ e
privilege of doing it ; but were usually exposed before the prison, on certain stairs
{bcoUb) called ^emania or gemouii gradus ; down which thev were dragged with a
hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popular violence or civil war
were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy ifl^ac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other
modes of capital punishment were also practiced, especially under the emperors ; ad
ludos, in which the criminals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphithea-
tre ibeatiarii), or with each other as gladiators ; ad metalla, in which the offenders
were condemned to work in mines ; ad bewtioM, in which they were thrown to wild

p. in. CIVIL AfVAJRB. 8TSTEM OF LAWS. 261

beasts to be devoured. These forms were often inflicted on those who embraned and
would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more horrid,
which was to wrap the offender in a garment ooyered with pitch and set it '^n fire ;
thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime of burning
Rome.

( 265. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefinite in the
early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the first consuls, decided all
cases according to their own judgment, or according to usage in similar
instances. The abuses growing out of (his state of things occasioned, accord-
ing to the common accounts, the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to
ASiens and Sparta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They
Tetumed B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (cf. $ 248. 3}
Ivere appointed to devise and propose a body of laws.

1 It. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, then iu
twelve tables, and by the people in the Comitia Centuriata were adopted and esta-
blished as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. V. ^ 561). — To these
were afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named from their
anthors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who proposed them ; e. g. Lex AtiniUf L-ex
Furia, &.c. ; also from their contents ; e. g. Leeee agraria^ frumentaria, &.c.

2 u. It was necessary that every law proposed for enactment should be previously
posted up in public for seventeen days (per trinundinum), and then be submitted to
the decision of the people in the Comitia Centuriata, that they might adopt it (legem
jubere, accipere), or reject it {legem antiquare). When a previous law was abolished,
they were said to abrogate it {Ic^em abrogate). Laws thus adopted were engraved on
brass, and lodged in the archives. — Under the emperors, however, their own ordi-
nances had the force of laws, called Comiitutiones prtncipale^, and including not only
their formal edicts {edicta), but answers to petitions (reMcriptaf or epistola:), judicial
decisions (deereta), and commands to ollicers {mandata).

3. Originalljr lawt were enacted by the people in the Comitia Curiata ; such laws
were termed in general Leget Curiata. But afterwards the Comitia Curiata fell
almost into disuse, and laws were enacted in the Comitia Centuriata, and thence were
XermedLegeg Centuriata. Enactments in the Comitia Tributa were termed Plebisci-
ta (cf. % 259). Decrees of the Senate were called Stuatue consuUa (cf. % 257). Under
the early emperors, these decrees were often based on proposals made by the empe-
rors, caUed orationes principum, which were sometimes delivered orally, but generally
were sent in written messages; in later times the orationei seem to have been syno-
nymous Mrith the con8titulione9.—''The Roman law included the Leget, the Plehiscita,
the Senatus eonsuHa, and the ConstUutionet Principales ; and also besides these, the
-various edicts forming the Jut honorarium ; and likewise several earlv collections of
laws and usages, vi2. the Jus Papirianum, the Tabula Duodecim, Jus Flavianum^
and Jus JElianum, of which some account is given under the history of Roman Lite-
rature (cf. P. V. ^ 561). It is obvious, therefore, that in the lapse of years the sys-
tem of taws must lAve become exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. 7'he emperor
Justinian first reduced the Roman law to something like order (cf. P. V. ^ 569).

Bwpcctini tlM Ontiontt fHneipum, cf. Dirksm, Udwr die Rrtco &tr Rom. Kaiwr, in ibfl /Vuinueh Mm. fQr Jvritpr. On

tt* gnml ■olijwi of the Ronan l^m ami JuritpradMice, we maj refer to Aiiwea'iM, Aoiiquilalum Roneiuinim Jariaprvdrslian
UwlnMiuiB SyolafiM. Aifeat VTA. 8— .^viytiy, HjrfllnB dct bcatifea Bom. RecMa.— SHitJbnann, iMiilalioM* Juri* RooAsi.
-ITii^ Uhrtweb der Gewhkhta dei ROm. Rechu. BerL 189^ &-&e kin in ihi« Maoml, P. V. ^ 558^71.

% 266 u. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and rcgAlar policy of the
Romans was their care to provide sufllcient supplies of grain. A general scarcity, as
in the year B. C. 440 and at other times, occasioned the appointment of a special offi-
cer to attend to the subject, called Prafectus Aunona, alihnugh the .ffidiles had pre-
viously been charged with this care, and it continued afterwards to be a duly of their
office (cf. i 244). Augustus ordained, that two men should be annually elected to
perform this duty, duumviri dividundo frumento. The annual contributions in grain,
which were exacted of the provinces, served likewise to prevent the occurrence of a
scarcity of bread, and the provincial officers, especially the Quasiurs (cf. % 246), wero
required to attend carefully to the business. — in this respect, Egypt was the most
nroductive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual vovage was
made by the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fieet was aficrwards joined.
The distribution of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in Rome
from the earliest times.

$ 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury {strarium)^ and after-
wards to the imperial exchequer (Jiscus)^ were the tributa^ taxes imposed on
the citizens according to their property, or on the provinces as an annual tribute,
and the vedigaUa, which included all the other forms of taxes. There were
three principal kinds or branches of the vecligalia $ the porUmum, duties on e^^

MS ROMAN ANTiaVITIES.

ports and imports, the person takingr lease of which was called mancqn periuumi
decumsB^ tithes or tenth-parts of the produce; and the icripiura, or pasture tax,
itaid for feedinff caale on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines,
and on salt works, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were
the taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves (meewma, a twentieth), on
aqaeducts, on artisans, and the like.

1 u. The vectigaiia were let by auction (bcahantur iuh hatta). Those who hired or
farmed them were called publicanij the rent or hire paid being called vublicum; they
were usually Roman knights, who of course . possessed property, and on taking the
lease advanced a larse sum, or gave landed securities ipradet). Leases of the reve-
nues of whole kingdoms and provinces were often taken by several knights associ-
ated (MoeieUu or eorptu), who had in Rome a 8ui)erintendent of the concern (magitter
tocielatig puUicanorum), with a subordinate one in each province or region {promagis"
ter), and a multitude of subalterns to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, &,c.

TIN puUietm w oAoi mmtkosd in tbe New TMUaeot wen at tte cIim of Mballcrn eoileden sbove deteribcd, who wen
(uiity of great eHortioa in all iLe |in>f iaeet. Zwcbeui, deaeribed by Lukt (six 8), u <* ehiaT anong tha publicaM" (apx^rtkAv^i),
was probably a pronMciMr.— BoMcAwri, Sar let Publleaim, ftc in lb* Mwn. Jkmd. Intar. uxvii. 841.

3. Sali-workt (galina) are said to have been eatiiblithed flrst at Oatia, by Ancus Martius (Plin.
Htst. Nat. xxxi. 41). In later times they were niimerout In Italy, and in tlie prnvincM. Rock-
•alt (liXtf ipvKToO was known to the ancients ; salt was also fathered from sprinfrs and lakes,
whertt it was formed by a natural process; yet most nf the snlt used was niude by artifiriij
evaporation of sea -water. The salt-works were usually public property, and were lei by il»e
(zovernment to the highest bidder. Amone the most productive mines beiongina to the Ro-
mans, were the gold mines near Aqnileia (Polyb. xxzlv. 10) ; the gold mines of Iciiniuli near
Vercelii, in which 23,000 men are said to have beon employed (PUn. H- Nat. xxxiii. 4) ; and tha
silver minas of 8pain near Carlhago Nova. In Dncia were gold mines and silver mines belong-
ing to the Romans. Macedonia, Illvricnm, Thrace, also Sardinia, and Africa, contained nAnet
from which the Romans derived an Income. ThMe in Daciaare aald lo have yielded in tbe tiiuo
of Nero tidy pounds of gold daily.

On the BiDai of Dacia, cf. ixnd. Quart. Aik Oct IMI, p. IOl-Ob ttme of Spaim JUMn, Abc. RitL voU L p. 99. ad. N. York,
ISM.— On ihaaockal aiJwa fnanlljr, B. Cmyopkiba, De aaUqula Anrl, Arfsitti, Stolid, Ari% Farri, Pliubiqoa Fodinik Vmiii.
1167.4.

3. Besides the taxes above named, we may mention under tha Fer%ANa, tbe following: a
tax on the value of thinn sold (esMtMtma rtrum venalium) { a ux on liberti living in Italy (called
oeiava) ; a tax on tbe doors of houses {ottiarium), sometimes on the pillars ievluwinariuiH) ; a
tax on bachelors (uxorinm), first imposed A. D. 403.

4. After the conquest of Macedonia, the revenue from the provinces became so great thai tlie
tributa iireviously assessed on Roman citixens were abolished. They were renewed again by
Augustus, and continued by his successors. Caraealla bratowed the name and privilege of Ro-
man citizens on all free inhabitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these
taxes; this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial subjects.

5. Respecting the amount of income to the Roman treasury at different periods not much is
known (cf. Pliny^ Hist. Nat. xxxtii. 17). The annual revenue Is said to have been fifty Diilllons
of drachms before the time of Pompey, and lo have been by him increased to eighty-five mil*
lions (PlttL Pomp. 45). In later times vast sums mu>it iinve been required to meet the various
expenses of the civil government, the fcrmy, tlie. navy, tht» public buildings, the aqueducts, the
great ronds, and other works.— It does not appear that regular annual 8|larlef were given to
public officers until the lime of Augustus ; but afterwards they were common. Alexander 6e-
verus Is said to have established a salary (folariuai) for rhetoricians, graminarians, physicians,
haruspices, mathematicians, mechanicians, and architects. Tbe term Mlarium was derived
from sal: salt being one of the things essential in supporting human Ufa.

D. U. HtttwitA, Hiitor. Verauch Qbar die Romiactwn Finansan. Allov, 1804. 9,—R. Jfotar, Onindtaca det riMiswcaan Im
Rmii. SUue. Bnnaachweig, 1608-4. 8 BJa. 8 — Ct OilAant Bas^ Eaip. ch. vi. xtU.— P. Awnufin, Vectifilla FOpall RooitBL
Laid. 1734. 4. •

§ S68*. In connection with the Civil Affairs of Rome, we may speak of the
principal employments and regular pursuits which were publicly authorized or
sanctioned.

1. Under the heads of Teacher, Priest, Lawyer, and Physician, may be included
whatever amone the Romans correspontied to the learned professions of modern tiroes.
— Respecting^ the business of instruction, conducted by grammarians, rhetoricians,
and philosophers, we only refer to the notices given in other parts of this work (cf. P.
IV. ^% 123—128. P. V.^$407— 412,416— 422,446— 455).— The established system of
idolatry required a largo number of priests of different grades ; a sufficient account has
been given in former sections of their business (cf. %% 207 — ^219) and emoluments

(^ 219 b). The employment of the lawyer was highly honorable and profitable.

The jurisconsult or the pleader, who could distinguish himself by his knowledge of
law or his talents and skill in managing causes, was sure to obtain hoiior and wealth;
although exposed, of course, the orator especially, to suffer in the violence of party
revolutions (cf. P. V. ^^ 39t)— 406, 558— 571).— The profession of medicine, at first not
much encouraged, had grout patronage from the time of Augustus (cf P. V. %% 543—
552). Some statements of Pliny OfifU Nai. x.xix. 5) show that the cmpk>yment was
¥€ry lucrative ; a physician, named Quimos .Siertinius, received from the emperor

p. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 269

500,000 sestercea per annum, yet represented himself as making a sacrifice thereby,
as he could have obtained 600,000 by private practice.

We Biajr here remark thai a number of ntrgieal itutntmnUt were fooad hi 18)t, te a hoow ia Fotnpdi ; amtmg tbeia wcra Ibr
probe If^wJirion, fkiXH, tba cautary (Mvnffioy}, lb* forcepi (vuImUs). tba cathelcr (Moter^f, mntm/iityUy, diflnvat mrts of
kaiTca, *c— An acoouat of Ibcm ia giTW io iCflAn, ia ttaa Ofutcuta Jkadtm. JM. c( Mikiof. Lipa. IttS. 2 vola. &

2 M. Although commerce could not flourish much at Rome in early times, when the
spirit of war and conquest engrossed every thing, yet there existed a body of mer-
chants, who were Roman citizens. The Roman commerce was also extended, on the
expulsion of the kinss, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits
were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who nevertheless covertly and
through agents not unfrequently encased in them and indulged m speculations, 'i'hey
did this especially in connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. The
merchants at Rome were styled mereatoret ; those abroad in the provinces, negotia-
toret. There were also brokers and bankers {argeniarii and mensarii), and contract-
ors of various kinds, besides the publicani (mentioned in the precedincr section), whose
contracts may be viewed as a sort of commercial transactions. Yet Rome never
acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in point of commerce.

Tbe ar^evtarii were ordinary brokers ; ihey were divided into corporations (MoeittaUst corpora).
The mensarii were public bankers, appointed by the state, who loaned money from the public
treasury to such as could five security for It. Both classes had ibeir olBces in tbe buildings by
tbe fbrum.

On OeoinDarca, kc aaoaf tha Robmbi, Gihbvm^ lUl of Rom. Enip. eh. H.— Tba J7M. «f Jlwn. Bmp. (giTan ia Lmtinm*t Cabr^
Cvdoimlia) bk. iii. ch. 9^— Dt Podont^ 8ar la eonmaiae at la lun dca RoMinei. Jtc. la iba Man. i* Plnttitutf C 1 aai a ^BitL
« £«. .Anc foL UL p. 885; Td. V. p. 76 ; and tH. p. 12S.-£rfurt<, Da nasoliatoribaa Bob. lipi. I77S. 8.

3 «. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics and arti*
sans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometimes acquired Roman citizenship.
Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges {collegia),
which afterwards became more respectable and numerous. Of this kind were the
collegia fabroruin, tignariomnij dendropkororHm^ sagariorum, tabulariorumy &.C. The
overseer of such a body waa called praftetut ; the v had also their demriones and ma-
giftrij whose office was usually for five years. Tnev performed work for the state,
or for individual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves.

Eaipectiag ibesa nrpontioai, laa O. PundnlhUf Da oorporibnB AftiAcain, in 2d vd. of Omrikia, dlad f 197.

•

4. Among the various arts and trades pursued, the following should be here noticed
more particularly.

(«) The Diakinir ^f f^^^ (viCnisi, foXoO.—lt has been a question of some interest how far the
ancients understood the roaltinr of glats. Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 10. xsivi. 26) states that the art
oriflnaied in accident, on the banl^sofibe river Belus ; and that class vessel« were first made in
Pidon. Ii was known, however, in Efypt, for pieces of blue glass have been found in the tombs at
Thebes, and some of the mammies are decorated with glass. Lachrymatories and patere of
glass have been discovered in tbe catacombs of the Greek island Milo (cf. ( 180. I). The allusions
and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Firg. JEn. vii. 750. Nor. Od. i. xvii. 90. flat ii. 111.222)
indicate an acquainUnce with glass (vitrei) in a state of at least considerable perfection. Colored
glass is said lo hava been used in m»mic decorations (cf. P. IV. $ 220. 2) in the time of Augustus.
Imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. IV. $ 310). The story relaied by
Tacitus (jfnii. v. 42) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, however incredible, shows
that glass-making had been introduced at Rome. Numerous vessels of glass, and even panes
of glass in a window, have bean found at Pompeii (cf. ( 325). Tbe celebratf d Portland Vase has
lately been pronounced to be glass (cf. P. IV. ) 173); this was found In the tomb of Alexander
Bevenis, in whose reign a special tax was laid, A. D. 220, upon the glass-makers of Rome, who
were then so numerous, it is said, as lo require tbe assignment of a particular quarter of tbe city
for tbe place of their labors.

Saa iTMmicn, AncieBl EfyptiaB^ vol. HL p. M, u dM P. I. $ ITT.— BowU, Snr I'Art da la Vantfia, kt. h.lba AMr^pfion *
rigyf^ wl. is. p. 2\S^Btismi, eitad P. IV. § 2SI. l.-Afaaoia, Butaca da Pompdi. Fir. 1830.

(bD The making of earthenware (fictile, npaniov^ iorp&Kivov) or the art of pottery ItrtfigU-
itaX— This was early known among the Jews {Jtrtm. xviii. 3, 4). Tha vessels found at Volaterrv
and other places (cf. P. IV. ) 173. 3) prove lu existence among the Etrurians and the Greeks In
Italy. There can be no doubt It was early introduced among the Romans. The wheel (rpovAi^
rotafgularu) of the potter (J^lat, npaitcCi) is a subject ofallusion in Plautus (K^d. iii. 2. 35).
Molds (rt'iroi, formm) were used to decorate the vessels with figures in bas-relief (cf. P. IV.
)} 158, 188) and for forming the linages on tha architectural appendages called ont^fixa made of
terra cotta (cf. P. IV. ^(230,241); soma specimens of these molds have been found near Roma.
According to Vitruvius the Romans made their water-pipes of potter's clay. They established

Kteries in England ; vestiges of which, it is said, are stilk discernible in some parts of the
,nd, especially in atafibrdshire. If their rasa murrkina were porcelain (cf P. IV. ^ 105. 4V
the art must have reached a blgh degree of perfection ; some have attempted to show that tbes^
vessels were made of a transparent stone dug from the earth in tbe eastern part of Asia.~Th#
mannfaciiire of bricks (faterss esetttss) was well understood. Bricks are found in very anciao*
Roman ruins, which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty.

XanbMr'a Cab. Cyelopiadia, Oia vol. oa Parariaia and OlaM.~a. Pmku, CiMatcal Ernja, Ac Load. 1890. p. 804, 346.

|Sa(iaMor,a«aaBaaHhasvaMlianlbvriiair.ai»ry^Damlp«lflBortbadiMiwariaiatBanelaa,t^ Load. 17M. a.

<— Ct ficrouae iPJlgmeourtt Bacucil da FMfOMaa.

(e) The baking of bread (fauUieimm, 9r» pi9Urm).—Th» bakers (putore$) at Rome formed, like
persona of other trades, a collegium. No one bad made baking a trade, it is said, nniA D. C.

S64 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

173. In a bakehouse (ptttrimum^ or pUtriUa) dl«cnvered at Pompeii, were found leTeral loayea
of bread apparently baked in moldi (ar(opc«); tliey were flat and about eif hi Inches in diame-
ter. Before the invention of the mill imola), corn was pounded in a sort of mortar imortarinm)
called pittum ; whence the name pintur, and pigtrinum. Two varieties i*f the band-miU (ei»te
manuaria) were found in the ruins of a bakehouse at Pompeii ; grinding with this was doae by
slaves, chiefly females. The " cattle-mill'* imoU atinaria, ftiXos dyurdf, cf JMSsttA. xviii. 6) waa
also used ; likewise the waier-uiltl (mola «fii«ria, ^paXtnn), having above the stones a hopper
(iiifundibutum) from which the corn fell down between them. In the later periods there appear
to have been public mills turned by the water of the aqueducts. When Rome was besieged by
the Goths, A. D. 536, and the aquoducta were intercepted, Belisarius is said to have constrocted
floating milts upon the Tiber.

Cr. Fitnwitu, X. S.-^«Mniut, Ptan. ili. W.-Pntophf,'v* IMlo Gothico, L 15 (cf. P. V. f 9i'n.-Mtmt$t, Sur t« mnin d«
nioulio, fcc. u cited | S9.—F. L. Qotlziut, De Molii •( Kstrian Vctarun, wuiCL. Bokm$d^ O* Molit MaMklibo^ fte^ in I/foU-
Nu<, vol. XX is. McitMi ) NT. I.

id) The business of the fuller (/nUe, yva^c^f ), the dresser of cloth and washer of clothes.—
The fullers, like the bakers and other tradesmen, formed a collegium. A filler's establishment
was termed fmlimuf or fulUmium; the mode of performing the work was sometimee a eubject
of attention from the censors (cf. Plinjf^ Hist. N. xxxv. 5). On the walls of a fmUanka at Pom-
peii were found paintings which serve to explain the way in which dresses were cleansed. It
would seem that the Romana in the cities aent their clothes to the ftiller, instead of liaving them
washed at home.

Tha ptiniiogi kbovt naotioiMd ara given In tha Mimo Borhonia^ eil«d P. IV. § 212. voL iv.— 9i»d of tlMin in OaO, Ponpritan,
vol. ii. u citad r. tV. I MS. 2; alao in Smithy Diet of Aotiq. p. 43B.~Cr. MUMIfm, Aatiquitatet Tritum fli FmllwfaB. lYtJ. ad
Rh«n. 1737.

(e) The art of dyeing {art eiaelerie, tiacfura).— This aeems to have been a subject of special
regard in the time of the empire. Establishments for dyeing were supported In various places ;
at Tarentum, e. g. celebrated for its woolen manufactures, there was an imperial dye-house
(tepJUuM, 0a^io¥); these eaublishments were und* a superintendent (tepJkiw pr^pttitmt). The
whole work of making the cloth appears to have been performed in them, both the spianinf
iUnifidum) and the business of weaving (ttxtrinu). A dye much used was the purple obtainaa
from the shell of the Murex. Dyers from various places resorted to Phmnicia to improve
themaelves in the art.

Sae JnwMe'i, Sur U telntnrt in Inekw, in tiM JTmi. dt rinttUut, Clnstn *£ir. K jMiixJHt, voLL p. 549; ««L UL
p. S57^-Cr. BOlice of (Im cotw of tlw toga, f 392. 2.

^ 269 u. Affriculiure was in much higher estimation than commerce or any of the
trades ; and ttie fields of the wide Roman territory, as well as those taken in war.
were chiefly posseased by respectable Roman citixens. Many noble Romans lived
upon their own lands, and made the cultivation and improvement of them a special
study. The ornamenting of their estates proved, in the flourishing periods of the
8tat6, an important part of Roman luxury.

1. The grain chiefly cultivated was wheat, but of variotis kinds; triticnm was a
common name ; far is put for any kind of corn, and farina for meal. Barley, hordeum,
and oats, avenat were also raised. Flax, Zmurn, was an article cultivated considerably.
Meadows, pratat were cuhivatcd for mowing; they seem to have yielded two crops

of hay, /asnum. The breeding of cattle was an object of attention usually included

under husbandry; chiefly, oxen, horses, sheep, and goats. Much care was atso be-
stowed on bees (japeit): Trees, also, boih forest, fruit and ornamental, received their
share of attention. The Romans were acquainted with most of the various methods
now practiced for propagating the diflerent species uid varieties. — But the culture of
the vine finally took the precedence of all otner cultivation (cf. $ 331 b).

Respecting the attention paid by the Romans to agriculture as a science, and the care taken
In defining the boundaries of landi by means of professional surveyors {agrhuiuoreg), see P. V.
^ 483-489. cf. P. II. $ 01. 1.

2. Among the agricultural instruments the plow, aratrum^ ranks first ; its chief
parts were the temo, beam, to which the Jugum or yoke for the oxen was attached :
atttu, plow-tail or handle, having on its end a cross-bar (manicula) of which the
plowman took hold to direct the instrument; ft«rt>, a crooked piece of wood betfreen
the beam and plowshare ; dentale or deuM^ thjB piece of timber which was joined to
the huria and received on its end the share ; wmer^ the share ; aurts, aflixed to the
huritt and answering to mold-boardt to throw the earth back ; euUer, the colter. The
raUum was a stafl* used for cleaning the plow, or beating ofi* clods from it. In some
plows wheels were attached ; but Uie plow most commonly used was more simple,
having neither colter nor mold-boards.-— ^-Ot her instruments were the ligo, spade : 6a-
tdlus, shovel ; nostrtcm, rake j »arculum, hoe or weedinjg-hook j bidena, a sort of hoe,
with two hooked iron teeth ; occa and irpex, diflierent kinds of harrows ; marra, a mat-
tock or hoe for cutting out weeds; dolahra, a sort of adx ; tecurist ax ; falx, pmnin^-
knife ; falx tneiforia and falcula, sickle.— ^The implements for beating out gram
were the pertiem, a sort of flails; traha^ a sort of sledse; tribula, a board or beam,
set with stones or pieces of iron, with a great weight laid upon it, and drawn by yoked
cattle. These were all used ui>on the threshing-floor, area^ which was a round space,
elevated in the center ; sometimes paved with stone, but commonlv laid with clay
carefully smoothed and hardened. Sometintes the threshing was aone by merely
drivine oxen or horses over the grain spread on this floor, as among the Greeks and
Jewft.

PLATE XXXI 1.

.■i,i:hLjj_[

TTTT

1

■ ^ I

-TT'T'T r L-;V^

F?j'

IIZH3

> 1 1 •

:^

BIM

Zi

Xrd

266 ROMAir ANTIQUITIES.

In Plate XXXII., fif . H. ezbiblti the Roman plow ; T la the Umo ; B, the wthM ; A, pofata to
the *uru on the buria; D, to the dentaU ; V, It the vomer; C, the enU*r. In flf. iii. are eeen
forma of the Syrian plow, cf. $ 17t, 3.— On the Roman plow, cf. Diekton, aa ched P. V. 1 480. S.

Pic. 8, In Plate XXXlI. is a cut abowinf varietiea of the /aix, prnning-knifte, and aickle.

Fig. 5 la fVom an Egyptian monument, and ahowa the uae of the aiekle in catting wheat in tb«

field. Fig. 7 if a Peraian drmg^ for the pnrpoae of threabing grain ; a roller with teeth, fitted

ao aa to be drawn by cattle over the grain ; it ia taken from Sir R. K. P^rfar.— Fig. It. ia another
inatrument for the aame purpoae, taken from Jfiehukr ; it haa three wbeela with iron teetb, or
with aerrated edgea, drawn by cattle, the driver sitting on it. Tbeae figurea may partially IUub"
trate the Roman <raA« and trikvla. PontederUt Antiqultatum Ruaticarum, Jtc. FaUv. 1738.

3. The carriafi^eB used for agriculttiral purposes were chiefly the plaustra or mA«,
which had usually two wheels, sometinies four, and were drawn commonly by oxen,
but also by asses and horses. These often had wheels without spokes, called <ym-
pana. The body of these carnages (and indeed of any carnage) was termed eamm,
and the draught-tree or beam, temo. The ju^m was the yoke, fastened to the neam
and also to the cattle by thonss, lora mhjugxa — The tarraaim was a cart or wagon
used in conveying wood, and tne various products of the farm. — Pack-horses (ooftaUt)
were sometimes used for carrying burdens; more frequently asses or mules; called
ditellarii, from the packages (elitelta) on their backs.

We may remark in this connection, that the Romans had various carriages for con-
venience and amusement.-'The chariot, eurrut, was the most common ; always with
two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even six horses. Those with two were
termed btgei ; those with four, quadriga ; in the races, the horses were always yoked
abreast.— -The earruea was a sort of private coach of the rich, sometimes of solid sil-
ver, curiously carved. — I'he pUentum, was an easy soft vehicle with four wheefs,
used in conveying women to public gameis and rites. The earpentum was a carriage
with two wheels and an arched covering. The tkensa was a splendid carriage wuh
four wheels and four horses, in which the images of the gods were taken to the puU
vinaria in the Circus, at the Circensian games (^ 233). The citium was a vehicle
with two wheels, drawn b^ three mules, used chiefly for traveling. The rheda was a
larger traveling carriage with four wheela. — ^The horses were guided and stimulated
by the bit (,fr<Bnum) and reins {kabefue) and whip {Hagellum). Bells (tintinnafmla)
were sometimes attached to the necks of the chariot-horses in a string similar to those
now used.

Fig. 6, in our Plate XXXT. ia an ancient M^a, preaerved In the Vatican at Rome ; It la coverad
with leather. Fig. 9 ahnwa a triga. Pig. 4 ia a quadriga^ which very nearly correaponda to a
repreaentatlon on a medallion (nummns moduU vtaxmi) belonging to the Rovei Cabinet at Paris,
on which Anguatua appeara holding a atandard with the eagle at lu top, and drivhif four horaea.
Cf Montf^veon, Sup. vol. i. p. M.

Conveyance waa alao made on horaeback, In which eaae the epur (ealear, icivrpov^ cf FWf.
JEn. xi. 714) waa the atimulua. Saddlea of aome kind (r^Aippto, i^tivwiuv) were need ; ■ometlmes
perhapa merely of cloth (vc»/t« •(re^ula) ; yet aomelimea consiating, aa ia now anppoaed to be
ahown by aome monumentgi, of a wooden frame, atuifed and covered with a aoft material, and
fimtened by a girth (dv«Jtt», soaa). Stirrupe iMffim) we>-e alao known*. In later timea at leaat.
—It baa been queationed whether the ancienu uied to «Ao« their horaea. But the alluaiona of the
claaaical writera aeem to Indicate clearly the (kct that they did*, although, in the remalna of
ancient art the ahoe la acarcely found, if ever, in the repreeentationa of the horae. Some have
aupposed that a plate of roeul waa attached to the hoof, not by naila, but by lome other meana.

> Sm (Nfimt, Uebo- WlfCB (*« a valnabU wotk on llw bktory of CwTi»|n*0 * CI AdkMlofia, wL viii. p. ill, m dtad

r. IV. i aa. 6. • JtrthmOotkL, *nl. Hi. p. SS.-SM Um p<wH« tnm Joknmm, giTn in \ 9». 1 B«P«tiH Mdl«, bit^ kt.

cC B. Chv*, ChaUBOfraphy. Load. 18a&. — Ob Uw vabida of tba •Bcirat*. Sdkqftar, De Ba VcUral.

$ 270. Here will be the place to notice what is most important respecting
the weights and circulating coins of the Romans.

1. The principal Roman weight was the libra or pound. This was divided like the
oa, into twelve ounces ; apd the parts bore the same names with those of the at, men-
tioned below. Various weights, both parts and multiples of the pound, were used in
transacting business. They were often made of a black stone which some have
called LyaiuB lapis. Scales (Ztftr^) and steelyards {trutituB), like the modem, were
employed in weighing.

Varloua apeclmena of Roman welghta are given by JlfeB<f«ti«eii, vol. ill. p. KiO, aa cited 4 IS.
Some are rectangular aotida; but moat of them are la a degree apherical.— Fig. 7, in our Plate
XXXI. ia a ateelyard found at Pompeii ; the original haa an inacriptlon, bearing a date which cor-
reaponda to A. D. 77, and aaaerting that the inatrument had been legally teated and proved in the
Capitol. -'Pig. 8 ia the movable weight belonging to another ateelyard found at the aame place.
—Roman ateelyarda and welghta have been found alao in England. Cf. jfrcA«ei«Ha, cited P. IV.
J SI 6. vol. ix. p. ISl. • a-.

2 tt. Servius TuUius was the first who caused money to be coined (cf. P. IV. % 134),
b^ stamping on brass the image of cattle (pecudet whence the term petunia). Pre-*
viously, exchanges were made by barter, or by means of uncoined metal. The most
common brass coin, the aa, was originally a Roman pound in weight and was divided
like that into twelve ounces (.uncim). Two tincue made a ttxtant ; three, a quadrant ;
four, a trient ; five, a quincunx ; six, a temit ; seven, teptunx; eight, bet {bit trient);
nine, dt^rant ; ten, dieunx ; and eleven, deunx. Afterwards the at was gradually

p. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MONEY. 267

veducod (P2m. H. N. zxziii. 3) to an ounce in quantity, and finally even to a half-
ounce. Silver coin was first stamped B. C. 269; the most common coins wer^ the
Denariuf, QuituiriuSf and Sestertius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as
equal to ten pounds of brass, and marked X, or Xi but after the reduction of the air
to an ounce, B. C. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen asses. The proper value of it
also varied at different times. The Quinarius was half the Denanus, and marked
V. The Sestertius was a fourth part of the Denarius, and originally equal to 2^
asses (hence its name semis tertius), and marked LLS, i. e. Libra libra Semist abbre-
viated IIS or HS. After the reduction of the €u to one ounce, the Sestertius passed
fi>r four asses. The Sestertius was often called Nummus. — Gold coin was first stamped
at Rome B. C. 207; the most common coin was the Aureus or Solidust equal in
weight to two Denarii and a Quinarius, and in value to twenty-five Denarii.

/. IVhrrf, D* Am tk hrtibui ^m Load. 17ia 8.-^af«liMll, Leelurn on (bi Coiatft oT th* Oraak* tiid Romub

3. The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, where their mo-
ney was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred originally to the image, or
stamp, impressed on the coin and reminding one of the person or thing represented.
The mint was under the care of the Triumviri monetales ; the coins were examined
by the Nummularii. The impression on the As or Assipondium was a Janus hifrons
on one side and on the reverse the rostrum of a ship ; on the Semis and Ouadrans
(called also SembeUa and Teruncius) was a boat instead of the rostrum. Tne silver
coins Denarius\ Quinarius, and Sestertius, often had on one side a chariot with two
or four horses, and on the other the head of Roma with a helmet ; but other devices
were sometimes impressed (cf. P. IV. ^ 139. 2). — 'I'he value of the Denarius was
about 15 cents, as deduced from the experiments o( Letronne, who carefully weighed
1350 co«Utt2ar denarii ; that of the Sestertius, being one-fourth of it, was therefore
about 3 cents and 8 mills. — The ratio of gold to silver in the republic was about
10 to 1.

JtAwMoaMl.D*F9iMlcr!ba*tlPratibVetomNamBanuB. Load. 1614. 4.— Jfoi^ti, it \\H da Manaoyni dw« \m tacim
ei cbcs IM owdOTw. ac. iB tte JMrm. A I liuMul, C I a ■• e d'i7<«L «l /^. Alb wL is. p. 187.-Gofv
Bumf, u dtad ^ 274. 2.

4. The usual rate of interest {fmnus) was one as for the use of a hundred a month,
or 12 per cent, a year, and was paid monthly on the Calends. It was called usura
sentesima, as in a hundred months the interest would equal the capital {caput or sors).
Horace speaks (Sat. i. iii. 12) of a usurer, who took 60 per cent, r or money invested
in properly exposed at sea {faenus nauticum) the lender might demand any interest he
liked while the vessel was out ; but after she reached harbor, only the usual rate of
12 per cent. — When a person, borrowing money, pledged himself and property iii the
form of a sale, he was said to be nexus ; a person faiUn^ to discharge nis debt within
the legal term was by the law consigned to the creditor, and was then said to be
addiUus.

Sm WuMto-.HW. or Soma, ad. FMI. I88& voL L p. W.-^HudtvaaBm, Da Iib. laalico Ron. Bank ISia 4.

% 271 tt. The Romans usually reckoned money by Sestertii. The sum of 1000
Sestertii they called Sestertium ; duo Sestertia, e. g. signifies the same as bis miUg
sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thousand or over, they used the wordiSet-
tertium in the case required, prefixing only the numeral adverb to the first number,
feu, twenty, &c., and leaving the hundred to be supplied by the mind ; e. g. Decies
Stttertium signified 10,00,000 Sestertii ; Quadragies Sestertium signified 40,00,000,
or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes reckoned by talents, in case of large sums.
The* talentum was equal to 60 libra or pounds.

1. Kennet gives the followlnR rule for loterpretinr the lAtin ezpreraiont for tnms of money ;
if a numeral aeree. In ease, namt>er, and fender, with Sestertius, then It denotes precisely and
■Imply so many sesUrees ; if a numeral of another case be Joined with the f enltlve plural, 8es-
teru^m. It denotes ao many tkomsund sutertes ; If a numeral adverb be Joined to the same, or be
nsfld alone. It denotes so many hmnJr§d thousand sestsreis.

We have on record soma statements, from which we may form a notion of the Roman wealth
and luxury. Crassus, for ln»tance. Is snid to have possessed lands to the value of bit miUiet, I.e.
by the above rule, 9000X100,000=900,000,000 sesterces ; taking the value of ihe aesterce obtained
as mentioned In the preceding section, we have 3.6X900,000,000-:-1000=#7,600,000, for the value
of the land owned l>y Crassus ; he is said to have had, in slaves, bulldln|r«, fbrnitnre, and money,
as much more^--CaliKUlii laid out upon a single supper, ceiitt«#r, i.e. 100x100,000 sestercess
S.8x 10,000,000-:-IOOa=#380,000.— Cleopatra fs^said to have swallowed, at a feast with Antony,
a pearl worth the same sum, etnties HS.— Cicero Is said to have bad a table which cost c«iiiin»
sestt na«», I. e. lOOX 1.000 sesterceas#3800.

Ct J^m, Rom. AbL (ed. Boyd) Ediab. It»4. p. 438.— PfeflMpi IImm mm vmM be mock teT|cr, If Am anowuM ww* M*
fer Ito depnciitkM ia Iha faloa of tba prrciow nwlak Ct 8af$ MiL CoooMnr, bk. i. eh. ui. NcL 7.

5. In the Roman system of notation, seven letters of the alphabet were emptoyed for ezpreas-
Ini numbers : vlx. I for 1, V for 5, X for 10. L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and M for 1000. Instead
of D, they sometimes nsed IC to slg nify 500 ; and instead of M, they also used X or CIC, or O C,
lo elcnify 1000. Sometimes a line drawn oyer a letter Indicated that it was to be multiplied by
1000; e. f. X stood for 10,000; L, 50,000; C, 100,000.— Combinations of these letters usually sis*
allied the sum of the numbers represented by the several letters separately j e. f . VIII, 8 ; XV, I5»

268 ROMAlir ANTIQUITIES.

LX, 60 ; CX, 110. But tvhen I, V, or X was placed before a letter repreientinir a larger nomber,
the combination expressed the differettee; e. g. IV, 4; XL, 40; XC, 90; and when to IC another
C was annexed, it indicated a multiplication by 10; e.g. 10,500; ICC, 5000; ICCC, 50,000: in
order to signify the same nultiplicaiion of CIC, a C was also prefixed as well as O annexed ;
e. g. CI3, 1000; CC103, 10,000; CCC1033, 100,000. For any multiple, however, of this last,
100,000, the Romans did not employ letters ; but prefixed to this expression a numeral adverb;
as bit, to signify 200,000 ; (er, to signify 900,000; deciM, to signify 10,00,000, &.c.

$ 272. It may be in place to npeak here of the modes of acquiring or transferring pro
perty {res privatiB)^ or methods of gaining the ownership {dominium). 'i*he following
may be named ; 1. Mancipalioj when a regular compact or bargain was nihde, and the
transfer was attended with certain formalities used among Roman citizens only ; 2. Cestio
injure, when a person transferred his effects to another before the Prstor, or ruler of
a province ; chiefly done by debtors to creditors ; the eessio extra jus was when an
insolvent debtor eave up his property to his creditors ; 3. Usucapion when one obtained a
thing by having had it in possession and use (im^ anetoritate) ; 4. Emptio sub corona,
the purchasing; of captives in war, who were sold at special auction, with garlands
{corona) on their heads ; 5. Auctio, public sale or auction ; 6. Adjudication which referred
strictly either to dividing an inheritance among co-heirs or dividing stock omong partners,
or settling boundaries between neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of pro-
perty by sentence of a judge or arbiter ; 7. DonatWy when any thing was given lo one
for a present ; 8. Haredit<u, when property was received by inheritance ; and this was
either by bequest^ from a testator, wno could name his heirs m a written will {leslamento)
or in a declaration {viva voca) before witnesses ; or by lato, which assigned thd property of one
dying intestate to his children and after them to tne nearest relatives on the father's side.

i 273 u. The public sale of property {auetio, also called proscriptio) was very common
among the Romans. In the place were such sale was held, a spear was set up, whence
the phrase «u6 hasta venire or vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be
sold {tabula proscriptionis, tabula auclionaria) was previously suspended upon a pillar in
some public place. Permission for such sales must be obtained of the city Praetor. The
superintendent of the sales was termed magister auctionum: in cases where the sale
was to meet the demands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, and was generally
the one who had the highest claim against the debtor. The sale of confiscated goods
was termed sectio; the money arising therefrom went to the public treasury.

Various distinctions were made of things constituting'property. One, of early origin, and con-
sidered important, was into Res JUaneipi and Rss JVsc JUaneipif the Maneipi were all
such as could be transferred by the form called Mandpotio ; the JVec Maveiyi were such as could
not be thus transferred. Under the Res Maneipi were fncluded farmg within Italy {pradia rustiea,
also urbana)y and in any place which had obtained the j»« Jtalieum ; also slavet ; and quadrvptds
which were trained to work with back or nftck; pearlM {margaritte); and country pra;dial tervi-
tudes (or Mtrvitutes prttdiorum rvstie&run). By a predial servitude was meant a right of making
a particular use of the land of another, as the right of going through it on foot {ssrvUvs Uinerin);
of drlvins a beast iaetits); of driving a loaded carriage (eus); of conducting water {aqMsduetms) i
making lime {caltis coqmsndm). Sac.

Ob Um nbjaet of property bbmnv Ibe Ronaa^ M UnUrtubm, UcImt di« wtnAMiaon Altai im BinaUmmt, fcc i« dw JUMn.
JAis.— Dirfticn, tJeter dit |8wfsltchcB BmhrlnkoacM det Sifnibvm, ia Ibc ZtUatkrifl^ vol. li.— JBynJkmAoaA, OpoMBliun ds
Rabua Maneipi •( Nac MaiieipL-.Sang«y, Dm Racbt dar Baaitna.-«na*, Diet, of Aoliq. aadw Dmdmium, HimdpaMo, A»
iKufM, StrvUui, kc Ob tba fern in auetiaai, /. RMruu, Da Haataram at AuelioBttaD Origiae, id Ormtiut, vol. ]iL

^ 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity should be explained here.

1 u. The measures of length and surface were the following; digitus, a finger's
breath ; four of which made a palmus, or handbreadth; and sixteen, a pes or toot:
5 feet were equal to apassus or pace; 125 of the latter formed a stadium, and 1,000 of
them, or 8 stadia, a miUiare. — In land-measures, the following were the most common
denominations ; jugerum, what could be plowed in a day by one yoke {jugo) of cattle,
240 feet long, 120 broad, or containing 28,800 square feet ; actus quadratus, eoual to
half the iucerum, being 120 feet square and containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an
eighth of the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3,600 feet.

The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 4 of
which made a cvathus, and 6 an acetabulum; the acetabulum was the half of a quartarius,
which was the naif of a hemina; and the hemina, half of a sextarius nearly eoual to our
pmt. For dry thines there was also the Modius, equal to 16 sextarii. In liquids the
sextarius was a sixtn of the congius; 4 congii made an uma; two urne, an amphora;
and 20 amphorie, a culeus.

For a roller viaw of tha anbjael, tha Tablaa praaaslad ia Plata XXXH a. nay ba eonanliad.

2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of the Roman /set, which is
important in learning the values of the several measures of length, extent, and capacity. 1. One
means is furnished by specimens of the Roman foot on tombstones ; there are four of these pre-
served in the Capiioline Museum. %. Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot-
rules were bars of brass or iron of the length of a pes, designed for use in actual measurements.
3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been deduced from the distances between the
milestones on the Appian Way. 4. Attempts have been made to asceruin the Roman fool
likewise from the eongivs, the measure of capacity, of which two are yet in preservation, one at
Rome, the other at Paris; the solid contents of the congius are said to have been the cube of
half a ves From the same measure, It may be remarked in passing, there have been attempts

PLATE XXXIU.

ROMAN

lONEIS, WEIGHTS, ASD lEASUSES.

The value in our denominetlone It given from
Conger's Tablet.

Measures of Surface*
1. Bd&w th0 Fmvtw.

lOOl

4W I 4 I SrxtoU

480 I 4.8 I 1.2 I AdM

flPO I 6

2400| 84

1.8 I 1.2S I Sidliqmif
6 I 5 I 4 |UDCi»

aeOOl 38 I 8 I 7.6 I g I i.5 I Clipaa

. 0 0C.94

• 94.3S

. I 104 09

. I 180.08

• 8 9a8l
8 8

• 18 185.48

lOOOOl 100 I 26 |an.«l laO j 4.I6 I 2.7 I VrnM 84 187.06

S. Mov tAe V$r§w.

Jkrm.w. ptlm,tq.ft

V«nv 0 0 94 107.06

l.44lAch»Q>adiHqi I » »»-W

j^jJaJJafBrmn (A») - - • • 8 18 187.09

&.78| 4 I a~|H<miiom • . 1 0 SB 101.88

676 I 400 I aOO 1 100 I C«»hiri> - - 184 8 17 108.79

28041 IMP 1800 1 400 I 4 I S»Hi» « 488 1 88 166.91

8nbiMHanM of the Jngerwrn snd the Libra.

■na Unda b a I8th put of (he Xttra aad abo oftbe iuframi
tad tH iaMrVniiic di?iiUiiii hav* Om mom bum.

Uneim
2LSnt>Bi

8.<lgadfMa

Untim
6. Q«lH
6.8enh

Unefm

8.
la Dcxtmw

Undm

11. Oraaz

12. Jupmm,
•mi LOra.

1000 SOO I aSO 126

Moneys*

Ika$.dt. m.

0 00 as?

7.74

• • t 6.48

• 8 a86

. • 8 &68

I « I 10 I e I 4 I t I DeMltai • . 15 4.76

|8.6|l.25|(

5 I 100 I

W 25

Weights.

1. BOaw the 8ieUifUM$.

(rtoyWdfht.)
J)wt$.tn.

SiH<pa 0 2.82

8 lObolM • a76

6 I 2 IScraiwliB 17.59

12 I 4 I 2 i aemhwtiito ... I 11.08

24 i 8 I 4 I a I Seitttla .... 8 82.18
86 I 12 I 6 1 8 I 1.6 I SJcflfclWi . - 4 aiS

i. JOove the SieOiquua.

Lbi, f». iiaU. gr$.

0 0 4 aio

6 80136'

4 I 9 iDada 17 12:79

48 I 36 I 12 I Utea • - • , • 10 10 ^63

4800|t600lH00|l00|Oapfmpodwni 87 7 19 17 06

Sdllqav •
1 9 I DoelU

Measures of Capacity.

1. F9r Uq^dii,

Ljtola •
4 ICyaflwi
8 \\A\

8 I 2 I Qmilariqi
6 I 4 I 8

. 0 0 8.019

• • a079

. • • aii8

• • a837

• • 0475

li 18 1 8 I 4 I 8 I

8| W I a|84|l8|8|

1152 2W t »« I »« I <« I »< I * I P"*

I. Fw TkingB Drf,

Ligula

4 I

6 llJ I

IT

9

2

iQoarluioi •

M

6

4

2 tUnim

«

12

8

1 4 2 i Seal

364|86|64|aa|l6| 8 |

230*1 6:8 1 884 1 192 I 96 I 48 I 8 I 2 I Amphora

• 8 1.704
8 8 0819
6 2 1.6891 TwBty AiDplioT» mada a CbIw

76811981 I88| 64 I 82 | 16 | 2 | Modiaa

0

114 0

pU.

aoi9i

Oy079

aii8

0887
0476
O8S0
1.6C6
IJ19
{%6

1. BtUw tk* P$t.

Measures of Iiength*

s. AboM tkt Pm,

iJi\

8 t «l

4.6 I 9 I 1.6 i Di<HBi - •
jJ_4_j_8jji^|U5da . -
18 i 12 I 6 f 4 I 9 IPalmw

72j_48 I 24 LjgX'Ai.i-l-f'!—!^ !

Pm (H.64 iBdM i«)
L23 IjPaliniiwi • •
\A\ 1.8 I CaMtai

2.6 I a M'> lr*i

8 i 4 I 09 I 8 |I

W I 8 I 8*1 4 I 8 I

laO I 86 i 80 I 48 i 24 t 12 i i

5000 I 4000 |33S3AJ 2000 | 1000 | SOO ] 41.fc I MiBlara

rdh./l.

. 0 097

• IJl
. • l.tf

• 2.48 |i
. 1 1.86

8 070

. 88 9.48

1617 e.75

z2

369

270 ROHAN ANTIQUITIES.

to deduee the v«lue of the Ronmn Ubra^ as the congiuB ia en id to hare held ten pounds of win«
or water. 5. The actual meaaiirenient of ancient buildini^s now standing at Knme is a method
which is tiiouKht to be^most satisfactory. By these various methods the Rowan foot is mad«
nearly eqnal to 13 inches.
OMieiHli>k eipwinent to aMcrteia tto Ifim tnm tto Canghu !• ralatod in Ditt. I. appeodni to toL iii. ot Gortd'* OripBof

lAW% *c Antonx lh« antboriliM on the Remn noiMjr, wdgbti, mkI meMum, the foilowiof may be mmed in iddiiioo to tbon

ci«cd \ Vta-^KiMnKT, Matmut, and IVurm, at died ) 174—0 ihufanii, De Ana et fiartibut rjun. Itbri t. Lugd. IS6I. 8 -7. P.
Ormu>9. De Sa ertiii. L. B. l<»l.— Jl Bmrini, Syutigiiia de peoderibos ei meinurb Rom. Uipfc 1714. 8.-The trealiMe of Pmut
aod oiberi in the I lib vol. of Ormiuc, cited § ir.-O. Mdopcr, SWeof ttae Andeal Meanaree, ibe Ailte, Hoimb, aad Jewiab, wttb
•B AppMrirx owceraiBS the old Bt^XUb Unotj, ft«.<(|nblirtMd 1731). AiM ia bia worka. UiC 1757. fol.-^. Ortaau, Dncripiioa
of the Roman Fool and Dmulm.-J. Irbutknot, Tablea of Andcat Coioa, Jkc Lntd. 1727. 4 —A Langvaitk, M>ierva(ioM oa
Dr. Ariraihimll DiMertation on Coina, Weighta, kc. Load. HM. 4.— Of later aaibon in Meitology, Lartmne aod fVitrm (eC
{ 174) arc moat emiaeat. Cf Ann/Mlt Dieiioaaair* Clawqae ; ia which (aa abo in Congu^a Bbm;} u* Rood tablea of the Oradt
and Bomaa weiBhta and lB«aattreB.>-Cf. alao Frtnt^ La neaorra loupiea dea aacicna. ia the Mem. Mad. hutr. vol. xiiv. p. 4«.~
OemKn, Sritema metriqaaB liiwaraa d^atiqnita, ia the JUkm. di FlMtUutt CI a ■ a e d'tfift. K LO. Jne. vol. n. 44— JL Bymff,
Em»j oa the andaal Wotihta aad Mooay, with an Appendia oo the BooMa and Greek Foot. Oit I8S7. 1.

III. APPAIR8 OP War.

§ 275. The Romans were of all the nations of antiquity pre-eminently war-
like; and by an uninterrnpted series of gpreat military enterprises made a rapid
and remarkable advancement in power and dominion. Hence an acquaintance
with what pertains to their military antiquities mnst aid in forming a just idea
of their character and the original sources of their greatness.

1 u. This knowledge Is to be drawn from their chief historians as the primary source ;
particularly from the commentaries of Julius Cesar, and the historical works of Livy
and Tacitus ; to which we may add the Greek writers on Roman history, Polybius and
Appian, on account of their constant reference to military aflfairs. Besides these sources,
there are the Roman writers who have made it their chief object to describe the Roman
artof war, in its various particulars; viz. Hyjg^inus, Frontinus, and Vegeiius.

2 u. It is from these sources that those who have formed treatises and manuals of
Roman antiquities have derived their materials on this branch of the subject.

/. LiptiUM, de Bffilitia Romaoa (a ennBMnl.oaPloi7Uni). Aatv. I«M. 4.-C. rfe Jfuino, Lexieoa MUitaic Robub, ^71*. 2 voK
kiSmt und AOkA, Ri^niadw KriepaltsrthOmer, aoa eehleo <^iellca faachOpfl. Halle, I7»2. S. A (nod manaal oa tbla branch
of aniiquitiea —The lOlh vol. of Onmui (cited \ 197) wniiitt of treariaet by B. II. ScAah'tu aad otbera, on the military afiln of tba
Sontana.— Cr alao AoTitn, oa the Art miUrary, ia Tht Hitfory cf tJu Jtrta and Sdmm o/ tkt JindtnU ; found ia hii Jndtnt Hit-
tory. N. York, I6U. < tola. a-ikmMn% Diae. oa the Rom. Art of War, ia kia TnaiL of Caaaar, cited P. V. ^ 538. 7.-C. Owf
copti; Memoirea crit. et hiai. rar plua. poiata d^tiqaitaa militalrea. Berlla, I77S. 4 volib 8. Cf. § 42.— £• Seou, Memoira on Rooian
LtCioa. kc. ia the Jfem. dt rjhad. du huer. ia difihrent vola. from 2Sth to 42d.— Oi MaiunA^ to eomplcie the design of Le Beau^
ill aaoM Mem. ^ veL xlU —BegrM, oo the aomaa La. k»a, ftc Cf. Gbna. /otira. li. lM.~«iMen, ia hb Som. Emp. ck L

§ 276. On account of the frequent changes in the military system of the Ro.
mans in the successive periods and revolutions of their history, the antiquary
roust, in treating of this subject, pay constant attention to the order of time.
Of the Roman art of war in its earliest state, we have but imperfect accounts ;
but we know that the warlike spirit of the nation showed itself under the kings,
and gave no dubious intimations of their future career. — In the division of the
people into three tribes, made by Romulus,' a thousand men for foot soldiers and
a hundred for horsemen were taken from each tribe, and thus originated the
Arat Roman legion [containing therefore 3,000 foot soldiers, beaides the 300
horsemen]. The 300 horsemen, called ceieres^ and constituting in time of
peace a bodyguard of the king, were disbanded by Numa, but reorganized by
Tullus Hostiliasj and increas^ by the addition of 300 noble Albani; the whole
number of 600 was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus ; and the body of horsemen
at last comprised 2,400 men.

There is not a perfect agreement In the accounts given respecting the number of men In the
cavalry at different periods (cf. Z^y, I. SO, 30; Plutnreh^ Rnmul. 13, SO; Cieern^ De Republ. II.
20) ; and there is room for some doubt, whether tha whole number at the close of the regnl power
and in the flourishing times of the republic should be stated as 04,00, or as 36,tH), or as 54,00.— Sea
Zumpt and Marquardt, as cited ( 390. S.

$ 277. No one could be a soldier under 17, and all between 17 and 45 were
enrolled amon^ the class of younger men, and liable to service; while those over
45 were rankea among the elder men, excused from military duty. They were
always received to service under a formal oath (sacramenlum}^ The regular
tii&e of service was 16 years for foot soldiers, and 10 for horsemen; it was not
customary, however, to serve this number of years in succession, and whoever,
at the age of 50, had no' served the prescribed number of campaigns was stiU

p. III. MILTTART AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF THE ARXT. 27'

excused from the rpst. Persons of no property {capiie centi) were not included
in the rule of requisition as to service, because having nothing to lose, they
were not supposed to possess sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted
wars the time of service was sometimes extended fonr years longer, and under
the emperors 20 years became the regular period, except for the imperial guard,
who were required to serve hut 16. As all the soldiers were Roman citizens
and free-born, the rank of soldier was in high estimation ; and their peculiar
rights and privileges were termed jua militiae, Freedmen could be admitted
only into naval service. — In the earliest times the Roman order of battle re-
sembled the Grecian phalanx. Subaeauently it was a custom to form several
platoons or divisions. At a later period the method of three lines was adopted,
which will be described below (§ 286).

$ 278. During the freedom of Rome, as has been mentioned, the army was
Qsoally commanded by one of the consols. A consular army commonly con-
sisted of two legions of foot, and six hundred horse, all native Romans. For
two consuls a double number was requisite, 4 legions and 1,200 horse. The
legion contained originally 3,000 foot^soldiers, but gradually increased to 6,000
and higher. In the second Punic war it consisted of 6,200 foot with 300 horse ;
and each leg^ion had at that time six tribunes, of whom there were of coarse as
many as 24 in all. These tribunes were chosen by the people, partly from the
equites, partly from the plebeians.

1. The nnmbf>r of foot-soldien in a teplon appeiira to bave varied much at diflbreni tbnea.
Cf. /ivy, vil. S5 ; xzlx. S4; zllv. tl ; PolybiuM, Hi. 12.

2 «. In cases of great urgency, those who had served their time and were over six-
and-forty years of age, were yet bound to defend their country, and to 611 vacancies in
the city legions; in such enicrgencie?, freedmen and slaves were aomeiimes enlisted.
Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm {tumuUut) were called iumuharii or
tnhHarxi; those of them enlisting voluntarily were called voUme*.

3 ». Entire freedom from military duty was enjoyed only by the senators, augurs,
and others holding a priestly office, and persons suffering some bodily weakness or
defect. Remission ofsome part of the legal term of service was, however, often granted
as a reward of bravery ; this was called vacatio honoraia*

i 279. In the levying of the soldiers (deUclw), the following were the usages
most worthy of notice. The consuls announced by a herald the time of a levy
(diem edicebani) ; then every citizen, liable to service, must appear, on peril of
his property and liberty, at the Campus Martius; each consul elected tor him-
self two legions, assisted by the military tribunes. The common soldiers were
taken from all the tribes, which were called successively and separatel^r in an
order decided by lot. Four men were selected at a time, of which the tribunes
of each legion, in rotation, took (Ugerunt) one. Afterwards the oath of fidelity
{saeramenium) was taken, first by the Consuls and Tribunes, then by the Cen-
turions and the Decuriones, and lastly by the common soldiers. Then the names
of the latter class were placed in the roll of the legion, and under the emperors
a mark was branded on the right hand, that they might be reco^ixed, it they
attempted desertion. Compulsory levying, resorted to in necessities, was called
eonqumtio ; the same thing among the allies was termed eomcripito,

i 280. After the levy was made, the legions were directed to another place
of assembling, in which they were formed into divisions and furnished with
arms. The younger and feebler were placed among the light troops, veliie$ #
the older and richer among the heavy-armed \ to which class belonged the haataiu
prineipett and iriariu

1 %. The hattati were young men in the flower of life, named from the long spear
ased by them at first, and occupying the foremost Unc in battle ; the principca were
the men in full vieor of middle age, standing in the second line in battle ; the triarii
the more advanced in age, veterans, constitutmg the third line in battle and taking thence
their name. A legion, when it consisted of 3,000, had 1,200 Aasfa/t, 1,200 princtpcM,
and 600 triarii. 'I'he last number always remained the same ; the two former were
variously increased, and light-armed troops (veZtYes or militet levet) were added ac-
eording to pleasure.

OailittlirMnaki.ikwi«r^ftc.,I«BMii.MdtodfV». Mm, 4«. voL xxiz. ^ 825.

2 » On tliis occasion when the troops were formed into divisions, the colors or stand-

272 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

ards were brought forth from the Capitol and treasury, and committed to the proper
officers (cf. ^ 282).

$ 281. The subdivisions were ori^nally manipuli or centurix^ containing each
a hundred men; and the leader and captain of this number was called Cenlurio,
— When the legion was divided into the three ranks of the hastati^ prineipa, and
triarii, each rank had at first fifleen maniples ; and the whole legion, or cottrse,
forty-five maniples. These maniples were all equal, consisting of 60 regular
privates, two centurions, and a standard-bearer. The maniples of the hastati
had 300 men of the velites, distributed equally among them; to the triarii also
were allowed thirty companies of the same ; the principes had none.

1 u. At another period the le^on was divided into 30 maniples, and each of the three
ranks into 10. The maniples of the triarii contained still the same number, 60 men in
each, 600 in all ; those of the hastati and principes contained double the number, 120
men in each, 2,400 in all of both ranks ; among these were- divided 1,200 light-armed
soldiers ; thus making a legion of 4,200. Each maniple was now divided into two cen-
turies, sometimes caHed ordines. The tenth part of a legion, three maniples of each
rank, and therefore including 300 men, was called a cohort, and from the number of
men contained, tricennaria ; when the legion contained 4,200, the cohort had 420, and
was termed quadrigenaria ; so also when larger, quingeftaria and texcenaria.

Ob tlM oobon, Lt Bttm^ m dtad § >75. JAm, 4«. vol. suiL p. >T9l

2 1». Each maniple had now two centurions, distinguished as prior and ootfmor ; and
every centurion had his assistant, called uragus^ subcenturio^ and optio. — The 300 horse-
men belonging to a legion were divided into 10 turma, and each turma into 3 decuria,
consisting of 10 horsemen, whose head or chief was called decurio.

§ 383. Each maniple had its standard, placed in its midst when in battle.
The chief standard was always in the first maniple of the triarii, which was
styled primus piltts. The images and figures upon the Roman standards were
rarious ; but the principal stanoard, common to the whole legion, was a silver
eagle on a staff or pole, sometimes holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an em-
blem of the Roman power or success. Those of the infantry were usually
termed tigna ; those of the cavalry, vexilla ; the bearers, signiferi, or vexiUariu

1. The vexUlumt a flag or banner, was a square piece of cloth, hung from a bar fixed
across a spear near its upper end. It was used sometimes for foot-soldiers, especially
for veterans, who were retained after their terni of service ; these were by distinction
called vexillarii, as they fought under this peculiar standard [svh vexillo) ; they were also
called svhsigtiani. On the flag were commonly seen the abbreviations for Senatus popu'
lusque Romanus, or the name of the emperor, in golden or purple letters. — The signum
was originally a Jiandful of hay t expressed by the word manijmlus, and it was from this
circumstance that a division of soldiers came to be so called. Afterwards it was a spear
or staff with a crosspiece of wood, sometimes with the figure of a hand above it, in
allusion perhaps to the word manipulua ; having below the crosspiece a small shield,
round or oval, sometimes two, bearing images of the gods or emperors. Augustus in-
troduced an ensign formed by fixing a globe on the head of a spear or stafi*, denoting
the dominion of the world. When Constantine embraced Christianity, he adopted a
new imperial standard which was termed the Labankn ; it is described as a long pike
with a transverse yard at the top, in the form of a cross; from this yard was hun^ a
silken veil or banner, of purple color, richly embroidered and ornamented ; the portion
of the standard above tne cross- yaixl was wrought into a monogram for the word
Xpwris. — I'he standards and colors were regarded with superstitious veneration by all
classes of the army.

In our Plate XXXIII. eleven different forme of Roman standards are given, in the figures
marked by the letter C— Fig. D ft the hand of Mokamiiud, a ■on of sacred elandard or sign of the
prophet's power among bis followers; It is taken from MorUr (cited P. V. $ 343. 3), who repre-
sents It as carried in religious processions in Persia. Two forms of ancient Persian standards
are also given, in the figures marked B.— The eight marked A are Egyptian.— Several Roman
standards are seen also in Plate XXIX ; cf. $ 9S4.

BcqMctiBf Uw lotanim, Me I. CBbnum, Aaiiqiiitiai of Chr. Cbvch, Note prafiMd to EzpluntMn of nuia^-CC Clam.Jaum.
voL IT. p. SS.

2. Near the standard was usually the station of the musicians. — " The Romans used
only wind-music in their army ; the instruments which served for that purpose may be
distmguished into the tuba, the comuat the buecina, and the Zittti.—The tuba is supposed
to have been exactly like our trumpet, running on wider and wider in a direct Ime to
the orifice. — The eomua were bent almost round ; they owe their name and original
to the horns of beasts, put to the same use in the ruder ages. — The bucciiuB seem to
have had the same rise, and may derive their name from bot and cano. It is hard to
distinguish these from the cornuaf unless they were something less and not quite so

PLATE XXXIII.

274 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

crooked. — The lUui were a middle kind between the comua and fM&8, being almost
straight, only a little turninjg in at the top, like the liluut or sacred rod of the augurs;
whence they borrowed their name. — I'heae instruments being all made of brass, the
players on them went under the name of aneatorea, besides the particular terms of
Ivbicinea, corMirtiMC, buccinataret^ &c. ; and there seems to have been a set number
assigned to every manipulus and turma ; besides several of higher order, and common
to the whole legion. In a battle, the former took their station by the ensign and
colors of their particular company or troop ; the others stood near the chief ea^le in a
ring, hard by the general and prime ofhcers ; and when the alarm was to be given, at
the word of the general, these latter began it, and were followed by the common
sound of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. — Besides this cl€U
ticuiHj or alarm, the soldiers gave a general shout at the first encounter, which in later
ages they called barritua, from a German original.*' (Kennet.)

ACBmarilwR0aMBMwm(liMMiDp|»iiZXVLflf.B;orttelilintf,|ifal»M7,iafi(.B. 8m GabMd. U TnspMta ehn

lmtmBmm,mlk»Mtm.J<md.tuet.vA.up.Wl. 0«lM< D> Tuba arigto «mu «pyd Vrtww. fa CyfoBaiiib wiL Mail. ■> eHi<

im.

i 383. The weapons of the Boldiers tliffered according to the class to whioli
they belonged. The velitti had a round shield (parma\ about three feet id
diameter, a spear for hurling {hatta vtlilaru)^ a heimet of ox-hide (eii<2o), or of
the skin of a wild beast {eaUruti)^ and in later times a sword. — ^The hasiaii bore
a larffe shield {aeutum), three and a half aod four feet long and over, of thin
boards covered with leather and iron plate ; a short but stiff and pointed sword
(giadiiM)^ on the ri^ht hip; two javelins of wood with iron points (ptVa), ont
longer and the other shorter; an iron or brazen helmet {saiea\ with a crest
adorned with plumes (criata) ; greaves for the legs, plateB with iron (oer€K)f
used in later times only for the right leg ; a coat or mail (/mca), formed of
metal or hide, worked over with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the
breast to the loins, or a breastplate {thorax) merely.— The prindpea and trichrii
used weapons of the same kind ; excepting that the triarii had longer spears,
called hanUe longa, in later times lancem, and long swords, called apai/uB^ or
when of smaller size, temi-apatha. — ^The shield was marked by the name of the
soldier and the number of the legion and maninle to which he belonged. Who-
ever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life.— Ths weapons
of the cavalry were sitnilar to the Grecian (cf. § 138): a war cap (eosau), a
coat of mail, an oblong shield, greaves or boots, a lance or javelin, and sword
and dagger, which last was used only in close fight.

The horsemen In Ag. 1, of Plate XXX. have a snail round shield. Cf. h fi35. 3. A sort of shield
is also seen in fig. 2 of Ihe same Plnie ; wliicb repre^enls a Roman kntght atlkcking a barbarian
soldier ; from an antique gem. Ikiih these figures show the horsenian*s spear.— The «eiit«iii and
.gladiua t%t ihe aoMirr are saen in Plate XXXUl. fig. 1, which is a Roman legionary, taken Crom
Trajan'a Pillar (cf. P. IV. ^ 166. S).— The shield is likewise seen in fig. % which represenu a

laginnary with the accoutermenls and baggage, which lie was obliaf>d always to carry in march-
ing (cf. k 996. 2).— The lorica or coal of mail may be seen In Plate XXII. fig. 5, In which the lega
ms well as the body are defended by mail ; this it the figure given in Ca/met to illustrate the

armor of OoliatA, the Philistine; it presents also his shield-bearing attendant. Cf. I Sam. xvil.
4-7.— In fig. 8, a coat of mail covers the arms ; the helmet here seen extends dow^n behind to
defend the neck as well as he«d ; the figure la drawn from Trajan's Column. In Plate XXX.
fig. m Is a Dacian horseman completely covered with scale armor ; as It bis horse also.— For
other articles of armor, see Plates XVII. and XXII. Cf. $$ 45 and 130.
OnttoBomu knaor, w* JCayridk, m dtod f tsa.— AK £« Amu (M cited \ 275) I* 9m ittm. i$ tAead. ^ toL s»iz. p. 4ST.

$ 264. According to the common accounts, the Roman soldiery received no
pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and wages {atipendium)
were first given to foot-soldiers B.C. 405, and to horsemen three years after. £acQ
soldier had a monthly allowance {tiemenaum) of about two bushels of wheat,
and a stipend of three asses per day. The stipend was afterwards greater;
Julius Cesar doubled it, and under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher.
The wa^es were sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as
a reward ; such w«re called dupUcarii. Certain days were fixed for the distri-
bution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of his pay was called
pecuUum caairtnae; half of which was always deposited with the standards,
until the term of service expired.

1 «. Various eiitraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished them-
selves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donativat on the other hand, were
gifts or largesses distributed to the whole army on particular occasions, as e. g. in cases
of success, when also sacrifices and games were celebrated. Among the rewards,
olden and gilded crowns were particularly common ; as, the corona eaatrenaia or vo/-

T, in. MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS. PUNISHMENTS. 275

lari$ to him who first entered the enemy's entrenchments ; corona ntttralis, to him
who first scaled the enemy's walls ; and corona navqfis, for seizing a vessel of the
enemy in a sea-fight ; also wreaths and crowns formed of leaves and blossoms ; aa
the corona civica, of oak leaves, conferred for freeing a citizen from death or captivity
at the hands of the enemy ; the corona obsidionalia, of |(ra8s, for delivering a besieged
city; and the corona triumpkaliay of laurel , worn by a triumphing general.

The Tiirloiis rrowns above named are exhibited in Plate XVI. Fif . I is the eMee ; fig % the
§tutrengig ; 3, the obtidionalU ; 4, the muratit ; 5, the navalis ; 7, thtt triumpMit.^Fig. 6 to the
rmdiata, such as appears to have been worn by the emperors.

2. " There were smaller rewards (pr«jRta miTiora) of various kinds ; as a spear with-
out any iron on it {haatavura) ; a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer on the end of a lance
or spear (pexillum), of dinerent colors, with or without embroidery { trappings iphaleraX
ornaments for horses, and for men ; golden chains (aurea torquM), which went round
the neck, whereas the phalercB hung down on the breast ; bracelets {armilUB)t orna-
ments for the arms ; comicula^ ornaments for the helmet in the form of horns ; calella
or catennUBf chains composed of rings ; whereas the torquen were twisted {lorta) like a
rope; fbuUB, clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment.*' iAdam). Another
ibrm oHf reward was an exemption from service {vacatio) by release before the legal
term was finished (cf. ^ 278. 3). At the expiration of the term of service, the soldiers
received a bounty or donation in land or money, which was sometimes called emeritum ;
those who had served their time out being also called emeriti.

The Urfuu it Mm en tha Dyiof Ohdiator (cf. P. IV. \ 188. %y-Sm JMmalogia {m dladP. IV. $ S. 6), toL nil p^ BB^t oa

$ 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes were very
severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testimony, neglect of watch,
leaving a post assigned, or cowardly flight, was visited with the panishment
called /tM/t/orxum, in which, on a signal from a tribune, the whole legion fell to
beating the offender with sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his dis*
grace was scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this
ponishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and the rest
were chased from the camp, and received only barley instead of wheat for their
allowance. Often disgrace was inflicted in other ways, as by loss of pay
{ttipendio privari)^ or loss of rank, e. g. when a soldier of the iriarii was de-
graded into the hasiaii. The tribunes could inflict punishments only after in-
vestioration of the case; the general, on the other hand, could immediately and
absolutely pronounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for
wilful disobedience of orders, for insurrection and desertion. The mode of in-
flicting death was not uniform.

$ 286. Of the Roman order of battle (odes) a general idea ma^ be given here ;
a minute detail wonld belong rather to a system of tactics. The legions were
commonly ranged in three lines, the foremost occupied by the haaiati^ the next
by the prineipes, and the last by the triarii. Between each two maniples a
space was leffc, so that the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces
of the first, and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second.
These spaces were termed recUs v»«, and were as broad as the maniples them-
selves.

1 u. This arrangement was called quinainx. It had the advanta^ both of stability
and of being easiJY ^^^"^^^ > '* avoided all confusion and interruption, and was espe-
cially put in opposition to (he Grecian phalanx (^ 142), which it could easily penetrate
and route. It was less fitted to resist a violent onset, and therefore was often, in anti-
cipation of attack, changed so as to close up the spaces. But in this form of arrange-
ment the soldiers were mutually sustained and relieved by bemg in different lines, and
by means of tlieir separate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and
defence. Originally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and the men in the maniples
three feet from each other; in later times the space was diminished till the soldier had
scarcely more than room for his shield.

2. To the disposition of the soldiers in the three tines oThastati, prinripet, and triarii^
as above described, some have applied the phrase triplex aciet (cf. SaUutU Bell. Jug.
49); others consider the phrase as sometimes at least meaning simply an arrangement
in three lines ; an arrangement in two lines bein^ called octet dtiplex. Other methods
of^dravi*ing up the army for battle were occasionally used. We mention here the
cuneutf in which the army was arranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce and
break the enemy's lines ; the globus, in which the troops were collected into a close,
firm, round body, usually adopted in case of extremity ; the forfnn, in which the army
took a form something bke that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, m order U

276 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

receive the enemy when coming in the shape of a wedge ; the terra, in which the linea
were extended, and in making, ihe engagement some parts of the front advanced before
the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a little like the teeth of a saw.

§ 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the lighi'armed
troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line; but after-
wards they were stationed in the intervals between the maniples, behind them,
or on the win^, and made attack in connection with the haxtaiu A considerable
part of the light-armed were stationed behind the triarii^ to support them. The
attack commenced when the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from
the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the hasiati ad-
vanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. If the enemy were
not forced to give way, or they were themselves pressed hard, the signal was
given for retreat; on which the light-armed and the haataii drew back through
the intervals of the second line, and the prineipes advanced to the fight. In
the mean while, the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their
right knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their shields,
and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards ; the line
thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the prineipet were com-
pelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the prineipes and the hasicUt
being received into their intervals, renewed the action with close ranks (cam-
pressis ordinibus) and all three in a body (uno eoniinerUe agmine). This united
attack was then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole.

§ 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be noticed. They
were commonly called velites ; in early times, however, rorarii and accenai^
sometimes also adtcripiitii^ optiones, and ferentarii. They carried no shields,
but slings, arrows, javelins, and swords. They were usually divided into
fifteen companies (expedili manipuli, or expedite cohortes), and besides these
there were 300 usually distributed among the haatati of the old legions. The
light^armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the
enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin and sword,

1 «. The]r were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three Unes, about
£urty being joined to each maniple.—* They were of three different classes, designated
by their principal weapon; jaculatorest who burled the javelin; sagiltarii, who shot the
arrow ; and funditorea, who cast stones or balls with the sling. There were also
afterwards tragularii and halialarii, who threw stones by the aid of machines.

In Plate XXXIV. fig. a, li a Roman funditor ; fig. b, a toffittariut.

2 u. Those called antesignani were not the light-armed, but probably were the
soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line.— The position of the light-armed
during battle was often changed ; but it would seem that moat commonly they stood in
three lines behind the hastati, the prineipes, and the triarii, and rushed forward to their
attacks through the intervals between the maniples.

$ 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their arniy, espe-
cially as long as it was composed wholly of knignts, and this class of citizens en-
joyed a high estimation and rank alread]^ noticed (§ 256). Even before the regular
establishment of this order in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted
chiefiy of the noble and respectable young Romans ; such indeed was the case
on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most noble
youth among his 300 horsemen called celereti the same was true under the fol-
lowing kings, who increased their number. Towards the end of the republic,
the Roman knights began to leave the military service, and thus the cavalry
of the later armies was made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken
into pay in the provinces where the legions were stationed. The knights of
later times served only among the Praetorians^ or the imperial bodyguard
(cf. S 309).

$ 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from the legions,
while previously they had been regarded as the same army, and been stationed
especially on the wing. — ^The forces, commonly called a/« were different from
the legionary cavalry ; they were bodies of light-horse, composed of foreigners
and employed to ^[uard the flanks of the army.-— The number of horsemen con-
nected with a legion has already been named (cf. % 276, 278, 281) ; comtuonly
300; sometimes 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (cf. $ 292) had the same

p. m. MILITART AFFAIRS. ORDER OF BATTLE. 277

number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a greater nomber of horsemen ;
although the ratio was not always the same.

1 tt. The cavalry was divided by the tribanes into 10 turma, corresponding to the
number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 deeurim, corresponding to the number of
maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. Each turma had
three Decurumeg, the first of whom was commander of the whole turma; three urari
i^vpayvH) were under them. In how many lines the cavahy used to be drawn up ror
battle is not known. In an attack, the first line of turma endeavored to break the
ranks of the enemy ; and were supported therein by the second. If the enemy were
arranged in the wedge-form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed.

2 tt. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron on their
heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal service in pro-
tecting the flanks of the infiintry, reconnoiterin^ the enemy, ooUectinff forage, occupy-
ing remote defilea, covering retreats, and pursumg the routed foe. where the ground
was uneven, the horsemen dismounted and fought on foot.

0« tb« Boom Mwlry, £• Am, u eitad S 17S, JlfiMi. 4& fol. UTlU.--aM^ dted f Ka 1

i 391. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet threefold^ bot the
foot were ranged in a nngle line, the horse were placed in a second to support
them. In the year of the city 500, B. G. 353, the threefold arrangement of the
legion seems to have been aidopted. The eohorU have already been mentioned
(§ 881); these also had their particular arrangement, which f)robab]y was
formed originally by uniting the maniples, a thin^ not common until later times,
since in the second Punic war the separate position of the maniples was still
practiced. Towards the end of the republic,' the threefold division of the le-
gionaries was aboliahed ; and the legion now consisted of ten eohoria^ each of
which contained 400 or 500 men. Jdter the time of C»sar, the more frequent
order of battle was to place four cohorts in the front line and three in each of
the two others.— Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and more
lik^ the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle was a single compact
line. Under later emperors, the use of the Macedonian phalanx was adopted,
but it was renounced.

§ 393. Of the legions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that these con-
sisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at an early period, either
of choice or af^r subjection, entered into trea^ with the Romans, and bound
themselves to furnish for the field as many foot^soldiers as the Romans, witli
more than the Roman proportion of cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied
the two wings when drawn up in battle-array.

1 «. A complete ooosnlar army, comprising the fiill quota from the allied states, con
tained eight legions ; although the number of allies was not always exactlv the same.
When in process of time the allies («octt) were admitted to Roman dtizensbip, the dis
tindton made between them and the Romans ceased.

2. The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service yna diflerent at dif-
ferent times. "During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up every
year, and divided between the two consuls ; yet in cases of necessity we sometimes
meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy. — Augustus maintained a standing
army of 23 or (aecordiug to some) of 25 legions." iKennett.)

MM|Willn;ilwllltiij MtoWMiinrtnfnwiwfim.miffainn.Bniii fnip rh I rf IffTt

3. The forces of the rfHies were termed ahB^ from the circumstance of being ustially
placed on the flanks. They were under command of ofiicers appointed for the pur-
pose, called prafeeli, A portion of the foot and horse of the allies, called extraordu
narU, were stauoned near the consul, and one troop, called abUeti, served htm as a
special guard.

i 3*93. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of attendants,
and baggage and macnines of war. Among the numerous attendants were the
following; the fabric mechanics, workers m wood and metal ; lixa, sutlers,
holding a sort of market ; ehirurgi^ field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed
ten to a legion ; mttatorn^ whose business was to mark out and fix the ground
for encampments; frumtniarH^ who had the care of furnishing provisions;
Hhrarii and scn^e, who were charged with duties such as fall under the care
of a quarter-master.— The proper baggage of the army {impedimenta) consisted
partly of the bundles or knapsacks of the soldiers (soretfue), partly of weapons,
military engines, stores, provisions, and the like, which were carried in wagona

8 A

278 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

and on beasts of burden. Eacb person in the cavalry bad a borse and a serrant
{agtuo) to carry his baggage. Tbe servants and waiting boys of tbe legions
were termed calories. Originally there were but few persons of this class, but
in later times they were often so many as to surpass the number of proper
soldiers.

§ 294. The order of march, when a Roman army moved to the field or into
the camp, was usually as follows. The lightparmed went in advance; then
followea the heavy-armed, both foot and horse ; then the persons needed to
pitch and prepare the camp, to level the grounds and perform other necessary
work ; then the baggage of the general {d^) and of his lieutenants {legcUi),
guarded by horsemen ; then the general himself under his usual escort ; then
124 horsemen; after which came the military tribunes and other officers. After
these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, and last
the servants and muleteers or managers of the beasts. This seems to have been
the usual order of march ; but it was of course changed and modified in different
cases in reference to the nature of the ground, the country, and other circum-
stances. The order in marching out of camp was also somewhat different.
And in order to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions
also were required to relieve each other in position.

$ 295. Besides the arrangeroenCs for battle mentioned already ($ 286), some
others adopted particularly in marching should be mentioned. The agfnen
guadratum was when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually that
of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation of the enemy,
or on a retreat; the agmen pilatum^ or juatum^ was a close array in marching.
Orbia signified not a circular form, but such a four-sided arrangement as pre-
sented a front on every side. The ieatudo was also an arrangement of the sol^
diers, in which they stood close together, raising their shields so as to form a
compact covering over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in which they
approached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive the enemy at a certain
distance. The iurru was an oblong quadrangular form, with the end or narrow
side presented to the foe; iatercultu was the same, considered only in its
breadth.

§ 296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars the Grecian,
but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied only for a short time
durinff a march was called eastra^ and in the later ages, tnannof casira tUUiva
signified a more permanent camp, in which the army remained for a length of
time, e. g. over a winter, therefore termed caMra hibema, or through summer,
caaira aaiiva. The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw,
and rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp. The
highest and freest part of it was chosen for the head-quarters of the general.
This was called the prseiorium, and occupied a space of four hundred feet
square. Here the council of war was held. A particular spot in it was appro-
priated for taking the auspices, augurale ; and another for the erection of the
tribunal^ whence the commander sometimes addressed the army. In this space
were the tents of the eofUubemaka of the eeneral (the young Patricians who
attended upon him as yolunteers), and of other persons belonging to his train.
Near the prmiorium were the tents of the officers and the b<xlyguards. The
entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the enemy.

^ 297 1. On the right of the Proetorium (B)t was the P'onim (v), an open space for a
market, and for martial courts ; and on the left the Quastarium (w), where the stores,
money, arms, and the like were kept. A select portion of the cavalry, eguiteg ahUett
et evocati (o, o) were also stationed on each side of the Pratorium, and behind them
the pediiea alderti et evocati (p, P). Next were the tents of the Tribunes (••) and of
the rmfects (tt). Then was a passage, or free way, called prmcvpia (u), 100 feet
Mfide, extending through the whole camp from one of the side gates (c) to the other (d).
The rest of the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the center oif
tliis lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending in the opposite direction.
On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (h) and the triarii (i) were
cast ; then beyond these tents, on each side, was another passage 50 feet wide, and
then the tents of the principes (x) and hastati (l) ; and after another similar passage
beyond these on each side, tne tents of the auxiliaries, both cavalry (Mjand infantry (n).
These five passages were crossed at right angles, in the center, by another of the same

PLATE XXXIV.

f7tf

S^ ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

width, termed Via quintana (t) because five maniples were encamped on each side
of it. In each tent there were eleven men, which tormed a eontvhemiumf one of them
having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tents was a free space 200 feet wide,
which was the place of assembling to march out of camp, and served also for defense
in case of an attack from an enemy.

Around the whole camp was a ditch, fosta, and wall or rampart, vallum. The
ditch or foss was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep jthe rampart three feet
hkh ; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The rampart was formed
oTthe eanh thrown [agger) from the ditch, with sharp stakes (svdei) fixed therein.
On each of the four sides was an opening or ^te, porta, guarded by a whole cohort.
These gates were called porta pratoria (a), bemg near the head-quarters towards the
enemy ; porta decumana (b), on the opposite side of the camp, called also quoestoria, as
in earlier times the qusestoriuni was near it ; porta principalis dextra (d), and portm
prine^^ia sinistra (c), being near the principia.

A plan of a coDiular camp Is Men In Plate XXXIV. fif . P, as given in Bofd'a ed. of Adam; It
ii drawn from the detcrlption of Polvblui (Hiit. vi. i4).— The letters and eigni Included in ba-
rentbeeee in the above description refer leverally to the eorretpondlng marks in the Plan. The
letters Q Q, in the Plan, desifrnate the tents occupied by the eztraordinarif cavalry of the allies ;
R R, by the sstraordina,rf foot of the allies ; 8 S, by strangers and occasional allies.— In fig. R is
a section of a/M«a, here given as twelve feet broad and nine deep; showing also the agg^r and
sudu.

§ 298. The watches which were maintained by night were termed vigiliwf
accubim also sigrnifies properly night-watches, but is used in a more general
sense ; staHo was the name for each single post. Two tribunes had constantly
the oversight of the whole camp, which the same two retained, at the longest,
for two months. At their tents all the officers and leaders were reqairM to
assemble at daybreak and with them go to the general to receive his commands.
The watchword (symbolum) was called Usuera, from the foar sides or comers
of the little wooden block on which it was writtes*

1 u. The watchword was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them to the
centurions, and by them to the soldiers. Those who carried it from the tribunes to the
centurions were called tesserarii. Short commands were often written on similar
tablets, and in like manner rapidly circulated through the army. Before the head-
quarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by night. The outworks of the
camp were occupied by the ligtit-armed. Every maniple was obUged to place four men
upon guard, so that 240 men were always on the watch in a camp of two legions. The
ni^ht was divided into four parts, of three hours each, also called watches, at the end
ofwhich the guards (pigiles) were relieved by a new set. The legions of the auxilia-
ries had also their guards and watchmen. It bebnged to the cavalry to inspect the
watch on duty, and make the formal round {circuitio vigUum) or visit the several posts
or stations.

2. In the discipline of the Roman camp, the soldiers were employed in various ex-
ercises, whence the army in fact took its name, exereittts. These exercises included
walking and running completely armed ; leaping, swimming, vaulting upon horses of
wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carryins weights, attacking a wooden
image of a man as an enemy, &c. — It was essential to tne comfort of the soldier, that
he should be able to walk or run in his full armor with perfect ease ; in common march-
ing he was obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, a load consisting of his provisions
and customary utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. —
The exercises were periformed under the training of the eampidoetores.

3. The winter qaarters (eattra hib«m*) of the Romans were strongly fortified, and, under tlie
«mperors particalarly, were furnished with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses,
workshops (fabriea), an infirmary (vaUtudinarium\ ice. Many European towns are supposed
to have bad their origin hi such establishments ; In England, particularly those whose names
end in ekttUr or cut^r. (^itom).— Cf. Roy*s MiliUry Antiquities in Great Britain.

§ 299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encircling it with
troops, and the encircling lines (corona) were, in case of populous cities, some-
times double or triple. In the attacks upon the city they employed various
methods, and engines of varloas sorts.

1 u. The testudo before mentioned (^ 295) was firequentlv used ; upon the shields
thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the walls. Higher walls
ihev mounted by the help of scaling-ladders (scal4F).—The crates, hurdles, were a kind
of basket-work of willow; they were attached as a sort of roof to stakes, borne in the
hands of those who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing to make an attack ;
they were also employed b;^ the besieged as a breastwork on their walls, and on
marches thev served as fascines to fill or cover soft and miry places. — Vine(B were
"Mitable sheas or mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and sixteen

p. ni. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. 5281

long. They were filled out and covered with wickerwork or hides, and served to pro-
tect from the arrows of the enemy while the soldiers were undermining the walls.

FifT. I, or Plate XXXIV. shows the use of the tMUdo by a body of snldiftrs appronchinff a wall
according to the statement above.— Fig. S shows the manner of foioiiog the crates^ and the vm««.

2v. For a similar purpose were the jdutei, wooden shelters, covered with hides, and
moved upon wheels or rollers. Under these the slingers and archers especially placed
themselves, and souffbt to force the defenders from their wails, in order that the scaling-
ladders might be the more easily and effectually applied. Of the same kind, yet
stronger were the muaeuli ; and also the tetiudineB (wooden shelters to be distinguished
from tettudo before mentioned) ; these were most commonly used to protect the work-
men in erectini; a fortification, filling up the ditch, or the like. With some of these
shelters they oTten covered the battering ram.

Fig. 8, Plate XXXIV. to a pl%ttu$^ advancing against a wall.

3 ». The bettering ram was a hirge beam employed to break in the walls of the
besieged city, in order to enter it. Originally it was managed immediately by the
bands of certain soldiers without protection, but was afterwards placed under the shel-
ters just described, which covered the men who thrust it against the walls. Tts name,
ariesj was derived from its front end, which was covered with iron in a form resembling
a ram's head. Sometimes it was composed of several pieces united, and so large that
125 men were required to work it.

The faleet murales and aaseres falmti were beams with iron hooks, to break and
tear down the upper breastwork on tne walls; they were managed by the aid of ropes. —
Two other instruments, which were probably of a similar use, were termed the
grw and the corwu, — The ierehra was an instrument employed for opening a hole in
the walls.

In fig. 4, 6f Plate XXXIV. la the bntterlng-ram In Ita simple fnrm, suspended by ropes Aroro a
eroM-beam fixed above two posts driven into the ground. In fig. 5, it is attached to a complete
and substantial frame placed upon rollers. Id fig. 10, it appears under a sbelter as above men-
tioned.—Fig. 9 shows the assmr faUattu.

4u. One of the most ordinary operations of a siege was to construct mounds (af-
geren) as hi^h as the walls of the city, or higher. On these mounds were placed the
military engines, also movable towert and other shelters of the soldiers. By means
of boards, palisades, and wooden grapnels, they were made capable of sustaimng such
vast weights. On account of the ffreat quantity of wood- work in them, the besieged
generally strove to destroy them by fire, which was often applied by mining under
ground.

These towere (turret) were of various size and structure, often 120 feet high, and of
ten or twenty stories. They were moved upon wheels or rollen. From the upper
stories were usually cast arrows, javelins, and stones ; from the middle, a bridge or
passage was sometimes thrown over to the walls; and in the lower one the battering
ram was brought forward. When they reached the slope of the mound, they were
taken to pieces by stories and reconstructed on its summit. To protect them from
fire, they were guarded by plates of iron, or coverings of hides, or moistened with a

aolutk>n of alum. A long iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir, wound with tow,

smeared with pitch and resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy from a tower,
was called falariai, which name was also applied to the tower itself from which they
were thrown. The malleoli were similar, a sort of burning arrows, or bunches of tow
attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the enemy.

Fig. S, Plate XXXI V. to a specimen of the movable towers.

5 u. One of the most common and largest engines was the catapulta^ by which
arrows, javelins, and particularly stones were hurlea a great distance. Stakes, sharp-
pointed and hardened in the fire (called acUdea or audef misailea) were also thrown from
the eatapulta. — In a siege there wore usually a multitude of these machines. Their
construction is not well underetood ; we only know that ropes and cords or sinews
were used in order to shoot the arrows and other weapons, which they threw with fatal
efficacy. — Of a similar kind was the balista ; called also in later times onager^ and
designed chiefly for throwing the javelin. — For shooting arrows, sometimes poisoned,
the Romans made use of an engine termed the acorpio, which could be managed by a
single man.

Fig. fi, of Plate XXXIV. to the tMrpio.— Fig. 7 to the haliatot but on a scale more reduced.

$ 300. The modes of defense on the part of the besieged were various.

I «. They hurled rocks, often more than a hundred pounds in weight, upon the be
siegera, poured upon them boiling pitch or oil, and endeavored to thrust down the
scaling-ladder by means of iron hooks, and to kill, force back, or pull up to themselves
the aoidiere attempting to mount. The thrusts of tho battering-ram they sought to
bafHe or weaken by hanging sacks before it, and in various other ways, and even to
0eize and drew it up by theur ropes and springs. They likewise cast burning torches
36 2a2

^S82^ ROHAN ANTIQUITIES.

Upon the wooden engines of the besiegere, and in other ways attempted to set them
on fire.

2. •• Where they apprehended a breach would be made, thny reared new walls be-
hind, with a deep ditch before them. They employed varioas methods to defend
themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. (Liv. xlii. 63.) — But these,
and every thing else belonging to this subject, will be best understood by reading the
accounts preserved to us of ancient sieges, particularly of Syracuse by Marcellus {Liv,
zxiv. 33), of Ambracia by Fulvius {Id. xxxviii. 4). of Alesia by Julius Ccesar {de Bell.
Gall, vii.), of Marseilles bv his lieutenants (C«». JB, Civ. ii.), and of Jerusalem by Titua
Vespasian {JosejA. de Bell. Jud.).**

§ 301 . In early times the Romans seldom hazarded a sea-fiorht, and only in
special cases. Afterwards, however, they acquired a permanent naval power,
and always kept twoJUtU ready for sail, each manned with a legion, at the two
harbors of Misenum and Ravenna.

1 u. The warriors engaged in this service were called clasnariif and were enlisted in
the same way as the legions of the land forces, but often taken from among them.^
The highest officers or commanders of the fleet {elansit) were originally the Duumviri
navale»i afterwards a Consul or a Prstor, who was called prafeclus cUuais, and sta-
tioned in the most distinguished vessel {navis pratoria) known by its flag {vexiUum
purpureum). Every other ship had a tribune or centurion for its particular com-
mander (navarchus). Upon the upper deck {stega^ constratttm navis) stood tlie fight-
ing men.

2. Besides the navarchus or commander (called also mngister nafns\ each ship had a
pilot (gybematoTj rector) and sometimes two, who had an assistant {proreta) to watch
at the prow. Besides the claaaiarii or fighting-men (marines, called also epi6a/(P),
there were also the rowers (remige») who were more or less numerous according to the
size of the galley ; these were under a leader or director {kortator, nXtwrfiSj cf. ^ 158,)
who with his voice and a little mallet (portiseulus) guided their motions.

3 u. War-towera were often placed on board the ve8sels, commonly two, one in the
fort part, the other in the hinder part. For seizing and boarding a vessel of the enemy
the ferrea manus, harpaeonea^ and corvi were employed ; there were also other instru-
ments of this sort ; combustible materials and the like were used in order to fire the
ships of the enemy.

i 302k. On engaging in a fight, the sails {vein) were usuallv furled, because they
would easily take fire, and the vessel was managed by the ruader alone. The fleet
was arranged by the commander in a sort of battle-array, and each vessel was as-
signed its place, which it must maintain. A position as far as possible from land was
usually desired. The larger vessels were usually placed in front, although the order
of arrangement for naval combat was by no means uniform, but very various. The
following forms are mentioned ; odes simplex, cuneata, luftatat faleala* Beibre the
battle commenced, the omens were examined, sacrifices and vows were oflered. 1'hen
upon all the ships was hung out a red flag, or a gilded shield, and the signal for at-
tack was giyen by a trumpet {jclatsieum). The contest consisted partly m the rnpid
and violent rushing of the vessels against those of the enemy, for the purpose of
piercing the hostile ships by means of the roi era, which were two strong beams at the
prow of the galley, covered with iron at the points, and made fast to both sides of the
keel ; partly m throwing darts, spears, grappling irons, and the like ; and partly in
actual close combat.

^ 303. The chief parts of a Roman ship were similar to those of a Grecian {% 155).
The following were some of the terms ; prora, prow ; puppis, stern ; alvetis, belly ;
statumifta, ribs ; sentina, pump to draw onT bilge- water (nautea) ; foramina', holes to
put out the oars (remt); aedUia, transtra, seats of the rowers; tealmua, the piece of
wood to which the oar was tied by thongs («f roppt) ; gubernaculum, clavus, rudder ;
two rudders were common ; inaignei the image at the prow ; tutela, the image at the
stern ; aplwtria, ornamental parts at the stem, sometimes at the prow, having a sort
of stafif with a streamer (f<rnta) ; malua, mast ; modiutt, the place in which the mast
was fixed: antenna, hrachia, yards for the sails {vela)', comua, extremities of the
yards ; pedes, the ropes fastened to the comua. The rigging and tackling in general
was called armamenta ; the ropes, rudetUes, or funcs ; the anchor, anchora ; sound-
ing-lead, molyhdis ; the ballast, scdmrra.

^ 304. The Roman ships were divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, r'to
transport, and the ship ot burden ; the first was propelled chiefly by oars ; the secou J
was often towed by ropes; the third depended mostly on sails. These classes were
called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of naves onerarim ;
they were commonly much inferior in size to modem trading vessels ; although some
ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought from Egypt the great obelisk
in the time of Caligula, said lo be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often termed
naves longa, being longer than others ; naves turrita, from the towers constmcted on
them ; also rostnUw, wrata, from their beaks ; and particularly triremes^ quadrirtmss^

p. III. HILTTARY AFFAIRS. THE TRIUMPH. 268

Ac, from the number of benches of rowers in them severally. As many os ter*
banks are mentioned ; Livy (zlv. 35) gpeaks of a ship with sixteen banks ; and Pto-
lemy Pbilopator is said to have built one with forty banks. On the manner in which
the benches were arranged in the Roman and Grecian galley we refer to ^ 156. 2.

The naw8 Libumiea were light, fast-sailing; ships, made after the model of the
galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — The phasili, or
navett actuaricBi were a kind of yacht or small bark, with few oars, also designed for
expedition. — The CamarcB were of a peculiar construction, with two prows and rud-
ders, one at each end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way without
turnrog; they could be covered with boards Uke the vaulted roof of a houee. (Tae*
Mor. Germ. 44.)

Fig. 1, of Plate XXIII. Is a ipecimen of the phastlus.—Flg. 3 is the Libumian galley.— Fif. S is
the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shows the two ruddtn, attached on
each side, by bands, as on a pivm, so that the lower and larmier ends could be raised out of water
bj lashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. jScU z>vii. 40.

Ob 11m ■bipt or Uw RooMfla, m Sdugir, FolwcB, U Jloy. kc tt cited § IM. S.-./. ybitiut. Db Libanicmrun CoBitractknw, in

Oncefua, vol. xii. It wu tfmtcd, in IB36, thftt tbe port of Pompeii had been diuovered, pmcnting vvbkIi thrown upon their

ridee and covered bjr the toIcujc oatter. (Dewobll of Bebjleo, Sept 21, 1835, citing London liftrsry OattUt.)

§ .^05. The great public reward of a Roman commander, who had gained an
important victory by sea or by land, was the triumph, a pompous show, which
was practiced even in the time of the kings. This honor, however, conld be
acquired only by those who were or had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors;
It was not awarded to Proconsuls. Yet in later times there were some excep-
tions to this. He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not
merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victory must have
been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or Prsetor. The importance
of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to the state, also came into
consideration; and the general must have brought back his army to share with
him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the vic-
tory consist only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a
triomph.

J 306. The iirst solemnity which took place at Rome after a victory, was a
thanksgiving or supplicatio (§ 220). Then the general must apply to the senate
in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, however, was often given by the
people, contrary to the will of the senate. A law or vote was always passed
oy the people permitting the general to retain his command {imperium) in the
city, on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required
to lay down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the honors
of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B, C. 63, of the law called lex triumphal
lis Pura'a, which prohibited a triumph unless at least five thousand of the enemy
had fallen in battle.

$ 307. A general enjoying this honor was not to enter the city until tbe day
of his triomph, and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the
city in the temple of Beilona. The expenses were osually defrayed from the
public treasury, except in cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession
without public authority, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The
expenses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general usually
distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Senate went to meet the
triumphing genera] as far as the gate by which he entered the city.

1 u. The order of the triumphal procession was aa follows. First in the ime; ordi-
narily, were the lictors and magistrates in a body. I'hey were followed by the trum-
peters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be offered in sacrifice, the spoils
and booty taken from the enemy, the weapona and chariots of the conquered, pictures
and emblems of the country reduced, the captive prmces or generals, and otner pri-
soners. Then came the conqueror himself, sealed in a high chariot, drawn by ioui
white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He waa followed by
his numerous train, consisting partly of bis relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn
out in regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, through
the whole city to tbe Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion of the
spoils of the victory were consecrated to the gods. Afterwards were feasting, merri-
ment, spectacles, and eames. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The
pomp, expense, «nd luxury attending them became constantly mater and greater,
and tbe whole custom, on account oi its frequent occurrence, and the great abuse of
it by some of the emperors, was reduced at last to a common and contemptible afftur

2284 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

— The first triumph for a victory at eea (tnumphut navalis) was obtained by the Con-
sul C. Duillius, after his memorable defeat of the Carthaginians, B. C. 261.

9. Retpecting the pillar and fmcription in honor of DuiUins, see P. IV. $ 133.— For a faller
▼lew of a triumphal display, read Plutarek^a description of the triumph of Pauliis ^miliiis, after
the capture of Perteua king of Mncedonia.— See nlso the account of Aiir<>!liaii*s triumph in bit
Life by F»piseMs (cf. Oibbon, ch. il). The last triumph record<>d ia that of Bt^lieariua, at Constan-
tinople, related by Procopiua (cf. P. V. ^ VTJ .—Oibbon, ch. xli.)— The total number of triumphs
upon record down to that of Belisarius has been calculated as amounting to three hundred and
fifty.

It may be worthy of remark, that the phrase attrvm coronarium had its origin in a custom con-
nected with the triumph of a general ; the cities of the province where his viclory was obtained,
and those of other provinces also, used to send to him gold«n troym*^ which were carried before
liim in the triumphal procession. Cn. Manlius had two hundred crowns carried before hiro la
bis triumph on accouut of his victories in Asia ilAv. xxzix. 7). At length it became customary
to send, instead of the crown, a sum of money, which was called aurun eoronannm. (cf. Jiwl
OM. V. 6).

§ 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triumph, frequently bestowed
on yictorious generals, the ovaiio. This did not differ very much in form from
the triumph ; Uie essential peculiarities were, that the general entered the city
not in a chariot, but on foot or on horseback, robed not in the irabea^ but the
prmiexta only, and at the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep
{otfit). From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was probably
taken. The triumph on the Alban mount, already alluded to ($ 307), was less
pompous. It was held only by those to whom the senate had refused a triumph
m the cit^, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. The ceremonies
were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed,
marched to the temple of Jupiter Laliaris^ situated on the mount.

§ 309. The Roman military system underwent Tarious changes under the
emperors.

1 «. By Augustus a standing army was established ; he also created an officer
called Frtefeclut prtetorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the imperial
bodyguard and the pnetorian cohorts distributed In Italy. The Roman military ser-
vice suffered by the new establishment. It soon became merely a system to support
the authority of the emperors, not to promote the wel&re of the country ; and to for-
ward this end, many disorders and abuses on the part of the soldiers were overlooked.
From the same cause, likewise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between
the military and the other classes of citizens.

The prsetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equalljr into ten
cohorts^ containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were entirely abo-
lished, and 3500 Armenians were enrolled in their stead ; these were divided into nine
gcholiBf and commanded by the ofiicer styled Magister officiorwn.

The legionsy not including the auxUiariea^ were under Augustus twenty-five, dis-
tributed among the provinces. Besides these he had ten pratorian cohorts just named,
six city cohorts of one thousand each, and seven cohorts styled cohorte$ vigtlum, which
together amounted to 20,000 men. In after times, the number of troops was greatly
increased, as well as the naval force. On the division of the empire, the western
comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy.

At tb« commencement of the civil wars related by Taeltus fo his History, there were tkhrlw

"' . ~. ; three In Hlspanla; eight in Gallia, three of

CJpper Germany, . ,

two la Pannonla ; two In Dalmatia belonging to lllyricum ; two in MoMla; four In Syria, with

legions, distributed as follows : three In Britannia; three in Hispanla; eight in Gallia, three of
'""'■'" -. .. . „ ^ .- • In Low ^ ^ ^ .*«,..-.

them being In the portion called Upper Germany, and four In Lower Germany (cf. P. L $ 17);
two la Pannonla ; two in Dalmatia belonging to lllyricum ; two in MoMla; four In Syrir '*"
three more In Judea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in AfHca (cf. P. I. ( 17^.

2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which guarded
the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the preefect of tiie praetorian
bands was ustially a mere instrument of the emperor, and the office was conferred
only on such as tne emperors could implicitlv trust. The appointment was made or
the commission conferred by the emperor's delivering a sword to the person selected.
Sometimes there were two prastorian prsefects. Their power was at first only mili-
tary and small ; but it became very great, and finally trials were brought before them,
ana there was no appeal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius com
mitted this judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The pneto-
rian cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates
Viminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius sixteen prsBtorian cohorts were raised, and
four to guard the city. Severus new-modeled the body and increased them to four
times the ancient number. Gonstantine the Great finally suppressed them and de-
stroyed their camp. iBotfcTs Adam, p. 123, 485).

3. Important changes m the miUtary system were made by Constanline. He ap-
pointed two general commanders for the whole army, called Magutri mUUim ; one
of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister e^Uum; the other, of the whole
infantry, Magister peditum*

p.m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FREEMEN AND SLAVES. 285

Oonauntlne did not abolbta the title of Trmftiut prmtorio^ when he tnppreMed the pretorlmii
eohoris, ae above meniioned; bat be changed the nature of the ofiice, making it wholly a cWH
one, and divldlne the eare of the whoie empire between /o«r officers of tbia title ; PrwftUiu frm*
tori0 Oritntig ; Prmfectus prwtoru ftr JUyneum; Praftetusjfr^torio pnr Italia* ; Prmftctua prm-
Utria OaUiantm. The city of Borne alio retained her ipecial overieer, Protein* «r6t« Romm ;
and a eimilar officer, with greater authority, was appointed over Conetantinople, which now
became the leat of the empurei Pra^ftctv urbia Conttantin»poli». Under the four pnefecti were
•ubordinate officers, whoee authority was limited to particular dioceaee, of which there were
thirteen; one of them governed by the officer styled Count of the diocese of the Enii {Cowtts
dimeanoa Orintu)', another, consisting of Egypt, by an officer stvled PraftetusJSigypti; and the
otber eleven by officers styled Ficaru or vice- prefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a
great number of provinces, whose governors were of four different grades, termed proco%*uU»,
ceiUMtercs, eorrtetoru, and fretida*.

4. The empire was divided into eastern and western betwen the two sons of Con<
stantine. In the western, the military jurisdiction continued tobe vested in two com*
manders styled Magister e^itum and Magister veditum. In the eastern, it was
Tested in the officers styled magistri militunij and tne number of them was five in the
time of Theodosius the Great, who shortly before his death, A. D. 395, united the
empire in one ; it was divided again after his death and so continued until the final
overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. The five Masters-general of the military each
bad command of several squadrons ivexUlationes) of horse and several legions of sol-
diers {paiaiines eomitatenset) and several corps of auxiliaries (auxilia) ; two of them
had also under their command a naval force, consisting of twelve distinct armaments
or fleets, six being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military
establishment, in addition to the forces already mentioned, a large body of troops de-
signed particularly to defend the ft'ontiers, called sometimes hordcrert^ and commanded
by comUes and duces y who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed QiubS"
tor sacri valatii. — I'he Masters -general of the West had under their command forces
of a similar description, including also troops designated specially for the defence of
the trontier. There was a Magister mUitum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Mas-
ters-general.

FsragaiMnI vkwoT tlw civil and nllitiry urufaBwoti of tlie emptn aiider Contiiitiiia aad btsr Mnparon, tw OiMofi, cik
vrfL-For nwra nhite datoUt, Tabkau 5yMnuia'«iM da Bmpina d'Orieut d (POceidmit, *e. ia M vol. of aMUPt BM. LiU
Rmaimt-'ntNotitiaOrimliB et Oeeidflntfa^u edited bj Paticirott, or more recaaU j by AMmf, m eted P. V. i&7i.~-CtMmnm
r. d. Gr. Beri. 181T. S.

lY. AFFAIRS OF PRIYATfi LIFE.

$ 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil and social
relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice the essential distinc-
tion which existed between the freemen and the slaves. There were two classes
of freemen, the/rtf«^orfi (tti^enutV whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the
free made (^Hberti) or freedmen wno had been enfranchised from servitude, and
who did not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The children of the
latter class were termed libertim znd their grandchildren ingenui, in early times;
at a later period the freedmen were called liberii only with reference to their for-
mer master, receiving when spoken of otherwise the name /i6fr/tn». them selves,
while their sons, if bom after the father's manumission, were called ingenui. —
The slaves were such by birth, verna,' or by captivity in war; or by purchase,
manetpta. Of their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of
their manumission, we will speak below ($322).

Or fhe Mbject* bekwfiiv to the biaach of Romn Airtiquilia npon which we bow enter, we auy refer lo dPJrnof de te vie
privfe dM BoomIml lansanne, 1 780. U. (CoHatiog chiefly of treeliiee in the Sttmohu da rAcadtmit dm hucriptuau.) Tnm.
Gem. IMpu I7«l. a. Eii|l. Tnm. Load. 1784. l2.-8lutehmefth»DommtieMmmntfiliMRoman$. Reprinted, Phfl. IflSS. 19.
Ct A". Am Jtto. zvL 183.— Coufure, U vie privde dca BomaiM, ia the Jfrm. Jkad. Inttr. vol. i. 80a-MMi//MMwi, tlufei 6m
eiededeTbredtorekGrud, In thelton. .And. huer. voL alii. p. 474.— Eepedelljr W. BteUr, GeUue (Ronea Life io the tine of
Avtwim).

§ 311. The Romans commonly had tnree names; the firet was called the
prmnomen^ and had reference simply to the individual who bore it; the second
was called the nomtn^ and was the name of the race or clan {etna) ; the third
was the a^nomen^ which designated the family {familia) : thus, in ^ub/tua
Cornelius Scipio ; Scipio is the cognomen indicating the family name, Comeliua
the nomen pointing out the clan ox gem to which ^e family belonged, and Pub^
Uu$ the prmnomen marking the particular man. The distinction between ^«ns
and famxHa was, that the former was more general, denoting a whole tribe or
race; the latter more limited, confined to a single branch of it. — ^The daughter
commonly received the name of the tribe or race, e. g. Cornelia^ and retained it

S86 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

after her marriagre. Sisters were distinguished by adding to this name the
epithets major and mtnor, or prima, seeunda, teriia, &c.

1. Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the agnomen;
this however was only an addition to the cognomen^ and may be properly mcluded
under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the same, althougo they usually
stood as above stated. Under the emperors the proper name of the individual was
frequently put last.

2 u. Even from the first establishment of the city, some among its heterogeneous
inhabitants were of noble descent, and the number of noble families was increased by
the adoption of plebeians among the patricians. The following were some of the
most distinguished ra^; Fabia (gens), Junia, AfUoniat Julia, Mmilia, Pumpna,
TuUia^ Horaiiaj Oclma, Valeria^ Potthumia, Sulpicia, Claudia^ Fapiria, Cornelia,
Manliaf Sempronia, Jlortensia.

The aainea of finnilies were often derived ft'om the employment of an anecetor (ef. P. V. (483).
Names were aleo applied to individual! by way of ridicule t that which was at firat a mere nick-
name, or Mobriqtut, became permanently attached to a perion.

Sm MtJmid^ D« I'Autorito que \m Sobriqueta oa Sumont baricMiiiet pwveot atoir dam llilstoira, is liie JMrm. JStad. huo-.

vol. siv. p. 181. Ob the Boman namfla, and Uluilrioa fhmilici, Ma SdUMTt H'nI. Lilt Bom. vol. iv. p. 167, and ntenmtm (hu*

fivea.— OtUon, Dae. and Fall <d fLom. Eap. cb. xni.— Jlotodbn, Let wnm d« Romaln, in Iba Mm. Jkad. tnmr. i. IM.— ,ffpr<

Jbiyol Laria Gfan. bk. viii. cb. 1.— Cf. OafMte, De aatiqab PMronm Pneaomiaibw, ia Oravhia, vol. iL Oa Ibe nlijeel ef tbe

neet (fmfai), eee Suktukt^ Rome, L Ui.—MaUtn't Hat. of Bona.— OMIimr, aa eilad \ 9A

§ 313. The increase of these races was much promoted by marriages, in
regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a complete separation between
plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. Marriage was held to be a duty of
every Roman, and those who neglected it were obliged to pay a fine or tax.
Citizens were forbidden to marry strangers, except by permission specially
granted. Certain degrees of consanguinity were considered as interdicting
marriage. Marriage took place at an early age among the Romans, the male
being sometimes but /our/^^n and the female only in the twelfth year.

1 u. The jus Quiritiutn conferred only on Roman citizens the right of marrying a
free-born woman. To freed men this was prohibited, until the enactment of the
Poppasan law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting senators and their sons,
were allowed to marry the daughters of frcedmen.

The F^z Papia Poppea wai an enlarring and enfnrcement of the LnJttUa " di mnritaniU »rdi-
mMw;*' by it, whoever in ihe city had iUtm children, in other parte of Italy four^ and in the
provincea jlM,.wae entitled to certain privilege! ; while certain disabilities were imposed on
tliose who lived in celibacy. This subject is alluded to by Horace, Carra. Sec. vs. 90.

2. A legal marriage was termed JustcB Nwptia, or Ju9ium Mairimonium, The word
ronnubium was used as a comprehensive term including all the conditions requisite to
the contracting of a legal marriage. Generally it may be stated that there was con-
nubium only between Roman citizens. There was no connubium between slaves, but
only what was called contubemium.

8ea Oifrtf, Eictinin de Contubenilil Romaooram, in LtmoMt Pliaf, u eitad P. V. 1 4T0. 4. tdL U. p. S31.-^4ynr, Di«. da
|iire eeoBubioroB apod Bonanoa. Goit. 1797.

$ 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance or betroth-
ment, in which the fdther of the bride gave his assent (ntipulatio) to the request
{•pnnaio) of the bridegroom. This compact and the ceremonies attending it
were called tponsalia ,- it often took place many years before the marriage, even
in the childhood of the parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always pre-
sent at the betrothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by
an empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was necessary
only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The mutual consent of
the parties was the most essential. Friends and relations were usually present
as witnesses; the marriage contract was written and sealed {le§^tima: tabellae) ;
the bride received from her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the
whole ceremony was concluded with a feast.

§ 314. In fixing the day of marriage, care was taken to select one of those
esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transferrence of the bride from her father^s
power to the hands of the husband was called eonventio in manurn, and was
accompanied by a religious ceremony, and a sort of consecration by a priest
(eonfarreafio). Marriages contracted in this form were the most solemn, and
could not be dissolved so easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes
are mentioned ; one was by orescription {wnis), the bride being taken home and
living with the bridegroom for a year (tuucapio) ; the other by a purchase (co-

p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. CHILDREN. 267

emptto), in which each party gaye to the other a portion of money, repeating
certain words.

^ 315 u. On the dny of marriage, the bride was adorned with a sort of veil or pe-
culiar ornament of the head iluleum fammeum), and a robe prepared for the occasion
(tunica recta), which was bound around the waist with the marriage girdle (cingulvm
laneum). The sacriiice ordered on the marriage-day was a sheep ^of two years of age,
presented especially to Juno as the goddess ot marriage.

The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took place in
the evening, was attended likewise with ceremonies. She was taken, as it were
forcibly, from the arms of her mother, or if the mother was not living, of the next
near relative. She went with a distaflf (colus) in her hand, and was careful to step
over or was lifted over the threshold of both houses, as it was ominous to touch it
with the feet. She was supported by two youth, one on each side ; a third i>receded
her with a lighted torch or nanobeau, and sometimes a fourth followed carrying in a
covered vase {cumerum) the bride's utensils (nvbentia utensUia) and also various toys
icrepundia). She bound the door posts of her new residence with white woollen ni-
lets and anointed them with the fat of wolves (hence uoror, quasi unxor). She then
stepped upon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud for the bride-
groom, wno immediately came and offered her the key of the house, which she de-
uvered over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a symbol of
purity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with garlands ot flowers,
the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage banquet (.ccsna nup'
tiatis) was held, which was accompanied with music and song. The husband after
supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys present. Finally the pair were con-
ducted to the bed-chamber, by the door of which the nuptial hymns {emlhalamia)
were sung by young men and maids. The next day the bride presented a thank-
offering to the gods, and the husband ^ve an evemng entertainment (repotta), and
distributed presents to the guests on their departure.

$ 316. Divorces {divorlid) were, especially in latter times, quite common.
When the espousals and the marriage had been solemnized in full formality,
especially with the eonfarreaito just described, particular solemnities were requi-
site for a divorce, and these were called diffarreaiio. In case of a less formal
marriage contract, the divorce was called remandpatio or uiurpaiio. On
account of the frequent abuses of diyorce, it was restrained by law; and pro-
perly the men only enjoyed the right. The formula with which one dismissed
nis wife was iucu res tibi futbeio. Sometimes the separation took place before
marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called repudium ,• the customary
formula was as follows : eonditione tua non utor. If a woman was diyorced
without haying been guilty of adultery, her portion or dowry was returned
with her.

The lituation of the Roman woman after marriage was In lome reipecti better than that of the
Greek woman. The Roman matron presided over the household ; she siiperlniended the ediica-
tion of her children (cf. P. IV. ^ 125); as being the mai»rfainilia$t she shared In the honors paid
to the husband. Yet, generally speaking, the condition or females among the Romans was simi-
lar to their condition tn Greece. The social elevation enjoyed by females in modern timea is
very Justly ascribed in a great degree to Christianity.

Sae § 181, ud icfanBen Hbtn kitcii. On the re(ani to the •« u Uloitnilad )ij tba writlnci of TilwHin, Orid, Sntn, kt. tt.

Bamdokr^ Venu Uimota. Upa. 179a. &' Ob tlw loflneiica of Cliriillaiiirf , w* BudantmlUrU SmnoH— CWMnf , Social lafti-

CM* of ChnstMiT, in BihL Stpo$. See. Seriea, voL I. ^ I9i.-Ct, P. IV. $ 89. 8.

$ 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of children, that
was the most remarkable which left it to the arbitrary will of the father whether
to preserve his new-born child or leave it to perish. In reference to his decision
of this point, the midwife always placed it on the ground ; if the father chose
to preserve it, he raised it from the ground, and was said tollere infantem ; this
was an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his own.
If the father did not choose to do this, he left the child on the ground, and thus
expressed his wish to expose it {exponerey, this exposing was an unnatural
custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which children were left in the streets,
particularly at the eolumna lactctria^ and abandoned to their fate. Generally the
power of the father was very great, but the mother had no share therein. This
power extended not only over the life of his children, but the father could three
times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and appropriate all bis gains as
his own. Under the emperors, this power lost much of its rip[or, by the regu-
lation allowing the children to hold the inheritance left by their mothers.

% 318 ». The freeing of a son from the power of a father was effected by what was

288 ROMAN ANTiaUITIES.

called emaneipatioH, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of tiie son ; the freedom con-
sequent upon this was termed manumis$io legilima per vindietam. The father and the
son appeared together wirh the pretended purchaser, a friend of the first, and with a body
of witnesses, before the tribunal of the pnetor, and here the imaginary thrice repeated
bale and thrice repeated manumission was completed with certam established usages,
sometimes by only a double sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the
purchaser was called pater fidueiarius ; in the first two, daminua. — The power of tho
father over his son was otherwise rarely terminated except by the death or banishment
€iX the father ; it belonged to the pecuhar rights of a Roman citizen (^ 260). By
emancipation the son became his own roaster, and possessor of his own property,
of which, however, he must give the father half as an acknowledgment tor his
freedom.

$ 319. Another custom among the Romans in respect to children was that of
adoption (adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child renounced his own
rights ana claims, and committed them to another who received the child as
his own.

1 V. The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the pmtor. The
formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always presupposed
in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the son was sold to the
adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third time to the real father. There
was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will or testament (pdoptio per tettamefttum),
in order to preserve a family from extinction. In such case the penon adopted re-
ceived a considerable part of the estate left by the perton adopting him, and bore ins
name after his death.

2 1, That, which was called adrogatio or arrogatio, differed from adoption only in
the formalities connected, and in the circumstance that the person adopted was pre-
viously his own master (fttt jurtit) and not m the power of^ his actual father. The
adrogatio was not transacted, as was the adoption before the praetor, but before the as-
sembled people, in the Comitia Curiata, and by the aid of the High-priest ; neither
was it limited to individuals, but often included a whole family. Upon the consent of
the people to the arrangement, the person or persons adopted into a family took a
solemn oath, that they would remain faithful to the religion and worship of the family :
this was called detestatio sacrorumt as the adopted person lost the peculiar rights ana
was freed from the peculiar duties (ioera gentilitia) of his former gent (cf. {^311), if
different from the one into which he was now introduced.

^ 320 «. By what was called legitimation^ a natural inaturalit) or spurious ispurius)
child was declared to be legitimate (tegilimus), and instated in all the ri«:hts of such.
This affected, however, the relation of the child only to the father, and not to other
relatives, or to the whole family of the father. Such a child shared in the inheritance
an equal portion with the lawful children. But this custom was not known to the
early Romans ; it came first into practice in the fifth century under Theodoeius the
second, and then scarcely at alj in Rome itself, but in the municipal towns, where it
was introduced to supply the want of the decurioneg or members of the senate (cf.
$ 260. 2). For, as this office could be received only by sons of deeurumeSf and was
also very burdensome, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their natural sons, by
them legitimated.

$ 321. The education of the Roman youth is noticed particularly in treating
of the Archaeology of Roman Literature (cf. P. IV. §§ 123-125). Here we
only remark, that for a long time there were no public schools, but the youth
received the necessary instruction from private or family teachers {pasdagogi).
There were, however, those who in their houses gave instruction to a number of
youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early times, were
viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in education than the study
of literature and science. They did not neglect, however, an early cultivation
of the manners, and of noble feelings, especially patriotism, love of liberty, and
heroic courage.

§ 322 /. The household of a Roman was collectively termed familia ; but by
this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of which there was oflen a
large number. Persons in opulent circumstances had them sometimes to the
amount of several thousands. The Roman women of rank usually bad a nu-
merous body of servants of both sexes. — ^The slaves of a family were divided
into different classes or decurixt according to their employments, and a particn-
lar registry of them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every
morning. Their condition was very hard,, and they were treated as mere chat-
tels, laUier than persons*

p. in. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES. 289

** Slaves in Rome occupied every conceirable station, from the delegate superin-
tending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or obsequious vice ;
from tne foster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest degradation to which
woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the oar in the galleys, or labored
on the public works. Some were lictors; some were jailors. Executioners were
slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich
palace in the city ; and slaves performed all the drudffery of the farm. Nor was it

» of his a 1

unusual to teach slaves the arts. Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself
was the son of an emancipated slave. — The merry-andrew was a slave. I'he physi-
cian, the surgeon, were often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader
and the stage-player ; the clerk and the amanuensis ; the architect and th^ smith ;
the weaver ana the shoemaker ; the undertaker and the bearer of the bier ; the pan-
tomime and the singer ; the ropedancer and the wrestler, all were bondmen. The
armiger or squire was a slave. You cannot name an occupation connected with agri-
culture, manufacturing industry, or public amusements, but it was a patrimony of
slaves. Slaves engaged in commerce ; slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were
retailers; slaves shaved notes ; and the managers of banks were slaves."

Th« following ii a fpeclScatlon of toma of the principal lervanti, lueh ai are moit frequently
mentioned :— I. Of thoie employed in the house. The 9*rvu$ odmissiotMUt received the persons
who visited the master of the house, announced their names, and conducted them in ; the »ervi
eMbicuUrii were a sort of valet or chamber servants, oAen enjoying the particular confidence of
the master ; the toiuort and einerarH were such as paid attention to the beard and hair of the
masters ; the awisnuensu and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the anagnosttp were readers ;
the vBttiaru attended to the wardrobe ; the halneator— waited upon the master at the bath ; the
wudUi performed the duties of surgeons and physicians ; the ntUritn and pmd^g9g% tools care of
the children.— A multitude of servants were employed in waiting upon ubie at meals, and were
designated from their several functions. Among these were, e. g. the $erttu* leetutemiator^ couch-
spreader ; «fr«etor, arranger of dishes ; earptor or «ctMor, carver; diribitort distributer ; prtrgtis-
tutovy la^iter ; podUator, cup-bearer; detersor^ table-wiper, Ace— There were others performing
' ■ " '■ vice, '

9mtor, nr areaniM, keeper of the stores; eellarius, pantry-keeper; pulwumUrhUt pottage-makeri
duleiariutt confectioner ; tmdigtr^ torch-bearer ; etdtaria, cradle-rocker ; cotsMto, perfumer ; As-
hellifer, fWn-carrier, k.c. 3. Others were employed out of doors ; the ttrtu* insularis, who hkd

the oversight over his master's buildings; ibe aervu* a p^dtfru*, who went with errands; the
UeUcarii, who carried the sedan or litter, &c.— A large number of slaves were kept at the manors
or country-seats, to see to the husbandry and fruits ; among these were the vUliei, stewards or
superintendents ; aratore*^ plowmen ; mncaeorM, weed-pullers ; oeealores, clod -breakers; font-
§eetoret, hay-cutters; vindtmiatorut vintaeers ; juj^cirii, ox-drivers; opUionest sheep-tenders;
fitcatortty fish-catchers; mvitaiuf, mule-drivers; gaUinarii, hen-keepers, &e.

tor ft fall litl, MC BlaaH Stato of Slavery *moag the BonftiM. Edinb. I83S. 8 Cf. Am. Qmrnt. Bm. vol. n. Tl. Ob tbs

•mtHttpaoA of ilavai, m* J. Fopmm, D« Opcrw Stmnim—L. Pignaritu, !)• Servb •( wnioi fni Vetera BinMerita. FiilftT.
IC6. 4 -Jfonfvs, Mr lealnTaax pnbi. dee Romain, in the Htm. d$ PlnmUut, C\»f ^LiL§t BtnaJtU, i. 4SS.

$ 3^3. Tlie slave-trade formed among the Romans, as with roost of the
ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave merchants (venalitiarii)
were always found attached to the Roman armies, and importers of slaves
(mangonei^ often came to Rome from Greece and Asia. There were various
laws regulating this traffic; which, however, were often left unexecuted, or
were evaded by the arts of those engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves
offered for sale, scafToIds (eat<uia) were erected in the market, and commonly
small tablets or scrolls {tiiuli) were suspended from the necks of the slaves,
stating their country, age, character, &c. The price varied very much ; it was
sometimes above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were such as pos-
sessed intellectual cultivation, and could be employed as teachers, reaaers,
accountants, musicians, and the like.

One thousand denarii would equal (cf. ( 770. 3) about one hundred and fifty dollars. In the
time of Horace (Sat. II. vii. 43) a fair price for an ordinary slave seems to have been about half
that sum. In the time of Justinian the le^al valuation of a common slave was twenty aolidi,i. c.
five hundred denarii, or about seventy-five dollars. But vastly higher prices are mentioned ;
e. g. benutiful boys are said to have been sold for as much as two hundred thousand sesterces.
4>r fifty tboiiMind denarii (cf. Jtf«r(. Hi. «; viii. IS. PUn. H. N. vU. 39, 40).

^ 324 u. The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most ancient
mode seems to have been by will, manumistio per ie9tamentum, on the decease of the
master. There were two other modes ; censu, and per vindiclam ; the former wan
when the slave, with the master's consent, was enrolled in the taxation list as a freed-
man ; the latter was a formal and public enfranchisement before the pnetor. In the
last case, the master appeared with his slave, before the tribunal, and commenced the
ceremony by striking him with a rod (trtWiWa); thus treating him as still his slave.
Then a protector or defender {asiterior libertatis) steps forward and requests the libe-
ration of^ the slave, by sayin^^ hunc hominem liherum esse aio, jure Quintium; upon
which the master, who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go (e manu emii'
'ebat), and inves up his right over him, with the words, kune hanunem liberum eu%
37 2B

290 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

volo, A declaration by the praetor, that the slave should be free, rormed the concla-
sion. 'I'o confirin this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and
received in the temple of Feronia (P. II. ^ 91. 5) a cap or hat ipileus) as a badge of
libeny. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the person
setting him free under thirty.

W« may here remark, that on the country fltrms there wae a class of population termed eoloni,
who were nut slaves, although sometimes termed tervi frrm. They were attached to the soil,
and could not be separated from it; the land and the colon! could be sold together, but nehher
of lh«m could be sold without the other. The colnni, like slaves, were liable to corporeal punish-
ment ; but they had the right ofconnubntm (cf. $313. 3), which slaves bad not. The colonus paid
a yearly rent tot the land on which be lived.

On tiM subjed of Bobmd Shnrjr, ne an kU* and intermtiDf trtieie Id (ha BMkaX Rtpotiimy ud Qiurf. ObMiwr, No. zs. OtL
1835 — Bunfny, Ramao Slana and Freedmaa, io Uw Jfan. Jcod. Auer. toI. xzjcr. p. 98S, aad zuvil. p. 118.— JBair, dlid \ VS.
^£tckir*t GaUua.

$ 325. The dwellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (»»»), and
during the first three centuries, e^en to the capture and plunder of the city by
the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. IV. $ 241). On its being rebuilt,
they were larger and more resp«ctable. As luxury increased, especially ailsr
the second Punic war, so the private dwellings (damut) became more and more
costly and splendid, both within and without; although this was not universally
the case. In the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extrava«
gance in the building and ornamenting of bouses.

1 u. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the fol-
lowing ; the covering of the outer and inner walls with marble ; the use of pkengites
(/pcYYirns) or transparent marble, in the place of the lams tpeculariSf which was com-
monly employed for windows; mosaic work on the noors {pavimenla tettelata); and
various decorations in ivory, marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the
walls, ceiling, and door-posts.

8. The pk»njfitB9, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, zxzvi. 93. 46), was discovered In Cappadocla
In the time of Nero, and took this name from its translucency.— The lapis speenUriM was found
In Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocla, Sicily, and Africa ; it could be split into thin leaves, like slate,
not above five feet long each. Boyd remarks, quoting the French translation of ./f Jam, " It ap-
pears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy.*' Launay (cited P. IV. $ 105. 3),
after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expresses In the following words
his conclusion : **qae ie lapii tpteularU des Anciens etoit notre gypse feaillet6 appell6 StUniu.**
(vol. i. p. S14).

3. Windows made of this stone were termed apeeuUrU; ft has been supposed that these wore
chiefly in the better houses*.— Horn is said to have been used by the Romans for the windows
ic&nuum tpeeMlar»)i also paper and linen cloth. Originally the windows were mere openings
iforaminoj fenestra) ; sometimes covered with a sort of lattice {elathri); sometimes closed by
means of shatters with two leaves {biforu fsntstrmy. It has not been generally supposed thai
glass (cf. 368. 4) was manufiictured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was used for
windows until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass windows ivitrsa spscsda-
rta), is said to be by Lactantius (/>« opificio Deiy 8) or by Jerome, in the fourth century*; although
mirrors {specvla) of glass were much earlier. But glass windows have been discovered" in the
buildings at Pompeii. ** In the vaulted roof (of a room of the tksrmm or baths) is a window, two
feet eieht inches high and three feet eight inches broad« closed by a single large pane of glass,
two-flfths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the
roof from looking into the bath : of this glass many fragments were found in the ruins. This is
an evident proof that glass windows were in use among the ancienu. The learned seem to have
been generally mistaken on the subject of glass-making among the ancients. The vast collection
of bottles, vases, glasses, and other utensils discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the
ancients were well acquainted with the art of glass-blowing." It has been suggested, that these
vessels may not have been manufactured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from
Tyre, the place where glass is supposed to have been first made. Another room belonging to
the same baths "was lighted by a window two feet six inches high and three feet wide, in the
^snz« franu of which were found set four very beautiful poMS of glass fastened by small %Mts
and aertiBSt very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure."

i /. M. 8%urtmuy De ForuBiaibin Uptdum in priicii /EdiOciif, in SoJIciifra, m citad f 197. toL L— >> Stafcrnonn, Bktory of
loveotioiM, died P. IV. § 82. 1.— Cf. VogO^ Gocfaicbte dn- Ei«iidiumM van dcr Utatca \m nur OMmtai ZaiL Laii«. 1841. 13.
B/>DmpMi,ucitfldP.nr.§8a8Ll. p. 161. Cf:Blao§88l.4.

4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret-work (Jtaqusaria) on the ceilings, were among the
decorations in Roman houses. The various ornaments were frequently of a character exceed-
ingly unfavorable to purity of mind.

Oo BRfaitMtqnl omiMBli,'fte. ct P. IV. § SaS.-On tlw noMk of Uia aiieiniti, P. Vf. (§ 1S7, 188,920.

5 «. The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much bet-
ter than their exact design and use. The following were the principal parts. (1) The
vtMliJbulum or fore-court, an open space between the house-door ana the street. From
tldS, one entered through the door or gate {.janua or ostium) of the house into (2) the
atrium^ aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in
niches or cases {firmaria). From this, one passed directly through into (3) tlie tmp2«-
vnun; called also complut>\um and canHBdium, which was a court, commonly uncovered
'svhdivdU), where the rain-water fell. In this was the proper dwelling-house, which

p. m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOUSES. 291

had two wings with a covered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed
from one apartment to another of these side- buildings. Of these apartments the
principal was (4) the trielinium or dining-room ; the others were termed cella, having
distinctive names from their use ; as eella vinaria, coquinaria, penuaria, Sec. Besides
these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages ; colonnades,
baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apart mem s were on the lower
floor ; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly occupied by tenants on
lease (and called insttlcB), were higher and had more stories.

Is tlM popataiina of Rome iaeraMd, tb« bovM* In the eitj wer« niHd to neb atliludct as to oectwoo du^er, and a naiimaai vt
htlght »« oUblitbad by lm«r ; m the rrign of IttKustw it wu eoMted, tbat tbe taei({bt of privata adilica ihaiild not acea^ Mfcniy
CM Inm the grauwL-GiAteH, «oL 3d. p. 918, ed. N. Y. 1M2.

6. Tbe ^te or door (janna) wai •ometimes made of Iron or brnta, often hi(;bly omamented,
and upunlly raised above the ground, •o that iteps were nf^cpMary to ancend to it. On festival
occasions it was hang with green branches and garlands. It turned on hinges {rardines), and was
secured by bars (obiera^ claustra)^ locks (Mr«), and key (elavea). Knockers (mareii/t, maliei) or
bells (tintinnttkHU) were attached to it.'

Fi^. «, of PUtfl SXXII. rrprewnia a key (onnd at Pmnpeii.— Fie* t^ of (be time Plate, ia a doerbolt, foond aho a( FMnpaii.

In the atrivm was anciently the kitchen (aulina). Here also the mistress of the house and
fervanis carried on the spinning and weaving. In this was the family hearth (focua), near the
door, with a constant fire of coals, and the larta (cf. P. II. $ 111) around it. The Roman houses,
as well as the Creek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely an opening in the foof to let
off the smoke ; henre the epithet /Kmo«« applied to the images in the atriuta ; to avoid smoke as
much as possible, the wood wns carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil : yet it is said that
chimneys have been found in the ruins of ancient buildings*. Portable hearths or furnaces
(/odi/i). In which charcoal was burnt, were used for warming the dilTerent apartments; a sort
of stove (camtitiw), in which wood was usually burnt, was also used, larger than the furnace or
brasier, and fixed in one place. In later periods, houses were warmed by a furnace below, with
pipes glassing from it to the rooms*.— The atrium waa sometimes divided, In later times, into dif-
ferent parts separated by curtalna.

> Jtafter>* Gallaa, I. lOS. Of. Har. Sak L v. St.— Ptfnie. tU. S. • Aeftmsnn, Hbt of InvCDtiooa. Ct PUn. Ep. IL 17.—

Jtoi.Ep.nL

In the open cnnrt. or implnvium^ was often, if not usually, a fountain. The apartments aronnd
It, excepting the dining room, were usually small and ill constructed, and properly called ceUs.
Those designed for sleeping were termed cubieiila. The tablinum was tbe room for the family
records or archives. The ptnacotheea was the gallery for pictures. The solarium was a room on
the portico for taking the sun.— The covering or nwf was protected by large tiles {tegula), and
was generally of an angular form ; the highest part was called faaii/fivm^ a term also used to
designate the whole roof— Under the better class of bouses were very capacious cellars {Mllaria\
which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines.— Staircases do not appear to
bave been considered of mnch consequence; they are found in the buildings at Pompeii.

In Plate XXXII. fig. 1, Is the plan of a Roman hout»e, given In StuarCa Diet, of Architecture at
according to Vitruvius : ** a is the vaatibvUm ; b. the atrium ; e, the tablinum ; d, d, the ale ; s, «,
cells faniiliarlcc; /. cavmlium ; ^, vernal t*irlinium; ^. summer triclinium; «■, winter tricll-
Diom; tti, baths; kkk^ cubicule; m, pinacoiheca ; n, bibliotheca ; 0, peristyle; 9,.Cyziceno
CBcus ; r r, couru of the ofllces ; «, exedra ; t (, gardens ; «, rooms for embroidery ; « 0, sudato*
rles.*»

Ob the Roaan hooM, cf. tVOkifu, Tnual. of VitrvTiiM, citfd P. IV ( US. 4 —J. Mimiffllut, do Roomb. domibai, in SaOmgrtf
dtod \ 197.— Fr. M. OntpaUt dc partiboa MAnm liber. Pann. 1606. t—HiH, OoKbicbte der Baokumd, cited P. IV. ; 24& 4^—
Mmait, Raines do PonpeL— Jftravir, La Palab do Seavno, oil DcKiipUon d*ua Maiaon Rouaina. Ft. IKSL 8.— 5mt<A, DkL
of AatiqoitM^ pw 4M.

7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs («<'n«), tables (m«w«),
ooaches (lecti), lamps (tucerno!)^ &,c.; besides the numerous utensils for culinary

rirposes (cf. i 329. 3), and articles pertaining to tbe baihing-room and the toilet (cf.
338).

Several varieties of tables are mentioned ; as the c{7/i»a, a round table with three legs ; the
mvtutpoHium ; the ai/rma or msii^a lunata^ die. (cf ^ 329. 9).— Chairs of different forms have been
discovered In the excavations at Pompeii, and other varieties ore represented in the fresco paint-
ings.—Among the couches were those used at meals, atrvbitat or leeti tricliitiarea (cf. $ 3>i9. 3);
and tbe Ueti eubicularta or beds for sleeping; the latter had costiv frames, sometimes of metal,
with feet ( fulcra) sometimes of silver, bearing a matress or bed of feathers {euldta^ torua), with
rich coverings (vestaa ttragulte, ptripeiaamata^ periatromata eonekyliata). — A great number of
ancient lamps have been found, particularly at lierculanenm and Pompeii ; of various forms and
■Izes, and different materials, from the most common to the most costly ; many of ihetn, espe-
cially those in bronze, are of the most beautiful workmanship. They were wrought into the
most whimsical Images and shapes ; and were atUched to supports of various kinds, or sua
pended from the ceilings.

Several speciroeAS of ancient lamps are given In our Plate XXXTT. at the bottom ; in Sob. I
and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch (lyehnueua) ; In Nos. S and 4, they are placed
upon a low tripod ; In No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (ealumella) called eandflabrum. Fig.
rf Is a eoMck, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow.

ff. H. Babtr, Intiqne VaMi, Lampa, Tonba, Uma, ke. Lnod. IfOft. 4. co taininf ooe hoodrad and Mvoniy platca rncnved bf
B. Mom; wirb deKriptloBa.-Seo alio Mcntfiiuam (aa cited P. V. k 13), toI. t. p. 20i.-U AnHthi fSrcabmo, cited P. IV.
1 843. S. OM tol. of wbi«h tnaia particulariy 00 tbia tubjad.-The Mum Barbonito (cited P. IV. k 2li), conuim irpMBBnUtiooa
■r T«i7 iMtrfnl aoricnt eliaira.

% 326. The villas, or country seats, of the Romans were mnch moi;e splendid usually
ihao the houses within the city. A complete establishment of this kind included seve-

29fi ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

ral parts. 1. The vtTZa urbana was the chief ediBce, with its courts, baths, porticos,
and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. '1 he villa ruttka was the name applied
to the buildings designed to accommodate the steward (villicus), and numerous slaves
of the establishment ; and those for various kinds of live stock ; e. g. gallinariuMj for
hens; aviarium, for bees ; tuilct for swine, &.c. 3. The villa fructuaria was another
part, including the structures designed for stonnff the various products of the farm ;
as wine, corn, oil, and fruits; often comprehendea under villa rustiea. 4. The horiu9
was the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed : beine planted
wah trees, shrubs, and flowers, which were often turned into faniasiic snapes by
slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts; adorned
with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort of p trk, of many acres,
chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, theriotrophiumf in which was the fish-
pond (piscina) and the oyster-bed {vivarium).

Many of thets villai, owned by dlBltnguithed Romant, are alluded to in the clamicB. (^cere
had a beautirul one at Tuaculum, beaidea aeveral in other ptacea further from the city (cf. Mul-
dleton't Life of Cicero, aect. zii).— Hurtcnaiua poaaeaaed numptunua villan at Tuarulnm, Bauli,
and Laurentum ; the Piscina MiraWis, a aubterraneoaa edifice, vaulted and divided by four rowa
of arcad^a, under ibe promontory of Bauli, i« auppoved bv aoine to have been tlie flsh-pond of
Ihia diatinftuiahed orator. (Dunlov, Hiat. Rom. Lit. ii. 128.) In hia Tuaculnn villa hit had a
aingle painting, the Jlrronuuts^ by Cpdia*^ for which he paid, arcnrdin^ to Pliny (Nat. Hiit. xzxv.
]3), 144,000 aeatercea, i.e. above #5,000.— Horace ia auppnaed to have ownnd a villa at Tibur, not
an aplendid, vet aflTording a retreat delighlfnl to the poei. (jfii(Aoji*« Itemarka in bf« ed. of
Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), haa given a description of one bi'lmiging to hiiTia^lf at Laurentum,
of great extent and grandeur. (Stuart't Dictionary of Architecture.)— I)ui (hR villa nf the empe-
ror ^drian^ near Tivoli, waa probably the mnut magnitlcent ever erecind ; ita buildinga and
plantationa covered an area, it ia aaid, of at leaai aix niilpa in circumference ; its ruina bava
survived to niodprn timii, and have furniahcd many nf the fineal remaina of ancient art. (Cf.
P. IV. )$ 173, \8S.Stuart'$ Uict.)— Ruina, called the ri//a of LucuUh», have been discovered at
ttie extreme point nf Pauailypua (cf. P. \. ^ 42), In ground used for viney&rda, two feel below (ht
surface; the buildings are aaid to have been found in good ordf r. (Gent. Jilag. Ap. 1812.)— The
excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a apecimen of a villa Just wftliout the walls of tha

flace, anppnsed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a lively description of it in J«Aiu««*f
hilos. of Trav. p. 235, aa cited P. IV. ^ ItiO.)
BA. Cattai, Tht Yillw of the Andmlt illiMlnted. Load. 1721 M-~9uIxa*i Th«ori«, i. 906.— O. Qrmim, D» Ra«»ieatioM

RoiMDOnun, ia SaUmgn, cU«d ^ 197. vol. i. On rataiin of Romu villa ditovvwvd i^ Enilaod, Jn^mulog^a, (m ciled P. IT.

k 24a. S), vol. viii. p. 96S. VOL xviU. p. SCS, mmI lii. I76» wilb pUoi.

$ 327. The manner of life amongr the Romans undei went many changes in
the course of their history. In the eaily periods these were favorable to their
morals, but in later times highly injurious. Their constant prosperity exerted
its influence on their feelings, and these affected their private life and manners,
their pursuits, social character, and amusements. At first, and even down to
the first Punic war, their domestic manners were characterized by simplicity in
thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratifica-
tion of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly indulged. From their
primitive rudeness, they gradually advanced in refinement and urbanity, and
ere long passed into an opposite extreme. The more they became acquainted
with the conveniences and pleasures of the people they conquered, especially
the Greeks and Asiatics, and the more their riches and abund-ance increased in
consequence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury ia
private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial,
now appeared effeminacy, vanity, and idleness. Magnificence in buildings,
luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for dress and entertainments^
followed of course.

$ 3*28. It is not easy to decide what was certainly a uniform course of daily
avocations, among a people presenting a great variety in pursuits, conduct, and
manner of life. There was, nowever, a sort of regular routine in the succession
of daily employments among the Romans, particularly with the more respect-
able and orderly citizens.

1 u. The mominghours were appropriated to religious worship in the temples, or
their own housea. In the morning, also, persons of the lower class were accustomed
to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially clients upon their patrons.
About the third hour (cf. ^ 228) the business of the courts, coraitia, and other asscm-
blies were commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenndcs for plea-
sure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and other public places. About the
sixth hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, after which it waa customary to take
a little rest or sleep. The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation,
m visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ninth or tenth hour
was the usual Uine for the evening meal.

p. in. ' DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTINE OF PAILT EMPLOYMENT. 293

S. The following caoftlc remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named, ) 396).— *< The
ptivate houses in Pompeii^ and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at once how the
people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open court of the house — while the
masters assembled, and might be said to live, in the public porticos and public hotels of ihe city 1
Such SMS the state of society among the ancients ; and if we examine the cafes and other public

aaces of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and France, at the present
ly, we shall find that the state of society in this respect has not essentially changed. Hnw the
women and children contrived to pass their time at home, while their husbands and fathers were
lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say ; but if we may
jDdge by the figures and devices on their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, amulets, and
walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narrow and darksome cells, the pruriency (I dare
not use the proper term) of their minds was at least commensurate with the inactivity of their
bodies and the enervating influence of the climate.**

Sm Atny'fl ioterating accoant (Epiit iii. I) of the maaaor is wfaidi taU frioid Sporiana was ■ccortnmad to ipead Uio day.— —
Ahbc Oouiun, La vie privae d« Bomaias, m citad § 310.

3. The customary time of day for bathing, both at the public tkerma (rf. P. IV. $241 h) and the
more private balnea^ was between two o*clock and dusk. Between two and three o'clock was
considered the most elis;ible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths were usuully closed
at dusk ; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until five o'clock in the evening. The
' price paid for admission was a qvai'rans or quarter of an at; the charge for entrance was In-
creased a hundred-fold after four o'clock.— Nero*s baths were heated by twelve o'clock ; and
Severus allowed the baths to be open before sunrise and even through the night, in summer.
The rage for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empire to Con-
stantinople ; after which no new thermae were erected, and the old gradually fell into decay. A
description of the buildings constructed for bathing is given under the topic of Architecture (cf.
P. IV. ^%i\b); to which we must refer for an explanation of the names of rooms or apartments
that occur in the following account of the customs connected with bathing.- "Those who went
to bathe first proceeded to the apodyterium^ where they took off their clothes and committed them
to the care of the eoptariiy slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer (balnetUor). Thence
they proceeded to the unctuarium^ where they were anointed by other slaves (a/i|>ftf). Thence
they proceeded to the Bpharuterium, to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. From
this room they went to the ealdarium. In taking the hot-bath in the latter room they sat upon a
bench or seat ipulvinus) beluw the surface of the water in the basin. Here th«y scraped them-
■elves with instruments called tlrigiUs^ usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation
was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase fbund at Canino, it Is inferred
that the bathers, after the use of the strieilis, rubbed themselves with their hands, and then were
washed from head to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over them. They were then
dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and covered with a light shaggy mantle called gan-
tape. On quitting the etUdariutn, they went to the tepiiarium^ and after some delay, thence into
the friffidarnm; but are supposed not generally to have bathed in these at the public iherniB,
but to have used them chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heat of the ealdarium to
the open air. The bathing was usually followed by an anointing of the body with the perfumed

oils of the elaothesiunit after which the clothes left in the apodyterium were resumed.** It i«

worthy of remark, that the exercise of $wimminf was connected with the custom of bathing.
** This an," it is said, '* was held in snph estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they
wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, tbe]^ would say of him, that
he neitAer knew how to read nor ewiwy a phrase corresponding with our familiar one, that a per-
son knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gymnasia and
patcstrc, were schools for swimming; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in their pri-
vate bouses for the enjoyment of this exercise."

AO, ai diad P. lY. § 841 k-nAnaltoi, vat I'aKerdM du Dagear ebcx laa anciflaa, In tbe Mtm. Jkai. huer. roL xxxviii. p. 1 1,
aBdsl.p.M

§ 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal (prandium) was very
frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it ; and in the better
limes of the republic, those who took a formal meal at noon were regarded as
effeminate. The fiAh hour, from 11 o'clock to 12 in modem reckoning, was the
time assigned for it.

The prmcipal meal was held at evening (cflsfw), and for this, particularly, the
guest-chambers or eating-halls {trielinia^ were constructed, which in the palaces
and manors of the rich were very splendid. These apartments were also called,
firom the use made of them, ecaiationei ; and among the lower classes, ccenacula.

1 tf. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides couches,
each with three pillows, on which to support the arm in reclining. Nine persons
(^ 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. I'he right of the middle couch or sofa
was called locu» cotuulariM. Often seven places only were prepared, the whole of the
middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor.
Women were not accustomed to recline at table, but to sit.

2. The couch on the right hand was called suinmus lectuSf the one placed at the
head of the table was called medius leclut, while the remaining couch on the left was
termed imus lectus. The post of honor on each was the central place, those who oc-
cupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respectively, primus sum-
mi lectiy primus medii lecti, and primus imi lecii. The most honorable of these three
places, and consequently of the whole entertainment, usually was the primus medii
lectx. The least honorable was at the end of the left couch farthest from that called
wtedius. As the guests all reclined on the same (the left) arm, the bodies of those on

2b2

294 ROMAN ANTIQUITIBS.

the opposite couches were extended in opposite directions ; on the ri^fat towards, on the
left from, the middle couch. — The couch-frames {sponda) and their supports {fulcra)
were of wood, ivory, or sometimes metal; sometimes they were veneered with tor-
toisO'shell ; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing {Jtomenlum) of wool,
feathers or the Uke ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloih {stra^ula) often
of rich embroidery and purple dye. — Th^^lfobles (mentai) were often highly orna-
mented. The mon(ypodium, was circular, with one foot ; chiefly used by the sick ; the
tripes (Hor. Sat. i. in. 13} of the poorer people had three feet. The men»a lunata was
a semicircular table, accommodating usually seven or eight persons, used under the
"emperors ; it was called nigma from its resemblance in form to the letter C ; the
term stibadiutn designated the couch or sofa which surrounded it.

In Plate XXXV. flg. 1, wa have the ground plnn of a ■ummer triclinium in the gmall gnrden of
the bouse of Salluet, found at Pompeii ; and alto a view of the courhea and the table in the
center. In this plan, A deiignatea the »ummu$ leetus; B, the meditu; C, the imu*. The coucbee,
in thia instance, are of maaonry, and were of course covered with cushions and tapestry. The
round table in the center was of marble.— In fig. 5, of the same Plate, also from Pompeii, we aeo
a splendid lutiu, with a cushion and richly ornamented pillow (pulvinar).

3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels (marUUia)
for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin {jnappa) for wiping
the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the food {cibum) there were
various articles of furniture, as dishes (Jancen, milrin<p) and the like ; but nothing like
€ur fork, it is supposed (cf. P. IV. ^ 135. 2); although the excavations at Pompeii have
shown that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been consi-
dered as modern inventions.

"The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic economy
and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb nf Pon«nri), where they slept
since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natu-
ral, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost mira«
cutous preservation of these objects during so many centuries. We are aatonislied (though I
know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could vtamp their
names on the loaves— that the cooks had pots, stew-pans, colanders, molds for Christmas- pies
and twelfth cakes— ^that the aldermen and gormands stowed their wines at the greatest distance
from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves for supplying mulled wines to their
quests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of 'doctor's KtuflT,* a box of pills remain-
ing to this day, gill, for the squeamish palate of some Pompeian fine lady— that the surgeon's
room displayed a terrific *armamentum ckirurgieum' of torturing instruments; among others,
* Weiss's Dilator,' the boaat of modern invention in the 9trand— that the female toilets disclosed
rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the hare's foot to lay them grace Ailly on the pallid
cheek— that the masters and mistresses bad little bells to summon the glavu (fur servants there
were none), and that the aaaes, mules, and oxen had the same noisy Instruments, to warn carta
and wheelbarrows from entering the streets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same
time— that play-billa, quack advertisements, notices of sights, shows, fcp., were pasted up at the
corners of the streets, in monstrous bad Latin— that opera tickets were carved in ivory, though
at a lower price than 83. 6(2.— that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabnan
who came within the vortex of the Pompeian gaming-tat>ie— that horses had bits in their mouths,
stirrups at their sides, cruppers on their rumps, though the two latter are omitted in statues, for
the t»enefit of antiquarian disquiaitions— that windows were glazed when light was preferred to
air, which was rarely the case— that the Pompcians, like the Iriah, had their wakes, their bowl-
ings, and their whisky drinkings at funerals— that the public houses had checkers pninted on
their walls, as at present-^that the chimist's shop had fnr its sign a serpent devouring a pine-
apple, symbolical of prudence defeating death — that the Pompeian ladies employed male accouch-
eurs, who had all the implements of their an nearly similar to those of the modern men mid-
wives— that the houses were numbered, and the names of the occupanta painted on the walls —
that, in the public tribunals, the magisiratea prnteated to Heaven that they would decide eowsd-
entiously, while the witnesses swore most solemnly that they would speak nothing but tr^tk —
that the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, where
officers were appointed to preserve order — Chat, in short, men and women had their passions and
propensities, their cares and their enjoymenta, long before Vesuvius burst into flame :" {Jsk»-
Mx, before cited.)

Ob curkcilia Ibuod at Pdmpeli, cf. CZa«. Jeurn. xr. p. 105.— £il«ttry a/ BnUrtaiwftg KnouUdft, voK xiiv. xx?— Ptw^ni.

"-JtfuMO BorboniM. For in Interesticg aoeonol of Ibe lazurioua mannen of ilie lator Romu aoblot, GtLbon^ Dec. and Fall of

Sota. Emp. chap. xzxL

§ 330. At the suppers of the rich, there were commonly three courses. The
first was termed gustus or gustaiio^ designed to sharpen rather than to satisfy
appetite; it consisted of eggs (ova), salad, radishes, and the like. With this
they drank usually, not "wine, but mead, or a mixture of honey. The second
course formed the essential part of the meal, and the principal dish was called
capiU eansB. The dishes were brought on by slaves in baskets or vases fitted foi
the purpose (reposiioria). The third course was the dessert (fiellaria)^ consist-
ing of choice fruits (mala), pastry, and confectionery.

1. Hence the Introduction of the phrase, ab ove ad mala, from the beginning to the end of the
feast. Cf. Horace^ Sat. L ill. 6.-— An account of the fare provided fur a aoclal supper, is given
by Pliny, Epist. i. 15.

2 A great number of servants were employed about the evening meal in one wav

p. m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. BANQUETS.

or snother ; some of them have already been named ref. ^ 322) ; e. g. the struetor,
who arranged the tables ; the earptor^ who divided the food, &c. in the times of
Roman liuury, there was much demand for skilful cooks {coqui^ archimagiri).

3. It may be proper here to advert to the Roman hospitatity. The rights of hospi-
tality (Jus hospUii) were highly respected ; the term hofpes was applied both to the
host and to the •guest, and always uidicated mutual obligations between them.
These rights and obligations were sometimes created between persons re&«iding at a
distance and even in different countries, by an interchange of presents, 'i he joining
of right hands was practiced as a sort of pledge of this fellowship {arrha hoxj i'alh) ;
■ometimes a sort of tally was used consistmg of a piece of wood cut into two siniilnr
parts, of which each person kept one (tessera kospUaliM) ; some of the European
cabinets have specimens of these tesser<B with the names of friends inscribed.— -The
Romans had a custom (called mulitatio) of inviting on the next day those whom they
had met at another^person's house.

Fig. 4, In Plate XXXV., Ii a copy of a palntfng found at Herculaneum, which exbibitg two
persona Joininy handavand one giving to the other the lesaera.

a. Oam. Jnum. \x. 229. z. 989. xvlii. IS.-^Foibnlie (u ciiad § IS), p. W.-J. B. Camliui, Oe Trirliniia, Rnpit.Mifato at To-

Hrii Vetana, in OroiMVtto, ml lx.—J.P. T^marinmi^ De Ttmmk UiMpilaliiatit. Aart. IVSO. Ii. idto id Onmimita, vol. Itu

Oa Ite ftaenl rabjaet of Bagnn »«■)% ke. J. C. BvUngwrn, D» Coavivin, io Gfvncmta, voL is.— Cf kIm }) 166-168.

$ 331a. In social banquets, held at evening, it was customary to choose a
master of the feast, rex or magtsier eonvivii or arbiter bibendi; he seems to have
been choeen by a throw of dice {Hor. Od. ii. vii. 25). To his direction every
thingr connected with the banquet was submitted, particularly all that related to
drinking, and the social intercourse for the time. After the completion of the
meal, the drinking was continued late in the night. It was customary to drink
healths, the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored in the first
place. — Not only after the meal, but also during it, between the different courses
and dishes, social games or plays were practiced, especially playing with dice.

1 u. There were two kinds of dice, tali and tesseree. The former were oblong,
with two sides or ends rounded, having therefore four sides, on which they miglu fall,
and which were numbered successively one (u«to), six {xcriio), three {temio), av.d four
(nuatemio). Four tali were used inpfaying ; the most fortui.ate throw, called Jactus
Vmereu* or Vcnufy was when a different number was uppermost on each of the four,
and the worst throw, called Canis, was when the same number was uppermost on all.
The tcfsera had six sides, numbered like modern dice. Three only were used in play-
ing; and the best throw was three sixes, and the poorest three aces or ones. 'J he vessel
from which the dice were thrown, was called fritUlus or furricula, a box in the form
of a tower *, the board or table on which they were received, was termed forus, alwusj
tabula lusoria. — Another game not so often played was called Duorhna gcripta, and
was a kind of trick-track or backgammon. It was played wiih fifteen counters or
stones (calculi) of different colors, upon a table marked with twelve lines. — In ihe
eeneral corruption of Roman manners the love of playing at games was carrieu to the
highest extreme.

C£ SfmoR, Jeox de baard, cba la Ronttiia, in Ibe Mtm. Acad, frutt. i. iZa

2. In the time of the Republic, it was customary for the patro*' to invite all his cli*
ents occasionally to a common supper in his halls ; this was calUd c<ena recta. Under
the emperors, it became customary to give to the clients, instead of a supper, a por-
tion of food to carry home in a small basket, sporiula. At length a quantity of mo-
ney was substituted instead of this, to the amount of about 1(X) quadrant esy or 25
MSfs, which was also called rportula, I'his word was also employed to designate
sums of money distributed by orators and others for the purpose of gaining favor.

a. Jka. i. ». I1&— MM. ill. t.—Ik Mlantour, In tti* Mm. Jead. Int^. u 161.

^ 331 b. As wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Romans, especially at their
social evening banquets and games, we will introduce here some remarks on the sub-
ject. Scarcely any thing else seems to have been so important to the rich Roman in
all his arrangements for domestic comfort, as to be well furnished with rhoico and
approved wines. — 1. Hence there was great attention to the cultivation of the vine ;
even to the neglect of other branches of agriculture. The soil of Campania was con-
sidered as perhaps the most desirable in Italy, for vineyards. • Many varieties of grape
were cultivated : about fifty sorts are mentioned by Columella and Pliny ; no expense
was spared to obtain the best kinds for the vineyards. It was common to rear the
vines by attaching them to certain trees (arluxta), particularly the elm and poplar ;
and the vines and trees were thus said to be married ; the vines were allowed usually
to reach the height of 30 or 40 feet, sometimes a still greater, in the rich soils ; in
soils less favorable, the usual height was only from 8 to 12 feet. — 2. The vintage or
gathering of the grapes was about the last of September, or in October. They were
picked in osier baskets (facince corhes) and carried directly to the room for pressing

296 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

{torcuiarium), where they were first trodden iealcahantur)^ and then subiected to the
press ; some times in order to obtain a richer wine, the grape was exposed to the sun a
lew days after gathering. The common wine-press (torcular) seems to have been
simply an upright frame, in which was fixed a beam (prelum) loaded with weights,
and having ropes attached so as to work it more easily. The juice (muatum) passed
through a sort of strainer (colum) into a vat (locus), in which it remained in order to un-
dergo fermentation about nine days, or was put into large vessels {dolia) for the same
purpose. The juice which ran from the grapes without pressing imustum lixivium) was
usually preserved separately, and often with much pains to avoid its fermeqtaiion i
one mode of doing which was to secure it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for a
space of a month or more. Sometimes the juice obtained by pressing was boiled
down instead of being allowed to ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and
called defrutarium ; the must thus inspissated and reduced to one-half its original
quantity, was termed defrutum; the earenum was such as had been reduced only io
two-thirds ; sapa was the name when reduced to one-third. — ^3. Vlirious means were
employed for clarifying the fermented must ; eggs particularly wepe used for the pur-
pose. Various methoas were devised also for modifying or preserving the flavor both
of the fermented and the inspissated juice ; aromatic lierbs and drugs of difierent
kinds were introduced to effect the object. — In order to hasten the maturity of wines,
to ripen and mellow them, they were often subjected to the action of artificial heat
and smoke, by placing the vessels containing them in the flues of the furnaces, or in
some room prepared tor the purpose ifumanum), where the smoke for a time passed
around them. These forced wmes are said to have been in ^reat request at Rome.
It is probable that the process tended to give the wines a thicker consistency ; it is
statea that they sometimes became consolidated to such a degree that it was neces-
sary to dissolve them in hot water.— 4. The vessel most commonly used by the Ro-
mans, for keeping their wine, was the amphora, called also quadranlal; the terms
te$ta, cadus, and diota are applied to the same or a similar vessel. It was made of a
Bort of clay baked, and held about six gallons ; — generally of an elegant form, having
a narrow neck with two handles, and tapering towards the bottom, so that ihev might
easily be fixed in the grpund or sand of the wine-cellar, and kept in an uprignt posi-
tion. The amphora was commonly lined with some preparation of pitch or wax and
aromatic substances, and was covered also with a coatmg made of pitch and the ashes
of the vine. When the wine had been in the vessel a suitable time, the cover or
■topper was confined and made perfectly close by a coating of the same kind, or of
plaster. Skins (utres), which were originally the only kind of vessel used for the par-
pose, seem also to have remained until later times. For the richer sorts of wine,
glass vessels appear also to have been employed ; but probably of a much smaller size
than the earthen canphora (Martial, Ep. ii. 40). For carrying wine from place to
place, very large vessels made of leather or hide, supported and guarded by a frame
and hoops, seem to have been used. A painting found in a wine-shop at Pompeii ex-
hibits a vessel of this kind occupying the whole of a wagon or car with four wheels
and drawn by two horses.;— 5. The oetter kinds of wine were usually valued more
highly in proportion to their age. None of the more generous wines were reckoned
fit for drinking before the fifth year, and the majority of them were kept for a much
longer period. The most pleasant and grateful for drinking, however, was that of a
middle age ; although the older might command a higher price. The opulent Ro-
man, as has been mentioned, attached vast importance to his wine establishment.
Hence to the house and villa of every such person was attached the wine-ceUnr (cella
vinaria). This (called also apotheca, cf. Hor. Sat. ii. v. 7) was commonly in part, if
not wholly, under ground, and was frequently very spacious. Here the wine was
kept, usually, in amphora, which were ranged along the walls, sunk to a greater or
less depth in the sand; each one having a mark (nola) indicating the name of the Con-
sul in office when the wine was made ; hence the phrase interior noAa, signifying the
oldest and choicest ; because such, being placed first in the cellar, would naturally be
at the remote end of the cellar, or because, on account of these auatities, it was
lodged in an inner cell or apartment. The villa of Diomedes (c€ ^ 326) nas a cellar very
large, extending round and under the whole garden, and lighted and ventilated by
port-holes from above; "some of the amphorae still stand as they were packed and
labelled seventeen centuries ago." Among the amphorae found, some not many years
since, at Leptis (cf. Beeehy^s travels), was one with the following inscription in Vermil-
lion, L. CASsio c. MARIO COS. forming three lines on the vessel. — 6. Of the Italian wine^,
the most celebrated were the Falemian and Massic (vinum Falernum, Massicum),
which seem to have been the product of the same region, in the vicinity of Sinuessa ;
and the vinum Setinum, the beverage of Augustus, produced on the hills of Setia.
Others in much repute were the vinum Ctecvhum, Surrentinum, Calenum ; of a third
rank were the Albanum and Sabinum, The Sicilian wines were rated generally after
these. Of foreign wines, the Romans seemed to have placed the Lesbian, Chian, and
Thaaian, among the first ; cf. ^ 161. Different kinds of wine were used at the same
Muiquet ; and sometimes the guests were treated with different sorts according to their

p. m. DOMBSTIC AFFAIRS. DRINEINCM3UPS. COSTUMES. S97

rank. — 1. From the fact that the wines were so often inspissated, it was common to
dilate them for actual use, among the Romans as well as among the Greeks; for this
purpose toarm or hot water seems to have been frequently used. The mixture was
made in a kirge vase called rrater. From this it was poured or conveyed by a ladle
{etfoikiu) into cups {pocuta)^ of which there were almost countless varieties.

Some of the nanes employed to designate varieties of the driiilcinK-ciip were the following;
teiitta, pkial^^ •eypku cfmMa, btiolm. They were made of wood {fagina pocula), or of eerth
ifiUUia); of glue (vifrM), and of amber (««cd«e); also of bronze, allver, and gold, wlib various
ornaments {tortwrnatOtfHua «aiipea); of gems or precious stones, and of the substance calird
mwrrk* (cf. P. IV. \ 195. 4). The specimens of these articles still remaining show great sJtill io
workmanship.

In our Plate XXXV. are seen a number of the vessels connected with the ancient use of wine.
Fig. a is a Jar fllled with grapes, copied from paintings on the walls of an ediAce found at Pom-
peii and called the Pantheon.— Fig. 6 is drawn ft-om an Egyptian monument ; and shows a mode
of obtaining the Juice by treading on the grapes collected in a vat.— Fig. 3 is copied from the
painting mentioned above as found at Pompeii ; it shows a mode of carrying wine about for
■ale; a slave is fllling an 9mph4mt> from the leathern vessel In the carriage, and another slave
holds a second asipAora to be filled. — Figs, fr, c, and <i, are wine-vessels, f^om Egyptian monu-
ments ; e very exactly resembling the Roman amphora ; and fr, a form still in actual use In
Egypt for water.— Figs. 0,/, ^, i, represent glass vessels found at Pompeii ; A Is probably a drink-
Ing-cup. — Figs, n and 0 are also drinking-vessels ; n is the drinking-horn, Kipaf, fivrSv; several
specimens have been found at Pompeii; o may illustrate the Greek crater ; cf. B»yd^§ Potter,
p. 690.— Fig. 7 shows two elegant glass cups which seem to have been cnt, or else cast in a mold.
—Fig. 5 presents. In the hand of the Bacchanal, a cup of another form, probably the eoin, KiXif;
wine-vessels also appear on the small table wMch stands by the splendid eoueh on which be
reclines with a garland on his head and the thyrsus in the other hand ; a monument from Pom-
peii.— Fig. 3 Is a vessel of form like one of those seen on the table of the Bacchanal, given on a
urger scale, and showing its ornameuts ; it represents the patera, often used in libations.

Ct Anansff. oo » Raua ••drinkiB«<ap wraocbl of Mlid cfTrtal," Jrehmolegia, eitad P. IV. § 82. S. niL vil. p. isa Od tbs

topici of IbB aboTC welioa, Uendtrmmt'i Hulory of WiiMt, cited \ I9t.—E. Barry, Ob Uw Winn of tha Aneimta. UmA. m& 4.—
JL rWiwiw, De Vlao m 4« TJm •! AboM, in Orofweoa, vol. Iz.-y^ AMiiu, D« CoBTif ii* Vatcrani, ia Onnommt, vol is.—
PMiy, Hat NftL liv.-CoJumiUo, lit.— it. Pmnem, Anti-BaechM ; an Emj on Inioiicktiiv DrtakiL Bq>r. N. Tork, 1940. IS.
p.»a^-JLS.0rJndKirf,Bucfaiit;aBE«»70BlaleBipwuee. Bapr. N. Tort, IMa IS. p. ItS; Stf. Tha hit two •* wwks
vsiaaU* aa advacatiaf parfcet tamparmMa'*

$ 332. The ikshion of (frets among the Romans underwent changes in difier-
ent periods, hot less in respect to form than the quality and expensiveness of
the materials, and the ornaments. — ^The most general and peculiar garment of
the Romans was the toga^ a national characteristic, whence the Romans were
termed Gent togata^ and Ihgaiu while the Greeks were termed Palliatu It was
a loose robe or sort of cloak, extending from the neck to the feet, close below up
to the breast, but open above the breast, and without sleeves. It was therefore
not put on, properly speaking, but thrown over the body. It was commonly of
wool, and white in color ; black, toga pulloj being used only on funeral occa-
sions. The toga worn in the house was less loose and ample {toga restricta) ;
that used in going out, commonly larger and flowing with many folds (fusa).

1. Some of the priests and magistrates wore it bordered with purple {toga prcBtexta) ;
this was also worn by freeborn youth, who, at the a^e of seventeen, exchanged it for
the toga virilis or (because generally white) pura, which was assumed in a very formal
manner before the Praetor, in the Forum. — The trabea is described as a toga orna-
mented with purple horizontnl stripes ; that worn by the augurs (cf. % 209) is said to
have been of purple and saffron color. — The angular extremities of the toga were
termed lacinia.

i. A sutne of one Marcus Tulllus, by some supposed to be a descendant of the great Cicero,
was found at Pompeii ; " he is represented clothed in a toga pratexta, the robe or office of the
Roman roafistratps; and, which adds value and singularity to the statue, this robe is entirely
painted with a deep purple violet color. This seems to give reason for believing that the prc-
tezta, instead of being a garment with only a purple hem, as It is usually explained, was entirely
dyed with this precious color ; at least in the later times of the republic. The price of this pur-
ple was enormous ; the violet, though the less costly sort, is said by Pliny to have been worth
one hundred denarii (about i?3, 4«. 7d.) the pound ; the red is valued by the same authority at
one thousand denarii. It was obtained ft^om the marex, a shell-flsh found in various parts or ibe
Mediterranean." PompeH, p. 305.

Oa tlMaga braaminc llwtop, cf. Dedu^ da kUI* taf. vir. wnaBdc, In Ua Awfad. Jkad. (diad P. V. $ 6«L 7.) p 245.-On
fta e^» of tte topi, JbrnUlum, mu h tdntara dai aneicna, aa dtad f 881 4. (0.

$ 333. The garment which the Romans wore under the robe, was the tunic
{tunica). It was worn close to the bodv, without sleeves, and extending almost
to the knees. It was entirely open, and fastened by means of a girdle above the
hips. It was commonly, like the toga, white. Jn later times the tunic was
worn with sleeves. — With slaves and the poorer classes of citizens generally,
this was the only clothing, except the linen under-garment or shirt (tWtMtum,
gubueula) which had small sleeves. The higher classes never appeared abroad
38

ROMAN ANTIdUITIES.

vithont the addition of the toga. In winter the latter often wore another gar-
ment under it, called tunica itUerior or interula,

1 tt. Senators and their sons wore a tunic bordered in front on the right side with a
stripe of purple, called elavut ; knights iequitea) had two such stripes, but narrower ;
whence the tunic of the senators was called latidaviat that of the knights angusti-
clavia.

t. Tfae ampemra ezercited the prerng iitiva of beitowinf th« distinction of the haielav$ upon
such persona as they considered worthy of ibe honor. Cf. Plinfy Ep. 11. 9.

$ 334 t. The women used the tunic^ with a ^rdle, as well as the men ; only
that of the women reached down to the feet. They wore also an over-garment
extending to the feet, called slola, having a broad border or fringe (^limbtu) called
inaiita. Some consider the palla to be a robe worn over the stole ; others think
them both the same grarment. The women sometimes wore a fine robe of a cir-
cular form called cyelas. The mourning robe of women was called ricinium or
rica^ covering the head and shoulders. The amiculum was a short mantle, or
▼ail, worn by the women.

'* A female statue, of the size of life, was found within the cellar of the temple of
Fortune at Pompeii, clothed in a tunic falling to her feet and above it a toga. The
border of the former is gilt ; the latter is edged with a red purple bandeau, an inch and
a quarter wide ; the right arm is pressed upon the bosom, with the hand elevated to
the chin, while the left hand holds up the toga.'*

§ 335. There were other kinds of outer garments more or less in use. The
Isena was a thick woolen over-coat, used in journeying ; this name was also
given to the purple robe of the Flaminea (cf $ 214), which was fastened about
the neck with a buckle or clasp. The paludamentum^ ot chiamys^ was a long
Grecian cloak of scarlet color bordered with purple, used specially by generals
and high military officers. The $ajptm was a soldier's cloak of red color, cover-
ing only the back and shoulders, ^stened by a clasp. The lacerna was a kind
of rain cloak, very broad, and usually with a hood or covering for the head
(cttculltu, eapitium). The pssnula was a robe similar to the toga, and more
frequently used under the emperors.

The materials of which the Roman garments were made, were chieflv linen and
woolen. Silk was unknown to them until the close of the republic. The Romans
seem to have remained ignorant how silk was produced, for a long time af^er the article
was introduced among them by importation from the country of the Seres. Nor did
they at first use it without intermixing linen or woolen in texture with it; for which
purpose even the silk stuffs, which were brought from the east in a woven slate, were
unraveled ; cloth of this mixed texture is said to have been first fabricated in the island
of Cos. The Coan vestments {vesles Co<b) appear to have been of a very loose texture,
almost like muslin or gauze ; hence called venius textUus, woven wind. The Seric
vestments {vestrs Serica) are supposed to mean such as consisted of pure silk. The
term h&inhycina was sometimes applied to both, although it seems to have been consi-
dered as more appropriate for the Coan article ; as that was at length known to come
from a worm (^6ft^v^, bombyx), while the Seric was still imagined to be gathered from
the leaves of trees {Virg. Georg. ii. 121). Silk was consit^red as proper chiefly for
the garments of females. In the reign of Tiberius the senate (.Tacit. Ann. ii. 33) is
said to have decreed (A. D. 16) that men should not disgrace themselves by wearing
silk apparel {vestis serica). The emperor Heliogabulus (slain A. D. 222) is severely
condemned as being the first who wore a robe of pure silk.

Ct ikriicle Arret, in JnthanU Lempriere, knd Sarjeum, Id SmitkU Diet, of Antiqalti«i. On the Romui eosturae, tern 0. Frmh

riut, De Rr VevliirU, in GrwthtM^ vol. vi.— Jbckv. Oallnt, vol. W.—MaiOol and MeaHn, tSUtd f I9T —^mcOAon, Utm^ <<« Soia
cb«i la ftDcifiu, in the Mtm. Aead. Inaar. vni. zlvi. p. 4fi2.— OiMofi, Rom. Emp. ch. ^.—MakudA, Ori^M de le Sole, in Ike
BSam. ^ vol. v. p. 218.-J. JL Fotttr^ Do ByMO ADtiqnonim. Loud. 1776. & For wme QiailntHKM, aee PUta XXV. ; c£ $ 1<9

for eiplamlioos.

$ 336. The Romans usually went with the head uncovered, or drew over it a
part of the toga; except at sacred rites and festivals, on journeys, and in war.
At the festivsH of the Saturnalia, particularly, they wore a sort of bonnet or
woolen cap {pikus), which, however, was allowed only to the free by birth or
manumission, but forbidden to slaves. The petasus was a sort of broad-brimmed
hat', used in journeying. — ^There were various coverings for the feet. The ca/-
eei were somewhat like our shoes, and covered the whole foot, and often with
their lacings {corrigia, ligula) covered the ankles and the lower part of the leg.
Shoes of strong untanned leather were termed perone*. The calig9 were a kind

p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 290

of half-boot, worn by soldiers. The solese and erepida were sandals, coyering
only the bottom of the feet, and were fastened by leather thongs and bands (vtn-
ctM) passing above.

The shoe of senators came up to the middle of the leg, and had on the top of the foot
a eoiden or silver crescent, or letter C (hence lunaia pellis, patricia lutui). The shoes
ol the men were usually black ; those of women commonly white, sometimes of a red,
yellow, or other color. I'he mullei were of a reddish dye ; worn first by the kings, after-
wards by those who had borne any curule office. Sometimes the Romans used socks
made of wool or goal's hair, udones. The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around
wiih a sort of scarfs ifascuB)^ which were all in the Roman dress that corresponded to
modern pantaloons or breeches {ftmoralta) and stockings (jtUnalia).— 'The shoes of
comedians were termed aocci; those of tragedians, cothurni (cf ^ 89); those oi panto-
mimes, or the rattling appendages to them, scabella. The soccus was a mere slipper,
very frequently of yellow color ; the erepida seems to have been nearly the same ; the
baxa was a sandal made of vegetable leaves or twigs ; and the haxa and erepida were
used by comedians as well as tne soccus.^

t Tba bcMl-covarins tamed pe/oiu*, b wm In oar Fhto XXIV. iSg. S. • Sm P. V. |i S17-3I9.— D. TAiZnayc, u cited P. T.

I Sit. 1. ^Variou fcrau of eoniiap Cm- ibe feet and Iqp an gi*«a ia Ptata XXIV. ; na tba explanaiiiMi, { IC8. 2.

§ 337. The hair, both of the head and beard, was allowed by the more ancient
Romans to grow freely, and was but seldom cut. In the fifth century after the
building of the city, it first became a common custom to cut the hair more fre-

3nently, and also to frizzle and anoint it. Young persons were accustomed to
raw the hair backwards and bind it together in a knot, for a sort of ornament.

1 u. When the toga virilig was assumed (cf. ^ 332), the hair of the youth was shorn
and a part of it cast into the fire in honor of Apollo, and a part of it into the water in
h6nor of Neptune. It was also customary, on the first shaving of the beard, to conse-
crate it to some deity. Under the emperors false hair were used, by a contrivance like
a peruke (fiapillamentum^ galericulum).

2. Among the ornaments of the youth was the bulla, a sort of ball, which hung
from the neck on the breast. The boys, who were sons of citizens of the highei
ranks, wore one of gold (bulla aurea) ; it was usually a hollow sphere ; but other forms,
and particularly the image of a heart, were introduced. The sons of freedmen and
poorer citizens used only a leathern ball {huUa scoriea). This ornament was laid aside
when the toga virilis was assumed (cf $ 332), on which occasion the buUa was conse-
crated to the lares or other divinities.

Fig. 1, of oar Plate XXV. ia an altar-shaped box, worn by Inose women of the Hindoo templet,
upon their neclii ; richly ornamented with Jewels. Boxet like thif, or t>ag«, seem to have been
formerly worn on the neck to contain perfumes. Of. Isa. iii. 30 (ibe tablett), and Sol. Songt i. 13.
—The figure may serve to illustrate the Roman (tii2a, as hung from the neck.

Sea Jfrnl/aueon, Antiq. Ezpl. aa cited § 13. vol. ▼. p. SB.— Jaudclol, Bulla que lea eobnta Bon. portotent aa ooa, la tba Mem,
Jtei. AMcr.VDl. Ki.p.211.

$ 338. Still greater care was bestowed by the women upon the dress of their
hair, which they frizzled, plaited in locks and curls, and adorned with golden
chains, with pearls, rings, and ribins. The most modest fashion was the use
of a broad ribin or fillet (vt7/a), by which they g^athered and bound the hair in a
bench or knot. Besides the ointments by which they made their hair more
glossy, it became fashionable in later times to color it, and even to scatter gold
dust upon ife.

1. The Roman women often used paint (fucus) to improve the color of the face as
well as the hair ; both white {cerussa or ereta) and red (minium). Various ointments
iunpienta), cosmetics, and washes (medieaminaf smegmata)^ were likewise used for a
similar purpose. Effeminate men did the same. Of the various cosmetics we mention
the foUowmg: amaracinum, iasminum, nardinum, CBsipumf metopium, rosaeeumj
usinum.

The mirrors Cspeeuld) used at the toilet wire made of polished metal, commonly brass or steel,
also of stiver ; sometimes of giass iPU%. Hist. Nat. zzzvi. 96, 3tf). Cf. Menard, cited ) 169. 6; cf.
also ) 866. 4.

Among the personal ornaments of the Roman ladies were ear-rings, necklaces, and
finger-rings. The ear-rings (inaures) were of sold, pearls, and gems, sometimes of
immense value. Necklaces {monilia) were often of gold set with ^ems; several
splendid gold necklaces found in Etruscan tombs are now in the fintish Museum.
The men also used an ornament for the neck, which was a sort of twisted chain
(torques), or a circular plate (circulut auri). Finger-rings iannuli) were of various
forms and devices, commonly set with engraved gems (cf P. IV. ^^ 205, 206), and
nsed not merely for ornaments, but for sealing papers, caskets, and even large packages
or vessels ; hence perhaps they obtained the name of symbola. 1'he rins was a very
common ornament among the men ; originally only senators and equitea (cf. ^ 256. 2) wer«

300 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

allowed to wear gold rings ; plebeians could wear only iron rings except by specia]
allowance ; those who triumphed also wore an iron ring {ferreus sine gemma).-^Jevife)B
and other female ornaments were kept in a casket ipyxia, or pjfxiduJa) made of gold,
tortoise-shell, ivory, or other precious material.

S. Specimetif of moat of these ornamentf have been fonnd at Pompeii. A gold ring, with an
engraved gem aet in It, waa found near a temple, in a Irax along with forty-one ailver coina and
above one tbounand of braas. In aeveral of the houaea were found aiceletona with rings, brace-
leta (armiUtf), necklacea, and other ornamenta. Of tbeae apecimena we only mention further an
ear-ring of gold, which bad two pearl pendants ; and a breaat-pin, to which waa attached a Bac-
chanalian figure, with a jwtara in one band and a glaas in the other, having bat*a winga joined
to hia shouldera, and two belta of grnpea paasing acroaa hia body. Tliia curioua breast-pin is
given In our Plate XL VII. flg. i.— In the same Plate, figs. o,and A, and r, are ear-pendants, from
Montfaucon. Fig. 4 shows the ring which was passed through the ear.— Pig. ^ Is a pendant with
a pin to attach it to a bandeau or some part of the head-dress.— This Plate afso ahowa a variety

of rings : cf. P. IV. ) 900.— The torque* is seen in fig. 1, of Plate XL1V., cf. P. IV. $ 180. 0; and
the moniU or necklace, probably, in fla. 5, Plate XXXV. — A mirror, with a box of pins, &c. upon
a toilet-table, Is seen in Plate XXV. figs. 3 and 4. Pig. 9 Is a metallic ptirse for coins and Jewels,

from an Egyptian monument. This plate also shows various forms of the head-dress.

C£ Jt J. Bittigv, SHbiM, odOT MorfniHWMB in PuiBinomr «lBar re'whn RMmteo. Leipi. ISO! S th. a-Aiutel, Lou dm
damn RooMion, Id fht Mem. dead. huor. vol. iv. p. ttT.— Adkr, Qdiot.— -Oa riiifi and tbair oas, /. Kirnkmamn^ De Aanalb.
Lag. Bat. 1672. IS.— P. AirfMifisi, De Jure iknoeloniBi. UllnJ. I7S4.— C. Btuihotbnti^ De laaaribna Vetenim. AnaL 1878. YL

9. The following passage, from a letter by a traveler visiting Naplea and Pompeii, may be
pertinent here. ** what is admirable to ua, barbarians of the nineteenth century. Is the exquisite
delicacy of shape of all the utensils which served in Roman domestic life. One must see those
candelebras, lamps, vases of all sizes, those charming little bronze ealefactors (for every thing
was of bronze), those tripods, scales, beds, chairs, those graceful and so Ingeniously wrought
shidds, which fill up whole rooms at the Naples Museum. One must, above all, see the toilet
arsenal of the Roman ladies, their comba, toothpicks, curling-irons, and the pols of vegetable and
mineral rouge found In a boudoir. Thus the Roman ladies nsed rouge and deceived people;
they wore, like our ladies, those necklaces, rings, and ridiculous ear-rings, which add nothing
to beauty and diminish not ugliness. How timee resemble one another, in spite of the space Ciat
separates them !"

$ 339. It remains yet to mention some of the more remarkable features in the
funeral eu$lom$ of the Romans. The dying received from their relatives and
friends present the last tokens of love by embraces and kisses. As soon as they
were dead, the nearest relatives closed their eyes and mouth, and drew the rings
from their lingers. The corpse was then washed in hot water, and anointed by
the slaves {polHndores) of the person taking charge of funerals {iibitinariu8\
It VI as then covered with clothing suitable to the rank of the deceased, whicn,
lik^e that of the mourners, sometimes (cf. § 340. 4) was white. Such as had
been distinguished by a victory were adorned with a crown of palm leaf. The
corpse was then brought into the vestibulum of the house, placed on a bier, and
there left for some days. This exposure was termed colloeatio^ and the couch
or bier, leetuaferalis. During the time of this exposure, there were frequent and
loud outcries {conelamaiio), accompanied by the strongest expressions of grief
and sorrow. A branch of cypress or pine was usually fixed before the door of
the house. — Children and youth of both sexes were interred by night, with
lif^hted torches, without attendants; but adults, on the other hand, by day, and
with more or less ceremony according to their rank.

ClmudBd$OuidmrdfOm fte Foaraliof tfw Aaeieiita. Bm*. ISOOi 4.--/. jnreknMmi, Dt Fuaariboa Boanjienw (LiM it.
Lttb. ISTL It.

$ 340. Among the Romans, both interring and burning were practiced from
the earliest times. The ceremonies connected with the funeral {elatio, exequim)
were the following, chiefly. The funeral of a distinguished person was pre-
viously announced in the city by a herald, and therefore called /tiniM tWiWtvtim,
and, if the expenses were defrayed by the city,/uniM publicum. In the proces-
sion, the musicians {eormcines^ iibicines) and women hired as mourners {prasfiess)
advanced first, uttering lamentations and singing th& funeral songs {lessus^ naeniae,
cf. P. v. § 333 b'S ; then came those who bore the images of the ancestors ; next
the relatives, all m black, with other indications of grief; then followed players,
mimics, and dancers (ludii, hislriones)^ one of them {archimimus) imitating the
words and actions of the deceased, and others quoting pertinent passages from
dramatic writings; after them followed the corpse, carried by bearers; and
lastly, a train, frequently very numerous, of both sexes.

1 u. The corpse waa borne in a couch {Uaiea) on the shoulders, usually by the fi-eed-
men of the deceased, but often, in case of high rank, by senators and the roost dis-
tinguished citizens. In the caae of the poorer and lower classes, the corpse was home
on a small bier (»andapila), by ordinary cofiin-bearers {vaijnUonea, sandapilarii).

PLATE XXXV.

Fn;IV-i .dV\ Ijllf^t il-|"l ill>J

802 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

Ttafl rich and noble amonfr the Greeks and RnmanB were exposed, and carried to their burial,
on ele{[ani and costly couches, sometimes made of ivory, and gilded with gold ; designated by
the name of feretrvm or eapulHrn. That of Herod is said to have been all or gold, and inlaid with
preeious stones. In our Plate XVIII. fig. e, we have a funeral couch, which will illustrate these
remarlcs ; it is given by Roberts as used now in India. The Jews seem to have used sometimes
for a bier the cop6i or cnffln (of. Luke vii. 14); yet the Septuagint has the word cXryi?, or couch,
, for the bier of Abner (cf. 3 Sam. iii. 31).

2 u. The procession, when forraally conducted, passed through the forum, where,
if the deceased had been a person of distinction, the bodv was laid before the place
of harangue {rostra), and a eulogy {laudatio) was delivered by some relative or ihend,
or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate.

One is struck with the diflbrence between Roman and Egvpiian customt. The Egypiiaiii
brought the deceased to a prialf instead of a eulogy. Cf. P. II. \ 34. 3.

3. Women were sometimes honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. For
example, Junta, the sister of Brutus and widow of Caesius, received the honor of a
public fiineral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. I'he images of not less than
twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession ; viginti clarissimarum familUi'
rum imagines ant el at a sunt. (Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) — The images of ancestors, which
were thus used at Minerals, were the busts which the higher class of Romans kept in
their halls (cf. P. IV. ^ 164).

In Aniko%*$ Horace, in a note on Sat. i. vl. 17, is the following remark : ** One particular rela-
tive to the mode in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. They were not esr-
rud before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. Jldms, (Rom. Ant.) states, but actors were employed
to personate the individual ancestors, and these busts or images formed a part of the difguise.*'
On this topic, however, consult Polybius, vi. fll, iA.^Ciuro, pro Mil. 13 — Dion Caoeius, Ivi. 134.
—PUny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. %.~-8u9toniu9, Vesp. 19.

4. *' As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed, that the senators some-
times on these occasions went attired like knights, the magistrates like senators, &c.,
and that the common wear for mourners was black. But we may further remark, that
though this was the ordinary color to express their grief, used alike by both sexes; yet
after the establishment of the empire when abundance of party colors came in fashion,
the old primitive white grew so much into contempt, that at last it became proper to
the women for their mourning clothes. — The matter of fact is evident from the autho-
rity of Plutarch, who states tnis as the subject of one of his problems [or Questions,
cf. P. V. ^ 249. 2] , and gives several reasons for the practice.'' KennetC.

$ 341. The place of burning, as also of interring, was without the city. In
case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile (rogus, pyrd) already
prepared, its height being in proportion to the rank and wealm of the deceased.
Upon this they lay the corpse, having sprinkled it over with spices or anointed
it with oil ; it is then kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it
with averted face {aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed
by the deceased, were thrown upon the pile: also various things which were
presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona)» When the whole was con-
sumed, the embers were quenched with wine; then followed the collecting of
the bones (ossilegium) ; these were placed in an urn (J'eralis urna) of clay, 6tone,
or metals, along with some of the ashes, also spices and perfumes, and some-
times a small phial of tears (/oeAr^nue) ; and the urn was solemnly deposited
in the earth (iumultu) or a tomb (japulehrum^ amdHorium^ cinerarium).

1 V. Corpses that were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was altogether
the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a marble coffin called
area or sarcophagus. — The erection of monuments to the dead (monumenla) was a very
common, almost universal practice. They were not always raised over the spot cif
burial.

2. Over the grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at least a
mound of earth (tumulus). When a monumental structure was erected, it usually
received an inscription {jtitulus, enitaphium) with the name of the deceased, and some-
thing of his life and character. In the sepulchral monument, part of which is given in
our rlate XXXVI. the square pannel, seen between the representations of the Dii
Manes, was occupied by an inscription. Sometimes a bust of the deceased was at-
tached to the monument. Columns or pillars, particularly small cippi, for sepulchral
inscriptions, appear to have been common among the Romans, as well as the Greeks
(cf. ^ 187). Sometimes an inscription was put on the coffin, when the body was buried
in the eartH ; and when the body was burned an inscription was placed on the urn con-
taining the bones ; the inscription usually began, as on the urns prf^served in the British
Museum, with the letters D. M. or D. M. S., i. e. Diis Manibus Sacrum. — Monuments
not on the spot of burial (tumuli inanes or cenotapkia) were erected among the Romans
for the same reasons as among the Greeks.

3. There were public and private places of burial. The public were commonly m

■xxxrc

p.m. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. TOMBS. " 803

the Campus MartiuB or Campus Esquilinus, for great men, on whom \h& honor of Tudi
a burial-place was conferred bv vote of the senate. Those for the poor were wichout
the Esquiline sate, and called puticula. The private burial-plaee? were usually in
gardens or fielos near the highways; the sides of some of the ronds lending io Roma
were occupied by tombs for the distance of miles from the galea of ! he city.

4. One of the itreeti discovered at Pompeii is called tbe street of the Lntnlif. The f^mHr loiab
of Naevoleia Tycbe, excavated here, may be considered a fair repreBentaiion of tuch Biruciuifls
aroonf the Romans generally. ** It consists of a square building, conlnhi iiaf a Kiu^lt chamlier, hj
the side of which is a door giving admission to a small court surrounilpd by a hieh wnlL The
entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of tbe outer v^aW there ilie two Blstn,
supporting a marble cippus ricblv ornamented. Its fyont is occupied !>/ n bm^fellcr and im^rip-
tion.— A sort of solid bench for the reception of urns runs round tbe fiinerat chamber, and seve-
ral niches for the same purpose are hollowed In the wall, called eolumbarm frnm ilielr reeeiriblanca
to the holes of a pigeon-house. Some lamps were found here, and mntif vnnf, linnfi of ftmi,
the rest of common earth. The glass urns were of large size, one of them fifleen kncJies in heaght
by ten in diameter, and were protected by leaden cases. They contained burnt hoaei, and a
liquid which has been analyzed and found to consist of mingled water, wlnt;. and ojL Tlila
liquid, there can be little doubt, was the libation poured upon the asliei.'*— Iti 11^. the bf^autiful
antique called tbe Sarcophagus of Scipio, preserved In the Museum Pjn-Ctenientinum, was found
in a tomb near the Appian Way. It is of the stone called peperine or "lapiM ^{biinKjr, a vulcanio
production found near the lake of Albano." VIsconti, in describing It, layB, ^'«at dii p«periii la

eus compact, et a douze palmes de long, sur six de haut et cinq de large. '"^ The iatcrlpuon on It
giveo under the head of Roman inscriptions ; see P. IV. $ 133. 3. A bust wUb a &rronA en the
Bead was found in the same tomb.

5. Common tombs are said to have been usually built under ground , and called
kyvogdea. Such are those discovered at Voleterre and other plaeea In anciem Etruria.
Cf. r. IV. ^ 173. 3. " Many of the hypogaea of Tarquinia, m EtrQiiaT arc Hiinilor to
those found in Egypt, containing a number of rooms and corridors branching out ia
various directions ; and when the rooms are of a large size, the roof is supported bf
square pillars. The walls of many are coated with stucco and ornnmcmed wiUi paint-
ings, representing, sometimes tbe arrival of the soul in Hades, and the punbliments In-
flicted on the guuty ; but, in general, mythological, heroic, and civil Bubjccts.^'

For an loeoont of tha dheovery of Ttrioai lombt ia Etniria in 1828^ tee CkmaKir Kmtna, in Cbc Jnnali diW InitUuia Ji Car-
rmpondmMa Jtnkdogwa. Bam. ISO. foL lat, p. 101.— CC /. AfiZUnf al^ u died P. IV. § 173. a, ud oib&r Ttf*nn», limv ififm.

0. Roman sepulchers have been found In England^ containing urns with aatif^s nnri sarf^ophifl
with skeletons. (Stuart's Diet, of Architecture.)— A Roman burial-place was cslled. in the later
tirtles, U$trinum^ or Ustrina^ from the circumstance of burning the corpiie. One of iheie htirlal-
places was discovered in 18SI, at Litiington ; many sepulchral vessels were collected, which an
said to be preserved in the library of Clare Hall, at Cambridge.— In the parish nt Af hd^n^ In
Essex county, are several artificial sepulchral mounds, known by ihe ntiine of Bntilow fllUs^
Many have supposed them to have been cast up aAer a battle with the DAniMi. They are eight
in number ; four larger ones in a line, and four smaller. ones in a line tn tb«lr frnnt^ The irtifiller
ones were opened in 1833. and relics were found which seem clearly lo i^rtive them i>r RnmftB
origin. In one, was found a remarkable briek tepuUker or e/>JEit, six tf*^i and three tiichet long^
two feet three and a half inches wide, and one foot and eleven Inchei hjfih, There were, in ibbi
brick coffin or chest, three /r'as* vessels. One of them was a sortofurnr eleven nnd a hnlT Inches
high, and ten and a quarter inches in diameter, with a reeded handle i k was nearly i w^thirds
full of a clear pnle yellow liquor, covering a deposit of burnt human bofiet : nn the ti>p of the
bones nf as seen lying a gold ring, which was found to be a signet-ring having a cnrneilsn IniarliQ^
with the device of two bearded ears of corn. Afterwards, on examine Hon of ihe contend nTtha
urn, a brass coin was fbund, very much corroded, bearing the head of ihe empuror Hadrian oa
tbe obverse, and on the reverse a figure supposed to be that of Fortuna Hvdut. A represenla-
tion of the brick coffin, with the vessels in U as they were found, ii {;i¥eii in our TkiQ X VT1L
flg. k k. One of the Isrger mounds was opened in April, 183A. An urn like the crte abnve de
scribed, with bones, was found; also other similar vessf>ls, two brniixe ttrig-tltj, and oiber
articles. A bronze vase, with colored enanuls^ was among tbe most remarkable.

8m p. IV. § I7a a-.Crt*aal(ifia (m cited P. IV. ^ 82. 5), toL zxf. p. I. vol. un. p. 800, HB, ifiih vafrawinft.

7. The pbials, or small vessels, which are supposed to have received the lears of relstirei shad
at funerals, have been found in great number, and of various forms. Th^y sre termed tac/kr^*
mmtoHu (urtm laekrymaUt) . Tbe tears are said to have been knead^^d bud campouitded with
odoriferous balsams. It has also been supposed that the vessels mighn have cfintpined merely a

Keparaiion of ftagrant essences, which were figuratively called tears. Th« ischrj' matnr iei found
the ancient tombs ara sometimes of tsrra eoUa^ sometimes otiUabaMttr (cf. P. 1 V. jk IfJS 5), fre-
quently of gloat (cf. $ 968. 4). Many of tbe latter material have been gatht^red from the eata-
combs in tbe island Milo, the ancient Melos, one of thn Cydades. Beveral farms of lachryma^
tories and voa nngMtntaria are given in our Tlale XVIU. fig. s, and II | dd.
Sm Bttm. * VhuUtut^ CItsse ifBiat. a Lit, Jtne. ?ol. tU. p. SB. mr mam iMhrynutoirA Oa Uw t^ath bn^ ■! Hila^

■wfisai.

8. It has been mentioned (cf. 1 187. 4) that the Christians under the pagan empemri of Rcim«
usually deposited their dead in subterranean excavations. "Among ihe mnnumenls nf Cliristlan
antiquity, none are more singular than these abodes of the dead ; and <;ne feeifl ai a. Loit wh«lhef
most to admire their prodigious extent, the laborious industry that provided ihem, or the Ltils*
resting recollections with which they are associated. Like the Mo^>ri»h cavfs \n Bpiin, ihpy
were generally excavated at the base of a lonely hill, and the entrance was so rart^illy con-.
cealed that no aperture appeared, and no traces were discernible, excei^l by an rirwrienced eye^
of the ground having been penetrated, and of the vast dungeons that had btren hollnwird Diit
underneath. . . . One was discovered about three miles from Rome ta laie ai the end of the
■Uteantb century, tha slxe and various apartments of which excitud univfiiial anotiiibiueiii,

804 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

Nanben itfll remafo, bearing the names of their respective founden, and aflbrdinf by their
tnacripiions and the monuments of antiquity found in them, the moat saiiflfactory proofs of their
having been used as hiding-places by the Christians." (CoUman*9 Christian Antiquities, p.4ai.)

$ 343. A period of moorning was observed in memory of the deceased ; its
duration in each particular case was fixed by law ; in the case of widows it
continued ten months. In the time of the emperors, a general mourning (heius
publieus) was appointed at their decease or that of their sons ; a thing previously
not practiced, except on occasions of great public calamity. — Immediately after
the funeral obsequi^8, it was also customary to slay the victims (called inferim)
offered in sacrifice to the departed, and to connect therewith a solemn nineral
repast {nlicemium),

" Among the tombs at Pompeii there is a Aineral trlcllDium for the celebration of these feasts.
It is open to the sky, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals in the center of the
compartments, which have borders of flowers. The triclinium Is made of stone wllta a pedestal
in the center to receive the Uble." A view of it from Maxou is given in Smith's Diet, of Anti-
quitles.

1 V. When the deceased was of distin^ished character, this repast or entertainment
was publicly given, and meat was sometimes distributed among the people iviscenuio).
These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the graves or spoi of interment. On
such occasions, public games {ludi funAre$) were appointed, especially gladiatorial
sports.

2. Gladiatorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed (^ 235), in
funeral celebrations. And, although they were exhibited on many other occasions,
" yet the i)rimitive custom of presenting them at the fiinerals of ereat men, all along
prevailed in the city and Roman provmces ; nor was it confined only to persons of
quality, but almost every rich man was honored with this solemnity after nis death ;
and this they very commonly provided for in their wills, defining the number of gladia-
tors as their due by long custom. Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in
which the common people extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs,
to be expended on this account." iKennett.)

3. A very vivid picture of the Aineral sacrifices and games annually repeated at the graves of
the deceased is given by Firgil in the fifth book of the JEneld, where he describes the honors
rendered by JEneas to the tnamts of bis father Anchises. He mentions particularly a contest in
rowing galleys, a foot-race, a boxing-match, a uial of sitill in shooting arrows, and a mocit eques-
trian battle i^nm steaioera).— Cf. $ 187.

$ 343 1. The greatest fimeral solemnity among the Romans was the deification (eofwe-
eratio) of the emperors, something like the apotheosis of Grecian heroes. It took
place in the Campus Martius, where the image of the person to be deified was placed
upon a lofty fimeral pile. From this pile, whenever it was set on fire, an eagle, jpre-
viously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the air; which, according to the ideas of the
people, bore the soul to Olympus. The deified person then received the surname ot
appellation Divus, This solemnity was accompanied also with reli^ous rites, public
games and banquets. The custom did not entirely cease under the first Christian em-
perors. This ceremony was wholly distinct firom the funeral. The true body was
burned and the ashes buried in the usual manner and with a splendid show, before
these rites were performed with the image of wax.

TIM whole emoMay it wdl dMcriM b7 B»mf<an (ef. p. V. i 8S4}, b Um imtk b«* of hb Hol^

PART lY.

AECHJIOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART.

Soft

PLATE XXXVII.

9

aacianEs=-©-

KM

INTRODUCTION

ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART.

L^7)^ origin (f human knowledge, and its advancement into the form of
9cienee8 and arte.

$ 1. Man in his first state had the natural capacity for acquiringr a g;reat variety
of knowledge, by reason of those superior faculties which distinguished him
from irrational animals. But he had then no actual store of innate knowledge
and skill. Much less had he any comprehension of those rules and precepts,
which ^ide us in the arts and sciences, and which are the result of long
observation and mature reflection.

All that is known rejecting the first state of man ia contained in the account given
by Moses respecting Aaam and Eve, who were the first human pair, and were formed
by direct creation. This account gives little information as to the degree or the natuTe
of their €uArud knowledge. Certain it is, however, that Adam was created a man ; he
was not created a child, infant, or embryo, and left to advance to manhood by the
gradual steps which are requisite, by what we call the laws of nature, in the formation
of every other man. It can be liitle else than a dispute about words to contend,
whether he had or had not innate ideas and actual knowledge before the exercises of
mind which were first occasioned by surrounding circumstances. For these exercises
of his mental powers, if truly the exercises of a man, and not of a child, must have
been such as, m all other cases but his own, could have arisen only after obtaining
previous ideas or actual knowledge to some extent ; and in fact, as plainly exhibited in
the account of Moses, thev were such as, in other cases, presupix)ee a maturitv of
intellect. It seems an evident conclusion, therefore, that Adam either possessed by
creation the requisite knowledge, or was caused to put forth without it the same exer-
cises as if be had it. On either supposition (if any can adopt the latter) some degree
of the knowledge, which is now acquired gradually in the progress from infancy to
manhood, came at first directly from God. God implanted it in some way or other ;
man did not acquire it by the gradual process which we now term natural. This
knowledge, skill, attainment, intellectual power, or whatever any WAy choose to call
it, was the original stock or serm from which every subsequent acquisition sprang.

Such a view of the original maturity of the first man by no means supposes Adam to
have possessed the extensive knowledge imagined in the fabulous tales of the Jewish
Rabbins, or in the descriptions of some theologians. It only represents him a^ a man
literally and truly, instead of a child ; as created at once a moral and intellectual man ;
instead of being formed a sort of animal in human shape, and left to grow into an intel-
ligent being under accidental influences.

SwOLC. riuvp,LwtvreiOBChr.Thaol«ic7,tr.li7L. Wooit^V.f. 1831, Svoli. 8. R I. P. iL AtI SL-BcO. on the Bind, p.
IW. Phil, ins.— Cowpv'fdcKriptiaa of AdMi, ia tte varMnilidcd Kordicy OtAt gifM in JiMn** Britah Fba^ Phil. 1831. p. 96L

$ 3. There was a gradual development of his faculties, through the impulse
of his wants, favored sometimes by accident, and aided by experience and
repeated efl!brts. Thus he acquired a multitude of ideas about himself and
the objects of nature around him, which were successfully enriched, corrected,
and engraved upon his memory. By degrees meditation led him from tho
visible to the invisible, and from observing actual operations and appearances
he proceeded to conjecture and contemplate secret causes and powers.

807

^)8 ARCHJEOLOOT OF LITERATURE AND ART.

$ 3. By means of lan^age the communication of knowledge became more
easy and rapid. Then this knowledgre was no longer confined to the isolated
observations and partial experience of each individual observer. The ideas of
many were collected and combined. The amount of acquisition was increased
more and more, as men united themselves in social bonds, and as, in the
progress of population and civilization, there was a tendency to the same com-
mon aims, and modes of living, and mutual interests. {See remarks under
§ 12. 1, 2.)

§ 4. The knowledge of the arts was acquired sooner than that of the seienees^
because the wants that gave them birth were more urgent, and the difficulty
of acquiring them was not so great, since they were chiefly the fruit of experi-
ence rather than of reflection. And among the arts themselves, the mechanical,
or those of common life, must, for the same reasons, have appeared first. It
was only at a late period when man began to think on the means of a nobler
destiny, and to feel a desire and relish for higher pleasures, that the fine arts
took their rise. NtcemtatU invenia antiquiora sunt quam voluptatU, (Cicero.)

$ 5. We must not imagine the first notions concerning the arts to have con-
stituted any thing like a system reduced to a regular form and fixed principles.
With regard to the theory, there were at first only disconnected observations
and isolated maxims, the imperfect results of limited experience. As to the
practice, there was little but a mechanical routine, some process marked out
by chance or imperious necessity. The principal object was to secure the
satisfying of wants, the preservation of life, and the convenience of a ^ social
state, which men sought to accomplish by reciprocal aid, and by communicating
to each other their experience and acanirements.

$ 6. Before the great catastrophe ot ihe Jlood, men had already ac<iuired much
practical knowledge; such as the first elements of agriculture, architecture, and
the art of working metals; these arts were practiced, although in an imperfect
manner. But in that singular revolution of nature, which caused the destruc-
tion of nearly the whole human family, the greatest part of this knowledge
was lost.

Respecting the number of people existing on the earth before the flood, and the state
of art, science, and literature amon^ them, nothing is known beyond mere conjecture.
The following remarks on the subject are from Skuckford^t Sacred and Profane His
tory Connected. " The number of persons in this first world must have been very
great; if we think it uncertain, from the differences between the Hebrew and ihe Sep-
tuagint in this particular, at what time of life they might have their first children, let
us make the greatest allowance possible, and suppose that they had no children until
they were a hundred years old, and none after five hundred, yet still the increase of
this world must have been prodigious. There are several authors, wiio have formed
calculations of it, and they suppose, upon a moderate computation, that there were in
this world at least two millions of millions of souls. It would be very entertaining, if
we could have a view of the religion, politics, arts or sciences of this numerous peo-
ple."— After pursuing some hints respecting their religion, he adds, "we can only
guess at the progress they might make in literature or any of the arts. The enter-
prising genius of man began to exert itself very early in music, brass-work, iron-work,
m everv artifice and science useful or entertaining; and the undertakers were not limited
by a snort life, they had time enough before them to carry things to perfection ; but
whatever their skill, learning, or industry performed, all remains or monuments of it
are long ago perished. We meet in several authors hints of some writings of Enoch,
and of pillars supposed to have been inscribed by Seth. The Epistle of St. Jnde seems
to cite a passage from Enoch ; but the notion of Enoch's leaving any work behind him
' has been so httle credited, that some persons, not considering that there are many
things alluded to in the New Testament, which were perhaps never recorded in any
books, have gone too far, and imagined the Epistle of St. Jude to be spurious, for its
seeming to have a quotation from this figment. — There is a piece pretending to be this
work of Enoch, ana Scaliger, in his annotations upon Eusebms's Chronicon, has given
IIS considerable fragraents, if not the whole of it. It was vastly admired by Terf ullian
and some other fatners ; but it has since th^ir time been proved to be the product of
some impostor, who made it, according to Scaliger, Vossius, Gale, and Kircher, some
time between the captivity and our Savior's birth.-;~As to Seth's pillars, Josephus gives
the following accowit of tnem. ' That Seth and his descendants were persons of happy
tempers and lived in peace, employing themselves in the study of astronomy, and in
other researcnes after useful knowledge ; that in order to preserve the knowledge tbey

p. IV. INTRODUCTION. ANTEDILUVIAN SCIENCE. 309

bad acquired, and to convey it to posterity, having heard from Adam of the Flood, and
of a destruction of the world bv fire, which was to follow it, they made two pillars, the
one of stone, the other of brick, and inscribed their knowledge upon them, supposing
that one or the other of ihem might remain for the use of posterity. The stone pillar,
on which is inscriised, thnt there was one of brick made also, is still remaining m the
land of Seriad to this day.' I'hos far Josephus ; but whether his account of this pillar
may bo odmiiied, has been varioui^ly controverted ; we are now not only at a loss about
the pillar, but we cannot so much as find the place where it is said to have stood."

For fiirher rcinariu on th«^ piltxn of Strfh ; SkuAford^ Sic and Prof. HitL Conoectad, vol. i p. 65. Phil. 1824. 2 Tolt. 8 — £.
SK'laifftat, Original Ssene, B. 1. c. 2. Loitd. IWi. 4.-R<<tpMtiDK tlw book of Enocb, cf. P. V. ^ 2791— Oil the attainiBenta of
antBdilaYiana, alao Du Pin (u eitod P. V. § 340), B. i SkL I.

$ 7. Subsequently to the deluge, the free communication aiwl propagation of
knowledge was hindered by the confusion of tongues, and the consequent dis-
persion of the inhabitants of the earth into many countries. Thereby the pro-
gress of human acquirements was retarded in a very sensible manner during
the first ten centuries. For a long time men were destitute of some particulars
of knowledge almost essential to life ; as, for instance, the use of fire.

However incredible it may at first seem, that any part of mankind should have been
ignorant of the use of fire, it is attested by the most ancient and unanimous traditions
Modern discoveries have confirmed the same. "The inhabitants of the Marian Islands,
[Marianas or Ladrones,] which were discovered in 1521, had no idea of fire. Never
was astonishment greater than theirs, when they saw it, on the descent of Magellan
on one of their islands. At first they believed it to be a kind of animal that fixed
hself to, and fed upon wood. Some of them, who approached too near, being burnt,
the rest were terrified, and durst only look upon it at a distance." (Goguct.)

8« rafeKaeain AGogtHfkOrifiBor Lawb, Ails, IM. P. I. & ii. u dtod f 82. L-Baqwetiag tto aflbct of the dHpenioQ «
driliMliaa, cf. f 12. 8.

$ 8. The food of man in the first ages was extremely simple, and consisted
in a great measure of the spontaneous productions of the earth. The use of
animals for nourishment was very limited, from want of means to domesti
cate or capture them. The art of preparing food of either kind was likewise
very imperfect. But the necessity of taking nourishment was, doubtless, the
most imperious of wants ; and hence it is not only probable, but certain from
the testimony of sacred and profane authors, that tilling the ground and tending
herds and flocks were the first and most general occupations of men, and that
the knowledge relating to these objects was the first acquired and the most ex-
tensive. A proof of the antiquity of agriculture is found in the fact, that almost
all the ancient nations ascribe its invention and introduction in their country to
some divinity, or some deified founder of their state, or early sovereign of their
land.

§ 9. According to the difference of country, climate, manner of living, and
habits, there was a difibrence likewise in these simple attainments, and m the
steps of their progress. With some nations agriculture was the most common
occupation, with others the raising of cattle, and with others hunting and fish-
ing; and by natural consequence, among each people, the experience relating
to their own occupations, and the observations and acquirements resulting from
it, were the most generally diffused and the most perfect. Compared with
the other modes of subsistence, agriculture has an important advantage in pro-
moting various arts, because it compels men to renounce a wandering; life, and
settle in fixed, permanent abodes; thus it increases the demand lor conve-
niences, and furnishes an occasion for inventions, which may help to facilitate
and edrry to perfection the culture of the soil.

§ 10. Among the inventions which resulted from this, we may notice especi-
ally architecture and the working of metals. The first arose from the necessity
of procuring a shelter from the inclemency of the seasons and the attacks of
wild beasts. Rude in its origin, it hardly deserved the name of an art ; but
under the influences of social life, it made a progress considerably rapid. The
metals were probably discovered to man by some accident. For the art of
working them we may be indebted to operations perceived in nature, volcanic
eruptions, e. g., or casual fires.

I. The art of working metals is alluded to by Moses (Gen. iv. 22) as eziatuig

310 ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATVRE AND ART.

before the deluge, but was lost probably in the dispersion of Noah's descendants
except among those who remained near the spot where man was first located. (Comp.
^ 12.) — The same authority shows the use of metals established a few ages after the
flood. Gen. xxii. 6, zxxL 19, xxxiii. 12, Lev. xxvi. 19, Deut. xxix. 16, 17. Comp.
Job xxviii. 1, 2, 17.

2. Goguet remarks that the use of iron probably was not bo early as that of other
metals, and that toots of stone preceded those made o( iron. *' Anciently they em-
ployed copper for all the purposes for which we now make use of iron. Arms, tools
for husbandry and the mechanic arts were all of copper for many ages. The writings
of Homer leave no room to doubt of this. We see that at the time of the Trojan war,
iron was very little used. Copper supplied its place. It was the same for ages
amongst the Romans." — " A kind of stones, commonly called tkunder-gtones {Cerau"

nia) , are still preserved in a great manv cabinets. They have the shape of axes,
plough -shares, hammers, mallets, or wedges ; for the most part, they are of a sub-
stance like that of our gun-flints, so hard that no file can make the feast impression

upon ihem. It is evident from inspection, that these stones have been wrought bv the
hands of men. The holes for inserting the handles prove their destination and the
several uses that were made of them. It is well known, that tools of stone have been
in use in America fix>m time immemorial. I'hey are found in the tombs of the ancient
inhabitants o( Peru, and several nations use them at this day. They shape and sharp-
en them upon a kind of grindstone, and by length of time, labor, and patience, form
them into any figure they please. They then fit them very dexterously with a handle,
and use them nearly in the same manner we do our tools of iron. Asia and Europe
are strowed with stones of this sort. They are frequently found. There must then
have been a time, when the people of these countries were ignorant of the use of iron,
as the people of America were before the arrival of the Europeana."

Coffutf, Or. of Uwt, kc p. I. B. II. c 4.-Cr. DicUmn. dau d'Hitl. NahurtlU (eitad ) 194), article arai<«iln.-MiiAti^
D« prateiKin ptom dt/mtin, Mem Jtnd. hoar. iii. WL-IVbodvoar^ Bklory of FeMlli^ Lood. 1781. & eoateIiui«ia aconiBt
of iloM watpoM, with «iff»ViB|pk

$ 11. The arts of imitation had a later origin, because they were not pro-
duced by an equally urgent want, and require more deep meditation and some
abstraction of mind. In their commencement they were, however, merely the
developments of superior mechanical de.\terity, rather than what may properly
be called fine arts, and the first attempts were but rude and defective. Among
these we number whatever belongs to sculpture, or the art of imitating figures
in relief; for which purpose it ts probable, that soft materials, as earth and
clay, were at first employed. The proper art of drawing presupposes more
abstraction ; probably it was first practiced in tracing the outlines of shadows
cast from different objects and bodies. Music, which, independent of any
natural •pleasure in rhythm and melodious sounds, might originate from the
songs of birds, must be regarded as among these early arts of imitation. With
it, if not before it, was invented poetry, which, in its origin and its first ad-
vances, was joined inseparably with something of mnsical accompaniment.

$ 12. We have alreaay ($ 3) mentioned Langtta^e as the principal means
of communication among men. Respecting its origin, we only observe, that
the first man possessed oy creation the faculty of speech, although language
itself, most probably, was not an immediate gift or the Deity, but a gradual
invention of man; the natural expressions of feeling, which he had in common
with other animals, being by degrees formed into articulate sounds and signs
of thought. Not necessary to him in the isoiaied state of nature, it was yet so
essential to the social state as to call into exercise the implanted faculty of
speech, and constantly and rapidly increase the stock of words. But, as the
ideas were few and confined chiefly to objects of sense, the original language
needed neither great compass nor high improvement.

1 . The remarks of the author in this section indicate too much agreement with the
common error of considering a state of barbarism as the natural and original state
of man. Philosophers in tracing^ the progress of human knowledge have often founded
their speculations on this supposition, that men at first were but a number of iguorant
savages, not joined by any social ties, a mere mittum ac turpe pecus^ scarcely elevated
above the beasts of tne forests through which they roamed. Dr. Ferguson has the
following judicious observations on this topic. '* The progress of mankind from a
supposed state of animal senMhility, to the altainmoni of reason, to the use of language,
and to the habit of society, ha« been painted with a force of imagination, and its steps
pointed out with a boldness of invention, that would tempt us to admit among the

V, IV. INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 311

materials of history the suggestions of fancjr, and to receive perhaps as the model of
our nature in its original state some of the animals whose shape has the greatest resem-
blance to ours. It would be ridiculous to affirm, as a discovery, that ibe species of
the horse was probably never the same with that of the lion ; yet in opposition to what
has dropped from the pens of eminent writers, we are obliged to observe that men
have always appeared aoiong animals a distinct and superior race ; that neither the
possession of similar organs, nor the approximation of shape, oor the use of the hand,
nor the continued intercourse with this sovereign artist, has enabled any other species
to blend their nature or their inventions with his; that in his rudest state, he is found
to be above them, and in bis greatest degeneracy, he never descends to their level.
He is, in short, a man in every condition ; with him society appears to be as old as the
individual, and the use of the tons^ue as universal as that of the hand or the foot. If
there was a time in which he had his acquaintance with his own species to make, and
his faculties to acquire, it is a time of which we have no record, and iir relation to
which our opinions can serve no purpose and are supported by no evidence."

Sw A. rtrfmonft Bat. oo HIatoiT of Cir. Society, Boat I80B. 8. Tlie allarion of ib* autbor, la the punga footed, b to such
IhaorMli at BooaMa aad MoDboddo.— Sae JtovtMmc, mr Porifiae d« Pio^alita patrrni la* bonnn, in his OSmim, Par. 1923, 2S
volt. 18. vol. lat^JMm^wLlo (J. Barael), OrifiB aad Pragreaa of Lu««g«, Ediab. 1774. 6 tola. B^AIao, Jbxy d» St. rmeml.
LHoBiow^ Eaaai ZnoIoKiqw aur 1« fenre bamain. Far. 1827. 8 volii 1& Tbb aotbor attanpla to prove fbai than art a«renf
apoeica of baiiiao kiad, and tbat JLlaoi waa the &th«r of bnt ooe apoeiea.— For nor* eorract vitwa, net 8. 8. SmUh^ tmaj oa (be
eaoae of varieiy la tba complesioa aad IVpire of the Huona Speciaa, N. Rmaaw. 1810. 8.—/. C. Prkhmrdt Baiaartbea iato tba
Pfayaieal Hiatory of Maakiad. Loud. 1826. B volau 8.— & O. Morton^ Crania Anerleaaa, with aa Eaaay od tba variatie* of (ha
Bomaa Speeiea ; illoatrated by 78 plate*.

2. The whole history of the world is opposed to the hypothesis of a gradual advance-
ment of the human race from a condition of barbarism. In the first place, all the
nations which are known to have risen from barbarism to cultivation have been thus
raised by coming into contact and intercourse with other nations more civilized and
cultivated than themselves, and not by the natural progress of their own independent
steps towards perfection. In the next place, a nation or society once merged in barba-
rism is found in fact to sink into deeper and deeper degradation when separated from
the influence of more enlightened nations, instead of rising gradually from its depression
and fining the rank and happiness of a civilized people. So great is this tendency to
detenorationT that it is a matter of exceeding difficulty, even with all the aids which the
most cultivated nation can furnish, to introduce and perpetuate among savage tribes
the manners, intelligence, and blessings of civilized life. But the truth on this subject
is, that the natural and original state of man, that in which he was first placed by hia
benevolent Creator, was a state combining all the blessings of civilization needed in a
sinj^le holy family. Man was at his creation put at once into the social and feraily con-
dition, and if before the deluge there was any such state of things as existed after it in
the savage and barbarous tribes, it was a state into which man plunged himself, by not
choosing to retain God in his knowledge. It was in this way that man was thrown
into the savage state after the deluge. The family of Noah was a civilized family, in
which were preserved, no doubt, all the useful knowledge and arts of the antediluvian
world, as well as the true religion. There is no evidence, that there was any state of
barbarism among their descendants until after the disnersion. So far as history and
tradition cast any light on this subject, they point to tnat portion of the earth, where
the subsiding flood left the family of Noah, as the region of earliest civilization and
refinement. Every search after the primary sources of intellectual culture conducts
the inquirer towards this quarter, as the original centre of light. The families and
tribes, which remained nearest this centre, retained most of the arts, sciences, and
religion of their ancestors. Those which removed the farthest retained the least, and
gradually lost nearly all re^emhlance to their primitive character, and finally, in the
course of their various and distant migrations, sunk to the manners and spirit of savages.

**It it ciiPtninary to begin hlnory with hypothesis; to seek the history or religion, nr of
•nclety, for Iniitance, in the savage state; In that mate which hittorieal eritkum cannot reach ;
amonir the ahatlows which lie beyond all history. I shall do otherwise.** • * •

** Whence comes modern history 1 It is clear that tliere was something before it, and I need
not insist apon dnmnnstratinic that its real and well known roots lie in the Grecian and Roman
world ; to this parentage all kinds of pTidence lead us. And this world of classical antiqnitv,
does it not suppose a previous world 1 It is perfectly well known tbat if the roots of the
modern world lie in classical antiquity, those of classical antiquity may be found on the coast-i
of Egypt, the plains of PetRia, and the high lands of Central Asia. It is evident. In a word,
ttiat the East preceded Qro.nce. Ml evidence brinfg us to tkit; bnt does it carry us flirtherl"
F". Coiisi»*s Introdact. to Hist, of Philosophy, Lect. 3d. Translated by //. O. Unberg. Boston,
1831 8.

Sm Zimmerman, Oeograph- Oeachiehlede* Menadiea — JAAiera, Geacb. drr Mni«rhhnt,»nd 9ai7fy, rar IViricinedaa SeicDcea,
ciM \ Sl.—Tyitf'r Hiatory, P. IL S. •M.^Pndmrd, aa above cited. Vol. I p. 86. BiU. Arpoikand Quart. Olt. No. zvii. p. 961.—
fU*r% Difiealliecor laidelitr, Sect. IH.— >r. C. Tbylor, N4raral Hialory of Society. Repub. ». T. 184 1. 2 vole. 19.-A Zen*
*y, OS Ow priaaitivr alale of ftbakiad ; ia BibL Apoa. Vol. IV. Src. Seriea, p. 277.

3. As to the origin of language, the question has been fully discussed by theolo-

312 ARCHJBOLOGT OF LITERATURE AND ART.

gians, grammarians, and philoeopheni. Many have maintained that it was of huroaa
mvention. But the advocates of this opinion have advanced the moat diverse and coo-
tradictorv conjectures as to the mode and process.

Lord Nfonboddo, for instance, supposes the original form of language to have been
the inarticulate cries, '* by which animalt call upon one another, and exhort or com<
mand one another to do certain things," and adduces, apparently to illustrate what he
means, such exclamations as Hi ha. Ho ha, Halcuel, used, he says, among the Huroiia
of North America, and quite analogous to our own halloo, huzza, hurra, ** which are
no other but cries, calling, or exhorting, a little articulated!" — Dr. Murray, who died
in the year 1813, then Professor of Oriental Lan^agesin the University of Edinburgh,
imagined all languam to be derived from nme barbarously roush monosyllables.
"Taste and philosophy," says he, '*will receive with aversion the rude syllables,
which are the base of that medium through which Homer, and Milton, and Newton,
have delighted or illumined mankind. The words themselves, thoiijgh inelegant, are
not numerous: each of them is a verb and name for a species otaction. Power,
motion, force, ideas united in every untutored mind, are implied in them all. The
variation of force in decree was not designated by a diflferent word, but by a slight
change in the pronunciation. Harsh and violent acuon, which affected the senses, waa
expressed by harsher articulations.

1. To stnke or move with swift, equable, penetrating or sharp effect was Ao ! Ao !
If the motion was less sudden, but of the same species, Wag. If made with force
and a great effort, Hwag. These are varieties of^ one word, originally used to mark
the motion of fire, water, wind, darts.-^. To strike with a ^uick, vigorous, impelhng
force, Bag or Bwag, of which Fag and Pag are softer varieties. — ^3. To strike with
a harsh, violent, strong blow, Dwag, of which Thwag and Twag are varieties. — 4.
To move or strike with a quick, tottering, unequal impulse, Gwag or Cwag. — 5. To
strike with a pliant slap, Lag and Hlag. — 6. To press by strong force or impulse so
as to condense, bruise or compel, Mag. — ^7. to strike with a crushing, destroying
power, Nag, Hnag. — R. To strike with a strong, rude, sharp, penetrating power,
Rag or Hrag. — ^9. To move with a weighty, strong impulse, Swag.

These nine words are the foundations of language, on which an edifice has been
erected of a more U!>eful and wonderful kind, than any which have exercised human
ingenuity. Thev were uttered at first, and probably for several generations, in an insu-
lated manner. The circumstances of the actions were communicated by gestures, and
the variable tunes of the voice; but the actions themselves were expressed by their
suitable monosyllable.*'

Such theories seem scarcely less absurd than that of the Italian, who considered the
Greek as the original language, and traced its rise to a few vowel sounds gradually
generated in the ramily of Adam. ** When Adam opened his eyes on the beauties of
creation, he very naturally exclaimed, 0 !, which gave birth to Omega. When Eve
was taken out of his ribs, he uttered oo ! or u !, Upsilon. The first child as soon as
born cried out e! e!, and this formed Epailon or Eta. The next, probably, had a
little shriller note i! i!, and furnished the parents with a fourth vowel, Iota." — Rous-
seau represents man as originally without language and without society, and having
started the inquiry how language was invented, soon "stuck in the difficulty, whether
lantiuage wa» more necessary for the in$titutiofi of society, or society for the invention
of lan^age." But Maupertuia leaps the obstacle bravely, and "conjectures that
language was formed by a session of learned societies assembled for the purpose !"

Other writers speak more rationally, although agreeing with our author, that the
faculty of speech, and not any language itself, was the immediate gift of God to man.
"The theory which derives the most support from histor]^," says Dr. Knapp, "is
that the roots, the nrimitive words, were originally made in imitation of the sounds we
hear from the different objects in the natural world, and that these original sounds
become less and less discernible in language in proportion as they are improved and
enlarged." But it is surprising that any person, pretending to receive the Mosaic account
of the creation of man, should attempt to explain the origin of language in any such
way. In that account Adam is represented as using hfiguage immediately on his
creation, not only giving namet to objects, but assigning reasons for the names, and
reasons too, which have not the least connection with the sounds of the words, or any
sounds in nature. (Gen. ii. 19 — 23, iii. 20.)

Men have been led into their speculations on this subject, because, on a superficial
view, it seems difficult to suppose God to create a man, or any thing else, in a mature
state- A Utile reflection might convince us, that it is just as difficult to suppose him to
create a man in an immature state. The real difficulty lies in the very nature of creo'
tion. All the evidence we have as to the actual state, in which God did in fact create
man, is the testimony of Moses, and that is no evidence at all, beyond that of obscure
ancient tradition, unless it is sanctioned by divine inspiration. Those who believe it to
be thus sanctioned, it would seem, ought to abide by its facts. And is it not the sim-
ple, undisguised representation of Moses, that Adam had from the first a real and ode-
quale language, consisting of articulate sounds f As to the extent of his vocabulary.

p. IV. INTRODUCTION. ART OF WRITIN8. 318

nothing is directly told us ; but is it not as obvious that he hod literally a language, as
that he had titerally a hand, a tongue, or an eye ?

Whatever mode of expression, therefore, any ma]r choose to adopt in reterence to
this matter, whether to say that language was of divine origin, or that Adam was cre-
ated with a language, or that language was an immediate gift of God to him, or that
Grod created him with a faculty immediately to form articmate sounds significant of
thought, it is certain that a spokei? language existed Lnnmediately after the creation of
Adam. — If any languages besides this oru;inal were in use before the flood, they were
doubtless derived from it. From the flooa until the confusion of tongues, Moses expli-
citly testifies, there was but one language in the world. As, then, Adam was the
fetiher of the many milUons that have peopled the earth, so his language was the parent
of the thousands of dialects, by which they have carried on the mutiud interchange of
thought and feeling.

Stciatayp,Udmm (eiiad § l),e.I. P. il. Art. 6, ( 6S.-IIMP-, Qb«r d«o UnpraiK der Spnete. Bart. ITaa—AfMitaMak
Or. ud Pn«. of Lug. ■bore dM—Mutpatuft, Baflectiooioa the Orisbi of Ia^ufN» in hk mrkt, I7BB. 4 fdi. $-Ai. SMU^
CoBudmtioMontfaeSntfeniBtiooof Lus. (inltao^o/iCor.amf. B«t 1817. R) gjhidtfbtrf, a>fe wid PwC HhL CwmmcHA
II. B^FTartefon, DifiiM LafKUoo of Hkmt, B. IV. Sed. 4 Load. ilAl-^Oood, Book of Nfet«i& ImL O^BUrir, LmL ot
Bhck>rie.LMt.VL-^Afamiy,HM.ortbeEiifapMnLii«uifn. Edinb. lOS. I vob. 8.-Goi»flai«:, Em. mr IMf. d« Couiolik
Rum. (in M vol. of hit mriu. Hr. 1821. 0 foli. 9.-Anidt, Qbar den Unpnng d«r Euop. Bftukm. TmiU. im. lU-
T, C, Uphmm, Mraltl l1iil<Hopl>f . Fort. I88T. 8 ndt. 8. (voL 8d, p. 491.;

$ 13. The invention of Writing belongs to a period subsequent to the origm
of langrnage. By this invention the sounds, which had hitherto been only audi-
ble, were rendered, as it were, visible, and acquired a much more extensive and
more permanent utility as signs of thought. It was an invention in the highest
degree important to the communication of human knowledge, and still remains
essentially necessary for its advancement. As it stands in so close and uni-
versal connection with literature and science, we ought not merely to mention
it, but to consider its origin, and the Successive steps of its progress.

§ 14. Previously to the art of writing, there were other methods of repre-
senting thoughts to the eye, and thus imparting them to a g[reater number orin-
dividuals, and even to posterity. They were, however, very inadequate methods,
and were chiefly employed to preserve the memory of some remarkable event
or person. Of this kind are monumental structures, pillars, or even rude masses
of stone. Established festivals, and historical ballads, transmitted orally, mig^it

S've to such monuments a significancy, otherwise not belonging to them. On
e return of a festival, the occasion in which it originated and its history would
be sung or rehearsed. Traces of such methods may still be found among
savage or but partially civilized tribes.

$ 15. Superior to any such mode was the imitalion or pieturitjg of ohJeeUj
which is considered as the first step towards a written language. Ttiis presup-
poses some idea of the art of drawing, or a rude sort of painting. Such imita-
tion, however, could express only separate individual thoughts without their
connections and relations, and must be limited to visible objects. It is chiefly
mere actions and events, that can in this way be made known, and even of
these only what transpires at a particular instant can be represented by each
singrle picture.

Itt. There are vestiges of this mode of writing; in the Egyptian hieroglyphics,
which, we remark, however, received various successive changes m form and significa-
tion (^ 16) . It was in use amons the Mexicans, who apprised their king Montezuma
of the landing of the Spaniards hy means of a linen cloth, on which this event was
represented by pictures of visible objects.

8m mvterfon, Di?. Laf. (atdlad § 18. S.) Bk. IV. Beet 4. whan be glTM a curiov qiwiiiMB of IfaaSaui yMMn-urifuV.-*
Ite a aof iot of oltaw ipKlaMM. aM .Mk dtad i 88.- JUdilt. Ehcyeloy^ oidor ^pAoM.

2. This mode is said to have been practiced by some of the North American In-
dians. " In Schoolcraft'' 9 Journal of Travels through the North-western regpons of the
United States, we are told that the party, in passing from the river St. Louis to Sandy
Lake, had, with their Indian attendants, g^otten out of the way, and could not tell
where they were. The Indians, not knowing what might be the result, determined
to leave, at a certain place, a memorial of their journey /or the benefit of such of the'*
tribe as might come in that direction afterwards. In the party there was a military
oflicer, a person whom the Indians understood to be an attorney, and a mineralogist ;
eight were armed ; when they halted they made three encampments. The savages
went to work and traced with their knives upon a piece of birch bark a man with a
sword for the officer, another with a book for the lawyer, and a third with a hanuuei
40 2D

814 ARCHfOLOOY OF LITERATURE AND ART.

for the mineralogiBt ; three ascending columns of smoke denoted the three encamp-
ments, and eight muskets the number of armed men."

OfhamUZL lot FhtL Itf «L— rer tpedaaMM td tte picliii«-wrilii« oT Nortb JUncriaui UUav, aM .frchnhtte, toL M, p.
UB,wdlAi}82. 6.

$ 16. These imitations or pictures afterwards became symhoKcalt and repre-
sented not so much the objects pictured, as others having some resemblance to
them, and incapable of imitation by painting. In this wa^ many spiritual and
invisible things might be indicated by bodily and visible signs. The necessity
of something of the kind must soon appear among a people, not wholly occupied
vith impressions on the senses, but engaging in reflections upon God and
nature. Accordingly the Egyptians, especially their priests, at a very early
period employed the hieroglyphics in a symbolical and allegorical manner.
The eye^ for instance, became a symbol of providence^ the bird an emblem of
8mflnes$y the $eaHng-ladder a representative of a siege.

1. The late discoveries of Champollion respecting the Egyptian hieroglyphics have
awakened much interest. The fallowing short account is from the Am. Quart. Reg.
vol. iv. p. 52.

"According to Champollion, the hieroglyphics are divisible into three distmct
classes: 1. Figurative signs; 2. Symbolic; 3. rhonetic, or expressive of sound. The
PiouRATivB occur ofteu, either in an entire or an abridged form. Thus the sun is
represented by an exact image; the firmament, by the section of a ceiling wither
without stars. I'he first is termed Ji^ratitye proper, the second ^ura^tv^ eonventicnal.
The plan of a house is given instead of the house itself. This is termed figurative
abridged. The second form of hieroglyphics is the symbolical. These are the
characters generaliv alluded to by the ancients, when they speak of hieroglyphics.
Two arms stretched up towards heaven expressed the word offering ; the four quarters
of a Hon, strength ; an asp, power cf life and death. As the Egyptians were a very
civili2ed nation, it is clear tnat hieroglyphics like those describea were not by any
means sufficient to designate their various wants, occupations, and ideas ; ana this
want may have led to the invention of what Champollion calls the third class of hiero-
glvphics, FH0if£Tic, or designating a sound. He has also discovered the principle, on
which these signs were chosen to express one certain sound ; it is this, that the hiero-
gltfphic of any object might be used to represent the initial sound, or as we should say,
the initial letter^ of the name of that object." [E. g. the picture of an eagle stood for
the sound or letter A, the first letter or sound in the word Ahom, the Egyptian name
for eagle ; and the picture of a ipouth for R, the first sound in Ro, the Egyptian name
for mouth.] "As the great number of hieroglyphics, which this principle would
assign to each of the 29 elementary sounds (the number in the Egjrptian alphabet) ,
would have been a continual source of error, the characters were soon reduced to a
few. As far as ascertained, 18 or 19 is the largest number assigned to any one letter,
while few have more than five or six representatives, and several only one or two."

Forfarfbnr intomstleBM/. O. B. Onppo, Ewj on th* Bhnclnibk Sjitan of M. ChimpeUioB, Ibe. Ttwoklad by I. Sbmtt.

1828. &— CtanvoDion, Ommmaiiv EgypUaant, kc—R. Ulptiui, LeUm m tbt Htcni«)7|)hkal AlplMwi. Bom. 1836. is Fraorti.
—The work OBliflcd 7%tJtaiqttUia t^ Egypt, LoDd. 1841. 8. piibL by Rdif. Tnet Sodalj.— O. JL Giiddan, AacMut Egypt, ia
7%e Acio mjrid, Apr. 1843— Sm alao ( 91. 7.

The following nntice of the views of Seifffartk reipectlnff the hieroglyphics is from the CkrirL
Sptet. vol. viii. p. 433. *' These venerahle characters have lately found another erudite expositor
in Professor Seyflknh, of Leipsic. From the celebrated inscription on the Rosetta rttone, and from
examining many rolls of pnpyrus, this laboriotis inquirer is of opinion that the hieroglyphics in
general are simply hierstic letters, ornamented agrt-eHldy to a calligraphic principle. lie also
infers, that both the hieratic and demotic letters had their origin in the most ancient Phoenician
alphabet. The Leipsic Literary Journal, which contains a notice of this theory, mentions farther
that the learned professor reckons the hieroglyphic signs or characters to amount to about 6000.'*

O. Sntffartky De lingu e( li(aiit v«t. AgypHoram, Ire Lipi^ IK3-3I. 8 mIb. 4.

An Italian scholar, by the name of Jtmneltu has attempted a new method of interpreting the
Esyptian hieroglyphics altogether dilTerent from that of Champollion. Not much ezpeciation
of his success seems to have been awakened in others.

Sw /. CiiXItmorc, oa Ito tyilMD of Hieroglypfak latcrpretatioa propowd by Signor JamtdU ; la the TYvniacfMR* ^Uu Jtoyof
Seddy of LOerahm, vol. Sd. Load. 1887.

2. A hieroglyphic system of writing, it is said, was possessed by the Tuhecans, a
nation formerly existing in the southern part of North America.

Sm BOt. Repot. No. xxvii. Jaly, iri7. p. fi9.-.Jbr/bi«9tic, on the Ktypta of P»1«k|ii«, kcla tte JOanKe /mousI far Utt.~
/. L. Stephtm, I&cidaati of Tiard la Ceotral Anwrica, ke. N. T. 1841. 8 rob. 8. wilh ci«raTiBgi.

$ 17. Tn proportion as these pictural signs became more common and fami-
liar, curtailments or abbrexnaiions of them were introduced, for the sake of con-

p. IV. INTRODUCTION. IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING. StTLLABIC. 315

Tenience. The figure was made in a more simple form. Often particulaT
parts were substituted for the whole, especially such parts as were most essen-
tial to the siornificancy of the picture, and most important for its present use.
For example two hands and a how migrht take the'place of the full image of an
archer. The picture of an effect might be employed to represent its obvious
cause, or that of an instrument to represent the person customarily using it; .
thus, in an abridged ima^e, rising smoke might denote a conflagration, and an
eye and sceptre might signify a monarch. To these were added doubtless
many other signs, wholly arbitrary in their nature, and obtaining a definite
meaning by agreement and frequent use.

$ 18. But all these means served only to represent things, not Uie words and
sounds, by which we express them in speech. At length, men began to apply
the simple figures, which by a course of abbreviation Had taken the place of
the original pictures, to spoken language and its separate organic elements.
Probably it was first done with whole words, to each of which was appro-
priated a certain sign, as in the written language of the Chinese; and atter-
wards with syllables, as the frequent recurrence of the same syllables in
different words was observed, and so certain common signs were applied to
represent them. These signs expressed at the same time both vowels and con-
sonants. Among the Ethiopians and several people of the East there was
some such system of syllable-writing; and it is found at the present day among
the Siamese [as was erroneously supposed when the author wrote].

1. The first information received \)y Europeans respecting the written language of
the Chinese was from the Catholic missionaries. They represented it as comprising
80,000 arbitrary characiers. Later researches have shown that the elementary charac<
ters arc mucli fewer. In an account of this language published in 1825, Dr. Morrison
gives first a collection of 373 ancient symbols, with explanations of their meaning and
origin. These ancient symbols are said to constitute the first principles of the language.
From them were derived 214 characters, which are the leading ones, or heads of
classes, in modern usage, and are called radicals. He next gives a table of 411 sylla-
bles, of which, exelusive of tones and accents, the spoken language consists. The 214
radicals and 411 syllables are considered as forming the matenals of the whole written
language. It is obvious, therefore, that the idea of its having a distinct character for
every word cannot be correct, and yet it is whollv unlike to an alphabetic or syllabic
system. *' Its characters are not intended to be the signs of simple articulate sounds.
They are sometimes denominated hieroglyphic and symbohcal. It originated in a sort
of picture-writing, from which it has, after the lapse of many vears, become what it
now is. In its present state, the best idea of its character would be derived from com-
paring it with the Arabic figures. These figures, characters, or symbols, are now
almost universally understood throughout the world, however differently named by the
people of difl^erent nations, and the primitive signs are now to most nations quhe arbi-
trary, whatever the reasons of their first formation may have been. But supposing 2
and 3 to be entirely arbitrary the union of these two, 23 or 32, presents to the eye a
definite idea, which is the result of combination, and which remams the same whether
pronounced by an Englishman, a Hindoo, or a Chinese, in the spoken language
peculiar to each nation." It has been asserted, that in consequence of this pecuFiarity
of the Chinese written language, it is understood and read in all the regions of eastern
Asia, by people whose spoken languages are very diflerent, and who cannot maintain
the least oral intercourse with each other. Du Ponceau, however, denies this assertiou,
in his work below cited.

fc* OMfMH MimUany, ke. By JMbrnton. Loud. I8SS. A.-CkHim JBcpovilory, (paMiabad at CutooJ vol. 3d, No. >0

Cr. Mm. Hemtd, vol. xxii. 107, 387 Xte Guifnti^ Dicttomnira Chinoii, ¥nuugu» et Latin, fcc. Ffer. 1818. M. CL Lond. Quart,

SMk fol. slii. p. W.-P. 8. Du Paneeau^ DiMartolioa on the Natara of tht CbiiMM ■ystem of writii^ ke. Pbil. I83& 8. CL
Ar. <iiuert. Ru. No. xlii. p. Sie.—Ia a recen' Oennin work, by C. F. Natmann^ entitM Jbiatie Studiu, (1837,) it a Diaait oa
llw Chinm langttase, and oa the hittory of wriUns uooiig tlM Thrtor Trib§i.—N. Jhn. Jteo. April, 1841.

2. The written language of the Siamese has been supposed by Europeans to be an
instance of syllable-writing. But according to the most recent account which has
been noticed, and which is from Mr. Robinson, an American missionary in Siam, the
system of writing is not properly speaking syllabic. The characters do not individually
represent the sounds of syllables. The alphabet is said to consist of thirty-five charac-
ters which represent consonant soimds, and a small number of pointa or marks which
represent vowel sounds ; and different syllables are formed according as the latter are
placed before or after, above or below, the former.

Sm Mimhaary OknUi, foL xxzlL p. ir.-Ai/ Cjrdopwtia, nadar SJam-Aiofie BBMonkm, toL x.-An lupcilMl copj «l

816 ARCHAOLOOY OF LrTERATUBB AND AST.

Qw Sbbmm »l|«iilMl M (ivaa in Ong. Sharpth Sfatuna DtaKrlatioMm.>roiiiili of tjpe la Mi alptetat bmt iMrty bM «i

fn-tlMUMartlwAiMrieuBiHioiiinSiam. ftD. laHMofAa. Z)». AMiown.

3. A most remarkable instance of the 9yllabie alphabet is fonnd in that of the Chero-
kee Indians. This was invenied, about the year 1824, by a Cherokee named Gue$9
or Guyty who was not able to apeak English, or read a word in any language.

Having learned the principle of alphabetic writing, viz. that certain chsractere are eifM of
sound, he conceived the idea uf expreuing all the eyilable-sounda of hie native language by
separate marks. On collecting the different aounds which he could recollect, he found lbs
number to t»e mwkty-two. Four others were afterwarda discovered by himself or some one elie;
making all the known syllables of the language only ngktjf-gix; a very curious fact; especially
when it is considered that the language is very copious, a single verb undergoing, it is said,
some thoufsnds of inflections. The Ryllables all terminate, ai in the Polynesian languages,
with a vowel sound. To rspressnt these aounds Guyst took the English capital letters fmm
a spelling-book in his possession, and combining them with other marks of his own invsntion,
formed his slphsbet consisting of eighty-six chsracters. With this slphabet he commencsd
writing letters, and a great interest wss soon awakened thereby among the Cherokees. The
youth of the land traveled a great distance to learn the new art of writing and reading, which,
from the peculiarity of the alphabet and language, they could acquire in three days sufficiently
to practkM themselves and to teach others. Types for printing in this character have been
cast. A Bswspaper, psrtly in the Cherokee langaage with the same character, was sustained
among that unfortunate people for a short time. The appearance of the language thus priatsd
is singularly uncouth and barbarous.

See tUmimtmry BtnU^^. xxiL p. 47, znll p. SM; iho Bne^opmHa Jbmrieam^ mder JMten £eiic«MffM.~KipeeWl7,
A X.Xna|]|^IieetBne OB American LHentura. N. T. 1829. 8. p. S6-Sa

4. There are extant some remains of an ancient system of writing in which all the
characters are formed bv different combinations of one simple element. The character
has been very commonly termed arrow-headed^ from the form of this elementary sign,
which in most specimens is shaped almost exactly like the head of an arrow or spear.
It is also called Ferfepolilan, because it is found chiefly in inscriptions on the ruins of
Persepolis. I'he inscriptions upon the bricks brought from the site of ancient Babyloa
are evidently in the same general character, although marked by considerable varia-
tions. Different conjectures respecting the principles of this method of writing had
been thrown out, but no attempt at an mterpretation of it had been made, it is beheved.
before ChampolIion*s discovenes in reference to the Egyptian hieroeljrphics. Some
had thought it to be an alphabet of syllables ; and some bad supposed it must consist
of signs of words or of ideas.

The first hint towards deciphering the character seems to have been obtained by Cbampollioii
Arom a twofold inscripilon upon an Egyptian alabaster vase, presenting the name of Xerxes
one part having it In the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the other In the Persepolitan arrow heads.

Since that discovery several scholars, especially Lieklntstrin, Orot^emd, and Dr. Laswan of
Bonn have turned their attention to the subject ; and although D» 8aef asserted In 1833, that no
sstisCictory method of interpretation bad then been suggested, yet It Is said, that many oriental-
Ista both of Germany and France have received the method of Grotefend. This decipherer
makes three varieties of the arrow-ktadtd or wtdft-tkaped alphabet ; all of which are found in
the insoriptions at Persepolls. The oldest character fs supposed to be in the Z^nd language,
the sacred idiom of the Ifagians ; the cbarscteis of the second VJnd are supposed to belong to
the P«kM language ; and those of the third, to the Bakyhnian or Assyrten.

Our PI. XXX VIIL gives tn fig. D, an inscription taken from a Babylonian brick ; and, in fig. «,
the Inscription on the vase above mentioned, and several other specimens of the arrow-k9aMt
chsrscter from Median or Persian monuments, with Grotefund*s Inierprstation. Sss description
of Plates.

Ct CWnMADktef tlw1ltUe,wi(b Fn«MiitH fee. vol. 4tb. p. 196, u pnWbhed, Cbtfleetowa, 1814. 4 voh. 4.- A". AiiS% «
the Camjmhmutm Commenlafir, vol. U. p. B8S.— £Mer, Enqrelapaedia Anerkua, ander ftiiyuh'i. JwieifuMi BiU. JS^poe.
Vo. nvIL Jalf, 1887. p. UB—G. f. Onttfrntd, Nana BeiMfB war Erkltnmff dar FBnepoIiteolMlMB KeU-Sehrift. Biwiov. I8t7.
4.-Ch. Lumi, Die AM-FiniMhaD Edt-lmcMlleB too PeiMpolH *& Barn, 1887. U^BfSami, JaOiMktum Uagam Fhwrilki^
ke. Bonn, I8SV. &

$ 19. The last step in bringing this art to its maturity was aJphahetie or leHer
writingr. This method combines the use of the eye and the ear, in as much
as it represents not the objects of thought themselres, but the sounds by which
these objects are indicated to the ear in our spoken language. The exact time
of this most useful inrention cannot be ascertained ; but passagres in the Bible,
m the writings of Moses (Ex. xvii. 14), and the book of Job (xix. 23, 34],
where it is spoken of as well known, prove its existence at a very early period.
It is impossible to decide who was its author, or even to what people Uie honor
of its origin belongs. Probably it may be claimed by the Assyrians or the
Egyptians, their social organization having been the most ancient. The
Greeks and Romans generally ascribed the invention of letters to the Phoe-
biciana.

"Some think letters were perfectly known before the confusion of Babel, and
imagine them to have been in common use in the antediluvian world (cf. ^ 6), and that

p. IV. INTRODUCTION. . ALPHABETIO WRITINO. $17

^oali and kis family brought them into the new world, in which they have been con-
tinued through a vast vanety of changes until now. Some atihbute the invention to
Mo$e$f others to Ahrahamt others to Abel^ and some of course to Adam» The Jew-
ish Rabbins say, God created them on the evening of the first Sahbath.^*

JUam CtantiSQCMakiaor Skmd Lilmtonk Lood. 1890. 8 foii. &-Tbb writw malntyai, (bat olphabUle wiftiac wmoT
di*iM origin; twias tanght to Mom by God wb«n b* wrote with Ai* own >livar the DocaloginaB (taetabiM of 110110.— loUbt
•hoeoMiilMi theartof wriHnf MoTdiviM origio. •*Oaiy God ooold tneh nukiad tocilablith eertaia fgom to ligBirirall MMa*
erwofdt." Sea vol. U, p. 4M. of bit .tneicnX HiiC aa ctled f 12. I.-CC. lfi0p*y%T^tiia»ToL9d, p-ilCofed. Boet I8K.-
AIbd Jiffc and ffttf, aa cited { S2. 2.

$ 20. While the art of writingr was known to but few nations, and only to
particalar individuals in these, its use was rare, except upon public monu-
ments, where the letters were generally engraved on stone, metal, or wood.
Such substances were the first employed for the purpose of writinff ; afterwards
were used skins, bark, leaves (especially of the palm-tree), tablets covered
with wax, ivory, linen, parchments, and the Egyptian papyrus, prepared
from the fibres of the plant of that name. The chisel, style, pencil, and reed
were anciently the most common instruments for writing; the place of the last
Was first yielded to the quill in more recent times. It was common to proceed
from right to left, rather than from left to right as in modem practice.

$ 91. The contents of the first writings, ooth on monuments and in books,
were historical. Letters, on their invention, were naturally applied to com-
memorate remarkable events upon pillars, altars, pyramids, obelisks, and the
like, and to record the sayings and tales which had hitherto been transmitted
orally from one generation to another. As this historical matter generally re-
ceived something of the form of poetry in oral communication, it resulted of
course that poetical tales were written earlier than narratives in prose. Even
moral and political maxims were framed into song, and accompanied with
music. Of all books now in existence, the writings of Moses and the book of
Job are the most ancient, although many probably were written before these.
Whateyer claims have been urg^ for the antiquity of any other books, they
are all certainly of later origin.

Much has been said by some respecting the high antiquity of the records among
oriental nations. But more full investigation proves, that there is nothing authentic in
their histories belonging to a very early date. A distinguished scholar, KUtprotht has

g'ven as the result of a thorough examination of the subject, that there is no hope of
iding, amone the Asiatics, materials for the early history of man, beyond what is
found in the books of Moses. He remarks, that the history of ancient nations is
naturally divided into three parts ; (1) miftfiologicah which may contain some portion
of truth enveloped in an impenetrable veil of allegories and fables ; (2) uneertaint in
which the main facts are true and the personages real, but the chronology unde-
termined ; and (3) (r««, in which the facts and the time are clearly and satisfactorily
recorded. The true or certain history of the Hindoos does not reach back so far as
the time of Christ, and that of China extends not quite 800 years before Christ, and
even the uncertain history of these, which are the most ancient of the Asiatic nations,
does not go much beyond the time of the Mosaic deluge, or between 2000 and 3000
years before Christ. See Christian Spectator, vol. vii. p. 544.

§ 22. By the aid of these and other helps, scientific knowledge among
ancient nations gradually became more various and general. But not until a
comparatively late period could it receive a systematic form, in which general
principles were separated from particular facts and perceptions, and arranged
aceoraing to some regular method or properly scientific classification. Here
necessity was the firat teacher, and conaucted human intelligence to those truths
and sciences, which were most indispensable to the supply of human wants,
and most useful in advancing the improrement of social life. Such were
especially medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and geo^phy.

$ 23. The natural instinct for self-preservation, and for goardmg against every
thing which threatens danger to health and life, occasioned the firet observa-
tions and rules of medicine. Various accidental opportunities for such observa-
tions and experience as constituted its original foundation were presented while
men used only vegetable food. It was long, however, before the art of medi-
cine was reduced to definite principles, and became an object of special atten*
tion by a particular class or profession. The Assyrians, Egyptians, and
Phoenicians were the firet to cultivate it; although the time of its bemg bioaght

2d2

SIS ARCHJEOLOOT OF LITERATITRE AND ART.

into any reo^ular or scientific form cannot he accurately detennined. The art
was at first directed more especially to external maladies, and anatomy proba-
hly owes its origin to the care and healing of wounds.

Th. Sprttutl, Veriucta «tner prafiratttchen GeKbichle dor Arcnrj-kunde. Halle, )RI-2& S vnlt. 8. Sd ed. There i*« Frencli
Irao^Utioa (from the Sd ed.) eutillw HMoin dc la Medeeute, &e. Par. 1815. 9 voh. S.— fK Ro^ttan. Riec and Propo* of tbe
Medical Arta. Loud. 1818. 8.— L« Cere, HiMoire de la Mrdecine. Amit. IT23. *.—T. Matvn Good, Uiatorj of Medjciee
Lood. 179&. l2.-lVTn. IlamiUont History of Medicine, Surfery, and Anatomy. Loud. 1831. 2 vola. 12.

§ 24. Of mathematical sciences, arithmetic seems to have been the most
ancient. It probably consisted at first only of a few simple •perations, of which
no theory had been formed. The first organization of civil society and division
of property required the use of numbers, weight, and measure. The practical
part of this science therefore unquestionably must be very ancient, and probably
existed first among the Egyptians and PhcEnicians, whose commerce and navi-
gation rendered its assistance indispensable. This must have been the case
also with the Babylonians, on account of their early attention to astronomy and
chronology. Pebbles, seeds of grain, and the like were used as the first helps
in enumeration ; but ere long certain written characters were employed as inai-
cative of numbers; of which there are various traces upon the earliest Egyptian
monuments.

See ifonfuda, Mbtoirc dei Mathematiquek— CA. Scmti, Riiloira dee Mathemeidqan. Par. ISia 8 vola. 8. Truntated by
AmnycuOc. Ijooi. 1603. a-J. M. Poppe. Oeacbichle der Mathemitik. TDbiaf. 1888. &

§ 25. The origin of astronomy likewise belongs to the earliest periods, since
some of its truths are necessary for the dividing and reckoning of time, and not
only in the management of navigation, but also in the orderly arrangement of
civil business, and in all the labors of agriculture. The Egyptians, and the
Babylonians and Chaldeans especially, were allured to the study of tbe heavens
by the mildness of their climate and the extent and openness of their horizon.
Thti early origin of astrology, which was so prevalent among the Chaldeans,
is full proof of their early observation of the stars. And the most ancient civil
histories show, that the idea of the constellations, and even the discovery of
the planets was a very early attainment of man.

See Mekr, Unteniicbnnf Qber d. Cnp. ond. d. Bedeut d. Stenmanen. Beri. 1809. t.—J 8. BaHbh Hiatoire de rAttnxMinit
encicnne. Par. 1781. 4 —Ddambrt, Hiitoire de I'AatrQnainie. Par. 1817. 2 vola. 4.— Coinni, on the orifia of Astnmony, in tbe
ifcm. dt VAtad, dm Semuth vol. vili.— Uialory oT Aatraoomy, la the Library «/ UMful KnouUig*.

§ 26. Geometry, in its practice, is very old, but was originally limited to a
few elementary principles and manual operations. It was at first probably con-
fined to longimetrvj or the measuring of lengths and straight lines, which would
he indispensable in the rudest attempts at building. Planimetry, or the mea-
suring of surfaces, was more difficult, and required for its discovery a greater
degree of improvement and attention. The first occasion for it seems to have
been the division of lands. Stereometry, or the science of measuring solid
bodies, was probably last in the order of discovery, although the invention of
the balance, early in use, presupposes it. In these brancnes of science, the
Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians also led the way. Several mechani-
cal instruments must undoubtedly be referred to a very high antiquity, as for
instance, the balance, the lever, and also the sledge and the wheel carriage.

$ 27. The origin of geography must be ascribed to the necessity, which
would soon be felt, of determining the situations and distance of countries
f already known and inhabited. The use of certain marks or memorials for
recognizing places visited and left, the tracing of journeys from one spot to
another, and the establishing of public routes, all conduced to a development
of this branch of knowledge. Of its existence to some extent, there is proof
both in the conquests, and in the travels by sea and by land, which took place
in the earliest times. It was however then, as in fact it was in the later and
more enlightened periods of antiquity, exceedingly limited and defective.
Neither the historical and statistical, nor the physical and mathematical parts
of this science were so regularly and carefully cultivated as were other sciences.

/. Blair, Hitlory of Geogripby. Lond. 1784 IZ—J. R. /ofy, Aociennc Geognphie, eomp. a la moderae. Pkr, 1801. 2 voh. %.
«ir ^inuntj Commeree and Navigatk>ii of tbe AucieaU ia tbe ladiaa Oreaa. Load. 1807. i vola^ 4.— C HawUm^ Ol«en«

p. IV. INTRODUCTION. VALUE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES. d]9

tion tm tb« Tin Tnd» of the Incicnti. Lood. 1811. 8.— Jir'/>A#nen'« Annah of Commerce Lond. IMS. 4 vola. 4 -/. P. Q».
adtn, RecheiTbei sur la Gmgraphie Splemaliquc et poiitive da aociem, |ioar »ervir de btm a l^biitoire de la Gaofnphie Aucienne.
P*r. 17»4. 4 voh, 4.-AIM, Recbrrrboi tur U Grogrmpbie Ancieooe, in the Mtm. d* VhMUut Ro^ CbuM rf BiH. U LU.
Andawty wl. L p. 4l.~Eapeca]l7, M. C. Spntigtl, GcKhichte dor wichtigMea geoffrapbiwbcn Eatdcckunceo. Hallo, I7«.
Idod.

$ 28. It appears from the foregoing remarks, that the first seat, and, as it
were, the cradle, of the sciences was in Asia and Egypt The cause is to be
found in the numerous population of the countries, and the early organization
of their civil state, so that the primarv wants of life were easily supplied, and
the human mind enjoyed freedom and leisure for improvement. These coun-
tries also were not disturbed by tumult and war; Egypt particularly enjoyed a
long period of happy tranquillity. The intercourse of the Phoenicians with
other people, by means of their commerce and navigation, was peculiarly favor-
able to their advancement in knowledge. In general, however, the progress
in the arts and sciences was far less rapid in the first ages, than afterwards.
The proper helps were comparatively few, and there was especially wanting
the means of an easy and ready intercommunication of knowledge, until the
invention of alphabetic writing furnished one so appropriate and so useful.

II. — TTie importance and usefulness of a knowledge of classical literature and art.

$ 29. From Asia and E^pt the arts and sciences were introduced into
Greece. Here they attained that culture and perfection, which renders ancient
history and literature so agreeable and so valuable a branch of modem know-
ledge. Through the Greeks, the Romans afterwards came into possession of
the same treasure. These two nations preeminently distinguished themselves
by their merits and accomplishments in literature and the fine arts. Hence it
is that there is so much in what pertains to Greece and Rome that is worthy
of our admiration and study.

Much has been written both for and against classical studies. The various argu>
ments cannot be presented here. But some references ought to be given.

1. Shortly after ihe revival of letters the famous (question respecting the comparative
merits of the ancients and moderns began to be agitated. The earliest writers were
Italians. In France the controversy began in 1687, and advocates were found for both
sides. In England the discussion commenced short ly after the formation of the Royal
Society, and soon called forth eminent writers. In Germany the subject has not been
much canvassed, except as involved in the controversy of the Humanists and Phi-
lanthropists.

The iDllowirif rsTemccs pertab to the eoolrorenj — U Italy; J. Tattoni, Penieri diverai. Carp. 1830. 4 (lOlb B.)—
& lonetfoKo, I/ofKidi, otvoto gl'lDgegni moderni non inferiori a'pcnuti. Vcn. 1658. S.—P. Jknt, ComparazioM di tamo
con Roawro, 4c Pad. 1612. 4. —la France; CA. Parmdt, Le Sie<le dc Lonit Ic Grud. IMT. By Senu, Parallele des Arte,
et Moderaea. Par. I6SR.— JLoiirepkrre, Diw. rar loi Aneicoa. Par. 1687. 12.— P. D. Butt, Lcttre mr le merite dm Adc et Mod.
(IB hb Pieecs (ug. d'HwL ct de Lilt Par. 1708. IS.)->aoaaiiu, RttUx. CrlL in bit Traaa. of Looffiaui. Fkr. I694. 12.— TVurnoi;
Dim. de la fcneuae Quert. tv le Mer. dea Adc et dn Mod. On bia Works. Par. 1721. 4.)— La MaUt, Diic mr Honere, (is hia
Worfta. Far. \1U. l2.)>0eAiyn, Coop, meriti of ancicnls and modems in the Htm. lead. Inter, nl SIL—Mad. Daeiw, D«
caoM* de la eomipt da foeL Par. 1714. 12.— In England; Sir Wm, TVmpIc, EaMj apon the ancient and modem learning,—
in hit Mitedlania. Load. 1686. 8.— FPIii. ITotton, BedecL on anc and mod. Lmralng. Lond. 1706. S.— Swift, BatUe between
aadeal and modem Bnoki, in Ik FTorka. N. Tork, I8ltf. S4 fob. 12. (Sd vol. p. 900.)— JiUbofi, DiK. open anc. and mod. Leani'
ing. Lool 1736. 4.— See alw/. ZkmufiAdTaoeement and RafaniiatioB of mod. poetry. Lond. 1701. 6.— In German y; AbUcr,
Qoaatan Aatiqai eniditione ct indoatria antecellaat Moderaoe. Bam. 17S4. 4.— sA B. Carpamo, De asliq. ct recent, doctrina
comptf. Helmit. 1749. 4—0. E. OnMtA, Ueb. d. Verglcich d. alien. beKind. d. griedL mit der denlKbeB nod nenan edMien
Lit. he. Bert. 1788^ 8.

2. Liberal learning was designated among the Romans by the term humanitas.
Hence, on the revival of letters, the study of classical literature was very naturally
called studium humanilatis. In Germany the lovers and advocates of the ancient
classics received the name of Humanist* {Humanisten) ; and their views on this subject
were followed in the general system of education, until the middle of the last century.
After that period, different views were advocated by a class of reformers in education,
who obtained the name of Philanthropists; several of whom established schools on
their peculiar principles and called them PhUaiUhropina, Basedow, the leader of the
Philanthropists, opened his school at Dessau in 1774. Salzmann opened another at
Schnepfenthal in 17?1. Classical studies were nearly excluded from their system. In
other respects also they proposed to amend the former modes of instruction.

The viewa oftbe Philanthropltttare preanted and advocated in lb« followiog work*; Bnndouft Elenentarwcrk, 1774.
■ CkmiM'rReTiBioawark. Hambwi, 1785 m. 16 Tola. & (a lort oT periodicaL)-7V<9ip^ Ptaiagacik, 1780, and Ucber da Uatet-

820 ARCHAOLOGT OF LITERATITRE AND ART.

neht n S|ii«cb«D. Brvnw. 1781 8.-Cf. /. Wrilztl, Wm toll iraa Icrnea ? Oder ZwMk dMUDterrichfi. Lfiz IS88. 12. eoBtend*
{d( ilut in EnropMUi Mkoob too mucb tiiM m dcv&lcd to Latin and Greek.— ^Tlie vieirs of the H u n a n i « t ■ in the folloiriiv ;
Ai/iA, Uober den Nutwo ricbtig; getnelMmr Pbilolo(ie. I7M.— ATctf Aammm Streii dci PhJIauthropinugt and dci Humanhau.
iena, 1MB. B.— For a faller ootic* oa Ifaia miOect, SekwmrO^i Enieb«iap-Lebra, roLSd.--Ct Jmtrwan Joummt of £i(HMtion,
Mew Swiaa, v«4. i. Na &

3. 'J'he uiiliiy of classical studies has been strongly controverted in this country.
But the general conviction is seiUing firmly in their lavor. The Greek and liaun
classics are now considered as indispensable in a good education, more generally than
before the public discussions of the question.

Tbe foMowiac are hmbc of the maaj pieora relating to thia topic. T. OriwM^ Addrw beCn* Lit %aA PhiL Soc oT S. CanllM.
Chsrlcrtoo, 1807.— Aimfortf (tifvtur* of nnknowD writer), in tbe B'Mon OtOnkO^ I82S, or 6.— Ai« (aifaalure of an •vmjmam
writer), m tbe Coarw of Stodf io tbe OneMe Inrtitnte, S. 7. Otmnm, vol. sii. l8M.-ff« Brpmitwy, Oct. \t».~Amm. imtt
9f SeiCMC, vol. IV. pw tn.-Chri: Spte. ISM, p. AM.-M. SMMif, in Quor. Javmal Anm. Id. Soc Julf, l8^a.-£. M- PtUm^
ia tbe Bih. RtpotUt^ Na nv. Jan. IB7. p. 46.-/. Pmekard, in Bih. Ibpontor^ No. zxix. Jan. :838, p.U.-K.D Smidarnt
In Bib. Hipontory, Julj, 1841, p. M.-Jim«rie. Edmiie, vol. L p. 428.— See alao Beaeker'i Plea for Collegea. 1896. Il-For an
Mcouot of elaiaical leamiot in ibia mantry in tbe but centory, ana AfUlar, Relroipeet of tbe Eifbtoeatb Ccolary. New Tprk,
1803. 8 vola. & Cf . CtoiMMl STiMlba, cMed P. V. { & «,

4. Respecting the peculiar excellence and spirit of the ancient classics, we refei to
the following.

.lUe Altec, RdleetioM criUqiM m In PMrie el h Pefartnra. TVanw. bjr IfutmU Lood. 1749. 8 volt. 8. DopJd Stowatt
pronouacea tbia " one of tbe aioal agreeable and Inatnietive worka Ibat caa be put into tbe banda of jroatb.'*— J. JBartwwfl, Intra-
dudioa to tbe dajBick Load. 1107. 8; paM. alaoin Utin nnder tbe lillc, Oi IVwtaiilia CIbm. .Iiitf. Lipe. I7SS. l-O Mm-
•eartnf, Oa tbe ClaaHcka. Lood. 17*7. &— O. F. OtOmt, tHuuM. Scbrifteo. Tb. 6tb.-Z) /mOdk, Oeiet der Altea. Beri. 171*.
8L— We aaay add alio, on tbe utility of daaiioal ieamin(,— Ortfor/t Letten. Pbil. 1800 — Fie. JTiMse, Liberal Edncatioa, or Pract
Trcatiae oa tbe methoda of aeqairii* oaafal a»i polite laaming. Lend. 1788. 8 vnla. 8. (in the btroduetion.)— £>. O. HutUr,
Wertb dar da*. Sebriftatoller ia Badtaiebt auf Blldanf daa Gei»laa, kc Breal. I80DL 8.-.Bilaute, Sor Tetude dea aaeiaM, Mm^
dbrMiMtyl,Claaae da Lil. tf Anvx .Irfa, va i. p. 8G0.-rii*niiann, XL Uaadbocb, p. 5-8^ m dtad P. V. $7.8i

$ 30. In wh^t we term the Jrehteology of lAteraturt and Jrt^ among the
Greeks and Romans, it is not designed to enter into very minute details. The
object will be to give a correct general view of the subject, presenting the most
important circumstances of the origin and progress of refinement in these na-
tions, and enabling the reader to form a just idea of the actual state of letters
and arts ampng them, as well as of the monuments which they have left to

{>osteritj. This object cannot be accomplished fully, if the history of know
edge and art is wholly separated from what may be called their antiquities.

$ 31. The utilitj of such archaeological information cannot be Questioned.
It furnishes ns with the best illustrations of many passages and allusions in
the Greek and Roman authors. It helps us to understand the peculiar excel-
lences and beauties of their writings and those also of the works of art It
futs us in a situation to form more correct opinions on these and kindred topics,
n short, it serves in respect to our own literary taste, not only to secure to it a
solid basis, but to impart refinement and delicacy.

^32tt. The following works may be consulted for fiirther details on the subjects
presented in this introduction, and likewise on some of the topics of the subsequent
archaeological sketches.

t. OntbeorifiatDdpraciMordvUiaattoBaodkDOwMcei All. F. Oetiid, Da IHMgiaa dea Lois, dee Arte at daa Sdcoeaa cb«
leaaadcoa Peuplea. Par. 1788. 6 vola. 4. 8kaa ed. oorr. Par. IflOa 9 vola. %. E^ TiaMl. Ediobh 1775, 9vola. 8.— ScAUferli Tbalia,
vol. 6, p 9, ■.— Jdabifif , Veiaodi oincr Geachiebta der Calmr dea BMaadilkbaa Oaacblachta. LpL i8oa &— ChriiCop*. JfamM,
Geacbicbte daa Unprunga, Pongaap and Verfblla der Wiaaenaebaflao in Oriaebaalaad and Roaa. Laa^o, 1781, 8 vole. & Not
flaiabed.-B7 8am», Grandriaa der OaKbiebte der Meaeebbeit. LanqpH I7M. 8. <« Not Critical."—/. Dmtm»^ Becberdiea ear
rbrigine do decouvertea attribuaa aax Modaraaa, kc ftr. 176a-Jiailiy, Lattrea ear l<Oriciaa daa Bdeocea. Par. 1777. 6.—
hwini, Voreacba Qber den I'npraaf der Brkcaatnwi d. Wabrbdt a. d Wiaaaaadiifleo. BerL 1781. K-Vin^ Hiat Nalnr. da
Gcora Hoinain. Bnudlea, 1887. 9 vola. IS.— JMn, L'Hialoirade I'Eaprit HonMiia daaa I'jkatiqnita. Par. I8B9 B vola. 8.-C^«ii^,
Geaebicbto der Eniebong and dei Unlerricbti iai Aitertbome. I8S6. 8 vola. a-C. AoUin, Hiatory of tbe Arta aad Sdeneaa of Un
Aadaata, ia bia Jncwnl ffiKory, New York, 189S. 8 vda. &— BMbmaam, Hialoiy of tovaatioM aad Diaoovariaa. Load. 1814.
4 vob. a

2. On laBgaageaad writii<; Anp. frufo, Daprinaacribcadiorigiaa; cai notaaadj. IVoMm. Tn^tA Bb. 17Sa a-Gh.
it Bnmm (le Praridbif J, Traite de b ronaatioD aecbaaiqae daa laagoea. Fkr. 1801. 8 toIc IS.— TVib dfrtlc. Tbe Origin and
Progreaaof Writing. Lood. 1809. 4.-7. L. Bug, die Erfiadonf der BacfaHibeaaebrift, ihr Zoaland and frUbesier Gtbraodi in
AlteribOB. tnia, 1801. 4.-CAr. FHtd. ITcter, Vereacb eiaer Geachiebta dar Sdwaibkoaat Golt. 1807. &-/. L. SooteAirfx,
fbracbongaa iaGebietedcrHebbJEgjrpt. ArchAdofia. Finl ftrt, on tbe Bialory of Lanan, tbe Hefafaw, Pboeaieiaa, Greek, and
Egyptiaa. Koaigib. 1898.

3. On varioaa lopica of ArdHadaor ; T. H. Chrttl, AbtaandlaBcea Ober die Litaiatar and KoBarwerke. voraebmlich dea Allei^
ihoina, duid^aaabeo and mit Anrneikangen baglaitat von I. £ Ztum. Lpi. 177S. t.—L A. BmutU Arcbaologia litararia, Ed.
IL emeadata 4lqiie anda opera ct abidio O H. MartinU LipaiiB, 17W. L- /. /. Jtamtedk, arefaAologiKbe Untcrracbangca. Bella,
1778. a Aa third volnoM to bia TranalaHoa of PtHtmt ArebnoL Onaea.— /. C. L. SOtaaff, Enejrklopadie der daiaiaeben Altar
fUaoAanda. Magdeb. 1886. 8 vda. a 9d ed. 4tb ad. 1897. •• Voy viioable." -JloouMocMfe, Coora d^Axcbwl. Par. liSS. &

p. IV. INTRODUCTION^ VALVE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES^ 921

4. On u1 HMin pwliciiUriy ; Jak. WlneUbnamt. GuMbidlto der Kanst Am Altwtbau N«M Aofl. Wien, 1770. 4,—Smnm ia
IVtaeli, HMoira d« PArt eb«B Lm Anelnt avae danM« hMoriqvn el erittqaai da diAtaai aataui. Par. An da U Bap.— fTtncA-
•bMRn, Sinttttidw Warka, ed. by Amow, Mqwi*, and Sekulu. Dmd. 1806-17. 7 fob. 8^ with an lodax bj SftMii. DrtKi.
IML a and aapptamaat bj FanUr. Bari. 18K. S fob. & •• Wiackelnaaa tha gmlaM erilic Id aaeiaot ait ia hb Ubm, bat bow
aoiTMwd" mmt^JgJmoMrt^BkMniitVMjivulmMommmmiBpuklA dao»laacaa« IVbm Siacle JohiqU k» reiioavrila>
0ntaaXTXBMpoarNrardaiii«BaI>Malalradaa AitiebaalaaaDcieBa. Phr. 1S10-2SL 0 volk toU- C. O. ffiyiM, EiAlaitnaf b
daa SindlMa d« Aatikia. Gott 1772. 8L-^. F. AteMif, Eatwuf aioar Oaicbiebli dar Midioaadaa KOmla. ttaibaif , 1791. 8.
-Orbb Astiqai MoBuaMBtia Saia ninalratl Priaua Liacn llanm daxit 1 1 Qkrltfiiu. Argantor. 1790. 8.-i>. F. A. IfUiek,
BiaMtuoi la dai Stiidlaiu dar altaa Kuaalwarka fbr Koaatlar and Kuutfiabhabar. Leipa. 1791. i.~-JL L. MQUn, latrodoclion a
ITIada das Moaamna Aoiiquea. Ed. E. Par. 1798. ft-SaiM, Monamaaa Antiqim iDedilk Far. 18l»-4. 8 itOa. i.-T. Ph,
MlmAM, Haadboeb dcr Arddolagia, odar AalailiiBf but KeantBiM dar Kanalwaftadaa AltarHMMaiiBd aer Oaaehiehta der Kaart
dar altoo Tfllkar. Zwei AMteflaageD. NOrab. 179% «. I80a 8. " DBoitkaLt-r. OmtKK, Eiaieilqas ia daa BtaSivm Am
ichOBea Kanal daa AltarthaaM. Mafdab. 1790. i—ATcram, lllg. Eialait bi daa SlwL dar ArefaM. te. tran. ftem tbe DaaUi. '
Lpt. nti.-'M. 0, MUBsr, DeakBdlar dar alten Konal. QMt. 1884-7. t fohu 4.-JC O. JDmar* Raadbneb dar licbiolagia dar
KqmI. Lpc 1896. 8. 9d ad.-SB»w, tnadalod into EnflUL Load. 1187. A •Baal Maanal by br."->A Birt, Qaachiabia dcr
bddradaa Komla bej d. AltaB. Bed. ISH. **Yttf nioM»,*

A TbaraaraioaiapariodiedworkctowbiebtefcnaeebeeeBriflaaUyBBadalafbaFBitoribaBlaiiaallraatl^
af Unnlara aad Art, aad abe ia olhar FWtk

ThaSodatjrorAatiqtiariaaatLoBdoawaaiMMporalBdiDmi. OMaf ttowovtopiUbbad bf Unm b aoHUad rrfiiito Mnu-
■Knlo. Aaothar» which waa ce^maacad ia 17T0, and b atill ooDliBaed, banUUad Jidwofcfto, or MbfaHaimcwi TiaebpartaiaiBC
Id AoHqaity, eompriaiaf 98 volamea, qoaria, fraoi 1770 to 1836.

TbaBDjralSadatyor LiiantvraflirtbaUBitad Kiscdom of Oraat Mtals wb aabMlibad about tba yaar Wa Ibpariodieal
paUicatian b aatilbd 2VBnaac«ioiH ^<ib Aoyoi «aeuly o/LOmtfiira, fte., CDBptbiBft down lo 1^

•fta laadaaay ot laacriptioBaaad Balba Lattm at Rtfb waaaoawracad to lOa^aad lutiiiiwaiad by tba BBtioaal awambly ia 179A
V«r7 Taloabla araiha anayi pablWMd by tbb body ia tba werli aotiUad Mm. dt PJMA du fcaeniMiiu, wUdk eaubb oT 60
vdaaxa IB IbaFkriaadiiion in quarto. Tba ibaftef it IVonoi waa aitablbbad io 17B6,aBd b stUl eoBtimiad, eeoibtiag of Jtaa
Iranelba or eloMei, aach or which poblnbaa ib labora BBdar tha icaaral titb of Mmiomt it PAia^

A fbacaat ffaapropaHof arehaolaiiflaJ ttodiea Bi^bafoaad intha MIowiBK work; Rai^part BidcH^mttr UTngmdit
PltU»tn«liilmLmmmiunJhKkmndtpAUm,te. ftr. 18ia 4 Ilbabqptofha JfcnoifwrfiPteiiM* A
baaa piaaaalad to fha iMtltBia IB I80A

Tha ClaaiJM JouriMJ, an BBKlfahpuUlcatSoD of ronridmbb valaa tofha Khriar, waa eavnanead la IBlO^aad taM^
femiaf oaaallytwovolaiBaiaTear Forthaftnl 0)TalaBiaatharabaaapanlalBdci.

41

PLATE XXXVIII.

'^ N/I^<y^pioc3<NHpocoYKeTTopev

eH6NBOYAHX:CaiCDN

ID VHT li Sfa. D £

HBHIA2JK'
ro X

KvQiov ' Jyiaaua'^

li

111

I

A

I

II

I

^

•<r. <?!.►« .<ff.m.«A.

. K . U. . A . U • K • ai' . . .
D . A V R . H . E . U . Scy . . .

(«^.?<.f^r.y<-.y<y.??.r<-^

3{ KH .Scy» B . H .1 . 0 . H . •-
KU .fcti. i . H .1 . 6 . H> .ICH. .

332

ARCHEOLOGY OF GSEEK LITERATURE.

I- — Of the origin and first Mttps of Grecian culture.

f 33.* The most ancient traditions, that have been preserved respecting the
first population of Greece, exhibit the country as occupied in various parts, by
a race called Pelasgri, There is some concurrence of testimony, that they were
the primitive inhabitants. fSlrabo, 1. viii. $ 10.) According to other accounts,
they were emigrants from Asia, located first in Thrace, afterwards extending
themselves through Thessaly even to the Peloponnesus. Almost impenetrable
darkness, however, hangs over their origin. Ijut, whether they were originally
natives of the land (at»To;c^«j), or emigrants piimariJy from countries beyond
the Mediterranean, it is certain, that more than 1900 years before Christ they
were dispersed over Greece, and a part of Italy. They consisted of a great
number of independent tribes.

8m ffcrten Mdnh, Hera Peta^poB. Camb. I81&-Jla<wl RrrkOk, Rkloira Critiqw d« PattbliMiiient dm ColoBiM GrM<iiMi.
-GOUrty Lm pnaien iMbilinli de U Grace, in tbe Mtm. Jkad, Inaor. vol. SS. p. l.-Oritue, Ori(iiw d« Pelatgae, in the HLiiie,
Jfcm. kc vol. 14, p. 164, aod 16, p. 108.— Au|»it, 8ur In Fdaige^ Afcm. iM Ptnitihtt, Cletio de LiL et Bmit JMit vol. iL
44, end iiL 9I.—Kmrl Ottf. JfUifar, GcMbiefate d. beUeniMbai Saame. BraUu, lt!28L S voh. 8.— Ciaimr, Uitioin dct pmnien
tempi de k Grace, he. Vu. 1828. 3 vole. %.^PrieAard, Fhyh Hiat. of MKnkiod (cited ) 12. 1), B. & Ch. 4.—H Lto, Lebrtmcli der
tiniveml GeKhiehte. Lpi. I88S. 9.-B. O. Plan, Voi^uodLV|eMbicble der Ueileoea. Lpi. 1831. 8.-&«oMr, Unlven. Ueber-
rieht d. Geaehieble d. alien Wdt, ke. Cf. F. V. ) 7. 7. (d).

$ 34.* It is the general representation of the ancient writers, that the inhabit-
ants of Greece, in the earliest periods to which tradition extended, were in
a condition of extreme barbarism. Their food is said to have been the fruit
of the earth spontaneously produced and gathered by accident or under the im-
pulse of hunger ; their sexual intercourse to have been regulated by no law but
animal passion ; and their science and art insufiicient even to direct them to the
use or discovery of the common element of fire ^$ 7). There is no evidence,
that they made any advances from such a state, mdependently of the colonies
from Egypt, or Phcenicia, or other eastern countries, wnich ere long were plant-
ed among them. There seem to have been two periods of this colonization,
somewhat distinct; the first about 1800 years, and the other about 1500 before
Christ.

1. From the first of these periods civilization began to advance. If the Pelas^
were the original inhabitants represented as once so barbarous, they were firom this
period elevated somewhat above their previous slate. If the term Pelasgi was a com •
mon name to designate all the early occupants of Greece, that had come fi^om beyond
the sea, and so included the Colonists of this very period, then we must say, that the
Pelasgi from about 1800 B. C. were in a state more elevated than the previous inhabi-
tants. Or, whatever may be the truth as to the Pelasgi, some advancement in civiliza-
tion actually took place among the people of Greece not far firom this time.

By some writers on this subject, especially the more recent, the Pelasgi are de-
scribed as possessing, before the arrival of the later colonies, a system of religion,
with priests and mysteries : as having some knowledge of architecture, navigation, and
military arts, particularly fortification ; and even using some sort of written language,
if not an actual alphabet of letters.

ror neb viewi or the cnhnn or Ibe MaK^ MO &*k«v inl £eo, ai raternd to above, § SS}-HJee ITae^^
at cited P. IV. 1 18. 6 and 1 33. Conpera ) 4A. 1.

2. The second period alluded to was distinguished by the colony of the Phcenician
vadmus, who settled in Boeotia, "^ ^ '''"'* — * '- — -'*'' **" — '* :_:— n- i .• —

his own name, afterwards called

Cadmus, who settled in Bceotia. B. C. 1493, and founded the city originally bearing
d Thebes. This colony is the most celebrated of alH

323

9^ ARCHJEOLOOY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

as havinff contributed more than any other to the cahivation of the Greeks. The
ffreatest benefit conferred by it was the art of alphabetic writing, which, according to
the common opinion, was introduced by Cadmus (^ 45) .

The following pasnce from Wachler may be pertinent here ; it Indicate! hli opinion reepect-
inf the Pelaagi, wbile it eonflrms the remarks above retpectinf the influence of the coloniee on
Greek civUixation. ** The early hletory of Greece ia obecure, and depends motily on hletorical
combinations and conjectures. Its inhabitants came from Asia through Thrace. The first emi-
grants were called PtlatfU and appear to be connected with the original inhabitants, who had
already received somethfng in their culture and language fVom Asia. They were followed by
the HelUiust probably a kindred tribe ft'om tlie Caucasus. By the contemporaneous settlement
of foreigners more clTllized, in difTerent places, the foundations of social order and civil govern-
ment were laid ; as by the Egyptian Cecrope (B. C. 1&30), in Attica ; by Danaus (B. C. 1900), in
Argos; by the PbasniiBian Cadmus (about B. C. 1500), in Bosotia; and the Phrygian Pelops, ia
Peloponnesus."

fTMMtf'jOMebkbtote UlBnlv,«oi.L|>.ML L|k. 18nL4.TCh.8.-CtSkMII,HMpln4«hLBiOTitv«Oi«cqw,L.LCh.
LMcttadP. V.tT.a— LcraftViHM. 4* CmIimi, Mm. JeoA /lucr. ?oL 48. p. 17.

§ 35.* Respecting the origin of the Greek language, it must be remarked,
that there has been much discussion, with comparatively little light. Various
theories, conflictinff with each other, and some of them sufficiently absurd, have
been advocated. Nothing yeij definite and satisfactory has yet been adduced.
The researches made witmn a few years past, in what has been called the teieme
<f comparative philology, have enabled the later critics to class many of the
ancient languages, including the Greek, in families, on the ground of certain
common resemblances. But it seems beyond Uie reach of learning to determine
precisely the descent of the Grecian tongue.

There are two facts recorded in the fiible, which must be kept in view, in
every just incjuiry respecting the origin of the inhabitants of Greece and the
descent of their language ; viz., the confusion of tongues at Babel (B. C. 3247),
and the consequent dispersion of the human family.

Before we notice the bearing of these facts, we will advert to some of the accounts
which have been given of the origin of the Greek language.

1. The following are the remarks of Eachenburg, presented in the original of this
work in another pboe, but appropriate here.

Of the origin of the Greek language It may be said, that it was partly domestic and partly
foreign. Its origin was domestic, in as much as its basis and primary stock was the vernacular
tongue of the earliest Inhabitants, who are by many considered to have been the Pelasgi,
although, as has been suggested, this may be a name, under which were comprehended all the
early occupants of Greece that had come flrom beyond the sea. Bat the langoage must have
experienced a very great foreign influence not only from ib» colonies successively planted ia
Greece, but from the intercourse, by commerce and otherwise, with the people occupying the
coasts of Asia, with the Phoenicians and the Egyptians. In the most ancient monuments of the
language, especially the poetical, and in some very old proverbial flragments, there are evldeat
traces of orienUlism. Oomp. $ tt.

2. Some of the various theories are glanced at, in the following extract from a
" Synopsis of a course of Lectures on the History of Greek Literature," by Edward
Everett; which, it. is much to be regretted, he did not complete and publish.

*«1. TlwdMceatofthmattoMof IbeMrOibMBslaiidlytod to iaqalriw into Om ilwwH of tbiir la^iitfc Tk* pimMMon
of tiM ndicd Conu flf Ua|M(«, amidrt the dtaofM of what b otorMl, hn MMDurafsd ttMM ia^^

**i. In inqairiDf altar lb* ■nppeMd orvBBl kivo^^ varfaias tbwriM hava riqtMlifrif aaeritod ttiitf ehanetar to the Bebnw
tlw TrataBie, lb* Cattle, tfaa FlMiiah, ttw Gothic A writorof Uw praaaot day aaaitaim, that Gafwa wia thacowt Imaagaof'
BomelBttwiiaieor AafMtaiL (Ct AMrilMidaari^dh«aaadaBabnkaiUi«w«( fODlbaatiqiiltotoatdaTaKtonal^^
afiaitato,ac r JfUlkr, Qbar dto Dnpncba.)

«a TbeGiMhhaabaaBdariv«dbyaniDefraBithoAilBlfc,aadb7albafB(hnthanDi1haralai«w«M;aaibrattiM
has baas madaitieirtteoriffioallaivQace. Tha MliBdan of thia bat epinioa ara Vob dar Barit aai Erieab (Ci: Bailaaii latn.
in Bator. Lia(. Ome. i. 12, IS, and Daviaa^ CalUc naaMwhaa^ p. 24S.)

••4. DaacaatorOaGraakrroaitheSefthiaaarQolhfeBkaialaiBadbylhre. (Cf. DhMilat da origiaihaa Ui«. LaL el Onae. btcr.
MMO^Mhoa rqwrioadia. Alao Analada ITIphiaaa.) Fram the Eopti^ by tianiiam (Of. Caaoo. Chniak. p 119), and Lord
Mo^boddo. Fnw tiM Hahraw bjr KOnif, Oiar, and Baay othaia. Fraaa the Ettuopiaa bjr AUwood. (CL Utciafy Aoliqoitka of
Gfeeee, by P. Allwoed. LoaL 1790. 4. p. S44.) By Nib Iddnaa IhMi the Fbaidi By linhaid boea ttie ScbTODiau. By Webb

Fk>raiwticaorK»eorthaaatheor1eB,aaeal8oarl0,Iotn>doetioD,ae.(McilBdP. V.t7.9D ProlavanMDa, 1 4.

$ 36.* The vernacular tongrue of the first inhabitants of Greece was somehow
funned from that one language which survived the deluge and was the sole
lan^age of the earth until the confusion of tongues at Babel. (Of. Gen. xi. i.)
This must be admitted in all correct reasoning on the subject. The confusion
of tongues and the consequent dispersion of the human family occurred only
about 300 years earlier than the period to which the traditions already mention-

p. IV. ORIGIN OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. d25

ed respecting tbe population of Greece must be referred. It is not certain pre-
cisely what changes took place in that language at the confusion; but probably
no one will suppose them to have been such as to form several absolutely new
and essentially different tongues. The effect of confounding and separating
the people surely might be accomplished by such changes in pronunciation ana
structure as would leave the ori^nal language remaining substantially the same
in ail the new ones, as their basis.

1. Tbe languages of western Asia, although differing from each other in various
particulars, are found to constitute a family possessing some radical characteristics in
common. There can be little doubt, that a resemblance, somewhat analogous to this,
although less obvious, and confined probably to the roots in their simplest forms, may
be traced among all the early oriental tongues.

Whether the *'one language and one speech,*' that underwent the changes of the
confusion, was the language of Adam altered and improved by the successive genera-
tions of the Antediluvians, all using the same tongue, or was one of several varieties
formed out of it before the flood, is of no great importance to decide, even if we had
the means of doing it with cenainty . Nor does it seem of much consequence, whether,
or not, we consider the Hebrew as the best representative of the language of Noah and
his descendants previous to the confusion. It is, at least, quite certam that the He-
brew is one of the earliest of the languages known to have existed in western Asia.
Many have believed it the original language of Eden, preserved from age to ae e in those
families that maintained in the greatest degree the fear of God and cherished most the
arts and duties of social life.

BfShuAfmd(u cited f 6), Bk. H. — ^TbelmoiiuiilMTca BOtion, thatlhajiim ipMktba 1u«»r "^ Noiih.--SMrft aai
Dmitht, ttmmnbm in AnoMb. Bott 18». 8 fob. II. (Up. 16.)

2. It may be important to remark here, that since the modem researches in compara-
tive philology, ana the investigations made by Bopp and others in relation to the San-
scrit language, the critics have discriminated particularly two classes or families among
tbe languages of Asia. One is called the Semitie &mily, and the other the San$cnt
or tbe Indo-Germank.

airikli^taniiKtt b aMrM, uito to«alfa«r, ia Mcb of Ihew bmniM, Ibatr nipediTt mnbwt. IliiabeMlmlMBdtlntKM

MHBbUneci, Alihoufh ilighter, nuf be tne«d between ttw ttre flmOieL CH MtMkPi Hebrev Onnauv, IMS. (pp. 4^}^

i^tkimoiCt Hebmr I.exieoQ at GMDhie. Boeion, 1838. (^ lv.>-Jl. Liptha, Qber d. Unpranf and d. VerwaadtMhaft dcr Ititi
waiter in d. iBdo-GennaiuKfacii, ScmitiMbea, rad d. KoptiKbeaSpndie; ia hk 2Wri arimkutitUtkaOt lAkandhNifM, to.

jRt. 1896. a pp. isa

3. The Semitic or Shemitisk &milv comprehends the Hebrew and Syriac and other
languages of southwestern Asia. All these are supposed by most of the German philo-
logians to have been derived from one common original. Some imagine this original to
kave been richer than any of its offspring, and tbink that the Arabic has preserved
more of the character of the primitive stock than any other member of the family.

Ct M. Stuarty on the Sboaitiab laii(»fei, ia hk Hebrew Oremattr antrodiMtkia). Aada IflBa 8.-/. Ariktiu, ia (ba Jlk
XfefWtfavy. Oct, I83T. p. 499.— Jfmfttcntef ie nid (A. D. 1836) to taarb in hie leetoree, that tbe Aiabtc b tbe oldort hi^wy
9t the Semitic fwiily, md bm»( reMmblee tbe eoppoeed erigiaal (Unfraeht).—Bmo da Maion, PrfaeipM de l*£tade eompanliM
dee Lai«n«, with obMrfatkaaoa tbe rootooribeSemilktoBtnaibfrbvratt. Par. 1888. a

4. The Santerit family includes the languages of India and Persia. The Latin and
Greek are assigned to the same family, on account of certain affinities which are point-
ed out; and likewise the Teutonic, by which term the whole stock of Germtm
languages has been designated. This family is sometimes called also Indo-Germanie,
because it includes languages thus traced from India to Germany. The Sanscrit is
considered as the oldest of the family; the Persian and Latin are ranked next ; and then
the Greek. — The Chinese is not included in this family.

7. Bopp, Sjtfen of tbe SkaKrit LaapHfa, to. Beriia, 1826. 4^-Cr. BSh. Rtptrtory, fol. iL l8B8^r. App, Vei|ieictoada
Otanaietik dee Sksabrit, Zend, OriecbMcbea, Leletnachea, Gotbtoben, to. Beriia, 1838. 4.-^. F. Pott, Blyaioletbebe Fonch.
a^ca Mf dcm Gcbieie der lado-Gerauabcfacn Spncbea, iariMH»dei« dee Sunktit, Grieefabefaea, to Lmga. let Tb. 1888. fld
Th. 1887. a •* QooA/^BncfOofwdia Jnwrieana, artidee, Indim Languagmy Omman Lmftfuattt TimtoHkt to^A fliMiacw-
tioa of all tbe knowa laaga^gM of the warid b (Iran ia tbe work enlillcd jrttJbtdafci, bf /. a .dMMir aad /. & r^
Tbwof the varioua laagaagce baito fivea in ^alW* Attae Elbaotrapbiqae da Globe. Far. 1888. CaU^. JbnoerlA, Diet, of
Ai«io4aaoa Laafinga with a preface oa ihe orifia at tbe Gennaale Tongtia^ Map of Laaguafei, to. Load. 1886. a lal ed.
W. B. fPmntfic. Maaaal at Ceaiiiafatite PhUologf. Load. 1838. a-V. tV. DonaUmm, Now Ciatylai, or CoatribotioM towaf*
aaMiaaccan'aknowladfeortbeGreALaagnaffB. LoBd.l&S9.a

$ 37.* The fact of the dispersion mentioned by Moses must also be kept iti
view in our inquiries respecting the first inhabitants of Greece and the origin of
the Greek language. The common opinion ascribes the first settling of Asia
Minor, the isles of the .£gean, and the coasts of Greece, to the descendants of

3£

836

▲RCHiEOLOOY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Japheth. These families or tribes, of course, carried with them their languages
•8 modified by the confusion. How soon some of these families may haye
reached the southern parts of Greece cannot be known. Some etymologists
have supposed the name lonians Cl^v^j)* by which the Greeks were very early
designated, to be derived from Javan, the son of Japheth (Gen. z. 2). The
name Javan was used by the Hebrews to designate the .people and country of
the lonians. And it is admitted by some who place no confidence in this
etymology, that the Greeks were called lonians before the time of the Qlutv)
mentioned in the Greek traditions.

See /. Panom, Remain of Japbet, or Hbterical EoqotriM ioto the Aflblty ud Origin of the Emapma Uatrngta. UnA. 11*7. 4
— Jamicson, Dwertet. on (he Origte of (be Greeks -S»uc*>bn^ Cona. Sw. and Praf Hiet B. iU-OcMiitii^ H*. Lra. tf
£Lil0frmJDii,Baau>a,lSM.~CtAMmmllU»,8diol.inf^a. r««. Oe^ x. I ; and M« BlUiacke OeognpUot teL 9, p. Ma.

$ 38.* The various and learned researches into the origin of the Greek lan-
guage seem to furnish nothing more satisfactory than is suggested by these few
facts and considerations. From the seats occupied by the human race immedi-
ately afler the flood in a central part of Asia, the families of Japheth migrated
towards the northwest to their assigned portions of the earth, carrying with
them a language or languages radicafly the same with those left in Asia in the
families of Shem. Whatever length of time therefore might elapse before the
rich vales of Greece were occupied by them, or whatever family may have first
entered them, the real basis of the language may be considered the same. In
this view of the subject, some variety of the language of Noah, kindred to the
early lan|ruages of central Asia, and possessing a radical resemblance tt> them,
was the foundation on which was built the beautiful and polished superstructure
of the Greek.

It is easv to account for the disappearance of a ffreat pert of the original resemblance
between tne Greek and the oriental dialects. 1 he tribes of Greece, beiiw removed
from the centre of civilization, gradually sunk down to a state of almost perfect barbar-
ism, and in this state their own traditions first present them to us. And after they began
to awake, under the impulse from the colonies already spoken of, there were frequent
emigrations, revolutions, amalgamations, and other cnanges of society, calculated
ereatly to modify the language. So that, admitting a much greater degree of resem-
blance to have once existed, the subsequent traces of it might not be more numerous
than are actually found.

Bepp, at above cited f SS.--Jiarfftclemy, Bar lea npporti dea lasfaea Egyptieaoe, PbeDlelcino, el Qne^at. Mm. JmA M*
»ip. luii. 219.-/. Ji. EmMi, de Veatigih liivim Htfbraien tn liasua Oneca ; ia hi* Opumda Mtlotafta, Lefdeo, Bak ITM. 6.
—Mafard'i Hial. «ol. I. p. IS2. ed. Bort. 1823.

$ 39.* The causes of the great perfection, to which the Greek lanpruage attain-
ed, are in vain sought for. No theory of its first basis and origin affords an
answer to the question, how it acquired, in form, harmony, and power that
wonderful degree of excellence, which it has universally been acknowledged to
possess.. This it certainly ^ined at a very early period, for the language exist-
ed in all its essential perfection in the time of Homer; this it gained also in cir-
cumstances apparently not very favorable to the refinement oi language, in the
midst of the migrations, the wars, the conquests and expulsions, the enthusiasm
and lawlessness, of the heroic ages.

1. Some, in explaining this, refer to the delightful climate and beautiful scenerv of
Greece, as these undoubtedly tended to soften the character of the inhabitants and in-
spire them with delicate sensibilities, and so indirectly to mellow and adorn their lan-
guage. Another source of improvement to it has been pointed out in the early rise of
republican institutions, and the obvious advantages enjoyed by a speaker in the popuhu
assemblies, who could best win attention and sway the judgment by the superior excel-
lence of his diction. Some re^rd is likewise due to the conjecture, which ascribes
much of the polish of the Grecian tongue to those bards of the heroic ages, who cele-
brated with poetry and music the deeds of their ancestors, or of bold and enterprising

chieftains, or *" ' ^^^ ^ ^^" -»-—"-• -^-- — -*--=- ^ ^

invocations,

But after t

phenomenon in the history of letters.

2. It is not more so, however, than the wonderful copiousness, flexibility, and appa-
rently artificial structure, of several of the aboriginal languages of America. The truth
is, no theoretical reasoning can be relied on in relation to a subject, which in its nature
is so changeable as human language, a thing so airy and fleeUng as *' winged words"

p. IV. ORIENTAL INFLUENCES. 327

and sounds of breath. We may explain &ctB if we can, bat as in all other cases, so
here, whether we can explain them or not, we must take them as they are.

8m Jhwton, New View* on the Oripn oT Um Anicrieu Aboriginn.— At Ponerau, Pralim. Dtawitelioo, TrauSictioai of Lit and
Bkt Depart tt Anaricui PhiL So& toL I CL North Ama. RnUw, vol. ii. fnt Mrin, p. m-Prichard, Pby*. Hisl. B. viii.

$ 40.* It had already been remarked, that the first impulse that served to
rouse the Greeks from the torpor of barbarism, was ffiven by colonies from the
east planted among them. Various descriptions and allusions in Homer make
it evident, that a very considerable improvement had taken place in the condi-
tion of Grecian society antecedently to his time. The general source of this
culture was the knowledge and civilization of the east. The influence upon the
Greeks from the east was felt in other ways besides through the colonies just
mentioned ; and particularly by means of commerce. Commerce was at this
early period chiefly in the hands of the Phoenicians. This adventurous people
earned their merchandize to the western extremities of the Mediterranean, and
surely could not overlook the numerous islands and cities of Greece. Nor is
it improbable that some of those bold enterprises against the people of the east,
which are related of the heroic ages^ exerted upon the Greeks some favorable
reflex influence, especially the siege and capture of Troy.

Sm X J£ L. Btmn, Eafleetkim od lb* PbliUct of Anciaal Greeoa, umnlatod by 0. BanmtfL BmL IK4. >. (eb. iii.)

^41. The influence of eastern nations upon the early culture of the Greeks manifests
itself in several particulars. It anpears m their religion, in one point especially ; and
that is, the fact, that the gods oi Greek mythology were at first viewed merely as
symbols, or representatives of sensible objects, such as rivers, mountains, the sun, &.c.
or of the invisible powers of nature. As such symbols, these gods, under the same
or similar names, existed in the eastern nations, especially in Egypt. In the same
sense, that is, as designed to represent allegorically the appearances and changes of the
material world, they wore first used by the Greeks ; but afterwards came to be con-
sidered as possessing personal attributes, and at length the popular creed embraced them
as beings having a real and present existence.

Some of the peculiar early institutions of the Greeks, as the mysteries and the oracles,
show also this mfluence of the cast. Great as is the obscurity hanging over the nature
and design of the Greek mysteries, their foreign origin is not doubted, and the proto-

Hpes of many of them are foimd in the rites and superstitions of Egypt, Phcenicia, and
rete. To such a source mav be traced the mjrsteries of Bacchus and Adonis, the
rites of the Curetes and Dactyli, and the Eleusinian, most celebrated of all. One of
the earliest oracles, that of Dodona, seems to have been started by a female slave once
employed in the service of an Egyptian temple ; and that of Delphi, which gained the
highest renown, is ascribed to the artifice of a company of Cretan priests.

8m Hmnm, m eilsd f Hk-Mitferdt HMory ofOraece, eb. iii. $ 2. cil«l P. II. \ 7. 7. (d)^F. SMiftt, Lett iL dtod P. IL ) 7, 8l
-Ct P. IV. J 70-78.

% 42. The influence of eastern cultivation may be noticed likewise in relation to the
arts. Even in the time of Homer, Phoenician artists were considered by the Greeks as
superior in skill and elegance. Whenever the poet speaks of an article of peculiar beauty
and excellence, it is usuallv said to be of Pncenician workmanship ; as, for instance,
the silver bowl which Achilles proposed as a prize in the games st the funeral of Patro-
clns (II. t. 743); *' Sidonian anists wrought it, and Phoenicians brought it over the
sea." Hence it is obvious where Grecian artists were looking for patterns and models.

It also may be worthy of remark, that we perceive an oriental stamp in the subjects
and spirit of the fragments of the earliest Greek poetry. They are chie**/ hymns to
the gods, or metrical fables respecting the origin of the world, the forniation of man,
the primeval happiness, the subsequent opostncy, and the miseries which soon over-
whelmed the race. They exhibit views respecting the nattire and attributes of one
supreme God much more spiritual than subsequently prevailed, and more consonant
with the truths of revelation. They seem to be tinctured with traditionary recollec-
tions of the patriarchal and antediluvian ages of Asiatic society.

Sm F. SdUtfcl, Leet. on Hi*L lit. (Leet ii.>-CC P. V. k 12, IS — Alw, on virinut coiacideiicM ia Grecian fiction witb fMti ia
Scrip! are hiilory, tee rrferencM, P. II. ^ S. I.

J 4.3.* In alluding to the circumstances connected with the early culture of
the Greeks, it is proper to notice the bards or minstrels, *Aoid6(, already men-
tioned (§ 39). They were of a class such as is generally found in every age of
semi-barbarous heroism and chivalry. They strolled from one prince's hall tc
another's, or were attached to a favorite chieftain and family, or employed and
supported in connection with the temples and worship of the gods. They either
sung their own verse, or recited, as was generally the practice of those called

928 ARCHiBOLOOY OF GREEK LITERATURE

rhapsodists (I'tt^iit), the compositions of others. Greek nt^t^rurc h?d ita
origin in these performances. After the time of Homer, his poe.ns ^'ure the
principal (heme of the rhapsodists, who rehearsed his poetry, accompinying it
with music, and sometimes adding comments or explanations of their cwn.

$ 44.* Nor should we overlook here those meetings for purposes of festivity,
and trial of bodily strength and activity, to which the Greeks were very early ac-
customed. They exerted, beyond doubt, some influence on Grecian culture, espe
cially when they became such illustrious occasions as were, in particular, the
four national games. It is only necessary here just to advert to these, as ha vine
their rise in this early period. The Olympian, after many years of occasional
suspension and renewal, were at last solemnly established 776 B. C, and were
subse<juently supported with increasing splendor. The other three, Pythian,
Isthmian, and Nemean, were not fully established as regular festivals until a
much later time ; but still had been long in existence, and occasionally much
frequented.

The Jmphieiyonie Council which was of very early origin, may also be sup-
posed to have exerted some influence upon the general improvement of the
Greeks. It has commonly been considered as from the beginning an institution
more strictly of a political character than the festivals just named ; and as proba-
bly designed to support a kind of law of nations among the different states, and
promote the tranquillity and happiness of the whole country. Some writers,
however, have maintained, that it was not a political assembly but wholly a
religious one.

For funber nolioa of the roar nikitoial pmct and oT Um Anphietfonie Couiicil, we F. m. } 04-87, uA S V&.

II — Of the Greek MphabeU Method of Writing, and Booh.

§ 45. Alphabetic writing, according to the general opinion, was introduced
by Cadmus, a Phoenician leader who settled in Bccotia, and founded Thebes,
B. C. 1493. There may be grounds for the conjecture, that the Greeks possessed
before this some written characters, or at least a sort of picture-writing. Per-
haps, however, these more ancient characters, called Pelasgic, were originally
Phcenician, since the Pelaegi (cf. $ 33, 34) were probably of Phcenician origin.
There is an obvious resemblance between the letters of the Phoenician and those
of the Grecian alphabet. Indeed the Phcenicians may be considered as the
primary source of all the European alphabets, ancient and modem. We need
not, from this, suppose the Phoenicians to have been the actual inventors of
alphabetic writing, which perhaps had its origin in Egypt (cf. $ 19), commenc-
ing in an abbreviation of hieroglyphics.

1. The common opinion ascribing to Cadmus the introduction of letters is founded
upon an assertion ot Herodotus (1. v. 28, 5H). But it is contradicted by Diodorus
Siculus (1. v. 57, 74), who relates that the Greeks possessed letters several genera-
tions before Cadmus, and used them for public monuments, and that a deluge de-
stroyed these first elements of civilization. Fausanias (I. i. 43) speaks of an inscrip-
tion read by him at Meeara, on the most ancient monument in Greece. The date
of this monument, according to Larr.her, was 1678 B. C. The inscription was there-
fore anterior to Cadmus, and of course Pelasgic.

But the alphabet of the Greelu bears, in the names, order, and forms of its letters,
a striking resemblance to those of nations belonging to the Semitic race, i. e. the
Phoenicians, Samaritans, and Jews. How is this to be reconciled with the idea, that
the Pclasgi had an alphabet before the arrival of Cadmus 7 Or if there was a pre-
vious alphabet in Greece, was it given up on the arrival of Cadmus, and the Phosni-
cian adopted in its place? It is conjectured by some, that the Pelasgi had the
Phoenician alphabet from the first, and that Cadmus only introduced a new material
for writing. Before him, stones and metals were the chief mnterials. If he intro-
duced the art of writing on the pa/m-leaf which was used for the purpose by the
Egyptians before the papyrus, it would very naturally be adopted instead of the more
dimoult and laborious use of metals. And the letters traced on the palm-leaf might
with propriety be termed ypdntinra ^oivixtXcf the epithet referring not to the form, or

p. IT. THE GREEK ALPHABET. FORM OF LETTERS.

nature, or origin of the letters (those of Cadmus being the same with those of the Pe-
lasgi), but to the material on which they were written.

ftATB, HM. Lit. Or. I. iH. eh. X-Ct. IVeUr, Gocbicbte der Sebraibkiunt, cited { n.-Rmaudol, Sor l\)riffiM da lattm
OreequM, ia Htm. dt PJkmd. dat huer. vol. iL p. 8Sl.

2. Respecting the origin of the Phcsnician alphabet, see Hug, Erfindung der Buch-
Btabenechrifi (cited ^ 32). — '* This writer," says Srholi, "has shown that the Phoeni-
cian letters are hieroglyphic, and the hieroglyphics, Egyptian. Aleph signifies or,
and its primitive form reeembles the head of that animal. Btth signifies house, and its
first form represents an Egyptian house or hut pointed at the top. Gamel (eimmel)
would sij^Tiiiy a camel, and this letter was oricmally the head of the same/' The
reader wilj not fail to perceive, that in each of these the principle of Champollion^s
system of interpreting the Egyptian hieroglyphics (cf. ^ 16. 1) is exactly exemplified.

For a coin|>ariK>o of (he Greek and Ht^irew alphftbeto, m« Buttmann*! Onm. by Robinaon, p. 450 ; StuartH Heb. Gram. p. 386 ;
-of (he Crwk ud Phtrnician, S/iuekfont, Sac a»i Prof. Hut. R. iv.-^Sw alao Pbtct in Jhtl»,oiei } S2, aai tboaa in Edinh. Eney
thpmdia, illutratiog alplabeH ; and table Ot AlplMbali in a Higgint, The Ceilic Druid*. CL SoulAcnt AcoiMO. Au(. I8Z9. p. 1.^
Ai<u£.. /'ry. curd M^.— lo our Plats XXXVUL fi«. £, a faw curra^XMidinsiettcnorwveral al|ilubel8M«(ivcB; for Um eiplaoa-
tioo, we Dcachptioo ot Plaiaa, p«(a XAVIL

Oa (be Pturnieian larguage and writitiKS. aM fT. Ge$tniui, PftlKograph. Sludien ttber Phfloiciicbe ood Puniacba Schriftra. ftc
Lfs. m& 4 —Same, Scriptune Liagweque Phaeairbe Munamenta, tee. Lpc. 1837. 4.— Ct For. Quar. Stmeto, No. xlii. p. 445.

On (be hierof Ijrpbic origin of alphabeii, aee LamVt Hicn«ijpbical Alphabet of the Utbnw».~J. O. L. KomforUn, De Etneea
JE|cyr*o">B> literalura, cam Ubulit. Viinar. IIB8. 4.

$ 46. The alphabet of Cadmus was incomplete, consisting, as is commonly
thought, of only sixteen letters, viz. A, B, r. A, E, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, 2,
T, T. Soon after, Z, 0, H, and H were added, and subsequently, ^, X, "4^, and
O. The former were termed KaJ^yLHo. or ^cvtxcia ypdfifiayta, Cadmean or
Phoenician letters. The additional characters are ascribed to Palamedes, Si-
monides, and Epicharmus. These letters soon were received among the lonians,
and being somewhat changed by them, formed what was call^ the Ionian
alphabet, which contained twenty-four letters, and of which Callistratus the
Samian is considered as the author. The lonians imparted these improvements
to the other Grecian nations, and after the middle of the 94th Olympiad, about
B. C. 403, the Athenians made use of this alphabet in the public writings of
the state.

1. ** The common assertion of wnters on the old Greek alphabet has been, that it
consisted originally of only sixteen letters. But this assertion is built upon no definite
and certain testimony. The oldest writers, Herodotus (v. 58) and Diodorus 8iculus
(V. 24), who relate tne story of Cadmus, say nothing of the number of letters; and
the accounts of later times disagree. Aristotle makes eighteen (Plin. Hist. Nat. 7.
56) ; another account seventeen (Plut. Sympos. 8. qusBst. 3. Isidor. Orig. I. 3.)"

SfuartV Heb. Gram. p. 886.-J(M mif, Proles. HoB' § fO^-Hug^i work before cited (| 45, ») p. 16.— Abo ButtnumnU Qnm.
by BobiiMon, p. 459.

2v. Cadmus is also said to have introduced the art of reckoning, and the use of
several important signs (krlvitita) to express number ; as 0uv (r or F) for the number
6, ctfirra (^ or <i) for yo, and ffa,trT ( §) for 900.

Beapoeting the um of lenera lodeaifnate Bomben, tee P. HI. ) I7&

$ 47. The exact form of the earliest Greek letters cannot be decided, because
there are now no written monuments of so high antiquity. That they under-
went many changes in shape is, from the nature of the case, in the highest de-
grree probable, and it is possible that characters, afterwards supposed to be new,
were merely intentional changes of this kind. Their resemblance to the Phoe-
nician in form was no doubt greater at first than at a later period. Indeed evi-
dence of various changes is still found upon existing medals and inscriptions,
although, in a matter where so much may be arbitrary, the epoch of the changes,
or the age in which each different form was used, cannot be accurately deter-
mined.

BUttner, VnfYckhangitafeln drr Schrinarfei vcnrbiedner Volker. OOttiDf. 1771. A.—JUIU, htttn cited — Um. fry, FiBto>
gmphia. emrtaiaia^ enpiea of all the fcoown alpbabela, Ike. Lnnd. 1799. 8.-irii<ir UV Analyt. Cm. on the Greek Alphabet. Loirf.
1791. 4. f n^Monlfameen, PaljBofT«pl.ia Qneea. Pftr. iTW^fVOfn'i Eataj oa Onuunar, Phil. 1817, Ch. I.

$ 48. The direction of the letters and lines in the writing of the most ancient
Greeks was the same as among the eastern nations, from right to left. This
might be expected if their alphabet came from Phoenicia. Ere long the direc-
tion was in the first line from right to left, in the second from left to right, and
80 on in alternation, each line being connected to the next by a curve. This
method, as it represents the course of the ox in plowing, was termed ^9
42 2e2

830 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

tpo^^v» In this manner, for example, the laws of Solon were written, and
many public monuments, of which some yet remain. Another mode was termed
xtovti^ov, in which the letters were arranged perpendicularly, as by the modem
Chinese, in the form of a pillar; there was another, in which the lines were
successively shortened, in the form of a basket, anvpi^; these, however, were
only for amusement and scarcely deserve to be mentioned. At length came into
general use the method followed by the moderns, of writing wholly from left to
right; its introduction among the Greeks is ascribed to Pronapides, who accord-
ing to some was a preceptor to Homer. (Diod, St'e. iii. 6(9.)

§ 49. In more ancient times the large form of the letters, or the uncial cha-
racter (lilersg majuscuUe^ or quadratx, capitals), was always used in writing.
It constantly appears on the old Greek coins and inscriptions, and is found also
in the earliest manuscripts. The smaller form, or the cursive {literae semi'
quadratsB)^ became common first in the middle ages, in the eighth or ninth
century, and grew, it is likely, out of abbreviations and alterations of the larger
letters, which were always written singly, with no grouping or contracting.
An earlier use of this character is, however, proved by some remaining speci-
mens; it is found on a roll of papyrus, to which a date as early as 104 o, C.
has been conceded. Abbreviations of words were rarely made in ancient
writing, although not altogether unusual upon coins and inscriptions. Such
as were used were termed atiiitia^ cr^yiuu, and fiovoypdfifia'ta. They consisted
chiefly in this; that sometimes, and principally in writing proper names, only
the initials were employed; or the middle of a word was omitted, and either
written over it, or the omission indicated by a small dash ; or several letters
were combined into a single figure.

J. A'tofcU, Trmctotw de tlfflb Vctanmi. Li«d. BkL I70S. 4.— Oprrfnf, Nota Gnrmnin. flor. 1749. 4.— Ptafimlmntf, i»
•'■1(1 it Vet Gnec Opus Rom. 17S7. FoU— J. JRkU, EiUInin( eiocr £{]rptiielwii Urkundc ttif Pkpjroi la friwh. Canivielvilt
Beri. I(.2I. 4.-Cr. f 107. 4.

On the origin and form at tha Greek lelton, uid tbe modee of wriiiii|(, m ilw HMm, Ib. ia Liaf. Gr. { 4.— Ovuct* Or. !•«%
Le. P. ii. B. 2. Cb. <{.~Cr. \ 104.

$ 50. The breathings, as they are now called, were, in the most ancient
writing of the Greeks, characters occupying a place in the line along with the
letters. Among the lonians the character was H, and among the ^olians it
was Ff or what is called the Digamma. The former was joined to the smooth
consonants to render them aspirates, as in KHPONOS for Xpcm);. Subsequently,
two smaller signs were formed out of H by dividing it, ^ and H * &nd these were
used to indicate respectively the presence and absence of aspiration. After-
wards they were changed, by transcribers for the sake of convenience, into
another form, L &nd J, and again after the ninth century into a form, ^and',
still easier for writing. The ancient Greek grammarians sometimos introduced
the breathing into the middle of a word, on the ground of its derivation or
composition, as for example, vJwf, 9tXti6CaXoi, This practice Mazochi observed
in the Herculanean inscriptions, and Villoison also in a valuable manuscript of
Homer which was found in the library of St. Mark at Venice, belonging to the
tenth century.

See Lemfoi»eht Auaerta. Bibtiothdk. V. iii. p. 78.— JTnffM, Analft. Zm. on Gfwk Alphabet— Ztatoeih de Coonoutk live
A'.<!piraiioni8 VAU virtute,— ia hb JliiceUanes Critics Lpc I80O. 8. (Sect. iv. p. 89, 332.)

§ 51. The marks called accents were not commonly used by the Greeks,
because the true intonation of the language was sufficiently known to them, and
of course such helps were unnecessary. There is, at least, no mention of them
in the ancient authors, nor any trace of them in the oldest monuments of Greek
writing. But, when in the speech of common life many words received wrong
tones, the grammarians began in such cases to use signs to indicate the correct
utterance. About the year 200 B. C. the present accentual system was intro-
duced by Aristophanes of Byzantium ; yet considerable time elapsed before it
came into general use. Upon inscriptions belonging to the first century after
(/hrist, the accents have been found, but rarely. Perhaps these marks were
not wholly unknown to the more ancient Greeks, being designed not to point
out tones for the reader, but to serve as musical notes for the singer.

The accented vene on a wall in Hereulaneam, adduced by mntkahnann [we hie Workt (cited ) St), Ii. p. 121— Ct PUtun
cU. d'SfcoL II. p. S4], ia not coMidered feaaiae. Barkiy lal. io Un» Gr. Supp. I. p. S.

p. IV. PUNCTUATION. MATERIALS USED IN WRITING. 331

Tht doctrine of the Greek Mceofa it amply treiled by Prof. K. F. Ckr. lf'«f»o- (HelouL 1807. 8), who refen alio to the priaei
pal work! oo the tabject.— Sr« yuiohon't Aoeed. Gra>c. II. 131.— MaW«t, Inl. in Ling. Or. )&,— wfnwud^ Sur les AcceuU da b
lamneGracqtiB. Mtm. Jitmd. Iimr. xxaii. 491.— For other rcfervncea, lee P. V. J 5. 4 ; ) 7. 4. (g).

$ 52. Originally, likewise, sentences and their constituent members were not
distinguished by any interpunction or intervening signs of separation. Not
only were the sentences without punctuation, but the words theinaelves were
often as near each other as the several letters of a single word. Sometimes,
however, on inscriptions the words are separated by points placed between
them. The invention of marks for punctuation is to be ascribed to Ajrislophanes,
the Greek grammarian before mentioned.

1 u. The whole system consisted in the dilTerent locations of a point or dot ; if
placed after the last letter at the top or above it {rcXita arcy/i*)), the dot indicated the
close of a sentence, or a period ; if placed after the last letter of a word at the bottom
or under it {inrocnyftfi) then the dot was equivalent to a comma; and if placed after
the laai letter in the middle {o^ty/ifi v^itrn), it corresponded to a colon or semicolon.
The comma or hypodiastolc was by the grammarians ofien placed between words
which otherwise might be incorrectly divsdcd, as, for example, ianv^ «('0J, with the
sign between, that they might not be read tan i-a^ioj; and the hyphen, a curved stroke
under the line, was sometmies used to indicate that two words constituted or.c com-
pound word, as in xcigivoipoK. Breaking ofi* the lines was sometimes made to serve
instead of puncluationT in this method (ffrixnpcSj, anx^^dv) every complete sentence
was made to begin a new line, and often even the several members of the sentence
were thus arranged, in a form like that of verse.

2. Interpunction is not found in the earlier manuscripts now extant, although
written some centuries after the time of Aristophanes. Cf. % 104.

In modern printing, the following signs of interpunction are used; viz. comma
( — ,), colon ( — •), penod ( — .), interrogation ( — ;), and la'ely, exclamation ( — ?). The
diastole, or hypodinstole. is used in some cases ; as in 2| t* (neuter of oarn) and rrf, t«
(article) to distinguish them from ^n and t6ts.

For other inarka, tee RMmmC* Tnatlatioa of Buttaumnh Or. Graanar, § IS, 29, 30.

§ 53. The materials, on which it was customary to write in Greece, were differ-
ent according to the different purposes of the writing. Stone, brass, lead, wood,
and the like, were employed when the design was to record memorable events
for posterity, or to promulgate public decrees or laws. For common and private
purposes, the more usual materials were leaves, inner bark of trees (^Xoio;);
afterwards, parchment, wooden tablets simple or covered with wax, ivory, linen
cloth, and Egyptian paper. The latter, formed from the fibres or bark of the
papynis (^^t'^xoj), was, according to the opinion of some, first used in Greece in
the time of Alexander the Great, but most probably earlier. There was also
another variety of paper formed of the layers of inner bark (ttJXo;rttpf lov), and
another ma<le from cotton (;tapt'M)y 3o/i.3vaeto$, charta gnssypina or himibycinaL
These t^vo, however, were common only in the later ages. Still later was the
invention of paper made from linen {charia lintea) and from rags as at the
present day, belonging perhaps to the middle of the 13th century.

1. The laws of Solon were inpcribed on tablets of wood, called fifowf, which are
said to have been of a pyramidal shape, and so fixed as to turn on a pivot or axis.
\GeUim, Noct. Att. ii. 42.) The term Kvp^tn was aUso applied to such tablets.— The
ierm x«P''»t« wns gen«Tal. dosignatint? any substance employed for writing. Skins of
animals rudely prepared (Si^pOipaij cKvroi)%^ee.m to have been used at an early period.—
Parchment was rir.-«t prepared at Pergamos. whence its name ncpyaftrivii. Three
kinds are meiitiored; "that of the natural color; the yellow, the hicolor memhrana
jf Persius (Sat. iii. 10), which peeins to have been so called because one side of the
leaf was white and the other yellow; and the purple, the parchment being tinged
mih that color, when silver or golden letters were to be used.'* Cf. ^ 55.

2. The pyramiihl or triangular lablpti above menltnncd.sald to have been turned iipnn a pivot
^r axle, iii«v be illus'lrHtfd l»y a np«ciinen of ancient British writing, given in Plate XXXVIII.,
tn fii;. H, taken from Fry** rnniogrMplita (cited ^ 47). It exliibiti a metliod practiced by the
aborigin.^il Britons. The leU''r« were cui on aticlca, most commonly squared, Homrliraes triangu-
htr ; so that one Mtick hnd three nrfn^ur lines. The irianj!ulur slides were specially ti8<^d for a
peculiar kind of meter, callrd triban or triplet, three lines forming a siansa. SeverHl sticks were
put Ingethrr in B frame, and fiiird so thai ttiey could be turned on their axes; thus each side

might he oaoily read. Somoihing similar to this niKlhod was practiced in the Runic vandt^

which were sticks of williiw inscribed with certain cliaraciers, and \i»vd by the heathen irib4*«
of the north of Btirope fi>r mairical ceremonies. The Rvnie almavaet are similar wands or sticks
used by ilii; peastants t>f Sweden and Norway, for noting time or keeping accounts.

Cf. W. C. Grimm, Leber l»Mi:.chf Runra. Gc(t. 1921.— J. H'arton, Hia. Ene. Poetry. LoikI. 1824. 4 volt P. (I. p. M»i. ■^)
I. H. L. iJnrtn, Goctiuble Jc* btui. der gncch. lud i«ui. Liteniur. Cult. 1797-1^1. 2 vols. S.—(i. F. t^^^/u$^ lom PauM*

ARCHJEOLOOY OF GRESK LITSRATURK.

QBd dn *or dcr EribdMC dcnribn OUicb fnrcMMii SchrdbniMea. BaHe, I'm. a-Snppl. B*a. 1790. BU-^. f. Pf^lfii^
Ccber BadMr-EbndMlirifiaB. KrUng. ISlOu 8«--0By«iu, Mwn. dn I' At»A. dM Iner. uvi.— For m aceotnt of Uw udnt amt^
li^t far writing, bm aim Am, QmH. An. vol. li. p. Sa7.-.niylor, m dtad S 68. fflrtuwrfr, w eitad § 1 1& 8.

§ 54. The usual instrument for writing on the harder materials, and also on
the tablets covered with wax, was the style (ffrvXof, ypo^c^oy, yXv^ctov). This
was pointed at one end, and broad at the other, for the purpose of erasing letters
and smoothinjr the surface of the wax, if a mistake were made, or the writer for
any reason wished an alteration. It was usually made of iron, sometimes of
ivory. For drawing the letters with colors or some sort of ink, sometimes a
pencil (Ypat<'$) ^"^^^ employed, but more commonly a reed (xdxa^$, 6o«^}. The
reed or cane chiefly used was that from Egypt or C nidus. It was sharpened
and split for the purpose, like our pen, which was not known to the ancients,
the beginning of the 7th century being the earliest period of its use.

Persons of fortune and rank often wrote with a calamus of silver ; something pro-
bably like our silver pens. Both the styles and the reeds were kept in cases.-^—
The earliest evidence of the use of the quill is given bjr Isidorus, a Latin writer
of the 7th century, who employs the word penna to designate a writing pen.—
The pencil (iiroypa^ff, called by the Romans penicillus or peniculus) was properly an
instrument for painting. Its invention is ascribed to Apollodorus, an Athenian
painter, B. C. 408. Cf. $ 222.

SMmmn't HlMmr of Inraitleiw (dtai f tlX^^bUorm, Otigfum, lib. vi. e. IS. ^Fv iiSumi hnu of fbv rtfla and md, mb

riate XXXVtL fig. S, 4, 9 ; »1m in flg. 1.

§ 55. The ink was commonly black (ftexor, fUxav ypo^uBov); and was prepared,
according to Pliny and Vitruvius, from soot and gum. Among the ancients,
the titles of books and sometimes of particular sections were written in red ink
(jiCxto^^ minium, rubrica, hence rubrick)* In the middle ages, red ink was much
used, particularly for initial letters, signatures, borderings, and ornaments ; a
superior, very brilliant kind, called iyxovarov feneatutumj, was used in the
signatures to the public documents of the Greek emperors. The practice of
adorning the large initials with gold, silver, and images, and of writing upon
purple or violet^oolored parchment with letters of gold or silver, seems to have
commenced in the later ages, introduced perhaps by the Byzantines. With
the ancients, however, it was customary to polish the parchment or paper with
pumice-stone, and, for the sake of durability as well as fragrance, to spread
over it the oil of cedar.

" From ancient authors, as well as from the figures in manuscripts, we learn that
they used a sponge to cleanse the reed, and to rub out such letters as were written
by mistake ; a kmfe for mending the reed ; pumice for a similar purpose, or to smooth
the parchment ; compasses, for measuring tne distances of the hnes ; scissors for cut*
ting the paper ; a puncher, to point out the beginning and end of each line ; a rule,
to draw lines and divide the sheets into columns ; a ^lass containing sand, and an-
other glass filled with water, probably to mix with the mk."

On ink, ftc. /. df. Acrf, nr BnidMliriflaiilcmidc. Lpi. laU. 8.-On (ha matarUh «iiplc7«d hi writtof hf the OiMki, m ate,
MCidk, Da Htat Horn. L p. 70. (CL P. V. { Sa 4).— Cf. /ToraM, Art. Boat S81. PUny, L zvl c M..

§ 56. The ancient form of books was that of Rolls (JiX^fuyga), resembling
modem charts or maps when rolled up, with writing only on the inner side.
The several strips or leaves of the parchment or paper were glued to each other
at the ends, either before or after the writing; from this circumstance the first
strip or leaf, that uppermost on the roll, was called HfMtoxoXKov, and the last
iax(it6xo%xov. The whole was then wound upon a rod, or cylinder (derf pa9U(yxo(,
6/ipaXoi), which was ordinarily made of wood, or ivory, and had at both ends
projecting ornaments, knobs or the like, called axpofA^ua, or xipata. The title
{(sv^Xajios) was written on the back of the protocol visible after tne winding of
the roll, or on a small separate strip (/tirtaxuiv) attached to the edge of the
roll. The book itself, or whole roll, was encompassed with bands, or enclosed
in a case.

The term trirHffai aecms to have been applied to cases made of parchment ; also
the phrase itpit&nvai croXai. Cic. ad Att. iv. 5.

Heffren and Gibbon allude to a singnlar manutcript^ said to have existed in the library at Con-
stantinople ($ 76) : "an ancient manuscript of Homer, on a roll of parchment one hundred and
twenty feet in length, the intestines, as it was fabled, of a prodigioos serpent.*'— GfiM«», De«.
and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. IIU. (N. Y. 1882, vol. v. p. 967.)

p. IT. FORM OF BOOKS. COFYI0TS.

^ 57 II. Although the roll was the most common form, yet the Greeks had books
of a quadrangular form, with the writing on both sides of the leaves {initt06ypa(^oi).
Such were termed icXroi^ a name first applied to tablets or pieces of writing, resem-
blir^ in shape the letter Delta. The invention of the quadrangular form is generally
asciibed to Attalus king of Pergamos, but came into general use first in the 5th cen-
tury after Christ. Several leaves or sheets, folded double, were placed in layers one
upon another and joined by thread or strings ; and these were said to be rptooa, rt-
TpaSia, ntvraiia^ lernionet, quatemioneSj 6lc. according to the number. The term
TfTpdSia, quatemiones, was also used sometimes to signify whole books of this form.
The kind just described was difierent from the folded tablets, called inrrvxa, (cf. di-
pltwuif diptychUt ^ 118), which became specially remarkable in connection with affairs
of state.

1. The writer bas in poraeMlon a manuscript copy of the Syriae New Testament, on pareb-
menl, of unknown but very ancient date, procured by Rtv.J. Petkhu^ from the Neslorlans of
Persia. The form is quadrangular: the leaves are folded and placed in layers in the manner
above described. Generally, four leaves or sheets are folded together double, making eight
pages ; sometimes there are jEve, making ten pages ; sometimes but tkret. These are stitched
together, and the layers united somewhat aAer the manner of a modern book.

2. Tablets of wood or metal were often connected together by means of rinffs or
parchment bands, thus forming a book of several leaves. — " In the year 1699, Mont-
Riacon purchased, at Rome, a book of eight leaden leaves (including two which
formed the cover), four inches lonff and tnree inches wide. Leaden rings were
fiistened on the back, through which a small leaden rod ran to keep the leaves to-
gether."

The terms 0t/3Xos and Bifi\iov designated a book or volume of papyrus, and m«^
^pa»a a book of parchment, when they were used distinctively. Ct. 2 7\m. iv. 13.

For flM IbTM of nlli, book*, ud tebleta, m FUt« ZXXVL aai ZXXVIIL-a. CkJmtfV DkL (H eJM § 1& 4.), voL iU. p. SS.

§ 58. There were among the Greeks copyists, who made it their business to
transcribe books. Those, who had distiixmiished skill in writing were called
MpJuypa^t. Those, who applied themselves to take down discourses or ad-
dresses, and so made use of notes and abbreviations, were named 0i7/A£M>vpa4K>t and
f a;tvypa4>o(. Such as wrote in golden letters, or ornamented with golaen initial
letters manuscripts in which places had been left for that purpose, were termed
;tpv0oypa4>ot. Among the later Greeks, transcribers received the Roman appel*
lation of notaries fnoiariij. In the middle ages, the work of transcribing was
especially the employment of ecclesiastics and monks in the convents and
abbeys, in which there was usually an apartment expressly fitted for the ob-
ject, called the aeriptortum,

Alexandria was the principal resort of the copyists in the later periods of Grecian
literature. In the same edifice with the celebrated Ubrary in this cny (cf. ^ 76), were
extensive offices completely fitted up for the business of transcribing books. Here
the Calligraphi were very numerous, even until the irruption of the Arabs. About
thirty years before that event, the circumstance is mentioned by an eye-witness.
(Theophyl. Simoeatta, Hist. viii. 13.)

8m L Toyior, HJtiory of tb* TnamuMJoa of MMicBt boob b nodcn tlaMi. Loofd. 1827. t. Cf. A'eto Fork Jinina, Ifa vL
OCLIMI.

f 59. In the most ancient times, in Greece, the use of writing was infrequent.
Many affairs of civil life, afterwards transacted in writing, were then conducted
orally ; as, for example, judicial causes, contracts, and treaties. The earliest
written laws were those of Draco. Even inscriptions upon public monuments
and tombs were very rare in the first ages.

I «. There is scarcely a trace in Homer of written orders or despatches ; every
thmg of the kind being transacted by oral intercourse or messages. In a single in-
stance only, does he allude to a written communication (Iliad, vi. 168 — 178), where
PriBttts is represented as sending something like a letter with written charactera
icfittara ypa^pas iv vtvaxi irTw/trw) by Bellerophon to Jobates; but there are different
explanations of this passage.

2 u. The writing of books seems to have commenced in the time of Pisistratus and
Solon, and its first fruits were perhaps merely the recording of traditionary po*^try.

QiMflcrly AntM, Na Ixxxvii— OofiMl, Or. Uwi, kc P. iL bk. iL § 6.— JAf/orA Qnan, eh. iL t S. (aole p. \9L «oL
BMt ad. 1839).

3 1. By some it has been considered as not an improbable supnosttion, that the
poetrv of Homer was not committed to writing by himself, but that tnis was first done
at a later period, and with the insertion of many passages not belonging to it. For
more full notices on the question whether Honier committed his poems to writine,
con«»ult P. V. % 50. 4. *

2Ai iLRCHJEOLOGT OF GRBEK LITERATURB.

$ 60. Instruction in the early periods was also of course chiefly oral. The
name of sages, or wise men {fjo^olf (jo^Kjtm), was conferred on all who were
dlstin^iii^tied for their knowledge and thereby enjoyed a conspicuous rank and
influence in the state. These men delivered orally their doctrines and precepts,
which in later periods were collected and recorded. In the first ages, when the
compaEst ^nd sum of all known attainments was not very great, many and vari-
0113 kimis were united in one individual, who was at once theologian, physiolo-
ght, speculative and practical philosopher, statesman, law^ver, poet, orator,
nnij mu<sirian. The subsequent division and separation of the branches of
knowleilge contributed to its advancement and perfection, although probably
not to any increase of its direct and immediate influence.

ni.— Of ^ moat flourishing period of Greek Literature*

$ Gi . During the time intervening between Solon (B. C. 594) and Alexander
(B. C. 336), Greek literature rose to its greatest splendor. In this period, the
circumstances of the Greeks generally, and of the Athenians in particular, were
such us very happily conspired to promote literature and the arts. Among the
emiseg which contributed to their progress, may be mentioned, in addition to
the circumstances already noticed, the native disposition of the people, favorably
influenred by the climate and the physical features of the country, the free and
republican form of the government, the general influence of their customs and
usages, their commerce with other nations, especially the Egyptians, and their
system of education, which was expressly adapted to the public interests of the
commimirv, and which cultivated in fortunate harmony both body and mind.
With MucR advantages, the Greeks became highly distinguished in the arts, and
were the first to place them on established principles, and reduce them to appro-
priaie, consistent, and useful rules.

1 li. Their language, which had already acquired so much flexibility, copiousness,
And harmony, was carried to its highest perfection in the period of which we now
sperik* From the works of their host writers, they deduced a svstem of rhetorical
tmiha mid precepts, embodied with great discrimination and skill, and taught both
orally nxid in writing. Eloauence and poetry thev raised to the greatest eminence.
Thfty i*(jm|)08ed history witn taste, judgment, and fidelity. Philosophy was one of
their favorite studies, and was taught m various schools with order and precision.
ThpT^ discussed with much penetration many of the principles of government and
jiublic economy. They cultivated Ukewise with ipreat success the mathematical
seif^nci's. Ancf their good taste, the elements of which they possessed as it were by
nniurei and which was highly improved by their devoted attention to the fine arts,
fiimbled thi>m to impart to tne sciences generally a livelier aspect, and to render them
mora nHras;tive and useful.

9. " Th# npposite character of dlflTerent Hellenic trfbftf exerted a powerAil Inflaenre upon the
ciilttir<> Bind literature of the Greeki. Thii appears the mogt striking in the caie of the loniana
attEJ I><'hrUn«, both externally and internally. Ionian republicanism and Dorian aristocracy were
ioitjc arriiypd in hostility against each other, and contended desperately in the Peloponnestan
war. T(n> Tlews of life entertained by each were widely different. The sprightly Ionian sought,
wiETi a HirtiL heart, to clothe life with various forms of beauty, and enjoyed the pleasure of the
iiiriniflnt, and readily exchanged what was old for something new. The Dorian, reared among
fnn^niniiii, Toved repose and time-hallowed usages; enjoyed contemplation and serious enjoy-
irienis^ mil tlrove for the vast and the sublime. Among the lonians sprung up, from real iropres-
■ioiii, tkij pitstic form of epic poetry ; from tradition, epic history ; from reflection upon expert-
finc«, n^nrnl sayings, scornful iambics, and elegy; and, from pleasurable emotions, the sensual,
mirthful ^fyj\K. To the Dorians, the higher lyric poetry is indebted for its formation and culture ;
it artein^iinii in a Ane sensibility, and rose to an earnest enthusiasm and a deep contemplation of
iht^ iJlvirtt! mid the human. The Ionian philosophy commenced with the material world and its
orif m ; i\}k Dorian, with the spiritual world and with eiisential existence, and separated the
mniiml ipNf Momena from physics; the former applied itself to the real world, the latter, to the
M'^kI— HeLween the two stood the iColians, with a lax political constitution, tending to disorder.
Will! tliMin originated the didactic form of poetry ; and I heir tumultuous passions were poured
fi>n}i ill lyrics of a fervid character, accompanied by similar music. — The Athenians united, ia

fmru (i^b rnr as their pubUc life and their original character would allow,) the peculiarities of the
ontant hiKl the Dorians,— a lively imagination and a lofiy earnestness, — carrying both to Itm
blglinAt \iiich of perfection." ffiscAisr, Literatur-geschichie, i. p. 103.

:k:<kcx

p. IV. BT8TEM OF BDUCATION. GYMNASIA. 335

$ 62. It is not designed here to give a minute history of the progress of the
▼anous branches, or to specify and describe particularly the writers in the differ-
ent departments. On these subjects something more full will be given in
another place (Part V). li is only proposed now to point out the most remark-
able circumstances and features ot this illustrious period, and mention the
principal institutions and customs, which served to awaken intellectual activity,
and call forth talents of every kind, and employ them in the most successful
manner.

§ 63. The whole system of education among the Greeks was peculiarly cal-
culated for the development and improvement of the powers of the mind and of
the body in common. Gymnastics (yvfiva(ftt.xri) constituted an essential part
of it, and was taught and practiced in the Gymnasia {yvfivdaia)^ or schools for
bodily exercise. All that part of it, which related more especially to the culti-
vation of the mind, went under the term mtuie (uovai^xri); and in this compre-
hensive sense, the term is used by Plutarch and other ancient writers, when
they speak of music as so indispensable in the education of the young, and as
exerting so great an influence on the temper and character.

" Plato (Leg. 6. Rep. 2. 17) includes the whole of education (miSsta} mider the
two parts above named; (ri ftaBfmara sXci ^irro;) h Itlv M vdi^aot, yvuvatrnitiii 4 ^ M
ijjvx.h itowtKii. The former was divided by him into naXn and 8pxif<"«. The latter
embraced all the arts and sciences oyer which the Muses presided. The term ftovotidi
was sometimes used, especially in later times, in the restricted sense." Grammar
{ypdnftaroi ypamtarti^) was sometimes distinguished from the other branches included
under the term itowiKh ; and thus the education of a Greek was divided into three
parts ; grammar, music, and gymnastics. Cf. ^71. It may be important to remark,
that tJie Spartans and Athemans differed very much as to their grand aim in educa-
tion.

Ob fb0 4mctli(ni of tba Atfaemsu, m BorCMnny, AmeliAnh, ch. nri. eltad F. V. § lU. S.— On ttiat of Spirta, ut4 other
■IMO, Iftilkr, HHtoryaad Ant. of ibe Doric Bmo, bk. Iv. ek. ▼. ud viv-<»a Ihoieboobor theOraek^ we fltikuorfs, •• eitwlf 7S.
— iMzoniut ad JBim. V. HM. ii. !&

BaipeetiBf tlMaiiMeortheOraeki,UMl Ito oooorctbai. nf Ol .f . FilMeou, RedMrdM Mr I'Aaalogio de b Moiqae avee b
LaacoaSBL— & /. BtartUt, Sur nudoiiiM Mwiqee, hi the itm. Acad. At Inter, vnl. i*. p. 118, v. ISS, vHi. 87, jC p. 111. xr.
ZTii. 91^-Clkaianon, la (be ue JAnurirM, ml. xnr. ^ MOl xki. p. BS.— F. NOan, oa the Th«ir«Ual Mnie of the Oraeki ;
talheTynMotfumortheRayaiSocof Lilantai«.T0l.U. Load. 1994.— C. Ainicy, Hitfory of Muic Load. ITTt. 8 vda. 4.—
Aviiyfany, Aaaehanb, db ntil^For a aolica of the werto which tnat of the moic of the aaalMila, loe /. N, FoiiM, dllf
GekhieUt d«r Ifnrik. Lelpa. I7SB. S.Sulwh Allg. Theor. der MbOa. KOBM^ ail JAnO.

$ 64. The following remarks on the Gymnasia, are from Barthelemy^s Travels of
Anacharsis.

** A magistrate, named the ffymnasiarch [y^i^paai&pxnt] , presides at [has the charge
of] the different gymnasia of the state. It is his duty to furnish the oil made use of
by the athlets to give suppleness lo their limbs. He has under him, in each gym-
nasium, several officers ; such as the gymnastes [who attends to the health and diet
of the youth, and is sometimes called iarpos] ; the paidotribes [vatiorp0risy whose duty
is to teach the arts exercised in the palaestra] , and others ; some of whom maintain
order among the youth, and others teach them different exercises. At the head of
these are ten soporonists {ro^pwlorai] , nominated by the ten tribes, to whom the
superintendence of the morals of the youth is more especially committed, and all of
whom must be approved by the Areopagus. ., . ,

As it is of the greatest importance that confidence and scrutiny should prevail in the
gymnasium, as well as in all numerous assemblies, thefts committed there are punished

•' ' ' * ' ^ .. . i-. a t^_ mi. nnasia being deemed

I entering

, ^ iry, were

less under the eye of their preceptors ; but this reflation has fallen into disuse.

The exercises practiced there are ordained by the laws, subject to certain regula-
tions, and animated by the commendations of the masters, and still more by the emu-
lation that subsists among the scholars. All Greece considers them as the most
essential part of education, as they render men active, robust, and capable of sup-
porting military hibors, as well as the leisure hours of peace. Considered relatively
to hesJth, physicians prescribe them with success. Oi their great utility in the mib-
tary art, it is impossible* to give a higher idea than by citing the example of the Lace
dffiroonians. To these exercises were they indebted for those victories which once
made them so formidable to other nations ; and, in later times, in order lo conquer,
it was first necessary to equal them in the gymnastic discipline. — ^But if the advan-
tages resulting from this instimtion be eminent, its abuses are not less dangerous.
Medicine and philosophy both concur in condemning these exercises, when they ex-
liaust the body, or give more ferocity than courage to the mind.

$30 irCHJBOLOOY OF GRKEK LITERATURE.

The gymnasium of the Lyceum has been succesBively enlarged and embellished.
The waTia are enriched with paintings. Apollo is the tutelary deity of the place. His
statue is at the entrance ; and the gardens, ornamented ^Hth beautitul alleys, were
restored in the last years of my residence in Greece. Those who walk there, are
invited to rest themselves, by seals placed under the trees."

For farthtf ooticM of the (ymwstic euidM, m P. IIL | 88.— CL Smitk, Diet of Antlqnilim.

§ 65. The fact that the term music was used in the comprehensive sense above
noticed, and was united with poetry, rehearsals, and imitative gestures, wiH, if
properly considered, help us to appreciate more justly the musical contests of the
Greeks. These were regarded as among the most valuable means of intellectuaJ
improvement. The love of glory was stimulated by them, and became the
moving spring of the most intense efforts. They exerted the greater influence
from the circumstance of their being usually connected with public and festival
occasions, especially with the four solemn games of the Greeks, the Olympian,
Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean. At Athens they were united with the Pana-
thenean festival, one of the highest interest, and attended by vast multitudes of
people, and bv the appointment of Pericles they were held in the Odeum, an
edifice specially appropriated for the purpose.

1. " All the violence of the early ages was unable to repress that elegance of ima-
gination which seems congenial to Greece. Very anciently a contention for a prize
m poetry and music was a favorite entertainment of the Grecian people ; and when
connected, as it often was, with some ceremony of religion, drew together {Thue, 3.
104. Xen. Mem. Socr. 3, c. 3) large assemblies of both sexes. A festival of this kind
in the little island of Delos, at which Homer assbted, brought a numerous concourse
from different parts by sea ; and Hesiod (Op. and Di. 1. 2. v. 272) informs us of a
splendid meeting for the celebration of various games, at Chalcis in Eubcea, where
himself obtained the prize for poetry and song. The contest in music and poetry
seems early to have been particularly connected with the worship of Apollo, when
this was carried from the islands of the ^gean to Delphi, a prize for poetry was in-
stituted ; whence arose the Pvthian games. But it appears from Homer that games,
in which athletic exercises ana music and dancing were alternately introduced, made
a common amusement of the courts of princes ; and before his time, the manner of
conducting them was so far reduced to a system (Od. 8. v. 258), that public judges
of the games are mentioned as a kind of established magistrate." Mitfordt imi.
Greece, ch. iii. ^ 4. ^

2 u. Shortly after the time of Solon, these contests existed, under systematic regu-
lations. They were termed dyuvsi ftovaiKoif and thus distinguished from the corpo-
real exercises, which were called iy^ns yvin^iKoh Poets, rhapsodists, actors, panto-
mimes, and musicians took part in them. The judges, ^vcayvJiVrai, dytavoBiraif dtavft-
vliTott 0pa0tvraU were men specially distinguished for knowledge and taste. They
assigned the theme of the contest, and their judgment on the comparative merits (A
the performers was decisive.

See Mariimi, AbhandiuiK yob im (Mm 4ar Allaa. Leip. 17C7. i.^B5tlif9r, AadOTtui«eii ke. Ob* Arehaologla. DnidM,
1808. a-Auteti foa d. Modk. WtUttr. 4. Mm, io Vt>e N. BOL da^ teh. mmndutftm, 7lh bL-Ai JtoiMl, Cooiheti ct FHx
pnpoMi tax poeln, Ac. pwnl l« Oraa et la Boniln. Mtm. lead. tn$b ziii. 891.

$ 66. The competitors in these contests were required to possess natural
abilities, long and laborious preparation, theoretical and practical knowledgre of
their art, a well modulated voice, and skill upon the musical instruments which
accompanied the exercise, usually the lyre or harp. The order in which they
performed was decided by lot, and their conduct during the contest was pre-
scnbed by fixed laws. The name of the victor, the one to whom the judges
assigned the prize, was proclaimed by a herald. His reward wns a garland or
wreath and public applause. Sometimes he received a medal, statue, or poem,
dedicated to his honor.

1 u. On these occasions, not only did musicians and poets contend, but orators also
made public their works ; as, for example, Isocrates recited his Panegyric at the
Olympic festival. Such recitals were sometimes called Myoi d\vnriKo(\ among them
may be included what were called ivtiet^tis, public discussions of the sophists. Even
historians were allowed to engage in those exercises. We have an example in He-
rodotus, who is said to have recited his history at the Olympic games, in tne hearing
of Thucydides, then a mere youth.

2. At the festivals held in honor of Bacchus at Athens, especially those termed
Aiov69ta fttyaXa (cf. P. III. ^ 77. 3), there were contests, in which the representation
of dramatical pieces had a place. The poet who sought the prize must produce four
or at least three, forming together one complete fab^, each o[ which might be com-

p. IV. REHEARSALS. LITERARY FEASTS. 337

pared to a single statue belonffing to a group. The four dramas must conast of three
tragedies and one satyre. llie complete suit of four pieces constituted what was
called the rtrpaXoyla-, the three tragedies formed the rpiXoyia. On the days of the
exhibition, the theatre was opened at sunrise, and it seems that the people could sit
out ail the pieces offered, sometimes to the number of nine tragedies and three
satyres. Five judges then decided upon the merits of the competitors and bestowed
the prize.

SehiO, HM. UCLOn lir* HL ch. L-JtaiMctefiy, in Mm. JoxL m ettad P. UL ^n^Lond. Quart Rei>.8g^. 1842.

3. A tripod seems to have been the peculiar reward bestowed by the people of
Athens on that choragus [xopiy^s^ cf. P. III. ^ 103] , who exhibited the best musical
or theatrical entertainment ; and we find that this custom obtained for these tripods
the name of ekoragk tripods. It was cu8tomar]r for the victor to dedicate the tripod
he had won to some divmity, and to place it either on one of the temples already
built, or on the top of some edifice erected and consecrated by him for the purpose.
**A tripod thus dedicated was always accompanied with an inscription ; so that it be-
came a permanent, authentic, and pubUc monument of the victory, and of the person
who obtained it." '

Stuartf Did. of AfcUtedanb^CC P. L $ 118— For dungie monomeiila^ Me Plito ZLDL flf. A. ud C. ; fbr cipbnatioo of
«rkieb, cf. D«Bcriptkm of VMrn.

$ 67. Usually the Grecian writers were accastomed to make known their
works in prose and poetry by recitation or rehearsal, rather than by circulating
manuscripts. They read or rehearsed themselves, and procured it to be done
by others, in order to avail themselves of the opinions of hearers and judges.
This was done sometimes publicly, sometimes privately. When it was public,
the reader had an elevated seat (^povo$), and the hearers sat around on benches.
They communicated their judgment of his work, and of particular parts of it,
either by silence, which according to the motions and expressions of counte-
nance connected with it, might signify, on the one hand, admiration and praise,
and on the other, censure and contempt; or by audible testimonials of approba-
tion, with the words xa3iu>;, cro4>u»;, ana the like, and by loud applause (xporo;),
at the close of the reading. They sometimes gave more decided applause by
conducting the author to his residence with marks of honor.-^Sometimes, how-
ever, the author submitted his manuscript to the perusal of others, who then
might place their criticisms and remarks upon the margin.

$ 68. It was very common for the Greeks to avail themselves of the service
of a class of persons, whom they called avayyiotffat, readers, who made it their
business to read aloud or recite to hearers the works of the more distinguished
authors. The times selected for the purpose were the hours of the greatest
leisure, those assigned to meals, or for bathing and so forth. These readers
themselves cultivated letters, and especially strove to acquire a correct, agreea-
ble, and commanding style of elocution. They usually read the works of poets,
orators, and historians. Pythagoras is supposed to have introduced this prac-
tice. It doubtless took its rise from an early Greek custom, mentioned by
Homer; according to which, lyric songs and epic rhapsodies were sung by the
poets themselves, or by other singers, who, as well as the poets, played upon
musical instruments.

* The custom of reading at meals still prevails to some extent in the east.—" The
mind was also fed during the repast, by a long story about Echmiadzin, read by a
monk from a sort of orchestra above us. A still longer oration followed, pronounced
from a manuscript, by the vartabid at the head of the table." — See account of ths
convent at Echmiadxm, in Smith and Dwighty cited % 36.

$ 69. The literary feasts of the Greeks, termed symposia {pviiTtooui.)^ are evi-
dence that they sought to avail themselves of every opportunity for the mutual
interchange of literary acquisition, even in the hours of recreation and social
amusement. Such table-intercourse the philosophers, especially, maintained
with tiieir young scholars in the Prytaneum, the Academy, the Lyceum, &c.
There were rules for directing the conduct and conversation at these repasts of
the schools ; as for example, a code or system of the kind was prepared by Xeno-
crates for the symposia of the Academy, and by Aristotie for those of the Lyce-
um. Banquets of this sort were also adopted as a mode of celebrating the birth-
day and memory of teachers and founders of the schools, or other distinguished
persons. The excellent dialogues of Plato and Xenophon, entided Zv/irtotfuw,
43 3F

ARCHAOLOOT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

and XvfiXoftwvpCKoao^cw^ the piece ascribed to Plutarch with the title 'E^tra 00^
ovfift6aiov,Kn6 the work of Athenaeus styled ^nftvooo^MStatf famish the reader with
the best idea of this form of social entertainment among the wise men of Greece.

Sm E$cfunbackH Dia. de SjrmpotiM npialain, la hit Dkmrt Jewbm. Noriab. IWS. &-- LoimI. Qiiflrr. Rt9. vol. xxit.
p- tfl -Of. P. IV. k l«T.

$ 70. Among the Greeks, there were not, as in modem times, separate and
distinct learned professions, or faculties as they have been termed. The com-
pass and objects of knowledge were far less defined, and the studies and attain-
ments of the individual more miscellaneous. The study of the national language,
the constitution of the state, and the nature of man, constituted the main scope
of literary exertion; and whatever methods of discipline, whatever knowledge,
or whatever practical skill, could apparently subserve this, was received as an
important part of the common education of youth. There was constant occasion
to apply the general knowledge acquired to actual life, which ihterfered with
long or eager pursuit of theory and speculation in particular branches.

$ 71. In the system of mental training or education {ftoAbila It itti 4v;t^), one
of the first parts was grammar. Although this had reference solely to the native
tongue, it was as yet a study comprehending much more than is now usually
understood by the term. The art of speaking and writing correctly, which was
made a primary thing in the Grecian system, was termed rpa/ujuafc^t'i.xn, and
the teacher, rpa^/taf^flrf ^{. But under Fpaftfuktixfi, or grammar, was included
not only a knowledge of the language, but also something of poetry, eloquence,
and history, and even the elements of philosophy, at least in its applications to
these branches; and the teachers, who were called grammarians, Fpa/u/Aot'txot,
imparted this various instruction. Plato especially called the attention of the
Greeks to the necessity and utility of such knowledge. The usual division of
grammar, in its more appropriate sense, was into two parts; /ue^cxi}, which
presented the rules and principles, and iitjyfjti>x^^ which explained the nature
and meaning of words and phrases.

Sm C. Z>. Beck'i ConunMiUr. d« litark at aueteribw Grme, atqaa Ut Lipa. ITtt. 9, p. 47.

$ 78. A very favorite study of the Greeks was philosophy. The name of
philosophy was originally applied to all inquiries about the nature of the Deity,
the origin and destiny of men, and the phenomena and powers of the physical
world. Afterwards the consideration of physical topics was in a considerably
degree excluded. It was a special effort of Socrates to direct tlie investi^tions
of philosophy to the various subjects of morals and religion, to Questions of
private and public virtue and right. A glance at the several sects ana schools of
Greek philosophy will be given (P. V. § 168, ss.), when we speak of the his-
tory of literature, and the principal writers. But this is a proper place to notice
an important distinction made among the philosophers, between their exoteric
and esoteric doctrines, xoyo» cScof £ptx6», and iffufcpcxoc. The exoteric compre-
hended only the principles and precepts, which they taught publicly to all their
hearers and the people (5i7/iw8f $) ; the eeoierie included also their secret views
and maxims (d^op/ji^'fa), which were disclosed only to their particular disciples
and adepts, and upon which in public, both orally and in their writings, they
expressed themselves obscurely in enigmatic and figurative language*

The custom of the Greek phiIosoi)her8 in thus teaching a double doctrine seems to
have been borrowed from the praciice of the Eg^rptian priests. It is said that the
Magi of Persia and the Druids of Gaul had also their external and intemal doctrine.

8m fVlarbuHon, Oi?. Li(at. of MoaH, (aaeitad { 12. SO voL L p. »C

$ 73. Various methods of giving instruction were employed by the philoso-
phers. The one most adapted to their object was, without much doubt, the
dialogistic, the form of an actual dialogue between the teacher and pupil. The
philosopher beginning with the simplest and most obvious truths or admitted
principles, advanced step by step with his disciple, hearing and answering his
questions and doubts, and thus conducting him imperceptibly to a conviction of
what the master would teach. This manner was first used by Zeno of Elea,
but was inOproved by Socrates into a regular and skillful art, and is thence called
the Socratic method. The method, however, was employed chiefly with such
disciples as were supposed to have already acquired the first elements of phi-

p. IV. PUBLIC 8CHOOL8. LIBRARIES.

losophy, and to be now prepared to pnrsoe investi^tions of truth, in common
with their teacher. Plato adopts this dialogistic form in his writings. Other
methods were used, however, in philosophical instructions, as the eristic
(ipionxi?), the syllogistic, and the mathematical.

$ 74. The first and most celebrated public school at Athens was the Academy
(*Axa^7jfua,), a building which belonged to theCeramicus (Kifxi/Mixof), without
the proper limits of the city, surrounded by a erove with shady walks. Plato
was the first teacher here, and was succeeded by various disciples, who, from
the place of instruction, received the name of Academics. The Lyceum,
(Avxeiw), the school of Aristotle, was an enclosure on the banks of the llyssus,
also witliout the proper city, and sacred to Apollo; as Aristotle and his succes-
sors were accustomed to give instruction in the place for walking (^focnafof),
thev were called the Peripatetics. Another building in the suburbs of Athens,
called Cynosarges (Kvvooapv);;), and originally a gymnasium or school for the
bodily exercises, was the place where philosophy was taught by Antisthenes
and his followers ; and this, without regard to their doctrines, may have given
them the name of Cynics. Within the limits of the city was the celebrated
portico, called Poecile (IXoixtVi;), from its various paintings, and, by way of
eminence, the Stoa (Xf od) ; here Zeno from Cyprus opened his school, and
thus attached to his disciples the appellation of Stoics. The garden of Epi-
curus should also be mentioned here, as it was in this, his own private retreat,
that he taught his disciples, who are thence sometimes called philosophers of
the garden. After Greek philosophy was transplanted to Alexandria, the Mu-
seum (Movtfcioy), in the part of the city called Bruchion, was famous as the
place where instruction was given by numerous teachers {aitdiiorium).

Besides these public schools of philosophy, there were at Athens common schools,
established at an earlier period by Solon, in which elementary instruction was ^ven
in the difierent branches of education. The schools of the sophists must be distin-
guished from both. (Of. P. V. ^ 108.)

^ ^ 75 tt. The teachers in these and other schools amonj^ the Greeks, enjoyed un-
limited freedom in the expression of their views and principles, both upon tbeological
and philosophical subjects. The government provided for the external management
and discipline of the schools (^ 64), and some regulations on this subject are found in
:he la\ys of Solon. The teachers were constantly attentive to the preservation of this
discipline. The rigid discipline, especially of the Lacedemonians, in their early edu-
cation, was celebrated in ancient times, although it was sometimes more severe than
judicious; as, for instance, in the annual scourging iitumaartyuotO of boys at the
altar of Diana Orthia.

Sm Cmglt (Crmg), d« Rep. Uced. IT80.-iVt<r. Areb. Orae. bk. ii. eh. 80— ATUiler, Hiit aad Ast Doric lUn, bk. H. eh. 9w
\ 9,—Maiuo, Spufta, i. «, p. 18S.— f. H. O. a€kioartXt ERlehaoplchr*-(OcKbiehta der ERiehunc)- 1829. Vol. L p. SSI-OOl
H>iK]Mv, GcKhkbto dcr Liter. VoL L p. 106.

$ 76 /. Among the means of promoting knowledge enjoyed by the Greeks, we
must mention their libraries, some of which are celebrated in history.

1 u. The first considerable collection of books 0tfi\ioBfiKi) at Athens was made by
Pisisiratus. This collection is said to have been borne away with other booty by
Xerxes on his capture of that city, and to have been restored by Seleucus Nicatof,
king of Syria. Sylla gained possession of it when he took the city of Athens, B. C.
65, and removed it to Rome.

2 u. Another library of much value is said to have been gathered by Aristotle, aided
by the munificence of Alexander, which also, after many accidents, according to the
account of Strabo, fell into the hands of Sylla at the same time, and was carried to
Rome.

3 ». Kin^ AttaluB and his son Eumcnes collected a large library at their capital Per-
gamus. 'rhis contained 200,000, and according to some statement8,300,000 volumes,
most of which were conveyed to Egypt, and being added, by Cleopatra or Antony,
10 the still more famous library of Alexandria, finally shared in its miserable fate.

4. The library of Alexandria, the most celebrated of ancient times, was commenced
by Ptolemy Philadclphus, and numbered among its keepers various distinguished
Greeks, as Demetrius Phalcrcus, Callimachus, Eratosihcnes, Apollonius Rnodius,
and Aristophanes of Byzantium. It sufiered repented disasters and losses, and was
again improved and enlarged ; the largest number of volumes mentioneii as belong,
ing to it is about 700,000 {Aul Gell. vi. 17); the library in the Bruchion containing
about 400,000, and that in the Serapcion containing about 150,000. (cf. ^ 126. 2.)
DiiTercnt accounts are given of its final destruction, some ascribing ii to the rustaken

340 ARCHiEOLOOT OF ORREK LITERATURE.

zeal of Christians in the time of Theodosius the Great, and others, to the fury of the
Saracens under Omar, A. D. 642.

5. There was al;?o at Constantinople a large library of Latin and Greek authors,
commenced probably by Constaniius, the son of Constaniine, and greatly augmented
by Julian, its contents gradually increased to 120,000 volumes. It was finally, with
valuable collections in the arts, committed (o the flames amid the dissensions in the
time of Zeno and Basiliscus or Basilices, about A. D. 477.

nMpwtiag ibaM lUmrki, m* HmmtH G«Khicht« ito Stud, dw cIm. Ulenl. m cited | tX^Waehkr, OcMliidil* Am Litmt.
i. p. 106, lis. Thb aathor mjfwm mom doubt mpwtinf lb« libfsiy Mid to have •tntat in th* age of Piwinitn.— A(tf itadrf,
eitad i \A—H«fru, da Inlaritu Opefum artia prwciB etc io ComamaaL Soc GCtt. toI. xii— CA. D. Bttk, Specimen Biatoiw
BibUolbacaniiB Alciandrlaanim. Lpc IT7a 4.— C JZf inAonf, Qlicr die Jai«alen Scbiduale der AUx. BiMbtbek.— F G. fVeUttr
and Jt F. JVUb, RheiniMhct MiMmm tar Pbilorofie. Bono, 1833. i. No. I.— Sonamy, La Biuliotbeque d'Alezandria. JIfem.
Jkmi. Inier. ix. 997.— IromL i^uari. Rm. xvi. 8S9.— A'Won, Dcci. aad F. Rooi. Emp. eh. 51 — Sec alio an accoot of an Altamoaa
Library is JtoHAdimy'f Anadttnia, eb. xxiz.

$ 77. Although the Greeks were exceed indy jealous of their national honor,
and were especially solicitous to secure to tneir literature the merit and praise
of bein^ an original possession carried to perfection by native resources, yet
they did not wholly reject the advaniap^e resulting from acquaintance with the
arts and sciences of other lands. They frequently traveled in those countries
which were most distinguished for their advancement in knowledge, especially
in Egypt. To the latter the Greeks were much indebted in matters pertaining
to intellectual culture, as well as in reference to their civil and religious institu-
tions. Nor did the Greeks neglect domestic travel ; they were accustomed to
visit the most distinguished provinces, regions and cities, to gain personal know-
ledge of what might be curious or useful, and their observations were sometimes
committed to writing. By such travels at home and in foreign lands, most of
the distinguished men of Greece sought to increase and perfect their attainments.
Here might be named, as instances, Homer, Lycurgus, Thales, Pythagoras,
Solon, Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, Strabo,
Pausanias, and many others.

See FrtMdi Exarcilat. Acad, de peragriDatiooe fctanua apieothaa, eniditiooU aifo WKepta. Upa. 187a 4.

lY.^Of the decline of Greek Literature.

§ 78. From its brilliant state previous to the titne of Alexander, Greek litera-
ture gradually declined. Among the causes were the increasing luxury and
consequent effeminacy and remissness of the people, and the various internal
political commotions, which followed the death of Alexander. In fact, the de-
clension began with the first loss of their independence under the supremacy of
Philip. And when at last they became a prey to Roman ambition, at the (all
of Corinth, and when, somewhat later, Athens herself was plundered, partially
at least, of her stores of learning and art by Sylla, the Greeks, by being wholly
deprived of liberty, were bereft of their highest motives to exertion. Their
native vigor and originality no longer showed itself, except in a few single
efforts, an"^ finally sunk prostrate under foreign oppression and domestic cornip-
lion.

^ 79. It is worthy of remark, that the knowledge and use of the Greek language
was greatly extended after the conquests of Alexander. Many cities were built by
him in the east, which were inhabited chiefly by Greeks. Before the time of Christ
the language had become familiar throughout Palestine. The Latin writers bear
ample testimony to the general diffusion ofGrcek. The words of Cicero are, Gracn
lesunlur in omnffms fere gentibus. The Romans were obliged to adopt this for their
official language in the eastern provinces. Even when the seat of the Roman govern-
ment was removed to Constantinople, and a special effort was made to introduce the
Latin, it was but partially successful. The emperor Jusiinism found it necessary to
publish his Institutes, Code and Pandects, in Greek, as well as Litin, because the
latter was so imperfectly understood by his subjects and civilians. — In the fourth cen-
tury the Greek language seems to have been employed to some extent in Nubia and
Abyssinia.

See Oibbm*t Rom. Emp. ch. liii. (vol. v. p. M4, N. Tork, I882.>— IT'TCu'i Tntnyloetioii to the Study of tbe Scrip, vol. fl. P. L
b L^S.~IetronM,aadtBdi8Lfi.Jftni.dtaP/niC.fte.ix.p. lia-ThaBjaatiBearadkwaaoorraptMlbf te

p. IV. DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE. 341

Buy wtr&a fnm Am Utta tad other I«ii(imch.-iSw Aiewifr, Dta. de cuaw oompte OnBcitatii.— OtUon, Hbt. ch. Itfi- (vol.
vt. p. Ml.)- «*£«, UtU 6h L. vi. ch. Ixxi.— Cf. i S2. &

^ 80. From the period whence we date the decline of Greek literature it appears
leas national in its characte'r. This probably was not owing wholly to the circum-
stance that the Greeks were no longer their own masters. Something must be
allowed for the fact, that the literature of the subsequent periods was not me growth
of the native soil of Greece, but the product ol places without her proper limits, and
remote from the scene of her early struggles and successes. It was chiefly at Rhodes,
Pergamus and Alexandria, that letters were cultivated. Athens was no longer the
capital and mistress of the literary world ; although for a long time after her submis-
sion to Rome her schools werie the resort of youth for completing their education.
Even in this respect, however, she had rivals. Apollonia on the shore of the Ha-
driaiic was celebrated for its culiiyation of Greek literature, and honored as the place
where Augustus finished his studies. Massilia in Gaul, now Marseilles, a little later
gained still greater celebrity for its schools of science. Antioch, Berytus, and Edessa
may also be mentioned as places where Greek was studied after the Christian era.

SmStkiUy Hot Litt. Or. U*r« v. ch. SO—ITcarm'f Ge«h. da Stiid. d«r giit^ bmI lOm. Ut. ) 88. m dtod } 6S.

^ 81. At different times during the decline of Greek letters, royal aiid imperial
patronage was not wanting. Very Uberal encouragement was afforded by some of the
nrst Ptolemies at Alexandria to all the arts and studies, especiolly by rhiladelphus.
At Pergamus, also, great efforts were made by Attalus and Eumenes to foster learn-
ing. Amone the Roman emperors, likewise, there were patrons of Greek literature.
Under the Antonini there was a little fresh blooming both in Greek and Roman
letters ; and Anrelius Antoninus especially befriended the cultivation of philosophy
and bestowed privileges upon Athens. Julian the Apostate cultivated and patronized
Greek studies, and allowed considerable stipends to teachers in the schools of pagan
philosophy. He is said to have erected at Constantinople the royal portico, where
was lodged the library already mentioned (^ 76), and where also was established a
sort of college for giving instruction in the arts and sciences. At a later period some
emulation was awakened among the Greek scholars in the east by the zeal and in-
quiries of the Arabian Caliphs, who were liberal patrons of learning, especially at

Sm OiMon. HkL Bon. Emp. eh. lill. (vol. t. p. aS7, ad. cit )— McrvK GcKh. d«i Stod. der grlMh. md lOm. Litar. f ia—
JMiirten,LitacN7Hirtn7 of Um Middle Af& Lood. 1814. 4. AppaodiK l^^bUoKr, m dl«l P. V. ^27. 1.

J 82.* In speaking of the circumstances connected with the decline of Greek
literature, the suppression of the philosophical and rhetorical schools at Athens,
by the Emperor Justinian, is usually mentioned and lamented.

These schools had existed from the time of Socrates and Plato. In them the most
distinguished philosophers and rhetoricians had taught numerous disciples native and
foreign. While sustained, they. kept alive a taste and love for Greek literature and phi-
losophy. They were only partially interrupted by the subjection of Athens to Rome,
and afterwards were warmly supported by some of the Roman emperors, particularly by
Julian, who, as has just been mentioned, allowed a stipend to tne teachers of them.
Hadrian also is said to have furnished them with the means of procuring books. But
they were entirely suppressed by Justinian, A. D.529; not, it is said, because he was
hostile to schools or philosophy ; but because the teachers opposed his efforts to extir-
pate paganism- Damascius, Simplicius, and other philosophers were obliged to leave
Athens, and fled to the protection of Chosroes king of Persia.

Ahhou^h Greek Uterature had been declining for many centuries, and these schools
had not hindered its wane, still their suppression probably hastened the entire oblivion
into which it soon fell in the west : because after this event there Was less literary inter-
eoorae between the west and the east.

8m AiJWA Rirtorror PhihMopbr, Bl IL eh. iL (vol. IL p. »7. DabL nBLV-GAftonti BM. Bon. Enp. ch. zl. 7. t^. Iv.
p^ MLK. York, 1823.)— Mwnua. Fortauft Altiei, eh. viiL p. SG. in hit Optnt T. l—Rit$v, HMnr of PhiloKphy, m cited P. V.
% ISSw i.-y^andB', Kiicheoiwchlehle, bk. iL Ibth. i.

i 63.* The essential and fundamental contrariety of the Christian religion to
the whole spirit of pagtin philosophy and mythology, is a circumstance proper
here to be noticed. It was not at all strange that Christians should neglect to
study the pagan writings, except as they wished to arm themselves for the de-
fence of their own faith.

1. Opposition to the cultivation of heathen literature early appeared, but there waj
sot perfect agreement among the Fathers on the subject. The council of Carthaee,
A. D. 398, formally condemned it. Yet many distinguished Fathers recommended the
study of Greek learning. Basil wrote a treatise in favor of it (cf. P. V. ^ 292 2).
Origen carefully taught it, and was applauded for the same by one of the most eminent
of his disciples, Gregory Thaumaturgus. Chrvsostom and Gregory of Nazianzen also
•dTocftted this study. Indeed the EasU^rn or (^reek Church as a body appears to have

2p3

342 * ARCHJEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATTRE.

been inclined to favor it, while the Western or Lntin Church wan strongly oppomd to
it. There waa, nevertheleas, a general disrelish tor every thing connecied wiih pagan-
iam, which would naturally tend to accelerate the growing neglect of the productions of
Grecian literature.

The Christiana had their seminaries designed for the education of the maturer class of
youth, and such especially a^ were to become religious teachers. But the sacred Scrip-
tures were the basis of instruction.

See Enfldd't If isl. Pbil. bk. vl. eh. ii. (p. 278. «l. eitod abOTe.)— itfM«/in'i Ece. Hbt. bjr Mttrdctk, toI. i. p. f 00.— R JMtanA
rwir of Barof.* Id the Middle AfW, eh. ii^Pnf. JL Bnmton, Oa the Calechelicei School, er Theoiosini SeniMry, at AUnm
driit. Bibl. Repei. Na tilL—Tmkinmt Dtr FUl dee BMmaham$.^N§amdtr*t ChryaoelontH, pw <<-^ltouDiA% Gncoriw vn
i,p.«.

2. Nothing in the above remarks implies that Christianity has been in its influence
unfavorable to the progress of the mind. On the contrary it has unspeakably elevated
the human intellect, and advanced, on the whole, more than any other cause, the inte-
rests of science and literature. It proposed and has accomplished a mighty mental revo-
lution, opening wider and more extensive channels of thought, impartmg keener sensi-
bility to the feelings of the heart, and giving ample scope to all the noble energies of
man. The happy results of this will go on accumulating to the end of the world.

On the infloeDce of ChriilieDity apoo Socletjr, we CkriM. Sp«el. to), t. p. 409.— On ill inAuenre apon Litenture, mtt SeUtfir$
HM LiL Ooelnrai 4 and 6.)— CAruC. ^ptcf. toI. ti. p. 67.— See alto, on the whole nilQeel, C KiOcn, Euay oa the ReConnatKin hj
Lather, (with latTodvction bj Dr. S. tMUr.) Phil. 1834. t.

§ 84.* The ffreat loss of classical manuscripts af^r the Christian era, is
justly regretted by all. The chief source of this loss was the destruction of
the great librariesi which has been previously mentioned ($ 76). The destruc-
tion of the Alexandrian library was especially felt, because it was in connection
with this library that the greatest establishment for copying and multiplying
manuscripts haa existed. (Cf. $ 58.)

1. There were other causes that contributed to diminish the number of classical manu-
scripts.— Private /u>«ft2t/y to the writings of particular authorn occasioned some losses.
It was a custom both with the Greeks ana the Romans, to sentence the writings of in-
dividual authors to the flames, as a kind of punishment, or to hinder the circulation of
objectionable sentiments. The practice was adopted in the Christian Ch^irch. In the
middle ages, this hostility was in some instances directed against classical authors, and
difff^rent emperors of Constantinople are said to have been induced to burn the existing
copies of several of the ancient poets.

Some loss also may be ascribed to private negligence and ignorance, if we may con-
jecture from the statement, which asserts that three of the Tost decades of Livy were
once made into rackets for the use of a monastery.

** A page of the second decade of Livy, it if said, wai fonnd by a man of letters In the pnrrh-
meiit of hif battlftdore, whilst ha waa amuiing hlinielf in the country, lie haisiont'd to lite
maker of ihe battledore, but arrived too late ; the man had flnifhed the lait page of Livy about
a week before.*' D*Itraelu Curioiltiei of Literature, vol. i.— L«iid. QiMrt. Rev. xvL 333.

2. Another way, in which such losses occurred, was by obliteration. The papyrus
becoming very diflicult to procure after Egypt fell into the hands of the Saracens, in the
7th century, and parchment being thereby rendered more costly even than before, copy-
ists very naturally began to seek some remedy. They adopted the ex[)edient of oblite-
rating tne writing of an old manuscript. The parchment, after the obliteration, was
used again, and thus the manuscript, which originally contained perhaps some valuable
work of a Greek or Roman author, received in its atead, it might be, the absurd tales
of a monk, or the futile quibbles of a scholastic This practice of deletion was known
in the time of Cicero ; and a manuscript thus prepared was termed Codex FalimpseMlMS
(jaXtuxf/qcTos) . Some MSS. of this kind have been deciphered.

Cto. ed Tr«bet 4. 18. Ct Catutt. O. 5.— See.fKML Xam, Riitorieil Aeeeant «t Diicoveriei made In Mimpeeit MianKriptei^
in (he Tramaetiam of the Royal See. of Lilentura, vol. 1. Lond. ittS.— Ct F. V. ^ 443.— LonA Qu«f. An. s?i. 331.- JSreriM^
' letred. to Smdy of Holy Scripturca, nJ. ii. P. i. eh. ii. § 1^ u cited ( 107. 1.

^ 85. To notice particularly the civil history of the Greeks after the Christian era
would be foreign from the design of this glance at some of the circumstances attending
the decline of Greek letters. We ought, however, to observe, that they underwent a
series of political chatiges, very few of which were calculated to exert any beneficial in-
fluence upon learning, while many of them were exceedingly unpropitious. Among the
former, the removal of the Roman Court to Constantinople was probably the most fa-
vorable. Among the latter, we mav mention the early inroads of the barbarians ; the
rncroachraents of the Saracens ; the capture and plunder of Constantinople by the
Latins ; the internal dissensions after the recovery of the capital : and finally the attacks
of the Turks, which were renewed from time to time until the final overthrow of the
Greeks, A. D. 1153. By the various disasters thus suffered, the supremacy of t)i6

P« IV. WRITTEN MONUMENTS. 343

Greek emperore was ere long confined to a narrow corner of Europe, and at last to the
mibarbs ot Constantinople, and here learning found its only refuge.

■opeeliBf Ihe ooDditian of Orack lilentare M Cowtootiaople, tee Barrngtm^t UL Htet of Middle Agn. Appendix L m
cilMi|81.

1. On the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, many of the Greek liTrrali fled
to Italy and other parts of western hiurope, and by their oral instructions and their writ-
ings contributed greatly to the revival of letters, and especially to the study of die Greek
language in the west.

8« Bumpf. Hodnu, de GrBcii illuilribn Mnfom GrvoB iartwnleribw. Lond. IT4S. &— GIL fr. B'maru%, Oe Doetn honinik
taiGnKM, liMnrvm Gnecarun ia lulia iBaUnnionbua. Lps. I'Sa S<—AI«> //nrm^ GeKhirhle, kc ciled § 63.— H. Hailam,

blrahietion to the Litcnture of Europe in the rineei.lh, Sixteenth, and Serealemih Century. Load. 1838. 4 Tote. 8 r. fForten,

DiH. OB the Inlrodnction of LeaniiDf into Englaod, in hit Hitl. of Bnglith Potty. Land. 1834. 4 voh. 8.

2. Notwithstanding ail the disasters above suggested, and a subjection of nearly 400
years to the tyranny of Turkish masters, the Greeks have still an existence. By a pain-
ful and protracted struggle, commenced A. D. 18*20, they secured their independence.
Their present language differs from that of classical times, both in pronunciaiion and in
structure, and contains as yet but a slender Hierature. The hope, however, has been
awakened, that Greece may again rise to eminence in letters and in arts.

Tar IB aconunt of medem Greek Hierature, fee Cour* Jt Litttratm Ortequa Mcdeme, dooBO a Geneve, par Jaeooaky Rizo
Kfivouloa, (PuMie fmrJtm Bumbtrl,) Genev. 1928. 12. 9d ed.— On Mod. Greek lanfuafe, Clan Joiurud x. 401 ; xfiL 88; lY.
SdO— £. J. SaphocUt, Romaic Grammar, with a Cbrmtonatby. Hartt I84S.— Cf. Entydop. .imcrieotia, fol. tI. p. 4S.

V. — Of the Remains and Mofiumenta of Grecian Literature.

§86. Besides the many valuable works which have been preserved, either
entire or in part, and published since the restoration of learning and the inven-
tion of the art of printing, there are extant still other written monuments of
Grecian antiquity, some acquaintance with which is important not only to the
antiquary, but to every lover of literature. We may arrange these under
three classes ; Inscriptions, Coins, and Manuscripts,

(a) Inscriptions,
§ 87. The study of inscriptions (i;t«Jypa/i/Aa, inscription titulus) is of great
utility in gaining a knowledge of language, and an acquaintance with criticism,
history, chronology, and archaeology. ConRiHered as public and contemporary
monuments they form a class of historical evidence most worthy of credence.
Therefore since the revival of letters much attention has been devoted to disco-
vering, collecting, publishing, and explaining inscriptions, npon which we have
many writings.

Soowi of the principal worki relating to Greek ineeriptkn* we will here name.— OuL Rottrtt, Mannorvm Oxonieoaiam ineerii^
tionea Oiac*. Oxoo. 1791. & Cf. § 91. 4 — Jl. Poaxht, ciled $ 13a— B. PoMsUmti, m ritcd ^ IM.—P. M. Paaaudi, Moaumeela
Peloponoetia. Rjm. 1761. 2 Tolt 4.— A/m. CAtiAu/I, Antiquitatn A«iatirjB. Lnnd. I72S. fol.— £if. Conmtu, liiKriptionra anti-
tfat, pIcTxque oonilom edl'«. Flor TM. 4.—R»A. CAandfcr, Iwcriptlnne* anlifjoap, plera>qne nondum pdi»« id Aiia Minora et
Gneeta, prwrrrim Athenia, eDllecle. Lond. 1744. fol.-8mre iBieriptione are nollc«i in R. D. Oarkfi Greek Marblea at Cam-
Mige (Camlk IS09^ B) ; and aleo In bit Tramb throuKb varieaa ooontriee ot the East.—/. Omin, Sylloffa loMrip. Ant Gtbc M
Let Jea. ISI2. UA.—Br-ekk, Corpoe ImrriptioBum Grvcarvm. Rerol. IS25-2S. la. fol. For the viewt of Gcrmaa erilla rc^Nctioff
W* WNfc, tee H^mann, ober Pmf. BnAhH BciMndlaiiR dcr griedi. InwhrineB.— The i»Uowii« may aleo be nsei.tioned. FtfMnti,
(DO the EI«iB MaiMca.) C&tal. nimmie dre inacript. Gree. de la edleeU de mj\. Comte d' Dfin^H. J. «•«(, iBKriptioBa Otmr.
VelwtwBis. Camh. 1825. &— C. Vidua, Inacript. Antiq. I» Turcica Uiaer* eoliecta. Far. I8S6. 8.— iDMriptioace Grmcm
iMdIia. Collef. edit L. Bouim IIoUaiuM. Fase. I. 1888. 4.

$ 88. These inscriptions are found upon columns, altars, tombs, vases, statues,
temples, and other ancient edifices. Their design is to narrate some memorable
event, or to point out the use and meaning of the object bearing thein. Ordina-
rily they were, in prose, sometimes in verse. The Greek inscription was ex-
pected to unite beauty, perspicuity, and vigor. It was from this circumstance
and from its takinjr sometimes the poetical form, that the name of epigram
(^7t«^/pa/t/ta) was applied to the species of poetry so called, designatinor a short •
poem or stanza which expresses clearly and forcibly an ingenious, pithy senti-
ment.

^ 89 «. In order to form a correct judgment and decision upon inscriptions, there ia
need of much critical care and examination, that we may not be deceived by pieces of
doubtful nuthoriiy or by (jjlse copies. There must be some familiar acquaintance with
what pertains to the sulijeci, both philologicaliy and historically. In general we should
I a knowledge of ihc written characters of antiquity, ot the changes introduced

844 ARCHJBOLOOT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

at different periods, and of what is called the lapidary style or manner of writing. We
should be able by means of historical information to compare the contents of the in-
scriptions with the circumstances of the persons, the limes and the occasions mentioned.
We must be oualified also to appreciate with exactness and impartiality the proofr and
explanations that may be drawn from particular inscriptions.

1liipectii« rhr •MmviatioM om^ ooMalt Sdp. Magti, Oneeoram Stelae kjM^ne eollcetB alqM explkalH Vciw. 17* %^
Alto the works alrewlj dl«d \ B7.— On Ibe fMml wtgtct, /. /Vwu, Elcaicala Epi|nphio« Gnean. BotI. I84B. 4.

$ 90/. From the moUitnde of ancient Greek inscriptions, which have been
discovered, copied, and explained, we will here mention only some of the more
interesting: and important We notice first such as are of a date prior to Alex-
ander, B. C. 336.

1 V. The Fourmount inscriptions ; on marbles discovered by the Abbe Fourmont at
Sklabochori (Schivo-Chorio) , the ancient Amyclae, in the year 1728. More than forty
were found ainong the ruins of a temple of Apollo ; of these one b the celebrated Amy-
clean Inscription. That which goes under this name, consists of two tablets which
may, or may not have been connected, and is in the manner of writing called Qowrpo-
^riiiv. The- tablets contain merely a list of the names of Grecian priestesses. The
precise date cannotbe fixed, but most probably the inscription may be referred back to
about 1000 6. C. There have been doubts, however, respecting the genuineness of this
and the other inscriptions. They are regarded as authentic by Scholi and Raoul-Ro-
chette.

Sea MUm.JtPJeai. dm tm^. vol liv. p. 101, u ueBOBt, by Ik ntmnami, of iBKripeioM fbfand m ttftc bocUfln b tta
tanpta or Apollo; ud vol. zzUL p. SS«, oa the ImeriptieB oonteini^ t IM of Graeiu priaolcMi, bj Jartfciihtnp.— fltywrt
SuDBlmif utiqur. AaCdtM, ft. L— JVoiml TrmU* d* DipL T. \.—KntikP$ Em. on Gk. Alph. S tI^&cU^ Corpok Iomt.
Grae.— Onmf Jilvdmn In Tk. tVUptWi Utmmn ralat. to Eorep. and Anal. Tiuk0y.^aaotd-RBdiM», Dooz lottra a mjl. Coali
d'AtanlMB Mir I'aalbciiUeita d« Imct. do rottmnoL Tar. I9IA. 4.— Lond QitmrL lUo.xiz.Ut.

2. The Elian inscription ; on a brazen or copper tablet found by Sir W. Grell, in 1813,
under ground, in the region of Ohrmpia, in Elis. It is a treaty of alliance between the
Elians and the HersBans, in the ^olic dialect. The date is supposed to be about 615
B. C. It presents the ^olic digamma, the Elians being named FAAEIOI.

iriiinim CriL CiiDlvidfo, toL i. p. 635.-aaM. Journal, toL zi. S84. xiU. p. 113. zxiv. p. lM.-XoiMi Quart Anu liii. SA
—Sdkfll, RbL Utt Ornqoe, IItiv (i. cli. I.

3. The inscription of Midas ; upon a very ancient monument, situated near the vil-
lage of Doganlu, in Phrygia, probably near the ancient Nacoleia, about 30 leagues east
of the ancient CotyiBum. It is a sepulchral monument dug in the rock, and ornamented
with a facade of very sin^lar construction, near 70 feet in height. It bears two in-
scriptions, written from nght to left. They are in Pelassic characters, as fiir as appears.
Travelers have been able to decipher only certain words, among which are MIAAl and
TANAKTEI, to King Midatj which would seem to indicate a tomb of one of the kings
of this name. The princes bearing this name reigned between 737 and 560 B. C.
The Phrygian kings appear to have borne alternately the names of Midas and Gordiua.
It is worthy of remark, that, at the point where the facade of this monument termi-
nates, there is an ornament of striking appearance, which represents a kind of knot, and
at once calls to mind the famous Gordian knot.

8m SUUS, Hilt. LitL Or. llv. liL «b. vii.-«. ITfllpofa, Tnvda in vuiooi eoantriei of (te BmL Load. ISSa

4 tt. The Sigaean inscription. This was found upon a piece of marble supposed to
have once supported a statue. It has its name from the promontory and town o( Si-
gEBum, near ancient Troy, where it vras discovered b]r Sherard, English consul at
Smyrna, near a village church. This inscription is written in the manner called ^•wn-po-
^nidv. It specifies a gift of three vessels (fpar^p, iiroffpar^piov, ^^'/idf.) made by Phano-
dicus to the Prytanes or magistrates of Sigsum. It is referred to the period between
500 and 600 B. C.

Soo ChitkuU, Aatiq. Aiiat— Ckondbr, InMrip. Antiq.— Abm. TntU it D4plom.~AA«eVb«^« SM. and PiroC. VM. Conaoetod,
Mt. iv.— Tho nwbi* h now la London in the colIeetioB of Lord ElfiiL-adkai, HM. Litt Gr. liv. iii. du vii.— OKolopM raJmaaam
dm Iomt. do U eol)«ct de myL Cooito £lf ta, no. C3.-*Cf. § ST.

There Is a necond Sipean tMcription, belonging to a later period, B. C. 978, which may be
mentioned here. It wai dircovered by Lord E. W. Montagu, on a clppua of marbte, connected
with the walla of the same church before which the first was found. It is a decree of the senate
and people of the Sigcuni In honor of Antfochus Soter king of Syria and his spouse. See CJksmi-
Ur, Antiq. Aslat. p. 40.

5. The inscription called the Teian malediction {Teiorum Dira); by this inscription
found upon a stone lyin^ in the environs of Bodrion, the ancient Teos, the Teians de-
vote to the infernal deities the persons whoever may injure them by resisting their
ma^trates, plundering their territoriea, or hindering foreigners from bringing them
grain. An anathema is also directed against those who may deface the inscription.
It is worthy of notice that the letters are termed ^qivikIiim^ Its date is placed by
SchoU between 450 and 500 B. C.

bM SdUSZ, HM. UtL Gr. Uy. Hl ch. TiL-Ckuftiia; Antiq. Atiat

p. IV.

1NBCRIFTI0N8. 345

6. We may place next m rank seyeral obituary inscriptions;' as that on the
tables of Penteucan marble found by Galland, 1678, in a church in Athens ; called
sometimes the inscription of Nointel, because thoy were sent by him to Paris ; called
also the marble of Baudelot, because once possessed by him ; of a date about 458
fi. C, and in honor of warriors that had fallen in different places: an inscription* in
six distichs on a monument belonging to Lord Elgin ; in honor of the Athenians slain
at Potidiea when their general Ctulios, B. C. 432, defied the Corinthians under Aris-
tsus, and purchased a victory by death : that' on a large slab of marble in the col-
lection of Elgin ; supposed by ViscorUi, to be a catalogue of the Athenian warriors
who fell in the battle of Delium, B. C. 424, in which Socrates is said to have saved
the life of Xenophon ; according to OsanUf it refers to different battles.

• Mum. TVttite it iXphnibT.i. p. SSI— Iaiov^ MoMfiimor Pnoeb MflmmiD^TVuilaledbf OH^
wilbui^nvliif arib*a«aiiiMatiMtk*7ani4)tirtid aftarllwdMicBiorjL I«iwir,aad of Um ttUHia look dunetm wbkh
M» iipoD Oi— .— JftmiTi Crit. Cinitridifi, No. vt. p. 89 L Due, dct Aaliqow du M<— loyilt par yweBWlt, ■! le Coit* *• CImrmt.
Fax. I880L p. lOS.— * E. Q. VimmM, Laltn da chev. A. Canora, at daoz nMBoirw sar In onnagM de lOilptDn dun )• coUcct. d«
nyL e. d'Elgio. Lmd. I8l&-Cl«tt. Journal. tcI. xit. pw l86.-« Fueanli, Calil. mimiM, ftc m dM k 87.-P«UaMl id
D. Oarii^B Travel* Ihrough ▼wnmm eountria of the Eait, vol. vL p. 968.— Oimn, Sylloge, Jkc (m eitod $ 87) p. Ml

7. Next may be mentioned a number of /iftamriaZ inscriptions:* that discovered
by Chandler in the citadel of Athens, with tne letters arranged ar«ix^d»'. on a mu-
tilated stone, the remaining fragment of which was conveyed to England by Lord
Elgin; detailing the expenses of the state for a full year, B. C. 424 or 414, as dif-
ferently assigned by the critics: that&onthe stone called the marble of Choiseul,
sometimes of Barthelemy, now in the Royal Museum ; containing an account of the.
finances of the repubUc for the year B. C. 410 ; on the reverse of the same marble are
two other inscriptions, also relating to finances : several inscriptions* among those
for which we are indebted to Fourmont, relating to the finances of Athens : seve-
ral inscriptions,^ pertaining to the condition or treasures of certain Athenian temples,
as the Parthenon and others: the inscription* upon what is called the Sandwich
marble, brought from Athens to London, 1739, by the earl of Sandwich ; it is an
account of moneys due to the temple of Apollo at Deles, and of the expenses of the
Theoria or deputation of the Athenians, and is of the year 376 B. C.

• Ctaidp-, IM. iBt p. U. No L-Jbit. JEdM, Stoalibauhaltitiic dor AthoMr. Bed. ISI7, vol. H. p. l82.-» AvMdtmp,
is fte Man. d» TJkad. dm Ai«y. rf BdktUtt. vol. xlviil. p. S37, with « plate ■bowing the iiHmptMn.-wdHf . iTiTcIA, m Jut cited.
>-« BCdJkj VtnL-* W. muifit, AtlHBiaida, or B«ufei « Topog. ud Build, of AtlwM. LonL 1816. p. WL-ChaniJim^
Ihc. AaL— JTcftk, Staalrii. kc— • Ttaylor, Conmeiitar. ad Mannor. SaadiriMoaa. Caatatk. 1743. 4. Claat. Jbwm. si. 184.—
JtartAfltamy, in hi* Tma. ^JtmAntia^ eh. luvi. nolo 181

8. Finally, in speaking of inscriptions previous to the time of Alexander, we will
refer to the two metrical inscriptions, discovered in 1810, near Athens.

One of theie !■ upon a marble cippua. In memory of a hero. Python of Megara, who havlnf
slain leven foei with bia own hand, led back through Bceotia (then hoitUe to Athena) three
Athenian tribea, who owned him aa their deliverer. It ia anterior to Alesander, perhapa about
B. C. SS6, eonaiatintr of nine hexametera, one pentameter, and a fraf^ment of another line, with
the veraea not aeparated, if we may trust to the copy aent to Paria by the French conaul H. Fau-
vel, and not even the worda diatinguiabed.

The other ia of uncertain date ; upon a aheet of lead, folded four timea in the length and three
times in the breadth (its dimensions not given hy Fauvet); found in a tomh; containing a for-
mula of incantation or enchantment avainat a certain Ciesiaa and his famiiy, dooming them to
the infernal deities. **Viaconli declnrea that nothing MkB this singular monument haa been
found among palieograpbic relics. Tacitua, speaking (Jinnal. 11. 69) of the evidence on which
Flao waa charged with canaing the death of Germanicus, says that in the house of tlie latter
were found fragments of human bodies, not quite consumed to ashes, with magic verses, the
name of Germanicus graved on plates of lead, and a variety of those spells which, according to
th« vnlgar opinion, are of potency to devote the aoula of the living to the infemal gods.*'

8ta UoRoira da P/nH. Aiy. dt Frme. CImm fH'tt, tt LiL Aiewmit, vol. L (publ. Psv. 1818), p. S90, vrhers Um two loKrip-
tSoM an «ivai.~Ct SeKO, HVL Litt. Oncqne, livro tli. cfa. vli.

$ 91 L Of inscriptions which belong to later periods in the history of the Greeks,
a greater number have been discovered. We will now mention some, engraved
between the time of Alexander and the Christian era.

1. The inscription on the pedestal of a statue to Jupiter Urius (O^piort. The pedes-
tal waa found by the English travelers Wheler and Spon, in a private mansion in
Chalcedony, and was conveyed to London. I'he inscription consists of four distichs,
presenting not onlv the name of the divinity to whom the statue was erected, but that
of the artist also, Philon, son of Antipater, who was the one employed by Alexander
to execute the statue of Hephestion. The date is of course about 330 B. C.

This monument is the more interesting on account of its relation to a passage in Cicero (\Hrr.
Iv. 57). In speaking of the spoliations committed by Verres, he sayo. there were three cele-
brated statues of Jupiter surnamed by the Greeks I7rt««, all of the same kind ; one originally
found in Macedonia, and removed by Flaminius to the Roman Cnpitol ; another, still standing
At the entrance of the Thrarian Bosphorus (in Panti ore $t angustiis) ; and the third, that seized
by Verres at Syracuse. These s'.aines have all perished ; but the ped^9tal above mentioned
andoubtedly supported the second of them, which stood at the entrance of the Bosphorus.

This iowripriofi i« fooBd ia Cftamllir, Aiili<t AaiaL p. 4B.-fio« alao iha MiMtUaaaa of ^pon, p. SU; tha vopca of IFUv

44

946 ASCHJEOLOOY OF ORBEK LITERATUKE.

pwm;teAaalMte«r»MMi;uid th« AnOMlotr of /Mote. A aiafi eomd cBpr, tolwa ly F. 0mm «• l«»i« h ^. 1".
ffVWfmann, tod /. a O. Sotrde, M'McelUiMa. muL part. eriOa. Hitdob. IBl. vol. i. fk S88^A cepr, faMimik^ni Bi|M*
S are giYca io MlKfc/("«^ 8m. and Prar. Hnt. fak. it.

2 ». The inscriptions on the Herculanean tablets. In 1732, at or near the site of the
ancient Herculaneum, two bmzen or copper plates were found below the surface of
the earth. They are interesting as among the most authentic monuments of the
Doric dialect. One of the tablets gives the dimensions and geometric or geodetic de-
Bcription of a portion of land consecrated to Bacchus, and the contract lor it. The
second contains the description of another portion of land pertaining to Minerva Po-
lias. The plates are now in the museum of Portici: the second is broken into two
pieces, one- of which was formerly conveyed to England. The inscriptions are as-
signed to a date a Uttle prior to B. C. 300.

Sm Mtdk. JAwItatn, TntmtA Brilunieam libalB Hcndeeaik. Nap. I73«b-,ilac: Sym. Mmcki, CoamiMlar. in maam
labnlaa Hmdcraaca. Nap. 1754. M.-fV^ndWnMnM, SoMlaehreiliL veo dan Harcolaiiiaeh. AltwIhaaMn. (Hbnit, bd. H.)—
Iftyrni, Opoae. Acad. v. iL p. 9n.^Wtbb*a AeoMat of a eoppar plata, Ac diaeom*! aav Bancka. Load. 1730. A.^Ptttmgat,
luaeriptfai on llta eoppar table dkcovered aaar Hcnelca. ITS. 4.

3. The inscription which may be called the Olbian decree. It is interesting as a
palaiographic monument of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euidne ; and also
as furnishing some historical and geographical facts. It is a fragment, of nearly two
hundred lines in two distinct parts, of a decree of the senate and republic of Olbia, a
Greek city on the Hypanis or Buc, in honor of one Protegenes, magistrate and bene-
factor of the city. It is engraved on a cippus of marble, which is preserved at Stol-
noie, in the government of Tchernigov, Russia. Its date is not certain, but has been
placed between 278 and 250 B. C.

Tbe Imcriprkm waa paUiabed hj P.dt KCfrptn, ia the memr JaArkUdur dcr Literatiir, ««l. as. I82S,— abe in tbe w«k
f/oHfoUdt da Ponhu, Wiao. ICZS. &-II appeared likewbe vadcr the title Qtbudke* PmpMm^ lu £biwi doa PiolMScnca.
Wwn. isa. 8.— lfall»>J»im baa a Iraoilalion of It la Freaeb, wttb corrcelioaa and obaervalkMia, In tbe dIniuUat dat Fiifava^ vol.
u.p. 118.

4 H. The inscription called the Chronicon Parium, in the oollection of Anmdelian
or Oxford Marbles, brought to England from the island of Paros, by Thomas How-
ard, earl of Arundel, and given by him to the University of Oxford. It is a monn-
nient of great value in reference to Grecian Chronology, as "it fixes the dates of the
most remarkable events from the time of Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the
Great.'* Its date is supposed to be about 268 B. C.

" The ^rundtUan marUa snfllclently prove for what a variety of porposet InMrlpllont on stone
were used among the anclenta. Some of the inMriptlons on them record ireatiee ; othem, the
victories or good qunliiiea and deedi of diBtingulehed pereoni ; othera, miecellaneoua events.
Moat of them, however, are sepulchral. By fhr the moat important and celehraled is the Parian
Chronicle." {Libr. of Uuful Knowledge^ Life of Caxton.)

Tbe aditon Afalm, PridtauXj and Mattain (cited below), hare made Icaroed reaeardMa upon Ibia aobjeet ; an alio PabmmOt
ia hi* work caficM Aeamfol. <n Jiuetant Omooa. Ultraj. 1604. <.—RotmUon baa eodeafoared lo lalae doubla caocvalait the
■ufbealidijr of Iheae laaerip«iona, ia a woric eotitled The Parian ClamtieU, with a diaaartatioa coaearBinc iti anibcatfcMy. Load.
178a 8. In oppmitioa to tbi*. aee HtuMPa Vindkatioa of the autbraticiiy of tbe Farias Cbroaieie. Load. ITSa a ; PanmH
Bcview of RoberHoo^ Diwertaiioti, in tbe JTovuMy Aetna, ITFO. p 690; A. Gaugh, Vindieatien, ke. in Aniatclogim (u cited
t 212. 3.) vol. Iz. p. 157 : aod /. C. ITerm-, Die PariMlie Chronik. Gott. 179a a-Tbe Chroaide waa fint puMmbed br StUm,
Vfinaan AnuKteiiaaa. I.Aiid. 1628. 4. ; afterwarda by Pndtaux, I^nnon Ozoniemia. Oiee. 16T6. fol. ; M^tain, Marmoia
Oaoaientia. Load. ITSl fol Append. I7JS.; OmndUr, Minnon Otooiemia. Oxoa. 176a fU.; ICafncr. a« Joat citod; Wi
BoberU. OxL 1791. Tba iaaeription ii fovBd witb an Eofliab veniaa in SaWt Analjala of Cbronolofy. It ia given alao is JK
Aunall, Coaneetioa of Sac. aad fnL Hiat. Load. 1827. 8d voL p. SSI, witb a apeeiaiaa of Ibe maaaer of arritiaf, p. 187.

5. We may notice here the Milesian inscription. It was found and copied by W.
Sherard, among the ruins of a temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus. It is a
letter of Seleucus Calliuicus, king of Svria, and his brother Antiochus Hierax, king
of Asia, addressed to the overseers of tne temple, when (243 B. C.) they had made
peace with Ptolemy Euergetes I. king of Egypt. It is accompanied with a catalogue
of presents consecrated by them to the god.

See OdthuU, Antiq. Aaial. p. O.-SeKU, Litt. Gr. bk. iv. eb. xzvL

6. The inscription of Cyretiae. It was discovered in the valley of Titaresius, not
far from Larissa in Thessaly, by Col. Leake, who published a notice of it in the year
1815. It is a letter of Titus Quintius Flaminius, addressed to the people of Cyrotis,
bestowing certain favors upon them. It is without date, but is assigned to about 195
B. C; and is interesting cniefly as a monument referring to the Roman conquests in
Greece.

Tbia iBarriptioB via pSUMed by Fiaeanlf is tbe Jaamal dm Saaana, ISia p.3i.-Alae by laafte Is VbtCkurioaiJamnaL
CC vol. aiii. p. ISa xiv. p. 3S9l

7. One of the most interesting inscriptions is that known by the name of the Ro-
^tta Inscription, or the Roaetta Stone. It was discovered during the expedttion of
Bonaparte m Egypt about the vear 1800. As a party of French troops were digging
for the foundations of a fort at tlosetta, they disinterred a large block of black basalt

p. IV. INSCRIPTIONS. 347

containing the remains of three inscriptions. This stone afterwards fell into the hands
of the English, and was deposited in the British Museum, London. A considerable
part of the first inscription was wanting ; the beginning of the second and end of the
third were mutilated. The third only was in Greek.

It !■ a gort of decree of the Egyptian prleite In honor of Ptolemy V. Eplpbanes, In date beln;
the year in which he began his reign, B. C. 193. It recounts the ntifimor&ble deeds nf hia minority,
and pledges the erection of a statue to him in every temple ; and what is especially remarltable
on account of the results to which It has led, adds, that this decree was ordered to be engraved
In three different characters, vix. the Ortek^ the Enchorial^ (i. e. the common Egyptian letter),
and the 8acred or Hieroglyphic. This triple inscription, therefore, presents a specimen of hiero-
glyphics with an authentic translation ; and is the fonndaiiun of the celebrated discoveries of
Chanipollion (^ 16). The proper names, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, occurring in the Inscription, fur-
oislied the clue, and the phonetic hieroglyphs which form these names were first discovered. By
means of ihese hieroglyphs, other names of Grecian kings and queens written in hieroglypblps
were deciphered, and thus at length the value of all the phonetic pictures or signs was ascer-
Uined.

For « mora ftdl Mcoant of (he wiovn eflbrto sad iIoim eoaneeted wifli thit diaeovery, we SchSa, HM. Lith Gr. U*. U. eh. zirL*
ariurfk TnuBlBtkm of Onpft dtcd \ 18.— yfrno*. Quart. Jbe. No. ii.— for. QMorf. Rat. No. ?iii. uir. xaSu—EHnh. Jtah
No. Isoli. xe.-4«pplcneDl to Aieydop BriUtmi. Art. £np<.— Ct BiU. Jbtptt. and (fHMfi. Obt. Jaly, 1836, p 040.— mMnitiiC
JBiak Jaly. 1841} April, 1842^— Marqnie Spimteft LectarM, Load. 1810.— CoqbI Raitiano, ElodM ear rEcrilnr^ kc do TEgyplo.
nr. 1834.— fiAan"*' E|7P<'na iMcriplioiw, Load. 1896 ^JrnimlUy Tabobe Rooottuni Hioraglypbiae, te. Ncop. 1880.^/amMDf,
FQodoncBta RemeaeHticK Hicrogiypbica cryptieB TOterum geBliun, ke. Neap. I83a Of. CtUUman, ae died § I& I.

The Greek liocrtplioo waa publiabod by OnmoOU Ann, andcr ibe lille. The Omk Faction of Mc Daerm ef fAc Bgypti^ PrUdt,
#6 fnoiB the aloDe imcribed la the nered and w«l(ar Egyptiati, kz, Load. ISU.— Subtequaatly, the three laMripdoDB «rora emraved
by the London Socitty of jbUiqiiaria, each iatrriplioo of its original siaa. Proia ihcM eof rarian lithographic eopiet were pab>
liihed asder the titles humptio ftraatiiqptA, kc la lapide aigro propc Roeettan lafeale, ke. Mooachli. 1837. foL— ^ copy of tbo
iHcriptioB M alao cootaioed la /. SdiiichUrnBf U«b«- die bey Roeette lefuadrae dreyikche laKhrift, MOacfaoa, I8I& 4.

8. The Inscription on the pedestal of the obelisk of Philc. This stone was discovered by IK
J. Banket In 1810; and, with the obelisk, waa transported to England by Balioni. Like the
Bosetta stone, this monument contains also an inscription In hieroglyphics J which, although
not a repetition of the Greek, yet has affbrded aid in deciphering the hieroglyphic system of the
Egyptians. The Greek is a memorial addressed to Ptolemy VII. Euergetes and to his wife and
sister Cleopatra, by the priest* of Ma in an island near Philo In the Nile, requesting protection
for the temple and servants of the goddess against the civil and military officers.

It iTM pobliahed ia the Jottrn. da Savant. 1821. p. 657. 1822. p. 218.- Alao bj iMrannt, aa died $ »2. 3.

9. The inscription of the Marbles of Cyzicus. The French consul, de Peysonnel, in
ihe latter part of the lost century conveyed to France a number of marbles, which are
known by this name. The exact date of their inscriptions is not ascertained ; bat
they are monuments belonging to the period of the Macedonian supremacy, not long
before that of the Romans. The most interesting of the inscriptions is a decree of the
senate and people of Cyzicus, passed on the request of three colleges of priestesses,
authorizing the erection of a statue in honor of a priestess of Cybele.

See Count it Coyiiu, Reeaeil d'Aatlqailea, vol. ii. pw I9S. p). llx.

In connection with the marbles of Cyzicus, it may be proper to refer to a marble found at the
site of ancient Cius, which was near to Cyzicus. It was removed to France by Count de Choi-
seul-Goufller, and Is now In the Royal Museum. The Inscription consists of nine bexametors
well preserved and two nearly effaced. The date Is uncertain, but belongs to the time of the
Ptolemies in Egypt; and the inscription Is chiefly Interesting as illustrating the connection
between several of the Egyptian deities and those of the Greeks.

It waa poMiabed laaeeoratdy, bj Poeoekr, loacrip. p. SOt and liy Jfurofori, laie. Aatlq. T. L p. 75. aa riled § I90L Three tiaM
by Joeote, AaihoL vol. >». p. 298. vol. xHi. p. 788^ Aatbolacie PaUtioo, vol. ii. ^ 84«.-aee abo £. J. /. Duboit, CaiaL d'Aatiqwi
«c fenaaat la called, de lea Ii. U Conta de CAciMidOou#«r,-Fte. 181S. & p. 74.

10. The Acarnanian inscription. It is on a stone discovered by Pouqueville, at Ac-
tium, in 1813, and acquired celebrity from its having found a learned expositor in
France. It pertains to the time when the Roman armies appeared in Greece. It is a
decree of the senate and people of Acamania, proclaiming the brothers, Publius AcUiua
and Lucius AciHus, as their friends and benefactors.

The ivcriplkNi ta (ivea la F. C. B, L. FouqmvOb, VoyafO de U Grace. (Par. 1816. 6 vote. 8. avce cartaa, ke.) vol. Ui. p. 4«BL—
The couBnta or JtoinoiMdt aro faoBd ia hb edition or the kttcra of iMes* IbMmui^ ltei% 1817. a— CL a^
svIL p. 8661

11. The inscription called the decree or Psephisma of Cuma. It belongs to the time
of Augustus. It is a decree of the senate and people of Cuma in .^olia, in honor of
Lucius Labeo, a Roman citiien, who refused divine honors and the title of Krfvrnt pro-
poeed by them, and to whom therefore they determined to erect statues and assign the
first place at public spectacles. It consists of sixty lines, and was the largest inscrip-
tion of the kind known to have escaped the ravages of time before the discovery of the
Olbian decree noticed above (3) .

9ce Comtt dt Caybtt, Rccoeil d*AatiqaItei, voU 11. pi. 68, p. 179^

$ 93 1, We notice in the last place a few of the Greek inscriptions which have
been preserved belonging to periods subsequent to the Christian era.

1. That on the tablet called the Marble of Colbert. This tablet is two feet six inches

B4S ARCHiEOLOGT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

long and one foot six inches wide ; it was found at Athena in the 17th century. The
inscription belongs to the reign of Tiberius. It is interesting as it contains a list of tha
magistrates of Athena, the archon, the basileus or kinc, the jpolemarch, the theemothe-
tffi, the heralds, &c., who were in office in the consulship ot Dnisua, A. D. 15.

A CittHy cepjr of tbm taKription it fouiid in Spon'$ Voyagi^ voL ill. p. 106; om oiim eomet ia Mpwf/Sinan, rtimgi^Aii&
GnMif p. 140.

2. The inscription respecting the Galatian spectacles. It was discovered by Toume-
fort at Ancyra in Galatia, and belongs also to the reign of Tiberius. It commemorates
the games and sporta given to the people of Galatia during the space of a vear. Tho
first part of the inscription, which probably contains the date and occasion of the shows
is illegible.

ThniMcripiionaiirbefgaBdalwbir0»rf/aueon,MMgnphkOnBeii, p. 154.

3. The Egyptian inscriptions in honor of Roman emperors. Several have been dis-
covered; as* that on the portico of the celebrated temple of leis at Tentynit near
modern Denderah, in honor of Augustus (aa interpreted by Letronne) ; that* on a
temple at Tentyra, dedicated to Venus, in honor of Tiberias ; thate in honor of Nero
fouiid in the vicinity of the Pyramids ; those in honor of Trajan,' one upon a portico
at Chemnis or Panopolis, another on a gate of a temple of lais and Serapis at Cysis, in
the grand Oasis; that* on the pedestal of the celebrated column called Fompey*$
Pillar^ supposed by many to be in honor of Diocletian.

« iSromSton, JOffplika — Lttrmnt^ RacbarelM pour ttrvir a Pbirtotra da I'Efjpt paidut I* domimiioa d«i One* at 4« Bo*
DoiiM. Hr. 1833. 8. Itc p. 155.— CAomfollioii-IHccae, Leitn ■ M. Foarier, lur I'liac. grccqiM da Dewlcnli. Greaobla, I|^—
4m. Quart vol. \w.-* Nkbukr, loacripUoiM NubiaoMa.— lalnmiM, Raeharchaa, ke. p. ITS.— /fsmitton, Sgyjuiuk, p. tOt.-
• latraniM, p. »8.-QNaf(. Rn. mi. p. m.-d iMrnnm, p. 193, 210.— CSanttal /ovnol, ISII.— • Ciattieal Journal, vol. ziU.
— & D. aark»'$ Trmvala ia nikm eoaatria^ ftc pL U. ) iL eh. vU.-lM*t, Onak iMoripdaa Pvatftjh Pillar, JrdhMieffJa <aa
cited $58.5), vol. XT. p. da

4. The inscriptions on the pillars of Herodes Atticus. These two pilbrs, of green
marble icipoUino verde) callea by the ancients marble of Carystus, were found at the
beginning of the 16th century, on the Appian Way, about 3 miles from Rome, near
the place called Triopiura. They were removed to the gardens of Farnese, and are
often called the Farnesian Columns. One of the inscriptions consecrates a certain
portion of land to Ceres and Proserpina, and the otner states that the land was
the property of Annia Regilla, the wife of Herodes. The former, in which the an-
cient Atheman manner of writing is followed, has occasioned much discus>ion. The
mscriptiona belong to the age of Marcw Aureliua Antoninua ; Herodes died A. D.
185.

Tbaaa loaeriptioM an reaad in Mtntfauan, Mmcr. Orae. lib. li. p. ia5;-£«iisj, Saolo aniU liBfaa atraacatpl.t. ek «;-
tertsafoni gndu Tfiopm. ceo varaiool ad oaHrvazioai di £. q. rueonti, Rom. 1794. 4 ;— and in the ReroaiM of Heredaa Attieai^
Ullad tiy JL FwiKllo, Uipa. IIOI. B. Sea alao N0U9. TraiU db DirHomaUqm, li. p. 9U.-BCtkh, Cotpoa, Itc-XMaon'* Ontorea
Attiei, «6t. It. (CC P. V. ^ tl9.)-A apwinra <* tba etaanelan, ia ^afenai, TrmL of Oioaya. Hal. vol. U. p. 300^ aa dtad
P. v. §247. a

Thera are two other Inicriptiont, relatfnir to Herodes, which are coneidered &§ very elefrant.
They are upon two square ubielt of while marble (dpoUino bimnem)^ the Penielicnn of the
ancients, quarries of which are eaid to tiave belonged to tbie dielinguiahcd orator. One of them
was found in 1007, on the Appian Way, not far from Rome ; and the other a few years iater In
the same place. They are now in the Royal Museum at Paris. The Arst inscription, in thirty-
nine hexameters, consecrates a sepulchral field to Minerva and Nemesis ; the second, io flAy-
nine verses, celebrates the virtues of Regilla.

Tbaaa mMrical iMcriptioai waia paUiriied iff CL SmimaUe (SalBuaiw), loaeripl. Band. Attic. Par. I6ia 4. Thtj are inaertad
ID /. fllfWis Mianilaaea anid. Aatiqaitatia. Lugd. 1690. 4 ;- MorUalofM, Daaeriniaae daik Vilb Borvhaae («rh«ra the taUaia »m
flaraiariy lodfad in a aaiail (ampla). Bom. lTCOi~Mitt«*«, MiMalL Omc alfaiuec Seriptoram Oannisa. Load. t72a 4 ;-aad la
iba AaUKriof i«a of AwMk aad /aoDAtk

5. The Nubian inscriptions. We refer particularly to those designated by the
names of Monument of Adults j Monument of Axum^ and Memorial of Silco. They are
chiefly interesting as they evince an intercourse between the Greelcs and Christiana
of Constantinople and the countries of Abyssinia and Nubia, in the third or fourth
century.

The Mimvm—t ofMtUit designates two inscriptions, which were first described by the geo-
grapher Gosmas (cf. P. Y. ( 907) as existing at Adulis. One of them was upon a throne or armed
chair of white marble. The other was upon a tablet of basanile (fiaaavirov) or touchstone,
placed near the chair. The latter related to the conquests of Ptolemy Euergetes. Cnsmas sup-
posed both to refer to the same monarch ; the inscriptions, as thus presented by him, have
seemed to critics to involve such difficulties as to Justify them, since the monument Itself is not
now found, in charsing Gosnias with cfedulity or imposture. But the discovery, in recent times,
of the Moniamtnt of Axum is thought to Have removed the difficulty, as it has sucgesled the idea
that the inscription on the eJk«ir did not refer to Ptolemy, but to a Nubian or Ethiopian prince as
late perhaps as the third century.— The MonumeM of Ax%m is an inscription which was found
Among the ruins of Axum (cf. P. I. ) 178) by Mr. Sole, who accompanied I^rd Valentia in hia
travMe in these regibns. It commemorates the victories gained by a brother of Icing Aizanas
over a rebi>llious nation, and furnishes evidence of an intercourse in the fourth century between
Consianiinnple and Abyssinia.— The Memorial vfSiUo was found on a temple In upper Ethiopia.
It ia in honor of the victories of Silco, a king of Nubia and Ethiopia ; a long Inscription, and

r. rr. coins and medals. 349

faiterestfaic particularly from its reference to the introduction of Christianity into these
regions.

TtotwiiiMcriplloBiarAdolU wmpQblMbeduoBe,b7£..«Ua<iiM^RoB.)63l. 4. teftm the TY^MfnipAy 9/ OwmM Ml
bHB priotad.— Iter u« (iTCii IB Ckitkutt, m died ( 87.— Tb« btrt text it bjr Aittmann ; n* Ibe Ifitwvm ttrr Allertbuini-Wb>
■■■ehift, TCi it— ailTf Tranb b AbyHiDn^Tbe iawriptiOB nf A z u m it pablubad in tiw Tnvtb of Lord yiitkutia.-Ab»
Ib On CUm. Joum. roi. L p. SSw Cf. iii 111.— Land. Quart. Rn. il. Il6.-2ta 5acy, inr i'iiucriptioo d'Amn, Id MalrfJtrui^
Anala dw VoraKa, vol. zii. p. asa— TIm infcriptiOB of S i 1 eo it ffivw io J. C. Ni^uhr, InwripL NubisaaiB. Bom. isaa 4.—
Ltbvnnt, EsBBMB de Piaicript (rccqu dun to tanplc d« Taliuii, Ac. par ie roi Nubiea SUoo, io Uae Mtn%. dt r/tirtOiK, C laat*
^Butatttt LiLJnettnm, toL tl. p. 128,— CC. Oou. Antiq. d« U Nubia, eitod f 249. Sb

(b) Coins and Medali,

$ 93. An acqaaintance with ancient coins affords assistance in the pursuits
of classical literature in several ways. We shall here consider them chiefly
with respect to the inscriptions they bear. In this point of view, the Grecian
coins, which now remain, present some of the most ancient specimens of Greek
written characters, and serve for evidences of the different cnanges these have
undergone. But coins and medals may also, by the inscriptions, legends, and
impressions on them, cast very considerable light upon language, criticism^
history, geography, chronology, and even natural history.

1. "Such a number of events have been recorded by ancient medals/' says
Priestley in his Zjectures on History ^ '* and so great has been the care of the modems
in collecting and preserving them, that they now give sreat light to history. It is
remarkable that history scarce mokes any mention of Balbec, or Palmyra, whose
ruins are so famous ; and we have little knowledge of them but what is supplied by
inscriptions. It is by this means that Mr. Vaillant has disembroiled a history whicn
was lost to the world before his time. For out of a short collection of medals he has
given us an entire chronicle of the kings of Syria."

SttJ. P, ytuBantt Seleaeidamm Impoiuoi, aive Uiatoria Bagwn Sjric, ad Pidan NttmianatuaD aeeomnodala. tUgm Coil.
raa UL Fkr. 1881.— The tanw aather atlenpted tbe elucidation of Fkrtbian aod Ecyptiaa bietory by the aid of coint aad medab ;
/. P. FuOawtt Anacidanm Inporiain, tivo Rr|t>m Futbonim Hiatoria, Ae. Far. ITU. 8.— By miim^ Hiatoria Plotam——
XgffA Wiiim. AsHt 1701. foL— He alao wrale opoB Romao coim ; tee f 1S8.

2. A peculiar source of interest to the fancy in studying medals is furnished by the
various symbols impressed upon them. Some of these symbols represent the ancient
deities ; e. ^. the laurel is a symbol of Apollo ; itry and grape, of Bacchus ; the poppy,
of Proserpme ; com, of Ceres ; the olive and also the owl, of Minerva ; the dove, of
Venus ; a torch, of Diana. Other symbols represent countries or cities ; as pomegra-
nate Jlowers, Rhodes ; oust, Athens ; tortoise, Peloponnesus ; toolf's head, Argos ;
bulTs head, Baeotia; crescent, Byzantium. Others represent abstract qualities or
officee ; as a caduceus, peace ; a cornucopia, abundance ; an altar, piety ; the lituus,
or twisted wand, augurship ; the apex, or cap with strings. Pontificate.— See the coins
represented in Plate XL.

S. ** Medals have likewise been a means of tranemittln^ to 11s a more perfect knowledge of
many thingn which we are desirous nf forming an idea of, than any history, by means of verbal
description, cnuld possibly give us. We find upon them iracen ofeust^mthnd swiisiMrs, the Agures
of ancient buildings, instruments, habits, and a variety of things which show tbe state of tbe
mru and conveniences of life, in the age wherein the medals were struck ; and many things in
nsCsrf which historians have passed unnoticed, as being familiar In the times in which they
wrote, or have omitted as not being aware that they would ever engage the curiosity of after
ages.

**lt is also very amusing to view upon medals the features of the great men of antiquity;
which, if they were slrnck in an age in which the arts flourished, as Is the case with many of
tlie Roman, and particularly of the Grecian medals, we can have no doubt but that they are
sufficiently exact. And even If they were struck in an age which did not excel in the arts of
painting, statuary, and carving; yet, as faces are chiefly drawn upon coins in ]»rif/Ue,any person
who has taken notice of »kadow§, may conceive that a very striking likeness may easily be hit
otr in that way. However, in general, so extremely exact are the drawings of most single
objects upon the old medals of the best ages, that even those fkmous painters Raphael, Le Bruyn.
and Rubens, thought it worth their while thoroughly to stndy them, and preserve cabinets or
them. And indeed the generality of figures on many of the Grecian medals have a design, an
stiitude, a force and a delicacy, in the expression even of the muscles and veins nf human
figures, and they are supported bv so hiirh a relief, that they infinitely surpass both the Roman
medala and most of tbe moderns.*^ iPriettUy, as above cited. Lect. vi.)

$ 94. We cannot determine, with certainty, either the precise time when
money was first coined in Greece, nor the country where it was first introduced
Ancient writers differ in their accounts. The point of precedence has bee^

2G

PLATE XL.

p. XV. COINS AND HBDALS. 351

asserted by different authors in favor of the Lydians, the ^ginetans, the Thessa-
hans, and the Phoenicians, as being the first, who used coined money.

1 «. Homer makes no mention of coined money ; which renders it probable that
during the age of this poet, or at least in the time of the Trojan war, such money did
not exist, and that excnanges were made by barter, or by the use of pieces of metal,
whose weight and value were determinea at each exchange, or by the merchant's
mark. The earliest notice of such a use of metal is in a passage of Uenesis (xxiii. 16)
referring to the bargain which Abraham made with king Abimelech, for a portion of
land.

2. The Lydians, B&ya Miff ord, "were the first people known to the Greeks to
have exercised retail trades, and the first who struck coins of gold and silver. Coins
are singularly adapted to convey to late ages and distant countries exact information
of the progress of art and taste ; and the exact coins of the Lydian kings, the oldest
known to exist, exhibit remarkable proofs of the elegant taste and excellent work-
manship of their early era."

Sm midUtri, iKlHBolocia minarte. Lip. 1T40. 4.-£dUM, Doctrioa Nob. V«L Pndflc. ot^ iu. dtod f 9B. l.-JUn<k Bah.
jLollqnltia, bT UpluiB, f 1 15.— AtrcnV BtflacL p. 198, u cited § 40.

$ 95. Of the Grecian coins still vexistin^, some anthors regard those of
Phidon, king of Argos, who lived shortly after the time of Homer, as of the
highest antiquity. Strabo (lib. viii.) and the Arundelian Marbles testify that
this king coined money in the island of ^gina. But it is doubtful whether the
silver coins stamped with his name, of which there is one in the royal collection
at Berlin, were struck during his reign, or after his death for the purpose of
perpetuating his memory.

1 V. The coins of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, who lived about the time of Cyrus,
if genuine, may be considered as amoBS the most ancient which have been preserved.
The characters which we find upon their reverse, B.AMIMTOT.M. (cf. Plate aL. fie. 4.,
may be explained thus, BaaiXltos 'h^ifirov Mavc^tfywi'. A golden Cyrenaic coin of De»
monax, who was sent from Mantinea to settle the affairs of Cyrene, in the time of
Pisistratus, would seem to be still more ancient, had it not the appearance of being a
medal stamped at a later period as a memorial.

2 w. When the characters upon Grecian coins are found written from right to lef^
it is quite probable that they are of high antiquity, particularly when the devices upon
them show a rude state of art. Of this class there are a number of coins of certain
cities in Magna Gnecia, as Sybaris, Caulonia, Fosidonia, and some ancient Sicilian
coins from tne cities Leontium, Messina, Selesta, and Syracuse. But there are
man^r coins bearing the names of Theseus, Achilles, Hector, Ulysses, &c., wliich are
certainly not of a very ancient stamp.

Sm W. Jacob, Hbtor. Inquiry into tte PmdneikiB and CoorampUoo of ttia Predooi MadOh Load. 18S1. S vol*, a (Vol. i.
^ 14&)-Bqiwkll7 nt MUlkr, ArcbaolofM dm- Kaoit, ciM i 38. 4.

3. The following table, from the British Encyclopsdia, presents a chronological
clasfflfication of ancient Greek coins.

** 1. ThMe withnut impr^ition.^S. With one or more hollow indented marki on one tide,
and an imprrstinn in relief on the oiher.^Of Chalcednn on the Hellespont, Letlrai, Abdera la
Thrace, Aeanthue in Mncf don, thoee said to b«>long to JEf'mm In Acliaia or JErina, having tba
figure of the tortoise. This cla»s continues from about 900 to 700 B. C— 3. With an Indented
square divided into segnienm, having a small figure in one of them, the rest blank, wiih a figure
in relief on the obverse. — Of Syracuse and other places adjacent. — Continue from 700 to 000
B. C— 4. Cqins hollow on the reverse, with figures in relief on the obverse. — Of Caulonia, Cro-
tona, Metapontum, &.c. Supposed by some to be a local coinage of Magna Grccia : but probably
of equal antiquity with the former.— 5. Coins in which a square die is used on one side or bota
aides.'-Of Athens, Cyrene, Arirns, &e.-^f Alexander I. and Arcbelaus I. of Macedon. Disused
In the reisn nf the latter, about 420 B. C— 6. Complete coins, both In obverse and reverse, occur
first In Sicily in th«4 time of GpIo, about 491 B. C— Coins of Alexander Ihe Great and his suc-
cessors. About the time of this hero the Greek coins began to attain to perfection, and were
struck of nncommnn beauty. It is remarkable, that on the coins of this monarch his own Image
seldom occurs. After his death many coins bore his portrait. Trebellini Pollio informs us that
some coins, particularly those of Ale.xnmler, used to be worn as amulets ; and many medals are
met with in cabinets bored seeminfly with that intention.— 8. Coins of the successors of Alex-
ander.—Those of thii Syrian mnuarc'hs almost equal the coins of Alexander himself in beautf.
The Egyptian Ptolemies are somewhat inferior.— 8. The coins of the Arsacidae of Parthia done
by Greek workmen.— 10 The Greek imperial coins, being such as have the head of an emperor
or empress ; such as have not these impressions being classed with the civic coins, thougll
atrnck under the Roman power. None of the imperial coins occur in gold. Of silver there are
thoee of Antioch, Tyre, S|<ion, Tarsus, Bcrytus, Cesarea. The Greek imperial brass coins ate
very numerous. A series of almost all the emperors may be had from thoee of Antlocb, with a
Latin kigend on the obverse and Greek on the reverse."

$ 96. The number of Grecian coins of gold now existing, is not great; proba^
biy thpre is not one Attic gold coin whose genuineness can be proved ; but their
Yariety in size and denomination, together with the testimony of anthors, is evi-

ARCHAOLOOT OF GREEK LITERATURE*

dence that many were struck. They bore the general name of xf»>obt t9ti6fjfu>t,
gold stamped. Of silTer coins we have a very large number, of different values.
The most ancient of both kinds have the purest metal. Ordinary small coin,
as well as memorial devices, were made of copper; and at Lacedemon and
Byzantium, of iron.

1 tt. The largest coin in common use was the Staler; and the smallest, the Leplon.
One of the brazen or copper pieces of middling size, in most common circulation, was
the ChakuSf of which the Lepton was but the seventh part. Of golden coins the
Chrysus <xpwo9s, eupp. ararfip) was one of those most in use. The Medallions, or
pieces which were distributed as tokens of gratitude or flattery, at public games or
other solemn festival occasions, were of a laree size and usually of finer execution.

2. A great number of ancient coins have been discovered. One reason of their
preservation was the custom which the ancients had of burying one or more coins
with their dead, to pay Charon for their passage over the Styx. (Cf. P. II. ^ 34.)

"From PhlHon of Arfoi to Conttantine I. are 36 Kenerationt ; and from Magna Orccla to the
Eophratet, from Cyrene to the Euxine Sea, Grecian arte prevailed and the inhabUantu amounted
to about 30,000,000. There died, tberefore* In that time and region, not leM than ten thousand
mllllone of people, all of whom had coins of one tort or other buried with them. The tomha
were aacred and untouched, and afterwarde neglected, until modem curloeiiy or chance began
to diacloee them. The urn of Flavia Valentlna, in Mr. Townley'a capital collection, conUined
aoTsn braae colne of Antoninus Plus and Eieagabalus. Buch are generally black, f^om being
burnt with the dead. The best and fh'eshest coins were used on these occasions, from respect to
the dead ; and hence their fine conservatton. At Syracuse a skeleton was found in a lomb with •
beautiful gold coin in Its mouth ; and innumerable other instances might be given, for hardly is a
funeral urn found without coins. Other Incidenu also conspire to furnish us with numbers of
ancient coins, though the above recited circumptances be the chief cause of perfect conserva-
tion. In Sicily, the silver coins with the head of Proserpine were found In such numbers as to
weigh 600 French llvres or pounds. In the 16th century, 60,000 Roman coins were found at Mo-
dena, thought to be a military chest, hid after the battle of Bedrlncum, when Otho was defeated
by Vitelllus. Near Brest, in the year 1760, between VA and 30,000 Roman coins were found.'*

Yet the number of difemt coins preserved is not so great as might perhaps be expected fVonB
w. _._ — . 1^ number of ancient coins of diflferent Impressioni ' ' "*

ind by F
very little, a collection of 30,000 might lay claim, it Is said,' to considerable completeness. Tbft

the above remarks. The whole number of ancient coins of diflbrent Impressions Is estimated by
Pinkerton at 80,000, and by Eckhel at 70,000 ; and as many of these differ f^om each other but

whole number of Greek and Roman coins has been estimated at about M,000; including about
3,000 of gold ; and 6,000 of sUver ; with 31,000 of brass or copper.— Cf. ) 135. 1

' i 97. The inscriptions, particularly upon the more ancient coins, are ordinarily
Tery brief and simple, containing only the names of the cities or princes that
struck them, and often only their initials. Upon the coins of the later Asiatic
monarchs, the inscriptions are more full. They are placed sometimes around
the border of the piece, sometimes in the center of the reverse; sometimes apon
both sides of a figure, a head, vessel, or the like ; sometimes at the bottom,
within a segment, a section line, or what is called the exergue. Insoriptions
filling the wliole of the reverse, are very rarely found on Greek coins.

1. What is meant by the exergue, as above mentioned, is readily perceived by re-
curring to an example. Thus, m the medal which our PI. XLII. presents, in iig. 6,
the word B r i t a n n i a is the legend; the segment at the bottom, which includes the
inscription S. C, is the exergue.

2u, Upon some Grecian coins we find Phoenician characters, or at least, such as
bear much resemblance to them. The character X is put for the letter Z sometimes,
and sometimes for H. Instead of 3, we find also the character Z. Upon the most
ancient coins the 2 often has the form A/V* and on those of Uter times the form C or
C ' And C is frequently used for Tl the combination C I D for &; and the charac-
ter O for O (as in fig. 4. Plate XL); E is put for H (the latter being employed merely
as an aspirate); O for OT; z for Z; X for K. Upon many coins, especially those
of later dates, both under the eastern and western emperors, we find a combinatioa
of Greek and Latin characters. For instance, we sometimes find S instead of the
Greek C ; R, instead of P ; and F, instead of •.

$ 98. There are Greek inscriptions not only npon the coins of the states of
Greece which were struck while they were in possession of their liberty, or apder
the government of Grecian masters, but also upon the coin of the Greek cities
and provinces after their subjugation by the Romans, and likewise upon the later
coins of Sicily and Magna Grecia. This renders a knowledge of the Greek
language the more indispensable to every amateur in collecting medals and coins.
-—The coins of Greek cities under the Roman dominion sometimes have on one
side a Greek inscription and on the other Latin.

^ 99 ». Of the works upon Numismatics, such, that is, as will serve for an intro-
duction to the sdenoe of coins and medals, or contain copies of the coins and the ne

p. IV. MANUSCRIPTS. 353

oeasuy explanations, we will mention here some of the principal ; including such as
treat of Roman as well as Grecian coins.

1. Amouf the mora eztawi?« woria ara the followiog i—Ez. 5jpanA<mi^ DiweitetioDM de pnatuitia ma NuniMistom ftntiqw
nm. Loud, et Auwlerd. 1717. 2 tolt. bi.— /oA. EcUttl, Doctriu Nummorun Vctenim. Vindob. 1792. m. 8 vote. 4. ImporUnt
■ddithMH to Ihii wtn pobliahed in 1826. **0. HBrmann |«ronouored Eekhei^ Ui« Mad notk on tbe lubjecU"— /. C. Mfoaelm,
haiean Uaivcna Bai Nuna/ia Vetenun. Lipt. I78&. m. 10 vnla. 8.

L Tta fbUowiog trot the mluect law full j :-/. £ve2y>i, on Mcdate, Ancient and Modem. Load. 1897. M.-L. Jobtrt, U Sci>
caoe de* uetUiliaa antique* et Bodenwh avec det rem hist, et crit. (par /. Bimard dc la Au(i«). Air. 1730. 2 voli. 8.—/. C.
Jteac^ KeuDtnm aniiker Maonn, naeb den GruDdalizen dei P. Johai und dee Hrn. dt la Battit, mit neueo VerbeacntngcB.
Namb. 1773-79. S Th. 8.— (|V. Jini. Zaeoaria) hiituztone antiquario— namlimatica o ita lotrodux. alio (tudio degli aatkh*
MedaflieL Rom. 1772. 8. (I Bdix. aeereKiata di on laitera del P. FtenudU Veaet. 1795. 8}-Brann. /Vtftdk, NotitJa detnev
tu-ia BumieaataflD. Own Agg. Viennc, 1758. 4.—Eju$d. Utiillat Ret Numarue Velerii, eompendio propoaila. (a. n. D^iO). Vi
•nan, 17SS. 8.— £^nL Qualuor Teotaiuiaa in Be Numuia Vetera. Viena. 1737. 4.— A'nJkerfon, Esaaj on Medala. Load. 1789.
8 tola. (Very vahaiUa.) Of. Load. Quail. Rev. i. 1 12.— Kinuoio^ Companioa and Coin Collector^ Gwdt. Lood. 1797. 12.—
F, aMk/UtgrvB, AnnalM dap fnanunlco Nuoiiaaatik. Leipc and Gotba. 1804. 1806. 2 Mia. 4.— Ay lA* mum^ OeMbichta dee
Studioais dtr altea MOnzkanda. Maochen, 1811. 4— C. L StUglUt, Arehl«k«iaebe UntorhaltaB«en. Leipi. ll<80. 8. (9d div
treat* gf Aneieat otins) —D. Sutini, Cianea geoeralea aeu nteoeta velui arbium, pop. et regnm, oidiae geogr. et chronol. daacripia.
•diL 2d. Florrat. I8Z1. 4.— «^clterman, Nmnlimatie Manual. Lond. 18113. 12.

%. or werka nriib platea, iDeludinf Greek eoina, tbe followinf are uaoan tbe moct important :— Autett OoUxUy dc Re Nunarift
Antiqaa (^wrm qna extant Caivena. Aatwerp. 1708. 6 Tola, fol— iV. F. fToym, Teaaoro Brilanieo, OTero Mueo Nomaria Load.
17l9-aa S vola. 4.— 4. #". Qorii Miaaoni Floraalinum, a* cited ) 191. vol- 4th.— Jii. kc Oemiri Nuniamala Gneea re^ni atqua
vireniB Ulaet e. camnentario. Tigari, 179& fol ^Ejutd. Numiaoiata Graaca popaloram et uibian. Ibid. 1738. fol.-CjitfA
If aaiinaala Bmgam Macedonia. lb. 1788. IbL— PtBm'n, Recoeil de* medallle* de* Roi* dee people* et de* rille*, arec lei Supplo>
aeaa. Fv. I768-7& 10 voIb. 4.— Jtfofnan, Miicellaaea Naoiinnatica. RoaMt, 1774. 4 nda. 4.— MOiftn, Bccaeil de quelqaee
MedaHle* Oreequee iaeditia. Par. IBI2.-r. £ Ifienntf, DcMiriptioa de medaillea antique*, Gncqoe* et Roaaaim. Fikris 1806-lS,
€ Totk 8. Suppleatent, Pari*, 1819-22. 2 vol*. & ** oontaining owra than «),000 imprcaioaa of nadata.'* (FaitrottiUoe, French
Librarian, p. 810).— C P. London, Nnmiaraatiquei de Vojai^ da Jeone Anacharaia, oa Medaillea dee bean tem* de la Grece. Par.
1818. 2 tola. 8L— Jterttebmy, Eaiai d^iaa Meosraphie Numismatiqao. Afen. Aead. htm, toL uiv. p. 90. zIviL p. 140.— Fo/
•Ihar Rifcreooei, lae 8ulza*» AU$. Thaor. article adkaumUnce.

(c) Manuseripti.

$ 100. We mast consider the copies of the prose and poetical writing^s of the
Greeks as among the most valuable monuments of their literature. By means
of these we are made acquainted, not only with their history, but also with
their whole genius and character, and with the most valuable models in every
variety of style. It is to the discovery of these, that we are, in great measure,
indebted for the revival of letters. — Although most of the Greek writings extant
have already been published and circulated by means of the press, yet the differ-
ent manuscripts which are in our possession, and particularly the more ancient,
are of much value and utility to the critic.

$ 101. In point of antiquity, inscriptions and coins claim a superiority over
manuscripts. Of the latter, if we except the HerculaneaA rolls and a few
Egyptian Papyri (§ 107), there does not now remain a single copy, which was
made during the life of the author, or which was transcribed directly from the
original manuscripts. The most ancient, now existing, are not dated farther
back than the sixth century; and but few of these can be referred to so early a
date with unquestionable certainty.

1 u. We must attribute the loss of the earlier manuscripts, partly to the destructi*
bility of their material ; partly to the polirical and physical disasters which befel Greece ;
and partly to the ignorance and superstition of the middle ages, and the consequent
contempt for these monuments of literature. The practice of obliteration also occa-
sioned losses. Manuscripts still exist whose original writing was effaced that they
might receive other compositions ; such are those termed codices Palinmsesli (^ 84) .
Some losses must also be ascribed to the carelessness of the first publishers ; who
printed directly from the manuscripts and thereby spoiled them ; or after committing
a work to the press, viewed the manuscript as useless.

3 If. Notwitnstanding this destruction, and perhaps through the very ignorance and
neglect of the owners of collections then existing, a large number of Greek manuscnpts
were preserved, especially in convents, abbeys, and cathedrals. Some of these cer-
tainly belong to the middle ages, in which there were a few men of information and
lovers of ancient literature, while others for the sake of gain employed themselves aa
copyists. Many of these manuscripts were written during the dawn of the revival of
letters, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and in thp first half of the fifteenth
century, for the use of colleges and of the literati. Even for some time after the in-
vention of printing, while the art was yet imperfect and not extensively cultivated, the
practice of copying manuscripts was continued.

Sea Iba work of Oiann, cited §S8i2bylar,Giladi 68; AUIont, cited ( 8S. L

45 2o2

854 ARCHJEOLOOT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

4.

§ 10*2. To become well acquainted with manuscripts, and to fix their precise
dates, is very difficult. Upon this point we cannot lay down rules, which shall
be applicable in every case, and perfectly decisive. There are only some gene-
ral external marks, by which the ag^e of tlie manuscript is to be determined with
any considerable degree of probability. We must form our decision by the
characters used in writing, by their size, their spaces, the direction of the letters,
the abbreviations and contractions, and by the whole exterior of the manuscript.

$ 103. In a question respecting tlie author of a work, or the age in which he
lived, more reliance can be placed on the internal evidence, which is presented
by the subject, the style, and the historical statements and allusions. Some-
tiroes we 6nd the name of the author, and the date of the copy, at the close of
the manuscript; but usually only the name of the tranacribtr. Often we may
be satisfied from internal evidence, that a work was not composed by the reputed
author, while we are still unable to point out the real author, or the writer of
the manuscript.

$ 104. We shall here limit ourselves to a mention of some of these external
signs, for the sake of example. The most ancient Greek manuscripts, as well
as inscriptions, are written in capital letters {lilerse unciala()^ without any space
between the words, and without signs of punctuation. Accents and aspirates
were not introduced till the 7th century; the capital letters in the 8th and 9th
were a little longer and had more inclination and slope. At this period, they
began to make contractions, and a smaller style of writing commenced. After
the 12th century, new characters and abreviations were introduced, and greater
variety appeared in the forms of the letters.

1 u. The best manner of becoming acquainted with these charocteristics, is by the
study of the manuscripts themselves. They may be learned also by means ol the
patterns, which Monffaucon has given in his Greek Paltnography. These marks, how-
ever, it must be remembered, are not an invariable and iiilallible criterion of the age
of a manuscript. Often, in later times, transcribers strictly imitated the ancient copies,
and preserved all their peculiarities unchanged.

9. Although the signs of piinctiiatton are siild to have beep devised by Aristophanes (cf. ^59),
they were not used generally in writing, unci! a much later period. Bernhsrdy remarlts thai
** interpiinclion is not found in the manuscripts much earlier than the 6th century.*' — Specimens
of the manner of writing above described, in uncials, without punctuation, are gi'ven in our Plate
XXXVIII. fig. i. and iii.— The two lines of tig. ii! in the same Plate, are designed to show some
of the abbreviations or contractions used In writing. The letters in the upper line (the Plate
being turned upon its side to the right), are employed as abbreviations for the words under them
in the lower line; KC, I. e. lu^ for kurio$ ; IC, i.e. i«, for i$s9u§; XC, i. e. cA«, f«tr ckriaUfs;
IX6lJi i. e. ilemt for ierounUm. I^elters used as abbreviations (cf. $40), commonly, but not
always, had a horizontal line drawn over them; as Is seen in the specimen in fig. iii., where
biC. in the first line, stands/or o iegovs ; but TIM, In the second line, is alpo an abbreviation,
standing for pneumati. Contractions with the mark over them were formerly used in printing.

ArnAordy, Grnndl. xur EncyrlopnlM der Philolnfi«. (p. 126.) Balla, IS32.~-il. Arotir/auem, PalaM>snpb» Gneo. Far.
ITD8. M.-Pftffftr, Qber BadtnoHandiclinrteM (^ Si.)—JtanfurV* MlK«Uanea, meiti diplonulitch. Inlnlts Nanib. 1796. 8.—
Grca n. Mard Bibliotbaea codicum manourriptoruBi, Ac. ('*aactorit>ut.4. M. ZaiuUo et JL Songiovannu/^ Veacl. 1740L fol.—
OaOro^ orthognplijr, CioH. Jburno/, xi. 7. 81.

3. Manuscripts were not unfrequently decorated with paintings or illuminations.
A specimen is nriven in PI. XLI., which exhibits the godacRs Night as beautifully
painted in a MoT of the 10th century, belonging to the Royal library at Paris.

Sc0 Monlfaueon, Palcograpbia, m abort dtcd, lib. i. np. L— Sm alio Jfonf/aueon, Aniiq. Ezpl. as ciM P. U. f 12. S. (tf) ;
«ol i. of Suppl. p. 25, M. ; where be exbiblto Uie penooificaiUoM of the twdte Mentha, u painted ia a US. bdanf ii^ to tbe Im-
perial libraiy at VieDia.->CL | 142. 2.

§ 105. A very profitable use may be made of an extensive knowledge and dili-
gent study of ancient manuscripts. They are of service to the critic in deter-
mining, correcting, and confinning the readings of printed books; and there is
often something to be gleaned even from the copies already examined by others.
By comparing manuscripts we may be prepared to fill up blanks, to discover
false insertions, and to rectify transpositions. And such an examination may
give rise to many critical, philosophical, and literary observations. Writings
may be found also, in searching over the libraries of convents, which have
never been published, and which may have hitherto escaped the eye of the
learned. But in order to profit by the advantages presented by this study^ one
must have much previous knowledge of language, criticism, bibliography, and
ilerary history.
$ 106. It is to the assiduous application of many votaries of classical literature.

^j^rTiTT

p. IV. HANT7SCRIPTS. 355

after the revival of letters, in the discovery, examination, and comparison of
ancient manuscripts, that we are indebted for the best editions of the Greek and
Roman authors. Although their attention was confined chiefly to the criticism
of the text and the settlement of readin$rs, it was laying the foundaliun for all
useful criticism upon the matter and contents, which must depend for its basis
and certainty on such previous researches. The editions thus prepared, in con-
nection with the prefaces and commentaries accompanying them, will serve,
much better than any rules which can be given, as guides in similar efforts, and
as suggesting the best methods of treating this whole subject.

$ 107 /. The following may be mentioned as among the oldest Greek manu-
scripts that are known; the (hdex Jilexandrinus ; the Codex Vatitanus; the
Codex CoUonianua ,• the Oydex Colbertinus t and two manttscripit of Dioseoridea^
preserved in the imperial library at Vienna. All these manuscripts are in the
uncial letter, without accents or marks of aspiration. — ^To these must be added
the Hereulanean Roils, and the Egyptian Papyru

1. The Codex Alexandrinus consists of four folio volumes, containinff the Septuagint
version of the Old Testament, with the Apocryphal books, the New Testament, and
some additional pieces. It is preserved in the British Museum, at London. " It was sent
as a present to King Charles 1. from Cyrillus Lucaris, a native of Crete, and patriarch of
Constantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from England to the Grand Seignior
in the year 1628. Cyrillus brought it with him from Alexandria where it was probably
written." It is referred by some to the fourth century, but by most is considered as
belonging to the sixth. It is written without accents or breathings, or spaces between
the words, and with few abbreviations.

An exact fae-nimiie of the part containinff the New Tentament was published by Dr. Woide,
librarian of ihe Museum, in 1766. In 1S13 a fnc-tsimile of the part cnnt^ii'nin^ the* Psnlmt waa
published by Rev. IT. H. BHber; who was Btibspquenily authorized to publish the rest of the
Old Testament at the expense of the British Parliament.

The Codex Vaticanus contains the Old Testament in the Septuagint version, and a
part of the New. It is lodged in the Vatican library at Rome. It is written on parch-
ment or vellum, in three columns on each page, with the letters all of the same size
except at the beginning of a book, without any division of words, with but few abbrevi-
ations. Some critics have maintained that it was written as early as the founh century ;
but others refer it to the sixth or seventh.

The Codex CottoHianua was brought from Philippi by two Greek bishops, who pre-
sented it to Henry VIII. It wasplaced in the Cottonian library, and a preat part of it
was consumed by fire in 1731. The fragments are deposited in the British Museum,
and are in a very decayed state. Ii is considered as the most ancient manuscript of any
part of the Old Testament now extant, being generally ascribed to the fourth century, or
the very beginning of the fifth. It was decorated with numerous paintings or illumi-
nations.

The Codex Colbertinus contains a part of the Septuogint. It once belonged to the
collection called the Colbert MSS., but is now lodged in~the Royal library at Paris. It
is thought to be a part of the same manuscript with that now in the library oi the
AcHdemy at Ley den, termed Codex Sarravianus. They are referred to the fifth or
sixth century.

On the whole nibjeel of the Maimeripto of Iba nciad SeripturH in Greek, see J. 0. EUthhamy as dted P. V. \ 278.-7 H. Honuy
latndtte. to the Crit. Stwly of the H0I7 Seriptarei. Phil. IF2S. 4 vols. 8. (vol. il. pt. i. ch. ii. §2.)— AUo IV. Cnrptnttr^ Gum!* 10
the RflMding of the Bible (ch. ii. ea giytn bjr Dr. IV. JknkM tod /. IV. /oiJU, in the SttppUnunt to the CompnAeHiwt Commmtary).
-Oa the use of ihe Alexandrine MS. cT. Semlcr, De XM» Cod. Alex. Hallr, ITOa 4.-On that of the Vati'cu MS. cf. Hug, Re
Aatiq. Cod. VaL Frib. 1810. 4.— Fl. XXXVUI. of our illuitntiooi prcMnti, in fig. i. a facsimile of part of the lit vene of Ihe firrt
PniB, u written in the Coder ^femuArinttt.— In fif. iiL we have a CuMioiUe of Idatt xxii. 43, h written in a Codex SueripttOf
•ome time ainee diaoomed in the Ubnry of Trinity Colime, Dublin.

2. The manuscript of DioMorides, in the library at Vienna, is a very curious monument.
It was purchased at Constantinople for Maximilian II. by Busbequius, who went,
about 1550, an ambassador to Turkey. It is said to have been wntten by Julianna
Aniria, the daughter of Flavins Anicius Olybrius, who occupied the Imperial throne
of the west A. D. 472. It is ornamented with miniatures representing plants, birds
and serpents, and the portraits of celebrated phy-^lf-ians of antiquity. The other manu-
script, once in the library of the Augustines at Naples, is now in that of Vienna, and
is considered as of about the same antiquity as the former.

The Vienna iwinuKript ia deMribad by I/imb«tmu, Conmantarinm de au^itimma btbliotheca Caw«a>V!Bdobooea«i, tibri vin.
Vindob. i6S3-l67a. 8 vol*. foL— See SckiO't HiaU Litt. Grrcque, livre v. ch. Uxi.

3. The JTerculanean TtoUs/x. e. the papyri found in excavating Herculaneum, arc
more remarkable for ihtMr antiquity than for their real vnlue, so far as at present known^
although they amounted to 1600 or 1700 in number. Most of them were too much in-
jured to be unrolled and deciphered, many of them crumbling to dust under the hand

956 archjEoloot of geesk litbratvrb.

of the operator. Very great interest and the most sanguine expectations were awakened
in the literary world on their first discovery. But the first-fruits of the indefatigable
toil in unrolling and deciphering were very far from meeting these high hopes ; the
treatise of Philodemus on music being of little value. Piagci and Merli, JVfazocchi,
Sickler, and Sir Humphry Davy, successively applied their Tabors and experimenta
with but poor success.

See Cnma't Nichrichm tar Q«Khiehto der hcrkaluhcbn Entdaekaagni. Rellf, IT79. %.-~BarUe$ Bricfc Star KaUbritn «ld
Sieilkii.— Amulanoiatum ITohunmum que Mpmwint Naip. vol. L ITtt. vd. H. IMt. UA.-^ammmn Mkfttine, !«•. i.~
^Mrf. JBot. vol. iii.— Aicyef. Britann. Suppienntt, ud«r Bveutatman. ^JhthmOttta (m eitid ) 24S S.) wL it. p. 114, «■
ndbod of anralliaf , *e.-Sir H. Itavy, 0b»rf atioiu on Papyri rouad at Horeal»oc«iio, ia Pkdomipk. TVatuatfim* of lb* Rof . toe.
tor ISI, p. 191 ; with p'tm^Fart FaUo, New Sario, vol. ii. p. Ul, ob Arpanhu ftir onrollbf tbt Hertal. FhpTrt.

4. Several popyri^ with Greek writing on them, have been found in Egypt, which are
said to be of more ancient date than any other known manuscripts in ureek. I'hey
exhibit the earliest use of the cursive Greek letter.

Three of these are dated hefare Chrln. The earliest was brought to Europe by M. CasatI in
18S2, and belongs to the Royal library of France. It is sixteen and a half feet lonf and ei|rht
Inches deep, and contains 505 lines. Us date corresponds with the y<*ar B. C. 113. It Is merely
a contract or deed of the sale of a portion of land near Piolemais.-— The next in point of antiquity
contains a siniilnr contract, with a date corresponding to B. <;. 104. Ii was found in a tomb,
and has exercised, in its deciphering, the care of Aug. B^kkh, Phil. Biiltmann, and Itnm. Bek-
ker.— That, which Is ranked next in age, treats of the payment of certain funeral charges, and
is remarkable for containing besides the Greek, an Egyptian writing, in the same character as
appears in the Rosetta Inscription, called enchorial (^>'xc5pia). Its dale Is Judged to be 83 B. C.~
Two oiher papyri are described as wruten in tbo second century after Christ, and all the rest
Chat are known aa written in the fiAb, or later.

8m Schru, HMoin d« U Lilt One. livn t. ch. SO.-^fuf. JfcU, Bitttranc ohcr IfTpt Urfcoado la Ortech. Canlv Sdirift.
kc Bmiia, I8SI. A,—Joum. du Sbmiw, ISI, p^ SSI. XMO, p. US.— JVie. Sdmo, CiMila papf rmo« graM «riplk Mmci Borguoi
ValBlrM. Baai.lTS&d.'OBtlMFKp.npUioedbrBockhiWoMdfm.JhVLVai.LLp.aoS.

5. A number of papyri have also been found containing only Egyptian characten,
either enchoi[ial or hieroglyphic, which are conaidered to be much more ancient than
those just mentioned.

**The most remarkabla of them all, and very certainly the most ancient manuscript known
at this day, contains an act of the flAh year of the reign of Thouthmosis III., the fifth king of

the eighteenth dynasty. Now Thouthoiosls governed Egypt about the time when Joseph

was carried there as a slave: and consequently two centuries at least before the time when

Moses wrote. Is it so very astonisl)^, that the autograph of the Legislator of the Hebrews,

which was an object of veneration to all the people, and was so long and carefUlly preserved
In the ark. could have existed until the reign of Josiah, i. e. about nine centuries after Moses;
when the hypogeumi of Thebes present us with papyri containing certain transactions which
were between private individuals merely, and which extend back 3500 years, and even more."
— Bee OreppOf as cited ^ 16. 1.

OMorihcM papyri, dhcowrvd bjr Chunpolllaa, Is aid to ba«« bom aixty Itet talnglh.— 8oaMqMeisMaiorilwpapfri,lBl!Kyp
Umb cliancter, are pxta, bf fac-timHo, lo Ibe JtloM illiMtniiiiB tha Tnvela of Oaooa In SgjpL Tbo mm* work Mlieea a naM
■cript on dotb, tba mvalope or wrapper of a mvnaqr, eomiaUiic of niaateea pafet, wparated aod bnrdsnd b^ at Bapr vicwaab
Putaoriho wTiiii^iatbaaasnaavBcriplaandoMiaradiBk. TbapktaraaaisiBdUbraoteokmb

0. Mr. Taylor (In his work cited ( 56) remarks, "The most ancient manQscripts extant sra
some copiea of the Pentateuch on rolls of leather ;*' but In thia remark be could not have had
reference to the Egyptian remains above mentioned. No extant Hebrew manuscripts are of so
aneient a date ; although some, which are doubtless of a high antiquity, have been preserved
in the Jewish svnagogues. Dr. Bvehanan procured from the black Jews In Malabar an old copy
of the Law, which he discovered in the record-chest of one of their aynsgogues, in 1606. n
consists of thirty-four leather skins, sewed together, measuring nearly JM) feet, by about S broad ;
the skins are some of them ^rewii, and others red ; soms of them much Impaired by time, and
strengthened by patches of parchment on the back. It now belongs to the Univsrsiiy of Cam-
bridge, England.

Saa Bud»anan'$ Raaaarebca.— JTonii^ aa died abova. Ft i. A. iU i U~JmBr. duart. atgUttr, wU is. p. 6tL

7. The Nestorlans at the village of Koosy, In Persia, have a neat, well preserved copy of the
New Testament, in Ryriac, upon parchment, in small characters t written, according to the date
Inserted by the writer, about A. D. 990. It Is greatly reverenced both by the people and the
priests. SmUh and Dwigkt, cited ) 96. 1. vol. 11. p. S57.— Cf. $ 57.

^ 108. It mav be proper here to mention the libraries, which contain the finest col-
lections of Greek manuscripts. — In Italy. The king's library and the library of tho
Augustine convent, at Navies. The Royal library at Turin. The Vatican libranr and
some private libraries at Rome. Cathedral library at Bologna. Library of St. Mark and
several private collections at Kenic*. That of the Medici, at Florence^ contains one of
the most extensive collections of this kind. The Ambrosian library at Milan. In
Spain. The library of the Escurial. — In France. The Roval or National library
at Paris^ which contains the MSS. once belonging to several other Ubrariea. — In Eng-
land. The libraries at Cambridge. The Bodleian library at Oxford. I'he British Mu-
seum at London. — In Germany. The Imperil library at Vienna. That of the king
of Bavaria at Munich. The library of the council or senate at Leiptie. The libraries
of the dukes of Weimar and Wolfenbuttel. The Royal library of Berlin. That of the
king of Saxony at Dresden.— In Denmark. The Koyal library at Copenhagen.— In

p. rr MANUSCRIPTS. 357

Holland. The Umveraity library at Leyden,^— In Russia. Library of the Synod at
Moscow.

1. Datelk on the mliJMl of Ortek MSS. majr bt fiKud by eoanlliiig Hie foltowing worin t^Bmu MHttfnteim, Raeeulo BiblkK
IbeeMT. OiiiMnm. in qaibai numiKripti eodicei iabeotar ; in bit PalsognptiiaOneia (^ 104).—EjumL BibiiotbcoA BiblkrtbMuiuB
Biiavcriplpnifli Von. Pir. 119. • vol*. foL •* The n«t eomiplete g«iMnl work ; dmervinf ■ mw impnnrail edition." &—
F Aiondt, Uibeniebt der Ontev wo die bekumtetlen griech. Sehrirtiiellnr (vlebl babcn ; and Oitiodlage lur GcKhicbt* der Biblio.
Otalwn, wednrch J«d« in Baodaebriften tind •rbaJtm wordbn. GioMn, 177& 8.— For acm* mnaiki on iiie Libnrim of Graccn.
wbncn Mas. teve bMo obfeun*!, m* Traveb b j £. D Clarht. V. York, 1815, toI. It. Append. Na 6» where i» also a catalogue
of the MSa. in the Libraiy ef hitmaa.— Ct CIom. /own. vol. viL, in which, and the IbUowing volamei, ■ a notioaof the nanu-
acripte in the mioui librariea in England.

i. Tbe Royal library at Faria eoolaint 70,000 MSSb of varion kind*; the Vafican at Rome, 90,000] tbeAnbtoabuD at Milan,
l&,O0a In the caae of most of the librariei mantioocd abore, there are caialogaa of the MSS. preaerved in them. The moat
v»iuUe of theNcatalogvai are aoebaa give not onlftbniimple name and title, but alee critical and hiatoricai noUcee of the mam.
ecriplh their anlhan, age, nrltjr, prie% ftc See e. g. Cntalacw BibUotkum gtauananm. Ufa. 1790-M. 7 vole. 4.-&mdins^
Catakgneof Mat. iBtheLibiaryoftheGnnd Duke at Florence, ITM-SS. II vola. fol.-Notieea dee AfomMTtto db la AMioUqiM
du Jtoi. par. 17>7.l8ia 10 vola. 4.-<* The Calalogaei of the MSS. in the Britieh Mawon, hitherto (19S5} printed, fill ft* e ftdtoa
and tuar qvrtoa." Six folioa (vis. Calak«iie of the MSS. in the Cottonian Library in the Brit. Muaeom, Lend. 1801. M.; Caialogaa
of lhaHafleianMSS.in theBritMoa-Und. 180S-1S.4 volbbL; Catalogue of the Lawdowne MSS. in the Brit Mw. Loi^
ISI>bfcL)aielncl«daifatheOolleeilfl^efDecwMeotabylbeWBeeortCwniniwinnf'ofGmt»ritria{oft^ i»

Ikme Uio% oaly a very iBnU pnit are d

PLATE XLII.

S96

ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

I. — Of the Sources of Roman Culture,

$ 109. We have no authentic history of the first inhabitants of Italy. The
later Romans themselves knew but little in recrard to this subject, as there did
not remain any monuments of the early ages ; tnose which had been preserved
at Rome having been destroyed at the capture and burning of that city by the
Gauls, B. C. 390. This uncertainty has given rise to many fables. The Ro-
mans commonly traced their own descent from the Trojans, a colony of whom
under iEneas amalgamated with the aborigines or most ancient inhabitants of

1. Different accounts are given of the origin of the name Italy, Italia. Some derive
it from Italus^ said to be a chief who came from Arcadia, or (Enotria, and established
a colony and kingdom : considered by many, however, to be a fabulous personage.
Others derive it from the term iraAdf, a caif, applied to the country from the herds of
young cattle* found in it by the Greeks. The name seems to have been first applied
to the southern extremity of the peninsula*, to the province called Calabria ulterior,
and afterwards extended so as to include the whole land as far as the Alps.

• Kirf . £0. viL 178.— TVie. tL 8— » Van. d* Ra nut U. i.~GeU. Noet Alt. xL 1— IMon. Bat. L S5.— • Jriil. PdL viL 10
— CCaB*<M/,Hi«toir«d«IaLittanliii«RoiBu8a^ Fv. 181ft. 4 fok. & VoL L Intro, p. 4.

2. The question whence Italy received its population has been much agitated. Two
theories or systems have been strenuously defended, called the orient<U and the north-
em. The former system maintains that the early inhabitants of Italy came from the
east ; from Greece, Asia Minor, Phcenicia, or Egypt, according to the different advo-
cates of the theory. The other system admits an eastern origin of all the inhabitants
of Europe, but maintains that Italy received its population directly from tlra north-
em or Celtic tribes. The oriental theory* is most generally adopted. — "At the
period when lieht is first thrown by authentic documents on the condition of Italy, we
find it occupied by various tribes, which had reached different degrees of civilization,
moke different dialects, and disputed with each other the property of the lands whence
they drew their subsistence." These various tribes may be included under the five
following classes, ranged in the order of their supposed antiquity ; viz. the lUyrii, in-
eluding the Liburni, Siculi, and Veneti ; the Jberi, including the people called Sicani ;
the Cdia, to which belonged those named Umbri by the Romans; the Felasgih;
and the Hetrunci^ Etrusdf or Tyrrheni.

• Seel. Dunlop, Hhlory of SonMii Uienhtra, (fol. I. p 21, of ed. Phtl. 18i7.)— SeA'IZ, pw 8, as aboM cited.— TbcM anlbon
Iff* tcIcthmm t* the priodpal workt in d<|inice of cacb ibaory.— » Mmyt. Bed, i. 1 1.— &*ril, ■• al)ov«» p. ISw— Cf. S 39.

3. The RtntMcanB were the most cplebmterl of all thene natfont, having attained to a height
of prosperity and glory l>efore the existence of Rome. The history, insiiiulions, and antiquities
of this people have bewn the theme of much interesting discussion.

9a« C 0. JV«<0cr, Die BdiMkar. BnsL If28. 8 vols. 8.-^tnfikon'i Lemp. Claas. Oiet. uimIot- Hetruna.—Riinh. Jbv. voL 1.
p. 9n.—Ditnbv, Hifl. Rom. Lit. vol. L p. 26 — Cf. } 172, ITS.— On 8m Etnacui^ Lattna, Sabinai, te. m alw ScMowr, tol. ii. m
cilrd P. V. §7. 7. {d)^-a. ifkan,aicitad§ 281. S.

4. The early history of Rome is involved perhaps inextricably in fabulous traditions.
There has been an earnest literary controversy respecting the authenticity of the com-
monly received accounts.

For fbe commoB aeeonat of tbe ori<ia of Rome, m« Lwy, libw i.— IN0R. BaL Int. Bom. lib. w—Flut. Rounln.— For arpuMsta
It tte eradibility of It, M Poutfly, Dt Bmu/ort, and otben, as eiiad P. V. $ 610.

$ 110. From this it is easy to perceive, that the origin and introduction of
the Latin characters is a subject of much uncertainty. Some authors attribute
the invention or introduction of these letters to the Greeks, some to the Pelas-
gians, soroeto the Phcenicians, and others to the Etruscans. It is most com •
monly ascribed to Evander^ who, antecedently to the Trojan war, conducted into
Latium a Pelasgic colony from Arcadia. (.The affinity and resemblance of the
most ancient Greek characters to the Latin is unquestionable. | It was probably

o59

360 ARCHJEOLOOY OF ROHAN LITSRATURK.

by means of the colonists settling in that country from Tarioas foreign parts,
that civilization and the art of writing were introduced into Italy and a common
alphabet at length formed. The Pelasgi coming from Arcadia, and, under the
name of Tyrrheni, from Asia Minor, seem to have been the first colonists. Soon
after them, there arrived other Greek colonists, who established themselves in
the lower part of Italy, and brought with them their religion, language, and al-
phabet, if we may credit Quintilian (lib i.), there existed at first but a smaller
number of letters, and they differed in their form and signification from those
afterwards used.

Sm JVanwMdkvt, Cenant da UL Bom. BraiH. 1TC8. a-Comp. Dim. ffoL I. M—JU*^ L 7.->7feb Aon. xL K-mn.
Hit Mat. tiL M, a».~Oa Ui> rwimWiM-a of ttwGwet »d ttamtn tomn, we alw apdmmn*$ Diwrtiflnii, to to JVhim. of Digm.
BaL vol. ii. p. 197, M dlod P. V. (147.

^ 111k. The Greeks, who established themselves in the southern part of Italy,
always maintained their relations and an extensive commerce with the other Greeks, and
even preserved their language. From them the country which they inhabited was called
Magna GrtBcia. It was separated from Sicily, where Greek colonies were also settled,
only by a small strait. From this circumstance arises the resemblance found between
them and the inhabitants of this island in their language, sciences, manners, and
government. These countries having enjoyed the advantages of a long peace, suflered
nothing from the Romans until a late period, and their mtercourse with the Greeks
always existing, the arts and sciences among them rose to a very flourishing state. It
is sufficient in this place merely to allude to the school of Pythagoras, which took the
name of Italian^ and to that founded by Xenopbanes, somewhat later, and called the
Elealic. In Magna Graecia and Sicily resided manv great men, renowned even at the
present day, by the brilliancy of their talents and by their writings : as, for instance,
Archimedes, Diodorus; the poets Theocritus, MoschuSi and Bion; the orators Lysias,
Gorgias, and others.

aw JagtmannH GcMhicbto der KOmte uod WnMBMlnSM to litiiak.-Dunbfp, Wm. Ron. Ul. voL L ^ 48^ m dtod { loas.
SuhM-CniXt Lcgntalion de to Giande Grecc—Jftm. Jcad. huer. voU xlii. p. US, amI xlv. ^ 884.

$ 113. But the circumstances of the Romans must principally occupy our
attention here. That first and long period, which comprises all the time in-
cluded between the foundation of Rome and the close ot the first Punic war, a
period of about 600 years, was very sterile with respect to intellectual culture;
at least it was far from being so fertile as might have been expected in a republic,
which advaiiced so rapidly to a flourishing condition, and was surrounaed by
neighbors civilized and instructed in literature and the arts. But the spirit of
aggrandizement, which controlled and guided all the intellectual and political
exertions of the Romans, was in no small degree itself the cause. This mvolved
them in continual war, and compelled them to neglect literature and science,
which are the offspring of peace and leisure. Their whole constitution, and
consequently their very education, tended only to this end. Hence the opposi-
tion which the elder Cato made to the reception of the Greek philosophers at
Rome. Hence also the prejudice which caused the Romans to regara all arts
and sciences, with the exception of agriculture and war, as dishonorable and
fit only for slaves.

^ 113 tf. Even in this period, however, there appear a few traces of a dawning cnlti-
vation. We may specify as particulars, the care which, in the time of Tarquin the
Proud, the civilian Papirius employed in preparinor a collection of the laws: the em«
bassy sent to Athens, about 454 B. C, to examine the insdtuiionsof Greece, which resulted
in the establishment of the laws of the twelve Tables ; the preservation of the national
history in the pontifical books called Annales, or Commentarii, parts of which were
written inverse, and were sung upon public days; and finally the introduction, about
B. C. 363, of the Etrurian plays, called ludi gcenici, in which originated the Roman
drama. These plays at first consisted of nothing but dancing and pantomime accom-
panying the music of the flute.

After the Romans had extended their conquests over Italy, they began to bestow
rnore attention upon the arts and sciences. There were in Italy at this time two na-
tions particularly, by whom the arts had been especially cultivated ; the inhabitants of
Eiruria and of Magna Gnscia, (Cf. ^ 109. 3, and "^ U 1.) Both these nations were sub-
jected to the Romans more than 250 years before Christ ; the former about B.C. 283 ;
the latter, B. C. 266. The Romans were thereby brought into greater intercourse
with them. The influence of tliis intercourse upon the culture of the Romans was
fiivorabie, but was not very great until the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241.

$ 1 U. The origin of the Latin language cannot be traced to any one primitive
iongue, because Italy in the early periods was occupied by so many people, and

p. lY. ORIGIN OF THE LATIN LAN0T7A0E. 361

it is 80 uncertain which of them were the most ancient. Among the earliest
occupants were no douht the Celtae, or the Pelasgi, who came from Thracia and
Arcadia, and seem to have been of the same race as the aborigines. Grecian
colenists subsequently planted themselves in the middle and lower part of
Italy ; where also, as well as in Sicily, Phoenicians and Carthaginians after-
wards settled ; as likewise did the Gauls in the northern part of the country.
The first foundation of the Roman tongue was probably the dialect which has
been termed Ausonian or Oscan {Lingua Osca). Romulus was perhaps educated
among the Greeks, and seems on this account to have introduced into his city
the Grecian language, while the native tongue, not having fixed rules and analo-
gies of its own, must have been liableio arbitrary changes, and would borrow
many peculiarities from other dialects/ We find in the derivation of many Latin
words, and in the general structure of the language, frequent traces of the Greek,
especially the iEolic dialect ) The resemblance between the Greek and Latin
alphabets has already been mentioned (§ 110).

1 u. Properly speaking, the Latin and the Roman laneuaces are not the same. The
formor was spoken in I^tium, between the Tiber and the Liris, until the abolition of
the regal government in Rome ; and was introduced at Rome after that period. The
laws of the twelve Tables were in this dialect

t. '* The population of Italy being eoinpnaed of yarloua people, there were of course ▼arloua
language! and idiomi in the eountry, aa the Ombrian, Etruacan, Slcanlan, Latin, and others.
The Lailn waa the primitive language of the people of Lathim, and aradually took the place
of all the rest The ancient inhabitants of Latium constituted a part or the Aborigines, but this
term Indicates scarcely more than that their real origin was unknown. They are sometimes
also called Ansonians. According to Diouysius Halicarnasseus, they were Arcadians. But It
Is more probable they were Illyrians, or Celts, or rather a mixture of these two races with
the Pelasgic colonists. In fact, we mav see in the Latin language two fundamental idioms, the
Celtic, and ihe Greek of the folic and Doric dialects, which nearly resembled the ancient Pe*
asgic. Every thing in the Latin which is not Greek is from the Celts, and especisliy the
Onibrl. Dionysius therefore had reason for his remark, that the ancient idiom or Rome was
neither entirely Greek nor entirely barbarian. As Latium contained anciently several inde-
pendent tribes, there were several dialects, among them those of the Osci, the Volsci, the Latini,
and the Samnites. All these dialects gradually disappeared, and were sunk In the Roman lan-
guage, aa the Romans became masters of Italy. The use of it waa regarded as an acknowledg-
ment of their supremacy, and when the allies made an attempt to throw off the Roman yoke,
they resumed their primitive languages on the money they stamped The Julian law, passed
shortly after, B. C. about 00, bestowing upon these states the rights of Roman citizenship, struck
a mortal blow at all these Idioms, as it forever banished them ft-om public transactions. The
Etruscan alone survived for any considerable time, being ftivored on account of the respect
affected by the Roman government towards the rites of the Tuscans.'*

Sm dtit-B, Hal. LitL Rom. vol. i. p. r, »t eitad § iQSi L-On Om origia of tbt Utin Uv^^t, tt aim Dimlop, HiiL Bob. Ut
mL L i». 48, M dtod f !(». ^-Nitbukr, HiiL oT HoiM, ^. i.-Ola«. Juum. Ui. tIT ; vi. S75 ; is. tit ; xriil. Stt.— Amcehf^
DtarifiM Lit. lJng.TnelktM.GI«HiB, 1720; D«I>MritkL.L.lVKliit«. Ibrb.in0; D«Ailol«M«atiaL.I.TiMt Mub. ITHl
Thtm M* wpumte pattiow ei » Hbtorr oT Ut'm UtHmture, bf T. N. Funk^ oT Riatoln, pvUidwd at Martnrg, h^wm 1790 aad
1760. io S WM. 4. For On other portiooa, m0 P. V. { 2M. 8l— We refer aim to /. C. r. AUr, GaKhiehia der BOm. Lilenio.
Carhr. 1832: a p^ l.-JUil,0anBaiii9clMrUn|inia« der UL Spracbe, kc BniL ISSa-Cf. /Vr Qumrt. Rn. Ma zz.~AniMw dt
&Am1olema«^neLU.Seim.ori||iBa,*c. tLem. I90a.--Cimifu9 thttwuukaoalht JamOimol Ut^tt^m, in \ it, tmi rdmwoem
ten gifea^-Awiy BM. or LaL Lm|. IB OflMtal AMli^ died F. ▼. I C 4.

3 u. During the period preceding the close of the first Punic war, the Roman lan-
ipiage was in no settled state. It was necessarily exposed to be a mixture of various
idioms, from the diversity of foreigners who composed the early population of Rome.
Traces of the old forms of the language are found in fragments ot the earliest poets,
and also in the comedies of Plautus. It was not until the close of the period of which
we have spoken, that any attention was paid to the re^ar settling ol the prindplee
and forms of the lan^ua^c, and not unul a still later time that any approved author
labored upon the cultivation of style. During all this time, therefore, the language
continued in a changing state.

4. There are still extant some monuments of the language during the period pre •
ceding the first Punic war. To these it will be proper briefly to advert.

The earliest specimen Is supposed to be as ancient as the time of Romulus, the /fyma ekMt§i
hy UU FntfB Jtrvaln. It Is given by Dnnlop, with an English version, as follows :
Enos Lases Juvate Ye Lares, aid us! Mars, thou God of Might!

Neve luerve Marmar sinis tncurrer In From Murrain shield the flocks, the flowers froB

pleorls. blight.

Batnr fofere Marp: llmen sail sta berber: For thee, O Mars! a feast shall be prepared;
Semones altemel advocapit cunctos, Salt, and a wether from the herd :

Enos Marmor Juvate ; Invite, by turn, each Demigod of Spring ;

Triumpe, Triumpe Great Mars, assist usl Triumph! Triumph sing!

The hrmo ii espUiwd mmewtet diflbraaUy bf dt&Kiit tatertrctan—See Dunkp, HbL Bom. Lit. vol. i. p. 41.^90^0. BtaL
Wrm. Lilt vol. i. p. 41.— AUr, aa above died, p. &!.— Autoet, Cha. Tonr ia Italj, vol. iii. p. 4lflL— Comp. Annoim, tlMi
Dod. Melrk. lib. iii. c iz. 6, wbere be f ivei aa iBterprelatioii ia the Uter Uiin.-~Bdinb. Jtah No. 80. p. SOSb

46 3H

d62 ARCHJEOLOOT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

The next ■peelroeiM belong to the time of Kama, and coniiit in the remalne of the Camut
Sdliart, and of the Imvm of J^vma. Of the former, which was the hymn eung by the Balic prieati
appointed under Nuroa to guard the Sacred Bhields, there remain only a few words, cited by
Varro (De Ling. Lat. lib. vi. 1, 3.) Of the latter, tome fragments are preserved by Festos. The
following is an example ; Hn enipg kemonem loebetom delo weitna morui duit pariceid^ tMtod »H m
impTuden* »• dolo malod oeeisit pro eapitod ocoisei «t natiu eihu eitdo eondontd arietem oubicUod:
which is interpreted, in the later language, as follows; Si quit kominem Uberumdolo scicm m^rti
dederitf parricida ulo ; Si twm imprudtna^ «tN« dolo moto, otcUerit^ pro eapiu oeeisi U matia ejua in
eoneionam ariaum au^ieito. <Festus has preserved also a law ascribed to Bervius Tallius, filth
king of Rome.

After the fracroents of the Regal Laws, we have no monument of the language until we come
to the Laws of the Tirelva Tablut B. 0. 450. It may be doubted whether the genuine original
reading has been preserved Invariably in the fragments which are now extant.

for ■pediDm.Mefidkai, BM. LitL Bom. foL i. p,ia^-CL P. V. \ 661.

Additional monuments of the language In the period now spolien of are the DuiUian^ Saipitm,
and Eu^ubian Inscriptions, which will be mentioned on a subsequent page. (Cf. ^ 133.)

5. It may be worthy of observation that, in the time of Cicero, there seem to have
been marked difTerences in the Roman language according as it was spoken in the city,
or in the country, or in the conquered provinces ; the language of the city being de-
signated as the aermo urbanua; that of the country, the aermo ruatieanuaf and that of
the provinces, the aermo peregrinua. — Cie. De Orat. iii. 10. — 14.

IL^Cffihe Boman Alphabet^ Method af Writing, and BooJa.

$ 115. Ancient Gramtnarians do not altogether agree concerning the nature
and number of the original Latin or Roman letters. Marias Victorinas men-
tions the following; A, B, C, D, E, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T; 16 in
number. Of these, Q is not found in the Greek alphabet, but corresponds to
the Greek xoTtTta. (§ 46); C was sometimes equivalent to it. V, used both as a
consonant and as a vowel, was subsequently added; originally I or O was used
instead of V as a vowel ; and instead of B as a consonant the ^olic Digamma
F was employed. It was in this way that F obtained its place as a letter.
H, G, X, Y, Z, were also added at a later period.

Conp. Dittiy*. J9U. AdL R0III. I. S8. PUn. N. B. vU. 56, ST.— Ite. Abb. xL l4.-On the nl^Mt of tba Boan alpbdNl, M
Bbo Port Rojal Lilia OfMOMr, hk. iz-Oa Ha origin, Lami, S^gio di Uof. Etiwc.— AUr, pi 19, u citod 1 114. B. iBd i«br-
«BeH (iTU bj him. Ha eosridni llw BonaB alphabat u dari?«! rram ttw Gmk.

§ 116. The ancient orthography differed from that of later times, from the
fact that the pronunciation was much changed. To see this clearly, it will only
be necessary to compare with the modem orthography, the original of a passaee
in a decree of the senate respecting the Bacchanales ($ 1 33), which is one of the
most ancient monuments of Roman writing, about B. C. 186. The passage in
the original form is as follows : nkve. posthac. inter, skd. coniovrask. nsyb.

COMVOVISE. NKVK. CONSPONDISK. NEVE. CONPROMBSISE. VCLBT. NEVE. QVISQVAM.
FIDEM. INTER. SBD. DEDISE. VELBT. SACRA. IN. OQVOLTOD. NB. QVISQVAM. FECISE.
VELBT. NEVE. IN. POPLICOD. NEVB. IN. PREIVATOD. NEVE. BXTRAD. VRBEM. SACRA.

QVISQVAM. FECISE. VELBT. In the later ortliography, as follows : Neve posthac
inter ae eonjuratu, neve eonooviue, neve eon^ondiase, neve compromisisseveOetn
neve quisqttam fidem inter ae dedisae vellet, aaera in oecuUo ne quiaqtsam fedaae
veUet, neve in pubUco, neve in privato, neve extra urhem aacra quiaquam fedase
veilet,

Beqiwtiiii tbb deerce, M0 ; I3S. 4^-Oa Hm wieoi otai«n Ib oHbocra^, m IHinlop, Rta^
ULOrub bk. iz.— Aifun'itfDtFMritiB Uag. LaL c ft. ud D« AdoUMaotiB U^ Ut c Tw-2VmHon, HoL de U Jompn-
deaet Rdb. pt L

$ 117. Not only in ancient times, but even in the later and most flonrishinc
period of their literature, the Romans wrote only in capital letters. The smafl
Roman letters did not come into general use until the beginning of the middle
ages. If small letters (liiera mintftae) were employed earlier, it vrzs only a
smaller size of the capitals.

1. A writer in the ArchcRologia of the London Antiquarian Society (for 1836) has
made an attempt* to show that minutcuU toriting (i. e. writing in the small letters) was
practiced by the ancients ; although this is contrary to the opinion, which had previously

p. IT. METHOD OF WRITING. BOOKS.

been generally received. — The view of this writer seems to be confinned by the speci-
mens^ of writmg found on some of the ruins of Pompeii ; and more fully by the inscrip-
tions on the waxen tablets' discovered in Transylvania in 1807 and first published m
1841.

1 8w IK r. OUIcy^ Mcoonl of tba MS. of Cicero>i Anim, m mfeotiooed $ 142. 2.— « Of. C. VTanhworth^ Speeimem ind F«e-
■iDil«oraiieieatwritiB(a9aDdoa(heinlbaia4iti«ebofiHMBpeiL Loud. 1888. 8w-ss«eucountortheDwUnTikblatiS $ 13S- T*

2 V. When the writers wished to take down a spoken discourse, or to note something
in the margin, they formed abbreviations {nolai) by using the initial letters, or some of
the principal letters, of the wordb, or by using particular signs for the syllables of most
frequent occurence, or arbitrary characters standing for whole words. The most re-
markable of these signs or characters are the noia Tiraniana, the invention of which
is ascribed to Annceus Seneca, and to Cicero's freedman Tiro ; from the latter of whom
they derived their name. Gruter and CarperUier have collected and attempted to ex-
plam these characters; it has been done more completely by Kopp in treating^ of the
Tachyprraphy of the ancients. Some have imagined that our small numerical figures
derived their origin from these characters, instead of being, as is commonly believed,
an invention of the Arabians ; but there is no ground for the supposition.

S. There are manuacripu In e.xlBteDce of Kreat antiquity, written in ihort band. Some of
hese Are in Greek. According to Kopp, the Greeic notes or abbreviated ligni are more eaay and
Irople than ibe Tironian, end in appeaiance more similar to modern ihort hand.

Sw Cofpmtir, Alphabctmn Tironbaam. hr. 1747. foL— CT. F. Kopp, Tbcfajcnphia Vtlenim espottta et Qloitrkla. Manheim,
17. S votaL 4.— Onilcr, M ciMd § 13a -Tha Bomu ftete an alw exhibited in (Mvlar^ Scoeo, cited P. V. ( 4SB. 4r— Cf. CIom.
Mimal, vol. uxis. p. ISB.

§ 118. The books of the Romans, both the more ancient and those of later
imes, resembled, in form and material, the books of the Greeks. (See $ 56, 57.)
The rolls amon^ the Romans were called volumina; the leaves composing them,
oaginaB (from the word pangere, to put together); the sticks upon which they
were rolled, cylindri^ also bacilli^ surculif the knobs or ornaments at the ends
of the sticks, umbilici or comua ; and the edges of the rolls, /ron^et. In writing
the first draft of any thing, whether in accounts or letters, the Romans commonly
made use of tablets covered with wax {tabuiae eeraias, cerse). They also had
books, made and folded in the same manner as ours, of square leaves of vellum
or papyrus, which they called codices. Their instruments for writing were the
style \stylu9y graphium), and the reed {calamus^ orundo). They used ink of
several dyes or colors. And covpists introduced the same ornaments in writing
manuscripts as among the Greeks. Comp. $$ 55, 58, 104.

1. A mode of adorning manuscripts frequently practiced was to place on the first
page a portrait of the author (Mart. xiv. 186).

The paper used by the Romans was formed from the Egyptian papyrtUt a species
of rush, which was procured on the banks of the Nile ; where it grows to the height
of ten feet and more. The term biblus (fiiBXoi ) was also applied to the same plant.
Hence we have our words paper and Bible. The papyrus was used for purposes of
writing at a very early period (cf. % 107. 5) . Manufactories of the paper existed at
Memphis, it is stated, more than 600 years before Christ. At the time ot the conquest
of Egypt by the Romans, it was made chiefly at Alexandria.

Pliny fives a description of the manner of making the paper. One layer of the fibrous mem-
branes ipbilyr^) was placed crosswise upon another layer; they were then moistened with the
water of the Nile, pressed, and dried in the sun. Bruce uffirms thai the water of the Nile is
not glutinous, and thai the strips of papyrnt adhere together solely by the saccharine matter
contained in the plant, and that the water must have been used only to dissolve and diffuse this
matter equally. After being dried, it was pounded with a mallet and polished with a tooth,
•hell, or other smooth substance. It was then cut into sheets or leaves (pla^ulast geheda)^ which
were of various qualities and kinds. A number of sheets were Joined together to form a roll or
voIkwu; the number was never greater than twenty; the term tctipu* was employed to desig-
nate collectively any number thus Joined. The sheets were glued topeiher for a volume or ma-
nuscript by slaves, termed glutinatores (i. q. librorum eowpuctoret^ P ifi\ioirriy6i) . — The papyrus
manuscripts lately found In Egypt (cf. $ 107. 4. 5) appear to have been prepared in the manner
here described.

Sm PHny. Nat HM. zliL 11, laL-Jfonf/aueon, nr te plante appdlc rarrni. ^^e* >■ tbt Mnn. de FJead. dtt huerip. tL p. «G.

— Ckylitf, abo, in Ibe sum Htm. kc xxvi. 967 SeAiaorfz, ai below ciied.— /. Bnu», Travelt in E<7pt, AbTHinia, ke. Eiiu

IIUl 5 Tob. 4. w4. t. p. t, with a plaie ihowiaff the papjrrni in fuU growlb. See ear Rale XXXVIll. fig. C.

2. The ink commonly used was black {atramenlum lihrarium). But a vermilkm
termed minium was employed in marking titles and heads; a purple {coccus, purpura)
was used for the same purpo^^e ; and also a red called rubrica, whence originated the
modern word rubric. 1 he basis of the common ink was, according to Pliny, the black
taken from burnt ivory, and soot from furnaces and baths.

' **The black liquor of the cuttle-fish (sepia) is also said to have been used as Ink, principally
on the authority of a metaphorical expression of the poet Prrsius (Bnt. iii. 14). But of what-
ever ingredients it was made, it is ccriaio from chemical analysis, from the solidity and black-

864

ARCHJEOLOOT OF ROXAN LITERATURE.

neM In the moit ancient maniiscrlpti, and from an inkttand found at Herculanenm, In which
the Ink appears like a thick oil, that the ink was much more opaque as well as encanttic than
that used at pri>Bent.*'— The atramsiUmm Ueterium or pktorhiiH was a sort of varnish used hj
painters; the tUrumentum MuUriumt a dye used by shoemakers and leatber-statners.

On the whole nbjuct of locieaf boeki, ud the mttarula and iiwtniiDeati at writing annng Ibe anciCBti, m»Ch.O. SAwartx, Ds
Ornainrntis libroruiD et viria rei lilemriae veteran lupdlectil* dienrUtioaci. LIpi. 176& 4.~8m aleo Becker, a«llue, i. fh 16*}
Taylor, u cited § 58 ; and refemicei fivee § 6S.-On iuk, we Cantparnu, De AtramcDtie evjuiqac gvneria. Lond. I06a

Ib PUte XXXVIII. fig. «, we hive ■ flae ■pceinen of the aecient MS. roll ; it ia a Heirew vnafOfrM roll, bckosiBg IB th* Britiah
M weum ; aaid to oooaitt of forty brown African >k«na attached logether ; written in one hundred and fifty thne eolnniB^ tweuty^wa
inrhc* deep, and fife inchea wide ; taA column having wxty-'hree linea. Tlie reader pnaed tma eoluinn to eataaui, aaniling tte
Tolmne fram one etick and rolling it upon the other, the ornamented endt of the aticka Mrrfng fcr handlea.

The fifurea if, a,/, of the aune Plate, are from renaina foond at Pompeii ; t, a boy boiding a doaad roll or TOlune; dj • girl with
a afyla and a aet of tabteta called pugOantf and /, anolber giri reading a nil partly opened.

3. It seems proper here briefly to notice and explain some other Latin terms and
phrases used in reference to the subject now under notice.

jtdvtrtariA, note-books, memotandnma ; rs-
ferre in advertaria, to take a memorandum.

e^/fram, a tablet on which the prctor'i edicts
were written.

wfframsnfartKiR, used by later wrlt<*rs for ink-
stand iftcXavi6xof)i In Plate XXXVII. amoiiv
he figures grouped under No. 1, Is an inkstand
with a reed (foUmua) lying upon it, as drawn In

pain.ing found at UercuTaneum.

Jiutographus^ autograph, a mantiscript writ-
en by the author's own hand: i. q. idiojtraphvK.

Bibliopolay a bookseller (j3i0Xtoir(o\tii, 0t0-
XiOKairr^Xoi) . Among the chief placea occupied
)y booksellers at Rome were, the street called
JirgHttnm (Mart. Gp. i. 4); the vkuM Sandalarins
(^ul. OfU. xviii. 4); the vicinity of the temples
of Janus {Hor. Sat. I. iv. 71) and Vertumnus.

Bibliotheca, a library, see ^ 126.

Capta, a place for keeping books, paper, or
instruments for writini;, an escritoir, a case ;
I. q. teriniumt areula^ lorulua. The eapsa is ro-
presftnted as a cylindrical box, in which the
manuscripts or rolls were plac<fd vertically, the
titles being at Ihe top. Thus many volumes
eouid be comprised wuhin a small space, dee
our Plate XXXVII. flg 6, which represents an
open capBfL, as exhibited in a painting found at
Pompeii.

CapMaritu, the slave carrying the capaa, for
boys of rank, to school.

Ckarta^ paper; this word received various
epithets, modifying its signification ; asCA. den-
tofa, polished pnper, smoothed by the tooth of a
boar or some animal ; Ch. ^ugiuta regia^ Ch.
Clandiana^ very superior or fine paper ; Ck. em-
poretioa^ wrapping paper for merchants; Ck.
maeroeoUOt very largo paper; Charia Ptrgama-
na, i. q. iMM^rana, parchment made of sheep-
skins.

Chartaria (affieina)^ shop or place where pa-
per was made.

CkirographuMy written with oiie*s own hand.

Chirograpkuitty one*s own signature or name
written by himself; oAen a note of hand given
by a debtor to his creditor. A document with
the names uf two contracting parties thus writ-
ten was called ayngrapha.

Codieillua, a Mule book ; see Hbelli.

ComtMntarii^ accounts written about nno*s
•elf; also Journals or registers, i. q. Viaria^
EphemaridcB.

Commenlarieruia, a recorder, or register.

Diphtlura {Si^Bipa\ sometimes usRd for
parchment; Dipkthtra Jovim^ register-book of
Jupiter.

Diploma (i. q. lihellua dupUcatua^ consfj^lng
of two leaves, written on one side), a writing
conf»)rring some peculiar right or privilege,
granted by a magistrate or emperor.

Diptjfchaj two tablets which could be folded
together; see TTibttla. In the time of ih<t em-
pire, consuls and other magistrates, on the day
of entering upon office, used to distribute such
tablets, bearing their names and p-^riraiis. Cf.
Montfaueont Ant. Cxpl. vol. iii. Siippl. p. tiO.
^ Eputola, a letter to one absent. The Romans

divided their letters. If long, into pages, folded
them In the form of a little book, tied them
round with a thread (Una obligare)^ covered the
knot with wax or a kind of chalk (ereta), and
sealed it (obaiirtiara) ; hence epiatolaa reaignarej
fflvere^ to open a letter. The name of the writer
WHS always put first, then that of the person
addrpssed ; the word aaluttm or If-tter 5 was
annexed. The letter always closed with some
form of a good wish or prayer, called aubaeiiptM.
The date was usually added, sometimes the
hour of the day. Letters were usually sent by
a stave, called tabeUariua, there being no estab^*
lished post until the time of the emperors, when
its use was chiefly confined to the iiniierial ser-
vice. (^166011, Rom. Em p. ch. ii.) The slave or
freedman employed to write letters was termed
amanwanaia (a niaiiu).

Folium^ a Ifcaf of a book ; leaves of trees or
plants having been employed originally to write
upon; bonce our word folia.

Libar, inner bark; us*>d in early times as a
material for writing; hence put for6«oJI;; ap-
plied to the thin coats or rind, particularly of
the papffrua.

Libelli, generally signifying imi)erial mes-
sages, public orders, memorials, petitions, or
the like, as these were divided into pajres and
folded in a small book, somewhat in our form;
the term Codieilli was used in the same sense,
but Kenerally applied to a person's laslwlil.--
Libelli aceuaatorii^ written accusations, usually
attested by a plaintiff; L.famoaU pasquinades
or libels ; L. gladijtorii, bills or advertisements
distributed by those who gave gladiatorial
shows.

lAbellua mamoritJia^ a pocket-book ; L. ratio*
nnltB^ an account book ; L. apprllatoriuat an ap-
peal from a Judicial sentence.

Librarii^ transcribers; applied also to those
who bound books ; and sonictiines to those who
had the care of libraries (bibliolkaearH).

Libraria (tabama understood), hook-shop.

Librariiim^ a chest for holding hooks.

Liinrte^ usually epixiles, but often any kind
of writing; hence put for Uaming.
I Opiathographua, written on both sides.

Pajrina, a page ; primarily, a sheet of the
' papyrus ; 1. q. plagiUa described above (1); t«-
mentum, cutia^ roriuMy tmitiu, are applied by
Pliny to the same.

Palimpaeatun (codex), a manuscript on which
the fimt writing was oliIitHrated in order thai
it mieht be used asain. This was effncled by
removing the surfVice of the parcbcient, or by
'some chemical process. Cf. H 84.

Pargamena, see Charta.

PagilUirea, small writing tallies, of oblong
form, made of citron, l>oxwood, or ivory, and
covered with wax. The Romans usually car-
ried such tablets with them; a slave (noforta*)
. was often employed to note down what they
wished.

I Tabella^ a small tablet, with the name of a
I candidate, or some formula, inscribed: used ia
voting. Cf. P III. $ 259

P IV. INFLUENCE OF THE GREEKS.

nbulA, any flat tubstance naed for writing
Qpon, whether itone or metal, or wood covered
with wax. That covered with wax was some-
times made of ivory or citron -wood, but more
commonly of beech or fir. The form was ob-
long. When two tablets were united (diptycha^
6inTvxa)f the outside of each consisted merely
of the wood ; the inside was covered with wax,
excepting a raised margin all around it. When
three tablets were united (triptycha^ rp£irrvxa),
the interior tablet was covered with wax on
both sides. They were fastened together by
wires or strings passing through the margins,
and forming a sort of hinges; and were opened
and shut like a modern book. Two or more
tablets thus united formed a libellut; some-
times lermed pugUlares.— Two triptyckgt or
books consisting of three tablets as here de-
scribed, were found some years ago in the
mines of ancient Dacia, and' are preserved io

the museum at Pest. One Is of beech wood,
the other of fir, about the size which we term
small octavo. The wax is almost of a blaclc
color, spread rather thin, especially on iho
beechen tablets, on which the Mtylvs of the
writer in some places cut through the wax into
the wood. See $ 133. 7.— Sometimes four or five
tablets (pentaptytha), or even more (pol^fi'^ehd)t
were joined together. Such tablets continued
to be used in the middle ages; a specimen, be-
longing to A. D. 1901, is preserved in the Flo-
rentine Museum. — The form of such tablets is
seen in Plate XXXVII. fig. S.— Forms of the
ttyle used, in the same Plate, fig. 3, 4.

Theea eatomurta, ihe ease tor ihe calamus or
stylus. The style was sometimes, under provo-
cation, used as a weapon; hence, as has been
supposed, the stiletto of the modern Italians.

VeUwm (Vitulinum), the skins of calves pre-
pared as material for manuscripts.

III. — Of Ihe most flourishing period of Roman Literature,

§ 119. The conquest of Magna Gnecia, as has been mentioned, made the Ro-
mans more acquainted with £e letters and arts of the Greek colonies in the
south of Italy. After the first Punic war, and especially after the subjection of
Sicily, B. 0. 213, where also, particularly at Syracuse, Greek letters flourished,
the influence of these subject states upon their mistress was great in respect to
intellectual culture. ^ Poets, orators, and grammarians from the conquerea coun-
tries removed to Rome and inspired many of her citizens with a love of litera-
ture. ^

$ 120 1(. From this period, Roman literature made rapid and remarkable progress.
Thejj began more to admire poetry, especially dramatic, and to study with more care the
principles of their language. They also became acquainted with the Grecian philosophy.
What contributed very much to this last, was the visit of three Greek philosophers,
Carneades, Dicw^enes, and Critolaus, who came to Rome on an embassy, B. C. 155.
These men, (cfTP. V. $406,) notwithstanding the eflbrts made by Cato to shorten
their stay and to prevent their teaching their doctrines, excited great interest in the
Greek pbilosophv. \ The Romans now also began to set more value upon the art of
oratory ; to apply themselves to historical researches ; and to look upon the study of
jurisprudence as a favorable means for improving their welfare. After the taking of
Cartilage, and especially after the subjection of Greece, Rome enjoyed more of peace,
together with the numerous advantages she had gained by her conquests ; then followed
the reign of the sciences and fine arts, and that brilliant period, which is called the
golden age of her Uterature. \

9BtAibekMei»u,mAJ.H.Ebmhar4lyUelMr V.i294.

$ 131. The most brilliant age of Roman literature commenced with the cap-
ture of Corinth and Carthage, B. C. 146, and continued to the death of Augustus,
the first emperor, A. D. 14, comprising a period of 159 years. The progress
of the Romans in the sciences and arts was now so great, that it has excited
the admiration of posterity, and secured them a. rank among the distinguished
nations of antiquity, second only to the Greeks. \ Among the causes of this re-
markable advancement, must be mentioned the comparative tranquillity of the
period, the greatness of the empire, the custom of imitatbg the best Grecian
models, and those changes in the Roman- constitution and policy with regard to
the arts and sciences, by which these not only obtained tolerance, but enjoyed «
protection, respect, and the most flattering encouragement. \

§ 133. It was thus, that the productions of genius came to the greatest perfection,
that the languagre was enriched, and poetry took a novel and more brilliant form,
particularly in the reign of Augtistus. The art of oratory presented a vast field for
the intellect, and held a superior rank. History acquired more of dignity and
interest. ^Philosophy in all its sects adopted the Grecian method of instniction,
and received the most encouraging attention.^ The Mathematics, which hitherto \
had been limited to arithmetic and the elements of geometry, obtained far greater \

2h3 ^

8GG ARCHJSOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

extent and perfection. To medicine and jurisprudence were imparted more so-
lidity and exactness in their application. i This progrress became still more
rapid and universal, as these acquirements extended through different classes
of citizens, and Romans of the highest rank, and even the rulers themselves,
engaged in literary pursuits, or at least considered it their glory to favor and
encourage them.

§ 123. The progress of improvement was specially manifest in the system of
education. It was no longer limited to the bodily powers and the art of war.
/Every faculty of the mind was developed, as among the Greeks, who were in
this as in other things the masters and models of the Romans.) The first instruc-
tion of the Romans was received from Greeks, and Grecian letters and arts
constituted the principal study, f Hence their evident imitation of the Greeks,
whom however they did not servilely copy, but infused into their imitations
their own spirit and genius. ( In the same manner as the Greeks, the Romans
also had their contests or trials of skill in oratory, poetry, and music, their public
recitals, their professed readers, and their literary feasts ; and the sciences were
not limited to particular classes or professions, any more than among the Greeks.
The knowledge which they considered suitable to everjr condition, and worthy
of a man of noble birth, and of good capacity, education and manners, they
called by way of eminence, artes Itberales^ studia humanitaiis,

S«e CtUarii JXm. dt ^MV» Boaunoram litmrik. UiL I6S& 4.-Abo eoataioed in OUarU JLalOi^ Bom. edited by Waiek. BaL
1T74. 8.

$ 124. In these studies we must include the instruction given by the Gram-
marians and Rhetoricians, who were also styled profeasnres, literati^ and liUror
tores. These latter instructed not only in the elements of the Latin and Greek lan-
guage, but also in the principles of poetry and oratory, the principal works of
which they analyzed and explained. Of declamation, or public oratorical re-
hearsals, there was a frequent practice. Not only children and youth, but men
of parts and education, assisted in these exercises. Besides this encouragement
the instructors received recompenses and favors, and sometimes even shared in
the highest dignities of state. I The first Grammarian, who taught in Rome with
success, was the Grecian CraUs from Mallos] {c(. P. V. $ 418). After him
X. Floiius became one of the most celebrated in that profession; and he was the
first who taught the art of oratory in the Latin language.

§ 125. Many public schools (scholsc, ludi,pergulas magistraiea) were established,
in consequence of the great number of these grammarians, which at length in-
creased, so that many were obliged to leave Rome, and spread themselves in
upper Italy. One of the most celebrated of the schools was that instituted at a
later period by the emperor Adrian. It was held in a larse edifice, called the
Atheneum, partly devoted also to public recitals and declamations, and was
continued under the name oii Schola Romana, until the time of the first Christian
emperors. There was also an establishment of the kind in the Capiiolium. In
addition to these, some temples, as that of Apollo, for example, formed halls of
assembly, for the purpose of rehearsal. And in the Gymnasia, there were vari-
ous intellectual as well as bodily exercises. The methods of instruction, par-
ticularly in the study of philosophy, where similar to those of the Greeks. (Of.
$5 71—73.)

1. In the temple of Apollo, built by Augustus on the Palatine hill, authors, particu-
larly poets, used to recite their composition before select judges. They were there said
to be matched or contrasted, commitli, or to contrast their works, opera committers.
Hence the word eommissionei was used to signify showy declamanons.

Of. Jtto. tL 43S.->Airf. Anf. 45, 88- Cbad. 4. 68L— Mwdcl, Sur llartructioa pabliqw din la aacieiM, putiealicraneflt !«
Bonuin Mm. d* P/iuCOul Clatie ^Biit. tt Lit. Ane. vol. Sa. p. SK—L. Radav^ Da Scholut ftoanuor. Intttuliooa.
Boon. 1828. 4.

2. The following extract, from Kennett^a Antiquities, will give further particulars
respecting the education of the "Romans.

**For master!, in the firit place, they had the Literatoren or rpafiitariaroL who taught the
children to read and write ; to ihete they were committed about the tife of six or seven yean.
Beinir come from under their care, they were tent to (be grammar schools, to learn the art of
speaking wqII, and the Hnderstanding of authors; or more frequently in the houses of great
men, some eminent grammarian was entertained for that employment. — It is pleasant to con-
sider, what prudence was used in these early years to Instil into the children^r minds a love

p. IT. BDUCATION. 867

and Inclination to the Fornm, whence they were to expect the greatest »hare of their honors
and preferments. For Cicero tella Atticuti, in hi* serond book Dt Lefibug, that whpn they were
boys they used to learn the famons laws of ilie Twelve Tables by heart, in the same manner as
they did an exceriont poem. And Plutarch relates, in bis life of the younger Cato, thnt the very
children had a play in which they acted pleading of causes before the Judges; occuHini; one an-
other, and carrying the condemned party to prison.— The masters already mentioned, together
with the instructors in the several sorts of manly exercises for the Improving of titeir natural
strength and force, do not properly deserve that name, if set in view wiih the rhetoricians and
philosophers; who, after that reason had displayed her fkculties, and established her command,
were employed to cultivate and adorn the advantages of nature, and to give the last hand to-
wards the forming of a Roman citizen. Few persona made any great figure on tlie scene of
action in their own time, or in history afterwards, who, besides the constant frequenting of public
lectures, did not keep with them in the house some eminent professor of oratory or wisdom.

At the age of seventeen years, when the young gentlemen put on the manly gown, they were .
brought in a solemn manner to the forum, and entered in the study of pleading ; not only if they
designed to make this their chief profession, but although their inclinations lay rather to the
camp. For we scarce meet with a good captain who was not a good speaker, or any eminent
orator who had not served some time in the army. Thus it was requisite for all persons who
bad any thoughts of rising in the world, to make a good appearance, both at the bar and in the
field; because if the success of their valor and conduct should advance them to any considerable
post, it would have proved almost imposfible, without tbe advantage of eloquence, to maintain
their authority with the senate and people ; or if the force of their oratory should in time pro-
cure them the honorable office of prctor or consul, they would not have been in a capacity to
undertake tbe government of the provinces (which fell to their share at tbe expiration of those
employnienU) without some experience in military command.

Id the dialoaue d» OratoribuSf we have a very good account of this admission of young gentle-
men into the forum, and of tbe necessity of such a course in the commonwealth.— *' Among our
ancestors,'* says the author, "the youth who was designed for the forum, and the practice of
eloquence, being now furnifihed with the liberal arts, and the advantage • f a domestic institu-
tion, w:is brought by his father or near relations to the most celebrated orator in the city. Him
be used constantly to attend, and to be always present at his performance of any kind, either
Injudicial matters, or in the ordinary assemblies of the people, so that by this means he learned
to engage in the laurels and contentions of the bar, and to approve himself a man at arms in the
wars of the pleaders."

To confirm the opinion of their extreme indnstry and perpetual study and labor, it may not
seem impertinent to instance in tbe three common exercises of translating, declaiming, and le-
citing.— rranslo/ion, the ancient orators of Rome looked on as a most useAil, though a most
laborious employment. 1 All persons that applied themselves to the bar, proposed commonly
some one orator of Greece for their constant pattern ; either Lyslas, Hyperides, Demosthenes,
or .SSschines, as their genius was Inclined. Him they continually studied, and, to render them-
selves absolute masters of his excellencies, were always making him speak their own tongue. (
This Cicero, Quiniiiian, and Pliny Junior, enjoin as an indispensable duty, in order to tbe ac- \
quiring any talent in eloquence. And the first of these great men, besides his many versions J
of the orators for his private use, obliged the public with the trantlation of several part%of Plato ^
and Xenophon in prose, and of Homer and Aratns in verse.

As to declaiming, this was not only the main thing at which they labored under the masters
of rhetoric, but what they practiced long after they undertook real causes, and had gained a
considerable name in the forum. Suetonius, in his book of famous rhetoricians, tells us that
Cicero declaimed in Greek till he was elected praiior, and in Latin till near his death; that
Pompey the Great, Just at the breaking out of the civil war, resumed his old exercise of declalm-
tnff, that he might the more easily be able to den] with Curio, who undertook the defence of
Cesar's cause, in his public harangues; that Mark Antony and Augustus did not lay aside this
custom, even when they were engaged in the siege of Mutina ; and that Nero was not only
constant at his declamations while in a private station, but for the first year after his advance-
ment to the empire.— It is worth remarking, that tbe subject of these old declamations was not
a mere fanciful thesis, but a case which might be brought into the courts of Judicature.

When I speak of reritation^ I intend not to insist on the publio performances of the poets in
tbat kind, for which purpose they commonly borrowed the house of some of their noblest pa-
trons, and carried on the whole matter before a vast concourse of people, and with abundance
of ceremony. For, consideriiig tbe ordinary circumstances of men of that profession, this may
be thought not so much tbe effect of an industrious temper, as the necessary way of raising a
name among the wits, and getting a tolerable livelihood. I would mean, therefore, the re-
hearsal of all manner of compositions in prose or verse, performed by men of some rank and
quality, before they obliged the world with their publication. This was ordinarily done in the
meeting of friends and acquaintances, and now and then with the admission of a more numerous
audience. The design they chiefly aimed at was the correction and improvement of the piece ;
for the author, having a greater awe and concern upon him on these occasions than at other ^
times, roust needs take more notice of every word and sentence, while be spoke them before the
company, than he did in the composure, or in the common supervisal. Besides, he bad tbe
advantage of all his ftiends' Judgments, whether intimated to him afterwards in private con-
ference, or tacitly declared at the recital by tbeir looks and nods, with many other tokens of dis-
like and approbation. (Cf. $ G7.)

The example of tbe younger Plinv, In this practice, is very observable, and tbe account which
we have of it is given us by himself. '* I omit (says he, Ep. vii. 17) no way or method that may
seem proper for correction. And first I take a strict view of what I have written, and consider
thoroughly of the whole piece ; in the next place, I read it over to two or three friends, and soon
after send it to others for the benefit of their observatioqs. If 1 am in any doubt concerning
their criticisms, I lake in the assistance of one or two besides myself, to Judge and debate tbe
matter. Last of all, I recite before a great number; and this is the time tbat I furnish myself
with the severest emendations.*'

On the ralmnali al Ute Roouds ice Olm'f , u cited $ tSS. 8.-Cr. Pliny, Ep. L IS.— For hom rnnafla <m Roimb tdvMtioa, m«
G«ofi Book of Nature. I.eet. x\.—On Rooub edaaiioa io timo of Quialiliaa, JK'^Otn, oa tte Latls Rbetorieluw, is ha Jnc. Bid
•1 N. Torfc, 1836, ii. p. 552.— SeAiMBtx Enaehunplehre, eitad \ 75. vol. U p. 431.

368 ▲RCHiEOLOOT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

$ 126. Collections of liooks were considerably numerous at Rome. The first

private library is said to have been that which P. Emilius founded B. C. 167f

I immediately after the Macedonian war; which, however, could hot have been

I very large. More extensive was the library which Sylla brought with him from

I the capture of Athens, which included the rich collection of Apellicon. But

Hhis did not equal the magnificence of the famous library of Lucullus, obtained

in the Mithridatic war. Besides these there were several other distinofuished

private libraries, many citizens having them at their country villas. The first

public library was founded by Jisintua FolUo^ in the hall of the temple of Liberty,

on Mount Aventine. One of the most celebrated was that founded by Augustus

in the temple of Apollo on Mount Palatine. Another particularly celebrated

was the Ulpine library founded by Trajan, and afterwards located in the Baths

of Diocletian. There were also other public libraries, as for example, in the

Capitol, in the temple of Peace, and in a building adjoining the theatre of Mar-

cellus.

1. Varro is said to have collected a very valuable library, which was open to the use
of literary men. Cicero and Atticus also possessed considerable libraries. Tyraunio,
a native of Pontus, who was taken prisoner by Lucullus and brought to Rome as a
slave, and who having received his freedom, engaged in teaching rhetoric and grammar,
is said to have acquired by his earnings a library of 30,000 volumes.

9. We cannot infer with certainty the number either of different autbora, or of different works,
contained In a library, from the number of volumes mentioned ; as often only one author, or one
work even, was comprised in many volumes. The same work was no doubt found In various
libraries, and duplicates might exist in the same library. How many of the volumes enumerated
in the different libraries of Rome were filled, for example, with the poems of Virgil 1— A recent
writer has estimated that, at the end of the second century, when there were probably about
three millions of Christians in the Roman empire, there were about 00,000 copies of the Goepels
in use among them. Allowing that each gospel constituted but a single volume, this would
make 340,000^oiumes, in existence, for only four different authors.

3 tf. Generally libraries {bibliotheca) occupied one of the principal apartments in the
edifices and palaces of the Romans, usually in the eastern side ot the buildine. They
were ornamented with paintings and with statues and busts of distinguished writers.
The books were ranged along the walls in cases {armariay capsa)^ which were numbered
and had subdivisions {forulii toculamenta^ nidi) . Grammarians, and Greek slaves or
freedmen, were appointed for the librarians (biblioihecarii) .

d. Norton, EridmeM ot Ibe GmuiDeoM of tbt Ooipcla, Bort. 1837. 8. p. 45. h.-Sm Hmm*t GeKh. Kiam. Ut.bk.LK S-U,
died k Sa-eODL £Ur«n, Da tMopln M btMiothwft ApoUioii PkUtioi. Fnoaqo. 1719. S—Aehai, HW. Litt. Oiwqae, In. v. cb. Sa
--Dunkr, HM. tUm. UL ii. tt.-V. J7. JUi, D« Ai. Pbilioiib l>iblioUi«», Ac. Jio. HlSb 4.-PMar€k, ia LueuOm^Porpa,
Da RoDttiior. BibHoOMcih BnL 1880. C

$ 127. To these various means of improvement we must add travels, by which
not only professed men of letters, but also persons of distinguished rank, ex-
I tended their information and perfected their taste. At this time, education and
\ knowledge were no longer restricted so much as formerly by national prejudioe.
{ The Romans began more and more to appreciate the merits of foreigners, and
; to reap advantages firom their intercourse with them. For this reason they re-

i' sorted to Athens, the seat of Grecian refinement. They went also to Lacedemon^
Rhodes, Eleusis, Alexandria, Mytilene, and other places. Cicero, Sallust,
Vitruvius, Virgil, Propertius, and others thus went abroad for improvement.

I SMO.Jr.friifft,DktribedoV«tenunl

IV, — Of the deeUne of Roman Literature.

$ 138 1. Roman literature, from the latter part of the first century after Christ,
began to decline very sensibly from its height of glory and perfection. Its de-
cline became, from the concurrence of many causes, more rapid than had been
its former progress and improvement. We must place among these causes the
loss of liberty and the triumph of despotism ; the little encouragement given to
literature by most of the emperors succeeding Augustus ; the great increase of
luxury, and the consequent universal degeneracy of manners. The changes in
vhe moral and political condition of Rome paralyzed the nobler motives, which

P.IV. DECLINE OF LITERATURE

had stimulated the citizens. Pare taste and delicate sensibility were gradually
lost. Gaudy ornament was admired rathei than real beauty. Aflfectation was
substituted for nature, and the subtleties of sophistry for true philosophy. Finally
the invasions of the barbarians, the frequent internal commotions, the conflict
of Christianity with pa^n superetition ($ 83), the transfer of the imperial throne
to Constantinople, and the division of the empire, consummated that fall of Ro-
man literature, for which so many united causes bad prepared the way.

SeeJAMcrt.G«Khkhl*dMVM«J)id«SiMnaiidteSteattfaftManf dM-RfloMr. Lf. I78L 8l

1. The decline of Roman literature mav be dated from the end of the reign of Au-
guatus, A. D. 14 ; and its bistorv is considered as terminated with the overthrow of the
western empire, A. D. 476. The whole time intervening is commonly divided into two
periods, the beginning of the reign of the Antooines, A. D. 138, being the epoch of
separation. It is by some divided mto three, the first from Augustus to Antoninus,
A. D. 14 — 138, the second from Antoninus to Consrantine, A. D. 138 — ^313, the third
from Constantino to the fall of the empire, A. D. 313—476.

Ob Ibe pviods ia 111* hMory of Ronu iHmtiira, MS p. v. § 286, aoi.

2. Some of the emperors after Augustus patronized letters ; and during a portion of
the time the declension of literature was not owing to the want of imperial encourage*
ment. Under Hadrian the emnire flourished in peace ond prosperity, and men of Jetters
were honored. The reign of^ the Antonines was also favorable to literature and the
arts. After the death oflVIarcus Aurelius Antoninus, A. D. 180, the imperial influence
was much less propitious to learning. From this event to the reign of Constantine,
conspiracies end seditions, bloodshed and devastation, mark the history. Constantino
is said by his biographer Eusebius to have been a warm patron of letters, but his reign
perhaps accelerated rather than retarded the declension of Roman literature. The
establishment of Christianity by him necessarily tended to encourage a new system of
education, and a new form and spirit of literature. Julian the apostate, who received
the imperial throne A. D. 361, less than 30 years after the death of Constantine, made
violent but ineffectual efforts to restore the intellectual influence wholly to the pagans,
absolutely prohibiting Christians to teach in the public schools of grammar and rhetoric ;
vainly hoping in this way to hinder the propagation of the Christian religion.

8« Ayinfton, Ut RMoryor Om Middle !««, bk. l^-Oihbm, RM. Rom. Enp. eh. Hi. xiiL xziii.-#'. Jkkm, Ranltach
to GflKbickto d« Mitlridtanb L|«. 18a& 4 vela. L— IMfam'f latrodoctlon cited § 85. l.-BaUmmH Middl* .A(«, bk. It. pL k
-Ooov { »l.-te Ifadriu^ r^ud l» litonhin, fte. ne AiMa Crobt, In Um ifem. Aad. buer. vol. tKx. p. 406.

3. Among the circumstances contributing to the decline of letters, especially to the
depravation *of taste among the Romans, some have mentioned the custom of authors
in publicly rehearsing or reciting their own productions. The desire of success natu-
rally led the writer to sacrifice too much to the judgments or caprice of the auditors in
order to secure their plaudits of approbation.

Sob achat, Hal. Litt. Rom. vol. U. p. 2S1.— Ourif, Exemoi de mdlMdoolbiii Bomuonim, in bn editioB of Fliny'k Latten.
LIM.1S02. 2voli.iL CoaUhMda]wIaI«»un-r«>«PliD7,Tol.ii.p.21B.

4. The Roman languac^e suffered from the vitiatin? influence of intercourse with
provincial strangers who flocked to Rome. Many of these were admitted to the rights
of citizenship and even received into offices of honor. It was impossible, that the pe-
culiarities of^ their respective dialects should not modify in some degree the spoken lan-
guage, and the consequences might ere lonff appear even in the style of writing. The
purity of the language was much impaired before the time of Constantine. The re-
moval o( the government from Rome to Constantinople occasioned still greater changes
in it; particularly by the introduction of Greek and Oriental words with Latin termina-
tions. The invasions and conquests of the barbarians completed the depravation of the
Roman tongue, and laid the foundation for the new languages which took its place.

Soe SdOttf Hut, LUL Rom. vol. ii. p. 235; iii. 10.— OtUon, Ron. Emp. eh. iL-On the MadUra el the UKa to tbo modem
Fimch. Italiaa, Ac., ■• aaUam*t Middle Acca. dk is. p. 1.— Jtf. Ammny, brnf ia Mem. da lUcad. dm hur. tome ixiii.—
Brvu VPkgUt Hirtoire dee Uacnci Romeoet (JBonMnof Lnttuagm) et de leur Uttentaia. Far. IMl. S vola. &— Aawk, De in
miacala L. L. Macctala, Ac. ei died P. V. ( 299. 8. f

5. There were schools of learning in different parts of the empire during the decline
of letters, fri these professors were supported at public expense, and taoglit the prin-
ciples of philosophy, rhetoric, and law or right. Such schools existed at Bysantium,
Alexandna, Berytus, and Milan, and at several places in Gaul, where letters were cul-
tivated with much zeal, as at Augustodunum (Aotun), Burdegala (Bourdeaux), and
Massilia (Marseilles) . These schools, however, are said to have contributed to the
corruption of taste, as the teachers were less solicitous to advance their pupils in real
knowledge than to acquire glory from pompous display. At Berytus was the most
famous school for the study of Roman jurisprudence.

See Seh'tt, Hbt. LktL Rom. vol. iii. p^ 8.— OiMon'i aecouot of the Khoul at Betytna, is AecL and FM efkaau fmf • ch. vuk, <
CimipaniBOL

47

970 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

y. — Of the Remaina and MimumenU of Roman Literature,

§ 139. The existinor monaments of Roman literature are more numerons than
those of Grecian, and scarcely inferior in point of utility and importance. We
shall briefly notice them under the three classes of /rvcrtp/tam, CbtVu, and Manw
scripts* Great advantage may be derived from Roman inscriptions and coins,
in the illustration of history, antiquities, geography, and chronolo^, and the
manuscripts present much that is subservient to philology and cnticism, and
taste. The same general remarks, which were made upon the written monu-
ments of the Greeks, may be applied to those of the Romans. (Cf. f 86, ss.)

(a) Inseriptiofis,

$ 130. The Grecian custom of commemorating remarkable events, by short
inscriptions upon marble or brass, and of ornamenting their temples, tombs,
statues, and altars with them, also existed among the Romans. There now re-
mains a large number of these ancient inscriptions, which have been collected
and explained by several learned men.

We here mentioD lome of the collectitiM.— Amonf (be eutieit ; /. Arinetfur, Syatafma Ineerip* Aahqwom. 1618. 8 vei^
foL— JL Fabnttif In^criptiooam Antiquniin, he. Ezplicarlo. Rom. 1099. fol.— One of the moet euBplele worka on the rabjaef ;
/ani OntUH, IiiKriptioiiei utiqiue toliu orbit Ronuui, aotie Marqu. Otidii «nenUl«. Can /. Ck OrmoO. Amit 1707. t Hm.
fol — Next lo Ibis, Ihe followioc ue amoBf Ihe noet nlnbla; /. B. Denii^ loMriptioiice Aatiqua^ nanc priinain edi*a, DOticiiua
iUuitnta, elc ab J. F. Gcrio. Flor. 1731. fol-^IiiKripUeaM Aotiqua, in urbibui Hetruria, e. oU SalvinU a Ocni. Flor. 1743.
8 volt. ttA.—L. J. MttraXorn Novut Tbciaarai veleruin IntcriptioauiB, io piacipait earaiidem eolleetiooibai htcleooi pne'emii.
•enim. Mediol. 1799. 4 volt. M.'-8$b. Donatio Ad Norum Thewiroin Vet Intcrip. ei. viri L. A. Muntarii Supplemcolt.
LocB, 1784, I77& i6l.—RidL PoeoekM,lmee. Antiq. Gnse. et Latin. Liber. LoxmI. I7S2. kfl.^B- PtuAmny lima. Antiche. Lmc.
1763. fol — /. C. Ha^mtuihu Epitlote EpifnpbicaB, in quifaui plariaue antiqua ioicriptiooea, imprlnit tbeaaori Mnralorianl
emendaotur et eiplieaatur. TigvrU 1747. 4.— There an touller colleeliimi of the oiore important iDacriptioaa; GuL FkHwood^
Imcrfp'ioaum antiquarum tftlogeu Lond. I69I. f*.— Romanorom Inter. Fatcicalua, cum explieatioBe noiarwn, in wun JuTentnti*
(tad. Comiie iPoleaifro). Patav. 1774. S.--Abobc the moat Talvabie modem works; F. Omnn, 9y<i«f» baeripi. Aatlq., beK«B
at cilad \ W; contiaud and laiabed, Danott. IHO-n, in 8 Pftrti; iododinff Latin and Onek imcriptieiia. /. C. OniM, Inter.
1^1. aeieet Collectb. ZOr. 1828. 9 volt. & ; proaoaaeed Iqr ffsrmofMi, good j bj iMr, tDporior to all raoaat worka eT the kiod.—^
On the diitinctioD bMween epi^rana aad imcriptioBt, d P. V. $ 342.

$131. Some of the Roman inscriptions are among the most aneient monu-
ments of the Roman language and manner of writing. In order to decide upon
their genuine character and estimate aright their contend, much previous know-
ledge is requisite. It is especially necessary to understand the abbreviations
{notWj in later Latin sit^la, twruptiones)^ which are frequently used. These con-
sisted sometimes of detached letters, which expressed a praenomen, or some
known formula; sometimes of the principal letters of a word, the others being
omitted ; sometimes of monograms, by the contraction of different letters into
one character; sometimes by putting a single vowel enlarged for two similar
ones ; and sometimes by the omission of some letters in the middle of a word.

I u. It may be pr6per to Introduce and explain aome of the more common abbreviations that
occur in Roman Intcriptiona.

(A) A. esdilii, anniw, Aulot.— A. L. J. vumo lobent fecit.—
A. P. sdiliila ponatate.— A. 8. S. a lacrit icriaiit.— AN. V. P.
M aanos riirt pint minot.— AVSP. S. aiapieante tacrem.— In

the Daeiaa tablela (ef. S 183- 7), Alb. It put

(B) B. DD. boait deabia.— B. B. beao bena, u «. opHrm^
B. D. 8. M. bene de le mereotl.^B. O. POB. Uga gntit poeita.

(C) C. Caim, eirit, oohon, coDjtts.— C. C. S. eanverunt
coBimuai Bumhi.— C. F. Cail flliot^ caritaUna femina.— C. B.
euravit rcAcl, eivit Bonanoa.-^. V. P. V. D. D. commnni vo.
lunlate publiee votum dederuat— CVNC. en^ox.— In the Da-
cian tablet!, Cit. ocean (br Coiuulitut.

(D) 0. decuria, domo.— D. D. dooo dedit, dedicafit.— D. !•
dedit iibcoi.— D. V. M. dlii nuaiboa TotuBu— D. S. P. F. C. de
sua pecunia fieiendam canvit..— DP. depotitos.

(E) B. ereitt, erfo, expreaaom.— E. C. oric«adadl cunTit—

E. F. efraicia femiaii.— B. M. V. egreKiat memenn vir.— E. 8. •
aoo.— BX. PB. ex prxeepto.— EX. TT. SS.HII.cz tealaiuaatit
aupra'tcripterum heredaai.

(f) F. ff!eit, filia, filiut, flamen.— F. C. faciendum eonvit.—

F. r. fieri tKit. film familiaa.— F. F. Heceruat, filii, fratraa.'-F.

H. F. fieri hendea feceniiit.~F. I. fieri Joat!t.-FB. D. frmaeati
daadi.— F. V. 8. fecit vote anaeepto.

(H) H. habet, beraif bonorea—H. A. F. a bane anm hckii.
dam canTit-H. Q. hk quieeeit—B. L L hflndaa Jiiot illofiuB.
— H. S.E. hksituaeat.

(I) h impcmtor.-l. L. F. Ulioa liberta lisclL->L L. R. J«
libermm habooa.— JL a M. D. Jorl opiimo naximo dedicatam.

(Ki K. Caiui, calaodat, caadidatni, caaa.

(L) L. kfio, lutlram.— L. A. lex alia, libeea animo.— L. C.
locus eoncettnt.— L. H. L. D. locna bie liber dalni.— L. P. locat
pobliciia.— L 8. M. C. locnm aibi moBiunanlo eapit— LEO. to-
gaiot.

(M) M. nagiater, mater, moDumeBtgok.— M. A. Q. & BamDr
aaimo pato aolvtL-MM. nea«iaB.>-MIL. IN. COH. milUafit

(N) N BAlioa*, natoi, aapoa, DUDtroh— N. P. C. aomioe pro.
pno eanrit.

(0) aD.&M.optimedetemorila-aH.a.8.ottahictita
sunt.— OB. AN. obit anno,

(F) P. pater, patria, poatifez, porait, peer.— P. C. ptftrai eon-

p. 17.

INSCRIPTIONS.

371

■niptl, ptfroMB soleiilB^ il corporis potteoihiiB eunvit.— P. E.
pjbUoe atcnniiit.— P. I. S. puMica im|«oHi wpaihn.— P. P.
publice pomilt, pUw patrue, prcfwrui praatorio.— P. 8. P. Q P.
rn « proqne patria.— PR. S£N. pro ■eaienlia.— P. V. pndecfin
uttt.

(Q) Q. quMTor, qd, QoiBtbi.~Q. A. qiMnlor aditia^-^ IX
8 8. qui dadaniai wpra KripU.— Q. F. quod factual.

(R) fL note, retro.— R G. C. rei Reruodc eaima.

(S) S. Kpulcnitai, »lTit, ■tipoadiiun«— S. C. Scnaiw CooMlt-
•B.~& C. 0. & ubi eonTil de Ma-S. £. T. L. lit d lam

lMlfc-8L L. M. nlvil Ilbm iMrito.-S. P. Q. 8. libi poaMaqw
■aia.-SVJl. A. D. Mb aacia dedicarit.

(T) T TitiH, iribuaoi, tone.— T. C. tartaoMaU eana.— T f .
taMamaalo beil, Tfti fiiin, tituluiB r«cit— T. P. lilaUa poMM.-
TR. PL. DESS. iribvni picbto deii(BatL

(f^) V. VeieniiiH, »ljit(.-V. A. F. tivih ana (bdt-T. C Tk
CMWQlarit, vivoi cnaviL— V. D. D. votam dadkalam.— V. F. F.
vivn flari hut.— V.M.S. volo marito tiMcepto.— V.B. vir 4{r«|l«k

rXJ X ER. deeioia arafater.-XV. VIR. SAC. FAC. qaiada-
drnvtrauTtafbeiaadk.

3. Tbe following works treat upon the general lutOeet of the Roman abbreTiatlons, notet, or
•ignt.

Salarii Ihtati de notja RoiaaiieniiB Coaunanlarigk rtetiv. IVTiL foU^. A CeUti KOm el 8ifla Roa. Veaet. I78S. 4 —J
Gtmrd, Si«Lu-iuBi RomauniD. Loud. 1792. 4.— EzpUcatlo lit at wA. In aatiq. Rom. mooiowalia oeeomatram. Flor. 1828. 8 —
BudM, as dMd \ i86b 1.— Sae ^U■ Comfwidianjc, is JiiinaortA'f Latin Dier. bj Jfurrett. Loikl. 1816. 4.— Cf. Pbit Royal LaL

$ 132. Besides the numeroas advantages already mentioned, as derired from
Roman inscriptions, this study is of service in devisin? and preparing inscrip-
tions designed to be placed upon modern monuments. It renders one acquainted
with what is called the lapidarjr style, distinguished by its brevity and sim-
plicity. For compositions of this sort the I^tin is usually preferred to any
mddem language, on account both of its comprehensive brevity and also of its
suitableness to the form and character of the monuments, which are generally
constructed aAer ancient models. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that in
such cases the capital letters are used.

The Mlewlaff ia aMOlloMd at a tRnfiw vafy oMrn) in tbii •tadr:-/'. A. Eaemrlu, MtaiioM Aniiqiiario-lapidarlh o ria Intn-
dvikM alio itodkt ddia aatidia latias laaerisoiii. Boa. 17m C Vor. 1791 8.-Cf. /. O. MUnteduit riindamnnH ilUi oiltioria.
IfK 1781. & Ft iL G. T. •

$ 133. A vast number of Roman inscriptions have been gathered from the
mass of ancient ruins. They differ very much from each other in point of
utility and importance. Those of a public character are obviously far more
valuable than such as are mere private records and enitaphs. With regard to
their philological worth we should particularly consiaer their antiquity. The
following are among the most important.

1 u. The inscription upon the pedestal of the Columna rontrata, a column so called
because ornamented with beaks of ships. It was erected in honor of the Consul Duil-
liu9« after the naval victory which he obtained over the Carthaginians, B. C. 261.
During the time of the second Punic war this column was struck oown by lightning,*
and its ruins remained for a long time concealed, until in 1560 they were discovered,
together with the pedestal upon which is found the inscription. I'his inscription has
been published and explained by several learned men. It is much mutilated ; Liptius
has attempted in part to fill up the blank places ; and Ciacconi entirely. It has been
considered as the most ancient monument of the Latin or Roman characters hitherto
discovered ; yet it may not be the original inscription, but one placed upon the monu-
ment on its being restored at some subsequent time. A new column is supposed to
have been erected by the emperor Claudius.

« Ct Jlv. BiM. Ion. I18.-2W. Ann. U. 4a~/>lta. HM. Nat zulv. &-» Lfn. xlii. 80. Sea Ciaeami, In Colanmi Ron-

trata iMeripiioocm a n emjactma tapplalaa Esplicalio. Bon. 1608. S-^OmaU Tb«» Ant Rom. toow iv. dted P. ni. ( 197.—
OndM Corp. Inenpt cscdT. 1. It na j be fboid in the aditioni of Ftotit, by Oynmtt and Ducto-. Sea abo JnlAon'k LnpT'
nodar C. DaUliM—DnnV !>'■•<• ■<>«• UL-SekcO, Hirt. Ut Bon. voL i. p. 47.— JSAnA. Oto. No. Izzx. p. 400.

2 tt. The inscriptions on the tombstones of the Sdpios. The epitaph of the Father,
C. L. Scipio Barbatus, Consul B. C. 298, is probably nearly as old as the column of
Duillius. It was discovered in 1780 in the vauh of the Sciptan family, between the Via
Appia and Via Latina. It is on a handsome Sarcophagus (cf P. III. ^ 341. 4). The
epitaph of the son, Lucius Scipio, v^s discovered much earlier, on a slab which was
found lying near the Porta Capena, having been detached from the family vault. Though
later as to the date of its composition, the epitaph on the son bears marks of higher an-
tiquity than that on the fiither.

The infcription in honor of tbe eon if given by Seikdll, as followi; honcoiico. ploirums. go-

SKMTIONT. R DUOKORO. OPTUMO. PVISSB. VIRO. LUCIOM. 8CIPI0NB. PILI08. BARBaTI. COK-

■OL. CBNSOI. AIDILI8. IIBC. PVBT. A HBC. CBPIT. CORSICA. ALCRlAQtJE. URBE. DEBET.

TBMPB8TATKBU8. AIDE. MCBBTO. Thls, being Changed into the Latin of later times, may be
read as follows ; Hune vmkm plnrimi eonfntiwmt R»mm bonerum optimum fnuMe vinm^ Lveium
adphnem, Fitius Barbati^ eonMvU e«M»r, adUia kic fuit apud vet. Jik espit Corrieam Jahrmmqm
nrbem ; dedit 7Vnipe«(a/tA«« mdem MsHto.— The inscription in honor of the ftilher is given by
Winkelniann; corneuvs. lvcivs. scipio. barbatvs. onaiod. p*tbb. PBoanATVS. portis.

VIR. S^PIESQVB. QOVIVS. FORMA. VIRTVTKI. PARISVMA. PVIT. COMSOL. CCHSOR. AIDILIS. QVEl.
WIT. APVP. V08. TAVRASIA. CI8AVMA. 8AMBI0. CEPIT. SVBIOIT. OHBB. LOTCARA. 0PSIDB8QVB.

972 ARCHAOLOO? OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

AB9YCIT ; which may be read thus ; ComMuM Lueitu Seipio BarhatuMf Omm» frofiMnttf^rOsvir,
MpUtufue ; eujna forma virtuii paruaima fuit ; eontul, center^ aidilis^ out juU apud vqm : 7^«<-
r«jta«, CUamMmm ta Samtdg upit ; subigU omiumLucaniam^ ebtidesque abdwcU.

8m Dmtlop^ Hkt. Roa. Lit. ml. 1. p. 46 —Grmfii Thma. Ant Ron. lom i«.— MombmbU difli SeipiiKtt puMfcafi M Cat.
P. iHrantu. Roa. 1781. ULSMmimU lUwtnlioH of ChiM* BaioliL-Sak^lI, HiM. LitL Bom. vol. i. p. M^tftapMr, Db
Sepolehro ScipioaoA Mut. IHI. 4.~For a «i«w of tte 8Meplii«iN, Mt Wiakdmum, HM. da I'Art, u dtod f 98. 4. ««l. iL
pi. a«L Ct «k ^ SI4.-A nodil of i^ with Ike bort faud fa tba tmb with it, ud a fbMinile of tto Inehption, b hilhi
cdilMt of iBhmt OolMp.

3. The Eagubian Tables {TahulB Eugvhina) , These are seven tablets of brass,
dug up in 1444, at Eu^ubium (Gubbio) a city in ancient Umbha near the foot of the
Apennines. The inscriptions on five of the tablets are said to be in the Etruscan
character and languace. The other two are in Roman letters, but in a rustic jar^n,
between Latin uid Etruscan. They were at first supposed to be of very high antiquity ;
but *' it is now> agreed that they do not reach further back than the fourth century be-
fore the Christian era ;'* and Dunlop states that ** the two tables in the Latin character
ivere written towards the close of the sixth century of Rome."

9m DwU<p, HfaL Bom. LH.L p.47.-AKfi&. JIm. Mo. H^ pw 9>S.^ JSAr, G«ch. Bflm. Lit. (cilad ( 114.^ p-eC-Tki te-
wcrtflhmwgirmimQnUm,mitbow9tiMi-»ha'mLMKi,aaumiiLim

4 u. The Inscription termed the Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Senatut cut
$uUum de Baeehonal€m$ This decree was enacted B. C. 166. Livy (zxziv. 8 — 18)|rives us
the occasion and contents of it. By certain passages in that author ooncermnff this
edict, the authenticity of this monument is confirmed. It is engraved upon a table of
bronze, which was discovered in 1640, in the province of Abruzzo,in digging the founda-
tions of a manor house. It contains the prohibition of the nocturnal celebration of the
Bacchanalian rites, throughout the Roman dominion. The tablet, upon which are
flome fractures and gaps, is about a foot square, and is now in the imperial collection at
Vienna.

8m SoMtunofUMM db BaeOmtmUbrnt opIieiUa, tmtan MtaWtto .Bfflrtw (^r^d). NMp. r». M. Thh dfaHitelin k
TcpriBtod la tte7lliToLorA«dWiitef«ft'««ditlmorLiv7. Tb»«dtemMif lafc— dhCliwnirt aod Bipartft adftiaB af Uty.-
flMalwSdkctt, HM. Litt Rob. vol. L p. 88.

5 tt. The Monumenlum Anevranum, This consists of several inscriptions on marble,
upon the propylsum of a temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modem Angora) in Gabtn.
They record the achievements of that Emperor. The monument was discovered by
Busbequius in 1553. It has been much disfigured by time, or barbarian violence.

8m OruUti TbM. loKT. eazs.-C*Mtill, Antfai. AMat.-/. O. BwcH Manmrh Aaepni hMoria. Jm 1708. 4 -Kmu^wm
•or It namuuaQt d'ADejn, JMMMA. ChcMt, iam, THi.-Jbc OrwMotf M«MnoriaCeiM^^a^^ eoi iaona Ml mm edltki MimmimIi
AkjiuiI Lncd.BatMM.4.-0UerT.nrkMaa.d'Aoe7n,iBllMJfaii.jMd.AiMr.vaL47,p.8ft.

6 «. The Fa$ii Capiiclinu These are portions of the tablets anciently placed in
the Capitol, on which were inscribed in succession the names of the consuls and other
maffistrates, and by means of which Roman chronology is much elucidated. They are
tablets of marble aiscovered in the Forum, at Rome, 1547, and contain a list of tlie
Consuls from the year 270 to the year 765 after the building of Rome. They were in
a broken state. The fragments were unitod by the care of Cardinal Alexander Farnese,
and placed in the palace of the Capitol, where they still remain. Some additional por-
tions were discovered at Rome in 1816.

8m Omad TbM. AaL Bon. toM xl..^. #. J^rMHii, LapidM CapMoHai. Ron. I7SB. Mr-Naavl Aamatt M F»M earn
OapitoL UlHtrati da JkrfoL Avftan. Milan, m»-IWOl 4.^Aho^ C. Fmt, rfiwiainli dl jMti CBMaiari, kc Rom. UBQl M.

Vcrrlui FlBCCui has been sappoted to be the author of the Fait! Oapitolinl, and they were
pnbliahed bv Ont^friiu PanvhUust 1553, under the name of that grammarian. This mliUke wae
occasioned by a passage In Suetonius, In which he menilons that Flaccas attached to a strnetare
erected at Pmneste twelve tablets of marble containing a Roman Calendar, Pftsti kaleadares.
Four of these latter tables, or rather fragments of them, were discovered In 1770, and form what
is called the CmUndarium PrmnMtinum. They contain the months of January, March, April, and
December, and cast mnch light on the Fasti of Ovid .

ThiMwonp«MiahadbrP.l^.f^nM,FWIaf«maMiRonaBirillqalB,ae. Rom. 1779. fcl. Tht wortc ooalaiM a eoilaelim
<f tho oiiiUt fnffBMti cf Romaa CaJandam Srtai, Hhl. Uit Rom. wI. 1L p. 88, S^-ja*r, Omit. Rom. UL p, 4ia

7. The Libdlus Aurariu$, or Dacian TaMeti. Under this desiffnation we refer to
two triptychs (cf. i 118. 3. under Tabula) with inscriptions, first made known to the public
in 1841. Of these, one formed of fir, was discovered in 1790, in a eold mine in Abrud-
banya, a village of Transylvania, a part of ancient Dacia ; the other, of beech, was
found in 1807, m another mine three or four miles distant from Abrudbanya. The in-
scription on the fir tablets refere to some business connected with a collegium ; being a
document belonnnc to the office {ttatio) of one Resculus, a tabeUio or tabdlariua, i. e.
register of pubac documents, such as wills and deeds. The date is made out to be
A. D. 167 or 169. The inscription is double, bein^ exactly repeated. These tablets
ehow that a cursive or running hand was used in writmg as early as the second
century.

Sm tke work «ad«r tte bliowtaf titia: tMOm Aunrimi rfva TababB C«atB at aotiqoMJiM el mics Rmhuhb ia fnaii
AorarU apad AlmidtauijrBja, oppidulan Tnoqrlvaaam, nupcr reperts ; quu aane prima anidMvit, depiaiit, adidil /. f. Mm
man. Lip*. 1341. C-Ct Fw. ifitart. Am. vaL ucvii. p. 1, AMar. •d.-AniM, Diet of Aalif. ai«. YUmIs.

p. IT. COINS AND UEDALS. 373

(b) Coins and Medals,

$ 134. Withoat enieriDg into any minute history of Roman coinage, we only
remark that the first coins at Rome were probably struck under the reign of
Servius Tullius ; that the more ancient coins were for the most part of brass,
{nummi asnei); and that silver coin was not introduced until B. C. 269, and
gold not until B. C. 207. Besides the coins used as the current money, there
were also a great many medals and historical pieces or medallions (missilia^
nunUsmaia maximi moduli), distinguished from the others by the absence of the
letters S. C, which are commonly found upon the Roman coin, especially the
brazen. On the gold and silver coins these letters are less frequently seen, and
seem not to indicate the authority granted by the senate for the striking of the
coin so much as for the erecting of the statues, triumphal arches and uie like,
which are represented on the reverses.

1. The remarks offered under a previous section (^ 93) , respecting the utility and
entertainment connected with the study of coins, are applicable here. The Roman
coins particularly are interesting on account of the striking personifications and symbols
found on their reverses. Many descriptions and allusions in the classical poets are beau-
tifitUy illustrated fi'om the figures ana devices on the Roman coins.

Ob tte caaafMtiM Mitwd poetry uri madab, as JUditon'i OialacoM upoii the mttvium at eoeicBt Medab, cqieeUly in icU
MOB to the latin eDdOreek I^Mto; b hb IVbrikf, vol. UL p. 879, ofed. K. Toik, 1837. 8 tdIi. &-See tin ^fwmis •• d*^ S ISl*

1 On the Roman money coined in the lime of the republic, very commonly was teen an im-
affe of Victory, In a triumphal car, driving sometimes two horses, and sometimes four. Hence '
the pieces were called bifrati or quadrurati. The coins were also Indented round the edges like a
■aw, and therefore termed serrati. Tacitus speaks of the money thus marked as the ^ndeiU
§Md totll known eai». It would seem that the later coin was adulterated.

CL Tat. De Mar. Gem. 6.^FKn. Hirt. Nat zzxiii. S.

S Up The pieces, which have been termed niimmt e&ntomutU may be included perhaps among
the medallions. They are distinguished by a rim which is wro«ighl with much art. They may
have been prize medals of illustrious athlete, or may perhaps have been used as a sort of tickets
for admission to public shows.

4. Medals seem to have been sometimes employed in ancient times, as in modern, for pur-
poses of satire upon private individuals and upon rulers. The medals called Sfintrian were
probably of the satirical class, and are supposed by some to have been designed to ridicule the
debaucheries of Tiberius in the island of Caprea.

Owrrffn OQ aatyrie Medab, Jtthmologia (n cited f 88. 5), vol. iz. p. 61.

$ 135. There are two principal divisions of the Roman coins; the Consular^
struck in the time of the republic, called also coins of the Roman families; and
&e Imperial^ the series of which extends from Julius Cesar to Heraclius. Of
the Consular coins, the most rare are the golden ; of the Imperial, the most rare
are the brazen coins of Otho.

1. " The Consular coins include the following. 1. Bnus coins, — ^These consist chiefly
of large pieces of*rude workmanship without any interesting imagery. In all these the
prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, with very few exceptions. Some-
times, indeed, they have a shell, two heads of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on
the reverse. 2. Silver. — Of this the denarius was the first and principal coin. It was
stamped originally with X, denoting that the value was ten asses. On the reverse was
Castor and Pollux, or a chariot o? Victory. Afterwards the busts of various deities
make their appearance ; and in the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious
persons deceased are met with. 3. Gold. — Most of these are of great value. The
number of these exceeds not 100. The aureus is the general gold coin ; but two or
three gold semisses of fiimilies Ukewise occur.*'

The first head of a living person that was struck on Roman coins is said to have been that of
Cesar the Dictator. But the features of iseeated consuls had previously been struck both on
the silver and on the gold coins.

" The Imperial coins include, 1. Bmss. — ^This is of three sizes ; large, middle, and
smell. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. It is the most im-
portant of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold m value. — The middle brass
IS next in value to the former | and in it are many rare and curious coins, particularly
interesting to Britons, as elucidatinff the history of the island. — The small brass series
abounds also with curious coins. They are scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallie
nus, but very common afterwards. 2. Silver. — This series is very complete, and the
cheapest of any ; especially as the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it ; the
latter being had in plenty when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful
when the brass is scarce. 3. Gold. — The Roman imperial sold coins form a series ot
great beauty and perfection ; but on account of their great price are beyond the purchase

dl

874 ARCHJBOLOOT OF ROMAN LITERATURX.

of private persona. 4. The colonial coins. — They occur only in brus. On many of
the coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, god-
desses, and illustrious persons, fiut coins with those representations are by no
means common ; the colonial coins till the time of Trajan bearing only a plough, or
some other simple badge of a colony. Camelodunum is the only colony in Britain
of which we have any ootns. 5. The simimt.—* This includes the smallest coins of ail
denominations, most of which do not exceed the size of a silver penny. They are the
most curious of all. The reason of the scarcity of the small coins is probably their di-
minutive size ; by reason of which they are mostly lost."

t. A irreat number of eoini have been found, at different times, daring the excavations at
Pompeii. In one of the streets a skeleton was foond, supposed to have been a priest of Isis ;
*^ In his band was a baf of eoarse linen, not entirely destroyed, containing three hundred and
sixty silver coins, forty-two of copper, and six of gold ; and near biro several Agures belonging
to the worship of Isis ; small silver forks, cups, paters in gold and silver, a cameo representing
a satyr striking a tamborlne, rings set with stones, and vases of copp«r and bronxe.** — **Io
several of the tiousus, skeletons with rings, bracelets, necklaces and other ornaments, together
with many coins, were found.'*— " A pot of gold coins, principally of the reigns of Trajan and
Antoninus Pius, was found by a peasant, in 1787, at Nellore in Hindostan.*'

3. It has been thought that false and base coin was fabricated by illegal coiners. Molds,
which were employed for casting Roman coins have been found at Lyons in Francs and Edlug-
ton in England.

/. AmIi, on Mold* iat BflniB ertlni, tc. JhtkmiefU (M dtod ( 32. 5), vol. zl v. p. M.

$ 136. The writing upon the Roman coin is usaally the legend^ as it is called,
on the head of the coin or on both sides ; but there is sometimes an inMcription
more at length placed upon the reverse. The contents of the legend commonly
point out the person whose image is impressed upon the principal side and indi-
cate his rank ; sometimes also a short notice of his exploits, forming the inscrip-
tion, is upon the reverse. The date of the coin is often stamped upon it, either
in whole words, or by certain letters or figures; and likewise the names of the
cities where it was struck ; sometimes even that of the artist, together with the
Talue, particularly upon the Consular coins. «

1 «. In order to read and to understand all these kinds of writing, it is necessary to be ac-
quainted with the peculiar abbreviations which are employed.

rbral>rier laUodadioii to Um Mt^Ml, ms /. C. Rueki, Luiom AbrapthNraa, qua in BirniimtiliM SuMMiui— aesoiraat
Korink 1777. L-CL § ISt. S.

2 u. The coins of the Romans being among the most ancient monuments of their
manner of writing, it is proper here again (cf v 1 16) to refer to their orthography. It
is not from mistake, but from ancient usage, that the orthography on the old coins diflfere
from the modem. We find, for example, v in place of b in the word danvvivs ; o instead
of V in voLKANvs, and divos ; kk for e in feelix ; ii for i in vhrtvs ; s and m sup-
pressed at the end of words, as in albinv, captv ; xs for x, in maxsvxvs ; F instead of

FH, as in TRIVMFVS.

$ 137. Much attention and caution must be exercised with regard to Roman
as well as Grecian coins, in order to distinguish genuine from false, wb* a are
▼ery numerous and of d ifierent kinds. Many of those that are ^ered as ancient,
are struck in modern times with the ancient costume; others have been stamped
in express imitation of really ancient coins, among which we may particularly
notice those called Paduane, so celebrated on accotmt of their good impression;
others are cast similar to the old coins, by means of molds, and may be distin-
guished by traces of the casting; others are formed by putting together two
ancient coins in order to obtain rare and unique pieces, which may be detected
by a careful examination of the edges; others are really antique, but falsified by
some change in their impression or inscription.

Sm O. atawtott, Mutier* d« diMamr l« mtdatllci utiqatt 4« ttOm qni mt eaatrtfiStci. Fkr. ITHl 4. TnMlitod lolo Ocr
m-»AaaA9BhiwtityLlptlu». Dml. I7M. 4.~«ii«iii4Bopni ■odfln.hMSd.diaMdHl'ULtc nr.l8HL4.

$ 138. Besides the works already mentioned ($ 99) as illustratincr the subject
of ancient coins, we will cite the following, which relate principally to Roman
coins.

CkarttM Patin, IntnrisetioB a lllMolm par la MMmiMiiee to nadaillo. hr. ISB. IL-dk. /Min, HMOn to Madailka.
M iBtraditetion a la CoDimiMannn da ealta SeiaoMb ruh, ICBS. 18.— /Wk Frttni Fanilia Roiaana ia aaliqan aanriMHtikw ak
mta eondiU ad (anpora D. Ai««ti ; adit. CanL Aim. Par. IS8S. §d.-J. /loy Vtatmt, Nnnmi aatiqd FuiliarMi B«naa»
mm. ABMt. 1708. B rab. UL—Sjiud. Naaaaata Impcralor. BoaniHr. prwlaation, ke. atra T. F. BmldinL Baok I74S.
S vola. 4. SupplaoMolaB, op- Jok. KhtU. Vindob. 1767. ^—EJutd. NonimaU nca loipcfalonoB Bonaa. la eelooi^ mmt-
dpila, ke. Far. I0& 2 ftdi. foi.— By Ikt Htmt, NumiMnata Impcntomm, a RipvlN, BooMiia diethaiit, Oraea loqaaatiba^ pa»>
lOM. AOMI. 1700. M.— Bt MfM, Sriaelion Namiamtla ia Mn Muimi Moduli iilorfnla. Paria, 1691 A^-JdatpM Oooama.
NamiuMta Imperalorttin BAnanomBi praBttaaliora. MedM. 1730 fol.— Tbmurw MuitUiamu a. FaaiUianaa I
waU Omnh. OaMt iUwt aigtL Ouvmmmpiu. AiaA 1734. 6 tola. tol.--vlfu. Bandmii Koi

.XLrsii

p. IT. COINB AMD MEDALS. 375

l^i^^aoDeeio i4 PklMlofloi Aa«Bilos. Ftr. 17t& S *»h. fol. ftapploment. ed. B. Tntmhu, Ron. I7BI. fid.— Car. Pathn 1m
pcfalor. BoBHumirNttnbiula. AifCDt. I«7t. fol Aaut tOML tcL—h. lot. Omuri Namiaouibi Antiqoa Inpentonini Roauo'
mm ktiM el gnaea. Tignri, ITtf. fel-! NoBiomte Anliqua runiliurani RomuMram. Tlpirl, 1749. fol.— JTm Coohe, Tb»

MadaUk HklDfyar laiperU Bmbs, fte. Loud. 1781. 2 vob. 4. On nwdah of a terser uie, tea Mongtz, Sor da MedaiUoaa

Bamaiaa d* luw volonM extnoi>linaii«. in flie Ktm. da PItaHtut, CbM ttHM. U Lit. Jite. ix. 966.^^1. StrinbUcAcI, RacuaU da

Badailloa en or do Cabinet Imperial de Vienw. Vien. 1826. 8. On Um mbjeet of Roman oohH, K. 0. HUUer, Arcblologie, be.

^ died § as. 4) u a •• very (ood aathority .»

§ 139. The most yalnable collections of ancient coins are the following: at
Parisy in the Royal library, and the library of St. Genevieve; at Rome^ in the
Vatican, and the collection once belonging to Christina queen of Sweden, now
to the duke of Bracciano; in the British Museum at London i the Imperial collec-
tion at Vienna i the Royal collection at Berlin j the Duke's collection at Goiha;
the Royal collection at Stuttsart; and at Copenhagen, There are valuable cata«
logues of most of these public collections of coins.

See ZShlv, Anweimnc nir ReiaeklugheiL Ed. JTiiMkrlinf. Magdeb. 1788. 8.-&AM (y dtBd \ 99), Plolef. cap. axili.— IHc*
boonairc das ArtBtei, par Maml.—SuUtry Allg. Theot. kc arlide JIntik, V.

1. Few genuine antiques have ever been brougbt to this country. Of really ancient coins
the Botton JStJuneum probably possesses the largest number, having about 14(H) Greek and Ro-
man ; of which less than 200 are silver, and the rest are copper or brazen. (MS. Lett, of Dr. Buu^
Lib. to Host. Ath. IS.'W.)

S. Before leaving this subject* it is proper to remark that some examples of the manner in
which symbols are employed on coins and medals may be seen by inspection nf our Plate XLII. In
fig. 6, Britain is represented by a woman reclining against a shield, and holding a spear in one
hand, with her head resting on the other, as if in a contemplative mood. In fig. 9, the river
Tiber is symbolized by the image of. an old man with a. branch of some plant, or perhaps some
beads of grain, in his left hand, and his right hand on the prow of a vessel. In fig. 7, a coin of
Trajan, (he Danube is represented in a manner in some degree similar. In flg. 8, a coin of An-
toninus Pius, the symbol of Italia appears, a woman sitting on a globe and holding a sceptre and
a horn of plenty, indicating her universal dominion and her riches. On many pieces, Rome is
exhibited as a goddess, the image being a head with a helmet ; as in fig. 1, a coin of the J9ur9liaM
/ami/y, on which the helmet is curiously wrought, so as to present In its form the head, neck,
and wings of an eagle ; in fig. 2, which is the piece of money called trientt the head on the ob-
verse is likewise probably designed to represent the goddess Rome ; as is also perhaps the bead
covered with a lion's skin instead of a helmet, in fig. 3, which is the obverse of a quadraiu* The
heads of deities were frequentlv placed on Roman coins ; as that of Mercury in fig. 4, the obverse
side of a sextans; and that of Janus, in flg. a, the obverse of a dupUx denarius. Rome is svm-
bolized sometimes by the eagle, as Athens is on Greek coins by the owl ; as in fig. 10, which givei
the obverse of another sextans ; the reverse of this (not given in the plate) presents a wolf nurs-
ing Romulus and Remus, but the reverse of these brass pieces more commonly contains merely
the prow of a ship, as in fig. t : the points or dots on these pieces indicate their value ; four, the
trisK* ; three, the quadrans ; and two, the sextans. We see the goddess of plentjr or abundanca
represented, in fig. 5, a coin of the emperor Decius. The colonial coins of Antioch in Pisidis
often bear, as in fig. s. the device of a bull with a hump-back representing Mount Taurus. Some
of Cesarea in Palestine show an eagle holding in his claws a thunderbolt, as in fig. t; the letters
underneath, in this coin, probably stand for Colonia Aujnsta Casarea^ or Cnsariensis ; this city
became a Roman colony after the conquests of Vespasian. Many of the coins of Vespasian bear
upon the reverse a very striking symbol; as in flg. y, with the words judea capta, and initials
or SENATUS cowsuLTO forming the legend, and the fate of conquered Palestine represented by a
woman silting solitary and weeping, under a palm-tree, upon a collection of arms, shields, hel-
mets, Ice, thrown upon the ground. There is here a remarkable coincidence with a prophetic
declaration of Isaiah4». SO ; and «A«, desolaU^ shall sit on the ground.

The Plate presents a view of one side of some of the principal silver coins of the Romans. In
flg. a, we have the obverse of the double denarius, equivalent to the didracbma of the Greeks ; on
the reverse was a quadriga. In fig. ft, is the denarius, having its value of ten asses of brass
stamped upon it. This Is the coin designated by the word penny, as used in reference to Ro-
man money in the common English version of the New Testament; it commonly had on it, in
the period to which the New Testament history relates, the imaee of the Roman emperor, and
his superscription, 1. e. his name or its initials Inscribed on It as in fig. r, a gold coin of Vespasian.
(See Matt. xzii. 90, Jfk. xil. 10.) By some it has been supposed that the thirty silver pieces
(dpv^pia) for which Judas covenanted to betray his master and Lord were so many denarii;
while others think that the silver piece here intended was the sielus (aU^os), a Jewish coin equi
valent to the Attic tetradruchma. (Cf. Matt xxvi. 15, JieU xix. 10.— C/pAam's Trans, of JoAn's

Arch. $ 117.) In fig. e, we have the quinarius, or half denarius, with its value of j^t?0 asses

stamped on It. The sestertius is g'ven, in fig. d, having on the reverse Castor and Pollux on
horseback ; usually marked by the letters h s on its obverse. In flg. e, is a silver coin present-
ing the eagle as the symbol of Rome, with the name of the city in the exergue. In flg. 0, we
have a very small gold coin, with its value of twenty sesterces ensiamped ; it was sometimes
named sempulum from its weight.

In Plate XLIII. are the reverses of three coins. The central exhibits a bead considerea by
Hontfaucon to represent Neptune, with a laurel or crown Indicating some victory; the trident
also appears behind. On one of the others is a dolphin connected with a trident. On the third,
a coin of the emperor Claudian, we see Nepiune drawn by marine horses ; here is symbolized
a victory over a maritime nation ; and someiliing similar is probably commemorated ou the other
two. In Plate XIV. may be further noticed the use of symbols; most of the delineations be-
ing derived from coins. The goddess Spes or Hope, fig. 8, holds up a Jlover-bud; this is from a
ccUn of Titus. In flg. 0, from an imperial silver coin, is Fortune, with a rudder and olive branch
thrust forward, indicating her fair promises nf peace and security, with the horn of plenty also;
but behind is the wheel, showing her instability. In fig 10, from another imperial coin, is tha
goddess yielory standing on a globe, to indicate that the Roman empire extended over the world

376 ARCHiBOLOOT OT ROMAN LITERATURB.

In fig. 11, from a coin of Nero, appean Cvncoriia^ on a royal feat («9U«m), with a bom of plenty,
and holding out a paterm In fig. 13, from h coin of Cnracalla, Pax or Peace leant upon a coluniii,
an emblem of rest ; holding in one hand the horn of plenty, extending in the other a wand of
Mercury, a symbol of negotiation, over a tripod or menta, denoting perhapa the aacrednesa of
treaties and pledgea, or the aocial enjoyments resulting from peace.

(c) Manuaeripta,

$ 140. What has been said ($ 100 — 106) concerning the intrinsic ralne, the
antiquity, the preservation, and the study of Greek manuscripts, is in general
applicable to the Roman, and we need not here repeat it. The works of very
many Latin writers, as well of the most flourishing period of Roman literature,
as of later times, have been preserved and handed down to us by means of written
copies. These manuscriots, however, belong not to the classical ages. Latin
manuscripts, like most or the Greek, are not of earlier date than the sixth century
after Chnst. We must generally consider those the most ancient, whose writing
bears most resemblance to the characters found upon coins and inscriptions.
But this criterion is not a certain one, as in after ages the ancient manuscripts
were sometimes copied with a perfect imitation of their manner of writing.

Sn QutUrtr em tb* iiMtbed of detarniDinc tha Me of MSS. in the C-mrwnt. Socut. GCtL tlh Bead or eol..-Ali(S aekTmrnamm,
Venoch einw volUt AyHtUM d«r DipIooMlik.— jyUi^r, cited i 5S.—rByIor'f TniMkUMOo, ac, cited } 68.

$ 141. We must refer to a later origin the small Roman characters, punctua-
tion, and the contracted form of the diphthongs s and (c, which were originally
written in full ae and oe. The letter y, from the seventh century, was oAen
marked with a point 5^; on the contrary, the t was written without a point until
the end of the tenth century ; afterwards it took an accent over it, i ,• in the four-
teenth century the accent was changed into a point From the small Roman
letters arose,. by some alterations, the Gothic and Lombard characters, and those
of the Francs and Anglo-Saxons; as these people derived the art of writing
chiefly from Italy. The larger portion of the ancient Latin manuscripts now in
existence belongfs to this age. During the 9th and 10th centuries, more attention
was paid to the beauty and elegance of the characters. In the 1 1th century en-
larged letters were introduced, and more abbreviations, the multiplication of
which, in after times, and the overburdening of the letters with useless appen*
dages, disfigured the writing and rendered it more difficult to read.

or. ^Ul. rhMimilei end ipedroem, to illiMimtc the difl^nt modn of wriliaf rooad la Utia maaBMripM, en (Imb ia JUbW.
I0n da Re Diplonutlet.— Saa »!■> IVaUhmi Laticoa Diplonwlieum cum ■peciminibtn Alphebatomo at Scriptaiwaa. QOtt. 17«S.
8 vole. Csi—iViBWMmi Traile 4a Diplmn. torn. ii. aad iil—Panekeutki, aa dtad P. V. ( V74.

$ 143. Since the revival of letters, which was hastened and facilitated by the
discovery and study of the classical manuscripts, they have been carefully col-
lected, compared, copied and published. Petrarch searched more than two
hundred libraries, and greatly aided an early cultivation of Roman literature,
first in Italy, and afterwards in other countries. We are under similiar obliga-
tions to Gasparini, Poggius, Beatus Rhenanus, Aloysius Mocoenicus, Grynaeus,
Sichard, ana others. Without doubt there still exist some treasures of this sort,
particiilarly manuscripts of the middle ages, which, if not valuable on account
of their style, may be of much importance to history, criticism, and literature
generally.

1 ft. The libraries, which have been mentioned as the principal depositories of Greek
manuscripts (^ 108) , contain also a still more considerable collection of Latin manu-
scripts. The printed catalogues of some of them give notices of the manuscripts.

To ilw lararaiicai ({Ten la } 108, we add the foUowiac i-^tViiChkr. Haadbuch der Getchicbia dar Uteimtar, (as tiled P. V. ( 7, «),
vol. Ui. p. 8S. •. ; riviBf an hietBrical tkaieh of theM librariea.— JDmAorrfy, EacyklopUie dar PbiMoRia. H*lla, IBM.— i^ff.
AmH Radierebea mir lea BIbL Ancieonet el Modem. Ffcr. I8I9l 9.-EiiMuni, Ofeehiebta der Uterahv. Gott 1806. m.
6 Toll. 8. ; giviaf (vd. iil. p. 4SI. a.) «*a good aeeranl oT the Gcmaa libnriet.'*— Marh iarnnnalion ia nfud to naDBWripta mtf
be found I. O SeAcUom't Aaleilanff fOr BiMiolbckare uad Anhitara. Clin, I79t. 8 voh. t.-1V. JIomu, Accoaal of the Maaa
•eripl Library at Rolkaa ia Norfolli { la the TnauaeL <•/ On JBoyoi Soe. ofLUtntun, vol. ii. Loud. lO*.

Ropeetiac the labon of Petrareh and olben, lee itercnV Cinl. nirOeKh. det Kbu. Lilcrafar, cilrd S 58.— On the Kal fcrlfaa
diKoverjr aad itadj of nuuiBwripli after the revival at letters aee JbMcoeV Life of LoranaD de Medici, aad of Leo X.— For aa
aenoaat of the geaorml eireaimtancai partainiaK to the GamutioB, fam, aad rceemy of the •• dMtieal M9S. of Rama," tea Dunlofe
UUL Rott. ^teralarr, Appeadii.

3. A considerable collection of mannscripta adorned with minfaturea and pnlntinga, once be-
lonrinc to .Mr. Douce, ia now in the Bodleian library at Oxford. A number are preserved also in
the Britiah Muaeuni; among which ia a carious MS. of Cicero's tranalation ofAratus (cf. P. v

p. TV. If AmrscRiPTA 377

1 71), adorned with mlntetare pictnret of the eoMtellatioM and bvsU of the planeta Jnpitert
Man, and otben.

W. T. OtOfy, ID tlM JreAMitVM (citad § 91. 8), vol. xxri. p. 48, gtm u intaratiiiK ■oomnt of (hii MS. of Clcere% Imulatioa
ud nfen U to tlM weecmd or third Qeatorj.^nv aa Moooot of Um iUoitntad MSS. Id Ibo Britidi Mawun, tw 0. F.JVaatm,» dtod
f 190. 4. vol. L |k IS4.

$ 143. The following are among the most ancient manoscripts in the Latin
lan^age : the Goapel rf Mark % in the library of St. Mark at Venice, of very
ancient date; the Virgil of Florence ^^ or the Qfdae MedicaetUf the Virgil (f
the Vatican % which seems to belong to the fifth century ; the Terence of the
Vatican ^ written in square letters, and ornamented with a large number of
ancient masks; and the Florentine manascript of the Pandects '.

• It h» boo mmuM thot the Utta MMMcript of 8t Mtik woo wtIWob by that wiylht towdf. «« Bot tbit b bow pravod to
bo a mm bblo; (br Ibo VonetUa MS. hnaartr mdo port oT the Latlo onattKript pronnod at Frinli, awat of which waa printed
Vy BaacUai, ia hkBoanpUaHumquadrurltx.^ The Toaiea MS. ooataiaad lh« fint §arty frnga, or five qoateniom of St Mark^
foqid { the laat two qoateniloBi or tweoty p«fea aro praHmd at Pngoav ^bore tboy war* priatod bj M. Dobrewaky, aador tbo
title of Fmgmmtum Pragmtt ETaBfelii 9L Mard Tolgo aalofraphl, 1778. 4.--8ee Samth latrDdoctioa, fee. toL iv. pt IL eh. iL
{ Iv-GoallcBiaa^ MagaEioe^ toL z1vL-» PnUilhed by Fotgini enetiy after the aaovKript Rome, 1741. 4 -• Publiibed by
JoloU, 1741. ftiL la eapaviiv. Per a aotico of both tbeao MSS. of Tiifli. m SehSU, BkL Litt Horn. 1 9^.-4 priated at Urbiao
1198. isi. ; aLRono^ 1767, fol.^^ Co prodeax aiaaoacrit a paad de U bibliolbiqDe da Vaticaa daaa eeile de Paria." (ft*f U, HiaL
LItt Rom. toL L p. 1S4.— ■ Of thia, a utdumim haa tfTca a deacriptioa ia bb BUtvia Paadectaraaa. T^. ad Rha. 1728L 4
It ia BOW hi the library of the Giaad Bake at Fler— ce, aad fctneriy waa held ia great leteieuee. Cotloai ead proAuo eyee war*
ptoblbited fron looking apoa iL It waa opeoed oaly ia the praaeaee of a body of priceta aad a depvtatioB of o vil aaagiatntea, with
Ct SrMB, UtL BoBh lU. 181.

IS 9i9

?LATB XLIV.

ARCHEOLOGY OF AET.

PreUminary Remarks,

5 144. By the word art^ taken subjectively^ is understood a nractical skill m
producing something in agreement with certain purposes ana rules. Taken
obiectively^ it signifies the abstract union of those rules and practical principles,
which are essentially useful to guide in the production of any designed objector
work. When Nature and Art are placed in contradistinction, the former
designates the original powers in the material and spiritual world and their im-
mediate operations; the latter designates the efficiency of reason by means of
choice and intention : nature therefore is understood to operate by necessary
laws ; art^ by yoluntary or arbitrary laws. A distinction is also made between
Art and Science^ the one being the theory of that of which the other is the prac*
tice; science implies the accurate knowledge of principles ; art is their successful
application.

Instead of saying that nature operates by necessary laws and art by arbitrary, ft would better
express the truth to say, naiurt operates by laws which God the creator established ; and art by
rules which man deduces f^om the laws thus established.

$ 145. The arts are generally divided into the mechanical and the Uheral or
fine. The former have reference chiefly to the bodily, the latter to the intellect-
ual powers of man. The mechanical are those, which are employed in pro-
ducing and improving whatever is important to the necessities or comforts and
conveniences of life. The fine arts are such as have chiefly pleasure for their
object, although utility is connected therewith as a secondary point ; they aim
at the representation or imitation of moral beauty or excellence, and are addressed
to the imagination and the feelings. It is on account of this representation of
beauty ana this immediate reference to the emotions of the mind, that they are
termed the fine or the beautiful arts. They are Poetry, Oratory, Music, Dancing,
Drama, Painting, Engraving, Lithoglyphy, Sculpture, and Architecture, which
last may include Gardeniug, usually treated as a separate art.

Od fbe couMetioB betwMo Arehilcctara ud G*Kieaiti(, ne voL U. p. S7S, of CAamUov rfcr VarmknuUn DiMer (cited P. V.

§ «7) — Cf. dk niv. otHom^t Elem. of Critici« (cited 4 I9e. S). On the gardmiiif of th* uicinte ; W. #Ueoncr, Tbeafhts en

fbe atjrto orprtaiinff uooof the Ancieatt ; in Mtm. of Um Lit. and PhU. Soe. cf Manchutw, U vol. Lrad. 1785^ &— Aitforicsl
View of tht Ta^for Gardtningt ^ amonf the jtndmtt. Laod. t78& 8l

§ 146. These are all addressed to feeling and imagination, but do not all ex-
ert their influence in the same way and by the same means. Such of them as
effect their object by means of visible images or resemblances are called often
ihe plastic artsf from this class are excluded poetry, oratory, music, and for the
most part dancing and drama. The modes of forming these images or repre-
sentations of visible objects are various ; the image may be formed entire, or in
demi-relief or bas-relief, or in depression, or on a plane surface. The art of
designing may be considered as a common foundation for the whole class, since
they are employed wholly in representing those forms or actions of material
bodies, which are distinguished for regularity, or peculiar fitness, or moral
beauty or force, and wtfich are therefore worthy of the artistes skill. On this
account they are termed by some the arts of design,

§ 147. The forms, which are represented, are not merely such as actually
exist in nature, but also such as are wholly ideal, or of a mixed character, partly
imaginary and partly real. Art likewise often employs this imitation of material
forms to express purely intellectual and spiritual conceptions. This object is
effected in part by exhibiting emotions of the soul through bodily gestures
379

380 ARCHJEOLOOY OF ART.

attitudes, and actions. It is effected also by symbolical or allegorical images
and combinations, which have in no small degree ennobled the plastic arts and
elevated them above their original limits. Perspicuity, appropnateness, liveli-
ness, judicious discrimination, and accuracy are the essential traits in such alle-
gorical pieces.

Jor men Aill icanrlu mpaeHii^ oB^rory to (te arte (^iM^ ad ntevMH to MtO^
AJlcemeiiM Tbeorie dar KbOMn Komte. Lpi. 1798-4. 4 f oit. ft.

$ 148. A sensibility and taste for art is necessary not only to the artist in
order to practice successfully, but also to the observer or critic in order to judge
properly. There must be a capacity or susceptibility easily to perceive the
beautiful, and to experience peculiar pleasure therein. Some elementary and
correct natural feeling is therefore presupposed ; but by a frequent exercise of
this feeling, a careful observation ot works of art, and the study and application
of rules, the capacity is easily enlarged and improved. Sensibility to tne beau-
tiful, delicacy of feeling, and correctness of judgment, are the most prominent
characteristics of that taste for art, which the artist must unite and carefully
cultivate in common with his genius and skill in execution.

$ 149. The name of connoisseur belongs only to him, who is qualified to ex«
amine and criticise works of art according to their whole actual merits, and to
estimate and explain on true principles their comparative value. For this a
superficial knowledge is not sufficient; it requires an intimate acquaintance with
the nature and essence of the arts, with all tneir principles, both mechanical and
asihetical^ with their history, and with their chief productions. Good taste,
familiarity with the best performances, and studious reflection, therefore, are
indispensable to a connoisseur in art. The mere amaieur needs only an un-
perverted lively susceptibility to the impression made by works of art, and a
prevailing attachment for them ; which traits, however, if properly cultivated,
may form him into a connoisseur. Dodi raiianem artis intelligunty indoeti
volupiatem, (Quintilian.)

$ 150. The history of art is obviously useful to the artist and to the critic.
By it we learn the first origin of art among the people of early antiquity ;
its subsequent advancement among the Greeks, Etrunans, and Koroans; its
decline with the wane of those nations; its complete prostration in the middle
ages ; its restoration and in some respects far greater advancement in modem
times. The very perfection of modem art makes the study of the fine arts and
their history advantageous and even necessary to every one, who engages in
literature and the studies required by common utility. Abundant occasion will
be found by every man, for the application of this knowledge, so that he may
turn to good account all the instruction and pleasure derived by him from it.

$ 151. The monuments of the plastic arts remaining to us from ancient times,
are called in general antiques,' although by that term, especially when the
kindred idea of classical excellence is associated with it, we understand chiefly
the performances of the most flourishing periods of ancient art. These pieces
are admired particularly for the beauty of their forms; for the just and nappy
representation of the human figure, especially the head ; and for the dignity and
emotion which is thrown into their expression, and is at the same time united
with a most attractive grace. In general it may be said, that the artists of
antiquity guided themselves by an ideal based and formed upon real nature,
rather than Ijy any actual models ever presented in life. Hence the careful study
of antiques is of great service to the artist and to the general critic and scholar,
especially if it be connected with suitable attention to language, history, my-
thology, and antiquities in general.

See J, SpmettFolymtiu, or Enqoiiy eoDoaninc tlK AgreeBcnt b«twe«B Ibe woikiertb«llamAnFMtaMdflMi«BaiMof udMt
ArtuU Loud. I7&3. foL-Aitida ^nlO, in fiubcr'f AUg. Tbear. ftc, cHed abova, ( 147. *

$ 153. Most of the now remaining works of the plastic arts of antiquity are
such as either were actually designed to commemorate particular remarkable
persons, objects, actions, and occasions, or may serve that purpose as to us.
Of course to obtain a full understanding of them, to look at these monuments in
a right point of view, to discover their meaning, and perceive their whole beauty,
we need the accessary knowledge just mentioned above.

p. IV. BCFLFTURE. 881

1 «. In this view, also, an acquaintance with thd history of art, in its different periods
and changes, and with the modes of conception and execution of the old artists, will
appear very important. And every thing of tnis sort will be more useful and instructive,
if attention be paid at the same time to the asthetic character of the works, that is, to
their comparative excellence considered as happy imitations, and as operating on the
taste and feeUngs.

8. The term maOutie la not familiar In oar language. It Is formed from the Greek word
AtoBfiTiKds^ from which also the corresponding German term, mttketiach^ is derived. The latter is
defined by S^ttr (Allg. Theor der icbdnen Kiinste), as follows; **ihat peculiarity or property
of a thing by which It is an object ot feeUn^f [(j((r0ir<rfs], and therefore suited to be introduced in
a work of the fine arts." The G<*rman noun attketik (aesthetics) is defined, in the same work,
aa follows ; **ihe philosophy of the fine arts, or the science which deduces the general theory
and the rules of the fine arts from the nature of taste." The words are certainly very conveni-
ent in English, and have an obvious meaning which is expressed by no other terms.

Thm ftre many warki oo the topici ud prineiplu hckn(iB|r <■> ^ix Wieaoe of JEtUutia Cketrg. atenlaAafay, iSslbatica, wtm
doctrioi boDi (intat, ez Fliilonpbia pulebri dedneta in wiaotiM et wtM UMeoiorM. Bud. ITTS. 8 toIi. fL—O. Jagtmatm^ Sacgio
ml biuB (oito Mile belle arli, on d tpicfUM gl' demenU dclh Eatetica. Fir. I77I. &— J&te Aittei, Beflcxion eriliqua vu h
PoMie ct la FkiDtare. (Of. $ 89. 4.)— CA. Baittaux, Ln beaux arti raduiH k una mane principe. Pu. 1763. 12. In Germ, with
additkna bf/.M. SdOtgO. Lpz. 177a 8 fota. &-n« Polite jtrU, or a D'Mertatiaa on Fbatry, FUDtiog, Mwe, Archttectnra^
and EloqnBDee. Load. 1740. \i.—H. Hemt {Lord Kaam), ElfoienU of Crilicim. Load. 1785. 2 voh. S—Jlkx. Oawrdy tmkj
ca Taata. Bdiob. l7Ea ^—JtrdubaU Jttitony Ernya on tiie Nature aad Prineiplei of l^la. Edinb. 1811. & Borton, 1812.— JM.
Ckriit. flfu'r, PhikMopbie der KtaOaan Kaota. Nonib. 1784. &— PA. «bif . AsOietie, odar allgnaiM Tbeorie der KhAana
]£lHto and WiMaadufteo. Salzb. 1785. ^.—Imm. £mf, Critik dar UrtfaeUakraft Berl. ITta 9.

§ 153. To give something of this knowledge, although only in j^eneral and ele-
mentary principles, is the object of what follows, under the title of Archaeology of
Art. It will be limited to the plastic arts, and will exclude Engraving and Gtnrden^
ing, as the former was unknown to the ancients, and the latter was not ranked by
them, either in practice or theory, among the fine arts. Sculpture, Lithoglyphy^
Painting, and Architecture, will be noticed. Their history, especially among
the Greeks and Romans, will be presented ; the most celebrated artists in each
period named and characterised ; and the chief monuments pointed out, with
such remarks on their character as may aid a right understanding of their worth.
The notices most necessarily be brief.

I.— &u//rfiire.

$ 154. The term Sculpture is used in a sense more comprehensive than its
etymological meaning. We include under it the formation of images of visible
objects, not only out of hard substances by means of the chisel arid graver, but
also out of soft substances, and out of melted metals. Tn precise discrimination
the first of these arts is properly sculpture, ykv^^, aeulptura ,* the second is more
exactly the art of molding, rtXcuattxri, figlina ; and the third the art of easting,
topeiyei>xti, statuaria. The German word Bildnerkunst includes the whole, and
is used by Luther in translating that Hebrew phrase in Chron. iii. 10, which is
rendered in the English version image-work.

The figures are either formed entire so as to be seen on all sides {ftspv^MUftj,
ins Runde), or only prominent from a plane surface {it^atvTia,, Mir/kv^),
Those of the former kind are termed Statues t the others are called in general
Baa-reliefs, although they are distinguished in minute description, by terms indi-
cating the degree of their prominence from th^ plane. Figures formed by depres-
sion, or by hollowing below the level, were termed by the Greeks Jta-yXv^.

BaapaeiiDg Oie an Unutiett aae Eaatma ad Pttn. Nat HiaL xxrr. 84, la Umadrei editioB, cited P. V. § 47a 4.

^155u.In the introduction to this Archaeology (^ 8 — 11) we spoke in general of the
origin of the arta. Here it is sufficient to remark, that the art of forming images belongs
to the highnst antiquity, and probably was the earliest of the arts which we call plastic,
if we except architecture, which at first was merely mechanical. Although the princi
plea of the art of drawing are of the greatest service in image work, and in reality lie
at its foundation, yet the art of drawing was probably of later ori^n : for it requiren a
higher efibrt of abstraction and reflection to give a representation by sketching mere
outlines on a fixed plane, than bv forming an entire image. Accident, and perhaps the
caprice of nature, which not unfrequently presents the appearance of artificial ngores
in trees, atones, and the like, might lead men to this art. The first attempts, it is proba-
ble, were to form likenesses of me human body.

382 ARCHJEOLOOT OF ART.

$ 156. llie particular circumstancea of the ori|pii of this art are not made
known to us by any historical account. Neither the inventor, the people among
whom it arose, nor the first mode of its exercise, can with certamty be deter-
mined. We may, however, reasonably conjecture, from the usual progress of
the human mind, and the history of other arts, that in this also was a gradual
advancement from the more easy and simple performances to the more difficult.

1 u. Of the early existence of some branches of the art we have evidence in the
writings of Moses. See Exod. xxxvi 36, 38, Deut. xxix. 16, 17, Gen. xxxi. 19, 30.

2 u. The first works must have been auite rude, as the artists were deficient both in
the theory of designing and in mechanical skill, and were also destitute of the necessary
instruments. Accordinglv we find that the most ancient figures of men and gods were
scarcely any thing more than pillars or blocks, with the upper extremity formed into a
sort of knob, or rounded, to represent the head. Such was the very ancient image of
the goddess Cybele brought to Rome from Pessinus in Phry^a (cf P. II. ^21).
Gradually the other principal parts of the body were more distinctly formed, at first
however only indicated by lines ; afterwards made more full and coinplete, yet not
marked by significant action and attitude, but stiff, angular, and forced. This improve*
menf was ascribed among the Greeks to Diedalus (cfT ^ 174. 2) , who was on that ac-
count said to have formed living statues, and whose name was applied by the early
Greeks to distinguished productions of art.

3. ** In thf. primitivR B^es, object! rude and nnfhahioned, aa we learn fVom biatory, were adored
as representing the divinitlps of tire^ce. Even to the lima of Pausanias, atonea and trunks of
trees, roush and unformed by art, were preserved in the tcioples; and though replaced by fornia
almoBl divine, atill regarded with peculiar veneration, a« the Hncient images of ihe deities. Aa
akill improved, these signs began to assume a more determinate aimiiiinde ; and from a square
cntumn, the first stage, by slow gradations aomething approaching to a reaeniblance of the huoiaa
f gure was fashioned. These eflorts at sculpture long continued extremely imperfect. The ex-
tremities seem not to have been even attempted ; tlia arms were not separated from the body,
nor the limbs from each other ; but, like the folds of the drapery, stiffly indicated by deep linea
drawn on the surface. Such appears to have been the general state of the art immediately prior
to the period when it can flrst be traced, as cultivated with some degree of success in any par-
ticular place. This occurs about twelve ceniuriea before Christ."

4. The following view has been adopted by some ;— thnt the statuea conaisting of a buat rest-
ing upon a pillar or block had their origin, not in the imperfection of the art of Sculpture, but in
the first use or design of imaaea in worship, viz. to symbolise the mere presence of the god,
which purpose was answered by a aimple pillar or unhewn block; — that when there waa the
design of symbol ixing not merely the presence but the attrihutea of the gods, it became necea-
aary to cunihine the significant parta of more than one being; hence the monstrous figures that
were formed, some of which were retained In the latest times ; such, e. g. aa Pan with the goat*a
feet ;— and that it waa a later idea, to represent the gods themselvea by the moat majestic and
beautiful human forma.-<Cf. L. Sehmiu^ art. Statuary, in Smithy Diet, of Ant.

$ 157. Before noticin? further the process of the art of sculpture it will be
useful to mention some things respecting the materials employed, and the differ-
ent methods practiced among the ancients. The substances used were evidently
very various. The softer materials were earths, clays, wax, and the like; the
harder were wood, ivory, marble, and bronze.

^ 158 u. Originally, as has been suggested, soft and pliant substances seem to have
been chosen, and images made b)r molding or embossing. This perhaps might originate
in the common art of pottery, which itself may have been suggested by covering culi-
nary vessels with eartn or lime, and observing the hardness imparted by the fire. Clay,
eypsiim, and wax were the principal soft materials employed, not only in the earliest,
put in the moat flourishing periods, by the Greeks, Tuscans, and Romans ; for form-
ing entire statuea, as well as busts, bas-reliefs, and models. Models thus prepared
{TpovXaapiiTat np6rvv0) were used by the artists for patterns to guide them in working
upon harder materials.

'* Notwithsunding the great (kcility of tQaking figures of clay, they are not often mentioned
in the early ages of Greece; while in Iralv the Dii fietiUs (in\\i¥oi ^t6i) were very common
ft-om the earliest times Clay figures never fell into disuse entirely ; and in later times not only
do we find statues of clay, but the pediments in small or rural temples frequently contained the
moat beautiful reliefs in clay, which were copiea of the marltle reliefs of larger teaoplea.'*

\ 159 «. Of the hard substances, nvwrf was commonly preferred, at first, on account
of its being easily wrought, especially for the sculpture of large figures, utensils, and
ornaments of various kinds. In the choice of wood for the purpose, regard was paid
V> its solidity, durability, and color. Ebony, cypress, and cedar had the preference ,
/et citron- wood, acanthus, maple, box, poplar, and oak, and even more common sorts
of wood, were sometimes employed. Not unfrequently in the choice of wood there
was a reference to the supposed character of the divinity to be represented, as was
the case also in the use of other materials. In the island of Naxus, for example,
there was a statue of Bacchus formed out of the vine. Pluto was commonly imaged
in ebony or black marble. (Cf. P. II. %% 33, 60.)

p. IT. SCULPTURE. MATERIALS.

^160 «. The most celebrated ancient sculptors often made use of ivory ^ on ac
count of its whiteness and smooth surface, not merely for small figures, but also for
larffe ones, and even for colossal statues, which were sometimes formed of ivoiy and
ffokl united. Of this sort were the two most famous statues of antiquity,'— the Jupiter
Olympius' and the Minerva,* — ^which were wrought by Phidias, fias-reliefs and
various utensils were also formed of ivory, either alone, or wiih other substances con-
nected with it for ornament. I'he artists appear to have used no instrument for turning,
but merely a chisel with a free hand. In ine iar^e statues formed of this substance,
the inner part consisted of dry solid wood, to which the ivorjr was attached and fast-
ened in regular portions, and probably after the requisite chiseling had in part befn
performed. Very few monuments of this kind are preserved, l)ecause ivory so readily
calcines in the earth and decays.

• en p. IL $ 24-» Ct p. U. ( 43.-~Sm tfcyne. oa tbe ivory of th* aacimls, uid iimcn nuhl* of it, in N. J»&»o(A. dcr mIiOr.
Wm Bd. xt. ; alM ia Wtnekdinmmt Hlatoin, Itc. ■• died ( SO. 4. vol. i. p. 675^ffM, ia BSttiga^ AnaltlMa, Bd. L-Qb tk»
wacfca of PUdiM, cf. \ ri9.

^ 161 tf. Marble was the noblest and most valued material for sculpture. There
were several species, difTerinjg in color, solidity, and lustre. Amons the most cele-
brated kinds were the Pentehcan, the Parian, the Lydian, the Alabandian. Por^yry,
basalt, and granite, were also often used iu works of art, especially among the Egyp-
tians. The marble was not always polished. I'he larger statues were often composed
of several pieces, sometimes of dinerent marble. There were works, too, of which
only certain parts were marble, as for example the celebrated Minerva of Phidias, of
which, particularly, the pupils of the- eyes were marble (XiOiva), according to a pcis-
eage* in Plato. The cement, by which the different pieces of marble were united,
ihe Greeks called XiBoxSWa. Sometimes the marble statues* after completion^ were
washed over with a thin transparent varnish, partly in order to give them a softer ap-
pearance and a milder lustre.

« I. For tlM |MMii|« in Plato here i«fen«l to, m bb 'Inrtef ^1{«9, ia Om adit oT AUv, (diad P. V. S I8S. 4.) FtotH Roe.

■tttaca, ftc Mem. Ami. huv. zziz 168. cf. xn'iv. 39.

S. Rapi>ctinf tha modara dkidm of aadcat Tarialiea of inarblo, and otbcr drcaimlaaeea periaJainc to tiieiii, ace I\crba*» Briefa aaa
WalwMand (Leiten tnm Italy). Png. 1779. i^LouiM it Lnawgt MiBenJoKie dai Aneieaaca. Briusll. I80& 9 vols. II—
JBarii Caryo^UU {Biagio 0«nfUo)t Opuaculam de aaliqais tnamorilMUi Tnj. ad Rh. 1743. 4.— Ad intrrestiof accowt of tfea
qoarria* of iha Fkriaa marbla b glvao by £. A CterJka, Tnvali, ite. vol. vi. p. 1S3, Load. ad. ; vol. iii p. 280, N. York ad. WI&— ^
Pbr Botiea of tte qiiarriea of PMldicaa narble, we HobhMm?a Albaoia, and DoiwdPt Tour, dtcd P. V. $ 7. 7. (I>).

$ 162 u. The bronze ix^hidst <b») employed in the statues of the ancients consisted
of a mixture of several metals, in definite proportions, although not always the same.
The principal ingredient was copper, of which usually, for statuary, one hundred
pounos were united with an eighth part of lead or tin. In forming the mixture there
was very often a regard to the color arising from it, and to hs suitableness for the
bnage to be made. The best kinds of brass or bronze were that of Delos and that
of .£gina. The most valued was the oriehalcum {ipetxaUos)^ not the modern brasa,
but a natural product of that name, unknown to us. — The precise manner in which
the metals were wrought into images is not well understood; works of this kind
were formed not only by casting, in which case the chisel was afterw^ds applied to give
perfection, but likewise by driving or pressing under the hammer. Many brazen
statues, although the accounts are often exaggerated, were of extraordinary size and
truly colossal ; as, for example, the celebrated statue of the god of the sun, placed at
the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, 105 feet in height. Sometimes statues of
brass were gilded in whole or in part, and usually they were varnished to protect
them from the atmosphere and moisture. Even of the precious metals, silver and
gold, the ancients sometimes formed entire statues ; they were however hollow, Hke
those in brass.

Sm flSJt, ia BZnign't Amaltfaaa (Moide de I^tiqaM flsnrfa), Drod. l824.-£4iiOTay, dted f 161.— Alto, on the compnttioa
ef bmaae, JiatoAmt, mm cited | 87.— Some coMidor tha oriehalcum, or aiouatainbraa, to have bean aa artificial prodacC Cf. Jtt'
thmU Horace ; note od Ep. to Plioa. v. 802.— Oom/t it Csylta, on tbe work% in bronxe maalloned by Pliny, Mem. jteai. Inter
»v. S95. CC Riny, Htrt. Nat. usiv. 4, 5, 18.— ifoncex, snr le bRNn dct anciens, itfmi. A VIwU. 01 a s ■ a dPRiU. tt LU, Jim.
vHL p. 30 ;-«lio cf. CI aiaa di LiUnL tt BiauM JtrU^ vol. 6lh, p. IS7, 49S.-Smi(A, Diet. Antiq. art. Bmm,

$ 1 63. Statues were classified and named variously, according' to size, costume,
and attitude. The largest were termed eolotxil (xoxotftfoe), surpassing always
the human dimensions ; next to these were the statues of gfods and heroes, of a
size between six and eight feet ; then, those corresponding to aetucd life (dyox-
ftara nxovtxo, Isoftit^rfto^ ataiuss ieonicse); and finally, those smaller than life,
uf which such as were very small went by the name ofaigtlla. — In reference to
costame, the Romans called such as had a Grecian dress, pallialaBf those in the
Roman, togaimf those with the m'lVitATy g7ib^ paludaUs^ ehlamydatss, lorieatse ,
and such as were veiled, velaise, — ^In attitude there was still greater variety^ as
the figures might be either standing, sitting, reclining, or lying at rest, or iii

384 ARCHiEOLOOY OF ART.

action, &c. TheTe was also a distinction between simple statues, and compo-
sites or groups, consisting of Beveral figures. Groups, where the parts were
entwined or interwoven with each other, were called symplegmata {avfiTtUy/jwta).

8eeConieOiMaeo^Emthirioriqiied«PaHfed«rtatqcidiMajiekai. BntialJe^ I7M. 4.-<;t La CmM Oiyhii^ L'laMUMMtl
4eidifiBlta. Mem. Mmd. Ime. ^. axiv. f. ».

§ 164. Busts, likewise, almost as frequently as entire figures, were formed by
the ancient artists. They were called by the Greeks upotofitu ; by the Romans,
imagirm^ sometimes ihoratea. They were located, in honor of gods, heroes,
philosophers, and other distinguished men, in public places, such as theatres,
prytanea, gymnasia, galleries, libraries, and the like.

1 «. The bust was chiefl}[ used to represent deceased persons. At Rome the Patri-
cians used to place in their halls* the busts of their ancestors. Like statues, busts
were of various sizes. They differed also in respect to the portion of the frame in-
cluded, taking in sometimes the whole breast, sometimes just the shoulders, and
sometimes merely the head. On their supports or pedestals the character or exploits
of the person represented were often inscribed. When busts were formed in reUef on
shields, they were termed imagiues clypeata.

• Ct Pdy6. vL il. Plin. xnT. 2.>«w QurUtft Vanch abv die BiMlwiknwto Mifdab. UOQ. 4.

2 u. There was a peculiar kind of statue or bust, to which was given the name of
Hermes {'Epiifli). It consisted of a mere head, or head and breast, or at most head
and chest, and a quadrangular pillar, or one terminating in a point, which served as a
support. It derived its name either from the god Hermes, Mercury ^ whose imafe
generally appeared on this kind of erection, yet not always ; or perhaps, as probabty,
from the word 'Ep^a designating the quadranguUir pilhir sustaining the image ; Suidaf
explains the phrase lpn8tos XiBps by the word rtrpSyuvps. These representations were
placed by the highways and streets, in ffardens. and among (he Greeks in front of
temples and dwelling-houses. Human likenesses were formed sometimes in this
manner; generally, nowever, the images represented some deity presidinff over
gardens ana fields. The Romans employed them to point out the boundaries oflands,
and on that account called them termini. Sometimes the attributes of the god werd
indicated on the work ; sometimes there were inscriptions, of which, however, such
as may have been preserved are not all eenuine. Tney very seldom had any repre-
sentation of costume. The head and pedestal were not always of the same material.
Two heads were occasionally united on one pillar ; as for instance, in the 'KpnoB^pii,
Mercury and Minerva united ; the 'Ep/ii»paxX9f* Mercury and Hercules ; and 'Sppm-of,
Mercury and Pan.

3. The compound name it nlao applied where the pedestal commonhr bearing the head of
Hermes bnii merely the head of aome other personage, as in the figure of 'Ep^irpoxX^;, given ia
Plate XLVII. fig. 8. In fig. 7, of the rame Plaie, ii a Hermes.^-In the ^op. Pi. 11, is teen alto a
fine Hermet.— The Romans uaunlly repreeenied their Friapvs with a body terminating in a pillar
or biocic ; aa seen ia Plate XLV. ; or in the Bup. Plate 21 where the pedestal la in the figure of
a bird's claw.

$ 165. The ancient artists made a vast number of bas-reliefs (ixtvrtoj ftp6<stvftih
&vavXvta). These works may be said to hold an intermediate place between
sculpture and painting, in as much as they present a plane for their ground, and
have their figures formed, more or less prominent, by tlie chisel or by embossing,
llie most common material was marble or brass. The Etrurians made use also
of clay hardened by fire.

^ 166 «. The subjects represented by such pieces were drawn from mytholoffT,
history, allegory, and other sources, according to the imagination of the artist. The
purposes for which they were devised were exceedingly numerous ; they often were
separate tablets constituting independent works ; and very often they were formed
upon shields, helmets, tripods, altars, drinking cups, and other vessels and utensils,
tombs, urns, and funeral lamps, arches, and generally upon large structures, particu-
larly the front of buildings, in explaining the meaning of these devices there is need
of much caution and much knowledge of literature and art ; it is the more difficult,
because in many instances the works are in a mutilated or altered state.

$ 167. Among the varieties of image-work practiced by the ancients must be
mentioned that which is called Mosaic (^tovtrstov, opus musivum^ iesatlaium,
tfermicuiatum), which was very common, and carried to great perfection. It has
its name from its elegance and grace (fwvtsa). It consists of figures curious) j
formed by pieces, in different colors, of clay, glass, marble, or precious stones
and pearls, with which they used to ornament their floors and walls. Separate
tablets or ornamental pieces were also formed in the same way.

JSJiT

p. IT. EOTPTIAM SOVLFTURE. 3l35

1 u. The pieces of which this kind of work is composed are so small, that some
times one hundred and fifty are found in the space of a square inch. The art was
most in vogue in the time of the emperor Claudius, and one of the most distinguished
artists* in it was Sosus.

2. One of the earliest notices of this art among the Greeks is in the accoimt of the
magniiicent ship constructed under the direction of Archimedes for king Hiero. The
whole fable of the Iliad* was represented by mosaics {ii^ dfiatctoKois) inlaid in the
apartments of the vessel.

• CL /Kn. Nat HM xzxtLSSw^ Of. SMffl, HM. Litt. Gnoqai, foL vU. p. 417. On sMwies m nfcnDM ftna § ISBl

$ 168. Some of the works of the ancient sculptors have inscriptiofll upoa
them, presenting the name of the artist, or explaining the work itself. Sach
inscriptions are placed sometimes on the pedestal, and sometimes on the drapery
or other parts of the statue.

1 u. On the statue of Hercules Farnese, for instance, are the words, TAYKoiN
AOHNAIOC EnoiEI; on the Gladiator Borshese, AFACIAC AOCIOEOt E«EC10C
EnoiEI ; on a Roman statue of the goddess Hope, q. aqvilivs dionysivs et NomA

FAVSTINA SPEM KESTITVERVWT.

2 u. But these inscriptions are not always genuine, being frequently of recent origin*
as is thought to be the case with the first of the above mentioned. In judging of them
there is need therefore of much antiquarian skill and research, and a careful application
of historical and mythological learning. A fbie specimen of this critical scrutiny is
found in Lessmg*§ Laocoon, a work of^great value to those who study the arts.

a& £Mriiv,IjnkooB,oder QbardicGreoMdflrMaUvrai uadPMrie^ lo iBBSBn^^ Bed. 17B8La. W vok. li.

VoL Ml.— TiMra k a FraDch tnialaiwo of it by Fmdarbaurg.

$ 169. Although we have no historical acconnt of the origin of the art of sculp-
ture, as has been suggested ($ 156), yet it is certain that the Egyptians were m
possession of it at a very early perio^d. On this account its invenuon is ascribed
to them by some ancient writers. The Egyptians were not deficient in the
meehanicalpart of sculpture. Yet their general mode of thinkins, their prevalent
taste, the peculiar character of their civilization, and especially the nature of
their religion, were unfavorable to the advancement of this art, and hindered its
attaining among them any true and beautiful perfection. We find in their design,
as well as in their whole execution, a barrenness and uniformity that appears
very unnatural. Owing to the prevalence of animal worship in Egypt, figure^
of animals were the most frequent and most successful performances of their
artbts, among whom Memnon is perhaps most celebrated.

/. & Mma {LL. A), Hhioit of Scniptura, hiartnc, and Arebitectara. Bottoa, 1854. lt.^Otamb. AnoeolU, Bie«ebe Mfiria b
aaiKam pnno (ii EfHriaoL Vones. I7K. B^BBUigw'i AadMlviicam ke. Qtwr AreUU>lo(is. Drados 1808. 8.— r. Dmu^
Voyafe dsH h btM ct la taaala Efypte. Far. 190B. 2 vob. foL, w«b plalm-Daaeriplioa da l'£(7pta 1^. 1808-1818. » vab. CdL
with plataa: of lh» work Owi* ■ abe a Boia fweat •dJIwo. (Cf 4 SI. 1 )-Ia Btdft Gmdria dar At«hiDl«|ia, (Lps. IflV
baa aeoonat of tba artMi aaBoiic anrieat na^iom, and of Iha raoiaiataic bmmbmoIi, and BMBtioa of tba wmfci partainiiiff to Ito
m^wt BwpKliat JCmmon, eoomlt .fhfilon% Lanprtafs.

1 u. In the history of Egyptian art, a distinction must be made between the old
and the later style. The rormer appears in the earliest monuments down to the con-
quest of Egypt b>; Cambyses, B.C. 525. The latter belongs to a subsequent period,
in which the Persians and Greeks held supremacy in the land. There is a difference
between the works of art in Egypt, accorains. to which they may be designated re-
niectively as the Old Egyptian, the Persian-£gyptian, the Grecian Egyptian, and the
Roman-Egyptian, or Roman imitations of the Egyptian manner. The uniformity and
stiffness are much greater in the old style ; yet the later performances are deficient in
beauty of design and execution, in cases where there is no drapery, as well as in
others. There are also works, discovered in Italy, in Egyptian taste and manner,
which are not really of Egyptian origin, but were made by later Greeks, in Rome,
especially under the reifl^n of Hadrian.

2. The period preceding the time of Cambvses is considered by Memes as the only
period of real Egyptian sculpture. Of its character there are left two sources of
judging, viz. vestiges of ancient gjrandeuryet existing on their native site, and nume-
rous specimens in European cabinets. These remains may be classed under three
divisions. 1. Colossal nj^ures. 2. Figures about the natural size, single or in groups.
3. Hieroglyphical and Historical relievos. The colossal remains are very numerous.
Some are figures of men ; others of animals, chiefly the sphinx. The dimensions
extend from twelve to seventy cubits in height. The largest now known are the two
in the vicinity of Thebes, which are "vulgarly called STiamy and Damy ;'* one of
^hich, from inscriptions still legible, would appear to h*^ the famous sounainff statue*
of Memnon. In tne ruins of the Memnonium there remains a prostrate ana broken
eoloesus of vast size, with hieroglyphic inscriptions, from which it has been supposed
49 3K

ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.

to be the statue of Osymandyas^ or Sosostns. Of figures about the natural size there
are also many remains. Many are ibund in the excavations oi Philoe, Elephantis,
Silsilis, and at El Malook in the tombs of the Thcban Kings. These excavations are
often suites of magniticent chambers hewn from the hard and while calcareous rock.
A singular peculiarity marks these statues ; a pilaster runs up behind each the whole
height, not only when the statue was connected with the surface of a wall, but also
when it is wholly detached. Relievos are found in great abundance, occupying often
the entire walls of the temples. In these there is much skill in the mechanical work-
manship, but they are very deficient in merit as performances of art ; proportion and
perspeifeve seem to have been utterly unknown.

• Cf. p. U. i 74.— £4tnmn«, L« MalM de Mcbimb, dam Mi Rapporti am PEgjpt el It Grree ; in the Mtm, dt Vhulitul^ Oaam
d'HiU, cl Ut. Ane. vol. s. p. 84B.-* Ixtronm, dur to moaiiBeBt (TOsyiuaDdyi^ *c. ia iIm Man. d* Pbut. tm jtal cilad, vol. ix.
p. SIT.

^ 170. In the formation of these works, four kinds of materials are employed ; one
soft, a species of aandatone ; and three very hard, viz., a calcareoui rock, out of which
the tombs, with their sculptures, are hewn ; basalt or irap^ of various shades from black
to dark gray, the constituent generally of the smaller statues ; and granite^ more
commonly of the species named rubescens. Colossal figures are unilbrmly of granite,
in which also is a large portion of the relievos. Statues of wood have been discovered
by modern travelers. Metal appears to have been sparingly used ; at least only very
small figures have been found, of a composition similar to the bronze of modern times.
In the tombs small images of porcelain and terra cotta are frequent.

$ 171. Among the other ancient nations of southern and eastern coantrieSv
sculpture did not receive so much attention, and our knowledge of their use of
the art is derived from historical testimony rather than from any existing monu*
ments. The art was evidently esteemed by the Hebrews, but chieflj as an
auxiliary and ornament to architecture; of this we have evidence in the temple
of Solomon, in the construction of which, however, Phosnician artists were
chiefly employed. The commerce and wealth of the Phoenicians were favorable
to the arts ; there exists no genuine and proper statue as a specimen of their
sculpture ; tlie same is true respecting the Persians and Parthians, who were
advanced to a considerable degree of civilization, and whose views of propriety
required that the figures should be clothed in some sort of drapery ; such monu-
ments as we have, however, in the sculptured architectural ornaments which
have been preserved, give us no occasion to mourn our loss.

On iha KBiwral dnruler of the aoilptund moiiumcnti of Um euitcni aatioiu, m« Htmn^t Idem aber die Milik, Am Vwk^r ovl
dea Handel der Tonwhimt«B Vdlker der alien Welt Qott. 1S26. 6 voli. 8. Tnml. inic £iif . UtartA, Hwl. ReMartlm Into tte
Fblitict and Comimroa oT the Carthaginiana, fca Oat 1830. S volt. %.—HoAU Voleris Madia el Fenia Mooumen-^ OKt ISia ^
Cr. Utnrn^ Hut ftc (aa cited { IfiS), p. 22.

In our PI. XXXIII are two specimenB of Persian sculpture : fig. S,a Medo-Pertlan, from sculp-
tures at Peree polls ; bearing a sort of hammer or battle-axe, probably a token of some mUiiary
rank, perbape, however, of some civil office ; ibe two hands of another are seen bearing the same
token : fig. 4 Is another pfiicer with a sword and other accouterraents, from the same sculp-
tures.

$ 172. The Etrurians or Etruscans are more worthy of notice in the history
of this art. In a very early period they occupied the upper part of Italy, and
attended much to sculpture. With them the art seems to have been of native
origin, not introduced or acquired from Egypt, although their intercourse with
Egypt and with Greece no doubt contributed to the improvement of their arts.
Five periods may be pointed out in the history of Etruscan art : the first charac-
terized by a rude and uncultivated state ; the second by works in the Grecian
and Pelasgic style ; the third by works bearing an Egyptian and mythological
stamp ; the fourth by a higher degree of excellence, yet confined within the
limits of the older Grecian notions; the fiflh by a still fuller perfection accord-
ing to the more refined models of the Greeks.

See /Tcync'a Veraoch einer nthem BeatlmmBng der Klaarn and Zeiten far die Etr. Kanatweffce, is iV. B<U. d. tdL Wm. B. XtX.
XX' i also Ui H'f'neWmam, Hnrtoirr, Ac. (ciled § 32), rnl. i. p. 613.— JL Lanoj Saggio di Uagat Etnaca e di allre anticbe
dltalia, ke. Ron. 1780. S vola. 8.— f. AifAJmmt, MoouiiMaU Etruefai, illiiatnti, Ac. Tiaaole. IMO.

$ 173. There are many remains of Etruscan art, although their resemblance
to Grecian performances often makes it difficult to decide their true origin. That
Grecian artists had a great share of agency in Tuscan works is evident from
inscriptions and other monuments. Independent of a large number of statues
in bronze and marble, there are many works in half relief, which are, not with-
uut grounds, considered as Etruscan remains. There is also a great variety of

p. lY. ETRUSCAN REMAINS. 387

▼ases, remarkable both for the beauty of their form and for the paintings on them,
which have been called Tuscan and Campanian, but may be with more proba-
bility considered as old Grecian, and as monuments of Greek colonies, which
were in the vicinity of Cuma, Naples, and Nola.

1 «. Learned men and amateurs have taken much pains in collecting, portraying,
and describing these remains. The most beautiful collection of the kind is that made
by Wm. Hr4milton ; it is now in the British Museum, London. — Wedgewood and
Bentley have made imitations of several of these vases, in terra cotta, among which
the Vase of Barberini, or the Portland Vase, as it is also called, is the most
memorable.

Ao aecooBt of lbs colltctioo of Sir Wm. HusilKm wu pablisibed by CbcTslier if* A'ancnrviUe, with the title, 4 ConteUan tf
Etruxan, OrtA, a -d R.ftian JntiquUia, fte. NiplM, I76B-I77A. 4 voli. fsl.— A later work k. Itreiml ikt Gravunt da Vena
watttpua, Xvtn du Cabinet d« M. Ic Chev. d^HamiltDB, fnrate ptr TiadAem. N»p)a, ITtS. 3 rail. IdI.-Sm aIm rapwtinf thew
vaaw, A. F. Oar it Mtiwan Etnueam. Flor. 1197. 8 vols. foL— J. B. Pamrri Piclinc Etnnconnii in vueiilii. ke. Rome, I7V7-1S.
a voU. tol—Peintnra dta i-'atu aniiipm, valfaiKmeat ippellte EtrvM|uet, gnvoe* jar Chncr, aecempaote d'explicalkmi pw
Mi/tin. Par. 1S08. 2 vol.<i. M — J. MiUingn^ Peioture* anliqun de vaaa de la collectioD da Sir/. CogktU. Rome, 1817. foL—
£Mmi, De Vaai antidii dipinti wttlganncole chiainala Eirawhu 1806. 8. iritb plate*.— CC $ 2S3b

2. " The Portland Veue, now in the British Museum, was found in the 16th cen-
tury inclosed in a marble sarcophao^us, in the sepulchral chamber called Monte del
Grano, on the road from Rome to Frascaii." — ** It is a semi-transparent urn of a deep
blue color, with brilliant opaque white ornaments upon it in bas-relief, cut by the
lapidary in the same manner as the antique cameos on colored grounds. Mr. Parks
states, " that several of the nobility and gentry, being de.sirous to possess a copy of
this beautiful specimen of ancient art, engaged Mr. Wedfrcwood to attempt an imita-
tion of it ; and he actually produced a vase of porcelain, which for elegance was
considered fully equal to the original.'* The height of the vase is ten inches, its di-
ameter at the broadest part only six inches. It has two curiously wrought handles,
one on each side. The sculpture is in the greatest perfection ; the figures full of grace
and expression ; every stroke as fine, sharp, and perfect as any drawn by a pencu.** —
*' The body of this vase, which for a long time was erroneously supposed to be
formed of porcelain, is made of deep blue glass."

aaUmtmU JoamI of Science, Ac., vni. ixti., on Pmxiam, ke., p. 243, with a inw'mg Ot the vaae — Cf. LardruA Cubina
Cydop^hOj article C/on.— See alw /. fVtdfnmod, DeerriptioD of the Pbrtland Vaae. Lend. ITSa 4 — Oraf (!. a. Count) Vtn
mUidm, Abhsodlung aber die Barbnini JHit Portland Van. Helmt 1791. &— /. JtfOb'nfen, on tbo Portland Vaaa, in theTrana*
idloaa of the Royal Lit. Society of the United Kinrdom, vol. i. pt 2d, p. 90. li^nd. 1829.—/. O. King, on the Baiterini Va«^
JtdmoU^ (aa eltrd | 92. fi), roL viii. p. 807, with dmringt of the whole devioe upoc it.— C/om. Joum. six. 22IL

In one of tbo barrowi calletl Bartlow Hills (cf. P. III. $ 341), thsre wai fnand, in 1835, a
beautiful bronze vessel ornamented with enamels of dilTerent colors. The cavities in which tbe
enamels are inserted seem to have been finished with the chisel. **The enamels are trae
glasses. The colors are three ; blue, red, and green." A fkc-simile la given In tbe Jtrehwologia
(as cited ) 3S. 5), vol. zxvi. p. 300.

3. Many of the remains of Etruscan art have been found in repositories for the dead,
in which the people were accustomed to inter with the body various articles of metal
and clay. At Volaterns (Volterra) were vast sepulchral chambers. Similar structures
have been discovered in the vicinity of Viterbo. In these sepulchers are found urns of
stone or of baked clay, about two feet in height, which contained the ashes of bodies
after burning. Painted vases also are found in the same repositories ; likewise the en-
graved pateroB, The latter are numerous and curious. They are shallow dishes of
brass or bronze, with a rim slightly raised, and a handle. On the bottom inside there
18 usually engraved some mythological subject, of simple design, expressed in a few
bold lines. The use of these vessels is not known. Some have considered them as
employed in sacrificing, others as designed for mirrors.

Since aboot 18^, many remains have been disinterred from the hypogea in Etruria. In 1828
one of these sepulchral chambers was accidentally di«rovered, not far from Volcium, the ancient
capital of the Voielentes (PIi«. H. N. iil. 8.) called *OvoXiroi by Ptolemy. This occasioned ex-
amination and extensive excavaiions, and led to the discovery of numerous other receptacles, in
a large plain, called from a neighboring abbev Piano duirAbbadia, on the banks of the Arminia.
From these were taken monninenls in gold, brass, and ivory. More than two thousand painted
vases were collected; bearing devices lllusirative of a great variety of subjects ; often with
the name of tbe manufacturer and the painter, and sometimes with whole sentences, inscribed
on them.

See .irckK)lrgia (a< cited § 92. 6). vol. xxHi. p. 190, a eiTa!n{;u« of vaMi and othir EtniMan antiqnitiaa diieavSred in 1828 and
1899, br the Prince of Canino; ipecifyien 900 article*, with rvmaHta.— X Millingm, on U*e Diiceveriei of ancient MonoowDta in
£lmm; in the Trattiad. oftht Royal Soe. of LUerature, kc. vol. ii. p. 7& Lond. IKM.— Illoatruioni die doe vasi fillili reooat^
■lent Iraurali in Peato, ke. Rom. 1*00. M.—Aftma, Hiatory of Sculpture, he. (cited I) 169), p. 71.— dfniAm'f Lempriere, undo
/Alrurua.— /"fUramt, cited § 173 —Kutrttr, as cited P. III. ^ Ml. S.— Mre. Hamtllon Gra^ Toor to the Scpnlchm of Etruria,
in lff» Lond. IMA, irith platca. Cf. tond. Quart. Rtv. March, 1841, p. 902.— fidin^ Reo. Apr. IMI, p. 04.

§ 174. The hiffheat rank in the history of ancient*art unquestionably belonors
to the Greeks. The first idea of imatre-work amongf them was without doubt
derived from abroad, from the Egyptians more probably than from the Phcsni-

388 ARCBXOLOQY 07 ART.

oians, perhaps in some degree from both (cf. $ 42). Hie opiniont that theii
earliest notions came from the Egyptians, agrees well with the whole character
of their mythology, the fountain and source of their arts, and with the style
of their more ancient performances. But at length they surpassed all other
nations.

1 ». The exact time of the rise of this art in Greece cannot be decided, nor so much
as the name ot the first artist. Some mention Dibuiades, others Rbcecus and Theo-
doruB, as inventors of the art of molding, or of working in soft wax and in brass.
Daedalus, who lived three generations before the Trojan war, was celebrated as the
first improver of the plastic art amon^ the Greeks. It was undoubtedly practiced at a
very early period, and even in the time of the Trojan war, or at least in the age of
Homer, had gained a remarkable degree of cultivation.

**S. Concerning Daedalus, the first of the Athenian nculpiors, donbtAil or fkbulnas accovnls
have reached us ; but a careful investigation of circumstances proves, that of whatsoever country
a native, he bad rendered himself renowned by the eiercise of hi« skill at the court of Mmoe
.before settling in Attica. The facts attending his arrival there, nnd the history of his previous
labours, enable us to fix dates, and to trace the true source of improvement in (3r(*cian art at
this particular era. Of the early establishments of the Grpeks planted in the isles of the
j|::gean, which even preceded the mother country in the acquisition of wealth and intelligence,
the Doric colony of Crete enjoyed, from a very early period, the happiness and consequent
power of settled covernment. External advantui^f>s of situation first invited the access, white
domestic institutions secured the benefits, of ancient and uniiiterrupteif intercourse with Egypt.
Hence the laws and the arts of the Cretans. With the f«ira)er, the Athenian bero, Theseus, wiabed
to transplant the later also; and while he gave to bis countrymen a similar system of policv,
he did not fall to secure the co-operation nf one wtiose knowledge might yield powerful aid in
humanizing a rude people by adding new dignity to the objects of national veneration. Accord-
ingly Dednlus, accompanying the conqueror of the Minotaur to Athens, fixes there the com-
mencement of an improved style, 1334 years before the Christian era— The perfurmances of
Dedalus were chiefly in wood, of which no fewer than nine, of large dimensions, are described
as existing in the second century, which, notwithstanding the injuries of fourtet-n hundred years,
and the imperfections of early taste, seemed, in the words of Pausaniafl, to possess someihiitg
of divine expression. Their author, as reported by Diodorus, improved upon ancient art, so as
to give vivacity to the attitude, and more animated expression to the countenance. Hence we
arc not to understand, with some, that Dedalus inlrorluced sculpture into Greece, nor even into
Attica; but simply that he was the first to form sonielbing like a school of art, and whose
works first excited the admiration of his own rude age. while they were deemed worthy of
notice even in more enlightened limes. Indeed the details preserved in the classic writers, that
be raised the arms in varied position from the fianks, and opened the eyes, before narrow and
blinking, sufficiently prove the extent of preceding art.'* (Menus, as ched ( 169.)

It hu howam been dowbtod whrtbar tteJalw tv«r taul u ■cinal flxuteaee, kmm uppoaiBv • am* mylhie penonga mtmH,
wine BUM «ru intendad for any eninent artificer.— tfcrt, Gochichte dnr fiaukunrt (cited § S43. i}.—Uefiu, ad Hon. 11. 19. 5ML
—Gadoyn^ L'Hialoirc ds Oedala, Man. Jknd. Inter. Uu vn.—Ciam. Jounu it. 11.

3 u. Many favorable circumstances combined to promote the advancement of sculp-
ture in Greece ; the influence of a delightful climate upon physical and moral education ;
the constant views of beauty not only in the various natural scenery, but especially in
the human form as produced ainon^ the Greeks; their peculiar religion, involving so
much of poetry and imagination and yet so addressed to the peiises ; the high honor
and rewards bestowed upon artists ; the various uses and applications ol sculpture
(cf. $178); and the flourishing condition of the other imitative arts and of letters in
general.

See OurlitP$ Einldtanf in im Stadium dcr iAOmb KaiHt, ke,; and Jt. O. MuOa't ArchAolop*, kc, m dtod ) SB. 4.— An Ea-
sily into the eanaat of the eitnoidiDayy axcellaocT of anciflDt Greecs in tho Arth Loud. ITS7. &— frtncKcbnatm, Rot. do PAfi,
ac, liv. IT. ch. i— 7Vtf0'« HiUDry, ch. ». 7.— On Ita ortimatioB lo which artkn wan hdd unenf Sir Oraaka, OowiU da OoyliH,
is Iha Mmv Jaad, Inmr. xxi. p. 174.

§ 175 /. In presenting an historical view of the progress and character of the
art in Greece, and of the age of the principal productions and their authors, four
periods have been pointed out. Instead of giving the division derived from the
sketch of Pliny, which has been considered as not sufliciently distinct and exact,
we propose the following. The flrst period includes the duration of the anderU
9lyhy extending to the time of the Persian war, say the battle of Marathon, B. C.
490. The second reaohes to the time of Alexander the Great, B. C. 336.
Phidias flourished in the first half of this period, which may be ch^cterized as
exhibiting the grand style. The third period, that of the beautiful style,, extends
to the establishment of the Roman power in Greece by the capture of Corinth,
B. C. 146: Praxiteles flourished at the beginning of this period. The fourth
includes all the later efforts of Grecian art, and may be called the period of its
fall.

Sea PUn. Rial. NaL lib. nxtT. xxxvt.— Ayn^a Abh. Qbar dia KQmdarepoehcn dai Flltotm, in hb Smamiuns onfifiMr. Ai/k
^. \ —AJio, bj same, Arliora inter Grccoa tampora, ia hia Opuae. Atad. V. 6.— Aftyar, Ocachiebta dcr bildvMien Xaoato M da
nriecheo.— TAiencA, Qber die Rpocban dar bildeadaa Kouit untar den Orieebea. Moncbea, 1816. 4.-7. B, Emtric-Da»^ Eieai
mt M damuowA ebioaol^iqae dct aeutptem Graei, ho. Vv. 1806 j reiivUiataed in Lmaut'i Pliny, cited P. V. § 470; It naoiai^

p. IT. GRECIAN SCULPTURE.

hi ordtr, (te priaeipBl Onak Knlpfnn, md mentloH the chief wmfci wroaghl bjr them.— C. de Caiflut, De U Kalpton at da
Miilplcttn aneienBei; in the Mem. lead. fmcr. xxy. 308— For a genenl hSMorical view of KQipture, tee 5. C. Crose-Moffnan,
DiMounHH(onqu«Bnrbiraotiine(UScalpl!ii«,MoogiDKtotbe Mvsrfe Francaiie, cited ( 191. 4 — Ifrmcs » dtcd § Ifla

$ 176. Among the Greeks, as in other nations, the first attempts in sculpture
were rude and imperfect ; the works in the art were marked by that incomplete-
ness and want of fitness and agreeableness in design and performance, which
has already been mentioned (cf. § 156). Subsequently there appeared more of
truth and accuracy in the^ sketch and outline, while there was still a severity or
stiflTness, which was much deficient in expression as well as beauty. There
are many remains of Grecian art, which are commonly assigned to the earlier
ages, some of them correctly; yet it is diflicult in some cases to decide to what
period a performance really belongs ; and it is too hasty a conclusion, if a person
assigns to the earliest period any piece of unfinished workmanship, with no
other proof or evidence; since such a work might come from the hand of an
inferior artist of later times, or might receive its rude appearance from design.
EndcBus, Smilis, Dipoenus, Scyllis, Agelladas, Dionysius of Argos, and Mys,
were the principal sculptors of the first period.

^ 177 u. With the growing prosperity of the Grecian States, the arts, and especially
sculpture, steadily advanced. Among the means of improvement were the schools of
art, for the instruction of young artists both in painting and sculpture, which were estab-
lished at Sicyon, Corinth, and uEgina. I'he first of these was the most eminent,
founded by Dipcenus and Scyilis, and numbering among its pupils Aristocles, and sub-
sequenily other celebrated painters and sculptors. Corinth, on account of its favorable
situation, became early one of the most powerful of the Grecian cities; Cleanthes was
one of the most ancient artists there. The school of iGgina, also, seems to have been
early established, and the island gained much celebrity from its arts ; Callo, Glaucias,
Simon, and Anaxagoras, were distinguished in this school. The flouristiin^ condition
of these cities, in consequence of commerce and navigation, made them eligible places
for the establishment of such schools of art.

$ 178. The occasions for the execution and use of statues in Greece were
▼ery frequent and various. Not only were the temples of the gods ornamented
with their statues and with sculptured representations of their mythological
history, but works of this kind were required in great number for public squares
and places, for private dwellings, gardens, country seats, walks, and for archi-
tectural ornament in general. The portico at Athens, receiving its name Pcecile
from its variety of ornaments, was crowded with statues. To heroes, wise men,
poets, and victors, statues were erected out of gratitude and respect; to princes,
out of flattery. Thus did the statuary always find encouragement and reward
for the exercise of his art, and for the application of all his talents, which were
quickened and stimulated the more by emulation.

I. During the former part of this flret period, down to abont the time of Solon, B. 0. 600, noogt
of the Blntiies eeein to have been statues of the gods. Including those whieh were merely dedi>
cated as d^aBtJitara, and those which were erected for worship, dydXitara ; the latter were chiefly
of wood (I6ava)i yet the head, arms, and feet, were frequently of stone (dKpfXtBoi); they were
usually painted ; sometimes dressed in gorgeous atlire.— In the latter part of the period, statues
of men (avSpi'ivrcs) became more common; these were probably real likenesses (lixdves). The
exhibition of the human form in striking attitudes in the gymnastic contests at the public festi-
vals, furnished the artists with flne opportunities for observation.

SmIkPamgtAtiUitiu$,diaUtJnetim;EmalBMoriqfte. Braz. 1768. 4.

f. Befbre the close of the period, artists were very numerous. Besides the places above
■amed, they flourished In the Greek states of Asia Minor, in the islands of the .Cgean, and In
Magna Grascia. Among the sculptors of eminence were Bupalus and Anthermus of Chios ; Me-
don and Theodes at Bparta ; Dameas of Croton ; Canachus of Sicyon ; Critias and Heg^esias
of Athens.

X In the latter part of this period, we find that the pediments and firiezes of temples were
adorned with bas-reliefs and statues. Specimens of such ornaments are found in the Selinun-
tine Marbles and the JSginetan Mnrbles, which are regarded as remains of this period.

8e« & JngeUutdTh. Eeani, ifculptored Metopea dhcoTKred (in 1^23) amoncst th« mini of Selinn. Load. I8B8.— JU Li/oiu
OstllDM or the E<(im M^rblo. Load. l6K)w— M^orur, u cited \ 1 W. S.-Other nmaiM of tbit period an Ml praemt. CL Comht,
MmWm of the Briliah Muwum.

$ 179. In the second period, reaching to the time of Alexander, the art of
sculpture obtained much higher excellence in Greece than among other nations.
Its characteristic at this period was loftiness and grandeur in style ; yet this
was accompanied with more or less of that want of softness and ease, which
marked the works of preceding artists. There was a very rigid observance
of outward proportion. The expression in gesture and attitude was bold and

2 k2

990 AKCHJB0L0O7 OF ABT.

significant, rather than captivating and pleasing. Phidias was the first and tfae
most distinguished artist. His statues of Minerva and Jupiter Olynipias (of.
$ 160) were among the most celebrated works of antiquity, although known to
us only by the unanimous praise of so many writers.

1. The great works executed ftt Athens in the time of Pericles were under the direciioii of
Phidias {Plut. Peric. 13).— '*The most colossal statue by Phidias was his Athena Proniacboe, of
bronze, which was fiAy feel high without taking the pedestal into account. (Straho, ti.) It sto^
on the Acropolis, between the Parthenon and the Propylipa, rising above each oflhese buildings,
so that it was seen at a distance by the sailors, when they approached the coast of Attica. This
work, however, was not completed when he died ; and it was finiahed nearly a generation later
by Mys.**~The statue of the Olvnipian Jupiter is said to have been transported by Theodosiua I.
to Constantinople, and to have been there destroyed by fire, A. D. 475.

Qutrimerc de Quiner, U Jupilcr Olympiao. Fu. IS1& Ibl.— Cf. \ IflO; rIm P. II. H 24, 48.-5. £. FUW, Uebcr im <rewwi
TaiMl und die Statue da Jnpilcn su Uympk. Leipt. I7M. 8.~r. Ph. SdhmkmM, Obcr d*ii Tcmpoi und die Bikhtoled«Bjvp. 0
01. NOrnb. 1796. 9.—K. H. r.ttm, im Fhidia Jevs OlyiDpio obmratioeci. Gott. 1112. 8.— £ F^ttauA^ Sar devx Oiivnc« d*
FhidiM, 1b hi* ffVta. Umnie, t78l. 6 vols. a~C 0 Jl^llcp, da Pbidia vita el epOTibtn, ftc. Golt. 1827.— M«i «ln aa acceaal
of Pbidiu apd bis work*, io Iha Apptndix to Jtf«mirattdum en Lord EtgMi iHimob^ to, ctlad i 19Ql 4.-Getroyfi, UHitL d«
Riidiaii Mrm. ^eod. /nicr. it. 180.

3t. Besides Phidias, the following were among the celebrated artlsU of this period : Alcame-
nes of Athens; Agoracritus of Samoa; Polycletus of Argos, by whom the school of Argos was
raised to its summit; also Cailimachus and Demetrius ; and Myron of Eleutherie, whose cow In
bronxe, and colossal group representing Jupiter, Mercury, and Minerva, are mentioned as fa-
mous. (Prop. 11. 31. Strabo, xiv. Plin. N. U. zxxiv. 10. Quint, zji. 10. Plin. Ep. iii. 0.)

3. Among the ren'iains of this period, the following are ascribed to the age of Phidias. I. Parti
of the metopes, with the frieze of the small sides of the temple of Theseusa ; of which there are
casts in the British Museum.— 3 A number of the metopes of the Parthenon, with a part of the
frieze of the cella. and fragments of the pediments, belonging to the Elgin Marbles* in the British
Muneum — The following Itelong to a later time In this period. 1. The marble reliefs of the tem-
ple of Nike Apteros.— 3. The Phigalian Marbles^, of the inner frieze of the temple of Apollo Epi-
curius. — 3. The marbles of the temple of the OI>mplan Jupiter*!.

a Stuart, Antiq. at Athcot, eiloi S B4S. 1.—* 8r« § 190. 4, and worb there cited oa Ibew marotai. Alio, Cocimll, as diad
i 191. 4,—Brrntud^ Vojraces, kc, aa cited $ 248 I.—' O. M. tVaintr, Bawi-relievi delta Grecia, he- Staekabtrg, Apdloleaipal
n Bsaa in Arcadiea und die daaelbrt anfegraK Bildirerka. 1828.— 4 ExpMitlon Scieotif. de la Morda. PI. 74 m.

$ 180. Sculpture, together with the rest of the fine arts, attained the highest
excellence, not far from the time of Alexander. In the third period, marked by
the beautiful or elegant style, a peculiar srace was united with the accuracy
and noble expression already acquired. This grace appeared both in a higher
refinement in the design or conception, and greater ease in gesture, attitude and
action. A distinction may be made between the majestic grace which is con«
spicuous in the statues of the gods, belonging to this period, and that wliich is
merely beautiful ; the latter again may be distinguished from an inferior and
lighter sort, exhibited in comparatively trifling performances. Scopas, Praxi-
teles, Lysippus, Chares, and Laches, were the most eminent sculptors of this
period.

1. Scnpas began to flourish before the close of the second period. He was employed, about
B. C. 350, ivith Leochares and others, in constructing the njagnificnnt mauHoleum i>f Mausolus,
in Carta. Pliny (H. N. xxxvi. 4) mentions works of Scopas as existing at Rome.— The most
celebrated works of Praxiteles were statups of Bacchus and of Venus ; the most noted of which
were the veiled Venus of Cos, and the naked Venus of Cnidus. A statue of Cupid, which he
gave to the courtezan Phryne, is said to have been particularly valned by himself. Two sons
of Praxiteles are mentioned as sculptors, Cephlssiodorus and Timarchua.— Lysippus was cele-
brated for his portrait statues of Alexander the Great, and his statues of Hercules. He is said
to have m;ide no less than 1500 figiyes.— Chares, a disciple of Lysippus, gave celebrity to a
school that continued to flourish at Rhodes In the flrpt part of the subsequent period. He formed
the celebrated colossal statue of the Sun (Plin. N. U. xxziv 18), which stood by the harbor of
Rhodes; said to have been 70 cubits high, partly of metul Cf. P. L ) 147, and PI. VL— See
M»ur»in», Rhodas, i. 16.

3. Sculpture, with other fine arts, was more or less cultivated in the Tarious kingdoms which
arose out of tlie conquests of Alexander. Among the fonsign places where literature and art
flourished, were Perganius, Alexandria, and Seleucia (cf. $ t>0).— Of the remains ascribed to thia
period, the group of Niobe la perhaps the most imponant ; whether it is the original work (by
Scopas or Praxiteles), or is merely a copy, has been much discussed (cf. ^ 186. 2). The group of
Laocoon belongs to this period, or to the very beginning nf the fourth ; being according to Pliny
the work of three Rhodian artists, Afiesander, Polydorns, and Athenndoriis (cf, ^ \&i. 1). The
Borghese Gladiator probably belongs to the close of this period (cf. ^ 166. 8). The Famete Bull
(cf $ 186. 3), from the hands of two Rhodian artists, Apolloniiis and Tauriscua, belongs to the
aame time ; unless it may be more correctly assigned to the fourth period.

$ 181. Gradually Grecian art declined from its high excellence, and finally
eeased. The causes are obvious ; the prevalence of luxury and consequent cor-
ruption of laste and morals; the internal changes and commotions, and th«
infringements upon civil liberty from the time of Alexander, and its final loss
after the subjection of Greece to the Romans. There were, however, in the

F IT. iCULPTURE AHOVO THE ROMANS. 891

fbnith period (m. that snbaeqaent to the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146), some
skillful artists, aa Arcesilaus, Pasiteles and Cleomenes; and the plastic arts
remained in credit in some of the cities of Asia and Sicily.

8m F. J*€oU^ Qbcr dcB Bmchlbttoi d«r Orieeiiea io plutiMben Kuui wMfca; tnad. ia Clam. Sttidimt p. flS, u cilcd P. T. ) 6. 4.

It may be remarked that the period of time mentiohed as the fourth In the history of Oreclan
Mttlpiure, will coincide with the period of time which is of most importance to be noticed in the
history of Roman sculpture. It was not until about the time of the capture of Corinth that tha
Romans took any deep interest in the arts.

^ 182 ti. On the subjection of the Greeks, thev arts passed, as it were, into the hands
of the Romans, by whom, however, the ans were honored and furnished with opportu-
nities for their employment, rather than actually acquired and practiced. In early
periods of the republic, distinguished merit was rewarded with statues. After the
second Punic war, a great number of splendid works of sculpture were brought to
Rome from captured cities, Syracuse, Capua, Corinth, Carthage; also from btniria
and Egypt. Likewise Grecian artists flocked to Rome, and there produced new works.
With the advancement of wealth, the Romans devoted greater and greater expense to
the ornamenting of their temples, their public and private buildings, their gardens and
manors, until at length there was a most extravagant and luxurious indulgence.

1. Amonf the treasures plundered from the Sicilians by Verres were a number of celebrated
■Utues, wrought by the most distinguished artists ; as a Cupid in marble by Praxiteles ; a Her-
cules in bronze by Miron ; and two Canepbore in bronze by Polycletus, all taken frnm a single
citizen of Mcssana. It is said to have been for the sake of his flne statueo that Verres was pro-
scribed and murdered by Mnrk Antony.— The emperors, especially Augnstus, Caligula, and
Nero, are said to have followed the example of the conquerors and provincial governors of
earlier times In bringing to Rome the most splendid works of art found in other cities.

JMlMm'f I.ife ot Ck««, vol. 1. p. ISI, 114, u cited P. V. \ 4at l.-Ftnguter, Galcric i» Verm, M»m. Jead. Inter, il SSS.
— ^£U(I, tTabcr die W^frafaruag der alleo KaMtwerke vu den eroberten LAaJcra nacb Rom.

2 «. The Capitolium (particularly the temple of Jupiter, included in it), the Comitiam,
and the Rostra, were in a special manner adorned with statues. Inspectors were
appoimed {tutelatii, eiditui), whose business it was to guard the edifices thus oma-
mented from injury and plunder, a duty afterwards assigned to a particular magistrate.
The senate alone could authorize the erection of statues, and the censors corrected
abuses. Hence is found sometimes on Roman statues, the inscription Ex Senatug
Deereto; and sometimes E Decurionum Dicreio. (Cf P. II L ^ 260. 2. ^ 320.) Statues
were erected in the colonies and free cities. The buildings and public places of Rome
were adorned by the first emperors with a great number of works of sculpture, most
of which, however, were prepiEired by Grecian artists.

Edm, Fitrddda etataie niwtrtan Bonaonun liber tlaCDUrie. Belmim. 1756. S.~ljip$u idminBda & d« mgDitadiM Vaumtm.
litri I*. Astw. I07. Ciii.-Xya|«« de Capiloife Bon. ooauMnUvina. I. B. 1696. h. StUiff, Cilikvai wtificwB Oneeonm at
BonuMTun. Dread. 1887.

3. After the time of Augustus there was a decline in arts as well as letters, until the
reign of Hadrian, A. D. 118. The principal sculptured works appear to have been,

4. Reliefs on public monuments, sucn as arches and columns ; 2. Statues or busts of
the emperors and members of their families ; some of which were intended to be faith-
ful portraits ; others were designed to represent an emperor or empress in some heroic
or deified character; many specimens of this class are preserved.

4. In the reign of Hadrian, the arts were in some degree revived (cf. ^ 128. 2) . The
existing statues and busts of Antinous (cf. ^ 186. 10) are ascribed to the age of Hadrian.
The arts continued to flourish somewhat in the reign of the Antonines, closing A. D.
180. The best among the remains of this time are the equestrian statue of Anrelios
(cf. $ 186. 12) , and the reliefs on the column of Antonine (cf. ^ 188. 2) .

$ 183 u. In the last half of the second century after Christ, there was an obvious de-
cline of good taste in sculpture, and soon after the middle of the third, the art was
wholly prostrated, throug^h political diBasters and other conspiring influences. Esteem
for the art and its productions was lost, and many unfavorable circumstances hapfiened,
00 that a number of the most valuable works of sculpture were mutilated, buried in
ruins, or entirely destroyed. This resulted partly from the warlike character of the
tribes that invaded Italy, partly from the avarice and rapacity of some of the later Ro-
man emperors, from freauent earthquakes or conflagrations, from the repeated capture
and sacking of Rome ana Constantinople, and from a mbtaken zeal of many Christians
against the preservation of heathen monuments.

See/VbNBiAOceehMivder Mklani. bk. i. ^ 11.— Aym^ D* latariln opmwn Artie prlM^ Se., m dtsd | TL &

^ 184 u. Notwithstanding all this ruin, many monuments of sculpture, and some of
them of high excellence, have been preserved. Since the revival of the fine arts, which
commenced in Italy, the last seat of ancient sculpture, these monuments have been
diligently sought out, collected, and described. Yet most of them have suffered from
time or accident, and very few are wholl)[ free from mutilations. There have been
attempts to remedy these injuries by rejoining and repairing, but without sufHcient
judgment or skill. For such attempts require hot only mechanical dexterity, but a

302 ARCHJBOLOOT OF ART.

very correct apprehenflion of the exact design of the original artist, and especVilly m
capacity to adopt perfectly his manner and style. No modern has been more soc-
ceasful in labors of this sort than Cavacoppi.

8e» aaceaHa d'toitehe ■lt»»» le. w*mii»I> d» M. Otmappi. Bon. I7M-78. a tcIh toL-Mtund. tUtr l^tmto: von Ftam
iMrAmeoBtaiaad is tbt .Pw^iyMiw, u. 1. p. S8.— IKmnri ConaMBiUMmi d« lUUia aaUkiali matilMw, rwmiiori aMUw nrwtii.
ViL I80S. KM. 4.

$ 185*. Anything like a fall specification eyen of the more valuable raona-
nients of ancient sctilptare would transcend the limits and design of this treatise.
A 8li|^t glance at some of them is all that will be attempted. This will include
a notice of $iatuea^ fmsts and works in reliefs and also toorkg in motaie, since
they have been mentioned in connection with sculpture.

^ 186 u. Of the statues, we shall mention here only some of the most celebrated
such among them as deserve the iirst rank.

1. The splendid group of Laocoon in the Belvedere of the Vatican at Rome. It is
larger than life, wrought of white myble, not wholly finished on the back. It consists
of uiree principal figures, the father and his two sons, writhing in the coil of two huge
serpents. I'his was found, in the year 1506, among the ruins of the Baihs of Titus;
and it probably belongs to the times of the first emperors. The expression of extreme
ac^ony m the features, and muscles of the whole body, especially of Laocoon, the strug-
gle to break the dreadful grasp, the cry of distress indicated by the moutb, the anxious,
entreating look of the sons, fixed on the father, are among the striking excellencies
which mark this extraordinary performance. Critics, however, differ in opinion respect-
ioff the real design of the artist as to the expression and degree of the anguish of the
fiither.

Cr. f laa S.~Aiiym>» miqaw. Aofe. 8U l.-/VapylBm, I.-irirt. is Om JToran, VISn^WhmMnmuift Waifea, eitad S IS. 4.
tL l.-jUwifVt LMfloOB, f fc p. 7», M eitMl f lA-V. B, £am^Dnid, RmI, ftc, dtad | n$.~Mont/kk>am, JM. EipL tol. i.
8«ppl.|i.t4a.

BMd Firpraimtxipaim of Uoeooo and fte 8Mrp«il% .Bn. ii. 20|.2tt.-CC PUny, Nat BW.uitL 4.-SmFUIbXLIV. If. BL

2. The group of Niobe and her children. Her children being slain by Apollo and
Diana, the mother (cf. P. II. ^ 38) through grief was changed into stone. This
work has marks of the lofly style, and is perhaps from the hands of Scopas. It consists
of fifteen figures. It was discovered in 1583, and is still in the Duke*s collection at
Florence, where the figures are merely placed by the side of each other, as their proper
arrangement in a group is difficult to aiscover, and even their original connection is not
fully proved. There is an uncommonly elevated and tragic expression in all the figures
and great variety in the combination.

Ct. f ISO. S.~l>ltn. HM. Nat znvi. 4^^htt*> fatnni, Uia. nib SatM appartcMifl alh bvola dl Niobe. tbrnm. ITTS, M.
"MO^, in tte Fnp^Umt, H., and ^Ihpr*! AmaliltM (Miiav d« l<aaliqaM fl«iiFfe). Drawfta, IIM. l.—irindmbmm^9
Warfca, vL I .-Oa Uw monl at tlw Lidcow and Ntoba, aaa ranmti m Tkt Pkilotgpk^ qf TrmoMng, by T. /aihuow, M. D. (p. t la

Mm. ad. N. York, 18SI). S« aiw ite work aeliilad Chaix d» TaUtma M fll«(iw te friw crkbu JAmw, fA Far oaa fltaMt

#JrfM«, ^ Par. ISII^Sl. S vole 8, ioleadad to be eampletad ia IB vdi.

Tbetd ralnneor Ibe bul naned woife rivet the flnaaa fipuea, with a dcaeriptloa. Tbt M fl|vri b Niebe wifh her jougMt
dM^blarcliiviaBlober; the figom 8, S, 4, S, C, 7, are tba other daaghten ; fl(«i« 8 b Ibe Pedacoffse or iDttructor ofllH chiMna
(LeMaitra); and flgeiei 8, 10^ U, 12, IS, 14, 15, are the MTen wni.— There a aho In Um Ookeli ColiedioB a figura of two wraileia
wbkh»niehav«wppaNdtore|»reseat twonaiorNiobe,aadtDbcloi«tolbb90«pb Uk^mnlBthtlUnhamti thawo^
jwt eUed ; abo in JfenfM, lUlaens, Statota, ac, M cited S 181. a.

3. The Famese Butt, the largest of all ancient groups. It consists of a bull, two
youths larger than life, Zethus and Amphion, and three smaller figures, two of which
are taken for Dirce and Antiope, represented upon a rock. The rock and figures are
12 Parisian feet in height, and 9 and a half in width. This group was found about the
middle of the sixteenth century, in the Baths of Caracalla, and lodged in the palace
Famese at Rome, and afterwards placed in the public museum, called Museo Borhonieo,
at Naples. Many parts of it are modem ; of course the expression is defective. Pliny
speaks of a similar work of art, by ApoUonius and Tauriscus ; perhaps it is the very
same.

Ct ( 18a i^Pttn. Net Bbt nxrl. 4.-Ay»iA Intkiaar. Aeft. St S.-JM>m, Neapel. Th. a |i. SS—lfiiedWnuBw^a
WaAe, tL l^ArepreMotatienof tbtapieoeoT iletaaiy bfiTen inlhe CSMcto TUtaux, ^ (m died above, 8 ) vd. i.

4. The ApoUo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of ancient statues, on account
of the perfection of art displayed in it. It is an ideal of youthful beauty and vigor. It
seems to represent Apollo just after discharging his srrow at the serpent Python, and
indicates in its expression a noble satisfaction and assurance of victory. It was found
at Antium in 1503. It was purchssed by Pope Julius II., then a cardinal, and placed
in the part of the Vatican called Belvedere. The legs and hands have received mo-
dern repairs.

Tbb itatoe ia repreaeated In FlaleXLIV. 8fr ^diewn trvm Wlockelmaim.— Cf. mndbbnami^ Werke, vol. vi. I. p. 868; iii»>
kiliedel'AztaaeitedfaB.4. vol. 1880; ii. 486; Ut 870.->ff<rrs Bilderbocb, t p. aB.-See abo P. II. f 37 b.

5. The Venus de Medici. It is in the Grand-duke's gallery at Florence. It is of
pure white marble, and the height of^e statue but little over nve feet. On the pedes

P.IV. REMAINS OF ANCIBKT 8TATUART.

tal appears the name of Gleomenea as the acalptor, bat the inscription is modem. The
desigo of the artist was to represent Venus either as just coming from the bath, on the
point of dressing herself, taken by surprise, and fail of virgin modesty, or as appear-
inj; before Paris for his judgment in the contest with Juno and Minerva for the prise
orbeauty. This statue must be distinguished from the Cuidian Venus of Praxiteles,
of which we possess only copies.

M. Limuim, Mwr dto fnig*t «* ih wadkehdw Vw dn BHd dg taMfachw fen PrMltelf uL Btrila, I80a 4^m«ki>
MOWH tL 2. p. 140.— tf«yn^t Aal^. Avh. St l.-JbltaiMn^ Pbika^j of TnvaUiv, p. ISI, Maliovt dMd.

6. The Hercules Famete, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome, now at Naples.
It is a colossal statue, almost three times as large as nature, of beautiful Parian marble.
The feet were at first missing, and others were substituted by Delia Porta with such
art, that the original ones, being subsequently found, were only placed by the side
of the statue. The inscription names Glycon as the artist, whom, however, no ancient
writer mentions. One admires m this work the firm, vigorous body, although in
repose, resting on the club.

A ffkir of ibto MatM k fiwa in PhtoXLIV.Sf>C,flr«nWioekdiiMaB} tbo ia lb* 8«p. Ptett S.>-Cr. rVinauhmmntWm.it
Plit, I. 388, 488; ii. 348 1 lii. S94.-frbiekilinami1i Werfe^ t1. 1. p. V^.-Dupai^ Vo^hm «'Mla.~ir. Fuk*t TtBfcb i«
Ewopc. N. Toilt, 1888. 8. p. 804.-ClaM. /eurn. td. i*. p. 846w

7. The aAtique work called the Torso, in the Belvedere at Rome. It consists
merely of the bod^ or trunk, of white marble, executed in a very superior manner.
On account of its size and appearance of muscular strength, it is commonly taken for
the body of a statue of Hercules. It has been called the Torso of Michael Angelo,
because he particularly admired and studied it.

"AGrMkiBKripiioBaMribeiittollHaiihtApolloaiH. It w«fooadloirudittodaMoritoSftMBlhentarj,iBllanw.>'-8M
WimMmamA Werka, ? L I. p. \91.-Lond. I^tart. Rm. siv. M4, 648.

8. The Gladiator Borghese, formerly in the villa Borghese at Rome, now in the
Royal Museum of Paris. This is the representation of a hero or warrior, who seems
to be defending himself against a cavalier. In the opinion of Heyne it belonged to a
group. Connoisseurs in art do not agree respecting its design. It is a beautiful and
noble figure, of manly age, athletic, with the muscles in strong tension, yet not over-
straineaor unnatural. The inscription on it ascribes the work to Agasias of Ephesus,
who ia not mentioned by any ancient writer, but certainly must have belonged to the
period of the highest perfection of Grecian art.

tee Ayru'f AiKiq. Aafik St. 8.— IFiiuMmcmn^ Warka, tL I. p. 988. BM. da I'Aii, iU. p. a8O.-^diiM0n^ Lmnpritm, Ag^
•iaa—Conpara ( 186 and $ 180. 8.— QttolHfiwv dt Quiticy, 8ar la coona anaaa^ kc^wantdU maalara dteplk|aar la ilataa d'A«^
" Litr/fufttitf,Cla«iad>irM.«(Ltt. J/ifrvol.lv.p.l85,l80bWilh8pUteibawippoMBitlobaaiUtnaoraaapKlo*

Tha JAuM Aoyal (voL H. U HrH aa eilad ( 191), amtaiiN a baanttfal aofnThf of tbla ilahia, ihinHiv fba tida oppodto tt> fMl
pNMBtMl In aw PlalaXZJV. flf. 4,wUeb li diawn fiMi Mtdntfducen, d. voL HL p. 881:

9. The Dying Gladiator (Gladiator deficiens) in the Campidogrlio at Rome. He lies
upon a shield, supported by his right hand, with a colhur or cham {torques^ cf. P. III.
^ 284. 2) upon hb neck, and seems to be exerting his utmost strength to rise. Some
parts of the figure are modern, but admirably wrought, and ascribed to Michael
Angelo.

Thb piaeaar oMoafy k rtpnaonttd in oar F!ala VHL flg. I, ftian Jfenl/aiiem, (dtad P. II. f I9.8d), vol. IH. p. 987, pi. dv.—
Saa AiyiM^ Ank. 9t i^tTindtdntunnH Werfc^ vL 1. p. Bt^Und. Quart. Mn. six. 8381— .4. Ifanf*^ Sor daax da Slahioa
aMiqiica dadf. par la nan da Otorftatew-, la tha JMnii. * PAuMHd, Clasta LiL glBmmJtii, td. U. p. 843, with a^iadn^
ofthehaada.

10. Antinous, a very beautiful statue in the Belvedere at Rome. It has been con-
sidered, although without grounds, as a representation of Antinous^ the favorite of
Hadrian. Winckelmann took it for a statue of Meleager, or soine other youtig hero,
and admired very much its head. It is now quite commonly viewed as a Mercury
There are several ancient monuments which are considered as representations of Ar.
tinous. One of these is the celebrated bust of the viUa Albani, a beautifully finished
bas-relief in white marble ; a part only of the work is preserved'. This is given in
Plate XLIV. fig. 2, from Winckelmann. The head is crowned with a garland of lotus-
flowers ; in the ri^ht hand was held something, which is now lost ; a wreath of flow-
ers h&<i been conjectured from the appearance of a ribin which remains, and accord-
ingly such a wreath is attached to it in the modem restoration.

> Xaaoaw, abar dan Aatiaona, dargntdlt In den KoMtdankmUcra dao Altartboma. Bartia, 1808L 4.— ITmcldmOTm, vi. K
p. 888.— fWrffir*! AadcdaageD, cllad abora, $ 188 —Tha OUtarie GaOmf of Fortimila and Pltialli^ ke. aa eilad $ 187. vol. Tte.
— • Saa fFbuUMMnn, Bidoira, ke. aa cited f 92. 4. vd. iL p. 464.

11. A Flora t formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome (thence called the Flora Far-
nese)f now at Naples. The body only is ancient ; the rest ia modern by Delia Porta ;
whence it is not certain that this statue originally represented Flora. Winckelmann
considered it as intended for a Muse. Its principal merit is its drapery, which is re-
garded as the best of all ancient statues. It is nearly as large as the Hercules Far-^
nese, yet its whole expression is feminine.

8mmnAilmamnf$ WadM^ ia. p. ia4.»A itHfcwt ddMof FlDMliwUeidP. a) 81. 4.
50

904 ARCHJBOLOGT OF ART.

12. Jfiareus Aureiiu9f an equestrian statue, of gilded metal, in the square of the
modern capital at Rome. It is much larger than life. It retains now but few traces
of the etlaing, but is otherwise in good preservation. Its effect is increased b^ the
pedestal on which it was elevated by Michael Angelo. The horse particularly is ad-
mired, seeming actually to move forward, and ejchibiting, generally, fine proportions.

fUmul, OiNenmtioM lor la SUlue da Mare-Anrcle, par AiMt I7TI. t2.-^itidU(itMm«i Wofcc, vL I. p Slfc-Cf. 1 181. 4.

ftrt af aa cfitntriaB alatiM, which ia nid lo bear ioim rHaBBblaaea (o thai of Aareliua, waa foand oa a trimnphal areh n Fum
pti\ i tb» woitmatMhip is inferior.— Tbare ai« ia Iha Mumo Barbanko, at NaplM, two cqacalriaa atataci, aaeulad in narbta, ealtad
Iha timtmu cf Urn SalAi. Tbey ware txcamted at HarculaitMn, and ara Hid lo ba arikiai tptdmtm of acalptara^—Cf. Ptmfnif
p. lie, aa diad § fl6.-rM*« Tratda, p. 100^ aa dtad abo?a (<).

13. The statue of Pallas, found in 1797 in the vicinity of Velletri and brought to
Paris, where it is lodged in the Royal Museum.

A N|>raMQtatiaa of the Pallas of ValMri is fivfla in (ha Mum Frmimim, m citad | fW. 4. vol. iv. Pkrt td.-flaa alaa Landen,
Otiaria dm ijgsaa Nspalann, dtad S l»l. 4. An account of it is (ifca bjr /-crvMi^, in the ^. A irmao-, flsr in«. Tlk I. p. SOS.

14. It may t»e thoucht tbat a status of Arlitldet discovered nt Herculaneum, and now la the
Museo Borbonko, deserve* mention here. **The philosopher stands with his arms folded in liis
ctoalc, in all the dig nitv and InteKrliy of his character. It is a worli as near pcrrection, I thinic,
as human art can achieve. This is the Icind of statuary which I covei for my country. I had
much ado to refrain from a violation of the command. Thou akalt not cmtt, when loolcinf at this
BUtcMess figure. Could I have it, thought I, to exhibit to the youth of America, to the young
men of our universities, such a dignified personification of integrity. In the person of Ariatide$
Us just^ might greatly aid In elevating their characters and strengthening their principles.*
»'.>is*,a« just cited.

15. Serrnl of tha ci«raviB|i introdaead ia this work to illnatrata otbar wibjadi, an raprtsaaiatkNii of rtataca. Plata XXXIX.
givw tha nina MoMa as M«n in tha slaliiai of Iba coUietioa of Chrklina ; lo Plata XI. fi<. 3, is a ddtaealioii of Japiicr as ba »«8
cablbitad In hb sUtna in Elii ; Plata XXVUI. giTCs a priatfesi oT Vests, as ezhibltad in a slalua ; PUta VI. shows the Hhodian Co*
ksBOB. In tba voluma of Sttpptemtntal Plales, Plata I giTOs a splcodid siaina of Japltar, from Montfaacon ; Plate 5, a siafaa of
Cybala m ddinaated bjr Bolaard { Plata l«, a staiaa of Oiaoa of Epbasw ; Plata 81, a aUtna of facolapios, from MoatlaoaM ; PUia
SSkSiahMaorOiina and Isis, fonod at Bone, protaMy exacvted in the Una of Hadrian.

% 187 It. Among the valuable remains of antiquity are many 5t(«<«, which, aside
from the skill and beauty in their execution, afford much pleasure and utility by pre-
serving the features of celebrated persons. I'he correctness of these likenesses is not
certain, especially as in many cases they have undergone the process of restoration
b^ modern hands. Many also exhibit no distinct characteristics to enable us to de-
cide any thing as to the persons they represent. The uncertain character of the
inscriptions has already been mentioned {% 168) ; and sometimes the head and pedental
do not belong together. It may be too that the portrait is the mere fancy of the artist.
— Among the most distin^iehed and authentic are those of Homer, Socrates, Plato,
Alexander the Great, Scipio, Julias Ciesar, and others found in the collections of
statuary about to be mentioned. I'here is the largest number in the Capitol at Rome :
engravings of these are found in the Mtiseo Capiiolino.

In oar Platas Lin. and LIV. are ilvea several heads of Grarhs and Rootam, fran Tht BiatoHr OaOtrf ^ ArfmtCi and PauU-

Inft. Lead. IC07 ss. & On borti of tha andcnia, sea OwriitVa Varsveh Qfacr BQstnknnda. lla(dab. ISOO. 4.-C. P. Lanrfon,

Galaria Historiqoa, fce. Par. IBOS-ll. 13 vols. ML^^L. P. BiUufimt, Velernin illustriaoi Pbilosopborvm, AiHaniai, Rhatcram at
Oratorvm ImsipMa— HluitratB. Root. ICtt. tol.—Oiov Jnf. Caju'nt, InaRas dca Hdroa at dee Graads Henmes da I'Anl^nite,
tnd. de i'ltalicn. Amst. 1731. i—Espacially yiatenli and Mangrx, icoaocraphia Aodcnae. Par. 1810-81. 6 tola. fol. Tbia
aplendid woit owes its existeaeo to Napoleon, and was executed at ibe public eipaosa. It cantons pomaits of cdabratcd person.
ifes of Oreeee and Room, drawn fnaa anelaot statues, basts, ftc, with learned aad valoabla notices. The konogrmpkit Pomamt,
bjr JfoNfcs, was published ia Ittl. Tba JbonofrapMs firscfue. eontainioK three hundred nod Imir portrait, bj £. Q. FiMsnii, wu
pvUiahcd In IBIO, 3 vols. fol.-«ea notices in FotfoiiJUac'k French Ltbnrian, p. SI I. Oam. Joum. N& liv. voL vii p. 808.
JtiBMii BntfcL mi. nvi. p. 427 —E. Q. Ftaonii, Iconofnfla Romana ; and (sepanteljr) leoBograSa Oraea. MiL IflSS^ 8 tobi a—
Tha fmuf ropAw da la Bibliolbique Lstioe-rrancaise pubtiee pu C. L. F. Ameloucta. Far. 18SS. &— In Iha LtArory cf Bnta:
taining Knawltdft, vols. 28, 88, ai« engravings of Iba Baada in the Townlej Gallery.— We add, Jtuickila di Axoteio^ diad
1 343. 2. Tha Sth volame (entillad Bnmi di firtolaiw, ftc Neap. 1767. fd.) is on Ihitfs ; and tha Cth ia on sUtuas in bronaa.— A
list of tha eminent Oresas and Ronaas o( whom portraita or liusis ara prewrvad, with aathoritiask la fivan in /Wirafef, pi 823, aa
chad P. IIL S IS.

^ 188w. There likewise remains a multitude of works in relief, either in whole
pieces, or fraj^ments on edifices, columns, shields, helmets, tripods, tombs, altars, &c.
Vases and drinking utensils, urns and funeral lamps, are often found in antiquarian
collections ; many of distinguished excellence as works of art. It would be too long
to enumerate the monuments adorned with relief, even the most celebrated ; and we
only mention the triumphal arches still existing at Rome, erected by the emperors
Titus, Scptimitis Sevenis, and Constantine, and the columns of Trajan and Antoninus
Marcus.

1. Among the most remarkable of the vases, is that now called the Wantkk mast. *'It is a
monument of (Grecian art, the production of Lyslppus, statuary to 'Alexander the Great. It was
dug up in Adrian's vitlat, at Tlvoli. »id was sent to England by Sir Wm. Hamilton in 1T74. It
Is of sculptured marMe adorned wttlT elegant figures in high reliefs vine leaves, tendrils, fruk
and stems, forining the rim and handles.'*— ** The Warwick vase is m /m( and dentn, incket in
diameter. In magnitude, form, and beauty of workmanship, it is the most remarkable vessel of
antiquity wtiirh we possess, in which the ancients used to mix their wine. It Is accordingly very
approprifitely adorned with spirited Bacchic masks*, and the handles have the appearance of
r'jies growing out of the vase and surroundiog it with their foliage.** Dr. iir«fli^Ar«y, speak*

is^n

■. iV

^^vfSJEms^IIiv^Ll '-ll^co..' ^^■MTirHIE'.

p. nr* RBMAIK8 OF ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. 895

tng of a vliit to a ** laperb abow-room of catlery, medals, vaies, Ice.," in Bi rm inf ham, lajn, ** The
moat imposing object was a stupendous bronte vast, a fne-simile of tbe narbU one, which we
afterwards saw in the gardens at Warwiclc castle. It will hold about two hundred gallons, and
the proprietor of this beautiful Imitation has refused ten thousand pound* for it.** It is said to

have cost five thousand pounds and six years' labor*. In 1836, a beautiful vase was found at

Alexandria, and came into the possession of the French consul ; it is said to resemble the War-
wick vHse so exactly that one must have been a copy of the other, and some have considered
the Alexandrian vase as the original*.— A cnlleclion of articles, which was sold in Paris in 183S,
as belonging to " the late French consul in Egypt,*' contained a «sm/< ^oaze vasty called in the
catalogue a fac-simile of the Warwick vase'.

Another celebrated monument of tbe same kind is that known by the name of tbe Lanti vass.
It was found in Adrian's villa at Tivoli, and whs formerly possessed by the Lanti family, but is
now at fVobum Jlhbsy (Eng.) the seat of the Duke of Bedfurd. It is of beautiful marble, and
nearly equal to the Warwick vase, being 6 feet and S Inches in dianteter, and 6 feet in height ;
its general form is the same, and Its bandies are constructed in a similar manner ; it is also
adorned with Bacchanalian masks*.

I Tlw Amer. Joum. afSeimee, by SiUmon, vol. nvi. p. 944. * IVtagtn, Works of Art, Ac. toL lii. {>. I6S, u dted ( 190.4.

s H. Uumflntif, Toor in Great Britaia, ke. l4«ir Tork, IRS. 2 toU. 12. toI. i. p. 198. — * Stmau, laeidcDts of Tnvtl in

EfTpl, ke. N. York, 1837. • Cf. IVaastn, u JaM cited abore. ■ Cf. aunt, Dncript. of Wob. akbejr, m ciud $ 191. 6.

Oa Kolpdind vmn, toe C. Aifonmi, Maniul* di mi oraammti eonpoBOiti la wrio do vaat Aalicbi ti di Marmo cbe di Bnaa^
ae. Rom. 1821. IM. !•!, 9d, aad 3d nib ia ooo.—Ed. Ckrkard, AoMrlMaae OriwbMclM Vaacnbildar, iMuptolctolkta ctnachcbcn
rmlor«. Beri. onmmaced IS39; Uth No. pab. 1841. ^^Mmt, Aatlqae VaMi, Altan^ ke. Load. 1838. 4.— CC (223.— Eq»-
ciafl7cf.§lT&

S. The column of TVajan was erected in the middle of the market of forum called by bis name.
Its height has been stated differently, 138 feet, and 144 feet; its diameter is about 12 feet at hoc
torn and ten at the top. It is incrusted with marble, on which the exploits of Trajan and bis
army, in Dacia particularly, are represented in bas-relief. On the top was a colossal statue of
the emperor with a scepter In his left hand, and in his right a hollow globe of gold, which is said
to have received bis ashes ; although Eutropius states (viii. 6) that tney were deposited under
tbe pillar. There were steps Inside for ascending to the top, with windows to admit the light.
—The triumphal column of Bonaparte at Paris is built after the model of Trajan's pillar ; it is
140 feet high and 13 In diameter at the base ; encompassed with brazen plates which were made
of cannon taken at the battles of film and Austerlitz and are covered with commemorative bas-
reliefs ; surmounted with a statue of Napoleon. The column ofJSntoninSt erected by the senate

after his death, is said to be 176 feet high. It has steps for ascending to its tops with windows.
The sculptures in relief upon it represent the military achievements of Marcus Aurelius An-
toninus among the Germans. His statue was placed upon the summit. The whole monument*
resembles that of Trajan, but is inferior to it.— One of the popes, Sextus V., absurdly caused sta-
tues of the apostles Peter and Paul to be placed on these columns.

The JSreh of TlUfis was erected in honor of his capture of Jerusalem. Among the bas-reliefb
on it are representations of the spoils of the temple, as borne In the triumphal procession ; e. g.
the incense vessels, the golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the Jubilee trumpets.
Thus, through the vanitv of a Roman conqueror, are trnnsinitied to ns models of the holy uten-
■ilss planned by the Divine Architect. A part of this procession is given in ourPlate XXX11I.
Fig. E. The Jtreh of Septimius Severus was erected in the beginning of the third century ; di-
rectly over the Fia Suera; consisting of a main arch in the center, and a smaller arch on each
9ide«; adorned with figiires in bas-relief commemorative of his victory over the Parthlans;
surmounted with equestrian statues. In our Plate IX. we have specimens of the sculpture ob
this monument ; for explanation of which see P. II. ^ 105.— >-The ^rcA of ConstAntint consista
also of three arches; tbe noblest monument of the kind; in fine preservation*. It has been
thought that this may be the arch erected In honor of Trajan, as the bas-reliefs appear to represent
chiefly his achievements. The represeniatinn of a sacrifice to Diana, given in Plate XX. is the
copy of a beautiful bas-relief on this arch ; see P. 111. ^ 331.

i Sea Bartcli, Colonaa IVaJaaa (with platca ia tblio, ezhibiliaf tba KolplarM on tha cslama).— & FUbnttt, Do CcriaBna Tm*

Jaaa SjralafBa. Rom. I8BS. UA. * An aagraviag of Uiia oolttBa aad of Trajan's abo aiay be mcb In Montfauum, Aatiq. ExpL

vol. Iv. plait c«ii. » Good oi^nTinci *n (ivta in B. Sdmnd, Da Spoliia Tampli HIaroaolyniitaai, ia Area Tiliaao eootpieaia.
ClrraJ. 1716. 4.— Tbe eat la our Plato XXXiabfrau CabntPi Did. CfaarlfaL ed. Frag. 203.-Bat ne ralrndkr, Ako, ke. eite4

4 948. a « Ea|n?iB«» of then three arehat are pton in UbiK/inioon, Aaliq. Bapl. voL It. ptetaa criii-cx. so died P. IL

««.9.(d).

3. A very interesting monnment of antlqnitv Is the bas-relief sometimes called tbe triumphal
murifies of jSurslius, delineated in oar Plate XLVI. ; a marble anaglyph described by Montfaucon
as existing in the Capitol at Rome. It is a representation of a sacrifice offered by Marcoa
Aurelius Antoninus, as is supposed, after his victory over the Marcomanni. The figure taken
fbr the emperor appears with a full beard, and draped in a toga, tbe corners of which are thrown
over bis head ; be is pouring wine or incense upon the flime kindled upon a tripod as an altar ;
a etmOlus stands by with the Incense-box ; another is playing upon a sort of tuba or trumpet ;
behind is the vietimarius, holding a bull with one band and an ax in the other. At the left of the
emperor is a Salius or priest of Mars, known by his cap with its apex formed into a long slender
cone, like a straight horn. Behind the emperor are three persons of rank, perhaps senators, one
of whom holds a roll or volume in his right hand. They stand in front of a splendid temple with
Corinthian columns, shown to be Jupiter's by the eagle on the pediment, probably that of Ju-
piter Capitolinus : on tbe ridge appear four horses, and at each-of tbe other angles two horses,
indicating possibly that eight were attached to the triumphal car in which the emperor rode.
On the top of the other edi^ce, adorned with Doric pilasters, two gladiators are represented as
fighting with lions and a third with a bull. Montfaucon remarks that nothing like this is else-
where represented ; yet he supposes it not to be a mere faney of the sculptor, but a commemo-
ration of an actual show made by the emperort.-^Another nne bas-relief is given In our Plata
XL v., representing* a sacrifice to Priapus ; explained in P. II. ( 01. S.— Many of the illostrations
introduced into this work are drawn (Vom sculptures in bas-relief^.

t Montfaucon, Antiq. Ezpl. Sup. vol. ii. p. 6B-79. • Montfiutean, Aaliq. Ezpl. vol. L p. STT. * Saeh, e ( an tbe npi»

■aMUioae in Plate XX. : the Dniidkal pricata, Plate ZXVIII. ; tbe ncrifloe (o Man, PUle XZIZ. ; Uie Dii Maaei, Plate XXXTL«
ain.ibe Sa|v Ptatai ^ 1ft. M. aOk 80 j ia the httar (PL 90} wt MO tbs Biuiw ia whkh oUvv wm adened with ledplai^

896 ABCHAOLOGT OF AKT«

MuriMMiMofKriplmdbtMvlMrtewtMMfandatlfararinMiudl^a^L toJMidUto #JbMtoMvciM|8AI.

Tin Ml nluBM boo tamps, kc» vUiM UtMOtmt ti i CmtMatri, te. MapL 17M.-€»laJiv> dagli AotteU MruMwM «k-

wtamtidilUdkeofwrtKcHtodlEraoluo. Nap. 1716. foL On fte nniM of bM4«U«r st Bona, a TalmMe wvk iilfat M-

lowi^ : Xi JaiftHvUtvi «aCicM « XoMOtbcM da r.l%«l^ coll* UlMliMiOBldi (31 Z^ Bom. I8CML S fd*. feL TVvMLiato
Owmu by !!«(*«•. OiMM, 1811.— W« may mmitiaa abo /. JNdtardwn, AeeoMl of Stilum, BwnlMt, ud Ketira, ia Italy,

fVuMite. Loud. I7S4. 8. Oa Ibo wbola ntdact, me ntoaem flwa i 1*1 ; ako nteaem ia ahitar*» Allf. Thcofta (dlad

1 147), uodsr iba aitide nadto aBM(nB»ft.

^ 169 ». Of the remains of MMaie, the most beautiful is that found at Tivoti, repre-
senting four doves around the rim of a vase (cf. % 220. 2). The largest is that called
the Mo$aic of Frcmestet having once been the floor of the Temple of Fortune in that
place. It represents an Egyptum festival. It is in the Palace Barberini, built upon the
ruins of the temple just named, in the village now called Palestrina*. Other works
of this kind have been discovered in modern times.

1. A remarkable epecimen of aaclent moaaic waa dlacovered at Seville In Spain, In 1790, and
la commonly called the Mosmie ef IiMea\ ** It extenda above fvrt^fttt in length by nearly f Atrfy
in breadth ; and containa a repreaentatlon of the Circua garoea In a parallelofram in the center,
three aidea of which are aurroanded by circular compartmenta containing poruaita of the Muses,
interaperaed with the Hgurea of animala and aome imaginary aubjecta."

A apecimen of moeatc, aaid to be very beautiftil*, waa found in a bouae in Pompeii It ia pre-
sented in our Plate XLIX. fig. ss. A CkoroAidaMMbu^ or maeter of the cborua, ia inatroetinff
Ilia actora in their parte, for a repreaentatlon in the theatre. He aita on a chair in the QktrtgkiKm^
or place devoted to ibeae preparatory leaaona, aurroanded bv performera. At bia feet on a atool,
and behind him on a pedeatal, are maaka, which appear to be in readineaa for him to diatrlbuts.
One of the actora baa received hia maak and placed it on the top of hia head and aeema to be,
with another actor at hia aide, liatening attentively to the teacher, while a third ia aaalaied by a
fourth In putting hia arma through the aleevea of a thick tunic. The two former have no clothing
•xcept a goat-akin about their loina. In the middle of the acene are two femalea ; one of them,
crowned with a wreath, la playing on the double flute, or perbapa tuning the inatrumenl. Beyond
Iheae flgurea appear the Ionic colurona of the portico, with garlanda hanging in featoona between
them. In the antique Itaelf appear alao (although not included In the drawing in the Plate), the
entablature and a aort of gallerv above it decorated with flgurea and vaaea.— A piece atill mors
remarkable waa dlacovered at Pompeii In 1831 ; auppoaed to repreacnt the battle of Itaua*.— The
moaaicB dlacovered at Pompeii are compoaed of very flne piecea of glaaa, and aeem to have been
made in a manner almilar to the modern Italian moaaica now ao celebrated.

%. The varioua remaina which have been preaerved clearly ahow that the ancienta bad at-
tained great perfection in thia form of image-work, which ia often included under poialiiyr* and
with more propriety becauae different colore are employed. Intereating ap^cimena are lodged ia
the British Muaeuni. In the Townley collection. It ia aaid, ia a ring containing in glaaa a re-
preaentatlon of a bird ao email aa not to be dialinctly visible without a magnifying glaaa. WvukO^
maun describee an antique', the whole %\i» of which la but one Inch in length by a third of an
Inch in breadth, and yet It containa in moealo the picture of a mallard (aapeciea of duck), which
in brlllancy of coloring and in dia^lnct repreaentatlon of parte, even of the winga and the faa-
thera, eqnala a miniature painting; and, to add what ia more remarkable, on being turned it
preaents the aame picture without a dlacoverable variation on the opposite aide.

1 .BWiiWtony, EapliMlioa da k Momiqiis da Pklmlriaa. Fhr. ITOa 4; a]«) la Iba Mtm^JtaA. hmr. «gL iii. |i. ttH^ViamM,

CtawfasioBi Ml diM M umid aatiebi Moriati. ftrm. I7S7. 4. wiib piaiak a AL * lotar^ MomivM dtlulka. Par. IMO. UL

wUh eolorad plalm, (caMaiDlaf likawim ao Emay oo Iba Mamie paialli« of Iba Aacimrtit. Tbia momk » aim glMs ia UibtHUt
Tafafa PHiormiiaa, ciiad SMLZ. (PI. Uu? . vol. U.) — * Ct OA, FtompaiaBa, ad Smfai, Plate >W. wbaia it b giwa la to art.

flMl colon. «JAi«oJUr«ofite.v»I.L 16-46. • iriwM)iMnn,HiMoiTa,*e. (m«ilad{M.4), vol. Lp 411 Oatbefmrn-

nl ral^ael, me /. Ciam^ini Valaia MoaaaMBli, ia qaiboi pnedpaa opaia imiHas lUartnaiar. Bean. lOao-SB. f voli. to.—
fwiMi Libar da MmlTia. Boa. ITU. 4. wttb platfiu-Owlt-ll, Obar dia Momik. Mafd. I7M. 4.-J. Bimi, DietioMrT (dtid

f 200), lAM<e.-n* VidU^ Bmai nr la PMnlara an Momlqua. Cepim of mvanl aatiqaa moaalea may ba man io Mmf/mimR, w

Jwt(;t89 Rfbmd ta,aBd in Sfuorf, aa eitad $ S34. a Soma momic panaMnk bava baea fsoad inEaftaad; maAnteokfte
(dtad \ az. 6), Tol. ixii. p. 40. For a notiea of tba modara art, Laritm*» Cabiaat Cfdop. ytL aa Araiain mi Olam.

$ 190. Many collections have been made of remains of ancient Sculptare.
The following are the most celebrated public collections.

1 tf. In Italy we find the greatest number and the roost valuable remains : partiai-
larly at Rome, the Vatican^ in which are the Muteo Clementino Bnd the Muieo Chia-'
ramotUi ; in the Mueeum of the Capitol ; in the Palaces Barberini, Mattei^ MoMsimi;
in the Villae Atbani, Ludovisi, PamfUi, and Medici : at Florenee, in the GaUery of the
Grand'duke and the Palace Pitli : at Naples j in the Royal Museum ; at Portici, in
ike Museum of Antiquities t where are collected the remains discovered at Hercula-
neum, Pompeii, and StabisB ; at Venice^ in the Fore-hall of St. Mark^s Library,

Daiyia rmpoeliait tba rollaefHM mantioead bara and bdow mayba dimwn hnm woria of Topopapby and Ttavab in fhamfani
coontrim ■parifledv— In radmnoa to Jloly. tba fonowiaff anlbon aad Imvalaia may be montiMiad : Ktymttrj rattiMjm, wllb Avw
MouOK't additioaa j Connt SUUrnrg ; MorgmiUm ; OpcAin, La Toyage PitlaraM|B0 d'Ifalia ; Aipafy, Lottrm aar PHalia^-^Alm,
XHHarn, Ckmical Tear tbro««b Italy. Lond. Sd ad. 1U& 4 f ola. 9.-Jolbuan (M. D.), Fbilompby of TravoliBC. BapnUlihad
tnm Ei«. ad. N. York, 18SI. &— teMrte at Antifuitki, Jrt«, #«. (duriaf aa azennkm ia Xialj, ia 1802 and ISO}. BapaMiikat
fimn Ens. ad. BoMm. 1818. a~CL ANn^ Mm. Na. xliv.-IT. FUV Tmvala, dtMl 1 188. a-JHtmrn^ Itar Italieam-Pablkaliaaa
af Om hutUtOo ii Carrmp. JnAaolefia, dtod P. UL 4 187. <«— a JAlAr. Bosm Campagna, ia Badobam aiif alto OamlucM^
DicbtaBi, nad KiibiL Lpa. 1884. B vda. a

2 ». In France^ the moat important collection of this kind is in the Royal Museum,
at Paris. This collection was greatly augmented after the French war in Italv, 1796-
by master-pieces of art brought from Rome and other cities of Italy, and from Notber-
4aiids and Germany. But on the victory of the allied powers over Bonaparte in iSlS,

p. nr. COLLECTIONS or ancibmt sculpture. 897

these plundered treasures were restored to the places whence they had been taken.
Nevertheless the collection m the Royal Museum is still one of the richest in Europe.

3 u. In Germany there is a collection at Vienna^ in the Imperial Museum, particu-
larly rich in Vases ; at Munich in the Antiquarian HaU {Aniikensaal, Antiquarium)
of tike Palace and the Glyptothek^ where are particularly noticeable the ^ginetan sculp-
ture8^ discovered in 1811, and afterwards purchased by the Crown-Prince of Bavaria;
4t Dresden, in what is called the Japanese Falace (a beautiful collection) ; [at Berlin,
in the Royal Museun?^ which now (1843) contains the statues and other antiques for-
merly kept] at Charlotienburg, in the Royal Mansion near Berlin, or at Sans-Souci,
in the edifice erected by Frederic II. of Prussia, by the name of Temple of Antiques,

The Royal Mustum at Berlin now contains KolUr*a collection of Vases from Campania and
other parts of Italy ; Bartoldiano^a collection of Antiques in Brome; severni smaller collections
made by diflTerent persons ; and a number of statues recently (18S0) procured ttom Italy*. It Is
called a splendid assemblage.

t Oa ihe JEciaatui muWo, m /. JIT. Wagner, Beridit fiber dl« XsinatiKhn Bildwtrfee in BMti Sr. KOo. BoMt da Kfrn.

prima voB Buam. (with raauik* bj SdmOmt). 8tatl«. 1817. & Of. tFUft Aulektea, voL il p. 187. • £ Otrkard, Km-

•rwOTbnw uitik* Dmkalkr da Koniglichn Mumoom n Bertin. Bnl. 1841. a-Ptow/ko, Tkmootlm dM KOniglicfaca Momwm

BD Berlin. B«ri. IMS. 4. For ollwr refewncM oa tbo oolledJOM ia Gennkajr, and aJw ia ottier oounlriet, Me Sutecr*! AU^

Tteorte, ac. VOL i. p. 181— Cf. 9 191. 8.

4 ». In England the chief is in the British Museum^ London, where are the valua-
ble monuments brought from Greece by Lord Elgin in 1814, and purchased by Par-
liament for the Museum.— -Interesting remains oi has-reliefs are seen in the Arundelian
collection at Oxford (cf. $ 91. 4). — Valuable works of ancient art are in possession of rich
individuals ; among the most distinguished are those belonging to the Duke of Pern-
hrohe's Collection.

When the storm of the French revolution burst over the different countries of Europe, the
general distress and the insecurity of property brought into marlcet an immense number of works
of art, which bad for centuries adorned the churches, or the palaces of the great. Of these,
England found the means to obtain the most and the best. — The British Muaaum now contains
a various and splendid collection, to preserve which a new edifice of spacious dimensions was
commenced in 18S3. — Among the most Important monuments of sculpture here deposited, are
those designated as the El^n Marbles. In 1779, I^ord Elgin went as ambassador extraordinary
to Constantinople. He took with him several artists and settled them at Athens for Ihe purpose
of making plans of the ancient edifices and casts of the most important works of sculpture.
These ariisls saw the destruction dally committed on the existing monuments by travelers and
by the Turks. The finest statues, some of those supposed to be the workmanship of Phidias,
were pounded to pieces by the Turks and burnt to make lime. A whole temple had disappeared
in the lapee of a few years. Lord Elgin is said to have been influenced* by these facts to resolve
on saving to the world some portion of the still existing remains. As the English government
was now In great fhvor with the Turkish government, in consequence of the eminent services
rendered by the former to the latter in the defeat of Bonaparte in Egypt, the ambassador easily
procured from the Bultan two Jirmans, which secured tb him free access to the Acropolis or
Athens, with authority to make plans or casts, and to remove what he might think proper. Lord
Elgin removed nearly all the statues from the pediments of the Parthenon, fifteen metopes, and
three sides of the bas-reliefs which ran around the celta of the temple as a frieze, and also many
other works. Only a part of what he collected ever reached England, the rest being lost at sea.
Those now In the British Museum have been considered as superior to all the antique sculptures
before discovered.— I'his Museum contains also the Phigallan Marbles*^ purchased at great ex-
pense. The collection bearing the name of Charles Townlejf is also now a main ornament of

the Museum. Besides the works of sculpture, among which are a number of interesting Greek
busts, it is rich in ve»»e\aof terracotta.— Hamilton's collection of sculptured vases (cf. ^ 173) also
belongs to the Museum ; and Payne KnighCs collection of bronzes.— The Museum now possesses

also a great number of Egyptian monuments; among them, the collection of Mr. SaU. Some

jmoau eolUuions, besides that mentioned above by the author, ought perhaps to be named here ;
as that at Bolkam House, the seat of (Mr. Coke now, 1839,) the Earl of Leicester ; that at Wohnr%
Jibhsf, the seat of the Duke of Bedford ; that of the Duke of Devonshire ; and that of Sir R.
IForslsf (who was minister at Venice, 1785-87), at .apiMereombe House in the Isle of Wight.

* Sm Memorandum on (At Eari of StginU PurmiU in Qmts. Lond. 181 1. &— latomio, u cited ^ 191. &— Kueonli, II*.
■oire rar l« Ouvraga d« Sculpture du Pirthenon. Load. 1 8t&— Lond. (tuart. Bat. iiv. 618.— <}Mafr. d* Quteey, Lett to Caoora

Ok (he Elfin Marb. in Quart. Journal ofSdmet, lAteratun, andJtrt, tol. vii. * Wagner, aleo XadtObng, m cited ) 179. &—

lArvy of Bra XnowL m cited § 19). 6. — On the oolleelioHi.lii fieglaad: O. F. Waogtn, Woritt of Art ia England. TmuL
ftwia«rm. by H. M Loyd. Lood. 1838. S fob. 19.

5. Scarcely any of the genuine remains of ancient art have been brought to our own country.
But copies and casts in plaster have, to some extent, been employed as substitutes, and may
be of great service. The Boston ^theneum has a few bas-reliefs, busts, and other antiques. It
has also, in plaster or marble, copies of some of the most valued monuments of ancient statuary t
the Laocoon^ JSpotlo Belvedere^ Fenus ie Medici, The Torso, .antineus, Qladiator Borghese, 4be.

Sr. Bass, as cited $ 139. 1.)— The Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia has likewise some aa-
ues and a number of copies of celebrated pieces. Cf. Fissenden*s Register of Arts.

^ 191 «. In order to give those, who cannot visit in person these remains of ancient
art, some visible representation of them, drawings and plates have been published,
which are usually accompanied with descriptions and critical remarks. We will here
name some of the principal of these works, m addition to such as have been already
mentioned.

1. Work* or a ffnoai chandar, mofe or Urn astaBsim— P. S. Bartdbte, Adainuida Bonumum ABtiqaliatuaa ac foteria Snip
tsm Vcrtigia, deliiMala (cub noLLP, JkOariii. Bom. ICSa M.—Domeiu U Boui, BaacoUa di WbIim aatichs e nodaiBC^ ool.,

2 L

2)98 ARCHJSOLOOT OF ART.

qsriliaDl di Paah JBmamdn Maf^. Bom. 1704. fcl.— Oorff Mamm EmMcnn. Flor. 1737. S tob. tdi.^CamU (fa Ca^Bw,
BmohI da Astiqaitii E«7pli«uin. EtnaqiMik Gkc^m, d BonMiac*. Fte. 1762-67. 7 volt. 4. commended by AftUlor.— Gtcv.
fTuMteJiiMmi, MoB«mnti anticbi Incditi, ipicfali ad illmtrati. Bom. 1787. 8 vols. Ibl.— /rincU/mmn, Allc DrnkmAkr d«r
KuML Tnml. into Oerm. from iUL bjr Jinmfi. Bcrl. VM. 2 volt lU .->■/'. J. Daaid, Astiquildt ElnH^OM, Ore«}ua, M Ro*
miatact. Pir 1787. 6 vob. 4. Cf. /. J. Domd; Aa«k|aiidi d HmeaUDiim. tu. I78D-I«n. 12 «olt. 4.-A work nakad amoa;
tte bat of llM ■mailer (eiwrtl eeUflrtiow h, /. /. Pnuter, !lut«m Aotiqga art iBcia*. del. ab Bdm. Souehmrdan, Iforimb I79Z.
M.— Wa add here, £d. Dedwtl, Alcunl Ba«iraiwvi ddl Greda, ke. Bom. 1812. fol.--J. MiButfm, Aacieal Caeditad Moiw
mtata ; rrom the rniacipal eOHeclkmi h varioot coaBlriaa, bat priocipally in Grant Brif tin. Load. IBdB. 4.— £«Mrm«tf, Miwea
det AD<iqai«6» Egyptienaet, oa Baeucil daa Mnamau Bgyplleaiica, Arcbilectuiv, SiAtuura, Gljptiqiw, at Mature : Commaaoed
Tw. 1688, to be eomplalad ia 10 UTrai«OBa,>-0. Ctimttrland^ OBrtinM from tba AncieBta, eibibiting their Priaeiplca o( Cituitm-
tiOB IB Fifvrm and BMto^Beliavaa; chiefly fiom iaeditad MomuneDit , with an iDtrod Estay. Lond. 1830. 4.

8. Baiatiag mora partiealariy to ranaiBt praawiid in Italy — Jfvmiam Capitelinum. F*t. BoUari, Fofgidi, tt GuenL
Rom. I7aO-88. 4 volt, fot II Mumo Capitolino.— Manim Flortntinum. Com okaerv. J. F. OoriL rior. 1731-42. 6 volt.
M. Tbe Sd vol. it 00 ■tatacb— 4. M. ZmmUi, Baceol'A dclla laliehe ttaiue naU' AntiuU della Ubrwia di S. Mwco illoatr. Vro.
1740-4a. 2 volt. foL^BarLauU, Let plm baaiu MooumeBli da Rnme mac. Ac. Par. 1702. foL-ATo'.ffa, Tabteaox, Stttim, Baa-
nUeft, el Camdca dt U Galerio da Flomice et do Palak Pilti, dawnm par AT. fVioar, Ac. Farit (cbes Laeombt^ ad. de I*<iuvragc),
1T8B. UA^n Mumo Pio-Cltmtnt ino, daacritio da Giomo. (ad. Eaa. Quir.) Fiiconti Bom. i7i3-l80r7. 7 vob M. (C(.
QpMn di £ Q. FiMimfi. Mil. 1818. 4.)— JZMuao Ckiaramouti, aofuato «1 Pio ClemeatiDo, eon Dk-hiuiooc ii Jnt,/liU>ft

Ac. Rom. 1737. 2 voh. M.—C. JnUmmi, Vul Aaticbi, aMileati aal Mumo Pio-^lamenliao. Rom. IMI. fot. On moQiimnla

In tba Ruyal Mumum at NapUt, ma Finati, £. GvAord, Ac. at eitad § 212.

3. Bataiioc to rcmaiM in OennaBy.— L. 0r(v, Tbamarua BrandaburKieiia aalcdat, Colon. March. I696-i7DI. 8 vob fcl—
DeacriptioB dm Slatwa, Bnafm at Damtbntaa, qui fonWBl le coltactioa du n.d»Pr.ke. Bert. 1774. •-4.1. Kritfr. Aatiqailfe
tfam U Collectiaa de Sam Bouef, Ac Pram. P&rt Bed. I78B iol. Sac. Part. Daotz. 1772. feL-FT. JbaUtf «l B. Martini Da-
acripdo Mmai FruMiaBi. Lipt. 1781. 8.~ir. G. Adkcr. AafnatcBm, Dr«adeB>k aattka Denkmller cmhalteal L|«. 1804-11.
atola. fol-CC rVatrur, QarharA, Fom;^ Mcitad S lNLa>

4. Bamalni in rraaea.— Gakric du Mutit NapoUon, (poblife par niAol et r«!isda par LavoOm. Pkr. 1802-15. 10 voh. &
-^London Oelerie complete da Matte NapoUon. Par. 64 livmlioM. 4—4. Lmabr, Detcriptino hialariqaa et critjqoe dm rtatpet,
b«>Klieft, Ac. da Muide BoyaL F^. 1800. 8. Theve ia an Ei«liab tfamlation of aa earlier editioa of thia, by /. GWJWbb Vu.
intb 8.—P. BouiUan, Muate dm Anttqaea, Ac. Pkr. 1880. 8 volt, fol.— £. Q. KiNond and / B. Bmmc-Daaid, Le Matda
r'ra D c a i a ; Recucil conplat dm Tkblmio, SUtoet, el Bat-raliefc, qui eou.pamnt la Collection natioaaie, Ac (paMide par £oM-
tarrf PtranaOU et Launmi.) Far. I80S-9L 4 volt^ foi. VoL 4lh conlaina aBcicnl alatuct, vrith aplanationt.— La Maade
Ko y al e ; Bacoeil dm Gravnra, d^Mirm In plm bmai Tableau, Sttlaea, el Bat-relich de la CollaclioD royal, Ac (poblie par H.
LaunnU.) Par. 18l»-l8. 8 vola. bl. This it a coatiniutioa et the preoedin( { tbey an deaipiated m \U Strim and 9d Strvm.—
A4wl-AieMlc, Monumento Inedita d'Antiquild flgurta, Ac Ptt. 1888-0. i vola. Ibl.— FiKetifi and Jh Oanc, DeKripliaa dea
Antiqom da Minfa BoyaL Par. ICBO. &

6. Bemaim pnterved ia Easbnd.— J. JEmfurfy. A Dmcrlptioi of tbe Aatiqvitim aad CurieMtim in WStm Bomm, illottratel
witb twenty-Ave engraviBca of the CapiUl SUIoea, Bodoa, aad Bdievoa. Salbb. 17601 4.-5AjA«by. u dU P. 111. 1 197 4.-A«cA-
flridmn, JEdm Pembrorhuaa, or a Critical Aeemint af tba Statuea, kc at Wilton Houtc Load. 1774. &— Qr. HatO, Omeriptnp
of tbe Wotfum JUmg Maibbc ImA. 1822. fol.— 5!p«dment o/ Jndtnt aadptun, Agyptian, ElroMSia, Gnek, and Bomaa,
aaleeted from colleetiooi ia Grtel BriUin, by the Sodety of Dilettaatl. Load. 1800. imp. fei 7S pbtaa.— JTMaeim WvOtf.
omifiif a eoilaclloB of antique Batao-rdievoa, Bottoi, Slitoet, etc. Load. 1704. Iol. ; « a maffnifleeni work" (Dr. JVaagm). alto
LoBl. 1824. 2 vob. Col.^r. and 4. JtynudyA, Momam Britanaieam. Load. 1778. ful.— il. Lawmtie, Elgta MaiUm flmm tbe
nnbenon. Lond. 1818. foL^Codbrin, Aadeat Mari>lm of the Brllbh Muanim. Load. IMO— Joi-rdia/* dv fvlAmen <f dm,
l^mpU d» FhigaUa gnria par Im proeddda de M. A. Coilaa. toot b directioa do M. P. Ddarvdta. Par. 1841. A.—Ubrary of Eh-
tmtaining Knmeitdft; wvanl voloatm an deroied to the Britith Mumum j volt. 86^ 87, the Elgin aad Pblfalian Maiblct; vota.
88, 80, Townley Gallery ; vola. 88, 88, Ecyptbn ABtiqailba.

0. Ob tba tabject oT tcalptura generally, we add the fotlowiag :— DiUatMiy'f SUtoaiy and Scnlptm of tba AaeiaHb. B— #Ib9'
mamfn Laetarca on Scalplora. Load. 1880. B witb pbtet..-CeaBuU alte JTrite, Ilaadbodi d. Fbild. Bdelmikimd^ voL iL ^ W.
-*<lMr% AUf. Thaoria^ VOL i. p. in^ 41«^£ a MlUbr, ArcbMosie, Ac aa died i 82. 4.

IL— -Xt'Mog/yp&y, or Engraving on Germ,

§ 192. Engraving upon such materials as metals, ivory, shells, crystals, and
gems, is a particular application of the general art of image-work. It is done
either by elevating the figures above the surface of the material used, or by
depressing them below. Gems, or precious stones (xt9o», gemmm)^ are rocNBt
commonly employed for this purpose, and the art has thence been called Litho-
glyphy (XtdoyXv^ica). As the engraved stones were very frequently inserted in
rings for the fingers, the art was also termed by the Greeks daxfvXiOYXv^ba. —
The great variety of objects represented by it, the beauty and perfection of the
workmanship, and the extensive utility of it in relation to literature, render this
art particularly worthy of notice.

Baa Batui't Allgeau Tbeede, Ac voL ii. p. 808.

$ 193. At a very early period, probably (cf. §§ 199, 200), men became ac-
quainted with gems, and in the same wav it is likely as with metals, by the
subversion or abrasion of the soil in which they existed. Even the imperfect
luster of the rude gem might attract attention, and accident might first suggest

PLATE XLVII

400 ARCHJBOLOOY OF ART.

the idea of inereaslDg the luster by friction. It needed iMit a glance at a frao-
tured gem to perceive that it would be rendered brighter and more beautiful by
removing the exterior surface or roughness. This was perhaps originally done
by rubbing two stones together ; since, as is known, almost every precious stone
may be polished by its own powder.

^ 194 tf. A particular knowledge of the nature, formation, and divisions of the pre*
cious stones belongs properly to the naturalist. Yet the artist and amateur cannot
wholly dispense with this knowledge in order that they may judge oi the real sub-
stance of gems, although the design and execution of the engravings are their princi-
§al object of attention. — As to the classification of gems, the mineralogical systems
ifier in principles ; some distinguishing the stones by their elementarv parts ; others,
by their degree of densitv and transparency, or by their colors. Tne two latter
methods are not sufficiently exact, as they are not based on essential and exclusive
characteristics. — Hardness, luster, transparency, and beauty of color, are the most im-
portant peculiarities and recommendations of a gem.

See F. a. BrUdmmH Abtaadlm^ tod Edalrtalomi. Bnomcbw. 1171. S. and BtitrBg* to th* mb*. BnuiiMhw. 1771. tad I78SL

For a fiflw oT (he natur* of lamit tei F. 5. Beudantt Traltf eleai«a(. de Mlncralocts. P»r. 1630. *ot. i. p. 7(M. Of. IN»>

tfawDoira claHiqoe d'Hutoirc NatBrtlle, par Jtutoum, Ac. Pkr 1839. ton* iii. p. 642.— ifeiM, TmliM on Prtcinoi Stoan. Load.
1813. K. witb colond pUlM.— X. FmcMiMUifcr, TmtlM oo GcaM, Ac. a Guide for tlw Upidary, Artut, Analnir, ftc N. Tork,
1838. a

$ 195. Without going into a full enumeration of all the kinds of precioas
stones, we shall mention those which are worthy of notice on account of their
use in lythoglyphy.

1 u. The Diamond (dSdftaf^ adamaf), with the ancients, held the first rank amon|r
precious stones, on account of its brilliancy, hardness, and trnnspnrencv. Yet it is
not certain that they employed it for engraving. Even the polishing of it seems to
have been unknown to them, or the art was lost and discovered again about 1467 by
Louis de Berguen of Brixen.

The Buby {voptn^, carbunculus) approaches the diamond in hardness, and often sur-
passes it in luster. The Romans named different varieties of this gem, rubacellus,
palassiug, spinellus. Pliny (xxxvii. 29) mentions lychnis as a sort of ruby.

The Emerald probably had its name {smarofrdus, c^tapayioi derived from /rapn0v&>) from
its peculiar gloss. On account of its beautiful green, both agreeable and salutary to
the eyes of the artist, it was frequently used in liihoglyphy. The ancients seem to
have included under the term ftnaragdus all ^ems of a green color, and especially the
dark beryl, called by jewelers the aouamanne. The smaragdites was merely a va-
riety of green marble, which, although often called smaragdus', must be distinguished
from the emerald.

The Sapphire {crartftetpoi, sapphirwf, also Kvaydf, qfanug), of a beautiful sky-blue color,
was esteemed nearly equal to the diamond. That, which had mingled with it tinges
of gold, was called chrysoprase (xp^v&rrpccof).

The name of Beryl (jBfipvWoi^ berylluf) was given to all transparent stones of a pale
or sea green. The Chrysoberyl was of a yellowish hue.

The Jacinth or Hyacinth {iaKivOoi) is of a deep red, often an orange color. The stone
of violet hue, to which the ancients gave also the same name, seems to have been
rather a species of amethyst.

The Ameihyt {dfiBwrvs), violet colored in different degrees and shades, was much
sought for by ancient artists. One variety of it was held in particular estimation ;
that which they termed vaioipois. or curepwj, and the gem of Venus (semma Veneris).

The Agate {dxarns) received its name from the river Achates in Sicily, where the
stone was first found. Agates' are of various shades in transparency and color. The
agate-onyx, with a white surface and another color beneath, was often employed for
engraving in relief, the surface of the stone being used for the figure. There are
numerous sorts.

The Camelian is so called from its color resembling that of flesh (camis). It be-
longs to the class of agates. It was very frequently used for purposes of engraving*,
on account of the ease with which it could be wrought.

The Sardine or Sardius (aSpitPos, vapinK, sarda) is likewise red and of the same kind
as the camelian. It is used for seals and signets very much, because it is so readily
detached from the wax. The term sarda was a common name for every kind of
camelian.

The Opal ((JiraXXior. opalus) is ordinarily white, but occurs with other colors. It was
much esteemed^ by the ancients.

The Jasper (Jtums, iaspis) presents various colors, red, ereen. brown, gray, which
sometimes appear simple, and sometimes mingled. For lithoglyphy the latter kind
was preferred, particularly that with red spots upon a green ground, which was dao
called heliotropia.

The Onyx (oyvf) took iu name from its whitish red color resembling the nails of the

p. IT. OEMS USED IN LITHOOLTPHY. 401

hand. That which preoentB veins of red was termed Sardotiyx. A kind of marble
of similar color was also termed onyx or Onychitis, and likewise Alabastrites.

The Crystal (r/w^raXXof , ert/stallus) was so called from its resemblance in form to
ice (<pw>f, KpvrrdotY AncioHi artists made use of it both in lithoglyphy, and for drink-
ing vessels on which devices were to be sculptured.

1 Pliny RpeaKk of many varieties of the Emerald. The real fern was hUhly prized. When
the rich Lucullus visittfd Alexandria, Ptolemy is said to have presented to him an emerald bear*
ing on h an engraved lUcnm^sa of the king (if Egypt ; and this was considered as the most va-
luable prcst'nt which could be made. But, when it is stated that the hall of Ahasaerus was
paved with emerald; that a temple of Hercules was adorned with pillars of emerald ; and that
whole statues wpre cut in emerald ; the maragdites, or some variety of marble, must be meant.

Gems of emerald have been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. ^ Jigaten seem to have been

frequently used for vases; some beautiful vases of this stone are preserved in the collections at
Dresden and Hrunswicli. If a stone presented twu cnlnrs. so that the raised fivure could be of a
color different from the rosi of the tmrfate, it wns specially valued. Very fine specimens of such

engraved stones are preserved in the Royal Museum at Paris. • The Carinc/ian, and the stones

included under the namos of Jfgate and Onyx, seem to have been the ones most commonly used

in forming eam««« (cf. i 1&6). Many very Ane specimens are preserved in the public collections.

« ** Nonius, a Roman senator, pos^esced an Opal of extraordinary beauty valued at JC160,0C0;
rather than part with which to Mark Antony, he chose to suffer exilt:. He fled to Egypt ; and
there, It was supposed, secreted his gem ;" and it was never more heard of until, in modern
times, a Frenchman by the name of Koboly pretended to have found it amidst the ruins of
Alexandria. Only a few engraved specimens are found in the collections.

2 tt. In reference to the accounts given of precious stones by ancient writers, par-
ticularly by Pliny, the 37th book of whose Natural History is devoted to this topic, it
ma0t not be forgotten that the names and characteristics tlierpin siven do not always
belong to the stones which bear those names in modem science. Many of the ancient
gems must be distinguished from such as have the same names now, but diiferent cha-
racteristics. The smallest points of variance were sufficient with the ancients to
secure to a precious stone a new name.

8n £. dk iMtnayH Tkbieia d* Compsniwn de la Minenlofie da Aocicn arec eetla dw ModanM*, in hk Mmtralogi* da
JhteitHM. Rtbs. tt-OO. 2 volt. 12.— JIT. /. Mirn, Ascienl Mioenlofj, or Inquiry rtspecttDg Ibe minnftl MibilaBCM nrationed by
the«iid«Bto| ac N. York, I8S4. 12. eooniModad in aiUimanU Journal oT Science, toL xstiii. p. 188.

3. Several precious stones are enumerated in Exodus (zxviii. 17 — 20); by the
Sept. thus: adfioio^f Ttnt&^iov, <rfiap.i ytJoj, divOpa^, cuTT^ipog, loovi;, Xiyvptov, dxarrKf (tfieflwrtf,
Xfiw^tOoi, finpvWtoVf dyvxjMv, I'he list in Rev. zxi. contains also xi^^^^v, eapiCyv^, x^.

Se^ BpipfmHitu, d« xii. G«ninii, Ac. on the xii. |ens in tbs tovastphte of Airoo, la his Oftra. Colon. 1488. 2 Tolt. bi.-«lio hi
Owimr. De fcailium gmere, cited P. V. § S6B.

4. Some have included among the gems the Mnrra or murrliinvm. mentioned by
Pliny, of which were n^ade the vessels {vasa tnurrina) so much valued by the Ro-
mans. But as to the nature of this substance there have been many conjectures, of
which the most probable seems to be, that it was a kind of porcelain ; in favor of this
view, a passnwe is quoted from Propertius {El. iv. v. 2<>), where he speaks of murrhine
cups as baked or burnt {murrea vocula coda). " The vnscs were m such esteem at
Rome, in the first ages of the Christian era, that two of them were bought by one of
the emperors at the price of 300 scstertium, more than £'2000 sterling each. A cup
capable of holding three seztarii was sold for seventy talents ; and a dish for three
hundred ; a talent being equal to JCISO English."

Saiimm*! Atrtt. Joaro. of Srtenee and AH. toI. ii*i. p. 236.— S^ Oraf von Vtttheim. Abhandlaw; Qber die Vm narriiML
ReiOMt. 1791. a— OurMI. aa eitrd § 2iX 9.—Roloff, Qbor die marriniKben GetXmt der Altcn, in Ibe Mtuntm dtr AUtrthwrmo.
by Weif and Buitmann (Rd. iLy—launay, Mineral, dea Ancieos, abore eitrd, vol. i. p. K.—Le Btoud and Laiehtr, Vn Vaaca
avrhinca, Mem. Acad. huer. vol. xiiii. p 217, 23a— Afonfo, S«r \m v^aoa miurhins JCm. it PbutiL Claaaedelil.et Ama
JrtV, VOL H. p, m.-CL aa$$. Joum. i. 242.

5. The substance called alahasttr (dH^aerpoi) was employed by the ancients as the material
for their unfrnentary vases, or the vessels for holding precious perftimes and ointments. Hence
the term dXaOavrpop came to be used aa a common nan)e for a vase or bottle desifcned fbr thik
purpose (cf. Matt. xxvi. 7), of whatever it might be formed, whether of alabaster, gold, glass, or
ether material. The alabaster of the ancients was, according to Dr. CInrke, carbonnted time, and
precisely the substance which forms the stalactites in the famous grotto of Antiparoa.

SnE.D. aar1tt>$ Trerela, vol. iii. p. 275, ed. N. York, 1S1&.

•. The fearl (napyi^pU^ paoyapinjf, ptapyapFrif, mnrforiia) was valned very highly by the
ancients; penris being ranlted by them among the most costly Jeweisi. "Julias riesar pre-
sented^ Servilia, the mother of Brutus, with a poarl, for which he paid a sum cqnal to 48.457
pounds " '• A pearl which Pliny valued at ^375,000 of our present inon«»y», Cleopjitra is said to
have dissolved at a banquet, and drnnk offto Antony's health." Natural pearls are "calcareoni
excrescences found as well in the bodies as in the shells of several kinds of crustareous fish."
What is now called molkerof pearl or Aacrs, is " tho inner part of the shell of the pearl-oyster
or pearl-mii«cle." The Romans received their pearls by comm<>rcp from the east, where ihev
were procured bv diving in the waters of the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean
near Ceylon or Taprobana. The ancients seem not to have known any of the modern ways of
producing arf^cMZ pearla ; yet, it is said, there was a method of hat>tening the natural forma-
tion ; according to a curious passage in the biosraphy of Apollonius by Philostratus, the Arabs
on the shores of the Red Sea *' dived in those spou where they knew the flab were to be found,
51 2l3

402 ARCH^OLOOT OF ART.

and entieed them to open their >hel1> by rubbing them with some Icind of ointment at a bait;
which having effected, they priclced them with a Rharp inMrument, having first placed near them
a verael hollowed out In varlotia placet into the form of pearls, into which molds the liquor
which flowed from the wounds was received, and timers hardened into the shape, culor, aad ecu-
sistence of the native gems."

t BKkmann'i Hist of lanat Abridf. LomL 1823. vol. iL p. 838. • BitL Btpm. Sw. S«. It. SI « Bnt^eUp. Jtma,

LLS7I.

$ 196. The fig^ures on gems were formed either in depression below the sur-
face, or in relief above. Engraved gems of the first kind were called, by the
ancients, rxQoi. dtoYXv^roe., gtmmx dictglyphicm^ inteulptm. Those of the other
kind were called uBoi ww^vitto^, gemma: eett/pasj anaglyphiess, exMulptx. The
moderns also apply distinguishing terms to the two kinds : gems with figures
cut below the surface are called intaglioii gems with figures in relief above the
surface are called cameos,

1 11. Where the figure is formed below the surface of the gem, the depression is of
different degrees, according to the perspective. Sometimes the surface of the gem
receives a swelling form like that of a shield, to enable the artist to express the pro-
minent parts more naturally and without curtailment and preserve a more accurate
perspective.

2u. The word cameo was formed, it may be, from the union of two words, viz.

Smma onychia^ as it originally was applied only to gems of onyx having two colors,
e figure in relief being formed of tne upper color, and the other appearing in the
Sound. Or it ma^ have come fi-om the name of a shell, Came, which is found on
e coast of Trapani in Sicily, and which has various figures on it in a sort of relief.

9m J. D.FiortOo,AUti. Qbtr dai Wort Cwao, in hk Kkin.8dirijt. mtMaehm MhoUfc

$ 197. The objects represented upon engraved gems are very various. Oflen
the figures transmit and preserve the memory of particular persons, remarkable
events, civil and religious rites and customs, or other matters worthy of notice.
Sometimes the whole is an arbitrary device of the artist, combining and exhibit-
ing mythical, allegorical, and imaginary objects. Frequently we find merely
heads, of gods, heroes or distinguished personages; either singly, or one af\er
another {capita jugata) ,• or facin? each other {adverad) ,• or turned the opposite
way (^aversa). The heads usually appear in profile. In discovering and ex-
plaining the design, it is useful to compare the pieces with coins and with other
gems.

$ 198. Upon many gems are found figures in full length, either single ot
grouped. There are, tor example, full figures of gods, with various costumes
and appendages. Frequently, mythical and allegorical representations are
united. In many cases, the engravings illustrate points of history and antiqui-
ties. Festivals, sacrifices, bacchanals, feats in hunting and the like, are often
presented. There are gems also with inscriptions, which usually give the
name of the artist, but not with certainty, because the inscription is so often
made subsequently to the time of the engraving. Some gems also bear in large
letters the names of the persons who caused them to be engraved. Occasion-
ally the inscription contains the words of some sacred or tfotioe formula ; scarcely
ever an explanation of the subject represented.

8m Fr. cb Fieonmi, Gauna utiqaa litasta. Bflm. 17B7. 4.

Particniar gems were considered as peculiarly appropriate to certain gods ; e. g. representa-
tions of Bacchus were specially common on the amethyst having the color of wine ; Neptune
and the nymphs were executed in aquamarine having the greenish color of water.— In Plate
XLVII. fig. 5, and 6, we have specimens of whole figures engraved on gems. In fig. 5. Dffdalus
is seen sitting on a block and fabricating a wing which rests on a trip<^ ; it is curious that he
seems to be working with a mallet. In fig. 0, Cupid is sitting on a shell, and playing with a
butterfly ; the oval ring in the fig. shows the actual size of the beautiful gem here exhibited.
This may be an allegorical device, as the butterfly was regarded by the ancients as an emblem
of the soul. H^inckelmann gives an antique»in which a philosopher is looking contemplatively
upon a human skull with a butterfly on the crown of it, supposed to represent Plato meditatin<r
on the immortality nf the soul. So in the gem here exhibited, the artist may have designed to
Intimate the influence of love upon the «ou{, or to remind the observer of the allegory of jeroy and

Psycke (cf. P. 11. $50). In figs. 7, and 8, we have a Htrmt* and a Hermeraelet, as engraved on

gems. In fig. 1, is a mythological representation : Harpocrafes, the god of silence, sits on a lotos
flower, holding in his leA hand a scourge {ftagellnm), instead of the horn of plenty, which more
commonly he hold8,andplacingthefore-fingerof his right hand upon his lips; on one side of him
to the sun, and the moon on the other; on his head he has a vessel of some sort instead of a
crown.— In Plate XIV. fig. S, the goddess Nox Is given as represented on a gem. The represen-
tationn of Nemesis in Plate XXXVI. are also from engraved gems ; as are likewtop the figures
of Justice, Castor and Pollux, and Anubis, In the Sup. Plates 18, 21, ST.

p. TV, OEM-ENORAVINO OF THE EOTPTIANS. 409

$ 199. The history of ttiis art has its differemt periods, and principal chants
and characterietics in reference to origin, progress, and decline, in common with
sculpture or image-work in general. Like sculpture, it depends much on de-
sign; its advancement is afifected by the same causes as that of sculpture; so
also is its decline; its progress, likewise, presents the same varieties of style,
the rude, the more cultivated, and the elegant. It is probable, that soon after
the discovery of precious stones men began to etch upon them, at first, perhaps
mere characters or simple signs. The Bible gives the earliest notices of the
art, in the precious stones of the Ephod and the Breastplate of Aaron, on which
were inscribed the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. Gems and precious
stones are spoken of at a still earlier period.

Cf. \ 195. a.-See Oen. ti. 12. Job ttviii. 6, 10, I9l Cooip. Liv. utL L—J. /. HtBcnmann, Die Orim nod Tbanmiiii, di« Utm-
In GtmaMD. B«rL 18t4. 8.— fkMiim, D« Gcmmh woiptJi Hshnsonin, in Uw OommtnL jte. Gctt. vol. iL

$ 200. The Israelites without doubt derived the art from the Egyptians,
among whom it had been long known, and had been promoted by their super-
stitious ideas respecting the wonderful efficacy of such stones in the preserva-
tion of health. In this view they were marked with hieroglyphic characters,
and used as talismans, or amulets.

1 ». Many of these stones yet exist, especially of a convex form like that of the
beetle, termed Scarabmi (jcApa^) ; however, many of ihem were wrought at a later
period, after the time of Christ, to which more recent class belong also those called
by the name of Abraxcis.

2. Great numbers of the gems called by this name are preserved in the cabinets of
Europe. The word Abraxas, being interpreted according to the numerical force of its
corresponding Greek letiers, a0pajaf, would signify 365, the number of days in the
year. It is said to have been fabricated by Basilidcs, who maintained that there were
so many heavens ; or by some of the sect called Gnostics. The engraved stones
designated by this name are supposed to have proceeded from the followers of this sect,
and to have been designed as a sort of amulets or talismans. The word Ahrajaa is
also explained as having been formed by combining the initials of the following words ;
an, Father ; », Son ; nn, Spirit ; nnK, One (i. e. one God) ; XpKniJj, Christ ; "AvSpoi-

r " ~ T V

vof, Man ; Ton-np, Savior: thus havinff an origin similar to that of the mystical name
'Jx06s, composed of the initials of the following words, 'Irjovvf Xpurr^ eeov 'Xtdi, Zoirj^.

Montfaueon divides the (rem> called Jibraxas Into tevRn clasnefl : 1. ibo«e with the head of a
cock uiiially joined to a human trunk with the legs ending in two serpents ; *i. those with the
bead or body of a lion, having often the Inscription Mitfims ,* 3. those tiavins the inscription or
the figure SerapU; 4. those having jfxafris, or scarabci, serpents, or spbinies; 5. those having
human figures with or without wings; 6. those having inscriptions without figures; 7. those
having unusual or monstrous figures. The term Mraxas, sometimes written Jtbra^ax, is found
only nn a few. A specimen of the first class is given in our illustrations, Plate XLVII. fig. 2.
The imare engmved has the body and arn>s of a man ; in the right hand is held a round shield ;
in the left \he pk^ellum ; the head Is thnt of a cock with a crest, and the legs assume the form of
serpents. It brars the inscription I A LfU, i a co, which is commonly found on these stones, on the
shield or on some other part ; this may be Intended to correspond to the Hebrew of Jekopah (see
Plate XXX Vlll. fig. s.line b) ; the wnrd Jldonai is found on some of these stones. A very singular

specimen is given in tValgh^on Coins, &,c. p. 08. as cited i 213. The mystic word ABPA( AAAUPA

iABR^CADABRA) is supposed to have come from the sect above mentioned. An amulet was
formed by writing these letters in such a way that they should make an Inverted cone or ttiangle
with the whole word at the tMse and the letter A at the apex ; which was done by beginning tbu
word one place farther to the right in each successive line and also cutting ofiTat each time one
letter from the end. This was employed as a charm for the cure of a fever, particularly the in-
termittent called iipiirpiraXoiy or dovJbU-unian. In the Precepts of Serenus Sammonicus (cf. P.
V. ( 555) is a prescription, Which after describing this amulet directs that it be worn on the nock ;
Bis lifts nsxis eollum redimirt msmento.

See Monifauanh L'Anliquild Ezpliqiitfe, vol. ii. p. SSS, (put S, line iii.)-Cr. Sprengti, Hnt d* U Med. vel. it. p. l4T.-/oa.
JfiMani, Abruas u Apittophtoi; antiqiMria dhqaititio de Gemmu BtulidUiii*. Ant*. 1857. A.-'P. C. /oUvfUfty, De Nomlnia
Alrruns ten licnificBtioiie, in die Mimtt. Uf. Noo. (Bd. 7. TIl l.y~F. Mwnitr, Simibtlder nod KoMtvoraleIlaa«ea der altan
Cltfiiteii. Altoo. 1825. A.— J. J. £«Bvmatifi, Qbe r die Gcmnen mit dem Abruu-Bilde, and Qber die Seustaeeb<OanBie& Beri.
ISI7. 8.

3. The most (hnciftil and supers' itious notions have prevailed respecting the marvelous powers
of gems. Fabulous accounts of the origin of different stones were invented by the ancients.
Particular gems were imagined to hold peculiar relations to certain planets, constellations, and
months of the year. The gem appropriate for a particular month was worn as an amulet during
the month, and was suopo'scd to eiert a mysterious control in reference to beauty, health, riches,
honor, and all good fortune ; as e. g. a sapphire for Jtpril, an ag-ats for May, and an emeraU for
Jm»». Different gems were also supposed to possess specific powers ; e. g. the emerald was an
antidote to poison, and a preventive of melancholy ; the amethyst was a security asainut intoxi-
eatlon. if worn as an amulet or used as a drinking-cup ; the ruby or spinelle was a promoter of
Joy and a foe to all bad dreams, fluch notions were cherished also among the Arabians and
the eastern nations ; and were embraced in Europe in the middle ages. Indeed, to understaml
the virtues of gems was esteemed an Important part of natural philosophy, and treatiset wers

404 ARCHJEOLOOY OF AHT.

written on the >iihjRCt (cf. P. V. ) 966). Martodns, a monk of the I8th century, who was made
bishop of Renni'B, wrote a poem (Defemmis) vetilng forth. In Ijifin verse, the mirnciilous efficacy
of precious stones. Cf. tVarion''$ Hist. Eiig. Poetry. lAtnd. I8i4. Sd vol. p. i\\. Twelve gem<
were appropriated as symbolical of the twelve Apostles, and called "The Apostle gems i*^ lb«
bint having been drawn from liie twelve rems representing the twelve tribes on Aanm's breast'
plate, and from the fi|;urative Inngiiage ofthe Apocalypse of John (Ree. xx'i. 14, 19, 90). in which
the walls of ibe new Jerusalem are represented as having twelve foundations of precioua
■tones, inscribed with the names ofthe twelve Apostles of the Lamb.

4. Wc may meniion here a class of engraved stones, 8ometimt>8 called Socratict
having heads of various animals connected with the form or iect of a cock, or other
devices, among which is found a head resembling Sacratei.

Sm Sutter, AUk- Th«erie. kc vol. ii. p. 399 —/oa. CM/Utu Socnica, i. daGfimmn ejn imtfine oeUlw Jodie ium. Antr. 16S2. 4.
-MiddkUm't Aniiq. Tab. »i. Md 10. Ct Doddndgt, Fuaily Eipositor, Note od R«v. iv. 7. (p. 9)3. An. ed. Amben^, IS33.)

i 201. Among the Egyptians, lithoglyphy, like the other plaBtic arts, and on
account of the same hinderances (cf. § 169,) never reached any distinguished ex-*
cellence or perfection. Stones and gems, adorned with figures in relief, were
much less common araon? them than amon? the Greeks and Romans, with
whom a greater degree of luxury in general favored the exercise of this art in
particular.

"The ancients appear to have ohtalned the intrald from Egypt. CailKattd has succeeded in
finding the old emerald mines In the Thebnn deserts on thH Arabian Gulf He meniions having
fband subterranean mines capable of allowing four hundred men to work ; be likewise found
tools, ropes, lamps and other utensils.*'

$ 202. Among the Ethiopians and Persians, and other nations of Asia and
Africa, this art must have been known in very ancient times, because their
sculptured stones are mentioned by the ancient Greek and Roman writers.
Persian gems of various kinds are still in existence. But the Etrurians were
more remarkable. They either borrowed the art from the Egyptians, or very
soon became imitators oi the Egyptian manner, and like them wrought gems in
the form ofthe scarabaetis or beetle. They carried their skill in execution much
further, but not to the point of Grecian excellence. We probably have remain-
ing but few sculptured gems that are really Etruscan : most of those so called
are probably of Grecian origin ; at least the evidence that they are Etruscan is
yery unsatisfactory.

" Of this minute but charming art," says M«nust p. 70, as cited ^ 189, " probably, the oldett
specimen now extant represents five ofthe seven chiefs who fought against Thi?bes. Of this the
design is inartificial and the workmanship rude. Other Etruscan gems, however, as the Tydeua
and Peleus, equal the moat exquisite performances In this branch.*' The celebrated Intaglio here
nentioned as representing the five chiefs was found at Perugia. It la preserved at Berlin.

A eopy of this gem h gifen in Smiths Dictkmry of Aoiiqaitict, p. T08.— On Egyptiu tad Peniu g«M, we Ihtboit^ Cboix da
Picrra ftnv. ant Egjpt. tn Pen. Par. 1817. 4.

$ 203. Whether the Greeks borrowed this art from Egypt cannot be decided
any more certainly than the exact time when they became acquainted with it.
That it existed in Egypt at an earlier period is unquestionable ; but that the
Greeks must therefore have borrowed it from that country by no means follows.
Probably it arose among them at the same time with sculpture. It seems to
have been known in the time of the Trojan war, although Pliny expresses doubt
on the point. This writer and others mention, as the most ancient remarkable
gem among the Greeks, that belonging to the signet of Polycrates, king of
Samoa.

1 u. This seal was an emerald or sardonyx on which was carved a lyre. According
to tradition, this jewel, having been thrown by the king into the sea to avoid an acci-
dent that threatened him, was brought back by a fish that was served at his table.
The artist, who wrought it, was Theodorus of Samoa, who flourished about 530
years before Christ. The art was at that time quite imperfect, but afterwards it ad-
vanced rapidly.

3. For the story of this ring, see Herodotus, til. 39—41 ; Paiuanias, viii. 14 ; PUsy, xxxiii. 1.
xxxvii. I.— "In the temple of Concord at Rome, in the lime of Pliny, a sardonyx was shown
which was said to be the ring of Polvcrates. It was kept in a golden box, and was a present
firom Augustus. According to Herodotus the stone was an emenld.**—Barthelemy*t Anacbar-
ail, VOL vi p. 965, 447.

§ 204 The art of gem-engraving reached its highest perfection among the
Greeks about the time of Alexander. In this flourishing time, no graver of
gems equaled Pyrgoteles in celebrity. While Apelles alone was allowed by
Alexander to paint his likeness, and Lysippus alone to carve his statue, Pyrgo-

p. IT. OXM-ENORAVINO OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 406

teles was the only one permitted to sketch his miniature on the precious stone.
In the same period lived also Sostratus, whose name is inscribed on some of
the most beautiful gems still existing. Somewhat later, although it is not
certain precisely of what time, were Apollonides and Cronins, artists of nearly
equal celebrity. Many other names of Grecian lapidaries occur both on exist-
ing ancient gems and in ancient writers. Not much reliance, however, is to be
placed on the inscriptions (cf. $ 198). Some of the names are the following:
Agathangehis, Agathopus, Aulus, Alpheus, Arethon, Epitynchanus, Albius,
Evodus, Mycon, Admon, ^tion, Anteros, Gceus, Pamphylus, Philemon, Soso-
cles, Tryphon, &c.

8m C^. TTlMp*. <fa Murr, Biblioihcqa* glTptngnphiqa*. Draad. 1804 B— ^. Fttlorl, Diwertatie glfpto^nphieaf ke. Rob.
IT99. 4,—D. Jt. Bmoei, Manmira dagli anticbi Inchori, ehi Molpiraiio i Ion name inOcmiM e Curri. Fir. i7S4. lU.— A Iht of
fH»«ocriv«n it girra in Oaradt Dmct. dM Alt. da Mii4« Roy«I, cited f 191. 4.— (Ai tb* history of (•m-wttlplure, im rafefeaca
' § siai S.

$ 205. The Romans possessed this art only as the conquerors and lords of
Greece. Engraved gems were, highly valued among them, and were bought at
exorbitant prices. Yet they can claim no proper merit for the advancement of
this art, because all, who were most distinguished in it among them, were
Greeks by birth. Of these, Dioscorides and Solon, in the lime of Augustus,
were the best. Gems which are engraved in the proper Roman manner (and
such are recognized by the costume) are not valued so highly as the Grecian.
It is to be remarked that this art fell at the same time, and from the same
causes, with the other arts. In the middle ages, however, lithoglyphy was
not wholly neglected, since to this period belong the stones already mentioned
($ 200) as passing under the name otAbraxaa, and designed for magical pur
poses.

§ 206. The use of engraved stones with the ancients was twofold, for seals,
and for ornaments ; in both cases it was common to make of them rin^. The
early use of gems for such purposes is evident from passages in the Bible (cf.
§ 199). For seals, the figure was generally cut below the surface of the stone
{hao%r) ; but when the stone was designed merely for ornament, it was usually
formed' in relief (iiox^). The ancients made collections of ^ems, which they
termed daciylioiheess,iaxtx^Kto$rixai, from daxtvXto;, a ring; artists who wrought
these gems were from the same circumstance called ^ftato^^v^KM. Plmy
CH. N, xxxvii. 5) mentions several such collections, and among them that of
Mithridates, which was brought to Rome to the Capitol by Pompey. Julius
Caesar placed six different collections in the temple of Venus Genitrix ; and
Marcellus, son of Octavia, one in the temple of Apollo. It is, however, proba-
ble, that these collections were composed, at least in considerable part, oi gems
not engraved.

I. Tbe cugtnm of wearing b >eal-ring waa very gnnerat among the Greekn and Rnmanii, an4
the art of culling flgures into gems, or forming iniaglio$^ was therefnre much pructtced. Tb«
engraving* were at flrmt simple and rude, cnnslsiing sometimes merely of a round or fquare liole ;
but at length they were such in beauty of design and of execution, that there works of the an-
cients remain unrivaled to the present day. The stones destined to be set in rinss pass*fd from
the hands of the sculptor into those of the goldsmith {tiftnulariuMytompoftitor) ; tlie inner was also
employed to inlay cameo*, or gems with raised figures, in gold and silver vessels of various kinds.

Oo lbs uM of eDgrared gmw for tMli and riagi, im /. Brtm^ Iliclioaary of Ibe Fim Arli. Ijoni. I83& B. on tlie word SMif.—
P. Marutte^ Tniie da pierrai ((nv^n. Par. Haa 2 voU (d).— ITirelmanfi, at cited § 213. S.— Aeter, Bwmatuiy aa died P. HL
\ 338.— Alio tbe rerereacet in Suixa*i All(. Theorie, toI. ti. p. 394.

3. Some specimens of seals and rings are given in our Plate XLVI1. — In the figures, a, b,e, d,«,
are rings (annuli) suited to wear upon the finger. They were formed of some metal, with some
precious stone inserted. Sometimes the inserted gems were merely polished so ns to be smooth
and brilliant, as In fig. d. More frequently words or letters were engraved on the stones, as in
fiff. a, which has the initials of Jvpiter Optimiu Jfaximu*. Sometimes the sculpture was tbe bust
or a friend or some distinguished personage, or of one of the Imaginary gods, as In fig. by wblcb
shows a head of Mercury; sometimes it was merely a representation of some rommon article
of utility, as a key or a pruning-knifp, as in fig. c ; sometimes it contained a mythnlopiral repre*
■entatlon, as in fig./, where a goat and satyr are dancing together ; or some ceremony of an-
cient superstition, as In fig. «, where we see perhaps the crooked wand {UhiHs) and the chicken,
indicating the augury called tripudium. In short, the devices were exceedingly various —Rings,
which were used also for seals, were called by the Romans amnuU rtfrnatorii, or signet>rlngs.—
It should be rpmarked, that they made use of other seals {sijrUla\ot 9, more common sor* whicii
were made of the less precious metals, most frequently of brass, and wrnnehi into a great va-
riety of forma. In fig. 3, we have a common M^iUvm of this kind, resemiiling in form the bottom
of a shoe or sandal (coicstu), and bearing the image of a heart and the name of probably tb*
owner, Ursinus, in the genitive case, cut in relief. Such seals appear to have been employed by
tbe rich Romans, ^rnong other uses, for marking their wine-veisela.

406 ARCRAOLOOY OF ART.

i 807. RespectinflT the mechanical operations in this art among; the ancients,
we are not well informed. They seem to have been similar to the methods of
modern artists, except that the ancients perhaps had some unknown way of
ejvinpr to their works their higfh degree of delicacy, completeness, and finish.
For the ancient ffems are certainly marked by these excellences, united wilK
singular beauty of design, taste in arrangement, variety in subject and illustra-
tion, and truth in expression. They are also characterized by a peculiar purity
and polish, and great fullness and freedom in the sculpture.

tour. Smtttr, Tiai'^ de U owlbodc laliqu* de paver «« picrrai Cam, conparfe av«c la iM«hndfl moAtnt. Engl. TnaA Tm«
tite oD ihe aocicDt netbod at eacnvint; oa |iTwkMn sIoms eon|Mrcd with the mbAtn. Load. 1754. bl. with piafet — Ct MUUm't

Artiut^Ao0. On the qnarikn wktOtmr Uw aaeiMil utHts vmi Imm aad UiMfuttyiog flaaca, w* ITincMiMtoui, HMlaira, lie toL

u. p. l09,Mat«iiai.4.

$ 208. Yet fixed and infallible criteria cannot be given for distinguishing an-
cient from modern gems, or spurious from genuine antiques ; since modem gem-
engravers have approached very near the perfection of the ancient artists, and
have surpassed those among them who were of a secondary rank. The dis-
criminating eye and judgment of the connoisseur are formed perhaps more by
practice than by any general rules ; attention, however, must oe paid to notice
the material of the gem, the manner and air of the etching, the nature of the
polish, and frequently to consider and compare various circumstances in history
and antiquities.

See yon FrilActni, Sknimlunf eintfcr AohMxn. Relimt. INO. B vnla. ft. tel. ii. p. ISS,— On tha oiodfli of prodneing SditiOH
fcim, Me the Eneyclopmdia Briianniea, aad tiM Bdinbtufh Bneytiofmdia, vnder tto word Ocnu.

$ 209. The study of ancient gems is recommended by its manifold utility.
Aside from the aids to literature and taste which it affords in common with the
study of antiquities in general, it has a peculiar advantage, from the fact that
we have remaining a greater number and variety of gems than of monuments
of the other plastic arts, and that they are in a better state of preservation. The
latter circumstance gives them a preference even before coins, whose impres-
sions, notwithstanding any beauty in them, by no means equal the engravingfs
of the better Greek gems. A frequent examination of them may form the mind
to a quick sense and correct judgment of the beautiful, enrich the fancy of the
poet and artist, and familiarize the student with the conceptions and the spirit
of ancient genius.

The •tiidy hat also an important bearing on aacred philology ; since many coins eiist, which
confirm historical facts incidentally mentioned in the Bible.

For illuxtralioa of Ihc last meniioncd point. Ke H<,mt, Inirod. to Sacrad Scn^'iurea, vol. I. p. 911, at c*t«d f 2tS. 2.— IVUiA, aa
C'tN ( 2IS. 2. — <)n t .« geDeral Kibjflet, wt JTMs. at>er dan Nnicea nod G«bnuch dar gCMhailtaoaB Steine unl ibfw Abdradcn.
Altanb. 1788. 8.-Alio Marirtu, cited ^ 206. and Ifattir, cited S 207.

§ 210. These remains of ancient art have been rendered much more exten-
sively useful from the ease with which they are multiplied by means of imita-
tions. Imitations in glass are the most valuable, because in color, luster, and
ttanslucencv, they can be made so nearly like the originals that it is at first
even difficult to distinguish them. Somethintr similar was the Vitrum Obsidio'
nun of the ancients. Much less valuable are impressions in sulphur and in
wax, although the latter have an advantage in the facility of execution.

1. The art of multiplying copies of ^ems by means of impressions on colored glass,
or tne vi'rified substance called paste, is interesting not only to mere antiquaries and
artists, but also to men of taste. It is of considc^rnblc antiquity, and perhaps was
practiced by the Greeks. It is supposed to be allud^'d (o by Pliny; and is mentioned
by Hcraclius, in the 9th centurv, in a work entitled Pe colonbus el artUntf Komancrum.
Indeed it is said, that among tne existing antique cameos are found imitations of the
onyx in glass.

Cr. Amy, Hht Nat zxxvL 2&-Cruyelop. Britann. nnder Oem».-MariM*, aa diad 1 208. ▼(>]. i. p. SS.—ftMakluMiifa', p. «,
aa citfd | IB4. — Oa the ceoenl lubjact at paalea and caaia, «• may alaa icfcr to 8u2x0*$ AUfem. Tbaoria, tu. uodar Um worda
jUdrUAt, JtffliM, Aute

2, The translucid substance termed Obsidianum seems to have received its name
from Obsidius, a Roman who first brought it to Rome from Ethiopia. It is considered
as the same mineral which is now called Obniflian, and has been termed lava-elast in
reference to its appearance, in which it resembles glass, and to its origin, which somo
have supposed to be volcanic The Romans manufactured mirrors and gems from it.

ct Pfitty, Hiat. Nat. znri. V7.—Latmay, Minenlogk dea Aneieoa, aa eit«l | laS. 2. voL I. p. S6I.-JI. /amcarm** ICaeraiqif.
taut. lUO. 9 n\ & wL L p. SIB.-ONiile A Cayhu, is tiM JTim. 4t tAead. ia Inter. troL xaa. p. 46T.

p. IV. THE MOST CELEBRATED ANCIENT GEMS. 407

3 V. The material invented by Prof. Lippert of Dreaden, which is a fine white sub'
Btancc. is very useful for taking casta and impressions. The casts in this show the
work to better advantage perhajjs than sulphur. They are liable to be injured bv
friction. Lippert prepared a series of casts amounting to 3000 in number, of which
each 1000 was sola separately.

ThoM of iliB flnt ihooMiid wm amngwl and d«erlbad bf Prat Omtt of LaiiNte, utd fboM of tb* Mcrad and tktrd (koHand b7
tnt Btym otGoitiafta, In t Latin Catahgm' Lipa. I786-S9. 4. ▲ aora ftill accoaal ia gi««i by ii|VO< Uaaal^ ia bb Om-
fylMML Lps. I7C7. S tola. 4. and the Sttpp-aaMoL L|n. IT7C 4.

4. The pastes and imitations of Wedgewood, the distinguished English porcelain
manufacturer, are very bichly esteemed. " His imitations of jasper, bv which cameos,
and white figures in relief, are raised on a colored ground, are exquisitely beautiful."
— Wedgewood and Bentley invented a peculiar composiiion, of a dark appearance,
which is considered as very useful for making copies of sculptured stones.

▲ OMl«fMao(liM CoaCa ^IVM{CMMMl«fid.SMtby wtttpaUiahad Loud. 179a flx-Cf. SMimnAhmrm^ vol. zzri. p. 244.

5. The glass pastes of JamtB Ttusie, a native of Glasgow, resident at London, have
acquired ffreat celebrity. His collection of impressions of ancient and modern gems
amounted to 15,000. jflis pastes were brought into greater notoriety by the jewaiers,
wjio inserted them in seals, rings, and other ornaments.

Ab aeceant of bii Bamnrmia inpfMriona wu pabliabed ander tb« following title : A DfeneHjpliw Ctdatogm tt^ jpumA eetleetioB
0/ mnamU and mcdtrn Qenu, cast in colored pulea, while enamel, aitd wlphnr ; bjr /. Toaric,— erraiifed and deacribed bf M. P*
Jtefptr-aad llluilnled with Copperplatea ; to which ia picfixed an Inlrodnction on the rarioHa eaca of lUa eolleetioa, the origin ol
OieaiterengraTinf onatenaa,aadtbeprosnnof paat» Lond. 1791. i rola. 4.

6. Copies of coins and medals are also multiplied by means of casts in sulphur and
other substances. Thus, e. g. the medals struck in commemoration of events in the
life of Bonaparte are imitated and made known extensively by sulphur casts ; the
medals consisting of 160 pieces ; the casts forming a suite of 185 pieces including several
reverses. Thus also, by casts in some metallic composition, as is slated, have been
copied the "Waterloo Medals," that were distributed by order of the British Parlia-
ment to Wellington and the ofhcers and soldiers engaged in the battle of Waterloo;
and likewise the beautiful series of medals struck under the direction of Mr. Mudie to
commemorate achievements in the history of British wars.

See iMftfy'aSericaor Bonaparte^ Medala, nj»l Sra. Lond.-£if«Mrdl*, The Napoleon Medab, with hitiorieal and biognpfcical
Notices. Lond. 1841 M.

$ 211. Of the great number of existing gfems only a few will be named, of
such as are the most celebrated. Of this class are the following: — the signet
of Michael Angelo {cachet dt Michel Ange)^ as it is called in the Royal Museum
at Paris, a camelian, on which ia represented with masterly skill an Athenian
feiiivaU or, as some think*, the training of Bacchus f — a very beautiful Medusa's
Lead upon a chalcedony, formerly in the Strozzi collection at Rome, now in
possession of the Baron von Scheilersheim ; — the head of Socrates on a came-
lian in the collection of St. Mark's at Harlem ; — Bacchus and Ariadne upon a
red jasper in the collection of the Grand-duke at Florence; — the heads of Au-
gustus, Maecenas, Diomedes, and Hercules, inscribed with the name Diosco-
rides; — a head of Alexander, a cameo of sardonyxS with an inscription scarcely

genuine of the name Pyrgoteles. Among the largest gems remaininc^, are

the following : — ^an onyx in the Imperial collection at Vienna, on which is ex-
hibited the apotheosis of Augustus and Livia; — the so-called Mantuan Vessel,
formed of onyx*', in possession of the family of the Duke of Brunswick ; and
the celebrated Barberini or Portland vase'.

1. 'It has been remarked that the seal of Michael Angelo affords a notable instance
of the controversieR and mistakes of antiquaries. *' By one the subieci is supposed to
be Alexander the Great represented as Bacchus ; by another it is thought a religious
procession of the Athenians; and there are others, who suppose it simply a vintage,
or sacrifical rites relative to the conquest of India. But h is said to be proved, that
instead of being an antique, this gem was engraved by an intimate friend of Angelo
himself. It was boiight by the keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV. of France for 800
crowns, and Louis XIV. having afterwards acquired it, frequently wore it as a ring."

*< 11 is not impnibable that this camelian is the work of Pietre Maria da Pescia, as the figura of the fihcnnae in the eiergve a»f
Indicate that artisi, who, with Michelino, belonged to the age of L«o X. (noriOo, Eaaaji, vol. U. p. I88).>«-CI. New Eimh. £ncy
ctopadta, nndcr Gbm.— The EHCfdefttdim Jtmricmna, voL t. p. 40S.

2. ^The cameo of sardonyx bearing the head of Alexander was published by Slo$ch
in his work cited below (^ 213. 2). ft is also given, with other supposed portraits of
that conqueror, in a paper in the Memoirs of the In$iilule. Speaking of engraved
stones which present m relief the heads of illustrious personages, JVhtckelmann says,
the first rank may be assigned to a bust of Augustus, on a flesh-colored chalcedony.
in the library of the Vatican. — -^amesoti mentiona as very fine an engraved gem of

406 ARCHiEOLOCKy OF ART.

heliotrope (cf. ^ 195. 1) preserved in the National or Eoyal Library at PariB ; it repre-
sents tne head of Ckritt teourged {Christ JlagelU), and is so cut that the red spots of
the gem represent drops of blood.

a. Mm. 4€ PltutUta, C U«t < a> L«. i< BtaweJrUf toL t. » eil^tWwdWiiMim, HMoin^ kc Uvn I*, eh. viL) CT-TO^
«. /aiMMfH M ineimlocjr. Ediab. laSO. S rob. a

AgnnrilhabMatiAil «BaMto bMd uid bwi b Betieid in lb* AlW. di MnA /mop. toL iU. p. 144. Bar iiM PriM d'Zwnid
MllqM; wppoied by lOW to wprewit Ettcharfa, the ciiBbratod faailt J—gw at RoaWi

3. ^Monger, in the Memoirs of the French Institute, describes three antique cameos
said by him to be the largest known. Thefir$t is a sardonyx, in the cabinet of the
king of France, and is called the Ag€Ue of Tiberius. It is of an irregular oval form,
nearly one foot {un pied) in length and about ten inches {dix pouces) in the greatest
breadth. The sculpture on it exhibits three scenes ; one, in heaven, is the apotheo-
sis of Augustus ; another, on earth, is the investiture of a priestess, in the family of
Tiberius, for the worship of Augustus ; a third scene presents captives of various na-
tions of the earth. — The teeond cameo is in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna. It is
about one- third less than the one just apecified, and represents Tiberius as descend-
mg fsom a chariot.— ;The third is a sardfuiyz, which in 1808 belonged to a public col-
lection in Holland; it represents Claudius and his family drawn by Centaurs.

4. ^ " TiM coiMentricallv Btrlped onyzei, which art very rare, were much prised by the an-
ctentc Hiid they cut upon them very beautiful t)gi»res In demi-reiief. One of ihe most beautiful
works cut in this variety of chalcedony k the celebrated Mantuan vase, which was seized by the
Germans at the storming of Mantua, and ever since has been preserved in the Ducal colleciloa
In Brunswick. Several beautlhil plates of onyx are preserved in the Electoral Cabinet In Dres-
den ; there is qne valued at 44.000 dollars/ '

Itmgtz, ia lib ATcm. i* fltuL CI att* J:h>H. «f UL Am. fol. vili. p. STO—X; J, BWigtr, Ueber db £cblb«t ntf te
^tartattl^erSBlikcQ QByx>Kaacn too tnMrorieotUcbn' Gkmr. .1^ 1796. 8.— jbwi>m Am cited, vol. i. p. M^

5. • The Portland vase it not formed, as wti fbrroerty supposed* of a natural fun, ^ precioar
stone ; It has been already deeeribed (cf. $ 17S. S).

Winck«lmann mentionst, as one of the finest antique gems,a eameo from the hand of Athenion,
preserved in the Fnrnese cabinet of Naples ; representing Jupiter in a chariot hurling his thun-
der-bolts and driving over the prostrate Titans ; he gives an engraving of it.

In our Plate XLVIII. we have a copy of an engraved gem. described by Monifaneon as be-
longing to the Royal Cabinet at Paris, and as being of exquisite beauty^ ; the stone is a dark
green jasper, with spots of red ; the sculpture presents Bacchus lifted by two satyrs who hold
his body, and by two boys who support his legs, that they may pUce him on the back of a goat,
his arms being around the necks of the satyrs ; he holds a crater In his right hand ; a Bacchante
goes before playing on a sort of tym;»aiittiii ; another on the right is playing with the double
tibis ; another behind raises towards his head a cluster of grapes ; at thsir feet lie a prostrate
vase and a detruncated head, or more probably a mask ; trees with thick foliage occupy the
back-ground.

< WimMmann, HiatotNb Sc vol. ii. p. I IS, IIS ; toL iiL p. 372. • MoHtfmvM, Antlq. Expi. Sop. toI. L p. IH.

$ 212. The moet celebrated collections of ancient gems are the following:—
the Grand-duke's at Florence, which contains 3000; — those of the families of
Barberini and Odescalchi at Rome, the latter of which formerly belonged to
Christina queen of Sweden ;«-the Royal Cabinet or Museum at Paris; — the col-
lection, formerly belonging to the Duke of Orleans, now at Petersburg; — some
private collections in London, particularly those of the Duke of Devonshire and
Count Carlisle; — the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna;— the collection of the King
of Prussia, of which the gems formerly belonging to Baron de Stosch form the
largest and most valuable part;— »that of the King of Netherlands at Hague.

The collection of gemsibrmerly bplonging to Enron de Stosch is now in the ttoyal Muteum at
Be rl I n (cf 9 190. 3).— The Royal Mvaanm at N a pi es, which is now enriched with the trea-
sures of several private coileciions, cooiains many precious stones, besides fine statues, bronze
figures, vases, and antiques in glass.

ForOitMaieoisiai Naplet.iM/'inaii (lOilolbBfiltReail Muteo Berbosica Napl. 18ft4-3S. 8 ve)a. 4.— fi. Ocrtorrfantf

7a. Panofka, NmplfsABlike BtMwarke; comoieoeod 1828 R«ipecliii$ tb« eoUeatiaarfo EpgUiKl, att rTaoftn, M elted f 190. 4.

Oo Uia cobioal o( the Gnad^liike ot flortoo^ mc /dbwon, Htil. of Th*. p. US, u cited § 100. i — Sac »1m ttie nttrtaom

f 2IS. 1.

Cuti oT ancient genu or nsdftU an foaiid Id Om Ubniiw or DaMomi of mott pibUc inttitulloM, Ttafl Aotfm Mkmium bM

§ 213. Engravings and Plates are a useful help in attaining a knowledge of
sculptured gems. Various works containing plates and descriptions of the
most remarkable specimens, with historical and critical observations, have been
published.

1. Work* nferriaf (e partknlar abiiMli or eollecliooi. df . F. OcrU, Mmmbi Florentinuia, u diad § 191. >. TbB 111 iM
U votnnes trmi of Owiw.— £« Jfiowm dt Flortnca, ov C-'llMlioo da PienM fnveM, SlatuM, Med«ill«, rt FdDlurei, qui m
troavaat « Plorenee priBcipalcoMiil daM 1« Cab. da Or. Dw, Ac gn?a par Aavtrf, avee ciptebalioBi par MuhL Ite. ITIt-M.

« veil. l—Monfu, CuadM, kc da ia Galcria daFloreareatdn Falak Kilti, ftc. ai dtad § 191. B. RPindMmanii, DMcrip>

tiOD de Fiarm |rav6c« d« ttn Mr. La Baroa d a St o • ch. Flor. 1760. 4«— J. SMidUigrtA, Amwahl rorallfliebar Oemmen aw d«r
StoiebiiebeD Sammluns. Tbe 111 «oL Nomb. 1797. 4. A 8d f ol. in eoBtiDOatioii, aiuler the litle DmetyUoUmu 8imkiuna
Sanb. laoa *.^P J. MaridU, BacMil dei pierm astiqaM da U ooUacUim de Mr. ii OnudU. Ftf. \ni-9i. 8 voIil 4 U

'xrvrccc

p. IV. PAINTING. 409

Mmtt •! A fa CMm, DMcrfplin te prladiiklai pi«m pwinit in CaUmt iu D«e d»OrUam«. Hr. ITBO^i. 2«ak M.

Abrid(Mi, wifh DOlM, bf /. O. /ocoM. Zar. 17981 4. P. J. Maritaa, BacMil de piwm pavte (n cmz) du Cabuut d « Bo L

Fv. 1750. S vol*. M. /. Bohd, Choiz dM Pierm fraidn da Cabintt Impflrial dei Anliqmi, rtpranalrfa cb MFIucka^

-Me. Vim. liaS. 4. P. £. Vimmtit OenoM ineto d. CsTaliere O. QinaMH, kc Bimb«, 1636. fol.

I. Works of a mori loaaial chanctor.— Ztamcn. dt Ami, Ocauno antkha flganio, ooUo ipouiiooi dal P. JL MaffH, %atu
rm-%. 4 vob. 4.-yltr. G<Ffan' Dactjriiolbaea, com oolto /«. OroiuwO. Lofd. BaL 1C9S) I70T. S voli. 4 —PML cb AokA, G«UMi
•aOqas oalaiB, Mil|ifcr«m nomtaOut iiMi(Blte. (art iaciM par 5em. Pieorl.) AawL 1124. fbl.-vfniadMN, Nora TbaM««a
GcwDanoi votenim. Bon. 17U. fcl.-V. Jtf. Jtapons RecMil da Flenva aaliqaei pafta, ftc Bocb. ITM. fcL with nanaMH
plalM.— «f . T. Oanuf, GflmnB AatiqnM. Tan. 176a fol.— O. Of^ ABliqnitiM Esplatead, baliff a cxdlaetioe of flgnrad Oom,
Ulintraled bj docription from ibo ebirica. Lood. 17S7. 4— £. Xtef ky, Ocna freaa ibo Antiquo, with iUaHntioH. 4.-yl. L. MO-

Kn, Piama frat te inaditaa tirfai da* plna calebrea Cahiaate da I'Europe. l%r. 1817. 2 vola. 8. We will add hara, Knigktj Mo*

dam aad AatiquaOcm.— JL Wabk, Emkj oa ABciaol Coioa, Madala, aad Qtm*, aa liliMtimaBC Iha Pra(f«M of Cbratiaailj ia Ite
aailjacn. Lood. IfU. 12.

IL H anay ba propar to maalioa alao wmm wwfci which ratola to tha anhjael of ivm Mniiwiiif h geBaial, or to tho thaoty aad
hMnnrof thoart-naopknuM, Bradi, ripf Xi9mv fiifiUw, ta hiaC^ ed. SEAtwUer, dIadP. V. § IM. 8,- alw ia LdtLul^im
Oaauaia ct Upidibaa, libri iL Lncd. BaL 1647. 8} ia Eagliah, with iwoarka, by I. SOt, Load. 1748; aad ia Oanaaa, with tha
lOMUfeaor BJlt and a troatiaa on Ibo aaeiaat art of Ei«nv(o( on Ooom, by A. M. BattrnflbtMr, NQrab. 177a 8.— DteeridM,
r>fl IXiK Urputm, Kb Baok.-/>HMp, Matatal Hialory, S7th Book—Zci Kinkmm, da AaooUa libar •i<«aJark. L. B. 1978. 12.

Jnadiwi BaUM (A BooO Gan.wanMi at Upidam Hhtaria, aaeta abJdr. TblKa, L. B. 1647. 8.-P. /. Jfaritfto, eUad § 206.—
X. Mflw, diad § m.-Coflui, Bar laa Pianas Onvdai, la tha Mtm. Jtad. vol. ziz.-«f . £. MiOin, Intredaciioo k i'Etoda dm
Pianaa giaafca. Par. 1796 ; aho 1820. a-G^lttf. tbor dia OaBiaaankuada. Magdb. 1798. A.-J. PritcMx, Lahrtaah dar Sma>
u l8Ba 8.-8aa alw Ailw^ Allc. tbMria, artkda OMcAniliana SMtofc-EMye. dlai^

III.— Patfi/tf^.

i 314. Painting, as a fine art (ypo^xi^, ^c^/pa^ fcTpadtxi^), is the represen-
tation of visible objects upon a plane surface by means of figure and color. It
is not confined, however, to the mere exhibition of material bodies and forms ;
bat expresses also their invisible powers and immaterial and spiritual nature
and affections, by gestures, attitudes, and the like. It also employs the form
of sensible objects allegorically to signify things very different from what actu-
ally meets the eye. (Cf. $ 147.)^-The real foundation of painting is laid in
the art of designing, that is, representing objects on a plane by lines and
strokes; by the advancement of which in correctness and beauty the progress
of painting must he forwarded, almost as a matter of course.

$ S15. It has been already remarked ($ 155), that the art of designing, or
sketching, although it is of so great importance as a foundation and help to all
the plastic arts, is yet probably of later origin. So the art of coloring merely
was doubtless of earlier origin than painting, properly so termed ; which implies
the fillinff up, with colors suitably chosen and applied, of an outline sketched
designedly. Yet the art of designing and painting existed, beyond all question,
in a very early period, although we cannot determme exactly when, or in what
nation, it originated. It is still a controverted question, whether it existed in
Greece at the time of the Trojan war; and the negative is certainly quite proba-
ble. This, however, would not imply that it did not then el^ist in other countries.

$ 216. The Egyptians were acquainted with this earlier than the Greeks,
although not so much earlier as according to Pliny (Hist, Nat. xxxv. 5) they
claimed. Sketching or designing seems to have become common among them
quite early. Originally the art was chiefly temple-paintine, and we must dis-
tinguish between that which is found upon the walls of edifices, and that upon
mummies and papyrus rolls (cf $ 107. 5). Painting remained ver}r imperfect
in Egypt, as did the plastic arts in general. The artists applied their colors in
uniform tints, without shading or contrast. Some paintings found in Egypt
seem to be an exception to this remark, but they were probably executed in the
time of the Ptolemies by Grecian artists.

1. " Egyptian painting seldom, if ever, attempts more than an outline of the object
SB seen in profile, such as would be obtained by its shadow. To this rude but always
well'proponioned draught, colors are applied, simply and without mixture or blending,
or the shghtcst indication of light ana shade, l ne process appears to have been,
first, the preparation of the ground in white ; next, the outline was firmly traced in
black ; and, lastly, the flat colors were applied. The Egyptian artist employed six
pigments, mixed up with a gummy liquid, namely, white, black, red, blue, yellow,
52 2M

410 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.

and green ; the three first always earthy, the remaining, vegetable or at least fre<.
quently transparent. The specimens from which we derive these facts, are the
painted shrouds and cases of mummies, and the still more perfect examples on the
walls of the tombs. It can furnish no evidence of extraordinary experience or prac-
tice, thai these paintings slill retain their color clear and fresh. The circumstance
merely shows the aridity of the climate, and that the coloring matters were prepared
and applied pure and without admixture." {Mvmei.)

SooM Dotini of Ccypti*" paintiBf mtj bt feuiid in /. O. WUhnuon, Manncn tni CuHim of fbf EcyptiaBt. Lead. in?.
9 toil. 8. wllh lOBM eoiorad pUlct.— See, tlw, id Dtnim (u cited \ 238. 3), vol. i. p^ 177, a t^'tet of the |ttiniin(« io Ibc tonibt at
•mbm.—Lmd. (fuarU Av. six. 192, 421.— /U£rary pf SnUrtatning KnauUdgt, vola. 21, 23.— Etficcully the tkMcriptwn A
rS^ypfe, cited \ ISI. I.

2 u. That painting, or at leaat the art of coloring, existed early among the Chal-
deans and Israelites is indicated by passages in the Bible. Ezck. xjiiii. 14 ; viii. 10;
comp. Numb, xxxiii. 52.

$ 217. According to the cororoon tradition of antiquity, 'which agrees well
irith the natural probability of the case, painting, or rather desitrning, took ita
rise originally from the tracing of the shadows of objects npon a wall (<yxiaypcMfta),
and marking the outline with carbon or chalk. Ardices of Corinth and Tele-
phon of Sicyon are said to have been the first who, by drawing the inner parts,
presented something more than the outline, and indicated light and shade. The
earliest Greek pictures were drawn with a single color, and are thence termed
ItJovox^fM-tO'^ a red color was chiefly used, perhaps because it resembled that
of flesh in the human body. The first that employed various colors appears to
have been Bularchus, who lived in the time of Candaules, king of Lydia, about
720 B. C.

*' The first painting on record is the battle of Magnete by Bularchus, and purchased
by Candaules, king of Lydia, for its weight in gold, or, as some say, a quantity of gold
coins equal to the extent of its surface. This establishes the first era of the art in
Greece." But painting had been practiced for several centuries preceding, especially
at Corinth. The art is said to have passed through several gradations ; as. simple
ikiagraphy, or shadow- painting {oKiaYpa'pia), i. e. giving the exterior outline or shape of
the shadow of an object, without any intermediate lines ; the monographic style {}toy6.
ypaftjiov), i. e. consisting of lines, but giving both the exterior outline and also (he inner
fines or markings ; motiochrcmatie compositions, in which one color only was employed ;
and volychromalie {mXvrxpu^ara), where a variety of hue was u»ed, but without snaaing;
and lasuy, zographic, in which appeared the full art of painting to life (.(oy/M/tia}, ap-

E lying colors with due observance of the laws of light and shade. It is, however,
ardly supposable that the art advanced by any periecily regular series of steps.

See JtfffiMi, p. 120, I2l, aa cited f 19.— Coyluf, (OiMarteHooa rrlaL a iniittoira ct a Part) AbhanJIonjRii mr Geiehicblc w4
KvMt (bk. ii. p. 23, 74). Allcab. 1768. 2 voia. 4.— JtamdoAr, L'ebcr &lalerei, te. tk. ii p. 176. aa cited \ 226. L-B. Fumti, Luc
tcraa ob Paint inf, driifered at the Royal Aeadeny. Lond. 1801. 4.

$ 218/. Our knowledge respecting the colors used by the ancient painters is
imperfect; it is derived chiefly from a few passages in ancient authors*; but
some information has been drawn from experiments on the colors in the remains
of ancient paintings, and on pigments that were found at Pompeii and in vases
beneath the ruins of the palace of Titus'. Oil-colors do not appear to have been
known to the ancients. To give consistency to water-colors and increase their
brightness and durability they combined with them some sort of varnish or size,
especially in paintings on plaster or chalk; gum (^um/nt), glue (gtuttnum),
and sometimes the white of effg (fivt albumen) were used for the purpose.
Apelles issnid to have employed a fine black varnish which none could imitate.
On the authority of a passage in Pliny^ it has been commonly stated that Apel-
les and other celebrated Greek painters used only four colors ; viz. Mclinum, a
white; Jlltteum^^ yellow; Sinopts Foniiea, ^ red; and w^/ra;/i«n/u//i, a black;
but it must be a mistake to suppose that they were acquainted only with these,
or that they never used any other.

" If rod und yellow ochera, blacks and whltefi, were the color* mom 4>mployed by Protngenes
aad Ap<t1l''«, i<o they are likewise (he colors nioei employed by Raphael nnd Titian in (lieir bett

style." (/>'in.vr) 'Mn the pictures at Naples and Rome, b greuier vnrifty or coloring than,

A'om soiii** ii:(Ma|{e« in their writings, has bet* n allowed to ihn ancients. And, indeed, unless
Pliny b" xii!M>n**^d to point out a distinction in this respect betwttfn Hie practice of the fartier
and later fMitiiKrs, he contradicts himself: for in all, he enunierati's no less than five different
whites, ihrt*e yellows, nine reds or purples, two blues, one of which is indifro, two greens, and
one hlsrk, which also appears to be a feneric expression, inriuding hiiuinen, charc<ml. ivory,
or Ump-hlack, mentioned with prubably oihers.'* (.Afswcf, p. 13d.)— Beautiful blue culura bavt

PLATE XLIX.

412 ARCUAOLOOY OY ART.

b««n foand In the frefco-patniingi in ancient Roman edlfieea.— **In cleaning away the nibbtth
within the baiht of Titus, the walls of which display many beautiful specimens of fVesco-
paintinv, the painter's room was discovered, and In several of the jars were found different
kinds of pa tni, and among others a quantity of the l>eaafiful celestial blue, which retained ita
luster and freshness so remarkably on the walls. Sir Humphry Davy, on analysis, found it to
consist of a frit of copper, soda, and silex«; and by recompoaition formed the same color flrom
fjresh materials."

That the ancient artists were not restricted to so few colors as has been supposed may b«
ihown by the following list.— red : MtXrof, Rvbriat, red earth, and a general name for red;
Ziyaintc. Sinopis Poniiea^ Rubriea Sinopieu^ red ocher ; XavSapditri, Ceru8*a lufa, red lead ; Kcy-
vi0apt. Minium^ vermilion ; KtvvaSapi 'Ivitxdv^ CinnibarU Indica^ from the gum or resin called
dragon's blood ; £ay^v(, Saiufyz, crimson.— yellow : "Axpai or 'Q.xp6v^ SH, a common name for
yellow i *A.rTtK6v^ Mtieum^ the Athenian yellow ocher, considered the best ; 'kpnviKdv, ^%ri-
firmanium, orpiment ; Sandaraekat sometimes applied by the Romans to designate a variety of
yellow.— BLUE : Kvayof, C«rie/e«m, axure blue, and apparently a general term for blue ; 'Iv^icdy,
Indicum, indigo; ^hpplvtov^ ultramarine, from the mineral called lapu laitiU; Thenphraslus
mentions a substance under the name of xaX«d« as being used in order to give glass (vaXar) a
fine bine color, and Sir H. Davy supposes bliii to mean eo6a/t.— oekek : XpvfrtfcoAXo, CAryas-
ctfUa, a earlMinate of copper, green verditter, the most approved green; 'I6s XaXirtfv, rnmgOt
mrwoy scolecUt verdigris, several variftties; Oeo^rtov, T%*odotu>n^h sort of green earth, (cre/«
viridiM) fiiund on the estate of one Theodotius, near Smyrna ; .^^ipMiivM, another variety of green
earth.— PUEPLB : Hvp^vptt, PurpurUnm^ the moat valued being prepared from the niurex (cf. P.
III. $ S3t), a general term also for purple ; 'Yo-^iyov, Hygffiuum^ having the shade of scarlet;
0«ervM, a mineral compound, but sometimes designating the purple frnni the mnrRx: Rnhim
radixt maiider-root.— BaowN : Ochravtta, burnt ocher; many varieties.- black : MIAsv, jtcus
wentum^ the common name for the color; 'EXc^difTiPoVy Elephantinum, ivory biHck ; Tpvynfw,
7Vy;rtii«m, vine-black, made of burnt vine twigs ; ^tramentum /wdiricM, perhaps the Chinese
Indian ink.— whItb : Mj|A£a, JIfeZtaum, an earth from the Isle of Melos ; T\apaiT6vtoy^ Pcnrtt-
utam, a white clay fhnn a place on the coast of Africa, much vaiu«*d ; ^i/ivtiiov. CfttuM, white
lead. — We may here mention as among the gums or resins used>; lapxoirnXXa. SareocolU;
M «ar£xi?, JUoMtieke ; Tku9 masenlvmy frankincense ; Tertbintka^ turpentine ; Bitumen or Jltvk^l'
tuM {Avff>a\ros) waa alao used hi forming a varntab; Punic wai, C«rs Puaica, waa ordinary
walLpurtfled.

1 Thtepknthu, Da Upidii>at.-lXoieir^tf«i, Mat. Med. v.-IVny, Hbt. N. xxtv. B-a-Ktfnnrfut. Afth. vit. • M. CkapM,

OB tawB colon touoi in a tiiop at PonpaU, la Jtmaki cb Chinrn, vol. 'K.—air Buntftry Deny, ExpcriDento on tba cotoci mad

Id paintiiff by tba aocianh, in <ba Phiktoph. Tramaetimu, vol. for 1815, pt. i. p. 97 • Pliny, HM. N. ixt«. 31. « Cf Lmd.

quart. Jbo. sir. 407. • Cf. PImg, Biat N. xiii. CO ; ait. S6 ; xilv. 88 } niv. 88; ui«. Bi ; axxv. 61 { xxl. 4ft.-Saa £Aami«

•4/iaa.xzi.8S,ia£«ma<n,BiU.CIa»aacltadF.V.|470.4. Oa (Im eolm aaad tiy tba aaeiaala, Ma abo Jt«k, da la Paialan

cltti lea Asclaai, la ITimtaBiMiHi, Hiaioin, *«. vol. UL p. 89, IS7.-J3a CoyltM, on otftaia paaMgai of Plioj, te. Mtm. Acmt,
Inter, zxv. 149.-0. E. Umrng^ Vom Altar dor Oalmalerai aui daaa Tbaophiloa PrcAytar, in hia aBmmUicte Seknfim (u riiat
§ 168). Tol. riii. p. 886.-/. W. DOring, Prngr. de eolorfbw Vateran. Goth. 178S. 4.-Sli«iitt, Qbar d. Malarikrtoa dar CriaA
-jBd Ron. Lpa. 1817. 8.-frmdkiifiMnfs Ublolra, fcc. lib. iv. ch. vili. aacL 81.

§ 219.* The ancient methods of painting may be included under two kinds,
painting in water^eolors, and painting in wax. Of the latter, the most important
species was that effected by the aid of fire (5ia ^vpo;), thence called eneau^ie
(iyxoMstixfi) ; that called xripoypa/^ was another species, said to be employed
in painting ships (ineerammia navium, cf. I,«i;. xxviii. 45). Of painting in
water, there were two species ; in one, the colors were laid on with water alone,
vinegar being sometimes added, especially to black ; in the other, the colors
were applied with water combined with some glutinous substance, some gum,
wax, or resin that could be worked with water.

1. The term/resea, when atrlctly need, designates the first mentioned species of painting in
water-coiora when applied to plastered walls while the plaster or stucco ia moist ; all the va-
rieties of the other species being included under the phraae painting in dittemper; the term
freteo, however, is sometimea applied indiscriminately to painting on plastered wails, whether
moist or dry, and whether the colors are applied in water simply or in distemper. The dwellings
of the ancients were cooMnonly adorned with fresco-paintings.

Sic. The fresco-painting was executed upon a moist aa well as upon a dry ground. In this last
mode of painting, the colore were probably laid on with a peculiar sort of glue or sizf, since la
many pieces of this kind that have been found, they are so well fixed andpreserved, that a wet
sponge or cloth may be drawn over them without injury. Prevlona to the paintings, the walla
received a double coating, and the aurface was carefully polished.

S. To prepare the wails for paintings on a moist ground was more expensive than to prepare
them for paintings on a dry ground (cf. FUruviuSt vii. 3); since over several layera of ordinary
piaster there must be placed several other layers of a composition formed of chalk and marble
dufit ; hence, except in the houses of the wealthy, the walls were usually in digtemper as distin-
guished from fresco f such ia the caae in moat of the houses discovered at Pompeii. In order to -
receive ornamental paintings, the walls were divided into compartments or panels which were
termed abach &0aKes ; these panels were specially prepared with a ground (called Xcwwpa)
formed by plaster covered with chalk and marble dust as above mentioned ; aometimea the
aluceo ground appears to have been placed on tablets of wood which were fixed in framea and
encaaed in the walla; aometimea the paintings were on panela of larch wood.

^ 219u. Single pieces of painting were usually executed upon wood, and therefore
called mvaKCi^ tabula. The wood of the larch tree iiXa-n!, larix) was preferred on Jic-
counl of iiB durability and its not being liable to warp out of shape. They paiiited
more rarely upon linen cloth ; as in the colossal picture of Nero mentioned by Pliny.

p. IV. ANCIEI7T PAINTING. ENCAUSTIC. OLASS-PAINTINO. 413

The most common kind of painting was that upon plaster ; which is now called
fresco- painting. Less common was drawing or painting on marble and ivory.

The lermf rival '"^ vi yaviov seem to have been applied to any material on which a pictara
was drawn. The easels or frame to which ihe material wan fixed, while ihe artist was painting,
was culled by tlie Greeks dxpiPas or xaXvffai ; ypa^'n sif nified ihe 8tyU and virox/)a0is (p«ni-
tUlus) the katr-ptncU ; some have sapposcd ihe pa^iiov to have been a pencil or brush, although
It is usually interpreted as a style nr rod used in encaustic painting; xP<^l"^'^^ '^^^ (^apiiaxa^
the colors; Xij«rv9o(, the box in which they were kept ; a figure supposed to represent Painting,
found at Pomp<>ii, in the building called Pantheon, holds a palette or pallet in her left hand ; the
ancient name for this article is nowhere given, unless tlie term vivclkiov was applied to it.
Eivojy signified a porrrsit or likeness as well as statue; a mere sketch was termed iiroypa^^i
the word vxiaypa^ia signifies, etymologicaIIy,tfAadoiD-jNiiiitiiijr (cf. ( S17); It is commonly inter-
preted the art ofsktUkimg or delineating.

^ 220r/. The kind of painting peculiar to ancient times, called ettcaustie, is known
to us only by the imperfect description given by Pliny, who speaks of three methods
of it.

1 «. The first of these methods consisted. It seems, In mingling wax with the colors, and laying
them on by means of fire and certain instruments called eauteria Ixavr^pta). The second was
employed npon ivory, and was called xlorpoitris^ because the outline was cut in the ivory by a
pointed graver, termed xlvrpov (eervcii/iiiii), and the colors afterwards applied. The third seems
to have been a proc<;ss of laying on melted was by means of a brush. A fourth kind, used in
painting upon walls, is mentioned by Vitruviua. Men of science and artisia have attempted to
discover and restore this art.

IWny, Nat HM. zxir. 4I.-Filr««iiit. De Ardiil. vIL 0— Don FimeenMO St^umo, SaRi nl rMibiliiBMiD MP aoiiea arte 4W
Ond e d«' HcNHuii pitlori. Fanaa, 17i«7. S fola. 9 ; h Fmch, Roma, ni^—JUUittr'i Goctaiefaie d«r Eokauatik der Altm, ta
llM JoMmal te Lwau mtd dtr Modm^ for tlw ymkr l1M.-£odt and Anm, ai abova cited, in Wmduimmm^ vol. iii. p. 161.—
Oiyliu, Oa eocaoBtie paialinc, b the Mtm. Jkad. hmr. xiviii. 179. Engliah Traari. \tj J. H Mum. Lead. 176a K—PhiL
Trmu. tor (Ke jcar 1751.— 7Van«. ef Soe. for £*MOU»aftmfn< of JhU. Load. 1787.-S)ib0't MXig. Theorie, vol. ii. p. 601— !.»
ftrmiw, Encauatie, ta Jomn. du Samiu, S«pt tSS6.— The Mkneum, or 8pir. of Dug. Mag. vol. v. flee, flerie*, p. S9B, on aa
• Xacaiiatic hialinc of the dyinf Cleopetn."

2v. The peculiar mode of representing visible objects which was termed moMaiC'
work, is often included imder the denommation of painting. This has already been
noticed (see $ 167, 189).

It waa ia eflact paint ipff, aad ael laaprapcfly lamed pictura d* mmioo, Fiajr(A J?. nxvL 2S, 60) neatiOBa aa aaMiBf tba
calebnted maaieaal Vwpmm a Caatharaa with dovaa, «*or wkich the £mm tf Uka CofUel k aappoMd to be Uie copjr."— Jiea
JAia. CufriUdin. (cited f 191. 1), Iv. 6a

Sit. Respecting the peculiar method of pointiii/ /2m« which was practiced by the ancienu,
we know but little.

A laeent traveler apeakief of the ahew^poaw of the aatablkhaieBl for the BwaafkctHV of poreaiaia at Sevraa in Fiaaee, otaanraB,
'*here were naca, cupa, pilchcn, area, atatuea, table aela, top, cbiraBej ornaaMnii, all of the nuat apleodid and eaa*ly chataeler.
Ilw arara itaelf i* of the moat perfect kiad, and Ihea the paiutiof aad the gildiof, aad the aatlinf of brilliaata and piacioua atoaes
add iaiiBeBKly to Ihe ezpeoae. Brofaiard (the director, 1835) haa added aucb to the paiatioc departawat bf bh aitooveriea b the
art ef paiaiiac idaa. Ha ie aaid to have aacartaiaad the meant of cqualiug all the aneieat colon ia f laaa aecpt the red.**

L» yvtO. VktX da la Peiatora rar vena. Ptf. 1774. fbl. German tranal. Naro. 1780. For an acor>«nl of attempta to realore

fhM an, norOM Klela. Scbrift. artialbchen Iobalto.-CL Subv, Allg. Theorie, article OloMMlvd — AftnA. AieyeL article Gbu».

4. Among the applications which the ancients made of colors, we may notice also the painting of
vases, of statues, and of the ornamental parts of buildings —The painting of fictile vases seems to
have formed a distinct art, practiced by artists who received a peculiar instruction. The painted
vases are valuable chiefly as they furnish pictures illustrating the traditions, customs, and habits
of the ancientsi ; they are noticed in other sections (cf. ( 333. 173).— Statues were sometimes
painted, not merely by covering the whole with a wash or varnish of a single color, as the Jupi-
ter placed in the capitol by Ttrquinius Priscus was colored with attntum {Plin. H. N. xxxv. 45),
but also by givine to each part of the drapery its appropriate color.— In architecture, the coloring
appears to have been applied more particularly to the moldings, the friexes, the metopes, and
the tympana of the pediments. In the Parthenon, some of the sculptured ornaments were of a
pale blue ; In some Sicilian monuments, these parts are red. Various colors were sometimes
combined*. In later times, among the Romans, the decline of taste was evinced by a fondues^
for strong and gaudy colorings.

1 fbelrote (died P. UI § 12) fivea, p. 610, a Plate of eortame diawa from the HamiHoo vaaaa. * See Knglm, Ueber die Flidy-

dnania dar Grieehlacbea Afchiteclar aad Scalptar, aad ihta Granen. BerL 1836.— JtoouI-AxMte, aa died \ fi6. 2.

$331. Our judgment respecting the merits of the ancients in painting we
derive in a great degree from the tinanimous encomiums of their writers. We
infer it also from their known excellence in other arts, which are kindred to it,
and, like it, essentially connected with the art of desiring. From the few
imperfect and badly preserved specimens of ancient painting seen by the mo-
derns, no valid arguments can be drawn. Many questions respecting the sub-
ject of ancient painting remain therefore unsettled; as, for example, whether
the artists understood penpeeiive. Their greatest attention seems to have been
given to coloring.

It Is said that in the nmaalc discovered at Pompeii and called the Battle of Issus (cf. ) 189. 1),
the pergpeetive Is admirable. Scene -painting ioKtivoYpai^ia) , which seems neoesaarily to invoiva

2m2

414 ARCHJBOLOOY OF ART.

■one knowledfe of penmecUve, wm known at Athens in the time of ^lebylae (Fttmv. tU.
prcf.). and the names or several scene-painters are preserved {Plin. U. N. zxxv. 37, 40).

FiariOa, on the Penpeetin et ibe AocienU (in hb XL Schrijt. eitad \ 930) —ComU di Coybo, on the tamm rabjar, in Ihe Mom.
4ead. buer. iniL MO; abo la cited ) 2l7.~SaIlt(r, on (Iw nnc topic, Jtfcm. Aorf. huer. viii. 97.— JAma, Huiory of Scntptara,
*C. p. If?— CL MiUv** Aitf. TlMori«k vol. iii. p. 6BL

$ 322. Among the Greeks there were schools of painting as well as of sculp-
ture. The four most celebrated were at Sicyon, Corinth, Rhodes, and Athens.
Hence there were different styles and tastes in the art, the Asiatic and the
Helladic, the Ionian, Sicyonian, and Attic; the three last being, however, mo-
difications of the second. Sicyon especially was looked upon as the native
land and nursery of the best painters. But paintings were not by any means
80 numerous in Greece as were works of sculpture. — ^The most flourishing pe-
riod of the art was about the time of Alexander. Some of the most celebrated
masters were Polygnotus, Apollodorus, Zeuzis, Parrhasius, Timanthes, £u pom-
pus, Paraphyltts, Apelles, and Protogenes.

1. The history of painting among the Greeks is divided by Memeg into four periods.
-7-The first terminated with Bularchos, B. C. 720, whose battle-piece has been men-
tioned (^ 217). During this period painting seems to have made more prosrees in
Asia Minor than in Greece. Painting must have existed in some degree m Homer's
time, since embroidering in various colors is mentioned (II. iii. 126), and the shield of
Achilles is described (/Z. zviii. 478) as combining different colors ; although the only
painting he notices is that by which some ships are distinguished (vUti it^rmrafrfoi, U.
li. 673 ; Od. xi. 123), and the coloring of certain ornamenis for the heads of horses
ill. iv. 141). — The tec&nd period extends from Bularchus to Zeuxis, about 400 B. G.
Cimon of Cleons, probably about the time of Solon, B. C.600, is the earliest painter
of eminence in this period ; and it is supposed that he acquired his skill in some city
of Ionia, or other province in Asia Minor. Polygnotus was one of the most eminent
in this period ; his pictures were admired by Pliny at the distance of six hundred
years. In the time of Polygnotus, about B. C. 460, painting attracted the attention
of all Greece ; having been previously regarded with interest only in a few cities. The
most important works of Polygnotus were his two great paintings or series of paint-
ings* in the Lesche of the temple of Apollo at Delpni, described by Pausanias (I. x.
c. 25 — 31). Towards the close of this period, the pencil is said to have been first
used by Apollodorus of Athens, the instructor of Zeuxis. — The third period com-
mences with Zeuxis, about B. C. 400, and ends with Apelles, who flourished about
B.C. 330. In this period great improvement was made, in which the genius of Zeuxis
opened and led the way. A famous painting of Zeuxis was his female centaur suck-
ling her young, described in the Z^lit of Lucian ; it was carried off from Athens by
SyTlii, but lost on the voyage to Italy. Parrhasius, Timanthes, Eupompua, and
Pamphylus, the master of Apelles, are named among the distinguished painters of
this era. The fourth period is dated from the time of Apelles. This age witnessed
the full glory and decline of the art. Apelles is said to nave united the excellences
which had been separately exhibited by nis predecessors. His Venus Anadyomene',
which was long " afterwards purchased by Augustus for one hundred talents, or
JC20,000 sterling, was esteemed the most faultless creation of the Grecian pencil, the
most perfect example of that simple yet unapproachable grace of expression, of sym-
metry of form, ana exquisite finish, in which may be sumiped up the distinctive bean-
ties of his genius." Protogenes of Rhodes, a contemporary of Apelles, was next to
him in merit ; the most celebrated work of this artist was his figure of lalysus with
his dog^, on which he is said to have been occupied seven years. Nictas of Athens
was a reputable painter. Later were Nicomachus, Pasius, and others, with whom
the art began to decline. The decline of painting may be considered as commencing
about B. C. 300, and as consummated in the destruction of Corinth by Mummius,
B, C. 146 ; during this time the artists practiced much in painting upon mean subjects
ifmapoypatpia), ancTindulged grossly in licentious painting (jropvoypo^ra).

1 JUqiraAMiMn, FMBturai de Mygwte iDeipbca darinte et gnvta d^pi^ In dcKiiption d« FkOMifaM. Far. Ifll. (OMt.

ISOt.)-0>ifoyn and Dt Onytea, on rtolytnotv, Mmm. Jkad. huo'. vi. 445, and zxviL S4. • Jtnatdd, U vie of let avn^

d'Apelle, in (ha Mtm. Jlead. huer. xlii. ML—C. *• Cnyhtf, La Venna d'Apellea dite Andjonene, ym. A PJkad. dm litter.
m. 44S. with a pble drawn fitnn a figure in bronse.— QuoK. dt Quiney, Sor de dtf d'Apellea et de Pratopnea, Jfan. (h FItuhM,

C I aaae d}Hi»L U LU. Jint. vol. v. p. 300^ wiib coriooi plalea. Ct PUn. rav. tO. • Cf. PtuSanh, Deaa. 9B.— SroMwr, On

Protafenea, in tbe Mam. Aead. tmar. zlvi. 4m. BeqMCtiaff the principal artiita and their wnrfa, aee SJUtiger, Mean lor AkW-

oUiffif der Malemi. DrcKl. 1811. (U-C. JL HoM, Vile d^ Pittori AnlicbL Fkir. 1667. 4. MIL 180& 8. canteiniaf Unt of Zenzia,
I^rrhaaiua, Apellea, and Protofenea.— See aho Leottfua, Bur lea profret MoeevUii de b peiotnra chen lea Orecs; Man. d* fhutitult
Claate de lA. <l Beowx jfiif, toI. i. p. 974.

2. Rfespectiog the comparative number of paintings and statues in Greece, the fol-
lowing statement is in point. "Pausanias mentions the names of one hundred and
sixty-nine sculptors, and only fifteen painters ; while after three centuries of spolia-
tion he found in Greece three thousand statuesi not one of them a copyi he describes

p. IT. PAINTING AMONG THE ROMANS. 415

only one hundred and thirty-one painting." — It may also be worthy of remark, that
the Greeks preferred busts (o portraits, and this branch of painting does not seem to
have been so much cuhivaied as others. ** While Pausanias enumerates eighty-eight
master-pieces of history, he mentions only half the number of portraits which he nad
seen in his travels through Greece in the second century."

SNlAmciip. 190 a.— CC Ml fltym, Sar l«i cumm de la perfeetSon 4 Uqnellc I'UI pwrint cbei 1m Graa, ■! rar In epoqoM qa*U
pndit avoit ea ehcz ra people ; ia fTtiuMntarm'x Hiitmn, ftc.

$ 223. In Italy painting was early cultivated. Evidence of its advancement
is g^ven by those rich vases, already mentioned ($ 173), which are generally
termed Etruscan, but are probably the work chiefly of Grecian artists. It may
be remarked, that the color which fills up the figures, mostly red or black, was
the proper ground color of these vessels, and that the color of the surrounding
space was laid on afterwards. It is possible that these paintings are copied
from larger pictures of the best Greek masters, and so may furnish us some
means of judging of the conceptions and devices of those artists.

In the Museums of London, Paris, and Naples are great numbers of these vases ; discovered
chiefly in tombs, about Capua and Nola ; the Museo Borbonico at Naples contains above S5,000
specimens.

See BWift^ Grtedb VaMnffandUa. Wdm. 1797-1 SOO. S voU. ^—J. CMrfttV niaqoiiitioai on (ha FsOntad Grnek VaM. Load,
law. 4 — Lomi, Vari dipioti. Firama, 1808. S.-Ct Mem. dt FbutituI, CI a ■• • ^UL <l UM. Jne. » nir uo Vaae peint apporta
4a Steila^* vol. til. p. S8, with a plale.-& CampanarU Aatiebi Vau Dipinti dall CoHasiona Faoll Ron. 1837. 4.— TiiclUaJn,
JfiiBtM, ac BB cited $ 173. !.— lAuco BorAon. q)ad $ 2li.— DutoCa-Msiwiicuiw, Intnd. k I'Etada d«a Vaaea Aatiqoea. Par. 1817.
hL-OirkaTd, n citad ) 188. 1. with plataa {iviut faiihTnl copiea of Um paiDliiig».-Saa atao itanmann, in Iha JEkfttiA. PkOaupk.
/oMmal, Apr. IS6. ** eiaborata trealiaa,*' maiotainiiig the Qreak origin of moat of the vaaea called EtrweaB.

§ 224. At Rome also, in early times, there were various paintings. But aiWr
the subjugation of the Grecian territories they were more numerous and more
yaluable. The Romans, however, did not labor to signalize themselves in this
art, but were contented with possessing the best pieces of Grecian painters,
some of whom resided at Rome, particularly under the first emperors. Yet
Pliny has recorded the names of several native artists, as Fabius, Pacuvius*
Turpilius, and Quintus Pedius.

Pacnvius, known also as a tragic poet (cf. P. V. } 353), was one of the first Romans distin-
guished as a painter. A piece which he executed for the temple of Hercules, in the Forum
BoarivM^ was particularly celebrated. Cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. x.xxv. 4, 7. Julius Crsar expended
great sums in purchasing the pictures drawn by old masters {SneL Jul. Cns. 47). Augustus was
t patron of the art. Portrait painters seem at this period to have been specially encouraged;
' Varro, who.died B. C. 27, had a collection. It is said (Plin. xxxt. S) of tlie portraits of 700 eminent
personages. Uionysius, Sopolis, and Marcus Ludius, are named among the artists about tba
time of Augustus.

See /. O wM, Biexmphieal Dkttoaaryor Fkialen, Sealpton, Eocnven, and Arebiteeta, fron the aariiaat a<n ; with an Appendix
bfCJ. Nkmmnkuyf. Load. 1838. t vola. IS.— Gamlc da Csjfba, 9nr let prioees, qui oat CHltive lea arta, (Boanaa enpenn and
•Ibcn), Man. Jhad. tnicr. xxix. ieo.-Cf. life of Mich. AoRele, In the Librwy ofUttfid KnouOtdgt.

$ 225. But painting, like the sister arts, ere long declined and finally became
almost extinct, from various causes ; the irruptions of the northern tribes, the
dominions of the Goths and Lombards, the controversy of the Iconoclasts in the
eighth century, the general corruption of taste, and the general want of know-
ledge and refinement. The art was not wholly lost, but the uses made of it,
and the performances actually produced by it, were such as tended only to bring
it into greater neglect

9ee /. D. FiarOo, Oeachichte der nlebaendeB Kanate^ GOIL ITU. 5 vda. 8.— &8M. BnefSofmdta, art. /^MiAnf .-Aicyel.
Jtimkmna, vol. iz. p. 488.— JTtlfflv, aa died \ 2ZS. 8.

$ 226. After the revival of the arts, much curiosity was awakened respecting
the monuments of ancient painting. A considerable number, which were con-
cealed in ruined buildings, tombs, and the like, or had remained unnoticed, were
sought out ; and by means of plates and copies, a knowledge of them was com-
municated to amateurs of the art.

1 u. Among these monuments are the pictures found on the pyramid of C. CcstiusS
of the liiae of Augustus ; some paintings on the walls of the palace and baths of Ti-
tus', of which some are preserved in the Escurial at Madrid ; some antique paintings
preserved at Rome, in the palaces Massiini and Barberini, and particularly the piece
called the Aldobrundine ftstivaly formerly in the Villa Aldobrandini, now in the pope's
collection'. We may mention, as among the most remarkable, the pictures found in
the tomb of the Naaos* in the year 1675. Many remains of ancient painting were
discovered at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabia^, which are still preserved in the
museum in Portici. They are above a thousand in number, most of them upon dry

416 ARCHAOLOOV OF ART.

plaster or chalk, but some upon a moist ground, or proper fresco-paintings. Man^
of them, by beine exposed to the light and air, lost their colors. Others were muti-
lated and injured in detaching them from the walls, belbre a safe and successful
method was discovered.

iBMpeeiiBgllittoaiborCBatiui, im Ztaerinnm <(i X^nnaRa Jiilteko, ooa le Autontk di /'otwmio Minting Rnm. 1617.
—Falemmut, Oe Pyrun. C. Ceriii, is Onwitu, vol. \'9.— Wimkamann, Bnioirc, Ac livr* Iv. eb. «. ) IS. Note.— JoAnnm** PML
or Tnral. p. 178. cited § 190. 1.— LVIMc JUm, Hiat Crit. d« la Pyram. de C. Ceiiiaa. Fir. ITM.- A « i»w of this tomb i> gives in oar

Fal« ZVlil. fie- S. « Carititrt ud PanaH DcKriplioM of lb« BaOib of Trtua. • For tn nplanatinii of the JUU<braaidim

fiitiaaljWttBMtigtr, Archaologitefac AiMdeutvnK d. AldobnodiB. Hochuit Dmd. I BIO. 4.— (WrM'Adrrwnn, HUtorTs, »c. Ii«rc ft.
ch. & ( 8.—L PifmaraiM, Epnlob lopor aoliqiiiMiiuain, que Roaue Timilvr, Fidurun. de Bilu Nu(rtiuuin.— « Of t).e picium ia
the tomb of the N a tot, with olhein, pUtBi were pulliahMl in BirtoU end Bdiori, Pirtune anliqiue Crjrp'arum RmnaB.rum «t a»
pulehri NmMMum. Rom. 1738. (it. 1750, 1*91.) fol.— Cf. Qmvti Tiiei. Ant. Bom. Inmr xii. p l(Bi. aod Wiitcktbmanu^ Hstoire, *e.

llTie iv. ch. 10. \ 9. liv. vi. ch. C. \ IS. • 1)b the paiotings dtaoovered at HereDlaBeam,ieelhe ttatelr mirk eiM itied U An-

tfieNta di Bnolano, cited § 843. S. Five viJunee oC it relate uerc perticuUrfy to the painlingi : tis voh. lit, 8d. Sd. 4)h, and 7lh,
whkb bear the title of U Pittun onKrAe d'J^O'itena— ZeAn, Die actaooaieB Ormmeate und ncrkwltrdigslco Gcmllde ana Van-
peii, Herctilasum, iiad Slabi». Deri 1828 -~JlntiqfiiU$ d'Henuianum, oa l« plw bellca Peinturea aDtiqiiea, lea Marble*, Brouai,
te. trovv. dam let eicavatioBa d'Here. IHmp. et Stab. Gravrca par F. 4 David, mne Explicatiooa, ftc. lO voia. 4.— On the ii»d«-
■WBta of ancient palnrtof , aee ateo Wtnekitmam*i UieloiTe, kc livre It. eh. K.— JtfiWngoi. Peinmrei Antiqiiea. Rr<n. 1813.— Tbeiv
ai« aooM BOtiereor paiotinffa fknind at Pompeii, in the work alyled Ponpriu, republiihed fraoi tto Bi«liab edit. Boat. in>. U.
with wood<»ta.-fr. CMI, Fbmpeiam, oiled 1 843. 2.— IVnafi, Moa. Borton. cil«l f 818.

It Should be remiirked thfit piintinfn hiive continued to be found on the walls of buitdints
af they have been excavated at Pomptrii; in the year 1849« four larfe paintinirt in fresco were
found, it is stated, in houses excavated in the street called Via Fortnnie.— In onr Plate XXIII.
flf . i, we have a ship, from a paintlnv at Pompeii. The Jar of grapes, fl^. a, and the wine cart,
fif . S. in Plate XXXV., aro from paintinfts on the walls of i^uildinir at Pompeii. The represen-
tations in (iff. I, Plate XXXVII. a«-e from a painting on the wall of a chamber at Herculaneura.
The Mosaic Painting, flff. BB., in Plate XLIX., is a monoment found at Pompeii; cf. ^ 189.1. Tb«
representation of Rome as a goddess, in Plate II., is from a painting formerly belonging to tbe
Barberlnl family ; given in JfotK/aiieon, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. p. SOS.

2 u. It will be proper to mention here other works that treat of the painting of the
ancients.

Frme. Jtmimt, De Pictan Veteram llbri lil. Boierod. 1894. M. in Oenn. T^imI. Bnahn, ITH. 9. eflDtaiaii« a ealnabie CM*.
fefW aiijkum ; to which aaiif** Calalopia, ated \ 188. 8, irandaled Into Ei^iah, with the title /NefioRory ^JMMa, LenL 1897,
la an importaat aopplemeni.— Mr. Durand, Hieloir* de la peintare ancieniM, estraitr de l*hi«toif« naturrile de Pline. Load. ITSSk
fol.— jL JfdfNif jaia, De CBlatnra et Kctora Velanim, In Onm«vim, vol. 'a.—L. ZkmonCofAM, De Gemmanim Sealptara et Pietarm
Aotiqiiariin, ia Oronoviut, is.— Ancient Patalinia, ewf rared by P. Santa; "eontainiag aooie foond in 1088, in a faalt near the
CoilMBBm'^— Ora. rnimhiD** Trealiae on Aadeat hmting. Load. 1740. M. with fifty eitgravinga of ancient paintii^a.— HialDrj
of PklnUoK amoDg tbe Gfceka, ia /. /. Sambath, Venocb einer pragmatiarfacn Utierftrhialoria. Halle, 1770. i.-/Uim^ Qber din
Malerei dcr Alteo. B<-rl. I7«7 ; c£ fTinekilmafm, Hiatoire de I' Ail (Paiii, 1803, tome U. 8b P. p. m).-C. JL Bcttigir't Ideea nr
Aithaoleiledar Malerei. Utmd. 1811. 9.-J, J. Onmd, Malerei der OriccbcD. Dread. I8i0. 8 vole a-F. KUgkr, Handbueh d«
Oeeehicbte der Malerei voa CoaMaalia dem Oroaaea, Ae. BctI. 1837. 8 vda a—/. G. LBgroHd^ died § 943. 1.— Chna-JWafiMN,
Diacean Hiaioriqoe aar la Paintvra, Ae. belooglac to tbe M u a e e iFVoncaJaa. cited \ 191. 4.— AimrfoAr, Ober Malerai uod Bitdhaa*
«i«i ia Bom. L|M. 1799. StoIb. &— There ia a vmlaable bat ran work, from the ami o( OowK Gayiitf, Beeaeil dee peiatorm
■Btii|Bce imitdea fid^lcueat pour lea cooleora et pour le deaaein, d^prea lea deaaeina oolorlea faita par P. A BarlaU. tu. 1767. fiA*
pioeed, 1784.) M^Ratml-Reeimu, Ptoiatena Aatkjaca Inedila, preeedcea de Becherchm ear I'Gmploi de la Peinhiree daea le deeo<
niloe dee Edifieea mcnn at publiea ches lea Gtem et ehci lea Bemalaa. Pkr. 1830. Ibl. illaatnted hf ptalea ; a Sappiemeat to hie
Mmtum. hud cited f 191. 4.--See SvUtih Allg. Theorfe, Art MaUrtL—Lmuft Stork Fittoriea (Sd ed. Baaiaa. 1800. 6 vola. 8)
ia a biatory of Paintlnff la Italy from the Revi? al of Aria to the end of the eighteenlfa eeatury. TnaaL into Oerman, by J. mifiur
CGeeUditodBrMilafei, Ac), with addilkwa by QwutdL L|& 1883; into Eagllah, by T. Jtaeea. Land. I8B8.

IV.— ^fcAiVerfiire,

$ 337. ArchitectQTe may be contemplated in two different points of view, —
as a mechanic art, or as a fine art. In the latter view it is to be considered
here ; that is, so far as the general rules of iatte are applicable to it; so far as it
has not mere ntility, comfort, or durability, but rather beauty and pleasure, for
its object. Order, symmetry, noble simplicity, fair proportions and agreeable
forms, are the chief peculiarities that are requisite to render a building a work
of taste ; and these are the points to which the artist and the observer must turn
their attention.

1 tt. In its origin architecture was only a mechanic art, and scarcely deserved that
name. It commenced in the first human society, as men must have immediately felt
the need of defence against the heat of the sun, the violence of storms, and the at-
tacks of wild beasts. The dwellings of men, after they were disperse J and hved in
an unsettled state, were at first, it is likely, caves and clefts of rocks ; and then huts
and cabins, rudely constructed, according to the nature of the climate and the genius
of the occupants, of reed, cane, boughs, bark, mud, clay, and the hke.

PLATE L.

H

_M ti — y^

53

iSa dU^ ^

il7

418 ARCHJEOLOGY OF ART.

2 u. The writinffs of Moses {Gen. iv. 17. xi. 4) present the earliest notices of archi-
tecture in the residence of Cain, and ihe tower of Babel.

^ 228. " There are three grand causes of structure and form in architecture ; three
leading principles, which not only originated the primeval elements of design, but
which to a great degree have governed all the subsequent combinations ot* these.
This influence extends not merely to the essentials of stability, e<{uilibrium, and
strength, but has suggested the system of ornament. These master dispositions are,
first, the pur^e ; secondly, the material of architecture ; and thirdly, the climate."

Climate will necessarily exert some influence on architecture ; chiefly, however,
ui>on the external arrangements. According to the latitude of the situation, buildings
will be contrived to admit or exclude the sun, to save shelter from biting cold, or to
secure against scorching heat, or merely to vield shade, wuhout immediate reference
to either extreme. All these, however, will not afiect the internal harmonies or pro-
perties of the constituent parts. CUmate, therefore, is only modifying, not creative,
as the two other causes ; it may suggest composition, but hardly design.

^ 229. *' The materiala employed in architecture have influenced its forms and cha-
racter ; not only in the peculiar styles adopted in difierent countries ; but likewise in
the general principles of the science. The choice of materials in the first instance is
determined by the resources of the particular country ; but the arrangement of the
materials must be, in some measure, determined by laws which are universal, and
over which taste and ingenuity can exert only a limited control. Since a mass of stone
is heavier in all positions, and weaker in most positions, than timber of equal dimen*
eions, it is obvious the whole structure, that is, the system of architecture, will be
modified as the one or the other material is employed. In wooden erections, the sup-
porting members may be much fewer and less massive than in structures of stone ; be-
cause, in the former, the horizontal or supported parts are both lighter, and will carrj
an incumbent weight — as a roofy-over a much wider interval than in the latter. It is
apparent, also, even for the ordinary purposes of stability, that, in constructing edi-
fices of stone, whether of the perpendicular or horizontal members, the dimensions
would be greater than in elevations of wood ; and in the case of columnar struckires,
that the altitude, in proportion to the diameter, would be far less in stone than in tim-
ber supports. Hence the two grand characteristics of a massive or solemn, and
a light or airy, architecture. Hence, also, when genius and taste had begun to consi-
der the arrangements of necessitv and use in the relations of effect and beautv, new
combinations would be attemptea, which approached to one or other of these leiding
divisions. It must, however, be obvious, that the field of these experiments is nar-
rowed by the very principles on which they would be first suggestea. In the art we
are now considering, the human agent has less power over the inertness of matter
than in any other. Imagination comes in contact with reality at every step.''

1 «. In early time*, wood seema to have been the mogt common material. But the use of this
In bulldiof preaupposes the Invention of various instriimenta and toote, which probably were
made of stone, earlier than of metal (cf $ 10. 9). Edifices of stone were of later oripin.'as the
eonstructinn of such demands a greater advance in knowiedire. We learn from Moses (Ex. 1.
14. V. 7— 14). that in his times burnt bricks were common in Eirypt. How early hewn stone,
mortar, and sypsum, were employed in buildlnp, cannot be determined. Several auxiliaries
«eem evidently prerequisite; as, for example, machines for collectlnfr the materials, and for
working metals, especially in iron. In Egypt, a country destitute of wood, appears to have been
the earliest and most frequent use of stone, which the people could easily transport upon their
canals, from inexhaustible quarries.

S. In Plato XXXVII. of our lIlintntloM, fifun* 7 ud B, are wan Mvaral of tita toola Miplojed lijr the aacieati is areliilactiife ud
Id the nednnie arte ; titay are Kim by MontfiMoon (vol. UL pi. 187, IS9), aa takaa frooi andant mcnaiDCBti, In part fiaiB iba
tombofCMmtim. Ajnonf;tliemai«(hanw,aemi; llw lumiMr awl mallet, Iu4ef, msUnif ; Qm halehal or adi, aeol^pnim, awte;
the iqaara;, norma ; Ihe nie aa4 oompaa, refiite tt elmnutf the plombJim, •muMfi, or pmfmdiculum ; the larirvnMBt fcr
enttiiu; linea, or ear? lor, emUun, teatpmr ; a Mrl of Kimlat or pimvar, torfaa ; and other tools whoea oaa is not obviens, aa ooc wHh
a spar head and a star, eiupw aUUiftr, and another eooaistioc of a handle, e^uhu, and a aort of notched wkMl, rvltite acrraCo,
fteihaps designed for maikiBf, bj its rarolalkm, eqaidislaat points or do«k

8. The influence of the material in modifying the style of architectnre Is strikingly exhibited,
when we contrast the ancient structures reared in Egvpt with those of Palestine and Syria. We
see the heavy and massive style in those mysterious edifices, still standing as landmarks between
known and unknown time. **In the ponderous members of these solemn piles, the narrowness
of the intervals, the crowded pillars, the massive base, and the lessened perpendicular, is found
every principle previously assumed as characteristic of that architecture, which would be go-
verned by necessity before the sensation of beauty bad been felt, or at least methodized. In
that region of Asia, already noticed as the scene of the earliest recorded labors of the art, wood
was abundant. From the descriptions of Holy Writ we accordingly find, that this material was
much emploved even in their most sacred and important buildings. Thus, though few details
capable of giving any just architectural notions, are preserved of Solomon's Temple, it Is yet
plain, that cedar wood was the chief material both for roofs and columns, that is, both for sup-
ported and supporting members. Hence, the temples of Palestine, and of Syria generally, by
which we understand the Asia of the Old TeMainent,already described, were more spacious, but
less durable, than those of Egypt, and with fewer upright supports. Of this, a singularly strik-
ing proof occurs in the catastrophe of the House of Da eon, when Samson, by overturning only
two columns, brought down the whole fabric. In an edifice constructed on the plan of the Egyp-
tias temple, where pillar stands crowded behind pillar, In range beyond range, to give support to

p. IV. ARCHITECTURE. ITS BRANCHES. EGYPTIAN. 419

the ponderoM ArehltraTe and marble roof, the overtarnlnf of two of these columnf woold pro-

duee bui a very partial dtaintef ration.*' It la obvious, ihat the style may have a diflereat

modification, when different materials are combined in the same structure, as wus evidently the
case in the buildings of Persepolis. The marble columns were connected by cross-beams of
wood, and they probably supported a roof of light structure; and they are accordingly loftier,
further apart, and fewer In number, than in Egyptian buildings. {Meme»t p. 233, as.)

^ 230. The purpose of a buildine, or use for which it was designed, would necessa-
rily, in an early stage of art as well as in a later, in a great measure determine both
the magnitude and the form. The purpose or design ofstructure is the foundation of
a division of Architecture into three general kinds, or grand branches, Civil, MUUarjf,
and Naval. I'he two latter, which treat of ships, castles, towers, forts, and the like,
come not into consideration amone the fine arts. The former is subdivided according
to its various purposes into Sacred, Monumental, Municipal, and Domestic.

Sacred architecture appears amons the earliest efforts of the present race of man.
'* The first impress of his existence left upon the soil, yet moist from the waters of
the deluge, was the erection of an altar; and the noblest evidence of his most accom-
plished skill has been a temple."

Monumental architecture is also of very early origin. Pillars of stone and mounds
of earth are the primitive records both of life and death. Mounds or barrows have
been used for monumental purposes throughout the globe. 'I'he pyramids of E^ypt
and India may be considered as mounds of higher art and more durable materials.
Columns and triumphal arches are a species of monumental structures.

Under the head of Municipal architecture may be included all public buildings more
especially connected with the civil and social afiairs of men ; as, for example, halls of
legislation and iustice, baths, theatres, and the hke.

Vomeatic architecture refers particularly to the dwellings of individuals, whether
palaces, manors, villas, or common houses.

§ 231. It was in the east, and particularly in Egypt, that architecture first
Teached any considerable improvement, and this was m respect of solidity and
grandeur rather than beauty. The Egyptians in their most celebrated works
of this art seem to have intended to awaken the wonder of the latest posterity,
rather than to gratify the taste of the connoisseur. Their most famous struc-
ture was the Labyrinth of extraordinary extent, situated near lake Moeris, the
work of twelve Egyptian kings. Their pyramids and obelisks too, which were
probablv designea both for monumental erections and for display, are ever re-
markable for grandeur and solidity.

8aBi«<inbe|iyiUKidibKvcteaaoptoadiBa«d«ratiai(«; iaoMaftban BriMidboad awbeaMoran«r(ct P.II.§taS). h
tM ascKVktioM of 1137 or ISSS, Mrval ebanbtn taviof ban ofMood wIUmnh rtmlini uy lUaf, io one vm ioaad a CMteoch «f
bieraclxphiei, i. a. • pfoper oune in tte bisroflyphk alphabet.

Onbtrt, DcKTiplioo daa Pjnnkia da Gbb6. Fkr. 190a (Tnari. Into Ganun, Gen, 1808.}— OorH TniTab in Onaea^ Egjp^
kc—Bttamif Namtiva of tbo raeant opantiom and diMovariea within Iba pyr«inid% Icmplat, he. in E^ffpt and Nubia. Lond.
ISni— Cf. Lend. Qumrt, As. xtL 8} ivii. 166; xlz. IW, 394.-I7. Fyw, Oparalioaa earried on at tba I^ranida of Oiae in I8S7,
with an Aecoinl at a Vojifa into Uppar EcTpli *<■ ^^omA. 1841. 2 toIil & with platea.— Aiefttfif Aam*« Lecturai, N. F. Qbnrvav

Oct. 27, 1838.— 2iMfa, Da origiaa el nan obeliicongn. Bom. 1797. C»l.— Saa alio raferaneaa (ivra P. 1. $ 177 For a viaw of

mna etdiain, m Jranl/auaoH, Antiq. Bipi. vol. ii. pL cilIiL ; and Dnun, at cited f 238. A view of ■oma on a •mailer aeda ia
givaa in oar Plala UL flp. IS^ 14, la Thia plnia azhibita tha Gempaimliva haigbt and B»(uinida of varioua ceiahiatod atnctorea,
boihaaeiaal and sndara.

1. The temples of the Egyptians should be noticed as among their remarkable
structures. One of the most ancient and celebrated is the Memnonium at Thebes. It
is represented as havine been about 200 feet wide and 600 feet lon^ ; with an exten-
sive propylson, of whicn above 200 feet are still observed. In this is a colossal statue
of Osymandyas, which is sometimes confounded with the vocal statue of Memnon,
but must be distinguished from it. Cf. ^ 169. 2.— Another celebrated temple, called
the finest in Egypt, is that at Denderah ; this, however, belongs to a later period,
being ascribed by Belzoni to the age of the first Ptolemy. — Monolithal temples are
mentioned among the Egyptian structures. One of ^reat size, and con^stmg of a
single mass of stone, is described by Herodotus as having been hewn out of the solid
rock and transported from Elephantis to Sais, and placed near the temple of Neith,
which was itseu another very celebrated edifice. Another monolithic temple is found
at Antsopolis.

**The elementary featares of Egyptian archltectare were chiefly as follows. 1. Their walls
were of great thickness and sloping on the outside. This feature Is supposed to have been de-
rived from the mud walls, mounds, and caverns of their ancestors. 2. The roofs and covered
ways were flat or without pediments, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall
or column to another. The principle of the arch, although known to them, was acldom if ever
employed by them. 3. Their columns were numerous, close, short, and very large, being some-
times 10 or 13 feet in diameter. They were generally without bases, and had a greHt variety of
capitals, from a simple square block, ornamented with hieroglyphics or fkces, lo an einhorata
composition of palm-leaves not unlike the Corinthian capital. 4. They uied a sort of concave
entablature or cornice, composed of vertical flutings or leaves and a winged globe in the center.
[This symbol la sometimes called the "winged serpent," two beads cf serpents being connecf^d

490 ARCHAOLOOT OF ART.

With the globe ; ft hat alio been tennedem^AtM, a Hebrew word nlgnifylng wlnge.] 5. Pyramida
well known for their prodiftoui tiza, and obelUks composed of a fllngle atone often exceeding 70
feet in height, are structuree peculiarly Egyptian. 0. flutuea of enormous size, sphinxes carved
In atone, and sculptures in outline of fabulous deities and animals with innumerable hieroglf-
phica, are the decorative objects which belong to this style of architecture. The architecture of
the ancient Hindoos appears to have been derived from the same original ideas as the Egyptian.
The most remarkable relics of this people are their subterraneous temples, of vast size and ela-
borate workmanship, carved out of the aolid rock at Elephanta, Elloraand Salsetu.'* Enc. Jim»9.

QMMmm 4a «Hteiy, Da rArehiiwtiin Bmiliimi. Fte. laot. 4. with siglMoeD plUfl*. CL RwiMr of It » th* Amt.
^mrttdf, vol. V. p. X^Dmaiptian dt VXfVpU, fld ad. Ffer. I8I8-2& 10 vob. M. » <b teste," with 19 vob. M. •< dea plMdm."
Cf. P. I. \ in.-.£«i«mMiil, Miate dai Aatiquila* EgyptiaDaai, on ftaeadl d« Momwi. Egjpt ArchitactniT, Statoun, *e. B(«»
far. 18M. fol. Platca, with eiptinalonr lot

U oar Pbta L. flfb a, ^ e, art leaii qtaeioMDi of EgypUu eoloona, wbich may Aow tba Mairiwncai oT atyla prcvalant fs
Eorpliaa adiflcoi. Pig. • rapnacata a eolaaaa of a tonb at aiiiht ; u r ten in Dmon*t plata xIUI. («■ dted $ SM), It appem «liil
mmmmf. OaEf7p(taapillaii,aaefafilicri«B>ufei§ni.>.— Poraviawofainaaf Ef7plkadsar-«a7,aaaoarPbtoZXX&
t^e. OBS|7piiaaai<lBiBMnl,eaHDUaipaelaU7lfUki^Arcl«ologi«iellad(fl. 4.

2. It is on Intereadog fact, that architectural remaios are found in the regioiifl of
central America, which bear a etriking resemblance to those of Egypt. These have
been supposed by some to be the monumental relics of a great nation, whose exist-
ence had become, at the time of the Spanish conquest, a matter of vague record under
the name of " giants and wandering masons." They are called Tultecan monu-
ments. Among these remains are pyramids, some of them said to rival those of
Esypt. The pyramid at Cholula resembles the tower of Babel as described by He-
rodotus. There are also temples and other structures, the most remarkable being
at the city of Palenque, where are likewise bas-reliefs and other sculptured monu-
ments.

IMMIo,9a»m of as Aaeiant CiTf, laMy diaoBTarai ia OaaHawla. Loud. I8B1 4.— SliBodk'k Travab in Masleo.~JViW% lich»
olocical Voysfa, ftr. iaS&->/kifW<x, Aatiqaitdi Maiieaioaa. Pv. lOa UL Tha aotbor waa at iha bead of a CowbIwoi leal
Mt by tba Spaaidi fwawaMrt tor tba parpoaa of iavaatigatiK lbs aO^JaeL-CC Jhmr. 9iH. JUporitor^ Na uvU. Jnly, im,
p. B19.-AI«, tba BtpiiMeafion of Qoarlariy aad other Barlawib Oet lOS. p. 17, l97.»iV. 4nwr. Jba. vol. IL p. fSn^-J. L
aiapkau, lacidwite of Tiaval b Caotml liawio, *c N. Toik, t84L 8 fok. 8. with pUta^-A M. Wanmn, RanUaa is Tb»
taa, ladadJac a Yiait to Om Roioi oT Chl-Cbaa, Zavi, and Unaal. N. Torfc, 1842. a with plalca.

3. We may properly here advert to the Cvclopean architecture. In Greece and
Italy there are celebrated remains of vast rocK-built walls and fortresses, which are
called Cyclopean, because said to have been built by the Cyclops. In the regions of
America above-mentioned, there are structures which very much resemble them,
called by the natives, granaries of the giants. The most celebrated of these remains
in Greece are at Tiryns and JViyoente. They consist in both places of a wall or fortifi-
cation, inclosing the summit of a nearly insulated rock, the Acropolis, in the language
of the later Greeks ; the inclosure of which was at once a palace, a fortress, and a tem-
ple. They are composed of large blocks of unhewn stone ; the blocks are generally
polyeonal and well Btted to each other. At Tiryns the inclosure is about 230 yards in
length and 60 in breadth. At Mycene the inclosure is 300 yards by 200 ; in the east-
em side a remarkable gateway still exists, called the Gate of Lions, from two lions
rudely sculptured over the lintel. Remains similar to those at Tiryns and Mycenae are
found at Cosa, Norba, and Cortona, in Italy.

FF:otf,Ai|olla,orIliBaniyerGRMa,dtadiS4a.t^~&n.Clar*i^TiafrialaEgypt,Graeoe,ac. Load. 104. IOTola.a~
ZaalB'k Tf»*al% dtad P. L § 129.— Jfte. BeraU, 1884, p. 44X^Pon^tU, p. 84, «• citad ) 228. l.—ff: AtatOlM, Fniti—i oT
aacieat Qraaeat ia the dfrokBofofio, (eilad ( 942. 8). jrol. zv. p SI6.--CIM. Joum. vol t. p 962^fMholka, aa dted P. UI. f 18^
ed. 1840, p. 1.12.— O. MkaU, L*Italia aftali it doailain d. Roaiaal. FIicbl 1881. 4 tela. 8; Storia d. AaUchi tapM MOaaL
f maB. 1883. 8 Tolk 9. with an atlaa la bt. Cf. IV. Jtrmr. Ae. ynL 49L

$ 233. In Asia Minor architecture inust have made considerable advances by
the time of Homer. Of this there is evidence from the descriptions he gives of
buildings in both his epic poems, even if we allow much for poetic ornament
and exaggeration. As examples, notice the description of the palace of Priam
at Troy* and of Paris*, and especially the palace oi Alcinous, king of Phaeacia*,
and that of Ulysses in several passages of the Odyssey. The manner also in
which Homer, in these poems and in the hymns, speaks of temples^ seems to
presuppose a construction of such edifices by no means rude.

I n. vi. 243. « n. «i. 813 1 Ofym. vii. 88. « Oa lb« cenditioa of donaitlc arcUladar* aa exbibitad ia tba Hiad aad

OJyMy, aae If ma, p 262. 2%, at bcion cited. ) 188. O. P. III. § 98.— Alao. So/Uer, Elat da PArchitaelara aa lanpa dVoaieic^
Sa the Mkm. Aca'l. Inmr. xirli. 19—01. JfiUUr^ Biat. aad Ant. of Doric Bace, bk. if. di. 1.

ReH>ectinc arebiladnra anmnc Ibe Bebrawa, aa exhibilad ia SelenooH Temple, tea PtidmuXt Catmd, ke. aa cited P. 1. ( IV k
— Ud tba arcbiiecniral reaalai of aacianl Idaoim, aae Labofdt, Robiiuen, ke. aa dted P. L ) 171.— On thsae at Pen'tf, aae Aod,
died 1 171. Cf. P. 1. 9 153.

$ 333. Yet the art was very far from the perfection which it afterwards at-
tained among the Greeks. With them, its most flourishing period may be dated
from about the middle of tbe fifth century before Christ. During about a cen-
tury succeeding this date, or between the time of Pericles and Alexander, there

p. TV. GRECIAN ARCHITECTVRB. TEMPLES. 421

were erected in Greece, and particularly at Athens, a' rast nuInbe^ of superb
edifices of rarioua kinds; temples, palaces, theatres, gymnasia, porticos, &c.
Religion, policy, emulation, luxury, all united to encourage and advance archi-
tecture, which the Greeks were the first to raise fully to the rank of a fine art.
It was, however, chiefly upon public buildings that they bestowed their care.
Private dwellings, even those of the more celebrated personages, and in the
most flourishing period of the art, were comparatively simple and free from
ornaments.

For an hiitorioJ view of Oredaa arebitaefm, ooDnlt JAnwt, fk 948.— iVno BUnb. fincyelop. Ajt Civil Arebitectare.— IKrf,

OMcbicMe der BuikaiMl, and StUgHtx; both died § 24S^ 4. On tba orifin of Gracian arcbtitacten, oomfh Chalmubrianit Tftf

f«to in Greece, ke. traaabted by F. JMoterZ, (p. S54), Aao. edit. N. Yofk, 1814.

§ 334. The countless multitude of divinities occasioned an immense demand
forUmplesi and those consecrated to a particular deity were, both in number
and magnificence, proportionate to his supposed dignity and importance. These
structures were, in general, not designed to receive within them assemblies of
worshipers, but to form as it were habitations and memorials of their appro-
priate gods. Hence they were often small in size. They were usually raised
so as to be entered by an ascent of steps, ornamented with statues, and with
pillars erected completely around them, or at least in their front.

1 u. The porch or space in firont was called vptfvoof . In the Dorian temples, the doors
were brought to a point at the top, and generally, it was by these openings alone that
light was admitted ; they were commonly liehted also by lamps within. The interior
was adorned, on the covering and on the walla, with the ornaments both of architecture
and sculpture.

<iuatr. de Qusney, rar la maaieiv doat eloieBt edalna let templea dci Graca el d« aooiaiiii, Mm. de PAuttlttf, C 1 a ■ ae d'AiM*
«£il..«fie.vol.iii.p. laa

2. The temple was frequently surrounded by an inclosed court (inpi0o>of\ which often
included a grove, statues, and buildings appertaining to the temple. The body of the
temple was usually quadrangular, oblons , and inclosed by walls ; this was the temple
in the strict sense ; and was called by the Greeks the yaof ; bv the Romans the cella.
The number and disposition of the pilfara which were employea to adorn it, ffave occa-
sion for the architectural terms used to designate different kinds of temples, vitruvius,
in this way, discriminates seven kinds.

In our Plate XXI., are given plana to reprerent theae kinda. The Jiratf ia the Temple with
Jtnta CAvratoi'i} which haa only aquare coliimna or pilaatera on the aidea, with two aqaare co-
lumna or pilaatera in front, one ai each angle, and two round columna between them ; ai In flg.
d in the Plate.— The «<coa^ the Prottfle (jTpdffroAof), having a row of columna in the front, and
only in front : aa in flg. •.— Thirds the JhaphiprostyU ('Aic0cirptforvAof)» having columna at, both
enda ; aa in dg. /.—Fourth^ the Peripteral (flrpfirrc/ioO, havini a aingle row of columna extend-
ing wholly around the building; aa in fig a ; and alao in fig. A, in which the cell and ita sur-
rounding colonnade ia circular. If the walla of the cell were thrown back ao aa to fill the
intercolnmntationa, the temple waa called Pteudc-periptereU.— Fifths the Dipteral (^drrepog),
having a double range of pillara aroand the whole cell ; aa in fig. e.— Sixths the Peeudo-dipterul
C^nSo6iTrrcpoi\ having one row of pillara only, Iheae pillara being at the same diatanee from the
cell aa in Dipteral templea, and the Inner row of pillara being omitted.— 5eoen(A, the Hypathrai
(*riraf9pof), waa ao named becauae the temple waa open to the aky ; it waa alao marked by the
number of ita columna, being the largest and moat ma|;nificeni kind of temple ; it waa dipteral,
having a double row around it, and amphiprostyle, having ten pillar* beaidea at each end ; it haa
alao a range of cnlumnt within the ceil, as in tig. ft.- There was another variety, termed Mtmop^
Ural 03Lov6itTtpoi\ which conaiaiedof a circular colonnade, without a celt, but with an altar In

the center ; aa in fig. g. Templea were alao deaignated according to the nearneaa of their eo>

lumna to each other; being called Pymofff/a {S\vKv6vrv\oi\ when the columna were placed in
thp cloaest order allowed, I. e. one diameter and a half apart; Syetyle {'ZwrvXof)^ when they
were two diameteri apart; J5«»ff20 ('Eva rvAof), when two diametera and a quarter; Diattyle
(AtivrvXeOi when three diametera ; and JSraostyU CApatScrvXos), when the interval was greater.

See VitrmiuM, On the Temple* and lateitolvinBialioH of the Aacieota. Loud. 17M. & viUi plataa.— /. JKfiloia, Elemeala of
Techoology. B«L 1829. &— Pomfieij, p. 104, aa eited § 230. I.

3. Among the temples most celebrated for their extent and raaenificence were the
following ; that of Diana at Ephesus ; those of Apollo at Delphi and Miletus ; those of
Jupiter at Athens and Olympia ; and that of Minerva, called the Parthenon, at Athens.
The temples at Agrij^entum in Sicilv were celebrated ; especially that of Jupiter, called
also the temple of the Giants^ a colossal building now completely in ruins. The di-
mensions of the temple of Diana of Ephesus were 425 feet by 220 ; those of Jupiter at
Athens, 354 (or according to some over 400) feet by 171 ; and those of Apollo Didy-
msus, 303 by 164.

For a comparative view of the Parthenon, the Temple of Giants, and other atmctorea, see oar
Plate LII. fig. 17, 18, Ice. In Plate XXI. fig. 1. ia a view of the Parthenon realored ; In the Plate
on p«ge43!l,ia a view of ita actual appearance In rulna as given by Ilobhouae. In Plate LI. we
have the temple of Diana, drawn from the dracriptione of ancient aulhora. In Plate VII. is «
view of the remalne of the temple of the Sun at Balbec, with a ground-plan.

VJUbt JAiy, TMiples andaM et noderoH. Far. 1774. S Tole. a-McfiiCi, aa dtad § MS. i^lTindirimum, ObaarvalioM m

3N

iiUSi ASCHAOLOGT OF ART.

tolMpP* daOiifMli; ia tte IThMni, 4«^ dM f SB. 4. «^ iL>C. X. CodbaflB, T«B|da oT Jupiter al Affrifwtn (iMpteof lh«
Otami). Lind. HOl M^ITin, BMbnibiaff te TM^dt te INhm a B|ihMM. Bwl. laOSi A.-JtnmMt, Vuh, Ik clia4 P. I
I Ifl (eoataJBiiv naarks m tha iMBpte of DtaM).— fWoono-, PlinyS aceoal of DiMM*t lempK ftc is lb* .MrekmologU {tm chil

in. 8),«ol.st.p.l.— Cbmf»4bCkylkit,UDtaM4'£fihni al na MapK » tb* Mm. AiM. Auer. voL zu. p. 4«L for a

MUwofqiHiBCQfWfc I— plw,wt iymJMmfc flicyd. mtdaOwa Ar>Jh>teHi.--AlwStiMy<»»Dietiii—ry (Uwd. UBO. SvoU. Q,

v^OT Um wtH^TkmfU,JgHfmamn,kt.-Ct Loud, quart, Jkv. vii. 901 ; hIv. 514. Ob tha t«npl« of IheSu al Bdbac,«ai

tie raias at PalByci, d. P. L i ISC-CoMtt tha nte«Ma bdow, 9 849.

$ 235. The ancient iheatret were structuies of vast extent, sometimes wholly
hailt of marble. They had on one side the form of a semicircle with its ends
somewhat prolonged, and on the other side the ends were united by a buildinff
passing directly across from one to the other. The Greek theatre was divided
into three principal parts. One was the Mtagt or scene (0x171^) in the part ex«
tending across the semicircle ; this was appropriated to the actors. A second
was the part occupied by the spectators, who sat in the concentric rows (sdtdXto,
ordines) around the semicircle ; this part strictly speaking was the theatre (icarpar,
called also xoTxoy, cavea). The third was between these two, and called the
orchestra (jipxriOtpa), being the part assigned to the choir of mimes, singers, and
dancers.

1 u. The seats for spectators rose behind each other hi regular succesnon ; they were
often however divided into two or three compartments, according to the size of the
building, by means of wide passages (dia^an, priBcinctiones) running the whole length
of the seats and concentric with them. There were likewise opemngs or stair- ways
(cXt><MC() passing Uke radii to the semicircle, transversely to the seats. These free
spaces facilitated the distribution of the audience. The several portions or compart-
ments of seats between them (KcpKiiet) resembled wedges in shape, and were called cunn
hj the Romans. The magistrates and distinguishea persons took the lowest seats, in
the portion (called /SooXtorucdv) nearest the stage. The successive rows of seats were, by
a definite arrangement, appropriated to other citizens, and were often designated by a
specific name ; e. g. a certain part was assigned to youth and called ^^v/^u^. A par-
ticular place was also reserved for strangers. Outside of the whole part occupied by the
spectators there was usually a portico.

2. The Greeks usually constructed their theatres on the side of a hill ; and when the
nature of the place allowed, as at Cheronea, Argos, and other places, many of the seats
were cut out of the solid rock. The principal instances now known of theatres built on
a plain are those of Mantinea and Megalopolis. The size of the Grecian theatres is
sometimes very great. It is asserted that the theatre of Bacchus av Athens was capa-
ble of containing 30,000 persons. The theatre at Bpidauxus is 366 feet in diameter;
those at Argos and Sparta were about 500.— Cf. P. III. ^ 89,^238.

3 «. The edifices called Odea^ designed for the exhibitions (cf ^ 65) of musicians,
poets, and artists, were constructed in a manner similar to theatres. The most cele-
brated was the *Qkio¥ of Pericles at Athens.

AplaBoraOfMklbeatre,flpamVitrafl«,iBfi*aabPtataXIJX.aK. 1. laflf t,iaaplaBeralUNBtathnlra; ti P.IILtna
~-F^r a OMre fall dmripliaa of Oraek tbealrea, aaa atuarft DicUooary oT Arehitaetara—JiiMon't X«Biprkra.-AMVMi, (dM
f SM) p. SIS.— A Ch. GnuOi, daa Thmtn- n iUhaa, biaaiebtlich auf Arehilaetnr, Sceaeria uad DaMldhngikxiart. Bart. Ilia 4.
—0. C. fT. Sduuidtr, Das Atliacha Thaaterwawa ram ttmtn Ventehen der GrWb. Dramalikcr.— ^omdm, du Thcatia dai
JUKiaa^ ia /iM. dt VJtaad. 4u Amv. 4«. tol. L p 130, with plalak— Oroildedk, D« tbaatri Ornd partibga, te. ia fVUPt lilar. laa-

laklaa, toI ii. p. 99. For aolicaa of icmaiai of particolar Iheatraa, farara, Sloria a Dnerip. dc' priaci^ taatri asl. a OMdarai.

MU. l»0.-CoH8li alio Clarfet>« Tnvda, GrfPt Iliaamr, IMweTi Claih Tovr, kc CL { 24S.-Bcipeetiag the (Mm, aaa Martin^
cilad \ 05.-Saaala4 P. I. § 89, ) HI.

$ 336. The Gymnana^ or schools for bodily exercises, first introduced at
Lacedsmon, became afterwards common in the Greek cities, and were adopted
among the Romans. They consisted of several buildings, or particular parts,
which were nnited together, and thus formed often very spacious structures
capable of holding many thousand persons. The principal gymnasia of Athens
were three; that of the Lyceum, that of the Cynosarges, and that of the Aca-
demy. Cf. § 74.

1. The following deicription notic«i the principal parti of the ancient Gymnnitlnrn or Pa-
Isftra ; it is adapted to the plan, which Is given, after Vitravius (I. v. e. 11), in Plate XVI. fif.
A.— The uppof portion of the figure representa the eaatern end, on which waa the principal
entrance. The shaded aquare, with the arrow in it pointing to the left aide, ia the PerutfUtm
(rtptor^Xiow), i. e. place eurrounded with pillara ; thia portion eeema aleo to have been aome-
timea termed Palagtr* Urakalvrpa^ aa being a common place for wrealling ; Including alao the
SpkmriMterimm^ or placp for playing ball iv^aiptar^piou) . Around thia aquare were the Portleoa
ivrnaX)^ with aeats {l\iipai)i the pHlnra of the pnriieoa are Indtcaied in th« plan by the dots:
they ahow a double portico on the north aide. Around theaa were varioua roome ; those marked
by the letter a were Ha/la, where philoaophera and othera might enjoy intellectual entertain-
ment ; that marked tiy the letter h waa the Epkthtum {hpii0tXov\ where the vouth aitenditd to
preparatory exercisea ; that by c, the Coryedum (icdp^reiov), ao called, it ia said, from ita having
a sack of sand suspended from the roof for some gymnastic purpose ; this is by soms eonaideied

Trr

p. IT. ARCHITECTURE. PORTICOS.

M the Mma room with the ^podfterhim (dvoivriiptov) or room for undressfns; d^ the Conigu^
Hum iKoytvT^fitov\ where the duat was kept for sprlnklinfr those that bad been anointed ; •, the
Loutren (Xovrpdv), or room for washing ; /, the Elaotkuium (cAai odfaioy, dXuirr^fiiov), the room
for anointing the wrestlers, or such as bad batht* d ; ^, the room called by the Romans Frigida-
Ham, for the cold bath ; A, the room for the stove used f<ir producing heat; t^ the Sudatoritimt or
CoUartttM for the hot bath ; j, the Propnigeum^ the ** place of the chimneys/* or perhaps the Sa-
datoriaiR, the room for the sweating bath (vviyla); k^ihe Tej>idarium^ ihe ronui for the warm
bath. On the west was another square inclosure, m^ having porticos on three sides ; the
ground thus inclosed was adorned with rows of plane-trees, and walks between the trees, with
seats made of a sort of piaster called signine work (opva tigmnum). On the north side of this
square a single portico is indicated; here was the Xystus dvards) or covered portico, marked
by the letter v, where the athlete exercised themselves in the winter ^nd In bad weaiher ; the
portion in which they exercised is represented as being twelve feel wide and sunk a foot and a
half below a margin often feet on each side for a path on which spectators could walk. Beyond
the XjfttM was the SiaiHum {ardSiok) marked by the letter 0, extending nearly the whole length
of the structure, and of size sntlicient to ncconmiodale a large number of spectators. On the
south side of the square inclosure m, a double portico is indicated; and beyond is an irclosure
M, corresponding to that for the Siadittuiy and adorned with rows of plune-irees with walks. In
fair wealhftr, the atbleiae performed their exercises in uncovered walks or galleries, termed, by
the Greeks, napaiponUcq^ or ivoTh', the Romans also applied the term Xystum to an open
terrace or gallery and Xysiua to a covered one. The whole structure is represented as about a
stadium square; designated by the term yvuvdctov ; sometimes yv^vaiTrfipioif.

II mqr be remarked here, tiiat although a part of U>e fymnatium wia KmiftiiDea temed naXalvrfo, Ibera were, at Alheot,
pdaatra mtirdy distinct from the gyniBMia ; bat what was the ciieiilial distiiielion between than is not well undenlood ; there
apfwart sol to haf« been murb diflbrenoe in (be buildioKs. The Rontaos, who had 00 such stractaras or intiintiooB until ibej taor>
rowed ihem froni the Greek^ applied (be tcnna ffBiDsuum and pslantra indiseriminatelj.— It sbould also be rcaaarkrtl that otber
plans, somewhat diflfrreDt froa the one abo? e given rrom Barthdtmyi'i Anacbarsis, ban been eonslnictcd frem the deKriptioa of
ViiTUTiai ; Ibat of W. Newton, in bis traml^tioa of Vilravius (cf. P. V. \ 490. 4), is given in SmiUft Diet of Auliq. p. 461, as hn^
tbebot.

See Bmlhdem^t Anaehamt, vol. ii. eh. vWl—PoiUi^ Arrheol. Grse. bk. viii. BoytPi editioB, p. 42; wfaeee is a plaa of Om
temaina of the gjrronasioin at Ephean.— Sfirf^i/z, ArcUologie der Baokonst Weimar, IbOt.— Julinitf, De oooatmetiooe GymDaail,
in fiaUaigrt^ vo). iiL as cited P. III. $ 197. I.— ITmvj^ TheafOM, as cited P. III. § 88. 2.

%. Although the Stadium was commonly attached to a gymnasium, yet at Athens and else-
where, it was sometimes constructed entirely by itself Both the length and the breadth varied ;
but the length was usually the Greek vrddiovy or about 600 feet (see table in Plate XXV a). In
shape It was an oblong area, laminated at one end by a straight line, at the other by a semi-
circle, having the breadth of the stadiiim for its base. Af\er the conquest of Greece by the Ro-
mans, both ends of the stadium were 'sometimes made semicircular. Around this area, were
ranges of seats rising above one another In steps. Commonly the stadium was constructed on
the side of a hill, the natural slope forming one side, and an artificial mound the otber; the seat*
were often formed of marble. The semicircular end waa called a^tvioiffi, I'hree square pillara
stood in the area : one at the starting place ; one at the goal ; and the other half way between
them ; on the first was inscribed the word doiartvt; on the second, vvcvii; on the third or that
at the goal, gditxl/ov. The stadium was originally designed for the foot-race ; but other gamea
were at length introduced. Among the most celebrated stadia, were the Pythian at Delphi,
the Olympic In the grove Aitis at Olympia,aDd the Panaihenaic at Athens; of which, as of that
at Delphi, interesting remains still exisL

See P. 1. 1 IIS. ) 122 ; p. III. 1 7a.-In Smith't Diet of Antiq. p. EOS, b a plan of the Epheriaa Stadium, taken tram Krmm, M
dtcd P. HI. i 88. 2.-Cr. MUttn** ArcbsoU^y.

$ 337. Porticos (crt'otu, porltcus) were very common and important works of
Greek and Roman architecture, and were constructed either alone by them-
selves, or in connection with other buildings, temples, theatres, baths, market-
places, and the like. They served at the same time for protection against the
sun and rain, for secure and convenient public promenades, for common places
of resort where friends might meet, and where philosophers, especially the
Peripatetics, imparted instruction. They consisted of columns or pillars, with
greater or less spaces between them (inicrcolumnia), where statues were often
fixed, while the interior was decorated with paintings. They were not always
covered above, but were generally long and spacious. There was one at Rome
a thousand paces in length, and thence termed Portieus MilUaria, One of the
principal at Athens was that styled Poectie.

Ob the pwaaap in the PiBeile, dL JEbrrii, Miscellanies, vol. Iv. p. 284.— See ^ 74.

§ 238. There were three forms of pillars (crr^Xot, atv/Tuoi) in use among the
Greeks, commonly called the three oraert of architecture ; the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian. The Doric exhibits the greatest simplicity and solidity ; the Ionic
has proportions more agreeable and beautiful ; the Corinthian is most highly
ornamented, and was less frequently employed in large and public buildings.
The Tuscan and Compotite orders are not of Grecian origin ; the former was, as
its name imports, from Etruria; the latter was of Roman invention.

1. Although a particular description of the dietingui«hinff marks of the different orders
may belong more properly to the theoiy of architecture than to its archseology, yel the
classical scholar should have some iniormaiion on the subject. On this account th*

424 ARCHfOLOOT OF ART.

Plate L. is inserted ; and the following remarks and explanations of terms are given.
They are necessarily brief: but it is hoped that they may serve to excite, in the minds
of such as may use this Manual, more interest than classical scholars of our country
have usually fell in cultivating the taste in reference to an art so noble and elevating.'

The front of any edifice, claiming notice as a production of the mrekiuetur^ an^ la called ha
facade (faa-Mde). This, when viewed perpendicularly, preeenti three paru, which are readily
dlttinguished; the mUihm, which usually first strike the eye of the observer, and which form
the middle part ; the pedetUl, which forms the lower part, and supports the columns ; and the
snteMoore, which is the upper part, and rests upon the columns. These three parts may be
noticed and discriminated in an Instant by glancing at fig. 17, or fig. 18, in Plate LII. ; or at fig. 1,
or fig. 3, in Plate XXI. Two of these parts, the ettlumm and the tntabUture^ are seen in the

figures/, g-. A, i, j, and ic, in Plate L. In some ancient edifices, constructed after the art began

to decline, a portion of the pedestal directly under each column, and also a portion of the en-
tablature directly above it, were made more prominent than the remaining portions extending
betwern the columns ; thus forming an appearance which Is exhibited in fig. L, of Plate L. ; in
which the proper column and those more prominent portions of the pedestal and entablature,
taken together, seem to form merely a column or pillar ; a peculiarity which in part has oc-
casioned, in modern times, the absurd mistake of making the squared prominence of the entabla-
ture a part of the column Itself, and then placing another entablature above it.— Each of the
parts already named is subdivided again into three other parts. The pedestal^ also called
the atiilobate. Is divided, as may be seen in fig. <, into the plittk^ p^ at the very bottom ;
the dM, d, in the middle ; and the Mmies, or surftsss, eo, at the top. The column consists,
as may be seen In fig. ifc, of the iose, b, resting on the cornice of the pedesul ; the siksfr, «, the
middle and lonjrest part ; and the capital^ c, the ornamented portion at the top. The entaft la-
ture includes the arekitrav* or epiftfliumy ar, the lower portion ; the frieze, f, In the middle;
and the eornie«f es, at the top. To ttie different pans above named various moldimge may be
attached, which need not be described.— The pedinunl of a building Is the triangular fkce above
the entablature ; formed by the cornice of the eniablnture and the projecting extremities of the
two sloping sides thni make up the roof (see Plate XXI. fig. 1); these projections are sometimes
called the eomice of the pediment^ and the flat triangular portion between ib<?m In called the cyia-
jNinaNi; It was termed by the Greeks dtrutna or diro^^ perhaps because the tympanum of the
earliest temples was adorned with the figure of an eagle, as being sacred to Jupiter. This part
of the edifice was often richly adorned with statues and bas-reliefs. The Latin term /osC^giasi
was used to include the whole pediment, although also often limited to the apex or ridge.

The architectural orders are discriminated by certain peculiarities in the column and the en-
tablature ; there are three respects in which these peculiarities may appear : 1. the proportions
of the column ; S. the form of the capital ; 3. the ornaments of the entablature.— The Doaic is
the earliest and most massive of the Grecian orders. Its proportion* vary in different ancient
edifices ; in those at Athens, the height of the column is about eiz times the width at the base,
which is always called the diameter ; in older buildings, as at Pcstnm, the column is but four
or five diameters in height. Its eapUal is formed, as may be seen in fig. v, by a few annuUts or
rings at the extremity of the shuft, a molding above them of tlie kind called eekimne, and above
this a fi»t portion called the abacHS. The pure Doric column bad no base, and had twenty su-

Krficlal flutings, as In fig. g, which is a specimen of the lime of Pericles, when it is thought to
ve been in Its greatest perfection ; as employed by the Romans it usually had a base, as it ap-
pears in fig. A, a specimen of the Roman Doric ; in which the height is increased to eight dia-
meters, and the capital is more complicated. The entahUtnre of the Doric, as may be noticed in
fig. ^, and in fig. A. presents an architrave^ usually perfectly plain ; a friettt marked by perpen-
dicular oblong prominences, called triflypke^ which are divided each into three parts by vertical
furrows and ornamented beneath by futtw or drops ; with a eomiee comp<ised of a few large
aaoldlngs having on their under side a series of square sloping projections called sikCnIw, which
resemble the ends of rafters and are also ornamented beneath hyfuttm. Tbn spaces of the frieae
between the triglyphs were called m«tops«, and commonly contained sculptures In bas-relief.
The Elgin sculptures, representing the Centaurs and Lapithn, were metopes of the Parthenoa
——The IiiNio is a lighter order tlian the Doric in its proportions; the column is usually eight or
nine diameters in height ; having a base called Jttiic^ composed of several moldings. Its capital
is instantly known by the spiral veluUs on its opfiosite sides, as i« seen In fig. i, and in fig. s;
nn the shaft between these volutes are moldings which may vary with the pleasure of the artist i
but above the volutes is always an abaeu* molded at the edges. The regular Ionic capiui has
two pairs of parallel volutes; the Romans gave it a difl^erent form, in which It had four pairs
of diagonal volutes. The Ionic entablatnre presents an architrave plain or merely lined by a
molding horizontally attached as In fig. i ; nfrieu perfectly plain and unbroken ; a cornice com-
posed of various moldings, and usually marked by a row of small squnre ornaments somewhat

resembling teeth and called dtnteU. The Cobintrian order is still lighter than the Ionic.

lu proportions allowed a column often ten diameters in height. The base of the column was
like the Ionic, but more complicated. Its capital presents the sbape of an Inverted bell ; and is
richly ornamented, as in fig. j, and fig. q, having around it two rows of acanthus leaves, and
above them eight pairs of small volutes, and upon these the abacus^ which was marked by trun-
cated angles and by concave sides, each adorned with a flower in the center.— This capital, ac-
cording to Vitruvius, had its origin in accident. By the tomb of a CorlnthiDn virgin, an afiTec*
tionate nurse had left a basket containing various articles precious in the estimation of the vir-
gin while alive ; on the basket was a tile to protect the contents j an acanthus plant, on which
the basket chanced to rest, had pushed its shoots and foliage around the basket up to the tile, in
a beautiful manner, as In fig. m ; In this state it was seen by the sculptor Callimachus, and
suggested to him an idea of architectural ornament, to which he soon gave reality in the Corin-
thian capital. Notwithsunding this delightful little story, it is most probable that the capital in
question was a mere improvement upon some Egyptian model, such e. g. as is given In fig. c.
The entablature of the Corinthian order resembles that of the Ionic, diflfering from it chiefly by
having more complicated moldings, and by having on the cornice a row of projections which
correspond to the Doric muiules, but are ornamented each with a volute or a leaf, and are called

modUlione. The Tdscan order was quite similar to the Doric ; it is given in fig. /. Its pro-

fortione are lighter, as the column was aevea diameters in height. The coluoin has a base

PLATE LIl.

r OFi?ai p¥ rain id

2, Spire fif Mechlin.

3, St Psler-i,

&. Sirajbur^h CnLtiedml

B. Hotel dfi Villa, Bnifiiieh.

7 Salisbury Spire, 13. Nel aim's Column.

e, N(iirfl Pa me, Pafiu. H. Obehnlc, ffoni of St Peter'*.

9. Fafffi(laUy SlrW. ChaiTibera. 15, Clenpaira'a Neeille.

1 0. Wo 1 1 i n ^on 's Teit imnii iiU . 1 6. L^ar* log Towe r at Pim.

11. Mnr^^^ri*^nl, London. U. Temple of tbe Gianw. Ajsrrl-
^^. fFajan'j Cotumn. IS, Pitrth^yioo, Igenitim.

425

2n3

426 ARCHJBOLOOY OF ART.

which if very simple. Tts capital is genera tly ai simptA ni the Doric. Tti entabUlare Is SAntiA'
what like the Ionic, but more plain. This order is the one moat entirely stripped of arnmment.
^The Composite order is exhibited in fig. ile, formed out of the Corinthian by merely com-
bining together tlie Corinthian capital and the Roman Ionic capital with diagonal volutes. The
friese has a convex surface instead of a plane one.

In rcff-rence to the columns in all the orders, it may be remarlced, that they are fluted or not
according to the choice of the builder. Sections of fluted or reeded columns are seen in 6g. w,

s, and w, of Plate L. Pilaster$ are a sort of square column attached to the wall of a building,

and projecting from it sometimes only a sixth of their diameter, and sonietimnji ns much as a
third. They are oAen constructed with the peculiar ornaments of the several orders, aiiliough
this was not originally the practice.

2. The best specimens of the Doric order are found in the Pa^theno^^ the Propyleea,
and the Temple of Theseus^, at Athens; of the Jonic^ in the edifice called Ercctheum, at
Athens (cf P. I. % 107), consisting of two, and according to some of three temples; of
the Corinthian, in the choragic monument of Lysicrates, tiie small but elegant struc-
ture, at Athens, sometimes called the Lamp of Demosthenes^. — Of the Tuscan there
are no remains (cf. ^ 241). The best example of the Composite is presented in the Arch
of Titus (cf ^ 188. 2). The Corinthian ajppears to have been the favorite order with the
Romans. — The monumental columns or Trajan'' and Anionine, already mentioned on
account of their sculptured ornaments (cf ^ 188), are Doric. — Ihe column at Aleian-
dria, celebrated as Pompey*8 PtWor, is represented as havine "a fine shal't surmounted
by a Corinthian capital^ executed in the worst manner." The ruins of Piestum^ pre-
sent very interesting remains of Doric architecture.

> Fbr ft view of the PutiieiMm. we Plate XXI. flf. 1. CL Plato UL •(. II. « See Plate XXI. flg. S. a The MonaneBt of

Lyaentei is fivae i« PUle XLIX. fl(. A. Cf. P. I. S 1I& « ▲ tiew of Tim>n>b Column h give* ia Plela UL S(. IS. * for

• Tiew of PDD.fvej'W Pilter, Me PItto 3d of Ibe Atles aeeompaiiyiitc JDmen'f Tnvek la Egypt, Ac Load. iSOi. B foU. 4. Cf. voL k
^ 17. • Dtfeforrfeda, «■ cited \ «43. I.

For a brief aecoint of the fiat ardert, im Bigdeu^ Ttetmolnfj. Boet. 18M. 8. eontaiuinc viewa of aercral Oredt aad Bonaa

edifleca, redaead to Ihe aaaie Male ; alio, Afmriem Ami/y Mofttzifu, IR37, toL t. p. 6S, 140, ke Per explaeatioa of tenee,

iiluitnted t>f plate*, Sluarft Diciknarf of Arebitadare. Load. ISM. 3 vola. &— Cf. \ 243. 4.— Oa the ataie of Arebileclare ia
oar eoootry, cf. N. Jmtr. Rn. Apr. Ifi4l.

9. Our Plate L. is enriched by cuts of a great variety of columns ; those belonging to the re-
gular orders have been sutflciently explained ; the specimens of Saracenic, Gothic, snd Chinese,
will be mentioned below (^ 245) ; the Egyptian, Persepolitan, and HindiK>, we will notice here.
In fig. i. we have a very singular column, from the Ikmous Cave at Elephatita, near Bombay, a
remarkable subtt^rranean structure, egtcavated by the ancient Hindoos out of the solid rock^. In
fig. «, a column from Ihe ruins of Persepolis* is represented ; the capital is very peculiar, seeming

to combine several in one, and being, it is said, beautiful in appearance. 7>e columns of

Egyptian buildings vary greatly in their proportions and style. Nothinvlike any regular distinc-
tion of orders any where appears. The relative height Is usually below that of the coromoo
Doric, being in general not more than four and a half diameters*. In appearance the columns
sometimes resemble the plain trunk of a tree; sometimes bundles of reeds or of the plant pa-
pyrus, bound together at different distances, as in flg. e. The capitals present, it is said, nearly
all the flowers peculiar to the country, the capsules, petals, pistils, and most minute parts being
exhibited. In fig. e, is shown a capital, which reR«mbles those fuond in the temple of Her-
montis, and in the temple of Apollinopolis at Bdfow, bearing parts of the lotus flower. Elegant
capitals were formed by combining the branches, leaves, and fruit of the palm tree } by weaving
together the stems, leaves, buds, and flowers of the lotus ; and by intermingling these or other
flowers and plants with the vine and the papyrus. "On beholding," says Denon, "so many
varieties of form, and such richness in the ornaments, united with so much grace in the contour,
one is astonished that the invention of architecture sliouid have tieen ascribed to the Greeks on
their own testimony, and that the three orders should have been eonsidered the only truths of
that art." The head of the goddess Isis was sometimes wrought into the capitals, adorned with
the various symbols of her Imaginary attributes, as in fig. ft, which ia a specimen from the cele-
brated temple of Dendarah. •

1 Ob ttie Cave of Klepbanta, aee Otddinsham, Meaioir In Ihe Jiitd. Rmarckm, voL iv.-OB Hiadooarefatlaelare, Lsnfta, eMed

f B4S. S. s See Palace of Paraepolia, Ac. cited ^ 343. S.~Coaattit ralbnacea P. L \ 153. * See Lmom, aa died above, Platea

nis. nxiv. xUt. ilv. x\wi, Cf. raCercnoa § Ol. I.

$ 339. Various ornaments, exterior and interior, were used in ancient atcbi-
tecture. In the best periods of the art they were introduced with propriety,
taste, and in moderate number ; but in later times too abundantly, and so as to
destroy both beauty and convenience. Among the exterior ornaments, for ex-
ample, were the following: statues upon the ends of the buildings; bas-reliefs
on the architrave ; imitations of human forms combined with the pillars, like the
Caryatides^ and Mlaniea ; with various embellishments in the capital and en-
tablature, and aboot the doors, vaults, and other openings. In the interior, the
ceiling and walls were ornamented with stucco-work, gilding, painting, and
mosaic'. The ordinary decoration of an apartment consisted in coloring the
walls and attaching to them small pictures of diversified character. Ceilings
adorned with fretwork were called by the Greeks ^a/tvuifia/ta ; by the Romans,
tecta iaqueala or lacunarta.

* Thepillara tcnnedCaT^lide9ai«aeealBthePbde(i«eBp.S0; rqaaaeatiBg ihe niiaa of the tempte of Miaerve PMidmaoi, or
Sm Am^rweum, eeoaected with Ihe fineftaim. CCP.I.|lOT. A seat view of the whole atractvie, rertored, ia given in JoiA
Mtor. a See ft 819*, 1% and refcraneei there givsa.

p. IT. ARCHITECTURE. ARCHITECTS. ROMAN EDIFICES. 4SH

Sn MHea of onuMsii io tb* b«iMli«i •! PMapefi, ta Pmnp^ (eitfd S VSU ^ 44», ISA, 163, 168, fte.-£. rvOMiny, Esa».
pki of OrMmcaial Sculpture ia ArchltAdnra, drmwB from th« ortKinali in Greece, ftc. engniTed by A. JMbw. Load. 1828. lol. forty
platn.-- C. H. TlilAoni, GncUn ud Rmnu Onumeota. Lond. IK5. foL miietjui plAlca.

$ 240. The most celebrated Greek architects* were the following: Dxdalua^
to whom are attributed many of the most ancient and extensive structnres of
Greece, with much exaggeration and mere fable however (cf. § 174); Ciesiphon
or Chcrsiphron, celebrated as builder of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus ; Oz/A-
machaa (not the poet), who was also a sculptor, and said to be the inventor of
the Corinthian Order; Dimtcratea, who lived in the time of Alexander, and was
employed by him in building Alexandria in Egypt; Sostraius^a favorite of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who erected the celebrated tower of Pharos; EpimcuJiu»^
an Athenian, known by a stupendous war^towei* constructed by him for Deme-
trius Poliorcetes in the siege of Rhodes.

*■ PrmiK. MUixiat Mcmoira def li Archiletii tnKcbi e mcxlenii. Turn. 1781. < toIi. 8. A ORttloisiie oT Greek and Roman arehi*
•Beta nay be Ibuotf in Jwthu, dc Pkiara Velenun, ai cited § 226. 8. Cf. SiUig, aa there cited.— Atio {n StuarPi Dictionary, «a died
\ 238. 2, Apfwadix No. 1, with a notice of their woita, anil the lime when they fleariabed. • See P. IIL f 147. S.

§ 2U. In Italy, almost as early as in Greece, architecture was cultivated,
especially in Etruria. The Tuscan order is among the proofs of this. In the
early times of Rome, also, many temples and other buildings were erected there
by native art. But their architecture was greatly improved afterwards, when
the Romans imitated Grecian models, and many Greek architects of celebrity
resided in Rome. As the power, refinement, and luxury of Rome advanced,
splendid architectural works were multiplied, and thus arose in rapid succes-
sion temples, amphitheatres, markets, baths, bridges, aaueducts, palaces, ma-
nors, &c. These buildings were magnificent not only rrom their architecture,
but in their various embellishments, for which the other arts, especially sculp-
ture and painting, were brought into requisition. The most distinguished
Roman architects were chiefly Greeks by births, or scholars and imitators of
Grecian masters ; the following may be named ; Cossutius, Hermodorus, Vi-
truvius, Rabirius, Frontinus.

1. Time has not spared a single edifice of the Etruscans ; the Tuscan order is therefore icnown
only from the descripiinn of Vitruvius. Yet some sepulchres exist in Italy wtiose architecture
agrees with the character ascribed lo the Tuscan buildings.

MUOir, Die Etrwken. Cf. K >09, ITS —Mieali, aa cited § 831. S.

S. Among the peculiar decorations of Roman edifices we may notice those termed ant^xvt of
terra cotta, exhibiting various ornamental designs and used for covering the frieze of the en-
tablature. The name seems to be derived from their being fixed be/ore the building ; being
fastened by nails, since in some cases they have been found aitNched to the frieze by leaden
nails, and in other cases found, as at Velletri, with holes for the nails. These ornaments were
formed in molds and then baked in fire. The devices on them appear in bas-relief; showing a
great variety and great beauty of workmanship ; oflen painted with difl^rent colors. They are
supposed to have been derived from the Tuscans. A collection of these terra eottas belongs to
the British Museum.

See r. Oembt, Tern Collaa of the BritWi Mnaeaiii. Load. t8ia M.-SmUVt Diet, of AdIW). p. 61.

( 241 a. "According to the account given by Vitruvius, the public buildings of the
Romans in the regal and consular times were rude enough, exhibiting a state of the
science as already described among the early nations of the East — vertical supports of
stone, with wooden bearers. I'his continued to be their style of design and praciice, till
extending empire brought the Romans acquainted with the arts of the Dorian settle-
ments on the eastern and southern shores ot Italy. Down to the conquest of Asia and
the termination of the republic, Rome continued a ' city of wood and brick.* Only
with the establishment of the empire and the reign of Augustus, with the weahh of the
world at command, and the skill of Greece to direct the application, commences the
valuable history of architecture among the Romans. — Of all the fine arts, poetry not
excepted, architecture is the only one into which the Roman mind entered with the real
enthusiasm of natural and national feelinff. Success corresponded with the exalted sen-
timent whence it arose ; here have been left, for the admiration of future ages, the most
magnificent proofis of original genius. This originality, however, depends not upon in-
veniion so much as upon applicalion of modes. To the architectonic system, indeed,
the Romans claim to have added two novel elements in their own Doric, or Tuscan, and
Composite orders. But in the restless spirit of innovation which these betray, the al-
leged invention discovers a total want of the true feeling and understanding of the science
of Grecian design. As far as concerns the invention of forms, and the just conception
of the elemental modes of Greece, the Romans failed. Their architecture was imper-
lect, both as a system of symmetry, and as a science founded upon truth and taste.

" But when their labors are viewed as regards the practice of the art, their merits are
oresented under a far different aspect. Whether the magnitude, the utility, the varied

488 ARCKXOhoar of art.

oombinations, or tfae novel and important evidences of their knowledge, be considered,
the Romans, in their practical works, are yet unrivalled. They here created their owa
models, while they have remained examples to their successors. Though not the in<
ventors oi the arch, they, of all the natrans of antiquity, first discovered and boldly applied
its powers ; nor is there one dignified principle in its use which they have not elicited.
Rivers are spanned, the sea itself, as at Ancona, is thus inclosed wiihin the cincture of
masonry ; nav, streams were heaved into air, and, borne aloft through entire provinces,
poured into ine capital' their floods of freshness and health. The belf* balanced dome,
extending a marble firmament over bead, the proudest boast of modern skill, has yet
its prototype and its superior in the Paniheon^.-^l'he same stupendous and enduring
character pervaded all the efforts of Roman art, even in those instances where more an-
cient principles only were brought into action. Where the Greeks were forced to call
the OfiMerations of nature in aid ot the weakness of art, availing themselves of some hol-
low mountain side for the erection of places of public resort, the imperial masters of
Rome caused such mountains to be reared of masonry, wiihin th^ir capital, for the The-
atre, Amphitheatre, and Circus*. Palaces^ — Temples — Baihs — Ponicos — Arches of
Triumph — Commemorative Pillars — Basilica, or Halls of Justice — Fora, or Squares-
Bridges— ^thout mentioning the astonishing highwavs, exiendins to the extremities of
the empire — all were constructed^ on the same grand and magnificent plan.*' Memet,
p. 270.

B«R might b« ■catloMd Sw doaem or tswan of Rone, nA tht wmmtrm or cteaMit tatrwlid Ibr th* pnrpoM ef dninbii
hkH tad hrs* oollwlieM of ■••§■••( waMr Id Iba cMsliy.— Tha aoulh wbrra (h* Cloaca Maxima mcbci the Tttwr itill nmaim.
Cr P. L 1 6Ri— ReiMiM lUli rxul thowliig thai wvenl lakca, as TlinayviaiMa, Albaaw, Facinaa, war* ibna dnioad. The aiufaa-
rnim oonvejriof tha watan of laka Fucinoa to iba rivar Lira hat bcce parliaJlj dearad ia mndara tiBca. Ila laafth wm ab»«a
thraa aitas. For OMra than a mlia a (annel was carriad thnragh a n>o«ataia of which iba hi«hcsl peak is a IhaoMBd feet abova tha
level oT the lakei This stapaadom work, cooeaiTad, it is said, bj Jolios C«ar, was carriad iaio cSeet bj Claadiaa. Coaspaia £■•■
lon^iw, Jul. 44 ; Ootid. 20 ; noi/us, Aaa. sii. 61 ; />ltey, H. N. uivi. U ; JXoh Coairu*, li 1 1.— 5mflA'i Diet af iiatt^.

i CC P. I. k 68. • CL P. 1. \ 69 a Oa the Kraetuns bare aiaalioQad, ef. P. UI. ^ 292, 238, 230 « Oa tba •tractana

■ancd ia this Mnlcaee, cf . P. I. H 68-7a~~* Sea JhU. Mongm, Sor las tfaasax pabliqars das Ronaias, ia Mtmt. db rMrtdME.
Classe 4» Ut.mBtma.irU, voL L p. 4«l.— CT. oa ttie fiawlaar oT Otackaa works, Qlmtmutrimmd (cilsd (aSS), p. 14S.<-(k
Rooaa Arebtleetara, saa also SdUU, Hist. litt. Rom. «tiL iL p^ 19t.

9 MI h. The edifices deaigneil for puhUe ba(A«,aUhonrh ditrering in mafrnitude and iplendor and
In the detnilf of arranfemenl, were all conatructed on the aame common plan. **Tliey stood
among ezteniive gnrdens and wnlks, and often were surrounded by a portico. The main build-
ing cnninincd spacious halls for swimming and bathing; others for conversation ; others for va-
rious athletic exorcises: others for the declamation of poets, and the lectures of philosophers;
in a word, for every species of polite and manly amusement." Tliose erected by the emperors
especially had these appendages, and were of a great magnificence. ** Architecture, sculpture,
nnd painting, exhausted their reflneinents on these establishments, which f«*r their extent were
compared to cities ; incrustations, metals, and marble, were all employed in adorning them.
The hatha of Caracalla were ornamented with two hundred pillars, and furnished with sixteen
hundred seata of marble: three thousand persons could be seated on them at one time. Those
of Diocletian surpassed all the others in size and sumptuousness of decoration ; and were, be-
side*, enriched with the precious collection of the Ulpian library. We can entertain some idea
of the extent of this ediAce, when we are told that one of its halls forms at present the churrh
of the Carthusians, which is among the largest and at the same time most magnificent temples
of Rome. Here we are furnished with one of the many monumenta of the triumphs of Chris-
tianiiy, in despite of the most persevering and crnei persecutions of the then sovereigns of tfae
wot Id. On this very spot, where the organ and the choral strain of devotion are now daily
heard, Dl<icleiian is said to have employed in the construction of bli baths forty ihonsapd Chris-
tian soldiers, whom, after degrading with all the insignia of Ignominy, he cans«rd to be niasea-
cr<>d when the edifice was completed —It may be added that the private lialhs, at some of the
villas of the rich, vied in splendor with the public thermm* According to Seneca, the walls
were of Alexandrian marble, the veins of which were so disposed as to resemble a regular pic-
ture ; the basins were set round with a most valuable kind of stone Imported from the Grecian
Islands ; the water was conveyed through silver pipes, and felt by several descents in beautiful
cascades; the floors were inlaid with precious gems; and an Intermlziure of statues and co-
lonnades contributed to throw an air of elegance and grandeur over the whole." {.Bell on Baths.
Philad. 1831. 19)

The following description is drawn principally from the pnidic baths discovered at Pompeii.
It will apply substantially to the Greek baths (P. 111.^ 170) as welt as tlie Roman.— ** The build-
ing, which contained them, was oblong, and had two divisions ; the one for males, and the otlier
for females. In both, warm or cold baths could be taken. The warm baths, in both divisions,
were adjacent to each other, for the sake of being easily hented. In the midst of the builditig,OB
the ground -floor, was the healing-room, kypocaystum^ by which not only the water for bathing,
but sometimes also the floors of the adjacent rooms, were warmed. Above the heating-room
was an apartment in which three copper ketilea were walled in, one above another, so that the
lowest {ealdarium) was immediately over the fire, the second (jrjndMrium) over the first, and the
third {frigidariHm) over the second. In this way, either boiling, lukewarm, or cold water could
be obtained. A constant communication was maintained between these vessels, so that as fast
as hot water was drawn off from the caldarium, the void was supplied from the tepidarium,
which, being already considerably heated, did but slightly reduce the temperature of the hotter
boiler. The tepidarinm, in its turn, was supplied from the piscina or frigidarium, and that from
the aqueduct; so that the heat, which waa not taken up by the first boiler, passed on to the se-
cond, and instead of being wasted, did its oflice in preparing the contents of the second fur the
higher temperature which it was to obtain in the first. The coppers nnd reservoir were elevated
considerably above the baths, to cause the water to flow more rapidly into them. The terms
friridarium, tepidarium, and caldarium, are applied to the apartwenu in which the cold, tepid.

p. nr. ARCHITECTURE. ROMAN EDIFICES. BATHS.

and liot iMthi are placed, at well aa to those Tesselt in whkh tbe operatioa of heating the water
ia carried on.

The balbinir-roome had, in the floor, a basin of mason -woric, in which there were seats, and
round it a raliery, where the bathers remained before they descended into tbe bath, and where
all tbe attendants were. In the division of the Pntnpeian baihs snpposed to belonfr to tbe men,
the principal public entrance led directly into the vettibnU^ a sort of coon, along three eides of
which there ran a portico nr walk lambulaerum) . Seats were ranged round the walls, perhape
for the slaves, who accompanied their roasters to the bath. In this place was the box for the
quadran$ (fourth of an m, less than a farthing), the piece of money given aaa fee for bathing by
each visiter. A corridor or small passage, in which were found above 509 lamps, conducted from
the court into the room for undressing, apodfUrium. This room had three seats, made of lavn,
with a step to place the feet on. The room was stuccoed from the cornice to the ground, highly
flniaiied, and colored yellow. In the vaulted roof was a window with a single large pane of glnsv
icf. P. III. 9 325). Varioua ornaments were carved in the cornice.— The floor was paved with
white marble in mosaic. Several doors communicated with the room. One of these led to tbe
cold bAlh^ frifidarium. This was a round chamber, encrusted with yellow stucco, having it*
ceiling in the form of a truncated cone, apparently once painted blue. It was lighted by a win-
dow near the lop. In it were four niches, equidistant ft^om each other, with seats, schola^ in
them for the bathers. There was also a basin, nearly 13 feet in diameter and 3 feet 9 inches
deep, entirely lined with white marble, with two marble steps to aid the descent Into it, and a
tort of cushion, ptc/oinau, also of marble, at the bottom, for the bathers to sit upon. Another
door of the undressing-room opened into a passage leading to the tepidariumt nr warm chamber^

00 called from its warm but soft and mild temperature, which prepared the body of the bather
for the more intense heat of the vapor and hot baths, and also softened the transition from the
hot bath to the external air. This room was divided into « number of niches or compartments,
was lighted by a window with a bronze frame of four panes of glass, and bad many ornamenla
In stucco. A door-wav led from it into tbe ealdarium or Mudatortum. This apartment exactly
corresponded to the directions laid down by Fttruoiu$, for constructing tbe vapor-bath. Ita
length was twice as great as its breadth, exclusive of the laeomeum at one end, and the lavaerum
at the other. It was stuccoed lilEe the oth^r rooms, painted yellow, and decorated with various
ornaments. The floor and walls of the sndatoriuui were made hollow, that the healed air might
pass freely around : the design was to furnish a tudatory of dry air ; ** it corresponds precisely
with a hot stove room of the present day, except that the stove proper was beneath and outside
the sudatorium.*' The laeonicmm was a large semicircular niche, seven feet wide and three feet
six inches deep, in the middle of which was placed a vase (hr washing the bands and face, called
labrwm; this was a large basin of white marble, elevated three feet six inches above the pave-
ment and about five feet in diameter, into which the hot water bubbled np through a pipe in the
centre : an inscription on this labrum stales that it cost 750 sesterces. There is in the Vatican a
magnificent porphyry labrum, found in one of the imperial baths at Rome. The lamacrum^ or hot-
bath, at the other end of the room, was twelve feet long, four feet four inches wide, and one foot
four inches deep; entirely of marble, into which the hot water was conveyed by a pipe; it waa
elevated two steps above the floor ; the descent into it was by a single step, which formed a con-
tinuous bench around it for the convenience of the bathers.

** Besides the rooms thus described, there was also a room called the unetuariunt or tleotktnum ;
in which the bathers anointed their bodies with oil before talcing their exercise, or with perflumea
after bathing. This room was usually stored with pots containing numerous varieties of ungu-
ents appropriated to diflTerent parts of the body (P. 111. ( 170). There was likewise another room*
In which varions exercises were performed before taking the bath ; this room was sometimea
called ephebeum, more frequently tphmritttriniity because the fhvorite exercise was the ball. The
tonUUrium was an apartment where was kept the powder which was sprinkled over the body
after tbe exercises Just mentioned. In the more splendid imperial baths there were various other
rooms and halls."

For fuller details, witb iwticw of naw of (be imperitl butlM, M« Pon^i, p. 15S — €f. AmtlA, Hict. of Aoliq. p m.—iMKimn,
ia bU 'U»tas or B«X«v«Iav, Kim a Ml docriplioo of IIm Tbcnaas «rwlcd by tb« arrhitwl Ni|qtU« fcC P. V. § 121).— Th« moaT
capioaa work on lbs aMnaD btihi and tboir remaltw, ia Ibal of OsmmMi, enlitM Tb* Ballia of tbe Bamiia, nplained aad illwtntotf.
Uad. 1771. fel. witb Uia il1wlr»Hou of Falladlo, a^vwitHIra plates.— Cf. Lea Themca da Romaina, dataineM par A n d ra Pa i-

1 a d io, Ac Vioaaa, I78S. fol.— Baa alio O. A. Omi^f Raatanratkia dca Tberaaaa d'Ase. Caiacalla. Vw. \f2i, fbi. Am plalca.—
indWAMiaen, (Bath* of tbe AnHeala). Maoob. \Un,^J. B. Pinmai. ral. 2d, aa cited ) H3. 2.— There h a notice of bath* di»
coffered at Wroxeter (ancient UrUonium), England, in tbe Ardtmtiogia (cited I 92. 6), voL is. p. 923, and of alarlar renaiM at
%>ke, in vol. zxiL pw 28, witb a pbuL^-CoriclIt, Terme di Tito. Ram. 1761. foL

$ 242. 'J^he strength and solidity of Greek and Roman edifices were such as
to have easily preserved them to distant ages, had it not been for earthqtiakes,
conflagrations, and the desolations of war. The remains of ancient architecture
yet standing are highly interesting; especially those in Greece and Italy.

1 If. Only some of the principal can here be named. — Magnificent ruins of cities
remain on the sites of Palmyra, Heliopolis, Persepolis (cf. P. I. %^ 153, 166). In
Egypt, monuments of earlier and later architecture are presented in pyramids, obelisks,
and temples.— 'At Athens we see still the ruins of the celebrated temple of Minerva,
andtreces of other beautiful temples at .Sgina, Eieueis, Corinth, Thessalonica, Ephe-
mis, Priene, Antioch, &c. ; ruins of theatres are found at Athens, Smyrna, Myfasa,
Hierapolis ; of palaces and royal mansions, at Alabanda, Ephesus, Magnesia. — Still
more numerous and in better preservation are the remains of Roman architecture; e. ^.
at Rome, the Pantheon, the temple of Vesta, several porticos, the Coliseum or Amph].
theatre of Vespasian, ruins of the theatres of Pompey and Marcellus, and of splendid
aqueducts, the baths of the Emperors, the pillars and triumphal arches already named
{% 188). gales, brid|:es, tombs, mausolea, &c. (cf. P. I. ^ 52 ss. ^ 105 sa).

2. France exhibits some monuments of Roman architecture, particularly at Nism^

490 ARCHJEOLOOT OF ART.

(cf. P. I. ^ 17). Some remains also, principally of military stractnrea, hare been fomid
m England.

$ 243 u. Beaides the numerous accounts of these various remains given by modem
travelers, there are works prepared expressly to make them known, with engravings
and explanations ; such are the following.

1. Rwiaiub Greece, orof OraeuatKbitediiK.— Z4iioy(arL0t>Of LMRaliiMd«plinb«vzBoiHiimMd«^ I7S8>
Sd ed. irtO. B vole. fol. The firat pictamqoa lour of Greece; the dnwiep BOtelwsTa aeeorate.— Jbterl fiOyv, Ruim of Atbmm
LowL 176a fol —Sluui end *wM, The Antiqaitiei of Ailiom. Lnod. ITCi-lSia 4 vole. f»l.->The mmt, edited by fV. Btmmdt
with Buaf veiothle eddUwob lUS-Sa 4 eela. foL two bendred pUtaa.-.j: Stuart, Aatlqeitice of Athem, end other MommhM
of Greece. Load. IN?. 2 vela. 12. with Kvealy pletee.— Cikandfar, Jimtt, and Pan, looian Aeliquiliei. LomL l7a»-»7. 8 voh.
M.-Ttiemne.llin. Bvola. imp. ft»l. with fine pWee -CikoteuMIoufler, Voyaffe i^ttoreaqae de hi Gieee. JPhr I7tt U—P.a
Aatnafad, Vojacei deu la Grece, aceompesDM de Heeberrhea Arehdologiqoea. Pu. IBHu—fVOkim, Atheoieeaia, or Rcoauta oa
Om Topocrephy and BaiMinfi of Athena. Itl6. 8.— The unedited Antiqaitiei of Altke. By the Socitfy of DiUtmti, and edited
hf mUdna, Dttring, and BtdfanL 1817. imp. fol. aeventy-Biae pUlea.— By the aune, DOtttmH SecMy, The Aatiquiticaor looiaL
Load. 1817-21. 2 vola. foL—/. S. SfanAopt, Olynpie. or Topofraphy illaalTaUve of the ancient aiale of the plaia of Olymple. 1824.
imp. ftd. with fine platea.— X. C. CndbcreB, Grand Beatofellon of Athena, ita Templea, Sculpture, He. XaRravcd by J. Coney. lUL
large fol.— By the aenM, Elucidatioa of the Temple of iEflim.— f . Garhur, Arehilertanl MonaBaia of Oreeee and Sicily. Man.
eter, 1819. fol. ; in Oemao, with lithofrapbic pleleb-Sir fV. OtO, Itieeiery of Oraeee. Load. I8ia 4. with tweoTy^vca
engrmviDca.— fTm. fKifttna. Ilie Aeliquitica of Magna Oimde. Cambridge. 1807. UL—T. Major, Raina of Flm'ura. I/nd. 1761.
fol.— IMapafrfiMe, Lm RulMa de Ftoatum, ou Poaidoaia. Par. 1799. fol.-/ HUtmJk Arcbileeture Antique de la Sidle. Par. ISI-
aa 6 livnjaona, with plaice.—/. Q. Urnmd, Monamaoa de In Oreee, ou Collection daa Chcfaneuvraa d*Ardiitecture, de ScelphH^
el de Peinlore antiqvea, *e. Pir. (flial volume publiihed) 1808L fol. In JTma^t Hellaa ia a notice of work* en tbia aoti!}eeL

la a Memoir prdUed to CkaltmbHawPi Travela in Gieeee (died f 833) ia found a brief notiee of the atale of Albena and her
■Maoaaenli lince the Chrialian era, aad of the trerelRra who have viiiied and daacribcd the remalna of Greecei He doeea with the
fsllewiaf rameik : •* It ia a melancholy reflection, that the civllind natioaa of Europe have dooe mere injury to the moBuowma of
Athena in the qMoe of one buodrad aod fiOy yean than all the b^rbariaDt logelber for a long Mrica of ag« ; it it cruel to think that
Alarie aad Mahomet II. reipecled the Parthenon, and that it wm demdittted by Moroaini aad Lord Elgin.**— Several Iravelcn mut
he added to Chaioiubriand** lial.- An inoomple'e notice of modem Ira velera ia Greece ia aim givea ia the snoRymeuf work entitled
Biatoiy ofUoian Creroi^ with a view of the Geography, Antiquities and premat eoadltiaa. (from the Eqgl. edit.) BoeL 18Z7. 8k
—Some iwUcM of travelcra la Greece, in Umi. Quorf. Aeo. Mo. 127. June 1899. p. 64.

2. Romaina ia 1 ta ly— O. Voai, Magnifleeaaa di Rema Aotiea e Moderaa. Bom. 1747. S vole. 4. Hm haadrol viewi, with
Aeeeriptioaa.— /VoffKi (iacbore), Nuovn Raocolta di eeate Vedntiae Antiche delU citu di Roma, fee. Rom. 1796. 4. coalamiag one
baadred viewa.-Otem& Pinauii, Le enticbilA Romano. Rom. 1736. 4 voh. fol.— JL ymuH, Deacrisioae topograficn ed irtaria
di Roma anlicn e moderaa. Rom. 17e9-«e. 2 vola. 4.-A»teiil(, Le pine bmux mooumeM de Rome anrlemw. Rom. 1761. bl—
M. rf*On»&i*e, Lm Rertm de I'Ancienne Rome. Amtt. I7C9. 8 vola. fol.— A. Fcmtfi, Vetrria Latil antiquitatnm ampliwima col.
lectio. Rom. l7eB-8a 7 voh. fol.— Jnt. Dugodttz, Lea edtilom aniiquea de Rome deminm, kc. Far. 16R. it. 1887. iL 177). it. foL
Engl, tranel. by G. ManhaU, 1771. 2 vole, fd.— fV. Pwant$i, Raecolla rte' tempi aatichL Rom. ITHJ. fol.- The complete worki of
Oi'eo. B. (/(An Baptiit) Piratud, publiehed after hie death by hia eon Fntuii Ptranni, in 29 vola. fol. eeolaining nearly two tbea-
mad pUlee. For eoatrata of theer vole, tee Stuart^ Dictionary (cited f 838. 8), Appendii IL-O. L. Tayhr and £ Oraiy, Archi-
tectonl Aatiqoitim of Rome. Load. 1821 m. 8 volt. imp. fol.-O. roiodKr, Raceolta delle pin iaaigai Fabbriche di Rncaa Anticha
c ane Adjaeenae. Rom. 18IO-2a imp. foL aixty three piatea.-8ir IT. OcO, Topognpby of Rome. Load. ISS4. 2 vela. 8. with
plalca, aod a luge map of Rome and ita eovirom.— A yaladia; Areo di Titu. Rom. JSBL 4. eight pUlee.-ytR(. A'tUy, Del fwn
Romano, delU Via Baera, ke. Rom. 1819. K-Rattrt jU»m, Architectural Remalna in Rome, kc (nmt drawinge by CleriaHaa.-
Xommt, Vednta di Bona ; one hundred and one fairge folio Viewa of the moat remarkable entiqnitlm and buildiaga te Rene aad in
Brighborbood. Rom. 1688. 4.— Dutetirg, Viewa of the moel remerkable Buildlngt and ancient Romaiav ia Rome. Load. IISS. 4.
with twenty Vis plalea, edoied.— Sofnl Awerar, ^Antique Rome, ke. P»t. 1786. 4. omd de daquaote tabteauz.— Jferrt/oMM,
Antiqedd F.xpliquee, m cited P. II. « M. 8 (d).— £e Jlntiehi d'AvoIOne, kc Kapol. 1765-82. 9 vola. foL with a great oumbar of
angravingi of baiidioga, and alio of bttala, etalnm, paiuUnga, b«a-reUefa, Ac. dlacovered among the nine of Herculaneom.— Artoto.
noon et Pm^i, Recueil General dm Peiaturea, Bronna, Momiquee, Ac. dbconverta jmqo'i oe Jour, el nproduifa d%prb torn lm
oavtagm publiJo Juaqu' k preeeot Tw. 1841. 6 vola. & with 700 '< plancbee."— Aforfyn and ZeMtea, Hiatory of the AntiqultiM of Her-
cnlaacum.— Fbitut, Oeacriaione dcUe prime Scoperte d'Ereolano. Ven. 1749. 8.— Sir IT. Homttton, Diacoveriei at Pompeii (with
platm), ia the ^rcAmdogtd, aa below cited, vol. iv. p. 160 —Sir fT. OcB aad / P. O. DnHnf, Pompeiana, or Topography, kc. of
Ranpeii. Loud. 1884. 8 vola. 8. imp.-JKknf, PUn of Pompeii. Par. 1826.— Cooka^ DalineatMaa. Load. 1827. 2 vola. M. ninety
platea.— f. Afaxo^, Ruinm de Pompeii. Far. 1830 — />0mper(, m cited § 286.— rAcmurvi Antiquitatum Btttetmtananan. Rom.
1754. foL-The aplendid work entitled Vtaggi^ PUtorieo 4eUa Tumma (Firenaa, 1808. S vola. fol.) oottteim aome viewa of ancient
Nmaim.-0. Mkali, ee dted S 281. 8.

a Remaim in other coontrtea.-X. Mam, Raina of the Palace of Dioeletlaa, at Spaladv la Dalmalia. Land. 1764. Ct OiUoR,
Hbt Rom. Emp. eh. slL-£. Longlm , Mooameoa Aociena et Mndemea, de I'Uiadoaetaa. Par. I8ia 8 vob. fol.-liBriw^, ioaraey
Ihraugh Penia. CIL Land. Quart. Meo. iz. S7.— X. Xirr Porter, Travela ia Pciaia.— Jtab * loterde. Voyage Pittoreaque 6e PEe-
pegne. Par. 1812. 2 vola. fol.— Coeaof, Voyage FSttoretqoe de la Syrie, de la Pbeaicie, de la Me«liae, et de hi Baam Egypte. 2 vohi
foU with many platm -X. Wood, Rnina of Fklmyra. Lood. 1758. fol.— By tam$, Raina of Balbee. Load. 1757. fol— lev Xarfna
de Patmym. Par. 1819 4.-#'. C. Goti, Aallquitm de b Nubia. Par. 1624. fol.—Daum, Voyagm daaa U Baim et U Haute
Egypte.— The ancient and royal Palaee of PenepoUa, deatroyed by Alexander the Great Lend. 17aa twenty-one platee.— Ar"*i
MoBomeai Romahia de Niamce ftr. tSIL fol. eixteea p)atee.-Mmard, Hieleire dm Antiquitea de la Ville de Niamet, et 6e am
Kavinma. Nhm. 18951 8— Variona notkm of Romoa Reaiaim In England are feaad ia the work atyted JtdmUegia, or MiaeeUa^
neoaa Traeta partaiaiag to Antiquity (u cited 4 92. 8). Aim ia the work, pabUahed by the aama aeeiely, mrtilted FatHrta Mamt-
mania, 6 vole. fel.-/. Gerdon, Itioararium Septontrioaale, or a Journey over a pert of Seottaad. Land. 1799. fol— S(HMay.m
dted P. Ill 1 197. S.-yf. ffanlay, Roman Aaliqailim of Britain. Lond. 1788. toL—BiiUanH Bomaa WalL Land. l802.-«ee
Gaiahigne, in Sluart, below memioned.

4. It wat be proper to edd in Ihh place aooM of the prindpel wevfca pertaining to the bialoty and thcorr of ArchltectHrB.-C. h
Xoy, Obeervationa eur lm ediflem dm andene penplea. Par. 1768. 4.— C. L. StugKtx, Geachichto der Bauknaet der Altco. Letpa.
1792. a-By Mme, Archaologie der Bankuaat der Grieehea und ROmer. Weimar, 1801. 8— By aanie, Geacbicble der BaokuMI
ffnm the earlieet time to the pieeent). Nomb. IS27.-yf. UvU die Baokowt nacb den Graadaltaaa der Alton. Berl. 1809. fol. fifty
platea.— By mm«, Geachichto der Baukurat bei den Alton. Bert. 1881. 2 vda. 4— The two following are mid to be valuable, i»
•dbreaee to architedoie m well u the other arte: Rumokr*! KunelgeechiebtllchelUlieniiche Fonchungen. 1827; ^. mndt, Deber
Jto Haqupcriidea dor BdtfonKnait 1838. L. le »tm, Tbeoria da I'Ardiitactare Greequa et B

p. IV. ARCHITECTURE. SARACENIC, GOTHIC, AND CHINESE. 431

t««Bl7-«s plain.— IT ffiXUm, The Civil AiefaftoetBn of FOmoHu; oontafaiinc the Eail of AbetdcoA Inqairy Wo Ow Bn«tf
of Oraelu Arebileetiin. Lood. 1812-17. 8 toIi. 4. forfr-oM p1a(«^/>iif m, N«w AraUd of tlw Oidm of AfcblMlara, accoid-
b« tft Ite Ortcki and lUviaM aad noden Arebiteda, tranri. froa iba Francb of C. N«rmani. Load. 1829. M. aial7*(wo plalaa.
-Jba. OwOt, Rudimalt of Arebitaetai«» pndkal aad tbaoretkal. F. S. A. Loud. 1881 8. witb plataa aad vigM«taa.— /. J^w*W,
Tfaitd TbMriqot et Prallqna de PAit da Balir. Fkr. 18»-9a 6 vak. 4. wiib phtoa—yliAcr Btnjamin, Practlea of Arcbitae-

tara, *e. Bort. 1838. 4. witb aixty plaiai { a work Buieb aaad bjr oamnoB piactical archliaeta. 8w StuarCi Dictiowry (dtad

I Cn. S), AppendlK IL, wbara ia a calakfw of worka relatinf to Arcbilactura, anangad ia thirtoca eiaiaeai

^ 244. Although, strictly speaking, it is only classical art that belongs to our subject,
it may not be out of place to allude nere to a style of architecture which grew up after
the dismemberment of the Roman Empire. *' The arts degenerated so far, that a
custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings with the fragments of old ones,
which were dilapidated and torn down for the purpose. This gave rise to an irregular
style of building, which continued to be imitated, especially in Italy, durins the dark
ages. It consisted of Grecian and Roman details, combined under new forms, and
piled up into structures wholly unlike the antique originals. Hence the names Greco-
Gothic and Romanesque architecture have been given to it. It frequently contained
arches upon columns, forming successive arcades, which were accumulated above each
other to a great height. The effect was sometimes imposing."

The Cathedral and Leaning Tower at. Pita (see Plate LII. 18), and the Chureh of St. Hark at
Venice, are named as the best specimena of the Oreco-Gnthic «tyle. The ancient Saxon archi-
tecture in England was in aonie reetMcts aimltar ; ai e. g. in the Cathedra! at Ely, which exhibitv
arches upon columns } a specimen of which is given in Plate L. fig. n. The same peculiarity is
seen in some remains of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. Of these we have a apeeimen in fig. m
of Plate L.; in which arches appear between the columns and the entablatnre.

^ 245. Besides the different styles which have been named, Egyptian^ Grecian, Ra-
man, and Greco- Gothic, there are three others which we ought just to mention; viz.
the Saracenic t Gothic, and Chinese.

" The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architecture; and
of their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted
upon common China ware. The Chinese towers and pagodas have concave roofs, like
awnings, projecting over their several stories. The lichtness of the style used by the
Chinese leads them to built with wood, sometimes with brick, seldom with stone.*'

A specimen of this style is given in Plate LII. 0.— A Chinese column is given in Plate L. fig. t,
flrom the viceroy's palace, at Canton.

The Saracenic style is distinguished by a peculiar form of the arch, which is a curve
constituting more than half a circle or ellipse. It is exhibited in the buildings of the
Moore and Saracens in Spain, Egypt, and Turkey. A flowery ornament called
Arahe»que is common in the Moorisn buildines. The Alhambra at Grenada furnishes
a specimen of this style. — The Minaret, a tall, slender tower, appears in the Turkish
mosques.

In Plate L. flg. o, we have a specimen, from the Alhambra, of Moorish doable columns, sap-
porting arches which are adorned with arahesqu9.—The minaret Is seen in Plate V.

The Gothic style is not so called in order to designate a mode of building derived
from the Goths. The name was first applied as a term of reproach to the edifices in
the middle ages, which were at variance with antique models. It is now chiefly em-
ployed to designate a style of building religious edifices) introduced in England six or
eiffht centuries ago, and adopted nearly at the same time in France, Germany, and
otner parts of Europe. "Its principle seems to have originated in the imitation of
groves, and bowers, under which the Druids performed tneir sacred rites. Its cha
racteristics, at sight, are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires, its large buttresses,
clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of ornaments, and the general predominance
of the perpendicular over the horizontal."

Specimens of the Gothic style appear in Plate LII. % 5, 6, 7.— A specimen of einstered pillars
forming one, and supporting an arch, Is given Plate L. flg. r, ft-om Salisbury Cathedral. A twist-
ed pillar, from a cloister belonging to St. Paul's church at Rome, is seen In fig. «. The figures z,
1, and % are sections of different Gothic columns.

See Bitdouft Teebaoloiy, di. vIL aa cited ( 8S8. a.-OB the eariy uh eTlbe potnl^i 00ft, In oriealal conntriea, aae £ D. Gtartr,
Ttavdi in varieiM Oeontnea, Ac. p. i. toI. UL ed. N. Toilc, 1816.— On Goibie Arrbileetar^ /. OteOt, Origia and Prograa of Goth.
Areb. tfaad. fton tbe Gamao of O. JfoUar. Lead. IfM. L-nJ. Puft/n, Spacineaa or Omble Arebilectara. LowL tOS. B rata 4
Lp^. lOa • wk. 4. with two bandrad aad tw«tyfl*e eapaThici and •« biaiorical uA dcacriptive lettar praa ;" by JL /. IfVaan^
-Q. D. mtniniton, Sgmf tit Eedaateieal Aotiqaitlaa «( Fitaace. LawL l»l<L S Ct Land. Qsart ii. IM. vL «L

LIIb.

PART V.

BRIEF HISTOBT OF CLASSICAL LITERATUEB,

OR

GENERAL VIEW

GREEK AND ROMAN AUTHORS.

55 20

PLATE Llll.

H I P P O C R 1. T X S .

434

HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

IrUrodueiion*

$ 1. The Greeks, beyond any other nation of antiquity , enjoyed a happy
union of important advantages for the promotion of civilization and literatore.

1 1. The nature of their country, washed on every side by the sea, with its coasts
formed into numerous gulfs and peninsulas, affordea the people peculiar facilities for
mutual intercourse. The singular mildness of their climate was such as to favor the
happiest development of the pnysical and intellectual powers, uniting a vigorous con-
stitution with a lively imagination and profound eensibiuty.

O. BermaiMt De Mytholofta GnMoraoi antkpiMiBia. Lpc ISIT.-frMUa-, GcMbidita der Litentar, rtA. I. ^ lOS, m dtaa
P. rv. § 34. 2.

2e. Their free forms of government afforded powerful motives to stimulate exertion.
The commerce with foreign countries furnbned a source of favorable influence.
Equally favorable were the high honors and substantial rewards bestowed on knowledge
and merit. Some have supposed that the existence of slavery contributed to the literary
advancement of the Greeks, as it left the citizens more leisive for public life and study.
But a more fortunate circumstance was, that oriental influence never established among
the Greeks any thing Hke the system of castet, which prevailed in Egypt and some of
the Asiatic states, and which confined the arts and sciences by a sort ol hereditary right
to the priests.

akUn'M Kuiwm, ke. 18I&-0. Amumn, D« BM. Or. Frimonliii. Loud. in& 4^-Cf. P. IV. $ 84, 40.

3 u. The plan and scope of Grecian education deserves also to be mentioned here.
It was in general more adapted to the common purposes of the whole communiry than
in modern times, and was less modified by the individual and private aim of the pupil.
The apparent good of the state was the object constantly in view. This ^aye to all
their iaeas and efibris not only a definite direciion, but also a liberal and diffusive cha-
racter. In this circumstance we find one obvious source of the permanent excellence
and utility of the Greek writers and their works. Here was a foundation for their pre-
eminent and lasting renown.

Od •dncation among the Oraekt, cf. P. FV. §§ 63, 64, 76. To the nTereoeca (here giTen, w* add the followii^ : C. F. £. Bxk-
ktinur, Vefweb eiow Syitenn der EnieheoK der Grieehen. Dea. 1786. 8 rols. H.—G. JBtmhardy, u cited § 7. 9. p. 44 u.—G. F.
GOm, Die EriiehangvwiMeincban BMb den Oraodaltien 6hr Grieehen and Romcr, ke. Anp. 1808. R.—JI. H Nimtya; Orient'
flidlen der Or. und RAm. Cbsilker Qber die Theorte der Eniebung. Halle, ISIS. S.—Fr. Jaeabi, Urber die Eniebong der Oriecfaeo
zar SiUlkhkril ; in toL ili. of hb yamiacMt adaiftta, conunenced in 1833 ; tr. by Ftlton, in Cloar. Attdiei, p. 813, aa ckad P. V.
\ 6. 4^-Good, Book of Nature, Lect xi—F. Cwntr, GoKbichtn der Erviebang im Allaribame. Elberf. ISSi-SJ. 8 roh. & "Beit
aaihw on Greek and Bonua edncation.* S.

$ 2. No nation in the history of letters is so celebrated as the Greeks. And
the imperious obligation is laid upon every one, who makes any pretensions to
literature, to acquaint himself with the language and the roost valuable pro-
ductions of the ancient Greeks. This knowledge is alike essential to the states-
man, the orator, the physician, the theologian, philosopher, historian, and
antiquary; to the polite scholar and the philologian, to the connoisseur and
the artist, it is absolutely indispensable.

See an elegant and masterly discussion on the Study of Greek Literature, by G. B.
Cheever, in the American Quarterly Register, vol, iv. p. 273; vol. v. p. 33, 2 J 8. The
writer aims ** to prove that Greek literature ought to be profoundly studied : — First, for
the native excellence of the Greek classics ; Second, for the invigorating discipline
which this study affords the mind ; Third, for the practical knowledge and mastery of
our own native language ; Fourth, and most important, as a preparation for the study
of theology."

For rtfereoeta on the Talne and Importuce of daarical (todiea, ne P. rv. § 89. To tboee there given we add the following t Jh*-
dent Languagtt. Inqairy whether the study of tbem be a neceanry branch of modem edocal ion. Edinb. I TO B.—F. F. Friidt-
nMfin, Faiftocsen far •iBdireode Jai«linge aaf Ojnoasien ond Univcnitllen. Bnnnich. 1627. •* A collsclinn tmm the graaKel
•eholan, on tbe Imporlaace, methoda, kt. of ctaaiod itody; with valoabla noln." ▲ aaeond improved edilioo, 1838. 8.— fr
•mmeh, Cefaer gelchrte Srbnlen, ke. 1M6. &>V. C/oAn, JnhfbQdMf fOr pyiokfie and Padagogik, cited \ 7. U. vol. iL p. ISt }
who* to a valnable aiilde with infarancea to rcoaat worta.

435

HI8T0RT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

$ 3. fiat, independent of these considerations, the language itself presents
eafficient indncements to the stady ; such is its own intrinsic beauty ; the hifffa
degree of perfection it exhibits, above all other langaa^; its unequaled ricli-
ness in the most significant words and combinations ; its sjjrmmetrical stracture
and syntax; its elegance in tarns of expression; the singular skill in the
arrangement of its particles, daoses, and members ; and its wonderful harmony
in prose as well as poetry. These are excellences which impart to the best
works of the Greeks a charm in outward dress fully corresponding to the Talue
of their contents.

CL P.IV.taai-r. a, Ttmdamhtrt, Vm0Mtmg d«TanQ|t te daatackn Spncte mk d« Von. d«r bL od pteb. la
V)m*mB»aUiara(»riftmdm-dmtt€kmOmanitk an Jfaintdm. fVukL ITM. &-Jiv. MW(,T«wdiObcrd«B W«tbte
•ltHi8piidMaaiiddM8tad.d«LU.dwOfi«ii.nrJariM. rradtf. a. d. a »ia &-^ f. LfaidBu, Da Un •! Pnertaalk Artiaa
•t LitanroB Qmeanm. VmlU. tttf. ll-F. Jmeoia, Uatar ttum Toniif d« GnMh. Spndw l« dm OcbrauelM ihf«r Ui^tf
laD. MOBeh. 1808. 4.-OBbr4fi» Stady of Griik fottii, p. 84, u diad | tl^-Oloik Jmam. vi. i«2; si. l44;^tiiL 19L

$ 4 /. Respecting the origin of the Greek language and the causes of its per-
fection we have already remarked (P. IV. $$ 36—39). Here we may further
remark, that in the different provinces and settlements of the Greeks arose those
differences in their language which are named dialtcU. The principal, which
are found in written composition, are four ; the iEdlic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic.

Tho JEalic prevailed in the northern parts of Greece, in some northern islands of the
iBgean sea, and especially in the ^olic colonies in the oorth-westem part of Asia
Minor. It was chiefly cultivated by the lyric poets in Lesbos, as Alcoeus and Sappho,
and in BoBotia by Connna. It retsined the most numerous traces of the ancient Greek.
The Latin coincides with this more than with any other of the Greek dialdbts.

The Dtnic was spoken chiefly in the Peloponnesus, with a few places north of the
Isthmus, in the Doric colonies in tho southern part of Italy, and in Sicily. It was par-
ticularly distinguished by the use of what was termed the broad sound of the voweb
(irXtfmaff^^). The most eminent writers in this dialect were Theocritus and Pindar.
Biou, Moschus, Stesichonis, and Baccbylides also used it.

The Ionic was the softest of the dialects, in consequence of its numerous voweb,
and its rejection of aspirated letters. It was spoken chiefly in the colonies in the south-
western part of Asia Minor and in the neighboring islands. The principal writers in
this were Homer, Hesiod, Anacreon, Herc^otus, and Hippocrates.

The Attic was considered the most refined and perfect of the dialects, free from the
extremes of harshness and softness. It had its seat at Athens, and prevailed in the
most flourishing period of Grecian literature. It is the dialect used by many of the
best writers of Greece ; ^sohylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Thucydides,
Xenophon, Plato, lacerates, Demosthenes, and others.

These dialects passed through difierent changes, and included under them several
varieties. They may be traced to two primary dialeet$, as the Ionic and Attic were
originally nearly or quite the same, and the Doric and ^olic were at first the same, or
had a common basis. Their first distinct and definite separation from two into four,
may be referred to the time when the ^olian and Ionian colonies were planted in Asia
Minor, between 1030 and 1100 B. C.

On the colmdn ictend la, laa JTf^drtft Ofwca^ ch. v.$a.-OB tba diakcti,/. /. rbdi OooipaadlaB Dbl.GnBe. MMAb.
I782..-Jfidk. Mtattmin, Onae. Lii«. DialaetL Ll|ia. I80T. S^E. W. Slterv, 4a Dialedo Uacadoalca at Alaiaadrim. Lipt. 1907. a
-jr^numn, Procr. da Dialadifc Upa. ISOT.-ttmiaim, da Dialccto Piadari. Llpa. 1808. L^Alaa aM JfofrAue't Qrcak GraoK
Bar ; AdMnion^ Buttrataa, f L ; aod SftMrTf Onmanr of Naw TcataiMiit —On tlia Dark pamliaritiai, aaa Af ttUa«« Dorim,
ToL il. App. fiil.— Ob tba rcaaom for tba vaa of particular diaiaela by particular poata, Ctmm. Jaum. ztu. 82.

Tba followlMC remtrki are from MS. notaa of Lectarea by Alermonn, 1834. •* Wa oaad a work oa Dialada ; Cor Iba vrittea laa*
gvaga aod alao for (ba ipduau Tba dialed! of tba writtan laogwfa ahould ba divided into tba Efk^ tba Lyric, aod tba TVafk. Ota
tba two flnt, wa bava learealy aoy tbinf. I bave dooa Mmetbiaff ; vary lillla. On tba Trngie, JCukbladt ia toicnbly good} ate
tba noteaof Fbnon aod Elmdy. Oa Iha popolar dialad, Sl^hvuut (is bia TUtrntnH) k tba baiL— tfrafory oa tba dialacta, aad
ttwao(aaioit,arapoor. Mattmin kkupnUti, Oa tba dialect of Harodotoa, Sfnaaa k praliy fair. Oa iha Doric aad iBoiie, tbera
iaDOibiag vary good; Bopp'a Conpantiva OiaaiBiar ia tba baal."

$ 5. The true pronunciation of Greek, since it must be viewed as a dead
ian^age, cannot be determined with certainty.

1 u. The principal diflerence in the actual pronunciation of modem scholars on the
European continent is in the enunciation of n, », ot, ei, ov, and n, which are sounded
in two difl*erent ways. Erasmus and Reuchlin, in the 16th century, were the distin-
guished original advocates of the two modes respectively ; and from this circumstance
one is termed the Erasmian and the other the Reuchlinian method. Very probably
there was a difiisrent utterance of these vowels in the difierent provinces among the
Greeks.

2. I'hose who adopt the Reuchlinian method sound ly, ot, and «, like the continental
t (as in machine) ; ai like e in there ; and v in ao and n like / or v. Those who follow
Erasmus sound i? like a in hale ; at like at in ai»le ; et like ei in height ; oi like ot in

p. V. INTRODUCTION. PRONUNCIATION. 487

Baiaiia; cv and c« like a» and eu in Glauau and EunuK The former are often
called JotiMta and the latter EtUl<Bi from their respective modes of sounding the
vowel Q ; these terms instantly suggest to a continental scholar the ground ol their
application { but to an English or American eye and ear, they would best convey the
meaning by bein^ written and spoken ^otistie, or itista and dtitta (etists and atists).
I^ England and in this country, especially in the northern schools and seminaries, it
has been the common practice to sound the Greek vowels according to the prevailing
analogy of the vernacular ton^e. The controversy between Reuchlinians and Eras-
mian^ has therefore excited httle interest among us.

t Cf. MatitmnH BottaMiB, i 2. a • For icferoiea to aathon who teve dimuMd fhe mtOert, eomult narlm, lotradacdo Id

Bteriui LugUB Qmsm (PnL n, and 8uppi«Bmi). BwIm czprcMn tha opiokw Ualad above in Ibb Mcfion, that tte vowab
fc^ Mtalwayav^waU iilM3ea»«BiCBniaiMuid.-CL Jtem d* A*1- A>y^ Ok. Onm. Frit iM.-Lond. Quaru Ma. si. 471.

3 tt. The chief difficulty in pronouncing Greek is found ui the expression of what
is called the accent. The tone in Greek is placed upon short syllables as well as
long; in German, it accompanies regularly only long syllables. The consequence
is, that in reading Greek with the accent always placed where the Greek tone is
marked, a German naturally violates quantity, and in verse destroys all poetical mea-
sure. Yet attention and practice will enable one to give the accent to the syllable
marked by it, and at the same time regard and exhibit the quantity in his pro-
nunciation.

4. The mode of expressing what is called the accent, is viewed as a subject of
greater importance than the sound of the vowels. In giving an accent to a syllable in
an Englisn word we therdnt render it a long svllable, whatever may be the sound
given to its vowel, and in whatever way the syllable may be composed ; so that as
above stated in relation to the German, an English accent, or stress in pronunciation,
accompanies only a long syllable. The consequence is that, if we, in pronouncing
Greek, put our accent wherever the Greek tone (rrf»«$) occurs, we shall in many cases
crossly violate the laws of quantity ; because the Greek tone is placed on short syl-
lables as well as long ones. *' Let one take, for example, the word aifSpcMo^, and at-
tempt to place the stress on the first syllable, and yet make the second seem as long
in quantity. He will certainly find some difficulty. It is of no consequence in the
matter, which sound he gives to a in the first, the open or contracted ; the quantity, to
an English ear, is the same whether be says dnlhroposj or dn'tkropo*. Nor does it
make any difference, as to the point in question, whether he gives to w in the second
the contracted sound or the open ; in either case, the quantity will be the same to Eng-
lish ears, whether he says an'thrdp os, or an'thrO poa, and must be the same m
English verse, iust as in the two words bif^ dt ed and temp' 6 raL Now in this diffi-
culty what shall the student do f"

Three diflbrent methods have been followed by different pereone. One is to persevere In the
eflbrt to aeparate >trew and quantity, and give atreBs In all cases to the syllable which has the
Greek tnn«, and at the same time to pronounce that syllable and the others with a prolongation
or cnrtaiiment of sound according to their proaodlal quantity. Many distinguished scholars re-
commend this effort, aa Matthle, MIchelis, Foster, Buttmann, and others, with the assurance that
perseverance will attain the object. But it Is believed that very few, if any, ever aucce«'d in the
effort. Baekk is said always to follow both accent and quantity ; and Hermann to do it In prosi>,
while be confesses his want of success in poetry. It is indeed not very difficult to give a mtre
€lnfntion to the syllable that has the tone, and still pronounce it in halfthe time employed In utter-
ing either of the other syllables. Huch enunciation, however, must to our ears seem like singing
rather than accented pronunciation. Nor la elevation by any means synonymous with our ac-
cent; for the s^rllabie which baa the stress, in our language, is not always elevated above the
ethers in enunciation, but is very often depressed below tbem.— A second method is to place the
stress always on the svllable which has the Greek tone, and make no effort to exhibit the rela-
tive quantity of the syllables. This is done by the modern Greeks, and is perf<icily easy for us.
But it is a method, which inevitably violates all the prosodial measures, and utterly destroys
Greek veralfication. On this account, chiefly, scholars in this country, although of^en urged,
have been reluctant to adopt It.— The third mode is to place the stress on the syllable (whether
the Greek tone be on that syllable or not) on which it would ftiil by Latin analogy : 1. e. on the
pennlt. If the penult be long, or the antepenult, if the penult be short. This method, of coarse. Is
very easy for us, and It also accords whh the Greek prosodial quantity fkr better than the se-
cond, although it does not by any means perfectly harmonise therewith. It however makes
distinctly perceptible the quantity of the penult in all words of three or more syllables; and tbta
Is neatly all that ean be accomplished by modern utterance, even according to Buttmann*s state-
ment, althoQgb he advocates a regard to the Greek tone in pffonuaclation.

OnllMMeomlBMlhodalioveMMMdi/.iHcka^.McawlreolhePnDiioeiatiaiiafaaclestGfWk. Caab. ISIL 4; aInlDJftm.
A. A. S vol. iv.— lueoviiH, Ucber di« Aunprachc dn Griecibcteo.— £/ocA, BcvUan d«r L«bi« mo dcr Amtpneh* des Alrpiaehi*

Kheb I8K. Tot tb» cited •tatemcot of Buttmann ; JU)bin$m^i Buttmaon, \ 7, nota 7. On tliit nibject, aln, tbe Ibllowtag

worlu Biaj ba aneBtioMd. B. C. Anntnua, Gnecaoi Lin(tiaiB dob mm pronuackBdan KeaBdiiiD Accaatoa. IVaJ. ad Ithctk
lea*. i.—Jt*m Fvltr^ An Emy ob Om diffwcBt nalara of Accrat aad Qaautity, vilb Ibeir Um Ui tbe EdcIUi, LbUb, asd Oraak
LaBpMfei; *& Third aditioo, ooalaiaiag Dr. B. OaJh^t Two Diaaertaikmi »fUMnt pnooaneiBC tbe Greek aeeordiaf to Acccnla.
Lead. Ilta a— r. S. maitm^ ne Uteramn GrMaran PnmmiciatkMM. Roan. I7BL 4. dcfendinf a ra|ard lo aceaBta.~frilltem
Pritmtff, Aceeatin Sadivivi, or a Defeate of aa accaotcd praouaciatioa of Grrek proae. Camb. 1784. a— Mtfrvnviiron, or a ntw
fdcBivn reeonmaadad in a Di«ertaiiOD upon a part of Greek and Latia PRMody. Load 179T. S— /. fFaUm*» Key to the claMical
praraadatioa, ke. »itb obaarvatlona on Greek aad Latia Accaat aad Qoanlily. Load. I79S. 9. BoitoB, 1811 24.— FnUiom Hit-
/.^ Aa faqBiiy iafci theMadvlaa U Uannoay ia Laafoife. kc I^ood. 18M. 8.-rK«fmr, died P. IV. { Slw-Sae alao flBfi*

2o2

438 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

fatredaeHo, tc. Prol. f C, aad ^^plMMwr.-Jjl JMim*. 9n la vMtabl* PraMMtatiai da te L««m Ofveqai. Par. im^jr. T
Jfoort. Bainailn oa the rraaandaiioo of tbaOiwk Lm^mc*. M. York, 1818. &—& & FaUan,Oa ika Nalwa nA ApplkMlM
of Om GfMk Acewl% Id JUL Avoi. vol. ii. p. 4ft7.

§ 6. It is important to begrin the acquisition of this langruage at an early
period of life. But a tedious, unfruitful mode of study must be avoided, lest a
lan^iage so beautiful and excellent should become disgusting to youth. The
pupil must first be well grounded in the principles of the Grammar, the under-
standing of which and the fixing of them in the memory may be aided by
exercises in the translation of easy passages from suitable text-books.

The best mode of studying and teaching the languages has been a fhiiifiil theme for
discussion. In this place a Few general remarks only will be oflered.

1. Perhaps no one method of teaching can be devised, which shalU by its essential
peculiarities a» a method, be the best in all circumstances. It is essemiai to great sue-
cess, that the teacher's own mind should be roused to wakeful activity and interest ;

• and also that the student should be put upon a kind and degree of exertion which
really tasks him, and which yet is fully within his present ability. It must be obvious
to every observer, that the method, which mi^ht secure these objects in some cases,
would utterly fail in others. The teacher, tnerefore, who relies upon any plan, as
possessing in itself certain efficacy, and on that account promising mfallible success,
will inevitabl;^ be disappointed. The efficacy of any method will depend very much
on his own spirit and fee lines ; and if he trusts to a favorite method merely or chiefly
as such, however successful it may be when executed with his own mind Rowing
with enthusiasm, he will soon discover that his method will not work by magic; as a
machine or instrument employed with wakeful ardor by him it accomplishes much :
but it can do little or nothing of itself alone. The judicious and skillful teacher will
be regularly guided by certain general principles, but- will ever be on the alert to
watch among his pupils the first flagging of interest in his present methods, and put
himself to devise new expedients to forward his ultimate object.

2. The analtfluxd and synthetical methods, as they have been termed, have often
been brought into comparison. The former is less adapted for the study of a dead
language than for almost any other branch of learning to which it can be applied.
Much hns been urged in its favor in this study, but only doubtful evidence can be ad-
duced from experience. Where there is time sufficient and constant oral instructions
can be afforded, such a method is no doubt adequate. But no abiding foundation is laid
until the student is well grounded in the principles of grammar, as hinted in the section
above. The principles of {grammar are nothing but classifications or synthetic stale-
ments of those facts respectmjg the lan^oge, which by the analytic process the pupil
learns by induction from a series of parucular cases ; i. e. if he learns them by the ana-
lytic process in reality ; but in point of fact, he usually learns them, if he learns them
at all, because his teacher orally states the general facts to him again and again, as suc-
cessive particular instances occur ; and thus when one of these facts has been stated
so often that he cannot help remembering it, he has learned simply whst ho leams
when he commits to memory from his grammar the rule or principle, in declension or
syntax, which presents that one general fact ; and the former process is as truly syn-
thetic as the latter, with only this difference, that the pupil commits the thing to memory
from hearing it said over and over again by the master, instead of committing it in a
vastly shorter time and in a more accurate form from his grammar at the outset.

The remark of the author above, that the flxing of the principles of grammar in the
memory may be aided by suitable accompanying exercises, is just and important.
Much of the prejudice a|?ainst the method, which has been called synthetic, has arisen
from the practice' of forcing the beginner to spend many weeks in merely committing
the grammar to memory. It is far better that he should be put upon" the applir^tion
of wliat he learns as he learns it, and that he should be fumiBbed with exercises adapted
for the purpose. This is the method most generally practiced in the schools of our
cx>untry. Most of the elementary books now in use, in the study of both Greek and
Latin, contain portions designed for such exercises.

A Tcrf fooA hdp for wqalrinf aad flxiag ia Ihb wajr tbe prindpla of Grade Onaiimr b tha foUowiair . Imem in Omk ^r*>
iiuf, at Oallinci of iho Gnok Onmnur, iUartiatad by apptopriata eierciMa ia Paniog ; \tj Ckatmtf A. Goodrich. Na* Bai«^
1829.— We wmj aho aiantiaa, wf . C. JTrntfrid, latraductkm to tha Graak Laagutfa ; eontaiaiag aa Oulliae of (ba Oraimnar, wilb
appropriata EierciMi. N. Yoife, 1841. pp. 182. Cf. BiU. Hep. U Sv. ni. il p. 489 —£ A. Sophadm, Fiiit Lmmmm ia Crock.

Allmipti have racanil j been' ntade ia Eachmd to iatradaca (ia tbe laB(wifB of iba advoeatei of rba ■yataa, to rertora) tha aaelbod
of /itfcrlttMor TnuuUition. A Nriai of tul4M>olM has beoa paUbbad aibpted to this deriga. The Greek eooiae oommaoece with
Selactioae fraoi Laeian'k DialoROCi. The bafiaoor b fkaad from the toil and delay of rtodying a grunmu or tonUaff to a Icxiotm.
Tha ti UMlalwo b (i«en word for word, tha Eofflbb diradlj aadcr tba Greek ; and tbe Icarwr b azpeclad to be aUa, oa rzuiiaa-
tkw by the naMtar, to reader the Greek into Eaflbh, word for word, and aleo withoat the boc* to idTO the Et«lnb for each Girah
word, aod tbe Greek fin- etch Eaglbh word. TheMooad lolBraeintbeoovraeeoHbbof ibeodeiof Aaacma,aod btobeelwibd
ia the aaoM way, bat aeooiDpaaiad with tba atndy of a gvMDmar adapted to the plan.— For an aeoooat of thb Kpttm, wnJtn EHoy
OM a 5ytf«ii of Clcuieal MKrvdton, eaaiUaiaf the OMthode of Locke, Milloa, Aicham, aod ColH ; the whok nrici brit^ derigaod
tP erhibit a aoMoratioo of the primitiTO aaode of Sehobelic Toitioo fai Eaglatid. Loud. I«& Cf. Land. Qiicrt. Am^ N« UvrtL

p. V. INTRODUCTION. METHODS OF STITDTINO GREEK. 499

^•J.T.PIdaipa,CmifmMemWwjt4imtMatUatcmtim,tutakaA^ Loud. ITSa S^AvvlMtem, The Sdml-

MalM>,te. LoDd.llSl. 4.

3. It is sometimes asked whether a youth should begin with Greek or with Latin.
The question is not perhaps of so mucn importance as some have supposed. But it
may be observed, that some of the most distinguished scholars, both in this country and
others, as Pickering, Wyttenbach, &c., have thoaeht that the classical course should
comtaience with Greek. I'he chief remark we wish to urge here is, that it is of the
utmost consequence that both kinguaffes should be commenced in early life ; * although
very hiffh attamments have been maoe by persons who began classical study at a com-
paratively advanced age.

4. Whatever methods are employed in the first stages, it is obvious that as the
student advances his attention should be turned to various points by suitable exercises.
The habit of thoroughly analyzing sentences upon crammatical principles must be
formed and never lost. It is a profitable exercise to the most advanced scholar occa-
sionally in his readings to select a sentence and go over it in a perfectly minute exami-
nation of every word, and make a formal statement, even a written one, of all that is
true respecting it in its place in that sentence.

Another exercise, wnich will be found of much utility, is that of analjrzing upon
logical principles. Tliis analysis extends of course beyond the parts of a single sen-
tence, and examines not only the jnutual relations of those pans, but also the nature
and ground of the connection between the sentences. It may be united M'ith a tracing
out of the train and order of thought in the mind of the author through successive para-
graphs or a whole piece. The nature of this exercise is partially exhibited in an OtU-
line given under ^6e.

Exercises in oral or written translation from the original into the vernacular are of
indispensable importance. It is advantageous to vary the mode of translating. The
scholar may sometimes be required to give the vernacular for the ori^nal, word for
word, taken in grammatical order ; a mmie absolutely essential with beginners. Some-
times he may proceed exactly in the order of the original; a method which will be
found very useful in gaining familiarity with an author's mode of thinking and with the
idioms of the language. Somoiimes he may, either before or after reading the ori-
ginal, translate a sentence or passage as a whole, giving as far as possible the exact
meaning of the author's words in the best words of the vernacular, and using only
vernacular idioms ; a method of peculiar advantage in cultivating accuracy and prompt-
ness in the use of the vernacular. Loose and paraphrastic translation cannot be safely
indulged even in advanced scholars.

Various other exercises, connected with inquiries on the facts and allusions, the sen-
timents, figures, and general scope of the original, and with topics of history, chrono-
logy, geography, arts, and antiquities, will be suggested to every competent teacher.
——In all cases it is to be kept in mind, that repealed reviewing cannot be too much
recommended.

Ob th* iMt point, and oa Ois wM* nbjMt, wt Dumriaiiotu on Oie Impoituice and bert method ei ■tadying tbn Origin] Lu-
g«fw of ibe Bible, bf /oAn, with malm by M. StumrU Aador. IMI. Abo, ObmvaXioiu on the inporluea ot Gnek Utenhire,

nd the b«l method of ilndyiiv the eberice; tnodeted from the Lelin of Ptof fV^tmbmtk. Boeton, 190. On the Impoituce

of tkonuth «(utfy, me Hioie oo the Smdy of the Greek Leacoage, bj Prof. Stuart, ia the BibL Reporilory, No. vL toI. ii. pu 90a
— ^XFmT. 4. 5. Podlanl, On the bert method of ttadring the encient Leagmcm { hi the ledvrm bclbra the wf merjomt Aurffitf c
tf ImMictian. Boiton, 18S4. 9.^intlmhr, Letter to e yoaag PbilotoKien, trualBted bj Prof. Hodmtty in the CMttian JUoirw,

Oee. Isa.—B. FtiUm, DnMrtalion on readloc the Claaio. Land. 1718. IS. 1Y3& & We mey hen reeommend to the acholer

the wotfc eatited CUiiical Stndiee, by & Smn, a C fUAm, end A A Afmanlk Boet 18«9L IS.

Translating from the vernacular into the language which the student wishes to learn,
is eminently useful. In the study of Greek, this exercise has been practiced among us
much less than in the study of Latin ; owing chiefly to the want of suitable helps to
enable the learner to begin it in the outset of his course ; that deficiency is now sup-
plied (cf. ^ 7. 5) ; and the student should commence the writing of Greek as soon as he
enters upon his Chrestomathy or Reading-book.

5. How far Reading- Books, comprising mere extracts and selections, sboatd be ased, has been
a suMect of Inquiry. In this country for many years, until recently, the course of study has been
chiefly confined to such boolcs in the Colleges as well as other schools. Lately, objections have
been urged which have awakened some prejudice against them. No friend of learulng can ob-
ject to the reading of "whole authors," which has been demanded. But the time allowed to
Greek, in the present systems of study at our Colleges, is not sufllclent for reading the whoU of
more than one or two Important authors; and there are many advantages In using a well pre-
pared book oT selections. Yet that the student, who would derive fbll advantage or pleasure from
the study, must go beyond his CoUeetansa or Exesrpta n4>eds not to be stated. In what order it
Is best to read the Greek authors is less obvious. The Odyssey efHomsr and Jtnebssis ofXsno-
fhsn are adapted for an early place In the course.

' CC Pnf. AeuK'f remarln in the KM. Aqpmilory, toI. H. ^7¥L-J. O. BMOing, Ueber den Ziraek and die Mathode baym
Leani derOr. a-ROm. Chm. »unb.ud Kiel, I79S. ITT. SAMh. fll-fV. C>H(mr,OHakBd.atad.dMAItartbaan. BmMh. 18(17. S.
—jr. a. SMclb, Weiehe aite dam. Autoren, wie, in weleber Iblfe nnd Verbindnn« mit andera Stadieo aoU man aie anf dchnlen
Icmn? *Lpi. 1884. S Rde. %^H Svhir. Gedanken Qbcr d. bcalc Art d. dam. SchriHat. an leaen. Bed. !7». a-Thteeeft, ITtbcr
Schnlea, ate Ste AMb. M cited aboTc, i B -Cf. AiAnMim, M eited P. IV. i 89l 4.

i b ft. The follow ing extract, from the Calendmr oftks London UnnsrsUy for ISSS, may not be wboll?

440 BlflTORY OF OBEEK LITEIUTURS.

witlioiit interevt ; tinee h gIvM a riew of the method of hivtraotion propoeed to be folloirei in
that InitUutlon, as preaenied in outUiu by ihe two ProfesBtirs of the classical departuient.

« ThB imnMtwa ia lb« Utia and Gnak dMua h cMMnnsicaiad bf daily axuaiaaiiaa of iba MiMknn ia eartaia pgriioaa of a
Latin or OrMk aatfeor (for which (hay ara requirad to piapaia at hama) ; by qucriiou m tha ■ubjcet^naiter and tha wordt of (ha
aalhar; by nmariu on tha iMculiariUai of tha laaiuafa and on importanl facts ; by raferaaca to baoka, or parts of booka ; kfihm
•id of OMpa, plaaa, vlaws, modds, eoias, niadala. he. ; and flaally, byVequirin« from the itiidanl (ranslstkim from thesa two lan>
guagas lata Bagliih,ud from EDgiish Into Latin or Oraek, wilh other ciarcises of vuiow kiads-^Tbrrs are, in all tha claaMS,
regular anminalimN at Chrtatmsa, Eaalcr, and Iha dose of tha Saaioa, conducted chiefly sflcr the Cau>bri<ige plan, by written
aaswars lo qoastions privalaly printed ; by these it is datarasinad to whom Caftificalas of Proficiency shall be (raolcd and the priass
awmrdad.*

Omtlim •/ Camm in Latin Ungumft mud LUenUmt^-^ Ttm ioatraetion ia this dapartnaal will, rram tha eaBUMaecmeal of
tbaSearien l»l<«V ^ ii*>d»i !■«« th.-ae aMinas,asCBUewai~TlM JmiarCfans will bCflB with two or three book* of CBaar^Oafiic
War. A eatlaiu portioa of (his will ha daily tiaaalaled by tha Mndaal biwaeli; in tha laelorMWMn. Bat to nuke Was neauwMy
MQnaialed wHk the iaam^ia^ ha will ha aalled-apan, bath nrally in Iha leetara-rooin, and ia writii^ out of it, lo traaa!ata a wni*
tor of short aantoioas fran Ki^lish into Latin. AH of theaa will ba laleclad from Gnu's own wriitop, lo aa to tlluatral* tbo dif-
iwaal idkwM, aa they front lima lo lima onanv Ttaoas for invediata IranslalioB will, of ooofw, ba vary simple ; while eoch a* are
lo to trmriatad oat of tto lecfarafoom wiU to of a dtOknlly aomnwtat greaiar, but Mill simple. Thsee eierciaai an alreaity pm-
farad, and will to printed befara (to aatoms of tto nait yoar. No Eag'ish-Luin Dictionary will to required by the sindent ; all
those words for which to might want to oonaolt mdi a book will to nipplied with tto exercises After to has thus ovcrcfiane tto
difRctilties oenrring in namtive, to will read TemneaH Andria, where (to Idionn peculiar to dialofue will prevent thrmadTCs.
Theaa also will to folly explained to Mm, and Impraased upon his memory in tto moie wsy, via. by eaty peret^es, carefully salactad
for innrialion ftreoa tto olhar plays of Taranea, and those of Plaataa.— Tto Manilla Oniion will close the SewiM —la this dass
by far tto laryast store of ito stodmit^ altaotion will to diractnd to tto idkas and struciura of tto laofoaca. At tto saaaa time it
wai not to (brgctteo, ttot an acqoamlanea with oartaia portions of hiatory, gaofrsphy,and antiquities, ia naccasary to Ito full andap-
atanding of erary Latin antbor. Tto innalatioos from English Into Laiia will to required fbnr tinm a waek, and ooee a wask s

written translation from tto text of tto author Tto 5sn<or Claat will enmmenee with Ito tweaiy-fint and iwenly-«eee«i boika

•f Uvy, and tto ninth book of tto finaid ; they will aflarwnrds read part of Ct«an>ii Lattora, and Ito Satires or Epistles of Horace.
In coonacthM with tto two prose wrilrrs. there will to regnUr asaraan adapted to aneb author, as in tto Junior dais; hut they

will to of a mora diflkult ebarseler. In ibis dam also, a weakly translation from aoma portion of tto text wiU to rei|oirad.

In tto Bightr Clou, tto Instruction will to of a different character. Tto IVofr«r will himself translate and explain some porfien
of* more diflcult Latin eottor, or inad a Itetora connected with tto hisloiy, aatiquilins, or iauguap of Rome.— Thus in tto Semkn
«r I8SI-SI, it ia proposed, Itot Ito sohjed should be,— 1«. A phiy nf Plautus ; fragments of Ennius and tto enriicr writen, with soma
of tto oMtat iaseriptions; and a Courw of Lectures on tto etymological itniduie of tto Latin langaaga.— Ad. History of CkunA
tiases, illualraled by hb Onllnns and Epistka."

Oullnse ef Count tn Omk Languag* tand Ltlsrvltau— ** Tbare ara two rsgahr aeadamieil claiaas, Jnnior and tontor, he^isa
• dam for more advancnd atndenla. In tto Junior and Senim' dsmca, inslntetirn is given daily, exeept Saturday ; in ito Higtor dam,
twiaa a week.— /imsor ClaaL This clan Is iatendnd for theaa yoaog sindeota wto enter Oie University at tto eartieit period itot is
neammendcd; and aho for slndeafs of a more advancad age, wto tavn learned Greek only a stort lime, and wish to avail Itom-
advee of tto mom elementary kind of iHtnictkin. Tto Anatosie of Xenophon is tto taxt'beolt, of which small portions ai« read
daily, oxeept Saturday. Ai tto commcnceoDeot of tto SaMion, tto atymokigical straclura of (to language is developed by axpl&ieiac
tto pnrticular forma Itot oecor is each lesson, and by axhihitii^ on tto black board oilwr axamplm of tto clawai to which Ihay
belong. Each kaion is twice read on eueeeesive days, and the mere difBcoIt parts ara al«o translated and cxpfaUnod by ttoprcdicssar.
Wntiea tramlationa of OBrtain portions are required onea a weak, and they ere corrected with leffereuee boih to tto Bseauax and
tto mode of expression. One slodent^ exercise ia also selected to to rand nkwd En Ito lecture room by tto Profsmor, wto oakei
aucb raaaarks as to may Judge proper, and calls on oitor sludenta to tuad aload parts of thwr exercises, and to cxptadn any thing >a
fham ttoi is imperfM or ofaeeore. When this exercise tos been eorroetrd, each student Is expeded to to able to give orally, and
with cloeed book, tto Greek text eorreqiooding to tto Engiieh, which tto Profbmor reads out in short portions, and wtonmrer it is
practicable, in dislind propoeitions. To aid tto student still further in acquiring tto laaguagn by written exercises, d»rt Englidi
aanteoees are given to him to to fumed into Greek, tto model or example to to imitated bdng always eonUined in some part ttot
to baa rsad, and to which to Is referred.— During tto Sesdoo the Piofietor axpUins tto geogra|itoy of Greece, and tbeiGraek
klands of tto Mediterranean, and givm also such tosiraetion on tto geography of Asia as is necesmry to ondentend the nnmltfa
of Zanopboa. Every wdl aseertained fod ef pbyaieal or nrndem political geography ttot can ducidate ancirat grogiaphy eomai
within tto plan. These explaantioH ara always followed by oxaminatioB. Tto shident is raoami^anded to use tto maps ef tto
flodaiy for tto DiCtoion of Useful KnowMga, and iarafemd to otton on a higor aeala in tto Lecture room and tto libnty.-
TheaubJaet>malterof ttoAanhaaHiaanplalBadto(toBtadant,aBwdl utto language; it being Ito PrDtaaor^ design to eoonac^
■a fhr as ha is able, all kinds of naefnl iBfonaatta wHh tto accurate ibMly ef Ito Gmak text.— For tto Semion l»0-.1l, tto flnt

fourbootoof ItoAnatodsamruad. te ttoSesdonof IMI-SS, Ito lad Ihma will to mad Tto Stonor Clan. This dam is

talCBded for tbosa wto tovo peaied through tto Junior Cleaa, and for ottora wto tove oooe prepared to enter it. Tto gaoaral
pba for tto Junior dass applies to this also, with eodi modiflcaikwa aa tto higher acquirameota of the pupils may reader neesewy.
In tto acMion IStO-St, tto dass roads Iferedetui, Book iii. ; Ito Omlm of Euripidm ; and two books of tto Iliad. In tto Sambn

ntl-M, tto Senior Clam will mad Hoiadotns. Book eiiL \ tto Ptoms of JEadiyiua; and two hooto of tto Odyaey. JVJgkcr

Class. Tto «l^ of fMs dam is to asaid fbom atudoala ef mora advanced age or acquiramenia, wto are privately proeaeding
ItolrGfnok studies. For this pnrposo Am Professor oiplalna somo portion of a Ginek author, by tnnddiH dw Greek lextf making
ttoneeaemry rmnarto on Ito sobjiMt.matter and tto worda, and ^ refcrrii« tto dudents to hooka, maps, emaa, ke., far fhrtbar
fllodratfon. It ie his intention to ctoooe fiir expknatkm such books as w|1] to mod instradive to ddor pupils ; ThueydMe^ tto
▲tile oraton, Homer, Ariaioptonei, fee. During part of each Spring Coofae, Greek inacriptioiiB will to oiplained to Ito ctos^
froa AoelAV Corpus ImeriptionoaD, and from tto marbles of tto British Museum."

On tto stndimof the Dniveraity of Camhridgo in England, ef. Mortt Amar. Mm. for Jan. ISS7. Fbr a notice^ by Anf- A

Omw, ef tto mode of indrodlon in tto cdebratad 0»:ptosi-toiiM OyimMsntm at Halia, see tto JbmaiM of EdKoalion for tto
pear 1104.- There is a late work on tto slate of edneathM fai tto wodof Enra|M; Fr. rWwsdk, Ueber dan g^eawarUgan Zusiaad
teOftnthdM Usterriditi in Doutabhland, Hdtaad. VHaknieh and Belgian. 1BS8. S Parte.

( 6 e. We Introdnee here an outline of a MttkU of Legiud Analm applied to tJU Or$€k Lbm-
fUMft, which may be of service In aaggeitlng hints to students anti to teachers.

PKELIMINARY REMARKS. I sentence and the different sentences of a com-

1. Logical Analysis examines and unfolds the position bear to each other. It does not consf-

■•turai relatloa, which Uw dlffareot paru of a l dor the etynologkal forau uor the grammatka.

p. V.

EXERCISES IN STUDYING OREESi. LOGICAL ANALYSIS.

441

Byntaz of words ; tt preauppoies a knowledge
of ttaece ; but it partlcalarly conftnei itself to the
connection of the langaage and the thought.

2. There are peculiar advantages to the scho-
lar In applying this analysis to the Greelc lan-
guage. The Greek Is constructed on principles
more uniform and consistent, more thoroughly
systematical and logical than most other lan-

ifuages. When its sentences are properly ana-
ysed, they present not only a beautiful sym-
metry of parts which pleases the taste, but also
a logical and philosophical structure and con-
nection, to examine and contemplate which will
necessarily promote the discipline of the mind.

EZFLANATION OF FRINCIFLES.

3. The composition to be analyased consists
of sentences, and two things are to be consider-
ed; 1. the relation and connection between the
parts of each sentence taken by itself; 8. the
relation and connection between the sentences
themselves taken as wholes.

I. RsfoeiMi MuL eonueetun tettssm tht porta of a

4. AsimpU sentence has one subject, and one
▼erb not in the Infinitive mood, with or without
an object.

E. (. e( fMiifral lyvotrav raf ra rdvra, *' Iba dimplM
kMW aU Omm thiBp i»— •! tfmM. ri^evrm, <' Ih* good an

Where two or more simple sentences fall
within one and the same period, they consti-
tute a compound sentence.

E. (. irdvrf s, & iivco^n, ripMftav idvovn ; **aJI, who
do l^inrr, abdl mder atiifeetioa.'*

5. Simple sentences, whether alone or con-
stituents of compound sentences, may have
three pbircipal parts, viz. tk$ subject^ the at-
tributet the object ; and must have two principal
parts, viz., the avtjeet and the attribute.— The
tubieet is the person or thing chiefly spoken of,
and is the nominative case to the verb of the
sentence.— The attrtbuu is the action, passion,
or circumstance aflirmed or denied respecting
the subject, and is always the finite verb of the
sentence, or the finite verb taken in connection
with an adjective, or participle, or infinitive
mood.— The object is the person or thing affiect-
ed by the action aflirmed or denied, and is the
word which the verb governs grammatically.

B. {. W^tns fAA/Si KpoKro*, "Jotieo Riied Cnn«H;>*
WfUffif the ■utijwt.fAa/I* tbe altributc, and Kpolffov ibe ob-
jMt i 4 Ix^poi Awi»*in, •< tiM enemy periibed ;" 6 fx^fos the
■ntilMt, dvitewi Qw tttribato.— The mbject b loineUoiea a
dam* of a mteaee^ or area a whole NDlcaoe, ai vwrdbtv rots
XPVrrets vpesifKU, *• lo confide in the virtuooe ia proper ;" Ibe
clava at^ffoy tUs xn^'>'i * »•» m>^|««t— The ot|}eci
aleo, although araallj a noun or proooun in the aonaativa, gaai*
life, or dative caee, b often a elaon of a lentenee, as, a g.
i^Xtre rb valde Aft^ifm irof tfvan •• he denred that bb
two eoM ehoold be preMol j" tbe oi^ect b the whole cbine t&
snUe, ac— The attribute likewbe frequentlr includes nma
woti or woide oonneetnd wlUi tbe finite verb. E. g. * rpM^
^«npe$ nfhv iT^x«v*,the atlrlboto it It^Xcvc napitv
taken together; w ia ^ yvv^ ;^eTu rposcfCo/iMtfycu, *• the
noMn b Mid lo bavo braogbl," Mr«r« npusKuufMUvM b
Uioattribate.

6. These principal parU are in their natural
order, when the subject precedes the attribute
and tbe attribute precedes the object.

K- r 4 yp«^ '^^^ov rova^ra, "the loiter exUhltod Ihne
■nKb," the order b natural.— In any other amngeoMnt of tbe
puto the Older b imaUd. E. g. rovatra 4 ypa^ UfjXow ;
dM Older b inm1ed.-Perfaape it nay be doubtful what order b
Iba moat (rulyMlicnd. 11 bevideat, thai the aune order that b
moat oommon In one bngange b sot the moit eoenaioa in an-
ofbar. Bat It Mttyalj m«bm to be fbo suit Htaial mode ia

56

logical amngemaal to place tbe ntded flnt, Iba aOnBalloD or
denial reipeetng it next, and Una whatever b afiecied bj iL

7. Each of the principal parts majr be accom-
panied with an adiunet or with adjuncts. An
adjunct consists or two or more words rightly
combined, but containing no assertion, and ap-
pended to the subject, attribute, or object, to
eipress some modification.

E. g. i| ndvtea, be r*y tevrjf s xpifftdruy, xpvi'^*
MpuKa lirenjff-are, •*Fantheia, Aron her own propeilj, ande
a golden braattplab^* U t«« iovr^s xn/^rmv ia an adjoact
ef the altribnta^ ivoMfrcre ; and, In « fftiv <f<*X^i reS Awtt-
pev T^M/M}«»«hefUfilIadthepredictiravoiceaf thedrean,"
ree 6*«<pe« b an adjaact of tbe o^eei, i^v f^iti/v ; in ^/»^
IUtH fpovUnns A^qot*, <' elmigtb with wbdom b profit-
able}" ^crd ^oviftffMS itaa Mt/wicl of Om nl^ecl ^^1^—
SoaMtnei a lingle word eoMtitnlee aa adjunct. £. g. vpesffi-
woiiiro a«Tf» vpotEtfpir, •'there bed been eunrtructed for him
a Mat i» here a^rA u an adjunct of the attribute.

Tbe K^cet taken lofOlher with ito adjancto may be eooaidered
tt ibeloffaolniJ!^ indntJnetton firom the granunaKealni^
jtet, which doee not iactnde the adjoneb. CL Jtnimm and
. Onm. ^ 201,

8. Adjuncts may be modified by other ad-
juncts connected with them. In such cases
the adjuncts may be termed eompltz, and in
analyzing should be divided into their $fmpl$
parts.

E. g. 'IvireiepdTtt y&p, Idvrc IdUkrif, leal Btttpiomn rA
'OXdfuno, rff as tyivtro. ««To Hippocratca being a privat*
perwn, and obwrring the Olympic game*, a prodigy happened."
Here b a eoBiplez adjunct of the attribute, iylvtre ; i. e. 'la-
rocpdrn b the primary adljaoet, and thit baa iia adjuncts Jdvrt
ieUkrji, and 9fH^evTt t^ 'OX^ffia.— The simple parts of fhb
complex adjunct are 'Ivaeicptfro,— idvrt Ittdr ih—§ai »$atfk'
•vn rh 'OX^ftvuk

9. An adjunct may be located in its natural
place or out of it. Its natural place is immedi-
ately after the part (whether subject, attribute,
or object) to which it belongs. In any other
situation it is out of its natural place.

E. g. fyii d' f r^ todaXfOS dii^rv;, ** 1 am fall of fear."
dW;uires b an adjunct of the attribute sPjai ftirdO'Xfes, and b in
its natural pbc*} but in the following lytS dl eUfMtii if/u
inrdvXMS, it b out of lb natnal place.— Here noay be repeated
the r»marfc respeetiDg the iw/urol order of Ibe principal parts.
Diflerent bi^uages allow diflbrent praeticee in ibe anangemeat
of adjuneta, and in Ibb ooasisb usually a charaderMtic differaaee
between fauiguagea. When, therefors^ it b said in any sentence
the adjunct b not ia ito natural place, it will not imply that Uw
adjunct b where it should notb^orthatilbnotinUetac
irfoec, but only that It b not in tbe place where It would nalu
rally be, in a simply logical statement of Ibe proposition or sao>
tenca, which it modifies.

10. Sometimes there is in a sentence an ad-
junct not directly connected with either of the
principal parts. In such cases the adjunct is
equivalent to a simple sentence, and may be
termed the adjuinet independent.

E. g. run dk 'Afiirimtmit «rTfaT^or« rytvevTO Hxa al
yvM^ol' tAv ^Iv ot* lAvrmv vvfLfidXXuv, '*lm<mg tha
Alheabn geaerab ibere were diflkreni opinions ; some of them
beii« opposed to an eagagemeBt ;" tAv ftiv o6k, Ac. b at an ad-
junct iirfepeodent. So b wmXivn d' it'atiy in the followlag;
rmviKivrl d' tfattv, Hv ^fiitv n^rAv tf cX^^s ytWvSo*
—^« to speak in a word, if you would bemastcnof yoafMlees;"
and in tha feUowlag, wavrai edrw dtanSsI; darsirf^riro,
Mf9' lavrf ^Xe«s iTvmi^** he dbmbiod all, making on ten
bbrrbiida;»^B^'la«t^,
It

11. The attribute is often modified or quali-
fied by an adverb, and the subject or the object
by an adjective. In such cases the word is
termed the qualiJUr of the attribute, subject, or
object, as the case may be.

E. (. 'Arsfi^ rr9dTitY9S dsi f{u wofh rrpanmra^ t§>

442

HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

* Iff* fiifimaVt <'« food fmnl will alwaji tojof Qm foil
•oalMDn of hb waUkin,'* Ayoaftf, Au ud A<^«My sra

11. Rdathn and eonntetwn hetwesn diftmt
tenttnctt,

IS. Sentence! are usually Joined to each other
by some relation or connection, which la ex-
pressed by means of conntetives. These are
either conjunctions, adverbs, or relative pro-
nouns. In analyzing, U is necessary not only
to point out the eoimeetfos, but also to state the
nature of the relation, which binds the sentence
to that, with which it is connectad.

13. It will be impossible to specify hera all
the varieties of relation which may exist. A
few only will be stated, and the rest must be
left for the stvdent*a di»erimination In the exer-
cise of analyzinf.

14. Very frequently one sentence Is fzp2a«a-
tarjf or definitive of another sentence, or of one
of the principal parts of another sentence. This
is the relation usually expressed when a relative
pronoun is the connective.

E. g. 8vs IvBivHt vdvTis in^XtvvoVf rotrtvs dyttir^—
*'lM flrteemi Umw, whon all tenub fnin tbis ptKc;" hera tb*
nUtiTC proBouB Svs u lb* eofititcfiw JoIdIds ill notaoce to tbe
olber rof&revi dya»f , ud the Mataace Svg, Ac b uqibaKtory
or rsdrovf tbe object of Ow other.

15. Sometimes the relation Is that of corrU'
pondeves or comparison as to time, quantity,
quality, nr the like. This is the relation usu-
ally expressed, when adverbs are the connec-
tives.

E. (. ft rt nratnut rir* dcpc/SA( ra^ra iftrao^nrm,
** if uj mIrfortuDe ihould occar, then (at thai line) then tbiop
will be fully expoeed ;** the adverb tot' it the eomueliii, aat
the relation it that of eorreipondeBee aa to time.

10. A much greater diversity of relations is
expressed by means of the words termed con-
junctions. Tbe following are the more fre-
quent ; namely, eoiuinuation or addition, by
xal. Si I explieation or nrpoft/Mn, by Srt^ in ;
inferoneo or conooquenee^ by itdri i eau»e or rea-
oon, by y<kp, 5ti; opposition or eojUrast, by dXAa,
6k ; supposition or eondiliont by ti, Sv ; exception
by nXfiv.

PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATION.

17. To analyze logically a piece of eompoal-
tlon is to determine and point out the relations
of its sentences to each other, and to separate
each sentence into its constituent elements,
according to the principles now explained.

When a passage Is offered for analysis, the
following is the method, in which one should
proceed : — 1. Slate whether the period consists
of a simple or compound sentence ; if com-
pound, state separately the simple sentences,
of which It is composed;— S. Separate each
simple sentence into its principal parts (subject,

attribute, object), and state whether their order
is natural or Inverted ;— 3. If either principal
part have any qualifier mention it, and the re-
spect in which it Is qualified;— 4. If there are
adjuncts, assign them to the parts to whieh
they belong,— state in what respect they modi>
ly those parts,— if they are complex a<yuact8,
specify their simple parts,— and state whether
they are in their natural place or out of it ;— 5.
In reference to each simple sentence, if it be
not connected to any other, state that it is not;
but if it be connected, state with what sen-
tence,—what word hi the connective,— and
what la the relation expressed or intended.

E. f. Lei the Ibllowinc ■eatcoea be ttkes for analjaia,
*Eit$tiit di irtXt^ffOt ^aplXos, ml Kar ttrr^ *l( T^» fi»9y
Xdav Apraliflns, Ttova^tfvin dtafidkktt rdv Kepe* vpdj
v6v AitX^v, 4; IntftovXtiot a^rfi.

1. Tbe period eompriiea a eompoiind laitenec, barlof four
simple MDtencea, via. firtl, iirud^ di ircXc^r^i AspcZos;
Moonil, icat JMrivTi), kc—2. The prieeipal |«rta of tfaejtnd
ara A«p(Xos the subject, and iriXcfrqrc Uie atrribato} there ii
■o object. The ordo- is inverted.— S. Tlw altribole has a qoaO.
fler, lirsidi).— 4. Then an no ad jaiie(B.-l. The priadpaJ parti
of On iKond senteiiee are ' Aprafipf i)s the sal^ect, aad cartfrrf
the attribate ; there if no objeet ; the order lovcftod.— 9. The
principal parts have no qoaliaefn— 4. The ebiae Ag rljv fiuot-
Xifsv it an adjunct of Uw attribfta Kcr^rrir { it nodtAes tbi
attribate (eeiaUiefaed), by diowiaf in wAol amnion or attua-
ffon tbe aubjecl (Artaicnea) wu ettsblidied ; it b in its natnitf
place.— 8. The principal parts of the Mirrf sentaBca an Ttm*
^vin the sBbJect, 0M/MAAn tbe attribute, rdv K«f«* the
abject ; they an In the natanl order.—^ The priadpal parti
have no qualitoa.— 4. The dame «pd; rd« idcA^v is an nd*
Janet of the atlrtbate du/Stf AAat, expreninc the peneo to whoa
the accuaation wai preaenled, remoTed from ito oalaral plaee bf
the intervention of ttie object Kftpev.- i. The principal parti of
the fourth lentenoe ara ixnvos implied (rtferriof to KSpev) Iht
nitycct, <at^ovXt«et tbe attribute, and aiir^ the otject; ttteir
order natural.— 3. 4. Then ara no qualiflert, no adjnncti.—
S. The fint lentenoe, irud^, Ac it connected to the third,
Tie-(ra^pvqs fiafidWu, fcc. by the emneefiet tvuiii (which
it both a ooDoecliva and a qualifier at tbe tame time), and the
relation it that of eorrofioRdimri in ttmt . Tiuaphema aeeoied
Cynn of thoX timi, or after tlMt timt, token, ^.— Tlie seeool
lenience eel Kardrri} ic r. X. b connected to tbe finl, int^
irtXtvTtivt by the eanructim ml ; the nlation m that of aUt
fl'ofi.— The third sentence it raCerred back to tbe pracediBg para-
graph bjr tbe couMClive di (between iirndif and ^lAtdr^n)}
the relation b that of eontimtation. Hen b exhibited a ttrikii^
peculiarity of Greek eonttroctim, Urn hiding, at it wen, of one
particle behind another.— The fottrth sentenoe b eoonaded to
the third by the connective «$, and the ralatioo b that of a^i-
eatim, i. e. it ezplaiaa wberain or of what Tbsaphemes aeewed
Cyrna.

See J. J. SybMttn dt Socy, Prindplei of (Jeoeral Gnaunar.
proper to serve as an Introduction to the Sludy of Lai«nefBa.
Flirt 8d, M traoslaled by D. Fbtditk. Andov. 1834. IS.

$ 7 /. Here it will be in place to mention some of the numerous and various
helps which the student in Greek may bring to his aid.

1. Chrutomatkia and JUading Booki. Tbrnt an many
which an valuable.

J9. Math. Ganeri (ntrettomaOiia Gneea. Upi. 17>l. Sercrtl
later editioot.

CAruf. Frid. MaUMm, Chrastomathia Qtma. Moee. 1773.

Frid. Jndr. SinM, Ecb«B, sin Chnetaoi. Gne. QoodL
1778.

/o. Fnd. JVufu*, Giiechucbe Blamenleee. Narak 1T83.

Jo. Hrinr. Martin BmmH, Errtas TortNnitan|riMcb der
Griecbbchen Spnche. Altenh. 1784.

r. Otdih^M Oriechbehas Leseboch. (edited by Buttnuom)
Beriin. 1821. 8.

/. C F. Btinzatnumf* Orieeh. lieseboeh. Halle, I8I6L I.

F. JaaU, Eloneniartroch der Oriech. Spncbe. Jena, 1fS4. 4.
Th. & Thb has bees a veiy common textbook inOoniaDy.

it oooiisia of /ncr parta or Connoa. The first m dcn'fnad far
beginnen, and h the part poUbhed in thb eoontry under th*
title of T%t Orcck lUodar. The seeond part, styled JttHu, co»>
tbb of extraeto illusnaUnc the hblory of Athau, from the hb-
toriana and oraton. Tbe third, etyled Soerafei^ b composed of
philosophical extracts. The finarth b elyled PoeUidtt Btumm-
faM, and eonsbts of poetical pieoes. The Boetoit Slenoln><> Edi-
tion of the Reader contains tome of the extraeto ut the aeoovl
and of the foarth parts of the original work : tbb » tbe bett
American edition; entitled The Onck Rtader by Frederic Ja-
cobs, Profeisor of the Gymnaunm at (^otha, Ac. 4tb Amcrioaa
fhun tbe 9ih Germi^ edit. ; adapted to tbe Gnmmara of Bult*
mami and Fiik.
J. Daiati, 'AvaXueta ' EAAipiucft Ihmva, tive Collectanea
SdediLEdiob.

p. V,

INTRODUCTION. HELPS IN THE STUDY OF GREEK.

443

ITM. 8Mcni!a4ithiMtav*bMB|NiblklicdiottibeoiiBtr7. It
wutbeeomDMn textbook for bcninacn nntil Ibo pabliaaHm
of tte Graak Bodar, and b •till ved in lone of the Mfaooii.
Tk» loUoiriac b eoMidared m tin bat editioa: CcUtOmea
Qmn Mmarm^ witb eipUntofy aotw eollocted or writiea by
J. Dutul, Prot of Ormk in the Univenity of Edinburgb. Sixth
Camtridgt tiukm, ia wbicb the Molce end LaxioaiD are tniw-
hted into EaglUb.

JttthonU Greek Reader ■ laed ia lone •efaoob.— Coitm'f
Greek Header n ooMiderably used.— Likewiie the foUowiDg,
C. C fcftoih Greek Reader, ooalaioinc eelectiona in Fnne ead
Poetry, with Easlkb Notee and a LezicoB : adapted particukrly
l» tbe Giaaunar of £. A. Sopboelea Camb. lS4a 12.

IVyUmbaebf 'EtcXoyu 'IvrofucM ; or Sdtda Prindpum
HUtorieunm. 2d ed. AiaaU IStU. It bee been praooonoed an
admirable telection.

4. Dalui, 'AvaiMrt'EXXttiMca Mu{ova, live Collectanea
GiMBa Majora, «i luam Aesdemicc Juventutii,lic. lat edit.
Ediab. 178a 97. 2 role. 8. Many editiooe ba?e been pub-
labed; ae e. (• tbe 8lh edit, of let vol. and ith edit of 2d vol.
aiider tba oue of G. Dtinimr, Edinb. t8l6>-17 ; and the lal
DMd. ediLiiader the eare of C\/.AIoom;bM, Lend. 1821; and
IheSd adit, in 1830; aad Kveral American edllioBt; partico-
lariy nader the eaia of /. & Popkin, Camb. 1844 ; the aotee of
Prof. Pepkia, very bcieHy aad modettly espreHed, are vary
valuaUa, aad this editioB ie eooMJeral as alto(elber tbe bait ex-
teat.— A Ibiid volume wee added 1^ Prof. Dunbar, Edinb. 1S19,
eoBprhing a greater qoaaiity of Greek than the fint or eeeond ; it
has not beea rtpoblivbed in thit enontry .— The let volume wat
p«bliriied« vrith Eniflieh nolci by C. 8. WhtOtr, Beet 1840.~Tbe
Qtmea Majors bee been until reeently, Cor many yean, tbe prin-
cipal text-book in oar Collegce. Of. § 6. &.— A few edition of par
tieular authon have been pabliibed in oar country, deiipwd for
fhe BM of Khoob and Collegee ; e. g. RMn*on*$ Portion of Ho-
VICT ; FittanU Iliad of Homer ; fToofeey'r Alecetis of Euripidet,
aad other traced im; Sfuarf'« (Edipm Tyrannne of Sophoclee;
Omland** Aoabasii of Xenopbon ; PaOard^ Memorabilia of
3Ceuipboa, *e.— Anoof the pablicaiioM of tbia elaa in Ear
bad, may bo mcatiODed tbe Falpy Omk daariet, ind the edi-
^uutolPnf. loHff.— Highly commended b the following col-
bction, puUiiiwd ia Germaay : Fr. JoeoU k F. C. P. Roit,
Bibliotheca Grace, viror. doct raeognita «t commeata-
rib in iMm acholanim iaetraeta. GothiB, (oonmencad) 1826. 8.
It WM Jo eamprbe IS voh. for proee writan ead SO Tob. for
poele.

9. Ortmmmn. It woald ha almott endlen toaana aU tba
Bcritorioat. Tba following are amoag the noted.

JmtM mOiri Giammaiica Orsea (ediL Pbcher). lipe.
1781.8.

/. F. Pit^eri Aaimadveruonee, quiboe J. Welleri Oraai.
Grsea emeodalor, ke. (ed. Kulaoct) Lipe. 1198— 1 801. 3 vols. 8.

TrmdUmibur^M Aafoagagitlode der Grieeh. Spncba. Leipi.

Jamndim>kGriech. Sdial-Gnjaniatik. Beri. 1884. I8SI.-
Adim, traad. by £dwar4 BomtlL BoM. 1882. Abridged (O.
Banen/I)-

BuUntmtnU Awfhbrilcfaa Oriedi. Spraehlehre. Berl. 1819.
lEIT. 8 vob. 8. The waat of the tjatax in tbti work b tup-
plied by O. Bamhm4^ hnca voluma oa Greek Symax, pob*
Inhed 18B9 (8vow with the tiUe» WbMMcbefUiebe Syntax dar
Griaehbehea apraehe}, aad Boch ooouaeBded by Tholuek.

d. JUiilfikte, Anftlhriieha gr. OFuamatik. Leipc. 1807. 8.
8d edit iK7.-AMM, tmd. by Ai. T. moomJUd (ed. J. Kaa-
rick). Load. 1838. A Sd edit, wee aaariy prepared before the
diath of Matthim; lian pablbhed, Lps. 1886. 8 vob. 8.

Fr. nWcr«cA,Oreauaatik de« gemeiaea aad Hoaarbden Dbo
bkb. Lpi.l8l9L8.8ded.l8a4.

r. CA Fr. XaU, Oriech. Gramamtik. Sd edU. GMtlag. 1888.
Mnfi» Oiaek Grammar, traaehtcd tnm the Garaaa. Lead.
1817.8. AMhedit.oftheorigiaal, 1888^

a. KOknv^ AvAhriicha Grammatik dar Griedi. Spraeha.
Baaaov. 1884. t vob. 8L— By Iba aamc, Sehalgnmmatik d. Or.

latter by & J. Biwvdt tai S, H. Tufiar (b anaoaacad).
Andov. 1848. 8.

W. E. Mf, Grammar of the Gk. Laagnaga (chiefly from tha
Garmaaof R. Kabaer). OxC 1848. 8.

/ofief** Pbiloeophical OTanuiar. Cf. Claak Joura. xii. 83.^
The Part JKoyoi Greek Gnaunar ; A new method, Ac. TraaeL
from the French of the Miurt. d* P\at JIvyai by T. NugaU,
(Uteit ed.) Load. 18l7.-AniWa Greek Grammar. Boat ISOa—
/. 8. Popkin, Gramm. of the Gk. lAUg; Cambr. 182& 12.

JL Jl. Soplwdet, Gk. Gramaar for the uae of Leemen. Sded.
1841. 12. Cf. N. 4m. »o. Apr. 1839, Jut. 184&

JL Chaiy, Grammar of tbe Gk. Language, ftrt Pint. A
pnctical Graaunar of the Attic and common Dialect*. Boit.
1842. 12. pp. 239. Cf. N. Am. Mto. Vo. CXV. p. 494i

Hitherto tbe following Gramuara have been mora oomawaly
need ia oar ■choota: fAc OlouasiHr; Moaret} Fatp^t; £&«*•
tnibnf% or rather OoedrtohV; BuUmanvft by Bo€ntt ; Ptrift,
aad 4n(Aon^.— It may ba remarked that one chief diAnaea
amoag thane Grammars leepeeb tbe plaa of elaaaing the aoaae
end verbs ; eone rednciag the dedensioai to three, and tbe ooo-
Jugatiooe to three ar two; ethert retaiaing tba larger anmben
of the old lyateme. Some exoellcat tbnoghb oa tbw nbject are
found in a pampbtet atyled ftmarkt on Ormk Qrammar$^
(printed, not puUisbed. Bort. 1SS.)-A brief hialory of Greek
gramtnan may be found abo in /. C. BtoomfiM'i Frefaoe to tba
Traadatiflo of Mailhle above eited.

Tb the Biare advanced etadant, BtdtmauCt Lmfr QnA
Grammar, traaalated by Afiaard Bobinnn f Andover, 1833),
and Kli/mtr*$ Orammar traoalated by SdwardM aad Thyior (aa
above mentinaed), will be meet tatiafactory.— For the thoolegical
itudent we mention in addition, Q. B. Winai'i Graaunar of tba
New Teitameat, tranal. by Sluorl aad Jfai6in«0Tb Aadover
188&. A 3d ed. of Wbm, Lps. 188a 8. maeb improved aai
highly valued ; a 4ih edit Lpa. 183&— A Grammar of the N.
Teebmeat by Pro/. StuutU Aada 1834. 2d ed. Aadov. 1841. &
—la epeakiag of gnnunatical balpe, it b proper to refar ta (he
(reoXifM 0/ tht QrtA ra/iigat*, ae thoea leeraed mea have eoaaa*
timaa beea tamed, who on the eaplare of CaaelaatiBople by the
Turki fled iato Italy. Thcte treatiia were publbbed by MivM.
(See BoHm aad Birntnm, •» eil«l P. IV. § 8S. l.)-C0De«raiBg
tbe Jfafme Cblbetfon of their grammatieal treatbca, ef. § 188.—
The aiKunt grammmrtmm may »tao be meatkmed ; ee the
wrilen Jest named doubtlem draw IWmb them eoureeai See aih
ticc of tbe Gnunmariaa^§ 189 ■.—The SOcttaitt likewbe aiay
ba named, or thoee who wrote Greek eommenlariee on aneicat
anthon. Tliew, whatever there auy be in their eommaata
that b puerile, dull, or falee, aeverthelcM fnmieh eome valuable
aHbtaace. Among tbe ntoet Importent worke of tbe kind, ar»
the oommentarim of Ulpba on DemoetheaeB, and Euttalhioe eo
Homer.-On the valaa of the echoUaab, lee CAieAniut, aa eUal

rare BOW aflbred to Iba dmice of Iba

Binriei Stephant Tbeeanraa Gnee. Liag. Oeeev. 1572.
4 vola. foL Thb b the mait extenaive. A Supplemeat wee
publiibed by DanUi aeett t Appendix ad Slepheni Themaram.
Lottl. I74S. 2 Tob. foL Aa improved editioa of the Ttaemutua
waa commenced. Load. 1815; completed, inS. (roipyed.) Cf.
Land Quat. An. Na xliv.-^ third editioa waa begna, Pkr.
1831, euperinteaded by Af. Bate, lee XomI. Quart. Rgo. No. el. ;
BM Sttpot. No. XV. Tbe work b ia program (under Hon aad
tbe two Dindorfi) ; *' It b aa improvement npoo the Engl, edi-
tion, and embodiee aeariy all tha Greek leaning of the age^"
4lh vol. biaed ia 1941 ; ta ba cemplaled ia 7 vob.

Jbeik Seapulm, Lexieoa arme»Jjitiaam, Ac BaiU. UTSl fld
Otb. M. Badl. 1866; Lugdaa. 1868; Glaig. 1818. 8 vob. 4.
Still naked next to Stephaaaa. Tbe priaeipal worde are ar-
raagad alphabetically, aad under them are the derivativae aad
eompoand woide: thera b beeidee a complete elphabellcal
iadex.

JL ConefaiUiiMU, Lex. Qimea-Utlaum. Gaaav. 1588. feL

flMMcMi. OraeDm Lex. Mmaialev cum /. J. J&tMN. 1J|»
ITBSj Edidkin7.&ad.P<imr,UpE.18n.8aola.8.

444

BISTORT OF OREEK LITER^TTTRX.

Xe. Dan. m Lmmp, EiTmoloskom Lliif. Ome. (Ed. SeMd.)
TnJacL ad BlMa. 1790. S fob. 8.

/. O. SeknaUtr't GrtoehiMfaDntKbei WMertiad. Lfic.
ISia. Sapplcani, l»l.

F. Pamow, Huidworlcrinich der Oriechtah. SpndM. Lpi.
im. S vola. & Thb 4tb wm Om Itft cd. bf Awoia. His
ptaa waa la «ich lurwiaty aditkiQ to nk* the Lazieoa eom-
plcte tor the iDlarpratitioB of kmm ■dditioiul aotbor or Milbon
vatil a tboald baeonM a full TImmmu of the Graok laaipMfa.
Tht work hu bon eonnitted tod*. XoiC, who b aipected to
canr out th« plaa In bii VoUaUadifa WOrtaibneh dar Ctaaii-
adm Qrtcittt; of wbicll tha Irt F^icicalai, or Fut I. of ml. 1
anwand In 184a CL SOL SMptm. Apr. I84S. p. 4tB.^Roit haa
puUiabad a Sehool Latiecn, Mid to ba very good la tha darolop-
ment and amafanMit of uialfieatkioi.

F. W. Simm^ Oraak and Qaman LesiMB. Job. ISS.
2vola.8.

Mm Jona, Tba Tjn\ Onak and Bagliah LBxiooib Id ad.
Load. 1135.

CanulUSOnvdaiaitonOmtO'Uamm. ISlhad. Load.
1781.— Tnndatioii of SebfwaliuaS Greek Laxicon toto Baflith,
fcr the OMof Beboola. Loud. IU8. 8.— The Graak Lexiean of
Sdiraraliaa, tnndatad Into Engliab, with naay additloH, by
JoknPiektrinfutilkmia Oliver. Boatoa, IflHL

/. Ont«$, ▲ OnA and EDgUdi Oictlouiy, Ac Loud.
1106.8.

Janm Doimtgmi, A saw OiMk and Ei«lidi Lasieon. 8d.
ed. Load. 18SI. Raviaad and aolarged bj R. B. Patton. Boatoa,
1882. B.

W. Papt, EtyiBolacMies Worfarbaeb dar Oriaeh. Spradie.
Ac. Bari. 1836. 8.

E. Jtofrifuon, Lexieoii of tba New TMameat Bortoo, 1836. 8.
This w iodiapennblete (he eriticel ttudyof the New Tntaineat.

O. Dunbar, Oraek and Eaglith, and Bnflidi and Graak Lesi-
COD. Land. 1810. 8.

PtruftrH Greek Lazlcen ** paya eoaaidenble ngtid to ijao-
Byna, aod b highly eooiaiended.*

O. Chr. CnmuM, VoUiOadigai Grieehbdi-Daatachoa WOrter-
bgcb. Haoo. 1841. 8.

There ara Lttieom illwtratlDf partieulu- aathora; tbey will
be meationed la apekkby of the aattion.— Raapeetiac the va-
rkwa Lazloom and Qlnanrlea conpoMd by aarieat aatbon ; lee
the notice of Granmariana, ^ 199-U7.

4. There ara farteaa aatfjoels ea which the atadeat nay de-
aire mora fuU inveatiiatioaB than can be givao ia

(«)

6ti2. Buimi Coeimentarii Lii«. Ofm. Fkr. 1648. (4th ed.)
Baail. 1S6& fol.

Franc Vigma, de pnedpaia Grae. dicu Idkiliamh. Cam
aaimadTenioaibua ITocircwmf, AunM^et ArnHmnf. (impr. ad.)
Lipi. 1888. 8. The work of Vigena h ooatpiled fraaa that of
Badcna.— New ad. by IfotMann, 1884.

/. Saofw, VxfaiU Gnek Idkmia abridged and tauatated Into
Bogllih, with original notea. Load. 1828. 8.

LoeMMarVt Uionw of the Graak Laaguafc, accnratoly anaaged
and trauUted. 12.

J7(fI*on'iGrevkIdloina.8.

Mart. RjfUmduMf Synonymia Latine^hwa. (opera BtaekcHL)
Gen. 1646. IS. The Latin tenna and pfaraaea are arranged al*
pfaabetially, and under rben the corraipeading Greek.

J. ABon, Traite dca Synnnyaiea et Homonyawi Oreea. Tn.
dnit da Gree d'AaiBMnlaa. Pv. 18S4. 8. C£ f 141.
(&) EOipta and PUanaim.

Lamb. Aw, Ellipoea Gnecse, ele. Norimbeif, 1768; Lpa.
1808; Glaag. ISIS. 8. Lend. 1825.

/. amger, Tbe 6r. EliipM of Boa, abridged and Inadaled
roto Engliab. Load. 1880. 8.

PurgaiuU, Lc« 'idiotiamaa de la langae grecqae avee lea allip-
8ei,au^ Ar. 1784.8.

Bj. WeUkt, Plmnanii GnecL Lpc. 1807. 8.

G JSTaniMnn, Diiacrt. de Bllip. el Flaoa. la Qnaea Ungna*

IMS. 8.

(0 DeriaaiianandCamperillait^aitiJiffinUim.

L. C yaUnm, ObrarvatioMa aeadcn. qaibea via aavaitarrf
origiBeB gnae. iaveatiga^Bh (Bd.8k*aUL) TtejaoLadBhM
ITta

Jx Otoi.a£«itMp,daABBkgialii«MOrMK.(Ed.«Wl)
TraJect. ad Bhan. 17801

SdtaU, Etynolagicam of /. 2X. a Lammp, with Ibe two weila
Jw< BwalioBMl. TraJ. ad Rhea. I80& 3 mb. 8^

Jo. CMtL Strmektmattrt Badiaaania U^. Gm& (Bd.
aebaid.) Zatpbaa. 1787.

T. A'uffmC, The PHaitivee of the Gr. toQgaa^ with the aeal
aaaMeraUe Deri«ati?ea airi a eoUeetiea of Bi«liBh wnida da-
rived froB tbe Greek. Load. 1801. 8.

/.JLOati^UJardiadeaBadaaaGraeqaak hr. 18U. 12.

/. IT. Gttte, XU>le of Ore* Comlatlffee; la SflHiaa^
Aaar. Joarnai of Sdaaca, fe& vol. xniv. p. 887.

On aOnltiei of the Grade toother la^tnagaa, lee P. IT. §88.—
K.F. Badkar, Organnaa der Sprwba. Fnakl a M. IMLdLaa
the general aobjed of the atraetara of langaagaa.

L.O.IXM(N,DeTanporibw el Media VeibfOnMi. Oalfii«.
I808L 4.

/. /Tome Tooht, Diveniena of Poiley ; rarind by JL Thylan
Land. 1889. 8 rob. 8L

KuHir, De verbb Graooram Mediia. ed. C. NUIiaa. Ufa.
1788. 8. at Obm. Jaum. xv. 304; xviil. 167.
(rf) Pariidm.

IkaariMt, Qnam LiagM partlcutb. (Ed. /. Gottf. JBnt-
monn.) Lpx. I78S. a

£.J^Ms,DcTariiLiberdeGnBe.L.Fu1)enlb. LpB.I88Su8.
Thtt *oL eonlaina aa «mct repriat of Devariaa. A meomi
volvaM waa proaDbad; oaapart of whieb appeared ia 1840L 8L
pp. 864.

/ J. Hdrtunf, Ubn «oa dea PaKikch der Gna^ Spneh^
Eriaag. 1838.8fob.8. Said by notack to be the bed woik
OB tha aubject

Pr^. StuaH, oa the nH of Iva, BibL Bepoa. and Qsart Ob-
aerr. No. znL Jan. 1^86.

H«m. Hoagnmnf Doctrioa partienlaram ling, grac IMphia.
1768. 8 Tob. 4. Tbera b aa abridgmaat by ScMUa. Lpa.
1806;G(aig 1818.

/. &Bgrr, Hoogeveea oa tbe Gredc Putidea, abridged
aod tru4ated into Englhh. Lond. 183a 8.
(«) /V«penriona?irfj|rfich.

C. /. Hatkmbtrg, De aignifieatiaae pnepoeitioanBi gnc la
eonpoaltb. Ultra). 1771. 8.

Mbor «> Ibia, OB the PragMltiOBa. CL Ooia. /our. L^88C|
iii. 24, 470.

MxdaiaanH Dortrine of the Greek Article applied to the ariH-
ebmoftbeGreek Teatanieat a. Lmd. quart. Sea. ii. 1S7.
N. York, ISIS. 8.

OmnoiUe Sherpe, Reamifca oa the oaei of tbe definite arfide
inlbeGrerkof tbeNewTedxaicaL (Amer. ed.) Fbilad. 1807.

£. fVbrdMvnrlh, Ldtera to G. Sbarpe rtapeetiag hit Benafto
on the Dafiailire Artide, fte. Lond. 1802. 8l

Av/. 5iuarf, In AU. A^poa. No. xiv. April, 1884.
(/)Biatef«.

/. rui'nfir, Gneconnn DialaetoniBi Hypetypoah hi jfeapidM
I.«xieon. Lngd. 1661— Onffortui, aec § 146.

MaUaMt Graek Dialects abridged aod tnadatad by Mm,
J. Stapr. Load. 1881. 8.

C. £. IKrifM, QoMtioBoai de dialecto Berodot! Spedmaa.
KOnigib. 1828. 4.

JEmmi Pftii, Lexkoa loaicuBi. Pnaoof. 1008; Load.
1828. 8 ~By lama, LeticoB Doricum. PraneoT 160S.

O. S Jf UAJnumn, Lagea Dbleetl, qna Grtocomai FdoIm Boca
lid nal not Upa. 1888. 8L pp. 188.

jr. L. Mrana, De Gnac. Ling. Diatedb. Gotti^. 1888 coaa
nenced. Por other Hweiaucca, aea \ 4

(r)

p. loUa, B^ala Aeoaatoi
1786 18.

D at S^taom Gneconoa. hi

F.T.

INTRODUOTIOK. HELPS IN THE 8TUDT OF 01UCBK.

44S

£ (KUUif, Ubn fM 4a griMh. AemOm. BateM.
tm. %. S^lidi TnMUttoD. Lood. 1830. 8.

MCSHmrt, PneUeal Rata far Oraak Afiewb nd QnuUfy.
iWlM«. I8M.-See ( 6. aod P. IV. § 61.
(A) iVMod^ Jfilr«,«tf QuonlOyu

r. Jfcnl, Lucjc. GnMD4»itiMdiuam. (Id. Ato. Mridfu)
CMikwMi&C LtmLltU.

J. B. amU, Amljiinit QimkiSttim. Cubw l»i.

Aitf . Bmih, Note ■!*• LmHom ad Tnific. Qnoe. Ac.
Om.l7«L

A^4M^ll«rik. I9ftl8l4.

Oodqf. AmMnN, Da nalrii potL gnM. H ran. Lift.

a. atnmmmt, FImhHb dadriMi ■MtrioD. Liph ISMj
Gb«. 18a

/. A^ir, H«rM«BB>t n— h at Ite DocMm af Ma-
liai,aMdcaduMltnarialadialoBi«lHh. lMd.18ao.8L

Tktf f lotnidMtlon to Ite friadpal Oiwk l^agk aad CoMia

Amlv^ naaodk Gmea, «r Bipaaitioa af Iha Gnak Ma.
to«i 8L

iMMtMirk Metrei of Iha Oiaak TniadiaM vidaiaad. 8.

/.*wM,Gf«akQndaij er Qraak, Latil^ aad E^lkk fto.
aadial Lnicoo. Li»d. I8ia 8L

JDd. JM»^ A A, ▲ aav aad eaapMa Cb. Qiad«i,*e.
Ut^ 1880. 8L

G^i^f PHModiacmllAlflanflnha anikJUi«Mf% ealkelad
CrMalbaHaroieFbalk IS.

C JnMan, Sjnan of Oiaak FRMd7 aad Main. N.Toik,

af F: C. Jl ibrf * XL /.
ytoeto, Ok. Eiardw and Kay.

8l b ordar to a fboimgli and weewftil panoH of claMieRl
IHantnra, H '» iodiipaaaUa to atiaad eoarfdanUy to tlia wb-
Jack or Aariqalliaa, Mjtholefy, and Irchaolacy in faacral. On
taftica pertainliv to tfaa AfcbM)to|7 of Literaton and Art, wt
nfar to tba tactioaa In Fuft fumUk of thiaMaowil ; en othar
topici of ABti4|«ItiaB and MytMogr, to Iba aKltoaa of PvU
Anntf and nM.

7. An Important cbat of balpa b eoBpowd of aoch m illoa-
feato Iba au^jactaof Chranakgy, Oaofiapby, Hiatory, and Bto-

M OoMieal IKdimmrim. Tbb phraaa darisaatv worto
n or laa fallj all tba nbjadi Jnrt nuwd;

/. Btfnmnn, Lankan Ualranak^ Biitarii
ftnan, oninb JBvi onuiont^aa Oantii
IM.4fob.Ad.

AotiaiiiM^ (da SnUottto' 4t Cftobiu) pow PiatolUfnca

t U Goograpbtak Pllbtain, hFaUa at laa Aniiqaitaa.
Pkr. 1788-9a 87 «ob.

VMt$aaiatitrdtCamm,mkdmV»fmt. Par. 1784. 8 «ob.

F^imOt, Dietlonnalfa Ga^iaphifn Hlitonqna, at Mrtbato-
fHpa. fmr» l77iL

DkUonnairt BiMvtqm, Lyon. 1804. IS fob. 18.

Jirtk. OrUUplm, Dietpenr nrvir a llntallttanaa daa An-
tonnCbMiqoaa, *e. Far 180S. t wall. 8.

JbnaW. PicttonMhn Claarfgan. Par. 188^ t vob. 8L

Xanipr<VB>«Clairieal Dictlonaiy. (lalad.) Qit 1688. Maaj
MMiaoentaditiaoi. Ite baal, by C. JMMm. N . Yaik, 1888.
S?ela.8LN.Tk.l840.1foL8.

m Apfxqrtir. Tba ^pHama tf Ckmm Onagnv^
flnn In Farf nrM of Ibb Manna), bainf atodiai with Jnlhr^
AflM, wUI he bond wfleiant Cnr ail alaaMatoiy porpoan.

OhrM. CMtar« Nolhk OibiaAjMi«Ba. Upik 1701-01 8 fda. 4.
Abo 1771, ITO.

P. BBttM, Itaatrv GaognpUto Vatortb AaML lOf
8fob.igl.
AJbrtan,Dk:LorAne.(Nc4nph7. Lend. 1718. 8.
JBbcyelDparfb MModijut, vob 08-71, m dtad P. IL f It.

JLJCmiMrf,aaor*pM«dw<MnckanvndBOnMr. NOr*b
178Ttq().IO*oh.8L

r. Juf. Udkmtt OoDgrapUa dar Onau» and BOm. «on den M*
beaten Zeiten bb aaf Ptoleanaoa. Wabaar, 1816. Wifb toap^
>« Tba beat elMdcal gaograpber."

Ovumt, Gaofiapbical and Hiabrkal bCMrlplion of Aw.
Oraoea. Load. IMS. 8 vob. 8.

JTmia, Haltah Lpc. I8I& 8 tola. 8. «<Oood.»

/. Jtomall, Tba Oeographical flyataBOf BaraMna nxpUBad,
Ac (2dod.) Lond.l8SdLSfob.8.

/. M. B. fJtmfm, AndanI Goognphp, tnm tAa Piandk.
Lond. 1781. 8 fob. 8L

&/. (flA^mmsGriadMnbadvaddJeOrtoebenitoAMii^
Ifann, Ac. Leipc 1841. 8 fob. Tmy fbU in tba nolieeor

JL Fbrhtttr, Bandbneb dar attca Oeqgrapble^anaden ^mtttm,
Laipn. 1848. A

/. OnnAr, DMkoafy of Gaogmplij, Anabrt and Madan.
Lend. 1884. 18.

GL £enf and JL AmgfbBM, MradndlM toGnebn aal Ito-
■nnGaagmpbp. Cbaitoihw. 1881 A

JL Mhyn^ EpttanM of AndanI Oangmpby, Sacred and Piifiai
PML I81A A

£nurMl,lntrodnetton to AndanI Geefiaptaf. Oaf. 1880. 8.

&A<dar,GeogfaphbCbnrioa,»)thanAllnb PbiL I6SL A
Tba Allaa nay be pm^aiad aapantdy.

ten* Jila* tba Undent tbooM have eonebnUf at hand.

D^jInaab^AtbaOrbbAativiL UabeetoM.

Qc/bi4 Jilar of Ancient OeegiBpIg, cantoWng naaily 168
Map^Ftaaa,Ae. A

Fl /MnfMDfcJke, Afba do ta Gaegmpbie AaaloBnB,dnMipw
AgBt«tModanNb Ptf . 18B& A

Tba Aon Cdfivarato'acjfUM of Ancient and Modem Geqpn*
pky, open a naff pton, Rhr ii« tiaadbilKt Map^ one andint and
tbe otbv moden, oTtbe nune eonoiry. SO pUlaa. A

BmmfM ChMeal Allns wniodalerf ftoni ttr andant Mapa ef
Celbrinh

Tbe nacoanb at main u timvOm nto naefaL

E. D. Oarim, Trafeta In Egypt, Syria, Gfcaeat 9m. XmM.
t8164A II fob. A «1ibplalHandaa«f«dnib

R. Ctandbr. Tnfab in Aaia Minor and Oraeea} Aiaailfli
a Toor at the aspenH of tba See. of OUattanti. Lond. 1817.
Sfob. A

no OoiNHHtaiJIcr, Toyag* nnoraaqpa Aa k Giaec Am

/lBM«uieab, H died P. L f 87

XL rkrfMB, ClHdcal andTopagiBiUell TgnrteMH^Graieeu
UmL l8tA 8 fda. A

9rOdi,Mnenr7ertbeMoi«a. LMd-MT. II.

IT. GMI, Oeegrapby and Antiqnitbi of Ithaca. Land. 1887. A

Xante, TknfdbhitboHerea. LenA 1880,

/. /. Ia(Uor<, Allien and Atbanib wilb a Map.

/. a JToUoHM, Jonmey In Alhanfa nnd otbar Plot i«bb of
TM[«y,lnli08andl8ML LanA ISIA A wilb Sna plaiaa.

SeeaboP.LflML

On the AMe»y e( Goognphy, ma P. I?. t7.
(c) CaftNMlQgy. An InfranMf ton fa umnaal ubonN^gy
bgifoaintbtallanMl,P.L

/.COaCMnr.AhrbidarCbrawbgto. G«ltl777.

A a. tkgHmm.\ Bintollni« in die bbtorbche ChMnetagia.
Bainh.1811. Tiaabtod Into BaglUl by /. MMk. Bariin|k
USt. IL

ir: MaH AMlyrieefCbrankgyandGegiiaphy.BtatoeyMd
Pftphacy. Lend. ino. 4 fob. A

r. itnilfnlr.SyrtenorCbrandogy. BdhA I78A td.

/. JMr, Cbraoalegy. Ac fioa tbe Cnatton to Iba yaar HK
LenA 18BA fgL 87 iabbaj with U nmm.
dP

446

BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.
I Gmdofiali kc Amt. ad. Phllad.

/. Fkol, TibtoHM
Omot*, IM». 8 voh. t.

Jlii«< dt IxngOampt, Lm IMm UbIihimIi, oa Tibl«ii>
Htatoriqint, CbrasoIogkiiiM, Ac Fhr. IKI.

CbroDologis.. Aw d«a QmIIco bMib«<M. BwL I8K S vola. 8.
Highly ooBtnendad.

J7. r. ainton, Fatti Hdlanlei ; Tbe aVd ud litaniy Chie-
w»los7 of GrMC* and Robh ; from Uw «rii«it ■eeaoali to Om
imihot AugadvM. OiL II20-M. S vola. 4. Tnm.lM.br a
0.2fttfv. Lipa.1830.

Jrt dt ririjkr Im Dolu d« (kite HiitoriiiM% fte. dsfmb la
HaianMa da Uu» CbrM (par Cbnunf), avae daa ConaetiaM^
Ac par fiWni JBuii. Fkr. I81MI. W voia «.

/. fioydlin, DidioaBry at Dataa aad Univanal BcCmnea, r»>
UtiBg to all Agai aad NatioM. Lood. 1841. &

/.iVMIfy,Sj«lainerBiagnplv. Ail. 1808. 8. wHh • Ctaart.
Hot witboot valoak

OoodHoh'f Biair>k OattlBaa of CliiflHdo|7 b a wafU eonpaBd.
(d) ITiilory «d Aorapkf.

CJIauAmtfIM(nMliiM,Dlctiaauir«Hirtarlqiio. iOvoh.

5MtrapM<Crn<a■fari^Aod•aMatModarDa. Par. 1811401
Atoli. 8.a1ioboaadlna6folheoirtiBiiadbya8Bpplaaiaiit

Jif«r«|iMBa CiMKpa, or tbe Uvaa aad CbaiMtan of att iba
Ciaaie Aotbon. Load. IT401 ITSa 8L

Afi0. JCamooKiiff, Hiatarical and Critical AocouBt of fba Mat
flnJDMtdaarieaatbofaiaFoatryaBdHtotaiy. Load. 1887. 8.

IT. Mitfard, Hiatary of Oraaoa^ Boalaa, l8B8b 8 talk 8.
Edit by IT. JTmf . Load. I888L

/.Oa««,Bi«oi7orAadaatOffoaea. Laal 1788. 8 vela. 4.
•naa pQbl. aincft FhiL 1^14. 4 foh. 8L

/. (Mttm, HirtBry of tba World, froai tba raiga of Alanadar
to Ihatof Angaatiia. Load. 1807. 4. FUl. 1818. 3 wla. 8.

Drofftm, Oaacbicbto Alinaadaia.

C. 0. MUitar, Hiatoryaad Aallqsltiaa of tta Dorle Baea^ aa
cited P. Ill f 11&

C. HMrlioaB, Hlataiy of Ofaosa^ b Iar*Mi4 CaUaat Cyda.
ptriit.

r. ft JdtoMT, WallgaaiMihlu. Lpi. 1817-04. 6 vola. &

P.JLda OoUvf , HIMia Ualvanalia da I'Aatiqaita. Vu.
188a8TQk.8L TraMlaladfraaitboOaaBaBof/.C.AttMv.
Ct IPMnriaf fa- Jm. Jaa. 1884.

8aa rateaaeaa givaa ia P. I. fi SlMUb P. m. H % •. P- !▼•
|8S.P.T.|84a

8. Baaafl aa wall aa phaaara nay ba darivad froai waiti

laeterM,oanliliaeteaBibiaeadiaclaiaiealatady. Wa pal ban
thafcllowiiv.

/.Aarm,It«flaetloMOBlhaMKliaorAacMalOfaaoa^ ])y
O. Bmuroft. 1884. 8.

7.8Mle|^LaetanioatbaBlatoiyarLitarabM«k PbiL18l8.
S tola. 8.

jL(r.ftM«aI,LK!lBraoaDiuMtleUtaimtaia. By/.JBadL
Load. IBIS. 2 tola. &

Ctoi^MP* Lattaia aa tba Ofa* BialariaH.

jr.4ai>ttiiio,HBcbarcbaaPbilaaiph.aarleaOiaca. BarLl7Vr.
S fob. 8L Engl Tnari. Load. 1791 8 vola. 8.

.d. 2)ate^ Lcctaraa oa tba Aadaat Otaaka, aad oa fba Batival
ofOvaakLaaraiogiaEarapau Edlab. 1881. 8 vola. 8.

/f. F. Moon, LMtaraa oa Oraak Utoialai^ Nov Toit,
1838. 8L

8. AaMBg tba fary fanpoHtait aids la tkb itady, ara Iboaa
wbieb nay ba eallad fiMarte qf OraA ItfMtea, or laliadae-
tioai to tba Hirtery of Groak Utaratara, givii« eoatpiabearffa
aolioaaor tba Oraak autbor^ thair diflhraat weika, aad tba vari-
aaBaditioM,lraBdatioBi^oaBuaaaiariai,Ae. Itedarigaoftba
aMe* qf OraiA LMiralura givaa ia tba pnaaat work, b to Aiianh
tba Mbolar with a tela of tbb kind. Bat ba win wUi to ba
referred to otban.

J. A. JUrieii, BlUiolbaea Graeea. Haab. I79O-1808l (Id. b-
Jimpk. CHriit. Hwrkt.) IS mtb. 4tok Tba ami eo^pbaa
atlboo^b very dafieiaai ia awthod.

TSooph. Ch. Harim, latradaelioa ia MalarbM U^aai Gnat
Altoab. 1788-88. with Sappieai. Jaa. 1804-8. 5 «ob. &

tt (A* (Bnw, Notilb bravior ntantane grsc. Lipa. 1818. 8
'-Bcffmnm, Additaawota [to tba Nolitb]. Upa. 1(09. 8L

Jo. Smml. /namaa. fTaUk, latiodaclio la liagaaa CiBiam
Jaa. 1778.

ML D. Fukrmmm, Haadbacb dar
RndobL 1804-ia 4 wb. 8.

Jy Ub aama, Kkiama Haadbacb
BOB. Cbak Sabrifbtoliar. BadoM. 1881 8.

r. J. tUmMdm, Baadbacb dor Oaacbicbto dar OriaelL lit
Bart 1808.

Cod. An. OnMA, Riatorba Giacoraai litanris ITlMHilti
TUa.1811. aded. l8B&2voli^8.

O. C r. MeknOm, OocbiebM der Uteratar dar Oriacbaa aai
BOBMr. GraUkw. 1818. & CaaiHiaBil aa assalbeC abridif

BMBt.

L. aehaoff, Eacyklopldia, died P. 17. $ 88. 8.

r. Pamw, Graadaoga dar Oriacb. aad Btaa. 1
adiicMa. Bad. 1818.4. 8d ad. 1888.

^ mMMr, Baadbacb dar Gaaeh. dar altaa UtaraH
1888.8.

lV.Adbr,UtaratBi|aaeh.d.Gr.BadBaai. Wka, 1885. 8L

O. Bwti*ar% Oraadrba dar Griaeb. Litantar, mit daa
««q;btobaBdaa UdMddiek dar BMabdm. Salto, 1888. &
pp. fiaa Tbb dm aol eoatabi dbtiad aotioaa of iadiddad
aatberti bat b Taloabte aa prwaatiag tbe cbaiactorbtiaaf dH*
of litontan^ wna tba gaaaiw

F. J. Wdf, Vorbaaagaa, tcL 8d, aa dtod aadar 1 1, bdew.

F. OeMMI, Hbtaiia da b Littaratara Oiaeqaa, be. CM el.)
Fbfb, 1881. 8 vob. & Prat Aatboa baa laade nadi aH o( it
la bb bat aditba of Laaipriera% Cboateal Dictioaafy (I840K
wbich tba atadaat aiay ooaaalt oa tbe Oraak aid Latia aaCbon
wilb groat advaalaga.~Tbara b a Garaaui tnaablioa : F. J.
Sdbearaa aad Mbr. Pindar, Qaaebicbte dar OriadL Utantar foa
r. 8ebdlr-nit Bericbllgaagaa aad Zaaaiaaa, Ac. BarL 1888-81.
8TCb.8. Tbbbmocb acta valnabbtbaa tba arigiaal,bdag
BHda aadar tba aaparvbioa af Scbdl, at Barlla, aad ooatolab«
additiaHbybbaadf aad thotfaaabloca. It b tbe aaod aBlidha>
toiywoifcortbakiad.

I& WoriB pardy MtUagrvMad,ba|tii«off baadaUo^^

/. F» D^an, Uteratar dar daabc
Griacbaa. Altaab. 1797. 9 vob. & Sapfdaa. Eriaag. 1881.

F. A. Mlmt, AUgandaai bibliogiapbbchaa Lasboa. Lpa.
I8SL

BHifg«aiaiM,Tiaw of fbe Eagibb edittoaa, traaabtioa^ aad
niaalniioBa of tbe aacbat Giaak aad Latia aatbon, ailb
raaiaifca. Stalt 1797. 1 Sapplam. 1801. ft

JbiMHafd,CablogaadabBlbliDlbaqaad^iaABataar. Par.
1811 4 vob. 8.

ft F. Dabun, BibUofra|rtib ladraetiva, oa Trdd do b aoa*
BObnaea dea Urroa, Ac Par. 1789-88. 10 rob. 8.

»«BM(,MBaaddaLibrtiraMdai'ABideardeLnna. Piv.
1881 4vob.l

a. M Brdkm, Biblbgiapb. Bndbaeb dar Oileoh. aad BBak
lilaiatar. Ldpa. 1801 8 tab. 1

Tba BiUbtr^pMeal DkHmmf. ImL I808-4. 8 vak 11
wilb Sappbneat 1801 Svda. II

a. AigiM«, Bfaaad do BiUiopbm oa liaiid do cbdx daa
llvraa. Dijoa, 1888. 8 tab. 1

/. IV: JCna, MaaMl of Cboaical BlUbsrapby. Load. 1811
8 Tda. 1

T F. ZNMfn, lalrodadioa to tbe kaewiedga oTrareaad tdaa-
Me editioM of tba Onek aad Utia Clanlea. ,4lb ed.) LomL
1887. 8 fab. 8

p. T,

INTRODUCTION. HELPS IN THE STUDT OF GREEK.

447

f. W, fitfnMM^ BiblkigmpbiMhfli LttdcoD dw Lit te
Mwb. and Bflm. Lfc 18». 8.

9)r Iba Mnu, HaadbDcfa BIT BQcfaerkimis Ibr Uhra nod Stv-
dian dOT Mdn alieo ClMacbtn oad DntRbea Spmebe. hpt.
im Ct CkriHian Bn. vol. Ibr 1840, p. 144.

F.L.J. aekumgtr, HandbQch dcr ClaaMclwa DibUofnphie.
Lpc 1882. 8 fola. 8. ray ftlmble.

Ton PnOy CalabvM da livrn uapriiatft tor Vdin. Far.
I«4.SvoiB.8.

ftOoni, BiMlotMad«{U Aulori AnUdii Or. « Lat aolcaria-
Mlj. Taa. 1706. 4. an aeoouat of Italian vcnroas.

JWvMjSerittori Gaed e ddia Italiajw Vinkmi. Fad. I8S9. 8.

II. Tfaera are worfci, not limilad to anf ona of the aul^ecla
abOM tpeciflBd, but uaefol to tha rtadait, aa relatiDK oCtao to
Mvaral of Ibem aad to philoiofy gcoerally ; mow of wbich we

a L foiHui, Da Fhiiolosia. AauL lesO. 4.

T. Ocn, OpoMula da Battoae Stadil, cor. ,
BaL179B.8.

F.^a^OniBdrtederPbUologie. Laodih. 1808. &

P. JL WdLfy Eaeydopadie der FbilologM. Leip& 1881. 8.

a JSoTtAowdK GruDdlinieo sor Eaqrkloplifle der FbikdQgia.
HaL I8»L 8. feiy valaaUe.

& T. W. H^monn, lltarthiunwiimiKbafl. Haodbocb for
Scholar. Lpa. 1S35. 8. with 16 PUtea.

B. Sdtuek, EnqjclopJUiie (of the •tody of Antiquity).

F. A. Wetf, VoriePUBcra Qber die AltertbumswiMOKhaft.
Ed. /. D. OUrlUr ^ 8 F. PIT. Beffmann. Lpa. 1898. 6 tola. 8.
the lit *3l. Eocydopadle ; Sd vol. Hist, of Greek Literature ;
Sd, HiK. of Ronan; 4th, Gr. Amiqaitlea ; fith, Roan. Antiqaitica.

/. C /dkn, JahrbOchor fir Philolosie and Fadagogik. Lpa.
1886 la. Thii philoloKical and daaical Joamal baa a very high
repatation ; it wai oommenoad in 1^6, and it •till couliaoed, ia
ouBben, bmias three volttaoet a year.

$ 8*. We shall now proceed to the history of Greek literature. The method
pursned will be, to treat of the principal authors, classinor them under the de-
partments in which they were chiefly eminent, and ranging them in chronolo-
gical order. Before noticing the authors, in any department individually, a
general view of the character and progress of that department will be given.
In order to secure greater distinctness of conception, toe whole extent of time
included will first be divided into a few periods, which will be regarded in the
general view of each department.

It will be most convenient to adopt the dlvlilon given in SckOlVt History of Greek Literature,
whicb work la the principal aource fk-om which the tranalator baa drawn in the addiiiona made
to Eachenburg In tbia part of the Manual.

$ 9. The history of Greek literature embraces more than twenty-seven hundred
years. In this long space of time many changes must have occurred in the circum-
stances of the people which aifeeted the character of their literature. The more ob-
vious and remarkable of these changes m&y be selected to aid us in dividing the history
into several periods. Some division of this kind is necessary to avoid coniusion. Six
period* may thus be readily distinguished.

The first is the period preceding and terminating with the capture of Troy, B. C.
1184. The proper history of Greece does not extend further back than to this event,
80 much is every thing previous darkened by the fictions of mythology.

The gecond period extends from the capture of Troy to the establishment of the
Athenian Constitution by Solon, B. C. about 600. In this, Greek literature may be
said to htive had its rise, commencing in poetry ; although there are a few names of
poets assigned to the previous a^es. rrose composition does not belonc to the period.

The third period is from the tune of Solon to that of Alexander, B. C. 336. During
this period Grecian literature reached its highest perfection. But the libertv of Greece
expired at the battle of Chieronea, and from that time her literature declinea.

The fouHk period, beginning with the subjection of Greece to the Macedonians, ends
with her subjection to the Romans, by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. In this
period genius and fancy ceased to be the peculiarity of the literature, and gave place
to erudition and science.

The fifth period reaches from the fall of Corinth to the establishment of Constan-
tinople as the seat of the Roman government, A. D. 325. During this period, Greece
was but a comparatively unimportant province of a vast empire. Her Uterature also
was thrown wholly into the shade by the luster of the Roman, which enjoyed now its
greatest brilliancy.

The sixth period terminates with the capture of Constantinople bv the Turks, A. D.
1453. The Greek language was still in quite extensive and honorable use, but neither
the people nor their literature ever rose from their depression. After a succession of
adferse events. Greek letters were at length driven from their last refuge in the east to
a few seats of learning in Italy.

These periods may be designated by characteristic names: the Fabulous, the Foeiic,
the Atheniauj the Alexaudrian, the Komatit and the Byzantine.

$ 10. In noticing the most important authors and prominent circumstances in the
literary history presented in this vast field, the following order will be adopted. The
Poets will take the firet place ; next we put the Orators; then successively, the Sadists
and Rhetoricians, the (xratnmarianSy the Writers of epistles andBomanceSf the PhUO'
sovhers, the Mathematician* and Geographers^ the writere styled Mythographers, the
Historians, and finally the Authors on medicine and Natural History. A glance at
the writings of the early Christians in the Greek language will be subjoined.

44S HI8T0RT OV OREXK LITERATUBX,

h-^Poeiry and Pod$.

\\\u. Among the Greeks poetry appeared much earlier than proee ; indeed, the
literature of all ancient nations commenced with poetical composition. Moral and leH-
jipous maxims, principles of social and political action, physical phenomena, wonderfni
events, and the praise of eminent men, formed the chief subjects of the earlier Greek
poetry. Probably addresses to the Deity, practical rules of conduct, proverbial senti-
ments and oracles, were first clothed in verse. This was not originally committed to
writing, but sung by the poeta themselves, who often wandered as minstrels from plaoe
to pla^, and by living rehearsals extended the knowledge and influence of their own
verse and that of others. It was not until eminent poets bad sung, that the rules of
poetry, in its several branches, could be formed ; as they are necessarily drawn firom
observation and experience.

%\2. The Greeks received much of their civilization from Egypt and Pharaicia (ef.
P. IV. % 33, 40) ; something perhaps was derived from India ; but it was in Thraoe
that the Greek muses first appeared. Here, in Thrace, the traditions of the most
remote antiquity center and lose themselves, ascribing to this country the origin of reli-
gion, of the mysteries, and of sacred poetry. The mountains of Thessaly ami the vici-
nity. Olympus, Helicon, Parnassus and Pmdus, became the sanctuaries of this poetry.
H*>r(> the lyre and harp were invented. In Thessaly and Baotia, provinces in later
times destitute of men of genius and letters, there was scarcely a fountain, river, or
forest, not invested with some interesting association. In a word, the poetry with
which the civilization and literature of Greece commenced, came from the northern
portions of the land. Tradition has preserved the names of several poets, who Kved,
or originated, in those regions as early as about 1250 or 1300 years before Christ.
Among these were Linus, Eumolpus, Melampus, and Thamyris.

Hortk Jkmrn. Jbv. vol. ul.— Scdk'i AUg. W«U- and Voltor^ Gctrhiehta, I. SI&— i7fyfMh da Ujmaram rdlfkat 4hi|m «%. «(
mm. (w Iho CommuA. Soe. OCtt. TiiL)-JtonAflrdy, p. 161, u died § 7. S.

% 13. The first Poets of Greece were at the same time musicians. Music and poetry
were at first always united, or it may perhaps be more correctly said, that music, song,
and dance together constituted poetry, anions the Greeks. It is not easy to form an
idea of their various melodies, but they must nave been of a simple kind, and each sort
of music seems to have had a particular sort of poetrv attached to it. Music purely
instrumental the early Greeks appear to have valued very little. The constituent
branches of poetry, just mentioned, were important parts of education. The dance
was soon separated, and became a distinct object of attention, which at length resulted
in the practice of the various exercises comprehended under the broad name of the
Gymnastic art. At length song also began to be distineuished from music, and poetry
assumed shapes and forms less adapted for instrumentalsccompaniment.

Ob Iha orlfiD and pragrMior Grade poairj, taa SMU, vol. i. eh. il.-Aiiaw^ AIIr. Throria dor KhOoaa Kanat*. art. DiditkmiM
mi th» rafiartneiM.—Dr, Brmen, Dtawrtatiea aa tba rin, anion, and poirar, tlia prnfcrauiom, wparatioM and eorroiitieaa af Vvi/trf
aid Mode. LowL 1761. 4.-C. £. L. Binehfdd, Plan d«r Oe«h. Atr Pacaia, Barada.. Mai., Mai.* Ac, ualar d. Oricch. Kid,
1770. a— Onucrif HMor. KnnaL d. OriadtaB — /. SeAl^cP* HM. of Lit. Laet. \.^BtennH RcSaetioM, Ar., eb. ««.-A /. rbf
dw, da Vet. Ftet Gnec at Ut temporibM. Amat. ISM. 4.— fV. Jaeatt (brfef hialaiT af Gk. Padir), ia (ba Ckm^A. 4. Wf
mkmd. DieUtr. ml. I. aa dtad { 4l—Hcrtma$m, Vmndi daar allg. QaKhkhia d. Diekflcud. Lps. I7ST.— F^. dUk%d, Gaich.
d. PMda d. Griaeb. vnd BOoar. Bad. 17M.— Jbdi, aa dtad f 4T. I.

^ 14. Poetry and music were, from the earliest periods, favorite pursuits or amuse-
ments of the Greeks ; and their poetry assumed, m the course of its history, almost
•verv possible form.

The first poetry was adapted to some instrumental accompaniment, and might be
therefore properly enough included under the term lyrical, used in a general sense. But
as it oonsistea chiefly of hymns to the gods, or songs referring more or less lo religious
subjects, it may more properly be considered as a distinct variety under the name
of»<Kre(2.

Three of the most important forms of Grecian poetry were the lyric, the epic, and
the dramatic, in each of which there were authors of the highest celebrity.

Other kinds, which are well worthy of notice, were the elegiac, the bucolic, and the
didactic. The epigram and the icolion were distinct and peculiar forms. There were
other varieties or names, which may be explained in connection with those already
mentioned or separately; as the gnomic, cyclic, erotic, and eillic.

Od the divinon nf poetry lata diftrant kiada, et /. /. BtOmbwrg, Entwnff daar Thaoria and Lifaratar dar lebeMB llada>
kloda, (4lb ad.) BarL 1817. a (Pbatlk f 7).-ir SMtgd, DraauL Ut fol. L p. 9S. Load. ISIS -Stacr** Laeiam.

$ 15. (a) Sacred Poetry. Under this may be included all that was produced ante-
cedently to Homer, or what is often called ante-Homeric poetry. It is sometimes de-
signated by the name of Orphic poetry, from the circumstance that Orpheus was one
ofthe most eminent poets of the period and class here referred to. It has also been
called the poetry of the Thracian school, as having its origin and seat chiefly in the
regv^Q of Thrace and the vicinity.

P.T. POETRT. SACRED. EPIC. 449

The general nature and subject of this poetry, consisting, as has been mentioned, of
hymns and religious sonffs (^u«i, sometimes also called v4yioc), are such as suggest the
name of sacred here applied to it. The poets probably united in their persons the triple
character of bard («i»t<Ji j, priest (I«pedj), and prophet (jiurrtf). The principal names which
escaped oblivion were Linus, Olen, Melampus, Eumolpus, Thamyris, Tiresias, Or-
pheus, and Mussus. There are pieces extant ascribed to some of these, particularly
to Orpheus and Musaeus ; but nothing probably that is genuine, except a few imperfect
fragments.

Although, when we speak of the sacred poetry of the Greeks, we usually mean only
the pieces ascribed to ante* Homeric writers, yet it should be remarked that the hvmn
(lyiMf) in praise of the gods was not peculiar to that a^e. Hymns were composed by
subsequent poets, but did not hold a specially prominent place, and are commonly
included in the class of lyric productions. Several hymns are ascribed to Homer.
Callimachus, after the time of Alexander, wrote a number.

Oo the TAraeten wtool, he. , rf. NoHk Jlmtr. Jho. vol. ztu p. SS8.— Ob the Hymns of Ibe Greeks, Ft d. Snttdorf, da Rynnif
wief am GnMoniiD. Htfo. 1786. &— Smietey, DinerUliaai sar 1m HjmiMi dm soeisgas, in the Mem. de PJead. dm Iiuer. xii. I.
STL Sa— SMter^ Alls. Thcor. Art. ffymm Cf. LnothU Lecturat on lbs Sacrad Poetry of the Hcbrawh Led. uu.— SbUO
(vol. i. 262i UL SSQ) baa a divisioo of bynuu into four eiasMs; Myslie, Homeric, Lyric, and PhikMOphk.

^ 16. Amone the productions comprehended in the sacred poetry, it is proper to
notice the oracles (\pit7fioi) which were ascribed to the Sibyls. The name 'LiffuXKa is
commonly derived h'om £f6( (for A(«$) and BovX^, and was synonymous with prophetess^
What the ancients have said of the Sibyls is obscure and perplexing. As many as ten
are enumerated on the authority of Varro. A very high antiqmty was assigned to
some of them. A few fragments of the oracles ascribed to these are preserved. The
eight books now extant, called the Sibylline araclett aire spurious, evidently fabricated
since the Christian era.

Dionysiiis Hallcarnaiis«o« (Iv. 63) it the chief authority for the story of the Sibyl, who is said
to have offered nine tKinks of oracles fnr snle to Tarquin 11. He states, that the three boolts,
which Tarquin finally purchased (after she had destroyed 8ii,and for the sum first demanded fbr
the whole), were carefully kept in a stone chest in the temple of Jupiter Capitoltnus, and were
destroyed when the capitol was burnt ; and that subsequently to this, those eitant in his lime
were collected. He speaks of them as aerotiict, dnpoarix^is. 1'hey are said to have been partly
in verses and partly in symbolical hieroglyphics {Serviua on JEn. iii. 444. and vl. 74), written on
palm-leaves. They appear evidently to have been of Grecian origin and in the Greek language.
The phrase liM fatalt» was applied to them in common with other supposed prophecies pre-
served with them in the capitol. {Laetant. DIv. Inst. i. 6. 13.)— The work now extant is, in the
language of Paley, '* nothing else than the Gospel history woven into verse ;'* and " perhaps was
at first rather a fiction tlian a forgery ; an exercise of ingenuity, more than an attempt to de-
ceive.'* The early fkthers frequently cited the Sibylline oracles in favor of Christianity. They
are also cited by Joeepbus. Bishop Horsley has ably contended*, that the original Sibylline ora-
cles included records of actual predictions somehow communicated to families and nations not
belonging to the Jewish race.— A manuscript, which contained 334 verses, called a 14th book of
the SiMline oraeUt, was discovered by the Jtbb§ Mai in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and
published by him in 1817. ^

> In our Hale XXVlII. Is a fifim tnm a ilatiM (gifm by Jfonl/oiieon, AaHq. Expl. vol. 2. of Sapp. p. 16), fsanncmly laid Id

itpiwm a Sibyl ; cm band li raised towsfd baaven, and she baa a striking air of entbusiann. > Of. & HorOa/, Dismlation on

the Prapbccics of tba Masriab disperasd aaaoff tha H«tf ben ; in the vol. of Scnnont on th$ lUtumetum. Lond. IB1&. 6. On

the SibyL onetai, ■eoSMni. Bist. UtL Ovaeq. vol. L p. Sl—Jfoyo, Mrthotofy, vol. 1. p. i35w— AMdiu, Bibliothoc. Qne.
VOL i. p. 34S. in ad. of AnisL— OnufMut de Sibjllis, in the woifc entitlod 8 1 b f 1 1 . Orac. a J. Opte^ats com latioa interpre.
tatiOM 8. OaHaiitmitt Pw. ISOT. t,—!. FosrftM, De Sibyilinis aliisque qnsB CbnSti natnn praessh Oraeulis. Ozf. I9s0.—Lud.
PimtauMy In his/tteenol; net SW. %,—D. Blanddt, Das Sibyiles eeiebrdas taat par I'katiq. pajanne qoe let SS. pins. Cbarent.
IKS. 4. Ei«l. Transl. by /. Dnki. Load. I66a M.-FrmH, Beeadl dot predictkiaa da Sibylle, ftc, in the Mtm. Jeod. buer.

xxlii. IS?— Ciooicr, Momlra lur lea oracles das Aocien^ Far. tSia a pp. na The most complete edition of the Ormda la

(M of & Qaamu^ Or. k Lat. Amst t6Ba A.-~J. Floifm; The Sibyiline oraele% tnniatad fnn Uie best Oraak eopie^ ke.
Load. I7ia a— C£. Jorltn, Bemarks on Eeelcs. Bistory, vol. i. pw 183 of ed. Load. 1761.

$ 16 b. The productions belonging to what Is here called soersd j»o«lry, constituted the whoI«
literature of the Greeks antecedently to the Trojan war. There are indeed some other works
now extant, which are ascribed to personages said to have lived before that time ; such e. g. as
the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Horus Apollo, or HorapoUon, and the Persian Zoroaster.
But the time when they lived is matter of dispute ; especially the time of Zoroaster, some plac-
ing him less than 600 years before Christ. And, however early they may have lived, the writ-
ings in Greek, under ibeir names, are either fabrications, or translations made at a much later
period.

SeKtt, I. SB, 88T. v. Iia vL aSlv-Cf. BtaUt, Brsvlor NotiUa LitanL Onw. p. 19, aa died § 7. i.-yii^ueta du Pmvn •m\
IbuuMT, On Zoroaster, in Mrnn. dt VAead. du imer. vol. zxvii. zxx. zni. uxiv. xxxvii. sxxix. xi.— C. P. Mrinm, Da Zoroar
Iris vita in Uw Nov. ConmenL Soe. Sdcnl. GMtiiiK. vol. viiL Ix-r-J. C. d» Pmna, Horapolllnis Hleroglypblca Or. et UL TVaj.
ad Bhan. 1727. 4. JnquMtU du Pemn^ Zoadaverta (de Zoroaster), trad, en Franc, ae^ Fktf. 1771. 2 vols. 4.— Ct bdow { 183. 8

% 17. (&) Epic Poetry. As the poet gradually lost the sacred and mystic character
with which he had been invested, poetry assumed more of the epic fornn. It aimed
more to interest and amuse the mulutude, who gathered around the wandering minstrel,
especially at festivals and shows, to hear his song and tale. The minstrels bore the
name of Rbapsodists (Va^/taioi). Their songs partook more of the nature of narratives
than those of the "religious bards. They freely indulged in fiction ; a new term was
soon introduced, expressive of this ; they were said to make their pieces (mictv, xottrr^) •
57 2p2

4S0 HISTORY OF OREBK LITKBATURE.

while the former were only said to Aing (HMw^ doOas). They were not restricted in the
choice of subjects. They clothed in new and exngeereted torins the oldest recoUectioni
and iraditioDs; they rehearsed the genealogy of the gods, the origin of the world, the
wars of the Titans and the Giants, the expbits of the demigods and heroes.

The poets were numerous after the time of the Trojan war. They brought to its
perfection hexameter verse, which had been employed by preceding bards; and from
this time it was restricted chiefly to epic poetry.

^ 18. All the poets of this class were wholly eclipsed by Homer, who is justly styled
the father of epic poetry, and who remains to this day acknowledged prince of epic
poets. It is a remarkable fact, that the Homeric poems were the principal foundaiioa
of the whole literature of the Greeks. Yet it has been supposed by many, that they
were not committed to writing (cf. ^ 50. 4) until the time of Solon and Pisistratus, at
the close of the second or beginning of the third period before mentioned (^ 9). They
were then collected into a body, and constituted the first production that circulated
among the Greeks in a written form. It was a splendid model, and received with hi^h
and lasting admiration by every class of the people. The influence of these poems m
Greece is beyond calculation. '* From Homer," says Pope, **the poets drew their
inspiration, the critics their rules, and the philosophers a defence of their opinions :
•very author was fond to use his name, and every profession writ books upon him till
they swelled to libraries. The warriors formed themselves upon his heroes, and the

oracles delivered his verses for answers." The history of Grecian epics ends as it

begins, essentially, with Homer. The only poet near his time who has enjoyed much
relebnty is Hesiod, who wrote in hexameter, and is usual! v ranked among^the epic
poets, although his principal work belongs rather to the didactic class. '1 liere is a
story of a poetical contest between Hesiod and Homer, in which the former bore awav
the prize ; but it is a fabrication, and the tradition on which the story was foundea,
probably grew out of a conjociural comment on the passage of Hesiod, where he
alludes to a prize gained by him at Chalcis, but says nothing of Homer. Cf. P. IV. ^€5.

$ 19. During the whole of the third period into which we have divided the history
of Greek literature, from Solon to Alexander, we do not find a single epic poem. The
Perseid of Chmrilus of Samos is lost, and if extant would not secure its author a rank
above his contemporaries in the class of later Cyclic poets. The Thebaid of Anti-
machus of Colophon, which is also lost, was much commended by some of the ancient
critics ; but it seems to have been of a mythological ca.st rather than properly epic. In
other departments poetry flourished in the highest degree ; but in this Homer had
closed the path to glory.

Cr. Sckta, IL l23-t27.->l. P. JVUc, Choeiili Simil que wpBttnA. U^ itlT. t-C. d, 0. aehMadttrt, AaUmcki Colo,
phoali rnfamta, Dane priBan ecoqaWts. HaL I7NL 8L

^ 20. In the next period, the Alexandrian age, we meet with but one name of any
celebrity, Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautics, who flourished about 200
years B. C. Three other epic poets are mentioned, belonging to the same age ; Eiipho-
rion of Chalcis ; Rhianus of bene in Crete, originally a slave ; and Mussus of Ephe-
sus, who lived at Pergamos. Each is said to have written several poems ; wliich are
wholly lost (Schm, Hist. bk. iv. ch. 30).

In the fifth period, from the supremacy of the Romans, B. C. 146, to the time of
Constantine, A. D. 326, there were several didactic poems in hexameter, but not an
epic appeared that has secured remembrance.

In the last period, after the seat of empire was removed to Constantinople, there
was a crowd of inferior poets, or verse makera, hangine about the court. Many per-
formances were composed in he.Tameter. The principiH, that can be called epic, are

the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, and the Paralipomcna of Quintus Calaber, which, alth
some critics have highly praised them, will be read but very seldom. The Destruction
of Troy by Tryphiodorus may also deserve to be named.

Od apic poetry in («aml ; AeAoihcrf > Cntimtf, p. 196.— P. fa Ami. Tnite dn Po«bm Epiqw, Mb •§. Hay*, 1744. t voli. 11
Bnftnh TnwL Loud. 1719. 8.-A. Btadanar*, On Epick FMry. in hie Away*, he IaimI. 1716. t—H. Ptmbtrtan, Obam-
ttoM on Epic Fbetry. Load. 1799. 9.-~Kamm, BlemMita of Critieino, eb. zslL— AUr, LKtom on Rbolork, led tivL^rmtr^
and Of to Avrr, In the Jftm. A r^fcwt (bt Aiw. ix. 228, tagi

Ob the apic poetry of the Oreeki; AAJB, L S7, ii. 129.— /V. SeUfgd, OcacliieMe dor FDoriodor Orkcben and RAmt. Bnl.
1798. ft— AMv, Voa dom Unprunf dot Bpoe; In bit Adntlea.— S|nfiii<r, Do ?ona Gnoeo beroleo. XJpe. ISICL ft-A« ih*
SMur^ Alif. Tbeorie; noder ffeWmferiidtt-Aieyei Jimr. onder JEjpic;

^ 21. (r) The Cyclic poett and the ffomcrida. Although there was no great epic
poet after Homer, there were many who imitated his manner and sung of the same or
similar subjects. Some of these, perhaps most of them, were Rhapsodists, who publicly
rehearsed portions of Homer and other poets, as well as their own verses. This led to
the composition of the pieces called sometimes hymns (^;t>«0, beinf addressed to some
deity; and also proms (n^i/ira), because they were a sort of introduction to the rehear-
sal which followed. The RhapsodistsS who chiefly rehearsed or imitated Homer, have
been called the Jlomerida. (Schdlh Hist. bk. ii. ch. iv.) But to all these poets, as a
class, the term Cyclic was applied by the ancient grammarians. The name is derived
ftom x^Xay, a circle, and was given because tbeu: poetry was confined to a certain

F. T. POBTRT. LYRIC. 451

round or cycle of subjects ond incidents. Their performances were of the epic cha-
racter, but are almost totally lost. The cycle of subjects treated by them included the
whole extent of Grecian story, real and fabulous, from the origin of the world down to
the sack of Troy. They are sometimes called the poets of the epic cycle ; and have
been divided into two classes ; such as treated of ihe mythology and legends anterior
to the Trojan war, termed poets of the Mythic Cycle; and those who treated of the
various incidents connected with that war Irom the decision of Paris to the death of
Ulysses, termed poets of the Trojan Cycle. It is easy to perceive how the term cycle
should obtain its metaphorical sense of a numotonous and sviriilefs author. — 1 he Cyclic
poets' are interesting to us chiefly from the fact, that ihejr furnished the sources whence
subsequent poets drew their matenals. Virgil and Ovid are said to have borrowed
largely from those authors.

There were aeveral poets in the period betwesn Solon and Alexander, who treated orsubfects
belonging to the epic cvcle, and are sometimes called the later Cyclic poets. (ScJkMi. bk. iil. cb.
XV.) In the last period also ofOrecian literature the poets, who are called epic, are rather mere
imitators and copiers of the Cyclic tribe, and might be classed with the same ; as e. g. Quintua
Calaber, Tryphiodorus, and Tsetses.

The names and works of some of the Cyclic poets are given on the lliae TaU». This is a tablet
of marble', on which the capture of Troy and events connected with it are represented by little
figures in bas-relief, witli names added. It was found among the ruins of an ancient temple on
the Via Appia, and is preserved in the Museum of the capitol at Rome. Its date is not known ;
probably not before the time of Virgil.

( Ob llM Rteimllm, cL Altos'* Allf. Thwrie, toL il. p. m^-CoUndft, iDtiedaeHoa to Stodf of Oreak F«m««, (p. 48, FUM.
im.)— mf/, ProkfomoB ad Hamenm.-^CkmrmkUn dar mtukmulm iXcMir, vol. U. p. ft, ab«r die DichikttiM der Grie^n \m
h«BiKbMZcilaIt«r,BKlldcmHoMr.~&f.AnM<r, DtBtafwida. Li|M. I7S4. 4.-J. JTrMiNr. HoMrncha Rlu|Mdn. KoIb.

ML sOn tb* CyiMe poeH, tc* «|McikUy Pr. mJbur, Dc Cycle Epiw INMliM)W Cyclich. Mowateri (MOiwIw), I8B&. & A

WQtk <^ceordii« to Jakn*f Jahitadicr far 1S8) of wlid Imi^tog aad loaad Jiid(Mnt MTUUntr oMalioot, hj tb«ir Grrvk tlttot,
iMWtlymm poaoM m lidoi^ii( to the Bfit Cydt.—F. Q. WUdhv, Dv Epttdic Cydw, odar die BoncriKlMi DIcbtar. Bom.
USSw a-See Abynt^ Bann. I ad JBo. ii— AineM Bib. Gnte. L-^SeWli, bk. ii. cb. It.— Adhowft, DiawfiuioBM lelecta (ad.
Baila«.) Erteof. n78.-5oiidknM(, ADliquites FMtiqMa, ea DiMit. aor L Poetat cjrdiquaa. Far 1789. &>AMft0ia, de Cfdia,
dtod P. L § 193.— The cbiaf oriiini amroa of iDforaaf ion la a raaatfe takan friiai Proclia ; aea BiUiolhtk d. aU. Lit. und Ktaul
L W.—Plutii Rib. ad. SchotL p. 9S0.-£l€tnrt(AMn, Da Canaiaibo* CypriM. HavnUe (Copaahafao), 1823.- rV. MUUtr, Da Cyeto
OnMsnin Epiee. Lpi. ltt9.-0. £«nf c, Uebar die Kykliaefaea Dicbler, fte. Maias, 1887. t^-Jahn't Jabrbaeher, for 1880, vol.

U. ph tda-QMim, la tbe ScniMi, foL xxzL p. I8S. > Jfeitf/auam fitaa an eacravin| oftbia Tabic, witb a daaeriptloat is Hi

JnKff. EtpL fol. It. p. asr aa.

^ 22. {d) Lyric Poetry. It has already been remarked, that in the earliest poetry
of Greece, music and song were united. The hymns and other mythic pieces of the
sacred poetry were adapted to some instrumental accompaniment. 1'he rehearsals of
the Rhapsodists and epic minstrels were not without the music of the harp or lyre,
employed at least in proems and interludes.

But the poetry distmctively called lyric originated later. It commenced probably in
odes sung in praise of particular gods; partly addressed to them like hymns, and
partly recounting their deeds. Of these there were many varieties ; as the TJaidv^ an
ode to Apollo originally, afterwards to any god ; "t'n6pxyinaj a song accompanied with
dancing as well as music ; AiMpa/i/?o;, an ode in honor of Bacchus. There was also a
class of songs called Ilfsir^ia, used on festivals and in processions ; as the ^^vfi^opuA^
sung by virgins bearing laurel branches in honor of Apollo ; Tptin>^r;<^pur&, sung when
the sacred tripods were carried in procession ; 'Ovocp^pixh^ sung by youth carrying
branches and clusters of the vine in Honor of Minerva. There were odes giving thanks
for deliverances, especially from epidemics, 'EiriAo(>ia ; and others supplicating help
and relief, "EiKruch. Diana was celebrated in the songs called O^iyyoc ; Ceres, m the
*I««Xo( ; Bacchus, in the *\<iA6tc<pi\ Apollo, in the 9i\^iaiai.

^23. But lyric song was not confined to the praises of the gods and to relie[iou8
festivals. The enthusiasm awakened by the revolutions in favor of liberty burst forth
in effusions of lyric poetry. The tumult and excitement of republican contests and
hazards seem to have been coneenial to its spiriu It admitted a free license and va-
riety of meters, and was suited to every imaginable topic that could awaken lively
interest. It was shortly extended to almost every concern of hfe, and the weaver at
the loom, the drawer of water at the well, the sailor at his oars, and even the begsar
in his wandering, had each his appropriate song, and, so generally was music culti-
vated, they could usually accompany it with the lyre.

Accordingly we find numerous species of songs spoken of in the classics. Odes to
heroes were of three varieties; the 'Eynj/iioy, proclaiming the dee^ of the person cele-
brated ; 'Eiraii^, his virtues; and 'EarwUtov, his victories. There were difierent forms
of nuptial odes ; the ifuvahi and y^i^n^^'t sung at the wedding ; jp^ama, in conducting
the bride home ; mOoXd/iia, at the door of the bed-chamber. The tajtSot was a sort of
bsntering satirical song ; the rratyvta were of a similar but more sportive and looee cast.
The tnu^h and m^ta were sung by choirs or companies of boys and vir^ns. The
tipartM¥M, xEXid^Mo, and KoptavCvfuiTa were songs of mendicants. Finally, without enti-
merating any more, it may be remarked, that Ilgen has pointed out about thirty diffe-
rent kinds, in a treatise on the convivial songs ofthe Greeks. (Cf. ^ 27.)

C. antmjXjuf^h.9. CUm{naeoBv{T.GnBe. Jaa. vm. 8.-Affitt<, 8v Is Maaiqoa AMtaans la Iba MMk * P Jood dhi

482 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

kmr. m dtod P. tV. f a.-Souehm^, S«r l«kpitbitaBC, Mm. Aud. hmr. ii. ns.~C( /^iJ^mofin. Klrfs. Ihadbwli, p. IM, h
citodi7.a.

$ 24. It has been observed that lyric poetry allowed a jg^reat variety of mete^.
Many of these were afterwards distinguished bv the names of tiie lyric poets supposed
to have invented them. A great license was also indulged in the form of the stanzas
or strophes in which the lyric pieces were composed, both as to the number of verses
or lines included in them, and the order or succession of lines of different meters. The
earliest and simplest form of strophe consisted of two lines or verses of different meter.
The second form seems to have mcluded four verses, consisting of at least two meters,
used by Alcieus, Sappho, and Anacreon. But strophes of a more artiiioial composition
were employed by Alcman and Siesichorus. Those of Pindar, and such as are used
in the choral parts of tragedy, exhibit the greatest art in their construction.

Ob Ifae MlOT lad Urophai eomll iftniMJin, aad SIM|«-, h «H«1 1 7. 4. (A)

% 25. Lyric poetry began to flourish at the close of the second period we have pointed
out, from the Trojan war to Solon, and after epic had reached its height. The most
ancient of the lyric poets (as distinguished from the mythic, epic, and cyclic poets),
whose name is recorded, was Tha^tas of Crete, induced by Lycnrgus to remove to
Sparta. (Cf. Plutarch on Lycurgrus.) Archilochus, Alcman, AIcjeus, and 8appho,
flourished just before Solon, or about the same time, and were all celebrated amon^r
the ancients, particularly the first and last of them ; but we have nothing of theur
writings except a few fragments.

In the next period, between Solon and Alexander, lyric poetry was cultivated with
increased ardor and splendid success. Simonides, Siesichorus, and Bacchylides, are
mentioned with praise. Many other names of less note are also preserved ; as Lasus,
Hipponax, Ibycus, Pratinas, Asclepiades, Glycon and Phalaecus, Melanippides, Ti-
rootheus, Telestes, and Philoxenes. Several poetesses also adorned the circle of lyric
authors in this age; as Erinna, Myrtis, Corinna, Telesille, and Praxilla. But it is not
from any of the writers we have named, that the lyric poetry of the Greeks derives its
high reputation among modern scholars ; for of all their works almost every thing has
perished; a loss whicn some of the mutilated portions remaining cause us much to
regret.

Time has been more sparing in reference to the performances of two other poetp, to
whom the judgment of all has ascribed the palm of pre-eminent excellence in lyric
verse, Anacreon and Pindar. Each of these excels, yet their characteristics are totally
opposite. Anacreon sings of women and roses and wine i Pindar of heroes, of public
contests, of victories andlaurels. The one melts away in amatory softness ; the other
is ever like the foaming steed of the race, vaulting in the pride of conscious strenstb,
or the furious war-horse, dashing fearlessly on, over every obstacle. Under tHese
masters, Grecian lyrics were advanced to their ^eatest perfection.

^ 26. The ancients speak of nine as the principal lyric poets, viz. Alcman, Alcapus,
Sappho, Siesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides, Pindar, and Bacchylides. It will
be observed that all these have been already mentioned. The age of Pindar com-
pletes essentially the history of lyric poetry in Greece, as that of Homer does the
iiistory of epic. No eminent geiuus appears after him.

In the next period after the time ot Alexander, we hear of several poetesses, as
Anyta, Nossls, and Moero; and some of the poets at Alexandria wrote lyrical pieces,
as rhiletas, Lycophron, and Callimachus. But after the Roman supremacy we ^hall
scarcely find a strictly lyrical production noticed in the fullest detail of Grecian poetry.

Od Ow ml^aeti and vmrktiM of Lyric FkMtiy, Me Actenterr'f Eotwarf diMr Thwria, kc. m iMfcr* cit«d.— Avye. .fnw. voder
Lfric-Ca Oie geoenl dnnetar tad hUmrj of Orvek Lyric FMf7> «• Prefkee to Dackt*a Trual. of Horace.— JT. di la Nina*
Sur ha duuHont de I«luiei«M Grec^ id Mm. dt VJhad. «to fmer. ix. 8Sa— SM^icy't Oen. BM. Muric Loud. ITTS. 4.-Jfa9-
fdn d* QiMrion, Mmn. Htalor. mr h ehunoB m fea. at ea part, rraaooiaa. Fv. ITSS. S voh. 8.— JTMertol Amy oo tlw Orif. *tA

Fra|. of NiHooai Smg. pref. to AM. Coll. Aif . Sonffc Loud. I78S. S vob. 8L- Aibv'* AWf. TiMoria, artic. Ode, LM, te.

FiDT HfenJ Minea of Lyric poeto which ara not maatioaed abava, and of which wa Iwve ae nmaim, mo N. Jnur. Jit*. Jm. 1842.

p. 188. Oa the pooteM% /. a VMf^ FMria Oelo ; Erinna, Myrtia, Corinna, Trinilla, Praiilta, NoaM, Anyta, Myrti ; Gr. ct

Lat Bash. 1734. 4. with Iha Dinertatioa of OImHu* od the Uk. Poclewa.— It may net be impmpcr to cite here /. C VT^if,
MvUaram FngoMnta Pnwiea, Or. * LaL cam not. tarloraai ; aocedit Catelofw Pamiaanwi oliai illuatriom. Load. ITSSi 4.

% 27. («) The Seolion {ptaKiiv avua). This was a species of poetry, which appeared
before the time of Solon, and flounsfaed especially in the period between him and
Alexander. It was nearly allied to lyric poetry ; or, more properly speaking, was
.only a peculiar forn»of it, consistmg of little songs, designed for social purposes, and
particularly used at banquets and festive entertainments.

The word 9ko\i6¥, employed to designate the kind of long here deaerlbed, has troubled the
arammnriana. It properly Bigntflee something crooked or distorted (detoume), and evidpntly
indicates something Irregular In the poetry to which ft is applied. The qaestion has arisen,
wherein consisted the irregularity 1 According to 8uidas,the Greeks had three modes of sing-
ing at the table. Pirtt^ all the guests forming a Joint chorus, chanted a pcan accompanied by the
harp, in honor of some god. 7%«ii, the harp was passed (torn guest to guest, beginning with the
one occupying the chief place, and each was requested to sing some morceau or sonnet fVom
8imonides„ Steslchorus, Anacreon, or other fkvorlte author. If any one declined playing, he
night sing without the harp, holding in his hand a branch of myrtle. There was a third mannar.

F.y. POETRT. BI.E6IAC. 468

wUeh repaired ftbfolntely tlM aecompanimentof tbe harp, and something of the tkni of an mrtiat.
Hence the harp did not paaa in order from guest to guest, but when one perftirnier had finished
some couplets, he presented the myrtle-branch to anotlier qualified tn continue the song and
music. This one, liaving completed his part in turn, gave the brancli to a third, and so on.
Along with the myrtle whs presented also to the singer tbe cup or vase, which from this prao-
tlce gained the name of {oi6f. From this mode of passing tbe harp, In an irregular manner, the
poem thus recited was termed o-oAitfv. — Piutarcb, on the other hand, states tliai the pcolia were
accompanied with the sound of the lyre; that this instrument was presented to each guest, and
those who were unable tn sing and play could refuse to take it ; he adds that the trtroXitfy was so
called because it was r^ither coninton nor easy. But be gives also another expianattou, accord-
ing to which the myrtle branch le represented aa passing fVoui conch to couch in the following
way : tbe first guest on the first couch passed it to the first on llie second couch, and he to the
first on the third ; it was then returned to the first couch, and the guest occup>ing the second
place there, having sung and played, passed it to the second on the second couch, and thus it
went through the whole company. From this crooked manouvring the songs of the table were

called crxroAid. These eiplanations are too subtle to be perfectly satisfactory. It seems much

more simple to suppose the name to have referred originally to the irregularity of meter, in
which respect the scolion seems to have had unlimited license. The subjects of these songs
were not always tbe pleasures of the table and the cup. They often treated of more serious
matters. Including sometimes the praise of the f^ods. Bongs for popular use, and those designed
to enliven manual labor and domestic care, as those of shepherds, reapers, weavers, nurses, Ac.
went under the common name of aKoXia. Tbe earliest known author of scolia, or according to
Plutarch the inventor of music adapted to them, Is Terpander, of Antissa in Lesbos, who lived
about 670 B. O. Other authors of such pieces are recorded ; as Cllta|orus the Lacedsmonian,
Bybrias of Crete, Timocreon of Rhodes. Arcbilochtts, and other lyric poets, composed pieces
which belong to the class here described.

8m JC lb ta Nautt, eitad ) i6 ; BuntU, ud Ilgm, died « S3, fl^MSblly the laltar.— A H. Cludba, ton dcK SkoliOB dor Grieefaap,
istbe JiU. d. aft. JUI<r. «. AoMt. N«. LSehOU, UukXitt. Or. bfc. ii.ch.&

^ 28. (/) Elegiac Poetry, The origin of elegiac poetry was an ancient theme of dis-
pute if we may credit Horace : Quis tamen exiguos elegos emiserit auctor, Grammatici
cerlant, et adhue gubjudice lis e$i, ** It appears," says SchfiU, ** that tbe grammarians
of Alexandria (for to these Horace doubtless alludes) raised this question from their
confounding times and terms. The matter becomes clear when we give to terms their
proper meaning. It is necessary to distinguish between the ancient iA<ye(a of Collinus,
and the later eXeyor, the invention of which has been attributed to Simonides. Tbe
first was merely a lyric piece, particularl>[ a war-song, composed of distichs with hexa-
meter and pentameter altematmg, the original form of Ionian lyrics. I'he word SXeyos
(from f t alas ! and Xtyui) signifies a lamentation ; and any lyric poem on a mournful
subject was so termed. The Attic poets, when they sung on a mournful theme, em-
ployed the distich of alternate hexameter and pentameter, which had been previously
used in the war-song. It was now that this distich received the name iXcysia^ from the
new class of subjects to which it was appHed ; for it was not originally so called, but
went by the general name of fne;, afterwards restricted to heroic verse. The term was
therefore tbe name of a kind of meter or strophe, rather than a kind of poetry. The

Sammarians, overlooking this, called the two kinds by the name of^ elegy , because
e meter was the same in both."

Callinus of Ephesus is regarded as the author of the first poem composed in elegiac
meter. He is commonly supposed to have lived about 664 B. C. Others place him
much earlier. I'he fragment ascribed to him is part of a song stimulating his compa-
triots to fight valiantly against their enemies the Magnesians. Tyrtmus is next in time,
immortalized by his songs composed for the purpose of rousing and encouraging the
Spartans in a war with Messenia.

^ 29. The first example of the new application of the elegiac meter (i. e. to moum-
fiil themes) is said to nave been given by Mimnermus of Colophon in Ionia, about
590 B. C. The few verses remaining of bim breathe a sweet meloncholy, deploring
the rapid flight of youthful days, and tne brevity and ills of human life.

But Simonides is considered as the inventor of the proper elegy, although be neither
devised the meter, nor first applied it to topics of a saddening cast : but it was after Si-
monides that the name iXeyog was given to a poem of considerable size in distichs of
hexameter and pentameter. Most of his pieces which are preserved are, however,
epigrams rather than elegies. Antimachus a lyric poet, Euripides the tragic writer,
andHermesianax, are mentioned among the authors of elegies in the perioSl now be-
lore us, between Solon and Alexander.

In the next period, the only elegiac writer of any importance was Callimachus ;
although Alexander the ^tolian and Philetas of Cos are named. Callimachus was
much admired and imitated by the Romans. After him elegiac verse does not appear
to have been cultivated at all among the Greeks.

In conclusion, very little of the Greek elegiac poetry remains to us, but some of the
fragments we have are in strains peculiarly soft and sweet.

Ob llM orifiD of Orwk Elociae PtMtrjr, «• /. r. Ftmdu, CalliaiM ■!*• QiuNtionet de ortf. flsnn. dr^ad. Altos. I816L 8..-C
J. BBttigm't Abb. Qbn- die Fftb«l *ora Manfai, in W [ e 1 aa d% JKtiaeh. Mumum, R. 1. St. l.-Hehrtt, EM. Or. Litl. bk. U. dk.
6.-0a OrMk e]«(1«e pootry geotnllj, Fruguiar, 8ur Wlm^ Or. k Lat. in th« Mem. ek PAeail. lUt fitter, (tome viii. td. d>lnut)
ftr. td. Td. tL p. tn.— SD«elh«y. DiiCDan tar \m BIc^qiMt Krae% in the Mm. d* rjmd. da hutr. vol. vii. 8SS, 888:— £kta»
tarr> Eatwir'idltd « M) p^ IM^C. Omr, Ds Camisii GtMsnw Blafisei Origiassl NoUosn. JItfb. IML 8.

454 BISTORT OF ORBEK LITERATUBB.

$ 30. (g) Buealie or Paatoral Poetry, This species of poetry is supposed to have
taken its lue from the rustic sonfs of Sicilian shepherds. Its invention is ascribed to
a certain Daphnis, who lived in the early fabulous affes, and enjoyed the reputation of
a divine descent, while he paatured his nocka at the Toot of mount ^tna.

But Theocritus, belonging to the Alexandrine age of Grecian literature, may be con-

aiderod aa the father of bucolic sonff. The Idyl had not been cultivated by any writer
before him. This term, from timXt0¥, signinea a little picture, a representation in
miniature, a delicate piece of poetical drawing. The Greek Idyl doea not seem to
have been confined to any one topic exclusively, yet was chiefly employed in repre-
senting the acenea'of pastoral life. Ita external form was marked by tne use of the
Hexameter yerse and the Doric dialect. Theocritus carried it to a high degree of per-
fection; and in pastoral poetry, no poet, ancient or modem, has surpassed him.

In fact, Greek bucolic poetry begina and ends with Theocritua. Two other poeta
belonging to the same age, vis. Bion and Moschus, are commonly ranked in the class of
bucohc or pastoral writers. But neither of them is considered as equal to Theocritus ;
and the subjects and scenes of their poetry have more of the lyrical or mythological
than of the paatoral character.

ODPMardrMf7lacMNnd{aM.tfifbntoMll%DlR.iDrhMtdo]<iKld(M. F. lasa a-Ok. CL Omul, Dia. nr to Ftoa.
|Miior.Ae. Flv. 1707. li.-fl0r<M, E» wr h FlMlBnl*. to PnL to to AMc ftr. ITSa lt..nr>«f«iir,Sarl^ekti», in Jfcik
<faFJn4. *> Amt. tt. ISl^-Ap% DiMi «■ PMonJ PDalry, is T<mmn'$ Mtteatt. Load. IW7. a-Th».OM*diM, No.28,30,aL
— ^notery, Pbatry m • M«r Plaa. Lpnd. vm. a— JWr^ LMHum

OnOnak Futoiml PMry ; JlL OottUy 4m Jhia aotarf, niae. mt Imiae. Ftot bwoL deSdi*, in JAm. dk r Jeorf. 4*$ huer. to!.
«.p.».-Jflef. A^ardf^»^Hirt.daBcrcvI)tpll■lt,in tb8■llMJA^l.fce.««l.vLp.4Sa~Wbrfol^te bueeliea Grac p»

face to hta edit of ThMcriliM. Otiw. l7T0.-ArMbaH,odflr die Irakeliidi. Oiehtar dat ailtrtlmBe. Rari. INt-ia S Bdc 4.—
aekta, HbL Or.Utt bk. if.ek.n.-jruibr^ Doriue, bk. It. ch.! { la-OoK .Kwm. zs. ItC xvil. M.

^ 31. (&) Didactic Poetry, In this form of poetry, the literature of the Greeks was
not peculiarly rich. The objects which didactic poetry has in view, may be included
under two heads; it aims to give instruction, either in what pertains to morals, or in
what pertains to science or art. In the earliest specimen of didactic poetry among the
Greeks— the Works and Days of Hesiod — there is a combination of both ; the first
book chiefly consisting of moral precepts, and the second of rules of husbandry, con-
cluding however with a repetition of precepts on the conduct of life. This production
belongs to the period before Solon.

The next productions, which we meet in the account of Grecian didactic poetry,
consist wholly of moral precepts or sentences (y^Ttniu). From this circumstance, the
writers have been callea (rn^ticpoeta. The poetry consista of pithy maxims, ex-
pressed with brevity and force. The metrical form may have been chosen principally
for the sake of memory. Pythagoras, Solon, Theognis, Phocylides and Xenophanes,
are the chief among the Gnomic poets. Fragments remain ascribed to each ot these ;
not all, however, considered genuine, especially the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, and
the Exhortation of Phocylides.

There was a peculiar species of composition, to which it may be proper here to
allude, as another form of didactic poetry ; viz. the fable or apologue (AroAoyof and X^>«r).
The most ancient Greek fables are two or three aacribed to Archilochus and Steai-
chorus, and one found in Hesiod. The most celebrated fables are those of ^sop, who
Kved in the ase of Solon. They were probably composed in prose. Socrates trans-
lated some ofthem into verse. They were collected in a body by Demetrius Phale-
reus, and a translation of them is said to have been made about the same time into
elegiac verse. In the age of Augustus they were translated into the verse called Cho-
Hambica, by Babrius. This metrical version is supposed to have been the basis of the
modern copies, which are in prose, and belong pernaps more properly to the subject
of philosophy.

On the Gredt Gaeode Fwlry ; JUnmH Oaaefc. d. Wlwwiei liaftiw to Orhrhwhiiil ■. Eo«. la^o, 1781. a— IftytM^ Pnt to
gmUuU. MTwifiM. Onam. paatarum Op. LIpk ITTa S vohw-/. /Votvniia, Seripttna Ononici, kc. Bm. Ifitl. a ca«toinli«
fnoM^aaf rfKMt aavwiypoala.— »wiel,QiioniiciiNMLGnDd,citod Iwtow. ^dTI—K A JUMb, De vatar. poator. mpictfto
gaemka,*e. Heva. ISOO. a

Oa tba Apelocw or FiUe laaanllf ; JtetonAurf , ZBiwmH, p. 9i^~^Mkrt, Dm. da Fbari Apoloc. aonraiqtie Kriptaribai. Lipa.
nu. d.-Aifem'* Allg. Tkeor. aH. FIML-UmhH*M Abhaadlaacao, to hia Ttar aUcten Miepim*. Faiibt. Beri. 1777. a—
Ob Iha Gfaik fkbla ; /. MC Eituliigm, Diiaart da gr- ^Ea. Fabnlto Gar. 1741. a-AdkMAurfi Xntwarf; ftc p. tOL-Sdkao;
HM. Lilt Or. bk. UL eb. a

^ 32. The Alexandrine a^e presents several didactic poets. The first in chrono-
logical order were two Sicihana, Dicaearchus and Archestratus. The former wrote, in
iambic verse, a geographical description of Greece. He was a disciple of Aristotle,
and left also some pnilosophical pieces. The latter traversed many lands examining
the subject of human food and nourishment, and gave the result of nis experience and
research in a poem entitled GaMtroUgy. At the very close of the period was Nican-
der, of Colophon, or of .^tolia according to others. His two poems (called OnptcueK
relating to venomous bites ; and 'AXef^upapnoKa^ relating to other poisons) have more of
poetic elegance than of scientific merit. His Georgics and Metamorphoses (ETtpaanO'
fun), both lost, are said to have furnished hints to Virgil ^jid Ovid.

p. T. POETRY. EROTIC. EFIORAMfl. 466

But the first place in point of excellence belongs to Aretus, who flourished at the
Macedonian court, about 270 B. C. His astronomical poem is highly commended bj
the ancients. Cicero translated it into Latin Terse. Aratus is the poet quoted by Paul
before the Areopagus. (Acts xvii. 28.)

In the next period, after the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, there were also several
writers belonging to the class now under notice ; but none of them of much celebrity.
Among the principal were Babrius or Babrias and Oppian. The former has been
already mentioned as author of a metrical version of the apologuet of ^sop. The latter
wrote on jishing and hunting; a third poem, not extant, on fmlinej is also ascribed to
him. The following are Ukewise mentioned: Apollodonis of Atnens, who wrote a
poetical chronology (Xpoyura) and a de8cripii4m of the earth (Tlk npioios) ; Scymnus of
Chios, and Dionysius of Charax, authors each of a Voyage of the World (IIc|M^yi)9fs
oUovfdyiK) ; Heliodorus, author of a poem entitled 'AxoKvrucii ; and Marcelius of Sida, in
the time of the Antonmes, who wrote a poem of forty -two books <»i medicine {fit0Xla
larpiKi),

After the seat of the Roman government was changed, there were, as has been
mentioned, numerous inferior poets. Several of them would fall into the class of di-
dactic poets, but they scarcely deserve to be named. Among them were Naumachius,
author of a poem on astrology : Dorotheus, author of a poetical treatise on triangles,
and another on the places m the stars ; and Manuel Philes, who wrote on the pecu-
liarities of animals (11^ ^fM¥ HiArnns),

Ob Dhketic Pbdry In fotfnl { Adhmiwf , Ealwarf; *e. ^..-JfoniMnM, PMIIqat T. li. eh. tL—J^dm, Reflex, mt k peaM,
ch. t.—WmrtonU mm. m Did. Vo^Uj (pi«L to Timu. ^ Ft^d).— Cnoy praf. to Ikyd^U Tnm. of Firg. Geers.-Mter'a AOf.

Tbeor.wt IMrfWftM. On llw Gnek Didactic Ftab, Mruo^i AUk in the Maebtr. m Sabv, & Hi. 49. ud vL a6e.-adkafi;

HbL LttL Gr. Idk ilL ck S, a. bk. Iv. aS^ as. bk. vL ek. 74.

^ 33. (t) Erotic Poetry. Under this denomination are included such poetical per-
formances as refer particularly to the subject of love. It is sometimes applied to a
class of lyrical pieces, which were of an amatory character (ipuruch luko). Alcman, or
Alcmaeon, who lived at Sparta, B. C about 470, is regarded as the father of erotic
poetry in this sense of the phrase. Most of his poems were of a class called vepBiviOf
or praises of virgins. His songs were very popular with the ancients, and were sung
by the Spartans at table with those of Terpander. Alceus, Sappho, and Anacreon
wrote pieces of the same description.

But the term erotic is generally applied b^ critics to another class of writings; viz.
several productions of a utter period, chiefly in prose, which had something otthe na-
ture of novels, or modern works of fiction. They were truly a species of romance, and
properly therefore may be noticed as a distinct branch of literature. In this place we
0hall speak only of such authors as wrote in verse. There were three writers in the
period after Constantino the Great, who composed poems, which may be justlv ranked
among the performances here described. The most eminent of them was Theodoras
Prodromus, a learned philosopher and theologian, in the beginning of the twelfth cen-
tury, author of a ^at variety of poetical pieces. '* Scripeit carmina" says Harles,
" invita autem Mmerva." The principal was his romance, in iambic verse, entitled
the love of Rhodanthe and Dosicles. The other two were Constantine Manasses, and
Nicetas Eugenianus ; both lived about the same time with Prodromus. The work of
the former, the loves of Aristander and Callithea, is nearly all lost ; that of the latter,
the loves of Drosilla and Charicles, in nine books, is extant. They were both in the
verse called politieaL

SbMO; RiiL Ull. Or. bk. iL ck. L bk. tL dk T4^-«0b apprik yoUfiqatf da vm da qaiui ifHiMM, dam iMq^
pas b qwMtitoi Ua onl la cnwa aprai la bnitlaaa ayllabla, •! hccHl anr WtuX dankra." Ct Onnaim ^ Mater), llbb iL
c.zziz.S8.

$ 34. (A) T%e Epigram, The term htiypa^ifM ori^nally signified merely an tMcrrplio*,
and from this use the poetry so called derived its prevailing character. The Greek
epigram served for a motto on a pillar or an offering to a god, an explanation or me-
mento under a painting, a panegync on a statue or a monument, an epitaph on a grave-
stone. Of course we could not expect it to be strikingly marked by that smartness
of manner and sharpness of wit and point, which modern taste demands. It usually
expressed a simple idea, a sentiment, a reflection, a regret, a wish ; inspired by the
accidental sight of a monument, an edifice, a tree or other object ; or awakened by the
recollection of somethinff agreeable, melancholy, or terrible in the past. Here we pro-
pose to mention some of the authors of difierent aces to whom epigrams are ascribed.

A few are referred to the time antecedent to Solon. Those ascribed to Homer are
the most ancient, but their genuineness is doubted. One worthy of its reputation bears
tne name of .£sop.

There are various epigrams belonging to the two periods between Solon and the
Roman supremacy, some said to be nom the most distinguished authors. Indeed most
of the poets, it is probable, composed occasionally these little pieces. Anacreon, Erinna,
^schylus, Euripides, and especially Simonides of Ceos, may be named. The latter
defeated .Sschylus in coropeution for the prize-inscription at Thermopyls.— 'A sioglie

466 HUTOHT OF ORBEK LITERATURE.

epigram is referred to SociBtes ; one to Thncydidee ; thirty to Plato, bat without fbnn-
datioo. Three by the painter ParrhBeiue are presenred by Aiheosus.

The Alexandrine age abounded in epigrammatisia ; more than thirty are ennmerated.
The most eminent were Callimachtts, and Leonidaa of Tarentum. The latter left a
hundred epigrama, in the Doric dialect, among the beat that are preeenred.

Iff the next period, the number of epigrammatista was still larger; above forty wri-
ters are named between the fall of Corinth and the time of Constantino, and a great
number of their pieces are extant. Among them is the poet Archias, less celebrated
for his own productions than by the oration of Cicero in bis behalf. Diogenes Laertios,
the biographer, also has a place here. We have the largest nunriber of pieces from
Meleager and Lucilins. The latter, a contemporary of Nero, published two books of
epigrams, of which more than a hundred remain, cniefly of a satirical cast. Some of
the emperors amused themselves in writing poetry of this description ; we have several
pieces from Trajan. In this period, collections of epigiams began to be comuiied and
published under different titles. They are now called Anthologies, and will be de-
scribed in the next section.

After Constantino, it was chiefly in the epigram that the poets labored, or gained
any distinction. Between forty and fifty diflerent writers are mentioned, pagan and
Christian. The more eminent among them were Greeory Naziansen (cf. i 292), Paul
Silentarius, the consul Macedonius, and Agathias of Mynna (ef. ^ 258).

Besides the epigrammatists that have been now alluded to under the different periods
of Greek literature, the Anthologies contain the names of nearly one hundred othexa,
whose epoch has not been ascertained.

<ii iWOwit tfl^mmi #. Mmtt» DiIib>m Eplgri— . Owwr— <>toL af !>■ JitKottwt, diia f T. I)h tt« Ja/tntrnd^m.
Vmy ptoL-Umbtt, oa cpignm, ia hta FarmteMi Ariri/km (fcMlii^w). Bvl. HTI. 1^ Jbriv, fe hta MmUmOt B&Hlr.
OolbB, ITSMl (SuBBil. I. ny^rrme. rmmnr, D« E|N«ninniat% ia bit O^tra. Awt 11091 <bL— C. 0. tentfar, Hkt ftMV
6r. tmviorta, ab Ama, m^ ab Mataf. m AtHUL Or. aiusAialk Up*. \im.-Sd£tt, bk.iii.ck.M.bk.iv. ckSL hk.
vkdkm

% 35 U Anlholope: The Greek Anthologies {Blum«nU»en) are collections of small
poems, chiefly epigrams, of various authors. Many of the pieces are remarkable for
their beauty and sunpiidty in (housht and their peculiar turna of expression. These
eollections began to be compiled ourinff the decline of Greek literature. Several of
these collections were made before the rail of Carthajge, but seem to have been formed
with more reference to the historical value of the inscriptions than to their poetical
merit. The collection of Polemo Feriegetes was of this early class, which are entirely
lost. Next to these, the first of which we have an^ knowledge was made by Mileager
of Gadara in Svria, B. C. nearly 100. It was entitled "Lrk^M;^ the crown or garland,
and contained the better pieces of forty-six poets, arranged alphabetically. Tm next
was by Fhilippus of Thessalonica, in the time of Trsjan, with the same arrangement
A little after, under Hadrian, about A. D. 120, a collection of choice pieces was formed
by Dioffenianus of Heracl&i. About one hundred vears later, Diogenes Laertitis
gathered a body of epigrams composed in honor of illustrious men ; from the variety
of meters in them, it was styled na/^frp»r. In the second or third century, Strato of
Sardis published a compilation including most of the poets embraced in the antholo^v
of Meleager, and some of those embraced in the work of Philippus, together with
several others. It was entitled niiiitti MoSra. But that which may be considered as
the third Anthology was published in the sixth centurjr by Agathias of Mvrina, who
has already been named as one of the more eminent epigrammatists after the time of
Constantino. This bore the title of K6rXoc, and consisted of seven books, into which
the pieces were distributed according to their subjects. In the tenth century a fourth
eollection was made by Constantino Crphalat, of whom nothing else is known. In

Creptaringit he made use of the preceding compilations, especially that of Agathias.
ut inserted also pieces of ancient authors not introduced in tnem. The epigrams ana
other pieces are arranged according to subjects, in fifteen sections. Finally, in the
fourteenth century, Maximus Pfan«des, a monk of Constantinople, the same who col-
lected the fables of ^sop, formed a fifth Anthology. Planudes arranged the pieces
included in his collection in seven distinct books.

The two last mentioned, that of Cephalas and that of Planudes, are the only Antho-
logies now extant. That of Planudes was first printed in 1494, and the collection of
Cephalas was, after that, almost entirely forgotten. In 1606, a mantiscript copy of
Cephalas was found by Claude Saumaise (Claudius Salmasiua), in the library at
Heidelberg.

or Iha Aatbohcy of Pl«and« fba followlag an tba priadpal adlliaw t-Anr. A(mim {Bmr. SKptomv). ftr. IML 4^
ITadkil, rraakf. I«»L M.~Aa aditioa at Ifaplai, 17M. 6 vehi 4. with an Ilaitu tfaadaliMk~.Arwiw dt Jtadk, UtrMM. im-flB.
S ffob. 4. wiib a tiaatlatiea ia Lalia tcim bj avgo Qn**^ ud a rapfdaoMBt eoalalnlaff addMloaal pieea ; Oi AMdb adAii a «lk
voLoTNolaa by hiaooalf aal Clayd. aUMihas a ttb waa pabUdwft hj D. J, Van Lmmp^ 1 VS. (« balla at boBM aiklaa."
AMU.)

Tba Oaoawrj of tba mamNcripl copr of Cqibalai caciled araeb ialcNii ia Iha lltaiwy worid. 8«1anaaiia aMda pfnparatioaa Itar
pvUitbiag aa adilioa, bol dl«d wlfbant teviBK aecomplwbad Iba work ; faavii^c dalajed It fien ceatrianlinai icraplaa, ai ■ «M,
aboatpablabi^MMMor tba aaMtarypiaeab After bk d«lh,/. Pk.fOrwUt amagad la prapariair iar aa aditioa of Cafibalaai
bMtealMdladwiibaai«flbelh«il,aadbii|»pani>aaMdlathaUbnnrMLqpd0ik Soaa portiaMor ttawMkoT Ovbataaws

F. T. POKTRY. DRAMATIC. TRAGEDY. 457

paUbhel, in lb* bmb time, by /. JetutuM, »t RirttanUm, 1742, and /. H. ImA, at Ltipne, 174$. Bat anar JyOrvOb, (Im mat
prindiMl hbor npoa Ibia Anthotocy wa* by J. J. JbMc, who pabtishad hbirorlt andar tba tilla AntMoeim fr. a C CaphaU coo*
djte libri liL kc Lipa. 1754. R. Thia wai rapnblidwd, wiib a Talnabla prafaee, by 7Am. Warttn^ Ott 1786. S vob. 12. aalake
havlac dadinad adtUnf iha inpora piaeaa which ceosHtaied the iSib Metifln of Ccphalai^ tb^ won pnblidml bj CJ^, Ad. JOettt
vaim the lilla Slmfontt alianunqaa vat poat. gr. apiruuMta ad. Aitsub. 1T64. &

AnoracMiplalaeoUaetioaorGraak apifiuaa and hmU poam ia fomid In Jmnek, Aadaeta vatanm podaram Qnaooran.
AifaoL ad adil. 1785 8 vola^ 8L Eadi pieoa ia placed nadar tba naiM oT iha author to whom it ia aacribed.— A naw adidea waa
anarwarda poblidiad bj Frtd. /oeote, Aalholocia Gneea, aiva poetanim grccoram iuiaa, ex recemioBa BraodUi. Ufg. ITiM. 18
Tola, 8{ the firat 4 vola. contain the text, bmn eoneet ; the 6th craaisia of varioaa Ubiea and referaacca; tba remaininK 8 coatoin
a vdaablo eommeDlary by JkMote.— By tht mam, Anlbologia Onaea, ad fld«m cod. olim PUatiai nunc Pariiini, ex apafrapho Oo-
thaoo edila, curavit, epigTanuDala in cod. Fal. dcaideiata at aasolaL critic, adjeeil f. Jaeelm. Lipa. I81&-17. S Toia. & (*• un corpa
oomplet del epicrammca iracqaai raatant da faotiqaite." SeATU.)— The text of this edition ia followed in the ateraotype adilioo oT
T»ueknat. Lipa. 1819i 8 vola. 18mo.— There are mailer oolleetiona: by^. F. Kamtt, Haile, 1799. 8; d. fTcidtcn, Mainao.
1888. 8; MdaacerH Sinegedicbte [episrama), by Muuo, Jana, 1788^ 8; and by OrO/a, Lalpc. 1811. 8— There an Enfliah
tramlatkna of tone of the picoaa, by Bobtrt Bland and otban, Celleelioaa from the Oreok Anthdogy, compriilBg the fragmeola
of early lyric poetry, with ipeeimena of all the poato Indnded in MOtagar'i Garland. Lend. 1888. Reviewed in JOaekwoeft
Mag. June, l83aL~Al80 by JV. ffoy, in AndhimPa Mag. vd. 88. p. 79l and vd. 4fl^ ^ 874,m.-Tbei« are taatchi tiBMialieM
Into Gennaa oT tome of the moat beaotird piceaa in Btrdart Zeratreate BUtter. OoliM, 178B. 8 ; aevenl atao in Tempe (by F.
JiMote). Ldpi. 1808. a vda. 8.-Ct Edinb. Rn. voL ir^Lond. Quart. Jim. x. I99i

For aceaimta oT Anthdcgica, kc, aaa SckCU, Uiat Litt Gr. bk. vL ch. 61. bk. vi. ch. 7a.~lViAniiaim, Kleinerm Handbiich, Ac
p. 8S, 474.-&*nd<far, Analeda critki, Faac. 1.—F. Jacob; Fid^omaoa, In hia JtOM. Omc Lipa. 1794, u.—Barla, Inlnd.
in Bial. I. G. Prdcf. vd. L p. 91.

^ 36. (Z) Dramaiic Poetry. Dramatic poetry took its rise from the religious ceremo-
nies of the Greeks. It was an essential part of the public worship of the gods, espe-
cially of Bacchus at Athens, that there snould be choirs composed of a sort of actors,
who should, with dancing, singing, and instrumental music, represent some story
relating to the divinity worshiped.

Herodotus states, that the people of Sicyon thus represented by actors the adventures
of Adrastus, whom they honored as a god, and although referring to a period anterior
to the existence of dramatic poetry, he calls these choirs of actors tragic^ because they
represented the sufferings (irddca) of Adrastus. Suidas and Photius mention Epigenes
the Sicyonian as the inventor of tragedy. Themistius asserts expressly, that tragedy
was invented by the Sicvonians, and perfected by the Athenians. — The father of history
also states, that when the inhabitants of .£gina took away from the Epidaurians the
statues of two national divinities of the latter, and erected them in their own island,
they instituted in honor of the same, choirs of females under the direction of a male
leaaer, in imitation of the Epidaurians. These choirs, in the worship rendered to the
divinities, performed what might, by an anachronism similar to the other just mentioned,
be called comic dramas.

At Athens, as has been intimated, there were choirs like those of Sicyon and .Sgina,
that performed a part in the festivals of Bacchus. Sometimes representing, by their
dances, songs, and gestures, the expeditions of Bacchus and other events of his life ;
sometimes yielding to the intoxication that accompanies the pleasures of the vintage,
they constantly vaunted the praises of the god, to whom they were indebted for the vine.
These performances were conducted with a high degree of licentiousness both in lan-
guage and in action.

In these performances the drama had its origin. Probably at first they did not in-
clude what is now understood either by aclion or by fable. The songs employed were
lyric in their nature. Those suns by the choirs of Sicyon and .£gina were lyric, but
of a tragic or comic character. But at length it began to be a custom to interrupt the
song of the choir by the representation of some scene or action, which was called ipSfia
or tnttcdiiovf that is, something acted or something brottght in. The murder of Bacchus
or Osiris by Typhon was, it is likely, one of the most common subjects thus repre-
sented. But subjects of a grotesque character would also be natural, from the great
license attending the Dionysiac festivals. Gradually, and from causes of which tra-
dition preserves no account, three distinct kinds or varieties of representation arose ;
and these laid the foundation of the three branches of the Greek drama, viz. tragedy,
comedy, and satire.

Ob the iBteraat taken at Aihena in dramntie ahlbHbwa, ef. P. IlL { 9a— The qneatioa whether wonan ware ndnUtted to aoch
MhlWttona in Greene ia diacoand by BCUttir, Kldne Schrinen, M collected by aiUit, *d. L p. 288.

$ 37. (1) Tragedy. The etymology of the word tragedy is uncertam ; perhaps it
was derived from the circumstance tnat a goat (rpdyo^) was the prize received by the
conqueror. Tragedy was an improvement upon the chorus of the Bacchian festivals,
and for a long time retained marks of its origin ; having taken its rise, beyond question,
from the songs at these annual festivals of the god of dissipation, when the poet who
furnished the most popular piece was rewarded with a goat, or perhaps a goat-tkin of
wine. The chorus was a principal and essential part of the tragedy; it was lyric in
structure, and like other lyric poems usually presented the regular division of strophe,
antlstrophe, and epode. In tragedy the chorus was charged with the exposition of the
fable ; it praised the gods and justified them against the complaints of the suffering and
58 3Q

458 HISTORY 07 GREEK LITERATURE.

the unhappy ; it sought to soothe the excited passions and to impart lessons of wisdoni
aiid experience, and in general to suggest useful practical reflections.

The ekortu usually nerer quitted the staxe, but remained during the whole performaDce.
Their presence was indispensable, because the traifedy was not as among tiie moderns dii-lded
Into acts ; ft served also to preserve the unity of ibe piece. The chorus was usually composed
of men of advanced age and experience, or of young virgins of uneontaminated minds. The
number of xoprvrai was at first quite large ; in the Eumenides of ^scbylus it consisted of
fiAy ; but after the represenution of that piece, it was limited to fifteen. It was divided Into
two portions, each having its chief or bead, styled iropv^atoc. When united they were Jointly
under the direction of a leader styled xopny^i^' lita&xppoi. When they look part in the dialogue,
it was done by tbe Ooryphcus or leader. The portion strictly lyrical was sung by the whole
chorus together, accompanied by the flute. When the chorus moved, it was in the orcktstn
i^PXftarpa) ; when still, they occupied the thymele (3iifilXi)),a sort of altar placed in the orch<*s-
tra, whence as spectators they could look upon all that transpired on the stage. In singing the
part termed the atropluy the chorus moved in a sort of dance across tbe orchestra from right to
left : and back from left to right, while uttering tbe antUtropke ; in the tpods, they stood in front
of the audience. Tragedy had its appropriate kind of dance, termed iitiiCXtia ; that of comedy
was called K6p6a^; and that of satire, afirlyl'(^ The chorus was instructed in performing its
part frequently by the poet himself. (Cf. P. IV. $ 06.) The expense of preparing and furnishing a
chorus (or an exhibition was often very great ; it was deft-ayed by individuals (xofinyoi) desig-
nated by the civil authorities. iPotttr^M Arch. Gnee. bk. i. ch. zv.)

SdkSB, Hirt. Litl. Or. I)k. ill. eb. xi.— LonA Qudjf . Jbo. Sept ISA p. 9lft.-0ii Ui« Import of tfa* cbmv, SbJUcfri^ DviML
Lit. laet. Ui—flivcn, Um d« dnri tnf. Grae. nttoa. Oott I78A. 4.— npn, Cbonu Onec qualta fncrit, *e. Ert in?. 8r-
Fmtry, On Ibe tnfie ehom in tha Mun. Aood. Intr. viii. I B9.— JVanJkNn, Dl«. on lb* Tnfedy of tba aneiniti. Load. I7a.-0B

tb» BMic of Um ebora ; /. N. Fcrktlt AUf. OHck. dtr Mutlk. Ct. C. Bmmannt D« DiMribatioM pavsunm ialw bMrioM

hib. 1841. &

^ 38. Thespis, of Icarus (a ward of Attica), contemporary with Solon and Pisistratos,
is regarded as the inventor of tragedy. Much obscurity rests on the changes, which
were introduced by this poet, as the work of the peripatetic Chameleon ot Heraclea,
which treated of the subject, is lost. His first innovauon appears to have been in rela-
tion to the chorus. Before Thespis, its actors were masked as Satyrs, and indulged in
the most licentious freedom in amusing their auditors ; he assigned them a more decent
part. He also introduced an actor whose recitals allowed intervals of rest to the chorus.
Other events beside,s the exploits of Bacchus were likewise made the subject of repre-
sentation. But Solon prohibited the exhibition of his trafediea as being useless fabrica-
tions. The performances of Thespis were no doubt rude. The stage is said to have
been a cart, the chorus a troop of itinerant singers, the actor a sort of mimic, and the
poem itself a motley combination of the serious and trifling, the ludicrous and the pa-
thetic.— After twenty-five years, the prohibition was removed by Pisistratus, and Thes-
pis reappeared with new glory. It was now, 537 B. C. according to the Parian
marble, that he gained the prize in a tragic contest.

Saidu gimi tb« tillci ct four tn^wUM at (bk poet Thrra reoniD two fnfmenti of dovblM lalhoritr, citod bj Otmam
AlanndriBiu (Stron. ▼.) and Flatucb (Do audioidii portb), and a tblrd fonad in Mliiz Oib. vii. IS).

Phrynicus, of Athens, is the next name in the history of tragedy. He was a disciple
of Thespis, and introduced some changes, particularly the use of tne female mask. He
employed, however, but one actor besides the chorus ; yet this actor represented different
persons, by changing the dress and masks. He was the author of a tragedy, which
Themistocles caused to be exhibited with great magnificence, and which bore away
the prize. The memory of its success was perpetuated by an inscription. — The first
author, whose tragedies are cited aa having been committed to writin|[, was Chcerilus
of Athens, about 500 B. C. It was from regard to him that the Athenians constructed
their first theatre. The ancients attribute to him 150 pieces, all lost. He is to be
distinguished from Choerilus of Samos (cf. ^ 19), and from Choerilus of lasus, the con-
temporary of Alexander.

^ 39. The real fiither of tragedy was JEsdiyluM of Eleusis, who flourished in the time
of the Persian war, and fought in the battlea of Marathon, Salamis, and Platsa.
Before him, the fable formed but a secondary part, the episode of tragedy ; he made it
tbe principal part, by adding a second actor and speaker, and thus introducing a dia-
logue in which the chorus did not always take a share. Sophocles of Athens, a con-
temporary of iSschylus but 27 or 28 years younger, added a third speaker and some-
times even a fourth. Thus the importance of the chorus was diminished, and the
dialogue engrossed the chief interest of the plajr. Under Sophocles, Greek tragedy
received its final and perfect form. A third distinguished tragic writer, contemporary
with the two just named, was Euripides, bom 16 or 17 years later than Sophocles.
Euripides added nothing to tragedy in respect to the external structure ; but in tragic
interest he excelled both his precursors. The productions of these three authors were
regarded by the Athenians as monuments of national glory. The orator Lycurgus
procured the enactment of a law, directing that an accurate and authentic copy of the
tragedies of ^snhylus, Sophocles, and Euripides should be deposited in the archives
of the. state, under the care of the magistral e called ypaufiare^ ri irfiXcas-. This copy, it
is said, was obtained by Ptolemy the Third, the eon ana successor of Philadelphus kin«f
of Egypt, on a pledge of 15 talents, for the purpose of correcting by it the copies in use

F. V. COMEDY. 469

at Alexandria ; he chose to forfeit the money and retain the original manuscript, sending
back to Athens a copy in its stead.

SiNBt te«« czpreaMd doabto wbclber w« powi tb* aact productiooi of lb« podi abore mentiaiied, ■• thej eune tn/m (btir
fotile imctntioak Cometioni and addiliow may hav* bwD mad* bj perwiu called itacKtvdvTa*. Thow of JEaAylua art
Hid to have bean ratanebed bjr Bloa, Bapborioiif and Pbiloclaa ; tboaa of Bopbodei, bf hia ioih lophoo and Aritloo ; and thoaa
of Eartpidci, by Cophiaophoraa.— — Son Jug. JiccU, Grae. Tn«tedfaB priaeipUB JSaehyli, Sophodia, fittripalia, num ea que anpor*
aut at ctMiM oowia tiat M fionaa primttiva lemU, ke. Heidelb. I80B. 8.

The history of tragedy in Greece, so far as it is chiefly important, is comparatively
brief, ^schylus, as has been stated, ^was its real author, and its history included but
two other names of any distinction ; Sophocles and Euripides complete tne list. These
were nearly contemporary, .ffischylus, at the age of 45 fought at the battle of Sala-
mis ; Euripides was bom at that place on the very dav of the battle ; and Sophocles,
the same or the next year, being 16 or 17 years old, fed the choir of singers and dan-
cers around the trophy erected to commemorate the same battle. Of their writings
only about 30 nlays remain to us. But their reputation rests on a basis more sohd than
the quantity ol what they produced or time has spared.

Peibapa, bowarer, Uw playi now estaat ara ?alaed the nor* because ibey are ao few, beinf eooiidcrad, n It were, ihe aviop
of a Taat wreck. There waa a rich abuadaoea of drvmatie workt among the Gmka. Pieeea ooce nbibiled were Kldoaa afaia
bnw|bt forward, aad thia eircuaistanoa may have incieaaed their number. Aulbora cite at leaat two hundred trafedin of the firat
order, and five hundred of the second ; and the Dumber of lufanor merit ia atill greater.— See Wctf k. BuUmanrit Muaeuai der

!,TOl.U

^ 40. Besides the three eminent tragic poets, the grammarians of Alexandria placed
in their canon three others, viz. Ion of Chios, Aclisus of Eretria, and Agatho of
Athens, nearly contemporary with the three whose names are so illustrious. Only a
few fragments of their works remain ; they may be found in the collection of Grotius
(of. ^ 43). The names of above twenty others are recorded as writers of tragedies
before the time of Alexander ; but none of them are eminent, and nothing remams of
their works but disconnected fraements. Amons them are Euphorion and Bion, sons
of ^schylus, and lophon, sou of Sophocles. We find also in the catalogue, Critias
and Theognis, two of the famous thirty tyrants.

In the period between Alexander and the capture of Corinth, there were a few tragic
writers, whom the critics of Alexandria ranked in their second canon, the first includ-
ing the masters who wrote before the death of Alexander. Their second canon,
called the tragic Pleiades^ included seven poets, who lived in the times of the first
Ptolemies. They were Alexander of .£tolia, Philiscus of Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer
the younger, iEantides, Sosiphanes, and Lycophron. The first of these has been
named among the elegiac, and the last among the lyric poets. The trifling fragments
of these writers, now extant, are found in the collections of Frobenius (cf ^ 31) and
Grotius. Another poet, Timon, who for a while taught philosophy at Chalcedon, is
said to have composed sixty tragedies. — Ptolemy PhiTadelphus, in order to encourage
the dramatic art, established theatrical contests like those at Athens. But the pro-
ductions of the poets at Alexandria fell far short of those of Athens in the preceding
period. The tragedies were rather works for the cabinet than for the theatre, adapted
for the amusement of princes and courtiers, or the inspection of cold critics, rather
than for popular exhibition. They were productions of sublety and artifice, but com-
paratively uninteresting and lifeless. — After what is termed the Alexandrine age,
nothing was produced m Greek tragedy.

On the origin of Tragedy ; Seknadir, Oe origin, tng. Or. Vrttial. 1817. &— FoAry, Recharehea nr IVrig. et le prog, de la TVa
gedje, in Mnm. dt PJead. tome iviil. zn. it. p. 856 ; xix. p. 219, of Fkrb •A.—Dr. BtAir'$ Lect sW.— KSannonlal, Poet tome ii
—Bnmwy^ Diw aor Terig. de la Trag. praf. to Thtatn dta Ona — JticA. ifenUiy, Reap, ad C. Boyle (Opuab PhiloL).

On the hiitory aad character of Or. Traiedy ; /of. Bama, Tract, de Trag. Vet. Gree. fce., la bia ad. 0/ Ao^itfa* — £4 Amis
Dca Tragk)Qca Gr., ia Mem. dt PJead. xnv —J. J. B. Nktty 0I». ia rem trag. Qrae. Stnttg. 177a— AvOcfamy, AoacbaiM,
ch. Izlx.-lni.-wt. Jugrni, De la Trag. Or. ke. hr. IIVL—M. Paiirtj Etudei tur lea tragiqaea Or. on EnaMa eritiqoe d'EMbyle.
deSophode, at d*Eanpi<k; prieMe d*ane hialoire gta^rale de ia tiaftedie Orecqoe. hr. IU2. S vola. t^-Orvpp^t Ariadne, ei
* the Tragical Art of the Gmkf ia daicribed at "an importaat work."— JSninuy, Theatre dei Oreo, ad. Bamd-RoiAeUt. Par.
1800, ■. Coatainiiv Preacb traadatioai from the Oraek dramatiata. Cf. Atimoy, Gk. Theat traod. into Eng. by Mia. Lmnac
Loud. 1750. A.-ae/iltftPt Leetnrca on Dianat Ut (tr. by Kaek). Lond. 18IS. Ct lAmd. Quart. Rn. xii. 121, u^Thtatu
•/ (Ac OnOa; or the Biatory, Literatnra, aad Critidam of tlie Oreciaa Drama. Cambr. 183a &- &A1II, Hial. Lilt. Gr. bk. UL
ch. zi.— Cr. BiU. lUpotUmy, No. zviiL p. ATS^TUfaurd't I oa baa been pnmouaeed a aacoanfnl haitatkMi of the Greek tragedy.
CL IfortK Jnur. fin. April, 1837.

^ 41. (2) Comedy. Epicharmus of Cos, who was a professor of the Pythagorean
philosophy at the court of Hiero, in Sicily, about 470 B. C, is usually considered as
the first writer of comedy. The species cultivated by him is called Sicilian comedy,
which the ancient writers distinguished from the Auie comedy. — Fifty comedies are
ascribed to him, but the fra^fments preserved (cf. the collection of ifcrteZ. cited ^43),
scarcely enable us to judge of their character. Phormis, of Syracuse, was another
writer m the same species. The pieces of Epicharmus are said to have been known
and admired especially by the Athenians, and to have given a great impulse to the cul-
tivation of comedy among that people. {BartheJemy^ b Anachareis, ch. Ixix.)

SchdU gives thi following account of the origin of Attic comedy. "Between Trs-

460 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

gedy and Comedy in modern literature there is such an analogy that they are juFtIv
regarded as two species of the same genus. From this it has been imagined, that both
had the same origm among the ancients. But it is not so. Tragedy grew out of the
eonffs with which the cities of Greece celebrated the festivals of Bacchus. Comedy,
on the other hand, look its origin in the country. The wards or boroughs i^fifioi) of
Attica were accustomed to unite in singing the phallic songs {(paXXueh), in which the
moat unrestrained hcentiousness was aUowed. 'I'he performers, drawn in cars, pro*
ceeded from borough to borough ; their numbers increased at every station ; and they
strolled about the country until their excesses forced them to seek repose. Hence
comedy derived its name from wu/u}, a village. The two species of drama followed in
their progress a different course. They were for a long time strangers to each other,
and it was not till a late period that comedy adopted the improvements embraced by
her sister. At length, however, the chorus, which had played the principal pan, as in
tragedy, lost its primitive importance, and it finally happened that comedy appeared on
the stage without this accompaniment."

Susarion of Megara, about 570 B. C, is described as traversing the territory of At-
tica with an exhibition of these burlesque pieces, which constituted the beginnings of
comedy. Crates, about 500 B. C, is said to have given to them a more complete and
perfect form. From this time tragedy was not the only representation attending the
festivals of Bacchus ; comedy was associated with it as a novel spectacle.

Mythology furnished but few of the subjects of corned v, in the character which it
first assumed after ita introduction from the country to the city. It was a complete
contrast to tragedy. Passing events, the poliiics of the day, the characters and deeds
of leading chiefs, the civil and military omcers, and in short every thing pertaining to

fublic or private affairs, entered into the materials, with which it amused the hearera.
t was therefore obviously liable to great abuse. No citizen could be secure from
attacks, which were not made by mere allusion, but more frequently by naming the
person and portraving his features upon the mask of the actor. It is this use of^per-
•onal satire, which essentially characterizes what is called the old comedy.

The grammarians of Alexandria have ranked, as belonging to the old comedy, six
poets; viz. Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, Pherecrates, and Plato,
called the comic, to ditfinguish mm from the philoeopher. The first has already been
spoken of. Aristophanes is tne only one ot the rest of whom we have any whole
pieces extant. The fragments of the others may be found in the collection of Grotios
(cited ^ 43). The plays of Aristophanes justify and illustrate the character above
ascribed to the old comedy. Besides these six poets, more than twenty othera are
recorded as authors in this kind of comedy, of several of whom trifling fragments are
preserved.

Sm p. F. Kmmgkmr, Dia alto KemiMlw BQbM is Athm. BmUv, lUT. a-^fli^y, U vWO* ooowiic, Jfan. Jkad, tav.

SZL84S.

^ 42. The old comedy continued until the time of the Thirty, when, B. C. 404, a
law was enacted which prohibited the use of livini; characters and r^al names, and also
of the irapaSouTtf of' the chorus. This gave rise to what is called the middle comedy. All
that we know historically of this, is from the remarks of an ancient grammarian by
the name of Platonius (cf. Hertel^ cited ^ 43). But there is one piece of Aristophanes,
the nXofiTWf , which is a specimen of the kind ; it was not represented until after the
law abolishing the old form. The chief peculiarity is the exclusion of personal satire.
It seems also to have consisted in a considerable degree of parodies. — The grammarians
of Alexandria regarded two authors in the middle comedy as classic ; viz. Antiphanes
of Rhodes and Alexis of Thurii. No more than insignificant scraps are left of the 360
pieces ascribed to the former, or the 145 of the latter. There were between thirtv
and forty other writere whose names are preserved, with the titles of some of their
comedies.

The cnmie chorus concbted of twenty-four members, even after the traffic was limited to fif-
teen. There were other points of difference. **It frequently happens that 'there are leverai
chorusei in (he same comedy, who at one time all sing torether, and in oppneiic positlnna, and
at other timet change with, and auccepd each nther without any general reference. The moat
remarkable peculiarity, however, of the comic chnnia is the poroAuu, an addreai to the specu-
tora by the chorua, in the name and under the authority of the poet, which haa no concern with
the subject of the piece. Sometimes he enlarges on his own merits, and ridicules the pretensiona
of his rivals; at other times he avails himself of his rights as an Athenian citizen to deliver pro-
posals of a serious or ludicrous nature for the public good. The parabaais may be considered as
repugnant to the essence of dramatic representation. All traffuuil impressions are by such inter-
mixtures infallibly destroyed; but these intentional interruptions, though even more seriotta
than the subject of the representation, are hailed with welcome in the comic tone.*'

MOtgA, on Drun. Lit leet Ti.-4w alio SekfJU Hist. Lift. Or. bk. til eh. xiil. on (he parti of the eonue cborni, uttgi^ami,
hrt^^fM, A¥T$wtpfiiikU, hA.—U Beau, tur le Plulw d'Arvtoph. rt nr Ici cumderai tmiguet » la eoimriw moyomi, ia ths
ittm.de Plead. duhuer.0tBaki£Mtn$,U»utuat.

^ 43. The neto comedy belongs wholly to the Alexandrian period of Greek literature.
in this the chorus wholly disappeared, havingr been deprived of its most important
functions by the change from the old to the middle. The new comedy instead of in-

p. T. 8ATTRE. 461

dulging in personal satire with the use of real names like the old, or turning into ludi-
crous parodies the verses and themes of other poets like the middle, aimed more to
pfunt manners. '* The new comedv,*' says Schlegel, "is a mixture of seriousness and
mirth. I'he poet no longer himself turns poetry and the world into ridicule ; he no
longer gives himself up to a sportive and frolicsome inspiration, hut endeavors to dis-
cover what is ridiculous in the objects themselves ; in human characters and situations
ha paints that which occasions mirth."

The most celebrated writer in the new comedy was Menander, whose pieces are

3 token of by the ancients with great admiration, and their loss is much regretted,
e began to write at the age of twentjr, and is said to have composed a hundred plays.
Besides Mrnnnder, the Alexandrian critics recognize four others as possessing classical
merit, Philippides. Diphilus. Philemon and Apollodorus. Several other names are
also recorded, which it is of no importance to repeat.

Although the plays belonginf^ to the new comedy were very numerous, amounting
it is said to some thousands, nut a single original specimen is preserved. We have,
however, several imiintioiis or translations in the Roman authors Plautusand Terence.

Od Comrdf gpuenlty ; P. U Bnm, H'we. vxr la Cnmedk, he. Far. 1731.— £NJhCRtur|*t Eatworl— /TunPi ComBirnl. on Ep.
Bor. Lend. 1757, \',M.—M. it CaHhasa, l)e I'AH de ia Comedie Par. ITTZ. 4 volv &— B. BuMn^ Kmtj ob Comedv. Loud.

ITH. & On ttw Gr. Cnoiedf; SeUtgtl^ IjkX. oo Dninal. iM^^Bnimey, Dhe. mar h Com. Or. la bli Tbatre da Oreo.—

ThBOtn of lAc OrvlM, ciM ( 40 — Fatry, Rerherch. nir itor. at ka pro(. d* U Com. Or. ia Man. dt FAtad. T. ut. foL x*i. p. SBB.
of Fv. ti.—rtdgtTt GoKhKhle d. kom. Literalar.

For the fnimanti of Ibe eoaiic po«la ; Jme. HtrtO, Vefurfia. npienltn. eomleor. Qtiiaqvagiote SealcBtte. Baa. ISSa Briz. I6l2.
—Bun. Stf^anut, Cnaiieor. Graee. Seat Fnnkf. 1579 h.'-H. OndiuM, Escarp, n Tng. ot Com. Or. Pkr. 1628. 4.— </. CUri-
Mtt (La CIcre), Meoaiidri et Pbileinooia fngm. Aim 1709. &

^ 44. (3) Satyre* The following account of the satyric drama is given by Barthelemy.
" After having traced the progress of tragedy and comedy, it remains to speak of a
species of drama, which unites the pleasantry of the latter, to the gravitjr of the former.
This, in like manner, derives its origin from the festivals of Bacchus, in which cho-
ruses of Sileni and Satyrs intermingled jests and raillery with the hvmns they sang m
honor of that god. The success they met with gave the first idea of the satync dranr^a,
a kind of poem in which the most serious subjects are treated in a manner at once
affecting and comic. It is distinguished from tragedy by the kind of personages it ad-
mits ; by the catastrophe, which is never calamitous ; and by the strokes of pleasantry,
bon-mots, and buffooneries, which constitute its principal merit. It differs from comedy
by the nature of the subject, by the air of dignity which reigns in some of the scenes,
and the attention with which it avoids all personalities. It is distinct from both the
traffic and comic dramas by rhythms which are peculiar to it, by the simplicity of itfs
fable, and by the limits prescribed to the duration of its action ; for the satyre is a kind
of entertainment, which is performed after the tragedies, as a relaxation to the specta-
tors. The scene presents to view groves, mountains, grottoes, and landscapes ofevery
kind. The personages of the chorus, disused under the grotesque forms attributed
to the satyrs, sometimes execute lively dunces with frequent leaps, and sometimes
discourse in dialogue, or sing, with the gods or heroes, and from the diversity of
thoughts, sentiments, and expressions, results a striking and singular contrast.'*

** The satyrical drama,'* says Schlegel, '* never possessed an independent existence;
and it was given aa an appendage to several tragedies, and from all we can coniecture
was always considerably shorter. In external form it resembled tragedy, and the ma-
terials were in like manner mythological. The distinctive mark was a chorus eon<-
sitting of satyrs, who accompanied the adventures of the fable with lively songs,
gestures, and movements. The immediate cause of this species of drama was derived
trom the festivals of Bacchus, where satyr-masks were a common disguise. As the
chorus was thus composed of satyrs, and they performed the peculiar dances alluded
toivucivvti or ffiKunut), it was not a matter of indifference where the poet should place the
scene of his fable ; the scene must be where such a choir might naturally, according
to Grecian fancy, display itself; not in cities or palaces, but in a forest, a mountain, a
retired valley, or on the sea-shore."

The peat tra^c authors, .^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, each distinguished
themselves by pieces of this kind. Several other writers in the same age are men
tioned, as Pratinas, Aristias, Xenocles, and Philoxenes. But the most distinguished
of all, in the satyric drama, were Achceus of Erctia, and Hegemon of Thasus.

**The latter added a new charm to the satyric drama," nays Barthelemy, **by parodying seve
ral well known tragedies. The artifice and neatnens with which he executed theae parodies,
rendered his pieces greatly applauded, and frpqiiently procured them the crown. During the
representation of his Oirantomaehia, and while the whole audience were in a violent fit of
lanirhter. news arrived or the defeat of the army in Sicily. Hegemon proposed to break off the
piece abruptly: but the Athenians, witliout removing from their places, covered themselves
with their cloaks, and after having paid the tribute of a few tears to their relatives who had
fhllen In the battle, listened with the same attention as before to the remainder of the entertain*
menl."

The Cyclops of Euripides Is the only drama of this species that has come down to as. Its
subject is drawn fyom Homer's Odyssey ; it Is Ulysses depriving Polyphemus of his eye, after
having made him drunk with wine. In order to connect with this a chorus of satyrs, the poet

2q2

402 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERAITRE.

raiiresenta Silenns and his ions the RBtyri at seeking^ hrer erery aea for Bacchni carried away
by pirates. In the search, they are wreclced upon the shores of Sicily, enslaved by Cyclops, and
forced to tend his sheep. When Ulysnes is cast upon the same shore, they Ipapne with hioi
nfrainst their master; but their cowardice renders them very poor assistants to him, while ihcy
take advantage of his victory and escape from the island, by embarking with him. The piece
derives Its chief value from its rarity, and being the only specimen Irom which we can form an
estimate of the species of composition to which It belongs.

Camdxm, da niyna GnBOoram poaL Halit, 1770. 8.»lf. C. A EtduUtdt, De Dnun. Grcc. ComiOhSatjrlco. Lips- I7B3. t.
— Awnwy, Due. mr le Cydop* dXuripide, kc. in bit Tbwtr* da Grwb— /. H. BuMt, dc FsbuU Salyr. Gtae. GOtL 1787. 4.—
AOmt^ Alig. ThBoria, Satin.

^ 45. It is important not to confound these satjrrical compositions of the Greeks,
which have now been described, with the satire of the Romans, which was totally
different in its nature.

It may be remarked, however, here, that the Greeks had satire in various forms both
in poetry and prose. The Margites of Homer may be considered as a sort of epic satire.
Ot lyric satire {or iambic as it may be called, from the verse generally used), a few frag-
ments remain from different authors. Archilochus is one ot' them. Another was Si«
monides of Nimoa in the island of Amor^os, author of a satire upon women. We may
add the name of Hipponax {Hor. Ep. vi. 12), who employed, perhaps invented, the
Choliambic verse (xtaXiafifioi^ ^an0o( (r<ni^(.>r), as best adapted to satirical purposes.

Here also may be mentioned the poems called ZtXXoc ; for they were a kind of satire.
They have been called by some didactic satire, as they seem to have ridiculed espe-
cially the pretensions of ignorance. They were a sort of parody, in which the verses
of distinguished poets, Homer particularly, were applied in a ludicrous manner to the
object of the satire. Xenophanes of Colophon is regarded as the first author of this
species. Yet the only writer, of whom it is certain that he composed ScXXoi, is Timon
of Phlius, the skeptic ohilosopher already named (^ 40) as a dramatist. His satires
formed three books, ana were very caustic. A few fragments are extant. He enjoyed
a high reputation with the ancients, and Atheneus slates that commentaries were
written upon his ZAXoi. I'his is not the place to speak of the prose satire of the Greeks,
but it may be remarked that the principal writers were Lucian and the emperor JuliazL

Le Asu, on HonerHi MargUa, Id (he Mrm. A PJteaS. da fntet. lorn. xxiz. nx 4to erilt.— £ L. D. Buda, Vmodi Obw «l«
Vo^iewle dn JrckOeckut urn dia Salira. Zerbal. 1767. 8.— Tlie fraffaieuU oT HippoMi wan publiibed bjr TUa^h. Fr. mUmr,
Go(L 1817. 4.-Tb(Ma of SimoBldaa, aiao by nVcktr. Bonn. 183ft. 8.--b. Hdnr. LanfhtinHeH, de TioiOM amognpfas. Up*. rra»-
21. A.—8ulter*t Allf. Theor. art. Saiir*.-aeMUl, Hiat. Or. Lit. bk. iv. eh. U.—Pr. fVlki, De Oneeenai Silth. VanaviiB, I8ia 8.
—Fnd. Paui, it Sillb Gmeoniaa. Serol. IS2I. 8.-SBai<r, Orig. at canct da la Paiodia, in Iha Jfam. Aead. Inter, vii. a8&—
Tba fngnanf* e»7 ba found io BnmAH AoalaeU. Of. § 38.

^ 46. Besides the three regular varieties of the drama already described, the Greeks
had a ^reat number of performances which were of the nature o( farcea. At festal
entertainments buffoons were often introduced, whose pantomime was mingled with
extemporary dialogue (aim>ira/7oaXai). In the theatre, ludicrous and indelicate represen-
tations were made by actors called ntftot. Pieces of this sort were termed \vcitM or
nayuiat. No specimen of them is preserved.

The name oi mimes (jtifwi) was at length given to little poems designed to bring
before the spectator or reader an incident or story, which was not, hke that of trage-
dy, drawn from mythology or heroic adventures, nor like that of comedy, taken from
civil or political life, but iurnished by domestic occurrences. A piece of this sort con-
tained a painting of manners and characters, without a complete fable. Sophron of
Syracuse, B. C. 420. is mentioned as a writer of mimes. His pieces were written in
the Doric dialect, and not in proper verse, but in a kind of measured prose {KaraXoyttdnv).
Plato very much admired them, and encoura^d at Athens a taste for such perfor-
mances. The few fragments of Sophron' s mimes which remain are not sufficient
to enable us to judge luUy respecting their character. The fifteenth idyl of Theo-
critus is an imitation of one of them. A commentary on the mimes of Sophron was
written by Apollodorus of Athens. Another author of mimes was PhUistion of Nicea,
who Nourished in the last days of Socrates.

ror (ba fracmenta of Sophroo, aea Clauieal Journal, vel. It. JAiMiim Crttkum (Cunb. EogL), No. tU. Nov. 1881. Tto
mteoeaa of PhUiatkm aod Mcntnlcr wan poUbbad bj Nie. Bifoubu Fir. 181S. 8.

^ 47. In concluding this sketch of the Grecian drama, it may be remarked that the
Athenians had not, hke the moderns, a regular theatre, daily open for public amuse-
ment. Dramatic representations were appropriated to religious festivals. Perfor-
mances designed for public exhibition were submitted to the nrst archon. When this
magistrate judged them worthy of appearing, he assigned the poet a choir or chorus,
an ornament or appendage so essential that no piece could be performed without it.
Great pomp attended the choral service, that it might seem wortny of the auspices of
a divinity. The expenses were defrayed by the rich citizens to whom the tnbes de-
creed the honor, or assigned the tax. The citizens vied with each other in the spleiidor
and magnificence with which they furnished these theatrical displays, which might
serve to promote their private political interests under the name of generosity and
pn^'onsge. The labor of the poet was not ended, as in modern times, with furnishing

P.V. PRINCIPAL POETS. 4dS

the composition for the use of the declaimers or actors. He was ohiiged to form his
band of speakers, distribute the parts, and make them learn and rehearse. He was
also obliged to instruct the chorus how to conform their movements to the voice of the
eorupfuBUB. Often the poet became himself an actor, and assumed one of the more
dimcult parts. The laborious task was expressed by the phrase ii6aaKti¥ ipifia. In this
view the poets were termed itSavKoXoi, and the instruction given by them to the per-
formers was called technically 6t6aaKaXia. This last term, was, however, afterwards
used in another sense in reference to the drama ; viz. to signify something like what
we should call a literary notice, giving an account of the title and subject of a play,
the time of its exhibition, its success, its author, and the actors, &c. Aristotle and
the critics of Alexandria composed such notices {6t6amca\{ai), which were no doubt
accompanied vrith critical remarks, and the loss of which is a matter of great regret.

adOtt, KM. Litl. Or. voL ii. p. 9i— CL B&mami, De DbtribatkiM, *e. u citad § 87.

$ 47 /. Having glanced in a general manner at the history of Greek poetry in
each of its departments, the plan already pointed out (§ 8) leads us now to no-
tice more particularly the principal poets.

In doinff this, it will be recollected, we are to arrange the names in chronological
order. To a brief notice of the poet and his works, a view of the more important edi-
tions, translations, and other illustrative works, will be added. Before commencing
with individuals, however, we will subjoin here some references to works which
relate to the Greek poets, or classes of them, collectively.

1. Hiilory ud etaraelcr.— LtL Or^. GinUi Hisioric FMter. Uun Gnac qiam Latin. Dialop Z. Buu 1648. S.—0. J. roMJitf,
de TCtcram poetanim Gnecorun et Lalinonim Iwnporibtii. AiuL 1654. A.—Hartmmtn, Vcrweh eiaer allf. OMchkhla der Poetia
der OriMhcn and ROner. Berl. n8& 8.— £« Aora^ Viet da Poelcs Graoi; 7. Fattr, Vite Poetaram Oraconim, in Omuvhtt,
vol. z. dted P. IIL \ 13. t.—Lor. CroHO, laloria d'POali Gnd. Nap. 1678. fol.— S. KinnM, Lirai and Character* of tba aneieot
Grecian Pocte. Lond. 1697. 8L 2d ed. Lond. 1735. i.—CharaJaaw der vom^tm^m Didder alter Nationtn, ^. von ainar OncU-
tdtaft von OeMrlen. Lpi. I79S, ml 8.->C. J. Etton^ SfMcimena at tbe Clanic Poah, frem Hoowr lo Tryphiodonia. Lond. I8l 4.
Svola. 12. Cf Lond. Quart. Reo. ziii. 161— O. F. Sedi, Gaaebiditr drr HellaoiKhan Dichikunst. Cannaocad iMft. 1888.
S Toll, a Cf. JV. JImer. Sn. Apr. ISiO^-Otrid^ Gedb d. HallaD. Diehtk. Berl. lf3.\ g.

8. Collecliom.— JL F. Ph. Bmnekt 'Htfuc^ vo<i|Oi;, uve Gnomiei poets Grcd. Arg. 1784. a— Sama, wirb additiona by GL
SMlfir. Leipa. 1617. 8.— Clatuit CAapdrl, Poetc graeci ehritltaoi. Par. 1668. 8.— JBm. PorU Novcm Lyrici Oraooram. (pr.
CommObu) Beidelb. 1588. 8. Bapr. Anjou, 1611. A.—Sltphama, 'Oi r^f 4ipmUHs roi^frras a-pMTi^vrif iroi^ral «al
IxXm Ttvis. Pottm grmei prime beralc cann. Par. 1568. fol.— By Msne, TXotiioi^ ^.Uo-o^s* PouU pHUmopkica, kc Pht.
1678. 8.-V. Iceftitt, Pbeta graei veterea. carmini hervici Scriplore*. he. Aaral. Allobrog. 1606. foL— Sarru, PoetK graci vetaraa
tragici, ccunici, ht. Cokm. Allobrog. 1614. 2 Tola. foL— Kick. Jfo/losra, MiacelUaea GrKconini alicpiot Mriptoruin earaiiaa
Load. 17S8. 4.— Jtfbrel, E enmidi gracb xlil deperdltia wotentic enllacta (gr. et Ut). Par. 1S53. %.—0. DtndarJ, Poeta Seeoid
Oraei. LIpt. 1830.-^1. Scftnaute', MetwAv Sv9^, tive poetriaram Gracartiin eamiaum fragmrata. Gieaa. 1708. 8.; contain'
hg tbe rragmenti of Sappho, Erlnaa, Myro, Coriooa, Ac-J^, C Waif, Pbetria Octo, cited k IS—HerUi, SUphamu, Ac. cited $ 48.
—g. ITmferfen, Poeta alnoree graei, gr- et lat Cantab. 1635, et al. Lond. 1739. 8.— TAom. Ooufori, Pocta minoraa GracL
QtIL 1814-aOl 4 Tola. 8. eoataining Haalod, Tbeognb, Archflocua, Solon, Stroonldei, Mimnermn, Callinna, Tyrtaut, Pbocylidet,
Kanaacbina. Liniia, Paayaaia, Rbianai, Etmuh, Pytbagnaa, Tbeocritua, Bina, Mniehua, with tbe icbolia to Heaiod and Tbeocritin.
—An iaproTed ed. of GoiMfordft CoIL iraB pnbibbed, Lpa. 1623b 6 Tola. 8. eoataining Sappho, Alcana, and Stedcborua, in addition.
—J. F. Boi$mmadt, PoelaniB Giaoorum Srllofa. Ikr. l688-3i. in 24 TOla. 32 ; containing, toI I. Anaeteon, with fragmcnta of
otbcn; ToL iL Theoeritni, Bion, MiDacbaa ; tlL Tbeognie, lynana, Pbocylidei, Callinus, Miranennna, Sobn, Simonidei, Nauraa-
dina, Pythaforaa, Linna, Pknyaaia, Rblaoua, ETenui, Eratoitbenci, and amall fragment! ; U.-tU. Homer; Tiii. Callimacbua, Cleeji*
Ibei, Proclos ; Ix. a- Sophoda ; zL Hedod ; zii. ztIL JBKbyina ; zIt. Pindar (after BUdJl) ; zt. LyiicI, Synedos, Gregorim ; ztL-sx.
Enripidet (test of Mitthia) ; zzi.-zziT. Aristopbaaea.— magriV Bibliotheca CltoAu. Lpx. 1828, a. It.—Tkuhur't Anctovaa
Claaki. Lpi. 1834, a. 18. with "correct tezt, and beautiful type."— Tbudknita, Coqraa PoaL Grae. Lps. 1838.— P. JAIAorm,
Anthologh Lyrlca. Lpi. 1827. 12. IV. JE. Wibtr, Die elegiwbeB Diebtcr. Grac A Gcim. Fnnkf. 1626. B.—J. F. Bobuonada
Aneedeta Grata, e eodicibm Regiia. Par. (begun) 199. 8. lit toL a Gnomic coll.— OrteMaeAa iNcMeria neo. metriacben Deber*
Mtnngen ; bennttcgeben Ton T^*t, Onmndtr nnd flleftunb. Lpc 1880-7. 1 1 Tola. IB. of Tariona aiciit: chiefly Tery good.

3. In noticing editiont of the Greek authors, the tranglator eneounteri a pecoliar difficulty.
To many persons every thing except merely naming a good edition of each author will appear
■uperttunus. Others will scarcely be satisfied without such specification and description as pro-
perly belong to works expressly bibliographical. The following plan is adopted under the im-
eression that it will be, on the whole, the most uteful. The editions which are Judged to be
est, on account of ^ generally good text and ugood critieal apparatue ofreadinge, cosun«iif«, &c.
will be first mentioned, after the letter B. — Next after the letter F, will be named in chronologi-
cal order such other editions as have been celebrated, from the Prineepe, or earliest, to the year
1800.— Last will be given, after the letter R, the editions since 1800, which are known to be
worthy of notice, and are not named in the first list, or among the translations. In this third
class, the mark $ is employed to designate good eckool edition*. Other marks are also employed,
with a uniform signification wherever appli<>d ; vis. the f to designate an edition distinguished
for a pure or Improved text; the sign % to designate one having notes, excursuses, or other ac-
companiments of special value. The star * is used to discriminate an edition, a translation, or
any other work named, which is considered superior to others of the same class.

$ 48. Orpheus^ a Thracian, pupil of Linus, and companion of the Argonauts,
lived about B. C. 1250. The tradition, that by his lyre he tamed wild beasts
and moved inanimate things to action, is mere allegory, and refers only to the
moral improvement effected perhaps by means of his song.

3 «. The works ascribed to him are Hymns, TtXeral, twenty-eight in number; an

464 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

historical poem on the aqpedition of the Argonautt^ 'Apyavavruch; a metrical treatise on
the secret pov^ert of Stones ^ llepi Atduv ; a piece on tarlhquaket^ nep< SeorfUJi' ; and other
fhigments. I'hese poems are now considered as the production of later times, com-
posed at different periods.

%. Editiou^B.— a. Otrmum, Orphioi era BOlii H. Stepbui, A. C. EKberiwebii, J. M. OcwMri, Th. Tyrwidtti, te LJpa.
Ifl06.tvn(« •. AitercBt7p9«d.orthbtKZt I^M. Ittl l2ao^Ort)M0nNbcf'nifmait(,tbeBi(Mt pnfcet coUertJoBfa ia Cfc. 1.

£af«dk, AglMplnmai, ctlcri P. H. \ K. 2 (a). T.—Prmt»p^ Orphci ArsomaL HrnDl «l Pracli Lycii Hjm. Gnec FlomL

ISOa 4. (imik J«aU).~%«Wiiia. Vn. 1617. t^Sttfkani^ Id Ftoet. Gr. priae. her. cum. citnl f «7.-t Gtunmi, (cd. Hja-

birim). Ii|w. 17«4. &— Tk. TVnoMO, Tmtiw on Stnnw. Load. 1781. 8. R.— / C. flbbtcufcr, Arg oaantlcL leak

1808. a~0. A AM/fT, Orpbk*. Lpi. 1818. a>-r ^. DiHteh, Hyiniii. (Or. * Oma.) ErI. 1822. 4.

3. TninUtiOM —Emttfih.— ». l^aiUtr^ Hrmm ; with prrlimimry diwrt Load. lTf*7 ; 1814. 8 -~D<dd, Hynn; la Mi CWS-

wduhu. Load. I7S6. G«nnu.— f. M Fom, Argonulka. Heidelb. 1806. 4.— Ou«aDlk,at abntadM. HaliuL-^iM. /tr»>

fdH, laaidi Orfn, a^potti in vanl fol^tfl. Naap. 1788. 8. Utin, bf J. ataUtw. Lodf. Bal. IftlS. 12.

4. inu«trUiTa.->J7ua(, In hb DmtimM. Btmng. Prap. iv. c a-JhiAnte'i, io SfUL CHI. 1782 —Pritd. 9n»dvf, da Bpaa. ▼«.
OnM. LipKi I786.-Car. Q. Una, do Orphic. Frif. OoH. 1788.— (hrtae*, da Hynn. Orpb. ConaMot. GOtL ITVT.-JftueUa,
Oonmaat. da Orphd Argouaalida. Roiloe. I806l 4.— 0. AnfUMii, Da artaoiaot pn Aatiq. Orph. Atgan. Lipa. IStt. 4.—
•Btit, Orphcat Fbal. OnM. Aatiqvia GotL 1814. 4.~&MWI, HiflU Lltt. Or. vol. 1. p 88.— WvtA. Jtmm^. Sao. toL uL-Ob Ihi
fehlairHpaetiH tha miuic of Orpbeoi, cC #Va(Hur, b tha Mtm. Aead. inter, vol. v. p. 117.

$ 49. Mtisanu, according to tradition a contemporary of Orpheus, horn at
Athens, a poet and philosopher. The poem of Hero and Ijeander, To xa$' 'Hpw
xai Aiai^poy, which has been ascribed to him, was certainly the work of a later
age, probably the fifth century after Christ. It contains many passagres of epic
beauty, but far too little of the simplicity belonging to its pretended age.

1. There was a Mussus who flourished not far from A. D. 500. A letter from
Procopius to him implies that he was a grammarian, which title is dven to the author
of the poem, in all the Manuscripts. Hence it is conjectured, that &e real author was
this person.

We have the titles of many works ascribed to the ancient Musaens ; the following,
besides others ; Xpi^r/»o(, oraclen; TArroI, initiation$, a species of poem referring to reU-
gious rites of an initiatory and expiatory kind, called also /raOappoi, purifications, and
noftoXitnti^ ahst^utions; *Afitatt{ v6atav ; 'Tiroftfjcai, precepts; Uepi Owirpwrwy, describing the
remarkable things of Thesprotia ; Ifalpa, an astronomical poem, Slc. — The few frag-
ments of the ancient Mussus remaining are gathered in the collection of phUMopkk
poetry by Stepkanus (cf. ^ 47. 2).

5. Edilkm— B— ^. Se*ratfcr. Lraward. I74K. 17S3. a— • O. 17. Sdiaf^, Or. ft LaL Lpi. 1821 a-CL X MSbim. IUK

1814. 18. P.— PHfM^f, Aldina, Or. at Lai. 14M ; wppoMd Iba flnl work froaa tha Aldina prw ; estrmalj raf«.-ViPi(iiM

(PbU. Ginnte), Gnee. al LaMn. Plortat ISIS. 8.~Widi ofhar work*. Gr. af Lat ap. /. rrdtmhun. Baa. 15I& 9.-.H. Iffflart
(ia PMt. Omc. prioe. fte. diid k «tX~fJ. H. Kronmrnftr. Halle, 1721. B.-X. P. ihiwk/i». Ban. ITB8. &-.t Jf. JHwr. Lgfi.
1737. & With tha Scholia, aad rran oollattoa of 7 MSB. aad 17 admom ^ad. bdi« 17 jaan of a|a).— Du TkeO, Or. aad IV. Fk.
1834. 12.

S. TruMiatiaH.-Eii(liA.-0. Ctapnum. Load. 1808. 4.-JL Stefyfton. Ozfetd, 164ft. 4.-8Urttir. Land. tTSa ia-«/y.
Aiekfl, with Aoamoa, Sappho, and othan. Lmd. ITSO. 19.-J: Onmij ia AndtnonH Britbh Riabu Load. I78S-I897. & Utk

voL Fraerh-C L. JVoOarautt (malriad). Pbr. 180S — Dm TkeO, aa above ditd.-j: B. Oni (Or. Ut ft Pr.). Vu. VtK. 4

OoTMib-IV. Pnanm. (Or. ft Gar.) Lrc 18ia &_#•. C. #Wrfa (aMtrical). l^t. 17W. & Ibtliaa^PV-. Mu. Aran. ll«^

1787. 8..-0. Pampd. Pun. 1789^ 4.— Cf. «utor*f Thaorie, vol. ii. p. 808.

4. niMtnUva.— Pnfteai of Sekrodn, HtinHeh, awl FaaMNA—Din. io JrnmiMyir..>C P. mnSmiurf.-.Stmlumt AaraMdv.
m MoMom. Lipa. I7SS. 4.-^. OgOnky in hh Any oo tha Lyric PtwtiT of tha AKieala, fte. Load. J782. 4.-Z>i la JKim^
Bam. HrPHiit.d'Haraiftc. aad mcJtakudd, BaO. CriU ftc io JIAm. A Riearf. d« Jkwr. iv. aad vii. p. 840.— Ct Cla«./oi^.
svi.li6;zi.8B.

$ 50. Homer Hyed about 1000 B. C, or perhaps later. The place of bis birth
is uncertain; soven Grecian cities claimed the honor; it probably belonged to
Chios (Scio) or Smyrna. Most of the circumstances related of his life are de-
rived from two bioefraphies, which have been ascribed, on insuflicient grounds,
to Herodotus and Plutarch. The story of his blindness seems to have been a
mere tradition.

1. There is a diversity of opinion respecting the period in which Homer lived. While
some place him as above, B. C. 1000, others place him only about B. C. 600. The
Arundelian Marble places him B. C. 907. Tne date ascribed by Wood* and adopted
by Mitford' is B. C. 850. A writer in the Philosophical Transactions (vol. zlviti.)
brings Homer down to the sixth century before Christ, by astronomical calculations,

not to be relied on. Different traditions are related respecting his parentage and

birth, to explain the terms Maeonides, son of Maon, and Melesigenes, horn hy the river
Meles. Conflicting etymolo^es of his name, *0fii7f0f, have been devised, some of them
sufficiently absurd. — Respecting the manner of his life, all the accounts, whether ge
nuine or spurious, generally agree in representing him as a Rhapsodist wandering on
the Asiatic coast and through the islands of Greece, and earning ftune and a niaintenanoe
by the recitation of his verses.— His death is variously told. One story brings him to
his end by falling over a stone. Another allows him a gentler death. Anotner tells

P.T. POETS. BOMKR. 46&

that he broke his heart out of pure ▼exation', because he could not solve a riddle pro-
posed to him by some waggish young fishermen.

Numerous treatises have been written on the life of this poet. Besides the two
above mentioned, ascribed to Herodotus and Plutarch, there are three short lives in
Greek, one of them written by Froclus*. Wood, in his Essay', defends the authen-
ticity of the piece ascribed to Herodotus. That ascribed to Plutarch is by some judged
to be of an earlier date than the supposed author. — Of modem biographies, those of
Pope and Madame Dacier are very convenient^

1 S. mod, Hmj OB the orisiiial gwiw of Honar. Load, ma a • Biliary of Gntn, ch. iii. Append • CtUndft, p. 46,

Wt m, w cited { 21. « CoolaiMd ia JUoliiM, Da FUrk Uoncri. Ludf. Bat IMO • ComMded with Ibeir Inn'atioa* of Ho-

Mr.-flfle aho Tkomat Bladuodl, Eaqaiiy ialo tha Life and WriUiwi of Homtr. 9d ad. Load. 173B. 8. Tr. Germ, tff Fim.
Laipi. 1T7& i—Kfpen^ in Iha ^UOr. JntMrAimfOi, balew cited C?)-— iViladk, cited below (4).-£ £. SdkHterM, Ideen nai
Boaer and wiDen Zeitalier. Bnal. 1811. & Tbe aafhor auiataint tbat Hoomt wai a Trojaa ; a bold, ipecttlatire work, which
allncled atteatioa witbont prododnf eoBvictioik— Tbe pratadad laab of Uomer, diawa hy D. Fiariao, with aolei ijCO. Ayna.
L0B1.179S.4.

2 u. His two epic p^ems, the Iliad (IXmO and Odyisey (Oivtmia), originally consisted
of various Rhapsodies, which were first reduced to their present form under the direc-
tion of Pisistratus and his son Hipparchus. On being committed to writing, which
could hardly have been c^one by Homer himself, it is not improbable that they received
some additions and interpolations. Both of them are a series of songs, probably from
several authors, Homer and the Homeridae, composed at different times and succes-
sively enlarged. The subject of the Iliad is the "wrath of Achilles," his separation
from the Grecian army in consequence of it, and the events of the Trojan war during
his absence and immediately after his return. The theme of the Odyssey is the wan-
dering of Ulvsses, the dangers and sufferings of his return from Troy to Ithaca, and
the events following his amval. — Besides these two heroic poems, the most celebrated
of epic productions, there is ascribed to Homer a comic piece, the 'Barpaxofi-i^aocjia
{Battle q[ the Frogs and Mice)^ a mock-heroic poem, belonging unquestionably to a
later penod. There are also ascribed to him thirty-three Hymrut besides various small
pieces and epigrams. Some of the Hymns were probably composed by the Homeridas
or Homeric Rhapsodists (cf. % 21).

3. Besides the works above named, many others were formerly ascribed to Homer,
of which the titles only are preserved. The yLdpyiuK has already been mentioned
(^45), "asatyre upon sortie strenuous blockhead," often alluded to by the ancient
writers. At least twenty other titles^ are recorded ; among which are the following :
*Afi^via, ^Apavofioxia^ Ttpavofttociat 'Eirfyowc, K&cpowrff, NArroi, Hafyvia, &c. The Barpa-
XPftvofttocia has been ascribed^ to Pigres, who lived in the time of the Persian invasion ;
but some allusions and names in it are supposed to indicate an Alexandrine age and
source. This mock-heroic has been repeatedly imitated. Theodore Prodromus, in
the 12th century, wrote an imitation in Iambic trimeters, called the Galeomachia.

There are also Latin imitations ; one by Addison in the Miuta Etonenxes. The

greater part of the Homeric Hymns belong to the class of addresses and invocations^
to the gods {llfifUHftta), which the Rhapsodists were accustomed to make in commencing
their recitals. But several of the larger ones, especially, may with propriety be
termed epic,

tFoMcJiit, Bibl. Or. I. S74.-A P. Knight, PmlegoneBa ia Homcnnn. Cf. Clow. /oum. vii. 921. « Fuhrman, kleiaerM

Baadbucfa. p. 44.—/. F. D. Ova, Dia. de Baincbomjemarbii, etc. etc Erlaaf. 1798. 9.— C. D. Ilgen, Hymn. HnoMrid, ele-
(edotaiaiac ■ ntodere Greek venioa of the Batruhem. by Deraelr. Zeana, aad the Galeonacbia of troinum). UaL ITML a—
Obridst, p. 182 ■ Bammn'a Ephfle, prcflzed to hie ediUoo cited belew (S).— CoJoidfC, p. 19a

4. The controTervy among (he learned respectincr ihe oii|rln of the Iliad and Odyasey, has
awakened much interest, and deserves some notice here.— The first dnnhts whether Homer was
the soleanthnr, seem to have been expresi«>d by Perrault in his ParalUh des^neiena et de* Mo-
dems (Par. 16S8). in which it is rnfffeinted, that they are hut a collection of many little poems, of
different authors. This suggestion was noticed by BoiUau, in his Reprions CriUqnu sur Longin.
(Par. 1694), and by Kenntity in his Livts nfthe Oreeian Poets (Lond. 1097), and opposed by them.
The notion, however, was enforced by P. Hedelin, who went so ftir as to deny the pi'rsonal ex
istence of Homer, in a treatise bearing the title Conjutures aeademiques, oh Disssrtafion swr
r Iliad, 1715. Dr. BentUy (in reply to Collins* s discourse of Free-Thinlcing ; Letter to .V. A*, fry
PhUeutkerus Lipsiemtis $ 7) expressed an opinion, that these poems originally consisted ofseve.
ral distinct songs and rhapsodies composed by Homer, but not uuiied in an epic form until 500
years afterwards. The same idea was more fnlly developed by an Italian author, G. B. Fieo, in
a worii called Prineipi di seienza ntuwa d^intomo alia commune natura detlenazioni. Nap1p«, 1744,
8th edit. A bolder position was taken by Robert fVood, in his Essay above cited ; he affirmed,
that Homer could not have committed his poems to writing, because the art of writing was of
subsequent invention ; which he argued, (first) from the absence of all allusion to the art in tha
Iliad (cf. P. IV. } 59 ) and Odyssey ; (secondly) from tbe feet asserted by him that prose compo-
sitlon. always coeval with the art, did not then exist ; and (thirdly) from the loss of other lite-
rary productions of the age. The performance of Wood was translated into German, and
attracted much attention, and gave a new impulse to (he study of Homer. In 1795, Wolf pub.
lished his Prolegomena ad Homervm, in which he maintained that "tbo Iliad and Odyssey are
not the production of Homer, or of any other single author, but a coiliction of rhapsodies, com-
posed at different times and by di/Terent person**, and subsequently and gradually wrought up
Into the form in which they now exist." This doctrine was not eagerly embraced by the public.
Ai the close of tbe year 1795, Heyne, who then bad tbe reputation of the first Hellenist ia Qaiw
59

466 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATTTRE.

nany while Wolf wu acquirini; thm of a rWtil to him, published In the OdUbtifen Journal a re-
view of WolPi Prolegomena. In thii review, Heyne stated or insinuated, that he had himself
alwavs taught the same general doctrine respecting the Homeric poems. Tliis was resented bj
Wolf; and occasioned a controversy between these champions ; not, as has often been supposed,
concerning the genuineness of these poems, but concerning the merit of priority in starting tbe
new theory of their gradual formntion. This contest for the honor of originating the docirina«
bad great influence in deciding general opinion In favor of it in Germany. It was defended with

Ingenaity by ifjfeii, in the introduction to his edition of the Homeric hymns, cited above (3). One
of the principal attempts to controvert it was made by Huf^ In bis worli on the Invention of Al-
phabetic Writing (cited P. IV. ^ S2), published in 1801. In 1801, Heynt fully avowed and aup.

ported the theory in the excursuses in his edition of tbe Iliad. The theory was attacked in
France by St. Croiz^ in a pamphlet styled RefMUlion d'um paradox liUtrairo. Par. 1708. lo Eng *
land also a powerful opposer of it has appeared in OranvUU Penn, whose arguments are given
in the work styled ^n Examination, of tko prtmarf Jtrg-uaunt of tho Iliad, ^c. published in ItSl.
This work was severely reviewed in the Londvn Q^arUHf (vol. xxvii), and to tbe review Pom
replied in the CUu»iaU Journal (vol. xxvii). Schdll gives a glance at tbe history of this ques-
tion*, and plainly intimates that he does not embrace the Wolfian doctrines. ** Posterity/' says
be, **wlll Judge of their solidity; and we will only add, that while in Germany the views of
Welfare generally received, they are almost as generally rejected in England, Holland, France,
and Italy. It la known that they were firmly resisted by Ruhnken^ one of the greatest critics of
the last century, and by the celebrated FiUotMon.** CoUridgo remarks*, ** however startling this
theory may appear at first sight, there are some arguments in its favor, that with all calm and

■erious inquirers will ever save it from IndiflTerence and contempt." The work of JVirzsdb,

below cited*, controverts the doctrine of Wolf with much abilitv and success, and Is said to be
producing at leaat a nartial revolution of opinion in Germany. But W. MHUor, in hia work cited

below«, strongly defends the Wolfian theory. Fur the special arguments employed in tbie

controversy, we must refer the reader to the works of the different writers* ; observing, how-
ever, that the grand argnmtnt of Wolf and Heyne is an atsumption of that as a fact, which hat
aeeerbeen proved; namely, that writing, nr at least any common writing material, was un-
known in Greece, in the Homeric age ; while the apparent familiarity of Homer with 8idoniaa
artists, the close alliance between the Sidonians and the Jews, and the indisputable use of tbe
art of writing among the Jews long before the Trojan war, render; the opposite highly probable.
Whether the Iliadf and Odyssey were tbe productions of the same author and age, is a differ-
ent question. A doubt was expressed even in ancient times*. A modern writer (ConsianI)'' baa
urged the diversity of style, manners, and mythology In tbe two works, aa evidence of diversity
of authorship. Another modern* has attempted to show that Ulpsses was the author of both tba
Iliad and the Odyssey.

It Is not impertinent to remark here, that there Is an early and very remarkable German or
Teutonic poem*, which some of the (Serman writers have compared to the Iliad; called tbe
Jifibelungen Ued^ and fondly termed by partial antiquaries the ** Northern Iliad.*'

t SdOa, UW. Lilt. Or. ilk. U. ch. 4. «CaIm4ffB, Intraductian, kc, p. S7, m. u citad S 21. — * Q. W. NHxtek, De JEtate Flo-

mri, ac, BMMflnata. Uaao. 1830-37. t vola. 4. « m MUtl0; HonMriKliB Vonehato. Lps. IM4. 8. •Baid* thm

ajiwdy ettod, S. C Kou, Commeotilie ds diNnpdurtia in OdjTH^ oecurreDtibui. Htraia, I80S.— JkiNldl, ErkUnad* ISinks-
aiBg wr OdfHM. Xteigri). I816.-Bv». Tkuntk, UrfMtelt <tor OdyaM, ke. KOoipb. liAI. B..-C. F. Fmnemm, Emi nr k

Qunttoa,*! Bamtn a tanm Vvrngb d« I'Kritiira, ftc Bn-I. 1818. IL-Other refamiCM m Hartm^ Supplem. i. p. ». Tvt-

tlcuUriy u apiMMins tb* Wolfian tlwory : Knttht, la hk PnUgtmma^ m ritod above (3).— IMM* dt SUM, Hirtoira d^Bsnani^
/. Krmm, Voiln«a Qber HoiMra, kc Ftankt 1828. 8.-0. InnfB, Varrach dia peat Einhait dar Hiad m bariiauMD. DanaL
ISifl. aid lo emtaia •• piibjr arsBincak fron a fine Klwlar."— Sea alw £. L. A4ui«r, AUwns bk. i. dk a aa cilad P. IIL \ %.—

Land. QuorU Mm, voL xltv.-£d{iiA. Am. IxiL-^. Jhn. Bm. zxxviL-4fn. Qiforl Rao. vol. ii. p. 867. eCL ftTM0B,Da

Brevil. Vit. e. 13. 1 Condanl^ Da U Hdipon, vol. Sd. bk. S. u cited P. II. f 12. 2. («).>Cf. KnigfO, TVkJmr*. JHifwo-, Cotf

rtdgf-, aad (be Jlmnw, fcc, u jaat citad. * Kciiada (Prof, dana l*uaivenii« loaieDne), Uljwa-Uom^ ou du veritabla aulaar

4» riliada et da POdjwte. Tv. 1829. M * Ct. T. Carlyb, Ewyi, kc, vol. U. p. 818, aa died ) t^l.—Enefdop. Jtmmie. voL

is. p. 278.

5. Editioea.>-B.— lUAD. C O. He^m, Or. ft Lat Leipc. ft Land. 1802. 8 vola. 8; it Land. 181& a Kb voL appeared
Lpt. 1628.-ODTSSET. Bmumgartt»t,CTmiut. Lps. 1822-27. 8 vola. 8.-WH0LE WORKS. F A. WUf, Cr. ft Lat HaU^
17*4. 5 voli. a Lpfc 1804. 8.-^. Ji. Emuti, Or. ft UL LpL 1789. 1884. Olaag. 1814. 6 vola. K—Samud OaHhr, Or. ft LaL
Load. 1729. 1740. 4 vola. 4. l6tb ed. Laid. 18l6w— • O. Dindarf, 6r. ft Lat. Load. 1828. 9d ed. Lpa. 1824. B vob. 8L Wolf^
ClarkeHi recemloo ; readinca and ootea of EraaatL—HYMNS (aod AUmcftomyomocAio). HaUkim. Lps. 1608. &— EPiGBAMS

(and ffynma ^ Batr.) • O. Htrmann. Lpa. 1806. 8. T.—Prineepi (Dtnutrim ChakondyUu ft JkmttHut CntmtH). Plor.

1488. fbl. 8 vo1«.-.JWiii. Veoet 1504. atae 1617. 1684. > voK a-Vioifo. Flor. 16ia 2 voln K—Hnasmi. Bwil, (68& feC
eum SduL—FraneinL Vm. lfiS7. 9 volt. 8.— With 0» Commcnloruf o/ Etatathim. Boa. IS48-5a 4 vola. UL—B. WqWWnMiii
Vw. IfifiB. Cm Pmt. Or. Prine. died \ 47.) 1688. 8 voia. & Or. ft Ut-t Amiat. Camb. 171 1. 9 vota. 4.-/0111^ Otatg. infi. a

4 vola. fol. very ipleodid. Flaxnaa^ iliaatnlioai ware executed for it— t riOMwn, Had. Veo. I7S& tA. ^II.-.The O^anadh

HuBier. Oct. 1800. 4 vola. 4.— JMoni, Iliad. Pftm. 1808. 8 vola. bl.— JL P. KnighL •■ Load. 182a UL (aae Omm. Jaum. voU
vii. and vHL Land, (juart. Btv. vol. xxvii.}-V. J. MUUar, Uliad, with extncia rrom Eiulatbiaa, fte. Metnan, IBIA 9 vda. a
—G. a. Sdkaffer, Illiad and Odywy. Lpc 1810-11. 6 vola. 18; pnpared for ihaeolladioa of TkuchaiU, and aaaMoed by
SchOll BB preferable to (ha itareolypa ioBprenioo of Taocbnitx, in 4 vola.-4 C. C Fdtm^ Iliad, from tbe text of Wol^ with Eaff^
liah Dolea and Flaxoiao'a UlMtratiooa. Bort. 1833. a beetKifal editkw.— CZorka*! Iliad, 9d Am. ed. N. Tork. I8W. & Cwi O.
Jhnuidt.'-O. Htrmmim. Lfo. 1886. 2 voia. t.—T. H. Both: Han. 1884. S vola. 8.-4 apOaur^ Iliad, b Bort** Bxbiio<bee^
died \ 7. 1.— The (MyaNy, with tbe Schdia of Didymoa, die Hymaa, fte. Oxf. 1887. 8 vola. &>A C. OicriiM, (Myaey (with
nolM in German). Haan. I88& & Alan, Iliad. Hann. 1841. A bit OdyaMy ia daaeribed aa « vaiy good Ibr (hoaa not mach ad-
vanced in Qmdt.*—P. Didat (printer), Honari Camina et Cyell Bpid Reliqnia eon Indiee Nontinnm at Beran. hr. 1840. 1

A Traaalationa.-Bnclidi.-0. Chapman. Load. 161A fsL-/. OgOtf. Land 1888. 8 veb. fill, with aagnvii9.-vt. Pep*.
Land. 1716-20. ft>l. very oOeo reprinled.-ir. Cawper, Load. 1781. A 1802. 4 vola. A-MMy, UbA Land. 1881. 8 vab. A
cf. BlodbusodV Magacine, vd. xxiz.— By a nwm^ 0/ UU Vnimnitf, Iliad, (pr.) Oxf. 1881. 9 vda. & Odyiaey. (pr.) LonA

1828. 8 vola. A-Of (bo Hynn^ SlacMwoe^i Mafnine^ vd. xxz^xxxii nmeb.— MaA Daekr. Par. 1711-lA 1741.

0 vda. 12.— Z> Bntn. Par. I80».IA 4 vda. lA^ Ocrnian.-^. H. Fm. Alton. 179A 4 vda. & iaailatinK the andant tassM-

lar. 6th eA 1881. improved.— Sb6umrcA HymMi Prankf. 182S. a Italian.- Jf. CmeavUi. Van. 1786-8a 10 vola. A

7. Ulaatrativc— It baa been Joady remarked, that it wenid be aa cndkaa taak merdy to name all the anthon who have wriSea
itaot BoBHT. Wc adcd a few of tbe beat uwrkf iSurtroliM of tbie poet-0. Ch. CWtriw, WoitataGh Qfaardia Gedicfale im

F« V. POETS. HESIOD. 467

HoMm, to Buk. 1896. &— TWrntonV Crit. DiMrtatioM oa On Hbd, tnwi. tato Easl'wh, bjr AvmaoodL Load. I74& 2 fob. 9.
— £. CoulOn, Lniooo BoncricwB. Fv. 1663. 8.->Av«rf, Homvi OiMinofa«ift, Or. k LaL CaaL 1660. «.-£. fcilik, Aati^ii*
liiM BoBMrka. Aaut 1186; Argoit 1749. 8.— JtJKti OwpalaUoaea HooMriea. LiiM. 1764. 9.—H. L JTi^wn, ErkUraade Ao-
Berkiin««B mm Homer. IM. ed. Hao. 1787, m. Id ed. by JtuAJkOf/aad SJptrxiur. Baa. 1860. 6 toIi. & •« a very ^ood cammmUjj
an (ha IlUd."— O. PT. J>rtbM», ErkUraada ikaBMrkaoiaa so Horner^ Oljwee. KiaL ie26-4& 9 voit & ^a tboroash work."-
f. Afflmaim, Lexilopn, kc, hattpl^hlich f&r Hooicr aad UMbd. Berlin, 182& 8 voia. 8. TraM. Ea(liA, bj T. M. Fiaklali*.
Load lSa«L 8. ** vij valHaMa."— Ciapw ^onwrieo, or Lezicoa of all the word* b Iha Iliad. Tranti. by /. Waiktr. Load.

1889. 8. C. f. NUgttMbadkf AimeikaBgaB aur Ilia% ailat Exranaa Qbcr tiafeaMai* in HoMradwa OnmiBatik. IfOiab.

1834. 8.-C. /. fitatMmmnn, GraiaauliKhkntiactw Aamrfkajvea aor Iliaa. Lpi. 1840, m. 8 vola. 8. - a copfeoi collcctioa oT
BOM witboot plan, jet ecMMaioinf aiach (hat ia (ood.** Cf. Jakn't JahibQcbar, 1841.—/. 3. f^Ko-, ErUataranfan der Bailigca
.Sckrift, Altea aad Neaea T«aL an d. Klaaik. ba«Midan aai Honar. Kial. 1883. 6.-0. F. Naflfbadk, Dia HoowrHcba Thaolo-

gia ia ibren ZnaNMBbaaia. NOfaU 184a & ••of graat narit" Oa tba Oaufnpby and Tapagraphjr at HimmH pooM, w«

■Motioa the fBllowiaf.— 7. Bn/mnt, DMWilalioo oooearBiag Troj, fte., u cited P. II. i 183.—/. £. S. Mmrit^ in Ko^j io Bryanl.
— »r. FraneUin, Bemwka oa the Plain of Troy, fee. Load. 1900. 8;— it. Chandbr, Hietory of Tray aod a^jaceat eoontry, Ac.
Loud. 1802. S.—L* ChnaSir, Yoyafo da la Troada. Par. 1802. 3 Tola Traul. EeglUi, by, DahA^lV. OdZ, Topogiapby of
TVoy. Load. 1904. 4. witb platei.— AemcU, ObMmtioae oo tha Topofrapby at Troy. Load. ISU. A.—K. H. VClckar, Uaber

Bomeriwhe Oaographia uad Weltkaada. Haa. 1B30. 8. There are illoilfativa Drawiafi.— J'ioxnum'f CooBpotitiou. Loadaa,

1E06. 8 vols. foL— rueAto'n'f IlloatnlioBB, in dnwiaga freaB (haaoUqve, with dcacrtplioai (Oana.) by Heyaa. GMt 1801. feL—

C F. Inghinmi, Oallaria Ooiariea (or aatiqua BMooBMok to aid tha study oT Hoaiar). Fhaan^ IbSO. 8 foli. 8. For othaia oa

variooi poiale, cf. IToh, Manoal, vol. i. at cited 1 7. 19.—Sttb*r*$ Ailg. Thaorie, Hanm-.—AB eatemlTa eorvay of raeoat woifei
partaiaiag to Hover iegifoa by AMmfarten-Owiut, in /oAn^t JahitQchciV vols. L and U. Ibr 1887.

$ 51. Hesiod lived probably B. C. 950, according to some before Homer.
He was born at Cuma in .fiolia, and was called the Ascrcean, because educated
at Ascra in Bceotia. As a poet,' Hesiod is inferior to Homer. But his poems
are highly valuable, as they make known to us so much respecting the concep-
tions and modes of thinking which prevailed in a high antiquity, upon domestic,
mythological, and physical subjects.

1. We may collect from the poemi of Hefiod, that tiii flither wai a native of Cuma, and re-
moved to Ascra at the foot of Mt. Helicon, where he devoted bimtelf to paitoral and aitricultnral
life. Of the estate, which his ftither left at death, the greater part was obtained by Perses, hie
elder brother, who had bribeil the judgei to malte an unequal division. Yet Hesiod by the pru-
dent management of his portion acquired a competence, while Perses was reduced by improvi-
dence to want. — It has been supposed by some, that he tended his own flocks on Mount Helicon*
while others maintain that he was the priest to a temple of the Muses on that mount.— He men-
tions a poetical contest at Chalcis, which formed a part of the games at the funeral of Amphida-
mas, king of Eubcoa, and in which he gained the prize of a tripody afterwards by him consecrated
to the Muses of Helicon. (Cf. P. IV. $ 66. 1.) This Incident was the foundation of the fbble of
his victory over Hnmer, which Plutarch, in his Banqttei of the ^even wise men, puts into the mouib
of Periander ; and which forms the subject of a worli styled 'Q/i^ov Kai 'llei66ov dyoir, written
after the time of the emperor Adrian.— Plutarch likewise introduces in the JSanoiMt, from the
lipa of Solon, a marvelous story respecting the death of Hesiod, which also is prolMtbiy a fabri-
cation.

On the life and sfo of Boried | sea Qia JU«0 b^ Fontei, Annstf, fte., cited ) 47^-^AIm FMkn. Diss, in JMfiison'f Han^
Dieeofuse prefiud la CMtfli Bceiod, both died below (6).

2 tt. We have from him a didactic poem, on rural economy, *Epy« k«A llfUpat, Works
and Days; and another of a mythological character, eayovfa, a ihcogonyi on the lineage
of the ^ods and origin of the world. The piece styled 'Axmg 'HpocXcws, Shield of Her-
eules, IS probably a fragment from a later author.

3. The Workt and Dayt of Hesiod consists of 828 hexameter verses. The poem is
of unequal merit, some parts of it bordering on the puerile, others discovering great
elevation of thonjzht and feeling. It is an object of the poet in the Works and Days
to rebuke his brother and judges for their injustice, and teach the duties of industrv,
frugality, and prudence. — rausanias says, that this was the only work allowed by tne
BoBOlians to be the genuine production of Hesiod. He states that he saw, near the
fount of Plelicon, a copy of this poem in lead, almost destroyed by age.— The Theo*
Sony contains about 1000 lines. There are passages in it of great force and sublimity.
The contest of the Giants and Titans and of Jupiter with Typhceus are often speciiied
as such.

The Shield of Hercules, in 480 lines, is supposed by some modern critics to have
belonged to a lost work of Hesiod, entitled 'Hpowyovcci, the Heroogony, a genealooyof the
demigoils, including, as they think, two pieces cited by the ancients ; viz. KaroXo^-o;
ynyauRjy, catalogue of vHrnien^ a history of such as were mothers of demigods ; and
'Hofai yzyaXai^ an account of heroines. The KarSkayoi is sometimes mentioned as con-
sisting oXjRve caniost of which the IHotai formed the fourth. The title Ihiai was sup-
posea by Bentley to have arisen from the phrase ^ iin {qualis, such as), with which the
transition was made from one heroine to another. Of this last piece the^ Shield ia
commonly thought to have been a part ; it begins with the phrase just mentioned, in a
description of the person and adventures of Alcmene, wliich occupies the first 56 lines.
Others consider the part of it relating to Alcmene as all that belonged to the piece
styled 'Hotoi or Ea-a^, and view the rest, describing the armor of Hercules, &c., as a
separate poem. This portion of the 'Anrtf or iScufum, is an amplification of Homer^a

468 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

description of the shield of Achilles.-^— Thirteen or fourteen other works, not extant,
were ascribed to Hedod.

Oortt, DMmuwprat tBbta Tnori—ttifik Jbih vol. zv. p. 10l.~ifaMP^ «■ Halol, !■ Um CkmwUmtir ^nmm «d^

<ir, vol. Hi. py 4S,ueil«l f 47. 1.

4. The same theory which Mine have so strenuooaly malnulned In relation to the Homeric
poemi, hae alao been applied to the poems of Hesiod. They hare been said to be piece* com-
piled by MaoKtmaorai in the airei or Solon and Piaistratua, fhrom the recitations or the Rbap-
sodists, or at least from Imperfect written copies; it belna supposed, that there were many
poems from different authors tmitatinf the manner of Hesiod, and in after times ascribed to him.
Thus Resiod has been considered aa the head of an ancient Bmotw,n school of poetry, as Homer of

8ae HmviMt fniatmtm lad Wolfa V«tm In tto idHtoi bcl*«r dM (BK-^Air. Twatm"! ConoMBlttio ciitia i* BoioA
evniae, quod iiaerilntiir, Optn tt Dimt Killn, 180ft. a— O. AmMnn'f LMm to llsn, la Jlgm^i HynD. BoBcnci, Qttd } tO. S.

6. Edition.-B.— WHOLE WORKS. Chr. Fr. Uttur, Or. et UL Upi. IT7& t,~.Thom JEoNTwm, Gr. at Lit. Osw. 1*97.
4i Load. 17Se.— va OSOIiiif. Brfort. I»l. &— WORKS ud DATS. L. iTMMir. Leafo. I7». 8.— SHIELD. Cm. FUd,

BtiHriek. VntM. (BrnUwX ISOS. &— THBOQONT. Fr. Jug. Vntf. HmOm, ITU. 8. r.— Tbe Ptinoepa cnMuna oalr Iks

Woriu aad Daft. Milia, IdflS. M.— Tto PrIaMpt (or Mriiag editiM orUw m*M worta of Hwtod, b Itet of Ate, VcmL I^SL

CdL, eomeetad wlih u tditioB of ThMCrHia.- AmM. nonot ISIft. • ; ttiii k tte Snt cdiliM of HesM ■gpantely.— TVr i!i

VflB. 1687. 4; tbe Ant with tteSdwiia.— A iiWiMiiilk Liif. UX. MOB. 4. Gr. id Lat— t (TtOTiiM, Gr. a Lai. JamL l«S7. B^
Oviaif (U Cttn). AhwL 1701. & Tha two lact u« flu fcundatioa of RoUouo*!. -A Zamagna (called ebo editkm of Storfow).

Or. et UL PUBIB, 178ft. 4^ JL-Unti (Werlu aad Days). Gr. Lat et ilal. Floreat 1808. i.Sp«kn (Wnrks aad Day^.

Lipi. 1B18. & A mere eritkal edittao eaaeeneed bf Mma.-<Mi/0r^ la bk Peita Mlaorei Oned, dted J 47 ; said by Dibdia (la
1807) to give the pomt teal of Hedod.— F. & Likr% Or. fc Let Par. 1840. 8.

€. Ttamhtiom.— BB(lMh.-.0. Chapman. Lend. I6l8. A.~J. Cbota, (Bielr.) Load. 1738. 4.~CA. Sbr. Btan. (melr.) Load.

1811 8. aho tSlfti 8. CC B«n& Bt». vol. x*. Pftacb-^f . C.CLQin. Ptf. 179S. & Ovnaa.^/. A Fm*, whcde imta.

Beidelb. 1806. 8^^. D. Omnmmn, Shield. Lemso. I7fi. &

7. Ill«rtratiTa.-J. F. ThkrK^ «ber die Gedicbte dee HtaiodiM, ihrni Cnpraaf, ftr. MOnelMa, 1818. A.-.aiyut, Abbaaflaaf
aber die TbeofMii^ la the Onfuiwiir. See. 09tt. vol. iL—F. aeUkhUtrOt, (ifaer d«i Schild da^ Ufrenlei, kc Golbe, 1788. B.-
Crmatr k Htnnmn, Briefb, *& tiled P. M. f II 2. |a)..>C. Likmmn, De H«*iodi canaiailit peiditit. BerL 1888. t.-J. Ftmx
fMM, GoiBpoeitioai fireoi tbe Worfci oT Haeiod ; 87 beaalifal ooUiace. Lead. 1817. loL

$ 52*. ArchilochuB flourished abont B. C. 680. He was a natiTe of the
island of Paros, and ranked among the gnreatest poets of Greece, and generally
supposed the inventor of Iambic verso. He wrote satires, elegies and triumphal
hymns, and lyrical pieces, of which only trifling fragments remain.

1. Little is known of his life. He went, while young, with his father in a Parisn
colony to Thsaos. He states of himself, that in a battle between the Thasians and
Thracians, he threw away his shield, and saved himself bv flight. On account of this,
it is said, when he afterwards visited Sparta, he was oracred by the magistrates to
quit the city.

a The rngmeDli of AKhiloebai are ftwod la Bnui'Va Amiceta, and JoeobA Aatbologia, cited f Bft.— AIm in CaitriW, vel. k aad
JWwiiiili, vol. XT. Bi dtod 4 47. 8. Tbef were pablUwd Hperalely, with emmeaie, by Ign. UUbd^ Lips. I8li. 8 j edeffid
I8ia a Ci: Snta, UvU etleeoemcai d'ArebUoqeei Mm. JobA /mer. toI. x. p.B6.

$ 53. Tyrtma^ about B. C. 647, of Athens, or more probably Miletus, leader
of the Spartans against the Messenians. By his elegies, full of the praises of
military glory and patriotism, hn roused the ardor of his warriors, and rendered
them victorious. Of his writings, only three elegies and eight fragments have
come down to us.

1. The common account is, that the I^cedemonlans, at the bidding of Delphian Apolln, sent to
the Athenians for a genKral to conduct their wars with the Messenians, hitherto unsuccessful ; and
that Tyrtcus, lame and deformed, wns selected by tho Athetiians, out of hatred. Sch3ll remarks
that tbe whole story has the air of fable, and that the alleged deformity had no foundation ia
truth, being a satirical allusion to his use of pentameter verse.

2. The effect ascribed to his poems is not improbable. The Lacedsmonians were
acctistomed to enter the field under the inspiration of martial music and songs, as
illustrated in Plutarch's life of Lycurgus. The song thus used in runhing to battle
was termed /leXo; i^arnpiov. The instruments used by the Lacedaemonians were flutes.
TyrtaBUs is said to have invented and introduced amons them the trumpet.— The
elegies composed by Tyrtseus amounted xojive books, ft is commonly supposed ihat
they were chiefly war-songs of the kind just mentioned. We have but a single frag-
ment of these songs of Tyrtajus, which were in the Doric dialect ; his now remaining

elegies, bein^ in the Ionic dialect, are not to be confounded with them. A work by

Tyrtseus is cited by Aristotle and Pausanias utidcr the title of E^t-o/iia (" 6onn« UgU*
lation"), which some have considered as a distinct poem, while others have supposed
it to be only a certain class of his elegies collected together and so named.

Xoifltt'i Hebrew Porlry, leet L-SeAB^ vol. i. p. )» —FvJuntannU Ktelacrei Haadb. p. tt.—J. V. /ysMVt CalliBai, dtoi
\ 28.— IfollAiB da Tyrtcl CanBialboa. AHenb. 1920. 4.— AilwAcli, below cited.

8. EditioiA— a— C*r. MArk. KIctt. 1767. 8; with a German verdon hj Vfnm, end diMrtatioa on TjrUcm aad oa warlika

nap.— Chr. ZMtf. Upnl, 1790. 4. Or. et Ul r.—Priiiupi, bjr & Otlmttu. Bw. 1681 4, witb reuuiM of ijuuliwii, Load.

Wl. U. witb Eoiiiib metrical TenlML-Ia BrunA*» Qwom. Poet aad mppoA Qrieeb. BaiDenleM. tL—L. Lambi^ wim

F.T. POETS. SAPPHO. SOLON

ULamitbL wmkm. Pfer. l»l. B^NfcBatk, CdHal Bpfairii. lyM IpUdwri, «l litt 8nil CimlaMi, qw iiiyMMl
U|».lB».fll

4 Tnobtioah— Bi«lirik— JL iWdUh. (Mir.) LDod. ITtL ItlOi t ?eh. with nneritoi, te. rnaA.'-Pvint. A Sipry.

fir.lTn. Omui.-C.Cft.AdeL I«a. Um 8.

§ 54. Sappho flourished probably about B. C. 612. She was a native of Mi-

Slene, in the island of Lesbos. Of distinguished celebrity as a poetess, she is
so remembered from the story of her unhappy passion for Phaon, and her tra-
gical leap from Leucate into the sea, in a fit of despair. This story, however,
seems to belong to another Sappho, of a later age. It is from the poetess that
the verse termed Sapphic takes its name. Of her productions there now remain
only two odes, full of warm and tender feeling, and some small fragments.

1. There In a disagreement reipecttng the preciie date* which should be assigned to Sappho.
Some make her a contemporary of Anacreon, considerably later than the time above named.
Little is known of her life, and her character is a subject or controversy. The imputations cast
upon her are of doubtful authority, and are supposed by some to have had their origin In the
license of the eomic poets. They may have arisen from confounding her with the courtesan
Sappho, of Eresus, in the same island Lesbos. It is now made quite probable, that the whole
story of the passion for Phaon and its fatal issue belongs to the latter, who was a iiersou of some
celebrity, as seems evident from the fkct that her image was stamped upon some of the Lesbian
coins, a circumstance which Barthelemy* applies to the poetess. A coin, brought from Greece
in 183S, has upon H a female head with the name ZAlIta and the letters EPECI, supposed to
refer to Erenu.

1 /. Ok. Cnaim, Dfalriba 4an»yxpMPirfi« Sapptai •( AamenoMt. Jab. 1768. 4.— 17. F. Jf. Tofpr, DiBtiite htofcylw-qiL d»

8ip|ih« FMlria vita at teripliiu Goth. ISM. S •Mwrtkdtmfi Aoadnnfa, eb. iVL-rr. O. WVLAu^ teppbo «oa einM bn^

KhMdM TonirttMil lMft«j«L OML I81& K—D* BauUndU, Notk* mr U cooninM Sftpphe d'EnnM. Tar. IttZ^f. fT. JUdk-
l^,9ta|ipboiiDdEriaM,Mchlhr«BL«t«abMehrMMB. QiwdL 1888. 8.-SdMit, RiM. Ut Or. bk. iL ch. S.

2. Sappho is said to have composed hymns, elesies, scolia, and epigrams, as well as
odes. The two odes now extant are preserved, the one in Longinus, and the other in
Dionysius Halicamasseus {de Compo»ilione verborum) as a specimen of soft and flowing
style. Two or three epigrams are among the fragments otherwise preserved.

a EdItioML-B.-C r. iVfiM, Or. k Lm. Barl. isn. 4 Othw Ifrk Ingnaa* pnmimi bj him. CC Mmfa JahriiQebw, fer

l«BL voL L Pi. aeS-eSL r^/Vteev* ^ a. SItpkmta (iriih AMcram). Lat Pw. I»i. 4.—}/. C. HW/. Eknlk in& 4. M

l«l v«l. or hh TngmmHB of liM OrMk ptMrnrn, tL—O. t. M. Vtigtr. Ufa, 1810. 8.— £ JL M9biu$. Huaor. I8IS. &->

f StoiifM pW htlwBJlBoriUwofJheot^^Jtot, with AiiMWOB,MbdDir dud (} 6i. D,tb«AiKfor rtqd«ta.^Jton/l«M; ia
dM Hum. CriL or Cmnb. Ckut. Bm^dimt vol. L Loud. I81S; thta tut hifUf nluad.— The od« ai« fbnad ia ami «ditloaa of
Mmamm. ThacpigrumaralBlhtAaaiolocrerJaeote.

4. Tn«btimM.-K^IUk->r. J<MiMn, la Ih* Woiki of Aiiur«». LnwL 1738. a-Cl MiiianH apaotalor, Not. 828, 898.

ItmOu—Jk 9imf, m dlid ( 59. OmMB.—Jlaiiibr, ud Onriiek, dtod f SA. 4.

§ 55. Solon, the distinguished lawgiver of Athens, native of Salamis, and
descendant of Codrus, lived B. C. 594. He wrote several poems. By one
of them he aroased the Athenians to a war with the Megareans, in which he,
AS their general, subdued Salamis. Afterwards he was appointed archon at
Athens, and this was the epoch of his legislation so much celebrated. We
have a series of moral maxims, in elegiac verse, ascribed to Solon.

1. Soloo is said to have engaged in early life in trade, and in this pursuit to have
visited Egypt and other foreign countries. On returning to Athens, be devoted him-
self to poetrv and philosophy. After he was brought into public office, as above men-
tioned, and had established his laws, he again left Athens for ten years, for the sake
of rendering them permanent. He returns and spent the remainder of life in literary
pursuits, and is said to have done much in collecting and publishing the poems of
Homer. Some accounts say that he died at Athens, others at Cyprus, at the age of
80.— His biography is given by two ancient writers, Plutarch and Diogenes LaertiuM,

2. Besides the poetical remains of Solon, there are some fragments of his laws ex-
tant, and a little piece on the pursuits of life. Diogenes Laertius also has recorded
certain letter$t said to have been written by Solon.

a BditkMW.~R— fWtaifc Ufa. f77& 8 ; Om Id vol. of a edlaetioa of Oaomle FMlk— • K. BaiMiu (Balk). Bomm, 1818^ a
— r^^ft <nwp», bj OOtHiut, aa elled \ ». &— Tha OM podleal fIragiiMnli an ia Iha oollaeUoBi of ahtncft, WbiUnom, aad

•Ihm, dud f 47. a flar tha rnpoaali of 8doa*b lawi, Sam. iWf, Lt|M AXOem, fat. IMS. M. iaipimtd ad. bj ^. WlmMHg

hm*. Btf. 1742. III.

4. TtaBdaiiona—EafHih^Of Iha tMUn, la SaasfA Cdlaetiea, at dlid 1 181. 1 GarBMai-.rML TngiuA, la A C.

i.l8».a

i 56. TheogftUf bom at Megara, lived in banishment at Thebes, about B. C.
550. There remain of his poetry 1238 verses, belonging to the class of yvZfwn
{terUerUiw) or maxims.

1 u. They are simple verses or couplets, once probably forming parts of connected
poems ; two poems, particularly, are said to have been composed by him. The por-
tions extant are valued for their moral rather than their poetical character.

2. Theognis is said to have died B. C. 495. His verses are addressed, tmder the

2R

470 HISTORY OF ORXEK LITERATURE.

name of ir^cTymir, a^unialion$, chiefly to i young man to whom he gives counsel on
the conduct of life. He has been reproached for the licentious nature of some of his
sentiments ; yet nothing of this character appears in the fras ments extant. He incul-
cates religious and tilialduty, and recommends cautbn in the choice of friends. ^It

is not improbable that some of the verses ascribed to Theognis are of later origin,
although most of them are thought to be evidently of high antiquity. In 1815, or near
that time, 159 verses, never printed, were discovered bv Bekker, m a Modena mami-
Bcript. These added make the whole number extant about 1400.

a BdHI«pi.-B— Amu. MUbr (witk tt« tiwataiiaa bj OntUit^ LpL ItlS. a—/. T, WtUkar. TnaM. l«a a hrOwenttik
niter (tea (te ihidML H* fiw a Mfw mrtmgmnmt of test, wbirh h oppcwad by O. OHt/mtem, Ttespih TteofMWw> te.
MvIbMi (MlMteMMX I«r. 4.~-r.-fW«g|M. by Mdtu (with Uniod), u cited f ftl. ft.-Tte nnm {umfH Ite I9S) «• Smtf
iBSNaidkVOHnleAali,OWff»#*MiBarPoik(cltadi<7),a^ottereallMlMM. Ob ThvcoK cf. Quart. JkK No. mt.

$ 57. Phocyliduy of Miletan, lived about B. C. 640. He belonffs to the class
of Gnomic Poets. Of the genuine Terses of Phocylides^ only a lew fragments
are extant, preserved by Stobeus.

1 tt. An ethical poem, called the EthortatioH or Admonition, {mtmta vovftrMdv) in 217
verses, is ascribed to him (cf. ^ 31). It is allowed bv the critics to be the work of a
later author, perhaps a Christian of the second or thira century.

a Tlw iwiiM rw«lMori1m7lid« in te »rwMb% Ankete (dtodfaS) aad otter conwHaM.>Tte EiteiMiaa vmpm
prtel«lb7Jtfi»(withttegoidMV«MtorF)rtteffanikiBC£MO»^OrMkOfWMMf). Vto. 14IS. 4. It ii Cnwd ialte«all»
li8«aMBtiooadiiMl«i«T. RteitenpBUhtedMpmldywmilliaMjtertprateUjbr/. J.SbkMP,Or.ft Itf. Liips.t7H.a
-Cr. Arte, Bm. Mat lit Or. pb M.

i 58. Pythagortu^ of Samos, probably lived between 550 and 500 B. C. He
is celebrated as the founder of the Italian School of philosophy. The fragments
called Xpvda trtijt Golden Venet, which commonly pass unaer his name, are pro-
bably from some disciple belonging to a later period.

1. Certain epittUi, and a number of $ymbolieal precepts (itpi An^&tynara) are also
ascribed to him. The name of Pythagoras most properly belongs to the department
of philosophy. Cf. ^ 170.

a EdithMN.— B^& O. Okmdorf. Uph ITIB. a~/. O. UmAm^ar. h ItL BodoW. Itia a T.—Prtntipt,hfJUmi,m

C£flmH»Eriil«BaliObtHmdtad4S7.8).~^.midtem(withltecowkorjK0wteaa ItewMi). Curt. ITOa a-XX

SkMr. LiptLlTEaa ^Tte tmm if* fswd ta Ite eoOMlioai of OmmIc FbUi alriidy cited ; aad tai ON0 A Opanda GiMar.

««t. MBtHiiiim of iBoralia. Lipt lt». a

a T^aMUikm-rNacli.-^AAni*aM(Gr. a rr.). ftr. I8ia a Gcmu^-«. Cfc £M (la tewarti^ All. mat.

$ 59. Anaerem lived about B. C. 536, a native of Teos in Ionia. He fled
with his parents from Persian oppression, to Abdera in Thrace. Subsequently,
he resided at Samos, under the protection of Polycrates the king, and afterwards
at Athens, under Hipparchus. He died in his native place, or at Abdera, in the
85th year of his age. He was a lyric poet, and wrote iif that light kind of ode»
of which love, social pleasures, and wine, form the subjects, and which from
him has received the name Jinaereoniic. The collection of odes ascribed to him
contains many belonging to other authors, some of whom were of a later a^
The pieces are of unequal merit Many of them are unworthy of the praise
whicn the ancients bestowed on Anacreon, and which, beyond qaestion, jasdy
belongs to the rest on account of their vivacity, grace, and lyric beauty.

1. The time and manner of Anacreon's death are variously stated. Common tradi-
tion reported that he died by suffocation, from swallowing a ffrape-stone, while in the
act of drinking wine. This tradition is supposed by some to nave originated from the
bacchanalian character of his poetry.

Herodotus (ili. Ul) and Plato (In HippardiuM) are the authorities for some of the Ikets stated
above.—A learoed life of Anacreon Is given by BamM, In his edition of this poet.

2. He is reputed to have written elegies and iambic poems in the Ionic dialect, be-
sides scolia and epigrams. The odes which have been ascribed to him are 65 in num-
ber. The genuineness of most of them was denied in the middle of the 16th century,
by Francis MoborteUu9i one o( the acutest critics of that age. Their credit having
revived, it was again attacked at the commencement of the last century, by De Pauw,
The same views were enforced by Fistker at the close of the last century, since which
time the opinion above stated by f^henburg has generallv prevailed. The opinion is
confirmed by the fact that, with two exceptions, none of the existing odes are known
to be cited by any ancient author.

a EdS&m.-B.-/a Pfid. FUkr, Lipt ITSa a rapr. 1776, aad ITM, wftk additkm-A Ph. Or. BrmtAt »nA. ITMi H.
^BBn^tt.-J. Fr. Dtgrn. Upa. 8d «d. im. a with a Ganaaa tnariatioa, and alter lyrieal pic«aa.-F. IMtera. OlaffaT.iaB.a

iMiaed ; with told erltkin ; coaiBMadad by Iraailaiar of ScML r.~rH>My, b7 tf. SUfl^mm. LataL Paria. I5M. 4. QmeL

~Mnl4> X. SUpkmnu. Fftria, 1686. a-ZlaM <7toHifHa /tite% Or. at Lat Salmar. tan, !««).— JtortMa, Or. at LaL Ctekb.
n06, 1721. 8.— MaffaAv, Or. at Lat. LawL 17K, 1740. 4. Tun.—Pmma, Or. cl Lat Tr. Rtea. ITaa 4.-SjMlliM, Or. Baa^
rrtl-ia ftA.vai74daadld. <« Mated boat aBeiCBi IB. ef ttia tadh caalory; Ite tjpa^eoaiprateadiH dMi^** •>*<«"rH^«

P.y. POET 8. PINDAR. 471

ihMim<lioribtVatiaalS.»---BadbRi;i>^nB^1784.&btBdMMiMu Aho, Or. k IttL ITM. 4.^-J. A GtaO, Or. tat k ly. Fkr.

ine. 4. Witli immlMiiom, maual idBpUlion, ind eoRnviap. 1801. 4 voh. ». Kr-Si. FotUtt Load. IflOS. IL nol imbM.

Ilf to be oilical; but oarraet, with decwt •Bgnvinp.—J'. A BOht, Lra. 18QS. 11 ntore al^ut Oiu val«tbIa.-J: JET. Fan
Jbaun, AbmL 180& 8l m ht vol. oft colkclioii.— ficM^cr, Lpc. ISOA, 8. it it the iuliflercDt ed. of ^orn (1788) iiBpn>Ted.H & -^
mMkn Hd. I80B. & Thb as giveo la tbe mUMk»ca of Jaeobt h the ta( for ooamon me.— C. CaMlitui,'(with Seppbo). Fior.

ISlSl IbL— C. G. Omn^fuf. Upnl, 182C 8.— r. Brgk. tipa. 1836. 8. Tbe epignw iKribed to ABeciwm ve touad to tto

^lnlU(«y ^/aeote(ef. § 86).

4. TkudettoiM^Eiiciidi.-r. Aonliy. Und. I68S. 8L 1816. \i.-^.JUii»on. Loud. 17SS. IS..-#VN0ta. Load. IT80. 18..-IX B,
DrfuhofL Lend. 1787. 8^r. JTock, 1800. 4. 18181 2 mh. 12, wllb tbe Greek teit CC AL Ace. vol. ii—Afiemb. Or. k AifL

Ld^ 188QL 12. rmdL—DacuF. Amt I888l &— Oitl, above etted.-Silinl Fitter, ntf. 18ia Oermaa.— OMtteck, JMh.

I800L S^Aomto-. fieri. 1801. «.—#'. C. Aww. fieri I80& 8.—^. DrcnI. Luddi 1816. & IlaliaB.~C». MoMfi. Veoel. 1786. 8.

8b IllMtntive.— A C Umridt de indole can^fb Anacreontiel. Alton. 1768. 4.— Aif«s Qbcr d. Fbiloe. det Aaacraoa. ErUac
I778L 8L— / O. fttowidv, ABaierkanfao Qber dea Aaacreoo. Leipc 177a &— Jim«o, Character of Aaecreee, in (he CSterotare
^ vdnutoiufan ZKoUv, cited f 47.—/). A CTr^MAorf, Diaerl. oa the Odea of Anaercon. Lead. 1790. 8.--Foni. ydan, Oa tba
Greek Boaa^ aa iUaitntias tbe imafery of tbe odea aaeribed to Anacreoo, Ac, id Tranioitieiu of Roffot /toe. o/ Liecralura, voL 9d.
Load. 18S4.-r. fV. JticMv, Aaacfeoa aacb aeiam Lebea gcaehricbea. QuedL 1684. S^MUom, ia JaknU JabftAcher, tor 1827.
Sd voL |k £27, m. " (ivtag a aarvcy of racaat Aoacreoatie litoimtura."

$ 60. Pindar^ of Thebes in Bceolia, about B. C. 490, was a lyric poet of tbe
greatest celebrity. He wrote in the higher kind of lyric verse, employed to
celebrate the triumphs of heroes and victors. He sung chiefly the praises of
victors in the great public games of the Greeks. There now remain 14 Olym-
pic, 13 Pythian, 1 1 Nemean, and 8 Isthmian Odes. Many other Hymns and
Paeans, Dithyrambics, Threni ^ep^Jvot), and the like, are lost. Quintilian justly
ranks Pindar first among the nine most distinguished lyric poets of the Greeks
(cf. $ 26). He is marked b^ his lofty sublimity, his bold energy of thought,
his vivid and poetical imagination, and the flowing fullness of his diction.
Horace gives a lyric description of his character (lib. iv. ode 3).

1. Pindar was early taught the arts of music and poetry. Lasus and Simonides
were his instructors. Tbe Greeks related a story of him, tnat once, while he was a
youth, as he threw himself upon the grass fatigued and sleepy, a swarm of bees depo-
sited their honey on his lips, which prefigured the sweetness of his future poetry. In
several instances he lost the prize in poetical contests with Cerinna, who is, however,
supposed to owe somethine to the charms of her person as influencing the feelings of
the judges. He is said .at last to have appealed from them to herself. From all other
competitors he invariably bore away the prize. He enjoyed great honors while living.
The conquerors at the public games counted it a great part of their glory to be cele-
brated in the verse of Pindar, ior which they courted his person, and bestowed on him
the most liberal rewards. A statue was erected to him in Thebes, and was standings in
the time of Pausanias, six centuries afterwards. The house which he had occupied
was spared by the Spartans, and at a later period by Alexander, when Thebes was
laid in ruins. — The age which he attained is variously stated ; some say 55, others 66,
and others 86 years.

For the iacideaia of Fiadar^ Hfe we are chiefly Indebted to PaoMaha ; aooM etrevaataacea are drawa Ann JBIiaa, Flotaieb, aad
sftera. Of the aeeeoata bj aMtderw; lee lAnet o/ lAc Pocto, cited S Al^fntaM ia Tauritti Tiaarialieo, below dted.-V. O,
mmtitv, Venach aber Hadaw Lebea uad Schrifiea. Stnab. 1774. &

2. The division of the odes into four classes is ascribed to Aristophanes of Byzan-
tium. He selected, out of the general mass of Pindar's eflfusions, such as had reference,
more or less directly, to victories gained at the ^eat games of the Greeks ; yet some
are found in the selection which do not refer specially to any particular victory. Sch511
remarks, that some of these odes seem to have been prepared to be rehearsed at the
general triumph of the conquerors on the evening after the contest in the games, and
others for the more private festival afterwards given to the individual victor, by his
relatives and friends.-'One of the Odes {Olynvp. 7) is said by a scholiast to have been
preserved in a temple at Athens, in letters of gold.— The more the odes of Pindar are
studied, the more tbe reader will be impressed with the genius of the author. The
abruptness of his transitions has often been a ground of censure, but with great injustice,
In many cases, where a new topic is introduced with apparent violence, or, as mi|[ht at
first seem, only by a perfectly wild imagination, there is found, on a closer view, a
very philosophical and logical connection.— -There is much of an epic character in the
use of history and mythology, which he so happily employs. The Doric dialect
abounds in his hinguage ; yet tie does not confine himself to it, but adopts iEolic and
other forms where strength, variety, or the peculiarity of his meter demands.

C W. Vmof. Canma, Piadari JageaiaDi, ete. Mhenc, 1804. 4-01 OrtA/um, de Dkleeto Piadarl Obrnvattoaeik Lipa. 1800. 4.
-See alao Land. QKorf. Jtafc vol. v. aad ivUi.-SdUW, Biil. Ut Or. vol. L p. 8T7.-Cf. /. W. JCailAon, Vernieb dace Baweiaea,
daat wir ia Fiadarv SiaceriirmaeB Criunafldiaa Obrig tebea, welche auf GeatBablaa feanafea wnrdea, *«. Lpt. 1806. a-Pi«beo
to HM, died betow {S^^Frmguttr aad otbera, dtcd bdow (8).

3. Varioui forms of poetical coinpoaltion, beiidei odes, were written by Piodar ; as, In tbe
words of Neander, ** Pmanest Dithyravibi, Seolia^ Epitapkia, Encomia, 7%r«iii, Protedim, Partiksnio,
EiUkmismit Baukiea^ Dapknepkoriea, HfporckewuUa,Dramata tm/toi, BptframmuU spies, etc."

472 BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Very little, hnweTer, of all ttala remslne. We have nothing entire except the odes.— Jfick. JW-
ander, Arittologia PIndarica Grcco-Latlna. Baail, 1&56.

4. Edition.— B.-Jur. BOtkk, 6r * I«L Lpi. 18II-S8. 2 vote. 4. jUBinbk.-C. O. Bgfng, Or. k UL Up*. 1817. S nh. t.
— •£ Dimn. Goitm, ItM. 8 Toh. 8. Aftor BOekfa'k ncnakm. Tb« liit Mi. In* ite test, aa iatradKlioB, aad MtiCk^t pkM
or Dolphi awl OlTmpi*. pp. Stt. The 8d vol. eoMbftoT Ltlia ddIm. pp. as«. It ii included is A>A BiMiothea; aad kite

bMt far Uw itndcDL F — /ViiM^n, tko JUtan Vmu MIS. 8L with Ac hjmm of Callimehuh-OiiilMrfi. Bom. IM& 4. «Hm

Adkdltif. rint Qmk book priolod at Bom— & Btephmmu. Pkr. IfiM. 8 vob. S^Awm. adkmtdL Or. a UL eaa ScboL Wit-

loob. 16I& 4^t ff^rni t tVUaUi, Or. ft Ut Owb. 1887. Ibl.— ^ouKf, Or. k UL OIhs. IT44-M-TD. Swb. 18. R.^

XX 0«*. Lipi. 1810. 8 roll 8. Not conplatod^/S'. TMnrt, with a Gomu truirikikio ia Pladarie wio. Lp* l88a8Mliu8L^
naidbiln. Sloioot Lps. 1818. 18.— irimf«i|/or< Or. a Lat l4md. 1814. 8. with aa ahridgMot of AminV Lei. Radailtuafc
-C*. fr. AUuordt, Lipa. 1880l 8. He eoDiceH with BOekb the pfioril7 ot iBT«aiii« a aaw netrieal afrtm for Kadart vatab—
dl. JTcaaiMtfc, Or. ft Ilal. (BMtr. k proee). Km, ISH. 4 veb. 8.— JV«r^ Gr.^(h Eogliib aolca. Umi. 1836. ISL

& TtaBdation.-EB«Iidi.-0. mtt. Loud. 1718. 8 vola. 8.— A J. /y, Bii Odea (oaiiiled bj ITtff). Load. 1775. 8.— E. E.
G^ome. Load. 1778. 4.— K AanMtf'. Loud. 1781. 8.—/. L. OMMone. I«orw. 18ia 4.-J. JKPora, with aolea. Load. 188S. &

-A F. C€ay. Lool I8S8. 18. Fraach.— r. Maurin. ftr. I«I7. 9.—L. C. Oin. Fkr. 1801. 8.-* JL TWrW, Or. a Wr. Tat.

1818. Seola. 8. Gonnaa.-^. (Mtta, (pr.) OlTaipie aad Fyiblaa Odea. Beri. I7T7-78. 8 toIiu 8 -O. Ate (nelr.). Paaif.

180& 8 rots. &>f. B. Bo6k«, (aMir.) OljMpic Odah Beri. i808^71lkMndk, ea above died ; Uchty eMaened. IbdiBB.-.*iL

Jtmadm. Nap. 1788. 8. Lalia veno, /. OeKo. Patav. 1808. 8.

8. UioMTalire.-.tf)n. AHi, Laxieoo riadarieam. Baa. 1606— Damn, Lasieoa Pladarkoia. Bert. t78B.-j: M. Zkmem,
D a m ai i i Nov. Las. eui aobitTtlB Mot eineidatioaei HoaioriaB el Piodariaa. Load. 1887. 4.— Jbrt pobliihad aa takpmved «G-
lioe or Ooaeaa^ 1888. 4. Bepriotcd 18381— J7cnii«m, oa the Piadarie .Motet*, ia Bejae^ edilioa, Sd vol — Juf. AcU, Debar
dio VerMieaie dea PiieL Beidelb. 1808. 8^.^. C Fr. GSTjcM, Mriholoffia Ptndariaa SpodaMo. £rUof. 1780. 4.-Btond^
CempwaiK«dePiad«reeld*Hat*ee. Pkr. 1878. ISL— fVaruur a Mhoim, Ser Pindara, Ac Mnn. (fa rjeod. dbf /mv. il 88; iv.
60S; V.B5; vi. 188, 864.— Alao Sallin', la the niae work, JTmi. 4«; i«. 486 ; x 358 ; aod Di Ctateium, io the mhm, xniL 481 ;
su«.a8e;xxxvii.BI.-iLJ'. 2V*A OnecidatiooeaPiBdariaB. BarL l«7. 8 vola. 8. Qood ia azplaiaiac woHa.-F«iattii«ab
EaHi ear Piadara. Fkr. ITTI. 18.-17. CmfRva, DiMoiiree oa the Piadarie Ode, ia 8d voL oT hia ITorU Load. I7U. 8 voiek 8b
— Aiioit, Mieeellaaea Cntica. Lpi. 1800. 8. (Sect. iL)

$ 61. JEtehyluSn a native of Eleusis, in Attica, floariahed about 490 B. C.
He engaged in military senrice, and acquired glory in the battles of Marathon,
Salamis, and Plataea. He afterwards retired to Sicily where he died. His
naerit was very great as a poet in the department of tragedy. Indeed be was,
properly speaking, the author of tragedy, as he gave it greater unity of action,
mtroduced the dialogue (although the chorus still retained an important place),
employed a more dignified style, and imparted a more noble and elevated cha-
racter to the external representation. Yet we notice a want of completeness
and finish in his plays. His efforts to present terrific or shocking scenes, with
bold and uncommon modes of thought and expression, sometimes lead him into
what is exaggerated, obscure, or unnatural. Nor can we find in him the bean-
ties belonging to a full and regular method.

1. The birth of iEschylus is dated B.C. 525, and his death 456. He is said to have
made his first public attempt, as a tragic author, ai the age of 25, B. C. 499. Six years
after the battle of Marathon, he gained his first tragic victory, and eiffht veara after
the battle of Plataea, he gained again the prize for a tetralogy (cf. P. IV. ^66). — Dif-
ierent accounts are given as to the reason ot his removing to ^^yracuse in Sicily. Some
ascribe it to his disgust at bein^ charged and tried before the Athemans for profanation
of the mysteries in some of his plays, although he was acquitted. Oihere assign as
the reason, his defeat in a poetical contest with Simonides, and in another with Sopho-
rles. Schlegel suggests {Dram. Lit. lect. iv.) that he retired from apprehensions ot the
hostility of the populace towards him, because he had highly recommended the Areo-
pagus as holding a check upon democratic violence.

See r. C. Pttirmij Do fachyli vita, rle. Havaia, I81& &-Llfo or Smeh. ia VafOiy^ edttioa, died bdow (4).

2tt. Of 75 or 90 tragedies, which he is said to have written, only $even remain.
These are entitled Dfioiufieis kapiumK^ Prometheus vincttte; tlrpaai^ Perta; 'Esri M
Orj^aSf Septem contra Tkebaa; 'kyaiikianav^ Agamemtton; Xorf(p6pot, Choephori; Ev^idi^,
Eumenide»t Furies; 'Lrmik;, Sujfplices.

3. The plots of .£schylus are very simple. His characters are sketched boldly.
A lofty and grave spirit reigns in his poetry. Terror is the predominant emotion. His
Prometheus hound is called his master-piece.

JL W. SdtUgtPt Laet. oe Dnmatie Lit. loci, iv Edmh. too. vol. xxwl—Tlmtn ofth* OnAa, dted f 40.— CAoraUM *r eoPi

vehmttm tXckUr, kc voa eioer Qeadladiaft voa Odehrtaa. Lpi. 1789. 8 voIil & vol. li. p. 881.- £ontf. Quarl. Sea. Ul. 888; *.
2C3; uv.

4. Editiooa.— B.-C. a ScMlte, Or. a UL 4fh ed. Halte, 1808-18. S vole. & Repr. LcmmL IBBS. 4 vob. & with LaL van. Aa
cditiooe of SdiQts hare been hlghlf landed hj waam critic* ; bat aa Eagiiah reviewer haa apokea ia a diSbriBl toaa. See liat. ClOi
cum, vol. i p. 108. Cr. DibiinH latrod. dtad S 7. la vol. i. p. S4I.-A Sutler, Or. a LaL Canh. 1M9. 4 vola. 4 ; 8 vob. 8. Cf.
Bdbib. Sto, VOL lix.-^. mumter. Lipa. 1886-81. 8 vob. & the Sd vol. a Uxkon .Bartylwm, called «oed by HenaaMi. Bepr.
Can»b. 1887. 8 volt. 8. withoat the Laaieoa.- C. /. BkmflaWt edilioBB or the aepaiata tiHedtea are ranked vary high, ead aid le
five the poml lest. The gloeiariea appeaded to each ara blgbijr priaed. Ilia rcprial oT Stom/Wd, Lpa. 1888 a. eealaiw addilMe.

F.-I>rwic«pf, b7.dMHf. Voa. I6l& 9. -F. BabarUiUia. Van. IStt. S-rumafriH. Per. 1B62. BL-P«forJi0 (prialad by J7.

aiaphanmy Par. 1557. C— r*. ^lonKy, Or. a Let Lond. 1689^ tsA, It vru very edebrated } the AmodatlaB oT SalfaHk

«auiDb Or. a LaL Haf. Con. 1746. S vda. 4 « to be ahoaaad." CXXMtii.>-/eiilii^ Or. a Lat. 1741 4.a IS — Anon. (SaeB.

F. T. POST 8. SOPHOCLS8. 473

l1H.M.wilkdirigHbrn0iMn. H»fmtbh,ltirmUiofLtt0mhintfLn.p.4a. IXM*l,L^Ml ■.-/.« AiCIK Or.

*UL Lpi.lM& &Boihi(hl7iriMDMdrlXWihJ Mwed. 1831.9 v(da.&>* toe bold beriiidMk»-/.ScJ^^ Cimb. 1808.
&-4 ftM/kr. LpB. IStB. t-S PftutL OUha (bagua) 1835, la Hari% Bibliolh«ca^C SdhuMiO, wp«nt« tngwlm. Lpc 18l8» m.

•.— Ct N. dm. Mm. zzlU. p. COS. & iCntavOi, Upi. 1888. 1. •* lelmUy good."-) K D. IVbalHy, riMnMbm Viactw, with

BBfl. NoiM. Ci i 8S. L

8. Tt«al«tiow.-EBf IUl^JL Pmitr (blank vtm). Norw. ITn. 4. 8d cd. imp. Load. I778l 8 mla. &~For D. A. TUteyau
(pmt) (M. 1828: 8. — Fmeh -f. /. O dUta /Hrle At rfatl (with original k aolca). Fkr. 1798. 8 volt. 81 aho ia new odiiloa of

JHM«yW Tkeat Gr. (bf Jbowf-Jlwhtflr). Far. 1820^ ih— Marqaia dk /*bniplffiwi«. ftr. 1770. 8. Oarmaa.— /. r. £. Amis.

U|ia. 1806. 1808. 2 fola. 8. "loo Braeh mod«niInd."-(Mf/. Fntm. Upa. 1809. R. « da«Beti*e.>» r/N<Arfiia»ti.>-C P*. Omu,
Okrtr.) Gho^itaori. Z«r. 1811. 8 j Paraa, and iba raal, TOb. 1818. 1880. '•good." (Fvlwrnamt.)^* W. van HttmbeUt, Agaaoai*
BOB. Lp& I8I& 4^^ Anoym. B«l. 1882. 2 voU 8. llalba —M. MaOiut (wilb Sopbeclaa ft Euriptdaa). Bom. 1788. 8.

& ntarfialifo.-/. JTcwmtf, JENbjrloa, Sbpboeica, Euripidca, aiv« de tngodlla aonna libri IIL U^ RaL ICI9 j abo la Onmtm
TbaswH Or. tome x.-/. jL Stmitk, da Xichylo c( imprimia ejoa tragaedU, qua PitMaethaaa vinctaa iaaeripto «t, libcilin. Qott
nn, 4.— H AMmmr, aber die Idee d« ScbkkMla la d. Tragmdiea .Achyl. Lpi. (814. &-Car. /r. mmArlkh, ObavraL
oritioB la Aachjrii IfagaBdias, ale. Goit 1809. 9.^0. Anmaiiii, De venibttt ipariw ap. JBwbrlaak Llp^ 1814. 4.— jMnM|%
. TaaiaoMo d« nctria (kb Xaehylo) ia cbor. caai. adhibilia. Load. 1811. 8. CC Sdmi. Rtv. vol. jcriii.— C. P. Bumh^vr, De oar>
mlalboi .SKbrl. a partibia etaeri caalalia. Bruoa. I8U. 8L—K«ii«aiiwt, on BfSS. of JBKbjIua In tbe Satieu 4u MantuerUt, ku
vol. i.aaciiadP. IV.ilOB.8.— mO-FlUKLcjiieonOracanlaTragkoa. Lpa. 189a 4. Coameacad; a csllcttioa of acholia A
giDM fTOBi the aacient gianuaariaai aad of laodara uetta.—JpparaUu OUieu$ ad JEackuhun. Haltei IfSa Int toI ihrmmmea
lary of Stanitn. M wL jiliruekU Aainidvcfyonea. Sd vol. to eootain aotaa froin Tarlooa autbon.— A W. &a<Mn, Indn Gnecl*
tnlla JEKbylea. Crnlab. ISSa &-JL a.Kkuum, TbeoIogoaMna JEschylL Bed. 1889. %.—C. O. Haupt, QuoaUoaea iiaebyleA
Spadmloa i.-- iv. Upa. l9n-9fi.—J. naj(iii«ii,Gompoiitioai ffou the Tragadica of fidiylaa; 38 beautiM ontllora. Lond. 1881.
10.— K. 0. Jfliifcr, (Eag. traaJ. fnm hia Oewa.) fliawitiliiiBi ob the Kamaaldto^ with the Qraak toal, ke. Caaab. 1836. & Cf.
Ltmd. Quart Jbe.8ept. 184flL p. 916.

i 63. SnphoeIe$^ born at Colonns, near Athens, was the g^reatest author in
Greek tragedy, and not without honor as a warrior. He flourished about 450
B. C. He improved the tragic staple by introducing a third speaker, and by
limiting the office of the chorus, which, with him, appears rather as a contem*
plative spectator, than a real participator in the action represented. His trage-
dies have the merit of a regular and judicious plan, a striking truth in characters,
and a masterly and enerffetie expression and play of the passions. They are
full of feeling and full of nature.

1. Sophocles was about 30 yean younger than .^schjrlus, and about 16 older than
Euripides (^ 39). In early youth, it is said, he was beautiful in person, and made rapid
attainments. His father, Sophilus, was wealthy, and furnished him with the best
advantages for education. At the age of twenty-five he brought forward bis first tra-
gedy, for a prize. It was in a memorable dramatic contest, m which ^schylus was
a candidate, and Cimon and his nine colleague-generals, after their victory over the
Persians near the Eurymedon, were the judges. Sophocles received the prize by their
decision, B.C. about 468. He won the nrst prize in such ooniests twenty times, while
jEscbylus gained this distinction but thirteen times, and Euripides but a still smaller
number. The unnatural ingratitude of his family, in attemptmg to deprive him of his
property on the charge of dotage, furnished him an opportunity to acquire new slory ;
ne read before the court his (Edipus at Colonus, which he had iust composed. In ad-
miration of the piece, the judges not only rejected the suit of the family, but escorted

the poet from the place of trial to his own dwelling. He died about B. C. 405, noi
long before the defeat of the Athenians at .£goB-potamos. Discordant and marvelous
tales are related of his death.

SaeGolt J^ Lmingt Labaa dee Sopbokka (ed. Ew*w^i). BwL 179a •.— Gb«nU«ni rfv vomiAiiMlm DkMm'ifiUHi
f 61), iqL Iv. p. 98.-/. Seteilts, De Fita Soph. oomBaatatio. Bari. 1838. 8.

2«. Of a great multitude of plays composed by him, we possess only seven: vis.
*Amv fMtrtyofspoff Aiax Flagell\fert Ajax bearing the lash; "HXbcrpa, Electra; Oiiimf^
Tfpaavost CEdiptts King; 'Ayrtyovti, Antigone; OiiCnnfMKjolXamSj (Ediput at Colonut;
TMKtytM, The TnuAintan women; ^i>Mr^n}f, PhUoeUtee. The third of these, CEdipue
King^ is esteemed as the best.

3. Different statements are made respecting the number of tragedies composed by
Sophocles. Suidas makes it 123. It is commonly judged that the true number is
about 70. Many of the plavs, which were ascribed to him, are thought to have be-
longed to his son lophon and grandson Sophocles. — He was called by tne ancients the
Attie Bee, to designate the sweetness and grace which characterized his works.

8aeSMNteft,DiHkdelageBbaDphoclai. Eriai«. 1789. 4.-StU«ar» Dtaa. Ut leet. lv.^Sdkn^ Hiat. Lit Gr. voL IL ^^a

4. Bd|tion..B.-JLf.M.»uficft,Or.ftUI. .Afgoa. 1786-aS vol8.a rapr.oftaa; baal,Ost l89a8voiib 8. Uwd.1884.4

voMk k>«C. O. J. Krfuhrdt. Upa. ISOS-ll. 6 vok aaacb voIbbm oae play ; (Ed^piu GahauHf waa aapplladta a 7lh voL by flWr

and nUmrkln with a Lericea. la I986.^a P. W. MmMm. Waim.l8S»47. 8 wla.8. wUhQarMaBO««a;aBda Ap«oliiHc*M

IFaMwvaidMHi. 18ia 2 vola. 8. F.- J>KnM|M, bj .dUkia. Vea. MOS. 8.^AMla (/Mndniw ed.), can Sehol. Flor. 1689,

1647. 4.-7^frTMbitf (with (ha Schol. oT Ami. TVidMua). Fbr. 1669. 4.—^. 9kfhBMmM, Pkr. 168BL 4.— Qnil«itf. Antw.

I698L IL Bapr. Lagd. Bai. 1899. Mmmm, Gr. k Lat. cam. Schol. Oiob. 1706. 2 wk 8. 9d vol. Load. 1746. Baprialad,

LaBd.l7i8L and Etoa. 1776. thia leal edIL by /. TuMrfb la BMrt eonaci (Pttrfin, U. p. 4l9.>~Caffaien<y (flBhbad by ranaa.

Itet). Or. k Lai. Par. 1781. 2 voli^ 4. fU-P. B. Botkt, Gr. kU». Lpa. 1896. 2 vola. 8. repr. Or. !«7.->0. B. BeUfir. lp%

laiatvola.— ;0.ifarrMiin. Lp& 18B4. 7vota. U. Tba tol 9 voh^ by A^UML Bapr. UBd. 18ia f tab Sl-S. IFhNAr

60 2r2

174 HUTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

OoOa (oel flakhfll), im. la Jloi<*« BiMfarthM*.— f r. Nmu. Lps. IISI. %.—X P. BnuHih I^ad- in6L S «bb. t. Btpr. vlft

MdditioB^ L{«. I8>7. or Ite aditioM of tiBfle tra|«lt«^ a hw ooljr a* tw Bo(k«d.~AJAX. B- AoUor (viib Saliger^ bmM-

cal vwBioii). Willob. lOea 8.-J: O. BiTiuM. Witt«Db. 1740. «.— • Ch. Jftg. Lattek, fld ed. Lips. 18K. flL-EIXCTRA. (Or.
UL k Ilal.) Rom. 17M. 4.-0. Int. CM. Sektffiv. HtlBK. 1794. ».-( r Z) Ffoobty, (with latigonc) with Eng. Hdm. OL

63. 6.-a:DIPUS T7RANNUS. J. H. C Barhy. BcrL 1807. ft.— />. ftmiity. Ozfl 1811. 8. laipr. Li pi. 1821.-^ '•««*<*
with Bnfl. DOtM. Audo. IM8. li.-ANT100NE. /. H. C Bariy. Bcri. 1806. 8.— { f. C. Wet. Lip*. ISSa I vote. 6.-<£DI.
PUS COLONEin. • C. ttdtif. Jma, ISML 8. ud 2 volt, of Oofiimmt. ml. Jea. I8S2. %.—J. Abmc, with Enclab aoia.
Laid. 1828. 19. (in «»• maoiMr, elhw- piwrt.)— ^. flnuby. Oxf. 180. 8.->TlUCHINl^. /. Q. Ok. B'vfnmr. Lip*. 1781. %.
-.£. /. Mitftecft. HiMah. 1901. 8.— PHILOCTETES. AittfMim. BerL IffiS. 8l— •/. ^. MmMm. Alt I8B8. B^-a Atfw
|»M. with Ea«i. nolM. Losd. 1883. 8b

& TnadaUoiM.-fiaSlMi.~r*. TnmMbk. (bL var.). Load. 1780. 4. fanpr. cd. I788.~JL PMtr. Load. 1788. <.—T. JDMl
Load. 1814. &— For A J. TWtoyt (pitM). OxL ISM. 9 volt. 8.^7. W. C Bdwardt^ Or. ft Baf I. pnn (Antifoa^ (Edipvi Res,

FbilocictM). Load. 1884-27. & FrMek-Atpvy. Tu. 1768. 4.-Oua. dH »aek$fbru Pkr. 1T88. 8 volt. 8. Ovan.-

Coaat atoOvi. Huab. 1813. 9 vol*. &— • C. fT. />. A^pr. Bwl. 1808. & aaw od. 1824.

& IllMtrativc— • r. BUndl, Loz^eoa Sofihacleaai. Region. (KOoigik) 1838. 8 vdc 8r-V. O. V. JKMiel» KritiMin V«r>
Neha Obor Sophocloi Tn«adicn. Mao. 1824. 8.— A W. Biatiaa, lodai Gmeitilii SopboelM. Cuil. I880l 8.— A Oath, Mote ad
Tragieor. Oraeor. Valor. Aiehyli, SopbocHi, Buripidli, qos wpenoat, Draoula, daperditoruB^aa raliqaJMk Os. 1762. L— f^
rndce,CoauB«aLoalh«(EdipaiTr'«aBU,iBhU AMyf JfornlwuiXiitfary. Load. 1779. &

$ 63. Euripides was born &t Salamis, of Athenian parentB, B. C. 480. He
was instructed in rhetoric by Prodicus, and by Anazagoras in philosophy.
Socrates was his familiar friend. He died B. C. 406, at the court oi Archelansv
kinfi^ of Macedon. His talent for philosophy and eloquence appears in his tra-
gedies, which are strikingly naarked by sententious passages and pathetic
scenes; in this respect he sometimes violates tragic dignity. An easy and
regular method is found in all his pieces. His characters a^ designed with
exactness, and are less ideal than those of Sophocles. With much fidelity and
troth in expression, he unites great richness and fullness. Most of his plays,
of which he composed at least seventy-five, are lost; teventeen or eighteen how-
ever remain, besides some fragments, and the C)/elopa, which was a performance
of Euripides belonging to the satyrical drama (cf. § 44).

1. Euripides remained at Athens until wiihin a few vears of his death. He went to
Macedonia on the invitation of the king, Archelaus. Several causes are suggested as
influencing him thus to retire ; domestic trials, the abuse and ridicule received from
Aristophanes, and public prosecution on a charge of impiety. His death is said to have
been occasioned by an attack of some ferocious hoiinds, in which he was so mangled
that he expired not long afterwards. He was seventy-five years old.

For Iho biography oT Baripidai, lea (beaidoi tbo woifcs fabnad la in H?) bh Lib bjr aant«, la PnL to biaodHSoa balnw ciiad
(!),aBd by itotrtoptilm, TOamat ilii^i**', aad Ailiit OMMm, faoad ia JftMgraa<'< adittoai aad tba aaonjaioaB Lifa ia liawl^^
adilioaortb«5aedla.

2. Euripides is said by some to have composed 120 dramas. A catalogue of those
lost is given by Fabrieius^. Those which remain bear the following titles: 'Ec^^i,
'Ophrrit, ^Ivimatf fAfjUta, 'hnr6\vro: ontttanf^dfiOi^ Hyppolytu* Coronifer, 'AXttjirnf, 'Ai^-
It iKrij 'iKhrtki, The Female SuppHaiUe^ 'I^cy^ma h Iv khXiii^ ^l^iyivtui h h Tovpoif , Tpto^,
The Trojan Women, Baxxat, The Female Baechanah, 'HporXcr&i, 'EX^mj, Itav, "HporXif
itaitfOfuvos, Hercules furenSt lIX^xTpa and 'P.^Jooy, Rhesus. This last, however, is consi-
dered as spurious, by some of the best critics'. The principal fratrments, are of two
pieces entitled ^aBav and Artvaif.— -^The Medea is generally coneidered as one of the
best pieces of Euripides. It is said that Cicero was reading this, when arrested by the
ministers of the proscription.

t InhkBtbUoULOrme. 8m vol. ii. p. 894, a. •Oa OMaattbarorpIaeoaanrfnaaby EoHpidaa, whaf laaafaia, whKtl«t,te.

cf. Fuimuum, Ktaia. Haadb. p. ISI.-SeMHI. Hiii. Litt Or. H. p. 88.— FUdkMttr, Dtalriba la Earip. dep«4ilor. dma. raUqaiia.
I jpi. I«4. 8.— fV-. Oaonn, Epht. ad Ifatihicum, do aaaaollb &baianiB Eoripidia dopard. lihiiia. in fV^f*$ titarar. Aaatahica
(vol. 8d, pw 687). Sari. I8M.— fa Iba mnt wark (Anakktaa, vol. 8d, p. 892). fiber dea Prologaa der Dumb (oea of tba fngaiHrta
ahova aaoied).— ^. jBBcU, GntoB tracoBdia priaelpam, XMbyil, Sopboe. Borip. bvoi aa qiuamparwat at gemina omnia tial, «l
fema prinitiva wrvata, ale. Haiddb. I80a 8L-£ran(Mm, wr la Iragodia da RhoMia. la Mem. dh Mead, du Amt. d 3. Xatt.
tool, z.— doM. /oum. No. zllil.— Oo diflaraat phji^ Land. Quart. Bm. iii. 187. viL 441. Ii. Si9. xv. 117.

3. Ancient authors refer to a production of Euripides, styled 'Eirur^iair, i funeral song,
in honor of Nicias and others, who perished in the fatal expedition of the Athenians
against Syracuse. There exist also^ve letters ascribed to Euripides.

Tha lelten may bo fouad fa tba editiom of Sbnui, il«ek, and o«ban.— Saa AMO, ii. p. 64. Tba gmihiaBM of Smm loNoia k
diaciwad ia IL BmUewU Uimni. upoo tbo opbtlta of Phalaria, *& U>nd. 1816. ftrrt poblWMd In mttmU Baflael. oa Aac aad
Mbd.r^ming. (Cf. P. IV. ( 89) ; givta ia JbRlby** Wocfca, ad. by .d. iTyob Load. 1638. 8 veb. 8.— Coup, f imauki of Bmk, ia
tba Glasgow aditieo of Enrfpidaa, voL vil. p. 790.

4. In comparing Euripides and the other two masters in Grecian tragedy, it may be
said, that he ranks first m tragic representation and efifect ; Sophocles firet in dramatic
symmetry and ornament ; and JSschylus firet in poetic vigor and grandeur, .^schylus
was the most sublime; Sophocles the most beautiful; Euripides the most pathetic
The first displays the lofty intellect ; the second exercises the cultivated taste ; the third

P/y. POETS. EURIPIDES. EMPED0CLS8. 476

indulsee the fee1ui|r heart. Elach, as it were, shows you a fine piece of sculptare. In
iEschylas, it is a naked hero, with all the strength, boldness, and dignity of olden time.
In Sophocles and Eutipides, it may be perhaps the same hero : but with the former,
he has put on the flowing robes, the elegant address, end the soft urbanity of a polished
age ; with the latter, he is yielding to some melancholy emotion, ever heedless of his
posture or gait« and casting his unvalued drapery negligently about him. 'i'hey have
Deen compared by an illustration ih)m another art : ** Toe sublime and daring JEBchy-
lus resembles some strong and impregnable castle situated on a rock, whose martial
grandeur awes the beholder ; its battlements defended by heroes, and its gates proudly
Eunjg with trophies. Sophocles appears with splendid dignity, like some imperialpalace
of richest architecture, tne symmetry of whose parts and the chaste magnificence of the
whole, delight the eye, and command the approbation of the judgment. The pathetic
and moral Euripides hath the solemnity of a Gothic temple, whose storied windows
admit a dim religious lig[ht, enough to snow its high embowed roof, and the monuments
of the dead, which rise in every part, impressing our minds with pity and terror at the
uncertain and short duration of human greatness, and with an awful sense of our own
mortaUty.*' {Potter.)

Oa Ibe chinctar oT EoripidA tad hh wrlllnp, conp. SeUefd; Dram. LK. leel. w.^Omr. vonnhnuL DieM. (cH«d f 61. 8)
voL V. p. S38.~ Jvttctany, Aaaehanb, db Ux.-CbrftMi, VwNch* am der LKanfar and MoraL Th. i. p. K.— /V. /oeote, Airf.
mdvOT. in EaripMoD. Golb. 179a Sb-^mic, Com Swoda ia Ewip. Uph 1796. 8w— Ifaofvc, 9iir 1m tioh Ptata ir^iqaM
daUGvecft Jfen. dH PMHiM. Claaic Alaf. tf Amhc JrCt, foL i. p^ KSw—l'.A AAmOikir, D« EoripWaphiloMpko. Ofoo.

ISM. •. EttripidM ii dtfeadad from tbacommoa dMrga of mimitjvy la tha waik aiylad Bint»lamam Papim thm pMbt.

iMHdjm^gert, btnamcgabaa von JT. B. Jftydanraicfc. Lps. ITM. 8.

S. Bdiikwa.— R—Kananan, Or. k Ut. (publidwr, PHmUtifi, Olaac. iSi- B voIil 8. wry U^ly eommaadad bj DiWIa ; Uta
last at aadi play drawa from tha moM amioaitf editor of that play.— Aek. Or. k Lat Lipa. 1778-88 S vola. 4.-t HattMmt Or. k

Lak Lipa. l81S-ni Baolt. 8L voL L-iil. Tcst\l«. v. Sckolia; tL-vIU. Note; ix. m«manta T.-Printtp$, by JBduM. Vea.

IMS. a vohi 0. «ir it. JDMfH.)— Thavi ma an adilfcm of /our playi, pethapa aarllar, boi •rilboat dair, priatad at FloneoeL— Ar.
WC«m BMJI, 1587, IM4, l»L (IhrM adiikm) 2 volt. t^-Opartntu, Or. k UL Bmil, 1662. M.-C«nC«nit. Aalw. 1»TI. IS.-
CommtMn, Or. k Ut. Haiddb. 1887. 8 voii. 8.— P. StapAomif, Or. k UL Gcnav. lOML 4.-} Banu$, Or k Ut. Caatak 1884,
M. M adipwd all preMdiag editiom.— ATiufraM, Or. k Ut. Oion. 1778. 4 vola. 4. diflinmitly Mlinuled by eri'in.-IVulu, Or.

k Ut Ola^p 1797. 10 voti. It. B.— £. gmwtfwiawn. Or. * Ut. rrueoC ad M. (Fnakbrt) 1808-18. 4 volt. i^F. H. JMAa.

Upi. 182S. 8 voli. 8.-JL Pormm (Hecuba, Orertaa, PbcniaM, k Medei). Uod. I8& a-Aama. with BOta« by ffrnnmn. Up».

ItM. a-^ J. /. £ PJIugh, la RoWi Biblielbaea. Tb datail aditkm of di^la playi woold take loo maeh ifMco: lBNi« tba

■nrtail«hitfadaditonai«,O.Amiaim,BaeebB. Lpa. 18811 Aleatlia. Lpa. 1814. Reeaba. Lip^ 1881. fte.— />.fi(mlif,
Baaahm Lipa. IKI. Medea. Oaf. 1818.— £. C. FUdkmftr, PhCBBletm (ra&ed.) Lipa. 1824.— 7. JZ JTonl, IIIppoly
l u 1. Canbw 1829. (cf. Loni. Quart. lteo.vA.xr.) 11 e a • I i i. Camb. I8I& The foUowInf dwuld be aoticad t /. R. Mikjart

(Becuba, Ontlea, PfaooiaMB, k Medaa). Load. 1838. 8. with Eafl. notah-^ T. D. IToolMy, Aleeet I ■ (with the Promatham ol
JBKhylua, aad the ABliioaa k Eladn of Sopboclo), ia bit Aledisn tfOntk TVoftdMt. Sort. 1887. 8 toIi. 19. with Ei«L aota;
dMlgBadfcrScheobaadCoilt«ak-^.fritxKAal, Medaa. Lipa. 1841. & pp. ISO— tC O. Fimtalcr, Iphlgeaia, ialulia.

Lpa. 1841. a pp. 808, with Comm. k ExcwiaMa. ^Tba Cyelope Nparalcly; B8p/Hir. Lipa. ITML 8.— Cum Mtia ■aria'

mm. OlaaK. I8l9. 9. Or. k Ul.

& Traadati(NM.-0«rmae.-Jl A BMm. (motr.) Bctl. I80a Bvola. & (nair edit. 1887.) Fraaeh^^. IViwwf. Ftf. Vm.

S vote. & aad IB Bntme^ Thoaira dee Otaea. EagliA.- JL PoUtr. Land. 1789. 8 voth 4. and later.— JU: tnodtrntt. Load.

ITSSL 4 mi. 8. 1808: 8 rob. 8.-7. m C AhoarA, Or. aad Er«. proaa. (Madae, Heeaba, Fboaiub, Akaalie). Und. 1881-84. a
— By« timnUr ^ tkt Untomltf. (pram). OiL 1860.82. 8 vob. S. iaeliidii« Hecuba, Oraiaa, Fbamhaa, Medaa, HippoiyiH,*

7. lllaabat'i«a.->i. MiaffMB, Laaiaaa Earlpidaom (oooHaaad by C A MatOiim). Lipa. 1841. &-a D. BtA, ladai Qnpdtatla
Eoripidaa, tepfotad ad. CanK 1889. 8.-C Pr.Jtmmom, Um. da Eurip. Hecuba. Ert. 1788. 4.— JV. N. Menu, Fng. da FhsBaimb
Ear. Lipa. 1771. 4.— A ^Winner. Debar die Medea too Eoripidea. Lpt. 1790. 8.— Haulmoaft, da phihMophia Evripidea, ftc
is tha Commtnil. doae. kiH. tf pMIot. Ac JUg. Ikkntiar. tarn. it. aad ia IfueeB. Qrme. Drum. Cambridce^— C. A. mtHgtih
pieiailBBM iL da Medea Eurip. cnm priaem artb operiboi eomparala. Wain. 1608. 4.-X IT. SdU^at, Conpar. eatra la Fhadfa
da Badaa ct edic d*EoripUa^ Par. 1807. 8.— 1. Jbctnc k JBalUame, ia Mm. dt VJhad. dm imar. fte. torn. viii. z. illi.— Bbnr.
J«f . ZuUttUt Diep. qaa noe Onaeonim laftulae iipcaMdl ex varia eerlplar. aatlq. maxima Eoripidii looo lUartntar. WUtaabb
r»8L4.-^i>./arf*«B,IlloaintiaMaaaMAloartia,loo,aBdBaeete. Laod. 1788-60. 8 vok a

$ 64. Empedocletj of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished about B. C. 440*
may be mentioned here as a didactic poet. He was one of the moet eminent
men in his native land, and dtatinguished as a philosopher and nataralist.
That from ostentations pride he threw himself into the crater of iEtna, is a
fable; he probably died while journey ingr in Peloponnesus.

1 14. A poem Ul three books, an the nature ofthingt (Ilept ^cu; ruv Syrw) is ascribed
to him by ancient authors. It was imitated by Lucretius (cf. ^ 357), and a fragment
of it still remains. Another poem, called the Sphere (£^(/w) was ascribed to bun, but
it is undoubtedly from some later author.

8. Other productions were ascribed to him, particularly a number of verses under the
name of KaOapfiotf and a poem called larpucdf \6yoi. Some have considered him as the
author of the so-called golden verses of Pythagoras. In philosophy he was a disciple
of the ItaUc or Pythagorean school. His Life is given by Diogenes Laertius.

Mr hia pUlampbieal «ic««. ■ra AijMA Hirt. PhlL bk. H. ch. siL f 8. (wL L p. 480. IMUia, 1798).-ir. MtUr. ia WOfi Aoa*
laMM, «oL iL p. 4II.-Ci«yte'« FraacbTraaa. of IbmammiR'* Hilt PbiL vol. L | IO&-A K C Ummaitie*, Die WairiieildM
Bmpadoalai,*e. Bart. I8aa a

a. Editiew.-B.-vfV m Shn, Bmpadeclm Iffrlfaortna, te. Lipa. 1808 8 ««ik & CanlalBiBi hb peetirat tVafmoati, aad
*e a vkw of hU life, chancier, writiac^ te.-^ Ayrmi, Smpadedb at PhnNaidH Piafmaala. Lipa. 1810. %. Tba poM

476 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

•r Iha apkn «M poMkM by F Mm^ (Fv. IW. 4), as Ik* mrit oT Am. TVMMut, pnteblyMihor of fb* copT ^t Ml hrti
flMbtadtoT Moral. Bfaoflly ■TMr (I6n. 4)aUtie tnmlMwmbf ^ a^. Flanni. CAnMiMM.— Tk« MfiMl ui Iha iMitatia
tyfclhhili*. DmLiTll. 4.-Bo«bfe<uilalMiaAiHmM,(liaiki«L)fol.Lp.fli«.

$ 65. Jruinphanet lived at Athens aboot B. C. 430. Hia natire place ia not
certainly knewn. He ia the only comic poet of the Greeks, from whom any
complete play a now remain. Ariatophanea possessed a Tery fertile ^reniua, a
lively wit, true comic power, and Attic elegance. We are obliged, however,
to charge him with bitter personal satire, and ridicule of worthy men, especially
of Socrates and Earipides. This, it is true, was in accordance with the charac-
ter of Grecian comedy at that time, as was also his abundant contempt for the
common religioua belief. Hia plays furnish a valuable means of learning the
state of manners and morals among the Greeka in his age.

1. He WM pmbtbly a native of JBjiina. He to atippoeed to have died abont 360 B C, at tbt

age of 80. Jfiek. FritekUn, Life of Aristopb. prefixed to KiuUr** edition, cited below —i'Wr

•Msm Klein. Handbucb, p. 103.

2 «. Of more than fifty comedies written by him, only eleven arc extant. They are
Btyled, 'AxapwU, ihe Achamiatu; 'IwwtU, Kni^htt; Ne^lXo*, Clouds; W«y, Waw]^;
Eif/fhfi, Peace; *(V«flef , Birds; Aoaurpdrri, L^gtttrtUa; ewfioptfua^fi vo*, Females keeping
the festival Btaiun^a (in honor of Ceres) ; Barpaxf^t Frogs { 'E«X7ffti>«reM, Females in
Assembly ; UXt^TDf, Flutus, aod o( ticheB.

3. In the 'Axapwif , the author attacks Eunpidcs, and in the e«/ie^op»a;«w« and B<-
Tpc^i also brings him particularly into view. It is in the Ne^iXm that Socrates is ridi-
culed ; many have supposed that the poet merelv intended to ridicule, under the naoie
of Socrates, the sophists in general, and that thi.^ plav had little or no influence in
reference to the trial and condemnation of that phitosopner.

BMtgd, Dram. Ut kd. tL foL L p. 9)S.--AA;tt, Hitt. Ut Or. vol. II. p. m.^MileUa^ In th« htlndiution to bk TrurfaSaa
<Ct Xat^ Bm. vd. xniT. Narth Jimtr. Am. toL liv. London Quarttrtft *ol- xziti.}— Arha. d« CooMlio Arirtoph. la tai-
Ind. OMMnL Nmhm iBKriplk Eriuc 1787. Baawrhi on Ari«to|ilMMi, and (bat pirt of bit life which nUtaa l» Sacfalm
LomL 1788. a-Fora «tow oT th« ehafaetaror ArMopfaaM and ha wrilinf^ wa add CkorsU. wnMAfiut DiM. (cilad^ei. L)
«•(. »IL p. im-LoiidL QMMt. Se^ wd. iJt p. UI^AXwn, ia Iba Mi^m. A PJaad. Ai Mnr. It. M<.^I«h«t,i> tha«MM «h.
MMS.n,taHkUkml,ZMMiM.m. £— ^—.to Jfaw. Af/m<ltiil,CUaaa dalil. tf Jiir J/<f. wL i. p.844.

4. BditioM. B^* Imm, JcUcr, Or. k Lai, Load. IflB^ 6 voh. S. With Sahoite, vafioH raadinsi, and lola of diSbraad

crHici.-.AwM*, Or. k Ut Stmt. 1783. 4 vob. 1 Bepr. Ost 1811. 4 voh. L with tba liaileoa AfuMpbaann of/. Sanap, aa
Mb toL-.taamis, JIhI, k Dindarf. Upa. 179S-I8S4. IS vela, a Vol. I. il. Ttat ; iiL-li. Netat; i.-xli. Sehelb; lUu Uiia

vmioa, with MUdidtt Pa>l«|. T,-~Priiiapa, bf jUdiu, (Mare. JAtfunn ed.) Vca. UH. M. MB Schal. (9 vm»d\m.}-nhamtm.

Vlor. 16I&. 8 ; IBi& 4. (ad Frmiekmia.}-CntamSvi (ad. & Orynaw*). Baril, IU2. 4. (FM eoalaiaiav II coaiadlia.)— Bh»
mmi Vaa. Itaa a-fWiftOT. Saaa. IMT. fal.~iV<e. fW«Mm Or. a Ul. rraacoC ad M. IWr. a-^BmA Airfw, Or. a LbI.
AanL AlUbt. Wl. UL—Lmi. AiiC«r, Or. a LaL ImL 17ia foL Vary hlgbly iHiaaaad, Jteiiw, fatbar P. JhtfiMn (»Sb

Bouaora Jw|lw>aadaiiiii^),Or. aUt Li«. Bat 1780L 8 vela. 4. B.-^a«Bta<a. tp*. 1881. a OoMMeead;

MV«rloUiad^.«M/kr. Lps. W\L 9 nita. i^r. B. BeOta. Lpa. 18N, 101. 4 vela. a^r. JMIcMI, Acharanaai^ Avw, a Vapi^
wUbB^iAaolah iMd. I8M. a^EdUkM oT aipanUa playa eaaooC bare ba aud : by MaUaciboo, HaoMteibid^ Haflaik KmmI,
Hamua,HapteivBlMlaf,Bark,WeK.ae.( waMiiMeBlrtCC.fU«)R,Ci»adi. Camb. 1841. IL

ft. Tiaadalioab-OarmB.— /. & Fm, with nolea. Braueaeliw. 1821. 8 vela, a Ceouseadad by rahnnana. fmuA^L

PelmUiMiaSiwrv. Tu. ITSi. 4 nk. n^~^ a Bnlim; in tha TImtn daa Oraea. HaU»n^B. ^ P. RoaOtnL ▼«a.l644.a.

Ci«lHh.— n. MikkdL Canh. 1817. 8 vohb L wHh valaaUa boIm and pialialnary diMrtethw.— Ctankrtaiitf (aad elbaiS*

or Iba OouA, llMhii^ Aoft, and atr^ Load. 1818.

1 PhMlralive, Jkiatg, OoaJaelaaeonBi la Arbteph. Lib. ii. Ufa. 1811 8.-^. /. AiMfteMP, dtod f 41.-^. O. IPOto.
wma, da EtbepoBia aoaica Af irtepb. Bari. 1781 S^-V. JKediv, Din. fsplieaaa AatlqaHaa AiMopbaaaaa. Upa. 1788. 4.-lta
hafMBt or PkOardk flontaiaiaf a aompariaM of Ariatophaaaa and MaMadar.~Nliic. AMIir, da Arialoph. CiacBeattau BaBa^
Sax. 1811 4.-0taai. Air. Ne. nviii—C. JL BStUtat, Ariatophaaaa Inpaailaa Daoran Irrtar. Lipiu 1781 1~^. Datraa, Ati»
taphaalm rbnoai. CaaL im 1-C l^ama^ Appaiatgi crH. ad Arialopb. Upiu I8B8. Il->i: Carauaitii, ladn Aiiilinihiii
ca^ a& OsL 1884. 1— A /. MOtatkir, AiMopbUM oad aaia Zaiultar. BavL I8IT. 1— C. P. Brmaum, Da paraow Nacte
apiid Arialopb. Marl 1881 4.

i 66. Msnander^ bom at Athens about B. C. 343, one of the later comic poets
of the Greeks. He wrote numerous comedies (§ 43), of which we possess only
slight fragments. The loss of Menander is the more resetted on account of the
praise bestowed on him by Quintilian (x. l\ Some idea of his manner may
be obtained, however, from the imitations of nim in Terence. Philemon is osii-
ally named in connection with Menander, as a contemporary and rival.

1. Menander died at the age of about 50 ; Philemon, a native according to some of
Sicily, but according to others of Cilicia, lived to the great age of 97 or 99. The former
was rather a voluptuary ; the latter was particularly temperate.

Xbloe^/M, OB Moaaadar, Jfan. JoaiL Amct. voL xlvL pb in.-SMb«ir« Dnai. Ut lad. viL-^DttnJv. uetaiT.Vf.
11011

1 XdUiaak-B.-^ CL JMnaEla. BarL ISO. 1 FVagMala of Mawadar aad PhllaMBf with Bartayh emeailatinafc

IbayaiataadialbBeollaeHeaacitadldl Thai of Z« Ore aecaaioaad a bitter lUaiaiy war. (&Ma,ULp.81 auim,US.\.
9^ 481 Brav. Nat Fb 881)-^. GL StibMMr. VialU. 1811 1 wilh .S«p*b rbUaa.

$ 67. Lyeopkron^ a poet and grammarian, bom at ChaJcii in Eubcea, floQilah-

p. y. POST 8. LTCOPHRON. THEOCRITUS. 477

ed in the time of Ptolemy Pbiladelpbas, B. C. about 284. His i>erformaiic«
suled 'AXflovipot Jkxandra or Caeeandra, was improperly ranked ia the class
of tragedies; it is a monologue or monodraraa, in which Cassandra predicts te
Priam the fate of Troy. This topic is interwoven with many others, pertaining
to the history and mythology of different nations, so as to render the poem ob«
scare and heavy.

1 . Lycophron was a writer of tragedies, and was ranked among the Pleiades (cf. ^ 40).
A work also on the subject of comedy ^ TUfi iwiuoilas, was written by him. The loss of
the latter is more resretted than the loss of his dramatic pieces. The grammarians of
Alexandria collecteda mass of materials illustrating his Cattandra, from which John
Tzetzes compiled a large commentary. (SchSlh iii. p. %.)

1. Editiow.~B.-Clk. O. MUtUr. Ufa. 1812. S vote. 8. with the Sebcilia of TtelMi (CL DOdin, iL p. SU. StaU»I» ilL 106.)

-£. Bmdmamt, Lp*. 183a 8. T-PrtMft, by^flAu. Vco. 1818. 8. With Pladw aod C»Uia»am^Patuylm w P,

UMit$. BMa,l84&fbL {CH)iUin,lup.90L)-1V.Camtm.Btm\,t9M,4. With brief aoUiaad I «oLttiatnMialipM,OM
m pnmbjCntv.tbttaiH in ^nm bf Jot. aeQHtir-t/,Faaa', Or. kUL Oil I7Q8L UvA ttMbnM.-^t B. O. Mdmd,

Or.klML Lipi. 178^ 8 voli. a tL.attaMiaH^Gr.kLti, Bob. 1808b 4. CoouMidcd by OMia.

ai AalasUAvOTioDorLfeophioabr Aoyrf0n,Cla«hJoar.xiU.xfT.

$ 68. TheocrituM, a native of Syracuse, flourished in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelpbus, and in the reign of the second Hiero, B. C. about 275. We
have under his name thirty fdyls, 'EtJvMua, some of which are probably not
genuine, and also twenty-two smaller pieces, chiefly epigrams. He was the
most distinguished of ancient authors in the department of pastoral poetry.
Virgil followed him as a master and model, but was his inferior in simplicity
and fidelity to nature.

1. We cannot assert what mduced Theocritus to remove from Syracuse to AlexaA-
dria, where he certainly spent part of his life. Some have stated that certain satires
composed by him aeainst Hiero exposed him to the vengeance of that monarch.
Where and when he died is not known, although it has been supposed that he returned
to Sicily and suffered a violent death from the vengeance of Hiero.

a. Lifaaf TTwecrif hifthrttli, Mdl>d htlow (8).— All fbr. QimK. Mtf. Oct i8tf. p. I6L

2. The nature of the Greek Idyl has already been exhibited ($ 30). The Idyls of
Theocritus are not confined to pastoral subjects. Of the thirtv ascribed to him, only
fifteen can properly be considered as bucolic or pastoral; viz. tne first 9 and the lltb,
considered by all as genuine bucolics, and the 10th. 20th, 2l8t, 23d, and 27th, which
may be put m the same class. Five are mythological, viz. the 13ih, 22d, 24th, 25th»

and 26th. Three\ ^^ .

resemblance to
are called Zync 1 ,

latter, ZvpcModaiai, the Syracusan Gossips , has no more of the pastoral in its tone than
a scene from Aristophanes (cf. ^ 46). Tu>o others may be styled panegyrical^ the 16th
and 17th. And there are ttoo in the collection, 19th and 30th, which may properly
enough perhaps be called Anacreontic, being mere imitations of the lighter odes of
Anacrcon. The remaining one, 18th, is a genuine epithalamium, according to its title,
'Bkinii ^lOaXa^iof.— The reputation of Theocritus is built on his Idyls. The epigrams
would scarcely have preserved his name from oblivion.^-One piece of a peculiar cha-
racter remains, termed the ^lApiyl, consisting of 21 verses so arranged as to form a
resemblance to the pipe of the god Pan. In the Alexandrine age there was a depraved
fondness for such oad and fanciful devices, in which the poet's lines represented the form
of eggs, axes, wings, or altars.

jr. Btpner, Do Tbeoc id jlU fsiMribM. Borl. 1891 4. pp. 19..-IL JMnAoK Oo iraoln. TlMa. ominftvi. Jn. 1818. 8.— .-
rW tbo etencler of Tboocriltii, mo BUanH Spodatew of Cianle Pttrti. Ckanht. Servmt. Diehtm, i. p. 88.— C. W. JhhamA^
wu ErkUniv dor UjU. HMokrUa aortock. 1788. S.—BidUUUt, Adomb. qwHL do am. Tboocr. ladeU ic virtotibM. Up^
17M. i.—lkrdUm, Do Thcocr. ia Om Mim.i$rAoad.dmhutr. it. 600.

S. The ejrithalnmiHtu of Helen bat been thought to reteoible the Sow of Solomon, and tome hav*
•apposed that Theocrituf imitated the latter. SchOII oppoaea thla Idea, aliboufEh. there are paa-
sagea in the Idyia containing imagery which might have been drawn from the Bcripturea. The

Beptuagint version was made in the time of Theocritus. Camp. Idyl. xziv. 84, with foaiak^

Ixv. S5 and zi. 6; Id. zviii. Sfi-98 with 8oL Song, t. 0 and vi. 10; Id. zz. tt with Sol Song, iv. 11;
Id. zxiii. S3-90 with Sol. Song, viii. 6, 7.

8m AACU, vol. iii. p. I48.-& MaU0^, Emi nr l>Bc0lo d>Aloxudrio. Pw. iSUl 8 wh. 8. (XPr. SUhMm, TboArils
Idf II. oad dM hobo Lied vcrglicboa, in Punhu, MononbUioa, wd. iL p. 162.

4. EditioBO.— 8.-7X gie^ing, Gr. * Lot Lipi. 1818. 8. ** Pcrhipi thOTOrybntspletlMUMorib poblkaUoa.* DiUlm

-Jaeeta. Halat, (eomneacod) 1824. 9. PremUBf te bo MOit onplo.— £. P. mwcmaim. Ootlic, 1830. a pp. 4», wim nolw
oaoochpago; proporcd wfb tho onktiiMo of fV. /oeota, ud foraiing « volumo of hit aiWcM. eitod {7* <• ** Boat ior Amor. •!».
doat.'v-^. B. Gna. Pu. I79& 9 vola. 4. with Fraoeb tonloD, and plotM. Now td. IB98. 8 fob. & aid tolono of piateo, 4^
Of pimioM oditioM, tbe boat an, rA. mnton, Oif. 1770. 8 vola. 4, and £. C. roidkoilr, Gr. k Lat. La(d. Bat. 17781 L ropfw

H- Behtdvf,) Bori. I8ia 8 foli. & T.-PHneepe (18 Idjla, wlUi Worfca aad Dv* o^ HcafaxI). MUaa, 1488. fel. ttao a^

phes kaomi oBlr br c«^)oetw«b DUdtn^-^aKtrnd, bf JUnt (with BmioS). Vn. 1486. M^^Aotfo. Flor. lftU» IMQl a<«»

478 BISTORT OF ORESK I.ITERATUBB«

OaUmimttmmS^kA. loB.Ul&a ItavNtobeflMNenlQfMkUiakprtalaiatBaMw-.jroML Hr. HtL C-A Mt/tkmuh
9u. Um, fa fad. Prim, dlad | «7 L m^ IftTS. IL Or. * UL Wilb Uam Md MoebM^iL aimmit, Gr. 4 LM. BrM.
MDC4 Bapr. Oxt MMw 8. Li»d. ITS. L I7M. S^JfwCmiit, Or. ft Ut. Liad. nn 8.-AM»iv Or. A Lit U|ih HHL
flfah.4^-r.X«i«tt. OMlMi, ITSn. lb ruiieiilwfyvdMllbr ikllliittnlbmartvMud |ikfMHpertuab«telM«»7aa<
■ami birtoir. JNMlm 4<h ad. by «M* m« /«•«• (br wOmiaU^ Gatla, IttL 8. Boiani (ad. JL Zbmvm). ftm^

ITIL > «ak. ft With LaMB vnrioa. - Editwa 4a Ian." aeUOU. tLr-DM. Upi. ISM. 9.-43. 0. SMj*. Lipa. MML

U. itikBdU; OB barii af r«ldhcnSr«.-L. F. Btmiorf. Bad. Ilta 8 win 8L bdodiH Blaa ud Umckm, with aolaa of
VtidtmMT^Unmk.nat.rnm^.-J.Otd. AMiard. im 8^71. JKrfi, FMb BmoL Qnad. CMbr. 1881. 8 vola. 8 Tbaecr.
•io^ k Utmdu with Lat Venh&
& 1VaMlalfeH.~<lanMB^A>aanjl«te, Aratfaaaa, od« dia bduL DkMar daa Altarttnaa. Bari. 1808. 8l CBrtiii>im>Lifc

€# Thcoe.-^. A F(Mu 1%bii«. I80& ft rraadb-Ckatanen. Par. IT77. ft-Oin. Fkr. inft 8 teliL ft IMiaib-J. J6

•ato^M. Vm. 171ft ift WithaHHt kfi)«marait,Ai*L17M.ft E^luh^f: A O^ama. Laad. 1787. ft-^C AhaMib

(witkBioaaadMaKkM). iMd. imL 8 ««la. ft->F. JWhAm. Load. tWt ft

$ 69. Bion of Smyrna, and M6iehu$ of Syraeaae, were contemporary with
Theocritus, as is generally supposed. The idyls of Moschus belong rather to
descriptive than to pastoral poetry, properly speaking; theY have more refine-
ment, with less of natural simplicity, than the pieces of Theocritus, llie
Seizure (f Eurapa is the most beautiful. The Idyls of Bion contain eiesant
passages; but they savor too much of art, and are wanting in the freedom
and naivete of Theocritus. His principal piece is the/ufura/jon^ in honor cf
jidonis,

1. Some have placed the dates of these poets considenbly later than the time of
Theocritus. Their era is perhaps a matter of real doubt.

Jtmaa, 11*. tn BkA Lebea, ia hi* adiiloa diad batew. 8.

2. There remain of Moechus four Idyls, and a few smaller pieces ; of Bion, beaidea
the piece above named, only some short Idyls, and a fragment of a longer one. These
pieces have usually been published in connection with those of Theocritus; and an-
ciently they were, m fact confounded with them.

SB*KZ,IiL |k.nft~«./'.Otn|^EpirtatecfftlaBaealiaaiOfMaab Nropell, 181ft 4

ft Editiaaa..-ll..^aMAi^Gr.aLat Oolte, inft ft-/, a /. JtoMOb L|ib. m» ad. 1807. ft Gr. k Oanib wjlk bbIk Th»
Mad. 1784. talBri8r.-.Wltli Tbaacritaa. Load. 18Bft 8 tola, ft Or. 4 Lat with Oiaak ScMia, aad aMflifraB SaMiaft IliJaliiif,

ac-rBfclaa8r, wMh Itaocrita^ diad 1 8ft 4. P.-AvM^a, la JiUui, with Tbmr. Van. 148ft M.— Tba flnt ad. af B. aad

M. wparate frwa Thaacr. waa by MMtntiu Bn«. FL IMS. d.—ruleaniiit, Or. ft LaL wilh Callimackaa. ibalw. 1884. 18^
AOimOr.ftLat 0i£l74&-«U«. Upt. nsi^Wkki/UdL Land. IT8ft Wltboat aecaaia.

4. TraaiUtloBa.-OarfWia -ifcww, aa Jul dIad. ^rnBcft-J. JL OmtL Ikr. 1794. Ift Ea^Uk. Ormu aad POmMi,

«ilad(8ft ft

$ 70. CallimaehuBy of Gyrene in Lybia, flourished B. 0. about 360. He was
a historian and grammarian,at Alexandria, patronized by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
and by him placed in the Museum (cf. P. IV. § 74). Of his many writings we
have only six hymns, some smaller poems, and a considerable number of &ag-
ments. His hymns exhibit more of study and artificial effort than of true
poetical spirit. Quintilian, however, ranks him as the first elegiac poet of the
Greeks; and he certainly was imitated by the Roman Propertius.

1. The Hymns of Caliimachus are in elegiac verse. Five are in the Ionic, one in
the Doric dialect. That addressed to Ceres is judged the best. Besides these, be
composed Elegies, which were regarded as the chief ^und of lus reputation; but of
which only fragments remain. Another class of his pieces consisted of Epigram*, of
which nearly 80 remain. Strabo refers to his Iambics and Choltambks, andfsome frag-
ments of these still exist. Among bis poetical works are named also three little poems ;
viz. A7ri«, on the causes of fable, custom, &c. ; 'EroXif, on the hoepitalitv shown by an
old female to Theseus, on his way against the bull of Marathon ; and l/^w, a poem
directed against one of his pupils charged with ingratitude. Many prose works were
written by this grammarian and professed teacher ; 'Tuofu^fiam, Memoirs or CommtH'
taries ; Kriouf vftatav ra2 vSkstM, Settlements of islartds and cities ; Oavfioffia, on the mm-
ders of the world ; Motwti»v, an account of the Museum at Alexandria ; Tltva^ irayninOv
ciy/YpauftiTtav a sort ofunitfersal Tableau of Letters, in 120 books, containing an account
of authore in every department, methodically arranged, the first example probably of a
history of literature. Some of^ those performances, which were styled AiimndkiM (cf.
^ 47), are also ascribed to him. All tnese works are lost.

Ct ScMU; liL p. lOa^Airfa DNlAaO, ia Jfan. JouL hm». vol. nix. 16ft

ft Editioob-.&-ShMiCi, Or. ft Lat U9. Bfct. ITSI. 8 vda. ft-^. /. BhrnJUU, Load. ISIft ft-^. JC Fcigm, L|& 1817. ft
caalaiatBctfaB Bfnoiaad BplgiaaM*. agoad acboel adittaa. Tdrir praaiiBad a graad adiliaaoT all On laanjaaaf CalliMehm.

^■a GWtfnr, Goth. ISSft ft Id MottB Kbliothaea.— roictoUHt rnpaanti oT tfaa Ekgka, bj Zioae. Leyd. 179ft ft P.~

Frtitapa, ct I. Lamm, Flor. 148& 4. Ineapllala; ollad bf ZNMin, tba edirioo of .fbyo, baii« tha 4lh of tba 6 eztranair ma
warka prialad ia eapitain by L. Tr. dadhprn^rntan^ BMl. Ifi8ft 4.~BateriaAii^ Or. ft LaL Vaa. IKS. ft-Jt aiip>ai»i>
Or. ft Lit Oaaar. 1577. 4.— Ato-Cifma li Aar, aflarwirds JfadafiM Daeiaiy. LaM. Pkrii, 1974. ft Or. k LaL Hot SnI
dbrt ia aditiac.-t Ormaiua, Or. k Lat UltiaJ. (UtncM) IS97. 8 voia. 8.-T. Bmday, Or. ft Lat Load. 1741. ft Ot JAn. CM.
It »u 18ft CbabAavn. ix.p.8ft~Aul^OlMC.17Bft iDl.~aM«iU,Or.UtaitBi flor. iWft ft— jaJawi', Fan. 178ft fcL
lifl

F. ▼• F0XT8. ARATirS. CLEANTHX8. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. 479

9^ TnMhllan^-OflraMa.r-C SiMumk. Bon. !■!. (.-JiAAvtfl, (mtr.) B«L I7M. 8. 7m>A.-e. ta Arfc Ai TM^

rhr. I7TS. 8.-J>. MhfoM, with XaL ?««. Vhr. 1808. 8. S^Ub^m Dodd. Load. 1785. 4— & fT. 3Vllv> ^^ 8^ £■!•

lMd.KSS. 4.

4. niMtntivaw-C O. (RMObif. Aaiaudv. criL la Cdlim. Epifra.Baali. Jn. 1811. t^-J. O. 2ivMh, Db^ d* ii««to
GkUlB. BalL ITTa 4.-Jir«elM||« ni Aitar^ rtaorii, otiMnriM uyM CShmdHira rfvMmdkMUM INeMv (ctlad ) 81. t.%
vol.lLp.88L

5. PhtUtas of CoSf in the time of Alexander the Great, is sometimes mentioned in
connection and comparison with Callimachus (cf. ( 29) as an elegiac poet.

TlMft^Moisar bii Elefict wm pvldldHd fapmtalr b; C Ph. KmfMr^ GOtt. ITIS. 8L~ir. BmA^ lU. I8S8L 8.

% 71. JlratuB of Soli, afterwards called Pompeiolis, in Cilicia, fioarished B. C.
about 278. At the reqaest of Antigonos, king of Macedon, he wrote an astro-
nomical poem under the title of ^awofiiva xai £kio9rifitlai. It was not strictly
an original, a» the request of the kine his patron was, that he should clothe in
▼erse two treatises, the ^Eyofcrpov ana the ^tuvofuva, of Eudozas. This poem
is memorable on account of Cicero*s metrical translation of it. Of this transla-
tion, howcTer, only slight fragments remain. It was translated into Latin verse
also by Caesar Germanicus, and by Festns Avienns. That of ATienas and a
part of the other are still extant.

1. The poem of Aratus was much esteemed by the ancients. Cf. Ov. Amor. i. 15.
T. 16. Quint, z. 1. 55. AUhoueh he is charged with knowing but little on the subject
of astronomy^ many of the mathematicians wrote oommemanes on his work ; four of
these are yet in existence. Delambre (Hist. Astr. Anc. i. p. 74) remarks that Aratus
has preserved nearly all that the Greeks knew of the science, at least so far as it could
be told in vene. SchdU, iil 137.

2. There are three anonymous lives of Aratus, besides the notice of Snidas. On the
%ter didactic poets of the Greeks, Aratus, Nicander, and Oppian, we may refer to the
tfaddrdge %u Sulzer (cf. $ 70. 4), vol. vi. p. 350.

5. EiMaatk-^-^. O. Mmhk^ Gr. a UL L|& 1188.1881. 8 Toh. 8. eoali{a<« On vmioM af OOTnHini aad Ivtanw ; aho
M«Ha dtapltmf*. F. CM, JMUfAte. Fnakf. 1817. 9. with EntnthcMi, IHoayriM, m« Atiom.^ T^Piimeift, bj JUm,

« th« Jrfronofiu- FUofm Vm. 1488. 8 vok. M. cr. ScMO, L pb Sa lair—JfieylN, Or. 4 Ut. Buil, IS88. M.— r«Mrw.
JH. 1888. 4.~CnfiMit» Fte. I5«a 8.-43L MonO. Fv. 16581 t vota. 4.-0nM<iit, Or. k Ut. Lsyd. ISNi 4. mong Uka aoi*
Vnmimat of «irijr adiiloH ; tha adilor al Ibe tiaM» boi aixtMa jmn oT B(t.-V. IW. Otl 1878. 8. with tb* Kura^ipv/iol of
BmMhmi. ILtpr. OiT. 1801. L (Ct f 81t.)-BMi4M. Or. k Ut Flor. I78S. & wkb Itel. bmIt. nm. tj SaimnL KM
bifiilj MiMmd. — tL-TK FtHir. Lonl. HIS. & tiIm doI known-^Mc AbIum, with rrtMh Iibm. Fkr. 1828. 4. wMh lh»
iMriua of Gwroateui^ and Bdiolh oC Tbw; alto tb« CaiMl«riHM of Entottbaac^ ud tbaSpbartof Lta^Om^-J. A ToM^Or.
a Garm. BaMalb. 1884. 9^Pk. MUUmann, Bari. 1888. 8.—/. Behker. Berl. 1926. 8.

4. T^BmhttoM^rnMb.— flUmd, jait dtad. Otnmu^Ptm, Jaat cited.^-0. 8. FiUt, ia tba JferKMr Jftmabdlr^ 1801

t^kAag. lWn.Tth.kMu. OnacwioMMS. orCiecnAlnMlatk»,MaP. IV.) 148.8.

$ 72. CUanthca of Assus in Troas, having been for many years a disciple of
Zeno, at length succeeded him as teacher m the Stoic school at Athens, jB. 0.
364. Of his nnmerous writings nothing remains but an admirable Hymn io
Jupiter,

1. Cleanthes received the name ^^pe&^rXiK from the circumstance that, in order to
enable himself, bein^ poor, to attend the schools of philosophy by day, he spent part
of the niffht in drawing water^ as a laborer in the gardens of the city. He is saia to
have died at the age of 80 or 90, by voluntary starvation. The Hymn, which still
keeps alive his memorjr, is in hexameter verse, and contains some exalted views of m
Supreme Divinity; Philip Doddridge says, it '* is perhaps the finest piece of pure and
unadulterated natural religion to be found in the whole heathen world."

Ai/bU> R-flL PbOoa. cliad 1 84. B. voL L ^ STO^-SiMD, Or. Lltt. ilL 88S^INoff. Lmt Litaa oT I1illoM|*efi.-^. P. A
9dHm»»,aptdmmihKAevm9imfuMm,taMbtmEXU99p9s9rtvwas^mc«mdMta^ Jaa.

I918L4.

8. Bdllbaa — a.— a CK. MonOm, Claaatba d«-8tolkar. Gralftw. 1814. 8.— A B. Ouikti. GMt I78& & Or. 4 Gam. wllb
MtaL— F. JV. Srurs. Lipa. 178& 4.--~Tba Byma wu Jbnt poUUiad bf Fuht. Urtintu, CanBiaa aorara iirial. faaiiBanna, ate
ABtw. 1588. 8w--Acaia In A SMptemia, Ptoaria FUloa. eitad f 47r^la R. Ouhoorth, lalallact Syat. ofOia Uaiv. Load. I87& IdL
p. 438. wlib a Laita aiaMeal ranba by Avort-Ia Srunee$ Aaaldtta (ct § 85) aad Gaam. Boat <et | SI) lad is olbar erilaa.
tioaa.

8. Aa E^hh Batrkat wriaa b gifaa la IVM>« fladtf, dtad 9 80L

$ 73. ^polloniua Ehodius^ B. C. about 135, was a native of Nancratis, or per-
haps of Alexandria, in Egypt The name Rhodius was occasioned by his
residence at Rhodes, where he for a time taught rhetoric. He was a pupil of
Callimachus, and became the librarian at Alexandria.

1. A bitter enmity existed between Apollonius and Callimachus until the death of
the latter. Apollomus is said to have retired firom Alexandria to Rhodes, from morti-
fication at havmg been hissed by the partisans of Callimachus at the public reading of

^SO HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURS.

his Argonautics. It was at a anbaeqnent period that he was appomted keeper of tha
Alexandrian library, being sucoeasor to Eratosthenes.

Tlim an tar aariMl bMgnfriM or ApoUMiw IB Ondu-SMA midM, IMwte Z^
WOttim. Miiiw, mi. a I^IM.8.

2 ». His chief work was an epic poem, 'Apfymarnvk, on the Expedition of the Argo-
iiotfto. He imitated Homer, with talents much inferior. His poem, however, evinces
great application, and has some beautiful passages, particularly the episode on the
passion of Medea. Yet in poetical genius and style he is rather surpassed by his
imitator among the Romans, Vdleritu Flaecue,

3. The |>oem of ApoUonius consists of four books or cantos. The critics do not a^[ree
in their estimate of its worth, nor as to the comparative merits of the Greek originsl
and the Roman imitation by Valerius. Schdll pronounces the latter superior to its
model, in agreement with the remark of Eschenburg above. But in the edition of
Elschenburg^s work publiBhed after his death, the opposite is asserted.

SbUB, VOL UL ^ m.-43r«rfte^ te Om JOMM ir com IAmIv wi^
««L vL |k. 19a— 0. rik. An*, Dhu do cam. epic ApolL Bhodii. Bava. ITOa a-^ufalO. x. LS4— ZL talfimrdtt DilpallM.
ahodlilaadopooikfc Tni.UU. S.-^WUditrt,XMbtrimUbmlie.u^ba99atitL

4. EdHiom-B.-W«Bmu»r. Up^ ltt& 2 vohi 8.-&M/ir. Upo. 1110-13. 2 voli. a with Braock^ wlot; aa< Kbdik—

JM, Or. a UL Upk 1727. 2 voli. & PrinMjM. of /V. A JUtfrn (eor. J. Lueuk). Flor. Itta 4. ta apiiata.^AhiiL V«fc

Ittl. a-JniAMMHt. Fnaoot 154a a-JMiMriM, Off. a Lit Bh. 187S. »^-K Sfartemif. Ocmt. 1574. 1 fffir i^t,
ABbUn), Or. a L»t U^ Bat 1641. B.-J, SteM. OxL ITH. 2 vela. C-vTlMiffn^ Gr. k ItaL Bam. 1794. 2 vela. 4 wilk
phlct; olopot—jnnM, aekool od. Brannr. UOa a

6. TtaHlatio«.-OcrMaa.^r. /. jodbiw>. ZOrich, 17ia a ffWck /. /. JL Cmumim. Tv, ITBT. $. M^7 pnkid.

■■Cliih.~/y. JhM*Bfc Load. ITSOl 2 fsfe a

$ 74. Nicander^ bom at Colophon in Ionia, lived about B. C. 146. He was
a physician, grammarian, and poet.

1 «. There remain from him two poems in hexameter, termed eqpfart and *AXc(i^^
pm$M ; the former treating of venomous animals, and remedies for wounds from them ;
the latter, of antidotes to poisons in general. His TitofyuAf Georgice, and kirv^suek^
Thinge pertaining to Mtclia^ are lost. The two former possess no great merit either
as poems or as treatises of natural science, (cf. % 32). The scholia o( Eutecnius upon
them are of much value, particularly as illustrating the history of medicine.

5. Nlcand«r wrote alM, at bat been before noticed (( S9), a work ityled matmmorfhtu^ wbkh
fel wboUy loet.— SeAW, lil. m.—CkerekUn wmtkmtL DkkL vl. p. 373.

a EditioDk~B..-ALEnPHlRlfACl. /. O. Bduumr, Or. a Lot BaL I7IS. a wHh ptnpbnM of Eateatw^TBE'

RUGA. /. a. 8ek$mAr, Gr. h Ut Lipa. ISia & wllb panpb. of EntooBioh r.-frimm, ^IM« Vaik 142a feL wilh

Dionrtdai.-^. SaUr. Cologno, ISMl 4.— OorrMW (Jftni priBt.% Or. k LaL hr. 1557. 2 vota. 4. aaltiiiK fbe t«o pooM ao
•dllBdBopai»lol7bjliiaial649aadlB66^Jond*ii,Or.L<kLailal. Flor. 1724. B. with tbo iciMtUa or pawphiwo of EauealM. *

$ 75. Oppiafiy of Corycus in Cilicia, a later Greek poet, lived as is supposed
under the emperors Marcas Aurelius and Commodus, in the latter part of the
8d century aOer Christ.

1 u. Under his name we have two didactic poems : 'AXtfvnva, on JUking, in five
books ; and Ktpvifycnira, on kuntingt in four books. Tne former excels the latter both
in thought and style. This circamstance has furnished some ground for ascribing them
to different authors of the same name. The latter has been ascribed to an Oppian of
Apamea in Syria, who lived under Caracalla, in the beginning of the 3d century.

S. The bypotheils of two poets by the name of Oppfan, (btber and eon, or ancle and nephew,
was advanced by 8eAn«U«r, in 1T76, in bis edition of the poems. In 1780 It was attacked by Bdim
ds BMu, In an edition />f the poem on the ehane. Schneider, in a new edition, 1813, still main-
tained his hypotheiis.— SeJkdU, vol. Iv. p. 70.— ChArakt. eimi. Dickt. vol. vl. p. 370.

3. The poem 'I^cm-tird, on fowling ^ generally ascribed to Oppian, is lost; but there is
extant a commentary upon it, by Eutecniut.

nia oonuMBtafy waa pabiiabod bjr £ mttUnt, Or. k L«t. Copaah. 1702. a

4. Edilkwa.— B.-^. O. SetaMidr, Or. k Lat. Lipa. Hia ed. AM/kr. T.-'Prtnaift, \j JL /trnfo. flor. tSl&. a oalr Ibo

AhUmlfea.-ylMitf, Or. a Lat. Vco. I5IT. B^Tuntbta. Fkr. 1555. 4.-JN«cn*iM«. D^ BaL 1607. a Or. a Ut wiik •
pfDom OB the life and wrltiop of Oppian.— A d» BoBu, Or. k Ut. ArfOat 17ML & CyfUfttim oalj'.

a TraiMlaiIoi».-Or Ibe Cy n t f t ( < c a.— Ocman^-C. O. LUbtrhUktu Lpo: 17S& a FicBCk-Bclte * Adta, Or. a LaL

AiffmL 1787. a Ilallan.-^ M. SoMnL flor. l7Sa & Ei«)Ui^JC SomrntrvOU. Load. 178a & OT Iba i7al<««.

1 1 e«.-EaglIdi.~By Dnappo' f Janm. OuL 1722. 1751. a — Sw ^mtOton, aw le p«ebe daa Amio^ aa cited P. IU. f ia

$ 76. Nonnusy of Panopolis in Egypt, flourished probably in the beginning
of the 5th century ; originallv a pagan, afterwards converted to Christianity.
Little or nothing is known of his history.

1 u. Two works by him are extant ; one, the Aionxnacd, on the deeds of BaaAue, in
forty-eiffht books, of various contents, without much order or connection, in a style not
generally easy or natural ; the other, a poetical, or as he terms it, epical parajhrfue of
the Gotvel of John, prolix and bombastic.

2. The Dionysiaea of Nonnus has been ranked among epic poems, bat perhi^ not

P.T. POSTS. OOLUTH178. QVINTTTS. TRYPRI0D0RU8. 481

with strict propriety (cf. ^ 20). It ia a storehouse of mythological traditions. Some
learned men, as Falckenburg and Julius C. Scaliger, have highly praised, while others,
as Nicholas Heinshis and Joseph Scaliger, have as strongly condemned it.

BMU, tL n.-J: 4. Wtiehai, de Konno Pwiopditaiio. Viteb. 18ia 4.-^^ie. dMow, ComnaiL de iodob canniali Nooai, ale.
BkVD. 1807— OinoBrqir, Nmww d«r Diebtcr. Petra|>. 1817. 4.

S. EdiHoM— (a)Ortb«I>lonyt<aca.-B.— /y. Ora/t. Lra. I819'2a > voh. 8, eootelBlaK the text ▲ 8d vol. n wpedid,
with* fwrioo, ud full eonntatuy. A put oT the lAb bk. wu poUhhed byF Ora/i,wilb ihe m»6[Hynmi«tNiktia (Or. h

Own.). ntrapoL ISUL 8. P— ^Hneipt, bj a IbielMiterf, fran a naoeripl MW at Vlcaok Aalw. 1668. 4. Rqv.by

mdtd (with a poor tnad. bjr ItiMto). Huor. 1883. 8; to this cdjtkia wm atarwaHt JoIokI (wtih a mw thle-pa(cv 1818) a
volnaw pablkbed bj C^aMna ludadiar a diMtlatioa by a Haiwiw, and OBqJwturea bf J. 8cali|OT.~0. A KoNr pablkbad 8

boofeaC8-l8)wltbBD(ca,aBdarpoMnUoraU Um booki oTlha pom. Haidolb. 1808. & et CtaM. /own. vii. 94& (&) Of the

jr«lapArar<a,orPanphnMof Joha~TboAi<edit.br JUko. Van. ICOl. A^P. Wuntivt. Uyd. 1588,1588. &-/>. Syttnif .
Bdd«lb.l888^&— Aliiffiite,tahiiAirt«t*iit»ar,riv«adNaaiii,ote. L^(. Bkt 1817. 8^V^ Bhmio. Lpc 18S4. &

$ 77. Coluthtu, of Lycopolis in Egypt, was a poet of a later period, probably
about the beginning of the 6th century. His poem, called *Excvf7; dpytoyi;, or
Bape (f Helen, has many defects, and but little real poetry. The wnole is with-
out plan, dignity, or taste, with many traces of too close imitation.

1 . He is said to have lived in the reign of the emperor Anastasius, who abdicated
A. D. 518. He wrote a poem in six cantos, entitled Caledoniact; this, with other

fieces by him, is lost. The Rape of Helen consists of 385 verses, in imitation of
lomer. This poem was found by Cardinal Bessarion, along with that of Quintus (cf.
^ 78) ; and Sch611 remarks that it is ascribed to Coluthus without certain evidence.
" The word rape (in the title) must not be taken in the common acceptation; for Paris
was more courtly than to offer, and Helen more kind-hearted than to suffer, such a
violence. It must be taken rather for a transporting of her, with her consent, from her
own country to Troy."

ftAMI, vL ^ Ma~Jr«riaB, Sopv OoMU cam. d* npt» IkUmm. Erh^ ITTSL UL-C.J. Ornf^dmimfbam m CelaHin,
Tin>hiodflr«m,fte. Frirop. ISia 4.

S. Edlliam.~&--J; Dm. d* Lmuup. Lwwvd, 1T47. 9.—* O. H. SAAftr. Lpc 1888. a with notn of it Lumtf, and addi-
lionk— /mm. BMa-. BnU 1818. 8.~«8. Man. Adim. Far. 18Z3. 8. Tbb bai tb* tazt of JidUo-, irith tfaadatioM in Latta,
Italian, Ffcncb, Spaaids Coflith and OaraiaB, and a fao^inUe of two nannKrlpta of tbe po«B (of the IStb and l«b coaturiM),

wprMMiliH not onlj tfao l«Cl«i% but the eolor of Ibo ink and papw. F.— iV^^utpt, by JBdtu, alonf with Quiotot ud Trypbb-

darvi^ withont dale, but nppoMd IMM. (SeMRI, vi. p. I08).~£r. ST^Aomi^ in the Pod. print. Aerote. dted f 47 1, aho ia hit Omur
Fv. 1804. IS^N: Mmdbr, Opui Aamm, Baa. IS6a 4.-sl. 21k. VWm. llllaB,ina 18. Or. k ltal.-.Mo A Am. Jf^ual
Madrid, I7?a 4. Or. Lat 4 9pan.>-AMlonC Pknna, 1798. 4. Or. Ut. k ItaL

a TnadaliaBa.-.Geraian^jr. JL fUtffMr, in hit CaUiaadna. AIL 1784. & Ea^Ulu^Wi Ata. LoMd. 1781 4— Jfam,

b Cooked BflMid,cii«ii 61. &

$ 78. QuiniuM^ or Cointtu^ lived probably in the first part of the 6th century.
He was called Smyrnaem from his native [>lace Smyrna, and received the sur-
name Calaber from the circumstance that his poem was found in a convent in
Calabria.

1 u. The poem ascribed to him, termed IlapaXemtf/icra 'O/i^, Things omitted by
Homer t is drawn from the Cyclic poets (cf. ^ 21). It consists of 14 books, givine the
history of the siege of Troy from the death of Hector to the departure of the iSreeKs.

2. Cardinal Bessarion found, in a convent at or near Otranto in Calabria, a manu-
script copy of this poem, and also of that of Coluthus. And there is in manuscript
another poem ascribed to Quintus, on the ttoelve labort of Hereulet, in the library of
St. Mark, and in that of the king of Bavaria at Mumch.—— Studious imitation of
Homer is apparent everywhere in the Paralipomena. Some have considered it a sort,
of amplification of the Little Iliad of Leeches, one of the early cyclic poets, or a com*
pilation gathered from various poets of that class.

Stitftf, vi. 81, whm b a pietty ftoll avlyili of the pocb^TVnpM, la Mi traarfalloa, and 7y*aBS b Mi adldoa c^
C3).-^L.SIrimi,IahiiAbh.a.BodenMiaLphiloLInhalli. KOnifihy I88S. a

a. Sditieoa-B.— 71k. Or. TVdkMfi. Slnurii. 1807. S vola. 8L ^7. Tim Jlraf bjr JUlu, with OohrtbH^ dtod f H. L-^Morin-

«Mnn,Or.aUL Baa. 1884. &-/. C dli Amu^ Or. * Lat Leyd. 1734. 8.

4. TraiHbtbn.~rmeh.— JL IboM. Pw. 1880. 8 «nfe & •« not MthfaL* (AihnMmi).

5. In connftciion witb tbe Imiutloni of Homer In the poems ascribed to Coluthus and Quintns,
we may notice another Imitation of a sinxular kind, tbe 'O^Qptfrcirrpa, Homerocentra. This Is a
Uf* ofJtna Christ, In S343 hexameter lines, formed by vemes and hemistlchs selected from Ho-
mer. It Is ascribed by some to a PtlagiMs, who lived tn the 5th centurv ; by others to Eudoda,
wife of the emperor Theodoslus Sd. It was probably the work of both, having been commenced
by the former and finished by tbe latter.

The odliVm br i^ A Tbuebr. Off. a UL Lpt. 1788. a li mMthmd M tto bMt

i 79. Tryphiodorus^ a native of Egypt, of whose history nothing is known,
lived in the 6th century, and was the author of a poem, entitled 'lu'ov a)uoat(,
the Destruction of Troy, It is marked by bombast and affectation of ornament

I. He is said to have written other poems, as the Marathoniaeay the Hippodameiaf
and the Odyssey called Lipogrammatie (XrnreypafifMru^), because some particular letter
61 2S

482 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

of the alphabet was excluded from each of its 24 books ; or, according to others,
because tne letter 2 was excluded from the whole poem. The Destruction of Tron
consists of only 681 verses, and is perhaps merely a sort of argument of a more fufi
work contemplated by the author. — Schdlly vi. 109.

9. Editiont.~B.— F. J. mmidU (eompletod bf Zumff). Lpz. 1819. ».-7hom. /VorfAman, Camb. 1791. ud Load. ISM. 9.

Or. k Ut. with ezeunuMh F —Printxp^ bjr JUiw, u died f T7. i—Fr. Jrnnd, Gr. & UL F&r. 1337. 8.-/. Mortd, Or.

a Lat 0z(. 1741. 8. wilb a diaertatioa on tbe Ufa and writiogi of Trjrpb. and an £nflu* mafrioaiticnHm ia a aepante toIoBB.
^Jodant, 1796. fol.— O. B. fisMffv (pr. TbtKftmta). Uft. 1808. bl.

$ 80. Theodorus ProdromusVi^ed at Constantinople in the first half of the 13th
century. There are several works by him yet remaining in manuscript, from
"Which it appears that be followed the various pursuits of theologian, philoso-
pher, grammarian and rhetorician. He is mentioned here on account of his
erotic poem in 9 books, styled the Lovea of Bhodanthe and Doaicles, Cf. $ 33.

1. He enjoyed high reputation among his contemporaries, and the epithet Cyrua
{Kvp6i for Kwpiof) often joined to his name, is said to have been given to him in token of
respect. On embracing monastic life, he assumed the name of Hilarion. His poem
above mentioned is but an indifferent performance*. Various dther poetical pieces
were composed by him ; as the Galeomyamachia, or Galeomachia, mentioned ^ 50. 3;
a poem, styled Poverty giveg wUdom; another styled Friefidship banished; and some
wicrams in honor of*^ eminent Christian Fathers, Basil, Chrysostom, and others.
Other pieces remain in manuscript. — Manv works in prose were also written by him,
of a character, which places them in the class of grammatical and rhetorical works^.

I Cr. SehStt, Hist. Utt Or. vol. tI. p. lS1^Aii<, Trait* da POrifiaa daa RoBaana. Par. 1711. 12. pw lia ^aekOO, toL vl ^

US, SeS. Harm, Br«T. Notit Liter. Gr. p. 681.

2. Editkma— Tbe Rhedantkt and DeiieltittjO Otmlmbi, Fhr. lOU. & the only cditiaB of tha orislnL~A Tnmdtx

ta«iislalionhooBla]aedhitlMjNUA)l*.d. AmwiuOf«ei,«ol. xLaacited) 182. 9. TY»Oaltomachia,bf F. MenO, Or.*

lat. Par. 1808. L-lMat, bf JT. A Ilgm, aa^ilwi f 6& 3. Povtrtf, ^ br O. McnU (pr.), Or.* LaL ftr. IMS. 4. CL

JCimy't Aiakta. Pkr. 1828. a lat vol. Mpiiramt^tjJ.Srard. Lpc 1588. a

3. Two othei^N^atboni were mentioned () 33) In ipeaklng of erotic poetry, Mestas EwenkntMs
and Constantine MSmr>sfu ; ihe JSrUtMder and CaUitkea of the latter being nearly all loit| the
DrosiUa and CharieUs ofttbe former, in nine book*, atill existing.

TbflaawaN/MpttblUbadbj/./'.iouMta»«<a. Par. 1819. 2 toIi. 12. Or. 4 UL

$ 81. Tzeizes or Dseiza (/oAnJ'^as a grammarian of the 12th century, at
Constantinople. From the works ano^/Taginents of other poets, and without
taste, he compiled what were called his AjUUhomerica {ta Ttpo *Ofii9pov)« Home'
rita {to, 'O^^jpou), and Poithomerica (fa fuB* "O/i^^jiQw). To these he also iiir-
nished scholia or comments. ^

1. The three pieces form a whole of 1665 hexameters, andli^ together called IXinra.
The first contains events from the birth of Paris to the tenth yelmr of the Trojan war,
with which Homer's Iliad opens ; the second consists of an abridmnent of that poem :'
the third, like the poem of Quintus, refers to what occurred bet^^en the -death ot
Hector and the return of the Greeks. Tzetzes also wrote a work iff^poUtlcal verse,
called Bi0>as i(rro^«rn, treating of topics of history, mythology, and literature, in a very
miscellaneous and disconnected manner : the work is more commonly calnied ChUiades,
from a division of the verses into several portions of 1000 lines each. Me also com-
posed an iambic poem, on the education of children. Several other worPks in verse
bv him are yet in manuscript. The most considerable is the *rir60ani rod 'uOtdipoo, ex-
plaining the fables of Homer. But Tzetzes holds a higher rank as a grammSbnan and
scholiast. He wrote commentaries on Homer's Iliad and on Hesiod. His OTlmmen-
tary on Lycophron, by some ascribed to his brother, Isaac Tzetzes, has been\ men-
tioned (^ 67, 1).

SbMUZ, vi. p. 12S. cf. p. 268,989.

2. Theflnt aditioa of the piecM coMUtatlaf tbt/lalea; O. B.aMrmch. Hal. 177a a vny fanpaifecl-Tte iMSt,ai
proved. Pr. JaeaU. LpL 1798. &— Laat, and baal text, & AUar. B«ri. I8ia 8.— Tto Chitiad$t; by N. OvMnin
1S46. fol.-^. latffitf, in Ibtla Or. ale. la asiim radadl oorpna. Coka. AUobr. 1614. S fok. foL— Baal, t T. KimHng.
ia8& S.

n.— Oratory and Orators. ^

^ 82 tt. Prose was cultivated later than verse, and oratory later than other branches
of prose composition, of which the earliest form was historical. But although oratory,
in form and as an art, did not exist at so early a period, yet even in the heroic ages
there was actual elotiuence. There was practical skill in moving the feelings of
assembled numbers in civil and military affairs. We have evidence of this iu the

p. y. ORATORY AND ORATORS. 483

addresses made by the warriors of Homer, which, although doubtless the productions
of the poet, are yet a proof of the existence and the success of a sort of oratory.

^ 83 K. The example of those historical writers, who were not indifferent to the
beauties of style, seems to have first suggested to the Greeks the advantage of careful
attention to the language and manner of their spoken addresses. From the time of
Solon (B.C. 594), political eloquence was much practiced at Athens, and by the emu-
lation of great speakers was ere long advanced to high perfection. Rhetoric and
oratory soon became objects of systematic study, and were mdispensable in the edu-
cation of such as wished to gain any public omce, or any iniluence in the affairs of
the state.

$ 84. It may be remarked, then, that Grecian oratory was not of early or sud-
den growth. It was not till after Greece had adopted the popular forms of government,
not till after the works of her Homer had been collected and begun to be studied, and
after her general prosperity and independence allowed her citizens to attend to speak-
ing as an art, that Greece exhibited any very eminent orators. At the time of Solon,
beyond which the history of Grecian eloquence cannot be carried back, several of the
states had existed much longer than Rome had at the time of Cicero. While eloquence
made its first appearance thus late, and gradually rose to perfection under the peculiar
circumstances of the nation, it continued m power and splendor only for a short period.
Its real history must be considered as terminating with the usurpation of Philip and
the supremacy of Macedon over southern Greece; so that the whole space of time,
during which Grecian oratory particularly flourished, includes less than tnree hundred
years. This space coincides with the third of the periods into which we have divided
the history of Greek Literature, from Solon (about 600 B. C.) to Alexander (B. C.
336). It 18, however, the brightest period in the annals of Greece; a glorious day, at
the close of which her sun went down in clouds imd never again rose in its native
splendor.

$ 85. It is also worthy of remark, that whatever glory has redounded to the Greeks
for their eloquence, belongs almost exclusively to Athens. In the other states it was
never cultivated with success. The orators, of whose genius any monuments are still
preserved, or whose names have been recorded as distinguished, were Athenians. So
that Cicero in his Brutus inquires, who knows of a Corinthian or Theban orator, unless
you except Epaminondas? Out of Greece, however, the study flourished, both in the
islands and in the settlements in western Asia. The Sicilians were the first who
attempted to form rules for the art, and the Rhodians had orators that might be com-
pared with the Attic.

On EpaminoadM, mm (Moyn, La via d*EpwniaondM, Man. d$ TAead. da Inaer. vol. siv. {>. 181.

^ 86. To one who traces the history of Grecian oratory through the period which has
been mentioned, it will present itself under three different aspects successively. It
exhibits one characteristic appearance from the time of Pisistratus to the close of the
Persian war ; another from tne close of the Persian to the close of the Peloponnesian ;
and a third from the close of the Peloponnesian war to the supremac3r of Macedon.
A glance at the peculiar character of the eloquence of these three portions, vnW give
us perhaps the best general view of the whole.

■m Ctero't Bratm.—Acfvi'fGraee* by Aoneror/lt, p. 257, whara mbmoC the viem (ooelMi upon la Ibe bUowlif mcHobs art
taulifany devtloped.

$87. Of the first portion no monuments or fragments of the oratory remain. Its
character must be drawn altogether from the testimony of later periods and firom circum-
stantinl indications. It was m this age, that the poems of Homer were collected and
published ; which gave a new impulse to Grecian mind, and unquestionably exerted an
influence on the language and oratory of the times. As the models of language and
style were all in poetry and not in prose, the speeches and the composition of this age
were marked by a poetical structure, by something of the rhythm and measure of verse.
Such indeed was the preference for metrical composition, that Parmenides taught his
philosophy inverse, and Solon published his laws in the dress of poetry. Solon is
ranked among the distinguished orators of the period ; and the first circumstance which
brought him into notice, was a poetical harangue to the populace of Athens.

^ ^, Oratory as an art was now scarcely conceived. The orators were only the
favorite leaders of the people ; chiefly such as had been brave and successful in war,
who gained popular influence by military enterprise, and were permitted to be powerful
statesmen because they were fortunate generals. Their speeches were brief, simple,
bold ; adorned with few ornaments (cf Anocharfis, ii. 257), accompanied with httle
action. Such was Pisistratus, whose valor in the field and eloquence in the assembly
raised him to an authority utterly inconsistent with the republican principles of his
country. Such too was Themistocles. In him predominated the bravery and art of the
military chieftain. It was his policy and energy that saved Greece from the dominion
of Persia. He acquired unlimited sway as a statesman and orator; because, in pro-
posing and urging the plans which his clear and comprehensive mind had once formed,
ne could not but be eloquent * and because he never offered a plan, which he was noc

484 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

ready and able to execute with certain success. His eloquence, like his policy, wm
vigorous, decided, bordering on the severe, but dignified and manly. It was altogether
the most distinguished of the age ; and the name of TbemiMtocUt is therefore selected
to mark this era in the history of Grecian eloc^uence.

^ 89. Of the second portion of the period m view, as well as the first, we have no
remains which are acknowledged to be genuine, if we except the harangues of Anti-
phon. The number of eminent public speakers was, however, increasea ; and there
began to be' more preparation, by previous study and effort, for the business of ad-
dressing the popular assemblies. In this age, the orators were men who had devoted
their early years to the study of philosophv, and whose attainments and political talents
raised them to the place of statesmeni wnile this elevation still imposed on them the
duties of the soldier and the general.

The most celebrated amone them were Perielea, who flourished first in order of
time, and after him successively CUon, Alcibtades, Critias, and Tkeramenes. Pericles
and Alcibiades exerted the greatest influence upon the condition and interests of the
Athenians. The hitter, ambitious of glory and fearless of danger, ardent and quick in
feeling, and exceedingly versatile in character and principle, was able, in spite of a de-
fective pronunciation {Anach. i. 305) and a hesitatmg delivery, so perfectly to control
a popular assembly and mold their feehngs by his own will, that he was regarded as
one of the greatest of orators.

^ 90. But to Pericles must be granted the honor of giving a name to this era of eio-
ouence. His talents were of the highest order, and he qualified himself for public in-
fluence bjr long and intense study in private, lie disclosed his powers in the assembliea
with caution, and whenever he spoke, impressed the hearers with new convictions of
his strength and greatness. His information was various and extensive, his views
always liberal and elevated, his feelings and purposes in general highly patriotic and
generous. Cicero remarks of him, that even when he spoke directly against the will
of the populace and against their favorites, what he said was popular ; the comic sa-
tirists, while they ridiculed and cursed him, acknowledged his excellence ; and so much
did he shine in learning, wisdom, and eloquence, that ne ruled Athens for forty years
almost without a rival.

Pericles pronounced a funeral eulogium over thoee who fell in the first battles of the
Peloponnesian war. This oration Thucydides professes to give us in his historv (ii. 35) ;
but most probably we have the febrication of the historian, and not the actual produc-
tion of the orator. The piece, however, may indicate the peculiarities of Pericles and
the other speakers of the age.

Ct £. atnUmm, FomtU Eulflcici from Tbacr<lid«, PUto, Ly«H, ud XaMphoo, is tte origiMl Grack, he. Ost 1678. a

^91. The distinguishing qualities of their eloquence were simple grandeur of lan-
guage, rapidity of thought, and brevity crowded with matter to such an extent even as
to create occasional obscurity. They had very little of artificial plan, or of rhetorical
illustration and ornament. Their speeches are seldom marked by any of the figures
and contrivances to produce effect, which the rules of sophists brought into use among
the later orators. They have less of the air of martial addresses than the harangues
of the first period we have noticed, but far more of it than appears in the third. Their
character is such as to show, that while the orator was a statesman of influence in the
civil council, he was also at the same time a commander in war. Such was the elo-
quence of the era which is designated by the name of Pericles.

$ 92. But the third is the most glorious ere, and is marked by a name which has been
allowed to stand pre-eminent in the history of human eloquence, that oi Demosthenes,
It was an age fruitful in orators, of whose talents there still remain rich and splendid
monuments. The orator was no longer necessarily united with the general ; but was
able to control the deliberations of the people, although he never encountered the perils
of the camp.

It was now that oratory became a regular study, and numbere devoted themselves to
the business of teaching its rules. These teachera, known by the name of Sophists
and Rhetoricians, made the most arrogant and ridiculous pretensions, professing to
Oommunicate the art of speaking copiously and fluentlv on any point whatever, ^ut
we must not afHx to all, who went under this name, the idea ot a vain and pompous
declaimer. There were some honorable exceptions ; e. g. Isocrates, who taught the
art, and whose influence upon the oratory of this period was so great, that Cicero gives
him the honor of forming its general character. His school was the resort of all who
aimed at the glory and the rewards of eloquence.

Isocrates, Lysias, Isaeus, .^chines, and Demosthenes, are the bright names in the
constellation which marks this era. Andocides, Dinarchus, Hyperides, and Lycurgus,
are also recorded as eminent speakers. These, with Antiphon of the preceding era,
form the illustrious company of the <m Athenian oratora. They could have been,
however, only a small part of the number in the profession in this period, as we might
judge, even had no names been recorded, from the fact that at its very close there were
at least ten^ and according to some thirty, whom the Macedonian conqueror demaoded
to be delivered up to him as hostile to his supremacy.— &:A^, ii. p. 265.

p. T. ORATORY AND ORATORS. 485

^93. In the age before us, the general characteristics are to be found in the state and
circumstances of the profession, rather than in the form or nature of the eloquence.
Each of the more eminent orators had his distinguishing peculiarities, which makes it
difficult to mark the prominent traits, which might be stamped upon all. It is easy,
notwithstanding, to notice the influence of the system of art, to which the speakers of
this a^e thought it necessary to attend. 'I'here is in their orations too little of the plain
and direct simplicity of former times, and much, often far too much, of the ambush and
artifice of logic, the flourish and sound of mere rhetoric. You discover also, frequent-
ly, the orator's consciousness of influence arising from his skill in speaking. It was an
ase, when the populace flocked to the assemblies and the courts of justice for the sake
of hearing and being affected ; when even the unprincipled demagogue could, by the
spell of his tongue, raise himself to the archonship of Athens.

$ 94. This period furnished a greater number and variety of occasions for the display
of oratorical talents. Numerous state prosecutions, similar to that in which Lysias en-
gaged against Eratosthenes, grew out of the disturbances and revolutions connected
with the Peloponneeian war, and these necessarily drew forth the genius of opposing
advocates. Public discussions, likewise, became frequent upon different subjects re-
lating to war, politics, and government, which opened a wide field not merely for
harangue, but tor studied and labored composition.

At the close of the period, the encroachment of Philip on the Grecian rights afforded
an ample theme both for the ambitious demagogue ana the zealous patriot. This cir-
cumstance was perhaps the cause of the peculiar energy and warmth of feeling, which
distinguished much of the oratory of the period. Altnough the writers and speakers
differed in opinion as to the true policy of the Greeks, their orations breathe a common
spirit of national attachment and national pride and confidence. Indeed the patriotism
and the genius of Greece seem to have exhausted themselves in the efforts of this bst
day of her independence and her glory. In Demosthenes she heard the last tones of
her favorite art, as she did the last remonstrance against her submission to servitude.

^ 95. Such is a glance at the rise and process of eloquence in Greece. Late in its
origin, confined chiefly to Athens, flourishing only for a comparatively short time,
marked successively by the eras of ThemistocTes, Pericles, and Demosthenes, it ended
ite career when the country lost its independence, but with a glory that is gone out into
all lands, and will survive throiigh all ages. — It should be observed, however, that
Cicero and other writers speak of^the eloquence of the period immediately subsequent
to Philip and Alexander ; and here is the place for a few words respecting it.

^ 96. True eloquence, says Scholl (iii. 239), that which speaks to the heart and pas-
sions of men, and which not merely convinces but carries away the hearer, ceased with
the fall of liberty. Under the successors of Alexander, not finding any object worthy
of its exertions, it fled from the scenes of politics to the retreats of the schools. Athens,
degraded firom her eminence, no longer was the exclusive residence of an art, which
had once thrown such luster over her name and history. From this time, instead of
the orators of Attica, we hear only of the arators of Asia. In reality, however, instead
of orators at all, among the Greeks anywhere, we find, after this time, only rheto-
ricians.

The most famous of the schools just alluded to, was that of Rhodes, founded by
.£schines. In these institutions the masters gave out themes, on which the young
pupils exercised their talents. These were frequently historical subjects. Often the
questions which had exercised the great orators of the previous a^c were again de-
bated. But such performances had not for their object to convince judges, or force an
assembly to action. The highest aim now was to awaken admiration in hearers, who
wished not to be moved, but to be entertained. The noble simplicity of the old orators
was exchanged for a style overcharged with rhetorical ornaments.

Hegesius of Magnesia is regarded as the fother of the new style of eloquence and
composition which now appeared, and which, as has been already menuoned, was
termed Asiatic. His discourses are lost.

^ 97. But the principal name worthy of notice aflcr the thne of Alexander is Deme-
triug Phalereu8t who was appointed governor of Athens, bv Cassander kingof Mace-
donia. He was the last of tne great orators of Greece. Cicero meaks of Demetrius
with considerable commendation, as the most learned and polisheo of all after the an-
cient masters. But he describes (BrutuSf 9) his influence as substituting softness and
tenderness instead of power ; cultivating sweetness rather than force ; a sweetness
which diffused itself through the soul without stirring the passions ; forming an elo-
quence which impressed on the mind nothing but its own symmetry, and which never
left, like the eloquence of Pericles, a sting along with the delight.

^ 98. We pause here in our general glance at Grecian oratory, because every thing
pertaining to the subiect, in the periods after the capture of Corinth (B. C. 146), will be
more properly introdfuced in speaking of the 6iop%i«{« and Rhetoricians*

But it is important to allude to the three branches, into which Grecian oratory was
divided by the teachers. They were the deHheralive, the legal or judicial, and the
demonstrative or patugyrical. Demosthenes is the unrivaled master in the first. Ly-

282

486 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

nas and Isxus present rich epecimens of the second. The best performances of lao-
crates belong to the third. But no orator was confined to either branch ; according to
preference, he might thunder in the assembly of ibe people, argue in.the court of jus-
tice, or declaim before the occasional and promiscuous concourse.

On th« lagal onloiy of Or«ee% tm Quart. A*, vol. zxik. ; tha pnMfjrriod, Mnm^ *ol. uni.

§ 99 ^ We now proceed, according to our prescribed plan (cf. § 8), to notice
individually the principal oratorA, of whom there are existing remains.

Rut il will ba propar to (ita iiM wmm wftrwcM to narc* of iDfonnatioB napaclii^ Ibeai, and to ilie priated eoOaetiaM of thair

1. Tba chiaf originU Koren of infanntf ioB ara two ; iha fnipiMnti of a traaliaa of Dionytiiv Balkmnuumu, fa vbirb I^va^
bocnta^ laaEW, ai^ DoDflaiheQct wm eiixieMf examined ; aad Ite Uwti tf tha tm untvn, aaciilted to Ptiaartk.—Ql nodam
work^ wa n-cnlioa tba toiktwinc. ^JhU. mt^mnm^ Oaaebickta drr Griachbehen Sandiamkelt Lpt. I8S«. S.— Buikntai,
Hntoria eriliea onlonuB Ome. in ht> cdiL of Ratiliw Lapia. Layd. 1T8B. a— Oirrfioit, Sar Vwtg. at la pmfrw da la rlMt.
chat lea Greea, ia the Man. it Fjlead. da hua. fol.iz.SOO; zHi. 97 ; zt. I4S ; zvi. S78; ziz. 903 ; zzi. ftc.— Manaot Qber die
BiMang der Rhctorik nrtar den Gricchan, fai hb VannbchtaB Abb. a. Aah. Brail. 18BI. &— &MMI. Riri. LiiL Gr. U. Wt.

2. Tba ftriloirlnf callectioM umj be BanMd.-y|Uin Itoutftuf. Van. IS19. 3 vola. M. ^erj me.— A auphamth Or. k Lat
ft. 1S7S. feL boentai and Damoalbaoaa aot hieluded.— /. /. JBctite, Oiatanm Gfm. qua avpetannl Bonmncnin infsnii, ale.
Upa. lTfO-7&. 18 vela. B. eonpriaiac what k ainat valuable in the labon of the pnoedinf adilin ; the ooataata era dalaihd bp
flUUn, li. BOO.—/. Bcktar.Ontona Attiei. Upa. ML 7 vtrit. 8. without apiunaXory notaa. Repr. Bari. 1824. S voIil a CT.
Dibdin, L 48S — IP: & Dohtm, Onlorea Attiei at qaea aic voeaat 8opbia*«. Land. IBSS. 10 volt. & Gr. a Lat. vcrj valMbK
altboaffa not perbei in critkal •kill— 7. JIftfeMI, Oratom Attiei (ez racnw. Bekkerl.) Ozf. tK»-2e. 10 vnta. & the voia. 8, %

and 10, beinc •'iBdieai Qnaeitaria." A wcful help in atudv of the Altic ontorv, is Iha Luieon of Harfcentkm (cf. f XSt^.

/. B. Bremi, OntioROi Selacra IiocratM^ Lr*i«. DeanoalheBii et JEKhinte, in levenl voh. of tba BUHOh. Omo, dtod k 7. t.

$ 100. Antiphtm^ of Rhamnus in Attica, was born about B. C. 480. In the
year 411 or 410 B. C. he was condemned and put to death as a traitor. He
was celebrated at Athens as an orator and a teacher of eloquence.

1 II. The ancients ascribed to him a treatise on rhetoric, Tf^ii linropiKh^ said to have
been the first written on the subject. He also prepared orations or speeches to be used
by others, for which he received payment. Of the fifteen which are still extant, (Ares
belong to criminal cases actually occurring and brought to trial ; the other (loe/oe seem
rather to be imaginary speeches adapted to supposed cases.

2. Antiphon was a pupil of the sophist Gor^ias, and is said to have been the first to
apply the art of rhetoric to judiciary proceedings. Thucydides was instructed in his
school. During the Peloponnestan M'ar, Antiphon repeatedly had the command of
Athenian troops. He was a member of the council or the 400, the establishment of
which was, in a great degree, owing to his influence. He is said to have been the first
who, for money, composed omtions to be read or spoken by others; this became after-
wards a frequent practice and a source of great emolument. — Cf. Cicero^ Brutus, 12. —
Thucydides, viii. 68.

S. Hit orationa an ciwn in JMiftc, ellad ) 90, vol. vfl. p. tOi.—SMa', vol. i. Sao P. «. Spoon (nallj JhtAnkm), Di«. da

AlifiphoDte. Lofd. Bat. I70S. 4. also in RH$kt, vii. TOO. and in Ruknkm'9 Opuae. ont. pbil. at erit. Liif. BaL tSOT. & Fiweb

tnuMlitioa of loiBe pej<t>, in Jtugtr't (Lavrm eompleiai d'laocrata, avee, kc Far. 1781. 3 vol*. 8.

$ 101. Jndnctdes, an Athenian of illustrious birth, later than Antiphon, about
6. 0. 468. He was distinguished as a statesman and orator, but too restless
in his political character. He suffered many vexations, and finally died in ex-
ile, B. G. about 396. We have/our speeches from him, which commend them-
selves by their simplicity and force of expression, and which are of much value
in illustrating the history of the times.

1. One of the discourses of Andocides is against Alcibiades, Kari 'A>xi0iaiov; another
respecting the peace with Sparta, n«pl Eip^j ; the other two were in selif-defence ; n^
Ka06iov^ treating of his second return to Athens, after having fled from the prison into
which he was thrown by the 400, and llepi /iwnjpfuv, relating to the mysteries of
Eleusb, which he had been accused of violating.

9. Hit diacoonea ara ia Jbiikc, vol. Iv.— BeUo^, vol. L— TMaon, vol. ].-€(. J. a Sfirfrtr, Lecfnnca AodorldeaB. Lac. Bat tSOi. 8.

— Ontpfnumn da Andocide, io Reitkt, vol. viJi. p. S3S. See Quart. Ra. vol. zzix. p. 386.— Jtfil/orrf'« Greece, eb. sziL § 2.

(vol. 4. p. 96. ed. Boat. iitiUD-Sepantety, K. SckiUa, Lp& 1834. B.-^Oeruui Tnad. jL O. Jledhtr, Qoedl. I8SL &

§ 102. LysiaSf a native of Athens, son of Cephalus from Syracuse, lived be-
tween 458 and 379 B. C. He was a teacher of rhetoric. Many years in the
early part of his life he spent at Thurium in Magna Grscia. Above 300 dis-
courses are said to have been written by him, all in advanced life; only 34 of
them are extant. These justify the reputation he enjoyed on account of the
beauty of his style and his power in convincing and persuading. Cicero {Brut.
9) gives him the praise of naving almost attained the ideal of a perfect orator;
yet he is inferior to Demosthenes in simplicity and energy.

1 The faiber of LystHs removed to Athena, on the invitation of Periclea, and belonged to the
claas of knbabltaDta termed itirotiiot, metiet, or foreign rteidtnta. At the age of 15, tyetas went

p. ▼• ' ORATORS. LTSIA8. I80CRATES. IS£US. 487

out with the colony eatabltthed by the Athenians at Thurinm. Here be remained 30 years stu-
dying and practicing oratory. He then returned to Athens, and in partnership with his brother
Polemarchus vested some of his property in a manufactory of shields, in which above a hundred
slaves were employed. The wealth of the brothers became so great, that they were included
among the 300 richest men of the city, on whom was cast the burden of paying all the expenses
of the state. Their wealth at last exposed them to the lawless avarice of the thirty tyrants.
Polemarchus was condemned to drink hemlock. Lysias escaped by flight. On the overthrow
of the thirty, he returned to Athens and spent the rest of bis days in the employment of a rheto-
rician. He lived to the age of 81.

Ftor the lifi of LynM, im Tkylor'* odlt. cited below^Mtt/M, vitf. vi. p. 48.-^. JVonz, DitKrtetio de Ljiia. Nnrimb. I82& 4.
—L. liriKAo', Dc Viu et Scriptia Lyain. Berl. 1887. & pp. 828. deKribed u **a work of iDdotrr end tolerable JudgiMBt."

2. His orations were written for the use of others, and he is said to have spoken but
one himself, that against Eratosthenes. The A6yos bnr&Aiof, ox funeral oration over
the Athenians who were slain under the command of Iphicrates, is considered his
chef-d'ceuvre.

S. Edition.— B-.^. Tfaylar, Or. k Ut Load. 17». 4.-.Aif0>, Or. t Lei. Ptf. ITBS. 8 vole. 8. Tbe Aineqw, by

JUka,fited { DQl Gifta in £cMc, SIh and 0th rdiu—BMtr, Itt TOt.— Dotoon, Sd. SepenteW, JBitr. Vien. HSB. 8.--/.

Frmia. Monach. 1831. S.> C. Pwitek. Lpe. IS29. & with aoolher vol. entitled ObeervttioBee Critiae.'

4. Tramlaiiooa.— Englieh.— J. OOKei. Imd. 1778. 4. rrendk-vfufCf. fu. 1788. 8b OenDatt.-^oaw of the.orstioa%

b WUIandPi Alt Mw. Th. 1.— CfL Bvte, Brev. NoL p. 188.

$ 103. l8ocrates was bora at Athens about B. C. 436, and died B. C. 338.
He was a scholar of Gorgias and Prodicus. From his diffidence and the weak-
ness of his voice he rarely or never spake in public. But he acquired great
honor by giving instruction in eloquence, and contributed thereby to the perfec-
tion of the art. More than other rhetoricians, he encouraged attention to the
harcnony of language. In this lies the greatest excellence of his own dis-
courses, which are distinguished rather for accuracy and polish than native
ardor and warmth. Yet his school marked an epoch in Grecian eloquence.
He wrote partly as a master for his scholars, and partly for the use of others.
There are extant 21 orations ascribed to him.

1. In youth he was a companion of Plato, and like him was a great admirer of So-
crates. He is said to have died, by volimtary starvation, in grief for the fatal battle
of Chsronea.

There h an aoooTmooe life of bocratei^ feond ia (he 9d voL of /. C OrelK, Opneenla gnec vet lentnitloea ae monJio. Upa.
1818. 8 vok. 8.— O. B, 9dHraeh, 8 Dia. de vila et fnme taibtoii booalia. Hal. ITflk 4^.^. O. IVeytaf , Oialor. et iMor.
pme. quiboa atatee honoria catua poaita fiaenmt, decM. XJpa. 1762.

2. The most finished of his pieces is that styled nanryvpixdr, i. e. a discourse before
aU the astemhled people ; it was pronounced at the Olympic games ; addressed to all
the Greelis, yet exaltmg the Athenians as entitled to the first rank among the states.
This oration, with jive of the others, may be placed in the class of deliberative^ trvfiSov^
XdrtKoi. Four may be termed encomiastic^ lyKtofitaanKoi ; among these is the navadtiv<ii'
«a(, a eulogy on the Athenians, one of the best pieces of Isocrates, but imperfectly

5 reserved. Eight belong \o judicial cases, X6>«c Sucivutoi ; one of these, Ilcpi r% dvTii6tre(as,
)epermutationej or on t?ie exchanging of property ^ relates to his own personal affairs.
—The remaining three are parctnetiCf ifapatvtTucol. One of these, IJpdf Anu6vtK0Vy is by
some critics ascribed to another Isocrates. That styled NixwrXi};, and sometimes
K6vpio( X^yof , written for the use of Nicocles king of Salamis in Cyprus, is said to have
procured from the prince in return a present of 20 talents. Besides these orations,
there is a discourse against the Sophists, Karh row aw^urnw. An art of rhetoric, TOx*^,
is also quoted by Qumtilian. Ten epistles, likewise (cf. ^ 156. 2), are preserved as
having been written by Isocrates.

SeUa, ii. aO&— Mil/oni, vIL 812.>->Jbte Fairy, LeeOamfea d*bocn(^ Mtm. dead. ht$er. ziii. 16L-V. O. Strang, KriL Ba*
■Mrk. n den Reden dea bokralei. Coin. 1831. 8.~P. /. A Sdtmitx, AoiaadT. in boe. Fknatfaeoaicam. Mart. ISSS. 4.

5. Editions.— B.— IT. Ungt, Halle, 1804. a— Corny. Par. 1807. 8 rob. & entirely in Greek, with a prebce in nodein Greek,

oi tbe lansua«a and edocation of the Greeka. F.— iVmec|w, Of Dmtr. Chaleondyla$. Medjol. 1498. bl.— In JUum, RlwU

enec. cited i 9a-£%nm. IVaf, Or. k lAt. Bu. 1670. M.—P. Stephanui, Or. k Ut. Oeaev. 1804. S.—m AiUfc, Gr. k Let
Lond. 1749. 8 vobu ^.—Jtugtr, Gr. ft Lat Fkr. 1781. 8 vola. 8. not wrj hliblj ertimatod by the critic*.— Given aln in SMm,

Sri vol. and Dobtan, 9d vol. Separata portions. Pan e g y r I e ua ; Mona. Llpa. 1787. 8< fanpr. by Spokn. Lapa. 1817. a.

•ndbyjaitcr, Lipa. 1881. 8.— 0.i)iNc(o</. lipa. 1888. 8w— De PermatationeOacompMewMil thediMoverietof a nodam
aehoUr, Mmioxydch Cf. SMtt, iU SSS); /. a OnU. Zar. 1814. a-De Pace. P. J. IMoi^ Mogunt. I82& a—Areopa
gitlenaft Bvagoraa; a CL Afualer. Lipt. 1838^34. ^.-Select ontlona; ) /. A Anmit, in Jtof*« BibUoihee*.

4. TianthtloDiL— Eflfl'ub.— /. GiUtM, with the trana). of Lynaa, cited $ 108. 4.— & T\mtmm. The onlion to Ocaaeaiena, »

tmoiu to Voutk. Load. 1770. 8 -Yovng. The Oration and Bpirtlea. Lond. I7fi2. & Frcnek-Jurcr. F«r. 1781. 3 toIil 8.

.^-'Gennan.-fr. Langt. BarL 1799. coiBa>caced.-,4. A CArMfan, in the CoU. of Ntw TVvMlaliofu, ed. Iiy Oriaiubr, Sekwa^
WKAn/'UproK). 8tutt(. 1837. *

$ 104. IsaeuB, a native of Chalcis in Euboea, but resident at Athens, was a
scholar of Lysias and Isocrates, and the teacher of Demosthenes. Bom about
400 B. C. He probably died in the former part of the reipi of Philip. He took
Lysias for his model, but excelled him particularly in dignity and elevation.

488 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

1. Of 50 orations by Ibibiib extant in the time of Phoiius, only eUyen now remain.
They all relate to the Bubject of inheritances (Myoi irAnpiwi), and contain much informa-
tion respecting the laws of iieirahip at Athens, the customs relative to the adoption of
children, to testaments and bequests, and almost every thing connected with the trans-
I ferring of property. They present, also, a melancholy picture of ihp fraud and crueliv
frequently indulged by guardians, executors, and contending heirw. The style is full
of nerve. Demosthenes is said to have chosen him as a master in preference to Iso-
crates, on account of this trait. — Cf. Quart. Rev. vol. xxvi.

t. Ed>t>oiii.-0. r. SeMfiuvm, tei OntknM XI. Oryphhir. 18SI. a Ten of the ormtkn* art in toiiAe, tnl. vn.; omoT

than, howtvcr, lh« mAvtlmee 9f CUmymm, wm flnt publithad in full by A MaU Mil. 1815 ; !he Oevrnth, tb« inlmHam* i/.
JtfiiMdH, WM pablbbad by Tynekitt, Lond. ITSS. 8.— Thry an givog in JkUur^ 3d vol.— In Dobta^ 4'h toL

9. TnaiUtkMi.~rraMh.— j|iK«r (with Aodoci la ami Lyrarfin). Pir. 17W. •. EBftuh.— 5ir ITm. Jomt. OA Vm. 9aA

10 tah WorlH, 4lh fol. with valiublc ootM. Oanwfc ScMmvm. Stuttg. 189a 12.

$ 105. Lyeurgus^ descended from an ancient Athenian family, died at an ad-
vanced age, B. C. about 330. He was a pupil of Isocrates and Plato, and a
friend of Demosthenes. He was warmly devoted to the interests of the com-
inon wealth, and was rewarded with the honors of the state. Of his orations, 15
retnained in the time of Plutarch ; but only one has been preserved to us, that
against Leocrates for his deserting Athens in her distress, after the battle of
Chaeronea. His oratory was marked by strong moral feeling and patriotism,
without much effort to be eloquent.

1. He fearlessly resisted all the claims of Philip and Alexander, and was one of the
orators demanded by Alexander after the capture of Thebes. His children, to whom
he left no property, were educated by the state. It is supposed that one of the inscrip-
tions, which Fourmount caused to be copied at Athens, is an account of the adminis*
tration of Lycurgus, in which he received and expended, according to the inscription,
13,900 talents.

CC P. rv. ( KL 7 (c) SchSOy U. 3l9L-JMf(r. Sor LfCBisne, ISmn. Jtad. hucr. toL slti. UL—D. J. f. Nimen, Da Lycngi
Or*torto Vita el Rebua (otb DiaerUlio. Kit. I8?3. I.

t. Tba onlhMi it in JM«ta, 4th vol.— Mkto-, SJ vol.— Alteon, 41b vol.— Sepantely, Bauftmann. Lps. ITS. K ^R.— J. GL

Bccto-. Magd. 1821. 8 — § C. F. Bdnrich. Boon, 1821. %.—% O. Pimgtr, Or. k. Oarm. LfM. IBM. 8. with valoaUa oota.— J'.
G. XiMh'nr, Lycnrfi RclitiWM. Hal. I8S4. %.—E.MlUvm. Btrl. 183& a

$ 106. Demosthentt was bom B. C. 385, in the Attic borough Pieania, and
died B. 0. 322, in the island of Calaaria, by poison self-administered, in order
to escape the vengeance of Antipater. Isaeus was his master in rhetoric, bat he
received instruction also from Isocrates and Callistratus.

1 tt. His celebrity was much greater than that of any other Grecian orator, on ac-
count of the fire, vehemence, and streiigth of his eloquence, which he especially exert-
ed in rousing the Athenians to war witn the Macedonians, and iu defeating his rivals
bribed by the latter. We have 61 orations of Demosthenes, and 65 introductions j
which are probably not all genuine. The characteristics of this orator were strength,
sublimity, and a piercing energy and force, aided by an emphatic and vehement elocu-
tion. His peculiarities, however, sometimes degenerated into severity.

2. At the age of seven he lost his father. His guardians wasted his property, and at
the age of 17 he appeared before the courts against them, and urged his own cause suc-
cessfully. Thereby encouraged to speak before the assembly of the people, he fiiiled
entirely. He retired and studied ana toiled in secret for many years. At the age of
25, he came forward again and commenced his brilliant career. At the age of 63,
having been driven from Athens by the hostility of the Macedonian Antipater, and pur*
sued to his retreat in the island of Calauria. he terminated his own life bv poison. It is
worthy of notice that Demosthenes and Aristotle were bom and died in tne same years.

Thn life of DemnMheow ia giveo by PhUank ; and alio in iba livoi of iha taa Attic oratoi^ aaeribad to bim. Thart ara aln two
ctliar Uvea, anciently written, and a aology by lAbaniuf. (ef. % l8^)-For a food view of hia bitfofy, Me MUltt, iL p. 224 ; and
J7i0«a, truoL by Bantrofty p. 276 — Cf. 4. O. Btdta-y Dainoaihcnai ala Staalnoana and Radaar. Hal. 1816. 8 vola. a QjieA\.
I8SS.— P. Ji. Zimmtrmann. Os DaaKMheoa nip. Alhea. admiaiatnlora. Barl. 1838. %.-^. BoulUe, VicTda DdnioaOltos *^
Par. 1884. S. vary good. ^Bat AmJhe. In tha AicydoplUM of Aueh k Oniter, Halla, 1818, ■. aaid to ba batter.

3. Seventeen of the orations belong to the class of deliberative; 12 of these relate to
the contests between Philip and the Greeks, 3 styled Olynthiacs, and 4 called Philiv
pies, the rest of the 12 bearing different titles; the whole 12 were spoken between B.
C. 351 and 340. Forty-two tue judicial speeches ; 30 of these relate to private or indi-
vidtial interests, where the case was termed <5fn? ; among them are the 5 pronounced
against his own faithless guardians, showing plainly the hand of IsaBus in their style :
the other 12 relate to public or state affairs, where the case was termed mrriyopta ;
among these was the oration UMfi oni^povy in which Demosthenes defends Ctesiphon
against the accusation of Machines, and in making the defence justifies his own poHcy
in reference to Philip, notwithstanding the disastrous issue of the battle of Chsronea;
it is considered as the best of his orauons, and a masterpiece of eloquence. Only tvo

p. V. ORATORS. iBSCHINES. HTPERIDES. DINARCRUS. 489

of the extant orations of Demoethenes belong to the kind called demonstratwe, both of
them probably epurious ; one is the eulogy (hnra^) upon those who fell at Charonea.
— We have also sir letters of Demosthenes, five of tiiem written during his exile, to
the people of Athens. — Ulpian, the distinguished Roman jurisconsult (cf. ^ 567) wrote
commentaries on Demosthenes, which are still extant.

CL SAtUy \l 291.-Jfil/ord, vol. *u. p. 107. ad. BoiL ISO^Aoelk^ort, OnSotj of Danorfh. ia tlM Mm. Jkmd, Jmer. foln
lUii. 1. Kad slvl. 6&

4. EdllioM.~B.-0. a. OeU/v, 6r. & UL Lond. 1882^. • vob. 8. toL I. IL Text, RmkA ; wL iik WUr* Ut T«nioD ;
voL lv.-viii. Appanlm critiew rt exegetieua, Ac. } tbia u faicfalj eoauaaodad b; the best jadgct, awi fonu tbr aoit nJvBbI* p*rt
of (be work ; nuy b« procured Meparatelj ; v(d. U. Indices •* BennuD prooaoDcn it Schiferli bcgt irofk.''— The best last to t»U(
to bt ia O. Dindarf. Lips. I82». S volt. 19. (7lkfaie'« Coll )— IK & Dokion, DeaBostbeais •( Aaebinis, que eataat omais. Or.

k LaL Load. 1898. 10 vols. 8. witb tbe Khoih oT ntpian^ aad pnfiices of vs«ioaa sdlion. F.— /Vt'fMqM, bj jUdiu. Vcn.

1604 tol.—Benagim. Btfil, 1542. vilb tbe ComnMnlaries of Utpimn—R fTof/, Or. t Ut. (eoaluaii« abo iBKhfam). Basi),
1648. fill. ; aad batter. Fnacof. 1804. fi>l.~31i|lor, Or. k. Ul. Cunb.. 1748.67. 4 ; 2d tad Sd vols, oaly f 1st aavar appaared.—
—Jtuftr^ Or. k. I>t. Fkr. 1790. Isl vol. oaly } osuallf porebaaad to coaplaie TB7lor^.-^Tbat« bavo beaa aianj aditiooa of
paitleolar oratious ; of die CORONA, tooie of tha bast are, fforisi, Or. k Lat Alt. 1709. rapr. Lpa. 1814. 8.-aioek, Or. k Lat.

DaH. 1189. 2 vols. 8.— m>t/, Or. k Lat. 1798. ^—Btkker. HaL 1815. 8. repr. Lood. 1824. 8. PHILIPPICS ; § C. J. MUdffn-.

Lips. l8SSk 8-}/. F0mcL Fiaakf. 1829. 2 vols. & SalectB; & B. MarJur, witb Ei«liih aotes. Load. I880i 8.— tj; B

BrtmL Ootha, 1834. 9 vols. & ia Jtoifs Bibl.

& Ttaa8iatioas.-Oemaa.— AciiAs. Lanfo. I7V4-89. 6 vob. S.—F. Jbeote. Ups. U ad. 1839. 8. ioeladlsg 13 oratiov aad
rh!lip% Letter, with Botas.>->J. O. Bidar. Hal. ^ ed. improved) I89& 9 voto. 8. tbe Phillpplca. — Vxtu^.r-JL Jhttr. Far.
1777. 1801. 8 voh. 8. Eii«lish.~f»AL FmneU Lood. I77S. 9 vob. 4.-7*. Ulanil. ISOSL 9 vols. 8.

6. Uloslnilivc — C. O. Qmdaif, Syaopsto repalitor. Deas. loooraaa. Alt. 1833. 8.—/. Bk'd, Pielegonwaa ad Dem. te. Vratlsl.
1831-83.- C. ScAoumonn, Proledom. ad Deaioslb. ke. FrimM. 1829. a—* F. fVfnkwia», Coam. la Dnaosth. or. da Conaa^
MooasL 1889 8.-0. F. ^sril, Deaioalbaaes a sospidoae aeeapta ab Harpalo peeanis libwataa. Maib. 183a B.—9J. Wmsf
mMM, Da foatibas biileric Deaoslb. Lips. 1E97. &— &inM, QuMtioaes DeBostbaaloa. Lipa. 1834. &-ir. B. £foiMr, Ab*
atradi aad Notes oa tha Classics, ia bh wrttftif*, witb a Meaioir by £. .1. Aark. Aadov. 1848. 18, a ndaaw worthy of tbe attain
tioBof ei

$ 107. JEsehinet lived at Athens at the same time with Demosthenes, and
was a pupil of Isocrates and Plato. He became the most distinguished rival
of Demosthenes, although by no means equal to him in powerful eloquence.

1 tt. Demosthenes obtained a complete triumph over him by the oration concerning
the eroum in the trial of Ctesiphon ; and Machines retired to Rhodes, where he gave
instruction in rhetoric. He died in the island Samos. In the judgment of Quintiuao,
he deserved the first rank among Grecian orators, next to Demosthenes. His great
merit may readily be seen in the three orations preserved to our time.

2. .^schines was 12 or 13 years older than Demosthenes, being bom B. C. 395, and
lived a year or two later, dying at the age of 75. In early life he does not appear to
have enjoyed much success or reputation. His opposition io Phihp firet brought him
into notice ; yet be afterwards became a j[>artizan for him in opposition to Demosthenes.
— The most important of his orations is that against Ctesiphon (jearh KnTvi^bM^of), to
which Demosthenes replied in his oration upon the crown. — ^Several epistles are ascribed
to iBschines (cf. ^ 156. 2).

Faty, Recherchcs lar te via el sar las OBBTiagss d*fiscblaa, ia JAm. d* PJkad. dm huo'. ton. xiv.— &*«{, H. ns^Mtatthimt
da iEsebiM oraton, la JBntke, vol. iv.*-!*. Ausaio, Lift of Sseb. (ezeelleai) ia BntA ^. Ontery ss cited § I0& 8.

a. The ranaiMof Aachiaes af« fivaa io iZsMc, vol. 3d aad 4th.— ia JMfar, vol. Sd.— Doteon, vol. I2th.-^lso ia H. Wb^^

cited \ 106. 4. Separately. RtUkft. Lpa. ISOa 8 vols. 8.— t/. H. BrtmL 7At. Its24. 9 vols. 8.— The orslioa agaiast Olsf»>

|i*on,ollaopnblisbed witbDeoMstbaoss oa (becrowa; 8lcA,kc etiad$10a l^-Ma. Nttrit. Bost 18891 & witbaprahca ia
nodera Grcf k, aad Eagliih aotes.

4. TVaaslatJoBS.-Ocnaan.- Aiiks, with Demostbeaes, cited f 106. 6.— f. V. Mawnin (Ascb. aad Dem. io the case of Ctasl

phoa). Bcri. 1811. 8. Fr«iieb.-Jufv, with Deas. cited § 106. 5. lla^v^-Aninw Ptrkd. (JEseb. aad Dcb. coacara

Clas.) OaC 1765. a

5. Hyperidest a native of Attica, was a contemporary of Demostheaes and .^schines,
and next to these in rank as an orator. He was a pupil of Plato in philosophy, and of
Lycurgus and Isocrates in rhetoric. He was proscribed by Antipater, and put to death
B. C. 322. Of 52 orations by him, not one remains which is indubitably his ; although
two of those usually ranked among the orations of Demosthenes have, by some, been
ascribed to Hyperides; viz. the one entitled lUpi ruiv wpig 'A>iia»Api>¥ owOfiicw, and the
first of the two against Aristogeiton.

CC &MNI, HM. Litt Or. voL U. p. 290.

6. Dinarchus was a native of Corinth, but passed his youth at Athens. He studied
philosophy under Theophrastus, and became celebrated after the death of Demosthenes
and Hyperides. He acquired wealth by compodng orations for othera. Of 64 ora-
tions, only three remain ; one of these is entitled Kor4 Air/iooO^vov;.

Tbcy ate givea ia lbs coileetloBS dted \ 98. 2. Bapantoly. C. X. J, AtanJtff. Ups^ 18H. 8. CC AiAntaw as dtaS

1 98. t.-&A6li; IL 221.— C. mfim, Cona. io Diaarchl onlioMa. Kcrimb, 1888. ft.

63 ^i

490 HUTORT OF GREEK LITERATURS.

JlL^^SophiMU and Rheiorieian»,

^ 106. The term Sophist, as has been mentioned (^ 92), waa originally apphed in
Athena to those who taught the art of speaking. One of the earnest that attained
eminence in this profession, waa Gorgiaa of Leontiam in Sicily, about 430 B. C. Pro-
dicus of Ceos, and Hippiaa of Elis, flourished in the same period ; the former was
the author of the beauiilul allegory on the choice of Hercules contained in Xcnophon*8
Memorabilia. *' All these," observes Mitford, "are said to have acquired very con-
siderable riches by their profession. Their success therefore invited numbers to follow
iheir example ; and Greece, but especially Athens, shortly abounded with those who,
under the name of sophista, professors of wisdom, undertook to teach every science.
The scarcity and dearnesa' of books gave high value to that learning, which a man with
a well stored mind and a ready and clear elocution could communicate. None without
eloquence could undertake to be instructors ; so that the sophists in giving lessons of
eloquence were themselves the example. They frequented all places of public resort,
the agora, the gymnasia, and the porticoes, where they recommended themselves to
notice by an ostentatious display of their abilities in disputation wiih one another, or
with any who would converse with them. In the competition thus arising, men of
specious rather than solid abilities would often gain the moet extensive estimation.
Many of them would take either side of any question, and it way generally their glory
to make the worse appear the better cause.*'

$ 109. It is easy from this account to see how the name of sophist should soon be-
come a term of reproach, as it did, more particularly after the time of Socrates. The
term rhetorician waa also applied to the same class of teachers. But a distinction has
been made between the two words, which seems to have a just foundation. I'he term
rhetorician is applied to those who simply gave precepts in the aria of composition and
oratory ; the term sophist to those who actually practiced the art of speaking. In this
sense the name of sophists is given to all the speakers we read of after the decline of
oratory, as already explained (v 96). After the supremacy of Rome over Greece, and
especially under the emperors, there was a great number of these. Their ulents
were confined to a limited sphere, to the exercises in the schools, or discourses, lec-
tures, and declamations before promiscuous assemblies, w^hich formed a part of the
public amusements. Some of them traveled from city to city, like modem lecturers,
and received a liberal pay for their services. The various performances in which they
engaged, were distinguished by different names, apphed for the purpose ; e. g. t»*^^irti,
a declamation carefully written, in which the writer bears an assumed clmracter;
ov<jTaotff a little discourse or address, in which the writer recommends himself to an-
other ; &x.(iiaoiM, an extemporaneous speech ; iiaUlu^ a sort of dissertation, &c.

i 110. Between Augustus and Constantine there were several distmguished authors,
who may be properly classed among the sophists, as Dio Chrysostomus, Lucian, and
AthentBUS. Lesbonax and Herodes Aiticus belong to the same class. The emperor
Adrian often exercised his talents in performances similar to those of the sophists of
the age. Polemo, ^lius Aristides, and Flaviua Philostratus, may also be mentioned ;
the latter is spoken of as an eloquent speaker.

In the time of Constantine, and afterwards, there were also numerous authors,
whom we must refer to this class. Among them Themistius, Himenus, and Liba-
nius, are the most distinguished. The emperor Julian may be properly ranked here.
Subsequent to these are found many names, but none of much celebrity, except such
as are known by writings of another class, as Basilius, Procopiua, Theophylactus, and
Theodorus Prodromus (cf. % 80).--SchdlU bk. vi. ch. 77.

^111. By rhetoricians, in distinction from sophists, are meant, as has been stated
(^ 109), those who gave precepts on eloquence rather than attempted to practice it.
Rhetoric, or instruction in the art of eloquence, originated in Greece later than elo-
•({uence itself, as Cicero has justly remarked : eloquent ia non ex arlijicio, sed artijcinn
ex eloquentia natum. Empedocies is commonly considered as the first Greek rheto-
rician who taught the rules of oratory orally. His scholars Corax and Tisias, about
400 B. C, are said first to have committed such rules to writing. Gorgias the Sicilian,
and those termed sophists generally in the flourishing age of Greek letters, taught the
art of oratory. Isocrates, a pupil of Gorgias, and generally classed among the orators,
was a distinguished teacher of rhetoric, and had the honor of forming in his school the
greatest orators of Greece. Antiphon, also ranked among the orators, was a teacher
of rhetoric, and wrote a treatise wnich is quoted by the ancients.

Ommtr^ Bar Part oimtoin da Cotu, Jfan. di VhulihU Jtoyal, CI atte dPOd. tt Lit. dm. vol. 9. p. 44.

^112. In glancing at the list of Greek authors on the subject of rhetoric, we find
Aristotle, the philosopher and the teacher of Alexander, one of the earliest. Deme-
trius Phalereus occurs next (cf. ^ 97). After him we find none important to notice until
the time of Augustus, when we meet the names of Gorgias, who taught a school of
rhetoric at Athens (but must not be confounded with the Siciliiw above mentioned).

r. V. RHETORICIANS. OOROIAS. ARISTOTLE. DEMETRIUS. 491

and Apollodorus and Theodorus, who had rival schools, the former at Pergamns, the ^
latter at Rhodes. Whatever they wrote is lost. The principal author was Dionysius
of Halicarnassus, known also as an historian.

After Augustus the eminent writers were Hermogenes and Lon^nus. Many other
names occur, as Aphthonius, Theon, Numenios, Menander, Minucianus, and Aspines,
who all wrote on some of the topics of rhetoric ; only inconsiderable fragments, how-
ever, now remain. Of the vast mass of compositions by the ancients on the art of
speaking and writing, but a small portion has come down to us.

§ 113. Before noticing more particularly individuals of the class now before
ns, we will give some general references.

I. Ob Uw SopbwIk-lh^/taU, Hi«L Phtlot. bk. U. e. 4— OiJIut, BIrt. OraMi, dk \%,-L. CmoKi, Tbe«tr«in vet Rbel. dedam.
L e. Bopbialwam, de eonm diidpliu ac diMCBdl doeeadlqve ntloB*. Fkr. 1610. a awl io OrotMvte*, Tba. vol. i — O. JVl JTn^A,
nm. da SopfaiHaniai eioqaaBlia. Jen. 1703. 4.~TbB Ptotaforoi of Plato.— ffarriion, aa ellad f M.—/. a tVUA, Dmb. de Pnenht
vet Sopbiatar. Rhetor, al OntainiB. Jao. ITia 4.— Oeri, Hiat Crit SepbialaraB, ia ttw Ada Soc Tr^itet. JSa— JUhr, Die
Oricdi. Sophatca. StuUs- 1832.

a CoIladioB* of tba ranaiDa of Iba ibetariciaaaL-JUiM, JtJMora Otmi. 1S0& S volt. lbL-I«e JUoMio, Eseen>ta Gme. Sopbia-
tanuB et Rhelonim dadamatioDeai Ron. 1641. a— JST. SUphantm, PoleinooM, Himerii, et alior. dedanutionea. Par. 1M7. fni.—
Th. Oak, Rhalom Sdecti, Gr. k. Lat Ozt 107& & rapr. (ad. /. F. Fi<*a) Lps. 1773. a— Ch. Walt, Rhetorei GnKl. StaH. 1831.

S& 9 vda. a Tba moat tmportaat precepta of rbetorie, draim fron Grwk and Roana aotbon, Id F. A. fVttdtiurg, Pnecepta

ffaatoriea. BnuMW. 1788. a— Cf./. Ck Th. Anaih, Lezicoa iadiiiolo(ia Gneeomm riwtoriaa. Lipa. ITBS. a— Sea alao Sul-
mH Allf. Tlieorie, vol. iv. p. 45.

$ 114/. Gargiat, of Leontium in Sicily, a philosopher, statesman, orator and
Thetorician, flourished at Athens about b. C. 430, as a teacher of eloquence.
Cicero celebrates his oratorical talents, but charges him with too great attention
to the rounding of his periods. We have two declamations (juxitiu) ascribed
to him ; a eulogy on Helen^ and an apology for Palamede$,

Gorgias was ereatly admired, and honored with a golden statue at Delphi. He is
said to have died B. G. 400, aged 108. Eschenburg, in the original of the above,
represents him as known at Athens in the Persian war ; the translation is conformed
to the more common statements.

Cr. Ma/ordj dk ZTtii. I l.~Jar(Adniiy, Aaadiania, eb. Tti.-£r. E. Fm, Th Gorgia Laoot HaL 182& 8. Tbe dedaaia-

tloM are given in JlcMc, dted § 90. vol. v>ii^fleU<r, vol. j.^Dobtunl't Oratora Aftid, voL iv. p. 801

§ 115. Jbisiotle^ bom at Stagira in Macedonia, B. C. 385, went to Athens
while young, and became one of the roost distinguished pupils of Plato. He
was subsequently the instructor of Alexander the Great, after which returning
again to Athens he founded the Peripatetic sect in philosophy. He died in
Cfhalcis, B. C. 323.

1 tt. His name belongs especially to the history of philosophy (cf. % 191), but is intro-
duced here on account of his treatise on rhetoric. This consists of three books, and is
a work of much merit. His treatise on poetry ^ also, may be properly mentioned here ;
it is a fragment of a large work.

L. BptngH, Artium aeriplena ab Ulib vqw ad edjiea ArbtoteUa de Bbdorica libroa. Slottf. 18SS. 8L— Fim Jimtmtr, Udm
die Poelik dae Arialdalci. Lpt. 1881. 4.-J; B. Xtim, Conparatie pladtonim Plat el Arialot da tatlooa Artb f^diok Leodii,
1828.4.

t. EditioBi.— Tba Rhdorie, in JIAo, died above, § IIS. 2.—RhtU>rk k Poiby, In tbe ediUoaa of AriaMle's wMt warin (ef.

§ t91).-^Al«> /. Akkcr. Bed. 1838. 8. Rood. Rbetori ea ; OouMon, Or. k Ut Load. 1619. 4.—BaUu, Or. k Lat Cands

1728. a rcpr. Ozf. 1809. 8.-7. Oaiifard, Or. k Lat Oif. I8aa 8 vola. L-Da Arte Poetiea; HarUt, Or. k Lat Lipk
ITBOL a— Tyiokill, Gr. k Lat Oxf. 1794 ft lOt. &— OrB/cnten. Lpc. 1881. 8.

a Tnaalatkioa.— rrcBdu-JUa Batttux, Peettet, in La Quaim PoeH^tim, fArWete, dTida, de DaqMcaas, avee

lenaniaca. Fhr. 1771. 8.— £ Orm, Rbetorie, Or. k Fr. Fir. 18281 & Eaflldi.— Peelici; KJ.Pft. Lood. 1788. 9.

ULlSafnins. Load. 1789. 4. 1818. 8 vola. &-Rbelorie; CHnmrin. Load. 18ia a^A OiUta, witb latrod. aid Appaad.
Load. 18231 & QeriBaa.— P o e 1 1 c a, C. IWm, Mefi. 1(84. 8L-4t b e to r I e, £ L. Both, StBM|. 1888. la

5 116. Demetrius Phalereus, of Phalerum, one of the harbors of Athens,
flourished B. C. about 300. He was a pupil of Theophrastus, and by his elo-
quence rose to distinction. Driven by Antigonus from the authority at Athens,
which he received from Cassander (cf. $ 97) and had enjoyed for several years,
be retired to Alexandria, where he was patronized by Ptolemy Soter. But be-
ing banished by the next king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, to a distant province, he
put an end to his life by the bite of an asp, B. C. 284.

I. DaBwtrlui it mM to lave K^iaaM to Ptolemy Solar t^e idea of Ibudiiv tba Library aad MiHeam of Alezaadria. TIm dit-

•Icaaura of Philaddphna waa iocairad by bla bariag bvorad tbe daina of an elder brolbcr to tbe tbraae. Amamy^ aar la vie

Denalriiii de Phdere, la Uam. 4* Plead, dm hucr. km viii p. 157.

2 u. Many works were composed by him, which are lost. There is extant a treatise
on elocution^ llcpi Ipurivgioi^ which has been ascribed to him; but its real author was per-
haps a later Demetrius, who lived at Alexandria in the reign of the emperor Marcus
Antoninus. It contains many ingenious and acute remarks on the beauues of compo-
sition» particularly on tbe structure of periods.

^tfft HISTORY OF ORBEK LITERATURE.

3. Among the loet works, are a treatise an the /onuifu, one an the Imot cf Atkemtf
«od another on SeerxUn. A little piece on the Apothepns of the seven Sttges, ia pre-
eerved in Stobaust as having been written by Demetnas. SchdUf iii. 241.

4. EdltioHi.~Tb* tmtiM nipl l^9v«<cs b (irM io JUui, GMt, and Fitelm, chad \ lit »i|«nkly; /. a ftiiwiWir,
AHmt. 1 779. a with ■ teuuutaXMrf.—r. OOUr, Lipt. 107. 9.

$ 117. Dionyiiu$ Halieamaamu^ in the time of Augustus, celebrated as an
historian, was also a rhetorician. He wrote several treatises, which may be
properly classed in this department.

1 u. Two particularly merit notice here : a work XU^ ovMtnti dmn&nuff de compoau
tione verhorum, on the arrangement of words; and another styled Ttxjmq fnTopach^ art of
r&eloru;,« which has come to us in a very defective state.

2. Two other rhetorical pieces of Dionysius were Ttaf mXciuv Xc^^ocr^pc^, Characters
of the ancietUtt still extant, and n^ ruv Amn3r ftir6^u» ht^nftarwuei^ Memoirs of the
Attic Orators^ in three parts, of which we have only the first ana a fragment of the
second. There are also several Utters^ in which he criticises the style and writmgs of
different authors.

BMiOy It. St6.-.OL IwkAimt. Pre Dkwyrie Hilkm. ir)«q« la ibatorieaB proMritk. Hlndib^ 170. 4.

a EditfcMii.~ror thoMoT hb Wbrif, Me j 147.— Tba picen oa tba amMftmcnl of «aorrfi, aad oo rAcfonc. wen jbtt p^
Ibhad bjrJUitf.Mcii«l(llt.-na Coapotition* Tariwram; J.Vfian. Load. 1708. 17<flL 8; batler, O. H- 5taU/v. I4&
ISOa a— #y. G^tOir, Jaa. 1B1& 8— in rreoeb tniMlalloii, wiib ranufea, ^M* BoMoo. Ftf. ITS. lf.~An Rhetorics; A
ASUoC^Or.kLit Lpa. I«M. &^-C bar act an of the laeieMsi/lnl in fC SkpAaiMi, Dtoa. Hal. aeripla qondam cribca.
ftr. MM.8^-JUMril,Or.aiAt Land. 177a a wtthadfaMHatieanBtlMaaeof Ibamiddla vafb..-OBtha.fUie Oratara; a
JL JCDiaB. Oif. ITtl. f TOla. a-Tte LMm^ is Ok. Q, KrUeer^ Oioa. HaL htolarioitaplika. RaL laUL a

$ 118. A'ofi, suniamed on account of his eloquence CkrysodomM (;tpveetffo-
^(), lived in the first and beginning of the 8d century after Christ. His birth*
place was Prusa in Bithynia. After followinfir the pursuits of a sophist, he
became at length a stoic philosopher. He fled from the cruelty of Domitian
into Thrace, but under Nerva and Trajan lived again at Rome, enjoying par*
ticularly the favor of the latter. Of his writings, we have 80 dissertations or
declamations on various topics, displayingr much rhetorical ability. He is,
however, often deficient in simplicity, and his style wanting in brevity and
clearness.

1. The titles of Dion's discourses are fiven in SchdlVs History of Greek Literature,
That styled 'Voiuucdf is pronounced his chef-d'oeuvre ; it condemns tne custom practiced
by the Rhodians of using ancient statues with new incriptions in honor of their coo-
temporaries.^^cMU, iv. 210-^26.

a EditioM.~Bail.— a Mnrri (printei), Or. & UL Par. I8M, ISB. M.; with a CauiyiaBfcry of L CManbaa, aad mIm af Aad.
Jforal;thatraBdatiMblhUorX»c*iMiyirorir«icaDrcM^alMp«UiihadBMii,iaS&fe^ LpiL I7S4. !79aifala.4.

a TiwaiBtioiM.~AaarMntn]iilatia«ofU>IHaaDorthadiNaiinaiiafiTaaiBXiMMH«llaai Mllaa. 177a a^EngliA, loaaa
«f IbedlaooBiMi, O. Wakffidd. Load. 1800. a

$ 119. Herodei Mtteui^ a native of Marathon in Attica, was a distinguished
sophist in the age of the Antonines. He was appointed consul at Rome, A. D.
141. We have from him only a single discourse and some fragments.

1. The full name was Tiberius Claudius Attieus Herodes, After obtaining his edu-
cation and traveling abroad, he pave public lectures at Athens on eloquence. Such
was his reputation, that he was invited to Rome as teacher to Marcus Aureliua and
Lucius Verus. He died at Marathon, A. D. 185, at an advanced sge.

Hia life ia ftvan b? PhOtHralMi (cf. « 8SS b. 4).-SdU»l, iv. ns.

a TbaramainsorilMadatangivanin JMtHvol.viU.~lD ZMmm, voL iv. p^ CSa^Sapaialaly, S. FiiviBoL Lpc. ISOI. a—
Tba inacriptiont of Harodaa bava baas almdj aaaMioDad (P. IV. S tt> 4).

$ 120. ^liuB Jlrislides, of Hadrianopolis in Bithynia, lived at Smyrna in the
second century, and was held in great estimation as a speaker.

1 «. There remain from him 54 declamations (/icXeral), which evince a successful imi-
tation of the ancient masters in Greek eloquence, but betray also in the author too
high an idea of his own excellence. We have also from him some letters, and a trea-
tise in two books, entitled UsftLmhrtjnB jcai d^9s X^v, " Du style politique et du style
simple."

2. His contemporaries considered him as equal to Demosthenes, and he was honored
with many statues. Some unedited pieces of Ariatides were discovered by ilfot in a
palimpsest or rescript manuscript of the Vatican. — SchdUf iv. 234.

a Editicm-WORKS; & JtU, Or. k Ut. Oxf. l720-9a S roll. 4-*0. Dindorf. Upa. IBB. S vph. a with Mtaa aad
acfaolla.—Tha Prinetpt I7 E. Bonima (prtoL Ph. JmtA). Flor. 1617. fol. eoataiaiog fifty-two of tite ^cXtrol, witli the aaoaf

■MMi Kholia tamad «iradims.-€ton(», Gr. k LaL Oeacv. 1004. 9 voli. 12. Tha tiro books on ff 1 y I a, in Jldm, Rbataraa

Omc cMad f 1 la-Scparatalf, L. Normmm. TJptal, ISBB. a^Tba diMoona anaioal ^fpfincf ; flnt by /. MenO. Va^
:7ia a-^. J. Wolf. Halla, 17m a-O. a Omutrt. Boo. tWt. a wShtiwoiilkaofDaMoaUwaathaMiinwmatf

P V. RHETORICIANS. LUCIAN. HERMOGENES. ATHEN^ITS. 493

§ 121. Lueian, of Samosata in Syria, flourished in the second centary. Ha
at first engaged in the business of an advocate at Antioch, but renounced it for
the more congenial employment of a sophist, and finally professed to embrace
philosophy. He is said to have been procurator of Egypt under Marcus Aure-
lius. He was neither a pagan nor a Christian, nor did he espouse any sect in
philosophy. He was distinguished by acumen, lively wit, and a power at ridi-
cule and satire, which he of^n indulged too freely and wantonly, against men
and gods alike.

I If. Most of the numerous pieces which we have from him are in the form of dia-
logues. His Dialogues of the Gods and Dialogues of the Dead are the most remarkable.
His pure Attic and tasteful style is the more praiseworthy, from the circumstance that
he was not a native Greek.

2. Leaving Antioch, Lucian traveled in Asia, Greece, Gaul, and Ital^, delivering his
discourses in variousjplaces, and afterwards settled at Athens. It was m advancealife,
that he was put in office under Aurelius. "One of the chief characteristics of Lucian,"
says Scholl, "is that species of originality which the English term hunumr." — It has
been supposed by some, probably without foundation, that Lucian once embraced
Christianity and afterwards apostatized. In the pieces styled Uepi riis ntpcyptvov reXtvrffs
and ^i\6naTpts, he makes unsparing attacks upon Christians; the genuineness of the
latter piece has been doubted. — Besides the eighty pieces in prose, there are fifty epi-
grams ascribtxi to Lucian.

Sw SeMO, i*. 848, whan b a brief ■ulyrii of hb ternrnt piMM *, whieh b (Svob io JiUhon^t Lenprinv.— C Wttdart, Ue
■late, Tin, wriptiKiue Loeiui. Mxcb. 1832. &— Cf /. Jf. Qtmuft D« oUt et auetora Dialog!, qai PkOapahrit ioKribitor. Upi.
1790. 4.— HTelofid; Ocwhiebl* dn PbtlflMphcii Peraffrimw. Lpc 1791. 8.— f raMut, m eitod %«loir (S).

8. Editirai.~B.— ITciiuto-tetf (with /, U. Oamtr ^ J. JMK), Or. k IaL Anrt. 1743. 8 volt. 4. To wkich te wUed u a
4tb «oL tbt Uxican Ludaiuum (not perfect) of C. JL RtOt. I'ltraJ. 1746. 4. The edition of ScAmid, Mifau, 1776-80. 8 voli. 8.
fa a reprint of Hemtlerbuta, witb a brief iclection (if nolee ; tbe Bipont edition, 178»-98. 10 toIl 8. a reprint of the fonu, withoot
the Lexicon.— f. O. Idknonn, Or. k Lat. Lpi. I89S-3I. 9 vota. 8. Aaotber toI. eoolainiBK a LazieBD bai been ezpected.-^— F.—
fVmflqge. (B«tber pnBler nor editor known). Flor. 1496. fol.--Aepnd.wnAM. Van. 1503, i5& fol —Between thia and that oc

AhnuftrAtrif wei« nvenL CL SeUO. if. 8S0. tL—n-. SAmiedmr. Halle, 1810. 2 voli. 8. A good edition of Greek text ; a

proniiacd commenlafy baa never appeared.- J*. V. FrilxsdM. Lpz. I8S8, m. 8. The DuOogua of the Ooifa, and leveral other piecai

have appeared. Thit prombes toAe an ezeellcnt edition. Of edition of eeleet parts we can nanw bat few.— AyboU. Gotha,

t78S. 8.— P. J. Wolf. Ralle, 1791. 8.-6eArie*. GMtiog. 1797. 8.— iXolOfUM o/ like Diad, bfJ. QaO. Fkr. l80&-f. G. left,
monfi. Lpc 1813, 1821!. 8.— Aui/ofutf of th* Ondi, by LOmann. I8I&. 8.— £. F. Poppo. Lps. 1817. 8^£ueiiu, or lAe J»*,
br Caurirr. Fkr. I81& I2.-4 F. A. Ck Ora^ff, Soawiinn (tki Dnanty or Ite Coeh). Berne, 1880. a-f. F. Haman% Qnonodo
Hbtoriam icrib^re oportcat. Fraokf. I82& 8.— JT. O. Jaeobf Toiaris (or Friendritip). Halle, I82S. & airf Alexander (or like Fakt
AvipAtf). Coiogn. IM8L & with notee.

4. Tnnriatioiit.-Oennan.-C M. mOanL Lpi. 1788. 6 Tola. & Freneh^-J. K. Bdtn de BaOu. F^r. 6 «ob. &

Englbh.— 7A. FnrMin. Loud. 178a 8 vola. 4.-7. Oarr. Loud. I77S-8S. 6 cola. 8.— FT. Toolm, with tbe oofmiBcnto of WMaad
aad othera. Lond. l8Ba 8 vola. 4.

5. iniHlrati*e.-Vort{n, Henarka, in kb TVvcfa, Fhilolocical, kc Lood. 1790. 8.-JL PorMR, In hb TVoeft, *e. t> 7. tDM.
Land. 181 & &— /. C. rSmionn, Venncb Qber Lucian Pbiloa. ond Spracbe. Zerbet 1804. 9.— J. T. KnbtUu, De nialilioeu Ladanl
coMQio rclig. Chriet. ridiculan reddmdl, in hb OpuKuila JeaAmiea. lAjm. 1778. 8.

f 123. Jffermogenea^ of Tarsus, lived about the middle of the 2d century. He
lefi a celebrated work on rhetoric, consisting of five parts, which was written
when he was about 17 years old. At the age of 25, he lost memory, languajre,
and understanding.

1. Hcrmogenes lived to advanced age in this state, a striking and melanchuly
example both of tbe power and of the weakness of the human intellect. The account
we have of him is drawn from Philostratus, Suidas, and Hesychius. — The parts of his
Tex>^ ^nptKh were 1. lUoyv/ivoff/iara, Premiratory Exercises; 2. TUpt ar&ncjy, On the
stales cf the question ; 3. TUpl tipart-jfVy On invention, the most valuable part of the
work ; 4. UtfA ii5a3v, De Formis ; 5. Uepl fuffdiov iuydniTos, De effeetu. This work was
long used as a text-book in the schools of rhetoric, and several commentaries were
written upon it.

2. Under the title which the first part of Hertnogenes bears, there exist two separate
rhetorical works of two later authors ; viz. the UpoyvityattnaTa^ ot Aphlhonius, based upon
or extracted from Hermogencs, and the Xlpoyu^ydafiara of Theon^ explaining the prin-
ciples of both the preceding. — Schdlly iv. 322, ss.

a Edition.— The M part of Hermogenea ww published ftnt bj Bmtn In the BCU. da- ottm U(. u rtmif . tUI. and ix.— Afieiw
wavte in Ctaat. Journal (v -viii.}. I8l2.-Sepaiatel7 ; O. ymnrnttr. Norinb. 1818. &->lnf. TrcM, (with wOrka of Pritdan.^

Lpa. 1819. 8 vok. a The other 4 parb were printed fiM by ^Idtit, aa died f 113. Tbe bert edition are /. fltamtiM, Or. k.

Lat. atraab. 1670-71. 4 vob. a-and O. Launnihu, Or. ft Ul. Genev. 1614. &

77b Profymnaimttta of Apblhonias and Theoo were pablbbed together, bjr /. SeHtffer. Upsal, 16801 8.

$ 123. Mhenaeus, a grammarian and rhetorician, may be placed perhaps as
well here as in any department, although he was properly an enet/clopsedian
compiler. He was a native of Naucratis in Egypt, and lived at the beginning
of the 3d century.

2T

494 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

1 «. His AearvoawpurraX, or Banquet of the Sophifti or Learned, in 15 books, is a trea-
sure of various and useful knowledge. It is a rich source of information on topics of
philosophy, history, poetry, and antiquities, and preserves many interesting fragments
and monuments, which the stream of time must otherwise have borne away from us.
It is to be regretted, that the work has several Iocuikb, or places wanting or defective,
especially in the last book. The first two books, also, and the beginning of the third,
are extant only in an abridgment or epitome, made by some grammarian at Con-
stantinople.

t. Tbe work li In tb« form of a dialogue. A number of learned men, above 90, lawvera, pby-
■iclane, poete, gmroroariant, •ophiats, and musicians, meet at a banquet given by a rich eiiixen
of Rome named La«rrn<tM«, and. In noticing the different instrumentt, materials, and prepara-
tions of their feast, remark upon almost every thing pertaining to the knowledge or customs of
the ancient Greeks.— &A0U, Iv. %n—Edinb. Rn. vol. til.

a. EimoM.—B^-ikkiMii^auterf Or. * Ul. Arftnt. (Sirub.) 1801-T. U rob. 8. VoltL L-*. Or. tod, better thu uf pmriom
•d. ; foliL Ti.-ziii. Comnwatary, ttCMdincly valuabi* ; voL ziv. Index. Aa Iiidtz Onecitatn promiMd. Ct SduU, iv. Ma J>i».
tfn, i. aaS. Month. Mug. Jan. 180S. Mm, i. IM.^0. Dindmf. Lip*. 1827. S vab. 8L Cantiiiiiiif Om Gr. tot Tva voh.

of Comnat ae. pramiwd. r.— Tlior* bavc bam but (ew odiUook Prinapt, bjr Mdvi (iffuiiina iMirtiiis u ed.y. Vn. 1514.

CoL— Jlitfra<v« (4> BaUrmt). Bm. IfiSS. foL— Jk. Cmaaubtm, Gr. a UL 1697-1600. 8 volv fol. Very eelcbratad. Th* UXm
wnioa by Dabeofnfiua (DaftdkamjA, fint prinlad 1563, at Lyom ; tb« 8d vol. printed 1600, contaiM CBunnboo*! ConnneDtary.—
Swim, i«pr. Lyom, 1612-81, and 1667-64.— O. H. StMftr. Lipv. 1796. & Ooly Ut voL pablidied. . Tbe pbu ceoteanpbted ttne
foiit, eMh eonebtiag of 8 veluMt; eonprnii* the text, Ibe wwnmeirfiry of Caaiiboa wHh noiei, and ibe Fiencb vertioo of FO*

4. TraadarioB».-.Preaefa.— Jfidk. da ManUtt, Ffcr. I6ea 4. "very rare aad aot very |oad.»-/. B. L. POktnmi, flnt priatad,

Fkr. 1786. 5 vola. 4. «* batty." ^Utia.— la &Aiiw^MhiMr, la Joat eitad.-^ Then ia to inariAtioa ia Ki^iab. taliaa, or Qm-

man." Mdu.

1 lllaitimtiva..-A IVMon, CaBjccL ia Itlieaaiiim. Load. 1784. a-^oco^ Addit Aalnadvcn. b Albeamai. Jea. 1808. S-
—R. FiariBo, Ofaaarr. Cfit is Aiheamiaa. OoO. 1808. 81— J. Jfefaiae^ Cum cril. ia Coatiooraai fiasm. ab Athaa. aarvata.
BarL 1814. 8.

$ 124. LengtnuB (Dionysias Cassias), a rhetorician and critic, who embraced
the Platonic philosophy, and floarished in the 3d century. His birthplace was
probably Athens, although it is not certain. Little is known of the circum-
stances of his life, excepting that he was a teacher and counsellor to Zenobia,
queen of Palmyra, and was put to death by order of her cpnqueror, Aurelian.

1 «. Many works, now lost, were written by him. The treatise Ilepc w/«t>f , on the
tublimef which has come down to us only in a defective state, is a celebrated production.
It does great honor to the judgment and fine critical powers of the author, and well
illustrates, by principles and examples, the nature of the sublime in thought and com-
position.

2. Longinus spent a considerable part of his life as a teacher of rhetoric and criticism
at Athens, before he became preceptor to Zenobia. He was born about A. D. 213, and
died A. D. 273. — Of the various works, of which we have merely the titles, with a few
fragments, the most important was that stvled ^(XoX^t, or ^\o\6yot hfiiXlai, consisting
of 21 books, containing criticisms upon autnors of his own and more ancient times.

Suhnkm (ander tba iletitioaa name Setendam), Dim. da vita el aeriptia LaoffioL Lag. Bat 1776. and ia Htiala, dted bdov.
Cr. SbMM/, iv. p. 389.-^. W. Kneaty Reraarin on tba auppoaad DioDyaina Loaciaoa} witti aa attanpC to rcatore the TieatiaB ob 8i*-
linjty to ita oripaal slate. Lovl. 18861 &

8. Edittenb-ll.-A mi»ka, Gr. a Ut Lpc. ITOa a Bepr. Loud. 1880. & T^Prineipt, of Jtofcorf Aww IML I6S1 4.

-P. MmuUui. Vea. 1563. 4.-Alm. Partm. Gea. 15681 & BMia of all anbwqaent till tbat of Ptam^-O, da iVffw, Or. t LaL Oea.
1618. a— TbOiia, Gr. h Ut Tn^* &>»>• 1*^ 4.— PMrva, Gr. a Lat. Load. 1784. 4. Macb vaload and oftaa repriMad ; bait,
Aoiat I7S8, whb a eoaBmeataTy of F. Portna.— rumvnumn t KOnigt Gr. Lat GaII. k Ital. Veroa. 1738. 4.^r. IT. Monu, Gr.
a Lat Lipa. 1768. 9. Valaed far tbe nperior Latin venJon ; eoatainloc also a trad eatiaed LibtttuM dnimadg* in Long, aad an
elasMl any Ai nolion$aiil>UmitatU.—Toup, Gr. k Lat Ozoa. 1778. 4. and a Celebrated. Repriated l8oa

4. TraBalatlonaL-G«nnaa.-7. O. AMoaiar. Lpi. 1781. 9. •• with valuable paycbolofical and Kaflwlieal obsarvalbm."— >
rreacb.— SoOaait, eontainiaf tbe Stfitxkm Criti^um, Amat 1701. & aad is Ttmumumn, eltsd abova.— Itallan.--wl. JT. Oeii,
Firans. 1787. 8. Eng1nh.~lf: SmUh. Load. 1786. a Often reprinted.

$ 125. Themutius^ sumamed Euphrades, was a celebrated orator and sophist
of th&4th century, a native of Paphlagonia. He acquired great reputation at
Constantinople by his philosophy and his instructions in rhetoric. He enjoyed
also the favor of several emperors, especially Constantine. Besides several
commentaries, or paraphrases^ illustrating Aristotle, we have from him 34 dis-
courses, marked by clearness, order, and richness of expression.

1. He was highly regarded by Julian and hie aucceMors, down to Theodosiua tbe Great, who
intrusted him, nlthough a pagan, with the education of hit eon, Arcadlua. He wai the master
of St. Augostin, and a friend of Gregory Naxianzen, who styled him EaaiXtis \6ybiv. He resided
for some time at Rome. He must not be confounded with T*htmi$tiuM, a deacon at Alexandria in
the 6th century, and foundor of the sect of ^fnoeta.—The titles and arguments of his ditetmnea
are stated by 8cMU.—Tht ParapkroMM taefow in Greek, and two extant only in Latin versiooa.
SekOU^vi.Uli vil. ISl.
I Bditioaa.-Tbe /brtt, tbe JUHnt, rnidar tbe title, Omnia ThmiiM Opera (cor. T. THneavtOi^ Vea. 1684. M. CaalaiBi^
4 Graak Puapbraaa% and 8 DiseMtMs.— Tbe Latia Farapbnaas were printed Vea. 15M and 1610. Of ttia JXmmam, aabia

p. y. RHETORICIANS. HIMERIUS. JVLIANUS. LIBANIUS. 495

qucBt •dithMM, H. St^ihmuM, Phr. 1852. 8. (14 Dise.)-DJonyi. Alaoittf. Pur. 1618. 4. (19 DiK.>-/. Hardouin. Ftr. 16M.
M. (Sa DlK. Cr. SdkBU, vl. lS9i Owlcf, Brav. Nol. 479.)-^ diMnane found ud pubUttwd bj Jfai, Milu. 1816. A.—0. Din'

iarf^ Tbcnktii Oratioaei. (Gr.) Lipc 1«S2. a— A conplcfU edition of Tbembtioa is wuting. Cf. /. /. G. AniXo, Oba. crit

u Tboniatii OraUoDci. Lor. 18>& 8.

§ 126. Htmertus, a native of Prasa in Bithynia, flourished at Athens, as a
sophist and speaker, under the emperor Julian, in the 4th century. He was an
imitator of iElius Aristides.

1. Like other sophists he traveled about, pronouncing discoiirses and harangues. Afterwards
be was established at the head of a school in Athens. Basil, Gregory, and Naslanseu were
among his pupils. He died A. D. 3^%; leaving above 70 discourses ; of which we have only 34
entire aod 10 imperfect. Oite of the most interesting is that in honor of Julian and the city Con-
■tantlnople. His style is afl'ected, and loaded with eiudiiion.— •ScAo//, vi. 182.

2. Th« only coaipkte «ditioii !• that o( UottL {Thtoph.) Wtnudcrf. Gott. 1760. 9.-Wenudcrf, a proToMor at DaatBif, had
ffWDl BUBj ytart ia prrparinf tbU work, accoiopaoicd with a Tcnioa aud rommailary, but died, 1774, wittout hariag fwiDd a
pnbliabar. In 1783, Uarlw puLlttbed a •paeimen of Ute work, which induced a bookieller to publith the whole.

$ 127. Juiiantu {F!avii*3 Claudiua)^ more commonly known by the name of
Julian (AejSposiate^ became emperor of Rome on the death of Constantius, A. D.
361. He possessed undoubted abilities, and a philosophical turn of mind, yet
was by no means free from sophistry and bigotry. He wrote discourses, letters^
and satjres. One of the most celebrated of his pieces is the satire called the
CsBsars, Kotorofc;, or Xvfiftotjiw.

1. The epithet Ajtostate (Amarorn^) was given to Julian on account of his openly
renouncing the Chnsiian religion, in whicii he had been educated bv his uncle, Con«
stantine the Great. He made great exertions in various wa^s to overtnrow Christianity.
He intended by rebuilding Jerusalem to disprove the predictions of the sacred scriptures,
but his efforts were all defeated* by the most signal disasters. His opposition to
Christianity was a leading motive for his warm patronage of the teachers in the Greek
schools of philosophy'. He died in conseouence of a wound received in battle, in an
expedition against Persia, A. D. 363, at the age of 32. Gibbon has very speciously
and artfully drawu his character*.

1 W, fVarburton, Jaliao ; a Ditawne enocamiBg the flery erapltoa whkh deftated that emperof^ attempt to nfanild the Tela.

pi*. Load. 1761. & 2d ed. ^Sce P. IV. { SI.^For an aceoaot of Ibne KhooU aod leacben or profcann, aee abo &U01W,

Arehiv. tir GeKb. uod U*antar. Frankf. 1890. vol. tat.—* Gitban, Rom. Kmp. cb. zziii. xziv.— For the Iifoof Jalku, An
ndomu MamtUnui la eooaidcrwi |ood authority.— Hit lih wriltea in Franch, \if Ph. C. d* La, SUUtrU. AmtL 1735. 12.-<&mii^
traial. by J. V. Dmmux. DuM. 1746. 8L— Alao, in Fraach, by TouHH, aa died balow.-Tba beet probably ; J. Nmndr^ Qber
dea KaiMT JoliaBiit nod aeai Zaitalter. Lpi. ISIS. & Sea aUo bb KmkmtmMckU (1829), B. iL Abih. L p. Sl^Aad UOmamCi
OrvMyof Maaansoa, p. 7S.-CI: Aftinipek** Modieim, foU 1.26Sw

2. Amon^ the most singular of his discourses are the two with the following titles ;
E«V r^v^aaiUa "HXtoir, to the monarchy the sun; and E<V -Htv furripa ^ew*', to the mother of the
gods (Cybele) ; they exhibit his bigoted or hypocritical attachment to the grossest pagan
absurdines.— Of the letters, one peculiarly interesting is addressed to a pagan priest,
instructing him how to sustain the cause of paganism against the Christians. — JSchOUf
vi. 186. Cf. Christ. Sped. vol. v. p. 539.

8. Julian composed a work expressly ag:alnst the Ailth of Christians. It Is lost, and most that
Is known respecting it. Is learned from a recitation written by Cfrill of Alexandria.— In the last
century a French author, the Margnis D*Jlrgms^ undertook to restore the work of Julian, and
publlshpd his performance, Berl. 1764. 8. It was soon refuted by G. F. Meir, Beurtheilunf der
Jietracbtnngen des Marq. v. Argens Hber den Kaiser Julian. Halle, 1704. 8 ; and by fV. Criekt^n,
Betrarhtupgen iiber des Kaiser Julian Abfolt von der Christlicben Religion, Sec. Halle, 1705. 8.

4. EditjoM.-Of hb WORKS thare have been thr««.— Jfarf inita f Casitodanu. Far. 1583. 8.— iMon. Pttmhu (AUu). Fir.

163QL i. B.--£i!. Sfonhiim. Ifo. 168& fel. with the work of Cyrill mentkiDed above.— But neilhar of thoM ccnlaina all tha

ItffviL Sererai, do( io SpaahaiDi, are f iren by Jftowtort, Anecdota Graeca. Vkftw. 1709. 4. aod wme olhen in FahnetuM^ Inx

nlotaria Eranfelii. Hanb. 1731. 4. Of tepanle piteu, we notice the following.— TAc Ckaara. ImeL ms. 4. With plaice

by B. Pimrt, and French tranaktion by E. J^nAcim.— Scat, by /. M. Heutingmr, Gr. Ut. k Tr. Geiha, 1741. S 7%) Oman

awl JftMpofon, b7 J7. /. LtuiuM. Oratfcw. 1770. 8.—Th* Bulogy on ConHantUu, bj O. H. SchOfer. Upa. 18(8. & wiUi D.
Wyttafaadi'i notah— Of the £jUw», by 17. L. ffeyln^, Or. et LaL »fa7enne, 1828. 8. with eommeniary ; ptod.

6. Tranlatioaa.— EoKlMh.->Cwan, ^, la /. Duneombi, Select Worka of tb« Emp. Jnltaa. Lood. 1784. 8 Tola. & TnuA.

■~mnAt toorftr, by JL nurW. Par. 1«1. S voh. a

$ 128. LibaniuSf of Antioch, lived also in the 4th century, and mostly at
Constantinople. He belonged to the profession of sophists, and was distin-
guished beyond all his contemporaries in eloquence.

1 u. His writings were various. Besides a treatise styled n/wyn^ar/iarwy vapajkiynara,
Examples of rhetorical exerciser (or praexereifationes), and numerous Letters, we have
also many of those pieces which were called MrXcroi, Harangues or Declamations. We
may observe in the style of these discourses an affectation of Attic purity and elegance,
by which the charms of natural ease and freedom are often lost.

2. Libanius suffered from the envy of rivals, by whose influence he was banished
from Constantinople, A. D. 346. iie retired to Nicisa and then to Nicomedia, bui

496 BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

was afterwards recalled to Constantinople. Subsequently, however, be withdrew, and
passed the remnant of his days at Antioch, his native ciiy. He was admired and pa-
tronized bv Julian the Apostate, and in common with the latter cherished the hope of
restoring tne reign of paganism in the Roman empire. He has left an autobiography,
styled A^yoi ncpi rjf; tavrov rvAciKt which is placed among his discourses.

Sefutt, Vk l&O.— Sm alM Oiibcn, Bom. Eoip. eh. zjut.— riUmaK, Hiat. im Kmpnmn, tatom it. p. Sn^^Laafdiim, BmOmb
Talimonia, toL W. p. STC^F. C. Afiraen, Comncot. de Libukk Hate. I68& 4.

3. Schiill gives the Greek titles of above 60 of the Declamations. In the Bhetoneal
Examples are 13 sections, each devoted to examples of a separate kind. The LeUers
are about 2000 ; some of them to Christian Fathers ; Basil and Chrysostom both were
pupils of Libanius. He left also Arguments to the Orations of Demosthenes, which are

usually given in the editions of this orator. There exists a work entitled *Emrr«\tKoi

Timoi, or formularies of Letters, of which it mav be doubtful whether it should be ascribed
to Libanius, or to Theon (cf. ^ 122. 2) ; in which the author notices above twenty classea
or species of epistles, and gives an example of each class.

' 4. There ii no edition of the whoU loorks of Libanius. The most complete edition of the DeelC'
matiafu ii that of J. J. Rsuke^ Altenb. 1701-07. 4 toIh 8. published after his death by his widow.
It contains the Hhetorieal Ezereiges.— Two additional diacouraes have been since publiihed, one
hy Ch. S^iebenkets, In Mb .ansedota Ormca, Norinib. 1708. 8: ihe other by A. Mai, in his Fr^ntp,

Milan, 1815. S; Rome, 1893. The most complete edition of the Z.«u«r« is that of J. Ck. fV^lf.

Amat. 1738. fol.— In the libraries of Spain are discourses and probably other writings of Libanius
hitherto unpublished.

Tta wort ckUkI Fammlarim cfUUm wm paUMwd, Or. k L^ at Lyaai, 1614. 1&

6. Tk«MUiMas.-.TbintoaOmiitntnMl«tioaof fivoortlMDiMoiuMsbytlwiei/co/JZti^ Lfs. 17BI.

IV. — Grammarians,

% 129. Next to the rhetoricians, it will be proper to notice the writers called gram-
marians, rfM/t^aruwl. This class included not only such as treated of the subjects now
comprehended under mere grammar, but all who devoted themselves to any of the
various branches of philology (cf. P. IV. ^ 71). This department of study began to be
more specially cultivated in the period after Alexander, and particularly at Alexandria.
It was in this period that catalogues were first formed of authors regarded as classical ;,
these catalogues were called canons.

^ 130. 'I'he works of these grammarians were of various kinds. Among them were
the following ; Ai^pdoxFrtf, revisions of the text of classical authors ( 'Tm^t^q/iara and 'E(i?-
ynous^ commentaries; lX'^\ta^ explanatory notes; Znrnfiara^ AOnn, investig:ations and
solutions o{ particular difficulties ; rXoiavai and Ac|ci(, which treated of dialectic and
peculiar forms and single words; rv/i/iurra, collections of similar phrases and passages
from different authors. Some wrote upon the subieci of grammar in the most limited
sense *, some upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, meter, dialects, and
the like. These authors undoubtedly exerted considerable influence upon the language
and literature of their own and subsequent times; and their works are of value to us,
as containing much information respecting earlier periods and authors.

^ 131. The most distinguished that flourished before the thii of Corinth, B. C. 146,
were Zenodotus, founder of the first school of grammar at Alexandria, Aristophanes
of Byzantium his disciple, and Arisiarchus of Samothrace, a disciple of Aristophanes.
The latter was especially celebrated (cf. Hor. Art. Poet. 450) ; so that his name became
a common designation for an eminent critic. Crates, Philemon, Artemidorus, and
Sosibius are names which occur also in this period. That of Zoilus has been pre-
served as a common name for a severe and captious critic ( he made himself notorious,
in an age abounding with admirers of Homer, by his criticisms and declamations against
that poet, and thus gained the epithet Ilomeromasiix. Whatever the grammarians of
this age composed, nothing remains to us but trivial and scattered fragments.— >SdU^^
bk. iv. ch. XXXV.

In the next period of Grecian literature, particularly after the time of Augustas, the
list of grammarians is altogether larger. Only a few names can here be given. Of
those who may be called lexicographers, ApoUoniua surnamed the Sophist, Eroiianus,
1'imsus, and Julius Pollux, are the principal. Tryphon, son of Ammonius, Phrynicos
the Arabian, and ^lius Moeris, wrote on dialects. Among the scholiasts and com-
mentators may be mentioned Ptolemy VII., Didymus, Apion, and Epaphroditns. Of
the writers on different topics of grammar, we may select Dionysius Thrax; Tryphon
above named; ApoUonius Dyscolus, and his son Herodianus; Arcadius of Antioch,
author of a treatise on accents ; and Hephtestion, whose Manual on Meters comprises
nearly all that is known on the subject. Some of the above mentioned will be noticed
separately.

SMW, HiK. Lit. Or. bk. v. eh. lix.-JWk, Do PUlol0(i« Smealt PtotensoniiD. Up*. I8ia L-a £bck, CoBUBot do Bri Cil
tkaEpochia. Mart). 18B. 4.

p. y. GRAMMARIANS. HEPHfSTION. PTSCOLITS. HER0DIANU8. 497

^ 132. After the time of Constantine, letters continued to be cultivated by the gram-
marians. Constantinople was now the seat of erudition, as well as of the Roman
empire ; but the Greek language and not the Latin was the language of letters, and
works were now translated from the Latin to the Greek*. A sort of University was
founded here, in which all the branches of human knowledge were professedly taught.
The teachers or professors were styled OiKovfieifiKol. A valuable library was also esiab-
]ishcd. FhUology in its various parts was among the sciences taught. by the cpcumeHical
professors. These studies were not renounced with the destruction of the library and
The decline of the royal college, but were continued with more or less attention until
xhe final capture of the city by the Turks. The writers during this lone period were
very numerous ; only a few have acquired celebrity ; while many of their productions
yet remain in manuscript. The names and works of the most important authors will
be given below. — It ma3r be proper to observe here, that the Greek literati, who fled
from Constantinople on its capture in 1453, and exerted an important influence on the
study of Greek letters in Italy and western Europe, belonged chiefly to the class de-
Qommated grammariafur^.

> 8« p. IV. 4 n.'-C. p. YMtety Dt Xatiae Seripth qoa Oned Vetera in liDgom man tnnhiltnmt. CsikI. 183& 4.

ft Thtir hbois, b Iteir ww rtinati in ttw wait, wan alio cbieay of a pbiloiopcal ehmeier ; cf. ) 7. i.

$ 133 i. We shall place here some general references, and then proceed to
notice separately a few of the Grammarians,

LaxieoKraphieal Collactiom.— ALDIN E, Oiclmporlum Gnwum, he. Ve& 1497. fol.— DkliouriuiM Gnaeam, fte. Van.
IfiM. foL-H. 8TEPHANCS, Gltamria duo a «na velualaUt, ftc. 1572. iol.— VCLCAMUS. Theaaama utriuaqva linfua, kt,
L^ Bat. 1600. rol.-Ct C. F. UaUhim, Glamrla cnec* mioora, Ac Rig. 1774. i.-J. A. Enmti, da ghm. gmc van indeia at

IMto on. Upa. 1742. H— fUncnia, Bibl. Gr. vi. NL-AAW, Hist I. O. vi. ttl, w. G r a m m a I i c a I CollaetioH.— ALDINE,

a ilcraviff, Erotaoaala, fte. Van. I4»4. 4.— FAaori. Oosm latrad. Gram. Jte. Van. 149S. IbL and laSSw 8.— ThnauniaCoraiwap.
•t Horti Adonidia. Van. liSS. fol.--Ero(an»ta CkrfhUmm, kc Van. 161B and 1617. &-4lMpactin( Itaa JUim colladiona, mc JUr*.
ei»Uj BiM. Gneca, lib. t. e. 7, in tba ad. of Aria, lib. ir. e. SO.— Also SckbU, UuL Utu Gr. aa cilad { 7. 9. Intnxluc p. xliv. xlviii.
—and auuuari, Asaalaa da PIroprineris dea Alde^ tu. Par. ISOA. S vola. 8. Sappkn. 1812.^11. STEPHANUS, in tha Appa»
dix to hia Tbcaanraa (|7. S).— PHIL. GIUNTA or JUNTA, Encfairidkn grammaL Introd. he. Fior. 1514, 1617, I MO. fbl—BEB.
JUNTA, T/teod. Qtum Gramnat. *c Flor. 16% 8.— M. VACOSANUS, ThomM Mdgittn tt JfetcAopuli Edogz, ac LnL I638L
— VlLLOkON, Aoeedora Gneca, Ac Van. 1781. 8 voh. 4.— I. BEKKCR, Anaedota Graca. BarL I61i-81. 8 vola. 6.-.W. DIN-
DORF, Oranimatici Gracu I^pa. l9StX &— Saa C D. JleeA, Oimmanlabi da lileria at aorloriboa Onac. alqoa Lalinia. laet i. p. 47
— CC /. BuTiM, in bia Mitctttanim. Load. 1781. 8. 4tb vol. p. 247, «.— ^Karict, Indod. in faiater. Lii«. Grace, Prolcf. f 10.*
AAMI, HiaL LJtt. Gr. Intend, p. Uii.~<ki tba value of tha aotolMUfi ; JtK Mart. CAIoimMtt, Opoac. Aadaoi. Lipa. 1741. 8.

$ 134. Hephssstion^ of Alexandria, lived about the middle of the 2d century.
He is to be distinguished from the mythographical writer, who had the same
name.

1 «. His Manual on Meters^ *Eyxetp( jfoy ncpt fthpaw, contains almost every thing which
is known respecting the rules and principles of the ancient critics on this subject.

L Tha/lrrf adtlion waa in A Amla, dtad ) lA^JL Tbumtbauf. Par. ItSL 4. with arhoHa^J^ adition, QattfonL Oit
18ia & k lipa. 1938.

§ 135. JpoUomtu Dyscolua was also of Alexandria, and flourished in the 2d
century under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius.

1 ff. He has left us four grammatical treatises, viz. Utfi owra^twi. Of Syntax; Tlrpl
QintaifVfiias, Of the pronoun ; Tlefi avviiaiaav^ Of conjunctions ; and rirpi EirtfprjiidTWv^ Of
adverbs. We have also a compilation styled "Irropiai Ban^aaiai^ or Wonderful Histories.

%. Tba trcatiaa on 8yn I • x waa pnUbbad by dffafcii, in nttamw Carnue. dtad S \ti.—S^aurg. TttaeL 1680. 4 .-V. BMm.
Berl. 1817. 8.~Tbat ontbai^ronotirHby/. JkUm^ In tha MvMum AnOquUmlia Studiontm. Bari. I80& voL i. p. 226 —Tba
tlOm two treatiaca, alao by I Btklmr, in bia ^naodota, died { 13S.— Tba MHorioal oonpilatioo, by THidlar. Lpi. 1792. 8.

3. We have a work on Grammar from an earlier author, the T^x^ir rpa|i/iaricj^ ot Dionynus
7%rax, who lived at Aleiandrta, B. C. about 00.
PuUiabad in FabriehUy Bibl. Or. {JOarim ad. vol. vi.)— la VHMtcny and AUar, aa dM § IMi

$ 136. Mlius Herodiatius was a son of the Apollonius just mentioned. He
enjoyed the favor of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antomnns. There was an-
other person of the same name, who was an historian^ and must not be confound-
ed with the grammarian,

1 u. Of many works written by the latter, the treatise Ile^ f^y^poiv Xc^cu; appears to
be the only one that has been preserved entire.

I. Tliia trcatiaa 'm fnnd in Dmdorf, aa eitad § 138.— Tba tlUca of aevarnl oibar tnafbaa ara givan bj ftMO, v. 28L Fiagnanto
ef aona of whidi ai« given in AMcr, and ViUoitan, u eitad § 188. and in O. Hmmm, Da aaanJanda ntkina gna. Or. lipa.
1801 &— Tba piaea alylad 'Eai^iffW^iaf waa pnUiabcd br EwL H. Jkekv. Load. 1818. 8.— Cf. SdUB, v. jf. 87.

$ 137. Julius Pollux (for Poly deuces, noJtvi«v««7j), of Naucratis in Egypt,
flourished in the 2d century, at Athens. He was in profession a sophist, but is
chiefly known by his Greek, Diclumari/,

1 tt. It is entitled 'Otv/ioffrucdr. This work is divided into 10 books, according to sub*
63 2t3

498 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

jects. It is very useful, not only in illustrating Greek words and phrases, but alio
in ezplninins many subjects of general antiquities.

2. The following are some of the topics of the books respectively. 1. Gods, Kings,
Commerce, Mechanic Arts; Houses; Things relating to War; Agricuhure. 2. Ag#
of Men ; Members and parts of the Human Body. 3. Family Relations, Friends ;
Travels; Roads, Rivers. 4. Sciences. 5. Animals; the Chase. 6. Repasts; Crimes.
7. Of various Trades, 8. Things relating to the administration of Justice. 9. Cities,
Edifices, Money, Games. 10. Furniture, Utensils, &c.

S. ZdWtOM.-B.—tV. Dindarf. Lpi. 1814. 2 vola. 8. ** The 4lh ud Sib folanM cnrnpriM Iha ontiri hoij of aetai bf 1km

prae»Jiiir edilm." f^Prinap*, by MAa. Ven. 1502. Ui-JUfUa. Hor. lUOl ki.-Sd*r. Tnoet. IQtM. 4. wHh ikt

Ijitio venion ft >« pttblwhwl bjr ITottAcr. Ru. 1541. 9^T. H. JJderUn t T. Utm$Urh»u$. Anrt. 1706. 2 volt. foL wkb a mli»
bl« PnTac* by ili« latt«r, en Um iim of th« DielioBuy.

4. We have before named (^ 131) as lexicographers, in the period of Greek litera^
ture designated by the epithet Roman (^ 9), three authors besides Pollux t ApoUoniua
Saphxstes, in the time ot Augustus, from whom we have a Homeric Lexicon, A^eic
'O/inpcMit ; Erotian, in the tiiAe of Nero, from whom we have a Glossary to Hippo-
crates^; Timaus^ who lived later, in the end of the 3d century, and from whom we
have a Platonic Lexicon^ Atfeij nXammKafl.

iPubli>h«d by riZIeuoM. Par. 1773. S fola. 4.->by JK TUHui. Lryd ITM. % ^•Pablhtod by fVwtt. l^a. 1780. a^-

• Pobliahed by JIuAnkm. Ijeyd. 17M. «. impr. rcpr. by fV. J. Kath. LfM. IttS.

$ 138. ^Iiu9 Moariay surnamed the Midst, flourished about A. D. 190. His
work, styled Ac|f^ 'At'fixCjv xai *Fax>5vwi/, is preserved.

EditloM-B —IF. J. Knch. Lipb ina 8. with umTuI noiei. F^Tba JbH, by /. M«bofL Oif ITia S —Best, /. FMbr.

I4it. 1736. a with th« Usicoo of Tiuaem.-^. Pitrmm. Leyd. 17fiO. a J. JMJbr (arith HaipocratieB). Hot 180. %

iDtnleat.

^ 138 6. Tryphon of Alexandria and Fhrynicus the Arabian were mentioned (^ 131)
in connection with Mceris, as having also wntten on dialects. There are some remains
from them ; the principal from Fhrynicus, who lived in the latter part of tlie second
century, is a work in thirty-seven books, called IL)(wapa9muJ^0o0iffnff^,"^pparoai« sopkis-
tique/^ from Tryphon, who lived in the time of Augustus, a treatise on the affections
vf words {naOn \c\(<av), and a treatise on tropes (T«pi rfAJrotv),

EaitiooL— Tbejfpp«ralt<r Sapkid, by /. Jfekte-, in hnAmcdntOf died \ ISS.--The Kicction oT JKtit rmunM and tMpfa (aootar
work or Phiynicus), by C. A. LobedL Lipa. IflSO. a^Tba treaUM of TVypton, in the AfuKum CriHeun^ Caaibr. 1814. &
Tol. 1.— Cr. *A8U, wl. T. p. II.

$139. Harpoeration, of Alexandria, probably flourished as a contemporary
of Libanius, in the 4th century. He was the author of a Lexicon entitled A*Jf ^
ru»v iixa {tTito^v, useful in reference to the Greek language generally, and the
Attic orators in particular.

rublbhol by AUui (with Ulpfan*! Cooim.). V«d. !«». IbL— KonMnL Leyd. 180. dif^Brtlar, by /. Chmoo. Leyd. USL 4
~A MW aditloo, Lipa. 1824. t toto. a-Later, by /. SdUv. BerL 1883. 9.

§ 140. Hesytkius lived at Alexandria, as is generally supposed, towards the
close of the 4th century. He compiled a Greek Lexicon or Glossary, from the
more ancient grammarians, and illustrated his selections by examples from the
best Greek authors. Additions were made to this work by later hands, among
which are probably the numerous theological glosses {glussas sacra:). Perhaps,
in its present state, it is the work as enlarged by some Christian author.

1. EJitioos.— B.— /. Jlbati (eompletad by RuhnMm). Leyd. 1774-76. 2 vols. fol. 1 kind of Supplement h ihe work of Jfie.
&*oi0^ Upa. ITSS. 8. ezhibiiini tba remits of a coliatioa of JttbtrtCt oditioa with the only atiitiiif maBQwript, thai ia Oie libn-

ry of St. Mark at Venice^A new edition has bean eipedad froon Oau/ordL T.—Prinajm^ br JMut. Vrn I5I4. fiel. (ed. X.

Mutmui).— Junta. Flor. ISIO. N.— ScArcwItut. Leyd. 1688. 4.— The ftom aaem wrra eoilacted by J. C. O. BmmH. Lfa.
17196. 6. with a Supplement, 1788. 8. See SeMMMmr, Obeerr. in Suid. el Hcaychtum. Witteab. ISia A.—SehOtty vi. 282.

2. The author of the Lezi(M>n must not be eonfoundod with Htsfekius of MiUUu, in the Oik
centnry, under Justinian, (torn whom we have some remains not very iniportanl.

Publiibed by /. OrvBt. Lpa. 19S0. 8.— SeftStt, tI. 404. vlL 78.

§ 141. Jlmmonius, of Alexandria, probably lived in the latter part of the 4th
century. He is said to have been an Egyptian priest, and to have fled from
Constantinople on the destniction of the pagan temples. He was the author of
a work entitled Hipi tpjoii^v xai dt.a4>opcav >i{fwv. It is a work of some value in
the criticism of words.

It waa publMbed by 4IAm. in (be DMionaWum, cCc; cited § iaS.-A auphama^ in Append, to hn THoaamu, dted \ 7. 1—
Given alao in ScupudaU Lexicon, cited { 7. S.-Tbe beal eiitioo ie KokkmUr. Li«. BjtU ITSa 4. Sepr. (ed. SMtfir.) LfS.

1822. 8.— A Kood abrid(ineat of f^oldUnBr'*, by C. T. AmmMU Erlni«. 17S7. & A FraKh traMlalion, by A. PiUun. Pk

1814. 8.— There it a tnatiee by Aomonina, Ilapl 'AcvpeXeyta;, On imfrnpo' urn of wordi, never printed.

§ 142. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, died A. D. 891. He may be

p. y. GRAMMAR fAN 8. SUU) AS. EUSTATHIUS. 499

placed in the clasfl of writers now under notice, although he was a man of let-
ters in general, rather than a grammarian.

1. The life of Photius presents a series of interesting incidents. His character was
not without some blemishes, and he experienced c^reat vicissitudes of fortune. From
a layman he was rained to the office of patriarch. He was deposed and banished ; after
ten or eleven years recalled and reinstated ; but again deposed, and confined in a
monastery, where he died.

Oibbom^ Rnmao Empira, ch. ii.— JIKIn«r, CbHrch Hatorj.

2 u. His Mup'd/Jj/JW, Bibliotheca or Library, is in many respects vahinble. It con-
tains critical notices of about 280 works of ancient writers, accompanied with extracts.
Of a number of these works we should otherwise have scarcely known the titles. His
Lexicon Af^sw awayuYn, although in a mutilated state, 'is useful in the study of the
historians and orators.

3. Besides the works above named, we have also from Photius a work styled No"
moeanon, a collection of canons of the church, and a number of Utlert, hamUie$t and
di$9ert(Uions.

Tor a |»rtical«r icoomt of llw MyriobOloR, tm SeAOB, vL aOS.— JUrMui, in Bibl. Or. X, STB. ad. Avltib-<:t Cdtfift Atv.
Mo. zl\i.-LoHd. Quvt. vi. SI&-J; B. LudHi Dttiribe w Ptetii BiblwlKcam. Lip*. I7«8. 4.

4. Tlien h m adiliee of the vkek taoHu Ot FbotioiL-Or Iha LOnry, Ibo* ban been, ODtil Kcentlr. bot thn* editioM.— D.
mtAd. kv^ laOI. feL— i>. SUphanuM, Gcoar. 1611. bl. with the vcnioB 6t JL BtMU int pebL Angib. lOW.— Amw,

npr. b7 SertAcUn. aooeo, 1853. M.— A new adit, waa eDmneBced by JlcUir. Bcrl. 1814. 4. The Laikan waaflnt pdb-

rnhed by G. Ofmamn^ with the Laxan tf Zonaraa. Llpa. 1806. 8 ?oU. 4. (by TUimann ^ Armaim.) Ptaollua, the 8d vdL—
Better, JL Panon. Lood. ISO. & («!■ by Dotrt».)-'CL J. T. SeMcuma-, Inimadv. ad Pbotii Lejb Up*. I8ia 4.-Swiu, Cone

aovSa. is Phot Us. Lip^ 1812. 4. The A^emoconMi irw printed Par. Ifiao. foL with BaUamon. ^The L<a«rt (94S), by

Jftntacutittf (JtfiTnfarM). Lowl. ISSI. M.

$ 143. Suidaa probably lived about A. D. 10(K), although it cannot be made
certain. He was the author of a Lexicon^ compiled from various authors, gram-
marians, commentators, and scholiasts. It is not executed with much judg-
ment, accuracy, or skill in arrangement. Yet it is of considerable value on
account of its store of literary and antiquarian information ; and many of its
defects, especially in the apparent want of method, may be owing to interpolar
tions and additions made by transcribers and others.

I. Editiana.-iVifiM}i«, by Dmt. CkakondyUu. Mil. 1496. M.—JUilu». Van. 1814. M.^Fnhmim. Baa. 1641. (fA.-JBm.
Ptartm, Gr. ft LaL G«a. 1619. 2 vol*. Ibl.-L. Aolcr, Gr. ft Ut. Canb. 1706. 8 rola. fol. Tbia b alfogetber auperior to any
preeediuf edition ; yet not wllhoat defect*. Some eavera criUciaaM of J. Granom'iu called ftwth an aaewer frani Aulv in hie
DiatnM JnH-Grtnonana. Aaat 1712. f.— 7. Gaitford. Load. 1838. a protiy impreved cd.— a Amtarriy, Or. k UL
Bute, I886w 2 «ota. (poet rAom. Oau/bnfum) with notee.

2.IlliHlrat>ve^— The following work* fariher illoatrale Soidah— Tbfip Emend, in Suid. Lond. 1760-76. 4 nil. 8} alaD in hh
OpiMC. triL Lipa. 1790. 2 vol*. 8. and ed. by Burgtu. Load. 1790. 4 vola. ^-asAioaffMuMr, Entod. el Ob*, in Snidnnb
Aifaat 178B.a—AtiM*«Obaar*. in Snidaa (ad. aCMUIfar). Lpi.l81».&

§ 144. In this connection we ought to notice the work of an unknovm author^
who lived about A. D. 1000. It is a Greek Glossary, styled 'Etvfju/koyixov fUya^
the Elymnlogieum ma^um. Besides its value as a grammatical worlc, it is still
more useful because it has preserved many passages of ancient authors, and fur-
nished solutions of many difficulties in history and mythology.

1. Editioea of the firymdoridan.— /Vffui9>. by 2. CoBitrgua (cd. M. JAinina). Van. 14961 kL—P. MamaUu (ed.
JbrriMmi). Veo. IMS. kL—CommOm (ed. r. SyUiiry). Haidelb. 18M. fcl^AHM«Ma(of Sinope). Vea. 17ia M.— AM/tor.
Lps.l6l6L4.arepr.orSyU«irf'a. To ihi* laat edit, the foUow{i« worta nay be viewed aa the Sd and 8d vol*. ; f. fV.Sbirtz,
Etynolocieaai Hbk. Gr. Gndianam, ftc Lpl. 1818. 4.— By aanw, Orioai* Etymoloficuni. Lps. 1820. 4.— CC SeMti, Ti. p. 277,
S»4.~Jtfcm. dt tjhad. dn Inter, vol. iWtii. p. 106. Rcnarqae* crit mr rEtymoiog. Mi«nam.

2. In the libraries of Europe are several Lexicon*, or Gloasariee, still remaining in manuscript,
particularly in tbe Royal library of France.— We may also mention here one first published by
FUUison in bis AnudotOy cited $ 133; the 'luytd or Flo/arivm, by EudoeU^ wife of the emperor
Cons taniine Ducas, and his successor for a short time, but soon after placed in a convent. In
this retreat she wrote her work, a sort of hystorico-mythologic compilation, supposed to be of
much value before Villoison published \X.—Sck6l^v\. p. S96.

§ 145. Eustathius, of Constantinople, flourished in the 12th century, and be-
came finally bishop of Thessalonica.

1 1». He is particularly celebrated for his copious and learned Commentary on Homer
entitled, UapacSoXal ciV rfiif 'O/i^pov 'IXituJa, and napcKSoXal tl^ rV 'Oinamiav. We have also
from him a less valuable commentary on Dionysiua Periegetes.

%. The Comm. en Bomu was finl poblnbed, Roal^ 1S42-IS6& 3 fol*. fel. eontaininc the Max of Devarina. (CC S »• 5^)
Tbi* rcpr. Bas. I6ea 8 rola. fol.— An ed. eonnwnced by PoUH. Hor. 1780. but never finiifaed.— Eztncta froaa the Coma. efM
pablMhad wHh Heaier.— J. BOtktry Boat. Comm. ad Hom.Odymam. Lipi^ I8SS. 8 vola. 4.— Snne, Buat. Comm. ad Hoot. Ilin.

dem. Lipk 1820, •*.— Ct BvOttin du Sdmeu Hittottfvtiy vol. iv. p. 837. A eooinMataiy by Eoalattiia* on Pindar ia loaL

SeJMly vL 889 Bett ed. of Cemm. on ff'im. by StaUbaum, Lps 1825-80. 7 volh 4.

3. John Tiette* may be nam<>d in connection with Eustatbiua; be waa a grammarian at Con-
■tantinople in the same ccutury (cf. ^ Sl>.

600 BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

$ 146. Crtegnrius^ surnaiued Pardus, and afterwards Corinthius from being
the Bishop of Corinth, lived about the middle of the 12th century. Of his
many works two only have been published ; one is a treatise on tfit Greek dia-^
iectti Ilcpb ^oAixfiov, and the other a Commentary on the last part of the Rhetoric
of IItrmogene8 (cf. § 122. 1).

The tweatiat m tHakbU, ediiad by O Xom, Uji. 1706. 8. better than tiqr ad. pmtmm.-^Itj O, H. SMftr, Lps. 1811. 8. «ill
betMr.— Tba Oommtntwy ii finn io BtUlm (atad f 99), vol. f iiL

$ 147. TVioma8 Magtster or Theodulus may be mentioned here. He lived in
the be^nning of the 14th century (about 1310). After holding the place of the
Magiater nfficiorum under the emperor ^Andronicus Palaeologus, he became a
monk with the name of Theodulua. A work by him is extant, called ^ExXoyai
ivofmtuv *AfirtXMV.

Pint puUialwd by CtatitrguB, Rmm, ISI7. 8.— Bctt. by /. & Jkrruard, Leyd. 17S7. & ud I O. 5. Sdkwabt, AtteoU ITX 8.—
Ct O. Oemuum, rref. do pnscapUiqutbiMdam Atiidttarum. Li|». I8ia 4.— UtHi od. F. AihrAcI, Hal. 1832. 8.

$ 147 b. Here might be mentioned Emmanuel Motckopuhu Cretensis, Manuel Mo-
$du>puliis Byzantinuif Emmanuel Chrysolorasi Theodorua Gaza, and other gram-
marians, whose labors were connected with the revival of classical learning iu Europe.
See ^ 7. 2. and P. IV. % 85. 1.

v.— fTnVcr* ofEptsiles and Romancei,

^ 148 tt. We shall next introduce the class of writings called Letters or Epiatleg.
There are many extant, ascribed to distinguished men of ancient limes. But a great
portion of them are spurious, being the productions of the sophists and grammarians
of later periods. Some of them, however, are unquestionably genuine; as e. g. those
of hoerateSj Demostktnet, and Aruttotle. In these (the genuine), there is generallv a
noble simplicity of manner, entirely free from the art and labor which are betrayed in
the epistles fabricated in the age of the later sophists. The latter class were composed
with designed reference to publication, and treat of various subjects, particularly sub-
jects of an historical and romantic character. We shall mention below some of the
principal authors of Greek epistles, either real or supposed.

^ 149. As the form of epistles was so often adopted by the sophists and others in
composing pieces which were, properly speaking, works of jfdion, we shall mention
the names of the principal writers of romance in the same connection. The species of
composition termed romance was unknown in the most flourishing periods of Greek
literature. A modem writer has pointed out the reaeon. ** In the most refined ages,'*
says he, *' the whole empire of fiction was usurped by the ingenious polytheism of the
Greeks. This filled every imagination and satisfied the love of the marvelous so
natural to man. Every festival renewed the tale of some god's singular adventures.
The theatre owed its charms, in great measure, to the strange union of the heroic
daring of mortals and the intervention of deities. In a nation so happily adapted for
the elegant arts, fiction naturally assumed the garb of poetry, and the beautiful fables
80 welfsung by the poets left no place for recitals in prose, composed as it were of
vulgar dreams. The people, it must also be remembered, were all engrossed in public
ana active life. Retirement and solitude were almost unknown. The state, so to
speak, made it a business to amuse its citizens in public. While such was the publi-
city of the master's life, the universal prevalence of domestic slavery, and the degraded
and immured condition of the female sex, rendered private life a uniform and mono-
tonous scene. Thus, while there was no opportunity to imagine any wonderful ad-
venture, or very singular character and destiny, without violating prohabilitics, there
was at the same time but little scope for the passion of love, which holds so important
a place in modern romance." ( Vxtlemaint quoted by Schdlh iv. p. 304.)

% 150. It was not until the//tA period of our outline (^ 9), that works of this descrip-
tion made their appearance, and scarcely any thing of the kind is earlier than the time
of Augustus. Tnese works are called in general erotic tales. But we may include in
the same class, not only romances properly so called, or formal love stories, but also
amatory letters, Milesian or magical tales, and imoginary voyages.

Of imaginary voyages one of the firet authors was Antonius Viogenrs, whose work,
Ta ^cp eoCXnv^urra, The incredible thines beyoftd Thule, is quoted by Photius. It
seems to have contained a tissue of absuraities in forty-four books. Lucian also wrote
an imaginary voyage, entitled *AX»j% loropta, in two books; a satire upon voyagere
who relate marvelous stories ; full of grotesque representations, with malignant allu-
•ions *o the miracles of the sacred Scriptures.

P.y. XPISTOUZERS AND ROMANCERS. 501

MUesian tales are so called because a certain Aristides of Miletus, of whom Kttle is
known, wrote a series of stories, the scene of which was Miletus. A specimen of this
sort of tale is found in the piece of Lucian styled Ao^kios J? *0*«f (cf. ^ 1 21). 'I'he Latin work
of Apuleius, styled the Golden As» (cf. ^ 471. 2), belongs to the same class of fictions.

Ot amatory letters the only specimen, before the time of Constantine, is given in
some of the letters of Alciphron (cf. $ 159). In the next period, not long after Con-
atantine, we find a work of/ this class, entitled 'Emffrokal IpaTuai, ascribed to Aristse-
netus (cf. ^ 158).

$ 151. A work of Parthenius (cf. ^ 226), in the age of Augustus, may be considered
US a precursor of the formal romance^ being a collection of amatory tales, entitled l\ipi
IpbiTiKCMt UaOrinaTa}v, chiefly of a melancholy cast. But the most ancient writer of the
proper romance was Jamblichus of Syria, in the reign of Trajan. His work styled
Itrnptai Bo^vAcovcirai, or the Loves of Ehodane and Sinonis, is quoted by Photius. The
next author in order of time is probably Xenophon of Ephesus, to whom is ascribed a
Greek romance, called 'KtfumcueiL.

In the period after Constantine, we find several romancers. Three, whose works
were in verse, have already been named ($ 33). Besides these, there were at least
four prose writers, whose romances are extant ; Heliodorus, Achilles Tatius, Longus,
and Eumathius. The romance ascribed to Chariton also was probably written in the
same period. Xenophon, already named, is by some likewise placed here. Heliodorus
is considered by many as the best writer of the whole class, and his work is said to
have been the model, not only of the Greek romances, but also for the earlv French
romances of the 16th century (cf. % 260. 3). Others pronounce Longus to be decidedly
the first among the Greek romancers.

$ 153/. The following are references on the class of authors and works now
under notice. The principal names will be given in the subseauent sections-;
the real or supposed writers of epistles first, and the romancers alter them.

I. Ob tb* e p I ■ 1 1 e • atlriba^ed to udml OnflkB.-&U»I. n. ZTS.-.SMTnAcydm, in Ibe N. JKMMA. dtr tch. Wlt$. vol. v.

ColIectbH of QnA EpUtlo.— jfliuf, Epbtolaratn Gnecirani Coilectio. Ven. I4M. S voh. 4.— RepriDled, Gen. 1506. fol. with
LatiB wnioD ucribcd to Cujadui.—Camtnri»u^ *EkXoy^ tfui^pvv IvMroMtv, cr& Tobinc. IMO. S^SepH. AvrnTtav, TAv
IXX^MxAv ttwroKav AvBoXvyta. Fkr. 1583 i.—EOK. Lukmut^ Or. e( Ul. Heidalb. M08. S vols. 8 Rarely fMDd eom|ilelflL—
X. JiUatiua ClBuO, Socnia at aliamn Bpiiloia, Or. ft Lat Far. 1637. 4.-^. C OnUi, Colledio £pM. Gr«c Or. k UL I8l«w
S.—Snogij Letters of tba AadeDta. Lond. 1703. &

I. Ob the Groek roma b te^VUlmuun, Emi littonire m lea BomaM Oraca (1b tbe OoBid dulLOr.kt, eitad below).—
Ckardon la RodtttUj MalasRea de erit et da pbilol.— Afcjne'* Gaich. dar Snnste u. WiaeaKh. la Oriech. u. Roou toI. i. p. ST^

^SamMu*$ Vcom Unnia, Tb. S. Abtb. 1 Mamo'i Abhaadl. Qber d. griech. Romane, b 2d Bd. of bb FtrmUeh. Behrift. I^tt.

1801. 8 Bde. 8.~fFaHon*f Hlat. Eng. Pbetry, vol. ii. p. I88.-J'. Duniop, Hialory of FietloB ; acritJcal aeooaat of tba moat eelnbnted
pnM works of ictloB from tbe earlieat Greek RomaBeea to tbe Noveb of the preMSt day. Edlab. 1816. 8 vob. 18. CL Land. QuaH,
As. xliL 364. and Fbr. (fuaii. Rn. vol. Ix.-aciMi, Hbt. Litt. Or. Iv. 304, Iv. 228.-F. Auaoio, Seriptorea Erotld. Llpe. 1833. « vole.

12. Ob tbe origin of ranaace ; D. Butt^ de OriRine Fib. RomaoeaaiDin. Hag. Cooi. I6S2. 8. Traaa. Freocb. Par. IfiD and

ITII (cC § 60). 18. T^anal. Eagl. by & LetoU (Hbtory of Romaacea). Load. 1714. il—fnrton*i Dha. oa Orig. FietioB in Eo-

itipe ; praf. to Hbt. Eng. Pbetry. ColIectloBB of Greek romaacea ; C*. O. MiUehoiiek, Seriplorea erotld QmA, Gr. ft Lat. Kp

1788. 4 vela. 8. eoatalning A. Tiflna, Hdiodoraa, Longna, aad Xenophon.— JliAliolaea da' Somamkn grtd, tradotti in ItaUaao. Flor.
ITBL-Bibliotk. da tUmana Grace. Tradulfe en Franc. Par. 1797. 19 vda. lS:-0<iU«(. de« Bomant Qrta, trad, aa Franc avee
dea aotot par Owriir, loretar, f«. Far. 188^88. 14 voh. 16.

§ 153. Anacharsis, a native of Soythia, resided some years at Athens in the
time of Solon, B. C. about 600, and was celebrated for his wisdom. There are
nine letters ascribed to him, but they are not genuine.

1. H« is said to have written a work on the laws of ibe Scythians, and a poem on war, which
•re lost.

8L The Lrtttn are givea in laeit of tbe CtfbefJom above Mjned.-8epai»tely, P*r. I«l. 4. Gr. ft Lat.-OBe of them (Stb) ia
toiadated by Cicero (Qu«r. Tuac v.) j another Otb) b oonfaiacd ia the life of Anacbanda by Dingcnei Uerttoa.

8. The name of Anacharsis Is applied to a flclillous personage, imagined by the MM Bar-
tbelemi, as the basis of a sort of plot for a very interesting work on the history, literature, and arts
of Greece, called the TS-aveU of AnacKartU the Yonvger. The anihor imagines the Scythian to
arrive in Greece some years before the birth of Alexander, to reside in Athens, making occasional
ezcurvions and Journeys in diffKrent parts of Greece, until aAer the conquests of Philip, then to
return to Bcythia and give an acc»iunt of his observations.

Ob« of the betf editioni of tbn work b TVwilt, ^ tranalated from tbe French, Load. 1806. 7 vola. & with a vol. of Ptetaa, 4.

$ 154. Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, respecting whose age there is unco
tainty, probably lived B. C. about 560. To him are ascribed 148 letters.

1 «. Were they really his, they would show him to have been, not only far removed
from the cruelty with which common tradition has charged him, but a man of the
noblest feeling. But they are undoubtedly the work of some sophist of later times.
On this point there is no longer any dispute ; the vehemfeni and ill-natured controversy
between Bentley and Boyle respecting it gave the inquiry an importance, which the
subject in itself did not nosfiess.

2. The wits and scholars at the time of the famous controversy were generally agvnafc

MS BUTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Bentley, who wholly denied the genuineness of the letters; but his arguments have
been considered by all since that tune as perfectly conclusive.

For M MeooBt of lb* CMrtmw^, m MimV$ Life of Boatlvy, Lsad. Itatk—LotO. QiMrt Mm. Na id.— Mrtt. £mer. Ara.
Oct leiM-CIL A. SMtcM D>«. n PlAlarii, cited k &. S.— C. JByto. Dr. Bameyli DiMWt on Uw EpbU of Ptel. caaiMd. Load.
MSt. l].-V.iaijw,Vi»«ofDr. aSftMr.BofMDNkOBtlMEiMiLofPtebrii. Load. 1698. IS.

a T^o Mien wen fini poUabod ia Utin, withoaf dila ; Ibo 2d od. U70.^n Ika oriciad Gtwk JlrK, l«e& 4. Toa.— fa JBd^t,
IdM, H cited I isa I. eJao ia the other C ollecU<» Ihve uuacd.— C. Suyk, Gr. a UL Load. I6SS. a repr. I'la a-V. A r.
I«vi4» 4> X. G. FaloUnar. GnMaDf. 1777. 2 volt. 4. The 2d vol. ooataiiiiaK i Utia fnudatioa of the tnete of Beatkfv— OL S,
SeMftr. I4& Itta a AK^mpr.of tholttToLofihe|mcadiogiaadapfnUbljthBbe«cditkia.-A*aB,a>T7.

§ 155. ThemiitoeleM, the Athenian general and orator ($ 88], floarished B. C.
about 480. There are 21 letters extant, ascribed to him. They purport to have
been writti^n during his banishment, and their contents are chiefly of an historical
nature. Their genuineness is very questionable; it was fully examined and
controverted by Bentley.

The lewow of Theai. wwa pabliehodjirif bf J. U. Cmyc^tm, Or. a Lt Room, lesa 4.— £. £*ia(rr. rnak£. IflSa a~
CaSdWtlfen. Lp^ 1110. ».-J. a Bnmtr. Lnf. ITia a— CL AnUcyoo FhiJari%M died abort (} 154. Z).

i 156. Socratea^ the most distinguished sage of Greece, was bom B. C. 469,
and drank the cup of hemlock under judicial sentence, B. C. 399. He committed
nothing to writing, and probably bad not the least agency in the composition of
the 7 lettere which are ascribed to him. Like most of the lettere, which are
called Socratic, professing to come from Antisthenes and other foUowera of So-
crates, they are the production of some of the sophists.

1. The letters termed Socrttie are 41 In number; amoog them, besidee the 7 aecrlbed to Stt-
cratee, are 7 of Xenophon, and 12 of Plato. Cicero quniea one of the latter (Qii««e. Tuac V).
Lettera of ▲ntfatbeaea and fachinea the philoaopher are alao included.

They eia CMud ia the Coilectjeae nlJUatnu aad OnBi, died ( l&L l.-a. SMttt, ii. «V MI. 414.

f . The lettera ascribed to Itaermtet (cf. $ 103. S) and Demostk»nt$ (cf. $ 106. 3) are fenalne ; and
most, If not all. of the IS attributed to •SscJUbm, the orator. Respectlof those ascribed to Emri'
pid«8 (cf. ^ 63. 3). there la more doubt.

The lelion of .CichuM wire poblabed leiianleiy, bfT.S. auimwi. Upi. 1771. a-Thoee of laientee. Vf C. T. MMom.
How. 1778. a

% 157. CAton, of Heraclea on the Pontus Euxinus, a contemporary and scho-
lar of Plato, having slain Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea, was himself put to
death, B. C. 353. He was probably not the author of the 17 lettere which bear
his name. They treat particularly of the benefits of philosophical culture, and
are inspired with ardent political enthusiasm, and are not without merit as to
thought and style.

PuUbbed hf /. CaiO^m. loeL IStt. 4^/y. MenL Fw. I80a 4.^/. OottL CfAtt. Draed. VtVL a-J. O. Btffmn^ym^
u» /. C. OMit'i fraciaeatt of Meauue. Lpc ISia a Thie it the beet odittoo.

% 158. Jrialmnettu, of Nicea in Bithynia, was a sophist of the 4th century,
who perished in an earthouake at Nicsa, A. D. 358. His lettere, in two books,
are or the erotic class (ci. $ 150), and in a manner of writing rather light and
sportive. They have, however, only the form and superscription of letters, be-
ing without that peculiar vivacity and interest which is imparted to pereonal
correspondence. Possibly they are the work of a sophist of a still later age.

1. Sditioae^-vail tiw oditjooi bare haeo lalna fron a eia^e Buaeeript, Kill eiietinf at VIeana ; 6nt puUudied by /. Samlmaa,
(ptiotor Pimntin). Aatw. IfiM. 4.— BettM- ttea aay prerioua edJiioa, F. L. Abmek. Zwoli, 174a a a voL rijied UtHaman Jti»-
tmn^mmm libn A»; aad aaother eatilled Fir. mti. ad And. RpiU. amjmturm. AbmU 17S2. a— Tha aioet laeaat aad aaa.
plete, BtjiMKmmtU. Fkr. IBO. a— SeASII, tL 24B.

i. TnnlaiioDi.— OenBaB.~I F. BwiL Alleah. 177a a Fraaea—ITarlM (Brat. NoL p. 471) eilai a Preach trad. Load.

ITSa la Englieh.— AtAnnMim (KL Uaadk 6Ci) citoe an Eniliah. I^d. 1771. a

$ 159. Altiphron was a contemporary of Aristenetus, and a writer of the
same class. Many of the lettere are of the amatory kind. The style is agree-
able, but too much ornamented, and showing too much of sophistic affectation.
They reveal, however, many little peculiarities, otherwise not made known, in
the private life of the Greeks.

1. Sek9U places Alciphron much earlier, in the same age with Lucian in the 2d cen-
tury ; because, in the letters of Aristaenetus, Alctjphron and Ltxian are represented as
correspondinjg with each other. The letters are 116 in number, and styled 'EriffrsXai
oAicvriical xal inupucA.

L Ediiioeiu— The fnt byUBdiie, cited {,188. \^BrgW. Lpc. 17IS. a wifh a conBeotaiy. repr. Utradit vno. &->! J.
Wagntr. Lpc. 17fia 2 roll, a— There era aaateriab for a better editioB.-&MUI, it. S14.

a Tnnelaiioaa^-Ooraiaa.— /. F. HtnL Alteab. ITVT. a ^FiaDch.-ySUe 4m Bkha/d. Par. I7H. S vebk la ^Ei«IUL~

i«. Jfimro aad m Jtfofc Load. 179L a "iUdphwaSi EpieUei^ to whioh aw dwcribed the Doaa»<k Mmmw, ths CoarteM^

p. y. ROMANCERS. HELIODORUS. TATIUS. LONOUS, ETC. 5G3

$ 160. Heliodorus, of Emesa in Syria, bishop of Tricca in Thessaly, lived at
the close of the 4th century. In early life he wrote his iEthiopica, 'At^coTttxa,
in 10 books, respecting the love rf Theagems and CkarieUa. It is very merito-
rioas as a narrative, and still more so on account of its pure morality. Yet its
diction has traces of the artificial taste and false eloquence of the sophists.

CMHLSBUB,Tt.828. Fur. Quart. Rat. Ho. Ij.

EditioH.— PNnapi, by K. Cfbtopmua (printer Bava^ua). Bu. IS34. 4. ttan t manaMripl ebtelMd btn i aoldier who h»k
it at the pill«ce of the lihnrj nf »taUkiaa Cuntnus, at Buda, ia iSaSL (&MB, vi. 229).-V. CommtKn. Heidelb. 1&96. 8. with
the Utio TenkM of a Pole named IKamnmeM, ftnr prtafad Baa. IStt. rol.F-/. Baurddat. Par. 1610. 8. erroiwtNia. Rcpr. witb-
e« eorrKU I^w. 1778. S. ed. ScAfiiid.— The editioo of ITilKAoiic*, 6r. * Lat ia 2d fol. of the Stripteru Entiei, cited (182.^
{■better.— TbebertnnidlobiibyZ). Coroy. Par. 1804. 2 toI*. 8. with nntcs, ftc all in Greek. Repr. Lpc 1806. 2 voh. 8.

2L Tranlaliooi.— GAinaii.— McinAord. Lpi. 1767. 2 tola. 8.— XL fV. OOttting. FrankL 1882. 8. rreneb.— JCvocr, is tba

Bibliotb. AtB Ronana, eitcK } IGsL 2. Eoglidu— iAaoDjmoai). LmmL 1791. 2 Tola. 12.

§ 161. AchUlen Ihtius was a native of Alexandria, but of an uncertain age,
although commonly placed in the 3d century, before Heliodorus. His history
is almost entirely unknown.

I u. He composed a romance, in 8 books, entitled Ta Kara AevKimnjv Kot KXriro^tdmi,
or the gtory of Leucippe and Clitophon. It is not without ingenuity and inventioiK and
the style is agreeably animated, although its excellence is marred by firequent aiiecta-
tion of beauty and ornament.

See AUU, tI. 232.-Jbr. Quart. Jbg. Nik ix.-yiBanain, as dted $ 152. 2.

2. EdHiaim^Prineep$j by J. Commdin (ed. BoanvitiuV Heiddb. 1801. 8L with Latin Tmioa of Crvot (CVuetMi) that had hem
prcrioinljr poMiahed, and Longut.-Salma$nu. Leyd. 164a 12.— A OotlL L. Bodm. LfiL 1776. 8.— JfiladUrlic*, aa cited
) 152. 2.— IV. /Mote, Or. ft Lat Lps. 1821. 2 vela. 8. the beit editioo.

X Tia«latlooa.-Ocr«ao.-^M «• OUUUnaffil. Lpa. 1802. 8. nmOL-Marekr, in 9d toL of MNett. *• Jbm. dM

f 168. 2.— ThcrearaaeTenlothcn.^— Eafiidi.— (JfMnymotu). Lond. ina 12.

$ 162. Longtu was a sophist of the 4th or 5th century. He i^ the best erotic
writer of the Greeks (cf. $ 151). His romance in 4 books, commonly called
the Pastorals of Daphnia and Chloe^ is an attractive work, written with care, but
sometimes too exact, and having some passages which are exceptionable on ac-
count of their freedom.

1. The period when this writer lived is wholly uncertain ; the name is not mentioned
by any ancient writer, and is by some supposed to have originated in mistake. The
celebrated manuscript, now existing at Florence, does not name the author of the work,
but bears the title AarPtaicuiv tpumniv Xrfyuj i ; and it is possible that, by some copyist,
the last word was taken for the name of the writer.

ftUO, n. 23«.-Cf. Ar. Quart. Rm. No. ix.

& EdHioM.— Aninecpi^ by CUumhaimi (priatar. Jonta). Plor. IS9B. 4.— Three ediifon ia the ITlh eoDtoiy.— /Wnlmw (JfMulme
psUiaher). Par. 1754. 4. with Utio renioa and plaiek— Sodcn, Gr. ft Lat. Lpi. ITH. 8.— KUMfon, 6r. ft Lat Par. 177& S
«Dla.4.aaeertlKbeeteditiooa. Jfttaeftarfidk, aa dted « IS2. 2.— • O. A StM/cr, Gr. ft Lat. Lpi. I80& 8. a better loC-A qdao-
did cd. with pUtea, waa printed by Didot. fv. 1802. 4.— £. SWIer, Or. ft Ut. Lipa. I8S4. 8.

i. TnuMlalioQs.— GenBaa.-V. C. Krobmgtr. Luidtb. 1809. i.—Fr. /»awne, with the Greek tatt. Lpat 1811. KL ^Trandk

7. Jm^. Far. 1S69. 8. ofleo reprinted Fkr. 1827. 12. Or. ft LaL ft Gall Eaglith.— G. Ikontk^. Lend. 1617. 8.

$ 163. Xenophon if Ephesus, whose period of flourishing is unknown, was
the author of the tiory of Anihia and Abrocomas, in 5 books.

1. Some have placed this writer at late as the 5ih century ; others rappofe he mutt haye livetl
before the time of Conitantlne ; Peerlkamv^ whose edition of the romance is cited below, thinlis
that its author was the earliest writer of the class, and that Xenophon is merely an assumed
name.

ScMU, iT. SIOl— i)ttnl0p, Hiit. of ridlon.

2. Edltleea.-The fir^l, by Jul. CaxM, Or. ft LaL Lood. 17281 &— T«fO nest edttton hdty.— <AHr«A) HUtdkrHeh, dte<
i IS2. 2.^1. £. rft leeOa, Gr. ft Lat. Viadoh. 17M. 4. fnod.— Bad, P. B. PmOamp, Gr. ft Lat. Had. I8I& A.—SckOU,
IT. Sll.

^. Tnadationa.— Geman.^/. G. KnMnfir. MQndi. 182a 8. IVeDch.-Joi0daii. Pkr. 1748. 12. and ta iNNioM. cited

S 152. 2. luliaa^-AUvinu Lond. 1723w 12. hefcre Id edition of the orisinaL

% 164. Giariton^ of Aphrodisia, is another romance writer of whom nothing
is known. The work bearing his name is entitled Twy m^ Xouplav xoi KoXXt^
^y i^tixuiv iiTjyijfid-ttav Xoyo* ^, the love-story of Ctuereas and CaUirrhoe^ in 8
book.s.

ftMO, Ti. 248.- /<T. quart. Bm. No. is.

1. Tbifl wai firm pultlithed by /. Ph. dfOniOt {DonaUius). Anet 176a S vob. 4. tdth a Ut. tnnd. by Aida, and a fary
leaned ctmnneaiarT.— Repr. of tame ed. C. D. JtadL Lpi. 1788^ 8.

2. TraotIatio«.-G«man.-Ayiie. Lpa. 17SS. a-«B*iiii«d«r. £beiid. 1808. 8. rrweh.-£««*ar. Pkr. ITSS. 8.--~En(lidi.

'Land. 17M. 2 toIil 12. {Fuhntumn, p. 82^)

§ 165. EumathiuSf or Etistaihtus, of Egypt, also of an uncertain age, was a
writer belonging to the same class. This person must not be confounded with

504 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

EasUthias the celebrated commentator apon Homer (cf. $ 145^. He wrote the
tale of Hytmint and HytminiaB^ To xoB ^Tafuvtpt xai *T6iiwuw dpofio, in 11
books.

I. TllfafaMBMk<>flMl•«>lM.kMki«priaMMMyMl^(cC8eMl,vuM7)w-aOMdM^ Far. MIT. & lapr

▼taM. lit L— £. a. Jiwlmm, hpt. 17*8. 8. (OwimM'f, vittent wIh.)

1. T^^Hiwi ^.tkmwmm M^inn MiUtt, h Uw aflt (Tfc. L ^ iOl). LficlTTI. mmA j Im 1k0 BOtkOLhwdQikd.

dMf lAB.

VI — Fhiloaophen.

^ 166 tt. Grecian philosophy was not, properly speaking, of native ori^n ; bat was
introduced, by various colonists, from Egypt, PhGenicia, and Thrace. It hrst appeared
in the poets who treated, in their verse, ot the nature of things, the origin of the world,
the system of the eods, the principles of morals, &c. Linus, Musoeus, Orpheus, and
Hesiod, belong to this class ; and even Homer may be included. l*he poets of Greece,
it may be truly said, were her tirst philosophers. Cf. P. IV. ^ 40--42.

8MA7Vcdfnmf^Gri«dMlaDdiailaniaan|iliu,ed«UbtaaBd8jpdamdnOrphm% LpL 178a 8.— Amh-

iMnn, BM. PbIL (Pr. vm. at CouWn, or Engl. ven. by Joluuon^ cited i 183* <• S ■«*• n.>-BnJUd, HM. PbO. bk. ii. di. L—
U SUUtrit, I/atyd* d* k phUonphie udMaa, ia tba Mm. dead, huer, *ol. szriL p. \ta.-~-Miiur, HmO i. p. IS7— 174. MCital
tlSa^L «11kii«itlMrBalataiHlhatdicautmtGrMkpha(wpli7bMB0tnMioraaorkntUarifiiL*

$ 167. It may be also remarked with propriety, that the next philosophers of Greece
were her priests and le^slators. Grecian philosophy had a religious aspect in its very
beginnings, in the fanciful speculations of the poets respecting the origin of things, and
the nature and offices of the gods. The notion of a multitude of supernatural spirits,
haying each an appropriate department in governing the world, could not but afieci the
philosophical reasonings of all embracing it. It was perfectly natural to inquire how
these superior agents would make known their will, and predict to man the future, or
warn him of danger. I'hus was furnished a fruitful fiela of speculation upon the va-
rious subjects of augury, omens, oracles, and the whole system of divination. The
ideas, which became incorporated into the popular belief, were indeed but a mass of
absurdities not deserving the name of philosophy ^ yet it was about such ideas that the
early Greeks expended much thought; or rather indulged in much invagination. Upon
this foundation arose a curious fabric : divination, un(^r the ingenuity of priests, who
united to personal shrewdness and foresight some knowledge of physical nature,
grew into a sort of regular science. The institutions termed mytterieM had, in their
nature and design, some intimate connection with this early religious philosophy.
Cf. P. IV. ^41. P. III. W 70-75.

When the progress of society demanded the care of the lawgiver, and began at the
same time to furnish the talents and knowledge requisite to frame successful codes, then
philosophy assumed a new aspect. The moral ana social nature of man began to be stu*
died more. Reflecting minds examined into the motives by which men may be actuated,
and contemplated the nature, proper punishments, and preventives of crime, the theory
of government and of education. In learning the character of this political philosophy,
we must consider particularly the civil institutions ofLycurgus and Solon, and the
character and doctrines of those who are called, by way of eminence, the \Di$e mm
of Greece.— —A glance at the former sliows us, that veryparticular reference was had
to the trainin|[ of youth for their future circumstances. The two legislators differed
widely in their svstems. The Spartan aimed to form a community of high-minded
warriors ; the other sought rather a community of cuhivated scholars. The plans of
education varied accordingly. Lycurgus enjoined abstinence and hardships ; Solon
furnished books and teachers. It must not be forgotten, however, that tne Spartan
system was two hundred years earlier than the Athenian.— The seven sages belong
to the age of Solon, who was indeed himself one of them. They were all actually em-
ployed as magistrates and statesmen ; but they were also the philosophers of the see.
They were not merely speculative, hke the disciples of the different sects afterwards;
nor did ihcy, like the preceding poets, indulge in fanciful dreams : they were rather
men of shrewd practical observation. Hence the character of their philosophical frag*
ments, which are wholly proverbial maxims, adapted for the conduct of life in manners
and morals. Their precepts were not always given in formal statements, but some-
times clothed in symbolic expressions, which were understood onlv by those to whom
they were explained. Fabulous tales were also sometimes employed for the same
purpose ; such were those of ^sop, in which moral and poUtical maxims are drawn
out into allegory.

On th* politial phaonpby of (be Oiwln. BnfiM, Rltt Pbn. \k. \\. ch. t.-RHUr, Tbril i. ^ 187, m cited f 18S. S.-IVkriv^
IM, Dif. LefatioB of MoMa, bk. H. «ct X-^.—CkmMtitt Mamau^ Ttvveb of Cfnn, hk. n. k t,-^Ik la Bam, Riitein da Lfenf^
intte Umn. Jhad, Inter. tU. WBL-^urruat, EW dMSdenm ebn Ui LaMdmankM, is Un JMiem. Jcod. Auer. zIs. p. IMw

p. y. PHILOSOPHY. 50

'■C a. Oym, DaZalcQci at ClaroatelcgtbaB ttqne iartitatb, in U> Opuae. Jkadun. (on. iL~& dc lomy, Hbloira to Mpt
■gv (with ran. bf Smananhmi), Lthafe, 1784. S volt. 8.

^ 168. The next aspect in which we find Grecian philosophy, presents it cu exhibited
m the different ackooUt and sects. This aspect was not distinctly assumed until a little
after the age of Solon, during our third period of Greek Literature (cf. ^ 9). The first
origin of dijfferent schools is commonly ascribed to the clashing interpretations, which
were put upon Homer by the Rhepsodists (cf. $ 21), who alter rehearsing passages
from the great poet and master, added their own explanations and comments. These
interpreters disagreed in expounding the Homeric philosophy, and soon had followers

or aavocates among those not belonging to their particular profession.; At length

two very.eminent men arose and became each the head of a school in philosophy,
about the same period : yiz. Thales and Ptfthagoras, who died, the former about 540,
the latter about 500 B. C. — Thales founded what is called the Ionic school^ and Ps^tha-
eoras the Italic school. From these two original schools, all the sects may be derived.
We will first slightly notice these two, and then briefly speak of the sects that sub-
seouently erew out of each.

i 169. liie Jonic was the earliest of the two schools. Thales, its founder, was a
native of Miletus, possessed of wealth, and great talents. He traveled in Crete and
Egypt. Ranked among the seven sa^es, he devoted much thought to political philo-
sophv. But he also took up all the mquiries about the phyncal and material world,
whicli were agitated by the Rhapsodists. The precept yvuBt ctavT6v is attributed
to him.

Philosophy as studied in this school included in reality every branch of science, not
only morals and politics, but rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy, and all that is now
comprehended under natural philosophy and natural history. — It was a frond point of
in(]mry among the disciples to ascertain what was the first principle of aU things in the
universe. Some found it in one or other of the material elements ; others recognized a
divine mind^ as prior to all other causes. The principal philosophers were Anaximan-
der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus uf Miletus.

b^fidd, bk. ii. eh. ix.-Cuifu»r(A'« hOtOidual fl^stan, cli. |. f K, lad eb. It. S »L>A RUter, Htrioira de la Fbilowpbto looi-
miw. Beri. 1821. 9.-Sanu, Oacbieht^ kc Tbeil i. u cit«l f 183. i.-Jbb* de Omoyc, nr la phikMopba Tbalo, ia Mm. rfc
PJUad. da buer. tome x.—Johuon*! TauumutOf Mct 86-87.— D- IVcdrtnann, QciiL dar Spaenlat Fbilouph. von Unlci bh
SocnlM. Marfa. I7S7. 2 voli. 8.

^ 170. The Italic school was still more celebrated. Its founder, Pythagoras, was
a native of Samos. After travehng, especially in Egypt, he taught morals and politics
at Samos. For some cause he afterwards went to Italy, and established his school at
Crotona in Magna Gnecia. The pupils, whose numbers soon amounted to 600, dwelt
in one public building, and held their property in common. Their business for each
day was very regularly planned. They were divided into two classes, probationers
and initiated; the latter only were admitted to all the privileges of the order, and made
acquainted with its highest knowledge. This establishment was at length broken up
by popular violence.

Under philosophy the Italic school, like the Ionic, included every object of human
knowledge. But rythagoras considered music and astronomy of special value. He
is supposed to have nad some very correct views of astronomy, agreeing with the true
Copemican system. The beautiful fancy of the music of the spheres is attributed to
him. The planets striking on the ether, through which they pass, must produce a
sound ; this must vary according to their different magnitudes, velocities, and relative
distances ; these difierences were all adjusted with perfect regularity and exact pro-
portions, so that the movements of the bodies produced the richest tones of harmony ;

not heard, however, by mortal ears. One of his distingnishinc: peculiarities was the

doctrine of emanations; God is the soul of the universe, pervading all thin^, incor-
poreal; from him emanated /bur different degrees of intelligences, infenor gods,
asemons, heroes, and men. Another was the doctrine of fttnnipvx6»ts, or transmigra-
tion of the soul. General abstinence and self-government were strongly urged. —
Some of his apophthegms and symbolic precepts are preserved. Cf § 58. 1. Some

of the principal disdples were Empedoc1es(cf. ^ 64), Ocellus, Archytas, and Philolaus.
The latter is said to nave sold to Plato the records and books of the Pythagorean school.

En/UU, bk. H. cb. xii.— A JUflO', GcMhicfats der Fhilot. Theil L— Sanuay, Trt*. of Cynw, bk. rl.—Btam, hf Banarefi, ch.
Sir. p. 297.-J. ScAc/cr, de nuon et emwtitiitioiM pbilowpbi* Italine. Vitomb. 1701. S.-^Itecier, La vie de Pyttafnres M irBi-
boh, *e. Par. 1706. 8 volt. IJL—Th. KieuUng, Jamblicbi de Viu FjFth. Kbcr. Upe^ I81S. S.-OwM't TaoMtBaoa, ( 88-OS.—
•Oseii, Book of Nature, vol. L led. 2.—C. L. Orem, De F7tba(orcoram et Eaeooniu Duriplina at Sodalltita. Ooit. 1808. 4.

^ 171. The first school, that drew its descent from the lonic^ was the Socratic. This
is so named from its founder, Socrates, who was a pupil of the last public teacher of the
Ionic school. Socrates is entitled to the praise of being the best man of pagan antiquity ;
the charges brought by some against his purity being without evidence- — ^He was first
trained to the manual employment of his father, a common statuary ; but was after-
wards patronized by a wealthy Athenian, named Crito, and enjoyed the instructi6n
of eminent teachers. He was several times engaged in war as a soldier ; in one en
gagement he saved Alcibiades when wounded; in another, Xenophon. After ha
64 2 U

606 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

began to teach, meet of his time was spent in public, and he was always ready and free
to discourse. In the latter part of his life he was called to civil ofiices. His' domestie

vexations from his wife are proverbial, but very possibly exaggerated. The trial,

condemnation, and death of Socrates, are themes of intense interest both to the scholar
and the philanthropist ; and have fixed an indelible blot on the character of the Athe-
nians. At trial he had no advocate, but made his own plea. Lysias had prepared an
oration for his use, but he declined the &vor ; Plato would have spoken, but the court
forbade it.

The Socratic mode of instruction has been mentioned before (P. I V. ^ 73). One of
the erand peculiarities of Socrates was, that he confined the attention of his pupils
chieny to moral science. He considered the other subjects included in the studies of
the old Ionic school as comparativelv useless. He seems to have believed, but with
some doubtings, the immortality of the soul. He left nothine in writing ; but we have
an authentic source of knowledge respecting his views in his Memoirs, Astofarnitovt^itara,
by Xenophon. The writings of Plato cannot be so much depended on for this ob-
ject, because he was himself the founder of a new sect. Those disciples of SocFRiea
who adhered to their master simply, without advancing notions of their own, are some-
times denominated pure Socratic. .Machines, Cebes, and Xenophon are the principal.

Mi^fUd, bk. 0. eb. ir^CaWn, bk. is. ch. It.-QaUttt BM. Omea, ch. ait^MUfa^ cb. uli. f t.^J. O. Ow^, Life
of SoomlM, kt. Load. 17TI. 9.—0. Wiavt, Soente oanoM hcmuM, eiloTMi at pbilonplM. Rmr. ISOT.— /Vofu^, Ohm <•
SocniM, Mm. dt VAead. dm Inaer. iv. a80.-/Vartf, Sor te coodmrntioB d« Soento, (■ (be mm Mm. Jkc lUiL ^ flOS^A.
JKvw, Emy OB the Domm of SoenlM. Loud. 1T18. &-(\id*0ar(A, Iiitaii. Sjrtm, eh. iv. S^^-CouMinU ot MmtTufttmH^
■aoB, S IIS-II8.— Cowfin't Nootcuix Tn^amm Pbilowpbiqaoa. Fte. 18SS. 8. pw 151.-«*iMifMw, Tboologj a^ Monk
of SoenlM, la hta Ofutc Jeadavk-ud tnad. )$fF.ai. Aiiteri; la BtU. Rtpot. Jvif, 1638, and Jaa. ISSO.

^ 172. The Socratic school was soon divided into numerous branches. No less than
Jl«e sects appeared, headed by philosophers who had listened to Socrates, and two of
these ere long gave birth each to a new sect, thus raising the number to seven. These
may be divided into two classes, and perhaps well designated as Minor Socratic and
Major Socratic sects, the original and proper school of Socrates being called Pure
SocrcUic.

I'he Minor Socratic were three ; the Cyrenaic, MegariCy and Eliac.

The Cyrenaic had its name from Cyrene, in Libya, the native place of its founder,
Aristippus. The peculiarities of this sect favored indulgence in pleasure. Its author
was fond of luxury and ornament. The sect was of short duration. They were some-
times styled 'HSovutol. ^The Megaric took its name from the native city of its founder,

Euclid, who was bom at Megara. It was also called Eristic, from its disputatious
character, and Dialectic, from the form of discourse practiced by its disciples. This
sect was famous for its subtleties in the art of reasoning. Some of their futile sophisms
are recorded ; e. g. the Horned ; v>hjatyou have never lost, you have ; horns you have
never lost; therefore you have horns. These philosophers also agitated the controversy
about universale and particulars; the same substantially as that which was so acrimo-

nious in the middle ages, between the nominalists and the realists. The Eliac was

ao called from Elis, the place where its founder, Phiedo, was bom and delivered his
lectures. It is sometimes called Eretriac, from the circumstance that Menedemus, a
disciple of PhsBdo, transferred the school to Eretria, the place of his own n^ivity. It
opposed the fooleries of the Megaric philosophy, and the hcentiousness of the Cyrenaic,
but never acquired much importance.

Ob Um CyrtntecMcli Bn/Ud, bk. il. eh. v.— JV. Umitt AxWippm pbllovphai SoenUeni, HaDe, ITISl 4.— OotoJii^ TbM»

■MBB, S ISL Ob tba Mfartc; Bn/UU, bk. iL ch. vL-V. O. Bapr, DiMit. da OMdo dfapota^ EMUdku LifMu rOk 4.-

ODMttnVTaBBMBaBB, 9 1S& Oa tbofUoe; ^nfiM, bk. li. ch. tii.

% 173. The Major Socratic sects were four, viz. the Cmie and Stoic, Academic and
Feripaietie; each of which was found at Athens, and will deserve a short notice.

The Cynic originated with Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates. He maintained that
all the philosophers were departing from the principles of that master. He assumed
the character of a reformer \ severe in manners ; carefully negligent of dress, so much
ao as to provoke the ridicule of Socrates.— —The Cynics were rather a class of
reformers in manners, than a sect of philosophers. Their name is said by some to
have been occasioned by their severity and soumess, which were such as to bring
upon them the appellation of Dogs, They had two grand peculiarities ; one was that
they discarded all speculation and science whatever ; the other, that they insisted on

the most rigid self-denial. One of the most famous of this sect was Dio^enee. He

carried the notions of Antisthenes to extravagance. Made up of eccentricities, he was
always a censor, and his opposition to refinement often degenerated into rudeness. He
satirized the instmctions of other philosophers ; having heard Plato define a man to be
a two legged animal without wings, he stripped a cock of its feathers, and taking it into

the Academy, exclaimed, " See Plato^s Man." There are no writings of this sect

except some fragments of Antisthenes.

Ob tba Ofiiia ; SnfUd, bk.ii.ch. x.— BarfMnn*. Tnn. of Aaach. ch. TJt. SbWIT, HM. Utt. Or. IL Sia-^Tba rmmimvi
AaliitbaoM at* (we Haeemrm, (i vm la JMtte (dial ^ US. 2), 8th vol. ; kad now mntmem, givaa ia /. OnUi, Opweola, kc dM
ilOBbk ThaMtanaaerib«dtoblmanm/.ONlU,CoU«eUo,ftcdtad(lSt. 1

p. V. PHILOSOPHY. 607

^ 174. The Stoic sect may be said to have sprung from the Cynic, Its founder was
Zeno, a native of the island of Cyprus. Brought to Athens by the mercantile pursuits
of his fether, he was accidentally introduced to the school of the Cynics, and from
them he borrowed many of the notions of the sect he established. Zeno, however,
visited the other schools which then existed and borrowed from all. I'he name Stoic
was drawn from the Portico ^P. IV. ^ 74) where he gave his lectures.

The Stoics differed from the Cynics, in as much as the former devoted themselves
much to speculative studies, which the latter wholly discarded ; but they resembled
the Cynics in some degree in theu: general austerity of manners and character. In-
difference to pleasure or pain, adversity or prosperity, they inculcated as the state of
mind essential to happiness. The doctrine oVfaie was one of their grand peculiarities ;
the^ considered all thinss as controlled by an eternal necessity, to which even the
Deity submitted ; and this was supposed to be the origin of evil. — Their system of
morals was in general strict and outwardly correct, but one which was based upon and
which greatly fostered a cold, self-relying pride. It approved of suicide, which was
perpetrated by Zeno himself. Yet it stimulated to heroic deeds. — In logic they imi-
tated the quibbles and sophisms of the Megaric sect. I'he story of the sophist rrota*
goras and nis pupil well illustrates the absurd trifling of their dialectics. Their system
of logic and metaphysics, however, presents a classification which bears, in some
respects, a striking resemblance to that of Locke. Objects of thought or knowledge are

divided into four kinds ; svhElanccs^ gualities^ modett and relations. The later

Stoics are supposed to have borrowed some views from Christianity. They speak of
the world as destined to be destroved in a vast conflagration, and succeeded by another
new and pure. One of them, addressing a mother on the loss of her son, says, *' The
sacred assembly of the Scipios and Catos shall welcome the youth to the region of
happy souls. Your father nimself (for there ajl are known to all) shall embrace his
ffranoson, and shall direct his eyes, now furnished with new light, along the course of
toe stars, with delight explaining to him the mysteries of nature, not from conjecture,
but from certain knowledge."

Among the most distinguished of the early disciples of this school Were Cleanthet,
immediate successor to Zeno (cf. ^ 72), and Chrysippug^ who also became the public
teacher in the school at Athens. The latter was celebrated as a disputant ; "Give me
doctrines," said he, "1 will find arguments to support them." His industry, it is said,
produced many hundred treatises ; of which nothing remains except a few scattered
citations. — Nor have we any written productions from Zeno, or any of the early Stoics.
The principal authors whose works remain are JE^fnctetua and Antoninus, who lived
after the Christian era.

Oa the SroJcs; EnJkU, bk. ii. eb. zL— CkicfuwrO, laL Sjrtten, eh. iy. | S6.-Mam 9mitk, Tb. of Monl Smthmab, pL vii.
•eel. ft cb. i. (p. 1 15, ad. BoiL 1817).-7«. Brown, On the Fhiloa. of the Human Mind, Iwt xeiz. (p. 647. Sd vol. od. And. 18B).

On Bpiauui tad AnUmhuAS ; cL $ 198, 196.— J. C. F. Afcyw, ConuMBtatio in qua Gtok. doctr. eth. cum Cbrial. cooipantnr.

Oott.l8Z3w 4.

^ 175. The Academic sect originated with Plato, a native of Athens, descended on
his father's side from Codrus, and on his mother's from Solon. In youth devoted to
poetry and painting, he wrote a poem, but, after comparing it with Homer, committed
It to the flames. Captivated by the lectures of Socrates, he left poetry for philosophy.
After much travel through the East and also in Magna Graecia, he opened his school
in a public grove, from which the sbct derived the name of the Academy (cf. P. IV.
^ 74). Over his door was the inscription OiSelg dytunhprini iurim ; so much did he
value mathematical science as a foundation for higher studies.

One of the peculiarities of the Platonic philosophy respected the relations of matter
to mind. The system recognized a supreme intelligence, but maintained the eternity
of matter; matter receives all its shapes from the will of the intelligence, yet contains
a blind refractory force which is the cause of all evil. The human soul consists of
parts derived from both these, the intelligence and the matter; and all its impurity
iesults from the inherent nature of the latter constituent. — A very striking peculiarity
was the doctrine respecting ideaf. It was briefly this ; that there exist eternal patterns .
or types, or exemplars of all things ; these exemplara are the only proper objects ot
science ; to understand them is to know truth ; on the other hand, all sensible forms,
the appearances made to the several senses, are only shadows ; the forms and shadows
are addressed to the senses, the exemplars or types to the intellect. These exemplars
were called ideas. — The doctrines respecting matter and ideas essentially controlled the
i^stem of study in this sect, and their practical morality. To gain true science, one
must turn away from the things arouna him and apply his mind in the most perfect
Abstraction to contemplate and/nd out the eternal original patterns of things. And to
gain moral purity, he must mortify and deny the parts of the soul derived from matter,
and avoid all familiarity with the shadows. Hence probably the readiness to embrace
the Platonic system manifested among the Christians of the middle ages, when the
mystic notion of cleansing the soul by solitude and penance became so common.

The Academic sect was very popular, and eminent philosophers successively taught
its doctrines in the grove. Some adhered closely to the views of Piato, and were

509 BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

called disciples of the Old Academy, Mrhile others departed from them and formed
successively the Middle and the JVeto Academy. The Old was becnin by Plato, B. C.
about 400; the Middle, by Arcesilaus, B. C. about 300; the JVew, by Caraeades,
B. C. about 180. — The distinguishing point of diSerence between the three branches
was their opinion respecting the certainty of human knowledge. The Old Academy
maintained that certain knowledge can be obtained, not of the tensdde forms, but only
of the eternal exemplars; the Middle, that there is a certainty in things, yet it is bewmd
the attainment of the human mind, so that positive assertion is improper ; the New,
that man has the means of knowledge, not infallible, but sufficiently certain for all
his wants.

Ob (he jMdMnk Mct ; Enfitid, bk. IL ch. i.-MWMon'i Life of CiMra, mcL M.-^OUU^ HhL Qrmm. eh. xnii.— J. R Of
tart, D« Plalonlci STitaaulis fandiaMiilo. Oolt. 1806. &— PA. O. Vmn JTcwrfi, InilU PbikMopbia Haumka. Li|». lflBT-41.^
/oftnion'i or Oouiin'i TemmuiiB. f l28-t3&-JUtnA. Rm. July, 1817. PI»lo<i PbiliM. aad Biorali eompand.— A J. akktm, Di
Mm FtelooM. Upi. 1817. B.~«l. Ka,pp, ruioM Entehiupldire, ■!■ PUi«Dffik far Eianloai and ala 8tuiq«da(i«ik. liiaila,
18SS. &-.8M rarwaDOH ontort I88l

^ 176. The Peripatetic sect grew out of the Academy, Aristotle its founder having
been long a pupil to Plato. Having closed his labors as the teacher of Alexander, he
returned to Athens, and his master, Plato, being dead, he commenced his Lectures in
the Lyceum (cf P. IV. % 74). He taught for 12 years. Accused of impiety by ene-
mies and rivals, he retired to Chalcis, where he remained until his death.

The Peripatetics, according to the established practice of the philosophers, had their
public and their secret doctrine, or the exoteric and esoteric (cf. P. IV. % 72). In his
morning walk, Aristotle imparted the latter to his particular disciples ; in his evening
walk, he proclaimed the former, his public doctrme, to a mixed crowd of hearers.
Very contradictory accounts have been given of the essential principles of Aristotle
and his sect. But nothing perhaps was more distinctive than the system of syllogistic
reasofiing, which was introduced bv the founder, and became «o celebrated m subse-
quent ages, and for so long a period, held the highest place in the plans of education. —
Of the earl^ disciples of this sect, Theophrasius and Straio were among the moet
eminent. Ihey succeeded Aristotle as teachers in the Lyceum. Dicsarchus, the
geographer, and Demetrius Phalereus, the rhetorician (cf. ^ 116), were also distin-
guishea Peripatetics.

Ob tint Peripatttiaf EnJUd, I*. iL eh. iz.— OOliM, eh. xl—Cudworth, eb. iv. tt.—SmUh, Theoiy Mor. Seatimnt, pi viL

■ect. S ch. l—MU/ord, ch. xci. k l.—Edinb. JBncyrL Aritlolle.— Counn't or AAnion** TeOBemaiiD, f 188— ISO. Oo the Logia

of AriilaCle; RgbPt Au^jntol A.*t Lofic— Stnonrl, Elemrati of FhiL Roman Mind, «oL IL eh. Hi.-/. OiUut, Aoalyiii, kc^
IB hk TnwIatioB of A\ Etbia and Fbliliei. Lond. 1797. 2 «oU. 4.— 7A. Tbyto-, Diia. on tb« FbikMiihj of ArialaUew laaO.
mi. 4.— 8aa raferaBoea onder ^ 101.

^ 177. We will next notice the sects which were derived from the Italic school (cf.
^ 168). They were four, the Eleatic, the Heraclitean, the Epicurean, and the Skeptic.

The Eleatic was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, who early lei't his native
country for Sicilv, and thence passed over into Magna Grscia Here he became a
celebrated disciple in the Pythagorean school, but advanced new and dilTerent views
in his own lectures. The sect derived its name from the place where some of his
most distinguished followers belonged, Elea in Magna Gnecia. — The doctrines of the
Eleatic sect were atheistical. Matter is madeup of infinitely small atoms, which have no
property but a tendency to move. By the eternally varying motions of these atoms,
every existence and every effect in the universe is caused. Yet there is no real change
except in our senses. The soul of man is material. — I'he most distinguished supporters
of this sect were Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, Leucippus, who is said tu have been the
chief author of the atomic theory, and Democritus of Abdera, commonly called the
laughing jihilosopher. Another eminent follower of this sect was Pi'otagortis of Abdera,
who acquired great power and wealth at Athens in the profession of sophist, but was
finally banished, his writings having been publicly burned, on account of his impiety.

The Heraditean sect was instituted at Ephesus by Heracliius, from whom it took
its name. It is but little noticed as a separate sect. The doctrines were atheistic, and
many of them more absurd than those of the Eleatic philosophers. One of the notions
was, that all nature is hill of souls or demons. Fire is the principle from which all
things are produced, and those souls are the best which have the least moisture, and
approach nearest to the primary fire. — The most celebrated name among the Hera-
clitists was Hippocrates, who in some points agreed with this sect, but was not properly
speaking a disciple.

On the EUatU net, BnfiOd, bk. it. ch. !&— CkuhooriA, eh. i. §6. ch. iv. § 90.-/. O BtM*, CoauDwt. da orta et prafraM
pantbelsmi inde a Xcnophaae primo ejm anctore uique ad Spinoam. Golt. I79a 4.— Coiuin'f T«MM!BtaBn, } 87— I W, 104, iflSb
— Fngmenti of their writiaiKt In H^StephanuM, Fbeiii PbiloMphica, cited ^ 47 (.—and ia A. Ptfnn, aa cilad 1 64. 8.— JbkBI^ iL
317,— RnpecUng Xcnophanee aod Zeno of Elea, Couain, Nout. Fngn. (p. m96) cited § 171.

On the BtndiUm Mct; Enjidd, bk. u. ch. \4.—Cuiworth, ch. i. § 16. iii. 8. iv. I8.-C». OoUL flSsyiM, Pra«r. do aflinabw
•leeia ex Heraeliteo placilo optime ad aipient. ae virt. intfruetia. Oolt 1781. fol. and In bia Opuie. Jhad. vol. 3d.— .CSouifn^ or
JohuorCt Teonemaan, % 108.— Fragncota of wriliafi, SUpkmvui, ai Jutt citad.— X<M«n aieribed to Henditni, ia the CoUaetiaBB
riled i 16B. 1.

% 178. The Epicurean sect had its name and origin from Epicurus, bom near Athens.

p. y. PHIL080PHT. 609

He first gave lectures at Mitylene, but afterwards opened his school at Athens in a
sarden, in which he lived, and often supported large numbers of young men, who
flocked to hear him.

The doctrines of this sect were derived from the atomic theory of the Eleatics, and
were on the whole atheistic, although not so fully and formally. All happiness was
founded in pleasure. This principle opened the way for the great licentiousness of the
later disciples of this school. Epicurus explained and limited his language so as to
recommend the practice of virtue. *' It might have been his pleasure to be chaste and
temperate. We are told it was so; but others find their pleasure in intemperance and
luxury ; and such was the taste of his principal followers." — The sect became popular,
and existed to a very late period. Of the writings of the sect, only trifling fragments
remain. Yet Epicurus alone is said to have written several hundred treatises. Her-
machus, or properly Hermarchus, was successor to Epicurus, and inherited his books
and garden.

On Ibe Bpiatrmu; Ei\fidd, bk. ii. cb. 16.— GiOte, Hitt GrMca, eh xlSmith, Thmr. Mor. Snt. P. fU. mcL & ch. fl.—
AtNCTi, iDldl. fbil. iect ML— Ccurin*k or /oftnaon'* Teancatun, ( 161-167.— Frasmmta of Epicuroa. /. O. Scthittder, Epievi
ftftia. d nulnrolofia diabw cphioli* cjudam oonpntacna. Up*. I8I& a-/. C. Ovltt, Epicnri fttgncBte litntNiiin ii. at xL
da ntgn, he. Lipa. 1818. S.—CL ScMII, iii. 981.

^ 179. The Slceptic sect was so named from its doctrines ; it was also called Pyrrho-
nie from its founder Pyrrho. He was educated in the Eleatic sect, and particularly
admired the notions of Democritus, from whom he drew the elements of nis system.
He was also instructed in the dialectic sophistries of the Megaric sect, and seems to
have been disgusted with their frivolous disputes.

The doctrines of this sect were very similar to those of the middle Academy (cf.
$ 175), and many real skeptics concealed themselves under the name of the Academy,
as their own sect was rather unpopular. Their essential peculiarity was, that noihinff
is certain, and no assertion can be made. Happiness they placed in tranquillity of mind,
and this could be obtained only by absolute indifl[brence to all dogmas. They ridiculed
the disputes and contradictions otthe other sects, especially the ooasted confidence of
the Stoic, and the proud sophistries of the Megaric. But Seneca well remarked in
comparing the Megaric and the Skeptic sects, " I prefer a man who teaches me trifles
to him who teaches me nothing ; if the dialectic philosopher leaves me in the dark,

the Skeptic puts out my eyes.*' One of ttie eminent disciples of this sect was Timon,

already mentioned as a poet (^ 45). The sect had its professors and teachers, down
to the time of Sextus Empiricus, whose writings are a principal source of information
respecting the views of the Skeptics.

Ob li» SkapUa ; BnfiOd, Vk II. cb. l«.-OiU/««, eh. zl.— & JocEenm, d« pbnonphit Fyrrbasia. Kll. 1818b 4.— CouiihV TW
■MMiin, S 184.— £«fi«Attnriek, cltod § 46.— AASIl, Ui. 848.

^180. We have given a view of the sects as they grew one out of another. It may
be remarked here, that four of them arose after the commencement of the 4th period
in our division of the history of Greek literature (^ 9), viz. the Peripatetic and Stoic,
descendants of the Ionic school, and the Epicurean and Skeptic, offspring of the Italic ;
all the others existed before the time of Alexander. It was in the 4in period also,
that the middle and the nev) Academy appeared.— —In the 5th period, i. e. after the
Roman supremacy, Grecian philosophy lost much of the dignity and importance it had
enjoyed. Its professors were viewed more in the light of mercenary teachurs. The
spirit of honest inquiry gave place to the prevalence of skepticism. Visionaries and
impostors assumed the garb of philosophers, and new sects were formed under the old
names, the outward forms and technical expressions being retained, with almost nothing
else. — Such especially were the Neto-Pytha^oreans. As eminent among these may
be mentioned particularly, Sextiust in the time of Au^^ustus, Sotiofi of Alexandria,
under Tiberius, and Apollonius Tyanentis^ the famous impostor.

Ob du A'tw-ZyAdfonoAt; fn/Wd, bk. IIL eh. 2. net I^-CoumMu TtoocBnaB, f ISL-aMB, Uvn t. eh. 80l— SMidtey, Dm
Ik(m phavDpblqoi^ ia the Mmn, Acad. huer. xiv. 1.

^181. The New'Platoni»t$ also appeared nnder the Roman emperors. These pro-
fNsed to disentangle the pure doctrines of Plato from the additions and corruptions of
the later Academicians ; but they themselves mingled much that was foreign to his
system, and soon prepared the way for the Synehretistie, or Eclectic schools. ^

The principle of the Eclectics was, to select whatever was true in the various con-
flicting doctrines of all the sects, and thus form an harmonious union. The first pro-
jector of this plan is said to have been Potamoj a Platonist of Alexandria. But Am
monius, of the same city, surnamed Saccas, is considered as the actual founder of th«
Eclectic school. Having been educated among Christians, he endeavored to incor-
porate in his system some of the principles of Christianity. And this sect numbered
among its discfples both Christians ana pagans. The more eminent of the pagans,
before the time of Constantine, were Plotinus, Porphyry, Proclus, and Jamblicnus.

Ob Am M«v-fte(cnti(i aiMl EebeMei ; EnJUU, bk. iiL efa. 2. net. 8, 4.— Couijn^ or Johiuimh Tmdmmbb, ( 186, flOO-8lA,
BekOa, bk. V. eh. 81, St.— Moffar, Sar I'Eoole d* Alexandria, eUed \ SB. SL-For wne Beeooat of tba Alenadriu Ptaloain (nl
«l fta llaMB Bl AlMavlria}, na alN londL Quart. An. July. I840L p. 84, ih

2u3

510 HISTORY OF ORBEK LITERATURB.

i 182. There were also during the same period, under the Roman emperors, followers
and advocates of the principal ancient sects, as (besides the Academic) the Peripatetic,
the Cynic, the Stoic, the Skeptic, and especially the Epicurean. It is not important,
in this glance, to notice them separately ; indeed the Eclectic principles held a great
sway with (he age, and under the prevalence of these on the one hand, and of a
Christian philos^y on the other, the adherents to the old names had but a limited
influence. After the time of Consiantine. who died A. D. 337, the New-PlaUnUsis,
who were genenWy mat enemies of Christianity, established their school at Athena.
The most distingubhed philosopher was Proclus. This school was at length sup-
pressed by Justinian (cf. P. IV. ^ 82). Of the other systems the Peripatetic was

the most in vogue among the Greeks, especially at Constantinople. Indeed it was not
long after Constantine, when all, who did not embrace Platonism. were included under
the general name of Peripatetics. Many writers employed themselves in attempting
to explain and enforce the system. In the 8ih and 9th centuries the Peripatetic phi-
losophy was introduced among the Arabians, and the works of Aristotle were trana-
latea into the Arabic language. By them it was propagated in the west of Europe in
the 11th and 12th centuries. Here it gave rise to that scholaatic philosophy, which
exhibited such a singular union of acutenese and folly, and which reigned in Europe
until the revival of letters.

On ilwMvm Mdtabevt MflMd, nd«r (to wpmn btfhn CoMlMiUMi En/IM, bk. iil. eh.S. Mcf. 6-ll.-«Mn. Umv. dh

6»-67. Ob the CMtUtn pkitimopk^ of the mm iwriod ; BcUUU Inn v. eh. m^En/Ud, bk. vi. tb. I^Alf«>, G«Kliidil* 4.

Pbll. toU. ft and a, m cited \ ilO. 8. Cf \ AS. Oa the Nt^PlatonitU Bftcr Comtanliae ; BnfitU^ Uu iit. eh. 2. «ct 4.—

SMU, livra vi. ch 93. On the Frtpataia after CoartaMiae ; SehCUy livra f L ch. M.— CI. BaOam^ rww of Eutopa in MdOn

Agm, eh. is. pL 2. (p. iSl. M voL ad. FhiL ISM.)

$ 183/. We shall now mentioD some of the principal sources of information
lesppctingf the Greek philosophy, and then proceed to notice the more distin-
guished Greek philosophers, of whose written productions we still have remains.

i. Orifinal aoureaa.— Tha flnl and mat d&td ara the extant workt of tJ»t pMlmipkat tkmmbm ; thaaa worka arc to be nolieai
in the anbarqaent lertkina. Bat wo may pmpcriy put hern alaa aone aneimt anrhohtica which are indiracL— I. Aathma who
eonpoted nantoira of philoaophen ; Diogaui LaarTtua, cf. f 255 a ; PUdoHrtttut, rf. ( ti5 b ; JEwMiNitf, cf. ( 3aA c.— S. Aaihen
who wrote compeodiaBa or ikatcheaof philowphy ; Odltn (cf. \ 273), to whom ia aacribcd a book on Ibe BUiary of PhtiaaopAy,
which U (iron la the ed. of Ckariitr; PtvSvth (cf. S 249), to whom i« aacribed (perhapa falwly, however) a work Dt flmcittg
pkOuaapkorum (cf. { 195. 3).— 9. Aotliora who in their worka have tn*ndueed, mor- or l«ia fatly, Ibe doctrinee and preccplaef the
phii(MophnrB;a.(.jlCAanMM,e£|ia9; Oi«r« (cf. ^ «(M), a aaiiaibla mrce, mpeciallr In hie Ik f^iwtet, and hMQuaftawfA*
Anwai; tha iaformatioa k eolleetod in F. Ocdifta, Cieanwia Hiatoria FhiloMphw anttqov. Rert. I7B)L Sd ad. 18I&. 8-^. Chria-
tian aulhon, who wrote in eontrovcny with tbe pafant ; Oriftn, Eimbiut, and olhan ; cf. f tt7, 288. ,

2. Modern worka on the RiMorr of philoeophy.-rA SUnOt^ Hiatory of Phiioaopbr. Lond. ICS& M.-SJ cd. 1101. 4.-^
Bntek^, Hiatoria Criticn Phikeophim. te. Lpi. l74S-«7. 6 ada. 4.— Ily anmr, Inalitntionei hint Fhiloa. Lpn. IT*. & and (nd.
Bam) |-;9a a— IT. BnfiM> Hbtoty of Pbiloaophy, kc (a trualatioB and abridfmnni of Jraicter). Load. 1711. t voii. 4. DnbL
1792. S ToliL %—a. JtiUw, Oeechichle der Fhiloeophia. Hamb. (I~V. Th.) I8»-41. 8 ~RitUr»$ BklUny of Anc Fbilea Traae-
lated from Gannan. Oaf. 1898. 4 vota. 8. Now oooudered aa hifh anlhorit7.~ir: O. TViificmaiiii, (3caehic)il« i9t PbilmnphM
Lpc. 1798.1618b II veil. 8. one of the beat worfci in thia departiiicnt.-Bj aoma, Grandri« der Oeaeh. d. FhiL (9d ed. by fr«iid»>
Lin. 1820. a TmnaL into French by Coiwm. Par. 1819. a Traml. into CnKliah bjJL /dbiuon. Oif. IBS. & Tbk ri ralnn-
Ue for it! fnll tefrrnieei on the tubjeeti noiicwI.-V. O. JhthU, Lebrhuch der (;eKh. d. Philoe. end ihrar Uirra'ur. Goit. ITta-
1804. 4 vola. t.^Dtg0rantlOt Hiaioiie Comparde do •jalteee do U Philoaophie. 8d ed. Par. I88S. 4 aula, f.— If. T. jr>iir,G*-
achichte der Phikmphie alter Zeit, vomehmlich eater (Machm nod SonerB. Lpi. tbiS. t. The Miowin* abryicmeaii amy hn
added : F. AH, Gmndrna einer Oeachichte der Phil. Laodah. I80T. a-/. O. OmUtt, Abrim der Geeeh. d. Phil. Lpa. I7I«. a—
a. Soeker, Hialory of the ayatooM of Phitaaovhy fftn tbe time of the Orcoka down le Kan». Mna. 1802 a (in Gennnn).— IR Jia-
rfwaon, Philimphy of Ancient Greece. Lond. 1781. 4.— AnehM, AbrU«ed Uvea of tbe PhiloMpheia. Par. I79S. a Trend inae
SeClith by Contmek. A new ed. of the TmtA. Par. 1820— P. W. Km Bmadt, Veneche PhiloMphi«her Fenehomea in dm
Spcachea. Utr. 1898. K—P. W. Fkn Haudt, Die Socntiacbe Scbula oder Philoaophie far dm aanaaehato lahrhandcit. Eriaa«.
1841. a-17. Ktttr k L. Pnlbr, Hitleria Pbilovphia Gr«eo BomaoK ex Fonliam lode cnatetta. Hamh. 1898. a

a We add here nme refcrencm en tbe Philoaophy of other naliona.— Ci{yptiaa.— AaJIcU; Mtta^, Acaa afaave ciM.—
OmnH Idaen, Ac. cited P. IV. f I7I.-C. P. MarUx, Symboiial Wiwkm of E^yptiana, Ac Brrl. I78S. a (in Germ,}— Pridm^^

Analyiit, Ac, cHed P. II. { 12.2. (/). Pariian A Chaldean— T. ilydb, Hiat. nllg. vet Faiaanim Oxoa. ITOOi 4.-.ln^. D»

Pwrron, Zeud-Avaata, aa cited \ 18 h.— Tbe ZlManlfr, or mcred writtap of the aacieat PnaiaaB. Bonb. I8I& 8 -Jl a Aftada.
Syaiem of the Rdigh» of the Mede^ Peninna, Ac (In Gem.) Frankf. l8Ba a— /V.MVnlir, Bdifion of the Babjrfaminan.

Cepeah. 1827. 4. H I ndoa IT. Pfhrd^ Hiitovy, Literatnre, and Briigioa of tha Hindooa. Land. 1880. 4 ania. &-F »ha^

Cal,Laa|na(a,Ae.,ef thaHindeoaOnOerm.). Heidelh 1808. A-Ztf. JflUInr, Opiniona, Sdeaoi^ Ac, of aaei«t Biadcn MealiK.
I8B. a-V. O. Maie, aa cited P. 11. | Id. & (/). CC rbinemann** Maanal, i 66-7a

$ 184. JEmp, a Phrygrian, generally supposed to have lived 6. C. at least
600, does not strictly belong to the class of Greek philosophers; yet he may
properly be named here, on account of the principles of moral and political phi-
losophy embodied in his Fables.

In. He was born a slave, and served different mastert ; the last of whom, ladmon of Samoa,
a philosopher, gave him his ft'eedom. The other circumstances of his life are bill imperfectly
known, although they are detailed with considerable fullness In the biographv of him ascribed
to Jlfcximiui Planudet, a monk of Constantinople In the 14ih centnry ; upon which, however, lit-
tle reliance can be placed.— The same Planudes also collected and enlarged the (kbles of .£aop,
never, probably, committed to writing by himself. They had been put into Choliambic verse by
Babr'ui (improperly called Babrias, and Gabrias), who lived in the time of Angastus (cf. ( 91^

p. y. PHXL080FHT. 611

From this meter tbey were f radnally reduced again to proae, and received their present form
flrom Planudes.
Ct ftiiar^ Atlf. ThMri*. £f ofi.-Char. wntkmtL DUU. voL v. p. 8».— TA. TynokUt, Din. d« Babrio. Lond. IT7«L &
2. The tdaiona of JSnp lttf« bMn drawn fraai wvcnl diftrent uuiDatcript colleetioiM, eooUining different numben of Fablat,

u aceeuBt of which b giveo bjr SehOtt, vol. i. p. 8S2, a. h.—J. M. Htiuinttr, Gr. k Lat. Lip*. 1741, 1790. S—F, D. Furia,

Or. a LaL Flor. 1800. 8 volii 8. feoiD an aaeiest MS. at Floreaec in the library of the Caaini Bionkn, and auppoMd to piuciul
tho raUea aa they ware before the chaagw mado by Flanndea. Bepr. Lps 1810. with addltimu ; DihUu uyi, •< thii appean to b%

apon the wholo, tho very boat.** IL—Caray. Fkr. ISia 8. with Kholia, and pUtca; good.-^. O. SdmuiJa: BitaL 1^12. &

after the Aupboig MS., aad ooBtainiaf 831 FaMaa of Aiop, with SO of Babriw.— O H. SeMfir. Lpa. 1^8 i . &
& TramlatloiH.— Tho bm»I aoeiaat wat probably that of BiUabtHy of Toan, 18th eentary, in Latin went ; publidiad Rone,

1749L 4. Ganaaik-V. C Bnmm. Quedl. 1788. 8.— I F. W. Motz. Lpc 1784. a Freech.-^. U Grutut. Par. 1801. 8.

-'Bbgli*.~& Cnma. Load. 1TB. 8. 1788. 12. aaoMrit.— Pnblabed at Calcvtta, 1803. 8. ootiUcd Polyflol tranUlton

•r JBHp ; in Fnralaa, Arabic, Hindortanae, Saoacrit, ke.

4. There is another collection of Fables in Greek, being a version of those OrunttU talea com-
monly ascribed to an ancient brahmin of India, named Pilpay. This version was made by Simecn
Setkut of Constantinople, in the Uth century, under the title Irs^ayfri}^ xai 'Ixv^Adri^; (<« Fatn-
futur »t V fnvettigaUur).

The GrBck tsit waa pabliahed, by Stote. Berl. 1807. &— There ara traulationi of then FaUn In the nodem Uu«uafn.>
AAUi. vfL 187.— Suiaer, All(. Theorle, Fabd.

§ 185. Ocellus Lucanut^ a papil of Pythagoras, lived B. C. about 490. To
him is ascribed an extant treatise, Jlspi f^; tov ftaartbi ^tfeco;, On i/ie nature of
things. If genuine, it must have been written in the Doric dialect, and been
chan&red into the common by some grammarian of subsequent times. Notwith-
Btanoing all its errors, it evinces much acumen, and contains some very valuable
precepts upon education. Yet it is quite probably the work of a later author.

1. The qnaalioa of the geaaioonea of Ihh work baa been moeb agitated. The conSicting opinion are eaamined bj Rudolphi, in
a Dlwrfatioa in hit edition of the work. He aKribn it to Oeeilni.-.&A0^I, vol. ii. p. 31 1.

8. Edition. Beat ; .<liM Aifraux, Or. k Fr. Far. 1788. S vol*. !2.-%i. F. FF. JtutinlpM. Lr>x. 1801. 8. Gr. only, bot with •«»

good eonneBtuy.-" Early ; Prinerpa. Par. I638L 8 — £. Nogarola. Yen. ISSS. 4. with veraioo and note*. Rqtr. by Comm^

Kit, Held. 1 J96. 9.—Tk. Gob, in hit OpUKula MytMogiea. Canbr. 1S71. 8. Later ; Marquia d'Jtrgau (Dargeiunu). Beri.

nS. with Freaeh venion aad Comnenlaiy.

$ 186. Xenophon^ an Athenian, was bom B. C. 450, and died B. C. 356. Be-
sides his great merit as a military commander, and as an historian, he is worthy
of special notice as a philosopher, and one of the most excellent among the
pupils of Socrates. The discrimination, solidity, precision, and mildness of
manner so remarkable in his master, he acquired himself, and transfused into
his writings. From the writings of Xenophon especially, we may learn the
true spirit of the Socratic philosophy (cf. § 171).

1. He was bom at the borough Ercheia. While a youth his personarcomellnpn attracted the
attention of Socrates, who one day accidentally met him In the street, and Invited him to his
lectures. He accompanied Socrates In the Peloponnesian war, and was saved by his master in
the battle of Dellum (cf. P. IV. $ 90. 6). At the nee of 43, he enKaged in the service of Cyrus
the younger, and after the disastrous battle of Cunaia, conducted the famous rttrtat of the 7%»
Thousand. Four or Ave years oAer his return to Greece, he entered Into the service of Agesi-
laus, king of Sparta, as a warrior. Incurring by this the displeasure of the Athenians, he waa
accused fhr his former connection with Cyrus, and baniahed. He was received Into protection
by the Spnrtans, and enjoyed a pleasant retreat at SciUus, where he composed Aosl of his works,
and died at the age of 00.

MafbHPt Graeee, eh. nlii. utUL Met 8, (p. 8TS, vol. t. ed. Boat 18SS).~>J. & GoO, U vie de ZMwphoa. Far. 1793. 8 vok.
8L— C. a. Krtipr, De XeDophoatiB vita quntiones eriUaa. Halle, 18B&. 8.-J'. XWMtelk, XawphOB; nr Hottnng aeinar dweh
B.aNiclmhrcalUidetaBEhiu Boui,18B9l8.

2. The works strictly belonging to the department of philosophy ore live; viz.
'AjrofUfTiijiaifeifiaTa ZoMcparoor, Memoirs of Socrates ; Ixixparovi *AiroXoy£a irpdj Toif Sucarrasj
Apology of Socrates, not bo much a defence from the charges laid against him as a justi-
fication of the motives which induced him to choose death ; Ounvofwcos Xdye^, Discourse
an economy, a treatise on morals applied to rural life ; the last two have been considered
by some to have formed originally parts of the memoirs; Zv/nrtftrtov ^>o96^w. The
Banquet of Philosophers, of peculiar excellence as to style, and designed to illustrate
the purity of Socrates ; 'lifibw fi T^pavvos, Hiero or The Prince, comparing public and

private life, with remarks on the art of governing. There are six other pieces, which

may be mentioned here, ahhough less strictly of a philosophical character; Hepc 'limu^ ;
'ItncapXMf^ » Kwi^yiiranJp ; II^i J) Hfpi irparddtuv [On the Revenues of Attica) ; Aaittiatfiovi<av
mXtnia ; and 'AOi^vatW mXirtia. The last two, however, may not be the productions of
Xenophon ; although the former of them seems to be a grateful return for the asylum
furnished to him on his banishment from Athens. His intercourse with the king of
Sparta was the occasion of a eulogy styled, A6yos ciV 'Ayij<«'Xaoy.

t. Edition^WHOLE WOaKS.-B.-*/. O. Sekndder, Or. ft lah Lpi. 181ft. 6 voU. 8. Bepr. Oxf. I880>88. 6 vola. &-.&
mUtt, Lpa. 1786-1804. 8 vola. 8.-.0a»I, Gr. Lat. ft Fr. fv. 1814-16. 11 voli. unall 4. to which most be added a IBlh vol. ■Iyl«|

Medienku hialorii|ne^ fte. Fkr. 1821. 4^»F. A. Bornemann. Oolh. 1898. (eommenced) la JbeP* BIbliolheca F.— The

IVhmv* waa Junta, Flor. 15IIL loL Next, 4Mktf, Vm, USS, ftiL Tbes AvAocMw (with pief by Fk, JMoncrte**), B^ Smr,

513 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

IS«.9*tfla.&tbtantirbleliM9lMllyei»liiMdBlL— ir.«l«|itemi*,Or.ftLii. hr. Wl. fb).-~£«wRinfiM, Or. * UL Vm

163Sb M.—mU», Or. k Ul. Oif. 170S. S vdik a— (C. A 7>kicmc Or. & UU Lj|w. 18M. 4 Toia. & Meaorab I lit; ll«^

tefaicMn-, (ed. by /IcwhmB). Or. & UL UsC 1B04. 8 voh L-it JTUAn*-, XrMph. d* Socr. Conwieaiarii. Gotba, 1841. 8.
••ciMlleal.»-&Ati<«. Ha.i«, 1822. a-J: OnmiMorf, Or. * Lit. Liwi. IftlS. 8.-).«. Hmbtu Halle, I8R. 8.-4XX.iW*«<

Andof. ft N. rk. Id ed. 1841. IS. with Bnglnli notn. Cf. .V. jfimr. Km. vol 61. p. 84i. A p o I e « y, JBaow (ZehiuwV Lpu

ITSS. flk wklb Tftc Mnfuttt Hkro, Eanomy, ftnd JgnOmu — ) T X Btf^Mmonn, Or. k Ul. Lipt. 1814. wiib the Conm9tmm
orBuquct.-^Banqaet, Dindorf. Lft. I8B8. 8.— -Politj nf the Alheaisn aad of iba UoadnBooiau, Irtmc 14b
1778. 8. trilh lb* Rtctnua aod ibe IVHtiM on herm tad the etasr.— Of th« UctttenMiiaa^ X Bamm, Bcri. I83S H with
Cfom (nrufit (■tfjcorum /lc«r«).— O. df. Sttuppt, X«in|>h. Opine politia, rquesiriR, veiMtica. Lips. 188^. 8. ppb UO.

4. TnMkdoak-OOTmii.~ir]kolc«fli»«a, bf df. C3L %'K.JkrlHek. Umf. I788-I808L Clli IL— AfmuraMta, (qr /. £ £r«MngtP.

2ar. ism 8. rrwrh.-mkoli toorAf, by OaO, eilrd above. — Bofflieh.— MBiMmMIia, by 5. i^akhnf — ftfnfUil, bf <CHI>

«rao4 — tfkre, by JL ONUm. Und. 1798.— JfanerttKiM; with tbe Mioor wotlca, Banq*^ Uivo, kc^ tnm. by Mvant teadi.
Load. 1818 18.

ft. IlliMlm'iv^— r W. Styrx, Usieoa XMopboolcua. Lp^ I8M-4. 4 voli. 8. <• DefMtive." (AnMnit.)— AmT, Wdrlotaeh
•bar Xanopteoi Manorabiliea. Oelha, 1819. 8.— ^. Dinm, Ue philowpUa morali ia Xeoophontb d« Socrsic coaneniuiH fee.
Oott 1812. 8.~a*«0HfMlUMr, oo the Tbanlncy nod Morali of Socrttaa. ke , tiaiMla'ad by />. M. HulAard, in the BibL lUpoa. «eL
zii. 47. and vol. i. MC. leria^ p. lei.-C. JL BMigtr, Hcrcuiet in Bivio, e Pradid fabula el monuawBtii prttca artji iUaatati&
LipklSISL L

$ 187. Mschinta^ the philoBopher, is not to be confoanded with the orator of
that name (cf. $ 107). He was born at Athens, and became a pupil of Socrates.

1 1». We have under his name thrte philosophical dialoguett which are probably the
work of another- They are characterized by their cleomess of style, eaoe of manner,
and instructive contents. The titles are, lUfil 'AperHs, on virtue; '^{«if li vcpl kXovtvv,
on riek&i ; and 'A^roxof ^ «pJ ^apirov, on death,

Cr. Ch, Tr. Jtfa'nffi, Jwlidum de qaibiwIaBi Soeratiennim rvliqaiia, innprimb da Xaehinii dklofia. ia ConrnmA Sac GelL IISL
fi. Thaw dialoKMa arc fsuDd ia many of ibe editionB of PUfa They vron pablidwd Mpaiftlely >a< by /. U Cfvc AariL

nu. &-Tba tart edition ii /. /*. FUdtmr, Or. k UL Lpi. I7ML 8 The Aryno* and 4xicekm are (iven by Aug- SSeU, in

Ibe work ealiUed, 9finonu Sorralid dialosi iv. ke. Hddelb. 1810. &

$ 188. Cebes, of Thebes, also a pupil of Socrates, 6. C. 435, was the antfaor
of three dialogues. The third only is extant, entitled Iliral, the Table^ nor
is it certain that this is genuine. It treats of the state of souls before their
union with bodies, of the character and destiny of men during life, and of their
exit from the world. The plan is ingenious, and it is executed In an instrao-
tive and useful manner.

SbUU. ii. 848.-«v<n t C * Osyha, on tiM Tfeble, in ibe Jfcm. Jea4. Inm. IIL 187 : niz. ua-Ate Gtante-, ia «■ Mam.
tCb xivill. 4ftS.-F. Q. Jrbp/cr, Da Ubotit Tabala. Zwiek. I8ia 4.

1. EdilioaB.->Tba Picture or Tible ii nmnody pnUiihed akmi with Bpitt^ui (ct \ 193).— The non impoifaal adMeM ara,
OnmODua. Ami. 1688. 18.-,Mbtaon, Or. k Ut. Load. 1790. &— MieMrracAfiud I.ps. 1778. a Eipedally, ac*M>i»Miiar.
ArpoL (Sfraib.) 1806. IS fint pobliebed ia bii fpcMia.— And O. F. W. Ontm. Main. I8ia e.-On MSa of Ccte^ d Hmmt^
f aa cited ) 133), vd. iv. p. SS7.

L Tnnlatioea.-OefmB.-Jtf. H. TUemt. Beri. I81& a with oriiiaal text Ttaaek— Ik TOMwim. ftr. t vob^ HL

with laxtaad EpicletM.— Cf. /Wkrpiwnn, Kidn. Uaodb. p. S4a

$ 189. P/o/o lived from 430 to 347 B. C. He was the son of Aristonof
Athens, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of the Academy. He threw hap-
pily into a written form the oral discourses of that great master. Plato laid the
first foundatien for a scientific treatment of philosophy. Antiquity bestowed on
him the epithet divine^ and all in modern times have acknowledged his roent
and admired his writings. His works consist of numerous dialogue*^ on differ-
ent subjects, metaphysical, political, moral, and dialectic. They are exceed-
ingly valuable for both style and matter, rich in thought, and adorned with
beautiful and poetical images. Cf. $ 175.

1. We have 2f» dialogues of Plato (or 56 taking his RrpuJhlic and his work on Law9
by the number of books in them), besides the letters ascribed to him (cf. % 156). Several
of the dialoffues have been pronounced spurious by some critics, while others have
strongi3r defended their genumeness. On this subject, and on the different schemes
of classifying the dialogues, and also for an analysis of their contenta.^we must refer to

SdtM, Many commentarieM on Plato have perished ; yet many still remain. There

are also excellent scholia^.

iS«eabMII,Hirt. Lilt Or. fM. IL p. 864, m^-CL D. TMtmann, Diakapiruai Ritaaia Aitmaata csporita. Bipoat. 1796. a

—S^MAom, iMwni Ac, Riled below (6). • The ftMia ware eollMled ia Iha aioat eonplets fan by A aukriAm, aad »«ra

paMiihed after hb death, oader the titk, SekoL in PUOan. AaiaL 1800. 8.

f . There are six ancieni hiorraphiM of Plato ; the earliest by Apuleiua In Latin i the other five
in Greeli, including that ofDtogtnae LatrtiMS^ one by O/ywjiiodonw, another by Btsffckius of Ml*
letua, and two anonyiiioua.

CtmG. JtemamoiMfi Ufa of Phlo ia Ihi Siarfwin, ke^ by A J. XdMmit, aad ^ Av«. Aadov. ISaa. a-CT^irfciw
jW,ke., cited below (6).

S. It has been made a subject ofinqulry, whether Plato did not derive some of hli notions Ihiai
the Ilebrews.
cr. Bt^Ud, Hbt no. hk. ii. dt. a-amway, Din. oa Thaalau «r tte F^aafc-ZaW BM. AidMBoioo, t tia Ihtimur

P.T. PHILOSOPHERS. PLATO. TIM^ITS. ARISTOTLE. 5l3

bk. vL^ l.-jn«; ootteTr»it7,^ fin,Hi--GhiteiiiMmci;BeMiti«or(% I. A. S^Aodwci. PMpmHo Bvn-

(tllci, bk. l^The work atyted, Hote^ l>rs<m iXalofun, tad fbe Afetogy of SooatM; tnod. from the Orif. Greek ; with in-
IrodMtaiT dhnrtatioM and iratei, diMOfcring tbe Mwree of thb Pklooic philowpbj, tad tntiog it to tbe iaqiired word of God,

taMklad rnm tlw FrawhoT M. D«der. W* rngj hera refer to C. Mitrmann, Dm CbriMlJehe in Plato und in der FtetoniMlien

FbUonphte. Huab. I83& &-«bo N. Tk. Snievo, tar Oel. tMI, oo the ReUttoo of Flatonhm to ChrMluity.

4. Editton.— W b o 1 e W o r k t.—K—l, Bekko-, Or. k IaL Bori. 1816-18. 10 Tob. 8L Itepr. (/ViMdry) Loud. 1897. II voli. &
with note* or variow cditoii.~The JKpent ed. 1781-87. 18 ?ob. 9.—F. ^jC, Or. ft Ltl. L|». I81»-a2: 1 1 ntli. 8. ud 8 mb. of

■iaMtatiefH.-0. Stattbmm, Lpc 1821-86. 12 ?ole, 8. Tcry good. T.—Prineept^ Mdia^ Yen. 1513. 8 fole tei.—Onfnmtt^ Ba.

I5S4. fbi.— ff Stepkama^ <ed. Arrania). Far. 1578. S voli. Or. k ImL It— C. £. & Sekntidtr, hfm. I88&-38. 8.— 4* Sidll'

fawm, io RottH Biblietheet. Ootha, 182S-86. 6 ?oli. 8.— Many of tl« tfuricguai have aften bera printed aepaLntely | only a few of
Iheedliioaa caa be named ; a^mpmbm ^dfleJUodca, by ^K, Laadab. 1808. &-Oiio t '^tadn, by JlieAcr, 1788. 8. Serenl
oMen alie by Fhcber at different ^imm.—Phmdtna irilb 8 other diaL by AiiiArjf, BerL 1808. 8. etfaeis aln> by Btindorfftmem^
OargUu^ by Jtoti/A, Oxf. 1784.-4 T. D. FftolNy, wHh Engl. Notei— P/Udo by fIVIaitadk. Logd. Bat. ISia 8. Lpc I885. &^
Pkmdo (Crito ft Apologia Soeratie), by C & SUinfard, with Engliah noteai Load. 1836. 8.—B'^pta», JBeibimda (and othen), by
O. Bttrgtm, with Eagliab notea. Load. 1833. 8.— CL JIfoit, Man. of Bibliography, vol. i. a rapplcaienl, ke.

6. TfBiMlatione.-.G«nnan.— Be^ A-. SehUimnaehtr, BerL 1804-17. 9d ed. impnived, 1835. Cf. BiU. Repoa. vol. v. p. 88&

FrvadL— By And. Datitr^ (10 dial.) Fkr. 178B. 8 vote. 18.-/Mn U Qnu (7 dIaL). Amat. 177a 8 volt, a By Victgr Oatuin.

Fftr. 184a IS voii. 8. Eagliah.— 5yrfenikam f- 3\iytor, Lonl. 1804. 6 vote. 4. (50 dialogaee and 18 epiallea, with copioaa notea.)

Ob Tkytor, cf. frf. Aco. vol. xiv.— A Spau^ Eapublie of Flatou Glaag. 1763. 4. with a Diaooarae eoaceraiag tbe Fbitoaopby of

6. niulrative.-.Tbe Flateaie Lemicoe of THnuaua, already BMDtioaed § 1S7. 4. CL &A9B, ii. 416.-7. jM, Lexkoo I
Lpi. 1896-38. S voti. &-r. MitiAdk lodez Oneeitatia natoniae. Oxf. 1888. 8 vela. &-/. /. Wagnir, WOrterbucb der Plata-
Biechea Fbiloaophie. Gott. 1790. 18^* Q. auMbtaun, De Platooia Vila, lageak. et Scriptia; picflxed to hia ed. of the JftUfim
SotratiB, in the BihUoth. of Jtuobi ^ Rott.^P. Jld, FlttotiH Ub«n and Schrirtoa. Lpi. 18I6L 8.—/. Seeker, Qber Plaion?9
Sekriflnt. MQnch. 182a a— Oathe RtpuUieot P. eC aouthtm Rn. No. 7— Plato aad Arietolle eonpend. North Jtm. Rn.
vol. la— Cf. Puhrmann, Kl. Haadb. ^ 846.— Fhilo«»phy of Plato, BriL CHtie f Quart. 7«<ofaf. Rto. JoL l&d& No. 47.-JKi»-
jioi, Fafaliele d'Homere et de Plato, in BM. Jcad, da Inter, vol. li. p. I. Cf. voL xUI. U.—Sydmham, Synopaia or Oenonl
▼iewa of tbe workt of Plato. Load. 1766. 4.— IV. Doiton^ Traaalation of Sehleiennaehei'fe Intntdacttona to tbe Diaiogoca. Load.
1896. a— «i. jtmM, Plat. Werfce, elnada erUM and la ibrem Zuaaraaienhaage dargertellt Hamh. 1886.—/. Geddu, EaMy on
the hiaaaer of writing of the Andeata, particularly RatOb 01a«. 174a a— O. AaOtaiim, Diatribe la Platoob Fblliieam. Llpa.
IMI. a— «M r. Ormaim, Gaeebififato and Syiton der PUtaaiadMa PUloaopbia. Helddb. (let voL) 183a a-See nfbxeaece
givca K 175> IBS'

$ 190. 7HmaBU9 of Locri, a Pythagorean philosopher, especially devoted to
physical inquiries, was one of the instructors of Plato. From him Plato de-
rived the name of one of his dialogues.

1 u. The treatise nipt tpvxJSs K6afua ml ^lo;, On the ioul of the world and on nature,
which if; sBcribed to him, was probably from a later anthor, and seems to have been
drawn from the dialogue of Plato just alluded to, named Timseus.

Ct Jfrimr'* Oneb. der Wiaa. la Orieeheatand uad Rom. vol. i<-«Mll, il. SIS.

a Thia (reatiae it given la JUUer** Plato (voL viiL) aad ia ottiar editiook— Separately, by Minrfiiif dPArgmt, Gr. ft Tt, Bsrl.
1763. a-Abo ia Ai/Tcux, eitad ( isa

$ 191. Jrisiotk has already been named as a rhetorician ($ 115). His father
Nicomachus, was a physician and awakened in him in early life a fondness for
the study of nature. But his intellectual powers were more fully developed by
the instructions of Plato, whose lectures he attended for about twenty years.

1 tt. After the death of Plato, he opened his own school in the Lyceum (cf P. IV.
^ 74). It was the great merit of this philosopher, that he classified the objects of human
knowledge in a methodical manner, and gave them more of that scientific form, which
has since been preserved in treating upon them. He reduced logic to a system, and
laid the first foundation of metaphysics. His works contain a great mass of clear
thought, and solid matter, although his insatiable love of inquiry was often betrayed
into abstruse subtilties, as idle as tbey were dark. He wrote upon a vast variety of
subjects ; especially on themes of logic, physics, metaphysics, politics and morals.

2. The works of Aristotle may be classed under the heads of Logic, Physics, Meta-
physics, Mathematics, Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, and Poetry. In the last department
we have a Peean or Hymn to virtue, and a collection of cpiiapht and epigrams under
the title of llhrXas. 'J hose belonging to rhetoric have been mentioned under that head
(cf. ^ 115). — The works on logic are all included in the collection usually called the
*'Opyavov, Organum; they are particularly the following; Kanryoptai, UejH 'Epftriveias,
AyaXvTiKa^ Toir«d, and llcpl tro>piaTtKiT*v 'Ekeyxotv. It was in reference to the titFe of this
collection, that the celebrated work of Lord Bacon was called Novum Organum.

Tot an acooaat of the metaphy>ieal aad other writiagi of Aristotle, aee 8MU, Hi. p. 28a— J. GiBtai, Rlat. of Greece, llao /.
aUKih ia the TiainUtioa below cited (4).— F. Bvm, Die Philoiophie dea ArMolelea la ihrem laaeraa ZaaamaMabange, ftc. Bert.
1836-42. S voli. <* highly commraded." — SroAr, T\ta, ftc., aa cited below (S)^JSkiAft, ia tbe AwyU. of SriA ^ OmUr. CC
^ 274, na— C/owifal Joimuil, vola. la 17, la la

a Euiijoua.— Whole Workt.-B.— •/. JhUtr, Berl. l8SI-«7. 6 vola. 4. vol. i.-iL Gk.Text; vol. Hi. Lat.venioa; Iv^

COBin«tary ^Dmai, Or. ft Lai. Par. 1890. 4 vohi fol— AiMa, Or. ft Lat. Bipoat 1791. 6 vola. 9. bat not eoaipleted.

F.— /Vin«y», by JtUut. Ven. 149S-0B. 6 vola. fol. containing abo Theophraaiaa. •• One of the aioat splendid aad hsHng Bionv
inenia of the Aldioe pnm.»—BtfMiu$. Baa. ISSi. foi^P. Afantrfiua, Vea. 1S61. 6 volt, a— S^thirp'iis. FraaekL 1684-87.

5 rolib 4.— /«. CtMSuboTit Or. ft Let. Logd. ISSa 8 vols. (bl. Beat editiona of sepantto parts ; OrgaaoB,y. Pacte, Gr. ft

Ut. Ofoav. I60a4.— Metapbysic^CX Anomlii. Bori. 182a S vola. a-^ tbic% mttiiiiaa, Or. ft Ut. Oxf. m«.

65

614 HI8T0RT OF ORBBK LITERATUHS.

aq».ni8.l^-'aail,Or.*UL BtUim.l$m.296ltt.8..-aZ.miMaL BcraLlttS.t««li.S^>i'elillei,/.a«ta^
d^tOr.ftUl. 1^ ad Vii4. (PnMkf. oa Od.) IAMl C tcU. I.-^X AoAr, Ifi. IB«a 4. a imt tnl, iritk critkal aoln as te
I tnadatMo aad csifBtMai «nmBiaBUi7.~/l» Anina, •/*. TimiMtnbmg, Jco. I8S8. & p|t. l-im, tat;
Hilaryj •'wry laarmd and valuabia aid for oodanlajidjoc AriMad«% liUpbyiical irritiapi>*— Cateforiat &
A ImmM, Or. ft Lai BaidiHb 1681. 9.

4. Thmwtfv ■yaeiow Uiia IVandalioni «f diAi^ tiMlJm of ArirfolU (AMfi, Ui. fSB), aad afao Msjr OmmMliVMi
(iXMiM, L HI Mm, L 150-171). We wiil ooiy DMolioB bora hm of Um later tnMJalk>ai.-.43arwB.— AAiot 4> AMia by C.
Omvt. Bnd. I»l,l«)l. l.~0»TafWM,ftc,bvJ[:2UL Stottf. 1831 l.--AiJiitiM,a A RVne, Llpa. 18I9L ft. -irllhlMMi

MMM, UI AfaliM ia ^ririt" rrei.eb^i\iMi«, by C. tfdtoN. Fkr. ISOSw 9 vola. & Ea(l>ak.--iWi<«a^ W. BUg, LohL

ins. 4.— AAu* «n4 Pottiai. by /. <MJi«. Load. 1797. 4.,wilh iatPodarlioM aad boIh. repr. Load. 181S. B vok. B ¥^|iiy
aiea, by n. fk|<flr, Uwd. 1801. 4. irilb eopbw Mbm^—yirtm amd Fim^ by IT. Bhdgtmam^ Load. 1804. ft.— iUk> «itf
MkMcne, by 71k. fhyior. Load. 1817. 4. 8 volh 8L

i. IUaMalMra.-«.<. &«*r, Aikiotolia Cm Onrntm). Halla. 1882. S vok. 8. Vol. i. Life of Irfalotla; vol. ii. wrllii^ aad
IbUoiron o( Aritloile^-^ SUM. ArblotoiM bai d«a RooMn. Lpi. 1884. &— F. N. IVtocDa AiMotalk Opann nria at dMiw.
tiooe. Lipa. IBSOL %^F. A. TrmUtmburf, D* AriiU Gal^orib. Bari. 1884. 8.— a A WUam, ConaMBl. de Platooii ^ AiMotate
la ooDrtitiMdM mauDH pbUoMphis diArtolia. Load. 18M. 8.-a JHhafv, Da ih qw Arirtotalaa ia Platoiria Fblilia lafH*-
baadiL Upa. 1882. 8.-& A. O Qr^fmhan, Arialolelai Fbate. Mtilhaa. 1881. <^M. L. MUtkM, DIa E(bik da ArM. ia itaia
VarballDiaH tool 8yrtn der MonL Bari. 188T. S.--A. Kapp, AriHotelte 8latteHd^(^|lt ah Iwiabai^Ulwy fttrdi atet aad
4m BiaarfBM. B«rt. 1887. & pp Sll-J. IV. Aotelcy, Life of ArMMtlOb Lo^. 1888. 8. aol vary valaabl*— A XotCM of
ArMatlaiaadawdaniam; « aald Ihara ia oaa," Mid Harowaa ia 1834, *• tban eia ba propariy ipaakiof ae Tbaararaa «r Iba Graak
toBCMaca.** A Lmlem JriHoMtmm Qme»JittiiMm far tba Eibia oT A. wm iMnnMiil by /. m Mom. Load. 18811 8.
•>8aa rafeNMMil ITS, 115) 188, 874

$ 192. Theophrattus, of Eresas in the island Lesbos, aboat B. C. 321, was
a scholar of Plato and Aristotle, and on the death of the latter became public
teacher to the Peripatetic school.

1 u. He possessed eminent powers both in eloquence and philosophy ; distinguished
for watchful observation, he placed more reliance on experience than on speculation.
We have treatises from him, which place him among the writers on natural history
<cf. % 275). His ethical pieces, styled 'Hdutot x<va^p<ffi possess great worth, being
written with brevity and eloquence, and stamped with truth, and evincing much know-
ledge of human nature. They have the appearance, however, of being merely ex-
tracts from the moral writings of Theophrastus, made subsequently to his times.

2. His original name was Tyrtemus. which was changed into Euphrastus, the good
speaker, ana Theaphrailtu, the divine speaker, probably by his disciples. He was
attentive to the graces of elocution, and always appeared in elegant dress. — Besides
the works above mentioned, we have also under the name of Theophrastus, a Book ef
Metaj^yaics, and a treatise TUpi Moe^ccuf^ On perception. Several works by him are
lost ; of which the most regretted are three treatises on Laws, — SdkfiU, iii. 303.

S. f:d<Hona.-WboU Wo rki.-B.-j: O. BchntUtr aad ff. f. IMk, Or. ft tot Lpa. tSI8-Sl. S vok. 8. W^-Prim^

hjMhai with Arirteil«(| 191. h—Oporimu. Buil, IMI. M^D. JSKmiut, Or. ftLak Lqyd. ISA 8 voU. feL-Ckarae>
tan; Bm, Mdkr, Qr.ktM. Cebarf. 1788. ei^aebfukkr, Or. ft Lat. iao. I80a 8. "Parfaap^ critkally apMki^ tbr
beat." (DiMui.) M elapbya{ci;C.i. Br»>di$, (with Etfcia of Arialolla). BarL ISA &

4. Traariadoat of tbo CAoraefm.— Qaraiaa.— J. /. Hottingtr. Maaeh. I8il. 8. Fraach.— Tha Hoal ariabratal h AnayM.

nr. ISML 18. Ed. by Sdtaaeif*8HNr. Pkr. I8IS. l2.-0>niy. Par. 1788. 8. With Or. text aad aotaa. Eagliah^-X. JM-

dA Load. I71&.— A OoHy. Load. 178& 8.-/. AnocK, (fir. ft Eok.) Land. 1884. a wUh aalai, aad pktet aeatuai^ 80
portraiX

5. IUu*traHTa.-Ji: E. Fom, Do IVophnitl wtationlbHi monim. Halla, 1893. 6.— C. AB, Da Tbaaphti^aonMi Oaiatfuia
adolo. rrib. 18U. 4.

$ 193. EpicUtus^ of Hieropoliain Phrygia, lived about the beginning of the
Christian era. He was originally a slave of Epaphroditus, the freedman and
chamberlain of Nero. Having obtained his freedom, he resided at Rome until
he was banished with the other philosophers by Domitian, and then he retired
to Nicopolis in Epirus.

1 tf. He was a Stoic of the severest principles and most undisturbed equanimity.
His views are exhibited in the Manual, 'Eyxrif>(^oy, which is ascribed to him. This was
not written by him, but collected by Arrian from his lectures and conversation; it is
distiniruished more for its contents than for its style and manner.

2. Thq Manual was much read by Christians as well ss pagans^ There are two
paraphrases of it', which were designed for use among the former.

adOtt, T. 184.— Oamiir, On EpIeMoa, Mtm. de TJkad. do laatr. vol. slTiiu p. 408.— a A. IfiKiwrnn, Da PhikMopUa EpicMk
Jen. 1708. 4.^/. f. Ikyer, Ceber Epiktat, uad wia Haadbuch. Marb. I79fib $.-J. JL An^fNd^ Sebale dar Waiibail BMb
Epiklet. Cob. 1805. &

S. Ediiiow.— B.-^. SeikorirMIUMr, Or. ft Lat wMb Um coofiiaaat. of StepHdoi, aad (ba paiaphmoi, aadar tbo Sfla, I^pMM

fMLmpkm Jramiaunta. Lpi. 1799. 6 rala. a ^F.— IVtneqH, by Jnf. lU AaMoi Vao. ISB8. 4.— Cyon, Or. ft Lat Load.

1739. 4.— »yiw,Gr. ft LaL I^i. ITTS. & B.-^. Ooroy. Pw. ISia 8. with tha Ibife </ CAn aad tha Ttfom efOf

cn<A<«;ftada modeniOrMkandaPmeb venioB.W: Ampion, Or. ft Lat Oit I8M.S: witbOwTkblaer C«b«,ftaB«iBlai
of Prodins and the Cbtnden of Thaopbraatnt.

4 Tianalatimii.— Oermaa.— nwc. Fnakf. ITBa a-Bart, /. A. JIH«ffiA Lpa. 1808. & ^Ualiaa.— h tba ad. of Jbdb«(

Or. ft Ut Farm. 1793. 8. Frendk-J. Q. Camut. tar. 1788. S vok. t8>

mH Saok. a

p. y. PHIL080PHBB8. ARRIANU8. PLUTARCH. ANTONINUS. 515

$ 194. Flaviiu jSiriamu^ of Nicomedia in Bithynia, under the emperor Hik
drian and the Antoninea, in the 3d centary, was a Stoic, and a disciple of Epie-
tetus. On account of his merit, he was presented with citizenship both at
Athens and at Rome, and at the latter place advanced even to Senatorial and
Consular honors. The emperor Hadrian conferred on him the government of
the province of Cappadocia.

1 ti. Beades the Manual above mentioned (^ 193), and the historical works to be
noticed on a subsequent page (^ 250), he wrqte a philoeophical work, entitled ^arpdSal
'EtriK-Hi -01, cited by Fhotius as consisting of 8 books. The four books, commonly called
Dissertations of Epicteius, are supposed to have been a part of the work.

2. In these books he professes to preserve, as far as possible, the very languaj^ of
his master. Two other works of Aman pertaining to phdosophy, have wholly perished,
via. 'OftjXioi 'EiriKT^TOu, Familiar discourses of EptcletuSt and n^pl nv 0lov rot) E^rurr^rov
ral riii avrov rcXcurfk, Of the life and death ofEptctetus. Two astronomical pieces men-
tioned by Photius, on comets and on meteors, were probably from this philosopher. —
Sdt»U, vol. V. 185, 239.

S. ThataCedilkmof (be Diutrtatiimi h In Sckwiifhamtv, titti fMl S^TIkI of t^fan. Load. 1741. 8 foli. 4 b good.-.
|Vnu9t,tb>tof r. TrineamUL V«b. 173&. 8.

4. TnBalilioiii.-Gmmji -B«< hf J. M. aOmUx. Altoo, 180l-3w S nis. 8. BngliA.— Mte CM*-, m dM 1 18IL 4,—

FraKh.-«f. Ctoray, Or. k GalL Pw. IIB7. S tola. &

§ 195. Pluiareh^ of Chaeronea in Boeotia, flourished at the close of the Ist and
beginning of the 3d century. His instructor at Athens was jimmonius. After-
wards he himself taught philosophy at Rome, by public lectures, yet without
attaching himself to any sect esclusively •

1. Plutarch returned from Rome to his own coimtry while younjg, and appears to
have discharged with fidelity different offices in his native city. He is said also to have
served as a priest of Apollo. As a philosopher, he rather favored the disciples of Pla-
tonism, and may be ranked among the New-Platonists. — SchOll, iv. 118: v. 76.-
Cf. ^ 249.

2 tt. He was a warm opposer of the Stoics and especially the Epicureans. In his
numerous philosophical pieces we find an eloquent diction, and a rich lertility of thought,
together with vanous knowledge and real prudence. They are important sources for
learning the history of philosophy and of the human mind. Yet they are often sur-
charged with erudition and mysticisms, unequal in point of stvle, and sometimes even
obscure. Although upon very various topics, they are usually all included under the
common name of moral writings (,moralia), under which are comprised 84 small trea«
tises. Some of the more distinguished among them are those on education illcpl raiiotv
oya»>%), on reading the poets (11(3; del rdv vhv Koutftartav oxovcfy), and on distinguishing the
friend from the flatterer ^ and the Table Questions {'Zv^atooioKh xjpo^^/iora).

3. Among them is usually ranked a treatise, on the amnions of phtlosoj^ers (JltfH rw
*ApajK6vTiav roXi ^iXoir^iO, in five books ; but there is doubt, wnether it is the treatise
written by Plutarch under that title ; yet it is an important help in studying the history
of ancient philosophy.

For ao tmljrtii of tbo phikMopbical pioen, wo aMM, RItt LItt. Or. voL t. pb TV, a^Cf. O. Adka, Otarr. GrH. b Flat. Ms*
••iM. Lipt. ISA 4. and, Aaiimdr. !• Flat. Opon. Lip*. IflSS. &

4. EailkMh-W boU Worki.-B.-lStMfl, Or. k LtL Lipa. m4.m IS vela. S— Atften, Or. oal7. TSbi^. llSI-inS.

14 vela. & Bart tcitj wilh fslaabla aalacUoii of nolaa bj varioaa aditoia. T.—Prbnar*t by H. SUplmmu, Or. * Lat. fu.

ISTS. 13 voia. &— Gruwrfiu, Or. a Ut Francof. 1609. Svela. bl.— Xyteiufar, Or. fc LaL Franc. 16aa S vok. M. Mo-
ral i a. Be^t, D. W^imhaeky Or. k Ut. Oxf. I79S-1800. 6 rola. 4. and )0 voh. & fotlewed hj Jtnimmhunknm, Sc; 8 valau 8.
Cr. Edinb, Rm. April, im. Dibdm, li. S46.^(. O. JViiuMmatm^ Flat, noralla aalecta. Tnrid, 1886. L (vol. lal.) Supple-
■ant to Wjttenbacb^DufM fprisler ; editor F. DUbnar), Or. * Ut. Fkr. 1898, m. " eaneet reprint of WyttenkMh^ leceHiDB,

witb a raw aowwlaliom.'' Tbe Prineept or flnl, by JUtu (ad. Dmtl, Dhom), Flelardii OpoKoU Ixzili. Van. 1608. M.

StDfle Pieeen. On Afawelton ; Sb«n«U^. atn^tk vm. S^-On rmdtne pettry t ^nU. Uie. 1T78. 8 -On rfM<M(i«<«*.
hti th» fiatUrtr and friend; KripL Upa. 1776. a~On ofMcm ^f th» pkilc$ophtnf C. D. M. Lipa. I7B7. a-Gotuetafta
ad JfUUmium, bv L. Udtr, and /. C Onltt. Ttarift 1880. a

«. TniDalatioiiL-G«rman-.«fonilia, hf Kaltwamr. Fnnkt 1788-18001 9 vela. S.-J. Ch. F. SBAr, in (be CoH. of nflt,

Otiondtr, ke. TmdL—fVM* iorr*f, by /. AnyeC Fkr. 1787. 28 vola. & Avgm. par C. Ooviar. Tu. 180a 89 voh. a—

»hnUa.bf Rkmd (with nMn). Far. ITB-OSb IT vela, la Aif KiA.— JIbralia, by 71. CVm*, M Jlcrfan, and oiken. Land.

1884. 6 toil, a 6th ad. Lend. I7I&

$ 196. Marcus Jurelius Antoninus, snmamed the PMhaopher, and known as
a Roman emperor in the 2d century, is also worthy of remembrance as a writer.
His 12 books of Meditations, T^ slf iavtbp /3t/39uat0', consist of instructive
philosophical maxims and observations, relating to morale and the condact of
life, and exhibiting the practical principles of the Stoics.

1. Ha wa« generally a mild and excellent prince, but throoffb a blind devotion to paganitro be
allnwed the p^reerntion nf Cbrlotlans daring his reiftn. He died of a pestilential disense at Vln«
dobona (now Fimmal.ln Pannnnla* while enfaced in war with the reToUing tribes in that region.
A. D. 180.— A remarkable deliverance of Aurelias and his army in a previoas war is recorded by

516 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

BttMblot, tnd ftMribed to the prejera of Chriitlmn Mldlera coaititofiDff one ofhii IcfloM (1Slh)«
to which, at a mark of dititnction, be !• said to have given the name of the **Tkuud«rimf Lm-
gien.** tVhiston^ In the laai century, etrenuoualy defended the atory : It waa aa atrongly contro-
verted by MoyU.

aUM, «. 193. Cr. OtUon, Birt. R. Emp. 1. 8S; ii. 41 (ad. R. T. l8e)^IA«eb o/ llkt TlhwOiHiir £«iM, ftc^ fha Uttn
MwM* Mr. McjU ud Mr. Kii«. Load. Itn. S. eonliiMd akoia/. £. MimkUm, Dtawtatiomn id aneliam Dhdpl^ p«ti>
•Mtin SraOSM. Uv».n$i.4.^B.mitim,DkMb»dmU^icmramkaXik»,i^mBarl»aetL. Sd ad. B««. Na» 1717. 4^
— TAoiiMf, El(«ide Mtf»<ABrali«. Fte. IT7S. II.

t. EditiM*^Th« Prineift •dHioi ww by Xylawdhr, Or.ft UL Tfgw. 1688. AL-Om of te tai ■ nuriir**, Or. k Lit
C«Blhl«S2.4.-A«>lAivA,Or.ftUL Load. 1707. 8, ud »U/% Or. ft UL Lipfc ITIM. i» fBOd. ■ BillM, jbhite, Or. *
L«L ScblMw. ini. &

S. TnHUtieia.'Oarau.-liHt, aekuttt. Seblwtr. iisau & riwit. T. P. 4b JOf, hr. HOH IS. Fi<|Mi M

Oram. Balh, i:SB. & Load. 1811. 18.-/. CMlMr. Load. ITOB. 8.

§ 197. Sexlui Empirieus {^^rtupixoi^ so called from his profession as a

physician) was a Skeptic or Pyrrhomc philosopher, under Commodus, aboat

A. D. 190.

1. He was a native of Mitylene, aa FZaeond liaa inferred from a medal of that city. Very littl«
b known of his life.

FimmtU leooocrmphl*. eM P. IT. f 197. -Jckgmmft Tiwii— M, Md. 188. AMI, foL ▼. p. 80BL~Ct ffrWiiifffti, QmekkMt
wiOditdMttciiUeiMM. Lfc 1794. 8 TOk. 8L

2 u. He left a work in three books, comprising the theory and principles of the
Skeptic sect, entitled llv^^etai *tmrmnaaatf 9 mcerrtxh 'rmfiv^ara; and another in eleven
books against the Mathematicians, Upit rvis Maftifiaruco^ dvripfinrucai, or rather affainst
those teachers who professed positive knowledge ; the loat five being particularlV op-
posed to the lo^cians and other philosophers. These works are very valuable m
illustrating the history of philosophy, especially that of the Skeptical school.

8. EdWdw^Th* firU wu printad %i Ftek, I8BI. lU.— Utin vnton of both woifa ba4 baas pravioiMly pablnbad. ThaBast ad.
was by FaMeiut. Upt. 1718. M. Aoolbar eoawcaaad by/. O. Mmd. HaL 1788L V-Baif, Mwaa. RcsioBMHL Ml.
8vola.8.

$ 198. Phlinui^ of LyeopoHs in Egypt, in the 3d oentoir, was one of the
most celebrated among the New-Platonists, and taaght at Rome in the latter
part of his life.

1. He was very enthusiastic and eccentric; yet was much admired at Rome, and patronised
by tb«r emperor Gallienus. The latter even meditated the scheme of establlsblnK ror him, in
Campania, a colony of philosophers, to be named PlatonopoUg^ where the imaginary republic of
Plato should be realised. Plotlnus died in Campania, at the age of 00. We have his life written
by Porphyry.
p.flbMBI,*. 12I^^.SWtiSdr^QantioMiFtotlBMk Uft. 188a 4.--/ofcMOirt IbBaiiim, } 1881

2 u. His writings are deficient in method, solidity, and purity of style, yet exhibit
many signs of acumen and research. They consist of 54 books. These books one
of his pupils, Porphyry, distributed into 6 EnTuade or divisions, containinff 9 books
each. Porphyry endeavored also to improve the style, and indulged himself in inter-
polations and additions.

a Ediliow.— Beit, /. 0«««r, Or. ft UL Oil 188S. 8 «ak. 4. witli prpl<|iaiiww aad aotak-Tba enly adlttoa of Ite ««•>
put worka b thai printtd at Batia (BUe), IMU aad I6I&. M. with Iba Ut. vanioB of M. ikimu, which waa fint pabUAad
wilhoal the oristaal. Flor. 1403. rol.-TUb Irealiaa on SMttfy, •epanldr bjr Cmam', Or. ft LaL Uaidalh. 1814. a— Tha £dv
ttd OnoHioH. If O. J Biitd. Hatnb. 1888. IL

4. TraoiUiionL— A Oennan tmaUlian caanmcBead bjr Aif rfAordt. Eriaag. ISSa S (I voL eoBtalalac lat Bnnmd.)

$ 199. Porphyry was bom A. D. 233, at Batanea, a Syrian village near Tyre,
and from this circumstance he was often called the 7\/rian. His Syrian name
was Malchtu {Melek).

1 u. At Rome he«became a scholar of Plotinu? and an advocate of his philosophy.
His writings were very various and numerous. Besides the Life of Plolinut ana of
Pythagoran, some of the more important are the pieces styled as follows: On abtti'
neitce from animal food; {Hcpi am^s n5v i/f^xoyy)^ ; IntroQuction to the categories of
Aristotle (dVayb))^, i) npl TWif nim <^/^ >) ; Homeric Inve»li^ations (Oiapuch ^rrnttara) ;
and On (he Cave of the Nymphi {ncfi too l¥ '06v<mda nDv Nvnit^y itn-pov),

2. Porphvry was instrncted by Origen the Christian Father, probably at Cesarea ; afterwards
by Longinui at Athens. He wai a violent opposer of Christianity, and wrote against it several
treaiiiei which are lost. His wife MaralU Is said to have been a Christian. A letter from him
tn her was found and publbhed by MaU in 1616 ; it exhibits his practical philosophy*.

I An aiuJf tia ot tba four beoki of ihh treatfM it (ivaa by JCieard in bii TruHL of Ilataich, w citad f l8Bw 4. * Thb wai

publiabel br A Mai, Mil. 1S18. 8. with lh« picca raqiactJai Uu ^tOotopk^ from orudtM. Cf. SoMHI, roL v. p. 188, «.— SaMr,

aa eilad % I8S.

9. Editkmt. -Tbera U noae of hh uMe worka ; aad maay of Iha pieea of Porphyfy are aa yal vniMibliibad. AfJknNonn, KL
Handb. p. 4S4.— Tha beat ad. of tha treatiae on AhHmnut U that of /. dc JtMr. Utracbt, 17S7. a rapr. Layd. 1792. 4. eontaiBiBf
a]ntLaCa«ao/rteA'ympk«,aaad.byrwiO0m«. Uir. 1763. 4.— Tha I^* o/ noffnM b feud ia Iha ad. of Plot cHad f tSS 81
.^na/i/«<:r'V*«<wwbyr.£I«MK»v,ar.ftLal. Upa. 1811 8 volb 8.

P.y* MATHEMATICIANS AND GEOORAPHERS. 517

$ 200. lambliehus, of Chalcis in Coelo-Syria, in the begrinnin? of the 4th
century, was a New-PIatonist, a scholar of Porphyry. He had the reputation
of working miracles. We have a part only of his many writings. Notwith-
standing the extravaffance, mysticism, and fable with which his works abound,
they are yet a valuable help in getting an idea of the philosophy of the later
Platonists.

1. While Plotinut and Porphyry mutt both b6 called enfAiutiuto, lambllchus may be itigina-
tixed as an impotUr. lie was a warm advocate of paganism. A treatise by him, frequently
cited under the title of Efyptiau Mysteries, professes to be an answer from one Abgamroon Ma-
fister to a letter which Porphyry had addressed to an Egyptian named Anebo, and which con-
tained inquiries respecting the gods of the land.

AMU, V. 144.— Cburin'* Teaiieaiiiiu, § 217.— JU/far, u dlftd § 183.

8. Tbare bM beeo do •ditioa of hit entin worJa. Of wpknte pirti, we notiea th« EDnowiiy : MyUUria efth* Egyplianiy bjr tUU.
OmL ICTB. tA.~Lifi of Pffthagarat (wHb lluit bj Forpbyrr), in Kkitlutg, cited \ 199^ a^Tbe JOwrtatie ad PhiJofopkiam, faf T.
KimKng, Gr. k LaL Lipe. 1813. 4.—Tkeologif of Arithmetic (Ti 9wXoyotf/u«a rf j *AfU>nfiTUcHs)» WtihA. Lps. 1817. &

3. TnmUlion.— Easiiah.— r/Ww.^ Tbylor, Eaflisb Tnudatioo of Jambliehni od HTrtoriM. Ritwkk, 18BI. 8. Ct Clam,
/oacnt. XTii. 213.— See she TAot. Tby&r, TbeoreUe Arithmetic, oontatnins (he mbstuoe of all that baa been wiittaa on the miltject
bj Tbtto of Smyrm, NJcoatachia, Jamblichna, Boethhw, fee Lood. 181& 8.

% 200 b. Proclusj a philosopher of the school of New- Platonists. was born at Con-
staDtinople, A. D. 412 ; he lived at Xanthus in Lycia, at Alexanaria, and at Athens,
and died A. D. 485. Several works by him are extant ; of which the most important
is the Commentary on the Timcsus of Plato, written et the oge of 28. At Alexandria
he attended the lectures of Olvrapiodorus the Peripatetic, woo is to be distinguished
from Olympiodonu the New-Platonist, belonging to the close of the 6th century. The
latter was the author of commentaries on four of Plato's dialogues.

See Sdteu, vol. tiL p. 102, 108.— Coiwm, Noav. Fngm. Phil, (eiled \ 171} p. 264, a.— Ari^ny, La Vtedv Fbika. Ftadna, loth*
MStm.Jhad. htter. zxzi. 198.— ^f. Scrfcr, Proclai; eipodtioa de « Doctrine. Tu, 1840. 4. pp. 127. **iha ijaleai of Prodna me-
tbadkally exhibited and sopporied ilep lij itep bjr reftrancca to bia writliif».«

I. Editiont.— f. Craatr, ProdM k OtTrnptodorai, Gr. k UL Fratioor. IS80-«5b 5 Tola. &— Fl ODunn, Fradi Open, Gr. k Ut.
Flu-. I820-S7. 6 vols. 8. with Nolai.

9. TimMlatnaa— Ei«lidi.— 7%e*. Ibylor, ComnMntarica of Froclna on the TinuM of Platas •■ S*« bookh Load. fSOl 8 Tola. 4.

$ 201. StobsBus {Johannes) a native of Stobi in Macedonia, probably flourished
about A. D. 500.

1 «. He collected from a multitude of writers in prose and verse a mass of philoso-
phical extracts, which he arranged according to their subjects, in a work entitled
Aj>0o\6Ytov UXryCiiff dso^y/tanuv, hro$rtmiit, in 4 books. They are perhops more correctly
considered as tico works : one, Ecloga vhygiccB et ethica, in 2 books ; the others Set-
mones, also in 2 books. The whole collection is valuable, both on account of the con-
tenis in themselves and also of the numerous passages rescued from destruction only
by being inserted therein.

2. John of Stobi cultivated the habit of reading with a pen in his hand. The selec-
tions which we have, were arranged, it is said, for the use of his son. Each chapter
of the Ecloga and of the Sermones, has its title, under which the extracts are placed,
the sources whence they are drawn being noted in the margin. More than five hun-
dred authors are quoted, whose works have mostly perished .-^iScftdZI, vii. 133.

8. The but edition of the Bdogm k Hmm\ Gr. k Lat. Gott 179B-I801. 4 tola. & with dimftatkim and Botet— Of (he Db-
eoymt, OaitfonP$ J. Stobn Plorilegium. Oaf. ISL 4 wh. 8. Sd ed. 1883^. wHb the Lat van. of H. GfaUua, prolegonMa
aad Dolea.— The Belogm and the SermoMa were poblitbed by Fr. FtOnu (ANf% booin. of Lyona), Or. k UL Gcaer. 1808.
M.— The poetical extracta were ooUeelMl and edited bjr H. OroMio. F^. 1823. 4. with a tnaaUtion In Latin nno^ Cf. BckBU,

fU.ua.

Vn. — MaUiematidam and Gtographen.

^ 202 «. The very name of Mathematiet QtaBfiitttra^ luBiifumich) is an evidence that their
scientific form originated among the Greeks, althoueh the Egyptians and various
eastern nations, in enriier times, possessed arithmetical, geometrical, and particularly
astronomical knowledge. Arithmetic was in a very incomplete state in Greece befi>re
the time of Pytha^oratt. He was the first who considerably cultivated it ; but it was
left especially to Euclid to treat the subject scientifically ana unite with it the study of
geometry. The elements of geometry the Greeks seem to have derived firom the
rhcpnicians; although the knowledge which Thales acquired in Egypt is not to be
overlooked. The science was afterwards considered as a special means of improving

the intellect, and nn essential preparatory study for every philosopher. (Cf $ 175.)
Hence its great estimation and nigh cultivation among the Gfreeks. There are many
indications of the use and encouragement which the practical mathematics found among

2X

518 HISTORY OF ORKEK LITEBATUBE.

thenif especially in connection with mechanical sciences, as Statics, Hydrostatics, mod
Hydraulics. Ihat the Greeks applied mathematics to architecture, and with the
most happy success, uniting the rigid principles of science with the rules of taste, we
have sufficient proof in the descriptions of their temples, palaces, porticos, and other
edifices, and in the still remaining.monumenis of that art. Astronomy was introduced
by I'hales from Egypt. Pythagoras established several principles of this science.
Other philosophers exhibited them in a written form.

^ 203. It is obvious, from what has been said, that mathematical studies in Greece
can be traced back only to the two primary schools of philosophy, the Ionian founded
by Thales, and the Italic by Pythagoras (cf. ^ 168).

From the time of Pythagoras, mathematics, as has been sucffested, formed an
essential part of philosophy. In the Academy they were specially cultivated ; this
mav be inferred from the inscription (cf. ^ 175) placed by Plato himself over the door
of nis school. To the philosophers of this sect the science is much indebted. But in
the want of historical evidence, it is impossible to give a definite account of the state of
mathematical knowledge during the time preceding Alexander. The names of several
mathematicians and astronomers are recorded. Tne most important are Archytas of
Tarenlum, inventor of various machines which astonished his contemporaries : Meton
of Athens, author of the celebrated lunar cycle (cf. P. I. $ 194) ; and Autolycus of
Pitane, the most ancient mathematician whose works are preserved.

Bam. I6S7. 2*eb. 4. A frHMrt of » tiwIiH by 4itAyf«, on moMnnalieal wimss k fooad bFarpbjriTi UtrnpttSAai

kfJ. Onmm. CopMh. 1701. 4.-CL Phitatdk, 8jm|KM. vii. ud LifaoT MumUm.

^ 204. After the time of Alexander, mathematical studies became more prominent
than before. Mathematics were no longer merely a part of philosophy in general, bat
held the place of a science by themselves. They were cultivated in all the schools
which flourished in this period. The mathematical school of Alexandria was rendered
illustrious by the reputation of Euclid, who had a numerous class of disciples, and
among them Ptolemy I., the kin^ of Eg[ypt. One of the most distinguished names in
this period, and indeed in all antiquity, is that of Archimedes of Syracuse, celebrated
not only for his successful research into abstract principles, but also for his curious and
wonderful mechanical appUcations and inventions. A third memorable name adorns
this period, Apollonius of Perga, whose work on Conic Sections formed an epoch in
the history of mathematics. Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, with Diopnantus,
who lived in the third and fourth century after Christ, may justly be regards as the
great founders of mathematical science.^^Other names belong to the period between
Alexander and the capture of Corinth ; as Heron of Alexandria, author of several trea-
tises on branches of mechanics ; Athensus and Biton, who wrote on military engines
and missiles ; and Philon of Byzantium, who wrote on the same subjects, and to whom
is ascribed a work on the geven toondert of the world.— —Astronomy was cultivated
with success in this period, and, according to some, an important influence was exerted
by the intercourse with the Babylonians m the expedition of Alexander. Aristardius
of Samos, Eratosthenes of Cyreiie, and Hipparchus of Nicaaa, are the principal authon
of whom we have remains.

Jtevn.AibaMBtowlidrtd'Bippuqa*. Ite. ISH a-HVlif, ArUutlni. OAVm.t.

In the next period, i. e. between the fall of Corinth and the time of Constantino, we
find no eminent authors in the pure mathematics. Several writers on astrooomiod
subjects are mentioned ; Claudius Ptolemy, in the age of the Antonines, was celebrated
above all others. His system of astronomy, as is well known, was much in vogue,
and exerted a great influence. Several authors on music, of whom fragments are still
extant, are referred to this period ; some of them were among the matnematicians of
the age.

Thei«nwiMortlMwiiilbonmfraDdlaflwcdlactionorird&oni<itt(eiM§BOBt. l.y>-C£ AMB, bk. tt. eh. xIIt.

% 205. Between the time of Constantino and the overthrow of Constantinople, the
list of Greek mathematicians is much larger, but contains few names of great eminence.
Diophantus, a contemporary of the emperor Julian, and already mentioned as one of
the four ancient fathers of mathematics, is the most important. Pappus and Theon of
Alexandria, at the close of the fourth century, may be mentioned next. Hypatia, a
daughter of Theon, inherited her father's love of mathemaUcal science ; she became
a public teacher, and wrote several works which perished in the destruction of the
Alexandrian hbrary. Proclus the philosopher wrote on mathematics and astronomy.
Leon of Constantinople, in the latter half of the ninth century, is spoken of by the By-
zantine historians with much admiration. He was solicitea by the Arabian Calipn,
Al-mamoun, to remove to Bagdad; the emperor Theophilus, refusing to permit this,
opened a public place for Leon to give instruction, and bestowed many honors and pri-
vileges upon him. He has left nothing bv which we can judge of his merits. We will
add only the name of Anthemius of Tralles, in the sixth century, employed by Justi-
nian to construct the church of St. Sophia, of which, however, ne only laid the foim-

p. y. MATHEMATICS AND GEOORAPHT. 519

dation, not living to complete the work. There remains a curiouB fragment of his

work lUfi iropo^^div firixj^nftartaif.
€£ ScMMI, bk. vL eh. rcL-The tnpamat of JnlAemlua tn» paUiitod in tb« MUm. it TJead. hiam. K BOtm LMru^ ?oL ilU. bjr

Aipuy, nd Kpumtdy, Par. 1774. 4. Rc^Mcting tha calabnted l^patia^ u» Jteufc, Hist Maliar. Vman^—DuvigmHUt

MMrt. ia BibL Owniui. fol. ui.-gUU 0(wi«, Lett in Contia. dw Memoim de Litt by LumcUU^ vol. v. tL-^&icratM, Htat
fieelM. viL 15.

^ 206. On the subject of Geography y the knowledge of the Greeks was very limited
and imperfect ; yet they had writers on the subject of much value in illustrating the

condition of ancient countries. The Feriplus of Hanno is the earliest work extant.

Htteataus of Miletus, in his lUpifiyiiais yffs, described the countries known at the time he
wrote, in the reign of Darius, about 500 B. C. The Periplus of Set/lax has been com-
monly referred to^arly the same period. The Anabasis of Xenophon may properly
be mentioned amoSthe geographical works anterior to the time of Alexander, being
of great value in relation to upper Asia. Pytheaa^ of Massilia, a voyager and geo-
grapher, probably belonging to the same period, before Alexander, was the author of
two works, a description of the ocean and a Feriplus. The little now known of them
is derived from Strabo and PUny.-— It was not until the period between Alexander
and the Roman supremacy, that eeoffraphy was elevated to the rank of a science.
The honor of effeciing this is ascribecr to Eratosthenes, a very eminent mathematician
and scholar, who flourished at Alexandria, B. C. about 230.

CL SMU, bk. I'll. rfa. zviii. ; bk. iv. ch. xl? .

^ 207. After the supremacy of Rome, greater advances were made in geographical
knowledge. The first distinguished geographer of this period is Stretbo, born about
60 B. C, whose work styled reti^ypa^ara is a thesaurus comprising nearly the whole
history of geoi^raphy from Homer to Augustus, with all then known upon the subject.
The geographical poem of Dionysius of Charax belongs to the age of Augustus. We
have a fragment of a work on Parthia, by Isidorus of Charax ; published in the reisn
of Caligula. There are also some geographical pieces under the name of Arrian, who
flourished in the reign of Hadrian and the Antonines. But a more important work is
that of Pausanias belonging to the same age, and entitled. Itinerary of Greece. The
most celebrated of all the ancient writers on geoffraphv was Claudius Ptolemy , already
mentioned as a mathematician and astronomer about the middle of the second century
after Christ. His system of geography remained the only manual in vogue for fourteen

centuries. After Ptolemy, the history of Greek letters presents no author of much

importance in this department of study. Before the time of Constantino, Agathar-
cides of Cnidus, in the latter half of the 2d century, is said by Photius to have written
several geographical works ; and some extracts are preserved by Photius. We have
also a fragment of Dionysius of Byzantium in the second century, and a sort of geo-
craphical epitome by a certain Agathemerus, probably of the third century. Of the
Byzantine geographers, or those subsequent to Constantino, we may mention as the
principal, Marcianus of Heraclea in Pontus, Stephanus of Byzantium, and Cosmas the
£gyptien monk.

Cr. adOUj vet V. p. t75i vtL p. *&-& F. W. fR^tium, Ftriplai ef Marehags, ICnlppvi, *«. Upk IML &

% 208. I'here are some Greek writers on Tojctics, who may be mentioned in this
place. The most eminent is Onosander, or Onesander, who lived probably about the
middle of the 1st century. He left a work on the military art, in a style remarkably
pure for the age ; it was a source whence all the later writers on the subject drew
materials. Polysenus, a native of Macedonia, a rhetorician or advocate of the 2d cen-
tury, should probably be mentioned as next in rank, although his work is rather
an nistorical collection of stratagems than a treatise on tactics. ApoUodorus, an archi-
tect in the time of Traian, left a work entitled noXiopn7rarft, on military engines. The
emperor Adrian is said to have composed a military treatise called 'fiiircr^vfia, a frag-
ment of which is still extant. Arrian and ^lian also left works on the subject of Tac-
tics. The emperor Mauritius, of the 6th century, wrote a treatise on the military art.
There are also some treatises written at a later period, which it is not important to
specify.

cr. ach^n, toI. t. p. Vl. tH. Sr.— Omm, la JaknU Jahri. (ttr Fhao). 1835.

$ 208/. We will now introduce some general references, and then speak of a
few distinguished individuals, naming first the mathematicians and after them
the geographers.

1. On ih« hiatory of Mtlheniatks tmnnf tb« Orwka, H* refcmxa P. IV. ^ 84, K.—L. LOdm^ Pyltatfofai cad Hjrpatk, odar
dis MalHeoMtik der Alien. Lpi. 1809 &— OtfomArc on tha Aritbmelk of tbo Oraeto Is Ptfnrdfi ArebimedM, eitad § 210. i^-O.
Cottofd, Letter on th« RiM and Frofrtu ot Minnunj tiaong the Aneienti. Lnnd. I74& 8^— O. CMor^ Hbtary of Aatnnoiny.

Lond.*l767. 4 The principd Matbematleal CoUrCJoru an, that of ThnmUt^ Vet. MMhemai. Opera. Pu. 1663. foL

and that of WoIU*^ in 8d vol. of hk Open Matk. Oxf. 1689. ki.-CL £. Anurd, Vet. Malhaaaticonm, Gr. ft Ut ft Arab.

S^nnpiia. Imd. irO*. i. The followini; collection* of wrlien oo Mibjeeti coonedcd with naihtaMlica nay be cited.— A ■ t r Oi

BOBieal, br.«ilHf. Vea. 1428. bl^By Ptamui^ Unnologion, fte. Fkr. I63a Anwt ITOS. roL-Maaieal, bj Meunma,
Laid. BaL I614. i^tij JfWtomtui, Aniiq. Mtnicae anctoro, Gr. ft UL Amat 1832. 8 voli. 4.-4)n Tact lea, tj Metmuu.
Or.* Lnt. Lmd. Bat. I61S. 4.— f. Artooftu, Srriplorea r«i militaria. Veaal. ItTa S.-JL H. AwmfOHfM', SttBDiL allM
llrkpMbiiftrtaU«darGrieeli.ObmBtst,fte. Maonb. 17791 8 rob. 4.

6fi20 HsnroRT of okkbk litsratuks.

t.0Btha1MarfarO«fiiphfHMi«te0i«fe>,OaHlta,O«|npUttf«at«a. ta-. im 8 «*. 4^-JMp, dM F IT
f f7^We mmy dw nf«r to Jfallt-J^m, aad to Mmtumt aad C^Wt, dtaJ 1 7. T (*K-a Jtera^ 'n«»»r|Hn|i»fi»<f Ow

papkr, ad. by r. OL Jr^/»A FhU. IflH. S *olk kf«i & Pftrt L ■ Iba Bktory of 0«v*pl9 Oecgrapkical CMI»

ifMU^Thainr caUccfiaaorMiMrGnakG«eti«f*anwaBlbatomta*aC Aapb. MOO. &— Tfca MBaad, Omwuimt. Lcfi.
Mn. 4.— Tte tbini. Bare coMflaaa, AiAm. OsC I«B-17I2. 4 vali. ■.— MaA imfanliaa far a m» aiilioB to aaAa bf *»
^Ma^bafanlStt. Qa bM daath bb a^pmrfM pMad ia«o lb* teMb af «Hkn a^ AMaMnn» froM wbaa ■ aipaeM a attia
twteiaiac all Iba Oraak Gaacnpbical iiwaiai, 'taeapti^ thoaa of tba /av aalhan ira rttaw dMoaaaalai JtfaM ra. SCratak
a < J|i1iMii>. a Mm tUkmtd^ Oa^^paf^ Omci Uiaom, Or. k UL Lfau IflS. I. aat

$ 209. Euclid liyed at Alexandria B. C. aboat 300, in the time of the Egyp-
tian king Ptolemy Soter. His native place is not known. He was a teacher
of mathematics, particularly of geometry^ in which branch he was the most dis-
tinguished scholar among the Greeks. 0

1 u. His EUmenU (Zrocicrta), in 15 books, were dimwn up with great ability* and m
a ▼erv persoicuous manner. There are two Greek commentaries upon this work, by
Proclus ana Theon. The latter flourished at Alexandria, in the 4th century (cf. % 205),
and it is only according to his revision of the work that we now possess the Elements
of Euclid. The 14th and 15ih books are ascribed, and with great probability, to Hyp«
aides, who lived about the middle of the 2d century. Besides the Elements, we hsve
also eeveral other mathematical pieces ascribed to Euclid.

2. I'he principal works allowed to be genuine are the Data (AAfiiMi), containing geo-
metrical theorems, and the Phenomena (Vou^ya), relating to astronomy.

SMMI, iiL SU.-.AiAniMfHi, U. HaniK f^ 139.

a Tbar«teTCbMafl««aditMMaof ibeWerkaofEMlkL— PWiM9t,by&OryiwHii. ftia. lOS. M.— Bh. tsa. feL— C A^
i^ftdktHMaiKhfiu^Or.kUL StrMb. UTl.-^a <>if «ry. Or. a IaI. Oiil ITOL lbl.~Bait of all, ^lyrarri; Or. ZA * GML
Ftf.lBM. SMla.4.-0(lkeEUaia«la, J.Cirtaiia,Gr.ftLM. Soo. Ift«& S wh. a— Ok. JMtoi. LcrL 1673. 12.~7«.Jb>
nUen, (trilb Iba Dote). lind. 1732. &— BaM, Cmmmr, Or. k UL Serf. ISM. & (tal voL eiMUiali« • beoka af tba I

wllb Ezenn. and Platea.) U voL eoatinaed by C. P. Hmttlm. rm.-J. C Stidt. lU. ISO. & food, lahit am fb

.(NbaadlZlb^S. Jljfuciwl. B«1. ISIS-SOl 8 vola. & critical last.

4. TiawlathM.— Ibara bavabaas mmi ttUlioM of iba Blaiaitii in Lads; aBM« fta bat, BOrmmm. If*. 17

.cy. (IB bk>). Oif. I«S. & alw Iba Dulm. Osfc isn. a B^Mbb~JL amnpmm (bk. l-«, II, It). Ota^ 175S. 4. a^ aflas w

priaicd.-J: MUlMMiam (wboU 16). ItmL I781-S8. 8 voii. 4. OaraMM.— I P. Lmmu HaL IBia a WnaA^-Ptf^mi,

xboffc citad.

$ 210. Jrehimedet was bom at Syracuse B. C. about 287, and was put to
death by a soldier during the storming and capture of that city by the Koman.
general Marcellus, B. C. 313. He was celebrated especially for his skill in
mechanics ; but his inTentive genius enriched almost every branch of mathe-
matical science.

1. The sepalcher of Archimedes was near one of the gates of Syraeuse, bat was fbrfotten and
almost overgrown with briars In the time of Cicero- It was dlseOTsred by the ezerttons of the
latter, while Quvstor in 8lcily, marked by a snail pillar bearing an Iambic inscription and tbe
figures of a cylinder and sphere.

MM. Via 4*arcbiiMla, aad Frngtim, Dn bHban d'arehtaada, is fta Mtm. Jead. bur. a ». ilv. 19a

2 u. He acquired his greatest celebrity by discovering the relation between the Cy-
linder and Spnere, and by contriving several military engines, by the aid of which tne
Syracusans defended themselves for three years against the Romans. We have several
works from him; lUfi -Hit Y/^pa^ rol KvXii^n, On the Sphere and Cylinder; KicXsv
ttrrpnotf. The Measuring of the' Circle; TUfi rtM 'Oxf^vfthnoif, Of floating bodies; ta^in;;,
Arenarius, and others. In general it may be remarked, however, that we posess the
works of Archimedes only according to tne recensions o( Isidorut and his pupil EmUh
cius in tbe 6th century.

5. Polybliis, LIvy, and Plutarch, speak of the engines Invented by Archimedes lo bsraas the
Romans, but say nothing of his destroying their fleet by means of reilecting-mirrors, or borntng-
glasses, contrived for setting Are to tbe vessels. Luelan is tbe first author who mentions the
burning of ibe fleet, but be does not tell tbe means. Tsetses and the writers of the Bas-Empire,
state that it was by the aid of mirrors. The story has been treated as a mere foble, alihougb tbe
l»<issibitlty of the thing has been proved by B^Jont.— Archimedes Is said to have invented an
instrument for representing the movements of the heavenly bodies*; noticed by Claudian in an
epigram.— A magnificent vessel Is described as having been constructed for the king of Syracuse,
under the care of Archimedes*.

I SchBU, ill. 9«a riL 61.-CI. Fbrtign Sm N& i. p. WS.—Edinb. Sm. vol. ZTiii.— Lond. QiMrl Jba. IiL 8B, Iflfl QiMw,,

Rom. Emp. It. p. 74. ed. N. Torfc, 1822. « CC D. Stmaart^ Elam. of PbUoi. of Miod, voL iL ^ VI ad. N. York, 1814. > Cfc

SchSU, vii. p. 44& et P. IV. ( 107. BL

4. Tb«re hava bm fear aditiena oTSiaWorkaor Arcbinadak— IVfneqpt, bj T. Otekauff (prialar Mbnof/i. Or. A Ld. Bm.
1(44. tfA -Jb'MNtt (printer JUbrrf). Or. k Lat Far. 161 A M. rapr. 1646. ad. Riehard^Btnai. Mcarioa, 1578. H. rapr. POmm
I6SS. foI.~B«rt aatircljr, Jor. AnfrvKon (basin by Tbrrfli), Or. * Lat OiL ITtA fol. wilb tbe commaobiry of Ealociis.-.or tba
Dimtfutoeimiii (wHb Iba dtrpMHwa), WUUi. Ozf. 1671 A— A BanUft Lat Tfrrien, with EndldH Data, aa dtad ( SOA A^
Armartui, witb EagL tniML bf O. Andtrmm. LnA 1184. A

6. Tnndarioai.-G«nnao.— Sturm (of Om wbola Work*). NOrab. Isn. rol.~amkr, «w Spbara aad CyUadcr. Tab. I7SA 8
.-Xrflfrr, Iba Aremrioa. QnadL tSBl A TlnMh.— Ayr^ ^ vbola Woifcik Par. 1807. A I80A i fola. A EtvcOA."

P.V, MATHEMATICIANS. AP0LL0NI17S. PAPPUS, ETC. 6^1

$ 311. Jpollonius^ fiurnamed Pergaeut from his birthplace Per^ in Painphy-
]ia, lived at Alexandria about B. C. 250, under Ptolemy Euergetes. He studied
mathematics under those who had been pupils of Euclid.

1 «. As a writer he is known by his work on Conic Seetums, KiMnkh Zr^ixera, in 8
books. Only the first 4 books, however, are in the Greek ; the 3 next are in a Latin
translation from an Arabian version, and the 8th exists only as restored by Halley from
hints found in Pappus.

2. The 4th, 6ih and 7th books of the Conic Sections were translated from the Ara*
bian abuut the middle of the 18th century, by /. A. BordlL — The other works of
Apollonius were IIep2 'Enatpuv, J)e Tactionibutj or Contacts of lines and circles, and
'Enriiteioi T&noty Planes^ which have come to us in a very mutilated state ; TUfi Ntmm^,
J)e InclinalumibuSj of which scarcely anything remains; Uspl Xf^ou 'AnonuHsf i>«
Sectiofie Spatii, of which we have nothing; and Ucfi Adyov ^Axoro^, De Sectione
rtUionis^ which is preserved in Arabic.

a. Th« oaly edition oT tha Conia i« that of £. AUfay (began by Ortgorj/i, Or. ft LiL Oxf. t7ia feL— Attanpts hm bMB mnda
to miore lonM of tha olhar lrm.tiua,—Dt nttiomlnu; bj Canrnnr. Gorh. ITBi. &— Bf Haumamn. Bred. 1817. IL— /. rmcwm,
tlM two books of A. eoneeminc Ta^^geneiu, ftc. Lood. I79S. 4.— Oo Ptantt, by a. Simprnm, GUig. I74S. 4.— On /ndfiMlioni^
hf & Btnhy, Gr. ft LaU Osf. 1770. 4.— By R. Borrow. Lond. 17991 4,—De SueHone Sfotiif bjr B. Bailey OzL 1706. 8. with
» Latin Iraaslaion, from the Anbic, of the trmtiM JM Sect. nUionii.—Bj A. fiicMor, Den ApaHonioi Ewni Bochnr von V«riiAltni»>
Sehnitt 0tmu the Latin of /AiUcy). Elb. 1830. 8.

§ 212. Pappus^ an Alexandrine philosopher and mathematician, flourished in
the 4th century. His principal work, known to us, is entitled MaSf^fjui/tixai
oinKvyuyyai, MathemcUical Cullectioruy in 8 books.

1. This work In chiefly intereitlng on aceount of the eitncts it contains from mathematical
writlngt, which are losi. Other worlcs are ascribed to him; aa, a treatiae onmilitary englnet,
a commentary on Arintarchua of Samoa, a work on geography, itc.

Ct SeMMf, vU. 49^^fm. Quart. Xa. No. szL

S. Only fii«iiMnti of the Greek tat hare yet been pabliriMd.— A fkagmoat of the Sd hook wit pablidied by /. IVUKt, b bb ei.
dIJritlarckmofaamm. Oif. ICW. &-T1ieMenBd partoftfaeMbbook, by fiMntiMnn. Fto-. ISM. lbL->Tbe preftce lo the Ttk
bank, by Haiity. OxC. 1706. 8. (with a tmaliea of ApoHooina, as dtad f SI 1. 3).— SooMi leounae fRNB tha 7th book, in Mribemhtmf

Dialof. da Proporiioaiboa. Hafn. I8SS. M A Latin var$tan of S books (S-6), by Pr. OommondtM, an Haliaa natbeaialicaa

orthel6aicrn(nry,printMi,Penro,IM3.ft)l. and(ed. JfinwIamH). Bdo^ 106a faL-A ft«(Bient of tba 4th book, not ta thisv«r>
*», it given by Endows EpietoUs r^isicoaei. Lfia. 1818. 8.

§ 313. Diophanttu or Diophantea, of Alexandria, lived probably in the 4th
century, under Julian^ He composed an Ariihmdicy * A.ptJBfiir^ixri^ in 13 books^
of which 6 are now extant. A work styled Ilcpt Hdkvyumw aptSfiuv is also as-
cribed to him.

1. The Arithmetic of Dlophantna ii not only important aa contributing to the history of Mathe-
matics, by making known the alaie of the science in the 4th century, but it is also interesting to
the matbeinailciBn himself, as it Airnishes iuminous methods for resolving varioua problems. U
pres<^nts also the first traces of that branch of the science which was called Algthra^ In honor of
the Arabian Oei«r, to whom its invention is ascribed.— &Jk0/i, vii. p. 43.

2. Editione.— A Utin vanion of all his remains was paUhdied by Xylafulv (JBoixmam). Has. I67S. foL— The fint edition of tha
tnt wai b)- C. O. SadM (db Mairiae). Or. ft Lat. Pbr. 1621. fbl. rcpr. Toloac (Toulouse), 1670. (oL with notes of P. it FrnnoL

a. Timnlatiom.— A Oaman translation of the IreaHee Usf 2 roX. AftS. (iwti dm /Wyf onal-ZgUUm) by PotOgtr. LpL I8ia &
-^ the ArUhnutie, by ftftuttt. Bad. 1822. 8. (ooalainiag also Poidta»t).

$ 214. Hanno, the first name we mention among the geographers, probably
lived 6. C. about 500. He was a Carthaginian general.

1 «. He is supposed to have written in the Punic language the Voy/agef which,
either during his life or shortly after, was translated into Greek, under the title nv^^*
What we possess is considered by some as only an abstract of a greater work.

2. The full title is 'Ayvci)!*^ Hiafno^vmv pwiKixot w^inXoos rdw in-^ rbg 'UpaKXhvf vrfiKof
Xtfi'vcS'^ r^ yHt itep<3v 9v itai wiBrfictv h no rot) JCp6vov rtpJkvti Siik^rra ricl&. Hanno is repre-
sented as sent with a fleet of 60 vessels and 30,000 colonists to explore the western
coast of Africa, and as having continued his voyage until his store of provisions failed.
How far he proceeded* has been a theme of much discussion.— -The age and authen-
ticity of the Periplus have also been a subject^ of dispute.

I AmisH,Oflo«r.of Heradotn,$8S.-Ct f'ialtalflr, on the PeripL of Hanno. Satabw ITM. 8. ^« DnlteeO, Diss, in AfAon's

G«o(r. Min. died ( flOSf. i.-^BougainvaU, Sor Ics DtouTaitee bits par Hannon, fai tha Man. it TJkad. du /fMcr. zztL oak
nviii.

3. Editiona-OeJiniiM (with Anion). Ess. 16SS. 4.— Sn-ftsZ, (with SlfpAontcf .Byxonf). Leyd. 1674. 18.— In BUdmm^ Geof.
Mm.-Se|Knlcly, /. O. BWir. Straeb. 1861. A^Th. Meaner, with an Ei«t. traael. Osf. 17V7. 8L-V. L. Hktg. I8(B. 4. with
a list of authon on tha sobjeet— An Ei<l. tiansl. is giTen In Anthcit?i Leupriere^ Banno.

4. There is extant another Periplus of an early date, that otScylaxot CaryandaS placed by

some B. C. about 500. Pytkeas, of Massilia, at a later period*, also wrote a Periplus.— Th^t

of Marcianuss belongs to a still later period.

1 CC AMO, Hht Litt. Gr. vol. ii. p. I8S.— It is CDDtahied in Hudton't Collectfcm, cited ( 208 1. 8.— Separately, by L Fonfae, Or
ftLat Abml 16SZ. 4. 9 Saa Murray udMi 906. M.-^BoufaimOk, U Tia at to oavrafes da FyihaM ds ManeilM^ ia Ihi

66 2x3

HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Mtm.Jead. Intir. zix. p. I4$^lf.imak, Vvw^fUkm d» PjfUmm Ji Tlm^ tc te mm Mhn. fe. nzvK. <ML • Ct a#^

fiiann, cited ) 107.

$ 215. EratonlheneM, of Cyrene, floarished B. 0. about 230. He was a pupil
of Callimachus and the philosopher Ariston, and distingoisbed as a mathema-
tician and the first founder of scientific geogfraphy.

1 tt. He was also known as a poet, interpreter of the old comic writers, a chrono-
logist, and author of popular philosophical writings. In youth be lived at Athens ;
afterwards at Alexandria, having the charge of its fannous library. Of his numerous
writings, pertainins to the mathematical sciences, we have only some imperfect frag,
ments. These belong chiefly to the work entitled T& Y^xayftaufivuevaf which consisted
of 3 books, and contamed the first attempt at the measurement of the eanh. The loss
of this work is much regretted.

2. In the 1st book, Eratosthenes treated of phyrical geography ; in the 2d, of ma^-
thatical; and in the 3d, of political. What remains is preserved chiefly by extracts
made by Strabo. — A treatise called Karompw^l, explaining the amtteUationst has
passed under his name, but on various grounds it is considered as not genuine.—
SchdU, iii. 375, 385.

3. EditioiM.—Th« fncraenb of EnfiMlfiCBM wen paldidwd bf Jnt^or. OMt ITTOl 4.-Mor« CMnpltta, O. C. F SeUd, Or. k

Ut. QMU nn. 8.-MiMt fall, «Bd bat, Benthardf, EnliaUMiiea. Bcri. WZ. •. The CatmiUritmi wtn poMiahfld fctt bf

J. ML Ozi:i«78.a CCf7l.8.— OofabiBhMOpvw.Mflh. AmA, 1W8. t— SI, f. C. SetoMtddL OOtt. ITBfi. lb

§216. Strabo \(fM born at Amasea in Pontus, and lived about the tinae of
Christ, under Augustus and Tiberius. By his travels through Egypt, Asia,
Greece, and Italy, he was the better qualified to write his great work on geo-
graphy.

1 u. This is entitled Vaaypa^iK^ and consists of 17 books. It is not a mere register
of names and places, but a rich store of interesting facts and mature reflections, and is
of great utilitv in the study of ancient literature and art. The first two books are a
sort of general introduction ; the rest are occupied in descriptions of particular countries,
their constitutions, manners, and religion, interwoven with notices of distinguished
persons and events.

2. The 3d book describes Spain and the neighbouring islands ^ the 4th, Gaul, Britain,
and the islands adjacent, and the Alps with the tribes occupying them; the 5th and
6th treat of Italy, concluding with a survey of the Roman power ; the 7th gives an
account of the northern countries, and the nations on the Danube ; the 6tb, 9th, and
10th are devoted to Greece; the next six, from the 11th to the 16th, contain aa
account of Asia ; and the 17th describes the countries of Afirica.— The 7th book has.
come to us in an imperfect state ; the rest complete. There is an abridgment or Chrtttih
maihy of this work, made probably in the 10th centurj by some unknown Greek.
There are also several collections of extracts from Strabo m manuscript. — Strabo wrote
a continuation of Polybius under the title of 'Tm^y^^ara 'ImpucA,

SdboB, T. S7«.— lonrf. f^ueri. Ace. f(d. v.— J. H. L, flterm, D« fnliboi OflOgn|>liiearaa Smbank, Gfltt VOL ft rJWlfti.
Geodnpbie <i« Greei, cited $ SOB. 2.

3. Editiom—PHimpi, (m ad. Mdi)- ▼««>. 15I& fol.-A. Caiauten (U ed. by Jtfinl). Pfer. 1«10. M. Or. * LaL CowUfl«d
Caod.-JimrfoMm, Or. * Lat kmX. 1707. fol. Rcpr. of CMinboD, with additioMd w*m.-^iihmO»ta (centinwd b]r rtatadb
and fritdgmanny. Or. 4 Lat. Lpc 1799-18191 7 vola. %^TK Faleaim, Or. kLUL OzL 1807. 9 ««la. ful. Tbe WMt anpla ad.
(yet cowHitd). Cf. Bdinb. SW. vol. zW.— CZom. Joum. vl. 45 ; «li. 132, 445.— Ciray. Fiv. Ul6-ia 4 vols, a Beat taact ; pm-

faca and aotaa in Grark.— C. O. Ormkurd^ Iberia (lb« 8d book of tbe Gaoraphy). Stab. MI9l S. ^Tho amtmndhg it ta^

in HudmmH Gtognph. Min. eitcd § 908 1. 1.

4. Tran»]aiiou.-G«nBaa.— Altai. LeuK. 1778-77. 4 Tola. &— JT raFchtr^ in the Collee. of New TnaO. by Tta/d, Oiaidbr,

^ TrwAu-'LmPiirt* 4u TMZ and Coray, (ondar patrooaca of Fr. Got.). Vu. I80S-14. 6 fola. 4. Ct Land. QhoI Sn

vol. V. 813.

$ 317. DionyBiusy of Charax in Persia, was a contemporary of Strabo. He
was sent by Augustus into the East in order to prepare a description of those
regions for the use of his adopted son.

1 u. We have from him a geographical treatise in Hexameter verse, entitled XUol^
yifffts OiKovuhriiy a degcription of the habitable world. From the title of this piece he nas
received tne surname of Periegetet. Cf. ^ 32.

2. We hare a leaned eommenlaryaa Oia Feri^TBaia. writtan by Aiitatttet.— The PniMWJf (• ia flw 4(li vol. of Aiten, m dM
§ 9061. e. with the Commmtery.— Alao la MatthU>t Amha, cited \ 71. S.-8apafalaly, aa improrad aditioa, Budmm, Or. a Lak
Oxt. 1717. a wiib B. DodvatWi Dka. da date at palria Dioayaii.— S. mOi, Gr. k Lat Load. 179& &

$ 218. Claudius PtolemauSy of Pelusium in Egypt, flourished in the middle
of the 2d century, at Alexandria. He acquired great distinction in the sciences
of geography, astronomy, and music.

1 u. Among the writings left by him, the two most important are the "Mtv^hi o^m^^is.
Great Construction, and the Tccuypo^ixfy ^qyinrir, a System of Geography * The former,
consisting of 13 books, now called the Almage$t, is the earliest formal svstem of

p. y. OEOGRAPHIRS. PAUSANIAS. 8TEPHANI7S. C0SMA8, ETC. 52S

astronomy. The latter, in 8 books, ^vcs a geographical account of countries and
places, with a designation of their latitude and Longitudcj for which the labors of
MarinuB of Tyre had laid the foundation. Of the other works of Ptolemy now
extant we mention particularly his Kai>biy BariXkaVf Table of Kings, which is of much
value in the department of history and chronology.

S. Tbe astronomical observations of Ptolemy were probably made In the Srrasrvni, or temple
of Serapis, at Alexandria, and not in the Serapeum of Canopiis. Tbe name of^lma^est is de-
rl^pd from the title which the Arabians gave to Ptolemy's astronomical work, to express their
admiration. It was translated into the Arabic in the Qth century, with the patronage and aid of
Caliph MmamoMti. From the Arabic it was translated into Spanish and into Latin, before the
Greeic original was Icnown In Europe. In the last book of the Otograpky^ Ptolemy states tbe
method of preparing maps, and here are found tbe first principles of projection. Tbe lasting re-
putation of this work has been mentioned ($ SOT).

AMO, VOL V. 140-800, S12-38S.~Geiw{in, Ptolemy, SUabo, ud EnhMtlMoet oonparad, fte. In Ougr«p*Jc, ke. dted § 808. &
— Aofiamy, Dec C«i1n geofraphiqiMP det uicieBs, he Mtm. Jhad. tnacr. toI. zzt. p. 40.

S. KditioH.— A I n a gee 1 1 Grynmu, Or. t Ut Raiil, I68S. 8 voli. fol. witb tbe Coinra. of Thna.—AkU BOma, Or. ft

Fr. Pv. l8IS>lft. 2 vob. 4. Gaography; ftinop, liy Enmma. Bull, IfiSS. Ibl. (Tbera had preTioudj been Mv«nl

•ditioHor the LaiiD. Ct SbhSB, ▼. SIB.)— JToiKaintt, Or. ft LaL rrankf. (and Anat.) 1806. ftrf. with mapa by O. Mutator,
after tboae of Agathedmmon, an AleiandriM tH lb« 6lh eenlury — ^Bettar, P. Bertim, Tboatnim Geographte Veterh. Anat I8IS-
18. 8 Toia. tci. with napa, and eontainiiif PlolaDy)| Geo«r. Or. ft Lat In the let *oL and tbe Itlnarary of Antonine, the Tabula
FenSosBriaoa, ftc in tbe 9d.—Halma. Fkr. 1888. 4. cenlalninff only lat book and part of 7lh, wHh a Fraacb venion —F. O. mi-
herg, Piolcin. Geogr. libri oeto, Gr. ft Lat. EaMad. 1818. 4— Canon ; Ptriumha. Leyd. 1745. 8.— ASafaio. Pkr. 1880. 4.— Tte

Hypotluiit «f Me Flantt$, by Aainw, Or. ft Gall. Pftr. 1880. 4. For other worta of Plolany aod aditioi% ate SckU, tcL v.

p.8$5,«.

§ 219. Pausantaaj according to some born at Csesarea in Cappadocia, per«
haps however a native of Lydia, flourished in the 2d century. He traveled over
Greece, Macedonia, Italy, and a g^reat part of Asia.

1 u. In advanced life, at Rome) in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, he com-
posed his Itinerary of Greece, 'EXAaA>f KtptrJYriins. It consists of 10 hooks, which are
frequently named from the provinces described in them. The work is full of instruc-
tive details for the antiquary, especially in reference to the history of art, as the
author makes a point of describing the principal temples, edifices, statues, and the
tike. This gives his work an interest it would not otherwise pcNssess.

2. The style of Pausanias is rather negligent ; sometimes his descriptions are ob-
scure ; but he displays much judgment and knowledge, and casts light on very many
topics of history and mythology. — Schdll, v. 307.

a. BditioM -Prinetpt, by jUiut (ed. M. Munma). Ven. 1616. foL— XylaiMTcr. Frankt 1588. foL— JRtibs Or. ft Ut. Lp&
1888. fol.— Better, Aeiw, Gr. ft Ul. Lpt. l79i-97. 4 vob. 8^£ StUur. BarL 1888. 8 vola. &— Beat, C. O, SUbdu, Gr. ft
ZM. Lpt. I828-S8. 8 vela. 8.-^^. B. C. Sehibtrt ^ C. fFofe, Gr. ft Lat. Lipa. 1830. 3 Tob. 8. •> critical text"

4. TranaMlooi.— Gennaa.-^. C. OekTAofan. Berl. 1788. 6 toIb. 8. French —£. Clantv (and ethers). Fkr. 1814-80. 6 vela.

wHh oricinal Greek and notca. Engliah.— TVk. Tbyfer. Load. 1783. 8 vols. 8. llltiatrated by mapa and viewa.

8. nioMrative.— /. & C. KCnig, Do tavi. fide et andoritnta in historia, mythologia, artibuaqoe GrMorum tradeadb. Bari. 1818:
8.— AyiM, Deber dea Kaalen des Cypaalna, ft«. nadi den FUaanba. OOtt 1770. 8.

^ 220 tt. Stephanus of Bvzantiuih was a grammarian and geographer, who lived
towards the close of the 5tn century. He wrote a copious grammatical and geogra-
phical Dictionary, called 'EBvuh. Of the original work we have merely a fragment.
There is an abridgment, however, *F6viK<Mf Imnitiif styled also Utpl ir^Xcaw, made oy the
grammarian Hermolau$ in the time of Justinian.

The be« aditiooa of the BpOomii that of Ji. teM (coapMed fay Owiflvftu). Lqrd. 1888. ftiL AmL 1788. feL aad tat
by FT. Dbtderf^Gr. ft Ut Lpi. 1886. 4 vob. &

^ 220. Cosmos Indicopleustes was a native of Alexandria, who died about A. D, 550.
He traveled in Ethiopia and India. His geographical work, in 12 books, is entitled
Xpurrtaviin) -rmtoyfo^la. He supposed the earth to be of a plane surface, and in the form
of a parallelogram ; and thought this to be the only view consistent with the repre-
sentations of the Bible.

Hb nipoffopAy b given In A db Mentfancan, CollacL Nor. FkImB Grae. ftr. 1706. 8 vob. M. Or. ft Lati—A naacripMaB
of Flanbaod Aaimab of India b given in TlbMiMf, RalatSooa de Voyagn Cariaoz (Fu. 1088), as Um wmft of CoiBaa.— Ct OiA-
ten, Rom. Emp. iv. 87, 498.

^ 221. Onesander and Polyanus have been named as prominent writers on military
subjects. The work of the former is entitled HrpartiYyt^ }^r»s* in 42 chapters. That
of the latter is entitled SrpaTT^yirfiaruri, in 8 books ; it is highlv recommended by J7ar-
wood, for beginners in Greek, on account of its easy style ana entertaining matter.

1. Ediliona of OneaaBdcr.~JVni, by JV. Rigault, Gr. ft Lat Pfer. 1689. 4.-^. MimM. NoraBh. 1781. fol. with the Fnnd.
vertlon of Zurlaubm^ and engimvinffi of ancient mflitary angiiM.— Coray; Pftr.-USL 8. with arlmubmH venbo, fcnni^ Iba 5fh
vol. of hia Partrgm JUMathtcm Ormm.

8. EdilloMorPolyamia.— F{rvt,by/.CflMu60n,Gr.ftUt Lyom, 1888. lS.~Bcal, by Opray. hr. 1807. ■ ta M v«L of bh
■ anEi«LtraMLt7AA«i*arri. Lowl.l789b4.

HISTORY or ORBEK LITERATURE.

VIII MytkographerM.

% 221 u. Tho principal axistiiig sources, whence the traditions and fables of the
Greeks may be learned, are three; the poets, who bring forward mythical ideas and
fabrications, either incidentally, or as the subjects of particular songs ; the historians ,
who wf>aye into their narratives the popular faith and tales, and make known historical
circumstances which serve to ilhistrate the same ; and finally the mythographert, who
have made it their particular business to treat of mytholojrical subjects and to present
connected views or specific details of the ancient fables. — Some of the principal writers
of the latter class will be named in the following sections.

Tbfl foUowtng C<dl«dlaiM partsia to thia NbJwt-vflAa (PUniUm). Vm. IMS. •tL-Tk. Obit, HiitorkB paMicB Kripdow aa
l^u. Ht. IC76. K-B7 MiMb OpoKiiU MythDiofics « PhpUm, M XtkiCi^ 6r. ft Uu Cuntk. l<;i. a-^sAnal. 160. S.

$ 233. Palmphatut, an Athenian, probably lived about B. C. 330; some place
him in the time of Homer, but without sufficient grrounds.

1 u. His book Uept dKwnov, On things inrrediUe, contains 50 Muthi, ox fables, with
an explanation of them. It is probably but a corrupted abridgment of the first part of
the larger work, in 5 books, ascribed to this author, but now lost. The style is very
simple and easy, and the contents amusing and instructive ; it is often used as a reading-
book in teaching the elements of the Greek language.

1. Cdilie«^-It MbaDd Ib jfUitt,uMl Qolt, <»iMe. cHwi | «> ii. fcpaitrty, N<,| /. /.fbdkv. Lpfc ITSS. t^U. N, bmmO.
LfB. IBI6. 8. with a Leifeoa ; tor leboolt.

a. TnadatioM—aannaa.-/. D. BUcUini. BmL Ittt. %. ^Pnodi.— ^lottar. Laanoc^ ITTI. It.

4. Euhemerust supposed to have been a native of Messene, lived about the same
time with Palaephatus. He wrote a work entitled 'IsfA dpaypa^h, the object of which
was to show that the mythological deities were mortals, who had conferred benefits
upon their fellow- men, and on that account were deified. This was translated by
ffnnius into Latin. Both the original and the version are lost, with the exception of
some passages in Eusebius and Laciamius.

Cf. &MU. Un. Or. fol. iiL p. 949.— OmuIv^ Birt. Ron. Ut foL L M. ad. PhU. MBT^-^eate, aad FMidtar, b (be JUta. d$
rJkad. dm hmr. vol. vili. 107. xxslv. 417.

$ 3*23. HeracUius was a ^mmarian, whose epoch and history are wholly
unknown. He is to be distinguished from the philosopher of Ephesus bearing
the same name (cf. $ 177).

1 *. He is mentioned as the author of two mythographical works ; one entitled TUpt
«brfoTb>v, Of things incredible ; the other, 'AXknyoptai 'Oj^npurai, Homeric Allegories, The
former seems to be a mere abridgment. The latter is a more considerable work, but
gives the most forced and unnatural explanations to the fictions of the poet. It derives
value from containing poetical fragments of Archilochus, Alcaeus, Eratosthenes,
and others.

8. Thefint wiMk ltgtr«a ia (Ma, Opate. dtad § 92t u—Sepantriy, by £. A Iktehr, Uatf. 1798. 1 Mhool ad.~Ttoaaiar,
■I Oak abe—Sapafataly, bjr C Omtntr, Or. ft Lai. Ba^ IM4. 8. w tlia work of 4bwM« of Paataa. Bitter, bj iV. AAbml
GMt I79L a A Qannan tnariatka bjr /. O. aekuUlmm. ZAr. 1779L 1

3. There ie another work extant with the title Tltpt dnVraiv. It is frnm an unknown antbor,
who is suppofed to have lived much later, about the time of the emperor £m the ThracSan. k
coataine SI seaions, and appeari to be an abstract of a larger work.

Pttblnbad by L. JUaUui. Rona, 1641. 8.— Oob, In Optoc dtad above.— IVudUr, wlUi Hmditat diad aboaa.

§ 924. ApolUfdorui^ a son of Asolepiades, was a grammarian, who liTed at
Athens, B. C. about 145. He was a pupil of Aristaichos and embraced the
Stoic philosophy.

1 u. According to Photius he wrote a History of the gods (TLspt 3et3y>, in 24 books.
We have, however, only 3 books under the title of BtPXiodfiKii, or lAhrhry^ which mav
be an abridgment of the forementioned, but perhaps is a wholly different work. It
contains a brief account of the gods and heroes before the Trojan war.

8. It H |1t«b ia Cob, Hist Fbet. dt«) { 921 u—Separatdy, bart, ffcym. Oott IBQ2. S toU. & witb cxedkot eoaffliaataiy.->£
doafar, 6r. ft Fr. 1809. 8 vob 8.-r0r KtMob, C L. aanmur. Rudolat I998L 8.-.<]«nBaa TVaadatka, by/1 Jtyv. Babev%
I80Z. a-Cf. aMtt, T. 38. W. SI.

§ 325. Chnon^ also known as a grammarian, lived at Athens in tiie time of
Caesar and Augustus, B. C. about 40.

1 ». He wrote 50 mythical Narraiiees, Auryfiotis, which are now extant only in the
abstracts given by Photius in his BUdiotheixi (cf ^ 142). They are addressed to
Archelaus, king of Cappadocia. Althongh containing Kctle that is peculiarly interest-
ing, they are yet of some value in illustrating ancient history, relating parucularly to
»he origin of colonies.

2. Tbry an ffTea la Oalt, UUL Floct. dtad § 981 «.-Sapamtdy, /. J. Xtonit. Gott. ITSS. 8L Pntth tiaHlalioB by JUi

CMofni^ ia tba JCbh. * r Jeatf. d« Auor. lorn. xiv. ^ im~<% adUn; «. 4U

p. y. HISTORIANS AMD BIOGRAPHERS. 525

$ 326. PartheniuSi bora at Nicea, lived under the emperor Aagnstas, and is
eaid to have been one of the preceptors of Virgil.

1 V. He wrote a work dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and entitled JUfi Ipwucuv noBn-
nartaVf On amorous afectionsy designed to furnish that poet with materials for song.
The narratives contained in it were drawn from the old poets, and clothed in an easy
and prosaic stvle. He seems to have written other works, both in prose and verse,
although the elegiac poet of this name mentioned by Suidas was perhaps another person.

8. The work i» CmiimI io Gali^ u lait dl«d.— Sapsnteljr, Comariuty Or. * Lit (printer Frebm). Bm. 1691. 8.— nwcAo*. Lpc
1808 8. with Conon.~BMt, Lepand utd tfiyiw. GotL I78& 8. with ConefU—f. Pmmom^ Lpi. ItU. 8.— Tot th* Mcoutt of
FkrtbeDioi by Suidu, m ScMttt, v. 42.

$ 397. Fkumutus, or more correctly Annaeus Cornutwt^ bom at Leptis in
Africa, probably lived in the last half of the Ist century. He seems to have
been the teacher of Persitu, and a disciple of the Stoic sect in philosophy.

1 «. We have from him a Theory of the nature of the gods^ Qttapla ircpl rtig raw Oow
^^wf , in 35 sections. It is an attempt to solve the common fables by the help of
allegories, mostly of a forced and extravagant character.

8. Glfea in OoJe, OpoK. Myth, dtsd f mu.—FiUoi»en Ml the^pporalw for a new aditkn; aew b Hw Koyal Ubnry of
rtuica. (JtUII, T. I79l)-Od dmuitu im £nfiad?» HkL FhiL bk.ULelt.lLi l.-D. Martari Diipotatio d* I. Ijib. Goravto^
Lagd. Bat I82S. 8L

§ 338. Hepluesiion (cf. $ 134), of^n called Ptolemwtu son of Hephaestion, was
a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 3d century under Trajan.

1 «. His mythological work bore the title lUfi rfk tit rnXo/iddsiav <caH% Umpiat^ Of new
history pertaining to erudition ; it consisted of 7 books, but we have only the brief
extracts found in Thotius.

8. PnbUaiMd bj OaU, HM. Foot died § 221 u^BjL.H Tktiekar, with Conen mndParthmtm. Lpi. I8Q2. &-Cf. &A01I, ▼. 4a,

$ 339. Jniontnus LiberaHs, of whom little is known with certainty, most pro-
bably lived in the 3d century under the Antonines.

1 u. His Collection of metamorphoses, fUtrafiofxbcjcaav ovvayiayfi, is a compilation ga-
thered from various writers, in 41 sectrons. Tne style is very unequal, and shows
that the author drew his materials from poetical sources.

CB Antonbm and Mm mylhograpben, Ma Au(, Lattra Cririqae ; In Ut traad. bj aMftr. Lpi. 18081 9.

2. Editiobt.-Cmilaload in Oolc, Hitt Fbet.— Qivan byJ.O. fVokh, ia hit Pkmdnu. Lpa. 1718. 18.— Sapankir, Prtnetpt by
XfionAr (IB)tonami). Baail, 1588. 8.— Jftintar, Or. * Ul. 1678. 12.— Better, FcHkcyl, Or. ft Ut. Jjj± IT74. &-^▲ KhodI ad.
bflkucAcr. l4a.lMe.& with the Fkblea of GairiM. Of. f I8i. 1.-0. .4. £x«, Or. ft Ut Upi. ISSS. &

$ 330. SaUusiiiu, who was a Platonic philosopher in the time of Julian and
Jovian, and was Consul A. D. 363, may be mentioned here.

1 u. He must not be confounded with Sallust the Latin historian, nor with the Cynic
of the same name in later times. He lived at Athens and Alexandria, and acqmred
much celebrity as a speaker. He has left a work entitled llcfi dccSv jca2 ir&r^iov, On the
gods and the world, in 21 chapters. It is perhaps a philosophical rather than mytho-
logical treatise, and seems to be directed specially a£[ain8t the system of Epicurus.
The author maintains the eternity of the world and the immortality of the soul.

2. EditioBfc— PnUidwd ftnt bjr Miudtea, Gr. ft Ut Roaa. 18S8i IS:— Oolt, Opaie. Myth, abova dlad^Jbnni|r, Or. ft Wt.
Bari. 174a S.—J. C OnUu Or. ft Ut. Zbr. 1821. &— Tha tUaa of tba ci»ptan an fivan in BcMO, tiL 80l
S. 'nrandatloaa. Gtrman, by aehutthm. ZOrich, 1778L a

l\. — HUtoriaru and Biogra^phers,

% 231 u. In very early times the Greeks, like other nations of antionity, had few, if
any, regular historical records. The art of writing was not brought iiiio that fre-
quent and general use which is requisite for such purposes. Oral traditions, visible
monuments, and commemorative festivals were the principal means of transmitting a
knowledge of important and interesting facts. The oral accounts were commonly
thrown into the form of verse and song ; and thus the poets were the first historians.
Their poems, in epic, lyric, and dramatic forms, presented the story of the fabulous
and heroic ages, and were impressed on the memory in youthful education ; were sung
at the festivala of the gods and the funeral celebrations of heroes, and afterwards cir-
culated by means of written copies. When afterwards the use of writing became
more common, and prose composition began to be cultivated, historical narrative was
the first and principal apphcanon of \\.^-^Phereeydes, of the island Leros, and the
three Milesians, Dianysius, Cadmus, and Hecaimust who lived between 550 and 5Q(^

•95 HISTORY OF ORBSK LITERITURX.

B. C, are named a« the earliest authora of history id prose.— At this period truth
and fablo were more carefully distinguished; the former was selected as the proper
material for prose and history, and the latter was left to the sole use of the poet. After-
wards writers began to record the history of their own times and connect it with the
traditionary accounts of former ages. 1 he art of writing was more sedulously culti-
vated. The theory of historical composition was investigated and fixed on philoso-
Shical principles. Ere lone, Greece possessed historians who are even to the present
ay viewed as masters in the art, in respect both of matter and manner.

a r. Cmtxm; HMwiKlM KuMt d«r Oriwiiea. Lel|s. ISO. a-O. /. rowiiu, Da Hill. GnBck, m dtad $ Utk-Oit taAf mm.
*o4i of pnoniiif kwHadfe, nu Pin, (M cH«i f 140), bk. L axL a--0. Ibrmcms D« Birt. Or. PriB^

^ 232. It was in the earliest part of the period between Solon and Alexander, that
historical compositions in prose began to be produced. Some of the earliest writers
were natives of Asia Minor. Such authors were termed Xftyoyf»B^c, and their per-
formances Xoyyptupiai. These authors, besides drawing from traditionary accounts and
the works of poets, consulted all the monuments of antiquity ; inscriptions, altars, sta-
tues and edinces erected or consecrated in connection with particular events. The
iogo^rapkUs were the first fruit of this spirit of investigation. They were a kind of
writmg holding an intermediate place between epic poetry and veritable history. We
have no entire specimen of them ; but there are many fragments, for which we are in-
debted to quotations made by historians and writers on mythology in later periods, by
the scholiasts and some of tne Christian Fathers. The works of the prose writers
named in the preceding section belonged to this chss. Cadmus is mentioned by
Pliny (Nat. Hist. vii. 56) as the most ancient author of the kind. There are extant
fragments of Pherocydes of Leros, Acueilaus of Arsos, Hecateus of Miletus, Charon
of Lampsacus, Xantnus of Sardis, and Hellanicus ofMitylene.

a. r. Owwr, Bnt. Or«e. antlqula. Fncneota. Heidellx IW6. a-vf&U Sn«n, ra^tectii^ Hcealna and Charoo, in fba JlnM.
4t PJead. dst tntee. a JttUu UU. vol. vL p. 472 ; liv. p. GC— Tba fncmants of fiallaalen coUectad aad pnlriahed by P. W. Swc
LpclTBT. a-TlMMorPhmc7dci aadAcinllaualijrbaaMM. Uw. 17891 a 2d ad. I41C 104. 4.-C. A jniBmonn, Aafl^a
4. Or. Oaaehi^te. KOftif*. 1«4. L— & H, Mhumn, Beoatol FngnNtfli. BaiL IS»1. a

^ 233. The writers just mentioned are, however, scarcely entitled to the name, of
historians. Herodotus is the earliest Greek author who gave a finished and connected
form to the narration of interesting events, and was with much justice styled by Cicero,
the father of history. After him, and partly contemporary, were Tkucydidea and
Xenophon. These three are the most eminent of all ttie Greek historians, and their
works are among the most valuable remains of Greek prose composition. Thry all
belong to the most brilliant period of Grecian literature. Their histories were chiefly
occupied with Grecian affairs, and are the grand source of our knowledge resnecting

the Grecian states, in the periods to which they relate. There were several other

historians before the time of Alexander, known to us only by a few fragments of their .
works, or by the judgment passed on them by ancient writers. The most important
of these were Ctesias, a contemporary of Xenophon, and TlieopompuSj who lived a
little later. We have slight fragments, likewise, of Philiatus of Syracuse, and Ephonis
of Cums in ^olia.

The fncmenta of PUtiatvi poblbhad by OClbr, in hia Dt BUu et or. armeutamm. Upa. Itia & Cf. Avte, oe FhiMaa. Mm.
dtad. htttr. iHi. p. l.-0r Epkmu, by M. Man. Carlar. 181^ &-0r Thtopomput, by S. A £L Wdun. Uji. ISA a CC

1. J. E. PftufK n« Thcop. vita at Mriptia. Bert. 182T. S.—F. Kadk, Prolag. ad Tbaoponp. China. StaCt. ISOS. 4. Of CfMM,

in Wendintt H«rodotiia, cited % U). & ZtK.t. Blum, HeradoC and Rteaiaa, dla MbaaUB OaKhiehlttevdMr daa Ohaak.

ibiddb. msa 11-cr. smw, toi. li. p. na

^ 234. It may be proper to notice here a class of writers who confined themselves
to the history and antiquities of Athens. Their works are cited under the common
name of 'A-r^Oes, or Treatises on Attica. As the materials for these works were drawn
not merely fi'om loose traditions, but firom various authentic sources,, their loss is to be
regretted, although they were no doubt abundantly charged with fable and fiill of im-
perfection. Works of this description were written in the period before Alexander, by
Clitodemus and Phanodemus, of whom little is known. Fojir others of the same class
belong to the period following the time of Alexander, viz. i)emo, Androtion, Philo-
corus, and later.

TbafnfMMiitaartlMaaaDthonwOTaeolleetadaDd piMIahad by ZMaaodmeUt; <PbIIeeboi« aadAiidraUaii),Lpi.l8lL &
(Rapodw— tad aitodami, Daow and btw), Lpg. I8ia 8 -jtaMH, H. Itt ; iU. B4.

^ 235. The principal historian in the next period, from Alexander to the Roman
supremacy in Greece, is Polyhiut of Megalopolis. He published several historical
works, which are all lost with' the exception of a part of his Universal History. This
was without a rival in its kind. In style and eloquence it is inferior to the histories of
the great masters of the precedin^^ era ; but it may be considered as the first sucoessfnl
attempt to exhibit in a philosophical manner the principles of morals and politics as
developed in the changes of human society. Polybius may justly be ranked among

the most distinguished of ancient historians. In this period there were numerous

writers who composed historical performances chiefly relating to the fife and exploits
«f Alexander, although including often much other matter. Almost every thing from

P.T. BISTORT AHD BIOGRAPHY. 62T

their pens, however, has perished. The followin^^ were some of the writers ; Cal-
hsthencs, Hieronymus or Jerome of Cardia, Diodotus of Erytha, Nearcbus and
Nymphis of Heracles.

tenla-Oote. Eaaco de» HMtorim d'Alanadf»l»Gniid. Id ad. Fhr. 1801 ft-Clin<dii, Crit Bof. btotteHhoT Al^ndartkt
Qn«t Lon4.l7»3.4. Cf. i>iWin, foL i. p. Saa-vdAte AmK B«dmch. nr te via at tor la ovrr. da GiBiiMm«S h Ito
VJead. iu Inter. *e. ttmi vIL; da Jiran da Cardia, ia voL xliL ; dalXariflta, in foL xix.-Jiaf. JAk, Jolii Talerii na |caUi Aleaadn
Uacedooil, tnaihlc ex JBwpo Gneeo. Madiotaai, 18)7. 8L— FngnaBti of A^rmpM, la tba odkctio* of iha reaiaiM of Mcbdob
•od otfaar wrtlen oT Uandaa, by /. C Orelb'uf. hfu ISIH. Bmpactiiig Mnrekiif, Ma aadar Arriaa \ 960.— AAW, bk. Iv. eb. 8&

% 236. There were al»o in this period, between Alexander and the capture of Corinth
by the Romans, other historical authors, some of whom ought at least to be mentioned
here ; as Hecatoeus of Abdera, Berosus the Chaldean priest, Abydenus his disciple,
and Manetho of DiospoUs in Egypt. We may name also Tim»us of Tauromenium,
who, on being banished firom SicUy, resided at Athens, and is cjuoted bv Cicero as a
model of the Asiatic style of eloquence {Jirui, 95. Bt Orat. ii 13); Aratus of Si-
cyon, already mentioned among the poets (^ 71) ; Phylarchus his contemporary ; and
rolemo Penegetes. Of only a part of these authors have we any remains. The most
important fragments are those of Berosus and Manetho.

Seej)dUIU,bk.lT.ek.S7. Tba frHnwnte of Aeateut vara poblishad by P. 2)>ni. Altona, 1790 ; alio ia OomrV HiiL Grae.
atad f 238.— For tbow of BeroMMb m* Jo$. &ai<f «r, Da amandatknia Tamporaia j alio FkbriduSf BibL Gr. vol. ziv.— J. D. JbdUmTf
Cbald. HiitonB. Lipi. lOB. 8. with life of Beiwm. A work on aatiqaitiak, nadar tba aaoia of Barant, was pablbhad ia I^tia
by J. dtmiui or Maoai, a Donlakaa of Vitarbe, wbo diad IflOL Tbia forgaiy, wltb otbcr piaoaa, waa prialad by E. BUhv. Bona,
1488.— Tbaremiaaof jraiulAow«raahopablMbadby&al4«rialbata«Btiacab0vadtad. Tba diwwafy fia 1798) of tba Ama-
BtaBTankwof EmabiaabMfanidwdtbaaMaiNoranoraGaiDplaiaeoUaetioa. Ct Jturnai 4u aaaaiii, 1880. SaajWa «r
/.JManAamendaavoradtorceoBdtoMaaalbowltblbeSertptureainbaCkrairiattCaiieii. Load. 188^ laL-Ct Shid^enl, tea.
aad FnC. HiM. Coanacted, bk. zL (Bd vol. p. 188. ad. Pbtl. 1884.)— n« Jtneimt FrngmmO, eoataiab« wbat lanaina of Ika
WTitima of Saacooialhoe, Beroaaa, Abydaaai, Mapatbaaw, and Maartha; Ttaarialad by /. CL Caj. Load. 1888. &

^ 237. The period which comes next, the time of Roman supremacy, produced ft
great number of historians, but all of secondary rank. We will name hrst those who
wrote before the Christian era. The two most important authors were Diodonu
Sicnlus and Dianysius Halicamasseus, who flourished but shortly before the time of

Christ, and whose works are in part still extant. There were several authors whose

works are lost : as, Castor of Rhodes, a contemporary of Julius Caesar; Theophanes

' "'" Timagenes of Alexandria, selected

' 'or certain imprudent sallies of wit ;
f Numidia, taken captive by Julius
CflBsar, and educated at Rome. Here may be mentioned also Nicolaus of Damascus,
and Memnon of Heraclea, who both Uved m the time of Augustus, and of whom some
(ragments remain.

/. Soke, FMdoiiii RbodB Rallqait dadriaiB, kc. Lofd. BaL 1810. 8>-Tba fingBMBb of Jfieolaut, wara piMIAad by OiOtab
tpa. 1804. with a Sapplcoiaai, 1811.— TboM of JCmuMN, bf B. Stapkonw. Par. 1884} and by OnOim. Ijft. 1818.— 8aa
ScftBO. bk. T. cb. 58.

% 238. Of the historians between the time of Augustus and Constantina, one of the
most interesting and important is Flavins Jotephu the Jew. His history of the de-
struction of Jerusalem, of which he was an eye-witness, is on many accounts of great
value. It was written originally in Hebrew, or rather in the Syro-Cha)daic, and after-
wards by himself translated into Greek. It is a work full of tragic interest.

Plutarch, who flourished in the 1st century of the Christian era, must be included
among the historical writers, not only because his Lives partake so much of an historical
character, but on account of several other works upon historical topics. After Plutarch,
the most important historians were Arrian, Appian, Dion Cassius, and Herodian.
iHIlian is placed among the historians, but holds a low rank. Polytenus ousht perhaps
also to be mentioned here, as his work already noticed (^ 221) is of an historictH character.

There were some other historical writers in the times of which we are speaking, to
whom ii may be suitable barely to allude. Herennius Philo of Biblus, in the 2d cen-
tury, is said to have written several historical works, particularly to have translated
into Greek from Phcenician the antic^uities of Sanconiathon. Praxis or Eupraxidas,
the author of the work ascribed to Dictys Cretensis, lived in this period, probably in
the time of Nero. Phlegon of Tralles in Lydia wrote, besides other pieces, a sort
of universal chronology, most of which is lost ; in a fragment of this is mentioned an
eolipse of the sun in the 18th year of Tiberius, which has by some been supposed to
refer to the darkness that took place at the crucifixion of Christ.

RM|MctiBK fMooHiialkoa, tee A CwrUmlmd, 8aBeoablhea% Fbcraieiaa UaSory, baaAlad tnm tkm M book of LaiMv da
ftm\mr. ETsof . Ae. Lood. ITMl— CArW. MUhtm, HiaL Doet da vara Daot vol. {.-JK iMlaafl, Otac oa Iba Pboaima HMery
of SuieoDiBlhaa. Load. I680l 8. alao ia bit IVarkt. Load. 17SS.— Osryiv Aarieat FrafoMals cilad \ 8801— A work aolitlad Pka.
nVx or a Coilactloa of FragiiMOta, Ac N. Yotfc, I6S& 18. eootalaiaf SaaBOBlathoa. Zoroaatar, Haaao, Aft—/. fV^gmM^ aueo^
Bial. Phoea. Gr. ft UU Breai. 18S7. S. Cf. BUL Apat. July, 1897. p. 84a April. I8SS. p. 44fik

Tba ranaioa of PkUgtm wars pobliabad by Fmn*. Halle, ISBl— Several poUicatioaa appeared la Enskad cariy (be 1m( ee»
taiy.oo tbe eclipN roentiooed by bim ; ». g. 9fku, Diaertalioa upon tbe Eclipee, Ac. Load. 1798. Si— IFMilon, TMimoey of Fbl^
«t«, Ac. Lood. 1782. 8.-ClMpmm, Pblefoa enaiiaed, Ac Load. 1794. A-Cf. Lit. f ThnU JbK No. v. p^ 88, 57.

i 239 a. In entering upon the long period from CoDstantine to the capture of hii

98S BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

ftforite city by the Turks, the 6nt historian we meet is Eu$Aiu$t a Christian and
bishop of Coesarea, one of the most distinguished men of the age, and particulariy pa-
tronized by the Emperor Constantino. 1 ne only work of this author which belongs
strictly to classical literature is his Chronicle or Univertal History, navroioKfi In^pla,
(Cf. ^ 288.) After Eusebius, we find a long list of historical authors. There ate,
however, only two names of much importance, viz. Zoaimus and Proeopitu (cf. % 256,
^ 257), until we come to the mass of writers still less celebrated, and commonly grouped
under the name of Bytantine historians. This series of authors, beeinnine with the
7th century, extends to the final overthrow of Constantinople. " Thejr have little
merit, except that they are the only sources whence we can derive the history of the
middle ages. A few among them exhibit a degree of purity and elegance in style ;
but most of their works are destitute of taste and of method, and degraded by super-
stition and abject flattery."

The Bysantine writers have been divided intofemr Uosseg. The Jh-st Incladed Z^norms^ Niee-
us Aconiinatut, NIcepborut Oregoras, and Laonlcus Cbaleondylaa, wbieb fuiar autbora form
what It termed the Corpus or Bsdf of DvzantlDO biatorlaoa, properljr apeakini. Taken together,
Ihey give a complete bwtory of the period from Conalantlne to the capture of Conatantlnople by
the Turki. A ttesnd class Includes the writers that have been termed CkrouiUerSt who at-
tempted to give general histories, or annals extending from the beginning of the world to their
own times. SchGIl mentions 15 or W names belonging to this class.— The third consists of soch
as confined themselves to the history of a short period, a particular event, or of certain Individa-
als, and may rather be called bugmpkers. Above SO names are given In this class ; Jtgatkiss
was one of the more eminent among them.— The fowrth class Is composed of authors who occo-
pied themselves rather with antiquities and statistics. Of 10 or 12 Included in this number, Gon-
Btantine Porphyrogenitus was one of (he principal. Of this class also was X.fd«s, whose ireatiie
on the Roman magistrates, discovered in 1784, is eouildered by Nlebuhr as a valuable source of
information.

'Tb« ttwtka of Lydm wm pob!kb«d Vf Btm. Fkr. Itia %. — Tba wwti of Um ajnatia* artbm «h« Snt iMMithti al
Pwta, with Um |»lrau|« U Lonit Ulb, «Bd« tlie titit of Caipt it PBkkrin Mfmittim*, IMS-1711. SS fdi. M.— Ttar ««•
npriatad Van. 1T29, ■. at. la » folt. fel. rhe 8Sd foL eoMhiiiif of worto sot la tto MmUt^-Ct acMi,n.4H.—Amm tmk
aw coiptote editwii w commiiiwid by NUbukr, aad wettowd after h» Joth by /. BiUm »ad othw, aaJf th> tmpitm <f Ihi

Amimj at flekocM at Bcriin, 9B vob. 9. paUtohad, l«8-Sa CC BibL Ayok U. 401. Much ow gf Iha Byautiae writan wm

■nadabf OiUon, la hb DtdUm and FM of Ika Jbman Empln.-Aim> bj L. OmHn, ia hk IIMom dt CoMiaiUwk^ derail la
niaa da i'aadaa JartiaJ«qa>k la Sa da l>tepb« traduUt mm to oKftaMoc fm. Pw. ICHb ti f«b 12.

% 239 b. In relation to Biography, we may remark that, as a department of compo-
sition, it seems to have been almost wholly overlooked by the earlier Greeks. In the
?)riod between Augustus and Constantino it received more attention. The Lives of
lutareh, already alluded to (( 238), are the most valuable productions in Gredaa
biography. In the 3d century we find two biographical works, the Lives of Diogenes
Laertius and the Lives of Philostratns, which are imporunt sources of information
respectinff the ancient philosophy. We may also mention here the Lives of Moses and
some of the Patriarchs, by PhUo the Jew, of Alexandria ; and likewise the biographical
pieces of Porphyry (cf. ^ 199). — After Constaniine, we have the Lives of Eunttjrims,
and the works of a large number of the Byzantine writers, one class of them being,
as we have just remarked, denominated biographers*

$ 240. We now proceed to notice separately the most distinguished Greek
Historians, giving first some general references.

Oa tha Graak hJatoriaa* «eMnIly.->0. /. Vmitu» Da Hiilorieh Gnda. Li^d. Bat 1661. 4. ad. by WWamiim. Upt. ISBia
£. & Oh An, Upifaml Ubnry of RlHoriiM. Tiaoil. rram PtMcfa. Load. 17IIB. 8 volt. 18.-^. Q. Unmd, BibUathm BMo-
riec L|& 1788-1808. II volh S. Th« woffc coalaiaa a aoliea of Um aolbon aadaat or aedara wbe ha«« writiw oa Iba hbtacy

of Grecian or Boman allhin, or oe tiw Uiloiy of aay paopla; wi(b MOMaeeeoat of tkdr pradacHoaa. Tha fellowior ia a «alaa>

bla eeUactioa. J, O. EtcUunu Atttiqm Htoloria ai Ipat ?at Scriptoran Give. aamlkMiibai cortaita. Upk 1811. 4 vvh. a ft
fcnm a conplcfa body of aaeieat hutmr* floaipOHd of catrada from Grwk aaibon, anaafMi ia lyiiwiiaHa ordar. Oa Iha mmwm
ara ladkaled iba arvaaMat, tk book aad chaptar of Iba aalber wbaoea caeb paaa^a n lakaa, and (ha data. Tba 111 voL b dcMtal
iDtbaampiraiaadifaUHorAkIa; ttaoadloOiweai ttia Sd and dih to Italy. Eicfabora abo poMMtad adarilarOollaetlo^diatni
Inm lAiia amhon, Antifua VM«ia la ipdi vat 8erlpioniai Lat. aanatioaibw. Upa. 1811. 8 toIi. 8.— A pbn fcr iwliaf tba
aacianl hnloriaaa, h (ivni In FriaMlt^t LaeturM oa Hbtofy (la«t. as.- laiv) | alto ia 2y<(r*« Elaatcab of irntDry (pC L aaet «8|.
— Wa amy flBanlioa ban /. M. OaO, Lt PhilolofBak on Recbarebai bbioiiqaM, BiliUirat, fdatrapbiqaaib gnaiBMtbalai, bOk
tftV*^ Hdradola, Tbacydlda^ Zawpban, Polyba, *c Par. 1814-88. Si vola. 8. wilb an Alias of 107 plalH, 41a.

i 241. Herodotus^ of Halicamassus in Caria, flourished B. C. about 450. He
is the oldest Greek historian whose whole works are preserved.

1 u. His History, in 9 books, which have been named after the nine muses, was
originally rehearsed in part at the Olympic games, and at the Panaihensean festivals
of Athens, and ultimately iniproved and finished at Thurium in Lower Italv. Its main
subject is the history of the Crreeks, whose conflicts with the Persians he details down
to the battle of Mycale ; but he also introduces much that pertains to the Egyptians
and Lydians. That he wrote in his 44th year, is a circumstance of some importance
in reference to his chronology. His style is characterized by dignity and simplidty
united, and presents a striking resemblance to the poetical drapery of Homer, the more
obvious perfiapa from being m the Ionic dialect. The contents of the work are also
highly instructive and useful ; although some things in it have no sufficient evidence to

p. y. HISTORIANS. THVCTDIDES. XENOPHON.

Bupport thcTn. He too readily adopted as matter of fact whatever the Egyptian prieste
related to hiiii, either from traditionary reports, or possibly from their own arbitrary
invention. It must be remembered, that he offers many things merely as popular
traditions and rumors.

Tlw nmM or tiM miHM an aM to law bMD given to Ibe diflb«Bt booki of Haradota br tta hcoma, 1^
■BdmuoarwhenrabaanedatdMgBiDn. ItiraastaiMorthiMratemtbdialT^iieyribfawitaActal toleKn.--5MMI,lLl40,tt.
JloSt'n, Hut. or Fdite Levnins, eh. H. art. I. Met I.

8. Plutarch boldly atsailed the veracity of Herodotae, in hie irfece styled UipX rif; *Hpo^drev
KOKotiBtiai, The Father of History ie ably defended by a modem, the Abbe Oenun.

8m Jfcm. Acad. buer. tol. lis. p. 116. xvL p. 19a xxiU. p. m.-^Lankm', u dtod balo».-<MlfiM, Hbt. Gwew. SeMBthr.
ICZ^A £itUt,ne (H Slq>hHiw), Apoiogl« poor Haradolfi. U fltf, 179^ S tob. 19.

8. E<litioiH.-B.-^ScftunffMttiMr, Or. ft UL ftnih. 1816. 6 ?oli. 8. rqir. Lood. 1817. 6 ?ob. 8. To tbb bdonft <1m Uskm
Brvdottum, l>y the $amt editor, pubtnbed 1824. 2 vota. &— T. QaUford. Oxt. 1894. Lpe. 1826. 4 vola. & Or. oolf ; bat ^rich

u eiplanloiT notak" The Note nay be parcbMed wpentdj. F— iVinoqi*, hj Aldm. Yn. 1502. M.—QdU, Gt. ft Let.

Load. 1679k bL—mmtUnf, Or. ft Let Anet I76& foL nacb oeMmled. tL^Laing, Or. ft Let Ediab. 1806. 7 Yob. 81

"Batfmk, Or. Laeeg. I80a 8 vole. & <«ddUed with trpocraphicii erren."— Seftutts (the parte relathic to Oie war with (be
PaniaiiB). Halle, 1809. 9 vela.-0. A SbM/t, Or. ft Let Liph 18ZS. 8 voU. 8.-7. C. F. BUhr. Lpi. 183& 4 volt. 8. Gr. oely ;
GeiebrA teit { with dhaertatton, ftc, and napa.-§ O. Long, with Engliab Notea. Loud. 1883. & with a Sonmary of Hend. end
eopiew Indec, publbbed I8SB. 8.-C. W. SUdm; with Engl. Nolea. Lood. 1838. 8 voli. &-§ Struetf In the MibUoth. of Jeeobe
aad Rort.— t a & IVhitUr, Boat 1849. 9 vela, text of ScbweigMeeer, with EngL Notea.

4. TraisUlioBi.-GenBeB.-I>«g»i. FrankC. I784-BI. 6 rols. 8. J. XonflL Bert 1818. 1894. 9 vola. & " bert far e phUolO'

gian." French —Lanktr. Tu. I7«6. 7 tola. & 1802. B vole. 8.— In OatPt ed. Or. ft Fr. Far, 1821. 4 vob. 8. ^Ei^lMh.—

JUUm. Load. 1791. 1812. 4 voh. ft, enriched with valuable Dotr8.*-.i>. E, Uurmt, Qxf. 1837. 9 nla. 8.

6. niartnUiTe.->/>br<i Dictkw. loaieun Oraeo-Lat fte. new edit OxIL 1891. 8. SfruiM, of KAoigaberg, bea been prapering n
■ew Lezieoo of Heradotne. Cf. f 7. 4. (/).— JorAedk, Appantn ad Hcrodotom lateUJgendam. Lemg. I7B&-89. 5 vohL 9.—
Owner, Conneet Herodotaa. Lpb 1819. t^ConiL #V. dt Fobu^, Sopplement e PHcfodote de Larcber, fte. Vu. 1806l
t Mb. &— JbancB, OeQgraphicel System of Heredotua, fte. 9d ed. Lood. 1890. 2 vob. a with n»pa.— Jl. O. Kittukr^ DbMittl^
en the Geography of Rerodotoa, with Renarchea into the Hbtoiy of the Seythieaa, G«la>, end SarmatUm; Irani, from Gennen.
OiL 189a &-..£. Vf^ardmburg, DiMort de neUva ainplidtele Herodoti. Lngd. Bat. 188a 8.-0. L, Ik^m, de vita Herodoli.
Bert 1827. 8.-7. Hitzig^ De Cedyti urbe Herodotee. GMt. 1829. 4.— P. H. Lartlkr, Nolea on Berodotua, tranal. from the Fnaefab
Load. 1897. 9 vob. 8.

, § 342. ThucySidts^ an Athenian, flourished a little after Herodotus, B. C.
about 420. His master in rhetoric was Antiphon. In the Peloponnesian war
he was a commander of the Athenian allies.

1 u. D urine his banishment from his natiye city, he prepared the materials for his
History, of wrnich that war forms the subject. His work does not, however, contain
an account of the whole war, but terminates with the beginning of the 21st year. It
is characterized by an impartial love of truth, and a style noble and highly cultivated,
yet sometimes obscure from its very closeness and fullness of thoug[ht. The ancients
viewed him aa a model of good Attic ; and Demosthenes formed his style upon Thu-
cydides. The History is usually divided into 8 books, sometimes 13. Of most of the
incidents related, he was himself an eye-witness ; the rest he collected with great di- .
ligence and careful scrutiny.

2. On his banishment he retired to Scaptesyle in Thrace, where his wife owned a
valuable mine, and spent there 20 years, returning, it is said, near the time when
Athens fell into the hands of the Spartans under Lysander, B. C. 404.

&ft0B, ii. lS7.-AnM, Dbooime oo the Ufa of Thueydldea, in hbTrand. cited below.— JBoBte, MIto Leanlab eh. fl. nit 1.
act 9.

9. E«ltli«aa.~-B.— BrUbr, Or. ft Ut OA 1884. 4 eob. 8. with Oreak edioik end notea of Wom and Dnker.-|& F. Pofpa,
C»r. Lipe. I88I.9& 10 fob. 8. aaid lo be very bemed and coBpMe.-.OoMftte> and Bumr, Or. ft Ut Lps. 1790-1804. 8 ? otau 4.
Belter eaivpr. (by PritMUH Lood. 1819. 6 vob. ^.-F. 09tUr, 2d ed. Lpe. I8M. 9 vob. 8. with Udn notee; caneMeied ae one

Id the beat far cemnwn oae. r^Prinapt, by Aldus. Ven. ISR. M.^Jtmta. Fior. 16861 tcL-B. Stephamu, Or. ft Ut

Fhr. 1664. UL-Otdton, Gr. ft Ut Oif. 1691 fot cnMNnlcd.— Z}kA», Or. ft LO. Anet ITSt 9 vote. foL— The Blpoml, Or.

ft Let 1788. 6 rob. 8. E.-P. fibiMky, Gr. ft Ut Edink 1804. 8 vob. 19. eenmte and very good.-/. B. OoOj Or. Ut ft

GalL Par. 1807. 19 vob. & with map* and ptatOB.-a P. P. Hoodt Lpe. 1890. 8 vole. 8. teit, with brief notee.— tem^ Or. ft
Let with acholia. Load. I888L 4 voii. 8.-& 7 BtoomjUd. Lond. 188a 8 vob. IS. n good adiool ed. with EngL BfBiM.-7. Jr^
MflfaL Oaf. 1836. 8 vob. 8. with mepa frocD eetnal anrvay ; eonaidered good.

4. Tr.nabtioaa.-Gamieai.-flUbiMntk Leng. 1760. & edit by Bniow. Umg. 1888. &— Jfab ^aeoM, DQa»ld. ISOK.

4 vola. 8. rraaeh.-L(ia9iM. Per. 1795. 4 vob. l-OoO, ea above clled^-X P. Didat, Phr. 1888. 4Tota. 8L with the Or.

tBKt EngrHb.-AnJM. Lood. 17081 4th ed. 1801 9 vob. & Phil. 1918.-& T. BUmmfiM. Load. 1818L 8 vobb 8. ^Mo-

dmm Greek, by N. tMoM {Dmika^ with orig. test Vtam. I80& 10 vola. 1

1 DliBtratiTeL-r. P. Boudkt, Oonuneat Critid in Thnc. Upt. 1811 8.->& P. Poppo, Oha. Grit b Thoe. Upfc 1811 8.—
C^vuncr, Herodot oed Thncyd. Verraeh cioer athera Wordignng Ihrer hblofbehen GmndifttMb Lpt 1791-I. P. Otpadm, d«
PtoidM hodetione roodni Thoe. il 86. Lipe. 1881. 8.-/X E, Afe^, Perielb ap. Thee, ontio Nn. eipl. Cbn. 1882. 1-SnriM.
Dbceonaa oe Tbueydidee and hb Htatory, pvet to TramL abore ei(Bd.-£cE. Thueydidmun, a Or. and Engl. Diet Lond. 1894. 1,
—Mapi and Plant illiiatrative of Thneydidca end Herodotoi. OxL 1898. 8 vob. S-F. OBItor, De dm et origin* SyiMiunrvin a«
•xpllcaodamThoeydidbhbtorinm. Lipe. 1818. 8.

$ 243. Xenophon has already been named among the philosophers ($ 186).
He is also distinguished as an historian.

1 u. His style is peculiarly excellent in narrative, being uniformly simple, tasteful,
and agreeable. The work entitled 'EKXrivuci comprises 7 books, and may be considered
as a continuation of Tbucydides. It relates the closing scenes of the Peloponnesian
67 3Y

690 HISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

wftr, and carries on the history of the Greeks and Persians down to the battle of Mao*
tinea. The Expediiion of CyruSt KHpov 'ApoPains, is also in seven books, and gives an
account of the attempts of the younger Cyrus, and the celebrated retreat of the 10,000
Greeks.

2. The CyropadiOf Kipov vtuUia, is usually ranked as an historical work, although
some place it amon^ the philosophical writings of Xenophon. It consists of 8 books,
unfolding the education and life of the elder Cyrus. Many, both ancients and moderns,
have considered it as a sort of historical and political romance. Cicero remarks (lib.
1. Ep. 1. ad Q.)that Xenophon's deilgn was not so much to follow truth as to eive a
model of a just government. There are several points of discrepancy between Xeno-
1 Hei

phon and Herodotus in giving the history of Cyrus, especially in reference to the cir-
cumstances of his birth, the manner of his uniting the Median and Persian thrones,
and the occasion of his death.

Cl oanu, Hhl. Onwa, eb. vii. inii. (vol. i. p. 916. uid QL p. 601. Load. t80!.)-Jil(Aini; A. lUlL mC 1 (««L tS. p^ 161
Ami. t828).->ScAN{, U. p. 172, and rafereaeM 11iM« {fTcn.

1 EditJoM.^Whole Worke.Mf IM. Hellaaiea. B«rt, /. O. JdhmUkr. Lpi. ISL 8.~JAn0, Or. a Ut

I4W. 177a 8.— Jofte. Lps. 1821 a— £. ZXtufof/. OxC 1881. a ABtbatii, AilcMtiffn,Or.aLiL OiL17a&. & oflca

npr. Bat, Cunt>. I78S. a wilb Pbnoii% addanda^JUon. GMt l8Ba 8 vob. a— C. O. JEVKfv. HaL 1898. a with tatMaA

Bota in Latin.— JBL A Aviv, with EnffL Birtea. Lood. I8S1. a C r r 0 p » d i a, ill<tdUiiio»H Or. a LaL Oit 1797. 4. oAm

npr. Lalflrt, Oif. 1819. & (lit Am. PhiL I80& a)-Avpou Lpc 1881. S.—WkAkaUn. Slullf. 18B. a— Armmmn, )^Mith
BibUotbaca,~-A H. Barkar, wilb Ei«l. NoIm and Qneatioaii Loud. 1881 IL

4. TrainlatioH.-6«rnaB.— C^reriiidiih by lAyv. Fnnkr. 1811 1^-Jnghiito, by flUfaort, U ad. Brad. IflS. Bw-au»

tiiaa, bjr BoHuik. Fraakf. 1783. 1 Franeh.— CV*«P> ^ '^W^' f»' ITH.-Jhtab. by Lvtim. fu. YVm. 9 fda. B.

(fWibnoMfin, p. 9I8>. En(lith.-^nai. by £. apdman. Load. 1742. 1 By JV. & AnttA, Gr. a iBfL wifb Mlia. Laal

18M. a— ffcBciuea, by W. AnOA. Lood. 177a K,-C^rap, by 4rtl<y. (An. ad. PhiL 1811 8).

1 niiHtrativa.— flicAtr, KonuiMiilar ttbar dia CyropL («d. XWnBl). Lpi. 1801 1— F. A. JpmwMWW, D» Bpflof d« Cyvo-
ladia arttatart. Lps. I8II 1-C. SiffmMmr^ Oa Cjrto Zakophontik Maam 1821 4.-V. ftark, Oa VHa Cmt, h CynprnUtt
ae. L119L IflSl l-J. jr. AUmaim, WOrtarborb lu Aoabuii nod C]mpBdla. Caite. 1811 1— l>mMr, da ZawphoalB bb-
tarieo. Lipa. 1798. 1— AcniuB, lUuatrationi of tba EipeditioBa of Cyrat and Retraat of tba Tn Thoanad. Land. 1814. 4^-%n»
fwiar, alw Bonier, ror Cjropudia, in Hiat. Aead. dm hutr. ii. 41 vi. 401— /VwcC, on Gaa(r. ef Cynp. la (ba Jftm. JaadL i*. 6tt.
— fT. Jliniwcrth, On the Cilieiaa and Sfrlaa Oalaa (■wntkMwd bj Xenopboa), io Iha Jbunwl 1/ JCmA /Bay. Oat^. Ax. mL fffi.
p. 181— W. nriUimiu, Eany on rhe Oaognphy of Ibe Anabatic Loud. 1889L-M|pi and Plant Hhatraliva of Xanopboa and Wty
Mw. Oit 1889. 1-& IT. fitifw. Da aotbealia Aaabaaaoa Xaa. Hal. I&K. 1

$ 344. Ctesias lived in the same period, B. 0. aboat 400. He was a native
of C nidus in Caria, and a physician by profession.

1 u. He wrote a work on the Assyrian and Persian history (ncp9c«3v), in 23 books ;
and also one book on India (IvSuciiy). He employed the Ionic dialect, and his style ia
commended by the ancient grammarians. The credibility of his accounts has been
often questioned, yet there are many considerations that weigh in favor of it. The
loss ofhis works is much to be regretted. We have some fragments of both, however,
preserved in Photius.

9. Ctesias Is at variance in many pointi with both Herodotai and Xenopbon. His history of
India sboiinds with fables, some of which are supposed to have arisen from ascribing an actual
existence to such bieroglyphical and emblematic figures as are still found on the roias of Perse*
polls.

/khStt, It. 174. tii. 411-0«h>yl^ Mm. da PAead. daa laaer. lonk dv.

1 Tba ffumanto of Clawaa ara giTaa to maay adittoaa of Hawdfltaa. Sajiairtaly, B. SUf^anita. Fu-.16S7.-AUm. GSK.
I88S.1— AUr. Fraakr.l8B4.

$ 245. Polyhiuin of Megalopolis in Arcadia, flourished between 900 and 150
B. 0. distinguished as a statesman and a warrior. He lived many yean at
Rome, where he became an intimate friend of the younger Scipio; tne last six
years of his life were passod in his native land.

1 u. His work, entitled "Ixmpia KaOoXtKh, General History^ consists of 40 books ; and
is a universal history for the period of 53 years, from the beginning of the second Punic
war to the the reduction of Macedonia under Perseus, 6. C. 167. We have only the
iirat 5 books entire, and some fragments of the rest as far as the 17th. Polybius was
the author of a new method of treating history, expressed by the term vragmatic. His
details of military operations are more particular and interesting from nis personal ex-
perience in the military art. His style is not pure and classical, yet it is vigoroua and
manly, and evinces both learning and reflection.

2. *' Polybius," says Sch51l, " gave a new character to history, and created a new
kind, Vhistoire raisonndej or pragmatique (vpay^arucfi). Not content with merely relat-
ing events, he unfolds their causes, and explains their consequences. He paints cha-
racters and passes sentence upon actions. Thus he forms the jud^nient of nis reader,
and prompts the reflections which miky prepare him for the administration of public
affairs (jr/wy/iara),"— -Cf. Cicero de Or. ii. 5. — Of the books after the 17th we have no
remains, except what is found in two meager abridgments, which the emperor Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus caused to be made. — Polybius was born B. C. 205, and died
B C. \23.—Schdlh iii. 226—230.
1 Editboa.— B.-^5dkt0nffMhMir, Gr. ft LaL Lpc. 178»-9S. 9 tola. 1 wilb a eofkm Lexiem M^AteiMm. Bsfr. Oit lOA

p. y. HISTORIANS. DIODORUS. DIONTSIUS. JOSEPHUS. 531

Svokfl. T^-Prinaip»,\iy0ti9pmutQr,htM. Bagta. ISaO. foL-JrkniM, Qt. k ImL Bm. 1649L fcL-^Ount&on, Gr. *

lAt r»T. len. M. bigUy emumiA-'anncmiuM. Or. k Lai. Antar. 1670. 3 tdU. 8.— A^ncrtt, Gr. k LmL Lps. 1764. 3 vob. 8.

4. 'HttnUtiaaik-Oennub-.J. IP. Amttei. Wrim. ISUi & Fmcb.— Fl TAvi/Ntr, with comnMnt of Chn. iUarA Far.

I7S7. 6 f oh. 4. uid with SuppL AbM. 1753. 7 volt. 4. Basliab.-/biN|)<cin. Load. 1772. 4 f«ls. 8. 1809. 3 fob. 8. Cf.

JA«t,ll. laOL

6. inwlmti*e.^X«f)iriiia, CooiimoI. ad Fblybiom, cited P. IIL § 275.^Jlafte, AnimadTenioaea ad PoI.tUbib. Lipi. 1783. 8.—
/. ifaer, CrUkiHM oa Pdybiiia, Ac Glaag. 1768. l2.~Drydm*t ClwiMrter U Folybiua, kc^-Ute rafenaeas § 631. 4.

§ 246. Diodonu Siculus, of Argyrium, lived under Julius Csesar and Augus-
tus. By liis travels over a j^reatf portion of Europe and Asia, and also in Egypt,
and by a diligent perusal ofthe earlier Greek and Latin historians, he prepared
materials for his great historical work.

1 «. This is composed of 40 books, under the title of B(^Xio0^<ni {orvpuri^, extending
from the earliest times down to Cassar's Gallic war, B. C. about 60. A large part of
the work is lost; we have only 15 books (viz. 1-5 and 11-20), with fragments uf the
rest. It is marked by a careful indication of the order of time, but has less merit in
point of style, or accuracy in other respects.

3. Diodonis employed 30 years in complPtlnff hii Hwtorieal lAhrary, For a view of the plan
a«d contenu, we rerer to Sckdll^ vol. iv. 81, and Rolling Polite Learning, cli. ii. art. 1. sect. 6.

a. Ediiiona.— B.— £. Dmiarf, Lipa. 1828-31. 5 Tola. & " Ibe nwat criiical aad valoabie."— liTcyiM ^ Earing, Or. k Lat B-

pcol, I7l0-i8r)7. U tola. i.—B'iudifif, Gr. ft Lat. Aaitt. 1746. 2 rob. fol. F.— ^rinoffw, bjr Oteogpwa. Baa. 1S30. 4. (bka.

19-20.)— IL Stepkama. Far. 1559. fol. (10 bka. l-o k 1 1-13.)— iZAodonumn, Gr. k Uu Haa. 1804. fel.

4. TnnsUtioBi.— Gentian.— ^IrofA ^ KaUwaMW. Fraakf. 176a>S7. 6 vola. 8. Flcadw-^Ma Tbmaon. ftr. 1777. 7 vola.

IS. EoElub.-G. Booth. Load. I72l. fiiL

§ 247. Dionysius Halicarruuseus has been mentioned among the rhetoricians
($ 1 17). He lived 22 years at Rome, and there collected the materials for his
Raman ArcIoBology,

1 M. This work, 'ApxawXoyfo 'Pw/iair^, comprised 20 books, and was designed to
make know^n to the Greeks the origin, history, and constitution of the Romans. It
extends from the buildinc of the cilv to the beginning of the first Punic war. There
are now extant only the first 11 books, and some fragments of the rest, in pi^rt recently
discovered by MaL The extant books bring the history to the year o\ Rome 312,
B. C 442. His narrative is not wholly impartial, bemg often too favorable to the Romans,
and his style is not unexceptionable. Yet we may obtain from this work the best
insight of the Roman system and constitution, because the author was led, in explainmg
to the Greeks a novel and strange subject, to enter into particulars much more than
the Roman writers needed to do.

5. We learn from Photiua, tliat Dinnyaiut made an abridgment of his work in 5 bookf. JIfai
snppoaed tie liad discovered this abridgment in a manuscript in tlie Ambrosian Library at Milan ;
but llie specimen published by tiim does not justify the opinion.

&A8II, VOL IT. pb 10a-£. L. StnoMf Ueber dia too A. Maioa b^annt gainaehtea BmcIwtOdce dea DlenyBiaa, ke. Kflaigib.
1820. S.

& There haTC beao fbrae adilkioB of the Whole Worka.—Aineqw, tbti <it SylbtattOr. k LaL Fraakf. 1886. StoIi. fel.
Ctbera wer« edithiaa ia Lalia au-liar).— MitiiotH Gr. k UL 0x1. 1704. B Tola, fel.— JbdJte, Or. k Ut m4-77. 8 Tola. 8.— A
beticr edition wanled^-The Arch ao logy, R. SicpAanuf. Par. 1S46. fel. (with other worin).— Orimm. Lpau 1786. 8. (bat
eoBtaioiog odIt a pari).— The rracnwol diacotared in ibe Amb. Libr. wai poblbhed by Mat. Mil. 1816. 4. Rapr. rnakL 1817. &

4. TraaaialioDa of the ^frvAaBoloffy.— Oermaa.- Soubr. Leog. ITTI-'n. 2 voh. 8.— —Preach.— Jioy 4r BtUanger, Par. 1789L
t aoh. 4. IKW. 6 Tola. 8. Ei«liah.— fid. Updmuu Lend. 1758. 4 Tola. 4.

& n:uilTalife — PMir-AidU, and Awul-JteAtlte, oa iha aotheatieity of Dioaraioa, Ac. Ia (be Man. U VhutUul, C 1 aa a c d*HkL
if iMt. dfne. ToL V. p. 143.— Axite, Ofaarrrat. on Rom. Senate, Okwjraiua Halye. Ac. Load. 1768. 4.— S. Aanlay, RcTiew of
AoteV Obaervatioaa, Ac Load. 1768. S^P. F. ScftiiJin, Da DioBTa. HaL bitlorico, Ac Haideib. 1881. A^W. Buut, Da Oio>
Dyaii Hal. vita et iiJ«cnio. BerL 1841. 4.

$ 248. Flavins JosephtUy the Jew, was horn at Jerusalem A. D. 37. He pos-
sessed a largre knowledge of the world, united to much familiarity with Greek
learning. Belonging to the sect of the Pharisees, and being a descendant from
the royal Asmonsean family, he held the prefecture of Galileea with much repu-
tation. He became a prisoner to Vespasian, but obtained his freedom and ac-
companied Titus during the siege of Jerusalem. Afterwards he lived at Rome.

1 u. His Jewish Wars, in 7 books, he wrote originally in Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic,
afterwards in Greek (loviaXKli 'umpia wepi a\<Maos) m oraer to present the work to the
emperor. Subsequently he composed his Jewish Antiquities (lov6aXKii 'A/ixaioXoyia), in
20 books, contaimng the history of the Jews and their ancestors from the creation to
the 12th year of the emperor Nero. The genuineness of a passage ofthe 18th book,
respecting Christ, is very questionable, and is by many oonsiderea as an interpolation.
We have also from Josephus a work in two books on the antiquity of the Jewish
nation, and an autobiography. With all their defects the writings of this author are
of great value in illustrating the Bible and the history of religion.

2. The work on the antiquity of the nation is in reply to Apion, a grammarian of
Alexandria. — A work styled Eis ^AoKKoPaiovs Xdyog (found in some editions of the apo

683 HI0TORT OF ORBSK LITERATURX.

crypbal scriptures ss the fourth hook of Maeeabeea) hss been erroneously sacribed to

Josephus.

^■ccoMtorttodiMMim nipeeUactlMdbpatoJpMigBaboTeBMoHeMiI, bKlToi in AASII (voL If. p^ 116>.-0t if. ApUr,
DwMimteB wpoB tlw ■ecpgnt wppowd lo haw bw glw of CbrWt by Jowpbofc Ozt 174*. &

I. EdllloM^WheU Worki,bMt,A«i«M,Or.ftLal. OsCITM. t voh. M.— AMMfVMip. Or. * Ut lMtniS.i«rik
M.— OfayfiHIr.Or. *Ut Lf«. I7U.S vola. & (prantahv to b« thi b«l, b«l BateMBpletad «« mvmMoT thi «dMocH dnlh.>-
Aulo-Biocrtpbjr.Or.kUL AiOil Braw. I7ML 8.— DeBallo Jndaico. & Gtar*Ma,Or.ft UC Oat IBS7. 9 voli. 1.

4. TnMl«iioM.-UUB.-.AHyiiHtt (or Camiodonu). MTQ. OnrnM^Odhm. Stmb. IMI. fcL^-Ori. ZOr. 17*6. • i«k H

8paanh.-<JL A Arfmrte. S»«. 1498. M. FrMcb.— Korwrf (priDtor). Pw. 14«L fbl^-OilW. Pfer. I76& 4 nla. 4.— '-

Itelmn.~F1or«iK», 1491 toL EndiA— mUiton. Load. 1737. IbL ofMi nprlAlod. LoML IMl. S. wilk lauododiM bf A

SlcUcNf, aad pialM.

$ 249. Plutarch was named among the philoBOphera ($ 195), bat also d«-
tenres a place with the historians.

1. In his Parallel Lives, Biot iropaXXirXoi, he exhibits and compares, in a very full and
instructive manner, the characters of the most distinguished Greeks and Romans.
There are 22 parallels, giving the lives and characters of 44 persons ; with which is
connected the biography of 5 individuals taken singly. The lives of several others,
said to have been written by him, are now lost.

Tho Uvm of PtutarA Kivo boea aalfomllj eooMdored at a rich ImMi* for tbo antlqiary, tha gtataamaa, and tho actelar. Tlmf

eeotalD dtaticM ofa raai Doaibor ofaodoBt aaihon, aiaoyof whom tfo wholly lost Htam, do ftwliboi ot aaelorit^e «B.faraL

Pint. CommontalioMa. Goit I890L &— J. Lion, Do ordiM quo Plularcboa ? ilaa aeripacrit. Oott 1819. 4.

2. We have several other works of an historical character from him ; among them,
Roman Questions (AiMai T(t>/iaViraO and Grecian Questions (AiVi'at 'EXXiyyuraO, in Which
he discufwes various points of Greek and Roman antiquities ; Comparison of analogous
events in Greek and Roman history; On the fortune of Alexander, &c. 1 he Litms sf
the ten orators, ascribed to him (^ 99), is not considered as genuine. — A son of Pluiarcn,
named Iximprias, formed a catalogue of his father's works, styled UXm-afUcov BiffXitm
mval, which is preserved in part, and given in Fabricius. — SchdU, vol. iv. 118-163.

X Tho Litm ara poblUbad io Ihe aditloaa oT tho %akok teorJkf, citad \ 196.— Scparaldjr, Prinapt, by Jbnto. FioraMO, 1917. M.
—Baal, Bryan «■ Du Soul, Or. k Ul Lood. ITIH 6 rol*. 4.-Coray. Par. I809l 9 tola. 8. with Mtaa io aadorB Gr«ab;.-4 O. H.

SeMftr (in Tiuinuf*i Coll.) Rcpr. Loud. 1829. 6 roll. 12..-) F. Jaeaba, is Ihe JiWiolAaM, IIQ6. OTodiiiooa t* PmtiaOm^ Una,

we mentiOD the followiDf. /. C. Alrf, Aniltua Paulua and Timolcoo. Solikb. 1838. a—/. C. /*. Btikr, Aleibiodca. HcUoib^ ML
S.—A. 8. yVKtl, Bratoa. Turk. I8S8 S.—C. A'lUmif, Themialoclca. Lipa. ISSI. & Porielaa. Lipa. 1888. a-Livoi of tha 7W
cratcn, A. rTtftarrrunn, Quadlinb. 1888. & witti Dotoi aad an trnj raapoetins tho author.

4. Timoaiatioaa.— Ulin.— CamfMniM. Sen. 1840. 2 mil. M. Tho Livaa wara pobliabad h taUa oorrioM aavoral tiaa bafen

Ibo fint odit. lo OfMk. Oomaa.— iTalhMaMr. Mi«d. t799-ieoa tO toh. 8.— DMtar, la tbo ColIoetloB oT 7b/al, Se. — Fiifc

-nlmyot, Whelo Worki of P. (roc ad.) Pkr. 1784. 18 vola. 4. (et /^lAniMim, p. 894.)— i9wte>. (rac. od.) Pfer. 1619. IS nib la

Eagli«h.~J. 4- W. ZMfAonM. LmmI. ITia 6 rola. a with aolaa aad a Lib ofPlntanh. Sooanl tkaoa Nfirialad. LaaL I8«l.

faofoa wUb M portniia^

% 250. FUxoius Jrriantu^ of Nicomedia, in the 2d century, has already been
mentioned among the philosophers ($ 194^. He was not without celebrity as
a writer of history, in which department he was a very successful imitator of
Xenophon.

1 u. He composed an account of the Expedition of Alexander in 7 books. 'larsptA
d»a(iatmai 'Akt\a»ifoo 0tfi\U ^, and a work on the Affairs of India, 'L^tira, which con-
tinues the history of Alexander. The latter has been considered as the 8th book of
the former, but without grounds, although there is indeed a connection by the subject.
The former is written in the Attic dialect ; the latter, in the Ionic. In the latter work,
he borrowed much from the Periplus of Nearchus.

llM Poriploa of NnrchD^ bm mentioocd, ia foond In Aidbon, Goo«r Mia. aa dtod f 90a 9.-8oa abo W. Fitumt, Vow oT
Vnrdm, ke. dlod below.— Cf. P. TV. f 2T.

2. Arrian wrote also several other historical works, which are lost ; among them a
history of Parthia, TlapBiKi, in 17 books; of Bithynia, Rflnyiajra, in 8 books; of the
times subsequent to Alexander, Tai intra 'AXclavffo\\ — There are still extant, besides what
has here been named and his philosophical writings (cf. % 194), a treatise on Tactics,
^Vcx^n TwriKh] another on the Chase, Kwijycrexdf ; and a Periplus of the Black Sea,
RrpiirXovs Etfrtivo. A Periplus of the Red Sea, 'EpvBpSs doXoovw, also bears his name.—
SchdU, iv. 166. V. 266, 306.

3. Editiona.— Whole Worka. Tbo oalyoditloa, J. C. Borhedu Ltmf. 1788. IBM. 8 vol*, a aot highir eoaaoadad.-
Eipod. of Alex. Bcot,Sc*m{Hla',Qr. a Ut Lps. I79& &-V. £. £Umd(. KOnlRtb. 192. 2 rnla. a Or. only ; boat lail,

with oiplanatnrT notoa. 1 n d i a, Sekmudtr. Hal. I78& a A sood nlition of both Omm lofether, HapM (by SeAnaid), Or. ft

Lat. AiiMt. 1757. 9 ? ola. 8.— Ta e t i ea.— B«at, Blanevd, Gr. ft fat. AoMt. 1881 oootaiaiiw alio the Paipli aad CAoM. The
Ptripli are alio ia Atdion, Geof. Mia. eilad S 90S. 9.— The Periplua of Iha Erytkr. Ska, ie IF. ftnemt, Vo]ra(e oT Newthoa Aoa
the lodna, aad Periplua of tho Eiyttraaa Sao. Gr. ft Ea(. Load. 1797. I8ia 8 fob. 4.— The CAoM, ia Zamfa Ptolit. of XcMpba^
died { 188. 3.

4. TTaaablioaa.-sflaantfa'f Expedition. OonauL- Borikcdl. PnakL I790-99. 8 vola. a Froaeh.— Ckaaoavrf. Hr.

IVa. 8 fok a luliaa— Lourw. Venm. 173a 4. Ei«liah.-/. Jloek. Land. 1799l rac ad. 1814. S rob. t.—Pnipima tt M.

Bra, by Fiinemf, aa above cited.

ft. UlMtnUTo.— P. 0. Chf$, ConiBoaL i««ra|ih. h Arr. da Ezpedit AlonadrL Lagfi. im. 4. with >■«•.

P.y. HISTORIANS. APPIANUS. CASSIUS, ETC. 533

§ 251. j9ppianu8 of Alexandria flourished at Rome as a lawyer, in the 2d cen-
tury, in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, and finally acquired
the office of imperial procurator.

1 u. He wrote a Soman Hittory, 'Irropfa Twfurnr^, in 24 books, of which we have
only 11, with some fragments. It extends from the destruction of Troy to the time of
Augustus. The order of narration is not chronological, but the events are arranged
with reference to the countries or the nations particularly concerned; thus in different
divisions he treats of different wars, in which the Romans were engaged, as e. g. the
Punic, Parthian, Iberian or Spanish, Syrian, Mithridatic, &c. In this work much is
borrowed from others, especially from rolybius and Plutarch. It is particularly ser-
viceable in giving an idea of the Roman system of war and military afiairs.

S. In bis preface, Appian statei the reason of his renonncinf synchronism as a principle of
historical arrangement ; viz. ihe weariness occasioned by being obliged to turn the attention
from province to province as the scene of events is changed ; to hurry, for example, from Car-
thage to Spain, from S«)ain to Sicily, from Sicily to Macedonia, and thence again to Carrhage.
The style of Appian is formed on that of Poiybius, hot is inferior to it. lie ii charged with par-
tiality in fiivor of the Romans.

ftUUC, iv. p. m-nt„—J. ScAtMif AOhmt, Ob Appimn, in bb OpoMula Aadtmlta. Argnl. I80«. 9.

a. EditbDt.— The txHt, SehwnghdMtr, Or. a Lat L,|ia. 1786. S vob. 8. F.— /VtnofM, bj C. Sttpianui. r«r. ItBI. foi.—

B. SUphmnUf Gr. k LaU Oco. ISBO. foL— raituf, Or. k UX. AawU mO. 2 Tola. 8. ^B.-«eM/<r, in ibe CoU. of TaochaiUb

4 rala. 18.

4. Tramlationy-Omnui.— AiOenJuf. PnnkL 1768, I80a S nl% & French.-/. /. Comte-Daunow. Vu. I80B. 3 vda. 8.

Ilaliui.— Jirmcio c Z2qI«. Veroo. ITSa 8 nia. 4. £iigUah.~/>n<et. Load. 16m ITO& fi>L

$ 252. Dion Cassitu, surnamed CoceetantUf of Nicsea in Bithynia, lived at the
close of the 2d and beginning of the 3d century, and was twice Roman Consul.

1 u. During a long residence at Rome he made himself familiar with the history of
the Romans, on which he wrote a work in 8 Decades, or 60 books, extending from
iEneas to his own time, A. D. 229. The first 35 books, however, are lost, excepting
some fragments; we have the succeeding books, from the 36th to the 54(h, almost
entire, and the 55th in parts ; of the following, to the 60th, we have an abridgment by
an unknown hand ; and the remaining 20 books are in the abridgment made by Xiphi-
linua in the llth century. Dion derails with much exactness, but his style is often too
much labored, and he is sometimes unnecessarily minute.

3. His name was properly CatnuSt and he is said to have assumed the other as descended, by
bis mother, from Dion Chrysostomus (cf. $ 118). Much of his life was spent in public official
employments. The remains of his work enable us to fill up many chasms in Roman history,
and form our roost important guide for the events of his own times. The abridgment by Xiphi-
linuH, alluded to above, was drawn up by order of the emperor Michel Ducas, and extends from
the 3Sth book to the end of the original.— fcAdU, iv. 180-187.

*. Edliioiia^Bal, Reimar (began by FatriduM)^ Or. * Ut. Hamk ITSa S vola. ISL Soiao fracmoila piiblbhad by MonUt

(I79& 8.) Nrere repr. (ad. CharAm la RoeMU). Pftr. 180a Id foUo, ia ordar to be Joined witb tbb edition. JP. O. STvn, Or. k

iat. Lipa. l«34-«. 9 mla. 8. with notce of Reimar and otbera. — T.~-Pnne^, by R. Stepkamu. Bar. 164& toL-B. SUj^Mmu,
Gr. k Lat Geo. 1582. (tA^Lmndavka, Or. k Let Han. 16061 foL

4. TraMlalioD8.-German.-.J. A. Wagner, Frankf. 1783-80. 5 vela. L ItaIIan.-JV. I«Rtccno. Vcn. 1548. 12. ^Enfliah.—

Mmnninf. Ixnd. 1704. 2 voh. 8.

$ 253. Claudius JEIiamts^ of Prsneste in Italy, was a sophist of the 3d cen-
tury ; but he is usually ranked among the historians.

1 u. He is thus ranked on account of his work entitled IlotViXi; i^rropta, Various history,
in 14 books. It is a mere compilation of miscellaneous incidents, made without much
close scrutiny or discrimination ; yet the narratives are very entertaining, although the
style is unequal and sometimes einected. ^lian also wrote a history of animals (cf.
^ 27T'. The work on Taclicsy which some have ascribed to him, was probably from
an earlier writer of the same name.

2. Although he was descended from Latin parents, and according to his own testi-
mony never went beyond the borders of Italy, he acquired such a knowledge of the
Greek language, that he was, according to Philostratus, considered worthy of a rank
among the purest Atticists, and according to Suidas, obtained the suniame of MeXt^
Boyyoi {honey -voiced). — Besides the works above nained, there are also ascribed to him
20 Letters on rural topics ('Aypourol hsum\ai), of but little value.

AMO, IT. I9&— 5reO<ti«, lot is Biat. Ut (Jena), 1728.

a. Edltknii.— or theVariooiHiitor f.— B.— Oronovfiu, Gr. k Lat Aniif . 1731 . S vole. 4.— IL Jaeobt, Or. only. Jena, 18801

& with nntea. Principal earlier; SiAtfftr, Or. k Ut. Argeot. 188%. 8.— PcHzonfaw, Or. k Lai. Lof. Bat. 1701. 2 fola. &

fL— Corny. Pkr. 1806. 8. vritb notea In ancient Gredu^LUrumann. GOtt. 1811. 8. The Letters aro found in the coUecHom

of JBduM and Cu/af, cited \ 158. 1. Of the work on Ta c t i ea (by the elder JElian, A. D. 120), the beat edition b that of & .4m-

mtt (IShenf printer). UjA. WX 4. ^Thn WholeWorkaol both the Aliuis were published bj Oanmr, Gr. k UX. Tifwi

(ZarkbX iaS6- M.

4. Tntmlation*.— r«r{oiM fiWory.-GeraMn, by JMUiiedke. Qoedl. 1787. 8.--Freneb,b7/. Dadar. Fkr. 1772. a— Enflhh, by
r. Stenley. Lond. 1665. 8. 7)Kf{(>.-.Gennan, by BawngaHnMr, Mannh. 1788. 4.— Engliab, Vimmtt TMbm, Land. 1814. 4.

$ 254. Herodianua the historian, not the same as ^Uua Herodianm named

3y2

6d4 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

among the grammarians ($ 136), lived at Rome towards the middle of the Sd
century.

] u. He wrote the history of those emperors whose reigns he had seen, from the
death of Marcus Aur. Antoninus to the accession of the younger Gordian, A. D. 180 —
238, TUs fura Mapnv ffariXtias Iffr^fai, in 8 books. It is executed with much frankness
and love of truth, but with too little precision in respect to chronology. His style is
pure, and in the discourses or addresses, which he has introduced, there is a great de*
gree of nobleness and dignity, without excess of labored ornament.

8. Tbe biat cdMioD of Hmdiu \»ilbMa(0.m Imtbeh, Or. ft Lat LfM. ITSS-ISOS. S toll. & with • ml ant oT MtaL-A
MtOT tazt h foond Ib mif (Or. oaljr). Hal. I7SS. a~A good «d. fcr eomowa ow « ffUv (Or. Miy). Lp& }8i6L 8l— Ate O,
Lmtgt. Hal. I«4. a~i AU», B«ri. IMfc S.

9. TraMlitiow.-LMtia.«Jnr. PokHan. Bom. UW. M. Thb wm udc bjr af<tor of luooHt «h, ■■« wit grMfly iteini

■ad oAm nprintad. G«faMD.-/. O CttmdL rnnkf. 1784. 8. Ka^kh.-^. Bvt Lood. 174S. 8. VtaMk.— & A

JfonlfMiU. Par. 1718. IflL

$ 255 a. Diogmes Laertiut flourished probably in the beginning of the 3d century.
Little is known respecting his Ufe. He left a work entitled IM &iw itak ioyft&rtMf rw Iv
^(Xooo^fa c^Kiftnff&tmMf, in 10 books, which contains the biography of the principal pfaik>-
sophers of the various sects, and their most remarkable apothegms. The whole of
the last book is devoted to Epicurus.

Tbacmrtantiafvalatad bj SMSO, vol. v. p. IS6.-a. O. J7. ITNjppc^ Dt DiefMn LMitii VHa ■» Serlptlb RonflL 1881. 8.

I. Bditioea.— B.— a 0. HUhntr, Or. * IM. Lipa. 1828. 8 vola. 8. A caMBiMaUry oa tlw Snt 8 boofca. bjr msm. Lipa. 18801 ^

t.-Frinetpt, by ProUn (tba aom of). Baa. 1558. *.-B. SUphamm, Or. * Ut riu>. 1870-84. 9 volt. S— t ML MUlamitiM,

Or. A Ut. Anal. I6M. 8 vnla. 4.-Limcolitu, Or. k Ut. (text of Mtih.) Bet. 1788. B vola. 8. witb aafnvuii oT baada.

1. TAmlaHon.— Tba vorfc «raa flitt puMlahad In tba Uiin of Anbimiai (TVmwrHwO, bclbra 1478. A 8d ad. Vea. l«75w faL
—ITaller iturley. Id Iha bqctnaiar oT Iha Utb ecatary, IruMlalad or ekaaly Mlo«ad Dtofanai, la tba wofk HtM Oi ate «( avv
£«• pMoMptanim. Ac, which WM prialad at CoIorm, 1478. 4. Ha b aappeatd by aoaia to bara bad a battv toil of the on«iaal

than b new pmmMd (ef. Ifi^'f Aaaiekt. Lit. ii. 817) Gara»a.-S. jL Martmk, Wlea, 1807. 8 vola. a trwaA^-i^mmf

fiMNa.) Adm. 1769. 8 veil. It Par. 1796. 8 vola. 8. EacIWi— By ammd aattnn. Load. 1818. 8 veli. &

9. niualrativa.— C. JacoMs, L Ca«abool at A. MaaacU ObRrr. el Eom^. la Diof. Uanan. Lipa. I8S4. 9 fob. 81

§ 355 b. Flavius Pkilottratui the elder, from Lemnoa, lived in the 3d centniy,
and in the profession of sophist taught eloquence both at Athens and Rome.

1 u. We have from him the Life of ApoUoniua Tyaneniisi *A«XXmi'iov to« Tvaafbos 0i»Sr
in 8 hooks, full of the most extravagant encomiums, especially upon the miracles of
Apollonius, who lived about A. D. 70.

2. It has been thought by many that Philostratus designed, in his biography of Apol-
lonius, to ridicule the life and miracles of our Savior. In the time of Diocletian, less
than a century after Philostratus, his work was placed by Hierocles of Nicomedia in
opposition to the writings of the evangelists. The absurdity of this was afterwazds
exposed by Eusebius.

Mm<, OamoMt. Eiaaf. Pn^ is. c 147. acMg, iv. 888.-01 \ 887, M.

3 u. There is also a work by him entitled Ei«6i/eir, in 2 books, containing 66 descrip-
tions of paintings in a gallery, which was at Naples. — There is a work with the same tiik
by Philoglratui the younger, who was nephew to the former and also of Lemnoe. It
n in some respects valuable for artists, although wanting in precision and simplicity.

The books oa pafnHnf have reeeivad atteolioa tnm meim wrilan.— Tbara b a worfc eo ifafttat, bv Caltblntaa, af aa ai^
kitnwn era, wh'eh ii anally Joined with them — Coent Cayku, Mtm. dead, htm, Um. zxiz.— ttyiM, la hb Optae. JhmL coL ?.
—n-. JacoU, Animad. in Callbrnti ataiau at Philoat Inaginca. Lipn 1797. &— adk/bas Qbar dea JQ^ara PbiloaL a. ana Oa*
mlldebeachrclb. Tab. 1800. &

4. We have other works by Philostratus. In a piece called 'Hpo)i'ir&, he gives the
fabulous history of 21 heroes of the Trojan war. He has left also about 70 letters, and
an evisram found in the Anthologies. But a more interesting and valuable work is
his Lives of the Sophists^ Blot otn^iimSy, in 2 books. One book gives the biography of
?6 philosophical sophists ; the other, of 33 rhetorical sophists. It contains a fund of
anecdotes illustrating the manners and morals of these ostentatious pretenders, and
gives a vivid picture of the decline of genuine eloquence. — SdidU, iv. 190.

5. Bdiflnaa.-Or Iha anripiat leeHb, Ibera bava been two cdltkNM.— Mbrvl. Pkr. 1808. fcl.— Ofav^lu, Or. A Ut lift. fflSl
IdL ennfaiininf abn Fhiloatrataa tba yoonK«r, aad the reply «f Enaetitua to RlarodeiL— AfW the edillea el Oleariaa. aa pait
of PhikMtntaa waa pablbbed (aeeordiag to »MB, iv. 886) until the Arefaa by Boiiwiadi. Or. ft Ut. Par. I80a & vUi Om
.Srholta aad with aoKa — fmaff^Mt, by />. /ante «■ P. T. tWthtr Upt. I8M. 8. eoataininc «■» Callhtiatoa oa alalaea.

(L Trahablioaa.— OcmMn — fVMa loor/U, by St^boli. Lang. 1777. 9 voh. EacliA.— Uvu qf AipAMi, br Aha. BvwUL

Uod. 1812. 8. Al«e LHb of Apolloaina. Of. Land. Quart. Jim HL 417.— TVbnunt, Ub of ApoUoaiw (fnm tba mMbX
Load. 1708. 12^ Freaeh.— 1^ •/ JtptUoniua, by OuMOon. Borl. 1774. 4 volt. IS.

7. tnurtTative.--0 /. BMv, var. leeL el ebaarr. ia FbilooL viL ApolUia. Ac. HMolK t8l&— C L. Kagm, Nat crk. h
rWloal. Vit. SephbtarviB. BeMelb. 1881. 8.

^ 255 c. Euftapitts was a native of Sardis. He studied in Athens, and traveled in
Egypt, and afterwards officiated in Lydia as a pagan priest. He is named here on
account of his work entitled Bht ^iWtf^oiy /roi oo^wrcSv, wh'ch contains notices of 23 jAt<

p. y. HISTORIANS. Z0SIMU8. PROCOPIUS. AGATHIAS, ETC. 536

. Aen and 0opfttt<9, who lived in his time, or not long before. It betrays his ho«U-
lity to the Christian system.

Gmain, Mow. Fnpn- nil* (P> XV) ci<«d 1 171.

1. Edition*.— Ainoiif, by jtd. Jungkt {Juniuii, Gr. * Ut Antw. 1568. S—Bctt, /. /l doiitmadt, Or. ooly. liMt 1882.
• veil. a. witA m(ei.-J)eholl nenllon onlj two cdltioM, bcsdM tb* Prinetpi and that of JMmonadtf riu^-J. CommcMii,
ISSa 8. with tho TWMOO of J«Bli»-«od P. EUtnm (SUtptanuf), 16ia a Soaie ettdofaai giro u cd. bjr Btimm, prioMd Cd.
AHdlk leta It.

a niMlntif e.— OoiatR, Nomr. Fngm. Pbiloi. p. 900^ at dt«l \ I71.-Sn &ABII, UM. LHL Gr. vii. TO.

$ 256. Zonmus flourished in the 5th century. He held the office of Come9
FUei at Constantinople.

1 V. His New History, N£a 'Irropia, in 6 books, embraces the reigns of the emperors
from Augustus down to A. D. 410. The style is pure, perspicuous, and not destitute
of ornament. But he is by no means an impartial writer, and appears to have been
strongly prejudiced s^ainst Christianity.

2. Polybius had exhibited the causes which contributed to the rise of Roman grandeur.
Zosimus, in imitation of this distinguished writer, proposed to trace the causes of its
decline. His object and plan were good, but he had not the reauisite qualifications for
the task. Among the causes he erroneously ranks the establisnment of the Christian
religion.— 5cA«Z/, vi. 338—348.

a TlM iwat editioa; HtUtimkr, Gr. a Lat. I4». 1784. 9. (FuAraunn.)— f. AUv. Boaa, 1838. & >b iriAykr>i 0«pM,
dtod k SaSa.— TIN flnt eMiiOM* ed. was is afUurft eDllaeliM, Baipt. BM. Mom. Fraac. ISta
i. l^BBalaUowb-Qwnan^-SiyteM aDd flkyte-. Fnakt 1808. 8«oU.a Pnoefa, bjr Comta.

$ 257. Proeopiua, a natiye of Caesarea in Palestine, flourished in the 6th cen-
tury, as a sophist and lawyer at Constantinople. He was a friend to Belisa-
rius, and held for a long time the office of prefect of the Capital.

1 u. He WTOte a Hi»tory of his own times t in 8 books, TtSv Koff tAHiv urroptcSv 0i0\ia
ixno. The work is divided into 2 tetrodes, the first 4 books beinffcalled Persic, and
the last 4 Gothic, including a period of 70 years, A. D. 482 — ^552. ^he former portion
describes the wars of the Romans, both with the Persians and with the Vandals and
Moors in Africa ; and the latter, those with the Goths. He has left also a work styled
'AvAnfcra, which is a secret hixtory of the Court of Constantinople under Justinian ; and
another called Kxlc^ara, Buildings, in 6 books, in which he describes the various works
constructed or repaired by Justinian. His style has the merit of accuracy and clearness.

Cl SUUUl. vi. 349, m^-Oihbm, hiA of Dacl. of Son. Emp. it. 4& ed. N. Tork, 1823.— iMMfUc, la Mm. Jkad. InMr. d
MIftMftw, xii. 73.

2. E<litirBt.-.TlM Corpuf <if B^ mt. (dtad ; 839) incindat the tkm worki of Procepin, edit, by C. MtaUnt, Or. a Ut
hr. 1662 6S. S t.iIil (bL-ed. by O. Dlndorf, 1839. 8 rolt- 8. in the Cor^a. #c. Cf. § 830 a.-Tlie flnt or FHnap$ ed. of (he
Anfc aod OotMe Hntery, by D. JSTOmAA lopb. 1607. fol^PHiK«|it of the Stent Ottary, by N. JOmanmu, Gr. a i«t.
Lwrd. Bat. 1623. fel Prinaim of the BuOdlngt, by B. BhmanUM. Bal. 1S3I. foL

a TnaiiatioiM.-0«n«B.— The mem kittory, by /. P. Bdnlmd. Erluff. IT63. a

% 258. Jigaihitu^ of Myrina in .£olis, has already been mentioned as an an-
ther of Epigrams and editor of an Anthology ($ 34, 35). He was a Christian
jurist or advocate, of the Alexandrine school, and lived at Constantinople in the
6th century.

1 u. We have from him a continuation of the history of Procopius, through 7 additional
years, in a work entitled Ilcpi tH^ ^lovarwiawi fiaetkilas. On the reign of Justinian.

2. This work is divided into 5 books. His style has been thought to suiTer from the
author's habits as a poet. He speaks of himself as being especially fond of poetry irom
his youth. His history derives much of its value from an account it contains of Per-
aian institutions and usages drawn directly by him from Persian writings.

ftMO. *i. S77.-lbr. Jim. Vo. JH—St. Croix, Enraen let BwL d'Alei. *& eHed { 888.

a The y&if erf itioB wai by B. ruloonfta, Gr. k lA Leyd. IS94. 4.— ladoded la the Cctp. Bft. Ftf. IMl fid. witt Imtfk
grmu.— BtttbjB. a. mttit^, Gr.hUX. 1828. & In bh ed. of the Ooryia Hys. a.§8a8a.

$ 259. Zonaraa {Johannes) flourished at Constantinople in the 11th and 12th
centuries. He was raised to distinguished honors in the court of the emperor
Alexins Comnenus, but resigned them and retired as a monk to Mt. Athos.

1 tt. Of many works composed by him in the latter part of his life, we notice as be-
longing here his Annnls, Xpovucdv, in 18 books, including a general history from the
bepnnmg of the world down to A. D. 1118. It consists of abridgments or extracts
from larger works, and exhibits great inequality of style. The history of the Jews is
given first, then that of the Greeks and of the Koman Republic, and lastly that of tho
Roman Empire. In the latter part he closely follows Dion Cassius.

t. Another work of Zoo was was an Exe/rf^i* on the Canom of Che Apostles, Bynodv, and Fa-
then. Be l«ft al»o a Lexicon or Glossary, whieh Is aseful as a concomitaiit to that of Hesychius.
^SekdU, ▼!. 9B8, SS8. vii. 241.

aiteAanaUwcreylntiMildMMdby Wb9;0r.*UL Bm. 1881. 9 tola. feL-Bapr. is Corp. Syc. Oicanir, ed. IML^

536 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Btloofioc atai to Kitbuhi*» C«rpaa Bf c. ^Tbe AKgaro it la AMridft, Synodleon, ri«« Fiuidcd. aaanvm 9. 9L *poiL eoodL ik

•cdM. Owe. mcptonin 1671. 8 fob. fbl. L r x i e e n, by 2\tffmmn (cf J lO. 4). Uft. ISO& Stok. 4.

$ 260. Dares the Phrygian, and Dictyt the Cretan, may be mentioned in cloe*
\ug our list of names in the department of history. Their era is uncertain, and
their yalae trifling.

1. Homer <//. v. 9) mentions Dares as a priest of Vulcan at Troy. iElian (Var.
Hist, xi. 2) states that an Iliad or hisiory of the Trojan war b^ Dares was extant in
his times; yet this work was probably not from the Trojan priest, but the fabrication
of some sopnist. There is extant a work in Latin, entitled De exeidio Tnja historiat
which has been taken for a translation made by Cornelius Ntpot, from the Greek of
Dares. It is now admitted to be merely the prose outline of a poem in 6 cantos by
Joseph Jscanius, who was an English poet ot the 12th century, bom at Exeter in
Devonshire, and called Iseatiius from Isca the ancient name of Exeter, and sometimes
Davonius from his native county ^

2. There was a kindred fabrication in Greek, made by Praxis, in the name o( Dietys
Crelensis, who is said to have served in the Trojan war, and to have kept a journal
(i^if^f) of its events'. The original Greek is lost ; but there is a Latin version in
6 books. Cf. ^ 238, ^ 522.

1 Comifai^f BriUaaia, p^ 111. PubL in laSn IKH. M. Eofliih, bjr CKBwn, 1617. • SbUW, HM. Utt. Or. It. EOT.

3. The pretended works otDaru and Dietya are iiipposed to have been the original fouree of
the famous romance of chivalry hy Ouido JalU Colontu (de Co2if«iiia), a Sicilian lawyer and poet
of the 13th century. This romance, the §uond thil was written of ihe chivalric class, was trans-
lated from the Latin into all the ianguagea of Europe, and received with universal enthusiassii.
The Jirtt romance of thia cinsa ia traced to an eaaiern origin in a Persian lale of Alexander tte
Great, tranalaied flrat into Greek and then into Latin.

SdOtt, fii. S-S, 194-96.— fa^Wttt, BiUiolb. Ut. vol. i. p. \\9.—W. (XiMfay, m imm tttiMMdimy tmeintm ot Aknadv;
&■ Hm lYotuaer. ef Ih* JSoy. Boe. <^f LiUnntn^ vol. L Lood. ISOL

4. EditUMH.— Daw uid Dktyt htv0 mtailj bna pabli*faei! tac«(hcr. The flnt edilion wu printail, Milaa, l<n.-Tlw bm «4i-
fioat; tbm of Perixonhu, AoMt 1701. 8. a nimp. of Hadanu Daeim^ (Pit. lesa 4), and oontalnlBf Um poan of Jampk Abb*
niiif (eH 4 881), aad thai of <£. IMvioft, Rob. I8S& S vob. &

fi. TraarialioQa.--TbM works wen traadatad IS (he latheraluy late tliaIlalJaa,rnMh, tad QarMB. A Bairiaa viniaa nai
pabUahad,MaMmB.8. Ct fUr<efli%abovtdM,p. 112.

X.^WrUen on Medicine and Natural BUioty.

^ 261 V. The science of Medicine is founded essentially upon observation and ez-

Krience, and is one of those which were but imperfectly understood in ancient times,
deed, from the nature of the case, it could not be brought to perfection until later
periods. The same is true, to a considerable extent, of Natural History and Physics
in general. Yet these sciences were pursued among the Greeks not without some
zeal and success. But their success in them can by no means be compared with that
which they enjoyed so peculiarly and happily in literature and the fine arts.^— At first
the practice of medicine was limited almost wholly to the curing of external wounds.
The great renown which JEseulapius ('AtrcXiprcof , cf. P. II. ^ 84) and his descendanta
called the Asdepiades obtained, is a proof of the novelty and rarity of the healing art
in those times, m which in fact it was considered as a miraculous sift from the gods.
The Asclepiades established several schools in medicine, of which those aX Rhodes,
Cos, and C nidus were the most celebrated. It was not until a later period that the
Greeks became acquainted with anatomy. Hippocrates was the first who investigated
the science systematically, or wrote upon the subject.

Then b • brief eollectioa of rula of kiaUh aicribed to the JbdU^iada^ entltted *Ankifinadiiv Irfuvi rapcyyA^crA.
Foand ia J. C, fdntin, BejrtFlge eut Oaeefa. dw Lit vol. lx.~aiid ia &AOZZ, HbL Lift. Or. vol. iii p. II.

^ 262. After Hippocrates, the physicians of the same period, between Solon and
Alexander, seem to have in a great measure abandoned the guidance of experience,
and plunged into the labyrinths of speculation. The school termed the Dogmatic vras
now established, which attempted to unite the theories of the philosophers vnth the
principles of Hippocrates. The sons of Hippocrates are named among ita founders.
The most distinguished of this school were Diodes of Carystus in Eubcea, and Praza*
goras of Cos. Of the medical writings of the former we have a few fragments.

Tfao frBfBMato of Diodaa an publialMd la a O. Attn. De Hedldi Onaei^ *& Upa. ISBO. 4.-a. SbUO, Ifl. 408.

% 263. It was by the physicians at Alexandria that the actual dissection of the human
body was first attempted. Among the earlier physicians of the Alexandrine school,
the most distinguished were Herophilus and Efrasistratus, who lived under the first
Ptolemies, and were each the head of a class of followers. Among the adherents of

9.Y, MEDICINE AN9 NATURAL HISTORY. &37

the former soon arose the Empiric school^ founded by PkUinus of Cos, and Serapion
of Alexandria. To this school most of the physicians of the period before the fall of
Corinth attached themselves. They professed to follow the lessons of experience
{ifottipia). — One of the most illustrious of the Empirics was Diofcorides, who will be
noticed below (^ 271). We ma^ mention also Apolloniut of Citium, and Xenocrata
of Aphrodisium, as of some eminence.— It was towards the close of this era that the
medical art of the Greeks was introduced among the Romans, by Archagathus; it had
been, at first, chiefly practiced by Greek slaves. The physician that seems to have
acquired the highest celebrity at Rome, was Atelepiadet oi Bithynia, B. C. about 100.
He may be assigned to the Empiric school, although he professed to have pecuhar
notions of his own.

C r. H. Seek, De Scbola Bicdioontm Alenndrica. Liph 18ia i.—SdiSO, UL iOi. v. SSfi.— Tbe w«rk of Zcnooote (oo Ms
naurukmmt fanitlMd hj iqtutle prodoctiouX ^T Corof. Vu. 1814. 8.— Tke ramain of Jbekptada of B. w«ra poblahad bj
Oumpnt, Aidep. Bitb. PntniMiti. Viin«r. 1794. 8.— Tba uma of Aiciepiadei wm bora* bjT bobj diAnat pmoM. O
Ariaw, M«dieorBatTatlKlcpiad«dIe(animlaitntio,ae; Bon. 18S8.

^ 264. In the period succeedins the fall of Corinth a new school arose, called the
Methodic or Methodistie, founded B. C. about 90, by Themison of Laodicea, who was
a disciple of Asclepiades, and fixed himself as a physician at Rome. The system was
matured by Soranut of Ephesus, who practiced at Rome under Tratan and Hadrian
with brilliant success, and has left several works. To this school belonged Criton,
also celebrated in the time of Trajan, and Moschion, the reputed author oi a work on
Diseases still extant.-^ Within the limits of the same period, another medical sect was
originated, the Eclectic, which is generally ascribed to Ar^igenes, another physician
in the time of l*rajan. ArettBus, whose works will be noticed below, was an eminent
advocate of this school. * Rufus of Ephesus was an eminent phvsician not assigned to
any of the sects ; his works are still considered valuable. But the name which is most
important, not only in the space between Augustus and Constantine, but in fact in the
whole history of the Greek physicians, is that of Galen, With transcendant genius he
broke from the restraints imposed by the different medical sects, and built a system
for himself upon the ruins oi them all, and became and continued for many centuries
the oracle of the art.

Thoworbtof Soramit an indrU. OoedU, cited bdow, f S88.— Tfaftt of IfMeMon, mipmMj,r. 0. DnwK. Ymam. ms. &-
TbowofA^Mtibjr fT.CKiK*. Loud. 1188. 4.-&MU, t. 838.

^ 265. During the long period from Constantine to the capture of Constantinople, no
progress was made in the science. Alexandria continued for a long time the chief seat
for the theory and science of medicine, while Rome and Constantinople furnished
ample fields for its practice. Most of those who attempted to write on the subject,
contented themselves with commenting upon the works of Galen or some author of
times previous to their own. They formed what is called the School of Galen, although
they professed to be Eclectic, and to draw their principles from all the different sects.
There are but few names which are specially deserving of mention. — Oribasius, in the
time of Julian, is the first writer of any note ; he has been called the ape of Galen, on
account of borrowing so much from him ; among his works was a medical compilation
from preceding writers, made by order of Julian, and called *E0iofiriKoyra0i0h)i, from its
comprisine 70 books, 8 or 9 of which yet remain in Greek, and several others in Latin
only^ — JElivn of Amida in Mesopotamia, was a physician at Constantinople, in the
6th century. He left a compilation from the earlier medical authors, under the title of
Bi^Xiof iarptKdv, in 16 books^. Alexander, of Tralles in Lydia, flourished in the reign
of Jastinian. and after much travel practiced in Rome with ffreat celebrity ; his Thera*
peutics, Bi0Xiov ^cpaireoriKdv, in 12 books, is extant.'— Pa«Z of iEgina mav also be men*
tioned as a practical physician, and as the author of a compilation entitled an Abridg'
ment of all Medicin^. — We will add only the name of Constantine, sumamed &e
African, a native of Carthage. He studied a[mong the Arabians, Chaldeans, and
Persians, both medicine and astronomy, with the kindred sciences. Returning to the
west after an absence of nearly forty years, he was regarded as a sorcerer, and finally
retired, in a religious habit, to Salernum in Italy, where the monks of Mont-Cassin
had established a medical school. Here he employed himself until his death, towards
the close of the 11th century, in making known the Greek and Arabian medicine, and
contributed much to the high celebrity which that school attained*.

1 An edition of Oribarim la Latin wm poblhbed, Bu. IS37. 8 ▼olt. a bat not eonplote.— Tbe worin vlJBiaandmr Ktt gWea fa

Ike eollertioB of HaOtr (ef S 8«>). — * Tho Utin fcnkm of JETiitf hj J. Camariut and /. Mfontmnu w alio in BaBtr. *Pmd

of JBf . WM pabliihod bjr JUnuamu. Bai. 1988. fol. Tban It an Enitiltb fcnioa bjr F. Mama. * ConManiint left nuBMiwii

worki, bat In Ibo Latin UagiiBfe.-.aBMa, vii. 847, m.

) 905b. It may be proper to remark here, that the Sdmea of Medieina'w^H divided by some \n\o
five parts : ^vctnXoytKh, Physiology and Anatomy ; 'AinoXoyiK^^ ^tlolory, or the doctrine of
the caiuios of diseatie ; XlaBo^oyiKiii Paiholofry, or the whole doctrine of dieeaee, Ite nature an«i
efiecte ; 'Tyiciy iv, HyKiene, or the art of preserving health ; £i7^ciot(4cJ), S^emeiologv, or th«
knowledge and discrlminntion (SiiytujatO of the symptoms of disease ; and QcpawevriKii^ Tbera>
peutlcs, or the art of healing. - Aiairijrtic^, Dietetics, was somellines made a dlstloct divlalont
68

538 HI8T0RT OF GREEK LITERATURB.

and ^afiiimnrtKiit Pharmacy ; alan Xsipwpyta, Surgery ; theta laat threa, boweTer, wen n
titer considered aa aubdivialons of Gcparcvn irj>, or the general Art •/ HetUng.

rer4alubMi fbowrabjMli, Me tV.^. OramAtO, n ArmlA'* Diet, of Aniiqaitici, p. 919^ 927, "«, 749, 780, 817, 9II.^4X CSta
tali, Budbvck dw MdHrtiuide Iftr dia AfilMn Utdkku. LfiK, I84t. 9. »>mf<Mdl>d P. IV. ( 29.

4 266 «. Physios, or Natural Science, formed a prominent object of many of the
first Greek philosophers, and furnished subjects for some of the earliest didactic poems.
The study of philosophy in later periods usually imptied some attention to these
branches. But for want of sufficient observation, and of the necessary helps, many
errors were adopted and long retained in the Grecian schools.

^ 267* I'he merit of first treating these subjects systematically and scientifically is
universally ascribed to Aristotle. Alexander is said to have aided his studies in na-
tural history with a princely liberality. Tkeophra$tu$, the disciple and successor of
Aristotle, pursued the same studies with considerable success. While Aristotle is
called the father of Zoology ^ Theophrastus must be acknowledged to stand in the same
relation to Mineralogy and botany.— Among the Alexandrine scholars, the subjects
of natural science seem to have obtained but comparatively little attention. This couU
not have been owing whollv to want of encouragement, because the Ptolemies are
said to have expended considerable sums in procuring collections of what was curious
in the three kingdoms of nature. Anti^onuB of Carystus is the principal Alexandrine
writer of whom we have remains pertaimng to this department, and his work is chiefly
a collection of marvelous stories, and not a description of natural objects. ' 'Nor
under the Roman supremacy, from the fall of Corinth even to the time of Constantino,
do we find any manifest advancement. The chief writers were Dioseorides, who wis
distincuished as a botanist {ft^orSnoi), as well as physician, and JElian, who compiled a
considerable work on the history of animals. — The superstition and love of the mar-
velous, which prevailed both in this and in the oreceding period, were probably a
hindrance to the real progress of natural science. We may refer, as evidence of their
influence, to the works of Melamput in the former, %na Ariemidonu in the latter.
Melampus wrote on the art of divination in several branches, and also a work on Prog'
nasties from the changes in the moon, which is yet in manuscript in the library of Vienna.
— Ariemidorus left a work on the Interpretation of dreams^ 'QvttfOKpirueh, which, with
all its absurdity, is of some value in illustrating mythology and the symbolical and
allegorical figures of ancient sculpture.

It «»■ poblUMd bf /. O. Jln:^. Liic.I90Sb9vol«.9.-CtSdkW,iU.993,M. v.S77,H.

^ 268. Under the emperors of Constantinople, all the sciences connected vnth the
study of nature were in a state of almost utter neglect ; in the whole time we do not
meet with a single name of any eminence, nor one work of special value. We find a
treatise of Epi^aniuSt ncp2 rwy Sudaca XidcjVy On the 12 stones in the breastplate of the
Je^^i8h high - priest ' ; and another, Ilfpi \iOoiv dwdiataif. On the virtues of stones, by
Mickoil Psellus, in the 9th century'. We have a large compilation on agrieultnret
entitled reanwvtira, in 20 books, by Cassianus BassuSt in the 10th century*. We have
likewise a compilation on the veterinary art^ in 2 books, entitled 'ImrmTpixd, collected
by an unknown writer^, by order of the emperor Constantino VI. Porphvro^niius.
There are also several works, yet in manuscript, on Chimistry, or rather Alchimy^, or
the art of making gold; especially one by Slephanus of Athens, in the 7th century,
nr^ Tcp^wnoUasj in 9 books, and parts of another styled Xv^cvruri, in 28 books by Zosi-
mus of Egypt. The latter author has left us a treatise^ on the making of &eer, 11^
^<>dci}c voinatuii. Such is the trivial list, with which we must close our view of the Greek
writers on natural science. — One discovery or invention of this dark period ought per-
haps to be mentioned, that of the celebrated Greek fire {feu Gregeois), the composition
of which was so carefully kept a secret above 400 years. The recipe for making it is
given in a work ascribea to marcus the Greek, a Latin version of which, in a manu-
script of the 13th century, was found in 1804''.

*Tb«tm(toofI^>km«tf wMimbliAedbrOMma'.IIaoiBaiamftMiliuBgawM. Zurich, IMS. & CC P. IV. f 199. 91

^•T)»t&lP$iU*u,byBtntmd. L>jd. 174& & •ThtOmipaniaat Bmm^ht^fijJ. N.Wdn^Qr.kUL L|ia.l791.4fah.&

4 The Oppimtriha, Gr. k Ut. Bala, 1697. 4. • TIm MS& oo Alcfainy an in tta Libmki of Paha aad Tmmk.

a Given in C. GL Orwwr, Zoaimi da Z^harum eenfteUmt rnpnanlHiia. BolUb. 1914. a ^ PaidJihad tha tana jftw, kj U^^U

duTStO. Par. 1804.4. CL Oitk»^ Oab aial Fall, Itt. cb. UL—frart«l^ Hirt. PDatry, L 199.--.Qb Uia aabjaet of thk aactkia, cf.
I, Til. 197, m. 211.

§ 269/. We give the fol lowing refereoces to works pertaioingr to Greek medi-
eine and physics, before speaking of the authors separately.

1. A Stephama, Mediae arib principaa poal HippoerataM at GalanaiB. Lat. Fair. 1997. 9 vola. ki.-JhU. Cettki, (Itmuavm
Cbinirfieonini libri, Ac Flor. ITM. fcL-Amiliui, Madie. aBti<|. qal de iabribaa leripa. colleetio. V«. IS94. foL— fiiOr, Aitb
■MdioB priaeipei. <cor. TioaM). Lana. 1794-97. II wla. & In Lat ?««i<m only.— C. F. JCalltai, Madiear. ni. veL Ofsc
Maae. 1908. 4.-C. a. tCuhn, Opara mad. Onee. qua axtant. Or. k Lai. l4». 1881-99. 86 vola. t.-a 0> Onamt BibliDlh* dar
•ItcB larcia in Ueiwtieliuncan nod AooOcaD. Lpa. 1790-88. 8 tola. &— 8aa laferaaeat given P. IV. \ tS.—Tor ■oon nnaita m
«ha aanloinical kDowledga of Iha Oreaka, laa /. Bfma, Annalt of Iba Fina Ana, toL v. p. 829. Lood. 1819 20. 6 aob. B.—D. B^
•■dl,OhnrTanona oa tha 9nf|er7 of tba Aaeiaate. N. Turk, ISlS. a

9L A«M,8Gri|iioiMpbriio(Maiodaf«tarak Allaab. 1780. a-/. O. aduuUm,Edotm tkfikm a wripC jWCjpwGmtfc Jta.

p. T. PHYSICIANS. HIPP0CRATK8. DIOSCORIDES, ETC. 539

1801. S vela. & eoBUiBios mlml hhiarj tad pbydei^r. £. Mehr, Metoorokvit tit Onsc el BoaMMran. VerL IMBL 8k.
PraJfl|oawDa to bw ed. of AriskXle, ci(6d \ VA.—J. P. Pfa#itf, De ortibw «t occttOHw Mderam apod Awfom CiMneoc Golt.
178S. a— «l. Ubtt^ Hiiloire da It Phy^iqur. Far. 1810. 4 fob. 8.— ^armfrf, cited P. IV. \ 83. ooataiaa, partieuUrly la vola. 1 awl
8, Bodeei of tb* sainnl acieaoca among tba anetata.— Tb« fcllowing old irork gira tba mm o# moat of tbo arlielaa «# th«
T^getaUa kingdnoi ooticad bj tbe Orecka ; W. Tunur, New Hertiall ; wberaio m eontajnad Iba mnaa of Herbaa la Oraka, f^ii.^
■ad En(l)ih. Loud. 15SI. (bl.— Lounay, also JVoora, aa dtad P. IV. } 196. 2.

§ 270. HifJtHfcrates, of Cos, a descendant of iEseulapins, flourisbed B. C.
about 430. In philosophy he was a disciple of Heraclitus. He practiced tbe
medical art particularly in Thrace and Theasaly, and died at Larissa in the lat-
ter country.

1 u. With uncommon acuteness of intellect he combined a rich variety of knowledge
and experience which was increased by travels, and which gave to his writings a value
not limited to ancient times, but enduring even to the present day. Of the numerous
works that have been ascribed to him, many are spurious. Of those which are
genuine, the AphoruttiUf or brief medical principles and maxims, are the most
generally known.

2. Besides the 'A4>opiafio(, the following works are by all acknowledged to be genuine*
viz. the 'Eiri%ia, Epidemics; IlfwyvwirrMfa, Prognostiet^ in 4 books; Uifi'iiairrK 4f«»',
Of regimen in acute diseases; n«pi 'AifxM, 'rSamv, TAtov, Of Air ^ Water ^ and Climaie,
a work of general interest ; .lUfi tu» iv x^oM Tpcdyidroy, Of wounds <^ the Head; Iltfi
'Ayubw, Of Fractures. There are 12 or 13 others, which some of ine critics receive;
and a much larger number of pieces, which all consider spurious.

SchSBy vol. III. 12, aa. (ivea a tI«w of (ba variooa opiaioBi of fba critto. For nmarka oa Bippoentca^ laa JB. EuA, ?■*— »

iueiorj Uetuna (nwdieal). Pfail. 181 1. & laet xH.

a Editiona.— Worka. Tba aioat coaTeaicat for oao la (bat of IRUn. Lipa. 1827. Smb. & bdoncinff to bia CoOacHoa
clNd4289c l.~Tba beat piwioualjr ; fMiw (itea) Or. ft Lat Pnakr. I68S. Oaaar. 1«T. foLtowbidi baba«B,« a ^mmrj
M- laxteoB, Fauii (EeBaomia Rlppocntia. Oea. l86iL fol^A CAoHcnw {CkartUr). Tn. l«79i 13 vola. ibL wiib Oafaa. (Mora
Adl tbaa Abi.)— la ad. waa coiaaMBcad bjr A. M. Domkr, Or. Ut ft GalL Far. 1877. toL i.-xi. eoataiaiag JSpkarimu aad Prvf

iMMM«.wilbBao(iMorLiraaBdWriHa(aorH. Tbe Aphor i iiaa baMoflcabaaapaMiskadaapaFalaly; Bcri. I60. 18. a

nfaap. of SctMkm. Par. 1788. with tbo Pnsnii»tia.—J. W. Undenoood^ Or. ft Aug. Load. 1881. I3.-0r A i r, fte. CWvy.
Gr. ft Fr. Par. I8C0. 8 rela. 8. repr. I8I6.—AB ed. of ««lce( uroHu waa eooin encad bf Le Ifarty, Or. ft Fr. i81&

4. Tnaiiitiom.—1VhoU ITarte.— Latin, by An, ad. by Pierer. AUeab- 1806. 8 tola. 8. eoataiainga good IMUia UUranm.

Upa. 1927. Germaa.— Orimm. Alt. 17SI.S8. 4 Tola. 8. cf. Ontner, cited J 889. Frcocb.-amra<L TooL 1801. 4 tola. 8.

adta port*.— Engliab — J. CHflon, Load. 1784. &

5. m«9tntiT«.~LeaMai( Jodidua Openim Hippocratia, ed. /. O. Tkiar^dir. Mfaa. I8BS. ft-G A O. Batndt, Laetkiaaa h
Bippoer. Aphorbom, ad. A. O. StoteA. Barl. 188a 8.-Z. Wtrl, Ue Magai HIppoeraUa aacaadi Vita at Seriptia. Frib. 1898. %

$ 271. Pedanius Dioscorides of Anazarbus in Cilicia, flourished in the Ist
century. He was a distinguished physician, and in various travels in Europe
and Asia he studied the nature of plants, which he afterwards described fox tne
benefit of pharmacy.

1 w. We have from him a work, Ucpi €X»k laTpuriJf, de Materia Mediea, in 5 books.
Besides this there are ascribed to him a treatise on Antidotes ^ 'AXc^i^p/ioira, in 2 books,
and another Ilcpi exm6pwTtiv ^ap^ouff On medicines easily prepared; but their genuine-
ness is doubted.

2. It has been mentioned that Dioscorides was celebrated as a botanist (cf. t 267) :
for many centuries his work de Mat. Medica, above named, m^s considered as a sort of
oracle in Botany, although he treats of the subjects only in reference to medicine.

aeUtt, V 332.-iS|pir«nget, Hiat rot barb. Anat. 180?. 8.

a EdiihnM.— Bflit, by C. Sprmgd. Lpc. 1829. 2 voia. & ia tba OoB. of Kilkn, cited {809. l.-Tbo b«l prevtoaa b ftet
•f Sonucmia (Somutn), Or. ft Lat. FnakC 1588. IbU— Beqieetiag (be earkMH maawoript of Dioac aea P. IV. § 107. 8L

$ 272. Jlretaeus, of Cappadocia, probably lived towards tbe close of the Ist
century, at least later than Pliny the elder, and Dioscorides.

1 u. He was one of the most distinguished of the Greek physicians, and left two
works : ricpl AinaJ;* xeH "Ztifttitov d^iow koX •xfovib>¥ naBuv, On the Causes and Sigfu of acute
and chrome diseases; and the other, On the Cure of the same, Ilepl Qepanioi i^kuf koI
Xp^y'itjjv iraBciv. Both of them have come to us only in a mutilated state.

S. ITe is considered ai the most flttthful obaerver of fhcts after Hlppocratet. His worka are
well written, and may be termed truly classical.— SeA0U, v. S44.

9. Editiona.-A good editioo ia Ibat by O Di'tufer/, ia tbe CoUeeL of KUkn^ died § 289. 1.— Alio by /. mggmn^ Or. ft LaL OkL
1733. bl —And by JZ B9rhaot, Leyd. 1781, 1735. foL

4. Traiiabtk>Da.>^emian.— By F. 0. Dewu. Vieaa. t79a ISOL 2 vob. 8.

$ 273. Claudius Galenus was born at Pergamos in Asia, about A. D. 130.
He traveled much, and repeatedly took his residence at Rome. He wrote not
merely on medical topics, but also on subjects of philosophy, mathematics, and
grammar. Many of the writings ascribed to him are undoubtedly spurious,
especially such as are extant only in Latin.

640 BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATtJRB.

1. The name of Galen ia justly aaaodated with that of Hippocrates ; because to
these two, above all the ancients, the healing art is indebted. The time of his death
is unknown. He was the confidential physician of the emperor Marcus Aurelina.
Some of his works composed at Rome are said to have perished by the burning of hie
house ; yet there are extant 82 treatises of established ffenuineness, besides 18 com-
mentaries on Hippocrates and a number of fragments. In addition to these, there are
18 published under his name of doubtful genumeness, and a still larger number now
acknowledged to be spurious, and many still in manuscript in the Libraries. Among
the most interesting and important of his works are the following : Ilcpi dMT^urMjr
^Eyxttpnatwy, 0/ anatomical manipulations, in 9 books (originally 15) ; TUfA TCfttias rtiv br
dvOp'inv fftiitari fiofHiav, On the use of the different parts of the human body, in 57 books,
regarded as his chef-d'oeuvre, ana containing a demonstration of divine wisdom and
design ; Ttxyi\ IsrpiKii^ The healing Art^ cited also in the middle ages under the title of
Tegnumj Microte^num or Miehrotechnum, a work which was adopted in all the schools,
ana familiarity with which was made a prereauisite for admission to practice ; and
OeparnvrucHt fUMos, TherapeutieSi in 14 books, called in the middle ages Meealoteehnwn.
We may mention another work, which is rather curious, lUfi rw wtw 0t0Xt(a¥ ypo^, a
systematic enumeration of his own toritingSf with incidents of his life, composed when
advanced in age. — SdUHl, v. 345, ss.

a. EdKkMHb— Th«rtba?«bMiiimiiycdltio«ia latin ; SeABO ipMfa of f2.-«« BMtloM liro of the Omrt tax aloM ; Jii*«
^JUcta (tn ad. JUd.). Vao. IflM. S v6k. M.-^. CrtOandtr (prints, cd. OMNMna). Bw. ISSB. ft wl*. fnl.~Tbm f twa
■iMoribsGtMk wUkm U»n x^ttm t R, CkntUr, Fhr. IfflS. »«•!■. M. (cf. ^aitt a) Bwt. g O. X«*n, >■ thi SwUI

vob. of llM floliwtioB eitad { Ma I. WeMtfM ih* Mkwiair worfei. Mpimirff ^tUMd t HM Vm kml ph^tim at «b« t

phnonplMr, bjr Con^ hr. Mia with atglhtof HlppocnMi (jgWi tj.'-bkcrtQitm It ttrnd^ ^ tim Wwoi^ mUd, U^f^

wiaa

a. Tnmi^ikmu-jQmmmm CrmuMmnA ty jyW(hrt», (IH foL pihlj OldMb. IIOS. a

S 274. Arutotle mast not only hare a place among the rhetorieiaDS (cf. $ 115)
and the philosophers (cf. $ 191), bnt also be ranked high among naturaUaU.

1 V. He was the first to bring both physics and natural history into a scientific form.
In these branches, he displayed fine powers of observation, with habits of close rea-
soning. Of his works pertaming to this department, we mention as the principal, his
Avouch ^Ajcffiaatf, a work on general phvsics, in 3 books ; the History of Animals^ tltfi
Zfiuy ieroptoi, in 10 books ; and the Meteorology, MfrcupoXoyura, in 4 books. Some of
the others ascribed to him are not genuine, or at least did not come from him in their
present form ; as e. g. the treatise llc^ ^av/tasltau 'Ajwiw/t^ruy, On wonderful report*.

a TheMlrntbMaf«ftMmdiBthe«ditiB«iorA.% Werki. §191. t. AMory o/ JtilmaJt, bjr /. O. Sblhmficr, Or. ft LiL

rail. 4 vob. a my taWOM^arj.—Wandtrful JUrortM, hj J. Bttkmmtn. Gott. 1788. 4.— TArw piMca pvtuBiaf to dmp uA
4tmmi,\ijO.A.Btiktr. Lpi. I»3. &— JMUiora^efteyby/. O. iUcr.Or.ft Ut LfM. ISSi. 8 voh. 8.

a TraMtatloiM.-rraaCL-J. O. Cohmm, BlMory of Animalu Fw. ITS*, a with Or. text ud uAm. f^trmtm^-F. SbmA,

HlMory of ABiaah. Fnakt ISia a

4. niubmtifiu-^. O. E. AfWDta^ O* AfMetelt holHieD pbilOMpka. VntW. 1«4. 4^-^. f. Ji. mifiiiaan, Obmrr. moI^
«BinAiiiLHbL AsinUiam. U|». ISia 4^~<% ftkSI^ UL SSa-^ biW aMlyvk of A.% Hatory of Aaiwb k gi««a ky fidU^
Bridcawaiar TmtiM, A.x.mtL».

§ 375. T^heophraatui also stands among the naturalistB, as well as among the
philosophers (cf. $ 193).

1 u. The works which place him here, are principally the following: Ile^ ^vrw
tcToptai, History of Plants, in 10 books ; rirpl ^rutuy Airtav, On the causes of Plants,
in 10 books, of which only 6 remain ; Tltfi Xrauy, Of stones. We have also from him
several other treatises, on Winds j Fire, Odors ^ &,c. and various fragments preserved
in Phoiius.

a SfifcjMfdir^ eri. oTtlM Whela Worka (ef. f IfL 8) farnhhaB Um b«l of Am yaK«,~Tto AM. of floate, bjr A
maekkoum. Oxf. 1 813. S. buidionM, bat not eorrael (fWkmwim).

a Tnml»iiaM.-Q«nnub-.£rill. of Planti, hy aprmfL Alton, lfS2. a-SXMUi, by adtmiodw, Frrib. iSOOL a Tmtk.

-«on»t. (tino.) Pjf. ITO». B. ^Ei)cli>h.~0/ itonu, by /. HUL Loud. 1746, 1777. a

4. lllurtratiTC-V. SlocMouM, llliMtrmliooM Tbwpbmti ia mya Bo»Mioenim, fte. Out 1811. S^^C SekSO, IIL aiB.

$ 376. Jntigontu of Carystas, in the island Eaboea, lived about 'B. C. 384
under Ptolemy Philadelphns.

1 u. lie onmpiled, from the works of other naturalists, h\9'lrro^oivinpai6^<M9vinyvY^
Collect ion of marvelous things. It consists of 189 sections, containingr particularly ai
account of animals. The last 62 sections are the most important, being drawn from
authors that are lost.

a. Thh wark wm am poblahri by X^kmAr (flbtamm). Bm. IS6a a-^Amffav ad. by Miffitei Liyd. iSia 4.-BMI, ^
/. BtckmMm. 1791. 4.

$ 377. MUanua has been named among the historians ($ 353). Bnt we hare
a work from him, belonging to this place, on the peeuliarities of animals^ XUpi
^Ma¥ iitotf^of, in 17 books. It is chieflj a compilation from earlier writers,

P.y. JSWI8H AND CHRISTIAN WIUTINCM. 54t

particolarly Aristotle. The additions by ^lian are mostly of a fabalons cha*
racter.

l.lthgiwDhH>««dmcM0fhiiiPBrHcIfdi»M.2. Stpmtaj.JUt.QnnM^ looi, VtU. i ftik. CStkmidm. Lf»
I7M. 8.— BmI, r, JaeoU. J«d. 1890. 2 voIil t.

91. The compilation of JipoUoniua Dpteolnt, atyled Wondnful Biatoriu (cf. ) 135), might be
ranked in this department; but it ia of little value.

Jewuh and Christian Writingi in the Greek Language,

% 278. Before leaving the history of Greek literatare, we ought to remark, that we
find in the Greek language two classes of writings, which have not been noticed in the
preceding glance, and which oaght not to be overlooked, although they are not com-
monly included in the range of classical studies.

The Jir$t of the classes, to which we here refer, comprises those writings which may
perhaps properly be termed Hdfrew- Grecian; being published in the language of the
Greeks, but of a Hebrew orisin and character. These are, the Septuagiut version,
and the Greek Apocrypha, of the Old Testament. These writings breathe a moral
spirit quite at variance with that of pasan literature, and it cannot be doubted, that they
exerted some influence, when made Known to the scholars of Alexandria. Indeed 4t
has been thought, that their influence is apparent in the style of some of the pagan
writers of the age (cf. ^ 68. 3). — Th^ most marvelous stories have been reportea as to
the manner in which the proper literature of the Hebrews, composed of their Canonical
Books and called by us the Old Te$tamentt was first presented to the Greeks in their
native tongue. The true account is, probably, that the Jews of Alexandria, who had
lost the use of their national language, procured for their own benefit a Greek transla-
tion of these Books, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 280. This
translation received the sanction of their Sanhedrim, consisting, like that at Jerusalem,
of 70 or 72 members, and was from this circumstance called the Septuagint This
version enjoyed a hi^h reputation both among Greeks and Jews for many years; but
in some of the most mieresting parts it fell far short of the spirit and force of the origi-
nal, and attempts were made at a later period to give to the Grecian reader, in a more
elegant dress, this body of sacred history and poetry.

rer u aeeeoBlof the Saploagliit, tad of o(b«- Ondc venioM, w« nim to Bamth httnd. to CHt. Stui^ €f tlm Ariftum, m
cilad P. IV. f 107. l.~Wortti of biflisr eriikd lalberily an /. O. SkUum, Einleita^ lai. A. TvL (ith ad^ QOtt. Itt4. 6 vok &
aadlP. jr.L.JDkm<fc,EiBMliiaKindi*BiMAlLii.N.TM.(8dcd.) BwL lOBl &

^ 279. The books termed the Apocrypha (cbrArpv^) were originally written, some of
them in the Greek, but most of them m the Hebrew or Chaldee. They were all, or

nearly all, composed before the Christian era. Several of the pieces contain authenr

tic narratives of events, and are highly valuable in supplying the historical deficiencies
of the canonical books, and illustrating the circumstances of the age to which they re-
fer. A lar^^er number must be viewed as mere historical fictions, having perhaps their
foundation m matters of fact, but embellished according to the fancy of the author, often
ingenious and amusing ; yet framed wholly for moral and religious purposes. Some
ofthe books are more purely and directly didactic in character, consisting of proverbial
reflections, and maxims of prudence and wisdom. " The songr of the three children*'
is the only piece in the collection which can be Jasil]^ called poetical ; in form and struc-
ture it almost exactlv resembles the Psalms of*^David. What interest these apocry-
phal writings excited, or to what extent they were circulated, among the Greek literati.
It may be impossible now to determine ; but it is manifest from the reply of Josephus
to the attack of Apion, that about the commencement ofthe Christian era, the antiqui-
ties and historical records ofthe Jews had become interestinff subjects of inquir]r among
{lagan scholars. At first the Greeks very generally looked upon the Jews with pro-
bund contempt, classing them without distinction under the leveling epithet of barba-
rians. Occasionally they honored them with a tribute of derision for their proud claims
as a nation favored of heaven, and their bigoted adherence to a system of burdensome
ceremonies. But at length the Greeks became more acquainted with their sacred
books, and conversion from paganism to Judaism was not an uncommon occurrence.
Synagogues, coinposed in great part of proselytes, existed in many of the Grecian
cities, at the beginning of the Christian era.

Ob (bs writiap dmmi n^er tha Ipociypba of lb* OU Teftunoit, imJ.JL fUHctei^ Coda ftrad^tplcnphvi Veterto Tcrt*.
■icBti. H«inu ITS3. < vol*, a— ffonu, Intro, kc cited f S7& vol. L p. «&— Bctidai th« •poerypM faooto »hof meatiOMd, Omi*
•I* ■TIM other ipurioaa predactkMt, aaeribcd to bibliol pemiMgH. TiM book of Snodk and tbe AKnuion tf htAvk ht*» bMs
fMBd in ibe Etblopic taufMce, is medm Uidm. 8m A. £«ur«ica, Book of Eaoeb, fee. OsT. 1921. l-Suii^ AmmIo teki^
ole. LoDd. iSI&a

9 280. The diher class, to which we alluded (^ 278), comprehends the numeroos

SZ

642 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

writinffs from Christian authors. After the time of Christ, there began to appear in
both toe Greek and Roman tongues, works totally diflferent in their whole spirit and
character from all that is found m pagan literature. In the notices already given of
Greek authors, a few names of professed believers in Christ are found ; but they have
been presented only as their works related to the subiects strictly included in the com-
pass of profene studies. Independent of all such works, there was a bod^ o( Christian
litertUure, which deserves our notice here, and which in fact offers a spacious and most
interesting field of observation. Our limits confine us to a glance at the Cliristian
writings in the Greek langunge before and during the time of uonstantine.

^ 281. The first object which appears as we enter this field, is the collection of sa-
cred WRITINGS contained in the New Tettament, These, considered in a literary point
of view, may be classified under the three heads of historical, epistolary, and prophetical
composition.--— *0f the jive pieces which are historical^ four illustrate the life, death,
and character of the great Founder of the religion, while the fifth relates the circum-
stances of his followers for some time after his death, and details the labors particularly
of one apostle. They are written in a style of the most affecting simplicity, and con-
tain an historical a>id bioeraphical narrative, which, in whatever light it is considered, is
altogether without a Darallet in the literature of the world. The epistolary part con-
sists of letters from five of the first teachers, directed to companies of believers in the
Christian faith united together in churches, or to individual converts. Those letters
must of course be accommodated to the specific object of each, and contain many allu-
sions to the peculiar wants and circumstances of the times. But they were intended
for general instruction, and present it in almost every variety of £orm in which it can
b^ offered to the mind and heart of man ; in rigid demonstration of truth ; in clear expo-
sure of error ; in strong warnings aeainst impurity of life ; in warm encouragements to
active goodness and benevolence ; all urged with sanctions drawn from the sublime re-
alities of a future eternal existence. One piece only is considered OBpro/phetieal^ styled

the Revelation. It was composed last of the whole collection, and is marked by manv
striking peculiarities. There Ib one trait in its style specially remarkable, to which
there is nothing similar in any department of pagan literature, the singular use of sym-
bolical language. I'his peculiar language was chiefly derived from the Hebrew pro-
fhets, by whom it seems to have been employed as essential to the pro|)hetical style,
t throws an air of mystery over the composition, but at the same time imparts to it an
overwhelming majesty and sublimity. The grand and simple object of this beautiful
vision of the venerable exile at Patmos seems to have been to show forth the hastening
overthrow of Judaism and Gentilism, the future general triumphs of Christianity on
earth, and the final rewards of its disciples in Heaven.

fat wbklevcr perteiM to On editiom of U» N«ir TntuniBl, to iatorpratatioH, ud kiadnd tapioi ; flbnu^ m ibwd^ eted^
bpwiiUf, J. L. Bug, EiBl. ia *. Scbriftn d. N. T«i. (Sd «d.) Sisltf. ISM. 1. Tnui. into El«IW^ hf D. AhIM, »>lb Mta
bjM.nuart. And. 18S«. &-^& X SetoM, lacoft BirtoriahCritki ia Ubroi Not . F<Bd. Skcr. J«d. MM. a

^ 282. It would be impious sacrilege to speak of the writings just named only as a
part of the general mass of literary productions. It must not be forgotten that they
constitute, taken in connection with toe sacred books of the Jews, a series of authen-
tic communications from God to man ; they are, if the expression can be allowed, the
second volume of divine inspiration. There is irreslBtible evidence, that they are from
the pens of men who wrote as they were moved by the Holy Ghost, and contain the
infallible rule of faith and practice for us as the intelliffent moral subjects of the Great
Ruler of the universe. By the principles of these books we are each to be tried at the
day of final judgment, and each to receive his eternal retribution. It is only by giving
earnest heed to these books, that we can cleanse our ways from sin, or obtain part in
the life and immortality which they and they only have brought to lif^ht. " The law
of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul." — Yet these writings should be noticed as
included among those mental productions of antiquity, which are presented to us in the
language of the Greeks, especially as the literary importance and influence of the New
Testament has been too generally overlooked. It is often interesting to the scholar to
consider how the writings of a dlBtinguished individual, a Homer, a Plato, an Aristotle
or a Bacon, have given a cast to the general mind through distant ages; how a single
production has affected the thoughts and feelings, and modified the whole character, of
many successive generations. Viewed in this light, no work of human genius suggests
so interesting a train of reflections as the inspired writing of Christianity. No work or
class of worKs has operated so powerfully or so extensively on the human mind, none
has effected so. much in arousing the latent energies of intellect, in preparing it to put
forth splendid and successful eflforts in the various departments of science and literature.
Cf. P. IV. ^83.

^ 283. The writings which next fall under our notice, following the order of time,
are those which are ascribed to the Apostolical Fathers. Barnabas, Clemens Roma-
nus, Hermas, Polycaip and lenatius, are included under this denomination. Bar-
nabas was a native of the island of Cyprus, was educated at Jerusalem, in the school of
Gamaliel, and was for some time a companion of the Apostle Paul. The letter extant
under his name ia cliiefiy an argument addressed to the Jews, showing that the Mosaic

p. Y. CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 543

law had been abolished by Christ, and a purely spiritual service substituted instead of

their ceremonial rites and sacrifices. The work left by Hermas^ is styled Pastor or

Shepherd, consisting of three Parts; viz. 12 commands, 12 similitudes, and 4 visions.
The commands are so many practical positions or principles laid down and illustrated.
The visions and similitudes are fanciful and puerile in the extreme, and little worthy of
attention except as they indicate the great sincerity and piety of the author.— -The only
genuine remains of Clement of Rome are tioo epistles to the Corinthians j and concerning
die second of these there is reason to doubt. They are altogether of a practical cha-
racter, exhorting the Corinthians 'to cultivate the Christian virtues and to manifest in
their deportment the superior excellence of the Christian faith. Clement enjoyed dis-
tinguished reputation, and on this account several works by later writers were ascribed
to him in order to give them currency ; as the Apostolic Canons, the Apostolic Consti-
tutions, the Recoenitions, and the Clementines. These works, although spurious,
afford much useful and curious information respecting the state of Christian society,
opinions, and views in the period to which they belong. Polycarp and Ignatius are
both remembered as venerable and heroic martyrs. The former at the age of more
than eight V years died at Smyrna, bound to the stake ; the latter, at about the same

age, was devoured by lions in the Amphitheatre at Rome. The only fragment of

rolvcarp is an epistle to the Philippians, applauding their faith, enforcing the doctrine
of the resurrection, giving precepts to the different classes in the church, and warning

its members against errors m belief and sins in practice. A large number of epistles

are extant ascribed to Ignatius. Only seven of them are considered as genuine; one
of them was a letter of Christian friendship to Polycarp, and the others were pastoral
addresses to different churches, written after he commenced his fatal journey firom

Aniioch to Rome, a prisoner of the emperor Trajan. These various remains of the

Apostolical Fathers were held in high estimation by the primitive Christians. Some
of them were occasionally read with the Holy Scriptures in the religious assemblies on
the Sabbath.

The bcrt edition of tlw m-ilini^ of tb« Apottolicd Fathen it that of /. B. CotikHut (at eoaeodod hj J. Chrteuf) 6r. k, Lat
Anal. I7S4. 2 rob. fol.— In Eniclith tramiatioa was pabliebed by Abp. Wake. Reprioled, Lend. 1817.— Ao mcoubI of their iivet
BMj be fiMifid '.n Cavc'f Hialory of the Primitive Fatbeta. Lond. I®7. foL— See alK> Mothtim, Innthted bjr JTurdtek, (New VL^
vaa, IttZ. S vola. &) isL voL p. 69. Oo Uie Apoatotic Coottihitioaa, <L Colenan, Chriat Aatiqailici, p. 36, 4m

^ 284. In the 2d and 3d centuries, as was perfectly natural, there appeared a num-
ber of spurious productions, which claimed to be from the Apostolical Fathers and
others, who had been active in the introduction and first promulgation of Christianity.
Many of these were undoubtedly written with the best mtentions, and perhaps were
understood by their first readers as asserting a fictitious origin not expected to be be-
lieved or allowed, according to a law which has existed in ttie repubUc of letters from
time immemorial.-^ — Among the fabrications alluded to we must rank the Apostles^
Creed, a beautiful little summary of doctrine, which is still regarded with great respect.
To the same cla.<«s belong the books styled the Revelation &nd the Preaching of St.
Peier, the latter of which contains, together with some interesting matter, many ridicu-
lous statements and anecdotes. A still bolder fiction is found in the two Edessan
Epistlesi which purport to be a letter from Abgarus, king of Edessa, sent to Jesus
Cnrist, and the answer returned to him by the Savior. The story is briefly, that
Abgarus in a dangerous sickness wrote to implore relief, and that Christ sent back a
gracious reply, accompanied with a present of his picture, which was miraculously im-
pressed upon a handkerchief by Cnrist himself. Besides nieces of this description,
there were several professed biographies of the Savior, crowaed with the most puerile
superstitions and absurdities, but in some mstances exhibiting the marks of a lively and
truly poetical imagination. The collection of writings termed the Apocryphal Tes-
tament is composed of such productions as have just been mentioned ; productions per-
fectly consonant to the circumstances of the age and the character of the times ; when
the Savior and the Apostles had been so lon^ departed, that their lives and actions
might be embellished by exaggeration and fiction, and the reading class among Chris-
tians had become so numerous, and the general curiosity so awakened, as to create an
increased demand for writings relating to their common faith and the history of their
Founder and his companions.

Many of theae worka bate perbhcd. Thoae extant were eolleeted and pnUhbad by J. A. Fbiridut, h hla Glodbr J^oerypAia
Kcnd JitUmmti. Hamb. 1719^3. 8 voli. 8.— An apocryphal book, purpertisg to be the jf cit e tk» JtpuOt TItomai, ivaa Utahf
diacovered at Ftria. aod was published by Jo. Car. ThOo, (TboniiB Apoeloli Acta). Lpc. I82Z. &— TWZo comneBced as ed. of the
Jiptxr. N. TVaf. Lipa. lfQ2. 8. learned and celebrated.— An Enslish tnntlalion of moat of tbaie prodoetioBi wm paMbhed, calilM
Tht AvoenfpMai A'tio TVtianmd, ftc. Lood. 1820. &— CL Borne, bafon cited, toI. i. Appeodix No. V.

^ 285. The works, which have thus far been noticed, proceeded chiefly from men
comparatively illiterate. But in the 2d century, and still more in the 3d, Christians
could rank among their advocates and writers many distinguished scholars and philoso-
phers, particularly of the Greeks. Very early, however, arose two opposite oi)inion8
respecting the importance of human attainments. A considerable class of Christians
utterly disapproved of the study of science and philosophy, as useless and inconsistent

644 BISTORT OF ORBEK LITERiLTURE.

with the deflign of Christianity. Another claas warmly advoeated snch study as per
fectly proper and highly useful, especially to those who aspired to be public teachers
of religion. I'he latter opinion gradually gained the ascendancy, and the sciences,
which nad been taught in the pagan schools, were at length to a considerable extent
introduced into the Christian seminaries. (Cf. P. I V. ^ 83.) But Phihtophy constituted
the principal study thus derived, and nearly all the Christian writers, who remain to
be noticed in the glance we are now taking, will come under the general name of phi-
losophers. None of them wrote treatises expressly philosophical ; but many of them
were pljilosophers by profession before they were converted to Christianity, and after-
wards continued the same pursuits, while ail of them studied more or less the pagan
systems, and employed the doctrines of philosophy in whatever they wrote in support
of their own religion. — The Fathers down to Orisen have been termed FlcUonizing,
because they generally preferred the system of Plato and adopted many of his views.
Justin Martyr and Irenaeus were the most distinguished of this class. Origen and most
of the early Greek Fathers after him have been termed Eclectic, because they em-
braced the system of Ammonius, to which we have already alluded (^ 181). Some of
the Fathers were partial to the doctrines of other sects, particularly the Stoics ; but the
Eclectic philosophy became altogether the roost popular among Christians as well as
pagans. The views of the Fathers were, however, in many points peculiar to them-
selves, and formed what might be called a Christian jikHoBophy (cf. % 183, 466). The
productions of the writers whose philosophical studies and partiaUties have thus been
hinted at, may be classed under the several heads of Biblical, Controversial, Doctiinali
Historical, and Homiletical writings.

% 286. The early Christians attached great importance to Biblical studies. The
writin^fs of both the Old and New Testament they endeavored not only to explain to
their children and to those who attended their public assemblies, but also to circulate
among all the heathen around them. For this purpose, versiatis were very early made
into several of the different languages then spoken. Much care and labor were ex-
pended also in collecting various copies, in correcting the versions in use, and publish-
ing more perfect editions. Many of the Fathers engaged in these efToris with ardor,
but the palm of pre-eminent zeal and diligence belongs to Origen. His Polyglott,
usually called the Hexavla^ has been considered one of the most astonishing monu-
nicnts of philological industry, and the loss of it is still deeply lamented by every sacred

interpreter. Harmonies of the GotptU were likewise among the biblical compositions

of the age. That of Tatian, about the middle of the 2d century, is the earliest on
record ; it was called Td 6th rbmaptdw or Movorhnrapov.^— But the most important and
numerous productions of this general class were Commentaries. In the 2d century,
1'heophiius of Antioch Mrrote on the Gospels ; Clemens Alexandrinus, on the Epistles;
Justin Martyr, on the Apocalypse. In the 3d century wo find among the commen-
tators, Hippolytus, Gregory '1 naumaturgus, and Origen, the most prolific and most
distinguished of them all. These authors understood but very imperfectly the true
principles of interpretation. Justin Martyr adopted the Jewish idea of a double mean-
ing belonging to one and the same passage, and made a constant endeavor in his expo-
si 'ions to ascertain a hidden and remote sense in addition to the literal. The same
principle was embraced by Origen, who incorporated it with notions borrowed from
the allegorizing Platonists, and spread it out into a system, which soon led its founder
and his followers into endless labyrinths of mystical extravagance.

RMpMtioc the Mrty veniou, eensnU HomA iDtnd. P. I. eh. t. net. 1. ^ 9, i.^-OennFi lutltulM of BIM. CriL BotL 1823L t.
eh. if. { 4, S, 6.-^Aa aectwirt of Orient Hcnpla h givea by JSbrnc, vol. ii p. 171. CC Aiiarr. OlMsrUtioai o« ^twSyiat B*
Oriv. Lutgngm of (b* Bible, Note C— A particiitKr dMeriptlon of the six Greek vonloM I* the HeanpU of Origce a pvee bf
SrtpAmiw*, who lived ia Ibe latter put of the 4th enrtury, la bh TnatUt on fVUghtt and ibaium ; • treetiM wbicb «*m writ.
ten for the parpoee of elaeidatii« the ScripterM, ead whieh h •lill wefui. It b givco la D. Fttaimu, 8. E p I pb a a 1 i Opaia. Or. at

Uu Fkr. 1C38. 2 vok. fol. repr. Col. 1688. 2 volt. foL Oa the eeriy bamoniala atid eonnmUtan, ttnit, ii. p. 471^ 741^-aa

the Cbrtttiaa poetical wriliof^ cf. (Torton, Hi«L Enf. FMry, iU. 198.— Poet* Chrirttui Qmet. Fw. 1609. 8. Ct dcMB, ffia-
teire Abragre da la Uttenture Giecque Sacratk Far. 1832. 8.

^ 267. The Controversial writings of the earlv Greek Christians constitute an inte-
resting part of their literature. They consist of books designed either for heretics, or
for Jews, or for pagan Gentiles.— -The errors of the various classes of heretics and
schismatics were opposed by a great number of writers whose books are lost ; but the
five books of Irenaeus, in which he examines and refutes the doctrines of the whole
body of them, are still extant, partly in the original Greek and partly in a Latin versioiL
— The chief work from the Greek Fathers in controversy with the Jews, which now
I'emains, is the curious dialogue of Justin Martyr with Trypho Judaeus; although Sera-
pion of Antioch and other Cnristian doctors wrote particular treatises against them.—
The polemical writings intended for Gentile readers were chiefly apologies for Chri»>
tians, or exhortations to psgans ; great numbers of which were composed before the
time of Constantine. The most distinguished authors were Justin Martyr, Tatian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Athenagoras, and Theophilus of Antioch. But the Fathen
were also called upon to answer particular attacks upon Christianity madfe by heathen
auihors ; Origen published a triumphant reply to Celsus, Methodius to Porphyry, and

p. y. CHRISTIAN wRiTiireB. 645

Easebias to Hierocles and Philostntus (cf. $ 255 b. 2). In tbese compositions they

exposed the unsatisfactory and contradictory doctrines of the Greek philosophy, de-
, monstrated the vastly superior nature of the Christian religion, and defended its dis-
ciples from the numerous aspersions cast upon their character ; thus they contributed
much to promote that mighty change which ultimately took place in the complete ex-
tirpation of the old mythology and the establishment of the Christian faith.

Tb« baa edithMH of I r • na li • tr« thoM of /. £. GVwic, Oxf. 1708. fol. lad Am. Jfamof, 8d ad. Fkr. I7S4. fol.— Of tbe dia.
taKve of iutti ■, a Rood aditino is that of S. JkU, Load. 1719. 8. with hb apol«P«i^ » b givw in tba edition oThn worki bf P,
JCwomia, (HaniD). Par. 1748. fol^-Alao In f. OtetAUr, Opera Patnm Gnee. fOr. k Lnt) WOrtsh. 1777-04. 90 voU. & Tbia te
called poor bjr Pnf. Sean, bavinf ofteo a "text oomipt and tianslatioa fkba; j«t it h "ebcap, of nrj food type, and of eoova-
BiCBt(bnn.''—Taliamb7mrl*,Gr. aUt Oxf. ITOa 8.--Athoaagera«, bjr iB. OicAafr«,Gr. a Ut. Oxf 1706. 8.--CI«>
nana Alaxaadrtaat, by/. Pottv, Or. k Lat Load. 1716. 2 vol*, fol.— Tbaephilaa, by J. Ckr. mtf, Or. ft UL Hamb
1784. &~W« iD»y aim rrfer lo the work estitlad Soncfonwi Patrum Operm fckmiea do teritaUa Ral. ChriaU ooDtn GentiUa ol
JviMM. WJrtzb. 1778. 4 mh. 8.^-rr. Mttr^ceV$ Moaheim, «oL i. 144.

Enfliih Traiwlvlom.— "There Is no Enfibb tnnslaHen orireDcni."jf. Clarlm (u eitad | 293), vol. I. p. 106.-Jnilis{
Tba two Jpttogiu for CAriaMnnt, by tV. Itmtt. Loai. Bd cd. 1716. 8 volt.— Tbe DialoguM teith TrypkP, by J7. Bnwne. Lood.

1756. 8 vob. 8. The £c*onai<on to the GenUkit, by 7. Motet. Load. 1787. &-.A thenagoraa,byiX AbrnpAriyt. Lend.

1714. 8. iDCiodiiig both the Apology Ibr tbe Cbrblbiw, aad tba treatbe on tba remmdioii.— C ieaaat Alex. <'No Englbh
toandklioa haa yet been giveo of any part of St. Clenent% works, whieS m aocb to be ryattad. A traailatioa of bh PtdagogtUf
woold be particularly imrul." aark«,a»abora dted, p. 187.— Theopbiloe. ByJ.Atty. Oxt 1788. 8.— Of Urigcn** ci^
book! agxinil Ccbto, tbera b a good Fnocb Iramletioa by Bouhirtau. Amt ITOa i.

$ 288. The chief Historical writer among the Christian authors, who come under
notice in the period before us. was Eusebius. He Uved in the time of Constantine,
was one of the most accomplished scholars of the age, and left enduring monuments
of his learning and diligence in different departments of study. His Universal History
has already been mentioned as falling within the circle of classical literature (^ 239;.
It was written, however, for the purpose of confirming the historical books of the Old
Testament, and is a very valuable help and guide in the perplexing labyrinths of an-
cient chronology. The Greek text is lost ; but we possess a Latin translation by
Jerome, and also an Armenian version (cf. ^ 236) as old as the 5th century. His EccU'
siastical History^ 'EKKknmaaTuch 'hnopla, is justly ranked among the most valuable
remains of Christian antiquity, being our principal source of information respecting the
affairs of the church in the first centuries. It consists of 10 books, and extends from
the origin of Christianity to A. D. 324. His Life of Constantine, in 4 books, although
abounding with eulogium, is yet of much vslue. One of his greatest works is that
entitled EvayycXi«riff dnoSci^ctus vpmapoffKtvri^ Proiparalio Evangelical in 15 books. Its
object is to show, how vastly superior the Gospel is to all the pagan systems. The
work styled EiayycAwrf^ m6Sci\ti, Demonstratio Evangelicaj is* also celebrated, as con-
taining the proofs of the credibility and authority of the Christian religion.. It con-
Fisted of 20 books, of which only 10 are preserved. Both these works might perhaps
be ranked among the controversial writings, to which we have alluded.

The beet ediHon of the UMvmal BLdarf b that of Mai aad ZdAmA. Mil. 1818. 8 vob. 4. ceataiBing the Oraek ftragOMBta, aad a
Latin tranlation from Iba Anncobs Tarainn.— Tba Anncnbn vanioit, with a new Lttia tnnd. waa pabllebad by /. B. Jhukar.
Ven. 1818. 8 volt. 4.— O. B NUtnhr baa a ncBioir oa the Armea. Terrinn, in bb JOeim HiitariteMund PkOelogitdte Bekrifttfu
- J. SeaKfer attempted to recomtntet the Greek text, aad poblbbad the collaelad fra^aicala la bb Thaaunit nmporum. (M cd.)

Lagd. Bat. 1658. foL ^Tba fioelehaifMBi AMory ; beet, F. J. Otinrkkan. Lpi. I8Z7. 3 voh. & with capioua aotea.— Jtcorf^iif,

Or. ft LaL Carnb. 1880. 8 vela, fol^ Coolaialng aba (he other aariy Greek acclak bbtorbna, SaovOa, Suunen, nmdeni, ^—
A Freoch tiaaebiioB b Kirea la Couetn, Hliloina da PEgU«, eerilet par Eaaeb% Soeraia, SoMMBeaa, at Tbaodorat Rw. I9?L
4 vela. 4.— Aa Eagibb tTandatloa waa pvblbhed. Load. 1689. M.— A raceat oea, aatitled Tke ffinrirtnUiVwl HtMaty tf luiAita
Pwrnphitm, traaelaied fnua the origtaal by Iba Rav. C. F. Cnui, A. M. Amrtaat Pnfewir ia tba Daivanity of Pwaeylraab, «w

publi«bad at Pbibdelphia, 183S. 8. Lift of Canalantina f beet, Brinriekm. Lfa. ISSa 8. Prmp. faongrf/ai; rigtnu. Or.

ft Let. Fkr. 1688. bl. Reprinted, Lpa. 1688. Dmum. Emngd. t Figentf , Or. ft LaL Far. 1688. Beprialad, Lpx. ian.-8ea

&A0U, Hbt Litt. Or. vii. 81

^ 289. A few Doctrinal treatises made their appearance as early as the 2d century ;
but there seems to have been nothing like an attempt at systematic theology until the
third, when Origcn published his /our books of Elements or first principles^ IIc/x 'ApX!^,
illustrating the doctrines of the gospel after a philosophical manner. Other works of
a similar character soon followed, and essays and discussions altogether too numerous
to be mentioned, on various points of faith and practice, of theology and of morals,
were given to the church.

The name of Athanasius must not here be passed in silence ; he has justly been
pronounced one of the greatest men of whom the church can boast. " His life, his
stnKgles, his genius,*' says an elegant French writer ( Fi7/nnam), "did more for the
advancement of Christianity than all the power of Constantine. Trained, as it were,

in the midst of religious dissensions, renowned while young in the Council of Nice,
chosen patriarch of Alexandria by the suffrage of an enthusiastic people, exiled bv
Constantine, proscribed by Constance, persecuted by Julian, threatened with death

under Valens, he ended his life in the very patriarchate firom which he had repeatedly
been driven. l*he writings of such a man, it is easily seen, are not the writings of a
mere theologian. If he often contended on points of deep obscurity, his aim was to
establish that religious unity of which he well understood the Taloe and tbe power."
69 2 z 2

546 BISTORT OF GREEK LITERATURE.

The chief theme of hit doctrinal diacuasions wae the snbject of. the Triniiv, oil which
he most vigorously opposed the notions of Arius. The celebrated compend or formola
of Christian doctrine long ascribed to him, and still usually called the Athanagian
Creed, *' is now generally allowed not to have been hia, but to have been deduced from
his works."

!%« Orwk tnt ol OrtRMiH rint PrineipUt h Mtlty lad ; w« !■?• i Latia vmka nade \tj RallBa In tba 4fh cmlafT, SK
ablhhad nptrataly by £ R, Jkdtpmninf, Upa. 107. B, witb DOt»— 0 r i | a aH WMi, by Ohe Benadietinai Charta ^ C^vtm
fitemt) Dt Im Am. Par. nSi~*B. 4 voli. foL R«priii(ad, by OhtrUMe. WOrtikk ITMl IS volt. & Thb hu baen raakad atte

beat fllilioB. A Daw ad. munim tha wbala a( Dt la Xoa. aad atid to babattar, b bow Id pra«i«a% by C. S. E. Li iiiirw*.

Bad. I8SI-ML vol. i.-vii. 19. Tba baal ad. af Iba wmba af A IhaaaalDi b Ibal of Am. it UmH-Wblemtt {Memtfmucn\

Or. k Ut Par. ICn. I rali. fol.— Sam piaen {oputaOa), mH eoMalaad Id this ata |l*aa ia Iha M lol. of Uont/mumA BiblioA.
Fair. Orw!. Par. 170a.-Cf. Haritt, lat ia Hbt Ud|. Or. vol. HI. p. Oi^yUkmrntn, m diad iSN. l.W. J. Jmiar. Aitaaaaria

*e. Maiaa, IM7. 1 vab. 9. " Tba writiBgi aitribolad to Athaaaiiaa tmy ba divldad iato ibraa dMaaa, rnuna, dubkMt, md

at^fotMUoui ! aoKNUitiiw ia tba wbola to opwank of aM h«adi«d diaHact taaUML" Oarte, at dtod \ SS.

^ 290. The last class of writings mentioned, as included in the Christian literature
of these early ages, was the HomiletieaL The Homily of the primitive church held nearly
that place in the public worship, which the sermon does at the present dav ; it waa the
address of the religious teacher to the audience assembled, and intended for their in-
struction and improvement. But it differed widely in ita character from the modern
sermon. It was neither a labored discussion of a single subject, nor a critical inter-
pretation and illustration of a single text \ but a rapid exposition of a whole context, or
a full chapter, or even a larger portion of scripture ; combining in a manner quite irre-
gular ana accidental, the most various matter, ddctrinal, philosophical, critical, and
practical.-^— The eloquence of the pulpit, contemplated in its origin, progress, and
effects, presents truly one of the most interesting topics of study in the whole history
of the human mind. The subject, however, comes before us in this place only ao far
va relatea to the remains of sacred oratory which exist in the language of the Greeks.
These, it is much to be regretted, are comparatively few until after the time of Con-
stantino. Nearly every one of the authors who have been named was a preacher or
sacred orator. The mat business of the Apostles was to address their fellow-men on
the sublime truths ofreligion and the momentous interests of eternity. The apostoHcal
Fathers were also chiefly employed in the same duty. The other writers mentioned
were public religious teachers. Yet of the actual addresses of so many speakers, we
have scarcely any full and fiair specimens, until we reach Origen. Their other writ-

which was astonishingly eflficacious to convince and to reform. The apostolical Fa-
thers and their contemporaries generally followed the aame natural, unstudied, unosten-
tatious method of speaking. But an unfortunate change in taste soon made its ap-
pearance. The writings of the Platonizing Fathers, of whom Justin may be taken as
a representative, furnish plain evidence that in their public discourses they indulged to
a melancholy extent in feeble reasonings and frivolous allegories, in erroneous and even
puerile and ridiculous applications of scripture. The oratory of Justin was strikingly
marked by these faults, but was nevertheless flowing and persuasive in its character.

Od Iha ptaadii^ of tba first cntttriaa. ata JlcmA. Artanftwf , Vanacb daar Qatebidito dar flSaBtlichaa Raticiaaarwlilta ia
dar (riadi. and lat. KIrdia. Jao. 1715b %.-~M. 0. Ifoiudk, AtabUdaoc dar Pradi|taD ia anlaa Chritfaotbaia. Fiaokt 17& a

^ 291. The principal genuine homiletical remains of the period under notice are from
the hand of Origen, who has already been mentioned as a writer of extensive acquire-
ments and extraordinary abilities. The homilies of Origen exhibit aa one of their most
prominent characteristics the disposition for allegory and mystery, for which he was so
much distinguished as an interpreter of Scripture. Interpretation or exposition stiU
continued to be the essence of preaching. The speaker proceeded from clause to
clause of the passage before him, offering miscellaneous observations and reflections
as he advanced. This was the manner of Origen. His explanations were more full
and diflfuse than those of earlier speakers, with more of studied oratory and a freer use
of human erudition. He had prepared himself for the highest duties of a sacred orator
by cultivating a thorough acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, with
the languages important to a biblical interpreter, and with the literature, philosophy,
and arts, both of the Greeks and Romans. He possessed less ardor of religious feeling
than some others of the same age, but maintained a character of uncommon coura^,
independence, and decision, so as to be entitled to the name which was sometimes applied
to him, the man ofadatnant (diait&tmvot). Had he not been misguided by a lively and
fertile imagination, he would have secured a much higher place m the annals of sacred
eloquence.

Maajr of tba bomfliaa of Onfea ara laal ; and of tboia aztaat a eonaidarabla nanbar aia odI jr hi tba Latia traaalatiaM nda bf
mtfimu or /(vama; Ihoaa ia Oredc ara cbiafly iododad aadar bta £arfiikia or OoaMMnlario, aad tba MOoaaHa, a coUaetioo af
aatiactiftMi bb werfca DMda by Baail Iba Oraat.-4:iaria, (aa dtad S 898) i. IflS-lSt.

l^tobarttd^tto^ofQr^^HrtwoItiba>ba^^■alnad,^«WL-^ra^Dod>oaa■^^ofOr^^a^,^aaJrMr<wiV^al^dll^,wi.L^»^

p. V. CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 547

^Bonntei frail OHgen, MUmaahu, And elbcn, sm fim In 11» BmuUaiiitm PtttrMtatni by AMmraUt t Fegt, cflnaMiiMl
189-88. ptk U-ir, S. •< a flu work with uottt hbtoriCKl and critkal." &

^ 292. Althoagh confined by our plan and limits to the Chriatian writers before the
death of Constantine, we cannot forbear while speaking of the early sacred eloquence,
to mention the names of two or three, who lived at the close of the 4th century, and
who were highly distinguished as scholars and orators. We refer especially to Grc"
gory NazianzeHt Basil the Great, and Chrysoatom.

The published works of Gregory consist of about 50 orations or sermons, with a
large number of epistles and small poems. As an orator he exhibits a fertile imofiina-
tion united with much strength and grandeur, but is charged with indulging in false
ornament and as deficient in method. — Basil was a contemporary, fellow-student, and
intimate friend of Gregory. He was a pupil of the rhetorician Libaniua (cf. $ 128) at
Constantinople. His education was completed at Athens, where Gregory and Julian
the Apostate were his companions in study. Among his numerous works are nearly a
hundred discourses and homilies. He is esteemed a fine scholar, an elegant writer,
and a good reasoner. — But both Gregory and Basil were wholly surpassed in elo-
quence by John ChryBosUm, who was Dom at Antioch, A. D. 354, andf was in early
life distinguished for his genius, literary acquirements, and piety, and in the year 398
was made patriarch of Constantinople. His works include above 300 discourses and
orations, and above 600 homilies, besides numerous letters and treatises. *' For over>
powering popular eloauence, Chrysotlom had no equal amon^ the fathers. His dis-
courses show an inextiaustible richness of thought and illustration, of vivid conception,
and striking imagery. His style is elevated, y%\ natural and clear. He transfuses hie
own glowing thoughts and emotions into all his hearers, seemingly without effort, and
without the power of resistance. Yet he is sonietimes too flond, he uses some false
ornaments, he accumulates metaphors, and carries both his views and his figures too
fiir." {Murdoch.)

1. ThelMitaditimor Oregorf qf MiBADi2iatatbatorsaiJui,Gr.ftLat tte. IflSa S vols. loL A Mter aditim com
awDced by the BeoaiictiM> ; yat only lat vol. ancutad, by CIcmcneef, Or. h Lat. Par- 1771. foL A Sd vol. (nid to faava b«D
•xacnlad by OnmfiMl, asd lately ditoovarad) waa publhhad is I8S8.— Cnbnaim, Ortforiw von Nadanc. Damat I8K. & a good
Uofnphy.-Baail.Oiator/.Oanito'. Or. a Lit Fkr. 17S1-aa S volt, fled.— MM (print). Pw. nW..-«hrysoaton.
Jdbnf/mnn, Or. h Ut Far. m8>98. 18 volt. fol. rcprralad, Vra. 1796. Ako Mr. I8S4-97. 18 tola, nyal 8va a bnotifol
worfc.-F. #Vdrf, Cbryi. Bomilic In HatttaoB. Load. 1889. 8 vob. &-Z)i SaterdUio, by J. £. Jfao. Lipa. 1834. S—Mmdcr^
Lira or Cbryaottom C2d ed. Lps. I«38. 9 vol&), IraoiL into Englbb. Load. 1888.— Saa a vary intarartinf aceooat oT tbaw onton la
Uw Eawy Dt VB^^pttnct ChftHmm tfant It quatriaiu SikU, by riOemotn in bit Mamoux AMangca, he Fkn 1827. 8.

8. Tbera hara b«ea Engliih T»aiiatUioM of Mnne portioDi or ibaiaanttaoni A & Jteyd, Selatt paangat from Gregory Va^
tianien, St Satil, and St Cbrytoatoai. Land. I8ia S. H. 8. Jkyd, Sdaet Fbeon or Synaawa, and Gregory Nanaaaao. Laod.
1814. 12. «The Poenu of Gregory, tbooch prindpally (ha producUoot oT hit latl yean, betmy nothing oT the decay of titber Ib>
tolket tfr imaf loaikm ; tbey abound with the in ot genlut, and the vigor oT yoath } withaut tha aid oT pa(an maehlMfy, Iha iou-
gcry b bold, tbe ezprmiom ttrang, and the IbongMt rraqneally moanting to tha twUinM."— fR Slark<r, S t B a a i 1 the Gnat, Ua
Etboriati int to hh kiMuaii to tha Studio ot tba Seriptuiw. Lond. 1557. 8.—** An Hamaiye tl Batili w Magnni, how* yaatng nat
oaglila to reMla Pnalae and Oratonn. Tranalated oat or tbe Greke. Aaoa MDLVII. Bvo. Loud. J. Cawnod.* (Tla ovigind
Creek oT ibia trvatiio or dieeonae (cT. P. IV. 4 88.) waa pgUiabcd by /. Foffr, vrith the UL veraiMi of Omha. HtL ItM, 9.
rapnU. by JTos. Prankt 1714. 4.— A good edition of tbe text alone it f. O. Avrz. Sere, ITM. 8.)-^. Xbai^ C hryiaa-
t o m*a Gnldeo Bo*k on tba Edueatlon of Children. Lo«L ISM. IS. A libtUtr, Chryaoatam en tha Prierihood. Lend. Iltt. 8.
Tbe«netraaUietluulaledaItoby/. AiiKK. Load. 175a 8. and raeeally by A If. Muon (Raator of St Mant diarrt^ EiTett^
ville,N. C.) Phil. 1826.

4 293. For brier bnt very attMhctory noticct or all tbe principal cariy Chriatian aotbon, or Fafbmef the Cbareb, both Greek
and Latin, we refer to the notea of Dr. MwriotkU Trandation of Maahcim —For an aaalyaia of their work*; Jdlom Clark% Snc
ceaaioo of Sacf«d LiteiMnre In ft akiooological anangemeot, fte. to A. D. I800l Lond. 1880-88. 8 vola. a a oonvanient woA^-Tte
fallowing worka are ranked amang Uie autboritlea on thia aubJcct-J. Q. WdkhH BIbliotheea Fhtriitica. Jen. 1770. K Am
edited bj J. L. t)anz^ Jen. HS4. It b one of tha beat worka.— IF. Gm, Scriptor. Ecdaa, Blilarla Utararia. OxL I74(M

8 vohi (bt. goad. L. 8. Du Pin, Nouv. Bibliothequa dee Autcota Ecdea. Par. Ii8&-17t». M vola. 4.-JfU. OoBonAi^

BiMiefh. Or. and la*. ««t Fklr. Vaa. 1778. in Ibl. » tbb it the ntoat critical collrction nr tbe Greek and Lalln Fatbera.'^jE^JMa
SWealcl, Bibliothrqua Pntalive da» Peraa da t>egliae, qui reaftrma l>biatoire abngen da lawa viae, PaiuJyia da lana ptlacipanx
•erila, etc Par. 1756-68. 8 vole & new ad. I7S7. 8 voK a— A vrork more eztenalvo, mUkfOmqmt CStoiria dm Ptm 4$ PMtfl-t
by Oui/bn, waa comaiaoeed Phr. 1831. to eomM of 80 vob. 8. ••elegant and laali ipoken oT.'^A colloetlon entitM JNMeM.
Sacra Patr. Ormtonm^, eonltiDiag the Greek text only, waa comntencad by JKcAian liptk 1888^ in 12nie.^-Many of the FUhon
BMntiooed in tba pToeedta« gbaea, with tfa* workt of later writen, are found in De la JNgm, Maxloa Biblioth. Vat PMr. (ad. by
Duponf). Lugd. ?677. 87 vob. fol. •• thii b t^e (tatleit eotlectioa, yet It dace not contain the original lait of tha Graak FMben,
hot only a Latin v«nion."-C. Pr^ mmkr, BiMioth. dn- KlrchanVaier, in UeberMtanngea and AaesQgea. Lptk I776-46. 6 veh^ a
—A new Gemian trandation by Caiholka b in progreaa, in the nmmllidb mrHdr JOnkm-FaUr, tit. Kentpt. 1880-86.
vol. Irx. a— There b a Collection of tha Latin Fkthm, by ObirthUr, Opora Fitrui Latinoram, In IS vob. 8 : not, howavaii
flonpleta. Hb eoneetion oT the Greek Fatben h dted above, § 287.— Tha Utrmyof Urn Ptlhtn, Oaf. 18SB-4a 4 vola. & ■ ■
aarioior EtcUihltaatolBaaby mmbenof thaCbnrch of Eogbwi, daaigned lo ha ftBtboed. CL OaiaUmn am. Dtc ISia

PLATE LIV.

HOBAOB.

M8

HISTORY OF EOMAN LITERATURE.

IfUrodiietioiu

^ 294 tt. Next to the Greeks* the Romant deserve an honorable rank in the literarf
history of antiquity. But in the first periods of their republic they were too much en«
grossed by war, and the prevailing taste was too much for conquest and for the ex-
tension of their power to allow any considerable leisure or patronage to the arts of
Mace. Subsequently, however, when security and opulence were enjoyed, and the
Romans had by their very conquests been led to a knowledge of the arts and sciences
existing in the conquered countries ; when, especially, they began to have intercourse
with the Greeks, and became acquainted with the productions of Grecian taste and art
(cf. P. IV. $ 119) ; then they themselves imbibed a love for letters and the sciences,
and cultivated their language with greater care; then also they imitated the best writers
of Greece with peculiar talents and happy success. Accordingly we find in their
literature master-productions of eloquence, poetry, history, and philosophy. The most
flourishing period of Roman literature and art was in the last ages of the republic and
the reigns of the first emperors, especially that of Augustus. Afterwards (cf. P. IV.
^ 121, % 128), under the withering influence of tyranny, luxury, and moral corruption,
there was a gradual and complete decline of letters.

VJbU U Mcim d'Qrgival, Cooiid^lKiM nr lV)rigiae e( I« prqgrte dot bdlwMtm cfats l« Bomioi ft Im warn do law d**
admm. (/d ed.) Anut 17S0. 8. Tranl. iaio Qtrm. bf /. C. StocUtmuen. Hu. 1755. 8.— C. Maim, Oatdiiehte, *&, m dtod
P. IV. { 198.-/. H. Ebtrhardt, Ihber doa Zwtand derwbOMii WtawMcbirira l>ei den ROmern ; Mtdam SchwadkeheB mit Zo
rtlaaa. AIiom, IWI. 8. Thit work, my Amlep, •< eoataioi In ita onsinal fera only a nperikU Aaleh at the tiri^jMl} tat

^ 295 u. From these remarks it is obvious that the study of the Roman langua^^e
and authors must be attended with many advantages. An acquaintance with both is
the more indispensable to the learned ol every class, because the Latin language has
been so extensively employed as a general medium of written communication m the
republic of letters.

To tbn Easi«h ud Anierian MlMhr, tlM ahidr of tbb la^onfa fa higUy Imporfnnt OB Mooaat of fto
wonbdariTwirnmIt CfLf 89S. 8.~0n the rtudy of iIm ClaMla la Kratnl, cT. P. IV. ) Ol

^ 296 u. Respecting the origin and progress of the Latin hinguage, we have already
(P. IV. ^ 1 14) mentioned what is most important. — Four agen have been commonly
assigned to it ; these are also considered as periods of Roman literature, and in reference
to their relative character and value are denominated from four metalt. But in this
assifi^nment, the period of the rise and forniation of the language is not included. The
golden age continued from the second Punic war to the death of Augustus ; the gUver,
from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan ; the brazen, Irom the death of
Trajan to the destruction of Rome by the Goths (A. D. 410) ; the iron, from this event,
during the whole of the middle ajjes, to the restoration of letters.— Others divide the
history of this Innguaee into periods, which are denominated, according to an analogy
in human life, the infancy, the youth, the manhood, and the old age of the Roman lan-
guage and literature.

The 1ait-mentionf>d In the divlfinn made by Funediu, in hit History of the Roman Lanfoage
and Literature (&« cited $ 390. 8). The tame !■ followed by HarlfM.—Dunhp (cited $ SOO. 8)8af-
rest! a dlviHtnn into three periodii : the a^e before Aiigufttte ; the age marked by hit name ; and
the age after him, pxtending to the destruction of Rome. But we vhall adopt another divialon,
which ie nuneiied by Sckdll (cited ( 309. 8), and appears more simple and exact (cf. $ 301).

To the refercncn idno P. IV « 114, ^ 118. we edd ttie rollowtng; a Borriekbu, CopiatbnH do verita UL Lioff. iBtaltbou
IbfD. I07i 4.->^. FhttMati, Oo onn, knterita, et intaantione Lioff. Let In bia OrutUmn X dk Opiiadi atudUa. Lipe. I73S. 8.
— r. P. ffottmhu, Qoifoor Unf. I. JSdtei, in liw Ltxkon Ung. L. JinHbarhantm. BotoI. ITM. 9 volk 9^1. <L Wakh, BtalorU
Critia Udk. Uttna, Sd ed. Llpk 1781. 8.-7. OUrKn, na Lln|. L. nadii •*! min butarto. Atfoit. 1771. 4.

^ 297. The true pronunciation of the Latin, like that of the Greek (cf.^ 5). cannot
be determined with certainty. There is no dispute amon^ scholars repecting the prin-
ciples which are to guide us in locating the accent ; i. e. m deciding on which syllable
to place the stress in enunciating any word.

The following rule Is adopted. In all words of only two syllables, place the stress always on
the first syllable or pennltima ; in all words of more than two syllabi's, place the stress on the
penultima when the penuitima Is long in quantity, but on the antepenult! ma when the penaliima
IS short in quantity. Thin rule is thought to be supported by the authority of QuintUian. ** Nam-
que In offlnf voce, acuta intra numsrum trlum lyllabarum eontinetur, sive ha sint In verbo soli^

649

660 HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURS.

•Ire wltiime i et in hia aut prozlma extreme, aat ab ea tertla. Triam porro. de qvibaa loqoor,
media lonfa aut acuta ant flexa erit ; eodem loco brevie, utique f ravem habebit aonum, tdeoqoe
positam ante te, id eat ab ultima lertiam, acuet. Bat autem In umni voce utique acuta, aed nan-
qaam plui una ; nee ultima nnquani ; ideoque in dlaaytlabia prior." Inatlt. Orat. L. 1. c. 5.

But with reference to the sound of the letters, the voweb especially, there is not
such agreement. Many think it proper to adopt what are called the ContintfUal
sounds of the vowels, while others choose to follow English analogy. The Imtter is
the custom at most of the seminaries in the U. States, particularly the northern.

n li «ortl7 of muk tb*i Ite rnmehMMo, Omtmn, ud Italian, la prawnoeiiic Utin. mA fttUa Id the ankfia of hk aaiha
tDegMk EackoniMai naroMdaain tha olbar, irbiU cacti eoaraaito Um imm vror, or ralbar IbHomin tnibUwaonwftMfal
rwkL EfiMiw aajra ha ww prawDl at a leva* of one of the Gomaa priaeat, whan moot of tha Earapcaa andaaadon v«c pr^
HBt; aad « waa agraad that tba eoBranatioa alMBM ba carriad oa ia LMu. It waa ao ; bat yoa arooM bara thougkt, adda b^ Ibat
■II Bmbdkat emu l«(«tar..-Cr. C MMUon, Da Utinarua inaianiM pninadatioao, la hia ttUeOmmuM mHm. Load. ITSBb
Smab a (wL «tfa). SCO AiAwMaad AMU^ri, Lat Onaimr, aadar (Mkoqpy.

^ 298. It is important that the study of this language as well as the Greek should be
commenced in early life. In the introduction to the History of Greek Literature, we
offered (^ 6} some remarks on the methods of teaching the languages. We will add
here a few particulars.

1. Besides the various exercises before alluded to (cf. ^ 6. 4), that of conversalion,
may be mentioned as a very valuable aid in ac(]uiring familiaritjr with Latin or any
other forei^ language. It may in fact be a question, whether the inconvenience of the
old regulation, )vhich required the intercourse between pupil and teacher in the higher
seminaries to be carried on in Latin, was not more than compensated by the know-
ledge of the l&nguogc thereby acquired. Certain it is, that unaer our present systems
of study, languages are lenmcd as it were by the eye rather than the ear ; and it often
happens, that a scholar would be quite puzzled by a sentence spoken to him, when he
could readily translate the same sentence presented to his eye in a written form. The
difficulty is, partly at least, that he has associated the meaning of the foreign word with
its visible form rather than its sound. Frequent conversation would remove this,
besides contributing in other ways to familiarity with the language.—- A very useful
exercise, preparatory for more regular conversauon, is to give orallv in Latin (and the
same of course may be done in the case of any other language which one wishes to
learn) the name of each obiect that is noticed in a room, a walk, ride, or visit to a
place of resort, a store, a shop, or the like. This exercise is particularly calculated to
please youthful beginners, and might be practiced by several students in company,
either with or without a teacher.

SoaMald ia oxoreiaea of tbia kiad najbadarifvd froca Vocabulariea, la wlilcb Ibo naoiaa of Ibtnga baloesh« to tte aaaw daa^
«r of Hbiaeto tekloi loaacboibar. ara breo^l logelbar. Tba London Voeabuivy, km tbe Lalta, aad AuwA roMtedsry, fcr
tha Greek, an llttla works of tbii ml, of eonaiderablo mcriL— CC Latin HmtmBvik. Boat I8B7. ISiao. ppu I88L

2. Another amusing and useful exercise, in studying the Latin and Greek in parti-
cular, is to trace terms in our own language back to the Latin or Greek originals, from
which they were derived.— ^It is also specially serviceable, in acquiring the mastery
of a language, to examine into the analogies established in it in the formation of den-
vative words from their primitives, and of compounds from their simple constituents.

Spatial eiareiwi for tbcM objocti may be dariand by tha teachar, baaidaa dtraetlBf tba atodcaft atteatioa to I baa ia coeaedtaa
with particolar w«n!a eonirring in tba daily lanooa.— A very food lotrodoctioa to arynMlorteal rtadiaa la runiabeJ by ibe faltow.
lag imatl wortt.— Tba StftdmPt Manual^ baiag aa etymological aad ezplaaaiory vocabulary of arerda darired rrom the Greek,
mf a. a. Blaek^ LL.D, Land. 1*34. la aad tbe aajucl to Ite STiKinirt Afamiol, aa etyaMiof. aad eiplaa. Didioaary of wwdi
drrivwl fmoitha Latla, by ibeaama «(lJtor.— See tin ONoaliTt Etymological Dktloeary of Iha Eoglab lai^Mge, by /. JC
Kmn. PhiL IBM. It.

3. Some valuable remarks upon a Cturgt of Latin Studiu will be found in tbe ^m. Qmsrl, Rgv.
vol. vi. p. 303.— 8eo aleo 7*. F. Htfnnti^ Vertuch einea Scbulaludien-Plana. (4ler Abecb. von Er-
lernung der lat. Sprache.) Lpa. 1704. 6.

4. Tbe foMowInit ritnet eontaiaa an aoeooat of tbe lyiten of faatractioe ia tba Barton Latin SbAooL It b tnm a panfiilel,
which waa kindly fanUied to the writer by Mr. C. K. iXUauKiy, the prewat Friacipal (1838), aad which oontaiaa aa ialeraliH
aeoooat of (he origin and hialory elt (hat School.

«> Tbe •ehnlan are diatrihuted ielo foar arparato apartnunta, ondar the can of tbe mne Domber of laatradMa, tIb. a Friadpai,
or beadnaaater, a mbHuaalcr, and two aaBiBtoata.->— Wbcn a daai baa eatcmi, tbe boys eoameBca the Latin Grammar all logfthcr.
seder tbe eye of tbe prindpal ; when tbay coatiane aatU he baa become la aom« degree acquainted with their indiTidnal ebin»
ton and capadtin. Ae Ibey naeeho cradil-maits of 5, 4, 9, 1, or 0^ at eadt raritatioB, aad m them are added np at tbe end of every
BBoaih, aad Ibe laak of each bey aarertaiaed, fboae boy* will natnrally riae to the upper part of the claaa who an moat iadaaliiBaB,
or who lean with tba greaiart fbetli y. ' After a time, a diTWoa oTfrom twelve to flfleen boya h taken off ftnan the npper end of
tbecla«; after a Ibw daya more, aaotber diviaioB ia ia like aaaaaar taken off; aad » ea, till the whole clam b acpantod iato divl-
aiona of equal number; it having been ftmad thai from twalve to flfleaa la Ibe moat o
way boya of like eipacHioB ara pot logelber, and tbe erU of having anme onaM
Allowed, b la eome mmura obviated. Tbe claaa, thaaam^ed Cor tbe year, b dhtribond among the a
to each.- When tbb dbtribution b made, the boya oonflaaafar tbe year ia the apartowat ia which they an flnl plaead, nalem aome
particular naami aboold eibl for ctengiag them ; or whaa the divbioBB atndy Geogmpby or Maihcaaatica with the laabvctar to
whom them braacliea are eamn>it(ed — Tbb method of atodying each bnacb aapaimtely, b edoptod tbrao^nat the ednoL Tha
eaaw individuab do not fudy !,»( in one part of the day aad Grark the other, but eech tor a week at a lim& la (bb »ay the aid of
escitement from the continuity of a aubject h aecurad, and a much mon complete view of the whole obtained, ttaaa when iludied ia
4aacbed portkMM, aad the grammar or n«ilhar boguage pcnaitled to go oat of miad. For ilthaold * be fwmband. tba> i Ifea

F. V. INTRODUCTION. METHODS AND HELPS IN STUDYING LATIN. 651

(TUDimr be tlwflnt book put into the Inraer^ buida, it thoald iIm be Om brt to letfethem.'— AleoaveBieat tfancitbebop ia SKb
•peitmnit andCTgo a thorough ezamioation in the ttudiw th«7 hare been ever. U aejr cUar or aajr iadividwli, do Ml pen a ■illa>
hetory exainiDxtion, thejr are put back, and made to go over tbe portion of rtudiei ia which thej an defldeat, till they do pue a
attiifaGrory eiamination.

** Bojs commence with Adam*! Ldin Orammar, in Jearaiog which they are reqoired to oobbH to Bemory mvch that they d0
Bot aadentaod ai the lime, aa an ezerciie of memory, and to aceoetom them to labor. There are Kme oljectioai to tbia, it ie tniC|
but it has been found extremely difieult to make boya commit thoroughly to menxiry at a rabeeqacnt period, what Ibey have beea
altowed to pees over in firti learning the grammar. It lakea flron lix to eight montha tor a boy to commit to memory aD that i*
nquired in Adam't Gramnoar ; but tboM who do mailer tbe grammar completely, iddom And any diiBenlty aflarwarde in eommit-
tiog to owmery whaiever may be required of tbcm^^The learaad Vieeaimna Knox thiaka it may be wdl to ndiefe boya a litte
while ctudyiag grammar, ' for,' uyt he, ' after tbey have etodied Latia Orammar a year eloNly, they are apt to become weary.* —
When boya caa write Latin proee grammatically, they are required to aake noiuoiM aeraet, or to pat worda iato venee with rcgvA
to their ^uonMy only. Whea tbe mecbaaical itnieture of diAreat kindi of Torufieatioa ia fiuailiar, they have givea tbeaa a Ulenl
tnaslatioe, of a few venes at a lime, taken from eome anlhor with wheee atyle tbey are aat aeqaialed, which ia to be turaed ialo
veraea of tbe mme kind as tboie from which it waa takea ; aad thea eonpared with the origiaaL Aflerwarda poiltoae of Eagitib
poetry are givea to he tranriated toto Latia verae. Original verms are thea required, which, with tbemea in Lalia and EaglUir '
coatiaue through the courm. Considerable portions of all the Latin aad Graek poela used la school are ooounltted to memory, aa
they are read ; particularly several hooka of Virgil ; all tbe first book of Hotmc, aad paitaof maay othen; the third and tantb
Satirea of Juvenal entire; all the poetry in the Greek Reeder, aad amny buadreds of verses ia Boaaer. This ia aa Impoctaat emv*
dsetoboya; aad withoal it Ibey caa aiever writo Latb prose or vena with the same fadlity aa with it It is in llria way that tlw
idioowof aay lai^uage are gaiaed ; aad in writuif venes, the quaatity and prapar one of meek worda aaiployod by the best wrltam
are iaataataaeoasly determined, by reeaUlag a vene in which it oocnrh"

^ 299 1. Here is the proper place to name some of the works which may serve as
aids in studying the Latin language and literature.

I.

r. Chm», Lateintaefaee Leaebuch, I8lh ed. Berl. 1820. 8.— By
same, LaL CbrMiomathi& 4th ed. Berl. ISB. 8.

r. JdooU {a^ F. ir. DOrtng). Lat. Lesebueh. Jena, 1818.
The latter hsa been published la this oonntiy uirier the tiUe of
7hs loKn Jbo^ ediled by Osdrfs J9ancre/I, in S vols, (ftrts L
and IL) The fint part of it also, under the title of Animal
Lnin Beodtr^ by £. H An±rmoi. Best. 4lb ed. I8»l

F. BUndt, Laleiniichm Lewbuch far die antentea Khasen.
6tbed. Koaigib. I81S. &

The UUt Primus (stereotyped 1887), FM Bomm (as pub-
ijshad for Boston Lat. School, IGSS), aad JBbforte Sacne, aje
also ased ia leacbug begiaaera.

Tbelte*r:pra Lattna (Bost I8ia 8) was dcsigDed for sta-
dento mora advaaoed.— yinafada Lattna Majcra^ ooataiaiag
adectioBa from the best Latia Prose Aathors, with EagUsh aotes,
ftcoathe plaaof Dalxel^aJiuUccteOrsKO. Load. 1881. 8.

The authors usually read flnt after tbe Chrestmnathy are Cbf^
fielna 2V<fMt, Oasm-, Ftrga, (hid, Ctotro, SaUuH, HortM.
' 2. Onmmmn. Of the great anadwr of grsiainatieal helps
vre aicatioo the following;

G. J. FomiuM, Arialarcbns ». de arte grammatica. Amst. 1838.
9vola.4. Thereisaned.by/%reicA4>£Bfa|sm;a«rieh col.
lection of giamroatical materials for the critical scholar." S.

Fr. SancthUf Minerva s. de causis lingwe lat. (Comment, (ed.
C. L. Bauer). Lips. 1793-1801. 8 vob. 8. (ed. Eb. SeMdiut.)
AmsL et Oolb. 1809. 8.

jf. F. Btmkardi, VollsL Ut Oiammatlk. BerL 1796-87. 2.
vols. 8.

/. a. SeheBer, Aosfohrlicbe lat. SpraeUehre. Lpa; I809» 8.
Tianslatcd into Eng. by O. FToIter. Load. ISTT. 9 vols. 8.

CA. O. BnTdtr, Prakliscbe Gtammatlkderlat. Spiacha. (I4tb
ed.) Lpx. I09a 8.

H B. IVenek, Lat. SpraehL (ed. O. F. Orot^fmi). Traakf.
IKZO-sa. 2 vola 8.

C. O. Zumpt, Lat. Gramm. (4th ed.) Berl. 1824. 8. ranked
blgb.~TransL into En|^ by /. Kemidu Load. 1823. 8b Also
pnbl. N. York. 1829. 8.

K. L. SeimMer, AarfQhrL Giamm. der lat. Spiache. BerL
1819. 2 voU 8.

Part Reyal LaL Grammar (a new moQiod kt. traariatad from
the French of tbe Umn. d» Port Bayati by T. M4fMf. Lond.
1803.9 vob. 8.

A tjudw. Jbuiuhom, Latslaische Giamautik. Lpi. 1890. 8.
pp. llflSb (ood for advanced students

a SekHtt* has published a Ut Gram, which b «one of Oe
bsel for sehoola." &

IT. B. Bbtnu, LaL Sthalgrammatik. 2d ed. Ipa. 1838. 8.
pp. 280. " Iha b«at sebool-frammar.* S.

N.Xk.l84aL

P. BttlKortf, Priadploa of Latbi (
sabstanceof thea
12 pp. 808.

We may neatiaB abe; /. MUnur^ Gnmm. of Lsl TongM^
9d ed. Load. 1742. &— 7. Jtaddnnnn, GiuamaHcm LaL Imtt.
lutkmesu nth ed. Edlab. 1788. IB^-^;*. (9ran(, laslitatoB of Lai
Grsmmar. Load. 1909L 8.-/. SMlA, The New-Hampshliw
LaL Grammar. BoaL 1812. 12.— The Oramanar which baa been
moel usually adopted ia oar aeAoob ia that otMomj the heal
editioaa of wbiiA ai« those of OouU aad of PU. The Gram*
mar by JiMlreiee aad Stoddard is bow (18S8> most higUy !»
imeaded.— — We may here aotiee, m very neeful bdps in
studying the first principles of Latia grammar ia themolhod sof.
gostod en a former paga («!. { 8.8) the foUowing: CkodrkKt
Ootlinm of Latin Grammar, l(e.~fr«lkatP« lalndoetion to te
UUn Language. Boat 1836. 12.

S. JXeMonariM.

.1. CU^teia, Lexieoa Latiana variama liagoamm hrtmpr^
taiioaeMUeda. Faiav. MBI. 8 vels. foL first ed. 1609. valuridab

J. M. Qmntr^ Novas LiaRum Bomaaa Tbesawui^ poet R.
atepbani et alioram cam digaetaa. Lipa. 1749. 4 vob. foL tha

AoeioIaAtf ft FpmHfmis, Lexiooa totha UHaHalb, fte. (sn^
turn labors varioram). Lips. 1886. 4 vola. foi.— The OaivenU
Latm Lexieee of Jbeeiolaltft and /taraBinus, editad by /. BW*
by. Load. 18Za 2 vobk 4.

/. /. a, SehiUar, AiafahrUches latoiataeb-dealselMa a. doabeb-
laL Wortarbuch. Lpa. I8(H.6. 7 vob. 8.-^ smaHer work of
great utBity b aOuBoH Baadlexikaa, vertMNsrt aad vermeM
dareh a A Ulncmofin, 6lh ed. I^a; 1822. 3 vola 8.

JL E. KddU, Scbelier^ Lex. liagna UiiMs, with tha Oarm.
axpbaatioaetnailalediBtoEBglbb. Qif. 1836. foL

vr. Frmnd, WOrtaiboch der LaL Sprache^ aaeh blatoibeb

geaelischeo Priaeipicn. Lpa. 1896-42. 4 vota.a «ooiaklered In
Germany as one of the mosi porfoet specimena of lexicography."

C du From du Cangt, Glosnriom ad Satptotes Media el
Infimm UUniialb. Par. I739-3S. 6 vols. foL cxbibldag the caf
rapUons of the later Latin, as hb Gbsaartam ad Seriptom M^
dim « Mfimm OrmtOatb (Logd. I6sa 2 vob. foL) eiblbib Ihoaa
of tbe bter Greek— A suppleawal to Du Cange b P. Carpal'
titr, GlOMriam Novam h1 Scfiptorm Medil iBvi. Par. 1796. 4
vob. foL

- C loUsMi, Glosmria Latim>43nBca el (Sraeo-IaHaa. Far.
1679. fol. Load. 1817-99, fol.

WeaMiyBsmealio,r.Ablyete,BaglbhftLaLDteL Load.
I«n. feU-r. Onddman, Eaglbh ft LaL Diet. 4lb ed. LoBdL
1087. 4.-wf. LtUkton, Engl, ft LaL DIcL 4th ed. Load. 17081
4^-J. AiMek, New LaL ft Eng. DicL ed. by W. ChMActt, Lond
»99l 2 vda. 1S.-J. IT. JVtMacft, Lai. ft BagL Did. tr sffhook

652

BISTORT or ROHAN LITERATURE.

.^ JDyiiM«» AfefUpM^ of Ahurmb} •<. by
The Didloatfbs «>>I^ l»v« bat* nort oonnooly Md ia

ON taM bMB iMdcor SdWI-
Iff'ff KliiBM IaL WOrteriMch, fldit. by lAtntmum^ Rh ad. Bto.

ISltL 8. ^Tha bait fbr cflnniM wa, J*. P. laavM, A Dew

Utia-Eii«lUi ud Eaglbb-Utia Lnticoo, ibridgad bvm Iha
£afeon of AuridlaM fc FemUrni, with ImproramiBli drawn
frtmSdhOUrhlMmmmm. Boat lOS. iL^lUva b as abrUr
BMUorLavaralt Bnt. 1840. Il

For GnouDan and Lexieoaa oflha Utfa and olhar Ui«Mcn,
•aa /. & Vmt^r, Ulaimtar dar 6nniDaUiNB, Lasica, nad WOr*
■ dar Sida, ftfr BarL 18U. S.

4 Wa ■ajrrafcr alao to a hw wmta « paitkoUr braactea

(•)0a

/. JIW, Tba BynanyaMi af Iba Ut Ut««aga with erit. Dia-
aartapoBlhBiareaorPitpoHtieiia. Edlab. 1804. 4.

/. A O. DmumU^^Taau. UL Far. 17T7. L-Abim, Inaa-
fated froafi Praoch into Oenaaa by /. Oh. O. £m«Kt. \jpt. 1778.
• volik 8L— EBgl.l>aBaL by /. jr.OeMrt, Load. 1808. Ik ISSIl a

Jd. LMw>, HoBMoyna Uaf. UL Lip^ 1897. 8.

iMitn. AMrMi, Utaialaeha Syaeayna^ fee. Lpi. tSM-ML

eToii.8.

I. JBamaftem; a valvabto work, ia wbldi the8aaRr{l ia ap-
pHad to Iba UilB.>EBgl. Tiand. by F. Uebtt, Diet of Ut
flyeoyaaa Bart. 1841. IS. cf. M dtmar. Jbe. fcL 48. p. 407.

R. C flUkM, 8yDaayHjKbaa HaodwOftotQch dar Ut
8pmcba,<M. Ung. 1801 8.

F. aehmatfitU, Uiaiaiadie Syaoayaik. £|n. 1888. 8. p^
S0& 8d ad. It baa ban blfbry raeouiaadad.
ib) Ob Pmrtielm.

CM. G. SeMUi, Doet partieolar. Ut IfaigiaB. Dcmv. 1784. &

Bar, liinMkwu, Da paiUealia linf. Ut libellaa, (cur. /. .f.
JnwN) Lpi. IT8a 8. ad. by /. JaOiy. Uod. 183a a

T, Jlanrf, TttnalliBW m De partiealla UHaia Comawatarii.
Llpi. 1888 ia 6 TOh. a " aa origiaal and qileadid woik, oobb'
plaWy exbaatiinc tbe iat()«ct .»

(«) Ob A«U«vlc»adafliaitiaaolthalaafiMflaaadS^iiufaCy.

O. Baalm; Da Aaalogia Uaf. UUaa. Uad. IffTa la

O. /. roMiiii, Btynolocicoa Uag. Utiaa. ibaat 188a foL

Dunbmr, laqnlry lale the Straetara aad JJbliy of the Giaak
aad Utia laacnafae. Ed. 1887. a

N. fbrk, Etyawlogbcfaae HaadwOrteriweh d. Ut Spraehe.
Lp& ISSa 8 toll, a

N. Salmon^ Sicmmata Utlaltatia, or Eryawlockal Ut Diet
wbareia the Bieebaniau of Iha Ulia toagoa la exhibited, 4c.
Uod. 1788. 2 vob. a

O. Sltarpt^ Sinietara of Ut tooRae. Uad. 1761. a

£. PaMrer, Thewinta Utia. EUipahw. Uad. 1761. Upa.

issa a

C. E. Prli/o', DeOrMa atqae UUaa deellDalloBa. Lipa.
I«7. a

jr.L.5fniBa,Daberd.UtDedln.a.ConJa|atiaB. Koaifib.
182a a

F. J. Landaoittf De tortaa dadia. Gr. at Ut faoaribvu
Meneb. isaa 4.

F. Jl. iMwhoifU, Deber die Panoatmnea aad Tempaafei^
taaa d. Gr. a. Ut Spraehei Meiaeb. 1811. 4.

/. A. Btrtung, Ueber d. Catna, Ihre BiMeaf a. Badeataag ia
d. Gr. a. Ur. Spncha. ErUag. 1881. a

M. 3t*midl, De praaoniao Gr. et UHao. Hal. 18S. 4.

We aiay here aieatioB alio the bllowiag: /. Barri$, Heraiea,
a phQoaophical laquiry eeaeeralac Uairenal Onamar. Uad.
1761. a alw ia hb Warlm. Uad. 1801. 8 tola, a— r. Bmatm,
Harma Uamaaked. Uad. 1791 8^/. Barm Tbale, Di-rar
aNmor Parlay. Uad. ITW. 4.

■ere awy be aotiead worka la coMpaiatiTe philolegy. Bee
the rafbreaeei fifea P. IV. ) 88, { 1 14.-47. Aarfen, Atdfrav
tataiia Uaf. FbnicaB ap. Qmaoa el Uliaee. Upa. I79a a~

F Omfiut, Cena. qaa Lli«; Gr. at Ut c
tia ia f« graauMtiea eDBipanlar. Mrap. 18n. 4.— £ a J^
tent Veieoch daa caverilaigaie Uatencheidaiifaatichw dar
Orieat a. Oecidcat Spiacfaaa. Lpa. ITSa 6.-C. O. V. JkmM
Ueber a Unpiaai «• d. fencUedeaartife Tem^tehrfi d.
Earop. Sptachea. FraakL 1887. a
(^AworiyflMlJMir.

/. Cbriy, Ulia Proaody. Uad. 180a a

Jmm ONi, RDdtaaaala of Ut Piaaody; with aDiMit oa
Uttan,fte. Boat 1810. la

C A «ii4laa<i,0iadai adFamamiB, te. ZOllich, ISI6.
STok. a

Mi

NOrah. I8ia 9 vole

r.<Me/<H,aa cited H
aiaa

ibeaalatiai. Lpa. 1787. S vob &
a A JBM, Artii latioa aeribeadi pnaccpia. lipt I8BI. 8L
L, Falw,Ble|aalia Uriavj or Bake aad Caareoea BlB*a>

live of Elcgaat Uda 8lyle» 8th ed. Uod. 1881. Iidfadaetaqr

la Ihiaara the two worb atyled F«n« hatin fiwciHeal d^

eend Ulto fnrataf, by £. ra^
Tbe J«M0 UMn 2N<lar,arIalradoelioBtothaMafc^tf Ufi^

fee., ia aow aaach UHd ia oar Hheok
IT. JZoftiKaan, DieOaMiy or Ulia Phnaea, *ek, far Bm MR

■poMly propoe of atadeab ia XaNM QaiyHOiaN. U^

1880L 12.
W. fFaOer, DieUeoHto of Ei«lhli aad Utia Fkmaa Md
Id. I88a

i«ola.a CtClo«./e«m.s.384.aI.a9azU.I8r.

& S An«cr, EleoMata oT Utia FMaody, with Bnrtbaa 8»
aifaed ea aa iairadaefiea to Oe acawi^ aad ankiof Uda
foraaa. 6th ad. Uad. 188a la

& AtfJv, Fraxiaoa the UHa PkapeaiUeo^ belaf aa atimpl
to illatfrala their Orlgla, «|piiBcaiiea, ead OotaiaaieaL liaa
UnLISSaa

Wa May aaau alao aa valaeble ia lelbreaca to Idhaa aad aljd^
CJ. Oywr, Theorie dee UteiaiKhea Stila. COL I8SL a-
/. P. JData, Aatibaitaroa dar UMaiaehea Sprachak U ad.
Fraakt 1887. a pp. 6ia— F. Hmd, Uhibacfa d. UMatek
Styla. Lps.l8». app.60aaetabe«*orcs8Mba%bBtao»

a Oa ABtiqnltiaa,eo«aIt P. IIL S I87.-F0r helpi pertofabf
to the whJeeli of Geography, Chrooology, aad Biogiajph^yCBB'
•altf?. T.-Weaddhei«,

A. 7*. Biitfiqff^ I H, AfWar, Vcfgleichaag dca WOrtoAaCta
der alien, Riitllaraa, aad aaaea Geogr^ihk. Omha, 182a a

Ckr. ttUOgr, Roiaa Caaipagna ia Beciehang aaf aUa G»
Khiehle. Diehtaag, aad Kanat Lpa. 18M. 8 vola. a

t>«mcr, Aacieat Italy. Car. ISia 8 vola. a with aapw

a JTJwO, Claiaical Excanioa frooi Boine to IrpfaaB.
Genev. 1820. a

Gorton, Biographical Dlcthnary. Uad. leea 8 veil, a

FufOa, Real<Uxieoa (Geography, Biognphy, Aaliq[aity,te.
l4«.$*ola. a

/. JDapnia,Tableaas Hialor. de VJait, Par. 189a 4. wifh AOaa

Schrirtslaller. Lpa. 1187. 8 vola. a
F. FMdir, Gcaehichte dee rOaa. 8toatoa aad Tolhea tpi

1881. a

Thm. BtatkuiB, Menoiia of Iha Coert tt AagiBtaa Cm**
plated by /. MOU). Ediob. 1758.4a 4 vok. 4.

jfd. Argwon, Hiat of Riaa aad Pngraaa of Roab Bapdba&
Onaa reprialed. TraasL iato Oeratta with addithaa by C A
AdL I411: 1784. 8 vola. a

O. Oofafrmit*, Hiatory o( Rooie. Uad. ITTCl 8 aela. a
Oftaa iapriated.-Aaim fTie* abridged j aae tf the beat editiaai

P.V.

INTRODUCTION. HELPS IN THB STITDT OF LATIN.

563

b fcf Pimwk («|»M. fcy «V ♦ Biidk). FhU, 18SS. Il-
BaiUkx't OcKh. d«r ROmar Cm « tnwl. of OoldtnithV l4^
ITH. 8 ToU. 8.

CdtS. JfbRlctfWwu, Conidmtion mr Ic* doMi da U
gTudmr et de U deotdeaM dM Ronaioa. Pw. 17S4. 18.

JL J. d« rorfot, Hisloir* d« fUvolttlion dkoi la goranenaot
da la ReiHiH. Rnnaiaa. Far. 1796. 6 volt. IS.

C. Jtoffin, lI'Mtom Rooiaina (fraa tba fogadatkn of the city
to Iha battle of Acdmn) ; oootinued byJ.B.L. Cneia; Bu-
loira dm Emparaan Rooiaim (rren Aacartw to Conabuirnia).
Load. 1734. 16 rolt 8. Tba Ulter, traul. Eofl. bf J. MOU,
BW. of tba Emparora. Load. 1781. 10 volt. 8.

O. B. NittuJir, Ron. Oaaeh. Berl. I8SI. TrawU Ensl. by
5. C. Ova aod C. ThirUaatU Cambr. 1832. 8 vola. 8. Rapr.
FhU. 1835. CL dnur. qmrU Bm. vol. iv. p. 307. N. Anm.
JkacxTL43&

Jv:i]boka,TbaRoniaaBUor7rfon (ba bttildiaf of Roma to
tharaia of tha CoauooaweaUk 3d ad. Load. 1771. 8 vola. 4.
Loiid.l80& II vola. &

Ed. OiMon, HkL of Daelioa and Fall of Rom. Empira.
LowL 1776, ■. 6 voU. 4. OTlea lopr. ▲ rraaeh tranal. by
Bumd^ vitb aotai by Oiitaof. Par. 1818. IS vola. & The ia-
Md loaioaalUMH ol Qibboa an aipeaad and rafntod Id A W^
mnU Apolosy for Cbrialtaaity j oTleo rapriatod.'

Smrm, Biatory oftba Qraccbi, in hla FmnteMi AMertMAa
Btkriftftt. Gott. I8S1.

r. 4nuM, HlKory of BflOM, lit vol. Load. 1838. 8l highly
COBOieodad in Siackwvd>$ Maf. voL slit. p. Ul.

T. Kaghtlty, HiaL of Roma (to the reign of Aafvtai).

Load. layi. e.

IF. C. Tia^or, Overtbroar of Rom. Eoapira (axtaodlag from
Ceoalaoiioa to Iha fall of CoattaBtiBoplv). Lmd. I8VL 8.

SUsmomli, Tba Hitlery of Boom, and the Fall of Roma,
4 volt, la Lardner'i Cafaioat Cyoopsdia.

mcK BOin. GoKhJebta von VerfaU d. RvpaUik Ma cor Tol'
laadunf d. Monarchia ualcr CoaataoUa. BravBaeli. 1841. S.

nr. Spoliiiif , Italy aad the Italua blandi, from tba aarlieat
agm to the preaeat Uma. 8d ad. Load. 1842. 8 voh. 8.

81 Work* beloogiDf to the clam HiHaria of Latin LiUratun,
m hUroditeHont to the eama, are vary incful hdpa. Wa have
already neationed Q 7. 9) toaa which treat of ihe Latin aa*
(bora tocetbiT with the Oraak. Soma olban raUtlog to tba La-
tin BUjr be a') ied bcra.

i. If. Fttttaim } three poHiooi of hit Btatgry o/ Latin UUm-
tmt are eiteJ P. IV. $ 1 14. 8 ; the other paila are tba followiag t
De virili Biata Llofuaa Latiam Traeutoa. Maih. 1787-aa
8 voli ; De iniininente L. L. Seoedata Tiaet. Marb. 1744 ; Da
loerti ae decrcpiti L I. Senaetule Commentariaa. Lamg. 1750.

/. A. Fairidi^ BiMiothrek Laiina, rectias digerta at aoela diU-
gantia /. jf. BnuHi, Lipe. 1773. 3 vcdi. 8.

O. E. MliOtr^ HItt kriL Eialeilaog m n&tbigar

1747-61. 6 voU. 8. Mt eooapleted.
/. C. ZetuM latrodoctio la liDgnam lal'nam. Jea. 1779. 8
M. C. KakmmaAmr, Aaleilmig nr KritiidMB Kaotnim dar
LataiBiacben Spraeha. Lps. 1768. 8.
r. A. mif, Geaehicbto dar rtn. Uteiatar ; ala Leltbden te
tad. VorlamivaB. Balle, 1787. 8.

Th. Ck. HartUt Istrodwtio in Bktoriam lingHB htmm.
Norimb. 1781. 8 vol*. &-By MfiM, Notitia litantnm RoaaaMi,
in primia leriptonim latinoram. Lipa. 1788. 8. with Suppto-
maala i. k iL Lpi. 1799, 1901. aad iU. (ad. C. F. H. KlOf
KnO Lpi. 1817.— By lama, NolitU liter, romaam, ko. aero-
nod. ia m. •efaol. Lpa. 1808. 8. vrifb .iddttammta by AUg-
Ung. I^M. I8t9. 8.

C. texftM, Onomaaileam LItorarinm, ■an Wnwarlilnr pna>
•toBtiauanram oaaniaavtacriptamm. Th^. ad Rhea. I7T5-I808b
8vaU.8.

F. &*tO,BiatoiraAbrageedeUUnantareBonaiaa. Fir.
1816. 4 vola. 8. CC £tf. Am No. Izu. voL zL p. S75b

/. Duniapt BIttory of Rom. Ularature, bom tba oariten pa-
riod to the Aaguitaa an. Load. 1883. 8 vela. 8. Rapr. PhU.
1827. CC £dL JbD. aa jMt cited. A ad vol. (Load. 1888) eao>
tinoea the biaiory dari^ the Auguataa aga.

Charpmntitr, Etadm moralea et hialorlqam ear la littantara
Romaiae, depuia loa origiae Joaqu^ aoa Jcma. Ba^ ISiSl 8.
O. Bmihardjft Graadrim dar HOmiachaa Utantar. BaSU,
188a 8.

/. CAr. F. JUAr, GeMhkbte dar Rdmlaehea Utantar. 8d ad.
Carlar. 1838. & Tbii la piotably the bmt work of Iha kiad.
Tbeia ia a valoabia Siipplemeat ealitled. Die Chrirtlicb4«miidm
Uteratur. Carter. 1836-38.— Other worfcaof thla dam are dtod
by Dwtbjp at tha doae of the Appeadiz to bit Hiatory above
dtod.

We may add bare (be Mloviagt F. Otertanf, Storia ddto
Sdaoaa, laltore, ed arti, ddllRomaai delh foadaaioae di Beam
floo ad Aogsat Maal. 1813. 8.— CAorpmlte', Etadm moralm
et hiitoriqum ear la Uttacatura Romalaa, dapnia aoa orlgia
Joaqti^ aoa joera. Haeheito, 1888. 8.

9. Oa edittoea aad traailatioaa, wa refto- to iba worki dtod,
§7. la

F. A. EUri, Oeaafil Bibliographical Dietioviy, tnail. flraaa
the Germaa. Ozf. 1830, aa. 4 volb 8.

A reeeat ed. of SlaekwaWt latrodndioa (tl P. IV. ) 98. 4>.
Oif. 1837. 12. coattiBi tome aoticm of editiooaof Claaa. aatbora.

Oa Qennaa tmatlatiooi tha following may be added ; T. F.
Deftn, Veraodi eioar voUaUadigeo Lilermtar der deutartaa
Uabefvattaagea der ROmer. Alteab. 1794. 8 vola. 8. Bapplen.
Eri. 1798. 8.

Coaaolt alao i7arlM, Notllfa, *&, above dtad ; la which aia
fcoad likewita rrferaaem oa moat of the tutdacCi apedfled imdar
the preeadiog haada.

^ 300. In giving the history of Roman literature, we shall follow the same method
as in treating of the Greek. We shall first suggest a division of the whole extent of
time included into a few distinct periods, and designate the several departments par*
ticularly cultivated amon^ the Romans ; and then proceed to notice these departments
separately. In doing this, a general view of the aepartment will he given first, and
then a bnef notice of the most important authors in it, ranged in chronological order.
In speaking of individual authors, we shall advert to their lives and characters, to their
works, and to the most important editions and translations, and other useful helps in
studying them.

^ 301. The history of Roman literature, in its most extensive signification, compre-
hends a space of twelve hundred years, fi-om the building of Rome, B. C. 752, to the
overthrow of the Western Empire, A. D. 476. It may oe very conveniently divided
into FIVE distinct periods.

The firnt period extends /row the building of Rome ^ to the close of the first Punie
Wary B. C. 240. It includes more than five centuries, during which the language con-
tinued in a state quite unpolished. The second period extends from the close of ths

first Punie War, to the civil War of Maritts and SyHa, B. C. 88. It includes about
one century and a half, during which the language was greatly improved and enriched
in consequence of intercourse between the Romans and the Greeks of Magna Grseda.
—The third period extends /row the civil War of Mariut and Sylla, lo the death of
70 3 A

5M HI8T0R7 or EOKAN IITERATUIIS.

AwMtuB, A. D. 14. It includes about a century, during which the langutge exhibited
the tiighest decree of refinement it ever attained. This may properly be called the

gplden age of Roman literature. The fourth period extends from the death of

Augit9tu$ and aceesawnof Tiberius^ to the a^e of the AntonineSf A. D. 160. It in-
cludes about a century and a half, during which the language loat eomething of its

elegance and polish. The ffth period extends /rom the age of the Antimines, to tkt

overthrow of the Weatem Empire, A. D. 476. It includes about three centuries, m
which the language became greatly corrupted and finally loaded with barbarisms.

% 302. In noticmg the most important authors and prominent circumstances m the
literary history of the periods above named, we shall follow the order which we adopted
in treating of the Greek literature. We shall speak first of the Poetn; next of the Ora-
tort; then of the JRhetoricians, the Grammarians, the writers of Epistles and Fieliom,
the Philosophers, the Historians, the Mathematicians and Geographers; here we shall
mention some, who may be called Economists, treating of practical arts, espedally
husbandry ; then the Mythographers, and the writers on Medicine and Natural History,
We propose also to introduce a briei notice of the writers on Law and Jurisprudence,

I« — Poeiry and PoeU.

$ 303. In the first centuries afler the building of their city, the Romans were but iittls
acquainted with poetry. D urine the whole time, which we have designated as the jErsC
period of Roman literature (cf. C301), they did not really cultivate any branch of letters.
It was not until B. C. 240, above 500 years after the fq^mding of Rome, that they had,

Eroperly speaking, any literature. At this time, the conquests of the Romans bad
rought them into intercourse with the Greeks settled in the southern part of Italy*
and tne influence was soon felt at Rome in awakening and cherishing a love of the arts
(cf. P. IV. ^ 113). Dramatic poetry appears to have been the first form of literature
thus derived from the Greeks. Subsequently, the Romans looked to the Greeks for
their models, not only in poetry, but in every other branch of literature.

^ 304. Previously to the introduction of the drama just mentioned, there were indeed
some compositions of a poetical kind, which were rehearsed on festive and comme-
morative occasions. Such was the hymn chanted by the FrtUres Arvales, supposed to
be the earliest specimen of the Roman language now extant (cf. P. IV. ^ 114).— Such
also were the hymns (sometimes called axamenta) eung by the Salie priests (cf. P. III.
I 215).— Such too were the Fescennine verses (versus Fescennini), rude and satiricad
verses, that were rehearsed at certain festivals, in the time of harvest, and accompaoied
with rustic gestures and dances. Their name was derived from Fescennium, a dty of
jBtruria, or from a deity termed Fascinus* They were also called Satumian, from the
irregulariiv of their meter, or their freedom from definite rules of structure. They ware
of a very licentious character, which it became necessary to restrain by law. Traces
of this sort of poetical effusions were retained, in the Uteat times, at Rome, in the songs
of young men on nuptial occasions.

Cf. a. H. Brinritki, Venn Indkri Id BonumiiB C«um priorn ollm eonpodtS. Hal. ISia a-CC Ar. ^ IL L MS.

RMpMtiaf FiaeiiMa, m JbrtdIM, Lezieep Tot. LaL AbocC P. 11. f 91. t.-OB tha Satnniu vana, cC. DHnlByi, m cIM { »». a
(FhO. ad. i. aB.>-On the Fawenjuna vciae, ftkSB, LIL Rom. i. 74.—/. Cofouten, Da Satyrtea Onae. Pbari at Bwnw Sattm. ttL
1774. a (p. I77).-Cr. Bar. Epiat JL H. Ep. \.-W. AUom, Etniaeao Utaratura aad AnUqoiliaa. Load. ISISL S vohi «^-#.
AiiM, Diaaaftelio da rai aeanicta apod Bonaoaa wipM.

% 305. Before the introduction of the more regular drama from Magna Gnecia, there
were also practiced at Rome some performances of a dramatic nature ; particularly the
plays of the Tuscan Histrionts, and the Fabula AtellantB. — The former were first in-
troduced about B. C. 364, in order, as is stated, to appease the gods, when their wrath
was felt in a prevailing epidemic. Players were invited from Etruria, and called
JTistriones, from the Tuscan word hister; they danced to the music of a flute, with
which they also united singing and mimic actions. These performances were called
Ludi scenici ; a phraFe which was also used to include all the various forms of dramatic

exhibition subsequently introduced. The Fabula Atellana derived their origin and

name from Atella, a city of the Osci, lying between Canua and Naples. They were
a kind of rude irregular comedy or farce, m the Oscan dialect. Originally they were
probably in some measure extemporaneous performances, in which the actore after
previous agreement and preparation filled up tne scenes according to their own skill and
pleasure. This species of entertainment was very popular at Rome, and continued to
be so after the introduction of the regular drama; and several writers composed pieces
denominated Atellane Fables. The exhibitions of these compositions, and also the
pieces themselves, were called Ludi Osci.

UjHh lib. Tii. e. S — &MI1, Lilt. Rom. i. 7».-Z)unJap, HiaU Rom. Ut. i. 2Sa (ad. Phil. 1827).-./. Cttmiton, (u died f 9K^
t»/ 34t / O Ikam AllgamaiiMThaoriadaradiOiMD KOiHta. Lpz. 1798. 4. vola. a vol. L p. ftia

p. V. 9SAMATIC POETRY. TRAOKBT. 655

S 306. It should also be remarked, that in the early periods of Rome, there wer«
natitfHal haUad$^ which celebrated the praises of native heroes, and the victories (gained
by Roman arms. Triumphal songs and paeans were sung by the soldiers marchmg in
proceesion through the streets of the dty. At convivial feasts likewise, songs of the
same description were rehearsed accompanied with instrumental music. These bal-
lads were founded on the traditions respecting the kings and heroes and early achieve*
raents of the people. Niebuhr and Schlegcl suppose the stories, which Livy and
others relate in the regular history of Rome, to have been chiefly drawn from such
popular ballads and traditionary poems of the primitive ages. This idea was advanced
by Perixonius in the seventeenth century. It is ingeniously advocated by Macaulay,
who gives " a popular exhibition of the theory and of the evidence by which it is sup-
ported" in the Preface to his " Lays of Ancient Rome,*' in which he happily attempta
a reproduction of some of the ballads in an English poetical version.

Dmhp^ L 40; t%.—F. ftJUcfd, Hiat of Ut lect. \\\.—a. B. Nitbukr^ HitL of Roma (tram, from G«nn. by jr«n ^ TkMkflaB),
p. 18B. fol. I. ad. PbM. 1835.— PmzanJu*, ▲oimadfeniooM Hittoricc, (a d).— r. B. MoKOutey, LajrioT AadMit Rom*; eentUBwl
ia hMCnKogrf and JAaeeltonMiaflMavft FhiLlMSL 4 vote. 18. foL iv. pu 80.— Of. Citara, TliM. QWBM.L.L&SL iT.caiBni*

^ 307. With the exceptions which have been noticed in the preceding sections
(304-306), the Romans had no poetry until their conquests in Magna Grsecia. From
this period, they began to imitate the Greeks; and most of the forms of poetry found
among the latter, were finally introduced at Rome. We shall have occasion to notice
in this sketch, the Dramatic, Epic, Lyric, Bucolic, Elegiac and Didactic ; also the
Fable, the Epigram, and the Satire.

^ 30Si(a) Dramatic. It has already been remarked that the drama was the first form
of literature borrowed from the Greeks. Regular dramatic pieces were first exhibited
at Rome", by Livius Andronicus, B. C. about 239 or 240, at tne commencement of the
seamd period before specified (^ 301). But the drama never reached a very high de^ee
of perfection among the Romans. The mass of the people were more fond orthe
public shows and spectacles ; and the higher ranks were engrossed in ambitious pro-
jects for power and wealth. Comedy seems to have been more congenial with the
native taste of the Romans than tragedy ; such dramatic performances as preceded
the time of Livius seem to have been wholly of the comical species. — Under the Roman
drama we shall describe (1) Tragedy, (2) Comedy, (3) Atellane Fables, and (4) Mimes.

S 309. Tragedy. It has been disputed whether the first drama represented at Rome
by Livius Anuronicus, was a comeay or a tragedy. However this may be, he is the
acknowledged founder of Roman tragedy. He was an actor himself, and for a con-
siderable time the sole performer of his own pieces. ** Afterwards, however, his voice
foiling in consequence of the audience insistmg on the repetition of fiivorite passages,
he introduced a boy who relieved him by declaiming in concert with the flute, wnile
he himself executed the corresponding gesticulations in the monolo^es, and in the
t»rts where high exertion was required, employing his own voice onlsr m the conversa-
tional or less elevated scenes." Hence originated the custom by wmch the singing or
rehearsal in the monologues was separated from the mimic action, and only the latter
was assigned to the actor ; a custom which continued in the Roman drama during the
roost refined periods.

TUicbtnfe irvm tteOracba eoHom, ha which fh» tn(k •lafliic tad mimic letion ware pafonnad by one penon, is mODtioMl
by £4«y, U tii. e. 8. The tanu CaaUiaan and Diverfiw, commoaly iatorprelad m reforriiic to tho mon«iifiit or rvhMml, ud
Halcgm or onramtim, an otbcrwiM ozplAiMd by Mma. CC SeMU, HiA Utt. Rom. 1. p. lOS.

$ 310. During the period extending from the close of the first Punic war, to the civil
war of Marius and Sjrlla, B. C. 88, we find three other principal writers in tragedy
besides Livius Andronicus; viz. Ennius, Pacuvius, and Attius. Noavius was also the
author of several tragedies, but held a higher rank as a' comic poet. All these authors
drew their materials almost wholly from Grecian originals; their productions bein|r
either translations or imitations of Greek authors. \Vith a very few exceptions, their
tragedies were of the class termed paUiata, i. e. constructed of Grecian characters and
incidents; only three or four (cf ^ 353. 1. ^ 354. 1) were of the class caWed preelextata
or togata, i. e. composed of native materials. — It is worthy of remark, that these
authors could not avail themselves of personages and events already lon^ celebrated in
epic song, as the Greek tragedians did/ Roman poetry commenced with the drama,
and the poets were obliged almost necessarily to go to a foreign mythology and history
for subjects and scenes of a date sufficiently ancient to be employed with dramatic
effect. Whatever causes may be assigned, the fact is a striking one, that the Romans
exhibit less originality in tragedy and m the drama generally than in any other species
of composition.

See T. Ba»em, De eaotii aaflecto ipod RomaMi tnc«BiiIe. Gott I78B. &— Ct. Dunlep, I. liM9T.— f. /MOb (nniwks oa (to
■OM topic) !■ the CAoraUcn d. MrniAmiC, IKeMrt', iv. p. SaS.— fT. Aftl^ri, prunat Ut

^ 311. In the next period of Roman literature, extending from the civil war, B. C. 88.
to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, regular tragedy was almost driven firom the stage.
The taste for gladiatorial combats, and the shows exhibited by the asdiles, had greatly

656 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATIHIE.

increased ; and a sitnple dramatic representation became ralber an insipid things, unless
attended with a pageantry wholly inconsistent with its proper character. Ii was io
accordance with this taste, that a '* thousand mules pranced about the stage in the
traced V of Clytemneslra ; and whole regiments, accoutred in foreign armor, were mar-
sbailed in that of the Trojan iforse."— The species of representation called Jtfuner,
was introduced, and was a novel kind of spectacle, which was more aereeable to the

Romans than any thing furnished by the Greek imitations in the regular drama.

Tragedy, however, continued to afford pleasure to many, and writers of merit occupied
themselves in this species of composition, although it was nearly banished from the
stage. C. Julius Casar Slrabo^ who after having been chief pontiff, was put to death
by order of Cinna, is named as a good tragic poet. The dictator C. Julius Casar left
a tragedy entitled (Edipus, of which Aiigustus, it is said, forbade the publication.
P. Afinius Pollio composed traeedies. L. Varius, a friend of Vir^l and of Horace,
nsmed by the former among hislieirs, and charged by Augustus with the duty of re-
vising the ^neid, was also a tragic poet. His Thyestes, in the judgment of QuintUian,
might bear comparison with the most perfect performance of the Greeks. Ovid wrote
a tragedy called Medea, applauded by Quintilian, but lost. Macenas also left two
tragedies, which are lost. Augustus attempted a tragedy with the title of Ajaz.

Twward* llw clow of llw lut enlsry, 0. N, Hurtunt, ■ phyiieiu of Gnmingrn, aiul tulhar of an laterMrinf MCMut of • j— ty
BMdc by him in lUlf.aBaonietd that he had ia poMwoa a tngady in naniiarrtpt, ntittad Throa, which waa freai Variw lh»
friend of Virfil. In th« prafacn lo a enlladioa of pooma antillrd lemn, pvblitbad at I^trechl, 1787, b« ga** "<>»• extract fiwa hii
Timu. But iho Abba MoraUt, kerpnr of the library of St. Mark at Vanice, in a Iclirr da'ad 1792, eipoied the literary tinpeatan,
•bowinf that the hbm Iragndy had been publiahed twice, flnt at Venice, ISM, undw the title of /Vofnc. and waa writlen by O.

Corrorio, a Venetian Se*W, Lift. Rom. i. HZ,—€kanLin-Ltff^odutU, MeUnfa de CrilSqiic el de Vbaolofte.—Bariu, Bra*. ROL

UL Rom. SuppL i. 4Si.—jL Wtiekei, De I^eti Varii et Casii Parmenaia Titaet canninibuk Oiim. 18M. 8.

^ 312. In the next period, from Augiistus to the Antonines, A. D. 160. the i
taste for shows and for mimes and pantomimes continued among the Romans. Those
writers who composed tragedies, seem to have done it rather for the sake of rhetorical
exercise than with a design to furnish pieces for actual representation on the theatre.
The most distinguished name Lb that of Seneca; the tragedies ascribed to him have
occasioned much discussion amon^ the critics (cf. ^ 374. 1). P. Pomponius SecunduSt
a contemporary of Seneca, is mentioned by (he younger Pliny, and by Quintilian {Inst.
Or. X. 1. 98), as a tragic author of great excellence. Mmilius Scaurus was the author
of a tragedy entitled Atreus; he was put to death by Tiberius, who was incensed
against him by a passage of his composition, which the emperor imagined to be directed
against himself (Dioti Cass. Ivii. 21). Curat ius Matemus is cited us a tragic poet of
celebrity ; and the titles of four tragedies, Medea, Thyestes, Cato, and Domitius, are
mentioned ; he was put to death by Dornitian* on account of his language in a decla-
mation (/««Xm?) respecting tyranny. — During the last period included in our glance, that
which extends from the Antonines, A. D. 160, to the overthrow of Rome, A. D. 476,
the history of Roman tragedy presents nothing that is worthy of notice'.

1 or. Dialog, de cauf it cnrmpl. eloquenlic, c. B, 3. • SehOIl, Lilt. Rom. ii. 866, a.

There ii extant a tort of tragedy, entitled Mtdea, eompo»ed (aeconlioi; lo TMuUian, Hent. e. 99) by Boridiui Qttaf of wham
nothing ii known, eict-pi that there waa a coniul in the reign of Clandiua by the name of Cn. Hmidiua (or Oaidiui) Gets. It cob-
•irIi of 461 renei, formed nf centra or hrmislicha of Virgil ; puMiafaed in P. Seriveritu, Fragmcnta vet. tr«g. cited ^ S4S. 2 ; atao is
P. Burmann, AnIbnI. Lat. ; and in Lemair^t Toet. Lat. Minnm.

Fbr reference! on Tragedy in gcoenU and Greek Tragedy, ane f 40.— On Rooan tragedy, aee rcferemea nnder ^ SiO ; cf. ^ S7«. U
—Oiomt, Analecta critice, cited bdow, ^ S48. I.— Xbw, Tragiachc Bahne der Ramcr. Anqiacb, 1777-SI. 8 *oti. S.^Ptanik, On
origine alque indole trag. ap. Romanos in hia ed. of the Medea of Ennina, cf. k 361. t.—Ji. 0. Lanft, VIndiciB ing. Rean. Vf^.
I8J2. 4.— C. /. Ch. Jtrueenf, Collectanea ten Ckwjectnne in Altinm, kc— max. part, ad Roman, ntn aecnicam pcrlinentaa. Leyd.

1815. 8. a apeeimen of an intended work In eooUin all the fragmenla of the Roman Comic, Tiagtc, and Satiric wrlten.^ On Ihe

earlicat dramatic piceea afler the Roman, aee WunTon, ii. p. C8. Cf. ^ 820.

% 313. Comedy. It has already been remarked (i 308), that comedy seems to have
been more agreeable to the native taste of the Romans than tragedy. The earliest
dramatic performances among them were comedies of some sort (cf. % 305). But Ii-
vius Andronicus and Ntrvius were the first authors of regularly constructed pla3r8.
Plautus, however, may justly be styled the father of Roman comedy; he possessed
pre-eminent talents for this species of composition. Terence followed nim, and has ob-
tained equal or greater celebrity. The comedies of both these authors were imitations
or copies from Greek originals. Indeed the regular comedy of the Romans was for
the moBi part of the kinatermed po//iaf<r, because the personages and incidents were
Grecian. It is from the plays of Terence and Plautus, that we learn the character of
the neto comedy of the Greeks (cf. ^ 43).

$ 314. Plautus and Terence are the principal names in the history of Roman comedy.
But there are some other comic poets of the same period, known to us merely by being
mentioned in ancient authors ; or by slight fragments of their writings; as L. Quinctius
Atta, Ciecilius Statins, Lucius Afranius, Sextus Turpilius, Quintus Trabeas, P. Lici-
nius Imbrex.

See /bftricsui, Bibl. I^t. L. iv. e. 1. v.— Pngmenla of thew poets are gWen in A Stephanta, Cemieor. Lat Fragmcata. Tter
IS69. f.-SeWtj Litt. Rom. L ISB—Cf. Bar. EplU. L. Ii. Ep. L 79.~raw«t Polerc. L 17 -JMut Odtuu, Noet AtL lOl. &

P.y. DRAMATIC POETRY. COMRDT. 657

% 315. In the next period, the third of our division (^ 301), we meet with the name
of a certain Titiniu$, who is spoken of b^ the grammarians as the author of several
comedies. Suetonius (De illusl. grammattcU, c. 21) mentions Caiut Meligsus, a freed-
man of Moecenas, as the inventor of a new species of comedy called trabeat<B. — The
only other name which we have to notice, is that of Ver^inius Romanug, who belongs
to the following period; he is highly commended by Phnv (Epist. 21. Lib. vi.), as an
author both of mimes and comedies ; by hispieces of the latter class, he is said to have
merited a place by the side of Plautus and Terence. It may be remarked, that un-
der the influence of the love of spectacles and pantomime which has already been
mentioned as adverse to the regular drama at Rome, comedy after the time of Terence
seems to have been still more neglected than tragedy. The writins of comedies fur-
nished less improvement as a mere rhetorical exercise, and woula therefore be less
practiced for such a purpose.

^ 316. Two particulars have been pointed out, in which the Latin comedy differed
from the Greek in ibrm. The first, is that the Latin comedy had not the chorus, pro-
perly speaking. The place of the chorus was supplied either by interludes of music
alQne, or by the appearance of the troop igrex or eaterva), composed of all the actors,
or o( the dancers, musicians and singers. The other particular is the use of the pro*
logue, which is not found in the Greek comedy. In Plautus and Terence the prologue
is pronounced in the name of the poet. But perhaps the few remains we have of the
Greek comedy will not justify the assertion that it never contained this sort of intro-
duction.

We have already alluded to different kinds of comedy among the Romans. Three
varieties are specified according to the rank of the persons represented : the pratextata,
in which the personages were civil magistrates ; the trdbeatiBf in which they were mili-
tary ofHcers ; and the tunicatm or tabemaria, in which people of the lower classes
were represented. — There was also in comedy the same aistinction into two kinds, as
in tragedy ; the paUiatmr in which Grecian characters and manners were exhibited, so
calleafrom the Grecian dresa worn by the actors ipalla, pallium) ; and the togata^ in
which Roman characters and manners were represented, Ukewise denominated from
the national dress ijtoga). Quinctius Atta, according to the schohasts, was the first
who produced a play belonging to the latter class ; and Afranius was the most distin-
guished among the authors m this kind of comedy. — The epithets motorics and atatarim
were also applied to comedies, according as their plot was more or le$s complicated.

auha'i Alig. Timor, der KbAa. KQul*, I. 6EI.-JMW, Litt. Rom. 1. 118, l37.-JDi«iIop, Hiit Rom. UX. i. 82S.-CfL Bor. In
RMft 828.-0B ibe mwic of tlw flute in cooMd^ cf. P. BL « 998.

% 317. In glancing at the Roman comedy we must not overlook the two actors so
celebrated among the Romans, viz. ^sopus and Roscius. They were contemporaries
of Cicero, and lived in familiar acquaintance with him. .£sopu8 is said to have ex-
celled in tragic scenes. Roscius gained such a reputation, both as a comic and as a
tragic actor, that his name became a common term to designate a man of distinguished
excellence in any art or science. — No Grecian actor seems to have acquired a renown
equal to that of these Roman comedians. Yet in Greece, the employment was suffi-
ciently honorable to allow citizens to engage in it, while at Rome it was confined to
slaves or freedmen. The vast extent of the Roman theatres must have increased the
difficulty of performing successfully. We cannot easily conceive how a speaker, ob-
liged to make himself neard by 40 and even 80,000 persons, should be able to preserve
the tones and expression of voice which are requisite in order to touch the feelings.
Another thing aaded to the task of a Roman actor ; he was obliged- to play a female
part sometimes, as women never appeared on the staffs except in the character of mimes
or for the purpose of dancins. But the business of a comedian at Rome was very
lucrative ; both ^sopus and Roscius aoquired immense wealth.

SMO, Ult Rom. L II7.-Cf. CUtn, Eptat ad Oiv. rii. l.-rafan-ttf Max. fiiUl— i>lutardk, Ulb of Cieara, e. S.-IVny, Hkt.

lUi. X. 19. is. Ml vii. 4n.-l7or. Sat If. iii. 888. >. VB^-Ckmo, pro Arch. e. a For a dcatch ol Om adiNatioo of Iba Oraak

ia4RoaaaActon,««mil.Cooha,El«BcotoorDnnarieCritldHB. Lood.l778.&

% 318. Atellane Fables, The introduction of the regular drama by Livius Andro-
nicus did not banish, except for a short time, the Atellafie Fables. When the poets
censed themselves to act their own plays and committed them to a set of professed
comedians, the free Roman youth were allowed to perform pieces of this description.
By appearing in suc;h reprcnontations, the young patricians were not considered as
reducing themselves to a level with mere stage actors. The Atellane farces were so
popular that several writers engaged in composing them ; and the Oscan dialect, which
was at 6rst emploved in them, was gradually abandoned for the Latin. These pieces
consisted of detached scenes following each other without much connection. One of
the characters usually exhibited had the appellation of Maccus, " a grotesque and fan-
tastic personage with an immense head, long nose and hump back, who corresponded
in some measure to the clown or fool of modem pantomime.*' Pappus was another
diaracter introduced ; a personage, perhaps, of Greek origin rather than of Oscan,
and derived from ni>nrof , the Silenus or old man of the Greek dramatic satyre.— The

3a3

56S HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURE.

most approved writers of these fables were Ouintus Novus and L, Pomponius Bono
niensis; the latter composed them wholly in Latin, and so much improved them as te
be called the inventor. Memmius and Sylla are said to have imitated him by writing
pieces of the same kind.— There was another species of comic performances prac-
ticed by the Roman youth, called Exodia. These were short pieces of a more loose,
detached, and farcical character even than the Atellanee. They were acted in con-
neciion with the Atellane Fables, being introduced at the close, as a. sort of after-piece.

Sxtar, AllR. TbMTM, i. Slft-AMIi, Utt. Ron. i. i40.-DunU>p, L «).~rcBmif /■Merc lib. ii. c i.-ralenm Mn. Ub. M.

c. i.—JMmtmay lit. vi. e. ll^Umerdknu, Sit. lib. I. c. 10.— JummI. Sat tL 71 ■ mMftwihit, vit.Oalbw c IS. Sen* fr^MBk

•r L. PbmpoBiat w* fMad in JL ^ & Sttpliaimtit Fn(mMi» val. FoA UL Pw. IfiSi. 8} kbo is It A^taimt, Cob. UL
u cited S SI«-

^319. Mimes. It has been already stated that the regular drama, borrowed fhnn
the Greeks, did not greatly flourish among the Romans. One ground of hinderance
existed, it is believed, in the fondness for a peculiar species of comic representation,
called Mimes, which became very fashionable before the time of Cicero. The Latin
Mimes were considerably different from the Greek Mi>ot (cf. % 46). The latter repi«-
sented a single adventure taken from ordinary life, not having incidents and duration
sufficient for a whole comedy, and not requiring more of gesture or of mimetie arts
than any other dramatic piece. The Mimes of the Romans, on the other hand, had
more ot the dramatic character, although they did not contain a full or complete comic
fable, and were represented with mimetic gestures of every sort except dancing, and
also often ezhibitea grotesque characters ^\\c\i had no foundation in real life. They
were too generally mere exhibitions of gross and licentious buffoonery. Notwith-
standing this, women sometimes took part in them; sonieiimes, according to Valerius
Maximus, submitting to great indecencies; Cytheris is mentioned as a celebrated
actress in these plays. The actor in the Mime, as ih other forms of comedy, wore the
90CCU8, which was commonly of yellow color. Originally the Mimes were employed
merely as afterpieces or as interludes to more regular performances ; but subsequently
usurped the principal place themselves, and in a great measure superseded other forms
of the drama. They were warnilv patronized by Sylla and Julins Ceesar as a public
amusement. The most distinguisnod authors oi mimett {ynimograjiht) y/ere Laberios,
Publius Syrus, and Mattius (cf. % 368); and it is important to remark that these writers
greatly elevated the style of this species of plays, nurging them from much of their
grossness and ribaldry. Verginius, of a later perioa (ct. % 315), is also celebrated as a
writer of mimes.

SrAMt, Lift. Rom. I. iO^-^DtmUtp, I. 324.-£edWr 4> ZUtler, M elt«l } SSI. 5.— CJovo, EpU. V^ Is. c I&-0»U, TViHk, Uk.
II. *. \9n.-VoUriu» Uox. Mb. Ii. c S.

^ 310 b. The JIfiiii* mail not be confounded with the Pantnmime. In the former the festurcs
were accompanied with laneunire ; but in the latter everything wai expreaaed wilhout words.
The paniominie waa a tort of ballet, in which a whole atory or drama wai repreaented by nieani
of aitiliides. fcentnrea {loquaci manu), and dancing. Thii apeciea of repreaenlation waa not in-
vented in the time of Auffiiatim. aa in aometimna itatpd, but waa then carried lo Ita freateat
perfection by the celebrated |ierformera (pantomimi, ekiriiomi) Pyladea ft. Baihylhia The pan-
tomime waa anmeiime* accompanied with Diu#ic and aon|^. The taaie for pantomime waadif-
t'liaed from Rome through the provinceii ; andalihouKh the amuaement waa repeatedly prohibited
by ihir emperors, it seeuia to have continued even after the downfall of the city.

on. Ftrrariui, I)e Mimii el l*»nloB.iniit. Guelph. 1714. a— M Cattiathtu, De Lodit ten. Min. «t Pkatonim. FiUv. 1711 4.
Rnth coDtmined in the Notw Ttieuann of SaHmgn (cited P. Hi. ( 197).--<J. MmrtfiM, De Stllatiealboi vcter. enaulaeri to the
TbenunN of OronomuM, ci'ed P. liL \ ia,^Dt VJuinm^ Saltet. TMtt. with platec— J. Iflnmr, Hntorj of the Miravaad Ftato-
iuiiue». Lnnd. 1728. &— fi<4iianrrr dt Rimry. Recherche* hiilor. el crit. nir lea MiaMi et let P&ulOBinei. Fu. ITfil. ia.-.JwiM^
in tU Mtm.Jtai. hwr. i.— Ziiglcr, eiUri § M*.-Sulzgr, Allf. Tbeorie, i. 623.

For raferenct* on coin»ljr in E^nrn), and the Oreek eomedy, ee« f 43.— On the bietoiy end variow fcnm of eenedf, Skdar, ABf^
Thcnrie, i. 4M, •■.—On Rnmsn eomeHy, mc reference! (iveB in the pracedinf leetione (9I4-3I8).— We ney add Ck. DueUit Sv Im
Jeni Meniqnet dee Ronuim, in the Mm. dt PJhad. du Imer. vol. zitL— OMnn, eiled { S4S. I.— C F. rUgd, Oenchicble dtr
komiK'heii Lileretur. LicRsilB a. Lpi. ]784. 6 voli. 8.-V. C. BuUmgtr, De Indie leenkie eoniaqoe npiantu teat apod Gmoi
f]incn R imanrw, in hie Opuae. Lund. Bet. 1681. fol. ead the 9tb voL of Ui* Tbaeettnit oT Oramm (cL P. III. ( I9T).~Pbe«k, Tte
Rnman and Rncliih cinnedy eonaidered. Lood. 1747. 8.— For lefaraacee on Ibe Dramm in gtmnt, tb hlakwy in dUbnnI tfm wi

Mtion^ ac. .*iu}sar, Ali|. Tbeorie, i. 711. On Ibe alnictiin ot tbentra, deconliooa, matki, kc uaaag the eacMBto, P. fV. ) M.

P. 111.^99,23%

^ 39i. It is not Improbable that the dramatic ezhlbitiona of modern times irrew cot of the Ro-
man mimes and pantomimea. Caaaiodorut, who lived in the 6th century, malcea mention of the
plavB of pantomime. In the rei^n of Charlemagne, In the dth century, the Mirol and Histrionea
are Hp^^lt^n of aa olill aciitif; in rheir profeasfon. At thia period, trade waa carried on chiefly by
men nil of fairt, hf>ld for several daya In different place*, where merrhanta brought their fooda,
and people from varioua quartera aiaemhied for the occasion. The attendance of muaictana,baf-
loooR, and hiatrionlr perfnrroera of every aort, would be very natural ; and it waa by thia means,
aa a onie have euppoaed, that the foundation waa laid for modern comedy and theatric repreaen-
taliona in general. The Chriatian clerpy are said lo have condemned these amnaeroents at flrati
but, flndinv their opposition fruitless, to have aHerwards attempted to turn the taste for such
«ihow8 to the beat account they could, by taking acenic ezhlbitiona Into their own hands; tbcy
became actors themaelvea, and inatcad of profane fablea and atoriea derived from pagan history
and niytholory, made use of the legends of the church, or the tncidenta recorded in the Bible.
Thus orisinaied a Itind of aacred cnmRdies,or holy ftircea, which were acted in the chapels of the
ironasieries*, by xhe monks themselves, accouipanied by music and aconic decoraiiooa. Partkii-

p. V. POKTRY. BPIC. 559

lar seagoni or festivals seem to have trained a special notoriety and popularity from a connection
with such ezhibiiions ; as, e. f. tbe FeaH o/FeoU iFtU de Foux) or Jesters, Festival of the Au
(Dt rAne^ Featum Jltinorum), ice.

Other writers have supposed that the religions plays, which were In vojrue in the middle agea
under the name of Ah^UrieMf and MoralUitu^ had their origin more directly from the Greeic stage
at Constantinople. Tliere tlie tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides continued to be represented
until the fifth century. Tbe fascinations of the pagan theatre occasioned much anxiety to the
Greeic Bishops and Fathers; they petitioned the Emperor to suppress dramatic exhibitions, at
least on the sacred days of the church ; and they often denounced such amusements in their
preaching and writings. Yet some of them composed sacred dramas, founded on the Old and
New Testament, for the purpose of public representation. Gregory Nazinnzen, who was s
bishop of Constantinople in the latter part of the fourth century (cf. i^ 302), is said to have intro-
duced such pieces upon the stage instead of the pagan tragedies. One of his own plays, written
for this use, is still extant, entitled X/iivrdf iraoxfiiv. Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea, is said to
have written tragedies adapted to the stage, after the manner of Euripides, on most of the grand
events related in the Old Testament, and also comedies in imitation of Menander, on some of
the domestic stories of the Bible. The introduction of histrionic farces, with singing and danc-
ing. Into the churches and houses of religious worship, is ascribed to Theophylact, patriarch of
Constantinople in the lOtb century. The religions spectacles and plays thus Introduced might,
without difficulty, be carried thence to the west by the commercial intercourse which existed
between Constantinople and Italy.

See/. WaHan, Hmt Enf. Ftoetry, toI. iL 73. Hi. 199. ed. Load. 1824. 4 foli. 8. Then Isu ln|inmd ed. hauL 184a 8 vola. 8.
^M. du TiIHot^ Mcnoirea pour lervir ft lliifioir* de la Fete de Foai, Ac. Iah. ft Ocnev. 1741. 4. 1731. 9.—FWfd, OeKbiebIs

de* Grotcske-KomiMbKB. Liepiili, 1788b &— J. O. Sutzer, Al'f. Tlieorie, L 5M, 738. TIm Tiewt of liie Cbriitiao Fatben raapeel-

faig the ihealrc may be galherad iVeni Ibe traliie ofTertulliaaon Tbeetncal Sbowi (de Specteculif, in tbe lit vol. of hie Works
br ObalhUr. Wire. ITSa 8 fob. 8) ; that of C y pr I an oa Thealrteal BepraeeBtatwua Oo Ibe Sd vol. of hit Worka by OterlAttr.
Wire. 1782. 8vob. 8); the 4tb homily of B a til (ei9888),aad tbe ISUioT CbrysoatoB to Um AotkiebiaM (et t SSij^-Os
tbhmb)ectwe^.afral(A,DeUieainpriiBiaChri»tkBiaejuao. Schloaa. 177a 4.

$ 321. (6) Epic Poetry. The honor of being the earliest epic poet of the Romans is
usually ascribed to Ennius. It should not be forgotten, however, that Livius Andro-
nicus made a translation of the Odyssey of Homer ; that the grammarians speak of an
historical poem by him on the exploits of the Romans, in 35 booics ; and that Naevius
composed an historical poem on the first Punic war. 'I'he songs and ballads (already
spoken of ^ 306), respecting various incidents of the national traditions, also existed
long before the time of Ennius. Niebuhr has ima^ned that Ennius borrowed much
from a great poem on the traditional history of the Romans, beginning with the reien
of L. 1 arquinius Priscus and ending with the battle of Regillus; '* an epopee/' he
says, " which in force and brilliance of imagination leaves every thing produced by the
Romans in later times far behind it ;" but he adduces no proof or authority to sustain
this idea. However this may be, there can be little doubt that Ennius made use of
the old national lavs, which were in Saturnian verse, molding them into hexameters in
his own poem. Jlow far his Annals were framed conformably to historical truth,
may be a qiicsiion impossible for us to answer ; Vossius maintains an opinion entirely
r>pposire to the views of Niebuhr, and ascribes general historic verity to the whole work.
Nor can it be denied, however popular this production was among the Romans, that
it was deficient in the peculiar embellishments of fancy, and might be called a Chro-
nicle in verse, more justly than a proper epic poem.

or. } Kl.'SrAOO. Utt. Rom. L 141.— 2)imJop. UiiL Rom. Lit L 7&-A1(taiJb', BiiL Bam.(lnjHL by Haie ft ThMmll) p. 196.
ml. i. ad. Phil. lf<3S.-FoMtiu, de HiMerieia Uiinii, L. L e. 2.

^ 322. After Ennius, we find no epic poet until we reach our third period (cf. ^ 301),
the golden age of Roman letters ; and here, although we meet with severai names,
there is one which eclipses all others in this branch of Roman poetry ; it is that of
Virgil. The author of the iEneid obviously imitated the author of tne Iliad and the
Odyssey, yet he produced a poem strictly national; and if the work is not so strongly
marked with the impress of original genius as its models, it is yet full of beauties and
signs of cultivated taste.

^ 323. Of the other epic writers in this period, Luciut Varius was most highly com-
mended by the ancients. He has already been noticed (^ 311) as a drainatic author.
Before the appearance of the jEneid, the first rank in epic poetry was assigned to him
(cf. Hor. Sat. I. X. V. 43). Varius sung the exploits of^ Augustus imd his son-in-law
Agrippa ; and his poem, which is wholly lost, must therefore have had more of the

historical than of the epic character. The other names to be mentioned in speaking

of the epic poetry of this period, are the following: Cneius Mattius, the mimographer
(cf. i 319), who translated the Odyssey ; P. Terentius Varro, surnamed Aiacinus. who
translated the Argonautics of Apollonius, and composed a poem on the war of Julius
CiEsar against the Sequani ; Hostius, author of a poem on the war of Istria, C. Rabi-
rius. who wrote on the battle of Actium ; and T. Valgius Rufus, highly eulogized by
Tibullus {El IV. i. 80) : their works have perished. Pedo Albinovanus is also said to
have composed epical pieces. Cornelius Severus commenced a poem upon the Sici-
Iran war. Sckoll, Litt. Rom. i. 225.

^ 324. In the fourth period of our division (cf. ^ 301), after the death of Augustus,
there were four poets who must be ranked among the epic writers; but no one ap-
peared who could rival or equal Virgil. Although they imitated him, yet they all fell

560 HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURB.

far below hitn. They were well informed and well disciplined, but were deficient in
native enihui^iasni. Two of the number chose national subjects ; and their poenos
may be said to belong to the historical class rather more properly than to the epic—
The first in order of time was Lucan, who celebrated in his Pliaraalia the civil war
between Pompey and Ceesar (cf. ^ 375). Valeriua Flaccust next in order, took the
Argonautic expedition for a theme, and in the estimation of some cntics even surpassed
his Grecian model, Apollonius of Rhodes (cf. ^ 73). Siliug Italian selected a national
subject, the second of the Punic wars ; and his work is much valued as a help in
illustrating the history of the period (cf. $ 377). Staiiua left two performances in epio
verse, the Thebaid, and the Achilleid ; the latter in an unfiniBhea state on account of
his premature death (cf i 378). All these poets flourished within the lat century;
after whi(*h the history of Roman literature presents no important name in the depart-
ment of epic poetry.

^ 325. There were, after the Ist century, many versifiers; and they composed many
pieces, of an historical or descriptive character, in (he heroic measure ; but the only
one that can claim any notice as an epic writer is Clandian, who flourished at the close
of the 4th century. His poems (cf. ^ 386), with all their blemishes, show a genius
worthy of a better oge. — The elder Gordian, who became emperor of Rome, A. D.
238, is said to have been a poet in his younger daye, and to have composed a poem in
30 books, entitled Afitoniaa, of which Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were the
heroes. — Some of the descriptive nieces of Ausonius (cf. ^ 385), a poet of the 4th cen-
tury, were of the heroic kind. We mi^ht also rank in the same general class some of
the productions of several ot the Christum poets (cf. ^ 329) of the same century, aa e. g.
Juvencus, Victorinus. and Sidonius ApoUinaris.

On ih* Epic Poafry of tb» Romana, m MAr, GeKhietat* dw tUm. UL fp. 180-l«l^~C9k«y«U«a il0> wriMlbiMiM DidHottA
979, H.'-For i«rcrraee« m Epic pMiiy la leneral, cf. i 90.

^ 326. (f) Lyric Poetry. While the dramatic and epic productions of the Greeks
were translated and imitated by the Romans as soon as a sufficient degree of inter-
course existed between the nations, it was not until many years had elapsed that the
Romans made any attempts in lyric verse. This was a form of poetry in which trans-
lation is less likely to be successful; in which originality is perhaps more indispensably
essential to merit. The early circumstances of tne Romans, ana their peculiar habits
and traits of character, were such as to render them less susceptible to the lively im-
pressions of lyric poetry. It was not until the third period of our division, i. e. after
the civil war of Marius and Sylla, that this form of poetry began to be cultivated.

Cf. nupiJop, Hkt Rom. Ut fol. Sd. Load. ad. IBS.

^ 327. CatuUua, born B. C. 86, was the first to open to his countrsrmen this new
field. Only four of his pieces now extant are called odet, yet in others there are pas-
sages of a lyrical cast. The third of the odes is a translation from Sappho. These
few nroduct ions, however, have secured him a place in the catalogue of lyric poets
(cf i 358). — But the first rnnk in Roman lyrics belongs unquestionably to Horart, to
whom the Greeks themselves can present a superior only in the bold and lofty Pindar.
That Horace borrowed freely from tbe Greeks, the critics have clearly shown ; yet
the universal admiration which his odes have awakened, demonstrates the power of his
genius (cf ^ 363).

^ 328. From the time of Horace, lyric poetry held an honorable place in the amnse-
ments of society ; but a writer who snould rival or equal Horace himself was not to be
expected, (^uintilian {Inst. Or. x. 1) names Catius Baaaug, in the next period after,
as approaching him ; but we have no means of judging for ourselves. Vettritius
Spnrinna, who is repeatedly named in the history of Tacitus, is said to have written
lyric pieces both in Greek and Latin. Pliny (£pt0t. iii. 1) highly commends them^
Statius is also sometimes named among lyric poets, on account of two odes contained
in his Sylv<P ; one of them is addressed to Septimius Serenus. This Serenus, we may
add. is cited by tbe grammarians as the author of a lyric poem, or a collection of lyrk
pieces, entitled Falisca, written in a peculiar meter invented by him^. — There is ex
tant, probably from some author in this period, a poem of about a hundred lines, en
titled Pervigilium Veneris, in imitation of the Carmen Saculare of Horace ; it was
formerly ascribed to Catullus*.

1 Oatfor Boftk poUubed in I61S, ia the eoIladioD Mtitted Potfa LaHnl vmahei cl hueotiei, §em ado, wM to lm«« btm faari

bf bim ia an old MS. at Morbourir. which be oKribod to Sfwimta ; Ibcy wart the pndvetieii «t a taler age * Senumt '» •><e

■aid (o have written oeTeral nnall poeim on the TOiiooi labon of tbe field, qpumiJa ruroNa ; of which Qm Hantum, eoomatf

aKribcd t» Virgil (cT. ^ MZ S). It rappoead to ba ono. < The Fm^Uum Vaurit b a hymn in hoaor of Vimn, okI tokea iti

title in nfeteora to the fatlvnl of Vean io April, bald dorinf thrao neoMiive nigl^ which ware darotad le annie, doaci^ ood
pleamra {nottunrnptrvifOatiotm^ t(. OvU, Faat n. ISS); it hH been aacribad toTOikwianlhon; the pjaaa h giw inLw—iw^
MtBor Lolln Foato (ctlad { »«8), Id nL-Saa SekCOy Utt Boot. HUO-OLU.

^ 329. After the 2d century, although a few lyric pieces may be found among the
remains of the minor poets, there is nothing worthy of particular notice, vrithm the
remaining period included in our division, except the son^ and hymns of the Christian
poets. Among the earliest of these authors of Christian hymns were Hilahus and

p. V. POETRY. BUCOLIC. ELEGIAC. 661

Prudentios (cf. ^ 387). Those of the former were expressly designed to be song; and
are said to have been set to music by Hilary himself. Damcuuf, who attained to ths
Pontificate in the 4th century, left a number of hymns, among which is one in rhyme.
The works of Ambronc^ bishop of Milan, in the latter part of the same century, contain
a collection of sacred hymns.

Tte ooilactioM of tlw Minor Latin Poets ooattin Qie lyric pi«ea ibeve rcfcmtf to : e. f. in £tinair<'» (cf. ) 34& 2) •!« Um C^r>
m0i A/orftma, bj Synpmini ; da Uata oilo, by PaBtadiiw ; dt attit^ kjr UaduiM.— Ob (bt Cbrialb« potte who wrott in lAtiu^
we refer to Ibe 5upyi<<mcnf o/JtBAr, cited ^ 2n. 8.

For refrreoeea on the tubject of Ivrie poetry geaeraUy, ind that of the Graeln, eee 9 2B.-^)o Ronaii lyric poetry, Dmnhp, wa cited
9 S90. &— CAoraAiM der form Diehlw. t. 301, ■.— A. SeAemAcry, The chmctar eod writing of Piadar k Hoimee^ Loud. 1781. &
-CtelM^ses.

$ 330. id) Bucolic or Pastoral Poetry. Virgil appears to have been the first among
the Latin poets to attempt the composition of pastorals. He commenced, as did the
poets in every other department, with an imitation of the Greeks. The Eclogues of
Virgil are, in a great measure, borrowed from the Idyls of Theocritus. If the Roman
poet has less of natural simplicity, and of that minute accuracy and vividness which are
the result of original observation; he has, on the other hand, the merit of a more
judicious selection of incidents, and a greater freedom from what is gross and offensive.
The Bucolics were among the earliest of the poetical compositions of Virgil, and were
ffreatly admired by the Romans. The 6th Eclogue, entitled SilenuSf was recited in
tne theatre, shortly after its composition, by Cytheris, the celebrated actress of mimes.

^ 331. After Virgil we find no pastoral writer until the latest period included in our
view of the Latin authors. Calpuming, who lived in the latter part of the 3d century
after Christ, composed eclogues in imitation of Virgil and Theocritus. He was pro-
bably the author of the pastoral pieces which have sometimes been ascribed to Neme-
sian, a poet of the same period. The eclogues of Calpumius are not without merit,
but he IS far inferior to his models (cf. ^ 384). — The name of Idyl is given to a number
of the poems of Aufoniutt (cf. ^ 385), who flourished in the next century ; but the sub-
jects and style of these pieces are not such as to bring them properly under the head
of pastoral poetry. The same remark is applicable to the Idyu of Claudian (cf. ^ 386).
There is a performance from Severus Sanctus, a Christian poet of the same century,
which may perhaps more justly be considered as a pastoral poem, and which is not
wholly destitute of merit.

The Poem of Stoma, eodtled DH mertOuf taum, k given ia LimmM$ Ftaeia UL Mlnoree, cited { M8. 9;

On the PuionI I^Mtry of the RomuM, we C*ara*l«« dv 90m. DbkUr. vU. 84S-CSflk— AcMB, litt. Bom. I. aU^Xbrrington,

Kmy upon Virfii% Biunlioi. LovL 1658. 18.— Dm. de Cumioe BucoUeo^ ia Umaire» ViifM, vol. I. p..6& On the Gn*

heioral Poetry, tee referrncee firen S 80.

About the tiaie of the rer Ival of lelten than teeeae to he*« been a great badneai far parfonl poetry, and nuay piecae of thb kiad
wcia eompoMd ia Uiia. Before the middie of the l<th eaatnry, a OoOMUon of ao lea than Iblrtyaight bneolk aatbon wae pob-
liebedby/.OyMfimwCiahiaJtUor.JhieBl. Basal, IMS. 8).-Cf. Alter, Allg. Theorie, iL p. 5«.

^ 332. (e) Elegiac Poetry. In this variety of poetical composition, the Romans had
many successful authors. Like the other departments of poetry and literature gene-
rally, it flourished most in the age of Augustus. It commenced with Catulht^, whom
we have noticed already as the first author of lyric pieces {% 327). Corneliua Gallus
succeeded and excelled him in the elegy; he was ranked among the best poets of this
class (cf. ^ 359).— But Tihullus and Fropertius (cf. ^ 360, 361) are more celebrated
names. *' With reason did the ancients doubt to which of them to ascribe the first
rank among the Latin elegints. Both possess many qualities which raise them above
ordinary poets to a place of eminence ; while each has peculiarities of distinguished
excellence. Tihullus has a high degree of elegance and propriety of expression ; Pro>
pertius a great richness, a great variety of poetic erudition. In the one the purity of
his language shows a writer born and educated in the Roman capital ; in tne other,
the character of his diction indicates an author deeply versed in (Grecian productions.
The one is more delicate ; the other more nervous. The first has the appearance of
having written with ready simplicitv; the other of having thought what lie ought to
write ; if the one is more natural, the other is more careful. You may love the one,
and admire the other."

^ 333. There was another elegiac poet of the Augustan age, scarcely less eminent •
by some even considered as the superior. Ovid is less tender than Tiballus, and Iesi»
chaste than Fropertius ; but more original, and of a more free imagination, than either.
His works generally are characterized by little imitation of the Greeks, and by iitde
pendent reliance on his own resources. Ovid was one of the greatest versifiers among
the Latin poets : his verse is like the flowing of the stream from a full fountain: in thin
respect both Tibullus and Fropertius must be confessed to stand below him. Three
of his works, the Amores, the Trintia, and the Lellerefrom Ponttut^ belong to the head
of elegiac poetry (cf % 364). — C. Pedo Albinovanus, a friend of Ovid, is usually placed
in the list of elegiac poets, although it is not agreed by all the critics that he was the

author of the elegies by some ascribed to him 'cf ^ 366). After the Augustan age

we find nothing important in this branch of poetry. Arhoriut^ in the 4th century, a
relative of Ausonius (^ 385) ia said to have imitated Fropertius ; an extant elegy as*
71

56t HISTOKT OF KOMAN LITERATURS.

cfibed to htm is fiir inferior to its model. The Itinerary of Rutiliue, in the 5th century,
ia in elegiac verse (of. $ 389). — Some of the Christian poets (cf. $ 329} composed pieces
in elegiac verse.

Tbe d«7 of AiteriM (•< A^Mfriwrn nlini* oittM) b liNiid ia Zmio^
(* iupidiUUt) bf > writer ii«iD«d LupatUM ScrwifHi, of lb* 6th eentatr, glT«a In Ite hbm vsL of L— ilrCi

} 383b. Befbre lAaving this topic, ft may be proper to allude to tbe longg called nenUi. Tbey
were lonf to the flute, in funeral procetsiont (cf. P. III. $ 340); but geem to have been more
of a panpiryrical iban of an elegiac character. " We are not to eappoee ibem," saya JVSehiAr,
** like the Creek threnea and elegies ; in tbe old time* of Rome, the faahinn waa, nut to be melted
Into the tender mood and to bewail the dead s but to pay him honor. We muat therefore ibM'
gine the lutnimio have been a memorial lay, auch aa were aung at banquets (cf. ^ S7)s indeed,
(he latter were perhaps no others than wbai had first been beard at the funeral." Perhaps we
have some specimens or fragments of the tMPnur,\n such inscriptions as are found on the stones
belonging to ibe sepulcher of tbe Sciplos (cf. P. IV. $ 133. 2).—/irUbukr'g Risi. Bom. 1st vol. p.
194. PbU. ed.

On the orifin of elcgiie |KMtr7,ac, Mt rtfcrtaenf n. Rmpnctinf lb* doiiac poitiT of tb» Robmoi^ SbUO, LHL Boa. L

a(l4.~#V. dug. SVidtbmrg, De Ptetit Ronui. EiiftBeta. HclnMU IT73. 4.-/. O. Bnrf*, miier BIqkK nuiM Bflouonn, ia
kk ed. of Proptrtkit, cited be'nw ( MU 3.— ftek, Emj upon Uw nonuuB El«|iae Foata, in MMien^ DliMrtiti«n iqion (to na«
«tlcbnlcd ■onui Poelt. Lond. 1721. & Ct. CUm, Jaum. ii. S48.>-£. C Ckr. Bmk^ Q«atd* rtn. Slnfit. ISOa a— Fwgiiig,
n«citerl(2a-«McAay,oa UUa aingiM ponta, Him. JeaA Mv. vli. SM. avi »•.— Dwini, IKMrtitb dn eu*. aks. ntfnn,

ac, in tbn C 0 I i nc t or C. JIUUHtr, dlMl |34& %. A eollwttea of tbe wdsis Lttin «k|iae poMa vw pnUiAeA by

JOeMto-. Viadobb 1784. 2 TOla. a

^ 334. (jT) Didactic Poetry. The Romans paid but little attention to didactic poetry,
until the third period of oar division ; i. e. from the civil war B. C. 88 to the death of
Augustas, A. D. 14. In the previous period Ennius had indeed composed a poem on
eating (cf. ^ 351), and translated a Greek philosophical poem. But the first who gained
9ny distinction in this kind of poetry was Lucretius; nis poem on the nature of things
has ever commanded especitd notice as a didactic performance. Comeliug SeveruM is
ranked amon^ the didactic poets, on account of his poem entitled JEina, although it is
by some ascribed to a later author (cf. % 335, 365).

The most finished didactic poem is found in the Georgies of Virgil. It was composed
on the suggestion of Miecenas; the four books treat of agriculture , the culture of trees,
the training of animals, and the keeping of bees. *' It is in this work," says Sch^ll,
"that Virgil shows all his genius. He commenced it at the age of 34, and did not
cease to amend it until the end of Ufe. The Latin language does not contain a more
perfect work." It has been a model for imitation to modern poets of all nations.—
The name of Ovid must not be omitted in this place, as several of his works belong to
the didactic class. His eminence in elegiac verse has already been noticed ; he is to
be considered also as one of the great dicractic poets of the Augustan age. — Some may
perhaps consider it proper to put Horace in the list of didactic authors on account of hu
Art of Poetry.

There were in this period several poets of inferior grade who composed didactic
verse. Gratins FaJiscue wrote a poem on hunting, a fragment of which is still extant
(cf. ^ 3r>7). Ciesar Germanicus (cf ^ 370), ^miiius Macer (^ 371), and Marcus Ma-
nilius (^ 369), are included among the didactic poets of the Augustan a^e. We may
mention also Varro Atacinus, the author of a work entitled Chorogrmphuit which was
a sort of description of the universe, and another on navigation entitled Xi&rt Navalf.

Th« (ngmeutict nrkxH poem of Varro Jttaeumu ^n gtven in LoaaireiFML Lnt Mia. *oL 4tb.—CC. aleo Arte, Bam. Net.
Sappl. i. 163.

^ 335. In the next period, extending from the death of Augustus to the Antonines,
there was no very eminent production in this branch of poetry ; although we muat as-
sign to this period Terentiantu Maurus, author of a poem on lettere^ syliableSjfett,
and meters, which Schdll pronounces ingenious and elegant^ The ancients cite a poem
on meters as the work of Cssius Bassus^, who was much commended for his lyrical
pieces (cf. ^ 328). There is extant a poem on weights and measures, by some ascribed
to Rhemnius Fannius Pnlaemon, said to have been a grammarian of the 1st century,
but by others ascribed to Priscian, of a much later age*. Lucilius Junior* is mentioned
by Seneca {QucBSt. Nat. iii. 26) as s poetical friend, and is by some supposed to be the
au'hor of the poem entitled JEtna (ct.$ 334). We may perhaps properly name here the
tenth book of Columella (cf. ^ 500 a), which is in hexameter verse, and is entitled CuUu*
hortorum ; it seems to have been suggested by a passage in the Georgics of Virgil (iv.
147), where he expressly says he shall leave the subject of horticulture for another
writer.

I The poen of Torantiaaoe ie fiten in tbe Gnmnatial ColleeL of PutieMui, dted $ 423.-Ct JV. Rdnai, De ««• Tmal.

Mauri. !> mc- IWB. 4. «A fngment at Battui n given in the ume Collect. > Tbe poem on WeigMi, ke. (A pondmitv^

mmmtrii) is given in the 4th vol. of LimainU I'Oct. Let Miaorn. Cf. HarU$, Brt. Not p. 9691 Soppl. L pw 12. « nnf

meati of LudHw era alw found in ljfmair^$ Minor PoeU, voL 3d.— Tba 7lb voL of tbeauae eleo oootaim CaumtOm oo indM-
iB(.~CC. BdOa, LitL Rom. iL 306, a.

^ 336. The last period included in our view of Roman literature is not without names
of didactic poets •, but none of them are of special celebrity. Nemesian, of the 3d cen-
tury, ia probablv the most important (cf. ^ 383). SammonieuSf whom we shall have

F. ▼• POETRY. FABLS. EPIORAM*

occasion to notice' as a phyncian ($ 555), was the author of an inferior poem on die-
eaees aad their remedies. The last book in the treatise of Pattadius on agriculture is
a didactic poem in elegiac verse, upon the art of grafting (cf. ^ 500 b). The principal
work of Avienuit (^ 381 . 4) was a didactic performance. Several of the Christian poets,
as Commodian, Prudentios, and others, composed 'didactic poems.

It may be suitable to remark, before leaving this topic, that we find among the Ro-
mans a few specimens of that kind of poetry which the Greeks termed Gnomic; in
which the composiiion consists of moral sentences or maxims (cf ^ 31). The principal

fnomic author of the Romans was Dionysins Cato, who lived in the 2d century (cf.
382). The remains of Pubhns Syrus, a celebrated mime of the Augustan age (cf. ^
319), may be ranked perhaps in the same class.

rtor nfenaem OB Didactic piwlr7CHMnl)7,tM 4 SI.— Oo ibe Boau diautic poi«i, ftftOI, Lilt Boai. I. S^t^a. ii. aU^Dum-
l9. vol. lU. Loud. td. pwtioilarijr oo the Qwfski of Vltsil, tad Aw. didMtio pwte ot Ovid^-SeodM tbo mtiOH Mow, ia
which tha poeti ahora maatienad aa didaodc an aotkad aepaniely.— Od (ha ■aatalkmi portiy, /. BpMiulont, aa dtad balow,
9MB. a.

^ 337. Since the FabU may be considered as a form of didactic poetry, it may be
proper to notice it here. " The .£sopian fable,*' says Sch5ll, *' gained little attention
iirom the Romans. The Roman orators either did not know the use made of it bv the
Greeks, or from their serious turn of character they rejected it. The fable of Mene-
nius Agrippa (see Ztey, ii. 32) is a solitary instance, where it is employed for the purpose
of rhetorical ornament. Aulas Gellius (NoeL Ait. ii. 29) relates that Ennius inserted
adroitly, in one of his satires, the fable of the lark {cagsita). His example was folk>wed
by Lucilius. But the first who treated the fable as a form of poetry having its appro-
priate rules, waa Horace. His fable of the city-mouse and country- mouse (mug urba-
nus and rutticug; Sat. ii. 6) is well known. After him, Roman literature presents us
with no fables until the reign of Tiberius."

In his reien flourished Phadrut, who received his freedom from Augustus. He ww
the principal author of fables among the Romans (cf. $ 372). " He Had the merit of
first makmg known to the Romans the fables of ^sop; not that all his fables are
translations of those of the Phrygian philosopher (cf. ^ 484); but those which seem to
be properly his own, or of which at least we do not know the Greek originals, are in
the manner of ^sop. He is as original as La Fontaine, who tike Phsedrus borrowed
the subject in a great number of his fables." — The next author of fables in Latin verse
is Flavius Avianus (cf. ^ 381), who employed the elegiac meter instead of the iambic
(cf. $ 372). Julianus Titianus, who lived under Caracalla, wrote fables in prose, or
rather translated into Latin prose the fables of Babrius (cf. ^ 31, 184). We find no
other fabulists within the period included in our notice.

Thara an extaat 80 tMm ia Latia pnM, udar iba aaaia ot JlomuJui, of wboaa panoB aad afe aothiag b kaown ; WailOQ
(Hbt Ens. Poetry, i. 2lfl) ays tha work waa probably Ckbricaled in Uia ISib eeatnry. They wcra pubiidied \a tha Ohn Col-
leetMw, which was the earllait eollectioa of Latio fkhlaa, printed at Ulni, UTS. fel— There b alao a coUcctkn ot 60 bbK is ala-
Kiae Bwfer, which are bat m umy of the fchleior Bomulva, Tanllled by wiBa ankaewa author; Fahnaana (KMa. Haadb. p>
ttr) MP probably by BOdtbtrt, bp. ot Town, who died A. D. 1136. They wera pobliahed oader the title jlnon^mt lUate, by
/. Mt. MwW, in hii UytMUg. JBtop. Fraacr. 1618. S.— Thara b likawfao a eollectioa of 67 bblea in pioM, which are aieniy
variation* or aiotibtioBi of thoM of Ronolw. Tbaia ware pttUtahad by /. F. yOmOj in hb woik atybd Fhtabi JMigua, fee.
Jjafi. Raf. I7r<9. IS.— There are alao 96 bblea ia Lalla, coaiidafad by naM aa iraadaHoM tnn a loal collactioa la GrMk by Cyril-
Ina, called atto Cooalaatiaa the FhllOHphor, btohop of TheiBloaiea bi flw 0th eeatvry ; they wen ia 4 hooka, aad tha Lathi title b
(iuadripartiiw JpoiogrioM, or ^aeuktm ta^kntimi paUbhid by & Oirdimt with the tiUa Afolagi itfgrato. Vmmm, 169a IS.
Cr 5eMa, Litt. Gncqae, tL SI4.

For noticea of ndhar IkbolM*. and of CollcctioBa of Latin Cablaa, aee Ailar, All*. Tbeoria, vol. Ii. p. 162, aiL Ct abo Uutnt*

Slmmtliche Schriftcn, tol. tIIL at cited P. TV. § 168. On eariy ecrnaa imltaliooa, te, aaa brief noticea ia T. Oviyb, Eaayi,

ae., vol. iii. p. »BS, «. ad. Sort. 1939. S vola. 8. On tha Bonaa fabolbti, wa ralbraaeas givaa In { 979:

% 338. (e) The Epigram. In this form of poetry the Romans appear to have been
very successful in the time of their first attempts in literature. Several epigrammatists
flourished in the period preceding the war of Sylla and Marius (the second of our divi-
sion, cf. ^ 301). Aulus Gellius (xix. 9) speaks of three in particular, viz. Porcius Lici-
nius, Q. Lutatius Catullus, and L. Valerius ^dituus ; ana remarks that some of their
epigram.'? are not surpassed in elegance by anything known to him in Latin or Greek
poetry. L. Pomponius, perhaps the same that has been noticed as an author of Atel-
lane comedies (cf. 318), is also mentioned as an epigrammatist by Priscian.

^ 339. Many of the small poems of Catullus are properly regarded as epigrams.
The Garland of Meleager (cf. ^ 35) had been compiled before his time, and thus he
might easily become familiar with the style of the Greek epigrams. Some of his pieces
are allowed to possess distinguished merit; of *he crowd of epigrammatists whose
names orcur in the period before the death of Augustus, he is decidedly the best.
Among these names we find those of Virgil, and Cicero, and his brother Quintus ; of
Julius CcBsar, Augustus, and Maecenas ; from each of whom some remains are pre-
served in the Latin Antholocry. Licinius Calvus was celebrated for the sarcastic tone
of his epigrams ; in the only one now extant in full, he satirizes Pompey's mode of
scratching his head. Domitius Marsus was ranked amon^ the best epigrammatists in
the time of Augustus ; there seems to have been a collection of epigrams by him, en
titled Cicuta; only two pieces now remain.

664 BISTORT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

^ 340. PasBing by others of this period who have a place in the Ahtholo^, we come
to Martial, in the succeeding period of Roman literature ; to whom the cntica, almost
without an exception, have awarded the palm in preference to Catullus and every other
Latin epigrammatist. His pieces are marked by something of that point which is con-
sidered essential in a modern epigram (cf. ^ 34). Several less important names belong
to this period. A number of epigrams are contained among the remains of Petronius
Arbiter. The pieces in the Greek Anthology ascribed to an author called roinwAXiop
and TairvvXtViof, are supposed by some to be the productions of Cornelius Lentulus
Gaetulicus, whom Suetonius cites as an historian, and Martial names as a poet. L. Asi-
nitis GalluB, son of VirgiPs friend Asinius Pollio ; Alfius Flavus, mentioned by Seneca
the rhetorician as an eminent orator of his time ; Septimius Serenus, surnamed Falis-
cus (cf. ^ 328) ; Vulcatius Sedigitus, so called from the number of his fingers ; and
Sentius Augurinus, lauded by rliny the younger (£p. iv. 27. ix. 9) for the deGcacy and
irony of his pieces ; must be included in the catalogue of epigrammatists. We may
add Pliny himself, and Seneca the philosopher, unless we suppose the epigrams con-
tained in the writings of the latter to be interpolations by some scholastic author. The
emperor Hadrian or Adrian was the author of epigrams in Greek as well as Latin.
There are some pieces from a poet by the name of Florus, who was living in the time
of Adrian, and is by some supposed to be the same as L. Anncus Florus the historian
(cf ^ 536).

^341. In the last period included in our glance, from the Antonines A. D. 160 to the
overthrow of Rome A. D. 476, there were many productions of an epigrammatic kind.
The more distinguished authors were Ausonius and Claudian. In the works of the
former (cf ^ 385) we find about 150 epigrams, generally framed afler the manner of
Martial, but inferior to their model in force and point. About 40 eiMgrams are ascribed to
Claudian ; 2 are in Greek ; but some of these pieces are not considered as genuine (cf
^ 386). Several of the Christian poets might be mentioned among the epigrammatists.

It is perhaps worttiy of notice here, that in the later ages tome of the Latin poets imitated the
fVivoloiie devices that were invented by certain Greelcs of the Alexandrine sehnol, who Kmu*ed
themselves in composing little poems. In which the verses were so formed and arranged as to
present the flgiire of an altar, egg, mn»lcian*s pipe (cf. ^ 66. S), or other object. A specimen of
this sort nf elTnrt is given in a Latin poem by P. Optatianus Porphyrins, who lived in the time
of Constantine the Great. He had been banished by that emperor; but he regained his favor by
the poem here mentioned. It was k eulogy on the emperor made up of a series of poems, having
something of tlie epigrammatic character, but representing by their form different objects, one an
altar, another a flute, another a sort of organ (cf. P. 11 1, i 180. S). It included also other devices ;
e. g. in one poem the first line was composed of words of two syllables, the second of words of
three syllables, and so on ; another poem was a comnlicated acrostic of 20 lines, the first letters
of which, taken fVnm top to bottom, formed the words FortUtimus Imperator; the letters in the
14th place formed the words CUmtntitaimttg rector ; and the last letters, Coii«c«fi(iiiii« ineietut.

^ 342. Anthologies, This term has been applied to collections of Latin epigrams as
well as Greek. They include many epigrams from unknown authors. It should also
be remarked that they include not only such epigrams as were preserved in ancient
manuscripts, but many others which are epigrams in the original sense of the term,
i. e. inscriptiotUt placed on public or private monuments. The latter class have been
drawn from monuments scattered over Italy and the Roman provinces, but found in

greatest number in the region of Rome itself. Collections of the Greek epigrams

began to be made more than 100 years before Christ (cf ^ 35). But it does not ap-
pear that the Romans thought much of similar collections of Latin epigrams. Per-
hops we may consider the Priapeia as being something of the kind, smce it consists
of little poems pertaining^ to the god Priapus, very probably written by different authors,
although sometimes ascribed to Virgil (cf. ^ 362. 2).

1. The modern Latin Anthologies seem to have originated in the collecting and publishing of
actual inscriptions found on ancient monuments. An Italian of the Idih century, PiitoeoUi^
known also by the name of Cyriacvs JSneonitanua^ is said to have been the first to enter upon
this work. Under the direction of Nicolas I. he traveled in Italy, Hungary, and Greece, for the
purpose of copying inscriptions both Greek and Latin. He prepared a volume of prose inscrip-
tions, and anotlter of inscriptions in verse ; and alihnueh no part of his collection was printed
iiniil about % 0 years anerwards, yet his example influenced other scholars to pursue the study
of inncriptinns, and a number of collections were published during the 16th and 17tb centuries.
Ten or twelve such works, at least, preceded the first edition of QruUr^a Collection (cf. P. IV.
9 130).

3. The Anthology differs from the mere collectitm of inscriptions, not by excluding epigrams
preserved only i<n monuments ; for, as has been observed, many such are admitted. Dut tbe
Anthology properly admits only those pieces which seem to possess some merit as litemry pro*
ductions, while the collection of the other kind will receive the most insignificant or trivial in-
scription, although it may contain merely detached words, or proper names. Several collections
of these more select and choice pieces were published in the 17th and 18th centuries. Tbs oae
which is considered the most complete, and the best in arrangement, is the Latin Anthology of
Burmann (cited $ 346. 3). The first volume of this is d"Voted chiefly to epigrams and snail
poems, drawn from manuscripts ; while a great part of the Sd volume is occupied with inscrip-
tions properly so called, and originally taken from existing monuments. Tbe pieces contained
in tbe work are arranged in 6 books.

Of fbf cnllrctroQi thtt eome under the dm oT th«^ AntMogiei, tbe earltnt flat ii BeBtioaed by Fkbridoi httmiot P. PUkmm
iDtitled Kpigrammata vdtrOf ke.). Pu-. 1&90. 18.

p. ▼. POBTRT. BATIRB. ddS

Ob Ulh tplipiM. M JRttr, OeKk BOB. Ut |k WL-^flUkao; Lbt IMIL 1. 18^
IH >•— Ob ttoHbiaetcif iMtm Ina^ptiomt, ot P. IT. | ItOl

$ 343. (A) Satire, There has been much disputing amoDff the learned on the ques- '
tion whether the Satire of the Romans was borrowedfrom the Greeka, or was of their
own in?ention. The word is derived differently by those who take the opposite sides
on this question. Those who suppose that saure descended from the Greeks, derive
the word from Xarvpos^ Satjfru$t the imaginary being said to be composed of a man and
a goat. Those who maintain the native origin of satire, generally derive the word from
$atura ; this term was applied to the platter or vessel filled with all sorts of fruits (lanx
uUura), which was offered to Bacchus at his festivals ; and it might easily be thence
transferred and emploved to designate a composition written in various metere and
comprehending a medley or farrago of subjects.— 'But whatever may have been the
real derivation of the term, $atura or satira, and whatever mav have been the fact as
to the question whether the Roman satirists imitated the Greelcs and borrowed from
them, two things may be here asserted. The first is, that the Roman satire was quite
different in its character from the Greek dramatic satyre (cf. ^ 45). The other is, that
the Romans exhibited in very early times the beginnings of their satire, in the rude
taunts and railleries which were practiced at the festivals of their rural gods.

^ 344. The invention of the Roman Satire is commonly ascribed to Ennius. He
composed satires, which were not designed to be recited like the rude jests at the festi-
vals, but to be read more privately. He employed a diversity of meters. Pacuvios
imitated Ennius. Lucilius, who follows them in order of time, gave to satire some-
thing of a new form and character, and is therefore spoken of by some of the ancients
as iu inventor. He aimed less at mere comic effect, and more at the castigation of
vice, and thus rendered the composition more didactic ; he also confined it much more
to one kind of verae, particularly the hexameter. Of the satires of these authora mere
fragments now remain. — M. Furius Bibaculus* was another satirist of this period ; by
some of the ancients placed by the side of Horace. — The name of Valerius Cato may
be perhaps properly mtroduced here, on account of the poem entitled Dira in Bat-

iTflrornfoMDli horn bin art pwMryed iaaworfc Morfbad to SaMoBlBi (Db fllBrt. (iBBBk c. II | ct bdoir { 8S7).^*II It
CivM Ib XMiwirAPBBt UL MiBora, 8d tolaM.

% 345. In the next period, that inclndinff the Augustan age, most of the writera who
composed satires followed the manner of Lucilius. One author, M. Terentiug Varro,
whom we shall have occasion again to notice, preferred the manner of Ennius, espe-
cially in the use of various metera. He also mingled proee and verse. His satincal
compositions were termed Menmean, fix)m a certain Menippus of Gadara, not because
Menippus had written pieces of this kind, but because Varro imitated his humorous
and pungent style. These writings of Varro were not professed satires exactly ; al-
though they may be ranked under this better perhaps than under anv other denomina-
tion (cf. ^ 423).^— >Feculiarl]r eminent in the department of satire is the name of Horace
(cf ^ 363). He gave the finishing hand to the method introduced by Lucilius. The
satires of Horace are wholly in the hexameter verse, of a familiar style, not much ele-
vated above that of prose, and not unfrequently assuming the form of dialogue. Ridi-
cule of foibles is a peculiar characteristic of his pieces, a trait well suited to the age in
which he lived, which was marked by luxury, folly, and extrayaganoe, rather than by
the gross crimes and enormities which called forth the keener severity of later satirists.
—Perhaps the Ibis of Ovid (cf. ^ 364. 4) may require the mention of him as a satirical
writer. It is a sort of imitation of the poem of Gallimachus under the same title (cf. ^
70. 1), written during his banishment at Tomi, and containing a series.of imprecations
against his enemies. It is like the Dirm of Cato.

^ 346. In the following period there were two authora of distinguished celebrity for
the composition of satires t Penmu and JuvenaiL The circumstances of their times
were such as demanded the strong tone of reproof and fearless censure, with which
they assailed the prevalent vices of Rome. They employed the meter and external
form which the example of Horace had settled as appropriate to satire : but neither of
them retained the ease and simplicity of his language ; yet m point of^ merit they are
by no means unworthy of comparison with him (cf. ^380. 2).— —There are some other
names which ought to be mentioned here. Martial (£p. xi 10) and other writera speak
of a Tumus as an eminent satiric poet in the times or Nero and Vespssian. An ex-
istinff fragment of a satire against Nero has been ascribed to him by a modern critic.
We nave also a satirical poem from a female author, Sulpieia, who lived in the time
of Domitian and after. The production afPelroniui Arbiter, entitled Salfrieon (cf.
% 472). was a sort of romance made up of satirical pieces, after the manner called Me^
ntppean or Varranian, in mingled proee and verse. There is a Menippean satire, as-
cribed to Seneca (cf. ^ 374. 2), but its genuineness has been doubted.

CtadM,IM.mam.H,9n^Wmudtrf^tm the rngMol by hlai sMfibal to Ttenai Ib hh I'od. UL Mimm. » b ahB
qwtoiBBd \m IwiMirt MIbbt Latia Vu^ toL M. TbaBiBMvol.BrLenB'mllkBwinoaMuaithBMlifBarSalpMB, wbMtoM^

566 HUTORT 07 ROMAV UTSftiTVBB.

) 347. In the snbieqaeiit histoiy of Rmnan literature, we find no prodnctione strictlf
belonging to the claae of satires. Two pieces of Claudian in the 4th centary, consideT'
ed among his best perfonnances, the inveciiTes against Rnfinus and Eutropius (cf.
^ 386), are commoniy ranked here ; they are however, quite different from the satire
of Horace or JuvensJ, the manner of treating the subject being more full, and more
conformed to epic description.'— —The Satyiicon of Marcianus Capella, of the 5th
century, is a work composed partly in prose and (Mrtly in verse, and thus in form re-
sembles what is called the Menippean or Varronian satire ; but it is a philosophical
medley, or a sort of encydopBdia, rather than a satirical performance (cf. ^ 473).

OBBa«M«»tiwMiaMUrNt^-Z.tiit Fk»<Mt,n>artymLiBa»irt«rt<i«tioM>*iw<a»tul|i>w^ ftato*. 1744, a-Jik
OerA^, Dia. de Ronuioniai Siiin. im. I7ML 4.-0. L. Ktnig, Pa hth» Ba— » ujmti* — eiettew pi wi i|i iiii OUMk.im.a
— t Caamhan, Pi Sityriea Qmwnwi >d— 1 Wmwuuii BtHn. RaL 1774. 8.-JL AmIv, Dfnut nt b SMiM, m te Pk«t
totnarf.«rBonM,ciltdbdow|S«.5;al»ia ilw 9i Mk of tk* JUton. JeM. Amct. i( SAw-UHni^ p. ir.^->r. I>fdlm, n»
OBMW eoMeraliK tbi oritia «^ pfOTM of Mir% ia bb VMi. or JbyvhO, dto4 i Ma~Z)H awls, SalfflqpM Ij^
JtaMT. v«L ilUL ^ Ml^-Ct AMB, litt. Boik k ML ii. Sll.-aM akr NftNMn wte $ SB, 8101

% 348. Before proceeding to notice the poets singly, we will refer here to a few
works, which relate to them collectively, or to classes of them.

1. 0y««Mkiii, BMorte IViMuvB, ftc., dM { 47 1.~0. /. r««<iM. D* v«t. poit Giw. tt tat 11^^
fftM,LimordwRoau»Mlk Load. 1781 S vob. a Tnadatad into Omtaa, by C. r. SbfanU. IfaOa^ 1777. 8 «ok t^-T
JmeoU, Kwwn Abrta to* 0«idaidila dar rtnlicbaa l^ada, la tba work Hfitd CkmmUm Ar amMiidi Dkkkr, aa, flMil

f «r(. J. C. /. JiniM, TMbm Hanmm BaBffh«lt«af dar UMta lOa'tMbaa PieMir, ia Ui FkrwAaMw JMwiaainiai a i*

JHtfiaimn. Braha, lltl. B^-Omrr, Aaalaeli CrMea, Poadi Bflaaaonai HMka lll^alH illadraMla. Bart. 1717. dL p^M

af AppaadlM to Dmkft Bbt Baa^ Ut diad § Wa a-»iflr, da Mfarti Wwaia am. OatMa^ 17BL-^ C. IWiib tla/. Plwrt.

dapeaiblataiTridi,d«iada,lrdeisaa,piafiaadlDlbald««LofbtoAMf. MbMr.bdavdlad. Altaakar

S fob. a-CoaaolMBea da raatai la plat ariabnh Fbr. ITBB. t teh. a— JV. J. audM, i

a^ daMa veraigliehMar Pkbtar. Tkaaa. ftoai Iba TimA ( JbamMV *i AvnaM). ICai

tbtntfwaorutlaPadry. Load. IM7.~l*d|e. liyw, Hid. VMbhib at poHaataai nalil ati. HaL im. a-V. ^paMi^ Vb^

Bwtii, be, diad P. IV. 1 151.

a Tba Mb»w}ac an ana of tba vadaiB aoOadlaw aT Utia paatiy. I^amii UL f JC), FraKMaL TA FiaL Ftt.
1864. a— ASM'iWiCoaieannLd.rnvBMta. Far. IMBl a-.JImdia«n, Ptagmvia eoaaleeraB LaL iMt. NHL a^
ir.J.ajriiM,S7Btai<B«tnfi8dwUL Laid. (Par.) IMT. 4.-^. SMavte, rf«|M«ta tat ttaitonBi LaL laid. ITMl a—
f. B JMim, TMlm amid Utlaofwa. Ralbant IM. Lipi. 104. 6 vah. &-/. A £«■ (aad alban), ItaM uib>1iI dM
LatlBi. IS volik— Oaipi Barf*, 9o*tm LaL VoMlid d boedid. I6ia— ftalB. LaL rd ?awtica MdpM d UBiilitl adfifiL
LiWd. I7tt. 4.-C. MeMJar, Odlad. Foatar. Blagfa& A«. Vlad. 177a t vola. a — J£ JMMfa, Oarpoi PMbhib LaL (gpoa
d (Vagnaaa vaL Pbd. Ld. Ftalba. d Bcetariai|. Lead. ITia t «oik fd.-JNn JMafadaf A. Aialod, Garpoa aM. «<.
poat. Lat. con hallca tafdoaa. (Baeedia, di taW fli aaridU. Iw.) Mrtbil ITll-ITSi. 18 teU. 4. cf. Mwdh dJa Jl^piiM ddh
Zamw. Aaaa 178a p. la-Odhdte ftoauriiift (oaw. po— alaai awa. jiiidiiM. *c.) Hwaft 1761 • wla. 4^-P. BmwMmn,
AtitbdoK. wt. Ld. ap^Ciaauaaian, te. AmL I7ia 1771 S«da.4.(d:9S4a a>--TkmiiaiaeaaladMoBertbKbr A ja^v.
LIpi. 1881 8 nlik 1 «ad>t Barauakn. d%Mit d aaiiL"-/. C mmiriai/, Ftoda UU Mimatm. AliaA llW^ia • aak 1
— K. £. Lmnain, Ptoata Lat Mlaorti. Tar. 18M41 7 f«k. 1-0. A IfhAtr, ftdana Utfaema Ca^pai. Laid. 180.
nyal 1— FBata UU valnai^ la aaaai «d. ladMtL Flar. 1881 l.-a. M. fVUv, Coipaa PbaL LafiBoraat. PiaakL 1801 1-
Vadoai tnadatiaaa tnm Hem. fm aia faaad ia A ObahMrt, Waifaor tba f^idi IMi tnm CbaMv la Cawpar. Ual
1811 SI tola. 1

$ 349. Livina Andr<mieu$, who flourished about B. C. 230, was a Greek, boin at
Tarentum, and a freedman of M. Livius Salinator. He was the first dramatic poet
among the Romans, and brought the first play upon the stage, about B. C. 239. His
style bad a degree of roughness, and was m part unintelligiDle to the huer Romans.
He wrote many poems of different kinds ; among them was one on the Roman histo-
ry, and a translation of Homer^s Odyssey. We have merely a few fragments of his
writings.

1. It is asserted, that when his country was conquered by the Romans, he was
taken captive and earned to Rome, where he became the suve and aftervrards the
freedman of the consul Livius Salinator, from whom he took the name of livius. He
is supposed to have lived at least until about B. C. 220. In Cicero's diakigne De Se-
nedute (c. 14), Cato is introduced sa3ring that he bad seen old Livius, while ne himself
was 1 youth. Livius composed both tragedies and comediesi Some of the titles which
have been collected by Fabricius and others, are AdkiUeM, Adoni$, JEgiMQnu^jut^
Andromeda, Antiopa^ Centauri, Equut TrojanUM^, Hellene^ Hermitms, Ino, TeiMsr.
They indicate that most of his dramas were translated or imitated from the works of
his countrymen of Magna Gnecia, or from the great tragic writers of Greece'. A
building was assigned to Livius on the Aventine hill, which senred also for a thealie,
and was inhabited by a troop of players.

1 fWhaaum, Klda. Hbadb. ^•4l •CLDmtkifi EM, Warn. UL ^ 84. fai. L ad. dM f ML 1-«bi|^ Baginmimi, Da

Tlttidwripl.L.AadfnBid,N«f{|,de. AHaab. ISR. a-OMavi (diad ) HI 1), cap. l-4irfwaiam L. x. & 1

1 Thafiaiwi6atiofLAaditaricaamilfaBiatbaadkdiaadlfcdaii,<d.ad,aadtadt8418^^AlBalatfcaaaafJ>a*«vMt
Serfvmm, u Ihtra dtad.

^ 350. Cneiu$ iVieetiM, a native of Campania, flourished about the same time.
Having been banished from Rome, he died in Utica, about B. C. 200. He wrote sn
historical poem on the first Punic War ; also tragedies, comedies, satires, and epigrams ;
not without wit, but in a very rude style. A few fragments only are presenred. Thb

P.T. POSTS. BNNIUS. PLAUTI70. 597

poet most be discriintnated from a later author by the name of Nomutt who oompoeed
pieces belonging to the class of writings called Atellane plays {FaJmlm AteUmuB).

1. The tragedies of Naevius were all translations from Greek dramatists, or close
imiutiona: the following titles are preserved; Aleettis, Danait Dulorales, Hetiona,
Hector y Iphigenia, LycurguM, Phcntut^, ProtesUaut, Televhus, NiBvius was consi-
dered a better comic than tragic poet. His comediee partook of the personal satire and
invective, which characterized the old comedy of the Greeks (cf. i 41), and which are
seen in the plays of Aristophanes. His reproaches against the chief men of the dty
caused bis imprisonment, and perseverance in the same after a release, led to hie banish-
ment.—'His Poem on the Punic War was in the Satumian verse (cf. ^ 304), and his
scyle, in all his productions, is said to have been more rugced than that of L. Andro-
nicus. — Nievius has generally been considered as the author of the Cyprian lUadt a
translation from a Greek poem called the Cypria (rh Kowpw), a work of amorous fiction
in 12 books.

fta«,hoiPeMr,ucrftellMCypHmn<adtoabtcrpiMt«»dl|jwiHi. CC AfiM^ ■zmm. L id Ub. IL JbiM. Ob If»

«i«^ flt AMlcp, L p. ft.>ABAr, p. 7tt.-«iftU«riiH, M cKad f S«. 1.
t. Tba fncaMiM of Natiut an fouBd in dw CoIImUmh rdbn^ to above, ) S4lk S, arf

% 351. QttifUuM Etwius was born at Rudite in Calabria, B. C. about 240. The elder
Cato brought him from Sardinia to Rome, where he was employed as a teacher of
Greek. He contributed much to the improvement of the Latin laiiguage. He was the
earliest epic poet in that tongue, and was highly valued by the later and better writers,
.particularly Cicero and Virgil. Ennium, »icut tacro* vetustate lucot, adoremust in
qHtbits grandia et antiqua r^nnra jam non tanlam habrnt upecian qtiantam relisionem
(Q u i n 1 1 1. z. 1). He composed an historical poem of Roman AnnaU, in 18 books ; an
epic poem called Seipio; many comedies and tragedies; also satires and other pieces.
Of all these we have but brief and scattered passages, occasionally quoted by other
authors.

1. Ennius lived until about B. C. 170, when he died at the age of 70, of a disease
(morbxu ariicuJaris) probably brought on by intemperate drinking (//or. I. Ep. ziz. vs. 7).
But he is said to have lived ceneraily in a frugal manner. His residence was on the
Aventine hill. He enjoyed me friendship of many patrician families, and particularly
of Seipio Nasica.

AbartorUm«Mp1ocoil(C<&pR>Afchk,e.9) b Ao Ikalif tMibortho8eifto(eLP.lV.| I».S); "akunlodbwtof Pto.
periaoitoM, wfateb wuImimI In tbb tomb, tad wUch aov rtute oo Iho awooptafakorBdptoButMMiaiboViUeM^bwppOHd
toboS^tof Baoiw." Ct Ram ia (ho IMi entafy, UHw ML

2. Ennius surpassed his predecessors both in poetical genius and in versification, and
is said to have be^n the master of three tongues, Oscan, Latin, and Greek. He pro-
fessed Ij imitated Homer, whose roirit he pretended to possess, by a Pythagorean trans-
migration through the medium oi a peacock, if we may rely upon a satire of Persius
(vi. 10) ; dateriuit este — Mitonides Quintug vavone ex Pytkagareo,— In his tragedies
he imitated from Euripides more than firom the other Greek dramatists ; perhaps, be-
cause the Romans preferred such plays as were crowded with action and the bustle of
a complicated fable. The titles of some of these pieces were Ajaxt Alemaan, AhxaU'
der or PartMi Andromaehet Ereethtue, Hectoris LusiTa^ Hecuba, Iphigenia, Medea,
Telamon, TelepJiu$, Thye$te$. Most of these were evidently borrowed from Euripides.
The Medea was considered as one of the best productions of Ennius, and was very po-
pular. Attius, Varro, Ovid, and Seneca, successively imitated from this tragedy. — Of
the satirefi of Ennius little is known, the remaining fragments being very short and
broken. — The Annale seem to have been the sreat work of this poet : written in hexa-
meter verM, and devoted to the celebration of Roman exploits firom tne earliest periods
to the conclnsion of the Istrian war ; not completed until within a few years of his
death. It was a work highly gratifying to the national pride, and continued long po-
pular at Rome ; much reUiBhed in the age of Horace ana Virgil, and even down to the
time of Marcus Aurelius, recited in the theatres and places of public amusement.—-
Ennius wrote a didactic poem on eatables, entitled Phagetiea; and another entitled
EpieAannM, being a translation from the Greek work of Epicharmus the comedian, on
the nature ef things. He also left a prose translation of the work of Enhemeres (cf.
^ 222. 4), on the ancient mythology; some passages of which are preserved in
Lactantius.

Diadnp, 1. 9L-m fr. XMAmna, Ofit do Q. Bado. Im, 11S4. A^^ScMO, Htat do U LHt Ibm. L 114, I4t. l«.-aUr,

p.S4,ita

a ThefitMrnwattof EaaiMW«reantpaUhb«dbf JZOolHiinM,rngiB.poft.«atar. Lai. Na^ IMa 4.-^ I^n aad gaad odW
tkia,br^.ff<M(. AoHtlTOr. 4^-loc«al,b7/XOa« Lood. lOt. la-Tlio JMm HfttoMr, by S JloMh. GOtt. 1W7. 4

% 352. M. Acetut Plautue, a native of Sarsina, in Umbria. also flourished about
B. C. 200; being bom B. C. 227 and dying B. C. 184. He became so straitened ;ji
his circumstances, that he worked for daily wages at a hand-mill. He fxissessed emi-
nent talents for a comic writer, a rich vein of cutting wit, a happy invention, and ffreai
force of humorous expression. The Greek comic writers Eptcharmns and Diphilut

668 HI8T0BT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

were his chief models. He was particalarljr successful in the low comedy ; but in tbis,
out of compliance with the taste of the age, he often transgressed the limits of pro-
priety. From the multitude of bis comedies, which Gellius numbers as high as 190,
only twenty now remain ; these have frequently been used and imitated by modem
dramatists.

1. PlautuB was the son of a ireedman, and received his name from his splay feet (a
pedum planitie $tve vXarmiin). He is said to have realized a considerable fortune by
the popularity of his plays, and to have lost it in speculation, or expended it in splendid
decorations as an actor ; thus he was reduced to the necessity of laboring like a slave,
when a famine at Rome diminished the general resort to theatrical amusements. Plautns
like bis predecessors borrowed from the Greek writers ; from Philemon and Menander
as well as from those named above (Epicharmus and Diphilus). Although he took his
plots and incidents freely from the middle comedy, his spirit and manner in executjon,
his coarse wit and personal satire, agreed more fully with the character of the aU(c£.
^ 41). Many of the comedies which passed under the name of Plautus, were proba-
bly spurious. Auius Gellius (Noet. Alt. lib. iii.) quotes a work of Varro, Qtuutiones
Plautina, much of which was devoted to a discussion concerning the authentidiy of the
plays commonly ascribed to Plautus ; twenty-one were admitted in this discussum to
be unquestionably genuine. These were subsec^uently termed Varroniauy and included
the twenty still extant. The titles of these, with an analysis of each, and a notice of
the principal modern imitations, may be found in Dunlop'e Roman Literature. Am-
phitryon, MetuBchmi, Canteivei and Milee Glorioeue^ are among the most distinguished
of the plays ; some of the others, however, were more popular on the Roman siase.
The wit, drollery, and buffoonery of Plautus were so captivating to the people, that Lis
plays were still favorite pieces on the Roman stage, even after those of Terence began
to be represented. — Moliere, Shakspeare, and Dryden, may be named among the mo-
derns wDo have copied from Plautus.

1. The oomedy entitled PwmmXne (or UttU Cttrlk^gMan) has ftemtohed oceaston fbr macli pU-
lolofical tpecuiation, In the •pecimnna of the Punic fanftuHfe, which it conuins. In tbece ksmj
remains, cnnimentatora have found traces of varloua differeat tonguca, aceordinft to their Ancy,
or favorite ayetem.

y. /. SU^nMNfi pMhlblMd thrM Profmmmt oa Am nbjMl; Blum Vnoeh dit pmIkMb SlalUB 1m nmdm inTiufm m
erkUico. B*rl. tSOt. 8.-Cf. ftMO, Hm. LitL Baoi. L Ittr-FUfamery. Bm^ m tlw aMiqoity of Uie In* bapMfa^ IML
1771 8. Of. P. I. i IM.-Jta«fA<m Jlwicwb Avf. IRS, p. ST, wtaraaragiMB Mvcnl wriom ot Xha Pynie Mimslatm.-W, Ot-
Mn<u«, atttr rtKUkiKhe un4 Puniaeh*, *e. u citad P. FV. f 4&. S.

3. EdlHoM—BMi F. a AMJkt. IM. I«a 4 mh. 9. **9mvnM ud Inilj adalnUt;'' (IXMbi)^By tomb RUtert.
1821. S voh. a tnd Stultf. ISOi 4 rah. li^B. F. Sekmkitr. GMt. IMM-OBl t rail. 8. with a eoBMntuy. vliteh oaj bs M
RfMiiMlT rmn the text.— /Vine^ or «w1i«l ; O. MmO* (PinMM A aptn). Vaa. H7S. fat Swprt ,- I^Mtf A Ar?«^
Tarvb, 1481 fal.-or BMor etben, IIm mort Inportut wc, /. CkmmviiM. Bm. IBAa. 8 —D. LamUiim. ftr. Ifn. UL—f.
ytotbmmnn. Wiltcalierf, 1882. 4. wilh • food eontaicalary.— roriffrwm (6d. J. F. OrwiMtei). Ama. MM. &— JMSO^. BirL

1786. 8 rab. a »iib a Ltxlegn PlmuHmm. BdHioMof liiicto pbi|t haw brai omMreM; w mafOam eo •amm of Urir

«MiidalinnlanfeMMCleBMter,f. fr. Air«,tbeB«daBiL Lf«.inB.aaiid airamaiuHlht TriaanaaiL Bari.taM.a
—R ottos', thtTraculaataa. Cdoa. IS84. 8. ^Thanwa Mat ad. oTllMCaptiTi (Bian teat), CM»brid|M8H. 11.

4. TnaalMkm.-Gannaii.-OI. Kmfnr (^Minmfy. Wian, 1808-7. Swla. i^* O. O, S. XBpkt. Safl. ISOS. 1880. 8 rak a

/. r. I. Dmu, Ijtf. k Oarm. 1806-11. 4 fda. a rrawh.— Ifk*. Afcndba. Pkr. 166a 4 rala. a~A Pk. At Lim^mt, Lat k

Sail. AvM. ITia 10 mil. iSL-ff OutdrnfOk. Ltfi. Hia 10 rail. IS. Ei«lMb.-£a«0r. AAarrf. Load. ITia Itv-A. fW*-

oil (blaok rant), 8d ad. Land. 1788. t rait. 8.— Jt fVbnur. Load. 1778-74. 6 raia. &

5. Illottratirak— D. Ckr. B SekmU^ AaweiMBR dar ranKhnalaa BOebar ia ailao Theilan itr DMhlkaart. Lpt. 1781.— Zantaf;
Abh. Qbar PtBUtiw Lctwn and Scbrinan, ia hi* FTorte, eL P. IV. f 108. L-TKoi. Coota, AnpbltTT<M, (Ut. at Aa«).) with a DiMrt.
and llM Uh of PlaattM. Load. ITSa IS.-^tnrf, The opiaiee oT Cleero and Herara rMpcatof PlantiH eomparad, ta hM Cmumm
rary OB tha Ait of Fkiatry. Lewd. 1781 1 (p. 814. rat l.).-Ci: SulaiHIi Allff. Tbeoriab ftc raL ttL p^ 701-0. B. Mo^ Opwwli
Maatina. Upi. 1831 raL i. CenMatatioBai. I8S7. ral. iL ThunbtiaMh

% 353. Marem Pacuviue, of Brundusium, was a nephew of Ennins, bora B. C. about
220. He was celebrated at Rome both as a painter and a tragic poet. Quintilisn

E raises the dignity of the thought, eipression, and characters in his tragedies. Of these,
owever, we have but a few unimportant fragmenta.

1. Pacuvius in advanced life retired from Rome to Tarentnm, where he died at the
age of nearly ninety. The epitaph inscribed upon his tombstone, placed by the aide
* ulus Gellius (iVort. An. I i. c. 24).— The aneients o '

of a public road, is quoted by AuIus Gellius (iVort. Alt. h i. c. 24).-
of 19 tragedies written by him ; the titles ore given by Dunlop. Pacuvius, like his
predecessors, chiefly borrowed from the Greeks. '* His Paulve, however, was of his
own invention, and was the first Latin tragedy formed on a Roman subject;" only
five lines of it are extant. The tragedy entitled Antiope was one of the most distu-
guished of his pieces. A scene in the Uiona^ where the ghost of Polydonis who had
been assassinated appears to his sister Iliona, was greatly admired by Roman audi-
ences.—- Pacuvius was one of the earliest of the Romans who attained any eminence in
the art of painting (cf. P. IV. % 224).

Dimle^ {. p. nS-xAMO. L-p. IM.~Ct Ctora, Brut. 84. 74. Da Oiat. 1. 81 H. 87. ' Da DIvia. 1. 87. H. S«^-<Ktaf& x.l.r.
. Abr. Cp. lib. n. L S5.-A1» wffmttaJ * Xm, Dalla Manolro di M. Fkcovlo, aaliebiMiBio pooli toafieo, dliwiiaBlM^ MipL
781 1

« ThetiK»«tioff>wofiwBayb»i»wdiathacoiladfc»ii,iltaadydtad(SS48.t),oiai»>awai^l^^ In

p. V. POETS. ATTIUS. TARENITUS AFBR.

^ 354. Lucius Aeeiust or more correctly Attiut, a native Roman, was a tragic poet,
a contemporary of Pacuvius, but younger. He also wrote, in verse. Annals ot the
Roman History. Of his tragedies a few remaining fraffraenu are found.

1. Atiius is said to have brought forward his first play at the ace of 30, B. C. 138,
the same year in which Pacuvius gave to the public his last, at the age of 80. The
story related by Valerius Maximus (iiL 7), of Aitius refusing to rise on the entrance of
Julius Caesar into the College of poets, is supposed by some to show that this poet did
not live so earlv ; others suppose that this anecdote refers to another poet, or to a Julius
Caesar earlier than the conqueror. Attius is exposed to the charge of vanity ; *' though
a person of diminutive size, he got a huge statue of himself placed in a conspicuous
niche in the temple of the Muses.'* He was highly esteemed by the Romans. He
wrote many plays ; the titles of above fifty have been collected. Most of these were
drawn from Grecian sources; two, however, his Brutus and DeciuSt were founded on
Roman subjects ; written oroBably in honor of Decius Brutus, consul B. C. 137, who
was his warm patron and friend.

Duntap, i. 2U.-AcA«l, L 1 l6.-iUria'ia (dM ( SQft. 8), iii. S35.-Cr. dan, Bnitw, 88, fla^ Pro Ardiia, 10^-Jttl»u Odlhu,
Noet. Art. liii. S.— F/iny, HM. MaU xxxit. ^.—QuintiL t. n^Sor, Epu H. L fl&
S. Tba fragiMDto of Attiia art ooDtained ia the coUection of Scrifer, and otbera, baforo died.

t 355. Puhlius Terentius Afer was bom B. C. 192, in Africa, perhaps at Carthage,
and died B. C. 159. He was a freedman of the senator Terentius Lucanus, and an
intimate friend of Laelins and the younger Scipio Africanus. As a dramatist he was
an imitator of Menander and Apollodorus. His six comedies still remaining are of
remarkable excellence, in respect to the characters, the truth and refinement of the
dialogue, and the management of the plot. He possessed less invention, and less of
comic power than Plautus ; but on the other hand he had more taste, a better style,
and a finer knowledge of human nature. We find no trace of any other than the six
comedies now extant ; yet it is related that he lost 108 plays in a shipwreck. Of the
ancient commentators upon Terence, the most worthy of notice are JElius DoruUus,
a grammarian of the 4th century, and Eugraphiust of the 10th century.

1. It is not known how Terence was brought to Rome, or became the slave of the
Terentius whose name he has preserved from oblivion. After giving to the Roman
stage his six comedies, he made a visit to Greece, whence he never returned. Accord-
big to one account, he perished at sea, on his voyage from Greece to Italy, with the
106 comedies he had translated from Menander ; others state, that having sent the
same comedies before him by sea to Rome, and they being lost by shipwreck, he died
of grief in Arcadia.

JMwifM*, Vtta Ttraatil. C& pu niO. lat vd. ofljinrt^aJ. of Tmnet, dtod bdow.

2. The titles of the six plays are Andria, Eunuckus, HeautontimorumtnM {JMrnmrri'
fvof^nfUtfOi), Addpkh Hecyra^ Phormis. An analysis of these is given by Dunlop, with
a notice of the imitations by Moliere and other modem dramatists. The Andria was
the earliest and is usually called the best of the pieces. In respect to style Terence
has been regarded as a model of correct composition. '* It is a singular circumstance,
and without example in the literary history of any other country, that the language
should have received its highest perfection, in point of elegance and grace, combined
with the most perfect simpucity, from the hand of a foreigner and slave.. But it so hap-
pened, that the countryman of Hannibal and the freedman of Terentius Lucanus gave
to the Roman tongue all those beauties, in a degree which the courtiers of the Augustan
age itself did not surpass.*' As to versification, it is generally allowed, that Terence
used very great liberties.

en Dmlop, i. 175.90a-JMUp, L pu 104, m. ftihw*! Itanto dar SebOnea KOmI«, It. SSL-F. (VUbur, Da 'taaatii Vita rt
SeriptH. Mooail. IMS. 4.

9. Edlticak-B«t ; N. E. Ltmain. Fkr. 1MT. S toh. & indodad tn Ua SOKoMeea Clam. UHna-^Xtmiui (lapvblnbad
wttliaddUi«ia,l7l*lrtoacy). Loud. 1880. 8 toIi. 8.— ITMtefftoofui. Haf. Coaa. 1788. 8 Tola. 4. « In hia aeeouat of Iba variona
aditioM of Teraoca, ba bu emmcimted aot ]«a ibaa Bl&^^-a StalOaviii. Lipa. llSa & aoiiuiiaiKad ; Oh fd. of WcatnlioTiM
wftb addiliaoa.— Anlliy. Anaf. 1787. 4. apaeially valuaMa in ratawea to aalar.— /V<map>; as aditai priatad at Bflllaa, 1470. fd.

ia lauiallf Allad tba int ; DHdin deddai tir tba Mlovioft JbtmlaKn (pr.), Arfnt nppoMd bafon 147a fol. ValoaUe adl-

tieat oflba pnaent eaatary ; F. JK AKAe. Bart. 1806. a abo in tbe 4tb vd. of bia Axta SemM (dL ) 84a 8).— Awm. Halic,
1811. 8 mla. 9^-Sdmiitda'. Hal. Sat. I8ia &-^. RmL MO. 188a 8 vda. 8^/. C. O. PaUL Lfm. ISBl. 12. (tait blcUr
aalaadV ad. aoelier. 1887. %,-JL J. f^oljpy. Loud. 1883. a— Tba vartoai adlthma ofdifla pUya eaaaot be naallooad.

4. Tnwlatiaiik>Geraaa.>V. C G. NaUt. Ua. 1784. 8 rota. S.—J. J. JBooi. GiaMs, 1794. 2 vdi^ 8 (mod afldaant accavd-
Irc to /ii*nmMN).~/> B. Von Miiulml (aiatricd). I41E. 1808. 8 vok a— Fife ofbar Gana. tnadatioBa dtad bjr Lunatrt.—

Than k aaother, bjA.F. tVdpv, lo tba Prmdan collaetioB of tiaMlatiooi. Fraocb.— Miii. DaeUr. Par. (wilb orig. lat.)

1688. 8 toll. R-.in«iiyMoia Caietrical). Fv. 1801 8 rail. a-8iz olbara aaaMd hj Ltmain. ^Italiaa.-yfn(. OmH. Veraa.

8 vola. a— Ccfimra dtas ttaTca efhara. ^BnglUi.— C. BaoU (Lat. b Anfl.). Load. 167a &— O. Odiman (metrical). Load. 1768.

8 toh. a-A PatridL (Lat k AagI). Load. 1767. 8 tela. 9.-T. MitthdL PbIL 1888. 8 fob. la witb Ariataiibaaaa aad Vwkm
-C£ Harttt, Sret. Not. Sapp. I. p. 148.

5. DtamatlM.— JL Biaton^ fai bb JbteimA Ckanden dadaead firom Cbmlcal Braaioa. Load. 116BL a-I. Akard, Coapari.
aua of Taiaaca aad Plantaa, la hb traaabtioa, dtad \ 888. 4.—/. C BmtiUb, Pncrammata da ladicae Teiaatil, pbilooopbo aoa
iodicaa. Cobarg. lT«»-7a 4.— £. AAofwi. Dim. CriU da Torvalto at Ooaato ^Joa iBterprala; Boaax ad Rbeo. 18Bt. &— IX Ana.
iMM, Di» ad Horatil da Ptauto at Tmallo Jodklnm. AmaC. I6I8. la gitaa ia Umainft aditioa abora eit«U-0ai(br% Apolofia

73 3b 3

570 HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATITRS.

dtTwHOB. Ptf.lll& 12.-J.JrCta41lcnitooBflMTMWtiuM«tan,«Ifha*ddiorilwBMor7eraBe.CoMd7. Uai.
ISS8.il

% 356. Caiu$ iMciliua, of Suessa in Campania, was a Roman knight, born B. C. 150.
With a great knowledge of tongua^e he combined a ^at talent for satire. He was
the first among the Romans to cuhivate satiric poetrv m the more didactic form. He
wrote 30 books of poetry, or more probably 30 single pieces, rich in wit, and keenly
severe, ah hough in some measure deficient m accuracy of style. He also wrote hymns,
epodes, and a comedy.

1. Lucilius, in early youth, served at the siege of Numantia. in the same camp with
Marius and Jugurtha, under Scipio Africanus the younger. He afterwards resided at
Rome in the house which had been built at public expense for the son of Seleacoa
king of Syria, when that prince was a hosuge at Rome. Little is known of the life
and manners of this poet. He died at Naples, at the age of 45, as is commonly stated.
He enioyed the friendship and protection of Scipio Africanus and Lffihus.

Of his writings only detached fragments remain ; these however are sufficient to
show something of his spirit and manner. His peculiarities are also frequently men-
tioned by ancient writers ; one of the most strikiug was his vehement and cutdae
satire. Horace acknowledges his merits, yet censures his versification as loose and
prosaic. The third book of Lucilius contains an account of a journey along the coast
of Campania to Naples, and thence to Rhegium and the straits of Messina, which Ho-
race seems to have imitated in his description of a journey from Rome to Brunduainm.

Dunhp, l.8SS-B48-JkMMI,BiaL Abi«fcd« la UlL Iml L 1 4t.--Clta»«U<W drrwiwrtm. l)Ula^
1. 9i.-B». L Sat if. I-IS. X. 1-C 4C^S.-,4iil. OtIL vU. S. ivii. tU—Jumm, i. Sal. i. I«.

2. The fracBfoto of Lucilioi wan puUMfacd bj / Datua (Doan). Lapl. Bat. 1S«>7. *.-JbtL FiilpiM. Fatav. I'm. &-
BmertMmp (atuntd to Ctnunnut). Lagd. Bat. 114^. I— Fouad alao ia tba JNponI adttloa of Jvmmal and ^rmuu IT8&. 8r-
alw In C. /. Chriit. Auaou, CoiloetaBaa Utanria hu Co^Jadara ia Attiun, Laeiliiun, at oat Lac^ Bat ltl& 1.

^ 357. Titus Lucretius Carust a Roman knight, bom about B. C. 95, ended his Kfe
by suicide. His philosophical poem, On the natun cf things {De rerum natura), in sir
books, contains the principles of the Epicurean scnool, of which he was a zealous
disciple. These principles are here combined and arranged with moch art, and set
forth in their most dazEling and imposing fisatures.— I'he work is not wholly free from
monotony and dullness ; but this is the tault of the subject rather than of the author,
whose poetry in particular passages is very florid and rich in imagery.— -Cardinal Po-
lignac wrote a poem in opposition to it, called And- Lucretius, which, although more
correct in its views of God and of providence, is inferior in poetical merit.

1. Lucretius lived in a period full of important political events, but seems to have
kept himself retired from public afiairs. He was sent, according to a prevailing custom
at the time, with other young Romans of rank, to study at Athens, where he attended
on the instructions of Zeno and Phsdrus siven in the Gardens of Epicurus, Cicero
and his brother Quintus, also Cassius and Pumponius Atticus, and Memmhis, after-
wards governor of Bithynia, are said to have been at this time his fellow-si udents. Lu-
cretius was specially attached to the latter, and it is supposed accompanied him to Bi-
thynia. His poem is dedicated to Memmius. He is said to have committed suicide,
in the 44th year of his age, in a paroxysm of insanity ; produced, according to some,
by a philtre or love potion given him by Lucilia, his wife or mistress ; but according to
others, caused by melancholy resulting from the exile of Memmius and other calamitiesl

2. Directly opposite judgments have been passed upon the poem of Lucretius ; soroi
pronouncing'it " drv, prosaic, without interest, and without imagination ;'* others callinf
It an elegant and almost unrivaled production^. An analysis of it is found in Dunlop
and copied in Ant kirn's Lempriere.

t lamMnitf, Lift of LncKtiaa, in tha Bipoat Edition, dted balow (S).— Ooorf, ia hia tnndaHoa bdow cHad (4). *Dmdai

i. ttO.-«UU. i. t4lL-CharaUtn <lrr aomcAm. Didtttr, vIL SI(t-Fi|lcnra4R, Noavaam Metan^aa (p. IM). Aur. ISH. 1^
Jhtdv, below cttcd.— «l. IWibt'cv. Da Latr. cannina a Kriplara Mriortt math pertiaeta<«. Lipi. tflSl. 8.

a EdHioM.— B— <Mt0« fVUmfidi. Load. 1796. SwIil 4. oaoHrad if MaM of tha Rarlawa, bat MgUj wwiiamilad H
MM Genaaa eriiioi (/XMa, ii. OM).— Dwum. Glaif' >•>& 4 Tola. L M»tf a raprint of Wakaftald^; •• tha bait critical ad^
tioa eilauto (/)iWin. lOny^BkMSA. LpL ilOl. t. baaad apoa WakaAatdX csMainlBf tha Mit of tha alz koafea m tha M
Toluim; batihaSdBot pablithed.-^./brMg«r. Upa. 19W. a-Of aarilar adtlioBi. tba lia< la thai af Ommeump. Ln«d.Brt.
17S5. 2 volt. 4. prnooaBoad by Doolop (lESS) tha bert aditioa that had appaarad— The Aiponffna, npriolad, AffMt. ISOB. I, ii
eooMertd food.— Tha Oxford, 1816, ia a rapriat of ThomM Omdk. Bnt puUiihad OzC I6K. a— PHae^a, i^miluK 9n^
1473. fel.— Tha fin* MS of I^ra'ioa kooara to tba oiodana tn» diMOvand by Pofcio Bracdoliiil, ia tha MoaiMaiy of SL 00.
aUxit 20 miln from Conitaooa, ia 1414.

4. Traoalatioaa.-OamaB.-/. H. F. JAbifche, anatrkal, wHh tha oripoal and aotoh Lpa. 1798. aaala.8.-x: £. ram MnU,

with thenrisjaal, Wakaficid'b test. Lpa. IB>1. S nli. & Frrneh.— D. La Onuifc, preaa. Par. 1798 > vola. l9..-£« Jtaae

deOuHkt, matrieal, with Ui. teat. Par. ITM. 8. Ilaltaii.-vllcx. JfarcAclti. (beat ad.) 1779l 4. Ei«lidb— 7K Cnatk, m

tena. Ozf. 1683 8. lioad. 1776. 9 tolik %.-Th. Aofty, ia raiae, with tha oricioal. Loud. 18131 8 aoh. 4. with •• anoraioM pva-
bvonwtiaoatha Lift and Oaiaa of LocrBtlaa, aod iba PhlkMophy and Marala of hli poam" (OniiK|») ; d £onA QHorf. An xi.
88.-/. M. Oootf, Maak vafia, with tha Utia ( Wakaflald<a text). Load. 1 W8. 2 voli. 4. eontaiaiac a Wa of Laeratlw, a «d an

aeeouat of bii ptailoaophj (cf. Ongari't lib of Dr. Good, p, 101 Boat ad. 1828). Par fortbar aotiaei of liaariatioM aad adi>

tloaa. saa Durilop, ii. Appaodiz, p. 85-36, and tha J^ponlim edition of Lacr«tiaa,-CC Dnk^ Literal; Uoar«.-Crydm^ f^Hk
cal MimlUaiea.

i, Tht JhiH-lMereHHUihie dt 0» •< JVahm) of PtdipMC waa publiahad at Paria, 1747. 2 vola. 8. It eaaairta oT niaa »aak%
et rtawt 1800 liaaa each, in Latin hanmaHr. Tha anthor atndtoadr inutalat Lucrativ. An K^lkh UamlaliM w« pnhEttad tf

p. y. POETS. CATITLLUS. OALLUS. TIBULLU8. 671

e. Ctomteff, iMd. 17Mb t^TlMnli«BBiter|KNB,writtniaop|MMftiaBtBLMnHn»£ki«iibfil JnMMiltfltaft. bjr AmIw Fto*
iMriM (LyoD, 1636. f), which it •• alBcwt a omfe nada gp fran lioMorhalf llaMoT ihv Roomm bud." Hw nnt iBMattoaoff
lacnttoi h mm iamriow Uiin penn cwnpoMd bytht Praack Jewlu of tht ITlh cwtaiytB lllHtnte diftmt phaaoMu
oToatara. Sarml u« pobluhtd ia the AMUMla iHAuorifaa. Pkrii, UI3L 3 folt^i7lPi%, I. nOl

^ 358. Caticii Valerhu CatuUu$ was born in the peninsala Sirmio, in th^ territor^r
of Verona, B. C. 86. Little is known of the circumstances of his life, ezceptine his
intimate friendship with Cicero, of which a proof is given in one of his poems. As a
lyric poet he has much that is excellent in the softer kind of wriiine, much refinement
of feeling and expression. But he yielded too much to the already corrupt taste of
bis age, and not unfrequently sacrinced both propriety and morality. Many of his
poems are lost.

1. Catullus was invited to Rome in early youth, and there wasted much of his for-
tune in dissipation. He accompanied Caius Meramius, the patron of Lucretius, to the
province of Bithynia ; but did not derive the pecuniary or other benefits which he had
expected. After his return to Italy, his time seems to have been passed in idleness or
in licentious amours, in his costly residence at Tibur, or his delicious villa on the pen*
insula of Sirmio. He died when not far from the age of 30. — ScMU, Litt. Rom. i. 310.

2. The numerotis small pieces extant, that are ascribed to Catullus, consist of odes,
songs, saiires, elesies, and epigrams. Some of these are not considered as genuine ;
th^ editions usually contain 116 pieces. Although once distributed into ihree classes,
they are now generally published without any attempt at systematic arrangement ; and
their mlFcellaneous character rendera anj such arrangement almost impossible. The
poetry bears evident marks of close imitation of Greek authors, especially of Calli-
machus ; yet all the critics award to Catullus the praise of much originality and of great
elegance. In respect of literary merits, he has been ranked above all the Latin poets
except Virgil and Horace. — One of the most pleasing of his pieces is that (xxxl) ad-
dressed to Sirmio, the peninsula where his favorite viUa was situated.

AiiilB^ i. B7l>a81.— Mmao la tb« CtaraMvw dtrvam. OfcMv, i. l6S>ITI.-dw VJtumidfa Boar mr CWHih, UMidl IB
^h»^^ilioo(p.4IO>of^;^^l^^<,dledbetow.-JwwMMio^h»lftm.Jc^AAMB^.foL»^^

i. EdJllootc-IL-/! m DBrinf. Lp& ITSB-tt B«pr. h Loirf. ilBO. (4nam,)-<X J. SOUg. Oott ISB. ft— bpwWl7, /
NaudA Fu. I«2«L ft tomiiv voL list, of Umairet BibUnHHSM ClMriqaa U(iM.*-Or Mrikr edHloNi, Ih* h«l b tet of IW-
piio. Pktev. 1737. S fete. 4.— Princepi, CanOm, Firm. 147ft U^Ab ueclkBt «iilk» br Mhoab. f. Jt AiMwvL Beit
ItSft coattiainr Ml«et piceca, irith ootan— C a t a 1 1 u • bu oftoa bwa pnblMMd with T I b u i i a • k Prop ar tlai; OM
«r tb« hiMi Mlitioai, A. J. Kajpy. Lond. Iffift ft— For fartber aenMiBt of odlileo^ w NrntdtH aboto chad.

4. lVtiidatioat.-OaraiaB.-&— r. fT. KanOir. Lpt. ITgft ft ISia ft Fraoeb.— f. /. JVori. Fkr. ISOft aod 181ft S tola, ft

aoatainhis Iba orifiaal Utin, aad a Dimmn PnUnOaain on tha lifc, poetfy, edIlloM aad InaBhtkw of CBlanna.-C. L. MbBa>

BMC r« w«% wiib Tlbotlai and FraparlhM}. Fkr. iSlft 4 rota. 12. Ei«lMi.— Jnonymoui (MppoMl Dr. IhtU^ with Ut

iBXtaadBDla. I^owi. 179ft 2 robu ft-O. lomft Load. 101. 2 vote. Ift cL Doolop, iL App. ^ 4ft

$ 359. Cornelius Gallut, a native of Gaul, flourished i|bout the same time with Pro-
pertius. He was a friend of Virgil, who addressed his 10th eclogue to him. He was
one of the most happy poets in elegy, although in his diction less pleasins than Pro-
pertius or Tibullus. His poems, however, are lost; the six elegies, which have been
ascribed to him, are certainly from a later and inferior poet ; probably from ComtliuM
Maxhnianus Gallwt, who lived under Anastasius, about A. D. 500.

1. GaUus was bom of poor parents, probably at Forum Julii, in GalUa Narbonensis,
about B. C. 70. He firat came into notice as a follower and partisan of Octavius, in
his measures to avenge the assassination of Julius Cesar. He seems to have soon
obtained the confidence of Octavius, and was one of his counsellora after the battle of
Philippi. After the battle of Actium. Gallns was intrusted with an important command
in the invamon of Egypt against Antony, and it was by an artifice of GaUus that
Cleopatra fell into the bands of Augustus. E^ypt being reduced, GaUus was appointed
pnefect or viceroy over it. His successes rendered him vain ; his ^vemment of the
t>ro?ince was soon marked by mismanagement and plunder ; and m the fifth year of
nis authority he was recalled, charged among other offences with having plotted against
the life of Augustus. His property was confiscated, and he was sentenced to perpetual
exile. Thus disgraced, he committed suicide in the 43d year of his age, B. C. 26.

2. The elegies of Gallus consisted of 4 books. He is said to have translated several
pieces from the Greek epigrammatist Euphorion. He is by some considered as the
author of the poem called Ctru, falsely ascribed to Virgil.

AiAfiMBim, RaaAaeb, ^ SSft-aoUn. L Sift— BSAr, p. tTS— fHirfoR, BbL of EagL RMbfy. LoBd. 18M. 4 fOb. (4nH
p. 2Sft)-CL FBOfr. CoaNnaniatbaai de C Conielii Fon^albmb vita at wripCb. Bobb. 1841. ft

9 Tbaalc«laiucribadtoOallBtanftNiidiBthaCoUaeliOMorttoMiaarUliBniBbbrJtt««iR^BBdbr IRriMri^
iMMini'* BiMiotb. Pmi. Ud. JfitMrn, ml. ii. ft iL

4. TbalnpoteatLArar.iecuntalfdaaeribadlBaixai^biapaooldafa. Mada EnHah ftw tbaUtia«r OorvMNwIMkii^bf
a. mum. Load. lOtft ft

% 360. AUnn* Tibuttus, bom at Rome, and belonging to the order of knights, flou-
rished about B. C. 30. He was a favorite of Memla Corvinus, and esteemed by
Horace, Ovid, and other poets of his age. According to Quintilian, he is entitled to
the first rank among the Roman elegiac poets. He combines soft, tender feeling with

672 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURS.

a noble and aocnrate expression, with a charming variety of invention, of images and
tarns, without labored, far-fetched, or unnatural ornaments. His elegies are arranged
in 4 books; those in (he last, however, are ascribed to Sulpicia, and oiher auihora.

1. The time of his birth is not known, but supponed to l)e about B. C. 54 or 56. He
is said t<r1iave died about the same time with Virgil, B. C. 19. He inherited a con-
aiderable fortune, which was greatly impaired, partly by the partitions of the lands in
-Italy made to the soldiers of the Triumvirs, and partly perhaps by his own ezirava-

Knee. He accompanied Messala in several military exoediiions, in the last of which
suffered a dangerous sickness that detained him at tne island Corcyra ; but on his
recovery he visited Svria and Egypt. After his return from the east, he lived on his
paternal estate at Pedum.

2. We have, in the 4 books under the name of Tibullus, 35 elegies and a panegyric
addresited to Mesaala. The genuineness of the 3d book as well as ihe principal part
of the 4th, has been doubted. According to SckOIl, only the first two books and the
panegyric in the commencement of the 4th, and the two elegies at its close, are indis-
putably the production of Tibullus. De Golbery denies the genuineness of the (»ane-
gyric. The elegies in the 3d book are ascribed by Vot$, to a poet called Lygdawuu.
Bat Fuhrmann remarks that Lygdamu» as a poet is unknown in Roman literature, and
10 wholly an imaginary person. Tibullus evidently had studied the Grecian elegiac
writers ; but was not a dose imitator. A melancholy tenderness is a prominent trait
in his poetry. *

BMB, Utt Ron. i. M«.-i9li Oott^ Ob hbadllkMeitad bd»») D$ TXiuUL vlUd tanmnOuM^-CharaL worn, DUM, B. MS.
-p^iXMmftw, d* tlta c( Ptai Tib. In bit ad. balow cited.

a EdilloM.— a-<7. O. AyM< (4tb ad. by /. £. maidtMA). Lft. ISIT. t voli. 8. ts wbieb brimp Sm S«ppl«mtf «IMii
muUi eanmUmm ^Uiomit Ay>><»^^t«"'b'«<*<*>» AtpytoMnfum (ad. L. MmmtwH. Lipi. 1819 S^faon. O. BmdlkL
Uft. iBia t fnlt. a vary flvM* {Fvirmmnn) ; eL Hwlaa HopplcM. KlUgUng, p. I7a~£h GtibAy. fu. llOa 8. Ibtvi^ te
TClb ffol. of Lmnair^t Bibliothr4|iM ; oratainii* u Bnty ea tba Hb ud mriiiaf af TiNUtw, Myiholngical Baiumiiia. aad M ■»

anal of IISS. aad erfitiow. Amoog Iba bari of •wllcr adMioM, an Bnuklmmua (»tlh Caiolln*). AwL I7S7. 4 aad Frntflm

iVdfi). Pfelav. (Psdua) 174a 4. Wa can oaJy mstioa fartbar, /. A Fom, THwlloa k Lyidani^ Hiadaih. I8I I. a two adi-

ttoaa Um Mia year, om wilb a critical eouMDlaiy. Saa anaaaratiaa by <MWry, abora eitad.— £. Dimmma. GM. 1888

ifou.a

4. Tn^arinaL-Oarma.— Bart, by /. ff Vm. TbWaf. I8ia S-OMlricBl, by f. C a. Sbomteft OW. Iisa a—

r^«Deb^-«art. by C I. UMntmt, ■ebtoal. Pw. laoa IL BafUdk-^aMM Qrmntm (wHh arif. U'.). Laad. ma It^

a mnkf. nSL a a apactaaa tt a pmpoNd adMaa| oaa al«|y, wHh UL text, aad Bi«. B0tea.~O. Lmmt, Imi. 1881

ifoia. la

a niaMftilTa.-/. jL OSranlK, Taabiiaaa CrfHeui la laaa r/tmhrn cam. TIboUlaaonaa. ImUk. I80a 4.~& C Or. 3mk,
BpMola crittaa ia Tlballaai at PrapcitiBM. Qoltai, 18ia B.^Fr. Jk. WUh. SjpaAn, Da Tlbulti Tilt « canalatbai. Ufk ISia-
Ctmd/^Litar.AaalaktaB.Lp.164.— £;bf4Kt»Mli,rhiM4(«alaBdCrilkaL Load. IT80. a vcL Bd. pu 44a

$361. Stxtuz AureliuM Prapertiut, a native of Umbria, was a favorite of Maecenas,
and died in the year 6. C. 15. From him there are also 4 books of degiae poemt yA
remaining. Their chief merits consist in pathetic expression, with rich poetic feeling,
and correctness of style. But he often transffresses the limits of nature and propriety,
and is too profuse in poetical ornament. PhUetas, whose Greek elegies are loet, ant
Callimachus, were especially his models.

1. Of seven towns claiminf^ the honor of being the birthplace of this poet, Mneuit
' 18 by some supposed to be entitled to the preference. Others grive the preference co His-
pellum, on the sround of an inscription tnere found, which is inserted in the edition of
Burmann cited oelow. The time of his birth is uncertain, probably about B. C. 53.
Having lost much of his inheritance, as Tibullus did, by the distribution of land made
to the soldiers of the Triumvirs, he went to Rome in early life to qualify himself for a
civilian. But poetry wbb more congenial to his taste. He seems to have been a inend
of Cornelius Gallus, Virgil, Tibullus, and Ovid. His elegies procured for him the
patronage of Maecenas. He is supposed to have gone to Athens in the train of Mb-
cenas and Antrustus ; after which, little is known ofhis life'. The elegies of PropertioB
are nearly 100 in number. Three of the four books he made public in his litetiow;
the/ourfA is less occupied with amatory subjects, the elegies being chiefly of an heroic
character, more didactic and moral. Mythological story and fable are frequently intro-
duced'.

1 OOM *MriDi«.ZA via da Pioparaa. Fbr. I1B4. a sSca JfaiH^ daMrlpdoa ia thaCftaraM.^^ IMcMv,iii. !.-*»

c*«y, in JMbn. Jead. Itutr. at BMm-LMm, vol. vli. ^88a

a Edltknm.-.Bait, M. Bunmum, coaiplalad bf SwUmttM (BmIcr). UltnJ. (UlraeM) ITBOl 4. •*lba bc«l yal ydbli^ar
(OOdAi. l8Z7>^-CAr. OoML (I^c^*.) JTuMU. Lpa. ISOa S vola. a c— iaiaadad bf IXMiMf 1m ap|n««ad bf CMffttV'-/.

JtafloH 1887. la fa TVnAwr** Collaeiloav-fa Umatttt BiUioihaa.-^Aln C. rntaiiiawii Bad. 188a a wilk s^d laiu

ABMag Un baal af aarliar, *«fiUMifi» (Bnwkhato). Aw. im. d.^PMpiiH. Fblav. »«. 8 nda. \^-W. a Jtott. l^

iTH. a

a TiaadatioMi.-qamaa W.L.9mKrML Lpfc 179a a— f. C von SbvniMh. (^1 Uniir. ed.) Bnaavkw. MB. a vift
arigiaaL rmck— i>. A Jaron, BMbrkal. F^. 18ia 18. B^ha.-«8n«iymMM; Load. ITSa a

% 362. Publiu9 VirgUiut Maro, of Andes near Mantua, lived from B. C. 70 to
B. C. 19. He was the greatest of the Roman poets in pastoral, didactic, and epic
poetry. His 10 Eeloguet are imitations of Theocritus, but are fiiU of peculiar beautiesu
His Georgiea, in 4 books, are rich in instruction and elegance. His JEneid, in 12 books

P.y. POET 8. VIRGIL. 519

although an imitation of Homer, is nevertheleBS the prodnction of nature, genius, and
taste ; its diction is more finished, and better soitea to a refined age, than that of
Homer, ahhough the latter may be more original in itself. Virgil's easv and most
agreeable versification should especially be mentioned ; and his remarkable skill in
making every thing he borrowed completely his own, and weaving it all wit|i the rest,
so happily into one whole.^There are also several otherpoetical performances ascribed
to him, usually included under the name of Calalecta VtrgUii; but their genuineness
is altogether doubtful. — Of the older commentators on Virgil, the grammarian Ser-
viu* Bonoratus Maurus and Tib, Claudiut Don at us are the most worthy of notice.

1. Virgil at an early age studied at Cremona, but was chiefly educated at Naples,
where he is said to have* been instructed in Greek letters by Parthenius (cf. ^ 226), and
in the Epicurean philosophy by Syro. He was deprived of a paternal farm at Mantua
by the 7 riumviral parthion of lands ; but recovered his property by the fevor of Me-
cenas and Augustus. He was introduced to them, it is said, by Cornelius Gallus.
Virgil afterwards resided at Rome, on the Esquiline hill. Subsequently be retired to
a villa, owned by him, near Nola, about 10 miles from Naples. He visited Athens,
intending to devote three yeara in Greece to a revision of the iBneid, which be had not
yet published. But ill health soon compelled him to return, and he Uved but a few
days after landing at Brundusium, B. C. 19. — His tomb is supposed to lie about two
miles to the north of Naples, on the hill of Pausilippo.

Swmal biographiM of Virgil sn (iv«n in UmtunU edllioa (died below) vol. vn.— A Ufc oT ViigQ, bf WOUam Wkbk, fir*.
Sxod to Drydan't Tnu«UtkMi.-On Um aetitioaa VligU tbe KoeraaMBeBr, cf. tVkrtan*$ HiM. of P00I17, Ui. p. Si (eitod { SSS. ^

2. The title of Catalecta (fmruXcrra) is given to a collection of 14 little pieces ascribed
to Virgil, including several epigrams and an elegy addressed to Messala. Several
larger nieces are extant, which are also ascribed to Vh-fi^, and sometimes compre*
headed under the general name Catalecta VimUi, Theu- titles are Culex (the Gnat},
Moretumy Dir<B in Battarum, JEtnoy Ciria (cfT^ 359. 2), Copa, Prktpna. Some have
endeavored to vindicate the genuineness of these pieces by supposing them to have been
composed while Virgil was young.

Ct /Mrmann, ^ »4.~L(nM<r^f od. vol. v. ftMBI. L 980^ 918^-^AIm r«ipectii« Vligil, m MnMoFf liwtioo te tte OkvaU:
A«.iXcM»,vol.vii.p.a4l.->ikMil(ip,ldvoL LonLIBtt.— W*r,|i.i21

S. In Virgil*! 4ch Eclogue, ftddrested to P»{|m, there is a very striking resemblancs in tbongbt
and fignree to certain paeeagee In tbe propbeeiet of Isalab and Exekiel. Tbts coincldenoa is an
intereeilng fkct, and bae excited much curiosity.

Sob S. Bfnbf, Obiorwiloiw on lb« mbjoet of tbe 4tb Eeiogw, *& Lo^ ITH. a— X. loiatt, Laelms oB fbo 8u. Ibelry of
thoBebrowi, loci. xzl. (p. 081 od. Boit ISl$.>-^««iiV BMMfbi oa EeeMMlkol HiAirj, vol. U-CMmvCM llaBMiwa 8|»
lM,ch.iv.ooet.l6.— SeMBI, HloL Litt Bob. i. 871-000. Jbim. vol. v. a&.-^£a MwM, Mmd. Iq Iho iHWoAo do PAaod. *•

IMOB. el SoTiOfLenra, xuL 188. Ob ttie Edognct (onenll j, e£ i»l.— Tbe cruoBMrioB Pnhu left JdM(a,oB tboEdogni

todtheG«»gici(eC|4l9).

4. Bdiliooi^Bort: avM.aa«d.Lipfcl80a6volika Repr. Ups. laOS. 4 vob. a Ato(l7MMMf)Load.l8BI.4voli.a
— Cmwfn. hr. lOO-SL 8 voli. & ooatelning fbe wbde of AyiM. with the conaMotaiT of 8anrt« aad olbor •ddiUoDi.->a.
P.K.Witgmr. Llpt. I8M. 4 voh. & a revirioB of Heroes Ate Lipo. I896.SB. 8«oli.& wHb 900 vlgMtta; «<iplwdid.<^
dl. ArHrv, Upo 1898-98. 8 vote, a mid to be vorf vnd { oooteiDiBC wbat b Mrt ombIM is W^Be(*b.-0r tbe Mrilor edi.
lioBi, tbe Minwief any bo Mmodi BMktnOU. Bimlogh. IT6T. 4l0k of baotifal trfognptf^ammtmn. Amtt. i74«k
4 velik 4. nan highly extolled.—/*. JKomioraM (od. Boltariai), Rom. 1741. fcl. « be-mBlle of. tbe famooi CMks-roikwnw (mb
P. iV. f I43>. with platce eagnved by BartolL—Prineept, Rem, 14aB.-si«ot bwcr than nintty edidnw have beoB eoeBienited,
whirb were published before Ihe year lAOO ; to name tboM doce poUiabed woeld leqaira a volome.--See tbe Kotitt Rmiomut Ib
Ummtr^ Viig. vol. vii.— Many wAool tditiont bave boeo pobiitbed in ibu eooDlry ; that of J. G. Cooftr, N. York (Sih ed.) IBM. 8.
b among the bert { that of S. .4. OouU, fio«t. I8S4. B. b good ; atao i*. Jtotem, Sort. 1842. 12. wlib Eag. Notta.— Tbe lUpMm
ed. by C JbuRM, a truly valuable ed. bai been repeatedly reprtnted far teboob ; tbe rapriat, Phil. 1817. a b oa very bed paper,

bat bu a «ery mrful Oortt Firgaitma annrjced. Tbe Caldtieta and Minor poema bav« bean puMbbed Mparalely ; the beat

editioB, by F. Undtntroghu {Undmbntck) oalitled P. V. Um. Jtpf€iMx. Lugd. Bat 1617. a— Tbm piecoa mo (iven la Ayne.
—The wpanleedHlona of the Aucolta, Ocorrie*, or .CruW, we eamot notice beic.

a Traatlatiena.-Oarmaa.-J'. A ruat, in beiamelor verve. Bmatw. (U ed.) I8BI. 8 vob. a bifbly -TTimTtfl nbtrawhllw
of the Boeeliea and Oeorvice were ftrat poUbbed Mparalely (fhrm. 4> Lai,) JueoUei, AlbMM, 1197. 8 vob. 8 ; Omiv^ AIIobb, 1800k

8 vob. a Freneb.-Am> JNiut, preee. Fkr. 1804, 4 vola. 12. " oelebvaled" (flMM).-MBl/aa»«, verm (Mnradna, prinlor). Pkr.

1810. 4 vob. a Ihe tnmbtiom of diaemi parii by difihreat autben; wiih nelm by & J. AT. M^, and ExineU from Z*.

matnPt Leetum oo Latin Poetry. Italiao^riUorte JRfiKiiy vene (f neld). Pba, 1804. 8 vob. a->OfcM. fttaK, votml Gmmv«»

I8ia 8 v«4a. a EoflMu— Drydm, vme. Land. I8B7. fol. oOea i«priBted.-.DBnUfeB, preae. Loal 174a 9 vob. a often

reprinted with ihe Utin, Ibr Mboolt.->r. Ifartfyn, Bucolim and Gemsio. Load. 174a 2 volik a vHib lAtia text, and ulm epo*
cblly illortratimc the botany. Off. l«6-ff7. 8 vob. a wlih colored platei.— IT. MAcAy, Gaor(ka IleB«lolta (AofL Ut. Hal.
Bbpao. et Cell.). Load. 1827. fcL— For an enumcralioa of the variona vanioBi in diflbrent lai^mgm, mo Um^'tie* ed. vol. viL
S4a474 ; whora are nolind tiaariatiow mte not only the Genmrn, PreBd^ Itriba, aad Endbh. bnt aho tbe Spmibb, rhrtntiimot
Dntch, nnocarba, Mbfa, Swadiib. Daabb, aad Gnek ; baeidm aameroBi tmveHbe or hnrieMpw verriom of the JBoeM, or perm
oflL TbenuaibfrerPrMMbT«riiena,orwhichtbelhtfameeleomplet«,bmMlo«»i of tbe wAeb of VlrfJI, « in vene, aad 19
ia prme ; of the Aieaito, 96 iB verm, aad 7 in pneo; tf «» Omrvta, 8 tai vmm, aad 8 Ib pmm ; and of ttie Am*^ 18 la veiin,
aad 10 in pram; braldm many of partienlar hooka.

a We eaa name bat a fsw of Ihe vaet oBBitarof otter volomm aad tnaltam IflbrtmMMof ikb aatbor.-P'. OVefbiif , Viririliua
cam Oracb Scriplohboi eoUatoa, *& Leo*. 1747. a-^ JnOar, Homer aad Tiif II, eine Pnnliele. Erf. 1807. 8^-^. JHb<^
Dbmrmtioae and erilkal Bemarfce npoa tbe Saaid. Load. 177a a^^Hnoe, Rmaarba and Dbmrblkmtof Mr. AfabuorMoK
Vina, with notea, a& Load. 1788. 4.-MKcz, Geofrapbie do VirploL Pnr. IHI. 12; ivprioted Pte, 1880, with ••Oupapbm
dlione^ added, and 4 mapi—fil. oaten, Crilieal Obeorvatiom on Ihe 8th book of the JBneid. Ixwid. 1770. a (abo la fern ilia,
r mrto Load. 178a 8vab.4}} wim wblch cC fFortarfon, UvtBO Lefatkw of Mom^ voL L tt. fl. met. 4i dn

ST4 HISTORY OF ROMAN UTSRATURS.

«p* Bnmoii.; tko/. mdUm, Sx DiMrttftaaiM diOnot wA^ttHa. Load. ms. 8. (M ISmy-C. rawirili^ Bi^tey
«r tiMwoitaor tbfl LcviMd, ftc Load. 1737. «. (en tto quMtioa wlwIlMrJBMM am iw b ItMlj.y-CL IfMul^ BmL «f
Bmm, p. IM. foL Lad. fhlla. WA.— r«OBfc« (Pni: d* Eloq el Rwt da P Unit, da Vatn\ Plaa da PEaaida de VufOt, Tu.
m& tl-wtUi fV«f«4v. IMnottn Mr la maaiera deal Viffila a imila HoaMC«: ia Iha Mm. it fJhad. im irmr. foL ii. p. I4L
-^•InF. La Wdad' Ewda, Mem.dimd. Mmt. iIi. 8M. — Wa my idd £. ABtombrv, TbaltfcoT Maeaaai. 2d ad. Loud. ITHL %
-Aim T«BMfto or MiMkr on tba £mU (Biat of Rona, tol. L ^ I49L ad. PhU. 1838), aad of AmIiv. (HtaL Sam. fM.

taL fd. ad. Load. NflQ an litaa ia JwUumU Unpriare, aadar Mmtia. Tha iollowlag aia pietorlal mmtnlkm ; LVadde

«piMaiB8eaadlwaUariabfapilioraNicaBloAbatl; In diMgni lacW dal A. Q^Janl ad iUmttati en oaiiBaaMm dal a Vmiari.
Modeoa, I6SI. 4 pit. faL^FdafsIf Bildcr am Viifiii JB^ida mtt aloen Ptaonuna «■ llip^ aiaar Cbaila ood ariXtmtai
Tana. Caritr. UM. Splb 18.

$ 36^. QuMfiM Horatiui Flacctu, a native of Venusia, a manicipal town m Apulia,
waa born in the year B. C. 65. He paaaed the greater part of hia Life at hia country
aeat in the Sabine or Tibnrtine territory, and died B. C. 8. He was a particular
lavorite of Aiiffuetus and MaBcenaa. His moral character has often been censured ; the
beat defence of him, that has been made, is by Lfting. The greatest power of Ho-
race waa in lyric poetry. His four hook$ of Odes and hook of Epodet. now extant,
continue still to be surpassing^ models in this species of composition. In his Satirts
and poetical EmsUes there reigns a noble earnestness seasoned with the most refined
pleasantry ana humor. Of the Epiatlea, that addressed to the Pisoa, on the AH of
jPoeiry, ia the moat finiahed and instructive.—- The most noted of the earlier ioterpreteta
of Horace are Acron and Porphyrio<cf. (421).

1. When Horace was at the age of 9 or 10, his father, who was a freedman, and in
low drcumstancee, removed to Rome, in order to afford hia son advantages for study.
At the age of 21, Horace was sent to Athens for the purpose of completing hia edu-
cation, lie was a pupil at the Academy, but the Epicurean philosophy was mora
congenial to his feehngs. Wlien Brutus and Cassius attempted to restore the republic,
Horace with others of the Roman youth, then atudying at Athens, joined their atandard.
He was at the battle of Philippiaiid shared in the defeat and flight of the party. Vi^
was a kind friend and reoom mended him to the nOtioe of Moecenas. Horace soon waa
admitted to the intimate society both of Mascenaa and Avguatus. He anrvived tha
death of the former but a few months.

/. MuaoR, vita HaiaUL Lofd. BaL 1708. 8^L. mM, Ham, all MMMb nd BOcpM^ ke., ftam tba Dal* of JUL Vha
Ommmoi. Lipt. ISOL a-O. /. SHa, q. Uotalim Plac. oaob miaaa Laboa and nicMn^t^ H9n^ Wl«. S^-X O. M ^
mt$ti, FuftpL BanilaiiB, quibva coatiDnrtar vita, ale. Hal. Su. 1818.— Tto lifc of Bonoa meribad to BuMmlui n fcaad la
muiy ar ito aditiom of Bofwx. SeparaMy by A /. tUcktr, Zwickav. 1812. a »ilk aotai aad ohmadof . qraopM.— Ba^adi^

Iha fmidoacaor tba paat, JirfAon'f loqalry lalaliva totba Tibunina VUU aad SaMaa Farv, p. 8or hiaad. balov dtad. tst-

tin ft dflfcoea of BonM (Rgttaacao <>a Horai) b rooBd la b» Fmnlmitm aOrifUn (MiMaUaaaow Writii^i). Bart. I7M. &r-
Ct M. Auf. midmrt^ Comineotatto da Q. Bor. Flae. oblrcctaioribua. Grinoi. 1881. 4.— i>. r. Jhctt, UalanoolMiV Obw ami
anUaco dca q, HotaUm FlaeciN. Piaakf. 1807. i.—JDoOau» {KJoU), LaotlDaa VaMWDiBb ZJpk 177a a

2. *' The lyric poetry of Horace displays an entire command of all the graces and
powers of meter. Elegance and justness of thought, and felicity of expression, rather
than sublimity, seem to be its general character, though the poet sometimes rises to
considerable j^randeur of sentiment and imagery. In variety and versatility hia lyric
genius is unrivalled by that of any poet with whom we are acquainted^" — The odea
of Horace are of a very miscellaneous character, and not capable of being reduced to
any systematic classification ; yet moat of them may be included in a division into four
classes, which has been proposed^; viz. Amatory, Convivial, Moral, and Political By
hx the greatest number will come under the first class.

■ ProRi JBttaa, la bU »ptdnum nf tht Oauk PooCv, eitad { 47. t. ^«ace Dtmlm in Ua itMR. £«. 8d v«L ai. EmL «&

^-Or. OL J. Khtt, Dt fiua wdaela AbrvKi. Jaim, l78l„r<niBd tlao la Oattlaal Attmoi, vol. ziiiw>«n tto tyiical patlry
«t Hotaea,sM aha MuiM> ranmito ia CtaroAt. d. wm. IMtlar, vol. v. p. 801-834. fllcMII, Hiat da b Lilt Rma. L p.aB;^

AAwnlarf, m eited 9882. B, Oa Ua Sallfm and Bpiitlai, Mnuo ia tto CtanikMri, »«., voL iv. p. 408 488. G£ val. vi. 88B^

O. Lied. ^Vrnir, a Sattra BooMna. Oldeab. 179& 9.—D. C. MargmuUnu Da Satin atqoa EpiMoto Howliaw ikamlmt» Uf*.
noi. 4.-a(Hoauw^ ia Ua Inuidalton balow eitad.--Cr. Sulur'f lllf. Tbaoria, kc. iv. I4L

3. There has been much discussion among the learned reapecting the real design
of Horace in the Letter to the Pisos which haa borne the title of the " Art of Poetry,"
from the time of Quintilian. One of the most celebrated theories ia that of Jffuri,
who considers the whole piece as referrinjz solely to the drama, and forming a regular
and connected treatise on the subject, tvieland, and other modem critics, interpret
it as not being restricted to the drama exclusively^ and as chiefly designed to dissuade
the elder son of Piso from devoting himself to poetry.

CC AMB, Hirt. Lite Bon. i. p. 806.>Dlr. Affri'f ComBMidafy and HoIm on fto Ait of Am«7 («Mi U^tmOU GMh. IIR.
SvoU. a toHHl.latoOaraanbf/./.aHtonte*f. Upa, 1778. 8 voli. a~BFfilaw#» OawaaattanrioUoB of tto BHM^ wi* to.
traduetiom and tMm. l^ 1787. ISia 8 volt. •^'O. Cflfeimn, TtoAvtoT BMli7,Tfamialad finm Hoiaoi^ wbk MolaL LmL
178a C-4X a. BeknUm, Da Uacalio PbMBia amalo (^JmqaaapiMotood Fimomcam h^lm Pbrnlro compaiaaaaa). Upa. 1188. «.
...^Ar«mt4eJlofcA,aoL4. p.>a8orbi»amb.diiiM(«y etod (SS). Cf. g C. A IKrtrf»rtt,C«wina aovJirtiaarBm aba, ia Hac
epitL «d roDoak Jame, Ut Pkio^ 1810. 8d Pra«. 1811. tdL.-^iUmm. (/v.) 4t BotA, Oam Bacanda in Hor. Cpirt. ad Finn.
Jenm m%. kA^~C O. SdMIt, Q. Hor. Flae. da Arte Ftoalica iibar, pnemim di^wt. da eoaulio, ale. Lipi. 1801 a

4. Ediliom.-.Oaeoritob«(li r. W. Daring>$. Lipa. 1814. 8 volt, a Baprialad Olt^pw, 18K. a— Ttolof a Jto. Boma^
1811. 8 vnii. a it bifbly eouuaaadad by toma (of. KWfUng't BappL p. 186), but Ia« appnivod by fl(b« (iNWte, IL 181); Ito
Mphatly /: a AMc Haiddb. 1880. 8 volt. & iaoomidarad ptabrablA— Ttaal aT Jtoeto- (Load. 17»; m toprovad by Ommm-

p.v. P0BT8. ono. CTi

(Xfft ITSO lal 2ki«M (t4tt. 1819) od aipMidlr I*. S MAi^ L|& IflBS. H b wril i|iaka afc-^Aan« Ibt ctttei irU«k teM

bMB highly esUbnted, JL JfenibifL Imrt. 1781 4. (flm pobL Cnibr. ITII).-^aBli«wil« (Omntrnghmm, bMv cftpoMat af

BmOij). LowL 1121. 2 «ob. S.-CViifM<iii: Aatw. Mil. A^D. Umkimu, Fw. IBCT. 1008. faL-OA AtlHdML Bm. Ifffc.

> wU. f>L wtth Iha MnoMrtarin flf Aow ud l^rpbTrlo sad olh«»--Th«NppoMd i>*M^ fe n «o fd. wi^^

daM, or pUca of |MMiealloo.—Abora 80O adiiioM of HoraM bava baaa vtiatad^—h a«r eaBKiy thara teva baaa Ihiaa Impveiriam

•rflMlMpMnaditieB(£.A^^»a. Far. MM. 4) ; alamtirpad FhiL I8I&. 8. Thla li valaabia chtatfy fcr to «■*■ KooatalaFiM ;

lhaMln,laUtiii,ai«aitaBvar7|ood;HwMitiaMtapp(ovod^Tliaedith»or JLAOo^^ Baal. 1881. NL tea beaa ■MCh oMd

ia ■ebeela i Iha McqrtkoaMa pafli or Iha origiaal banf onlttad.-That ar a .fiiMoR, N. Tork, 189^

Ual adiHoM of Honea. It eontalto Ml aoiaa, «i»h faluaUc prolifDmaaa and enartMa. Ct Jamt. QmtU Mm. foL vHl. ^ IB.

ValoiUccdilieaaorthaOdai; CD/atit I41C. (od. AdhB/kr) 1808. 8 voh. 8..-C. IT. JMlKlterliA. Lpft 1800. 8 fota^ 8^

C. randtrhauTr, Lathi and TrvoA. Par. 181& f rota.— ^tfaaByhaa, L. F. BdMdarf. BnaL 1818b & Ite CfWWi, F. E,

T. Sekmid. Hatb. 183IX iTota. &

ft. TnMtalhm.-OaraiaB.-Rart, of whole wtMlh,/. A ToM. Broaafr. 9i ed.) 18801 8 folo. t^-4M O^ Mamkr. Bari. 18081

8 tola. 8.-or Bphtloi aad Saiirai, mdutd. Lpa. 1818-ia 4 vote. 8. FiaMh^-whola, Aam, aaiaa. Fte. (Sih ad.) I8»

4 voh. 8.-«lii<. ilBdcr. proM. Par. 1681. 10 wria^ 18. aftaa nfriidBd ; aow ailaaaMd la* than knmif flanwtoii, fiaaa. FStf.

1)88. 8 vote. iS^ronArtewT, ahove eitad. Eoslhh.~l*AiL Fnmel$ (BMhical)^ iMd. (7th ad.) 1778. 4 toll. 81 ad. bf I)H

JM1LI8O7.— ThaEaglbhorFyaneftiiglvaalD thaBd(rtoiPlrfW'^X<^'^-lfi^ impr. 8. eonlaiaiaf alw haaidaa Iha LU. taitr
dMF^«Dehb]rMpi^ale0n,S|iati.bf BttrfOi^ llal. byOarfollo^ and Oarapu by ITUmtf tf^Mf* »ith a Life of Ror. and hiblcgr.
BOlieaab— CAr. Bnmt, proMi XmmI. 178T.— IfhlMn, proM. LmL (6(h cd.) IT8B. 8 voh. 8. csrtaiai^ Dr. i)M«2M^ calatogaa of
abovl BOO adirioaa of iioiaca) thb laadaMiH a phyildaa ia tba liM of Qaoin lln li«l • carioaa ItVary aa^
tfoBaad maaialfowof Honca.— ir.BoaeMOM,T8rHk aiachd. 1788-81. 8 tola. Bi 8oaM jmn $90, a tnaAAmtl Honm
iBia IWme wMiaoeaaecd atahool to be prialad la Ganuny (InlJkon'* Rar. p 88.~Ct AfaM, Cla» BMiogr- U. Jh 108).

8L IllariiMlfab-a Ifhciw, OMaloa Heraill CeUatioaa Seripionni Onceiwi lUwIrato. tUlm, 1T70.7I.-C1 JMAoit^ <M-
glaalily of Uor. p. ini. of hb ad. above dlad^/. E. hnm. fFUdHtu^ mm. da philooaphia HantH Sloka. Jomb, 1784.-^. /. J.
NiUcli, Vorloni«en bber die Uaariiehaa Diebtar dar BOoiar. Uf$, 1798. 4 vob. 8L~iiPwid Fragr. da OtMa didiow peanDa
Hora'ii lyriM onatrica. Wittab. 17SU 4.-<Mliard, la the JAm. .dead. Aucr. nl. alia. p. tOL-J. J. mndd, VoHeenaQan Qbar
die BorassebaB OdcB B»i Epodaa. Cob. 1888. 8.-C. Bk4, iBtndacUoa 10 the Metata af Banc*. Boat 1888l IL

% 364. Fnilius Ovidhu Na$o, of Solmo in the territory of the Pehgiii, was of mti
equestrian family. He floarished in the reign of Auffustas, and died A. D. 16. Ifis

Eeraonal history is given by himself (Tn>i. iv. 10). — The most remarkable incident is
is banishment from Rome to Tomi on the coast of Thrace : the real cause of which
cannot be certainly determined. As a poet, he is distinguished especially by a very
fertile imagination and a Uvely blooming wit ; this, however, too often degenerates into
wantonness, and thus detracts from im just expression of feehnc. He also had the
talent for easy and agreeable versification. His largest and most beautiful poem is the
Metamorfkotest or mythical transformations, in five books. Besides these, we have
from him 21 pieces styled Heroiden; 3 books on the Art ofhw {de Arte amandi); 3
books of amatory Elegie$ (Amoret) ; 1 book on the Remedy for lave (De Remedio Amo-
risj; 6 books styled fasti, a poetical description of the Roman festivals in the first half
of the year ; 5 books of elegiac Compiainte {Triatia); 4 books o( J^nstUs (Epietda e
Fonto); and some doubtful smaller pieces. Of his loet productions the tragedy entitled
Medea seems to have been the most important.

1. Ovid was at an early ase brought to Rome with an elder brother to be educated
for an orator and civilian. He had a preference for poetry, but by the wish of his father
studied and practiced according to the usual methods in the rhetorical schools at Rome
under eminent teachers. He afterwards wem to Athens. Subsequently he visated the
chief cities of Asia, with ^milius Macer, and afterwards spent some months at Syra-
cuse in Sicily. On his return to Rome be for a short time engaffed in leaal and civil
business, but soon renounced it for the service of the muses. Horace and Pro{>ertius
were bis familiar friends. He enjoyed the favor of Augustus for many veare; until very
suddenly, at the age of 51, he was banished. Ovid had adopted and practically fol-
k>wed the Epicurean philosophy. He betrayed much weakness of character under his
banishment, and employed much adulation to procure a recal, but in vain. He died at
Tomi at the age of 60.

/. JfcMen, Vlti Oridil. JbMlaL HOB. a-^lMf. A OM^, Ovida SckMaala wthiaad wiwr Viitiwi, ■lS^ U"^ <^
Duiilaii't Bill. Bim lb, neL lii^JMWtoii; VHa dl PMblioOfldio Nawfc Fenana, 17881 8.

S. Dltr«r«nt eonjecturet havs been fanned reopecttng the eaoae of Ovid** bantobment. The
Dutenaiblfi reason was tbs Itcemlooo tendency of his poetry; bat the true reason wae ■omethinf
else. Some of the earlier erliln Imagined that It was beeanee Ovid cherished an Illicit attach-
•M'nt (Vir Julia the daughter of Aiiguitne. Drfden conjectured, that Ovid had Intruded Into the
iHth of Livia, the wife of Angaetas. TIraboschI snppoaed that Ovid had obaerved accidentally '
lome ln«tance of croea Immorality In Julia the emperor's daughter. RehOlt adopts the Idea that
It was becattae Ovid had witnessed some scene, which revealed to hlia a aiate aecret relating to
die domestic Jealouaiefl la the fhoally of Aaguatos.

!<aaSdkOII.Birt.LiiLBMB.i.ML-B. OtafMM, Medha Rapa^ FMa*. ITOa 4. Qft. IL c BV-Cl Jtarla, SappL al Bn«.
noltt Lit. Boa I. P. pw 4lk~Bs»iiii, ia hia tisMlaHoiu bdow diad.

3. The Metamorpjkoee* of Ovid were chiefly derived from Greek books, which are
lost ; the work is highly valuable as a record of ancient mytbolosv. The Fiuft may
be viewed as a sort of continuation of the Metamorphoses, furnishing a store of infor-
mation respecting the superetitions of the Romans and the Greeks.

/. W. L. JMUbiMn, ConaiaaL de caadi al aaelerftwa Banadaam do aatath fanab. Upi. I788L S.— The Uktamorftrnm,
wlih MM BoHtm*! EapUaatiOB of (be Ratafj of Mythfology, la Ei«lidi. LamL 1747. a-JUa Baii<ir, Bamafnoei, «c. hi h«
liaailaiioa balow dtad.-Our^, Dm. ea thaPartl aad Manrn. la hk adiiioBi batow ellad.^AlMi OiMomla hb MhHWaaaai

676 BISTORT 07 ROHAN LITERATinUB.

Wm/k»ftdMSftL9i. mm»«iLUtLHam, L ML-JUr. G«eb. HOm. UL p. ITI^F.S O. O— hi. I
lliiwar«tf«AAf JHeft-ITallr. LodL ITOt. L

4. Other pl«eM ftaeribed to OTtd, ImcMm tboM alrwdy naoBed, are Um JW«, Um fliHtifca, m
J^Am, and the JIMiMwtM Acid, or mmns tf/^mwwiy kM«t|. The /M«, or INr« <« JUf. ti a
poem of above 600 llnee, a tort of Impreeattoii upon an uncrmtefbl friend (ef. ( S45). enppoeed le
m directed acalnet H^flntte t and wrhiea durlaf the author'e eiUe. The geDnlnencM of the
HmlitutiM to doobted. Of the third, a nere fragmeot remalne. An Elcfjr entitled Jfms has alae
been aacribed to Ovid, bat iu elaime to eiich an aatboreblp are doubted.— There are Mvcral pro.
dttctionfl that hare been fklteljr aaeribed to Orld (SmppiiiU Ovtdte); among then, lArt* iMftt
enUited 4$ F^tmU, fabricated in the middle afee,and tald to bare been brouf ht Drom the tomb of
Orld to Conetantlnoplei.— -The name ot Amlna SMntu ohould be mentioned here. Be waa a
contemporary and friend of OtM. Ho commenced a work, which death hindered hto flalahinf,
entitled JMu^ and which perhape ■ttjfeeted to Ovid the Idea of hie A#f<. SmUmn* eompoacd
tkr§t EfUtU» in anewer to three of Ovid*e Efigtotm H^rtidum; which are comnonlj puMlebed
with thoae of Ovid ; and eome critlce have conoldered Bablnas aa the aathor of «is of the twmdf*
«iM In the collection commonly ascribed to Ovid*.

1 Ct fUrWM^ BiUhUh. Ul L 4n-4flL.- AtIh, Sapptea. ad Bm. N«t L im^~« 8n AMB, Lift. Rmb. LStfL

& BdKiaM^Wbol«Workik-B«lj AAiniMnn. AMt in?. 4 nib. 4. Oit IMS. 5 folfc 8. w» miteiti mHi* /■

JL Jtmar. Ffer. IM^ a. f «ok. 8. ie Lmminfi BibU-Ok. tV. MiMmlltk. Oott. Itlt. t «ok. & Oead; N. OlmMm

Ami. im. t «oli. It-/, r. ffadkr. LpiL int t «oli. t^BtponHm, Afcwt. 1811. t «ok t. PrtM^ii, H^miM,

•oBa»i4TI. M. Mp«fM«DpykBowalo«tlti. U^ttmorphofM.-C t. (H^. LpiL 1808. • fvh. a. M •«. ia^r. bf

y.GLJUN. L^ nU. t ff^ 81-A C CSk BmA. Bu. ItS-aS. • ffik. & ^rattL-O.AOtei|. Lp&ltn-M.8«ak.8

>— TrittUMdrpKiinaftelab J,J.<»mUH. SIimAl rm. I> ad. #>. r. /M& Bum. lBa.t. Epitf !■ Fliiififciii

'-D.J.FImLmuti^UuL Awt ISIt. lt.-r.Un. CoL 1811. 1 vda. & Am^fa^-OLamiim^f. IM^nsi

BfoU.8L Knmmtm aditi— «f flw Mill ■ irpiBi^ lei «f wlirtlai bam OiM, law >— | iMI* 1 1 fcr abwIi^Wa —tfi

JLXaoHU.BscarpaaiMripltoP.OvidiiNMa«ia. Bart. ISM. t

& TnHhttoM-OarwB^Wbato Weilia, bf JV. a MMqf. rnakl n«.l8B8L S nib. 8 Mataawphuaai. tfJ-RFm,

•Brl.I7S8. BraMw.l8B8Ltfda.8L rwdu—Wbab wwta, by fVaw, db ftmftgmtn. Fbr. W88L T fab. 8. Mi1imb|Ii

aai,.dUiBaii<ar (avw daa BaMrqoaa at daa aplkaiiom, at IgmgnMw). hr. lltJ-TI. 4«da. 4.-G. ». rBnaai fig.
nOL 4fgla. S..>nMti. bf 7. XkMbtfmfa (da 81. A^a), vana. hr.lSOi. BfA. 8.-by .Biwir, ifae dw Bifhiii km flBrtrtia^

te. hr. 1788-88. 4 feh. 8. llaliaa.— «. BBtarf. 0«. I8U. 8 fob. 8. B^kb.—Paad, fT. JfaMy, f«na. LbmL I»T. t

■ol highly approfad—THahrfc, /. Vmrtbtg, (Ul. ft E^) LamL 1788. 8 -aatoMw. /. e«aan, fwaaw Laad. ITBT. 8.--CL JMv,
AIIf.TVor.iL p. f71-ilfitMDafphaM, by i>bra.(tey,i>ftaiK and flCJbn. Laad. 1788. H.— Jaa. Jiaid*—, piwfc LaadLlWlL
-Ct aalar, ii. p. ISIU^f. OaUfnr. Load. I«».-Cr. IMrtM^bv. hatoy. H. 888, af ad. aHid f 88Bl ft— JT. AMfay, LaL ft

BhL wiib aalai. Lead. 1881 & Tb»a ba Oiaaft f— baaf Iba Milawiiiiihiii^ aada by J

by JiMiinadi Far. I888L

7. lllHirmiiTA— Afcn. jMlan,OaataiaadwrlUagicrOrU{ fa hb Aacbat Cbwadaw dadafad ftaai Qawlwl 8
I788L 8..^. /«r«n, la Tfeacta Fhibiagkal, ftc. aftad f 8801 5..^. #K f/!^0hia, lb OHibai ai ONHlbaa
■ iiiww>.oalhapoaliyaf 0fid,lBlbaClawlbraAayi».flfa*ly,tii.8M.-0a«w<,falbaiian.JaidLJbiir.aaki^
— Z>Lr.BaMbR,DieiaiaadO«.iiaraUa^ad.by&/.jyMniiaim. Upn 1881. 8.

^ 365. Comeliu$ Severut was a poet or rather a veVmlier of the same period, who
died very young, B. C. 14. Had he lived longer, it is altogether probable that he
woald have risen to the rank of an acknowledged poet. For in the poem entitled
JEtna, the only production bv him of which we have the whole, there are vaiioas hap-
py passages, that indicate a uvely fancy ; this work is by some, however, aacribed to
the younger Lucilius. The fragment upon the death of Cicero is perhaps a pan of his
poem on the Sieilian War, of which he had completed the first book.

1. This youth was a friend of Ovid, and is mentioned by Quintilian (x. 1) as of very
promising genius. Ovid alludes to a poem of Sevenis, which he calls carmen regaU
{Ep. e Pant, iv ); of its character and design nothing is known.— >The JEtna eonsiBts
of 640 verses, on the eruptions of that volcano. SMU assents lo the criticism whick
ascribes this poem to an author in the time of Nero.

CL § 884, a8ft.-SbMUI, Hilt Utt Ba». JL p. 8B1-I8b iiadui/, feL 4. ef ^at Lat Mlfc chad ^ B<a a Siarfd, yihiaS^
and /ofPfa, aa dtad bdow.

t. EdiUeak la SHytori frac. fat poat cibd 1 8I8L aha ia fWrai*a/. abata cHad, aad la laaiaWb ^at. Utldia. wi. 8.
-Beparaialy. 1%. CvqOim (/. Cbrtau). Aoaf. I7IS. t^-a A SekmU, (wUh Oam. 'Aaah) Braaair. t788L a-JL KKMt-
fMdb. (ariib Dana. Traoi.) QoadL I8ia &-f. /amb. Lipa. 1888. a aaeribbf the peaa lo Laeilioa Jaaiar.

a Tnaablloaa.— Fiaaeb.-/. Jocario* 4» SvioniM, 1/BtBadaP.C.aatbi iaataae« da PaU. ^yrai tiadaltaa, ate. Hr.
1788. IS.

^ 366. Caius Pedo Albinovanu», a contemporary and friend of Ovid, is ranked
among the elegiac poets. There is extant a poem entitled Cantolaiio ad Xtvtaai, ad-
dressed to Livia Augusta in condolence upon the death of Drusus Nero, which is
supposed to be from this poet, but which some ascribe to Ovid ; there is also a frag-
ment on the voyage oJ: Drusus Germanicus in the North Sea. His epigrams are loM.
Both of the eleffies by some attributed to him, that on the death of Msecenas (De cbUu
Macenatis) wad that on the last words of Maecenas (J)e Macenate maribundo), do not
appear worthy of this author.

1. Nothing is known of the life of Albinovanus. He seems to have been distio-
guished for his efforts in heroic verse. Ovid applies to him the epithet iidereut. The
Cansolatio ad Liviam, of 64 lines, is preserved in Seneca the rhetorician (cf. % 414),
and is considered a production worthy of the Augustan age.

RMpaetiBC Iba pbeat Mcribad to Pedo AlbbM>faa8i,e£ Bunitmim, Aafhol. Lat cibd ( 848. L-JM, aa balov eibi A^IdM
jcaieamtaaa. OaO. UB4.-Sdh8B, Utt. Roab L 848. CL AMcno, BlbL Ltf. L S?a

p. T. P0BT8. FALISCU8. 8TRTT8. MANILIUS. eERMANICITS. 577

IL Jliat|rfMU«ftMndlBMNM«S(loHorTii|il,aiM«lteCalahefa. Ate In IotmMi B>«t Lit Min. fOl. « aad SL-
SapwAldy, Th. CeroAu (L 0. J. Ctcrieoi.) Amrt. 17IS. &-/. A 11 Mofudm, with Owm. tnni. in wmb QtwU* WiA> &— Tte
tfifii*, bf /. CL AvMT. Htliait.l714.&-CteinWi'9a4IMambyC».DtjMft. Upb ISOI. &

^ 367. Gratiiu Falitau, a Roman poet of the first century of the Christian era, is
mentioned by Ovid in bis Epistles from Pontus, but b^ no other ancient writer. We
have from him a didactic poem on Hunting iCynegettca)^ which was first discovered
by Sannazaro in France.

1. From a passage in his poem, Gratius is supposed to have been bom in the ter-
ritory of the Falisci The portion of the poem now extant consists of 540 lines in
hexameter. It is not without merit. There is also a fi-agment on Fishing, which has
been ascribed to him.

Ct tUaay HUI. Utt. Ron. vol. L |». tn.-Bahr, p. 904.~mniiricirf,nrf laiMbc, asdtod twioir.

S: Bditkm.>-Ph'iK^p«, by O. Lofui [Ofud hmda AUt), Van. 1634. & wiUi NaoMriao ud CalpantaL-II to fcaad In IPInif
4di/'«CoUMHon (died §848); aba in ImuMlr Min. Pdm, vol. i (cIL ) B48).-.8n liknriM. AmCb LotinJ m nsMtfiea Saif
f«m,«fr, eitadi 148. 8.-4;t ^M. IL-Ako. wilhfncnMnlion timlkig,by R. AMm, HaU Itli. 8.

t. TnariaiioH.>EBfliih.F~CArM. ffbn. TU poon of Huatli« by OnL fUlKWi IiuhL iato S^Udi voiww Looi.
NU. It.

$ 368. PuUiu$ SynUf a Roman shive from Syria, lived in the time of Augustus.
He obtained his liberty on account of his peculiar talent& His Minut, or mimic plays
«f the kind which Cicero calls etholosical or moral, were highly valued by the Ro-
mans. We have onlj some detached passages and sentences, which are in general
neoommended by their own moral excellence.

1. Having obtained celebrit]^ by his representations in the provincial towns of Italy,
he was invited to Rome to assist m the public spectacles given bv Cosar. His popu-
larity was very great, and enabled him to live in splendor and luxury. The names
of none of the Mimes of Publius have been preserved. Their nature and subjects are
hot precisely known. The sentences or maxims now extant are most of them brief,
seldom exceeding a single line ; they amount to eight or nine hundred in number.
La Bruyere, in his Characteri»tic8f has made a free use of the maxims of Publius.

Ct Duntap, L p. S3i.-&Ma, i. 808.-MAr, lift.

t. Cditioob^ontn givca in Om •diliooi cf J>ta*M,ik (.In Smthy>lr (cMad §878. 8).-8«panMy; J.OnUr{m ad. by «.
Bmfmcamp). Ufd. BM. (Uydn) 1187. B.-J. F. KmmUr. Lpc ISOa l> with tlM tmum. of EMnosud Gwm. vandoib.^

IVabaUybMi,/.aOirri(J. Lpn. 1882. & with a Sappiwi«t Llpn 1884. Cf. SU^, p. 7m tbt Pi*mBtft,\ij Dm. BmmmuM,

Sm.1808.4.

8L TmMtoiiaMk^-OMMii^V. L. aehwartx Oott. I8I8. & nMiried. fMach-J. Mmim 4* Artavu hr. 1788. 18.

irKhQ»J»iMcrP.Cota.8mrah Bafliab^-/.XIHUMofM^inbMi>MBSMiMMori£«lM. LaLftCn«L Load. 1794. IS.

4. There were two writers of Mimet, contemporary with Publiui 8yrue,wbo mmy be men-
tioned here, I>«ctiiiii« JMtriiu^ and Cneiut Jtf«tttii#.->-Laberiae wae a Roman knlpht, who at the
age ofeixty was reqneited by Julius Cesar to act on the stage the Mimes, wbleh be had wrlttea
merely for amusement. Mortified by the preference given bv Cssar to Publius, he retired from
Borne to Putaoll. where be died not long after the assassination of Cesar. The titles and a few
inconsiderable fragments of 4S of his rolin*>s are still extant. The principal fVagmant Is the Pro*

hpie to the first piece he acted i It consists of 99 lines, preservea by Macrobtus. Mattiiu or

JHkctes wrote chiefly in iambic meter, whence hie pieces were termed JMihiiissiM. Only a Ibw
lines from cbem are preserved. He is said to have translated the Iliad of Homer.

BcqwdiBf ««^ wrilMse& Xkmlo^ '*- S»i »-&*BII, La06.-ir. C. L. Sfaffar, Da Mtnli BflBMHram. Gstt. ITSa & «».
trisi^tb•rr^^«Jbor£ateiltttifMw^^•^Ael^,atAb«illlInriPNllefM. Upa. I78T. 8.

^ 369. Ik^arcus ManUiMt, a native Roman, probably belongs to the age of Angus-
tus, but Uttift is known of his history. A poem which has come down from him to
us, is entitled Asironomieon; treating of the supposed influence of the stars on human
destiny. It consists of five books ; the fifth, however, is imperfect, and probably was
not the last of the poem. It is more valuable for the history of astronomv than for
poetical merit ; to which only a few passages, chiefly the introductions to the several
books, can hold a claim. Tlie obscurity of many passages is owing to the defective
state of the manuscripts.

1. In two verses Manilius speaks of Rome as his own city, but Bentley the cele-
brated Enfrlish critic, pronounces them both interpolations, and maintains that he was
bom in Asia. Some critics have assigned this writer to an age later than that of Au-
gustus.

SeMB, HM. LiH. Rgou L inf—lfiifnb •■ baiew dlad.-«: Dan. Altar, Obaarv. U IL MannU JUrnhm. Bm. l-vsa 4 -
/arffn'fl Trada, ftc, dtad § 880. &

8. B4itkiiia.~Bait; A O. Pingn. Nr. I78& 8 vda. 8..-Jt AnOry. Lond. 178B. 4. BmMtjH erittcfaM an oppowl di tlw
«8MQO(nalhi(MyapproTCdbf livM)or&An<oii. Und. 1718. 8L~CMlainad alao ta th* Jri|ponlmtVlfgiV»p. 178a 8 a^
taj;«UMn*ffftM.Ut.Min.TCl.vi.---TlMlV<iMVtb)rJb.Aif<om««fBmtf. Norlak. (prabaMy) 1478: 4.

8.TniMlnliaM.-Fmi^~Byi>tofn^inhlied.Jnrtcitad Ea^Ub^-^U, mtrkmm. ImL Wit, 9it. wtMai^T%mm

Owdk. Load. I8B7. a MirkaL

^ 370. Coiiar Germanicus was grandson to Augustus, being the son of Drusus who
was a son of Livia, the Mrife of Augustus. He was adopted by Tiberiiis, but aAer-
wards,by command of this emperor, was poisoned at Antioch. His bodily and meii-
tal endowments are highly celebrated in history. He is known as a poet, by his
translation of the ^ao^/icva of Aratus, and bv some fiagments, particularly of a poem
73 3C

678 HISTORY OV ROMAN LITERATCRX.

called Dioeemeia or Progwntiea, There are also some epigrams from himi inclnded
among the CafoZeef a of Virgil.

1. The name Germaniau was derived from his celebrated yictories over the Ger-
mans. Tiberius was jealous of his popularity, and on this account, after caHine him
from Germany under pretence of granting nim a triumph, sent him on a muitary
expedition into Syria. Germanicus died at the age of 35, A. D. 19. — He was weU
acquainted with Greek letters, and was a good orator. We have a considerable frag-
ment of Aratus, accompanied with Z4Uin §cholia drawn from the Catasteriams of Era-
tosthenes ; the translation is not exact. Of the Diosemeia, four fragments are extant;
it was derived from several Greek works of diflferent authors.

. n. Jl. {Ituk it BmufartU Biiloin da Cter Qamu. laf/L BaL 1T4L &-J1 C
■ Bonaii (CVc, Cw. Ovman., M S. J. .Jvimo) CoMMDlatia. Maiiii^- ItlT. 4.

% 371 *. JEmUiuM Maters a native of Verona, was a friend of TibuUus and Ovid.
He died in Asia, B. C. 17. Me wrote a poem, entitled Tkeriaca, an imitation of that
of Nicander (cf. ^74); a poem on birds lOmkhoeonia); and another on the war of
Troy, a completion of the Iliad. The ancients tdao speak of annaU written by him.
A few lines only are extant of all his works.— Some consider the friend of Ovid, and
author of the completion of the Iliad, to have been a different person frt>m the author
of the other pieces.

1. TiM poM Ik ArteiM «Mirf<te, IB S toota^ b7 Km iMrftad to Mmv, b t pndMU^

a BdKioM^Tteftiviiiailiar Mmtim giw to MHlMnh Op. rt Ti^m. f«t PML Ld. voL li—Cf. IPto— ta/, tal b^
llto.f«Liv.-TteMlHt«ditiMorttMniArk FirhUOmt. 9m. IfSl. a (em O. PMertf •xporittom.)

% 372. Phadrui, according to the common account a native of Thrace, and a freed-
man of Augustus, is celebrated for his five books of JEtopian FabU$. They are ia
Iambic verse of six feet, related with much natural esse and simplicity. Notwithstand-
ing the slightness of the accounts we have of him, and the silence of the ancient
authors concerning him, his existence cannot justly be questioned, as has been done
by some.

1. Phiedrus is not mentioned by anj ancient writer, unless by Martial (iii. 20), down
to the time of Avienus i and all that is known of him is drawn from his own writings.
His fables were unknown till 1596, when Fr. PUhou discovered a copy in the Hbrary
of St. Remy at Rbeims and sent the manuscript to his brother Pet. Puhni, who pub-
lished the first edition. This is supposed to be the only manuscript in existence, so-
other at Rheims having been consumed by fire in 1774. But there is a manuscript of
Nicolas Perotto (who was archbbhop of Manfredonia, about the middle of the 15th
century), containing a collection of tables for his nephew, which includes all thoee that
bear the name of rhiedrus. Prof. Christy of Leipzig, in two treatises, published in
1746 and 1747» questions the existence of Phiedrus, and ascribes the fables to Perotto.

aam, BM. us. Ron. il.MS<84a— £ F. CKrM, O* Ftodfo ^wqw fabslb FnlmUk Upc 174a 4.— £ N. /Wnk (y^iMto*^
ApiAt^ pro fhmin. RintoU IT47.-ClkrM( (» uKwm to rMccioi), Kspodlto ad wMlot4» Ftoidra, Sc li^a. n«T. a^
SMMte, to bto ad. bdow eitad.

t Edltk>M.~B«l;/.a.&fthiMto. Smiifc tSOS • folih a «oirtdalB( ibo Oft tobtoi of Jbnwlwk lUttothahiMarte
■d. bf Folpf. Lood. !«. a->r. S. it Xtany. Par. 1890. S-Ttel of A Bwmann, Lejd- 1^- «• i* ari«bntod.-nMiTiH
or BMBtioB alM, a. ScnOay. Lend. ITM 4. irith Tamei aad tha Maaa of Sfm. Ct JV. litov, XpMok Crltka, be. Laad.

1T» 4.~natfn, ii 881.-1 food Mhool oditton, FT. Lmtga. BalK 180. a-) C. /. Btfmamu Bari. ISM. a MM«%

bfmtaiM(nfkoB). ▲tfoitod.TricaM.l8M.ia

a TnMkUoM.-QortoaB.-C J. Fsfabmr, toatrial, 9d od. Lpb IBBa a (otoria tooHa pataaa fmdftt, MSB^Kmt. —
HoMfc. /. B. (ML FM". ITSa 4 febi la wlih Jbap tad U Itatolaa. — E^Ikk.— fa. DydtoL UmL I7ia a Satoif
LawL 1771. B.-J. P. MOir, haUo vonab Nflritob. 118a la

4. Illortntifow-Jl r, 0»iaw,8f4dl«clMB Otarr. ad Phadri prtoiM Utow doo. Jws I7«a 4-.rL /. J. SkMlf*. Cto.«l.
laPlMadruB. Laoh. 177a B^L. lOnU, Onrnmmtkrhm Ledam, obar dap PlwdrM. Lpa. 180a a-A C. IfiSi^ib Wtoto^
boch n Ftaidri Fabaliu Lanf. 1801. a-^ocato, UL rtahilMM, to OtoraAiM d: oam. MMv, ««. 8a

5. In 1806, a ■applemeat to Pbadnii was puUlsbsd at Naples by CMitfa, eoasfstlnff oTSt ikMes,
found by htm in tbe manttscrlpt of Perotto abovs mentioned, which was depoalced in the Boyal
library st tiiat elty. About 90 of tbe fbbtos however bad been discovered in tbe same naanscnpt
by J. Ph. DonrilU, snd by him transcribed and submitted to AmM«n, before tbe paUicatioa of
his edition of Phedrus. Burroann viewed them as spurious (cf. Pref. to his ed. abovd^clted).
I>»rvilU*» copy seems to have been long forfottan, but at length it came into the hands of Prof.
Eieh$tadt at Jena, and was used by him In preparing his edition of the new fbbles in 1811 In
1811, tbe discovery of tbe same fbbles was claimed by JMtiii or OUntUi, in an editioa of tbe
nnanuscrlpt of Perotto.

KtUgUng, Soppl. to Harioa, p. 88a-Bcto<B*. Iladri q«a toraatar Fkbda nxtU. Sc Jaa. 1812. UL dnynv ttairtiiidii
aaia: whkb b dotadad to tba ad. aaiiUad Pkmirt Fkbate bomi at votoraa, *e. Fir. ISlL a— tte ad. ctJkmM k aattid
Codb; ftFTottJnu^ Sc Naptoi, 1811. a la Iho mm yaar, CatUlo pahlUiad hk Sd cdittoa.-Cr. PsidMawf, oa fke aklia
hMr mafbai to PtaBdiM, Sc., JMbm. * rhttHhd, CkM d» Fiif. rf JUT. .Aw. wd. viii. p. 8ia-,«. JM, Fkbafaa mam mmbL
oeod.VatldaanndtotopalM.ac Zarid, tW- a

^ 373. Aulu$ PeraiuM Flaenu, a native of Voltense in Etruria was a pupil of the
8toic Annieus Comutus, about A. D. 50. He died in the 28th year of his sfse. Wa

p.V. POET0. PERSIUS. 3tNBCA. 579

have from him only six satirest and Quintilian speaks of him only as author of one book
of satires, by which however he has acquired much celebrity. They are specially
remarkable as containing earnest and impressive castigations of the then prevalent cor-
ruption of morals, enforced with rather more of Stoic severity than of true poetic spirit.
The frequent allusions and references to peculiarities of his own age render many
passages obscure to us ; and this difficulty is the greater because the style in general is
concise and hard.

1. Persius is said to have commenced his studies at Rome at the age of 12. A fine
personal appearance and an excellent character are ascribed to him ; his health was
delicate. On his death, A. D. 62, he left his library of 700 volumes and a sum of
money, to his preceptor Comutus ; who accepted, however, only the books. — Cor-
nutus, from regard to the reputation of his pupil, advised the mother of Persius to
destroy all his writings except the satires, which were committed to C<Bsius Bobsum,
himself a lyric poet, for the purpose of publication.

RoiMetiBC th* dMncter snd FMry of Vnim, eL SeUU, iL SISL-AKs, Dhwrhttno nr PM» Ffer. I'm. 8.—^. Pmnta,
DdMrdnLFteaimd di« ScfaiiriMi dnPtoniw, b bk id. batow eit«L~Jtoiio^ff ChMMtar, te., is CteroAtan rf. mth. XNeMv-,
ti. 8l^-<tarn<ar la tha Mttm. dt PJnd. dv Into: voL xIt.

S. EdMom^fiwahu m Mry eomoMnly priatcd with Jumn«L Separately, Bwt: O. L. K9nig. Gttt 1804. & with a eoa-
ncBianr ia M|nnta voIium— Saw of that by A. J. Flippy. Laad. 1820. S,-r. Plun%. Havn. 1827. 8.-4 P- DUbtm. Lipo.

1881 a-^JcAaJNlrc Par. 18)2. 8.~Io I^imain'i Coll. That of Ca$mtbon. Par. I0OA. 8. cdcbtaled Car Catcutbon't Com

■aitary. Bapabl. Lowl. Iftl7. S.-Prtnetpi, by UUIarieua GaBus, probably Room, 1408 or TO. ODall fol. (FUkrmann.)

a. IVaMlatioaa.— Oannaa.— iVflns. Pauno, Dictrical, wHb LaL teit Lpa. 1809. i.—J. tr. fibfiur. LOaA. 1811. L— •

rrcMh.— SkMc m«(r1cil. Phr. IT7S.— A Piatf. Far. I80a %.S»auL Far. ISIfl. & Itallaa.— Mvc Jhvd. Soranm. Vaa

ITT& a En«liah.-2>y((m. Load. 1088. IbL with JawamL-B. Owm. Loud. 1788. &— IT. Dntmmand. LonL ITSa &-

AtebySI«tfaN,by(K/cird;aiMlbyjradvn. Cf. 1 88a 4.-7. iftteMI. aa cHed ) a6& 4.

^ 374. LueiuM Annan* Senecay son of the rhetorician M. A. Seneca (cf. % 355. 4.
$414), flourished about the middle of the Ist century, and was celebrated as a philo-
sopher. He was a native of Corduba in Spain, but was removed to Rome while yet a
child. After many vicissitudes he became the instructor of the emperor Nero, by
whom he was finslly sentenced to death, under the charge of having participated in the
conspiracy of Piso. Seneca was allowed the privilege of determining himself the mode
of his execution, and chose to have his veins opened; but as the blwxl did not readil/
flow, he took poison (cf. ^ 469. 1). That he was a poet is well known from the testi-
mony of other writers. The ten tragedieg which are ascribed to him, are certainly in
pail the production of others, as their style is extremely unequal. The last of them,
entitled Octavia, cannot be from him, as is evident from its subject and contents. In
general, these pieces are far removed from the noble simplicity of the Greek tragedies,
and are defective in plan and execution, although by no means destitute of particular
beauties.

1. The tngedie$ ascribed to Seneca have afforded for the critics much matter of
debate, on the question of their genuineness and their merits. Among the testimoniet
that Seneca was a poet, are Quintilian (Iwit. Or. x.) and Tacitus (Ann. xiv. 52).
**Lipitius maintained that the Medea, regarded by him as the best of the 10 tragedies*
was the genuine production of Seneca i he philosopher ; but that the other 9 were fix>m
another Seneca, who lived in the time of Trajan. The majority of critics attribute to
the philosopher not only the Medea, but also Hippolytus, Agamemnon, and The Tro-
jans (Troas or Troadei): and some consider the last as the best tragedy. The six
other pieces, Hercules Furen$, ThyesUs, Thebais or Phceoissie, CEdtpug, Herculea
(Eta!u», and Octavia, they do not regard as being the work of one poet ; but
think them to have proceeded from several authors, and to have been added to those
of Seneca by copyists. The Ust mentioned, Octavia, is the only one constructed of
materials furnished by Roman history, and is an instance of the fabula tog€Ua (cf.
^ 316) ; all the others are founded in Greek traditions.*' In this piece Nero is intro-
duced as a speaker, and in one passage (vs. 732) there seems to be a plain allusion to
the mode of his death.

SaUO, Hirt. LM. Roou IL Br.-flL a Mpvmm, Ua TUlk tnpBdhmB, qam volfo SoMaa Wbainlw. GML ITIL 4.-SMfo'
fri, LmL on Droiaat Uivntm.-^. O, C Mhttaek, Da Aaaao Saaoea, quo trafOBdiartiaB qoa auporaaot oaaainn aoctora. VMalb
ISDB. a-SMft, in Prar. to hhad. balowcMad.-l'. /oeote, ia tha CkartM. d. v. DkhUtt iv. 83B^-V. /«r«n, BaBiaifea oa BaMa^ !■
Tncli, ae., diad f 8O0L 8.^1 /. SMKgar, Aainadr. aril. 1b hla-Opuaeiite. Av. tOUL 4.

2. There is extant a satirical piece ascribed to Seneca, entitled 'AffoxoXoirfyruo-if (ill «-
tamorpKoiit of a Gourd), or more properly Ludus de morte Claudii. It is a mock apo-
theosis, a satire on the emperor Claudius, partly in prose and partly in verse ; consi-
dered as unworthy of Seneca, and probably spurious. Several epi^ms are found also
in his name, but they are not received as genuine.— The Prose writings of Seneca are
noticed in another place (^ 442, 469).

aBditlooh— Whola Work*, no f 408. d^Tracadlaa.— Bait, A-. JK Jofita; Lpc. I8ia 8 vda. &— iorihlT .a»>
dm. L^ 1881. 8 TOh. 8.— Noted aaioaK Ibe aariiar, /. a SeAradir. Deiphk (Ddft), ITSa 4.-J: IV. Oronavfua. Aamt 1088, Iw
[TU ia cailad by Dibdin a rapriat of tha Sd adit, of tha yiiviarum, LoRd. Bat 1051 ; ft haa aa aacmTad fhrnlnpiooa r«ptf«aBtta«
Aaaobjcelaof tba Mvaral playa, I bava baim ma a copy of ll which ww (ivoa In (ha year 1084 to a popil of tha GynMriaa of
Dart <QyaiMf Deidfwtmtl aa > " Pimmtlmm UUnrtum^ C" bam pn^kehu md fcjKftiiaiilMiiOf tha laaiiaiiilal ia iaa prtom

OSO HI8T011T dF ROHAN LITERATtFllS.

Ulta hnmA^ wM Ito adwl •igialnw or llM VaalMN nrf ■Hin-; OQ tlH ooWdv of th» a>^

npnmtiiig the goddaM of lantn, with bar andear ■fabolt, hi tli« Ml of praMotiaf a book ti uaimn forn, MnwMriW bf tt*
I AEtrrirwMM.}— nmNn. Antw. ISA &-UBrft«. Tea. HIT. B.— /Hnopt, JL Oalhtt. Ftemn, I4M. fcL
aa oBlroMBtioii bere Hcreu loi, T. Asrfm. I79& 8.— Th jr«ste%^. Aom, wMi Gent, varfak
IM|.l80a. &-.M«4ea, Ctoto JttI (Praf. UL ia Hwf . Ub.), Botf. ISM. IB—Tbc opigruB and Iks SMira vc fa«< i« an
cf Iha aditioai of Iha TV^adfat; aho ia tte aditioM of wAob losiAa.— Tb« Satire (Liadut, ftc), JV. Ck. JHiHiar, IM. ft Gana.
LfLliaSL & It»aafiffatp«UialwdriboiitlftlSbf JEkmaniw(cf.the^0Mi<ai:atf«rta,erthoJipaHlodilk»afS«^
^. £. OuMOU. Vcreall. I7B7. 8L— Cf. Dan, HtinHiu^ Da SeiwcaB Apocolocjrnlow, in hia Omkum. L^d. BaL 1627. 8.

4. Trnal«ti«iib--GMnwb-^. ITJbM, whla7V«ftidUAMfie,c{lad|SI9. Franoh —£. Cb«^ TboaM dc Sendqw. Ite.

in& 8 volik 8.-^. /. JtouMAtt, of Um iMim dt morU ClmudU, io bia JVbrki, eit«i P. IV. } 12. I. vol. I4fh. E^liak Jfcd

% Aytoeo^ «Bd olAmk Load. IMI. a«« aaaeooantor tbb eariow tarabn ta 7*. fTartMi^ Hial. Bug, fttcdy, p. HK^wLK:
•d. Load. 1884.— & ShvAuTM. Load. 1708L &~A g A m • at B o a, Anehmor^ ia bla MiMdlaaaow Ftoama. I718L &

^ 375. JtfarvttJ Anrunts Lueanust a poet of the Ist century , was a native of Cordnba.
He was born A. D. 38, and died A. D. 65. Hia father was a brother of Seneca the
philosopher. Nero was jealous of his poetical talents ; and Lucan, having taken part
in a conspiracy fligainst ^ero, was by him condemned to die. The subject of his poem
entitled Pkargalia, in 10 books, is the civil war between Ceesar and rompey, which
was terminated by the battle fought in the plain of Pharsalia. It is historical ratho'
than epic ; too Btrictly limited to real occurrences, and too uniform in the style of nsr-
rative. But it contains excellent delineati6ns of character, and finely wrought speeches.

1. Lucan was educaied at Rome and Athens. At the early age of 14, he was
accustomed to declaim in Greek and Latin verse. By his uncle Seneca, the preceptor
of Nero, he was brought into some intimacy wiih that prince. Nero bestowed on mm
the offices of qusBStor and augur. Lucan imprudently became a competitor with the
prince in a poetical contest, and received the prize ; bat he was soon forbidden to de-
claim affain in public. This perhaps instigrateu him to join the party of Piao. Lucan ia
oharged by Tacitus {Ann. xv. 56) with having betrayea his motner Aniciaas an accom-
plice in the conspiracy, for the sake of propitiating the favor of Nero. But he did
not thus secure his own life ; Nero only allowed him to choose the mode of his death.
He left a widow named Polla Argentaria, highly praised for her character.

aeUU, HiaL Utu Ron. U. 886.— Tha I4ft of Luean, aacnbed to Suttonhu, h fauad in aavanl adHioatj ate ia aoaa mttOm
Lift drawn rmat t vary aoelaet oanoiMitaiy.— Cf. Murpkf, Nota to 71k. Abo. zv. U. eontaiaiag aa •pology fcr Lacaa.

5. We have the titles of several pieces by I^can, which have perished; among wbkh are,
SatttntalUf Burnings 0/ Aom«, MedM^ an unfinished tragsdy, and Combat of H$etor ami AekiBu,
composed at the age of IS.— There Is extant a poem in 961 verses, containing a Rulmff on Pi$o,
author of the conspiracy against Nero, which has been ascribed by some to Lucan, by others to
Ovid, bnt by most critics to 8aleius Bassas.

3d»n, li. 2az.-AMdiM, vol. it. p. l90.~-mnu4arf, Poet Ut Mia. 4*h ttA.~Lmimh% AmL LaL Mia 8d vtd. ftHpart-

tag Lucaa^ wwfta, taa tiao fha Cimmkt. d. «. iXcAlar, vlt UO—O. Mnudj DIh. da Luaaoi Ptenaliia. Bate, IMS. 4.-^ tfU-
40, Aaiaiadvan. critiea, kc Edinbb 1784. S.—JcrHn^ to dial f SOa 6.—Marmontd, io Prchea to hia iftML below diaL— la
fbiya, ia bia JUdanfat UUno^w. ti. ITIt. IS.— 17. Blair, Ledaraa oa HMorie, ke., lacr. iliii.

a EdMoaa.— Baal, C. F, mbtr. Lpa. liBI-SI. S vda. a Oa the tasiaaf O. CorCfc LijM. ITM. & vkldi vna pvblUad U-
ion tba aditor^ piaa waa oomplatad (DtbMn, IL I88).~£. jMlfay (pabliahad bf bh graaihoa a. Cu$nhtrlaod, altar AV detfftJL
etnwbarry Hill. IW). 4. ealabnlad for Ua beaulreblafly (IKMifi). Reimpr. Glam- 1816. S.-^ a A mtm. QucdL 1831. a-
Nafad aawBf Iba aariiar. P. Aimimfi. Ittgd. Bat 1740. 4. Tha teit of Bhiimbb la pirtlf Collowad ia the BIpoMtm, Itli^i
(Arfaat.) 1807. &— A-. Oudmdcrp. Leyd. 1728. 4.— JK Ontiiu. Ant. 1014 a Gmtioa wa« a grttlt admirar of Lena, aad k
aaid to bave cirriad a copy almTa iriih him {umptr in nnu)— The iVitioqpa, by SiaiynAiym ^ AmiMrti (prist) Bok
1488. IbL

4. Tnuid*(ieai.-acnnaa.— ^A. L. Ann. Maaab. I7BL I vob. &-CA. B. B. PiatarUu, of the 7lh book, dacribfi« ibe MUa.

Brri. 1802. %. rnmeh.—J. F. MmrmomM (prowi). Par. I76C. 8 vola. 9. alao ia bb OBuam OemfUtti. EqglidL— .Vk. BoMi

(vena). Load. I7ia M. 1807. 8 voh. l2.-r. Jfoy, id ad. Loud. 1781. 18. vene. cf. T^Ur, oa TnnaUiiaa.

^ 376. Caius Valerius Flaceus, probably a native of Pataviam (Padua), lived in the
reign of Vespasian and Domitian, and died while young, A. D. 88. — After the example
of ApoUonius Rhodius (cf. ^ 73), he selected the Argonautic expedition as the sabiect
of an epic poem, of which 8 booits are now extant. I'he conclusion of the 6th book is
wanting ; and the work probably included several other books. The general tenor of
this poem is not sufficiently animated and interesting ; and the style is also fnsqnemly
obscure and abrupt. — Some of the descriptions, however, are not destitute of poetic
merit ; and it contains particular passages that are beaaiiful.

1. The idea that Valerius was bom at Patavium is founded on passages in Martial
(Ep. i. 62, 77).7-The name of Selinus BaUntu is added to the other names of this poet,
in the manuscripts. Hence some have supposed his birthplace to have been Setia in
Campania. Others suppose that Setinus Balbua was a grammarian who revised the
text of Valerius, or perhaps owned a remarkable manuscript. — Some critics rank the
Argonautica of Valerius next to the .£neid. Quintilian {Inst. Or. x. 1) speaks of his
death as a great loss to letters.

Cf: f TSw-StATO. Hbt Litt. Rom. ii. 9B4.->Gta«U»« 4ar voraakm. INekfar, v!H.29a The Prebaa of Banua aad Wi«a«,
(ivaa ia Lmutir^i ad. below died.—/. JL mUkui, CpbtoU Critic* de C. Val. Flae. .^foaaat. Lfs^ ISiZ %.

a Ediiioaa^Beat; Lemoira. Fv. 1884. 8 vola. a (la bia JKUiatt. Oam. Ut.) It eoataiaa tba PnbaHor the meal bapoiMt
previooB edlUoaa^-J: J. midmt. iMmn, 1818. B—J. J. fVhftur. Oott I8QB. a 8 voli^ &— Barilar editk* aelad, P. Jm-
HMMn Liyd. ITBd. S~r. Bapt, AW (ar Pia), Bobbo. Uia UL oartaiaiiv 8 book^ SIh and ICtt, Mttaalad bf Ihe aflHr.

p. y. POSTS. 8ILIU8. STATIUS. 681

i/Uaa,) 'nePrinafat(priAbT)U.Biit<riui^D.Bmt9dim. Bomb. U74. faU-ft||to flnl dteorcnd a IIS. of Tatarta^
floalilaiac the fint tbraa book Mfy, ia Um eoovaat of St. Gall, oear CoiHaca.
a. TniMUtiQna.-0«nnaib— £. K. F. Wwdartiek. BrAirl, 180& IL ymtt, wilb erig. tnt— ItOiab— M; Aotei ia tte Cbr

9«a, ftc, of MubutMa 4r Argdaii^ dtad | S48L— JIT. J. iHnttimonta. Varooa, 1776. 8. FraMta.-UL Aowm A UmnaUt,

vane, with Lat. text. I^. lil I. SvoU. &—/./. X OowterftAreiaa^ pfOM^ irithLaL text ftr. ISIS. &

^ 377. CaiuB Silius Italicu»t whose birthplace is not certainly known, was a poet
of the first century. He seems to have received his surname from the place called
ItaJka, in Spain. Under protracted disease, having become weary of life, he ended it
by voluntary starvation, A. D. 100. In oratory he was an imitator of Cicero ; in poetry
ol Virgil, cut in his epic poem, entitled Punka^ on the $eamd Punic toar, in 17 books,
he has fallen far short of Virgil. It is properly an historical poem, and a work of dili-
gence rather than of genius. On account of its historical fidelity, many circumstances
pertaining to the period to which it refers may be learned or illustrated from it.

1. Some suppose Silius to have been a native of Corfinium, in Italy, which was
sometimes called Italica. He is said to have acquired great reputation as a speaker, at
Rome. He rose in the regular course of offices to the rank of^ consul, and under Ves-
pasian was proconsul oi Asia. Having received these honors and acquired an ample
fortune, he retired to Campania, where he composed his poem. He had purchased
the estate that belonged to Virgil, near Naples, as also that of Cicero at Tusculum.
He lived to the age of 75.

WUW, HM. Utt Bom. iL 298. SlUr, p. l9l.-OciillnMi>'« JfiifaaJiu, vol. xlli. p. 90a— CAartei, Btyrm, and Ruptrti, \n Ifaa
•dttioator tbtpati aad UmBLtn, balow dtad.-.-A7iMi, Da Caraiiaa SiliuM^ io bn aditioB balav eitad.— CtaraUM 4. vom.
lNcM»-,vii.3ai.

L Editkm—BaM; Q. 4. SuipotL GOtu ITBS-ML SWi. ^^Umturt. Pkr. IflBI. 8 vela, t (in bn BOL Oam. Latuy-^
VataaUa. /. Amrif. Lps. ITSi. 2 volt. 8.-^. Dnlrnnborch. Utraetat, I7IT. 4. Tha tat of Oila b followad by /. P. Bekmii.
Milaa. m& a. and io the Kpont^ 1784. 8.— O. H. Lttoumoim, Golt. 1824. 8. with gnod last.— Tba Priaaft, by SMcynAiym ^
Fnmartx (prialera). Ram. U7L fol.-T1ie ad. of A Briiutua, Liigd. Bat 1600. & (icpohL Cash. 1648. IflL) oootaiaa boIh
of BOM value oodcr Iha titia of Cnpundia atUana.

a l>«Driatiooa.-FraBch.~/. B. Ufibun dt VittdnuM^ with Iha LaHa. Fkr. 1781. S vola. 18. ^Bi^iah.— 7%. Am. Lood.

1658. l678.~Ahe by JBrn/p.-^H. W. Tyiv. CaleoL 1828. 8 vola. & venaw

4. At tba ravival of letten Ibora wu a feoeral eoavictioo that the poem of Sllin wia iMt Under the idea of rcpladiv It, (be
BBltbrHad PHiarch compoMd hit 4/Hea, the rabject of which b the ncond Puaic war. fmehtnw, however, haa imaglaed, thac
FBliaichhMlaoopyorSiliwaadeoaeealedthalSwt ia order la add to th« f lory of hta own work. PoRle ftwad a manoacript of
Silioi, pralably in the ooovcat of 8». Gall, dvrtag the nUins ^ the eoondl of Cowtaacab A eopy of Ibb, taken by himeclf and one
af hi* friredii, wa* the orieinal from which the fitvt edilioaa warn drawn. Afaoat IS76, Loob Carrio dieeoverad another aaati.
■nipt at Cologne, of ibc age of Cbarlcm*gne ■• he mppoMd. A third, of len aoei«Bt date, was fonnd at Oxfords— CC. SeUB, iL
SQ8.--R«pecti8c the Has. fraud by Fbnio, near CoMlBoea, me MMc<tM,Bibliotb.Ut. H. p. 859l

% 378. Puhliu8 Papinius Statins, of Neapolis, flourished in the last half of the first
century and was a favorite of Domitian. His greatest poem is an epic, entitled TAe6aM,
the subject of which is the contest between the Theban brothers Eteocles and Poly-
nices, and the capture of Thebes by Theseus. We do not find in it richness of inven-
tion, consistency, or conformity to nature ; and the language is deficient in classical
excellence. The AdiiUeis, which is another epic poem, on the adventuret of AehilU*
before the Trojan war, is incomplete. Besides these, there are extant five books of
miscellaneous pieces under the title of Syltw^ which are of very unequal merit.

1. Statius was educated at Rome, where his father became a preceptor of Domitian.
He had a great facility in composing verses. Three times he gained the prize in the
Alban games. Yet he is said to have been poor, and obliged to sell dramatic pieces
to the actors for means of subsistence. He retired from Rome, to a small estate,
given to him perhaps by the emperor, and there died, while young, A. D. 96.

ftMB, U. 308.-/iaAr, p. l5&—X.0.0yraidiu,Ufe of stating in bb iiM. IXoL died |S48,aad in the ad. of lamava bchm
cited.

2. The Th^id consists of 12 books : it is an imitation of Antimachus, whose poem
in 24 books, under the same title, is chiefly lost (cf. ^ 19). Of the AckiUei* there are
bixt two books, although sometimes divided into more. The collection termed Sylvm,
includes 32 pieces, chiefly in hexameter, on yarioas subjects, composed hastily.

a«alhan8NlmmtarfJWfcteAStaM«hi■£<m■ir«'«edttloa.~JMIfl^MitaUaninfortb•Bd^ bb Aac HM.

pw 4B1. ed. N. T. lan^-CtaraAfM itr vam. Dtekttr, vlll. 844.

3l JBdHkna— Beet; Whole W o r k a.-%Cmar ^ famairi On £<»MtniP« BihI. Claah) Vu tWfc 4 vok. a— The BipmMm,
n» a aaJ thatef /. Jtten. Warriocton, 177a 2 vote. 18. are conaiderad u reapectabla^-OI tba earlier} meal aetad, Catp.
BatMiu (ed. by C*. Damn). CygoK (Zwickau), 1684. 8 voh. 4,-J. P. Oronotbu. AmaL 16B8. a rapnU. JteiMm, 1788.
8 vob.' a— The Prinapa (aeeovdioc to iitar/tf). Booia, 147& fol. withont name of printer ; (aeeordlnc to Dibdin) aBOtm. Van.
1488. fbl. Sepanta poama wer« prinlad eiribr.-S y i v a, /. IfnrUaiKL Load. 172a 4.— P. And. Lpl. ISIC 9. mtaadad to
be followed by the other work«^-^Sait(. Dread. 1887. 4.

4. Tranalatlon«.-Pr«neh.-«r(dk. de UdnOt^ Par. 1658. 8 vob. 8^P. L. CormiOkiU. 8d ed. Fkr. 180a 4 vola ll—Armi,
AdUthUrm, ^ BoutUvOk (Lat. ft GalL). I>kr.''l888. 4 voh. B.-Ceumard (AcbUlab). Tar. ItOO. 11— Zbta 7\«r (Sylvaa, wHh

Lit. test), par. I8QS. 9. EagUah.— Sob. Anaani, Aehllleia. Lood. 1660L a-7. Oemithi booka of tba Tbebaid. Load.

1648. a-fT. L. LmotM, Thabaid. OsC Sdad. ITTSw 8 vola. & io wmw», with a dbmrtaiioo oo StoSoa puSiiJ. G«maB.-J. tf

AHUnr, Die etele Sylve abcnetat and erliutert. Flan. 1836. a 88 pp.

A. IUu8lntive.-V U. Lochmann, Progfamma de P. Static. Cob. 1774. 4.-~Zb(fiM0, Aanalaa Satiri, fte. Out 16ia a— Jl
/or<tn, u cited \ 360. 6.—/. Pr. Qronovii, in Staiii Sylv. librae v. D i a t r i b a, etc ed. by f. £RmA Lpa. 1818. 8 vela, a Tbit
tniffc oootoiaa thelitanry aootraveraf botwaca (koiMv(«f and CHicatf, iadading the XMolrtte (flnl pnU* 1887. 8)» tba .tali**

3c2

663 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITBRATDRB.

trtH af Omwi (Um, ^ mmmkm ^MMwH ttwi, ty Owawiai (IMO>, Md lb> Jlto—riiPii, by Cimum qw^ CtJWrWli^
BiM. Zat ii. p. ns.

^ 379. MarcuM Valerhu MartialiSf of fiibilis in Celtiberia, was a poei of the same
period. He wrote hia Epigram* in the reign of Til us and of Domitian. These pieces
are arranged in 14 books. Prefixed to them is a separate book on the public shows or
spectacles ; but the pieces in it are perhaps the productions of several authors. Most
of the epigrams are uncommonly ingenious and appropriate ; their multitude and ex-
cellence cause us to admire the ever lively and almost ezhaustless wit of this poet.

1. Martial was obliged to obtain subsistence by bis personal exertions, and prefemd
to devote himself to poetry for the purpose, rather than to oratory and pleading. At
about the age of twenty-two he fixed nis residence at Rome. Having passed there
thirty-five years he returned to Spain, having received from Pliny the younger the
means of defrayins his traveling expenses. In Spain he married a woman named Mar-
cella, who had ricn possessions on the river Salon, a branch ot the Iberus. His birta
has been dated A. D. 43, his death A. D.. 101. — The epigrams in the 14 books amount
to about 1200 in number. The 13th book is styled Xmia as containing mottos or de-
vices for presents bestowed on firiends ; and the 14th, AjKnihorela^ containing mottos
for such presents as were distributed at various festivals. There are some other pieces
ascribed to this poet. Many of Martial's epigrams are very obscene.

ScUU, Rnm. UK. iU S48.— BBAr, p. Sn—Cf. />Uny, Epbt Tth. iiL «b 21.

2. EditioB*.— B«l ; Ummtn (in hh BiU. Uf.). Pkr. 1888. S volt. %^L. SkAmMi, Ami. ITOt. a Aa ad. piM. St FiMw
(Viodoli.), 1804. 9 mill, a k cbmUotmI (ood (Klil^Ungi \ wiof>Mr, LmmI. 18ta 18: (riiAniMfM).— n* mmm tmfai^aA af «■
Mriier, C. ackrmL Lajrd. I«7a 8.—^. Serintr. Uji. leia 12. Amt 1881. fellowed n llw BipenHm, 1784. a— JK flidr,
MoffsatiKOB (MafiD, lS27. M. with a eommulary Mffblj m9»d^Prim:tpt (wemdinf to Mom, 11. p. 8SS), wm by J. GHha,
Fcmr. I4TI. 4. (aceordi^ to oOim) by Lantr, Ran. wilhoirt d*l«b 4. (ef. INMin, IL p. 888.)— ror Ite trignmm mH liitlaW ia
Qw 16 booha, aMBunrMnn, AalboL Ut toL L

$. Tnntariom.-Ocnnis.-<C. IT aomfar, Hlaet epitiUM, wlfb Oa Lat. tart. Lpa 17«MI.6«d», a wHh a mpplML fri.

antitlad NaekUm. Bari. ir24. M. Fraueh—CMor (Mlactkn). Toal. 1888. 8 volfc 18.— & T. SiHMW, with arif- ftr- ISML

3 ml*, a Eaf liab.— TlM. Xai^aL Lond. 1877. 18. Ct fTMon, HW. Ei*. PMry, iv. 88a— 7ft. Mtoft MBa tt^A. 8MI.

irrS. 8.-/. BpkinMon. Lond. fTM. 4.

4. Illusiratiffc— />. Zamiut, Dia. de Sclwlii pablkfa aatiq. Judaoram. Flaua, iTia eeahMBC a aoliaa of varioaa Mufhm
(loM of Uw fana 4ndkialui ia Martial, U. 84.— JL M. 9. Oom*. Cph(. Grit, da Utth qaibmdan M. V. MartialH. TnimSL I7f4.a
Cain in Atrte, Bkt. Not. Sappl. ii. p. I88).-««nf. i$ Soof, Aalmadv. Grit la K. V. Marflalia Ep«raak HardarortcL ITB. L
— ^te. Ptnlli, Cernv Copic (a oommaBtary on Martial), flnt pobl. Van. 1488. M.-/. O. DabtO, aoma aeooant nf aa ancint
MS. of Martial'ii Epiflnaia, iUuatralad by an «i«i«viiic, and aecMianal aoaodotaa of ttia maanara of Ilia Eonan. EdnhL ISA &

^ 380. Decimus Junius Juvenalisj a native of Aquinum, applied himself first to elo-
quence, and afterwards to poetry. He lived from A. D. 38 to A. D. 119. He pub-
hshed his satires but one year before his death, in the reign of Hadrian. Sixteen of
these are now extant, which are sometimes unnecessarily divided into five books. With
a noble and animated spirit he inveighs against the vices and follies of his times, but
he paints them with too great fi-eedom. His style is less elegant than that of Horace,
and less difficult and obscure than that of Persius.

1. Our knowledge of Juvenars history is derived fi'om a short biography ascribed

to Suetonius. He is supjposed to have employed his talent for satire first, at about the
age of 40, in the reign of Domitian. Most of his satires were composed in the reign
of Trajan. Two of them, the 13th and 15th, were written after Hadrian received toe

empire, when Juvenal was in his 79th year. On reciting his satires ()ubliclv, which
he did now for the first time, he excited great admiration. His 7th satire, which waa
the first composed by him, and which was directed against a fevorite of Domitian, awa-
kened the jealousy of Hadrian. Under pretext of bestowing an honor, the emperor
appointed him to a military command at Svene in Egypt, according to some, or accord-
ing to others at the great Oasis (cf. P. I. i 176), which waa a resic^nce for exiles; here
Juvenal died a few years after.

/. v. Fnmht, Biam. crit O. J. Juvaaalia vite. Lpc 1880. a^^v, mma, Briafn Cra wfr^ ftbar tin EiMdiMMl Tribmt-
aMbayn Ulplan.dla VariMsmBs aadi dar gmaaD Oaaa balnftad. Kial, I8ia 1— MSB, HIM. IM. RaM. iL 888.-^ AJlavvC.
la ProicganMM to bhad. balaw dtod.— JMbiim^ Cbuwtwor JcfaMl, b Iha C*M«ll«adv«om. DMMr, vi. 884.

2. Horace, Persius and Juvenal form the illustrious trio of Roman satirists. Most
of the critics and translators of either have made comparisons, in which each writer
has labored apparently to show the superiority of his favorite. Heinsius and Dacier
exalt Horace ; Scaliger and Rigaltius plead the cause of Juvenal ; while Persius finds
a defender in Casaubon. Dryden has attempted a comparison with these various
opinions in view; and Gifibrd, with the Dedication of Dryden, the preface of Dnssaulx,
and the prolegomena of Rupert before him, has endeavored to exhibit in a complete
manner the characteristics of each poet. ^

Jturgm, Ttadatoa w. UL (containloR KgaUha de aat x. Jot.) Lond. tTBSL &- Atfufut, Ue Sit. HonllaM, flnl paUUad
in bit ad. of Hone*. Lnf. Bat. 1612. a— 0KMau2c,Sar laa Satyriqnaa Latina, in h'n ad. and vwaien balov etM.— /. P, /.aJaiyi,
Lyctfe, on Conn da Utlanlun (ton. 2, f 8). hr. 1798 (An 7).— Arydm and Qtffor^ in tn»lat(0M balow ciiad.

a Editiona.— Bat ; Q. A. Rupert. Llpa. iSOl 8 voic & (fim cd. 1801). Tha onnawniary nuy be parebaa.4 aaparalil) mm Aa
«eit— Ttmt etNL. Miaintm, Pw. ISia 8 vole, a h hlghW eoramaDdrd. n ia in Lmuir^ BiM.— C. F. Hrinridk, Lpa l«aa
8 vola. a let vol. eontnlni^ tha turt, tehelia, and nolaa on (he wholia, ppi 440 j the M vol. e«intatRfnff, « Binletlnng mm! EffcUna*
MMBlSilMBi^p^Siej «Utobe"ricbairi^aaUnyetofteDb«ltT.» CL ITabff- Id JafanPb JabiMebar. Itf41. Amaatrnt-

p. y. POETS. ATIANVS. CATO. NEMBSIANUfl. 583

Uw adlfiaM BOtod, Bmntnua. ThjacL lOS. C-Mtaio. LaM. IflM. ^.-JUw, Vea. MOt. S^Tbm wm matiy afitew
bdm 1500, uuallj iiicliidu« PmiiH^TIw Prineepty by l^.de Spim. Van. Um fid. (AiAmMwi).— TIm IW^Mn «L by LiVw
i«tt, lat ad. Pkr. 1684. 4. bat baea lafviBtad la thb eoontry. Phil. 18U. L eoolaini^ Faniat^-SaaM of tba approvad aditioM
M (OBtaioiac both JotaMl aod Panim; Sipofabu, Zwelbrtekan, (Bip.) I78S. S.-Sandby. Caotb. 1763. 8. iritb pialat^aiL
MnnkaU. Lood. 1783^ 8.— a m Stccktr. OzL 1887. & with Enslidi notak

4. 'naadarioH.-Gcrman.-C F. JMnU. NOrob. 3d ad. 1881. S.—J. J. C. Domv. Tabiiif. 1821. 8. Fraach.-^. Ihit-

tmbBt with oric-last Par. 1796. 2 fola. 4. Boprialad {N. L. JeSaintrm ad.). Pkr. ISSa 2 voli. 8.— £. T. RaouL Toamaj,

1818. 8 W9h. 9. Eiwlish..-& StafteUm. Oxf. 1644. foL—iT. Qiffordy ia vane. Loud. 1802. 4. improved ad. Loud. 1817. 8

aoh. a.-CA. Bmiham. Lnd. 1814. a CL Land. ^uart. Rm. xi. 9n.-Smaair. LoaL I816l ll.-Dfyden.d. § 87S. 9.—T,
airirfffw.' Load. 1789. ^—Madtsn. Oxf. 1807. 8 vob. 8. with Pcrriot.

6. lUortrative — C. Fr, JWnrM, ia hn tbrea CommmtatioHU, prialad ■ncoearivaly, XOon, 1806, 1810, 181 1. 4,-J. C Fr. MSbjmeh
ObMT. in loea aliqaet diflBoU D. J. Jovenlis. 1812. 4.-vf. O. Cnmr, ia Javeaalb nkiiaa ConunaMarii nttOO. Hamb. 18281 8.
— CC Mm, Maaaal of BibUocr* ii- !*•

^ 381. Flaviut Avianug lived probably in the 2d century, in the reign of the An-
tonines. We have, under his name, 42 fables in elegiac verse. The text is in a very
imperfect state ; and, in natural eaae^of expressioni the fables are &r inferior to those
of Phaedrus.

1. Avianus, from his censure of idolatry in one of the fables, is by some supposed to
have been a Christian. Respecting the age in which he lived, the critics are not
agreed ; some assign- him to the 4th century.

8ae CteMHfMto^, JHn. <fe «Ula F. Aviaai, ia hb ad. below ciled.~&MSa, Lilt. Roaa. Ui. 67.— BMm, Brav. Not Soppl. li. 931
.^. Mtlwnwiiii, Da eprite Fabuhnim Aviaai Zumnaf, *e. Oott. 1807. S—SckOU, Litt Rom. UL 61, m.—F. A. Vhut, Googiaph.
4m Oriaelk and Mm. Wain. 1821. 8.— H^cnudorf, CoauDaat de R. F. Aviaw, in bb FoeL LaL Mia. vol. v.— JhiMc, b FraC to
kb ad. or Antoa (ef. \ 7l).-&A«niAacft, died { 370.

SL BdliioiH.~BcBt, /. JL NodiB, AauL 17S7. &-a Canmgkl^. AoHL I7SI. &— ffbond abo ia the BIpimHm ad. of Akadbnia
178V 8.-aad ia MtUtUn?$ Pbcdnn. Lonl. 1773L 12.

S. TraBriatiaBi.~It8liaB.— O. C. TnmbdU (with tba bMai of <Mrtei, cL ( 184). Vea. ITSS. & Englbh.— FV: Caxlon,

1484. fU.

4. The fkblet have somellmefl been published under the name of Rt^uM Futus j9vt«n««, who
wae a different pinion flroni AvUnua, aUhoiigh often confounded with him. JIvitntu probably
flourished about A. D.400; most that is known respecting him is drawn from his writinfrs, espe-
cially an inscription found at Rome, and contained In Burmann't Latin Anthology, consisting of
eight verses addressed by Avienus to JWrtia, an Etruscan deity.— The principal work of Avienns
was a translation of the (^atyd/icyaof Aratus (cf. } 71); sometimes entitled Carmsii de JiHru,
He also translated the IltptiiYrtcii of Dionysius of Charaz (cf. H S17), in a poem of 1394 hexame-
ter lines, entitled Deseriptio orbit terra. Another production was called Ora Maritima^ a poetical
description of the Mediterranean coast from Cadiz to the Black 8ea; a fragment only remains,
of about 700 lines. There remain also three other short pieces by Avienus. He is said likewise
to tiave reduced the History of Livy to iambic verse. — There is a poem in about 1100 hexameters,
oalled Kpitom* Iliados Homeric which some have ascribed to Avienus.

%. Editioai tljSvimu. The /Wwajw, O. FoflS. Vn. 1488. 4.— A aoia eoaplcte ad. P. HiKan. Madrit. 18M. 4.— Beat,
fa Lmtain, Fbat Let. Mia. «c1. v. (Pkr. 180^ aad la nnnMior/, abors died. Tba anallar piaeai an fooad b flurmann, Aft
IboLLar.

^ 382. Dionysius Cato, a writer of whose history nothing is known with certainty,
belonged^ as some suppose, to the same age with Avianus. He was the author of
moral maxims or sentences, which are composed in Vislichs, and are chiefly valuable
for their instructive character. It is not impossible, however, that they were of a
much later origin, and were marked with the name of the Roman moralist Cato, on
account of the seniiments contained in them.

1. The chief authority for assigning D. Cato to the age of the Antonines is a pas-
sage, in which M. Aurelius Antoninus (cf $ 196) appears to speak of him. Some
have supposed the Distichs {Disticka de moribus, in 4 books) to be that work of Cato
the censor which is mentioned by Pliny and Aulus Gelhus. The work was held in
very high estimation in the 14th and 15th centuries. "

SehBU. Bkt. Litt Ron.' iil. SU^BorMd, in PraC to biaad. bdow clled.-l>MarWianior A»*om, Ctensuflrfcr.aad mili^,lB
tba ed. of Jtmlmt below eitod.-ffkrfon, Wat Bi«. Foatiy, UL 8.

a. Editi0iM.-.Hoat eoBifileta. K9ittf k KOaipfUd. Amt 1760. t vda. a>J. M. BtmUUL SebwaiBrvt (Manbr.) 1784. 9 mb.
$.-0. Jmtim, Aaitt 1784. &~Tha PrtHeip$, Senmeaa aapar. Galoda BUiiea, to. Ai^Mtoi 147& (iSTarlff, Brav. Not |». 607).

S» TniBihlIoaa.-.OeniiaB.-C. A B. PittoHia, meMeaL Snalmnd, 18I6L a Tnutb^Maturmut Cardtriua (Contoraj),

dedicated to Rob. Stepheoi, Ur. M Gall. Pkr. IMl. %.-Jl, M. H. Botdard (ed.), LaL Fraaeb, and Oraek. Pu-. 1808. & Tba
Dirticbi were tnndated tato Greek by Maxhmu Plamdtt at ComtaoUnopIc ; bia verrion waa {triatod witb tba orig. teif, Aatw.

ises. EBC1idi.~Pr. Caarfon. Load. 14881 ia tba prafiiaa, be pranoQaees Cald% Monb " the bart boka Ibr to be tonfbt to joi«a

cUUwBB Id Mshola." (ITarfon.)

^ 383. Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, a native of Carthage, lived in the
latter part of the 3d century. He strove successfully for the prize in a poetical contest
with the emperor Numerianus. We have from him a poem on Hunting iCynegetica),
which in point of style and skill in execution appears to great advantage among the
works of that age. There also remain two fragments of a poem by him on Fowling
(De Aucupio), The four pastorals ascribed to him were probably written by Calpur^

1. Little is known respecting the life of Nemesian ; the chief notices are found in the
life of Numerian by Vopiscus (cf. ^ 542. 6). Vopiscus states that he composed poems
entitled Cynegetica, Halieutiea, and Nautiea, and that he gained Tarious prizes.

684 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURS.

There 18 a small poem in honor of Hercules, De laudHnu Herculit, which some as-
cribe to Nemesian.

SeMU, Utf. Rom. Hi. Si. RopectiM tlw Pastnnb {Brndka, Etlogm)t cf. IVimaiaif, !■ bb Pbe*. UL Mia. ud JVUIr. to

bh Bii'ttaung, ftc. dUd \ 290. 8. Tbmj wwn Int Moribed to MaoMma, ia the ad. of Jfiftlua Ogiittui. Pkm. iriifaotf dM
(about UM), Ibl.

t. Editioi»-Bail{WbelaReaialBa,je«iTia<r^I^»rt.LaLMIa. litmL--IVbrfudkrf.PDat Ut.MlD.->TbcC7DCgetica;
tfflaB prtDtad wilh Cratnu Ai/ueuf, aa la tba Printtpt cd. by Logu*. Van. 1884. & (ef. ^ 997) ; iMa cxMliiaad afao tbe jMeltei^
int prinMd by SeAtaeynAt^m 4> AmtMrfs- Rom. 1471. 4^^K. 4. fflUtn*'. Mittaa. 1T7S. 8 wMi Onlitu.~B a c o 1 i em, wilb
■olM at P. JhPmatui ud nihan. Mitt 1774. 8 iadodiag abo Cslparaiaa^R. MnUtr, Ut. ft Gam. 7#it. 1848. 8.

a, TnBalatioak-ri«Mh.-Or iba wbola Ranaia^ by & JT. tf« to TVwp hr. I798i 8. Ualba.-/. O. AnaUt, la hb XNam*

Mfiia ii Tiiitlato daila NriUin dalT Bglop di fbnloMlh. Vea. I76L H

^ 384. TiVi/f JuliuM Calpumius, bom in Sicily, was a contemporary of Nemesian.
There are extant seven Eclogues by this poet, composed in the manner of Virgil, and
distinguished by an easy versification. Ttiey are dedicated, as some suppose, to Ne-
mesian.

1. The Eclogues themselves furnish what we know respecting Calpumius. The
protector and friend to whose honor be seems to have dedicated his poems was not,
probably, the poet, Nemesian ; as this protector was a man in high rank at the empe-
ror's court [magister officiorum. Eel. iv. 150, 159).— The four Eclogues, sometimes
ascribed to Nernesian, there is little doubt, belong to Calpumius, making the whole
number eleven; which were all published as his, in the editions preceding that of Ugo-
lHu» (cf. % 383. 1).

BMOy UH. Rom. IIL SC-MAr, Oaach. Rem. LIL p. SOB.

t. Kditia«iL^Bert| C A Ac*. Lpa. tSIML fL~£aMa«i«, Poor. Lat Mlo. M vfll.-Cairtaiaad aha ia fTmiarfor/, Poet Lit Hh.
Prinati, by SdkioiynJMm ^ Fatmrnt (priat). Ron. 1741. 4. Of. 1 883. t.

S. Tmaitaiiau.-a«ana.-.HaM (afeeonfi^ to fuitrmmn) brAE. KImtmt, AltoM, 1807. 8. with orHttaL— ^. MOmit.
PManb. 1804. 4.— C*. O. Wim. L41L 1806. 8. FranrK- Mirimiil. Br«i«lla% 1744. 18. lUliaa.— O. ftarariri. Va. 1781. %,

% 385. Vicimnt Magnus Ausonius, a native of Burdigala (Bourdeawr), and probably
a Christian, was a grammarian, rhetorician, and poet, of the 4th century. He was
preceptor to the emperor Gratian, under whom he afterwards held the ofHce of consul
at Rome. Subsequently, he lived in literary ease in his native ciiy. Some of the
smaller poems, which we have under his name, belong to the general class of rpi-
grama; others are mere epitaph* and memorial verses; the 20 Idyh may be entitled
to the name, because they are truly little pictures, short pieces of a descriptive charac-
ter; but they are not, properly speaking, pastoral poems.

1. The pvidcnce that Jtusonitit was a Chritiian in dmwn from hit poems, particularly die fini
Idyl. Yet tome have qiiettlnned whether he really was, on aecount of the manner in wbieh
pann mytholofy Is employed In some of hie pieces, and eepeeially on aceount of their licentioas
character.— The memorial verses, In honor of the Professors of Burdigala ieommamoratio prtfts^
torum Burftifral9nsium\ are of considerable interest to literary history ; they celebrate several
teachers of rhetoric and grammar otherwise unknown.— Amon^ the epitaphs are some opna
Grecian heroi>p, which are supposed to have been drawn from the nijrXvf of ArleioUe (cf. ^ 191.
2). After these, are epitaphs npon the Roman emperors. We And some valnable informatioa
in the poem, or poems, entitled Ordo nobilium urbium, vlvlnf a description of 17 principal cities of
the Roman empire. — The lOih Idyl, on the river Mocolle, is considered as one of the best pieces
of Ausonius. The iSth, cMto nuptiaU*^ is composed of versea or hemistlchs taken ft'om Virgil;
it does no honor to the purity of the author's Imagination.

SMMf, ilL 4S^-J. L. £. PUttmamnt Da Epodia AnaaaiaM, *& Diatribe. LIpa. I7NL 8. (coatoiaiaf alas £. Cs»a»iM, Da As*
aerii CoMolata EpWoia. Pia. I784}.-C*. O. OyiM, Caauia iaittaii at aiorvn D. M. Aaaaail, *c Ooit. 180L bL Ako ia Wi
OpuMC Jead. voL vL Ooct 18l8.-Di LabaitUU k lyUmeux, Hiitoira da la Littwatara Tnoeom. Rlr. 17?a

8. Edltkws.— AmooK Ibe b«al; /. J. SnucAoy, (ia mum Delpb.) Fir. l7Ja 4. Fb^. in bii DHpbin ^ Vmriorvm CT— to
Tba iNpon6*nc Rip. I78S. 8. i« eomct, aad iti JV^ofMa LUtrwfia Taluable.— J. TUUu*. Aaist 1671. 8. tba roiiervm; nlaad
hifhIr.-Tba Prinapt, B. Otrantimu. Vaa. U7B. foL oaolaiuiac alao Calptmnlut k Pnbu JWomm.— Soom td dw poaM an
pven ia Umain'i Foel. Ut Mlo.

8. Tramlalton*.— Rprmaa.— or tba lOlh Idft, by L. TVeat, nctrieal, with orig. Ut. Hanim. 1884. & Fraacb.-Or wbek

wa^bf Jaubert. Par. 1789. 4 volt. 12. EagUdk-OT aooia of tba epigiaoia, by T. Kaitfatt, nowm of EpiftamsM oat tt

aaadria.tba moat (fnpilar aatlton, *e. Load. lfT7.

4. Pr«ha Ftleonia was a native of Horta, and lived at the close of the 4lb century. She fa
mentioned here on account of her Biblical Hutory^ composed (like the ISth Idyl of Ausonlns) by
uniting Mate* of FirgH^ employed so as to designate events related In the Old and New Tesu«
roent.

Tba Ctnim wera puUtAed \>f L. H. TuOt^. Lfi. 1798. 8. with a GfMk wofk alylod ' O^iyprfcnrrpa (dL f 78. S>.-Ct X As-
teiJiHM, Da Aatiqottalibaa Borlto. Roak 1708. 4. eoalilBliV a Diaaetlatioa aa Praba.— Jl CHr mtf, Molianua Giacaiwa, qm

ont. pma one aaat, rncmaata. Load. 17881 4. eoaiaiBiac a oalalocaa of aadaat diaUasuiabad wewan. Savenl woiba of aaidw

darka, 1. 0. cempoaed ofliaaa or Cham takaa bona VirvU, bafo baaa pnaarvad. Ct AMK, UtL Rom. iU. 58.— P. JhtrmaMB,
AslboLLaLdtcdi848L

^ 386. Claudius Claudianus, of Egypt, was an author of Greek and Latin poetry,
under Honorius and Arcadius, in the 4th and 5th centuries. Besides several panegy-
rical poems, we have from him two small epic productions ; one entitled De Rajitu
Proserpina, in 3 books; the other, Gigantomachia, or Ihe War of the Giants, not com-
pleted ; and also two historical poems, De beUo Gildonico and De hello Getico. There
are likewiee two satires, each divided into two books, written by Claudian against

p. y. POETS. CLAUDIAN. PRUDENTIUS. 586

Rufimu and Eutropins, rivals of Stilicho. Amtme hin epigrams and other smaller
pieces, some are happv performances. In general, however, his thoufhts, images,
and expressions, bear the marks of the unnatural and artificial taste belonging to the
age, although his own genius and poetical ability shine through them.

1. Clauman was born^obably about A. D. 365, at Alexandria, where he was edu-
cated. Subsequently halved tor a time at Rome, and at Mediolanum, which was
then the residence of Honorius, the emperor of the WesL He enjoyed the patronage
of Stilicho, the guardian and minister of Honorius; and was elevated to important civil
offices. His wne was a rich heiress from Alexandria. He continued in favor at court
until the ruin of Stilicho, who was accused, perhaM unjustly, of a design to place bis
own son on the throne, and was put to death A. D. 408. How far the poet suffered
from this catastrophe is not certainly known ; but he did not long survive it.

Ct B. OiUon, Deeliae tad FhU of Bomb Enp.ch.SIL A Mtmmnnetai lo ClMrihui daring ihs tina of hb pniiptrity,

b iha knm of Ti«Ju, on Iht raqoMt of tha weaOb, tf Arodioiud Homrhw. Tk* ptimHl, with u ivcription, «w dkeorwed
atBMMiafhoISthetBtiirr; Ihar* m^ bsw«f«r, dniMi ra|wetk« Iha MlhMilldlj of Iho MowMBt. Tha iMcriptkn b givM hf
ftUO; Hiit Litt. Bam. iiL p. 8B.

2. The first c^mposhions of Claudian are said to have been in Greek ; the Giganto-
madiia was originally written in thai language ; a few verses of this poem ai3 two
epigrams, with some other trifling fragments, are now extant in Greek. Besides the
]>oero8 named above, we may mention two Epiihalamia, one on the marriage of Hono-
rius with Maria, daughter of Stilicho ; Jive poetical epUlle$, and seven descriptive pieces
termed IdyU. Several of the epigrams under his name are considered as the produe-
tions of some Christian author ; from the contents of these, it has sometimes been
imagined that Claudian was a Christian ; but Augustine and Orosius state with regret
that he was a pagan.

raravtawerhkwriiia«iudehafMtar,«seOaAonMidSBUII, as Jort dlad ^of«.-^Alw, Ctaariatf /mdmI, «vl. niiU- A
0.iPWclk,OoamatdaClwriiayeamiM^ale.flpaeiaMD. GMt 1773. 4.~aeii*Mr, MMm, and XM^, n dM baloir.

X EdiHoai.— Boit; P. Bunuann. Amt I7«L 4. tha lait of tbh foUoired by X /. PoJpy. Land. lei. S voh. 8.— la latHoMk
Bib!.~IL rttbtr (llaMwd bf a. Dnay). Load. 18S& t toh. 12. ilto oa larps p»pm^-J. U. Oummr. LpE. ITW. 8. 1 toh.— 0.
L. KSnig. God. I80& & III foL oaly paMidked ; coataiDtDf TOloabla pralcfaiiiana.-Mora eclabrated of tha aarliar adWoM; C.
jMMiM. Prankr. iSSa 4. with a dirtliviMied cnmoMBtaiy.— JVk. aififfuii Ixntt. \tB6. iL •« Iha bail farinrvm aditton" (DA
dKny—Prmtap$, B. Odmnm. VlneaatiiB, 1498. ial. not caataiui« tha aplfnaa; whidi wan flid pvUUtedbfllkad C%ioJ^
h«m.l4»4.4.

4. TMiwUtioH.-OcnnaA.~Clk. ASoMla^ Baob im Plwaipiaa (oatrical). BaaK 1TB4. BL-^. /. Ba<«eUy, Gadkht wUcr

BaSn (with Ut. teit). Wian, 1808. 8. BaUaa-^. a^mgani. Veil. 17I8L 8 volh & alw !■ Iha Corpaa of MUattUm t ^fv

teH, eiiad f 348. Freaeh.-H. £. Mtrian, V Mlavaanaat da Pranrpioa, avae an OiMoonh ke. BarL 1787. 8—^. M. iMfaO;

a«vr. dlvcrm da CUndiaB, Ut. ft Fimoc Par. ISI8. 8 wtAm, 8.— At la Tbur. Par. 17M. 8. Cngliah.— J. O. StmU (Oa np(.

Pioa.). Load. 1814. 8-^. MiwUfw (««ne). Load. 1817. 2 vola. flL-mn. Kiag ffiaL la BaflBom M EalropioaD). Loud. ITSa 9.
^Hmgha, tha two booka agataal Bafiaai. la hb Jfilcdiankiii Lood. 17S7. &

f. Tha .fiiK.aa«iili»M ta a Utia peoat of f booha, by Jlamif (JWtt) of L^^ who diad A. D. ISOB
ofditriaa pmrldaae^fa replj to a pam(a ia ClagdianS tailra oq Bidhias and waa a hmooi book la tha middla afta.— FfbrCon,
BM. Baf . Phatry, L I0Bl IL 287. ad. Lood. 1824.

^ 387. Aurelius Prudentius, sumamed Clemens^ was a Christian.poet of the 4th
century, a native of Spain. His Hymtu are not destitute of good poetical expression,
but are more distinguished for their pious and devotional contents.

1. He was bom A. D. 348, at Calaffurris, now Cat^torra^ or according to some at
Csesarea Aufusta, now Saragomsa, After practicing as a lawyer, and holding some
civil offices, he obtained a military rank, which brought him near the person of the
emperor. ^Vhen above fifty years old, he retired from the world and passed the rest
of his davs in habits of piety.

The Hymns or lyric pieces of Prudentius form two collections ; one entitled KaO-
nuspivw libefy containing 12 .hymns on certain days of festival or certain parts of the
day ; the other, Uept ort^avio/, De coranig, containing 14 hymns in honor of as many
martyrs. — Besides these, we have from him the following poems ; Apotheosit, written
nipiinst the Sabellians and other heretics; Hamartigenea ( i/«af>riy6'ra), on the orisin of
sin ; Ptychomaehia, on the conflict between virtue and vice in the human soul ; Adver-
*»s Svmmachum, in 2 books, occasioned by the controversy between the Pagans and
the Cnristians respecting the altar dedicated to the goddess of Victory (cf. $ 444. 1).
To this author is also commonly ascribed the work entitled Diptyckon seu Enchiridium
utriusque Testamenti, a metrical abridgment of the sacred hiatorv ; although some have
referred it to a Spanish writer of the 5tn century by the name of Prudentius.

SehCtt, LHt Bmh. ill. 72.-/. P. LivhglnUy nbt. da vila PmdantH. Vltah. 1688. 4. alio fimad la hb Opute. Miae. Hal. ITSa—
Aofi, ^ Jbmmm, ia PnOtf. to thdr editkoi bdow diad.— AaOfn, PtolHa Leardoc, ait IL aact. 8l-JBAr, Die cbririlieb-ronbche
LMwalar. Caria. 1838. & p. 41.

t. EditiBaa.-Bta»|#>«frwalh(jf/aaaJiii|. BaM. 1788L 8 vob. 4. Tbew two w^.mm la coaaactloe wHb ttraa othara. la tha
•aaia fam aaJ bjr tha auM adilor, ooattla tha worfca of tha Jndaaf CkHMmm P9tU.—trviantmia ytlpft Latia ClMiicfc-Tha
ParnMiad. biplaadldaad«aluaMa,by7VK. Pana.l7eas«eh.4.— Naladane^ ihawriiar; C*. Odfawilia. naL17<)8.a>
N. miiubn. Aaid. 1667. 12. tha BsnA-.- Jkhtf. Vca. 1501. 4. fcnaiaf tha lal vol. of bb Pmtm CMW. Tctoaa. Thb hM
baaa oalladthc Printtpi; bat IhoM of JL lotiftet wan aariiar, tha 8d,Di*aBL I486, tha tat, ib.abnat 148a 4. fJDIbdin aad AdM
camp.)

8. TraadaHiNia.-GanBaB.W: P. aUhat, fta Hjibh (Mar|aBiifc oad aUgrnhmthi. Wiaa, 1820 t.

74

686 BISTORT OF ROMAN LITERATVRB.

^ 388. Ctdint Sedvlius, who lived in the 5th century, was probably a natiTe of Scot-
land, or rather of Ireiand, which at that time was included under the same name. He
was an elder or presbyter in the church. His poems are ranked higher in respect to
religious and moral worth than in respect to poetical merit.

1. The principal worli nf Sediiliiis is entitled Mirahilia tfiviiw, or^niMa jMueiUlc, a poem of 5
cantoe in hexameter. It it preceded bv a letter in prone addreaeeoto the Abbe Macedoniui, ia
which Aediillua explalna hit defllgn.— There is also a piece in eleiriac verae entitled ColUuio vtu-
m 9t noni T^utamentU merited by the siriicture called tpmiuUtftiK, in which the first words of the
bexs meter lines are repeated at the end of the pentameters. There ta likewise a hymn to Christ
in 93 strophes, each nf which befins with one letter of the alphabet.— Another piece, a fragmcat
in It lines, under the name of ihis poet, is preserved by DieuU^ a monk of Ireland in the 0th cen-
tury ; the fragment Is interesting only as It refers to a map of the world derived from matertali
furnished by oAcers employed by Tbeodoslus Sd.

asMS, Hirt. Lilt. Roa. III. lOS, UX-Jtnam, Pidkca to ed. ImIow dtod-^-AUr (u dtod $ MT. 1). p. 54.

L Editi0M.-Bert; F. JhrnaOL Bom. I7B4. 4. Cf. f S8T. l-S F. Jtmttm. LnirwdM. ITVI. a-GoBbuiwI ahe ia Am
^«C. CArM. of jfMM. Vo. ISOI.— Tlie Hfnm (Cn nataJim OMfH) b eDD<«iaad ate la M /. Wdtttm.^mrdkit'mm, u II>«1
rotinaati rnoeor. IMS. &— Tto irritiap of SadalliH an aappoMd to bava baas ptaD to tha pnMic altor hh daath, \j TWriw
Jt>i/imif^»wi<aBii>Jrf»<Ma,wliowa>coaMiA.a4>4; Uira waa fcwwrly U Aa lihwiy ef ahsi— a laa— »»l <f 1b« Jiai
corraetod Iqr Aitori«B.-Cr. SdHO, L MS. jf rMBi, p. 71.

% 389. Claudius Rutilius Nutnatiamu, a poet of the 5th century, was a native of
Gaul, and a consul at Rome under Honorius. He at length returned from that city to
his own country. This return, by a voyage along the coasts of the Mediterranean, he
described in a poem, entitled Itinerarium, or De Ecditu, consisting of 2 books in e]e>
giac verse. It has come to us in a defective state, but is not without intrinsic value.

1. Toloea iTouUnue) is supposed to have been the birthplace of Rutilius. His
Itinerary confessedly entitles him to a high rank among the later Roman poets. GtV
hon honors him with the designation of an ingenious traveller;" but toe infidel his-
torian seems always ready to praise an author who affords him an opportunity for a
thrust at religion ; and he quotes, with manifest pleasure, this poet*s *' hideous por-
trait** of the monks of Capraria. Rutilius is also violent against the Jews.

AMB. HiaL LML Bon. lii. «.— OiUon, nac. aad fall Bom. Enp. eh. nit. cL hii MkaU. K>M«, foL iv. p. US.-J. JMa,
Tract!, Philological, fa. Loud. I7M. S tolc %.-~Ummin, aa balow (S) eitarf.

2. Edlttoaa.— Bait; fP^iudorf, b vol. t. of hb JMct Lat. Mia.-£aml»«, ia voL It. of Ut Fo«t. Uf. Uia. ^Tba poaa laa

ban poUbhad aepafataly oAn ; ooa of tba Uleit aad bait./. O. Ombtr. HOnb. II04. a— Tba A^wqw, (pnbably} /. Aqtf.

II.— Onitorf.

^ 390. In the earliest ages of the republic, the Romans had many occamons for the
exercise of eloquence. The Antiquities of Dionysius (cf $ 247), and the History of
Livy, present us with debates and harangues of many speakers ; but we cannot consi-
der them as accurate specimens of the early oratory of tho Romans ; they are chiefly
the productions, so far at least as respects stj^le and manner, of those historians them-
selves. Whatever eloquence was exhibited in these ages was the gift of nature, and
not acquired by study or practice in schools.

Wc find no speaker mentioned as having any peculiar charms of oratory until the
second period of Roman literature (cf. 301), beginning with the close of the first Punic
wsr, B. C. 240. One of the earliest thus celebrated was Cornelius Cethegus^ who
flourished during the second Punic war, and was consul about B.C. 224 ; he is lauded
by the poet Ennius his contemporary as a speaker of great sweetness of elocution
{orator suaviloquenti ore). Cato the elder is said to have been an energetic, although
unpolished orator ; many of his orations were extant in the time of Cicero, who valuied
them highly, although they were not much read by others.

^ 391. In the time of Cato, the Roman youth were first specially drawn to study
the art of speaking, under the influence of the philosophers and rhetoricians connected
with the famous embassy of Cametides, about B. C. 155. Cato and others anticipated
fatal results from the introduction of Grecian principles and manners ; and in a short
time the schools of the Greek teachers were prohibited {Aul. GeU. zv. 11). The pro-
hibition was renewed subsequently in the year B. C. 92, in consequence, it is stated, of
the abuse of eloquence on the part of the sophists. It was however impossible to check
the ardor awakened among the young Romans to imitate the Grecian speakers ; and
before the close of the period now under notice (the second, ending wi^h the war of
Sylla and Marius, B. C. 87), we find a number of eminent speakers who had avsiled
themselves of the Grecian models, and whose oratory and rhetoric were modified by
the Grecian systems and rules.

^ 392. Sergius Galba and Lslius are named as the first who made important ad-
vances upon the style and manner of previous orators, in respect to embellishment and

p. V. ORATORY. 687

elegance. Sdpio ^mllianus, called also Africanus the yoanger, and M. ^milius
Lepidos (who was consul B. C. 137), departed still farther from the ancient diction,
and more seduloasly cultivated smoothness and harmony of languaee and the graces
of style. In the same age with Lepidus were other eminent men whom Cicero repre-
sents as distingttbhed orators, particularly Scipio Nasica and Motius Scerola. In

Rome, as at Athens, eloquence was a means of saininff preferment, and we find that
scarcely an orator is named, who did not rise to the hi^est offices of the state.

^ 393. The incessant struffgles between the patrician and the plebeian parties
gave frequent occasions for the efibrts of popular oratory. The two Gracchi acted
a very important part in this controversy, and theirs are the names next to be noticed
in a glance at the history of Roman oratory. They were both speakers of extraordi-
nary power. Tiberius, the elder, in boyhood, was instructed carefully in elocution by
his mother Cornelia ; afterwards, he had the instruction of the best Grecian masters,
and diligently practiced exercises of declamation. His manner was bold, decided, and
composed ; a sliebt specimen is ^vcn by Plutarch (in TS». Gratx.). Cams was more
vehement and fuU of action ; he is said to have been the first of the Romans who in-
dulged in such fireedom as to walk to and fro in the rostrum while speaking. Cicero
{J)e Orat. iii. 56} cites a passage of great pathos from a speech uttered by him after
the death of his brother. But Aulus Gellius {Nod. An. x. 3) quotes a passage from
him, which he censures as cold and tame. Caius is said to have always kept a slave
behind him with a flute, to give him notice when to raise or lower his voice.

^ 394. The names of a great number of public speakers belonging to this age are
recorded ; but it is not important to repeat tnem here. The two most illustrious, who
fall within the period now before us, were Marcus Antonius, the grandfather of Antony
the triumvir, and Lucius Licinius Crassus. The latter commenced his oratorical career
at the age of 19 or 20, aboyit the time of the death of Caius Gracchus, B. C. 121, bv
a speech highly celebrated against C. P. Carbo ; he closed it, B. C. 92, by his speech
in the senate against PhiUppus, which was still more celebrated, but which, from the
great excitement attending it, threw him into a fever that in a few days terminated his
ufe. Antonius, surnamea Orator ^ was the contemporary and rival of Crassus, and
survived him only to be a victim in the proscription of Marius, who (B. C. 87) affixed
his head to the rostrum, where he had eloquently defended the republic and the lives
of many of his fellow. citizens {Cic. de Orat. iii. 3). These orators are commemorated
as having first raised the glory of Roman eloquence to an equality with that of Greece.

^ 395. The repeated interdiction of the schools tatt£[bt bj Greek masters has been
mentioned {% 391). Crassas, the orator just noticed, is said in one instance to have
used his authority as censor against them. But the art of speaking had come to be
universally regarded as an essential requisite in preparation for public life and civil
office. It was already a custom, that if a youth had public life in view, he was com-
mitted, at the age of 17, to the special care of some eminent orator, on whose perfor-
mances, at the bar and in the assemblies, he constantly attended. Other means of
improvement were also employed (cf. P. IV. $ 125). Schools for instruction in rhetoric
were opened by Roman freedmen, in the place of .Grecian masters, towards the close
of the period now before us (cf. % 409). 7 he study of rhetoric and eloquence soon be-
came a part of regular education, and continued to be so in subsequent times.

Of dM onlory of thb period w« bav« no remiM, wcept a few Hftttercd puagM qootcd by lata-uflMm A ftifmcal of a apMek
efCaiw Oracebtti {DtUtihu» rrommltatii) baaid, bowavor, to bara bam isand, at a raeent ptriod, fai tba Anbraaiaa library at

$ 396. There were two younger orators who rose to distinction before the death of
those just named ; these were r ublius Sulpitius and Caius A. Cotta. Sulpitius was a
violent partisan of Marius and is charged with having greatly abused his political
power. He lost his life when comparatively young, on the ascendancy of Sylla, the
same year in which Antonius was beheaded by the opposite party. Cotta vras banished
at the same time but was recalled, after Sylla assumed (B, C. 84) the authority of
dictator, and subsecjuently held the office of consul ; he lived, it is said, to an advanced
age. Cicero, in his Brutwt, describes the oratory of these speakers. Sulpitius was
vehement, yet dignified and lofty, with a voice powerful and sonorous, a rapid elocu-
tion, and action earnest and impressive. Cotta had a feebler voice, and in his manner
was mild and calm, with an invention remarkably acute, a diction pure and flowing,
and a peculiar power of persuasion.

^ 397. In our next period, we have to notice the speakers, who eclipsed the fame
of all preceding orators of Rome. Cotta continued to shine in this period; but the
palm was soon taken from him by Horlensixu. The first appearance of the latter in
the Forum was at the age of 19, in an important case, in which Scsvola and Crassus
were judges, a few years before the close of the period at which we hare just taken
our glance. He gained immediate celebritv, soon rose to the head of the Roman bar,
and continued the acknowledged master of the Forum for 13 or 14 years. He is said
to have possessed almost every quality essential to a distinguished speaker. His ima-
gination was fertile, and his language rich even to exuberance ; his industry and appli-
cation in the former part of his Ufe mtense, his acquaintance with literature extensive,

688 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATTRB.

his memory powerful and ready. He indulged in a showv species of rhetoric, and m
artificial and studied gesture. He acauired immense wealth, and lived in sreat extra-
vagance and luxury, being peculiarly fond of ostentatious display. None of Us
speeches are preserved ; and were they extant, they would give but an imperfect idea
of his eloquence, as much of his excellence consisted in action and delivery.

Horiensius was for many years without a rival* at Rome. Licinius Calvus, already
mentioned as an author of^satirical epigrams (^ 33d), was an orator of some distinction,
but died at the age of 30; had he hved longer, it is not probable that he could have
surpassed Hortenstus; he left a number of orations', whicn were studied as models by
the vounger Pliny. Julius Ciesar exhibited talents for speaking*, which probably
would have secured to him very high celebrity as an orator had he pursued the pro-
fession. Other individuals, of tne same times, are mentioned as eminent vpeakera;
and some years later were Messala, Brutus, and others, who are said to have displayed
great oratorical powers.

But Cicero alone was able to emulate Hortensius with success. The first oratioa
pronounced by him (the first at least of those now extant, cf. ^ 404) was in a case, in
which Hortensius was hie opponent. It was in the year B. C. 72. when Cicero was
about 26 years old. It is worthy of remark, that Cicero and Hortensius, although
rivals, seem to have been always on terms of^ mutual friendafaip. Cicero was several
years younger than Hortensius, and ultimately bore away from him the honor dT being
the greatest orator of Rome ; yet Hortensius generously used all his influence in pro-
curing Cicero's recal from banishment. It is needless to say that the name of Cicero
is always coupled with that of Demosthenes as synonymous with eloquence, or that bis
orations and other works are imperishable monuments of genius, learning, and refine*
ment. With him, Roman eloouence and oratory gained the hifffaest degree of cultiva-
tion and power ; the age of Cicero was emphatically the goulen age of the art of
speaking.

iMHap,Uviad«Q.lNilMdH%lBlhfiJAM.*rjMiL<faifMep.vol.vi.p.iOa •CU.BnAm.—DULiiCama.aH'.dif.

il.— n)We*«<,OcUcWBOrifa,omtDrii,«(pi»te. Glaob ISIk 4.— SMrfiny, O* Cdvoi, ia ika Mm^ * FJwA /mv. loL nd.
^132. ■Qntef.IiiitO^.x.t.-Cts.Bnrt.m

^ 398. It may be remarked, that the Grecian division of oratory into three kinds
(cf. ^ 98) was recognized among the Romans; Cicero (De Oral. i. 31. ii; 10) specifies
distinctly that of trials (Judici^t that of deliberation$ {deliberatioHeM)^ and that ofpofu-
gyrie {laudationes). It is in the two former kinds, that the Roman orators in the period
now under notice had roost frequent occasion to display their ability. The constitution
of the Roman eourt$ of justice and their method of judicial procedure (cf P. III. % 2S1)
were better adapted to exercise the powers of eloquence than to secure the administn-
tion of justice ; they were such, that law, truth, and equity, might be too easily over-
come bv the skill, wit, or pathos of the orator. The questions oroujsht into trial also
were often of a character that furnished ^rand opportunities for the display of oratory;
such especially were the accusations a^nst high civil and provincial oincers for mal-
administration. Highly exciting occasions for the deliberative arE[ument or harangns
were constantly presented in the Senate^ and the comiiia. The arcumsiances of Ci-
cero's life brought him fully under these and other influences calculated to stimulats
his efforts, ana he has left splendid performances in both judicial and deliberative
eloquence.

^ 399. The history of Roman eloouence may be said to have ended with Cicero, or
at least with the Augustan a^e. The decline of liberty was unfavorable to the art
The theatre for eloquence hitherto furnished by the assemblies of the people, was
chiefly closed. The debates of the senate degenerated, in a sad degree, into merfi
eulogies of the reigning emperor. Even in the courts of justice, the pleader felt the
restraints of arbitrarv power. The custom of reciting literary productions in meetings
of select friends, had been previously established. It now became common for oratois
to declaim on imaginary subjects at such meetings, a practice calculated to cultivate a
fondness for showy ornament rather than to foster the spirit of genuine eloquence.
Schools of rhetoric were still sustained, but they produced declaimera rather than great
orators, and contributed, it is said, to deprave (he general taste and corrupt the lan-
guage (cf. P. IV. ^ 128. 3. 5).

^ 400. The principal persons, who are commonly named among the speaken of this
period, are Seneca, Quintilian, and Pliny the younger. But the two former may be
more properly considered as rhetoricians; as their chief employment was that of
teaching. The oratorical performances extant under their names are mereljr a sort
of school-exercises, of the class called dedamatioM. Pliny was a pupil of Quintihan.
Before the age uf 20, he appeared at the bar and soon acquired great distinction, con-
fessedly surpassing every other speaker of the age. Muluiudes crowded to hear him;
and he is said to have spoken sometimes seven hours without tiring any one in the
assembly but himself. All his orations are lost excepting the Panegvric (cf ^ 405).-;-
The only speaker who seems to have been in any degree a rival to Pliny, was Tmar
tus, more generally known as an historian. While quite young, he obtained a high re-
putation by his eloquence at the bar. He continaeid to plead in the forum from tk*

F.V. ORATORY. 689

first yean of Vespasian's reign until the accession of Trajan, shortly after which he
devoted himself wholly to the work of writing history. Pliny and Tacitus were inti-
mate friends ; and the former, in one of his letters {Ep. ii. 11), gives an interesting ac-
count of the trial of a provincial officer before the senate, in which Tacitus and himself
were employed to advocate the cause of the people of Africa against their proconsul
Marios Priscus ; Tacitus replied to his opponent Salvius Liberalis, a subtle and vehe-
ment orator, saysPUny, most eloquently, and with that majesty which is an illustrious
trait in his speaking (Wo^cen/mime, et, quod eximium onuioni eiu$ ine$t, otfiwi).

There is another name which ought to be here introduced, that of Cornelius Fronto
or Phronto, who flourished at the very close of the period under notice. He was a
preceptor to Marcus Aur. Antoninus, and was honored, probably after his death, with
a statue erected by that emperor. He seems to have enjoyed some distinction as an
advocate and orator, and is mentioned with commendation by his contemporary Aulus
Gellius {^Noct. Ait. zix. 8). He is said to have been the chief of a sect of orators or
rhetoricians called FrontonianM^ who wished to revive the simple style of eloquence
which prevailed in Rome before the time of Cicero.

TIm ealrmMiHor the onlory of tbli pnM bow oilut eoMtat of tho Ffenqonie of Fllgy ilrady miMd j a DOBbar of piS.
M|M whteli Sweca hu lamdncad Into Mi dadaanlien, f nm other ipedten of eoia|»ntivcly littl* ealebrily ; ud a lew Cncineola
tiWnm. TbaehiarnaydaiirhicfcwahavtarPnBlobalaiictotheda«erL8tten(ct§443).

^ 401. In the last period of our glance, we find no orator of any distinguished erai-
nence. Apuleius, who was a pleader of some reputation, has left a sinsaTar specimen
of his talents in his apology, delivered in self-defence on his own trial under the accusa-
tk>n of having employed magical arts to sain the affections of a rich widow whom he
had married. Of Calpurnius Flaccus, belonging to the same age (the latter part of the
2d century), and callea an orator, nothing is known except from a collection in his name
of Declamations, composed by different authors. In the latter part of the 3d century
lived Melius Falconius, or Voconius, who has received the title of Orator, and seems
to have been a speaker of considerable ability and address. An oration uttered by him
in the senate, on the election of Tacitus as emperor, is preserved. — After this orator
if we may allow him the appellation, the history of Latin oratory furnishes nothing im
portant to be noticed, except the performances of the later Panegyrists.

Tha nnltoB of faloiMiitt b ritao bj Vopbeot (^ 642. ^ In hb Lih of TuAim ; alio found in Ckr. Thtoph. {Oettt.) Sckuvfc,

Mbeellanaa poiitiorn bamattatia. Norimb. 1121. 4 Tba work of Calpaniim b aalitlad, £*ttrpte rMorwn minanan itdm^

moHonttf and eoaiaiai fiftjMiM plfcct from (en ontora ; It wia flfit puMtabed with tha mSnor dteJamafioNs of Qaintllian, bj A
PUhaut (clrad § 4I&. 4) ; and h tanai in P. Bunimuif$ ad. of QnlBtilk% and too(han.>.Tbe apdoff «f Aindatai b iadadad Id
« of h« worka (eC f 471. 4).

^ 403. Of the Panegyrists just mentioned, a slight account will be given below
(^ 406). Here we will merely advert to the nature and occasions of panegyrical orato-
ry. It was the same with what the Greeks called demotutrative ibrtSeucrixoi), a term
which was applied to discourses that were designed to be delivered before assemblies
either of friends specially invited for the purpose of literary recitals and hearings (dxpoa-
••W, or of people promiscuously gathered for entertainment. The subjects were often
imaginary, and seldom could the subject or the occasion highly excite the passions or
•motions. In order to remedy this deficiency and awaken admiration in the hearers,
it was natural to resort to rhetorical ornaments and a studied and artificial style. — Such
declamations were pronounced before large assemblies, sometimes before the crowds
collected at those public games which brought together all the Greeks ; and it is from
this circumstance, that they seem first to have received the name ofjMnegyrics, a term
derived from rav and dyopii. As the orators, with the desire of pleasing the multitude,
very frequently took for their theme the praise of some god, hero, or city, the term
iwnecyric gradually came to be synonymous with eulogy. Hence Cicero in specifying

this kind of oratory desififnaies it by the Latin word laudatio.

Among the Romans tnis kind does not appear to have been very much distinguished
before the time of the emperors. It is worthy of remark, however, that the custom
of delivering funeral eulogies in the Forum must have presented many fine occasions
for its exercise. There can be no doubt, that Cicero would have excelled in any at-
tempt in panegyric ; indeed, it has been with much propriety remarked that bis oration
lor tne Manilian law is a finished masterpiece of demonstrative eloquence, being but a
splendid panegyric on Pompey. The oration for the poet Archias is of a similar cast.
Under the emperors, as has been before observed, the loss of freedom occasioned the
decline of genuine eloouence. But the study of rhetoric and the practice of s])eaking
could not be renounced ; the schools were continued, and the declamations, which had
in earlier times usually been upon such subjects as might be broufj^ht into the actual
business of the forum or the senate, were now more frequently on imaginary themes.
This would naturally lead to the panegyrical style and manner of tne Greeks. How
soon the praise of some emperor was made a formal theme is not kno^n ; perhaps the
panegyric on Trajan by Pliny was the first of the kind. There can be little doubt that
such themes were freouently taken ; although we have no specimens from the time of
Pliny down to the authon of the twelve panegyrics, a space of nearly two centuries.

3D

590 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITBRATURS.

^ 403. We give here a few additional references on the general subject.

On Bmub onlovT, SchW, Lift. Ron. L IflflL ii. «, SOL-Dtmlop, HM. Ron. Uu fl. iQQi id. FbiL 1827^Aalta, MBt Un-
l« eb. Ul. wt. 9.-CA. Air. OeditUt O* Piwidita Momb. EkquentiaB, ia hb DtecrtaT. Lip*. t?8T. B.-ByrigHf, IMoq/ma

tibK imBamuai,iAm.Jhad. Inter. xMXf'uU.—CkmD»tiMrmonlotibm (cC i 41«).— AUr, 0«eh. Boot. Lit. p. 41IL (k

I— Hyiicil onlorf, /. A ITaJdk, Dia. de ont puMfyr. fctar. Jen. ITIl. 4.

^ 404. iVarrtM TuUiw Cicero was the most distinjgiiished of the Roman oratora.
He studied closely the Grecian models, and combined in himself the strength of De-
mosthenes, the copiousness of Plato and the. suavity of Isocrates. He was bom at
Arpinum, B. C. 106, and was put to death B. C. 43. — The poet Archias was his first
teacher; he was instructed in oratory by ApoHonius Molo of Rhodes ; he also visited
Athens. After his return, he was appomtea Qusstor, and at last Consul ; in the lat-
ter office he rendered the state the greatest service by suppressing the conspiracy of
Catiline. Yet he was subseauently banished through the influence of P. Clodius the
tribune ; he voluntarily retirea to Greece, and was soon recalled in the most honorable
manner. He afterwards undertook the pnetorship of Cilicia. In the civil war between
Ciesar and Pompey, he followed the party of the latter, but after the battle of Pharsa-
lia was reconciled to Caesar. Not lon^ after this, he was included in Antony's pro-
scription, and was beheaded by an emissary; o^ that triumvir.— The works of Cicero,
which remain to us, have been distributed into four classes ; Orations, Letters, Rhe-
torical treatises, and Philosophical treatises. ^ We consider him here merely as an
orator, and certainly in this capacity, his merit was the most splendid. We nave 59
orations from him, mostly judicial, some accusatory, and some aefensive ; they are the
finest models of Roman composition and eloquence.

1 . Cicero was too easily affected by outward circumstances ; elated by prosperity,
and depressed by adversity ; his disposition was amiable and his conduct generally
praiseworthy, yet he was wanting in firmness of purpose and consistency.

Cofiy«tiri<ldbloii,LiborM.T.CicMQ^ Lowi. 1741. S ndiL 4. Boit. I8ia S voli. a ttebcrtud riiIl«tfaiafni|ib7«rCieM.
— Tr. into Gmo. by O. K. F. Stidd, DbbIi. I7»I. 4 voh. 8.-JfiiniMn. Hiilein d« aeara, fte. Par. n4a S nh. 4.-L K
Mmrac/o, M. T. Cic t i(a (dn vb tnm CH irrt(ii«i, in bb oira words). 9mi. ITSSw &— J . hrgutm, an CSeno, !■ Mi AM. ^
Horn. RtpuUL cited f 28B. 7.— £. Btinon, AeoovBl of tba lift and wriUap of TnUy, In hb Jndcnl OkvMtef dadaoad ftnai Ca»
■ial BemaiM. Camlk 17691 a-Ct ate SthSO, Utt. Rob. ii. m^BUtf, p. 48S -^IkkM, cited f 44a. S.

2. Sch6ll and Dunlop enumerate only 56 orations ; Fabridus enumerates 59, but
includes three^ of which there remain merely fragments with the scholia of Asconios
Pedianus. Some fragments of six different orations were discovered in or about the year
1814, by Mai in the Ambrosian library at Milan^. Besides these, Cicero deKvered many
orations which are wholly lost. — Of the 56 complete orations extant, 14 are called Ai-
lippicM, being directed against Antony, and deriving their name from that applied to the
orations of Demosthenes against Philip ; the epithet is said to have been first applied
bv Cicero himself in a jocose manner. — ^There are 6 which are termed Vtrrine, being
all intended for delivery against Verres, although only the first of them was jno-
nounced ; for Verres fled into voluntary exile.— -The 4 CaiUinarian orations, against
the conspirator Catiline, are well known. — There are 3 orations in opposition to the
Agrarian law^ the success of which, in turning the inclinations of the people offfirom a
darling object, has been considered as among the strongest examples of the power of
eloquence. — Some of Cicero's orations were studied and written before delivery ; but
most of them were first spoken and afterwards written out, with such additions and
corrections, retrenchments and embellishments, as seemed proper'.

1 Sea MmPi edittoB, dtad bnlow (6). « Of. iWny, Ep. i. 9)L A brief aceoaofl of aaA of ttat onfleH k flvm hf Sdm. UH.

Book ii. 07, ak, and by Ihmldp, ITirt. Rmb. UL tL I5J^ ■.-Sm dM MAr, ^ 51 1.-A niavte aMlyrii or IM>^
by Blrnlr, Laet on Rhat. vol. iL lad. I&

3. There are extant several orations, which have been falsely ascribed to Cicero, as
is now generally believed. And of those still commonly ascribed to him there are jCm
whose genuineness has been questioned by some writers.

Among <be fannar aw the walioni atyled, tn SallbirtMHi rmpemia, In yaea, .titUqtmm ird t» tafltow, aad Cmtra WLm^mL

-«MM1, ii. 23, 114. cf. HvUm, Brav. Not p. 197. Tba latter ai« (lie onlioQ Pn Mandh, and Iba fear antiooi 8«|viMd te

liarebacaddivcnd hwb after Ciearo>a neall tnm baniibnical, mWOnA Pott ndittun in Smotu, Fwl niOum ad quiritm, Fn
danw tua ad Ponti/kmf Dt Hanvpiaun rqpoiw^fc—aeapectiQg tba tet few, MmrUtatd tmum to bare bacn Qw Aral to atart fta
dmibta. in a WamlMan whirb was publiriiad in 1746, in hia ** Boaaika on Qm Epiallaa of Cicm> to Bralaa^ (cf. « 440. 8V A i»
aomoo ewaaed, in which Aon in England and Ommtr ia Gannaiqr took part againt Mwklaad; and tfaa orationa wrraMill gaaanDy
raceivad aa gcnuiaa. Bnl in 1801, FKol/paUiibed an aditton (died below) of ibcM fa«r entioM, to wbkh Im prcand aa Mca^
of (be enotiovcny, advocating (be view* of Markland. Tha notioaa of WoV are adop(Bd by adrittx and by Back in their raumtiTe
aditiona of Ciccn.-Woir alto qoartioned the geanintBaa of flw oratloii for Marealliii, b aa adiUoa of i( p«UUiad in I8BBL Tba
opiniona of Wolf jtna eoatiovarted by fftUka^ In a eomnaaotery oa (bat afatkm (in kb adkieB bdow cited), aad adtacatad ^
apaldint ia an ea»y which ia eeotalnad in Wolf «a Jftcanan JtMiquHaHii Sludiarum («aL L). Ia I81S, Jug. L. JiMe» pi<»]ilii a
di«nrta»ini in which ha nain(ainad (hat the araiica waa pavlly gnoiaa aad pailty aooipaaad of tntTqiniitiniii lij i iii ihiliiiii iiia
— Cf. EmgUng, Soppl. ad Brav. Nat ftc. p. 8B-ei.— DhuIop^ ii. 1»-19IX

4. Cicero and Demoathenet have often been compared as orators ; by Plvtarcb, Qalntiliao,
and Longinui among the ancients ; and by numerons critics and writers on rhetoric and oratory
among the moderns.— See Jtniseh, Parallel der belden frOssten Redner dee ▲liertboais. San.
**aL I.—//. Blair, Lect. on Rhet. and Belles-Leu. led. zzvi.

P.y. ORATORS. CICERO. FLINT. 591

S. Editieai^WeilBUBO«oalMraadilk»ort]io loorki of Ciooot uid ofbit OraMoiu.— Whole Work i^Tbefcllowiaff an
naktd UBOOffrt Iba bMt Vcrhvg. Amt 1784. 4 ?ota. 4. Repr. Ven. 1731. 12 volt. &-V«. (XivtL Fkr. I74C. 9 mh. 4. R«pr.
OifL I7SS. 10 tola. 4. the lOth toL coataiw Eraerti** CloeCf ; an tith toL wa» nbwqacotlf poUidted eoDteiniaf notM^/. Jhtg^
Enmh. Lpx. flnt, 1737. 6 toIil & 1776. 8 vols. 8. ooatelntDg the vaJuble Clsnt Ctoroniano. Repr. Oxt. 18101 8 tola. 8.
i:4»Mi. I8I9L 8 fola. a BoH 1816. SO vols. 18. very neat. Berl. 1880. 10 vols. S. thb Beriin ed. coDtainthe fngtseata dhooven4
hy Mai. The Preface* of Efimti have been publiahed aeparately ; J. J. Enmti, PtvhtioDea et Nota in M. T. Ciccronk Open.
Hal. I806L 8 voh. i.—Ch. IK BiA. Lpi. 1796-1807. 4 vola. 8. not complete, these voIubmb inelodinc tm\j the oniltofu.— CAr. O.
StkUtx. Lpc. 1814-81. 20 vola. 8. containing the fragmenta diaeovered bj Mai, •omnuries prefixed to each oration and IreattM,
with a few no'ee nibjoined to the teit, and a UMful £cnem Ciaronianum ; this edition it much eommended bj KlUgUjtg (Suppw
ad Brev. Not. 8k. p. 82) — J. C. OrtUi. Torid, 1886-94 vola. L-vi. 9. This ie nid to contain the beat text* aa (ar aa pobliahed.
——The tarUett or Prineeitt edition was hj Mex. Mirtucianus. Mil. 1498-99. 4 vols. Ibl. a work executed with freat toil and
cxpenae (cf. Dibdbt, Introd. i. 390).— Amoof the celebrated editioea ; FktariuM. Ven. lfiS4-97. 4 vols. foL— Paid. Manuttut.

Yen. 1510-44. 10 vola. 8.— famMmo. Par. 1566. 4 voh. M.—Bteotr. L(«. BaL 1649. 10 volt. 18. OrationB.-TbebMt;

Onviu*. lost. 1699. 6 voli. 8.-0L D. AeA. Lpc 1795-1807. 4 vols. 8L the i«rt ftniahed of hit detiipied ed. of Ct whole works.
—R. JTMc. LpL 1835-87. 8 vela. 8. «<exceIleBft text." — The Prin€tp*\ir Smynluym^ Poxnartt. Rom. 1471. fol. cntainJos

all. Of actec ontioDs (here have been a vaat mnllilvde of editioM We notice here the faltowinf; O. Ch. CSmrIa (The Verrio*

orations). Eriang; 1-^4. 8 vols. 8.-^. O. tVernidorf (The Philippiea). Lpi. 1821. 2 vols. 8.—L. MBOtr (the orations agaiMt
Catiline). Hjifo. 1803. 9,-4. IHcUriu* (Oral. 12 Select.). Haaoov. 1822. 8 vols. 6.— fV. dCuf. Woif (the GMir tutpeettd ontiaru).
Berl. 1801. 8.— by rams (Oration br Maroallos). Berl. 190i. 8.— A H^uks (Orat. (or Marcelloa, with a Coniineolarf). Lpt.
l80Sb 9,— Jug. Mii, M. T. Cie. trium. orat. pro Seauro, Tullio el Flacco partes, Ac. Milan, 1814. 8.— By mnw, M. T. Cic trium
ornt. in Clodium, de ere alieoo Milonis, dc Rtuft Alexandrine Frapiirala, Ac Milan, 19H. 8.— By Mim, M. T. C. ttx orationon
partes, ftc. (a 2d ed. of the two publications jutt cited). Mil. 1817. 8. Re*peeting tbeie fragments, et KtUfKng, SuppL Brev.
Not. p. 94, 35S ; DiMin, In»md. to Claat. i. 443 ; Dunlopy Rom. Lit ii. 182.— A Q. Ntdiuhr^ Cie. orat. pro Footei. ef Rablr.
fragm. Berl. 1820. 8.— C. T. Zumpt, Oraliones Verrlnae. Beri. 1830. 8.-^. C. OnBitu, Select OnlioDi, edited from MSSw now

tmt eollated. Zuifeh, 1837. ^^evenl editiootof Select Orations have been published Ibr nae in our elaaueal aehoola; that of C.

JhtUun (N. York, 1836. 12.), is good.

CL TnuMlatlons.— Of W hole Works— Freneh—iJitonymoia. Far. 18I& 86 vola. 8. Germao.— & KloU, cdHor; <ho

Iranalationa, by diflbrent scholen, still in progreai ; the pkOoiophdaU works already pobliahed, by /ocote, Drytsn, Zutnpl; with

introdnetiona and notes. Of Orat i o n s.— Oerman.— J. B. SdaniU (alD. WOrxb. 1787-94. 8 vols. 8. (" rue >ids nee thgmtUr.'^

DUgtitti.y—P. C. mtff (select). Altooa. 1805-19. 6 vola 8. with a eontinoation, Alt. 1823. 8 vola. & French.— Ik VaUfofm

(alt). Par. 1731. 8 vols. l8.-vfuger (select). Par. ITS7. 3 vola. 12.— Oliect (against Catiline). Par. 1771. 18. Ei^hh.— IK

(hahrU (all). Land. 8d ed. l74lJw 3 vols. 8. 1806. 2 vols. &-/. AulAer/orti, The priacipal orationa of Ckon. with notes, Ae.
Looit. 1781. 4.—/. tVhitt (againat Venee). Load. 1787. 4.— /Tunean (teleeO. Load. 1771. 8. ed. by C. WMtwartk. Laai.
1777. 2 voIl 8.

7. It would require a volume to name the varioua works {fhtftreftut of the writings of Cicero. Among tbnee illuslrating the
Orationa, we advert to the Commenlariea (morraMone^ acktUa) of Q. Jiemttu PMamUi a Roman grammarian of the 1st ceo-
tuiT (ef. ( ^4}.— The eommeotary of PwiOum Mamainu ia also worthy of notiee ; a new edition was given by Ck. Q. Bkhter.
Lpa. 1783. 8.— AT. Anton. Pkmtnu, Epist in Orat Cic. Hbri sex. Vea 1738. 4. ** in quibos omnia fere, qua in orationibns U.
TtelUi dnbia, oeeomint, polemica illuatrantur." (HiirU$, Soppl. Brev. Not i. 200. cf. Pabridui^ i. 170).-^ C. SrMrUlx^ Vorschuto
am Cieeio, kc Welxet 1836L 8. containing biographical and other notices, and designed aa an introduction txi the study of Cicero.

8. A 0inirutiir literary controversy arooe In the 16th ceniary, ont of the extravagant veneration
for Cicero which waa then chcriBhed. It bejran at Rome, where Leo X. waa one of the most
sealoiis admirers of the Roman orator, and exerted all bis influence to proscribe every other
model of Latin style. But the great champions in the war were Erasmus and Julius Cesar
Bcaliger. The fbrmer commenced bis attacic upon the admirers of Cicero in a boolc styled CiU'
ronianut. He charged them with exalting paganism over Christianity, and deifying a heathen
lawyer ; asserting that they preferred Jupiter Optimns Maximus to Christ the Redeemer of the
world, and held wiueript Father» in higher estimation than inspired Jipostlea. His booic waa
filled with that lively wit and pungent irony, which Erasmus knew so well how to employ. A
defence was made by Scaliger In two Satires^ characterized by the grossest severity and bitter-
ness. Scaligfr was a more profound scholar than Erasmus, but a much less brilliant writer.
The wit of his adversary he found it easiest to repay with abuse ; and he most unsparingly
heaped upon the author of Ciceronianus bard names and reproachful epithets, calling him a
monster, a parricide, a second Porphyry.

Burtgnf, De h qneslioo, Ac, par rapport a IVatima doe a Cioeio» in the Mm. Jead. huar, vol. xxvii. I9S.

% 405. Caiut rUnius CtBcUius SecunduSy a native of Comum, not far from Mediola-
nnm, live(] in the latter part of the first century and the beginninff of the second. He
was a nephew of the elaer Pliny, and adoptee! by him. He studied eloquence under
Quintilinn ; and acquired great celebrity and influence at Rome as a judicial orator.
Under Doniitian he held tlie office of praetor, and under Trajan that of consul. His
eulogy on Trajan is a tribute of thanks for the latter dignity. It is the only specimen
of his eloquence that has come down to us ; it exhibits many undeniable beauties, but
ia too lavish both in praise and in rhetorical ornament.

1. He was a son of L. Ceecilius by the sister of the elder Pliny ; he assumed bis
undoes name and inherited his estate. At the age of 41 or 4*2 he was sent to govern
the provinces of Biihynia and Pontus, whence he wrote his interesting epistle respect-
ing the persecution of Christians. He died at the age of 52. about A. D. 110, and left
the reputation of a liberal and amiable man. There is a groundless legend that he
was converted to Christianity by Titus in Crete, and suffered martyrdom.

a. B. OUHg, Ubtn, (Aarakter, Ac dea jQngcraB Fliniua. Dorlm. 1786. &— /. J. SbM^cr, Pragr. Qber den Char, dm jO^.
Hiaiuii Ooolxtaach (Aasbach, OmoUO. 1786. 4.— On tho etory of Fliny'a eonvenloB, cL FaMdiUf BiU. Ul. ii. 419.

2. Pllnv published many of his orations and harangues, and wrote other works, the
loss of which is matter of regret. The Panegyric (Panegyriatt Trajano dictut) and
the Letters (cf. ^441) are the only genuine remains; although other works extant

609 BISTORT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

have been aacribed to him, as the dialognie de eatuit corrupim tlequeniim 1% 415. 3>,
and the book de virig UlugtrAus. — The JPanegyric was addressed to Trajan on hti
naming the author for consul A. D. 100, and was afterwards publicly reciied ; he re-
fers to It in two of his letters (Ep. iii. 13. 18). In another letter (Ep. Tii. 17) he speaks
of his great labor and care in composition (cf. P. IV. ^ 125).

SM9B. lit. Bam. ii. 41 1.— fbMaitf, BlU. Ltl. iL «2l. Fhbriciai h copied la Lmmtr^t ad. of rttay, I vol. p. 9M, ■.

a. EditloM.— TlM ^tafMfync h fivm ia nwy oditwa of llw LMten (f 441). Stopatatrlf, tbe bat; C. O- ScAwarfC Httn*.
(Norinb.) 1T4S. 4. with a loanad ud OMful eoowMBtuy.— O. B. Oi^rig. L|». 1798 S. *'wilb boIm oopioaa aad iotmStt^
MlMMiaeDilr uailad to hit odiiifM of lb* iMtan, with naw allmtioaa. Lpa. INN. t foh. 8.~Tha Prinafa, bf Pmuelanm, ftad
14081 S.

4. TnaaMXiom.'^imumn.-J. A. SM/kr- Ambut (OnoMi). ITSi. 8.->A £. mkmA Lpc. ITSSL S. rmch^Inrfi*

Stacy (Ladovieoa 9«ci(H). Fkr. I708l 8. et ) 441. 8. En(l'Hh.~IK Jbmuf (Bp.). Ixod. 188& 8.— O. SmO*. Load. m. H

.With tba EpiaUct (fay •' wvml haoda*^ aad a Ufa of Pliay by Mr. Healej. Load. 2 tcIl 8L

^ 406. Besides the oratorical works above noticed, there are the tioelve eulogim
{PttfUffyriei) on the Roman emperors in the 3d and 4th centuries. They are worthy
of nodce chiefly as literary monuments of the times, and as subservient to historical
research, and not as specimens of oratory ; since in that period there was an almost
total loss of pure taste, of good style, and of the free and noble spirit of genuine ek>*
quence. The principal authors are Clauditu Manurtinus, Eumeniugf Naxaruu, and
Zaiinut PaeatuM.

1. " These panegyrics are melancholy monuments of the decline which oratory had
suflered since the time of Pliny^ They consist of eulogies upon different Roman em-
perors and princes, which were pronounced on various public occasions, and not unfre>
quently delivered as complinientary addresses in the actual presence of the imperial
sovereigns. The cities in different parts of the empire seem to have employed this
adulation as a means of securing the favor of the reigning prince ; for which purpose
they selected their most eloquent and insinuating speakers to prepare and utter such
panegyrical discourses. The cities of Gaul appear to have eone beyond all others in
this sort of flattery ; since all the eulogies of the collection here described were com-
posed by Gallic orators. These performances are but poor imitations of the panegyric
of Plin^r. They contain revolting flatteries and frigid declamation mingled with ex-
aggerations and subtleties, and are wanting in genius, delicacy, and regard to truth.
But, although they can ecarcel)r fail to produce disgust in the reader, they are highly
valuable as historic monuments illustrating the customs and spirit of the tiroes.*' x^or
are they utterly worthless in rhetorical character. " There is considerable talent m
these discourses', with very fine thoughts, happy turns, lively descriptions, and just
commendations."

I Tba quototioa k ftan ScMD, Lilt. Boas. liL l»l SFroB JBoWn, PoIKo Ltaraiaff. la «Uad § 411. Ct C. O. OlfM, Cat

■n doodocim PuegyriooniBi Mtaraat. Gott I8(B. foi. ; alto ia bit Opuae. Jhadtm. p. 80 toI. t i.

3. Clauditu Mamertiniu waa the author of (100 of the discnurMSi ; one of ihem, enlnrizlnf tbe
emperor MaximUn, waa pronounced at Trevee, on the SOth of April, A. D. S9S^ at a. c^-lebratios
of the fnundiny of Rome ; the other, |)erha|>a of an earlier date, waa pronounced on the birth-
day of Maxiniian. Another of the panegyrira, delivered about 70 yeani later, ia nncribed tot
Claudius Mawertinus, auppoaed to he a aon of the former. — Eumenim waa a prnfesaor of rheto-
ric in the echool of Ausuatodunum, where he enjoyed a very liberal aiipend fWim ihe emperor
Conatantiua Chlorua, whom he had previoualy aerved aa aecretary. Four paneftyrica are from
him; the laat of them waa delivered at Trevea, A. D. Sll, to Conaiantine, by appointment of the
cUizena of Auguatodunum, aa an addreaa of thanka for favora beatowed on them by that empe-
ror.—JVazaritia waa a profeaaor at Burdifain (cf. $ 385) ; hia panegyric waa pronounced at Rome,
A. I). 321, and eulogizea Conatnntlne the Great. — Latinua Paeatu* Drtpanins, author of another
of the Diaconraea, waa a profeaaor of the aame place, who waa aent to Rome A. D. 39l,tocoa-
gratnlate the emperor Theodoahia. Optatianus Porphyria (cf. $ 341) la included by Fnhrmana«
among the authora of what are called the twelve Panegyrica; and also Autoniut, among whoae
worka ia found a eulogy in proae on the emperor Gratian.

I Re^Mctloff (he aulhori, lec SbMMt, Hi. 188^ «.— roMciui, BlU. Lai. ii. 424. •Kteia. Haadbaeb. p- 74S, ai citad \7.t,

a. Ediiioaa.— The beat, by C. O. SeAtDortz, completed bf W. JUgtr (Jkftma). Norioib. 1779. S ?ol«. 8. with an Appaadix
(Jlppmdbcobnrvatkmumtke.) Norimb. 179a 8.— In FUpy'tVar.li Delph. Cbiaica, No. l9l^\U.—Th» Primtpt, by JVom.
PitluOanuM, wiihoat aaoM of place, MTSl 4. coetalaiajt the p4a«|Qrrie of Plmjr and dceen otboa. Tboea aow eoawnealy edlad
the (iMlec do aot iaclnde Pliaytb— Cf. ITarta, Bt*T. MoL p. 40, 418. fUirteim, BibL Ul. ii. 488.

4. Several Panegyrica were compoeed by Symmaehiu^ an orator of aome renown In his timea,
whnae lettera will be noticed below (^ 444). Frasmenta of eiaht orationa by him were draws
by JIfai from tbe palimpaeat manuacrlpt of Pronto (cf. } 443); three of them are Imperial pasefy*
rica (eratione* A«£uttalea).

Mai publidMd Uie aune andar tbe tiOo Q. Jur. aynwnaehi oeto oralkoam partea, ftc. MIL 1818. a with a apacuaaB af Aa
cbirofrapby of tbe Ha»

III. — Rhetorieiant,

^ 407 tt. ll IS worthy of remark, that the Roman Rhetoricians had reference chiefly
to the art of the orator, and not of the prose writer in general. The beauties of styw

p. ▼. RHETORIC.

in other species of composition, except orations properly so called, were investigated
by the grammarians ana taught both orally and by written works.

^ 408. It has already been mentioned, that the attention of the young Romans was
first specially drawn to the art of speaking as such, by the Greek rhetoricians who
came to Rome with the embassy of Carneades, about B. C. 155. Lectures on rheto-
ric and grammar had been given somewhat earlier by one Crates, who had come to
Rome in the suite of Atialus an ambassador from Eumenes 2d, king of Pergamiis.
Crates, being detained by the breaking of a leg, employed himself for amusement in
giving lectures ((wpoaffcif) which attracted considerable attention. But much greater
interest seerns to have been awakened by the embassy from Athens. The three men
(Carneades, Diogenes, and Criiolaus) who composed this embassyS were teachers of
rhetoric and philosophy. They introduced among the Romans schools, in which in-
struction in rhetoric was given after the manner taught in the Greek books. Some
of the Roman Fathers apprehended danger to the state from the new schools, and
at length the following edict against the rhetoricians^ was given by the Censors:
'* Whereas we have been informed that certain men who call inemselves Latin rheto-
ricians have iasMiuted a new kind of learning, and opened schools in which 3^oung men
trifle away their time day after day ; we, jua^iie this innovation to be inconsistent with
the purpose for which our ancestors establisnca schools, contrary to ancient custom,
and injurious to our youth, do hereby warn both those who keep these schools and
those who frequent them, that they are herein acting contrary to our pleasure."

< a. p. IV. § ISOl 9 a. Sueloniut, De RheCoribua.

^ 409. But the art of speaking was so highly valued at Rome, that instruction in
rhetoric could not be wHollv interdicted. Schools were opened, as has been mention-
ed (^ 395), bv Roman freetlmen, when the Grecian masters were excluded. The ear-
liest of this description, in which rhetoric was taught in the Latin language, is said to
have been commenced about B. C. 90, by L. Ploiius Gallus, who was afterwards the
teacher of Cicero. L. Otacilius Pilitus is mentioned as another noted teacher. The-
oretical instruction in rhetoric became more and more valuable in the general estima-
tion, and the employment of rhetorician, it is stated, became highly locrative.

^ 410. The earliest works which we have in Latin, belonging strictly to the class
here denominated rhetorical, are from the pen of Cicero : who, although his profes-
sional employment was that of the orator and not the rnetorician, devoted himself,
with the-croatest assiduity, to studv and explain everything belonging to the theory of
his art. The merit of his several treatises (cf. ^ 413) is universally acknowledged;
they are the only rhetorical works that we can refer properly to the Augustan age. —
The next important name in this department is that of Marcus Seneca, the father of
the philosopher. He was employed at Rome as an actual teacher of rhetoric and ora-
tory, and left some works which have come down to us (cf. ^ 414). We refer them to
the 4th period of our division, although Seneca *was born many years before the death
of Augustus, because they were chiefly written in the author s old age. M. Porcius
Latro was a contemporary and friend of Seneca, and also a professed rhetorician at
Rome; two or three declamations ascribed to him (nf $ 414. 3) are extant. — RuiiHua
Lupus is another rhetorical writer belonging probably to the same age, although by
some assigned to a later time; we have from him a treatise on figures Jcf. ^ 414. 4).

^ 411. The schools of rhetoric were sustained in the period following the time of
Augustus, although genuine eloquence declined. Many teachers of rhetoric are men-
tioned ; as Hermagoras, and Gabinianus, celebrated both at Rome and in Gaul ; Vir-
ginius Rufus, who wrote a treatise on rhetoric ; and others, whose names it is of little
importance to repeat. They are all entirely eclipsed by Quintilian, whose reputation
was deservedly very high as a living teacher, ana whose treatise on the art of the ora-
tor (cf. ^ 415) has secured him lasting honor.

After Quintilian, we find no author of any eminence in this branch of literature. —
In our last period, subsequent to the Antonines, there were still numerous teachers of
rhetoric, both at Rome and elsewhere (cf P. TV. ^ 128. 5) ; but if they produced any-
thing of great importance, it is buried in oblivion. From several of them, however,
something is preserved.

We barfily note the following remains of rhetorlciana belong ing to the latest period. CnriMt
ForfnnA^ianus, abont A. D. 340; a work entitled Arg rketariea ackoliea, in 3 books, by question
and answer; found in Pitha:u»^ as cited $ 413. — ^qnila Rnmanus^ about A. D. S60; a Latin trana-
lation of the Oreek treatise of Numenius (cf. $ 112) Defiguria sBnUntiamm^ &c. found in Ruhn-
ken'a ed. of R. Lupna, cited ^ 41 1. \.—JvHhk Rnfinianu*, about A. D. 330 ; a continuation of the
work of Aqiiila ; also given in Ruhnken*8 edition just named.— FietoriaiM, a teacher of rhetoric
at Romp, driven from his school on acconnt of his being a Christian, by Julian (cf. P. IV. $ 1S8.
t), A. U. 362; a commentary (expontio) on Cicero's treatise de invtntione ; found in the collection
ofPitlMvs, above cited.— Cf. Sehdll, Lilt. Rom. iii. 197.

^412. We insert the following for references on the subject of the Roman rhetori
cians.

FMUte. PUhosM, Antlqai rhetore* Latipi. Pxr. 1fi94. 4.— C7aud(tu Cappermiw, Antiqai Rhetom Lrtiai. lr(a><' VtSL 4. M
liuprDTOl ei5. of f be preeedinf ; a cotlection ronfainins the Wn rb«(or>ciaiM mraiimiH above (^ 411) and Mrent oUieni— #*. Ji.
tfUdaktrg, Pnerppt^ rfaetoriea. Brannr. 17S8. 9. (cf. \ I1S).~J. Ch. napk. Awilt, LexJem tcrbaDlocbe lAttMrtui ibctoriOK.

75 3 D 2

604 HISTORY OF ROMAN UTERATURE.

hpg. im. I coattiaiBC tzphontieia of ih« technical ]«««•(• of tb* Uiia Bheioriciaw uA OnimBriana^-'CC. ite Adar,
Atlf. Theorif, ftc, iv. 47.--Ao<Iin, PeUte Lnraimc, ch. iv. trt. 2; in hu Anc. H'wiorT, p. 543-464. vol. 2d. cd. N. Yott, 1631-.
ffittltmiitf, D« clftrit rhctoribui (ct, S SSJ. 8) — ^'rtfiiion, Int. Ont. lib. IL rwpectiDS ibe Roman wheoto of RtWork hummni,
fiat. «ii. illiwlTa(iB{ tlw itata of leaning, and panicolarlj the rbalorteal Bcbmb ia the linja at DomiflaD.~i: Arrit, PbiMapcal

Inqairio. Lond. ITSI S vola 8. O. D. KVUr, Vargleictia^ d. allaa nad aruea Bcdckuoat. Leaf. I1SS. %^-J, OSKdrm^

^MtaaUca IHeraria aaiiqua Clamca. Me|aBt IMBL 8.

^413. M. T. Cicero^ already named as a practical orator ($ 404), was likewise a
most thorough, copious, and instructive writer on liis art. The following are included
in his rhetonatl works : 1. JRhetorica^ ad Ilereftnium, in 4 books, which is now thought
to be the work of another rhetorician, perhaps of Gnipho, one of Cicero's teachers;
2. De invent tone rhetorica^ in 2 books, a work said to have been written in his 18th
vear in 4 books, of which only 2 remain ; 3. De Oratore, in 3 books, addressed to his
brother, in the form of a dialogue ; 4. Brulut, or De Clarig Orttiorihus, being an ac-
count of the most dis(ingiiish^ orators; 5. Orator, an ideal picture of a complete
speaker, addressed to M. Brutus ; 6. Toptra, or the doctrine of evidence, addressed to
the lawyer Trebaliiis; 7. De partitione rhetoriea, a dialogue between himself and son
on rhetorical analysis and division ; 8. De oplimo genere oratorum, designed as a pre-
face to his translation of the rival orations of iCschines and Demosthenes in the case
of Ctesiphon (cf. ^ 106. 3. $ 107. 2). The most valuable of these works are the 3d,
4th, and 5ih.

1. Varioua ennjectarei have been made bv the learned reapectlng the real author of the books
addreaat^d to HemniuM. That which aacrlhea thn work to Cicero'a roaater, Gnipho, was first
advanced by 8chQiz, one of thu beat editora of Cicero.— The ireatiae de elari* orataribns ia a
moat valuable h(>lp In learninc the hietory of Roman eioqui^nce. — In tbe book entitled 7apir«,
Cicero treata of the method or finding proper argiimenta. The aniirces ft-om which argomema
may he drawn are called loci eommmne$, com.mom flacbs. The work Is based on that of Aris-
lotle by the same title.

CI. J. Q. Manu, Leetnrn on Oratory. Cambr. I8ta 8 vola. a-Por a fonhv oolkoor Am Mvanl waffci abet* mwaL,w»
Dunhp, Hwl. Rom. Lit. U. 194, «.— WAr, Gewh. Rom. Lit p. 501, ■.

8. EdiiioDi.— R h e 1 0 r i c a 1 W o r k ■ collectively, the bMt j C. O. ftftlUx. L|ie. ie04-«. Svak. &->/VvfK)9n, bjrjMa
(tlte ridrr). Veo. ISI4. 8.— R hat ad Hcreoaium, bait -.P. mirmatm (Jan.). Lajrd. 1761. a— D a Orator a, bnl;
O. Ch. RarlM (fini publiahcd 1776; bat a mw tmpr. ad. Jutt bftora hit death). Lps. 1816. & witb aofoa tt T. Paam.— a S
MUIUr. Lpc 1818. 9. proaooDcwl by Dibdia (tST) the bert eitaat -L. / BittrUek. Haaa. I81S. 8. «• Zaub GrbnMh Ibr
Sctiulen, mil dea notbtreodiptea Wortuad SMh-ErUateninfaa."— B r a t u a (da daria oraleribua), /. Ck Q, ITaTari. HaL
I7». a and Brnmw. 1786. 8.— #*. BImrft, RafioinaM. ISM. R. wbb aetainf Efe«U aad othan: aa4 a brief hMwy oT BMmb
oratt-ry.— CAarl(« BtdU Caiab. I6S7. «* trail wodbf of ita aalbor. one of the nort aeeuiala Utia achobn ia oar coaatry.* JbU.
Mep. No. izTiii. p. 486.-0 r a t e r, /. O. A: itieUcr. Hal. 181& i.-J. C. OnBoM, Turici, 1881. 8. with Btutw aad Ttipka.-
To p i c a, /. C*. /■. mttO, M. T. Cic. oprra rbelor. minori. inprM ed. Lps. 1823. & eoiilataifl( tbe JIMoriea ad JEferemnm,
dk invmtiont, it partiUofu, tad dt opttmo gmtn cratorum.

S. Trai»latiooa,-GanMn.— P. C. tVolff, De orator*. Alton. 1801.-/. L. B. Wolhr, BratM. Bamb. 1787. a — Prwcb.-
Abbe Coitm De onlora, with tbe Utia. Par. I80S. 12.— De yUkfon, Bmtua. Par. 1711 18. Bi«tuh.— IT. Oiittrie, Da On-
ion. Lood. I74S. a oftea rvpr.->£ Jena, Bnitae. 1771 S.

^ 414. Marcus Anntetit Senera, of Corduba in Spain, father of Seneca the poet (cf.
^ 374) and philosopher (cf. ^ 469), was a celebrated rhetorician under Augustus and
Tiberius. He wrote a work entitled Controvergia, or civil procesaes, or law^suits, in
10 books, of which we have only a part ; viz. the Ist. 2d, 7th, 9th, and 10th ; and the^e
not in a perfect state. It was a sort of Chrestomathy, and is properly ranked in the
class of rhetorical works, as it contains a review and comparison ot Greek and Roman
orators ^irh regard to invention, application, and style. We have also another work
by him, entitled SvatoritB, consisting of declamations and discourses on imaginary
themes. It is an appendix to the former work, and also incomplete. The style in
both is concise, sometimes even to constraint.

1. Seneca was born B. C. 58, and died A. D. 32. Under Augustus, he lived at
Rome and taught rhetoric. At the a^e of 52, he returned to his native country, and
married Helvia, a woman of distinguished beauty and talents. — By her he had three
sons ; Luciwt, the philosopher ; melat father of the poet Lucan ; and Novatus, who
afterwards took the name of Junius Gallio, and was the Gallio mentioned in the
history of Paul {Acts xviii. 12.) In both the works of Seneca, we find questions
which were discussed in the rhetorical schools for the sake of exercising the talents of
the speakers.

SekSU, Litt. Bom. ii. a88.-BBJhr, OaKh. Ron. Lit. p. S51.

8. Edition*.— Both worta ar« conunoaly pnn la the aditieoe of hb aea L. Ana. Saaeca (cf. § 4ML 4). Sepatataty, M. ^mn. A-
numrhH. Optra. Bip. 1783. a Repr. Bip. I8ia a TIm OMlnNMnte wm flnl priatad, Vea. liSQi Tba AMHoric added, Vaa.
1488. M. Cf. Arte, Brav. Not. p. 320.

3. Besides the declamations of Seneca, we have some other specimens of the decla-
mations or discourses which the rhetoricians reauired of their pupils in order to train
their minds for argument and debate ; and whicn were practiced by the most emioeot
orators long after leaving the schools (cf. P. IV. ^ 125). Of this kind, are a declama-
tion in Ciceronemy and another in Catilinatn, ascribed to M. Porcius LatrOf who was
a professed rhetorician of some celebrity {Quint. Inst. Or. x. 5).

4. Hutilius Lupus probably Uved in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, and was,
perhaps, the son of the tribune and prstor of that name mentioned by Cicero. His

i

p. ▼. HHBT0RICIAN8. QUXNTILIAN. 595

treatise, in 2 books, Defigurit tententiarum et elocutionis is an extract and translation
from a Greek work coni posed by one Gorgias ; not the celebrated sophist of Leon-
tium (cf. ^ 114), but probably the teacher at Athens, whom the son of Cicero left at
the command of his father. The work contains passages which were drawn from
Greek orators, and some which are not elsewhere preserved.

IV Int adilioB ww by ^'it. Rmnu nrrwrimit$. Vaa. 1619. 8. (AMr).— A tettw. bf JL aqptamiA Av. ISaOi 4.— Hm
tart I D. Muknlkn. Lmd. BaL lim, a— C. F. PnUcker. Up*. I8SI. & with RabBkcn't aota.

^ 415. Marcutt Fahiut QutTttilianuf, a contemporary of the younger Pliny (cf. ^ 405),
was a native of Calagurris in Spain, but was broaght to Rome in his infancy. He was
for 20 years an eminent teacher of rhetoric. The most noble of the Romans were
among his pupils. He instructed them by example as well as by precept, being him-
self a speaker, although his chief merit as an author is founded on his attention to the
theory of eloquence. His work, entitled De Institutione OreUoria^ in 12 books, is ex-
ceedingly valuable ; highly conducive to the formation of good taste : comprisine at
the same time the best rules and a speciBcation and critical notice of the best mooels.
The 10th is one of the most instructive books in the work.— There is a collection of
oratorical exercises, Declamationest consisting of 19 termed smaller declamations, and
145 called larger, which have been generally ascribed to Quintilian. They are very
unequal in respect of style and value, and are chiefly unworthy of this author. They
are probably the productions of several different writers, mostly of a later period.—
The dialogue, De cautia fwrupta eloquentia, by some ascribed to Tacitus, and by
some ro Pliny (cf. ^ 405. 2), is by others referred to Quintilian.

1. Quintilian opened his school at Rome under Vespasian ; he was the first rhetori-
cian who received a salary from the imperial treasury. His Institutes were written
about B. C. 92, after he retired from the business of public instruction.

CtSdk«,Utt.Roai.iLSa8.— AAallwaccointorbM li(k» b JMUn, h died ) 412.— CL PnCm to j^aJdng't •dUka bdow
dM (4).— iJoAMlI, AuMlet QuinUliuil, Ac. Omi. ISM. >.

2. The Institutes of Oratory are designed to form a complete orator. The author
therefore begins with him in nis infancy, and goes on with him through his prepara-
tory education, his professional practice, and his retirement from active life. The Ist
book is of special value as informing us respecting the manner in which children and
youth were instructed before entering the schools of rhetoric. The 2d book gives
rules to be observed in these rhetorical schools. The 10th book, mentioned above aa
very instructive, contains a notice of the Greek and Roman classic authors.

The oolj cwnplcle anDMcript of Ihb work pmerrad to Bwdcn timm wn out found by Pontio of Flormca, at the tiom of ft*
eouadlof ComUnee, A. D. 1417, hi a tower of the Abbryof St Gall; what haibwsawof UihMS. itaet kaowa; bat acopftfit,
lakM bf fva^ M BOW to England. flcASO, Litl. Rom. ii. 4001

8. QtiintiliBn sayi expreisly (TnH. Or. vi. prooBm. viii. 0), that ho wrote a treatise on the
cattf«* ff the carruptionitf eloqutnee. Thla is one of the gronnds, on which sonte itf the critics
have Kscrib«»d to htm the iialefnu now extant on that subject, aa Orarriut^ H«nry Stephens,
Saxius and others, have done. The title of the dialngiie, however, in the mantiscripts and early
editions, it>' simply de elaris orttoribus; the other part, mm de eaujtit eorrupla tlequantia, wsm
added by Lipsiiis. Spalding (in his edition named below, 4) has cited passages which he thinlcs
prove that the dlalogae was not the woric of Quintilian.— The principal writers who ascribe the
dinlnpue to Pliny are JVluC and Mtlmoth, authors of the translations cited below (5).— The early
editions and the luanuscripu ascribe the dialogue to Tacitus. Brotier and other critics follow
this authority.

BtkSU, U«t. RoDh H. 4O4.-Jtfi0pAy, Tnut, of Twitm (dtod ( 634. 5), p. 85^ «d. tL ad. Boit. 1822.-.fr. MOmath, Ldton of
Sir Th<M. FittadwrM ; with a Dialo|g« on Oratory, tth ed. LmkI. 176L 6. Ut Am. ed. RmI. 1815. 12.

4. Edition— >D • 1 a • t i t. 0 r.— Bati ; O. L. Spaiding. Lfia. 1788-1818. 4 vola. & The 4lh vol. preparad bj Buttmanm after
8|>aldlDKH dcaUi. ThcM vol*. eonlaiB the text. A Sih * ol. eontaiDing noln and index, bj C. F. Zumpt^ and a Lexicon Quintilia'
mum tormlDf a Cth vol. bj E. BonndU^ have bMm udob added.— O. H. LUntmamu Han. ISOa 8 voM. &— Q.^B Wo r k » an

|i*ni in Lanain*t BiU. ClaM. Baritar cdebralod edition ; P Burmann, Do Iml. k Deelam. Lu|d. Bat 8 Tob. 4.->Citp)W'

rantiit, Do Int. Or. Far. 1785. M.-J. M. Otnrur. GMt. I7S8. 4. Oxf. 1806. 8 volt. &-.C. JtaOin, Da Int. Or. id ed. Fhr.
ITU. 8 veil, a AUeab. (fforict od.) 1778. Oxf. (Aifram ad.) 1809. Talued tor tbo prahca of Rol!in.~P. POAom, Dodam. Ifia.
hr. 1580. a-fitfrM(fl ; hf J JBdm^ M. F. Q da Int Or. a Librie Excmpta. BoM. 18ML IS. CC N. Jma: JBcn vol. Hi. p. 2m.

De cantii corr. eleq.-«ood; /. A J. Sdhita. Lp& 1788. 9^-J. SitboiM. Goit I81S. 8.— O. AHtfdtor. Bari.l882;a

-^ F. Mtttm Boon, I8S& &~C. 8. PubU, Dial, t* Ont Lipa. IS4I. S. pp. lia-lt h |iTM in OMMt adiiioa of T^tai^ and oT
Qnialiliu. In Bntia't oditton (cited { 594. 4) a ebaon In tha dialopm Is ela«aoily npplied bj thai editor.

8. Tran!alton.-.rrMeh.-^bte (Moyn. Intit Orat Far. 171& 4. 1808. 4 roia. 18. Enflidi.— ITnrr, DaetoaMlioui Lond.

I68& a— fT. O. ChMri4, Inrtit Oimt 1766. 8 vole. a—/. ^bImB, laat Or. Load. 1774. 8.— IF. JMmoM, Da can. corr. eloq.
Load. 1754. $. Of. hk Ldun, abof* cited.— JrOur Jfurydhy. De cane. eorr. Et. (with valiMbto notai) in his tnad. of TKitn, dtod
1684.6. Gnnaa— APaAnele,loBtOr. HelnsL 1776. 8 vola. 8.->r./. IT. JVaif,dJalocBe*caiisii^aa Halto, 17S7. 8

IV.— -GrainnuirtafU.

^ 416 tt. The languBffe of the Romans gained in copiousness, refinemexit and ox
cellence, aa the arts ana sciences began to find patronage among ihem (cf. P. IV. ^ lU).

696 HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURE.

Patriotic and acute men, who had studied and admired the Greek language, now ap-
plied themselves lo a more particular investigation and improvement of their native
tongue, 'i'hese were the Grammarians, who made ihe study of language their prin*
cipal business, and gave the Roman vouth instruction in respect both to accuracy and
to beauty oi style. And subsequently, when Roman taste was declining, these men
endeavored to sustain the classical reputation and influence of the older writers, espe-
cially the poets and orators, by exhibiting them as models, and illustrating their
beauties. In the later periods, the grammarians and philologists were almost the sole
possessors of the literature. Their industry, however, did not always lake the besi
direction. Thc^ often deviated into useless speculations, prolix discussions, and arbi-
trary technicaUties, which gave to their pursuits a dry ai|d forbidding appecL Some of
them put their researches into a written form, and various essays trom them have come
down to us.

^ 417. It has been before remarked (^ 407), that the i^mmarian nive inetructioa
respecting language and style generally, while the rhetorician con6ned himself to the
style andother qualifications ol the orator. 'J he Romans at lirsi applied the term
lileratua to the grammarian, meaning iust what the Greeks did by ypafifMrtKis (cf. P.
IV. ^71), one who was well instructea in letters. Afterwards the term grammaticu*
was introduced by the Romans in the same sense. We translate it by the word gram-
marian, but the term phUologisl would be more appropriate ; because the studies and
instructions of the grammaiicus were not hniitcd to the mere forms and syntax of lao-
guaee in accordance with the modern limitation of the term grammar ^ but were ex-
tended over the whole field of interpretation and literary criticism.

^ 418. It is commonly stated, that the first who awakened any interest at Rome in
the studies of the grammarian was Crates of Mallus, who came to Rome in the embassy
of Attains, 6. C. 168. His lectures probably were in reference to Greek authors, but
served to direct the attention of the Romans to productions in their own language.
Latin grammarians soon appeared ; among the earliest Sueionius mentions two Roman
knights. They were, however, generally slaves or freedmen, and probably of Greek
origin. Some of the more eminent of the early grammarians were the following;
Aurelius Opilius, who composed a commentary in 9 books on different authors ; Va&
rius Cato, authcw of a poem before mentioned (^ 344) and of various other works; An-
tonius Gnipho, who left a treatise on the Latin tongue. I'hese flourished in the time
of Sylla; Gnipho continued to teach for a long period and seems to have finally opened
a rhetorical school, where Cicero attended on his lectures (cf. ^ 413). Nothing of their
grammatical works now remains.

In the opening of the next period, which extended firom the war of Sylla, B. C. 88,
to the death of Augustus, we find one author of special value and celebrity in this
department, M. Terentius Varro (cf. ^ 423), who was celebrated as the "most learned
of the Romans;" he made most extensive researches in grammar and philology,
of which some valuable remains are preserved to us. — Another grammarian of some
note was Verrius Flaccus, who was employed by Augustus to teach in the imperial
palace ; of his principal work we have an abridgment (cf ^ 428). — Juhus Hyginus, a
freedman of Augustus, and keeper of the Palatine Library (cf. P. IV. ^ 126). was also
a professed grammarian, and left a commentary on Virgil with other writings ; his
philological works are, however, all lost.

$ 419. In the next period, extending from the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, to the
Antonines, there were many writers belonging to the class now under notice. In the
precedmg period, a chief object of attention among the grammarians was to inquire
mto the origin and structure of the Latin language. But in this, their attention was
directed to the interpretation and criticism of authors, especially of the works, which
appeared in the age of Augustus; as the grammarians of Alexandria employed them-
selves much in commenting on the classic authors of Greece. Asconius Pedianus in
the 1st century (cf. $ 424) gained some celebrity by commentaries on Virgil, Sallust,
and Cicero. There were two grammarians by the name of Valerius Probu«^ one
under Nero and Vespasian, and the other under Adrian. Rhemnius Palsmon' was a
celebrated teacher of^ grammar in the reigns of Claudius and Nero. Annaeus Coma-
tuB, who has been mentioned as author of a treatise in Greek (^ 227), is supposed to
have exerted a considerable influence on the literature of his age by his instructions at
Rome, and by his writings, among which was a lost commentary on Terence ; he
taught philosophy as well as grammar, and was flnallv banished by Nero. Velius
Longus^ is the name of another grammarian of this period, who left a treatise on ortho-
grapny, still extant, and a commentary on the ^neid, which is lost. We have hke-
wise a treatise on orthography ascribed to Terentius Scaurus*, who lived in the time
fif Adrian, and was preceptor to the emperor L. Verus; he wrote also a grammar and
a commentary on Horace's Art of Poetry. Cornelius Fronto, named among the episto-
lizers (^ 443), should also be mentioned here, as he was an eminent grammarian and
teacher, and left a treatise, still extant, on the different meanings of words commonly
flailed synonymous.

But one of the most valuable and interesting authors in the department before us is

F. ▼. eRAMMARIANS. TARRO. €0T

Aulas Geltiiu, who flooriBfaed at the very close of this iwriod ; his miscellaneous pro-
duction, entitled Noctes Attica ^ will be noticed below {i 425).

> Tbeniaolif«tiMaKrtbedtoral«iw/Vo6iaii«,(l)BgruiiiiMr,f*«mniaNeanim<^^ (2) u aeMool of Robmb

MMMgnplif, ^ nttU Romantmm ; (3) ScMta on Ow G«ir(ia aod Baoolici of Virf il, foaad in the eolIcdioD of FutacH, eitad
Mow 0 4B) ; wpinl«l7, H. Bnut, Sons, l<47. 8L TIm wiwla on ViiyU (with otbw commntariw), by J. MaL Mil. 1818. 8.

^« TIM ooly worfc ttf PiUnwn Mtuit b bb SumivM Orammadev, or ikoleli of grunmu'i gfvn alto by AifjeA.— * Tbo

graaiMitieal pioon raaaiainc fran Loafoi, Bctuni^ tad Froate> uo givn bj tfao MiMi Itet of Franto IdwwiH by If^ (cL
|44l8).

^ 4?0. In the last period included in our glance, the studies of the grammarian and
philologer continued to be held in honor. In the eastern emptre an imperial ordinance
m the beginning of the 5th century contained the provision that all Greek and Latin
grammanans, who had been employed in teaching their science for twentjr years,
should hold the rank of Vicars (mcarii). The Vicars were governors of extensive pro>
vinces, and belonged to the class of di^^nitaries who were styled Spcetabiletf and were
addressed in the words Vestra Spectabiliiat or Vettra Claritat.

^ 421. Of the numerous grammarians of this period, the following may be named as
the principal ; Nonius Marcellus, Censorinus, and Pomponius Festus of the 3d century ;
.£liu8 Donatus of the 4th century ; Macrobius, Diomedes, and Charisius of the 5th
century ; whose works are mentioned in the followinff sections ($^ 423—432). Mar*
cianns Capetla may properly be named here, although the peculiar character of the
work left by him to posterity is such as may justify our placing him among the philo-
sophical writers (cf. ^ 473). There were others, of whom some remains are preserved ;
as Flavins Caper, Victorinus*, already mentioned as a rhetorician, Lucius Ampelius^,
Mallius Theoaorus^, Pompeius^, Servius the commentator on Virgil^, and Acron and
Porphyrio', commentators on Horace.

Priscian of Coesarea (cf. ^ 433) does not fall chronologically within our glance, as he
lived after the overthrow of Rome, A. D. 476 ; but he must not be omitted, being one
of the most celebrated of all the Latin grammarians. Isidore of Seville, who lived
still later, is also deserving of mention here on account of his labora in grammar and
philology (cf. ^ 434).

1 Tbo rennim of Carer, and tbo gmnmatlcal placH of netcrimu aro pvca la the colloctloa of Aifaeb (ct 1 482). • Pram

JhnftKm we bavo a work atftlod Liber tmmoHoHt. in M cbaptew, oa varloM topiet, miajr of tbem bMorieal ; it h commentf

gives ia iho oditiom aTlbrw (cf. ) »& S). 3 ttUUiu TVodonu, at the eloM of Uie foiotb ceatary, left ■ work Zte Jfrtrif ; pab-

Ibfbcd fin* by /. JP. Hauinttr. IT56. Bcpr. LopL Bat. 1788. 8. « Tbe werb of Pompeiaa ai« two piece* wbieb are coea*

BMtariH 00 Dooatoa (eC (498); lint pablMiod by Fr. Lb^mmm. Lp^ tSlOi & •The poraly icraaiinatieel pieeeiar Sei*>

vtoi are fires by Putteh (cf. \ 4n). Tbo coaiaMBlary oa Viifil is fivoa la Umab^t Virgil (e£ f 988. 4) aad other edIHoM

• Tbe eooiniente of Acraa aad Porphyrio are givea io naie of ibe editioM of Uonee (€11)888.4); theae pwnnariana aia placed
by •one aa early aa the iMoad eeatDry.-4ee adUKL Litt Roia. UL 8I1,h.

% 422. We give here some references on the subject of the Latin grammarians col-
lectively.

1. Coneetieaa..^. TVrf. ABooaou, Omaoiatki niailm, siL Tbr. I61& kA.—DUmt». OMofni, Aactena Latias Ua^m,
b mam redaeti eorpaa. Gaoo*. IS85, IflBL A^S. PutadHua (Patoeb). OtanmlicM Uttoa aaetoree aatiqal. Baa. I8IMl 4. !»
cladiBC tbo ranaiaa of aboat thiriy wrilen.— Aa aeeouat of tbo ooaloBli of (haH CoHedioaa b ifTaa by /Urio'ti*, BiU. UL iU.
818, «. Cf. aiao F. J. ^beri^ Allf. bibliogiBph. Laxlcoii, L 700^ m^F. lindhiiMim, Corpoa Onaaowliconun Latiaoraak 1881. 4.
coaimeacad aad to bo coBliaued ; let vol. aid to bo woU onevlel— We awy add here, 7. OuA/orri; Seriptorea Utlai lai Mtrioa.
Ojf. 1S37. 8.

8. Ropectinc Iho graaimariaiia ; Suetoniua, I)e illuKr. gramantide (cf. ) 897).~4iiMi{i«fi, Inrt. Or. lib. i.— JBolKn, of Oiaak.
mariau and Pbilolofen, in Adc. Hist. p. 4S7. n. vol. ii. ed. N. T. 1835b-.SM0U, Ult. Rom. L 184. ii. 237, 48ft. iii. 807.-/. &
Aa. fVWelktttt, Dm de orta e( prograMQ artia crit. apod voteraa RooMBoe. Jea. 1747. 4.— Diml«p, Hkl. Roai. Lit. ii. 8&— AMr,
P.709L

$ 423. Marcus TeretUius Varro, who was bom B. C. 117 and died B. C. 27, was
an uncommonly fruitful writer. In his youth he followed the profession of war and
was on the side of Pompey ; he afterwards went over to the party of Caesar, who gave
him the charge of his library. By Antony he was banished; but under Augustus he
returned with the other exiles. He closed his Ufe in literary ease, at the age of 90.
His work on the Latin tongue consisted originally of 24 books ; but we have now only
the 4th, 5th and 6th, which treat of etymology, and the 7th, 8th and 9th, which treat
of the analogy uf language ; of the other books merely detached fragments remain.
OiT account ot the antiquity and the accuracy of these writings, they doubtless are
worthy of the first rank amons the grammatical productions of the Romans. Varro,
however, often went too far in his etymological speculations, and was too partial to the
domestic derivation of Latin words.

1. Vsrro was an hlftnrian, |joel (cf. ^ 345) and phlloaopber, n.% wall as frammarlan. Hit works
are aald to have amounted to nearly 500 Id number. Of these nothing remains but the parte of
the work already named da lAngua Latiiu^ a treatise on kuabandry (cf. ^ 409), and some slight
fragments of other performances.— Tbe titles of many of tbo lost treatises indicate that they be-
longed to tbe class properly denominated eritieal or phUohrktil. Others were on mftkoUgieeJ

subjects : e. g. the treatise D« eultu DBorum (cf. $ 503).— Others were biographical and kiatorieal;
among which were a work entitled JSnnalaa, and another Ds inittia urbia Bamm ; also a work
entitled Hebdamadum or />e imaginibua^ containing notices of seven hundred eminent men. Cf.
Ami. 0»n. Noct. Att. 111. 10. xvi. 0; Plin. Hist. N. xxxv. 3.— A few were phiIoaopkiral{ that ^
Fkiltuopkia contained a comprebenslvo viow of all tbe ancient sects with thetr auboffdinait

608 * HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

•cbooto and partiei. He wrote many suHrieal pieeee (cf. } 345). There te a eollectloD ofmaamg
•ztani, wbtch is eatd to have been drawn from the work* of Varro ; they are glron in ScAmef-
4«r't collection cited $ 489. 3.— Aiigueiine in his work De eivitate Dei^ often refers to the work of
Varro ; and there was a itrnundless story that Pope Qrpgory caosed the writings of Varro to be
burned in order to shield Augustine from the disgrace of having borrowed loo freely from them.

Por a flaw «ir the life ud «rritii«s of Virro, tec Dunlop, UkL Bob. Ul iL. n>a-A*mUr, d* vlU T. Vinwit, kc^ is te
CtBMUon Jtat wmai.—F. Mtaunu, De vile VamaK *«. Ln|d. lieS. 8.

I. EdHion.— W h e I e W e r k t.~-Prinapt, by H. Atphamu Pw. ISflB. 8.~Moet eonpMe. Dordfwbt (Don DofAacaiO^
MI9L Bcfir. AbuL l«n. &-D e Latina L I ■ f a a.— Bert ; Kpeal, 17S8. 1 volt. 8.-4X O. iX Aiir, liMm CriL is Vm
MB. de L. L. (pd V. C. HeTse). Ovob. IIKl 8.

^ 424. Aiconiut Pedianutt a native of Padua, was a grammarian of the lat centtiiy.
He wrote annotations on some of the orations of Git^ro ; fragments of which are still
extant.

1. These fragments or extracts were found by Poggio in the convent of St. Gall near
Constance ; they are styled Enarratianet in M. T. Cic. Oratimies. Some additional
notes were discovered by Mai in the Ambrosian library at Milan. The commentaries
of AsconiuB on Virgil and Sallust are entirely lost. There is an historical work entitled
Ortgo genti* Romana, which has by some been ascribed to him ; but is usually ad-
mitted to belong to Sextus Aurelius (cf. ^ 539).

Ct A*«B, Un. Han. iL 4ffi. UL iaa.-n*r, OeMh. aOB. Ut. p. 5IIL

8. KdMom^PHntuft (em PoggK). Vcn. I«n. fol.-Utnt eaiMd by Blkr (con not CmMU Leyd. ISH. IL-OirCB «i(h
C^orallen la Iheed. ef Ormrfut (died f 401 6).— The rrafmeBla diMovwed by Mai were piddhhed by hte is ftU (ef.§«M.S).

% 425. Aulu9 GflHug, born at Rome, lived in the time of the emperor Antoninus
Pius. His work entitled Noetet Attica, is a collection of various observations, which
he had gathered from the best Greek and Latin authors for the improvement and en-
tertainment of his children. The collection was made in the winter nights, during his
residence at Athens. It consists of miscellaneous remarks chiefly on erammatiol,
historical, and antiquarian topics, and contains much valuable matter for tne philologer
atid critic. There were originally 20 books; the 6th and the beginning of the 6ifa
are lost.

1. He is called AfeUiut in some manuscripts, and the French write his name Aulu-
gelle. Cornelius Fronio (cf. ^ 443) was one of his early teachers before he went to
study at Athens. After his return to Rome he was appointed one of the Centumviri,
or member of the eentumviral court (cf. P. HI. ^ 262). His death is supposed to have
occurred before A. D. 164. The Noetet Attica contain a number of extracts from lost
works. The arrangement of the contents is not methodical, and the style is not free
from impurities.

ScMB, Lilt Ron. iil ao>.~l»iifti— aod Eiem. in tbe editioH of LmgcUua t CanrmH below dtad—Oe Oh ^eoT QiBm,
Bm. neducU, In the Dhi. * ■(«< Peripli mun Enziei, given in Ai^nn'f Minor Oradi Georapben, cited f SOBf. S.

I.EdilJone.~BHl)dl.IJo»i. GML 1824. S vole. 8.-OnNMe<iM. Lofd. Bat. 1706. 4.-J. £. Cpnnirfi. Lpb 1788. 2 rok 8. a
ninnTMiooor Onmov'a.^The BiiMnl td. 1784, h bend on tbe wum; at ia that a( R D. Lonfotttu. Cwte Rtfoit I74r. 8^
Princfpt, by 9iwynik<ym f Pannartx (printm). Rom. 1488. fol. ed. /. Jhtdnat AlerinMia, bidwp of Aleria; "adereHd
ainonf tbe rami of Ibe EftUiona Prineipet.''— An improved ed. of Aal. Cell. Meow to be a doiideratna. CC Fairkba^ BitL lA
iti. IO.~aUM, Intr. Or. * Ul. Omm. L 948.— PML CanlvMf Aninadveraionai in A|cUi«B, *c {Ck. JnuU, cd.) NorWb.

tea. 8.

8. 'naMlalioML.-Ocrman.— S fV. vm WanauUnu Leoifo, 178S. & Freoeh.-^. Dousm dt FtrtaO. Far. 178SL 8 voIl a

Engtiih.->ir. Jrloc. Land. I7B& 8 nda. 8.

^ 426. Cefuorinuf, a grammarian of the 3d century, is known by his work entitled
De die natali. It was addressed to his friend Quintus Cerellius on the occasion of his
birthday, and contains much learning. It treats of the different periods of human life,
of the divisnons of time, days, nights, months, jears, &c. mostly in a philological
manner. He wrote also a work on accenlSf which is lost excepting a few passsges
quoted by Priscian.

1. The work of Censorinus treats also of music, astronomy, of periodical games
and celebrntions, and other topics. It consists of 25 chapters; and is of consitierable
value in determining various questions in chronology and antiquities. — The early edi-
tions of Censorinus contained 15 additional chapters, which Louis Carriot in his edi-
tion, ^rst separated from the rest as forming a separate work, entitled De nalumli
institutione, and probably not belonging to the same author. They treat of geometry
and versification.

5MBU, Utt. Bon. iii. Sl8.~/UrUttt, BibL UL ill. 4l7.-f OAr, p. 881.

2. Editijm.— Tbe moat complete; & Barmuanp. Uyd. 1748. (wHh new title 1707.) &-J. S. OrtUcr. NQratk (Norii^)
»605. r«p- tSIO. e —Tbe edition of L. Carrio, mentioned above, waa printed f*r. 1688. 8. lepr. Uyd. 1809.— The Phneipt, vUk
tbe Tatula COak (cf. k I8S). (Btntd. Htaar, printer) Bonon. 1497. fid.

i 427. NoniuB MareeUut^ a native of Tivoli, lived probably in the 4th century, but
is placed by some at the close of the 2d. We have from him a work styled Ccmpen-
diosa doctrifia de oroprielale aermonumt in 19 chapters, written for the use of his son.
I'hey are valuable on account of the subjects treated, and the fragments of ancient
writers which they contain.

1. He >B Rurnamed in some manuscripts Peripatetieui Ttburitfunt. The critics have

p. ▼. GRAMMARIANS. FE8TUS. D0NATU8. MACR0BIU8. 699

passed very diflerent opinions respecting the merits of this work^. " It is certain, how-
ever," says Sch61P "that no ancient graoimanan is more rich in his citations from
previous writers."

1 Cr. AMr, Ik no -O. /. rtmhOy De mUAog. cap. 6.-^. Upriia, Asti^ lad. \l e. 4. • Sd>9tt, Utt. Ron. IB. SIS.

2. CditioiMk—J. JArtonit, (Jowai le M«rcler). Pair. 1614. 8. with F«lc«atia ie fritco mmam. Repr. Lipi. ISML S.—Prin-
tipi (MONdi^ to ■DOM) PamponUu ad. Ron. 1471 ; (othen) N. Jauon^ prbtw, Ves. 1471.— It ■ fooad la mom aditioiH off
Vmm, cC § 423. 2.-Ul«Mntioas tt tba dranotie fngmcati firaad in Mooioi, bj Jbuvtnt, ■• eitad § SIS.

% 428. Sextus PamponiuB Festug, who lived probably in the middle of the 4th cen-
tury, left a work entitled De verborum signipcatione, in 20 books. It is, properly
speaking, an abridgment of a larger grammatical treatise of Verrius Flaccus (cf. $ 418.)
From this abridgment another was made by Paulua Diaconui or Winifridt in the 8th
century, which is the only one that has come down to us.

1. The words are arranf^ed alpbabelically, and each t>ook of the abrtdgment coataim a letter.
**Tbe abrldfinent of Festua it a work very uaefiil in acquiring a knowledge of the lAtin tongue,
but it hai experienced an unhappy lot. It eziated entire until the 8ih ceniury, when Paul Winl-
frid formed from It a meager compilation, which from that time supplanted in the librarlee the
work of Feaiua. The latter la indeed lost, excepting that In the 10th century a single Imperfect
manuscript was found In Illyria. This manuscript, commencing with the letter M, fell into the
banda of Aldus Manutliis, who incorporated it with the compilation of Winifrid, and made of
Ihem one work ; which he printed, in 1913, at the end of the Comuco^ ofP§roUo.**
SeUtf, Lift. Rom. tiL SIA.— BCMf^ Ganb. Ran. LiL p. 791.— Re>peetii« Ptntto, cf. ( 372. 1. 5b

a. EditioM.— Tba bart, Ji. Daeitr (in ok Daiph. Par. 1881.) impr. by /. Ocrc AnwL laW. A^Prinoft, bjr Zivstti (priatM).
MiL 1471. M.

^ 429. JEliu9 Donalu9, a celebrated philologer of Rome, in the 4th century, is also
known as the instructor of Jerome. We have from him several grammatical essays,
which have served as the basis, in some respects, for modern authors on Latin Gram-
mar. They treat partly of the elements of language and of prosody, and partly of
syntax and diction. He left also a valuable commentary on five comedies of Terence,
in which he not only illustrates the meaning of the words, but comments upon the
plan and the dramatic character of the pieces.

1. The two principal grammatical treatises are styled Ediiio prima de literitt tylla'
hisquct pedibust et tonist and Editio seainda de odo partibut orationis ; they are some«
times termed Ars Dtmati. I'hey form, when united, something like a complete
firammar, being the earliest systematic Latin grammar known to have existed. —
There is another treatise by him, De bariMrismo, solacumo, tdtematUmty et tropia.

A brW lib and dMcripHon of Donatoa which /^tr DanU copied from a maaaMripl in fha Royil Ubnxj of Fftrb k g^fm bf
Pabrkina ; It rcptanati bin at of a naan and dhfoatiaf panooal appaanaoa ; bat it ii aa abmrd docaiDMl of ap aatbority.— Ak
trithu, BiU. UL Hi. 40a— SbMD, Litt. Ron. iiL 917.-4aa L. aehepm, Dha. *c., diad § aB& S^

2. EditlcNM.— Tba Ofaoinalkal amTa, bf AA aupkamu. Par. IMS. & eoiitalaii« ttw eeunartmaa oe Omb hf Sat^ai and
Sarvloa. AlaopTaaia thaCollactiPBof iHi<afl^rited^4a2. andintbatof Lliidtoiuwui.— Foe Iba coMweliaf fttnpdaa oa D»
■ata^ Ma 9 4>t.-.Tba conmnlaiy on Taraaca b gives in tba more complata adttloM of that aoibor (cf. $ a5& «). A OmaM
liudalionorapaftorU,FManbL ITtt. &

3. There Is extant a commentary on Virgil ascribed to Donatus ; but it is generally considered
to be the production not otJEliutf but of 'Piberitu Claudtua Donatus, who lived perhaps In the
same period.

Priat«d NtapoL 163ft. wHb Pnbui <n 0» BacoUci (cf. \ 419).

^ 430. Maerobius Ambrosiua Aurelius Theodoaiuit of uncertain origin, lived pro-
bably in the first part of the 5th century. His commentary on Cicero's Dretim of Set-
vio, m 2 books, contains much that is useful in reference to philosophy and to mytho-
logy. His seven books of Saturnalia or Table-taUcs, are specially valuable in philo-
logy, although thev consist chiefly of compilations from other authors, Greek and
Latin. Much is taken from Gellius, and the 7th book is almost entirely from Plutarch.
Of another work by him, strictly grammatical, on the difference and affinity of the
Greek and Latin verb, we have an extract made by an unknown Johannes, perhaps
the celebrated Scottish John Erigena. *

1. Some have supposed that Maerobius was born in Greece ; in the manuscripts he
is styled Vir eonsularia et illustris. Some have also thought him to have been a
Christian. — The full titles of the three known works are given as follows : Commenta-
riorum in Somnium Sriptonis a Cicerone descriptum Lib. IT.; — Satumaliorum convi-
viorum Lib. VIL;'-'De differentii* et iocietatibua Graci et Latini verbi. — The second,
the Salumalia. is in the form of dialogue, purporting to be the transcript of conversa-
tions held at table during the festival of the SaturnaTia (cf. P. III. ^ 230) ; it includes
discussions of historical and mythological topics, explanations of various passages in
ancient authors, and remarks on Roman manners and customs.

SeMU^ Litt. Rom. ill. SBl-MMiiJ, DIai. rar la ria da Maenba, ib tba Omm. Jbum. vol. si. p^ lflB.>OB tba pi^hrfan bf
tome charpd oo Macnbiaa, /. TkonuutuM, Dba. da Plagto Mlar. Lipa. iSlS. 4.

2. EdilMw-.Tba Farhnim ad. by J. Omumu, Lafd. Bat. ISVOi a h aid to ba din Iba bart. aapr. Land. ISM^Tkat
tiJ.CZnfm. Lpi.m4.& b falaad only far tba aotah-Tha ^Iqwnl, ITSa I rala. a hM aa aotas bat a cartacl tvrt, asd a
aMfal NotUia Ltlowta -Primapa, aceardiag to Dtbdia, Jnmn (pr.). Vao. 1471. fcL— Tba tiact «■ Iba Onak aad Lain ««b to
givca ia tba colleetieB or ArfKlk, citad ; 428.

$ 431 (. Flaviue Soaipater Charisiut, who flourished probably at the commencement

600 BISTORT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

of the 5th eentary, wbs a natiye of Campftnia, a Christian, and a prafesaed _
at Rome. He compiled for the use of his son a work entitled iruliiutumeM Gr
tiemt in 5 books : it ia atill extant, but the let Sl 5th booka are in a defective state.

I. CfeaiWw it by MM phMd b tbt tth MOtaiyp-AMI^ LM. Bob. iU. «•.

1. Mitinw -CwtolMd in «h> piMiMlWI coU>etbinof Pwiwb, cHid j m^^Um by PL IMrMM. Bm. i«L a ftiMfi^

^ 432 1. Diomedest although the time when he flourished is not certain, was pro-
bably of the 5th century ; he ia quoted by Priscian. tie left a grammatical work, in
3 booka, De oratione, de jmrtibuM oratioHig, et dt vario rketorum genere. Nothing is
known respecting him; but his Greek name may perhaps be conudered as indicatuig
that he was a slave.

Ite ooDeetioB of Ailidk (cC. 1 40).

^ 433. PriMcianugf a Latin grammarian of Constantinople, was a native of Ccaaica,
or according to others a native of Rome educated at Caesarea. He flourished probably
in the first half of the Cth centurj. Hia Grammatieal Commentaries, in 18 books
(Commentariorum grammfOticorum libri zviii.)i form the roost extensive andent work we
have on the grammar of the Latin language ; and are considered as holding a clasncsl
authority on that subject. The first 16 books, treatins of the several parts of speech,
are commonly called the Larger Priscian, and the 2 last, which treat of syntax, are
called the Smaller Priscian.

1. The Commentaries are addressed, or dedicated, to Julian, not the Apostate (c£
^ 127), but a man of conaular and patrician rank.

JWrMm mufHim ■ H— bf ■— cripr cB«»*lrt^ thb worfc {eoits mhtdm wmmhrmi^mm* wiieh pnkmmia hgn kmm
wifttHi ■ICovteriMptodBriBftlMeoiMlihipor Olifariw; th« capgrkt, om Tlaadefm, etlb Uiadr a dadpl* of Awin. Ite
coMhhlpar Olibriw, which h (i«w fiirlte date «r thh mtamertpt, wm A. B. iaL-9m nkHemu, BM.Lm.iiL MS, anmtt$
L LM. Bam. «(. ML

2. We have other grammatical works from Priscian; among which are treatises
with the following titles, De aecentibus, De versibus comtcts, De declinalione nomimmm
De praexercUamentis rhtiorica. — Priscian was also probably the author of three poems,
which have sometimes been ascribed to Rhemnius Fannius; viz. one entitled Perie-
gesis e Dionysio, a version or rather imitation of the Greek of Dionysius (cf. % 217), in
1067 verses ; another entitled De Sideribus, in 200 verses, little else than a dry nomen-
clature ; and the poem De panderibut et mensuris, of which we have only 162 verses.

JM0B, Lift Rob. HI lia~aaAr, OMh. Biaik Lit p. ISI, las^ STi, 131.

aEdttiawL-Th«C0B»»«t*rUi. Bt, byJ.aWtf. L|«. ISIS, t «nh. a «ial*lBh« al» aB A* oSmt weito^<nt
olhar ffMM—efaal tnmkm, Wr. Kwrfwwiii, Prhdial Optia mi—. Lifd. 4 Lp& ISia a^-Ali the raamaHcal wmfta am ia
Aitirt(|4Sa).>napoiM a*«(k«i b IVb^Mioi/^ Boat. Lat Mto. eitadf >«. 1— Tha paw — WaigMK fcfc, hy BiiSnte
VtaB.lflaa

% 434*. hidorus Hispalensis, commonly called Isidore of Seville, was a native of
Carthago Nova (Carthagena), and held the office of bishop of Seville. He died A. D.
636. His principal work is usually cited by the title Origtnes; sometimes by the title
Etvmologtesf it consists of 20 books, and contains a great variety of matter, being
indeed a sort of Encyclopedia. The last 10 books are chiefly occupied with the ety-
mology and explanation of words.

1. lie wrote also several treatises on rrammatical subjects; a chronicle, or history
of the world, from the Creation to A. D. 615 ; and brief -histories of the Goths and
Visigoths. Besides the works already named, on account of which he is mentioned
in this place, he likewise compoeea various treatises cm sacred and eccleaiastical
subjects.

I JL IktriduM, Btbl. Lat madia at teSiM alatii, kc, toUlr. p. IBS. ad. of Jfcmi (Maftt, 1154. • aolh e^^-SMB, US
Boan. Hi. 3M.~ClarU, Swe. of Sac LU. nL H. ^ 384. aa died ( 298.

t. EdMoHL— W h 0 i a Workt.^Bc«t,JrnMlt. Roaaa, 1797. Sfoh-fbU-TheOrf (I nas nvraSnlp
kfikZamm. Aagmi. TaM. Hit. tA^ym^wmm by B.Fttkmiu». Bak ISTT. M.

\4^~Epi9toizzer$ and Bomancen.

^ 435. A large number of Lelten or Epistles is presented to the student in Roman
Literature ; and in this department the language is justly said to be rich. We find
two classes of letters ; those which were actu&n]r sent to individuals in the real inter-
course of life, and those which were merely- put into the form of letters on account of
a preference in the authors to express in such a form, what they originally designed
<or publication. The earliest letters in Latin, of which we have any notice, were of
the former class, and belong to the third period of our division, extending from the
ciTil war. B. C. 88, to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14.

F. T. EPISTOLIZERS. CICERO. 001

The principal and most important are those of Cicero, particularly noticed in a sub-
sequent seciion (of. ^ 440). ^ut in the collection of Cicero's letters are preserved
letters from many others, one or more from about 30 different writers. Among these
writers are the following ; Quintus, the brother of Cicero ; Marc Antony, the trium
vir; Julius Csesar; Brutus and Cassius, his murderers; Marcus CcbUus Rufiis;
Cneius Pompeyi Marcellus, for whom Cicero pronounced the celebrated oration;
and Munatius rlancus, who obtained a disgraceful celebrity at the court of Cleopatra
in Egypt.

$ 436. Julius Ciesar was the author of many letters. Pliny {Hist. N. vii. 25) relates
that he was able to dictate to his amanuenses as many as four and sometimes even
seven letters at a time. A considerable number of Caesar's letters were published.
Suetonius ( Vii. Ccbs. 56) speaks of three collections ; one of letters to the senate,
another of letters to Cicero, and a third of letters to various friends. But none remain
to us excepting the few included among those of Cicero. One book in the collection
of Cicero's letters is composed of letters from M. Cixliutj who. at the age of 16, had
been committed to the care of Cicero, in order to be trained for the business of the
Forum (cf. P. IV. $ 125). His licentiousness exposed him to a prosecution, and
Cicero uttered an oration in his defence. He obtained much reputation as an orator,
and rose to the office of proetor. His letters were written from Rome to Cicero while
the latter was governor of Cilicia.

^ 437. Tn the period from Aug[ustus to the Antonines, we meet with two important
authors in this species of composition, Pliny the younger and Seneca. Most of Pliny's
letters (cf. ^ 441) were probably not designed for publication, but written merely for
the persons to whom they are addressed ; a few of them perhaps were composed with
reference to their being ultimately made public. The letters of Seneca (cf. ^ 442)
were evidently composed on purpose for publication, and it is even a matter of doubt
whether they were ever sent to the persons to whom they are addressed.-— A third
writer belongs to the close of the same period, Cornelius Fronto (cf. ^ 443), whose
letters seem to have had place in an actual correspondence.

$ 438. In the last period included in our glance, Symmachus (cf. ^ 444) of the 4th
century, is the only pagan writer who is w.orthy of notice as an author of letters. Si-
donius, who was later still (cf. ^ 445), was a Christian.

Other Cbrhlian Hthen eonpoted apl>t!w ia tbe Latin Uoruage. We on^t, peitept, to VMotion ptitiealariy, u »«fi<TC<Tg to
dib bto period, Pouimtu, bithop of Nola, and Cattiodonu^ who held hi|fa d?ll oflk« under Theodorie, A. D; 490^ and tttn-
wards retired to a monuteiy founded bj Itiimdr in Calabria.— CC JRttr, Ocedk Rfln. Ub pb 601.— Ilia auppUmua to Iba awai
p^ ftl, 107, 129.— aarkc, ai elM § IS8, vol. il. p. 116, S8.

$ 439. In treating of Greek literature we spoke of romancers and epistolizers in con-
nection. In the Roman literature we find little that can very properly be ranked
under the denomination of romance. There are, however, two works which have
very much of the character of romance, although they are at the same time of such a
turn and aim as may iustify tbe placing of their authors where we shall notice them,
in the list of philosophers. The works we mean are the Satyriam of Petronius Arbi-
ter (cf. ^ 472), and the Asinua aureus or Golden Ass of Apuleius (cf. ^ 471); and the
btter is considered as belonging properly to the variety ot fiction or romance termed
the Milesian taU (cf. ^ 150).

Oa Epiitoloxrapby and RomanM, laa refarencee givu | ISL-On the Ranaaea and EpMlaior Iha Bmdih, MAr, Ocaefa. BOa.
Lit p. 677, 665.-ficWU, HkL Utt Rom. U. ISS, 4ia &L 900.

^ 440. M. TuUiut Cicero, whose history has been noticed in a preceding section
{% 404), left a Urge number of letters. They consist of 1. sixteen hooks partly of
epistles from him to relatives and friends, ad familiares or ad diversot, and partly of
epistles from them to him (cf. % 435) ; 2. sixteen books to Atticus, ad T. Pompon. At-
laciim, replete with instructive anecdotes from the history of the times, yet often ob-
scure in expression ; 3. three books to his brother, ad Quintum fratrem^ chiefly im-
parting advice and counsel respecting his conduct in the QusBstorship with which he
was intrusted ; 4. one book to Brutus, of which the genuineness has been brought
into doubt.

1. It has been supposed that after Cicero's death, his freedman Tyro collected the
letters, and formed them into three or four collections, as above designated. The
first collection comprises 421 letters ; the second 396 ; and the third 29. This arrange-
ment has been disapproved by many, as breaking up the chronological order of the
letters, and rendering some passages more difficult to be understood. In the edition
of SchiUz (cited below) the letters of these three parts are placed in the order of
time.

2. The 4th collection consists of letters of Cicero to Brutus and of Brutus to Cicero.
It is ascertained that a collection of such letters, extending to not less than eight books,
existed for many years after Cicero's death. Yet from about the 5th century, all trace
of it is lost until the 14th century, when some of the letters now extant came into the
possession of Petrarch. In 1470, at Rome, 18 of these letters were published, being
all that were then known. — Several others were afterwards discovered in Germany

76 3E

602 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

and are now included in the collection. Eraamoa niapected the whole to be the com-
position of some sophist, but they were universally received as genuine remains of the
ancient coUectiont until they were attacked in the famous letter of TunstaU to Middle-
ton. Since that there haa been doubt ; several of the German critics decidedly reject
them.

atmittm, in hh fi/f rtf nnm tail irr* Itr 't*— '- t*-** ff— ''"' I TmtMB tu m laOm trMa to him (Bf. ad MMb-

fan. Ounb. 1741. &) allafM (hat (bef an wholly aporioai.— ATOUIiIoti TiodicHad tMr gm^atum in a DUmtatien pic
kla TikHUiiM of then dtod l»low.-naiMll i«plM in bit Otmv0Km»^ ftc Load. JIM. S.>/a-. Jtarltand, ia bia J
m am BpiUbK^dem toBntiyt, 4«., Load. 1749. 8. took aid* agaiwt tbalr |iiiilwii« Mukmim ma of tba •
atMtts nitttoi tbm, ia bla aditkia of C.% LatM (bolow eilnd^-Ct AmJ^. U- SM—aBUO, ii. ISBL

8. Bdltiona^-Ca. O. BeUUx. Hall*, IMB-12. 6*oh. I. Oneiodinc tite Epw atf rfivaraot, E^ mdjitlieum, and K^a<
Qittnlum.)— ^. IV(p«m, Cicanaia M Viraraaa clareram Bpiatotaa. Lipa. lOa 1 vol. a wmniMWid.— TTie ti. tt J. U

ABcrtedk,teeladai«*tb«wbd«hodyoripitf«,wifb«splanalor7B0«M,iaaebaapfcim."S. TTMEptaLatf d{»«r*e*aaly;

/. cab". Fr. WkU*. lignlii, 1794. >b oaa of tba bortv^T. #1 Jliwrtrf Lpc l7M-a&. 1 vda. a~Atnc9«, by ftanniAyw «>

FmrnKiH. BiM. I4S7. faL--TbOfaloahlo Connaatajy of i^MJitf JWatnitiutoa ibotolotlan WW npoUitbad If Clt.^

Lpfc ITTa^a STolt. a-.TlMkllan«rittaa bjrCicaro^ rrioDdaarefifan wpaiatoly bjrao^. fr«fafei,CUr. Vinron Epiatalc^aa

inlor Cicanaia EpiaLoitant Lpt. 17*1. & E^adAttitum} L O. Oimaim. Amt ISM- S vola. 8.-/. #Vterf. AmmI.

tTClh 8^iVifie«pa,cx raeof . /. JnAw, Rom. U70. IbL cootilnii* tfao laMon lo Bratw a«l to Qoiatnik Kp.ad Quintmm:

can notia rononm. Hags CosiitDm, 1785. 8. oontainlnr alM tboaa to Bnitai, and Nkewiaa that of Qrialoa to CieaTO, «Ci(Ud ik

rmUiant CoMHloftit. Ep. ad Brutum) C. Uidditfon, with EafUrii tnnatatlon, aolia, *«. Load. 1743w & «<Uc.

tiom tnm ail ttio Mtan ; P. A. Stntk. Bari. 1784. a-vt. MaMtm. Lpa. 18ia 8. Bapr. 188^

4. TnBalalioaa.-Oeniaa.-C. M. FVUmA Zarieh, 180».ia. 5 vola. a oomplaM bf f. iX Oalv. ZAr. ISIS-IL 8 fob. 8.
•ntbotonmcoll«e(lMi7,aadioclu«aolociealoidar.'«t. O.Aanlafik Fnakt l788-8a S nda. a te Mton ari «a»«oa.-ff. C

JWdkorri. Ualla, I788-8S. 4 vida. & ttio lottora ad JrUeum. ^FreadL— AoMrf ^ Mbii(|«<ll <ed. Ooa^). Fbr. 1801^

IS veli. a Indndiof oJI tbo loiton. XnClhib.-iraN«n JfAnoM, Iha lolMra ad j^miKmrm. 4* od. Laad. ITSa a Imd^

1C7S. 8 Tda. a Bapr. Land. 18l4.~ir. OutHrit, Mtan ad Attkum. Load. 1 781 8 vela, a; 1808. 8 ««la. a~C. Middkim
IhaMuraoilAwfiMM. Load. 174a a with Ul. tait, and notoa.—llMer4n^ Lallan to Attteea, C* « vol- ooattiw^ abe Cieani%
LifcbTlffiddtoliaHaiidllaUBoaAtnaaLortheLaltentoriiaada.) Load. 18<a a

a Dlaalntive.->a. B. .Itaim, Ciearo to aalan Brirfoa, mlt HlowoUonc aof dia Zritoa. to daaaa ato |«ehnobaa werica. BaH.
I88& a awrtof hidDrkalcaaMmtMy whidtbaaboBObighlycopunaedod.— /.Aiiitiwaiiw,I)teto inSJoctoaaeawabBpatto.
laa. Hal. 1814.4.

^ 441. C. Pliniut SeeundiUi already mentioned aa an orator (^ 405), ia the author of
the greatest part of a collection of letters, consisting of 10 books. Many of them ap-
pear not to have been elicited by any actual occaaion, but to have been written omy
with a view to their pubUcation and addressed to hia fnenda. Although they have not
BO much of naturalness and simplicity as the letters of Cicero, yet they possess great
merit in respect both of matter and style ; the noblest feelings are expressed in elegant
language, and they mav be conaiderod as furnishing a m^el in epistolary writing^.
One of the most remarkable books is the tenths which includes also letters of Tn\jan
to Pliny.

1. The first nine books contain about 250 letters; the tenth contains 122. They
furnish much valuable information respectinff the age to which they belong. Among
the more interesting letters are the two whicn refer to the life and death of his uncle,
the elder Pliny (iii. 5, vi. 16) ; two othera in which he describes his villas^ (ii. 17, v. 6) ;
and that in which he addresses the Emperor Trajan respecting the Christians (x. 97),
to which Tertullian alludes in his Apology (cap. 2), and which has justly attracted
much attention*.

1 On tbo api^aryatjlo of PBny and ciearo; Jhaam. JflBy, nooo^qaaJ Irt—tfatof dJBMdl ^uaua aptal. Cic. ot Hiafl. fcv.
1790. a-a..r.|]kUE, tMMrdn Worth dor BriobaBMBLd.I>Ua. Boil. l8Sa a

• Raopcctiac Rtoy^i vllba ; /. fl AUanto (FeUbiaa), Lto riUN ot nonripllooado dOQzdoa plna bollto MlHH te
Pliao. Laad.l707.lS.-OelloViltodiKntoil|iovMi%ae.,diZl.#Vtfro Jfeagiuf Jfaiftano. Bon. 1796. a-^ GcrBaa va^
rim of the two opiaHoB(iL 17, v.Q wi« aphaatioai, bjr JSod^ in hia Tnoa. of Vitnivlaa (cf. ) 490L4)^Aa Ei«liab vcnka wiA
■ilaaandplal«,bCbJMnVUIaaortb«aneiontillInfllntod. Dmd. ITM. ft>L-CC AuarTf Dief. of Ardiiioctnra.

iThia laltar aod Tnjoa>a aaawor wore pnbliahod aaponulr, with a ooBMalary, by Ovh. FmiuM. AbhL ICES. it. Oftv
aothon have illoatnlcd tbo loMor j /. B. aHAnur, DiaMrtariooaa Jvria tedoa. anliqui. Upa. 171 1. i.-Chr. A. Aicmann, Uap. dt
penaeotioM Chrialiaaonua Fliniaaa. Golt 1781. 4.— m»m Mdmolk. Tbo Mnabtor at Pllnfi KpMoa viadientod tnm «ho
objoettonatoblaBaaarkB mpecHi* Tnijaa% Puaaeation, te. Load. 1794. a^A fria altacfc npon tbo HHUJawaii of ttfc apbSo
waaaMdo by amilir,Riaiori»Mdoa.Salocia Capita. Hals, I7V7. 8 veli. a

a EdiikNH. Bart, O. E. OiiHr. Lpi. 1808-1 8 vok. a Aftannidi abrldfid aeiaowbal and oaitod with Am Aii^yHe (cC
i 40S. 8).— O. A SM/kr. Lpa. ISOSw 9 vok. a oonlainin( tbo rbnogyrie olao.-M E. loma^o. Ptf. 1981 8 vah. a ceMkiaii«
Itao Panifyrie; with a taU ^'orllta lilnwte.->A4tMqM, by luda*. OarkOt wllboot aoM of pteco^ 1471. fcL—Aaonf fbo cde-
bmtad adiliooa, P.llL£«nfoliii«,(b«cub7 0.0ar«i) Aant 1784. 4.^1. JT. OaMnar. Lpn. 1770. a Sb^fir^ above dtod it
baaadontbia.— Tbeed.orf. JV. TiCBik PrB(.lfl80; Lpn. I88S. a wm fboadod oa a MS. leeanOy diacovend at Pngao, aad h aid
by Dibdia to bo iniportMrt.-8cbool adiUoi } O. E. /JMiMwaaiiw. Oe(t I8ia a-Abef XaOve, with Nelea, *«. Boat 1888. II.

a TinMlnliona.-Gomoa.~/. A. AM/br. 8d od. Eflai«. 1884. 9 vob. %.-^r. A, Sdkttt, in the CoD. of Oriander, Se.

F»oaeta.-£ou<rd^Stey. 8dod. Fbr.l7ll. 8 voii. IL-TMa and hia tnaa. of the rOaOKyrie given with the Utfa toal.by/./'.

J*y. PW. 180a 8 vob. la aod by /. PUmL Tbr. t88a 8 vola. a BofHdb-^okn Eari of 0»nry. Land. ITSL 8.->IPi|.

Iten UOmOIK Sth od. Load. 17S8. 9 vola. a lit Amor. od. Boot. I80a 8 vola. HL

% 442. lAteiMd Annaut Seneca^ named among the poets {% 374), is here introduced
on account of his epistles. They are 124 in number, addressed to Ludlius, who was
Pnetor in Sicily, and waa himaelf an author (cf. % 335). These letters are veir in-
structive ; they refer chiefly to practical philosophy according to the Stoical principles.

p. ▼. EPISTOLIZERS. FRONTO. SYMMACHVS.

The 88th epistle especially deserves the attention of young stadents. They are less
valuable in point of style, being composed with a tiresome and artificial beauty, and
abounding with sententious antithesb. It is probable that these letters were composed,
at least in great part, with the design of making them public.

1. The letters of Seneca were written in the last years of his life. Many are sup-
posed to have been lost {Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. xii. 2). The 88th letter is entitled de
ifudiis liberalibw. They are all of them philosophical or moral treatises or declama-
tions, rather than actual letters. But some of the pieces usually placed among his
philosophical writings seem to have been letters addressed to relatives or friends (cf.
% 469. 2).

2. There are extant 14 letters purporting to be a correspondence of the Apostle
Paul, which were once considered as genuine. There was a tradition that an acquaintance
and intimacy existed between the apostle and the philosopher. Some writers have
pointed out what they consider as remarkable coincidences of thought and expression
in the wrirings of Paul and Seneca. Certain words are also said to be used by Seneca
in their Biblical rather than their classical sense.

Cr. SrMD. LitL Rom. ii. 445.~AMcita^ BiM. La lib. ii. e. 9l voL ii. p. 190L-iV. Ch. Odplm, TneUUooeaU d* rUnilUrUato
que r&ulo cam Smecm tntaraEviae tnditur. Lipt. Wt, 4.

3. Edittou-^ivm in the arfitioa* of &n«ca'« Wo r k s, (ct H^ 4).«4i|»ntel]r, F. Ch. Matthim. Fnakf. IMS. &-/.
ScMunigkOuter. Stnmb. 1909. 2 voli. & ibe Iwit— The •rarimw eptailc* {EpUt (B) Saum ad Pautum t (6) PauH ad Samum)
are givn to JhMcfua. Cod. Apoeryph. Nof . ThC | ako in the ad. of Soteea'i workt by Entmia {\ 409. A\ And ia otben.

4. TniiiktloiM.-0«rinaii.-V. IV. OUknmm. Kid, 1811. S voIk 9^-C.O. W. Uhmann, (tb« 88lb letter). Quedl. 1818. &

rnncb.— P. SaUigr. Fkr. 1770. l2.-»Bi«liilk— JtoMW* ATorttt, Sentca'tt Epbtles, wiib Urge ADOolatioai, wherein ptrti-

cahrijr the Taaete of the udest Hiilnnpben are eoatruted with the Preeepia of the Gotpel. Lond. 1788. 2 vol*. ^

% 443*. Marcus Cornelius Fronto^ a native of Corta, in Numidia, was bom probably
in the reign of Domitinn or Nerva. He is supposed to have studied at Alexandria
before he commenced business as a pleader and teacher at Rome, in which character
he has been already mentioned {% AQO). By a remarkable discovery of Mai, in the
present century, considerable parts of a collection of letters by Fronto were brought
to light.

1. Some of them were found b^ Mai in the Ambrosian library at Milan, in 1815, on
a nalimpsesi or rescript manuscript, which contained the acts of the first council of
Cnalcedony. Among these are letters of Fronto to the Antonines and several other
persons, and also letters of Marcus Anrelius to Fronto. Most of them are in Latin,
but several of them are in Greek. The state of the manuscript was such that there
are many chasms in the letters. Mai, having subsequently the charge of the library
of the Vatican at Rome, discovered in that another part of the effaced manuscript of
Fronto, containing above a hundred additional letters. — Some fragments of orations
were also found by Mai. The grammatical treatise, de differeniiis vocabuhrum, was
previously known.

2. E<litioM.->«nfd«u Afoi, M. Corn, finntari* Open, kc Mil. 18I& 2 veil. & coBtaloiaii Ow Mt«a fcvnd la the Aaibrariu
pUlapMvt, perti of a few oratlom, the treetiee dt diff, voeahukntm, and vmrioia fngBeata. Bepriated Fnnkf. l8l<.->-A 01 M»
AuAr, M. C. Front Reliqa'ue, Ac. Bert. 1816. a crutaiaiac aln firacnanti of the oratioM of Sfnmadw, (cf \ 406. 4).— Aflw hie
diMomy of the Vaticaa MS., Mai poUldted another edUkio of Fnola Bom. IttS. 8.~Ci: KUigUni, SnppL to Hariea, p. asa^
AcMtt. Hut. LIU. Gfoeqae, vol. It. p. 2S0.

9. TnB»latieai^rVeBch.-vl. C«amt, Laltna de U. AarMa et da riDatoo tndoilM, Ac Au-. 18S0L 2 vola. a with the Lalla
IBI and noto.

^ 444. Qitintus Aurdins Symmachns, a native of Home, lived at the close of the 4th
century. He held the office of Proconsul for Africa A. D. 370, of Praefect of Rome
A. D. 384, and of Consul A. D. 391. He was a warm opposer of Christianitv. His
remaining epistles were collected by his son in 10 books. We observe in them an
imitation not altogether unsuccessful of the younger Plinv, but discover also many
traces of the more degenerate taste of the age in which the author flourished. The
6lRt letter of the 10th book is the most wo^hy of notice.

1. Symmachus was a speaker of some reputation, and fra^ents of several of his
orations were discovered by Mai alonf? with the letters of Fronto (^ 443. 1). — The
letters of Symmachus are nearly 1000 in number. Gibbon remarks that *Mbe luxu-
riance of Symmachus consists of barren leaves without fruits and even without flowers ;
few fncts and few sentiments can be extracted from his verbose correspondence."

Symmachus witnessed the downfall of Paganism, notwithstanding his very zealous
efforts to sustain the sinking cause. The 61st letter of the lOth book {rdatio f>ro ara
VietoritB) has special reference to this subject ; it is a sort of argument or petition to
the emperor Valentinian, urging that he would allow the statue and altar of Victory
to stand in the hall of the senate. Ambrose, bishop of Milan was a successful anta-
gonist of Symmachus, and one of his epistles is a formal reply to the petition. The
poet Prudentius also wrote aga'nst him (cf. ^ 387).

CC Jmbnmt, EpM. 17, 18, ia & Jlmbmii Opera, am Mm. Btnadiet. Par. 168a 2 volt. teL^B. Fr. tUmitdMt, Dee 8y»
narhiia Grlada fan Hcidenthan uod doi Anibnwoa OeRencrQwIa. Hal. Stez. 1790. S^—lmdtm; Heathen TeadaMalM, vol ir

p. 872, M. On SymmachM, cL &A8D, Litt. Root. Hi. 901.— AlAr, p. 696 ~& OtUottf Ded. and FaU of Rom. Sap. dk uvlii

(vol. Hi. p. 214. ed. N. T. !822).-C. O. Akytie, Ceonra iageaii et awraai q, Aar. Symudii, ke. 0«tt. ISOI. foL alee la IM
Oput.Jtad. OOtt. 1812. a 61b VOL

804 HISTORY OF EOMAN LITBRATITRS.

t BdHkiM.->Tlw bert; /. P. Pmnu. Fnnkf. I6SL 8L irttpoMMMd at Ncwbilt, on tte Ibrt (KiiipaB AtaMdni^ ItlT.^
m J. Sckatti. AjtmOot. ISIO. 4. Otbcn mntioa u cuficr. a dililMi dL praM at

^wMipi, aeeordiflf to nbridna, a oAciaBa J

9 445. Sidoniu8 ApoUinaru, born at Lugdanum in Gaul, floarished after the middle
of the 5th century. He is known as the author of a series of letters, and also as a poet,
and is worthv of notice, especially considering the age in which be Uved. In his noems,
among whicn are four eulogies, there is much animation and spirit, although toere is
also much that is unnatural and overstrained. We have from nim 9 books of letters^
which are more valuable for their historical matter than for their style. We find in
the collection an address by him on the occasion of the election of a bishop of Bourges.

1. His full name was Caiua Sollius ApoUinaris Modestut Sidonius. He married ifaa
daughter of Avitus, who was named emperor A. D. 455. Amid the changes of the
times he repeatedly rose to office and rank at Rome, and again repeatedly retired to
Gaul. At length, A. D. 472, he became bishop of Clermont {Auguitunometum), and
died in that station A. D. 484.

SMO, Utt. Bon. iU. M^-OMon, DacL aad TUI of mam. Emp. cfa. znvL jt. Sm ml. iii. 2f . T. M2SL-Cteia, aa dlad | flt.
vol. ii. p^ U6.

8. Edilie«a.-Tbabaal,/.3lhMnA Par. 1«1 4. Mataialiv (ha Mm aad tha poena.-.Tbe FoaM an ako cina m JfettiWW
Corp. Poat Ut etttd f MS. S.

yi,-^Philoiopher».

^ 446 w. The Roman philosophy was derived from the Grecian. Antecedently to
Grecian influence, the traces ot philosophical speculation amon^ the Romans are of no
great importance. During the tirst five centuries, such pursuits in general were not
regarded with favor, being considered as at variance with the prevailing desire of con-
quest and destructive to military zeal and prowess.

^ 447. During the first of the periods, which we have regarded in our glance at
Roman Literature, the only name which can have the least claim to be admitted to
the list of philosophers is that of Ntima, the second king of Rome. He is supposed
by some (o have borrowed the wisdom displayed in his civil institutions from Grecian
.sources (of. P. III. ^ 202). He seems to nave cultivated a sort of religious and poli-
tical philosophy, like Lvcursus and Solon among the Greeks (cf. $ 167) ; but like each
of them must be considereaas a Uw^ver of practical sense and wisdom, rather than
a philosopher in the strict meaning of the word. — There may have been other men in
this period, who were (not nnlike the seven saces of Greece) distinguished for their
prudence, and able to propound useful maxims tor the conduct of others.

Od iIm iMtllutkMM of Nnna, Ptutareh, Vit. ltum.^Sittuki»t Room (rt. | S99. 7), vol. L p. 181. of An. ad. PhiL im. S aala. 8.
— J>Mnyi. AU iL S0.-CL J. 5M<^ Ob Iba Cbaraelar aad Tbtolo|7 o( Iba aarlr RoiUM, la AitL Jl^ot. A^^

^ 448. The first distinct intimations of any considerable inclination to nhilosopbical
studies at Rome, we find shortly after the conquest of Macedonia by Pautus .Cmtlius,
B. C. 167. This conqueror took with him to Rome the philosopher Metrodorus, to
aid in the instruction of his children; and other philosophers, who had been patronized
at the Macedonian court by king Perseus, are said to have followed Metrcraorus into
Italy. The Stoic philosopher Panistius, from Rhodes, was also introduced to Rome
by Scipio Africanus. Yet a few years after the arrival of the philosophers from Greece
and the east, they were banished from Rome by a formal decree of the senate,
B. C. 162.

^ 449. The rise of philosophy at Rome is, however, commonly dated from the em-
bassy of the Athenians, already mentioned in our remarks on the Roman orators and
rhetoricians (^ 408). This embassy was sent by the Athenians to deprecate a fine of
500 talents which had been inflicted on them for laying waste Oropii, a town of Sicyo-
nia. The three envoys employed on this occasion were at the time the heads of the
three leading sects of Greek philosophers ; viz. Diogenes, the Stoic ; Critolaus, the
Peripatetic ; and Cameades, tne Academic, considered as the founder of what is called
the New Academy <^ 175). The display of eloquence and wisdom made by these men
served to excite in the Roman youth of^all classes an ardent thirst for knowledge, and
turn their minds to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. Cato and others were alarmed
at the influence exerted by these philosophers ; and insisted that they should depart
from Rome. But the love for such stuaies now awakened could not be destroyed,
and philosophy began to make progress in the city ; and ere long most of the Grecian
sects found followers or patrons among the higher class of Romans. The library of
Aristotle, which was brought to Rome by Sylla on the capture of Athens, B. C, 147,
contributed to promote the study of philosophy.

On tlieaabJaetoradacaliaBaBMM«tbaBomana,Ma p. fV. ^ 10-126; aad i«in«M«i tbm gt*aB ; to whidi may lia adfed Ifaa M*
iowinff >-£ a. WaUiy da «ariia oiodia litarn celaBdl apad Teteita RomaBOL Jan. 1807. 8.— C. BuM^ Da iladiia libafaUbaa apod
RnnuMM. Jan. 1700. 4.-aiaioMc*, fltwr dia EBWdiBH im tMatmStu^m bai dap MBmm, fa liii XklM. aaWftw. gchlaiaw
178& 8.

p. ▼• PHILOSOPHY. 605

^ 450. It is worthy of notice, that the Romans seem never to have made philosophy
the business of life, as did many of the Greeks; but ihey pursued it either as a part of
elegant and refined culture, or as adapted to proniote their advancement in the state.
Hence, although they applied themselves to Grecian philosophy, and transferred into
their own language some of the Grecian treatises, and improved by this means both
their jurisprudence, their rhetoric, and their general literature, they yet made no ad-
vances in discovery. They cherished no ambition to start new sects, or theories, but
willingly adopted those already formed by the Greeks.

$ 451. The number of Roman authors in the department of philosophy is also com-
paratively small, for the same reason. The names of the principal votaries of phi-
losophy, in the time which (orms our second period of Roman Literature, were the
following : Scipio Africanus, Caius Lselius, L. r urius, P. Rutilius Rufus, Sextus Pom-
peius, uncle to Pompey the Great, Quintus Tubcro, and Q. Mucius Scaevola. The
last four were distinguished jurisconsults. We have no written remains of the philoso-
ph V of this period.

4 452. Early in the next period, beginning B. C. 88, we find the celebrated Lucullus
patronizing and encouraging very zealously the study of philosophy. Whilst he was
Quapstor in Macedonia, and afterwards while conducting the war against Mithridates,
he became acquainted with some of the Greek philosophers, and acquired a strong
relish for their speculations. On his return to Rome, B. C. 67. he established a cele-
brated library (cf. P. IV. ^ 126), with galleries and schools adjoining, and made it a
place of free resort to all men of letters, where they could enjoy the benefits of reading
and conversation ; and here, as well as at the house of the philosopher Antiochus, he
frequently engaged with ardor in philosophical discussions. Among those who culti-
vated philosophy in this period, we find the names of Marcus Junius Brutus, M. Te-
rentius Varro, Piso Calpumianus, Lucretius, and Pomponius Atticus. To this place
belongs also the name of Cicero, who must be considered as altogether the most emi-
nent of the Romans in philosophy.

^ 453. In the period following the reign of Augustus, from A. D. 14 to A. D. 160,
philosophy was siill considered an important study as a part of liberal culture. But
the progress of despotism under the emperors was not propitious to any branch of
learning, and philosophy of course did not escape the blighting influence. In the reign
of Domitian, the philosophers were actuallv banished from Italy, under a mock decree
of the senate. The principal Roman philosopher of this period was Seneca; Pliny
the elder is also worth]^ of particular notice; and the younger Pliny and Tacitus may
properly be mentioned in the list of philosophers. Pliny in one of his letters (Ep. i. 10)
mentions in terms of high commendation a philosopher by the name of Euphrates, who
gave public instruction at Rome.

In this period Oriental notions obtained currency at Rome. ** The vain superstitions
of the east, the magic and the occult sciences which have such charms for the ignorant,
found at Rome more zealous friends than did the abstractions of speculative philoso-
phy, or those principles of morality which are the proper end of all true philosophy.
Every religion that existed on the globe, found a residence at the imperial capital ; the
mysteries of Egypt and of Syria were introduced, and the titles of Mystagogi and Magi
were in higher estimation than that of philosopher." Srhdll^ Litt. Rom. u. 427.

^ 454. At the commencement of the last period, A. D. 160, Marcus Aurelius re-
ceived the imperial throne, and was himself a zealous philosopher of the Stoic school
(cf. ^ 196), a circumstance which might give a new impulse to philosophical studies as
well as impart a temporary importance to that school. After his reign philosophy was
s'ill cultivated, and new sects began to be formed, by philosophers who professed to
make improvements by rejecting the errors and retaining the valuable truths and prin-
ciples of others ; such were the New-Platonists and the Eclectics.— The progress
ot the Christian reiijzion, in the 3d and 4th centuries, exerted a considerable influence
on the character of Roman philosophy ; and the Latin fathers employed themselves in
studying the pagan philosophy for the purpose of opposing the pagan reliffion and sup-
porting Christianity. This occasioned a singular admixture ot notions, drawn partly
firom the pagan sects and partly from the sacred writings.— The principal Latin au-
thors, who mav be classed among the philosophers of this period are Apuleius (^ 471)
and Boethius {i 474). The Latin father Augustine, bishop of Hippo, who died A. D.
430, at the nge of 76. may also with propriety be named here. Petronius Arbiter
(^ 472) and Marcianus Capella (^ 473) are sometimes ranked among the philosophers.
— 5cA6Z/,iii. 211.

^ 455. It seems desirable, in addition to the rapid sketch above given of the progress
of philosophy among the Romans, to glance separately, although sUghtly, at the prin-
cipal sects, which found advocates and followers at Rome.

It has been mentioned (^ 449) that Roman philosophy, as the subject is commonly
viewed, had its origin in the embassy of the three philosophers from Athens, who were
at the time leaders in three of the Greek sects, the Stoic, Peripatetic, and Academic.

^ 456. I'he Academic w^as represented and advocated by Carneades, who was the
most able man and the most popular sneaker of the trio ; and of course awakened a

3e2

606 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

paniality for the doctrines of his sect. — The immediate successor of Cameades in the
Academy at Athens, Ciitomachus (who, according to Cicero, wrote 400 treatises on
philosophical subjects), is said also to have given personal instruction at Rome. Cii-
tomachus was succeeded bv Philo, who in the Mithridatic war fled from Athens to
Rome. Here Cicero attended on his lectures, and imbibed the principles of the Nem
Academy, which were maintained by the followers of Carneades. 1 he doctrines of
the New Academy had been favorably received at Rome from rheir first introduction;
the example and choice of Cicero no doubt gave them greater vogue among those who
cultivated oratory. — But the peculiar tenets of the OldAcademy had their advocates,
among whom were Brutus, V'arro, and Lucullus.

DunUih HUt Rom. Lit vol. ii. SI I. ■. fd. Phil. l827.^fi»/ltU, Hilt, of Pbilonpbj, bk. iii. eh. h^MtdOdm, Life of Oem,
foL Iii. p. am. ed. Bo«(. lt\%.-a A. Brandt, Handbucb d. OeKh. d. |riMh.-i«aL PhilM. BwLln& 8.

^ i.*)?. The Sloie school had many disciples at Rome. Its rigid doctrines were suit-
ed to the stern civil policy of the Romans, and the most distinguished jurisconsults and
magistrates of the republic were c^enerally inclined to this sect ; thus Rutilius Rufiis,
Q. Tubero, and M. Hcievola (cf. $^562), were Stoics; as were also LieUus and Scipio
Africanus. Especially must we mention Cato of Utica as a zealous Stoic ; be earned
his principles into full practice, and finall)^, after the defeat of Pompey at the battle of
Pfaarsalia, despairing of the liberties of his country, he put an end to his life with his
own hand. — ^The ardent patriotism manifested by many who were professedly of the
Stoic sect, tended to promote its popularity. Some of the poets, particularly Locaa
and Perkins, embraced and commended its doctrines. The prevalence of Christianity
is also supposed to have contributed to the success of the Stoic philosophy, as the views
of the later advocates of Stoicism agreed better than the doctrines of the other pagan
sects with the high morality of the gospel.

One of the moat distinguished philosophers of the Stoic sect at Rome, and the only
one who has left any philosophical writings in the Latin tongue, was Seneca (cf.$ 469).
But there were other eminent teachers and advocates of the system; as, Musoniiis
Rufus. Annffus Coyiutus (cf. ^ 227), Chcremon, a preceptor of Nero, Dion Chrysos-
tom (^ 118), Epictetus (^ 193), and Sextus a native of Chseronea, who became preceptor
to Marcus Antoninus. The name of Antoninus is the last which is specially worthy
of notice ; at the early age of 12, he manifested a partiality for the Stoic philosophy,
and when emperor he zealously patronized it. He wrote in Greek (cf. ^ 196). as did
the others just named. Public schools of the Stoic sect were continued from his time
until that of Alexander Severus, A. D. 230; but they greatly declined under the in-
creasing prevalence of the Eclectic system.

EnfiM, Hiil. of Pbil. bk. iii. eli. I. and etk I. net T^TmnemanHH Maaoal of HiiL oT FhtL tnwialcd bf j|. Jokntam (OiL
ina. 9). i l88.-AIAr, G«rhicht* dOT Ron. Lit. § SOe, 807.-G. P. HoOmUrg, Ds PraKipab Stoics FhikMophw Doctaritat at
fttronis apad Rmnuoa. Lipa. 1793. 4.

% 458. The Peripatetic philosophy docs not appear to have found very warm admi-
rers amon^ the Romans. The wntinga of Aristotle and Theophrasius were brought
to Rome from Athens by Sy 11a ; they were, however, very difficult for the Romans
to uiiderstand. Yet this sect had its advocates ; and its doctrines were taught in the
public schools under the emperors, and numerous commentaries and treatises were
written upon the works of its original founder. These writings, however, seem to
have been entirely in the Greek language. The most eminent Peripatetics after the
Christian era, did not reside at Rome ; Themistius, who illustrated several of the
treatises of Aristotle, gave instruction at Constantinople (cf. ^ 125) ; Alexander Aphm-
diseus, author of several works still extant, and called by distinction the Commentator,
taught at Athens or Alexandria, about A. D. 200.

SnJUdy bk. liL cb. I. dk 2. «ct. 6.>-Jb*nMn'« Tfeucnna, § I8&

^ 459. The Cytiiai seem never to have enjoyed any repntation at Rome. The
opinion of Cicero respecting them, was, that the whole body ought to be banished from
the state. Julian (^ 127) pronounces the Cynics of his day to be troublesome and mis-
' chievous. In the reign of the Antonines philosophers of this sect were forbidden to
maintain any public schools. Lucian treats them with great severity, particularly in
the piece on Peregrinus (cf. ^121).

£i>>Wif,bk.Ui.cb.t.f«.

^ 460. The Bmcurean philosophy had sunk into great discredit on account of the
improprieties indulged by its advocates, before its introduction to Rome. Notwith-
standing this disadvantage, it soon obtained admirers. The free indulgence of the in-
clinations which it allowed, greatl)^ conduced to its popularity. Cicero condemned
and opposed it ; but Atticus, his intimate friend and correspondent, embraced it.
Horace, if not an Epicurean entirely, yet found the lightness and gayety which it
cherished very congenial to his feelings. The poet Lucretius (cf. % 357) was the first
who gave the Romans, in their own language, a full account of the doctrines of Epicu-
rus ; and the reputation of his poetry no doubt contributed in an eminent degree to
invc currency to these doctrines. Pliny the elder (cf % 470) is sometimes ranked among

p. T. PHILOSOPHY. 607

the Epicureans, bat he did not rigidly adhere to any sect. Lucian the eatiriat, and
Celsua the early adversary of Christianity, are also included by aome, Diogenes
Laertius (cf. ^ 255 a) likewise is thought to manifeat plainly his predilection for the
doctrines of Epicurus.

Bi^idd, bk. lii. ch. 8. wet B^-Johnion*i Teoaemum, § iSl^Aosuot of tba pUlonpby of LocrBtiu, in the tmahlioH of Jitfty
nd Goqd, cited { 357. 4.-&hOO, Ult. Rom. iL 16S.

^ 461. The school of Skentict or Purrhonist* gained no celebrity aroong the Romans.
The peculiar doctrines of t lie Skeptics corresponded, in some degree, with those of the
Academy. Pyrrhonism, however, had avowed abettors and supporters; amons them
were particularly several physicians. — We have no written remains from any of them
m the Latin language ; and the only author that specially deserves notice here, as an
advocate of Skepticism under the Roman empire, is Sextus Empiricus, who flourished
about A. D. 200, and wrote in Greek (cf. ^ 197).

AtJUA, Bitt. Phil. bk. iil. cb. 2. Mct. 9.-^olkiMon'« TMimbuio, S 188-ISI^rAartekc, De dkcrimbw inter Acad, el Sceptio.
Los- B«t. ISBOl

^ 462. It will be recollected that the four sects, which we have here mentioned fi^st,
the Academic and Peripatetic, Stoic and Cynic, were derived through Socrates from
the old Ionic school (cf. ^ 171-173) ; and that the two last mentioned, the Epicurean
and Skeptic, descended from the old Italic or Pythagorean school (cf. ^ 170, 177).

As the Pyihagorean school in Magna Gnecia was so celebrated among the Greeks,
we might suppose that it would have attracted great attention among the Romans, as
eoon as they learned any thing of the literature and philosophy of the Greeks. This
however does not appear to have been the fact, although the name of Pythagoras was
ever regarded with great reverence {Cic. de Senect. c. 21). The poet Ennius is said
to have embraced the doctrine of metempnychosiB, and a friend of Cicero, by the name
of Publius Nigidius Figulus, is mentioned as an advocate of the doctrines of Pythago-
ras. But after the establishment at Crotona (cf. ^ 170) was broken up, no school was
formed in Greece or Italy that adopted the principles and institutions of Pythagoras.

&A0S, Litr. Ron. iL 187.— AiHfny, Vie et oavrifai de Pabl. Nigid. Figelui, ia Uie Man. Jxmd. buer. ziiz. 19a

^ 463. There were however a number of philosophers, who are sometimes termed
the iVfio Pylhagoreant, and who professed to be supporters of the real Pythagorean
doctrines, although they in fact blended with them many notions derived from other
sources. A leader in this class of philosophers was Q. ^extius, a Roman of the time
of Augustus, who wrote in Greek. To tne same class belonged Sotion, of Alexan-
dria, who was preceptor to Seneca at Rome ; and also the famous impostor Apollonius
of Tyana, whose life is given by Philostratus (cf. 255 b). Moderatus of Gades was
another; he flourished in the first century; and in several diflferent treatises he col-
lected and illustrated the remains of the Pythagorean doctrines.

Ai/kfrf, Ht. iii. dk X •»!. 2.— JMrnon't TeoBflnnaB, \ IBL—Pridimux, Lib of ApoUnBiok

Boom of lh«M phlloapphen endmvorcd to diieover a •abliine end orcull icience in the PrthaKorMa dodriae of Nuaben. They
erem le have roppoeed that »d cxpUaatioa of th» ifttera of the phytial worid wae to be fbood in tba aplerioot propertlei of an
fhetoatical flfaree and nombm. An ceny on tbii occall aeieace h figand in the worfct of Seslos Enipiriaa agaitut th* molAmiA'
ficten* (a. 84^ ct ( 197).— The cdcbraiied Ktftv it wppoaed to hate been iaflaaoeed bj neb tpeenlatioaa, wbca be wrote hie trea
the entitled Myttcriuin Cttmegraphiatmi 1686.— Of. Jfoclatoin, Aeeouat of the Diieonwiee of Newtcik

^ 464. A school of New-PIatonists also appeared under the Roman emperors (cf.
^ 181). Most of them wrote in Greek, in which language we have fragments from a
few of the number. The principal Latin writer commonly referred to this school was
Lucius Apuleius, who flourished, as is supposed, about the time of the latter Anto-
ninus, and whose work entitled the Gcldtn Ass has been mentioned under the head
of Romance. These philosophers blended wuh their Platonic notions many derived
from the Pythagoreans and the followers of Aristotle, and were therefore m reality
Eclectics,

EnfitU, bk. ill. ch. 8. leet 3.-Vo*nMn'« Tnaeannn, \ 19S.

$ 465. The Eclectics, however, although often mentioned under the name of the
later Platonists, are usually distinguished from the last mentioned school. Their
founder (cf. ^ 181) is said to have been Ammonius of Alexandria. He was a man of
low birth, obliged to gain his livelihood as a porter, from which circumstance he de-
rived his surname Sacctts. With much enthusiasm he and his followers labored to
reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. We have in the Greek language the
writings of several of the most eminent philosophers of this school ; but nothing is pre-
served in the Latin, unless we except the commentary on Cicero*s Dream of Scipio,
by Macrobius (cf. ^ 430. 1), who seems to have been a disciple of the Eclectics. The
emperor Julian was a warm patron of this sect, perhaps on account of the hostility of
its principal advocates towards the Christian religion.

Cf. f 19L-Sn/Ud, bk. iii. ek 8. Met 4.-Jfl*fUPa'« Teaaeaiaaa, \ 003^1.

^ 466. A species of philosophy also grew up gradually among the Christian Fatneis,
although the study of philosophy was at flist deemed superfluous and eTen dangerous

606 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

by some of them (cf. P. IV. ^ 83), emcially some of the Latin church. The chief Lttin
writers illustrating this Christian Fhilotopky are TertuUian, AmdbinSt LaeUuUiuM,
AvAroMj and Auguntine.

Ct HSL-/a*nMm'' TfloMmiaa, ) Za-fl9L--4ki flH wrilrap of (te PttbOT ilmc wovd. cL Oi^

% 467. In accordance with the method followed in this work, some ^neral soarcea
of intbrmation reBpecting the Roman philosophy should be mentioned before noticing
the individual authors.

t. TIm princir*! mginal MMitn tra tte Mue a tfaow from wbkli It Ictnwd tlic pbiloioplqr of iht Grarka, dl ( 18S. ^To ikt

MMabm wttki no ttw huttr^ ef pMhnpkY tlw<« cited we •!«> nfcr.

t. Mora pariirHtorif oa tbe Roaua, o-e wlJ the followiag.— JT F. Jtmiv, D« lap*<*BCBti« que apod vcterei Bin— m TM»
hnopb • Mftveriat loeeewia. H«>. ttC— fJefttniwii Omdmliiu, Dc niiloMpbw a(»uJ RomeiM* oriftat et pmgraem. na,
Itiai 4. RfT'ia'ed in the /TeM rmUntm Cetttetio, HaL 1717,-^. £. Omig. Din. de Oricioe PhilevHilikB apwl WiaBuam. Stowk
ITTa 4.~AiAr, Owh. MOm. Ut pu SCM-Mi, m cHmI | Ml 8.--8MafaoNfareM» oodert 441, { 4Ub

^ 468/. Jlf. T. CirerOf chief among the orators of Rome, was also eminent in philo-
■ophv. He was a Plaionisi, and is commonly con!»i(iered as a disciple of the New
Academy, although in questions of morality he preff rred the more rigid principles of
the Stoics. In- his philosophical writings he sets forth the notions of all the various
sects, and seems to be favornble to them all exceptii e the Epicurean. Thepe writings
are a most valuable collection, and have proved a mine of information to succeeding
ages.

1. "The general purpose of Cicero's philosophical works was rather to give a his-
tory of ancient philosophy than dogmatically inculcate opinions of his own. It was his
great aim to explain to his fellow-citizens, m their own language, whatever the sages
of Greece had taught on the most important subjects, in order to enlarge their minds
and reform their morals. — He was in many respects well quiilified for the arduous and
noble task which he had undertaken of naturalizing philosonhy in Rome, and exhibit-
iiitj her, according to the expression of Erasmus, on the stage of Ufe. — Never was a
philosopher placed in a situation more favorable for gathering the fruits of an experi-
ence employed on human nature and civil society, or for observing the effect of vari-
ous qualities of the mind on public opinion and on the actions of men. — But he appears
to have been destitute of that speculative disposition which leads us to penetrate into
the more recondite and original principles of knowledge. He had cultivated eloquence
as clearing the p?ith to political honors, and had studied philosophy as the best auxiliary
to eloquence. But the contemplative sciences only attracted his attention, in so far as
thev tended to elucidate ethical, practic4il, and political subjects, to which he apolicd a
philosophy which was rather that of life, than of speculation. — His philosophic dialogoes
are rather to he considered as popular treatises, adapted to the ordinary comprehension
of well informed men, than profound disquisitions, suited only to a Portico or Lyceum.
They bespeak the orator even in the most serious inquiries. Elegance and fine writing
he appears to have considered a.s essential to philosophy. — Although it may be honor-
ing t'icero too highly to term his works, wiin Gibbon, a Repository of Reason, they
are at leapt a Miscellany of Information, which has become aoubly dear from the loss
of the wriiings of many of those philosophers whose opinions he records." — The greater
part of the philosophical writings of Cicero were composed during a single year ; and
this rapidity of execution has led many to suppose that they must have been chiefly
translations from Greek works, an idea that is thought to be sanctioned by a passage
in a letter to Atticus (Ep. xii. 62, " atoypat^ snrU").

DKtibr, Hht. Ron. Lit. it. 2ia «L Phil. IS7r— On Cieno<ta pbitoaopbieal writiofs kc alao .MAr, m tSM \ 9BB. SL-JUa
«Kiveabdow(Sft4).

2. The following may be properly ranked arnong the philosophical works of Cicero.
— (a) Academica, or Qutpsiionei AcadetnictB, in two books; so called probably, be-
cause the work relates chiefly to the Academic philosophy. These two booKs are
supposed by many critics to be parts of two different works of Cicero, or rather of two
different editions of the Academica. The first edition is said to have consisted of two
books, inscnbed CatuluM and Lueullu» ; the former of which is lost ; the latter is one
of the books now extant. The second edition is said to have consisted of four books,
the first of which is one of the two books now extant, while the other three are lost;
in the extant book, Varro is the chief speaker and gives an account of the origin and
progress of the Academy. (b) De FiniJbus bonorum et malorum, in five books; an
account of the various opinions entertained by the Greeks respecting the supreme good
and extreme evil ; and considered one of the most subtle ana difficult of Cicero's phi-
losophical writings.—; — (c) TusailaruB Difputatione*, in five books ; they are so named
by Cicero, from having been held at his favorite seat near Tusadum. On a certain
occasion, Cicero spent five days at this villa in company with friends taken with him
from Rome, and on the afternoon of each day, held a conference, or rather gave a sort
of discourse on some topic suggested by them ; these were afterwards committed to
writing, and formed the Tusculan Disputations. The first book or dialogue is entitled,
De contemnenda morte ; the second, De tolerando dolore ; the third, De agrUudine le-
nifMfla ; the fourth, De reliquiis atiimi perturbationibus ; in the fifth Cicero maintains

P.T. PHILOSOPHERS. CICERO. 600

tlMit virtue alone ie euficient for perfect happiness. ^•'^d) De Natura Deorum^ in three
bookB; containing an exposition of the doctrines of three of the celebrated sects of phi-
losophers, viz. the Epicureans, the Stoics, and the Academics, respecting the Essence
of the Divine Being, and his government and providence. In this work Cicero betrays
a melancholy degree of uncertainty and doubt in reference to the admioistration of

God in guiding and controlling human alTairs. (e) De Divinatione, in two books;

forming a sort of supplement to the treatise on ^the nature of the gods. In the first
book, Quintus, the brother of Cicero, states the 'considerations urged by the various
philosophers in defence of the art of divination ; in the second, Cicero refutes all iho

arguments, and shows the complete absurdity of the pretended science. (f) De

Fate, one book, or rather a fragment. The part now extant contains a refutation of
the doctrine of Chrysippus the Stoic, which was that of fatality.-—^) De Legibus, in
three books. It has been supposed that the work originally consisted of six books ;
Macrobius quotes a fifth {Satumal. vi. 4} ; in the three now extant considerable chasms
occur. In the first book, Cicero speaks of the origin of laws and the source of obliga-
tion ; and in the others, sets forth a bodv of laws conformable to his plan of a well
ordered state. The work seems to have been intended for a supplement to that en-
titled De Republica. (h) De Bepublica, consisting originally of six books, of which

considerable fragments are now extant. TSee below under 3 (h).] This work was
beffun by Cicero ^ the fifty-second year of his age, before any of bis other philosophi-
cal writings ; it was made public previously to liis departure for the government of
Cilicia, and appears to have met with very flattering success at Rome (cf. Cic. Epist.
Famil. viii. 1. Ep. ad Att. vi.). In this work Cicero presents a discussion supposed to
have been held between Scipio Africanus, Quintus Tubero, P. Ruiilius Rufus, and
others, **in which,*' says he, *' nothing important to the risht constitution of a com-
monwealth appears to have been omitted." According to Mr. Dunlop, the c]|2i®f scope
of Cicero was a eulogy on the Roman government, such as it was, or as Cicero sup-
posed it to have been, in the early a^es of the commonwealth ; the same writer re-
marks, " although the work will disappoint those who expect to find in it much
potitical information, still, as in Cicero's other productions, every page exhibits a rich
and glowing magnificence of style, ever subjected to the control of a taste the most
correct and pure." — In this work was inserted the beautiful fiction entitled Somnium
Scipionisr which implies, and seems indeed to have been intended by Cicero expressly

to teach, the doctrine of the soul's immortality. Ci) De OfficiiSt in three books, acf-

dressed to his son. In this Cicero treats of moral obligations and duties ; and in some
parts of ii he is supposed to have closely followed a treatise entitled n<p2 KaB^Komos.
written by a Greek philosopher named Panatius, who resided at Rome in the time of
Scipio. — ^j) De Sencctute, entitled also Cato^ because Cato the Censor is represented
as delivering the discourse. It was written in Cicero's 63d year, and is addfressed to
his friend Atticus. The supposed evils of old age are considered under four heads ;
and the refined pleasures, which may be secured notwithstanding all the losses and
deprivations resulting from advanced years, are pointed out. It is an exceedingly in-
teresting piece, containing examples of eminent Romans, who passed a respectable
and happy old age. — It is the model of the dialo^e by Sir Tfumas Bernard, entitled
Spurinna or the Comfortg of Old Age, in which illustrations are drawn chiefly from

British history. (k) De Amiciiia, called also Ladius, who is represented as holdinjg

a conference with Fannius and Scaevola his sons-in-law, shortly after the death of his

very intimate friend Scipio Africanus. (1) Paradoxa, a piece containing a defence of

six peculiar opinions or paradoxes of the Stoics ; designed perhaps merely as a humo-
rous eflusion. rather than a serious philosophical essay. (m) Cicero composed seve-
ral other works that would fall under the bead of philosophical, which are lost ; as, De
Consolatione, written on the death of his daughter Tulha ; De Gloria, in two books,
written while sailing along the coast of Campania on a voyage to Greece ; De Philo-
Sophia, or Hortennins, on the comparative value of eloquence and philosophy, a piece
often cited and hichly commended by Augustine. — Some of the works falselv ascribed
to Cicero might also be named among the philosophical; e. g. Orpheus, or t>e adoles-
cente studioso, purporting to have been addressed to his son while at Athens.

SL EdltioM.— For W h o I e W e r k 1. we HM* S-— H*n *• "^ie* only Ow Phi letepkleal Won*.— ,A) OotliLp
||M^..BMr, R. a. Bath (Mid CK O. Sehutx). Halla, IS04-i I. 6 tola. 8. bud oo the edition of Kpanto tncb by Onte, aul
eDotuniiifr tli« text and crnnmenlarr of Dariea, with additional aotea..-/. 4. OSrm*. Lpt. ISX^IS. S vob. dcaifiMd to ba eoin
plelad In 6 vola. 8. Tb« flnt S nit. (cooUinlng the piecea noticed nnder Iba lellm n, i, a, and f ,) an bi(hlf eonnModed. ■

Tb« Prhicer», by 5ii»ynA/ym ft Paimartt, Rom. UTt. 8 tolt. fol. ^Thcra la a Fraoch trandatioo of the PhU IFerb b?

Bnntt, BaukUr and othera. Fkr. 1796. lOvohi 12.— AOcnnan tranalalioB, by Aoole and olhcn,ba* bwn named $ «M. 6.

(B) Aparatdf ; «e nraat net omit ta notice warn of the wwfca ein(lf ; hot to avoid Kpeaiinf the litlea, they will be dakfoeted merely

^ Ite Utttn preflzed (o them eeverally io the deKripfiona giTen in the preeediny pangnph (2). (a) /. DQVtta {Bavitim),

C*mb. im 8.-7. C. Onaiut. Tiirid, 1837. 8. TniMhlloiia^Francb ; IX Dmand. Par. 179& 3 vola. 13~Bnflirii; m

OuthrU (The Moral* of CiceroV Lood. 1744. 8. Ilioatntim-^. C. BanUt, De llbr. CiC Academieia ConmMitetio. I.ps.

1808. 4.-& Parktr, DirpatiUinoea de Dee et providenlie. Ox 1708. 4.=(b)/. Anrfra. Canh. Sd ed. 1741. 8. Bepr. Cikl

1808. 8.— iV. 0. Otto Lpz. 1831. & Tramlation.— Enfliah; A Parlur. Load. 1708. 1812. 8.=(c)/. Awio. OamU

4th ed. 1788. & Repr. Oxf. 1905. 8.— A KlUnur, Jen. 1829. & good. rev. by /. C. OrtUi, Jan. 1836. 8.— • O. H. Momr. Ban.

1838-^ 3 tola. & TraailatioBa.-Engliah i /. DoBmatui. Lond. IfiSI. &-«<nO)^ymoui. Lood. 1758. 8.--a. A OIA, Boi^

77

610 HISTORY OF ROMAN LrTERATITRI.

tm. •.!««;»«<<» Am Ha«4lM of J.Q. Ada».=<d)/. Awtei Guilib^ ITia 1. Bipr.Oi&lMT. 9^L. F. SUntmf.
L|M. Ills. 8. cf1k«>l nd fDad.-0. B. Uem. LifNi ItiSI. & flood.— JK & .film. liiad. 1M& 11 ban a sdUaUm of snml
MSS.«r (te Brit MwMHi.— TnMl*ikiM.-<l«n>u; /. /*. von M»§m. Fnnkf: MOl ».— E^lkk; Ikon. AmUm (wiA

■aim). LowL 1741. 1776. & lUwimbre.— OL V. Eindtrvattr^ AaBMrftunfln and ▲bhudlongM, Jtc, Qbcr Cta. BSete tw

*m- Nalvr dw GMIv. l4«. 1790-92. B toU. & eoaoic^fld bj Btrta, Snppl. to Brev NoL L 987. pullj iocorpwilcd, io Uta,
la JKudbiwftr^adiKoa of Ihan Book*. L{«. 1796. &— O. & Frvnkt, OMtl vnd Gohftli der Cic BOchcr «aa dw NiL dcr OAtkr.
AIL laCMb &— PtriM|iilMr«oQchllolwBaaMdarftbrinlaon,parpartiDf lebea/oyraBookof CkmnftDtSaL Dtanrm. R«w
jHAlnlwd bj w nakaowa uiiher {i¥. M.L.4m WktU haa beaa ooajwitonJ), andar a fldltkNM aaoMi, whh tbo fcllo»ii« Htte: M.
T. Cic dt aat. Dcor. libor ^witai; e pertaliMto codiee ■«. BMnbnaMfD oudc prlarnn adidit P, Uripktnm, Boaoate, ttll. S.
BapoM. Oaf. 1811. Tbe raa) deMcn of Ifae aalker b ool appaiaat ; tlia purity aad aiataaca of Cicaie aic aot praaanad ia iha

Bt7la.~Cl Dnntep, HMU Boa. Ut ii. 2Sa=(e) /. Ikma. Caab. 1741. &— iT O. Mom. Flaae. 1891. B. Tnmd^tm^

Frcacb.— B. DttmaniM. Pu. 1710. II. alaa I8ia=(r) H. O. Mom, la tha ad. of UH iMa. J«t citad.=(«) /. Omml CanB
Bd ad. 1745. &— f. T ffafTHr. OMt I8M. 9 vela. & Tha 2d «oL a co«iaoataf7.— a O. Mmr^F. Cnatr. FtaakC 1994. &
tbead.wifhlbaKilnor Da*iataad«tbanb=<1i)jtl«a<. Roea. Iflll. 8. ako ia fcL aad io qaarta. It caataiM a /iK^ioadi
arthapalimpnat Id which the work waafeuML Bapr.8latlg.18B9. Load. 1881 8. (Alaa Bort. ISO. bat withoal Iba iatood«.
lory iwilar.) It b alaa la tha !•! art. oflba work aatitlad Ommte. JkuAv, a aadd. ral.aitf.OaB. (caraala A MMk) »■■.

18BS. 4.~0. A M«m t r OauxM-. Fraakf. 1898. 8. Tiaedalioaa.— Freadi ; ViOmmak^ wKk orlgiaal Ulia, a^ Nolcaaal

DlMrtatioaa. Par. 1898. 8 toU l9.-.Ea(lbh i 0. W. FtathtnUmhautk. NawTork. ISZlL nacb eaatafad ta tba Sntf*. ft-

frino, Ho. vii ^Tha wbola wock Da Rapubliea was axtaot, it la lald, aa lata u the lllb eantory, aftar which it dii^>'

paaiad, and tho loa bacana a thaaia of comtaat lameatatioa aoiODg tba adaiiran of Cieera aad all lo*aia of daadeal KtantBia.
Aboat tba jcar 1891, Aafile M>i, ia aiaaiiBiag Iba pallaipafato (et F. IV. f S4. 9) of the Vatieaa, diieoverad a eooMdcraMe piw
lioa of It, which had baaa ozpuogad (in tho lOlta eeatury. it ia mppMad) aad eiwed bjr a aaw wrili^thai eaalalned AacntfhA
eammaatary oo tha halauu Mai puUiahad Iha portioa tboa raeorarad, in tbe ad. jaet eitad.— Of Die Jbni book, we aow hate
afaotti two^faird* ia tbe part raoaTtred bf Mai aad two rragawnlfl preeenred to Laelaatiin aad Neaiat; we have aboat the tmm
pmponiae of theawn^ drawa froai the palimpae<t ; of tha thtrd, tha part obtoiaad It ialamplad bjr mamf ehana ; o^y ilutM
liafBwala weie fcoad of tba fourth aad /tjtk ; aad of ihc tixlh, tbe palimpetat preMnlad aothiaf ; bat this book ceataiaed tba Sem-
tuum Sdpionia, which ie preMfvad by Macrt>biai (cf. ( 490) ; we have alM a Graph vetaioa of It, which baa bcca aacribad to TVi^
doTC G•a^ aad with aiore propriety to Plaaedae.— For aa aaalyait of (be RtfrnUic, lea fikwIAori Beawia, No. tii. — Cf. aJaa, X.
Jm. Fmt No. il —For tbe Greek nnUm of Sdplt^t Dream, we the ad. of Cato by (Ma, cit«I below.-Ct Tha Tkaelotf md P%i-
bmipky ia CieeroH Somnium Srifi'imi eaplaioad ; or a brief altempt to deroonftrata that the Newlonlaa Syateia ia agrccaMe ta the
Koiioaa of Iha wiatat Aacienta. Land. 1751. 8.=({) C. Bner. Lpa. 1890. 9 vok 8.-J. M. 4> /. P. JKurfngcr, Braaaw. tsaOL 8.
ed. by C ITcauingir, Oaf. 1821. 19. Load. 1824. 19. aiaee alao ler. by Zbmpf.—Thaie have baaa naay acfaeol edttioBe.->rcA3f
«c«^ Ut. A EagU Load. inS. S.—C. K. DOlaiesy. Boat 1897. 19. Cf BiU. Bnpoi. No. xiviiL p. 497.-.Tna8lat«M r Gr^
luaa ; Ch. Gam. Brad. 6th ad. 1819. 4 vole a with a commcatary ; eomaieodad by SehW, Ittt Ktm. iL IT4.— Eagladi ; W. M.
Cartnty. Lond. 1798. 1— HC GuMria. Lnod. 1755. a=(J ft k) /. ^. (Ma. Lpt. 1816. 1 with Amn. abt^Mwrir..^. C
JTOtotaay. Boat. 1837. 12.— TraniUlioaa.— Eagliah; tV. OttfAric, aa jut died (I).— IT. JMnuKA Lnod. 1777. 1807. R. »•
cloding alao PoprmioM (I) aad 8eipio'a Drean.->/. AmAam, Cato (J), a Poaai, ia 4 pajta. Load. 1649. 19. =(m) Altoaipta ««ro
made, altar tba raviral of latlara, to collect tha acattaied fragatcati of tbe loet worki.- CL Stt^niut, Fn^Banta Ciccraab. Van.
1569. a Baa. 1606. IL— Tha aanc agomua publiahod tha rragnaola of Dt Coauolalwnc ooanecled tagathrr by arateaeM tetaipo-
iatwl by hiaualf. Ban. 1683. a-Aa Ei«iiBh tnaalalioa, ia tha woric aatiiled PamimU, or CnaaolatloBa dadoead fhaa Nalaral
aad Rotealed Beligioa ; two dlaerlalhtna, iha firal auppoeed to ha?a been onmpoaad by Ciearo ; the laat origiaatly wrMn by TTkaai
BtacU'tk, D. D. Load. 1787. 8.— Cf. C F. ffoUt, Pragramm. da ffagmcal. llbnir. Cic. laoartorea. Lpn. 1887.— Tha warh eati-
tled Or7>'k<Btt waa Snt paMUhed, Vea. 1581 a rapabliahad by /. 4. FMtHnL Vn. 1781 4.— Baapaetiog hat woaka af GaKO,
and works falaaly aacrlbad to hin, ef. B8V, ^ 6B1-J7arte, Bra*. Hot. .Soppl. I. a47.~FlatrMui^ BibL UL L 919411

4. llicre are wnika (baaidaa thooa already aiantioaad) Okutrmiioi of Cieero^ phiioaopkical writhif^ too aaaieaoae to be atad
haie ; we aama a faw.-V. Ck. Brt^Hab, Da pbiloeoph. Cieeraaia. Coh. 1784. 4.— CIL F. Hulmmamt, Da ladole phiL Cicannie.
lAoab. 1781 4.— JL Jnihnar. Cieer. ia ptaitoa. ajaaq. pailea naerila. Haaih. 1821 1— J7. Doitoia, Apology, Ac. ia Pmrtm't mm
fattea, cited abaca (b).^(;a«M^ 4» ailmt, Exanaa da la Philoa. de Ciearoa, in tha Mmm. Jemi. tmia; xli. 461 xliiL lOL

$ 469. L. AnncBfut Seneca was a zealous adherent of the Stoic philoeophy, althoaeh
he had previoasly made himself acquainted with the doctrines of all the schoola In
his philosophicnl writings there is much acumen, and much matter to nourish a reflect-
ing mind. The style, however, like that of his epistles (cf. % 448), is too elaboratCf
and on account of tne frequent antitheses, is tiresome.

1. Seneca was born at Corduba in Spain, A. D. 2 or 3. In the reign of Claudius
he waa banished to the island of Corsica, where he remained eight years. After he
became the instructor of Nero, he obtained great wealth (cf. Toe. Ann. xiii. 42), and
was charged with practicing exorbitant usury {Vio Cats. Ixi. 10). His death, by the
sentence of Nero (cf. % 374. Tac. Ann. xv. 60-64), occurred A. D. 65.

/. lifMava, Vita Seaaaa, In hie Opem Omntm. Antv. 1637. 4 veb. fel.~IMierRf, Bai^ ear la via at lee aerita da Seacqaa. hr.
rm. 12. given ia Lm Orongi** tiaael^— CL P. Com, Qber SeaeeaH Lcbea, Ac., ia bia traarfatioa below (S) cited.- A. F. O. Jhiia-
Mrrf, de Senegas vita at Script, lea. 1817. 1— £ii>U<P* Hiat Phil. bk. iii. ch. ii. Md. T.— Jfafigaa, IcaavM>^ BiMk t.
p. 4t9 (c€ P. IV. \ 187).

2. The following are his philosophical works : De Ira^ in 3 books ; De cons^latume,
in 3 books; the 1st addressed to his mother Helvia, during his own banishmenc \o
Corsica ; the 2d addresMd to one Polybins, who had lost a young brother ; the 3d ad-
dressed to Marcia, a friend who had lost her son ; the genuineness of the 2d has been
miestioned : De Prtmdentia, discussing the question, why evil happens to the good :
De animi trant/uililale, in reply to a letter from Anmeus SerenuB respecting the trialB
of life ; it has oeen compared with Plutarch's treatise Ilrpt i\^im( : De Constantia ta-
pientis, supporting the stoical paradox, that the wise man can sufTer no ill : De CZr-
mentia. adaressed to Nero, in 3 hooka, of which the 3d and a great part of the 2d are
lost : De hrevitate Vita : De vita heata, on the manner of living happily, in which Se-
seca takes occasion to notice the reproaches cast on him by his enemies on account of

p. T. PHILOSOPHERS. PLINY THE ELDER. 611

hJ8 wealth : De Otio sapietUist of which the first 27 chapters are wanting : De Bene-
jiciisj in 7 books, composed in the last years of his life, and considered one of the most
valuable of his performances; it treats of the manner of conferring benefits and of the
duties of those who receive them.

On Ibt ptatloMpbical wrilinp «iid opinioH of Seoaca, w* nay naalko, bcndM lb* worfci Bsned abort, fha IbllofriBg t J. Up'
Kui, Maaodaelio ad Stoicam PbikNopbiao. Lii|4. BaL 1644. 12.— £. J. VPhmtr, Dt Scnaea Pbibw)phia. BerL ISSS. a
VratitUT. I8Ml &-MAr, OcMb. Bon. Lit p. 845..^. a Btkuedui, ne pbttoMphb aemi-dniattaiiia. Hate Sax. 1714. 4.

3. There is another work of Seneca which should be named here, entitled Quastio-
nvm naturalium libri VII., and treaiins of various subjects of physical philosophy. In
the Ist book he treats of /re; in the 2a, o( lightning and thunder; in the 3d, o( water;
in the 4th, of Aat7, snow, and ice; in the 5th, oi winds; in the 6th, of earthquaJccs; in the
7th, of comets. This work is valuable as furnishing means to judse of the attainments
of the ancients in physical science ; it exerted an important inffuence in the middle
ages, holding a rank and authority second only to the treatises of Aristotle on physical
subjects, even down to the 16th century.

It baa been aaialed fey a oiodara writer, that Seaaea^ (beoiy af earfbqoakea •* eontiiBa tbe fena of all that bai beeo •Wod ta ow
OWB tisMB ooaearniDf tba action of elaatie vapon iadoaod {• tba iaierier at tbe flobe.* (OIL Bumbdtdt k Bonptani. Voyaga an
csotraa eqainocL Far. 1814. 4. vol i. p. il3.— Sao KC1a»i Diniaia. da ScoccK Qnn. Nat. givao is hto adltkni bdow died.

SaTtnl olber worba, sot now eitaBt, wara aacrtbad to Seneca (cf. QidnL InaL Orat. x. I. JuL OeO. ziL 2). Srroa fiagnaeota
of a treatiM on frUndMp ware bund in tbe Vatican, awi pabiiihed (Ron. 18B0) by B. O. yiebukr. Scvaral woita alM have
been bimij aaeribad to Uoi ; u a. f. Ac vfrtutOui eardinalibu*, Dt foupttlaU, ProvtrbiOt and etben, baaidea the lalten to Vni,
vbidi bave been bebre neticad () 442. 2).— Jtatrto'iu, Bibi. Ut- ii. p. 118, m.—Bahr, Gcieb. ROm. Mt. p. 648.

4. Editiona.— Tba Philosophical Works (frptn pkOotophiea), by E. P. Vogd. Lpi. ISSOi a—A*. Bouttd. Tu.
1829. in Ltmair^t Bibi. Ut.-Tha Qtmtiona Naitnlet, by a. D. JTSfar. Gott 18I& &>^Wa aodee bare edllioM of the
Whole Worksof Scoeea.— J^. & RiMopf. Lf*. 1787-1811. 5 vola. & cooudared ezceHent ; but it «at not conpletad.—
P. R. Fiduri m prapvin* a *< new critical ed. ezpeded to take tbe bifbeat place." -Anumf tbe belt of precedloc editloan ; the
latest Biponi edition, Arfentor. I806L 5 vols. 8.— the editioa cum nofsi earidnim, AdM. 1672. S vols. 8.— that of /. Orufcr (Qmf
nuUn, pr.), Hcidelb. 1604. UA. ooataiaiBic Ibe note used by tbe Roman sbort-haad writers (cL P. TV. ) 117. 2).-«nd that of Lip$imf
Aniw. 1662. foL—Tbe ed. of Awimtf, Bas. 1629. bl. waa ceiabtatad.— Tbe Prinetpt, Naples, I47S; efl BaiU*. Brev. Not.
Sappi i. 606.

6. Traasbtions.— rrench-— La Oroiiff, whole worka. Pu. 1777. I70S. 6 rob. & Gemaa.— K Ph. Omz, phDosophieal

pieora. Sluttf. 1790-62. 3 vob. %.—F. B. AiiAAop/, "({oastioos on nature." Lpt. 1794. & Enflbb.-.!. Chiding, Dt Bane*

finis, Lond. Iii6a 4. ealitied ••The woorke— cooeaming Beaefytiii(, that b to aaj tbe dooiag, recej«ii«, and requytii^ of good
Tumai.'*— Tten. Lodgs. Lond. 1620. foL

^ 470. Caius Plinius Secundus, surnamed the elder {major) to distinguish him firom
his nephew, who was commonly called Pliny the ^ounetr (cf. % 441), lived in the first
century, from A. D. 23 to A. D. 79. He was a nairve of Verona, or accorditij^ to others
of Comum, and was one of the most learned men among the Romans. nXA Natural
History is rather a sort of encyclopcBdia, a work full of erudition, and one of the most
considerable monuments of ancient liierarure. It is important to the geographer and
tbe amateur in art, no less than to the naturalist ; although it ma^ not be throughout
entirely consistent or entitled to implicit reliance. According to his own account, it is
a compilation drawn from nearly 2500 authors : of which the greatest number are now
lost. The younger Pliny justl^ calls it a work ample, leamtS, and scarcely less iwrt-
ous than nature /leriteZ/' (opus dxffusum, eruditum, nee minus varium quam ipsa natura),

1. At an early age he went to Rome. About his 22d year, he resided for a time on
the coast of Africa. He also served in the Roman army in Germany, and held a com-

' mand in the cavalry (Pnefeetus ala) under Lucius Pomponius. Afterwards at Rome
he practiced the pleading of causes. Some time also he passed at Comum, where he
attended to the eaucation of his nephew. He subsequently held the office of Procurator
of Spain, where it is supposed he remained during the wars of Galba, Otho, and Vitel-
Uus. Returning to Rome he enjoved the favor of Vespasian, and at the time of his
death, under Titus, was commander of the Roman fleet at Misenum. He lost his
life by the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79; the particulars are described by
his nephew in a letter to the historian Tacitus. He maintained through Ufe habits of
unremitted application to study.

C(. Life or n\ny ascribed to Surtoniui (cf. ^ 687. 2).— TOn. Min. Ep. Ui. 5 vi. 16, Sa-J/amm dt Ormdaagru, De la vh eC
dca ourrasea de Pliat-, in bb trans, cited bdow.—Vnbmt. Blog. toL uzt.-V. Jtfuaan, C. Pllnil Seemdl Vita. Anat 1809L &

2. His principal work, the Historia Naturalise was finished only a short time before
his death, and dedicated to Titus. It consists of 37 books. The jirst is a sort of index
or table giving a general view of the contents of the whole work ; its genuineness has
been questioned by some, but whhout sufficient reason. The 2d treats of subjects
belonjdng to cosmography and astronomy; the 3d, 4th, 5th and 6th contain a descrip
tion of the earth, its countries and inhabitants, forming a sort of universal geography,
the ne.Tt 5 (from 7th to 11th inclusive) relate particularly to animals or zoology; tne
following 8 (from 12th to 19th) treat of plants or botany; with the 20th bee[ins a de-
scription of medicines, which is condnued through 13 books, treating first of the vege-
taNe kingdom (from 20th to 27th), and then of the antmaZ (from 28tn to 32d) ; the re-
maining 5 books (from 33d to 37th) are devoted to the mineral kingdom, comprising

613 HI8T0RT OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

notices of the medicinal properdes of raetmls and ttonee, and to the Jine arUt painting,
aculpture, &c. with notices of the principal ancient artists and their productions.

■nniarllt lb* TClM tad rhunHi of Qw work, cf. JIAr, BOn. LM. p. <M. StkU, Lilt aoa. iL IBL-Cmfha, Mnoir li
tlMJIiMii.jtc^MKr.fltB«ll«»L«tti«ii,TCl.»T.«AyM,Airtiq«ir.AaftdUn. t^t. I779i »■ J>iw J* OwiMfa^iM, m bdwr

dto».— ror » fy Miple cnwii inliiy o« Hw woiIm, — C^fcia. foim/l^ ownw a TWw (Jiii iiMj DiaqfMaBmm FIbm— . Fma,

ITOl Stalk. M. eontiiaJattfinrfir thaqa«llni«ipecll«nw|^ MrthplM^ wifli ■Btkw of imbit ilpH, •atians te^-^I. X.
J./WikCoiBaMBliimiarbBo<uiqoo,fte 4«PliM. ftr. lOa S voU. &

3. Beveral oilier worki were written bv the elder Pliny, which are lost. The followinff ere
■nentlnned : Dt jaeuUtioiu efutttri ; Stndt&ms, in S booiif, treating of the itndiefl and diecipHne
requieite to form t perfect orator i DuM stnmcnia, in 8 booka, a irammaiical work ; FtU P««-
M»ti, In t booka ; alao a BuUtry of hU own tim$s. In 31 booka (cf. } 518). Beaidea tbeae he wrote
100 piecea or booka termed Eiurfta or CaiaiiafaHi, which were left to hla nephew.—JMUkr,
p. 050.

4. Ediliooh— B«t; JiiMTdL Pfcr. IWa to £iw»i*t BM. Om^^J. jaUr. Lf. IWI-aa >fol> la i« 1Whi»*>ClM<ci^
Coder (hf con of Sfflv (of Diwdoo), who hit dovoM miajr yoon lo ibo ilody of P,*» Not. MKM. • hip aod iplo^td otidaa hii
laofrai^ \j the Dmtmslm Nolwfoncktm§tMnammitmf.^T. O. FVmaiM. I^k. IT78-#I. 10 volt. &; bneeonaoly prirtii,]«l
pfOBHimd by nUdtn MtfMllwt and erilical.''— Tlw B^ont, IT89. 6 vob. & h good.— IMmmy. La^L iWt. feL ud «^po>
cUlly ArAcJn, Par. ITOl S tola. fcL bad ealoMlr.-Tbo Ariwip, by /bAh * J|rir« (priatar). Yaa. 148». fbL bodod bf IMb>
dia a a bMotifal ipoeinMn of aoeiani I7pafn|*f.—Tb3t of F^mmbmdl, FnueaL IfiSL foL ia ocaaaaalad wiib wood-cou, '^aa

boMaiiliplritadaalbararaaUfalar." Salcct porttow bovo boao pMtabad ; 01. O. Ayna, Es. IVn. BiaL Nat «iMritfi,fce.

GoR. ITSa a wilb aoMbar tehiM (* pMwa). Gon. 1810 a— I Jf. OaMMr, CbraolOMlbia Pl'iDiuML Lfs. I7& 1771 a-
A 4am, SetoelaqMidaK OB IWrkHlatNal. 46 Lewi. ITia la

a TraadaliOH.— OflnwB.— a OroM: fnaeC ITBI-Oa It «ek a mMlL— £. Ainatoaa 4c «vf (wifh iha orif. Lalk^

Far. mi-«a 12 fola. 4.-C. A. OmnIL Ffer. IOOL S ««la^ 8. Battv, tart oootaiolK i»i7 Ika part of FUar partaiDinff to »lair.
-^JamandtOrmtdtotmt'mXh Iba Lalio, aod ootaaof nriooaaotbon. Ffer. laOi 8 wlik a — ^Boflaia—Ma. AOnd. Load.
leil. lOL Ivota. M. aeopfoftbiaiifaluadat IL lOt. oa ite aUk«aa of a JbM (Lsate«) *r 18S7.

^ 471. LuciuB Apuleiug, a native of Madaara, a Roman colony in Africa, lived
about the close of tne 2d century. He was lawyer at Rome, and a philosopher of the
Platonic school. From circumstances connected with his extensive travels, he oh-
tained the reputation of a magician and performer of miracles. His writings, ahhough
characterized by a style deficient in accuracjr and often unnatural, contain frequent
turns of wit, and are on the whole very entertaining. The principal work is the Golden
Abb, in 1 1 books, a sort of satirical romance, of the class called MUenan ToUm (cL
^ 150). His other productions relate chiefly to the Platonic philosophy.

1. Little is known of the life of Apuleius besides what is drawn from his own
writings. He married a rich elderly widow, of Oea (Tripolia), where he was taken
sick on a Journey from Carthage to Alexandria. He was afterwards prosecuted by a
brother ot her former husband, on the charge of havins employed magical aria to ob-
tain her affections. His defence or apology on the trial is extant.

a*BB.Litlaoo>.liL^tOa-JnAr,|>.Sil^aO.Afolhr, niaa. da L. Apu!«io. Alt len. 4.-«l. JkA, liibcB dea Apalrfi%
b bia traMbiino bolow (S) ritad—lfoncci k rbaiUt, leoooRnph. Aae: dtcd P. IV. f 1(7.

I. The f^ill title of the romance of the jfaa ia aa followa : MetmmorpkooBdn m« ie Jioiwo murtc K-
bri XT. Apuleiiia paints In tbia work, with great apirit and keen aatire, the vicea and Crimea and
the wide-apread auperatilion and detaalona of the age. Reapecting hla real design, there baa
been a dllTerence or opinion. **The hero of the Uie la a youth named Lmcim, who wiahea to
learn the magic arta of Theaaaly, bat in paniahroent for hia cnrloaiiy and luata ia changed into
an aaa. Bitnk In vice, he paaaea through varloua adveniurea, until at length, discovering the
deep degradation of his slate, he reaorta to the Mysteriea for relief, and again becomea a man,
renewed and improved. The work ia rich in epiaodea, and cloeea with a deacription of the Mys-
teri«>8 of Isla."— One of the episodes ia the heautinti allegory of jflaier c«4 Pofcke (cf P. II. i SO.
P. I V. ^ l9S.—fVarburton conceivea the work to have been written in opposition to Chriatianiiy,
and Intended to represent the pagan Mysteries aa a remedy for vice. Bavle and othera hare
conaldered It as merely a aatire upon the fVauds and tricka practiced by the priesta and other
pretenders to aupernainral power. Thoae who hunied after the phUotophtr't $un$ imagined
thia work to contain valuable secrets.

Se« U Btau, tor l«aiia d'Apoloa, io Iba Mem. Jkad. Auer. inl». 4^— Ziffkr, Dbp. do L. ApaMo AfTpfioraa nyafcrib kr
iollUto. Argniior. 1788. 4 -fTarbu^ant Ktjoo Lcptioa of Moaai, IL 117.-3o|fc, Oiettoaa. bialor. at crib aiticio Jyiite.

3. The works of Apuleius, which are more strictly philosopliical, are the following:
De Deo (or damonio) SoeratiB^ treating on the question, to which of the various classes
ofdamom or genii that of Socrates belonged: De dopnate PlatoniM, or, as sometimes
given, De kabUudine, d^irina, el nativiiate PlatontB, in three books, a sort of intro-
duction to the Platonic philosophy: De mundo, a translation or paraphrase of the book
vepl cArfiev, ascribed to Aristotle.

Thore an rwo wofba wbieh Bii(bl proporiT bo edlod riMhiried ; Jpologte ioa OraKo * tfof^
praMCHlad tor uaioKBUiieal arta { ffcrMa, a aort of awrMogy. coaaiaMof of adodioBi firon hia apooehoa and dadamlkn,iB4
booki.— We bave Ibo titlaa of onoy olbor woite by bim, aow wbollr loat^Tbe tnatiae Dt km^ and tbo piooa aattUad fbiada
Iritmegitti JMtptua aro sot aeeoaatad leauiao. SMU^ Lilt Boai. li. 81 1— AUr, p. 080. cL p^ MB, B«a

4. EditioDa.~Wbolo Worbt; \ht}»e^,rT.Ou4mioip^J.B<mcha. Lridc (l^aydaa). l788-l8Ba 8 tola. 4. Oodaadaip
diod joat aftor conplotiBit tho Snt volaaio, whicb oootaiaa iba Mrfamoryilkoa wilb Ibe boIob of oorvNit criHca, aad a pvcfMo bf
JtuAnJhcfi. TheSd aad Sd voluaiot won edited by BomIm; (hej indodo tbo oMv woriki of Apuldoa aad a valoaUo .^ppnidfr
^puMofM.— O. F. aUMtrmd (eaoMioncod, and lat vol. oveculod). Upc 1941 a— Tbo aiorr impertaal of pncodias ofHiaBa;
the Kp<mt, 1788. 8 wda. 8 -^. tlarUm (Tioorr), ta naun JMphioL Fhr. 188a t fofe A.-raHmmt. Ooodi^ lOT "

Prmctpt, by AoiyRbiym #- Pmmmrtt (pHat. /. Jndnm od.). Booa. 14«L M. ^Ite inolM Ik AvM^ by /. C O. J

Mt'wt\T».9^Cupfd^F»ttkt,t>fJ.aOrMmt. Todd 1883. a

p. T PHILOSOPHERS. PETRONIVS ilRBITER. CAPELLA. 613

& TmMlAt]on..-GerBttii.-4. Sadt, tbe GoM«n Am. Bcri. 1600. 2 toll. &-V. /. k LMtr, Ihe ikbl* of Fkjreba, la mtm.

Jm. I80S. 4. Freoeb.-%<^ Compain d* St. JMnrfin, the Am (ratoaebee pw JSMtei). Fkr. 1787. &-J. f. C. ^tonviSato,

PkjdM. Far. 1796. with the orifiiul and Doto. EoKlali.— C. dSenda. LouL 1724. fk— 7ta|l(«-. Load. 179&. &~^Aiony.

ifMtt, Copid and Fsyebe, ia rtnc Load. I79B. 8.

^ 472. Titus PetrontM Arbiter, a native of Massilia, might be classed with the
entertaining writers (cf. ^ 439) perhaps more properly than with the philosophers. He
received the surname of Arbiter, as director of pubhc amusements. His Satyricon is
B representation of the prevailing licentiousness of his age ; often ofifensive in its
pictures, but not destitute of wit and animation. It is interspersed with metrical pas-
sages, of which the most remarkable is a poem on the civil war.

1. The author of the Satyricon is commonly supposed to be the PelroniuB, who is
described so graphically by Tacitus (Ann. xvi. 18). Tacitus gives him the prsBnomen
of Caius, while Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvii. 7) calls the same person Titus. Although
bom, according to some, at Marseilles, he was educated at Rome. He rose to toe
rank of consul and held the office of ffovernor of Bithynia. He was a favorite of Nero,
who, according to Tacitus, cherishea him as a chief and leader among his chosen
companions (inter pattcos familiarum assumptus, elegantise arbiter). This ex-
posed him to the envy of Tigellinus, who accused him of treachery, and thus Fetro-
nius was constrained to destroy his own life, which he did by a gradual letting of blood,
A. D. 66. — Some writers have thought the author of the Satyricon to be a difierenc
person, who is by some placed in the reign of Augustus, but by others in the time ot
the Antonines.

<V«IAm, De hir. V\i»^-Sekm, Utt Bom. II. 416-IB7. Tba ucomt of SgMUT is givoa In Jbdho^t Lmpriera.-JBAr, 0«eh
BMB. Lit. bTl.-Mdiian, Id bh inoiUlloa below (4) dt«L

2. The Satyricon (or Satyric6n liber) belongs to the class of writings called Menip-
pean or Varronian Satire (cf. $ 345). The work purports to be an account of the love-
adventures of a certain Encolpius, a young freedman whose story enables the author
to portray the character of the times. We have only some fragments which formed
episodes of the work, although it is said to have existed entire in tne 12th century. The
poem on the Civil War consists of 295 verses, describing the fall of the Roman
republic. The other most noted parts are the Matron of EphesuB, and the Banquet of
Trimalcion.

The latter was found in 1669 at Trau In Dalmatia, In a private library, and wai first publithed
at Padua in 1664. The manuicript, after beinf tent to Rome, was conveyed to the Royal Libra-
ry at Paris. The genuineneaa of tbe piece was at first denied by some crltica, but is'now uni-
versally admitted.— Cf. BUhr, p. 579 ; Fo&rtdiM, Bibl. Lat. vol. ii. 157.

3. Editions.— Best ; P. Bunnann. Utr. 1709. 4. (ed. bj bit wd Casp. JB.) Lefd. 17491 4. It mntahii tba DiMertattoai of
Wttgtnttil 4- Ih Vaini, of P. PUU (under Uie aMumiid name of Statil4hu), k StAtffv, reapcetiag Um aatfaaDtlcitj of tbe f ragBHt
dheoTerod »x Tna (/rafmcnfiim Tragurim morn/.), betidoi tha nolea and eomneoii of MTcral editon.— if. O. Jnlon. LpK. 1781.
a eouMend bnt by ZXMln.— Thu of Rtncuard, far. 1797. 2 voK 12. ia Mid to be accurately printed.— Earlier } OomoKt da
SaJoM. Fraacnf. It;S9. 4 -^OotdaiH. Bdeaop. (rrwcof.) 1610. &— Tbe Piwoqn, by PuUUanm, 1476, witb Pttn^U Pesesyrk,

ea cited $ AM. S ^The poem en the Civil War {Dt Mutaiicm Rtfublieaii b gifen in tbe 2d vol. of tbe Pod. Lat. Min. of U-

main (cited § 34S. 8). Fr. Sodet, a Freach officer, publiabed a Tolume (Par. 1698. 19. it. 1694. &} wbieb pnrpofted to be a

oomplete and perfect copy of PelroBias, nid to have beeo ftntnd at Belcmde io 1688 ; tbe baud, waa, however, aooB detected. Cf*
rxbridu*, BibL Let IL tea— la 1900, a Spaaiard, by the name of ManMna, publiabed • pretended fn«naBt lald to have beeo
fraud ia the library at 9t. Cell. Cf. SMOn Repertoire de Lilt Anc. i. 239.

4. T*»a8letioaL-<iennaa^-yf. Oranmgtr (iacladias tbe iaterpolatione of npdet^. Lp*. 1904. & rreaeb.— Cff. 2X Par.

1809. 2 eola. & follewed by " eanatderalioos ear la Matraae d'EpboM e( on coate Cbiaob evr le oMme ■«Jet'0.— ^oour, Baaquet

of Trimaleioa. Far. 179S. 8 volt. IS. CBgllah.-->/dkn Jldditrnj Tbe work* of Fe». Aib. la pmee and verK, witb bla Life.

LoBd.l73&l8.

^ 473. Mareianut Capella^ of Madaura or Carthage, lived m tiie 5th century, and
was a grammarian rather than a philosopher in the strict sense of the word. In ad-
vanced age, probably in the reign of Leo tbe Thracian, he wrote the work entitled
Satyra or Satyricon, consisting of nine books, of miscellaneous contents. The first
two books contain an amusing allegory, in mingled prose and verse, describing the
marriage of Mercury with Philology* The reniaming seven contain a view of the prin-
ciples and the value of Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy,
and Music. The language is unpolished and inaccurate ; yet this author is not to be
altogether condemned in regard to the ornaments of taste and wit.

1. He was probably educated at Carthage, thence styling himself the " foster-child
of the city of Elissa." He is said to have composed his work at Rome. He held tbe
rank of proconsul (vir proconsularis) ; and by some he ia supposed to have been a
Christian.

&M<I, Litt. Rom. ilL K.-BOkr, p. TA^Fabrtdut, BibL Lat. liL 21&— Life of Capella ia Bartk, Advemria, L. esx. e. IS.

2. The title of Satyra may have been given to his work on account of the variety of
its subject matter, rather than because the two first books which form the introduction
to it, are in the form of the Menippean Satire (cf. ^ 345). The seven sciences or liberal
arts treated in the other books constituted the whole course of education for a consi-
derable period in the middle ages. This work was used in the schools as a classic,
was often transcribed, and made a subject of expositions and commentaries. It is sup •

3 F

614 HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURE.

posed to have exerted no small influence on the state of science and learning. Coper-
nicus is said to have gathered from it some hints of his system of astronomy.

8. CditioM^Tbe b«t | R. Omtiui (to Om Ifith ymr of hta af»)- Lrydca, 1608L %.—U. F. Kop^. Franc «I IL l«37. 4. pp. W.

with a eonoMnterr and Botca of Tariona cda. Tb* eariiait, by Ft. Fit. BoHamu. Vloaat. 1499. feL The /^ti two bo^

(lb* AU«|M7, d» mtptUi AUotofte M MmrnrHi L. WUOmd. Bm. vm. a-^. d. Gm. Moriarik 1794. 8.-Tba aiftffc book

(* JAMta) ia prra alao by MiMmiw, eitad ^8081. 1. MaaoMfipl oopiaa of niM of the eauMotariea above alidad to aH

piwrvad; OBaofOke lltbcwluiy.br 0«iiewt,aoIriihbiBbn|>, ia b tbe BrilMh Manan. Of. K^rtcn, Hat Kag. ftniry, iLpblM.

^474. Artcius Manliut Torquatus Severinus Boethiuty a native of Rome or
Milan, floorbhed at the close of the 5th century. His education was finished at
Athens, and he became highly celebrated for his learning and integrity. He was a
poet, a philosopher, and a theologian. Of his numerous theological and philosophical
works, that which has gained him the greatest celebrity, is the one entitled De eou9»-
kUione philosophic, in 5 books, partly in prose and partly in verse ; composed while he
was in prison. His style is not peifectly pure, but far better than that of his con-
temporaries.

1. Boathlus wat born A. D. 470, and lived until A. D. 596, considerably beyond tbe time which
we have included in our glance at Roman Literature. He wat railed to tbe blgheit honors and
office! of the empire, by Theodoric, Iting of the Oatrogotha ; but finallv, through the artifices of
enemies who envied bis reputation and hated his virtues, be lost the favor of this monarch, and
was imprisoned in the tower of Pavia, and at length beheaded by tbe king's order.

K. OiMmi, Ded. aad Ml «r Rom. Snp. eb. nxis. on Iba ebaraetar, atiidiaa, aai haaon of Boathina.— CC Li CImt, BftUtf.
Choiiia, tona zvi. p. laS-STC-CtarAa, aa eitad 1 298, voL H. p. 884.

9. The work on the Conwlation tf Pkilo90f\m is a dialogue between the author and Philoso-

ghy. who appears to hlra In prison. In the 1st oook, Boethius utters his lamentations, comparing
is former with his present slate ; in the 3d, Philosophy portrays the folly of complaining of For-
tune, who has no valuable or durable blessings to bestow ; in the Sd, she shows io what true
honor and happiness consist ; in the 4th, it is proved that virtue alone can make happy ; tlie 5th
treats of the subject of an overruling Providence, and the agreement of God*s omniscience with
man's free agency.— The work was held In great estimation in tbe middle ages. At the coa-
mencenient of the 14th century, there were but four classics in the royal library at Paris ; viz.
one copy of Cicero, Ovid, Lucan, and Boethius. It was early translated into French, CSenuur,
and English ; the earliest was the 8azon translation by king Alfred, who died A. D. 900. A
Greek translation exists, which Is said to have been made by Maximus Planudea, a monk of
Constantinople, in the 14th century.

&M/I, Utt. Ron. iiL 223.— Wirfon, Mat. Enc Fba«rr, i. nlii. cxztL U. 842. ad. Loud. 1B84.-CC CetfM AUrad. Ay^

CcMun Boath. da ComoI. ntUoaophke. 00(t. 1 80S. 8L alao la hit 0>ptMc. Jkad. (Bib vol. p. 148). Oo«L 1812. &

3. The other works of Boethius, which belonged strictly to the class of fkUoaofkieah were
principally commentaries or translations; illustrating the works of Aristotle, Cicero, and Pot-
phyry. He composed, however, several original works penaining to the subject of logic and
rhetoric. The piece entitled Da Diaeiplhui Sekolantm, commonly ascribed to him, is the produc-
tion of Thomas of Brabant, a monk of ihe 13th century.— Boethius left some mathamatieal woria,
chiefly translations or imitations of Greek originals ; as, .^riUisstiea, in 3 books ; Da JtfMi'ca, ia
5 books ; and De Oeometria, In S books, the first of which is a mere translation of Euclid ; the
second treats of the utility and applications of tbe science*. Boethius was not without cele-
brity as a Christian author, having composed several controversial works, among which were
treatises on the Trinity and ibe twofold nature of CkriaL It has been said, that he led tbe way
to the introduction of ihe Aristotelean method of reasoning in controversial theology*.

I or. BUhr, Gawb. BOn. Lit. p. 864, 875. « CIar««, ai Joat citad abova.

4. Ediliona.— Whole Worka. Baal; (asraeaoh OlanantU Baall, 1570. foL— Di C oaa. Pbileaophia; cftta
rarj namaroua adilioM va BnaatkNi oalj tba followioc; Omningar. Aifmi. 1501. fol. « foil of coti, and Uwi^iiv oay ht
lookad upon u a graat cmiaHty."— i>. Bmiiut. Layd. 1071 ; Lps. I7aa. & oootidarad vary good.~n. 3. BUfnekL BoC 1787. 8.

— B. VanhL (Bodoai, pr.) FUna, 1788. 8 tola. 4. Lai. a lUl.— Is Vaip^t Dalpbb Claiaica. dng. Mai i:mannA ia a Ta-

tkan Ma.aaort of eomnMBtaiy ob lona of Um matrleal pamfai of tba OoimoL PAS. ^-aho two pravmMlr sBkaawa ttolai
ofBoatbia; Oicy ara pTen In tba work airtitM Ckuite. Juelor. • Fiifjfr ootKethu adit (voL Sd>. Bon. 1881. &

5. Tr«iulaliaiia.-Of tba ComoI. of Pbila«>phy.-GanBaB.~A'. K. fraiftag. Rig. 17M. 8.-dl. Xbtetrftr or C^burgw (^riakr),

LaL ft (Semi. Norlnb. NTS. foL wlUi a commealaiy awribad to Thonaa Aquinaa. Fraodk-JMit. of Mmm (natrkal). I««bs

1493. Thi* and two.otbara ara anealieaod aa txiiXvag befcra A. D. 1350 ; ona by A C(t or 7V<, ao old Fraath pool ; tba olbcr, ka

prcM, by John d* lonfm. Of. IVarton, Hi«t Eb(. PMtry. iL 804, 898, 848, 417. EncIiaL-KiBf .tt/rarf, •* AngkhSaame."

Printed (ed. CA. Rmoiinton). Oif. I89S. S. Aa ad. of Alfradt varnoD ti B. with an Eagliab tranalalioe waa pubiafaad by Mr.
Cardak of Laceater (Eng.), 1SI8; a work TaloaUa to tba atudent of Ai«Io-aanm Utaratar* (on which aobticet, tL 3itt, B^et.
Jul. 1841. p. 196-21 \).—Qa>ff. Chauar. Printad by Caxton, at WaatmiiMtar, wilhoBt date ; tbe Latin aad E^iib are flvto atlv-
uaiely ; a period or part of a period in Latin Mag followed by the eonaapoodinK period hi Eaglirii, ia aanller type.— JuAmmw
CapcOaimf, or /oAfi (A« CAaploin (John Walton), « ?«• Boht of Camfbrt, called ia Latao Jhtehu * Orm. PiUlaa., tnoiated tela
EoKleaM Toi«ei in Tene," ftc. trawUted in i4ia printed in 16SS. 4.^Aictani; Lord Viaeoant Pmtan. Land. 1885. Bapr.
LDnd. 1712. S.—PkO. Ridpaih (with notaa and illiNt). Lowl. 1785. a-Maoy carloaa adilioM aad ina^btkm ara Maad by
LayNT. on the Poetry of the Middle Agaa, died) 848. 1.

\ll,^^Maihemaiician8, Geogrtqthen, and QSconomUU,

9 475 u. Iti re^rd to mathematical science the Romans cannot be said to have had
any pectiliar merit, although when they began to patronize and cultivate the r-^^- —

i

i

p. y. MATHBHATICS OBOOHAPHY. 615

generally, this was not entirely neglected. The practical applications of the science,
especially in architecture and the military art, were very favorably received and en-
couraged by them, because thereby their love of splendor and their desire for conquest
were cherished and strengthened.

^ 476. It was not until B. C. 262, that a sun-dial or gnomon was introduced at Rome,
being brought from Catana ; and this very dial, although not adapted to the latitude
of Rome, was the only guide they had in determining the time of day, for nearly 100
years subsequently {Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 60). About the year B. C. 164, the first
dial for the meridian of Rome was constructed. And it was several years later that
the Romans received their first instrument for measuring the hours of night, which
was the clepsydra^ imported by Scipio Nasioa, B. C. 159 (cf. P. IV. § 238). In the
year B. C. 168, a military tribune, C. Sulpitius Gallus, announced to his army an
eclipse of the moon ; this occurring as it was predicted, Gallus was regarded by his
soldiers as a man inspired by the gods iLivy, xliv. 37). — These .facts are mentioned
to show how little progress had been made m sciences and arts connected with ma-
thematics.

^ 477. The Romans derived all their knowledge of mathematics from the Greeks ;
and it was but shortly before the time of Augustus that the exact sciences seem to
have been much cultivated among them, although they must have known something
of the discoveries of Archimedes and of the mathematicians at Alexandria (cf. $ 204).
In the period designated as the fourth in our glance (from the war of Marius and Sylla,

B. C. 88, to the death of Aii^islus, cf ^ 301), we meet with the first name specially
noticeable. Publius NigidiusFiguius, who joined the parly of Pompey against Ctesar,
and was afterwards exiled by the latter, ia mentionccl as an eminent mathematician
and astrologer, and a man of great learning'. — Marcus Monilius is known to us merely '
b>[ his poem on astronomy, or rather astrology (cf. ^ 3G9). — The three geometers com-
missioned under Julius Ceesar to survey the Roman Empire (cf. ^ 480) must have had
some reputation in practical geometry. — But the most distin^ished name is that of
Vitruvius, whose writings we shall more particularly notice in another place (^ 490).
His celebrity, however, was the fruit of his skill and success in architecture rather than
from any contributions made by him to mathematical science.

t Niffidiui wu t friend of Cicero (cf. Ep. i v. 13), and ia nid to b«v* compoMd a grtat nanber of wnrkii, all of which are lott
(Ct duL OdL Noet An. Iv. 9 ; zix. 14.) Th« folio winic an amoa^ the llilea preacrvad : Dt J^pAcra barbariea a §rmcanica ; Dt
vmtii; Dt Dii$i Dt auguriU. He is «id to have predkrled folure 6Tent« (,9utl. in Augmt. 84. 94; Dion Can. xW. I).— 5dAr,
Gcfldi. Bom. lit p. 666.— AiH^ny, in Ibe Man. Aeai. hucr. zxix. where all that ia known of him ia oollected.— Fragmenti at
am writinp are fprtu ia /. RtOgenwu^ Var. LeetioDcs, Lafd. Bat. 1618. 4.

$ 478. In the period following the death of Augustus, mathematical science did not
flourish with any new vigor. The principal writer that is placed in this department
is Frontinus (cf. % 491), who appears to have been interested in mathematics chiefly aa
applicable to architecture and military science. Mention is also made of Hyginus, sur-
named Gromaticus, and of Siculus Flacus ; the former of whom left a book on caaira'
metation^t and the latter some treatises pertaining to the survey of lands'.

1 The boolc Hygimu ia girea in Gmoius, Tboanr. Astiq. Rom. (cited P. IV. § 179), voL x.— — «The treat of I%aenu,bf I,

C. Stkwartz, Cot>. 1711. 4.— The worlu of both by Ooeiu, cited § 499. 4.

^ 479. In looking over the last period, which is included in our view of Roman lettere,
we find but scanty gleanings in the department of mathematical science. The works
of Firmicus Maternus (cf. $ 493 and of Boethius (^ 474. 3) are the chief productions ;
but the treatise of the former is filled with the reveries of astrology, and those of the
latter are, as has been noticed, principally translations from Greek authora. Some
writers on military affairs belong to this period, of whom the most important is Vege-
lius (cf. $ 492). 1 here is a treatise, entitled De vocabulis rei militaris, composed by
one Modestus'; and another, from an unknown author, entitled Ds kebus htllicu,
which contains also something on financial matters, and other subjects^.

I The pieee of Modestm ia nid to have been eompoead by order of the emperor Tacitua, A. IX 276 ; Aiarlei «yi of It " f(>1u( «<

puiMm f It ii gif eo In the eolieetion Vd. it n nUL SeHpL dted \ 488. 1. ^ The worli dt nJbut teB. ia fonad in A';t«m. Of

Imtut, Notitia niriaaqoe imperii. Bm. I6S9. foL

% 480. In Geographyy the knowledge of the Romans was extended by their con-
quests ; yet they accomplished in this science little compared with what we might have
expected. We find no Latin writer on geography until the time of the Eirmerors.
Julius Caesar conceived the idea of a complete survey of the whole empire. For this
purpose three geometers w^re employed ; I'heodotus, intrusted with the survey of the
northern provinces ; Zenodoxus, with the survey of the eastern ; and Polycletus, of
the southern. It is stated, that this survey was finished B. C. 19 ; and that the results
were laid down upon a sort of map or chart, by the care of M. ViptaniuM Aerippa, who
was hindered by death from publishing a great work from the materials collected.

The anrvej of the eaaleni part ia mid to have oocopied over 14 yeara ; that of the northeiti, «bov« SO yean ; and that of the leatbp
era, above 95 yeera. SeMU (Ult. Bom. ii. 221) icicea the numbsn alill hiither.— The materiala enllMtcd by Afrippa were lodged fai
the puUle airhtvea and there consalled by Pliny (cf. mt. A'at. iii. 2, 8, 29, 196 ; ir. 84, 96). The diart or table ia mid to ham
beM pna^md, aad to have rBceived from time to tiam marka aad Botm to dmigiata tbt nurlow cbaagM is Ibe pnnrinoea. Tha

616 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

^ 481. How much the want of some comprehensive work on geography was felt at
Rome may be conjectured from the fact that Cicero, as appears by a letter to AtticoSi
once contemplated such a work himself. He had a deep sense of the magnitude and
difficulty of the task, and on that account shrunk from it. No Latin writer seems to
have attempted a work of such a character ; but we have something like it in the geo-

graphy of Sirabo in Greek (cf. ^ 216). The first writer in Latin on this subject was
omponius iMela (cf. ^ 494} in the reign of Claudius ; unless we except Juba the
younger', who composed a geographical account of Libya and Mauretania, which is
quoted by Pliny in his Natural History. Pliny may be mentioned as the next author
in this department, as four books of the work just named treat of geographical sub-
jects (cf. h 470. 2). Tacitus, who falls within the same period, should also be mentioned
here, as his treatise on the Germans (cf. % 534) may be placed under the head of geo-
graphy perhaps as properly as under that of history.

>T1ie Jnta Iwra ooliMd, who mm kli« of Mmratonb, wrata iIm « hMory of Kom, ia Omk.— 8w fiaiin, RcekmhM av li
«•• •! iMoumfHd* JBtale Jene,lB Ibe JfMi. JcaA Amv. vol. It. p, 467.— CL O./. rotifiif, 4e biMor. Gnee. ^\. 4) dtadlM.

% 482. Wo find no other geographical works to notice until after the time of the
Antonines. In our j(/V/i and last period (of % 301) occurs the name ofJulianut TUia-
nu»t who at the commencement of the Sd century compoeed n description of the Roman
provinteg, which is lost^ Solinus probably belongs to the same century, a considerable
part of whose Polyhistor (cf % 495) consists of geographical notices. In the 3d or 4th
century, it is supposed the exiant works called Roman Itineraries (Romanomm Cine-
raria) were constructed (cf ^ 497); those desii^nated as Itineraries of AnSonine being
ascribed by some critics to a writer named i^^thicus Ister, the author of a work en-
titled Cosmographia. Scxtus Rufus* and Vihius Sequester (cf % 496), of the 4th cen-
tury, should also be noticed, having left some geographical or chorographical writings;
which are the latest that fall within the period included in our present sketch of Roman
Literature, except the poetical performances of Avienus (cf ^ 381. 4) and Rutilius (cf
^ 389). — It would seem, therefore, that there existed in the Latin language no general
system of geography except that of Mela, unless the treatise of Pliny may be consi-
dered as entitled to the same rank. The earliest modern system appears to have been
that of Dicuil, an Irish monk of the 9(h century'.

1 ntiantu U MNnotJiMii MBad inonf tha hMtoriaiu ; im O. J. Koitjiw, d« liial UlL (U. 1) cited \ Btt. I. * Stxhu Rufm, or

fkahtt Rufui uh»k ■enHtlnwt etllod, h alio placed ameaK tha hntoriam ; w« hava two woitt bjr btm ; oaa atjiad Bnmtmrimn
mim gtnanun pop. Ronaai, or otbarwi* Brntaeium dt viaoria U pnvincUt pop. Romani, eonpoaad, M it Mid, bf Ofdar af Iba
anpann- ValeotiDiaa ; tha otbar, D€ ftfioitibui vrM* Jtonur, a topQ(faphical daacripikm of RoBa. Tba bnaor of Ihaaa wofka ■
Ritan ID aoma aditwoa at Atfnipiiu ; a. «. la FirAayl*!, eiied k M0> 3. Both aapantalj. b* C JMurm*, Haawn. I8I&. 8. wUba
map of Rone, and fomiax iba ISIh vol. ttthm Corfui IKttor. LaL by JhiMkoff »aA Smboit {tL it27.SK Tba daaoipUa* flf
Hobo w 000111100)7 j<Ho*d with a piaea nedar tha mmt title by Publiui Victor, Da ngiomibtu Bomm, aod aaotbar, aabtled Lih^m
frovineHuum Romtmarum, by tome writer in tba time of Tbeodotiu* ; (iven in Orannua, TheMnr. Antiq. Ron. cited P. IQ.

^ {97. I. a The work of DfauiT, mlitltd Ik Mmmn orUi terrm, wai publiahed by J. Lttnjnju, Par. ISIi. 6. ceoaidcred batter

tban the ed. of fVatkenifr, Hr. 1807.— In the aame century wilb Diruil (tbe 9th) pmbaWj lived the writer called Gaogrm^kiu Aa*
nnna^ antbor of a work at little value, witb tbe title Oi Gtognphia wn Chorograplumf it la appended to tbe ed. of Mela by On-
nam, cited \ 484. t.

^ 483. Under the name of (Economists are included a class of writers, who treated
particularly of the subject of Husbandry or Aericuhure. Agriculture was from the
beginning an honorable employment among; the Romans. Patricians and the most
distinguished citizens engaged' in it. Cincmnatus was laboring in his fields when
informed of his election to the dictatorship. Resulus asked leave to retire from the
senate to cultivate a little farm suffering from neglect. The names of some illustrious
families are said to have originated from the agricultural employments of their foundersi

6, g. the Fabii^ Lentuli, Asiniif &,c. This attention to the actual cultivation of the

lands by the ablest and best informed men occasioned an advancement in the ait of
agriculture such as the Greeks never attained. It is indeed stated that there were
numerous works written in Greek on the subject ; Varro mentions about fifty authors ;
although of the Greek works composed before his time, we have now only the (Eco-
nomics of Xenophon (cf. ^ 186. 2), and the Works and Days of Hesiod (cf. ^51); the
pieces in the collection of Greek Geoponics (cf. ^ 268) were of later origin. But what-
ever might have been written bv the Greeks, the Romans were not in this branch
mere imitators or borrowers. The maxims and precepts which are given by the Ro-
man cBconomical writers were drawn from the experiments and observations of tbe
Romans themselves. The principles are not extensively applicable in modern agri-
culture ; yet the writings abound m useful hints and remarks, and have always beea
regarded as curious and interesting compositions.

^ 484. The earliest Roman writer on husbandry, so far as we know, was Cato the
Censor (cf ^ 498), whose history belongs to the first part of the second period m the
division adopted for our present glance (cf ^ 301). The next author in this department
was Varro (cf. $ 499) ; he was bom many years before the close of otir second period,

p. T. AORICULTURE. 617

but his treatise on agriculture was not written until after the middle of the following
period, when he was above eighty years old.

$ 485. Columella, who was a contemporary of Seneca, in our third period, seems to
have been less regarded among the ancients than his two predecessors; but he has so
adorned his subject by the purity and elegance of his style, that his work (cf ^ 500 a) is
still agreeable to the man of letters. One of the books is an hexameter poem on gar-
dening, a topic which was purposely omitted by Virgil (cf. ^ 362), whose Gcorgic« may
properly be adverted to as illustrating the agriculture of the Romans. — Marlialis Gar-
gilius was a writer on agriculture and gardening, who probably belonged to the same
period ; only slight fragments ot his works remam (cf ^ 5(K) b. 4). — The last author we
nave to name is Palladius, whose treatise, although consisting of 14 books, is chiefly
drawn from previous writers. The time when he lived is diilerently stated by the
critics.

% 486. The modem writers on Roman Literature have usually placed in the class of
CBconomists an author called Callus Apicius of whom Uttle is known (cf $ 501), but
to whom is ascribed a curious work on the eulinary art, or what may perhaps be
termed the oecoiiomy of the kitchen. It is perhaps worthy of remark here, that direc-
tions as to domestic affairs are not unfrequently introduced by the writers on agricul-
ture. Cato gives recipes for making cakes and puddings; and indeed a considerable
part of his work is chiefly appropriate to the housewife.

^ 487. There is another class of writings, which may be spoken of in this place per-
haps as properly as elsewhere ; although i'rom their peculiar character, it may perhaps
be a question, whether they should be noticed under the head of agriculture, of juris-
prudence, or of mathematics ; we refer to the works of the Roman Agrvnensores or
measurers of land. These writings are sometimes termed Gromatic ^Gromatici), aa
Gromatice was a word employed to designate the art of surveying.

The Romans had peculiar laws and customs in respect to the division of their lands,
and the determining and marking of boundaries. Ample business was furnished for
professional surveyors, in dividing and measuring districts assigned hy the state for colo-
nies ; in measuring lands belonguig to the public domain ; and in settling the hmits of
private estates (cf. P. II. ^ 91. 1). It is obvious, that these men would need an acquain-
tance with practical geometry, with tbrmer and existing agrarian laws, and wuh all the
ancient customs in the distribution and use of lands. In the latter periods of the em-
pire, if not before, they held a high rank in the state, and received a handsome pubhc
salary ; and schools existed expressly for their education.

$ 488. It would seem that numerous treatises were written on the diflfercnt branches
of the art of the agrimen$ore». A body of curious but obscure and diHicuIt fragments
still exists ; some of them are aacribea to Siculus Flaccus and Hyginus (or Hygenus)
Gromaticus already named (^ 478); but there is much uncertainty respecting their
authors. The collection now extant (cf. ^ 489. 4) is considered by Nidtuhr to be an
ahstraci from an older collection, with additions, made by an ignorant compiler of the
7th century. — Niebuhr, the distinguished author of the History of Rome, was led by
his speculations respecting the agrarian institutions among the Romans, to study these
remains. *' We lose ourselves, says he, **in the contemplation of the destiriies of
Rome and the changes that Italy has undergone, in reading these singular books. All
the epochs of Roman history stand here side by side ; the ancient aruspicy and religion
and Christianity; ordinances of the plebs, and sections of the Theodosian code, and
the Pandects ; the Latin of the earUest ages and the embryo ItaUan of the seventh
century."

HUbukr, Dm. on tin Agrimmtom, 'm Appendix to hk JJUtory of Ronu^ Tot. il. p. 474. Eng. Tnod. rapoblulted FhiL I8SS.

^ 489. Our prescribed method requires here a specification of works pertaining to
the classes of authors just reviewed.

U MatkeiMtioa writMi.— JUbnhida, RoT. dm Mtth. p^ UL 1. 1.— BaJb", 80m. Lit. p. 08S, m. Col1«ctioaL-^/A«t, Aatraw

Bie»r«B Ltdn. Opct^ VtB. UM. Ibl. Rbtftii UnfoUrdi*, 1508. ibi. eootalning Grwk atid lalb arimloctn— C ikmanl,

dtod i flOS. Ob nilitarr aOSura ; P. Scrivir, Script, Rei Milit LagA, Dit. 1644. IL— Velfrn de Ra mil Seriptorai, with eoof

■Mnl* of J. SInatcMWt *c. Vmlin (Wad). I67a B.-^. fVaidtk*, Index nilitu-M Scriptor. Vat. OnBOO-Ulinoran. Sormb,
lTte.4.

L GeoRTtpben.— £. £. fV. naehtiHdem Ven dtna Verrflniaren in ROmer am Aialmitiioc nod Beriehti(UBic der Eidkuoda odcr

Oeofnphie. BrlaQf. 1780.— A. Jtfamurf, u cited { 7. 7 (!»}.— iUAr, RBm. Lit p. 876. CoUeetiow.— ^AUia, Oaofiapbi LetiaL

VeD.!5i8 9,

8. (Eeonombti.— /)imJop, Hbt Rool Lit. il— A. Sradky, Sorrey of endcnt Hmbandry and GardeBiog ; fron Cato, Varro, fte.
Low). I7SS. 8.-^. Odtam, HutlMalrr of the Amienlt. E<(iDb. 1788. S volt. a-JloOin, Arts and Sataen of Ancieal% in Ane.

auu ad. N. Tnit« )B35b nl. ii. p. »7. Cnllectiont.— /VfiKupc, by O. Mtruta (ed. N. Jtruon, pr.) Ven. l4Ta lioL— Seventl

olbm barm that of /. M. Omner. Lpz. I79& 4.— Gemur^ repabliihcd {Riutli ed.) Lpi: 1778. 2 toIh 4.-/. C. MouUbr,

ScfTpt. T*l rmt. vet. Ut. ke. I^v. 1704-98. 4 velt. S. eomldand the baiL Di4at (print), TAdnet tfueieaa oatraiei LA

ntatlCi a I*afriniltai«, ke. Par 1778. 6 vola. 8.

4. Omnalie writen, or AtriimnKm.-irkbtd^, n cited « 4S8.— &MIB, Utt Ron. iii. 227— JRUr, HOa Ut p^ 612: Co.

leetinaa.— Ptrrwrpe, by jf. Tumtbtu^ De agror. cosdit ct conalit limit Fkr. ISM. 4.— AT. Rigaitku, Atietorai llolan rapind.
1613. 4.— Out Gumriut (nr Oaaiiu), Rri a«nric auctorea, kc Anat 1674. 4. The eootenta of tbia am fins by ththduit BiU.
Let iii. 511, who remarks Ibat thea writiop were flnl fMiad in MS. in the nanatery at Bobbie, A. Di I499L

78 3r9

618 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

^ 490. Marcus Vitruvius PoUio, of Verona, floarished about the time of the Chris-
tian era. He performed military service under Ca^snr. By Augustus he was appointed
to the oversight of military engines and public edifices. The city of Rome is said to
have been greatlv adorned by the buildings projected by him. His work on Archi-
tecture, in 10 books, has been preserved entire, with the exception of the plans, which
originally belonged to it. Only the first 7 books treat of Architecture, properly speak-
ing; the 8ih is on Aqueducts; the 9th on Dials; and the 10th on Mechanics. His style
has often been censured as wanting in elegance ; this charge is made without adverting
sufficiently to the peculiar nature of the subjects treated by him. The text also needs
various corrections.

I. Newloa, ia h» trudiiioii, ettcd below, pluM Vitrvriw in the rcifB of TMm. NtiManU Ufwato nt •mmtni hf At, it
nw dow of h« Diaertatiea on the PknllMQn.— See fValfk Buttmann, MoMan d«r AliertbuairiMaidukr^ vol. L Berl. IWI. 8.
— Aho SehBU, UlL Rem. ii. 189.~The Pnktommm in Ibe ed. ef 3eknaUtr, cilad below.

2. The work of Vitruvius, entitled De Arckiieclurttf is said to have been the first
written on that subject in the Latin language ; and is the only one on the subject which
18 preserved to us from ancient times. Its contents are drawn in part from Greek
authors now lost. It is therefore a work of the highest importance in the history of the
art. The loss of the designs, which originally accompanied it, is much to be regretted.
The 1st book treats of the art in general ; the 2d, of the materials employed in building;
the 3d, of temples ; the 4th, of the several orders of architecture ; the 5th, of pubuc
edifices; the 6th, of villas and country residences; the 7ih, of decorations. — Cf. Bakr,
p. 667.

a. EditloM.— Bf«t.-7: O. aekiuSda^. Lpt. 1807-8. 4 voli. t—^/hig. Bod*. Bert. 1800. S vole. 4. to which belaags a volene
ef plelfe (Kt/vfir lu Vitntv X ^ildWr, he.) publ. Berl. 1801. rol.-& StratUo. Utiei. IMS-98. < voh. fel. with ihe cierdteliee*
at PoUnv* (fiMva. Fitnmicnmt kc PeUv. 1738. 4), and aolea of wine* others, tod UO plalei..-More celcbreled eoioag fhe
earticr ; /. rf« LnH. (Blxair, pr ) Annt. 1648. fol. with plates aad the Lakon rUntmanum of B. BaldL—The Prinoft, Itf J.
Sulpidua, aloDK with FrentiDue, withoet Dave of place or dale (probablf Ronw, belbre 1480) fol.— There \t aa abridpiMSt at Ti-
trvTioi eatent, BpUonm rUrwU, feiwd in the BMoaelery of St. OaU bf Pofgie ; puhlUted by OhImL PmUUm, fu. 1S40L 4.->
Cf. fUriciM, Bibl. Ut. 1. 488, 489.

4. TreD»1aHom.>-OennaB.-.%<i«f . AbA. Lpt. 1786. 8 role. 4. Fi«Bcb.-<;. Pmrmdt, 8d cd. with orir. Par. 1684. M. i^

rMitt aiao published an abridimeol in French } which was reprioied Par. 1768. 8. ; aad Iraaalated ioio Cafliih, Load. 1708. 8.— .-

Italian.— J. OaKanL Nap. 17SB. fol. nneh mmmcadcd. Spanish.-/. Ortig y Sanx. Msdr. 1787. foL with plates. Bac*

Ibh^il Coftaf, with ori(. Lai. Load. 1730. fol. wiih Botes of JnifoJoim and olhen, aad atwiefoas plaice.— 7. A'etofOM. Load.
1771. IbL 179iL 8 vols. fol-W. JVWdtu, u cited P. IV. ^ 243. 4.

& IllintraiiTe.-A Ck. GenttH, Ex^elacbe Brieb Qber Vitrvv. Bn-t. 1801. I8M. IPkrts, 4. with phtcs.— /. F.9.KBtA,
ErUuteruncrn bu Viinave BaukuosL Siuttf. 1808. 8.— C. L. StiegUtt, ArchSolociscbe t'tfrrhaltaafea. Lpc I8I0L 8. Cn» It
AUhtilung '» oil Viini vies, with pUtes).— rOruviiu, on the Tenplsa and intereolMinniitieai of Ihe Aadeali ; with a Dicboaafi ef
Terms. Load. 1794. 8. with tea plates.

^ 491. Sextut Juliut Frontiwuj who was consul A. D. 74, and died in the office of
augur, A. D. 106, was the author of two works still extant. The one first written and
most celebrated is entitled Strategematica, in 4 books; containing notices of the mili-
tary manceuvres and remarkable speeches of the Greek and Roman heroes; the 4th
DOok treats particularly of military science. The other was on the Aquedncit of Eoaut
of which the author had the superintendence under the emperor Nerva.

I. I'he treatise on the Roman Aqueducts^ in two books, is considered as a valuable
work on account of its description of those remarkable specimens of architecture ; it is
written with ease, but without elegance. — The other work (entitled sometimes Strate-
geticon lihrilV.) is a compilation, bearing marks of negligence, yet containing informa-
tion not elsewhere found.

There are sone Ireetiaes sttribuled to Frontinoa, which eeidently belenf to a later afe ; e. f . the pleeea eatMed Dt mframm. qufr
KWc, Dt UmifJtaM, aad Ik CvUmiit, foood ia the eollectioa of Gronsetic writers bf Gouha (eiled \ 488. 4). Meotioe is ate msds
of a lost work, Dt tuetiai Hamtri—ScMt^ Lilt. Bom. ii. 453.— Polenta, Viu FrooUni, in his ed. and also Uiat of OuJmdmjh he>
tow riled— 0. O. MotUr, Dissu de Frootiii& Alt. 1880. 4.

8. Editions.— B o t h W o r k s ; rnmtini Opera. Biponl. 1788. & •• Edltio aeennia" (»rlu). D e AqaKdaetibat;

best, G. Ck. AdUr. Alton, 1782. 8. with phles.-/. i*o<«niM. Patav. 1788. 4.-OiTeo also ia On»iu$, cited F. tU. { I8T.

Stratetematiea; b«ft,P.Oluiflui0rp. Lofd. BaL 9d ed. 1778. 8.— iV. SMwiM. Lpt. 1778. 8.-Oivea alee in fte Oal-
taften of military wrilm cited f 489. l.^PHnapt. Boas. 1487. 4.

3. T»mnslattonr.-<«ermen.— Of the Stratojcetics ; /. Ck. Kind (with ttnael. of Fblyssoos). LpL l7Sa 8^Bettar in fhe work s»

titled jrHcffteOwneete/U. JintodoUn von btrUkmUn FMhimn. Ootha. 1798. 8. Prenclt.— itounlon dt Slgraia, Stine8««icfc

Par. 1756. 8.-V. RandtUtt Aqueducts, with orif. Lat. and pbiee. Far. 1790. 8. Engliah ; nnkaown aothor, Limd. 1688^ ML

^ 492. Flaviut Vegetiut Renaius, probably a native of Rome, lived in the 4th cen-
tury at Rome or Constantinople. It has been supposed that be was a Christian. He
wrote a work on the milUary art, in five books, addressed to Valentinian II. It is
drawn from earlier writers, and from the constitutions and ordinances of some of the
emperors.

1. Vegetius is styled, in the manuscripts, vir tZZuffrM, and tomes. His work, written
about A. D. 375, is entitled Epitome institutionnm rei mUitaris. The first book treats
of the forminff and training oi soldiers; the 2d, of the discipline and regulation of an
army ; the 3d, of the various arts brought into requisiiion in military afifaiis; the ith.

P.T. 0E00RAPHER8. MATERNU8. MBLA. 80LIN178. 619

of machines employed in attack and defence; the 5th, of naval affairs. Cato, Celsos,
Paternus, and Froniinus are among the authors from whom matter is collected.

jaAr, Gtacb. Rom. Lit. Gll.-^IVaUtkt, lodes miliUris, cited \ 439. 1.— Comle TYcrpfndi Ouw, CoiuiMatiirat rar 1m inrtita«
tiov mililairea de Vegece. Sd td. Par. 1783. I wis. 4.

S. EditioM — Bnt.— M Sekutld. Norimb. n«1. 4. with pUtei.— The Bipmalrtt. Argntor. I60S. &— A. OiamkmL Tier.
18IB. ^—Printtpt, eillwr that prialod at Rniue, U78. 4, or one, wiihool dale or Moa of place, but rappoaad, Oxf. 14<& 4 — Coo-
taiaod abo ia iIm C«>llrcii<m of wrllara oo military aflain cstad § 480^ 1.

1. TfaariaiioM.-«cniuii.~JI JCctacAa. Hallo, 17SiL 8. FrcBch.— Cbovalier db Bmgan. Far. 1772. IS. EoglUL-/.

Ctor*. Load. 1707. 8.

4. There la a wivk extant, entitled />« MulomedUdtw^ aeu d» arU oe(«Hiiarl«, In /pur booki,
which hat somptimefl been ascribed to thii aulhur. It ie now referred, however, to a latei
writer, named PuMiuM VegtiiuM.

CC fclBO. LiK. Rom. lii. 231.— AMeiHa, Bibl. Lot. iiL ITT^Fint prioled, Ba«U IM& 4.-€eat«lMd in Stkmida*» CoUcdioa,
diad ( 468. 3.— A Frmeh trantbtioa » givM ia Om Colloclkw of iXtfol, cited S 488. 3. Eb(IMi trualatUMj Load. 174S. 8.

% 493. Julius Firmicus Maternug, a native of Sicily, lived in the first part of the 4th
century, and was a lawyer under Constantino. He wrote a work entitled Matheseog
lihri VlIL; which is an astrological rather than a mathematical performance. There
is also a treatise on pagan errors, composed by him af[er his conversion to Christianity.

1. Some have considered the works above mentioned as the productions of two
different authors by the same name. The author of the mathematical or rather astra-
lonical work seems to have been evidently a pagan at the time of writing it. The time
wnen this was composed is fixed by an allusion to an eclipse that occurred A. D. 334.

Cr. SekbU, Litt . Rpn. iti- 825.-.AI<n{dtu, BiU. Ul. fii. 1 14-122.— Mmffilor, Ribl. Sicola, m dtod bjr i»vita,Bnv. Not Lit. Bon.
Sapptcin ii. 2i«.— JTiniftr, in hi* «d. bdow eilcd.-.Ar«i. Out. de Julia Finnico, Ac. HavoiK, 1817.

2. EJilioaa.— M a t h e • i ■ ; bnt, ff. Pruehur. Baa. I5SI. fol. with oUw aamnomical writem— Aineqw, bf 1*1— wii»i» ft.
XTfir. Vea. 1497. fol.— Coofained in Jbliu, cited f 499. I.— Da Errors profanaram relif ionom; beat, /. Jfltafv.
Bata. 1826. 8.— Cam notia F»ibru»ik Rorterdanv 1743. 8.

^ 494. Pomponius Mela^ who lived in the first century, was a native of Spain. His
geoeraphical work, entitled De Situ Orbis, in three books, is commendable for the
good style, and the union of brevity and accui^^cy by which it is characterized. It is,
properly, a compend, after the system of Eratosthenes, and is drawn chiefly firom
Greek sources.

1. His name, according to some, should be Mella. The place of his birth is men-
tioned by him, lib. ii. c. 6 ; but the critics do not agree as to the genuine reading ; Tin-
genltra^ or Cineenterat is perhaps the most authorized. He is supposed by some to
nave been the third son of the rhetorician Marcus Seneca ; and to have belonged only
by adoption to the family of the Pomponii, who traced their origin back to Numa.
A passage in his work (lib. iii. c. 6) is considered as evincing that he lived in the reiga
of Claudius. — His geography, which is entitled in some manuscripts/)^ CAoroffrop&ui,
commences with a brief glance at the world in general, and the three ancient mvisions,
Europe, Asia, and Africa. The author then proceeds to notice particular portions, in
the follo^nnor order; Mauretania, Africa Propria, Cyrenaica; tnen Egypt, which he
includes under Asia; next Arabia, Syria, Asia Minor; then, in the 2d book, he no-
tices Scythia, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, Illyria, Italy, Gaul, Spain, and the isles of
the Mediterranean ; in the 3d, he again touches upon Spain and Gaul, and proceeds to
Germany, Sarmatia, the Northern and Eastern Oceans, India, Persia, and then passes
to Ethiopia and finally to the western coast of Africa.

.fflAr.Gach. RAm. Lit e78.-0. /. roM.Ub. I. e. 86, at dtod f 887. I.— Itetadke, DIm. da Ftaai|K. Mda, !• bia ed. bdawettod.
— fliAmwn, KU Haadb. 778, aad retecacm Itam ^vm.-J. A. MUOtr, AoimadferMODaa is Ponp. Mahin Mia. ISOB. 8,...^
G. Kinek. Pracr. do vera Afric* flfura MCtiadnm Pomp. Melaai. Hofc, 1791. 4.

2. Edftiooa.— Sort, K. H. TudnukM. Lpi. 1907. 3 vole, a witb mapa. A radudioB of tbii for «o of Kboeii by JL fftMart
Lpt. I9I& a— The AifwnHnt, Ar|eoior. 1809. 8. is Kood, and eoalaina alio VihiuM Siquaaltr, Omdhu JtiKOitu, Ae.— 0( prtrloaf
•rlilioat, (te better; /. A'opp. Hot 1781. a-y|ir. Oronoii. Ufi. 1748. t.-J. AinoU. Load. 1748. 4. (lat ed. 1711.) Bapr.
Etoa. ITSI. 4. aad Load. 1814. 4. with nape.— /Vine^, MiUa, 1471. 4.

3. Tn«titio«a.-0«maa.->/. Clk. DMx. OioMo, 1774. & Vnadb.-^. P. Pradtn, Fhr. IBM. 3 vda. 8. Ea^lWb-,,1.

OnUmg. LoBd.lMa4.

^ 495. Caius Julius Solinust of an uncertain age, although probably of the 3d cen-
tury, wrote a collection of miscellaneous curiosities, to which on the second publication
he gave the title of Polvhistor. It consists chiefly of geographical accounts, and is
taken almost entirely from the elder PHny (cf. ^ 470). Many passages are in ihe
exact words of that author ; and the extracts are not made with remarkable judgment
or taste.

1. The author is supposed to have published two editions of the work ; the first un-
der the title Collectanea rerum memorabilium. It consists of fifty-six chapters. — ^There
is extant a small portion of a poem entitled Fragmentum Ponticdn, which has some-
times been ascribed to Solinus.

Mmoflia, Prolecomaaa to bh ed. below eited.-2X O. MtOtr, Dim. do Soliao. Altorf. IIBS. 4.-BBXr, Gmeb. Bom. Ut. pw «7.

8. EditiOH.-Bert ; O. aaimuha {SaumaMi. Fliniaa. En>rcitaf. in C J. Solial MTbioL U ed. (can & .•HtM)* ThgaeL
ad Bbea. (Utr.) 1688. 2 tola. kH-A. OiUx. Lpi. 1777. a-Rlpont. 1794. 1— iVfrnxpf, bj N, Jmum (^irtar). Tea. 14m U.
—Tlw FngmfOUtuH PtnlkSn bglvoa la £<ma<N»» FoaL LaL Mia. woL L

HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURB.

$ 496. Vihiua Sequerter, whose native place is unknown, is snppoFed to have lived
towards the close i»l the 4lh cenlury. He composed a geographical catalogue of riren,
taken, tnountainr^ forents, &.C. <or the U!«e o{ hw son V irj^iiianus. Many liluAtrations
of other authors, pririicularly the poets, may be derived Irom this perlbrniance.

1. Thi« auihor is placed by Ofrer/tn (In hi* ed. below cited) much later. The litle of his work
h DfJtmminibuM, f»nttlniA,tacubu*tViemoribus.palMdibv$, utomUbus, fftntihut, ^vorwm mentio epad
poeta* Jit.—Rocchcio rniiip«iiied a niinilar work. In preparing which be made use of Vibius, ai-
thiMigh withntii acknowledgiuent.—dcAiii/, Lit. Rom. lii. Wi.

2. CdiiLMM.— Rrtf. Jtr. /. Otmim. Argralor. {Slra$'b,) ITK. a.~/y. UutL RoUfltd. 1711. S.— Tte J^ponKm, whli MiK
■• ciM \ 4»L L—Pnnapt. FiMur. 1512. foL wi(h a^MC

^ 497. The Roman Itineraries it may be proper to mention here. These were
either topographical drlineatiaHSs a sort ot chart {ilhteraria pida), or deKrinlion* or spe-
cifications of the most important places {itineraria seripta or adnolata). Tnemonuroenl
called Tabula Peutingeriana is a specimen of the former: and the Itineraries of An-
tonine are examples of the latter. DcHides these, which are the most important, we
have what is called the Itinerary of Jerusalem^ and another called the Itinerary vf
Alexander.

1. The ThbvU P9iiUnf9ri»tf *' may be considered, pmbabty, as a specimen of the pnimui vcd*
of the nncletits. It forniB a mnp oniie world. coii»irurted on peculiar priiu-iplet. U* diiiieiitiinM
beinfi twenty feet in length and one in breadth, an idea niav be formed of the c.4»rrectneM wtih
whit h the proiKirlion of the difTf r»>ni purta i« exhibited. The high road winch traversed iIm
Roman empire in the general dirr-ciion of eai«t and we«t It marie the Aral mi'ridi^n. and to this
every other part la auhjected. The oltjects aloiig thia line are minutely and fititiifuliv eyhibiied;
of those lying to the north and south of it only some generiil noiiou can be conveyed ; these are
all represented, of course, most enormousty extended in ieng ih and reduced in breadth.** — ^The
Peaiingerian Table has commonly been considered as the ropy of a chart or table consirucied in
the time of Theodosius the Great, and from that circumsianre it is sometime* called (he Tktm4m-
Man 7'a6{s.— Kilt it is supposed by some modern crilirs, particularly Manntrt, to be an imperfect
copy of a chart ronnirucied in the beeinning of the third century, under Alexander .Severn* (et
$ 4M)); they think it was executed by some monk of tht! thirteenth century, and taken not fmra
the originitl (ban of Severus hut fr«*ni another copy, with omissions and additions— The Italian
portion of this table is givou in our Plate on pace .SH; the reader will notice that two pftrtionsof
the length are given, each with their whole width ; what is called in the piaie the Jk'orik Part
being a portion extending from Rome in a northwest direction, and that called South Part a por-
tion extending from Rome in the opposite direction ; for explanation of the figures, dtc. see Df
teriptwi of Plates^ p. axv.

It WW round io ft GamwB llbnry ia the fin«eB<h cmtary. sad came tato Uw powwiien of Conrmd PinOtniwr et Aiipbw«, ««•
died A. D. IS4T. U wm wot to tlie howat fM«raplMr Orteliui, who dM at Aotmrp, A. D. IBSS. ATmt • tvlow fi>f1»D«^ il «m
lod(ad, A. D. I7M, ia <he Inipcrial Librarjr at VieoiM, witrre il itill ramaiiH. It m npwardi of Iwsat.vOM Gotbiw fed in la^di

■ad abottt en* fool w bmdth, formed by voitnd piece* of parcboMOt. It wh fiial puUithcd (mri itiOM). bjr f. C*. rft ScMa^

Vim. I7M. fel.— R«publiBhed, with an Introduction by C Manimt. Lpt. 1824. tol.— Alwin M. P. Ktamnck, tlrMa Aali^um.
Bnda, 182$. 4— Cf. ftAStt, Lift Rom. iii. 2SI.— /. O LotUna, Da Tab. Feulinfw. ComiDontariat. Lpx. ITS. A.~Q. irammm,
Connantar. in et iKianuna Sadulii, fiTcn in Bvrmaamfi AnlhoU Lat. vol. ii.— Mannfrt, at juti cited, and alao in hia ticadH «ti-
tlcd Rm Trajani ad Danub. («««. Norinih. I'M. B.->Fro«l, in tho Mwtn. Jlcmd. huer. xiv. 174. avlli. •4SL

S. The ttinerarut Jfntomini are two ; one designating routes by land, and the other routes by
sea. They merely specify the distances between the diflerent posts. It is well known that tbey
are not the work of the emperor Antoninus ; nor were they composed by his order; they were
posterior to the time of Constantine the (jreai. Yet it ia not improbable that they grew out of
offlcial aketches or draughts, which were preserved In the imperial archives, and successively
changed as new routes or new stations were estabiiahed. There are two authors to whom these
Itineraries have been ascribed; one is Julius Honurius, from whom we have an insignificant
fragment usually Joined with the Itineraries ; the other is ^tkieuH Uter^ a Christian of the 4ta
century. The latter is also the supposed author of the work entitled Cosmorrapkia, which pre-
sents a geographical table or nomenclature of the ancient world, under four divisions, styled msi

and «r««t, north and south. The /(iaerariNiii Hierosolymitanum. was constructed 4iy a ctticea of

Bordeaux, In the fourth e«ntury ; it traces the routes of travel from Bordeaux to JerusaieiB, and
fVom Heraclea by Rome to Milan. It is called alao /liasrartMsi Bard^ aisitss.

Tbn bert aditien of thaaa Itincnrin u that of /War ff%Mtf nf . Vntara Ronaaonin Itinarwia. AmaL I7SS. 4.— Tte baal siititm
of Iha CvmognpMa la in jf. Gronov'* Pbnponiua Mela, cilad { 4*4. S. Itae Bnt ad. waa by /. ahnim. Bm. 1679. U.^— Ct
AMU, Lift Rom. I>i. 258, ai.

3. Tba Mntrarium Alnuindri Is a euruiled account of the mute of Alexander the Great in the
Invasion of Persia. It was constructed by an unknown heathen author, about A. D. 340 or 350,
for the benefit of the emperor Conaiantius, In his war with the Persians. A part of ihis work
was inserted by Muratori^ In hia Italian Antiquities ; hut the whole was first published by JHoi,
from a manuscript found in the Ambrosian library at Milan.

AAr.GM. RAM. Ut. 887.— iViArmofm, Kl. Baadb. TIS^Muratort, Aetiqait. Ilal. mndll £vl, voL Hi. Dim. xtiv..^. IM,
Itinnnrimn Aieundri. ad Cooatantiam Aonihim, Ac. Mil. 1817. 4. Raprialad, TnakL IBIS. &— Thia eoalaina alao a iraaiMt
foam ta tlw moM maanaeript, with tha foilowiaff dO* ; Jnlii Vaterii Jfot fart* JteaanM JfaeadSHii tranttaimm
Mtapo Qfmc—CX. Clam. /ourn. six. 374.

% 498. MarcuM Fortius Cato, of Tusculum, was illustrious in the earlier times of the
Roman republic, about B. C. 200. He was distinguished as a general, consul, and
censor: as an orator, civilian, historian, and oeconomist. He is discriminated from
Cato of Utica, who was his great-grandson, by the epithet elder (major) ; and, on
account of his rigid moral principles, he was also called Censor. Of his numerous
writings we have merely fragments, excepting the book on Agriculture, Respecting

{

p. y. OSCONOMISTS. CATO. VARRO. COLUMELLA. 621

the genuineness of this there have been doubts ; and if it be his work, it must have
been greatly mutilated and marred by transcribers, as it does not correspond to the
genius of his style nor to the testimony of the ancients.

1. He was born B.C. 235, and died B.C. 149, according to the common statements.
He is said to have been present in a battle against Hannibal, at the a^e of seventeen,
and to have behaved with great valor. He was called to all the more important offices
of the state. But when not kept abroad bv military duty, or employed in civil and
forensic business at Rome, he chiefly spent his time at a farm in the Sabine territory,
which be inherited from his father. His opposition to the learning and reBiiement of
the Greeks has often been noticed (cf. ^ 391) ; yet in his old age he took pains to
acquire the Greek language. — We have his life by Nepo9 (cf. % 530) and by Plutarch
(cf. $ 249).

2. 'I'he book De Agricultura or De re rvstica, is destitute of method. It consists
of 162 chapters, and seems to be merely a sort of journal containing rules and obser-
vations recorded in the order of accidental suggestion.

8. Of the lout work! of Cato,the one most reKretied is that entitled Orighust or Dt Origtnibui^
in geven books ; a work treating of the history and antiquities of Rome. The Isi book con-
tained the history of the kings of Rome; the 3d and 3d gave an account of the origin of the
states of Italy ; the 4ih and 5th described the tirst and second Punic wars ; and the 6ih and 7th,
the Roman affairs down to the victory of 8erviu8 Galba over the Lusiliinians, B. C. 152. The
work was held in high estimation ; Cicero {Brutus, c. 17, 87) praises the conciseness and sim-
plicity of the style. We have a few genuine fragments of it; those published by J^anni are
spurious.

Among the lost works of Cato are mentioned 150 orations, which were extant in the time of
Cicero. Nenrly a third of them are said to have been spoken in his own defence | according to
Plutarch be was accused about fifty times and as often acquiued.— Oatoaiso wroie a book !)• r«
wt/ifart, of which Vegetiu.i (cf. $ 49^) made a free use. He also left a treatise on medicine (cf.
i 547 a). The following titles of works by him are likewise given ; Carsiim de moribus^ a prose
performance, which must nut be confounded with the verses called DtMtieka de Jtioribut (cf.
^ 383) ; Libri Quaistionum Episloliearuvt (cf. ^uL Oelt. vii. 10) ; De Oratore, ad filium (cf. Qiiin.
tU. iii. 1) ,* De liberie edueandie (cf. Maereb, lii. 6) ; ApaikegTMla (cf. Cic. de Off. i. 39).

SdkfWJdkr, D« M. P. C«tonb viti, itudiit et Kriplii, la bia CoSeeTlon, dtcd \ 40. %—J. Hugo Vm, BhUoub. Diatribe in M. P. C»-
torn* icripla ct fngmcnta. Utiwht, 182&-fr. E, WtJbtr, De M. P. CaL viia el Bovibob ^rtm. ISSI. <.-J. FouHu, De HM. UL
i. &— inUr, Gcwh. Ron. Lit. p. 347, Wk—Dunlop, Biit. Rom. Lit. ii. II.-&ASU, Litt. Ron. L m.-^Pbttarth, and Ntprnj ViL
Cat or. Cic Brut, c m^PUn. Nat. Hist zli. \^Lh>. uxix. 40,— Fofar. Max. viii. 7.

4. Editiona.— The Book Ik re nutiea b giten in the CollcetioB citnl ) 4Sa 3— Pint publnhed in that of N. Jfluofw-Sepanldy,
Jhte. Popme (with prcT. bj Meuniua) Franeqocr. lOO. 8L— /. Cft. Aayntidk. SeUel*. 1743. a— Frapiunto of loat worka, hf
Jhu. Popmoy in hn ed. Jwt eited.-Tbe fragmcott bbrieated bj Mdhii, or dfimtui rilerMmia*, wen poMiabad in bia J>itifM<>
tatttKoriK Ron.l49& Ct JtaMeJu«, Bibl. LaL i. 85.

6. TVamiatieoi.— Qeman O. F. Qnm. Halle, 1797. 8. ^Fnoeh.— Aiteiimcrdi la Jtonmraiii, b the eollcdiea of DUet,

died § 48SI 3. Enffliah, of eooaiderable poitioiw, !■ DIduon, cited 4 4». 3.

a Tbe MIowiBc worfca are nealiooed here as illoatntinff panapa in the work on ofrfeuttura; L. P. MtUttr, De lorealario 0»>
toBla. Gott. 176S. 4. CL Sehnddm^ eoU. above cited, vol. H.-/. A. Ifii'taiawi, On JW. P. CU. Besehreibaag etan Wain- sad
Oel-KdtarbaiiM^ kc. Lps. 18D& 8. with platca.

% 499. M. TerentiuB Varroj who has already been mentioned amon^ the Gramma-
rians (^ 423), wrote, in advanced life, three books tm Hutbandry, which deserve the
highest rank amonjg the similar works of antiquity. Thev contain muchthat is valuable
not only as pertaimng to the particular subject of agriculture, but also in reference to
literature in .general.

1. The first book of Varro*s work treats of the object and the rules of agriculture ;
occasion is taken to speak of the soil, climate, and productions of Italy, of the proper
situation and construction of villas, and of tbe culture of flowers. The 2d booK ois-
cusses the proper management of flocks and herds {De re pecuaria). I'he 3d treats of
poultry, flsn, and game, which are all included under the denomination Villicai pastio-
nes."^ The work is constructed in the form of dialogue. Varro treats his subject much
more methodically than Cato, exhibiting less of the practical farmer and more of the
scholar and antiquary.

See SOAr, Geaeh. Ron. Lit. p. 7IS.-ReferBaoM giTca { 40. 1.'

LEdiUooB.— ThetreatinofilRMterMfrylafiveB ia tbe edltiom of V.% woifci, cHed 1 429. &— Aln ia the africaltBral eoIlo»
tlo« cited k 489. 3.— It wae poblldaed Mpaiateljr, Halle, ITSOi 12.
a TraBalatIoo8.-OemaB.-a Otmm. BaUe, 1788. Eociiah.-O«afli. Qif. 1800. a

^ 5(X)a. L, Junius Moderatua Columella, a native of Gades (Cadiz) in Spain, lived -
in the first century. He composed a work on agriculture, in twelve books, to which
is added a thirteenth book on the cultivation of trees. The latter book may have been
originally an appendix to the work, or it may be the remnant of another distinct pro
duction. The tenth book is in verse, and contains rules for gardening. The work
possesses value both from the beauty of the style and the richness of the matter.

1. Little is known respecting his life. He was born in the reign of Augustus or Ti
berius. He speaks (iii. 3) of Seneca as a contemporary, and is repeaieuly named by
the elder Pliny. Some critics (particularly the two Spanish brothers by the name of
Mohedano, cited below) have maintained, that he was the same person with the Mo-
deralus, who wrote in Greek on the Pythagorefin philosophy (cf. ^ 463).— In the first

623 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

of the twelve books De re rust ten, Columelta treats of the utility and the pleasures of
husbandry; in the 2d, of (i*iUi», of M>\^ing, and of harvesting ; in the 3d and ii\i, of
▼ioeyards ; in the 5ih, of dividing nnd njeasuring time ; in the 6th, of cattle and their
diseases; in the 7th, of Hlieep and tsvvn.e ; in ihc t:<ih, of the inner- yard ; in the 9th, of
bees; in the 10th, of^BrdtMunf^, as above nosieed ; in the llih, of various duties of the
farmer; the I2ih, which ii» ihe longest, contains miscellaneous instructions and pre-
cepts in rural economy. — J'he book De arhorihus, is supposed by some to have be-
longed to a work in four books, which formed the origmal of the one afterwards
publis>hed by him in txrdve; and that, in this way, there was reason for the remark ot'
Casfiodorus, that Columella composed a work on agneuhure in ihteen books.

ScMU iL 4U.~8lkr, 703.— Aa^t. 4- Prtr. Mjtudano, H iter. Li'. d« Eapviai 0* voL M). Ukiw. 1181. 4.-^. M. Dt C^
tn, (in 24 tti. of) BMicUL Hitptu**t» (>b S(uni«h). MAdri-l, IIW. fot.

2. EdiUQM.~BMl, hi tbc CoIlixlkMH of GtMntr f Schneitltr, dtad | 4SI. X-/. B. Jhn, nwrfiiin. ITflk & M vol orif Oi-
aited, iiiclijrfii.( 4 bookt.— Tbc iOth book, in the Potu Ut. Muu by mrwdpr/ ud bf LtwMiw.

& Traa*Jat..rfi«.--Gcnnaii.— jr. C. Ctrtitu (/At n nuliea). Bnm. IHA tk— /. Amm {IM flrtorOw). Orad. I1S1. fc

IUlnii.-0. Pofi^uit. Ven. 1799. 8. — Ei«lMh ; Load. 1745. 4.

% 500 b. PalladiuM JiulHius Taurus JEmilianus^ probably a Roman, who lived about
the close of the second century, was a man of much information, especially in Grecian
literature. We have from him a work on Husbandry, in fourteen books, in which he
evidently makes u&e of the earlier writings of the Greeks and Romans on the »me
subjecu It is written with considerable, yet by no means uniform, correctness and
simplicity. The last book is in elegi^ic verse.

1.. The critics have not been agreed cither as to his native country or the time when
he lived. He bears, in the manuscripts, the title of rir iliustris. — Among the authors
from whom Palladius derived his materials are Columella, Martialis Gorgilius, ai.d
Vitruvius. The style is inferior to that of Columella, and indicates an authof belongirg
to a later age. I'he first book contains general precepts on the cultivation of land ;
the twelve following detail the various agricultural labors of the year, in the order of the
months, so that a book is devoted to each month ; the 14th is a didactic poem, on the
grafting of trees {.de insitione).

BlUw, 70&-.AMB, Hi. S4S.~IUricnii, BtH. LaL in. n.~-CtBarHu (is tb« Prckg. «d Itb) Cvm rOMriorek Jtsm, rs\ GL
iL PlilladiM MOM to bam been Biocb read In Ibe middle ■gOb Two writen of the tItirlwBib ceotarjr kre mcntioocd pwtkahrir
M baviaf dnwv rran bin ; yincmt da Snnk, or FtnettUita, in bi( Spteutum fMoriaU. Veo. t494. tol. ; Hkd OwaiMu,
is a work called Commrda AiraUa, in 12 books. BiiL 1S«& fo>.— AMr. 7D7.-/7ar{a, Brer. Not. TSL
a EdMiotM.— MtaiJitf It eoHtalaad la tbe Colloctioaa ritad S 48ft a.-Sef«nlely, Heidrlb. 1698. &

4. One of the lost works of Jlfar«ia7i> Garfiilius, from which Palladius borrowed,
was entitled Ve hortU. A fragment of this was discovered b^ Mai, in a palimpseiit
manuftcript formerly belonging to the monastery of Bobbio ; it is entitled de arborihui
pamipheritt and treats, in tour sections, de eydoueit, de persicU, de amygdala, and de
eastaneis.

IiiapaUidwdintb«woftaatiii«iCI«n<e.4lie<(r.<eeUraMMn(b7J. JtfM). R<nb. IStt. a^Aaolbcr rncmcat wbicft hai
boa OKHbed to Garf ilint, aaliUcd Ik cw« team, b mmtUj Joined with Ibe vetarioarj Inaliw of V^celina (d. } 4S>- «>« ^ Aa
crilici new Mcribe it to a later aotbor.

^ 501. Caslius Apicius, of whom very little is known, is named as the author of a
book still extant on cookery (De arte coquinaria), in ten books. Some place him in tbe
third century, and think tnat his name was simply Ccclius, and that nc put forth his
work, on account of the nature of the contents, under the name q{ Apicius, who was a
iiimous Roman gourmand.

1. There were three known epicures by the name of Apicius. Athena»u8(Dft/ws-
ftmh. iv. 19) mentions Marcus Apicius, a contemporary of kin^ Nicomedes, and also
(Deipnos. i. 6. 12. cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. ix. 17) M. Gavius Apicius, who lived under
Augustus and I'iberius, and after whom certain kinds of cake bore the name 'ArUia.
A third of the name lived under Traian.

2. The work is sometimes entitled De re cuZtnorui, or De opsonits et condimentis;
those who consider the name Apieius as Mirt of the title, would give it ns follows:
C o e 1 i i Apieius, sive De re culinaria. — The books have each a separate title in Greek,
indicating in general the contents ; the titles are the following : 'Enrifit^, the cartful;
Saprdmi;, the carver; Kijirojfatft, things pertaining to the garden; IXai^orr^, the a//-
receiving; 'Ow^MOf , relating to pulse; 'Aqtonerhs, ine flying; noXwtXJ^, the gumptuaut;
TtrpaTTots, the four-footed; eSXamra^ the sea; ^AXuCf, the fisherman,

aeMtt, ML UL—HaMr, 70S.—FeMeiitf, Bibl. Lat. li. 866.

a Editiooh -Beat; Th. J. atlbMlovmt. InoC 17». a^T. M.BmtkM. OnU.(ABri>i) ITtT. a ISOL %.

Vni. — Myihographen.

% 502 u. The system of gods among the Romans, and their fabuknis stories, taken
• a whole, had a close resemblance and relationship to the mythology ol the Greeks,

pri
Hi

P. y. MYTHOGRAPHERS. HYOINUS. FULGENTITS. 623

and indeed differed from it merely by some changes and additions. (See P. II.) The
Roman mythographers accordingly drew chiefijr from Grecian sources, and therefore
they present little that is new or peculiar, either in the tales themselves, or in the appli-
cation and interpretation made of them. The domestic mythology of the Romans, the
later additions to their system of deities, and their whole scheme of religion, may be
learned more correctly and i'ully from their historical and antiquarian writers than
from these collectors of fables.
% 503. ^i'he few writers that are usually placed in this class, might with equal pro-
riety perhaps be ranked amon^ the grammarians. And, in fact, only one of them,
Itfirinus, falls within the time mcluded in our present sketch ; as the others, whose
names are giTen below, lived after the close of the fifth century ; and no one 'of the three
mythological works discovered by Mai in the Library of the Vatican (cf ^ 506. 2) be-
longs to a period earlier than that century. — The lost mythological writings of Varro
(cf. ^ 423) would, it is believed, be of more value than all the works of these authors.

Tlw followinf an tbe priacipal 0 o i 1 e c 1 1 o n t^-Thom, Mwttka; Mythogr. Lit AmsL 1681. 8. with figures.— Mnn
oonplcte, Jug. F. StaMrm, AueL Mrthog. Latini. Lejd. 1747. 2 vole 4.— Tbe Sd toU of .1. MaPt CIm. Anctorn e Codic. VaU
(Ron. 1S31) eoBtitu the thru aijtbagnphkU works diaeovercd by bim as above meatiomd. Tboie were republidwd by O. S
fiodtt Mythographi Auet. Ut. e VsU Codidbos. Zell. 1834. 2 volt. 8.

^ 504. CaiuB Julius Hyginus^ whose native country is not known, was a freedman
of the emperor Augustus, and the keeper of the Palatine library (cf P. IV. % 126).
Little else is known respecting his life. Perhaps the mythographer named Hvginus
was a later author, who lived in the time of the Anionines. The work ascribed to
him called Fabularum Liber consists of a collection of 277 brief mythological tales. It
is a mere compilation from ancient grammarians and scholiasts, and is written in a
style not entirely pure. The work seems to have contained a greater number of fables,
and to have been divided into two books. We have also, irom the same author, a
work entitled Poetic^ Astronomicdn, in four books, illustrating the constellations as
represented by the poets. Much of it is drawii from the Catasterisms of Eratosthenes
(cf. ^ 215).

1. The ITyfriniifl, who lived in the time of Au^ustux, was a distineulsbed grammarian, and is
named aa the author of several other works; particularly one entitled D» urbibus Jtalieis ; an-
other entitled De viUt rebusque iUustrium virorum.— Tbe language and style of the Fablet are
considered as evidence that the work was not written by this author. Some have supposed it
to be a compilation or a translation from Greek, made even later than the time of tbe Antonines.
—A mythological Fragment discovered by Niehuhr {fra£rmentumd*rebu* Ththanis mythologicUy
is considered by him as a section from the original book out of which, as enlarged by the addi-
tions of later times, tbe work now passinc under the name of Ilyginns was constructed. Tbe
first of tbe three mythological works discovered by Mai contains an intimation that it includes
tht Muond book of Hyginus ; but notwithstanding this (cf. ^ 506. 3), Mai considers it as the pro-
duction of a writer in the fifth century.

/. Sdujfer, De Hjf ini icripr. bb. etate atqoe stylo, in hia ed. below dted.— Tl. JAcneftir, Da asetDr^ stylo et alate Mytbotoflue,
qm C. J. HyKiui nomen pnefert, in his CoUeetioo died ^ 6a3.—Niebukr, Orst Cie. pro Babir. etc. Tnffa. Kom. 1820. 8b— iTAJkr,
711~M>A<rfano,dted § 500a. I.

2. EdiiioDO.— aygifii Opera, by/. MyeOitf. Bis. 1535. ftd. Lqgd.Bat. I80B. a LOtr fa&ttlarum; beat, io the

Collectinn ot Staterm, cited § 503.—/ Schtfftr. Hamb. 1674. a P ott. Aatronomiedn;'m mmt CoUsctUm of &••

vmn.— ffOl. Mono. ?u. 1659L 4. with tbe Pkutomuia. of Arstna.

^ 505. Fabius Planciadei FuJgentius, a native of Africa, of whom also little is known,
probably lived in the sixth century. His most important production is a mythological
work, in three books, addressed to Catus, a Presbyter of Carthage.

1. The work is entitled Mythologic&n sett Mytkoloriarum libri tret; also Mythalo-
gicnm. The first book treats of Saturn, Neptane, rluto, Cerbenis, the Furies, the
Harpies, Proserpine, Apollo, the Muses, Mercury, &c. The 2d of Minerva, Jimo,
Venus, Hercules, Ulysses and the Sirens, Scylla, Bacchus, Izion, &c. The 3d, of
Bellerophon, Acieon, Psvche and Cupido, Myrrha and Adonis, &c. — There are two
other works, both of a philological character, ascribed to the same Fula;entius ; ono
entitled Expositio sermonum atUiquorum, and the other, De expotUione VtrgiliaiuB con-
iinefUi(E, or De allegoria librorum Virgilii. Some, however, ascribe these to another
Fulgeniius ; five different individuals of this name have been pointed out.

ScMM, iii. 331— 3fu»e*<r. Praf. ad rul^ent. la bis Collect, cited \ 603.— O. /. FoMi'ia, De Fhlloi««. c 5.

2. EdilioiM.— Ttie I Ant to 0 r k f of FulfSDliiia are eootaioed in tbe CollcciioDi dtel } 609. Poblisbed alio by /. £oefcer, undef
the name of Fhilamiuua. Augib. 1521. fol.— The ExpotUio termomm taUiquamm by J. Nbner, in bis ed. of Nonitu, cited
\ 427. 8.

3 u. We have a mythological work by Albricus^ which is almost entirely a compila-
tion from Fulgentius. The name of this author is sometimes written Alberieus, and
also Alfriais; he hved in England, at the commencement of the thirteenth century.
His work is entitled De Deorum imagintbuSf and in some manuscripts Poetrica or
Poetnrivm: it relates chiefly to the mode of representing the gods in images, and gives
brief explanations of the reasons for the various representations.

TTie Pottarntm of Albricue la fimo in the Collectiaii of Oaemn, cited ( 50S. It was ftnl pobliahed in the ISlh eeatvry, wilb
the tmtise Di magUtnHbut Jtamm, writtm by Tiodii, or Floceoof Floreneo, and bliely aaeribed Id fanaaMIo^ who UT«d ssdei
the emperor Ansasloa. Cf. A«rfef^ Bm. Kotit p. 2ia Soppl. iL p. 4G8.>Alao, Ban. 1617. 4.

624 HISTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURE.

^ 506. LactanttuB Pladdua is also of an uncertain age. He is generally suppoaed to
have been the aame person as Lutathu, a Christian grammarian of the sixth century,
who wrote a commentary on the Thebaid of Statins. We have from him a briet
abridgment, in prose, of Ovid*s Metamorphoses.

I. MitiOBik—TlM ^fwnmtaJWaiikOvi^mfiTrabttoCoiiML died iaOS^Tbcy main ft^ ia wriei dir— rf
Ovtd, lairadneed tafitbcr hf tbondvei, or MiwilHy m btrodoclkm to lbs avrenl bookt oTIbt MiTiiwiijiih— Tbn Camm^

fmas llM nmLaU to |ivn ia mtttf aditioM of Stetim (cC f STB. ».— C£ BOV, p. 790i

S. To /^ocCtfitfiM PUtadut, Mai nscribes by conjecture the second of the three isTtbological
workf dUcovered by bim in the Vatican library. Thejfrjt of these works consisu o('t34 fWes,

Greek and Roman, promiscuously thrown together and divided into three books; at the end of
the Sd book stands the following note; Explicit liber seeundns C. Hygini fakuUmmi^ i. €. Btn
closes the second book of the fables of C. Hyginus. Cf. i 504. 1.— The second work conabls of
9S5 chapters, besides a proem ; the eontenis often agree verbatim with thoae of the first -men-
ttoned, alibouch they are also frcqaentiy very ditTerent ; this Mai conjectures to be the work of
Lacuniias.— The third writing bears the title De Diugenthim et ilhrwm alUgoriis ; it consists
of a number of sections, which were found in different raaDuscripta ; each section treating of a
single deity or mythical personage. It ia ascribed by Mai to a Christlao writer of the ainth or
tenth century, by the name otLeontiua.
TiMHworkianglTWiBtteiniMiatkMof HUfCitodiSOS; -^'-\ 'r rmlilw imi iillur wjlliiilnliil ftusiiMh

8. The Lactantius here noticed must not be confounded with the eminent Christian Father
aamed Firmianu* Laetantiutt who lived in the fourth century, and in some of wboee writings,
eapeeially in hie Dnine Institution* and in the Efitome of the same, ancient mythology la con-
slderabiy illustrated. In the flrst two books of the former (treating d$ faUm rtUgiont) are long

quotations fVom the lost work of Euhemerus (cf. } Sn. 4) on the gods. There is aUo a kind or

mythological poem extant, which is ascribed to Pirmianus Lactantius, entitled Djb Pk^nie* ; and
the subject of which is the Egyptian tkble respecting the bird called Pbenii. The mythss is
given by Herodotus (if. 73) with a declaration of his disbelief of the story. A modem writer,
Jtareotf has attempted to resolve the whole into an astronomical ficiioo. Intended to describe
the Great Year (^nnu* Magntu) of the fixed stars, or period of nearly S6,000 years that elapses
daring the precession of the equinoxes through the circle of the ecliptic.

X Jivfini, LMliatii cwmtD De Fboaln. Luiwb. IStt. 8.— Mveos, Aitiowmis, Sc, dtad $ S04.~Jfan. f/tKihil. A^K
Omw fHUL H LU. Jne, vol. I. p. IN. •< Mr 1« Pboniz, oa RcctMrhM mr 1m PiriodM utrao. da E^pOt^'-JbiL Jttral, Ut
raiMaidaSotaiL Phr. Ittd. eoaiaialii(lhiMeo«aliorant]

lX,-^Hittorian$ and Biograjiha't.

% 507 tf . The Romans, even in the earliest periods of the state, began to record in
writing the most remarkable events. These first historical writings were, however,
merely dr]r registers of the principal circumstances, althouffh they were somettmes
composed in a metrical language and arranged in the form oi Annala.

% 506. The following are among the earliest historical records of the Romans of
which we find any notice ; the Annales or ComrnetUarii PorUificum^ the Fasti Ma-
gistrtttuum, and the LSnn Lintei. — The first mentioned were the records which it was
the duty of the Pontifex Maximus to make of the leading events of each year, upon
tablets that were to be hung up in his house for the use of tne people. They were also
termed Annales Maximi or Publiei. The custom was commenced as early at least as
the time of Numa, and according to Cicero {De Or. ii. 12, 13), with the very founding
of the city. It was continued, with some interruptions, until the Pontificate of Mucius,
B. C. 125.— The Fatti Magistratuum {Liv. iv. 7. ix. 18) were the lists of magistrates,
especially of the consuls, whose names it was customary to insert in the Calendar of
each year, which it was the business also of the Pontififand his college to consimct.—
The Libri Lintei (Liv. iv. 8, 23. x. 38) were writings on linen, kejjt in the temple of
Juno Moneta, containing public records, which were of comparatively minor value;
as the more important were inscribed on tablets of lead.

Jir.A/mkC.XOnitMr,DlKd«liliriiUiitda. AIkmb. 1816. 4. Ct: IMwril, d« Ubrb Uatsiib fee. ia bn /^iritai. Jcotf. pi «,
Mett6d4M2.7.

$ 509. We may also mention, as a sort of historical documents, the laws of the
kings (legea repa), which were collected by Papirius (cf. ^561). There were like-
wise the treaties of the kings {fcedera reptnij Hor. Ep- ii. 1), which were kept in the
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus {Poh/h. iii. 22, 25, 26). The laws of the twelve tablet
(^ 561) ought perhaps to be named here also. — At a comparatively early period there
were memoirs of t)ie censors {Commentarii censorum)^ which were journals of persons
who had held that ofiice ; they were but a variety of the class of writings termed fa-
mt/y memoirs^ which ere long became common, and which efiected much, it is said
{Liv. viii. 40), in corrupting and falsifying history, by embellishments and exaggera-
tions designed to exalt particular individuals and families. There were also the Xou-
dationes funebres (cf. P. III. ^ 340), which for the same reason could not be relied on
as accurate historic statements {Cie. Brut. 16).— The early ballads aUready mentioned

P.T* BISTORT AND BIOORAFHT.

(^ 306) may likewise be noticed among the sources of Roman history, although it may
be a question how far such productions were ever committed to writing.

$ 510. But whatever may have been the early historical records and monuments of
the Romans, they were almost entirely destroyed (Liv. vi. l)in that conflagration by
which the whole city of Rome was laid in ruins on its capture by the Gauls, B. C. 385.
Efllbrts were made to recover and replace these records and monuments, as far as po8>
sible ; but it cannot be doubted that much was irretrievably lost ; and it is supposed
that the earliest writers afterwards depended chiefly on tradition as the authority for
thoir narratives. Hence the authenticity of the common accounts of the early history
of Rome has been much questioned.

TiM liiertrj ooalroverqr reipaetiiif the ullMBtictir of Ih* orljr Bomui BIrtorf mmm to bm eaanMund Id Fnan. II IiMtaM
k^ CflDliaged and ewsot. In 1728, PouUfy bnw|bl (orward arcvaMBto aiiliirt III aatlwBdcttjr, !■ th* Ifanajrct A rjead. 4u btr
mnpticm (cT. fpL vi. p. 14. tcL *iU.X ud wm aooa opposad bf AWo' la a MOMir p^blMd !■ IbtMmc worii (tot. vi.). L. 4»
BmufoH ddeaded Ite ai|«aMrt of PMiUjr, to aDolbw Mtmoir, ud nun MI7 la • tmliM paUhbid wprntai^ mr P/fKwftmdfe
4u c^ ftnudm tUOm it POM. Monmbu. Uliwlit, vm. a Th» total oDcertatolyar the mrij hMtory hM also bc«i mm*
raently naiotaiiMd, to lb* Mimain J* riiuHtut, tj Lnet^u* ; whlla iu credibility, oo the other hand, bu booa •tronflf ad? oeatod
bjr Lardm. Cr. Mm. itPhuL AoyaJ^ Claas* d*HuL af LU. Jtu. vol. it. p. SM. (Phr. 1816). Tbe viewtof LcwiftMaraate
f ivca to bia £Mow« CrtfifiM de Is Bep. Ron. Far. 1807.— OtUon has aifwd Car the cortaiaty of tbe hiitory (et MUedlimmtm
mnb, iv.). NiitiJtr CDDikieri nucb of it ae eatirety tkbulooa (d Sim. Gen*, eitad \ 2Ml 7)^Aek viodieatea tbe autbeatidtf
to paH, to tbe introdiKtioa to hit TraoalatioD of Arfveon't Romaa Repnblie (ef. 4 OS. 7) ; aeo alao bit treatiaa estitled SjpkrMt
qtimMbmit de Hiat. Rom. aotiq. veritate. Lipa. 1812. FitdUr {A \ 380.1) ouiatalaa tbat miieh wm rmenti bom ran to tbe Oallto

eDBflacntioB, and that valiiaMa doeunMsli exieted to otbcr staiea of Italy, of wbicta the early Ronna bbtorlane made im. BUu't

S45.— Ihinlop,p.66,i8.— It nay be worthy of lenaffc, tbat tbo porUoBaoT Cicero^ traadea Da JbyuMte lately diacovarad [tL
Hn<- >• (h) ] •vinee tbatoratort bdief to the eomiDOD aceounta.

$ 511. In the second period of Roman letters, according to the division we have
adopted, which extends from B. C. 240 to B. C. 88, the Roman history was treated
by a number of authors that are included under the name of Annaligls. The metrical
annalt of Nievius and Ennius have already been noticed (cf. ^ 350, 351), and we hero
refer to annalists who wrote in prose. 1 he earliest of them was Q. Pabiu$ Pietor*.
Cato (he Elder is included among them on account of his Origine$ (cf. $ 498. 2). Se-
veral of these authors are said to have written the history of Roman aflairs in the
Greek language. The works of the Annalists' are almost entirely lost ; a few frag-
ments have b^n collected, and published'.

I ReapeeUnf lUteaPfefor, pee O. O. Medlar, Diaa de Ql Pah. Pklon. ML ISSS. 4.— ArurfJ, Pro rabii FidoadTaraaa Polybtom,

to hia Opuae. Phildogka. Upa. 1761— Lioi i. 44, 66. it 4&— iUyA. L 14. iii. B.xZXonyi. ITol. Aot Rom. It. SOl «ii. 70, 71

« From Oiarp and dtihu Odb'tii, ire (atber tbe nama of too or Iw«It« beiidei Fabiua aod Cato, bdoafiaf to tbia period ; amoag
Ibom b yUaiiu jtntim, wboae work moat bare been larRO, aa the 74tb and 75(b beokaof it are ctt«l; and L. CoraeliiH ainiMM,

wboio work aoama to have beoa cooltoued by Salloat. a Tbeae ftogmenla are given in the eollact of Pvpma, died k 6Z7. S.

OntboAanaliat^aee FoMte and Amktiu, ae cited \ 9BT. 1.— AMmi, m dt«i t S40. I.— XiuAtMiM, DeCsoL Uv. aadled f iSta
~AMi«p^ iL pb 867.— SMr, p. 846^ m-CUnfefi, FaaU, vol. 8d, as died § 7. 7. (c).

^512. These authors generallv followed the account of Fabins Pictor respecting the
afiairs of Rome previous to its oestruction by the Gauls. But in reference to the his*
tory of events subsequent to that catastrophe, the^ enjoyed ample means and helps ;
e. g. the decrees of the senate, treaties, tables of triumphs, official despatches, and the
like. The vast number of documents or monuments, which were found among the
niins of the capitol when it was restored by Vespasian is an evidence of this foct; ac-
cording to Suetonius (cf. Vemtian. c. 8), 3(XX) brazen tables were gathered from these
mins. Besides all ihe help derived from such sources, most of the annalists were ac-
tually engaged, to some extent, in the affairs respecting which they wrote.

$ 513. The writers termed Annalists were not confined to the period above noticed
($ 511); in the next period, extending from B. C. 88 to A. D. 14, we find the names
of several. Among them^ were M. Terentius Varro, the learned grammarian (cf.
^ 423), and Q. HoHeruius Ortalus, the rival of Cicero in eloquence icf. ^ 397).— The
difference between annale§ and kistoria^ as the terms be^an m this period to be dis-
criminated, is described by Aulus Gellius (v. 18) as consistmg in the circumstance, that
in annaU the writer observes the exact order of time, narrating under each year all the
events that happened during that year; and Cicero (cf. Orator^ 20; De oral. ii. 12;
De Legib. i. 2) speaks of history as an ornamented mode of narration, including de-
scriptions of countries and battles, with speeches and haranffues, in a flowing style,

and as a sort of oratory which had not been much cultivated by his countrymen*.

In this period some ot the Roman writers began to compose universal histories ; Q.
Pomponius Atticus^ is mentioned as one of the earliest that attempted this. The prin-
cipal writer of this class was Trogus Pompeius, of whose work we have an abridgment
made b^ Justinns (i 536). — In this period also we notice the class of works styled Com-
mentani^ a sort of auto-biography, in which the authors relate the history of events
that occurred in connection with their own civil or military life. The most noted are
the Commentaries of Caesar (cf. % 528). Those of Sylla, in 21 books, are lost ; so are
those of .^milius So^urus, in 3 books, and those ot Rutilius Rufus; the two latter,
however, belong to the preceding period. The history, which Cicero wrote of his
own consulship, might with propriety be assismed to this class^ ; and likewise the work
79 3G

0M BIflTORY OF ROHAN LITSRATITRS.

of Avgustiifl the emperor, who wrote memoirs of his own life, in 13 books'. M. Tn^
aaniue Agrippa, a fnend and general of Augustus (cf. i 480), wrote memoirs of famuelL

I H. Fnopilha Aadnaiew (cf. SkMfm. dc IHwI. graoL t); Ftoeilin (ct PKn. Hht N. tliL 9) ; «Bd CMdn (eC Cfe Ep.

VttaL«i.7)u«al»iBdwtad,wtihathm,hitlMlkiorkttMlimerthlip«rio4. ^s Ob lb* dMbcac* betwMa «umIm a^ MM-

«^tMiriiMkr,btlMJUiMidk«iriHMm,ii.8.p.naL Inori. by TUrf imB, Id Um i>*deloc«al Mumm. wl. ii. p. m

» ai>ecHH AjiiipMriia JMfaw^ — /. Ch. T. Stmi^ T. Paap. Atticw, aJM Apotoji^ £iM. I7S4. O. FdU. !>»««; iL IC

«aMp>rtlttb«biiHty>yOi«ww^ef. PtUg.l.l.a> Kp. ad Fub. L t. t. IS. It ms wrtttaa la Grerii, ka a a^l* iaitaih« te«
«rboeiBln;aMlwHMiiltoliitrrtaBdAMkw,lob*p«blidMdalAtlMn. Ite alv oonpowda wortoalteaMOTli^iBLriia
,«ni...a Tto aoMin of ABiwta^ ntandiacto B. C. 9B^ an wholly loat Ha ii aid to hava dnim •paMmMMvy of ka 0b
tobaiaNribadnpoBUbtaftaaBdplacadbjrhiiliimbw Tba jroftumailinn jMymwm (eC P. IV. | U3b ft) ii nvinaad to teni^
paitiaUyat laaM, a eopy of thta.— CC. Aialoii. ta Ang.— Dio Coak (vi. S^-Jm; di Jttoff-, Dlia. de Sladiia C«b A^ariL GaiBi
ITm-roMiuJ^ aa dtod f 6ST. I.

% 514. In the period now before us, the third of our arrangement (cf. % 301), there
were three writers of speciai eminence in the department of history. Julius Cssar has
already been named ; ne is the earliest that is ranked among the great Roman histo-
rians. Neit in order of time is Sallust (cf. % 529), who is by many considered as the first
among; the Romans who truly merited the title of historian. The third distinguidied
name m this period is that ofLivy (cf. $531). The liret is remarkable for simplicity,
clearness, ana purity of style ; he u often compared to Xenophon. The second excels
in force and in the apt delineation of character ; he appears to have imitated Thucy-
dides. Livy has leas of simplicity than Caesar, and less of discrimination perhaps than
Sallust ; and is mora ambitious of rhetorical ornament and effect than either.

% 515. Many other writers, in this period, composed historical works. The follow-
mg should not be omitted here ; A. Hirtius (cf. % 528. 3), who added a continuation to
the works of Cesar ; Cornelius Nepos (cf. % 530), who, besides his lives of iUustrioBs '
men, composed an historical work entitled Chromca; and Verrius Flaocus, who was the
author of several works on history and grammar*. Among the historical writen we
also find Lucius Lucceius', whom Cicero requested to write the history of his oonsui-
ship ; and Asinius Pollio', to whom is ascribed the honor of founding the fitvt public
hbrary at Rome (cf. P. IV. ^ 126). The names of Valerius Messab Corrinus*, Lu-
cius F enestella', and Aufidius Bassui^, may be added.

1 The writi^ of F. llMeHt m M { Ma*a portioaa of ttto Oalaodar (fhifc- Alaiitew), wb^

BMtoarapnaanadt etP.IV.9tll& aaMCiiiwfrrotoabifltonrortbaSoeid ffrar,aadertfaadvO waner9ylh,c£0feBp.

ftadl. V. IS. ad Att. Iv. & "C J.MHoeBBpoa«labtaMr7,la l<booki,arfliaci*il warbdiiBaBCHaraiBlPBnpi7,a^tta

•vaatoiaeoeBdi^itaatilfhanicBorAaiDrtBfc Baa /. JL rAdrtel% OommbL da A. PMUaak *ita at iiBduiL L^d.Batl«L-

SMHI, LiL Bam. iL U. « ifciiili Oorvfnitf waa tb* antbor ofa wetk aatittod Da JloiiMnA/nNatft, wbieb b laat Thaboak

■Mr niaat IB bb BanM, Ik pvffmla JiifiiiM, w a meacar iketcb of BoniB blatoiT fnai JBoaaa to AngoMui, a^
oflhea>Udl«a(««. It h poMtabad to SyOwrf «> Aadto" (citad i S87. 2). aad aapanloly by C. O. TbaelkiicAc. Lpa: tlHl CtJXSl

JMbr, DhB. da W. MaMb Corrlaa. Altafl IOB9.~SUr<fiiy, la tbe Mm. Jead. hutr. tan. nxiT. > JbwtalB wnMa a bb-

toryaatiUad Jftnoto, wbkb waa fiaaly awd by dagmim Paiiamu (ct \ 04). 'Tba libef A Rama a«eadad lato fha BBt

parlod; ha wntoabbtoryef (baeiTtt irar,aadoftba waiaiaGaraaay; both worba aia loat Ba b bighty ecwBaadad by QiiB-

Mka. 8aaQHM.lBrt.0ntz.l. Of. /NaL da caaab eotr. aloqeaatkB, tt. Ibibaaa nayataDbaaddad thaaaOHaaf aBvairi

«lhan,wbaaabtatorlealwilU^ai«laal; FahinMNM^ who wrato a bbtary cf Iba war batiraaa fba nanlarafa of Cmw a^ lb
aw^w*; diimiirtM^ wba wtatoa hbtery of thaSm Pnaic war; B^gimu (ct § SO*}, wbe wwto aa accBiiat of iba laMaa dfc»

liimfri'iir^r'f' — . '" — .-" r — ''""' — ''~' — ""* ^ -'" - » -- -.^— -^- .> >^^ n iimTimil

tob* bvaad, by a daemof Iba aaaala, vadar A«CMl«k~Ct ScUB, iL », ab-.JlAr, a«)^ 900, 4li.-FaHiiu,aa dM

$ 516. Before leamg this period it may be proper to advert to the peculiar i
which the writers enjoyed for learning the course of public afiairs. The official i
of the chief Pontiff ceased, as has been mentioned (^ 506), about B. C. 125 ; perhaps
because this method of keeping the records was found inadequate in the increasing
multiplicitv and variety of events. When Cssar was consul for the firat time, B. C.
60, he oraered the acts of the senate {acta tenai^) and also those of the people (octe
populi) to be committed to writing daily, and to be published. Augustus prohibited
the publishing of the acts of the senate, and appointed a particular senator to the duty
of recording them, or in other words, of keeping the joumale ; this senator received
the title a cura aetorum, and the copyists or secretaries employed by him were called
actuarii. These journals were preserved in the Archives of the state, and were a
source of information to the writen of history, in addition to all that was fiieely pub-
lished.
The Jonriialf of the lenate were soraetfinei etyled eemmentarH (cf. Tbe. Ann. xv. 74} Atccm. J.

Cns. to. Oct. 30 ; 71k. Ann. v. 4, 5). Tbe other Journals, aete vavuH, eeem alto to have heea

lemed acta mtbHea^ meta. wrtene, and eeU iiuma (cf. Smtton. Tib. 5 ; Tee. Ann. iii. 8; ivi. O).
•—But the journale that are ft-equently cited by the simple name otJSeu^ or of i>t»rMi, cob*
talned miscellaneous Information for the use of all classes of readers ; not merely tbe voles of
tbe people In assembly (cf. P. III. ( 9M), but notices of the courts and Judicial proceedings, of all
meetings, such as games, spectacles, and the like, of public works, marriages, births, and deaths.
^-Besides these In the Latin tongue, there seem to have been Journals or dally papers, pablishad
' in Greek, containing anecdotes and accounts of political affairs and paasinp evenls. Perhaps
both these and those In Latin are Included under tbe Tpip/iara cq/icta mentioned by Dion Cas-
iius.— There appears also to have been another kind or Journal, called aete Ccermn, which had
respect more particularly to the affairs of the Imperial court and ftmily. ** Under tbe empe-
rors, four different records grew into use ; namely, first, the acts of the prince; s(>condIy, tbe
proceedings of tbe senate ; thirdly, the public iiansaetioos of the people i and fooithly, iba dagy

p. T. HI9T0ET AND BIOGSAPHT. 607;

OQcnrrences of the cHj, called the Diwma, TIm last were MDt Into the provlocae, and war*
ihere received ae the Roman Oaiettt.*'

Sm AfivpAf , Note on Tbe. Asa. v. 4. In bh TrawbUoa etM § fiS4. &— Cf. Z^miim, Esnnot on Uw mim pMMse. Sw alw

a JUctarHUn, On DiumU RomuMnim Aetia. Tiaiw. 1841. i Fr.Ck. IkMimtr, Arcbir fOr GMchkhta. rnokr. 18W. (i. P^
»L}-ff Dodwdt, Pmft<i Add. p. ee. OiC 1602. &-fUndiu, BtM. Lat iu. SI4.-JKK. o/ AniM, b iMi*ur*i CkUad
Cyeln|i«la, bk. v. cb. 8. p. 401, M NpaU. Mpuaisty, PfaiL 18ST. 8.

^ 517. In our next period, from the death of Augustus, A. D. 14» to the time of tbis
Antonines, the writers in the deoartment of history were not so numerous ; yet the
depnnroent was by no means neglected. The pre-eminence among them is generally
conceded to 'I'aciius (cf. ^ 534). Suetonius holds a high rank, although his principal
work (cf. $ ."Sd?) is biographical rather than historical. Velleius Paterculus (cf. ^ 532)
and Florus (cf. ^ 536) are auihors of considerable merit ; yet their works are merely
compends. I'he four writers just named all confined themselves to Roman affairs,
except that Paterculus appears to have designed to give in his introduction a glance
at general history. Two other authors of this period have obtained some celebrity ;
namelv, Valerius Maximus (cf. ^ 533) and Quintus Curtius (cf. ^ 535). The former in
hie relations includes events of Grecian as well as Roman history. The latter is oc-
cupied wholly with the achievements of Alexander. The works of these several au-
tbora will be separately noticed.

^ 518. There were other historical writers, whose names ought perhaps to be pre-
sented bore, although time has spared none of their productions. Cremutius Cordus^
published a series of annals, which the senate, under the influence of Tiberius, sen-
tenced to the flames, because the author had dared to call Brutus and Cassius the last
of the Romans. Cneius Lentulus^ already alluded to as an epi^ammatist ($ 340), is
cited by Suetonius as an historian. Claudius' the emperor is said to have composed,
besidee his own memoirs, a history of Rome, beginning with the victory of Augustus
over Antony, in 41 books. Cluvius Rufus, who was consul under Claudius, wrote a
history of the rei^n of Nero. Pliny the elder (cf. ^ 470) wrote a work in continuation
of the history otBassus (cf. 515), and another, in 20 books, on the Roman wars in
Germany. Pliny the younger is also mentioned as an historian. — Several authors also
composed commentaries or memoirs of the class already described (^ 513). Those of
Claudius just named consisted 9f 8 books. Tiberius^ is also said to have written a
memoir of his own life. Cn. Domitius Corhulo^, who commanded in Germany under
Claudius and in Armenia and Svria under Nero, composed memoirs which seem to
have been frequently used by Tacitus. C. Suetonius Paulinus^ wrote an account of
his campaign in Africa. The memoirs of Crassus Mucianus, who held a command in
Syria and took an active part in securing the empire to Vespasian, are often cited by
Pliny. The emperor Nerva, it would seem, prepared a journal of his wars in Dacia.
— ^To these may be added several names ; C. BatbiUus^, who wrote an account A
Egypt, where he commanded under Nero; Servilius Nonianus mentioned by Quin-
tilian^ ; Marcus ServiUu§ noticed by Tacitus* as author of a well -digested history of
Roman affairs; also Herennuu Senecio, Juniui Mugticus^ and others who wrote indi-
▼idual biographies (cf. ^ 526).

> Ibe. Amb. Iv. S4, to. amtm Tibw. St. ^9 Or Ciiriw CdnMllM Lwlvlw OmMkm. Ct BMloit. Cslic & ■ SMm.

Chad. 41 «AMfeik Tibw. SI} Oonuia *ne. Abb. li. 18; ziil. & M,a.; zv. «,«. •PMn. Htat N. v. 1 ^OL

Jtat. QoH. Ntt. Iv. 14. ■ QimM. latf. OnL z. 1. PUn. Ep. L 19. • 71k. Am. zIt. lH t«SMA OgniU la Dia Cm.

f7, II. Sm l^mhu, m cHsd § 6t7. I.— MAr, 458.— ACAOO, iL 880.

^ 619. In the last period we hsTe to notice, from the time of the Antonines, A. D.
160, we may observe the same decline in history as in other branches of literature.
Writers were not wanting, it u true ; but the spirit which should penetrate and enliveii
history was wanting. Tne danger which under the imperial tyranny threatened every
independent and fiutbful inauirer after truth, exerted a fatal mfiuence upon historical
studies. It rendered the exhibition of the real causes and oonseouenoes of events al«
most impossible. The disposition to flattery was cultivated in a aegree wholly incon-
sislent with impartial history. It is not strange, therefore, that we find in this period
notkiog specially eminent in the department now under review. Most of what was
written related to the Roman emperors, and comparatively little of the whole amount
of productions has been preserved to our times.

i 530. The first author to be mentkined in this period is Justin (cf. ^ 538), who Is
corooonly supposed to have lived in the reign of M. Aurelius Antoninus; he is known
by his sbridgment of the general history of Tragus Pompeius. — Of writers who at-
tempted to give a view of the whole Roman history, Aurelius Victor (cf. ^ 539) and
Flavius Eutropius (cf. ^ 540) were the principal. An author by the name of Sextus
Rufus (cf. ^ 540. 5) has also left us a compend of the Roman history* We have a
much more important and valuable work in the hiatory of Ammianns Marcellinus (cC
$ 541) ; with greater fullness he treated of a definite portion of Roman history, com*
mencing with the reign of Nerva, where the history of Tacitus closes, and extending
to the death of Valens. He wrote at the close of the fourth century, and is considerea
a»the last of the Roman historians, that truly deserved the name.

i 621. Nearly all tha other wriian that can be properly iadodsd in this departmeni

ft28 BI8T0RT OF ROMAN LITERATfJRB.

tore$ ilisloritB Augu9tm^ or wrUers of the imperial history; these were pvticuuny
^iius Spartianufl, Julius Capitolinus, Trebeluus Poilio, and Flavius Vofiiaciis. Of
tlieir collected writings we shall speak below {% 542). — It is worthy of norice, that thess

belonf^to the class of biographers. The principal are thoee oommonlj styled Scrm-

panicuiany

r . r T . jpiacus. Of

r collected wriiim we shall speak below (^ 542). — It is worthy of notice, that thess

writers cite twentv-five different authors, who Uved in the second century, and com-
posed the biography of one emperor or more ; but whose works are ik>w wholly lost ;
their names it is of no importance here to repeat. The emperor Sepiimios Sevenia is
tlso cited as having written his own memoir.

% 522. We close this glance by advertine to a few other writers, that are sometimes
named among the historians of this period. Quintus Septimius* is mentioned as the
translator of the Greek work of Praxis purportixig to be the journal of Dictys Cre-
tensis. Julius Ezsuperantius, probably at the beginning of thb fifth century, wrote a
tract entitled Ih Marii, Lrvidi et Sertorii^ bellis civilibus'^. — Hieronymus Stridonensis,
or as he is commonly called, St. Jerome, who died in the be^nning of the fifth oeo-
turv, left, with numerous other works, a translation of the UmverBal History or Chro-
nicle of Eusebius'. Two other Christian writers, belonging to the fifth century, may
be mentioned here as chronologists : Flavius Lucius Dexter dedicated to St. Jerome a
work entitled Historia Omnimoda, which was a general chronology extending from the
birth of Christ to his own times^ ( Prosper Aauitanus composed a work enthled Ckn-
meon^t reaching from the creation of the world to the capture of Rome by Gensenc,
A. D. 455.

• Ct|ai,i9n<^nistiiMlatio%is«ttbMk%i*wtilMAiStftorhi^aM«^«r«NkMar*SMirh^^ K Biilitw i—

mtBft <»«w» ffwi Ian iwwti. tmt tmhnrm * giMNr cwnpwi tl— k t»km bf Himw. M man i whli tfc» iIiihb ■tgf Hil»

MdMdiwiihikadMlhsrinyMb U uppmn to Uf N— iidi we* fcy Sw llir BynaU—t ct iSiwririlwu. D» Q—fc
OFpnih Hivs. I89S.— UilioMi tj LSmHt. AmL VKL 4. cmhIubIm tto DiMrtitin of iMMniM as *• onfinl •■««■

MMblar.— la FU^t IMplk a^ Var. Claateb-Bf J. Ikdwidt. Boa. IMS l—aMS. IM. Bob. ui. I».-M*r, 4SS. Alki

laaitar BiMpanaltaniaMppaMdlaboaBabry(MBlcratol«oritaf Sattvit; tttofiwa iBaeaf orikoa<i«iOMaf Saa««i«.S

Otlacfh'^ riiad t SOU & ■ ThkttaariatkM b(iv«a b tlMaditioaarJ««M%«orfci,l>y KaBaMi. Vwm 11M,a. II vah. M.

npnaM Vm. I78L II fda. 4^AIm br T. SmtrmlH, VoImL LaL Scriplor. Cknaka. fH*. ITST. flMih «.-> JMr. fiaKk. ■■»

lit Sapplaak p. M. « A Jawit Maad Afuwiiia ^ la £fi|M«, at tlw tagiaMl^ af tka ITlk eatfMy, 6McaM » »aik p»

yeitiaf >a ba tlw lert Clwida of Ladat D>Jrtar, aad ft^tmiti thrt ifca Mali ii|il brf b««i fc— 4 a iba MiaiHiij of Wa»M^

H wm paMhbed aftar ti^ Smlh, by J. CaMii uw, Cw.-AagBrt. (SanfOMj MM. 4.-aE*M; iii. 1«l ■ na OWamwi of flw

par it eoala iavl, w iib tba rbrowiof ical vnUap of mmm otbaia, is te wofk aatiltad Onmlem mtiu aai, bf OL r. BBiil . 1^
1, UL l72.-4a*r, aa M eitad.

$ 523. It may not be amiss to advert here distinctly to the hiograpkieal writings of
the Romans, although ihe most important of them have already been named in glandng
at the historians. This form of historical Uterature seems to have been cultivated miicE
more among the Romans than among the Greeks ; at least we have evidence that
there were many biographical writings at Rome, earlier than thoee of Plutarch (cf.
^ 249). whose series of parallel lives is the most important work in the Greek language
belonging to this branch of letters. Indeed there is no doubt that Plutarch derived
much assistance from Roman sources. — The earliest of these biographical writings
which are distinctly noticed are the memoirs of the censors^ already named (^ 509). The
censorial office was established B. C. 442, which was above 50 years before the burn-
ing of Rome by the Gauls. Dioiiysius Halycarnasseus appeals to cf^iain of these
memoirs (ri^ifn«a ^/ivn/iara, cf. his /torn. Ant. i. 74), as monuments examined by him-
self, and confirming his statements as to this early period. The family measoirs (cL
Flin. Hist. N. xxxv. 2) and the funeral eulogies ahready mentioned (^ 509), belong also
to the department of biography.

^ 524. There were very numerous biographical works of another class, vix. the Com-
mentaries or Memoirs, which have been before spoken of {% 513) as a species of cule-
biography. Among these we find the memoirs of generals, detailing their own mihtary
achievements ; e. g. thoee of Scaums, Rutilius Kufus, Svlla, Julius Caesar, Corbulo,
Mucianus, and others ; of which time has spared to us only the Commentaries oi Ce-
sar. We find also the memoira of consuls and civil governors describing the events of
their official life ; e. g. Cicero's memoirs of his consulship (cf $ 513), which he wrote
first in (xreek prose, and afterwards in Latin verse. There were Ukewise in thu class
a number of imperial memoirs, none of which, however, are preserved ; those of Ti-
berius, Claudius, and Nerva have been mentioned. Here may be named the work of
Agrippina, Nero's mother, whose memoira of herself are cited by Tadfos {Amu iv.
53) and commended by Pliny {Hist. N. vii. 8).

^ 525. A different class of biographical writings is presented in collections inclnding
the lives of a number of eminent persons. The earliest, probably, was that of Varro,
whose collection (cf. ^ 423. 1), is said to have contained a notice of seven hundred dis-
tinguished men. Here belong the biographical works of Suetonius (cf. % 537), of which
the lives cf the Casars, and the lives of the Grammarians are specially valuable. In
the same class are the biographical collections of Cornelius Nepos (cf. i 530) and Aure>
lius Victor icf. ^ 539).— lliere was a work of the grammarian Hyginus (cf. ^ 504), on
the atAievemenis of eminent men, which would be ranked under this kind. Caius Ap-
pins is mentioned as having written the Lives of illustrious Cowimanders, Hen also

p. ▼• HISTORIANS. JULIUS CJB8AK.

belong the bioffraphies included in what ie called ihe Anguttam Hiitory (cf. % 542). It
may not be wbolly out of place here to advert to a work of Jerome, entitled Lff>er d€
SaipicrUnu eedesiasticit, which codtains brief notices of more than a hundred Christian
authors.

J I 526. Finally, we have to mention in this glance several works which were simply
ividual biographies. I'he history of Alexander by Quintus Curtius (cf. $ 535) may
be put in this cbss. We have one beautiful specimen of the kind here designated in
the life of Agrieola bv I'acitus (cf. ^ 534). The classical writers refer to several other
single biographies, which are not extant. Muratius Rufus^ is said to have written a
life of the younger Cato. Thraseas Paetus^ published a biograpfav of the same illus-
trious person. Bibulus wrote the life of M. Brutus. Brutidius Niger composed an
account of the closing scenes of Cicero*s life*. Pliny the elder is said to have given a
life of Pomponius Secundus, a poet and general, who was honored with a triumph
under Nero. Herennius Senecio wrote the biofirraphy of Uelvidius Priscus ; a work
which cost him his life, through the jealousy of Dominant

1 CC Avm, Oa Ff«tib« Plat dted f US. l.~Ru(te tod Bibuloi «r« wnoff ito Revwi Mofmphgn of whoa Ftuhnb maim

M^ — s CC 7W Aw. sr. m Mk U,«. ■ Cf. 2b«. Aao. ui. fiB. Jenic. Soaor. «ii. • Ihe. Yiu A<ric. 8, i^flin. Sp.

liLSH

^ 527. We here mention tome of the works which illustrate the general subject ;
Aod some of the collections.

1. a /. Vomim, Da RMorkii Lallala. Lafd. BU. 1651. 4. with tha 8upplimmt to fba mom, bf /. J. PktHtku. BtiA.
ma t.— Jr.J!lmMlia,DalUMi.i«r«BiScr«pCarilMM. Ll^ ISIS. 4.— AIT. Am/iaa<M^ Da qwdf^iM* Bob. HiM. 8criptorib«L
BdaMti I4HL C— & V. Pifkbu, Aanaln RanaMnia, q«i eoaioMalarii viean Mpplaal la onaai valana HiM. Boau Serifilefai
(ad. bfjg, ackMti. Ant*. l<r«. fcl. JMiipBlfe, Da pmdpaia ieni» BaaMonia Scri^oritaib BhI. I7SS. faU-CC Mbnetm,
BiM. Ut. iiL 38T.-AMV, Hbt. LttL Rm. i. lSn.a«. U.S,m.S»,m. iii. iaS,a.-MAr, a»-41S^>-AaHM, 0( Ftolita Laaraiaf^
ik. 11. art. S. (vei. U. p. 691. ia ad. N. York, !»>).— O. £. IVUdk, AUttadluac Obar dia KaaHfom dar aalikao Bk^nphia, ia h« .
MLef Ta«. ciiad ) 6U. «.— Frvrt, Siir rMada daa aodaawa Wfltoiraa, ftfr in tbt Mmm. 4» P,^mi. Jm bur, toL vi. p. 148.— JAm*
«ri;aacitfd|Ma.

H CBllanipM. P. a^Omrg, HM. Rom, SartRlam Ut d Gme. FnnkL »BMa S vda. UL~Jm». Popma, FnfM. kM.
vat L»t ftr. AMt MMl 9.^Kkttmlmg * »riUa', Scnplom H«t Ban Latiai Vaiam («d. B, C. £b«riitMO. Haiddb. I74»>
dH S«olk Cd. wiihamaiaiid Csani^JteMaRf k, Sttkadt, Gerpaa HirtorieonHn UliaDnwb lipk lUAw 8. eaain«M>d.-/y.
• HMi.BflmB{Ba»aaaas. Up^ wai a-BfaM^m m citad j g4a.-€aeciapaaa< QrMloB« « Hinacida Utiai»
OxILiaaa t8^-J.Xr•tM^VibBa(Fn«lB.f•tbW.Boa^B•tLI898.8.

^ 528. /tt2f«« C<Bfar, whose life and character are prominent in the political history
of Rome, is also conspicuous as an historical author, on account of his works called
CommenlarieM or Memoin (iwfiv^iiara). The Commentaries on the Gallic War (Dt
hello Gallico) consist of teven books, trealin^^ of the events during as many years; the
eighlk book (usually added to these) is ascribed to Aulus Hirtius, who was CsBsar's
lieutenant {legatus) and confidential friend. The Commentaries on the Civil War (De
belio civili) consist of three books. These two works are of great value, both from the
&ct that Caesar was principal actor in the events related, and also from the st^le in
which they are composed, which is simple yet perfectly appropriate, and brief without
becoming dry.

1. Cesar was bom at Rome B. C. 99, and was assassinated B. C. 44. He waa
eminent for his learning and his eloquence, as well as for his military talents. — We
have his life by Suetoniug and by Plutarch. There is also a biography formerly
BBcribed to J. CeUus, but now considered as the work of Petrarch,

CL&ai>^edl,Diii.daJ.CtawiiviUparJ.CalMn,aaMMdtoliiaJmfllM«iiMatei.ae. Qm. iSia a-C BL O.
Bfc»itddkr,PatnniMeHMenaJiil.CMarista. lipi. 1817. i.-Tka lilb of Cnar baa alaobaanlraalad bj madam wtftm; J.O,
iktmm, Ltbaa da> i. Omr (fiabhad bjr f. a £. JMn). Bad. I81S. 4 voh. &— r D. OHUm, Uabcr Clan Bnnoidaaf. tc
tor.l88a.8«-C.OHta,LL.DL,UiiefaJ.aMr. Li^ ITSS. I8.-Oiirimdofy, Ont da J. C. Cm. Uimtla itadUa. L««d.Brf.
IT«0^AOLJiMlcr,Di»daJ.CMM«. AB. 1887. 4.

2. The Commentaries of Caesar are chiefly occupied with the detail of military ope
rations. The military spirit of the Roman character and institutions is everywhere
exhibited ; and almost every thing which the scenes of war can offer to awaken and
BOBtain our interest in a narrative is found in these writings.

Dm^tp, IL8l^-f. «kfd,I«ct M HM. Ul~OBCnu^aiyl«.d: CS&Brat. TSb-^Mint laat Or. x. I.— 7b& Am. stiLS.—
Jfaaad, Dm. da lAarUla at taitedtato CMirk In Iba qumit, Imdmm. ad Toku, cL bia adit dtad f Itl. Xr-^Mrg^, Da aaiardl
pddviMiwonlieiM. Upa. ITia 4.-.Oa bit endMOtj^cL Anton. Jot. Cwu 54b~C. & Beterd, Da C. A. Pdlma iaiqao
•pi. Lat aMlocai cawova. Jan. IT4S. 4.-A aOuydtv. Da Ate C. J. CwaHi daUa, *«. Haith t784.~Tbara b a Onak vaida*
alSiaOrfic%aT.byaeailai»llaiiiidw.irbkbbirfaaoww>liiaiHiamif flwUUatttt. It h fifaa is Iba ad. of £aMM% dM
Wofr. Ctnadl|CoapaiatioJ«I.Cd«fiiOnMia.Lalbio. rrdb.l81&

3. To the Commentariee of Caesar are usually subjoined the book De hetto Hi$j»-
fMM, relating CsBsar's second campaign in Spain, and the books De beUo Alexondrina
and De bello Afrieano, relating Capsar's expeditions in Egypt and Afirica, after tha
battle of Pharsalus. The last mentioned books were written by Atilu$ HiAiua, who
eollected the principal events from the lips of Caesar and the officers that accompanied
hinu The otW book is supposed to have been written by Catua Oppiui, who was a

3o9

HUTORY OF ROHAN LITERATURE.

eompanion and confidential friend of Cesar. There was doubt, in the time of Sneto-
niuB, respecting the authorship oi these works. ,

CL SMfln. J«L Cm. tC— A IMMril, Dkk da uIdm Bell. AI«iaaiL Sc, fifCS !■ Otedbidby« 0iiliM Mw cMiA— fte^
McMad t M7. l.~AIAr, p. ISO.

4. Cesar wrote other works, which are lost. The treatise De Analogia^ on the
analoigies of the Latin tongue, in two books, addressed to Cicero, was written* while
crossing the Alps. 'I'he works entitled Auguralia and De Auspieiis, treated of topics
belonging to the art of divination ; as did also the treatise De Motu tideruti^. — A col-
lection of anecdotes called Apopfdhegmata is said to have been made by him ; the pub-
lication of which was hindered by Augustus. — He composed a work entitled Aniicato,
in two books, consisting of a sort of rhetorical declamations, somewhat in the manner
of speeches before a judicial tribunal ; said to have been written' in reply to a work of
Cicero entitled Laus CatonU. — Ancient writers speak of a work of Caesar called Epke-
meris ; respecting which there is a dispute among critics whether it was, or was not,
the same work as his Commentaries.

* Cr. Aufen. J. Cn. U.-^«ul. (ML NoeL Att I tOi viL %. ^«Cf. /Vm. BM. Nat iviiLM. ■« Ok. E|i. ad Att. sik 4ft.

-vful. OdI N. k. iv. Ify-Dwdffy, IL 100, M.— Mib, Ka-AMMI, tt. S.-A CDlketlOB «r Om Fn^Mtoiir Cmw « |iM h
Iha ad. of Ou^mAvpt bdmr dtod.

5. The name of Cesar is connected with several scientific improvements among the
Romans. It was by his counsel that the geometrical survey ot the whole empire was
decreed bv the senate (cf. % 480). — He also greatly amended the Roman Calendar, and
introducea a method of computing time which is still retained as the basis of the mo-
dern calendar (cf. P. I. % 192).

JbM4d,B»tdaC»lNdTtaraoniiB. y>r. ISM. i^Btamdtbum, Wm. da Oil— dirie 1 Cyeto Qaarifc lhMa.l10BLM.

& EdiiioM.— Opari.— Bart; N. L. Miatnltn ^ H. E. Lammin. Par. t8l*-9i. 4 voli. t. ia famaWli BiM. Lai.-/. /. Oi«»
Kn. Lps. 1006. r8i9. 1 Lowi. IOSl & Vm IStfu S ««1«. S. Tha lait of OUrUn k Mle«r«d in yUp^ ad. Lad. IM.
Ko. 8.l« of tha MpMn aad KoKonnn Cla««t— /V-. OMbnAi^ Uy4. 1197. 4. lUpr. (ad. F. ». Mbpvi). Lfa. inSL t. aad
etal«. in. t vote, a— Mora raeaal adilioat; J B. Oiani. Mil. 18». S volt. 8.-/. Ck. MAnc. Lpi. IM& 8— #1 C. AX^.
ftr. ISIS. S voir. 8.-^. Jaran. Bnis. 1827. t vol*. &— C'. .dnlikait. Naw York, 1838. IL Mhaal ad. — Of aailiar aitiliaM;
M. Oarte. Load. 1718. M. with 87 eepperplaia cncraviop; **aa|iiiSeaal aad c»lebral«d."->J>a»uMt (OaviM). Ca^k ITOa 4.
wlthliwGrariiTcntener<baBA0alL-1lMlWimpc,l7AeayiiAiy«iitAMti«rtx(prhit^ Boai. 14881 M. MmmMmm

llfAl oihcr feiio edifJOM ia fha ISlh eaoiary. Ik BtUa O a 1 M c e; d. MBbua. UauoT. 188a 8 vohi & mt/^ima^ alMtta

Alax. Afr. kSpan. wan.— 0i AH. CI v M i , C O. B^tof. Lft. 1884. 8.

T. TraJHlatJoHu-OafBiaii.-J. ffhffitr. HoC, ISIS. 8 vo-'a. 8. Tnath^TitTpin A CrtuL Moatarq. 1785^ S vain 4. «tt

40 platM ; Ur. * Fr. with aolM. Encllth.--Beit, W. Dumm. LauL 1738. M. I76& 9. 1818. 8. irift a dJaoawia aa «a

lea. art of war.-For olhan, cf. MSiw, Bibiiocr. L UO.

a IllvatnUve ^la addiiiaa to worti alraadf aamad ; /. F. RBiek, Obw dia Coaim. daa Cter. Balk, 1788. B— /. Avian, Mk
•■ Iba Moaa of Caw, ke. Ltmd. 1702. 12.— IJm. on Cnar^ pMafa oT iba Tbaaat (by & 0«lr), aod eibar Knui, n ikt wo*
aaltdad drdmolotia. poM. bjr tba .Sociaty of Aaliquarlai of Londoa—^TutMard, aa ami P. IIL } 87S.— Btavtuir. Otm. CrA. IoCm.
Bam. 18 A. 8. coBlalaiag aoticaa of aaaauacripla.— Of. MvIm, Brer. Nol. Sappl. u 878.-^. von Htfiw, Oaasraphia daa Tiaanlfk
tialiiaaa, ke. Moneb. I8S8L & wkh a nap.— Bf aBim^ Oaographia sa J. C. Coam. da bdloeivlli. MOadk 18S7. 8.

^ 529. Caiu8 Sallu$tiut Cri$puf, of Amiternum in the Sabine territory, was a eon>
temporary of Caaear. His character as a writer ia more reputable than his morals,
according to the common account, which appears to be not without foundation. In
history he adopted Thucydides as his model. A noble brevity and a vivid manner of
representing events were the happy fruits of this imitation. He indulges, however,
too often in exprei«slons which are unusual and obsolete. The works which we have
from him relate to two very important events in Roman history; namely, the Con-
tmraey of Catiline, and the war of the Romans with the Numidian king Jngunba.
Of his Roman History, extending from the death of Sylla to the conspiracy of CatiUne,
only a few fragments are extant. — We may doubt the genuineness of the declamatkma
which are ascribed to him. and also of the two treatises or letters addressed to J. Caesar
on the administration of the state.

1. Balluit waa born B. C. 85, and died B. C. 35. In the year B. C. 48 be was excluded fhm the
aenaie on the charge of immorality (^nl Getl. Noct. Att. xvil. 18). He embraced the aide of
Ctosar agninat Poropey, and waa made by him governor ofNuntidia, where he enriched htmaelf
by plundering the province. When he returned to Rome be built a magnificent palace near the
city, which waa aurrounded by the delightrul pleaaiire-irounda afterwarda celebrated by the
name of the Gardens of Sallnat {Horti StUluttiami) i thi» palace became the reaidence of eeveral
of ihe eroperon, Rnd waa consumed by fire wlien Alartc took the ctty.— A life of Salluai, full of
hoatility towards him, waa written by Lenmvs, the f^eedman ofPompey ; and another by Aaco.
nius Pedlanus ; buih of them are ioat. There ia extant a declamation arainat Salloat, which
was once aacrlbed to Cicero, (cf. ( 104. 8) but ia now generally aacribed to Parana Latn, a rhe-
torician In the time of aandiua. The charge of exceaalve licentinuanesa upon Salluat ia a«p-
poaed by many to be a calumny occaaioned by confounding him with hla nephew, ooentloned by
Horace (SM. I. 9. 48. cf. Od. li. S).

0« tha lifaof Sallurt, aca D. O. JMbVar, Da Saltortio. Alt. 1C84. 4.-Ai Avnw, in (he Jfon. .lead. Aiav. vd. nW.; al« ahii
TnaaL bdow eitad.— O. M. MUBa^, Mliutim, edcr hut. krit. I7at«nacb. dar Nachriebt. von S. Laban, fer. Zailiek, I8JT. 8 —X
HC lobdl, mr Baurtbeiluaf dcs SalL Br«ri. 18ia 8. writtan la amwcr to tbt practdinf .— £« Chrc, Sallaitii Vila, fivaa la tba a£.
af mmmmp, dtad balow.— HUwhI, o« ITor. Sal. L S, 481 ia bis Trans, eitad $ 383L 8.— Awt, Benarlk U>ar d. aaiaL ChanBL
« SdlasU Gioia. 1788. i.-BiHalndt OoUhm par Piatantna, Ac liad. as Fiua Ainst 1766. a

2 The two histories now extant are supposed by many of the critics to have been

p. ▼• HISTORIANS. SALLVST. NEPOS. 6B1

written after Salluat'a reiurn from Numidia to Rome. The Jugurthine War certainly
was. In relation lo ihia, he consulted the documents preserved in the archives of
king Hiempsal.

Dmkp, ii. 86, m^BOAr, STS—AcMI. il. 80 -RciptcliB( Ute autboriiitt OMd by SallMt, ef. Ocrtadl, is bit cd. below eH«l.~Oa
htoiljlc, ke JVoir, D« virtMibv hbL itollwtiaiMB. :tiuig. nu. aod m bia Opute. ImJL Tab. Iflil.— 0»lac\ tnp. Qbw dm
GaehidiiKbr. C. SallwL Bu. 1881.

3. The Roman Higlory consisted o( only five books, as modern critics show, instead
of §ix as formerly believed. It included a period of thirteen years, beginning where
the annals of Siscnfta (cf ^ 51 1) ended ; its loss is much regretted. Many brief and
disconnected fragments have been collected' ; but the most important remains of the
work are four orations, and ttoo letterg, found by Pomponius Lceius in a MS. of the
Vatican, containing a collection of speeches from Roman history. — The two decZama-
lions above mentioned are entitled declamalio in Calilinam and declamatio in Ciearonem ;
supposed by some to be the work of Forcius Lstro. — The two letters to Ctesar, ora-
tiones or tpistoltPt de republica ordinanda, are also considered as rhetorical fabrications'.

a Tbe frafiMBfi tre given in Ik AroMCf (Broumu k. De Srotttmy^ Pn«nMBti Sftltaeiiaw, Ate. Dijon. IVA Bepr. Lnudh
l8Sa 8. The mimt mutkur. In « Freocb work, entitled Huloire de h Republ Sum. par SattutU. Dij «. 1777. S tolt. & bed attenptod
to nconsinict <hc work of Sulliat by a truMlalion of Ibr rrtKnienfe end by eddttioni ; ibii work wm tnntlated into Germen by /.
C. SchHUtr. 0in»b. 1790-1804. 6 voli. &— Cf F. Kritx, Oe C Sail, fnwni. a C. DeBntrio i'tpHt. ke. Erf. I8». 4.~Alao /. O.
J&«yii<ff,C. Sail. Hiiloriarum iii. (lenii) rra«ni. e cod. Va*. edifa ab A. Maio, ke. Mm. 183a &-J. C OnlUug. Ont. e( Epitf.

«s Ml. hbt Lbris deperd. ke. Terici, I8SI 8. Cf. Onttim (amr), Hnt erit. Eelopmin tx Sail. ke. Tnr. 1832. & ^»#li-

ftncntf, Bibl. Lai. i. 840, 841.— iMAp, 880L-Ci: Quint. Inet. Or. ir. 1. Ii. t.

4. Ediliece.— Whole Work •{ beet, f.AOanfaKA. Bee. 1883, a. S «ol<w 4— C. IT. IVvtoehcr. Lp& ISBS-Ml 8 vok. 8^
£. /. Rkhur^ contoienced Mob- 1836b 8. abo la ibe 3itHethtm ComneaUriarani in SeripioreB tea Oneeoe quam Letioee. Bert
ef tbe hnt eentury, J, Warn. Caoibr. I7ia 4. Ibrnnd by a eollalioo of nearly 80 MS& and eonlaiBiac a Xaiooii tUOuMamum.
— O. CmU (Corihit). Lps. 11X4. 4.— & ibiMtamp. Amtf. 1748. 9 volt 4.— Tbere are many olber (ood editiom} H. Bonm,
Load. ITMl S.-m Lantt. Hal. 1816. 8.-a O. An«f . Lpe. 1828. 8.->l'. KrUtitu. Lpi. I»3w 2 vol*. 8. witb an Appendix.

— ^ Pmfpuar. Vie*. IBS7. 8 vole. 8. The Prbutpt, by V. Jk Sfffm. Veo. 1470 fol. {Mou, il. 55&.)— Tbere have been nanf

eebool aditioMorthe Hao bictoriei; /. MM. Png. 1S28, 1838. 8.— C Jntkon. N. York, IMS. li.^H. R. ChwJan< BoaL
ISSSl 18. tCBt of CMoA, with En(l- NoMe.

6b TmDriaiiona.-OenMn.~Amonc Iha beel; /. C SUkNIkr. Bf^aet. 1808, I8ia 8 vohi 8.-X. £. ven fFbttnumia. Pn«,

1914. & Freacb.— M'te. Btauxm. Per. l7Sa. 12.— Air. it Lomaile, Ffer. 1805. & Fte a notice ef tbia and other rreaeh

TCtrioM, ef. ZbwMult't Annalot Ult Sd vol.— O. die A»se<r. Let. k Gall. Fltr. 1833. 8 volt. 8. Eosliib — Earliaat, by "Syr

Alesaadar Barclay preatt," Load. fbl. wilhoot dale. Reprinted Lood. I6&7. R ef. IToh^ ii. 564.— Not lent than 18 other Eaflidi
wtione era namad. The beltM- anoas iben ; IV. Earn. Load. 1757. 8.-/. HUr, with LaU Edinb. 1774. 8.— If. SUwart.
lowL 1806 8 vole. 4.-^. MurpAy. Lood. 1807. 8.

% 530. Cornelius NepoSf a native of Hostilia in the territory of Verona, lived a short
time before the Christian era. Respecting the circumstances of his life little is known.
He was a friend of Cicero and Atiicus. Of his writings we have only a work entitled
Vita exeellenlium imperaiorunu Some have ascribed it to .^milius Probus, who lived
in the time of Theodosius the Great , and was probably only a transcriber of tho work ;
others have considered it as an abridgment made by Probus from a more complete
production by Nepos. These lives are models of biographical composition, in respect
of simplicity and beauty, although too brief and not wholly satisfactory as to their con-
tents. Nepos was auinor of several other works, which are lost.

1. There is some doubt even respecting the place of his birth. The statement that
he came to his death by poison received from his freedinan is a mistake.

Cf Ptin. Kiel. N. iii. 18. Ep. iv. 88: v. S, Ou-fful. Tit. LoeuUl, 43.-JrcU(r, Ditt. de Cora. NepoM. Alt. ISA 8.-C. f. Am-
ftjw, ConflMat. de C Hvp. vita et Kfiptie. QuedL 1887. 4.

2. Modem critics have pointed out many mistakes in the work entitled Vita impe*
nUorum. It contains the lives of twentv-two generals (nineteen Grecian, one Persian,
and two Carthaginian); and also a brief notice or catalogue of the Grecian and Persian
kings. In some manuscripts are also contained a life oi Cato Major and a life of Atu-
cus ; which however must have belonged originally to a separate production. — Those
who consider the work to be an abridgment made bjr Probus, suppose it lo have becu
drawn from the work ascribed to Nepos, by the ancients, under the title of LSni Vi
Torum illustrium.

CI. Jul OttL Noct. Att iL &— JUr, S66.— Reepectias the origin ef Ibe work, tee /. W. Jfoedke, a Ifep. liber etc. ntraa opae
Inieiniai en operit naj. pan quadan tit. Lnb. 1807.— O. F. Rinek, Senio di an Btaaie crit. per reiiituire a Emtl. Probi il libr. da
yu. cae. <mpif. kc. Vea. 18l8 8. Traoe. Into German by D. AmuMfi, with ibe title, Vertucb einer krit. PrOfuac dn .Cm. Prob.

kc L|K. I819L 8.-IM*fH, De ««. eac; trnptr. C. Ncp. noa Mm, Pnb. attribaeadie. Cli. 1887. Reipectint the aatborily, ke , tee

Aailop, vol. Sd, ee eitad \ 86S. S.-J'. /. Hlttbi, Dith Crit de bnlibw e( nneler. a Nep. DelplL Bai. 1887.-V. OU^ Pial^oan. ai
vitan AlUd, qaii C Nep. adeeribllvr. Vratitl. ISM^ 8l

3. Works under the followinir titles are ascribed to Nepos by the ancients ; Ckrawiea or Jin-
uaUt, in 3 books; ExempUmm libri, of which a 5th book is cited ; JUbri vir. illuMtrivm^ already
named ; Dt kutorieia, includinfr both Greek and Roman htslorlans. Lttters to Cicert> are also
mentioned, and Pliny speaks of Cornelius as having cultivated poetry.— The rompotiiion extant
onder the title DrvMt UlnttribMM, formerly ascribed to Nepos, is now acknowledged as the work
of Aurelius Victor (cf. ) 539>. The pretended tranalailon of Xterss is an admliled fabrication (fef.
i960).

jbiL OdL Noct AtL sviL 21 } vU. 18; li. 8; xv. Sa-C^n. Xkp. Tit. Dioa. S.— lactanf. biL Dlr. 10. If^-^Afn. Ep. v. S-

RMTORT or ROMAN LITBRATURB.

JUr, aO^teriM Md TteeftMH b (Mr cdHioH bdinr dt«d^.8aM IVi«^^

te aditioii or N«|Ma, publ. TnakL !•(«. M.— Tlwy art (ivM ia ihe edittom of Av^iH uxl othen.

4. Ediikm^Bm ; m U. BmrdOL Mutljc. IMO. 2 fola. S.— C A TVicAuM^ GMt Ifl0«. I nri*. I. wiih a eMii4ateiT.^-X

f. AmAv (ad. by Avto). Lfw. 1801. &-/. CIL OUuu Lpi. ltB7. R. The Priae^, bj H Jawm. Veo. 1471. 4.-Vcf7

■uamni an tha tdtiiow ^twialty daaigned for aelioola ; JL Arawrt Ediob IBll. &— C*. F. iMUnann, wiih a Lnictm. Lfis.
IMC •.-£. /. Adfarte*. ad ad. Han. 18981 $. with a OerMo Lexioon.-V A AmnL Z»r. 1827. IL wvh Oerau Nom.

•. Tnarialiena^-GorauB.'-/. d. B. B^rfiMUmr, 3d ed. iaipr. b)- O. fifcA^f. rnuklL I8<&. & rmKrh.>Abbe /buz. fte

1781. I& ItalUo.-^ Bmmditra. Van. 1741 8. Eaciiih.-Ar MM. UaU, wiib obMratioH. L.>ad. im. &.~r. Oaa^

Md olboi*. Oif. 1884. \t.-J. Oorka. (eiacfly litent, wiih orif. Lai.) Umd. ITS. 8. oflofi ropriolod.

«. lllwiraliM.—ir. L. ffordMNis Aaiauinnioim in a NifwtaB. rnahf. l80}-8. 4.— C. If. P««yi<r. Do rabao qoibMtea
dobiia ia C Nop. Ac Draid. 1818. 4.—/ H. SeM<|<l, ObMnr. erit. oi hhi. Id C Nap. Hafo. I77& 4.-^. Jartdt, in km 2Vm*
pUJdocical, fte. Load. 1780. 8.-r>r olbor* Ma KlUgHngy loppL to Bartm, f. 186, m-Jfoi, Bib:iogr. ii. SOL*

^ 531. Titus Liviu9^ a native of Patavium (PaduR), waa living at Rome at the time
when Augustus died, having enjoyed that ennperor's patronage. Afierwards he reskied
ai his native city until his death, A. D. 18. He deserves the first rank among the
formal historians of Rome. His history, in its whole compass, extended from the ar*
rival of ^iieas in Italy until the death of Drusus, B. C. 8 or 9, the year 744 from the
building of the city. It consisted of 140 or 142 books, of which only 35 are now ex-
tant; namely, the first ten and the twenty-Jive from the 21st to the 45th. There i»,
however, an abridgment of the whole work, from which Freifukeim attempted to
restore it, by forming supplements to replace the lost books. Livy is characterized by
truth and precision, a talent for observation, and a masterly style ; combining all the
qualities of a dignified practical historian.

1. Livy was born B. C. 58. It is not known when he removed to Rome, but be
devoted 20 years to writing his history, most of which were spent in the city. — His
grave, as was thought, was discovered from an inscription found at Padua in 1413, and
a splendid mausoleum was erected in 1548 ; but it was afterwands ascertained, that the
inscription did not refer to the historian.

/.PA. 7tem«inHt, T. Livli ?ila. Patav. I«8a alao in tho ad. sT I>«teitera bdMr cllad.^A O, MMhr, Diqk da T. LMlk
Alt 1<89.— Tbo inacriptioB b ia O^iilr, cited P. IV. | 188,

2. 7'he history of Livy, which he termed Annalesi was by the copyists arranged m
Deeadet, or portions consisting of t«n book$; a circumstance which perhaps contnhoted
to the loss of so ^eat a part of the work, as the decades were separately transcribed.
The loss is sometimes ascribed to Gregory I. who is said to have caused all the copies
oS Livy he could obtain to be burned. Much research has been made since the revival
of letters to obtain a complete copy of the work, but in vain. The supplements of
Freinsheim, the abridgment above mentioned which is commonly ascribed to Floras,
and a few fragments, are all that we have in addition to the 35 books that have been
named.

Mhp.aaa.-/. IMiuMm, Sutiiilaioiite, to. IffoBt. 1864. 4. fitoa aho in fha od. of fVikmkrdL-MaMhr, Ottmk,
livii, Ac, fta«m. Ron. IHO.-^. TK XnyoiVt ^^^^ « Ll*" K^ sei. Cbama. 1807.^-auM fngMat In NUtml^m cilod
1484.8. n»ao band 01 loMbj P. JLJ»imi^ and SM printed BaabblTmU. Oaafniak of ikol8ik bk. cL JR«.*fjD^
*» Shot. vol. i«.

3. There has been discussion among the critics respecting the materials employed by
Livy, and his fidelity in the use of them. He has been charged with mistakes, with
partiality, and with credulity. — The style of Livy was censured by an ancient critic,
Asinius Pollio, for what he called Pofavtnify ("ftMrniam Poiavtnttotem*'); wherein
this fault consisted has been a theme of dispute amon^ the moderns. — Some writi^gi
of Livy are mentioned which are lost ; the principal is a work entitled Dialogic da-
logues or philosophical and political questions.

*MB.iLfl,M.~OMlop^8dffaL Bag. «d. p. 48li-.AIaob oa Iba waiter ef Lhryi f iii* ill Po fcoMboa UrfLCnteMfr L

«0tt.lMa4. OoaiMot. II. Gott. 1888. 4.-J8bter, Oo Soapaete U*. Ida. Lpn. 1748. 4^^. f. JViwitte*. Dahiala Sdoi Lin,
liph 1777. 4.^JL A JAtevllo, Da loaliak U«. Ada. Bori. I78T. flol -<7. Xnm, Da Ado U«. roete aalmnBla. Lipo. 18ML 4^
JUfHd, T. LIf iw a SoperailioDO *indtntMy Ha*. Oma. ina-JDHIielk, Di«p. do diligODlla U«li in ooor. prodif. raeta mbaoafa.
Wittemb. 178a 4.~tfac*taMl, Diaeeni npn la prima doea di T. livia Rnaa. lUI. 4. Alao in hit IVorte prinM, te 8«o^

Boitao, nil Traodotad ioto CokIUi, (by E. D.) tool, I8T4. a Oo tbo atrlo ; /. & PamUt^ Da laelM Uvii aterfoifc Upa.

1748.4. oiflctettterlni^iaapbinaeappllod bjrqiitahUM(laaL0r.X.i.a8). Ct Dr. & ^wr, Cbaiacfon of Ch J. riw, lib
Load. I808L I foia. a (vol. Sd, p. <S4.>-4r & CnUuB, DoT. I^dietioM. rraaeor. 1791—7. A JMratto, do T. L. arto noi^
TaadL Bori. 1788. bl.~J»irfto/, Do U«. Manoitate, in hb IX^putaf. dfeodam. Haanb. I8M. aad alao ia Drmkmiank'a od. balov
dlad.-J. O. »vmf<. Do panag. U*. oioqaontio. Lipo. 11ST. 4.— Proftco in Immatg^t od. bolov dted.

4. Livy*s account of Hannibars passa^ of the Alps, compared with that giTon by
Polybius, has also afforded a theme for interesting discussion.

OMoR,MioeclbnooniWoi1n,vol. 8d,p.l80. Bac l1«l--JU«fri, In tbo Tram, of MyUai br TtaOK^, eitei | t4S. 4.^£
IIMaJ», Conmof H. om Um llpa. LomI. I7M. • vala. a-ik tMC Hial. da Paaafo daa Alpo, *e. ftr. I8ia 91 od. is-
pvaiod iBi8.>£«firomM, ia Iho Jovn. 4m Saamu, Jan. 1818 -/Mia d'CMaa, DiN. aar la |m. daa Aipa, *c Par. l881.-£»
aa«i0,HM.Crit.dapaaa.dooAlpo8.ac. Por. Iiaa— i7. £. flFUUkam «> /. .1. &«tMr, DiMrt. oniho poaaofo olHaontel onr
ttt Alp» Id od. Lond. 1898. %. with vapc CL Wink Aa. 8ir Nov. IttS.

ndiiiaoo.^Beoi{j|.IMkfHitofdk. AmL int^O. 7 wia. 4. oaporinr to awry pucadiag od. ofearila< to POdfta. lopctC
flAiair,a«) SioHf. I980>S7. IfiTCtaLa^S. £. Ooaf*-. Fbr. in».48. 8 oak 4. Bepr. (M. ISW. 8 aate. a.->rk«aa *a
Otarmden Prai. Ost iSI. 8wta. a tait of DrakonboRh ; aoteaof Ci«rior{ •* boat of all thoOifcrd ropriato-> {DibUmi^l. O.
lp&Ma8^a.afola.a lowfca^httaJttiChOifc ^Thooo oia aovoaal odMrapdom odlliao^ Mcaoppaaaad;

P.y* HISTORIANS. TELLEIUS. VALERIUS. TACllUS.

B. Banm Load. 1794. 8 vote. a. witbeat boIh, viloed far ill iadex.-J. W. Rnutti^ (u flnnlMd by flBU/hr). Lf& 1801-4.
5 toh. 8. eontalDinK ft Obwmrium Zioionum.— f. O. Z}0nnf. tbt Bd ed. Ooth. 1916-24. 7 rolt. &~Bcside« thew, wt notic*, O.
A. Rupot. Gott. 1807. 0 vola. & Tha ooniawttUry (not fully eommeBded bf KlOglinc) wm rcpubl. Lond. 1825. 8.— C O. Baun^

f ortoi-CmHtu. L|iz. 1825. 8 voU. 8.>-/. £. AudUf . Bcrl. ISM. 3 volt. 8. OT «diiioM in the I7tb oeot (be b«t h /. Or«-

luvtitf. Antt. 1679. 8 roll. 8. Tfaa /Vineqw, by AotynAiym 4> Panaarta. Rom. HflB. (ol.— Oa tbe &1SS. of Livy in tbe Li*

bniy of tb« Eacurn], /. BantB, in bh PAOoIoffieol iH^utrim, or Mualtanitt, «ol. iv. p. 553.

6. ThuuUlioai.— Germao.— £. J?«mfic<r. Bnnnadiir. 1821. 5 folt. S^KUittr, id the Ct>Uteticn by (Moiuirr. 71i/rl, te.—

rira olb«ri art Bamad ; one priated 150% fol. Freoeb.— Ouerfn (ratoocbe par Cauucn). Par. 1768. 10 volt. 12.— Dunau d*

la MaUt al AM. Far. 1818. 15 voii. 8. Eag\ub^Ph,lan. HoOand, Loud. 1600 fol. Repr. I6<«. fol. with CD(«.-Snaral

ononytfioiM aaihorh Load. 1741 6 rola. & Repr. Edinb. 1761. 8 Tola. Vi.—QordoH, GlMff. 17SS. 8 vola. 12.— (7. Bvlttr.
ImA. 1797. 6 vola. 8. tlw moal popular traiwlalioa ; ollao reprinted.

7. Illia»Tative.-7. Ch. BriigUtb, Dkt. do Llrio ejuaqoe vlrtullbua. Cob. ITTP. 8 — Aifrfn, Compar. de Thucydldt at do T. Live.
Par. lai. 12. Tranal. into Enf. by TAotr. Taylor. Load. 1684. 8.— r. BunUr, Livy aa an hiitorian coapared wHb Tacifoi, in
bia OterMltem on TaeituM. Lond. 1758. 8.-je. Jtow, Herododia and Lnry eomparcd, la b>> 5AclcAcr cf LUenttm. EdinK
1705. a— D. H. Htt*wi$ek, Uaber den politiacbao Cbaraklcr dea Liviui, la hie Neut SammL Kleuier biat. and lit. Scbrifiaa. Alt
1809.8.

$ 532. CaiuB VeUeius Paterculuty belonging to the same period, was a pnefect of
horse under Augustus, and praetor under Tiberius. He was the author of.a summary
hUtory of Rome, in 2 books, extending from the origin of Rome down to the writer's
own times. The be^nning of the first book is lost. The work has higher merit in
respect of style than it has in point of historic credibility; since VeUeius is evidently
swayed by partiality towards Tiberius and Sejanus.

1. VeUeius is supposed to have been involved in the disgrace of Sejanus, A. D. 31,
and to have been put to death with others who had foltowed tbe fortunes of that mi-
nister. His name is scarcely mentioned by ancient authors.

a IMtMB, Annnlaa Vdloiuil, aan Vila VeUeil pro lanporum online diapeaita. Omo. 1898. 8. gtvea alao !■ (be ed. of Muhnkm
balow died, a^ o(hni.~jrirauJe, Pn>l« to bia ad. below died.— A. O. Motttr, Dkp. de Veil. Patera. Alt. 1685. 4.

2. The work is entitled Historia Ramana. But aa the Roman history is preceded
by a notice of the Assyrian empire, of Greece, and of Macedonia, it would seem that
VeUeius intended to eive, in the first book, an outline of general history, although the
loss of the first part of the work hinders the reader from learning his plan. The style
is considered as generally pure. He is thought to have imitated the manner of Sallust,
whom he resembles in conciseness and energy. — Several critics have defended the
general credibility of his statements.

SMr. 417.-.aBUII, 11. 86T.-V. F. flSarri, Be(raditoB(aa Qbar die Geadi. dea VeH. FUere. Erf. 1791. 4.— Jtfigrranj(«n, Con.
erit de fide biat. Veil. Pkt ke. Daas. 1788. Oiven alao la jDwoe, la bia ad. below died.— fMir, Cbaracteres polHid in VelL
Pbt Argent. 1678. %^E. Burton, Oba. on Veil. Flat, in bia Jlnc Charaelvt dednced from Clameal Ruaaina. Loud. 1788. 8.

a. Ediiitm.— Tbe flnt editioa wae by Btahu RAcnonta, (Froben prbtar) Bai. 1580 fol. froo a MS. found by bin ia Ibe con-
TCnt of Morbacb la Ahaoe. Tbia MS. •* Codex Murbaeentii,^ wu tbea In a bid atata, and ia auppnted to have been loet in a re*
■Bora] of tbe library to another aite. CC aMU, Litt. Rmn. li. 85& Tbe senulaeneai of tbe work was al flr«t doobted. Of. iXMtn,
ii. SBS-Tbe UM edilioo* ; D. Ruknkm. Leyd. 1779l 8 voh. 8L-C. B. FnHtchu- ed. Lpa. 1830. 8.-^. Ok. B. Krmm Cbefon by
/oni-). Lpa T800. 8.— S H. Cludiui. Bann. 1815. 2 vola. 8. the notca of Rnbnhen form one of tbe vola.— Y. Ltmain, Fkr. ISCL
8..^. r. Kn^nif. Mia. 1836. 12. value not kaowb-C. OnOL Lpa. 1835. & improved teit

4. Traulatlena.— Oennaa— Fr. JaeoU. Lpc 1710. K—F. JV. IVUiv, Let. k Germ. Raceari). 183a a TnatHu-Abht Paul,

Ut. k GalL Fter. 1786. 18.— /Japret, Ut. *Gall. Far. 182a S. Ei«liih.-7Kom. NnaUm. Load. 1721. 18.— fMr^aon. BdUbh

l122.8.wb«at»(Mb«r).

^ 533. Valerius Maximut, a Roman of noble family, flourished about the same time.
He made a collection, in nine books, of the Mayings and deeds of remarkable men, which
be dedicated to Tiberius. The matter relates c&iefly to Grecian and Roman history ;
it is drawn from various writers, and is arranged under certain heads. The work is
commendable for the contents rather than the style, which is pompous, affected, and
unsuitable to history.

1. naaaaMhaaioaMUBMalbepmonncBAiMiit. IVraii aaaBeayMoiU^ irbidiliaoeloBt.*8eaA.a JfEav,]MH.4«
▼akr. MaziBew Alu l«B4. 4.-IUrfoiHa, BiM. LaL iL 491

2. The title of the work is Factorum dtctorumxiue memorabUium libri ix. ad Tib. Cits,
Angustum. The titles of the chapters are considered to be the work of ^mmarians
and copyists, not of the author. There is a fragment, entitled de nommibus, of an
abridgment of the Annals of Valerius of Antium (cf. i 511), made by Julius Paris,
which is usually annexed to this work, and in some copies as a tenth book. — There ia
an abridgment of the work of Valerius Maximus, by the same Julius Paris, lately
published by Mai.

SaAr, 490 -SbUB. Ii. 9S4r^Kam praL to bia ed. bdow dtad.-ne abHdsnent of ParU b fiven ia JL Mai, Sertpt vet aova
CoUectio. Roob 1883. 4.— Aa abridgment by a later writer, JtutuioriuM Stpotianut, ia mentioael ; Januar. StpoL Epitoaa, *«.
CelUa 1831. 4.-Anotber waa made in tbe 15(b cenlnry by /. Banarhia ; pabliibed, Lpc I60S. 4.

8. Editiona—Vcat ; /. Kapp. Lpx. 1782. 9.-0. B. HdfntM. Sifaaab. 1806. 2 vola. 8.— CL B. Him. Pkr. 1882. a In lanwrN*
BiU. Lai.— Moat celebrated oreariier,.(. 7orrcniW. Leyd. 172& 4.— CAr. Cohruf. Franoof. 1687. a eollatcd wflb Iwnty MSS
by Godina. Cf. Fabrieua, Bibl. Let. Ii. M.—Prin€iep», by MmUiin (printer). Argent wiihont date (about 1470) fol.

4. Tmaalalk>na.^Oemau.-C. B. Wutpkal. Lamg. 1780. IL—Baffmam. Slattg. 1829. & rrancb.-.C A. F*tmlon, lA

a Gall. F^. 1828. 3 vola. 8.-7brtoio*ir. Pu. 1718. Englidi.-4paM(. Lead. 1678. &

$ 534. Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, bom in the reign of Nero, flourished in the latter
Dart of the first century, and was Roman consul under Nerva. He was celebrated
80

m nmOKt OF ROMAN LI3XRATVBB.

while vovng for his eloquence at the bar. His historical writings are charaeternted by
leaiarKable political acumen, a noble freedom of spirit, a judicious arran^rement of ot-
Gumstanccs m narration, and very great richness of thought together with the most
condensed brevity of expression. It is much to be regretted, that his most important
works have come down to us only in an imperfect state. Of his HUtary, which ex-
tended from the death of Nero to the death of Domitian, we have but five books, con-
taining little more than the events of a single year. Of his AnnaU^ which extended
from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, we have only the first six books, and the
books from the eleventh to the sixteenth inclusive ; and of these, the 5th and the ]6ih
are incomplete. We have from him also a treatise on the manners of the Germans;
and a life of Agricola^ his father-in-law, which is a masterpiece of biography. Tbe
dialogue on the decline of eloquence, before noticed (^415), has been ascribed to Taci-
tus, but without sufficient grounds.

1. Tacitus was born, it is supposed, at Interamna, about A. D. 47 or 50. He was
educated at Massilia. He began to rise in office under Vespasian, and gained the
highest honors of the stated He is supposed to have survived the emperor Trajan,
who died A. D. 117. Marcus Claudius Tacitus, who became emperor A. D. 2T6,
claimed to be a descendant' of the historian.

> J. Uptkmt Tm. *lla.~£). O. Moikr, Dt*«. da Tuilo. AIL ISM. 4.-J. & Gofridk, Dhb <)• riti «( leripL Tm. Li^ IM&
a— O. m BOttidiart FrtUtt- <■• Tieili vita, Ac i« iih LokoM, died btiow^-^. Airt, Cora. Tm. mk fuogr. DatcnKhonc. f^t.
im^Bnttv, ia bh •dllioa and U Blalvi*, In hit traodaliai Mow cItad.-Nl. Murfkf, Bmjt •■ Um life tad Qtaim afTtekm,
pnAxad to kk inariailaik ^«Cr. Fcpta.*it Ci«ri. ttie. Uk

X Tbe Latin titlei of the works above named are the following : BiMtorimrum lihri; jf«aa?et,
or as In some M88. JSctomm seu jfcfi^iiviii dhtmsUntn etc. UM; flta A^rieoUg ; De situ, stonftM,
jM^vluf v« Gcrwsiittf. Besides ibese, we And mention made of hie orations, OrstMnrs, and of a
woric called Ubsr FacsHamm ; which are wholly lost. Tacitus bad a design (cf. .4«m. iii. t4> to
write a bisiory of the reign of Augustus, but seems never to have executed ii.-r-Tbe Annals and
History are not parts of tbe same worlc, although the latter commences where the former terni'-
nates (Jful. OtU Noct. Att. v. 18).— The Annals consisted originally of 10 books; tbe History of
14 books ( beace Jerome iCsmmsnt in Zachar. 14) speaks of tbe tkirif v^lwmet of Tacitus.

OsTKitaaiaabiognplMr; frflUk,lBiiTCl tolibalorA(rieolabdo«dtad^lfWtiii«iis lahbtivik^^ OaUi

kbtorical weite; M*r, 4aL-SM0S, ii. SST, a.— JU^w, EpM. ad MaxtaniL a lBi|Mr. baAm Ma aoM to Tm.-J. Bm^tm^
0aaMMBeorBiM.C0topaa.witbaaa|>plkBtioBtoTMitaa,iB7V«tMwMm4/JM^SM.^UinklT^ TnaA

■toOanD. by JuMc Oott. ITM. 8. ; iato Hal. «r|ib aa Appaodit. Pad. 17«a. %,-lL £. MWppMc^ da ThcW awtibaa. Bart. im.
feL— By«HU,Pi«|r.da taftlb«,qlllbu•nclt■^ftc BerL 1795. ki^D. ff ll«M«tah, sbar dca aritnftitdl. Cbankt.d«TH.
Is hit tfMAHadk. mid htrnm. JufaUs. Kid, 1801. 8.~r. Buattr, Obwrv. oa Taciiaa. ItmL ITIlL 9.— f. JtafA, U^«r TtacydidH

aad Tacitm, T«ilddiaada Bdncbtaafaa, fta. Mowdi. ISiS. 4.— GapcciaUy JViiftie, ta bb Mtmaimt, p. 31. Gta tba nadihi%

tf Tadlw; A C. SarfA, Oim. da doMa Tac. Ado. Jaa. l7l9L-.a AiKitt, De flJo TacitL Zittao. IS27. 8.— C A. JnMk, Di^
qaatcQW Tml do Gonn. libdto fldaa ait triboaada. Lps. ITTS^ 4.>Kottd, de foaiiboa, ado Tkc qac do 0cm. Ind. bawdk te

Mull. IT88. a Ob flw diarfa at bnpioly OHda agalmt kim ; Sbmda, in bia Probu. Jeodrntiem. Acripp. CoL 1<17^C. IfUf,

Do difiaa Boadi ■odoratioaa a BMoto C C. Tadti. Fold. 1830. &~^ /. Jrynwlon, C. C Tadtua a fcbe ioqtictalii ermiw tm-

dieatia. OiC 167S. ^-ASwAfn, abar dio Philonphio doi Tadtaa, ia hia OndUchtt uni OoH du Skt^ltdnma Gta bia aifla (

AUt.aaabo««dtod.-jr. £«uu(Uii^OoRliloTadli. Load. I788.-J. 0. A<Me, I)e C. C 'he. «{lo Oba. erilioa. BroH. Ull-
tVkmkktf Oa atocutwaa Taeiti. Tborue. 1828. 4.— Aolk, Tke. qraoBTiDa et per fifaimn i* did dvaCv dkto. Moriaib. IKH JMW
pk^ Ehoj, ae., already died.— O. fVUckbu, Diatr. de Tac ^Mdcniqao aUio, iItcd ia Bai^t ad. of Tac Lpau 1714. • «alh a

3. There is an interesting passage in Tacitua (Ann, xv. 44) respecting the perBecii>
tton of Christians by Nero, which furnishes an early profane testimony to the credibi-
lity of the gospel.

8aa g. CHbhon''$ aeaiarba oa tbla paaio> ia hia flae. id fhll of Jtom. Em^ di. »tI— MwtWy Mas Jmt, 1186. p. l9ir-Ok
J. TMur, ExaK. hiriarioo^tiea do Martyriboa ChrtatiaBia, Ac Braat. 1784.-Aliy, EvUteeea of ChfiaUaatiy, pL L ch. 8^
JterpAy, Nolo OB tho poMflO, io biB Tkaad.

4. BdHkna.— Whole Worka. Raakcd aBOi« tho bort ; O. BM Jv. Par. ITTl 7 vola. 18. aod4 *oh. 4.{ it ceaMaaS^
|dnMiBltbyBrotiartoaapplytholoalboek»orihpAaaala}atooDiMriatioBa. Bopr. Ediab. 17M. 4. Low!, (by FaJpy) ISO. 4
Mb. 8.-^. /. OAvUn. Lpi.180l.8vala.a Bopr. Oct. ISIS. 4 vd«. & Load. 181k 4 vok &-/. Atedal. Pbr. ISia 6 fok a

la iMWtrA BiU. LaL^a. B. MtUmr. Lpi. 1881. 4 nda. a— Aah ^eUar. Lpi. 1881. 8 vda. 8 Utar adItioM { Jl Ail*r.

Boon, ISSi-8a 8 wlk 8L-JV. Book. Lpi. 1881 8 foia. 9.-0. JL Rufrnti, Haaa. 1884. 4 velb a " aaBOtatioac perpetaa IdpUd^

Mk^jtboaaaoiatiaBaoreasiMBtaiymaybopafabaaadaapanidy. MonodobfatadaaioBffaariiorodiaBBa; /.^J.O»«m*.

T14. ad BhOB. 1711. 8 fola. 4^-j: Lipdm. ASlw. 1800. foL— !>*. iPMoUiia. Bon. 1618. Ibl. } ia tha, the fini ft«e booka of tta
Aamla««rapriBtodforihofinitiMkb«BaMa.pafabaaodbyLaoX. The iVSiecyw (ai toppoaed), by Fitiirf. j^ira. VaB-Uia

M, AgrieolaaOoraaay iMwbacBprialedaapantolyvetyoflaB; O. L.WaMk,AcriaDla. Bed. 182a a Gorandv

Bad. laa a-/, a. Mkter, Afrioda. Haoib^ 1811 S.-J. Orintm, Oonaasy, with oitraeU fran ethor paiti of Tee. pavttlaii«
to Gervany. QM. 1886. 8.-E. H. Jtarkar, GonBoay k A(rkela. LoSit. 1884. I8.~C. K. DOtmoa^ Boat 1841. 18. with the IKoL

^Ormt. Thcaa Iratiaaa are oCteo oaitad with the Hiatory.to •Mtoalozt-bookferadtoeic; one of the bert, b /. X*., Roar

Baaan, 1987. 12. ecolaUaff alio Oio DMogu* ob doquence.— For other odiHoaa ertheDialofae,ct|4l6.4.

1 TraBrialkiBa.-OonBaa.— Bed; C F. BakrdL Hd. 1781. 8 tola. l-IV. K von StrmJmk. Brauaadiir. I8IC 8 vob. 1-

TbatoTf £.«en HUfmonn, BerL 1811. 8 vda. 1 b ooaaidored iadofMit, but valued br iti aotoa aad dbaanafnaa. TttaAk

.■.UmdttrU(^J.B.DolU9aUi, Par. 1788. 7vob. 1— Our. ib £« Malb, or iiOnioO* (Lat a QdU vrith the aaipplaBMaib of
Bralior, tnad. by Maf). POr. ISKT. 8 vdi. a-V. L. »ummtf{Ut k GdU Pfer 1888. S vcb. a~C. L. F. J^Mbrndb (JLt*,k

GoUO- Fkr. 1880. 8veb.a EQf(lbh.--Ba8i, 4i«bir JA»y*y. lAid. 1788L 4 vob. 4. «iih SB Saiay oa tho Wo, fte. aad adi%

aoppleaMBb, aad B«pa; oftoa rapriatcd ; Boatoa, 1888. 8 vola. 1 Phil. I8«<. aa dta -o.. & ««h a Sm badrf lt8itai.>TbaM
hadboeo lhi«oeodwrtnMldiooa;Sb-J7.flBoilbaj|.Or«nMOB|i. Load. ITW « «^ 4d. l»|rf«t,rMkatiMr 1^^1888.
S vofaw SL-r. OorrioN. LoBd.l»l. ttob, fcL wiikpoUtled4iMPV«iOo'rsa £L CWL %a. Jusk I7I^ »*. Jiii Mi "ly
wdafdedA. Lq^ 177a. ft

P.T. HISTOftlANB. CVRTIirS. IXORUS. BimTONTUS. 9S5

& IllwtntWi^lIUioaKli m mu>r n§mnm hn* b«a giwsD, wa icfed k fcw of (b* naltitade llmt ai^ hfiMtd^-O, C «b.
tew, VMtigia Jitfb GenHutiei in C. C. Tm Ocmuiii, Ac God. I7«8L 8.-0. BWidur, Lnkoa IWUmm. Bari. l8Sa &—
JE. Arltf, OliwratleBa, Ac nr l« hkKritai da Ticjia (wilb Iba UL fast), tu. 1801. S folk 12. • ana • •Bita."~«t. mfnwkttf^
Dia WattaaKhaaoDC dat Tkdluk Sw. I8SI. &

^ 533. Qtttn^vff Curtiut Bufus, of whom little is known, probably lired about the
middle of the first century, perhaps at a later period ; so uncertain, however, ie this,
that some critics, although without reason, hare hesitated to class him amone the an-
cient authors. He wrote a history of the aekienemenU of Alexander^ in 10 books. The
first two books and some other portions are wanting ; Bruno, Preimheim, and Cdla-
rius, have attempted to supply these parts. The manner of Curtius diifers very much
from the noble simplicity of most of tne Greek and Roman historians, and often sinks
into the extravagant and romantic. His style is too elaborate and too much ornamented.
Yet his narrative is agreeable and entertaining.

1. Different critics nave assigned Curtius to different eras; the reign of Auffustus,
Tiberius, CUudius, Vespasian, Trajan, Constantine, and Theodosius, have each been
advocated.

/. Fcuim, Da HM. LbL eilad f SB7. l.-ZX a JMhr, Bbp. da Cwtii atata. Alt. 1688. A^Bagmia, IMDa faiila C«rria al
dairatidiQ.Conk>. Bologo. 1741.-^. Jnr(,QbardMLabaadfli(t C Rafoh Bari. 109a a— JttltaMfin, Qbar d« Laban, «(&
(writtan with rabraoea to HirPi irwiiM Joit cited). Bari. 1820. t—O. Pmtgw, Qbar dM Zaitellor daa Q. & R. la auioi^ Archlv
Sir Philotogia and Fldaflocik. 1824.— D. iVitMkr, KL ScbrifleB. Bou. 18S8L 8.

2. The work of Curtius, De rehus gestis Alexandri marni, is conndered as not pos-
sessing strict historical truth. The author is supposed to nave followed Greek writers,
who had adorned the story of Alexander with fabulous additions or exaggerations. —
The lettert published under the name of Curtius, are wholly a &brication made by
Hugo Rugerius.

SM9II, U. 883.-BBAr, 444.— ffrttPfWtM, CvUna Snfiw rNdtatoi at itodialBi. Laid. Bit. llOH a— SI. Orate, B»mb, to.
cilad % OS^-J: /. SorfoHHi, CartiM Rafw • qnomid. paprabcM. dataam. Eri. 1778. 8.-^. RuA, U CI«R^ eriiMM o»Q.

Cnt ac prcT. to bia Tnad. of Aniaa, eitad S tSO. 4. Ob Iba Kjla; O. L. WolA, Malatam. criL apactmaa. JaM, 1808. 4.—

/. Jf. Arnciif, aaurpata a Cnrtto In partic Lallaitaa. Ift. ITia-Oons in Ms ad. batow diad. Rcapaciiiif tba pratoadad tal-

Im, er. AdnetHi, BIM. Ut. ill. 889^— Arba, Bn*. Not Sappl. iU t8.-SeMBI, II. SST^Tbaf waia fiitl paUbbad bj Aifvteu
Ba(. Lep. IfiOOi 4. la flvabcoka.

a EditioM— Bcat{ A anaimbwt. Lafd. Bat ITM. 4.-^. T. Kwm. HainaL lal voL paUiabad 1803. & wbelbar ca»
pklad, BO( kaDwn.-£aMira. Far. 8 vola. & b Ibe AM. UL Qam^-tkioA, F. SAmltdm'. Oott 1804. 2 tola. 8..-^ Bawm-

•Ivft. Slattg. 1888. Svob. a la £MP» LaL Claaaiw, " T. JWIttaB. BatL 1841. Svola. a witbOana. aoica; tor sckioiab ^Tha

8applaBieatoalladadtoabvfawanKivnlalbalbltowiBff:C.Bhai& Ban 154S. fcl. Li«d. IM4. I2^-V. iVtbuAdm. Ai|aat
I6«0. 8 tola. 8.— C*. OBarhu. LpM. 1688. IL

4. T»anrialioaib-a«RBaa^-/. Ph. OHtrtag. FraakT. 1708. 8 fda. a — Fraack-Faugalat. Fkr. 1047. 4. V. k aOd to baia
da«atodfMr<yywrttolb)atfaaalatioe,aadtobaTalaftbiaeorpMtotba8iirfanaalbrlbabaaafltaf bb aadltoia (CJawN^i Carina^

9t Lit).-^iuc. 4- JBfh. TVofnon, (LaL k GalL). Fbr. 1188. 8 voia. a B^Udi.— A. CtaKiif Ian. Uad. 1658. 4.-/. DSfif.

Land. 1714. 11 ratlied bf IV. roimf . Load. 1747. 8 vok 18.

^ 536. Ijueiut AwruBtu Flonu, a native of Gaul probably, or of Spain aceordmg to
the opinion of some, lived at the close of the first century and besinning of the second.
He composed an Epitome of Soman History^ in four books, extending from the founding
of the city until the general peace under Augustus. His style is not marked by any
very uniform or fixed character ; it rises sometimes far above the limits of prose, and
is not unfrequentljr overloaded with the decorations of idle learning.

1. A modern critic has maintained that this person was the same with the Joliu
Florus, who was the friend of Horace (cf. Ep. i. 3. iL 2). But be is eommooly sup-
posed to have written in the reign of Trajan.

fV>. jr. neat, Da Spit. Bar. Bob. qaai mA^ aom. L. An. Fler. fMtar, alato, alb Ltae. 1801 a-A A JMhr, Dhpw da L. An.
flora. AU. 1684. 4.-i7iitar, labia ad. bdowdtod.

2. The work of Florus is entitled Epitome de Oestis Komanorum, or Eerum Soma-
warum lAhri IV. It has been called a eulogium on the Romans, rather than a history.
The division into four periods, infancy, youth, manhood, and old age, is ascribed to
transcribers by some critics, who suppose the author to have made but three divisions.
— The abridijfment of Livy, Arpimenta Hbrorum hitioria Lwianat is eommonly
ascribed to thts author, but not with certainty.

JOAr, 452.— ffWn/a, Da rtora aoa bbtorieo aad riiatora. Viai. 1787.-C. A flbiuetfcr, Diaa. ia aiapaet. Fieri Ada. Lpa; 1747. 4.

S EdItkNMi— Batl. C. JL Dukw, 8d cd. La(d. Bat 1744. S fob. 8. Bapr. Lpc. 1882. 8 vata. a— F. If. TUu. Frag. 1818. 8
^■J.JLJmmr. rtr.lfOL & -Tbat of /. 7. Iladker. Lpi. 1760. & b |aod.— Tbara ara >ter aditinBa, two bi 4|aarto aad two ia
fa<ia, priatad witboa» data or aaaM of plaea, probaUr aboal 1470 ; wlueb of (ben b iba Prinev b denbiftiL

4. Tnaalatiflaa.-OanBaa.-C F. Knutkmam. Lpi. I78S. a rraaeb -JbU PmtL Fkr. 1774. 18.-/. £. Bd. Par.

rrTl Id. Eaflbb.->r. Ooala*. Load. 1687. 8L-^. CStarib. York, 1187. 8{ ofUn lapr.-/. StmUng, Laad. ITaa t,

5. 0liic« the edition ntSalmMhu (Logd. Bat. 1038. It), FlorQf has vtuatty been accompanied
with the Liber MemorialU of Lmehu Amptiiuft a writer who lived perhaps under Theodnelus, bnt
of whfNn lUtle is Icnown ; this work consists of ezcerpu pertaining to astronomy, geography,
•nd history, from various writers (ef. ( 4S1).

Anpaiiaa bta baaa adilad aapaiataly ; C. B. ftiriiiili Lpa. ITSa a*/.jl. BidL Lpa. 1888. a

% 537. Caiue Suetoninn TranquiHuSt a grammarian, rhetorician, and lawyer at
Rome, flourished about the same time. like Tacitus he was a friend of the yoongur

686 HISTOKir OF eoman litkratdbx.

Pliny. His livei of iktfint twelve CmMart have the merit of candid impartiality, eon-
acientioas love of truth, and an admirable copiousneea in the exhibition of important
circamatancea. They are marked also by an eaay and simple style. Yet there is a
want of historic art in the arrangement. Besides the work just named, we have from
him some smaller critical and biographical piecea, on distinffuished grammarians, rhe-
toricians, and poets ; he wrote other works, whose titles only are known.

1. Under Hadrian, Suetonius was private secretary {MagiMter epistotamm), bat lost
the office, it is said, because he was wanting in respect to the empress SaUna. The
time of his death is not known.

CLnUi.Ep.LlitUiw.UliM.Ui%.mtm fcrf— Oft.iO|lt«i.§T;Da^Ig^lX0.1fcar,Illifci>liiliili ilL

2. The imperial biography of Suetonius is entitled Vita XIL imperatorum ; in i
MSS. it is divided mto eight books, the lives of Julius Cnsar, Augustus, Tiberius, Cali-
gula, Claudius, and Nero, forming each one book ; those of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius,
the ieveifth; and those of Vespasian, Titua, and Domitian, the eighth. The situation
which the author held at the imperial court gave him access to the best suihorities and
sources of information. — The work entitled De iUu$tribu» gmauUiciM^ ia said to have
been a part of a larger work, De viriM Ulustribus; to which also belonged perhaps
another piece that is partly preserved unto us, entitled De clans rhet&nbus. There sre
extant several other bioffraphies, which have been commonly ascribed to Suetomos,
and which mav have belonged to a more coinplete work De poetig ; viz. Vita Teremin,
— Horatii^ — Penii, — Lucani, — Juvenalis. The piece styled Vila Plinii is not allowed
to be the production of Suetonius.

asAr, 4fla~f. J. £. AAmtfv, M tetilM ftlq. wktiL VK. ifi. BMlaalL Om. lOOl 4.-X. Burton, ia hh Jmkmt Ck«»
ii, >c. citBd 1 582. 8.-.J. J>wwM. Eifc cBtb>Cof>i'. Mtbaatife of TteJtw — d Saalfiw, ac. !■ tViMBrt. «f Sayil hi* Jb^
*wty; ill) fai hm MJurilammn SUtdm, ke. DnbL ITML a-.0. F. IVtaWkir, Otis, in SM««fc vlte Covtaau Tarf. MIS. t^
JLJQrnfl«,D«fbatibai«tndoritoMSinlowL B«L l»l. L-/. 0«l, Ut Batakan^ ■efaolU ia BmIhi. Vit Cm. L^ HBI. a

8. There !■ a parasfe In the life of Clandlns (e. 95) in which Suetonlas ststet that the Jews
were baniibed from Rome becauie they were sedllioQt under the instigationi of a oertaln Ckrm-
l««. Tbia has occaaioned an inquifv, of aome interest, whether Suetonioa hero refers to Jesai
Chrlal.

p. C. inifoNr, PM(nBM M Chrartts cajni mmlin— i heit SactaaiaiL lipt. (dot nm).-a. C. O^td, De 1
ClwMlo, ae. ML ITia-A 7. Ikktnm, Oa alladoai to ChrMkailj ia Oiwk udbnia writan; invL by JZ. JL AeMi,B
Ihe JiU. Jbpii. VOL xL p. 808.

4. Edilk)m.-.WboU Werku Bert; PL Burmmm. Amd. 1796. t Toh. 4.-J tPVf. Lpa. IBO. 4 fda. &->& £ W.
Mmmtartm^Cnutui. Lpib 181C-ia S volt, llhe Sd fol. iodwlior a CUaii.-J. B. BnmL Zar. I8U. a wifh On*, aoio^
G. J7. J:.UiMimnm. Hina. I«4. a *• ia Kholmai aram.n-C S. JIbm. P»r. I8ZI. 1 mk a — B«ior MrikradKiw; A &
Oraatei. T^Jact ITA 4. coataialDf lb* oonoinlary of C. ArfiMtt, who pablMMd Sartoa. Ulartnt«l fra^ BMklfia4.

— APiNina. LaM.(Uawud«iK ni4. t veli^ 4.— T1i«IV*uipt, by PMI.*£«ciuHNMi«(MiinppoKi). Bea. I4ia M.

SaUet Uvm; B. PmUlmm. Hal. laOL a-Fitc OralM, \>j K. J. MUMtr (ef. S SOa I).

5. TkaMl«tfoab~0«rMB.>M O. BdMff. tSI. a rraaeh.>.JfeuriM Uaa^pti (IA a OdL). Fkr.tHV. 1 ntk %^-Dt

OaOvycULaaall.}. Pfer. IBSS-ai. SvoIil a Bofli^ PMun. BoOaiid. Load. IMS. UL-JaL Jhffta; ZmL ITR.

tvola. ia-JUbiClai*> (Lata Bag.). Lm4. 1731 a Bd ad. ITSa a-Dr. dlL rAommi. Load. 179a a wilb«lMmIkMaa
lheGof«mBMaludUlmtmorthadiAnat|Mriodh Ot Jlte, BiUioir. iL Cn.

$ 538. JuMtinuSt who is supposed to have lived in the second century under the An-
tonines, wrote sn abridgment of the Universal History of Trogus Pompeius. Troeafl
was a native of Gaul, and lived under Augustus ; his larger work is lost. The abridg-
ment of Justin is in 44 books, extending trom Ninus to Augustus. The atyle is not
destitute of merit, and the work is highly entertaining in its character.

1. Nothing is known respecting the life of Justin ; his name is sometimes given M.
Junianue Juetinut, and sometimes Justinus FrontinuM.

Jl.aJdbair.DiiB.daJ«rtiBe. AIL 1684. 4^-j: A A. JtatMiU, 0* Jiitfao Th«i taos. <pHDoiatoic. Cnanr. nsa a

2. The Epitome of Justin is entitled Hittoriarum PhUippicarum et iottMa mundi ei
terra eitutj ex Trogo Pompeio excerptarum libri xliv. 1 he subjects of the several
books are staled by Scholl. Much of the original work of Trogus seems to have been
drawn from Greek authors*, especially from Theopompus (cf. §233). — There are Pro-
logi to the several books of the history, which arc supposed to be the work not of
Justin, but of some ancient grammarian^.

1 auaa, Utt Bom. UL l40.-nAr, 4lflL-/. a. OattMnr, Flaa da Tmm, Ac., ia Iba jngumSm BU«r. JBOiiaUM. laL 9L
nil. 1787. S.—Kode$ Fiolcff. ciM f 83a-.A. H. /. Bmm, Da Tng. Poaip. ^wqas cpitaaatorii faat. •( •aetoritafa ia Ibe

Comiwnf. Soda, wtg. Niaat OcUbtg. *eL av. 180S. •O. H. Ormmt Tng. Vamp, biit FhOippw pratop. Miiartir

I8B7. S.

3. Ed1tkNN.->B«t; Jlr.OrDiMafiii^Sdad. Li«d. BaL ITSD. a Bcpr. ad. C .d. JVataScr. Lpi. IttS S fala. 8L-JL f. Ibafta'.

LpB. 1757. a~C. P. Wettd. Laifo. 180a a— N. iMMara. Fw. 188S. a ^Tbara araetbariasM adiiio»; /. AJM. Fi^

IVr. a-ll mibtur. Lpa. 1881. a— Tba PriftUf$, by Jtouon (pr.). Bom. MTB. 4.

4. TlwwialioBa.-0«nBaD.-/. P. OtUrtag. Piankf. 178S. S voliu a Fraock-JUt Aiaiv. far. I7S7. R -MU PmL

par. 1774. I80S. 1817. 2 vola. la with netaa, aad saograph. Diet — Be«tirii -JMkur GoWnf. Load. U84. i-r-PkO. BOtamL
Load. IfOa M.—TumtuJL Load. i74a IL Tbm an aafaral oiban. CI Mm, ii. ISI.

% 539. Sextus Aurelius Victor, a native of Africa, lived in the 4th century, and was
% favorite of Julian, who raised him to honorable offices. Under Theodosins he wu

F*T. HISTORIANS. E1JTROPI178. MARCELLINU8. 687

made consul at Rome. His history of the Origin of the JHoman People extendedi
according to its title, from Janus to the tenth consulate of Constantius ; but the portion
now remaining extends only to the first year after the founding of the city; it contains
some things not mentioned by others, or at least not so minutely. The work entitled
De virie iilustribttg RonuBj which usually passes under his name, is by some ascribed
to Suetonius, or to the younger Pliny.

1. Two other works bear his name; one entitled De Caearibust from Augustus to
Constantius ; the other, Epitome de Ccuaribue, from Augustus to Theodosius. The
latter is an abridgment of the former, and was made by a later author called Victor
Junior, or Viclorinue. — Some consider the first of the works above mentioned (that
entitled Origo genlis Romana) to be the production of some compiler later than Aure-
lius Victor.

SdMi, UL ISk-AUr, 46a-raM{t(t, dltd \ 527.-11. O. iielkr. Dm. d« & Aw. Tttton. AIL ttU, 4^-Jtnatm, PnC to hit
Ma bcww eilM.

2. £<lHioM.-Birt; 8. PUttau. Ulmht, 1090. a-V. Imxten. Imit. 1733. 4.~J. F. GnoMr. Cobb !»?. %. (ev. O. C.
BtHm). Eri. 1787. 8. (ear. F. SiMnhtrga). Vtodob. 1800. &-/*. SdkrBUr. LpM. 1891. 2 volt. &

9. TraariiHowr-Gennta-J: K UiUitnaid. Lfa. I7SS. 8. Ftweh.— Sncn. Pw. 1780L 12. EailUi^By mml p»

pihof Mr. JWoMimB. Loud. I6B9. &

$ 540. Flamus Eutropttu, probably a native of Italy, lived in the 4th century. He
was private secretary ( EirtoroXaypa^) under Constantino the Great ; afterwards he
accompanied Julian in the expedition against the Persiat^s, and in the year 371 he was
proconsul in Asia. By the direction of the emperor Valens, he composed an Epitome
of Roman History, in 10 books, from the founding of the city to the reiffn of Jovian,
it is written in an easy and plain style, but without critical acumen. We nave a Gieek
translation of it, although not quite complete, by a certain Paanius.

1. The title of Vir elarunimue is ffiven to Eutropius in the manuscript; and he is
tpoken of by subsequent writers with respect. Some have thought him to have been

a Christian, but without sufficient evidence. His epitome, Breviarium histories

Romana, was a favorite work in the middle ages, and was often copied. It is inserted,
with some additions, in the work called Historia MiscelUif the production chiefly of
Paul Winfrid, called also Paul Diaconus.

gMKt, IH. If I.— Attr, MDi-roMJiw, citod § fiZ7.— A G, MotUr, Din. d« Eatrsiilo. Alt l«8Sb i^TMhtdkt, Dm. de fit at

Script Eutrop. ;■ bk ad. ImIow dtod. Rmpwrtlof ttw UlMoria nrianlta, ct SMM, lU. 17&— It b (Ivcb in JTurafari, Script Um.

lUlieknira, vol. 1.

t. There is extant a letter, purporting to be written fVoin Jerusalem by Publius Lentulus and
containing a description of the person of Jesus Christ, which has been published as belonging to
Eutropius. Ii is given In the JReeletiaslieal Historv of the Centuriatoras Matrdeburgeiues (Bas.
1559. fol.), with this Inscription **Lentuii epistola, dbc. que apud Rutropium in annalibus Senat.
Rom. eztau" What Eutropius or wbai anttois can here be designated is unknown. It seems
Inadmissible to apply the passage to the Roman historian, since no manuscript or copy of his
work exhibits the least trace of any such epistle. — This letter was published In England in 1817,
as having been recently discovered In a manuscript In the library of the Vatican and previously
unknown, although the existence of such a manuscript had been mentioned by Fabrlcius a cen-
tury before. The letter Is generally and Justly considered to be a mere Abrlcatlon.

Sm UU iMUr, and ■ 1^11 oaiDlaaiion of it> aaUwnUcilj, bf E. JZoMnjon, In Iba BiiL Jfepoc ii. p. 367, m.

a Editiook-RMt; A TirikyA. Liyd. I7SS. a-C S. TurAuekc Lpx. HSe. a thii pronoancad bf Dlbdia baitOTlhaa tha
vaprist, Lpi. I8M.— BMt Khoel ^ilioiii; F. W. Gnm. Kalla, I8ia &— i*. HtrrMnn. LOb. 1818. a— f. SdkfnterfO'. Vies.

18ia a— £ r. AMIo*. Vt«b ISta a ^Tba iMnopa, bf G. £OTcr. pr. (aa i« auppoaad). Hon. 1471. M. (iTii« tha work

«a traid la iha AMeria fntenflaaboTa naaMd.-— Tba awtaphnM of ^Biinjta, tjJ.F.S, JTaWiaawir. Oertia, 178a a

4. Tnaalatiaiii.-OanBaa.— A*. L. Abul Praakf 1821. a rraach.--«fUc Iowm. Fkr. 1717. 18. E«)iib<-^. Cto*^

with orif. Ut. York, ITZi. 8.-^. SUrUng. Load. 179& a-V. TkemoM. Load. 1780. a

5. There Is an epitome of Roman History {Bretiarium rsrusi futatum pop^M IZosiaiii) which
was written by Stxtms RnfusFutut, of whom little is known. The work Is said to have bean
drawn up by direction of the emperor Valens. — From the same Rufus, we have under the title
De rtgionibms Rowub, a sketch of the chief buildings and monuments of Rome.

TlM Braviarlam b ceattined in KfrAcyk** ad. of Eatropiv, abova dlad.— Alto bjr CL Jfllmridk, Haas. 18Ub a with tha
iaKriptloo of Baw^Tlia kllar piaea ia giran hi OnmiuM, vol. Ui. aa dtcd P. lU. { 187. i.

^ Ml. Ammianus Marcellinut, a Greek born at Antioch, lived in the same century.
He wrote a Roman history, in 31 books, from Nerva to Valens ; the first 13 books are
lost. The work may be regarded as a continuation of Tacitus and Suetonius. It de-
rives its merit not from the style, which is affected and often rough and inaccurate,
but from its various matter ; it is interspersed with numerous digressions and observa-
tions, which render it instructive and entertaining. ^

1. Ammianus devoted his early years to study ; then engaged in military service, in
which he passed many years and acquired reputation under Julian and his successors ;
he finally returned to Rome, and there composed bis history. — There is no proof that
he was a Christian, although he relates events connected with the Christian religion
with impartiality.

D a. Hotter, Din da An. Muc Alt 188S. A^-CL Odffid, De An. MareaL fMa, to. Lofaa. 1817. alao ia Iba ad. of Af^
fm^t balMr diad^ror a ipodnaa of bb naaan- of ipaakii« of Cbrfatiaailr, d bk. xsl. e. 16 ; nU. lU

2. Although BO many books of the Remm Gestarum of Marcellintu are lost, yet the

3 H ,

6iS8 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURB.

18 books extant are the most valuable part. The whole work included a period of
above 2^ years, from the accession of Nerva, A. D. 91, to the death of Valens,
A. D. 378; the lost books brought the history down to A. D. 352; the remaining
books are a sort of memoirs of his own times. Gibbon freely acknowledges his great
obligations to this author.

Ahsa, iil. l69.-AIAr, 47a.-C3b. O, Aym, CcMun iBfenU H biitar. Aamkoi MantUlDl. Gott. I80B. alw ia bb OpuK
■iuBiliiiii vol. v>.— Gttfeon, Oed. uid FaU of Ron. EmpL eh. nvL toI. Ui. p.B6.ai.H. York, 1822. «

& EditbM.-li«rt;/.J. mvmr.eoBipiWIirC./'.AA^/kinil. if*. IU8. S voin & and M.~J. IT. Awrti. Lf«,rn3.8
^Bm ibodc lh« fluiiw, /. Oronao. Iaj4. ISML fol.—TlM PniutfM, by A. SaMmu. Ikw. 1474. fcL

4. IVavlatlow.— Ownaii.-/. JL fVafner. Fvankr. 1794. 3 voU. 8.-L. TVtw, ia Qm CollwlkM of 7t(/U» OrimAr, ftc —

Fmeh— AfkA. rfa MmOo. Pv. IC72. 18. Enclith.— />. BoUand. Land. 1009L bL-nAn iatemtug p»ms» on the daacM

of tb« Bomu DoblM ia trawUtod bjr Gtlf&on, Ded. aud Fall of Ron. Enp. cb. axxL

^ 542 <. There is extant an historical or biographical collection, nnder the title of
Scriptore$ Historia Augusta or vjriter$ of the imperial history. It consists of the hves
of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Cams, ascribed to six different authors, who
belonged to the 3a and 4th centuries. These biographies do not possess a high degree
of merit ; yet they are of some importance to the careful student of history ; indeed
they are our only source of information in some particulars of the hbtory of the
emperors.

1 «. The flrat writer In the collection Is JEiius SfrtianuSf of the time of Diocletian. He k said
to liave written the lives of ail the emperors from Julius Cssar to hit own day. We bare under
his name the lives ofHudrianf JSUius Verus^ DidiuM Julianus^ 8«ptimiu$ Snerus^ Pesceuniut Ml-
/4r, Caracallay and OBta. lie also !• considered by some as the author of the biographies ascribed
to Ralllcanus and Laropridius. His style has Uttle merit ; his piecee are deficient In proper ar-
ranf^ment, and are personal memoirs of the emperors rather than histories of their reigns.

9. Vulattiiu 0«ttie«»««, who also belonged to the age of Diocletian, Is said to hsve designed s
complete biography of the emperors. The manuscripts assign to him the life of AvUhu Cattiiu,
which some however ascribe to Spartianus.

3it. Julius Capitolintu lived in the time of Diocletian and Constantine the Great. He Is men-
tioned as the author of the lives of Jlntoninus Pius, Marcus jficrsUitf, Lucius Fsrus^ Psrtimuk
MbinuSf Jliaerinus^ the two Maximinit the three Oordianij Maximus^ and Bulbinus. lliese are
composed with little Judgment. Some of them have been ascribed to Spartianas.

4ti. TrebeUtMS PoUio was of the same period. He wrote the lives of the emperors tkom Pbl-
lippus to Claudius. We have the following s a fragment of the life of FaUriau tks Udsr^ the life
of P'Altrian tks yttungw or the son, the lives of the two CMUeui, of the Triginls TVrcniu, and of
CUsMms. His narratives are careless and diffuse.

6. JSUius Lsmpridius is mentioned by Vopiscus as among his masters. He is considered by
some to have been the same person with .Spartianus, as If the name of the latter were £lnis
Lampridius Spartianus. To bun are ascribed the lives of Commsdus, IHuduMSuus^ HelisgshUus^
and ^lexandsr Ssverus,

fl«. FUvius yepiscust of Syracuse, lived in the time of Constantine. From him we have the
lives of ./fMre/tan, T\uitus, Florian, Probus, Firruus, SuturHtnus^ Proeulus^ Bsussus, Carusy Jfuati'
riunusy and Carinus, He excels the other writers of the collection In method, accuracy, and
learning.

7. RaqMCtlDf (boM writon, m Sehoa, iii. 148.-BaAr, 4eo.~romM, at cilad f 527— nrlMiionI, Hirtaira im Bav«««i. Far.
1807.— O. JtfojraviiM, Orat da omi al pneiUatU Hist. Aagnt. la Jura civili. Hardarev. ITSI. 4. aad ia bli Opnta jwH. a 9M.
aditad bf PUUnumn. Lpt. m& S.-a O. Heyna, CeMura aex Scriptor. Riat. Ai«. GOtl. I80S. and ia bk O^iht. .fcaStni. tcL
yn.—Ik Moulmoy Mem. wr ka ecrinia* da ChrW. Aag. b (ba Mtm. di VJIcad. dt Bmiui^ aa. X'm.—DoiwM, PnetwtioiMi Aei-
denictt. Oaf. 1688. a BMidai tba nolice of tba irrilan of tbe tSHoria AufuOa la tba ftrrt part (p. 9S-I5I), tbit «wfc eoDtaia
aaaja oa varioia topia aunattad by particular paaafea.— O. Q. MoDcr, Diia. da JEi. SpirtiaiM. Alt 1687. 4. ; dc VoleU. GaOka-
no. Alt. I088L 4. ; da Jul. Capitolino. AIL 1688. 4. ; dc XI. Ltmpridio. AlL I69BL 4 ; da Flav. Yopiaeo. AIL 18S7. 4.

a Editkma.— Tba Prineipt. MUaa, 147& fol. cum notit var. Utsi. BaL 1971. 8 Tob. a-^. P. SekmU. L|m. 1774. a witt
praC b7 itiifiMnfw—Bipoiit. 1787. 8 voU. &

a T^analatkMML-^eraan.'J: P. OUrUtg. Fraakt 1787. S vota. &— £. tUmk, b (he PiwOm CollselloB of TnsdMtm
(I8n, m). Ff«Mh.~a d$ MamMma. Bari. I7SS. S foh. & { Fbr. 18ia S aela. 12.

X,'^Writer$ on Medicine and Natural Seienee.

^ 543 «. None of the sciences received less patronage among the Romans than that
of Medicine. They were not wholly strangers to the theoretical knowledge auxiliary
to it ; but the practical part, on the other hand, was in low estimation. Until the time
of Pliny (of. Iiist. Nat. xxix. 1), the practice of medicine was not an occupation of any
of the more noble and cultivated Romans, but was followed only by slaves, freedmen,
or foreigners.

f 544. The early Romans supposed diseases to be healed only by special interven-
tion of the gods ; hence their first physicians were the augiires and haruapices, and their
remedies in all cases consisted very much in religious rites and magical chants. In
epidemic maladies, it was customary to consult the Sibylline books ; and some cere-
mony or observance was prescribed for relief. It was thus that dramatic sports were
first mtroduced to remove a plague (cf. § 305). To alleviate a pestilence the Romans

p. y. WRITERS ON MEDICINE AND NATURAL SCIENCE. &39

at another time erected a temple to Apollo Medicus (Liv. iv. 25) ; at another, Escu-
lapius, in the form of a serpent, was solemnly escorted from Epidaurus to an island in
the Tiber. Hence also divine honors were offered to deified diseases (cf. P. II. ^ 92).

^ 545. But the Romans could not fail to discover that processions, lustrations, lectia-
temia^ and suppUcia (cf. P. III. ^ 211, 220), and other superstitious ceremonies were
not the natural remedies for diseases, which continued to mcrease in number and ma-
lignity with the progress of luxury. They were willing to receive medical prescriptions
from the Greeks, from whom they had borrowed in almost every thin^ else ; and Greek
slaves became physicians to the mistress of the world. Eminent citizens sometimes
kept a slave in the sole capacity of family physician. The custom of thus employing
slaves no doubt tended to foster the notion that the medical art was ignoble ; hut the
use of Grecian remedies and methods undermined the superstitious reliance on charms
and riles, and contributed to encourage a proper study of the science. — It is also sup-
posed, that the study was encouraged by a translation mto Latin of the medical treatises
found in the library which was collected by Miihridates (cf. ^ 452, P. IV. $ 126); this
transiaf ion was made, under the patronage of Pompey, by his freedman Leneeus {Plin.
Hist. Nat. XXV. 2, 3).,

^ 546. The first freeborn Greek, who practiced medicine at Rome, is said to have
been A rchogai hug, -who came to Rome B. C. 219, He received from the senate the
eif) of citizenship, and was furnished with a medical or apothecar3r*8 shop {meditina).
His severe method of practice, however, became unpopular ; and it has been asserted
that he was stoned to deoth. After the conquest of Greece and the fall of Corinth,
B. C. 146, Greek physicians seem to have flocked to Rome in greater numbers.
Asclepiades, from Prusa in Bithynia, B. C. 110, gained great celebrity in the art {Plin.
Hist. Nat. xxvi. 3); and seems to have had many disciples (cf. ^ 263). — The question
has been started, whether the Greek physicians were banished from Rome along with
the philosophers (cf ^ 449), and learned writers have contended on both sides. Cato
who was so hostile to the philosophers was no friend to the physicians; "if the
Greeks," said he, according to YXmyiH. N. xxix. 1), "impart to us their learning, we
are ruined ; especially if they send hither their physicians ; they have sworn together
to destroy all the barbarians by medicine."

See ifUdUtan, Span, fte. aacitad \ 558. 8.

^ 547 a. Cato is considered as the first Roman who attempted to write on diseases
and remedies ; he composed a work that might be called a book of domestic medicine;
but it exhibited no great knowledge of the subject'. — The next who is mentioned as
having written on the medical art m Latin was the freedman Antonius Musa. He was
a celebrated physician in the time of Augustus, and gained illustrious rewards for
curing that pnnce of a dangerous sickness. His genuine works are lost^.

1 The Imtiw of Cato wu nititlad Conunmtarhu que mtiUtarfiHo^ aavU, famOiaribiu. Ct PfciloraA, Vtt. CxU—Plin. Hfat
Nat. SXT. 2; xx'i*. I.— -> IVn are two pieeea eitint, irliicb have bern aacribed to Mum ; namelj, a tnatlae De Acrte Mon<ea,
and a onelrial frifEinent Dt tumda wltfttoUrM.— C f. OtO, Ant Man, ftc. Lpi. I'flS. A.—Fkir. CaUonut, Aat Mots, fraf
iMota que oitant ftwnad, ISOa 8.— Cf. jfetarman, Prol. do Ant. Mim. AIL I7ML &

^ 547 b. The next celebrated name in the list of Roman medical authors is Corne-
lius Celsus (cf. ^ 553), who is by many supposed to have flourished in the reign of
Augu8tu.c<, although little is certainly known respecting his history. Apuleius Celsus
was a different person, a native of Centorbi in Sicily, who lived under Tiberius, and
wrote on agriculture and on plants ; but his works are lost.

In the commencement of the period extending from the death of Aiigustus to the
time of the Antonines most of the practicing physicans at Rome were Greeks ; and
until the time of Trajan they were chiefly ofthe Methodic School (cf ^ 264). Eudemus
was one of them, mentioned as a disciple of Themison, and cited as author of obser-
vations on hydropkiMa. M enecrates is named as another, who composed upwards of
150 treatises. Andromachus from Crete was physician to Nero, and is said to have
been the first who was called archiater; this title however does not appear to have
been common until a later period. But it should be remarked, that under the first
emperors the medical art was pattonized much more than previously, and that the
teachers in this branch were permitted to enjoy the same privileges and honors as the

teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. One of the most distinguished in this period,

that wrote in Latin, was Scribonius Largus (cf ^ 554), who accompanied Claudius ia
his expedition into England, A. D. 43. Vettius Valens is mentioned also as an author,
but Tacitus {Ann. xi. 31, 35) has consigned his name to infamy for his connection with
the wife of Claudius, the flagitious Messalina. Gcelius Aurelianus, a native of Sida or
Sicca in Numidia, probably belongs to the close of this period, being usually considered
a contemporary of Galen (cf. ^ 273) ; he has left two works*, both of which were drawn
from Greek authors, especially from Soranus, a Greek physician who obtained great
distinction at Rome (cf ^ 264), being a supporter of the Methodic School.— Perhaps
Pliny the elder should be mentioned as a writer on medicine, since in his Natural
History (cf ^ 470) he treats of the healing virtues especially of mineral substances.

t Tho two wtirfca eitaot aro eotitlad, Tkrdarum aiv* Ckroniearum fattbmum llbri V., aad Ctltrum aiv« aeutarum puHonum
KbriU. ilMoral otbcnrorka, BOW iMt, wve wriltao by bim. Ct AMtfttf, BibL LaL lU. 531-a5.-ab worka are (Itcb la tb«

640 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURS.

wilittiMof JteyJUmM— 4 ef arilr,citod < «■. ». SaptmWy, JhtMlowm, (a. mm. /. C. ^hmmn. K. a) lJHCmi.4.
■«pr. 1766 4.— Then » a Ulln trwlM eatillcd bofogt in arttm mrrfksm, nppowd by tone to Iw a tnaalalioe bjr CcUm, A«b
a woffc of ttofuoii by «bm* eoMidwwl th« orif inal work of mm* Utar Utia aatkor ; it h is the Colketiaa of 1jto|*ii«iii^ dftaA

^ 548. In the former part of the Iset period included in our notice (from the ADtomnet
A. D. 160, to the destruction of Rome A. D. 476), lived Serenus Sammoniciis, eminent
afl a physician and a learned man, from whom we have a didactic poem on diseases
and their remedies (cf. ^ 555). This was perhaps preceded hv the Greek poem on
medicine, called an epic, in 42 books, by Marcellus ^idetes (ct % 32), who probably
lived somewhat earlier. We have also a sort of medical epistle from Vindicianua*,
who was phvsician to the emperor Valentinian, about A. D. 370. From his contem-
porary and disciple, Theodorus Priscianus, we have two works pertaining chiefly to
medical subiecis (cf. ^ 556). Sextus Placitus is named as a medical writer of the 4th
centurjr and author of a treatise on medicines derived from the animal kingdom'.
There is a compilation, in Jive books, De re mediea, ascribed to Plinios Valenanus^,
who is commonly referred to the former part of the 4ih century. Marcellus Empiricus,
who was physician to Theodosius Mag^nus, left a book on medicines, addressed to his
sons (cf ^ 557). Finally we mention a treatise on the veterinary art, ascribed to
Publius Vegetius (as already noticed ^ 492. 4) ; it is however considered to be merely
a sort of translation from the Greek Hippiatrica Clmnarpuca, of. ^ 268), made by some
ignorant monk of the 12th century.

1 Tb* spirikMeribMl to VindletaBW b praflnd tothetmtiMor M*rc«11iH Hwaallj pvUUml ; e£ { m. t. 9n JUr. Mm.

Lit p. tlO. • The tnatiM of SBftM PlaeUui FmffiimaU, antiitod Ai nwrfiMmmiu ex antimalibma, h givM by Sfc^temn, uA

^eUrtnaim, m eited { 662. S. • TIm eempiUtioa of PtiMin Valariinm Dt n mtdiem, or »t§didna Minfajia, ia diairn ckitAr

from Pliny aw) Oalm and DioteorMu; il i« clv«a by SUphmtnuu JM cited ; alao by JU. Ttrftiui, Baail, 1581 IbL Ct SbMZ,
Utt Rom. iil. 833. iUria'ta, BiU. Lat it. Ut,

^ 549. We have already remarked (^ 547 b), that from the time of Augustus physi-
cians were held in higher estimation at Rome than previously, and were flattered with
honors. The physician of Nero, it is said, was styled archiater. ** It has been a
question,*' observes SchdU (Litt. Rom. iii. 236), "whether this title designated the
one who was the phyeician to the reigning prince (iarpds r©o fyxP'^ro^), or chief of fAe oAy-
ticiant of a city or town (a/i^uy iw iarputv). The two opinions may be reconciled, if we
only suppose that both offices or characters were united in one and the same person.
Each city, or each quarter of a city, had its special physicians or archiatrL Anioninos
Pius fixed the number at ten for the large places, seven for the middling, and fee for
those of the third rank. These were called archiatri popularet; they were nominated
not by the governors of the provinces, but by the people of each place ; and they
formed a b<^y b^ themselves, termed ordo or collegium. All other physicians were
subordinate to this body, which exercised over them a rigid inspection.' Rome is said
to have htid fourteen archiatri, besides one for the Vestal virgins and one for the Gym-
nasia. After the time of Constantino the Great there were archiatri pahttini, who
ranked among the high officers of the imperial court ; and afier the 5th century they
were placed on a level with the dixe* or vicarii (cf. P. III. % 309).

% 550. In no branch of Natural Science did the Romans make any great attainment
*< The vast conquests of the Romans, and the expeditions in which they penetrated to
the most remote regions of the globe, afforded them opportunities for studying nature
and enriching the natural sciences by important discoveries. But the military spirit
stifled the curiosity which would have paused in their career in order to examine the
novel objects presented to their view. Rare animals brought to Rome by the con-
querors furnished studious men with means of makiiig interesting observations, which
M-ere to some extent improved. But, after all, the Komans generally had Uttle ardor
for any such pursuits, and they accomplished little in any department of physical
science." {SehOll.) — It is worthy of notice, also, that the notions entertained by the
Romans as well as the Greeks respecting philosophy were not favorable to improvement
in physical science. Experiments and practical inventions were considered as beneath
the tnie philosopher. Philosophy, in their view, had a higher and more noble aim than
the helping of men to make mechanical contrivances and devise means of physical
comfort ; she must leach them how to rise above all ills and to be indiflferent to all
comforts. It was a drudgery appropriate for slaves to invent machines and fabricate
tools and furniture; wheelwrights (rotarum fahri) and shoemakers (sutores) were use-
ful, but their trade was not philosophy (cf. Seneca^ Ep. 90).

^551. The principal writings, to vf^hich we can refer, that contain matter penaining
to this department, are those of Seneca and Pliny already noticed (cf. ^ 469, 470) under
the head of philosophy. The former in his Quastiones Naturales (L. iii.) expresses
his regret, that he had not paid more attention to subjects so interestiqg. Pliny must
be acknowledged to have bad a love for the study of nature, and the work left by him
is of acknowledged value. These works present some facts worthy of our notice in
this connection : e. g. Seneca remarks, that small letters seen through a glass veasd
filled with water appear magnified, and that a sort of wand made with several angles
and oresented to the sun in a certain manner will cause the colors of the rainbow to

p. T. WRITERS ON MEDICINE. 641

show themselveB ; and Pliny observes {Hut. Nat. n. 97, 64), that the tides are caused
bjr the Moence of the sun and moon, and that the sun is like a supreme moderator
among fne planets; he notices also {jffist. Nat. xxxiv. 14) the properties ascribed to
the magnet (Jerrum tnimm, Mayi'^ny XiBof). — From Lucretius the poet (cf. ^ 357) some
information may perhaps be drawn respecting the attainments of the Romans in
physics. — Frontmus in his treatise on aqueducts has occasion to exhibit theoretic views
respecting the laws of fluids, and makes some just observations, but without scientific
precision. Vitruvius in his Architecture, we may add, brings forward some of the
principles of mechanics. Boih these authors have been mentioned among the mathe-
matical writers. Indeed we find but a single name to mention here, that has not
found a place in some other department. There was a work by Julius Ohaeqnent,
entitled m Prodieiis or Prodigiomm liber, in which the writer described the extra-
ordinary and wonderful phenomena of nature that had occurred at Rome. The part
which is now extant relates to the two centuries imniediateljr preceding the Christian
era, and contains much that '\» drawn from the history of Livy. I'his performance,
which closes our notice of the attainments of the Romans in physics, although written
in a style considered by some as not unworthy of the Augustan age, is but a collection
of marvelous tales rather than a book of science.

Of (lie pcmm Bamad Julim Obu&qunm and Ote time whra he lived, nelhing (f known with ceHaiatp ; wme critia have aalgiMd

kirn 10 th« l>i eenlurv, otlten lo the 4tt>. Cf. Voniu*, lie hkaor. IM. iii. ArftoAtia. AaimadTenioiMi HiatorkiB, cap. viu.—

Bait tditim*; nperately, F. Oudmdorp. Ludg. BaL I7i0. 8. Repr. («1. J. Kof^ ConB, 1778. 8.— Gitcb alM io Sue* VaL
Muimui, died § 668. 3.

% 552. We give the following as references on the class of writers just noticed.

I. Phjaeal Ki«nrc among fhc Romam; Sprm^tL, at referred lo in § 289. — Idder, aa (liera cited ala&— At, m eiled § 470. 2.— .d
Liba, HMtoire Philoanphiqne des Progret de la Ptiyviqoe. Par. 1810. 4 vola. 8. (L. i. ch. vt.)— &ASII, Litl. Rom. il. 464.— Coffiii
jb Capita, Sur lea eomaiauioea dei ancieos, in the Mtm. Jka4. huer. xivti. 66 —Mthudd, Du lie iDCombuetible, Ite. in Ibe atHiu
eovl, iv. 634.— JfilaiMofi (itie Ideeoope aot kooera to tlw siideato), in aanic WBr*,sliL 486. Cf. P. iV. | W^—Fabtma, Sur oe qoe
lee Anrieoi eot era de PAimant, in the tarm, Tol. iv. p. 613.

8. Hietorj- of medieioe anonf Ibe RnoiaDi ; Owlt U Oere. and ^prciifel, as cited P. IV. \ 28.—/. H. ScAuba, Compend. Hiit
Med. HalaB, 1748 —On the quaation aa to the rank aud trntmeot of phyiiciaM ; Gawa, De Krril. eondit. homin. artea Roei.
eoieiit.— af . Q. Sieht«r, Priica Roma io medicm mos haud iniqua. QtM. 1764. 4.—KUkn, De medieio. militar. apud Gree. et Ro.
nan. ronditione. Lpc 1887. 4.— Cony. MUbUdonj I)e Medicoriun apod vet. Rom. dcfeniiun ooDdittone. Lood. 1786. 4. alao In his
Ifordbmcnw taoHu, Lend. 1792. 4 ?ola. 4 — J. tVard, Ad C. Middleioal, ftc. diwcrtationem Reipomio. Lond. 1787. 8.-/. S^mii,
(Diaa. in) Racfaerebca Corieaaea de PAotiqull& Par. 1683. 4.-&Milfv^, Historia litia, de Med. ap. Vet. Rom. dag. eooditkNM.
Beloib 1740.

SL Me-lial CollectMiM. The etrlieet by Criianitr, Bai. 1S2B. fU—Tbe aeoottd by JUit. Vol 1647. M.— Next, by A Sta>
ptam*, Medicac Artta Prinelpae. Pkr. 1887. Svolk ipL cmUlnii« Greek and LaHn. Cf. AMdua, BibL Let. iii. S88.-^ndL
Jb'ewMci, Vat. quommd. Script, libri de materia mediea. Lipa. 1054. 8.— Aittcr, Art. Med. princi|Ma, and Ortincr, Bibl. d. altea
Aanxm, died § 868.— «/. Ck O. Atkmnann. Panbiliam medieameniartUB Scriptorea anUqai. Norimb. 1788. 8.

^ 553. Aurelius or Aulua Cornelius CeUut, a native of Rome or of Verona, lived In
the beginning of the first century. He wrote a comprehensive work, entitled De
Artibus, in 20 books; it was a sort of encycloptsdia, treating of philosophy, rhetoric,
rural csconomy, the art of war, jurisprudence, and medicine. Of this we have onl^
the eight books on medicine, which are not unworthy of notice either in respect of their
contents, or the style in which they are written : the last two books treat of sursery.

1. There is not an agreement among the critics as to the name of Celsus, wlietner
it was Aurelius or Aulus; nor as to his birthplace, whether Rome or Verona ; nor as
to the time of his birth, whether under Augustus, or later. There is no doubt that he
was a practical physician.

Sec/. Xftodtuf. ViL CelaL Have. I67X— JTa^ofiri EpiaL in A. C. Celtnm. Ra«. Com. }1U. 4. given In the Bipont ad. be-
low dted.— £, Bianeom, Lett, npre A. C. Ceieow Bom. IT79. &— JT. O. SoMWnf . Quest de C. CeM rita. Lp& ISM. a~A-
irictttf, BibL Ut ii. 38.

2. The books of Celsus De Medicifia are ranked amons the most valuable remains
of the ancient physicians ; he has been called the Latin Hippocrates, and the Cicero
of the physicians. The preface contains a notice of the various schools of medicine
before his time ; the first four books treat of internal diseases ; the next two of exter-
nal diiieaaes; and of the two last, one treats of dislocations and fi^ctures, the other of
surgical operations. The author has drawn freely from Hippocrates.— There are two
letters, which have been ascribed lo Celsus, but were probably written by Scribonius
Largus. The treaiise de Veterinaria, sometimes mentioned, is supposed to have been
merely the section on that topic included under the head of agriculture in his general
work.— There is extant a book de arte dicendi, which was once ascribed to Celsus,
but is now referred to Julius Severianus, a writer in the fifth century.

£t Cbrt ft ScAate, m eit«d ^ 6S8; t.-Cliiappa, Intomo alle opun e alia ceadiiioBe dt A. C. Cefao. MQ. 1819L— <7. JlUtt^
Diah de A. C CelM medicine. Gott 1766. 4.-F. C. Oertal, Dim. de nqnm frifUm m CeUano. MoBncfa. 188S. i.-Smpteti^
Iheboek Aartodtontf, cC JItarfef, Brer. Not SuppL 1. 688.

SL Kditkiu-Bert; A AiAtiAcn. Lu^l. Bat 1785. 8 veh. 4. baaed m Ihator £. Tbrfs (Fad. IISBl 4), bat Bore falI.-M.
ponMrn. AfieoL 1806. 8 tola. 8. &r reema. Turgu (pun Lexico CeU). Venma, I8ia 4^E. MaHgan, Lond. I8HL 8L aflir
tbe'taxt of Taf|a.-Cr. £. CAeutenl, Pradroram nor. edit Cdai. Upa. 1884. 4 —Of previoaB editioH. mme of tbe mora aoM |
/.J.mnd$rLtnien. Leyd. 1665^ 12.-vfimclOTMn. Amrt. 1718. H-Tte/'Hnave, ^AmUkoL AnNo^ flon MT& fcL-Tte

81 3n3

64St HISTORY OF KOMAN LITBOATURK.

UUmtmgjtMm h Ihe mUmHob of A^taniu, dtad | lOL Il^TIw took on rM«r« b |iv« ii itoa
1411
4. Tniidaliaiii.-G«nMB.-^ Ck. F. Ft0*M. Jcm, I7B9. iL oalr (to in* hmk^J. C Jaf^. Frukf. Ili^ & 7lh wl

•th took*. rradi.— 17. KimUr, Pkr. I75S. I vol*. 12} inn* pu Uprngt) Pv. IflBI. Engiiik.— /. (Mm. Ld^

I7U. l—CoCKv, with tto UUb. LhmL I». i rait. g.-C/Nd0taoad, wiik (to UUd. Load. MR. S vota. ^—Lm, LaL 4 Aigl.
Load. IKi«. 9 rain It.

^ 554. 5cri6oiiitt« LarguM^ a physician at Rome, lived in the first century, onder Ti-
berius and Claudius. He is considered as the author of a treatise still extant, yet not
very valuable, on the vreparation of medicines. It has been conjectured that it was
originally written in Greek, and translated into Latin at some later period.

1. His full Dame was Ser^Mtnius Largu$ Designatianu*. His treatise De eomp^"
situme medicament orum is addressed to Caius Julius Callistns. In the introduction be
alludes to medical pieces written by him in Latin {ttcripta Latina medicinalia), which
Calltsius had presented to Claudius the emperor; language, which would seem to im-
ply that this or some other piece or pieces must have Been in Greek.

U Ovr, eilod { 66(. l.-ftaAnciui^ BiU. UL iil. SBl— AvmAoU, Pnef. to ^ tokiir citod.— 3dkr, p. 8M.
I. EdilioMu— BoM,/. M. BtnJield. Affrat (Strnvb.) I7SS. K—J. Mhodiut. FWL l«S. 4.— Goctaiood *\m to Stt^kawM, ■
cilodt&fl2>8. liwoaftiitpvUMbod,o|MftJ. AMUii. Par. IS». S. otoi* with two oibor pioe& B*pr. Bu. ISHi &

^ 555. Q. Serenut SammtmieuM, who lived in the second and third centuries, was a
man of much learning, and a favorite of the emperor Severus. He was put to death
by order of Caracalla, on suspicion that he was on the side of Geta. Vf-e have from
him a poem on di*eaien and their remedies; it is probably not free from interpolations,
and is not complete, beina defective at the ciof>e.

I. It has been doubiedwhether the poem was written by this distinguished physi-
cian, or by his son of the same name. The poem is in hexameter verse, and is en-
titled Carmen de morhit et remediit, or De medicina prg^epta; it was much read and
frequently copied in the middle ages ; in this poem occurs, for the 6rst time, it is said,
the famous Abraradabra (cf. P. I V. ^ 200. 2). I^he materials are chiefly derived from
Plinv and Dioscorides. — There is also under the name of Serenus Saromonicus a poem
entitled Carmen de tingendis capilliM. A fragment of another, entitled Ee$ reeondiiw,
is given by Macrobius {Sat. iii. c. 15-17).

Ximdkm, Pralcf. to hn od. bekiw dtod.-wtdtowi«m, Pnrf. to hh od. bolow dlod^SflAr, p. tlO^ 7W.«-fW*iinMin, KL B«A^
P.T01.

t. EdItioM — Bort iJ.OlO. ,Sekummui. L|«. ITMl a— Andb*. Amol. IflR ITOS. 8.~-C0B(»iiiad alao io Burmmuft tal
LiU. Mfk-Oftm ii •dilkm oT Coiout.--ni« pom 4t tkig. MpWi, hf £9kmtr, PngmiBito i-iv. Vitcb. ITSS-imi 4.

^ 556. Theodonu Pritcianui, of whose life we have no account, flourished in the
latter part of the fourth century. He appears to have been a physician of some emi-
nence, bearing the title Archiater. We have from him a treatise on dietetin, and a
larger work, in 4 books, chieflv on medicine. The style is rough and corrupt.

1. The treatise is entitled i)i<rta, or De rebui salubribua. — The other work is en-
titled Eupon$t6niOT PhanomenCn Euporistoi; it seems to be a sort of compend, made
in Latin from a work written by him in Greek ; hence the Greek tule, which bow-
ever is rather the appropriate title of the 1st book {de medicina facile parabili). The
41 h hook treats of topics belongin|^ to j^yiical science jrenerally. The work has been
erroneously ascribed to Q. Octavtus Horattanu$. — Pnscianus Archiater must be dis-
tinguished from Priscian the grammarian (cf. ^ 433).

nMeiut, Bibl. U(. Iii. SSS^Oirto, Rkt. Not. p. SOO. Sappl. ii. 244.~J»*r, tm.

-2. EdithiM — C u p 0 r < « r tf n ; tto fint bjr Armafraitf Crnim Nvmarha (Couat of Ncvomr). ATfunt ISSt flol.— Mtor,
I7 5. Otimnu. Boo. IftSS. 4.-AI» In JUm, dtcd \ »SL »^~I. H. SwnAoU. Amb. ITM. • tkrm volo. doMCnod; botorijrtwo
prafwrad. Bad only tto SnI priatod ; tto work bd^ ialorraplod br Ito aditoi^ doalh.— £ • ari a, bf O. E.fictowMT. HoL
101. a— AIM ia AMmii. rilad 1 56S. &

^ 557. Marcellns Empiricus, of Burdeg;a1a (Bordeaux), lived in the beginning of the
fifth century, under the emperor Theodoeius I. The work left by him, on Medicines,
is a compilation from various Roman authors, made without careful selection or judg-
ment.

1. The work is entitled Medicamentorum liber. l\M accompanied by an epmtle ad-
dressed to his sons, in the title of which be is styled vir fnlnnter ex ma/^no officio Tkoo-
dosii senioris. Respecting his worlt, he himself States that he had diligently read the
earlier Roman medical writers, juid had also learned from the lower classes of the
people some simple remedies^ . He gives countenance to the superstitious belief in the
eflicacjr of charms, and recommends to suspend from the neck a copy of certain Greek
verses in order to relieve pains in ihe fauces.

nhrieiuM, HI. MT.-#Ur, 210, mS.-aprmtd, oo cHad { SIB. I.

f 6dttioai.-PinipablUwd by /MM OomviMiL Bm. liM. M—Olfw aba Ib fto CoDacl. of MptaM*, dM t SH. a

p. V. LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE. 643

XL— FFri/erf on Law and Juritprudenee*

^ 5^. The science of law was cultivated at Rome above all others. On no subject
was so macli written and published. Yet the existing remains are not proportionally
numerous and extensive. In addition to all the common causes that have effected a
loss of productions in other departments, we may perceive a special reason for the loss
of the early works on the various topics included under the head of jurisprudence; it
is found in the fact, tliat condensed collections were made in later times by public au-
thority. These collections superseded the previous works, which of cotirse would
cease to be transcribed and would soon be lost.

^559. The works belonging to the department of jurisprudence were exceedingly
various as well as numerous. Some were dissertations on existing rights, or laws;
some were treatises on the particular objects of a law ; there were commentaries on
the writings of earlier jurists ; inquiries respecting the foundation of rights {irutitw
tianes) ; miscellaneous conipends or manuals {eftchiridia) ; systems of general or ab-
stract principles (dejinitiones) ; collections or reports of law cases (respoma) ; or
opinions generally admitted (^ietUefUue receptcB); and in later times, regularly arranged
compilations on the whole subject of junsprudence (digeata). Amonp; the writings
still preserved, we find but few fragments belonging lo the better periods of Roman
literature; they are chiefly productions from the time of Trojan and after him. But
there is a degree of purity in the language and excellence in the style, which is the
more remarkable because found in works of these later ages, and which can be ex-
plained only by considering that their authors had their attention constantly turned
upon the writings of the earlier jurists. As a matter of course, however, they must
contain many technical terms, with obsolete phrases, and some foreign words and ex-
pressions, esjpecially Gnccisnis.

$ 560. To enter upon a notice of the principles of the civil law, or a review of the
actual laws, would be foreign from the object of our sketch* and belongs to the poli-
tical rather than the literary history of Rome. Indeed the Roman jurisprudence forms
of itself a theme, which has been found sufHciently ample for a separate history. All
we propose here is to glance at some of the principal writers and works.

^561. The earliest production to which we find any reference is the Jus Pajririanum,
a collection of laws {leges reglat) and usages, which was made in the reign of Tarquin
the Proud, by a lawyer named Papirius. — The next is the collection called the Laws
of the Twelve Tables, which is said to have consisted partly of the pre-existing customs
and regulations, and partly of principles and rules derived from Greece through an
embassy which, it is said, was sent to examine the Grecian laws and institutions. The
Decemviri (cf. P. III. % 249) were charged with the business of forming this collection,
and the chief labor is ascribed to Ilcrmodorus, B. C. 448. These tables are highly
lauded by the ancient writers ; they are mentioned by Livy (iii. 34) as the foundation
of the whole Roman system of jurisprudence, and are said by Cicero {De Or. i. 44) to
be more valuable than the writings of all the philosophers. A few ^agments of them
are preservcd.-~VVe find next the Jus Flavianum, which was a collection containing an
account of the forms, rites, and days, necessary to be regarded in legal transactions;
constituting a body oi formula and jura^ called collectively Legis Actiones ; a proper
knowledge of these was confined to the patricians, it is said, until Flavius, a clerk of
Appius Claudius Cecus, a descendant of Appius Claudius the Decemvir, published
(B. C. 312) the collection, which bears his name, but which is said to have been com«
posed by his master and stolen by the clerk. — The patricians devised a new set of forms
and rules for the transaction of judicial business, which were expressed in writing only
by certain signs inold) ; but a statement and account of these forms also was published
by Sexius JEWas Pstus, about the year B. C. 200, in a collection afterwards termed
Jus JElianum.

BsqMctiBR the eallMtioBi above Duned ne lh« IKH. of Ram. JuritpnUmett bjr Saek, or oDmiv, cited { S71.— Of ihoM wbe
ban aNctnpled to eoUcct nd •mefe the frafne'tt" "^ tiM IVeclw DiUm, the ncMt cuineat ere J. (Mhpfrtdut {Qndfn^\ fVicni.
su. Tabulanim. Htid. iSlfi.-/. S. Fu»k. Rinlela, 1744. C—Ml A Iknuhawl^ Commeataira nr le lei dee XII. tabln. Pkr.
8d ed. 1803. 9 voln 4.-Aiid IHrkmn, Vefraeh i. Kritik end Aoila*. d. Qoellea dci R. R. ; elL JBUr. ^ Mt— The origin of thM
lawi hen bfCD e oulter of noch ditpalf. ; KNue denjiDft ud othcn efltrtBiog a Greeiaa ori^ ; tS. OAtoM, DecL aad Fall ef Rooi.
Emp. eh. iliv -.jVtcteJkr. Htit. Rom. il. p. C28. ed. Phil. 183du— A Jtoiamy, rar Parif d« ZIL tab^ ia the Mtm. Sa PJemL dbe
huar. zil. It.—Jkb. Campi, Novum Ennea loci Uvtaai de Leg. Roaa. AlheoM tala. Jte. rila lltti rifiiwa. OomMOt de
letib. Xn. Tab. UvaaH, IS27.— Gampf defndi and LtUten oppoMa the opialoa thai the lat»i ware derived rron Ot«ee« bf mmm
of the eiBbaay.— Ct Jt Tftytttm, Cdlaiie U«uoi Ahealeadna at RoMMaaniai, ia OoncoiMt, dlid P. OL { 19. L— The priodpal
•adoat anthorif.ei aie Oionyt. ffal. Ron. Aot. i. M.-Uo. iil. SI.— £yA«, De MagiiL L SI.

^ 562. The mention 6f the work of ^lius.has brought us within the second period
according to our adopted division, that between the 1st Punic war, B. C. 240, and the
dvil war of Marius ending B. C. 87. There were celebrated lawyers or jurisconsuits

644 RI8T0RY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

m this period, of whom some of the principal have been already named among the
orators {^^ 392 — ^396). Caio ihe elder and his son Porcius Cato Licinianus were both
eminent jurists ; and their memory was preserved by a work on the civil law subse-
quenily known bv the tiile Catonvana repula}. — Three authors of this period are 8ome«
times named as tne founders of the science of civil law ; M. Junius 13 rut us, who left
$eten books df jure civilUCicde Or. ii. 55); Maninx ]^ianiliu»t consul B. C. 147, wbo
cotnpos*»d several works, one of which was afterwards styled Manilii Monumenta;
and I'ublius Mucius Scsvola. author of a work De jure civifif in 10 liooks. The Mu-
ciun family was celebrated for its heredirary knowledge ot jurisprudence ; ** the kindred
appellation of Mucius ScBvola," says Gii>btm, "was illustrated bv three sages of the
law/* The father and the son of the one just mentioned, both bearings the name of
QuintuB Mucins Scaevola. were illustrious civilians'; there was indeed another named
Qiiintus, usually sumamed the Aueur, who was a distingruished lawyer ; from whom
Quuitus the son of Publius is uauafly discriminated by the surname of Pont if ex. The
latter wrote several works ; one of them, entitled Definitumes (jpi), is said to be the
oldest, of which any part is included in the Digest* of Justinian.

I £ L, H«T7dtr, Dr r««iiU CstoniaiM. Raiddb. 180). %. ^O. #j|m«M< Vita Cuwuhii. IHjecL td Rbca. tT97. S

Cf. Both, mJ oiben, u cited \ S7I.

^ 5(i3. The next period is a brilliant one in the history of Roman iurispnidence.
One of the most eminent writers was Servius Sulpicius Rufus. a disciple of 84-svola
and friend of Cicero; and author, it is said, of above a hundred books on the science
of law*. Cicero should perhaps be named here, as some of his works, et^pecially hia
Lavit and Republic (cf. ^ ACiS). illustrate the subject before us. " He declined the re-

Kutation of a professed lawver ; but the jurisprudence of his country was adorned by
is incomparable genius, which converts into gold every object that h touches." Of
the many c»thcr writers in this department, before the death of Augustus, we can men-
tion only the following; Alfenns Varus, author of a collection called Digesia, in 40
book» ; C. Trebatius Testa, author of several works', among which was one by the
title De rflipionihtut ; A. Cascellius, of whose writings the treatise styled L»ber bent'
dicforum is particularly nmiced*; Q. Mlitis Tubero, author of a work entitled De ofHei^
JHdicin, and of others*; Q. Aniistius Labeo, whe composed a great number of wnrk;^,
among which sre mentioned one entitled Iki9avc3y, Libri viii., and another entitled
Pont f riorum Libri XL.; C. Atejus Capito', cited as author of a work called Conjtctawa,
and another Dejure Poniijicio; and ^lius Gallus, of whose treatise on the significa-
tion of term* pertaining to the civil law, some fragments are still extant*.

1 K. Orr<s D» Tita, Itadiit, ale^ J. Saipldi Rwfl. Tn}. ad Kkm. 1797. H > iV. A OninA'Mf . C IVttatw 1W». «b ia). Mb

ffe. liharatM. Halla, 1710. 4. >/. p. Etkmrd, C Tnb. Tnia Viadkalo. Imom. ITW. 4.— £ O. AsfOMNfi, IKia. ftX

CaKdho. LHi- Bm* I^B"^ >■ * P- B. S. V»dar, Da Q. MXio Tabaraoa cJ«M|«a tttfmtMt. U«d. Bti. 1SI4. 8l • C Fm

Eek, Dr vita, nnritwi. w*c ML AatiK. labaoaii at C. AleJ. Capilmih Pnaaeq !«•. & > C O. OUmtadb, FngB. Min Galli,

Dt Verbamm^ lumadfutdn, ftninmi. Lpc IflU. S. Sea ain worki ailad { 471.

% 564. In the period which follows, from the death of Augustus to the time of the
Antonines, the historian who traces the progress of Roman law and politics finds many
changes. The civilians and legal writers continued to be numerous. Mssurins Sa-
binus", who was honored with peculiar privileges by Tiberius, wrote a treatise Dejure
civili. which was of such importance as to be tne subject of many volumes of comments
by subsequent civilians. It was after him that one of the two opposing schools of jurists
derived the name of Sabiniant; while the other received that of ProcvUanf, from
Sempronius Proculus, who composed not eg on Labeo, and a work styled EpistoUe; the
Proculians advocated an adherence to the ancient systems and principles of jurispru-
dence t the Sabinians were more in favor of innovations which augmented the innperial
authoritv*. The following additional names are selected from the list of writers falling
within tne period now in view ; M. Cocceius Nerval author of a treatise De umca-
monihuf ; C. Cassius Longinus*. author of a work on civil rights, of which the girteenth
book is cited in the Pandects ; Pegasus, whose naine is preserved by the law deno-
minated Senatusronsultum Petrasianum* ; P. Juventius Ceisus, author of various works,
particularly a collection called Digesta, in 39 books^ ; Neratius Priacus, among whose
writings was one entitled Regulate in 15 books^; Javolenus Priscus, whose wTitings
are said to have exerted an influence not inconsiderable on subsequent times^ ; L. Vo-
lusius Miecianus, who instructed the emperor Marcus AureHus Antoninus in civil law,
and is mentioned as autnor of a treatise entitled Libri X. Fidei Commissorumfi.

ilXO. MUi^,Dka.iallMr.»iMao^ Ait !«■. 4.— I*. M JmlHR, Din da Maa. SabiMiL Ti^ ad Mi. ITS. 4. *J.JL

#%«Mr, mm. M M.Cooe.Nflrfm. Bnm. ITdS. 4. > /. mmtvUnM, Dt«. dc C OMio LoafiMk URd. Bat I738L a « &

r. Po^muttOttr^Jm Fl^MiaDaa. Laaf. n4l. 4. • AtiMccto. Pr. da Jamlla Cdaa. rraaeaC ad V. ITtT. 4. •/. C.

«Ma(,Oi«.daIfaralbPriMO. Lpc t7Ml 4. 1 0L J. /MudkM, DIa. da Prim Jaiolcm. LpL I7S4. 4. ■/. IHmdltflM»,

Conn, de I. Vol. IfadaaD. ffaailn 1749. 4.-— • Rapact^f Oia Uf Mda, cf. 0. JAueoa, Din. da Sadia SaUa'nnm rt fm»-

Uaaonm. AIL 17S4. 4. L|iB. im.— (XUon, Dad. and Fdl of Bob. Empiit, cb. jlA^^fttbrietua^ Bibl. Ut. Ui. p «» a

rffcr^icai |ivao § 871.

p. V. JURISPRUDENCE. 645

^ 565. There are three other names which should be mentioned, belonging to this
period, and particularly to the reign of Hadrian; namely, Salvius Julianus, Sextus
romponius, and Gaius or Caius. Salvius Julianus* was employed bv Hadrian to
reduce to a settled and permanent form the principles and method by wnich the Pne-
tor should conduct all his judicial proceedings ; the work or system of rules thas pro*
duced was called the perpetual edict {edictum perpetnunCp. — Sextus Pomponius, who
lived later than Julian, composed numerous and voluminous works ; a history of juris-
prudence, De Olivine juris libri II. ^ is preserved in the Pandects^. — Gaius, sometimes
with the appellanon Titus, was also the author of numerous treatises; the principal
was the work entitled hfstiluiet {Libri Inttitutionum quatuor), which was designed
to communicate to the student of civil law its essential principles, and wliich served
as the model for the Institutes of Justinian ; this work was discovered in the year
1816, in a Codex rescriptut or palimpsest manuscript belonging to the library at
Veronal

i Atowdwa, P^. d« Stir. JaUaoo. BaL 1733. 4. ^^Sm P. in. { 843.-frMJng, rni«mmte Edieti IVrpHaL Pmwk. ITSS.

>>«. G. & Fimnckty Da adicto Prait. art), proerliai parpatao. ' Kil. 189a 4.— C. O. A. dt fTcyAa, Libri tm BJietf tira da orlgiaa

rAlbque Jar. Ron. praaMrtim Edidonim Pnetonim ac de funna Edieti Perpetui. Call. I82r. aTbe H'utorj {d* artg. juriO

d S. JPoaapoenia waa piibllahad bj C. J. Rupaft Jao. 1061. IS. * Tha work of Oaiut, previoutljr to tba diMorarf of tha pa*

ilo^aeat abova maalioBad, waa known ehlaflf by a lifelMa abatnet or Epttoaie ia wbat wu ealled tba Brtalarf cf JBarie, kinf
of tha rmgotta (BrarioHum JfawwO.-Tha baat adilion of Um EpiUmu, bjr J. C. O. OmtbeU. Lpi. 17W. S-Of tba original
work, dnwa from tba palimpMrt,/. F. L. OOKhtn. Bari. 1825w &--CC H HiOmart Oa nomina, atata at acriptia GaU. 1ft.
tan. 4.— JMictfn dm timca BdHtriqua, toL vlL

^ 566. In the remaining period of our sketch there were numerous civilians. As a
class or professional body tney seem to have enjoyed high consideration until the close
of the rei^n of Alexander Severus, A. D. 235. But from that time until the reign of
Constantme, who was proclaimed A. D. 306, but not established as sole emperor un-
til A. D. 323, the jurisconsults were in much less estimation, and the business of the
lawyer was practiced by persons not suitably educated for the work. '* The noble art
which had once been preserved as the sacred inheritance of the patricians, was fallen
into the hands of freeamen and plebeians, who, with cunning rather than skill, exer-
cised a sordid and pernicious trade. Careless of fame and of iustice, they are described,
for the most part, as ignorant and rapacious guides, who conducted their clients through
a maze of expense, of delay, and of disappointment ; from whence, after a tedious
series of years, they were at length dismissed, when their patience and fortune were
almost exhausted.'^

When Constantino formed his new arrangements for the government of the empire,
the credit of the profession was revived. The school of Berytus (cf. P. IV. ^ 128. 5),
which had existed it is supposed from the time of Alexander Severus, now flourished
with new vigor, and furnished the fourth century with distinguished civilians. Under
the system of Constantino, the civu magistrates were wholly or chiefly taken from the
class of lawyers ; and subsequently, even down to the time of Justinian, the youth of
the empire were stimulated to pursue the study of the law by the hope of being
rewarded ultimately by honorable and lucrative offices. The regular course of study
occupied five years. The degree of encouragement afforded by the prospect of honor
and profit may be inferred from the fact, that **the court of the Pnetorian prefect of
the east would alone furnish employment for one hundred and fifty advocates, sixty-
four of whom were distingtiished by peculiar ifrivileges, and two annually chosen, with
a salary of sixty pounds of gold, to defend the causes of the treasunr.'* (Gibbon.)

^ 567. Of the writers after the Antonines and before the death ot Alexander Severus
Ci. e. between A. D. ISO and 235), the most eminent were ^milius Papinianus, Domi-
tins Ulpianus, and Julius Paulus. Papinian was appointed by Maximus Severus to
the office of Magigter Hbelhrum, in which capacity it was his duty to reduce and arrange
the answers (rescripta) of the emperor to the petitions addressed to him. He was put
to death by Caracalla. Among his works are mentioned particularly two, entitled
Quastiones, in 37 books, and Regponsa, in 19 books^ — Ulpian was recalled from exile
and raised to the office of Prtetorian prefect by Alexander Severus ; but havms: in-
curred the displeasure of the soldiers, he was by them slain in spite of the efibrts of the
emperor and the people to save him. His Commentaries on Demosthenes ^ written in
Greek, are still extant (cf. ^106). The titles of above thirty other works are recorded,
amons which we notice a Digest (Digesta) in forty-eight books, which is said to have
been ttia basis of the Digest of Justinian ; of all these productions nothing is now ex-
tant excepting twenty-nine chapters (ftf uZi) of a work entitled Reguht Jun^. — Paulus
was also made Pnetorian prefect {prafeetus prsstorio) under Alexander Severus, and

?ut to death by the soldiers, A. D. 230. The catalogue of his works exceeds that of
Jlpian's, and be was termed the most prolific of the Jurists (woXoypo^orv;, jurigcon-
suUorum). We have, as preserved in the Breviary of'^Alaric, a sort of abstract of one
cf his works, entitled Senteniia Reeepta^. — To tne three names here nven, perhaps
we ought to add those of Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus*, JElius Aiarcianua^, and

646 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

HarennniB Modestinufl"; the latter was a scholar of Ulpian, and characterized by the
homaneness of his principles.

1 X. Otto, de Pa|HBi*ni vSit, aeriplit, etc Logd. Bat. 1718. Br«n. 1743. 8. « F. 1. ficKIUnf , Din. Criliei<le Ulpiari rnpn.

▼imtld. IBM. H— Tbere h*v« bMn n«cnl aditioM of C I p i a n' a Tttuii; lb« Frine^M. Par. 1549. &— One at tba ba«, a
Alfa. OML 1788. AK|ir. Beri. 1824. K—K. Bbcking. Boo. 1838. 12. with otber frafnMBla.— TImtc h • Fngneat (di moM*.
mtaAifiitaw) aaeribad to Ulpiaa, preaarvcd Ij a Rniininarian nmcd Drailhexnoa, fint publiabcd » iVAeatu, at cited ^ 5T1 ; eC
flbUDinf, Dia. Crit. de FraKm. Jur. Rota Donlhea't. Lfm. 1819. 8.— On the qunlioa raapertinf Ulpiaa'a rcyard tovarda CfarhdiM,

aeeP.de TvuUun, Or. dc UlpMDO, an ClinalubU iutroao. Gnm. 1784. 4. ■ iX P a u I u a, the Prmerjm cdiiim fret by J. Bmt-

thmriut. Par. 1626. 4. The iMi ia bjr O. Akir>> J»l'i P^uli Seoteat. RacepL ad Alium libri V. Berl. I793l 8. * J. B. Sumf

tuhk, Ep.de Q.SepliiMfeTlareBta, Prcab. el JuriKoaa. kc Upa. nJ& 4. *Q. (Bridu, Dm. de tita, sliidiis, etc JEL llarw

ciaai. Traj. ad RbeD. 1764. 4. • Tbe cbi«f moDuaieat of Hemuiiw ia Uie work «iUUed Sxcuiatiom$, wnttaa ia Onak,

llapt t^fiiiMTtMAv iOnatmatic&n) ; publithad bj H. Krafwmawi, Oe UaiurBButicia, etc. Uigd. Bat 1708. 8.

^ 568. In the time of Constaniine two jurists are particularly noticed as authors,
Gregorianus and Hermogenianua. The former made a collection of the imperial con-
stitutions (con«ft7u<»one« principale$t cf. P. 111.^265) extending back to the time of
Hadrian. I'he latter prepared a supplement to it. 'J hcse works, under the names of
Codex Gre^orianut and Codex HermogeuianuB, were soon recognized as standard
authorities m the courts of justice^. Some portions of them are preserved in the Bre-
viary of Alaric. — Some other jurists in the ume of Constantiiie and his immediate aoc-
cessors are recorded ; but the next work specially worthy of mention here is the col-
lection termed Codex TheodosiauM^ which was reduced by the order of Theodosios
the second, and promulgated in the Eastern empire, A. D. 438. This Code the same
year was introduced to the Western empire under Valentinian the Third. It con-
sisted of sixteen books, of which the first five related to private rights, and tbe re-
mainder to public rights, and ecclesiastical affairs ; it contained, however, only the
imperial constitutions from the time of Constantino. Of the first five books we have
only an abridgment contained in the Breviary of Alaric. The Theodosiaa Code^ re-
tained its authority in the Western Empire until tEe final overthrow of the Roman
government, A. D. 476. And after this, Roman law still held sway, although modified
DV the institutions of the conouerors ; the Code of Tkeodoric', and the Srtviarjf of
Alaru^^ both justify this remark.

iCh.F.PtM, Oi«B. de CDdd. GniDf. el Heruogoi. Lpi. I77T. 4. ^bOT (1m Theodoai an C e d e tbcrc te*« bcca aem.

nl aditiona; XhtflnthjJ TiUm. Par. 165a 8.—/. D. KUmr. Lpz. ITaS. fol. eonialsiac abo aoaw addilk^aal anMlirbttau bf
Theodoalat and aaeeeediac emperon, oDder the title of Mbeeibb— Frafneati berore unpoUiahad ealteetcd by tPi F. Oaima. Ti^
l»l.&aadby.d. Ayran. AmwI. T^ur. IBM. 4.— The ftrat five hooka, bjr C. f. Oh. WML Lp«. ISHi &~Cf. /. .«. ITW/, Oa

Latinitate ceeleaiart. ia Cod. Thaodoa. l^ic. 1774. 4. • The Code of Tbeodoric, Bdietum TMiodorki, waa iaMied *f

bM., A. a 600^ after hie ertaUiahaeot In Italj ae kiaf of the OMrasoiba; it cooaiaia of A/ly chaplen, diavo chirflj f.-on the
writiBfi of Paiitw.— It la sitaa ia CaneiaauM, h^ aatiq. Barber. Vca. 1781. Cf. O. F. Rkun, ConineotaL ad Edict Tb«do>
nei. Hal. IIIS. 4.-4 Tba Breviarj of Alaric, Jlrtmortum l^fum Rcmanmrunt, m aometimee called (he Bnmry
of Jnianur, whoie aaoia ia attadtad to it, aot aa havinc collected it, but aa ccrtif jia( ita authoritf. It waa nade by order ef
Alaric^ kiaf of the Viaigoiha, raaiding at Toulooac, A. D. 606 ; and ia a conpilatioa fron iha tfmt £onum codm above aaaed, aad
fhe writtaga of Oalaa, Paslua, aad P^piBian.—Fint puUiahed by P. PUkmu*. Par. I679L foL— Tba hart ediiloa, Madrid, I8I& U.
a. TUrk, Ueber daa Weatgoth. Qittilwich. Boat 182B. 8.

^ 569. In the Eastern Empire the Theodosian code retained full authority until the
time of Justinian. Notwithstanding all the efforts of preceding emperors and jurists
to reduce the Roman iurisprudence to a satisfactory form and system, the vast variety
of laws, decisions, and constitutions, involved the subject in great confusion and per-
plexity. Justinian undertook the task of reducing the whole to order, and employed
tor the purpose the most eminent lawyers of tbe age, with the celebrated Tnbonian at
their head.

I'he first performance was a collection and reduction of the imperial constitutions
from the time of Hadrian downward, which was promulgated, as the Codex Juttima-
niif, A. D. 529, when all preceding codes were abrogated. But this first edition was
abolished A. D. 534, when a second edition, with some corrections and additions, was
promulgated ; which was called Codex repetitat lectioni*. The Code was thus corrected
and completed by Trtbonian and four other lawyers ; nine had aided in the first pre-
paration.— The next labor was a collection and reduction of the writings of the juris-
consults of preceding ages, especially those who had lived under the emperors, and
whose works are said to have amounted to ttoo thousand volumes. For executing this
task, Tribonian was allowed ten years with sixteen associates; it was accomplished in
three years, and was published A. D. 533, under the title of Pandects or Digests. The
former title referred to their completeness, as comprehending the whole of Roman juris-
prudence (irSif and 6txiu$at), and the latter to their methodical arrangement idigesta).'-^'
At the same time was published, by the emperor^s orders, a work on tbe elements or
first principles of Roman law, entitled Institutes (Institutiones)^ prepared by Triboniao
and two others, Theophilus and Dorotheus. — There is another collection, consistinff
of imperial constituUons and edicts which were promulgated after A. D. 535 ; ana
which are included under the title of Navels {Novdlm sc. eonstituti&nes). They wera
chiefly written in Greek (in which they were called wapdl Sucrdfeis), but were first known

F. V. \ CHRISTIAN WRITINOS. 647

to the moderns by a Latin translation. — The four works here described, viz. the Code.
the Novdst the Instilutett and the Pandects or Digests, constituted what is now called
the Body of Roman Law, Corpus Juris Ramani CivUis,

Of. rareraocci § &tl.^J. P. dt Ludewig, ViU JmUa. afqne Tribaoianl. HaU«, 1731. 4^K. ffttte, hsgrn Mtttute «i.taiMiil
antefon Coda, BmL 189a 8.— OxIumU, Car buIH lagutur in Codiet pnaafm Legtmbtaia, bw «IU in Fuideetii JariMon.
■ulii, autiqaiorai qittu Hadriano, in bti PrwUet. dead. OxL 169L 8w— A Brmemann, HMtnria Fandeolaran. T^. ad Rhao.

1722. 4. RnpccUog ih« Florailiii* MS. gf the Fandeels, k« P. IV. \ I4S.--r. A. Bimer, G«ek d«r NevtUan JvliiAiH. Barl

ISA. On tbe lytlam followed in the rmUtuta, we Th. L. MaunOy D« Ord. Inailt. GMt. 1815b 4.

Bat editiou oriheCorpna Juri *.—Dionyt. OaOiofrtdut (Godefroi, Ooitny). Logdun. 1827. 6 vola. UA. wttb ^omaij —

G. C. Ottautr k, G. J. SjMmgmberg. Ootr. 1797. S ?oIt. 4, with notea, wilhoat g\oimrf.—J. L. O. Btdu Lps. ISS. 4 vola. 8.
without glonary or notes, bat ** eoavenieot for aae."— An edilioa alto bjr Sehradtr (and othan). Barl. 1838. iit vol. 4.— >B-1h
tMBsoniie Inatltataa, by C. JfucAcr. ErUof. IS28. 8.— Gf. Atrrif, ULAEsf. (Sdad.). Loud. 1781. 8. wilb Botea. Eof-
iAb Tnualatioa bj BarriMy alao Lond. 1814. 8.— 7Aoma« Cooftr. N. York, 1835. 8. Latin & EDgiab, wUh nolaa.— Tbera ia a
Greek ParAphraae of (be loatitutea by a Tboopbilui, rapposad to ba tba pervm anoeiatad wKh Triboniao ; tbe oeal aditkw la that
or rr. a Jicu. Hag. Conit. (La Iia]r^ Hague), 1761. 8 rob. 4.— A labored and karaad aaui^ of tlia Inatitalea ■ given bjr Qih-

ten, Ded. and Fall of Hom. Emp. ch. xliv.— A FrmA trmuiation, by M. Mmdtau. Par. 18881 8 voh. a The N o v e 1 a, by

O. BoUumdv. Norimb. 1881. Ibl. Baail, IML fel The Pandectt, by O. OAoandtr. Norinb. 1681. iol. Baa. 1641.-

Ct ibe French work entided PeniKUt do Juatlniott par JL /. Pothtar traduitea par Ki. de BrfaH, Mwvina. Fw. I8I& 84 tqIh a
Beapeetiac ediUou, tc, cL £. apangmhtrg, Eialeilnng la d. Jnatin. Bachlab. Haim. 1817. %.

% 570. The system of jurisprudence established by Justinian remained in force in
tbe Eastern empire until its destruction and the capture of Constantinople, A. D. 1453.
The countries which formed the Western empire had, previously to the time of Justi-
nian, fallen into the hands of the barbarians ; and although for a short time he reco-
vered from them Italy and other portions through the military talents of Belisarius,
yet his system of laws did not obtain much sway in the west. But in the former part
of the 12th century, Imerius, a German lawyer who had studied at Constantinople,
opened a school at Bologna, and thus revived and propagated in the west a knowledge
of the Roman Civil Law. Students flocked to his school from all parts, and by them
the Roman jurisprudence, as embodied in the system of Justinian, was transmitted to
most of the countries of Europe, and acquired a degree of authority in the courts
of justice, which " seems to promise'' (as has been justly remarked) *' the fulfill-
ment of the famous prediction of the ancient Romans concerning the eternity of their
empire."

$ 57L We add here some references on the general subject.

/. 1. Bath, Hialoria Joriap. Ron. (aa ad. by A. C. Stodlmmn). Lpx. 1807. SS. Zinmem, Oeaditdite dca BfOoi. Frtratreebla.
Heiddh. It'iA. a— C. 1. BmbM, Inatibat Jwb Rom. hiaior. dogm. LineaneBt (ed. C. E. Olio). Lpa. 1898. 8.-0. BugOf Hie-
teire du Droit Ronain, traddte de PAIlenand par Jourdtm. Brax. ISia &— Aifo, and otbara, aa cit«l P. IIL ) 265. S.--v8. Otd-
nrd^ Eieai aur iniiatoire du droit priv4 dea BomaiBa. Far. 1841. %.—A. Dupin, Fraeii Hiatorlqae da Drait Romaia, dfpaia RoBn»>
lue Jnaqu^ noi Joara. 8tb ed. Pu. 1884. 18. v«ij eeaciae.-a PuneinK, De Clarn lag. interpret Ven. 1834. Lpi. 1781. 4.—
fT. Onthu, Vita Jurlaconaaltomm, quorum in Pandect ext nomina. La^. Bat 1680. 4.-7. Strtrardf B^m vo/wcAv. Toloa.
1617. 4.— O. Majanthu, Comnent ad xa. Joriae. omnia fragmenta. Gcaev. 1764. 4 — SbhuMng, Jariaprudentia ABt»JBatini>
tarn. Lps. 1737. 4. eootainiag worka of lereral of the Jnriaconanlla Of. Fairiehu, Bibt Lat. iiL SOS.— f. O. OdmedMu^ Hiat
Jarii civ. Rooa. ac GemaBicL Hal. 17881 Argent 1766 a-J. dt AtfMob, Juria Civ. AntWurtiniaaei Vatic. Fn^au ab J. Mni
editau KOoigib. 1828. 9.—E. SpangaiUrg, Antiqnilatia Rom. Sienamenta legalia extra libroa Jar. Rom. apaiva, qua in aere,

lapide, aliave materia etc. aupermnt Bert 1830. S. Pithmtu, Collalio Lrgum Moaaicanim et BoaManrum. Far. 1573k 4. Tba

Coaatko n tbe work of aa naknowa aathor of the fourth century; it ia given alao ia SdntUing^ m above died ; Ukewiae in tba

Vritiei Saeri (8th vol.). Load. 186a 9 vela. fol. O. PmnetrtH, NotitJa dignltaimn omnium tarn dvilion quam nUitarhim ia

partibue Orienlia el Occidaatia. Vaa. 1588^ Geaev. 1688. foL Thia Notitia » a ooadeamd anamaiy or bMe pnaaatbg a view of
the orgaBlnHoa of the gavarameai, both eivtl aad military, ia the Eaatera and Waalera empirm; it b a ayataaHdc aomeaeUlara
efall the offieaa with ihdr mpeetive raak; and ia ofcDnraa oTaaoBe value ia atodyiag the ayalam of Romaa Jarkpradeaee. ll can-
laiaa alao a topographical aolica of Rome aad of Cooataatlnople. It waa drawn up, it ia bdieved, about A. D. 450 ; tbe author la
aaknowa^It u givea. with explaaatleBa, ia SesMMI** HiBt Lilt Rom. vol. UL Alao ia QrmviUM, aa eitad P. lU. § 187. Alao by £>

Aoaang. Boon. 1840. 2 vda. & See, alao, oa Robl Juriap. OtUen, Dec. and Fall of Bom. Emp. du xIiv.--AMII. LItt Rooa.

1 177 i ii. 221, 478 ; Ui. S65, ah— SSAr, Geaeb. Rflm. Lit. p. 7aS-77a-lUncfcw, BibL Lat iii. 477-«ia-^kiv(^, OeadlicfatB dm
ROB. RaeblB im MllteUlter. Beidelb. UBS, a. 4 vola. a

Christian WriUngs in ike Latin Language.

^ 572. It would be useful and interestinff, if the limits of this work would permit, to
take here a glance at the works of the early Christian authors who wrote in the Latin
language. The names of some have been introduced already on account of their lite-
rary performances. A number, besides Ausonius (cf. ^ 385), Sedulius (cf. ^ 388), and
Prudentius (cf. ^ 387), might be mentioned as poets ; Cyprian, Commodian, Tertul-
lian, Lactantius Ccf. ^506), Juvencus, Victorinus, Hilarius, Ambroeiiis, Gregorius, Co-
lumbanus, &c. Others are known as historical writers ; Hieronymus or Jefomo,
Prosper, Cassiodorus, Marcellinus, Rufinus, Isidorus (cf. ^ 434), Beda, Geimadiaa,

048 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

Joraandes, Gildas, Bonifacitu, Slc. Many might deaerre notice on aooount of writing
of a Biblical, reiifi;io\u, or miscellaneoua character, commentarief, apologiea, or epis-
Ilea ; Sidoniua (ct. ^ 445), Boethiua (cf. ^ 474), Minuciua Felix, Amobius, Augustine,
PelaffiuB, &c.— It haB been remarked, that the influence of the pagan achooLi of plu-
loaopny ia leas manifest in the writings of the Latin than in those of the Greek Fathers.
The style of the Latin Fathers is marked by Hellenisms and OrienUliams. Many of
them had> occasion to address people less civilized sod cultivated that those of the
Eaat.

aUUB^ Hbt UL Roik foL b. p. MSO^SBAr, lapplHM^ te M dM I Ml a-Cta«^ Mv*A, Se. M ciM f ai^
JL OWKdto, Cnwttril «• Scripteriti Kfrtwla Ijf priori mx wliIui—. Upa. I79L I^-OL A Ai^ Hktaria OrifUi
•t pn^ii— ■ PUmiIm— big CJBiltoBfc HtlMtlTiawa-nAfttricfcisBMtoOL—ilhitli^MiwMfa. HwbL I7S4. •«<*.&
^lXA*rMM%lMijriiopiraBHLrktm«taaflptE«elHiiitleonM. Ai«. VlilinOL It vota. •.— & 3*. d
cdkhbLULlUmlJllMra^ Uph ITML I folk 1

APPENDIX

TO THE HISTORY OP GREEK AND ROMAN LITERATURE.

I. COLLECTIONS OF CLASSICAL AUTHOBS*

$ 573. It will be very proper to append in this place a sikht notice of some of the
-principal editions of the Classics in regular $el$, or t» unifirm sizes.

1. The EdUione$ Prineipts are a set or collection, consisting of the first edition ever printed of
each author, at whatever press issued, or by whatever editor. They are of course not uniform
in appearance.

S. The jtldiiu Clo*$ie» include those Issued ttom the presses of Aldus Plus Manutlus and hia
son and grandson, Paulus Manutlus and Aldus Manutlus. Aldus the elder was born at Bassano
in Italv, and early acquired the Latin and Greek languages, and In connection with two friends
formed the plan of printing the works of the ancients. His establishment was ai Venice, where
the operations of his press were continued between twenty and thirty years, and his efforts
were greatly patronized by the learned. He died 1510. The Aldine editions are still considered
as great ornaments to a classical library. They are marked by the vignette or rebus of a dolphin
mbbUng «» anchor.

8m Renouard Aatuim d« llaapriaierie da Aldet, oa Hiitotrt im trob MiaoMi •( de toon adiliooik ot SapplenwL tu. 180B-
It. S vote. 8.

. 3. The editions printed by the family of 5(«^A«iu enjoyed great celebrity. The labors of Henry,
the founder of the family, commenced at Paris in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Their
establishment was continued In that city about half a century, and then removed to Geneva,
where the reputation of the name was sustained more than half a century longer. The glory
of the house was shared by five successive generations. The most distinguished were Robert
and Henry, the second and third in the succession, the latter particularly in the department of
Greek.

B. Si^, B'n^phial Sketch of Rtnry Stcpbem, tnadated tnm Pmqv, In (be CMMan Afoteo, Dm. 1S39. p. 884.— Jf. Mat-
tmtn^ BlcpbaaoruB Hktorii, vilM tpwnuB kc libra eomplMlciM. Losd. 1708. 8.

4. By the Variorum CUuiie* is usually designated a series of Latin Authors published in the
seventeenth century, with notes of various scholars (eum iioti$ variorum) ; commenced by C.
Schrevel^ 1051. They were printed at Leyden {Lugd. Bat.) chiefly in the octavo form. Some of

the series were printed several times, at different places, and of different sizes. The sDt in
quarto comprises about 100 volumes, and In octavo 430 volumes.

5. The Elifvir editions are those published by the celebrated printers of that name, in the
seventeenth century, st Leyden and Amsterdam. There were Ave brothers, all of distingi^ished
celebrity In the art The editions designated by their name are in the duodoeimo form, and are
celebrated for typographical neatness and accuracy. They are much sought after by aroaleura
In bibliography, and bring very high prices.

8MAMiBiUiaKr»pbiqMnrltiEditioMEU«TiriL Fir. I839L 8.

0. The Dtlphin Clauieo consist of the Latin authors prepared in the latter part of the seven-
teenth century for the use of the Dauphin or heir of the crown of France {in utnm Delphini).
The plan originated with B. P. Huet (cf. Lond. Qjtart. Rtv. I v. HI), who, with Bossuel, was
appointed by Louis XIV. as a preceptor to the Dauphin. Besides critical observations on par-
ticular words and passages, these editions were furnished with a sort o( running nou or ordo^ to
exhibit In easier Latin the author's sense.— A complete set was sold at the Rozburghe sale in
1813, for above £500 —The set In quarto is usually bound in 05 vols.

7. The Bipontine editions are those published by a Typographic society originally established
at DeuZ'PonU (called In G^erroan Zieef-BrUeken^ in Latin Bipontium)i in the last century. The
first work in the series was printed in 1779. The society continued their labors without In-
terruption until about 1705, when the French troops took possession of the place, and their
presses and magazines were seized and eonyeyed to Metz. The company determined to con-
tinue their impressions in Sirasburg (^rjrentoratum) ; and finding this a more favorable location,
at length, In 1798, fixed their establishment here, and from that lime prosecuted their work with
renewed activity. The Bipontine editions have scarcely any annoutions ; but the text is care-
fully corrected, and to each author is prrflxed a JVotttia Ltteraria, giving an account of his life
and works, of the previous editions of such as had been published, and the translations of them
into living languages. The volumes of both the Latin and Greek authors are in the octavo form.

A eaialo«u« aod deMrlplhw of Uie cdltiou tamed pmkMwIy to IBIl, li altachKl to Na V. of Um Clauieil JeumL Cf. XlUittng
8«ppl. ill. (o lUrlct, p. 11, u cited S 299. 8.

8. In the year 1818 was commenced, by A. J. Valpp, as printer and editor, a collection of the
Latin Classics, incorporating both the DnlpHn and the Variorum editions, and giving the varioua
readingB^ nnd also the lAterSria M'otitia from the Bipont editions continued to the present time.
The execution has been in a high degree satisfactory. The collection, as issued, furmed 141
vols. 8.; but was subsequently divided into 159 vols., the Small Paper, and 185 vols., the Lar^e

82 3 I 649

660 APPENDIX.

Pi^^. The work was eondueted under the patrooafe of Ihe Prince Regent of England, and
was aometimes called TH* RtgenVB Kdition.—\\ la Important to diatingulah between Vmlpfa edi-
tion, Juat deacribed, and another edition of the Latin authora, previoualy commenced under the
name of 'The Regent'a Edition,' which conaiata of M vpla. I8mo., edited by Dr. Cervs, and
beaatifully printed. Cf. CUmm. Jcur. ixW. S13. *

1^. A very good collection of the Latin Claeeica, ia that of £em«ir«, publiahed in Paria, 18IO-18n,
atyled BiblUfikeea CUttiea Latina, ou CoUeetion de$ autturt CluMunut Latint^ avec dea Commen-
talrea anclena et nouveaux, dea Index Complete, te Portrait de cnaque Auteur, dea Cartes Geo-

Eiphiquet, etc. Par NicoLAa-ELoi LEHAtBE, ProfesnMr d« Poetie ImHiu k la Faealt^ dea
ttrea, jSeadtmU de ParU. It conaiats of 143 Tolumea in ocfv*.

10. Some yeara aince a collection of the Latin authora, entitled ficrinferca JZenMiii, was com-
nenced in Boaion. The works of Cicero and Tacltna were published (tS vole. 11^ and then the
work waa suspended, we believe, for want of aatisfactory patronage.

11. The cheapest collectlbn of Latin and Greek Classics, and one which can eaailT be pn>-
cared, is that of TIsucAattz (printer) of Leipeic. HIa Corf^ia Poetarum C/r^eorum baa been cHed
already (( 47 1. 2). Both this and hla Corpus Jivetor. Prog. Ortecorum have been atereotyped, and
aiao-hia collection of Latin AutkorB, in a very email duodadme form. They con|ala only the text ;
but this ia cnnaldered aa very accurate, and the edition Is much ealeemea.

IS. Ka/py'a School Clasric* are only a series of such authors or portinna of authora aa are mora
eommonly used in iSchools and Seminaries. They are accompanied with Engliah notea and
Questions fur Examination, prepared by varioua edltora, and pnbliabed In a uniform sise. The
design includes both Greek and Latin authora ; and the work. In progreaa in 1839, appeaia to
have been well received in England.

18. In 16S4, a collection of Greek and Latin authora waa commenced at Leipaie by ToAun
printer, under the care of /. Bekker aa editor. It Is in ISImo, with excellent tvpe ; the text la
considered aa pure ; with a preface to each author, and notea at the foot of the page. Tha
work, atlil in progreaa in 1840, la aold In London aa BUek 4* Jlrwutron^'s collection.

14. The collection of Orttk CUuks by Jaeobe 4* Rogt haa already been mentioned, ) 7. 1.

^ 574. There are also Collectiona of Translations of the classical authors, some of
which it may be acceptable to the student to find mentioned here, ahhough our linuta
will not allow a notice of the individual works comprised in them.

1. Three coliectiona of Otrman translationa are recent.— That under the care off. F. C. OartsI
waa commenced at Munich, 18SS, in 13mo; Including Greek and Latin authora. — The Prtuzlmn
collection was commenced In 1897, published by iUfdtjf, In lOmo ; Including Greek and Latin
authors. Many of the translations are from good classical scholars ; they are all accompanied
with notes for general readera.-^The collection edited by nfel^ Otiandtr, and Sekwrnb, pub-
liahed by MetiUr^ at Stuttgart, was commenced in 18S7, In ISroo. This includea both Latin and
Greek authora ; the tranalatlona are all new ; many of them yerv good ; the tranalatlona of the
poets are metrical.— Theae collections were atill In progreaa in 1840.

S. There is a collection of Frnek tranalatlona of Latin Authors by C. L. F. Paiukeneko (pub-
llaher). entitled Btbllotheque Latine-Francaise, ou Traductions Nouvelles dea Auteurs Latins.
Par. 1825-39, in 180 vols. 8. The translationa are bv different authora. Belonging to it ia a
volume entitled PMl^ograpkit dts Cla»»iqu— Luting d'apres les plus beaux Manuscrita de ta
Bibliotheque Roy. de Paris ; cf. P. IV. $ J41. There ia also a volume entitled ZeeMifrafAis,
conuining busts and portraits ; cf P. IV. ^ 187.

3. A collection of Kngligh translations is given in tha CUggicMl FumUf Librarff, by Jmm (pnb-

liaher), commenced Lend. 1830, in 8vo. The CIcssumI Library ^ by the Meaara. Uarpera, New

York, in ISmo, ia composed of English translations republished.— Many poetical translationa are
found in coliectiona of Engliah PoeU; cf. CAaiaur*, cited ^ 348. S; Jbi4*r90n*g British Poets
cited i 49. 3.

II. BISTORT or CLASSICAL STUDIES.

^ 575. It would be useful to present here an outline of the history of classical studies
from the revival of letters to the present time. But the limits of the work forbid it :
we can only give some references.

L KcktiBf lo ttalf partieuUrij.— a IVmbOKM, Storia d«lta Lettanton llalluiL M td. Modtii, in7-M. • (h U>«aik 4.
•ho Flsr. ISOL SO vol*. &~«f: L. MurvltH, Aaitfeii d'ltelia dal priacipio dalF En Tolguv nne all' aaiio ITSa Milu, IHS-HL
18 fota. a. aim Willi a eonliuoation to tlia year IW7. rinase (Flor.) ISn. 40 tola.— /». L. Gmgutnd, Hhtoii* Undnlra d^bB^
j«aq«*k lilies aldcto iMlwlveawoL l>ar. 1811-19. 8 vola. 8. "ha diwoMi pdata uegViettd by TiT«boarlu.*'~fv: Jhaeoi, life 41
Lamtn dr* MadicL Li««q>. 1786. fl vela. 4. FbiL 1842. B toll. a->fr. Amm, Ufa and FHwtificala of Leo X Lirrrp. ISOa
4 vola. 4. Phil. 1808. ivoh. 8.-ilf»n, Travota of Thaodon tHtcaa. Lamd. I8B7. 8 vola. K^Diatkp, HiaL Bom. Ul (cHai

1 899. 7), in Iba Appendix. Cf. P. IV. ) I4S. I. ^8. Ralaiiac to Franet and EaflawL^Tba work ntiUad i7tJCiw« Lil»mind$

/a /VwKt (by (be BamiieHn»^.^mtrHm, DiM. en (ha latrad. of Laaroing lato Eoflaad, ia hia HiKary of Sng. i>bili|iL<-Aaia^
Daa gelehrla Eogland. BerL 1791-1804. 8 volt. 8.— A Sammartkmu Elafia OallenUB Stoe. bvL dodraa Ulialriwk (ad. Ah-

nmm). lata. 1782. 8 3. BeUtio( to GcnBaoy aad Botland.-/. N. Paquolf Mam. poor aarv. 4 Phial. Utt. da fKfhm. Ut§.

no. 8 voh. foi.->C. Burmtum, Trajadum Enidllom. TraJ. 1788. 4.-/. O. OuMt, Da pra(nwa haiaarilalia •todieram kt

Omnaaia. Roal. 1811. 4. 4. More geBanl, raUtiac to Mvmi eouBiriaa.-£bllam, lalrad. to tha Uiant. of Eorafte, te. ciM

P.IV. § 8& 1.— O. BmJtardy, Eaeyclepadie der Philolosi^ p. 395, aa cttod { 7. 1 !.-.« B. L. Brntn, Oaaehichtodm Sladjiam«Br
friaeh. «. i«m. Lilantur, eilad P. IV. ) 83. Tha lit voL cooialoa a feoanl ikatch of the fata of daMinU worki aod tba eoaditiim
of clmaical laaniaf duriag Uia middle aRaa, to tha cad of the I4lb ccDlory. Tha 8d vol. coataiaa the Hiribfy of ClaaMcal 9t«iia ta
llctS(hceBtury.-r.O.AeMom,Uttoi«i|tachiehta. GMU IBIX 3 vola. a lo § 388-377 of bia wafk, he tnafs of Uw hiatBty
ef cbaaical atodim ia Italy, Fraoce, Gannany. Nclhcrlands, and Engtaad ; makiaf two perioda. tha fint from A, D. 14A0 to I8BQ,
the Mooad from A. D. 16S0 to the time of hia wrilinf.— ^. SdOa (m eitad § 7. 9), vol. vi'u p. 361, at Ireata of iha ntmimcHm
of Graak laaraiof ioto Prance, Gemaay, and AaaRary, aod of the infltteaea of (he art of priatias ea ita pracroa.— Saa aim nlf
ivocea, P. IV. i tS.^Ct. likewiae, B. fitan, on Learned Sdiooto, In tha CkHttian aariMO, 1898, Na br Saptombar.

^ 576. It may be remarked that a more full and exact history of modem classical
ieaminf than yet exists is a desideratum. The biography of individual gdwlars must

p. V. BISTORT OF CLASSICAl STUDIES. 661

fnmiflh a great portion of the materials. We will here record the names of some of the
most eminent of those who have contributed to the advancement of classical learning.

(a) Italian: Pofflo (born 1360-dled 1459) ; Politian (b. 1454— d. 1494) ; C3. Merula (1490--
1494) ; Aldus Manutiut (1447—1516. cf. ^ 573. 2) ; I.andin1 (1494— 150t) ; Ph. Beroaldus (1453—
1505); P. Viciorius (1496-1585) ; Rnbortellua (1516—1567); F. Ur«inui (d. 1600); L. Allatlus

(d. 1669) ; C. Biirnniaa, Facciolatua, Laniiiis, Muratorl, Corsinug, Spalletii, RoinI, Vulpina.

(5) French.— Til rnebUfl (151»— 1565); Lambinua (1526—1572) ; the Stephennea, cf. ^ 573. 3;
Miireins (l.')26— 1585) ; Badnua ; Caanubon (1559—1614) ; J. 8cali|;er (1540—1609' ; 01. Salmaatutf
(1588—1653); Rignlliua, Morellus, Longolina, Piihoeua. Paas(>ratiu8, T. Faber, Dbcier; Bouhier
(d. 1746); Gipr>«ronlua, Brntfer, Valvfilus, HHrdiiin, Salllnr, Cotelnrius, MonifHUcon, Villphrtine,
Larcher (1726—1812), Balln, Barthelemy, BuriRny, Auger, De Brnases, Vauvilliera, Villoiiion

(1750-1805) ; J. B. Gail (1755—1829), ice. (c) In Nelherland a.— Eraginua (1467—1536) ;

Douza (1545—1604); J. Lipaiua (1547—1606); H. Junius, If. Groiiua, J. Meurshia, O. Ileinalua,
K. HHnslua, C. f«chrevel, A. Popma, G. J. Voisiua, I. Vosains, P. Scrlver, J F. Groiiovhia
(1613—1672) : J. OronnviuB (1645— 1715) ; J. PerizonWia (1651— 1715) ; J. P. D'Orville (1096—1751);
Feith. P. Burinann, Grieviua, Drakenbnrch, Oudendorp, Broiikhuaiua, 6chulting, Ilnvercamp,
Ln Clerr, WRsseling, Ileniaterhuia, Valckf>n&.r, Lennep, Hoogeveen, J. Albert!, Ruhnken,

Wyitenbach, &c. (d) In G e rni an y.— Mriancihon ; Camerarius (1500—1571); Acidaliiit

(1567— 1.%95) ; Grutcr (1560—1627) ; F. avIburK, H. W.lf, J. Chriatoph. Wolf, J. Chriatlan. Wolf,
Barlhiun (Caspar von Barth, d. 1658) ; .M Neitnder. E. Hchtuid, Kuster, Carpznf ; J. A. Fabriclus
(1668-1736) ; J. M. Hensin-rer (1690—1751); J. F. Hfusineer (1719-1778); J. A. Ernesii (1707—
1781); C. F. Burner (d. 1753); Gestn^r; Wernadorf (1723—1793); Hevne, Reiski*, Brunek,
nithwelffh&uitt'r, M«rus ; Schneider (b. 1751) ; C. !<. Beck (1757-1832) ; Schutz (b. 1747) ; Heeren,
Manso, Jacobs; I. C. Harles (1738—1815) ; J. A. Wotf (1769—1824) ; DOrinR (b. 17.'>9) ; Gureniz
(b. 1765) ; EichstadKb. 1771) ; 6. L. Spalding (1762—1611) ; Hermann (b. 1779) ; Oberlin. Knpp,
A. Bflckh, F. II. Bothe, Ph. Butimann, G. F. Crenzer, Gi^rlg, A. Matlhic (b. 1769); F. Passow
(1766— 1»33); J. H. Voss a75l-l!J26); O. A. F. Ast (177(^1840) ; G. H. Schllfer (17M— 1840) ;

Wagner, Wieland, Weiske, Wetzel, &c. (e) Among the Engllab.- 1. Vossiut, Grabe*

Hudson, Beniley, Clarke, T. Ilearne, Cuninghaui, Gibson. Baxter, Hare, Wasse, Pearce, Davit,
(Creech, Johnson, Middle'on, Markland, Potter, Gaiaker, Barnes, Taylor, Stanley, Gale, Wella,
Winlerton, Robinson. Waltia, Muscrave, Hutchinson. Ettnsley, T. Morell, Dawea, Mattalre,
Warton, Toup, Tyrwhitt, Burgess, Oaizell, Parr, Bloni6eld, Valpy, &,c.

Fbr the Htm of tbcM meo, wa nay refer (n llw Si'ofropAJc UntvtnOk, eiiad ^ 7. 7 (rf), and like works.— Alio, cf. AmAordy,
aitbova cilad, } 675.— JSrario, Brar. Not (u died ( 299. &), p. 4S,m. and mUfnttg, SappL 111. p. IS,«. and eIm Harlm, Introd.
(n eilari ^7. 9), tpl. i. p. 71, M.— Bat wa add, in Uw Bast Mctioo, a aotlee of paitkalar Biocrapbiai, Inu the CkriMian Mmltm,
Jmt, 184a

1 577. ** Only a part of this honored class of men have had their liTes and labors portrayed
in a manner worthy of their fame, and not a few of their memoirs are inaccessible to the mass
of readers. In consequence of being in costly critical Journals, transactions of learned societies,
or In larce biographical collections. Still there are many valuable biographies of such men that
may ba fiiund without much trouble. There are some cheap collections, of which the best are
Lind*mann*t Viiae Duumvtrorum, or the Lives ofHemsterhuys and R u h n k e n, written
by Ruhnken and Wyltenbach* : Frot3ek*r*ii Eloquentia Virorum, &c., or Eloquent Biographies
of Learned Men, containing Re lake's Life by Eek; Life of the same by Moruaf Life of
J. A. Ernest I by .^. O. Knutti; Funeral Oration on the death of Grsvius by P. Bur-
mann ; Ruhnktn*9 Eulogy of II e m s t e r h u y s j R e i s k e's JiuioViofrapky and G e s n e r's Life
by fnMfd: and /VMd«si«nii'« Vitse Hominum Eruditissimorum, £c., embracing the Life of
Wyttenbnch by Mdkiu ; the Life of R e i s k e by Morus ; and the Lives of C h r i s tf G e I-
I e r t and J 0 c h e r by Emetti. These three collections, making only five volumes in the whole
and coating about as many dollars, are generally recommended to German studenu, not only on
account of their internal value, but on account of their pure Latiniiy. A fourth collection In
German bv HofmoMn, of which one volume has appeared, containing the lives of Jacobs,
B 5 c k h, Z 6 1 1, and Politian, promises to add much to our scanty stock of this species of
biography*.

We subjoin a list of the most valuable leparate biographies of distinguished classical scholars.
Monk*t Life of B e n 1 1 e y Is well known. The Biographical Sketch of B 0 1 1 i g e r by Am ^on
has considerable interest to the lovers of ancient art. The Life of Erasmus has been writ-
ten in French by Bwrifnp in English by Jortin, Knifkt, and Bu/Ur, and in German by Hiu;
and best of all by A. MOlUr. The Life of F a b r i cT u s by Amiar, and of F o r c e 1 1 i n I by
FtrrarU are both in Latin. There is a Life of O e d i k e, in German, by SekmidL Besidea
EnustVt Life of G e s n e r, there are two others bv MichiUis and BautmeUter. There is a Latin
Eulogy of D o u s a by Swirtnitek^ and another of D u k e r by SextM. Of the several biogra-
phies of 6 r o t i u s, we wHl mention only that by ButUr in English, and that by Luden in Ger-
man. The Life of H e y n e bv Hufm needs no commendation. C o r a y's Life by d« ft'tunsr,
in Freneb, is the best. There is a Life of I. J. H o 1 1 1 n g e r in German by the celebrated Brtmi^
and one of K 5 p p e n by SiiscsnMam. Of M a n s o there Is a brief biography In Latin by Pot-
«•«, reprinted in his Opuscule, and another in German by King: Bf e I r o 1 1 o's Life by Brunn^
and that of R e i z by ITitasr, are both in German. There are three Lives of M o r u s, two In
Latin by Bttk and H8ttfn§r, and one in German by Voigkt. An account of the new and admi-
rable biography of B. <3. N i e b u h r was given In our last nnmber*. The Life of P a s s o w, -by
FTocAJer, Just published, is highly commended. There is an excellent Biography of R e u c h I i n
in German, by Mofferkof; that of Oehm has less value. Rhodomann's Biography waa
written In Latin by lanf, and in German by VolhTtk. That there ia a Life of R u d d I m a n,
by Ckalmert^ hardly needs to be mentioned. Pa»to«*t Life of J. G. Schneider is reprinted in
bis Opuscule. The memory ofSchweighbnseris preserved by DaUtr in a Latin Memoria.
RtAb has recently written a brief, but admirable Life of 8 1 g o n i u s in Latin. Beside the old
Latin Eulogy on Perizoniua by SekuUing, there is one of recent date by JTreieer. The Lift
of S p a I d In g by fV^Uh is a good specimen of biography. For the Lives of the S I e p h e n s e s,
we refer the reader to what is said In No. XIV., p. 535, of this Review. There is a Sketch of the
Life of Voss by PsnZm, and a recent Bit*grapny by Ddring. Wakefield's Memoirs were
written by himself. Of J. A. Wo i f there ia a fuU Biography by liis son-in-law, iHFrcs, whidi
iacenaored by the critics.

66d APPENDIX.

B«sM« tbMe Mparato wf>rlM, there are many excellent blofrmphieal aketcliee eootaliw^ \a
larger publicallone. In tbe Ztitjrtnossm^ a mafazine for coDtemporary biography, there art
fmxl autobiographiea of C r »tt z e r and Biittmannn and biographiet of 6 a r v e, C. B u r n ey,
For son, and Bouterwek. In fKvI/'* Analecta are short skeicbea of J. Taylor, Larcber,
Bentley, Poraon, and others. In JuMti^t Hiaiory of Heasiau Scholar*, Authors, and Artiatt
there are autobiographiea of the t wo O r i ro ni a. A sketch of the Life of P. B u r m a n n Is found
in fVftUnbaek*t Opuscule ; a Life ofCasaubon by Mvtovecn in his collection of Casanbon*s
Letters ; sketches of D i s s e n*s Life and Character by Tkiertek^ fVeUker and JT. O. JtmUr fa
J>iit§n*B Smaller Miscellaneous writings ; E i c h s t & d t's Autobiograpbv in his Annals of tbe
University of Jena ; 6. F. G rotofe n d*s Autobiography in his History orthe Hanover Lyceuin,
or gvmnasium; O. C. Harles'a Life in Sethode and JF'riMfnKanii** Miscellanies ; C. Heosla-

te r's Life in 8t«b0d$*» Archives ; P a r r*s Life in the Annual Biography^ Vol. X., 1(<96 $ P o r s o b*s
ife in the KOnlgsberg Archives, by Erfurt ,* 8 c h e 1 1 e r's Life in SchUehUfrvWs Necrologue for
the nineteenth century ;Rcbloaaer's admirable autobiography in the ZeUgtnotmn^ new series;
tbe Life of 8 e h H t z by Jaceis in the same ; 8 y I b u r g's Lire by Crmcisr in tbe New Acts of tbe
Latin Society, Jena ; and a sketeb of V i 1 1 o I s o n's Life in fVfOtmkach't Opuscula."

1 AaoedlMl «bridcMii(or Omm !!««» wHta » dutch of WjtiMtach, ud as u«aat of tiM Mheol of phOoku ia Hoiltdt, ■
t\wm^B.B.Edwmrdt, ia tto CImttical Btndiat, p. 119, ai ciM ) & 4.— In the him nlwM b aa accouat of Ifae adMab
nl Oamaa fhiMatf by B. fiMri, a^ a valaaMa talaetioa ftvn Ow eonmpouatuea of Bahakca. WTneohach, SebSti, aad FmHim ;
_!..- „- ^,_.-_ ..--.-..„ -, ...„ ^^ — ...^ _,.-,-_ ^g^f^ H^fmmm, lahiwhiHar barahaUav HMiiiiW,

^ 578. We cannot forbear to congratulate the student in view of the progress which
classical learningis making in our country. After havine been almost banished (c£
Miller, as cited P. IV. $ 29. 3), it has been greatly reviveaduring the last thirty years.
The names of Buck minster, Pickering, Stuart, ropkin, Kingsley, Everett, Robmson,
Anthon, Packard, Woolse^, Felton, Beck, Crosby, and others, are now too familiarly
known to need our remarking upon what their example, writings, or instructions have
accomplished in effecting the change. The very just conviction, that classical learning
will always be a handmaid to evangelical religion, has awakened greater ardor in the
pursuit. And while such eminent classical scholars as Stuart, Sears, Stowe, Alexander,
B. B. Edwards, Thompson, Howe, Hackett, Smith, &c. are connected with our Theo-
logical Seminaries, we may apprehend no relapse of the interest. Theolo^cal Semi-
naries are named especially, because (aside from the fact that a majority of the teachen
in the principal Colleges are drawn from them) the influence of clergy meii in our coun-
try bears so directly upon the subject of education. Let these seminaries send forth
to the churches a succession of mmisters who feel that classical leaniing is of httle
value, and no efforts of individual genius can, in the present state of things amoiig na,
create a high or general interest in its pursuiL

INDEX OF GR'teEK WORDS.

A

'A0ang, 412
'AfinKioKOs, 385
*A0aii0dKtWTa^ 190
*A0i(in^i, 163
'Adpa^^oi, 403
Afifioaaiaffpa, 403
•Ay«ifl9ep>t»i, 190
'AyaV«»^. 147, 222,

383, 389
•Ay^Aai. 189. 192
'AytXwrtM, 192
'AytXorv, 192
'AyKOtva, 202
•Ayirtfw. 200
•AyXaca, 127
'Ayw/ioJ, 147, 163
'Ayopai, 17. 32. 33,

36. 183
'Ayapaio;, 109
'Aypiwwa, 168
'Ayporfya, 102
*Ayxi^«CP«, 156
•Ayx«m£a, 220
•Aywy*. 189
'Ayi» hrira^tdi, 174;

tiavipiag, 171
'Aywvcr /a9«(rMo2, 336

M,173
'Aywnrra), 175
'AywMJira/, 336
•AyitfHPflirai 175, 336
'AywwdmK. 171
*A^iViiiyrtM(. 546
*Aiaftai, 400
•AA5i»0«yfa. 119
•Ai&(. 214
•A^.|f, 99, 100, 221
'A^yoToi, 183, 199
'Aao70>',160
'A^uN^ia, 168, 169
'A^yia(Tfi4(, 169
^AitatfUta, 169
•A««rcroc. 187
'Aw^oyia, 187
'A^, 424
'Ahvtfui, 424
'Aftfi^. 104
'Ai0ify<u, 28
'Afl^Mia, 171
'Ad^KiT. 28
•AflXjrol, 175
'AffXo«roi, 175
•A«X»K, 172
A/yc(<ku, 188
At'yi^cof, 104
A/ytV. 104
AlOiy;//, 204
A7cW. 190
AiKfy^tttra. 207
A&X«f, 113, 116

Mtptnt, 160
Aro^/jats, 381
Axavfcv^rcu, 336
'Afroi, 220
Airirriica, 163
Airia, 185
AtrteXoyMJ), 537
AiXiia>M79s, 159, 199
Aix/i^ 153
Ai^i, 176
'Airartt»i», 202
'AKun9p(6aif 162
'AKarrpa, 218
'A«y«r^, 196
'A>r/iwi», 108
'Ajr/<^aff7«y, 108
'Ajc6tn-(0», 153
'Aicdyri9(f, 173
'Affpdrur/ia, 204
'AKpoanis, 588, 593
'AKpo/3o\tOTa\, 194
'AKpodma, 149, 199
'AKfmeifaia, 202
'AvpdXiOiM, 389
'AKpoitipaXia, 332
'Airpdi^ia, 200. 204
'AxptfiraXif . 29
'A*p«rnvcf, 449
'AicpoirrAfa, 200
'A/rpatr^^a, 204
A/trala, 178
'A«^, 28
'A«ar«, 153
•a«*^ 153
^AXa^aarfMS, 401
'AXoXay^idf, 198
'AXci>/<ar«, 210
FaAEIOI. 344
•AX<£imu, 210 *

'AXetimuMf, 210, 423
'AXfirrpwfiovrtta, 168
'AXffiirfipni, 153
'AX<(&mo(, 101
'AXcfi^^uira, 454
'A\es dpvKni, 262
'AXctipo/tayTtfa, 167
'AXi,% hrropla, 500
AXfvVtf, 173
•aX^. 172
•AXf ^Jot, 207
'AXr^pef, 172
'AX«Ttu, 173
'AXimSpciyr, 173
'AX(3a, 112, 168
'A^a^^Mv, 131
'AfiidwrnKf 400
'Afu/irv^ PaotXkof, 351
"A/uref . 208
'An-piphnrrpw, 158
•Afi^iy€iKif, 107
'A/i^irrv*Wa, 183

3i2

'A/i^urrwrurft oOXa, 174
'A/i0iJnroc, 194
|A^n]p&rroXoff, 421
* Ai^iirpvfunt, 200
'A/i^p£^, 213, 214
•Ai^a^a%(^, 210
•Av(i/?anK, 172
'AvayKoSov, 187
•Ai^dyX»^, 381,384
'Ai'ayKJaral, 337
^AvaoitOfUMTi, 106
•Ayo9it/iaro, 148, 389

'AVOKClOVf 31

'Ay(urXtvoiraXi7, 173
'AvJurpiffv. 181
FanaKTEI. 344
lAvafopcdw, 209
'Avaoftaxotf 204
'AifVaiToJo«d>r7Xof, 180
'Aifipanodoif, 159
'AHJpera, 192
'Aw)jwdiT«y, 389
'AvdpoXij^ta, 186
'Av^Wn;, 210
|Aye^c, 128
'A»i-<pta3ovSf 220
'Ay«//i6f, 220
[Ai-flftnTipia, 168, 169
'Avficonipicoy, 61
'AWVxurta, 212
"Aj^f , 401
*A*»A»f, 171
'Ayraio;, 421
'Airrepoiff, 106, 400
'Awypa^if, 182
'AvrXia, 200
'Ayrpa, 162
'Ain-wf, 194
'AntUfNo-ta, 185
'AfiMF, 196
'Afovu, 331
•A»«J»t, 327, 449, 450
'Airaywy*, 186
'Airaro^pta, 168
'Aira6Xia, 220
'AmiXuirtK, 128
'Antff, 123
'Aw^dfl^i, 202
'AtmUtmii, 182, 212
*Aiio6vriipny, 209, 423
'Amdfnu, 189
'Ajro«^D(f(, 220
'Air&cXirrVf, 193
]AirtfKpo^, 541
'AitSXayof, 455
'AiroXarur&. 455
'AniurnimtOiiara, 506
'Air^rt^f*;, 216
'Ampluira, 338
'Airertixiff^, 198
'Air^TpoOTc, 136

*Aii«^9rai, 164
'Apaifori»Xos,.421 ..

•AA(?«Xai, 208 ^

'Afi0i\ji, 208
'Ap^i0<S»rw. 109
'Apyipta, 375
'A/>yti{pins, 182

'AfiY^lpOK»KttO¥f 213

'Ap^yioy, 221
'AJwtorayiraf, 184
'A/K(^ayof, 184
'Apuf, 105
*A^rupai, 162
*Apwnv, 204
'Apcrtia, 220
•Ap^a, 172, 220
'Ap/idrcca, 451
'Afyisya, 202
'Apyiiycoy, 412
'Apyievwrol, 202
'Apfrtvuf^, 216
'Ap/iorrw, 190
'Af^do-vvof, 190
^Aporpov, 212
'A^vpa, 214
'A/way«5, 203
'Apireumdy, 216
'Apirwiai, 128
•a^.220
'AfiiMbw, 220
'A/vcvuc^K, 412
"Apn^it, 101, 114
'Apri^v, 202
'Apnuwi, 193
'Apxay^i, 189
'Apvra, 190
'Ap%cioy, 160
'Apmtiat, 162
'ApKupei;. 162
'A/nCicpow^vif, 162
'AfiK^BkipOi, 172
•Apx««»^«»M'<ri|f , 203
'Apx<TcX(5inK, 262
'A/«c«TparXo«»f . 206
'A/wmj, 180
'Airdj^foy, 200
'A^eia, 186
^Atfitts, 216
'A«fcv»i', 217
'A<mivXof, 217
'AnXirrioASy, &;o. 536
'Aomuyia, 200
"Amri&i, ht\ 197
|A0vW, 153, 194
AartpomfHUj 95
'AirrfiaX(««tO(, 332
*Affrp&rtvm, 199
*Affip&o\H, 206
'AofiXior, 98
*A0faXro(, 412
'Ari^a, 178, 187

653

064

INDEX OF ORBKK WORDS.

'Ar«(^, 526
'Anpfa,166,192,2a4
•Ari^, 187
'ArfOKOs, 128
'Armrfr, 412
AiyowT&,ia, 246
AiM, 210
A«Xir^, 217
AiXnrptt, 217
AiX<k, 172, 216
'A«r4, 198
AintK606ahn, 462
A^ffpiroip, 190
A^rti^rfa, 119 A
A^^X*(, 199
A*Hfc<ft»wt, 323
AMxflwi», 178
Ain^ia, 170
'A^o/iucSrai, 192
•A^iy, 172
*A^<rax, 189
"A^ttrm, 200
*A^pe^ia, 168
•A^poA'n,, 105
•Ac-rw, 400
'AV^rtW, 3

B

Bafm, 209
m^Kat, 162
BoKXeta, 169
Bi<x<V, 109
BoXaveiMr, 429
BaX/Ttf, 172
Bairr«n^p(Oi', 210
mpoBpov, 187
BapePpofios, 217
B<Kra»{r«o, (Xrfeo), 348
BttraMK, 180
BatrtXuf, 150
Ba«X«i?f,170.181.207
BovMi'ra, 168, 240
Bari^, 172
Ba0, 214, 329
Bo^roy, 264
B^itXm, 163
Bu6iai9i, 190
BciAMtf. 191
•B/Xij, 153
BeXo/ioyrifa, 167
B«;«on^, 52
BH^a, 33
B^/tam, 186
Biip6XXioy, 401
B/|p«X>0f, 400
Bi0Xia iarpuch, 455
B(^t«9r7Jnf, 339
B()^i(Nn(inrX0f, 364
Bi/?Xroy, 333
Bi0\a»niyoi, 363
B(/7XiM-.SX7r, 364
Bi7?Xoj, 331, 333,363
BXa^rac, 208
BoQ(V»/i(eJV, 60
B60poe, 149
Boumipxttt, 192
BoXk, 202
B6,i0os, 168
Brf^Bf, 298
Bopeof, 128

Bi»r^, 212
Bo6ai, 189
BovOirai, 163
BpoXeiw, 33. 184 '
Bo6\ev9ts, 186
BeoXcvroI, 177
BnXsvrHpia, 32
Bp«Xcvr4pcoir, 184
BraXcvrutfy, 422
a»»X*, 177, 184
Bad;, 213

BenrTpo^.|A)r,329,344
Bpii0€ro^, 172
B^M^irral, 336
BpavpoMna, 168
Ii^wwtw, 176
Bpotmnrif, 16Z
B^i4VM,158
ftrfW, 187, 191
B6^a, 57
Bwier, 166
Bu^, 148, 160
Boifidf, rwr ifodaca, 87

raXoffrtfanowIa, 147
ra^qXia, 451
TofttiXla, 96
ro^i^Xihw, 61
r<vi^Xi»i ^col, 220
rVr. 206, 218, 220
Tarrpa, 200
roffTipi}, 167
raarpo/iayrtia, 167
rcwiiro^urfMra, 210
reviffta, 222
r^ir, 177. 189
r^HWK, 176
r<^6«rrai, 188
reponrta, 190, 192
Tip^p, 196. 198
Ttpw(a, 190
rA^opa, 200
Ffiwy^o^A, 519
rtxofi6foi, 192
rMMDyuri, 538
Tils nploiof, 455
Hyof. 125
ny)v«, 2i7
riy>Tf»avr4, 169
rtyypcw/idf, 169
rtyypw, 169
nyypifli, 169
rXatMRtnrif. 105
rX<rff, 213
rXfiJmr, 204
rXo^eiw, 332

rx«^^, 381

rXcSinrai, 496
ri'o^, 264
IV^rMM, 220
IV^aioj, 162
rVu0f nmiiw, 165
IVuVoi, 454
rva>/«k)v, 60
royvvcrttv, 147
Topyine, 130
roy>ytfvfoy, 131
Topyipa, 187
r/Miiori, 141

rp^f^iara ^oiyiccra,
328, 329, 344

rpAfifiara mfuia^ 626

TpattftoTsiq, 181, 182,
193, 458

Tpa^tttarucil, 338

r/N^an«>{, 338,496,
596

r/M^arurr^, 338, 366

OM^r»i', 332

rpo^, 186

rpo^, 409
rpa^i(, 332, 413
rpi^t, 207

rp*//, 132

WiK, 212
rM^wr, 38
WXitr, 154
IV^M, 335, 422
rviufondfCCKf 335
ruyiMn«m(a, 182
ri«^M9r<Kpi«v, 423
rvfu^aariKf 175
rp/cyivrur^, 335
rvfUftKol AyfMfts, 336
rpvai«e4oy, 159
VwaiKw, 159, 210

A
Aa*«w, 170
Aai>w!c, 129
Aaifioi^Xirirrax, 167
Aairpdf, 207
AoirruXtayXti^ia, 398
AoirrvXieyX^i, 405
AttrrtiXto^ai, 405
AdxrvXav a7pt, 173
AArroXng. 214
A<imS<pi,221
Ai^ni, 163
Aii^ii^«, 168
AofM^^opia, 451
Aci'Xir, 59
AciXu^, 204
AcriTMW, 204
AcnrMov^wrol. 338
Acdu^oo*!, 1%
Aarad»tF3CDc, 177
Aoraic. 191
^orw^, 186
AarorcorAptoi', 182
Acirar^, 182 •
Aaro^uvl, 60
A£XTtM, 333
AcX^F, 203
Arffof, 167
Afcrof, 207
A/pyia, 199

Acp/iiriMU v7«Xai, 332
Aat^. 187
Acr;»riip(Oir, 187
Aum»iMa6Tatf 189
Aex/ffOpa, 61
A/iX<a, 168
^fiofiXP*, 181
Air/(irnip, 110, 112
Afffr^T^pia, 168
Ai|/ii|rpiA(, 61
Ai|/uAipara, 182
Air^uMpyol, 193

, 177. 178, 460
.. riw, 180. 181
Aqw, 112
^afioB/ta, 208
AiiyXv^, 381
Aiiyi^vic, 537
Ataypaipcif, 182
Aii^^. 150
Aittidtrev, 183
AtQ^ufura, 422
Aioftiinr, 221
AMUnrroi, 186
AuuT^ru^. 537
Atixrup, 109
AiaXc(if , 490
AtAXXwrqpcM, 186
AtOfiairriytagis, 339
AfOMpai, 183
Aiapac4, 190
AittncnNwrot, 459,468
AidoTvXtf, 421
AiaoX<!p^. 172
AfaoXof, 172
Ai^cciy ipSiia, 463
AiiWiraXtat. 463
At^pCQioy, 213
Ai^po^of, 109, 451
AaVroXeia. 166
A&ax, 186
Arcoia, 221
Aurayuo2 Xtf>«(, 204
Auniirr«2, 185
AunMrrffpiw, 185

A(Kir, 117, 127, 180.

186
AfiffM, 154
Afcnw, 158
Aifiixtt, 194
Awrfoia, 168,169,336
Ai^rvovf, 109
Aiwwr^, 160
Ai^pOtdoccf , 496
Atoamaia, 167
Aumjpta, 136
A(dm(«ii|po(, 135
AnrXofftor^, 197
A(imp0r, 421
A£irrvva. 333
ActbXdv, 28
A((rmr, 173
Ai4%u,209, 331,364
AT^por. 153, 157
Ai^pi»^^, 172
Aiod^Xia, 183

AtURIMl', 185

Aiuftfaia. 184, 185
AiXv. 185
AMlini, 213
&OKtftttaia^ 181
A6Xm(, 109
A^XocK. 172
A^Aw. 202
^fidr, 170
A4mi^332
A^pora, 203
Aoparo^^, 194
A^pwff, 204
A^, 153; In, 197
Aflpvawm, 199
AMXtt'a, 187

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS.

656

Ao^Xoc, 159, 180, 207
^itpoSikn, 153
^pdfta, 457
/^paxi^, 184, 213
lkffr:avtif6poi, 194
iVerovoy, 203
iWf. 172
£^f6€i fiavriKoif 164
AvfMvirat^ 188
AwkNkira^;ioi, 172
A6cdp0i, 172
A'iiuca 9cot, 87

165

Aciidei>i'aro;, 95
A<upa, 148, 207
Aoipoiucia, 186

"Eyirawrun^, 412
'Byrammly, 332
*Ey»rX»F/«a, 185
'RywiXia, 200
*KYK6f/^fta, 209
'Eyvca^i<i<n>(iro2, 204
*Ey«ij^ioi«, 451
•Eyv*/>t*ov, 196
*By<oy, 153
"Eyxwpca, 356
•E&oXia, 200, 422
"Efcipa, 208
•Ed.^, 177
E^XAfoy, 454
BiVar, 61
EiioMuci, 383
Kr^i', 187, 389, 413
EAortMT, 204
EiXfic0»ca, 102
EiX^fiara, 332
EiXwrtf, 189
Ei^a, 209
EiVri^ec, 189
Eipeo-tbiyoi, 451
EipiJ.'.j, 117,127, 197
E/<7(i/yeX(a, 186
Ewoxff, 405
EiV^vT^, 182
15«<T,^opai, 182
'Fjcar6fi3aia^ 168
'E<raro/</?aib>i', 60
TMT6ft0fi, 147
'Fjcar6ft0oia, 96
'Exrartf^crAjov, 29
'E«iroi»rapxto, 196
*Ery!»i«i, 220
*Fj«J6«a, 117
'BKn0SXoi, 101
*EffirX.f(rraf, 183, 190
*EcffXiiiria9rtK^ Irropfa,

545
'KtrnfuHi, 221
TRcXoycif, 182, 185
*E«rrari«o{, 167
"EcriuTtM, 196
■Bcrwni, 384
'£(^pa, 221
'EXarrK irri^Mf , 191
*FJ<aw$ijtov, 423
*BXafor, 212
EXaidiinrey($a, 147

'fiXinj, 412
'EXa^;7/?4Xfa, 61
'EXaij^nPoXww, 61
'EXryeta, 453
*EX«yoy, 453
'EXchoXk, 198
'EXcucrfyia, 168, 169
'EXc^dlyriMv, 412
•EXu«y, 208
•EXXawJIrai, 173, 175
'EXXirMJurdiov, 174
'EXX^wjy 0vv^ov, 183
'EXX(V?<a, 208
•EXo/ia, 212
•EXo/ioj, 217
•EVi^if, 176
*E^arai, 206
'Eftffania, 220
'E^ariTpioy, 198, 468
"E^X^, 198
•EviiffoXw, 196, 200
"iV^/iiX^m, 458
'E^iwipia, 537
'EV«Xaipoi, 190
'iiflwtoffra, 216
'Evdyur^a, 149
'El'ayiafiara, 222
*^i'a^, 199
•Ewferfv, 186
•E«kic«, 181, 185
'Ei/OomiaoToif 167
'Evt'omf/il;, 174
lEi'i'ara, 222
*Ewd^ii«{, 60
'Ei'MdirvXov, 29
"Ef Ilp0rai«r&>, 185
'Ey€irviov, 167
•Ei^, 105, 119
"E* ifytamti, 185
'EyM/ioKa, 197
'Ewria, 208
•EfftSpai, 422
'EftXiy^, 197
'Eferoffro}, 180
•EfjjjJoi, 189
*E{i»y*wif , 496
'F^tiYnrtKh, 338
*Ee<»x>?, 405
'EfdXtu^i, 167
•EfVt, 209
*E:r(SacXov, 190
'Eirawdr, 451
•EToX|«rf, 198
'E7a6Xia, 220
'Enor^ikoy, 457
'EarsvvoffTOi, 189
•Ejri/?iflpai, 198, 202
'Eri^arai, 202
•Eri>i«, 136
'Eviypafc/iara, 199,

343, 455
'EnYpaftLl, 222
'Biriypa^rf, 182
"ExtiuKTtKis. 324
•EffuJtffiff, 336
'Erf^cnrva, 206
*Fjrl AeX^iyfe.), 185

'E:riVHf(* ^
*E.Ti9aXa/iia, 451
'E>ri0aXafitoy, 220

'E.Ti$niia, 2122
'EiriVXifpst, 220
'ETtiraiiroi, 200, 202
;E»«X«pxf«, 197
'EiriXot/xia, 451
'E;ri AVKOO, 186
'E>ri/(axfa, 197
•Eir./i«X.»nii, 170, 174,

221
'EjtI Mirrix»o, 185
'Eirtyuiov, 451
'Erio^ra, 163
'Eiri naXX(u)('u, 185
"Exif^niia, 460
'E^iffciW, 200
'Eirfcij^a, 329
'Eirwifopof, 216
|E»iariT77f, 183, 184
'EirwroXot i^rural,501
'EirurroXcdp, 203
'ER-nrroXtfypif^, 381
*E>r(raypa, 197
"Brird^iOf, 489
'Ejrfwwt, 202
'ErirpM, 200
'EriTTXMWff, 220
*Earo^eXia or'Eiru^sXia,

185
*Eir*mn, 170
"Ews, 453
ISsnopaywi, 87
"ISxra 0O0(3y ao/urtfriov,

338
•E;mfcW*»P, 216
'Brcyls, 209
•EjTwirr^i, 188
'En>r^, 202
'tViawf, 157, 206
"E^wrw, 126
y^y&vn, 105, 119
'Ejvyarrural, 171
'EV»yarif, 105
'F4»er«<, 202
•E^/iol, 202
•l!V«r?>f«, 32
•HV»o:«"'f, 29
•EpcAOfcior, 29
'IV>^i'Kwt, 128
*SV»v, 115
*Epttm«*, 339
nEVwof, 160, 222
"^a, 200, 384
'E^^M», 384
'E^/iaia, 168
'E^aiop XxflBff, 384
•EVviara, 208
•Ep/xirp«X*, 384
'E,^(, 108, 384
•EV»'i*rir^, 189
'E^;, 106
'Epwnra ^iXij, 455
'Eodif^a, 209
'Effiripifffta, 204
•B<Trr«, 113,212
'Effrtaaif, 182
Eirriar^oy, 210
*E«rr(drwp, 206
'E0Xapa> 212
*E<ncape«p, 203
'EoXurdicoXXftv, 332

*Erafpa, 106
'Era;>ai, 220
'Erepo<oii/(i»'a, 454
'Ercpo/iiaXoXot, 180
*Ero/ioXoyu(dy, 499
EuayyxAiff^ avd&i^if ,

272
EiBvun, 181
EvdiMi, ISO
E»cri«A, 451
Ev^Aiti, 128, 168
Eo/ioXridai, 162
Bi,^n, 200
Bu*^ia, 117, 127
^yopxps, 164
EVff* 128
E6n0hs, 164
E«7mX9j, 421
Evr^il, 126
Eixai, 147
Eti^poa««j, 127
'EM»5, 171
•E>«Tta, 168
'Efjyarioffa, 501
"EphTfHs, 209
"E^^rai, 185
'EAii/?«oir, 422
'Fjpn0iKdiff 422
"E-Au/?**, 189, 190
'E-A^yiKTfs, 186
"BM^fP^, 536
'F4naXrrK, 167
'Ej^tinnoy, 266
'E^ra, 197
'Ejhipftoif, 190
'B^opoi, 170, 190
'B^w^/7, 218
'ExirXii, 212
'B^nna, 204
•E;if, 59, 114

z

Zevyfraf, 177
Zed nanp, 95
Zrfff, 94, 95
Zrff oT^yiOf , 100
Zr^pof, 128
Z;?^a, 186, 191
Zi^r^/iara, 496
Ztry&, 200, 202
Zwyfa, 96
Zuyrrai, 202
Zirytrf, 197
Zeydf, 196
Zc^ypo^ia, 409, 410
Zu»ypa^uf^, 409-
Z«^4f ,.fX«f, 191
Z.Ji.1,, 153, 208
ZuurUpcs, 200
Zt*rTp©v,209

H

'H(S»yMo{, 506
■Ha^,344
lSXuani,202
'HXiafa, 185
'HXiarroZ, 181, 185
•HXiot. 100, 114
HXwrpOwMff 60
•H^,59

666

mDBX or GREEK WORDS.

•H^ Vayn, 115
'Hfupoip6,,oi, 199
[HjiiwnMf, 214
'HfttBtapoMteiff 194
'UfUrfuratOf, 403
•HyiffW, 153
'HTCrtfvKOvta, 167
•Hpa, 96
•Hpaia, 96, 168
H^iM irvXai, 222
l^ioi', 222
•Hpwa, 222
*H^;<rma, 168
*H«^ivroc, 107
•Hvr«. 176
1I<^, 59, 114

e

eoXa^rrot, 202
eaX(i/iO(, 220
eoAcia, 126, 127
OoXXoi, 147
eoXAo^poi. 171
OiivaTtK, 130, 187
6apyi|Xifaw, 61
OaoXuW&ii, 162
Oca) 0*^02, l64
Ocarpoy, 33, 422
6r/iiXiop, 202
e^K, 117, 168
Qn^nov, 412
OEOI AABAIOI, 124
dcoi ol /leyuXoi, 87
OsoXBycrav, 176
esoftmimiaf 166
OflifiiiiTtif , 166
e»fivfa, 31
OcvirpdTCc, 164
eioop)«2, 162
OcpaJicvrir^, 537
OqMrrpio*', 209
ew/ioO^ai. 181, 185
eto/iol, 188
e*ffiio<pop€iO¥t 171
ec9/iof$^ia, 112, 166,

170
e»f0»^p6pot, 112, 170
eewJ, 220
eebipurA, 176, 183
eccdp^t, 164, 174
e«io,, 222

enfHwch, 454

Oqosia, 135
BJlTti, 160, 177
6pa>rra(, 202
ep^M(, 202
6p4>«;, 221
ej-fi'op, 157

ef«i7K0Mr '{OfrVN, 221

6f(yK<%, 222
epl6a^, 206
Opi'f, 208;

ebt^poirO&u^fK, 180
eptfwf , 157, 212, 337
efcXXat, 128
e«/<iXir, 458

effitV<'« 163
e<«s-, 147
e<p«, 9,10

O^prtf, 196
evp€o^6f»t, 194
eppf<k(, 210
e«ri«i, 147
eva^, 162
edrat, 162
SiOpaKiou, 198
OJpaf, 153, 194

I
l«Vf. 170
liXeuai, 221
'la/i^or, 451, 462
1<Knri(, 400
•larpdf, 335
'I«tf. 403
'liatoi, 95
•ItpA, 28. 160
,lifA fSXayf, 320
.Upcioi, 162
dspstop, 163
•leprif, 162
•I«pe*f, 449
'hpoitiaffKoht, 162
*Iip^vXoi, 163
*leponayrtTa^ 167
'I(p»/u^/ic«v, 163
'My. 117
•lepoTCioi, 162, 170
'Uiooffxoirfa, 167
•IV«n»Xi'«. 186
'Icpovpyrt, 162
•Lpo^inw, 162, 170
'Upo^avriK, 170
'I<pofiwI<fef, 162
'Lnririo;, 95
Ttpm, 200
'iXof^. 163
'IXarrtKi, 163
TA,, 197
*1^, 173, 199, 202,

208,213
%&Ttov, 208
'Ii^«l», 412
•I4f, 153, 412
'lo^Xoi, 451
'Itnciaipa, 102
'linrayp<r«n, 190
•lir«iyt*yoi, 194
'ImrSincKi 194
'Iinrap:^ia, 197
Imfocot, 196
'Iwirewf, 98
•Lnnrf , 153, 177, 190,

194
'Iinrfoj itst^w^ 383
"Imdipofioi, 38
*IinroX6rcfa, 29
'Itnroro^^af, 194
Iniruu, TO i^\ 193
Tp»«ff, 189
>f, 115
leSfua, 175

•Io»^iT]Pir«, 383
'looT^poppos, 190
*Ln-ra, 202
'l9r«/^dVi 212
'lerroa&nj, 202
loTtnroosf, 218
'IM(, 202, 218

IraVJf, 359
'lx5«/iainT*«, 167
•IxWf, 403
'i€j/?art0(, 451
Iw*-*?, 326
'Wia, 499

K

Kaiiamf, 184
KaV(«t 329
Ka<)oi. 184, 214
KAiof, 214
Kodap^, 147
KaBiSpa, 169
KoOcrqp, 263
Kai66at, 191
Kaiirlo;, 128
KaXi0ioy, 170
K<SXa^, 332
KaXXtypi^i, 333
KaXXiAnr, 126
KaXo/?arw, 244
KiXoi, 202
KdXirat, 221
KoXv^of, 413
KdXtnrrpa, 206, 218
KoXeodwr, 173, 202
K<S/ii}X«(. 203
Ka/nrr^p, 172
Ka^if^^i, 172
Kaveapot, 207
KaMtfv, 172
Karvo66Ktif 210
KairvoiiainTta, 167
K&pa0o(, 403
Kap^arivof, 208
Kapx^wi', 207
Kopvcia, 168
KaraffaBiOs, 54
Kara/?Xirur4i 173
Xara/7oX4, 206
K«raypa^, 193
KardXayoc, 193
KarmrMroi, 198
Karmrovrfff/idr, 187
Karaoroffif, 193
Karo^y^or*, 202
Kara^porroi, 194
Kanryofioi, 186, 488
Kdrmrrpa, 209, 212
Karoivdin}, 209
Kawrla, 208
Kaw^a, 413
Ka»i%ioy, 263
Kxada;, or K«^^,

187,191
Kotpowk, 178
K«p6^\0r, 206
KcXewrr^, 203. 283
KfXvm, 154, 172
KiinifHa, 223
KcMrd^ia, 191, 223
Kiyrvrts, 191
KivTYwy. 266
Kipaia, 202
KtpafittiOs, 32, 339
Kcpo^eur, 263
Kepdftiof, 214, 263
K^f-K, 187
K^, 208, 217, 297

Kipara, 196. 202, 332

Keparii^, 217

Kcpdrioy, 214

KcpovyiOF, 95

KepaBiiee«M:ei«v 176

KepSuof, 109

K<prtikf , 422

KqtKit, 218

K^/ia. 213

K£podX»i, 202

K<»rpw9i(, KcDT]p»v,413

Kc^4 AnrM», 206

Kiprat 'A^ >io0r, 169

Kilpes, 130

Ki7poypa^'a. 412

Ki7p»/(ayrxia, 167

KI1PONO£, 330

Ki?p»crMy, 197

Kqpo{, K4pniny, 148,
150. 162, 170,
181, 197. 207

KiyK\i6ts, 185

K(9^. 216

KiciKWf, 208

Ktft^anw rtiXHt 29

KiovipViv, 330

Ktr»a0api, 412

K(v6pa, 217

KiVm, 212

Kkfto^^i, 170

KX4&, MyNM, 147

KXtt^, 220

KXr^, 210

KXtKij, 126

KXn//odpa, 185, 240

KX9«^MV, 168

KXi)p»oi. 488

KXqpa/iarrcta. 167

KXqpoi^^, 220

KMp»r, 220

KXi|p»T«r, 180

KX,ri|pe5. 185

KX^.y, 185

laipans, 198, 210.
422

KXr^Oi, 206

KXii^, 212, 221, 303

KXMri«, 197

KXw^, 157

KXoidj. 187. 191

KXwdu, 128

K^fiiniits, 153

Kytoim. 148

K<y|. 170

Kd6bpm, 208

K^p>«r. 176

KoiX/^dXtfv, 197

KaOj}, 200

K0l^, 60

K»rXoy, 422

Kof/iirr^ir, 233

Kafn,, 212
Kmtum', 210
KoXooooi.383
K^fiif, 208
Koyurrnptov, 423
K^KToi, 202
KoiTo^^i, 194
Kox);, 191. 196
Kfina, 214, 329, 363

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS.

657

K^c, 208
Kipiaj^, 458
KiSp>7, 213
K6pim, 208
KSpvfi^o:, 208
Kap6»ri. 196
K^, 153
Kppvpaios, 458
JUffitiwiffnaraf 451
KAr^t, 191
K<>ro^, 173
Ktf7T«/?«j, 207
Kar«Ai7, 214
Kdrorrw, 119
KDvpot, 207
Koi^Xii^v, 214
KoxXiov, 214
KdxXoi, 198, 214
Kp&pof, 153
K/wr^, 204. 207, 344
Kparilpet, 207
Kp^/cMv, 208
Kpu^, 187
'KfirpriieSj 208
KpiTriV, 222
Kpiis, 198
K^mr^, 218
IQ30irAr<irXo(, 115
Kp6raXou, 218
Kp*Tt>f, 337
Kpoifiarai 217
Kpmrrcfa, 189
K/>67raXX0f , 401
Kpw/?iM, 208
KriVnyf, 347
KiaOot, 207
K^/ioi, 180, 183, 206
Kva>/fi/7oXo(, 200
Kvavdf, 400, 412
Kv0c(a, 206
K«i9cp»^n»f, 203
Kv0iffTtj<riSf 175
Kn/(?ttmjTi|^, 216
K^Xoff, 32, 62, 194,

450,456
K€X«f , 207, 297
K6Xiffif, 173
KuXXai^, 107
Kv^oXa, 217
Koyfir, 153
Kwijydf, 102
Kw6aovpa, 188
Kvvooov^if, 188
K««3ttf, 331
Kvrof , 200
Ki^oiv, 187, 191
KwjJw*, 217
KoiXorural, 167
K'i>^i?, 460
Kuytff, 119
KiivetWy 187
K<5iraf, 202
KciNTi^Xdrat, 202
Kwr^, 200
K6)p6«eioy, 422
Kuis, 187

A

AAkkos, 149
▲oxwi'utal, 208

83

Aaia6i(i» ttficpa, 170

Aapyeuceif 221

Aoffn'ov, 196

AtS^vfM, 199

Aaxprts, 128

Aeinoyavrat, 204

AtanpavTtoy, 186

AfimwTpdrfoy, 186

Aenror^rai, 199

Ataror&ltoVf 166

AxtTOvpylaif 181

A£*rp«»y, 149, 220

A^f«t, 496

AenroXiai, 217

AomJv, 213

Afow, 189

AswavOiis, 91

Af6«t.)fia, 181, 412

Acwroypo^aruri), 481

AfccPff, 212, 220

Afl6oi,209

AfiKvdoi, 221

A«*iifliV, 413

A^wia, 169

Ai7{ta^(, 181

A/ffiff, 185

AiTTW, 116

Aiy^pioi', 401

AtOtva, 383

A(db/?bX(a, 187

AxM^Xot, 198

Aift>yXu^fa, 398

Atfldt, 196, 398, 402

AfO&KoXXa, 383

Aidoi irparflp, 180

Ai^vdrai, 188

AfM, 158

Ahf/, 128

AfxaM;, 216

Aoy^, 191

Aoyetov, 176, 247

Adyia, 164

Aoynrrol, 180

Aoycor/Jff, 203

Aoyoypaipiai, 526

AoyoypiS^i, 526

A^f OXtyiiriffor, 336
efei)T«pun»}, «9(d«
Ttpucoi, 338
ffXqp(«a2, 488

Aoiiffal, 147

Ao^rof, 101, 166

Aoi}«(oc 1} "Owf , 501

Aovr^/Nov, 212

Aovrpdv, 210, 423

Ao^toy, 212

Ad^, 153

Ao^ayoZ, 196

Aoxria, 102

A&XK, 196, 197

Ai;««a, 116, 168

Aiurstov, 339

AiwtK, 496

AvoC^tM^, 31

AwiA)A)2, 462

M
MaySSts, 217
MdyoM, 198
Mayvih-v X(d9f , 386

Mdyof, 167
Mayaidl, 462
M(Ha, 206
Mct^ai, 190
Madfifiara, 335, 517
Ma(/<aimipia>i', 60
MoiyuJep, 162
Mcurpa <r«rAi7, 29
JtloKpaitfUsSf 154
Morpal ir^pat, 31
MoXdxif, ^)6
MaXXiJy, 208
MttKrcra, 164
MamtiftaTa, 164
Mai^iic^, 164, 166
Mdvrc;, 449
Mapyopc;. JilapYapiTrKf

401
Moprfipey, 185
Mapri)pb»y yey^Xta, 222
Mooriyo^tfpof, 174
MaoTtyejtrif, 191
MAn-cf , 260
Mcttrrfx*?, 412
Mdxaipa, 196
hle6tnvos, 214
MedoJurJ^, 338
M«Xfx«, 173
MAav,412; ypa^w^y,

332
M«X£n,, 490, 556
MtXfi/, 153
MeXiomvAi, 147
MiXuxrw, 162
MtXtrrofra, 221
MiXof lii0aTfipiov, 468
McXiro/i£vi7, 126
Ms^pdya, 333
Mjcpofxta, 196
MQrdi$fi>7> 202
MortfKoiXof, 200
Meo«f(^My, 194
Meooravrai, 202
Mxooupfai, 202
Mar^^ppoy, 458
MoToodrai, 188
Mero/SaX^, 197
Mfrayetryctjy, 60
Mrro^ta, 4^06
Mfrc/d/^^Xbwif, 505
Mwfwi, 171, 178,

182,486
VLeniKtov, 178
Mn7»»7r^, 214
IVtirtuiroi', 196, 200
M^Xi7, 263

Mi7i^c0ra/t6ioo, &c. 61
Miipol, 148
Miaoval, 198
Mi«o»«, 176
mAA!, 344
MtiXroirdpifet, 200
MArtf, 332, 412
Mf/iec, 462, 558
BftioA); /8ovXsvrt)cd^,

&c. 183
Mfrpa, 208
Mfrp^, 194
Mya, 213
MvJT/ia, 222

Mt^ftttm', 222
My^arpoy, 220
Mw'a, 192
M^wvey, 189
Motpu, 128
MoXrr^, 207
Mo>^v06n»at, 153
MrfyacXof, 217
Movfipeti, 154
Mowypdf*/i«rfl, 330
Movdypo/xpy, 410
MovdKpora, 154
Moi«/<d\o(, 244
Mov^ffTcpoy, 421
MovproTvapot', 544
Moj«>j)-^^OTa, 410
Mtfpai, 188. 197
Moptae, 171
Mopped;, 130
Mop0J», 130
Movyv^ta, 33, 61
Movv^X'oy, 31
Movvto^trijy. 61
Mo&ra, 384
Motwou. 126
Mow£rov,31,339,384
Mowuch, 216, 335
Motxrur^ (//<X^, 216
Mowrucol ciyuv£s, 336
MvSoty 83
Mv6bXi»yfa, 83
MtiXof dyurdf. 264
MiiXcoMy, 180
Mvpttf^(/?Xoy, 499
Mvppiittj, 173
MvMpca, 169
JdvaruOs niKdSf 170
M(5/ioy, 119

N
NdiSXa, 217 k

Naiam, 222
Nool. 160
Ndof. 421
Noo^XMsy, 162
N(rfap!<pff, 203
Naiirat. 202
Nao^Xoinr, 203
NeopaZ Jiard{<if , 393
Nop^orvov, 149
NacpoOdirraf, 221
NMpo/tayrcta, 167
Norfoia, 222
Ncfura or Nc^aia, 174
N^if, 117
Nco^oMkfy, 189
Neo/nryfa. 61
Nfvpddms, 216
N««poy, 153
Ne^jjyspfnK, 95
Ne&Mtfp0i. 162
Nifec dfi^iirpnfunt, 200
NinTTtfa, 171
Nijn?, 216
Nfti», 29
N^i, 220
Noficry, 200
Nd^i/ia, 221
NV«r/<a, 213 . 1

NoH^fnu, 181

MB

nn>EX OF GREEK WORDS.

NV<. 316, 449
N^/iof, 188
N*fio^Xo«f, 172,

181, 190
NiJm, 128
Nii/i^(, 126
Nwfi^aro, 126
N»/i0jj, 212

Sij-m, 207
EiKioj, 95, 158
Eiw., 178
E&mij, 214
Et'^, 153. 187
E^ya, 389
EuXaxoprwi*, 331
Etwra, 423
nvarapnoiif 175
EwTtlj, 173, 423
Bivro^^t, 191
Bforpa, 210

•0/?oX<y,213,214,221
'Oy^toy, 135
'Oy»«is, 176
•0«!uydf, 109
'Oi6vrts, 202
•OAPYXIIS NTM-

<^AIS, 110
'OMvai, 202
Ofaf, 200
OiKtrat, 180
orrnfia, 187

OtK9v6flO^, 160

07iM(, 210
Oiira9M>ri«iiy, 168
OiKovftgviKoX, 496
Oi'mupo) j^ff , 28
OiifOftayrtia, 167
OtW/ieXc, 206
07i«f fivf^irtK^ 204
0»*«X^', 207
OcVri, 153
OiciiyurriK-J), 167
•Oirpf/?af, 413
*0«fnUTijpif, 60
•OXcyo^poi, 204
•OXif«i3eg, 200
OXicor, 202
'oXe^oppi, 221
OXi'fortto*', 31
*Ofioioi, 188
'OfiOTarptoflf, 218
"O^jraf, 170
'Ofi^Xdj, 194, 332
*Of«^aXdf yife, 165
'OvctpOKpiratf 167
'OMipOMptrura, 538
*OM(pim6Xa(, 167
"Ovetpoi, 130, 167
'Oyrip«r«r^(, 167
'OMfiatrnicdv, 497
•Ovi»f , 400
'CWJxwir, 401
*OfW?cX«rf, 198
•Of<f ^yw, 54
'OircLXXfOf, 400
'OrwA$y/MKft^i 333

'Orrwfld^i^of, 29, 160
'OirXa, 202
'OrXirw, 153, 193
'OffXiro<?pi/yiOi, 172
•OXa.^, 194
•Opa^a, 167
'Opydj, 162
'Opyw, 169
'Opyoia, 214
'Opr/xaXwj, 383
'Opeo'txotTVf, 102
'OpBtos, 216
'Op6birdX>i, 173
*Q|Mria rffiMiy, 164
'Oprior, 95

'Opwf 0ovXtvTucds, 184
"Opwf /liyaj, 163
•Op^i, 33
'Owtff, 208
'OpMvirtfmt, 167
'OpvtSofiavnigf 167
•Opoi, 644
'O/wii**^^, 95
"Opvyna, 187
"Opxijffcf , 335
'Opxvrrpa, 422, 458
'OpXijoTws, 207
'Oca, 221
•Oriw, 166
'07ia>rJ^, 166
'Oxo^pia, 168
'OoToAixtra, 221
'Oroe^ifai, 221
'OoToXdytoi', 221
'Orrpflwi^i', 263
'Orrpofffo^^^, 187
"Ovripoffoy, 187
'O&XPf^pta, 168
'Oax«^P"f4, 451
"Orrot, 168
(WX«f, 147
0*Xdxt»ra, 148
O&Xwi, 387
Oftrtyyoc, 451
Oiip&, 196, 200
Oipayol, 277
0«p«y«>f, 1%
Oipav(a, 31, 126
(Mpa»^, 114
0{(piar, 345
'O^oVac, 200
*0^6aSfioiis ffvyxXeiciv,

149
'Oxawv, 194
'Oxrff, 153
'Ov?/«^«w, rt i#*, 193
*C/w, 206

nayxponairrai, 173
nayvpdrwi', 173
nodsXtfyixJ^, 537
nai&v, 198, 451
Ilatyym, 451
naiieU, 335; 4 ^2

Vnopf, 338
nautcparria, 220
Ilatiipias, 400
nauJicd, 451
UoiM /io9^a, 456

natAivVf. 189, 190
natioTpi0n(y 335
IlaXatorpa, 422, 423
noXJy, 37, 173
naX»/i'^»}o-TOf , 342
na\Xaicii£i, 220
riaXXof, 104
naX/ioi, 168
naXrdy, 153
I[a/</?(uriX£ia, 189 .
nan0ot<j>na^ 192
IId/x;io:t»', 173
llaftftaxtov^ 173
lld/i^rpov, 456
nd/i0r<Xo(, 188
lUy, 116

Havoeiji'ata, 168, 171
navaffiivaiisdy, 171
nai^a«7iai, 206
navSafiiKtAf 172
ndvi^i;/iO(, 36, 106
UavioxeToyf 208
n/wi^woof, 29
ndydtov, 31
Ilav^yvpcf, 174
Iloyurdy ieiua^ 116
JlaiTOiJaiiij^ urrvpta, 252
nduTTPf »rpw7t>f, 176,557
Tlapapaotf^ 460
napiffwTTWf 186
Ilopoypa^^, 185
napa(^/<t&r, 423
nnpatPiriK, 153
Ilapacycrtxol, 487
IlapaiT^fioy, 412
napoKaToffoM, 185
FlopoXta, 178
ndpaXot, 42, 187
nopa/iirpt^ta, 194
Jlopdyti/t^, 220
napaliiftatov, 196
nap(nrX£up/($(a, 194
Hapaaiiiav, 200
riapcurtroi, 162
napofffruy, 162
riapcumiffif, 185
napoawO^^ara, 198
ndpr<V»(, 181
n«pe«a2, 200
nap0^(a, 451, 455
XlofBtvot^ 29

nopdiMf, 104, 105

nopOtiwv, 178, 218
n&paxfKt 220
Ilmrrdy, 220
n^tXa, 208

iy;uc6v, 193

Hctpaie^, 33
Jleio-KU'dirrtOf, 31
Ile/o-fiara, 202
IXeXoffyucdv, 29
IliXaMi, 163
ncXdroi, 160
ntk^tiia, 165
nAciai, 165
nAoror, 196
niXoiror vifoor, 34
ncXmrral, 194
mXn;, 194, 196
neXcjpia, 91, 168

n^fiara, 163
Ilt^d^opxot, 196
Ilf^a-df, 196
UtvTaUa, 333
nevroenTpiff, 174
niiToOXoy, 172

IICKrOCOfftO^^I^MK, 177

Dcinjiwo-T-Bf, 197
nsw^pfif , 202
n^Xoi, 157
n/irX«j, 171
n^Xordrwt, 171
WtpiKt^aKaia, 153
Ilfpypa/njKJ^, 331
nrpi d/jxwi', 545
Ilcpi tfKOTiKijr woBrffii-

my, 501
lUpt0apii€i, 208
Ilfpt/ffoXoj, 160, 421
nepr<knrM»)', 149
Ilcpiepya, 167
Ilipt^yifirif, 455
neptiryqraf, 166
Ikpive^oXafa, 153
TlepiouroA)/!^, 222
llrpiourot, 189
neptVarv;, 339
rif pcvcrdff/iara, 148
nepnroXcroi', 197
ricpfiroXoc, 197
lUpiimpos, 421
lUptf^rHipaMt, 160,

163
neptffreXtf, 209
rkpurrvXiotr, 422
IltJ««CCttr/i<lff, 198
Ilcpcr^yna, 200
Ili9M^»r, 381
ncpi^ipria, 194
nepi^pdyfiarti, 202
Ilcptfi'17,218
ncpofig^ara, 148, 218
n^^i^, 99
n/roXa, 187
ncraXicr/jdr, 187
n^OOTf, 208
Uhpat /lOJrpoi, du:. 31
ntTpo06\9t, 198
nfrpu/itf, 170
n«rrtia, 206
TLnyoficamia, 167
IIip}dXi4»y, 200
UnKTls, 217
nifxBf , 214
mXidta, 208

nrXo5, 208

mraccf, 412, 413
niPMta, 180, 413
Iltvairi irmrroi, 333
Iltva^ dyi^ucdf, 167
IltoTcp Arruc^, 164
Tlfravdrai, 188

JllTTOKWV, 332

IlXaytaoXor, 216
nXsCiriOK, 197
nXorff, 171
nXorrurJt, 381
nXardrurra, 38, 190
nXortfoo^, 436
mtBpw, 214

XKDEX OF GREEK WORDS.

669

nknpal,,200

mhdowra dyofA, 32
mHicrpor, 217

mivetoy, 197

nXdKOfioi, 208
n>«i?TOf, 118, 460
nXoimi>y, 91
Uvtycaf 423
Ilyiy^a, 423
n»^e. 32, 183
n^, 202
Hoiir^, 449
IlouiXi;, 31.339
IlofirtXta, 218
no.dv,208 [192,196
UoMfiapxos, 181, 190,
noXtas, 29, 105
noXtopKiTTixa, 519
IloXirai, 178
noXvdvifMOv, 223
rioXvvarra, 218
noXVyta, 126
noXwp6poi, 204
noX»'::^/7iaro, 410
JIo/fTot, 183
Ile^croi', 31
n<hram, 148, 163
Ilopd^tov, 221
flopi^oypa^ta, 414
n6(ma<ts, 194
noari^'iiv, 61
Thmidbiy, 98
nof'.^, 214
n/wiCTopcf, 182, 185
Jlpiff/hTs, 181, 197
Tlpe<r/Svs, 190
npoavXfOv, 210
IVo/7Xq/iara, 153
IV»/9oXai, 210
npoHoohvfia, 183, 188
njurfypa/i/ia, 188
niiwyv^t'dff/iara, 174
llfMiKoi, 190
njadAi/ioy, 210
npo(W(a, 186
npoe^ia, or Tpo^^f^,
187,191, 199
Upkii»i, 183, 184
njpoi^p^ta, 112
npoi/rua, 220
npoif ,' 220
n/DdrnJirof, 202
ripo^tfrciKrt^ia, 194
n/MJvoo;, 421
ni»(fyio, 207
np*Jen«t, 190, 207
npoot^ia, 450
npM-X'io/tara, 3P2
npirtoXoiOaZy, 163
npSst>/<a, 206
npciiTt;Xaf«,29,160,178
npoiKfpdXaia, 206
nporiJr^m. 162. 451
npwrrarw, 178
npompyi^ca, 194
IlpArr'jXoff, 421
npAmnra. 381, 384
nMNruTciov, 176
IlfiOTieeadai, 221
niwTti/ial, 384
Uo6:9votf 202

nptfroira, 382
npo^rai, 166
IXpo^oXoica), 197
Up^ifpoi, 212
np6x»ita, 204
Ilp0«i)/ioffta, 185
np/ii-a, 200
npvfu^ia, 202 [185
npwwcFa, 11 3-, 182,
lifivraveia, 184
Ilpnrafnoy, 33, 184
npwdwv, 183, 184.
Ilptn-avif, 19a [188
np^'pa, 200
npupariK, 203
IIpcopc6(, 203
npcordwAXay, 332
nrqpywl, 168
Ilrtpi, 200
nre^wytfy, 200
TJrvxis, 200
noaM)//taiy, 60
Hwy/i^, 173
rivdaurrai, 174
nvOta, 165
Uvdia, 174
nt.aanV wJ/iOf , 174

nmot, 190

n^toy, 165
niJflior. 101, 165
nCOwvcj, 167
IIiMrvdcrrvXof, 421

n^KTTKj 173

IlvXay^f, 183
TluXaia, 183
nfiXif, 210

nsp, 187
ntipd, 149

ropyoff, 197, 198
nvpKath, 186
nupo^oXoi, 196
IlnpOfiayrcia, 167
n-.p0dpot, 198
ri»p^6pa, 412
nopamdf , 400
nvatos, 166
JlaiXifnif, 182
nCifia, 153

P
'Pa/7aioy, 413
'Pa0iofiavTtia^ 167
'Pa/JA>f , 260
'PaPiodxpi, 173
'Po^avoi, 206
•Pa0lf, 218
Pa^ftKJbi, 328, 449
'P»7To;»i5, 181
'P^rpcM, 191
'P«Cori/w, 538
'Ptxl/aaniict, 199
•P.'t//.y, 173

•P«a<hf>, 218

'PoSoSuKTvXOi, 115

'Prf&y ^, 206
'Pvftara, 202
•Pi5/»«5, 212
T-^y, 207, 297
'Pbnrapoypa^ra. 414

Z
Dayffwj, 158
Siyyia, 194

T^^iYY^, 198, 217
SoXirtyicr^, 1%
Z<iX»iyf, 217
Zaf«/?««y, 217
SoFrf, 214, 329
JlaifiaXa, 208
£ayi^^, 412
^^vi, 412
Savlf, 187
7:ambufios, 400
£<ipiU(, Sopdivio;, 400
2<V«fcy»f , 401
"Sapvnra^ 196
ZopKiNcrfXXa, 412
£<iiw00dyo(, 221
Zarvpo;, 565
2^fl<rra, 246
SciffiXOuy, 98
JUtffrpoy, 217
rrXnyij, 101, 114
SeXtyoy, 175
&XXoi, 164
SI«oy, 212

2Ji*af, 160, 170, 222
Ilj^/ia, 222
Y.1inaTa, 333
5>7/irra, 198, 330
yiniuioYP&<pot, 333
Sij^ionif^, 537
Sif/tfiofjpof, 196
Si/?BXXa, 449
£<yXai, 330
Si&^yai, 189
ZMiyyif, 458, 461
XirXoy, 375
ZiXXoi, 462
£<iwcf, 412
Sinipioy, 214 [187
£/n|fftf £y irpvrcD«£ci),
SinNkfa, 212
ZcToAJcai, 212
SiroiraiXat, 212
Zi-Tt^, 212
S(ro0vX(uc(, 212
Scm/Jat, 332
Zirw, 112
Siruyfli, 212
ZraX/tfl, 202
JJcdnfta, 172
SffO^q^pOl, 171
aciXfl fiavpa, 29
2*^,222
Sifrfi?, 200
^KtiPh, 176, 422
£<i|yoypa^(a, 413
^Kfhrrpov, 150
Zviaypoi^ra, 410, 413
"SictaSrrpopia, 180
Sir«i43i;^(, 172

Z4«af, 190

^iXXa, 163
Zvio/iayreia, 167
r«>;y, 128
Srippo^pibiy, 61
SrfXioy, 207, 452
Zittwrds, 172
ZicvXa, 199
ZirfXa^, 163
SctrnSXiF, 199
ZffvraXia, 196
Zc^rof, 331

J^ftdpayios, 400
ZdXoj, 173
Zopoi, 221
Zopdff, 123, 302
Zo^iorai, 334
Tfiipfioviarai, 335
Zroprfoy, 214
ZrqXaioy, 222
SriOo^^, 214
IttXayK'^mntaf 163
ZrXayxy(}i(riRmo(, 163
Srtf&of, 162
Zwy&il, 147
Zwy^*, 163, 197
Ziropiilay, 330
ZrA{fO«3^/«M, 172
ZrAJwy, 32, 172, 423
ZrdXMCf, 158
ZraHjp, 213, 352
Zrat^df, 187
Zr«i>7, 200
Zr^ora, 147, 163
TTopanrpApoi, 171
Zrts^yot, 187
Zr^yor,148,191,456
Zre^Of, 148
Zr^Xat, 222, 423
Zr^X.7, 149. 187
Zrn/i&»y, 218
ZHy/ia, 180, 187
Zny/i^, 331
Zrixupwf, 331
ZrfxP*, 197
ZriXP/ioyreia, 167
ZrX«yyff, 210
Zr«A noKfAf 33

souriX^, 339
Znwi. 31,422, 423
ZrtfXop^COf, 203
ZTt»Xi>, 209
Zr^Xoj, 200
Zrponryfo, 196
ZrpoTT^ydf, 190, 193,

196, 203
Zrparfd, 196
ZryMrpriipul, 196
ZTpoyy*Xi7, 116
ZTpd^w, 209
Xrpofiara, 206
ZriXiif, 332, 423
Zeyyrycfa, 220
Z»yyfy«ts, 220
Z«wy, 212
YvKO^dvTOi, 186
Zmco^avrfa, 186
ZvWaPof, 332 [207
Zi;^Xa,168,197,198,
Zw/i/3oXi>, 206
Z"fi/?ouXfon«o?, 487

JlVft^MftOt, 160

Ztifi^axia, 197
ZtififTirra, 496
Svfi/ioptai, 182
Zt'/orXiy/iaTa, 384
Zi/nrticno, 207, 337
Zvforoflri<v\of, 206
Z6yiSi«o(. 181
Zvy^yopoc, 181, 185
Zwy^ijjo?. 197
Zoy^ifHara, 198
ZfiyvcHM, 160

660

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS.

X6Miof*Xiit^ur6nfOiff
lEwmMhui, 160 [183
26miy^«, 196
«/Nyf, 217. 477
Zwmrfa, 190, 206
Xivrttnc, 490
SfomXos, 421
Tf^Y^tof, 148
S^yij, 148
S^rpa, 216
£JkufM0r/ipi0y, 422
£^i^>7, 153, 423
ZXnUai, 200
SX«^ttr/ia, 490
lXMo0drM, 202, 244
ZX^M, 496
Txpi^la, 202
TuunqM, Zorrj^, 29

Ta Wp eoi;Xj}i', 500
Tatyfa, 209

TOKTUCOl^ 197
TttXaiToy, 213
Ta>£^i, 221 [182
Ta/i£ai nuv ItfkaVf 162,
To^fof , 203
Tc^tof, irpoe6iat>f 182

TTtw 6lcci^«(3i', 176
Tarvwripvyef, 167
Tafi(VX»i, 196
Tdfif, 196
Ta^, 222
Taxvyprnpot^ 333
Ti>wi, 210
Ttt^anroi, 172
T«rxoj v6rto¥, &.C. 31
TcXa^, 194
T«Xiwfya/i«f, 106
T«>»r^, 163, 169
TiXi,, 181
Tai>j, 196, 197
TcXt>va<, 182
Ti^»cf, 160, 162
T^a, 172
Tep«//oc^, 126
TanrqpcKOi/ra, 186
Tcrpdilca, 333
TerijayMM^, 384
Tgrpatmpli, 60
TerpoXoyto, 171, 337
T«Tpd6ip©c, 172
Terp^^ts, 202
Terp(ol36Xov 0ios^ 193
Tirnyfj, 208
Ti^^/iara, 181, 166
Td Kaiyd»,\86
Toixofixost 203
Torxpi, 200
T</ioitpo(, 165
Td«y, 437
Tiiop, 153
Tafdrai, 181
Tofo0^, 101, 102
Tori^i*, 401
T««rfl, 202
IVvT"^* 381
Tpdw^a ieviipa, 206
Tpdxc^at, 222
TpoRc^onofar, 207
T/^f,200

TpftfutrUf 200
Tpiomiaiv, 177, 188,
T/»fa(af, 173 [222
T(H0'^vtov\ 209
TfMywMw, 186, 217

TpUTtfMCOi, 174

Tptiipa^fa, 182
Tpt^pdvmcpi, 182, 203
TpitipaihK, 203
Tpciipcv, 154,200,202
Tpuci^aXH, 109
TpurXfyioi', 206, 210
TpiA©yf«, 337
Tpi>/.f»f, 102
TfrfmNkr. 149
T/NiroAr^opura, 451
Tpfwuf ;g>i»in-n9iOf, 165
Tpfra, 222
TfMToyivcfa, 104
Tpfrmg, 189
Tpfv/xW, 216
Tptco^frv, 102
TpArow. 149, 199
TpArif , 200
Tptfwi, 202
Tfioxis, 187, 263
Tf»6yiw, 412 •
Tpihrava, 198
T6,<^os, 222
T6^ava, 187
T6^ai«v, 217
Tftwi, 263
Tfixv, 118

r

rdxtvOos, 400
•r«Xos, 263, 412
•Y/?p«wj <Ji«,, 180
Xyuivdy, 537
•Y<5paXinK, 264
•r<V»a»Xv, 217
^ripia^opU, 180
'TiVmo^^i, 172
ripona^ia, 167
'T^p^ffwvaa, 147
*Y«V»^^i, 207

•rxx«rf, 188

'T^artt, 220, 451
•Tfi^^y, 220
"r/i«»f, 449, 450
'Tw^, or *Twif, 212
'TnaiOpoi, 421
Tir^t, 202
'rwptSo, 210
Tir<J«K»i, 192
*T>n,piTiK, 180, 196
yrvof, 130
'Tir6yaia, 222 i

'Yjroypafi^arcrf, 182
'Twypo^i;, 413
'TuoYptufii, 332, 413
'TinHJ^fUira, 208
•riro?ai/«ara, 200, 201
TirAtaiwrov, 210
'TfcoKpariiptov^ 344
•rwMf/Mrai, 176
'Tm/iciOKC^, -188
'Tno/fi'^fiara, 4%
'Yve/cMff(a, 185
'Yir6pxjtlia, 451
•r»0ffriy^4, 331

'Tiruna, 173
•Y^yiMW, 412

4Huy(»^, 216
4»«iyAXv, 209
^ocat, 206
^oXayyeyOCfa, 1%
*a«yf, 196, 197
<^<iXapa, 194
4>a)<^p, 33
4>actf, 200
4NiXX»a, 460
4»aXor, 153
^ayroff^, 167
<l>«p^, 153
^Apiuua, 168
^p^occta, 168
4Hipp<u»vru^, 538
4>dpyiaiw, 186, 187,
4>fpor, 157, 206 [413
<l»iSeis, 186
^onKOfittra, 426
♦<yyfrw, 290
4»ciA'ri«i, 190
4>^poy, 149, 221
4>epv4, 220
♦rfyw, 185
4>4/<ai, 168
♦<»M, 118
*ft»rff, 170
*iaXi,, 207
<l>iaX{^, 221
<^lXl^la()al, 451
4>iX47«pcf , 220
4>iXfria, 190
4>iXo^i^, 106
♦iXiftwi, 207 [338
4>iXoo«4kM' ffv/MT&nor,
♦Xoidf, 331
<t»<{^ir. 208
*o/?i7rwp, 130
*or/?os, 100
<^OfyM^ta, 344
♦ow«3i», lEirt T<3r, 185
<lNii«r, 186
^>6p,uYlf 216
<l»^f, 181
«l>opnn^, 200
^parplai, 177, 189
^parpard, 206
^piarUj 32
♦jDcaTTwr, 'Bv, 185
<t>poytov<i)v I'pyw, 218
*»y^. 187, 191
♦i,Xal, 177, 178
<^t>X<ura<, 197
4>vXdpxw, 194
•WXa/^oi, 181, 196
<^vXo/?A^Xe^(, 185
4>MrioXoyur4, 537
4>6(rnr, 206
4>6)ytv&, 198

X

Xai'm, 208
XaX«ia, 107, 171
XoXirq&lir, 401
XaXxiotnt, 36
XoXicdv, 1^, 412
XaX«^, 383, 412
XaXco^, 213

Xapivr^a, 163
X^pcTK. 127
Xoprw, 331
Xttffr»tf fioit0uK(as,33l
X«iptfi<Sqpa,203
XctpvTonniN, 180, 183
Xuperwia, 182, 183
X««pB«pyc«, 538
XcXffej^ara, 200
XcXi^rui, 451
XcXmvii, 198
X^ii/', 148
Xiiwuras,200
XtXtapcia, 196
XiXt'opx^i, 196
Xiw, 157, 208
XmSriy, 102
XXarw, 157. 208
XXarfj, 209
XXi^, 209
XiNri, 147, 149, 222
X»m^, 187, 214
Xiipevra2, 458
X<ipirria, 182
Xop.n^,182,337.458
X«pdf, 176
XoSf, 214
Xp4/(a, 213
XpVftara dtijpiicA^ 176
Xpi}partf/«k, 167
Xpq^, 164, 449
Xpi»ffp©X^i, 164
Xpiyv)tf0^i, 164
Xpqor^pta, 164
Xpiftara, 210
Xp«T<f , 272. 403
Xpcvrds «iiS0Xf«r, 559
Xp»wa, 455

Xp<JH.g, 91

Xpwoyp&^i, 333
XpwdmXXa, 412
XpwrA«6bf, 401
Xpw6rpQgot, 400, 401
Xpw^ iricnpof, 352
Xpwc«f, 213, 352
Xpt^ara^ 413
XuXti^. 462
Xi2yia, 149,198, 222

toXr^pw, 217
ftXXufy, 209
fr«M£impor, 421
fq^^a, 183, 188
♦^., 183
tia9ta, 186
♦iWpa, 217
tiX0i, 153. 194
fiindav, 412
toxv/tai^fa, 167
fvxpaTOffia^ 100

a

'O^oi, 188
'a&r»v. 32, 422
'aJical, 167
UMr, 453
*flia, 210
'ItftfOrrcry, 148
'QoaKorta^ 167
'flpoi, 117,127
'flpaia, 168
•axpa, •fixp*', 41

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

A.
Abaci, 412
Abacus, 434
Ablecti, 977, 378
Abraxas, 403
Abruptione*, 370
Accensi, 253, 376
Accip« libens, 838
Accubita, 391
Accusatnr, 359
Acerra, 333, 339
Acetabulum, 388
Acidalia, 106
Acies, 275, 383
Aclnaccs, 100
Aclides, 381
Acta sertatus, G36,

pnblica, &c. 636
Actia, 86
Actiones In personam,

in rem, 359
Actius, 101
Actor, 350
Actuarie, 393
Actuarii, 353
Actus quadratua, 368
Adamas, 400
Ad heslias, ad lados,

&c., 360
Addictus, 367
Adjudicalio, 268
Admovere, 337
Adonla, 106
Adoptio, 388
Adoratio, 337
Adrasiia, 1 17
AdscriptUil, 87, 376
Adulterii crimen, 860
Adversaria, 364
Advocatus, 359
Adytum, 330
^castor, I^
£depol,136,339
^lie^ sacrie, 1 17, 830
JKdiies, 19, 346, 349
iEditul, 336, 301
^eeon, 135
£jris, 104
Aello, 138
iT:iurus, 134
^nea fistula, 363
JBneatores, 27i
^olus, 116
^rarium, 856, 261
£ruca, 413
.£rufO, 413
Africus, 138
Agaso, 878
A?elie, 199
Agger. 15. 380, 281
Agmen qiiadratum,

pilaium, Jcc. 378
Agmitie, uno conti-

nente, 376
Agnomen, 280
Agonalia, 341
Agnne, 337
AgorRUB, 109
Agririiensorm, 364, 617
Agrotern, 102
Alic, 376
Alba linea, 343
Alba Longa, U

Albom, 364
Albumen. 410
Alecio, 138
Ales, 109
Aliptie, 393
Alttes, 833
Aliarla, 330
AlveuB, 282, 895
AmBnuensis, 389
Amaracinum, 299
Amaracus, 107
Arobarvaliu, 112, 236,

241
Ambitus crimen, 260
Ambrosia, 109
Ambulacrum. 429
Amentum, 173
Amicuinm, 296
Amor, 106
Amphigyels, 107
Amphiiheatra, 19
Amphiirite. 96. 135
Amphora, 268, 296
Amtruare, 335
Amussis, 418
Anadyomene, 100
Anagposte. 889
Anchora, 382
Ancile, 04, 335
A nc ilia, '105
AnclabriB,830
Anculse, 130
Ancuii, 130
Ancyranum Monu-

mentnm, 372
Andahats, 241
An^usticlavia, 256, 296
Anima niundi, 116
Annatesi 233, 624
Annularius, 405
Annuli, 299, 405
Annulus aureus, 256
Annus Magnus, 624
Ante, 431
AnieHxa, 263, 437
AnlennoB, 282
Anteros, 107
Antesignani, 876
Anteatatio, 259
Antislites, 236
Anubis. 134
Aonides, 126
Apaiuria, 109
Apes, 264
Apex, 333, 235, 349
Apia, 133
Aplustria, 282
Apodyterium. 393, 423
Apotheca, 296
Apotheosis, 137, 301
Apparitorps, 352
Appianum, 412
April Is, 61
Aqueductus, 19
Aquilo. 128
Arte, 230
Aratoreti, 289
Aratrum, 364
Arbiter bibend!, 895
Arbitri causarum, 250
Arbor! suspendero, 260
Area, 303
Area Hub, 269

Archlgallns, 94, 230
Archimagiri, 295
ArchiroimuB, 300
Arcula, 364
Arcula thuraria, 332
Arcus triurophales, 19
Area, 364
Arena, 247
Areopagus, 32
Argentarii, 263
Argiva, 96
Aries, 381
Armamenta, 282
Armamentum Chlrur-

gicum, 394
Armaria, 290 366
Armiger, 389
Armillo, 275, 300
Armilustrium, 242
Arrha hospiialls, 295
Arrogatlo, 288
Ars nglina, 263

pistoria, 203

tinctoria, 364
Artes liberales, 366
Arundo, 363
Arx, 17, 333
As. 266
Ascia, 418
Ascolia, 109
Aspergillum, 232
Aspersorinm, 232
Asphaltum, 412
Asserea fiilcati, 281
Assertor libertatis, 289
AssesBores. 259
AsBlpondium, 267
Astriea, 117
Astrologl, 240
Asironomicon, 577,623
Asyla, 162
Asylum, 17
AtellaniR, 554, 557
Atergaiis, 106
Athena, 105
Atlantes, 430
Atlantiades, 109
Atlantides, 114, 134
Atramentarium, 364
Atramentum, 363, 410,

412
Atria, 254
Atriensis, 289
Atrium, 290, 291
Atropos, 138
Atticum, 410, 412
Auctin, 868
Auctores ctassici, 353
Auditorium, 339
Augurale, 378
Auguratoriiim, 233
Augures, 232, 233
Au gur in m, 233,240
Augiiatales, 230
Augusialia. 242, 340
Auffusius, 61
Aula, 390
Aulseum. 240
AufpB, 264
Aureus, 867
Aurl-pigmpntum,413
Aurora, 114
Aurum cornnariuiD,384

3K

Auspices, 833
Auspicium.233
Auster, 128
Auiographus, 304
Auxilia, 285
A vena, 264
Aversi, 302
Aviarium. 293
Avigerium, 233
Axamenta, 554

B.

Bacche, 110
Bacchanalia, 168
Bacchus, 109
Bacilli, 363
Baiista, 281
Balistarii, 276
Balnea, 18, 293
Baineator, 293
Balneatorea, 289
Baphium, 864
Barritns, 274
UaBillca, 17, 18,259
Bassareus, 100
Batilius, 864
Batlole. 397
Baxa. 399
Beilaria, 894
Belllca, 105

Bellona, 105, 180 •

Bererynthla, 93
Beryllus, 400
Bes, 860

BeBtlarii, 2U, 800
Bibendi arbiter, 296
Bibliopola, 304
Bibliotheca, 308
Biblus, 363
Biceps, 93
BideuB, S64
BifVons. 93, 3ff7
Bigai, 866
Bigati, 373
Bi mater, 109
Bipennis, 232
Bisellinm, 854
Bis millies, 807
Bissextus, 03
Boi»,360
Bombycina. 80S
Bombyx, 396
Bona Dea, 93, 843
Boreas, 116, 138
Braccse, 809
Brachla, 89, 883
Brontes, 107
Bubo, 233
Bubona, 130
Buccinn, 273
Bulla, 899
Buris, 804

C.

Cabftlll, 860
Cabiri, 130

CHducena, 108,134,343
Caducifer, 100
Cad us, 396
C]elum,416
Cwrites, 10
(,'ffiruleuro, 413
Caaarum acta, OSft
661

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

OMla, 109
Ototiu, 118
Cilamut, 334, 3fl3
Calatbui, lU
Oftlcar, M6
Calceu*, 996, 405
CMlcet nigrl colorii, S50
Calculi, i9ft
Caidarkum,»3,4S3,428
Calendo. 61
Calendirium, Pras-

neatlnum, S<2
Callcea, 997
CaligB, 998
Calliope, 1S7
Calonea, 978
Calumnta. 959
Camars, 983
Camilla, 238
CamilUltCainlll)e,930
CamilluB, 939, 395
Camtnni, 991
Camoene, 196
Canpl, 16
Campidoctorea, 980
Caoipiia Martiua, 16,

105. 939, 959
Campua tceleralua, 936
Candelabra, 939, 991
Candldati, 948
Canena, 130
Canla, 995
Canistra, 939
Canopue, 194
Cantharua, 193
Canilcum, 555
Canua, 91
Cnpedo, 939, 938
Capeduncula, 939
Caplllamentum, 999
Capillltta vou, 938
Gapia, 939
Capita, Jugata, adver-

aa, averaa, 409
Caplte censi, 971
Capita Telatn, 937
Capltium,906
Capitolinua, 05
Capitollum, 17, 360
Capaa, 864, 368
Captarii, 993, 364
Capauin, 966
Capuluni, 309
Caput, 967
Caput conie, 994
<'*arbunculna, 400
Carceres, 943
Cardinea. 991
Carenunt, 996
Carmrn aecnlare, 944

Sallare, 369
Carmentalia, 941
Carmine cerio evo-

car<>, 939
Carna Dea, 949
Carnifex, 959
Carpentum, 966
Carplor, 9S9, 995
Carruca, 966
Caryat Idea, 496
CaB«. 990
Caaa Rnmull, 17
CassiM, 974
Caasitn, 563
Casta lia, 197
Castalides. 196
Caatra itativa, hlber-

na, &c. 976, 980
Catalecta VirgiUi, 573
Catapulta, 981
CatailR, 969
Catello:, 9751
Caten». 960
Caieitulflt, 975

Cateirm, 597
Cathedra, 954
Catomldlare, 935
Caupona, 908
Causa, 959

CausM fldel bona, 959
Cauteria, 413
CavflBdium, 990
Cavea, 946, 499
Celaeno, 138
Celerea, 970, 976
Cella, 491
Cell», 991
Cellaria, 991
Ceilarlus, 989
Cella aanetior, 930
Cella vinarla, Jfcc. 291,

996
Cenotaphia, 803
Censorea, 950
Census, equeater, 954
Centauri, 131
Centftsima rerum Te-

nallum, 969
Centesima uaura, 967
Centies, 967
Centimani, 113
Centum sestertlilm,967
Centumviraie Judi-
cium, 959
Centuric, 979
Centiiriata Comitia,

957,959
Cenlurki, 979
Cera, 363
Cera Punica. 413
Ceraunia, 310
Cerberua, 100, 139
Cercoplthecus, 194
Cereales, 940, 949
Cereal ia, 113, 949
Ceres, 110
Cerltl. 940
Ceraaaa,419;uata,419;

creta, 999
Ceaato, in Jure; extra

JUS.M8
Cesius, 106
Chaldel. 940
Charu, 364
Charta bomb]rcina,33I;

f[08Bypiua, 331
Intea, 331
Charybdis, 139
Chimiera. 131, 139
Chirographum, 364
Chironoml, 558
Chirurgi, 977
Chitoiie, 109
Chlamydats, 383
Chlamys, 998
Chloris, 190, 949
Chorapiuin, 306
Chorodidaacalus, 398
Chorus, 450, 460, 557
ChrysocoUa, 419
Cibiin, 994
CiinbR,9gi
Cineraril, 989
Cinerarium, 309
Cingula, 96
CIngulum, 966
Cingulum laneum, 387
Cinnabari8,413
Cippi, 303
Cippus, 344, 303
Clrcl. 18
Circinus, 418
Circuitio vigilnm, 880
Circulus auri, 999
Circus Flamlnlua, Sal-

lustius, &c. 343
Circus Maximui, 18,949
CisiuiD, 366

Clata, 970
Civc8,958

Civitates ftBderat«,958
Clarigatio, 934
ClasaiaHi, 989
Classic!, 953
Classicum, 974, 983
Classis, 989
Clathrl. 900
Claustra,Wl
aaves, 901
Clavlger, 93
Clavus, 989, 996
Clavus Agendas, 919
Clepsydra, 60, 940, 615
Clieniela, 954
Clima, 968
Clio, 197
Clitells, 966
Cittellarii, 966
CloacM, 19. 438
Clotbo, 198
Ciuaiua, 93
ClypeatiD, 384
Coccus, 363
Codex Alexandrinns,

Vaticanus, &c. 355
Codex Juatinianu8,646
Codex Paiimpaeatua,

349
Codices, 353, 363
Codicilli, 364
C<Blus, 113, 116
Coemptin, 980
(Xena, 903
Coenacula, 903
Coena nuptialis, 987
C<Bna recu, 905
Coenatlones, 993
Coeus, 194
Cognomen, 985
Cohors, 371
Cohortea vigitnm, 984
Coliseum. 19, 947
Collegia Ikbrorum, tig-

nariorum, &c., 363
Collegium, 333
Cnllina, 190
Coll is hortniorum, 16
Collocaiio, 300
ColonI, 990
Colonic, 956
Coloaaus, 42
Colum, 996
Columbar,960
Columbaria, 303
Columella, 991
Columne, 19
Columna lactaria, 387
Coluninarium, 963
Columna roalrata, 371
Colus, 887

Comes di<Bceseos, 385
Comltes, 385
Comiiia, 334, 857, 359
CommentarU,304;

Censorum, 694

Poniiftcum, 634
Commlssiones, 360
Compitales, 189
Compitalla, 139, 343
Compluvium, 890
Compoaitor, 405
Comus, 119
Concilia, 957
Condones, 357
Conclamatlo, 300
Concordia, 193, 843
Condere lustrum, 239
Condictio, 359
Conditnrium, 303
Confarreatio. 886, 387
Congius, 366
ConUterium, 433, 429

Conjeetorea,240
Connubium, 286^880
Conquisiiio, 271
Conquiaiiores, 253
CoDscrlptio,2il
ConsecraliOjp236, 304
Coneentes, 87
Conslviua, 93
Constiiutionea, 261
Conatratum navla,28Z
Consnales, 246
Conaualia, 98, 342
Consulares, 2t»5
Consul deBignaliia,248
Conaules, 2t8
Consus, 98
Cooticiniun, 00
Contubrrnalea, 278
Contubernium, 280,980
Conventio in mauuiif

286
Coqui, 205
Corbes, 295
Corlum, 364
Corneum specuUze,3IO
Coroicines, 274
Corniculs,275
Cornix, 233
Gomu,217
Cornua, 272, 282, 363
Cornucopia, 340
Corona, 280, 303
Corona castreMi%iDii-

ralis, Givica, Ac

274,275
Corona, emptlo aab,

268
Corpus, 262
Correciores, 885
Corrigia, 296
Cortina, 247
Coras, 128
Corvus, 233, 281, 28S
Corybantes, 04
Coryceum, 432
CorypbKus,463
Co8meta,289
Coami, 101, 102
Cothurni. 290
Cotytto, 119
CoTlnus, 104
Crater, 297
Cratea, 260
Crepidn, 290
Crepundia, 967
Creu, 299. 364, 412
Cribrum, 113
Crimen majestatfa,

niMcuia tus, 853, 399^

Crista, 874
Crius, 124
Crotala, 218
Cruci a(Rgere.980
Crystallus, 401
Cubicula, 891
Cubicularii, 280
Cublculuro, 247
Cucullua, 288
Cudo, 274
Culciu, 291
Culeus, 260,268
Culina,291
Culter, 254

Cultrarius, 232, 236,887
Cuitri, 332
Cultrum, 104
CululIus,23S
Cumerttmj287
Cunaria, 289
Cunei,247,432
Cuneus, 190,275
Curatores aquaram, 19
Cari», 17, 18,

i'v;

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

Curia Salinrnm, 935
Curionen, 232, 236
CurruB, 206
Curiui, 213
Carules, 210
Cuspis •teilifer, 416
Cuttot. 03
CutU, .364
Cyanus, ¥)ilf
Cyathus, 268, 297
Cybele, 93. 112
Cyclat, 29S
Cylliidri,363
CylleniiKif 109
Cyllopodps, 107
Cymbia. 2^7
Cvnefelica, 577
OynocffphalK 121
Cynthin. 102
Cynthiiis. 101
Cypria, 106
Cytherea, 106

Daetylioth'To*, 405
Damnum, 260
December, 61
Decemviri, 35!
Decennalia, 239
Decreta, 261
Decuuia, 262
Decanz, 266
Deciirise, 259, 272, 277,

2d8
Decurionet, 258, 263,

276, 288, 391
Dedicatiotempli, 238
Definitiones, 643
Defruurium. 296
Derrutiiin, 296
Delectus. 271
Delia, 102
Deliberaiiones, 588
Deliuf, 101
Delpiiicua, 101
Delphinias. 101
Delubrum, 230
Demirchi, 161
Demenaum, 274
Denarius, 267, 375
Dens, 264
Dentale, 264
Dentaia eharta, 364
Deportaiio, 260
Designatorea, 247
Detersor, 289
Deieilatio aacrorum,

288
Deans, 266
Deua, 95
Devoiio, 239
Dev6veret239
Dexter, 233
Diana, 101, 114
Diana Bubaatia, 124
Dianua, 93
Dlarla, 364
Dicaiin, 238
Dicere diem, 259, 271
DicUlor, 251
Diclynna, 102
Diea couiiiialea, 257

feati, f-isU, &c. 241
Diespiter, 95
DifRirrcatin, 287
Digft«ta,6(3
Digitus, 268
Dii nciilea, 382
Dil majorum et mino-

rum gentium. 87
Diia Manibus, 302
Dionysia, 100
DicMcnri, 135
Dioaeiuto, laS

Dioaemeia, 578
Diota, 213, 2»6
Diphthera, 364
Diploma, 333, 364
Diptycha, 364
Dir», 233
Diribitor, 280
Diribitnrea, 257
Disci, 232
Diiicijactua,24S
Dispensator, 289
Diurna, 626
Divorhia,555
Divortia,287
Divus, 301
Dodrana, 266
Dila bra, 232,264
Dona,296
Dominium. 268
DominuB. 2*^8
Domus, 20, 290
Dma, 302
Dona uiilitnria,274
Donaria, 230
Donatio, 2^
Donativa,274
DoriB, 98
Druid». 237
Dryadew, P26
Duces, 285
Dulciarius. 289
Duodena scripta. 295
Duplex acies, 275
Duplicarii, 274
Duumviri, 23H, 239,2^2,

258, 259, 261, 2«2
Dux, 278
Dyndymena, 93

E.
Echidna, 132
Echinus. 424
Edicta, 261

Bdictum, 219. 256, 645
Edictnm perpetuum,

249,645
Editionea Principea,

391
Editor, 214
Bgeria, 96, 230
Elsoiheaium, 203, 423,

428
Elatio, 300
Elephantinum, 412
Eleusinia, 112
Elicius, 95
Elyaium, 99
Emeriti, 275
Emeritum, 275
Emiaaaria, 428
Emporeilca eharta, 364
Bmptio aub corona, 268
Encauatum, 332
Enceladua, 125
Enchiridia, 643
Enclabris, 230
Enaia falcains, 196
EnyaliiM, 105
Epheblum, 42S, 429
Ephe me rides, 364
Ephialtea, 125
Ephippia, 266
Epitiats, 282
Epideliua, 101
Epilenia, 109
EpistolA, 364
Epiatole, 261
Epistolaa solvere, 364
Epiatylium, 424
Epitaenia, 109
Epitaphium, 302
Epithalamia, 287
Epuin, 234
Epularea, 2M

Epulonea, 232, 234
Epulum Jovia, 242
Equeslria, 118
Equites. 244, 253, 878,
298

lublico merere.

Erato, 127
Erigone, 117
Eryclna, 106
Erynnla, 112
Esaede, 194
Essedarii, 244
Etymologicum, maf-

num, 499
Euripus, 247
Eurua, 116,128
Euryale, 130
Euryphaessa, 114
Euterpe, 127
Evocatl, 278
E\cubie, 280
ExequiSB, 300
Exprcitus, 280
E\ilium, 260
Exodia, 558
Exoslra, 246
Expediti,276
Exponere infantem,

287
Exsculptae gemm»,402
Exanquia, 300
Exta muta, 214
Ettispicea, 233
Extispicium, 240
Extraordinarii, 251,277
Extremuai, 257

Fabian i, 235
Fabri,277
Fabrlcffl, 280
Fabrdni, 253
Fabule Aieilanse, 554,

557
Factiones. 213
Fagina, 297
Falarica, 281
Falces muralea, 281
Falcifer, 91
Falcula, 264
Falsi crimen, 260
Falsum, 239
Falx, 264
Fama, 118
Familia,2S5,288
Familinjua,258
Familiares, 129
Fanatici, 240
Fanum, 230, 240
Far, Farina, 264
Fascea, 232, 248
Faaciie, 299
Faacinatio, 24
Faacinum, 119,240
Faacinua, 119,554
Faati Annalea. 241

Capiiolinl, 372

Consularea, 241

diea, 241

Kalendarea, 241,
372

Magiatratuum,
624
Faatigium 291, 424
Fauna, 190
Faunalia. 241, 243
Fauni, 130
Fannua, 130
Febris, 120
Februa, 61, 100
Februarius, 61
Februatio, 241
Februua, 100

Fectales, 232. 234
Femoralia, 299
Feneatre. 290
Feralia, 241
Ferentarii, 276
Feretrius, 95
Feretruiri. 302
Feria, 241

Feria Latins, 11,241
Feronia, 120
Ferrea manus, 282
Ferrum vivuro, 641
Ferula, 260
Fescennium, 554
Fesii dies. 241
Feaium niercatoruro,

109, 242; aaino-

rum. 559
Fibula, 275
Fictile. 263, 297, 382
Fides, 122
Fides Graca, 164
Fidicines. 236
Figlina, 363, 381
FigulUM. 363
Fiscina corbea, 295
FiscuB, 261
Flabellifer, 289
Flagellis. 260
Flagellum, 101,260,266,

402
Haminea. 232, 235, 298
FlaminiK, 236
Flaminica, 235
Flaminii. 230
Flammeum lutearo,287
Flora. 120, 212
Floralia, 120. 242, 246
Flumina inferorum, 25
Foculi, 291
Focus, 291
FflBdera Regum, 624
Fcederata civitatea,

258
FcBniacctorea, 280
Foenum, 264
FcBnua, 267
Folium, 364
Fontinalia, 242
Fora, 17

Foramina, 282, 290
Forda, 242
Ford icidia, 242
Forfex 275
Fori, 242
Forma, 263
Portuna, 118,303
Porttma Portia, 242

virilis, 242
Foruli, 368
Forum, 17, 259, 302
Forus, 295
Fossa, 280
Frsnum, 266
Fratres Arvales,93S,

236,361
Fraua, 122
Frigidarium, 293, 423,

428
Fritillua, 295
Fronlea, 363
Frumentarii, 277
Fucua, 299
Fulcra. 291, 294
Fulguratorea, 234
Pullo, 264
Fullonica, 264
Fullonium, 264
Fumarium, 296
Funainbull, 244
Punditorea, 276
Funes, 260, 282
Funua Indictlvum,

publicttin, 900

664

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

Paris, 1»
Furlna, m
Farinalia. 128, 84«
Puiclna, 2H
FiMtuarluiD, S75

O.

Gala, 93, 113
Galea, 274
Galerlciiliim, 900
GnleruK, 2.13. 27i
Gain, »1, 233, 236
Galliciniuin. 60
nalllnarli. 289
Ga II ilia r ill m, 293
Galliit, 233
Gaiivnicdpfi, 06
Gau0a(N>, 2«.43
GftininiF, 398
Geiiimn diielyphlcK,

tiiBciilpta, 403
Gemma V(>neriB, 400
Gemoniv, 260
Genethliaci, 210
Genii, 120

Gen in ind ulcere, 130
Gena, 285
Gens Inenta, 297
Gentihlia. 2b8
(Sladiatorm, 211
GlB(nii8,274
Gladius ft haau, 240
Glaiiciis, 9S
Globus. 275
GlotiRaB Hacrw. 408
GlutinatorKP, 363
Glut iDum, 410
Gramma tic us, 596
OradivuB Mara, 105
Gradna, 217
Graph ium, 363
GratisD. 127
Greffen. 343
Grei, 557
'2romatice, 617
Orua, 281

Gubernacalum, 252
Gubcrintor, 282
Gummi, 410
Guatut, GitflUtlo, 294
GiittaB, 424
Gutiaa, 233
Oymnaaia, 335, 433

H.

Habenv, 206

Hadea. 09

Hieredkaa, 268

Halcynneua. 125

Ilamadryades, 136

Ilarinll, 240

If arpagnnea, 382

Ifarpocratea, 124

Haruapicea, 232, 333,
237

Haruapicina, 234

Hasta pura, 274
8anfuinea,234
velitaria, 274
▼en ire aub, 368

HaslaB, 274

Haaiati. 271, 274, 376,
278

Hebdomadea, 61

Hebe. 96

Hecate. 101, 103

neliasa. 186

Ueliaatic, 181

IToliconiadea, 136

Heliotrnpin, 400

Ileliu!!, 100.114

Ifeinina,268

HernciidaB, 188

Herculea, 134

Hermv, 109
llermanuhis, 134
Hormerartea, 403
Hfirmea, 108, 384, 403
llt-aperidea, 134
Hexapin, 544
Hilaria. 94, 236. 941
Hippocrene. 127, 181
Ifippoerenldea, 136
Ifippodroini, 18
Hippolytua, 98
Hippona, 120
Hiatrionea, 300, 954
Horaf f , 237
Hnlocauatum, 238
Homeromaattx, 406
Honor, 123
Honorali, 249
Hor», 117,1-27,240
flora hiberna, brsvla-

airoa, 210
Hordeuni, 264
Horologitim, 60
Ifortaior, 283
Hortua, 293
Horua, 132, 134
Hospea, 395
Hoatie, 337
Human ilatia studla,

319, 366
Hydra. 131
HydrauliB.217
Hygeia. 117, 116
Hyperion, 114, 124
Hypocanaiuiii, 438
Hypoffasa. 303
Hyaginum, 412

1.
Tapetua, 134
laamintim, 390
laspia, 400
Idaoa, 03
Idalta, 106
Iirni8,ll3

Iffnoniinla, 351, 960
llithyia, 06, 103
IlluBtrea, 256
Imagines, 303, S84
ImaffineB clypeatae, 384
Immolare, 237
Impedimenta. 377
Imperator, 357
Imperinm, 283
Impluvlum, 290,301
Inanea tumuli, 303
Inauguratin, 338
Inaurea. 299
Incerameiita navium,

413
Ineubatio, 166
Indlcnm, 413
Indigetea, 87
Inducula, 344
Indualum, 297
Infamta, 260
Infi'rtM, 304
Infundtbulum, 264
IngennI, 385
Ino, 125
Inacriptio, 343
Inaigne, 282
Inaiita, 296
Inaliiutlonei, 643, 646
InaulsB, 291
Intercedere, 250
Intercial dies, 341
Intercolumnia, 433
InterdicluR, 300
Inlerrex, 851
Interuia, 298
Inuiia, 116
Inventor, 96
Invidla, 133

Iris, 06.115

Irpex, 364

lala. 133

Isia, 133

llineraria picta, Ae.,

620
Itio in parlea, 396

J.

Jactua Venerla. 305

Jaculatores, 276

Janua. 03, 290, 301

JanuarliM, 61

Janua, IS, 98, 367

Janua bifrons, 267

Judicea a8AeBsores,259

Judicia. 259, 588

Juga, 96

Jngarti.239

Jugerum. 269

Jugum, 264, 366

Juiii, 235

Junius. 61

Juno, 96 ;

(^ttprotina. 242;
Moneta, 248;
Sonpita, 211

Junonalia, or Jnnonia,
96

Junones, 96

Jupiitrr, 94 ; Termina-
lis, 119; Laiiaria,
2.K4 ; Infernua, 100 ;
Maimactes, 343

Jura prnvlnciarum,
prercriurarum,
&c. 258

Jnramentum, 239

Jurare cnnceptia ver-
bis, 239

Juris interpretea, 350

Jus Ai:iianuni,361,643
civitatis, &c. 358
Flavianum,361,643
honorarium, 349,

261
hoapitii 905
Iraaginnm, 354
Laiii or Latlnlta-

tiB,358
mllititf. 356, 271
Papirianum, 961.

643
Ponilflcium, 941
Qu tritium, 258,386

Jusjurandum, 230

Juturna, 130

Juvenales, 216

K.

Kalends, 61, 240
Kalendarium, 941
Kinura, 917

L.

Labarum, 979

Labrum, 430

Labyrinthus, 43

Lacerna, 398

Lacheaia, 128

Lachryme, 302

Laconicum, 420

Lacrymalea, 303

Lacune, 404

Lacunaria, 436

Lacus, 19,296

Lena, 233, 235, 298

Lancee, 974

Mnees, 333, 204

Lanificium, 364

Lanista, 344

Lapia Albaniia, 303
Lazuli, 413
ap«cularla, 990

Lapithe, 131
Laquearia, 900
Lararium, 13U
Larea, 199, 391
I^rea PrestUet, 911
Larix, 413
Larv«, 129
latorculaa, 978
Laterea cnctlles, 969
Utialis, 05
Uliclavia, 356, 898
l^lomi», 40
I^alona. 116
l^tua clavua, 256
Laudatio, 302, 5(s8, 560
Laudationes funebres,

634
Lavacrum, 430
Lavatio Mairia Deo*

rum, 241
Laverna, 120
Lecli,201
Lectica, 300
Lectlcarii, 389
L4>cii8teriiia, 334. 330
LectiBierniatorj989
Leclus feral ie. 300
Lectus auromus, me-

dius. imua, W9
Legati,353,978
Legem accipere. juba-

re, abrogare, Jfcc.,

361
Leges agrarw, &c.,391

Curia te. &c.. 261

recin.G24,643
Leglfera, 170
Legia aciionea, 643
Legitimua,288
I^innius, 107
Lerourea, 120
Lemuria, 242
Lethum, 130
I^eucantbea, 01
Lex annalis, 948

Atinia, 961

Furia. 961

Julia, 9S6

Poppsea, 386

Porcia, 360, 883
Liba, 238
Libelli, accoaaloril,

gladlatorii,&c.,364
Llbellua, 944, 364;

amariua, 379
Liber, 100
Ltberalia, 941
Liber, Libf-llua. 364
Liberutia jus, 258
Libertf, Libertini, 955
Libertina, 106
LibitinariuB, 300
Libra, 266. 270
Libra, 266
Libraria. 364
Librarii, 277, 988, 3M
Librarium, 364
Libri Elephanttni, 18.

fataleB, 440

Liniei, OM
Libs, 138
Liburnlc«.983 .
Lictores, 248, 239
Ligo, 264

Llgnla,?32,968,99S
Limbus, 298
Lingua Osea, 361
Linguis AiTele,337
Lino obtitare, 364
Linum, 264
Litare, 234
Liters, 364
LUerae majnscnls, M

minttiBi 303

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

665

Liters qaadratK, 330

uncialM, KM
Literail ic Liieratorest

3M.596
Litui, S72, «74
Utttiis, 233, 383, 274,

349,405

Lixa, an

I#oci comma neti 594

Loculamenta, 368

Loculua, 364

Loeiie conaularls, 293

LorH,260;aubtiugia,266

Lorica, 374

Loricate, 383

Loutron, 423

l.ucaria, 241

Lucerne, 291

Luci, 18, 230

Loctna, or Lucinla, 96,
102

Lueia, 243

Luctus publicoa, 304

Ludi, 19

Ludj Apollinaret, 101,
212, 1M()
capilolini, 240
clrceiisea, 98, 101,

242,243
floralea, 216
funebres, 301
gladiatorii, 244
roagni, 242, 243
Djeifalenaea, 240
oaci,5M
plebeii,242,2]6
seen id, 246, 360
■eciilarea, 102,243
▼ollvl, 240

Ludii, 300

Ladua, 244

Ludua Magnnt, &e., 10
1 roj», 213

Luna, 101, 114

Luna patricia, 299

Lunata aclea, 2tA
peliia, 209

Lunatici, 240

LupercallH, 116. 235,241

Luperci.232,235

Lupercua, 116, 235

Luetraiionea, 239

Luairica, 839

Lustrum, 63, 239

Luauanaiurw, 110

Lyeua, 109

LycKut, 116

Lycbnia, 400

Lychnuchna, 291

Lyclus, 101

Lydiua lapis. 266

Lymphati, 240

M.
If accus, 557
Mactare, 237
llenalius, no
Mseniana, 247
Magi, 605

Mat iaier auctionum,
268

colleKii, 233

eonvlvii, 295

equitom, 251, 284

mM>llorum. 645

miiitisB, 284

navl.«, 282

officlurnm.250,284

peditam, 284

publicanortim, 262

ptiblicus, 234
MaciairHtua. 251
Maimactea, 242
Maitta,6i

84

Majestatis crimen, 252,

259
Mala, 294
Malleoli, 281
Malleus. 232, 291, 418
Malua, 282
MamuriuB, 235
ManeepB portiium, 262
Mancipaiio,268
Mancipia, 285
Mandata, 261
Manes, 129, 304
Mangones, 2b9
Mania, 129
Manic«, 260
Manicula, 264
ManipuluR, 272
Manalo, 278
Maniilia,294
ManumiBsio, 298, 289
Man us ferrc.iB, 282
Mappa, 2y4
Marculi, 291
Margarita. 268, 401
Margines, 15
iMarina, 106
Marra, 264
Mars, 105
xMarilale8.240
Manias, 61
Mastiche, 412
Materfamilias, 287
Mathemaiici, 240
Matralia, 242
Mairimoninm, 286
Maufoleum, 20,48, 114,

223
Media Nox, 60
Medicamina, 299
Medici, 289
Medicina, 639
Meditrinalia, 242
Medusa. 104, 130
Megnra, 128
Megalenaes, 246
Mesalesin, 94, 241
Mehercle, 239
Melinum, 410, 412
Mellona, 130
Melpomene, 127
Memhrana, 364

bicolor, 331
Mene»,291,294
Mensarii, 263
Mensa sacra, 230
Mpnsis intercalai is, 61
Mephitis, 12, 120
Mercatores, 263
Mercatorum featuro,

109
Mercurius, 108
Metie, 243
Metatores, 277
Meiopium,299
Milites ieves, 271
Mimia!jus,258,271
Milliare, 268
Milliarium aureum, 15
Millies, ice., 287
Mimiarobi. 577
Mimographi,558
Minerva, 104
Minimi, 374
Miniatrl, 236
Minium, 299, 33S, 363,

412
Mirmillones, 244
Miscellanei del, 87
Miasilia, 373
Misxio, 244
MnemosynR, 124, 120
Modius, 268, 262
Mola, manuaria, asi-

naria, &c., 264

Mola salsa, 237
Mole^i Hadriani, 20
Mnlybdis, 282
Morous, 119
Moneta. 96, 242, 207
Monilia, 299
Monopodium, 201, 294
Mons Palatlnus, &;c.,16
Monumenta, 302
Morbus articularia, 507
Morpheus, 130
Mors, 130, 200
Mortarium, 264
Motor isB, 557
Mulciber, 107
Miilcta, 260
Muliones, 289
Mullei, 209
Munera, 244, 302
Muniapaciselbelii,253
Municipia, 258
Murex, 297
Murrha, or Murrbl-
num, 203, 297, 401
MuBculi, 281
MusicB, 105
Musivum opus, 384
MuBiuni, 296
Mutilatio, 295
Mystagngi, 236, 60S
Mythi, 83

N.
Nsanta, 138
Nsenie, 300, 563
Naiades, 126
Napeas, 126
Nardinum, 299
Natalitia vota,238
Naturalis, 288
Naumachia, 19, 343
Naumachiarii, 243
Nautea, 282
Navarchus, 282
Naves oneraria, lon-
ga, rostrata, &c.,

Navis pratoria, 283
Necessitatis Inventa,

308
Nefiisli, 241
Negotlatores, 263
Nemesis, 117
Neptunalia, 93, 243
Nereides, 98, 120
Nereus, 98
Ncrvus, 260
Neryx, 15
Nexus, 267
Nidi, 368
Niobe, 102
Nobiles, 254
Nobilius Romana, 254
Nomen,285
Nomius, 101
Nona, 61
Norma, 418
Nota censoria, 851

interior, 290
Nota, 370, 043
Nota Tironiana, 383
Nota interior, 296
Notarii, 252, 333, 364
Notus, 116,128
Novella, 383
November, 61
Novi homines, 254
Nox, 115

Nubentlsutensilla,287
Nunteruslegitimu8,256
Numismata maxim!

moduli, 373
Nnmnii contorniati,373
Nuiumularii, 207

3k3

Nummus, 267
NunimuB moduli ma*

ximi,266
Nundlna, 61, 241
Nupiiiejusic, 286
Nuptial IS, 96
Nuptial is cana,287
Nuiritii, 289
NycieliuB, 109
Nymphaa, 19
Nympbaum, 136

O.

Obices, 291
Obolus, 100
Obsecrationes, 237
Obfiidianum, 406
Obsignare, 364
Occa, 264
Occator, 120
Occatores, 289
Occidens, 128
OceaniiB, 96, 124
Ochra usta, 412
Ocreie, 244, 256, 374
Octava. 262
October, 61
Ocypeta, 128
Odea, 19.32,33,422
Odrysius, 105
Oesipum,299
Oliiorium, 17
Olla exiares, 338
Onager, 281
Ouyx, 400
Opalia, 243
Opalus, 400
Opeconsiva, 242
Opera conimlttere, 366
Opigena, 90
Opiliones, 280
Opisthographus, 304
Ops, 93
Oppidum. 325
Optimus MaximuB, 09
Optio, 272
Optionee, 276
Opus incertum, 248

musivum, 384;

signinum, 423
Oralii>nes principnm,

261
Orbis, 278
Orchestra, 346, 438
Orcus, 100
Ordines, 271. 433
Ordlnibus coroprestia,

270
Ordo equester, 354

plebeins, 253
Oreades, 136
Oricbalcum, 383
Orion, 125
Osci ludi, 554
Oscines, 333
Oscophoria, 109
Osiris, 132
Ossilegium, 303
Ostiarium, 263
Ostiarius, 280
Ostium, 890
Ostruro, 412
Otus, 125
Ova, 894
Ovatio, 384
Ovi albumen, 410
Ovile, 257

Pabulum, 180
Padagogi.388,280
Panula, 296
Pagina, 303,904

606

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

PalMtrt, in, 4S3
Palnsiiiifi, 400

Palatiuni, 16,20
Pa IK*, 1^
Palilia, I'iO, 343
Palimp-i'Bti, 353, 364

Palladrum. 04. 104, 113
PallantiMP, 114
Pallnp, 103
PnliiaiaD, :t83, 55$
Palliati,2t»7
PBlniiiB.»i8
PaludaitieMiim, 296
PaludBtae, 3b3
Pan, 116
Patifftolliim, 103
Panathenaea, 104, 171
Pancraiiiim, 173
Pandenee, 6M
Pandora, 107
Panes, 130
Paniflrhim, 3C3
Pantheon, 17
Pantomimi, 558
Paphta, 106
Pappus, 557
Papyri, 356 •
Pnraptnnium, 41S
Paraliit, 42
Pa re OP, 124
Pareti, imparea, tibJ9,

247
Parilia, 120
Parma, 244. 274
Parnaasideff, 126
Parrlcidii, vfiO
Passu*, il68
Pamrf>us. 101
Patella, 2:^^
Patellartl, 129
Paiern, 96, 300
Paler*. 832, S87
Pater Adiiciarnis, 288

patraiuB, 234
Patres conscript!, 256

minoruni gentium}
953
PatricH, 253
Patrin», 294
Patrnnus, 250
Palulcius, 93
Pavlmonia tesaalata,

290
Pax, 122,241
Pecudea, 206
Peoilaius, 252,260
PecitUnm caatrenaet

274
Pecunia, 266
Pecua iiirpe, 310
Pedes, 2^2
PedictB, 2fi0
Pedltes. 278
Pegasus. 26, 131
Pelasgi, 323
Pelopidee, 136
Pelops, 136
Peloria, 91
Penates, 129
Penicillus, 332, 413
Peiina, 332
Perduellionls, 260
Percffrini, 258
Pert>grtnl dil, 87
Per8ainena,364
Pcririilm, 366
Perimcl, 189
PeripetMBinata, 291
Periatroniata, 291
Periiityliurn, 422
Peron«B,298
Perpendiculum, 418

Perpetus quBstionea,

259
Perpol. 239
pprsens. 133
Perl lr«, 2(34
Pervif ilaiionea, 560
res. 268
Pes*iniinlia,93
Pctasus. 108. 296
Petaurfsi», 244
Pf itllo, 259
Pelllor, 259
Petreua, 98
Phalarse, 275 ~
Phantasiis, 130
Phaseli, 283
Phcngitcs. 200
PhialK. 297
Phllyrs. 363
Phnbetor. 130
Phohe. 102. 117, 134
Phorcus, 98
Phylarchi, 161
Phy V, 32
Piaruliim, 239
Pictnra, de niusivo, 413
Pierides, 136
Pierus, 126
Ptetas. 123
Pila, 274
Pilejitam. 366
Pileus,29'*,298
Pilumnus, 120
Pilus primna, 279
Pi nacothpr 11,291
Ptnarii, 232,335
Piraeus. 31
Piararium, 17
Pipcatores, 289
Piscatorii Ludi. 216
Piscina mirnbilis, 292
Pistnres, 2r.3
Plstrilla, 264
Pistrinum,364
Pisiiint,264
Plagii, 860
Plagiiln, 363
Plan8tra.366
Plebeii^dilea,319
Plebiscitn, 850,257, 261
Plebs, 2o3
Pleiades, 108
Plutel, 2M
Pluio, 09
Plutna, 118

Piu vins or Pluvialis, 05
Pnvx. 32
Pnciiiatnr, 289
Pocula fagina, Titrea,

&c., 297
Pndiunn, 247, 348
PcBcile,3l.36,423
Prena;, 260
PoBtarium, 623
Pol, 239

Pol iaa Minerva, 29. 104
Policem premebant,

▼ertebani. 244
Pnllinctorea, 300
PoluB, 116
Polyhymnia, 127
Pomona, 119, 120
Pompa circensis, 213
Pona MilvtUB, Ji^liua,

&c , 16
Pontes. 257
PonilcHli. 257
Pontifex Maximu8,233
PonlificeB, 2S2
Popaj. 232, 239 *
Pnpina, see Cuupona.
Popularin, 247
Pnpiilonia, 96
Populum calare, 234

Populus, 353

Porta Pretoria, decu-

niana, Jlc. 280
Porta Carmentalia,
ftc , 15

aalutaris, 118
Portenta, 233
PortiriiB, 423; miilia-

rin. I9;4V3
Portisculus, 283
Portoriuni, 261
Portumnalia, 242
Portumnus, 125
Pnsiceniugn. 246
Postridiani, 341
Potamides, 126
Potitii. 232, 235
Preecinctiones, 347, 438
Precones, 252
Predes, 259,262
PriBdia, rustica, urba-

na,268
Pr«exercitat{onea, 499
Pr»fecti, 2r7
Prvfecturae. 256
Prefectus JBgypti, 385

an non 36,351,361

classis, 281

morum, 251

pretorio, 284, 285

urbis, 251. 2S5
Prvfericula, 232, 239
Prefice, 300
Prngustatnr, 380
Pr»inia minora, 375
Prsnnnien, 2t5
Pra'sides, 285
Prsstlglaiores, 244
Prvsul, 235
PrflDtextatn, 555, 557
Praetor, 249, 259
Pr«torium. 278
Prandium, 293
Praia. 264
Precationes, 338
Precum arbitri, 250
Prelum, 31«
Priapus, 119. 395, 564
Primitie,238
Prlnrip«.«,271,275,876,

378
Principia, 378
Proconsul, 252, 385
Procurator, 244
Procurator Ccaaria,

253
Prodlgia,333
Prod igia lores, 334
Profpssores, 3iB6
Profcsli, 241
ProJIcere in profluen-

tum, 260
Prnmagister, 363
Propnieeum.433
Propr»tor, 353
Propy lea, 39
Proqua-stor, 393
Prora, 383
Proreta, 383
Proscenium, 316
Proscriptio,368
Proserpina, 106
Proteus, 96
Provinciae, 258
Prytanennt, 184
Psylli, 56
Publicani. 369
Publicum, 362
Pugilatus, 343
Pueiilares, 364
Pugnr Biinnlacra, 304
Pullarius, 333
Pulli, 2.H3
Pulroentariua, 380

Pulpit nm, 347
Pnlvinar,394
Pnlvinaria.237,368
Pulvinus, 293, 439
Punctuiu (omne tolH),

270
Puppis, 383
Purpura, 363
Purpurissum, 412
Puteal. 17
Puticule, 303
Pyl« CaspiiB, 46
Pylotis. 105
Pyra, 303
PyramisCestii,80
Pyrakmon, 107
Pytbius, 101
Pyxia or Pyxldula, 300

Q.

Quadra na, 866, 398;

375, 429
Quadrantal, 296
Quadrate liters, 310
Quadrigc.366
Quadrigati, 373
Quaririgenaria, 379
Quadriremes. 362
QuiPBitores, 259
Quaestionev, 259
Quaextor sacri palatil,

350,385
Qnsastores, 350
Quaestor turn. 378
Quartarius, 268
Qua tern io, 295, 333
Quinarius,307, 375
Quincunx, 365, 27S
Quindeceniviri, 331,

340
Quiiigenarla, 373
Quinqnatria, 104, 171,

341,243
Quinquennia, 338
Quinquevirl, 259
Quintana via. 380
Quintiliani. 235
Quintllis, 61
Quirinalla, 341
Quirinalea, 235
Quirinua Mara, 105
Quirites, 11, 16
Quirliiumjaa, 3S8

R.

Rallnm, 864

Ramentum, 964

Raatrum. 364

Reel as vf as, 375

Rector, 362

Recuperatorea, 950

Regia, 833. 934

Regina Sacrorum, 391
Viamm, 16

Regula, 418

Reletatas, 960

Religio, 239

Religione solvere, 936,

Religioal diea, 241

Remancipatio, 367

Remi, Remigea, 282

Repetundanim cri-
men. 352. 260

RepoBitoria,894

Repoiia,387

Repudium, 267

Rescripta,361,645

Rescriptus Codex, 359

Responaa, 643

Rea Uancipl, Nee
Mancipl, 966
privatae, 366

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

667

Reipnbllea, ne quid {

dffirlnienti capiat,

S5i. 257
Retiarii, 2H
Reus, 3^9
Bex convivit, 295

sacnflculuB, 234

sacroruni. 232, 234
RhamnKiiait, 2:i2
Khamnuaiii, 117
Rheu, 91
Rh(>da. 266
Rica, Ricintum,296
Rohiiraiia. 212
Rogaiio, 259
Rogus, 302
Roma, 119
Romaicn.210
Roraril, 276
Rosa, Suh, 206
Rosace am, 299
RoBtra, 17. 262, 302
Rotula sirraia, 41S
Rubacelhiff, 4(K)
Rubpscpfia. 3b6
Ruhiao rndix. 412
Ruhrica. 33*2, 363, 412
Riiilenten, 2&9
Rudera, 15
Runcainrpis, 280
Rnncina, 120
Rusiicniiuc (sermo))

362

S.
Sabnrra, 282
8acelln, 230
Bacf rdnt^d, 236
Bacra gent il it 18^288
Sacramt* iitum, 270, 271
6acrilirin,237
Sacrnnini jiii, 258
Bagiitarii. 276
8neu 111.298
Balarium, 262
Balicenita, 106
Sain, 105,232,235,941,

395
Baliiise, 263
Bnltii«*. 213
Pahis, 118
Hanihiica, S17
Randapiln, 300
Handaracha, 412
Handipilarii,300
8andyx, 412
Papa, 296
Bapphirus, 400
Rarcinffi, 277
Sarcncolla, 412
BarcopliHfrttfl, 302
Barciiluiii,264
Bnrda. 400
Barmcum, 266
Batirn, 565
Bnti8dare,259
Sainr, 91
Satura, 565
Baiurnalla. 91,242,590
Batnrnia, 91
Baturniis, 91
Batyriis, 565
Baxn Tarpeio dcjicere,

?80
BcabKlla, 299
Beats, 217, 260, 280
Bcalmus, 282
ScaUMT, 418
Bcalpium, 418
Srapuii, 363
Scarabeei, 403
Rcena, 416
Bcenici,360,554
SchedK^, 363
Bcbola Uomana, 366

Bcholee. 284, 386, 429
Bci;«8, 36
t<ci8snr. 289
Scolecia, 412
Scorpio, 2bl
Scribae, 252, 277
Bcrininm, 364
ScriptoreB histnrisB

Augiisioe, 638
Scriptorium, 333
Scriptura, 262
Scrupuluni, 375
Sculpiura, 381
Sruttca,26U-
Scutum. 214,274
Srylla, 132
Scyphi. 297
SeceppitOB, 232
Seciio, 26S
Hecuri percutere, 260
Becuria,232,2l8,264
Secuiori's, 244
Sedilia, ^^2
Begetia, Seia, 120
Selecti, P7
Sella, 218. 291
Sella curulis, 235, 250,
251

portatoria, 254
Bembella, 267
Bemcntinn, 211
Semis, 266
Semones, 87
Senacula, 18
Betiatus auctorita8.256

eoniiullum,256,261

de Baccbanalibua,
315
Benio, 205

BenteniifisReceptfle.643
ScTiiina. 232
Sepia, 363
Sppta, 257
Septemvirl, 234
Bepiicollis. 15,225
Septunx, 266
Sepulchrnm, 303
Serse, 291
Berapea, 123
Serapis, 123
Seres, 208
Sermo urbanus, rustl-

caiius, &.C, 362
Berra. 276, 418
Sf rrati, 373
Servi terrK, 290
Servitus, 260, 268
Servitutes prflBdiorum,

268
Serviis admissionalJs,

ruhicularius, &c.,

289
Bestertium, 267
Sestertius, 367, 375
Scva, 232
Sexcenaria, 272
Sextans, 266, 375
Spxiariuf, 268
Sextilis. 61
Bics, 196
Bicarii, 196
Stearins, crimen Inter,

260
Siclus, 375
Sigilla, 383, 405
Bigia, 370
Sigma, 291, 294
SiKna,233,272
Bignatoril, 405
Signiferi, 272
Sil,412
Silenl, ISO
Si|(>nuB, 110
Biliccrnium, 304

Bimpuhim, 238
Sinister, 233
Sinopiii pontica,4I0,412
Sirennusee, 126
Sifltrum. 110,218
Siiella,257
Smardgdus, 400
SmegmNta, 290
SminthaB, 42
8mintheu8,42, 101
SnccI, 299, 558
Bocietas, 202
Socii, 277
Bodales, TItil, 232, 236

Augustales, 236
Sodalitates, 235
Sol, 1 14
Solaria, 240
Botarium. 60, 291
Bolet^, 200
Sn|enniB,237
Solidus, 267
Solium, 376
Solvere eplstolas, 964
Bomnus, 130
Boracte, 120
Boranus, 100
Scrs, 267
Sortes, 240
Sortiiegi, 240
Sort ilio, 257
Sospiia, 06
Spatboe, 274
Bp«fciilum, 263
Spectabiles, 597
Hpeciacula, 243
Specula, 290,299
Specularia, 290
Spcs, 122
Spheeristerium, 293,

422,429
Spina circi, 242, 243
Bpineilus, 400
Bpnliarium,2ld
BpondsB, 204
Bponsalia, 286
Bponsio, 286
Sponsor, 95
Bportula, 295
Bpurius, 2b8
Stadium, 1^,32,268,423
Stapite. 266
Stata, 237
Statariie, 557
Stater Dtiricus, 213
Statin, 280, 372
Stator, 95
Statuee Innicsd, 383
Btatuaria, 3hl
Siaiumen, 15
Statumina, 282
Stega, 282
Bterculinua, Btercu-

ttus, 91, 120
Sternpes, 107
Htbeno, 130
Stibadium, 394
Btipendio privari,275
Stipendiuro, 236, 274
8tipulatlo,286
Stiva, 264
Bto1a,298
Btragula, 291, 204
Sttnngulare, 260
Strategeniatica, 618
Btrategi, 106
Btrena, 211
Btrenua, 120
Sirigilea, 293, 303
Btroppi, 2«2
Btructor, 280, 205
Btrvmonlus, 105
Stu'dia humanitatia,

310,366

Stylus, 363
Suarium, 17
Subrfn(urin,273
Bubdivale. 290
Subiiart), 271
Snbligncuium, 244
Subsi riptin. 364
Subsignani, 272
SubsolanuB, 128
Subucula.2y7
Succina, 297
Sudatorium, 423, 428
SudKs, 2t<0, 2bl
Sutrragiiju8,258
Suggeslus, 17, 247
8uile,2!}2
SummanuB, 100, 130,

242
Buovetaurllia, 105, 239
Bupplicationes, 237,289
Bupplicia,237
Burcull, 363
Sylvn, 581
Symbola, 280, 200
Symplegmata, 384
Byngrapha, 364

Tabellse, 257, 364

legit iniie, 286
Tabellarius, 364, 379
TnbernariSB, 557
TNblinuni,291
Tabula nuctionaria,
268

lusoria, 295

proscriptlonis, 966
TabulA, 365, 412
Tabula eernta, 363

duodecim, 261

Euguhinee, 373

votiva, 238
Tahularia, 17
Tabularium, 17,956
Tasdiger, 289
Ta;nia,2b'2,364
Talaria, 1U8
Tafenlnm, 267
Tali, 240, 205
Talio, 260
Tantalides, 130
Tartarus, 00
Taliensis, 253
Tecta laqneata, 426
Tegule, 291
Telorum Dim, 344
Telesphnrus, US
Tel I us, 03, 1 12
Temo, 264, 266
Tempesias, 943
Templa,230,233
Tepidariuui, 203| 493,

438
Terebintha, 419
Terebra, 281. 418
Tergemina, 102
Terminalia, 110,241
Terminus, 110,884
Ternio, 295
Terpsichore, 197
TerunciuB, 967
Tesselatiim, 200, 384
Tessera, 280, 205
TessertB, 305
Tesserarli, 280
Teeta, 996
Testament! Jus, 258
Testa me nto, 268
Testudo, 278, 2i]0, 281
Tethys, 134
Textrina, 264
Thalia, 127
Theatra, 18
Tbecu calamarla, 304

668

INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.

Themis, 117, 124
TbensB, 960
Therioirophium, 909
Tberma, 19, 990, 498
Theceua.ao, 134
Thesmophom, 97
Tliesmoihete, 181
Thetis, 06
Tboraces, 384
Thorax, 274
Thmcps, 944
ThriainbUB, 100
Thurarlum, 939
Thuribuluiii, 932
Tbiirtus, 105
Thus inaicuhifn, 419
Thynibrseim, 101
ThyofieuB, 100
Tbyrtig«>r, 100
ThyraiiB, 110
Tibi«.dextra,i}nlstnB,

110,930,941
Tihialia, 909
Tibicines. 2:<fl, 300
Tinctoria, 964
Tinciura, 9«4
Tlntinnabula, 906, 901
Tiviphnne, 198
TiiiBa, 01, 112
TUanid*>B, 01, 117
Tiiull,2t*0
Titulua,302,343
Toga, 946, 297

Candida, 948

fuf a, 997

prctexia, 233, 234,
2a'i,249,950,264,
297

puUa, 207

▼irili»,997,990
ToKatie. 383, 553, &37
Togati, 297
Toliere inikntem, 987
Tnuientuin, 994
Tontorea, 9S0
Toplarii, 292
Torcular, 900
Torculariam, 900
Tor^umata, 997
Torquei nureiD, 279,

990,300
Toriii, 291
Trabea, 933, 984
Trabeatae, 557
TrHgulnrii, 976
Traha, 9&t, 2fi0
Tralaiiiia, 949
Transtra,262
Tran8vectin,956
Trlarii, 271, 979, 975,

976,978
Tribula, 261, 966
Tribunal, 17,949,957,978
TribunI mllltuiu, 951

plebis, 250
Trlbua, urban*, ruati-

cc:, 959
Tributa, 961
Tributa coonitia, 357,

961

Trlcennarla, 972

Ustrina, Ustrlnnm, 303

ViaQniBtana,980

Triclinium. 901,908,304

Usucapio. 968, 966

Sacra, Appia,fte^

Tridfnt,944

Usura, 267

16 "^"^^

Trieni, 966, 375

Usurpatio, 987

Via, 15, 16

Trieterica, 100

IIsus,9b8,9H6

Viales, 129

Triformia, 109

Utensil ia, 287
Utres, 996

Viatores, 950

Trlfa,966

Vlcaril, 985

Trifonon, 917

Uxor, 967

Vicennalia. 938

Trinundlnum, 261

Uxorlum, 909

Vicesima, 969

Tripes, 204

*

Vici, 17

Triplex acies, 975

y^

Victims, 237

Tripodes, 939

Victittiarii,936,S06

Trlptyrha, 365

Vacatio boBorata, 971,

Victor, 95

Tripudium, 933, 405

275

Vlcioria, 190

Triremes, 989

Vacuna, 190

Victrix, 106

Triticunt.964
Triton, 06, 195

Vades, 950

Vicus alhus, Jtc, 17

Vagina. 239

Valf tudinarinm, 280

Vigiles, 260

TrUnnia, 104

Vigilic, 59, 240. 980

Triiirophalis lex, 983

Vallonia, 190

Villa urbaita, mstka,

Triumphus, 9h3, 964

Vallum, 280

4cc,999

TriuniTirl.952,207
Trivia, 109

Vasa marrhioa, 263,

Vilticus, 209, 289

997,401

Viihcus amphitlwairi,

TropM, 19, 100

■acra, 939

947

Truttn«.t266

sculpia, 207

Vlnalia,949

Tryffinum, 419

ungvenurta, 303

Vinarta cella, 996

Tubas, 939,939,979, 395

Vales, 16

Vincula. 960, 9li9

Tubicines, 936, 274

Vaiicanus, 16

Vlndi*miaiores,280

TubilUBtrium, 941, 949

Vaticinatores, 240

Vindicaiia, 950

Tudes. 418

Vectigalia, 961

Vindicta, 2S0

Tiilllanum, 260
Tunica, 907

Vedius, 95

Vines. 196. 980

Veh«, 966

VInum Falernum, C».

angusticlaTla, 956,

Vpjovis, 05

cubum, Ate, 906

906

Vela, 989

VIoiarium, 499

latlclavla, 956, 388

Velal«,383

Virgo, 117, 118

recta, 987

Velit^s,97l,274,«76

maxima, 936

Tumultuarii, 2U

Vellum, 964

Vlrgis,260

Tuonultus, 7, 971

V^nalitiarit,980

Virl epularea, 934

Tumulus, 309

Ven»tlo, 243

Virtus, 129

Tunlcaiw, 557

Veneflcii crimen, 960

Vis publics, 360

Turnii«,279,977

Veneralia. 941

Viscerstio, 304

Turricula,995
Turrii, 278, 981

Ventl, 198

Vitisator. 91

Ventorum Ara, 116

Viirea, 963

Tulela, 282

Ventus textilis, 996

Vitrea specularia, 990

Tutelarii, 301

Venus, 105, 995

Vitrum, 263

Tympana, 266

Genetrls, 949

Tympanam,110,918,4i4

Marina, 195

406

Typhoous, or Typbon,

Verbera, 260

Vitta, 992, 299

199.195,132"^

VermicnIatuiB, 384

Viva voce, 266

Verns, 985

Vivarium, 901

U.

Versus Fescenninf, 554

Volones, 971

Vartlcordla, 106

Volumtna, 363

Udones, 909

Vertumntis, 119

Vnlnaia, 190

imimum,957

Veruculuni, 413

Vomer, 964

ritor, 105

Vrspera, 60

Vota, 936

Umbilici, 363

Vespillones. 300

Voii reus, 938

UnciflB, 966

Vesta, 18,03, 9:{0, 942

Votiviludl,946

Unctuarium, 903, 420

Vestales, 113,939,236

Vulraiiaiia, 107, 949
Vulcanus, 107, 108

Ungttenia, 909
Unio, 205

Veslalia, 941, 949

Vestes Coa, Series,

Vulpium combuatto.

Unxla,06

998

112

Uragus, 979, 977

Vestlaril,989

Vulsella, 963

Urania, 106, 197

Vestis stragula, 966

Vulturius, 101

Uranus, 01, 113

201

Urba,995

Ve8iibnlum,200,300

X.

Urceus, 939
Urius Jupiter, 345

Veto, 950

Xystum,493

Vexillarli, 979

Xystus,493

Vezillationes,985

"firalls.302

Vexmum.279,975

Z.

Urn« lachrvmalaa, 303
Uahinm,200

Vexillum purpureum,

Zephynis, 110, 138

289

Zona, 866

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Abana, 50
Abdcra, 31
Abiynthi, or Apflynthf,

Abvdoc, SI, 47
Abyla, 0, 57
Abyssinia, 55
Acarnania, 24, 26
Ace, or Aco, 50
Achaia, 31
Acharnae, 28
AchelouB, 21, 26, 41
Acberon, 25
Acidalia (fount), 27
Aciris, IS
Acradina, 40
Acritas Prom. 33
Acro-Ceraiinta, 21
Acro-Cerauiiii, Mon-

tes, 21,22,24
Acro-CoriiiihuB, 34
Acte, 28
Aclium, 26
Actium Prom. 35, 28
Adramyiiium, 47
Adrianopolis, 21
Adrumetum, 57
A dulls, 55
JEa, 46, 135
.F.dui, 6

il'^eades or JEgatei, 41
.ACgaeum Mare, 21
iEge, Si
JEgSnn, 34, 42
^Epissa or ^gissoB, 8
iEgiuw, 3ft
Mgoa Potamos, 21
JE%\iunt 41
yUgypti torreni, 53
^gyptus, 53
iCIanites dinuff 53
Jf^none, 42
£nos, 21
Jilnus, 7

JEoMx Insiilee, 41
iEolisor .£nlia, 47
if<:8iuarium Ituns, 40
iGihiopia, 55
Ji:thria, 42
^tna,41
.£tnUa, 26
Africa, 53

Interior, 57

Propria, 56
Aganippe, 27
Agathyrsi, 5
Agrigenlum, 41
AgyUa, 10
Alabanda,48
Alani, 46

Alba Longa, 11, 225
Albania, 48
Albaniae Pyln, 46
Albanus Lacua, 11
Albii, 6

Albulttf Lacus, 11
Alburnuf, 13
Aleria, 40
Alesia, 6

Alexandria, 48, 54
Alfeniie, 12
Algidum, 11

Alleroanni, 5

Allia,ll

Allobrogei, 6

Alos, 24

Alpei, Grais, &c., 7

Alpheus, 34

Allis, 34

Araanaa, 48

Amardus, 44

Amasia, 47

Ambracia, 25

Ambracius Bitias, 21

A mi da, 46

Amisus, 47

Amiternum, II

Ampiiipolis, 22

Amphissa, 26

Amphryasua, 24

Aiupsagus, 57

Amsanctus, 13

Amycia, 36

Anactorium, 26

Anamurlum, 49

Anaphe, 42

Anapus, 40

Anas, 0

Anchesmue, 25,28

Ancona, 10

Ancyra, 48

Andros, 42

Angli, 5

AniOjlO, II

Anthela, 27

Anticyra, 27

Anti-Libanus, 50

Antioctiia, 48, 50
in Pisidia,48
in Syria, 50

Antirrhium, 85

Aniium, 11

Anxur, 11

AOus, 34

Apamea, 48

on Rhyndacus, 47
on Marsyas, 48
on Orontei, 50

AphettB, 24

Apia, 34

Apoilonia, SO, 22, 56

Apuiia. 12

Aqua Sextis, 0

Aquileia, 0

Aquinum, 11

Aquitani, 6

Aquitania, 6

Arabia, 53

Arabicua Sinai , 53

Arachosia, 44

Aracthus, 25

Aracynthus, SO

Aragus, 46

Arar, 7

Ararat, 44, 46

Araxes, or Pliaiiii 46

Araxes, 44

Arbela, 53

Arbiti Montas,44

Arcadia, 34

Arcati Regie, 43

Ardoa, 11

Arduenna SyWa, 7

Aretbon, 25

Arevaci} 8

Argaas Mons, 46

Argia, 34

Argos, in Argolis, 34

Amptiiloctiius, 26
Aria, 4-1, 46
Aria Pa I us, 44
Arimaihea, 51
Ariminuro, 10
Armenia, 46
Armorica, 6
Arnus, 10
Arpl, 12
Arpinum, 11
Arsacide, 44
Arsinoe, 53, 51,56
Arsissa Pal us, 40
Artabrum Prom. 9
Ariacoana, 46
Artaxata, 46
Artcmisium, 42
Arsa, 46
Aflcra, 27
Asculum, 10, 13
Asia, 43
Asia Minor, 46
Asinarius, 41
Aspendns, 48
Asphaltites Lacua, 51,

52
Assyria, 53
Astaboras, 55
Ataianta, 27
Aternum, 13
Atbenaum Prom. 13
Atbesis, 10
At boa, 32
Atinuro, 13

Atlanticus Oceanui , 57
Atlantis, 57
Atlas, 57
Atropatene, 44
Atropatia, 44
Attica, 38
Aufidua, 12, 13
Augusta Emerita, 9

Taurinorum, 9

VIndelieorum, 7
Augustodunam, 6
Aulis, 37, 43
A urea CbersonesuS) 3,

43
Ausonia, 9
Auxuroe, 55
Aventinus, &c., 16
Avernus Lacus, 12
Axiaa, 33

B.
Babylonia, 53

Bactra, 46
Bactriana, 46
Betica, 8, 9
Batts, 9
Bagdat, 53
Bagradas, 57
Bale, 12

Balearea Ins ulc, 40
Barce, 56
Barium, 13
Basanites Mons, 54
Basillcata, 13
Bastarnica Alpca, 8
Baituli, 9

BaU7l, 6
Bebrycia, 47
Belga, 6
Belgica, 7
Beuacus, 10
Benevenium, 13
BeroBa,50
Berenice. 53, 54,56
B^rytUfl, 50
Betbel, 51
Betbesda (pool), 53
Bethlehem, 51
B<>th«aida, 50
Beihsan, 51
Bibracte, 0
Bilbills. 8
Bithynta, 47
BcDotia, 37
Boii, 10
Boium, 26
Bononia, 10
Borysthenes, 5, 6
Bosphorns, 6, 20, 21
Bozra, 53
Bradanus, IS
Brauron, 28
Brigantcs, 38
BrigantinuB Lacus, 6
Britannia, 38
Brivates Portoa, 6
Brixia, 9

Brunduslum, 13, 16
Bruttia-tellua, 13
Brultii, 13
Bruttium, 13
Bura, 34
Buthrotum, 25
Buxentnm, 13
Byrsa, 56
Byaanttum, 80

Cabira,48
Cadmea, 27
Care, 10

Casarea, 7, 51, 57
Casarea Augusta, 8

ad Argauro, 48

Philippi, 50
(^leia, 11
Calabria, 13, 14
Calabria-citra, 13
Calagurria, 8
Calaris, 40
Calaurta, 43
Calle, 8

Callipolia, 13.21
Calor (fl.), 13
Calpas, 47
Caipe, 9, 57
Calycadnus, 48
Calydon, 26
Cambunii Montea, 2T,

22,34
Camerinuro, 10
Camicus, 41
Campania, 11
Camynis,43
Cana, 47
Cana, 50
Canaria, 57
Cannsd, 13
669

OTO

OEOORAPHICAL INDEX.

CtBoplcam Ottlnin,

4cc.,M
Cantabri. 9

Cantil. 38
Canittlum, 13
Capernaum, SO
Caphareup, 43
Capitoliriiu, &c. 16
Cappadocia, 48
Caprec. 40
Capta, 57
Capiia, II
Ca ram bit, 47
Caraiiibiicit, 3
C^ardia, 21
ranluchi. 53
Card uc hi MontM, 46
C^arin. 46
C^rnania, 44
Carmel, 50
Carni, 9
Carpates, 8
(^rpatbus, 4S
Carphia, 26
(;arrb», 52
Carteia, tt
Carthago, 56
Carihaf o Nova, 8
Carystiia, 42
Casia Reiln, 3, 43
Catiltniim, 11
Caspiie Pylw, 46
Caspiuiii Mare, 6, 44
Cataandria, 22
Caatiteridea, 38, 40
CRSlalia,37
Caatrum Mlnervs, IS
Catabathmua, 54
Catti,5
Caucasua, 46
Cuudlne Purcttlv, 13
Caudlum, 12
Caulon, 15
Gayater, 47
Cebenna, 7
Cecropia, 38
CeliB, 6
Celiiberi, 6
Celtica, 6
Celticum, 0
Cenchree, 34
Cenomannt, 9
Centum Celi», 10
Ceoa, 42
Ophalenia, 41
Cephiagiifl, 26, 37, 28
CeramicuM. 2d, 32
C«ra»uB, 47
CerbaluB, 13
Ceria, 57
Chaberia, 43
Chcronpa, 27
Cbalcedon. 47
Chalctdice, 32
Chalcit, 22, 26, a
rhaldaa, 52
C^halybet, 47
Chalybon, 50
Chaonia, 24, 95
Charran, 52
Chary bdia, 13
Cheloniiea, 33
i'heraoneaua Clrabrt-
ca, 5

Aur«a, 3, 43

Tauiica, 5

ThracisB, 20
Cheniaci, 5
Chini»ra, 48
Cbio«,43
Choaapea, 44
Chryaoceraa, 90
Chryaopolia, 47
duyaorrtaoas, 50

Clehynia, 25
Cknnea, 21
Cillcia,48
Cimbrl, 5 -
Cioimertcua Bctplio-

ruii, % 40
Cimmerii, 46
Cimnierium, 13
Circe ii, II
Cirrha, 27

Ciaalpina CaUia, 6, 0
(Mnpadana, 0
Ctata, 21
Cith«ron, 26,28
Ciiium, 53
Claniut, 12
Claxoroenii, 47
Cluaium, 10
Clypea, 57
Cneuila, 27
Cnidua, 48
Cocytuf , 25
Codanut Sinua, 6
C<Ble-$<^ria, or

Coslo-Syria, SO
CoBliua, 16
Colebia, 46
Collia bortulnruro, 16
Colonia Patricia, 0
CoiophoD, 47
ColosHV, 48
Comagene, SO
Comana, 48
Comaria, 43
Comata, 7
Complutuin, 8
Comum, 10
Conaentia, 13
Conaiantinopolia, 20
Copaia Lacua, 27
Coptoa, 54
Corace»ium, 48
Coraa, 26
Corey r a, 41
Corduba, 0
Corflnium, 10
Corinthia, 34
Corintbiacua Siniii,21,

35
Corinthua, 34
Corloli, 11
Coronea, 27
Coraica, 40
Corycua, 47
Coa, 42
Coavtani, 8
Cotiaria, 3, 43
Coiti«, 7
Cragua, 48
Crathea, 15
Cramaate, 34
Cremera, 11
Cremna, 4b
Cremona, 0
Crcta, 43
Creuaa, 87
Crimiaua, 41
Criaaa, 27
Crtaaeun 8lnu8f 85
Criu-Metopoo, 5, 47
Cronium, 34
Crotona, 13
Cruatumerium, 11
Cteaipbon, 46
Cums, 13
Cunaza, 53
Curca. 11
Curetea, 43
Curia, 7
Cuatnio, 0
Cycladea, 43
Cydnua, 48
Cydonia, 43
CyUenaMoDS,34

Cynocephali, 134
Cynoa, 27
Cynoa Cephale, 34
Cynlhua Mona, 43
Cyprua, 53
Cyrenaica.SO
Cyreiie, So
Cyrnoa, 40
Cyropolii, 46
Cyrus, 44, 46
Cythera,41
Cytbus, 42
Cytinium. 26
Cyzicua, 47

D.

Daci, 8
Uacia, 8
Daclyli. 43
Dalmatia, 8
Damaacua, SO
Danapria, 5
Danublut, 7
Daphne. 90
Dardanta, 8
Daunia, 12
Decapolia, 51
Decelia,28
Delium, 27
Deloa, 42
Delphi, 27
Delphinum, 88
Delta, 54
Demetrtag, 24
Derbe, 48
Deaerta Libya, 57
Dindynuia, 48
Dioclea, 8
Dloapolia, 51. 54
Dirco Mona, 28
Dodona, 25
Dolonel, 21
Uorion, 34
Dorla, 96
Doriaeua, 21
Drangiana, 44
Drepanum, 41
Drilo, 29

Dromua AchUlei,6
Dryopea, 26
Dulichium, 41
Duraniut, 7
Duriua, 8, 9
Dyme, 34
Dyrracblum, 29

E.

Eb%l, 91
Eboracum, 38
Ebuaua, 40
Ecbatana, 44
Echlnadea, 41
Edeaaa, 32, 53
Edetani, 8
Edonia, 32
Egnatla, 13
Eion, 21
Elatna, 27
Elaver, 7
Elea, 13, 47
Elephantine, 94
Eleuaia, 38
Eleutheropolia, 51
Elia, 34
Elymala, 44
Elymander, 44
Emathia, S2
Emeaa, 50
Emmaua, 51
Epheaup, 47
Ephyra, 25, 34
Epidamnua, 23
Epidaurua, 8,34
Epfpol», 40

Eptma, 81, 94
Equotutieam, 19
Eretria, 42
EridanuB, 9, 40
Erigon, 22
Erineum, 96
Eiynianthua Mona, 34
Erythrae, 47
Erytbr»um Mare, 44
Erytopolig, 36
Eiruria, 10
Eub<Ba, 43
Evenua, 96
Euganei, 9
Eapatoria, 47
Euphralea, 48
Buripua,25,S7,42
Europa, 4
Euroias, 30
Eurymedon, 48
Euzinua, 5, 31
Ezploratio ad Her-
ri un, 57
Esion-Geber, 53

P.

Falertl, 10

Faliaci, 10

Ppseenniaro, 554

FideoaB. U

Flanaiicua Sinua, 7

Flavia Ccftarlenaia, 40

Florentia, 10

Forniiie, 1 i

Fortunate Inauls, 3,57

Forum Julii, 6

Fossa Trajani, 54

Fretum Fosse, 40
Gaditanum, or
Herculeum, 0
Birulum, 40

Friaii, 5

Fuclnua Laena, 10

O.

Gabara,90
Gabii, 11
Gadara, 50, 99
Oades, 9
Gntulia, 57
Oalatia, 6, 7, 48
Gnloaua, 13
Galilflsa. 50
Gallia, 6

Gal lor um PortiiB,8
Gamala, 52
Ganges, 43
Gangetlcua Slnna, 43
Gangra, 48
Garamantea, 97
Garganua, 19
Gargarua, 47
Garumaa, 0, 7
Gaugamala, 53
Gaulon, 53
Gauloa, 41
Gaza, 44, 99
Gedroita, 44
Geloni,^
Genua, 10
Gera, 52
Gernatua, 42
Geranii Montea,96
Gerlsim, 51
German la, 5, 6

Inferior, 7

Superior, 7
Oermanicua Oceanl-

cua,6
Gets, 6
Glaucua, river, 48

Sinua, 48
Olyeya LImea, 95
Gnoaaoa, 43

OEOORAPBICAI. INDEX.

mi

6ob«nm Prom. 6
Gnmpbi, 24
GoiinuSf 34
Gordiuin, 48
6ortynia,43
Goshen, 54
Gnecia, 20, 21
Gnecia Propria, SS
GranicuB, 47
GruDienium, 13
Gynrus, 42
Gyrtona. 24
Gytbeuni, 38,38

H.

HBdriatieiiin Mare, 21
Hadrumentum or

Adruinetuni, 57
H»nias,6,20,21,22
fialcyoneum Mare, 25
HalesuB (river), 47
Haliacmon,22
Halicarnasius, 48
Halonnetus, 42
Ilalys, 47
Hamaxobfi, 9
Ilebrus, 21

Hebrides, or EbudaB,40
Hecftlompylot, 44, 54
Helena, 42
Helice, 34
Helicon, 26, 27
HeliBsus, 34
Hellas, 21, 25
Hellespontus, 21
Heliopo1is,50, 55
Helorus, 41
Helos, 36
Helveiii, 0
Hephaesiia, 42
Heptanoniis, 54
Heptapylos, 27
Hnraclea, 13, 21, 47
Herculaneam, 12
Uerculis Columnn, 0,

Lebumi Porlus, 10
MoncBci Portua, 10
Promontorium, 15

ITereynia Sylva, 5, 8

Herdonia, 12

HeriuioDes, 5

Hermon, 50

HeriDundurii, 5

Hermus, 47

Heroopolis, 54

Heroopolkes Sin. 53

HeruH, 5

Hesperia, 8, 0

Hesperides, 56

Hesperiduju, lusuln, 4,
57

Heiperis, 56

Hexapolis. 26

HIbernla. 40

Hierapolis, 50

If ierosolyma, 51

Himera (town), 41

Hiniera (river), 4i

Hippo, 13

Hippo Regius, 57

Hippocreiie, 20, 37

Hirpini, 12

Hispalis, 0

llispania, 8

HiMria, 10

Horeb, 53

Hydruntum, 13

llymeUuB, 26, 28

Hy;ianiM, 6

Hypatn, 21

Hyperborei, 3

Hyrcania, 44

Uyrcanliim Mare, 46

I.
Iberia, 8, 46
Iberus, 9
Icaria, 42
Iceni, 38
Ichnuea, 40
Iconium, 48
Ida, 43, 46
Iduroea, 52, 53
lerne or Hibernio, 40
Ilerda, 8
Ilergetes, 8
Ilissus, 28
Ilium, 46
Illyricum, 7, 8, 21
II va, 40

Imaus Mons, 3, 48
Iinbarus Mons, 44
Imbrus, 42
Inachus, 34
India, 43
Indus, 43
Insubres, 0
Insuls ante Tapro-

banam, 4

Hesperldum, 4
lolchoa, 24
Ionia, 47

Ionium Mare, 21, 25
Ios,42
Iris, 47
Isauras, 48
Isauria, 48
Ismenue,27
Issus, 48

Ister (Danube), 7, 8
Istria, 8, 10
Isurium, 38
Itabyrius, 51
Italia, 0
Italica, 0
Ithaca, 41
Ithome, 36

J.

Jabadii Insula, 3, 53
Janiculum,16
Japygia, 12
Japygium Prom. 13
Jaxartes, 46
Jezreel, 50
Joppa, 51
Jordan, 52
Jotapata, 50
Judna, 50
Julis At pes, 7
JuDonis Promont. 9

K.

Kibora, 8

L.
Laclnlum, 15
Laconla, 36
Laconicus 81a. 36
Ladon, 34
Lagaria, 13
Lamia, 24
LampsacuB,4P7
lAodicea, 48
Lapithes, 24
Larissa, 24
LariuB, 10
Laiium, 11
Latoimae, 40
Laurentum, 11
LauriaBMons,26
Laus, 13
LauB Sinus, IS
Lavinium, 11
Lebedsa, 27
LechAum, 34
Leieges, 47
Lelegia,188

Lemanus Laeiis, 6
Lemanis Porlus, 38
Lemnoa, 42
Leniovices, 6
Leontes, 50
Leoniium, 41
Leptis Magna, 56
Lesbos, 42
Lessus, 21
Letbe, 25
Leucadia, 41
Leucas, 25, 26, 41
Leucate,26,4l
Leucopetra, 13, 41
Leuctra, 27
LibanuB, 50
Libumia, 7, 8
Libya, 55, 57
Libysaa, 47
Liger, 6, 7
Ligures, 10
Ligusticus Sinus, 10
Ligustides, 7
Lilsum, 26
Lilybseuni, 40, 41
LinduB, 42
Lingones, 10
Li para, 41
LIris, 10, 11
Liternuro, 12
Locri Epicnemidii,
Opuniii, Ozola,
26,27
Locris, 26
Londlnum, 38
LongobardI, 5
Loiophagi, 56
Lucanla, 13
Luceria, 12
Lucrinus Lacus, IS
Lugdunensis, 6
Lugdunnm, 6
Luna, 10

Luna) Monies, 4, 54
Lusltanta, 8, 9
Lutetia, 6
Lycaonia, 48
LycflBus Mons, 36
Lychnidus, 22
Lycia, 48
LycuB, 47, 48
Lydda, 51
Lydia, 47
Lydias, 22
Lyrnessua, 47
I^yslniachla, 21
Lystra, 48

M.

Macedonia, 21

Macoraba, or Mecca, 53

Macra, 10

MadytOB, 21

M (Bander, 47

MflBnalus Mons, 36

Mieonia, 47

MsBotis Palus, 3, 6

Magna Grsecla, 11

Magnesia, 24, 48

Magnum Promonto-
rium, 43

Magnus Sinus, 43

Makrinoros, 26

MHlea, 33, 36

Matevemum, 12

Malia, 24

Maliacus Sinas, 21, ^i,
25

Mandubli, 6

Mantinea, 31

Mantua, 9

Maracanda, 46

Marathon, 28

Marcianopolbi, 8 ^

MarcomftDnL 5

Mardii, 44

Mardus, 44

Mareotis, 54

Mariana, 40

Maritimae Alpes, 7

Marniarica, 56

Marrubium, 10

Marsi, 10

Marsyas, 48

Masius Mons, 46

MassKflyli, 57

Massilia, as, 6, 7

Massyli, 57

Matinoram oppldam,
40

Mauritania, 57

Maxima CaBsariensig.
40

Mazaca, 48

Meaias, 38

Media. 44

Mediolanum, 6, 9

Megalopolis, 34, 47

Megara, 28

Megaris, 28

Melanis Sinas, SI

Melas, 20, 21

MelibcBa, 24

Melite, 41

Melos, 42

Melpus, 13

Memphis, 54

Menapll, 7

Menuthias, 4

Mercurii Promonto-
rium, 57

Meroe, 55

Mesembria, 20

Mesopotaniia, 9S

Messana, 41

Messapia, 13

Messene, 36

Messenia, 36

Mesneniacus Sinus, 36

Mestus, i. q. Neslui^
20,21

Metapontum, 13

Metaurus, 10

Methone, 29^ 36

Methymna, 42

Miletus, 47

Mimas, 47

Mincius, 10

Miniurnas, 11

Misenum, 12

MItylene, 42

Mceris, 54

MoBsia, 8

Molossis, 24, S9

Mona Cesarls, 40
Taeiti, 40

Munda, 9

Munychia, 33

Muri Veterea, 8

Murina, 42

MusaBiis, 28

Muiina, 10

Myeale, 47

Mycens, 34

Myconus, 42

MyoshorniUB, 54

Myrtoum Mare, 25, S6

Mysia, 47

N.

Nalsaus, 8
Napata, 55
Nar, 10

Narbo Martins, 6, 7
Narbonenaia, 6^7
NnrlBci,5
Naryx, 27
NauiocbUB, 41

i

672

OEOORAPHICAL INDEX.

Kanptctm , 96
Nauplia, 34
Naxos, 42
Nazareth, 50
Nevthes. 15
Neapolis, 12, 40. 51
Nemausiii, 6
Neniea, 34
Nerilua, 41
Nervli,7
Neryz, 15
Nestui, i. q.NeMUi,20,

21
Nlcflsa, ID, 47
Niconi«dla,47
Nicopolia, 8, 20, 48
Nfger. 57
Nigriic, 57
NUus. 54
Ninus« 52
Nipbates, 4S
Nisaa,S7,44
Nisibia,53
Nisyrus, 96
Nola, 12

Nonacrli Mens, 36
Norics Alpes, 7
Norlcum, 7
Noti Cornu, 4
Novua. 48
Niabta, 55
Numantia, 8
Numidia, 57
NymphtBum, 23

O.
Oaatf , 55, 56
Ocha, 42
Ocbus, 44
OdesBiie, 8
asa,56
(Ebalia, 188
OSchalia, 36
(Enotria, 0
(Eta, 21, 24
Olennt, 34
Olislppo, 0
Olympla, 34
Olympus, 24, 40, 47
Olynthut, 22
Oinbi, 54
OncluB Mods, 96
Onion, 54
Opunlil, 37

OpuntiiiB Sinoa, 25, 27
OpuB, 27

Orbelos Mons, 23
Orcades, 40
OrchomenuB, 27, 34
OreillB, 24
OreuB, 42
Oricum, 24
Orontea, 44, 50
Oropus, 98
Oroapeda, 8
Orouros, 50
Ortygia, 40
Osaa, 24
Oitia, 11
Othrys Mona, 24
Oxua, 44, 46
Oxyryncbus, 54

Pachynum, or
Pachynua, 40
PRCtolua,47
Padua, 4 10
PiBdum, II
Peonia, 22
Pieatanua Sinua, 13
Peaium, 13
PagaasB, 24
Pagaasua Slnoa, 94

Palsaatina, 50
Pallene, 22
Palmyra, 50
Parnpbylla, 48
Panciaua, 36
Pandoaia, 13
PangsBua Mods, 21
Pannonia, 7
Panorniua,41
PanticapaDuro, 5
Paphlagonia, 47
Papboa, 53
Parlaii, 6
Parma, 10
Parnaaaufl, 26, 27
Parnea, 26, 28
Paropamiaua, 44
Paroa, 42
Parrhaaii, S4
Parrhaaiua, 36
Pariheniaa (river), 47
Parlheniua, 36
Parthenope, 12
Parthia, 44

Parueti Montea, 43, 44
Paaargada, 44
Paaaaro, 25
Patara, 48
Patavium, 0
Patnioa, 42
Patr«, 34
Pauallypua, 19
Pelaagl, 24
Pelaagia, 34
Pelaagicua Slnaa, 24
Peiaagiotia, 24
Peligni, 10
Pelion, 21
Pella, 22
Pellene, 34
Peloponneaua, 21
Peloruro, or Pelorua|40
Peneua, 24, 34
Pennina9,7
Pentapotia, 56
Pentellcua, 26, 98
Persa, 52
Perga, 48
Pergamua, 46, 47
Perinthua, 21
Peraepolia, 44
Peraia, 43

Peraieua Sinua, 44, 53
Peraia, 44
Peruaia, 10
Peaaurum, 10
Peaalnua, 48, 94
Petilia, IS
Pelra, 53
Phseacia, 41
Pbalacruni Prom. 41
Phalerum, 33
Pharc, 34
Pbaroa, 54
Pharaalia, 24
Pharaalua, 24
Pbaaia, 46
Phers, 24
Phignlia, 34
Philsnorum Ar«, 56
Philippi,22
Philiatea, 52
Phlegethon, 25
Pblegra, 22
Phlegrai-campi, 12
Phocisa, 6
Phocia, 26, 27
Ptimnicia, 50
Pbrygta Major, 48

Minor, 46
Phylace, 24
Phyle. or Phule, 98
Picenum, 10, 13
Pictonea, 6

Pleria, 22
Pimpla, 27
Pinciua, 16
Pindua, 21, 24, 95, 96
Pindua (fl.) 26
Pindua (town), 90
Pirsua, 33
Piaa, 10, 34
Pialdia, 48
Piatorla. 10
Placentia, 10
Plaiaaa, 27
Platan iataa, 88
Plataniua, 27
Plemmyrium, 40
Pliatua, r
Plotn, 41
Poeni, 0

Polytlmetua, 46
Pompeii, 12
Pona £lii, 40
Pontua, 8, 47
Porphyr«,41
Poaidonia, 13
Potidsa, 22
Prasneate, 11
Praauro Prom. 4
Priene, 47
Proehyta, 40
ProGonneaua, 53
Propontia, 21, 47
Pruaa, 47
Paylli, 56

Ptolemaia, or Aco, 50
Ptolemaia, 56
Puteolanua Sinus, 12
PuteoU, 12
Pydna, 22
Pyloa, 36
Pyzua, 13

Quadi, 5

Quirinatia Mooa, 16
Quirium, 16

R.
Rag»,44

Raguaa, 8
Ravenna, 10
Reate, 11

RegillUB Lacug, 11
Rha, 5

Rhseteum, 47
Rh«tia, 7
Rhamnua, 28
Rhedones, 6
Rhegium, 13
Rhenua, 6,7
Rhium, 25
Rhiura Prom. 33
RhodanuB, 7
Rhodope, 21, 23
Rhodua, 42
RhyndacuB, 47
Rhype, 34
Riduna, 7
Roma, 15, 119
Rubeaa, 3
Rubicon, 10
Rubricatu8| 57
Rudca^, 13
Rutuli, 11
Rutupin, 38

S.
SabsBi, 53
Sabatua, 12
BabinI, 10
Sabrnta, 56
8ac«B, 46
Sacer Mnna, 11
Sacrum Prom. 9, 48
Saguntum, 8

Sale, 54
Saiamia, 49, S3
Saiapia, 12
Salemum, 12
Bailee, 3
Salmydeaaaa, 90
Salona, 8
Salyea, 6
Samaria, 51
Same, 41
Samnia, 12
Samnilea, 12
Samnium, 13
Bamoff, 42
Samoaata, 50
Bamotbracia, 49
Bangarioa, 48
Santonea, 6
Santonum Portna, 6
Saphre, 5
Bardinia, 40
Bardia, 47
SarmaiJa, 5, 46
Barnia, 7
SarnuB, 12
Baronicua Bioos, 91»

25 98
Saturnia, 0, 01
Batyrorum Inaule, 8

PromontoriiUDi 3
8auromai»| 5
Savua, 8
Bazonea, 5
Scamander, 40
Bcaoda, 41
Scandinavia, 5
Scheria, 41
BciatboB, 49
BcopetoB, 42
Scordiaei, 8
Bcoiuaaa, 94
Scylacium, 15
Bey I la, 13
Scyllauro, 13, S3
Bcyroa, \%
Bcythia, 43
Bebnate, 48, 51
Sebelboa, 12
Begedunum, 40
Segovia, 8
Begusiani, 6
Beir, 52
Be]eucta,48,59
Selencia, 50
Selinus, 41. 48
Sellaaia, 36
Seiymbria, 21
Senna Gallica, 10
Senonea, 10
Benua, 3, 43
Bepiaa, 24
Saphoria, 50
Bequana, 6, 7
Sequani, 6
Sera, 3, 43
Berica, 43
BeripbuB, 49
Berua, 43 •"

Beatot, 21
Sicambrl, 5
Sicilia, 40
Sicyon, 34
SIcyonia, 34
Sidon, 50
Big»um, 47
SilaruB, 11,13
Siloam, 59
Bilorea, 38
Simathua, 41
Biinoia, 46
Bine, 3. 43
Binai, 53

Singeticua Sinni, 91
Slngidununit 8

^^S^W^-^i

OEOORAFHICAL INDEX.

6T8

0inope, 47
Sinuena, 11
Bion^orZion, 51
Biphnus, 43
BipontuiD, 13
Bipylus, Mt. 47
Birbonis Palufl} 53
Birmiuni, 7
Blzopolis, SO
Bmyrna, 47
Bocanda, 44
Sogdiana,45
Soli, 48,53
Solyml, 48
Soracte Mont, 10
Bpalatro, 8 .
Sparta, S6
SpartI, 36
Bpauta Lacus, 44
Bphacteria, 41
Bphagiae, 41
BpoleiiuiQ, 10
Bporadea, 43
Stabie, 12
Biagira, 82
BiGBchadea, 7
Straiua, 36
Btratonicea, 48
Btrongyle, 41
Btrophadea, 41
Btrymon, 8U, 31
Sirymonicus Sinua,

21,23
Styrophsel, 31, 82
Stymphalua, 34
Btymphe, 35
Styx, 25, 36
Sueaaa Pometia, 11
Buevi, 5
Bulmo, 10
Suniura. 25, 28
Burrenlinum Prom. 12
Burrentum, IS, 126
Susa, 44
SufliaDna, 44
Bybaria, 13, 15
Bybaria (fl.), 13
Byene, 54
ByracusaB, 40
Byrennuae, 120
Syria, 4d
ByriflB Pyls, 48
Byrtica Regio, 56
SyrtU, 55, 56

Tftbor, 51

T.

Tabraco, 57
Taenarum, 33, 36
Tagua, 9
Taiiagra, 27
Tanagrue orTenagrua,

Tanala, 5, 6
Tanaia Emporium, 6
Taniaaaua, 53
Tapbiaaaua, 36
Taprobane, 3, 53
Tarbelli, 6

Tarentinua Sinua, 13
Tarentum, 13
Tarraco, 8
Tarraconenaia, 8
TarauB, 48
I'arteaaua, 0
Tauri, 5
Taurini, 0
Taurua Mona, 46, 48
l^vium, 48
Taygetua, 36
Teanum, 11, 13
Tegea, 34
Telmeaaua, 48
Tempe, 24
Tenedoa, 42
Tenoa, 43
Tenlyra, 54
Teoa, 47
Tergeate, 10
Termeaaua, 48
Terina, 13
Terinaua Sinug, 13
Tetrapolia, 26, 41
Teutonea, 5
Thapaacua, 50
Tbapsua, 57
Tbaaua,3i,43
ThQb9B.34,87, 54
Tbebaia, 54
Thebarma, 44
Tbemiacvra, 47
Theodoaia, 5
Tbera, 43
Therapne, 36
TherniflB, 33
Thermaicua Sioua, 28
Thermodon, 47
ThermopylsB, 31, 25, 37
Therniua, 26
Tbeapia, 27
Tbeaprotia, 34, 85
Theaaalia, 31, S3
Tbeaaalonica,88
Tliracia, SO

Tbracis CherBoneaug,

20
Thraciua Boapborua,

Thraaymene Lacua, 10
Throniiim, 27
Thule, 3, 40
Thiirium, 13
Thyamia, 35
Thyaiira, 47
Thymbra,47
ThynaB. 3, 43
Thyni, 20
Thynia, 20
Tiberiaa, 50, 52
Tiberia, 10,11.119
Tibur, 11
Ticinuin, 9
TicinuH, 9, 10
Tigranoccrta, 46
Tigris, 44, 46
Tiiuolua, 47
Tingia, 57
Tingiiana, 57
Tirynthua, 34
Togata Gallia, 9
Toleturo, 8
Tomarua, 25
Toml, 8

Toroaaicua Sinua, 22
Torre na Egypti, 53
Trachia, 34
Trajanopolia, 31
Tranaalpina Gallia, 6
Tranapadana, 9
Trapezua, 47
Treveri, 7
Trichonia Lacua, 86
Tricola, 41
Tridenium, 7, 9
Trinacria, 40
Trinobantea. 38
Tripoliuna, 56
Triqueua, 40
TritiBa, 34
Triton ia Lacua, 56
Trixicum, 13
Troaa, 46
Trocmi, 48
TroBsene, 34
Troglodyta,55
Troja or Ilium, 46
Tuneta or Tunea, 57
Turria Btratonicea, 151
Tuaculum, 11
Tyana, 48
Tycba, 40

Tyra8,6

TyrrhenI, 10
Tyrrbennm Mare, 13
Tyrua, 50
Tyadrua, 56

U.

Ubii, 7
Uliariua, 7
Uiiibria, 10
Uria. 12
Uriconium, 439
Uriiifl Sinua, 13
Utica, 57
llxaniia Inaula, 7
Uxellodunum, 6

V.

Vaga, 57
Valentia, 13, 40
Vaaconea, 8
Vectia, 40
Veil, 10
Vejentea, 11
Velia, 13
Venafrum, 11
Veneris Portua, M
Veneli, 0
Venusia, 13
Verbanua Lacua, 10
VergelluB, 13
Verona, 9
Veauviua, 13
Viadrua, 6
Vibo, 13
Vindelicia, 7
Vindobona, 7
Viaiula, 6
Vogeaua, 7
Volca, 6
Volaci, 11
Volainii, 10
Vttlcatia, 42
Vultur, 13
Vulturnua, 12

XaDtbu8,25,46,48

Z.

Zacyntbua, 41
ZagroB, 44
Zama, 57
Zariaapa, 46
Zephyrium, 15
Zion, 51
Zoar, 53

8ft

8L

GENERAL INDEX.

A.

Khncxu. 494

Abbrfvialions, Gre^k, 330, 344,

35! ; Roman. 363, 370, 374
AbracndHhra, 403
Ahrahain, ^^
Ahraxan. I2«. 403
Ab«alom*8 Pillar, 913
Abflynthiaiiii, 31
Abayrtus, 136
Abydennii. W7
Aradomic sect, 507, 605
Acad(>my, at Athena, 330; of

Fine Arta, 307 ; of Inacrip-

tiona. 17
Acarnaninn inaerlptlon, 347
Accentfi, 330, 437 ; diirrinilnat-

ed from stress, 437
Aceiiii, or Aiiiua Lucius, 500
Achtciis, 459. 461
Achaia, ronstitution and league

of. 75. ins
Achillea Tatiua, 503
Acron, 597
Acrosticfl. 440
Actiona or auita at lavr, 180
Actium, battle of, 71, 77
Actors, th<>atrical, 170
Acusilaus, 596
Adam, atate in which created,

307
Admiftiia, 101
Adonai, 106, 403
Adonis, story of, 106; featival

of. 169
Adoption amonK Romans, 988
Adoration, origin of the word,

937
Adrnstia, 117
Adrian or Hadrian, 400
Adulifl, monument of, 348
Adultery, punished by Greeks,

320; by Romans, 360
.l^acufi, 100
.t^anlides, 459
jKranlor, 136
JCdepol, 136
^diles, Roman, S49
^f:etes, 135
yb>ina, school of, 389; marbles

dis-overed at, 389, 397
JEzin of Minerva, 104
.l^ifos PotomoB, battle of, 74
it:iinn Claudius, 510, 537, 533,

540
.Elius. Ariatides, 490, 403 ; Ele-

rodianns, 497; Msris, 496,

408; Lampridiufl.R38: Do-

natus. 569.597, 590 ; Sparti.

anus, 638; Marcianus, 645
^T'.lurus. 134
iCmilius Macer,d63,576; Scau-

ruB, 556, 635
^ncas, in Italy, 350
yEolus, 116
/Eschines, orator, 484, 489, 503 ;

philosopher, 513
JEschylns, 458, 473, 474
jesculapius, oracles of, 106, 117,

536
^sop, fkbulist, 454, 510; Ro-
man actor, 557
jEstheticB. 381
674

JStius, 537

^tolia, confederacy of, 103

Afranius, 536, 557

Agamemnon. 137

Agate, veMgpIs made of, 401 ;

of Tiberius. 408
Agatharcidee, 519
Agathenierus, 519
Agflthiis. 456, 538, 535
A gat ho, 459

Axe, resi»ect paid to, 159
Ages, four of Roman literature,

549
Aglaia, 107
Agriculiure, antiquity of, 300;

Roman writers on, 616 ;

among the Greeks, 158,

3t3; among the Romans,

364,616
Agrippa, M. Vipsanius,6I5.636
Agrippina, her memoirs, 638
Ajax, 137

Alabaster, 331, 401
Alanus, author of the Anti-

Claudianus, 585
Aiaric, maoicr of Rome, 79, 335

breviary of, 616
Alhan mount, 383
Atbricus. 633
Alcvus, 453, 455
Alceste, 134

Alchimy, Greek works on, 538
Atcibiadea. 484
Alciphron,503
Akmaeon, 136
Alcman, 453, 455
Aldine Classics, 640
Aldobrandine festival, a paint-
ing, 415
Alexander, Aphrodisaaa, 606;

poet, 453, 459; physician,

637
Alexander, on a cameo, 407;

his cntfin, 331 ; histories of,

537,630
Alexandria, library of, 339;

seal of letters, 341
Alexis, 460
Alfius Flavus, 5M
Alft-ed. translator of BoethluB,

614
Algebra, whence so named, 531
Alhambra, 431
Allegory, in the arts of design,

380.384
Almagest, origin of the title, 593
Aloides, 100
Alphabet, Cherokee, 316; Per-

sepolitan, 316; Siamese,

315; Greek, 338; Roman,

859, 863
Alphabetical writing, origin of,

313, 317
AlUrs, Grecian, 148, 160; Ro-
man, 930 ; Roman, in Eng-
land, 330
Amateur, distinguished from

connoisseur, 380
Amazons, 131
Ambrose, 561, 608
America, whether known to

the ancients, 57 ; languages

of, 390

Amethyst, 400, 403
Animianus Marcelllnos, 637
Amraon, 93, 165
Ammonius, grnrnmarian, 496;

philossnphpr, 609
Amor and Pii>che. fable of, 613
Amor, or rupid. 106
Antpelius, 597,636
Amphiaraus, temple of, 29
Amphictynn, 133
AniphictyoDic Council, 183,

338
Amphion, 103, IS6
Amphithenires, Roman, 246
Amulets, 403
Amusements, of Greeks. 159,

907, 314 ; of Romans, 913,

947. 395
Amyntap. )U9 coins, 351
Anacharsis. 501
Anacreon, 4.')3. 455. 470
Analysis IneirnI, 4-tO
Analytical and oynlheticalstn>

dy of languages, 438
Anaxngnras, 505
Anaximander, 505
Anaximenes, 506
Ancienis and modems, com-
parative merits of, 310
Ancvra, monument of, 373
And'ocides, 464, 486
Andromarhus. 639
Andromeda, 133
Andronicus I.ivius, 500
Androtion, 536
Angels, ministry of, a sonrce

of ancient fable, 84 ; fallen,

139
Anglo-Saxon Literature, 614
Annalists of Rome, 035
Annual Register, or Calendar

at Rome, 3U
Anointing, 168, 300, 910
Antaeus, 134
Anteros, 106
Antliemius, architifct and ma-

Ihematician, 518
Antho'ories, 456, 904
Antias, Valerius, 635
Antigonus, of Carysios, 53S, 540
Antimachtts, Cireek poet, 136

450,453
Anlinous, statne of, 393
Antloeh, Greek letters at, 341
Antiochus the Great, 70
Antipater, 177
Antiphanes, 460
Antiphon, 484, 486, 490
Antiquaries, Society of, 17
Antiques, 380 ; temple of, 391 ;

in mosaic, 396
Antiquities, classical, utility of.

143,997
Antlsthenes, 506
Antonine, column of, 395
Antoninus, Marcus, 507, 51S

Liberalis, 535
Antonius Musa, 639

Orator, 587
Antony and Cleopntra, 77
Anubis, Egyptian god, 194
Anyta, 459
Apellea, 414 ; hia Venos, 414

GENERAL INDEX.

675

Afhthonias, Greek iophiBt, 403

Apicitts, 617, 623

Apion, 496

Apis, 123; unppoied a symbol
of Joseph, 124

Apocrypha, QUI Testament,
Ml ; New Testament, 543

Apollinarifl, 560, 604

Apolln, 100; fielvidere, 101,
2^i temples of, 18, 101,
421 ; oracle of, 165

Apollodorus, 414, 455, 461, 491,
519, 524

Apollonia, school at, 341

Apollonius, Rbo^ius, 150, 479;
Dyacolua, 496, 497, 541;
FergsDiis, 513, 521 ; Bopbis-
tes, 406, 496; Tyanensis,
509, 534

ApoloeiHs of the early Fathers,
544,545

Apolosue, 454

Apostle Gems, 404

Apostles' C^reed, 543

Apostolic FHthers, 5-12

Apotheosis, of heropf*, 133 ; Ro-
man emperors, 122, 137,304

Apparel, common, 157
military, 154

Appian, 533

Appiiis, Cains, lives by, 62S

Apnieiiis, 589, 605, 612

Aquamarine, 400, 402

Aquedncts, Roman, 19, 618; at
SpoletrVjm, 10

Aqiiiia Rnmnnus, 593

Aquitaniis, 628

Arabesque, 431

Arachne, 104

Ararat, Mt., ascended by Par-
rot, 46

Aratiis, 455, 479, 527

A rbela, battle of, 70

Arbitrators, at Athens, 186; at
Rome, 259

Arborius, 561

Arcadius, 496

Archeology, 320

ArchsestratuB, 454

Archanathus, 537, 639

Archelaus, 505

Arcbenaemains of ancient, 395,
431 ; triumphal, 10, 19

Arch las, 456

Arch later, 639, 640

Archiffenes, 537

Archilochus, 452, 454, 4C8

Archimedes, 518,520; tomb of,
323,520

Architects, Greek, 427; Ro-
man, 427.

Architecture, ancient, 416 ; re-
mains of, 429, 430 ; on his-
tory and theory of, 430;
Egyptian, 419; in Asia Mi-
nor, 420; of Hebrews, 420;
use of colors in, 413; his-
tory of Greek, 421 ; Ro-
nian,427 ; IIindoo,426 ; Ro-
manesque, 431 ; Chino.«e,
kc, 431 ; AHiatir, 418 ;
three branches of, 419 ;
five orders of, 423 ; diff.'r-
eni styles, 431 ; of Gret'k
houses, 158, 210; Tulte-
can and Cyclopean, 420

Architrave, 424

Archnns, 151, 176, 177, 180

Arrhytns, 505, 518

ArctuniM, rising of mentioned

by Ilesiod, 65
Areopagus, 32, 177, 184
Aretseus, 537, 539
Argonauts, 135; sphere made

for them, by Chiron, 64;
pictures of, &c., 98

ArgOK, oracular shrine at, dis-
covered by Clartuy 164;
constitution of, 193

Argus, 108

Ariadne, 109, 135

Aristsnetus, 502

Aristarchus,critic,486; mathe-
matician, 518

Aristias, 461

Aritftides, stntue of, 394

Aristippus, 506

Aristophanes, poet, 460, 476;
grammarian, 330, 496

Aristotle, 490, 491, 508. 513, 538,
540; library of, 604

Arithmetic, very ancient, 318

Armies, Grecian, 153 ; Roman,
271 ; attendants of Roman,
277

Armor, ancient, 153, 194, 274

Arnoljius, 608

Arrian,515, 519, 532

Arrow-headed letters, 316

Arruntlus, 626

Arsares, 71

Arsacidan, 71

Art,di8tinguished from science,
379

Artemidorus, 496, 538

Artisans, Roman, 2G3

Artists, the three employed by
Alexander, 404, 405 ; emi-
nent Greek, 389, 390 ; Phoe-
nician, models for Ureeks,
327

Arts, their origin, 309, 310 ; Imi-
tative, 310 ; nmgiral, 240 ;
mechanical and fine, 379;
time of their highest excel-
lence in Greece, 390; the
mechanic, at Rome, 263,
264; fine, at Rome, 391 ;
decline of, 391, 405; schools
of, 389

Arundelian marbles, 346

Asclepiades, 452, 53C, 639

Asconius Pedianus, 596, 598

Ashes of the dead, 221

Ashtaroth or Asiarte, 106

Asia, early residence of man,
311,319

Asinius, Gallus, 564
Pollio, 556, 626

Assemblies, of the Romans or
Com ilia, 257 ; Greeks, 183,
190

Assyrian empire, 60

Astraea, 117

Astrologers, 240

Astronomy, origin of, 318 ;
Greek, 518, 519, 523

Asvlum, privileges of, 162

Atel, 5

Athnnasins, character of, by
Viilemain, 545

AthenteuB, 490, 493, 518

Athenngoras, 544

Atheneum, or schola Romana,
3t}6 ; BoHton, 375, 397, AGS

Athens, suppression of her
schools, 341 ; origin of
name, 104; system of edu-
cation, 335 ; citizens of,
178; government of, 151,
177 ; politiral history, 72,
112, 151, 177; topography
of, 28, 178 ; magbtrates of,
180; revenues and expen-
ditures, 181, 182; senate
and assemblies, 183, 184

Athletics, Greek system of, 175

./ftlsta and ftists, 437

Atlantidei, 114, 134

Atlas, 133, 134

Atmosphere personified, 04

Atoms, of the Eleatics, 508

Atridee, 136

Attains, his library, 339

Attica, ancient treatises on, 526

Attila, leader of the Huns, 79

Attius, 555

Atys, 93

Auction, 268

Augurs, Roman, 233

Augustine, 598, 605, 606

Augustulus, 79

Augustus, patron of letters,

368, 369; head of -on a

gem, 407; author, 556, 626;

master of Egypt, 71
Aulus Gellius, 597, 598

Hirtiub, 629

Sabinus, 576
Aurelian,494
Aurelitts, Marcus, triumphal

sacrifice of, 305 ; statue of,

394
Aurelius Prudentius, 585

Victor, 636
Aurora, 114

Ausonian or Oscan dialect, 361
Ausonius Magnus, 560, 561, 5<M,

584
Auspices, 233
Auto-biography, Roman, 625,

628
Autolvcus, 518
Auxiliary troops of Romans,

277
Avatars or incarnations of

Vishnu, 95
Avianus, Flavins, 563, 583
Avienus, Rufus Festus, 479

563, 583
Azum, monument of, 348

B.

Babel, conAision of tongues at,

324; builders of, 125
Babrius,454,455,563
Babylon, founding of, 69 ; walls

of, 52, 69, 114; commerce

of, 213
Bacchanalian decree, 372
Bacchus, 109; festivals of, 16St

336 ; theatre of, 422 ; cave

of, 33
Bacchylides, 452
Bachelors, tax on. 262, 236
Balbec, ruins of, 50
Baibi, statues of the, 394
Balbillus, 627
Ball, ornament worn by Roman

youth, 299; playing with,

216
Ballads of the Romans, 555
Ballets, 558

Banishment, 187, 191,260
Bankers at Rome, 17, 263
Banquets, literary, 337, 360;

evening, 295 ; of Grueks,

157
BarberinI or Portland Vabe, 3s7
Bards, Grecian, 327
Bark, material for writing, 331
Barnubns, 542

Rartlow Hills, remains at, 387
Basil the Great, 341, 547
UaRilides, 403
Basil iuB, 490
Bas-reliefs, distinguished from

statues, 381 ; materials and

subjects of, 382, 384; re-
mains of, 394, 395
BossuB, Auffdlus, 626 ; Cassia-

nus, 538 ; Cwsius, 560, 502

676

OENBRAL INDEX.

Battainff« amonff Greeks, 158,
aoy ; among Romani, 303

Baths, construction of, 209, 4fi8

Bathyllus, 558

Batiering-ram, 381

Battle, Greek order of, 154,
197; manner of commenc-
ing, 107, 108 ; Roman order
of. 375, 378; at sea, 383;
Heslod's of the Titans,
Homer*B of the Gods, 135

Beaks of ships, 203

BeatiAcation of saints, origin
of. 137

Beer. Greek treatise on, 538

Beetle, gems in form of, 403

Belisarius, M7

Bellerophon, 131, 133 [383

Beilona, 105. 130 ; temple or,4fi^

Belvider?, 392

Belzoni, iii^ entrance of a pyra-
mid, 123

Bencventum, battle of, 70

Bentloy's vases and gems, 387,

Berosus, 527

Bcrytus, school of, 341, 300, 645

Beslrging,art of,among Greeks,

198; Romans, 380
Betrothing before nuptials, 320
Biblical studies and writings of

early Christians, 544
Bibliographical works, 446
Bibulus, 629
Biography among the Greeks,

52S; Romans, 638
Blon, 454, 47!^, 459
Bipontine editions, 640
Birds, divination by, 167
Birth-day celebrations, 337
Births, goddess over, 06
Bissextile year, 63
Biton, 518

Body of Roman law, 647
Bodthiiis, 605, 614
BcBOtla. constitution of, &c. 193
Bosotian intellect, 38 ; school of

poetry, 468
Bonaparte, his columo, 395;

medals, 407
Books, ancient, form of, 333,

363; earliest known, 317
Borgbese Gladiator, 303
Boston, Latin Acbool, 550;

Atheneum, 397
Botanv, father of ancient, 538
Bountlaries of land, Roman,

119,381,617
Boxing. 17J. 313
Bracbma, Hindoo deity, 93, 95
Brass, material for ancient

arms and tools, 154
Bread, inventor and god of

kneading, 120; baking of,

263
Breast -pin found at Pompeii,

300
Breastplate of Aaron, 403
Breathings, 330
nreiintKi, sick of Rome by, 76
Breviary of Aiaric, 646
Uriareufl, 1'25
Bricks, Roman, 363 ; Babylo>

nian, 316
Bride, Greek, 330 ; Roman, 887
Bridges over the Tiber, 16 ; of

Xerxes and Darius, 300
British Mu»eum, 307
Ilrizo, goddess over the inter-
pretation of dreams, 167
Brokers, Roman, 263
Bronze of the ancients, 383;

bronze vessel with eoa-

mels, 387

Ills painting, 410
e, statue of, 390, 303

Broth, Spartan black, 191

Bruchion, 339

Brutidlus Niger, 099

Brutus and Cassius, 77

Bubastis, 134

Bucolic poetry, Greek, 453;
Roman, 561

Bularchus, his

Bull, Farnese^

Burial-places, 149, 333, 803, 303

Burial-rites, importance of
among the ancients, 833

Burning of corpses, 140, 331,
300,303; of widows, 140

Burning-glasses of Archime-
des, 520

Busts, 383; of distinguished
ancients, 394

Butterfly, ancient emblem of
the soul, 403

Byzantine historians, 538

Cablrl, mysteries of, 136
Cablrian temple, 33
CacuB, 107, 134

Cadmus, 133, 333, 338, 339 { his-
torian, 526
Caduceus of Mercarv, 108
Csecilius 8latius, 556
Cieculus, 107
Cesar, Julius, 556, 601, 639;

German icus, 503, 577
Oaius Melissus, 557
Calaber, Quintus, 481
Calendar, Roman, 61, 341, 630;

Gregorian, 63
Calends, 61, 340
Caliphs, Arabian, patrons of

learning, 311
Callimachus, sculptor, 437 :

poet, 453, 453, 456, 478
Callinus, 453
Calliope, 137
Callisthenes, 527
Calpurnius, Titus Julius, 561,

5i4 ; Flaccus, 5S9
Calvus, Licinius, M2
Cambridge University, studies

in, 440
Camhyses, conqueror of Egypt,

Cameo, 403, 408

Camillas, captor of Veil, 76

Camp, Grecian, IM, 197; Ro-
man, 378 ; discipline of, 380

Campagna di Roma, 20

Campanlan vases, 387

Capella, 566, 507, 613

Canal of Claudius, 10, 11

Canns, battle ot\ 77

Canopus, 134

Capaneus, 1.16

Caper, Flavins, 597

Capital, 421, 426

Capital trials, Roman, 859

Capitol, Roman, 17, 391

Capitolmus, Julius, 638; the
hill. 16

Captives, treatment of, 154,
155, 199

Carmen Sallare, 363

Carneades, 365, 508, 586, 604

Carriages, Roman, 266

Carthaginians, Hiotory, 71, 73
language of, 568

Caryatides, 426

Caspian gate or pass, 46

Cassander, 177

Castagnas, 31

Castalia, 127

Castanets, 218

Casting, how dlAring from
sculpture, 381

Castor and Pollux, 1S5

Castor of Rhodes, 537

Catacombs, 55, 321

Catiline, conspiracy of, 77

Cato, M. Porcius, 630 ; opposed
to Greek philosophy, 360,
639; Dionysius, 563, 563;
Valerius, 565

Catullus, 560, 561, 571

CavaceppI as restorer of an-
tiques, 303

Cavalry, Greek, 34, 194, 197;
Roman, 370, 376

Cebes, 513

Cecrops, 133, 334

Celestials, or celestial gods, 87

Celsus, Aulus Cornelius, 638,
641 ; rejecter of Christi-
anity, 544 i

Celts, 359

Cement, used in Grecian seolp-
ture, 383

Cemetery, ori tin of term, 333 ,

Cenotaphs, 332, 303

Censorious, 597, 598

Census, Roman, 239

Censors, Roman, 350

Centaurs, 34, 131

Centlmani, 113

Cento, 571, 584

Central America, rulna of, 430

Centum virattf, 359

Centurial or Secular games, 343

Centuries, division of Romann
into, 353 ; voting by, 957

Cephalas, 456

Cephalus, 115

Ceraunia or tknnder-stones,
310

Cerberus, 37, 100, 133, 231

Ceremonies of ancient wor-
ship, 147, 148; nuptial, 159^
220,387

Ceres, 110; temple and statue
of, found by Dr. Clarke,
113; festivals of, 169

Cester or Chester, ' towns
whose names end in, 380

Cestius, pyramid of, 833, 415,
416

Cestus, girdle of Venus, 106

Cethegtts Cornelius, 966

Charemon, 606

Chseronea, battle of, 74

Chairs, 313; of state, 254

ChamsBleon. 458

Champollion, interpreter of
hieroglyphics, 347

Chance, personified, 110

Chants, funeral, 331

Chares, 390

Chariots, race In, 173 ; Grecian,
153; Roman, 306

Charisius, 597, 509

Chariton, romancer, 503

Charming or fascinating, the
power of, 340

Charon, 100,221 ; historian, 536

Charts, chronological, 66
Chary bdls. 133
Chase, 158 ; goddess of, 101
Cherry-trees, whence brought,

Children, treatment of among
Greeks, 159; at Sparu,
189; legitimate, ^c, 390;
among Romans, 386, 387

Cbll Minar, or palaca of fort,
columns, 44

Chlmssra, 131

Chimneys, 310, 391

Chinese, system of writing,
315; archiiectare, 431

Cbion, 503

m

GENERAL INDEX.

en

Chloris, 190

rhceriliit, 450, 458

Choragic tripods, 33, 337

Choregiiim, in mosaic, 396

Chorus, of (ireek tragedy, 176,
456 ; of comedy, 460 ; part
of the t-ipariAn Forum, 36

Chrestomathies, or reading-
books in study of lan-
gUHg<>9, 430, 442» 551

Chrestus, 636

Christ, year of his birth, 64, 65 ;
his head on a g«m, 408 ; life
of, in Gr«ek hexameters,
481 ; pretended letter of,
543 ; letter describing, 637

ChristiHn poets, early, 544, 560

Christian wriiinits, in Greek,
542; in Latin: 647

Christianity,, influence of on
literature and society, 287,
341, 369; attacks of early
pagans upon, and answers
to them, 544 ; allusions to
in classics, 636

Christians, how put to death
by Romans, 261 ; their
tombs 303; philosophy of,
510, 543

Chronicum Parium, 346

Chronology, classical, &c., 59,
445 ; systems of, 66 ; brief
outline t^, 67

Chrysippus, 507

Chrysohiras, 500

Chrysostom, John, 341, 547;
Dio, 490

Churches called Bnsilicie, 16

Cicero. 58M, 590, 593, 594, 601,
605, 608 ; his table, S67

Ciceronianus, 591

C'ircensian gsmes, 2-19

Cities, principal Greek, 141

ritizenship, Roman, 258

Civil affairs of Greeks, 150,
176; of Romans, 248

Civil law, body of Roman, 647

Civilization, the natural state
of man, 311 ; original seats
of, 311,319

ClasseM of citizens at Athens,
177; .Sparta, 188; Rome,
253,286

Classic authors, origin of the
phrase, 253

Clnssics, excellence of, 320;
utility of studying, 319, 320,
435; methods of studying,
438 ; uniform editions ur
sets of, 649

Classical Journal, 321

Classical siudv, history of, 650

Claudian, Ronian poet, 560, 561,
5&I, 566, 584

Claudius Mamertinus, 599

Claudius, the emperor, 697

Cleanthes, 479, 507

Clemens, Romanus, 543; Alex-
andrinus, 544

Cleon, as orator, 484

Clermont, Bishop of, 604

Client and patron, 254

Climate and materials as af-
fecting architecture, 418

CliniRtes, ancient division of
earth into, 4

Clio, 127

Clisihenes, 177

Clitagorus, 453

Clilodemus, 520

Clitomachus. 606

Clocks, 60, 240

Cnephim,or wings, 490

Coi^n vestments, S9b

Coccetanns, 533

Codex Alexandrinus, Vatica-
nus, &c., 355 : Gregoria-
nus, &c., 646

Code of Theodoric, 646

Cceliiio, M. 601 ; Apicius, 617,
622

Ccelus, 113; Anrellanus, 639

Coffins, 302, 303

Cohorts, 272, 277, 284

Coins, Greek, 213, 340, 352;
Roman, 266,373; their use
in chronology, 65; num-
ber of diflferent ancient
coins preserved, 352, 374;
collections of, 375

Cointus or Quintus, 4^1

Colbert, Marble of, 347

Coliseum. 19, 429

Collatinus, 227

Collections, of manuscripts,
356.376; medals and coins,
375 ; statuary, 396 ; en-
graved gems, 405, 408; of
Greek poets, 463

Colleiees or orders of Roman
priests, 232; of artisans,
263

Colonies, planted in Greece,
323 ; planted in Italy, 359.
360; from Greece, 79, 73,
142 ; of Rome, 258

Colors used by Greek painters,
410, 41 1 ; applications made
of, 413

Colossal statues, 42, 383, 385,390

Columella, 562, fil7. 621

Column, of Duillius, 284, 371 ;
of the twisted serpent, 165;
ofTrajan,&c., 395, 426

Coluthus,481

Combats, single, in ancient
war, 156

Comedy, Greek, 459; Roman,
556 .

Commentaries, or auto-hingra-
phies, 625 ; on the N. Tes-
tament, early, 544

Commerce, of Phoenicians, 327;
Greeks, 152, 212; of Ro-
mans, 263 ; of Babylon, 212

Commodinn, 5(S3

Composite order, 426

Comus, 119

Concord, 18

Concubinage among Greeks,
220

Conic sections, 591

Conon, mythographcr, 524

Consecration, of Roman empe-
rors, 137, 304; of temples,
&c.,238

Constantine, Greek physician,
537; arch of, 395; Manns-
■es, 455 ; of Carthage, 482 ;
the Great, his reign, 78;
his imp. standard. 272; his
military system, 284; Ce-
phalas, 456; Porphyroge-
nitus, 529

Constantinople, university of,
341, 497; library of, 340;
situation and topography,
20; capture by the Turks,
343; tri|)od in its Hippo-
drome, 165

Consular army, 271, 277

Consuls, Roman, 248

Controversial works of early
Christians, 544

Conversntion, means of learn-
ing lan;:uaee, 550

Conveyance, niodes of, 260

Convivial songs, 451, 452

3l2

Copper, used before iron, 154,

310
Copyists, or Calligraphi, 333
Corax, 490
Corbuio, 627
Cordus, Crematias, 027
Corinna, 452
Corinth, constitution of, 192;

isthmus of, 34; capture of,

74, 75, 77
Corinthian order, 424, 42ft
Cornelius Gallus, 561, 571

Lentulus, 564

8everus,559,562,576
Corn, distribution of at Rome,

261
Cornice, 424
Cornutus, 525, 596
Coronis, 117

Corpses, burning of, 221, 300
Corvinus, 626
Cosmas, geographer, 348, 519,

523
Cosmetics, 210, 299
Cosmogony of the Greeks, 146
CoBsatius,41S, 427
Costume, Grecian, 157, 206;

Roman, 297
Cotta, Caius, 587
Cottage of Komulus, 17
Cotton, material for writing,

331 ; other use of, 209
Couches, for reclining at table,

206, 291 , 293, 297 ; for sleep-

ing, 290
Country-seats of Romans, 291
Courts, at Athens, 150, 185; at

Hparta, 191 ; at Rome, 259
Cousin, on the first seats of

civilization, 311
Covenants, manner of confirm-
ing, 164
Covenants or leagues, 164
Cow, symbol of Isis, 122
Crassus, wealth of, 267
Crates, 460, 496, 593, 596
Cratinus, 460
Creation of man, 312
Creed, At henasian, 546; Apofl-

ties, 543
Crete, early constitution, &c.,

151, 192; Ubyrinih of, 43
Creusa, 135
Crimes at Rome, 259
Crishna, Hindoo deity, 95, 101
Critias, 459, 484
Critolaus, 604
Criton, 537

Croesus, king of Lydia, 70
Crowns, 150, 175, 275
Crusaders, at Conitantinopk,

79
Ctesias, 526, 530
Ctesiphon or Chersiphron, 427
Culture of the Greeks, sourcei

of, 327; causes aiding its

advancement, 334 ; of the

Romans, 359
Cuma, decree of, 347
CunnxB, battle of, 70, 74, 511
Cupid, 106,402
Curatius Maternns, 556
Curius Fortunatianus, 503
Cursive letters, 3^
Curtain, of the ancient theatre.

946 ; embroidered, 148, 21d
Curtian Lake, 17
Curtius, Rufus, 635
Curule, officers, 254; chairs, 254
Cnsnites, 125
Cuttle-fish, 363
Cybeie or Rhea, 03, 347 389;

priests of, 236
Cycles of tbf ancients, 02

678

GENERAL INDEX.

Cyclic |>o«U, 4M

Cyclopeftn architecture, 41, 107,
420

Cyclops, in?, 134, 461

CymbalM, 317

Cynic philo«o|)liera, 506, 006

CyDOC4>phAlu*, 134

Cynoanritet, 339

Cyrenaic ff^ct, 506

Cyrene, reiiiaint of, 56

Cyratia, inscription of, 345

Cy rill, 495

Cyrus, Itinf of Persia, 70

Cyrus th«! younger, 70, 511;
expedition of, 70, 74; pa-
lace of. 114 : tomb of, 323

Cytheris, 568. 561

D.

Daclan mine*, 8, 202
tablet*. 272

Dadaltts. aculptor, 368. 402 ; la-
byrinth built by, 43

D»mont, 120

Dagon, bouse of, 418

Damasui, 561

Dana Ides, 100

Danaus, 133, 324

Dancinf, at featta, 150, 307,
210, 419

T>Bphne, 101

Daphnis, 454

Dares Phrygins, 536

Dariiifl, 70

Dates of ancient events, how
ascertained, 63 ; helps In
remembering, 67

David, reicn of, 60

Days, rpcitoning and division
of, &c., 50, 210; origin of
the n.iine* of, 62; Roman
manner of spcndiog day,

Death, as a god. 130; punish-
ment of, how inflicted by
Greeks, lOT, 101 ; by Ro-
mans, 260

Decemvir*, 76, 251

Declamation by Roman ora-
tors, 367, 587, 588

Dediration of Roman temples,
238

Deification of heroes, 137; of
emperors, 137, 304

Deitien, classes of ancient, 67,
138; peculiar to Romans,

no

Dejanira. 134

DeitbArative Oratory, 485, 487,
4HS. 588

Delphi, A|>oUo*s temple at, 101 ;
oracle of, 165

Delphin (lassies, 640

Deluge, of Deucalion, 24 ; tra-
ditions of universal, 94. 106

Demetrius Phalereus, 485. 490,
491, 508 ; Poliorcetes, 177

Deral-gods. 87, 132, 149

Demo, 526

Democritus, 508

Demonstrative Oratory, 485,
487, 489, 588

Demosthenes, 484, 488, 503, 590

Dent els, 424

Departments, Greek authors
classifled under, 447 ; Ro-
man, 554

Design, arts of, 379

Deucalion, 24, 133

Dexler, F. Lucius, 628

Dial, 60, 240, 615

Dialectic Sect, 506

Dialects. Oreeki 436, 444; io
Italy, 361

Dialogistic method of instruc-
tion. 339
Diana, 101 ; temple of, at Ephe-

sus, 114.421; Bubastis, 124
Diastole, 331
Dicasarchns. 454, 508
Dice, pin ving with. 205
Dictnlor, Roman, 75, 251
Dictionaries, Latin,551; Greek,

413. 497 ; ClaRsical,445 ; My-

thuloitlcal. 89
Diclys Cretensis, 536
Dicuil, 5b6, 616
Didactic poetry, Greek, 454;

Roman, 562
Dido, 72
Didymui, 496
Digamma, 302
Dighton rock, figure, 4bc., found

near it, 153
Dinarchus. 484, 489
Dinocraten, 427
Diocles, 536
Diocletian, his persecution and

massacer of Christians, 78,

428
Diodorus RJcolus, 527, 531
DiodotuB, 527
Diogenea, Laertius, sold as a

sinve, 190; hU writings,

456, 531, 601 ; the Cynic,

506; his tomb, 223
Diogenianus, 456
Diomedes, 137. 597, 601 ; villa

of,2<J6
Dion, Chrysostomus, 490, 492;

Cassius. 533
Dionysla, 160, 336
Dionysiua, IIalicarnasseu8,492,

627, 631; Periegetes, 455,

519. 522; Thrax, 496. 497;

Cato. 5S3
Dionysiua the tyrant, prison

of, 40
Diopbantus, 519. 521
Dioscorides. 538, 539; curious

manuscript of, 355
Dioscuri, 135
Diphilus. 461, 567
Diploma, 364
Dirges, at funerals. 221
Disa, goddess of Germans, 122
Discipline, Lacedaemonian,339;

military, 199; of Roman

camps, 290
Diseases deified, 120
Dishes nt a Roman supper. 204
Dispersion of men by confk-

aion of tongues, 309, 324
Distemper, painting in, 412
Divination, art of, among

Greeks, 149, 164,166; Ro-

mans, 240
Divinity, Greek and Roman

idea of, 87
Divisions of lime, 59
Divorces, Roman, 287
Doctrinal treatises of early

Christians, 545
Dodona, oracle of, 25, 165, S27
Dogmatic school in medicine,

536
Dogs of Molossis, 25
Domestic affairs of Greeks,

157,204; of Romans, 285
Dominical letter, 63
DomitiuB Marsus, 563
DonatuB, JEWuw, 569, 509; Tib.

Claudius, 573
Door-way, Egyptian, 420
Doric order, 424, 426
Dorotheus, 455
Doves of the Capitol, 413
Dowry in marriage, 220

Draco, bis laws, earliest writ-
ten in Greece, 177,333

Draining of lakes, Ac, 428

Dramatic contosis, 336 ; poe-
try, 457, 555

Dramatic exhibitions, among
Greeks, 175. 336, 457,402;
Romans, 216. 555; modem
origin of, 558, 559

Dreams, on interpretation of,
167,240.538; gnd of. 130

Dress of Greeks, 157, 208; Ro-
mans, 297

Drinking cups, 204, 207, 297

Druidical temple, 148

Drutds. 237

Drum, 217

Dryads, 126

Dryope, 116

Duillius, inscription on colama
of.ri

Dwellings, Roman, 290; Gre-
■ clan. 210

Dyeing, art of, 264

Dying Gladiator, 303

Dyonisiacn, 460

Ear-rings, Roman, 399

Earth personified, 93, 113

Earthenware, 363

Eating, Roman customa in, ttt

Echinus, 434

Eclectic, sect in philosophy,
509, 544, 607; acbool in
medicine, 537

Eclipses in ancient times, 64,
197

Economists, Roman, 616

Edcssa, schonlat, 341

Edossan epiattea, 543

Edict, of PrsBtor, 349

Edifices, remains ofanclent,4S9

Editions of classics, works on,
446 ; sets of, 649

Education among the Greeks,
159, 335, 338. 435 ; Romans,
288,366,604

Egeria and Numa, 329

Esypt* cradle of the sciences,
319 ; productiveness of,
961 ; deities of, 133; Ge-
ography of. 53 ; Chronolo-
gy or, 66, 71 ; works on, 71

Egyptian inscriptions in Greek,
348; sculpture, 385; Gem-
engraving, 403, 404; paint-
ing, 409 ; architecture. 410,
436; gods, 123; custonuof
burial, 100

El Wah,site of temple of Jnpi-
ter,56

Eleatic sect, 508

Elections at Rome, 357

Elegiac poetry, 453, 561

Elepbanta, cave of, 426

Elephants need in war, 194

Eleuainian mysteries, 113, 169

Eleven, the Athenian magis-
trates, ISl

Elgin Marblea, 307

Eliac sect, 506

Elian inscription, 344

Eloquence, of Tbemistocles,
Pericles, and Demosthe-
nes, 483, 484 ; school of, at

. Rhodes, 485 ; Roman, 586

Elysium, 99

Elzevir editions, 649

Emancipation of sons, 367,386;
of aiaves, 389

Embalming the dead, 321

Emerald, given by Ptolemy to
LucuUus, 401

GENERAL INDEX.

679

Empedocles, 475

Emperors deifit^d, m, 1.^7, 304
Romiin, their reign, 7d

Empire, Roman power of, 249;
military system of, 270;
chances in, 984 ; extent
of, 226 ; division of, 2S5 ;
Eastern, 70

Empiric school in medicine, 536

Empiricus Sextus. 516

Ewploynients, under guardian
drMties, 120; of Greeks,
158 ; of Romans, 262

Emprpsiies, on Roman coins, 96

Encaustic, a method of paint-
ing, 412, 413

Enchorial letters, Egyptian, 347

EnconiiHBlic orations, 487

Engines, military, 198, 260

Engraved gpms, devices on, 402

Enniiis Qiiintus, 555, 559, 562,
565 567

Enoch, book of, 308, 541

Entablature, 424

Em rn i Is nf V ict ims, as prognos-
tics, 234

Epaminondas, 74, 483

Epaphrodiius, 496

Ephefius, Uiana'i temple at
114, 421

Ephori, 151, 190, 191

Epiiorus, 526

Epic poetry, 449, 559

Epicharmus, 459, 567

Eptctetus, 507, 514

Epicurean sect, 508, 606

Epicurus, 50H

Epidnurus, medical springs al,
117

Epigenes, 457

Epigrams, Greek, 455 ; Roman,
563

Epimacbni, 427

Epiphanius, 538, 544

Epirotes, 25

Epistles and Romances, 600,
600

Epistles or letters, form of Ro-
man, 364

Equites or knights of Rome, 254

Eras and Epochs, 65

Erasmus, and Scaliger, 591

Erato, 127

Eratosthenes, 518, 510, -523

Erebus, 100

Eretriac sect, 506

Erlgone, 117

Erinna, 452

Eristic sect, 506

Erotian. 496. 498

Erotic poetry, 455; tales, 500

Erysicthon, 112

Escurial, ancient paintings In,
415

Esoteric and exoteric doc-
trines, 338, 508

EssHrhaddou, 69

Eteocles and Poly n ices, 196

EtistSB, 437

Etruscans, 359; plays of, at
Rome, 360, 554 ; their
sculpture and vases, 386;
engraved gems, 404; their
architecture, 427 ; religious
asaces, 229

Etymnlngicum Magntim, 409

Etymology, nttention to, 550

Eucharis, 408

Euclid, 506, 516, 580

Eudenius, 639

Eudocia, author of the Roroe-
rocentra,481; oflhe Viola-
rium, 499

Eugrapbiua, 569

Eugubian tables, 372

Euhpuierus, 524, 567

Eulosies over the dead, 923,
302, 4M, 487, 628

Eumhihius, 503

Etmienius, 592

Eumolpus, 448

Eunapius, 534

Kuphurion, 450, 459, 571

Eupolis, 460

Eupraxidas, 527

Euripides, 455, 458, 474

Euryale, 130

Eusebius, 528, 545

EustHthius, 499, 503

EutecniuB, 480

Euterpe, 127

EutropiUB, 585,637

Evnnder, 359

Evil eye, superstition respect-
ing, 240

Evolutions, military, 197

Exercises of Roman camp, 280

Exergue, 352

Exhalations of Pontine marsh-
es, 11

Expenses, public, at Athene,
lb2, 224 ; at Rome, 236, 262

Expiation among tbe Romans,
239

Exposing of children, by tbe
Orpcks, 475 ($ 63. 7) ; by
Romans, 287

ExsuperantiuB, 628

Fabii, race of, II

Fabtus Pictor, 625

Fables, Mythological, aoareea
of, 84; in Greek and Ro-
man literature, 454, 510,
563; Atellane, 554, 557

Fnbullsts, Romati, 563

Facade, 424

Fairs, in middle ages, 558

Falconer. 8bi{>wreck described
by, 28

Falconius, 589

Faliscus, 564 ; Gratius, 577

Fallen spirits, 129

Fame, goddess of, 1 18

Families, Roman, 2b6

Family habitations, from Ves-
ta, 113
memoirs, 628
of the Pomponii, 619

Fanatic, origin of the term, 240

Farces, Greek, 462; Roman,
558

Farnese bull, 300, 392

Farnesian columns, 348

Fascination, 240

Fasti, Capitolini, 379

Fasting among ancients, 171

Fate, Stoic doctrine of, 507;
controlling the gods, 88

Fates, 127

Father of mankind, aecording
to Greeks, 124
power of the Roman, over
his children, 287

Fathers, «>arly Christian, 543

Fauns, 130

FaunuB, grove and oracle of, II

Feast of the gods. 234

Feasts, social, of Greeks, 158,
206; literary, 337; or Ro-
mans, 204

Feet, covering for, 908, 298

Females, state of in Greece,
159, 216 ; nblicratiODS of, to
Christianity, 2S7

Fenesielli,623, 626

Ferunia, ISO

Fescennine verses, 554
Festivals, Greek, 166; Roman,

lUl
Festus, 8. Pomponius, 597, 599:

8. Rufus, 637
Fiction, among ancients, 500
Field of Truth, 99
FIguIus, Nigidius, 615
Financial inscripiions, 345
Fire, use of unknown, 309; the

Greek Fire, 536; the vestal,

113: principle of all things,

508
FirmianuB I^ctantius, 624
FirmicuB, 615, 619
Fishing, among Greeks, 15B
Fish-pond of Hortensius; 90S
Flaccus, Valerius, 480,580; 81-

culus,615
Flavins Vopiscus, 638
Fleece, Golden, of Colchis, 135
Fleet, Grecian, 200, 203; Ro-
man, 2h2
Flesb-brusbes, or strigiles, 993
Flight of birds, ominous, 149,

233
Flood, in time of Deucalion, 94 ;

state of knowledge and arts
* before, 308
Flora, 120 ; statue of, 893
Florens Tertullianus, 645
Florus L. Aiincus, 564, 635
Flowers, goddess of, 120
Folio, origin of the term, 364
Food, in early ages, 309; of

Greeks,J57, 204; Romans,

293,294
Foot, means of determining the

Roman, 268
Fortunatlanus, 593
Fortune, goddess of, 118
Forums, at Rome, 17 ; Athens,

32
Fountain of the sun, 56
Fourmont inscriptions, 844, 845^

468
Fowling, among Greeks, 156
Foxes, burning of, in worship

of Ceres, 112
Franciade, 66

Fratres Arvales, hymn of^ 361
Free men and Ireedmen, at

Rome, 285
French Republic, era of, 65
Fresco-painting, 419
Fret-work, 990
Frieze, 424
Frontinus Sextus Jullos, 6&

618
Fronto, 580, 603
Fulgentius, 623
Fulling of cloth, 264
Funeral ceremonies, Greek,

149. 921, 222 ; Roman, 300;

songs, 221, 562; eulogies,

232, 302, 487, 628 ; pale, 149,

302
Funeral orations, of Pericles

and Demosthenes, 332
Furies, 99, 128
Purius BibaculQS, 565
Furnaces in Roman houses, 991
Furniture of houses, 319, 990

Gabinlanus, 593

Gabriel, stone of, 53

Gsotulius, or GsBtulicos, 564

Gains, 645

Galatian shows, 848

Gslba, 566

Galen. 537, 539

Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 49

Galleys, or war ships, 900, 982 .

680

OBNERAL INDEX.

nailienns, Sie

r.illio. 5M

Galhi*. Cnrn<>1ti», 501, 571 ; L.
Plot ins, 593

Cnmblera of Pompeii, 294

(;ani«>«i of tho Greeks, 171, 173,
328, 335; Olympic, &c., 173;
Rocifl, 207; Romanii, 242;
iti hnnnr of the dead, 222,
301

Oanfmedef, 96

Garden of Epicurai. 339

Oardftriinc, liow ranked by the
Gr<>ekti. 379, 381; ^od and
goddeM nf, 119 ; of the Ro-
mana, 292

Gardens of t^alliist, 374

GarKillii-, 617, «22

Garlands, 175, 275

Oatenf Linns, 420

Gales of Rome, 10

Gauls, Rome burnt by, 925;
hiMitry of, 7

Gaza, 500

Gazette, Roman, 027

Geber, from whom Algebra
took its name, 521

Getofi, of {Syracuse, 73

Gem-eng raving, 306

Gemini, 135

Gems, names of principal, 400,
401 ; nature of, 400 ; In
Aaron's breastplate, 401,
403 ; genuine and flcii-
tious, 400 ', largest of an-
cient sculptured, 407, 40S ;
illustrative of Mythology,
60,402 ; appropriate to cer-
tain gods, 402; supposed
virtues of, 403

Genius and Genii, 138

Genseric, leader of Vandals, 79

Geographers, Greek, 519; Ro-
man, 615

Geographus Ravehns, 616

Geography, commencement of,
318 ; works on ancient, 445,
520, 552, 617; knowledge
of Greeks in, 3, 519 ; know-
ledge of Romans in, 615;
epitome of classical, 3

Geometry, oricin of, 318

Geop4inics, 538, 616

Germanicus, 3-15, 577

Geryon, 131

Giants, 121, 125, 133; temple
of, 421

Gladiator, Borghese, 390, 39S;
dying, 393

Gladiators, Roman, 344, 304

Glass, imitations of gems, 406 ;
painting of, 413 ; how far
used by Romans, 263, 390

Glossarie*, Greek, 487, 498

Glycon, 385, 452

Gnipho, 594, 596

Gnomic poets, 454, 563

GnoiAon, 60, 615

Gods, Greek and Roman, num-
ber of, 83 ; classes of, 87 ;
their residence, &c., 67 ;
food, &c. 89 ; genealogy, 90;
Egyptian admitted among
the Romans, 133

Gold, attempts to make, 538

Golden age, 91, 93 ; number, 63

<Tordian knot, 314

Gordian, poem by, 560

Gorgias, of Athens, 490, 491

Gorgons, 130

Gothic Architecture, 431

Goihs, Rome taken by, 79, 225

Government, changes in form
ofGreciaD,72,l41,151,176,

178, 191 ; of Roman, 75,
2IH ; by Romans over con-
quered nations, 258

Gracchi, the two, 77, 587

Graces, 127

Graici, and other names of an-
cient Greeks, 141

Grain, kinds of, 264 ; dislribu-
tion of at Rome, 261

Grammar, as taught among th«
Greeks, 338

Grammar schools, 366

Grammarians, Greek, 496; Ro-
man, 595

Grammars, Greek, 443; Latin,
551

GrapKs, varieties of, 295

Graiius Faliscus, 562, 577

Gravers on gems, ancient, 405

Grecian cities, 141

sculpture, four periods of,
388

Greco-Gothic architecture, 431

Greece, flrst inhabitants, bar-
barous, 141, 150, 323 ; colo-
nies in. lVi,323; origin and
perfection of language, 324,
396 ; causes of culture and
improvement, 141, 143, 327,
435, 448 ; periods in the
progress of refinement, 145;
extent of, 20, 21, 141 ; out-
line of the chronology of,
72 ; form of government in,
141, 142, 151, 177; climate
of, 435; modern travelers
in, 430, 415; remains of an-
cient architecture in, 430

Greek antiquities, utility of,
143; writers on, 144

Greek emperors, 79

Greek language, study of in
Europe, 343 ; importance
of studying, 435; pronunci-
ation of, 436 ; logical ana-
lysis applied to, 440

Greeks in Italy, 360
in southern Italy, 13

Greeks, modern, 343; educa-
tion among the ancient,
335, 435

Gregorian calendar, 63

Gregorianus, 646

Gregorius Pardua or Corinthl-
us, 500

Gregory Thanmaturgua, 544;
Nazianzen, 341, 456, 547,
559

Griffon, 133

Grinding, method of, 158, 159,
264

Gromattc writings, 617

Groups, in stainary, 384

Groves, sacred, 18, 163,330

Guest-chambers, 393

Gyges, ring of, 99

Gymnasia, Greek, 335, 339;
Roman, 366; structure of
the buildings, 423

Gymnastic art, 175, 448

H.

Habits, domestic, of Romans,

393
Hades, 99, 321 ; gates of, 99, 333
Hadrian, patron of letters, 369
Hair, modes of dressing, 308,

399
Hallirrhotius, 105
Hamadryads, 126
Hamilton's vases, 387
Hannibal, his passage of the

Alps, 633
Haono, 519, 521

Harmodios and Aristogtion,i77
Harmonia, 107

Harmonies of the Gospels, ear-
ly 544
Harpies, 41, 128
Harpocraies, 124. 403
Harpocraiion, 49S
Harps, 217

Harrowing, £nd of, 120
Head, coverings for, 208,996;

of Aittinous, 393
Health, drinkine of, 307, 995;

goddess of, 1 17, 1 18
Heathenism, moral influence

of among Greeks and Eo>

mans, 86
Hebe, 96

Hebrew alphabet, 329; manu-
scripts, 356 ; an, 3M
Hebrew-Grecian writings, 541
Hecateeus, geographer, 519;

historian, 525, 536; of Ab-

dera, 527
Hecate, 101
Hecatomb, 147
Hecaiompylos, 71
Hector, 137
Hegemon, 461
Hcgeaius, 485
Heirs, at Athens, 220
Helen, 137
Helicon, 126, 448
Heliodorus, 455, 503
Heliogabalus, 298
Heliotrope, 60, 400, 406
Heliua, 114.
Hell, rivers of, 99
Hellanicus, 526
Hellenes, 334
Hellenic tribes, character of

different, 334
Helmet, 153,374; of Pluto, 09
Helots, 189
Helps, in studying Latin, 550;

Greek, 443, ss.
Hephcstion, 496, 497, 525;

friend of Alexander, 993
Herarlitean sect, 508
Heraclitus, 509, 5C4
Heralds, 150, 197, 934
Herculanean tablets, 346; rolls,

355; paintings, 415, 416
Hercules, 131 ; statue of, Par-

nese, 393 ; title of a piece

written by Prodicus, 490,

514 ; story of explained, 134
Herennius, 645
Hermacbns, 509
Hermc, busts or statues so

called, 109. 119,384
Hermagoras, 593
Hermanubis, 134
Hermas, 543
Hermes, 108; Trismegistiia, 106,

449
Hermestanax, 453
Hermogencs, 493
Hermogenianua, 646
Hermolaus, 523
Hero and Leander, 464
Herodes Atticus, inscriptions

of, 348 ; fragments of, 492
Herodianus, historian, 533;

grammarian, 496, 497
Herodotus, 526, 536 ; at the

Olympic games, 336
Heroes, worship of, &c.,132, 149
Heroic age, 72, 133; maimers

of, 159
Heron, 518

Heruli, Rome taken by, 78
Hesiod, 454, 467
Hes per ides, 134
Hesycbius, 498

GENERAL INDEX.

6S1

Hezspla of Origen, 544

Hierarchy orRoniiihchurch,233

Hiero, ship built for him, 385

Hierocles, opposer of Chrif-
tianily, 534, 544

Hieroglyphics, 314, 329, 347

Hieromancy, 167

Hieronyiiius, 527, 628

Hilarion, 482

Hilarius, 560. 561

Hills of Rome, 16

Hinierius, 490, 495

Hindoo pillar, 420

Hipparchus, 518

Ilippias and Hipparchus, 177

Hippocrates, 50», 536, 539

Hippocrene, 127, 131

Hippodamia, 131, 136

Hippolytus, 544

Hippomedon, 136

Hlpponnx, 452,462

Hirtius, 629

Historians, Greek, 535; Ro-
man, 624, 629; plan for
reading ancient, 528

Historical paintinfts among the
Greeks, 414, 415

Historical records of nations,
cnmparalive antiquity of,
317

History, of principal ancient
stales, 69; illustrated by
coins, 65, 349; sacred, as
related to pagan mytbolo*
gy, H4

Homer, his allusions to state
of society, 327 ; his works,
&c., 450, 455, 462, 464

Homer, the younger, 459

Homerid«, 450

Homerorentra, 481

Homeroiiinstix, 496

Homilies, of early Greek fa-
thers, 516

Honorius. 020

Horace, 560, 565, 574: com-

fnred with Fersius and
uvenal, 582
Horapollon, 449
Hursemanship, 156, 194, 276
Horsemen or knights, 270, 276
Horse, Neptune patron of, 98
Horse-race, 172
Horses, for chariots and for

carrying burdens, 266
HortensiuH, 587, 625; hit vil-
las, 2^'2
Horns, 100, 122,124,449
Hosidius Getn, 556
Hospitality, Grecian, 158, 179,

207; Roman, 295
Hostius, 559
Hours, goildesRPs of, 127 ; of the

day. 60. 210
Household gods. 129
Household. Roman, 288, 289
Houses, Grecinn, 158, 210

Roman, 290
Humanists, 319
Hunting, fishing, ^c, 158
Hurdles, 2J^0
Husbandry, Roman writers on,

616
Hyacinthns. 101
Hybriiis, 453
Hydra, 131

Hydraulic organ, 217, 247
Hydrophobia, 639
Hygpia, 117
HyginuA, Julius, 596, 623; Gro-

maiicus, 615, 617
Hymenseus, 107
Hymn of the Fratres Arvales,

361

86

Hymns, ancient, 449; early
Christian, 560, 561

Hypatia, female mathemati-
cian, 518

Hyperides, 484, 469

Hyperion, 114, 124

Hypodiastole, 331

I.

lacchns, 170

Iberi, 359

Ibis, 122

Ibycus, 45S

Iconoclasts, 415

Ictimuli, mines of, 202

Idas, 135

Ideas of Plato, 507

Ides, 61, 340

Idolatry, origin of, 83, 84

Idomeneus, 137

Idyl, 454, 561

Ignatius, 543

Ignis, 113

Iliac table, 451

Iliad, the Northern, 466

Iliona,568

Iliihyia, 96, 103

Ilium or Troy, 46

Illuminated manoscrlpts, 354,
376

Illyrians, 8

Illyrii, 359

Images in temples, 146, 160, 230

Image-work, 381

Imbrex, P. Licinius, 556

Imperial history, writers of, 638
government, Ronuin, 249

Imposture, literary, of Neev'
kens, 556 ; Higuera^ 628

Implements of agriculture, Ro-
man, 264

Imprisonment, at Rome, 360

Inachus, 133

Indian mythology, its resem-
blance to Greek, 86

Tndiction, cycle of, 63

Indu-Germanic languages, 335

Industry, art of, 212,263

Inferior gods, 113

Infernal regions, entrance to,
12, 36 ; rivers, 25

Inheritances at Athens, 220, 488

Ink, used by Greeks, 332; Ro-
mans, 363

Inns, 158, 208

Inscriptions, Greek, 343-349;
Roman, 370 ; on statues,
385 ; on altars, 230 ; on
tombs, &c., 222 ; on coins,
352, 374 ; on gems, 402; on
the pillar called Pompey's,
318; in ancient Ethiopia,
348 ; use of in chronolo-
gy. 65

Institute, Royal, of France, 17

Instruction, oral among the
Greeks, 334; of Greek phi-
losophers, 338 ; in London
university, 439; Cambridge
university, 440; Halle Or-
phan-house, 440

Instruments, agricultural, 264 ;
mechanical, 418 ; sacriA-
cial, 232; musical, 216, 317,
272

Intaglio, 402; the oldest known,
404

Intelligence and wisdom per-
sonified, 104

Intelligeiicp, means of convey-
ing among Greeks, 199;
Romans, 15

Interest, rate of at Rome, 267

lotermarriages at Romo, 354

Interlinear tranalaliona, 438

Inuus, 116

lo, 105, 122

Ion of Chios, 459

lonians, whence their name,
326

Ionic order, 434, 426

school of philosophy, 505

lophon, 459

lotiste, 437

Ipsus, battle of, 70,74

Ireneus, 544

Iris, goddess of the rainbow,
96, 115

Irnerius, his law-school at Bo-
logna, 647

Iron, not used as early ai cop-
per, 310

Isa, Hindoo deity, 133

Issus, 484, 487

Iscanius, Joseph, 536

Isiac Table, 123

Isidorus, of Charax, 519; His-
palensis, 5&7, COO

Isis, Egyptian goddess, 102, 122;
her head on Egyptian pil-
lars, 426; table of, 123;
temple of, discovered at
Pompeii, 123

Isocratps, 464, 487, 490; tomb
of, 223; letters of, 508

Issus, battle of, in Mosaic, .396

Ister, 526; JEthicus, 616, 620

Isthmian games, 98, 175

Italic school, 505

Italica, mosaic of, 396

Italo-Grecian states, 15

Italy, original population of,
359; geography of, 9; re-
mains of ancient architec-
ture in, 439, 430 ; travelers
in, 396

Itineraries, Roman, 616, 680

Ivory, use of by the ancients,383

Ixion, 96, 100

J.

Jamblichus, romancer, 501 ;
philosopher, 509, 517

Jannelli, on hieroglyphics, 314,
347

Janus, a Roman god, 16, 93

Japhet, similar to Japetus, 124 ;
ancestor of Greeks, 326

Jason and Medea, 135

Jasper, engraved, of Royal Ca-
binet, 408

Javelin, hurling of, 178

Jeroboam, 69

Jerome, of Cardia, 527

Jerome, St., 628, 629

Jerusalem, topography of, 51,
52 ; destruction of, 70

Jesus, letter describing his per-
son, 637

Jewish history and chronolo-
gy, outline of, 69, 70; writ-
ings, 541

Job, book of, its anijquity,3]7

Jobates, 131

JohnofRlobl,517

Joseph Iscanius, 536

Joseph, son of Jacob, 134

Josephus, 527, 531

Joshua, 69

Journals at Rome, 636

Journals and Periodicals illus-
trating classical literature,
17, 447

Juba, the younger, 537, 616

Judas, sum for which he be-
trayed the Savior, 375

Judea, symbol of ber captivity
375

689

GENERAL INDEX.

JttdgM tn Radea, 100
Judicial proceedinKB, Greek,

1S5 ; Roman, 259
Judicial oratory, Roman, 588 ;

Greeic, 465, 487, 486
Junernaut, restlval of, &c. 110
Ju8i(lers and rope-dance rt, 214
Julian the Apostate, 76, 341, 495
Julian period, 03
JnlianuR Titianus, 503
Juliui Fniluz, 497; Capitoli-

nu», 638; CtBsar, 629; Fir-

micus, 619; Paulna, 016
Junia, sister of Brutus, 303
Junius Rusticua, C37
Juno, 96
Jupiter, 91 ; Ammon, 05, 105 ;

temples of, 17, 491 ; statue

of in Olympia, 114, 390;

Pluvius or Pluvialii, 95;

Urius, statues of, 345
Jurisprudence, Roman, 04S
Justice, courts of, 150, 184, 359 ;

goddess of, 117
Justin Martyr, 544
Justinian's code, 340, 040, 047
Jnstinus, Roman blatorian, 030
Juvenal, 505, 583
Juvencus, 500

Kaaba at Merea, 53

Kalends, see Calends.

Kepler, fancy of respecting
numbers, 007

Keys, ancient, 213

Kinir, Archon, 181

Roman priest so called, 334

Kings, power of ihe early Gre-
cian, 150, 189; the Spar-
tan, 189; the Roman, 320,
831, 2Ati ; ensigns of, 348 ;
kissing the feet, 210

Knapp, theory of origin of
words, 313

KnighU, Roman, 354

Knowledge, origin of, 307

Lnberlus, 558, 577

LabienuB, 026

Labyrinth, Egy|Mian, 54, 55,
419; Cretan, 43, 135

Lactantius, 608, 634

Ijacedsemon, see Sparta.

Lacedemonian discipline, 339

Lachrymatories, 303

I^adrone isles, 309

Lseiius, 586

Lampridius, 038

Lamps, ancient, 391

Language, origin of, 310, 312;
of Adam and Noah, 325;
Greek, 324, 310; pronuncia-
tion ofGreek, 436 ; aborigi-
nal of America, 326; oriKin
of Latin, 360, 549; Latin,
how vitiated, 369; utility
ofgiudyinp. 549; how pro-
nounced, 510; Latin and
Roman discriminated, 361 ;
•pecimens of early Latin,
301 ; similar to Latin now
used in Wallachia, 8

Laniriiages, families of Asiatic,
325 ; modes of teaching,
438, 550

lantern of Demosthenes, 33

I^nti vase, 395

Laocoon, siatue of, 390, 393

Laonicus Chnlcondylas, 538

LapiihB!, 24, 131

lAres and Penates, 139

Laaus, 453

Latklave, 306

I^atlnus PacatuSi 593

Latona, 110

Latro, M. Porcius, 593, 030

Laughing philosopher, 508

Laurent ius, 494

Lava- glass, 4O0

Lawgivers, of Athens, 188

Law-scbools, 369, 045, 047

Laws of Greece, early, 151 ; of
Athena, 166; Sparta and
Crete, 191 ; Rome, 261, 043

Lawsuits, Athenian, 180 ; Spar-
tan, 191 ; Roman, 259

Lawyers, Roman, 363, 043

Leaden tablets, for writing,
333. 345

Leaping, game of Greeka, 173 ;
of Romans, 213

Legal or Judicial oratory of
Greeks, 485, 488

Legend, of a coin, 353, 374

Legion, the Roman, 270, 271,
273; Thundering, 236, 510;
number of legions, 264

Lecitimaiion, Roman, 288

Lenses, whether used by an-
cle nu, 400

Lentulus Publius, letter of, 037 ;
Cneius Cornelius, 501, 037

I^ocrates, 488

Leon, mathematician, 518

Leonidas, his tomb, 38; of Ta-
rentum, 450

Leontius, 024

Lesbonax, 490

I^sche, paintings in the, 414

Letters, earliest use of, 317;
form of Greek, 339 ; uncial
and eurrtve^ 330, 354, 350;
on Greek coins, 353; re-
semblance of Greek and
Roman, 359 ; on Roman
coins, 374 ; Roman in nia-
nnscripta, 370; used to re-
present numbers, 313, 367

Letters or epistles, Roman,
304 ; amatory, 501 ; Socra*
tic, 503

Leucippus, 508

Levying, Roman system of, 371

Lexicons, Greek, 443, 497

Lilianius, 490, 495

Lil>atlons, 147,103,238

Libraries, Greek, 339; modern
containing classical MSS.,
350 ; Roman, 308

Licenilousnesa of the Greeks,
220

Licinius, Porcius, 503: Calvas,
563 ; Crassus, 587

LIctors, 3*8, 250

Life, private, of Greeks, 304 ;
Romans, 285

Light troops, 194,370

Linus, 448

Lipogrammatic Odessey, 481

Lippcrt*s impressions of gema,
407

Literature, Greeks circum-
stances (kvorable to, 334,
435; its most brilliant pe-
riod, 334; its decline, 340;
places where cultivated,
341; value of, 435; iniro-
ductions to, 440 ; periods
of, 447 ; Roman^ when It
began to flourish, 305; its
decline, 368, 549; periods
of, 549, 553; where culti-
vated, 369; introductions
to, 553 ; of modern Greeks,
343
LIthoglypby, 396 ; earliest no-

tice of the art, 403; among

the Greeks, 404
Livius Andronicus, 555, 500;

Titus, 033
Logographies, 520
London University, study of

Greek and Latin in, 439, 440
Longinus, 494
Longus, 503
Loretto, chapel of, 10
Lots, used for learning the fb-

ttire, 107,340; In cbooilng

magistrates, 180
Lnean, 500, 580
Lucceius, 030
Lucian, 490, 493
Lucifer, 114
Lueilios, 450; Junior, 50S;

Gains, 570
Lucina, 109
Lucius AfVanlus, 550, S57

Ampelius, 035
Locretia, outrage upon, 75, 317
Lucretius, 503, 570
Lucullus, patron of pblloaopbf,

005; his villa, 13
Luna, 114
Lunar Cycle, 09
Lupercus, 110
Lustrations, 147, 939
Lutatius, 034

Luxury of Romana, 9S7, 907
Lyceum, 330, 339
Lycia, Greek tombs In, 393
Lycophron, 453, 459, 470
Lycurgus, Attic orator, 484,

m ; Spartan lawgiver, 73,

151,504
Lydian coins, S51

history, 70
Lfdus, 528
LygdamuB, 579
Lynceus, 135
Lyncus, 119

Lyre, 310, 317 ; invention of, 108
Lyric poetry, 451, 500
Lysander, 177
Lysias, 484, 480
Lysippus, 390

Maccabees, 09

Maccus, 557

Macedonian coins, 351

Macedoniua, consul, 490

Macer, 578

Machaon, 117

Machines, used in war, 981

Macrobius, 597, 599

Mecenas, 550

Meonides, 464

Magi, 388

Magical artn, 167, 210

Magistrates at Athena, ISO;

Sparta, 190 ; Rome, 351
Magna Griecia, colonies in, 300
Magnesia, battle of, 70
Magnate, battle of, painted, 410
Mala, 108

Makrinoroa, pass of, 36
Mallius Theodorus, 597
Mamertine prison, 300
Mamertinus, 592
Man, his original state, 307;

varieties of the species, 311
Manes, 139
Manetho, 527

Maniples in Roman army, 973
Man 11 ius, Manlua, 044 ; Marcus,

503,577
Manners, general, of Romans,

292
Mantlets, 380
Mantuan vase, 407, 40S

OENERAL INDEX.

Manuel Philes, 455

Manumission of slaven, 389

ManuscriptB, claesical, how
lost, 34?; forms of ancient,
332; Greek, 353, 355, 356;
number of In European li-
braries, 357; Roman, 376;
of sacred scriptures, 355 ;
discovery of on revival of
letters, 376; of Coluthus,
faC'Simile of, 481 ; of Quin-
tus, 481 ; the most ancient
existing, 356, 376

Marble, material for sculpture,
3S3 ; ceiebraied Itindj., 383

MarbiRR, Arunrielian, 346; of
Cyzicus, d-l?; of Colbert,
347

Marbodus, 464

Marcella, wife of Porphyry, 516

Md reel I in us, 637

Marceilua, Nonius, 598 ; Kni-
piricus, 642 ; Sidetes, 4:>5

Marching, Roumn order of, 278

MarcianuA, CaiM'lla, 613 ; of
Ileraclea, 519, 521

Marcus Aurelius, writings of,
515, 6<)5 ; statue of, 394

Marines. 202, 282

Marius, 77

Market days at Rome, 241

Markets, 17, 32

Marriages, Greek, 150, 218
Roman, "iHQ

Mnrs, 105 ; priests of, 235

Marseilles, schools at, 341

Mnrsyas and Apollo, 101

Martini, 564, 565, 582

Marlialis Cargilius, 622

Martial rewards and punish-
ments, 199,275

Masks, ancient, 176, 217

Materials in Architecture, 418

Maternus Julius Firmicus, 619

Mathematicians, Greek, 517
Roman. 614

Mattius or Matins, 558, 559, 577

Mauritius, 519

Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau-
solus, 114,2-23

Meals, Spartan, public, 190,
191 ; Grpcian genernllv,
157, 204, 206 ; Roman, 2P3

Measures and Weights, Gre-
cian, 214 ; Roman, 268

Mechanical trades at Rome, 263

Medallions, 352, 373

Medals, utility of studying, 349,
373

Medea, 135

Medicine, origin and history of,
317 : Greek writers on, 536 ;
Roman, 638

Mediterranean, navigation of,.
152

Medusa, 104, 130

Megaric sect, 506

Mela Pomponius, 616, 619

Melampus, 448, 538

Melanippides, 452

Meleager, 456, 563

Me'ecigenes, 464

Melicertea. 125

Mr:lpomene, 127

Memnon, sounding statue of,
115; historian, fragments
of, 527; artist, 385

Memnonium, 385

Memoirs, 628

Memory, systems of artificial,

Menander, 460, 476, 569
Mendes, 116
Menecratea, 639

Menedemus, 506

Menelaus, 137

Menenius Agrippa, 563

Menes, Egyptian king, 71

MenippuB, 565

Merchants, festival of, 242;
Roman, 263

Mercury, 108; peculiar busts
called by his name, 384

Mermaid, 126

Mesmerism, a supposition con-
cerning, 166

Messala Corvinus, 626

Metals, early use of, 310; as
materials for writing, 331,
333, 345; used by Vulcan,
107

Metamorphoses, fables respect-
ing, 85

Metempsychovia, 84, 505

Meters, 445, 452

Methodic school in medicine,
137

Methodius, 544

Metics, or resident aliens at
Athens, ITS, 4S8

Metis, wife of Jiipiier, 94

Meton, his Cycle, 62, 518

Metopes, 424

Metrical inscriptions, 345, 348

Metrodorus, 604

Michael Angelo, seal of, 407

Midas, tomb and inscription
of, 314; gift of Bacchus
to, 109

Milesian inscription, 346
tales, 500, 601, 612

Milestones, Roman, 16

Military Aflnirs, of Greeks, 153,
193; of Romans, 270

Milk in libations, 147

Mills, for grain, 264

Milo, catacombs of, 221

Miltiades, 21,73

Mimes, Greek, 462; Roman
656, 558

Mimnermus, 453

Minaret, 431

Mineralogy, Theopbrastus the
father of, 538

Minerva, 104; festival of, 171;
statue of, 390, 394 ; temples
of, 29, 37, 421

Mines, 22, 26, 38, 262

Minos, 100, 131,133

Minotaur, 131, 134

Minstrels, in Greece, 327, 450

Mint, at Athens, 213; at Rome,
267

Minuscule writing, 362,376

Mirrors, ancient, 209, 406; of
Archimedes, 520

Mithras, 100, 134

Mizraim, grandson of Noab, 71

Mnemosyne, 134, 136

Mnevis, 123

Maris iElius, 498

Moderatus, 607, 621

Moderns and Ancients, 319

Modestus, 615

Modillions, 424

Mceris, lake of, 54

MGBro, 452

Molding, art of, 391

Moldings, in architecture, 424

Molds, for casting coins, 374

Moloch, 91

Momus, 119

Monboddp, his theory of lan-
guage, 312

Money, by whom first coined,
349; of the Greeks, 212,
213 ; the Romans, 266, 267,
275

Monograms, abbreviations,330,
403

Monolithal temples, 419

Months of Greeks and Romans,
60, 61 ; personified, 127

Monument of Aduiia and Ax-
um, 348

Monumental architecture, 419

Monuments to the dead, 221,
302

Monumenturo Ancyranum,372,
626

Moon, prognostics from, 538

Morals and manners in Greece
and Rome, 227

Morea, 34

Morpheus, 130

Mosaic, 384; floors, 290; re-
mains of, 396, 413

Moschion, 537

Moscbopulus, 500

MoBchus, 454, 478

Moses, his account of creation,
307, 312; comparative an-
tiquity of bis writings, 317

Mosque at Cordova, 9

Mother of gods, 93

Mourning for the dead, 300,
303, 304

Mucianus, memoirs of, 627

Mucins 8c8evola, 644

Mules, use of by Romans, 266

Mummies, 55, 221

Municipal towns, Roman, 358

Muratius Rufus, 629

Murra or Murrhinum, vases of,
263, 401

Murray, on origin of language,
312

Mussus, 150, 464

Museo Borbonico, 392, 408

Museum at Alexandria, 339
at Berlin, 397

Muses, 126; on the ring of
Pyrrhus, 127

Music, in Greek education, 150,
335: connected with poet-
ry, 448, 451; accompani-
ment of banquets, 216, and
of sacriftces, 238; science
of, 216

Musical contests, 336, 366 ; in-
siruments, 216 ; In Roman
army, 272

Musoniiis Rufus, 606

Mussa, 639

Mutules, 424

Mycens, gateway of, 430

Myriologues,221

Myrtis, 452

Mysteries, 337; of Cabiri, 136;
Eleusinian, 112, 169

Mysteries and Moralities, 554

Mythic cycle, 451
poetry, 88

Mythical personages connect-
ed with the gods, 124

Mythographers, Greek, 88, 524 ;
Roman, 88, 623

Mythology, 83; utility of a
knowledge of, 86; resem-
blance between classical
and oriental, 86, M, 95;
difTerences between Greek
and Roman, 87

N.
Noevins Cneius, 555, 559, 566
Nail, ceremonv of fixing in the

temple of Jupiter, 343
Names of Romans, 285, 016;

of towns in England end -

tng in euter^ 390
NaaoB, tomb of the, 415

e64'

GENERAL INDEX.

Natonil hittory among the
Greekn, 5W ; Romant, MO
Naumachliis, 455
Naval aflfaira of Greeks, 152,

200.218; nrRnriiana, 282
Naval baule, 203, 292
Navigation nf Greeks, 153
Naurius, 5M
Nea rebut, 527, 532
Nemean frampii, 174
N(*m«>fitan, 562, 583
Nemesifl, 117
Nepoi, CnrneHus, 631
NppotinniKi, 633
Neptune, 1>S
Nerel'ln, 1>S

Nero, hill tyranny, 78 : his per-
secution of Christians, 034;
burninir ofRonne. 225
Nf rvB, his Journal, 627
NesBus, the centaur, 134
Nestor, 137

Netha, Egyptian deity, 104
NetM, for finhinK, 158
New Testamont, books of,clas-
sifled, 512 ; literary Import-
ance of, 212; Apocryphal,
243
JWi0-PlatoniRt8 and Pythago-
reans, 509
Newton's Chronology, 04, 60
New-year's presents at Rome,

211
Nibelungen Ued, 400
Nicander, 451, 479, 480
Nicpphorus, 5*^
Nicolas, 455, 4*», 528
Nirias, 04, 474
Nirocles, 4*<7
NiiolnuB, 527
Night, goddess of, 101, 119, 117
Nigidiii9Fi|;ulus,007,615
Nimrod, 69
Ninias. 09

Niob<», 102. 117,136; and chil-
dren, statues of, 390, 392
Noah, language of, 325
Nobility, Roman, 254
Nomoeanon of Pboliua, 490
Nones, 01, 240
Noninnua, 6*27
Nonius Marcellus, 597, 598
Nonnus, 450, 4^
Noflsis, 452
Notation, Greek, 213 ; Roman,

207
Novels or imperial edlcla, 646
Novius, 567
Novum Organum, 513
Not, 100, 115
Nubian inscriptions, S48
Numa, his influence at Rome,
75, 226, 229, 00 1 ; fragmenU
of his laws, 302
Numbers, designated by let-
ters, Grecian, 213; Roman,
207 ; Pythagorean doctrine
of, 607
Numismatics, 353
Nuptial celebrations, 159, 290,

287
Nymphis, 527
Nymphs, 126

Oases. Egyptian, 95

Oaths, of Greeks, 163; of Ro-

mans, 239; Roman aoU

diers, 270
Obelisks, 19, 55, 419
Obituary inscriptions, 345
Obliteration of MBS. 343
Obscquens Jnliof, 641
ObsidiaD, 400

Ocean, 96

Ocellus Lncanus, 905, 511

Occupations of men in early

ages, 309
Octavius or Augustus, 77
Oriea, 19, 33, 422
Odin, 105
Odoacer, leader of the Hemli,

70
CEconomists, 616
CBnomaua and Pelops, 136
Offences penal at Rome, 259
Offerings to the gods, 148, 149,

238
Official robe of magistratea, 297
Ogyges, 133
Ointments of the ancients, 158,

210,290
Olbian decree, 345, 347
Old and new style, 63
Olen, Greek poet, 419
Olympic games, 173
Olympiodorus, 517
Olympus, 448 ; residence of the

gods, 88
Omens, 149, 16S, 233
Omphale, 134
Onesander, 519, 523
Onyi, a gem representing the
apotheosis of Augustus,
407, 408
Opal, of Nonius, 401
Opilius, 506
Opiitodrome, 173, 39S
Oppian. 455, 480
Oppius, Caius. 629
Ops or Rhea, 93
OptatianuB Porphyrins, 564, 598
Oracles, 149. 164, 160, 327 ; 5)ib.
yline, 210, 449; of Apollo,
101
Oratory and Orators, Greek,
' 482; Roman, 586; among
earlier Christians, 546, 547
Orders, in architecture, 424
Organ, musical Instrument,

217, 247
Oribasius, Greek physician, 537
Oriental tales, 511
Origen, 544, 545, 546
Orion, 114, 125
Orphan-House at Halle, stu

dies In, 410
Orpheus, 446, 463
Ornaments, architectural, 290,
426, 427 ; personal of Ro-
mans, 2flf9
Orthography, Roman in early

times, 302, 374
OrthoB, 131
Offcan language, 361
Osiris, 110, 123
Ostia, salt-works at, 263
Ostracism, 187
Otacillus,L. PilUus,593
Otus and Ephialtes, 105
Ovation, 284
Ovid, 556, 561, 963, 579
Ox, symbol of Osiris, 133;
bones found In the Egyp-
tian pyramid, 133

Paeatus Drepanius, 592
Pacuvius, 415, 555, 966
Paduan coins, 374
Pederasty, SSO
P»stum, ruins of, 490
Pagan fables, colncUence of

with scriptnre, 84
Paganism and Christianity, 341
Paganism and Popery, 137
Paidotribes, 339
Painted vases, 387, 419

Painters, anelent Greek, 414,

Roman, 415
Painting, ancient, 409; mate-
rials and instruments used
in, 410, 412, 413; periods
of in Greece, 414 ; remaias
of, 56. 410, 534
Palace, origin of the word, 10
Palaeography, 354
Palaemon, 125, 5(S, 596
Paliephatus, 524
PalsBtrte, 423
Palimpsest MSB. 342
Palladium, 104, 113
Palladius, 503, 617, 622
Pallas, statue of, 394
Pallet, painter's, 413
Palm, token of victory, 343
Pan, 116; priests of, 235
Panstius, 604
Panathenaic vases, 173
PanatbensR, 171, 336
Pandects, 640
Pandora, 107

Panegyrical oratory, 495, 988
Panegyrists, Roman, 593
Panic, origin of the word, 116
Pantheon, 17
Pantomime, 556
Paper, ancient, 331, 363
Papitiianus,645
Papirius, his collection of lavs,

360,043
Pappus, 518, 521, 557
Papyri, Egyptian, or maaa-

scripis, 350
Papyrus, material for writing
on, 331 ; manner of pre-
paring It, 363
Parasnetic orations, 487
Paraphraae of John's gospel,

480
Parchment, 331
Parents, respect to, 199
Parga, fate of. 25
Parian chronicle, 346
Parks of the Romans, 393
Parmenldes, 483, 508
Parnassus, 127, 448
Parodies. 460, 462
Paros, Chronicle of, 65, 346
Parrhasius, 414, 456
Parthenitts, 501, 525
Parthenon, 104; sculpture on.

390
Parthenopeus, 136
Parthian history, 70
Pastes, or casts of geais, 406,

407
Pastoral poetry, 454
Paterculus C. Velleius, 633
Patricians and plebeians, 313
Patroclus, funeral of, 502
Patronage, of letters by Roman

emperors, 341, 369
Patrons and clients, 254, 2S5
Paul, Silentarius, 456 ; of ^t-

na, 537 ; the Apostle, 003
Paulus iEmilius, and the Epi-

rotes, 35
Paulus DlaconuB, 590, 637
Pausanlas, 519, 533
Peace, temple of, 18; temple

of Janus in lime of, 18, 93
Pearls, ancient, 401
Pedestal, 424
Pediment, 424

Pedo Alblnovanus, 599,961, 976
Pegasus, 131, 133
Pelagius, 481

Pelasgi, 383; in Italy, 359, J61
Pelias, 139
Pelopida, 136
Pelopldas of l*behes, 74

OENBRAL INDEX.

086

Peloponneiilan war» 74

fvlops, 133, 136, 324

Pen, when dm used, 332

Pencil, invi>ntion of, 332

Penny of the N«w Teit., 379

PenlBteueh in M8. 359

Peperino, none to callpd, 903

Pergnnius, library at, 330;
Greeic literature ai, 341

Perlclee, atatPRman, &c. 73;
oratory of. 484

Peripatetic*, 508« 600

Periplus, of Hanno, 921 ; of Ne-
archua, 532

Perjury, at Rome, 230

Perotto, MS. of, fl78

Persecution of Chriatlans, 78,
261,834

Persephone, or Proserpine, 99

Peraepolls, ruins of, 44, 426,429

Perseus, 133

Persian sculpture, 386; Chro-
nolofry, outline of, 70;
kinffs, their residences, 44

Peraius, 565. 578

Personiflcatinn of ▼arious ob-
jects, 119

Perspective, of ancients, 413

Peasinns, origin of the name, 04

Petaltsm. 191

Peter, writinca flilsely ascribed
to, MS

Petrarch, his researches for
MSS. 376; his Africa, 581

Petrified city, 56

Petronius Arbiter, 564, 566, 601,
613

Peutingerian table, 620

PhsBdo, 506

PhtMirns, 563, 578

Phaeton, 101

Phal«cu8, 452

Phalanx, Grecian, 196

Phalaris, 501

Phanodemus, 526

Phenix, 024

Pherecratea, 460

Pherecydes, 525, 926

Phial of tears, 303

Phidias, his worlcs, 390

Phidon, coins of, 391

Phlfalian marbles, 890

Phils, obelisic of. 347

Philanthropists, 319

Philemon, 461, 470

Philetas, 452. 453, 470, 496

Philip, of Macedon, 73

Pbflippi.site of, 22; battte of, 77

Philippidea, 461

Phliippns, 456

Philiscus, 450

Pbiliation, 462

Philisttts. 526

Philo, of Biblaa, 927 ; Jtidvua,
528

Pbilochorus, 526

Philolaus, 509

Philology, works relating to,
447; study of St Constan-
tinople, 497 ; eomparattTe,
924,329

Philon, 518

PhilopcBmen, 79

Philosophy, fhvortte study of
Greeks, 338; general view
of the Greek, 504 ; Chris-
tjan, 210. 544, 607, 606;
Roman, 604 ; authorities
respecting ancient, 910,008

Philoatrattts, uncle and ne-
pftew, 934

Philozenes, 492, 4«1

Phlegon, eclipae mmed by, 64,
927

Phlegyas, 100

Phocian, or sacred war, 74

Phocians, 27

Phocylides, 494, 470

Phcebns, 100

Phoenician history, 70; lan-
guage and writints, 329;
art, 327, SftO

Phoenix, see Phenlz.

Phormis, 459

Phoroneus, 133

Pholius, 498

Phronto, 589, 603

Phrynicus, 458, 498

Phurnutus, or Cornutas, 529

Phyiarchus, 927

Physical science among the
Greeks, 538; Romans, 640

Physicians, Greek. 536, 939;
Roman, 262, 638

Pictor Q. Fabius, 029

Picture-writing, 313

Pictures, earliest Greek, 410;
ancient described by Phi-
lostratus, 534

Picus, kinv of Latins, 130

Ptenis, 126

Pigments, of the ancients, 410,
412

Pilasters, 426

Pile, or Pyre, ftineral, 149, 302

Pillars, or columns, 19, 420, 423,
424, 496

Pllpay,511

Pindar, 452, 471

Pipe, ofPan,&c., 216, 217

Piritbnus, 135 \

Pisa, leaning tower at, 431

Pisfsiratus, 78, 177, 483

Piso Calpurnianus, 609

Piacidus, 624

Placltiis, 640

Planndes, 456, 510, 614

Plastic arts, 370

Plato, his philosophy, 907, 512;
his works, 912 ; the comic,
460

Platonists, New, 900, 607

Platonius, 460

Platonopolis, 916

Plautus, 956, 567

Plays, of the Greeka, 172 ; Ro-
mans, 243, 295

Plebeians ami Patricians at
Rome, 75, 253

Pleiades, tragic, 490; the con-
stellation, 108

Plelone, 109

Plinth, 424

Plinv (the elder), his Natural
history, 611, 6l6, 641 ; ac-
count of lenis, 401

Pliny C. Ctecilitts, (the young-
er), 588, 501, 601, 603

Plotinus, 516

Plow, Grecian, 212 ; Ro!i»d,264

Plutarch, 919, 527, 98S

Pluto, 98

Plutus, 118

Podallrius. 117

Poecile, paintings In, 423

Poetry, origin and varieties of
Greek, 448; of Latin, 994;
mythic, 88

Poets, first philosophers of
Greece, 904; Influence on
religion of Greeks, 146; the
Greek, 463; the Latin, 994 ;
early Christian, 944, 961,
962

Polemarcb at Athens, 1K1

Polemo Perigetes, 496, 927

Pollgnar, his poem jfmtj-Zii-
entiuM 970

3 M

Pollio, VlrglPs 4th eel. 578; C.

Asinius, 956; Trebelilaa,

638
Pollux, Julius, 497; and Gaa-

tor, 18, 139
Polycnus, 910, 923, 527
Polybius,526,530
Polycarp, 943
Polycletus, 619
Polycrates, signet of, 404
Pniydectes, 133
Polydorus, 136
Polygamy, not allowed by the

Greeks, 220
Polyglott of Origen, 944
Polygnotus,414
Polyhistor, work of Solinat,

610
Pnlyhvmnia, 127
Polynlces, 136
Pomona, 110
Pompeii, implements, 4tc., dfa>

interred at, 291, 292, 204,

300, 415; baths of, 428:

beautiful mosaics from, 396
Pompeius, grammarian, 907;

historian, 627
Pompey, 70, T7
Poropey*a Pillar, 99, 426
Pomponius, Atticus, 609. 629 1

Mela, 610; Festus, 900; P.

Secundus, 596; L. Benonl-

ensis, 958, 963
Pomptine marshes, 11
Pontiffs, Roman, 232
Poor, at Athens, how support-
ed, 183
Populace, Roman, 253
Population of Rome, 229
Populousness of ancient na*

tions, 178, 229
Porch, of Zeno, the Stoic, 380
Porclus Licinlus, 963; Latro,

630
Porphyrio, 997
Porphyry, 916, 944
Porticos, 10, 31, 36, 38, 433
Portland vase, 387
Portraits and busts amonf

Greeks, 394, 414, 419; Var-

ro's collection of, 419
Portumnus, 129
Posidonius, 927
Posthumius, 11
Posts, on Roman roadi, 19
Potamo, 900
Pottery, Roman, 263
Pound, Roman, or libra, 2701
PracritI, Hindoo goddess, 04
Predial servitudes, 268
Prefects, 251, 289
Preneate, mosaic of, 996
Pretorian soldiers, 264
Prastors, Roman, 240
Pnetus, 131
Prattnas, 498, 461
Prayers, of Greek*. 147; of

Romans, 237
Praxagoras, 936
Praxilla, 492
Praxis, 927, 996, 628
Praxiteles, 300
Preaching of first centuries,

works on, 946
Precession of the equinoxes, a

means of settling datea, 64
Priam, Pfl&ce of, 420; kingdom

Prtapus, 110

Priests and priesteasea, Greek,

147, 102; imposture of, 164;

Roman, 232, 239; classea

of them made Iw later

wrltara, 236

086

OBNXRAL INDEX.

Pritelan, S37. 597, 600, 649

Prbmn of state, at Rome, MO;
Spirta, 187, 101 ; Athena
and other placet, 187

Prlxea, in the musical contests,
&c., 336; funeral games,
233,304

Proba Falconia, 564

Probus, srholtasl on VIrftI, 573

Procession at the Clrcensian
nmes, 243 ; triumpbal, tt3 ;
funeral, 302

Procius, 500, 517

Proconsuls, 252

Procopius, 461, 400, SS8, 535

Procris, 115

Proculus 8empronlttS, 644

ProHlcua, 400

Prodromus, 462

Professions, not senrated an-
cif'ntly, 334, 838; al Rome,
262

Profiles on ancient medals,
340, 373

Prologue in comedy, 557

Pronunciation of Greeic, 436;
of Uiin, 540

PMpenius, 561, 572

Property, among Romans, 268;
basis of division into class-
es. 253

Prnprieioni, 252

Proqnvttors, 252

Pruse composition, applied first
to history, 525. 526

Proserpine, 00, 112

Prosper, 629

Protagoras, 506

Protocol, 832

Prologenes, 414

Provinces, Roman, 226, 258

Provincial magistrates of Ro-
mans, 252, 238

Prudentlus, 561, 585

Prytanos, al Athens, 184

Psammeticus, 71

Psellus, 538

Psyche, and Cupid, story of,
107, 402, 612

Ptolemies, dynasty of, 71

Ptolemy Claudius, 518, 510, 522

Ptolemy VII., 406

Publicans of the New Teau-
nient, 262

Publius Sulpltlus, 587
8yrus, 558, 563, SH

Pulpit, eloquence of, 546; ori-
gin of the word, 247

Punctuation, ancient, 331, 354

Punic language, 40, 566
Wars, 73

Punishments, Athenian, 186,
100 ; Spartan, 101 ; Ro-
man, 260; of Roman sol-
diers, 275

Purifications, Greeit, 147, 163 ;
Roman, 230

Purple dye, its costllneM, 907

Pygmies, 125

Py lades, 558

Pyramidal ubieta for writing,
331

Pyramids, 55, 123,410

Pvrgoteles, gem-engrayer, 404

P) rrha, 138

Pyrrho, 500

Pyrrhonisis, 500, 607

Pyrrhus, in Italy, 76

Pythagoras, founder of Italic
school, 360, 505 ; f^gmenta
of, 470

Pythaioreans, 607; New, 500,
607

Pytheaa 510,521

Pythian games, 101, 174, 336
Pytho, 101

a.

QuBStors, Roman, 250
Queen of gods, 06
Quinctlus Alta, 556, 557
Quinquatria, 104
Quintllian, 503, 505
Qnintus, or Colntus, 450, 480
Quintus Curtius,627,635; No-

vus, 558; Heptimius, 628;

8extlus,607 ; Trabeas, 556 ;

Tubern,605
Qttirites, rights of, 258
Quoit, or Diacus, 173, 343

R.

Rablrlus, C. 550

Race, Grecian, 172; Roman,
243

Races or flimiliea at Rome, 286

Rainbow personified, 00, 115

Raising a child, 287

Rama, Hindoo deity, 110

Raa Sem, the petri'fiid city, 56

Readera, profeased, 337, 866

Reading-books, or Selections,
In study of language, 430,
442

Reed, inatrnment for writing,
332

Reformation by Luther, 342

Refugees from ConsUntloople,
343, 443, 497

Rehearsals by ancient writers,
337,367,360

Religion of the Greeks, 145,
160 ; expenses of, 189 ; the
Romans, 229

Renalus, 618

RepasU, of Greeks, 157, 904;
Romans, 203

Residents, at Athens, 178

Raven ae of Athens, 181; of
Rome, 261

Reviewing, in the study of
languagea, 430

Review- muster, or Arnllas-
trium, 242

Rewards at Athens, 187 ; Spar-
ta, 101 ; of Roman soldiera,
274; Roman genorala, 283

Rhadamanthus, W

Rhapsodists, 328, 337, 440, 465

Rhea, 93

Rhetoricians, discriminated
from Sophisu, 400; Ro-
man, 502

Rhianns, 450

Rhodes, Greek letters at, 34

Riches, god of, 1 18

Riding on horseback, 156, 966

Rights, of citizens and subjecta
of Rome, 258

Ring, badge of knighthood, 256 ;
of Gyges, 00; Polycrates,
404

Rings, 900; gems In, 405

Rites, of marriage, 220, 987 1
religious, 147, 148, 987

Riven called ii^ermalf 00

Roads, Roman, 15

Rolls, ancient form of books,
832,363; Herculanean, 355

Roman sculpture, 301 ; archi-
tecture, 437 I antiquiiiea,
927 ; literature, 350, 365, 540

Romances, 500, 601 ; first mo-
dern, 586

Romaneaque, 435

Romans, origin of, 350; their
empire, 75, 290; moat bril-
liant era, 237

Romff, goddess of, 119 s i

daiionof,225; governntea^
of, 248, 949 ; eitent of em-
pire, 296 ; progress of let-
ten in, 865, 540; Inrary
and decline, 297; claasaa
or division of the people,
959; authenticity of ha
early bislorv, »0, 025;
population, 925; topogra-
phy, 16; chronology of; 75

Romulus and Remua, 135

Rope-daneera, 244

Roscins, actor at Rome, 557

Roaetta atone or InscripUoo.
346

Rotunda or Pantheon, 17

Rousseau, on invention of laa-
gnage, 819

Rowers, their benches in tlm
ancient gallev, 902

Roval Society of Literatnre,391

Rubrick, fVom robrica, 339

Rufinianus, 503

Riifinus, 585

Rufus, poet, 550; phyakiaii,
537; historian or geogra-
pher, 616. 027, 637

Runic wands, 831

Runners among the Greeka,
190

Running, one of the games, 179

Rural deities, 120

Rusticus, 627

Rutilius Lupus, 593, 504; Na-
matlanus, 503, 586 ; Roflm,
695; Taurus, 629

8.
Sablnua. Aulua, 576;

nua, A
ia,644

Saceas, 500

Sacer, Ht 76

Sackbut, 217

8acr«»d or Phoclan War, 74, 115

Sacred poetry of Greeka, 448

Sacrifices, b«man, 01; of the

Greeka, 147, 148, 163; Ro-

mans, 989, 937; origin of;

148
Saddlea and stirrups, 966
Saguntum, siege of, 76
Salamat or Memnon, statae oC

115
Salaries, at Roniej.26S
Sale by auction, 906
Salic Hymna, 554 ; Priests, 9S5
Sallust, Roman historian, 680
Salt, token of friendship, 907
Salt-worka, Roman, 903
Salna, goddeaa of health, 118
Salustius, Greek mythogra.

pher, 595
Salvtus Liberalia, 660; Julia <

nas, 644
Sammonicua, 562, 640, 643
Samuel, 60
Sanconiathon, 597
Sanscrit language, 325
Sappho, 452, 455, 460
Saracenic archliectura, 431
Sardanapaltts, 60
Sardis, burning of, 73
Sardonic laugh, 40
Satira, Roman, 565
Saturn, 01

Saturn Ian verae, 554
Satyrs dramatic difTeroatfWMi

satira, 461, 469
Satyra, 180

Saxon Language, Ibc, 614
ScBVola, 587, 605, 644
Scaliger, against P
Scaling ladders, 980

GENERAL INDEX.

«n

f««arab«l iremt, 403

Seauruf, Terentiui, 500

Bceptert, i48

Schlva, Hindoo deity, 110

Bcboliaats, Greek, 4-t3, 407

Bctaools, of painting and sculp-
ture In Greece. 389. 414;
of philosophy, 330, 341, 505 ;
of medicine, 530, 030. See
Seminaries.

Sclplo, tomb and inscription
of, 371, 507; Africanus, his

•^ love of philoaophy, 005;
conqueror of Carthage, 77 ;
Nasica, 587

Scironian rocks, S8

Pcollon or skolion, 452

flcopas, works of, 300

Scriboniiis Largus, 030, 043

Bcriptares, Sacred, in Greek
language, 541, 542; attest-
ed in Pagan Actions, 84

Sculptors, eoiinent Greek, 338,
380

Sculpture, ancient, 381 ss ; ma-
terials usf d in, 382 ; inven-
tion of, 382. 385; Asiatic,
380 ; Egyptian, 385; among
the Gre**k9, 387; history
of in Greece, 388 ; remains
of. 392

Scyiaz, 519, 521

Scylla and Chary bdis, 132

Scyiiinus, 455

Scythian guards at Athens, 32

Sea-fight, 203, 232 ; mock, 243

Seals, sculptured gema used
for, 40l>; spal of Angelo,
407; ofPolycratPs, 401

Seasons perronifled, 01, 127

Seatur.German deity,01,e3 [537

Sects or schools in medicine,530

Sects of Grt'fk philosophy, 505

Sedulius, 586

Selouciil«, 70

Self-devotion, 239

Selinuniine marbles, 380

Seronle, 100

Seminaries of eaWy Christians,
342 : of ancient Greeks,339;
Romans, 360, 300

Seniirauiis, 00

Semitic languages, 325

Sempronius Proculus, 044

Senate, Athenian, 184; Spar-
tan, 190; Roman, 250

Seneca, L. Anneus, 550, 570,
002, 605, 010, 040; M. An-
nans, 593. 594

Senecio, 027, 629

Senttus Augurinus, 504

Beptimins. arch of, 895

Septuagint, origin of, 541; cbro-
noloRy of, 00

Sepulchcrii, Greek, 222; of
early Christians, 223; Ro-
man in England, 303

Sequester, 020

Serapion. 537, 544

Serapis, 123

Serenus Septimius, 500, 504

Serfs, ill Italy. 290

Serpent, in fables respecting
Apollo, and Crishna, 101 ;
emblem of health, 117

Sertnrtan war, 8

Servilins, Marcus, 027

Servitudes. 268

Servius StUpiciut, lawyer, 044

Servius, cnnm^utator on Vir-
gil, 573. 5Vr

Besnstris, 71

Sesterce, Value of, 207

ScUi, pillars of, 306, 900

Setbus Simeon, 511
Setinus Balbus, 580
Seven, sagea of Greece, 504;

wonders of the world, 114,

518
Severus, arch of, 305
Severus Cornelius, 570 ; Banc-

tus, 501
Sewers of Rome, 10, 426
Seztius, 500
Sextus Empiricus, 500, 510;

Placitus, 040; Pomponins,

045; Rufus, 610, 037 : Tur-

pilius, 550
Shafi, of column, 424
Shield, a poem ascribed to He-

siod, 407 ; the sacred, 235
Shields, ancient, 153, 104, 274 ;

manufacture of, 487; of

Hercules and Achilles, 153
Ships, Grecian, 154, 200; Ro-
man, 282
Shipwreck, practice of those

surviving, 238
Shoes, 208, 296 ; of horses, 260
Short hand, Greek, 333, 303;

Roman, 303
Shows or spectacles at Rome,

243
Siamese alphabet, 315
Sibyls, 440 ; books of, 240
Sidonian artists, 327
Sidonius Apollinaris, 004
Sieges, manner of, 196, 280;

celebrated, 282
Sigsean inscription, 344
SignalBof battle, 196
Signets, 404, 40.*i, 407 ; that of

Polycrates, 404
Signs, in the heavens, Ace. 107
Silence, gnd of, 124
Sileni, 130
Silenus, curious image of, at

Paros, 110
Silio, Memorial of, 348
Silius Italicus, 500, 581
Silk, known to the ancients,

209,206
Sillic poetry, 402
Silver coins of Romans, 37?, 375
Simonides, 452, 453, 455, 402
Singing at feasts, 207
Sirens, 125, 120
Sisenna, 025
Histrum, 218
Sisyphus, 100
9iva, Hindoo deity, 05
Skeleton, of priest found at

Pompeii, 374
Skeptic philosophers, 500, 607
Skiagraphy, 410
Skins, material for writing, 331
Slaves in Greece, 159, 178, 180 ;

at Sparta, 189; Rome, 265,

289; patron goddess of the

freed, 120, 290; trade in,

263; republic of in Sicily, 41
Sleep, god of, 130
Sneezing, ominous, 149
Sobriquet or burlesque name,

S86
Social entertainments, 214, 295

War, In Italy, 77
Society, primitive slate of, 310,

311
Socrates, letters of, 502; his

philosophy, 505; method

of teaching, 338; ridicule

of, 470 ; his trial, &c., 74 ;

disciples of, 500
Socratic gems, 404 1 sects, 500
Sofa-hed, 212
Sol, 114; statue of, at Rbodes,

114

Solar Cycle, 63

Soldiers, classes of Grecian
193; of Roman, 271, 272;
load carried by Roman.
274, 260

Solinus, C. Julius, 016. 010

Solomon, Song of, 477; reign
of, 00

Solon, bis poetry, 400; his in-
fluence on Athens, 177,483,
504; fragments, 400; Ub-
leu of his laws, 331

Bomnanibulism, in ancient
times, 100

Songs of the Greeks, 451, 452

Sophists, Greek, 490 ; lives of,
534

Sophocles, 458, 473, 474

Sophron, 402

Sophronists, 335

Soranus, 537

Sosibius, 400

Sosipbanea, 459

Sositheus, 450

Sostratus, 427

Sotion, 500, 007

Soul, state of, after death, 05;
weighing of, by Egyptians,
100

Spain, mines of, 262

Sparta, under Lycurgua, 142;
rival of Athens, 14S:
changes Id government,
151; system of education,
189, 335, 339; magistrates
of, 189; public meals, 100;
constitution, 168, 100; to-
pography, 3o

Spartianus, 638

Spectacles or shows, Roman,
243

Sphere of Chiron, 04

Sphinx, 132

Spintrian medals, 373

Spirits, departed, 00; Allien, 120

Spoils of war, bow dividad,
154,190

Spoletto, aqueduct at, 10

Spurinna, 500

Spurs, 200

Stadia, 423

Stage, actors on Greek, 170;
parts of Roman, 247

Staircases, 291

Standards, military, Greeian,
196; Roman, 272

Statius, 500, 581

Statues, 381 ; ancient rude,
382 ; two most fiimous,
383, 390; Equestrian, 304;
classified, 383; use fre-
quent, 389; more numerous
than paintings, 414; where
placed, 389, 301 ; found at
Pompeii, 298, 304; at fler-
culaneum, 394

Stheno, 130

Stephens, fiimlly of printers,
304

Stephanus, of Athens, 538; of
Byxantiuni, 510, 523

StesichoruR, 452, 454

Stiletto, 305

Stilicho, 5«5

Stirrups, 260

Stna, the Pceclle, 339

Stobaus, 517

Stoic philosophy, 507, 606

Stone, used for touls, 310

Stonehenge, 148

Stones, precious, 400

Storms, goddesses of, 198

Btraho. 510, 522; Roman poe<,
056

088

OSmRAL IMDBX.

Stniif era, treatment of by the
Greeks, 207

0trtto. 450, 506

Strophes, 45S, 458

Structures of the Romans, 4S8

Slttcco-painlinf, i90

BtudyififT lenguefes, methods
of, 438, 550; in London
University, 4S9, 440 ; Bos-
ton Latin school, 550

Style, instrument for writing,
339

Siylobate, 4S4

Styx. 99

Sudatory, 429

Suetonius, Tranqutliue, 0S7,
635; Paulinns,fl87

Sutdas, 499

Sulioies, bravery of, S9

Sulpicia, 565

Aulpicius Rufhs. 644

Bun, the Pounuin of, 58; sta-
tue of at Rhodes, 43

Sun-dial, 60

Bun-god, 93 ; worship, 114

Superior gods, 91

Suppers of tiie Romans, 994

Supplicants, 147

Surgical instrumente, of Ro-
mans. 963

Survey of Roman empire, 615

Husarion, 460

Swearing, among the Romans,
239

Swimming among the ancients,
993

Swords, 190, 974 ; of Norlcum, 7

Sybarites, 13, 15

Syenite, 51

Sylla, ftibnlist, 558

Sylla,and Marius,77; conque-
ror of Athena, 177

Syllable-writing, 315

Syllogistic art, 508

Symbolical, language of the
Bible, 549; pictures, 313,
314

Symbols, the oricin of the Gre-
cian gods, 397 ; on medals,
349,375

Symmachus, 592, 603

Symposia, 337

BynagoKues, Jewish, In Gre-
cian cities, 541

Byncbretistic philosophy, 509

Syracuse, constitution of, 199;
topography of, 40

Byria, kingdom of, 70

Syrinc N. T., MS. copy of, 333,
356

Syrinx, 116

Sythes, cbariota armed with,
194

Table, lilac, 451 ; of Isis, 123;
genealogical, of mytholo-
gy, W ; ancient for eating,
20ft, 2M4

Tahlf» ..nd charts. 66

T«blm, twelve, 261

Tablpt4 for writing, 331, 333,

3t>8. nos

Tnhnia Peutingeria, 620
Tachvgraphy. 333, 363
Tacitus, C. Cornelius, 589, 633
Taeticfl, Qrtip.k writers on, 519;

Roman, 615, 017
Talent, value of, 213
Talismans, 403
Tainmiis, Syrian deity, 106
Tantalus, 100, 136
Tapestry, ancient, 91S
Tareutines, 15

Tarpelan roek, 16, 960

Tarqutn, ezpuUion of, 75, 997

Tartarus, 99

Tassie's caats of ancient gema,
407

Tatian, 544

Tauchnitc, claaalca printed by,
650

Taxes at Rome, 961 ; Athana,
161

Teachera in Greek schools,
339; at Rome, 902, 866

Tears, preservation of, 303

Telesille, 452

Telesphorus, 116

Telestes, 459

Temples, ancient, 146, 421 ; se-
ven kinds of, 491 ; moat
celebrated, 491; Grecian,
146, 148, 160; in time of
Homer, 148; Roman, 16,
230; dedication of, dtc,
938; at Athena, 176; of
Jupiter Amnion, 96; of
lata. 193 ; Janus, 18 ; Juno
Lacinia, 15; Nike Apteroa,
390 ; Soiomon'a, 59, 69

Tenu, of Greek aoldiera, 154

Terence, 556, 569

Terentianus, Maurna, 509

Terminus, 119

Terpander, 453, 455

Terpsichore, 137

Terra cotta, 863, 497

Tertullian, 608

Thales, founder of lUlieaclMOl,
505

Thaleua, 459

Thalia, 197

Thnmyris, 448

Then ire, form of ancient,
423; remains, 493; per-
formances In, 176, 468 ; of
Romyns, 946: of Greeks,
175 ; viewa of early Chrla-
tlana reapecting, 550

Theban war, heroea of, 136

Thebes, constitution of, 199;
aupremacy of, 74

Themis. 94, 117

Tbemison, 537

Themlstlus, 490, 494

Themittocles, eloquence of,
483; letters of, 509; emi-
nence in atate, 73

Theocritus, 454, 477

Tbeodorus. Prodromna, 455,
482, 490; Gaza, 500; Pria-
cianus,649; of Rhodes, 491

Tbeodosian Code, 646: table,
620

Theodotus, 615

Theodulus, 500

Theognis, 454, 459, 469

Theogony, Greek, 87, 146

Theomancy, 167

Theon, Greek anphiat, 493;
mathematician, 518

Theophanes, 597

Thenphilus, 544

Tbeophrastus, philosopher,508,
514; naturalist, 538, 540

Theophylactus, 490, 599

Theopompus, 526

Theramenes, 484

Thersander, 136

Theseus, 134; hia temple at
Athens, 390

Thespis, 458

Thessaly, 24

Thonias Maglster, 500

Thrace. 90, 21, 145

Thracian, school of poetry, 448

Thraciana, widows, 149

niraaeua Petna, flSO
Thraaybulua, 177
Thrasyllua, monument of, S3
Threshing-floor, 264
Thucydides, 596, 529
Thundering legion, 516
Thunder-atonea. 310
Thyeatee, 136
Thyrobra, battle of, 70
Thyone, 109

Tbyraua, of Baechua, 110
Tiberiua, 697
Tibttllua, 561, 571
Timmus, of Locri, .513; tba

grammarian, 496; hiato-

rian, 507
Timagenea, 597
Time, pereonifled, 91
Timocreon, 453
Timon, 459, 402
Timotbeua, 459
Tireaiaa, 449
Tiryna, walla at, 490
Tisiaa, 490
TitanMee, 91« 194
Titana, 194
TItbonna, 114
Titianus, 010
Titlnlaa,567
TItiea of ancient booka, bow

written, 332
Tltna, arch of, 30S; conqueror,

Tltyus, 100

Toilet, Oroelaa, 900; Roman,
999,300

Tomb, of Gyrus, dtc, 993 : Ro-
man at Pompeii, 303; at
Gyrene, 66; of Virgil, 19
Tombe of early Chrlatiana, 300
Tonguea, coDfualon of, 300, 395
Tone, or accent, in Greek, 437
Toola, in architecture, 418
Topography, of Rome, 16; of

Athens, 98; Sparta, 36
Torso, the statue, 393
Totila, Rome laid waate by,

985
Towen, ancient, 961 ; Leaning

tower of Piaa, 431
Towna, with namea ending in

e*««t0r, 280
Trade, at Rome, 263; Inelavaa,

Traditlona of mythology, 83
Tragedy, Greek, 457 ; Roman,

Trajan, column of, 805; his
epigrams, 456

Transcribers, 333

Translation, practiced oy Ro-
man orators, 367 ; or Latin
anthora into Greek, 497;
otilitv of the exerciae of,
439

Tranalationa of the elastics,
650

Translucent atone. 290

Travels, of ancient echolaia,
340,366

Treasury, Athenian, 183; Ro-
man, 961

Treaties, 157, 234

Trebellina Pollio, 638

Treea, cultivated by Romans,
961

Trial, of peraona accuaad, 185,
959

Triban. 831

Tribea, of Athene, 177, 178;
Sparta, 188; Rome, 259

Tribonian, Roman lawyer, 646

Tribunes, Roman, 76, 950.951

Trident, 96

GENERAL INDEX.

689

TrigIyph«,4M

Tripods, choragic, 337 ; come-
crated to Apollo, 149, 165 ;
street of, 33

Triptoierous, 110

Triremes, S02

Trismegiitas, 108, 449

Tritons, 125

Triumph of Rooian generals,
363

rriumvirate, 77, 254, M7

Trnciis Poropeiufl, 025, 027, 632

Trojan history, 70 ; cycle, 451 ;
war, 70, 72

Troptiies, 19, 149, 199

Troptioiiius, oracle of, 160

Trumpets, 217

Tryplitodoros, 450, 461

Trypho Jurinus, 544

Tryphon, 496, 4^

Tubal-(^in, 107

Tuitecan hieroglyphics, 814;
architecture, 420

Tunnel of Pausllypus, 12

Turnus, Roman satirist, 565

Tuscan order, 424, 427

Tasks of the Calydonian boar,
26

Twelve Tables, laws of^ 261,
361,643

Tydeus, 136

Tympanum, 424

Typhon, 125, 132

Tyrannio, his library, 368

Tyranny, Roman, over pro-
vinces, 258

Tyranis, the thirty, 74, 177

Tyre, capture of, by Alexan-
der, 70

TyrtBBus, 453, 468

Tzetzes, 482, 499

U.

iripian, 645

Ulysses, 137, 466

Uncial characters, 330, 354

Unguents ry vases, 401

Urania, 127

Uranus, 113

Urius, Jupiter, 345

Urns, for voting, 184; for de-
positing the ashes of the
dead, 221, 303

Utensils, anci4>nt, fonnd at
Pompeii, 291, 300,374; re-
presented on Egyptian mo-
numents, 232

Utility of classical studies, 320

Valor, 18

Valerianus, 640

Valerius, Flaccus, 480, 560, 580 ;
^dituus, 563; Maximus,
627, 633 ; Probus, 596 ; An-
tias, 625; Julius, his ac-
count of Alexander, 527,
620; Cato, 996

Vnlley of MoffHta, 12

Valmir. Hindoo poet, 110

Vslpy's classics, 650

Variorum claiisicR, 649

i'arius Lucius, 556, 559

Varnish, on ancient statues,
383

V^arro. 021, 625 ; Atacinus, 559,
562; Tert^ntius, 368, 565,
596, 597, 616

/ases, Tuflcan, 387, 394, 415;
niurrhine, 401 ; Pnnathe-
nnic, 172; sacrificial, 232;
Egypt inn, 124

Vegeiius, 618, 640

Veils, 208. 209
87

Vellus Longns, 596
Velleius, Patercnius, 697, 633
Vellum, for writing, 365
Venus, 105; places sacred to
her, 106; de Medici, 392;
temple of, at Hierapolis,
106; at Paplios, 53; Ana-
dyomene, 106, 414
Vergipius Romantis, 557, 558
Verres, his spoliations, 345,

391
Verrius Flaccns, 596, 626
Verses in iantaatic forma, 477
Versions of Bible, early, 544
Vertumnus, 119
Vessels, for holding wine, 996,
207; of war, 200, 282; sa-
crificial, 232
VesU,93, 113
Vestal virgins, 113, 236
Vestrltius Spnrinna, 560
Vettius Valens, 639
Viblus Sequester, 616, 620
Vices, deified, 122
Victims, in sacrifice, 237
Victor, Sexius Aurelius, 627,

636
VictorinuB, 560, 593, 57r, 637
Victory, goddess of, 120, 585;
image on coins, 373; re-
wards of, 199, 204
Vigils, or watchea of Romans,

59
Villas, or country seats of Ro-
mans, 12, 291
Vindicianus, 640
Violet, robe of office, 297
Violin, ancient, 217
Vipsanius Agrippa,615, 626
Virginius Rufhs, 593
Virgil, 559, 561, 562, 573
Virgo, 117

Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 95
Virtues, deified. 122
Vitrum obsidianum, 406
VUruvit»,6I5,6l8
Voeonius, 589
Volaterro. hypogea of, 387
Volumes in aocient libraries,

368
Volumulus, (Xm
Volutes, 424
Vopiscus Flavius, 638
Voyages, 519 ; imaginary, 500
Voting, Athenian mode of, 183,

184; Roman, 256, 257
Vows, 238
Vulcan, 107
Vulcanalia, 107

Vulcalius 8edlgitus,564; Gal-
licanus, 638

W.

Wages of Roman soldiers, 274
Walls, Roman in England, 40,

430
Wand of Apollo or Mercnry, 108
War, heroes of the Theban,

136; of the Trojan. 136;

affairs of, among Greeks,

153, 193; Romans, 270;

declaration of, 197, 234;

the Social, 77 ; the Sacred,

165 ; the Sertorian, 8 ; of

Troy, Bryant's view of it,

137
War-chariots, 193
War-envines, 280
War-galleys, 200, 282
Wards or boroughs of Attica,

178
Warwick vase, 394
Watches,divisions of the night,
1 60,240,280

Watch-word, 380

Water-clock, 60

Waterloo medals, 407

Wax, tablets of, 332; painting
in, 412

Wealth, instances of Roman,
267; god of, 118

Weapons or arms, of tlie an-
cienu, 153, 194, 274

Wedgewood's imitations of
antiques, 387, 406

Weeding, goddess of, 120

Week, known to Egyptians, 61

Weights and measures, Greek,
314 ; Roman, 266

WellofByene, 54

Widows, burning of at Mine-
rals, 149

Wife of the Rex ^acrontm, and
of the Flumsn Dialia, 234,
235

Wills, 221

Wind-instrumenti of music,
217

Wind, woven, 200

Windows, of Roman houaes,
290

Winds, as gods, 128; temple
of, 31, 60

Wine-cellars, 901, 296

Wines, of Greeks, 804 ; of Ro-
mans, 295; history of, 304,
297.

Winfrid, 590, 637

Winter-quarters, of Roman
soldiers, 280

Wise men, the seven, 504

Witnesses in courts, 839

Women, condition and em-
ployments of among the
Greeks, 158, 218; Romana,
287

Wonders of the world, seven,
114,518

World, as known to the an-
cients, 3

Worship, Greek religioaa, 148;
Roman, 237

Wrestling, 173, 343

Writers, on value of the clas-
sics, 319, 320; on dlfiisrent
topics of the Archaologr
of Literature or Art, 3§5,
321; on inscriptions, 343,
370 ; on coins and meddls,
353, 374; on manuscripts,
355, 357, 376, 377 ; on .£•-
thetics, 381 ; on Tuscan
remains, 387 ; on ancient
sculpture, 394, 396, 398; on
engraved gems, 408, 409;
on paintings among tba
ancients, 415, 416; on an-
cient architecture, 419, 420,
422, 430 ; on branches con-
nected with Greek litera-
ture, 442, tm.; Roman litera-
ture, 554,S8.: modern Greek
literature, 3t3 ; on mytho-
logy, 88, 89; on Greek
antiquiiies, 144, 146; Ro-
man antiquities, 227, 228;
Roman military aflbirs,
270; ancient weights and
measures, 270; classical
geography, 445, 552 ; cbro-
noloey, 66, 445, 552; on
horology, 60; topography
of Rome, 16; topography
of Athens, 33; of Sparta,
38; Byzantium, 20; Ba-
bylon and Nineveh, 53;
Jerusalem, 52.— Sea e*-
references jnder spec

OBNXRAL INDSX.

rabjectf :

for writ«ri

jectf : «. g.
Jewith ht«torT» aee
J$iei»k kiturif, in tbli In-
dex.

Writing, foeceMlve step* in
the invention of, 313 ; Mex-
ican, 313; Ecyptian, 314;
Tnltecan, 3lf ; Persepoli-
tan and Babylonian, 31G;
Chineae method of, 315;
Cherolcee, 316; Grecian,
3S8, SS9 ; materiaia need in,
331 ; whether practiced in
time of Homer, 333, 464;
Latin terma reapectinK»
364,365

Writinc Greek and Latin, nae-
rUl exercise, 439, MO; helpa
for, 445, 593

X.

XanthuB, hiatoriani 936
Xenocles, 461
Xenocrates, 537
Xenopbanee, 454, 506
Xenophon, of Ephesoe, 903; of

Athene, hiatorian, 511, 510,

526,939
Xerxee, liing of Persia, 70
XiphUiniis,533

Y.

Tear, division of by the an-
cients, 63,240; the Annas
Magnus, 684

Teroor Jero, 117

Yoong, time of burying among
the Oreelta, ttl

Toath,goddeMOf,96

Z.
Zaleucus, 505
Zama, battle of; 7S, 77
Zendavesta, 440
Zeno, the stoic, 507; of 1

Zenobla, 404
Zenodotoa, 496
Zenodoxas, 615
ZeuxU, 414

Zodiac, of Deoderata, 54
Zoilus, 496
Zonares, 5S8, 535
Zones, 4

Zoology, (bther of, 538
Zoroaster, 440

Zostmus, hiatoriau, 906, 535;
of Egypt, 536

THI IND.

18

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