-NRLF
SB Z53 037
MANUAL LATIN GRAMMAR.
MANUAL
LATIN GRAMMAR.
PREPARED BY
WILLIAM F. ALLEN, A.M.,
PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES AND HISTORY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN ;
JOSEPH H. ALLEN,
CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY EDWIN GINN.
WOOLWORTH, AINSWORTH, & CO.
1868.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by
J. H. AND W. F. ALLEN,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for
the District of Massachusetts.
CAMBRIDGE:
PRESS OP JOHN WILSON AND SON.
AS"3
[From President HILL, of Harvard University.]
CAMBRIDGE, Aug. 7, 1868.
Rev. JOSEPH H. ALLEN.
DEAR SIR, — Of the details of your "Latin Grammar," I am
not a competent judge ; but the general plan and general execu-
tion I feel free to commend very warmly. The book seems to me
to contain all that is necessary for those who do not pursue Latin
beyond their Freshman year ; and to contain it in so brief a form,
as to give reasonable hope that a boy may become familiar with it
without either overstraining his memory, or becoming disgusted
with the quantity imposed on him. It is a great error to expand
a text-book beyond the dimensions necessary for a clear statement
of the subject. Very respectfully yours,
THOMAS HILL.
AN introductory book of exercises, to be used in
connection with the grammar is in preparation, and
may be expected within a year. At present, instruc-
tors who may adopt this manual for beginners, are
advised to use the Latin Reader, adapting references
to tins grammar, as any skilful teacher can easily do.
The following corrections required -to be made in
early copies of this book :
Page 11, line 12, for io read is.
Page 75, line 16, for 40 read 42.
PREFACE.
MANY of the best friends of classical education have
long desired a manual of elementary instruction in
Latin grammar, — which lies at the foundation of a
classical course, — full and accurate enough to be
a practical guide to the learner, but avoiding the
prodigious multiplication of details, which have so
overgrown that study in our ordinary school text-
books.
In attempting to meet this want, we have been
guided by the following principles : —
1. To admit only what is likely to be really useful
information to the learner, and nothing which he will
be likely to look for in the dictionary first.
2. To avoid, as far as possible, all subtil ties of theory
and technicalities of phrase ; and to illustrate every
point, as it is stated, by examples in correct Latin, uni-
formly rendered into the corresponding English idiom.
3. To aid the eye, by the typography and arrange-
ment of the page, so as to make it an easy manual of
reference. Every Latin word we have used is printed
Vlii PREFACE.
in a special type, cast expressly for this book, and is
followed immediately (except in the section on Pros-
ody), by its English equivalent, italicized. The quan-
tities of roots and inflections are abundantly given
throughout. In orthography, we have followed the
most approved editions of the present day, adopting a
few forms which may possibly be regarded as innova-
tions, but varying less than some might desire from
the past usage of our text-books.
In the classification and arrangement of paradigms
we have expended a great deal of care. The classifi-
cation of Nouns of the Third Declension, — which is
based partly on that of Key, — seems to us to have
great advantages over that commonly adopted. The
exhibition of the Verb-forms will be found not only a
material help to the learner by its compactness, clear-
ness, and easiness of reference ; but to have the spe-
cial benefit of keeping distinctly in view the point
(which teachers so often fail to make familiar) that
all irregularities, or peculiarities of conjugation, are
confined to the forms from the first or Present stem,
while the others follow one uniform model through-
out.
This volume is not, in any sense, an abridgment or
compilation from previous writers. Except in some
details of Prosody, we have not been directly indebted
to any of those in use in our schools. Our plan has
grown from our own wants and experience; and the
examples have been selected, in general, from our
PREFACE. ix
own reading. Only in a few instances, where it
seemed desirable for completeness, we have not hesita-
ted to borrow them from other sources.
While we have omitted a great amount of matter
which we think serves in many text-books merely to
obscure to the learner the outlines of the language, it
will be found that its leading forms and usages are
very fully exhibited ; at the same time much incidental
illustration is given, not contained in any other school
grammar within our knowledge. A book designed for
reference, as a full treatise on etymology and syntax,
very properly contains much material which would be
out of place in a brief manual like the present. We do
not believe that it is best for the learner to begin with
as large a book as he may require afterwards ; and
besides, if principles are to be taught, and not dead
rules, it is a clear advantage not to become wedded to
any set form of words.
Two or three points seem to require brief explana-
tion to teachers who have been in the habit of using
the ordinary text-books.
First, the recognition of the Locative Case, which has
been sometimes called the " Dative of Place." The
fact we wish to recognize in the structure of the lan-
guage is one which all grammarians admit; and to
accept it will be to many persons a real relief from the
old arbitrary and unintelligible rule.
In interpreting the Subjunctive, we have thought
best to give it no separate translation in the paradigms.
X PREFACE.
To render it, as is often done, by the English Potential,
is as misleading as any false step, so low down among
the elements, can well be. We have accordingly illus-
trated its use, at the outset, by a score of select ex-
amples of Latin idiom ; and trust in the Syntax to have
made it as clear as is consistent with the brevity of
our plan.
In simplifying the treatment of the Gerund and
Gerundive, we have followed the best English authori-
ties, from Milton's brief Latin « Accedence," to the
works of Donaldson, Key, and D'Arcy Thompson. The
phrase " Nominative of the Gerund." which we have
employed, is easily understood ; it suggests an explana-
tion of the subject which many scholars prefer to that
usually given ; and it need not be taken as controvert-
ing the more common doctrine, that the form in ques-
tion is the Neuter of the Future Passive Participle,
used impersonally.
The Syntax of the Moods will be found relatively
more full than other parts of the book ; this we have
thought warranted by the difficulty and peculiar obscu-
rity of the subject. In general, we have not, as is
usually done, treated the Subjunctive by itself; but
have classified the usages in the different kinds of
subordinate clauses, in nearly all of which either
that or the Indicative may be employed in special rela-
tions. Here, as everywhere, we have derived constant
assistance from Madvig's "Lateinische Sprachlehre,"
the best single treatise upon Latin grammar with
PREFACE. Xi
which we are acquainted : from this we have taken
more special points than from all other sources com-
bined. We are far from claiming an entirely satisfac-
tory treatment of the Subjunctive, which indeed has
never yet been adequately analyzed, and which is much
more difficult in Latin than in Greek. Conditional
Sentences, however, in which we have followed the doc-
trine of Goodwin's " Greek Moods and Tenses," we
believe will be found nowhere more fully explained
than here.
In the matter of Prosody, we have given enough to
enable the student to analyze for himself, and to read
easily into metre, all the forms of verse in Virgil, Ovid,
Horace, and (excepting a few lyrical passages) in the
Dramatic writers. For instruction in the difficult art
of composition in Latin verse, — should that be thought
desirable, — or for exhibitions of quantity complete
enough to be a sufficient guide in it, the learner must
go to other sources.
In many points, both of etymology and syntax, we
have availed ourselves of the counsel and guidance of
Professor LANE, of Harvard University ; who has
greatly aided us by his care in examining the earlier
proof-sheets, and by the suggestions of his very exact
and thorough scholarship. In points of practical adap-
tation to the wants of classes, the long experience of
our brother, Rev. T. P. ALLEN, of West Newton, Mass.,
has been a valuable guide. In the preparation of the
Syntax, we are under especial obligation to Professor
Xii PREFACE.
J. B. FEULING, of the University of Wisconsin, who
kindly read over the whole manuscript of this portion,
and made many valuable suggestions.
In addition we would say, that, while this is intended
to be a sufficient text-book for the learner, — at least
until some more copious systematic treatise is required
during a college course, — it is not claimed to be
sufficient for the teacher. For his daily use in the
class-room, as well as for his own more accurate
information, he needs the ampler material so indus-
triously gathered in the many excellent manuals in
use. But, for ever so short a course in classical
instruction, we hold that the language itself, and the
literature which contains it, is the real object of study ;
and that every hour spent on the details of grammar,
which does not directly help to this, is an injury to the
student's progress, and a wrong to his intelligence.
Finally, this book is not meant for children. For
most learners, we think, it would be better to wait till
at least thirteen or fourteen, before attempting the sys-
tematic study of so difficult a tongue. At that age,
an intelligent boy or girl, who studies it at all, ought
to be led at once to those forms of it which can be
readily understood and enjoyed.
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.
August, 1868.
CONTENTS.
PART I. — FORMS OF WORDS. (ETYMOLOGY.)
SECT. PAGE
1. Alphabet 1
2. Pronunciation 2
3. Quantity 2
4. Accent 3
5. Inflection 3
6. Gender 4
7. Case 4
8. Declension . 5
NOUNS.
9. First Declension 6
10. Second Declension 7
11. Third Declension. I. Vowel Stems ....... 8
II. Liquid Stems 9
in. Mute Stems 9
IY. General Rules 11
12. Fourth Declension 11
13. Fifth Declension 12
14. Irregular Nouns. I. Defective . 12
II. Variable 13
15. Proper Names . . . 13
XIV CONTENTS.
SECT. ADJECTIVES. PAGE
16. Inflection. I. First and Second Declension .... 14
II. Third Declension 15
17. Comparison 15
18. Numerals. I. Cardinal and Ordinal 18
II. Distributive . . . . • 19
PRONOUNS.
19. Personal and Reflective ........... 20
20. Demonstrative 21
21. Relative 22
22. Correlatives 23
VERBS.
23. Structure • . 24
24. Moods 24
25. Participles 26
26. Gerund and Supine 27
27. Tenses 28
28. Personal Endings 30
29. Esse . . 30
abesse, adesse, posse, prodesse 32
30. Conjugation 32
31. Active Voice 34
32. Passive Voice .. . 36
33. Rules of Conjugation 38
34. Forms of Conjugation 38
35. Deponent Verbs 40
36. Derivative Verbs 41
37. Irregular Verbs 41
volo, nolo, malo 41
fero, edo, eo, facio, queo 42
38. Defective Verbs, coepi, aio, inquam, fari, salve, &c. . 43
39. Impersonal Verbs 43
40. Periphrastic Forms 44
41. Adverbs 44
42. Prepositions 46
43. Conjunctions 47
44. Formation of Words ... 50
CONTENTS. XV
PART II. — USE OF WORDS. (SYNTAX.)
SECT. PAGE
45. Definitions 53
I. RULES OF AGREEMENT.
46. Of Nouns 53
47. Of Adjectives 54
48. Of Relatives 57
49. Of Verbs 58
II. RULES OF GOVERNMENT.
50. Genitive 59
51. Dative 63
52. Accusative 66
53. Vocative . . 68
54. Ablative 69
55. Time and Place 73
56. Prepositions 75
III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
Sequence of Tenses 77
Moods 80
Conditional Sentences 81
Implied Conditions 84
Conditional Particles 85
Relations of Time 86
Cause or Reason 87
Purpose 88
Consequence or Result 89
Intermediate Clauses 90
Oratio Obliqua 91
Wishes and Commands 95
Subjunctive with Relatives 96
Substantive Clauses 96
Questions 98
Participles 99
Gerund and Gerundive 99
Supine 101
General Rules of Syntax 102
Arrangement 103
XVi CONTENTS.
PART III. — RULES OF VERSE. (PROSODY.)
SECT. PAGE
77. Rhythm 105
78. Quantity. I. General Rules 105
II. Final Syllables 106
III. Penultimate Syllables 108
79. Feet Ill
80. Scanning 113
81. Metre 1U
82. Forms of Verse 115
83. Reckoning of Time 119
84. Reckoning of Money 119
85. Roman Prsenomens 120
LATIN GRAMMAR.
PART FIRST.
FORMS OP WORDS. (ETYMOLOGY.)
1. ALPHABET.
THE Latin Alphabet is the same as the English,
wanting W.
Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. Diphthongs are ae, oe (often
written 98, oe), ail, en, and in poetry ei and ui.
Mute Consonants are p, b, f, V (labial) ; t, d (dental) ;
c (k,) g (palatal). Liquids are 1, m, n, r. Double Conso-
nants are x (cs), z (ds).
The Aspirate, h, is merely a silent breathing, and is not
reckoned as a Consonant.
The Roman Alphabet consisted of 21 letters, viz.,
a, b, c, d, e, fTg, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o p, q, r, s, t, u, x.
y and z were added, in words derived from Greek.
i and u, when used as consonants (having the sound of y and
w), are generally written j and v; as, juvenis, a youth, for
iuuenis.
k is used only in a few words, generally at the beginning, and
is always followed by a.
c is usually written for k ; and often for qu, (regularly when ,
followed by u) : as in cum (for quum) when ; secutus (for
sequutus) having followed ; and more rarely, in ecus (for
equus) a horse, cotidie (for quotidie) daily, and others.
2 PRONUNCIATION. — QUANTITY. §§ 2, 3
In early use, u never follows u (v), but o instead : as in volt,
•trill. Oih-ii, i is put lor ii, or ji, as in obit, died; obicit, hits. Ex-
amples of variation in spelling are, -undus or -endus in gerund
forms ; -umus or imus in superlatives ; adulescens, youth, epistu-
la, Idler, for adolescens, epistola ; cena, caena, coena, supper.
The last letter of the Prepositions ab, ad, con (cum), ex, in
and sub, when combined with other words, is often altered to give
an cvoiKT sound: as ad- or al-latus, brought, in- or im-mensus,
boHmltejtfi ; sub- or suf-fero, sustain.
The verb est, i'.s*, is sometimes joined in spelling with the
previous word, especially in the old poets, or when the two would
be united by elision : as homost, he is a man, periculumst, there
is danger. So vin', wilt ? scin', Jmow'st ? for visne, scisne.
In the division of syllables, a consonant between two vowels
is always written with the latter ; as do-mi-nus, master : also, any
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word ; as
ho-spes, guest ; ma-gnus, great ; a-strum, star ; di-xit, said.
2. PRONUNCIATION.
Among us, Latin is generally pronounced like English.
But there are no silent letters, except in scanning verse, by
the usage called elision.
c and g are made soft before e, i, y, and the diphthongs ae,
eu, oe, ; ch is always like k ; es and (in plural cases) OS, are
pronounced as in disease, morose.
The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels was no doubt like the
Italian. In English, for the long and short vowels respectively, it
may be nearly represented thus : —
a as in father, fast; e as in rein, met; i as in machine, fill ; o as
in holy, 'wholly ; u as in rude, full.
c and g were probably always sounded hard.
3. QUANTITY.
1. A vowel before another vowel is short; as, via, way.
"2. \ diphthong is long; as, foedus., league.
3. A syllable formed by contraction is long; as, nil,
nothing, for nlhll.
§§ 4, 5 ACCENT. — INFLECTION. 3
4. A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant
is long, as rectus, straight, judex, juror: but a short vowel
before a mute followed by 1 or r, is common, as in volucris,
bird ; that is, it may be long in verse.
The sign ~ denotes that a vowel is long ; " that it is short.
A short vowel differs from a long one not in sound but in
length ; as in pater, father, mater, mother.
4, ACCENT.
Words of two syllables are always accented on the
Penult ; as-, e'rant, they were.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the
Penult, if that is long ; as, ami'cus, friend: if it is short, or
common, then on the Antepenult; as, dom/inus, master;
aFacrls, eager.
The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the
last but two (paene, almost ; ultima, last.)
5. INFLECTION.
1. Inflection is a change made in the ending of a word to
express some change in meaning; as, VOC 0, I call; VOC at,
he calls.
2. That part of the word which remains unchanged is
called the Root or Stem. When a primitive form, common
to Latin with other languages, it is always called the Root :
thus the root of fug a, flight, is found in the English fug-
itive.
3. In Latin, Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Participles, are
inflected to express Declension (gender, number, and case) ;
Adjectives and Adverbs to express Comparison ; Verbs to ex-
press Conjugation (voice, mood, tense, number, and person).
4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called
Particles : they are, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjec-
tions. Adverbs, especially those of time, place, and manner,
are also sometimes reckoned as Particles.
4 GENDER. — CASE. § 6, 7
6. GENDER.
1 Gender maybe either natural, as puer, boy; puella,
girl; malum, apple: or grammatical, as lapis, stone (masc.) ;
manus, hand (fern.).
2. The following are general rules of gender : -
Names of Rivers (except a few ending in a) are masculine : as,
Tamesis, the Thames; Rh6danus, the Rhone.
Most names of Plants are feminine : as, cornus, cornel.
Indeclinable nouns, or Phrases used as nouns, are neuter ; as,
Ulud Cassianum, "Cui bono fuerit," that saymg of Cassius,
" For whose, advantage it ioas"
3. Many Nouns may be either masculine or feminine, ac-
cording to sex ; as, exsul, exile ; bos, ox, cow. They are said
to be of Common Gender.
4. A few are always connected with adjectives in the same
gender, either masculine or feminine, independent of sex ;
thus, anser, goose, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox,
feminine. They are called Epicene.
7. CASE.
There are in Latin six Cases ; namely, —
1. NOMINATIVE, used as the subject of a direct proposition : as,
pater meus adest, my father is here.
2. GENITIVE (o/), generally denoting origin or possession ;
also used with many adjectives and verbs, especially those express-
in^ emotion : as,
•
patris ejiis amiciis miseretur mei, his father *s friend pities me.
:\. DATIVE (to or for), generally used for the indirect object
after a verb or adjective : as,
dedit mihi ensem : magno mihi iisui erat; he gave me a sword:
it iv as of great service to me.
4. Ac rrsAiivE (toivards), used as the direct object of a verb,
and after most prepositions : as,
dum agrum arabat m hortum veni, ivhite he was ploughing the
field I came into the garden.
§ 8 DECLENSION. 5
5. VOCATIVE, used in direct address : as,
hue veni care mi filiole, come hither my dear little son.
6. ABLATIVE (by, from, with), used with many verbs and pre-
positions : as,
in horto ludebamus et cultello me laesit, we were playing in
the garden and he hurt me with a knife.
All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are often called
Oblique cases.
7. Some grammarians reckon also a Locative case, signifying
the place where : it is generally the same in form with the Dative,
and may be called the Dative of Place : as,
Romae vel Athems esse velim, I should like to be at Home or
Athens.
8. DECLENSION.
I. There are five Declensions of nouns in Latin, distin-
guished by the termination of the Genitive Singular, and by
their characteristic or leading vowel. These are as fol-
lows : —
DECL. 1. Gen. Sing, ae, Leading Vowel a
» 2. „ I „ ,,o
» 3- ,, is ,, ,, i
„ 4. „ us „ „ u
,, 5. ,, ei ,, ,, e
II. The following are general rules of declension : —
1. The vocative is always the same in form with the nomina-
tive, except in the singular of nouns in us, of the second declen-
sion.
2. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike,
and in the plural end in a.
3. Except in neuters, the accusative singular always ends in
m, and the accusative plural in s.
4. In the most ancient form, the dative singular of all the
declensions ends in I; in the third declension, the locative case
may end in e or I.
5. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.
6. The genitive plural always ends in um.
NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION.
§9
NOUNS.
9. FIRST DECLENSION, (a.)
NOMINATIVE.
GENITIVE.
DATIVE.
ACCUSATIVE.
VOCATIVE.
ABLATIVE.
SINGULAR.
stell a,
stell ae,
stell ae,
stell am,
stell a,
stell a,
a star,
of a star,
to a star,
a star,
ihou star !
with a star.
NOMINATIVE.
GENITIVE.
DATIVE.
ACCUSATIVE.
VOCATIVE.
ABLATIVE.
PLURAL.
stell ae,
stell arum,
stell is,
stell as,
stell ae,
stell is,
stars,
of stars,
to stars,
stars,
.ye stars!
with stars.
1. Most nouns of the first declension are feminine.
2. The genitive and dative singular anciently ended in ai,
which is occasionally found in a few words, as, aulai, of a hall.
There is also an old genitive in as. found in paterfamilias.
3. The genitive plural, especially of compounds with cola and
gena, signifying dwelling and descent, is sometimes contracted into
urn, as coelicolum, of the heavenly ones.
4. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia,
daiiyhter, and a few others, end in the old regular form abiis.
5. Some Greek nonns end in as, es (masc.), and e (fern.) in
the nominative, and n in the accusative ; those in e have the
genitive in es : as, Aeneas, ace. Aenean, voc. Aenea ; Anchises,
gen. Anchisae, ace. Anchisen, voc. Anchise ; Penelope, Peiie-
Ibpes, Penelopen ; grammatice or grammatica, grammar.
§10
SECOND DECLENSION.
10, SECOND DECLENSION, (o,)
MOST nouns of the second declension ending in us (os),
er, ir, are masculine ; those ending in urn (on) are neuter.
SINGULAR.
Man.
Book.
Slave.
War.
Nom.
vir
liber
servu-s (63)
belliim
Gen.
vir I
libri
servi
belli
Dat.
vir 6
libro
serv o
bello
Ace.
vir urn
libr um
serv um
bell um
-¥our-
vir
liber
serv e
bell um
Abl.
vir 5
libro
servo
bell 5
Norn.
viri
libri
servi
bell a
^Gen.
vir orum
libr orum
serv.orum
bell orum
Dat.
vir is
libr is
serv is
bell is
Ace.
vir os
libr os
serv 6s
bell a
Voc.
vir I
libri
servi
bell a
Abl.
vir is
libr is
serv Is
bell is
1. Some Greek words end in os (M.) or on (N.) ; as, arctos,
tJie Polar Bear ; barbiton, lyre. The old form os, on, for us, um,
after u or v, as in servbs, and the gen. pi. on, are sometimes found.
2. Names of towns in us (os) are feminine : as, Corinthus.
3. The old form of the gen. sing, in ius (oius) and dative in i
(oi) is found in a few adjectives (see §16, i). The locative sin-
gular ends in i : as, Corinthi, at Corinth.
4. The genitive of nouns in ius and ium is often written with
a single i: as fill, of a son, ingg'm, of genius.
5. Proper names in ius drop e in the vocative ; as, Vergilius,
voc. Vergili: also films, son, and genius, divine guardian.
6. In the gen. plur. orum is often contracted into um or om.
7. Deus, God, has voc. deus; plural, n. v. dei, dii, or di;
dat. abl. deis, diis, dis. For the genitive plural, divum or
divom is often used.
8. Nouns in er generally drop e in declining, as in ager, agri,
field: but retain it in puer, boy; gener, son-in-law; socer,
father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; and a few others.
9. Vulgus, mob ; pelagiis, sea; and virus, poison, are neuter.
THIRD DECLENSION. §11
11. THIRD DECLENSION.
NOUNS of the third declension are classed according to
their stems, whether ending in a Vowel, a Liquid, or a Mute
Consonant.
I. VOWEL STEMS, (i.)
SING. N.
Ship(F.)
navis
Cloud (v.)
nubes
Sea (N.)
mare
G.
nav 13
nub is
mar is
D.
navi
nubi
mari
Ac.
Ab.
nav em (im)
nub em
mare
nav 13 .
nave (i)
nube
mari
PLU. N.
nav 63
nubes
maria
G.
nav ium
nub ium
mar ium
D.
nav ibus
nub ibus
mar ibus
Ac.
nav es (Is)
nubes (is)
maria
V.
naves
nubes
maria
Ab.
nav ibus.
nub ibus
mar ibus
1. A few nouns in al and ar are properly neuters of adjec-
tives in alis, (omitting the final e), and belong to this class.
They are declined like mare: as, animal, alis, pi. animalia,
tiring tiling (from anima, breath) ; calcar, aris, spur (from calx,
lieeT).
2. The old forms of sing. ace. in im, and abl. in i, and of the
plur. ace. in is, are found in many words. In Adjectives of this
form the nom. sing, is and abl. I are always used.
3. Several names of towns, as Praeneste, Caere, and the moun-
tain Soracte (N.), have the ablative e. Sometimes, also, mare,
sea, and rete, net.
4. A few nouns, as canis, dog, juvenis, youth, have the gen-
itive plural in urn.
5. Vis, force, has ace. vim, abl. vi, plur. vires, virium,
viribus.
6. Greek proper names in is have ace. im, and voc. i; as,
Alexis, Alexim, Alexi.
§11
THIRD DECLENSION.
II. LIQUID STEMS. (1, 11, r.)
Exile (M.F.)
JKimk (ai.)
Honor (M.)
Father (M.)
SIN.
N,V.
exsul
ordo
honor (6s)
pater
G.
exsul is
ordiii is
honor is
patr is
D.
exsul I
ordiii i
honor i
patri
Ac.
exsul em
ordiii em
honor em
patr em
Ab.
exsul e
ordiii e
honor e
patr e
PL.
N.A.V.
eXSUl 63
ordin es
honor es
patr es
G.
exsul um
ordiii um
honor um
patr um
D.Ab.
exsul ibus
ordin ibus
honor ibus
patr ibus
Name (N.)
Work (N.)
&*fy(N,)
Leg (N.)
SIN.
N. Y.
nomen
opus
corpus
crus
G.
nomm is
oper is
corpor is
crur is
D.
nomiii I
operi
corpor i
crur i
Ac.
nomeii
opus
corpus
crus
Ab.
nomiii e
oper e
corpor e
crure
PL.
N.A.V.
nomiii a
oper a
corpor a
crur a
G.
nomiii um
oper um
corpor um
crur um
D.Ab.
nomin ibus
oper ibus
corpor ibus
crur ibus
III. MUTE STEMS.
Nouns whose stem ends in a Mute Consonant generally
form the Nominative Singular by adding S.
1. If the Mute is a Labial, (b, m, p,) s is added simply
with or without change of vowel : as,
City (F.)
Chief (TA.)
Winter (F.)
SIN.
ST.V.
urbs
princeps
hiems (ps)
G.
urbis
priiicip is
hiem is
D.
urbi
princip i
hiemi
Ac.
urb em
priiicip em
hiem em
Ab.
urb e
princip e
hieme
PL,
N.A.V.
urb es
princip es
hiem es
G.
urb ium
priiicip um
hiem um
D.Ab.
urb ibus
priiicip ibus
hiem ibus
1*
10
THIRD DECLENSION.
§11
2. If the Mute is a Dental (d, t), it is suppressed before
s ; in Neuters, s is not added : as,
SIN.
PL.
Stone (M.)
Companion (M.)
Heart (N.)
Tooth (M.)
N.T.
lapis
comes
cor
dens
G.
lapid is
comit is
cord is
dent is
D.
lapid I
comit i
cordi
dent i
Ac.
lapid em
comit em
cor
dent em
Ab.
lapid e
comit e
cord e
dent e
N.A.Y.
lapid es
comit es
cord a
dent es
G.
lapid um comit um
D . Ab . lapid ibus comit ibus
dent ium
cord ibus dent ibus
3. If the Mute is a Palatal (c, g), it is combined with
S in X : as,
Nut(F.)
King (M.)
Juror (M.)
Rower (M.)
Six.
N. V.
nux
rex
judex
remex
G.
nuc is
reg is
judic is
remig is
D.
nuci
regi
judic i
remigi
Ac.
nuc em
regem
judic em
remig em
Ab.
nuc e
rege
judic e
remig e
PL.
N.A.V.
nuc es
reges
judic es
remig es
G. nuc um reg um judic um remig um
D. Ab. nuc ibus reg ibus judic ibus remig ibus
4. Peculiar forms are —
Niyht(v.) Snow(F) Fltsh (F.) Bone (N.) Old Man.
Six.
N.V.
nox
nix
caro
OS
senex
G.
noctis
nivis
carnis
ossis
sems
D.
nocti
nivi
carni
ossi
seni
Ac.
noctem
nivem
carnem
OS
senem
Ab.
nocte
nive
carne
osse
sene
PL.
N.A.Y.
noctes
iiives
carnes
ossa
seiies
G.
noctium
carnium
ossium
senum
D. Ab. noctibus nivibus carnibus ossibus senibus
aer (M.), air, lias the accusative aera.
mel, lioney, and fel, gall (x.), have the gen. mellis, fellis.
lac, (x.) milk, has gen. lactis.
§12 FOURTH DECLENSION. 11
5. Irregular forms are —
iter, itineris (N.), journey.
jeciir, jecoris or jecinoris (N.), liver.
bos, bovis ; pi. g. bourn, D. bobus, bubus (M. F.), ox,
cow.
siipellex, supellectnis (F.), furniture.
lampas, lampados, or is, ace. lampada, lamp, (F.)
Juppiter, Jovis.
IV. GENERAL RULES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
Nouns ending in o, or, OS, er, and es (increasing) are
masculine ;
those in as, es (not increasing), io, ys, x, and s preceded
by a consonant, also in do, go, io, are feminine ;
those in a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us, are neuter.
A noun is said to increase, when in any case it has more sylla-
bles than in the nominative singular. In such case, the penult
is called the Increment of the noun.
Increments of nouns in a and o (M. F.), are generally long;
those in e, o (N.), i, u, and y, short.
The locative case is sometimes written with e, especially in
poetry: as, Karthagine (for Karthagini), at Carthage.
Many nouns, especially those of one syllable, ending in two
consonants or a double consonant, make the genitive plural in
ium: as cliens, client ; urbs, city ; nox, night.
12. FOURTH DECLENSION, (u,)
Car (M.)
Needle (F.)
Knee (N.)
SIN.
JSF.V.
curriis
aciis
genu
G.
curr us
acus
germ (us)
D.
currui (u)
acui
genu
Ac.
curr um
acum
genii
Ab.
curr u
acu
genu
PL.
N.A.Y.
curr us
acus
genu a
G.
curr uum
acuum
genu urn
D.Ab.
curr ibiis
acu bus
genii bus
12 FIFTH DECLENSION. — IRREGULAR NOUNS. §§13,14
1. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from the
supine stem of verbs: as, cantus, song, from cano; visus, sight,
from video.
2. Domus, house, has ablative singular domo, genitive plural
domorum, or domuum ; accusative plural, domos : domi, less
frequently domui, (locative) means at home.
13. FIFTH DECLENSION, (e.)
The only complete nouns of this declension are dies, day,
and res, thing. They are thus declined : —
Thing (F.)'
SINGULAR N. V.
dies
res
G.
diei
rei
D.
diei
rei
Ac.
diem
rem
Ab.
die
re
PLURAL N. A. Y.
dies
res
G.
die rum
re rum
D. Ab.
die bus
rebus
Most nouns of the fifth declension want the plural.
Dies is often feminine in the singular in phrases indicating a
fixed time : as constituta die, on the set day.
The termination of the nominative singular is generally ies.
14. IRREGULAR NOUNS.
I. DEFECTIVE.
1. Wanting the singular: as,
llbe'ri, children ; arma, weapons ; penates, household gods.
2. Wanting the nominative : as,
dapis, of food; frugis, of fruit (plural complete).
3. Found only in one or two cases : as,
fors, forte, chance; vicis (gen.), vicem, vice, vices, vicibus,
change or turn ; sponte (sua sponte, of his own accord) ;
injussu, without orders.
4. Indeclinable : as,
fas, rigid ; ngfas, wrong ; pondo, pound.
§15 PROPER NAMES. 13
II. VARIABLE.
1. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the
singular or plural : as,
aedes, is (F.), temple. aedes, ium, house.
auxilium (x.), help. auxilia, auxiliaries. +
career (M.), dungeon. carceres, barriers (of a race-
castrum (x.),/br£. castra, camp. [course.)
copia (F.), plenty. copiae, troops.
finis (M.), end. fines, bounds, territory.
gratia (F . ) , favor. gratiae, thanks .
impedimentum (N.), hinderance. impedimenta, baggage.
littera (F.), letter (of alphabet.) litterae, epistle.
locus (M.), place [pi. loca (x.)] loci, passages in books.
opis (F. gen.), help. opes, resources, wealth.
plaga (F.), region [plaga, blow}, plagae, snares.
sal (M. or N.), salt. sales, untticisms.
sestertius (M.) means the sum of 2£ asses, = about 4 cents,
sestertium (x.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $40.
decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $40,000.
2. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected: as,
jusjuraiidum, jurisjurandi, oath.
respublica, reipublicae, commonwealth.
15, PROPER NAMES.
A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the name
Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have —
Marcus, the praenomen, or personal name ;
Tullius, the nomen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose
original head was Tullus ; this name is an adjective ;
Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin
a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
Women had no personal names, but were known only by
that of their gens. Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia,
and his daughter Tullia. A younger sister would have been
called Tullia secimda, and so on.
14 ADJECTIVES. — INFLECTION. § 16
ADJECTIVES.
16, INFLECTION.
ADJECTIVES are declined like Nouns ; and are either of
the First and Second Declension, or of the Third.
I. Adjectives of the first and second declension are thus
declined : —
M.
F.
N.
SING.
N.
cariis
car a
car um, Dear.
G.
carl
carae
carl
D.
car 5
carae
car 6
Ac.
car um
car am
car um
V.
care
car a
carum
Ab.
car 5
car a
car 6
PLUR.
N.
car I
carae
car a
G.
car orum
car arum
car orum
D.
carls
carls
car is
Ac.
car os
car as
car a
V.
cari
car ae
car a
Ab
carls
carls
carls
The singular of adjectives in er is thus declined : —
Free. Black.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. liber libera liber um niger mgra mgrum
G. liber i liber ae liber i nigri nigrae nigri
D. liber o liber as liber o nigro nigrae nigro
Ac. liber um liber am liber um nigr um nig ram nigr um
V. liber libera liber um niger nigra nigrum
Ab. liber o liber a liber o niger nig ra nigr o
(Plural like carus.)
§ IT COMPARISON. 15
The following have the genitive singular in ius, and the dative
in i, in all the genders : —
alius, other. nullus, no. ullus, any (with negatives).
alter, other (of two), solus, alone, uiius, one.
neuter, neither. totus, whole, uter, which (of two).
II. Adjectives of the third declension are thus declined : —
SINGULAR.
Wise. Short. N. Better. N.
N. sapiens brevis, breve melior, melius
G. sapientis brevis melior is
I). sapienti brevi melior i
Ac. sapientem, N. sapiens brevem, N. e meliorem, melius
Ab. sapiente, or i brevi meliore or i
PLURAL.
N. Ac. sapientes, sapientia breves, N. ia melior es, N. or a
G. sapieiitium brevium meliorum
1). Ab. sapientibus brevibus melioribus
A few adjectives of this declension have the nom. sing. masc.
in er: as, M. acer, F. acris, N. acre, keen. Otherwise they are
declined like brevis.
Adjectives of one termination include those in ns, with a few
others : as, vetiis, old ; par, equal ; felix, fortunate. They all have
two forms in the accusative singular, and in the nom. ace. and voc.
plural : as, parem, par ; pares, paria.
17. COMPARISON.
I. The Comparative degree adds ior, ius to the stem, and is
declined as melior ; the Superlative adds issimus, a, urn,
and is declined as cams. Thus : —
car us, dear; car ior, dearer ; car issimus, dearest.
Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding rimus
to the nominative : as,
niger, black ; nigrior, blacker ; nigerrimus, blackest.
Six adjectives, facilis, difficilis, easy, hard; slmllis, dissl-
milis, like, unlike : gracilis, slender ; humilis, low, form the
superlative by adding llmus to the stem : as, facillimus.
16 COMPARISON. § 17
Compounds ending in dlcus, saying, flcus, doing, and
volus, willing, are compared from the corresponding partici-
ples in us ! as,
maledicus, slanderous ; male die entior, maledicentissimus.
maleficus, mischievous ; maleficentior, maleficentissimus.
malevolus, spiteful ; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
Adjectives in US preceded by a vowel, are generally com-
pared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maxime,
most : as,
idoneus, y££; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.
II. The following are compared irregularly : —
bonus, mSlior, optimus, good, better, best.
malus, pejor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst.
magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest.
parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least.
multum, plus, (N.) plurimum, much, more, most.
multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most.
nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless.
frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, discreet.
III. The following comparatives and superlatives, denot-
ing order in place or time, are formed from certain prepo-
sitions : —
[citra, this side'] cifcerior, citimus, nearer, nearest.
[extra, outside'] exterior, extremus, outer, outmost.
[infra, below] inferior, infimus or imus, lower, lowest.
[intra, witliin~\ interior, intimus, inner, inmost.
[post, after] posterior, postremus or postumus, latter, last.
[prae, befo re\ prior, primus, former, first.
[prope, near] propior, proximus, nearer, next.
[supra, above] superior, supremus or summus, Jiigher, JiigJiest.
[ultra, beyond] ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest .
The positives inferus, exterus, &c., are rarely used as adjec-
tives. But the plurals exteri, foreigners; posteri, posterity;
superi, the lieavenly gods, and inferi, those beloio, are common.
From the nouns juvenis, youth, senex, old man, are formed
the comparatives junior, younger, senior, older. For the super-
§ 17 COMPAEISON. 17
lative the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used, the noun
natu being often understood : as,
maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers.
senior fratrum would mean the elder of the two.
IV. Some adjectives want the positive : as,
deterior, deterrirnus, worse, worst.
ocior, ocissimus, swifter, swiftest.
potior, potissimus, more, and most preferable.
Some want the comparative : as,
falsus, falsissimus,y«?se, most false.
inclitus (inclutus), iiiclitissimus,/b'77zcw.s.
novus, novissimus, new, newest or last (as in novissimum
agmen, the rear-guard) .
pauper, pauperrimus, poor.
sacer, sacerrimus, sacred.
vetus, veterrimus, old.
Some want the superlative : as,
alacer, alacrior, eager.
ingens, ingentior, huge.
opimus, opimior, rich.
V. 1. The Comparative often denotes a considerable or
excessive degree of a quality : as, brevior, rather short ;
audacior, too bold. It is used instead of the superlative
where only two are spoken of: as,
melior imperatorum, the best of the (tivo) commanders.
2. The comparative takes the ablative, or qTJL&m,than: as,
tribus unciis altior est fratre (or quam frater), he is three
inches tatter than his brother. (See § 54, v.)
3. Comparison between adjectives is expressed by com-
paratives with quam : as,
latius quam altius est fiumen, the stream is rather broad than deep.
4. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very
high degree of a quality : as, maximus numerus, a very
great number.
5. The superlative with quam indicates the very highest
degree of a quality : as, quam plurimi, as many as possible.
18
NUMERALS.
18. NUMERALS.
I. CARDINAL AND ORDINAL.
1.
unus, una, unum
primus a vim, first
I.
2.
du6, duae, duo
secundus, alter, second II.
3.
tres, tria
tertius, third
III.
4.
quattudr
quartus, fourth
IV.
5.
quinque
quintus
V.
6.
sex
sextus
VI.
7.
septem
septimus
VII.
8.
octo
octavus
VIII.
9.
novem
nonus
IX.
10.
decem
decimus
X.
11.
undecim
undecimus
XI.
12.
duodecim
duodecimus
XII.
13.
tredecim
tertius decimus
XIII.
14.
quattuordecim
quartus decimus
XIV.
15.
quindecim
quintus decimus
XV.
16.
sedecim
sextus decimus
XVI.
17.
septendecim
septimus decimus
XVII.
18.
duodeviginti
duodevicesimus
XVIII.
19.
undeviginti
uiidevicesimus
XIX.
20.
viginti
vicesimus
XX.
30.
triginta
tricesimus
XXX.
40.
quadraginta
quadragesimus
XL.
50.
quiiiquaginta
quinquagesimus
X or L.
60.
sexagiiita
sexagesimus
LX.
70.
septuaginta
septuagesimus
LXX.
80.
octoginta
octogesimus
LXXX.
90.
noiiaginta
noiiagesimus
XC.
100.
centum
centesimus
C.
200.
diicenti, ae, a
diicentesimus
CC.
300.
trecenti
trecentesimus
ccc.
400.
quadringenti
quadringeiitesimus
cccc.
500.
quingenti
quingentesimus
ID, or D.
600.
sexcenti
sexceiitesimus
DC.
700.
septingenti
septiiigentesimus
DCC.
800.
octiiigenti
octiiigentesimus
DCCC.
900.
nongenti
nongeiitesimus
DCCCC.
1000.
mille
millesimus
CIO, or M.
10,000.
decem mllia
decies millesimus
CCIOO.
§18
NUMERALS.
19
1. Unus a um has genitive umus, dative uni (§ 16, I.).
2. Duo (also ambo, both) is thus declined : —
M.
F.
N.
Nom.
duo
duae
duo
Gen.
duorum
duarum
duorum
D. Ab.
duobus
duabus
duobus
Ac.
duos, duo
duas
duo
3. Tres is declined regularly, like the plural of brevis (§ 16).
The other cardinal numbers up to centum (100) are indeclinable.
Mille is indeclinable as an adjective ; but when several thousands
are spoken of, the noun milia is used, declined like the plural of
mare (§ 11, I.), the noun described being put in the genitive
plural : as, cum decem milibus militum, with ten thousand men.
4. The numeral adverbs are : semel, once ; bis, twice ; ter,
thrice ; qua.tei,four times. Those of higher numbers end in iens
or ies: as, quinquiens (or quinquies), decies, milies, &c.
II. DISTRIBUTIVE.
1 . singuli
2. bin!
3. terni
4. quaterni
5. qumi
6. seni
7. septeni
8. octoiii
9. noveni
10. deni
11. undent
12. duodeni
13. terni deni, &c.
20. viceni
30. triceni
40. quadrageni
50. quinquageni
60. sexageni
70. septuageni
80. octogeni
90. nonageni
100. centeni
200.
300.
400.
500.
600.
700.
800.
900.
1000.
2000.
10,000.
duceni
treceni
quadriiigeni
quingeni
sesceni
septingem
octingeni
nongeni
milleni
bis milleni
decies milleni
Distributives are used, —
1. As in the phrase singulas binis navibus obiciebant, tliey
matcJied the sliips one against every two. — Caes. B.C., I. 58.
2. Instead of cardinals, when the noun is plural in form but
singular in meaning : as, bina castra, two camps : (duo castra
would mean two forts) : but una castra, one camp.
3. In multiplication : as, bis bma, twice two ; quater septenis
diebus ; i. e., in four weeks.
l!U PRONOUNS. — PERSONAL AND REFLECTIVE. § 19
PRONOUNS.
19. PERSONAL AND REFLECTIVE.
I. The personal pronouns ego, I, and tu, tkoUj are thus
declined : —
FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON.
I.
tJiou (you.)
SING. N.
ego
tu
G.
mei
tiii
D.
mini (mi)
tibi
Ac. me te
Ab. me te
PLUR. N. Ac. nos vos
p J nostrum ^ vestrum (vostrum)
\ nostri \ vestri (vostri)
D. Ab. nobis vobis
II. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons
are used also reflectively : as,
ipse te laudas, you praise yourself.
The reflective pronoun of the third person, himself, herself,
themselves, is thus declined : —
G. sui D. sibi Ac. and Ab. se, or sese
It regularly refers to the subject of the sentence.
III. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are used partitive-
ly : as, unusquisque vestrum, each one of you ; mei, tui, sui,
nostri and vestri are used objectively : as,
mem6r sis nostri, be mindful of us.
§ 20 PRONOUNS. DEMONSTRATIVE. 21
For the genitive of possession, the adjective pronouns
meus (voc. masc. mi), tuus, suns, noster, vester, are always
used, declined as in § 1C, I. : as, mi fili, my son ; cum amicis
meis, with liny friends.
They agree with genitives in such phrases as tuam ipsius
patriam prodidisti, you have betrayed your oicn fatherland ; suo
soiius periculo, at his own peril only. — Cic. Cat., IV. 11.
The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ab-
lative of the personal pronouns : thus,
nobiscum ambulat, he is walking with us.
20. DEMONSTRATIVE.
I. The demonstrative pronouns hie, this ; is, iste, ille,
that ; and ipse, self, are thus declined : —
SINGULAR.
N.
hie
haec
hoc
is
ea
id
G.
hujus
ejus
D.
huic
ei
Ac.
hunc
hanc
hoc
eum
eam
id
Ab.
hoc
hac
hoc
eo
ea
eo
PLURAL.
N.
hi
hae
haec
ii (ei)
eae
ea
G. horum harum horum eorum earuni eorum
D. Ab. his els or iis
Ac. hos has haec eos eas ea
Nom. iste ista istud Gen. istms Dat. isti
,, ille ilia illud „ illius „ illi
,, ipse ipsa ipsum ,, ipsius ,, ipsi
Remainder as carus, in § 16, I.
II. Hie is sometimes called the demonstrative of the first
person ; iste (used especially in reference to the person spoken
to, and frequently implying contempt), the demonstrative of the
second person ; ille (referring to more remote objects, and used
especially of those celebrated or well known), the demonstrative
of the third person. Ille and hie are often used as " the former"
and " the latter." Hie, or hie homo, is sometimes equivalent to
ego, /: as, tu si hie sis, if you were I. — Ter. Andr. 310.
22 PRONOUNS. — RELATIVE. § 21
Is is used especially in reference to something just mentioned,
or as antecedent to the relative qui, ivho. It is used oftener than
the other demonstratives as a personal pronoun of the third per-
son, and is sometimes nearly equivalent to the article a or the : as,
eum quern esse hostem comperisti, one whom you have found
to be a public enemy. — Cic. Cat. I. 11.
habetis eum consulem qui . . . non dubitet, you have a consul
who will not hesitate. — Id. IV. 11.
Ipse, self, the intensive pronoun, is frequently joined with
another pronoun : as, nos ipsi, or nosmetipsi, we ourselves ; or
it may be used independently in either person : as, ipsi adestis,
you are yourselves present. Often it may be translated very : as,
ipsi colles clamant, the very hills cry out.
Idem, eadem, idem, the same, is declined like is ; m being
generally changed to n before d in the accusative ; as, eundem.
21. RELATIVE.
I. The relative pronoun qui, who, is thus declined : —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. qui quae quod qui quae quae (qua)
cujus (quoius) quorum quarum quorum
D. cui (quoi) quibus or quis
Ac. quern quam quod quos quas quae
Ab. quo qua quo quibus
II. Qui, who, is also used as an interrogative ; but when used
substantively, the nominative singular is quis quae quid : as,
quis adest? who is here? quid ais? what do you say1?
As an adjective, qui is sometimes, and quod always, used : as,
qui (or quis) homo est? what man is it?
quod bellum turn gerebatur ? what war was then waging?
Quantus, how great; qualis, of what kind; quot, how many,
and the like, are also used both as relative and interrogative,
corresponding to tantus, so great ; talis, such ; tot, so many.
The relative is often used in Latin where we must use the
demonstrative in English : as,
quae cum ita sint, since these things are so.
The preposition cum, irilh, is affixed to the ablative of qui, as
to the personal pronouns : as, quocum, quibuscum, with whow.
§22 CORRELATIVES. 23
The conjunction ac, atque, is often used as a relative, in such
phrases as, —
pro eo ac mereor, according to what I deserve. — Cic.
alicer ac nos vellemus, different from what we would. — Id.
III. The indefinite relative quicumque, whoever, is declined
like qui. So quisquam, quivis, quilibet, any one; quisque,
each ; quidam, a certain one.
QuisquiB, whoever, rarely occurs except in the forms quisquis
quidquid (quicquid), and quoquo.
Aliquis, some one ; siquis, if any ; riequis, lest any ; ecquis
nuniquis, whether any, are like quis, but have qua for quae : as,
siqua bella gerenda erunt, if any wars shall have to be waged.
22. CORRELATIVES.
1. These are demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and in-
definite ; the demonstratives generally commence with t or
i ; the relatives and interrogatives (which are alike) with
qu ; the indefinites with all : as,
tantus, 50 great ; quantus, as or how great ; aliquantus, of some
size.
ibi, there ; (hie, istic, illic) ; ubi, where ; alicubi, somewhere.
eo, thither ; (hue, illuc) ; quo, whither ; aliquo, to some place.
inde, thence ; (hinc, illinc) ; unde, whence ; aliunde, from some
place.
turn, then; quum (quom, or cum), when; quando? when% ali-
quando, at some time, or at length.
tot, so many ; quot, as or how many ; aliquot, a number of.
These last are indeclinable : as,
per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot irnperatores, so many com-
manders, for so many years, in so many battles. — Cic.
2. Alter . . . alter (where only , two are spoken of), and
alius . . . alius, one . . . another, are used as correlatives in
such phrases as —
alter arat, alter sertt, one ploughs, the other sows.
alii me laudant, alii culpant, some praise me, others Name.
alius aliiid amat, one likes one thing, and one another.
hi fratres inter se amant alter alterum, these brothers love one
another.
24 VERBS. STRUCTURE. MOODS. §§ 23, 24
VERBS.
23, STRUCTURE.
1. Latin verbs have two VOICES, viz. Active and Passive ;
— four MOODS, viz. Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, In-
finitive;— four PARTICIPLES, viz. the Present arid Future
Active, the Perfect Passive, and the Gerundive ; — two VER-
BAL NOUNS, viz. the Gerund and the Supine; — six TENSES,
viz. Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Fu-
ture Perfect; — six PERSONS, three in the singular and three
in the plural.
2. The future and future perfect are wanting in the sub-
junctive mood ; and the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect
in the passive voice : their places being supplied by partici- -
pies, combined with corresponding tenses of the verb esse,
to be.
3. The passive voice has often a reflective meaning : as,
cingitur gladium, lie girds on his (owii) sword.
velamur capita, we veil our heads. — Yirg. 2En. III. 545.
24, MOODS.
I. The Indicative Mood is used for direct assertion or
interrogation.
II. The Subjunctive Mood is used for dependent proposi-
tions and indirect questions. It is generally translated by
the English indicative, especially when preceded by particles
expressing condition or result ; sometimes by the potential,
may, might, or would, especially after particles expressing
motive or purpose.
§24 MOODS. 25
Examples of the use of the subjunctive in dependent con-
structions are as follows : —
nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write. (§ 67, i. 1.)
nescio quid scribas, / know not what you are writing.
ut scribam, non est satis, though I write, it is not enough. (§ 61, 2.)
sine scribam, let me write. (§ 64, iv.)
licet scribas, you may write.
cave scribas, do not write. (§ 58, in.)
non is sum qui scribam, I am not the one to write. (§ 65, i.)
vereor ne scribat, I fear he will write. (§ 64, in.)
vereor ut scribat, I fear he will not write.
sunt qui piitent, there are some who think. (§ 65, iv. 2.)
nemo est quin putet, there is none but thinks.
sedet (sedebat) illic, tamquam sciibat (scriberet), he sits
{sat) yonder as if he were writing. (§ 61, i.)
si haec sciret, non veniret, if he knew this, he would not come.
si haec cognoscat, non veniat, if he should find this out, he
would not come. (§65, iv. 1.)
nisi haec cognovisset, non venisset, if he had not found this
out, he would not have come. (§ 65, iv. 2.)
venit ut videret, he came to see. (§ 64, i.)
evenit ut videret, it turned out that he saw. (§ 70, n.)
tarn pr6pe erat ut videret, he was so near as to see. (§ 65, i.)
quis non gaudeat haec videns ? who would not be glad to see
this? (§60,3.)
cum domum rediisset, mortuus est, when he had returned home,
he died. (§ 62, i.)
An Indirect Question is an assertion in which a question is im-
plied, without being expressed : thus —
quis adest? wlio is herel is a direct question; but
die mini quis adsit, tell me who is frrrr, n-aariHir™! question.
III. 1. The Imperative present is used as in English ; but
its place is often supplied (always in the first person) by the
present or perfect subjunctive : as,
ne crede cblori, do not trust complexion. (§ 58, in.)
dum vivimus vivamus, iMle we live let us live.
Xot with the Imperative is ne ; and nor, neve.
2 ---^
26 PARTICIPLES. §25
2. The future is used especially for edicts and laws : as,
regii imperil duo sunto, iique consules appellantor, there
shall be two of kingly authority, and they shall be called
consuls. — Cic. Leg. ill. 3.
homfciem mortuuxn in urbe ne sepelito neve urito, a dead man
in the city thou shall not bury nor burn. — xii. Tab. in Cic.
IV. The Infinitive is used — 1. As the Object of a Verb : as,
audire non possum, / cannot hear.
2. With a Subject- Accusative, especially after Verbs of
knowing, thinking, and telling : as,
dixit me adesse, he said that I was present.
3. As an Indeclinable Noun (with or without a subject-
accusative), when it is often rendered in English by the
participial noun: as,
vivere est cogitare, living is thinking.
miseret me te esse pauperem, it grieves me that you are poor.
25. PARTICIPLES.
I. The Present Participle ends in ns (corresponding to our
participle in ing), and is declined like sapiens, § 16, II.
When used as an adjective, the ablative singular ends in i :
as,
florenti urbe potitur, he takes a flourishing city ; but,
florente urbe, while the city flourished.
The Future Active Participle (generally expressing pur-
pose) ends in urns. The Perfect Passive Participle ends
in ns, and the Gerundive (sometimes called the Future Passive
Participle), in dns ; they are declined like earns (§16, i.).
The Gerundive either (1) has the meaning of ought or
must : as, delenda est Karthago, Carthage must be destroyed;
or (2) is used to govern the noun it agrees with : as, Kartha-
glnis delendae cansa, for the sake of destroying Carthage.
II The use of these participles is seen in the following
examples : —
§26 GERUND AND SUPINE. 27
te id dicentem audivi, / heard you say that.
sapientia Dei omnia giibernantis, the wisdom of God, who
governs all.
Curio ad focum sedenti, to Curius as he sat by the fire.
Roma prbficiscens Neapoli diu manebat, on his way from
Rome he staid a good while at Naples.
Roma profectus Athenas venit, he set out from Rome and came
to Athens.
Romam venit ludos spectaturus, or, ad spectandos ludos,
he came to Rome to see the games.
bona peto semper duratura, / seek goods that will last forever.
reluctante natura, invitus labor est, if nature refuses, toil is vain.
anno post exactos reges decimo, ab urbe condita ducente-
simo quinquagesimo quarto, the tenth year after the kings'*
banishment, and the 254^ from the founding of the city.
And the Perfect Participle in English must often be ren-
dered by other constructions in Latin : as,
cum Romam rediisset, in forum venit, having returned to Rome,
he came into the forum.
equitatu praemisso, subsequebatur omnibus copiis, having
sent forward the cavalry, he followed close with all his
forces. — C&s. E.G. II. 19.
26, GERUND AND SUPINE.
I. The Gerund is inflected as a Neuter Noun of the Second
Declension. Its use is as follows : —
N. scribendum est mihi, I have to write.
G. labor scribendi, the task of writing.
D. utile scribendo, serviceable for writing.
Ac. inter scribendum, while writing.
Ab. scribendo respondit, he answered by writing.
But with a direct object, the Gerundive is usually employed:
as,
N. scribenda est mihi epistbla, / have to write a letter.
G. labor scribendae epistSlae, the task of writing a letter.
This is the regular way in Latin of expressing ought or
must.
28 TENSES. § 27
II. The Former Supine is in form the accusative, and the
Latter Supine the ablative, of a verbal noun of the fourth
declension.
The Former is used after verbs of motion, especially in
dialogue or familiar speech : as, hue venit consultum, he
has come hither to consult ; the Latter after certain adjectives :
as, horrlblle dictu, shocking to tell. The latter is found only
in a few verbs.
27. TENSES.
I. The Present tense expresses an action or state as now
continuing; as, VOCO, I am calling; VOCOr, I am \being~\
called, i. e. some one is now calling me.
It is sometimes used, as in English, to give life to narra-
tive : as, Caesar convocat suos, Ccesar summons his men ;
and may sometimes be rendered by the Perfect in English :
as, jamdiu te VOCO, I have been long calling you.
II. The Imperfect is used to tell a condition of things
formerly existing. Hence it is employed —
1. In Descriptions : as, erant omnmo itinera duo . . . mons
altissimus impendebat, there were in all two ways . . . a very
high mountain overhung. — Caes. E.G. I. 6.
2. To relate a Continued or Repeated Action: as, saepS
dicebat, he would often say ; mirabar, I used to wonder.
3. To state the Circumstances attending an action or event:
as, dum haec gerebantur, while this was going on.
III. The Perfect is used to tell an action or event occur-
ring at a given time in the past. Hence it is employed —
1. In Narration (perfect aorist, indefinite, or historical) : as,
veni, vidi, vici, / came, saw, conquered.
2. After ut, ttbi, posteaquam or postquam, when, (with a
leading verb in a past tense), as equivalent to the pluperfect: as,
ubi haec dixit, abiit, when he had said this, he went away.
3. It is also used to relate a past act or state in reference to
the present time (perfect definite or relative) : as,
pater te jam vocavit, your father has already called you.
§ 27 TENSES. 29
4. In the subjunctive, it usually follows a leading verb in the
present ; as,
nescio utrum Xta evengrit necne, 1 don't know whether it hap-
pened (or has happened) so or not.
In Latin, and in all languages derived from Latin, there are
two past tenses, — the Perfect, or Preterite, which is used for
narration, to tell the main fact, and the Imperfect, which is used
for description, or to state the attending circumstances : as,
dum CicSro domi manebat, Caesar interfectus est, while Cicero
staid at home, Ccesar was slain.
The Gothic languages, including English, have only one Past
tense.
IV. The Future and Future Perfect are used, though
with greater accuracy, like the corresponding tenses in Eng-
lish : as,
cum audivero, scribam, when I [shall] have heard, 1 will write.
V. Tenses are distributed in these two classes, —
1. PRIMARY, including Present, Perfect [Definite] , and Future.
2. SECONDARY, including Imperfect, Perfect [Historical], and
Pluperfect.
VI. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect, of the
Active Voice, are derived from a stem (wanting in the Pass-
ive), which is usually formed by adding V [u] or s, with or
without a connecting vowel, to the Stem of the Present; this
is called the Second or Perfect Stem : as,
voc o, vocav i ; — die o, dix i.
In the Passive, these tenses are supplied by adding the
corresponding tenses of esse, to be, to the Perfect Participle.
This participle is derived from the third or Supine stem,
which is usually formed by adding t, with or without a con-
necting vowel, to the present stem : as,
vocati sumus, we have been called.
haec dicta erunt, this will have been said.
The Perfect (definite), Pluperfect, and Future Perfect
are called the tenses of Completed Action.
30 PERSONAL ENDINGS. — ESSE. §§28,29
28. PERSONAL ENDINGS.
The terminations of the persons are as follows : —
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
S. 1. m [o, i] P. 1. mus S. 1. r P. 1. mur
2. s [ti] 2. tis 2. ris,re 2. mini
3. t 3. nt 3. tur 3. ntur
All Latin words in common use, ending in t, — except at, but ;
et, and; ut, that; caput, head; dumtaxat, however; licet, al-
though, and Indefinites in -libet, — are in the third person of
.verbs ; all ending in nt are in the third person plural.
29. ESSE.
T. The Substantive Verb esse, to be, is thus inflected. It
has neither Gerund nor. Supine, and only the Future Par-
ticiple : —
PRINCIPAL PARTS: sum, lam; esse, to be; fui, / have been;
futurus, about to be : — second stem, fu ; third stem, fut.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. 7 am.
SING. 1. sum, 7 am. sim
2. es, thou art (you are). sis
3. est, he (she, it) is. sit
PLUR. 1 . sumus, we are. simus
2. estls, yon are. sitis
3. sunt, they are. sint
IMPERFECT. I was.
SING. 1. eram essem forem
2. eras esses feres
3. grat esset foret
PLUR. 1. eram us essemus
2. eratis essetis
3. grant essent forent
§29
ESSE.
31
FUTURE. / shall be.
SING. 1. gro
2. erls
3. grit
futurus sim
futurus sis
futurus sit
PLUR. 1. grimus futuri simus
2. eritis futuri sitis
3. grunt futuri sint
PERFECT. / was, or have been.
SING. 1. ful fuerim
2. fuisti fueris
3. fuft fuerit
PLUR. 1. fulmus fuerimus
2. fuistis fueritis
3. fuerunt or fuere fugrint
PLUPERFECT. / had been.
SING. 1. fueram fuissem
2. fueras fuisses
3. fuerat fuisset
PLUR. 1. fueramus
2. fueratis
3. fugrant
fuissemus
fuissetis
fuissent
FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been.
SING. 1. fuero fuerim
2. fueris fueris
3. fuerit fuerit
PLUR. 1. fuerlmus
2. fueritis
3. fuerint
fuerimus
fueritis
fuerint
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT. 3s, be thou : este, be ye.
FUTURE, esto, tliou shalt be, he sliall be.
estote, ye shall be : sunto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT, esse, to be.
PERFECT, fuisse, to have been.
FUTURE, fbre or futurus esse, to be about to be.
32 CONJUGATION. § 30
II. Abesse, to be absent, and &desse, to be present, are in-
flected in the same way with esse. The Present Participle
of abesse is absens ; praesens is used as the participle of
adesse. The Imperative is wanting in both.
III. Posse, to be able (potls esse), is thus conjugated : -
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT, can. possum possim
potes possis
potest possit
possumus possimus
potestis possitis
possunt possint
IMPERFECT, could, poteram. possem
FUTURE. potero
PERFECT. potui potuSrim
PLUPERFECT, potueram potuissem
PUT. PERFECT. potuero
INFIN. PRES. posse PERF. potuisse
PARTICIPLE. potens, able.
IV. Prodesse, to help (pro esse), is conjugated like sum,
inserting d where followed by e : as,
prosum, prodes, prodest, prosiimus, prodestis, prosunt
30. CONJUGATION.
I. Verbs have four regular Conjugations, distinguished by
the connecting vowel of the Present Infinitive : these are —
1. a: as, vocare, to call.
2. e : as, mon e re, to warn.
3. e : as, mitt e re, to send.
4. I : as, and I re, to hear.
II. The Perfect and Supine Stems are regularly formed by
adding to the Present Stem, in the several conjugations, —
(1.) av, at: as, vSco vocare vocavi vocatum call.
(2.) ev, et: as, deleo delere delevi deletum wipe out.
(3.) s, t: as, carpo carpere carpsi carptum pluck.
(4.) iv, It: as, audio audire audlvi auditum hear.
§30 CONJUGATION. 33
In the second conjugation ev, et, are usually modified
into u, It : as,
moneo, monere, moiiui, monitum, warn.
III. The stem of the third conjugation usually ends in a
consonant ; this is combined with s in the same way as in
nouns (§ 11, in. 1, 2, 3) : as,
rego, regere, rexi, rectum, rule.
Vowel-stems of the third conjugation end in I or u. In
the former, the stem is usually lengthened in the perfect : as,
fiigio, fugere, fugi, fugitum, flee.
In these verbs the i is dropped when it would be followed by
e or I : as,
fugls, fugit, fuge're, fuge'rem;
But it is retained before e : as in fugiebam ; also, fugiet.
A stem ending in u (v), is unchanged in the Perfect : as,
acuo acuere acui aciitum sharpen.
volvo (uoluo) volvere volvi volutum turn.
IV. The perfect stem is often formed by simply lengthen-
ing the stem-vowel : as,
(1.) juvo juvare juvi jutum help.
(2.) cieo ciere civi citum rouse.
(3.) fiigio fugere fugi fugitum flee.
(4.) venio venire veni ventum come.
Or by reduplicating the stem-syllable : as,
(1.) do, dare, dedi, datum, give (compounds usually in the third
conjugation : as, addo, addere, addidi, additum, add.)
(2.) mordeo, mordere, momordi, morsum, bite.
(3.) curro, currere, cucurri, cursum, run.
Or by analogy of other conjugations : as,
(1.) sSco secare secui sectum cut.
(2.) maneo maiiere mansi mansum wait.
(3.) peto petere petivi petitum seek.
(4.) vincio viiicire vinxi viiictum bind.
2*
34 ACTIVE VOICE. §01
31. ACTIVE VOICE. — FIRST AND SECOND CONJUGATIONS.
I. INDIC. SUBJ. II. INDIC. SUBJ.
I call. PRESENT. I warn.
voc o voc em mon eo rnoii earn
as es es eas
at et et eat
amus emus emus eamus
atis etis etis eatia
ant ent ent eant
I called (was calling). IMPERFECT. I warned (was warning).
voc abam voc arem mon ebam xnon erem
abas ares ebas eres
abat aret ebat eret
abamus aremus ebamus eremus
abatis aretis ebatis eretis
abant arent ebant erent
/ will call. FUTURE. / will warn.
voc abo voc aturus sim mon ebo mon iturus sim
abis sis ebis sis
abit sit ebit sit
ablmus -aturi simus ebimus -ituri simus
abitis sitis ebitis sitis
abunt sint ebunt sint
I called (have called.) PERFECT. I warned (have irarned.)
vocav i vocav erim monu i monu erim
/ had called. PLUPERFECT. / had learned.
vccaveram vocav issem monueram monu issem
J shall have called. FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have learned.
vccav ero (vocav erim) monu ero (monu erim)
IMPERATIVE.
PKES. voc a voc ate mon e mon ete
FUT. voc ato voc atote, anto mon eto mon etote, ento
INFINITIVE.
voc are vocav isse mon ere monu isse
PARTICIPLES.
voc ans voc aturus mon ens moil iturus
GERUND. SUPINE. GERUND. SUPINE.
voc andum vocat um, u mon endum monlt urn, u
§31
ACTIVE VOICE.
35
THIRD AND FOURTH CONJUGATIONS.
IV. INDIC. SUBJ.
PRESENT. / hear.
III. INDIC.
SUBJ.
I rule.
1
rego
is
regain
as
it
at
imus
amus
itis
atis
unt
ant
audio
is
audiam
ias
it
iat
imus
iamus
itis
iatis
iunt
iant
I ruled (was riding) . IMPERFECT. I heard (was hearing).
reg ebam
ebas
ebamus
ebatis
ebant
reg erem
eres
erejt
eremus
eretis
erent
1 will rule. FUTURE.
reg am recturus sim
es sis
et sit
emus recturi simus
etis sitis
eiit sint
Iruled Qiave ruled) . PERFECT.
rexi rex erim
aud iebam aud irem
iebas ires
iebat iret
iebamus iremus
iebatis iretis
lebant irent
/ will hear.
aud iam auditurus sim
ies sis
iet sit
iemus audituri simus
ietis sitis
ient sint
I heard (have heard) .
audiv i audiv erim
I had ruled. PLUPERFECT. I had heard.
rex erain rex issem audiv eram audiv isseni
FUTURE PERFECT.
rex ero (rex erim) audiv gro (audiv erim)
IMPERATIVE.
P. reg e reg ite aud I aud ite
F. reg ito reg itote, unto aud ito aud itote, iunto
INFINITIVE.
reg ere rex isse aud ire audiv isse
PARTICIPLES.
reg ens recturus and iens auditurus
GERUND. SUPINE. GERUND. SUPIXE.
reg endum rect um, u aud iendum audit um, u
36 PASSIVE VOICE. §32
32. PASSIVE VOICE. — FIRST AND SECOND CONJUGATIONS.
I. INDIC. SUBJ. II. INDIC. SUBJ.
/ am (being) called. PRESENT. / am (being) warned.
voc or voc er mon eor mon ear
aris eris, re eris earis, re
atur etur etur eatur
amur emur emur eamur
amini emini emini eamini
antur entur entur eantur
/ was (being) called. IMPERFECT. 1 was (being) warned.
vocabar voc arer mon ebar moiierer
abaris, re areris, re ebaris, re ereris, re
abatur aretur ebatur eretur
abamur aremur ebamur eremur
abamini aremini ebamini eremini
abantur arentur ebantur erentur
/ shall be called. FUTURE. I shall be warned.
voc abor mon ebor
aberis, re eberis, re
abitur ebitur
abimur ebimur
abimini ebimini
abuntur ebuiitur
I was called. PERFECT. I was warned.
vocatus sum vocatus sim monitus sum monitus sim
Iliad been called. PLUPERFECT. Iliad been warned.
vocatus eram, essem monitus eram, essem
FUTURE PERFECT. (Shall have been.)
vocatus ero monitus ero
IMPERATIVE.
P. voc are voc amini mon ere mon emini
F. voc ator voc antor mon etor mon entor
INFINITIVE.
PRES. voc ari moil eri
PERF. vocatus esse * monitus esse
FUT. vocatum iri monitum iri
PERF. GER. PARTICIPLES. PERF. GER.
voc atus voc andus mon itus mon eiidus
§32
PASSIVE VOICE.
37
THIRD AND FOURTH CONJUGATIONS.
III. INDIC. SUBJ.
/ am (being) ruled.
IV. INDIC. SUBJ.
PRESENT. I am (being) heard.
reg or
regar
aud ior
audiar
eris
aris, re
iris
iaris, re
Xtur
atur
itur
iatur
Imur
ainur
Imur
ianiur
imini
amiiii
ixnini
iamiiii
untur
antur
iuntur
iantur
/ was (being) ruled.
reg ebar reg erer
IMPERFECT. I was (being) heard.
aud iebar aud irer
ebaris, re
ereris, re
ebatur
eretur
ebamur
eremur
ebamini
eremini
ebaiitur
erentur
/ shall be ruled.
]
regar
eris, re
etur
emur
emiiii
entur
/ was ruled.
]
iebaris, re
iebatur
iebamur
iebamini
iebantur
ireris, re
iretur
iremur
ire mini
irentur
FUTURE. I shall be heard.
aud iar
ieris, re
ietur
iemur
iemini
ientur
PERFECT. I was Jieard.
rectus sum rectus sim auditus sum auditus sim
/ had been ruled. PLUPERFECT. I had been heard.
rectus eram, essem auditus eram, essem
FUTURE PERFECT. (Shall have been.)
rectus ero auditus ero
IMPERATIVE.
reg ere reg imini aud ire aud imini
regitor reg untor auditor audiuntor
INFINITIVE.
PRKS. regi aud iri
PERF. rectus esse auditus esse
FITT. rectum iri auditum iri
PERF. GER. PARTICIPLES. PERF. GER.
rectus regeiidus auditus audiendus
38 CONJUGATION. §§33,34
33. RULES OF CONJUGATION.
I. The Conjugations differ from one another only in the
tenses formed upon the First or Present Stem.
All irregularities are either in the tenses derived from the
first stem, or in the formation of the other stems ; never in
the terminations added to them.
The tenses formed upon the first stem in the active voice
are also formed upon it in the passive.
Tenses of the second stem are inflected like the corre-
sponding tenses of esse : as,
PERF. SING, vocavi, vocavisti, vocavit;
PLUR. vocavimus, vocavistis, vocaverunt or vocavere.
II. In these inflections it will be observed, that —
1. The Imperfect Subjunctive is formed from the Present In-
finitive by adding m ; and the Pluperfect Subjunctive from the
Perfect Infinitive in the same manner.
2. The passive tenses of the first stem are formed from the
corresponding ones in the active, by changing m into r ; or, where
the active ends in o, by adding r.
3. The Imperative Passive is the same in form with the Present
Infinitive Active.
III. 1. In tenses formed from the Second Stem, v between two
vowels is often suppressed (syncopated), and the vowels in some
cases made one ; as amasse for amavisse, flestis for flevistis,
audieram for audiveram. This takes place regularly in the com-
pounds of eo, go (fourth conj.) ; as, abii for abivi, I went away.
2. Four verbs, dico, duco, facio, and fero, with several of
their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative,
making die, due, f ac, ier : as, die mini, tell me ; aufer, take
away.
34. FORMS OF CONJUGATION.
I. The principal parts of a verb, which determine its
conjugation throughout, are the Present Indicative and In-
finitive (first stem) ; the Perfect Indicative (second stem) ;
and Supine (third stem) : as,
v6c o, v6c are, v6cav i, v6cat um, call.
§34
CONJUGATION.
39
II. In the following examples of conjugation, to form the
perfect and supine, i is to be added to the second stem, and
um to the third : —
frango, freg- fract- break.
fundo, fud- fus- pour.
gero, gess- gest- bear.
gigno, genu- gemt- beget.
jacio, jec- jact- throw.
laedo, laes- laes- hurt.
mitto, mis- miss- send.
nosco, nov- not- learn.
parco, peperc- parcit- spare.
pario, peper- part- produce.
pasco, pav- past- feed.
pello, pepiil- puls- drive.
pono, pbsu- posit- put.
premo, press- press- press.
quaero, quaasiv- quaesit- ask.
rapio, rapu- rapt- snatch.
rumpo, rup- rupt- break.
scribo, scrips- script- write.
sero, sev- sat- sow.
sero, seru- sert- bind.
tango, tetig- tact- toucli.
tego, tex- tect- cover.
texo, texu- text- weave.
toUo, sustiil- sublat- lift.
traho, trax- tract- drag.
veho, vex- vect- carry.
vinco, vie- vict- conquer.
vivo, vix- vict- live.
IV.
aperio, aperu- apert- open.
hatirio, haus- haust- draw.
Sperio, operu- opert- cover.
reperio, reper- repert- find.
sancio, saiix- sanct- ratify.
sentio, sens- sens- feel.
venio, veil- vent- come.
domo, domu^domit- subdue.
lavo, lav\laut- (lot-) wash.
sono, sonu-^sonit- sound.
sto, stet-istat- stand.
veto, vetu-^vetit- forbid.
ii.
doceo, docu- doct- teach.
faveo, fav- faut- favor.
jiibeo, juss- juss- order.
m6veo, mov- m5t- move.
sedeo, sed- sess- sit.
torqueo, tors- tort- twist.
video, vid- vis- see.
in.
ago, eg- act- drive.
alo, alu- alt- (alit-) nourish.
cado, cecid, cas- fall.
caedo, cecid- caes- kilt.
cano, cecin- cant- sing.
capio, cep- capt- take.
cedo, cess- cess- yield.
cingo, cinx- cinct- gird.
colo, colu- cult- till.
credo, credid- credit- believe
cresco, crev- cret- grow.
cupio, cupiv- cupit- desire.
dico, dix- diet- say.
duco, dux- duct- lead.
emo, em- empt- buy.
facio, fee- fact- make.
fallo, fefell- fals- deceive.
fero, tul- lat- bear.
figo, fix- fix- fix.
fiiigo, finx- fict- feign.
flecto, flex- flex- bend.
40 DEPONENT VERBS. §35
35. DEPONENT VERBS.
I. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive Voice,
with an Active or Reflective signification : as,
1. mlror mirari miratus admire.
2. mereor merer! meritus deserve.
3. sequor sequi secutus follow.
4. potior potiri potitus obtain.
These verbs have the Participles, Gerunds, and Supines of both
Voices: as, mirans, miraturus, miratus, mirandus. The par-
ticiple in dus, however, has a Passive meaning, and hence can occur
only in Transitive Verbs : as.
potienda est tellus, the land must be won.
II. The Verbs audeo, dare; fido, trust; gaudeo, rejoice;
soleo, be wont, have no Second or Perfect Stem, but form the
Perfect, &c., after the analogy of the Passive : as, ausus est,
he dared; fisus sum, / trusted ; gavisus est, he was glad;
soliti sumus, we were wont. They are called Semi-Deponent.
From audeo we have the subjunctive ausim. The form sodes,
an thou icilt, (for si audes), is frequent in the comic writers.
III. The following list contains some of the most impor-
tant Deponents, including many which form the Supine stem
irregularly. The Infinitives are all regular : —
amplect or, -i, amplex- embrace, nasc or, -i, nat- be born .
con or, -ari, conatus, try. nit or, -i, nis- or nix- lean.
exper ior, -iri, expert- test. oblivisc or, -i, oblit- forget.
fat eor, -eri, fass- confess. ordior, -iri, ors- begin.
fru or, -i, fruct- enjoy. Sr ior, -iri, ortus," oriturus (or-
fuiigor, -i, funct- perform. eris, -itur, -erer), arise.
gradior, -i, gress- step. pacisc or, -i, pact- bargain.
labor, -i, laps- glide, fall. pati9r, -i, pass- suffer.
ISquor, -i, locut- speak. pollic eor, -eri, pollicit- promise.
metier, -iri; rnensus, measure. prSficisc or, -i, profect- go.
miser eor, -eri, miserit- or mi- quer or, -i, quest- complain.
sert- pity. reor, reri, ratus, reckon.
mbr ior, -i, (-Iri) , mortuus, mo- tu eor, -eri, tuifcus, protect.
riturus, (moribundus), die. ut or, -i, usus, employ.
§§S6,37 DERIVATIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 41
36. DERIVATIVE VERBS.
I. INCHOATIVE or INCEPTIVE VERBS are formed by add-
ing the termination SCO to the stem and connecting vowel of
their primitives: as, from caleo, I am warm, calesco, I grow
warm. They are of the Third Conjugation, and are found
only in the tenses of the Fir^^oj^jPreseiit^Stem.
II. INTENSIVES are formed by adding the terminations of
the first conjugation to the third stem of certain verbs : as,
die to, dictate, from dico (dictum), my.
III. FREQUENTATIVES are formed by adding Ito to the
first stem of verbs of the first conjugation, Ito or o to the
third stem of those of the third, and inflecting as in the first :
as, clamito, / keep shouting ; dictltat, he keeps, saying.
IV. DESIDERATIVES, expressing a wish, end in urio, and
are of the fourth conjugation : as, esurio (from edo, eat), 1
am hungry.
37. IRREGULAR VERBS.
[For esse and its derivatives see § 29.]
I. Volo, velle, volui, wish (no third stem).
IND. PR. volo vis vult volumus vultis vSlunt.
SUBJ. PR velim. IMPERF. vellem.
Other tenses are regular. There is no Imperative. The form
sis for si vis, if you please, is often found after imperatives: as,
cave sis mentiaris, take care you don't lie. Cic. Mil. 22.
II. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling.
Ixi). PR. nolo nonvis nonvult nolumus iionvultis nolunt.
Si'Bj. PR. nolim. IMPKUP. nollem.
IMPERATIVE, noli nolito nolite nolitote noluiito.
The rest regular. No third stem.
III. Malo (magis volo), malle, malui, prefer.
IXD. PR. malo mavis mavult malumus mavultis maluut
SUBJ. PR. malim. IMPERF. mallem.
Tlie rest regular ; no Imperative or third stem.
42 IRREGULAR VERBS. §37
IV. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum, bear.
ACTIVE : IND. PRES. fSro fers fert ferimus fertis ferunt
SUBJ. IMP. ferrem. IMPERAT. fer ferto ferte fertote ferunto.
PASSIVE: IND. PRES. fer or ferris fertur ferlmur, &c.
SUBJ. IMP. ferrer. IMPERAT. ferre fertor ferimini feruntor.
INFINITIVE, ferri, latus esse.
PARTICIPLES, ferens laturus latus ferendus.
The rest regular.
V. Edo, eat, is a regular verb of the third conjugation,
with the following forms like those of esse : —
IND. PRES. es est estis. SUBJ. (PRES. edim). IMPERF. essem.
IMPERAT. es esto este estote. INFIN. esse.
VI. Eo, Ire, Ivi, Itum, go.
IND. PRES. eo Is it Imus itis eunt.
IMPERF. Ibam. FUT. ibo ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt
SUBJ. PR. earn. IMPERF. Irem.
IMPERAT. I Ito ite itote eunto.
PART. PRES. iens, euiitis. FUT. iturus. GER. eundum.
VII. Facio, facere, feci, factum, make, is inflected regu-
larly in the Active ; having also the peculiar forms faxo
(fut. perf.) and faxim (subj. perf.). It has no Passive
tenses formed upon the present stem, but uses instead fio,
be made, or become, which is inflected as a regular verb of
the Fourth Conjugation, but has the infinitive fieri and the
subjunctive imperfect fierem : thus, — fio fieri factus sum.
Compounds of facio with prepositions, change a into i in the
first stem, and into e in the third, and form their passive regu-
larly: as,
conficlo conficere confeci confectum, finish.
Other compounds retain the a, and have fio in the Passive : as,
ACT. bene-facio, (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum. PASS, benefio,
benefit.
VIII. Queo, / can, and nequeo, I cannot, are conjuga-
ted like eo. They are rarely used except in the present : as,
queo quis quit, quire, quivi
§§ 38, 39 DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 43
38. DEFECTIVE VERBS.
I. Coepi, began ; odi, hate ; and memlni, remember, have
no first stem. Inclpio, begin, is used as a present for coepi ;
Odi and memini, though perfect in form, have the present
signification, and are hence called Preteritive Verbs. They
are inflected regularly in the tenses derived from the second
stem. Other parts of these verbs are —
1. Coeptus (used with the Passive Infinitive : as, urbs coepta
est obsideri, the city began to be beset} ; coepturus, about to
begin.
2. Osus osurus, both Active in their signification.
3. IMPERATIVE, memento mementote, remember.
II. Aio, say, has the forms —
ais ait aiunt, aiebam, &c. ; aias aiat aiant, aiens.
III. Inquam, quoth I (used in quotations : as, inquit, quoth
he) , has the following forms : —
PR. IND. inquam inquis inquit inqumms inquitis inquiunt.
IMPERF. inquiebas. PERF. inquis ti inquit.
FUT. inquies inquiet. IMPERAT. inque inquito.
IV. Fari, speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly :
as, fatus sum, &c. It has also —
IND. PR. fatur. FUT. fabor, fabitur.
IMPERAT. fare. INFIN. fari. SUPINE, fatu.
Certain other forms occur in Compounds.
V. The following are found chiefly in the Imperative : —
1. salve, salvete, liail. (salveo.)
2. ave, avete, aveto, hail, or farewell, (aveo.)
3. cedo, cette, grant, pray. 4. apage, begone !
39. IMPERSONAL VERBS.
These are found only in the third person singular, with-
out any personal subject, this being often supplied by an
infinitive or other grammatical construction. The most usual
verbs of this class are such as the following : — •
44 PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. — ADVERBS. §§40,41
1. Llbgt (liibet), it pleases ; licet, it is permitted, with infini-
tive subject and dative of person : as,
libet mihi IggSre, licet tibi ludere, I like to read, you may
play.
2. MiserSt, it grieves, pudet, it shames, taedet, it wearies,
piget, it disgusts, with ace. of person and gen. of object : as,
miser et me casus tui, I am sorry for your mishap.
3. Accidit, it happens ; restat, it remains ; having a phrase or
clause as subject : as,
persaepe evenit ut utiiitas cum honestate certet, it often
happens that gain is at variance with honor. (§ 70, n.)
4. Pluit, it rains ; ningit, it snoivs ; grandiiiat, it hails.
5. The passive of Neuter Verbs, or those governing the Da-
tive: as, pugnatur, there is fighting ; parcitur mihi, I am spared.
40. PERIPHRASTIC FORMS.
I. The participle in rus may be used with any mood or
tense of sum, forming the Periphrastic Future Active : as,
cum venturus sit, since he is about to come.
II. The participle in dus (Gerundive) may be used in the
same way to denote duty or propriety : as,
vera dicenda sunt, the truth must be told.
The Gerundive of neuter verbs is often used imperson-
ally (called the Nominative of the Gerund) : as,
pugnandum est nobis, we must fight.
41. ADVERBS.
I. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives of the
first and second declensions by adding e to the stem ; from
those of the third by adding ter or Iter : as,
carus, dear, care ; sapiens, wise, sapienter ; brevis, short, bre-
viter ; audax, bold, audaciter, or audacter.
The Comparative of an adverb thus formed is the neuter
of the corresponding adjective ; the superlative changes US of
the adjective into e : as,
§£1 ADVERBS. 45
care, carius, carissime, dearly.
nuper, iiuperrime, lately, just now.
sapieiiter, sapieiitius, sapientissime, wisely.
breviter, brevius, brevissime, shortly.
faciiiter (or facile), facilius, facillime, easily.
bene (for bone), melius, optime, ivell, better, best.
male, pejus, pessime, ill, worse, worst.
So compare the adverbs —
dm, diutius, diutissime, long (in time),
saepe, saepius, saepissime, often.
satis, enough; satius, preferable.
secus, seems, otherwise.
II. The following adverbs require special explanation : —
1. Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and precedes the
emphatic word, while quoque follows it: as,
terret etiam nos, ac mihatur, us also he terrifies and threatens.
— Cic. Ros. Am. 40.
hoc quoque maleficium, this crime likewise. — Id.
2. Nunc, now, points definitely to the present time ; jam, al-
ready, has a reference to the past, and with negatives means no
longer. A similar relation exists between tune and turn : as,
nunc jam aperte rempublicam petis, now at last you openly
attack the commonwealth. — Cic. Cat. I. 5.
non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for lenity.
-Id. II. 4.
nunc quidem deleta est, tune florebat, now to be sure it [ Oreece~\
is destroyed, then it prospered. — Id. Ros. Am. 4.
turn, cum ex urbe Catilmam eiciebam, at the time ivhen I
was engaged in expelling Catiline from the city. — Id. Cat.
III. 2.
3. CertS means certainly ; certe usually at any rate: as,
certo scio, I know for a certainty. — Cic. de Senect. 1.
onere aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis
et te et me ipsum levari volo, / wish both you and
r>'yself to be relieved of the weight of old age, which is
either already pressing upon us, or at any rate approach-
ing. — Id.
46 PREPOSITIONS. § 42
4. Primum, first, is usually followed by deinde, next, &c. ;
primo, at first, by postea or mox, afterwards : as,
primum mihi videtur de genere belli, deinde de magnitu-
dine, turn de imperatore deligendo esse dicendum,
I think 1 must speak first of the nature of the war, next of
its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander. — Cic.
de Leg. Man. 2.
dissuadente primo Vercingetorige, post concedente, Vercin-
getorix at first opposing, afterwards yielding. — Cses. B G
VII. 15.
5. With ne . . . quidem, not even, the emphatic word stands be-
tween ne and quidem : as,
ne ominis quidem causa, not even for the sake of the omen. —
Cic. Ros. Am. 48.
42, PREPOSITIONS.
I. The following Prepositions are followed by the accusa-
tive : —
erga, towards. post after
adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond
adversum, towards, infra, below. propter near
ante before. illter, among. propter, on account of.
ad, at, near. intra, inside. secundum, next to.
,
juxta.ncar. tupra, above.
sum, about. 6b, on account of. trans across
circiter,_,^. penes, in the power, ultra,' on the further
313, extra, this side, per, through. side
contra, against. pone, behind.
II. The following take the ablative : —
a, ab, abs,/rom, by. g, ex, out of.
prae, in comparison with.
oram, in presence of. pr5, instead of.
^m- with- sine, without;
ae, down from. tgnfiS| vp ^ or mfm ^
III. The following take the accusative or ablative : —
to, into, in; sub, under; subtgr, beneath; super, above.
§43 CONJUNCTIONS. 47
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, signify motion to,
when by the ablative, rest in, a place : as,
in Italiam venit, atque in Etruria tres annos manebat, he
came to Italy, and staid in Tuscany three years.
sub montem ivit, ibique sub arbore consedit, he went to the
foot of a hill, and sat down there under a tree.
IV. The following require special explanation : —
In, with the accusative, means into ; ad, to (the neighborhood},
is used especially for persons ; ex (e), out of, is the reverse of in ;
ab (a), away from, is the reverse of ad; detfrom, has reference
to a part of the object : as,
legati in castra veniunt, the ambassadors come into the camp. —
Cic. Kos. Am. 9.
ut prdficiscantur ad L. Sullam, that they may go to Lucius
Sulla.— Id.
e patrimoiiio nudum expiilisti, you cast him naked out of his
inheritance. — Id. 50.
ab se injuriam propulsare, to ward off injury from himself. —
Id.
iiihil de patris fortunis ad suam rem convertit, he has turned
nothing to his own use from Ids father's fortunes. — Id. 49.
43. CONJUNCTIONS.
Conjunctions are more numerous, and their use is much
more accurately distinguished, in Latin than in English. The
following list includes those most important • —
1. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses ; -que (en-
clitic), combines closely into one connected idea; atque (some-
times ac before consonants), adds with emphasis : as,
fremit miles et tribunes centurionesque proditionis arguit,
the soldiers rave and accuse the tribunes and centurions of
treachery. — Tac. Hist. I. 80.
maiiere ac deprehendi, an fugere et dispergi peiiculosius
f6ret, whether it were more dangerous to remain and be
seized, or to fly and scatter. —Id. 81.
When the second member is negative, neque (nee) is used : as,
redieruiit in castra inviti neque innocentes, they return into
the camp unwilling and not innocent. — Id. 82.
48 CONJUNCTIONS. §43
2. Sed and verum (more forcible), but, are used to contradict
what precedes, — always after negatives ; at, yet, to introduce with
emphasis a new consideration, especially in argument ; autem in
the same way, especially in transitions, but with less force : as,
non ad pbpuli Roman! laudem, sed ad judicum crudeli-
tatem servatus, preserved, not for the praise of the fioman
people, but the cruelty of the judges. — Cic. Verr. V. 1.
sit fur, sit sacrilegus ; at est bSnus imperator, grant he is a
thief, a sacrilegious wretch, — for all that he is a good
commander. — Id.
contagio autem ista servilis belli cur abs te praedicatur?
but why is that infection of servile war brought forward by
you? — Id. 3.
non solum . . . verum etiam (a favorite expression of Cicero's) ,
not only . . . but also. — Cic. Cat. I. 10.
3. Aut, or, excludes the alternative ; vel (-ve) gives a choice ;
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also
used with words, especially two names for the same object: as,
iibi pStest ilia aetas aut calescere vel apricatione melius
vel igni, aut vicissim umbris aquisve refrigerari salu-
brius ? where can that period of life either enjoy wavmtli
better, whether by sunshine or by fire ; or cool itself more
healthfully, with shade or water? — Cic. de Senect. 16.
sive amor sive amicitia, whether love or friendship. — Cic. de
Amic. 27.
4. Nam (namque) , for, introduces a sufficient cause; eiiim
(etenim), an explanatory circumstance : as,
id certe calamitate docti memoria retinere debemus. Nam
turn, cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant,
scimus Romae sblutione impedita fidem concidisse,
Non enim possunt una in civitate multi rem ac
fortunas amittere ut non plures secum in eaiidem
trahant calamitatem. This surely, taught by disaster, we
ought to keep in memory. For when very many had lost
great possessions in Asia, we know that at Rome credit fell
by the stoppage of payments. For it is not possible that
many lose their property and fortunes in one state without
drawing more with them into the same calamity. — Cic. de
Leg. Manil. 7.
§43 CONJUNCTIONS. 49
5. Ergo, therefore, is used for things demonstrated ; it&que, in
proofs from the nature of things ; igitur, then (a weak ergo),
in passing from one stage of the argument to another ; idcirco,
for this reason, to call attention to a special argument : as,
ergo idcirco turpis haec culpa est, quod duas res sanctis-
simas violat, therefore, for this reason, this is a base mis-
deed, because it violates two most holy things. — Cic. Rose.
Am. 39.
nee se cSmitem illius furoris sed ducem praebuit. Itaque
hac amentia quaestione n6va perterritus in Asiam
profugit. Nulla est igitur excusatio peccati, si amlci
causa peccaveris, nor did he offer himself as an associate
of this mad enterprise, but a leader. Therefore he fled to
Asia, scared by a fresh accusation on account of this mad-
ness. It is then no excuse for a wrong, that you have done
it for a friend. — Id. de Amic. 11, 37.
6. Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact; quod, an allega-
tion ; quoniam, since, has reference to motives : as,
illos quamquam sunt hostes, tamen, quia sunt elves, moiiitos
volo, although they are enemies, still, because they are citi-
zens, I wish them to be admonished. — Cic. Cat. II. 12.
quoniam nondum est perscriptum senatus consultum, ex
memoria vobis quid senatus censuerit, exponam.
Primum mihi gratiae aguntur, quod virtute, consilio
protfidentia mea respublica maximis periciilis sit
liber ata, since the decree of the Senate has not yet been
written out, I will recite to you from memory what the
Senate voted. In the first place, thanks are rendered to me
on the ground that, by my courage, judgment, and foresight,
the commonwealth has been freed from the greatest peril. —
Id. III. 6.
7. Quum (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction;
quando is also used interrogatively : as,
cum tacent, clamant, when they are silent, they cry out. — Cic.
Cat. I. 8.
O rus, quando ego te adsplciam ? 0 country, when shall I see
— Hor. Sat. II. 6, 60.
50 FORMATION OF WORDS. §,44
8. Et . . . et means both . . . and ; turn . . . turn and (more com-
monly) cum . . . turn have the same meaning, but emphasize the
second member : as,
et privatim et publice, both in private and in public. — Cic.
Verr. V. 1.
turn deprecabitur a vobis, turn etiam pro suo jure coiitendet,
he will not only entreat from you, but will claim as his
9. Atque (ac) is used after words of similarity : as,
ratio ordoque agminis aliter se habebat ac Belgae ad Ner-
vios detulerant, the arrangement and order of the army
ivas otherwise than as the Belgians had reported to the
Nervii. — Cses. E.G. II. 19.
10. Autem, gnim, vero always stand second or third in the
clause ; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of tameii.
- See 2, 4, 5.
11. The same fondness for connecting one sentence closely
with the preceding which caused the use of relatives at the com-
mencement of a sentence (§48, iv.), led 'to the employment of
namque, etenim, neque, &c., in the same place: as,
namque me lupus fugit inermem, for a wolf fled from me,
although unarmed. — Hor. Carm. I. 22, 9.
44. FORMATION OF WORDS.
I. NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS.
1. Those ending in urn or etum signify a collection or
group: as,
arboretum, grove; arbustum, orchard (arbor).
2. Diminutives usually end in olus or Ulus, often with
the feminine and neuter terminations : as,
filiolus, little son (films) ; arbuscula, shrub (arbor) ; curricu-
lum, little car (currus), or race-course.
3. Patronymics generally end in ades or Ides (fern, is) : as,
Aeneades, aon of Aeneas (plural, companinns) ; Peleides (contr.
Pelides) son of Peleus; Tyndaris, daughter of Tyndant*.
§44 FORMATION OF WORDS. 51
II. NOUNS DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES.
Nouns derived from Adjectives have the termination ia,
Itas, or tudo : as,
brevitas, shortness (brevis) ; audacia, boldness (andax) ; mag-
nitude, greatness (magnus).
III. NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS
1 . Nouns formed by adding or (fern, rix) to the supine
stem, denote the person who does the action : as,
victor, victrix, conqueror (vinco).
2. Those formed by adding io or us (fourth dec.) to the
supine stem, express abstractly the idea of the verb : as,
motio or niotus, movement (m6veo).
3. Those formed by adding men or mentum to the present
stem, indicate the subject, object, or means of the action : as,
flumen, stream or river (fluo) ; documentum, proof (doceo).
IV. ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS.
1. The ending ens or aceus denotes material: as,
aureus, golden (aurum) ; chartaceus, of paper (charta) .
2. The endings Icus and ills denote belonging to : as,
civicus and civilis, belonging to a citizen (civis).
3. The terminations osus and lentus indicate fulness : as,
copiosus, abundant (copia) ; opuleiitus, wealthy (opes).
4. Many in tus are formed like participles : as,
auratus, gilded (aurum) ; auritus, long-eared (auris) ; cornutus,
horned (cornu).
5. Adjectives from proper names end in anus : as,
Pompeianus, of Pompey ; Romanus, Roman.
6. From names of places are also adjectives in ensis, Icus,
and as (gen. atis) : as,
Cannensis, of Cannce ; Pharsalicus, of Pharsalus ; Arpmas,
of Arpinum.
52 FORMATION OF WORDS. §44
V. ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS.
1. Verbal adjectives in bundus (chiefly from verbs of the
first conjugation) imply condition : as,
errabundus, apt to stray (erro) ; moribundus, at the point of
death (mSrior.)
2. Those in Idus (chiefly from neuter verbs), denote
quality: as,
calidus, warm (caleo) ; callidus, cunning (calleo) ; lucidus,
bright (luceo).
3. Those in ax, denote a propensity, generally aggressive :
as,
audax, bold (audeo) ; pugnax, full of fight (pugno).
4. Those in His and bills, denote possibility or aptness:
as,
fragllis, frail (frango) ; amabflis, lovely (amo).
VI. COMPOUND NOUNS.
Examples of these are —
patricida, one who kills his father (pater, caedo).
tubicen, trumpeter (tuba, cano).
tibicen, piper (tibia, cano).
armiger, armor-bearer (arma, gero).
sigmfer, standard bearer (signum, fero) .
pontifex, priest, (bridge-maker, pons, facio).
auceps, bird-catcher (avis, capio) .
There are numerous other derivative forms, but the above are
those which occur most frequently.
Many words are sometimes classed as Derivatives, which arc
formed by simply adding the termination of the noun, adjective,
or verb, to the same root or stem : as, from reg- rule, are formed
rego, 1 govern or direct; rex (gen. regis), Jang; regina, queen;
regalis, regius, royal ; regnum, royalty ; rggio, district under a
common rule.
PART SECOND.
USE OP WORDS. (SYNTAX.)
45, DEFINITIONS.
1. The Subject of a proposition is the person or thing
spoken of; the Predicate is that which is stated of the Subject.
2. A word is said to Agree with another, when it is in a
corresponding grammatical form ; it is said to Govern an-
other, when it requires it to be in a particular Case.
The word so governed is called the Object.
3. The verb esse, to be, when it connects an attribute with
its subject, is called the Copula ; otherwise, it is called the
Substantive Verb.
I. RULES OF AGREEMENT.
46. OF NOUNS.
A Noun used to describe another agrees with it in
Case ; this is called Apposition : as,
externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, fear of the
foreigner, the strongest bond of union. — Liv. II. 39.
quattuor hie, primum omen, equos vidi, I saiv here four horses,
the first omen. — Virg. 2En. III. 537.
Ancum Marcium regem popiilus creavit, the people created
Ancns Mareius king. — Liv. I. 32.
quae tua est ista vita? ivhat is that life of yours? — Cic. Cat.
I. 1, 7. (vita in the predicate, in apposition with the in-
terrogative pronoun quae.)
54 OP ADJECTIVES. §47
litter as Graecas senex didici, / learned Greek letters when an
old man (senex in appos. with ego understood).
Aristae us qui 61ivae dicitur inventor, Aristceus, who is called
the discoverer of the olive. — Cic. N. D. III. 18.
1. Also in Gender when it can: as,
oleae Minerva inventrix, Minerva the discoverer of the olive. —
Virg. G. I. 18.
2. A Noun in apposition with the locative case is put in the
ablative with or without the preposition in (§ 55, in. 3) : as,
Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe et copiosa, at Antioch,
once a famous and ivealthy city. — Cic. pro Arch. 3.
milites Albae constiteruiit in urbe mumta, the soldiers halted
at Alba, a fortified town. — Id. Phil. IV. 2.
3. The genitive is used in apposition with possessive pro-
nouns, taking the gender and number of the implied sub-
ject: as,
in nostro omnium fletu, amid the tears of its all. — Cic. pro
Mil. 34.
47. OF ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives, also Adjective Pronouns and Participles,
agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case :
as,
consularia munera, the consular duties ; hac lege, by this law ;
uno interfecto, one being slain.
I. AVith two or more nouns the adjective is plural : as,
Nisus et Euryalus primi, Nisus and Euryalus first. — Virg.
^En. V. 394.
II. With nouns of different genders it either (1) agrees
with the nearest: as,
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fait, if any thing, if
any man, if any time, was fit. — Cic. pro Mil. 7.
Or (2) it may be masculine, if they are living beings, neuter
if things without life : as,
§47 OP ADJECTIVES. 55
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se na-
tural! sunt juncta (N.), labor and pleasure are joined to
one another by a certain natural alliance. — Liv. V. 4.
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi, then his wife and children em-
braced him. — Id. II. 40.
Or (3) it may be masculine, even if the noun is of a different
gender, when the existence of male beings is implied : as,
cbloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latmi appellati, colonies
were established [of men] called Prisci Latitii. — Liv. I. 3.
pars certare parati, a part ready to contend. — Virg. ^En. V.
108.
This is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum.
III. Adjectives are often used as nouns, meaning persons
or things : as,
didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos, the rich miser has
already learned to compliment the eloquent. — Juv. VII. 30.
So, constantly, with the possessive pronouns, in military or
other special use : as,
nostri, the men of our party ; Caesar hortatur suos, Ccesar
cheers his men.
So a noun is sometimes used, and even compared, as an ad-
jective : as,
admodum puer, quite a boy ; xnagis vir, more of a man.
IV. A neuter adjective is used as a noun (1) to denote the
abstract quality : as,
tanta vis est honesti, ut speciem utilitatis obscuret, so great
is the force of honor, that it dims the show of gain. — Cic.
de Off. III. 11.
But where the meaning would be doubtful, the feminine is used
with res. Hence adjectives of the third declension are thus used
only in the nom. and ace. : as,
loquitur de omnibus rebus (not de omnibus), he talks about
every thing.
(2) In apposition with a noun of different gender : as,
varium et mutabile semper foemina, woman, ever fickle and
changeful. — Virg. ^En. IV. 569.
56 OF ADJECTIVES. §47
(3) In apposition with an infinitive clause or phrase : as,
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri, it is
one thing to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another to
be unwilling that he should pity. — Cic. pro Lig. 5.
V. Adjectives (especially those formed from proper names),
as well as the possessive pronouns, are often used instead of
a genitive : as,
acies Pompeiana, Pompey^s line of battle. — Caes. B.C. III. 94.
puerile regnum, the reign of a boy.
This is always the case with the personal pronouns : as,
d6mus mea (not mei) , my house.
Also, in such phrases as nostra refert, it concerns us. (See
§50,v. 4.)
VI. An adjective in Latin is sometimes best rendered by
other forms in English : as,
te quam laetus inviso, how joyfully I visit thee. — Catull. 31, 4.
primus venit, he ivas the first to come.
eos se invito adesse dixit, he said they were there against
his will.
VII. When two qualities of an object are compared, both
adjectives are usually in the comparative : as,
longior quam latior acies erat, the line was longer than it was
broad. — Liv. XXVII. 48.
VIII. Superlatives denoting order and succession, also
medius, caeterus, and rellquus, are used to designate a part :
as,
in coUe medio, on the middle of the hill. — C&s. B.G. I. 24.
summus mons, the top of the height. — Id. 22.
So, se*ra nocte, late at night.
IX. Alius . . . alius, one . . . another, implies that the predi-
cate is differently applied in each case : as,
duo reges alius alia via civitatem auxerunt, two kings en-
larged the state , each in his own way. — Liv. I. 21.
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent, as one helped one, and one
another. — Caes. B.G. II. 20.
§43 OP RELATIVES. 57
48. OF RELATIVES.
Relatives serve (1) as nouns in the subordinate
clause in which they stand ; (2) as connectives, re-
lating directly to some word in the main proposition,
which is called the Antecedent.
The use of relatives is much more frequent in Latin than it is
in English, owing to the fondness of the ancients for connecting a
sentence very closely to the preceding. (See §43, 11.)
I. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender, num-
ber, and person, their case depending on the construction of
the clause in which they stand : as,
utrum ille qui postiilat ad tantum belhim legatum quern
velit idoneus non est qui impetret? is not he who
claims for such a ivar the deputy whom he will, Jit to get
him? — Cic. pro Lege Manil. 19.
adsum qui feci, here am 1 wlio did it. — ^En. IX. 427.
II. The relative often agrees in gander with the noun
(appositive) in its own clause rather than with the antece-
dent : as,
mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas, the sea, too, wliicli
you said was Neptune. — Cic. N. D. III. 20.
III. The antecedent is often repeated in the relative
clause : as,
loci natura grat haec quern locum nostri castris delegeraiit,
the nature of the ground ivhich our men had chosen for the
camp loas this. — Cses. B. G. II. 18.
caussam dicit ea lege qua lege senatores soli teneiitur,
he pleads his case under a law by which only senators ai e
bound. — Cic. pro Cluent. 57.
Sometimes it stands only in the relative clause : as,
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus atblgit hie versibus,
he has touched in verse the things which we did in our con-
sulship.— Cic. Arch. 11.
habetis milites quam petistis f acultatem, soldiers ! you have
the chance you wanted. — C.ics. B.G. VI. 8.
58 VERBS. §49
In such cases, the demonstrative is or hie usually stands
in the principal clause : as,
quae pars civitatis calamitatem pbpiilo Romano intulerat
ea princeps poenas persolvit, that part of the state which
had brought disaster on the Roman people ivas the first to
pay the penalty. — Caes. E.G. I. 12.
In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in Latin gene-
rally stands first; but in translating, the noun should be trans-
ferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the
example just quoted.
IV. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or
sentence where in English a demonstrative must be used : as,
quorum quod simile factum? what ever happened like this?
-Cic. Cat. IV. 8.
quod si fecit — qua impiidentia est — eumne testem im-
prdbabit quem judicem probarit? If he does this —
and he is shameless enough for it — will lie challenge one as
witness whom he has approved as juror ? — Cic. Ros.
Com. 15.
V. Id quod or quae res is used instead of quod to relate
to an idea or group of words previously expressed : as,
[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam, an Pompeio ? an utrique
— id quod est verius ? [insult has been oifered] shall I
say to Gabinius, or Pompey ? or to both, which is nearer the
tmtht—C'ic. de Leg. Manil. 19.
49. VERBS.
Verbs agree with their subject in person and num-
ber ; in gender also in the periphrastic forms : as,
gg5 statuo, / resolve; oratio est hablta, the plea was spoken.
I. With two or more singular subjects the verb will be in
the plural; and if they are of different persons, it will be
in the first rather than the second, or the second than tbe
third : as,
si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, -if you, and
Tullla are well, I and Cicero are well. — Cic. Fain. XIV. f>.
§ 50 GENITIVE. 59
But the verb will be singular if the subjects are considered
as one whole : as,
haec tua justitia et lemtas ammi florescit quotidie magis,
this justice and gentleness of yours flowers daily more and
more. — Cic. pro Marc. 4.
So, too, if they are joined by disjunctives : as,
neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordia
repressit, not faith, nor oath, nor mercy, checked him. —
Ter. Ad. 111. 2, 8.
A collective noun may in poetry take a plural verb: as,
quaerunt pars adicum, a part seek the entrance. — Virg. ^En.
IX. 507.
II. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted,
unless emphatic: thus,
loquor = I speak ; eg6 loquor = it is I that speak.
III. The infinitive is sometimes used instead of the per-
sonal form in narrative ; this is called the Historical Infini-
tive: as,
turn Catilina polliceri tabiilas novas, then Catiline promised
an abolition of debts. — Sallust, Cat. 21.
ego instare, ut mihi responderet, / pressed him to answer me.
— Cic. in Verr. II. 77.
II. RULES OF GOVERNMENT.
50. GKNITIVE.
The Genitive, in its primary meaning, denotes
Origin or Possession. It is used —
I. To define more precisely the meaning of a noun (SuB-
JFCTIVE GENITIVE) : as,
potentia Pompei formidolosa erat, the power of Pompei/ was
alarming. — Sail. Cat. 19.
nondum maturus imperio Ascanius Aeneae filius erat, As-
can his, son of Aeneas, was not yet ripe for command. —
Liv. I. 3.
GO GENITIVE. § 50
1. A phrase or clause with esse, to be, is often limited by the
genitive ; this occurs most frequently with adjectives and abstract
nouns : as,
neque sui judicii [esse] decernere, it was not for his judg-
ment to decide. — Caes. B.C. I. 35.
timidi est optare necem, it belongs to a coward to desire death.
-Ov. Met. IV. 115.
The genitive used in this way often takes the place of a neuter
adjective : as, sapientis est (not sapiens est), it is wise.
Instead of the genitive of personal pronouns, the neuter of the
possessive is used : as,
mentiri non est meum, it is not mine to lie. — Ter.
2. The genitive of quality requires an adjective : as,
vlr summae honestatis, a man of the highest honor.
The ablative is also used in this way : as,
vlr summo consilio, a man of the highest prudence. (§ 54, nf)
3. The genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposi-
tion ; as,
nomen insaniae, the word insanity. — Cic. Tusc. III. 4.
4. A genitive of specification, after adjectives, is common in
the poets and late prose writers : as,
integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright of life and clear of
guilt.— Ror. Od. I. 22, 1.
II. To denote the Whole, after words signifying a Part
(PARTITIVE GENITIVE). These are —
1. Nouns or Pronouns: as,
pars militum, part of the soldiers ; quis nostrum ? which of m ?
2. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as,
alter consulurn, one of the (two) consuls.
plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet, is strongest in cavalry
of all GauL — C&es. E.G. V. 3.
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns : as,
tantum spatii, so much space ; aliquid nummorum, a few pence ;
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
§50 GENITIVE. 61
4. Adverbs, especially of Place and Quantity : as,
satis pecuniae, enough money ; ubinam gentium sumus? where
in the world are we ? inde loci, next in order.
Instead of the Partitive Genitive, ex with the ablative is often
used : as,
uiius ex tribunis, one of the tribunes.
III. To denote the object of some action implied by the
governing word (OBJECTIVE GENITIVE). Words of this
class are —
1. Nouns expressing action or mental emotion: as,
gratia bSneficii, gratitude for a favor.
laudator temporis acti, one who praises the past. — Hor. de
Arte Poetica, 173.
injuria mulierum Sabmarum, the wrong done the Sdbine women.
memoria nostri tua, your memory of us. — Cic. Fam. XII. 17.
vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant, they parried the
attack on their comrades as if it were their own peril. —
Caes. B.C. III. 110.
So, rarely, with the possessive pronouns : as,
periciilo invidiae meae, with risk of odium against me. — Cic.
Cat. II. 2.
2. Adjectives of Fulness or Want, and those expressing feeling
or desire : as,
sermonis plenus orator, a speaker full of words. — Cic. Brut. 68.
erat plena lictorum et imperiorum provincia, the province
was full of lie-tors and officials. — Caes. B.C. III. 32.
Cethegus qui dixisset se semper bonorum ferramentorum
studiosum fuisse, Cetliegus, who had said that he had al-
ways been a fancier of good cutlery. — Cic. Cat. III. 5.
3. Verbal Adjectives, especially with the terminations ax and
ns : as,
erat in oppido multitude insolens belli, there was in the town
a population unused to war. — Caes. B.C. II. 36.
habetis ducem membrem vestri oblitum sui, you have a leader
who thinks of you and forgets himself. — Cic. Cat. IV. 9.
justum ac tenacem propositi virum, a man just and steadfast
1o his purpose. — Hor. Od. III. 3, 1.
(]-2 GENITIVE. §50
So the participle of active verbs, when expressing not an act,
but a quality or disposition : as,
amans concordiae, a lover of peace.
The relation of the Objective Genitive may also be expressed
by prepositions : as,
odium in Caesarem, hatred of Ccesar.
IV. As the object of the following classes of verbs : —
1. Of remembering, forgetting, and reminding, — when used
generally, to denote the subject on which the mind is exercised :
as,
obliviscere caedis atque incendiarum, turn your mind from
slaughter and conflagrations. — Cic. Cat. I. 8.
But the accusative must be used with these verbs to express a
particular thing remembered or forgotten : as,
hoc te admoneo, / remind you of this.
2. Of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, to express the
charge, and sometimes the penalty : as,
C. Marium sceleris ac parricidii nefarii mortuum coiidem-
nabimus ? shall ice convict Caius Marius, now dead, of
crime and infamous treason? — Cic. pro Rabir. 10.
C. Gracchum capitis damnaverunt, they condemned Caius
Gracchus to death.
The crime may be expressed by the ablative with de ; the pun-
ishment by the ablative alone : as,
de ambitu criminabatur, he was charged ivith bribery.
vitia autem hommum atque fraudes damnis, ignommiis,
vinciilis, verberibus, exiliis, morte, damnantur, while
the vices and crimes of men are punished with fines, dis-
honor', chains, scourgings, exile, death. — Cic. de Or. I. 43.
3. Misereor, miseresco, pity : also, the Impersonals miseret,
pity ; piget, disgust ; poemtet, repent ; pudet, shame ; taedet or
pertaesum est, weary, with the accusative of the person affected :
as,
me meorum factorum atque consiliorum numquam poeiiite-
bit, / shall never repent of my acts and counsels. — Cic.
Cat. IV. 10.
§ 51 DATIVE. 63
4. Interest and refert, it concerns, — the subject of the verb
being a neuter pronoun, an infinitive clause, or the subjunctive
with ut: as,
omiiem poteiitiam ad unum conferri pads interfuit, it was
the interest of peace that all power should be put in one
mail's hands. — Tac. Hist. I. 1.
Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun, the possessive
is used in this construction, in the abl. sing. fern. : as,
quid id refert tua ? how does it concern you ? — Plant. Rud. 178.
Refert is rarely used in any other way.
NoTE. — Interest is used in the three following ways : —
(1.) Impersonally, with the genitive: as, interest exercitus,
it is for the advantage of the army ;
(2.) Personally, with the dative: as, interest exercitui, he is
present with the army ;
(3.) With the accusative and prepositions: as, interest inter
exercitum et castra, either, he is between — or, there is a
difference betiveen — the army and camp.
5. Some verbs of plenty and want : as,
quid est quod defensionis iiidigeat? what is there that needs
defence^ — Cic. Ros. Am. 12.
6. Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of; as always in the
expression potiri rerurn, to be masters of affairs. — Cic. Fain. T. 8.
The Genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie, the day
before ; postridie, the day after : as,
postridie ejus diei, the next day. — Caes. B.G. II. 12.
NOTE. — For the Genitive of Price, see § 54, ix.
51. DATIVE.
The dative (TO or FOR) denotes the person or thing
whose interest is affected. It is used —
I. With words expressing likeness, fitness, nearness, and
the like : as,
sinrilis patri, like his father, — (similis patris would imply like-
ness of character).
rss incommodas* urbi, things harmful to the city.
64 DATIVE. §51
With some adjectives of this class prepositions may also be
used: as,
aptus ad rem militarem, fit for military service.
si imquus es in me judex, if you are an unfair judge towards
me. — Cic. Fam. II. 1.
When the dative is required by the structure of the sentence
as a whole, rather than by any single word, it is called the dative
of advantage and disadvantage (dativus commodi et incom-
mbdi) : as,
sine dote posco tuam sbrorem filio, / ask your daughter for
my son without a dowry. — Plaut. Trin. II. 4, 98.
laudavit mini fratrem, lie praised my brother (out of regard for
me : laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive).
Othoni in Hispaniam comes, a companion of Otho^s into Spain.
— Tac. Hist. I. 22.
To signify in defence of, pro must be used, as : pro pa-
tria mori, to die for one's country. — Hor. Carm. III. 2, 13.
Mini, tibi, nobis, and vobis are used in questions and expres-
sions of wonder and praise, to denote a certain interest felt: as,
quid mini Celsus agit ? pray, what is Celsus about ? — Hor.
Ep. I. 3, 15. This is called the Ethical Dative (dativus ethicus).
II. As the indirect object of transitive verbs which take
the accusative of the direct object : as,
hunc librum tibi mitto, / send you this book — (i.e., /or your
use; motion towards being expressed by ad with the ac-
cusative).
Pompeio in hortos nunciavit, he sent word to Pompey to the
gardens. — Cic. Mil. 24.
A few verbs of this class, as dono, present, induo, clothe,
circumdo, surround, may also take the accusative and ablative :
as,
donat coronas militibus, he gives wreaths to the soldiers ; or,
donat milites cbronis, he presents the soldiers with wreath*.
III. With many verbs (transitive in English) which sig-
nify favor, obedience, command, pardon, envy, and the like : as,
cur mini invides? why do you envy me ?
civltati serviebat, he served the state.
§ £1 DATIVE. 65
So occasionally with nouns derived from such verbs ; as,
invidia mini, envy towards me.
These verbs can be used in the passive only impersonally,
in which case the dative may be retained : as,
cui parci potuit ? ivho could be spared ? — Liv. XXI. 14. (§ 73, i.)
For the dative with other Impersonals, see § 39, 1.
Sometimes the accusative of the thing is used with the dative
of the person after such verbs as impero, command or require;
invideo, envy or grudge ; aequo, make equal ; minor, threaten ;
cedo, yield : as,
imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the
townspeople.
IV. With many verbs usually governing the accusative
when advantage or disadvantage is implied : thus, consulo,
with ace. consult, with dat. consult one's interest ; convenio,
with ace. meet, with dat. suit ; metuo, timeo, with ace. fear,
with dat. be apprehensive for ; moderor, tempero, with ace.
arrange, with dat. control. So caveo, beware, prosplcio,
foresee, and others.
Medeor, medico, heal ; praestolor, wait ; and ausculto,
hearken, may take either dative or accusative.
V. After many verbs compounded with the following
prepositions, and retaining their force in the compound : ad,
ante, con, in, inter, ob, post,prae, re (inseparable), sub, and
super: as,
omnibus interfui proeliis, I took part in all the battles. — Cses.
B.C. III. 87.
hibernis Labienum praeposuit, he placed Labienus in charge
of the winter-quarters. — -Caps. E.G. I. 54.
Also active compounds of circum, de, and ex: as,
classe Caesari erepta, the fleet being snatched away from Ccesar*
— Cses. B.C. III. 111.
But when there is a distinct indication of place, the preposition is
repeated: as,
detrahere aiinulum de digito, to withdraw a ring from the
G3 ACCUSATIVE. §52
VI. After esse, to be, denoting the possessor : as,
est mihi liber, / have a book.
erat Dario mite et tractabile ingenium, Darius had a gentle
and yielding temper. — Curt. III. 2.
This is the usual form to denote possession ; habeo, I have,
generally signifying, rather, / hold. So with the nominative of
the gerund or gerundive : as,
mini est moriendum, it is for me to die ; (i.e. I must die).
VII. To signify the purpose or end, frequently joined with
another dative of the person : as,
tertiam aciem nostris subsidio mTsit, he sent the third line as
a relief to our men. — Cses. E.G. I. *52.
turn sunt carmina cordi, then songs are a deligld. — Lucr. V.
1389.
VIII. After the gerundive, to denote the person to whom
the necessity exists : as,
haec vobis provincia est defendenda, this province is for you
to defend [to be defended by you]. — Cic. Leg. Man. 6, 14.
Similarly with perfect participles ; with videri, seem ; and, in
the poets and later writers, with almost any passive verb : as,
nulla tuarum audita mihi neque visa sororum, no one of thy
sisters has been either heard or seen by me. — Virg. zEn. I.
326.
52. ACCUSATIVE.
The Accusative is the case of the direct object. It
is used —
I. After transitive verbs : as,
legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy. — Caes. E.G. I. 3.
Many neuter verbs are sometimes used transitively : as,
meum casum luctumque doluerunt, they have bewailed my mis-
fortune and grief. — Cic. Sest. 69, 145.
Titius, Pindaric! foiitis qui non expalluit haustus, Tithis,
who did not turn pale at draughts of the Pindaric fount. —
Jlor. Ep. I. 3, 10.
§52 ACCUSATIVE. 67
So occasionally in the passive : as,
ridetur ab omni conventu, lie is laughed at by the whole assem-
ble/. — Hor. Sat. I. 7, 22.
This occurs especially with verbs of tasting, smelling, &c : as,
Epicurus, h5nio minime reaipiens patriam, Epicurus, a man
who smacked very little [i.e. possessed very little of the
characteristic wit] of his native country . — Cic. N.D. II. 17.
Also with accusatives of meaning kindred to that of the verb: as,
vivere vitam, to live a life. — Cic. de Sen. 21.
II. After many neuter verbs, which become active when
compounded with prepositions. These include —
1. Verbs of motion : as,
delubra deum adibis, thou wilt visit the shrines of the gods. —
Lucr. VI. 75.
2. Compounds of circum: as,
cives qui circumstant senatum, the citizens who group about
tJie Senate. — Cic. Cat. I. 8.
III. As a secondary object (1) after verbs of asking and
teaching ; also celo, hide : as,
hoc vos doceo, I teach you this. — Cic. de Orat. II. 47.
nihil supra decs lacesso, nee potentem amicum largiora
flagito, 1 do not importune the gods for any thing more,
nor do I demand more liberal gifts from a powerf id friend.
— Hor. Carm. II. 18, 11.
So with passives : as,
Cato, rogatus sententiam, oratioiiem habuit, Cato, being asked
his opinion, delivered a speech. — Sail. Cat. 52.
The ablative with a preposition is often used after these verbs :
always, to express the person, after peto, postulo, and quaere: as,
pacem ab Romanis petierunt, they begged peace from the Eo-
mans. — CMS. E.G. II. 13.
(2) After active verbs compounded with trans, across: as,
Hiberum copias trajecit, he threw his forces across the Iber. -—
Liv. XXI. 28.
(3) In Apposition after verbs of choosing, &c. (See §46.)
68 VOCATIVE. §53
IV. In neuter pronouns and adjectives of number (in an
adverbial sense), especially with neuter verbs : as,
quidve moror, or why do I delay ? — Yirg. JEn. II. 101.
pauca milites hortatus, having briefly exhorted the soldiers. —
Sail. Jug. 49.
So id temporis, at this time. — Cic. Cat. I. 4, 10.
Similar to this is the so-called Synecdochical or Greek Accusa-
tive, used by the poets to denote the part affected : as,
flavaque caput iiecteiitur oliva, and their heads shall be
wreathed with yellow olive. — Yirg. .ZEu. V. 309.
So with the passive (used reflectively) of cingo and similar
verbs : as,
inutile ferrum cingitur, he girds on his useless sword. — Virg.
./En. II. 510.
V. In exclamations : as,
O fortunatam rempublicam ! 0 fortunate republic ! — Cic. Gat.
II. 4.
VI. As subject of the infinitive in dependent clauses,
after verbs of knowing, thinking, hearing, wishing, and tell-
ing (verba sentiendi et declarandi).
See, for examples of this use, Oratio Obliqua (§67, i. 2), an:l
Intermediate Clauses (§70, in.).
NOTE. — For the accusatives of time and place, see §55. — For
the accusative after prepositions, see § 56.
53. VOCATIVE.
The Vocative is used in direct address : as,
Septimi, Gades adftiire mecum, 0 Septimius, who art about to
go with me to Gades. — Hor. Carm. II. 6, 1.
Sometimes the nominative is used instead : as,
almae fllius Maiae, 0 son of benignant Maia. — Hor. Carm. I.
2, 43.
audi, tu populus Albanus, hear, thou people of Alba. — Liv. I. 24.
§ 54 ABLATIVE. 69
54. ABLATIVE.
The Ablative, in general, implies either instrument
or separation.- It is used —
I. To express cause, means, arid specification : as,
vultu Milonis perterritus, scared by the countenance of Milo.
— Cic. Mil. 15, 41.
nee tantum Phoebo gaudet Pariiasia rupes, nor does the cliff
of Parnassus delight so muck in Phoebus. — Virg. Buc.
VI. 29.
ferro rumpenda per hostes est via, a road must be cut through
the enemy with the sword. — Id. ^En. X. o71.
suo jure noster ille Ennius sanctos appeUat poetas, with pecu-
liar right our Ennius calls pods holy. — Cic. Arch. 8, 18.
certe non tulit ullos haec civitas aut gloria clariores, aut
auctoritate graviores, aut humanitate politiores, cer-
* tainly this city never produced any more illustrious in glory,
or weighty in authority, or refined in culture. — Cic. de
Orat. II. 37.
The motive which influences the mind of "the person acting is
expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion
requires ob or propter with the accusative : as,
11011 ob praedam aut spoliaiidi cupidiiie, not for booty, or
through the desire of plundering. — Tac. Hist. I. 63.
So causa and gratia with a genitive, or causa with a posses-
sive : as,
legates ad Caesarem sui purgaiidi gratia mittuiit, they send
deputies to Ccesar for the purpose of clearing themselves.
-Caes. E.G. VII. 43.
mea causa, for my sake. — Ter. Eun. V. 8, 40 (1070).
With living beings, instrumentality is expressed by per, or by
opera with a genitive or possessive : as,
per Antiochum, by the aid of Antiochus. — Liv. XXXIII. 18.
mea opera, by my aid. — Cic. de Sen. 4. So per vim (as well
as the ablative vi), by force. — Caes. E.G. I. 14.
NOTE. — For the ablative of crime and penalty, see § 50, iv. 2.
70 ABLATIVE. §54
II. With an adjective or a limiting genitive, to denote
manner and quality : as,
pbpulus magna voce me vere jurasse juravit, the people swore
with a loud voice that I had sworn truly. — Cic. Fain. V. 2.
more h6mmum invident, after the manner of men they envy. —
Cic. pro Balbo, 26.
ammo meliore sunt quam pars patriciorum, they are better
disposed than a portion of the patricians. — Cic. Cat. II. 12.
hommis esse specie decs confitendum est, we must admit
that the gods are of human form. — Cic. N.D. I. 18.
Manner is also expressed by cum, and in a few cases by the
ablative alone : as,
minus cum cura, less carefully. — Plaut. M.G. III. 1, 6.
hoc 6nus feram studio et industria, / will bear this burden
zealously and diligently. — Cic. Rose. Am. 4.
Accompaniment properly requires cum : as,
nostri cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumeii traiisgressi,
our troops having 'crossed the river with the slingers and
archers. — Cses. B.G. II. 19. (But subsequebatur om-
nibus copiis, he followed close with all his forces. — Id.)
There is no essential distinction between the ablative and the
genitive of quality (§ 50, I. 2), except that the genitive is exclu-
sively used to denote measure, classification, or requirement : as,
suadere principi multi laboris, to persuade a prince is a thing
requiring great labor. — Tac. Hist. I. 15.
III. With the verbs utor, use ; fruor, enjoy ; fungor,
fulfil ; potior, get ; vescor, feed, and most of their com-
pounds : as,
utar vestra benignitate, / will avail myself of your kindness.
— Cic. Arch. 8.
Potior also governs the genitive, as always in the expression,
potiri rerum, to possess the power. — Cic. Fam. I. 8.
IV. After the adjectives dignus, worthy ; indignus, un-
worthy, and fretus, relying upon : as,
dea carmine digna est, the goddess is worthy of song. — Ov.
Met. V. 344.
ABLATIVE. 71
V. After comparatives, instead of quam, than: as,
ocior euro [equivalent to ocior quam eurus], swifter than the
east wind. — Virg. M\\. VIII. 223.
The adverbs plus, amplius, more; minus, less, with several
comparatives of measure or distance, are often used without
quam, leaving the grammatical structure of the sentence un-
changed.
plus septingenti capti, more than seven hundred were taken. —
Liv. XLI. 12.
plus tertia parte interfecta, more than a third being slain. —
Cses. E.G. III. 6.
spatium non amplius pedum sexcentorum, a space not
broader than 600 feet. — Id. 38.
The ablative also shows the degree of difference : as,
quo minus ciipiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis, the less greed, t/ie '
more iveight. — Liv. XXIV. 28.
VI. After words implying separation, and plenty or
want : as,
Forum Appi, differtum nautis, Forum Appii, crowded with
sailors. — Hor. Sat. I. 5, 3.
Ephorus calcaribus eget, Ephorus needs spurs. — Quint. X. 1.
curis hommum gaudia misces, thou minglest joys with the cares
of men. — Cat. 64.
magno me metu Hberabis, you will free me from great fear.
— Cic. Cat. I. 5.
Prepositions express the place more definitely : as,
exire ex urbe, to go out from the city. — Cic. Cat. I. 5.
NOTE. — For the genitive of plenty or want, see § 50, in. 2.
VII. After opus and usus, need: as,
iiuiic viribus usus, now there is need of strength. — Virg. -ZEn.
VIII. 441.
So, often, with the neuter of the perfect participle : as,
cauto opust, we need caution. — Plaut. Capt. II. 1, 28.
Opus (rarely usus) may also stand in apposition with the
thing needed : as,
illud quod maxime 6pus est, that which is most needed. — Ter.
Ad. IV. 7, 22 (740).
72 ABLATIVE. §54
VIII. Often, without a preposition, after perfect partici-
ples denoting origin : as,
Cerere nati, the children of Ceres. — Cic. N.D. II. 24.
With distant ancestors prepositions must be used : as,
ab his majoribus orti, born of these ancestors. — Hor. Sat. I.
5, 55.
IX. To denote price : as,
signa sestertiuni sex millbus quingentis veiidita, the statues
were sold for six thousand Jive hundred sesterces. — Cic.
Verr. IV. 6.
stabunt tibi tua foedera magno, your treaty ivill cost you
dear. — Ov. Met. VII. 486.
To express indefinite price or value, the genitive is used : —
1. Of neuter adjectives, with verbs of valuing: as,
magni interest esse kalendis Januariis in republica duo
consiiles, it is of great importance that on the Jirst day of
January there should be two consuls in the commonwealth.
— Cic. Mur. 37.
With other verbs, the ablative must be used, except these genitives :
tanti, 50 much ; quanti, how much ; pluris, more ; minoris, less.
2. Of certain nouns : as,
falso an vero laudent non flocci faciunt, whether they praise
truly or falsely, they care not a straw. — Plaut. Trin. 210.
The genitives so used are iiihili, nothing, assis, farthing,
flocci, lock of wool, and a few others.
X. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. — Two ablatives, generally a
noun and participle, often stand in apposition with each other,
having no grammatical dependence on the sentence in which
they occur. This is called the Ablative Absolute : as,
Fharsalico proelio facto, a Caesare discessit, after the battle
of Pharsalia had been fought, he departed from Cwsar. —
Cic. pro Deiot. 5.
dis immortalibus ducibus, under the guidance of the immortal
gnds. — U. Cat. II. 9.
ad viginti matronis accitis, having summoned about twenty
ladies.— Liv. VIII. 18.
§55 TIME AND PLACE. 73
Sometimes the participle or an adjective is in apposition with a
phrase or clause : as,
incerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain what they sought.
Liv. XXVIII. 36.
NOTE. — For the ablative, to denote the agent after passive
verbs, see § 56, iv. — For prepositions governing the ablative,
see §42, n. — For the ablative of Time and Place, see § 55.
55. TIME AND PLACE.
I. Time when takes the ablative ; time how long, the ac-
cusative : as,
adveiitu in Galliam Caesaris, at the arrival of Crnsar in Gaul.
— Ca?s. E.G. Y. 54.
dies pontiiiuos triginta, for thirty days together. — Id. 13.
paucis post diebus, a few days after. — Caes. B.C. III. 82.
Post is here an adverb ; it may also be post paucos dies. The
same usage exists with ante, before.
1. The use of a preposition gives more precision : as,
in diebus proximis decem, within the next ten days. — Sail.
Jug. 28.
ludi per decem dies, games through ten days. — Cic. Cat. III. 8.
2. Rarely the ablative expresses duration of time : as,
quattuordecim aniiis exsilium toleravit, he endured exile four-
teen years. — Tac. Ann. I. 53.
II. Extent of space takes the accusative : as,
fossas quindecim pedes lafcas, trenches ff teen feet broad. —
• Ctcs. E.G. VII. 72.
Measure is often expressed by the genitive : as,
vallo pedum xii, in circuitu xv milium sese contmebaiit,
they kept close in an entrenchment of twelve feet [height] ,
and of fifteen miles'1 circuit. — Cses. B.G. II. 30.
Distance takes the accusative or ablative : as,
Zama quinque dierum iter a Carthagiiie abest, Zama is a
five days'1 journey distant from Carthage. — Liv. XXX. 29.
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum, thirty miles below
that place. — Cses. B.G. VI. 35.
4
74 TIME AND PLACE. §55
III. To express relations of place, prepositions are neces-
sary, except with the names of towns and small islands ; also
domus, home, rus, the country, and a few other nouns in
special relations. With these nouns —
1. The name of the place from which is in the ablative : as,
Bruiidusio profectus es, you set out from Brundusium. — Cic.
Att. I. 15, 2.
--"2. The name of the place to which is in the accusative : as,
cum e Cilicia decedens Rhodum veiiissem, whent on my way
from Cilicia, I had reached Ilhodes. — Cic. Brut. 1.
rus eras cum f ilio ibo, to-morrow I will go into the country with
my son. — Ter. Ad. Y. 3, 54.
Prepositions must be used to denote neighborhood : as,
ad Tarentum, to (not into) Tarentum. — Cic. de Senect. 4:
3. The name of the place where was originally put in a special
case called the Locative. This case ended in I, and is generally
the same in form with the Dative : as,
Romae, at Eome ; Karthagim, at Carthage ; Athenis, at Athens ;
Curibus, at Cures.
In the second declension the old form in I is retained : as,
Corinthi, at Corinth ; Laiiuvi, at Lanuvium.
In the third declension this case sometimes ends in e, like the
ablative, especially when the metre requires it in poetry : as,
Tibiire vel Gabiis, at Tibur or Gabii. — Hor. Ep. II. 2, 3.
So domi, at home ; belli, militiae, in military service ; humi,
on the ground; run, in the country (rure is from the country).
hiemare Dyrrachii, Apolloiiiae, omnibusque oppidis mariti-
mis, to winter in Dyrrachium, Apollonia, and all the seaboard
towns. — Cses. B.C. III. 5.
erat edictum Pompei nomine Amphipoli propositum, an order
had been put up in Pompei fs name at Amphipolis. — Id. 102.
Veils de coelo lapidaverat, it had rained stones at Veii. — Liv.
XXVII. 37.
te domi maiiebo, I will wait for you at home. — Hor. Ep. I. 5, 3.
4. A possessive may stand with domus : as,
nos domum tuam voces, call us to thy home. — Tac. Agr. 46.
§ 56 PREPOSITIONS. 75
When it is modified in any other way, a preposition is gene-
rally used : as,
in M. Laecae domum, into the house of Marcus Lceca. — Cic.
Cat. I. 4.
5. The preposition is omitted before the ablative of a few other
nouns : as,
terra marique, by land and sea. — Tib. I. 3, 56.
tota Sicilia, through all Sicily. — Cic. Verr. IY. 23.
So, very commonly, in poetry : as,
litore curve, on the curving shore. — Virg. 2En. III. 16.
IV. The way by which is pat in the ablative : as,
Aurelia via profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian way. — Cic.
Cat. II. 4.
56. PREPOSITIONS.
I. Twenty-six prepositions govern the accusative ; eleven
the ablative. (See § 40.)
1. In and sub take the accusative when they denote motion;
the ablative when they denote rest : as,
Aristides in contionem veiiit, Aristides came into the assem-
Uy. — C\c. de Off. III. 11.
Themistocles dixit in contione, Themistocles said in the as-
sembly. — Id.
sub moiite consedit, he encamped at the foot of a mountain. —
• Gas. E.G. I. 48.
sub vesperum Caesar portas claudi jussit, towards evening
Ccesar ordered the gates to be shut. — Id. II. 33.
But after verbs of placing, in usually takes the ablative : as,
exercitum in hibernis collocavit, he established the army in
» winter-quarters. — Cass. E.G. III. 29.
2. Super governs the ablative when it means concerning ; other-
wise the accusative : as,
hac super re, concerning this matter. — Cic. Att. XVI. 16.
summa super culmma tecti, over the roof of the house. — Virg.
2En. II. 694.
76 PREPOSITIONS. §56
3. Subter governs the accusative ; but sometimes the ablative
in poetry : as,
subter fastigia tecti, below the roof of tJie house. — Virg. ^En.
VIII. 366.
subter litore, below the shore. — Catull. 65, 7.
4. In giving the day of the month, the preposition ante, before,
is usually omitted : as,
xv. kalendas Augustas, the fifteenth day before the kalends
of August (July 18).— Tac. Hist. II. 91.
Often ante diem (a. d.) , with an ordinal, is used like a preposi-
tion governing an accusative : as,
is dies erat a. -d. v. kal. Apr., this day was the fifth day before
the kalends of April (March 28). — Caes. E.G. I. 6.
This phrase may even be governed by a preposition : as,
in a. d. v. kalendas N&vembres, to the fifth day before the ka-
lends of November (October 28). — Cic. Cat. I. 3.
5. Tenus (which follows its noun) sometimes governs the geni-
tive : as,
Corcyrae tenus, as far as Corcyra. — Liv. XXVI. 24.
But regularly it takes the ablative : as,
capulo tenus, up to the hilt. — Virg. JEn. V. 553.
II. Certain adverbs are sometimes construed like prepo-
sitions : —
1. Fridie, postridie, propius, proxime, versus, and usque,
and (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus, may
be followed by the accusative : as,
pridie Nonas Junias, the day before the Nones of June (June 4).
— Cic. Fam. III. 4. 1.
2 The adverb palam may govern the ablative : as,
palam duobus exercitibus, in the presence of two armies. -^Liv.
XXV. 18.
3. Clam may take either accusative or ablative : as,
clam matrem suam, ivithout her mothers knowledge. — Plaut.
M.G. 112 (II. 1,33).
clam vobis, ivithout your knowledge. — Cses. E.G. II. 32.
§57 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 77
III. Some prepositions which imply comparison, as ante,
before ; post, after, — like the adverb prius, before, — are
followed, like comparatives, by quam ; several words, or even
clauses, sometimes coming between : as,
neque ante dimisit eum quam f idem dedit, nor did Tie let him
go until he gave a pledge. — Liv. XXXIX. 10.
IV. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after
passive verbs, to denote the agent, if a person, or if spoken
of as a person : as,
Turpilius, jussus a Metello causam dicere, Turpilius, being
ordered by the consul to plead his cause. — Sail. Jug. 69.
This use of the ablative of the agent must be carefully distin-
guished from the ablative of instrument : as,
occisus gladio, slain by a sivord ; but occisus ab hoste, slain
by an enemy.
NOTE. — For the so-called dative of the agent with the gerund-
ive, see §§ 51, vi. 73, i.
III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
57. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. (See §27.)
The Tenses of Finite Moods are distributed into
two classes : —
1. PRIMARY, including the Present, both Futures, and
Perfect (definite).
2. SECONDARY, including the Imperfect, Perfect (histori-
cal), and Pluperfect.
In compound Sentences, a Primary tense in the
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the
dependent clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed
by a Secondary : as,
venit ut nos videat, he comes to see us.
venit ut nos videat, he is come to see us.
venit ut nos videret, he came to see us.
veni ut nos videas, come to see us.
78 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. §£7
I. The Perfect Subjunctive is regularly a primary tense,
and is used to express any past action depending upon a verb
in a primary tense : as,
ex epistolis intellegi licet, quam frequens fuerit Platonis
auditor, it may be judged from his epistles how constant a
listener to Plato he was. — Cic. Orat. 4.
But occasionally it is used in an aoristic sense : as,
eo discordiae ventum, ut ad Vitellium perfugerit, the dis-
cussion reached such a height that he fled to Vitellius. —
Tac. Hist. I. 60.
In this way a perfect subjunctive or infinitive, depending upon
a primary tense, may itself be" followed by secondary tenses : as,
sic mihi perspicere videor, ita natos esse nos ut inter
omnes esset societas quaedam, I think that I see that
we were so born that there exists among all a certain alli-
ance. — Cic. de Amic. 5.
The perfect subjunctive is also used for a future perfect : as,
ostendit si sublata sit venditio bonorum, ilium pecuniam
grandem amissurum, he shows that if the sale of the
property shall be stopped, he will lose much money [si
sublata erit, amittet] . — Cic. Rose. Am. 38.
II. The Present is often used in narrative for the Histori-
cal Perfect, and may be followed by Secondary Tenses : as,
Senatus decernit iiti in Hberis custodiis haberentur, the
Senate decrees that they should be held in free custody. —
Sail. Cat. 47.
III. The Tenses denoting completed action are used much
more accurately in Latin than in English : as,
si eris meritus, fiet, if you deserve [shall have deserved], it
shall be done. — Plaut. Trin. IV. 3, 61.
vivo et regno simul ista reliqui quae vos ad caelum fertis,
1 live and reign, as soon as I leave [have left] those scenes
which you extol to heaven. — Hor. Ep. I. 10. 8.
After postquam, posteaquam, and ubi, the Perfect is used
where we should expect the Pluperfect : as,
postquam id animum advertit, when lie had perceived this. —
Ciies. E.G. I. 24,
i
§57 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 79
Dum, while (not as long as), is usually followed by the Present
Indicative, even when referring to past time : as,
dum haec in colloquio geruiitur, Caesari nuntiatum est,
while these things were going on in the conference, it was an-
nounced to Caesar. — Caes. B.G. I. 46.
The Perfect Indefinite is often found (followed by secondary
tenses), where the regular Perfect would be used in English : as,
mini ut urbi satis esset praesidii coiisultum atque provisum
est. / have considered and provided that the city should have
a sufficient guard. — Cic. Cat. II. 12.
IV. In dependent clauses, the tenses of the infinitive have
no time of their own, but are present, past, or future, rela-
tively to the time of the verb upon which they depend: as,
nostros 11011 esse inferiores intellexit, he ascertained that our
men were not inferior. — Caes. B.G. II. 8.
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus cbluisse, which Juno
is said to have cherished above all lands. — Virg. -ZEn. I. 15.
sperant se maximum fructum esse captures, they hope to re-
ceive the greatest advantages. — Cic. de Amic. 21,
The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often be
rendered by the perfect infinitive in English ; this is most frequent
with potui, could ; debui, oportuit, ought : as,
scire potuit, he might have known, — Cic. pro Mil. 17.
qui videbatur omnino mori 11011 debuisse, who seemed one that
ought not to have died at alL — Cic. pro Arch. 8.
Memmi, and some other verbs, in an account of what the
speaker has personally witnessed, take the present infinitive : as,
memiiii Catonem mecum disserere, / remember Cato^s discours-
ing with me. — Cic. de Amic. 3.
V. The statement of a general truth, following a secon-
dary tense, observes the rule of connection of tenses : as,
judicabant esse aliquid natura pulchrum atque praecla-
rum quod sua sponte peteretur, they were of opinion
that there is something beautiful and glorious by nature,
which is sought for its own sake. — Cic. de Senect. 13.
80 MOODS0 § 58
58. MOODS.
The Moods of a Latin verb are the Indicative, Sub-
junctive, Imperative, and InfinitivCc
L The Indicative is regularly employed for the leading
verb of a sentence : it is used in direct assertions or ques-
tions, and in historical narrative.
II. The Subjunctive is used chiefly for dependent con-
structions,— especially to denote any thing as contingent,
conceived of, or desired, — • its tense being determined by that
of the verb on which it depends. (See § 57») In particular
"it is found, —
10 In many Conditional sentences, the condition being often
implied, §§ 59, 60, 61, 62.
2. In certain relations of Cause or Motive, § 63.
3. In clauses which express Purpose or Result, §§ 64, 65.
4. In intermediate and subordinate clauses, chiefly relative or
interrogative, §§66, 67.
5. In wishes and commands (in the present and perfect), to
take the place of the. Imperative, § 68.
III. The Imperative is used in commands ; also, in early
writers and poets, in prohibitions : as,
consulate vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos, take
measures for your safety, provide for the country -, preserve
yourselves. — Cic. Cat, IV. 2.
nimium ne crede colori, do not trust complexion overmuch. —
Virg. Buc. IL 17.
Prohibitions are regularly expressed by the second person sin-
gular of the perfect subjunctive with ne; noli with the infinitive;
or by cave with the subjunctive : as,
lie territus fueris, be not terrified. — Tac. Hist I, 16.
noli putare, do not think. -- Cic Brut. 33,
cave faxis, do not do it. — Ter. Heaut. 187 (I. 2. 13).
The future imperative is used in statutes, edicts, and wills : as,
caput obiiubito, arbori infelici suspendito, veil 7ns head,
hang him to the accursed tree. — Cic. pro Rabu 4.
NOTE. — For the subjunctive used imperatively, see § 68.
§69 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 81
IV. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative,
is construed either as the subject or as the object of the lead-
ing verb. In this use, it is found especially iu the construc-
tion called oratio obliqua. (See § 67.)
In other cases, hardly any tense is used except the present,
expressing no distinct relation of time : as,
mitto quaerere, I refrain from asking. — Cic. Rose. Am. 19.
The poets and later writers use the infinitive after adjectives,
or to express a purpose : as,
durus componere versus, harsh in composing verses. — Hor.
Sat. I. 4, 8.
furit te reperire, he rages to find thee. — ld. Carm. I. 15, 27.
fruges consumers nati, born to consume the fruits of the earth.
-Id. Ep. II. 2/27.
59. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
I. When any thing is stated, the truth of which is made
to depend on the truth of some other statement, contained in
a subordinate clause, the sentence is called a Conditional
Sentence.
The Principal clause — that containing the conclusion —
is called the apodosis ; the Subordinate clause — that stating
the condition — is called the protasis : as,
si qui exire volunt, conmvere possum, if any wish to depart
(protasis), I am ready to connive (apodosis). — Cic. Cat.
II. \'2.
II. The statement of the condition in Latin (protasis) is
regularly introduced by si, if; sin, but if; nisi, unless ; but
a clause introduced by an indefinite relative (whoever), or a
relative conjunction (when, since, and the like), may be con-
sidered as equivalent to a conditional clause : as,
quod in alia causa non concederem in liac concedam, what
I would not grant in another case [if the case were differ-
ent] I will grant in this. — Cic. Rose, Am. 27.
4*
82 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. §59
The statement of the consequence or result depends in
form on the grammatical structure of the sentence, which
may require a participle, infinitive, or phrase : as,
quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima
legione iturum, de qua non dubitaret, but if no one
else would follow, still he would go with the tenth legion
alone, of which he had no doubt. — Cses. B.G. I. 40.
si quos adversurn proelium et fiiga Gallorum commoveret,
hos si quaererent reperire posse, if any were troubled
by this check, and by tlieflujlit of the Gauls, they might find
if they would ask. — Id.
III. Any tense of the Indicative may be used to express
both condition and result in its appropriate time : as,
si ergo apud inferos miseri non sunt, ne sunt quidem apud
inferos ulli, if, therefore, the wretclied are not in the in-
fernal regions, there is no one there at all. — Cic. Tusc. I. 6.
sanabimur si volemus, we shall be healed if we wish. — Id.
III. 6.
quicquid jurarunt, ventus et unda rapit, whatever they have
sworn [i.e., if they have sworn any thing], the winds and
waves sweep away. — Prop. II. 28. 8.
IV. The Subjunctive is used in both members of condi-
tional sentences : —
1. The Present, in reference to future time, to express a
supposition less vividly or as less probable than when the
future indicative is used: as,
nee si muneribus certes, concedat lollas, nor if you should
vie in gifts, would lollas yield. — Virg. Buc. II, 57.
haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat ?
If thy country slioidd thus speak to thee, ought she not to
prevail ? — Cic. Cat. I. 8.
Often the future indicative stands in the apodosis ; as,
si deficiant vires, audacia certe laus erit, if strength should
fail, boldness at least will have praise. — Prop. II. 10, 5.
2. The Secondary tenses, when the supposition is known
to be false ; the imperfect referring to present time, the plu-
perfect to past : as,
§59 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 83
si meum consHium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres,
nos liberi essemus, respublica 11011 tot duces et ex-
ercitus amisisset, if my judgment and authority had
prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be poor
[which you are not], we should be free, the republic would
not have lost so many leaders and armies. — Cie.Phil. 11. 15.
The indicative (in apodosis) sometimes expresses what ought
f,o have been done, or is intended, or already begun s as,
si Romae Cii. Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen
is erat deligendus, if Cticeus Pompey were a private citi-
zen at Rome at this time, nevertheless he ought to be selected*
— Cic. Leg. Man. 17.
in amplexus f iliae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitisseiit, he was
about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors
had prevented. — Tac. Ann. XYI. 32.
When a subjunctive is required in the apodosis of a conditional
clause, by the structure of the sentence of which it forms a part, the
pluperfect may be represented by the participle in rus with the
perfect subjunctive of ease: as,
adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, m
incerta noctis timuissent, so far advanced was the con-
spiracy, that they would have seized upon Otho if they had
not feared the uncertainties of the night [rapuissent ni
timuissent following ut]. — Tac. Hist. I. 260
3. The Subjunctive is sometimes used to express a condi-
tion of a general nature, referring indefinitely to any one of
a series of acts ; in this case the indicative is used in the
apodosis to state a repeated or customary action, or general
truth : as,
memoria miiiuitur nisi earn, exerceas, the memory grows weak
unless you exercise it. — Cic. Sen. 7.
id iibi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum mittebat, when he
[the herald] had said this, he would throw [used to throw]
a spear into their territories. — Liv. I. 32.
The subjunctive is rarely, if ever, used in this way, except in
philosophical discourse (the present), and historical narration (the
pluperfect), as in the examples given above.
84 IMPLIED CONDITIONS. §60
60. IMPLIED CONDITIONS.
The subordinate member of a conditional sentence (that
containing the condition), is frequently omitted. Under this
head belong most of the subjunctives which appear to be
independent verbs, and which would not always take this
mood if the condition were fully stated.
In this usage the perfect subjunctive is especially common ; and
the second person singular, to denote some indefinite person.
The Subjunctive in implied conditions is employed as in
the following examples : —
1. In its so-called Potential use, referring to an indefinite
subject: as,
turn in lecto quoque videres susurros, then on each couch you
might see whisperings. — Hor. Sat. II. 8, 77.
Here a complete sentence would require the pluperfect : thus,
vidisses si adfuisses, you would have seen if you had been there.
2. In cautious, modest, or hypothetical statement : as,
nee ullam morum partem magis laudaveris, nor would one com-
mend more highly any one of their customs. — Tac. Germ. 17.
velim sic tibi persuadeas, I ivish you would persuade yourself
of this. — C\c. Fam. XV. 4.
vellem adesset M. Antonius, / wish Mark Antony were pres-
ent.— Id. Phil. I. 7.
Velim refers to future time, vellem to present or past time,
in a wish for something known to be impossible.
3. In questions asked with a certain hesitation or doubt : as,
quid ego carmine plura commemorem ? why should I relate
more in versed — Catull. 64, 116.
4. In conceding a point, or supposing a case ; — here the
inference or conclusion is the clause omitted : as,
fuerit ille Brutus, qui dominatu regie rempublicam libera-
vit, suppose there was a Brutus who freed the republic from
the tyranny of the kings. — Cic. Phil. I. 6.
si jam shit id adepti, suppose they have already obtained it. — Id.
Cat. II. 9.
§61 CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 85
61. CONDITIONAL PARTICLES.
Certain Particles implying a condition are followed
by the Subjunctive. These are —
1. Particles of comparison, — tamquam, quasi, veluti,
&c. : as,
tamquam mo do ex deorum concilio descendisset, as if he
had just come down from the council of the gods. — Cic.
N.D. I. 8.
quasi plures fortunati sint quam infelices, as if more were
fortunate than unfortunate. — Cic. Tusc. I. 36.
2. The concessive particles, quamvis, however much ; licet
and ut, granting that ; cum, although ; and, in later writers,
quamquam, although: as,
itaque eum qui audiunt, quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen
illo modo confidunt se posse dicere, therefore those
who hear him, however incapable of speaking they may
themselves be, nevertheless feel confident that they can speak
in that manner. — Cic. Orat. 23.
ut neminem alium nisi T. Patinam rogasset, scire potuit,
even if he had asked no one but Titus Patina, he might have
known. — Cic. Mil. 17.
quamquam per dictatorem dilectus habitus esset, although
the levy had been held under the authority of the dictator. —
Liv. II. 32.
cum mercede doceret, although he taught for pay. — Cic. de
Orat. I. 28.
Quamquam and etsi introduce the statement of a fact, and
therefore take the indicative ; quamvis, licet, and ut, of a sup-
posed case, and take the subjunctive ; cum, signifying although,
while used as equivalent to quamquam, takes the subjunctive by
special use.
3. DUHI, dummodo, and modo, provided: as,
multa admiranda sunt, eligere modo curae sit, many points
are deserving of admiration, provided they are selected with
care. — Quint. X. 1, 131.
" Oderint dum mettiant," let them hate if only they fear. — Cic.
Phil. I. 14.
86 RELATIONS OF TIME. §62
62. RELATIONS OF TIME.
I. Cum (quum), meaning when, takes the indicative ; since,
or although, the subjunctive : as,
cum se inter equitum turmas insmuaverunt, when they have
worked their way among the troops of horse. — Cses. B.G.
IV. 33.
cum solitude et vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena
sit, since solitude and a life without friends is full of
treachery and fear. — Cic. de Fin. I. 20.
But cum, when, is followed by the secondary tenses of the sub-
junctive in narration : as,
cum essem in Ceramlco, when I was in the Ceramicus. — Cic.
Att. I. 10.
II. Bum, donee, quoad, until ; and antequam, prius-
quam, before, may take the subjunctive, —
1. In reference to future time.
2. To express something desired or anticipated ; or,
3. (The secondary tenses) in historical narration : as,
priusquam ad portum venias, before you come to the harbor. —
Ter. Ad. IV. 2, 44.
dum novi magistrates sortirentur provincias, M. Baebius
transire in Epirum est jussus, until the new magistrates
should draw lots for their provinces, Marcus Bobbins icas
ordered to cross into Epirus. — Liv. XXXV. 24.
festmandum ceteris videbatur, antequam cresceret invalida
adhuc conjuratio, the others were of opinion that it ivas
best to hasten, before the yet weak conspiracy should gather
strength. — Tac. Hist. I. 33.
trepidatioiiis aliquantum elephanti edebaiit, donee quietem
ipse timor fecisset, the elephants caused some confusion,
until their very fear had caused quiet. — Liv. XXI. 28.
But dum, while ; ubi, postquam, posteaquam, when, regu-
larly take the indicative : as,
dum haec geruntur (or gerebantur), while this was going on. —
Cses. B.G. I. 46.
quod ubi Caesar resciit, when Cwsar had got word of this. —
Id. 28.
§63 CAUSE OR REASON. 87
63. CAUSE OR REASON.
I. The conjunctions quod (sometimes quia), because, and
quoniam and quando, since, are followed by the subjunctive
when the reason is stated not as a fact, but as a motive in the
mind of another, and even of the speaker or writer himself: as,
Drusus rettiilit ad Senatum de illo quod in eum ordmem
consul tarn graviter in contione esset iiivectus, Drusus
laid his [Philippus's] case before the Senate, on the ground
that he, although consul, had inveighed so bitterly against
that body in the public, assembly. — Cic. de Orat. III. 1.
accedit ilia quoque causa, quod a caeteris forsitan ita pe-
tituni sit ut dicerent, ut utrumvis salvo officio facere
se posse arbitrarentur, there is this reason besides [in my
^ own mind] , that others have perhaps been invited to speak, in
such a way that they supposed they might act either way with
a clear conscience. — Id. Rose. Am, 1.
Non quo (negatively noil quiii) is often used for non quod : as,
noil quo furtum facere studuerit, not that he desired to commit
a theft. — Ter. Eun. 28.
II. Relatives implying a cause or reason take the subjunc-
tive, being frequently strengthened by ut, utpote, quippe, or
praesertim : as,
fateor me errasse, qui hoc maluerim, I confess that I erred in
choosing this. — Cic. Rose. Am. 490
orationes centum quinquagiiita, quas quidem adhuc invene-
rim et legerim, the hundred and fifty orations, such at least
as I have met ivith and read. — Id. Brut,
quippe qui videam, since I see. — Liv. Praef.
III. Cum causal, signifying since, takes the subjunctive : as,
cum omnis populi Romani religio in sacra et in auspicia
divisa sit, since the whole religion of the Roman people is
divided into ceremonies and auspices. — Cic. N.D. III. 2.
But in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes the in-
dicative : as,
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apiid Dolabellam, / congratu-
late you on your influence with Dolabella. — Cie. Fam. IX. 14.
88 PURPOSE. § 64
64. PURPOSE.
I. Final Clauses, or those expressing a Purpose, take the
subjunctive after relatives, (qui=ut is), or the conjunction ut
(uti),m order that, and (negatively) ne, ut ne, lest: as,
monet ut ignes in castris fieri prohlbeat, lie qua ejus ad-
ventus procul signif icatio fiat, lie advises him to pro-
hibit fires being made in camp, in order that no signs of his
arrival may be shown at a distance. — Cses. E.G. VI. 29.
ut ne sit impune, that it be not with impunity. — Cic. Mil. 12.
II. ftuo is used for ut 60, especially with comparatives : as,
castris ad Bab^loniam positis quo rnajore ammo capesse-
reiit bellum, the camp being pitched near Babylon, in order
that they might enter into the war with greater spirit. —
Curt. III. 2, 2.
NOTE. — Compare quominus, (= ut eo minus,) after verbs
of hindering. — § 65, in.
III. After expressions denoting fear, ut (ne non) is to be
translated that not ; ne, that or lest : as,
omnes labores te excipere video ; timeo ut sustineas, / see
you taking upon yourself all labors ; I fear you will not
endure them. — Cic. Fam. XIY. 2.
pavor ceperat milites, lie mortiferum esset vumus,/ear had
seized the soldiers that the wound [of Scipio] was mortal. —
Liv. XXIV. 42.
IY. Ut or ne is often omitted, especially after verbs of
wishing, advising, &c. ; as,
Syro igiioscas volo, / ivish that you would pardon Syrus. — Ter.
Heaut. V. 5, 22.
cave igiioscas, do not pardon. — Cic. Lig. 5.
NOTE. — For ut, signifying although, see § 61, 2. In the sense
of when or how it takes the indicative : as, ut valet? how is shet
(Plant.) ; ut vidi! how I gazed! — Yirg. Buc. VIII. 41.
Y. The purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in va-
rious ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the simple
infinitive, as in English. The sentence, he sent men to
plough the field, may be rendered, —
§65 CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 89
1. By the subjunctive with ut: as,
homines misit ut agrum ararent.
2. By the subjunctive with qui : as,
homines misit qui agrum ararent.
0. By the Gerundive with ad : as,
homines misit ad agrum araiidum.
4. By the Gerundive with causa or gratia : as,
homines misit agri arandi causa.
5. By the Future Participle : as,
homines misit agrum araturos.
Purpose is also expressed by the Former Supine in many
verbs : as, spectatum ludos ivit, lie went to see the games. (§ 74.)
65, CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT.
1. Clauses denoting a Result take the subjunctive after
relatives and the conjunction ut (negative, ut non) : as,
Augusto prompta ac proflueiis quaeque deceret principem
eloqueiitia fuit, Augustus possessed a ready and fluent
power of speaking, such as became a prince. — Tac. Ann.
XIII. 3.
Quae fuit eorum tanta miquitas ut placari populo Romano
lion possent nisi viri tales occidisseiit ? How great
was their injustice [that of the gods] that they could not be
reconciled to the Roman people unless men of such eminence
should fain — Cic. N.D. III. 6.
II. ftuin, that not, is used after negative expressions,
denoting hinderance, resistance, doubt, and suspension of
effort : as,
est deterrita iiumquam quin fleret, she was never prevented
from weeping. — Tib. I. 3, 13.
11011 diibito quin haiic salutem aiitepoiias illi victoriae, I do
not doubt that you value this security more highly than that
victory. — Cic. Lig. 10.
Many of these expressions may also be followed by the infini-
tive, or by ne with the subjunctive : as,
prohibeiitur adire ad filios [also lie adeaiit], they are forbid^
den to visit their own sons. — Cic. Verr. V. 45.
90 INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. §66
»
III. Quomlnus, that not, may be used after verbs of hinder-
ing: as,
nee aetas impedit, quommus agri colendi stiidia teneamus,
nor does the time of lif e f)r event us from retaining the taste
for tilling the ground. — Cic. de Senect. 17.
IV. The subjunctive stands in relative clauses —
1. After dignus, worthy; indignus, unworthy ; aptus,
Idoneus, fit ; unus and solus, only : as,
idoiiea mihi Laeli persona visa est, quae de amicitia dis-
sereret, the person of Laelius seemed to me a suitable one
to discourse of friendship. — Cic. de Amic. I.
nil admirari prope res est una solaque, quae possit facere
et servare beatum, to be surprised at nothing is almost
the sole and only thing which can make and keep one hap-
py, _ Hor. Ep. I. 6, 1.
2. After general expressions denoting existence and non-
existence : as,
eraiit qui Helvidium miserareiitur, there were some who pitied
Helvidius. — Tac. Ann. XVI. 29.
nihil est illorum, quin [=quod noil] ego illi dixerim, there is
none of these things which I have not said to him. — Plaut.
Bacc. III. 9, 89.
uiide agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum, there were
no materials left from which a mound could be got together.
-Cses. B.C. II. 15.
3. After quam, than : as,
majores arbores caedebant, quam quas ferre miles posset,
they cut larger trees than a soldier could carry. — Liv/
XXXIII. 5.
66. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES.
I. A Relative, or other subordinate clause, takes the
Subjunctive, when it is regarded as an integral part of
the thought or expression of some other person than the
speaker or writer.
§67 ORATIO OBLIQUA. 91
Many such clauses may be so regarded or not, as the
writer chooses : as,
primam posuit earn de qua modo dixi, quae orta esset
ex praeseiisione rerum futurarum, lie first mentioned
that of wldcli I have just spoken [direct statement] which
(according to him) had its origin in the fore-feeling of the
Future. — Cic. KD. II. 5. (See § 63, i.)
II. A clause depending on a verb in the subjunctive will
also be in the subjunctive, if regarded as an integral part of
the sentence on which it depends : as,
qui a sciibendi consuetudine ad diceiidum venit, hanc ad-
fert facultatem, ut etiani siibito si dicat, tamen ilia
quae dicantur similia scriptorum esse videantur, he
who passes from the practice of writing to speaking, brings
with him this power, that even if he speak loithout prepara-
tion, yet what he says seems like written words. — Cic. de
Orat. I. 33. [etiam subito si dicit, tamen ilia quae
dicuntur similia scriptorum esse videntur.J
III. Intermediate Clauses in the oratio obllqua take the
Subjunctive. (See the following section.)
67. ORATIO OBLIQUA.
If a quotation is made in the words of the original
speaker, it is called Oratio Recta (direct discourse).
But if it is made to depend on some verb of speaking
or thinking, varying the form of the words from that
originally used, it is called Oratio Obliqua (indirect
discourse) .
In English, an indirect quotation is introduced by the conjunc-
tion that.
I. The Latin form for quotations is as follows : —
1. In Indirect Questions the subjunctive is used: as,
quid sit futurum eras fuge quaerere, avoid inquiring what will
be to-morrow, [direct question, quid est futurum eras?]
Hor. Carm. I. 9, 13.
92 ORATIO OBLIQUA. §67
nec quibus rationibus superare possent, sed quemadmbdum
uti victoria deberent cogitabant, nor did they (the army
of Pompey) reflect by what means they could win the victory,
but in what manner they should use it. — Cses. B.C. III. 83.
Thus quid quaeris ? (direct question) means, what do you askt
scio quid quaeras (indirect question) means, / know what you
ask ; scio quod quaeris (direct assertion) means, / know the
thing you ask.
NOTE. — Nescio quis, I knoiv not who, is sometimes used
(generally in the way of disparagement), to introduce a direct
assertion ; being nearly equivalent to aliquis or quidam, some
one : as,
quin etiam fuit audiendus Licinius nescio qui, then too you
had to listen to one Licinius. — Cic. Mil. 24.
Nescio an, I know not whether, is often used as equivalent to
perhaps, and regularly takes the subjunctive.
2. A Declarative sentence, when quoted, takes the con-
struction of the accusative with the infinitive, the subject
being put in the accusative, and the verb in the appropriate
tense of the infinitive : as,
Crassus valet, Crassus is ivell ; dicit Crassum valere, he says
that Crassus is well.
scripsit epistolam, lie, has written a letter; dicit se scripsisse
epistolam, he says he has written a letter.
non laetor, / am not glad; nego me laetari, I say lam not glad.
mini viieor satis et esse decs et quales essent ostendisse>
/ think 1 have shown clearly enough, both that there are gods,
and of what nature they are. — Cic. N.D. II. 28.
Esse here expresses an indirect statement ; essent, an indirect
question.
The principal clause of a Conditional Sentence (apodosis) when
indicative in the Oratio Recta, follows in the Oratio Obliqua the
general rule for Declarative sentences ; but when subjunctive, it
is represented by the future participle with esse if present or im-
perfect, or fuisse if pluperfect : as,
nisi jurasset scelus se facturum arbitrabatur fscelus faceret],
he thought he would incur guilt unless he should take the
oath. — Cic. Terr. I. 47.
Jt
§67 ORATIO OBLIQUA. 93
jurant ita Ciceronem locuturum fuisse [locutus esset], they
swear that Cicero would have spoken so. — Quint. X. 2, 17.
NOTE. — The subjunctive is not used as a principal verb, except
in the apodosis of a conditional sentence.
The subject of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted, when it
would be easily understood : as,
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum ; dixit perveiiisse [sc.
ea] , / asked whether they (the curtains) had reached Agri-
gentum; he answered that they had. — Cic. Verr. IV. 12.
II. Subordinate clauses in the oratio obliqua take the
subjunctive, the tense being determined by that of the prin-
cipal verb (see § 57) : as,
L. Leiitiilus consul senatui reique publicae se non defutu-
runi pollicetur, si audacter ac fortiter seiiteiitias di-
cere velint, Lucius Lentulus the consul promises not to
desert the Senate and the republic, if they are willing to
speak their minds boldly and bravely (non deero ... si
voletis). — OSES. B.C. I. 1.
adlatum erat, cum in Aetoliam venisset Antiochus, ex-
templo classem eum in Sicilian! missurum, word had
been brought, that when Antiochus should reach JEtolia, he
would at once send his fleet to Sicily [cum venerit (fut.
perf. indie.) mittet]. — Liv. XXXV. 23.
Ariovistus respondit: si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset,
sese ad eum veiiturum fuisse ; . . . sibi autem mirum
videri, quid in sua Gallia, quam bello vicisset, aut
Caesari aut omnino popiilo Romano negotii esset,
Ariovistus answered, that, if he wanted anything of Ccesai\
he would have come to him ; . . . but that he wondered what
concern either Cwsar or the Roman people at all had with
his Gaul, which he had conqiiered in ivar [si quid opus
esset . . . venissem; . . . mirum videtur, quid in mea
Gallia, quam bello vici, . . . Caesari . . . negotii sit].—
OES. B.G. I. 34.
1. An Imperative in the Oratio Recta becomes a subjunctive in
the Oratio Obliqua : as,
lie committeret, let him not bring it about [ne commiseris] . —
Cses. B.G. I. 13.
94 ORATIO OBLIQUA. §67
2. A Question is put in the infinitive, unless in the second per-
son, in which case it becomes subjunctive : as,
si veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam recentium
injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse? ifJie were
willing to forget the ancient disgrace, could he also lay
aside the memory of recent outrages ? [num possim ?] —
Cses. E.G. I. 14.
quid sibi vellent? what did they wish? [quid vultis?]— Id. 44.
III. 1. A future infinitive is often expressed by fore
(futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive ; regularly so in
passive or deponent verbs : as,
rebantur enim fore ut exercitus imperatorem perse quere-
tur, for they thought that the army would follow the com-
mand. — Cic. N.D. III. 6.
nisi nuiitii de Caesaris victoria esseiit adlati, existimabant
plerique futurum fuisse uti amitteretur, unless news of
Caesar's victory had been brought, many thought he would
have been lost. — Cses. B.C. III. 101.
2. After verbs signifying hope, promise, and the like, the
subject of the infinitive, whether a noun or a personal or
reflective pronoun, must always be expressed : as,
promisit se venturum, lie promised to come.
sparat se negotium confecturum, lie liopes to finish the busi-
ness.
But where there is no future participle, fore ut with the sub-
junctive must be used : as,
sperat fore ut possit, he liopes to be able.
pollicetur fore ut frumentum adferatur, he promises that corn
shall be brought (more rarely, adlatum iri or fore) .
IV. 1. The passive of verbs of saying, &c., may either be
used impersonally, followed by the accusative with the infini-
tive ; or personally, followed by the infinitive alone : as,
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse, they are related
to have been the first to combine words by a certain art [also,
traditur eos primos, etc.] — Cic. Orat. 13.
§68 WISHES AND COMMANDS. 95
2. The infinitive passive may be used impersonally after
these verbs : as,
in eo ipso in quo praedicationem nobilitatemque despici-
unt, praedicari de se ac iiommari volunt, in that very
work, in which they disparage renown and celebrity, they de-
sire that they may be renowned and named. — Cic. Arch. 10.
V. After a comparison, in the Oratio Obliqua, the construc-
tion of the accusative with the infinitive is usually con-
tinued: as,
iiullam capitaliorem pestem quam voluptatem corporis no-
minibus dicebat a natura datam [for quam voluptas] ,
he said that no more deadly evil had been given to men by
nature than bodily pleasure. — Cic. de Senect. 12.
68. WISHES AND COMMANDS.
I. The subjunctive is used in wishes ; — the primary tenses
in reference to future time, implying that the thing desired is
at least possible ; the secondary to express a hopeless wish, —
the imperfect in present time, the pluperfect in past : as,
serus in caelum redeas, mayst thou return late to the skies. —
Hor. Cann. I. 2, 45.
iitinam me mortuum vidisses, would that you had seen me
dead. — Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 3, 1.
The primary tenses of the subjunctive so used are often equiv-
alent to an imperative (see § 58, in.) : as,
ne semper udum Tibur et Aesiilae declive coiitempleris
arvum, do not for ever gaze at watery Tibur and the sloping
fields ofAesula. — Hor. Carm. III. 29, 6. (See § 58, m.)
II. With verbs of wishing and permitting the infinitive is
generally used : as,
te tua frui virtute cupimus, we wish you to reap the benefit of
your virtue. — Cie. Brut. 97.
neu sinas Medos equitare multos, nor permit the Medes to make
incursions with impunity .' — Hor. Carm. I. 2, 51.
Bat the subjunctive may be used without ut : as,
vellem mos esset, / ivish it were the custom. — Ter. Ad. IV. 1,
16. (§64, iv.)
96 RELATIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. §§69,70
III. Jubeo, command, takes the accusative with the infini-
tive ; other verbs of commanding, the dative with Tit and the
subjunctive : as,
omnem senatum ad se convemre jussit, lie commanded the
entire senate to come to him. — Cses. B.G. II. 5.
suis imperavit lie quod ommiio telum in hostes rejicerent,
he ordered his soldiers to cast no weapon at all against the
enemy. — Id. I. 46.
69. SUBJUNCTIVE IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.
The various relative clauses have been already treated of,
under the special heads to which they belong. They may be
classed under the following titles : —
1. General relatives in protasis, §§ 59, 60.
2. Temporal clauses (relative adverbs of time), § 62, IV.
3. Relative implying a Cause, § 63, n.
4. Relative of Purpose, § 64, i.
5. Relative of Consequence or Result, § 65, I. & iv.
6. Relative in Intermediate Clauses, §66.
7. Relative clauses in oratio obliqua, § 67.
NOTE. — In general, the relative with a definite antecedent
takes the indicative in direct construction ; with an indefinite ante-
cedent, the subjunctive : as,
hi sunt qui ita putant, these are they that think so.
sunt qui ita putent, there are some who think so. (§ 65, iv. 2.)
70, SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
A Substantive Clause is a clause or phrase — usu-
ally the indicative with quod, the subjunctive with ut,
or the accusative with the infinitive — which is con-
strued like a noun, as the subject or object of a leading
verb.
Under this head are included the accusative and infinitive in
Oratio Obliqua (§ 67, i. 2) ; also clauses following verbs of wish-
ing and command (§ 68).
§70 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 97
I. Verbs implying motive or desire generally take Tit (lie)
with the subjunctive (see §§ 64, 65, 68) : as,
concedo tibi ut ea praetereas, / allow you to pass over these
points. — Cic. Rose. Am. 19.
When verbs of this class are used for a mere expression of
opinion, they take the accusative with the infinitive : as,
concede non esse miseros qui mortui sint, / grant that those
who are dead are not miserable. — Cic. Tusc. I. 7.
II. Impersonal verbs, and other expressions denoting hap-
pening and existence, take a subjunctive introduced by ut
(ut non), as subject (see § 65) : as,
sequitur ut cuj usque generis nota quaeratur, it follows that
the mark of each class should be sought. — Cic. Orat. 23.
accidit ut esset plena luna, it chanced to be full moon. — Caes.
E.G. IV. 29.
accedit ut conturber, another point is that I am disturbed. — Cic.
Deiot. 1.
mos est hbmiiium ut nolint euiidem pluribus rebus excel-
lere, it is the custom of men to be unwilling to admit that
the same person excels in several respects. — Id. Brut. 21.
III. Verbs of satisfaction and wonder, and impersonal
expressions denoting fitness, take the accusative with the
infinitive: as,
quae perfecta esse gaudeo, vehementerque laetor, I rejoice
and greatly exult that these things have been accomplished.
— Cic. Rose. Am. 47.
accusatores multos esse in civitate utile est, it is advantage-
ous that there be many accusers in a state. — Id. 20.
IV. ftuod with the indicative is used to indicate the ex-
istence of a state of things, and at the same time express a
judgment (compare § 63, i.) : as,
gaudeo quod te interpellavi, 1 rejoice that I interrupted you. —
Cic. Legg. III. 1.
noli piitare pigritia me facere, quod non mea maim scribo,
do not think that it is through indolence that 2 do not write
with my own hand. — Id. Att. XVI. 15.
5
98 QUESTIONS. §71
71. QUESTIONS.
Questions are introduced by interrogative Pronouns
or Adverbs, or by the interrogative Particles num, utrum,
an, and the Enclitic -ne.
An Enclitic is a particle joined in spelling to the preceding
word, but retaining its independent meaning.
I. The enclitic -ne is used in questions asked for informa-
tion merely ; nonne when the answer yes, and num when
the answer no, is expected : as,
qui sunt hi? who are they? — Cic. Rose. 27.
memmistisne ? do you remember % — Id. 28.
nonne his vestigiis ad caput maleficii pervemri solet? is
it not customary to come by these traces to the source of a
crime? — Id. 27.
num dubium est ? is there any doubt ? — Id. 37.
The interrogative particle is often omitted : as,
patere tua consilia non sentis ? do you not perceive that your
plans lie open. — Cic. Cat. I. 1.
II. In double questions, utrnm or -ne stands in the first
member, an (annon, necne), in the second : as,
utrum has corporis an Pythagbrae tibi malis vires ingenii
dari? would you rather this strength of body should be
given you, or the strength of intellect of Pythagoras ? — Cic.
de Senect. 10.
quaere servosne an liberos, I ask whether slaves or free. —
Id. Rose. Am. 27.
The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber: as,
sunt haec tua verba necne ? are these your words or not ? —
Cic. Tusc. III. 18.
Sometimes the first member is omitted, and an alone asks a
question with indignation or surprise : as,
an tu miseros piitas illos? do you think that those men are
miserable ? — Cic. Tusc. I. 7.
§§ 72, 73 PARTICIPLES. — GERUND. 99
72. PARTICIPLES.
The time of participles, like that of infinitives, is
relative to that of the verbs upon which they depend.
1. Participles are often used where the English idiom
would require a subordinate clause : as,
venienti in Ligiires Hanmbali duo quaestores Roman! tra-
duntur, as Hannibal is entering among the Ligurians, two
Eoman qucestors are given into Ms hands. — Liv. XXI. 59.
instructos ordmes in locum aequum deducit, he draws up the
lines, and leads them into a favorable place. — Sail. Cat. 59.
See examples in § 25, page 27.
2. Sometimes a perfect participle agreeing with a noun is
used when the action rather than the thing is to be made
prominent : as,
ab urbe condita, from the founding of the city. — Liv. (title).
3. As there is no perfect active participle in Latin, the
perfect passive, used absolutely with the noun which would
have been the object, is used to express active relations : as,
his initis consiliis oppida muniuiit, having formed these plans,
they fortify their toivns. — Cass. E.G. III. 9.
See, respecting the Ablative Absolute, § 54, vni.
73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
The Gerund governs the same case as the verb ; in
grammatical construction it follows the same rules
with nouns. But where the gerund would have an
object in the accusative, the gerundive is regularly
used instead, agreeing with the noun, and in the case
which the gerund would have had : as,
paratiores ad omiiia pericula subeunda, better prepared to
meet all dangers. — Caes. E.G. I. 5.
Subeunda agrees with pericula, which is governed by ad;
the construction with the gerund would be ad subeundum omnia
pericula, ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the
accusative pericula.
100 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. §73
I. The nominative of the gerund or gerundive is construed
with the dative of persons, implying obligation or duty : as,
pugnandum est nobis, we must fight, — i.e. fighting is our busi-
ness, or it belongs to us to fight (compare § 51, vi., vin.).
Caesari omnia iino tempore erant agenda, Ccesar had every-
thing to do at once. — Caes. B.G. II. 20.
jiiveni parandum seni utendum est, it is for the young to
get, for the old to enjoy. — Sen. Ep. 36.
The Infinitive is also used as a verbal noun, like the Gerund,
taking the Genitive, or the neuter of the Possessive, to express pos-
session or duty (§ 50, I. 1.), while the Gerund takes the Dative : as,
sapientis est parcius bibere ; or, sapient! est parcius biben-
dum, it is for a wise man to drink rather sparingly.
Where the use of the dative as agent would be ambiguous —
as in verbs governing the dative — a different construction must
be used : thus,
ei parcendum est means either he must spare or he must be
spared ; but ei parcendum est a nobis, he must be spared
by us.
II. The genitive is construed as an objective genitive
(§ 50, in.), following nouns and adjectives : .as,
neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato,
time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking
arms. — Cszs. B.G. IV. 14.
It is used especially "with causa or gratia to express the
purpose of an action: as,
dissimulandi causa aut sui expurgandi, for the sake of dis-
sembling or of excusing himself. — Sail. Cat. 31.
Or even alone, the word causa being understood : as,
impediendae rei, in order to give check. — Cses. B.C. I. 82.
The gerund is sometimes used with the genitive of an object
not agreeing with it in gender or number : as,
sui liberandi facultas,^e opportunity of getting themselves clear.
— Goes. B.G. IV. 34.
ego ejus videndi cupidus, recta consequor, eager to see her,
I follow straight. — Ter. Hec. III. 3, 12.
§74 SUPINE. 101
III. The dative follows words expressing purpose or fit-
ness : as,
comitia consulibus creandis, comitia for appointing consuls. —
Liv. XXXV. 24. (Gerund, consules creando.)
te sbciani stiideo scribendis versibus esse, 1 desire tliat tliou
[Venus] be my partner in writing verses. — Lucr. I. 25.
It is used especially to designate the functions of magistrates :
as,
decemviri stlitibus [litibus] judicandis, the Board of ten for
determining lawsuits.
IV. The accusative follows the prepositions ad, inter, and
ob (occasionally ante, circa, in) : as,
me vocas ad scribeiidum, you invite me to write. — Cic. Orat. 10.
nactus aditus ad ea conanda, having found means to under-
take these things. — Cses. B.C. I. 31.
V. The ablative is used after the prepositions ab, de, ex,
and in ; or to express manner or means : as,
in quaereiidis suis, in seeking his own comrades. — Caes. E.G.
II. 21 (Gerund, in quaerendo suos).
mtilta pollicendo persuadet, he persuades by large promises. —
Sail. Jug. 46.
74. SUPINE.
I. The Former Supine (in um) follows verbs of motion
to express the purpose of the motion" (compare § 55, m. 2) :
as,
quid est, Crasse, inquit Julius, imusne sessum? etsi admoiii-
tum veiiimus te non flagitatum, what now, Crassus, said
Julius, shall we take our seats ? although we have come to
remind, not to entreat you. — Cic. de Orat. III. 5.
II. The Latter Supine (in u) is found only in a few
verbs, especially those which express telling, hearing, and the
like. It has a passive sense, and follows certain adjectives
which describe the character of the action : as,
difficile est dictu, it is hard to say [in the telling]. — Cic. de
Lege Manil. 22.
102 GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. §75
75. GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
I. A Noun used to describe another agrees with it in Case
(APPOSITION) . — § 46.
II. Adjectives agree with Nouns in Gender, Number, and
Case. — § 47.
III. Relatives agree with their Antecedents in Gender, Num-
ber, and Person. — § 48.
IV. A Verb agrees with its Subject Nominative in Number and
Person. — §49.
V. The Genitive is used —
1. (Subjective) to define or limit the meaning of a Noun.
— §50.1.
2. (Partitive) to denote the Whole after words signifying a
Part. — Id. n.
3. (Objective) after Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs, espe-
cially those implying mental action or emotion. — Id.
III., IV.
VI. The Dative is used —
1. After words implying Advantage or Disadvantage. —
2. As the case of the Indirect Object. — Id. n.
3. After many compounds of Prepositions. — Id. v.
4. With esse, to denote Possession or Purpose. — Id. vi.
VIII.
VII. The Accusative is the case —
1. Of the Direct Object. — § 52, i.
2. Of the Secondary Object after many verbs. — Id. in.
3. As the subject of the Infinitive. — Id. vi.
VIII. The Ablative is used —
1. To express Cause, Means, and Specification. — §54, i.
2. With an Adjective, to express Manner or Quality. —
Id. n.
3. As the Object after certain Verbs and Adjectives,—
Id. in.
4. After Comparatives. — Id. v.
5. Afterwords of Separation, Plenty, and Want. — Id. vr.
6. Of Subject and Predicate, in Apposition (Ablative Abso*
lute).— Id. x.
§76 ARRANGEMENT. 103
*
IX. Time when takes the ablative ; time how long and distance
kowfar the accusative. — § 55, i., n.
X. Relations of Place are expressed without prepositions, in
the names of Towns and small Islands. — Id. in.
XI. Twenty-six Prepositions govern the accusative ; eleven the
ablative. — § 56, i.
XII. The Agent, after the passive voice, is expressed by the
ablative with ab. — Id. iv.
XIII. In Compound Sentences, a primary tense is followed by a
primary, and a secondary tense by a secondary. — § 57.
XIV. The Indicative Mood is regularly employed for the leading
verb, and the Subjunctive in dependent clauses. —
§ 58, i. n.
XV. The Infinitive may be used as the Subject or as the Object
of the leading verb. — Id. iv.
XVI. The subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative. —
§ 52, vi. ; § 67, i. 2.
XVII. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines govern the case of their
own verbs ; but in grammatical construction they fol-
low the rules of nouns and adjectives. — §§ 72, 73, 74.
For a summary of the uses of the Subjunctive, see § 58, n.
76. ARRANGEMENT.
The Arrangement of words in a Latin sentence is not arbi-
trary, but depends greatly on the skill of the writer to give
emphasis, harmony, and clearness.
In general, the Subject stands first, and the Verb last, in
the sentence or clause to which they belong. The Object
commonly precedes pretty closely the verb which governs it.
A relative clause often goes before that containing the ante-
cedent, especially when any stress is laid upon it. " In all
ordinary cases, the adjective follows the noun, the genitive its
governing substantive, and the apposition the word which it
qualifies."
The most emphatic words in a sentence are the first and
the last ; but emphasis is given by any unusual arrangement
of the words.
104 ARRANGEMENT. §76
Thus the usual order of words to express the phrase, tlie work-
man built me a house, would be : artifex mlhi domum aedif ica-
vit. But either domum, aedificavit, or mihi may be emphasized
by being put first ; and artifex, by being put last.
If care is taken, in reading Latin aloud, — observing both
emphasis and quantity as well as accent, — to bring out the sense
and balance of the parts, it will be seen that great skill has been
exercised in this particular by the classical writers.
Latin expresses the relation of words to each other by
inflection^ rather than by position, like modern languages.
Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the
arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form
of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense
is expressed by the sentence as a whole , and is held in sus-
pense till the delivery of the last word, which usually ex-
presses the main action or motive. A careful attention to
examples quoted in the Syntax will show the flexibility and
force that can be given to the language in this way.
An English sentence does not often admit this form of
structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and
beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose ; but
its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the
following : —
" High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat."
Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5,
PART THIED.
RULES OF VERSE. (PROSODY.)
77. RHYTHM.
The poetry of the ancients was not governed, like modern
poetry, by accent and rhyme ; but was measured, like music,
by the length of the syllables, or vowel sounds. The meas-
ured flow of verse is called Rhythm.
Each syllable is considered as either long or short, — in
quantity or length, not in quality or sound ; a long syllable
being reckoned in length equal to two short ones.
The quantity of radical or stem-syllables, as of short a in
pater or of long a in mater, can be learned only by observa-
tion or practice, unless determined by the general rules of
quantity.
A radical vowel, when not made short or long under the
general rules of quantity, is said to be determined by the
Authority of the poets.
78. RULES OF QUANTITY.
NOTE. -^The Rules of Quantity do not in all cases apply to
numerous Greek words, especially proper names, which have been
introduced by the Latin poets.
I. GENERAL RULES. (See §3, p. 3.)
1. A vowel before another vowel is short*
EXAMPLES, via, way ; traho, draw.
5*
106 RULES OF QUANTITY. §78
EXCEPTIONS. In the genitive form ins, i is common, but has
the accent : as in nulli'us, ipsi'us ; but it is long in alms.
In fio i is long, except when followed by er: as, flam, fierem.
In the fifth declension, e is long between two vowels : as in
diei ; but after a consonant, as in fidei, it is short.
In many Greek proper names the vowel in Latin represents a
long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long : as in Thalia.
2. A diphthong is long : as in foedus, cui, delude.
Exc. The preposition prae in composition before a vowel is
generally short: as in praeustis. — ^En. VII. 524.
3. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as i in nil for
nih.il.
4. A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant,
also before the letter j, is long : as, magnus, great ; rex, king ;
pejor, worse ; et ventis ocior, and swifter than winds.
But a short vowel before a mute followed by 1 or r is
common, — that is, it may be long in verse : as in vblucris,
bird,
A short vowel, made long under this rule, is said to be long by
Position ; as e in docetne. In dbcesne, the same vowel is long
by the special rule (n. 3).
NOTE. — The above rules of Position do not apply to final
vowels.
II. FlN4LMS\T;L^iiES.
1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long : as,
me, tu, hi, ne.
The attached particles -ne, -que, -ve, -ce, -pte, and re- (red-),
are short ; se- is long : as, secedit exercitumque reducit, he
withdraws, and leads back the army.
2. Nouns of one syllable are long : as, sol, sun ; OS, mouth ;
bos, ox; vis, force.
Exc. mel, honey ; 6s, bone; vir, man ; cor, heart; fel, gall.
3. Final as, es, OS, are long : final is, US, ys, are short :
as, nefas, wrong ; rupes, rock ; hcstls, enemy.
§78 RULES OF QUANTITY. 107
Exc. as is short in some Greek terminations : as, lampadas,
torches.
es is short in nouns of the third declension whose stem ends in
d or t: as, hospes, guest (exc. abies, aries, paries, pes) ; in the
present of esse, and in the preposition penes.
os is short in compos, impos, and some Greek endings.
is in plural cases is long : as in boms ; also, as the character-
istic ending of the fourth conjugation : as audis ; and in sis, vis,
veils, malls, nolis ; gratis, foris ; and sometimes in -eris.
us is long in the gen. sing, and in the plural of the fourth de-
clension : as acus, needles ; also in nouns of the third declension
which increase long : as virtus.
4. Most final syllables ending in a consonant except C are
short : as, ad, ac, at, amat, amatur.
Exc. donee . fac, nee ; non, quin, sin ; eras, plus, cur, par.
5. Final a in words declined is short, except in the abl.
sing, feminine : as, ea stella, that star ; cum ea Stella, with
that star.
In all other words it is long : as, frustra, in vain ; voca,
call
Exc. ita, so; quia, because; puta, suppose; and, in late use,
triginta, thirty, etc.
6. Final e is short, except in nouns of the fifth declension ;
in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first form ; and in
verbs of the second conjugation : as, nave, duclte, vere,
mane, fide, quare (qua re), hodie (hoc die).
Exc. fame; bene, male; fere, ferme ; also (rarely), cave,
habe, tace, vale, vide; inferne, supernS.
7. Final i is long : as, navi, fill, audi. But it is common
in mlhi, tibi, slbi, Ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi, quasi, cul.
8. Final 0 is common ; but long in datives and ablatives ;
also, usually, in verbs.
Exc. cito, illico, profecto, dummodo, imo, ego, du5, octo.
9. Final U is long ; final y is short.
108 RULES OP QUANTITY. §7&
III. PENULTIMATE SYLLABLES.
DEFINITION. — A Noun is said to Increase, when in any
case it has more syllables than in the nominative singular,
which is called the Theme.
Thus Stella is said to increase long in the gen. pi., stellarum;
and corpus, to increase short in the gen. sing., corpbris.
A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it adds more
than one syllable to the root or stem.
Thus voco is said to increase long in the second person plu-
ral, vocatis ; and rego to increase short in the second person
plural, regitis.
The final syllable, added to the root or stem, is called the
Termination : as in stell-a, nav-is, voc-at, reg-is,
The syllable added before the termination is called the
Increment : as, a in stellarum, o in corporis,
In itrneribus, amaveritis, the syllables marked are called the
first, second, and third Increments of the noun or verb.
In a few words, the root consists only of a consonant, or com-
bination of consonants, from which the radical vowel has been
dropped: as, scmius, siinius (es).
1. In the Increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a and 0 are
generally long ; e, i, U, y, are generally short : as,
aetatis, servorum, honoris, operis, carmmis, murmuris, pecu-
dis, chlamydis.
Exc. a in baccar (-aris), hepar (-atis), jubar, lar, mas (ma-
ris), nectar, par, sal, vas (vadis), daps (dapis).
6 in neuters of third declension; also in arbor (-oris), mops
(-opis), scrobs (scrobis).
e in the fifth declension; also in haeres (-edis), lex (legis),
locuples (-etis), merces (-edis), plebs (plebis), quies (-etis),
rex (regis), ver (veris).
I in most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, radicis, felicis (exc.
filix, nix, strix) ; also dis (ditis), glis (gliris), lis (Htis), vis
(vires), Quirites, Samnites.
u in lux (lucis), frux (frugis) ; also in forms from nom. in
us: as, paludis, telluris.
§78 EULES OP QUANTITY. 109
2. In the Increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflection,
pp. 34-37), the characteristic vowels are as follows : —
Of the first conjugation a : as, vocare, vocatur.
Of the second conjugation e : as, monere, monetur.
Of the third conjugation e, i : as, regere, regitur.
Of the fourth conjugation I : as, audire, audltur.
Exc. do and its compounds have a : as, dare, circumdabat.
In other increments —
a is always long : as, monearis, regamus.
e is long in tense-endings : as, regebam, audiebar.
But it is short before ram, rim, ro ; and in the personal
endings -beris, -bere : as,
rexerat, rexerit, amaberis, moiiebere.
I is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjuga-
tion : as, petlvi, lacessitum.
Also in simus, sitis, velimus, and rarely in the terminations
-rimus and -ritis ; but short in the future of the first and second
conjugations : as, vocabitis.
o is found only in imperatives, and is always long : as,
mbnitote.
u is found only in the supine stem and its derivatives, and
is always long : as in soluturus ; except in sumus, futurus,
volumus, nolunms, maltmms.
3. Perfects and Supines of two syllables have the stem-
8} liable long : as, f ugi, vidi, visum, from f iigio, video.
Exc. bib- ded- (do), fid- (findo), scid- (scindo), stet-
(sto), stit- (sisto), till- (fero) ; cit- (cieo), dat- (do), it- (eo),
lit- (lino), quit- (queo), rat- (reor), nit- (ruo), sat- (sero),
sit- (sino) , stat- (sisto) ; but stat- from sto.
4. The root or stem-syllable generally retains its quantity
through all the forms derived from it ; but when doubled by
reduplication (see pp. 33, 39), the first syllable is short: as,
tiilit, attulerat ; vidi, viderit ; cado, cecidit ; caedo, cecidit.
Exc. dico (die-), duco (duo), fides (fid-); and some in-
crements of nouns: as, legis (leg-), vocis (voc-).
110 RULES OP QUANTITY. §78
5. The following terminations are preceded by a long
vowel : —
i. -al, -ar : as, vectigal, pulvlnar.
Exc. animal, capital, jiibar.
n. -brum, -crum, -trum : as, lavacrum, delubrum, vera-
trum,
in. -do, -ga, -go : as, formido, auriga, Imago.
Exc. cado, divide, edo, modo, solido, spado, trepido;
caliga, fiiga, toga, plaga ; ago, ego.
iv. -le, -les, -lis: as, ancile, miles, crudelis, hostilis.
Exc. male; indoles, soboles ; gracilis, hiimilis, similis
sterilis ; and verbal adjectives in ills : as, amabilis, dociiis
facilis.
v. -ma, -men, -mentum : as, poema, flumen, jumentnm.
Exc. anima, lacrima, victima ; tamen, columeii ; with
regimen and the like from verb-stems.
vi. -mus, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus : as, extremus, supinus,
octoni, severus, fumosus, peritus.
Exc. (a.) i before -mus : as, f initimus, maritimus (except
bimus, trimus, quadrimus, opimus, mimus, limus) ; arid in
superlatives (except imus, primus) ; domus, hiimus, nemus,
calamus, thalamus.
(b.) I before -nus : as in crastmus, fraxinus and the like (ex-
cept matutmus, vespertmus, repentmus) ; asinus, commus,
emmus, dominus, f acinus, protinus, terminus, vaticmus ;
maiius, oceanus, platanus ; genus ; bonus, onus, sonus.
(c.) e before -rus : as, merus, hedera (except procerus,
sincerus, severus) ; also barbarus, chorus, niirus, pirus ; satira,
amphora, ancora, lyra, purpura ; forum, parum.
(d.) latus, me tus, vetus, digitus, servitus, spiritus ; quo-
tus, tbtus ; habitus, and the like.
vn. -na, -ne, -nis : as, carina, mane, inanis.
Exc. advena, domlna, foemina, machma, mma, gena, pagi-
na ; bene, sine ; caiiis, cinis, jiivenis.
§ 73 FEET. Ill
viii. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis : as, altare, salutaris, moneta, im-
mitis.
Exc. mare, hilaris, rota, nota, sitis, potis, and most nouns
in -Ita.
ix. -tim, -turn, and syllables beginning with v : as, priva-
tim, quereetum, oliva.
Exc. aff atim, statim ; nivis (nix) ; brevis, gravis, levis
(light) ; novus, novem ; and several verb-roots : as, jiivo, f aveo.
x. -dex, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix, and the numeral
endings -ginti, -ginta : as, judex, ilex.
Exc. ciilex, silex, rumex.
6. The following terminations are preceded by a short
vowel : —
1. -cus, -dus, -lus : as, rustleus, calldus, gladiolus.
Exc. opacus, amicus ; apricus, f icus, meiidicus, piidicus ;
fidus, nidus, sidus ; and u before -dus: as, crudus, iiudus;
e before -lus, as phaselus (except gelus, scelus) ; asilus.
ii. -no, -nor, -ro, -ror, in verbs : as, destino, crimmor,
gero, queror.
Exc. festmo, propmo, sagino, bpmor, incline ; declare,
spero, spiro, oro, duro, miror.
in. -ba, -bo, -pa, -po : as, f aba, bibo, lupa, crepo.
Exc. gleba, scriba ; bubo, nubo, scribo ; papa, pupa, ripa,
scopa, stupa; capo, repo, stipo.
iv. -tas (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs) : as, Civi-
tas, fortiter, penltus.
The above rules and exceptions include all Latin words in
common use.
79. FEET.
The most natural division of musical time is into intervals,
consisting of either two or three equal parts. In music, this
is called double or triple time.
These intervals are in music called Measures ; in prosody,
they are called Feet ; and the parts are indicated by the
number or length of the syllables of which the feet consist.
112
FEET.
§79
The feet most frequently employed in Latin poetry, with
their musical notation, are the following : —
'•I
2. A
'•i
4.4
»-i
«-t
'•i
9-i
10.
11.
rr
kk!
000
000
i/! 1
OF TWO SYLLABLES.
Pyrrich : as, lapis.
Trochee (choree) : as, carus.
Iambus : as, bonos.
Spondee : as, ventos.
OF THREE SYLLABLES.
I Dactyle : as, attiilit.
I Anapaest: as, dommos.
I Amphibrach : as, videntis.
I Tribrach : as, hommis.
I Molossus: as, duxerunt (rare).
I Amphimacer (Cretic) : as, egerant (rare).
I Bacchms : as, regebant.
Feet of four syllables are combinations of those of two.
The following only require special notice.
12. - * * * Choriambus : as, contulerant.
13.
Greater Ionic: as, conjecerat.
Lesser Ionic: as, retulissent.
\ ' * '
14' 4 I * * f f
The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short syllable
in the first, second, third, or fourth place, with three long syllables.
The first, second, third, or fourth Paeon has a long syllable in
the first, second, third, or fourth place, with three short syllables.
NOTE. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recita-
tion, or chant : and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music,
often to be accompanied by measured movements, or dance. But
in reading, it is not usual to keep the strict measure of time ; and
often the accent is substituted for rhythm, as in prose.
§80 SCANNING. 113
The accented syllable of each foot is called the Arsis ; and
the unaccented part, the Thesis.
Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, — that is, the beat of the
foot, as in dancing.
A rhetorical pause occurring within the limits of a verse is
called Csesu'ra.
The position in the verse of the principal Caesura is important,
as affecting the melody or rhythm. It usually falls in hexameter
after the Arsis, or accented syllable, of the third or fourth foot in
the verse.
NOTE. — In modern poetry, even in modern Greek, quantity
is disregarded, and the names of ancient feet are applied to com-
binations of accented and unaccented syllables. Thus fully and
foolisli are both called Trochees, although the quantity of fully
is ~ ~ ; so impel and impale are both called Iambs. It is difficult,
therefore, to imitate well in modern verse those Latin metres which
contain two or three long syllables in succession, because accents
seldom come naturally on successive syllables.
Owing to this disregard of quantity by the modern ear, the
easiest way for a modern reader to get a peculiar melody from
Latin verse is to accent (in verse) every long syllable, and no short
one. Thus as prose the second verse of " Integer Vitse " would
be accented thus : —
11 non eget Mauris jaculis neque arcu : "
while in poetry it is to be accented thus : —
" non eget Mauris jaculis nequ' arcu,"
like the free rendering in English : —
"needeth not b6w, spear, nor a rattling quiver."
80. SCANNING.
A single line in poetry is called a Verse.
To divide the verse in reading into its appropriate feet,
according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called
Scanning, — that is, a climbing, or advance by steps.
A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Ace-
phalous ; lacking a syllable at the end it is called Catalectic.
114 METRE. § 81
NOTE. — It is recommended that the student should habitually
scan every verse he meets in the course of his study. In reading
or recitation, while the prose accent should be retained, the flow
of the verse may be in some degree preserved by due attention to
the rules of quantity. This is called Metrical Reading.
In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word —
sometimes even at the end of a verse — is dropped, when the
next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called
Synalcepha, or Elision ; or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia.
A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like
manner. This is called Ecthlipsis.
Hence a final syllable in m is generally reckoned to have no
quantity of its own ; its vowel, in any case, being either elided or
else made long by position.
Elision is sometimes omitted when the final syllable has a
special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This is called
Hiatus.
A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened
before a pause. It is then said to be long by Caesura.
The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long
or short.
81. METRE.
Metre is a regular combination of feet in verse, and is
named from its most frequent or ruling foot, as Dactylic,
Iambic, Trochaic, Anapsestic.
The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combination
of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrich or
spondee.
A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged metri-
cally. It is named from the number of feet it contains, as
Hexameter, Trimeter.
A Stanza consists of a definite number of verses ranged
in a fixed order. It is often called from the name of some
favorite poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian.
§82 FORMS OF VERSE. 115
82. FORMS OF VERSE.
The most common forms of Latin verse are these : —
I. The Dactylic Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, used
in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of
which the last is always a Spondee, the fifth generally a Dac-
tyle, and the rest indifferently spondees or dactyles.
When the fifth foot is a spondee, the verse is called Spon-
daic.
The introductory verses of the ^Eneid, divided according to
the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Caesura in
each verse being marked by double lines : —
arma vijrumque ca|no [| Tro|jae qui | primus ab | oris
Italijam fajto profujgus || La|vmaque | venit
litora, | mult' 111' | et ter|ris || ja|ctatus et | alto
vi supe|rum sae|vae || memo|rem Ju|nonis 6b | iram ;
multa quo|qu' et bel|lo pas|sus || dum | conderet | urbein,
mfer|retque de|os Lati|6, || genus | unde La|tmum
Alba|mque pa|tres, || at|qu' altae | moema | Romae.
The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus : —
" Strongly it | bears us a|long, in | swelling and | limitless | billows,
Nothing be|fore and | nothing be [hind, but the I sky and the I ocean."
II. Dactylic Pentameter : consisting of five feet, and used
alternately with the Hexameter, to form the Elegiac stanza.
It is usually divided, in scanning, into two half verses, of which
the latter always has two dactyles, and each ends in a single
long syllable, or half-foot : as,
cum subit | Illi|u3 tris|tissima | noctis i|mago
quae rnlhi | rjupre|mum || tempus In urbe fu|it,
cum repejto no|ctem qua | tot mini | cara re|liqui,
labitiir ex 6cu|lis || nunc quoqug | gutta me|is.
jam prope | lux ade|rat, qua | me disjcedere | Caesar
finibus | extre|mae || jusserat | Aus6m|ae.
Ov. TRIST. I. EL. 3, 1-6.
The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : —
" In the hex|ameter j rises the | fountain's | silvery | column,
In the pentlameter | still || falling in | melody I back."
116 FORMS OF VERSE. §82
III. Iambic Trimeter (senarius) : consisting of three meas-
ures, each containing a double Iambus. In the first half-
measure a spondee or anapaest is often substituted for the
iambus ; and other substitutions are occasionally used. This
verse is used chiefly in dramatic dialogue.
In the following example, it alternates with the Iambic Dimeter,
which consists of two similar double feet : —
beatus iljle qm procul | negotus,
ut prisca gens | mortalium,
paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suis,
solutiis 6 1 mm foenore, . . .
forumque vi|tat et super|ba civium
p6tentio|rum limina.
HOR. EPOD. II. 1-8.
IV. Alcaic Strophe, or Stanza : consisting of four verses.
The first two verses (greater Alcaic) have for their base each
five Iambuses, for the first and third of which a spondee is
substituted, and for the fourth an anap^st ; the third verse
is the same, but with one complete and one half iambus in
the last two feet ; the fourth verse consists of two anapaests
and an iambus, preceded and followed by a single syllable, or
half-foot : as,
just' ac | tena|cem pro|positi | virum
non ci|vi' ar|dor pra|va juben|tium
non vul|tus m|stantis | tyran|ni
meii|te quatit | solida | ngqu' au|ster.
Id. OD. III. 3, 1-4.
Or, the first verse may be divided into a spondee, bacchius, and
two dactyles; the second into a spondee, bacchius, and two
trochees; and the third into two dactyles and two trochees.
V. Sapphic Stanza: consisting of three Sapphic verges
and one Adonic.
The base of the Sapphic verse is five Trochees, for the
second of which a spondee, and for the third a dactyle, is
substituted.
§82 FORMS OP VERSE. 117
The Adonic verse consists simply of a dactyle and spondee
(or Trochee) : as,
jam sa|tis ter|ris mvis | atque | dirae
grandi|nis mi|sit pater | et ru|bente
dexte|ra sa|cras jacu|latus | arces
terruit | urbem.
Id. CD. I. 2, 1-4.
Or, the Sapphic verse may be regarded as consisting of a Trochee,
Spondee, Choriambus, and Bacchius.
VI. Lesser Asclepiadic : consisting of a spondee, two
choriambs, and an iambus.
Maecenas atavis | edite re|gibus
O et | praesidi' et | dulce decus | meum.
Id. OD. I. 1. 1, 2.
VII. This verse is often joined with the Glycoriic, con-
sisting of a spondee, choriambus, and trochee, making the
First Asclepiadic Stanza : as,
Romae | prlncipis ur|bium
digna|tur sobbles | inter ama|biles
vatum | ponere me | chores ;
et jam | dente minus | mordeor m|vido.
Id. OD. IV. 3, 13-16.
VIII. Or, three Asclepiadics with one Glyconic, making
the Second Asclepiadic Stanza : as,
audis | quo strepitu | janiia quo | nemiis
inter | pulchra satum | tecta remu|giat
ventis | et positas | ut glaciet | mves
puro I numine Julpiter.
Id. OD. III. 10, 5-8.
IX. Or, two Asclepiadics are joined with one Pherecratic
(the same with the Glyconic, lacking one syllable) and one
Glyconic, making the Third Asclepiadic stanza : as,
hie bel|lum lacrymo|s' hie miseram | famem
pestem|qu' a popuT gt | priiicipe Cae|sar' in
Persas | atque Britaii|nos
vestra | motus aget | prece.
Id. OD. III. 21, 13-16.
118 FORMS OP VERSE. §82
The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the
Odes of Horace. In the eighteen not included, he employs
twelve different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combi-
nations of the verses already given. They may be briefly
indicated as follows : —
1. Choriambic Pentameter (Greater Asclepiadic) :
tu ne | quaesieris | scire nefas | quern mini quern | tibi.
(OD. I. 11, 18; IV. 10.)
2. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame-
ter.— (OD. I. 7, 28; EPOD. 12.)
3. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. — EPOD. 14, 15.
4. Trimeter Iambic alone. — EPOD. 17.
5. Choriambic Dimeter and Tetrameter : as,
Lydia die | per omnes
te decs ojro Sybarm | cur prbperas | amando. — OD. I. 8.
6. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. — EPOD. 16.
7. Verse of four Lesser Ionics. — OD. III. 12.
8. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) :
diffu|gere ni|ves rede [tint jam | gramma | campis
arbori|busque co|mae. — OD. IV. 7.
9. Iambic Trimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim ; Iambic Dimeter. —
EPOD. 11.
10. Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim. — EP. 13.
11. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic : as,
solvitiir | acris hi | ems gra|ta vice | veris | it fa|voni
trahunt|que sicjcas ma|chinae | cari|nas. — OD. I. 4.
12. Iambic Dimeter and Trimeter, each imperfect: as,
non | ebur | nequ' au|reum
mea | rem det in | domo | lacu|nar. — OD. II. 18.
In dramatic dialogue, the Trochaic Tetrameter catalectic, or
Septenarius, is occasionally used, consisting regularly of fifteen
syllables, — the same with the 8's and 7's of the common ballad
measure, — usually with various irregularities : as,
ad t'advdnio spdm saliitem consili' aiixili' expetens.
TER. ANDR. II. 1, 18.
§83 RECKONING OF TIME AND MONEY. 119
83. RECKONING OF TIME. (See § 56, i. 4.)
(From Allen's Classical Hand-Book.)
Roman Chronology was reckoned from the building of the
city, the date of which was assigned by Varro to B.C. 753.
In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the
Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from
754 ; e.g. A.U.C. 708 = B.C. 46.
The first day of each month was called Kalendae, from
calare, to call ; that being the day on which the priests pub-
licly announced the new moon in the Comitia Calata, which
they did, originally, after actual observation. Sixteen days
before this, that is, on the fifteenth day of March, May, July,
and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, came the
Idus, or day of the full moon ; eight days before the Ides
were the Nonae. The month was thus divided into three
weeks of eight days, and one of five or seven. The days
were reckoned backward from these points ; but as it was the
custom of the Romans always to include the point of departure
in such calculations, it is necessary, in order to find the day
of the month, to take this into account. Thus, the day before
the Kalends, Ides, &c., is called Pridie Kalendas, &c. ; the
day before this, ante diem (a. d.) tertium Kalendas, &c.
Therefore, with the Kalends, two must be added to the number
of days of the preceding month ; with the Nones and Ides, one
must be added to the day of the month on which they occur ; and
the day of the date must be taken from the number thus obtained.
E. g. the sixth day before the Kalends of November : 31 (the
number of days of October) + 2 = 33 ; 33 — 6 = 27. The
date will be Oct. 27. — The third day before the Ides of
March : 15 + 1 = 16; 16—3 = 13. March 13.
84. RECKONING OF MONEY. (See § 14.)
The money of the Romans was in early times wholly
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound,
120 ROMAN PR^ENOMENS. §85
but actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into
twelve Unciae. In the 3d cent. B.C. the as was reduced by
degrees to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same
time silver coins were introduced ; the Denarius = 10 asses,
and the Sestertius, or Sesterce (semis tertius, represented
by IIS, or HS, = duo et semis) = 2^ asses. The sestertius,
being probably introduced at a time when it was equal in
value to the original as, came to be used as the unit (hence
nummus was used as equivalent to sestertius) ; afterwards,
by the reductions in the standard, four asses became equal to
a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being
equal to one hundred sesterces. — Sertertium (M.) = 1000
sestertii was used as an expression of value, not as a coin.
In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above
the number indicated thousands ; lines at the sides also,
hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestertii. HS.
DC. = 600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia. HS. JDC] = 60,-
000,000 sestertii. With the numeral adverb, hundred-thou-
sands are also understood : as, decies, decies HS., or decies
sestertium, that is, decies centena millia sestertium, or ten
times a hundred sestertia = 1,000,000 sestertii.
85. ROMAN PR^ENOMENS,
WITH THEIR ABBREVIATIONS. (See §15.)
A. Aulus. Mam. Mamercus.
App. Appius. N. Numerius.
C. Caius. P. Publius.
Cn. Cneius. Q. Quintus.
D. Deciraus. Ser. Servius.
K. Kaeso. Sex. Sextus.
L. Lucius. Sp. Spurius.
M. Marcus. T. Titus.
M'. Manius. Ti. Tiberius.
INDEX.
a or ab, 47 ; in composition, 2 ;
after passive verbs, 77.
abesse, 30.
Ablative, 5 ; plural ending, id. ;
in abus, 6 ; i. 8 ; SYNTAX, 69 :
of cause, etc., id. ; of manner,
etc., 70; after special verbs
and adjectives, id. ; after
comparatives, 71 ; of separa-
tion, id. ; after opus and
usus, id. ; of origin, 72 ; of
price, id. ; absolute, id. ; of
time, 73 ; of distance, id. ;
of place, 74 ; of direction,
75 ; after prepositions, 46,
. 75; of agent (with ab), 77,
of gerunds, 101.
ac. — See atque.
Accent, 3 ; of ingeni, Vergili,
etc., 7; of benefacis, etc., 42.
Accusative, 4 ; ending, 5 ; im, 8.
SYNTAX, 66 ; after neuter
verbs, 67 ; two accusatives,
id.; adverbial (synecdoche),
68 ; in exclamations, id. ; as
subject of infinitive, id. 92 ;
of time, 73 ; of space, id. ;
of distance, id. ; of place, 74 ;
of gerunds, 100.
ad, 47 ; in composition, 2, 65.
adesse, 30.
Adjectives, 14 ; comparison,
15, 56 ; agreement, 54 ; as
nouns, 55; equivalent to gen.,
56 ; denoting a part, id. ; fol-
lowed by gen., 61 ; by dat. 63.
Adverbs, 44; numeral, 19;
comparison, 44 ; partitive, 61.
aer, ace. aera, 10.
Agreement, rules of, 53.
aio, 43.
-al and -ar, neuter endings, 8.
Alcaic strophe, 116.
alius, use, 56; gen., 15.
Alphabet, 1.
alter, as correl., 23; gen., 15.
ambo, declension, 19.
amplius, peculiar use, 71.
an (amion), 98.
ante, in expression of time, 73 ;
in the day of the month, 76 ;
with quam, 77.
Antecedent, 57.
Antepenult, 3.
antequam, with subjunctive,
86.
apage, 43.
Apodosis, 81 ; in oratio ob-
liqua, 92.
Apposition, 53 ; with locative
case, 54.
aptus, followed by subjunctive,
90.
Arrangement, 103.
Arsis, 113.
as (Roman coin), 120.
Asclepiadic verse, 117.
at, 30 ; compared with verum,
etc., 48.
atque (ac) , compared with et,
etc., 47 ; in a relative use,
23, 50.
audeo, 40.
aut, compared with vel, etc., 48.
Autem, compared with at, etc.,
48 ; position, 50.
Authority in Prosody, 105.
ave, 43.
122
INDEX.
belli, as a locative, 74.
bos, declension, 11.
c for k and q, 1 ; pronuncia-
tion, 2.
Csesura, 113.
Cardinal numbers, 18.
Cases, 4.
cave, in prohibitions, 80.
causa, with gen. (motive), 69 ;
of gerunds, 101.
cedo (defective), 43.
celo, with two accusatives, 67.
certe and certo, compared,
45.
circum, compounds of, with
accusative, 07.
clam, as preposition, 76.
coepi, 43.
Collective nouns, with plural
verbs, 59.
Comparative, of adjectives, 15 ;
its use, 17 ; of adverbs, 44 ;
followed by ablative, 71.
Comparison, 3 ; of adjectives,
15 ; irregular, 16 ; of ad-
verbs, 44; between adjec-
tives, 17, 56.
Compound nouns, 52.
con (cum), in composition, 2.
Conditional sentences, 81, 92.
Conjugation, 3 ; rules of, 38 ;
four conjugations, 32.
Conjunctions, 47.
Consonants, 1.
Copula, 53.
Correlatives, 23.
constructio ad sensum, 55.
cotidie for quotitie, 1.
Crime, 62.
cum, prep., appended to pro-
nouns, 21, 22; to express
manner, &c., 76.
cum (quum) conj., 49 ; in the
sense of although, 85; when,
86 ; because, 87.
Dactylic measure, 115.
Dative case, 4 ; ending, 5 ; in
abus, 6; SYNTAX, 63; of
advantage, 64; ethic, id. ; of
indirect object, id. ; after cer-
tain verbs, id. ; after nouns,
65 ; after prepositions in
composition, id. ; of posses-
sion, 66 ; of end, 67 ; after
the gerundive, id. ; of gerunds,
101.
de, compared with ab and ex,
47 ; in denoting crime, 62.
debui, with present infinitive,
79.
Declension, 3 ; five declensions,
5 ; first, 6 ; second, 7 ; third,
8; fourth, 11; fifth, 12; ir-
regular, 12 ; of adjectives,
14 ; third declension, 15 ; of
gerund, 27.
Definitions in Syntax, 53.
deinde, following primum, 46.
Demonstratives, 21 ; correla-
tives, 23.
Dentals, 1, 10.
Deponent verbs, 40.
Desideratives, 41.
deus, declined, 7.
dico, imperative die, 38.
dies, masc., 12.
dignus, followed by ablative,
70 ; by subjunctive, 90.
Diminutives, 50.
Diphthongs, 1 ; quantity, 2.
Direction and distance, 73.
Distributive numerals, 19.
divum for deorum, 7.
domi, 12 ; locative, 79.
domus, declension, 12.
donee, with subjunctive, 86.
duco, imperative due, 38.
dum, in the sense of while, 79,
86 ; provided, 85 ; until, 86.
dummodo, with sub., 85.
duo, declined, 19.
dumtaxat, 30*
Ecthlipsis, 114.
edo, eat, 42.
ecus for equus, 1.
Elegiac verse, 115.
Elision, 114.
Endings, personal, of verbs, 30.
enim, compared with nam, 48 ;
position, 50.
INDEX.
123
eo, 42.
Epicenes, 4.
-er, adj. ending, 3d decl., 15.
ergo, compared with igitur,
etc., 49.
es final, pronunciation, 2.
esse, paradigm, 30.
est, with preceding word, 2.
et, compared with que, etc., 47 ;
et . . . et, 50.
eteuim, 48 ; position, 50.
etiam, compared with quoque,
45.
etsi, compared with quamvis,
etc., 85.
ETYMOLOGY, 1-52.
ex, compared with ab and de,
47 ; in composition, 2 ; for
partitive genitive, 61.
Exclamations, 68.
facio, 42 ; compounds, id. ; im-
perative fac, 38.
fari, 43.
Feet in Prosody, 111.
fel (genitive fellis), 10.
fero, 42 ; imperative, fer, 38.
fido, 40.
Final syllables, rules of quanti-
ty in, 106.
f 10, 42 ; quantity, 106.
fore ut, with subjunctive, 94.
Formation of words, 50.
Frequentatives, 41.
fretus, followed by Abl., 70.
fruor, governing ablative, 70.
fungor, governing ablative, 70.
Future tenses, 29 ; infinitive in
oratio obliqua, 94.
g, pronunciation, 2.
gaudeo, 40.
Gender, 4; 3d decl., 11.
General truths, 79, 83.
Genitive case, 4 ; ending, 5 ; in
ai and as, 6 ; in ium (plu-
ral), in vowel stems, 8; id.
in consonant stems, 11; in
ius, 7, 15 ; syntax, 59 ; sub-
jective, id.; of quality, 60;
as appositive, id. ; after ad-
jectives, id., 61 ; partitive,
60; objective, 61 ; after verbs,
62 ; of measure, 73 ; of ger-
unds, 100.
Gerunds, 27 ; syntax, 99, 100.
Gerundives, 26, 44 ; syntax, 99.
Glyconic verse, 117.
Gothic languages, 29.
Government, 53 ; rules, 59.
gratia, with gen. (motive), 69.
Greek nouns, first decl., 6;
second decl., 7; third decl., 8.
Greek words in Prosody, 105.
Hexameter verse, 115.
Hiatus, 114.
hie, compared with is, etc., 21.
Horace, odes of, 118.
humi, locative, 74.
Iambic verse, 116.
Ictus, 113.
idcirco, compared with itaque,
etc., 49.
I'dem, eadem, idem, 22.
idoiieus, followed by subjunc-
tive, 90.
id quod, referring to a clause,
58.
igitur, compared with idcirco,
etc., 49; position, 50.
ille, compared with hie, etc.,
21.
Imperative, 25 ; future, 26, 80 ;
passive (formed), 38 ; syn-
tax, 80; in oratio obliqua,
93.
Imperfect tense, 28 ; compared
with perfect, 29.
Imperfect subjunctive, forma-
tion, 38 ; in conditional sen-
tences, 82 ; potential, 83.
Impersonals, with dative, 65 ;
of verbs of saying, &c., 94.
in, compared with ad, 47 ; syn-
tax, 46, 75 ; in composition,
2.
Inceptive or inchoative verbs,
41.
Increment, 11 ; quantity, 108.
Indeclinable nouns, 12 ; neut. 4.
Indefinite pronouns, 23; cor-
relatives, id.
124
INDEX.
Indicative, 24 ; syntax, 80 ; in
conditional sentences, 82; for
subjunctive, 83 ; after quam-
quam, etc., 85; with cum
temporal, 86 ; after dum,
ivhile, etc., id. ; with cum in
sense of quod, 87 ; with quod
in substantive clauses, 97.
indignus, followed by ablative,
70 ; by subjunctive, 90.
Infinitive, 26 ; syntax, 81 ; his-
torical, 59 ; time of tenses,
79 ; subject or object of verb,
81; expressing purpose, id ;
with subject accusative, 68,
92; after verbs of wishing,
95 ; after impersonal verbs,
97 ; as noun, 56, 81, 100.
Inflection, 3.
inquam, 43.
Instrument and agent, 69, 77.
Intensive verbs, 41.
interest, constructions, 63.
Interrogative pronouns, 22 ;
correlatives, 23 ; particles,
98.
ipse, 22.
Irregularities, in nouns, 11, 12 ;
in comparison, 16 ; in verbs,
38.
is, compared with hie, etc., 22.
iste, compared with is, etc., 22.
itaque, compared with ergo,
etc., 49.
iter, declension, 11.
ius, gen. 7, 17 ; quantity, 108.
jam, compared with iiuiic, 45.
jecur, declension, 11.
jiibeo, with ace. and inf., 96.
Juppiter, declension, 11.
Labials, 1.
lac (genitive, lactis), 10.
lamp as, declension, 11.
licet, 85.
Liquids, 1.
Locative case, 5 ; second decl.,
7; in e, 11, 74 ; syntax, 74;
with noun in appos., 54.
ma^is, maxime, 16.
malo, 41.
Measure, 70, 73.
mei, objective genitive, 20.
mel (genitive, mellis), 10.
memini, 43 ; with pres. inf., 79.
Metre, 114.
militiae, as a locative, 74.
mille, 19.
minus, peculiar use, 71.
mmoris, gen. of price, 72.
misereor, miseresco and mi-
seret, with gen., 62.
modo, with subjunctive, 85.
Money, reckoning of, 13, 119.
Months, days of, 76, 119.
Moods, 24 ; syntax, 80.
Mute consonants, 1 ; stems,
third declension, 9.
nam, compared with enim, 48.
Names, proper, 13, 120.
namque, 48 ; position, 50.
ne, with imperative, 25, 80 ; in
final clauses, 88 ; after verbs
of fearing, 88 ; of hindering,
89 ; omitted, id.
-lie, in questions, 98.
nee. — See iieque.
iiecne, 98.
neque (iiec), 47, 50.
iiequeo, 42.
iiescio an ; nescio quis, 92.
neuter, gen., 15.
Neuter Adjectives, 55, 60, 68.
Neuter endings, 5.
Neuter part, with opus, 71.
Neuter verbs, used imperson-
ally, 44; governing ace., 66.
neve, 25.
nisi, 81.
noli, in prohibitions, 80.
iiolo, 41.
Nominative case, 4 ; for voca-
tive, 68; governing ace., 66.
nonne, 98.
nostri and nostrum, uses com-
pared, 20.
Nouns, 6 ; irregular, 12 ; de-
fective, id. ; indeclinable, id. ;
variable, 13.
nullus, genitive, 15.
num, 98.
INDEX.
125
Numerals, 18.
nunc, compared with jam, 45.
o for u, 2.
ob, expressing motive, 69.
Object, 53.
Object clauses, 96.
Oblique cases, 5.
odi, 43.
opera, with gen. (instrument),
69.
oportuit, with pres. inf., 79.
opus, followed by abl., 71.
oratio obliqua, 91.
Ordinal numbers, 18.
os, final, pronunciation, 2 ; in
second declension, 7.
palam, as preposition, 76.
J/alatals, 1 ; stems, 3d decl., 10.
Participles, 26 ; examples of
use, 27 ; syntax, 99 ; abl. ab-
solute, 72.
Particles, 3 ; interrogative, 98.
Passive voice, 24 ; used reflec-
tively, id. ; formation, 38 ;
impersonally of neuter verbs,
44, 65.
Patronymics, 50.
pelagus, neuter, 7.
Pentameter, 115.
Penalty, 62.
Penult, 3 ; quantity of, 108.
per, with living beings (instru-
ment), 69.
Perfect tense, 28 ; compared
with imperfect, 29 ; indefinite
used for definite, 79.
Perfect subjunctive, use, 78.
Periphrastic forms, 44.
Period, 104.
Personal pronouns, 20.
pertaesum est, with gen., 62.
peto, used with preposition, 67.
Plierecratic verse, 117.
piget, with genitive, 62.
Place, 74.
PI -.perfect subjunctive, formed,
38 ; in conditional sentences,
83 ; in oratio obliqua, 93.
pluris, genitive of price, 72.
plus, peculiar use, 71.
poenitet, with genitive, 62.
Position, 106.
posse, 30.
Possessive adj. pronouns, 21 ;
as noun, 55 ; for gen. 21, 56 ;
with domi, &c., 74.
post, in expressions of time, 73 ;
with quam, 77.
posteaquam (pcstquam), fol-
lowed by perfect indicative,
28, 78, 86.
postridie, with gen., 63; with
ace., 76.
postulo, used with prepos.. 67.
Potential subjunctive, 84.
potior, with abl., 70; with gen.,
63.
potui, with pres. inf., 79.
praesens, 30.
praesertim, strengthening the
relative, 87.
Predicate, 53.
Prepositions, 46 ; syntax, 75 ;
governing dative in com-
pounds, 65 ; governing ace.
in compounds, 67.
Present subjunctive, in con-
ditional sentences, 82 ; in
wishes, 95.
Present tense, 28 ; historical,
id., 78 ; with dum, 79.
pridie, with gen., 63 ; with ace.,
76.
primum and primo, comp., 46.
Principal parts of verbs, 38.
prius, with quam, 77.
priusquam, with subj., 86.
pro, in defence of, 64.
prodesse, 30.
Prohibitions, 80.
Pronouns, 20, 23 ; (personal)
omitted with verbs, 59.
Pronunciation, 2.
propior, propius, used like
prepositions, 76.
propter, expressing motive, 69.
PROSODY, 105-118.
protasis, 81.
proximus and proxime, used
like prepositions, 76.
126
INDEX.
pudet, with gen., 62.
quae res, referring to a clause,
58.
quaero, with preposition, 67.
quam, with superlatives, 17 ;
after comparatives, id.
quamquam, compared with
etsi, etc., 85.
quamvis, with subjunctive, 85.
quando, 49 ; with subjunctive,
87.
quanti, as gen. of price, 72.
Quantity, 2 ; in Prosody, 105.
quasi, with subjunctive, 85.
-que, 47 ; quantity, 106.
queo, 42.
Questions, 98 ; indirect, 25, 91 ;
in oratio obliqua, 94 ; doubt-
ful, 84.
quia, 49 ; with subjunctive, 87.
i quin, with subjunctive, 89; non
quin, 87.
quippe, strengthening relative,
87.
quo, with subjunctive, 88; lion
quo, 87.
quoad, -with subjunctive, 86.
quod, 49 ; with subjunctive,
87 ; in substantive clauses,
97.
quominus, with subjunctive,
90.
quoiiiam, 49 ; with subjunc-
tive, 87.
quoque, compared with etiam,
45.
quum. — See cum.
Reduplication, 33; quantity,
109.
refert, construction, 63.
Reflective pronouns, 20 ; verbs,
24,^68.
Relative pronouns, 22 ; indefi-
nite, 23; in conditional sen-
tences, 81; correlatives, 23;
SYNTAX, 57; for the demon-
strative, 58 ; implying cause,
87 ; purpose, 88 ; result, 89 ;
after dignus, etc., 90; after
general expressions, id.; after
quam, id. ; with subjunctive,
96.
Rhythm, 105.
Root, 3.
rure and ruri, 74.
salve, 43.
Sapphic verse and strophe, 116.
Scanning, 113.
scin for scisne, 2.
sed, compared with at, etc., 48.
Senarius (iambic), 116.
Septenarius (trochaic), 118.
seu. — See sive.
si, 81.
sis for si vis, 41.
sive, compared with aut, etc.,
48.
sodes for si audes, 40.
soleo, 40.
solus, gen., 15; with subjunc-
tive, 90.
Space, measure of, 73.
Stanza or strophe, 114.
Stem, 3; of verbs, 32, 39, 40;
syllables, quantity of, 109.
sub, 75; in composition, 2.
Subject, 53 ; clauses, 96.
Subjunctive mood, 24; exam-
ples of use, 25 ; general rules,
80 ; conditional sentences,
82 ; implied conditions, 84 ;
after particles, 85 ; temporal
clauses, 86 ; cause, 87 ; pur-
pose, 88 ; result, 89 ; inter-
mediate clauses, 90 ; indirect
questions, 91 ; oratio ob-
liqua, 93 ; wishes, 95 ; rela-
tive clauses, 96.
Substantive verb, 53 ; clauses,
96.
subter, 76.
sui, use of, 20.
siipellex, declension, 11.
super, 75 ; superlative of adjec-
tives, 15; use, 17; with
quam, id. ; denoting a part,
56.
Supines, 28; syntax, 101.
Syllables, division, 2; contrac-
tion, 2.
INDEX.
127
Synaloepha, 114.
Synapheia, 114.
Syncopation, 38.
Synecdoche, 68.
Synesis, 55.
SYNTAX, 53-104.
taedet, with gen., 62.
tamen, position, 50.
tamquam, with subjunctive, 85.
tanti, as gen. of price, 72.
Tasting, etc., verbs of, 67.
Tenses, 28; primary and second-
ary, 29, 77; formation, 29;
sequence, 77; of completed
action, 29, 78.
teiius, 76.
Tetrameter, 115.
Thesis, 113.
Time, 73 ; adverbs of, 76 ; rela-
tions of, 86 ; Roman reckon-
ing of, lip.
totus, gen., 15.
trans, compounds of, with two
accusatives, 67.
tres, declined, 19.
Trimeter, 116.
tui, use of, 20.
turn and tune, compared, 45.
u, 1.
iibi, with perfect indicative, 28,
78, 86.
iinus, gen., 15; followed by
subjunctive, 90.
usus, followed by abl., 71.
ut, 30 ; in the sense of although,
85 ; strengthening relative,
87 ; purpose, 88 ; after verbs
of fear, id. ; omitted, id. ;
meaning how and when, id. ;
result, 89 ; in substantive
clauses, 97, 98.
ut ne, 88.
uter, gen., 15.
utor, governing abl., 71.
utpote, strengthening relative,
87.
utrum, 98.
v, 1.
vel (ve), compared with sive,
etc., 48.
velim and vellem, compared,
84.
veiiiti, with subjunctive, 85.
Verbs, 24; paradigms, 34; de-
ponent, 40 ; derivative, 41 ;
irregular, id. ; defective, 43 ;
impersonal, id. ; agreement,
58 ; syntax, 77 ; of hinder-
ing, &c., 89.
vero, position, 50.
Verse, 113 ; forms of, 115.
verum, compared with sed,
etc., 48.
vescor, governing abl., 70.
vestrum and vestri compared,
20.
vm' for visne, 2.
virus, neuter, 7.
vis, declension, 8.
Vocative, 5 ; form, 5 ; 2d deel.,
7 ; in i, 8 ; syntax, 68.
Voices, 24.
volo, 41.
Vowels, 1 ; varied, 2 ; quantity,
2 ; stem of 3d decl., 8.
vulgus, neuter, 7.
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